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Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

Vol. 58, No. 1

Editors

H. SANTAPAU, s.3., & HUMAYUN ABDULALI

APRIL 1961

Rs. 15

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

editors by observing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-

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lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names

always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis

or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

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specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification

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not underlined (roman type), thus:

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji, 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by

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EDITORS,

91, Walkeshwar Road, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Bombay 6. History Society.

CORRIGENDA

Vol. 58, No. 1—April 1961

In the paper entitled ‘The Moss Flora of the Palni Hills’, the

following names should have been printed in bold face capitals :

Page 29: TRIGONODICTYON

Page 34: HOMALIOPSIS

Page 41 : NANOTHECIUM

Page 42: FOREAUELLA

Vide explanation on page 14 of the same Journal.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 58, NO. 1

PAGE

THE DISTRIBUTION AND FEEDING HABITS OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR, Presbytis geei

GEE (KHAJuRIA, 1956). By E. P. Gee. (With two maps and three plates)... 1

THE Moss FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS. By G. Foreau,s.J. (With a map) 13

TAXONOMIC NOTES ON Sardia rostrata MELICHAR [HOMOPTERA, FULGOROIDEA

DELPHACIDAE (=ARAEOPIDAE)]. By A. N. T. Joseph. (With two plates) .. 48

CRITICAL NOTES ON THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE. V. Eulophia R. Br.

& Aérides Lour. By H. Santapau,s.J.,F.N.I.,and Z. Kapadia, Ph.D. (With

five plates) es Ae, a he a Sth tes)

COMPOSITAE OF DHARWAR AND ITS VICINITY. By H.R. Ladwa and R.M. Patil.. 68

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF MAJOR CARPS IN MADHYA PRADESH. By

G.P. Dubey and R.P. Tuli. (With two plates and four text figures) so OL

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE CONCHOSTRACAN BRANCHIOPOD

[CrusTAcEA], Leptestheriella gigas KARANDE & INAMDAR, 1960. By Ashok

A. Karande and N. B. Inamdar. (With a text-figure) A Nay OZ

THE BirDs OF NEPAL. Part 3. By Biswamoy Biswas .. ihe .. 100

More CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR. By P. C. Vasishta. . (With sixteen

figures) ae Be ant ape ae eto

THE GIANT STICK INSECT, Eurycnema goliath (GRAY). By H.J. Kitchener. (With

six plates) cas ae rae Bes oe wee 147

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI AND ITS IMMEDIATE NEIGHBOURHOOD. Part I. By

K. S. Srinivasan and G. V. Subba Rao. (With a map) oe 2s SS

THE EARTHWORMS: A Review. By V.B.Tembe and P. J. Dubash. (With six

text-figures) oe * at oY ae Jenteal

WEEDS AND ALIEN PLANTS OF ASIRGARH, M.P. By J. K. Maheshwari 202

QuAIL BREEDING IN JAPAN. By Yoshimaro Yamashina. (With two plates and

one text-photo) .. Mie se si Ste «+ 216

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE INCUBATING REDWATTLED LAP-

WING, Vanellus indicus indicus (Bodd.). By R. M. Naik, P. V. George, and

Dhruv B. Dixit. (With one plate and two text-figures) es TIPS

ON SOME LARVAL AND JUVENILE STAGES OF THREE SPECIES OF FISH FROM THE RIVER

JAMUNA AT ALLAHABAD. By K.L. Sehgal. (With four text-figures) san 2ou

SOME NOTES ON BLANFORD’S, OR THE WHITETAILED Woop, Rat [Rattus blan-

fordi (THOMAS)] IN WESTERN INDIA. By A. Brosset. (With one plate and

one text-figure) .. a os : Ar .. 241

OBITUARY :

Arthur Stannard Vernay a ae au “he .. 249

REVIEWS :

1. Atlas der Verbreitung Palaearktischer NeeC (S.A.) a See ey |

2. The Birds of Borneo. (S.A.) - a ae ee 23

3. Birds in my Indian Garden. (S.A.).. re hs 2 e259

4. Plant Marvels in miniature. (D.E.R.) aS oe oc

5. Serengeti shall not die. (D.E.R.) .. a a sme

6. The Countryman Nature Book. (D.E.R.) AS sti .. 260

Pats

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

1. ‘Scalp’ of the Abominable Snowman (With three text-figures). By

Editors (p. 261). 2. ‘Occurrence of the Sea Cow, Halicore dugong (Erxl.), off

the Saurashtra Coast’. By E. G. Silas (p. 263). 3. ‘The Hispid Hare, Cap-

rolagus hispidus (Pearson)’. By E. O. Shebbeare (p. 266). 4. Parental co-

operation in the feeding of nestlings in the Indian Robin [Saxicoloides fulicata

(Linn.)]. By J. C. George (p. 267). 5. Further notes on the wintering of the

Forest Wagtail, Motacilla indica (Gmelin) in India.. By P. J. Sanjeeva Raj (p. 269).

6. The nesting habits of the eastern race of Finn’s Baya, Ploceus megarhynchus

sdlimalii Abdulali. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 269). 7. The Eastern Steppe

Eagle [Aquila nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson)} on the South Col of Everest. By

Brig. Gyan Singh (p. 270). 8. Some thoughts on birds of prey (With a text-

figure). By Leslie H. Brown (p. 271). 9. The Ashy Reef Heron, Egretta

gularis (Bosc) on the East Coast. By K.M. Kirkpatrick (p. 275). 10. Occur-

rence of the Shelduck [Tadorna tadorna (Linn.)] in Bhavnagar, Gujarat State.

By R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 275). 11. Occurrence of the Blacknecked

Grebe, Podiceps caspicus (Hablizl), near Poona, Maharashtra. By Humayun

Abdulali (p.. 276). 12. Notes on some Nepalese birds. By Desirée Proud

(p. 277). 13. Some bird records from northern Burma with a description of a

new subspecies. By S. Dillon Ripley (p. 279). 14. Bird migration in India.

By Editors (p. 284). 15. A special method of fishing for Clupisoma garua (Hamil-

ton) in the Ganga River system. By M. P. Motwaniand C. B. Srivastava (p. 285).

16. Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch), a new addition to the freshwater fish fauna

of the Andaman Islands (With one text-figure). By E. G. Silas and E. Dawson

(p. 287). 17. Notes on the biology of the Tree-ant Technomyrmex sp. near

albipes Smith (Dolichoderinae : Formicodea) (With a photograph). By A. Leela

David (p. 289). 18. Notes on a new pest, Sphenoptera deducta Kerr. (Bupres-

tidae : Coleoptera) of the Mat-grass, Cyperus tegetum (Roxb.), in South India.

By A. Abdul Kareem (p. 293). 19. Butterfly notes from Assam: the un-

described female of Ypthima atra. By Keith Cantlie and T. Norman (p. 296).

20. A new fruit borer pest Rapala varuna Horsfield (Lepidoptera : Lycaenidae)

on guava in South India. By S. Jayaraj, A. Abdul Kareem, and P. P. Vasudeva

Menon (p. 296). 21. A Skipper butterfly [Hasora alexis (Fabricius)] catches a

spider. By E. M. Shull (p. 299). 22. A case of cannibalism in the Cattle-Leech,

Hirudinaria granulosa (Savigny). By V. Balakrishnan (p. 300). 23. The sys-

tematic position of Isolaimium Cobb, 1920 (Nematoda), with a description of a

new species (With one plate). By R. W. Timm (p. 300). 24. Momordica denu-

data Clarke (Cucurbitac.) and Trema politoria Planch. (Ulmac.): new records

for Bombay. By A. R. Chavan and G. M. Oza (p. 303). 25. Plant notes from

Assam: Merremia tuberosa, and bamboo fruits. By T. Norman (p. 304). 26.

Critical notes on Acer campbellii Hiern (With one plate). By M. L. Banerji

(p. 305). 27. On the structure and life-history of a new species of Anabaena

(A. desikacharyensis) from Hoshiarpur (Panjab, India) (With four text-figures).

By P. C. Vasishta (p. 307). 28. New records of plants from the Andaman and

Nicobar islands (With three text-figures). By K. Thothathri (p. 310). 29. A

new grass from Bombay. By N.L. Bor (p. 317).

GLEANINGS .. ne ae RA tr, ay ee we OLD

NOTES AND NEws e eee Re “2s as a 320

Journ. BomBay NAT. HIstT. Soc. PLATE: |

1. The Slow Loris, Nycticebus coucang; 2. The Nilgiri Langur, Presbytis johnt;

3. The Golden Langur, Presbytis geet; 4. The Common Langur, or Hanuman

Monkey, Presbytis entellus; 5. The Capped Langur, or Leaf Monkey, Presbytis

pileatus.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATU RAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1961 APRIL ;, Vol. 58 No. 1

The Distribution and Feeding Habits

of the Golden Langur, Presbytis geei

Gee (Khajuria, 1956) |

E. P. GEE, M.A., C.M.Z.S.

(With two maps and three plates)

INTRODUCTION

As there was still a very great deal to be learnt about the distri-

bution and habits of the recently described Golden Langur (Presbytis

geei Gee) I decided to re-visit north-west Assam, and also for the

first time the Garo Hills, for further field studies. My grateful

acknowledgements are due to the Bombay Natural History Society

for a financial grant (from funds made available by the Rockefeller

Foundation) towards the cost of these expeditions and the field

work involved.

My itinerary included the following places in Assam: north-west

Goalpara District November 19th to December Ist 1959, North

Kamrup District December 2nd to 15th 1959; North Kamrup District

February 17th to 27th, and Garo Hills March 24th to 25th and April

20th to 29th 1969.

The history of the discovery of this new langur is briefly as follows.

A number of sportsmen and Forest Officers had noticed a cream-

coloured langur in the vicinity of Jamduar F.R.H. (Forest Rest House)

on the east bank of the Sankosh River near the boundary of India

and Bhutan. Probably the first to do so and to report it was

E. O. Shebbeare in 1907, but no photographic record and no live or

dead specimen was then obtained for examination.

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

In ‘A Tentative List of the Vertebrates of the Jalpaiguri District,

Bengal’ Chas. M. Inglis, W. L. Travers, H. V. O’Donel, & E. O.

Shebbeare (1919) make the following reference to the subject of this

paper: ‘“Pithecus sp?-—A pale yellow coloured langur is common in

the adjoining district of Goalpara (Assam). Jerdon reported one from

the Terai, the adjacent district on the (west) side, which Blanford

suggested might be P. entellus. Recently we have heard of another

observed in the Terai.’

In the visitors’ book of the Raimona F. R. H. (not far from

Jamduar) is an entry by C. G. Baron dated 26-2-47: ‘I saw some white

monkeys (langurs) on the Ranga on 25th. The only other place I have

seen this variety (or species) is on the Bhutan border in the North Kamrup

Game Sanctuary and so far as I know they are an unidentified species.

The whole body and tail is one colour—a light silvery-gold, some-

what like the hair of a blonde. H. E. Tyndale also recorded on

23-2-48 in the Jamduar F. R. H. visitors’ book that he ‘saw Sankosh

cream langurs’. Tyndale and another north Bengal tea planter,

A. V. Pullan, both informed me personally about the existence of

this cream-coloured langur at the River Sankosh, and I determined to

investigate at the earliest opportunity.

Incidentally it should be mentioned at this point that there is a

marked seasonal variation in the colour of this langur. ‘The descrip-

tion ‘cream-coloured’ or ‘white’ is correctly applicable in the warmer

weather from the end of February onwards, when they get their hot

weather coats. In the colder weather from November to February

they become definitely darker with a rich golden or chestnut-coloured

tinge.

Accordingly I visited Jamduar on the Sankosh River from

November 16th to 25th 1953. I found one troupe of these cream-

coloured or golden langurs on the Bhutan side of the boundary,

between Maure (‘Bhutan bustee’) village and the river, and another

larger troupe of about 30-40 langurs about one mile (c. 1.6 km.) north

of the bungalow. A third troupe was seen by my companions about

four or five miles (c. 6 or 8 km.) downstream, actually on the shingle

of a dried-up channel as they crossed from the main river back into

the forest. The second of the above troupes was cine-filmed by me

on several occasions. All three troupes were on the east bank of

the river.

In August 1954 I reported the existence of these golden langurs to

Dr. W. C. Osman Hill of the Zoological Society of London, and he

considered that they might be a new species. Also I reported their

DISTRIBUTION AND FEEDING HABITS OF PRESBYTIS GEEI 3

existence to the Zoological Survey of India in January 1955, when

I showed my cine-film of them, and suggested that the Survey Party

then working in Bengal should visit Jamduar in order to collect

specimens for examination. Dr. S. L, Hora, then Director of the

Zoological Survey of India, showed keen interest in my report, and

instructed the Survey Party to include Jamduar and the cream-

coloured langur in their itinerary.

The Survey Party duly collected six specimens of the langur, and

H. Khajuria in his description of it as a new species was kind enough

to name it after me as Presbytis geei, a compliment (?) which I grate- ©

fully (though very humbly) acknowledge. It was unfortunate that this

new name came to be inadvertently included in a short Miscellaneous

Note written by me and published in the Journal of the Bombay Natural

History Society, Vol. 53 pp. 252-254 in December 1955, actually prior

to the publication of H. Khajuria’s scientific description of the

langur as a new species in the Annals & Magazine of Natural History,

Ser. 12, Vol. 9, pp. 86-88, in February 1956. Of the six specimens

collected, a topotype was donated to the British Museum.

In the spring of 1957 a party known as ‘The German-india

Expedition 1955-1957’ visited Jamduar and Raimona, and found

eleven troupes of Presbytis geei in that neighbourhood. H. Khajuria

accompanied that expedition.

In the map published with my Miscellaneous Note in 1955 I gave

the Ranga stream as the eastern limit of the range of this new langur.

Subsequently, however, I received information from M. A. Islam,

then Divisional Forest Officer of Goalpara West Division, that he

had observed a troupe of 7 or 8 of ‘these golden-coloured langurs’

nearly two to three miles (c. 3 to 4 km.) east of the Ranga. Islam also

drew my attention to Baton’s entry in the visitors’ book about his

having seen these langurs in the North Kamrup (Manas) Game

Sanctuary, and informed me that Baron had told him personally that

he had seen them on the Gabrukunda side of the river, ie. on the

west side of the Manas. This information that P. geei occurred as

far east as the west bank of the Manas River was later confirmed by

H. R. D. Robey in 1958 who saw ‘troupes of the golden langur on

two occasions, on the west bank of the river, whilst going up-

stream . .”. Although I myself camped on the Manas River in

November 1949 and again in February-March 1952, I had not observed

any signs of the new langur but had only seen and filmed several

troupes of a rather dark race of Presbytis pileatus (later identified

as P. pileatus tenebricus Hinton, 1923) on the east bank of the river.

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Two live specimens of P. geei were sent from Raimona to_ the

Gauhati Zoo in Assam. One had been kept as a young one_ by

Range Officer, Gogoi, and was seen and photographed by the German-

India Expedition there in the spring of 1957. Another was caught

in September 1957. Both these were in the Gauhati Zoo in 1958,

but the larger one (a male) died on May 2nd 1958 and is now roughly

stuffed and exhibited in the Forest Museum of that town. ‘The

younger one was photographed by me when about one year old.

together with a live specimen of P. pileatus pileatus from Darugiri

in the Garo Hills, in September 1958. It died on 25-11-58. As

so little was known of the feeding habits of this langur, it is not

surprising that both these specimens lived only a short time in

captivity.

In addition to the known habitat of P. geei in the vicinity of

the Sankosh and Ranga rivers, and to the reported existence of

this langur on the west bank of the Manas River, there had from

time to time been reports of the existence of P. geei in parts of

the Garo Hills also, to the south of the Brahmaputra River.

NORTH-WEST ASSAM, NOVEMBER 1959 TO FEBRUARY 1960

It was against the above background that I decided to do a

series of quick field surveys, in order to find out the full distri-

bution and also the feeding habits of this new species. Accordingly

I travelled to NW. Goalpara in November 1959, and spent the first

day at Bamba F.R.H., which is about 18 miles (c. 28 km.) due

east of Jamduar. I had with me a postcard-sized colour print of

P. geei, and a mounted colour transparency of the same langur to-

gether with the P. pileatus pileatus, as photographed in the Gauhati

Zoo. These I showed to the various Forest Department staff and

others as I travelled around, advisrng all concerned of the necessity

of accurate and first-hand information and so on. The news

collected at Bamba was that ten to twelve troupes of P. geei, of

about 15 langurs in each, were believed to exist in that neighbourhood

(tne Sanfan Forest Range), and that the Common Langur, P. entellus,

and the Capped Langur, P. pileatus, did not exist in those parts.

The above information was confirmed by the Range Officer of

Raimona, M. N. Adhikary. I and my party did not actually observe

any langurs in that area, partly owing to disturbance by labourers

working on or near the forest roads.

I then moved to Jamduar, where I camped for eleven days.

In this area I and my party observed from time to time six different

DISTRIBUTION AND FEEDING HABITS OF PRESBYTIS GEEI 5

“Gauhati ,

la ¢

ney

Lee el

Mep Not Showing Range

of Preshytis geet inrelation

le neighbouring countries

International Boundary....ncamceameam |

state Bovindary arc) cms. te

Above 600 feet..............

P. geei...known |i; reported.

troupes of P. geei, each in number varying from 10 to 20 langurs.

Young babies were seen in most troupes, apparently about 2-3 months

old then, that is born about August or September. This was later

confirmed by M. N. Adhikary, who stated that the second P. geei sent

to the Gauhati Zoo was ‘captured on September 15th 1957 and was

then believed to be only one month old and in the early suckling stage.

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

The young ones were observed to be much lighter in colour than

the adults, and this was confirmed by the Forest staff who stated

that the very young babies are almost white in colour. There were

several reports of ‘pure white’ troupes of P. geei having been seen

but further interrogation revealed that these were seen in the hot

weather, and so I do not attach any special importance to these

reports. No Capped Langurs or Common Langurs were seen any-

where round here.

While watching one of the above troupes one mile (c. 1.6 km.)

north of Jamduar, near Maure village, we saw a few rhesus monkeys

Macaca mulatta in the rice fields feeding on the ripening corn. The

village headman and others immediately confirmed that P. geei never

descend to the ground to raid human cultivations in this manner. |

During our observations in November 1959 we observed P. geei feed-

ing on the buds, leaves, flowers, of fruit of the following trees, of

which the Jocal (mainly Assamese) names are also given:

Terminalia belerica bhomra-bohera

Cedrela toona jati poma

Lannea grandis jia poma

ie katakursi, katakuschi

Albizzia lebbek koroi

Ficus sp. dumbaroo

Bischofia javanica uriam

Gmelina arborea gomari

Oroxylum indicum bhatghila

Salmalia malabarica simul

On December 2nd 19559 I moved to the Manas River and camped

at Motharguri for two weeks. The local Forest staff confirmed that

P. geei existed on the west side of the river (and not on the east

side) and that P. pileatus existed on the east side (and not on the

west side). It was not long before we ran into several troupes of

P. pileatus tenebricus on the east side of the river. These were filmed,

on several occasions, as they fed on the buds of Salmalia malabarica

(simul).

On December 10th we looked for P. geei on the west side of the

river, and succeeded in locating a troupe variously estimated at 20-40

langurs. They were very shy and could not be filmed, and the forest

was very thick and hilly at this place on the boundary of India and

Bhutan.

On February 17th 1960 I returned to the Manas to continue my

field observations, and on 18th at 1.30 p.m. observed 7 P. geei at the

JourN. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

The River Sankosh as it flows out of Bhutan. This is the westernmost limit of

Presbytis geet, a troupe of which lives in the forest at the right of the photograph.

Looking westwards across the River Manas, which is the easternmost limit of

P. geet. In the forest just across the river this langur is found.

PHOS? 2 EE Gee

JouRN. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE III

AKG

Some of the troupe of seven P. geet observed eating salty earth on the bank of

the Manas River, above Motharguri

Presbytis geet about one year old, in the Gauhati Zoo

Photos : E.. P. Gee

DISTRIBUTION AND FEEDING HABITS OF PRESBYTIS GEEI 7

river’s edge upstream from Motharguri, on the west bank, near the

Bhutan border. After they had disappeared into the forest we crossed

over by boat and erected my cloth ‘hide’ near the spot. On 20th

a watch was kept in the hide from 11 a.m. to 3 p.m. but no langurs

came. On 22nd the 7 langurs came from 2 to 2.30 p.m., and cine

film and still photographs were obtained of them as they ate salty

earth with their mouths. Only two of them drank water. They

appeared to be paler in colour than the Sankosh ones, with no golden

or chestnut-coloured patches. There was a mother with a lighter

coloured baby among them. On 23rd they did not come, and on

24th I moved to Bhuyapara camp at the western end of the Manas

Sanctuary, where we saw many troupes of P. pileatus tenebricus.

Other visitors to the Manas River have recently seen this small

troupe of 7-9 P. geei on the western bank of the river, north of but

not far from the Bhutan boundary, as well as the larger troupe

variously estimated up to 40 langurs, which is usually south of the

boundary. It is not clear whether the 7 P. geei seen were a separate

troupe or a fragment of the larger troupe. In sketch map No. 2

I have given a _ comservative estimate of two troupes of 15

each seen here, and have marked them with solid dots as well as

the six troupes (averaging 15 langurs each) actually seen near

Jamduar on the Sankosh River. Other troupes reported to have been —

seen in between these two rivers, including the other five troupes

seen by the German-India Expedition in 1957, have been shown

as hollow dots. It is only reasonable to presume that, as

the existence of P. geei in the areas east of the Sankosh and west

of the Manas has now been proved, and as there are no geographical

barriers in the way, the reports of their existence in the intervening

forests should be true. It is difficult to obtain any accurate informa-

tion as to how far P. geei extends northwards into Bhutan, but the

Bhutan District Officer whom I met near Jamduar assured me that

he had never heard of them further north than near Maure village.

and this was confirmed later by the Maure village headman.

E. O. Shebbeare, H. E. Tyndale, and A. V. Pullan have informed

me that certainly no P. geei have ever been observed west of the

Sankosh River in north Bengal—in fact no langurs of any kind seem

to be found in north Bengal until the Teesta River much further

westwards.

The numbers of P. geei in existence in north-west Assam, between

the rivers Sankosh and Manas, including the area just north of the

India-Bhutan boundary, I conservatively estimate as thirty-six troupes

8 . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Map No.2 Showing Range

of Peesbytis geei in Assam

International Boundary oo. es ee

State Boundary

Above 600 feet .

P. geei.....seen...@3 reported.......0

rs AMAPUT a >

Gauhati

averaging 15 langurs in each, that is a total of 540 langurs. (See map

No. 2.) 3 |

THE GARO HiLts, MarcuH-Aprit 1960

On March 24th and 25th I visited Loharghat and Khulsi Forest

Ranges in the Khasi Hills adjacent to the north-east portion of the

Garo Hills and showed the colour pictures of langurs to various

Forest staff, contractors, and others. The consensus of opinion was

DISTRIBUTION AND FEEDING HABITS OF PRESBYTIS GEEI 9

that P. geei existed in those parts, but none could be found in the

short time available.

On April 19th and 20th I visited Boko Forest Range and Damra

and Thapa, and questioned all the Forest staff I could meet. They

were uncertain about the existence of P. geei in those actual parts,

but several persons stated that they had seen this cream-coloured

langur in Rengrengiri Forest and on the Tura Ridge.

While at Darugiri on April 21st to 23rd, Rongjeng and Nangalbibra

were visited but no information on P. geei was obtained beyond

what I had heard previously. A small troupe of P. pileatus pileatus

was observed about one mile (c. 1.6 km.) from the Darugiri F.R.H..,

very light in colour and similar to the one photographed in the

Gauhati Zoo.

On April 24th I journeyed to Songsak, Krishnai, and Goalpara

town. Then on 25th to Rongsai, where a troup2 of 10 P. pileatus

(tenebricus ?) was seen, and to Haloidonga and Phulbari. The follow-

ing day I went to Tura, the administrative centre of the Garo Hills,

where I camped with P. C. Gogoi, the Divisional Forest Officer,

Reports continued to be received of the existence of P. geei in the

Rengrengiri Forest, which was rather inaccessible at the time owing

to new road construction and impending rainy season, and on the

Tura Ridge. Two trips up to the Tura Ridge proved unfruitful.

On April 28th I moved on to Singrimari, and back to Krishnai

and Damra, and on 29th back to Shillong. The result of this quick

expedition was disappointing in that I and my party actually did not

observe any P. geei, but I am convinced that this species does exist

(in small numbers, at least) in these Khasi Hills and Garo Hills, not

so much because of the foregoing reports but for the following

reasons : |

1. B. Mitchell, an experienced sportsman who knows the Jamduar

and Raimona area well and who has known P. geei there for a number

of years, informs me that he was at Garupara village about 7 miles

(c. 11 km.) east of Ranigodam F.R.H. in the Khasi foothills (adjacent

to the Garo Hills) in March 1955, and came across a troupe of 8

or 9 P. geei which became very alarmed at the sight of his

Labrador dog. He confirms that these langurs were exactly the same

as the ones at the Sankosh River.

2. G. D. Munro, an experienced animal dealer of Calcutta,

informed me in January 1956 that he had seen P. geei in the Rengram

Forest of the Garo Hills, and that he once actually captured two of

them there and sent them to the Milan Zoo, but they died on the

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

way. As Munro had seen the skins of P. geei collected by H. Khajuria.

it is likely that his information is accurate.

3. In 1956 a very experienced animal catcher of Assam, Nokul

Sarkar, visited me and was shown my cine film of P. geei (made at

the Sankosh River in 1953). He instantly recognised the langur.

and was quite definite that he had personally seen it in the

Khulsi Forest Range and in near-by parts of the Garo Hills.

In maps No. 1 and 2, therefore, I have shown fourteen troupes

averaging 15 langurs each of P. geei as ‘reported’ in the Garo Hills

and a portion of the Khasi Hills. It is hoped that in the not far

distant future I may be able to obtain more definite evidence as to

the existence of this new species in these hills south of the

Brahmaputra.

NEED FOR MORE INFORMATION

Throughout my trips to NW. Assam and into the Khasi Hills and

Garo Hills I was severely handicapped by the fact that the local

people, including the subordinate members of the Forest Department

staff, possessed very little knowledge of natural history in general and

of langurs in particular. Added to this, the local ideas of colour

differences and the local words used to express colours, are very

vague indeed. Consequently it was extremely difficult to explain in

any language the difference between the Common Langur, P. entellus,

the Capped Langur, P. pileatus, and the Golden Langur, P. gee’. More-

over, in the Khasi and Garo hills there also exist Whitebrowed

Gibbons or Hoolocks, Hylobates hoolock, the females of which are

cream- or buff- coloured, and this added to the confusion.

I therefore consider it essential that in any future investigation

the local people should be shown coloured pictures of all ‘three

above species of langur, and also if possible the female Hoolock,

all drawn to the same scale. A colour plate accompanies this note,

and I have added the details of the information wanted in the form

of a questionnaire, to be published as an appendix to this note.

The staff of the Forest Department can do a very great deal to

assist in the collection and compilation of information, as this Depart-

ment is well organized into Divisions, Ranges, Beats, and Sub-beats

throughout the region concerned; and they alone are competent to

identify the trees on which the langurs feed at different times

of the year.

DISTRIBUTION AND FEEDING HABITS OF PRESBYTIS GEEI 11

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In conclusion, I offer my grateful acknowledgements for much

help received during my expeditions to the officers and personnel

of the Assam Forest Department, in close association with whom

I have been working for many years.

APPENDIX

INFORMATION WANTED ON THE GOLDEN LANGUR,

PRESBYTIS GEEI

From personal observation and from information received from

various sources this new species of langur is found:

1. Definitely in Goalpara and North Kamrup districts of Assam,

between the rivers Sankosh and Manas, in a strip of country along

the Bhutan border. It is probably more common at the Sankosh

end than at the Manas end. It has not been observed west of the

Sankosh or east of the Manas, but occurs at least a mile (c. 1.6 km.)

or so north of the border into Bhutan.

2. Probably in the Garo Hills, for example at Ranigodam, Damra,

Krishnai, Rengrengiri, and along the hills of the Tura Ridge.

Owing to extreme light colour, almost white in its hot weather

coat and creamy gold in its cold weather coat, it is known in Goalpara

as the sada hanuman or white langur. It should not be confused

with the Common or Grey Langur (sai barunia hanuman) or with

the Capped Langur (lal hanuman).

It is found in groups or ‘troupes’ of varying size, from about

105 to 25 Yor seven’ more:

As it occurs almost exclusively in Reserved Forests, information as

to its numbers, range and habits can best be obtained with the

assistance of the Forest Department. If each Divisional Forest Officer

could arrange for his Range Officers to find out the required informa-

tion, including the approximate numbers of ‘troupes’, with approxi-

mate size of each ‘troupe’, in their respective Ranges at a particular

time of the year, a fairly accurate estimate of the total population of

this new and interesting species could be made.

Several specimens have from time to time been captured and kept

in captivity. But these, though they quickly became tame, have always

died due to lack of information as to their natural food. It is, there-

fore, most important to ascertain which trees (buds, leaves. flowers,

fruit, etc.) it is found feeding on at different times of the year.

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

QUESTIONNAIRE ON Presbytis geei

Answers to the following questions are urgently required:

1. Which trees, and which parts of these trees, form its main

food supply at different times of the year?

2. How many ‘troupes’, and of what sizes, are in existence

in a particular Range, or Block, or other such clearly defined area?

3. At what time of the year are the young born?

4. Exactly what colour are the newly-born young?

5. Is the Grey Langur (sai barunia hanuman) or Capped Langur

(lal hanuman) also found in the same area as Presbytis geei (sada

hanuman)? If so, ‘do they intermingle, or do they always keep

separate”

6. Does each ‘troupe’ of P. geei remain within a particular locality,

or ‘territory’, into which other ‘troupes’ will not enter? If so, does

this ‘territory’ vary at different times of the year?

7. Does this species of langur migrate anywhere at any parti-

cular season, say in the hot weather higher up into the hills?

8. Is there also a pure white variety of this langur, with complete

absence of cream or gold colour? If so, does it mix with the others,

or does it keep apart in a separate ‘troupe’?

9. Any other information as to the status. numbers, habits, etc..

of this species.

Any information obtained on the above lines should be

sent (either direct or through a superior officer) to Mr. E. P. Gee,

Evergreen Cottage, Upper Shillong, Assam, who will be glad

to compile and eventually publish (with due acknowledgements) what-

ever is received by him.

REFERENCES

Gee, E. P. (1955): A New Species of Khajuria, H. (1956): A New Langur

Langur in Assam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. (Primates: Colobidae) from Goalpara

Soc. 53 : 252-254. District, Assam. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,

Inglis, Chas. M., Travers, W. L., Ser. 12, 9: 86-88.

O’Donel, H. V., and Shebbeare, E. O. Maydell, v. G. A. & Oboussier H.

(1919): A tentative list of the vertebra- (1958): Ergebnisse der Deutschen Indian

tes of the Jalpaiguri District, Bengal. Expedition 1955-57: 102-114.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 819-825.

The Moss Flora of the Palni Hills

G. FOREAU, S.J.

Sacred Heart College, Shembaganur, South India

(With a map)

INTRODUCTION

The Palni Hills, in south India, are too well known to botanists to

need. any elaborate introduction here. Since the turn of this century,

there have been occasional publications on the angiospermic flora of

these hills, but the cryptogamic flora remained largely unknown. It

is the purpose of the present paper to summarize the work done on the

Moss Flora of the Palni Hills during the last fifty years.

_ The exploration work was initiated in 1908 by G. André, s.J., and J.

Queste, s.J., and continued by A. Vellé, s.s., G. Roiné, s.J., and the present

author, all then resident at the Sacred Heart College, Shembaganur.

The collections were identified by M. Cardot, H. N. Dixon, and R.

Potier de la Varde. Among these mosses many were new to science.

These hitherto undescribed mosses, consisting of 4 genera, 95 species,

and 15 varieties, were described by Potier de la Varde in 1922, 1923,

1924, 1925, and 1928, and by Dixon.& Potier de la Varde in 1927 and 1930.

The present author published, in 1930, a conspectus of mosses for the

then Presidency of Madras, bringing together all the findings of the five-

man team just mentioned. Since then, he has been working on his own,

often assisted by generations of willing and enthusiastic Jesuit students

of the Sacred Heart College, Shembaganur, and has been confining

himself exclusively to the Palni Hills, often only during spare moments

in the midst of more pressing duties, or sometimes only during the summer

holidays. All additional data obtained therefrom regarding the distribu-

tion of mosses in the area under study are incorporated into the present

paper. A map, showing the various places where collections were made,

is included. The author’s herbarium is lodged in the Museum of the

Sacred Heart College, Shembaganur.

In the enumeration that follows, Families are arranged as in Brizhl,

1931. Within each family, both genera and species are given in alphabe-

tical order. The derivation of the generic name, in most cases, from

Greek or Latin as the case may be, is given, following Dixon, 1954. The

14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

hw ie :

Scale: 9_2 4 10 12

in miles

The Palni Hills

name of the chief author, Potier de la Varde, is abridged as Varde. The

genera first described for this area are given in bold face type ; all species

and. varieties originally described as new taxa for these parts of India

are preceded by an asterisk (*) ; all] the other species, except those few

preceded by a dagger (tT), are new records, as far as is ascertainable, for

the Palni Hills. These few earlier records are by C. E. C. Fischer (Dixon,

1914). The altitudes given in the enumeration are only approximate.

It has been possible to give references to publications only of the species

first described for our area. It is regretted that it has not been possible

to bring the nomenclature up- to- date, on account of insufficient litera-

ture at hand.

The author notes with great pleasure that the Editors are thinking

of republishing the original descriptions of species from _ the

Palni Hills, as contained in Potier de la Varde, 1922, 1923, 1924, 1925,

and 1928, and Dixon & Potier de la Varde, 1927 and 1930. While thus

resuming the work on the Moss Flora of the Palni Hills for the past half

century, it is the author’s sincere desire, in the evening of his life, that

Indian bryologists should make use of these publications for further

research and subsequently publish a comprehensive Moss Flora of India.

If the author’s attention to mosses during the past fifty years contributes,

in some little measure, towards the realization of this Muscologia

Indica, he will consider his efforts amply rewarded.

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS 15

ENUMERATION OF SPECIES

I. FISSIDENTACEAE

FISSIDENS Hedw.

(From the Latin fissus = split, dens = a tooth, with reference to the peristome teeth)

1. F. aberrans Broth. & Dix.

Perumalmalai at 1600 m. 1920 ; Manalur at 1232 m. 1926.

*2. F. angustiusculus Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 163, 1927.

Kodaikanal, Villupatti Paddy fields, at 1892 m. 1926.

3. F.anomalus Mont.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1959.

4, F. asplenioides (Sw.) Hedw.

Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1955.

5. FF. brachyneuron Broth. & FI.

Manalur at 1067 m. 1926.

*6, F.ceylonensis Doz. & Molk. var. acutifolius Dix. & Varde in Rev. Bryol.

52730. 1925;

7. F. crispo-circinans Card.

Shembaganur at 1980 m. 1909.

8. F. cristatus Wils.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1927.

9. F. curgensis Broth.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1923.

*10. ¥F. curvatoxiphioides Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 163, 1927.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1927 ; Manalur at 1067 m. 1926.

11. F.excedens Broth.

Shembaganur at 1866 m. 1959 ; Old Ghat Road at 1676 m. 1959.

12. F. karwarensis Dix.

Old Ghat Road at 1676 m. 1929.

*13. EF. microdictyon Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 163, 1927.

Tiger Shola at 1706 m. 1926.

14. F. minutus Thw. & Mitt.

Shembaganur at 1866 m. 1926.

15. F. nymannii (F1.) Par.

Perumalmalai at 1562 m. 1956.

16. F. pennatulus Thw. & Mitt.

Shembaganur at 1866 m. 1926 ; Perumalmalai at 1699 m. 1926.

*17, FF. perumalensis Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 163, 1927.

Itti Pallam, near Perumalmalai, at 1699 m. 1927.

18. F. schmidii C.M.

Shembaganur at 1866 m. 1949 ; Perumalmalai at 1600 m. 1959.

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1°

19. F. sylvaticus Griff.

Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1909.

20. F. walkeri Broth.

Manalur at 1067 m. 1926.

21. F. walkeri Broth. var. elimbatus (Broth.) Dix.

Bottom Station at 900 m. 1929.

Il. ARCHIDIACEAE

ARCHIDIUM Brid.

(Derived from the Greek archidion = primitive)

*22. A. microthecium Dix. & Varde in Ann. Crypt. Exot. 1 : 37, 1928.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1922.

Il. DITRICHACEAE

CERATODON Brid.

(Derived from the Greek keras = a horn, and odous=a tooth, with reference to

the peristome teeth which resemble a goat’s horn)

23. C. purpureus (Lind.) Brid.

Shembaganur, Eucalyptus Forest, at 1798 m. 1959; Berijam, in sholas, at

2286 m. 1959.

24. C. purpureus (Lind.) Brid. var. xantopus Sull.

Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1927.

DiTRICHUM Timm.

(Derived from the Greek di = two, tricho = hair, with reference to the filiform

peristome teeth)

25. D.amoenum (Thw. & Mitt.) Par.

Shembaganur, Eucalyptus Forest, at 1798 m. 1959 ; Shembaganur at 1844 m.

1959.

26. D. flexifolium (Hook.) Hampe

Tiger Shola at 1813 m. 1926.

27. D. tortipes (Mitt.) Par.

Shembaganur at 1844 m. 1927.

*28. D. tortipes (Mitt.) Par. var. strictum Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 177, 1927.

Shembaganur, Old Ghat Road, at 1737 m. 1927.

PLEURIDIUM Brid.

(Derived from the Greek pleuridion = on one side, with reference to the capsules

at times being lateral)

29. P. denticulatum (C.M.) Mitt.

Perumalmalai Peak at 2194 m. 1926 ; Perumalmalai Slopes at 1981 m. 1958 ;

Old Ghat Road at 763 m. 1959,

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS 17

IV. DICRANACEAE

BROTHERA C.M.

(After Brotherus, Viktor Ferdinand [1848-1929], a German botanist)

30. B. Ileana (Sull.) C.M.

- Perumalmalai Shola at 1676 m. 1926.

CAMPYLOPODIUM C.M.

(Derived from the Greek kampylo = bent, podion = a small foot, with reference

to the bent seta of the capsule)

31. C.khasianum (Griff.) Par.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1927.

CAMPYLOPUS Brid.

(Derived from the Greek kampylo = bent, pous = a foot, with reference to the

bent seta of the capsule)

*32. C.andreanus Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 49 : 37, 1922.

Shembaganur at 1798 m. 1959 ; Kodaikanal at 2003 m. 1959.

33. C.comosus (R. & Hsch.) V.D.B. & Lac.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1927.

34. C. eberhardti Par.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1921.

35. €, erythrognaphalus (C.M.) Jaeg.

Shembaganur at 1844 m. 1959 ; Kodaikanal at 2164 m. 1959.

36. C. flagelliferus (C.M.) Jaeg.

Kodaikanal at 2103 m. 1959; Kodaikanal, on bark of Rhododendron, at 2286 m.

1959,

37. C. goughii (Mitt.) Broth.

Tiger Shola at 1828 m. 1926.

38. C. introflexus (Hedw.) Mitt.

Top Station at 1844 m. 1929.

39. C. laetus (Mitt.) Jaeg.

Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1911.

*40. C. laetus (Mitt.) Jaeg. var. madurensis Thér. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 52 : 38,

1925,

Kodaikanal at 2103 m. 1912.

41. C.nilgiriensis (Mitt.) Jaeg.

Perumalmalai at 1676 m. 1927 ; Berijam Road at 2286 m. 1959,

42. C.nodiflorus (C.M.) Jaeg.

Shembaganur at 1798 m. 1959 ; Kodaikanal at 2003 m. 1959,

43. C. polytrichoides de Not.

Kodaikanal at 2400 m. 1921.

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

44. C.reconditus Thw. & Mitt.

Kodaikanal, Levinge Path, at 1981 m. 1959 ; Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1926.

*45. (C.roinei Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 49 : 37, 1922.

Tiger Shola at 1828 m. 1926.

46. C.reduncus (R. & Hsch.) V.D.B. & Lac.

Perumalmalai at 1600 m. 1923.

47. C.subfragilis Ren. & Card.

Shembaganur at 1798 m. 1959.

DICRANELLA W.P. Sch.

(Derived from the diminutive of the Greek dicranon = a two-pronged fork, with

reference to the shape of the peristome teeth)

*48. D.denticulata Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 49 : 34, 1922.

Kodaikanal at 2103 m. 1909.

49. D. divaricata (Mitt.) Jaeg.

Kodaikanal at 2194 m. 1911.

50. D.madurensis Card.

Kodaikanal at 1980 m. 1909.

*51. D. stricticaulis Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 49 : 35, 1922.

Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1911.

DICRANODONTIUM (?)

(Derived from the Greek dicranon = a two-pronged fork, odous = a tooth, with

reference to the shape of the peristome teeth)

*52, D. perviride Dix. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 52 : 38, 1925.

Kodaikanal at 2057 m. 1959.

DICRANOLOMA Ren.

(Derived from the Greek dicranon = a two-pronged fork, Joma = border, with

reference to the shape of the peristome teeth)

153. D. fragile (Hook.) Broth.

Shembaganur at 1859 m. 1959 ; Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1959.

DICRANUM Hedw.

(Derived from the Greek dicranon = a two-pronged fork, with reference to the

shape of the peristome teeth)

*54, D. dilatinerve Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 49 : 35, 1922.

Kodaikanal at 2164 m. 1909.

HOLOMITRIUM Brid.

(Derived from the Greek holos = entire, mitrion = a cap, with reference to the

calyptra)

55. H. griffithianum Mitt.

Perumalmalai at 1600 m. 1926; Kodaikana at 2170 m. 1929.

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS 19

LEUCOLOMA Brid.

(Derived from the Greek /euco = white, Joma = fringe, with reference to the peri-

stome)

56. L. molle (C.M.) Mitt.

Kodaikanal at 2286 m. 1926.

57. L.nitens (Thw. & Mitt.) Jaeg.

Perumalmalai Shola at 1768 m. 1926.

MICROCAMPYLOPUS C.M.

(Derived from the Greek micro=small, campylo=bent, and pous=a foot, with

reference to the small and bent seta of the capsule)

58. M. subnanus (C.M.) Broth.

Shembaganur at 1981 m. 1959.

THYSANOMITRIUM Sch.

(Derived from the Greek thusanos = fringe, mitrion = a cap, with reference to the

calyptra)

*59, TT. depallieri Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 49 : 38, 1922.

Kodaikanal at 2003 m. 1912 ; Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1929.

*60. T. foreauanum Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 49 : 38, 1922.

_ Kodaikanal at 2400 m. 1912.

*61. T.leioneuron Thér. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 49 : 40, 1922.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1927.

62. T. nigrescens (Mitt.) Broth.

Kodaikanal, Levinge Path, at 2050 m. 1959.

63. T.umbellatum W. et Arn.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1959 ; Tovaiparai at 1371 m. 1959.

TREMATODON Rich.

(Derived from the Greek tremato = perforated, odous = a tooth, with reference

to the peristome teeth)

64. T. ceylonensis C.M.

Perumalmalai, near Neutral Saddle, at 1600 m. 1959 ; Shembaganur, Levinge

Path, at 1905 m. 1959.

65. T.schmidii C.M.

Perumalmalai at 1554 m. 1926.

WILSONIELLA C.M.

(After Wilson)

66. W. pellucida (Wils.) C.M.

Palamalai at 1066 m. 1925.

20 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

V. LEUCOBRYACEAE

; LEUCOBRYUM Hampe

(Derived from the Greek Jeuco = white, bryon = a moss, with reference to the

colour of the plant)

67. L. angustifolia Wils.

Shembaganur at 1844 m. 1911.

68. L. bowringii Mitt.

Shembaganur at 1813 m. 1911.

69. L. humillimum Card.

Manalur at 914 m. 1926.

70. L. neilgherense C.M.

Tiger Shola at 1885 m. 1912; Shembaganur, Old Ghat Road, at 1870 m. 1959.

71. L.scalare C.M.

Shembaganur, Old Ghat Road, at 1748 m. 1959.

72. L. wichurae Broth.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1911.

OCTOBLEPHARUM Hedw.

(Derived from the Greek octo = eight, blepharon = cilia, with reference to the cilia

of the inner peristome)

73. QO. albidum (Lind.) Hedw.

Machur at 1371 m. 1959 ; Kodaikanal at 2150 m. 1953.

VI. CALYMPERACEAE

CALYMPEROPSIS C.M.

(Derivation uncertain)

74. C.semiliber (Mitt.) Fl.

Shembaganur at 1844 m. 1929.

SYRRHOPODON Sch.

(Derived from the Greek surrhos = jointed, podous = a foot, with reference to the

foot of the capsule)

*75. S. calymperoides Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 49 : 42, 1922.

Kodaikanal at 2300 m. 1909.

*76. S. leucophanoides Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 49 : 42, 1922.

Kodaikanal at 2200 m. 1909 ; Perumalmalai Shola at 1554 m. 1956.

77. S.strictus Thw. & Mitt.

Shembaganur at 1865 m. 1956.

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS 21

VII. POTTIACEAE

ANOECTANGIUM Hedw.

(Derived from the Greek anoik = to open, angion = a vessel, with reference to the

wide-mouthed capsule)

78. A. euchloron (Sch.) Mitt.

Machur, along Law’s Ghat Road, at 1371 m. 1959; Parappar, along Law’s

Ghat Road, at 1785 m. 1959.

79. <A. stracheyanum Mitt.

Law’s Ghat Road at 363 m. 1959 ; Kodaikanal, Levinge Path, at 2057 m. 1959.

AsTOMUM Hampe

(Derived from the Greek a = without, stoma = a mouth, with reference to the

small mouth of the capsule)

80. A. edentulum (Mitt.) Fl.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1922 ; Manalur at 1067 m. 1926.

*81. A. minutum Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 165, 1927.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1927 ; Palamalai at 914 m. 1925.

BARBULA Hedw.

(Derived from the Latin barbula =a small beard, with reference to the peristome)

“82. B. denticulata Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 167, 1927.

Law’s Ghat Road at 750 m. 1959 ; Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1926.

83. B. dharwarensis Dix.

Villupatti at 1371 m. 1926.

84. B. indica Brid.

Law’s Ghat Road at 755 m., 1737 m. 1959 ; Manalur at 914 m. 1929.

DIDYMODON Hedw.

(Derived from the Greek didumos = double, odous = a tooth, with reference to

the peristome teeth)

*85. D. obtusifolius Card. in Arch. Bot. 1 : 167, 1927.

Perumalmalai at 1600 m. 1926 ; Shembaganur at 1844 m. 1929 ; Kodaikanal

at 2170 m. 1929.

86. D.rigidalus Hedw.

Perumalmalai at 1600 m. 1927 ; Kodaikanal at 2170 m. 1927.

87. D.rufescens (Hook.) Broth.

Perumalmalai at 1676 m. 1930.

*88. D. strictifolius Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 167, 1927.

Perumalmalai at 1600 m. 1927 ; Kodaikanal at 2270 m. 1927, 1959,

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

HYMENOSTOMUM R.Br.

(Derived from the Greek hymen = thin membrane, stoma = a mouth, with refer-

ence to the mouth of the capsule)

89. H. edentulum (Mitt.) Besch.

Tiger Shola at 1844 m. 1925.

HYMENOSTYLIUM Brid.

(Derived from the Greek hymen = a thin membrane, stylion = a column, with

reference to the capsule)

*90. H. validinerve Dix. & Varde in Ann. Crypt. Exot. 3 (4) : 174, 1930.

Top Station at 1844 m. 1929.

Hyopuita Brid.

(Derived from the Greek hyo = rain, philos = loving, with reference to the habitat

of the plant)

*91. H. comosa Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 166, 1927; Ann. Crypt. Exot. 3 (4):

186, 1930.

Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1927 ; Manalur at 1066 m. 1926.

92. H. involuta (Hook.) Jaeg.

Law’s Ghat Road at 1676 m. 1959 ; Kodaikanal, Levinge Path, at 1981 m.

1959.

*93. H. mollifolia Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 167, 1927.

Law’s Ghat Road, at 1602 m. 1927 ; 662 m. 1959 ; Tovaiparai at 1371 m. 1959.

*04. Hz. validinervis Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 49 : 43, 1922.

Kodaikanal, Pambar Ravine, at 2400 m. 1912 ; Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1913 ;

Law’s Ghat Road at 758 m. 1959.

*95. H. viridula Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 49 : 44, 1922.

Kodaikanal, Pambar Ravine, at 2300 m. 1912.

MERCEYOPSIS (?)

(Derivation uncertain)

96. M. stenophylla Card.

Law’s Ghat Road at 1000 m. 1912.

PottiA Ehrh.

(After Pott, a bryologist of Brunswick)

*907. PP. denticulata Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 168, 1927.

Perumalmalai Shola at 1676 m. 1926 ; Law’s Ghat Road at 1600 m. 1959,

PSEUDOSYMBLEPHARIS (?)

(Derived from the Greek pseudo = false, symblepharis = a ciliated moss)

*98. PP. indica Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 166, 1927.

Tiger Shola at 1820 m. 1926 ; Shembaganur at 1844 m. 1959.

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS 23

RHAMPHIDIUM Mitt.

(Derived from the Greek rhamphos = a beak, with reference to the shape of the

capsule)

*99. R.madurense Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 165, 1927.

Tiger Shola at 1737 m. 1926, 1959.

TIMMIELLA de Not.

(After Timm, a botanist of Mecklenburg)

100. T. anomala (B.E.) Limp.

Tiger Shola at 1710 m. 1959.

TORTULA C.M.

(Derived from the Latin tortus = twisted, with reference to the appearance of the

peristome)

101. T.schmidii (C.M.) Broth.

Top Station at 1828 m. 1929.

TRICHOSTOMUM Hedw.

(Derived from Greek tricho = a hair, stoma = a mouth, with reference to the

mouth of the capsule)

102. T. cylindricum (Bruch.) C.M.

Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1927, 1959.

103. T. duriusculum (Mitt.) Broth.

Tiger Shola at 1710 m. 1927 ; Perumalmalai at 1600 m. 1957.

104. T. hyalinoblastum Broth.

Periyur at 1371 m. 1926 ; Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1926.

*105. T. minusculum Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 165, 1927.

Perumalmalai Shola at 1676 m. 1926 ; Top Station at 1844 m. 1926.

106. T. orthodontum (Mitt.) Broth.

Kodaikanal at 1828 m. 1926 ; Perivur at 1371 m. 1926.

107. T. stenophylum (Mitt.) Brotn.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1959.

WEISIA Hedw.

(After Weis, an 18th century botanist of Gottingen)

*108 W. macrospora Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 49 : 43, 1922.

Shembaganur at 2000 m. 1910 ; Law’s Ghat Road at 762 m. 1959 ; at 1970 m.

1959.

109. W. viridula (Lind.) Hedw.

Manalur at 914 m. 1926 ; Top Station at 1828 m. 1959,

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

VII. GRIMMIACEAE

GRIMMIA Ehrh.

(After Grimm, an 18th century botanist of Gotha)

110. G. ovata Weber & Mohr.

Kodaikanal, Pambar Shola, at 2003 m. 1951.

RHACOMITRIUM Brid. |

(Derived from the Greek rhako = frayed, mitrion = a cap, with reference to the

fringed calyptra of the capsule)

*111. R.javanicum Doz. & Molk. var. brachyphyllum Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol.

50:17, 1923.

Kodaikanal at 1905 m. 1911.

IX. FUNARIACEAE

FUNARIA Sch.

(Derived from the Latin funis = a cord, with reference to the seta spirally twisted

when dry)

#112. F. excurrentinervis Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 18, 1923.

Locality unspecified.

113. F. hygrometrica (Lind.) Sibt.

Kodaikanal, Mount St. Mary, at 2133 m. 1959.

114. F. hygrometrica (Lind.) Sibt. var. calvescens B. & S.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1909.

115. F. physcomitrioides Mont.

Kodaikanal at 2469 m. 1911.

116. F. planifolia (Thw. & Mitt.) Broth.

Berijam at 2133 m. 1923.

*117. F. pulchra Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 169, 1927.

Manalur at 914 m. 1926 ; Villupatti at 1371 m. 1926.

*118. F. sinuatolimbata Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 19, 1923.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1909 ; Perumalmalai Shola at 1981 m. 1926.

*119. F. subimmarginata Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 19, 1923.

Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1909.

120. F.submarginata (C.M.) Broth.

Perumalmalai Shola at 1676 m. 1927.

X. SPLACHNACEAE

TAYLORIA Hook.

(After Taylor, Thomas [d. 1848], the joint author, with W. J. Hooker, of Muscologia —

Britannica)

121. T. imbricata Thw. & Mitt.

Shembaganur at 1844 m. 1930.

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS p45)

XI. BRYACEAE

ANOMOBRYUM W.P. Sch.

(Derived from the Greek a = not, nomos = rule, meaning a ‘ nonconformist ’

Bryum)

122. A. cymbifolium (Lindl.) Broth.

Perumalmalai at 1706 m. 1928.

123. A. filiforme (Dick.) Husn.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1926.

“124. PA. latifolium Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50:19, 1923 ; Arch. Bot. 1: 179,

1927.

Silver Cascade at 1800 m. 1911 ; Tiger Shola at 1721 m. 1959.

*125. A. subnitidum Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 20, 1923 ; Arch. Bot. 1: 179,

1927.

Shembaganur at 1900 m. 1912, 1959 ; Law’s Ghat Road at 1752 m. 1959.

BRACHYMENIUM Hook.

(Derived from the Greek brachus = close-celled, menium = tissue, probably with

reference to the anatomy of the plant)

7126.

7127.

128.

129.

7130.

131.

152.

133:

134,

B. exile Doz. & Molk.

Law’s Ghat Road at 685 m. 1959 ; Tovaiparai at 1371 m. 1959 ; Perumalmalai

at 1602 m. 1959 ; Levinge Path at 1981 m. 1959.

B. leptostomoides (C.M.) Schim.

Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1926 ; Perumalmalai at 1562 m. 1959 ; Tovaiparai at

1371 m. 1959,

B. nepalense Hook.

Perumalmatai at 1615 m. 1937.

Bryum Dill.

(Derived from the Greek bryon, the name of a cryptogamic plant)

B. ambiguum Dub.

Law’s Ghat Road at 1545 m. 1925.

B. andrei Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 20, 1923; Arch. Bot. 1 : 179, 1927.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1909 ; Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1927.

B. apalodictyoides C.M.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1927.

B. argenteum Lind.

Law’s Ghat Road at 685 m. 1959 ; Tovaiparai at 1371 m. 1959 ; Perumalmalai

at 1602 m. 1959 ; Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1959.

B. argenteum Lind. var. lanatum (P.B.) C.M. & W.P. Sch.

Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1927.

B. nitens Hook.

Manalur at 1067 m. 1927 ; Machur at 1550 m. 1927.

*135.

136.

(37:

*138.

“189.

*140.

*141,

142.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

B. pachycladum Card. in Rev. Bryol. 52 : 38, 1925 ; Arch. Bot. 1:179, 1927.

Munjikal at 1980 m.1912 ; Levinge Path at 1980 m. 1959.

B. pseudoalpinum Ren. & Card.

Shembaganur at 1860 m. 1950 ; Law’s Ghat Road at 1737 m. 1959.

B. ramosum (Hook.) Mitt.

Shembaganur at 1905 m. 1959 ; Tiger Shola at 1737 m. 1959.

B. retusifolium Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 20, 1923.

Kodaikanal at 2400 m. 1911 ; Kodaikanal at 2120 m. 1959; Perumalmalai

at 1737 m. 1926.

B. retusifolium Card. & Varde var. heterophyllum Card.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1911.

B. vellei Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50: 21, 1923 ; Arch. Bot. 1 : 179, 1927.

Shembaganur at 2000 m. 1909 ; Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1912; Law’s Ghat

Road at 1750 m. 1959.

B. vellei Card. & Varde var. robustum Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot.1: WES eT

Tiger Shola at 1706 m. 1926.

B. wightii Mitt.

Perumalmalai at 1540 m. 1926.

RHODOBRYUM W.P. Sch.

(Derived from the Greek rhodos = a rose, bryon = a moss, probably with reference

to the habit of the plant)

143.

*144.

145.

146.

*147.

148.

R. giganteum (Hook.) Par.

Tiger Shola at 1667 m. 1953.

R. madurense Dix. & Varde in Ann. Crypt. Exot. 3 (4) : 177, 1930.

Kodaikanal at 1981 m. 1919, 1929 ; Berijam at 2133 m. 1929.

WEBERA Hedw.

(After Weber, an 18th century botanist of Gottingen)

W. elongata Sch.

Kodaikanal, Levinge Path, at 1981 m. 1930 ; Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1930.

W. flexuosa (Hook.) Mitt.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1926; Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1926 ; Shembaganur at

1840 m. 1959.

W. humicola Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 169, 1927.

Palamalai at 914 m. 1925.

XII. MNIACEAE

Mnium W.P. Sch.

(Derived from the Greek mnion = a moss)

M. coriaceum Griff.

Old Ghat Road at 1737 m. 1959.

149,

150.

151;

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS 27

M. incertum Dix.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1927.

M. rostratum Schr.

Berijam at 2133 m. 1929.

M. succulentum Mitt.

Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1912 ; Kodaikanal at 2286 m. 1959.

XIII. RHIZOGONIACEAE

RHIZOGONIUM Brid.

(Derived from the Greek rhiza = a root, gonia = an angle, probably with

reference to the root of the plant)

7152.

R. spiniforme (Lind.) Bruch.

Old Ghat Road at 1746 m. 1959 ; Law’s Ghat Road at 2057 m. 1959.

XIV. BARTRAMIACEAE

BARTRAMIA Hedw.

(After Bartram, John [1699-1777], an English botanist in America)

EES 3).

154.

Z155..

eES6.

B. gathica Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50:22, 1923 ; 51:12, 1924; Arch.

Bot. 1 : 180, 1927.

Kodaikanal, Pambar torrent, at 2133 m. 1909, 1927.

B. madurensis Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 52 : 39. 1925; Arch. Bot. 1 : 180,

1927.

Kodaikanal at 2103 m. 1959.

BARTRAMIDULA BED

(Derivation similar to that of Bartramia)

B. dispersa Dix. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 23, 1923 ; ibid. 52 : 42, 1925.

Kodaikanal, Pambar Ravine, at 2400 m. 1912 ; Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1923 ;

Shembaganur, Levinge Path, at 1981 m. 1959.

BREUTELIA W.P. Sch.

(After Breutel, a German botanist)

B. sclerodictya Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50:24, 1923; 51:12, 1924;

Arch. Bot. 1: 180, 1927.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1911 ; Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1911, 1959 ; Perumal-

malai at 1602 m. 1926.

PHILONOTIS Brid.

(Derived from the Greek philo = loving, notis = moisture, with reference to the

characteristic habitat of the plant)

157:

158:

P. alpicola Jurat.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1929.

P. anisoclada Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 23, 1923 ; Arch. Bot. 1 : 180,

1927.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1908 ; Law’s Ghat Road at 1720 m. 1959,

152:

160.

161.

162.

163.

164.

*165.

166.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

P. falcata (Hook.) Mitt.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1958.

P. heterophylla Mitt.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1925 ; Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1959.

P. imbricatula Mitt.

Law’s Ghat Road at 1676 m. 1959.

P. laxissima C.M.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1926.

P. rigida Brid.

Kodaikanal at 1980 m. 1922.

P. secunda Doz. & Molk.

Old Ghat Road at 1676 m. 1959.

P. subrigida Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 22, 1923; Arch. Bot. 1: 180,

1927.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1909 ; Tiger Shola at 1600 m. 1926 ; Law’s Ghat Road

at 680 m. 1959 ; Tovaiparai at 1371 m. 1959.

P. tomentella Mol.

Perumalmalai at 1768 m. 1911.

XV. ORTHOTRICHACEAE

MACROMITRIUM Brid.

(Derived from the Greek macro = large, mitrion = a cap, with reference to the ©

size of the calyptra)

167.

168.

*169.

170.

IEEE

172,

edo

M. calympereoideum Mitt.

Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1926.

M. japonicum Doz. & Molk.

Locality unspecified.

M. lingulatum Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 18, 1923.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1909.

M. nepalense (Hook. & Gev.) Schw.

Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1959 ; Shembaganur at 1844 m. 1959,

M. perrottetii C.M. —

Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1926.

M. schmidii C.M.

Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1929.

M. schmidii C.M. var. laxirete Thér. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 52 : 39, 1925.

Kodaikanal at 2100 m. 1926.

RHACHITHECIUM (?)

(Derived from the Greek rhachis = a spine, thekion =a capsule, with reference

to the shape of the capsule)

174.

R. perpusillum (Thw. & Mitt.) Broth.

Perumalmalai, Neutral Saddle, at 1602 m. 1959.

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS 29

SCHLOTHEIMIA Brid.

(After Schlotheim)

175. S. grevilleana Mitt.

Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1959.

TRIGONODICTYON Dix. & Varde

(Derived from the Greek trigonos = triangular, dictyon = a network, with

reference to the tissue of the plant)

*176. T.indicum Dix. & Varde in Ann. Crypt. Exot. 1 : 40, 1928.

Kodaikanal, Pambar Torrent, at 2057 m. 1927.

ZYGODON Hook & Tayl.

(Derived from the Greek zugo = united, odous = a tooth, with reference to the

peristome teeth being joined in pairs)

177. Z.erosus Mitt. var. fragilifolius (Broth.) Dix.

Kodaikanal, towards Berijam, at 2194 m. 1959.

178. Z. humilis Thw. & Mitt.

Old Ghat Road, in the Shola, at 1798 m. 1930.

179. Z. reinwardtii (Hsch.) A. Braun

Kodaikanal, Upper Lake Road, at 2133 m. 1929.

180. Z. tetragonostomus R. Br.

Manalur at 914 m. 1923 ; Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1959; Shembaganur at

1828 m. 1929 ; Kodaikanal at 2190 m. 1959.

XVI. RHACOPILACEAE

RHACOPILUM P.B.

(Derivation uncertain)

181. R. orthocarpum Wils.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1912.

182. R.schmidii C.M.

Tovaiparai at 1371 m. 1958 ; Law’s Ghat Road at 1602 m. 1959.

*183. R.schmidii C.M. var. breviaristatum Card. in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 77, 1923.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1912.

XVII. HEDWIGIACEAE

BRAUNIA B.E.

(After Braun, A. [1805-1877], a German botanist)

184. B.apiculata Card.

Kodaikanal at 2286 m. 1909.

185. B.macrocarpa (C.M.) Jaeg.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1926.

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

+186. B.secunda Hook.

Kodaikanal at 2140 m. 1926.

HEDWIGIUM B.E.

(After Hedwig, Johannes [1730-1799], the ‘ father of Bryology ’)

187. H.imberbe Sm.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1926.

XVII. CRYPHAEACEAE

ACROCRYPHAEA B.E.

(Derived from the Greek acro = top, kryphaios = hidden, with reference to the

capsule)

188. <A. concavifolia (Griff.) V.D.B. & Lac.

Perumalmalai, near Neutral Saddle, at 1737 m. 1926.

FORSSTROEMIA Lind.

(After Forsstroem)

189. F. indica (Mont.) Par.

Manalur at 914 m. 1926; Tovaiparai at 1371 m. 1926; Tiger Shola at 1676 m.

1926.

XIX. TRACHYPODACEAE

TRACHYPUS Rein. & Hsch.

(Derived from the Greek trachys = rough, pous = a foot, probably with reference

to the foot of the capsule)

190. T. bicolor R. & H. var. hispidus (C.M.) Card.

Kodaikanal at 2140 m. 1959.

191. T. humilis Lind. var. humilis

Tiger Shola at 1450 m. 1926.

192. T. humilis Lind. var. tenerrimus (Herz.) Zant.

Tovaiparai Shola at 1450 m. 1926.

TRACHYPODOPSIS FI.

(Derivation same as in the case of Trachypus)

193. T. serrulata (P. Beauv.) FI. var. crispatula (Hook.) Zant.

Old Ghat Road at 1780 m. 1959.

XX. MYURIACEAE

Myurium W.P. Sch.

(Derived from the Greek myouros = mouse-tailed, with reference to the julaceous

branches of the plant)

194. M. rufescens (Rein. & Hsch.) Fl.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1927.

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS 31

195. M. warburgii (C.M.) Fl.

Perumalmalai at 1600 m. 1929.

*196. M. warburgii (C.M.) Fl. var. stenophyllum Card. in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 72, 1923

as Oedicladium warburgii C.M. var. stenophyllum Card. & Varde.

Kodaikanal at 2140 m. 1912 ; Tiger Shola at 1706 m. 1959.

XXI. PTEROBRYACEAE

JAEGERINA Mull.

(After Jaeger, August [d. 1877], a German botanist)

*197. J. stolonifera C.M. var. incrassata Varde in Rev. Bryol. 52 : 39, 1925.

Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1926.

PTEROBRYOPSIS

(Derived from the Greek pteron = wing, bryon = a moss, probably with reference

to the spreading habit of the plant)

198. P. acuminata (Hook.) FI.

Locality unspecified.

*199. P. denudata Dix. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 72, 1923.

Kodaikanal, on trees, at 2400 m. 1912.

200. P. frondosa (Mitt.) Jaeg.

Perumalmalai at 1600 m. 1926.

*201. P.madurensis Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50: 72, 1923.

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1911 ; Manalur at 860 m. 1926.

*202. P. madurensis Card. & Varde var. flexipendula Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol.

50 : 73, 1923.

Kodaikanal, Pillar Rocks, at 2400 m. 1912 ; Tiger Shola at 1737 m. 1912.

203. P. orientalis (C.M.) FI.

Tovaiparai Shola at 1554 m. 1926.

204. P. orientalis (C.M.) FI. var. gracilis (Broth.) Dix.

Periyur at 1371 m. 1929.

205. P. schmidii (C.M.) FI.

Kodaikanal at 2057 m. 1926.

SYMPHYSODONTELLA (?)

(Derived from the Greek syn = together, phu = to grow, odontella = small teeth,

probably with reference to the growth-habit of the plant)

206. S. involuta (Thw. & Mitt.) FI.

Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1926.

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

XXII. METEORIACEAE

AEROBRYIDIUM (?)

(Derived from the Greek aeiros = high in air, bryidium = moss-like, with

reference to the pendent habit of the plant)

207. A. punctulatum (C.M.) Dix.

Kodaikanal at 2190 m. 1959 ; Perumalmalai at 1600 m. 1959; Tovaiparai at

1370 m. 1959.

AEROBRYOPSIS (7?)

(Derivation similar to that of Aerobryidium)

208. A. lanosa (Mitt.) Fl.

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1909.

209. A. longissima (Doz. & Molk.) Fl.

Kodaikanal at 2100 m. 1959 ; Tovaiparai Shola at 1371 m. 1959.

BARBELLA C.M.

(Derived from the Latin barbella, meaning a small beard, with reference to the habit

of the plant)

210. B. determesii (Ren. & Card.) FI.

Tiger Shola at 1750 m. 1959 ; Shembaganur at 1798 m. 1959.

211. B. enervis (Mitt.) Fl.

Perumalmalai Shola at 1540 m. 1926.

212. B. pendula (Sull.) Fl.

Tiger Shola at 1602 m. 1911.

*213. B. questi Card. & Dix.in Rec. Bot. Sury. India 6. (3) : 82, 1914.

Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1911.

214. B.tenax (C.M.) Broth.

Law’s Ghat Road at 1798 m. 1959.

CHRYSOCLADIUM (?)

(Derived from the Greek chryso = golden, kladion = a shoot, probably with refe-

rence to the colour of the tender shoot of the plant)

215. C.retrorsum (Mitt.) Fl.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1959.

FLORIBUNDARIA C.M.

(Derived from the Latin floribundus = much flowering, probably with reference

to the profusely branching habit of the plant)

216. F.chloronema (C.M.) FI.

Kodaikanal at 2190 m. 1959.

217. F. floribunda (Doz. & Molk.) FI.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1959 ; Tovaiparai at 1370 m. 1959.

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS 33

218. F. sparsa (Mitt.) Broth.

Kodaikanal at 2190 m. 1959.

219. F. thuidioides F1.

Tovaiparai Shola at 1790 m. 1926.

METEORIOPSIS (?)

(Derived from the Greek, meteoros = high in air, probably with reference to the

epiphytic habit of the plant)

220. M. reclinata (C.M.) FI.

Kodaikanal at 1860 m. 1959.

221. M. squarrosa (Hook.) FI.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1959.

METEORIUM Brid.

(Derivation similar to that of Meteoriopsis)

222. M. buchanani (Brid.) Broth.

Kodaikanal at 2183 m. 1912 ; Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1912.

PAPILLARIA Ehrh.

(Derived from the Latin papilla = a minute protuberance, probably referring to

the external appearance of the plant)

223. P.crocea (Hampe) Jaeg.

Kodaikanal at 2110 m. 1959 ; very common also at Shembaganur, Tiger Shola,

Perumalmalai and Manalur.

224. P. cuspidifera Card.

Kodaikanal at 1980 m. 1911.

225. P. fuscescens (Hook.) Jaeg.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1951.

226. P.semitorta (C.M.) Jaeg.

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1911.

XXIII. NECKERACEAE

CALYPTOTHECIUM Mitt.

(Derived from the Greek kalupto = hidden, thekion = a capsule, with reference

to the obscure capsule)

*227, C. oxyphyllum Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 170, 1927.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1923 ; Manalur at 1070 m. 1924.

*228. C.symphisodontoides Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 171, 1927.

Manalur at 1070 m. 1924,

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

HIMANTOCLADIUM Mitt.

(Derived from the Greek himanto = strap-like, kladion = a shoot, with reference

to the external appearance of the plant)

229. H. rugulosum (Mitt.) Fl.

Tovaiparai Shola at 1370 m. 1926 ; Periyur at 914 m. 1926.

HoMALIA Brid. é es tat:

(Derived from the Greek homalos = flattened, with reference to the corp leiat

leaves)

230. H. pygmaea (Ren. & Card.) Broth.

Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1926; Tiger Shola at 1706 m. 1959.

*231. H. pygmaea (Ren. & Card.) Broth. var. elongata. Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot.

152 182, 1927

Perumalmalai at 1670 m. 1927.

HOMALIODENDRON (?)

(Derived from the Greek homalos = flattened, dendron = a shrub, nat reference

to the habit of the plant)

232. H. exiguum FI.

Tiger Shola at 1780 m. 1926; Periyur at 1220 m. 1926.

233. H. flabellatum (Dick.) FI. j

Kodaikanal at 2110 m. 1959 » Tovaiparai Shola at 1370 m. 1959.

234. -H. microdendron (Hook.) Jaeg.

~ Tiger Shola at 1706 m. 1912.

HoMALiopsis Dix. & Varde in Ann. Crypt. Exot. 1 : 48, 1928.

(Derivation similar to that of Homalia)

*235. H. targioniana (Gough.) Dix. & Varde in Ann. Crypt. Exot. 1: 48, 1928.

Tiger Shola at 1350 m. 1926 ; Tovaiparai at 1370 m. 1926; Manalur at 915 m.

1926.

NECKERA Hedw.

(After Necker)

*236. N. andrei Ther. & Varde in 1 Rev. Bryol. 50%: 14, “1923 : Arch. Bot. 1: 182,

Pee

---Locality unspecified, 1920.

237. N. exserta Hook.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1 oe

*238. N. pennata (Lind.) Hedw. var. _thytidiodonta Dix. & YERES in Ann, COPE

Exot. 1:44, 1928: ee ee ae

Manalur at 914 m. 1923. iS3.6) Abts

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS 35

239. N. pygmaea Ren. & Card.

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1921.

*240, N. semicrispa Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50:74, 1923.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1909.

NECKERIOPSIS Reich.

(Derivation similar to that of Neckera)

241. N.exserta (Hook.) Broth.

Locality unspecified, 1912.

PINNATELLA C.M. ae

(Derived from the Latin pinnatus = winged, probably with reference to the

external appearance of the plant)

242. P. alopecureides (Hook.) FI.

Tovaiparai Shola at 1370 m. 1926.

*243, P. foreauana Thér. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 52:39, 1925; Arch. Bot. 1 : 182,

1927 Mi

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1911, 1959; Kodaikanal! at 2130 m. 1911, 1959;

Perumalmalai at 1676 m. 1959 ; Tovaiparai at 1370 m. 1959.

THAMNIUM (?) -

(Derived from the Greek thamnios=bushy, with reference to the habit of the plant)

244. T. alopecurum Lind.

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1926, 1956 ; Tovaiparai Shola at 1370 m. 1959.

XXIV. HOOKERIACEAE

DISTICHOPHYLLUM Doz. & Molk.

(Derived from the Greek distichos = in rows of two, phyllon = leaf, with refers

ence to the mode of arrangement of leaves)

"245. D. madurense Thér. & Varde in Rey. Bryol. 52 : 40, 1925.

‘Kodaikanal at 2133 m..1912, 1930.

246. D. succulentum (Mitt.) Broth.

_ Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1959.

HOoOKERIA Sm.

(After Hooker, Sir William Jackson [1785-1865], the English botanist)

247. H. acutifolia Hook.

Shembaganur at 2103 m. 1958.

HooKErRIopsis Besch.

(Derivation similar to that of Hookeria)

248. H.utacamundiana (Mont.) Broth.

Tiger Shola at 1350 m. 1958.

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

LEPIDOPILIDIUM C.M.

(Derived from the Greek /epido = a scale, pilos = a cap)

249. L. furcatum (Thw. & Mitt.) Broth.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1925.

XXV. SYMPHYODONTACEAE

SYMPHYODON Mont.

(Derived from the Greek symphous = joined, odous = a tooth, probably with refer-

ence to the peristome)

*250. S.acuminatus Dix. & Varde in Ann. Crypt. Exot. 3 (4) : 180, 1930.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1929.

251. S. angustus (C.M.) Jaeg.

Law’s Ghat Road at 1676 m. 1959.

252. S. perrottetii Mont.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1958.

SYMPHYODONTELLA (?)

(Derivation similar to that of Symphyodon)

253. S.involuta Thw. & Mitt.

Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1925.

XXVI. HYPOPTERYGIACEAE

HYPOPTERYGIUM Brid.

(Derived from the Greek hupo = under, pteryg = a wing)

254. H. javanicum Hampe

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1958 ; very common also at Shembaganur, Tiger Shola

and Perumalmalai.

255. H. tenellum Mitt.

Law’s Ghat Road at 1737 m. 1959; very common in the sholas of Shem-

baganur, Tiger Shola, Perumalmalai, Tovaiparai and Manalur, 1959.

XXVII. FABRONIACEAE

ANACAMPTODON Brid.

(Derived from the Greek anacamptos=recurved, odous=a tooth, probably with

reference to peristome teeth)

*256. A. validinervis Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 172, 1927.

Tovaiparai Shola at 1371 m. 1926.

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS Si

FABRONIA Raddi.

(After a proper name)

257. F. goughii Mitt.

- Neutral Saddle at 1570 m. 1926.

*258. KF. madurensis Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 171, 1927.

Periyur at 1060 m. 1026; Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1959; Kodaikanal at

2133 m. 1959.

259. F.secunda Mont.

Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1959.

JURATZKAEA C.M.

(After Juratzka [d. 1879], an Austrian botanist)

*260. J. indica Broth. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 52 : 40, 1925.

Neutral Saddle at 1562 m. 1959 ; Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1959.

SCHWETSCHKEA C.M.

(After a proper name)

261. S.applanata (Thw. & Mitt.) Broth.

Neutral Saddle, Path to Palni, at 1562 m. 1959 ; Manalur at 1060 m. 1959,

262. S. indica Broth.

Tovaiparai Shola at 1370 m. 1959.

XXVIII. LESKEACEAE

PSEUDOLESKEOPSIS (?)

(Derived from the Greek pseudo = false, and leskeopsis = resembling Leskea,

itself a genus derived from a proper name)

*263. P. perfalcata Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 172, 1927.

Perumalmalai at 1562 m. 1959.

RHEGMATODON Brid.

(Derived from the Greek rhegma = cleft, odous = a tooth, with reference to the

peristome)

264. R. orthostegius Mont.

Kodaikanal at 1859 m. 1959; Perumalmalai at 1562 m. 1959; Tovaiparai

Shola at 1371 m. 1959.

265. R. polycarpus (Griff.) Mitt.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1909.

XXIX. THUIDIACEAE

CLAOPODIUM (?)

(Derived from the Greek klao = break, podion = a small foot)

266. C. prionophyllum C.M.

Shembaganur at 1820 m. 1959 ; Manalur at 914 m. 1959.

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

HAPLOCLADIUM C.M.

(Derived from the Greek haplo = = single, kladion = a shoot, with HONORE to EG

habit of the plant)

*267. H. vestitum Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 172, 1927.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1959,

HERPETINEURON C.M.

(Derived from the Greek herpetos = creeping, neuron = a sinew)

268. H. toccoae (Sull. & Lesq.) Card.

Tiger Shola at 1706 m. 1959.

THUIDIUM B.E.

(Derived from the Latin thuja, the botanical name of a conifer tree, with reference

to similarity in external form)

269. T. brotheri Salm.

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1959 ; Perumalmalai at 1676 m. 1959; Tovaiparai at

1371 m. 1959.

270. T. cymbifolium Doz. & Molk.

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1959 ; Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1959 ; permanant

at 1676 m. 1959.

271. T. glaucinoides Broth.

Tiger Shola at 1602 m. 1959.

272. T. glaucinum Mitt.

Kodaikanal at 2194 m. 1926; Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1956; Tiger Shola

at 1602 m. 1959; Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1959.

273. T. meyenianum Hampe

Shembaganur at 1840 m. 1959; Tovaiparai at 1371 m. 1958; Manalur at

914 m. 1959.

274. T. tamariscellum C.M.

Kodaikanal at 2194 m. 1959; Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1958; Manalur at

1067 m. 1926.

*275. T. trachilocarpum Dix. & Varde in Ann. Crypt. Exot. 1 > 44, 1928.

Tiger Shola at 1350 m. 1927.

XXX. AMBLYGOSTEGIACEAE

AMBLYSTEGIELLA (?)

(Derived from the Greek ambly = blunt, stegeon = a roof, with reference to the

shape of the lid of the capsule)

*276. A. madurensis Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 78, 1923.

Kodaikanal, Pambar Ravine, at 2300 m. 1912.

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS 39

PLATYHYPNIDIUM W.P.Sch.

(Derived from the Greek platus = large, hypnidion = hypnon (moss)-like, with

reference to the size of the plant)

277.- P. mulleri Broth.

Kodaikanal at 2140 m. 1926: Shemibaeanat at 1830 m. 1959 ; Tovaiparai at

1371 m. 1959,

278. P. rusciforme (Neck.) FI.

Kodaikanal at 2194 m. 1926 ; Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1926.

XXXI. BRACHYTHECIACEAE

_ BRACHYTHECIUM B.E.

(Derived from the Greek brachy = short, thekion =a capsule, with reference to

the capsule of the plant)

*279. 8B. nitidissimum Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 173, 1927.

Tiger Shola at 1706 m. 1926.

-280. B. plumosum (Sw.) Jaeg.

Kodaikanal at 2194 m. 1926 ; Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1959.

281. _B. procumbens (Mitt.) Jaeg. Noe 2

~~~ Kodaikanal at 2194 m. 1926 ; Tiger Shola at 1737 m, 1959 ; Perumalmalai at

1602 m. 1959.

HOMALOTHECIUM (?)

(Derived from the Greek homalos =flattened, thekion = a capsule, with reference

to the shape of the capsule)

*282. H.(?) gracillimum Dix. & Varde in Ann. Crypt. Exot. 3 (4) : 180, 1930.

Top Station at 1900 m. 1929.

OXYRRHYNCHIUM B.E.

(Derived from the Greek oxus = pointed, rhynchion = a beak, probably with refer-

ence to the capsule)

283. O. mulleri (Doz. & Molk.) Broth.

Locality unspecified.

284. O.ovatum Card. & Varde

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1927 ; Tiger Shola at 1750 m. 1959,

PLEUROPUS Griff.

(Derived from the Greek pleuron = side, pous = a foot, probably with reference

to the lateral branches of the plant)

285. P. fenestratus Griff.

~ “Kodaikanal at 2190 m. 1926 ; Shembaganur at 1844 m. 1958 ; Perumalmalai

at 1602 m. 1958 ; Tovaiparai at 1371 m. 1959,

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

286. P. nilghiriensis (Mont.) Card.

Perumalmalai at 1768 m. 1909.

RHYNCHOSTEGIELLA B.E.

(Derived from the Greek rhunco = a beak, stegos = a chamber, probably with

reference to the capsule)

287. R. humillima (Mitt.) Broth.

Manalur at 1060 m. 1926.

*288. R. leiopoda Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 174, 1927.

Tovaiparai Shola at 1371 m. 1927.

RHYNCHOSTEGIUM B.E.

5 (Derivation similar to that of Rhynchostegiella)

289. R. gathicum Card.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1912.

290. R. javanicum Besch.

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1926 ; Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1958 ; Periyur at 1060 m.

291. R. vagans (Harv.) Jaeg.

Tiger Shola at 1750 m. 1959; Tovaiparai Shola at 1676 m. 1958; Manalur

at 1067 m. 1958.

XXXII. ENTODONTACEAE

CAMPYLODONTIUM Schw.

(Derived from the Greek campylos = bent, odous = a tooth, probably with

reference to the peristome teeth)

292. C. flavescens Hook.

Perumalmalai at 1737 m. 1926.

ENTODON C.M.

(Derived from the Greek entos = within, odous =a tooth, probably with

reference to the peristome teeth)

293. E.chloropus Ren. & Card.

Manalur at 914 m. 1926.

*204. E. obtustatus Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50: 76, 1923 ; ibid. 51: 12, 1924.

Shembaganur at 1829 m. 1912 ; Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1958 ; Tovaiparai Shola

at 1371 m. 1959.

*295. E. perplicatus Thér. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 75, 1923.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1926 ; Manalur at 940 m. 1958.

296. E. plicatus C.M.

Shembaganur at 1905 m. 1959; Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1959; Law’s Ghat

Road at 680 m. 1959,

stuleiiiaiat india eee

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS 41

*297,. KE. plicatus C.M. var. dimorphophyllus Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 182, 1927.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1959 ; Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1959,

ERYTHRODONTIUM Hampe

(Derived from the Greek erythros = red, odous = a tooth, with reference to the

colour of the peristome teeth)

298. E. julaceum (Hook.) Par.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1959 ; Tiger Shola at 1798 m. 1959; Tovaiparai at

1676 m. 1959 ; Manalur at 1239 m. 1958 ; Law’s Ghat Road at 700 m. 1959,

NANOTHECIUM Dix. & Varde in Ann. Crypt. Exot. 3 (4) : 181, 1930.

(Derived from the Greek nano = dwarf, thekion = a little vessel, with reference to

the size of the capsule)

#299, N. foreaui Dix. & Varde in Ann. Crypt. Exot. 3 (4): 181, 1930.

Top station at 1950 m. 1929.

TRACHYPHYLLUM (?)

(Derived from the Greek trachy = narrow, phyllon = a leaf, with reference to the

leaf)

*300. T.elongatum Dix. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 52 : 40, 1925 ; Arch. Bot. 1: 182, 1927.

Kodaikanal at 2057 m. 1912, 1925 ; Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1959; Tiger

Shola at 1676 m. 1959; Tovaiparai Shola at 1371 m. 1959; Manalur at

914 m. 1958.

301. T. inflexum (Harv.) Griff.

Palamalai at 1237 m. 1927.

XXXII. PLAGIOTHECIACEAE

PLAGIOTHECIUM B. & S.

(Derived from the Greek plagio = oblique, thekion = a little vessel, with reference

to the usually oblique capsule)

#302. P.neckeroideum B.E. var. madurenese Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 183, 1927.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1913.

*303. P. vesiculariaeopsis Dix. & Varde in Arch, Bot. 1 : 174, 1927.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1927.

‘STEREOPHYLLUM Mitt.

(Derived from tne Greek stereos = rigid, phyllon = a leaf, with reference to the

leaf)

304. S. confusum Card.

Palamalai at 914 m. 1927.

305. S. indicum (Bel.) Mitt.

. Manalur at 920 m. 1926.

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 ()

*306. S. papilidens Card. in Rev. Bryol. 50: PT: 1923 ; ; ibid. 51 : 12, 1924.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1909.

*307. S. subacuminatum Dix. & Varde in Ann. Crypt. Exot. 3 (4) : 182, 1930.

Top Station at 1900 m. 1929.

308. -S. wightii (Mitt.) Jaeg.

Perumalmalai at 1670 m. 1927 ; Manalur at 914 m. 1958.

XXXIV. SEMATOPHYLLACEAE

APTYCHELLA (?)

(Derived from the Greek aptuchos = adpressed, with reference to the leaves of the

plant)

309. A. serrulatae (Card. & Varde) Broth.

Perumalmalai at 1676 m. 1912.

CLASTOBRYELLA (?)

(Derived from the Greek klastos = broken, bryon = a moss, with reference to the

external appearance of the plant)

310. C. ceylonensis Broth.

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1912 ; Perumalmalai at 1706 m. 1959.

*311. OC. gracilis Varde in Rev. Bryol. 52 : 41, 1925.

Shembaganur at 1866 m. 1912 ; Perumalmalai at 1676 m. 1959.

CLASTROBRYUM Doz. & Molk.

(Derivation similar to that of Clastobryella)

*312. CC. barbelloides Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 174, 1927.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1926 ; Perumalmalai at 1676 m. 1958.

313. C.ceylonense Broth.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1929.

-314. (CC. cupressinoides Dix. & Varde

Kodaikanal at 2140 m. 1912.

*315. C. oligonema Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 74, 1923; ibid. 51 : 12, 1924.

Kodaikanal at 2190 m. 1911.

*316. C. patentifolium Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1: 174, 1927.

Tiger Shola at 1776 m. 1926; Perumalmalai Shola at 1670 m. 1926 ; Tovaiparai

at 1371 m. 1958.

*317. C.serrulatum Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 75, 1923.

- Kodaikanal at 2100 m..1909.

FOREAUELLA Dix. & Varde

(After Foreau, Eugene Armand, dit Georges [b. 1882], the author of this paper)

#318. F. indica Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 175, 1927.

Manalur at 914 m. 1924; Pannaikadu at 1371 m. 1959 ; Mulayur at. 1360 m.

1924 ; Periyur at 914 m. 1924 : Shembaganur at 2103 m. 1959.

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS 7 43

GLOSSADELPHUS (?) ’ | ae

(Derived from the Greek glosa = a tongue, adelphos = double, with reference to

the calyptra)

319. G.anisopterus (Card. & Varde) Broth.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1928.

320. G. isopterygioides (Dix.) Broth.

Tovaiparai at 1371 m. 1927.

321. G. vivicolor (Broth. & Dix.) Broth.

Shembaganur at 1860 m. 1928 ; Perumalmalai at 1676 m. 1959.

322. G. zollingeri (C.M.) FI.

Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1928 ; Periyur at 914 m. 1928.

RHAPHIDIORRHYNCHUM W.P. Sch.

(Derived from the Greek rhaphus = a needle, rhynchion = a beak, probably with

reference to the shape of the capsule)

323. R. leptorrhynchioides (C.M.) Broth.

Kodaikanal at 1990 m. 1959 ; Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1959 ; Perumalmalai

at 1602 m. 1959.

RHAPHIDOSTEGIUM B.E.

(Derived from the Greek rhaphus = a needle, stegos = chamber, with reference

to the shape of the capsule)

*324. R. sebillei Broth. & Thér. in Rev. Bryol, 51 : 10, 1924.

Locality unspecified.

RHAPHIDOSTICHUM (?)

(Derived from the Greek rhaphis = a needle, stichos = row)

325. R.camptocladum Card.

Kodaikanal at 1980 m. 1911.

326. R. cucullifolium (Card. & Dix.) Broth.

- Shembaganur at 1866 m. 1926.

327. R.subleptocarpum (Thér. & Varde) Broth.

Shembaganur at 1870 m. 1959.

SEMATOPHYLLUM Mitt.

- (Derived from the Greek sema = character, phyllon = a leaf, with reference to

the distinctive leaf structure)

328. S. caespitosum (Bruch.) Mitt.

Kodaikanal at 2140 m. 1927 ; Law’s Ghat Road at 1676 m. 1959.

*329, S. cucullifolium Card. & Dix. in Rec. Bot. Surv. India. 6 (3) : 88, 1914.

Shembaganur at 1870 m. 1911.

330. S.subhumile (C.M.) Fl.

Shembaganur at 1813 m. 1959 ; Tovaiparai Shola at 1371 m, 1959,

S33;

332:

333.

#334.

e300.

1336.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

S. subleptocarpum Thér. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 51:11, 1924.

Shembaganur at 1850 m. 1909.

TAXITHELIUM Mitt.

(Derivation uncertain)

T. isopterygioides Dix.

Tovaiparai Shola at 1371 m. 1911.

T. vivicolor Broth. & Dix.

Shembaganur at 1860 m. 1911.

WARBURGIELLA C.M.

(After Warburg)

W. isopterygioides Dix. & Varde in Amn. Crypt. Exot. 3 (4) : 183, 1930.

Shembaganur, on a shrub, near the Church at 1870 m. 1929.

W. perviridis Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 176, 1927.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1959 ; Tiger Shola at 1750 m. 1959 ; Perumalmalai at

1602 m. 1959.

XXXV. HYPNACEAE

CTENIDIUM W.P. Sch.

(Derived from the Greek ctenidion = a comb)

C. lychnites (Mitt.) Broth. |

Kodaikanal at 2103 m. 1959 ; Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1959 ; Tiger Shola at

1676 m. 1959 ; Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1959.

ECTROPOTHECIUM Mitt.

(Derived from the Greek ectropos = bent, thekion = a capsule, with reference to

the shape of the capsule)

gS Ep

$350.

339.

*340.

*341.

342.

E. andrei Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50:78, 1923; Arch. Bot. 1: 183,

1927 ; Ann. Crypt. Exot. 3 (4): 191, 1930.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1926; Shembaganur.at 1905 m. 1959 ; Perumalmalai

at 1562 m. 1959.

E. anisopterum Card. & Varde in Rey. Bryol. 50:79, 1923.

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1909.

E. cyperoides (Hook.) Jaeg.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1959 ; Tovaiparai Shola at 1371 m. 1959 ; Manalur

at 914 m. 1959.

E. densum Dix. & Varde in Arch. Bot. 1 : 176, 1927.

Tiger Shola at 1745 m. 1926.

E. drepanocladioides Broth. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 52:41, 1925; Arch. Bot.

ie: 18251927;

E. laevigatum Thw. & Mitt.

Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1926.

— ee

iets iscsi RL Bate tis et ad =

343.

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS 45

E. viride Card.

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1909.

Hypnum Dill.

(Derived from the Greek Aypnon = a moss)

344. H. cupressiforme Lind.

Kodaikanal at 2103 m. 1959 ; Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1959.

ISOPTERYGIUM Mitt.

(Derived from the Greek isos = even, pterygium = a leafy branch, with reference

to the symmetry of the plant body)

345.

346.

347.

348.

*349,

350.

351.

I. albescens (Schp.) Jacq.

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1911.

I. arquifolium Jaeg.

Kodaikanal at 2140 m. 1959 ; Shembaganur at 1866 m. 1926 ; Perumalmalai

at 1602 m. 1959.

L. distichaceum (Mitt.) Jaeg.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1958.

I. minutirameum (C.M.) Jaeg.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1958.

I. subleptotapes Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 51: 12, 1924.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1912.

I. taxirameum Mitt.

Kodaikanal at 1980 m. 1909.

I. textori (Lac.) Mitt.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1926 ; Old Ghat Road at 1750 m. 1959.

TAXIPHYLLUM (?)

(Derived from the Greek taxiphullus = whose leaves are disposed symmetrically)

352;

*353.

* 354,

35D:

T. taxirameum (Mitt.) Fl.

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1959; Tovaiparai Shola at 1371 m. 1959; Periyur at

914 m. 1959.

VESICULARIA C.M.

(Derived from the Latin vesicula, meaning. a small bladder)

V. firma Dix. & Varde in Ann. Crypt. Exot. 3 (4) : 184, 1930.

Central station at 1830 m. 1929,

V. nitidula Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 51 : 10, 1924 ; ibid. 52 : 44, 1925.

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1926 ; Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1959.

V. sulbilicuspis Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 79, 1923 ; Arch. Bot. 1 : 183,

1927 ; Ann. Crypt. Exot. 3 (4) : 191, 1930.

Kodaikanal at 2133 m. 1959; Shembaganur at 1828 m. 1958; Tovaiparai

Shola at 1371 m. 1959.

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

XXXVI. HYLOCOMIACEAE

MACROTHAMNIELLA (?)

(Derived from the Greek macro = large, thamnos = a shrub)

356. M. pilulosa (Mitt.) Fi.

Kodaikanal at 2140 m. 1959; Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1959; Manalur at

914 m. 1959.

MACROTHAMNIUM (?)

_(Derivation similar to that of Macrothamniella)

357. M. macrocarpum (Rein. & Hsch.) FI.

Kodaikanal at 2103 m. 1959 ; Perumalmalai at 1676 m. 1959.

358. M.submacrocarpum (Hampe) FI.

Kodaikanal at 2140 m. 1959 ; Levinge Path at 1981 m. 1959,

XXXVIT. DIPHYSCIACEAE

DreHyscium (Ehrh.) Mohr.

(Derived from the Greek di = two, physke = bladder, with reference to the

double tissue of the exothecium and sporangium, which are very distinct in this

genus)

359. D. fasciculatum Mitt.

Tiger Shola at 1676 m. 1926.

360. D. involutum Mitt.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1926.

XXXVIII. POLYTRICHACEAE

CATHARINEA Ehrh.

(After Empress Catherine II of Russia)

“361. C. aculeata (Card: & Varde) Broth. in Rev. Bryol. 50: 25, 1923, as | Atrichum

aculeatum Card. & Varde.

Kodaikanal at 2194 m. 1959 ; Berm aeta at 1602 m. 1959 ; Manaler at

914 m. 1959.

POGONATUM P.B. Re

(Derived from the Latin pogon = a beard, with reference to the hairy calyptra)

+362. P. aloides (Hedw.) Pal.

Kodaikanal at 2190 m. 1959.

1363. P. hexagonum Mitt. ;

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1959.

364. P. inflexum Lind.~

Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1959.

THE MOSS FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS 47

P. junghuhnianum Doz. & Molk.

Kodaikanal at 2130 m. 1959.

365.

1366. P. microstomum (R. Br.) Brid.

Shembaganur at 1830 m. 1959 ; Old Ghat Road at 1750 m. 1959 ; Write

malai at 1662 m. 1959.

367. _P. neesii (C.M.) Mitt.

Kodaikanal at 2140 m. 1959 ; Shembaganur at 1820 m. 1959 ; Tiger § Shola at

1676 m. 1959 ; Perumalmalai at 1602 m. 1959 ; Manalur at 914 m. 1959.

“eles,

P. subperichaetiale Card. & Varde in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 25, 1923.

Kodaikanal, Pambar Ravine, on moist ground at 2400 m. 1912.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to put on record the award of a generous financial

grant by the Bombay Natural History Society which made the explora-

tions of 1959 possible. His thanks are also due to A. Mariakulandai, s.s.,

for frequent assistance in the field, to Fr. J. Vincent, s.J. and A. Simon,

s.J., for preparing the map, to Fr. F. Gilmore, s.J., for checking the deriva-

tion of generic names from Greek or Latin, to A. H. Norkett, British

Museum (Natural History), for help in identifying many of the Palni

Hills mosses, especially of the genus Fissidens, and to Fr. H. Santapau,

s.J., for his kind suggestions in preparing the manuscript.

REFERENCES

Engler, A. & Prantl, K. (1887-1915) :

Brthl, P. (1931) : A Census of Indian |

Die Nattirlichen Pflanzenfamilien,

Mosses. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 13 (1):

1-135.

Dixon, H. N. (1954): The Student’s

Handbook of British Mosses, London.

— — (1914): Report on the Mosses

collected by Mr. C. E. C. Fischer and

*others from South India and Ceylon.

Rec. Bot. Surv. India 6 (3) : 75-89.

— — (1921): On a Collection of

Mosses from the Kanara District.

Journ. Ind. Bot. 2: 174-188.

— — & Potier de la Varde, R. (1927):

Contribution a la Flore Bryologique de

V’Inde. meridionale. Arch. Bot. 1:

161-184.

—- —- — (1930) :

Nouvelle contribution a la Flore bryolo-

gique de l’Inde. Amn. Crypt. Exot.

3 (4): 168-193.

Dozy, F. & Molkenboer, J. H.

(1855- i861) : Bryologia Javanica, Leiden.

Leipzig.

Foreau, G. (1930): Notes on Bryo-

logical Geography for the Pee ocney of

Madras. Journ. Madr. Univ. 2: 238-

250 & 3: 118-126.

Paris, E. G. (1904-1906) : Index Bryo-

logicus, Paris.

Potier de la Varde, R. (1922, 1923,

1924) : Musci Madurenses. Rey, Bryol.

49 : 33-44; 50: 17-27, 72-79; 51: 10-14.

(1925) : Nouvelles herborisa-

tions dans le Sud de IInde. Rev.

Bryol. 52: 37-43.

— — (1928): Musci novi

Ann. Crypt. Exot. 1 : 37-47.

— — (1928): Mousses nouvelles de

Inde méridionale. ibid. 1 : 279-283.

Van Zanten, B. O. (1959) : Trachy-

podacenes A Critical Revision. Blumea

> 477-575.

indici.

Taxonomic notes on Sardia rostrata

Melichar [Homoptera, Fulgoroidea,

Delphacidae (=Araeopidae)|

A. N. T. JOSEPH, M.SC.

Research Scholar, Department of Zoology, Government

College, Ajmer

(With two plates)

INTRODUCTION

The genus Sardia was erected in 1903 with Sardia rostrata as the

type and was first reported from India by Distant in 1916 and by

Muir in 1922. In India, the species has so far been reported from

Bombay, Kerala, and Bengal. It is recorded here for the first time

from Rajasthan. The author collected specimens of the species from

Ajmer (475 metres above m.s.l.) and Mount Abu (1200 metres above

m.s.1.).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Sardia rostrata is a comparatively large-sized Araeopid. The fe-

males are bigger than the males. Only the macropterous forms have

so far been collected. The female measures 5mm. long: and the

male 4mm. (from vertex to the tip of the abdomen). They are

beautifully coloured, and in profile appear dark brown, with scattered

pale yellow marks. The pale yellow colour is more pronounced in

the male.. The head and thorax bear alternate bands of dark brown

and pale yellow patches. On the mesothorax there is an enlarged

pale yellow area in the middle, with two lateral and one posterior

dark brown markings. The posterior extremity of the prothorax has a

whitish patch, with a narrow extension of the same as a longitudinal

strip on the tegmen up to the anterior one-third. On the ventral

side, the dark brown colour is deeper and is without the yellow patches.

PLATE |]

HIsT. Soc.

JourRN. BomBay Nat.

ABA AA

SEAS AAA RENO

°*tmm

*2. min

Sardia rostrata Melichar

Fig. 1A: Dorsal view of head, pronotum, and mesonotum ; Fig. 1B: Veniral

view of head; ce: compound eye; cl: clypeus; fi: flagellum; fr: frons; hd:

head ; lo: lateral ocellus; mt: mesonotum; pe: pedicel; pt: pronotum ; sc:

scape. Fig. 2: Hind leg; sp: spur; tb: tibia.

JOURN. BomBay Nar. Hist. Soc.

enced eee

“Liam

Sardia rostrata Melichar

Fig. 3: Pygofer, ventral view; ad: armature of diaphragm; ap: anal process; apr: aedeagus

periandrum; as: anal style; gs: genital style; py: pygofer. Fig.4A: aedeagus with the basal

connections ; Fig. 4B: Fused tenth and eleventh abdominal segments ; Fig. 4C: Single genital style E

abs : aedeagus basal strut ; ap: anal process; apr: aedeagus periandrum; as: anal style; bb: _ basal

plate bridge; bp: basal plate prolongation; ca: connection to the anal segment; cp: connection to

the genital styles; go : gonopore ; ig: inner margin of genital style; og: outer margin of genital

style ; wg : ‘ wing’.

TAXONOMIC NOTES ON SARDIA ROSTRATA 49

CARINATION

Early taxonomists relied on the carinae on the head and thoracic

regions for determining the species. The carinae of the head form an

unsatisfactory taxonomic character. Kirkaldy (1907) and Muir (1915)

recognised two types of lateral keels on the prothorax, one in which

they are almost straight and reach the posterior margin, and a second

where they curve under the eyes and do not reach the margin. There

are also a number of intermediate types. The carination of the meso-

thorax is a reliable taxonomic character.

The clypeus is tricarinate, with the two lateral carinae occupy-

ing marginal positions with the third in the middle. The middle

carina is stouter than the laterals. The frons is five-keeled. The

outermost pair are short and situated marginally; they terminate at

the basal region of the antennae, at the antennal sclerites. The

middle carina is straight and strong. The remaining two carinae are

one on either side of the median carina and diverge immediately

behind the compound eyes. The lateral carinae run close to the inner

margin of the compound eyes and continue to the vertex. There is

no median carina on the vertex of Sardia rostrata as in many other

Aracopids. The two medio-lateral keels of the vertex unite anteriorly

to form a Y-shaped carina. It is described as a characteristic

feature of the genus Sardia by Muir (1915). In Sardia rostrata the

place of union between the two medio-lateral carinae is well behind

the apex of the vertex. The medio-lateral carinae are very faint

and appear as a thin ridge. The remaining two carinae, namely the

lateral carinae, closely appose the compound eyes. The medio-lateral

carinae of the vertex diverge posteriorly and meet the lateral carinae

of the same region slightly in front of the posterior margin. The two

lateral carinae of the vertex apposing the inner edge of the compound

eyes disappear posteriorly in the area of the pronotum. The prothorax

is distinctly tricarinate. The lateral carinae are straight and vanish

before reaching the posterior margin. The middle carina is stout and

joins the mesothoracic middle keel. The mesothorax is also

tricarinate, but the lateral carinae are faint and reach a little more

than three-fourths of the length of the mesothorax. Though the

middle carina is stout and extends up to the posterior extremity it

gradually becomes faint towards the posterior margin.

ANTENNAE

The antennae extend well beyond the clypeus. The scape is small

and measures only half the length of the pedicel. This is considered

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

to be a primitive condition by Muir (1915). The pedicel is more than

double the length of the combined basal two divisions.

SPUR

The hind tibia bears the spur, which is foliaceous with a large

number of teeth (between 20 and 25) on the hind margin. The

foliaceous type of spur is considered to be the most advanced type by

Muir (1915).

GENITALIA

The external male genitalia are considered, at the present time.

among the reliable characters for specific determination in the

Araeopidae. Kirkaldy (1907) was the first to point out the signi-

ficance of it in generic determination, and from time to time it was

stressed by different authors like Muir (1915), Giffard (1921), Metcalf

(1943), and Hassan (1948). Hassan (1948) considered the differences

in the female external genitalia also important in the generic deter-

mination of Araeopidae.

The external genitalia of the male in Araeopids develop in associa-

tion with posterior margin of the ninth abdominal segment or pygofer.

In Sardia rostrata the pygofer is quite conspicuous, because of its

larger size. There is no differentiation of tergum, sternum, or

pleurite. The tergum of the eighth abdominal segment projects

posteriorly into the ninth segment. The opening of the pygofer is

longer than broad. The pygofer possesses scattered hairs around its

body towards the distal region. There is a triangular notch at the

posterior side of it, within which lies the external genitalia. At the

posterior side of the pygofer is situated a small projection, formed by

the fusion of the tenth and eleventh abdominal segments. These

fused segments are partly surrounded by an outgrowth from the

posterior side of the pygofer. This is the anal emargination. Look-

ing through the opening of pygofer, one sees a more or less sclerotic

wall, dividing it into an inner and an outer chamber, called the

diaphragm. It is the sclerotized intersegmental membrane between

the ninth and tenth abdominal segments. There is a highly sclerotized.

region on the diaphragm, supporting the aedeagus, called the

armature. The internal genital organs are located behind the dia-

phragm, whereas the external genital organs are situated in the

external chamber. The dorsal margin of the diaphragm is V-shaped.

Near the ventral margin of the diaphragm there is a pair of apertures,

TAXONOMIC NOTES ON SARDIA ROSTRATA 51

one on either side of the middle line, and through these project a pair

of small sclerites called the genital styles. They are somewhat sickle-

shaped. The genital styles are simple, flat, and plate-like structures

with the base much broader than the distal region. As the basal

regions are hidden by the pygofer, it is difficult to get a complete view

of them unless they are dissected out. Their outer margins are

convex and entire, whereas the inner margins are concave and wavy.

There is an internal projection at the basal angle, ie. at the inner

margin of the basal part of the genital style. The genital styles are

hairy, the basal three-fourths being provided with large scattered

hairs, and distal one-fourth with small and closely arranged hairs.

The aedeagus arises from the bottom of the inner chamber. It

projects over the middle of the diaphragm and is supported by the

armature. The aedeagus is cylindrical and slightly curved basally.

It is not of uniform calibre, with the basal region stouter than the

distal. It is composed of an ejaculatory duct surrounded by a sheath

and passes through a large chitinous tube, the aedeagus periandrum.

The aedeagus opens externally by the gonopore and through this

aperture ihe ejaculatory duct comes out during the process of copula-

tion. The periandrum carries a few teeth at its distal region directed

proximally. Proximally the aedeagus is supported by sclerotized plates,

the basal plates of Pruthi (1925). That part of the basal plate to

which the aedeagus periandrum is attached is referred to as the

aedeagus basal strut. The basal strut is connected to the tenth seg-

ment by a small sclerite. The basal plate is composed of two parts,

a basal part called the basal plate bridge. and a prolongation from

that to the genital styles, the basal plate prolongation. The latter

sclerite is bifurcated distally and is attached to the posterior part

of the genital styles. At the junction between the basal plate bridge

and the basal plate prolongation, there is a chitinous ring, the ‘wing’

- of Hassan (1948). The present author disagrees with the term ‘wing’

since it is formed of a clear ring, but prefers to retain the name for

want of a better appellation. Probably the ejaculatory duct passes

through this before entering into the aedeagus periandrum.

The last two abdominal segments in Araeopids, i.e. the tenth

and eleventh, are fused to form a single structure (Giffard, 1921).

In Sardia rostrata it is oval in shape with a distal projection. It is

considerably large and hairy. Giffard (1921) has mistaken the tenth

segment for the anal segment. The real anal segment is the eleventh

one and its appendage is the anal style, a conical projection situated

posteriorly; The anus opens on the eleventh segment. Anterior

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

to it is the tenth abdominal segment bearing a pair of anteriorly

directed spines, the anal processes. The anal processes are slender

and the aedeagus lies in between them in the preserved specimens.

SUMMARY

Sardia rostrata is described from the taxonomic standpoint. The

following characters are noteworthy:

1. Clypeus is tricarinate whereas the frons is five-keeled. The

medio-lateral carinae of the vertex are fused to form a Y-shaped

carina. ‘The prothorax as well as the mesothorax are tricarinate.

2. The antennae extend well beyond the clypeus, with the scape

only half the length of the pedicel.

3. The spur is foliaceous with a large number of teeth.

The opening of the pygofer is longer than broad.

. The genital styles are simple and pointed.

The aedeagus periandrum has a few basally directed teeth.

. The anai segment is hairy, with an anal style and a pair of

slender anal processes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his indebtedness to Dr. P. N. Mathur,

Head of the Zoology Department, Government College, Ajmer, for

his guidance and valuable help. He is thankful to Dr. M. G. Ramdas

Menon, Systematic Entomologist, IA.R.I.. New Delhi, for identify-

ing the species. His thanks are also due to Shri Bhim Sen, Principal,

Government College, Ajmer, for the research facilities granted to

him, and to Mr. N. Khattar for help in preparing the plates.

REFERENCES

Distant, W. L. (1916): The Fauna Sugar Plant. Assoc. Div. Ent. Bull. 3:

of British India. Vol. VI. Taylor &

Francis, London.

Giffard, W. M. (1921): The syste-

matic value of the male genitalia of

Delphacidae (Homoptera). Ann. Ent.

Soc. Amer. 46 (7): 135-140.

Hassan, A. I. (1948): The signi-

ficance of the genitalia in generic deter-

mination of Araeopidae (Delphacidae).

Bull. De. La. Soc. Fouad Ler D’ Entomo-

logis. 32 : 85-93.

Kirkaldy, G. W. (1907): Leaf-

hoppers Supplement, Hemiptera. Haw.

1-186.

Metcalf, Z. PP. (1943): General

Catalogue of Hemiptera. Fasc. IV,

Part 3, Delphacidae. Smith College,

Northampton, Mass., U.S.A.

Muir, F. (1915): A contribution

towards the taxonomy of Delphacidae.

The Canadian Entomologist. 47 : 208-212,

261-271, 296-302, 317-320.

— — (1922): New Indian Homoptera.

Records of Indian Museum 24 : 480-486.

Pruthi, H.-S.* (1925): The morpho-

logy of the male genitalia in Rhynchota.

Trans. Ent. Soc. London: 127-267.

* Not seen in original.

Critical Notes on the Orchidaceae of

Bombay State

V. EULOPHIA R. BR. & AERIDES LOUR.

H. SANTAPAU, S.J., F.N.I. AND Z. KAPADIA, PH.D.

(With five plates)

[Continued from Vol. 57 (3) : 510]

EULOPHIA R. Br.

EULOPHIA R. Br. in Bot. Reg. t. 686, 1823, nom. cons. ; Endl. Gen.

Pl. 200, 1837 ; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3 : 535, 1883 ; Pfitz. in Engl. |

& Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6): 157, 1889; Hook f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6: 1, 1890;

King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8 : 176, 1898 ; Duthie,

ibid. 9 (2) ; 122, 1906; J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6 : 223, 1905; Schltr.

Orchid. 343, 1927 ; Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1 : 529, 1953. Graphorkis

Thou. Nouv. Bull. Soc. Philom. Paris 1: 318, 1809. Graphorchis

Thou. :O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2 : 661, 1891.

The generic name comes from the Greek ‘ eulophus ’=‘ handsome-

crested ’, in allusion to the handsome lip of the species, which has ele-

vated ridges on the upper surface.

Perennial, terrestrial herbs. Pseudobulbs tuberous, subterranean

or partly above the ground. Leaves distichous appearing with the

flowers or before them, narrow and grasslike or broad and plicately-

veined. Scape lateral to the leaves, from the side of the pseudobulb.

Sepals subequal, free and spreading ; lateral ones often connate at the

base with the column-foot. Petals similar to the dorsal sepal or broader,

spreading or erect and connivent. Lip erect and more or less adnate

to the base of the column with a small sac at the base in between the

lateral sepals, or adnate to the column-foot and produced into a short

spur beyond the lateral sepals, 3-lobed or rarely subentire ; lateral lobes

erect, surrounding the column, rarely obsolete, midlobe spreading or

recurved, often broad, entire or bilobed ; disc variously crested or lamel-

late in the middle or rarely naked. Column thick, with or without a

distinct foot, often with 2 lateral wings. Anther terminal, opercular,

incumbent, imperfectly 2-celled ; pollinia 2, often deeply cleft, waxy,

attached to a short broad caudicle and a narrow, flat, disc-shaped gland.

Capsule ovoid or oblong, pendulous or erect.

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

A large genus of about 200 species, widely dispersed throughout

the tropics and warm regions of both hemispheres. It attains its maxti-

mum development in Africa and is distributed from Africa through India,

Ceylon, Malaya, China towards Polynesia ; rather rare in Australia

and America.

The genus Eulophia has been usually divided into 2 distinct sec-

tions : Genuina Lindl., J. J. Smith (l.c.), (=sect. Eulophia proper of

Hooker f.) and Cryptopera Lindl. The latter is considered by Bentham

& Hooker f. to be an independent genus. But, as Hooker f. has pointed

out, there is a direct passage from sect. Cryptopera to species without

a column-foot. The name of the first section, Genuina Lindl., or sect.

Eulophia proper, must be changed to Eulophia sect. Eulophia, since it con-

tains the type species, E. barbata Spreng. (=Serapias capensis L.), in

accordance with Art. 22 of the Code.

Holttum mentions that E. zollingeri J. J. Smith has a saprophytic

habit. This seems strange to us ; there are several species (such as E.

pratensis Lindl., E. dabia Hochr. [E. campestris Lindl.]) which produce

leaves long before flowers ; it is possible that the leaves of E. zollingeri

J. J. Smith may not have been collected, and therefore the plant appears

saprophytic.

Type species: . barbata Spreng. (=Serapias capensis L.).

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF EULOPHIA OF BOMBAY

~ 1. Column not produced into a distinct foot :

2. Pseudobulbs epigeal, conical; leaves grass-

like, not plicate ; scape branched or not .. epidendraea

2. Pseudobulbs hypogeal, irregularly rounded- :

conical or ovoid ; leaves elliptic-lanceolate

or narrowly lanceolate, plicately-veined ;

scape never branched :

3. Leaves appearing with the flowers,

broadly oblong-elliptic :

4. Flowers about 12 mm. long, deep

yellow with a few brown spots ;

lip scarcely lobed, minutely saccate

at base nf it e ochreata

4. Flowers 18-22 mm. long, greenish

white, often flushed with pale

mauve ; lip 3-lobed, spur 3-4 mm. |

long, elliptic obtuse © =. herbacea

3, Leaves appearing much before flowers, |

narrow, lanceolate or linear-elliptic :

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 28)

5. Flowers about 11 mm. long, yellow-

ish or green with pink or purple

markings .. i es dabia

5. Flowers about 20 mm. long, pale

maroon suffused with yellow ay ramentacea

1. Column with a distinct foot ae a nuda

ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES OF EULOPHIA oF BOMBAY STATE

1. Eulophia epidendraea (Retz.) Fischer in Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras

1434, 1928 & in Kew Bull. 1928: 283. Serapias epidendraea Retz.

‘Obs. 6: 65, 1791. Limodorum virens Roxb. Pl. Cor. 1 : 33, t. 38, 1795

& Fl. Ind. 3 : 467, 1832. L. epidendrioides Willd. Sp. Pl. 4 : 124, 1805.

Eulophia virens R. Br. in Bot. Reg. sub. t. 573, 1822 (Eulophus) ; Wight,

Icon. 3 (2): 10, t. 913, 1844-1845; Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3: 24,

1859 ; Bot. Mag. t. 5579, 1866. . epidendrioides Schltr. Orchid. 346,

1914. (See Plate XXVI). |

Pseudobulbs 3-11 cm. long, about 2-5 cm. broad at the base, epigeal,

greenish brown, ovate-conical or obpyriform, with narrow rings ; current

-season’s tubers enveloped by sheaths, older ones bare and polished.

Leaves somewhat withered at the time of flowering, alternate, distichous,

sheathing at the base, the upper ones forming a smooth pseudostem about

4 cm. long ; lamina 15-35 x 0.7-2 cm., linear or linear-lanceolate, acute

or subacuminate, entire, subcarinate at the base. Inflorescence up to

60 cm. long, laxly many-flowered ; peduncle about 3 mm. in diam.,

‘greenish purple, glabrous, terete, with a few sheaths, which are 7-20

mm. long, oblong-lanceolate, acute, entire, glabrous. Flowers 2.2 x

2.8-3 cm. Bracts 8x3 mm. (5 mm. broad when spread out), concave,

subacuminate, entire, minutely gland-dotted, glabrous, pale greenish

tinged with pale maroon towards the apex ; nerves 7, pale green ; pedicels

with ovary 5-7 mm. long, green. Sepals and petals subequal, oblong or

oblanceolate, acute or mucronulate, entire, glabrous, 5-nerved, light

yellowish green with tessellate reddish nerves. Sepals 17<5 mm.,

recurved from a little beyond the middle. Petals 17x6 mm., parallel

to column and lip, recurved at tips. Lip 17x 7 mm., oblong or obovate-

oblong in outline, 3-lobed ; lateral lobes 10 3 mm., pale green with red,

slightly wavy margins, erect, subconnivent along the column, slightly

recurved at the obtuse apex, veins red impressed on the inside; midlobe

7x 7-8 mm., greenish, obovate-oblong or obcordate, retuse, mucronulate

or not, crenulate.. The upper surface of the lip is ridged with 3 purplish

red nerves in the centre, the side nerves giving off a faint branch halfway ;

the 5-nerves ending in purplish white hairs, on the midlobe. Spur 5-7

mm. long, greenish white, slightly bulbous and incurved. Column

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

7X 2-3 mm., oblong, clavate rounded at the back, shallowly grooved in

front, apiculate, without foot or wings, white tinged with pale mauve

at the base. Anther 2x 1.5 mm., white, panduriform, basal lobe broader,

apical lobe purplish red ; pollinia 2, yellow, 1 mm. across, subquadrate-

globose, deeply cleft ; caudicle broad, 0.5 mm. long; gland narrow,

linear, about 1mm. across. Stigmatic surface 2 mm. broad, transversely

oblong, pale green. Capsules 4.51.1 cm., oblong, drooping, pale

mauve with 3 pale green, broad bands ; pedicels 7-9 mm. long, curved.

Flowering : November to January. Fruiting : March.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Bombay, cultivated, Santapau

10532 ; Kapadia 1843. Tubers of this species were given to H. Santapau

in Khandala in 1946; since then it has been successfully cultivated in St.

Xavier’s College, Bombay, where it comes into flower every year.

This species has not been recorded previously from Bombay State ;

it, therefore, constitutes a new record for this area.

Distribution : W. Ghats, Andhra, and S. India from sea-level to

1000 metres.

Notes : The earliest legitimate epithet for this species is epidendraea

Retz. which was changed to epidendrioides by Willdenow when he trans-

ferred it to the genus Limodorum. Schlechter in bringing the species to

Eulophia used epidendrioides in the new combination ; the original form

is the only valid one, and was reinstated by Fischer.

2. Eulophia ochreata Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3: 24, 1858 ; Dalz.

& Gibs. 265 ; Hook. f. 2 ; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2 : 693, 1907 ; Gammie

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 18: 89, 1907; Blatt. & McC. ibid.

35 : 485, 1932 ; Fischer 1435 ; Santapau in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 16 (1):

301, 1953. Graphorchis ochreata (Lindl.) O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl.

2: 662, 1891. (See Plate XXVII).

Pseudobulbs about 42.5 cm., subterranean, ovoid-conical with

irregular, transverse and longitudinal markings. Leaves 2-5, arising

from the base of the pseudobulb, forming a pseudostem 8-23 cm. long ;

leaves 13-284-10 cm., sheathing at the base, oblong-lanceolate to

ovate, or ovate-elliptic, acute, entire, glabrous. Scape appearing with

the leaves from the pseudostem, 25-45 cm. long, with 2 or 3 sheaths ;

the latter are about 2-4 cm. long, purplish brown, acute, somewhat in-

flated. Flowers in dense racemes, clustered at the top of the scape, about

1-1.5 cm. across. Bracts 4-13 1-2 mm., narrowly linear, acute, entire,

3-nerved, pale green ; pedicel with ovary 10-13 mm. long, slightly curved,

twisted, faintly yellowish green. Sepals 10-14x2-3 mm., yellowish

green with purple or brown spots on the inner surface near the base,

linear-lanceolate, subacuminate or apiculate, entire, 1-nerved, the dorsal

slightly broader. Petals 11-14 3.5-4 mm., similar to sepals in colour,

broadly ovate-oblong, rarely suboblique, acute, entire, glabrous, faintly

JOURN. BomBpay NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE XXVI

Eulophia epidendraea Fisch.

A. Whole plant; B. Sepals and petals dissected.

JouRN. BompBay NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE XXVII

‘ \e

Nia AN

| A AN

ae th

BN ha

SEM

Eulophia ochreata Lindl.

A. Whole Plant; A*. Upper part of inflorescence scape; B. Sepals and

petals dissected.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 57

3-nerved, somewhat conniving along the column. Lip 11-13 mm. long,

obscurely 3-lobed, elliptic-orbicular in outline when spread out; sac

minute, 1-2 mm. long; lateral lobes7 x 2 mm., pale cream purplish at the

base, erect, conniving over the column ; midlobe 4 x 2 mm. yellow, oblong-

orbicular, the nerves ending in hairy outgrowths. Column 3-42 mm.,

subclavate, whitish with a purplish rim just above the small 2 mm. long

foot. Anther 1.5x2 mm., white tinged with purple, orbicular; cli-

nandrium slightly produced behind; pollinia 2, waxy, yellow, 1.5x

1 mm., globular ; caudicle 0.5-0.75 mm. long ; gland minute orbicular.

Stigmatic surface transversely elliptic orbicular, rather large for the

column. Capsules 28 x 12 mm., broadly ovoid, deflexed, strongly ridged,

green ; pedicels 5 mm. long, green.

Flowering: June to July. Fruiting: August to October.

Occurrence in Bombay State: GUJARAT: Khodwa, in Panch

Mahals, Raoji. KONKAN: Stocks; Salsette, hills east of Tulsi Lake,

McCann; Borivli, top of Kanheri Caves, Santapau 11051; R. Fernandez

1840-1841; Mumbra, Shenoy 3535, 3556, 3558; Kapadia 1263-1268.

DeccaN: Purandhar, Santapau 7256. W. Guats: Khandala, Santa-

pau 787, 2139. N. KANARA: Law; Dharwar, Law.

Distribution: Gujarat, Konkan, Deccan, W. Ghats, N. Kanara,

Vizagapatam hills at about 1000 metres.

Notes: We have found this species on sloping ground, usually in

undergrowth of rather thin forest.

3. Eulophia herbacea Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 182, 1833, et in Journ.

Linn. Soc. 3: 24, 1858 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 265 ; Hook. f. 2; Duthie 123,

t. 106, et Fl. Upp. Gang. Pl. 3: 196, 1920; Cooke 693 ; Gammie 90;

Blatt. & McC. 485; Fischer 1435. Limodorum bicolor Roxb. Fl. Ind.

3: 469, 1832. Eulophia carinata Graham, Cat. Bomb. Pl. 202, 1839,

(non Lindl. 1833). £. bicolor (Roxb.) Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3:

24, 1858 (non Dalz. 1851). E. brachypetala Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc.

3: 24, 1858. Graphorchis bicolor (Roxb.) O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI.

2: 663, 1891.

Pseudobulbs hypogeal, tuberous, 2-3 cm. in diam., ovoid to broadly

conical, with transverse circular markings. Leaves 10-30 3-9 cm.,

usually 2-5 per plant, elliptic-lanceolate to broadly elliptic, acute or sub-

acuminate, entire, many-nerved. Inflorescence 30-60 cm. tall, erect,

arising in the axil of a basal sheath from the pseudostem ; peduncles

green, terete, with long sheathing bracts. Bracts 3.5-5.2 cm. long, pale

green, acute to subacuminate. Flowers in lax racemes ; floral bracts

1-3 <0.2-0.8 cm., pale green, lanceolate, acuminate, entire, 1-nerved ;

pedicel with ovary 1.5-2.5 cm. long, pale green, ribbed. Sepals 1.8-2.2x

0.3-0.5 cm., green, lanceolate, acute, entire, glabrous, 1-nerved. Petals

1.5-1.70.7-1 cm., pure white or white flushed with pale lilac towards

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

the apex, oblong-elliptic, obtuse or subacute, subentire, l-nerved. Lip

1.5-2 cm. long, oblong-elliptic in outline, 3-lobed ; lateral lobes 2 mm.

broad, erect, obtuse or acute, white faintly tipped with pale purple;

midlobe 10x9 mm., oblong or obovate-oblong, obtuse, apiculate, pale

mauve to deep magenta with white and purple hairy nerves ; occasionally

the midlobe is white with light green-yellow, hairy nerves. Spur 4 mm.

long, footless, white flushed with purple just below the stigma. Anther

2x2 mm., 2-celled, light maroon, crowned with a deep maroon spherical

process ; pollinia 2, globose-ovate, yellow, attached by a short, thick

caudicle to a quadrate gland. Stigmatic surface white, just below the

clinandrium.

Flowering : July.

Occurrence in Bombay State : GUJARAT: Panch Mahals, Raoji ;

‘Khodwa, Raoji. KONKAN: Law; Stocks; Dalzell; Dalzell & Gibson;

Mumbra, Santapau 15661-15664; Shenoy 3616, 3657-3658; Kapadia

1269, 1271-1272; Borivli, Kapadia 1252. N. KANARA: Law.

Distribution: W. Himalaya, Garwhal 1300-2300 m., Bengal,

Gujarat, Konkan, Kanara, Bababudan hills in Mysore.

Notes: In cultivation the flowers reach a size (up to 4-4.5 cm. across)

seldom met with in the field.

This orchid is fairly common together with E. ochreata Lindl. on

hills at Mumbra. In spite of the fact that they are often found side by

side, we have never seen the fruits of E. herbacea Lindl., whereas E.

ochreata Lindl. fruits regularly and abundantly.

4. Eulophia dabia (D. Don) Hochr. in Bull. N.Y. Bot. Gard. 6:

270, 1910. Bletia dabia D. Don, Prodr. Fl. Nep. 30, 1825. Eulophia

campestris Wall. (Cat. 7617, 1832, nom. nud.) ex Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch.

185, 1833, cum. descr., et in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3: 24, 1858 (excl. syn. E.

vqamentacea Wt.) ; Hook. f. 4; King & Pantl. 178, t. 41; Duthie 126,

et Fl. Upp. Gang. Pl. 3: 199, 1920; Prain 1016 ; Haines 1171 ; Bruhl

110; Blatt. & McC. 486. Limodorum ramentaceum Roxb. (Hort. Beng.

69, 1814, nom. nud. et) Fl. Ind. 3: 467, 1832, cum descr. Graphorchis

dubia O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 662, 1891.

Pseudobulbs tuberous, irregular in shape, generally oblong-orbicular,

with a few fleshy roots at the junction of the stem. Scape leafless, 14-

18 cm. tall, erect ; sheaths oblong, acute, somewhat closely appressed,

8-16 mm. long. Racemes 5-11 cm. long, lax, subsecund. Flowers about

10-12 mm. long, erect, drooping after fertilization. Bracts 3-83

mm., erect, pale brown, sheathing and membranous, oblong or oblong-

lanceolate, acute, entire, 3-nerved. Pedicel with ovary 10 mm. long,

slender. Sepals 5-8 x 2-3 mm., narrowly oblong, acute, entire, 5-nerved,

: glabrous ; petals similar to sepals but slightly narrower. Lip 7-9 mm.

long, 3-lobed ; lateral lobes connivent with the column, obtuse, 4-5 mm.

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXVIII

Eulophia ramentacea Lindl.

A. Plant in leaf; B. Inflorescence scape; C. Sepals and petals dissected.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 59

long; midlobe 3-4 2-4 mm., orbicular-quadrate, crenulate, rounded,

warted above. Spur 2 mm. long, narrow, obtuse. Capsules 1.80.4

cm., oblong-obovate, drooping ; stalk 5 mm. long.

Flowering : January (Oudh), April (Bombay).

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Bombay, Victoria Gardens,

wild, Hallberg ex Blatter & McCann. We have seen no specimens from

Bombay State.

Distribution: India: Sub-Himalayan tracts of Rohilkhand and

N. Oudh, Sikkim, Bengal, Konkan, Deccan. World: Afghanistan,

Baluchistan, India, Nepal, and Upper Burma.

Notes: There is no doubt that Bletia Dabia was intended by D.

Don and was not a mistake for dubia. This is shown first by the use of

an initial capital letter for the specific epithet by Don, and by the reference

to Limodorum Dabia Ham. MS. O. Kuntze has pointed out that, ac-

cording to Lindley, who apparently saw the original sheet of Hamilton

the specific name should be dubia ; Hooker f. seems to be of the same

opinion, for he cites Limodorum dubium Ham. MSS. Whatever may have

been the specific name intended by Hamilton, it is quite clear that Don’s

Prodromus gives Bletia Dabia. WHochreutiner seems to be correct in

using the same specific epithet. Our drawing and description of this

species have been done from Jnayat 24145 from Motipur, Oudh, kindly

loaned by the National Herbarium, Calcutta.

5. Eulophia ramentacea Lindl. ex Wight, Icon. 5 (1): 8, t. 1666, |

1851 (non Lindl. 1858). £. virens Graham, Cat. Bomb. Pl. 202, 1839

(non R. Br. 1822). £E. pratensis Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3 : 25, 1858 ;

Dalz. & Gibs. 264 ; Hook. f. 4; Cooke 694; Gammie 90, t. 4; Blatt. &

McC. 486 ; Fyson, Fl. Nilg. Puln. Hill Tops 393, 1915, & t. 513, 1920:

Fischer 1435. Graphorchis pratensis (Lindl.) O. Kuntze, Rev: Gen. P]

2: 662, 1891. (See Plate XXVIII).

Pseudobulbs shortly pyramidal or irregularly 3-cornered. Leaves

2-4, appearing before the flowers, usually withering at the time of flower-

ing, 11-30 1-2 cm., narrowly oblong-lanceolate, acute. Scape 17-48

cm. long, erect, from the top or side of the pseudobulb, 2.5 mm. in diam..,

terete, 1-2-noded, pale green or at times tinged with purple. Bracts

unequal, ovate to lanceolate, acute, entire, purplish green. Flowers

2.5x3 cm. Bracts persistent, 1-1.5<0.3-0.5 cm., equal to or slightly

longer than pedicels, oblong or oblong-lanceolate, acute, entire, glabrous,

7-nerved, pale purplish green. Sepals and petals subequal, pale maroon

suffused with varying amounts of yellow, acute, entire, glabrous, faintly

3-5-nerved ; sepals spreading, oblong, 1.7-1.8<0.4-0.6 cm., midnerve

somewhat prominent below ; petals 1.6x0.6-0.7 cm., oblong-elliptic,

midnerve not prominent below. Lip 3-lobed, 13 mm. long, 6-7 mm.

broad at the mouth between lateral lobes ; lateral lobes 116 mm.

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

erect, light yellow, subfalcately oblong, obtuse ; midlobe 6x5 mm.,

ovate-oblong or suborbicular, mucronulate, entire, yellow ; disc of the

lip with 3 central, crested, yellow nerves, ending in 3 rows of deep yellow

papillae on the midlobe. Spur 4-6 mm. long, maroon-yellow, incurved,

sharply conical from a broad mouth. Column 93-4 mm., greenish

white, slightly tinged with pale maroon on the dorsal surface, oblong,

subclavate, footless and wingless. Anther orbicular, white with a maroon

apiculum, the anterior lip truncate ; pollinia 1x 1 mm., oblong-orbicular,

posteriorly foveolate, caudicle 1-1.5 mm. long; gland narrow, 2 mm.

long, transversely placed. Stigmatic surface pale green, oblong-orbicular.

Capsules 31.7 cm., drooping, obovate-oblong, greenish purple with 3

strong longitudinal bands which are about 3 mm. broad ; pedicels 1 cm.

long, recurved.

Flowering : December to February. Fruiting : March.

Occurrence in Bombay State: GUJARAT: Panch Mahals, Raoji.

KONKAN: Bombay, cultivated, Kapadia 1175, 1359. W. Guats: Pan-

chgani, Cooke. DECCAN: Poona, Woodrow; Pashan, 6 miles W. of

Poona, Tukaram ; Paranjpe ; Gammie ; Santapau 6140, 18079-18083 ;

Kapadia 1040-1042, 1820-1822. N. KANARA: Belgaum, Ritchie ;

Dharwar, Bourne; Havasbavi, in Dharwar Dist., Sedgwick ;

Haveri, Talbot.

Distribution: Gujarat, W. Ghats, Deccan, N. Kanara.

Notes: This species has been found among short grasses in clay

muddy soil.

While this species is in leaf, it is influenced to a considerable extent

by the amount of moisture in the soil. Normally leaves are produced

in the monsoon and completely wither off by October, so that at the time

of flowering, in the cold season, the plant is completely leafless. On

one occasion a single flowering plant was found in marshy, very moist

soil with the leaves intact ; this may have been due to the abundance of

moisture in the soil. :

Hooker f. says that ‘ Lindley and the Bombay Flora err in describin

this species as leafless when flowering.’ Hooker seems to be incorrect ;

for usually the species is leafless at the time of flowering. It may be that

the plants seen by Hooker f. were collected from a very marshy habitat,

with the leaves still persistent, as has been observed by us. Wight,

loc. cit. 8, states : ‘ This species is leafless when in flower ; as in the case

of some others, the leaves follow the flowers.’ Wight does not seem to

be correct, for the leaves precede the flowers; he is right when he states

that the plant is leafless at flowering time.

6. Eulophia nuda Lindl. [in Wall. Cat. 7371, 1832, nom. nud. et]

Gen. Sp. Orch. 180, 1833; Hook. f. 5, etin Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta

5 : 32, tt. 47-50, 1895 ; Grant, Orch. Burma 218, 1895 ; King & Pantl.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 61

180, t. 243; Duthie 127, et Fl. Upp. Gang. Pl. 3: 200, 1920; Prain

1016 ; Cooke 695; Gammie 90; Blatt. & McC. 487; Fyson 393, t.

514; Haines 1435; Brithl 109; Fischer 1435. £. squalida Lindl. in

Bot. Reg. 27: misc. 77, 1841 ; J. J. Smith 225, f. 165 ; Holttum 533, f.

158 (2). £. bicolor Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 3: 343, 1851; Dalz. &

Gibs. 264. Cryptopera fusca Wight, Icon. 5 (1): 11, t. 1690, 1891.

Tubers spherical, brownish green, 6 cm. or more in diam. with

transverse ridges. Leaves from the side of the tuber forming a short

pseudostem, from which the inflorescence is given out; 60 x 6 cm.,

oblong-lanceolate, acute, entire, plicate, many-nerved. Inflorescence

about 50 cm. tall, the peduncles with a few oblong-lanceolate, many-

nerved sheaths. Flowers 4.5 cm. across, in lax racemes; bracts 2.4x

0.3 cm., pale yellowish green, lanceolate, acuminate, entire. Sepals

2.8 x 0.6 cm., spreading, subequal, deep mauve-brown on the outside,

paler and brownish on the inside, faintly yellowish at the tips, lanceolate,

acute, entire, many-nerved, the lateral sepals falcate and attached to

the foot of the column. Petals 2.40.9 cm., narrow, ovate-oblong,

obtuse, entire, many-nerved, lying together over the column only the

apices being slightly turned upwards ; their colour is white or whitish

flushed with rose-purple, the colour more prominent towards the base

and on the midnerve. Lip 3-lobed, rose-purple, 2.4 cm. long, 1.6 cm.

broad across the lateral lobes ; lateral lobes erect, small, 3 mm. broad ;

midlobe oblong, suborbicular, emarginate, crenate, crisped, 12 mm.

broad ; disc of the lip with 8-10 nerves which become crisped on the

midlobe. Column 7X4 mm., rose-purple, foot 5 mm. long. Spur

brown-mauve, 6 x 4 mm., projecting below between the 2 arms of the

foot, obconical, retuse. Anther 4x 2.5 mm., broadly triangular-coni-

cal, mauve, with 2 deep mauve bosses on the anterior face ; pollinia 2,

ovoid-oblong, yellow, waxy, with a very short caudicle and a small

narrow gland. Ovary with pedicel 2.6 cm. long, twisted, ribbed. —

Flowering : June.

Occurrence in Bombay State : KONKAN: Bombay, cultivated. W.

GuaTs: Ramghat, Ritchie. DECCAN: Ambenali, at the foot

of Mahableshwar, Blatter & McCann. N. KANARA: Londa, Ahmed

Khan; Kalanaddi, Ritchie ; Foot of Arbail Ghat, Sedgewick.

We have not seen this species in Bombay, our drawing and descrip-

tion are based on Santapau 20830-20832 and S. K. Wagh 2900-2901,

from Andhra State.

Distribution: India: ‘Tropical Himalaya, Sikkim, N. Oudh, Chota

Nagpur, Assam, Khasia Hills, southwards to the western parts of the

Peninsula, W. Ghats, and Vizagapatam Hills. World: India, Nepal,

Ceylon, Burma, (?) Malaya, (?) Java, (?) Sumatra, (?) New Guinea, (?)

Philippines, and China.

Notes: This species is widely distributed and shows considerable

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

variations both in the size and coloration of the flowers. From

Holttum’s and J. J. Smith’s figures and descriptions of Eulophia squalida

Lindl., the two species seem to be closely allied ; this similarity has been

pointed out by J. J. Smith. Should they be identical, then nuda is the

earlier valid specific epithet for the combined species.

Hooker f. (in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 5 : 32, 1895) distinguishes

4 divergent varieties, which have been based solely on slight colour and

size variations ; we consider them merely as forms. Consequently :

E.-nuda f. nuda, the typical form, is that of Hooker op in Ann. R. Bot.

Gard. Calcutta 5 : 32, t. 47, 1895.

E. nuda f. macrantha (Hook. f.) Sant. & Kapadia, stat. nov. E. nuda

var. macrantha Hook. f. loc. cit. t. 48, 1895.

E. nuda f. purpurea (Hook. f.) Sant. & Kapadia, stat. nov. E. nuda

var. purpurea Hook. f. loc. cit. t. 49, 1895.

E. nuda f. andersonii (Hook. f.) Sant. & Kapadia, stat. nov. E. nuda

var. andersonii Hook. f. loc. cit. t. 50, 1895.

_ The specimens from Andhra here described, E. nuda as given by

Cooke, and E. squalida Lindl. given by J. J. Smith and Holttum, clearly

belong to f. purpurea.

AERIDES LOUR.

AERIDES Lour. Fl. Coch. 525, 1790 ; Endl. Gen. Pl. 206, 1837 ; Benth.

& Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3 : 576, 1883 ; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf.

2 (6): 217, 1889 ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 43, 1890; King & Pantl. in

Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8: 210, 1898; Duthie, ibid. 9 (2): 142,

1906 ; J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6 : 581, 1905 ; Schltr. Orchid. 541, 1927 ;

Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1 : 692, 1953.

The name Aérides is derived from the Greek word ‘aer’ = air, in

allusion to the epiphytic nature of the plants and their power of drawing

substances from the atmosphere.

Perennial epiphytes. Stems fairly long, rarely branching, stout,”

often sheathed by the bases of fallen leaves. Leaves flat or rarely terete,

alternate, distichous, spreading, coriaceous, sessile, sheathing at the

base. Inflorescence in simple or branched panicles, bearing scented

flowers. Sepals and petals similar, spreading ; the lateral sepals often

slightly oblique and decurrent on the column-foct. Lip sessile, rather

stiffly articulated with the column-foot, saccate or spurred at the base,

3-lobed ; lateral lobes small ; midlobe spreading, various. Spur usually

bent. forwards. Column short, thick, semiterete, wingless, produced

into a stout foot. Anther 2-celled, terminal, opercular, incumbent,

convex ; pollinia 2, compressed-globose, posteriorly foveolate with long,

narrow caudicles and small, somewhat square glands. Capsules oblong

or clavate, ribbed, the ribs prominent, often narrowly winged.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 63

This is a small genus distributed through India, Indo-China and

Malaysia, with a single species in Japan.

The 3 Bombay species belong to Planifoliae of Bentham & Hook.

f. or to Euaérides of Pfitzer. The name of this section must be changed

to Aérides sect. Aérides, according to Art. 22 of the Code, since it con-

tains the type species of the genus, A. odoratum Lout.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF AERIDES OF BOMBAY

1. Midlobe of lip linear-oblong, fleshy, about 7 mm.

long, white or pale lilac ; spur about equalling

the lip - = = ea

1. Midlobe of lip broadly obovate or obovate-del-

toid, somewhat fleshy, about 14-22 mm. long,

deep pink-mauve ; spur about half as long as the

lip::

2. Sepals and petals spotted ; lateral lobes of lip

minute, rounded ; midlobe 12-14 mm. long.. maculosum

2. Sepals and petals not spotted ; lateral lobes of

lip 7-9 mm. long, narrowly oblong ; midlobe

20-22 mm. long ¥ t: x: crispum

ringens

ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES OF AERIDES OF BOMBAY STATE

1. Aerides ringens Fischer in Kew Bull. 284, 1928, et Fl. Pres. Madr.

1442, 1928 ; Blatt. & McC. in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 490,

1932. Saccolabium ringens Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 221, 1833, et in Journ.

Linn. Soc. 3: 36, 1858 (excl. Khasia); Wight, Icon. 3 (2): 10, t. 917,

1844-1845 (non Dalz. & Gibs. 1861). Aérides radicosum A. Rich. in

Ann. Sc. Nat. ser. 2, 15: 65, f. 1c, 1841 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 265; Hook. f.

46; Cooke 2: 700, 1907 ; Gammie in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

19 : 141, 1909 ; Fyson, FI. Nilg. Puln. Hill-Tops 395, t. 249, 1915. Sac-

colabium rubrum Wight, Icon. 5 (1): 9, t. 1673, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs.

264 (non Lindl. 1833). S. paniculatum Wight, Icon. 5 (1): 9, t. 1676,

1851. Aérides lineare Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 47, 1890. (See Plate

XXIX).

Epiphytes. Stem 1-1.5 cm. thick, sheathed. Leaves 5-21 x 0.3-

0.7 cm., coriaceous, channelled, linear or linear-oblong, bilobed at the

apex (the lobes unequal, rounded), purplish green very often mottled

with deeper-coloured spots. Racemes 6-26 cm. long, erect, rigid, often

branched ; peduncles 2-3 mm. thick, terete, brown, with oblong sheath-

ing bracts. Flowers pedicellate, bracteate, about 1.5 cm. long. Bracts

2x2 mm., triangular, acute, greenish at the base, scaly and pale brown

above. Sepals subequal, entire, obtuse, mucronulate, faintly 5-nerved,

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

white tinged with pale mauve-lilac, more so towards the edges ; dorsal

sepal 7 x 4 mm., obovate-oblong ; lateral ones 6 x 4 mm., parallel, not

spreading, oblong, broader at the base than the dorsal sepal. Petals

6 x 3 mm., similar to the sepals in colour, obovate, tapering at the base,

obtuse, entire, faintly 5-nerved. Lip 10 mm. long, 3-lobed, white or

pale lilac with several deeper-coloured longitudinal streaks along the

middle ; lateral lobes 3 x 3 mm., erect, triangular-cuneate, obtuse, entire,

rarely slightly wavy, with a callus which is 2 x 2 mm., rhomboid-orbi-

cular, bilobed ; midlobe 7 x 4 mm., broadly linear-oblong, inflated

about the middle, entire, the apex upturned, retuse or rarely truncate.

Spur 8 x 2 mm., white, broadly funnel-shaped, incurved, subclavate,

obtuse at the apex. Column 4 x 2 mm., white, produced below into a

foot which is 3 mm. long, somewhat convex and centrally grooved ;

rostellum strongly beaked with a central deep groove. Anther 2.5x

2.5 mm., creamy, orbicular with a sharp acute apex ; pollinia 2, yellow,

waxy, orbicular-ovate ; caudicle 1.5 mm. long, tapered at the base into

an oval gland. Stigmatic surface orbicular, white. Ovary with pedicel

9 mm. long, brownish green. Capsules 1.5 x 0.6 cm., obovoid-oblong,

strongly ribbed ; pedicels 11 mm. long.

Flowering : March to July. Fruiting: July onwards.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Salsette, Dalzell & Gibson.

W. GHats: Mahableshwar, Woodrow. N. KANARA: W. of

Astoli, Sedgwick ; Near Kanappa on the Kalanaddi, Ritchie ;

Yellapur, V. Patel 1846 ; Kapadia 1994-1995, 2001, 2320-2322, 2346 ;

Kumbelli Mines, about 17 miles from Supa, Kapadia 2573-2574;

Bhagwati-yYellapur, Kapadia ; J 0 g, Kapadia 1854-1855.

Distribution: Konkan, N. Kanara, and the W. Ghats of south

India from about 250 to 2500 metres.

Notes : Dalzeil & Gibson mention the plant as abundant in Salsette ;

none of the subsequent collectors have recorded it from Salsette. We

have found it common and fairly abundant in N. Kanara.

2. Aérides maculosum Lindl. in Bot. Reg. t. 58, 1845, et in Gard.

Chron. 691, 1845 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 266 ; Hook. f. 45; Prain, Beng. Pl.

1020, 1903 ; Cooke 699 ; Gammie 140, t. 8 ; Haines, Bot. Bih. Or. 1182,

1924; Fischer 1442; Blatt. & McC. 490; Santapau in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind.

16 (1): 303, 1953 ; Sant. & Kapadia in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

54 (1): 220, 1956, cum fig. Saccolabium speciosum Wight, Icon. 5 (1):

9, tt. 1674-1675-1851. (See Plate XXX).

Epiphytes. Stem 1-1.5 cm. thick, sheathed. Leaves channelled,

coriaceous, 3-23 x 2-3 cm., green mottled with purple, linear-oblong or

oblong, broadest about the middle, with 2 unequal rounded lobes at the

apex. Inflorescence up to 24 cm. long, simple or branched ; peduncles

terete, stout, sheathed, brownish green mottled with purple. Flowers

PLATE XXIX

JouRN. BomBay Nat. HIstT. Soc.

NY, Sed San

WK pole Ne

Aérides ringens Fisch.

A. Whole plant; B. Sepals and petals dissected ; C. Side view of flower.

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXX

Aérides maculosum Lindl.

A. Whole Plant; B. Sepals and petals dissected.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 65

about 2.5 cm. in diam., pedicellate, bracteate, faintly perfumed. Pedicel

with ovary 10 mm. long, pink, ribbed. Bracts minute, ovate, acute,

entire or rarely subcrenulate. Sepals 11 x 8 mm., subequal, obovate-

orbicular, obtuse, the lateral ones suboblique, mucronulate, entire,

faintly 7-nerved, all white flushed with pink-mauve deeper towards the

extremities, usually speckled with darker-coloured spots. Petals 10 x 5-

6 mm., similar to the sepals in colour, oblong-elliptic, often subfalcate,

obtuse or slightly retuse, entire, faintly 7-nerved. Lip 20 x 14-15 mm.,

3-lobed, straight ; lateral lobes small, about 2-3 mm. broad, spreading,

faintly pinkish white, rounded, with a fleshy white subconical bilobed

callus in between ; midlobe 14 x 14 mm., deep rose-pink flushed with

mauve, obcuneately quadrate, obtuse or truncate, rarely retuse, irregu-

larly crenate and finely crisped on the margins, the upper surface with

parallel ridges from the callus deflexing the sides and the apical portion

of the midlobe. Spur 5 mm. long, curved downwards, hook-like, some-

what tapering to an obtuse subclavate greenish apex ; the mouth broad,

formed by the backward continuation of the lip and the foot. Column

5x2 mm., pink, oblong, slightly upturned above, produced below into

a 2-4 mm. long, stout foot ; clinandrium pale pink with 2 short deeper-

coloured streaks and a central ridge. Anther 3 x 3.5 mm., obovate-

orbicular, pink, the anterior lip truncate ; pollinia 2, each 1 x 1.5 mm.,

waxy, yellow, broader than long, with a 2mm. long caudicle and narrow

elliptic gland. Stigmatic surface 4 x 3 mm., oblong-orbicular. Cap-

sules 3-5 x 0.8-1 cm., obovoid, strongly ribbed, shortly stalked.

Flowering : Mayto June. Fruiting : July onwards.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Badlapur, Kapadia 1946,

1947, 1948-1949; Karjat, Kapadia 1956; Tansa, Kapadia. W.

GuaATts: Khandala, Hallberg ; Santapau 417, 417A, 498, 506, 2049,

2191, 2441, 4482, 9008, 9048, 9120-9122, 11033-11034, 27962, 28605 :

Kapadia 494, 1173-1174, 1943-1944; Lonavla, Garade; Kapadia

1122; Panchgani, Cooke ; Alice Pigott ; Kapadia; Mahablesh-

war, Cooke ; Kapadia. DECCAN: Purandhar, Santapau ; Kapadia

645; Bhimashankar, Kapadia 1446. N. KANARA: Belgaum,

Ritchie ; Kapadia; Sirsi, Hallberg & McCann 34968 ; Belgaum-

Khanaput, Kapadia; Castle Rock, Kapadia.

Distribution: Chota Nagpur, Konkan, Deccan, N. Kanara, and

W. Ghats of south India up to 1400 m.

Notes: This is one of the commoner epiphytic orchids in more or

less open deciduous forests. It has been noted on various trees, among

them Terminalia crenulata Roth being one of the more frequent.

3. Aérides crispum Lindl. [in Wall. Cat. 7319, 1832, nom. nud.]

Gen. Sp. Orch. 239, 1833, cum descr.; Bot. Reg. t. 55, 1841; Gard.

Chron. 711, 1842 ; et in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3: 41, 1858 ; Dalz. & Gibs,

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

265 ; Hook. f. 45 ; Grant, Orch. Burma 268, 1895 ; Cooke 700 ; Gammie

139 ; Fyson 394, t. 248 ; Fischer 1442; Blatt. & McC. 490 ; Santapau

303. A. lindleyana Wight, Icon. 5 (1): 9, t.. 1677 bis, 1851; Lindl. in

Journ. Linn. Soc. 3: 41, 1858 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 265.

Epiphytes. Stems 1-2 cm. thick, sheathed. Leaves 7-24 x 1.6-3 cm..,

thickly coriaceous, rarely channelled, oblong, pale green with a purplish

tinge at the base, with 2 unequal rounded lobes at the apex. Jnflores-

cence 10-30 cm. long, erect or drooping, rarely branched ; peduncles

2-4 mm. thick, brown with a few small closely appressed sheaths.

Flowers about 3 cm. across, bracteate, pedicellate, strongly and sweetly

scented especially when fresh. Bracts 5 x 5 mm., semi-amplexicaul,

triangular-ovate, acute, entire, scabrid, brown, 3-nerved. Pedicel with

ovary 1.7 cm. long, straight or slightly curved, faintly ribbed, rose-pink.

Sepals spreading, minutely denticulate, acute-mucronulate, glabrous,

faintly 9-nerved ; lateral sepals 16 x 12 mm., obliquely oblong, pinkish

white tinged with mauve towards the apex, more so on the back ; dorsal

one 15 x 10 mm., oblong-suborbicular, pinkish white with a broad,

mauve patch on the back. Petals 16 x 10 mm., spreading in the same

plane as the sepals, obovate-orbicular, rarely suboblique, acute-mucro-

nulate, minutely denticulate, faintly 7-nerved. Lip 28 mm. long,

3-lobed, very shortly clawed, somewhat geniculately inflexed at the claw ;

lateral lobes 5 x 3-4 mm., oblong, obtuse, entire or slightly crenulate,

more or less spreading, but erect at the base, with a somewhat square

hollow which leads to the spur ; the entrance to the spur being somewhat

arched over by 2 fleshy, pinkish white subconical calli, lying back to

back with their apices diverging ; midlobe 22 x 20 mm., pink-mauve,

deeper than the sepals and petals, broadly ovate, 5-7 mm. broad at the

apex, retuse ; margins deflexed, finely crisped, crenulate. Spur 10x

4 mm., inflexed from below the lateral lobes, proceeding under the mid-

lobe, obtuse, pale mauve-pink. Column 6 x 5 mm., oblong, subclavate,

produced at right angles into a 10 x 6 mm. obcuneate-oblong foot, on

which the lip somewhat articulates. Anther 6 x 5 mm., oblong with

2 mm. long beak, pale yellow with a purple ring round the margins ;

pollinia 2, yellow, waxy, globose ; caudicle 3 mm. long, and ensheathed

by a gland 2 mm. long. Stigmatic surface 4 x 2 mm., elliptic-orbicular.

Capsules 3-3.5 cm. long, oblong-elliptic, strongly ridged ; pedicels about

1.5 cm. long, slightly curved.

Flowering : Mayto June. Fruiting: July onwards.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Vengurla, Dalzell &

Gibson; WariCountry, Dalzell & Gibson. W. GHATS: Khan-

dala, Blatt. Herb. 27968 ; Hallberg ; Santapau 8910, 10169, 11032,

12793, 12933; Panchgani, Blatter; Mahableshwar, Blatter;

Ezekiel ; Acland 1179 ; Bole 1045 ; Kapadia 1201, 1203, 1212. Deccan:

Bhimashankar, Kapadia 1445; Koina nagar, Kapadia.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 67

N. KANARA: Devarayi, Sedgwick ; Yellapur, Bell; Anmod,

Kapadia; Castle Rock, Kapadia; Poutelli-Dandelli,

Kapadia 2768-2770 ; Sampkhand, Hallberg & McCann 34204.

Distribution: India: Konkan, W. Ghats, Deccan, N. Kanara,

Nilgiri and Pulney Hills at about 800 to 1200 m. World: India; prob-

ably also found in Burma and Ceylon according to Holttum (Rey. FI.

Malaya 695, 1953). |

Notes: This species can be easily differentiated from A. maculosum

Lindl. by the following characters : (1) the whole plant is much stouter

and more robust ; (2) the flowers are larger ; sepals and petals not at

all or very sparsely speckled ; (3) the lip is more triangular in shape,

geniculately inflexed at the claw ; (4) the spur is exactly below the lip,

not along the ovary. In our experience, however, A. crispum seems to

be not only scarce, but even on the verge of extinction at least in such

places as Khandala and Mahableshwar. The showy flowers and their

strong perfume may be put down as the causes for the present shortage

of specimens.

Compositae of Dharwar and its

Vicinity °

H. R. LADWA AND R. M. PATIL

Department of Botany, Karnatak Science College, Dharwar

INTRODUCTION

Cooke, Woodrow, Sedgwick, Blatter, Ritchie, Dalzell, and others

collected plants from the Dharwar area during the end of the last century

and the beginning of the present century. The collections of Sedgwick

and Blatter were deposited in the Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay, and the collections of the others were housed in the Agriculture

College herbarium, Poona (now with the Botanical Survey of India,

Western Circle, Poona). Comparatively few species are recorded from

Dharwar proper, probably because greater attention has been given to

the forest flora of the rich forest zones in the adjoining districts of Belgaum

and Karwar. Santapau and his students are carrying out intensive

floristic surveys in selected areas of the Bombay State, while the staff

of the Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, is collecting data from

different areas. So far as work on the family Compositae is concerned,

Santapau (1946) has published an artificial key to the Compositae of the

Bombay Presidency (Dharwar formed a part of Bombay State before the

States Reorganization in 1956). Venkatesh (1948) devised a key to the

Compositae of Bangalore and included 45 species of 39 genera (in-

cluding the genera Guizotia and Carthamus). Govindu (1948), ‘ Some

of the Compositae of Bangalore and their economic importance’, has

described many cultivated and wild species in brief and has given their

economic importance. Ladwa (1949), in an account of the ecology of

aquatic flora of Dharwar tanks, has recorded the occurrence of a few

Composites growing around the freshwater tanks. Since Dharwar is

the seat of the Karnatak University and a number of Colleges, it was

felt that a detailed survey of the Compositae growing in and around

Dharwar will enable students of Botany to know more about this group.

The authors are not aware of any work dealing with the Compositae of

Dharwar and its vicinity. The present paper deals with a survey of the

Compositae growing in and around Dharwar with brief ecological notes

1 Communicated by the Principal, Karnatak Science College, Dharwar.

COMPOSITAE OF DHARWAR AND ITS VICINITY 69

on their habitats. An artificial key based on more obvious and reliable

characters is attempted for the use of beginners in this field.

LOCATION AND TOPOGRAPHY

Dharwar city (lat. 15° 28’ N. and long. 75° 0’ E.) is situated on the

eastern fringe of the Western Ghats at an altitude of 2480 ft. (c. 855 m.)

above mean sea-level. The western and south-western parts of Dharwar

form an undulating hilly tract and the soil is red to greyish brown,

chiefly derived from the underlying metamorphosed rocks of the Dharwar

System. The eastern part borders the plain and the soil varies from

red loams to black-cotton soils. Dharwar is thus situated between a

plain on the east and the escarpments of the Western Ghats on the

west-south-west. The general nature of the vegetation is the scrub type

normally found in deciduous forest under the influence of intensé biotic

disturbance. The typical dry deciduous forests are found within a range

of 10-15 miles west-south-west of Dharwar. The eastern plain is chiefly

under cultivation. Dharwar receives a mean annual rainfall of 35

inches (c. 89 cm.) mostly falling during the months of June, July, August,

and September. It also enjoys a fairly equable climate with gentle

fluctuations in temperature.

METHODS

The plants have been collected from Dharwar and its surrounding

area within a radius of about 4 miles (c. 6 km.). The collections were

made during the period from June 1957 to January 1959 by periodical

visits to different localities, namely Hattikolla, Nuggikeri, Someshwar,

Hubli Road, Saptapur, Amminbhavi Road, Belgaum Road, the

University Campus, the Agriculture College, etc. Field notes about the

habit and habitat of plants were made on the spot. The identifications

have been confirmed after a careful comparison of these herbarium sheets

with those in St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, and in the Botanical Survey

of India, Western Circle, Poona. ;

Herbarium sheets of all the representative specimens collected from

the different localities were prepared, numbered, and deposited in the

herbarium of the Botany Department of the Karnatak Science College,

Dharwar.

The local names of the plants, wherever available, are given.

Cultivated plants like Guizotia, Carthamus, Cosmos, Helianthus,

Zinnia, Calendula, Tagetes, Helichrysum, Calliopsis, Gaillardia, Aster,

Arctotis, Artemisia, Coreopsis, Tithonia, Dahlia, Chrysanthemum, Cen-

taurea, etc. are not dealt with here, as they have not truly run wild and

they are too well known to be mentioned here,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

The Artificial Key for the genera dealt with is based mainly on such

characters as the head (heterogamous or homogamous etc.), characters

of the leaves, achenes, and pappus.

Two genera,

viz. Caesulia and

Spilanthes, occur twice in the key, as the former has heads which can be

taken as simple or compound and the latter has heads where all flowers

are bisexual or the outermost flowers are ligulate and female.

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE GENERA OF COMPOSITAE FOUND IN DHARWAR

RwYND

—

OSS OHM HNN

—

11.

Heads compound (formed by the aggregation of

smaller heads),

Heads spinous

Heads noi spinous,

Compound head distinctly globose, stem winged

Compound heads not globose,

Heads rounded at the base, subtended by 3-nervate

leaves, flowers yellow

Heads not surrounded by foliage leaves, oners whites

or purple,

Each head in the compound head 4-flowered, leaves

radical and cauline, sessile ‘

Each head in the compound head Lnowcied: lence

cauline and petiolate

Each head in the compound head 5. 10- Aomered:

leaves cauline and subsessile

Heads simple (florets within the head not peerecnted

into smaller heads),

Flowers homogamous (all of the same sex), disci-

form (all tubular, not ligulate),

Involucral bracts aristate-acuminate

Involucral bracts otherwise,

Involucral bracts 2, large & membranous

Involucral bracts numerous, in many series

Involucral bracts many, in 1-3 series,

Pappus 0 or of 2 stiff hairs,

Heads small, upto 0.5 cm. in diam., flowers purple. .

Heads large, more than 1 cm. in diam., flowers yellow

Pappus of 4-5 aristate scales

Pappus hairy, pappus hairs many,

Slender herb, heads less than 1.5 by 0.5 cm., achenes

5-ribbed, hairy on the ribs

Robust herb, heads more than 1.7 by 0. Tc cm., achienes

10 or more ribbed, hairy between the ribs ‘

Flowers heterogamous (of 2 sexes), peripheral

flowers ligulate, others tubular,

Leaves pinnately compound or divided,

Pappus 0 or of few scales, flowers white

Pappus copious, hairy, flowers yellow

Pappus awned, awns 2-4 in number,

Achenes densely hairy in aie ee

Achenes glabrous,

Echinops

Sphaeranthus

Flaveria

Elephantopus

Lagascea

Blepharispermum

Tricholepis

Caesulia

Vernonia

Cyathocline

Spilanthes

Ageratum

Emilia

Gynura

Parthenium

Senecio

Glossocardia

COMPOSITAE OF DHARWAR AND ITS VICINITY 71

15. Leaves cauline and opposite .. ¥ .. Bidens

15. Leaves radical, cauline leaves alternate .. .. Glossogyne

12. Leaves neither pinnately compound nor pinnately

divided,

16. Anther-bases tailed %; a .. Vicoa

16. Anther-bases not tailed,

17. Achenes completely enclosed in boat-shaped stiff

paleae e se .. Sclerocarpus

17. _ Achenes not paclasds in the Plea:

18. Pappus hairy, hairs copious, paleaO .. Erigeron

18. Pappus not hairy; if hairy, hairs few and stiff, palea

present or 0,

19. Flowers all white ae .. Eclipta

19. Flowers all, or the disc only, vellow

20. Leaves all opposite and 3-nervate,

21. Pappus of 2 long awns a a .. Synedrella

21. Pappus of fimbriate scales .. re .. Galinsoga

20. Leaves all opposite and penninerved,

22. Pappus ey aristate with feathery bristles,

prostrate herb . fc au Lridgx

22. Pappus spinous, one straight and ores hooked,

erect herb a .. Acanthospermum

20. Leaves opposite at the base! nlternate Hy the top,

pappus of few unequal, short scales .. .. Blainvillea

6. Flowers heterogamous, disciform (all tubular),

23. Stem winged, leaves decurrent oF .. Laggera

23. Stem not winged, leaves not decurrent,

24. Leaves pinnatifid . ae ee .. Grangea

24. Leaves not nee.

25. Anther-bases subentire, not tailed a: .. Erigeron

25. Anther-bases tailed,

26. Style arms of bisexual flower truncate, small herbs .. Gnaphalium

26. Style arms of bisexual flower filiform, never truncate,

herbs or shrubs,

27. Style of bisexual flower 2-fid, small or large herbs .. Blumea

27. Style of bisexual flower entire or ite bisexual

flowers sterile, shrubs a .. Pluchea

6. Flowers homogamous, all flowers reed:

28. Achenes compressed, not beaked a .. Sonchus

28. Achenes columnar, truncate at both ends .. Launaea

1. Heads simple, monoecious, bisexual and female

flowers borne separately in different heads .. Xanthium

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION?#

1. VERNONIA Schreb.

Vernonia cinerea Less. Local name: Sahadevi.

Commonest weed on all types of soils except in most clay. Weed in fields and

gardens. One of the pioneers in inhabiting newly exposed soils. Flowering : August-

April.

1 Species which are a new record for the locality are marked with an asterisk,

(he: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Local name: Kadu jirige, Kare jirige.

On black and red soils. Common in fields of dry crop cultivation. Flowering :

October-December.

2. ELEPHANTOPUS Linn.

*Elephantopus scaber Linn.

Cooke (1904) gives the height of the plant as 6-15 in. (c. 15-38 cm.), while specimens

from Dharwar attain a height of 6-36 in. (c. 15-91 cm.).

Common under guava plantation in Hattikolla, Kyarkopp, Saptapur, Haliyal

Road ; under shade of trees, and preferring moist soil. Flowering: August-October.

3. AGERATUM Linn.

Ageratum conyzoides Linn.

A very common weed, quite aggressive and spreading during rainy season and

winter, specially in gardens and fields on the roadside. Flowering : October-January.

4. CYATHOCLINE Cass.

Cyathocline purpurea (Don) Kuntze. Syn. C. lyrata Cass.

The anther-bases in Dharwar specimens are shortly sagittate or truncate, but

Cooke (1904) reports them as truncate.

Abundant as weed in paddy fields after harvest ; often growing with Sphaeranthus

and Grangea ; also on margins of tanks. Indicator of periodically inundated soils,

Flowering : December-April.

5. GRANGEA Adans.

Grangea maderaspatana Poir.

On margins of tanks and often abundant in paddy fields after harvest. Fairly

common on periodically inundated soils. Flowering : July-September and December-

April.

6. ERIGERON Linn.

Erigeron asteroides Roxb.

A common herb found on all types of moist and well-aerated soils, such as raised

bunds of tanks, edges of paddy fields, gardens, etc. Flowering : August-February.

*Erigeron bonariensis L. Syn. Conyza ambigua DC., C. bonariensis (L.) Cronquist.

A common weed of red soils preferring moderately moist types. Often found in

gardens. Flowering : July-April.

*Erigeron floribundus (H.B.K.) Sch. Bip. Syn. Conyza floribunda H.B.K., C,

albida Willd., Erigeron sumatrensis Retz.

It was only noticed in the Karnatak University Campus. It seems to prefer moist,

red and aerated soils. It is a new record for India (Ladwa & Patil, 1959). Flowering :

August-April.

7. BLUuMEA DC.

*Blumea wightiana DC. .

Rather rare in Dharwar. Found as a weed in the compounds and the campus of

the Karnatak University and Karnatak College, and in paddy fields at Someshwar.

Flowering : December-March.

COMPOSITAE OF DHARWAR AND ITS VICINITY 73

Blumea lacera DC.

Widespread weed on all types of soils and seems to have a wide range of tolerance ;

on waste places and in brick and mortar waste. A good coloniser. Flowering :

November-March.

Blumea oxyodonta DC.

Common hardy plant on moderately moist and porous soils of Hattikolla Hills,

pastures, and in gardens. Flowering : November-March.

*Blumea eriantha DC.

Found in gardens, pastures, roadside fields and paddy fields after harvest as one

of the common weeds. Flowering : December-March.

Blumea membranacea DC.

Found on red soils only at Someshwar and Saptapur. Flowering : November-

April.

8. LAGGERA Sch. Bip.

*Laggera alata Sch. Bip.

Localised to the sides of the railway line between Dharwar Station and Navalur

Gate. Flowering: November-March.

9, PLUCHEA Cass.

*Pluchea tomentosa DC.

Localised to the Fort area and the sides of gutters leading from Vidyaranya High

School to Haveripeth. Flowering : November-February.

10. SPHAERANTHUS Linn.

Sphaeranthus indicus Linn.

Indicator of periodically inundated soils, growing in close association with Cyatho-

cline in harvested paddy fields, dried-up tanks, etc. Flowering : November-April.

11. BLEPHARISPERMUM Wight

Blepharispermum subsessile DC.

Cooke (1904) mentions ‘ involucral bracts 1-2, like the palea of the receptacle but

shorter’. In the specimens collected here, they are found to be as long or longer than

the palea. Localised to the hills of Hattikolla and comes up in the rainy

season. Flowering: August-September.

12. GNAPHALIUM Linn.

Gnaphalium indicum L.

Grows twice in a year, once at the beginning of the rainy season and again in winter.

Common in gardens, tanks, paddy fields. A typical dry-marsh plant.

13. VICOA Cass.

Vicoa indica (Willd.) DC. Syn. Vicoa auriculata Cass.

Habit various ; stout and tall in good garden soil, black-cotton soil, and agricultural

soil, but stunted and unbranched in dry gravelly soils. Flowering : October-February.

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

14. CAESULIA Roxb.

Caesulia axillaris Roxb.

Grows in red and black-cotton fields with moist soils. Common in paddy fields

after harvest. Flowering: October-January.

15. LAGASCEA Cav.

Lagascea mollis Cav.

Weed on roadsides, fields, and gardens. Grows during rainy season and dies

after winter. Flowering : August-December.

16. XANTHIUM Linn.

Xanthium strumarium Linn.

Not common. Recorded from Someshwar, Hebballi Farm, and Agriculture College

area. Mostly in low-lying areas where water stagnates for a short period. Flowering :

October-December.

17. EcurpTa Linn.

Eclipta prostrata Linn. Syn. Eclipta erecta L., Eclipta alba (L.) Hask. Local

name : Kadiggaraga.

A plant of moist habitat, most common at Dharwar. Grows prostrate near aquatic

situations and erect in comparatively dry places. Flowering: August-November.

18. SCLEROCARPUS Jacq.

*Sclerocarpus africanus Jacq.

Under mango trees in Someshwar only. Flowering : August-October.

19, BLAINVILLEA Cass.

Blainvillea rhomboidea Cass. Local name: Kudda gurellu.

Common weed growing in association with Lagascea, Acanthospermum, Galin-

soga, etc.in both red and black soils. Alsoin gardens. Flowering : August-October.

20. SPILANTHES Linn.

Spilanthes acmella Murr. var. acmella proper. Local name: Hemmugulu.

Prefers moist soils, on edges of cultivated fields, ponds, and along waterways.

Flowering : September-January.

Spilanthes acmella Murr. var. oleracea Clarke

As above but more robust and succulent ; leaves and heads larger. Often culti-

vated in gardens or grows as an escape. Flowering : September-January.

21. GLOSSOCARDIA Cass.

* Glossocardia linearifolia Cass.

Commonly found on dry sandy or gravelly soils on Hattikolla Hills and also over-

grazed pastures. Flowering : August-December.

}

COMPOSITAE OF DHARWAR AND ITS VICINITY {15

= 22. BIDeENs Linn.

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff. Syn. Coreopsis biternata Lour., Bidens

wallichii DC., Bidens pilosa Auctor.

Common on old roofs, compound walls, roadside fields, in gardens ; usually pre-

ferring dry situations. Flowering : September-January.

23. GLOSSOGYNE Cass.

Glossogyne pinnatifida DC.

In overgrazed pastures, dry areas of Hattikolla, and in other areas where the soil

is loose and sandy. Flowering : August-April.

24. SYNEDRELLA Gaertn.

*Synedrella nodiflora Gaertn.

Often growing in association with Blainvillea, Bidens, Flaveria, Acanthospermum,

Galinsoga, etc. Common in waste areas. Flowering : August-December.

25. GALINSOGA Ruiz et Pav.

*Galinsoga parviflora Cay.

Weed occurring in red soil areas of Dharwar particularly on moist and porous

soils. Flowering : August-February.

26. TRIDAX Linn.

Tridax procumbens Linn. Local name: Tikki kasa, Tikki toppala, Gayad top-

pala.

A weed of cosmopolitan habitat and a very variable habit. Flowering: All the

year round.

27. FLAVERIA Juss.

*Flaveria contrayerba Pers. Local name: Wonti kasa.

Irregularly distributed weed growing on both red and black soils. Flowering :

August-March.

28. ACANTHOSPERMUM Schrank.

* Acanthospermum hispidum DC.

A weed of open waste lands and uncultivated fields and gardens. Flowering:

August-March.

29. PARTHENIUM Linn.

*Parthenium hysterophorus L.

A rare weed of a localised habitat ; is showing a tendency to spread slowly. It

seems to be a very recent introduction in this area. Flowering : September-February.

30. GYNURA Cass.

*Gynura angulosa DC. Syn. Gynura simplex D. & G.

Cooke (1904) mentions the pappus as shorter than the corolla but it is in-

variably as long as the corolla in the specimens collected here. A weed in moist and

porous soil and also in cultivated red and black-cotton soils. Flowering: Sep-

tember-January.

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

31. Emma Cass.

Emilia sonchifolia (Linn.) DC.

Weed found on all types of soils except those too moist and clayey. One of the

pioneers in occupying fresh excavated soil. Flowering: All the year round except

May and June.

32. SENECIO Linn.

*Senecio tenuifolius Burm.

Common on the hills of Hattikolla during the late rainy season and early winter

on sandy or murram soils. Flowering : August-December.

33. Ecurinops Linn.

Echinops echinatus Roxb.

A common xerophyte of dry, rocky, or gravelly waste places. Also along the

railway line. Flowering : October-April.

34. TRICHOLEPIS DC.

Tricholepis glaberrima DC.

A weed of the red and black soils. Very variable in habit. Grows only a few

cm. high where the soil is dry and sandy, but reaches 2-3 m. high in cultivated soils.

Flowering : November-December.

*Tricholepis radicans DC.

Only found on dry hillocks of Dharwar. Flowering : November-January.

35. Soncuus Linn.

Sonchus oleraceus Linn.

A very common weed in cultivated fields and waste places in gardens. Flowering :

July-February.

36. LAUNAEA Cass.

Launaea nudicaulis Hook.

Common in dry pastures and as a weed on bunds and grassy patches in culti-

vated areas. Flowering: during summer.

ECOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

The family Compositae has been described by Good (1947) as a

cosmopolitan family. Plants like Vernonia cinerea, Emilia sonchifolia,

Tridax procumbens, Ageratum conyzoides, Erigeron bonariensis, etc.

were found growing in moist as well as dry soils and they showed a fairly

wide and uniform distribution in this tract. It may be suggested that

they have a wide range of tolerance to edaphic, topographic, and biotic

factors. Besides, they are more or less aggressive and mobile species

also, as they soon occupy fresh situations caused by digging, scraping,

etc.

COMPOSITAE OF DHARWAR AND ITS VICINITY fi!

Some plants of the Compositae show distinct preference for certain

habitats and thus act as plant-indicators. These habitats may be grossly

classified as under on the basis of the nature and type of soil:

(a) Periodically inundated soils subject to alternate and seasonal

wetting and drying such as the paddy fields, drying tanks, sides of water-

courses, low-lying lands, etc. Such areas are inhabited by Cyathocline

purpurea, Erigeron asteroides, Sphaeranthus indicus, Gnaphalium indi-

cum, Grangea madaraspatana, Eclipta prostrata, Caesulia axillaris, etc.

(b) Porous soils often containing sufficient moisture like those of

cultivated fields, gardens, moist grass lands, and scrub areas in

shallow pans are covered with Flaveria sp., Blumea eriantha, Elephan-

topus scaber, Caesulia axillaris, Erigeron floribundus, Erigeron bonarien-

sis, Spilanthes acmella, Sonchus oleraceus, etc.

of hills, excavated areas, etc., are occupied by Blumea oxyodonta,

Glossocardia_ linearifolia, Glossogyne pinnatifida, Senecio tenuifolius,

Emilia sonchifolia, Tridax procumbens, Echinops echinatus, Launaea

nudicaulis, Xanthium strumarium, Bidens biternata, Lagascea mollis,

Acanthospermum hispidum, Synedrella nodiflora, etc.

(d) Black-cotton soils (which are rich in clay and calcium car-

bonate) having a higher water-holding capacity generally afford a

good habitat for Blumea oxyodonta, B. eriantha, Caesulia axillaris,

Vicoa indica, Tricholepis glaberrima, Sonchus oleraceus, Flaveria con-

trayerba, Blainvillea rhomboidea, Vernonia cinerea, V. anthelmintica,

etc. It should, however, be noted that none of the above species is

exclusively restricted to the black-cotton soils.

(e) Fallow open ground, waste lands in the vicinity of human

habitation, roadside fields, and fallow areas in gardens are occupied

by Vernonia cinerea, Blumea spp., Tridax procumbens, Lagascea mollis,

Ageratum conyzoides, Acanthospermum hispidum, Erigeron bonariensis,

etc.

Sclerocarpus africanus is very much localised to the mango grove at

Someshwar, while Laggera alata was observed only on the gentle slopes

of the railway line embankments towards Hubli. Similarly, Blepharis-

permum subsessile is found on the eastern slopes of Chotamahabaleshwar

Hill.

A few of the Composites show remarkable variations in their habits.

Eclipta prostrata grows as a prostrate herb when it is close to aquatic

Situations, but otherwise it grows as an erect herb. Vernonia cinerea

grows as an erect herb 30 cm. high during the monsoons while, in the

same area and in the middle of summer, the flowering specimens of this

plant are hardly 6 cm. high. The same could be said of Erigeron bona-

riensis, Tridax procumbens, Bidens biternata, Tricholepis glaberrima,

Ageratum conyzoides, Acanthospermum hispidum, Launaea nudicaulis,

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

etc. This clearly explains their wide range of tolerance to changing

climatic or edaphic conditions.

~ DISCUSSION

Santapau (1946) published an artificial key to 51 genera of the Com-

posites of the Bombay Presidency. He based his classification of genera

on the colour character of flowers, which is so often not constant and

is not reliable particularly in the case of herbarium material. In the

present work, an artificial key to the genera is given so as to enable an

average student to recognise the Compositae of Dharwar. In this key,

importance is given to the characters of the head.

The earlier work of Cooke (1904) describes only 11 species as occur-

ring in Dharwar-Hubli area, while as many as 32 species have been

described for Belgaum, a place 45 miles north-west of Dharwar. How-

ever, such genera as Elephantopus, Laggera, Pluchea, Sclerocarpus,

Glossocardia, Galinsoga, Synedrella, Gynura, Senecio, Acanthospermum,

Parthenium, and Flaveria have not been mentioned for this area. New

records of species for this locality number as many as 18 and are denoted

by an asterisk in the systematic enumeration. This large number of

new records does not include species whose distribution is given as

‘throughout India’, ‘ abundant in Bombay Presidency’, and ‘ common

in the Deccan’. It may also be mentioned here that genera like Par-

thenium, Synedrella, Galinsoga, Acanthospermum, and species like Erige-

ron bonariensis and E. floribundus have not been described in Cooke’s

FLORA OF THE PRESIDENCY OF BOMBAY. Erigeron floribundus (H.B.K.)

Sch. Bip. is a new plant record for India since there is no record of this

in any of the Indian Floras published so far.

Many of the genera treated by Venkatesh (1948) are common to

Dharwar and Bangalore. But a few like Artemisia, Dicoma, Epaltes,

Lactuca, Wedelia, Volutarella, Siegesbeckia have not been found in

Dharwar.

The plants of the family Compositae are remarkable for their ability

to adapt themselves to varying environmental conditions and thus show

a wide range of tolerance. Even so, the occurrence of such a large

number of species of Compositae (44 species of 36 genera) distri-

buted in a comparatively small area is worth consideration. A good

many of these plants show a wide range of distribution extending from

the moist forests of the Western Ghats to the dry tracts of the Deccan.

Plateau. But a few have a restricted distribution. Glossocardia, Glos-

sogyne, Launaea, Vicoa, and Senecio are commonly found in the dry

tracts of the western Peninsula. LElephantopus, Cyathocline, Laggera,

Blepharispermum, Sclerocarpus, Synedrella, and Gynura are restricted

DP WE Fn AER E>

~ _—.

Stes : ’

COMPOSITAE OF DHARWAR AND ITS VICINITY 79

to the deciduous and moist forest areas of the Western Ghats. Such

an admixture of plants of different habitats is only possible if the en-

vironmental factors are those that are intermediate between the dry

tracts and deciduous forests. It has already been pointed out that

Dharwar lies on the transitional zone between the plain on the east and

the deciduous forests of the west-south-west. It is natural, therefore,

that the species from the dry and moist localities should occur here to-

gether in the process of their migration. This incidentally explains the

occurrence of a large number of Composites in this locality.

Santapau (1946) noted that he left out the genus Blepharispermum

as he had no information about the colour of the flowers of this plant.

This plant has pure white flowers.

SUMMARY

A detailed survey of the plants belonging to the family Compositae

was carried out during the period 1957 to 1959. As many as 44 species

of 36 genera have been listed from this locality. Out of this, 18

species are found to be new records for this area and one, Erigeron flori-

bundus (H.B.K.) Sch.-Bip., is a new record for India.

An artificial key for the genera represented from Dharwar is given

and this key is based on more reliable characters of the capitulum.

Brief ecological notes regarding the habitats of some species are given

and habitat-indicator value of some of the more important species is

pointed out.

Finally, the occurrence of this large number of Composites and the

admixture of species growing in different habitats are explained as due

to the situation of Dharwar in the intermediate zone between dry plain

on the east and the Western Ghats on the west.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writers are grateful to Prof. L. K. Gunjikar, Head of the Botany

Department, Karnatak College, Dharwar, for encouragement and

help during the course of this study. We are also thankful to Rev.

Fr. H. Santapau, s.J., Ph.D., St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, for going

through the manuscript and making suggestions. Our thanks are also

due to the authorities of the Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle,

Poona, for allowing us the use of their herbaria, and to the Kew

authorities for determining the identity of Erigeron floribundus and E.

bonariensis.

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

REFERENCES

Burtt, B. L. (1948): On Erigeron

bonariensis Linn. Kew Bulletin 1948:

369-372.

Clarke, C. B. (1876): Compositae

Indicae descriptae et secus genera Ben-

thamii ordinatae. Calcutta.

Cooke, T. (1904) : Flora of the Presi-

dency of Bombay. Taylor & Francis,

London.

Gamble, J.S. (1921): Flora of the Presi-

dency of Madras. Allard & Sons Ltd.,

London.

Good, R. (1947): The Geography

of the Flowering Plants. Longmans,

Green & Co.

Govindu, H. C. (1948) : Some Com-

positae of Bangalore and their economic

importance. J. Mysore Univ. 8-B : 19-32.

Hooker, J. D. (1882): The Flora of

British India. L. Reeve & Co., Ashford,

Kent.

Ladwa, H. R. (1949): Ecology and

Seasonal Aspect of the Phanerogamic

Flora of the irrigation tanks about

Dharwar. M.Sc. Thesis.

—& Patil, R. M. (1959): A new plant

record for India—Erigeron floribundus

(H.B.K.) Sch.-Bip. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 56 (3): 673-675.

Santapau, H. (1946): Artificial key

to the Compositae of Bombay Presidency.

Indian Ecologist 1:1.

—(1953) : The Flora of

Khandala on the Western Ghats of

India. Rec. Bot. Survey of India 16

(1) : xxvii, 1-396.

Seshagiri Rao, R. (1956): Parthenium

hysterophorus Linn., a New Record

for India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

54 (1) : 218-220.

Venkatesh, C. S. (1948): Key to the

Compositae of Bangalore. J. Mysore

Univ. 8-B : 1-8.

Observations on the Breeding of

Major Carps in Madhya Pradesh’

G. P. DuBEy, D. PH., AND R. P. TULI

Fisheries Department, Madhya Pradesh

(With two plates and four text figures)

CONTENTS

PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION a: ae ne 81

If. Fish SEED RESOURCES AND BREEDING GROUNDS .. 82

IfI. Discussions He es ns 88

IV. CONCLUSION oe ae ae 89

V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .. A ie 89

APPENDIX a a eee 90

REFERENCES ire ae ae 91

1. INTRODUCTION

The efforts now being progressively made in India by the State and

Central Governments to increase inland fish production by culturing

major carps such as Labeo rohiia, Catla catla, and Cirrhina mrigala in

impounded waters have resulted in an increased demand for the fry of

these fishes for stocking purposes. ‘The fry is largely collected in East

Bengal, either from rivers or from tanks of the bund type. Since major

carps do not normally breed in captivity, considerable difficulty is being

experienced in augmenting the supply to meet this growing demand.

Hora (1945), in concluding the symposium on ‘Factors influencing the

spawning of Indian Carps’, stated that the flood condition of a river ora

tank is the primary factor responsible for the spawning of major carps,

and that a high pH value and oxygen content of water are a necessary

corollary to floods, but have no independent value in inducing spawning.

Saha et al (1957), while investigating the spawning conditions of two

wet type? and two dry-type bunds in Midnapore, concluded that the

flood water helped to lower the pH to favourable limits. Hamid Khan

(1945) pointed out the role of pituitary hormones in breeding behaviour,

but did not succeed by its use in inducing major carps to spawn.

1 Communicated by Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra.

2 Holding water throughout the year, as opposed to dry-type, which are seasonal

and remain dry for a portion of the year.

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Chaudhuri & Alikunhi (1957), however, achieved considerable success in

breeding the fish artificially by pituitary injections prepared from major

carps themselves. This achievement has great potentiality in the future

for raising fry-production, but efforts to collect fry from natural sources

of water continue in each State so as to meet the local requirements.

In the former Madhya Bharat Zone of Madhya Pradesh, attempts

have been made since 1949 to procure as much fry as possible by discover-

ing new spawning grounds. During the year 1958, as many as 25 lakhs

of fry and fingerlings were collected but even this quantity was insufficient

for the 1.25 lakh acres of water which was to be stocked. If stocking is

done at the rate of 1500 fry per acre, the annual requirement would be

about 187.15 million of fry and fingerlings.

2. FISH SEED RESOURCES AND BREEDING GROUNDS

Extensive survey has been undertaken in Madhya Pradesh to discover

breeding grounds. A large number were located which are classified

and described in the following four categories :

(a) River as a Home and Spawning in Inundated Fields

Breeding grounds have been located in inundated fields at Baghthera,

Sonarpura, Khared, Sankalkheda, and Imalia-Jamalbagdi villages :

(i) Baghthera. (B, Sketch-map No. 1). Brooders of Labeo calbasu,

Labeo gonius, and Cirrhina mrigala, coming from the River Vaisli along

a nullah about 8 miles long, 6 ft. deep, and 10 ft. wide, have been observed

to spawn in about five acres of inundated agricultural fields. The

chemical conditions of the water at this spawning area are givenin Tablel.

TABLE I

| Date pH | Temp. | O, | Co,

Baghthera aH: : | 8-7-58 7.6 30.00 6 Dal

Banmore a Fai 8-7-58 7.8 82730 — —

9-7-58 8.2 33.30 — oe

19-7-58 7.8 29.00 6.8 5.4

Jharoni es .., 26-7-58 Ye 26.50 4.2 1.4

Nagda re ..| 11-7-58 7.6 30.00 — —

Sonar-Talliya .. ..| 23-7-58 8.1 26.00 — —

(ii) Sonarpura (S, Sketch-map No. 1). Brooders of Labeo rohita

and Cirrhina mrigala have been observed to migrate from the Kunwari

River of the Chambal system, through a nullah about 6 miles long, 4 ft.

deep, and 4 ft. wide, to spawn in about 10 acres of inundated water around

this village.

JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

SPREE RF oe

Fish-seed collection work in progress 'n Madya Pradesh

General view of inundated open field breeding ground }

Il aLVI1d ‘20$ “LSIH “LVN AVaWOg ‘Nanor

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF MAJOR CARPS 83

KUN War, pve

Text Fig. 1. BAGTHERA, KHARED, AND SONARPURA BREEDING GROUNDS

B. Baghthera breeding ground; K. Khared breeding ground; S. Sonarpura

breeding ground

(iit) Khared (K, Sketch-map No. 1). From the Vaisli, a rivulet of

the Chambal system, through a nullah about 64 miles long, 10 ft. wide,

and 6 ft. deep, brooders of Rohu, Catla, and Mrigal have been observed

to spawn in an area of about 200 acres around this village. In the year

1958, as many as 8 lakhs of fry were collected from this area.

(iv) Sankalkheda. Spawning of Labeo gonius has been observed

in the catchment area around a 12-mile-long nullah, 12 ft. wide and 8 ft.

deep, which joins the River Betwa.

(v) Imalia-Jamalbagdi. Labeo calbasu, Labeo gonius, and Cirrhina

mrigala have been observed to spawn in the inundated fields located

in this village around a nullah 10 miles long, 6 ft. wide, and 4 ft. deep,

which is connected with the River Betwa.

(6) Reservoir as a Home and Spawning in Inundated Fields

(1) Banmore spawning centre (Sketch-map No. 2). This is an im-

portant carp breeding centre and is located in the agricultural land (I)

near Niraoli village (B) in Gwalior District. The nullah, known as Orua

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

BHIND CANAL

FROM

PIL WA DAM GWALIOR

KOT WAL

DAM

MORENA

“

‘G,

ASAN RIVER

TO AGRA

Text Fig. 2. BANMORE, MAHARAJPURA, AND JHARONI BREEDING GROUNDS

N. Niraoli village ; B. Banmore village ; J. Jharoni village; M. Maharajpura

village ; I. Banmore breeding ground; II. Maharajpura breeding ground;

Ill. Jharoni breeding ground.

nullah, connects the field with Pilwa reservoir which is bunded on the

River Sank, a tributary of Chambal River. The monsoon in this part

breaks by the end of June every year. The early showers are absorbed

by dry soil. Subsequent rainfall of 3 to 4 inches covers the field with a

maximum depth of about 2 inches of water. The Minnows and Catfish

first negotiate the shallow current and migrate from the reservoir to the

open fields. They spread out to the extreme boundaries and their breed-

ing is restricted to this fringe with a depth of 6 inches to 1 ft. of water.

As the monsoon advances, the water level in thenullah increases and Labeo

rohita, Labeo gonius, and Cirrhina mrigala reach the breeding ground and

occupy the area with a depth of water of 14 ft. to 3 ft. or more. Catla

being deep-bodied, reaches the breeding ground when the rainfall raises

the depth of water in the nullah to about 4 ft. or more. Their breeding

is confined to the area immediately in the vicinity of the nullah with a

depth of 4 ft. and above. The nature of the water and the soil condition

are given in Tables I and II respectively.

Fishes, having distributed themselves to the different regions as stated

above, embark on sexual play and courtship. The males chase the

females of their own kind and dart about in the water. This includes

physical contacts of the male with the female and rubbing her body and

knocking against and nudging her. At the climax of this activity the

pairs are seen to be locked up in an embrace, their bodies are twisted

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF MAJOR CARPS 85

TABLE II

Banmore | Banmore Nagda Bilaoli Butt

Fieids Nullah a

Clay ppm 24.80 20.10 9.10 40.15 57.08

Silt i 22.70 13.50 1.63 23.05 22.42

Sand Ks 75.50 67.10 87.70 32.17 14.06

Total salts F 00.179 00.063 00.151 00.423 00.219

Soil pH a 9.60 8.80 vie}:) 7.46 6.219

Note: The dominant soil constituents are underlined

round each other with the fins erect and the caudal fin quivering. It is

in this posture that mating occurs with vigorous splashing of the water.

The eggs are then laid and fertilised. The spent fishes flounder about and

start their homeward journey along the receding water. Many are left

behind, stranded amidst shallow pools and puddles, and ultimately get

killed.

(ii) Maharajpura breeding ground (Sketch-map No. 2). This

breeding site (II) was located in the fields of Maharaipura village (M).

About 50 acres of the field form the catchment area around the nullah

which flows into Kotwal Reservoir on the Asan Nadi, a tributary of the

Chambal. The fields get inundated during the monsoon. Observations

on the migration and spawning of the fishes are similar to those given

under heading (i) immediately preceding.

(iii) Jharoni spawning centre (Sketch-map ENon 2) the arable

fields (III) of Jharoni village (J), measuring about 40,000 sq. yd., are

connected by a nullah with Kotwal Reservoir. Since the discovery of

this spawning ground in 1954, it has been a regular source of carp fry.

In 1958, approximately 12 lakhs of fry were collected from this centre.

The nature of the water at spawning time is given in Table [.

(i) Nagda Reservoir (Sketch-map No. 3). This reservoir, measur-

ing about 700 acres, is constructed on Budni Rivulet of Betwa River.

It is essentially of the Midnapore wet-bund type. The eastern boundary

is formed of hillocks and the western and southern sides are bunded.

The waste-weir is located in the southern embankment. Three nullahs,

Khadi, Nagda, and Bhakra, feed the reservoir. Carp spawning occurs in

50 acres of the marginal stretch within the F.T.L. (Full Tank Level)

mark. The nature of the soil in this reservoir is given in Table II.

With the onset of the rains, the fresh rainwater mixes with the old

standing water and spawning activities begin, The major carps spawn

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

ee oe

Sgt “8 par ee See

NAGDR RESERVGIR

eee ites,

neem =

++oe ++

S ee (Ee cad a ( at wa

PO a Oat oe ohM AN >

A FO OB |\\““

HIGH_ LAND AREA oan

fe)

PICHHORE

Text Fig. 3. NAGDA RESERVOIR

in one to four feet deep water. There is no current of water in the area

of spawning, although there is a lot of wave-action. In 1958, as many

as five lakhs of fry were collected. The nature of the water at the time

of spawning is given in Table I.

(ii) Dinara and Mohari Reservoirs. Major carps were also found

to breed in about 15 acres of marginal water in Dinara reservoir and in

Mohari Reservoir, both constructed on tributaries of the rivers Sindh and

Betwa respectively.

(iii) Bilaoli Reservoir. It is an old water-supply reservoir, 600

acres in area, situated about six miles from Indore. Its catchment area

is four square miles. In 1954, the reservoir was completely dried up and

stocked with the fish seed collected from Narmada River and the tribu-

taries of the Chambal. In 1957, fry of major carps were observed in

small puddles of water formed by the fall in the water level in the reservoir.

During the 1958 monsoon, continuous watch was kept to observe breed-

ing. On the 4th July, after it had rained for two days, brood fishes were

noticed in the vicinity of the bund. Larger size brooders of Catla, Rohu,

and Mrigal exhibited sexual play. The breeding took place along 400

yards of the stony embankment during bright sun in the forenoon.

There was no flow of water as the supply of water from the tank was

stopped during the monsoon.

(iv) Butt Tank. This tank is located in Chattarpur District.

A nullah with an extensive catchment area has been bunded on its eastern

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF MAJOR CARPS 87

and northern sides by raising a Chandela-type bund?. The total area of

the reservoir is about 20 acres. Breeding of carps in this reservoir has

been observed since 1957. During 1958, as many as eight lakhs fry were

collected. It was interesting to note that the major carps remained in

the cool shade of Trapa and, after rain, they left the shelter and moved

out for breeding. Soil analysis of this tank is given in Table II.

| HIGH CLAYEY

AREA

HIGH ROCKY

PADDY FIELDS

~~ af Oo lwo ween, Eee 8

ME ye (— -7f ae 24 Fr ~ oat oe AY

‘.

Text Fig. 4. SONAR TALLIYA DRY-BUND TANK

(d) Dry-Bund Breeding

Centre Sonar-Talliya (Sketch-map No. 4). As a result of

the experience gained from the successful breeding of major carps in

wet-bunds, an experiment in dry-bund breeding was conducted

during 1958 at Sonar-Talliya, a shallow depression of 1.50 acres with an

extensive catchment area. The topography of the area is hilly with arable

lands towards the north. The southern side is rocky. An earthen

bund was raised on the eastern side and was provided with a sluice-

gate near its southern extremity. A supplementary bund was construc-

ted on the western side. The northern and southern slopes were left

open to allow the inflow of water. A more or less rectangular pit of 100

ft. x 50 ft. x 2 ft. was dug near the eastern bund for stocking the brooders.

The average depth of the tank was 3! ft. Thus the total depth of the pit

1 The bunds of reservoirs constructed during the regime of a former ruling dynasty,

the Chandelas, were paved with stones fixed with mortar and were reinforced with

earth. Bunds of this kind are referred to as Chandela- -type bunds,

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

was 51 ft. Brooders from a neighbouring tank were released into the tank

and, as showers continued, more water flowed into the tank and water also

started accumulating behind the western bund. Thefirst group of brooders

comprising 22 Rohu (size 15-18 in.) and six Calbasu (size 12-16 in.)

was introduced on the 28th June. It rained heavily in the afternoon

of the 10th July and the fish started their sexual play and at this stage a

breach was made in the western bund allowing the accumulated water

to flowin. They started to spawn by the evening (in the area marked I).

Subsequently four Rohu (size 15-18 in.) were introduced on the 18th

July and their spawning occurred in the night of the 23rd July with no

fresh inflow of water (in the area marked II). After this, two Calbasu

(size 13-14 in.) and six Rohu (size 16-17 in.) were introduced on the

2nd August and spawning took place during the night of the 14th August

(in the area marked IIT). There was a slight rainfall on each day of

breeding. The eggs were allowed to hatch in the tank itself and later

on nearly four lakhs fry and fingerlings were collected. This dry-bund

tank differs from the Midnapore type of dry bund in permitting no out-

flow of water at the time of breeding.

Table I gives the chemical conditions of the water at different breeding

centres. The water was alkaline (pH 7.2-8.2), with 4.2-6.8 ppm. of

oxygen, and temperature between 26-339 C. The composition of that

soil as given in Table II shows that breeding can take place over clayey

as well as sandy bottoms.

3. DISCUSSIONS

As the result of observations made at different spawning grounds, the

following conditions pertaining to carp-spawning become apparent.

They breed during the south-west monsoon from the end of June every

year. Breeding takes place in various depths of water, from 6 inches to

6 feet depending on the size of the brooders. Spawning occurs over hard

soil, sandy soil, and even over stony embankments. Breeding occurs in

open fields, wet-bund tanks, and dry-bund tanks. Each time either a

light shower, or heavy or continuous rains occurred prior to breeding.

The oxygen content of the water at the spawning time is between 4.2

and 6.8 ppm., pH between 7.2 and 8.2, ic. always alkaline, and the tem-

perature ranges between 26° and 33° Centigrade. The fishes spawn in

standing waters with wave action, and with regular flow as in the open

fields.

Celestial bodies like the moon have no effect, as is evident

from the Appendix. Carps have spawned twice on moonless days and so

far no spawning at full-moon has been observed. There seems to be no

correlation between spawning and the phases of the moon.

The effects of the endocrine glands particularly that of the pituitary

and thyroid glands has been conclusively pointed out by Brown (1957)

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF MAJOR CARPS 89

who states: ‘The pituitary gland is the first link between the receptor

organs and the endocrine system. Environmental effects on other endo-

crine glands are probably mediated through the pituitary. Temperature

might act directly on the gonads and the thyroid or the salinity of the

environment might modify the ionic and osmotic content of the blood

and thus stimulate the thyroid. However, the pituitary produces the

tropic hormones and changes in the thyroid and gonads do not normally

occur in the absence of pituitary. It seems safer to conclude that the

external environment mediates its effect on the endocrine system through

the pituitary.’

4. CONCLUSION

(1) Breeding takes place only after rains in various depths of water

and varying currents of water-flow. It may even occur in standing water

without any flow.

(ii) Soil may be hard and stony or soft and sandy.

(iii) Breeding takes place in bund type of tanks, rivers, or in open fields

where rain water gets accumulated.

(iv) The pH of water may range between 7.2 to 8.2 during breeding

_ and the temperature varies between 26° and 33° Centigrade.

(v) There does not appear to be any lunar periodicity effect

in Spawning as seen from the Appendix where the days of breeding and

‘phases of the moon are indicated.

5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are obliged to Dr. B. S. Bhimachar, Chief Research Officer,

Inland Fisheries, Calcutta, and Shri G. N. Mitra, Director of Fisheries,

Orissa, and Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Bombay, for their valuable sugges-

tions and encouragement. The co-operation of the staff of this depart-

ment is thankfully acknowledged, and also the work of Shri Arjun Singh

on dry-bund breeding.

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

APPENDIX

DATES OF BREEDING AND CORRESPONDING PHASES OF THE Moon

eee emma

; | Date of

S. No. Breeding Centre | Breeding | Phase of Moon

iy 2 Perce) 4

1 | Banmore | 22-6-1952 | Amavasyat

2 do. 23-6-1952 New moon

3 do. 11-7-1953 Amavasya

4 do. 12-7-1953 New moon

5 | Nagda 10-7-1954 10th day after new moon

6 | Jharoni 5-8-1954 6th day after new moon

7 | Banmore 2-7-1955 13th day after new moon

8 | Jharoni 10-8-1955 7th day after full moon

9 | Sonarpura 30-8-1955 11th day after full moon

10 |. Baghthera 30-8-1955 11th day after full moon

11 Sonarpura 4-7-1956 11th day after full moon

12 | Sankalkheda 4-7-1956 11th day after full moon

13 | Imalia-Jamal-bagdi 10-7-1956 2nd day after new moon

14 | Banmore 20-7-1956 13th day after new moon

15 | Banmore 21-7-1956 14th day after new moon

16 | Jharoni 21-7-1956 14th day after new moon

17 | Jharoni 27-7-1956 4th day after full moon

18 | Maharajpura 27-7-1956 4th day after full moon

19 | Nagda 27-7-1956 4th day after full moon

20 | Dinara 27-7-1956 4th day after full moon

21 | Khared 8-8-1956 2nd day after new moon

22 | Khared 9-8-1956 3rd day after new moon

23 | Mohari 10-8-1956 4th day after new moon

24 | Banmore 22-7-1957 6th day after full moon

25 | Jharoni 22-7-1957 6th day after full moon

26 | Maharajpura 22-7-1957 6th day after full moon

27: Khared 8-8-1957 7th day after full moon

28 | Baghthera 23-8-1957 2nd day after new moon

29 | . Bilaoli 4-7-1958 3rd day after full moon

30 , Banmore 8-7-1958 7th day after full moon

31 | Jharoni 8-7-1958 7th day after full moon

32 | Sonarpura 8-7-1958 7th day after full moon

33 | Baghthera 8-7-1958 7th day after full moon

34 | Banmore 9-7-1958 8th day after full moon

35 | Nagda 11-7-1958 10th day after full moon

36 | Sonar-Talliya 11-7-1958 10th day after full moon

37 | Butt 22-7-1958 7th day after new moon

38 | Banmore 23-7-1958 8th day after new moon

39 | Sonar-Talliya 23-7-1958 8th day after new moon

40 | Khared 25-7-1958 10th day after new moon

41 Mohari 25-7-1958 10th day after new moon

42.| Jharoni 26-7-1958 11th day after new moon

43 Maharajpura 26-7-1958 11th day after new moon

9-8-1958 11th day after full moon

44 | Sonar-Talliya

ee 2 2a nadeeayane name aero

1The last day of the lunar month, i.e. the day previous to new moon.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF MAJOR CARPS 91

REFERENCES

Brown, M. E. (1957): The Physio-

logy of Fishes. 1 : 287-316, 2 : 271-296.

Academic Press, New York.

Chaudhuri, H. L., & Alikunhi, K. H.

(1957) : Observations on the Spawning

of Indian Carps by Hormone Injection.

Current Science 26: 381-382.

F.A.O. (1955): Handbook on Fish-

Culture in the Indo-Pacific Region, pp.

155-156. Rome.

Indian Fisheries Bulletin (1957) :

4 (4): 8. é

Madhya Bharat Fisheries Bulletin.

(1955) : No. 21: 4-8.

sahay, Ki.) €:; sen, Dv -P., Roy-

Chowdhury, A. K., and Chakarwarti,

S. K. (1957): Studies on the Factors

influencing Spawning of Indian Major

Carps in Bundh Fisheries. Ind. Jour.

Fish. 4 (2) : 284-294.

Hora, S. L. (1945): Symposium on

the Factors influencing the Spawning of

Indian Carps, Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci.,

India 11: 303-329 (References up to

1945 are given in this paper and hence

are not repeated).

Some Observations on the Biology

of the Conchostracan Branchiopod

[Crustacea], Leptestheriella gigas

Karande & Inamdar, 1960

ASHOK A. KARANDE AND N. B. INAMDAR

Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Bombay 1

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

The present communication deals with the biology of the Conchostra-

can Branchiopod, Leptestheriella gigas Karande & Inamdar, 1960, which

was noted living in association with Triops orientalis (Tiwari) during —

our study of the biology of the latter (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56:

215-225) and was later described as a new species (Karande & Inamdar,

1960).

“

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Specimens of Leptestheriella gigas were collected from the Table-

land, Panchgani, in Maharashtra State. L. gigas are found here in

temporary water pools from the middle of June to the end of Novem-

ber. As many as twelve trips were made to this place in 1957 during

the monsoon when a large number of these forms were available.

OBSERVATIONS

Breeding activity

To study the breeding activity in L. gigas as many as 1372 specimens

were collected during the different months of the year 1957. Careful

examination and analysis of the collected material throws light on their

egg-laying capacity, frequency of egg-laying, and the relation between

body length and the number of eggs laid. |

L. gigas is a prolific breeder and lays a large number of eggs, which

remain attached to the exopods of the 10th and 11th limbs under the

bivalve shells. The smallest size of the animal at the egg-laying stage

BIOLOGY OF LEPTESTHERIELLA GIGAS 25

FIG.S FIG.G

Leptestheriella gigas

Fig. 1. Shell of male; Fig. 2. Shell of female; Fig. °3. Profile of

male head; Fig. 4. Profile of female head; Fig. 5. ‘Hand’

first prehensile leg of male; Fig. 6. Exopod of the third male limb.

of this species is 7.5 mm., but the number of such egg-carrying females

found was very small, only three in all the females examined. The

smallest size at maturity is between 8.0 and 8.9 mm., when a large num-

ber of eggs are seen attached to the oostegopods of the limbs.

The minimum number of eggs laid by female Leptestheriella is 140,

the maximum number recorded is 1240. The egg-laying capacity in-

creases with the size, and therefore probably with the age, of the animal.

A large number of females belonging to different size-groups were

examined in every month. ‘The following table gives the average number

of eggs per female in each size-group in the whole season of the year

L957.

94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

TABLE I

Average number of eggs per female in each size-group from

June to November 1957

Size-group June | July | August | September} October | November! Average

7.0-7.9 mm. a Bi 179 139 xt = 159

8.0-8.9 mm. ne a 494 301 213 be 336

9.0-9.9 mm. ei; 284 845 1136 628 A‘ 923

10.0-11 mm. te a 824 1179 419 ap 807

Table I reveals that there is a definite relation between egg-laying

capacity and the length of the animal. This observation is supported

by the findings made in the last two seasons.

It is further observed that the breeding capacity of the individual

female increases gradually as it grows, so that the number of eggs laid

by a female is more than a thousand ata time (Table I). The breeding

activity gradually diminishes towards the end of the life span of the

female. A large number of females measuring 11.0 mm. showed hardly

100 to 150 eggs. This number was much less than the average number

of 807 eggs laid by this size-group (Table 1).

It is not possible to find out exactly the number of times that a single

individual lays eggs. The observations based on the collected data and

supported by the laboratory findings indicate that each female lays eggs

at least three times during its life span which is about fifty days.

Breeding period

The observations made here show that the breeding season in this

species lasts for about four months though the temporary water pools

are found for about six months and the individual life span is about fifty

days (Table II). A large number of females were examined and the per-

centage of egg-carrying females is calculated for each month of

the season. The following is the record of the same from month

to month.

TABLE II

Percentage of egg-carrying females collected in every month

August

June | July September | October | November

| 33°35 76 | 74% | 36.66% | 50.61%

BIOLOGY OF LEPTESTHERIELLA GIGAS 95

In the middle of June, at the commencement of the monsoon, a large

number of Leptestheriella develop from the resting eggs.

In July breeding activity begins and 33.3% of all the females

collected show eggs under their carapaces. These females belong to 9.0

to 9.9 mm. size-group, which constitutes 22.2% of the total females col-

lected in this month (Table ITI).

August may be considered as the period of maximum breeding activity

when the percentage of egg-carrying females is the highest. As many

as 74% of the females collected in this month show the eggs attached to

their oostegopods. The majority of these females belong to 9.0 to 9.9

mm. and the rest to 10.0 to 10.9 mm. size-group. The average number

of eggs laid by these females was about 800 (Table I). This number

though lower than that recorded in the following month of September,

is of general occurrence and hence normal for this Indian species.

In September, the percentage of egg-carrying females diminishes but

there is an increase in the number of eggs carried by each individual.

In the first half of this month, the majority of the females reach a peak

of breeding activity and more than a thousand eggs per female are seen

under the bivalve shells (Table I). But after this, in the later half of the

month, most of the females die and therefore the percentage of egg-

carrying females drops.

In October, the percentage of egg-carrying females increases again

and 50.61% of the females carry eggs as against 74% in August and

36.66% in September. The increase in the breeding is due to the

individuals belonging to the second generation which emerge by the

beginning of September (Table III).

In November, the temporary water pools on the Tableland start

drying up and many individuals die. At the same time a new generation

arises and most of them belong to 3.0 to 7.9 mm. size-group and are

therefore all juveniles.

A monthwise account of the breeding activities in L. gigas further

suggests that 9.0 to 9.9 mm. size constitutes the most active breeding

group of females and forms the principal group amongst breeding fe-

males in every month of the season.

Sex ratio in Leptestheriella gigas

With a view to study the sex ratio in L. gigas more than a thousand

specimens were carefully studied. The collected material is placed in

different size-groups and the sex ratio is studied groupwise for every

month of the season (Table III).

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

TABLE III

Monthwise frequency (in percentages) of males and females of L. gigas in

different size-groups

Size-group June FE July “Au August _| Septem | October yee

a 2 2 2 2 | 2

3 sr) oO (0) a 3

cieee R icine ict sbos eerie ic

= Tee ee al ee eel, ene Sn cal cm

3.0 - 3.9 mm. 6.9 7.5}/— —|— —|— —| — —/10 5

4.0 - 4.9 mm. 13.415.1.;§ — —{t— —|]— 66) — — 8 11

5.0 - 5.9 mm. 9.2° 8.4) — 94.57) ho 5 216.9722) 9 = Ge 749

6.0 - 6.9 mm. 373 5.8 \11-1° 12.0) = 9110) 23 22 Oe ar al

7.0 - 7.9 mm. 9:2 10,04). 7.4: 5254) 9 22.9) 6.16) |4 ol lees 7d

8.0 - 8.9 mm. 5.8 (5.05110.2 24285) Aros 7300 mM 4.3; 5.1 12.9| — —

9.0 - 9.9 mm. — — | 12 22.2 |28.9 24.3 |11.2 8.9|12.9 28.5| — —

10.0 -11.0 mm. — — | —~— — /19,1 13.1 20.0 16.9| 16.1 17.4) — —

No. of specimens 57 «62 | 44 64 194 in 199 226 58 97 57 24

In June, with the onset of the monsoon, small-sized forms measuring

between 3.0 to 8.9 mm. are available. In almost all the size-groups the

ratio between the males and the females is found to be the same, though

in a few cases there are more females than males. |

In July, the forms measuring between 5.0 to 9.9 mm. are available.

Amongst these the 9.0 to 9.9 mm. size-group is dominant. It may be

said that L. gigas reaches a size of 9.9 mm. within one month’s time.

The number of females continues to be more than males in every size-

group available in this month.

By the middle of August 32.2% of the ‘otal collected Leptestheriella

attain the largest size, ie. 10.0 to 11.0 mm. Others of the 9.0 to 9.9

mm. size-group constitute 53% of the total collection. The males out-

number the females particularly in the size-group 9.0 to 9.9 mm. This

may be attributed to the death of a large number of females which have a

shorter span of life than the males.

In September, a large number of young individuals develop which

constitute a late or a second generation. In this month forms measuring

between 4.0 to 11.0 mm. are found and majority of them belong to 9.0

to 11.0 mm. size-group. Once again the number of females is greater

than that of males, but this is due to the emergence of the second

BIOLOGY OF LEPTESTHERIELLA GIGAS 97

generation, the majority of which are small-sized females. In large-sized

forms measuring 9.0 to 11.0 mm., belonging to the first generation, males

outnumber females (Table III). This again shows that the males have

a longer span of life than the females.

In October, forms measuring 6.0 to 11.0 mm. are available and it

appears that most of them, except perhaps the very few measuring 10.0

to 11.0 mm., belong to the second generation. A majority of the forms

observed during this period of the season are of 9.0 to 9.9 mm. size-

group (41.1%), and are about one month old. In this month females

outnumber males and, unlike previous monthly findings, this dominance

is seen in every size-group, except 6.0 to 6.9 mm. which is the smallest

available group.

In November, as already mentioned, a large number of Leptesthe-

riella die due to unsuitable conditions prevailing in the ponds. But

at the same time a third generation springs up. Majority of these be-

long to 3.0 to 7.9 mm. size-group. Here males outnumber females in

most of the size-groups.

It has been noted by many workers that the eggs of many Branchio-

pods need desiccation prior to hatching. Pai (1959) has noted two types

of eggs in the Estherid form she studied but observes that only one type

is viable. The field observations made here tend to suggest that L. gigas

lay two types of eggs. The eggs which hatch out in the month of June

are summer eggs and therefore need desiccation. It appears that some

eggs, however, need no desiccation and hatch out the very same year

they are deposited by the females. This view is supported by the fact

that egg-laying is at its maximum in August and October and the hatch-

ing in September and November. The eggs hatching in September and

November, therefore, probably belong to the second category.

HABITS

L. gigas are found in shallow ponds along with other Branchiopods

like Triops orientalis, Streptocephalus dichotomus, and Daphnia. L. gigas

are found in plenty particularly in shallow ponds with soft and muddy

bottom, though they are not uncommon in deep rocky ponds. The

temporary water-pools are at the most knee-deep and, therefore, it is

very easy to catch them without the help of nets. These animals lay

resting eggs like Triops which are able to withstand desiccation for con-

siderable periods and may be collected during the dry season.

L. gigas are not active swimmers as compared to TJ. orientalis and

other Anostracan form S. dichotomus. Normally they swim with their

backs upwards but are occasionally seen swimming upside down like

Triops. The limbs beat continuously throughout life, metachronal

7 ;

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

waves passing forward. JL. gigas are very rarely seen clinging to the

blades of grasses though they do not feed on them. A large number

of individuals are seen grubbing in the mud by means of their antennae

and the anterior limbs. This form exhibits filter feeding. The animal

buries itself inversely in the mud with the gape of the bivalve shell kept

wide open. The anteriorly directed food-currents are formed by the

metachronal movements of the limbs. They consume bacteria, pro-

tozoons, and diatoms. Examination of the contents of alimentary canals

of a large number of individuals exhibit all these in addition to algae.

The pinnate type diatoms and algae constitute the bulk of their food.

L. gigas do not feed on any Crustaceans nor do they exhibit cannibalism

as Triops do. Their only enemy appears to be T. orientalis which con-

sumes them as food (Karande & Inamdar 1959).

Many individuals are seen in sexual union, and particularly so to-

wards the end of the monsoon. The male and the female lie one behind

the other in the same axis and the former catches hold of one of the

bivalve shells of the latter by means of its claspers. The male bends

its abdomen and rests against the ventral side of the female on 10th

and 11th ovigerous legs which bear unfertilized eggs. The fertilization

takes place outside the body and inside the bivalve shell. The larva is

a nauplius.

APPENDIX A

Chemical analysis of the water in the temporary water pools at Tableland, Panchgani

Parts per 100,000

1. Total solids 19.98

2. Volatile and organic matter 6.88

3. Silica (SiO.) 3.79

4. Iron as Fe,O, 1.59

5. Alumina (Al1,O,) by difference 1.92

6. Lime (CaO) 2.08

7. Magnesia (MgO) Traces

8. Chlorides 0.70

9. Sulphates Nil

10. Alkalinity as carbonates 0.79

11. Alkali difference 223

12. Hardness permanent 1.11

13. Hardness temporary 0.58

14. Hardness total j 1.69

15. Ammonia saline 0.049

16. Ammonia albuminoid 0.011

17. Nitrates Nil

18. Nitrites Nil

19. Phosphates Traces

20. Poisonous metals : Nil

BIOLOGY OF LEPTESTHERIELLA GIGAS 99

SUMMARY

A study of a Conchostracan Branchiopod Leptestheriella gigas

collected at the tableland, Panchgani, Satara, Maharashtra, shows the

following points of interests :

L. gigas is a prolific breeder, and the minimum size at maturity varies

between 8.0 to 8.9 mm.

Minimum number of eggs deposited at a time by a female Leptes-

theriella is 140, whereas the maximum number recorded is 1240.

There appears to be a relation between the length of the animal

and the number of eggs laid.

The egg-laying is at the maximum in August and October and the

hatching of eggs in June, September, and November.

L. gigas attains a size of 10.0 mm. in about a month reaching a maxi-

mum size of 11.0 mm. during its lifetime.

In natural populations there are more females than males. In the

large-sized stages males outnumber females. This is probably due to

a shorter span of life in the females than in the males.

A possibility of Z. gigas laying viable eggs which need no desicca-

tion is suggested.

Field observations on feeding and breeding habits supported by

laboratory findings are incorporated.

An analysis of the water in the temporary water-pools at Tableland,

Panchgani, is appended.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This investigation was partly supported by an award from the Sir

Dorabji Tata Trust made available through the Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay. The authors are also grateful to Dr. K. J. Mahal,

Chemical Analyser to the Government of Maharashtra, for the analysis

of the water sample.

REFERENCES

Karande, A. A. & Inamdar, N. B.

(1960) : A new species of the genus Lep-

testheriella from India. Ann. & Mag.

Nat. Hist. Lond. 2 (13) : 305-308.

— — (1959): Observations on the

taxonomic characters of Triops orien-

talis (Tiwari), with a note on its biology.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56: 215-225.

Pai, P. G. (1958): On post-embryo-

nic stages of phyllopod crustaceans--

Triops (Apus), Streptocephalus and Esthe-

ria. Proc, Ind. Acad. of Sci. 48 (SB):

229-250.

The Birds of Nepal

PART 3

BISWAMOY BISWAS

Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta

[Continued from Vol. 57 (3) : 546]

Order STRIGIFORMES

‘Family STRIGIDAE

246. Otus spilocephalus spilocephalus (Blyth) = huttoni (Hume). Spotted

Scops Owl.

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 ¢ (April 19).

The Spotted Scops Owl does not appear to be a common bird of Nepal.

The only specimen obtained by us was found in the forest at Chitlang.

Proud (1955, p. 70) found it common on the hills round the Nepal

Valley, especially between c. 1830 and 2590 m. Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 77) occasionally heard it in western and eastern Nepal, and had

a specimen from the Nepal Valley. Neither Scully (1879), nor Ripley

(1950b) record it from Nepal.

Measurements: 12%: Wing 144; tail 75; bill from skull 20, bill from anterior

edge of nostril 11.

While my specimen from central Nepal appears somewhat closer to

the nominate eastern race, Rand & Fleming’s single example from the

Nepal Valley is closer to the western huttoni. Baker (1927, p. 429)

reported intermediate birds from Nepal. It would appear, therefore,

that the two races intergrade in central Nepal.

247. Otus scops sunia (Hodgson). Northern Indian Scops Owl.

BuaBar : Amlekhganj: 1 ¢ (March 10). |

This Scops Owl is another rare bird of Nepal. We heard it only a

few times in the bhabar and dun of central Nepal. Ours appears to be

the only post-Hodgsonian record of this bird from Nepal.

Measurements: 1 ¢: Wing 142 ; tail 63 ; bill from skull 20; bill from the anterior

edge of nostril 11.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 101

248. Otus bakkamoena lettia (Hodgson). Eastern Collared Scops Owl.

Dun: Hitaura, Paharé Ghat: 5 go, 4 29, 3 juv. 22 (May 11—June 23).

We found the Collared Scops Owl commonly in the central dun. We

were unable to locate it in the Nepal Valley, although Hodgson found

it in the ‘Central and northern hills’, Scully (1879, p. 232) obtained a

young bird there on May 30, and Proud (1955, p. 70) found it to be

common there almost throughout the year. Both Ripley (1950b, p. 372)

and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 77) found it only in eastern Nepal in

winter.

Of the three juvenile specimens, the youngest one (June 14) has ru-

fous coloration of plumage, and is downy on the back and underside.

A slightly older bird (May 29) is greyish rufous. A still older one (June

22) is pale greyish and is downy on the nape and upper back.

Two of my female specimens (June 11) have granular ovaries.

Colours of soft parts: Iris yellowish brown ; cere greyish olive ; upper mandible

slaty with pale base and black anterior half, lower mandible pale yellow with dusky

on sides (once both mandibles dark slaty with pale base); feet fleshy grey ; claws

dark horny, paler on bases ; pads yellowish white.

Measurements :

5 dd 4 99

Wing: 158, 160, 164, 165, 168 159, 165, 172, 180

Tail : 75, 84 (2), 85 (2) 83, 85, 86, 89

Bill from skull : 24, 24.5, 25 (3) 24, 24.5 (2), 25

Bill from anterior

edge of nostril : 13.5, 14 (2), 14.5, 15 13.5, 14 (2), 15

*249. Bubo bubo bengalensis (Franklin). Great Horned Owl.

This owl has not been reported from Nepal after Hodgson, except

by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 77) who obtained a single specimen in

west-central Nepal at c. 915 m. in January.

*250. Bubo nipalensis nipalensis Hodgson. Forest Eagle-Owl.

The only post-Hodgsonian record of the Forest Eagle-Owl from

Nepal is provided by Scully’s (1879, pp. 231-232) observation at c. 2135m.

on the Sheopuri Range, Nepal Valley.

*251. Bubo coromandus coromandus (Latham). Dusky Horned Owl.

The only record of the Dusky Horned Owl from Nepal is based on

Hodgson’s collection from the ‘ Lower Hills and Tarai of Nepal’ (Gray

& Gray, 1846, p. 51).

252. Bubo zeylonensis leschenault (Temminck). Indian Brown Fish

Owl.

Dun : Hitaura: 2 ¢g, 2 29, 1 juv. 2 (May 25-June 20).

The Brown Fish Owl is not uncommon in the dun of central Nepal.

However, we did not come across it in the Nepal Valley where it was

1022 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

reported by Ripley (1950b, p. 372) and Proud (1955, p. 70). Ripley

found it in the western tarai also. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 78) re-

corded it from west-central and eastern Nepal. Scully (1879) did not,

list this bird.

Remains of crab and fish were found in the stomachs of my specimens.

All my adult birds are worn. A female (May 25) is just beginning to

moult, and a male (May 26) which has very worn wings, has freshly

moulted body feathers and tail ; its chin and throat are still moulting.

Compared with the adult, the juvenile bird (June 10) has the streaks

on the upper parts narrower and browner, and its general coloration

is no more rufescent ; its abdomen and vent are downy with narrower

streaks, and it has mere traces of white patch on the throat and breast.

It is highly worn and is just beginning to moult.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill from Bill from anterior

skull edge of nostril

2603 413, 426 201, 208 49, 52 29 (2)

2 oor —, 415 — 197+ ot, 32 26,927,

253. Bubo flavipes (Hodgson). Tawny Fish Owl.

Dun: Hitaura: 1 g, 1 juv. ¢; 1 juv. 2 (May 18-June 2).

The Tawny Fish Owl is not common in Nepal. We came across it

only in the forests of the Hitaura dun, central Nepal.

It has not been recorded from Nepal by either Scully (1879), or

Ripley (1950b) or Rand & Fleming (1957).

The adult male specimen had remains of fish in the stomach.

Compared with adult birds, the juvenile female (May 18) has the upper

plumage with distinct spots, and narrower and browner streaks ; its under

plumage is downy, chin white, and the streaks finer and paler ; and its

tarsi are covered with down up to about 24 mm. above the base of the

middle toe. The juvenile male (June 2) is very similar to the juvenile

female, but without spots on the upper plumage.

Measurements: 1 &: Wing 452; tail 226; bill from skull 48, bill from anterior

edge of nostril 27.

254. Glaucidium brodiei brodiei (Burton). Western Collared Pygmy

Owlet.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 2 (March 13). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 2 gg, 192

(April 20). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot: 1 ¢ (March 28).

The Collared Pygmy Owlet is not uncommon in the thick forests of

central Nepal from the Valley down to the upper dun.

Scully (1879) did not find it in Nepal. Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 78) reported it also from west-central Nepal. ,

A male and the female from Chitlang had full breeding gonads on

April 20.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 103

Remains of grasshoppers, beetles, and other insects were found in the

stomachs of my specimens.

| Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill from Bill from anterior

skull edge of nostril

3 da’: 88,88.5,93 56,57, 60 14 (3) 9, 9.5, 10

PENDS 96, 98 61, 65 15 (2) 10, 10.5

The well-known variation of the coloration in this form has been

amply summarized by Kinnear (1937, pp. 490-491), Mayr (1938, p. 315)

and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 78).

255. Glaucidium radiatum radiatum (Tickell). Jungle Owlet.

TaARAI : Simra: 1, 1 2 (March 4, 5). BHaBAR: Amlekhganj: 1 ¢ (June 8).

Dun: Hitaura: 2 é¢, 1 9, 1 uv. 2 June 9, July 8-11).

The Jungle Owlet is fairly common in the forests of the tarai, bhabar

and the dun of central Nepal, up to about c. 915 m.

Scully (1879) did not find it in Nepal. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 79)

recorded it from the lowlands of west-central and eastern Nepal.

The March specimens (1 <’, 1 &) are slightly worn.

The female specimen from Hitaura (July 10) is just completing wing

moult, the remiges still having the sheaths on their bases.

One of the male specimens from Hitaura (July 8) still has some down

on the throat and vent, but is otherwise fully adult.

_ The juvenile female bird (July 11) is quite small and downy on the

throat and vent.

The male specimens taken in June had their testes but slightly swollen.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill from Bill from anterior

skull edge of nostril

Asa 127, 129 (2), 133 675, 1032), 736.18 (2),18.5, 19 11), 125 12.5

2 99: 129, 134+ So 20 (2) 11.5, 12

256. Glaucidium cuculoides cuculoides (Vigors). Western Himalayan

Barred Owlet.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 2 (March 9). Dun: Hitaura: 5 ¢¢, 1 juv.

5 QP, 1 juv. 2 (May 12, 26, June 7-23, July 14, 15). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang :

1 ¢ (April 23).

The Barred Owlet is a common bird of the thick forests of central

Nepal from the bhabar to the Nepal Valley.

Scully (1879, p. 233) reported it from Nawakot district, central Nepal,

and once in the Nepal Valley. Ripley (1950b, pp. 372-373) found it

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

from the foothills up to c. 2745 m. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 79)

recorded it from the tarai and foothills of west-central Nepal.

Compared with adult birds, the juvenile specimens (1 4, 1 2, June

9, 15) are more rufous with the head and neck spotted but the breast

barred, and with pointed primaries and growing primary coverts.

A male specimen from Hitaura (June 19) has the wing, wing coverts

and rectrices in moult, the latter moulting all at the same time.

A female bird was laying on May 12, while a male and another female,

both taken on June 7, had only slightly swollen testes and exhausted

ovary. Breeding obviously was over with them.

Remains of insects were found in the stomachs of some of my speci-

mens.

Colours of soft parts: Iris yellow ; cere greenish horny ; bill yellowish green ;

feet dull horny green ; claws dark horny , pads-chrome yellow.

Measurements :

5 3d bie

Wing : 143, 147, 150, 151, 158 145, 148, 150, 152 (2), 153.5

Tail : 75+, 82, 84, 85+, 89 77+, 80, 80+, 82+, 83+,88

Bill from skull : 19 (2), 20, 20.5, 21 19, 20 (3), 20.5, 21

Bill from anterior

edge of nostril : 12, 12.5, 13 (2), 14 12, 12.5 (2), 13 (3)

Specimens from central Nepal show a slight leaning towards the

eastern subspecies austerum.

Ripley (1948, p. 199) stated that G. radiatum and G. cuculoides were

allopatric, the former being found at lower elevations of the Himalayas

where it replaces the latter. He further said (1950b, pp. 372-373) that

G. cuculoides ‘may occur on the edges of the latter’s [G. radiatum’s]

territory at times.’ From the facts recorded above, however, this appears

to be only partially true. In central Nepal there is a zone comprising

parts of the bhabar and dun (alt. c. 245-915 m.), where both the species

not only occur side by side but breed in the same forests. Above this -

zone, G. cuculoides is predominant, and below this, G. radiatum.

Curiously, both the species seem to be more common in this zone of

overlap. Abundance of food and cover may perhaps be the main factors

for their occurrence in greater numbers there.

The difference in the breeding seasons of the two species, as suggested

by Ripley (loc. cit.), is not very evident from my data. In my two June

males of G. radiatum breeding appeared to be over, as it was also in a

male and a female of G. cuculoides taken in June, while another female

of the latter was laying in May. If there is any difference in their breed-

ing seasons at all, it must be very slight. As the evidence stands, I

believe G. cuculotdes remains as a marginal ecological competitor with

G. radiatum.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 105

257. Ninox scutulata lugubris (Tickell). Indian Brown Hawk-Owl.

TARAI: Simra: 2 99 (March 4, June 10). Dun: Hitaura: 4 gg (May 19, 30,

June 2, July 7).

The Brown Hawk-Owl was not infrequently seen by us hawking

insects at dusk near the edges of forests of the tarai and dun of central

Nepal.

Proud (1949, p. 716) noted a pair all the year round in the Nepal

Valley. Ripley (1950b, p. 373) found it only in the western tarai. Rand

& Fleming (1957, pp. 79-80) record it from the lowlands and foothills

of west-central and central Nepal. Scully (1879) did not mention it in

his list.

Remains of insects were found in the stomachs of some of my speci-

mens.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill from Bill from anterior

skull edge of nostril

Anions W202 203, 220.225: 15, 125) 1316 140s 22,.23,24'2)) 12.(2),..12:5, 13.5

74 SIS 217+, 219 126, 133 21, 24 122135

258. Athene brama indica (Franklin). Northern Indian Spotted Owlet.

TARAI: Simra: 1 ¢ (March 5). Dun: Hitaura: 2 ¢¢, 2 92 (May 21, June

23, July 7, 12). NEPAL VALLEY: Kathmandu: 3 ¢¢ (March 23—April 9).

The Spotted Owlet appears to be the commonest nocturnal bird of

prey in Nepal. Most towns and villages of central Nepal have this

owlet. Scully (1879, p. 232), however, “never observed it in the valley

of Nepal’. Polunin (1955, p. 895) recorded it from c. 2745 m. in the

Langtang Valley, central Nepal, in summer.

Specimens taken during late March and early April had only slightly

swollen gonads.

Colours of soft parts: Iris lemon yellow ; cere dirty green; bill dingy greenish

yellow ; feet dirty yellowish green ; claws dark horny ; pads yellowish white.

Measurements :

6 bd ay

Wing : 160, 162, 163, 168, 169 (2) 164, 171

Tail : 76, 77, 81, 82, 84 (2) 80, 83

Bill from skull : 20, 20.5, 21 (3), 22 2223

Bill from anterior edge of nostril: 12, 12.5, 13, 14 (2), 14.5 13, 14.5

*259. Strix leptogrammica newarensis (Hodgson). Himalayan Brown

Wood Owl.

This Wood Owl was not found by us or by Ripley (1950b) or Rand &

Fleming (1957). Scully (1879, p. 230), however, recorded it as a com-

mon resident bird in the Nepal Valley, and as a winter visitor in Nawakot

district. Proud (1949, p. 716) saw one pair all summer in the Valley.

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

[Strix ocellata grisescens Koelz. Northern Mottled Wood Owl.

The Mottled Wood Owl has never been taken in Nepal, but Ripley

(1950b, p. 373) probably heard it in the western tarai and the eastern

foothills. |

*260. Strix aluco nivicola (Blyth). Eastern Tawny Wood Owl.

The post-Hodgsonian records of the Tawny Wood Owl are Ripley’s

(1950b, p. 373) who heard it in eastern Nepal at c. 2440 m. in winter,

and Lowndes’s (1955, p. 36) who found a single example in the pine

forest at c. 2745 m. in Manangbhot, central Nepal, in mid-August.

*261. Asio otus otus (Linnaeus). Long-eared Owl.

Hodgson’s specimen as listed by Gray & Gray (1846, p. 52) provides

the sole record of the Long-eared Owl from Nepal. Since Nepal is far

away from the known range of this species, Hodgson’s example was

obviously a stray one.

262. Asio flammeus flammeus (Pontoppidan). Short-eared Owl.

NEPAL VALLEY : Chandragiri Pass above Thankot: 1 ¢ (April 13).

The only specimen of the Short-eared Owl encountered by us in Nepal

is the one mentioned above. Scully (1879) and Ripley (1950b) did not

report it from Nepal. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 80) found it in the

eastern lowlands in winter.

My specimen was very fat, and its stomach contained the remains

of a male Rufousbellied Niltava (Niltava sundara).

Measurements: 1 %: Wing 317+; tail 143+; bill from skull 29, bill from

anterior edge of nostril 14.

*263. Tyto alba stertens Hartert. Indian Barn Owl.

Scully (1879, p. 229) made the last recorded collection of the Barn

Owlin Nepal. He found it as a resident bird in the Nepal Valley.

*264. Phodilus badius saturatus Robinson. Northern Bay Owl.

The only record of the Bay Owl from Nepal is based on Hodgson’s

collection (Gray & Gray, 1846, p. 53).

Order CAPRIMULGIFORMES

Family CAPRIMULGIDAE

265. Caprimulgus indicus hazarae Whistler & Kinnear. Himalayan

Jungle Nightjar.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 ¢ (May 8). MARKHU VALLEY : Deorali: 1 ¢, 1 2 (May 2).

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 ¢, 1 2 (April 17, 23).

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 107

The Himalayan Jungle Nightjar is not uncommon in central Nepal

from the upper limits of the dun northward. In the Nepal Valley, we

were unable to actually observe it, but probably heard it at Thankot

early in April. However, it was found there by Scully (1879, p. 236) at

the foot of the hills as an uncommon bird, and by Proud (1952b, p. 669)

on Nagar Jong as a common species. Stevens (1925b, p. 678) noted it

breeding in the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal, in May. Ripley (1950b,

p. 373) reported it from the tarai of both western and eastern Nepal in

winter. Proud (1952a, p. 365) heard it in the Gandak-Kosi watershed,

central Nepal, at c. 2440-2745 m. in spring. Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 80) recorded it from west-central Nepal in winter. Biswas (1960a)

found it in the Inukhu Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 2895 m. in June.

It was breeding in April. A male specimen taken April 23 had fully

developed testes, and a female specimen was laying on April 17.

Measurements :

Wing Tail

3 od: 200, 207, 215 133 (2), 144

2 99: 202, 203 135, 137

266. Caprimulgus macrurus albonotatus Tickell. Indian Longtailed

Nightjar.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 ¢ (March 7). Dun: Hitaura: 7 ¢¢, 1 juv. Be

4 2° (May 13—June 22, July 12). . |

This nightjar was found by us as a common bird of the dun of central

Nepal. In the central bhabar it was noted only occasionally. We did

not come across it in the Nepal Valley where it was reported by Scully

(1879, p. 236) in June-July, Proud (1949, p. 715) in March-April, and

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 81) in April. It was further recorded in the

Gandak-Kosi watershed, central Nepal, by Smythies (1948, p. 442—

a doubtful record at c. 3655 m. in autumn), in the eastern tarai by Ripley

(1950b, p. 373) and Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.). The latter authors found

it also in western and west-central Nepal.

The juvenile male specimen (June 3) has the throat rufous, finer bars

on the abdomen and vent, tips of outer tail feathers white on inner web

and rufous on outer, and rufous spots on the primaries.

A male example has the central rectrices in moult on July 12.

Measurements :

8 od aoe

Wing : 207, 209, 214 (2), 217, 222, 223, 228 209 (2), 211; 212

anluyics 158, 160 (2), 161, 166, 168 (2), 179 158, 160, 161, 167

267. Caprimulgus affinis monticola Franklin. Franklin’s Nightjar.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 3 gd, 1 9 (March 9, 10). Dun: Hitaura: 1 2 (May

26). °

Franklin’s Nightjar was found by us in small numbers in opener

parts of forests of the central bhabar and dun.

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

It has not been reported from Nepal by either Scully (1879) or Ripley

(1950b), but Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 81) found it in the bhabar of west-

central Nepal and the dun of central Nepal.

Measurements :

Wing Tail

Breve 193, 196, 202 117, 120, 124

2 oe: 197, 202 119, 120

Order TROGONIFORMES

Family TROGONIDAE

268. Harpactes erythrocephalus hodgsonii (Gould). Himalayan Red-

headed Trogon.

Trogon (Harpactes) hodgsonii Gould, 1838, Monogr. Trogonidae, Ist ed., pl. 34.

(Nepal, restricted to Hitaura, Chisapani Garhi district, by Biswas, 1959b, p. 338.)

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 4 (March 8). DuN: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 2 ¢2,

1 subad. ¢, 4 22, 1 subad. 2 (May 10—June 4).

The Redheaded Trogonis not uncommoninthe dense evergreen forests

of the duns of central Nepal. It was not observed by us in the Nepal

Valley where Proud (1955, p. 70) found it breeding at c. 1830 m. Rand

& Fleming (1957, p. 82) obtained it in west-central and eastern Nepal

at c. 455 and 1220m. Neither Scully (1879) nor Ripley (1950b) reported

it from Nepal. Its quiet nature may perhaps be responsible for its

apparent scarcity.

Three of my male specimens are just completing the post-juvenile

moult. Two of them (March 8, May 10) still have traces of buff on the

breast, and the third (May 15) has crimson feathers coming on the head.

The two birds entered above as subadult (0, 2, May 18, 23) are passing

through the post-juvenile moult.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

366": 153+, 154, 155.5 182, 195+, — 21 (2), 21.5

AION 1351, 15225; 153+, 134-180, 183, 188-5 51907 2052052212)

Regarding the use of Gould’s name hodgsonii for this bird, see Biswas

(op. cit., pp. 336-338).

Order CORACIITIFORMES

Family CoRACIIDAE

269. Coracias benghalensis benghalensis (Linnaeus). Northern Indian

Roller. :

Corvus benghalensis Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat., 10th ed., 1 : 106. [Bengal, fixed,

at Tulin, Purulia district, West Bengal, by Biswas’s (1961a, pp. 217-219) neotype desig-

nation. |

Dun : Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 8 ¢¢, 1 juv. 3, 1 2 (March 5, May 16—June 15).

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 109

This roller is a common bird around villages from the plains up to

the duns of central Nepal.

It has been recorded from the Nepal Valley as a straggler by Scully

(1879, p. 237), and a stray specimen has been obtained in Manangbhot,

central Nepal, at c. 3655 m. in August by Lowndes (1955, p. 36). Biswas

(1960a) reports it from c. 760-915 m. in the Arun watershed, eastern

Nepal, in June.

The juvenile male bird (June 12) has only a little green on the crown

and more on back, the throat and breast brown with white streaks, the

abdomen and vent pale blue with dark brown shaft stripes.

Measurements :

Sites i

Wing : 185 (2), 189, 191.5, 193.5, 194, 195, 196 192

Tail : 117, 122, 125, 128+, 129, 131, 133, — 129

Bill from anterior edge of

nostril : 26 (2), 27 (2), 28 (2), 29, 30 28.5

The central Nepal birds are somewhat intermediate between bengha-

lensis and affinis, but most specimens are closer to the nominate race.

The zone of intergradation between the two subspecies includes Nepal

(east of about 85°E. lat.), north-eastern Bihar, Sikkim, northern and

eastern Bengal, and western Assam (Garo Hills). In this connexion

Ripley (1950b, pp. 374-375) and Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 84-85) may

also be referred.

270. Eurystomus orientalis cyanicollis Vicillot. Himalayan Broad-

billed Roller.

Eurystomus cyanicollis Vieillot, 1819, Nouv. Dict. Hist. nat. 29:425. (les

Indes ’=Chandernagore, Hooghly district, West Bengal, according to Stresemann,

1952, p. 519.)

Eurystomus calonyx Sharpe, 1890, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond.: 551. (Himalayan

tarai from Kumaon to Darjiling and upper Assam.)

Eurystomus orientalis abundus Ripley, 1942, Proc. biol. Soc. Wash. 55 :170.

(Nanking, China.)

Dun : Hitaura: 4 gd, 6 22 (May 17-29).

The Broadbilled Roller is common in the forests of the central dun,

though it has not been reported from Nepal by either Scully (1879), or

Ripley (1950b) or Rand & Fleming (1957).

A male specimen on May 27 had somewhat swollen testes, the right

one measuring 5x3, and the left, 7x5 mm., while a female taken May

29 had very much enlarged ovary with the largest ova 3-4 mm.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown ; edges of the upper eyelid and orbital

skin dusky vermillion ; bill, legs and feet deep vermillion with black on the tip of bill;

claws black ; pads vermillion.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

4 3d: 190, 192, 195, 197.5 95, 96, 102 (2) 32 (2), 33 (2)

(3) Se 184; 187.5, 191 (2); 193,90, 93, 95, 97, 99; 100° 32.5, 33:2), 34 (2),. 35

194.5

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

I am unable to concur with Ripley’s (1942) review (followed by Peters,

1945, pp. 245-247) of this species, at least so far as the Indian forms are

concerned. According to him the breeding range of his abundus in-

cludes * northern Cachar, Nepal, upper Assam,....’ and that of orien-

talis (in his sense), ‘southern Himalayas,.... Assam,....’, thus im-

plying a wide overlap. This is, however, far from what we actually

find. The breeding birds of Kumaon, Nepal, Garo Hills, Khasi Hills

and Cachar all belong to one and the same subspecies whose name, as

Stresemann (1952, p. 519) has shown, should be Eurystomus orientalis

cyanicollis Vieillot. Sharpe’s E. calonyx is only its synonym, and Ripley’s

E. o. abundus is merely an unnecessary renaming of E. calonyx?.

The single specimen from Madras (Koelz Coll.) referred to by Ripley

(op. cit., p. 172) under orientalis, actually came from Nilambur, Malabar,

Kerala (formerly part of Madras Presidency). That specimen is an

example of true /aetior Sharpe which, as Meise (1950, p. 306) has also

shown, is a perfectly valid subspecies.

I believe the Indian forms of E. orientalis are best treated as follows :

E. o. cyanicollis Vieillot: Himalayas from Kumaon east to Assam

and northern Burma, and north to lower Amur (Siberia) and

Manchuria. In winter to northern India, Burma, Malayan

Peninsula, Siam, Indochina, southern China, Japan and many

Indo-Malayan islands.

E. o. laetior Sharpe: Southwestern India (Kerala, and parts of

Mysore and Madras).

E. o. irisi Deraniyagala: Ceylon.

E. o. gigas Stresemann: South Andamans.

Family ALCEDINIDAE

271. Ceryle lugubris continentalis Hartert. Himalayan Pied Kingfisher.

Dun : Hitaura: 6 é¢, 4 92 (May 15—June 5).

The Himalayan Pied Kingfisher is not uncommon on the rivers and

streams in the dun of central Nepal. A few were also observed by us

at Amlekhganj in the central bhabar.

Scully (1879) did not record it from Nepal. Proud (1949, p. 715)

once found it in the Nepal Valley. Ripley (1950b, p. 374) and Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 82) recorded it from western Nepal.

1JIn Ripley’s latest work (in press), the position regarding Nepal birds is still

confusing. While the breeding range of calonyx includes Nepal, the same country

is also included, without qualifying as to breeding or wintering, in the range of cyani-

collis. In fact, the arrangement of the subspecies remains largely similar to that

proposed by him in 1942. To my knowledge, ours are the only dated and definitely

breeding examples from Nepal, and I have no doubt that the breeding birds from

Kumaon, Nepal and southern Assam all belong to the same subspecies.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 111

One of my female specimens had a spent ovary on June 5.

Four male specimens taken May 15-23 are in very worn plumage,

and two of them (May 17 and 21) have the central tail feathers in moult.

The other two males (May 15, June 5) and all the females (May 12, 15, 22,

and June 5) are in fresh plumage. This data, however, precludes the

possibility of stating with any degree of certainty as to whether there is

at all any sexual difference in the time of moult in this species.

Colours of soft parts: Iris almost black ; bill black with pale grey on almost

the whole of basal half; legs and feet greyish olive ; claws dark horny with whitish

on tips ; pads light brownish white.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

6 gd : 177-++, 178, 178.5, 179+, 180, 183 104, 106, 107+, —(3) 71 (2), 72, 73 (2),—

42°: 179, 181.5 (2), 184. 5 106 (2), 107, — IZ 14a]

* 272. Ceryle rudis leucomelanura Reichenbach. Indian Pied King-

fisher.

This Pied Kingfisher was not found by us in Nepal. Scully (1879,

p. 238) noted it once in Nawakot district, central Nepal, in winter.

Ripley (1950b, p. 374) and Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 82-83) reported it

from the lowlands of both western and eastern Nepal.

273. Alcedo atthis bengalensis Gmelin. Common Indian Kingfisher.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 ¢, 1 2 (March 7, 8). DUN: Hitaura: 2 gg, 1

subad. 3, 1 juv. 3, 2 22, 3 juv. 22, 1 juv. unsexed (May 11-15, 28, June 4, 14, 16, July

29). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 ¢, 1 unsexed (April 22, 23). NEPAL VALLEY :

Thankot : 1 ¢ (April 12).

This kingfisher is not so common in the Nepal and Chitlang valleys

as it is in the bhabar and dun. It occurs on almost all the streams, except

those in deep forests, perched on boulders or on branches of dead or

living trees overhanging water.

All our May specimens are in worn plumage. The juvenile examples

taken June 4, 14, and 16, correspond with Baker’s (1927, p. 251) descrip-

tion of the first year birds.

Colours of soft parts (of a female) : Iris dark brown ; upper mandible black with

pale horny on tip ; lower mandible mixed dusky and orange-brown ; legs and feet

deep orange ; claws dark horny ; pads deep orange.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill from anterior

edge of nostril

4 od: 69 (2), 70, 76 3132 (2); 37 31532.5.(2)533

6 9°: 69.5, 71 (2), 71.5, 74 (2) 31, 32 3), 32.5, 37 31 (3), 32.5 (2), 34

1 unsexed : 70 32 32

274. Alcedo meninting coltarti Baker. Indian Blue-eared Kingfisher.

Dun : Hitaura: 1 subad. 3, 6 juv. ¢¢, 4 juv. 22 (June 12-19).

The Blue-eared Kingfisher was found by us only on small hill-streams

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

in the evergreen, dense forests about Hitaura in the central dun. It

appeared to prefer dense shady spots.

I am unable to trace any earlier record of this species in Nepal.

Measurements: 1 subad. : Wing 68; tail 29; bill 36.

I fail to find any constant character by which the populations from

Sikkim, Assam and northern Burma can be separated from those of the

rest of India, so that A. laubmanni Mathews, 1925, should be treated as a

synonym of A. m. coltarti Baker, 1919 (see also Ripley, in press).

275. Pelargopsis capensis capensis (Linnaeus). Brownheaded Stork-

billed Kingfisher.

Dun: Hitaura: 4 gg, 1 2 (May 20, June 2-12, July 12).

This kingfisher is found in small numbers on the larger rivers in the

duns of central Nepal.

Scully (1879) and Ripley (1950b) both failed to report it from Nepal,

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 83) record it from the lowlands up to c. 760

m. in western and west-central Nepal.

My only female specimen (May 20) is very worn and has the central

rectrices in moult.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

4 od: 151, 158, 160 (2) 98, 98+, 102, 103 83 (2), 87 (2)

Ome 160 = 95

276. Halcyon coromanda coromanda (Linnaeus). Indian Ruddy King-

fisher.

Dun: Hitaura: 1¢, 2 92 (May 20, 29, June 10).

The Ruddy Kingfisher is indeed a rare bird in central Nepal. It was

observed by us only on a few occasions in the dense forests around Hitaura

in the dun. Its rarity may perhaps be due to its very shy nature and its

habitat along the streams in deeply shaded dense forests.

Ours appears to be the only post-Hodgsonian record of this species

from Nepal.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill from anterior

edge of nostril

Rae 113 63 45.5

2:9°:; 117, 118 63, 66 48.5 (2)

277. Halcyon smyrnensis fusca (Boddaert). Indian Whitebreasted

Kingfisher.

Buasar: Amlekhganj: 19 (March 9). Dun: Hitaura: 1 3, 1 subad.

3, 2juv. dd; 2 PP, 1 juv. 2 (May 21, 27, June 3-23). NEPAL VALLEY : Kathmandu:

1 ¢ (April 8).

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 113

The Whitebreasted Kingfisher is not as common in the Nepal Valley

as it is in the duns of central Nepal. It occurs in cultivated areas, edges

of forests, in and around villages and towns.

It is said to breed in March-June (Baker, 1924, p. 269 for India ;

Scully, 1879, p. 238, and Ripley, 1950b, p. 374 for the Nepal Valley).

My only April specimen (', Kathmandu), however, had non-breeding

gonads. A Hitaura female had an enlarged ovary on June 3, the largest

ovum being 4 mm. in diameter. .

The juvenile male specimen taken June 23 is very young, having bars

on the sides of the throat, breast and abdomen. Another male (June

13) and a female (May 27) are a bit older, having bars only on the breast

and abdomen. The subadult male (June 12) has only traces of bars

on the breast, and a smaller bill.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown ; edges of eyelids orange-red ; bill blood-

red but dusky on base ; legs and feet orange-red ; claws black ; pads orange-red.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill from anterior

edge of nostril

266. 118, 124 78, 83 48, 49

3 99: 120, 123, — 81, 84 (2) 44a, 47, 49

a The tip of bill is very blunt, perhaps due to nest digging.

Whistler & Kinnear’s (1935, pp. 761-762) revision of the Indian races

of Halcyon smyrnensis, followed by Peters (1945, p. 196), and Rand &

Fleming (1957, pp. 83-84), does not seem to me to be entirely satisfactory.

From an examination (which unfortunately was not a very detailed

one) of comparatively fresh material from Israel, Iran, the whole of

northern and southern India, and Ceylon, coupled with the existing

collections in the British Museum (Natural History) and the American

Museum of Natural History, I find that the coloration of plumage in

the species as a whole is highly variable, particularly the tone of blue or

green on the dorsal side. The chocolate coloration is uniformly paler

in Israeli and Iranian birds than in Indian. I am unable to separate the

northern from the southern Indian birds on coloration alone ; in size

they appear to be barely separable. Ceylonese birds are still darker,

and the few specimens from southern Mysore and Salem district

of Madras that I have seen, appear close to the Ceylon birds in coloration

but larger in size. However, pending a critical review of the species, the

following arrangement may prove satisfactory. This incidentally agrees

with Baker’s (1927, pp. 268-271) in the widest sense :

‘A. Pale and large Israel, Iran smyrnensis

B. Darker and larger than A Northern India =

Cc. As dark as B but smaller Southern India fusca

D. Darker than B and C, Southern Mysore, ne

and as small as C Salem (Madras)

E. Darkest and smallest Ceylon - generosa

i114. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

For the time being it would perhaps be better to treat B and D as

TUSCOn:

Family MEROPIDAE

278. Merops leschenaulti leschenaulti Vieillot. | Chestnutheaded

Bee-eater.

Dun: Hitaura: 5 ¢¢, 4 juv. 3%, 2 juv. unsexed (May 20—June 1, 13). NEPAL

VALLEY : Gokarna: 1 ¢, 1 (April 5).

In the central dun, the Chestnutheaded Bee-eater is fairly common.

In the Nepal Valley, however, it was seen by us only once, a pair, which

was collected.

Ripley (1950b, p. 374) reported it from the tarai, but neither Scully

(1879) nor Rand & Fleming (1957) found it in Nepal.

The Nepal Valley specimens had somewhat enlarged gonads on April

5 : the testes measured 6.5 x 5 (right) and 8.5 x 5 mm. (left), and the ovary

8.55 with a 3 mm. ovum.

Three male specimens taken May 26, 27 and June 1, are very worn,

but one of them (May 27) is just finishing moult on the crown.

Of the juvenile birds, three males and the two unsexed ones (May

20, 28, 29 and June 1) are of about the same age. They all lack the black

pectoral band and have some green on crown, particularly on the fore-

crown. The other juvenile male specimen (June 13) appears to be

slightly older.

One of the juvenile birds, a male taken May 28, has moulting wings.

Colours of soft parts: Iris crimson ; bill black ; legs, feet and claws dark slaty ;

pads white.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

6 ¢¢: 106,107 (2), 107.5,108,110 76+, 78+, 79, 80 (2),84 35, 37 (3), 37.5, 39

Lis 106.5 80 36

The species has never been known to occur in Nepal higher than the

duns. Our record from the Nepal Valley at c. 1370 m. represents in all

probability a stray occurrence there.

279. Merops philippinus philippinus Linnaeus. Bluetailed Bee-eater.

Dun: Hitaura: 1 ¢, 3 juv. og, 4 QO, 4 juv. 22, 1 unsexed (July 3-7, 15-29).

The Bluetailed Bee-eater is fairly common outside the forests in

cultivated areas and about villages in the Hitaura dun central Nepal.

1 The arrangement of the Indian subspecies recently proposed by Ripley (in

press) also appears to be unsatisfactory. While I have not particularly examined

Malayan or Indo-Chinese examples, and consequently do not know if they are the

same as birds from Orissa or West Bengal, I certainly would not separate the latter

from those of Nepal or Uttar Pradesh.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL Ti5

Scully (1879), Ripley (1950b) and Rand & Fleming (1957) failed to

find it in Nepal.

Almost all the specimens collected are more or less worn, and one

specimen (¥, July 4) has just begun moulting.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

or: 139 — 47

3 (st yr.) oo: 128 (2), 133 146, — (2) 39, 42, 47

4 22: 126, 127, 131 (2) 115, 124+,128,— 43 (2), 43+, 45

4 (Ist yr.) 29: 22. 123, 126 — (4) 36, 37, 41, 43

1 unsexed : 131 128+ 46

These specimens were included in his studies on Meropidae by Marien

(1950).

280. Merops orientalis orientalis Latham. Common Indian Bee-eater.

TARAI: Simra: 1 unsexed (March 6).

This bee-eater is common in the plains and the cultivated parts of the

tarai of central Nepal.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 85) reported it from the tarai of western,

west-central and eastern Nepal. The only record of its occurrence in

the Nepal Valley, obviously a stray one, was made by Scully (1879, p.

237) from Kathmandu.

Measurements: 1 unsexed: Wing 98 ; tail 134; bill 32.5.

Marien (1950) included this specimen in his studies on Meropidae.

281. Nyctyornis athertoni athertoni (Jardine & Selby). Bluebearded

; ~ Bee-eater.

TARAI: Simra: 1 ¢, 1 @ (March 4). BHaBAR: Amlekhganj: 1 ¢ (March 9).

Dun: Hitaura: 2 ¢¢, 2 juv. é¢, 1 juv. 2, 1 unsexed, I juv. unsexed (May 23,

June 3-24). NepaL VALLEY: Thankot: 1 ¢ (March 28).

In the Nepal Valley, the Bluebearded Bee-eater is indeed rare, though

it is fairly common in the forests of the central dun, and is also found in

the central bhabar and tarai.

Scully’s (1879) report does not include this species. Ripley (1950b,

p. 374) found it in the eastern tarai, and Rand & Fleming (1957,

pp. 85-86) in the western lowlands and the Valley. |

The stomach of a juvenile specimen from Hitaura had large green

beetles.

The May and June birds are more or less worn, but two specimens

(io, June 12, 24) have just started the general post-nuptial moult begin-

ning from the crown or forehead.

Three immature specimens (1 6, 12, 1 unsexed), taken together on

June 3, have all completed the body moult while the wings and tails are

still moulting. |

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Measurements :

. Wing Tail Bill

33h : 133, 134+, 137, 139,140 124+, 127, 130, 134,135 50, 51, 52, 53 (2)

iQ: 132 128 48

1 unsexed : 132 127 46

The specimens were included in Marien’s (1950) studies on Meropidae.

Family UPUPIDAE

282. Upupa epops saturata Loénnberg. Tibetan Hoopoe.

NEPAL VALLEY : Kathmandu: 1 ¢, 1 (March 21, April 5).

Only a few examples of the hoopoe were observed by us in the Nepal

Valley from mid-March to mid-April. They were seen only in the out-

skirts of Kathmandu.

It has been reported to occur in the Valley as a scarce bird and only

on passage by Scully (1879, p. 263) and Proud (1949, p. 715). It has also

been found in the plains and tarai in winter by Scully (loc. cit.), Ripley

(1950b, p. 375) and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 85). In the northern

regions of central Nepal, Smythies (1948, p. 442) found it in pairs in the

Gandak-Kosi watershed at c. 3655-4570 m. in autumn ; Polunin (1955,

p. 895) occasionally noted it in the Langtang Valley at c. 2440 m. and

* once at c. 4420 m. in summer ; and Lowndes (1955, p. 36) observed it

at c. 3655 m. in Manangbhot in July-August. In the northern region of

eastern Nepal, Biswas (1960a) found a stray example at c. 5790 m. on

Pumori glacier in May.

Both my specimens had slightly swollen gonads, the ovary being

granular.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown ; bill dark horny or black with fleshy on

the base of lower mandible and gape; legs dull horny ; feet and claws black ; pads

grey.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

ogee 153 106 64

1 Os 146 100 54

On the taxonomy of the Indian forms of Upupa epops, there has been

a great deal of divergent views. But the latest arrangement of the subspe-

cies proposed by Ripley (in press) works satisfactorily, and has been

followed here.

*283. Upupa epops ceylonensis Reichenbach. Indian Hoopoe.

The hoopoe resident in Nepal from the plains up to c. 1830 m. be-

longs to this form. We were unable to find it there, but Ripley (1950b,

p. 375) and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 85) reported it thence.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL , 117

Family BUCEROTIDAE

284. Tockus birostris pergriseus Koelz. Common Northern Grey Horn-

bill.

Tockus birostris pergriseus Koelz, 1939, Proc. biol. Soc. Wash. 52:79. (Lahore ,

West Pakistan.)

TARAI: Simra: 3 ¢¢, 1 2 (March 4).

The Common Grey Hornbill is not uncommon in the central tarai in

forests with tall trees in lighter parts, such as about villages, as well as

in fairly dense parts. A few were also observed by us in the central dun.

Scully (1879) did not report it from Nepal. Ripley (1950b, p. 375)

found it in the tarai and dun, and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 86), oc-

casionally in the tarai of both western and eastern Nepal.

Measurements :

3 33 i?

Wing : 212, 219, 220 203

Tail : 277+, 282+,290 265+

¢ base of casque : 102 (2), 105 81

Bill from are edge of nostril : 83, 84, 86.5 64

length : 49, 54, 59 34

Casque height from upper edge of nostril : 17.5, 18, 19 15.5

Whistler (1941, p. 464) followed by Peters (1945, p. 255) and Ripley

(in press), among others, did not admit this form. A re-examination

of fresh material from all over the range of the species reveals, however,

that the northern Indian birds are constantly less brown and more grey

than the southern birds, so that pergriseus Koelz should be accepted as

a valid subspecies.

*285. Aceros nipalensis (Hodgson). Rufousnecked Hornbill.

This hornbill does not seem to have been reported from Nepal since

Hodgson’s days.

286. Anthracoceros malabaricus malabaricus (Gmelin). Large Indian

Pied Hornbill.

Dun : Hitaura: 1 9 (June 4).

The large Pied Hornbill appears to be a scarce bird in central Nepal.

The specimen under report was the only one seen there by us.

Neither Scully (1879) nor Ripley (1950b) recorded it in their lists.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 86), however, found it fairly common in the

western tarai.

My specimen is undergoing a complete moult, presumably post-

nuptial. The body feathers are in an advanced stage of moult, and there

are new feathers on the head and neck. The wing and tail are still

moulting. The wing moult is peculiar. The primaries start moulting

from the outer side inward. After the outer six primaries are grown,

moulting (of primaries) stops for a while. It then resumes from the

innermost primary outward, so that the seventh primary from outside

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

is the last to moult. The secondaries, however, moult from the outer

side inward. The tail moult is centripetal.

_ Measurements: 12: Wing —; tail — ; bill 119.

287. Buceros bicornis homrai Hodgson. Great Pied Hornbill.

Buceros homrai Hodgson, 1832, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 1: 251. (Nepal.)

Dun: Hitaura: 1 ¢ (May 23).

The Great Pied Hornbill is indeed a rare find in Nepal, only very

few specimens being seen in the central dun.

Ours appears to be the only post-Hodgsonian record of this hornbill

from Nepal.

Small yellow figs were found in the stomach of my specimen.

Measurements: 1 %: Wing 537; tail 404+ ; bill from anterior edge of nostril

280 ; casque : length 173, width 93, heistit 43.

Order APODIFORMES

Family APODIDAE

*288. Collocalia brevirostris brevirostris (Horsfield). Indian Edible-nest

Swiftlet.

We were unable to find the Edible-nest Swiftlet in Nepal, neither were

Ripley (1950b) or Rand & Fleming (1957). Scully (1879, p. 235) noted

it common on the hills round the Nepal Valley at about 1830 m. upwards

in August-September. Proud (1949, p. 715), however, found it there

occasionally over Nagar Jong only. In the Gandak-Kosi watershed,

central Nepal, Smythies (1948, p. 442) observed it at c. 2440 m. in autumn,

and Proud (1952a, p. 365) at c. 1830-2440 m. in spring.

*289. Chaetura caudacuta nudipes (Hodgson). Whitethroated Spine-

tailed Swift.

The only post-Hodgsonian report of this swift from Nepal consists

of Ripley’s (1950b, p. 374) sight record at c. 1830 m. (above Dhankuta),

eastern Nepal, in winter.

290. Chaetura cochinchinensis rupchandi Biswas. Rupchand’s Spine-

tailed Swift.

Dun: Hitaura: 5 ¢¢ (including the type), 1 9 (June 24, July 6).

Rupchand’s Spinetailed Swift was observed by us from time to time

in small flocks of about a dozen birds around Hitaura in the central dun

during June-July. It was sometimes seen flying fairly tie within a

few feet of the ground and parallel to it.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 119

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill from anterior

edge of nostril

Soe: 181, 181.5, 182, 184a, 192 46 (2), 48 (2), 49a 68, 6.25 (2), 6.5, 6.75

| es 180 47 ae

a Type specimen.

*291. Apus melba nubifuga Koelz. Indian Alpine Swift.

The only authentic record of the Alpine Swift from Nepal is based

on specimen(s) present in the British Museum (Vaurie, 1959a, p. 21).

*292. Apus acuticauda Jerdon. Khasi Hills Swift.

The sole record of the occurrence of this swift in Nepal consists of

the type specimen.

*293. Apus pacificus leuconyx (Blyth). Blyth’s Whiterumped Swift.

The only record of Blyth’s Whiterumped Swift from Nepal appears

to be that of Biswas (1960a) who found it at c. 3655 m. in April-May,

and at c. 1525 m. in June, in eastern Nepal.

294. Apus afinis nipalensis (Hodgson). Nepal House Swift.

Cypselus Nipalensis Hodgson, 1836, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 5: 780. (Central

region of Nepal, hereby restricted to Kathmandu, Nepal Valley.)

Dun : Hitaura: 5 ff, 722, 1 unsexed (May 29—June 23). CHITLANG VALLEY :

Chitlang: 1 ¢, 1 unsexed (April 25, 27). NEPAL VALLEY : Kathmandu, Thankot :

2 99 (April 8, May 6).

The House Swift is very common in villages and towns of central

Nepal from the dun up to the Valley.

Biswas (1960a) reported it also from eastern Nepal.

One of my female specimens (May 6) while flying about with many

others over the market place of Kathmandu at dusk, accidentally came

in contact with an over-head electric wire and was immediately killed

obviously by the impact.

The Kathmandu female bird (May 6) had a granular ovary measuring

64mm. The ovary was located on the right side of the body cavity

instead of the left—believed to be a unique example in Aves (Biswas,

1960b).

Measurements :

6 dd Ee) ae 2 unsexed

Wing: 132 (2), 133, 134, 135.5, 136 118, 129 (2), 132 (2), 133, 130, 135

136, 136.5, 138.5

Tail : 42, 45 (2), 46, 48, 49 42, 43 (2), 45 (3), 45.5, 46, 48 44, 45

Bill from

edge of

nostril : 3; 3.5 (3), 4, — (2), 3.9'@)5 3:75, — 3:25, ——

1200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

295. Hemiprocne longipennis coronata (Tickell). Indian Crested Swift.

BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 ¢ (August 4). Dun: Hitaura: 1 g, 1 2 June 1).

The Crested Swift was found by us only on a few occasions in small

flocks in the central bhabar and dun. ah is aay 4

Neither Scully (1879) nor Ripley (1950b) reported it from Nepal.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 82) found it only in the lowlands of western

Nepal.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill from anterior

edge of nostril

Dae 165, — 136, 140 4 (2)

(25 161 127 4

Order PICIFORMES

Family CAPITONIDAE

296. Magalaima virens magnifica Baker. Great Eastern Himalayan

Barbet.

Dun: Hitaura: 1 g, 1 2 (May 17, 19). Marxuu VALLEY: Deorali: 19

(April 30). NepAL VALLEY : Thankot, Godavari: 9 jg, 2 9° (April 1-6, 14, May

11-15).

The Great Himalayan Barbet is common on the hills surrounding the

Nepal Valley and in the Chitlang and Markhu valleys, but not so in the

central dun.

It has also been reported from eastern Nepal by Ripley (1950b,

p. 375) and Biswas (1960a). |

About mid-May it was found by us to feed greedily on the ripe fruits

of wild black plum (Fam. Myrtaceae) in the forests around Godavari,

Nepal Valley.

The gonads of the May specimens from the Neal Valley were much

enlarged, but not quite in a breeding state.

Colours of soft parts: Tris dark brown (once reddish brown); bill yellow on

the proximal half, black on the distal half of culmen and distal quarter of the sides

of upper mandible (but tip white in many examples), yellowish grey on the middle

part of culmen and pale greenish yellow elsewhere ; legs and feet greenish slaty ; claws

very dark horny (almost black) with greenish slaty on bases ; pads white.

Measurements :

10 33 4 29

Wing: 140 (2), 141 (2), 141+ (2), 142, 143 (2), 148 139, 141, 142, 1424

Tail: 92, 93, 95 (3), 96, 99, 100 (2), 105 93, 94, 98,—

Bill : 41.5, 43, 45 (4), 46, 47 (2), 47.5 45, 46, 48.5, 51

Ripley (loc. cit.) rightly notes that the birds of central Nepal are

somewhat intermediate between marshallorum and magnifica, and

Mukherjee (1956, p. 161) shows that they are best treated under the

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 121

latter. Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 86-87), however, call their birds from

west-central Nepal magnifica. It would thus appear that west-central

Nepal also falls in the intergrading zone between the two races.

*297. Megalaima zeylanica caniceps (Franklin). Northern Green

Barbet. |

The Green Barbet was not found by us, but Ripley (1950b, p. 375)

and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 87) recorded it in the western Nepal tarai.

Ripley (1945, p. 552) followed by Peters (1948, pp. 32-33) treated M.

zeylanica and M. lineata as conspecific. Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.)

rightly suspected that they are not, which had already been shown by

Mukherjee (1952, p. 35).

It is not clear if both the Green and Lineated Barbets were collected

by Hodgson. Gray & Gray’s (1846, p. 114) list mentioned only

Megalaima caniceps, and Shelley (1891, p. 80) listed only M. lineatus,

relegating “Megalaima caniceps (nec Franklin), Gray, (Cat. Mam. &c

Nepal pres. Hodgs., p. 114 (1846)’ in its synonymy. It would thus

appear that the confusion between these two species is not of recent origin,

but dates back at least to 1846.

298. Megalaima lineata hodgsoni (Bonaparte). Hodgson’s Lineated

Barbet.

TARA: Simra: 3 g¢, 2 22 (March 5). Dun: Hitaura: 1 3, 2 22 (May

27, June 19, 26).

The Lineated Barbet is common in the forests of the tarai and dun of

central Nepal. We did not find it higher than the dun, but Ripley (1950b,

p. 376) noted that it “ occurs as high as the Valley’.

The May-June specimens are very worn.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Aa: 128, 130, 132, 134 78, 79, 81, 82 34, 35, 35.5, 36

4 9°: 128+, 130, 137, 138° 77+, —, 83+, 85+ 34.5, 36, 37 (2)

I am not quite sure of the validity of M. /. rana Ripley (1950a, pp.

101-102). The size difference is not borne out by more measurements

(see data in Mukherjee, 1956, pp. 162-163 ; Rand & Fleming, 1957, Dp.

88 ; and the table above). I have seen only one example (from Hardwar,

Dehra Dun district, Uttar Pradesh) that should be rana, as per Rand &

Fleming’s observation. This specimen is slightly worn. Nevertheless,

I cannot distinguish it from hodgsoni of central Nepal in similar plumage.

Rand & Fleming have accepted rana.

Incidentally, M. J. kutru Mukherjee (1952, p. 36), which Ripley (in

press) synonymizes with hodgsoni, is a perfectly valid subspecies on the

characters given in the original description.

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

299. Méegalaima franklinii franklinii (Blyth). Goldenthroated Barbet.

Dun: Hitaura: 1 4 (May 13). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chandragiri above

Chitlang: 2 ¢¢ (April 17, 20). NEPAL VALLEY : Godavari, Thankot, Chandragiri

above Thankot: 5 gg, 8 22, 1 juv. 2, 2 unsexed (March 27—April 13, May 13).

The Goldenthroated Barbet is a common bird occurring in the forests

on hills surrounding the Nepal Valley, usually in the denser parts. Proud

(1949, p. 714), however, found it scarce in the Valley. Rand & Fleming’s

(1957, p. 89) observation agrees with ours. Biswas (1960a) reported

it for eastern Nepal in June. Ripley (1950b) did not record it from

Nepal.

A female taken on March 31 had swollen ovary measuring 12.5 x 10

with 1.5 and 1.75 mm. ova.

The juvenile bird (2, Thankot, April 13) has much less golden yellow

on throat than the adult. |

Colours of soft parts: Iris brown ; bill black with the base of the upper mandible

very pale grey and basal two-thirds of lower mandible grey ; legs and feet greenish

horny ; claws slaty horny ; pads white.

Measurements :

8 od Save 2 unsexed

Wing: 100 (3), 101+, 102 (2), 104, 100 (2), 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107 107 (2)

107

Tail: 58+, 60, 62, 63 (2), 64,67,— 62(2), 61, 64, 65, 66 (2), 68 65, 68

Bill: 24 (2), 25, 26 (4), — 24, 26 (3), 26.5, 27 (2), 28 XS 5 P47

300. Megalaima asiatica asiatica (Latham). Bluethroated Barbet.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 ¢, 1 2 (March 7,9). Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi:

5 og, 8 22, 1 juv. 2 (May 3-26, June 21). NEPAL VALLEY : Kathmandu, Pashupati-

nath, Godavari: 1 6, 5 2&2 (April 5-11, 28, May 13).

The Bluethroated Barbet is a very common bird of central Nepal

from the plains to the Nepal Valley. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 89)

reported it also from western and west-central Nepal.

A female specimen taken on April 10 has the central tail feathers in

moult.

The females taken in early April had much enlarged gonads

measuring : 107 (with the largest ovum 4), 14x10 (with the largest

ovum 6.25) and 9 x 6.5 (with the largest ovum 6) mm., but the one taken

April 28 had a spent-up ovary. Two males collected on May 14 and June

2 also had well-developed testes.

One of my male specimens (Hitaura, May 26) is partially erythristic

(=rubescens Baker). |

Colours of soft parts: Iris brown (chocolate in a few specimens) ; edges of eye-

lids orange-yellow ; bill pale greenish yellow with black on culmen and anterior half

of upper mandible, and deep smoky on sides of the anterior third of lower man-

dible ; legs and feet greenish slaty ; claws slaty horny, darker on tips ; pads greyish

white.

Measurements: 7 3&3: Wing 102, 104 (2), 104+, 106+, 106.5, 109; tail 60, 63,

64 (2), 65 (2), 65.5 ; bill 26; 27,2812); 29; 29°35, \—.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 123

14.99: Wing 100, 101, 102 (2), 102+ (2), 103, 104 (3), 105,

105+, 105.5, 109; tail 60+, 61, 62, 63 (2), 64 (2), 65 (3), 66, 67 (2), 67.5: bill

2 (5828), 28.5102); 29 (2), 29:5, —.

301. Megalaima haemacephala indica (Latham). Indian Crimson-

breasted Barbet.

TARAI: Simra: 1 ¢ (March 4).

The characteristic monotonous call of the Crimsonbreasted Barbet

was heard by us only a few times in the Nepal Valley, and it did not

appear to be common there. It was also found in small numbers in the

tarai, bhabar and dun of central Nepal.

Hodgson’s collection presented earlier to the British Museum did not

contain this barbet (Gray & Gray, 1846), but his later collection included

it (Gray, 1863, p. 62).

Measurements: 1 3: Wing 83; tail 38; bill 18.

Family PICIDAE

302. Micropternus brachyurus phaioceps (Blyth). Northern Rufous

Woodpecker.

Picus (Micropternus) gularis Jerdon, 1844, Madras J. Lit. Sci. 13 (2) : 139.

(South India.) Not Picus gularis Wagler, 1827.

Picus (Micropternus) phaioceps Blyth, 1845, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 14: 195.

(‘India proper extending eastward to Tipperah and Arracan’=Arrakan, according

to Baker, 1921c, p. 99 ; restricted type locality : Calcutta, according to Whistler &

Kinnear, 1934, p. 290, and Peters, 1948, p. 128.)

Taral: Simra: 1 ¢ (March 4). BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 ¢ (March 7),

Dun : Hitaura: 2 ¢¢, 1 juv. (3)*, 4 99, 1 juv. (Q) (May 15-20, 27, June 2, 13, 14).

The Rufous Woodpecker is found in small numbers in the central

tarai, bhabar and dun. It must be rare in the Nepal Valley where we did

not come across it, but Scully (1879, p. 250) and Proud (1949, p. 714)

each noted it there only once. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 91) found it

in the western and central tarai. It has not been included in Ripley’s

(1950b) list.

Two of my male specimens taken May 15 and June 14 are very worn,

while three of the females (May 18, 27, June 2) are in very fresh plumage,

having just completed a general (probably post-juvenile) moult. The

other female specimen (June 13) still has sheaths on the bases of the

primaries and the tail feathers.

Both the immature specimens (May 20) have been sexed from colora-

tion only, the one having traces of red on cheek being taken as the male.

Miia ee

+ When sexing has been done only from external characters and not from exami-

nation of gonads, it is indicated by giving the symbol in parenthesis.

124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

43d: 130, 130+, 131+, 133 61+, 65, 67, 68 30 (2), 30.5 (2)

4.090 3 127, 129, 131, — 65, 67, 68, — 28, 29, 30, 31

*303. Picus squamatus squamatus Vigors. Scalybellied Green Wood-

pecker.

Polunin (1955, p. 895) frequently found this woodpecker in summer

at c. 2745 m. in the Langtang Valley, and Lowndes (1955, p. 35) recorded

it in August-September at c. 1980 and 2895 m. in Manangbhot, both in

central Nepal. There does not seem to be any other authentic record

of its occurrence in Nepal.

304. Picus myrmecophoneus myrmecophoneus Stresemann. Little Scaly-

bellied Green Woodpecker.

Picus striolatus Blyth, 1843, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 12:1000. (Himalayas and

central India.) Not Picus striolatus Lesson, 1831, nor Picus striolatus MacGillivray

1840.

Picus myrmecophoneus Stresemann, 1920, Verh. orn. Ges. Bayern 14: 289.

(Nepal, according to Baker, 1927, p. 10.) New name for Picus striolatus Blyth, pre-

occupied.

Dun: Hitaura: 1 3, 1 juv. 3, 2 2P, 1 juv. 2 (May 21, June 14, 15).

This Scalybellied Woodpecker is not a common bird of central Nepal.

We came across only a few examples in the central dun.

Ripley (1950b, p. 377) found it in the western tarai, and Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 91), in the western and west-central tarai.

The immature male specimen (June 15) has the upper parts very dark —

with red only on the forecrown ; lower parts with very close, dark and

narrow markings ; and the rump and upper tail coverts pale greenish

yellow, without any orange. The immature female (June 14) has the

coloration of the upper parts similar to that of the immature male, but

without red on forecrown ; lower parts with the scaly markings like the

adult, and with a little orange on the rump and upper tail coverts. }

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

| Were eee 3 136 90 36

ZOOE 130, 133 84, 87 34 (2)

Peters (1948, p. 135) did not recognize either dehrae of Baker from

Dehra Dun, or dawae of Van Tyne & Koelz from Kangra. On an exami-

nation of the type and the topotypical series of dawae, I find that the

Kangra birds could be readily distinguished from those of Nepal, Sikkim,

central and southern India, not on the characters on which they were

originally separated (Van Tyne & Koelz, 1936, p. 3), but on the coloration

of the rump and upper tail coverts which are pale yellow and not orange-

yellow. A few of the birds from Nepal, Sikkim, central and southern

India are more yellowish than orange, but those are immature examples.

I did not have an opportunity to examine any specimen from Dehra

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 125

Dun area, but it may quite be possible that dawae may have to be treated

as a synonym of dehrae.

I am unable to agree to the use of J. E. & G. R. Gray’s (1846, pally)

nomen nudum xanthopygaeus for this bird, as proposed by Peters (1948,

pp. 134-135). According to Copenhagen ruling the correct name 1s

myrmecophoneus Stresemann, because a subjective synonym (such as

Brachylophus xanthopygaeus J. E. & G. R. Gray) is not an indication

in the sense of Article 25 (see Copenhagen Decisions on Zool. nom.,

1957, pp. 63-64, para. 115-116).

305. Picus canus sanguiniceps Baker. Western Blacknaped Green

Woodpecker.

306. Picus canus pcre oan Baker. Eastern Blacknaped Green

Woodpecker.

TARAI: Simra: 1 ¢, 1 2 (March 4,5). BuHaspar: Amliekhganj: 1 ¢, 12

(March 10). Dun: Hitaura, Kusumtar, Bhairab Thumka: 4¢¢, 3 imm. ¢¢,4 29°

(May 10—June 21). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot, Godavari: 3 ¢¢, 3 92 (March 15—

April 8, May 10).

The Blacknaped Green Woodpecker is common in the forests

of central Nepal from the tarai up to the Valley.

Ripley (1950b, p. 377) reported it from central and eastern Nepal,

and Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 91-92), from western, central and eastern

Nepal.

One of my females taken in the Nepal Valley on March 28 had some-

what swollen ovary with ova of the size of mustard seeds ; and a male

taken there on May 10 had quite enlarged testes. The May-June speci-

mens from the dun were all breeding. A male taken there on May 29

had well-developed testes, while a female taken May 28 had an oviducal

egg without calcium deposition on shell, measuring 2318.5 mm. It

also had a 12 mm. ovarian ovum.

The May and June specimens are worn so that their ventral parts.

look more greyish.

Colours of soft parts: Iris brownish crimson to crimson ; bill slaty to black (once

black upper mandible and slaty lower) ; legs and feet bluish slaty (once slaty) ; claws

slaty horny ; pads grey-white.

Measurements :

| 9 dd 9 99

Wing : 145, 146, —, 148(2), 149 (2), 145, 147 (3), 148, 149, 150.5,

150, 152 153.5, 154.5

Tail : 97+, 101 (2), 102, 105 (3), 99+, 105.5, 106, 107, 108,

108, — 109, 110, 113, 116

Bill: 40(2), 413), 41.5, 42 Q), 44 38 (3), 39, 40, 41 (2), 42, 43.5

The birds from central Nepal are almost exactly intermediate between

the western sanguiniceps and the eastern gyldenstolpei, as has already been

noted by Ripley (loc. cit.) for the Nepal Valley birds. The few eastern

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Nepal skins I have been able to examine, are closer to gyldenstolpei, as

has been found by Ripley. And one would expect the western Nepal

birds to be closer to sanguiniceps. It is interesting to note, however,

that Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.) designate all their birds from western to

eastern Nepal as sanguiniceps S gyldenstolpei. Very recently, Vaurie

(1959b, p. 17) has synonymized gyldenstolpei Baker with hessei Gylden-

stolpe, 1916 (type locality : Northern Siam), using this name for “all

the populations ranging from Indochina westward through Siam and

Burma to Assam and Sikkim’.

307. Picus chlorolophus simlae Meinertzhagen. Western Small Yellow-

naped Woodpecker.

308. Picus chlorolophus chlorolophus Viecillot. Eastern Small Yellow-

naped Woodpecker.

BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 2 ¢¢, 2 92 (March 9, 10). Dun: Bhimphedi,

Hitaura : 5 dd, 2 juv. dv, 299, 2 juv. 22 (May 10-29). NepaL VALLEY : Thankot ;

13,12 (April 1, 2).

The Small Yellownaped Woodpecker is not uncommon in the forests

on the ranges bordering the Nepal Valley, and in the forests of the central

dun and bhabar. |

May and June birds are very worn, but a female (May 28) is finishing

moult of the central tail feathers.

Measurements : —

Wing Tail Bill

8 dd: 135, 137, 138, 139, —(2), 96, 97, 98, —, 29.5, 30 (2), 31,

. 141 (2), 142, 146 102, 103, 104 32°(2); 32-5

By acd 136, 137, 138 98, —, 102 29, 30 (2)

I do not agree with Ripley (1950b, p. 378) that the western Himalayan

race simlae ‘is poorly characterized’. It is quite true that the ‘ difference

in the colour of the nuchal crest follows a continuous cline ’, but so does

the size. It does not seem wise, therefore, to separate the eastern and

western Himalayan races solely on the basis of size difference. In view

of the continuous clinal variation in colour and size, there is a fairly wide

intermediate zone which includes eastern Kumaon (Nainital and Almora

districts) on the west and a greater part of Nepal, the eastern limit of

which may be arbitrarily taken as the Arun Valley.

The central Nepal birds reported here are almost exact intermediates

between simlae and chlorolophus, both in size and in coloration. Rand

& Fleming (1957, pp. 92-93) placed their western birds, including a single

example from the Nepal Valley, under simlae, and the eastern birds from

the Kamala Valley, under the nominate subspecies.

It may be mentioned in passing that the single example from the

northern Eastern Ghats, reported as chlorolophus by Whistler & Kinnear

(1934, p. 287), is likely to prove to be an example of chlorigaster. It is

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 127

probably an immature bird where the red on the crown is confined to its

borders as in adult chlorolophus. This is indicated by the absence of

golden sheen on this specimen (mentioned by them)—a characteristic of

chlorigaster. A little to the north of Eastern Ghats, chlorigaster is found

in Mayurbhanj (Mukherjee, 1953, p. 163).

309. Picus flavinucha flavinucha Gould. Eastern Himalayan Large

Yellownaped Woodpecker.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 ¢, 192 (March 10). Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi:

6 3d, 2 juv. oo, 2 22, 1 juv. 2 (May 5-26, June 19, 21).

The large Yellownaped Woodpecker is found in small numbers in

the Nepal Valley, but is commoner in the central bhabar and dun.

Scully (1879) did not find it in Nepal. Ripley (1950b, p. 377) reported

it from western and eastern Nepal, and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 92),

from west-central Nepal also.

Of the immature birds, the female taken June 19 is the youngest.

It has no cinnamon on chin and throat, but white with dark brown spots.

An immature male collected on May 23 appears to be a little older. Its

chin and cheeks are cinnamon, but the throat is still white with spots

and streaks. Another male taken May 14 is still older. Its chin and

anterior throat are cinnamon, throat and upper breast white with black

spots, cheeks light yellow, and underside dull coloured.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

71 od: 169, 170, 172, 174, 115-++, 116, 118 (2), 42.5, 43 (2), 44,

176 (2), — 120, 122, 125 44.5, 45, —

5) Ss 166, 168, 170 FB aI21 122 40 (2), 42

The abovementioned specimens have already been included in

Biswas’s (1952) study on the geographical variation in the species.

310. Dinopium benghalense benghalense (Linnaeus). Northern Golden

backed Woodpecker.

TARAI: Simra: 1 Q (March 5).

The Goldenbacked Woodpecker was found by us in the tarai of central

Nepal and was observed only a few times.

Scully (1879) was unable to find itin Nepal. Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 93) came across it in the western and west-central tarai.

Measurements : 12: Wing 149; tail 89; bill 37.

311. Dinopium shorei shorei (Vigors). Himalayan Goldenbacked Three-

toed Woodpecker.

TARAI: Simra: 1 2 (March 4). BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 2 ¢¢,2 92 (March

9, 10). Dun: Hitaura, Paharé Ghat: 1 3, 4subad. 33, 3 98, 1(9), Ijuv. 2 (May

15, 25-27, June 4, 10, 15, July 12, 26).

The Goldenbacked Threetoed Woodpecker is common in the forests

of the tarai, bhabar and dun of central Nepal. In the tarai, however, we

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 38 (1)

did not come across it frequently, but it did appear commoner than the

Goldenbacked Woodpecker (D. benghalense) with which it co-exists

there.

The subadult male specimens still have some streaks on forecrown,

much like those of adult females. They are as large as the adult birds.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown ; bill black ; legs and feet greenish horny ;

claws slaty ; pads yellowish grey.

Measurements :

Tage 7-29

(including subadult)

Wing: 154, 155, 156 (2), 157, 157+, 159 152, 154, 155+, 158, 160+, 162, 164

Tail : 96, 97, 100 (3), 104, — 99, 100, 102 (3), 102.5, 104

Bill : 39 (3), 40, 40.5, 42.5, 44 37, 37.5, 39, 39.5, 40, 40.5, —

*312. Gecinulus grantia grantia (Horsfield). Paleheaded Woodpecker.

The only record of the Paleheaded Woodpecker from Nepal is based

on Hodgson’s collection (Gray, 1863, p. 63).

* 313. Miulleripicus pulverulentus mohun Ripley. Nepal Great Slaty

Woodpecker.

The Great Slaty Woodpecker was reported from Nepal for the first

time by Ripley (1950a, p. 103) who obtained a single specimen in the

virgin sal forest of the western dun. It has subsequently been found in

the lowlands of west-central Nepal by Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 93-94).

314. Dendrocopos darjellensis darjellensis (Blyth). Darjeeling Pied

Woodpecker.

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 ¢ (April 25).

We did not find the Darjeeling Pied Woodpecker at all common in

central Nepal, having seen only a few on the Chandragiri Range above

Thankot and Chitlang.

Scully (1879, p. 245) and Proud (1949, p. 713) noted it as common on

hills surrounding the Nepal Valley. Ripley (1950b, p. 378) reported it

only from eastern Nepal. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 94) recorded it,

in addition to the Nepal Valley, from the Kali Gandak Valley, west-

central Nepal.

Measurements: 1 8: Wing 130; tail —; bill—.

315. Dendrocopos cathpharius cathpharius (Blyth). Himalayan Lesser

Pied Woodpecker.

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 2 29 (March 15, April 13). NEPAL VALLEY :

Thankot: 2 ¢¢, 3 22 (March 23-26, April 4, 5, 13).

The Lesser Pied Woodpecker was found by us in small numbers in

the forests on the base of Chandragiri Range both on Thankot and

Chitlang sides.

Scully (1879) did not record it from Nepal. Stevens (1925b, p. 670)

found it in eastern Nepal near Sikkim or Bengal border between c. 1370

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 129

and 2135 m. Proud (1949, p. 713) observed it but once in the Nepal

Valley on Phulchauki Range at c. 1830 m. in January. While Ripley

(1950b, p. 378) obtained his single specimen at Chitlang, Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 94) collected a pair at Patale (c. 3050 m.) in the Maulung

Valley, eastern Nepal.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Zoe: 97, 98 59, 62 205-21

320": 97, 99.5, 101 (2), 103 60, 61 (2), 62, 63 20, 21 (3), —

316. Dendrocopos hyperythrus hyperythrus (Vigors). Eastern Rufous-

bellied Woodpecker.

Picus hyperythrus Vigors, 1831, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. (1): 23. (Himalayas=

Nepal or further eastern Himalayas, according to Hartert, 1912, p. 926; hereby res-

tricted to Darjiling, West Bengal.)

CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 3 ¢¢, 2 92 (April 16-22). NEPAL VALLEY :

Thankot, Chandragiri Pass: 1 ¢, 2 92 (March 31, April 7).

We came across the Rufousbellied Woodpecker in small numbers

on the Chandragiri Range both on Thankot and Chitlang sides.

Scully (1879) did not report it from Nepal. Stevens (1925b, p. 669)

found it on the Singalila Range, eastern Nepal, at c. 2745 m. in February.

Ripley (1950b, p. 379) recorded it both from central and eastern Nepal,

and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 94), from west-central and central Nepal.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

42d: 11857019; 121; 123 Ml teeeh2y- 7 (2) Dix 21-5428.) 29

490: 116, 120 (2), 121 70.5, 72, 72+, 73 22); 21.95.28

*317. Dendrocopos auriceps auriceps (Vigors). Western Brownfronted

Pied Woodpecker.

Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 94-95) place their specimens from

western Nepal under this western subspecies. They note, however, that

their birds are slightly smaller on average than Mussoorie birds. The

eastern and western races perhaps intergrade in eastern Kumaon-western

Nepal. JI am unable to trace any other record of this western race from

Nepal.

318. Dendrocopos auriceps incognitus (Scully). Eastern Brownfronted

Pied Woodpecker. ,

Picus incognitus Scully, 1879 Str. Feath. 8: 246. (Residency Grounds, Kath-

mandu, Nepal.)

Dendrocopus auriceps conoveri Rand & Fleming, 1956, Fieldiana, Zool., 39:1,

(15 miles west of Tansen, Kali Gandak Valley, Palpa district, Nepal.)

Dun: Bhimphedi: 2 92 (March 12, 13). MARKHU VALLEY: Kulikhani:

1 juv. @ (July 2). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 3 gg, 12 (April 16-22). Nepar

VALLEY : Thankot: 3 ¢¢%, 1 2 (March 30—April 11).

In central Nepal, the Brownfronted Pied Woodpecker is fairly common

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

on the Mahabharat and Chandragiri ranges as well as on other ranges

surrounding the Valley.

Polunin (1955, p. 895) reported it from the northern region of central

Nepal in the Langtang Valley at c. 2745 m. and lessin summer. Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 95) found it in west-central Nepal also. Biswas (1960a)

observed it at c. 1830 m. in the Charnawati Valley, Ramechhap district,

eastern Nepal, and I have examined specimens from a nearby region in

the same Valley (Dolakha, ex Mandelli collection, in the British Museum).

The range of the eastern form as defined by Rand & Fleming (1956, p.

1), therefore, needs emendation.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

6 od: 107, 109+, 110, 111(3) 62,64(3), 65,67 26, 26.5, 27 (2), 28 (2)

4 99: 106, 107 (2), 108 64, 65, 66.5, — Py ((8)))5 220

319. Dendrocopos macei macei (Vicillot). Eastern Fulvousbreasted

Pied Woodpecker.

TARAI : Simra : 2 ¢¢, 1 2 (March 4, 5). BHAaBAR : Amlekhganj: 1 ¢ (March 8).

Dun: Hitaura: 1 ¢, 1 2 (May 30, June 5). NEPAL VALLEY: Kathmandu, Thankot:

1 o, 4 22 (March 27—April 12, May 20, July 25).

The Fulvousbreasted Pied Woodpecker is not uncommon in central

Nepal from the tarai up to c. 1675 m. in the Nepal Valley.

Scully (1879, p. 246) recorded it in the bhabar and Nawakot district,

central Nepal. Proud (1949, p. 713) observed it as common in the Nepal

Valley up to c. 2135 m., and later (1952a, p. 365) found it also at c. 2745 m.

in the Gandak-Kosi watershed in spring. Ripley (1950b, p. 379)

collected it up to c. 1615 m. Lowndes (1955, p. 35) found it in August

at c. 2440 m. in Manangbhot, central Nepal. Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 95) reported it from western, west-central and central Nepal.

My female specimen taken April 6, has the left central rectrix freshly

moulted but still in sheath, while the right one is fairly worn and without

any sign of moult. |

A female taken April 6 had somewhat swollen ovary (8.55.5. with

many 1 mm. ova). A male collected on May 20 also had somewhat

enlarged testes (R: 4.52.5, L:6x4mm.). Another female taken May

30 was almost breeding, while the male of June 5 had much enlarged

testes (R : 9x7, L: 10.57 mm.).

Colours of soft parts: Iris reddish brown ; upper mandible blackish horny with

pale slaty on base ; lower mandible pale slaty with blackish horny tip ; legs and feet

greenish slaty ; claws dark horny ; pads white.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Meyer 110 (3), 111, 116 62, 64, 65, 65.5,66 27.5 (2), 28 (2), 28.5

Or ou: 107, 108, 109, 110 (2), 111 64(2), 65, 66,—(2) 25 (4), 25.5, 26

The western race westermani Blyth appears to me to be quite distinct

(contra Peters, 1948, p. 194 ; Ripley in press). The Punjab birds are much

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 131

larger than those of Sikkim, lower Bengal and Assam. Central Nepal

birds show a slight leaning towards the western race, but are closer to the

eastern. Kumaon birds are, I find, intermediate between the two races.

Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 95-96), however, place the western Nepal

birds along with a Nepal Valley specimen, under westermani, and the

eastern Nepal example under macei.

The type locality of Picus Westermani Blyth, 1870, is hereby restricted

to Simla.

*320. Dendrocopos mahrattensis pallescens Biswas. Western Yellow-

fronted Pied Woodpecker.

We did not find the Yellowfronted Pied Woodpecker in Nepal, nor

did Scully (1879) find it there. Ripley (1950b, p. 379) reported it from the

tarai. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 96) recorded it from the lowlands of

western and west-central Nepal.

321. Dendrocopos canicapillus mitchellii (Malherbe). Nepal Pygmy

Woodpecker.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj : 2 ¢, 1 2 (March 6, 8). DUN: Hitaura, Paharé Ghat,

Bhimphedi : 2 ¢¢, 1 subad. 4, 7 29, 1 juv. 2 (March 13, May 15-27, June 9, 10, 23).

This Pygmy Woodpecker is fairly common in the forests of central

Nepal from the tarai up to the dun. It occurs in the deeper parts of

forests, as well as in the clearings inside.

Two females taken June 9 and 10, had non-breeding gonads. Ripley

(1950b, p. 379) found breeding birds in February and non-breeding ones

in April. In Kumaon, however, it is said to breed in April and May

(Thompson, quoted by Hume, 1890, p. 306; Baker, 1934, p. 295).

Colours of soft parts: Iris reddish brown; upper mandible slaty to black with

paler base ; lower mandible darker slaty to black on the anterior quarter, pale slaty

(once very pale, almost white) on the remaining portion ; legs and feet greenish horny ;

claws slaty ; pads yellowish green.

Measurements :

53d 8 2°

Wing : 85+, 86+ (2), 88, 89 85, 87 (2), 88, 89 (2), 90 (2)

Tail : 40+, 42+, 44, 45, 46 44 (2), 46, 47 (2), 48, —(2)

Bill : 16.5 17.5, 18 (3) 17 (3), 18 (4), 18.5

A few of the abovementioned specimens were included in Biswas’s

(1950b) study of the taxonomy of Pygmy Woodpeckers.

*322. Dendrocopos nanus nanus (Vigors). Northern Pygmy Woodpecker.

Neither Scully (1879) nor we found the Northern Pygmy Woodpecker

in Nepal. However, Ripley (1950b, p. 379) reported it from western,

and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 97), from western and west-central Nepal.

132. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

323. Blythipicus pyrrhotis pyrrhotis (Hodgson). Redeared Bay Wood-

pecker.

MARKHU VALLEY : Deorali: 1 4, 2 juv. gg, 1, 1 juv. 2 (April 29—May 1).

We came across the Redeared Bay Woodpecker only on a few

occasions in the Markhu Valley, central Nepal. It may not, however, be

as rare as it seems. Its occurrence in dense forests and its preference for

thick undergrowth, appear to be responsible for its apparent rarity.

Scully (1879) did not include it in his Nepal list. Stevens (1925b,

p. 671) recorded it from the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal, at above 2135 m.

Ripley (1950b, p. 380) found a single example at Godavari, Nepal Valley ;

and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 97) obtained a specimen at Dana, west-

central Nepal.

A striking colour difference between the adult and juvenile birds, which

has not been noted by Baker (1927, pp. 55-56) is that the breast in a fully

adult bird has a rusty wash, while in the juvenile it is dull earthy brown.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

1s 153 98 SyE5)

SE 151 82 51

324. Chrysocolaptes lucidus sultaneus (Hodgson). Hodgson’s Golden-

backed Woodpecker.

TARAI: Simra: 2 gg, 2 PP, 1 juv. 2 (March 4, 5). DUN: Hitaura: 3 ¢¢, 12

(May 23-26).

Hodgson’s Goldenbacked Woodpecker is not uncommon on the edges

of forests of central Nepal from the tarai up to the dun.

Scully (1879) did not find itin Nepal. Ripley (1950b, p. 380) recorded

it from the upper tarai and dun of western Nepal, and Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 97), from west-central Nepal.

Measurements :

Wing - Tail Bill

soo. 171(2), 174, 179, 180 84, 88,89-+,91,100 56, 57, 58, 60, 61.5

320": 174, 178, 180 98, 99 (2) 53, 56, 58

The above measurements, coupled with those furnished by Ripley

(loc. cit.) and Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.) show that the central Nepal

birds are somewhat intermediate between sultaneus and guttacristatus.

The type locality of swltaneus has, however, been restricted to Simra?,

central Nepal by Ripley (loc. cit.).

*325. Chrysocolaptes lucidus guttacristatus (Tickell). Tickell’s Golden-

backed Woodpecker.

Ripley (1950b, p. 380) found this eastern form breeding at Chatra,

*Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 98) believe that Simra and the type locality of C./.

guttacristatus, namely Borabhum and Dholbhum are ‘ unfortunately close together’.

The distance between Borabhum and Simra is about 300 miles.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 133

Arun Valley, eastern Nepal. That appears to be the only record of this

woodpecker from Nepal.

326. Picumnus innominatus innominatus Burton. Himalayan Speckled

Piculet.

Picumnus innominatus Burton, 1835 (1836), Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. (3): 154.

(Himalayas, restricted to Sikkim by Baker, 1927, p. 92.)

Picumnus innominatus simlaensis Ticehurst, 1933, Bull. Brit. orn. Cl. 54: 20.

(Murree, West Pakistan.)

Dun : Bhimphedi : 1 3,3 22 (March 12, May 5, 7). MARKHU VALLEY : Deorali :

2 29 (April 28, 30). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang : 2 ¢¢, 1 2 (April 22-24). NEPAL

VALLEY : Thankot : 3 ¢, 2 22 (March 21, 22, April 1, 2).

The Speckled Piculet is fairly common in central Nepal from the upper

edges of the dun to the Nepal Valley. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 90)

recorded it from western and west-central Nepal.

| One of my female specimens (Deorali, April 30) has no white on the

central rectrices.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

63d: 55.5, 57, 57+, 59 (2), 60 30 (3), 32+, 33, — 12.5, 13 (4), —

goo: 58, 59 (2), 59.5, 60 (3), 61 32, 33 (2), 34 (2), 344, 12, 12.5, 13 (5), 13.5

35,—

I am unable to recognize Ticehurst’s western race simlaensis. The

differences in size and coloration are not borne out. It is, however,

true that the populations from western Himalaya tend to be slightly

larger than those of eastern Himalaya. But this difference is very slight

indeed and is barely perceptible in large series. Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 90) also arrived at this conclusion. Similarly, I am unable to find on

fresh skins, the differences between malayorum and avunculorum, as given

by Hartert (1912, p. 937), and, therefore, gee only malayorum with

avunculorum as its synonym.

The races of the species will, therefore, stand as follows :

1. P. i. innominatus Burton (syn. P. i. simlaensis Ticehurst) :

Himalayas to Assam (except its eastern parts).

2. P. i. malayorum Hartert (syn. P. i. avunculorum Hartert) :

Peninsular India, lower Bengal, eastern Assam, Burma, Siam, Indo-

china, Malaya, Sumatra and Borneo.

3. P. i. chinensis Hargitt : China.

Recently, Vaurie (1959c, p. 14) has suggested recognition of simlaensis

on the basis of the males of western Himalayan birds having longer wing

(10 fit: 58-61, av. 59.9 against 12 Sikkim-Bhutan '"' : 55-58, av. 56.7).

Still more recently, Ripley (in press) has come to the same conclusion as

mine regarding No. 1 and 2.

327.. Sasia ochracea ochracea Hodgson. Indian Rufous Piculet.

Dun : Hitaura : 3 99, 1 unsexed (May 11-24, June 4).

We found the Rufous Piculet to be rather rare in central Nepal,

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

It was observed only on a few occasions in the lighter parts of forests in

central dun. The present record appears to constitute the only one since

Hodgson’s time.

Measurements :

Wing Tail : Bill

seo: 52, 54 (2) 2223, 24 14, 14.5, 15

1 unsexed : 52 23 14.5

* 328. Jynx torquilla torquilla Linnaeus. European Wryneck.

The European Wryneck was not found by us in Nepal, or by Scully

(1879) or Ripley (1950b). Nor is there any mention of any Wryneck

in the catalogue of Hodgson’s earlier collection (Gray & Gray, 1846).

The later catalogue (Gray, 1863) includes this species, and Hargitt

(1890, p. 564) listed four Hodgson skins from Nepal. Proud (1955, p.

69) reported the species as a passage migrant in the Nepal Valley in

September-October and March-April, but one cannot be sure as to the

subspecies meant by her (see below, next form). Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 90) made the first definite record of this form from the tarai of western

and eastern Nepal.

329. Jynx torquilla chinensis Hesse. Chinese Wryneck.

NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot : 2 ¢¢ (April 1, 9).

The Chinese Wryneck appeared rare in Nepal. These were the only

specimens seen by us there.

Neither Scully (1879), nor Ripley (1950b), or Rand. & Fleming (1957)

reported this wryneck from Nepal. On the other hand, some of

Hodgson’s skins listed by Hargitt (1890, p. 564) may belong to this form.

Similarly, Proud’s record of the wryneck on passage in the Nepal Valley,

as mentioned earlier (under the preceding form), may as well refer to the

present subspecies.

Both my specimens are in moult. They have the wings worn, but

central tail feathers still in moult. The April 1 bird has its body moult

almost finished and that of April 9 probably so, but since the latter shows

signs of soaking in water, obviously-accidental, I am unable to say any-

thing definite about it.

Vaurie (1959c, pp. 2-13) has recently discussed the question of the

different recognizable subspecies of the species.

Measurements: 2 33%: Wing 86+, 88+ ; tail 67+, 69+ ; bill 18, 19.

Family Indicatoridae

Indicator xanthonotus xanthonotus Blyth. Himalayan Honeyguide.

Although Nepal lies within the range of the species, I am unable to

trace any definite record of its occurrence there. Ripley’s (1950b, p.

376) doubtful record based on hearsay evidence appears to be the only

reference to this species in any Nepal list.]

(To be continued)

More Cyanophyceae of Hoshiarpur: I

P. C. VASISHTA

Department of Botany, Government College, Hoshiarpur (Panjab)

(With sixteen figures)

In J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57(3): 579-89 the author described 25

species belonging to ten genera. The present communication adds to

our knowledge of the Cyanophyceae of Hoshiarpur and records 48

species belonging to 28 genera. It includes one new variety and seven

new forms. The total number of species recorded from Hoshiarpur

district thus comes to 73. This number is, however, not inclusive of the

three new species, Anabaena nathi (Vasishta, 1960), A. hoshiarpurensis

(Vasishta, 1960), and a new species of Rivularia (in the press).

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES OBSERVED

Order CHROOCOCCALES Wettstein

Family CHROOCOCCACEAE Nageli

MICROCYSTIS Kiitzing

1. Microcystis flos-aquae (Wittr.) Kirchner in Engler et Prantl, Natur. Pflan-

zenfam. I (1 a) : 56, fig. 49 N, 1898 ; Forti in De Toni, Sylloge Algarum 5 : 86, 1907;

Crow in New Phytologist 22 : 61, 1923 ; Frémy, Myxo. d’Afr. équat. frang. 19, fig. 16,

1929 ; Geitler, Kryptogamenflora, 138, fig. 59 e, f, 1932. Microcystis aeruginosa f.

flos-aquae (Wittr.) Elenkin, Monogr. Algar. Cyano., pars spec. 1: 103, 1938.

Anacystis cyanea (Kiitz.) Drout & Daily, Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 10: 221, 1952;

Rev. Coccoid Myxophyceae 36, 1956 (p.p.).

Diameter cell=3.8-5.7 (-7) #. Cells spherical, gas-vacuoles present.

Habitat : In a pond at village Sham Chaurasi, Hoshiarpur.

CHROOCOCCUS Nag.

2. Chroococcus minutus (Kutz.) Nag. Gatt. einzell. Algen 46, 1849; Geitler

232, figs. 112a, 113c, 1932 ; Desikachary, Cyanophyta 103, pl. 24, fig. 4, pl. 26, figs.

4,15, 1959.

Diameter cell with sheath=8.5-11.9 “4, diameter cell without sheath=6.8-9.3 yu ;

diameter colony=upto 18.7 / ; crass. vag.=1.7 /.

Habitat: In a permanent pond at village Nasrala, Hoshiarpur,

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

3. Chroococcus minimus (Keissler) Lemm. Ark. Bot. 2 (2): 102, 1904; Geitler

232, 1932 ; Desikachary 106, 1959. Chr. minutus var. minimus Keissler in Zool. Bot.

Ges. Wien 5: 394, 1901 ; Forti 5: 15, 1907.

Diameter cell with sheath=3.4-4.2 “ ; diameter cell without sheath=2.5-3 4; dia-

meter colony =34 /.

Habitat: Ina permanent pond, among other algae, at village Nasrala, Hoshiar-

pur.

GLOEOCAPSA Kiutzing

4. Gloeocapsa aeruginosa (Carm.) Kutz. Phyc. Gene. 174, 1843; Phyc. Germ.

131, 1845; Tab. Phycologicae 1: pl. 21, fig. 2, 1846; Species Algarum 218, 1849 ;

Desikachary 115, 1959.

Diameter cell with sheath=4.7-5.7 &; diameter cell without sheath=2.5-3 4 ; dia-

meter colony=15.3-61.4 /.

Habitat: Forming blue-green encrustation on thecemented sides of a water tank

in Government College, Hoshiarpur.

5. Gloeocapsa polydermatica Kiitzing, loc. cit. 1: 15, pl. 20, fig. 3, 1846 ; loc. cit.

208, 1849 ; Geitler 185, fig. 83 c, e, 1932 ; Desikachary 114, pl. 25, fig. 1, 1959.

Diameter cell with sheath=10.2-11 “; diameter cell without sheath=3.4-5.1 p ;

crass. vag.=3.4 /.

Habitat: On moist lawns of Government College, Hoshiarpur.

6. Gloeocapsa pleurocapsoides Novacek, Prace Morav. prir. Morav. Slezka Oddel,

- Bot. 7:1, 1929; Skuja, Susswasseralgenflora Burmens 17, pl. 1, figs. 3-5, 1949; Desika-

chary 118, pl. 24, fig. 3, 1959.

Diameter cell with sheath=10.2-11 “; diameter cell without sheath=4.5-7.6 4;

crass. vag.=2-3.8 /. |

The sheath is coloured brown and the colonies may be more or less rounded or

ree wae sheath lamellated. The Hoshiarpur alga possesses smaller dimensions than

the type.

Habitat: Forming a dark brown ero on the sides of a pukka wall near railway

crossing at Nasrala, Hoshiarpur.

GLOEOTHECE Nag.

7. Gloeothece samoensis Wille in Hedwigia 53 : 144, 1913 ; et in Rechinger, Bot.

Zool. Ergebn. Samoa und Solomoninseln, Susswasseralgen 6, ple; fis. 3, 1915%

Geitler 219, 1932 ; Desikachary 128, pl. 23, fig. 3, 1959.

Long. cell Pah sheath=8.5-15.3 #; long. cell without sheath=5.7-8.5 / ; lat. cell

with sheath=7.6-11.2 /; lat. cell without sheath=4-4.7 fu.

Habitat: On moist soil, Hoshiarpur.

APHANOCAPSA Nag.

8. Aphanocapsa montana Cramer in Wartman et Schenk, Schweiz. Krypto. no.

134, 1862 ; Geitler 159, 1932 ; Desikachary 135, pl. 20, fig. 8, 1959.

Thallus shapeless, gelatinous, blue-green or yellow-green ; cells spherical, single

or in pairs. Diameter cell=2.5-4 /.

Habitat : Attached to the walls of a pukka drain, District Board, Hoshiarpur.

9. Aphanocapsa biformis A. Br. in Rabenhorst, Fl. Eur. Alg. 2 : 246, 1865 ; Geitler

158, fig. 70, 1932 ; Desikachary 134, pl. 21, figs.3 & 4, 1959.

Thallus gelatinous, expanding, blue-green ; cells spherical, loosely arranged ; enve-

lops distinct ; nannocytes present. Diameter cell=3.8-7 ~ ; diameter nannocyte=

1 19-2 ‘ad ¢

ate

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR: I 137

Habitat: At first attached, later free floating, in a semi-permanent pond along

the railway track, Hoshiarpur.

APHANOTHECE Nag.

10. Aphanothece stagnina (Spreng.) A. Br. loc. cit. 2:66, 1865 ; Geitler 164, figs.

72, 75, a, b, 1932 ; Desikachary 137, pl. 22, fig. 10, 1959.

Thallus, solid, gelatinous, light blue-green, 2.5 cm. in diameter, often impregnated

with calcareous crystals ; cells oblong, ovoid or cylindrical, individual envelops indis-

tinct. Lat. cell=3.8-5.7 / ; long. cell=7.6-11 /.

Habitat: Attached to the plants of Chara in a pond along the sides of railway

track, Hoshiarpur.

- MERISMOPEDIA Meyen

11. Merismopedia glauca (Ehrenb.) Nag. Gatt. einzell. Algen 55, pl. 1D, fig. 1,

1849 ; Geitler 264, fig. 129d, 1932 ; Desikachary 155, pl. 29, fig. 5, 1959.

Lat. cell=3.4-5.7 « ; long. cell=3.4-5.7 /; lat. colony=38.4-76.8 “. There are

sixteen to one hundred and fifty cells in a colony.

Habitat: Along the sides of an irrigation channel passing through village Rehana,

Hoshiarpur.

DACTYLOCOCCOPSIS Hansgirg

12. Dactylococcopsis raphidioides Hansg.in Syn. Gen. Myxo. Notarisia 590, 1888 ;

Geitler 281, fig. 137, 1932 ; Desikachary 158, pl. 29, figs. 1, 2, 1959.

var. major var. nov. (Fig. 1)

Cellulae fusiformes, falcatae, sigmoideae vel lunae instar curvatae; occurrunt

singulae, 1.9-3.5 / latae, 11.5-60. # longae. Typus lectus mense aprili, die 30, 1960,

et positus in Hoshiarpur herbario in collegio Gubernii sub numero Vasishta 2.

Cells spindle-shaped, sickle-shaped, sigmoid or lunately bent, 1.9-3.5 # broad and

11.5-60.5 / long, occurring singly.

Habitat: On the filaments of Spirogyra from a roadside pond, Phagwara road,

Hoshiarpur.

The type of the variety was collected on 30.4.60 and has been deposited in the form

of camera lucida drawings in Government College, Hoshiarpur Herbarium under re-

ference number Vasishta 2.

The variety resembles the type in the shape and occurrence of the cells ; but differs

in the dimensions of the cells. The cells in the Hoshiarpur alga are very long. Rao

(1937b, 347) reported a form from Benares with cells upto 40 / long but in the present

form the cells are as long as 60.5 /&.

Order CHAMAESIPHONALES Wettstein

Family DERMOCARPACEAE Geitler

DERMOCARPA Crouan

13. Dermocarpa sphaerica Setchell et Gardner in Gardner, Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot.

6 : 457, pl. 39, fig..14, 1918 ; Geitler 393, fig. 217, 1932 ; Desikachary 174, 1959.

Sporangia single or in groups, light blue-green, spherical ; sheath distinct, hyaline ;

endospores liberated by the gelatinisation of the sporangial wall.

Diameter sporangium=8.5-18.7 “; diameter spore=2.5-3.4 pm.

Habitat: Epiphytic on the filaments of Cladophora in a tank in Govt. College,

Hoshiarpur. :

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Order NOSTOCALES Geitler

Family OSscILLATORIACEAE Kirchner

ARTHROSPIRA Stizenberger

14. Arthrospira khannae Drouet et Strickland in Drouet, Field Mus. nat. Hist.

~ Bot. 20 (6) : 141, pl. 1, fig. 6, 1942 ; Desikachary 189, pl. 35, fig. 12, 1959.

Trichomes blue-green, free floating, loosely spirally coiled, unconstricted, atten-

uated at the ends ; cross-walls granulated, gas-vacuoles present in the cells. Lat. tri-

chome=3.8-5.1 /; long. cell=1.9-2.5 “; breadth of the spiral=19.2 / ; distance

between spirals=20 /.

Habitat: Planktonic in a roadside pond, Phagwara road, Hoshiarpur.

SPIRULINA Turpin ex Gardner

15. Spirulina princeps W. et G. S. West in Trans. Linn. Soc. (Lond.) Bot., 2 ser.,

6 : 205, 1902 ; Geitler 931, fig. 593 d, 1932 ; Desikachary 197, pl. 36, fig. 7, 1959.

Lat. trichome=3.8-5.7 / ; spirals 7.6-8.5 / broad and 9.5-11.5 » distant.

Habitat: Ina stagnant water pond, Phagwara road, Hoshiarpur.

OSCILLATORIA Vaucher

16. Oscillatoria salina Biswas in Jour. Dept. Sci. Calcutta Univ. 8 : 21, pl. 6, fig. 6

a-d, 1926 ; Geitler 978, fig. 624, 1932 ; Desikachary 239, 1959.

Lat. cell=3.8-4.7 / ; long. cell=1.7-2.7 /.

Habitat: Forming deep blue, thin, membranous thallus extending over the bottom

of a temporary roadside pond, Phagwara road, Hoshiarpur.

17. Oscillatoria agardhii Gomont, Mon. Oscill. 205, 1892 ; Geitler 974, figs. 618,

621, 1932 ; Desikachary 235, 1959.

Long. trichome=upto 268 / ; lat. trichome=4.7-6.6 / ; lat. trichome at apex=

3.8 & ; long. cell=1.9-3 /.

Habitat: Ina pond at village Sham Chaurasi, Hoshiarpur. It was found mixed

with Microcystis flos-aquae.

18. Oscillatoria proteus Skuja in Nov. Acta Reg. Soc. Upsal., ser. IV, 14: 48, pl.

8, figs. 11-13, 1949 ; Desikachary 221, pl. 41, figs. 15, 16, 18, 1959.

Lat. trichome=S.7-7.6 / ; long. cell=2.5-3.5 /.

Habitat: Planktonic among other algae in a pond at Guru Nanak Nagar, Hoshiar-

pur.

19. Oscillatoria limosa Ag. ex Gomont; Agardh, Disp. Alg. Suec. 35, 1812;

Gomont, loc. cit. 210, pl. 6, fig. 13, 1892 ; Geitler 944, fig. 598 d, 1932 ; Desikachary

206, pl. 42, fig. 11, 1959.

Lat. trichome=16.8-18.7 / ; long. cell=3.7-5.6 /.

Habitat: In the stagnant water of a pond, Hoshiarpur.

20. Oscillatoria sancta (KUtz.) Gomont, loc. cit. 209, pl. 6, fig. 13, 1892 ; Geitler

944, fig. 598 d, 1932 ; Desikachary 203, pl. 42, fig. 10, 1959.

Lat. cell=13.1-15 /& ; long. cell=2-3.7 &.

Habitat: FForming dark brown gelatinous growth on a moist wall in Govern-

ment College, Hoshiarpur.

forma... Rao, in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. B, 6 (6) : 366, 1937 b,

JOURN. BOMBAY NaT. HIST. SOc. PLATE I

ays

a Es

ee:

899 qi

Peo.

—

es 2

Set

5058 %

8ee

‘2°

% o

Dt ee aes

Fig. 1. Dactylococcopsis raphidioides var. major var. nov. Showing two cells.

Fig. 2. Lyngbya aestuarii var. arbustiva Briihl et Biswas. Showing portion of a

filament. Figs. 3 & 4. Anabaena sphaerica forma major f. nov.; fig. 3. Portion of a

trichome with young spores; fig. 4. portion of a trichome with matuce spores.

Figs. 5-7. Anabaena oscillariocides forma minor f. nov.; figs. 5 & 7. Portions of

trichomes with spores; fig. 6. part of a trichome with end cell. Fig. 8. Nodularia

spumigena Mertens var. major (Kiitz.) Born. et Flah. Part of a fertile filament.

Figs. 9-11. Scytonema simplex forma major f. nov.; fig. 9. Portion of the filament

with false branches ; fig. 10. portion of the filament with one heterocyst ; fig. 11.

portion of the filament with two heterocysts.

JOURN. BomMBay NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE II

eee

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CS)

ASOT

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oe eee?

Be%ao 0

)

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Boe

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Figs. 12 & 13. Gloeotrichia raciborskii var. kashiense Rao, forma intermedia

f. nov. Fig. 12. Basal part of the trichome showing heterocyst, spore, and the

thick sheath; fig. 13. Upper part of the filament with a portion of the

hair. Figs. 14 - 16. Gloeotrichia raciborskii forma hoshiarpurensis f. nov.

Fig. 14. Basal part of the filament ; fig. 15. Upper part of filament ; fig. 16.

Portion of the hair.

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR: I 139

Lat. trichome=9.2-11.2 “; long. cell=2-4 “. The specimen had no constric-

tions at the joints.

Habitat: On the bottom mud of a roadside pond, Phagwara road, Hoshiarpur.

PHORMIDIUM Kutz.

21. Phormidium valderianum (Delp.) Gomont, loc. cit. 167, pl. 4, fig. 20, 1892;

Geitler 1011, fig. 645 c, 1932 ; Desikachary 263, pl. 44, fig. 5, 1959.

Lat. trichome=2-2.5 / ; long. cell=3.4-6.6 pb.

Habitat: Forming a thick and expanded, dull green growth on the sides of a

pukka drain, district board, Hoshiarpur.

22. Phormidium luridum (Kutz.) Gomont, loc. cit. 165, pl. 4, figs. 17, 18, 1892;

Geitler 1009, fig. 645 a, 1932 ; Desikachary 263, 1959.

Lat. trichome=1.7-2 / ; long. cell=2.5-5.1 wu.

Habitat: On the sides of a water tank, Botanical Garden, Government College,

Hoshiarpur.

23. Phormidium purpurascens (Kutz.) Gomont, loc. cit. 166, pl. 4, fig. 19, 1892;

Geitler 1009, fig. 644 c, 1932 ; Desikachary 262, pl. 44, fig. 4 & pl. 45, figs. 1-4, 1959.

Lat. trichome=1.7-2.5 / ; long. cell=2.5-5.1 /& ; crass. vag.=0.5 /.

Habitat: Forming brownish violet, leathery and compact thallus on the sides of

a water tap, Hoshiarpur.

LYNGBYA Ag.

24. Lyngbya aerugineo-caerulea (KUtz.) Gomont, loc. cit. 146, pl. 4, figs. 1-3, 1892 ;

Geitler 1062, fig. 670, 1932 ; Desikachary 315, pl. 48, fig. 9, 1959.

Lat. filament=5.9-6.8 / ; lat. trichome=5.1-6.6 / ; long. cell=4.2-5.1 m.

Habitat: On moist soil, Hoshiarpur.

25. Lyngbya aestuarii Liebem. ex Gomont. Liebemann, Bermerk. Till. danske

Algefl. Kroyera Tidsskr. 492, 1841 ; Gomont, loc. cit. 127, pl. 3, figs. 1, 2, 1892 ;

Geitler 1052, fig. 666, 1932 ; Desikachary 305, pl. 52, fig. 8, 1959.

Lat. filament=15.3-16 / ; lat. trichome=10.7-11.5 / ; long. cell=3-4.7 w 3; Crass.

vag.=1.7 /.

Habitat: Planktonic in a roadside pond, Phagwara road, Hoshiarpur.

Var. arbustiva Bruhl et Biswas in Journ. Dept. Sci. Calcutta Univ. 5 : 5, pl. 2, figs.

9a-c, 1923. (Fig. 2)

Lat. filament=17-24 /; lat. trichome=9.5-15.3 4 ; long. cell= 4-104 ; crass. vag.

=2-5 /.

Habitat: On moist kacha walls of houses at village Purhiran, Hoshiarpur,

Inner layers of the sheath are coloured reddish brown.

26. Lyngbya putealis Mont. ex Gomont. Montagne in Ann. Sci. nat., 2 ser., Bot.

13 : 200, 1840 ; Gomont, loc. cit., 143, pl. 3, fig. 14, 1892 ; Geitler 1063, fig. 675, 1932 :

Desikachary 317, pl. 52, fig. 12, 1959.

Lat. filament=8-11.5 “; lat. trichome=5.7-7.6 / ; long. cell=3.8-7.6 3; crass.

vag.=1.9 &.

Habitat: Mixed with Lyngbya aestuarii in a stagnant water pond, Phagwara

road, Hoshiarpur.

27. Lyngbya major Menegh. ex Gomont apud Meneghini, Consp. Algol. Eugan.

12, 1837 ; Gomont, loc. cit. 144, pl. 3, fig. 15, 1892 ; Geitler 1066, fig. 679 a, 1932 ;

Desikachary 320, pl. 52, fig. 11, 1959,

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Lat. filament=15.3-19.2 “4; lat. trichome=11.5-13.4 “; long. cell=1.9-2.8 4; crass.

vag.=1.9-2.5 &. The cells contain gas-vacuoles.

Habitat: In a stagnant water pond, Phagwara road, Hoshiarpur ; mixed with

Lyngbya putealis and Lyngbya aestuarii.

28. Lyngbya hieronymusii Lemm. Forschbers. Plon 12: 146, pl. 4, figs. 12, 13, 1905;

Kryptog. Mark Brandenb. 3 : 139, fig. 6 (p. 102), 1910 ; Geitler 1047, fig. 656 a, 1932 ;

Desikachary 297, pl. 48, fig. 4, 1959.

Lat. filament=12-15.3 « ; lat. trichome=11.5-13.4 mw ; long. cell=2.5-4 pb.

Habitat: Ina roadside pond, Phagwara road, Hoshiarpur.

SCHIZOTHRIX Kutz.

29. Schizothrix lateritia (Ktitz.) Gomont, loc. cit. 308, pl. 8, fig. 4, 1892 ; Geitler

1081, fig. 691, 1932 ; Desikachary 326, 1959.

Lat. filament=upto 26.8 /; lat. trichome=1.7 / ; long. cell=2-5 /.

Habitat: Forming greyish green or flesh-coloured leathery growth at the bottom

and sides of a cemented tank in the Botanical Garden, Govt. College, Hoshiarpur.

The filaments are branched and thickly packed ; sheath broad and uneven, becoming

pointed at the ends.

MICROCOLEUS Desmaz.

30. Microcoleus paludosus (Kttz.) Gomont, loc. cit. 358, pl. 14, fig. 13, 1892 ;

Geitler 1144, fig. 753, 1932 ; Desikachary 344, pl. 56, fig. 2, 1959.

Lat. filament=upto 57.6 “/; lat. trichome=4.7-6.6 / ; long. cell=3.8-12.4 wu.

Habitat: Forming dark blue-green stratum on the kacha walls of houses in

village Purhiran, Hoshiarpur.

31. Microcoleus lacustris (Rabenh.) Farlow in Alg. Am. Bor. nr. 227 bis, 1877;

Gomont, loc. cit., 359, 1892 ; Geitler 1142, figs. 749, 750 a, 1932 ; Desikachary 345,

pl. 60, figs. 4, 5, 1959.

forma intermedia f. nov.

Thailus caeruleo-viridis ; filamenta irregulariter curvata, 34.5-45.1 mw lata, vagina

hyalina, nonnumquam mucosa evadens; trichomata constricta ad septa; cellulae

cylindricae, 3 / latae, 6.6-11.5 / longae, cellula terminali conica; calyptra nulla. Typus

lectus mense februario, die 10, 1960, et positus in Hoshiarpur herbario collegii Gubernii

sub numero Vasishta 3.

Thallus blue-green, filaments irregularly curved, sheath colourless, sometimes

gelatinising ; trichomes constricted at septa ; cells cylindrical, end cell conical ; calyptra

absent. Lat. filament=34.5-45.1 #, lat. trichome=3 “ ;long.cell=6.6-11.5 /; lat.

terminal cell=2.7 / ; long. terminal cell=11.5-13.4 /.

Habitat : Forming a blue-green growth on moist soil along a water course at Chak

Saidu, Hoshiarpur, 10.2.1960.

Type specimen deposited in the herbarium, Government College, Hoshiarpur

under reference number Vasishta 3.

The Hoshiarpur alga differs from the type in possessing narrower trichomes and

resembles in this respect forma minor nom. nov.=Microcoleus lacustris forma . .

Rao, C. S. (1940, 131); but differs from forma minor in possessing much 1OnerE

cells. Length of cells brings this form close to the type.

32. Microcoleus chthonoplastes Thuret ex Gomont. Thuret in Ann. Sci. nat. Bot.

6th ser. 1: 378, 1875 ; Gomont, loc. cit., 353, pl. 14, figs. 5-8, 1892 ; Geitler 1136,

fig. 741, 1932 ; . Desikachary 343, pl. 60, figs. 7-9, 1959,

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR: I 141

Lat. filament=26.8-46 “; lat. trichome=3.8-6.6 “; long. cell=3.8-11.2 /; lat.

apical cell=3.8 / ; long. apical cell=11.5 /.

Habitat: Forming dark green growth on the moist lawns of Government College,

Hoshiarpur.

Family NosTocaAcgEAaE Kutzing

Sub-family ANABAENOIDEAE Born. et Flah.

CYLINDROSPERMUM Kiitzing

33. Cylindrospermum musicola Ktitzing ex Born. et Flah. Kutzing, loc. cit. 173,

1845 et 1: 53, pl. 98, fig. 1, 1849 ; Born. et Flah., Revis. Nostocac. Hétéroc. 254, 1888;

Geitler 822, fig. 520d, 1932 ; Desikachary 366, pl. 65, fig. 3, 1959.

forma hoshiarpurense f. nov.

Thallus caeruleo-viridis, mucilaginosus ; trichomata constricta ad septa, 3.8-4.2

lata ; cellulae cylindricae, 3.8-5.1 “ longae; heterocysta oblonga, 4.7-5.7/ lata, 4.7-7.6

longa; sporae ovales, 9.5-15.3 /& latae, 19.2-32.6 / longae, episporio levi, luteolo-brun-

neo. Typus lectus mense maio 3, 1960, et positus in Hoshiarpur herbario collegii

Gubernii sub numero Vasishta 4.

Thallus blue-green, mucilaginous ; trichomes constricted at cross walls; cells

cylindrical; heterocysts oblong; spores oval, epispore smooth, yellowish brown.

Lat. trichome=3.8-4.2 “ ; long.cell=3.8-5.1 “4; lat. heterocyst=4.7-5.7 “; long.

heterocyst=4.7-7.6 4 ; lat. spore=9.5-15.3 “ ; long. spore=19.2-32.6 “.

Habitat: Forming blue-green irregular patches on moist soil of lawns in Govern-

ment College, Hoshiarpur. Collected on May 3, 1960.

The type of this form has been deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur Her-

barium under reference number Vasishta 4.

The form resembles the type in the dimensions of the cells and the heterocysts ;

but differs in the dimensions of the spores. It also differs from var. longispora Dixit

(1936, 100) in possessing (a) smaller dimensions of heterocysts, (6) cells smaller in

length, and (c) spores much broader and slightly longer.

WOLLEA Born. et Flah.

34. Wollea bharadwajae Singh in Ann. Bot. Lond., n.s., 6 : 593-606, 1942 ; Desika-

chary 372, pl. 66, figs. 1-18, 1959.

Long. thallus=3-4 cm. ; lat. thallus=2-2.5 mm. ; lat. trichome=3.7-5.6 / ; long.

cell=3.7-4.6 ; lat. heterocyst=5.6-6.6 “ ; long. heterocyst=5.6-7.5 “4: lat. spore =

8.4-12.1 ~& ; long. spore=11.2-13.4 pu.

Habitat: Free floating or attached to submerged water plants or bottom of ponds,

Guru Nanak Nagar, Hoshiarpur.

The material was collected by Prof. B. R. Vasishta, formerly Head of the Botany

Department, Government College, Hoshiarpur.

NOSTOC Vaucher

35. Nostoc maculiforme Born. et Flah. loc. cit. 189, 1888 ; Desikachary 374, 1959.

Lat. trichome=3.8-4 /; long. cell=3.8-4 4; lat. heterocyst=4-5.7 ; long. hetero-

cyst=3.8-5.7 « ; diameter spore=7.6 /.

Habitat: Attached to dead twigs submerged in water in a roadside pond near

village Purhiran, Hoshiarpur.

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

36. Nostoc muscorum Ag. ex Born. et Flah. Agardh, loc. cit. 44, 1812 ; Born. et

Flah. loc. cit. 200, 1888 ; Geitler 844, fig. 535, 1932 ; Desikachary 385, pl. 70, fig. 2,

1959.

Lat. trichome=3.8-4.7 /; long. cell=3.8-9.5 #; lat. heterocyst=5.7-7.6 /; long.

heterocyst=5.7-7.6 / ; lat. spore=4.7-8 / ; long. spore=6.6-11.5 /.

Habitat: On moist soil near village Purhiran, Hoshiarpur.

ANABAENA Bory

37. Anabaena sphaerica Born. et Flah. loc. cit. 288, 1888; Geitler 878, 1932 ;

Desikachary 393, 1959.

: forma major f. nov. (Figs. 3 and 4)

Thallus floccosus, gelatinosus; trichomata irregulariter curvata et intertexta,

attenuata ad apices, 3.7-6.5 / lata; cellula terminalis rotundata ; cellulae sphaericae

vel doliiformes, 4-7.5 / longae, pseudovacuolis nullis; heterocysta intercalaria, dolii-

formia, 7.5-8.5 / lata, 7.5-11.2 / longa ; sporae uni vel utrique lateri hetericystorum

adhaerentes, sub-sphaericae vel ovales, 9.5-17/ latae, 10-19.5 “ longae, episporio levi,

crasissimo, luteolo-brunneo. Typus lectus mense septembri 10, 1959 et positus in

Hoshiarpur herbario collegii Gubernii sub numero Vasishta 5. .

Thallus floccose, gelatinous, free floating, blue-green ; trichomes irregularly curved

and entangled, attenuated at the apices; end cell rounded ; cells spherical or barrel-

shaped, pseudovacuoles absent ; heterocysts intercalary, barrel-shaped ; spores on one

or both sides of the heterocysts, sub-spherical to oval, epispore smooth, very thick,

yellowish brown. Lat. trichome=3.7-6.5 / ; long. cell=4-7.5 /; lat. heterocyst=

7.5-8.5 “3; long. heterocyst=7.5-11.2 “; lat. spore=9.5-17 /; long. spore=10-19.5 yu.

Habitat: In stagnant water of a pond, Phagwara road, Hoshiarpur. Collected

on September 10, 1959.

Type deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur Herbarium under reference

number Vasishta 5.

The form resembles the type in the shape of cells, heterocysts and spores; but

differs from it in the dimensions of the cells, heterocysts and spores. The spores in

the present form have greater dimensions.

38. Anabaena oscillarioides Bory ex Born. et Flah. in Rev. Nost. Heter. 233, 1888;

Geitler 886, fig. 567 e, 1932 ; Desikachary 417, pl. 71, fig. 7, 1959.

forma major f.nov. (Figs. 5-7) A

Plantae floccosae, libere natantes, caeruleo-virides ; trichomata recta vel irregu-

lariter curvata ; cellulae doliiformes, 4-5.2 “4 latae, aeque longae ac latae vel paulo

breviores vel longiores quam latae, 3.7-7.5 / longae; heterocysta cylindrica, 5.6-7.5

lata, 7.5-10.5 / longa, tenuiter applanata ad apices; sporae cylindricae, 6.5-9.3 fu

latae, 15-26.2 / longae, singulae vel in breves series dispositae in utroque latere hetero-

cystorum, circumdatae vagina speciali mucosa, episporio levi, luteolo-brunneo in

sporis maturis. Typus lectus mense februario 1, 1960 et positus in Hoshiarpur her-

bario collegii Gubernii sub numero Vasishta 6.

Plant mass floccose, free floating, blue-green ; trichomes straight or irregularly

curved ; cells barrel-shaped, as long as broad or slightly shorter or longer than broad ;

heterocysts cylindrical, slightly flattened at the ends ; spores cylindrical, single or in

short series on either side of the heterocyst surrounded by a special mucilaginous.

sheath, epispore smooth, yellowish brown in mature spores. Lat. trichome=4-5.2 4;

long. cell=3.7-7.5 “; lat. heterocyst=5.6-7.5 “; long. heterocyst=7.5-10.5 /; lat.

spore=6.5-9.3 / ; long. spore=15-26.2 /.

Habitat: Free floating in a stagnant water pond situated on Phagwara road,

Hoshiarpur. Collected on February 1, 1960.

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR: I 143

The type of this formis deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur Herbarium

under reference number Vasishta 6.

NODULARIA Mertens

39. Nodularia spumigena Mertens in Born. et Flah. loc. cit. 245, 1888 ; Geitler

866, fig. 554 b,c, 1932 ; Desikachary 423, pl. 80, figs. 13, 14,1959. Var. major (Kutz.)

Born. et Flah. loc. cit. 247, 1888 ; Geitler 867, 1932 ; Desikachary 424, pl. 61, fig.

12, 1959. (Fig. 8)

Lat. filament=12-15.3 /; lat. trichome=11.5-12.4 /; long. cell=4-6 4; lat. hetero-

cyst=13.5-17 #; long. heterocyst=7.5-8 /; lat. spore=11.5-18 #; long. spore=

6-7.6 /.

Habitat: Free floating in the stagnant water of a roadside pond, Phagwara road,

Hoshiarpur.

The Hoshiarpur specimen of the alga possesses greater dimensions of the spores.

AULOSIRA Kirchner

40. Aulosira fertilissima Ghose in Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot. 46: 342, pl. 31, fig. 9,

1923 ; Geitler 675, fig. 435, 1932 ; Desikachary 431, pl. 80, fig. 6, 1959. Var. tenuis

Rao in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. B 6 : 353, fig. 3 F-I, 1937 b ; Desikachary 431, pl. 80,

figs. 2-5, 1959.

Lat. filament—6.6-7.6 /; lat. trichome=3.8-4.7 “&; long. cell=11.5-19.2 «4; lat.

heterocyst=4.7-7.6 #3; long. heterocyst=7.6-19.2 #; lat. spore=4.7-11.5 #; long.

spore=11.5-19.2 &.

Habitat: Forming yellowish brown to greyish blue, fibrous plant mass floating

on the surface of water or attached to other objects in a semi-permanent pond near

railway crossing at village Nasrala, Hoshiarpur.

Family SCYTONEMATACEAE Rabenh.

SCYTONEMA Agardh

41. Scytonema simplex Bharadwaja in Rev. Algol. Paris 7 : 157, fig. 1 A, B, 1934;

Desikachary 455, pl. 89, fig. 1, 1959.

forma major f. nov. (Figs. 9-11)

Thallus crassus, caeruleo-viridis vel luteolo-caeruleo-viridis; filamenta irregulariter

curvata, 15.3-19.2 ™ lata; vaginae firmae, hyalinae ; cellulae cylindricae, 8.5-11.5 /&

latae, 7.6-26.8 “ longae; heterocysta singula vel bina, cylindrica, 9.5-11.5 # lata,

15.3-38.4 # longa. Typus lectus mense novembri 23, 1959 et positus in Hoshiarpur

herbario collegii Gubernii sub numero Vasishta 7.

Thallus thick, blue-green to yellowish blue-green ; filaments irregularly curved;

sheath thick, firm, hyaline ; cells cylindrical ; heterocysts single or in pairs, cylindrical.

Lat. filament=15.3-19.2 / ; crass. vag.==3.8 “; lat. trichome=8.5-11.5 “; long. cell=

7.6-26.8 / ; lat. heterocyst=9.5-11.5 & ; long. heterocyst=15.3-38.4 “.

Habitat: Forming dirty blue-green thallus, floating freely on the surface of a

stagnant water pond near railway crossing at village Nasrala, Hoshiarpur. Collec-

ted on November 23, 1959.

The type of this form is deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur Herbarium

under reference number Vasishta 7.

This form differs from the type in possessing broader filaments.

144. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

TOLYPOTHRIX Kiitzing

42. Tolypothrix crassa West et West loc. cit. 35: 267, 1897; Geitler 740, 1932;

Desikachary 504, 1959.

Lat. filament=18.7-21.2/4; crass. vag.=1.7-3.4 “; lat. trichome=15.3 «; long. cell

=6.8-12.7 /; lat. heterocyst=15.3 “; long. heterocyst=15.3 /. .

Habitat : On the trunk of a palm tree, mixed with Lyngbya palmarum and Tolypo-

thrix campylonemoides, in Government College, Hoshiarpur.

43. Tolypothrix campylonemoides Ghose loc. cit. 46: 344, pl. 13, fig. 12, 1923;

Geitler 726, fig. 467, 1932 ; Desikachary 502, pl. 95, fig. 5, 1959.

Lat. filament=11.5-12.1 ; lat. trichome=7.6-9.5 “; long. cell=3.8-5.7 /#; lat.

heterocyst=11.5 “; long. heterocyst=7.6-9.5 f.

Habitat: Ona palm tree, mixed with Lyngbya palmarum and Tolypothrix crassa,

in Government College, Hoshiarpur.

Family RIVULARIACEAE Rabenhorst

HOMOEOTHRIX (Thuret) Kirchner

44, Homoeothrix juliana (Menegh.) Kirchner loc. cit. 1 a, 348, 1898; Geitler

575, fig. 359, 1932 ; Desikachary 519, pl. 107, fig. 7, 1959. Calothrix juliana (Menegh.)

Born. et Flah. loc. cit. 348, 1886. Leibleinia juliana Kutz. in Bot. Zeit. 194, 1847.

Filaments erect, single or in clusters, forming an olive coloured velvety thallus,

unbranched ; sheath thin, firm, colourless, un-lamellated ; trichomes produced into a

prominent hair; cells discoid ; reproduction by hormogone formation ; heterocysts

absent. Lat. filament=11.5-15.3 m ; lat. trichome=9.5-11.5 /& ; long. cell=3.8-7.6 & ;

lat. hair=3.8 / at top and 7.6 & below ; long. cellin hair=11.5-26.8 pu.

Habitat: Forming an olive-coloured thallus on the sides of a water tank in

Botanical Gardens, Government College, Hoshiarpur. Sometimes mixed with Calo-

thrix parietina.

CALOTHRIX Ag.

45. Calothrix braunii (A.Br.) Born. et Flah. loc. cit. 368, 1886 ; Geitler 606, fig. 381,

1932 ; Desikachary 535, pl. 114, fig. 3, 1959.

Lat. filament=10.2 #; lat. filament above=8.5 /; lat. trichome= 6: 8- 7 -; long.

cell=3.8-4.2 @; crass. vag.=0.85 “; lat. heterocyst=7-7.6 /#; long. heterocyst=

6.6-7.2 &.

Habitat : Forming a blue-green, caespitose thallus on moist soil of a crop field,

Hoshiarpur.

46. Calothrix parietina Thuret ex Born. et Flah. Thuret in Ann. Sci. nat. Bot., ser.

6,1 : 381, 1875 ; Born. et Flah. loc. cit. 366, 1886 ; Geitler 604, fig. 380, 1932 ; Desika-

chary 538, pl. 108, figs. 6-8, pl. 115, fig. 1, 1959. Mastichonema caespitosum Kitz.

Phyc. Germ. 184, 1845.

Lat. filament=11.5-15.3 “4; lat. trichome=5.7-9.5 “; long. cell at base=3.8-4.2 /.

long. cell above=4.2-6.7 / ; lat. heterocyst=11.5 / ; long. heterocyst= 7.6 Sheath

lamellated and coloured brown.

Habitat : Forming a dark brown and expanded growth on the cemented sides of

a tank in Botanical Gardens, Government College, Hoshiarpur.

GLOEOTRICHIA Ag.

47. Gloeotrichia raciborskii Wolosz. var. kashiense Rao in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.,

B, 6 : 351, figs. 3 A-E, 1937 b ; Desikachary 563, pl. 117, figs. 2-6, 1959.

forma intermedia f. noy. (Figs. 12-13)

MORE CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR: I 145

Thallus magnus 1-2.5 cm. diam. luteolo-brunneus; trichomata constricta, 7.6-9.6

/ lata in regione basali, 2.7-3.4 “ lata in regione capilli; cellulae 3.8-7.6 “ longae, 13.4-

30.7 # longae in regione capilli ; heterocysta sphaerica, 9.6-11.5 “ diam. ; sporae ellip-

soideae, 11.5-15.3 / latae, 30.7-61.4 ~ longae, episporio levi, hyalino; vagina crassa et

brunnea, 7.6-11.5 / lata in regione basali. Typus lectus mense februario 15, 1960,

et positus in Hoshiarpur herbario collegii Gubernii sub numero Vasishta 8.

Thallus large, 1-2.5 cm. diameter, yellowish brown ; trichomes constricted; hetero-

cysts spherical ; spores ellipsoidal, epispore smooth, hyaline ; sheath thick and brown.

Lat. trichome at base=7.6-9.6 /; lat. trichome above=3.8-5.7 / ; long. cell=3.8-

7.6 /; lat. hair=2.7-3.4 mw; long. cell in hair=13.4-30.7 ; diameter heterocyst—9.6-

11.5 “4; lat. spore=11.5-15.3 “”; long. spore=30.7-61.4 / ; lat. sheath at base=7.6-

fis /:

Habitat: Attached to other submerged plants in a roadside pond, Jullundhur

road, near village Nasrala, Hoshiarpur. Collected on February 15, 1960. The type

is deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur herbarium under reference number

Vasishta 8.

The form resembles the variety in the dimensions of the spores and shape of cells

and heterocysts ; but differs in the dimensions of the cells and thallus.

It resembles variety /ongispora Rao, (1939, 146) in the dimensions and shape of cells,

heterocysts and thallus ; but differs in the dimensions of the spores. The Hoshiarpur

form is intermediate between the varieties kashiense and longispora.

forma hoshiarpurensis f. nov. (Figs. 14-16)

Thallus parvus, 1-2.5 mm. diam. luteolo-brunneus; trichomata constricta, desinen-

tiain capillum longum, 7.6-11.5 / lata in regione basali; vagina basalis crassa et brunnea,

3.8-5.7/ crass.; cellulae 5.7-7.6 / longae in regione basali, 7.6-46.8 / longae in regione

capilli; heterocysta singula, sphaerica, 11.5 # diam. ; sporae longae et cylindricae,

nonnumquam tenuiter curvatae, 11.5-15.3 /latae, 46-84.4 / longae, episporio levi et

hyalino. Typus lectus mense aprili 1960 et positus in Hoshiarpur herbario collegii

Gubernii sub numero Vasishta 9.

Thallus small, 1-2.5 mm. in diameter, yellowish brown ; trichomes constricted

ending in along hair ; sheath at the base thick and brown ; heterocysts single, spherical ;

spores long and cylindrical, sometimes slightly bent, epispore smooth and hyaline.

Lat. trichome at base=7.6-11.5 /; lat. trichome at apex=3.8-5.7 / ; long. cell=

5.7-7.6 /, long. cell in the region of the hair=7.6-46.8 “4; diameter heterocyst=11.5

/; lat. spore=11.5-15.3 / ; long. spore=46-84.4 / ; crass. vag. at base=3.8-5.7 pu,

Habitat: Planktonicina roadside pond, Phagwara road, Hoshiarpur. Collected

on April 21, 1960.

The type is deposited in Government College, Hoshiarpur Herbarium under re-

ference number Vasishta 9.

This form resembles the variety in the dimensions of the cells and breadth of spores ;

but differs. in possessing (a) smaller dimensions of the thallus, (5) heterocysts always

spherical and not at all ellipsoidal, and (c) spores cylindrical and longer.

The length of the spores brings this form slightly closer to the variety longispora

Rao, C. S. (1939, 146).

Order STIGONEMATALES Geitler

Family MASTIGOCLADACEAE Geitler

MASTIGOCLADUS Cohn

48. Mastigocladus laminosus Cohn in Abh. Schles, Ges. Vaterl. Cultur 2 : 39,

1863 ; Geitler 558, figs. 350-352, 1932; Desikachary 581, pl. 127, figs. 1-9, 1959,

Haplosiphon laminosus Hansgirg in Bot. Centralbl.22: 48, 1885. Anabaena bullosa

Kiitz. Phyc. Gen. 212, 1843.

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Lat. main filament=7.6-9.2 /; lat. main trichome=5.7-7.6 / ; long. cell of the main

trichome=3.8-11.3 /; lat. trichome in branches=3.8-6.6 / ; long.cell of the branches=

5.7-19.2 “; lat. hair = 1.9-3.8 /; lat. F terocyst=3.8-6.6 “; long. heterocyst=

7.6-19.2 /.

Habitat: Forming blue-green or olive-green, membranous thallus on the moist

soil by the side of a cho near Model Town, Hoshiarpur.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his sincerest thanks to Rev. Fr. H. San-

tapau, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, for kindly rendering the new

diagnoses into Latin.

REFERENCES

Vasishta, P.C. (1960): Anabaena nathi Vasishta, P.C. (1960): Anabaena hoshiar-

sp. nov. from Hoshiarpur. Res. Bull. purensis sp.nov. from Hoshiarpur. Res.

Panjab Univ. Sc., 11 (1 & 2): 63-67. Bull. Panjab Univ., 11 (1 & 2): 93-97.

‘OD

The Giant Stick Insect, Aurycnema

goliath (Gray)

H. J. KITCHENER, F.Z.S.

(With six plates)

Several years ago, prior to my departure on long leave, two large

long-legged green-winged insects were brought to me. There was

nothing I could do then about keeping them, so very reluctantly

I had to refuse the gift. As the result of another gift early this

year (1950) I have been able to observe and record the life-history

of the insect, Eurycnema goliath (Gray), the Giant Stick Insect of

Malaya and adjacent territories.

The zift consisted of some thirty eggs reported to have been laid

by a large green-winged insect caught while clearing and burning

jungle. The eggs were oval and slightly flattened, 5 mm. in length

and 4 mm. in diameter; grey-brown in colour and very hard shelled.

At one extremity was a small circular brown disc, superimposed on

the centre of which was a small light brown sphere 1 mm. in diameter.

This small sphere appears to have no function or practical use as

it lacks contents and is often knocked off or damaged before the

ege hatches. Eggs take some eight months to hatch. This period

can be reduced somewhat by exposure to indirect sun heat.

The eggs were kept in a muslin-covered jar on a bed of coarse sand

and were exposed to a certain amount of heat from indirect sunlight.

Occasionally they were placed in a small wire sieve and given a thorough

washing and soaking for a few minutes and returned to the jar.

Hatching is accomplished by the emerging nymph pushing out the

brown disc at the extremity of the egg. This is actually a lid unsealed

when the nymph is ready to emerge. The egg is lined with a thick

white parchment-like membrane which is ruptured and left in a dry

and crumpled condition in the egg after the nymph has left it.

The newly-hatched nymph is 2 cm. long, very thin in body, and

with long slender legs. The overall colour is dark brown—almost

black. Forty-eight hours after hatching the nymph commences to feed.

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Mine were all raised on guava (Psidium) leaves which they readily

accepted.

At the end of 11 days, by which time the body length is 3.20 cm.,

the first moult or ecdysis takes place; and when this is complete the

body length has increased to 4.15 cm.

When the moult is imminent the nymph hangs upside-down from

a leaf; in the case of larger nymphs twigs with an inclination towards

the horizontal are selected. The nymph also makes sure that there

is a clear free space immediately below. The legs are spread and

firmly hooked to leaves and twigs; the abdomen droops earthwards.

Some forty-eight hours prior to the moult it ceases to feed and remains

immobile; shortly before the moult it moves about selecting the site.

The first indication of the moult is the up-and-down movement

of the drooping abdomen and a see-saw motion of the head and

thorax. The old skin splits down the centre of the upper thorax

to just below the nymph wings. The head begins to bend inwards

towards the underside of the thorax as the head is withdrawn from

the slough. The head, thorax, legs, and abdomen are drawn out of

the old skin by the pull exerted by the thorax straining, pulling,

and heaving on the long legs, slowly extracted from the old skin

firmly anchored to the leaves and twigs.

The chitin of the newly exposed skin is very soft and pliable;

as the legs are withdrawn they are subjected to the most impossible

angles, angles which would immediately snap them under any other

circumstances.

As the moult progresses the tips of the legs can be seen gradually

moving down and out of the old transparent skin under the pull

of the straining thorax. Eventually all six legs are free. The head

resumes its normal position. The insect is now held head down-

wards by the retention inside the old skin of the last two segments

of the abdomen and the wing-like appendages at its tip. These

appendages must be provided for this special purpose as they have

no other function. In this precarious position the insect is held

while the skin hardens. The legs and antennae are gently flexed

and stretched. The now adult insect has increased considerably in

size during the moult, a change which assists it in getting rid of its

old skin.

Except for the period between hatching and the first moult little

growth occurs between moults. Practically all increases in body

length and bulk take place at the moults,

After a period of half-an-hour to an hour suspended in this

sauayaiy °[ °“H : 010Yd

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JoURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Eurycnema goliath, the Giant Stick Insect : The Moult

The nymph in position for ecdysis. The old skin has split along the thorax and

the body is working out.

Body coming out of the old skin

Photos : H. J]. Kitchener

GIANT STICK INSECT, EURYCNEMA GOLIATH (GRAY) 149.

peculiar manner the abdomen is bent inwards and upwards so that

the legs are able to grasp the empty skin and leaves. The posi-

tion of the body is now reversed, head uppermost and body hanging

vertically. After a further period, up to several hours, the nymph

commences to eat the empty cast skin, consuming as much as it

can reach. Having consumed the shed skin it. takes up a position

on the food-plant where it remains immobile for a further twenty-

four hours before it resumes feeding on the food-plant.

_ The procedure of moulting is identical at all stages of the nymph’s

growth. With each moult the colour lightens to light brown, then

pinkish brown, on to greyish brown, and finally to ash-grey. It is

interesting to note that each individual nymph, after the first moult,

has its own particular rate of growth. Nymphs hatched on the same

day within an hour or so of each other will undergo the first and.

probably the second moult together, but after that the stages between

the moults vary from 11 to 20 days in different insects. There is

little indication that a mouit is imminent other than the forty-

eight hours’ fast, complete immobility, and the taking up of the

characteristic upside-down position. Details of the moults and the

growth-rate of a typical nymph are given in the Table below.

TABLE

poaeth prior | Length after Days Growth at

Nuke Noi oO moult moult between moult

ie : a moults

cm. cm. cm.

1 3°20 4°15 11 0°95

2 4°15 0°65 11 2°50 ai

3 6°65 O25 10 2°60

4 9:25 IPAS 13 2°90

5 12:15 15°60 13 3:45 @

6 15°60 A675 18 1°15 |

= Embryo wings appear.

@ Embryo parts of ‘egg-scattering’ organ appear.

The final moult from nymph to the adult winged insect is no

different from that of the earlier moults. The results, however, are

very different. For several days prior to the final moult the nymph’s

ash-grey colour commences to show traces of pale green in mottled

bars across the legs and down the sides and below the abdomen. Dark

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

green bars appear on the underside of the thorax. The embryo wings

turn green, thicken, and swell. The undercolour of green accen-

tuates the thickness of the skin about to be shed. As the moment

for the commencement of the moult approaches the underlying green

intensifies and spreads to other parts. The characteristic upside-down

position is assumed. Although nymphs in the early stages will undergo

the moult at any time during the day or night the final moult always

takes place at night, commencing in the early hours of the morning

usually about 3.30 a.m. and completed by dawn. 3

This final moult takes several hours to complete. The moult in the

younger nymphs takes anything up to an hour; with the fully-fed nymph

it is a very lengthy business.

An hour or so after freeing itself from the old skin the now adult

insect reverses its position and hangs vertically from the old skin. It

is not until the vertical position is assumed that the embryonic wings

commence to grow. They swell, thicken, and crinkle into green-and-

red fleshy petals standing well away from the body. The colour is

now green throughout. With the passing of time the wings lengthen

and thin out until, after several hours, they reach maximum growth

although still soft and flaccid. The vertical position is maintained

without movement for several hours until the new skin and wings

have hardened. Suddenly the insect shows signs of animation, and

eargerly searches out and consumes its cast skin.

The ‘egg-scatterer’ at the extremity of the abdomen, parts of which

made their appearance in embryonic form at the Sth moult, is now a

very elaborate organ.

The colour darkens to a more solid apple-green. The underparts

of the thorax are yellowish with mottled bands of dark green. The

long legs are yellow with narrow mottled bands of pale green. The

abdomen is pale green above and below with light creamy bands

on the underside at the junctions of the segments. The short thick-

based spines on the upper thorax are bluish green. On the short

rounded forewings or tegmina are two small cream patches; the

undersides are vermilion. The anterior portion of the hind wings

resembles the tegmina in colour and texture; the posterior portion is

transparent and pale azure blue. At the tips of the anterior green

portions are shori single narrow cream lines. The underside of the

anterior part is also vermilion. |

The new adult takes no food for another ten to twelve hours;

from then on it eats ravenously, the abdomen rapidly increasing in

size.

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GIANT STICK INSECT, EURYCNEMA GOLIATH (GRAY) 151

Egg-laying commences 17 days after the final moult. During

this period the abdomen has grown to its maximum size, and is

greatly distended with eggs. The body length has now increased

from 17 cm. to 19 cm. In the early part of the egg-laying period

eges are laid at the rate of 3 to 4 per day. Towards the latter half

numbers of smail and very undersized eggs are laid. |

This insect reproduces by parthenogenesis and does not require a

male for the fertilisation of the eggs. It is highly improbable that

males of this species are ever produced.

Egg-laying takes place at irregular intervals throughout the day

and night. The first indication of the production of an egg is slight

flexing of the long abdomen and minor gaping movements of the

curved posterior scoop and its opposing member of the egg-scattering

processes. After a short period, during which the movements of the

abdomen increase, an egg passes from the body into the grip of the

processes within the gape of the scoop and the upper portion. The

egg is held in this position for some time. The anus is situated on

the lower surface of the upper member of the egg-scatterer.

Two methods are used for the release of the egg. In one the

scoop and the upper portion gape widely and the egg is released from

the inner retaining processes te fall directly to the ground. In the

other the extremity of the abdomen is given a sudden sharp upward

flip which propels the egg some considerable distance, the curved

scoop or shute giving the egg the necessary trajectory for distance.

Eggs are often dropped or thrown while the insect is busily feeding.

The number of eggs laid by these insects is well in excess of

500—by actual count an average of 505 over a period of 153 days,

making an average of 3.3 eggs per day. This average does not take

into account eggs which may have been projected too far to be re-

coverable and others lost from various causes. The figure of 505

eggs means that one insect is capable of producing 125.000.000

progeny in a period of less than five years in the third generation,

assuming that all reach egg-laying maturity and produce their full

capacity of eggs. Eight months from laying of egg to hatching; three

months in the nymph stage and six months as an adult egg-layer.

It is obvious from these figures that the infant mortality-rate is

extremely high and that only a very small percentage of these insects

reach egg-laying maturity. The very small newly-hatched nymph,

emerging from the egg amongst the herbage and debris of the jungle

floor, must have an amazing number of hazards and dangers to

contend with before reaching the comparative security of the foliage

152. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

of its lofty food-plant, which it must find and ascend. The eggs,

also, lying unprotected and exposed on the jungle floor, must be

consumed in large numbers by ground-living birds, ants, and others.

Heavy rain will also wash away and cover many with soil and debris.

Having reached their food-plant they are still by no means

invulnerable and must often fall victims to birds, geckos, lizards, and

ants. The ash-grey bleached dead-twig appearance of the growing

nymph and the leaf-green of the adult insect camouflage them to a

certain extent, but there must be numbers of keen-eyed insect

hunters which see through this and make meals of many of them.

The mortality-rate amongst the nymphs at the later stages of growth

is probably not so high. It is reasonable to assume that very few,

if any, of the adult insects survive long enough to be able to lay

anything approaching the maximum output of eggs under natural

conditions in the open jungle. Raised under artificial conditions

all hazards are eliminated, except house geckos which will attack

and eat the young nymphs in the first and second stages of moult.

When ready for a meal both nymph and adult sway the body

gently from side to side a number of times, the mouth-parts agitating

rapidly. Moving over the foliage the edge of a leaf is soon found

and taken in the guiding palps which direct it to the mandibles

within. The agitation of the mouth-parts ceases abruptly at the

first bite. Under artificial raising shaking the food-plant or its

agitation by breeze or wind immediately starts these insects

swaying and feeding. :

They are quite harmless and take very kindly to gentle handling,

when being transferred to a fresh food-plant. The nymph in the

younger stages is inclined to panic somewhat when handled, but as

they increase in size and age become accustomed to handling and

seem to anticipate the provision of fresh food-plant.

The inner edges of the tibias of the hindmost or third pair of

legs are armed with a series of sharp spines. Should one’s finger touch

the body near these legs a sudden flexing of the legs nips the offend-

ing finger between the spines of the tibia and the femur. No wounds

are inflicted but the sudden flexing of the leg and the prick of the

spines on the finger provides a considerable surprise and is a

very effective deterrent to further molesting. This defensive action

may well prove very effective against geckos, lizards, and other small

creatures. The tibia spines are only present in a very reduced form

in the nymph, the spines. developing at the final moult. The nymph

therefore has only its protective coloration to depend upon to evade

detection and sudden death.

JourN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE V

Eurycnema goliath, the Giant Stick Insect

Wings nearly full grown. Body very thin but fills out with eggs after 17 days of feeding

at which time egg-laying commences.

Photo: H. J. Kitchener

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE” VI

Eurycnema goliath, the Giant Stick Insect

a. The tip of the abdomen (from the top) showing wing-like appendages, c. x 1:3

b. The egg emerging and still held by the claspers ; c. The egg about to be discharged

d. The:eggs,c. 2x 2°2

Photos : H. J. Kitchener

GIANT STICK INSECT, EURYCNEMA GOLIATH (GRAY) 153

These insects do not like the direct rays of the sun and seek

shelter amongst the foliage when exposed. They take to the wing

during the hours of darkness.

- A rather singular feature in the life of the stick insect nymph

is its ability to regenerate limbs and antennae which have been lost

or damaged. Limbs part from the body without any particular

difficulty, sense of discomfort or loss, as though such occurrences are

of no moment—-comparable to the so-readily-abandoned tail of the

gecko, and with the same regenerative capacity. Limbs lost

in the early nymph stages regenerate into useful functional

members but fail to reach the size of their counterparts at the final

moult. Mutilations occurring near the final moult are carried through

to the adult insect as deformities which are quite functionless and

often merely grotesque appendages. On one occasion a nymph emerged

from the egg but, owing to some misfortune, one of the third pair

of legs was unable to free itself from the parchment-like membrane

lining the egg. This resulted in severe malformation of the tibia

and tarsus with the membrane twisted up in the deformity and still

attached to the leg. I was fortunate enough to observe the first

moult of this small nymph and was particularly interested to see

how it would deal with this unfortunate state of affairs. The problem

was solved speedily and effectively. As the tarsus and tibia would

not withdraw from the skin of the leg, the malformation offering too

much resistance, several strong heaves of the thorax broke away the

Jeg at the body, leaving it in the shed skin. The moult proceeded

without further incident, the stump healing over with a brown

-chitinous skin. This leg has regenerated into a perfect limb which is

slightly’ smaller and shorter than its counterpart. The tarsus and

tibia are equal in length to those of the opposing limb; the femur

is, however, appreciably shorter and finer. The loss of a limb or

limbs retards the nymph’s growth slightly, this shortcoming being

made up at the final moult.

The Malays refer to the nymph form of this insect as chengkadak

and the mature green adult as belah-belong, crediting it with possess-

ing a very loud shrieking voice of considerable volume during the

hours of darkness. I have heard loud prolonged cries in the jungle

at night on numerous occasions, credited by my men to the belah-

belong. Some were really blood-curdling in cadence and volume but

I have never been able to locate the culprit, in spite of extensive

search with powerful electric torches. If the insect is really res-

ponsible, the ‘voice’ is most definitely produced while on the wing.

154. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Careful examination of the mature insect discloses no apparatus which

could be used as a sound-producer, although the wings may well

play some, if not all, part in the production of these noises. The

fact that the ‘voice’ is heard at night and while the producer is air-

borne gives credence to the belief of the superstitious amongst the

Malays, that these are the cries of passing spirits, jinns, and other

denizens of the underworld and carry misfortune aid sickness in

their wake. It is possible that confusion and uncertainty exist in

the identification of this particular insect as the source of these night

cries. The creature responsible may well belong to an entirely

different species, a large cicada, for example. An insect of some kind

is responsible, as they have passed over my camp at night on several

occasions. The volume of the sound when directly overhead is quite

deafening in the dead silence of the jungle night.

This stick insect is well known to the Chinese of this country

who consider its dung a source of a very useful medicine. The eggs

are also used but not to the same extent. The centimetre-long bat-like

‘dung pellets are steeped in water, and the resulting dark-brown tea-

like liquid is taken in-ernally as a cure for digestive troubles, heart-

burn, dyspepsia, looseness of the bowels, etc. I have no idea what

the active ingredient or agent may be in this concoction; I suspect

tannic acid. As a cure or palliative for such troubles it may well

possess some pharmaceutical merit.

Wetted dung pellets of the giant stick insect and also those of the atlas

moth larva, both fed on guava (Psidium) leaves, cause a dark-brown

persistent stain on wood, concrete, and cloth. A clean polished

steel knife blade used for cutting guava twigs very quickly turns black,

similar in effect to the cutting of oak twigs and bark, which have a

high tannic acid content. This somewhat rough-and-ready test

Suggests the presence of tannic acid in the sap of the guava leaves and

consequently in the dung.

JOURN. BOMBAY NaT. HIST. Soc.

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Map of Ganjam District, showing the pre-1935 and post-1935 ae lines.

The Flora of Parlakimedi and its

immediate Neighbourhood

PART I

K. S. SRINIVASAN AND G. V. SUBBA RAO

Industrial Section, Indian Museum, Calcutta

(With a map)

Parlakimedi (18° 47’ N., 84° 5’ E.) in the Ganjam District lies at

the southern-most part of Orissa. It is situated in the midst of

moderately high hills which are continuations of the Eastern Ghats.

Devagiri (1382 m.), the second highest peak in the Ganjam District

and next only to Mahendragiri (1500 m.), is just 12.9 km. from Parla-

kimedi and north of it. The Bay of Bengal coast is within 41 km.

east of Parlakimedi. It enjoys the effects of both the NE. and SW.

monsoons and the annual rainfall is also fairly appreciable, the average

being about 115 cm. The topography, climate, and natural surround-

ings have consequently endowed the place with varied types of vege-

tation and in favourable localities relatively thick forests also occur.

However, no account of the flora of Parlakimedi appears to have

been published so far. Probably this was due to the restrictions imposed

in the former days on entry into this and other similar territories falling

within the administration of the then native rulers and zamindars in

the various States and_ Provinces in India under the British regime. As

a result, the flora of the greater portion of Ganjam District was meagrely

worked out. The very few localities botanised in the district were out-

side these restricted areas and the work was done mainly by officers of

the forest departments.

Even here, areas in north Ganjam appear to have received the main

attention. Thus Gamble (1884 & 1884-85) gave an account of the

forests of the Northern Forest Circle of the old Madras Presidency

and the vegetation of the Northern Circars. In these accounts he dealt

with the species found in Gumsur, Kurcholy Forests, Mahendragiri,

Palkonda (which has gone out of Orissa with the formation of Orissa

State in 1935), Surada, Berhampur, Mohri Hills, Maliah Hills, Russel-

konda, Aska, and some of the Agency tracts. Fischer (1904) published

an account of the flora of north Ganjam District, confining his species

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

to those found in Berhampur and Gumsur taluks. In this he listed

about 529 species of flowering plants. Mukherjee (1935), however,

described the plants of the Mahendragiri in which he has listed about

60 species under 28 families.

Stray references to the species from Parlakimedi are to be found

in FLORA OF NORTHERN CIRCARS by Gamble (1884-85), PRICKLY PEARS

OF INDIA by Burkill (1913), and in VERNACULAR NAMES OF TREES, SHRUBS

AND CLIMBERS OF MADRAS PRESIDENCY by Lushington (1915). But for

the five species Butea superba Roxb., Opuntia vulgaris Mill., Opuntia

dillenii Haw., Ficus benjamina Linn., and Reinwardtia trigyna Planch.

mentioned in the above works, practically nothing is known of the flora

of Parlakimedi in south Ganjam, while the flora of north Ganjam is

comparatively fairly well known. Obviously with intent to complete

the knowledge of the flora of the entire district, some attempts were

made to explore the Parlakimedi area by some of the early botanists.

Burkill paid two consecutive visits to Parlakimedi, one in December

1902 and another in September-October 1903. During these visits he

made very good collections of plants of the area, either by himself or in

collaboration with a few others, the principal among whom were

Lt.-Col. D. St. J. Grant, Edmund Candler, Rev. H. Y. Corey, and G.

Ramamurthy. The valuable collections so made were deposited in the

Indian Museum in the herbarium of the Industrial Section, of which

institution Burkill was in charge as Reporter on Economic Products

to the Government of India. Obviously the intention was that Burkill

should study the collections in greater detail and publish an account of

the Flora of Parlakimedi. Unfortunately, that publication did not

materialise—the constitutional changes that took place in the administra-

tive set-up of the Industrial Section and the break-down in Burkill’s

health appear to have interfered with the progress of the vou on the

Flora of Parlakimedi.

The present account is based on a detailed study of the valuable

collections made by Burkill and his collaborators during the years

1902-03, now in the Industrial Section, Indian Museum, and on field

observations made independently by the junior author during the period

from 1946 to 1955.

VEGETATIONAL ASPECT

The following places have been taken into account in presenting the

vegetational aspect of Parlakimedi: Parlakimedi proper, Pathapatnam,

Gumma Gedda, Nutulova Konda, Boya Hill, Devagiri, and the banks

along the river Mahendratanaya and other irrigation channels. The

vegetation in and about the two beautiful large tanks, Ramasagaram

and Sitasagaram, is also briefly considered. Altitudinally, the vege-

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI 157

tation is dealt with to beyond 1220 m. and up to the very top of Devagiri.

The species which are cultivated or planted here and there are included

in the present account to give a more complete picture.

It is interesting to note that Parlakimedi and its immediate neigh-

bourhood mark the southernmost limit for Sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.).

The general aspect of the vegetation bears great similarity to that of

the Deccan, but with this difference that in Parlakimedi and its neigh-

bourhood it is interspersed with Sal.

The vegetation of Parlakimedi may broadly be classified under the

following few distinct types :

1. Vegetation of the sandy areas,

Vegetation of the low hill jungles,

Vegetation of dry broken jungles,

Vegetation of dry rocky hill slopes,

Vegetation of the valleys,

Vegetation at different altitudes,

Vegetation at river sides and tank vicinities,

Cultivated species.

Con Piet

1. VEGETATION OF THE SANDY AREAS

A great part of the area, except perhaps the cultivated fields and the

jungles and hills in and about Parlakimedi, is dry and sandy. Typical

sandy tracts are met with in the north and north-east about Boya Hill,

in the north and north-west beyond Ranipeta, in the west near about

Nutulova Konda and beyond, and in the south towards Pathapatnam.

In wide sandy stretches, Solanum xanthocarpum, Leucas cephalotes,

Evolvulus alsinoides form the characteristic species. On sandy roads

and waysides, Celosia argentea, Pedalium murex, Carissa spinarum,

Orthosiphon pallidus are common. Scoparia dulcis is found on sandy

bunds, and Centranthera humifera is met with at edges of ragi, (Eleusine

coracana) fields with Celosia argentea. Tridax procumbens, Cassia sp.,

and Tephrosia purpurea constitute the dominant forms in such sandy

areas. Tephrosia purpurea was found always dominant over Cassia

occidentalis. Among the other characteristic species of the area, mention

may be made of Indigofera linifolia and Oldenlandia herbacea.

Where the sandy tract is wet, as in the vicinity of Gumma Gedda

and irrigation-channel outlets of Ramasagaram and Sitasagaram and

in other low-lying areas, grasses and sedges are dominant. Among the

characteristic forms to be mentioned are Cyperus sp., Chrysopogon

aciculatus (=Andropogon aciculatus), and Cynodon dactylon. A few

other species also occur on sandy substrata in hill jungles and valleys,

and are given below in their respective places.

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

2. VEGETATION OF THE LOW HILL JUNGLES

Ailanthus excelsa and Crotalaria albida are the common species in

certain areas at the foot of the hills, the latter sometimes running wild

as a weed among millet crops. On barren ground in such hill jungles,

Oldenlandia nudicaulis is plentiful in some places. In jungles, where the

substratum is more sandy, Hugonia mystax, Murraya paniculata, and

Maba buxifolia are the characteristic species. Among the various other

species of low hill jungles are Cissampelos pareira, Flacourtia indica,

Pavonia odorata, Aspidopterys roxburghiana, Oldenlandia nitida, Tarenna

asiatica, Morinda tinctoria, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Cassia sp., Cryp-

tolepis grandiflora, Ceropegia tuberosa, Erycibe paniculata, Argyrea

choisyana, Leucas mollissima, Bridelia retusa, and others. Justicia

glauca and Oldenlandia nudicaulis are also plentiful in such jungles.

Knoxia corymbosa occurs, however, in low hill jungles which are very

thin. Alstonia neriifolia is a species at the summit of rocky jungles.

At comparatively higher elevations, on some of these hills, many

shrubs flourish and many herbs intrude. In favourable spots bamboos

constitute major formations. Among such bamboo formations, Thes-

pesia lampas grows in some localities. In dense and shady situations

and by the sides of streams, Barleria strigosais common. On steep hills,

Litsea glutinosa is to be seen. Cissus vitiginea and Desmodium gange-

ticum are the more common climbers and undershrubs in these jungles,

the former hanging from large shrubs or trees. Bidens pilosa is charac-

teristic at the top of these hills. Among the other species of hill jungles

are Cissampelos pareira, Pavonia odorata, Aegle marmelos, Ailanthus

excelsa, and Butea monosperma.

3. VEGETATION OF THE Dry BROKEN JUNGLES

Here and there the jungles are interrupted and appear as open and

broken jungles with huge boulders and barren tracts intervening. Among

the characteristic species in this type of jungle are Hybanthus enneas-

permus, Antidesma diandrum, and Adina cordifolia. Among rocks in

such areas, and fringing these jungles, are Pseudarthria viscida and Derris

scandens. Alstonia neriifolia is found at lower levels, while Sida veroni-

caefolia is met with at higher levels. Mimosa rubicaulis and Knoxia

corymbosa are very common in these jungles.

4. VEGETATION OF THE ROCKY HILL SLOPES

The following are characteristic of hill slopes: Helicteres isora,

Trichosanthes cucumerina, Blepharis maderaspatensis. Where it is stony

and dry, Caralluma adscendens, Blepharis molluginifolia, and Phyllanthus

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI 159

maderaspatensis are very common. In such and similar dry situations,

Flacourtia indica, Hibiscus micranthus, and Indigofera glandulosa are

also found.

Rocky and sandy hill slopes are common on the Boya Hill, Nutu-

lova Konda, and the lower parts of Devagiri. Holarrhena antidysen-

terica is the dominant species in some places with Azadirachta indica.

Among the other species are Justicia betonica and Allophyllus serratus.

5. VEGETATION OF THE VALLEYS

At the edges of forest in valleys are such species as Alysicarpus vagi-

nalis and Atylosia scarabaeoides, the latter climbing on shrubs and trees.

In the interior of the jungle in valleys are Shorea robusta, Aegle mar-

melos, Madhuca indica, and Diospyros tomentosa. Butea monosperma

is found in certain places widely spread in the jungle parts of the valleys

and Argyrea choisyana is seen climbing high on trees in Sal forests.

Vitex pubescens, Rauwolfia canescens, Pergularia daemia, Datura metel,

Bridelia tomentosa, and Cleistanthus collinus are the other interesting

species to be met with in the various parts of the valleys. At com-

paratively lower levels or at bottom of the valleys, Merremia tridentata

and Solanum melongena are found growing in a wild state. Where the

soil is sandy in the valleys, Hibiscus micranthus is seen under the shade

of larger trees. In glades Alysicarpus vaginalis and Borreria stricta are

not uncommon.

6. VEGETATION AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES

Even though no clear demarcation can be made as to the altitudinal

range of distribution of the various species in the hills, still some broad

classification is possible. Thus, among the species found up to 30 m.

altitude are Dalbergia lanceolaria, Dalbergia paniculata, Dichrostachys

cinerea, Woodfordia fruticosa, Operculina turpethum, Barleria prionitis,

Aristolochia indica, Gmelina asiatica, Vitex trifolia, Antidesma ghaesem-

billa, Knoxia corymbosa, Hamiltonia suaveolens, and Hemigraphis elegans

in rather thin jungles at lower hill jungles of Devagiri. At 150 m. ele-

vation, Helicteres isora is seen, but it extends up to 915 m. in Devagiri.

Among the species at 305 m. level:may be mentioned Zizyphus incurva

at Devagiri with Dendrophthoe falcata on it, Bauhinia acuminata, Careya

arborea, Celosia argentea, Securinega virosa, and Tragia involucrata.

Among the species found at 610 m. may be mentioned Zizyphus rugosa,

Mangifera indica in abundance, Pterocarpus marsupium (an extremely

common species at this level), Lagerstroemia parviflora, Madhuca indica,

Emblica officinalis, Cleistanthus collinus, and Croton laevifolius. Jowar,

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Sorghum yulgare, is cultivated here and there at this altitude on the hill

slopes. Phaseolus lunatus is common in jowar crops.

Among the species at and beyond 915 m. are Helicteres isora, Gymno-

sporia rothiana (extending from 610 to 915 m.), Adina cordifolia,

Premna latifolia, and Martynia annua. Melasma avense occurs as a

weed in crops of millets grown at this elevation ; Capsicum minimum

occurs as a cultivated crop at Devagiri, as in Savara hills. Eriolaena

hookeriana is seen at the summit of Devagiri.

7. VEGETATION AT RIVER SIDES AND TANK VICINITIES

Along the river beds of Mahendratanaya, much cultivation is prac-

tised. Mango groves also abound along these tracts.

It is of interest to mention here that indigo cultivation was intense

along the river sides in former days when the vegetable dye was holding

the market. With the introduction of synthetic dyes, however, the culti-

vation of indigo had a set-back and was completely discarded ; in its

place rice, maize, sweet potato, cabbages, and other vegetables are now

cultivated.

On river bunds, the wild species more commonly seen are Sida rhombi-

folia, Asteracantha longifolia, Grangea maderaspatana, etc. In many

places about Parlakimedi, Aeschynomene indica is abundant. A word

may also be said about the vegetation in the tanks and on their bunds.

‘In larger tanks, such as at Ramasagaram and Sitasagaram, Nymphaea

and Nelumbo grow ; on the tank bunds Polyalthia suberosa and Tylo-

phora pauciflora are met with. In some of the tanks Utricularia flexuosa

lives as a hydrophyte.

8. CULTIVATED SPECIES

Some species are often planted about the town of Parlakimedi, in

gardens, on roadsides, along bunds of larger tanks, and at higher eleva-

tions in the hills. Some other economic species are also cultivated both

in the lower terrain as well as at higher altitudes. Among the cultivated

plants are Guazuma tomentosa, Annona squamosa, Buettneria herbacea,

Terminalia catappa, Punica granatum, Thevetia peruviana, Kigelia pinnata,

Tabebuia pentaphylla. Among the crops are jowar and other millets,

tice, Dolichos lablab, Dolichos biflorus, Capsicum minimum. Millets and

Capsicum minimum are sometimes cultivated on the hills at about 915 m.

in some areas. In a few tracts Buettneria herbacea is planted and grown

on rocky slopes about hill jungles. Polyalthia suberosa is common on the

bunds of Ramasagaram, where Tylophora pauciflora is also seen as a wild

species.

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI 161

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES

In the present paper, 286 species of flowering plants under 229 genera

and 75 families have been enumerated from the Parlakimedi area. A

study of the flora, as now presented, reveals at least 45 species as new

records for Ganjam District, not being reported so far in earlier floras.

Such new records are marked in the list with an asterisk. In the course

of the present study we have noted a new host for Dendrophthoe falcata

(Linn. f.) Ettingsh., viz. Zizyphus incurva Roxb., the only hitherto known

host species of Zizyphus for this semi-parasite being Z. glabruta Heyne,

Z. jujuba Lam., Z. oenoplia Mill. and Z. xylopyrus Willd. (Ravindra

Nath and Narasimha Rao, 1959, pp. 204-212). Every attempt has been

made to bring the nomenclature up-to-date with the literature at our

disposal. In respect of a few species, however, considerable difficulties

were encountered as to their correct nomenclature, as the same species

are variously treated by different authors. Thus, Saccharum arundi-

naceum Retz. has been made a synonym of Erianthus arundinaceus (Retz.)

Jesweit; THE WEALTH OF INDIA does not treat Erianthus arundinaceus

(Retz.) Jesweit as a distinct species. Bor (1947) has also kept Saccharum

arundinaceum Retz. as valid; in this enumeration, we have followed Bor

and THE WEALTH OF INDIA.

Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) Beuv. ex Roem. & Schultz. and Eragrostis

unioloides (Retz.) Nees have been treated as separate valid species by

Bor (1947) and Majumdar (1956), while both the species have been com-

bined into one by Raizada (1959). Here, too, we have followed Bor.

In the present enumeration, the Savara (S.) and Telugu (T.) names

are given if known to the authors. The field numbers of Burkill and his

collaborators are also given in their respective places.

NOTE. New records for Ganjam District are marked with an asterisk.

ANNONACEAE

Polyalthia suberosa Hk.f. & Th.

Parlakimedi: on the bund of Ramasagaram. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20538,

Sept. 1903.

Annona squamosa Linn.

Parlakimedi: planted and grown here and there.

MENISPERMACEAE

Cissampelos pareira Linn.

Parlakimedi: in low hill jungles. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20435, Sept. 1903.

NYMPHAEACEAE

Nymphaea sp.

Parlakimedi : flowers white.

162. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.

Parlakimedi.

7 PAPAVERACEAE

Argemone mexicana Linn. |

Parlakimedi.

. CAPPARIDACEAE

Capparis sepiaria Linn.

Vern. Adein-jin (S.) ; Gulli chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : at 304m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20151, Sept. 1903.

VIOLACEAE

Hybanthus enneaspermus (Linn.) F. V. Muell. (lonidium suffruticosum Ging.)

Parlakimedi : on top of a rock at edge of dry broken guneles Burkill 20570, Sept.

1903. . ;

FLACOURTIACEAE

Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr. (Flacourtia sepiaria Roxb. ; Flacourtia ramountchi

L’Herit.) 5 adie ma

~ Parlakimedi: on dry shrubby hillside. Burkill 20401, Sept. 1903 ; Burkill, Grant

& Candler 20568, Sept. 1903.

DIPTEROCARPACEAE

Shorea robusta Gaertn.

Parlakimedi : common ; small trees in forests in valleys, attaining about 6 m. to

9m. height. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20510, Sept. 1903 ; Corey & Ramamurthy 20123,

1903.

MALVACEAE

Sida veronicaefolia Lamk. (Sida humilis Willd.)

Parlakimedi: in jungles. Burkill 20480, Sept. 1903.

Sida acuta Burm. f. (Sida carpinifolia Linn. f.)

Parlakimedi. |

Sida rhombifolia Linn.

Parlakimedi: in the neighbourhood of River Mahendratanaya. Burkill 18102,

Dec. 1902. ue

Abutilon indicum G. Don

Parlakimedi.

Pavonia odorata Willd.

Parlakimedi : in lower hill jungles. Burkill 20459, Sept. 1903.

Hibiscus micranthus Linn. f.

Parlakimedi: on dry hill slopes and among rocks and bushes in broken jungle.

Burkill 20562, Sept. 1903.

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI 163

Hibiscus vitifolius Linn.

Parlakimedi : in valleys under shade of trees. Burkill 20549, Sept. 1903.

Hibiscus cannabinus Linn. |

Parlakimedi : Burkill 21925, Sept. 1903.

Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs.

Parlakimedi: among bamboos in hill jungles; Devagiri. Burkill 17951, Dec.

1902 ; idem 20464, Sept. 1903. .

Gossypium herbaceum Linn. (Gossypium indicum Lamk.)

Pathapatnam : Burkill 20492, Sept. 1903.

BOMBACACEAE

Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Schott. & Endl.

Parlakimedi.

STERCULIACEAE

Sterculia villosa Roxb.

Parlakimedi : Corey & Ramamurthy 20147, 1903.

Helicteres isora Linn.

Devagiri : 152-915 m. common on hillsides. Burkill 17957, Dec. 1902.

Parlakimedi : on rocky hillsides. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20418 ; Burkill 20439,

Sept. 1903.

Pterospermum suberifolium Lamk. vi,

Parlakimedi : Burkill 20565, Sept. 1903 ; Corey & Ramamurthy 20155, 1903.

Eriolaena hookeriana W. & A.

Parlakimedi : in hill jungles at the summit of hills. Burkill 20475, Sept. 1903.

Melochia corchorifolia Linn. | |

Parlakimedi : Burkill 20411, Sept. 1903.

Guazuma tomentosa Kunth

Parlakimedi : planted ; Burkill 20556, Sept. 1903.

Buettneria herbacea Roxb.

Parlakimedi : in rocky parts of hilljungles. Burkill 20457, Sept. 1903.

TILIACEAE

Grewia excelsa Vahl ae

Parlakimedi : in hill jungles ; Burkill, Candler & Grant 20455, Sept. 1903.

Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl

Parlakimedi : Corey & Ramamurthy 20119, 1903.

*Grewia abutifolia Juss.

Parlakimedi : Burkill, Candler & Grant 20560, Sept. 1903.

*Corchorus aestuans Linn. (non Forsk.) (Corchorus acutangulus Lamk.)

Parlakimedi : in hill jungles ; Burkill 20478, Sept. 1903.

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

LINACEAE

Reinwardtia trigyna Planch.

Vern. Labodatar (S.)

Parlakimedi (after Lushington 2 : 89).

Hugonia mystax Linn.

Parlakimedi : in hill jungles on sandy substrata ; Burkill 20424, Sept. 1903.

MALPHIGHIACEAE

Aspidopterys roxburghiana A. Juss.

Parlakimedi : hilljungles. Burkill 20481, Sept. 1903.

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

*Tribulus terrestris Linn.

Parlakimedi.

RUTACEAE

Glycosmis arborea (Roxb.) Corr.

Parlakimedi : Burkill 17927, Dec. 1902 ; idem 20553, Sept. 1903.

Murraya paniculata (Linn.) Jack. (Murraya exotica Linn.)

Parlakimedi : in sandy low hill jungles ; Burkill, Grant & Candler 20423 ; Burkill

20431, Sept. 1903. ,

Aegle marmelos Corr.

Parlakimedi : in jungle in valleys, reaching 3-6 m. high ; Burkill 20518, Sept. 1903 ;

Corey & Ramamurthy 20152, 1903.

SIMARUBACEAE

Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.

Parlakimedi : common at the foot of hills. Burkill 17998, Dec. 1902.

*Brucea mollis Wall.

Vern. Bauru, Baru (S.) ; Kosangi chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : Corey & Ramamurthy 20149, Sept. 1903.

MELIACEAE

Azadirachta indica Juss. (Melia azadirachta Linn.)

Vern. Limma (S.) ; Vepa chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi: 30m. Corey 20176, Dec. 1902.

Cipadessa baccifera (Roth) Miq. (Cipadessa fruticosa Blume)

Parlakimedi : Burkill 17925, Dec. 1902, and 20404, Sept. 1903.

HIPPOCRATEACEAE

* Salacia reticulata Wall.

Vern. Kere (S.) ; Ankudu chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : 609 m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20101. Sept. 1903.

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI

CELASTRACEAE

*Gymnosporia rothiana (W. & A.) Laws.

Vern. Konta bado (S.) ; Kanta bada chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : 915 m. Corey 20127, Sept. 1903.

RHAMNACEAE

Zizyphus oenoplia Mill.

Vern. Kantelsi (S.) ; Parmingi chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : Corey 20199, Sept. 1903.

* Zizyphus incurva Roxb. i

Devagiri : 304 m. Burkill 17978, Dec. 1902.

Zizyphus rugosa Lamk.

Vern. Tarmanda (S.) ; Pedda gotte chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi: 609m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20118, Sept. 1903.

AMPELIDACEAE

Ampelocissus tomentosa Planch. (Vitis tomentosa Heyne)

Parlakimedi : in hill jungles ; Burkill 20434, Sept. 1903.

Cissus vitiginea Linn. (Vitis linnaei Wall.)

Parlakimedi : Burkill, Grant & Candler 20416, Sept. 1903.

Leea robusta Roxb. (Leea aspera Wall.)

Vern. Kodoca (S.) ; Patadi chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi: 30 m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20187, Sept. 1903.

SAPINDACEAE

* Allophyllus serratus Radlk. (Allophyllus cobbe Bl., in part).

Parlakimedi : Burkill 20405, Sept, 1903.

*Sapindus trifoliatus Linn.

Vern. Karokai (S.) ; Kunkudu chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi: Corey & Ramamurthy 20192, 1903.

ANACARDIACEAE

Mangifera indica Linn.

Parlakimedi : abundant.

Semecarpus anacardium Linn.

Vern. Oloe (S.) ; Nallajeedi (T.)

Parlakimedi: 609m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20113, Sept. 1903.

PAPILIONACEAE

Rothia trifoliata Pers. :

Parlakimedi : Burkill 18000, Dec. 1902.

165

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Crotalaria albida Heyne

Devagiri : in hill jungles, near the foot of hills. Burkill 17964, Dec. 1902 ; Grant,

Candler & Burkill 20458, Sept. 1903.

Indigofera linifolia Retz.

Parlakimedi : very common in sandy places ; Burkill, Grant & Candler 20576, Sept.

1903.

Indigofera glandulosa Willd.

Parlakimedi: on dry situations. Burkill 20496, Sept. 1903.

Indigofera hirsuta Linn.

Parlakimedi : Grant, Candler & Burkill 20408, Sept. 1903.

Tephrosia purpurea Pers.

Parlakimedi.

Zornia diphylla Pers.

Parlakimedi : in grassy sandy places. Grant, Candler & Burkill 20502, Sept. 1903.

Aeschynomene indica Linn.

Parlakimedi: abundant. Burkill 20588, Sept. 1903.

*Pseudarthria viscida W. & A.

Parlakimedi : among rocks in broken jungles. Burkill 20571, Sept. 1903.

Alysicarpus vaginalis DC..

Parlakimedi : in jungles in valleys. Burkill 20528, Sept. 1903.

Desmodium gangeticum DC.

Parlakimedi: in hill jungles ; on roadsides. Burkill 20462, 20479, 20539, Sept.

1903.

Abrus precatorius Linn.

Vern. Gujjibai (S.) ; Essa gulivinda chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : Corey & Ramamurthy 20140, 1903.

*Stizolobium niveum Kuntze

Vern. Dukka chikkudu (T.)

Parlakimedi : Agent to Parlakimedi Estate 34700, Aug. 1912.

Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (Butea frondosa Koenig ex Roxb.)

Parlakimedi : in jungles in valleys. Burkill 20531, Sept. 1903.

Butea superba Roxb.

Vern. Padam (S.) ; Moduga chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : Corey & Ramamurthy 20193, Sept. 1903.

Phaseolus lunatus Linn. ;

Devagiri: on hillsides 609 m. Burkill 17958, Dec. 1902.

Phaseolus trilobus Ait.

Parlakimedi : Burkill, Grant & Candler 20581, Sept. 1903.

Dolichos Jablab Linn.

Devagiri : Burkill 17983, Dec. 1902.

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI 167

Dolichos biflorus Linn. (Dolichos uniflorus Lam.)

Parlakimedi : cultivated extensively. Burkill 18103, Dec. 1902.

Atylosia scarabaeoides Benth.

Parlakimedi : woods in the valleys. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20526, Sept. 1903

Burkill & Candler 17923, Dec. 1902.

Cajanus cajan (Linn.) Millsp. (Cajanus indicus Spreng.)

Parlakimedi, Devagiri: Burkill 17924, 17933, 17934, 17949, Dec. 1902.

Dalbergia lanceolaria Linn.

Vern. Padam (S.) ; Sagabotu chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : 30m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20181, 1903.

Dalbergia paniculata Roxb.

Vern. Padima (S.) ; Pachcheru chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi: 30m. Corey 20177, Sept. 1903.

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.

Vern. Ame (S.) ; Egisa chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi: 610m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20115, Sept. 1903.

Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre. (Pongamia glabra Vent.)

Vern. Karanja (S.) ; Kagu chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Corey & Ramamurthy 20143, 1903.

Derris scandens Benth.

Parlakimedi : on bushes in broken jungle. Burkill 20573, 1903.

CAESALPINIACEAE

Caesalpinia digyna Rottl.

Vern. Golaisi (S.) ; Nunegoru pikka chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Corey 20146, Sept. 1903.

Caesalpinia coriaria Willd.

Parlakimedi.

Cassia sp.

Parlakimedi : much planted on roadsides.

Cassia fistula Linn.

Vern. Baro (S.) ; Rella chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20529, Sept. 1903 ; Corey 20109, Sept. 1903.

Cassia occidentalis Linn. :

Vern. Kurtasakonda (S.) ; Gurraputantemu chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Corey & Ramamurthy 20195, Sept. 1903.

Cassia tora Linn.

Parlakimedi. Grant, Candler & Burkitt oes Sept. 1903.

Cassia absus Linn.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20575, a 1903,

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Tamarindus indica Linn.

Parlakimedi : very common.

Bauhinia racemosa Lamk.

Vern. Ombettasa, Ombetta kantal (S.) ; Areti chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : 305m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20138, Sept. 1903.

Bauhinia purpurea Linn.

Vern. Bondochaa nape, Baredab (S.) ; Botantem chettu, Gidugudu chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi: 610 m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20106, 1903.

MIMOSACEAE

Dichrostachys cinerea W. & A.

Vern. Kuraddibon (S.) ; Yetturi chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi: 30m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20185, Sept. 1903.

Mimosa pudica Linn.

Parlakimedi.

*Mimosa rubicaulis Lamk.

Parlakimedi : excessively common in rock broken jungles.

Candler 20559, Sept. 1903.

Acacia farnesiana Willd.

Parlakimedi.

* Acacia decurrens Willd.

Vern. Tumma (S.) ; Tella tumma (T.)

Parlakimedi: 30m. Introduced. Corey 20165, 1903.

Albizia odoratissima Benth.

Vern. Baran (S.) ; Gannenru chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Corey 20169, 1903.

CRASSULACEAE

Burkill, Grant &

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lamk.) Oken. (Bryophyllum calycinum Salisb.)

Parlakimedi.

COMBRETACEAE

Terminalia catappa Linn.

Parlakimedi: planted.

Combretum decandrum Roxb.

Parlakimedi. Burkill 17922, Dec. 1902.

MYRTACEAE

Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels. (Eugenia jambolana Lamk.)

Vern. Kurgad (S.) ; Neradi chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Corey & Ramamurthy 20137, Sept. 1903.

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI 169

LECYTHIDACEAE

Barringtonia acutangula Gaertn.

Vern. Tira (S.) ; Kanapa chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi: 30m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20184, 1903.

Careya arborea Roxb.

Vern. Kumbi (S.) ; Kumbhi (T.)

Parlakimedi: 30m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20136, Sept. 1903.

LYTHRACEAE

Woodfordia fruticosa (Linn.) Kurz. (Woodfordia floribunda Salisb.)

Vern. Sinja nape (S) ; Thhathuva chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi: 30m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20163, Sept. 1903.

Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.

Vern. Siddem (S.) ; Chennangy chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi, Devagiri. Burkill 17952, Dec. 1902. 609m. Corey & Ramamurthy

20111, Sept. 1903.

PUNICACEAE

*Punica granatum Linn.

Parlakimedi: planted and cultivated here and there.

CUCURBITACEAE

*Trichosanthes cucumerina Linn.

Parlakimedi : in jungles on rocky hillsides. Burkill 20413, Sept. 1903.

Trichosanthes bracteata (Lamk.) Voigt. (Trichosanthes palmata Roxb.)

Parlakimedi: 45m. Burkill 17928, Dec. 1902.

Coccinia cordifolia Linn. (Cephalandra indica Naud.)

Vern. Kotam (S.) ; Mandula mari chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Corey 20197, Sept. 1903.

CACTACEAE

. Opuntia vulgaris Mill. (Opuntia monacantha Haw.)

Parlakimedi.

Opuntia dillenii Haw.

Parlakimedi.

UMBELLIFERAE

*Bupleurum plantaginifolium Wight.

Devagiri. Burkill & Candler 17965, Dec. 1902.

RUBIACEAE

Adina cordifolia Hook. f.

Vern. Kadamba (S.) ; Patchi kamba chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : not common in open dry jungles. Burkill 20569, Sept. 1903 ; Corey

& Ramamurthy, 915 m. 20134, 1903.

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Oldenlandia nitida Gamble (Hedyotis nitida W. & A.)

Parlakimedi. Burkill 20466, Sept. 1903.

Oldenlandia herbacea (Linn.) Roxb, (Oldenlandia heynii Br.)

Parlakimedi : common in sandy places. Burkill 20542, Sept. 1903.

Oldenlandia nudicaulis Roth.

Parlakimedi : in low hill jungles, in plenty. Burkill 20426, Sept. 1903.

Tarenna asiatica Gaertn. (Webera corymbosa Willd.)

Parlakimedi. Burkill & Candler 18101, Dec. 1902.

Randia brandisii Gamble. (Randia dumetorum Lamk.)

Vern. Patora (S.) ; Manga chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Corey & Ramamurthy 20156, Sept. 1903.

Gardenia latifolia Ait.

Parlakimedi: in hills at summits. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20483, Sept. 1903.

Knoxia corymbosa Willd.

Parlakimedi, Devagiri: in thin broken jungles. Burkill 17937, 17963, Dec. 1902 ;

20497, Sept. 1903.

Ixora coccinea Linn.

Vern. Korderi (S.) ; Puttapala chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi: 915m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20129, Sept. 1903.

Pavetta indica Linn.

Vern. Kadumna (S.) ; Tellapapidi chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Burkill 20443, Sept. 1903 ; 915 m. Corey & t ae 20124,

1903.

Morinda tinctoria Roxb. var. tomentosa Hook.f. 5

Parlakimedi. Burkill 17989, Dec. 1902.

Hamiltonia suaveolens Roxb.

Devagiri. Burkill & Candler 17972, Dec. 1902.

Borreria stricta (Linn.f.) Schum. (Spermococe stricta Linn.f.)

Parlakimedi : in woods in valleys. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20522, Sept. 1903. -

(To be continued)

The Earthworms : A Review

V. B. TEMBE

Biology Department, Elphinstone College, Bombay

AND

P. J. DUBASH

Botany Department, Institute of Science, Bombay

(With six text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The Earthworm is an animal only sometimes seen above ground and

that, usually in the rainy season. Not possessing the charm of butter-

flies and other such insects it has escaped the attention of collectors.

Having no superficial distinguishing characters it cannot provide the

thrill of identification to the amateur naturalist. Even trained scien-

tists conceal their ignorance under terms like ‘some worms’, ‘ the com-

mon earthworm’, and so on. In fact, the earthworm appears destined

to live and die in obscurity.

Nevertheless, earthworms merit serious study. Their role as soil

builders is well known since the time of Charles Darwin and the know-

ledge of their medicinal importance has come down to us from the

ancients. Their remarkable powers of regeneration have formed the

subject of many elegant experiments in the early 20th Century. The

last two decades have, however, introduced several novel concepts in

science. New techniques have overthrown many a monument of classical

scientific literature and, therefore, it becomes necessary to reappraise the

biology of the earthworm in the light of contemporary work. It is hoped

that the effort will be of interest to both the research worker and the

amateur naturalist.

ZOOLOGY

1. GENERAL

The Oligochaeta are an order of the class CHAETOPODA. They

are segmented worms possessing both male and female gonads. They

deposit their eggs in a cocoon without a free larval stage. At sexual

172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

maturity they develop a collar-like tissue just behind the anterior seg-

ments, called the clitellum. There is no well-marked head but a preoral

lobe called the prostomium is present.

The order is divided into a number of families, the majority being pre-

dominantly terrestrial and the rest mostly aquatic inclusive of a

few marine species. It is convenient to group them according to size.

Families which comprise the larger worms come under the Megadrili

and the smaller ones under Microdrili.. As a rule the former constitute

most of the terrestrial forms and hence, in general, ‘ earthworms’ can

be said to belong to this group. Megascolids australis is believed to

be its largest representative, attaining a length of 11 feet with a diameter

of one inch (Coleman 1944, Pope 1953).

Of the six families of earthworms found in India, Megascolecidae

is the most widely distributed. This family has 30 Indian genera, of which

Pheretima is the largest with 14 species, the last one being added by

Gates (1945).

Considering the vast diversity of forms which can go under the term

‘earthworm ’ and regretting the confusion so caused, Stephenson (1930)

remarks : ‘‘ While on the subject of nomenclature, may I suggest, more

particularly perhaps to some of the authors who write on physiological

subjects (though morphologists are not invariably above suspicion in

the matter), that they should identify, or get identified their material ?

It is not always sufficient to talk of the ‘earthworm’, there are 1800

species of earthworms, even in Britain there are nearly 40 species belong-

ing to 8 genera. The ‘common earthworm’ too, is meaningless—what

is the common earthworm in one part of the country is not so in another

_.”. This comment is, unfortunately, as valid today as it was 30 years

ago.

2. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

a. General

The structure of the animal can be compared to a double-walled

vacuum flask. The cavity between the two walls is called the coelomic

cavity and is filled with fluid. The inner wall is the wall of the gut.

The body is divided into a number of segments which makes it appear

like a stack of coins or a number of similar rings. Animals with such

structures are called Annelids from the Latin a(n)nellus meaning ‘ little

ring’. Partitions, called septa, reach as far as the gut from the outer

wall and divide the worm into a number of compartments. The coelo-

mic fluid of each compartment communicates across the septa by means

of pores which occur in a majority of segments. The forward and back-’

ward flow of the coelomic fluid causes reversible changes in the turgor

of segments which facilitates locomotion by coordination with the

THE EARTHWORMS: A REVIEW 173

muscles of the body wall. Only a few septa are imperforate (like the

first 6 and those between segments 11-14 in Pheretima posthuma). Bahl

(1919) was the first to prove that these apertures are sphinctered in the

genus Pheretima and, in so far as the authors are aware, this has not

been established in any other genus. Sphincters regulate the flow of

the fluid by contraction and expansion.

b. Coelom

The coelom communicates with the environment by means of two

types of apertures, the dorsal pores and the nephridiopores. The former

are situated along the mid-dorsal line in each of the grooves between

all the segments excepting a few anterior ones. These pores help in

removing waste products from the coelomic cavity along with some

albumen in the form of solid particles. They also help in maintaining

moisture of the body surface. The situation of the first dorsal pore is a

characteristic of systematic importance. The nephridiopores, on the

other hand, are the exit pores of special excretory organs called neph-

ridia, which remove waste products like urea and uric acid from the

blood and the coelom. These tiny openings are situated along the

lateral surface of the worm. When the nephridia open directly to the

outside, the system is said to be exo-nephric, which is true for a majority

of cases. In some genera, like Pheretima and Lampito some of the neph-

ridia open into the gut. This is called an enteronephric nephridial

system, and Bahl (1919) was the first to describe it in Pheretima. An

interesting modification of coelomic fluid excretion is that exhibited by

the squirter earthworm, Didymogaster sylvaticus, which shoots up a

series of jets of the coelomic fluid a couple of feet into the air when dis-

turbed. It is believed that it serves to plaster the burrow (Pope 1953)

and perhaps it may also serve to frighten off predators.

CoS elUe

Each segment is divided superficially into 2 rings by a central groove,

called the setal groove because of the presence of bristle- or needle-like

processes called setae whose number and distribution is of systematic

importance.

Setal arrangement can be of 2 types, Lumbricine and Perichaetine.

In the former the setae are arranged in pairs, 4 pairs to a segment (Lum-

bricus, Eutyphoeus). In the latter they are more in number and arranged

in a continuous ring except for a dorsal and a ventral break (Pheretima,

Perionyx). The size of the break in units of the distance between adjacent

setae is also an important diagnostic characteristic. From the taxono-

mic point of view the Lumbricine arrangement is the more primitive one.

Each seta is developed from a pit on the skin and is slightly curved

in shape. The tip or the ectal end is directed posteriorly. The basal

174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

LUMBRICINE PERICHAETINE

| VENTRAL

ab=s°aa=3$be

d d=34 circumference

DORSAL

bodied add bea gegatts]

Wxyz Zyxw

ZZ=$3 yz

Text-fig. 1. Setal markings and formulae.

part is embedded in a sac, which is connected by two types of muscles—

retractor and protractor. The setae can thus project out of the skin

and get a hold on the substratum or withdraw and release its hold

during locomotion.

d. Body-wall and Locomotion

The body-wall consists of the outer cuticle-covered epidermis, internal

to which are two muscular layers oriented at right angles to each other.

The outer is circular, and the inner longitudinal. The inner layer is in

contact with the coelom by means of the coelomic epithelium.

Locomotion is a function of the muscles of the body-wall. The

anterior segments first contract the circular muscles, thereby relaxing

the longitudinal ones and securing elongation towards the front (forward

propulsion). The wave of contraction passes over backwards, when it

goes past half of the way, the circular muscles relax and the longitudinal

ones contract. This causes the segments to thicken and drive the ven-

tral setae into the ground, holding on to the forward position till the rear

THE EARTHWORMS: A REVIEW 175

portions catch up. These studies were made by Gray & Lissmann

(1938) with cinematographic records. Further, it is believed that the

expansion and contraction of the segments causes the propulsion of the

coelomic fluid across the septa, thereby aiding locomotion.

e. Digestion |

Aristotle aptly called earthworms the ‘intestines of the earth’, because

they literally “digest’ the soil along with dead organic waste and con-

vert it into readily available plant food.

The digestive system is relatively simple. It consists of the buccal

chamber, pharynx, gizzard, stomach, and intestine. The minute quan-

tities of organic matter in the soil are to be concentrated and hence

enormous amounts of soil are to be taken in. The food, on its arrival

Intestine

Text-fig. 2. Digestive system of Hoplochaetella sp.

in the pharynx, is acted upon by the saliva which contains mucin and a

proteolytic ferment. It is then ground up by the thick internal cuticle

of the muscular gizzard. The final digestion is by enzymes of the stomach

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

and intestine which are of many types, viz. proteolytic, diastatic, hydro-

lysing, fat splitting, etc. The intestinal fluid corresponds to the pan-

creatic juice of higher animals. Digested food now passes into the

blood stream through the intestinal epithelium, and the undigested

matter mixed with large quantities of nitrogenous waste is excreted as

castings. Waste products are collected by the nephridia and discharged

as urine. The latter has an important secondary role of maintaining

water by osmoregulation, which will be discussed later. Again, it con-

tains ammonia, urea, and creatinine. The first two, at least, can nitrify

in the soil with ease, thereby providing much needed ‘available nitrogen’

to the plants. Creatinine is also a nitrogenous compound which could

be nitrified but along a longer route.

f. Calciferous glands

In many forms, the stomach epithelium produces glandular swellings

on its walls which contain calcium carbonate and are thus called calci-

ferous glands. Darwin regarded these as organs which secrete calcium

salts to neutralize the humic acids of decomposing leaves eaten by the

worm. In 1936, Robertson, on the other hand, came to the conclusion

that their function is rather to excrete the calcium salts in the form of

calcite crystals.

It must here be mentioned, that these glands are present only in the

earthworm, though they may differ in complexity from species to species

and may even be absent insome. Kelly has pointed out that the anterior

and posterior pairs of glands contain lime of different types. In the

anterior pouches, the carbonate is in crystalline form, whereas in the

posterior pouches it is in amorphous form. X-ray studies by Voight

reveal that the crystalline form is derived from the amorphous one.

Ohfuchi (1941b) in his studies on Oligochaeta from Micronesia sug-

gested a biological relation between the calciferous glands and coral

reefs of Micronesia. He worked with Pontoscolex and Dichogaster.

Kashyap & Ranade (1952) compared the glands of Pheretima sp. with

those of Hoplochaetella suctoria along with the calcium content and

acidity of the respective soils and came to a conclusion similar to Darwin’s.

Joshi & Kelkar (1953) observed with some earthworms of Poona

that the glands function in the rains and not in winter. They found the

total calcium to be less in the casts than in the soil but water

soluble calcium was more in the casts than in the soil. From this they

attributed the novel function of plastering the burrow to these contro-

versial glands. :

g. Chloragogen cells

The chloragogen cells belong to the peritoneal layer of the intestine.

They collect yellow refractive granules called chloragosomes, which are

THE EARTHWORMS: A REVIEW 177

believed by some to be an excretion from the capillaries of the gut because

they are known to drop off into the coelom (when full) and be excreted

in the usual manner. Others: believe that they function as nutritional

reserves ; alternatively, in the absence of the liver they may be hepato-

pancreatic in function.

h. Circulation

The circulatory system is more efficient than that of Crustaceans or

Molluscans. The absorbed food from the walls of the intestine is trans-

ported by the blood-stream through the posterior portion of the dorsal

vessel which runs parallel to the long axis over the dorsal surface of the

gut.- Anteriorly, the dorsal vessel becomes a distributing vessel. It

gives off 4 pairs of large pulsating vessels called the lateral hearts which

bring the blood to the ventral vessel which distributes it to each segment.

The dorsal vessel also sends a number of branches to the region of the

‘head’. The blood from the various tissues of the body is collected by

the subneural, the commissurals, and the lateral oesophageals. Waste

products, mainly carbon dioxide and nitrogenous compounds, are elimi-

nated through the skin and nephridia.

Dorsal Vessel

Hearts Commissural Vessel

15 16

14 a

Intestine

Subneural

Lat. Oesophageal Vessel Vessel

Ventral Vessel

Text-fig. 3. Circulatory system in anterior segments of Pheretima (after Bahl, 1950).

Diagrammatic

The blood is peculiar in that the haemoglobin is contained in the

plasma and not in the corpuscles, which are colourless and nucleated.

It is manufactured in the blood glands, which can be located in the 5th

segment in Pheretima posthuma.

The ability of the animal to survive under anaerobic conditions is

mainly due to the distribution of haemoglobin in the plasma instead of

the corpuscles. The pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere is 152 mm. ;

the haemoglobin in the plasma is readily able to absorb oxygen at much

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

lower pressures. It is found that earthworm blood can get saturated

with oxygen at pressures as low as 19 mm. According to one authority

the coelomic fluid is at a pressure of 14 mm. and so the gas can be trans-

ferred from the environment to the inner tissues even when it is present

in small quantities.

Carbon dioxide is released through the epidermis, which becomes

permeable when moist. The moistening is due to the coelomic discharge

and some secretion from the mucus glands of the epidermis. Mucus

helps to conserve moisture, desiccation of the skin results in asphyxia-

tion.

Earthworms can survive many hours in the total absence of

atmospheric oxygen. Presumably, they are capable of anaerobic

or intra-molecular respiration. This is, doubtless, a useful attribute for

any animal destined to live buried in the earth. Anaerobic respiration

usually results in the release of toxic intermediates. Thus, in yeast we

have ethyl alcohol, whereas in intestinal worms it is valerianic acid.

According to Stephenson (1930), Lesser (1908-1910) working with Lum-

bricus terrestris and Eisenia foetida found that starvation under anaerobic

conditions produced a volatile fatty acid, supposed to be valerianic, since

large quantities of glycogen were noticed to have decomposed during that

period.

In general, accumulation of carbon Ronde depresses respiration,

but in earthworms very little depression occurs even when the carbon

dioxide concentration reaches 50%. This is another important charac-

teristic which enables survival in the close proximity of respiring plant

roots and micro-organisms of the soil.

Again, wounds accelerate respiration, at least in ae and that is

why two halves of a potato respire more than the entire tuber. In the

earthworm, however, due to some nervous impulse the intensity of res-

piration actually decreases on wounding.

Stephenson (1930) refers to oxygen intake being hampered by ultra-

violet light as was noted by Merker & Brauning in 1927 with Lumbricus

terrestris and Allolobophora calignosa. This may be the reason for the

lethal effects observed on radiation which first stimulates, then paralyses

and finally kills.

i. Nervous system

The nervous system consists mainly of a ring of ganglia, which forms

the anterior part of the nerve cord. The nerve cord consists of giant fibres

capable of conducting impulses from one end to the other with great

rapidity, which accounts for the violent wriggling on tactile stimulation,

an important item of its pattern of escape from predators. Bending

and jumping movements are also brought about in a similar fashion.

The velocity of nervous impulse in the earthworm is five times that in

THE EARTHWORMS: A REVIEW is)

man, viz. 1970 feet (600 m.) per second. The oxygen consumption is

also high. Winterstein & Basoglu (1939) found the oxygen consumption

of the ventral nerve cord to be seven times that in frogs.

The cerebral ganglia also function as inhibitory centres. When they

are amputated, the animal continues to move without stopping (wriggles

indefinitely).

j. Reproductive system

The system shows many variations between ancient and modern

forms. It will here be described in short, with reference to a few types.

The reproductive system is so diagnostic that it is impossible to identify

immature worms.

Earthworms are hermaphrodite. Impregnation is reciprocal, i.e.

both pairing individuals mutually fertilize each other. Self-fertilization

DORSAL VENTRAL

9 Gen. Aperture

Clitellum

First Dorsal Pore

teeees sede |S pease g rss

12, x

mfisidsiiae seaeei" Seria itch Soumtatid ty tata hs vty ve

Mlreiennse een Bi EL

| a2 17

; eS

— : 18

P48 gos gtk 4 eed gg?

Text-fig. 4. Surface markings of Pheretima posthuma

is impossible. Copulation has been completely followed only in a few

species, but the following may be considered an illustrative trend.

Each species has a number of spermatheca in its anterior segments

(e.g. 4 pairs in Pheretima posthuma and 3 pairs in P. houlleti). In the

former, a little behind the last pair of spermatheca is the female pore which

opens on the ventral side of the 14th segment.

Segments 14-16 are thickened to form the collar called clitellum. A

pair of genital papillae arise in each of segments 17 and 19, and a pair of

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Nerve Cord

Spermatheca _

Diverticulum

Ampulla

Testes

Spermiducat

Funnels

SEE h

13 g Ovaries (on Septum)

re}. Oviduet

14 4

i ost esa vasa deferentia

18 4 A ae — Prostate

Ene

19 ors

20 Ww

~S Gen. Aperture

Text-fig. 5. Reproductive system of Pheretima posthuma

Note: Seminal vesicles and testis sacs removed to expose testes.

male generative apertures arise in the 18th segment. The female pore

is connected to the oviduct which brings the ova from the ovaries (situated

on the posterior surface of septum 12/13) as well as other secretions to it.

Each male pore is connected to a rather thick tube which incorporates

the tube from the testis (the vas deferens) and from the prostate gland

(prostatic duct).

k. Copulation

The copulating animals lie with their anterior ventral surfaces attached

but with their heads pointing in opposite directions. The male pores of

one come in contact with the spermathecal pores of the other. The

sperms and the prostatic fluid are mutually discharged into the posterior-

most pair of spermatheca, where they are nourished by some fluid. By

moving backwards the male pores discharge into the spermatheca next

in line until all spermatheca are ‘ charged’.

THE EARTHWORMS: A REVIEW 181

The worms then separate, the clitellar segments of each gets enclosed

in a secretion from the clitellum which ultimately hardens into a short

tube. The animal then withdraws backwards through the tube and in

doing so the spermatheca and the female pores discharge into the tube.

To this is added some albumen from the anterior segments. The ends

of the tube are sealed off when the worm is clear of it, thus forming the

Spermathecal

é Generative Aperture Segments

od Generative Apertire

Spermathecal

Segments

Capsule

Formation Ne CMO

€7 «ml WW

Text-fig. 6. Copulation and capsule-formation in Pheretima.

Diagrammatic

capsule or cocoon. It must be noted that the actual fertilization takes

place in the cocoon and not in the worm. A technique for growing pure

cultures of earthworms has been described by Tembe & Dubash (1959).

Herlant-Meewi (1954) has described a method of securing artificial copu-

lation and cocoon-laying in Eisenia foetida.

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

1. Parthenogenesis

Cocoons can also be laid by individuals that have not paired but

such cocoons normally do not develop. In some cases as in E. rosea

the male organs are sterile thus exhibiting obligatory parthenogenesis.

Parthenogenesis is maintained by polyploidy. In this case the animal is

triploid (with 3n=54 chromosomes). Dendrobaena subrubicunda, on

the other hand, is a tetraploid (4n=68), which is facultatively polyploidal.

Polyploids provide variety and vigour due to the multiple chromosome

number. Moreover, they can distribute themselves quickly over new

areas and achieve a maximum population level without pairing.

m. Asexual reproduction

This has so far not been reported as a regular feature of true earth-

worms, but such modes have been noted in the aquatic forms (Microdrili).

It is very common amongst some forms of the Oligochaeta (i.e. in the

Aeolosomatidae, Naididae, and Lumbriculidae), mainly by fission, but

these groups being largely aquatic come under the Microdrili which as

such do not include true earthworms.

Thus in Lumbriculus variegatus (Lumbriculidae) sexual reproduction

is rare but asexual reproduction takes place by fragmentation and

subsequent regeneration. Similarly, Bell (1959) has written about a

new species of naturally fragmenting worm called Enchytraeus fragmen-

tosus which lacks sex organs.

n. Regeneration

All earthworms are known for their amazing powers’ of regeneration.

One associates instantaneous death with decapitation. Nothing can

survive without a head, except of course the earthworm! It can survive

even after the removal of the first 15 segments and regenerate at least some

of them. According to Roots (1956) regenerative capacity dwindles after

the 9th segment and, no matter how many are removed, only 4

are regenerated. Posterior segments have greater power of regeneration

than anterior ones. During caudal regeneration a long slender appendage

of many segments is formed specially in the warmer seasons and the

normal width is attained later. In E. foetida a whole ‘tail’ can be

regenerated even if only 13 anterior segments are left intact.

Although the nerve cord plays an important part inthis process the

head can be regenerated devoid of the nerve cord. Ifa worm is decapi-

tated and the nerve cord diverted and made to emerge from a hole in the

body, an extra ‘ head ’ can be regenerated at the decapitated point.

In Lumbricids, at least, the sex organs show feeble powers of regenera-

tion. In Criodrilus lacuum (Glossoscolecidae) some extraordinary powers

of regeneration are reported. More than 20 segments may be regenerated

at the anterior end inclusive of gonads, seminal vescicles, and ovisacs,

THE EARTHWORMS: A REVIEW 183

though the male deferens apparatus is seldom reproduced. However,

the number and shape of regenerated sex organs show great irregularities.

Moreover, repeated regeneration occurs after repeated amputation. In

1896 Hescheler observed that repeated regeneration of the head of E.

foetida may be observed up to a maximum of five times. The number of

segments reproduced is, as a rule, not diminished.

In Microdrili, repeated regeneration is even more prominent. In

1908 Muller observed that the head of Lumbriculus could be regenerated

up to a maximum of 17-21 times and the tail 33-42 times. Thus, the power

of repeated regeneration seems to be twice as great at the tail as at the

head. If both head and tail are removed simultaneously they may be

regenerated 20 times. Recently, Gates (1959) working with Lampito

mauritii Kinberg 1867, has recorded details about its anterior and

posterior regeneration.

o. Heteromorphosis

_ This is the regeneration of a part in a different form from the original

part. :

In 1899 Morgan found with E. foetida that if it was cut in the middle,

the posterior portion regenerated in the anterior direction but with a tail!

The newly produced portion did not contain the cerebral ganglia or

connectives and the nephridial funnels faced the wrong way round, i.e.

towards the old tail. |

Heteromorphy depends on the number of the segment at which the

worm is cut. In 1904 Dimon found with E. foetida that, if the cut is an-

terior to the 17/18 septum, the regenerated part is a head, abnormal or

otherwise. If the cut is at 18/19, the regenerated portions in a majority

of cases are heads and very few are tails. Posterior to this septum the

operation produces mainly tails and only a few heads. In general, tails

are produced when the cut is posterior to the gizzard or in the intestine.

Janda (1926) has recorded that in Criodrilus lacuum a head may be re-

generated in place of a normal tail. Moreover, at the anterior end a

triple regeneration might occur of a heteromorphic tail situated between

two heads.

p. Transplantation

Some startling results have been observed by transplanting experi-

ments of workers like Korschelt (1895), Rabes (1901) and Tirala (1912).

If the head portion of one animal is sutured to the tail portion of another

in the normal position, the gut, blood vessels, and nerve cords become

continuous within a fortnight. Surprisingly enough, the union takes

place even if one of the parts is rotated through 90° with respect to the

other.

184. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Again, two tails can be united resulting in a product which can survive

for along time. The union of two heads, however, is very rare and even

then not long lasting.

Transplantation of ovaries has been accomplished by Harms (1910-12).

The ventral portion of the septum 12/13 on which the ovaries are attached

was transplanted from one worm to another, even of a different genus.

A successful graft was the transplantation of ovaries of L. terrestris into

A. calignosa. The resultant animal inclined to the ‘mother’ in some

characters and to the ‘father’ in others. Some intermediate characters

were also formed along with certain others not exhibited by either parent.

3. SENSES

a. Perception of light

Earthworms do not possess eyes, yet they can perceive differences

between light and dark by virtue of a number of epidermal photoreceptor

cells. Hess (1925) working with Lumbricus found these cells absent

from the ventral surface and present in large numbers on the prostomium

and the first segment.

It is commonly believed that earthworms are nocturnal feeders, but

Roy (1957) from his work at Baranagore, near Calcutta, came to the con-

clusion that there was no significant difference in their casting activity

during day and night.

Very often, worms can be seen outside their burrows after heavy rains,

even in broad daylight, but in a paralysed state. Merker (1939) believes

that they are driven out of their burrows by lack of oxygen when the

tunnels are flooded and the paralysis is caused by the consequent exposure

to ultra-violet rays. The same author working on the harmful effects

of this radiation on tadpoles kept in distilled water came to the con-

clusion that calcium and sodium ions flowed out of the body within 15

minutes of exposure, and later even potassium followed. Under these

circumstances, the life of the animals could be prolonged by adding a

high concentration of calcium ions to the water. It is possible that

a similar mechanism may be operating in the earthworm.

The question of why ultra-violet light is so harmful to some animals

is worth speculating about, for this radiation serves important functions in

other animals, e.g. it forms an important part of the light perceived by bees;

to whom it appears as a true colour (along with 3 others, yellow, blue-

green, and blue). The great attraction which bees have for inconspi-

cuously-coloured flowers and for those with other colours (like red pop-

pies) is due to the reflection of ultra-violet light from these flowers

(Manning 1956). Mazokhim-Porshnyakov (1957) maintains that the

same radiation plays a similar role in light perception by Lepidoptera.

THE EARTHWORMS: A REVIEW 185

b. Sound, vibrations and touch

Earthworms are not bothered by sound. The incomparable Charles

Darwin found them oblivious of the piano, bassoon, and whistle as well

as of shouts!

Though completely deaf, they are very sensitive to vibrations and

tactile stimuli. Thus, one method of harvesting them is to produce

vibrations in the soil by any suitable means. Darwin relates that a

young peewit kept in confinement used to stand on one leg and beat the

turf with the other in order to eat the worms which crawled out due to the

vibrations.

Tactile stimulus is perceived by another set of epidermal receptors

which are more numerous on the ventral and lateral surfaces than on the

dorsal. Coupled with a sense of touch is an almost uncanny sense of

discernment. When foraging for food, the grasping always follows a

particular pattern, viz. leaves are held from the tips and not from the

stalk. 2-needled pine leaves are grasped by the common base rather than

from any of the tips. Darwin interpreted this habit to mean that some-

how the animal was ‘ intelligent ’ enough to select the most convenient

end by which the piece could be drawn into the burrow. Since the same

selective response was observed even with leaves entirely foreign to the

country (no species of pine is endemic to the locality where he worked)

he was reluctantly driven to postulate a degree of intelligence. These

experiments were later extended by offering paper triangles where one

angle was the sharpest. In a majority of cases they were always pulled

in by the narrow end without any previous trials with any of the other

angles.

Hanel (1904), on the other hand, was forced to a different conclusion

from her experiments. She found that when leaves of the lime tree were

so cut as to round off their acute apex they were still always grasped from

that end although it was by no means a convenient (and, therefore, ‘ intel-

ligent’’) way to do so. Hence, she postulated a very sensitive chemical

sense which enabled the animal to distinguish the extremely minute

chemical differences between the anterior and posterior portions of the

leaf. Even in the case of the pine leaves the response was said to be

partly chemical. Her experience with paper triangles was also that it

was the sharpest end which was most often chosen even when the

differences between the angles was very small. The shortest side was

most often avoided. The interpretation was that the worm crawls along

the sides of the triangle and the succession of tactile stimuli which it

receives as it crawls against the shorter side—angle—longer side—angle

etc., evokes the reflex to select and grasp the narrow end. It thus appears

that in trying to avoid accepting the notion of some degree of intelligence

the author’s conclusions seem to point to a knowledge of geometry!

Jordan (1912) who observed an undetermined Lumbricid at night with

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

the light of a kerosene lamp failed to find any crawling around leaves.

He reported that leaves were first held by their surface by creating suction

with the pharynx and later pulled in by any end.

c. Chemical sense

Contemporary work has established a well-defined chemical sense with

thresholds similar to or below those of Man. Mangold (1951) extended

the pine leaf experiments by first making them tasteless by extraction with

organic solvents. The needles were tied into small bundles, one end was

covered with aqueous gelatin solution and the other with test substances

in the same solution. The animals were kept in a terrarium and a record

was maintained of their choice. The test substances were slurries of

decayed leaves of various species. The order of preference was Gelatin >

Willow > Sweet Lupine > Walnut > Acacia > Poplar > Oak > Bitter

Lupine > Linden > Beech > Cherry > Maple > Horse Chestnut. (The

sign > indicates ‘ preferred to’.) Quinine and Hydrochloric Acid were

avoided, whereas dilute solutions of organic acids, sugars and even

saccharine were preferred to gelatin.

d. Taste and Smell

Linked with the chemical sense is the one of taste. Roots (1956) has

recorded that L. terrestris showed a marked preference for certain food

when offered a choice. Chocolate is preferred to meat > celery > wild

cherry > wild carrotleaves, while leaves of the plane tree, mint, and thyme

arenot touched. The sites for sense organs capable of perceiving the stimuli

of chemicals, taste, and smell are on the buccal epithelium, which comes

in contact with various substances during feeding by the constant ever-

sion of the buccal chamber (Bahl 1950).

e. Electrical stimulus |

? Earthworms are galvanotactic but in a sense opposite to Vertebrates

and Crustacea. Moore (1923) and others have found that under elec-

trical stimulus they become U-shaped with both ends directed towards

the cathode. Reversal of current produces a reorientation towards the

new cathode. Under a similar stimulus Vertebrates and Crustacea orient

towards the anode.

4. BEHAVIOUR

a. Feeding

The food is first moistened by an alkaline enzymatic secretion which

digests starch and thus makes it easier to tear into shreds. Leaves may

be torn by holding them by the edge between the prostomium and the

mouth and pushing the pharynx forward. Alternatively, small portions

may be sucked in by first pressing the mouth against the leaf and

then withdrawing the pharynx, thus producing suction.

THE EARTHWORMS: A REVIEW 187

b. Burrowing

The earthworms create tunnels through the soil as they move. They

first push their anterior portion into a crevice and then bore in by expand-

ing their segments and forcing apart the obstructions. When the soil

is very compact they literally eat their way through. The burrows are

usually plugged with anything that is handy, and the strength that is

brought to bear on this operation is truly phenomenal. Barret (1955)

records that a worm weighing 1/30th of an ounce can shift a stone

weighing 2 oz. which is equivalent to a man of 150 lb. shifting a load of

4 tons!

Scarcity of food or water causes a stimulation of burrowing activity

which may extend to a great depth. Bahl (1950) quotes Bourneas having

obtained specimens of Drawida grandis at a depth of 9-10 feet (2°7 to 3m.)

in the Nilgiris in the month of May. Different species burrow at different

depths varying from a few inches to several feet.

Burrowing habits can be studied by keeping the animals along with

some soil between two plates of glass placed close enough for observation

from both sides. Garner (1953) used the following method for a study of

various tunnelling animals in the field :

Liquid latex thinned with ammonium hydroxide is diluted 1: 8 with

distilled water and poured into the tunnels. The latex hardens into a cast

of the tunnelling system in 2-3 days. He has observed that earthworms

of garden soil near Richmond, Indiana, made a complex maze of horizon-

tal tunnels, an inch (2°5 cm.) below the surface, and these were connected

with other similar horizontal systems further down, by vertical shafts.

These vertical shafts penetrated 2-3 feet (60-90 cm.) into the C-horizon of

the soil. Thetunnels were lined with mucus which served as a substratum

for fungi. The fungi attracted ants, which used the upper tunnel shafts

as entrances to their nests.

All earthworms do not live in the earth. Some have adapted them-

selves to other substrata. Thus Perionyx thrives under aerated water

and Pheretima musica lives on the tree trunks in Java, using the humus of

the epiphytic ferns. Species of Dendrobaena and Mesenchytroeus live

midst ice and snow (Bahl, 1950). There are some species of Pheretima

living in caves. Such types are known as cavernicolous. Cave living

lengthens the period of immaturity and induces hibernation, besides

showing lack of pigmentation (Ohfuchi, 1941a).

c. Casting

After passing through the animal, the food emerges as a compact,

concentrated mass termed casting. Some species cast within their

burrows and others on the surface. The form of casting may vary from

individual pellets as in Pheretima posthuma to short threads in Perionyx

millardi. In some cases the worms produce a thick and long winding

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

column which produces a hollow mound about 2 inches long (5 cm.) and

an inch (2.5 cm.) wide. Hoplochaetella khandalaensis is known to pro-

duce such casts. Dichogaster jaculatrix, an African worm, is reported

to produce red clay chimneys which may be 4-5 inches (10-12 cm.) highand

about 14 inches (4 cm.) wide. Perhaps the biggest recorded castings are

those of Notoscolex birmanicus, noted by Gates in Burma. One such

casting, even after 4 months of drying in rainless weather weighed 33 Ib.

(1.6 kg.) and was 150 mm. high.

There is a tendency amongst workers to use the form of castings to

identify worms, which is rather unfortunate. There are many other

worms, besides those mentioned above, which produce similar casts.

Again, different species may co-habit under a prominent system of casts,

thus confounding identification. Moreover, even commensal relation-

ships have been reported, at least in one case. Thus Saussey (1957)

observes that Dendrobaena mammalis, which is a small Lumbricid, lives

commensally in burrows with Allolobophora terrestris and A. longa.

5. ARCHAEOLOGY AND EARTHWORMS

This is perhaps the least suspected of all the roles of the earthworm.

The fact that earthworms have an important bearing on archaeo-

logical interpretations was first pointed out by Darwin. They constantly

remove Soil from below archaeological monuments and cast it on the sur-

face thus securing a premature burial but at the same time protecting them

from the ravages of the elements. Extensive observations of ancient

relics at Stonehenge and many Roman excavations by Darwin led him

to this view, which has again been brought into prominence very recently.

It is believed that by continuously shifting soil, specially in the first

12 inches (30 cm.) of the surface they are responsible for misdating of

ancient monuments. Thus they are a force to be reckoned with in all

archaeological findings. The British Association is reported to have set up

a committee on archaeological field experiments with a view to study

denudation and soilmovement. These aspects have been recently reviewed

by Jewell (1959).

6. INTELLIGENCE

The deaf, dumb, and blind earthworm, nevertheless, seems to be

endowed with some exceptional ‘mental’ powers. :

Darwin observed that animals which were either feeding or copulat-

ing could not be distracted by light, which would otherwise irritate them.

The earthworm is also capable of learning from experience, an attri-

bute unfortunately deficient in many humans. When provided with a

choice of two paths it can be taught, by experience, to choose one of

THE EARTHWORMS: A REVIEW 189

them. Robertson (1953) used a T-maze of the following dimensions for

experiments on L. terrestris :

A straight arm (25.42 cm.) led vertically into a horizontal tube

junction whose left arm was 10.1 cm. and the right 15.3 cm. in length.

The left arm, which represented the negative goal terminated in very

rough sand paper followed by electrodes capable of giving a shock of

one volt. The other arm (-++ ve goal) led to a beaker with moist soil

and moss and covered with paper to prevent light. The floor of the

maze was lined with moist blotting paper which was changed frequently

to prevent the formation of tracks. The worms can be made to enter

the straight arm and prevented from turning back by directing light

towards the entrance. After repeated trials, a bias is established in

favour of the more suitable path—the lesson is ‘ learnt’!

Yerkes (1912), who was amongst the pioneers of this type of study,

came to the astonishing conclusion that this lesson is retained even

when the first 5 segments (including the cephalic ganglia, i.e. brain) are

removed. More astounding is the fact that, when a new brain is regene-

rated, this learning is forgotten.

Where is this lesson ‘stored’ and how does the regenerated brain

succeed in effacing this knowledge ?

7. DISTRIBUTION & ECOLOGY

a. Dispersal

Earthworms by nature are not wanderers. They seldom leave their

locality except with the onset of adverse factors like drought or attacks

by predators. They are generally localized by soil conditions yet many

species have become world wanderers having been dispersed by biotic

agents. They may be carried in the hoofs of cattle and in the transfer

of soil and manure. Botanical gardens thus become centres for collec-

tion and distribution of various species throughout the world. Species

which are widely distributed are called ‘ peregrine’, e.g. the Lumbricids,

which were originally natives of Europe, are now distributed all over

the world. Even P. posthuma, which is a well-known type in our Indian

Universities, is regarded as peregrine by Stephenson.

b. Geographical distribution

Gates (1947, 1951) has observed their distribution in the Allahabad

sector of the Gangetic plain and in some Himalayan hill-stations and

their environs. With regard to the latter, he concludes that the family

Megascolecidae predominates at Sahranpur and Dehra Dun whereas

in Simla, Mussoorie, and other Himalayan localities the Lumbricidae

predominates and, further, that in the hilly areas the native species are

almost entirely replaced by the European Lumbricids.

190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

c. Edaphic factors

In spite of the adaptability of many species to different habitats, some

are known to be restricted to certain soils.

ol. Onde acid At wy,

Satchell (1955), working on the effect of soil acidity on distribution,

found that Bismastus eiseni, Dendrobaena octaedra, and D. rubidia were

acid tolerant. Allolobophora calignosa was one of the four species which

could not tolerate acidity, whereas Lumbricus terrestris and three others

were ubiquitous. 7

iw Soil cover

Distribution with regard to soils under cover of different herbs, shrubs,

and trees has been studied by Ronde (1951), whose findings revealed

that spruce and pine had fewer worms, both in number of species and

total weight, than ash, birch, and other hardwoods. Sambucus sp. and

Oxalis acetocella were said to be very favourable to worms, whereas

Sphagnum showed complete absence of the animals. Considering their

ability to select particular leaves and also bearing in mind their acute

chemical sense, one can say that a part of their distribution, at least, is

due to this quality.

iii, General soil factors

Waters (1955) correlated the abundance of A. calignosaand L. rubellus

with soil temperature, moisture, and supply of plant residue. He found

that temperature variations produced negligible effects on population,

but high moisture content in association with poor aeration was very

harmful to their numbers. Fluctuations in the number and weight of the

animals were correlatable to the increase or decrease of the supply of

plant residues.

iv. Soil moisture

It is also reasonable to expect available moisture in the soil to be a

factor in their distribution. As a rule they do not thrive in dry soils

and avoid drought, either by migrating to lower layers several feet deep

or by entering a state of diapause in which they roll up inside spherical

earthen cells lined with mucus. Here, too, some differences are reported

between species of the same genus by Roots (1956). She observes, for

instance, that A. calignosa and A. chlorotica enter diapause only under

unfavourable conditions, whereas A. terrestris f. longa and A. nocturna

spend the summer months in this way. The ability to survive in dry soils

THE EARTHWORMS: A REVIEW 191

raises questions on their moisture content and the proportion of their

body water that they can afford to lose.

Grant (1955a) found the water content of A. calignosa, E. foetida,

and P. hupeiensis to be from 82-85% of body weight. Their respective

vital limits for desiccation were 63.5, 58.8, and 48.6% loss of body weight

due to loss of water. These figures could be compared very favourably

with humans, and even with the camel which is well-known for its ability

to survive without water for months.

Schmidt-Nielsen (1959) indicates that in man a loss of water equal to

5% of body weight causes deterioration in his physical condition, dis-

tortion of vision, and a clouding of judgment. A 10% loss brings deli-

rium, deafness, and insensibility to pain. In desert heat a loss of VII

results in ‘ explosive heat death ’, because the blood becomes too viscous

to circulate freely and thus the metabolic heat is not dissipated suffi-

ciently. In cooler surroundings he may barely be able to survive a 20 Wo

loss of water. The same author experimentally proved that a camel in

the desert could withstand a loss of 25% water.

Excess of water is also a factor of consequence. Most Species of

earthworms cannot survive flooding, though a fair number can do so,

provided the water is aerated. It is a familiar sight to observe earth-

worms of the genera Perionyx thriving in rain-fed gutters of Bombay.

Incidentally, the genus is easy to identify from its coloration which is a

darkened red on the dorsal surface and white on the ventral surface.

Moreover, they are not round but slightly flattened in transverse sec-

tion. Amongst other species able to survive in soil totally submerged

in aerated water are A. chlorotica, A. terrestris f. longa, L. terrestris, and

L. rubellus (Roots 1956).

Different responses towards flooding raise interesting questions in

osmoregulation and conservation of water. When two osmotic solutions

are separated by a semi-permeable membrane, water flows from the

more dilute solution to the other until both are of equal concentration.

In living osmotic systems, however, there are devices whereby concen-

trated solutions can be retained against an osmotic gradient. This is

true of plant roots, sea algae, and many others.

An earthworm in contact with soil water represents a biological

osmotic system. Its coelomic fluid is separated from the environmental

water by the skin which is semi-permeable to a degree. Since the fluid

contains about 98% water it-is capable of exerting an osmotic pressure.

Bahl (1950) regarded it as a reservoir of water. Its discharge as urine

is said to be an arrangement for prevention of flooding by the external

water. Again, where the nephridial system is enteronephric, the release

of a part of the urine into the gut is an arrangement to conserve water,

which can be reabsorbed from the urine by the intestinal walls. This

type of ‘water economy’ probably achieves its extreme limit in the

192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Kangaroo Rat, which produces urine with so little water that it solidifies

as soon as it is excreted (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1959).

Roots (1955) in her studies on the effect of osmotic concentration of

bathing fluids on the nephridiostome cilia of two worms, L. terrestris

and A. chlorotica, found that their distribution depended on the

differences in their ability to withstand osmotic forces from the environ-

mental medium. The nephridiostome cilia of the former, which is purely

a terrestrial animal, could not withstand as much diluting of the bathing

fluid as those of the latter, which are found both in soil as well as sub-

merged in lakes. Again, the former could resist hypertonicity better

than A. chlorotica.

From the above it will be clear that osmotic relations of earthworms

form an important complex with the excretory systems on which depends

their distribution in soils of different water content.

EARTHWORMS AND MAN

1. Sow FERTILITY

The outstripping of food resources by increasing population is the

problem of the day. The ‘explosions’ of population that occur in

various parts of the world intensify demands for increased food produc-

tion. The layman imagines, that in an industrial era it should be easy

to grow more food by increasing the production of chemical fertilizers.

But, unfortunately, the demand for fertilizers is far in excess to the poten-

tial supply. Dhar (1959) argues that in order to feed a world population

of 2700 million people 1100 million tons of food is required, which works

out to a demand.of 100 million tons of fixed nitrogen. Chemical tech-

nology can contribute only 7 million tons, legumes 5 million tons, and

precipitation 10 million tons to the world soils, leaving a large deficit

to be made up in any feasible way. Unfortunately, large quantities of

nitrogen are lost to the land as sewage and rubbish. The same author

has calculated that 4-5 million tons of nitrogen are lost in this fashion,

which is almost equal to the quantity added as nitrogenous fertilizers.

He, further, mentions that the 4000 million acres of cultivated land in

the world are likely to suffer a loss of at least 50 million tons of nitrogen

per year in crop production, and advocates that these losses be com-

pensated in permanent agriculture by natural methods of recuperation.

It is no wonder that Leibig attributed the fall of the Roman Empire to

the loss of nitrogenous compounds in the sewers of the capital.

Earthworms can thus serve an important function by providing fer-

tilizers from wastes. They have been cultivated intensively in breeding

farms, from where stocks of particular types are sold. An anonymous

report (1954) says that Germany’s first earthworm farm was started in

THE EARTHWORMS: A REVIEW 193

1953 inspired by similar enterprises in California. A box of 100 worms

costs about 1.5 DM. (or about Rs. 1.75), though they are cheaper by the

thousand and cheapest as spawn. The output for some California farms

is 500,000 worms a day. By their activity they are reputed to be useful

for drainage of flooded areas. After the Netherlands flood catastrophe

several million earthworms are said to have been delivered by California

farms for use in reclaiming such areas. |

Grant (1955b), however, points out that one species commonly

supplied by earthworm farms, namely E. foetida, being used to manures

and compost cannot survive for long in a field or garden. Thus any in-

crease of yield is short-lived and due mainly to the decomposition of the

dead worm rather than to its activity. He also doubts their use in flood

control. |

It is noteworthy, that a given area of soil can support only a certain

size of worm population. Hence, mere addition of living worms to a

soil will not necessarily help unless the worm-load is low or worm-food

(waste, straw, etc.) is added along with it. Addition of castings is, how-

ever, always beneficial.

With respect to the soil, the role of the earthworm is twofold : (1)

what it does to the soil when living, and (2) what it contributes on

death. In the living condition it brings about favourable physical and

chemical changes in the soil. By tunnelling it procures aeration, and

thereby helps in respiration of roots. Absorption of salts by plant roots

is an energy-consuming process, and some of the energy at least is pro-

vided by respiration. Hence, one can expect greater absorption in the

region of the tunnels. Their action is comparable to a conveyor belt,

which brings up the unaerated non-nutrient deeper layers of soil and in

doing so converts it into an excellent manure which is deposited on the

surface aS castings. Roy (1957) has reviewed the data on quantities of

castings produced by earthworms in different parts of the world, and has

compared it to that of some Indian species in Calcutta and Bihar. Thus,

Darwin (1881) estimated the annual tonnage per acre to be 7.5 and 16.1

in two localities in Yorkshire. The maximum estimate reported by

Roy is from the work of Beague (1912) who estimated it to be 107 tons

per acre per annum in the valley of the White Nile. The mean annual

value for castings at Baranagore (Calcutta) grasslands estimated by him

is 31.02--6.08 tons per acre. Similar studies at Giridih ro revealed

the very low figure of 1.4-+0.51 tons per acre.

Lunt & Jacobsen (1944) have very ably summed up the necessary

literature up to 1944 and conducted comparative chemical and mechanical

analysis of unworked soil and castings. They record that in field soils

the casts had higher pH values and were higher in total and nitrate

nitrogen, organic matter, total and exchangeable calcium, exchangeable

potassium and magnesium, available phosphorus, base capacity, base

194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

saturation, and moisture equivalent. Forest soil samples showed even

more striking results.

Hopp & Slater (1948) using unproductive subsoil obtained large

increases in yields of grass and clover by inoculating with live earthworms

as compared to controls where the same weight of dead worms were

added. Jacks (1950) in reviewing the role of soil fauna in soil formation

indicates that, formerly, the main agents for soil formation were sup-

posed to be micro-organisms, but now the emphasis has shifted to macro-

organisms like insects, arthropods, and earthworms, which taken to-

gether are more important as soil-builders. He cites the work of Kuhnelt

(1950) indicating that plant residues have first to pass through several

animals before they can be made available to micro-organisms, and that

the material may have to pass through several animal bodies before being

finally available as humus.

Earthworms considerably improve the physical structure of the soil.

Thus, Jacks refers to Frei (1948), who found that inoculation of weakly

cohesive soil with the animals causes a sponge-like structure to form in

a short time. Similarly, Swaby (1950) observed a greater structural

stability of earthworm casts from grassland as compared with those from

adjacent cultivated soil. It was concluded that binding substances were

derived from grass roots during their passage through the worms. Grass-

land casts contain exceptionally high numbers of bacteria, which might

have produced. gums gluing the soil particles together.

A comparatively new angle is the claim made by Hopp & Slater

(1949) that certain beneficial chemicals are released from the bodies of

earthworms which increase crop yields. Nijhavan & Kanwar (1952)

have studied the physico-chemical properties of earthworm castings and

their effect on soil productivity in the Panjab. In general, beneficial results

have been reported. Joshi (1954) has indicated increase of nitrification

due to the effect of earthworms. French ef al. (1957) have studied the

nutrient composition of earthworms from the point of view of food for

migratory birds, and have found it to be 837% moisture, 8-9/% protein,

3° ash (minerals), 3% carbohydrate, 17% fat and 1 cal/g energy. This

indicates the amount of nutritive material alone which is returned to the

soil on death, not to mention the various ‘enzymes and bacteria that help

to make it available.

2. BIOCHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE

a. Ancient

Ancient medical lore is full of the uses of earthworms, both the

extract as well as the ash being in demand for a variety of disorders.

Stephenson (1930) mentions the work of Hamidullah Mustaufi of Quazwin

the NUZHAT-UL-QUTUB (A.D. 1340), which includes recipes for ejecting

THE EARTHWORMS: A REVIEW 195

stone in the bladder and for the treatment of a number of ailments like

jaundice, difficult labour, and sexual debility. He also quotes from

HAYAT-UL-HAYAWAN, an Arabic treatise written in A.D. 1371 by Damiri,

where the animals are used in the treatment of piles.

Knowing the difficulties of identification, one can almost certainly

venture a guess that a variety of animals with different taxonomic opsi-

tions must be finding their way into the medications.

b. Modern

In modern times, however, their uses have become more specific

and well defined. The following are some of them.

ii Earthworms and Micro-organisms

The intestinal microflora has great possibilities for microbiological

investigations. In general it may be said that, though the nitrifying

organisms do not show any significant increase in passing through the

animal, it is reasonable to expect a higher degree of nitrification of the

casts because of enrichment with starting substances and improvement of

the soil structure. Another aspect of importance is their ability to spread

disease. Since they live in soils enriched with night soil, one would

expect them to carry intestinal pathogens from human sources, but

Khambata & Bhatt (1947) working with Pheretima spp. maintain that

even E. coli was absent from the intestine (except one strain isolated from

cellulose enrichment). They further suggest that intestinal secretions

prevent the growth of such pathogens and thus Pheretima sp. at least,

cannot be guilty of spreading any human infection of the intestinal tract.

Other organisms of the intestine have been investigated by a number

of workers. Many of the organisms found in the intestinal tract are

antibiotic. Thus Ruschmann (1953) in Germany found that several

species of actinomycetes amongst which were Streptomyces coelicolor

and Nocardia polychromogenes predominated in the casts. Variable

antibiotic activity was shown against Gram-positive bacteria. Kobatake

(1954) found that earthworm extracts were antibacterial in vitro against

human type tubercle bacteria, several strains of non-acid-fast pathogens,

and saprophytic mycobacteria. A petroleum-ether extract was bac-

tericidal at a dilution of 1: 1000 and bacteriostatic at 1: 3200. Bhatt

and his co-workers in India are the leading researchers on the intestinal

microflora of the Indian earthworm. Amongst other aspects, they

have recorded the presence of various unidentified species of Strepto-

myces, some closely related to S. cellulosae from the intestines, which

were shown to decompose oxalate when grown in liquid oxalate medium

containing 0.1% yeast extract. Tracey (1951) has found that extracts

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

of some species of earthworms produce cellulase and chitinase. It is

believed that these enzymes probably originate from the worms rather

than from intestinal organisms. Recently, Brusewitz (1959) working

with E.foetida found that the number of micro-organisms in the castings

depends upon the nature of food material presentinthesoil. Thenumber

decreases with easily digestible material like glucose and increases with

the more complex plant residues. Some other findings of the same

author are that Escherichia coli cells inoculated into the soil were sup-

pressed by earthworms. Again, soils with earthworms were found to

contain more Vitamin B,, than controls. This increase, however, is

shown to be microbial in origin. Materials toxic to plants such as

2, 4-D were destroyed more rapidly in earthworm infested soils due to

activities of micro-organisms. Vendt (1953), in his investigations on

the Vitamin D content from various invertebrate sources found that,

on a dry weight basis, freshwater molluscs contained 0.13-0.032%,

snails 0.08%, silk-worm cocoon 0.06%, and earthworms 0.04-0.1% of

Vitamin D. The antifungal properties of -earthworms have been ex-

ploited in a novel way by Smith et al (1952) in Calcutta. In the breed-

ing of the mite, T. deliensis (Walch), fungus infection is found to be a major

problem. These authors have, however, discovered that there is no

fungus growth if a few species of the genus Enchytraeus+ are kept in the

breeding tubes. In practice, stock cultures of the earthworm are main-

tained in tubes with an inch (2.5 cm.) of moist sand at the bottom.

Mosquito eggs, decaying leaves, and rotting filter paper are used as

food. A few worms are then transferred to breeding tubes.

iii Earthworms as laboratory animals

At least two main uses appear to be indicated from contemporary

literature, viz. as test animals for pregnancy and for carcinogens. For

the former tests, Hasenbein (1951) used urine concentrated according

to Zondek 5:1 which was injected subcutaneously into the earthworm.

Smears were taken from the seminal vescicles, before and after the injec-

tions, for spermatogenesis. 90% accuracy is claimed for this method.

The effects of carcinogenic hydrocarbons on the skin of earthworms has

been observed by Gersch (1954). He found that Benzopyrine (0.5%),

dimethylbenzanthrene (0.5%), and other compounds, when applied in

Cetiol on L. terrestris for several weeks, induced tumours. :

Considering the relative simplicity with which earthworms can be

cultivated in large numbers at practically no cost, it is surprising that

their use in this direction has not been further exploited.

—__-+——__.-

1 According to Stephenson (1923), ‘ all Indian species so far described are aquatic.’

THE EARTHWORMS: A REVIEW 197

3. OTHER MISCELLANEOUS USES

Earthworms are of course well known as fish food, both as baits

and for feeding aquarium fish. There is even a report that they are fit

for human consumption. The Maoris consider them a delicacy. Per-

haps a bit of research may be required to make them palatable to civilized

tastes.

4. EARTHWORM AS A NUISANCE

It is only fair to mention some points against the earthworm that

have been recorded so far. The main complaint is against their habit

of casting on turf, lawns, and golf greens, thus rendering them unsightly

and useless. P. hupeiensis, indigenous to the mainland of China, appeared .

in epidemic proportions in golf greens in Westchester County, N.Y.,

and Fairfield County, Connecticut, in 1948. A research project was,

therefore, initiated to study its biology and burrowing habits. The

extent of its activity can be gauged from the fact that Schread (1952)

estimated the amount of earth cast up annually on golf greens by this

species alone to be over 18 tons. No estimates of the corresponding

deterioration of golf scores are provided!

There are also indications that the animal may be guilty of spread-

ing certain diseases of poultry. Allen (1950) inoculated L. terrestris,

species of Allolobophora, and E. foetida with embryonated eggs of Capil-

laria annulata, to test their ability for transmitting this parasite to chicken.

L. terrestris and all others except A. Jonga were found to act as inter-

mediate hosts. Again, the spread of some soil fungi is reputed to be

increased by the activities of earthworms, as can be seen from the work

of Hutchinson & Kamel (1956) in Glasgow. In our own country Kham-

batta & Bhatt (1947) working with some Indian earthworms, mostly

Pheretima sp., came to the rather disturbing conclusion that earth-

worms could spread plant pathogens like Fusarium in the soil. Agarwal

et al. (1958) claim that some species of Allolobophora excrete a waxy fluid

which adversely affects soil structure and productivity of soils in Himachal

Pradesh. This claim is rather difficult to substantiate since at least one

species of the genus, viz. A. calignosa (Savigny) f. trapezoids (Dug’es) has

been reported by Khalaf El-Duweini (1941) to be the most abundant in

cultivated soils of Egypt as well as in other parts of the world. Similarly,

Barley (1959) working in Adelaide observes that EF. rosea (Sav.) and A.

calignosa (Sav.) are the most common in agricultural lands. There is

even evidence that A. calignosa when fed with finely-ground plant litter

can convert 6 % of non-available nitrogen and excrete it in a form available

to plants (Barley & Jennings, 1959).

Otanes & Sison (1947) list earthworms among the pests and recom-

mend measures for their control. To those interested in their eradication

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

or control one can mention the work of Hoy (1953) who has

tried out some hydrocarbon insecticides on them. Likewise, Offer

(1950) reports (regretfully perhaps) that a mixture of dichloropropane-

dichloropropene applied to soils at 200-400 lb. per acre controls nemato-

des, centipedes, and wireworms but not earthworms. Baytop (1949)

indicates that aquatic and alcoholic extracts of Ammi visnaga which is

used as an anthelmintic in the Middle East is toxic to earthworms, the

toxicity being due to Khellin content of the drug.

RESUME

In a country as deficient in food and as dependent on agriculture as

ours, it is indeed necessary to get better acquainted with the earthworm.

By intensive cultivation, it is possible to have them in tremendous con-

centrations of over 2 million animals per acre. During the course of

24 hours, each worm can pass through its body its own weight of soil.

Since a million worms weigh a ton one can calculate their potentialities

for humus formation. Barrett (1955) maintains that it takes 500-1000

years to form one inch (2.5cm.) of top soil and that under favourable condi-

tions a ‘ task force’ of earthworms can do the same job in 5 years. Two

points are, however, important. Firstly, intensive cultivation must

primarily be achieved in culture boxes and then the cocoons and not the

adults, are to be transferred to the field, because they have a much better

chance of survival. Secondly, there should be sufficient raw material

to support the added population. Amongst workers on these aspects

are Guild (1951), Evans (1948), and others.

One cannot be too emphatic about their use in reclaiming eroded or

flooded soil and in crop production, and it would certainly be feasible to

consider them as auxiliary sources of food if more data could be gathered

about their nutritional properties.

The first step to any scientific work is correct identification. Without

proper identification of the species and, indeed, even the typé, results may

not always be repeatable. There are numerous differences between

various forms, which only the expert can tell apart. To mention only

a few, there are worms with and without a clitellum, calciferous

glands, typhlosole, and endonephric nephridial systems. Again, the

intestinal coeca may be present or absent, the prostate may vary in number

and kind, and the spermatheca, testes, and seminal vescicles may likewise

vary in many ways. Therefore, is it not logical to expect fundamental

differences in the effects produced by them?

In India, research on this animal is handicapped by the fact that the

survey of the Oligochaeta is in great need of revision since it was written

in 1930 by Stephenson. Many changes have occurred in the taxonomic

position of various types. Some have been merged with others and quite

THE EARTHWORMS: A REVIEW 199

a few new species have been recognised. Gates has produced very

valuable contributions to important genera like Pheretima and Hoplo-

chaetella (1937-40) but much remains to be done by way of consolidating

this knowledge and recording changes that have occurred since then.

Almost certainly, one may expect the presence of peregrine forms in locali-

ties in which they were not recorded before. The many changes that

have occurred in our newly developing country are doubtless going to

affect the ecology, evolution, and exploitation of this animal, and it is

rather sad that we have to meet this scientific challenge armed with an

outdated Fauna.

In presenting this review, the authors would like to point out that

much work has been omitted in order to keep it within the bounds re-

quired. The bibliography has also been curtailed to the barest minimum.

The aim throughout has been to present a bird’s-eye view of the various

disciplines into which earthworm research has ramified. It is hoped that

it will acquaint the specialist in one field with work in progress in other

fields and thus enable him to achieve a better co-ordination in his efforts.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to acknowledge the encouragement and help given

by Dr. D. V. Bal, Director, Institute of Science, Bombay and Prof. Mrs.

E. Gonzalves, Head of the Botany Department, Institute of Science,

Bombay and also the time and labour devoted by Mrs. P. J. Dubash to

the preparation of the manuscript and its correction.

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Weeds and Alien Plants of Se eke

M.P.

J. K. MAHESHWARI, Ph.D.

Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Indian Botanic

Garden, Howrah

INTRODUCTION

Asirgarh is a famous hill fort in Nimar District of Madhya Pradesh.

It is situated at 21° 28’ N. and 76° 18’ E. and is about 29 miles

from Khandwa and 7 miles from Chandni Station on the Central

Railway. It is one of the oldest hill forts of India, as tradition

mentions it in the Mahabharat. In the past the fort was an important

stronghold in turn of the Chauhans, Moghuls, Marathas, and British.

Till recently, it was held by a small detachment of Indian Infantry from

Mhow. The hill, abounding in great natural and scenic beauty, is

situated on an outlying spur of the Satpura Range, 850 ft. (260 m.) high

from the base and 2283 ft. (696 m.) above sea-level.

In the literature one comes across casual references to Asirgarh

(Hackel, 1889 ; Witt, 1916) but, to my knowledge, there had never been

a systematic botanical exploration of the hill. Maheshwari (1960)

gave a brief account of the forest vegetation of Asirgarh and reported |

145 species of plants from the hill. The present work embodies

the results of the studies of the author on the weeds and alien plants of

Asirgarh. It is based on the collections of a number of botanical ex-

cursions undertaken during the years 1958 and 1959.

The study of weeds gains its importance because of their competition

with the indigenes and cultigens on the terraces of the hill. It has been

estimated in the U.S.A. that weeds alone cause more losses than all plant

diseases and pests combined (Robbins et al., 1953). In India, too, these

losses are no less in importance or magnitude. However, in spite of the

fact that these plants cause considerable damage in various ways, they are

not absolutely useless and many advantages have been attributed to them.

Most of these plants have great therapeutic properties and are used in

medicine. It was, therefore, thought proper to make a systematic study

of the weed and alien flora of the hill. The original home of the plants

is indicated within brackets following the scientific names.?

1 The editors accept no ) responsibility for the author’s opinions concerning the

original country of the plants given in this paper.—Ebs.

WEEDS AND ALIEN PLANTS OF ASIRGARH, MP. 203

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

Asirgarh is characterized by a dry, salubrious climate. Owing to

its distance from the coast and because of the intervening mountain

ranges, the hills receive considerably less rainfall than other parts of

Madhya Pradesh. The cold weather lasts from the beginning of

November to the middle of March. The hot winds usually begin about

the middle of April and blow steadily from directions between north-

west and west. Table below gives the climatic data on rainfall and

temperature for the year 1956. The data on relative humidity were not

available. However, from my own experience I can say that the area is

characterized by low relative humidity.

TABLE

CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA OF ASIRGARH (1956)*

ESSA ST STS ST SSE BE TPE I SP

Temperature in degrees C. | Rainfall in mm.

Month 7

Mean Mean Diurnal Monthly

Maximum Minimum range rainfall

January 29.7 12.9 | 16.8 —

Febrmary | «32.2 13.2 ov tn, ce aecee:

Mecctaes ah 3705 18.9 ie hoe wae

coal A 23.8 16.4 yg

May 40.9 ie) mest = te

jimeeien hone gay? 7st aes ee se rho k

Hie ee | 59.3 Pe Me Gor u i Seat. | ee

ee eos: so same wh gaa) aa

rere Che ci iy ODM Ie 1, siecle. Aton

October 32.8 Br eaiog ie EN

NO OO tee | er ts ee ee Ce

December | 29.4 11.1 18.3 Re

*The data were supplied by the District Statistical Office, Nimar, M.P.

The average rainfall for the years 1940 to 1957 is 35.7 inches or 906.8

mm., of which about three-fourth falls between June and October.

January is the coldest month of the year. The highest maximum tem-

perature of 43.2°C. was recorded in the month of May, 1954.

The scorching heat of this month and the hot winds make the weather

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

during the day very trying. The diurnal range of temperature in

Asirgarh is high, ranging between 13° and 19°C. during the relatively dry

months of November to May ; the highest value occurring in February

while the lowest value of 6° to 7° C. occurs during July and August.

GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE WEED AND ALIEN FLORA

This type of flora owes its presence in one way or other to certain

changes brought about by man, such as the establishment of plantations

and deforestation. These, coupled with intense grazing, have led to

vast stretches of open lands on the hill, which are very susceptible to the

invasion of an alien weed flora. The original forests have been cut down

repeatedly, as a result of which a large portion of the hill is deprived

of its primary vegetation ; instead a secondary succession of pantropical

and cosmopolitan species of plants have gone into the composition of the

flora. The original vegetation was further disturbed by a number of

betel-vine gardens and several acres of vineyards formerly existed on the

hill (Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1908).

A perusal of the weed species reveals that the majority of them come

from the pantropical region and India orientalis, and belong to

the dicotyledonous families. Being aggressive in nature, having very

viable seeds which are produced in great abundance and are well equipped

for dissemination by wind, man, and animals, these plants quickly spread

under cultural operations and exhaust the soil nutrients, thereby

affecting forest yield. The families Amaranthaceae, Papilionaceae,

Euphorbiaceae, Malvaceae, Compositae, and Gramineae, are notably rich

in weeds. The important phyto-geographical groups represented in the

flora are : pantropical, neotropical, tropics of the Old World, cosmopoli-

tan, India orientalis, tropical Asia, Africa, and Australia. Typical

examples of weeds representing the neotropical region are: Argemone

mexicana L., Sida veronicifolia Lam., Tridax procumbens L., Nicotiana

plumbaginifolia Viv., Datura metel L., Tecoma stans H.B. & K., Lantana

camara var. aculeata Mold., Euphorbia prostrata Ait., Digitaria adscendens

Henr., Chloris virgata Sw., and Iseilema laxum Hack.

Among the rainy season weeds and alien plants occurring on the

slopes of the hill as well as in waste places, the following deserve

mention :

Celosia argentea Linn. Abrus precatorius Linn.

Leucas cephalotes Spreng. Teramnus labialis Spreng.

Phyllanthus fraternus Webst. Mucuna prurita Hook.

Acalypha indica Linn. Justicia simplex D. Don.

Abelmoschus moschatus Medic. Cyperus triceps Endl.

A. ficulneus W. & A. Aristida depressa Retz.

WEEDS AND ALIEN PLANTS OF ASIRGARH, MP. 205

Trichodesma indicum R. Br. ; Tetrapogon tenellus Chiov.

Triumfetta bartramia Linn. Setaria verticillata Beauv.

Crotalaria medicaginea var. luxurians S. tomentosa Kunth.

Baker Digitaria adscendens Henr.

Indigofera astragalina DC. Brachiaria ramosa Stapf.

Rhynchosia minima DC. Hackelochloa granularis Kuntze

Tephrosia villosa Pers. Ischaemum pilosum Hack.

T. strigosa Sant. & Mahesh. Themeda quadrivalvis Kuntze

Oropetium thomaeum Trin.

The following are the common winter weeds found on the hill :

Oxalis corniculata Linn. Pulicaria angustifolia DC.

Ageratum conyzoides Linn. - Eriophorum comosum Wall.

Laggera flava Benth. Cymbopogon martinii Wats.

Sonchus arvensis Linn. Heteropogon contortus R. & S.

S. asper Hill. Eremopogon tuberculatus Camus

Vicoa indica DC.

Inhabiting the old, semi-demolished walls of the fort, one comes across

a characteristic association of lithophilous plants. The common species

of this peculiar habitat are :

Kickxia incana Penn. _ Andrographis echioides Nees.

Eriophorum comosum Wall. Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees.

Eremopogon tuberculatus Camus Euphorbia prostrata Ait.

Boerhavia diffusa Linn. Acalypha indica Linn.

Tridax procumbens Linn. Acalypha sp.

Enicostemma verticillatum Engl. Nepeta hindostana Haines

ENUMERATION OF SPECIES

MENISPERMACEAE

1. Cissampelos pareira Linn. (Tropics). Common on shrubs and trees. Fils.

and Frs.: July-Oct.

2. Cocculus hirsutus Diels. (India orientalis, Tropical Africa). Common on

trees and shrubs, or spreading on the ground. A fodder plant in times of scarcity.

Fls. and Frs.: Nov.-March.

PAPAVERACEAE

3. Argemone mexicana Linn. (Neotropical). Rare on the hill itself; fairly

common at the foot of the hill. A poisonous and troublesome weed. Fils. and Frs.:

Oct.-April.

CRUCIFERAE

4. Rorippa indica Hochreut. (India orientalis, China, Malaya). Found in moist

situations on the slopes. Fils. and Frs.: Dec.-July.

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

CAPPARIDACEAE

5. Gynandropsis gynandra Briq. (Tropics). A weed of waste lands and cultivated

fields, at the base of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : July-Sept.

6. Cleome viscosa Linn. (Tropics of the Old World). Common in fields and

ruderal places at the foot of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : July-Oct.

7. Cleome monophylla Linn. (India orientalis, Tropical Africa). A weed of

pastures and cultivated lands at the very base of the hill ; not seen on Asirgarh proper.

Fls. and Frs. : Aug.-Oct.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

8. Polycarpaea corymbosa Lam. (Tropics). Found in cultivated fields at the

foot of the hill. Fis. and Frs. : Aug.-Nov.

MALVACEAE

9. Sida veronicifolia Lam. (Neotropical). Found in the undergrowth on the

hill. Fils. and Frs.: June-Oct.

10. Abutilon indicum Sweet. (Old World). Found in the undergrowth on the

higher parts of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Major part of the year.

11. Abutilon ramosum G. & P. (Tropics of the Old World). Rare in the under-

growth on the slopes. Fls. and Frs.: Oct.-Feb.

12. Malvastrum coromandelianum Garcke. (Tropics). Common all over

Asirgarh. Fils. and Frs. : Major part of the year.

13. Hibiscus micranthus Linn. f. (India orientalis et Tropical Africa). Common

all over the hill. Fils. and Frs.: July-Oct.

14. Abelmoschus ficulneus W. & A. (Tropics of the Old World). Common on

the top of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Aug.-Oct.

15. Abelmoschus moschatus Medic. (Tropics of the Old World). Common in

waste lands on the top of the hill. Fls. and Frs. : Aug.-Oct.

TILIACEAE

16. Triumfetta bartramia Linn. (Tropics). Common in waste lands on the

hill. Fils. and Frs.: Aug.-Dec.

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

17. Tribulus terrestris Linn. (Tropics). A weed of waste lands. Fils. and Frs.:

July-Dec.

OXALIDACEAE

18. Oxalis corniculata Linn. (Tropics and Temperates). Common in moist,

shady situations on the slopes. Fils. and Frs. ; Nov.-June.

WEEDS AND ALIEN PLANTS OF ASIRGARH, M.P. 207

AMPELIDACEAE

19. Cayratia carnosa Gagnep. (Tropical Asia et Australia). Common on trees

and shrubs. Fils. and Frs.: Rainy season.

20. Cissus repanda Vahl. (India orientalis). Common on trees and shrubs

along the slopes. Fls. and Frs.: May-Oct.

SAPINDACEAE

21. Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn. (Tropics). Common in waste lands on

the higher parts of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Aug.-Nov.

PAPILIONACEAE

22. Crotalaria medicaginea var. luxurians Baker. (Tropica! Asia et Australia).

Common along the paths and in grass fields on the slopes. Fls.and Frs.: July-Nov.

23. Crotalaria orixensis Willd. (India orientalis et Tropical Africa). A weed in

cultivated fields at the foot of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Aug.-Oct.

24. Indigofera astragalina DC. (Tropics of the Old World). Common in waste

places on the top of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Sept.-Nov.

25. Indigofera enneaphylla Linn. (Tropical Asia et Australia). Common in

grass fields. Fils. and Frs.: Summer and rainy seasons.

26. Indigofera cordifolia Heyne ex Roth. (Tropics of the Old World). Common

in open grasslands all over the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Rainy season.

27. Indigofera linifolia Retz. (Tropics of the Old World). Common in Asirgarh

in grass fields. Fils. and Frs.: Rainy season.

28. Indigofera argentea var. coerulea Baker. (India). Rare in waste lands at

the foot of the hill. Fils. and Frs.: Sept.-Jan.

29. Psoralea corylifolia Linn. (India orientalis et Arabia). A weed of culti-

vated fields at the foot of the hill. Fils. and Frs.: Feb.-April.

30. Tephrosia strigosa Sant. & Mahesh. in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 804,

1957. (India orientalis), Common in open grasslands all over the hill. Fils. and

Frs.: Aug.-Oct.

31. Tephrosia villosa Pers. (Tropical Asia et Africa). Found in dry waste lands

on the hill. Fils. and Frs.: Rainy season.

32. Tephrosia purpurea Pers. (Tropics). Common all over Asirgarh. FIs.

and Frs. : June-Nov.

33. Abrus precatorius Linn. (Tropics). Found on trees and shrubs on the

slopes. Fils. and Frs.: Aug.-Oct.

34. Teramnus labialis Spreng. (Tropics). Common on trees and shrubs on the

slopes, or spreading on the ground. Fils. and Frs. : Aug.-Nov.

35. Mucuna prurita Hook. (Tropics). Common all over the slopes, twining on

trees and shrubs. The bristly pods cause an intense skin irritation which continues

for hours. Fls. and Frs.: Rainy season.

36. Rhynchosia minima DC. (Tropics). Found on the walls of the fort, or twin-

ing on dead bushes. Fils. and Frs.: Aug.-Nov.

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

37. Atylosia platycarpa Benth. (Himalayan Region). A weed of waste lands at

the foot of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Sept.-Dec.

38. Alysicarpus pubescens Law. (India orientalis). An occasional weed in

grass fields on the hill. Fis. and Frs.: Aug.-Oct.

39. Heylandia latebrosa DC. (India orientalis). Common on the plains at the

foot of the hill; rare above. Fils. and Frs. : Aug.-Oct.

CAESALPINIACEAE

40. Cassia tora Linn. (Pantropical). Common at the foot of the hill and along

the road to Khandwa, Burhanpur and Nepanagar. Fils. and Frs. : Aug.-Nov.

41. Cassia occidentalis Linn. (Pantropical). Not seen on the hill; common at

the foot of the hill and along the road to Khandwa, Burhanpur, and Nepanagar. Fils.

and Frs.: Aug.-Nov.

CUCURBITACEAE

42. Coccinia cordifolia Cogn. (Tropical Asia). Common all over the hill on

trees and shrubs. Fls. and Frs.: March-Oct.

43. Bryonopsis laciniosa Naud. (Tropical Asia, Africa, et Australia). Common

all over Asirgarh, on shrubs and trees. Fils. and Frs. : Aug.-Oct.

LYTHRACEAE |

44. Woodfordia fruticosa Kurz. (Tropical Asia et Africa). Common in rocky

places on the hill, often growing out of old stone walls. Fils. and Frs. : Jan.-May.

CACTACEAE

45. Opuntia dillenii Haw. (Neotropical). A weed on the plains at the base of

the hill; rare above. Fils. and Frs.: March-May.

AIZOACEAE

46. Trianthema portulacastrum Linn. (Neotropical). A weed of cultivation,

at the foot of the hill. Fis. and Frs. : July-Dec.

47. Trianthema govindia Buch.-Ham. ex G. Don. (India, Persia et Arabia). Com-

mon in dry waste lands at the base of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : July-Oct.

RUBIACEAE

48. Borreria stricta Sch. (Tropics of the Old World). A common weed in the

forest undergrowth. Fils. and Frs.: Aug.-Dec.

49. Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn. (Tropics). Common on the plains at the foot

of the hill. Fils. and Frs.: Sept.-Nov.

50. Hamiltonia suaveolens Roxb. (India orientalis et China). Common in dry

places on the upper parts of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Nov.-March.

COMPOSITAE

51. Launaea nudicaulis Hook.f. (India orientalis). Common all over Asirgarh. -

Fls. and Frs.: Sept.-March.

WEEDS AND ALIEN PLANTS OF ASIRGARH, M.P. 209

52. Sonchus arvensis Linn. (Europeet Asia). Found in waste lands on the higher

parts of the hill. Fils. and Frs.: Dec.-March.

53. Sonchus asper Hill. (Cosmopolitan). Common in waste lands on the hill.

Fls. and Frs. : Cold season. :

54. Vernonia cinerea Less. (Tropics). Common in waste lands and along the

paths. Fils. and Frs.: Rainy and cold seasons.

55. Ageratum conyzoides Linn. (Tropics). Found in moist situations on the

slopes. Fils. and Frs.: Oct.-June.

56. Vicoa indica DC. (India orientalis-et Burma). Common on the slopes of

the hill. Fis. and Frs.: Oct.-March.

57. Pulicaria angustifolia DC. (India orientalis). It grows on open slopes.

Fils. and Frs.: Oct.-Feb.

_ 58. Blumea obliqua var. arenaria Mahesh. in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54:

805, 1957. (India orientalis). Common on the higher parts of the hill. Fils. and

Frs. : Feb.-May.

59. Laggera flava Benth. (Tropical Asia). Common in dry waste lands on the

higher parts of the hill. Fls..and Frs.: Jan.-April.

60. Xanthium strumarium Linn. (Europe, Asia et Africa). A bad weed of dried

up marshes and waste lands at the foot of the hill; rare above. Fils. and Frs. : Sept.-

Nov. ; April.

61. Tridax procambens Linn. (Neotropical). Common all over Asirgarh as

well as on the walls of the fort. Fils. and Frs. : Dec.-May.

62. Echinops echinatus Roxb. (India orientalis). Common in dry waste lands

and grass fields on the upper parts of the hill. Fls. and Frs. : Jan.-June.

63. Lagascea mollis Cav. (Cuba). A weed of waste lands on the higher parts

of the hill. Fils. and Frs.: May-Dec.

64. Glossocardia bosvallea DC. (India orientalis). Common in rocky grounds.

Fls. and Frs.: Aug.-Oct.

65. Acanthospermum hispidum DC. (Neotropical). An obnoxious weed of waste

lands and fallow fields at the foot of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : July-Dec.

GENTIANACEAE

66. Enicostemma verticillatum Engl. (Tropics). Common at the top of the hill,

in the crevices of stairs leading to Jama Masjid. Fls. and Frs. : Sept.-March.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

67. Calotropis gigantea R. Br. (India orientalis). Found at the foot of the hill ;

not seen on Asirgarh proper. Fils. and Frs.: Nov.-March.

68. Pergularia daemia Blatt. & McC. (India orientalis, Tropical Africa, et Malaya).

Common on shrubs or trees. Fils. and Frs.: Aug.-Jan.

69. Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. (Ceylon). A weed in ‘ Jowar’ fields at the foot

of the hill. Fils. and Frs.: Sept.-Dec.

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

CONVOLVULACEAE

70. Ipomoea pes-tigridis Linn. (Tropics of the Old World). A weed in fields

at the foot of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Sept.-Oct.

71. Ipomoea nil Roth. (Circumtropical). Common on Asirgarh. Fls. and Frs.:

Aug.-Oct.

72. Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br. (Tropics of the Old World). A common weed

in fields of ‘ Jowar.’ Fls. and Frs.: Sept.-Oct.

73. Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. (Tropics). Common in open grasslands all over

the hill. Fils. and Frs.: July-Nov.

74. Convolvulus arvensis Linn. (Temperates of the Old World). A poisonous

pest among crops grown at the base of the hill. Fils. and Frs.: July-Dec.

75. Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy. (India orientalis) Common in rocky

ground. Fls. and Frs.: Major part of the year.

BORAGINACEAE

76. Trichodesma indicum R. Br. (India orientalis, Afghanistan, et Persia).

Common on the higher parts of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : After rains.

77. Heliotropium strigosum Willd. (Tropical Africa, Baluchistan, et Australia).

Common all over Asirgarh. Fils. and Frs.: During and after rains.

78. Heliotropium eichwaldi Steud. ex DC. (Europe, Asia, et Australia). Not

seen on the hill of Asirgarh proper ; it is found in dry waste lands at the base of the

hill. Fls. and Frs.: March-July.

SOLANACEAE

79. Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv. (Neotropical). Found in the undergrowth

on the higher parts of the slopes. Fils. and Frs.: April-June.

80. Datura metel Linn. (Neotropical). Found here and there, all over the hill.

Fls. and Frs.: Nov.-Jan.

81. Solanum nigrum Linn. (Pantropical). FFound in dry waste lands or on the

walls of the fort. Fils. and Frs. : Cold and summer seasons.

82. Solanum suratense Burm f. (Tropics of the Old World). A weed in

cultivated grounds at the foot of the hill. Fis. and Frs. : June-Sept.

BIGNONIACEAE

83. Tecoma stans H.B. & K. (Neotropical). Naturalized on the slopes of the

hill. Fils. and Frs.: July-April.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

84. Kickxia incana Penn. (Himalayan Region). Lithophyte ; common on the

walls of the upper parts of the fort. Fls. and Frs. : Cold season.

85. Striga densiflora Benth. (India orientalis). A harmful weed of cultivated

fields at the base of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Aug.-Oct.

WEEDS AND ALIEN PLANTS OF ASIRGARH, MP. Zit

MARTYNIACEAE

86. Martynia annua Linn. (Neotropical). Not seen on the hill; found in waste

lands at the foot of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Aug.-Oct.

ACANTHACEAE

87. Andrographis echioides Nees. (India orientalis). Common in the crevices

of fort walls and stairs leading to Juma Masjid. Fls. and Frs. : Nov.-March.

88. Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees. (Tropical Asia et Africa). Grows in the under-

growth all over the hill, or in the crevices of fort walls. Fils. and Frs. : Sept.-Dec.

89. Justicia simplex D. Don. (Tropical Asia et Africa). Common all over the

hill. Fls. and Frs. : Aug.-Dec.

90. Barleria prionitis Linn. (Tropical Asia et Africa). It is found in waste lands

on the higher parts of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Oct.-March.

91. Lepidagathis cristata Willd. (India orientalis). Common throughout in dry

waste lands. Fls. and Frs.: Oct.-April.

VERBENACEAE

92. Lantana camara var.aculeata Mold. (Neotropical). A very troublesome pest ;

scattered in secondary forests on Asirgarh slopes. Fils. and Frs.: Major part of the

year.

93. Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn. f. (India orientalis). Common on the slopes

of the hill. Fils. and Frs.: Aug.-Nov.

LABIATAE

94. Nepeta hindostana Haines. (Europe et Oriens). Grows in cool, shady

situations on the slopes, or on the walls of the fort. Fils. and Frs. : Jan.-Aug.

95. Leucas cephalotes Spreng. (India orientalis). Common on the hill. Fis.

and Frs.: Aug.-Oct.

96. Lavandula bipinnata O. Kuntze. (India orientalis). Common in dry waste

lands on the upper parts of the hill. Fis. and Frs. : Oct.-Feb.

97. Ocimum americanum Linn. (Tropical Asia et Africa). Common in rocky

grounds. Fils. and Frs.: July-Nov.

98. Ocimum sp. An aromatic herb, with inflorescence c. 30 cm. long. It

grows on the upper parts of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Cold season.

NYCTAGINACEAE

99. Boerhavia diffusa Linn. (Pantropical). Common all over the hill and on

the walls of the fort. Fils. and Frs. : Major part of the year.

AMARANTHACEAE

100. Aerva lanata Juss. (Tropical Asia et Arabia). Common in shady situations

on the slopes. Fils. and Frs.: After rains.

212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

101. Celosia argentea Linn. (Pantropical). A weed in grass fields on the hill

Fls. and Frs.: Aug.-Oct.

102. Amaranthus spinosus Linn. (Tropics). Fairly common at the foot of the

hill; not seen on Asirgarh proper. Fils. and Frs. : During and after rains.

103. Amaranthus gracilis Desf. (Tropics). A weed of cultivated fields and waste

places ; rare on the hill. Fils. and Frs.: After rains.

104. Achyranthes aspera var. porphyristachya Hook. f. (Tropics of the Old

World). Common all over the hill. Fis. and Frs. : Throughout the year.

105. Pupalia lappacea Juss. (Tropical Asia et Africa). Common here and there

on the hill. Fils. and Frs.: After rains.

106. Digera alternifolia Aschers. ap. Schweinf. (Tropical Asia et Africa). A weed

of cultivated fields at the foot of the hill. Fis. and Frs. : During and after rains.

EUPHORBIACEAE

107. Tragia hildebrandtii Muell.-Arg. in Bremen, Abh. 7 : 26, 1880 ; Cufodontis

in Bull. Jard. Bot. Brux. Suppl. 26 (fasc. 3) : 427, 1956.

Tragia cannabina Linn. f. Suppl. 415, 1781, nom. illeg.

Tragia involucrata Linn. var. cannabina Muell.-Arg. in DC. Prod. 15 : 944,

1866 ; Hook. f. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 5 : 465, 1888.

A weed of cultivated and waste lands at the foot of the hill; not seen high on the

hill. The stinging hairs cause an intense skin irritation which continues for hours.

Fls. and Frs.: Summer and rainy seasons.

Type: Hildebrandt 2041 (Mombassa).

Distris: Madhya Pradesh (Nimar, Gwalior), Bombay State, peninsular India ;

Tropical Africa.

108. Euphorbia hypericifolia Linn. (Tropics). Grows in grass fields. Fls.

and Frs.: July-Oct.

109. Euphorbia hirta Linn. (Tropics). Common all over the hill. Fis. and

Frs. : Major part of the year. :

110. Euphorbia prostrata Ait. (Neotropical). Common in rocky grounds, or

on the walls of the fort. Fils. and Frs. : Major part of the year.

111. Euphorbia geniculata Orteg. (Neotropical). A weed of gardens and culti-

vated lands at the foot of the hill; rare above. Fils. and Frs.: May-Dec.

112. Acalypha indica Linn. (Tropical Asia et Africa). Found in the undergrowth

on the slopes, or on the walls of the fort. Fils. and Frs. : July-Oct.

113. Acalyphasp. Common in shady situations on the slopes and in the crevices

of walls. Fis. and Frs.: Aug.-Feb.

114. Chrozophora prostrata Dalz. (Europe, Asia, et Africa). Common in dried

up ditches and canals at the foot of the hill. Fils. and Frs.: May-June.

115. Chrozophora rottleri Klotzsch. (Europe, Asia, et Africa). A weed of black

cotton soils, dry places, and canal beds at the foot of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : April-

July.

116. Phyllanthus fraternus Webst. (India). Common in the undergrowth on the

higher parts of the hill. Fls. and Frs. : July-Oct.

WEEDS AND ALIEN PLANTS OF ASIRGARH, MP. 213

LILIACEAE:

117. Scilla indica Baker. (India orientalis et Abyssinia). A common weed of

pastures and waste lands at the foot of the hill; rare above. Fils. and Frs.:

March-May.

118. Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. (India orientalis) Common in cultivated

fields at the base of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Jan.-April.

COMMELINACEAE

119. Commelina benghalensis Linn. (Tropics of the Old World). Found in

fields at the foot of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : July-Nov.

120. Cyanotis axillaris Schult. f. (India orientalis). Fairly common in some parts

of the hill. Fils. and Frs.: Oct.-Dec.

121. Cyanotis fasciculata R.& 8. (India orientalis). Common inrocky ground.

Fls. and Frs.: Rainy season.

CYPERACEAE

122. Cyperus triceps Endl. (Tropics of the Old World). Common all over

the hill. Fls. and Frs.: July-Nov.

123. Cyperus rotundus Linn. (Cosmopolitan). Common all over the hill. Fis.

and Frs.: July-Oct.

124. Eriophorum comosum Wall. ex Nees. (India orientalis). Common on the

walls of the fort. Fils. and Frs. : Oct.-Feb. ;

GRAMINEAE

125. Iseilema laxum Hack. (Neotropical). Common in open grasslands all

over the hill. An efficient soil binder and an excellent fodder. Fls. and Frs. : Sept.-

Dec.

126. Eremopogon tuberculatus Camus. (Madhya Pradesh, India). This grass

seems to be endemic in Madhya Pradesh (see Raizada et Jain, in J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 54: 860, 1957). Hackel Gn DC. Monograph. Phan. 6 : 404, 1889) writes of this

grass: ‘In Indiae orient. Peninsula pr. Assirgar legit. cl. O. Kuntze hance speciem

eximiam (Vidi in ipsius herb.).’

I have found it growing commonly on the walls of the fort of Asirgarh. Fls. and

Frs.: Oct.-Feb.

127. Tetrapogon tenellus Chiov. (India orientalis). Common in rocky ground

all over the hill. Fils. and Frs.: July-Oct.

128. Méelanocenchrus jacquemontii Jaub. et Spach. (India orientalis). Very

common on rocky surfaces and shallow poor soils all over the hill. Fis. and Frs. :

_ July-Oct.

129. Setaria verticillata Beauv. (Cosmopolitan). Common in the undergrowth

on the slopes. Fils. and Frs.: During and after rains.

130. Setaria tomentosa Kunth. (India orientalis). Common all over the hill.

Fls. and Frs.: Aug.-Feb.

214. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

131. Tragus biflorus Schult. (Mediterranean Region et Afghanistan). Common

in rocky grounds and dry waste lands on the hill. Fls.and Frs. : July-Oct.

132. Eragrostis cilianensis Link ex Lutati. (Tropics). Found in cultivated fields

at the base of the hill. Fis. and Frs. : May-Oct.

133. Eragrostis tremula Hochst. (Tropics of the Old World). Fallow and

cultivated fields at the foot of the hill. Fis. and Frs. : Aug.-Nov. ae

134. Eragrostis pilosa Beauv. (Warmer parts of the World). Common on sandy,

gravelly soils and on old walls. Fils. and Frs. : June-Nov.

135. Alloteropsis cimicina Stapf. (India orientalis). A fair fodder grass in

waste lands. Fls. and Frs.: July-Sept.

136. Chloris virgata Sw. (Neotropical). Common on the upper parts of the

hill. Fils. and Frs.: July-Oct.

137. Chloris barbata Sw. (Tropics). A good fodder. Fils. and Frs.: Aug.-Oct.

138. Digitaria royleana Prain. (Tropical Asia). Common in waste places. Fls.

and Frs.: July-Oct.

139. Digitaria adscendens Henr. (Neotropical). Common all over the hill.

Fls. and Frs.: July-Oct.

140. Digitaria setigera Roth apud R. & S. (Cosmopolitan). A common weed of

waste places. Fils. and Frs.: July-Oct.

141. Cynodon dactylon Pers. (Cosmopolitan). Common all over the hill. As

fodder is much relished by cattle. Fils. and Frs. : Major part of the year.

142. Oplismenus burmannii Beauv. (Tropics). Common in the undergrowth on

the hill. Fils. and Frs.: June-Dec.

143. Bothriochloa pertusa A. Camus. (Tropical Asia, Africa, et Australia). A

good fodder grass ; seen all over the hill. Fils. and Frs. : July-Oct.

144. Bothriochloa kuntzeana Henr. (India orientalis). Hackel (in DC. Mono-

graph. Phan. 6: 478, 1889) writes of this plant : ‘Pennis. Indiae orientalis, in prov.

Centr. prope Assirgar (Kuntze in h. prop.)’ I have not seen the plant in the district.

145. Dichanthium annulatum Stapf. (India orientalis et Australia). Common

all over the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Cold and summer seasons.

146. Brachiaria ramosa Stapf. (India orientalis). It is a good fodder grass.

Common all over the hill. Fils. and Frs. : June-Oct.

147. Brachiaria eruciformis Griseb. (Mediterranean Region et India orientalis).

A common weed of ‘ Jowar’ fields at the foot of the hill. Much eaten by animals.

Fls. and Frs.: Sept.-Nov.

148. Aristida depressa Retz. Linn. (Temperates et warmer parts). One of the ear-

liest grasses. An obnoxious weed, all over the hill. Fls. and Frs.: July-Oct.

149. Aristida funiculata Trin. (North Africa, Arabia, et Baluchistan). An

obnoxious weed in shallow poor soils on the hill; the awns pierce through clothes.

Fils. and Frs.: July-Oct.

WEEDS AND ALIEN PLANTS OF ASIRGARH, MP. 215

150. Sorghum halepense Pers. (Europe, Asia, et Africa). A pest in cultivated

grounds, but a useful fodder grass in permanent pastures. Found in the crevices of

exposed rocks on the hill. Fils. and Frs.: Sept.-Feb.

151. Sorghum deccanense Stapf. (Abyssinia). Found here and there on the hill.

Fls. and Frs.: After rains.

152. Chrysopogon fulvus Chiov.

common all over the hill.

(India orientalis). A drought-resistant grass ;

Fls. and Frs. : During and after rains.

153. Hackelochloa granularis Kuntze.

the hill. Fis. and Frs.: Aug.-Oct.

154. Heteropogon contortus R. & S.

over the hill. Fils. and Frs.: Oct.-Dec.

155. Ischaemum pilosum Hack. (Ceylon). Common on the hill as well as in

black cotton soils at the base of the hill. Also recorded by Hackel (loc. cit.: 241) on

the authority of Dr. Otto Kuntze, who collected the grass from this area. Fls. and

Frs. : Aug.-Oct.

156. Ischaemum laxum Br. (Tropics of the Old World). A common weed on

black soils. Fils. and Frs.: Aug.-Oct.

157. Andropogon pumilus Roxb. (India orientalis). Hackel (loc. cit. 450) writes

of this grass : ‘ Peninsula Indiae Orient. (Wight 1701) ; in prov. Centr. pr. Assirgar

(Kuntze in h. prop.), Tschanda (Duthie mis.),....’. Not seen by me in the vicinity

of Asirgarh. However, it grows commonly on Khandwa plateau and is easily

recognized by its copper-coloured appearance.

(Tropics). Common in grass fields on

(Tropics). A very troublesome weed, all

158. Cymbopogon martinii Wats. (Tropical Asia et Africa). Common on the

slopes of the hill. It yields the commercial Rusa grass oil. Fils. and Frs. : Oct.-Feb.

159. Themeda quadrivalvis Kuntze. (India orientalis et Africa). Common in

grass fields on the higher parts of the hill. Fils. and Frs. : Sept.-Dec.

160. Arthraxon ciliaris Beauv. (Tropical Asia, Africa et Australia). A common

weed under the shade of trees. Fils. and Frs. : After rains.

161. Oropetium thomaeum Trin. (India orientalis). One of the earliest grasses

to appzar and disappear ; common on rock surfaces and shallow soils on the hill.

Fls. and Frs.: Rainy season.

REFERENCES

Anonymous (1908): Imperial Gazet- garh Hills (Madhya Pradesh). Ind.

teer of India. Central India. Calcutta. Forester 86: 553-558.

— — (1893-1958): Index Kewensis Melville, R. (1952): Trianthema pen-

plantarum phanerogamarum. 2 Vols.

12 Suppls. Oxford.

Cufodontis, G. (1953-59): Enumera-

tio Plantarum Aethiopiae Spermatophyta

Bull. Jard. bot. Brux. Suppl. Vol. 24-

29.

Hackel, E. (1889): In DC. Mono-

graphiae Phanerogamarum. 6: Andro-

pogoneae. Paris.

Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897): The

Flora of British India. London. 7

(1957) : Some

vols.

Maheshwari, J. K.

Name Changes in the Flora of India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 804-805.

— — (1960): The Vegetation of Asir-

tandra L. and some related species. Kew

Bull. : 261-269.

Mueller-Argoviensis, J. D. (1866):

In DC. Prodromus Systematis Natura-

lis Regni Vegetabilis. 15 (2) : Euphor-

biaceae.

Raizada, M. B. & Jain, S. K. (1957):

The Genus Eremopogon Stapf. and its

affinities with Schizachyrium Nees. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 858-865.

Robbins, W. W. et al. (1953): Weed

Control. McGraw-HillCo., New York.

Witt, D. O. (1916): Descriptive List

of Trees, Shrubs, Climbers and Economic

Herbs of the Northern and Berar Forest

Circles, Central Provinces. Allahabad.

Quail Breeding in Japan’

YOSHIMARO YAMASHINA

Yamashina Institute for Ornithology and Zoology, Tokyo, Japan

(With two plates and one text-photo)

INTRODUCTION

Several species of wild birds have been domesticated in Japan,

such as Java Sparrow, Sharptailed Munia (=Bengalee), Zebra Finch,

etc. They are not only popular as pets, but also exported in great

numbers to foreign countries. However, the Japanese Quail (Coturnix

coturnix japonicus Temminck) is the only one which was domesticated

for the sake of its meat and eggs.

HISTORY

The Japanese Quail was originally domesticated as a good song-

bird. The practice is said to have originated during the Muromachi

Era about 600 years ago, and there remain some accurate records

made after the Keicho Period (1596 A.D.) on raising domesticated

quails. The raising of song quails was most vigorous during the

Meiwa to An-ei Period (1764-178G a.p.), and it was continued with

vicissitudes until World War II. White varieties were developed

among these song quails. However, the song quails were swept out

of existence from Japan during World War II, and only the beautiful

and luxurious tools, cages, etc., now remain to remind us of their

former popularity.

The domesticated quail as a table delicacy, which I am going to

describe in this article, has been selected from the abovementioned

song quails. It is said that in about 1910 Mr. Kotaro Oda selected

good laying quails from among his several thousand domesticated

quails, and bred them to the present variety, so that we can trace

back the history of the quail domesticated as a delicacy to no more

than just 50 years.

2 Communicated by Dr. Salim Ali.

QUAIL BREEDING IN JAPAN 217

The producers of domesticated quails for eggs and meat increased

since then. They were concentrated specially in Aichi Prefecture, the

centre of Japan proper, and this prefecture became highlighted as the

headquarters of the industry. During the period 1937-38, just before

World War II, the number of domesticated quails for delicacies in

this prefecture alone was estimated at as much as 350,000. However,

the great war which swept the song quails out of Japan also inflicted

a severe loss on the domesticated quails for delicacies and almost

exterminated them. Fortunately, some of these domesticated quails

remained with Mr. Kawashima who lived in Urawa City of Saitama

Prefecture, the northern suburbs of Tokyo; and later, Mr. Keiji Suzuki

of Toyohashi City, Aichi Prefecture, took these over, bred and

multiplied them, and laid the foundation for the present prosperity

of the quail-raising industry.

Regarding the raising of the Japanese domesticated quails, Dr.

N. Takatsukasa made a brief report in 1921; however, the raising

technique he described is rather outdated. Quail raising could

hardly be called an ‘industry’ at that time, so I think it is necessary

to describe the modern methods.

Present day foreign travellers to Japan often find eggs of small

birds on the table, and are shocked at the seeming persistence in this

country of the bad custom of eating the commercialized eggs of wild

birds. These eggs, however, are not of wild birds. but of the

domesticated quails which I am going to describe in the following

pages.

1. HATCHING

In recent years, the annual production of domesticated quails in

Japan is 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 with some fluctuation from year to

year. The great majority of the above quails are incubated by

electric incubators in three hatcheries in Toyohashi City. The largest

hatchery is the Suzuki Hatchery, where 35,000 breeding quails are

always kept, and the eggs produced there are shipped out to all the

districts of Japan. 3

The incubation period is 16 or 17 days. The sexing of day-old

chicks at hatching time is made by special technicians by the ex-

amination of the rudimentary copulatory organs, popularly known

as the Japanese method of sexing chicks. Only female chicks are

delivered to the customers. The packing boxes of day-old chicks

shown in Photo 1 are made of paper board and divided into four

sections. One hundred day-old chicks are packed in each box.

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Except in the winter period, this box is available for within four days’

transport. Some male chicks are retained and raised for meat like

domestic fowl; the rest are disposed of.

2. RAISING OF CHICKS

The day-old chicks delivered from a hatchery are fed in a brood-

ing box with a heater for one week (Photo 2). The brooding box

consists of 12 small sections, sized 90cm.xX60cm., and one-third of

each small section is covered with a roof and heated by a hot water

pipe. The total number of chicks reared in the twelve sections is

about 2000.

After one week in the brooding box, the chicks are transferred

to cages (or batteries) without heater (Photo 3). Thirty-six cages,

each sized 30 cm. wide, 60 cm. deep, 7.5 cm. high, are piled up.

The total number of chicks reared in these 36 cages is 1800. These

cages (or batteries) are not connected with a heater. Even in cold

weather, it is sufficient if the room containing these cages is heated

up a little. Quail chicks are fed in these cages for 6 days, and then

transferred to ‘adult’ cages, each of size 30cm.X90cm., and divided

into three sections. The density of young hens held here is slightly

higher than in the case of adult layers: 20 young hens three weeks

old per the space of 30cm. x30cm., or 15 four weeks old. In the

fifth week, the quails are transferred into the laying cages (or

batteries).

The diet for brooding or raising quail chicks is similar to that

of chicken chicks. But the powdered food should be finer since the

quail chicks are so much smaller. Usually the diet is given as mashed

food, mixed dry powder and water. Recently, some people are using

dry powder food and showing good results.

Since the time when given their first feed the chicks are con-

tinuously lighted day and night by electric bulbs. As mentioned

later, the domesticated quails are also lighted throughout the egg-

laying period. Thus they pass their whole life under artificial light.

3. RAISING OF LAYING QUAILS

At 30 days old, young quails become as large as adults and ready

to breed, and they are then transferred into the laying room. They

lay the first egg when 35-60 days old, usually when 50 days old.

During 8-12 months from that time they keep on laying eggs. The

QUAIL BREEDING IN JAPAN 219

laying efficiency for the first year is 80%, so that the number of eggs

laid in the first year runs to between 250 and 300. They are by no

means inferior in laying efficiency to the best performance of the

domestic fowl.

Quail raising recently has a tendency to be on a large scale. A

man who specializes in raising domesticated quails usually possesses

more than 10,000 birds. Photo 4 shows a typical laying house which

consists of five rooms for laying quails and one room for food supply,

with a passage along the windows of the south side of the house. As

shown in Photo 5, quail cages are arranged along both sides of the

laying room of which the capacity is 2000 quails.

The laying cage unit (Photo 6) measures 90 cm. x30 cm.X10 cm.

The bottom is a sloping wire screen higher behind, lower in front.

The quails live on the screen floor and stretch out their heads through

a running gap or slit to feed from a hopper which is installed on the

front side of the cage. The tilt of the wire screen is very useful for

collecting eggs, because the eggs roll down the slope into the front side

of the cage (Photo 7). The birds’ droppings fall through the screen

on to the droppings-board under the cage.

The important points in promoting Jaying ability are as follows:

1. The food is a mixture of the following components:

Fish meal (including no salt) 30%

Corn-flour 25%

Wheat bran 13%

Rice bran 27%

Powder of dried grass leaves 3%

The above ratios of food components vary somewhat with

individual poultrymen, but the quail food should include more protein

ingredients than in the case of domestic fowl. When soft food (or

moist paste)—a mixture of triturated food and water—is given, no

more water or greens are necessary. Of course if dry food is given,

water should be provided separately.

2. The laying room is lighted day and night. Photo 8 shows a

sample of laying room, which is lighted day and night by a fluorescent

bulb of € watts per six sq. metres. To sleep, the quails retire to

the inner and dusky part of the cage.

3. The density of quails in a cage has an influence upon their

laying efficiency. Too high a density produces unsatisfactory results,

likewise too low density reduces the laying efficiency. The optimum

density is considered to be 6-7 quails for one section of 30 cm.

square in summer, and 9-10 in winter.

220: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

4. The most suitable temperature for the laying room is 20°C.

to 25°C. The laying efficiency suffers’ if the temperature is lower or

higher than this. The quailmen try to maintain the temperature at

about 23°C.

5. The domesticated quails lay eggs usually in the afternoon.

Therefore, the cages have to be cleaned up in the morning, and it

is necessary in the afternoon to keep the cages as quiet as possible.

This is quite different from the case of the domestic fowl, which lays

eggs usually in the morning.

6. Only female quails are put into the laying cages, and no males!.

In olden times they would put one female into one cage and,

introducing a male quail into the cage every morning, make them

copulate. Now, this old method is not employed in raising quails. Six

to ten female quails are fed in each section of a cage, as above-

mentioned, and no male is mixed with them. In order to obtain

fertilized eggs for breeding purposes usually one male and two

females, or two males and six females are kept together in one cage.

7. The laying quails, hatched in spring, keep laying eggs until next

spring. During the whole period they are kept day and night under

artificial light. When the demand for quail eggs becomes slight in

summer, the majority of the laying quails are diverted to meat. Only

the breeding quails are held for more than two years.

8. The quails which have stopped laying eggs are fed with grains

such: as Barn-yard Millet, German Millet, etc., for three weeks before

being diverted to meat. The flesh becomes more delicious during

the period. |

PRESENT STATE OF JAPANESE QUAIL-BREEDING INDUSTRY

There have been remarkable vicissitudes in the raising of the

domesticated quail as a delicacy. In recent years the production was

most flourishing in 1947. The annual amount of stock ran _ to

2,000,000, and after that year gradually decreased 1,000,000 in the

spring of 1955. These figures refer to the approximate number of

female quails because, as mentioned above, only the female quails

are reared. The laying efficiency is as high as about 80% during

fall to winter, so that about 1,600,000 eggs would be produced per

day by 2,000,000 laying quails. But the sales system was imperfect

and each producer was selling eggs individually. Thus, when the

production reached its peak, it suddenly turned into over-production,

1 Takatsukasa (1921), p. 26

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QUAIL BREEDING IN JAPAN 221

and the price of quai! eggs fell heavily. Then the production was

reduced, and thus the same process was repeated. .

During the last one or two years, many quail-producers’ associa-

tions have been formed aiming at finding and extending the market,

and so the quail-breeding industry is now tending to stability.

The leading districts in the quail industry are Toyohashi City

and Tokyo City, and their vicinities. Two-thirds of the entire out-

. put of Japan is produced in these two areas. A specialized quail

producer usually possesses 20,000-30,000 quails, and a subsidiary quail

producer usually keeps 300-1000 quails. The retail price of an egg in

Tokyo is yen 4 to yen 5,' and is tending to decline. In general, the

amount of powdered food necessary for 10,000 quails per day is

225 kg., which means 22.5 g. per quail per day. On this basis, and

with the various other items of expenditure, the cost price of one

egg works out to only yen 2 or a little more. Besides that, about 11

grams of droppings is daily produced by one quail. The droppings

Photo 9. Packages of eggs sold in shors

are in demand as an effective fertilizer and furnish a subsidiary income

for the quailman. In summer season when the demand for quail eggs

is slight, the majority of the quails older than one year are disposed

of for the purpose of meat. The birds are kept frozen and consumed

in fall to winter as delicious meat. So, the quail industry has very

bright prospects if the market would be extended by promoting the

co-operative system among the quail producers.

1 One yen = about 1.3 nP. One U.S. dollar = 360 yen=Rs. 4.75.

222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

SUMMARY

The wild quail, Coturnix coturnix japonicus Temminck, has been

domesticated in Japan and is supplying eggs and meat for table use

on the scale of an industry. The domesticated quail shows a high

laying efficiency of 80% (250-300 eggs during the first year).

Quail breeding, since it offers a satisfactory alternative supply of

large quantities of delicious quail meat and eggs, is an answer to the

difficult question of how to reconcile the age-old custom in Japan of

the eating the meat and eggs of wild birds with the preservation of

the wild birds that still remain. The problem, however, has not

yet been completely solved but, when the industry is properly organi-

zed and production expanded and stabilized, it is hoped that the

desired solution may be found.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My sincere ihanks are due to Dr. Salim Ali, Mr. Aiji Ito, and

Masahi Yoshii for their kind help in various ways.

REFERENCES

Takatsukasa, N. (1921): Quail Breed- Enomoto, I. (1960): Jitsuyo Uzura

ing in Japan. Av. Mag., Third ser.,12: no Kaikata (=How to raise domestic

24-28. quails) Shiry6 no Kenkyu, No. 51-58.

(in Japanese).

Some Observations on the Behaviour

of the Incubating Redwattled Lapwing,

Vanellus indicus indicus (Bodd.)

R. M. Naik, P. V. GEORGE, AND DHRUV B. DIXIT

Division of Avian Biology, Department of Zoology, M.S. University, Baroda

(With one plate and two text-figures)

Reactions of brooding birds to the external environment, physical

as well as biological, are of special interest to ornithologists. With the

advent of the breeding season, profound changes appear in the behaviour

of birds and these changes may be due to changes in their physiological

state. Even though our knowledge of these physiological changes is

incomplete, their ultimate effect on behaviour, at least in certain cases,

is better understood. More factual information on breeding behaviour,

therefore, is of importance in understanding the evolutionary pattern in

bird behaviour.

The present work records some observations made on the behaviour

of a pair of nesting Redwattled Lapwings [Vanellus indicus indicus

(Bodd.)]. Since this bird lays on bare ground exposed to the sky and

not in the shade, the eggs have to be protected against (1) changes

in the physical environment, (2) egg predators, and (3) cursorial

animals likely to trample upon the eggs inadvertently.

The nest, when discovered on 27 April 1960, was just a shallow pit

made in open ground, and contained the complete clutch of four eggs.

Even though the field in which the nest was situated was surrounded

by luxuriant evergreen trees, the nest was exposed to solar radiation

throughout the day because it was situated right in the middle of the

barren field, from which a crop of jowar had already been harvested.

For closer observation and photography, a small inconspicuous

hide was erected at a distance of five feet from the nest. The birds soon

got accustomed to the presence of the hide, which obviously altered the

original barrenness of the surrounding area. Since sexual dimorphism

in the Lapwing is not distinct enough for quick field identification, it

was necessary to mark at least one bird, so that one member of the

pair could be distinguished from the other. Initially, several unsuccess-

ful attempts were made to mark the bird by spraying paint on it with a

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (A)

large syringe. This had to be done from the hide and, owing to the

narrow field of view through a small opening in the hide, the bird could

not be accurately aimed at, every time the bird moving quickly away

from the site. After several attempts a few drops of paint did stick on

the back of the bird, but they were not conspicucus enough against the

dark plumage. It was therefore decided to capture the bird for marking.

This was accomplished with the help of nylon mist nets. Since the

nets used had a mesh size of 1 in. and were designed to capture birds much

smaller than the lapwing, we had to use them in a slightly unconventional

manner. Two mist nets were installed at an angle to one another at a

distance of about ten feet from the nest, in such a way that these nets

formed the two sides of an equilateral triangle with the hide as the base,

and the nest in the centre of the triangle. A gap of about eight inches

was left between the lower border of the nets and the ground. After

setting this trap, one of us took cover in the hide and sat waiting for the

bird to return. This was done late in the morning, well after sunrise,

since the bird would soon return to the nest because of its anxiety to

keep it protected from the blazing sun. The bird, which till then was

observing our movements, quickly made towards the nest site from the

direction opposite to the hide, in spite of the fact that the nets, without

any dark background, were clearly visible even from a considerable

distance. When the bird came very close it paused for a few seconds,

then walked a couple of steps along the side of the net and, ducking a

little, passed through the gap under the net. Once inside the enclosure

it walked straight to its nest and sat on the eggs, wary and watchful,

looking from time to time at the unfamiliar sight of the nets. After a

few minutes the hiding observer came out all of a sudden without giving

any previous warning to the bird. Upon this the bird hurriedly got up,

took a step or two and flew off in the opposite direction right into the net.

Before the bird had time to get out of the net, it was grabbed. The white

patch on one side of its neck was adequately painted red with alcoholic

eosine stain. The nets were quickly removed and the bird was released.

It flew away fast, greatly agitated, uttering continuous sharp notes, and

disappeared towards its feeding ground. Instantaneously, its mate

came hurriedly flying from the same direction and uttering similar notes.

But by that time we had already moved away to a distant observation

post. The unmarked bird flew around the field in a complete circle but,

seeing no visible sign of danger, alighted on the border of the field and

walked hurriedly straight to the nest, all the while uttering sharp notes.

On reaching the nest it appeared reassured and quickly sat on the eggs.

The birds were left to themselves and for the rest of the day no further

observations were made. A reference to existing literature and our own

observations made during the subsequent days made it obvious that the

marked bird was female, and the unmarked one the male. The male

BEHAVIOUR OF THE INCUBATING REDWATTLED LAPWING 225

was found to relieve the female from duty at the nest only during the

hotter part of the day, and while at the nest he appeared more wary and

watchful than the female. In the description to follow, the marked and

the unmarked birds will be referred to as female and male respectively.

At no time was any lapwing other than these two birds observed around

the nest site.

Two days after marking the bird, the movements of the pair around

the nest were watched continuously for eleven and half hours. In order

to avoid any disturbance which might modify the movements of the birds

at the nest site, the hide was abandoned on that day and, instead, all the

observations were made from a distance of about 150 feet with a pair of

binoculars, and recorded on the spot. Later, for twenty days the birds

were observed at least for a few hours daily. We were then expecting

the young ones to hatch out any day. But, as fate would have it, one

early morning before sunrise when it was still dark, the owner of the

field inadvertently destroyed the entire nest while ploughing. How-

ever, he left the hide undisturbed, because, as he said afterwards, he

knew that we were doing something of importance inside the hide, but

did not know that our object of study, which made us sit within the hide,

often in blazing sun, was in fact outside it !

The following are the observations made on the behaviour of this

pair of lapwings, presented under appropriate headings.

Roh ythmeot activitles at nes.t. Sate.

The sequence of events presented below is based on continuous

observations made during eleven and half hours on a single day. The

notes are just as they were recorded on the spot in our field-notebook:

6-30 hrs. No bird on the nest. Male standing at a distance of about 30 feet

from the nest.

6-45 hrs. The female arrives on the scene and is seen standing at a distance of

about 80 feet away from the nest and preening its feathers.

7-01 hrs. A dog happens to cross the field. When it comes to a distance of about

40 feet from the nest, the female stops preening and flies towards the dog. Uttering

sharp notes, it makes some attempts at pecking the dog. Attention of the dog is

drawn towards the bird. The bird now flies quite low, alighting from time to time

on the ground in front of the dog, but always remaining about eight feet away from it.

When the dog is about 250 to 300 feet away from the nest, the bird stops luring it

further. This entire operation is completed within 3.75 minutes. The male is not to

be seen anywhere around.

7-42 hrs. The female from the border of the field walks to the nest.

7-44 hrs. The female sits on the eggs.

7-47 hrs. The female gets up and leaves the nest.

7-52 hrs. The sun rays start spreading over the field.

7-54 hrs. The female returns once again to the nest and starts incubating. The

male appears on the scene.

8-14 hrs. The female leaves the nest.

As)

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

8-15 hrs. Both the male as well as the female are seen attacking and chasing away

a crow from the field.

8-27 hrs. The female returns and sits on the eggs. ;

8-33 hrs. The male attacks a crow near by, while the female continues to

incubate.

8-43 hrs. A kite flies about 50 feet high over the nest. The sitting female reacts

to it by straightening out neck and tail, keeping them parallel to the ground.

10-00 hrs. The male comes to the nest and takes over from his mate the duty of

covering the eggs. The female walks away from the nest.

| 10-26 hrs. The female flies away from the scene.

10-46 hrs. The female returns.

11-07 hrs. The female comes to the nest and takes over incubation from the male.

The male disappears from the scene.

11-45 hrs. The male appears on the boundary of the field and walks briskly

straight to the nest.

11-46 hrs. The male relieves the female from duty at the nest.

to the border of the field and waits in the shade of a tree.

12-18 hrs. The female takes charge of the eggs from the male.

away and waits in the tree shade.

13-03 hrs. The male takes charge of the eggs from the female, which in turn walks

away to the shade.

13-07 hrs. The female disappears from the scene.

13-47 hrs. The female re-appears.

13-52 hrs. The semale goes to the nest and relieves the male. The male walks

to the tree shade.

The female walks

The male walks

13-57 hrs. The male flies away from the scene.

14-33 hrs. The male re-appears.

14-36 hrs. The female is relieved at the nest by the male.

eggs. The female walks away.

14-39 hrs. The female flies away.

15-09 hrs. The female arrives.

15-11 hrs. The female takes charge of incubating from the male. The male walks

away and stands under a tree.

15-44 hrs. The male flies away from sight.

15-58 hrs. The male returns.

16-02 hrs. The male takes charge of the eggs from the female.

16-03 hrs. The female disappears.

16-39 hrs. The female returns.

16-46 hrs. The female relieves the male at the nest.

18-00 hrs. The female is still sitting on the eggs when watching terminates for the

day.

The male sits on the

Protection of eggs against solar radiation:

Figure 1 is a histogram showing the attentiveness of the birds at

their nest during day time, based on the observations presented above.

From the figure it is clear that in the early morning, and probably also

in the late evening, the eggs are covered by the female alone, whereas

during the crucial part of the day when the air temperature is high and

solar radiation intense, the male and the female attend the nest in turns.

In the morning when the air temperature is low, the eggs may remain

uncovered for varying intervals of time. But from 8-30 a.m: onwards

sion Ni sides

| eta 4 ae yy As Gi eb f] 6

4 Vv Vv Vv

oz rt

ANY:

oc be

Jqveyo/INID Saif]

FYNlvaHAdNGL aly GOld IF ININIL LE —_

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

the eggs are kept continuously covered. While changing duty at the nest,

the sitting bird will get up only after its mate has approached very close

to it (Plate, Fig. 1), so that the eggs remain uncovered only for a brief

interval.

Incidentally, the question arises whether the lapwing sitting on the

nest actually incubates, i.e. applies heat to, the eggs. It has been shown

in several species that the bird may sit over the eggs without applying

heat to them (Van Tyne & Berger, 1959). Thus, sitting on the eggs does

not necessarily mean incubating, but this could be ascertained correctly

only by placing thermo-couples in contact with the eggs. However, the

lapwing when about to sit on the eggs, raises the breast feathers (Plate,

Fig. 2) so that when it sits down, the eggs probably come in contact with

skin. Thus, when the lapwing is sitting on eggs in the daytime it is not

merely covering them to shade them from the sun’s rays but it is probably

incubating them as well.

Since the bird on duty at the nest sits exposed to solar radiation,

it has to protect itself against rise in body temperature. As the day

advances the changing over of duty at the nest occurs more frequently.

Between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. the frequency of the change-over is highest,

a change-over taking place approximately every 40 minutes. But later

on as the day advances further the frequency of the change-over decreases.

During the hotter part of the day, the bird sitting on the nest is seen conti-

nuously panting and pulsating the gular area and raising up its feathers

whenever there is the slightest breeze (Plate, Fig. 3). This is mainly to

facilitate evaporative cooling. On the other hand, the bird, as soon as

’ it is relieved at the nest, seeks the tree shade.

Protection of eg8s against predators and ure

sorial animals:

During the course of observations we had the chance to observe the

reactions of the lapwing towards kites, crows, dogs, cattle, ana humans.

The bird sitting on eggs, owing to its broken colour pattern of black

and white on the neck and the dull coloration of the back, matches very

well with the shadows cast by earthen clods scattered all over the field.

The lapwing has this advantage of camouflage only because it nests on

open ground and never in the shade of a tree. Moreover, during the

heat of summer, when the shade of the trees is much sought after by

arboreal and cursorial animals, the ground under a tree is a_ highly

unsafe place for the bird’s nesting.

To any approaching intruder, whether a crow or a kite flying over-

head, or cattle grazing around, or a human crossing the field, the first

reaction of the incubating bird is to straighten out head, neck, and tail,

keeping them parallel with the ground, and at the same time to freeze

all movement, so much so that the bird even stops the gular pulsations.

Journ. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Redwattled Lapwings at the nest

1. Changing over of duty at the nest. 2. Bird about to sit on eggs. Note the

raised up breast feathers. 3. Bird sitting on eggs. Feathers on back and

head raised up and mouth kept open to cool the body. (All the photographs

were taken before marking the bird.)

Photos ; Authors

BEHAVIOUR OF THE INCUBATING REDWATTLED LAPWING 229

Probably this is an attempt to enhance its camouflage. But if the in-

truder is cattle, it may continue to move towards the nest, hardly noticing

the bird. In such a case, when the animal approaches within about 10

feet from the nest, the lapwing without shifting other parts of the body,

suddenly spreads out its tail, exposing the black and white bands to

advantage (Text-fig. 2). This serves as the flashing of a danger signal,

and arrests the intruder’s notice immediately. A bullock on observing

this signal stopped advancing further, paused staring at the bird for a

short time, and then quickly moved away from the nest, whereas a young

buffalo which was very much agitated to observe this signal, jumped with

a start and ran away from the site.

SS eS

SNe

—,

Text-fig. 2

Characteristic freezing pose of the Redwattled Lapwing, with raised tail showing

black and white bands. This pose is assumed to frighten off approaching cattle.

The sketch is traced from a kodachrome transparency.

On the other hand, the lapwing was never observed to show this

danger signal to a human. On seeing a human approaching, the sitting

bird at once assumes the camouflage or freezing posture. If the person

advances further, the bird slowly and quietly gets up from the nest and

starts walking away in the opposite direction pretending as if nothing

had happened. This entire manoeuvre is so skilfully performed that it

avoids unduly attracting the attention of the trespasser. Many a time

we had to visit the nest for examining the eggs ; at every visit, the bird,

after walking away 50 to 100 feet from the nest, would stop to observe

our movements. But if we started handling the eggs, it would

immediately start uttering continuous sharp cries and walking towards

us. Once when we were engrossed in weighing and marking the eggs,

the bird approached as close as ten feet from us.

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

DISCUSSION

All the birds nesting in this part of the country in summer are subjected

to intense heat. Even birds like the Indian Robin (Saxicoloides fulicata)

nesting within a house, and the Purple Sunbird (Nectarinia asiatica) with

a shaded nest, continuously pulsate the throat with the heat while in-

cubating at noon (unpublished observation). In both these birds, it is

the female alone that incubates, and that seems possible only because

they nest in shaded places. Since the lapwing’s nest is fully exposed

to solar radiation the incubation if attempted by the female alone could

be fatal to her, and that is why the attentiveness shown by the male at

noon in periodically relieving her becomes all the more significant. The

rise in temperature could be partly, if not solely, responsible for

the development of attentiveness in the male at noon. Since this bird

continues to nest even after the onset of the monsoon, it would be

most interesting to compare the relative degree of attentiveness in the two

sexes on a cloudy day, when the weather is cooler.

The present observations give further support to the fact that the

survival of eggs exposed to adverse conditions depends largely upon the

behavioural pattern of the parent birds. Many a time such behaviour

of the bird has great survival value for its eggs or young, but less or none

for the bird itself. The lapwing, sitting on eggs in the intense heat of the

mid-day sun, or landing conspicuously, or flashing its conspicuous

tail pattern in front of an intruder, has little survival value for the bird

itself, but it does ensure protection to its eggs. In the animal world

greater emphasis is placed on the continuous propagation and survival

of the species, rather than on the survival of a mere individual.

SUMMARY

This is a record of observations made for twenty days on the

behaviour of a pair of Redwattled Lapwings at a nest containing eggs.

The relative attentiveness of the sexes and the reactions of the birds to

temperature, predators, and cursorial animals are described, and their

significance postulated.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to Prof. D. V. Gogate, M.S. University, Baroda,

for supplying the data on air-temperature and sunshine.

REFERENCE

Van Tyne, J. & Berger, A.J. (1959):

Fundamentals of Ornithology. John

Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

On some Larval and Juvenile Stages

of three species of Fish from the

River Jamuna at Allahabad’

K. L. SEHGAL

Central Inland Fisheries Research Sub-Station, Allahabad

(With four text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

In the course of investigations on the breeding habits and spawning

season of the common freshwater fishes of the rivers Ganga and Jamuna

at Allahabad during the first half of 1958, a large number of develop-

ing eggs, early larvae, and fry of several species were collected, many of

which are already well known and have been described in the literature.

The work prior to 1950 was summarised by Jones (1950) in his biblio-

graphy of the breeding habits and development of the fishes of the inland

waters of India. Notable contributions have been made since then by

Alikunhi (1955), Alikunhi & Chaudhuri (1954), Karamchandani &

Motwani (1954, 1955, 1956) and Pakrasi & Alikunhi (1952).

The present communication deals with the larval stages of two cypri-

nids Barilius vagra (Hamilton), Oxygaster gora (Hamilton), and a mugilid

Liza cascasia (Hamilton).

MATERIAL AND METHOD

The material for the present study was collected fromthe River Jamuna

near Sujawan, about 10 miles upstream of its confluence with the River

Ganga, during the months of March to May 1958. Collections were

mostly made from the Dan fishing vessel by towing one-metre and half-

metre ring nets of organdi cloth. The larvae were then sorted in the

laboratory and reared to obtain connected series to identifiable stages.

Most of the camera lucida drawings were made from freshly preserved

material, but in a few cases live specimens narcotised in menthol were also

used. The lengths of the different stages in the text indicate total lengths.

1 Published with the permission of the Chief Research Officer, Central Inland

Fisheries Research Station, Barrackpore, 24-Parganas, W. Bengal.

232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Barilius vagra (Hamilton)

The species is frequently encountered in the commercial catches

at Allahabad during early summer months, when small-meshed drag nets

are operated, but it does not constitute a fishery of more than minor im-

portance. Numerous larvae and juveniles of the fish were collected

from the River Jamuna in the month of March. According to Day

(1878), this species attains about six inches (=152 mm.) in length. Speci-

mens ranging between 130 to 150 mm. occur in commercial catches.

LARVAL STAGES

4.80 mm. stage (Fig. 1, a): This is the earliest available stage and

shows the mouth as being well developed, and slightly oblique. The eyes

are large. The yolk sac is still present and so also the dorsal and anal

fin folds, the latter showing a swollen contour in the position of the future

anal fin. The tip of the notochord is slightly upturned. The pectoral

fins are rudimentary. The larva has 19 countable myotomes present

at this stage. Three large chromatophores are present along the mid

ventral line in the post-anal region of the body, while a few large and

small ones occur in the occipital area. A few scattered chromatophores

are also present along the dorsal and postero-ventral sides of the yolk sac.

6.70 mm. stage (Fig. 1, b): The mouth is oblique and prominent.

All the fins are present, but still rudimentary, and the dorsal and anal

fins show seven and ten ill-defined rays respectively. The tip of the noto-

chord is sharply bent upwards. The myotomes of the larva have now

increased to 25. The chromatophores numbering seven and six are

respectively arranged in a characteristic pattern along the mid-dorsal

and mid-ventral line along the base of the dorsal and anal fins. A double

row of chromatophores is present on the lateral side of the body of which

the upper one runs from the middle of the caudal peduncle to the posterior

border of the orbit, while the lower row ends ahead of the anal fin. A few

scattered chromatophores are seen in the shoulder and occipital regions.

10.00 mm. stage (Fig. 1, c): The shape of the mouth is more or less

like that of the adult. The posterior end of the maxilla reaches to the

- middle of the orbit. All the fins are now almost fully formed with their

respective number of rays. The upper half of the body has become

slightly brownish and the number of chromatophores described in the

preceding stages are now less. The double row of chromatophores

of the earlier stage has now merged into a single row, arranged in the form

of a chain running from the base of the caudal to the pre-dorsal region,

giving the appearance of a thin dark line. The small patterns of chro-

ratophores on the occiput and pectoral regions still persist as Ss also the

post-dorsal and post-anal chromatophores.

EARLY STAGES OF THREE SPECIES OF FISH FROM THE JAMUNA_ 233

arn 7 ee a Bs

ise ey oe er — at Gal Ag iy

mae on ue Se

see Santis saseaae Se Be

Lig yi)

Fig. 1. Larval stages of Barilius vagra (Hamilton)

24.00 mm. stage (Fig. 1, d): With growth from the post-larval stage

described above, to the juvenile condition, several changes are noticed.

By now all the fin rays are well formed. The maxilla is well developed

and extends to below the middle of the orbit. A pair of maxillary bar-

bels has appeared. At this stage, the upper half of the body becomes

brownish, and the lower half yellowish. On the side of the body above

the pectoral fin, six transverse bands are present. The thin dark lateral

band of the preceding stage still persists and is seen upto the 38-40 mm.

size.

The early stages of B. vagra indicate that the dorsal fin is si-

tuated nearer to the base of the caudal fin than to the head. But at the

24 mm. stage the dorsal fin is nearer to the head than the caudal base.

With growth the anal fin also slightly moves forward lying below the dorsal

fin. The following characteristic features were observed in the specimens

ranging between 27 and 50 mm. in total length.

The length of the head is 5.2 to 5.4 and the maximum height of the

body is 5.8 to 6.1 in the total lengths. The eyes are large, the diameter

being contained 3.3 to 3.7 in the length of the head. The posterior end

234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88 (1)

of the maxilla reaches to below the middle of the orbit. The upper half

of the body is brownish tinged with olive and the lower half is yellowish.

As the fish grows more transverse bands appear which eventually number

from 10 to 12 in the adult.

TABLE I

Barilius vagra (Hamilton)

(Measurements in millimetres)

Larval Stages

Characters

4.80 mm. | 6.70 mm. | 10.00 mm. | 24.00 mm.

stage stage stage stage

Standard length | 3.80 5.40 8.20 18.00

Length of head 1.05 1.54 2:35 5.00

Length of snout 0.31 0.40 0.55 1.50

Diameter of eye 0.42 0.54 0.88 2.00

Maximum height of body 0.94 1.54 1.70 5.50

Length from vent to tip of caudal fin 2.45 3.20 4.50 11.00

Oxygaster gora (Hamilton)

This species is found to be quite common at Allahabad and forms a

minor fishery of some importance in the months of November to April.

The largest specimen recorded in the commercial catches is 274 mm. in

total length. The larvae of this species were collected mostly in April

and juveniles from May to July. O. gora is essentially Indo-Gangetic

in distribution.

LARVAL STAGES

4.40 mm. stage (Fig. 2, a): This is the earliest stage collected. The

body of the larva is elongated. The mouth is superior and markedly

upturned. The dorsal and anal fin folds are continuous, the latter being

interrupted by the formation of the anal opening, thus splitting it into

pre-anal and post-anal parts. The pre-anal fold extends to the 18th

somite, while the post-anal is continuous with the caudal fold. The tip

of the notochord is straight. Rudiments of pectoral and pelvic fins are

present. The eyes are large. The body has 25 somites.

6.30 mm. stage (Fig. 2, b): The mouth is still superior and strongly

oblique. The dorsal and anal fin folds have now been transformed into

fins with 9 and 8 rudimentary fin rays respectively. The pre-anal fin

fold still persists. The tip of the notochord is now directed upwards.

The pectoral and pelvic fins are with their respective rays. The body of

the larva has 48 somites. Arranged along the mid-ventral line, there are

EARLY STAGES OF THREE SPECIES OF FISH FROM THE JAMUNA_ 235

nine post-anal chromatophores. The two pre-anal rows of chromato-

phores running parallel to each other have fourteen and eleven chromato-

phores in the lower and upper row respectively.

2mm.

Fig. 2. Larval stages of Oxygaster gora (Hamilton)

9.25 mm. stage (Fig. 2, c): The mouth is still superior and oblique

and the larva resembles more or less the adult in body shape. The dorsal

and anal fins appear to have slightly shifted forward. Both the fins

have assumed their normal shape and are characterised by 10 and

11 rays respectively. The caudal fin is of the homocercal type. The

arrangement of the chromatophores is more or less the same as in

the preceding stage, with the exception of some addition in number.

Clusters of small chromatophores are present in the occipital region and

in the area below the pectoral fin. :

12.10 mm. stage (Fig. 2,d): At this stage, it is more or less a juvenile

specimen, with all the characteristics of the adult. The mouth is directed

obliquely upwards, lower jaw fitting into the groove of the upper

jaw. The dorsal and anal fins have 10 and 16 fin rays respectively as in

the adult. The vestige of the ventral fin fold still persists. Excepting

the post-anal row, all the chromatophores have disappeared, and their

number is now sixteen.

During the study of larval and post-larval stages of O. gora in their

developmental history, it has been found that the position of the dorsal

and anal fins has shifted backwards at every stage. The fins appear

to assume their normal position by about the 29 mm. stage.

Some of the diagnostic features of O. gora as observed in specimens

ranging from 35-80 mm. are given below. _

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

The body of the fish is laterally compressed and the ventral surface

is keeled. The mouth is directed upward. The length of the head is

5.0 to 5.4 and the maximum height of the body is 6.0 to 6.4 in the total

length. The diameter of the eye is contained 3.7 to 3.9 in the head length.

The sub-orbital ring of bones is broader than the diameter of the eye.

The scales on the head extend to the nostrils. The colour of the body is

silvery.

TABLE II

Oxygaster gora (Hamilton)

(Measurements in millimetres)

Larval Stages

Characters | 4.40 mm. | 6.30mm. | 9.25 mm. | 12.10 mm

stage stage stage stage

Standard length 3.62 a2 8.00 10.21

Length of head 0.80 1.21 1.50 ale

Length of snout 0.20 0.30 0.54 0.73

Diameter of eye 0.27 0.30 0.56 0.67

Maximum height of body 0.57 O:75 1.12 1.34

Length from vent to tip of caudal fin 1.48 1.94 3.50 5.00

Liza cascasia (Hamilton)

L. cascasia, a small mugilid fish growing to about 120 mm. in size,

is very common in the rivers Ganga and Jamuna, and is always found

moving in shoals along the banks. It constitutes a minor fishery

at Allahabad in the months of November to March, and is caught in small-

meshed drag nets in fairly large quantities. The larvae and juveniles of

this species were collected in April and from June to August respectively,

from the River Jamuna. According to Day (1878) L. cascasia occurs in

the upper waters of the Ganges and Jamuna rivers, with Patna as the

lower limit of distribution. It also occurs in the Brahmaputra.

LARVAL STAGES

4.70 mm. stage (Fig. 3, a): The mouth is slightly directed upwards.

The dorsal fin fold is continuous with the caudal, while the anal fold is

slightly bulging in the prospective region of the anal fin. The tip of the

notochord is straight. Body consists of 19 somites. There are five pre-

anal and two large occipital chromatophores. Besides these, single large

chromatophores are present on the posterior margin of the operculum

and on the ventral side of the abdomen. j

7.00 mm. stage (Fig. 3, b): The mouth has become more prominent.

The second dorsal fin has formed with six rudimentary rays. The anal

EARLY STAGES OF THREE SPECIES OF FISH FROM THE JAMUNA 237

Fig. 3. Larval stages of Liza cascasia (Hamilton)

fin, which was a continuous fold has now 10 rays, and the pectoral fins

arerudimentary. ‘The tip of the notochord is sharply upturned. By now

the larva has got 26 somites on the body. The pre-anal fold still persists.

The chromatophores are now disposed in a distinct pattern. There are

six large chromatophores at the base of the anal fin and a narrow band

at the base of the dorsal. A chain of pre-anal chromatophores moves

upward and then forward reaching the posterior margin of the eye; a

few clusters are seen in the occipital region; along the lateral line on either

side there is a distinct continuous row of chromatophores commencing

from the base of the caudal and extending to the level of the base of first

dorsal fin, and a dark band is present at the base of the caudal fin but

disappears in the subsequent stages.

8.30 mm. stage (Fig. 3,c): At this stage all the fins have been well

differentiated. The first dorsal with 3 rudimentary spines has also

developed. The dorsal and anal fins have now 7 and 11 rays respectively.

The pectoral fins at this stage have 15 soft rays, and the pelvics have

1 spinous and 5 soft rays. The caudal is truncated. The arrangement of

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

the chromatophores becomes more prominent, giving an appearance of

dark lines.

10.00 mm. stage (Fig. 3, d): All the fins are fully differentiated with

the adult number of rays, and the fin formula at this stage is : D. 4/1/8,

P15, V1/5, A 3/8, C 14. More chromatophores have been added to

make the pattern, already laid, more conspicuous and this characteristic

colour pattern persists till the 40.00 mm. stage.

From the development of ZL. cascasia it could be said that the

relative position of the first dorsal formed at 8.30 mm. stage remains

practically unchanged in the subsequent stages of development while the

second dorsal fin which was relatively nearer to the first dorsal base shifts

backwards. The anal also shifts backwards and comes to lie below the

second dorsal. The distinctive features described below were noticed

in the specimens from 25 to 40 mm. in total length.

The mouth is wide its cleft being 1/3 of the extent of its gape. It

is oblique, pointing upwards. The length of the head is 4.0 to 4.5 and

the maximum height of the body is 4.9 to 5.2 in the total length. The

diameter of eye is contained 3.2 to 3.7 in the length of the head. The

first dorsal is much nearer to the snout than to the caudal peduncle. The

second dorsal arises opposite the anal. The scales are ctenoid. The

coloration of body is the same as in the last (10.4 mm.) stage. But

as the fish grows further it becomes brownish above the lateral line and

olive below.

TABLE III

Liza cascasia (Hamilton)

(Measurements in millimetres)

Larval Stages

Characters 4.70 mm. | 7.00 mm. | 8.30mm. | 10.00 mm.

stage stage stage stage

Standard length bah 5.58 6.45 8.76

Length of head 1.17 1.87 2.00 2.38

Length of snout 0.32 0.58 0.59 0.85

Diameter of eye 0.41 0.67 0.90 1.00

Maximum height of body 0.80 122, 1.50 1.80

Length from vent to tip of caudal fin 2.45 3755 347 4.61

Development of scales in L. cascasia (Fig. 4): In L. cascasia the

scales first appear on the body at the 10.00 mm. stage, and are all cycloid

in structure. They first appear on the head and later on the rest of the

body. At 14.10 mm. stage the scales are all cycloid and longer

than broad. As the post-larva grows they develop more and more and

at the 16.80 mm. stage, the head has typical cycloid scales. At a later

EARLY STAGES OF THREE SPECIES OF FISH FROM THE JAMUNA_ 239

HORE

Fig. 4. Developmental stages of scales in L. cascasia (Hamilton).

_(a) Cycloid scale from a 14.10 mm. long post-larva (6) same from the head

region (c) Ctenoid scale trom a 18.70 mm. long post-larva (d) Typical cycloid scale

from a 30.20 mm. long specimen (e) Typical ctenoid scale from a 28.70 mm. long

specimen.

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Stage (18.70 mm.) the scales on the body have become ctenoid, in the

majority one to two ctenae having appeared apically. The cycloid scales

on the head have developed additional circuli.

With further growth, the scales assume the typical ctenoid pattern.

A typical scale of a 28.70 mm. long fish has 7 to 8 circuli, 3 to 4 radii

and about 8-9 ctenii. Cycloid scales with 10-11 circuli and 3 to 4 radii

are fairly common. A typical cycloid scale from the head region has

11 to 13 circuli.

The pattern of the development of scales in L. cascasia parallels that

of Mugil corsula described by Pakrasi & Alikunhi (1952).

As the work is of a preliminary nature it has not been thought neces-

sary to refer to all the literature on the development of scales in L.

cascasia.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My sincere thanks are due to Dr. M. P. Motwani, Research Officer,

Central Inland Fisheries Research Sub-Station, Allahabad, for suggesting

this piece of work, and also for his constant guidance and encourage-

ment during the period of the work. Thanks are also due to Dr. B. S.

Bhimachar, Chief Research Officer, Central Inland Fisheries Research

Station, Barrackpore, for going through the manuscript and making

suggestions.

REFERENCES

Alikunhi, K. H. (1955) : Observa-

tions on the fecundity, larval develop-

Karamchandani, S. J. & Motwani,

M. P. (1954): On the larval develop-

ment and early growth of L. bata (Hamil-

ton). Indian J. Fish. 2 (2): 216-29.

& Chaudhuri, H. (1954):

On the life history and the bionomics of

thecarp minnow, Chela phulo (Hamilton).

Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 39: 76-90.

Venkataraman, R. (1945) : On the bio-

nomics of the baril, Barilius bendelsis

(Hamilton). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

46: 438-39.

Day, F. (1878): Fishes of India,

Burma and Ceylon, London.

Jones, S. (1946a): Breeding and

development of Indian freshwater and

brackish water fishes PartI. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 46 (2): 317-36.

— — (1946b): Breeding and develop-

ment of Indian freshwater and brackish

water fishes Part II. ibid. 46 (3): 453-71.

— — (1950): Bibliography of breeding

habits and development of fishes of in-

land waters of India. J. Zool. Soc.

India 2 (2): 109-125.

ment of Pseudosciana coitor (Hamilton).

J. Zool. Soc. India 6 (1) : 71-79.

— — (1955): Notes on the early life

history, bionomics and breeding of Rita

rita (Hamilton). ibid. 7: 115-126.

— — (1956): On the larval develop-

ment of four species of freshwater cat-

fishes from the river Ganga. ibid. 8:

19-34.

Khan, Hamid. (1924): Observa-

tions on the breeding habits of some fresh-

water fishes in the Punjab. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 29 : 958-62.

— — (1926): Early stages in the

development of some freshwater fishes

in the Punjab. ibid. 30: 531-40.

— — (1934): Habits and habitats of

the food fishes of the Punjab. ibid. 37:

657-62.

Pakrasi, B. & Alikunhi,K.H. (1952):

On the development of the grey mullet

Mugil corsula (Hamilton). J. Zool.

Soc. India 4 (2): 123-40.

~ Some Notes on Blanford’s, or the

Whitetailed Wood, Rat [Rattus

blanfordi (Thomas) | in western India

A. BROSSET

(With one plate and one text-figure)

Amongst the rodents, the genus Rattus is the best studied. The

urban species, the Black Rat [R. rattus (Linn.)] and the Brown Rat’

[R. norvegicus (Berkenhout)] have been the subject of many works

concerning their behaviour, their psychic-faculties, their repro-

duction, .. . etc., and their biology is very well known today.

In India, from the ecological point of view, we find two groups

of rats, one associated with man, as R. rattus and R. norvegicus, and

a second which shows no tendency to have anything in common with

man, as Blanford’s, or the Whitetailed Wood, Rat [R. blanfordi

(Thomas)]. It would be interesting to compare the various other

aspects of the lives of these two ecologically segregated groups.

Cohabitation with man has deeply modified the biology of the first

group, and it is in the second group, which has undergone evolution

free from human influences, that we must search for the primitive

and natural biological characters of the Rattus stock.

For useful comparisons between these two ecologically segregated

groups of Rattus, it is necessary to know the biology of both. But.

though we know very well the biology of the town-rats, unfortunately

nothing seems known about the others. The reason of this ignor-

ance is easy to understand. In addition to the scarcity of field-

‘mammalogists in India, these rodents are hill and forest species,

living in secluded places. Like all small nocturnal mammals, they are

usually extremely difficult to observe in their natural biotope.

During 1959 and 1960, I have made zoological researches on the

fauna of the caves in western India, and have had the opportunity

to observe several Blanford’s Rats in their native haunts, and to

collect some data on their life histories. Certain aspects of their

biology, such as food and nocturnal territory, remain unknown, but

242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

I have collecied details about their diurnal biotope, social life, breed-

ing behaviour, etc., and these observations, together with some com-

parisons with the biology of the town-rats, are the subject of tae

present note

CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH BLANFORD’S RATS WERE SEEN

Twenty-six rats were observed in their natural haunts. In all

cases these rodents were in the darker, quieter, and most secluded

parts of Buddhist caves all in hilly country.

Bedsar Caves (Western Ghats, Poona District).

On 4th June 1960, in a dungeon adjacent to one of the principal

caves, my attention was drawn to a crevice in the wall, from which

a strong smell of rodent-urine was emanating. Inside, five Blanford’s

Rats, a pair of adults and three young ones, were squatting. The

rodents were on bare stone, and there was no trace of a nest. To

catch them, we smoked out the rats with sulphur for a long time

before we succeeded.

Aurangabad Caves, Deccan: |

I paid a visit to the caves early in the night of the 28th August

1960, wishing to observe the nocturnal behaviour of the bats living

there. About one hour after sunset, in a dungeon adjacent to one

of the caves, I saw two sub-adult R. blanfordi. In the dungeon

there was also a small colony of Indian Vampire Bats, Megaderma

lyra. Rats and bats were very active, and seemed ready to go out

of the caves, which they did immediately after my intrusion.

Half an hour later, in one of the open caves, I met a third

Blanford’s Rat. This rodent was sick, and probably blind. His eyes

were covered with a whitish disc. Half the body was denuded of

hair, and it was very thin. i

Kanheri Caves (Salsette Island, Greater

Bombay):

It was here that I was able to follow the life of several individuais.

In fact, I have visited these caves regularly, on an average once m

every month since August 1959 to January 1961. During the last

monsoon, I visited these caves at least once a week, and often twice

or more. Although the subject of my researches was the biology of

bats, I took notes also of what I saw about Blanford’s Rats.

JaSSOAG *P 2 Sojoyd

‘sunoAd pue seule} ‘}soU 9Y} IV yuney Itey} Ul wpsofun7g “yy OMI,

seuUloy]) spsofunyg snyvy “yex s,propuetg

‘00S “LSIH{ ‘LVN AvaWog ‘Nunof

NOTES ON BLANFORD'S RAT IN WESTERN INDIA 243

R. blanfordi appear in the Kanheri Caves immediately after the

beginning of the monsoon. Before the rains, when I visited the

caves, not one was visible. But, on the 18th of June 1960, 16

Blanford’s Rats had taken up residence in different places. The

majority remained there till the end of the monsoon in September.

Two families remained up to the 13th November, after which all dis-

appeared completely.

In June, I noticed 5 pairs and 6 isolated individuals. Two or

three of the latter were half grown. Afterwards, we saw in other

caves three more pairs. Most of them were in niches excavated in

stone walls, but a few were just resting on the shoulders or the head

of the Buddhas carved in the rock. The rats were naturally tame.

and did not fear very much the approach of humans. One could

observe, photograph, and even lightly touch them without prompting

this amiable animal to bite or to escape. It was also noticeable that

this species is not a repugnant mammal, as R. norvegicus. Its

appearance and disposition helped my observations.

In the course of my visits in June and July, I had the opportunity

to follow the life of a family, from the birth of the young ones to

their dispersal. We made notes on the growth of the young ones

and behaviour of the parents. These observations were continued

in September and October, the animals having been marked—the

marking was done on the tail with mercurochrome.

The synthesis of my notes on R. blanfordi could be placed as

follows:

(1) Ecology (diurnal biotope)

(2) Social life (inter- and intra-specific associations)

(3) Reproduction (the nest and the young)

ECOLOGY

The caves are a seasonal haunt, inhabited specially during the

monsoon. During the dry season these rodents probably live in

crevices of rocks, under stones, and in hollows of trees.

The caves selected by the rats were situated in hilly country,

far from human activity. The Kanheri Caves which are daily visited

by a number of people during the dry seasons, are very quiet. and

deserted during the monsoon.

Blanford’s Rats were always found in the darkest and most

secluded parts of the caves, sometimes in crevices in rocks as in

Bedsar, but most often in small niches in the walls. Seldom do

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

they lie on the ground. Small dungeons adjacent to the principal

caves are most often chosen as a haunt (see text-figure).

KELL

Uy,

Open. air

Porch

de S

Principal room of the cave G3

B.S

Cod

SSS

an,

Plan of Buddhist cave with its fauna of vertebrates during the monsoon

(Kanheri, 18th June 1960)

A: Nest of Blanford’s Rat—1 female and 3 young; B: Toad, Bufo melanos-

tictus, moulting ; C : Place of male Blanford’s Rat ; D: Haunt of 18 Bats Megaderma

Spasma ; E: Place ofa pair of large geckos, Hemidactylus maculatus.

Blanford’s Rat is a nocturnal animal, and leaves the caves a

long time after sunset. During the day, it usually refuses to go

into the open air, even if disturbed by man.

I had the opportunity to observe the start of a family for the

nocturnal trip on the 20th of July after sunset. I believe that it

was the first outing of the young. ‘Thirty-five minutes after the

beginning of the night, the three young ones appeared at the door of

the cave. They made a very slow and careful exploration of the

porch. After about ten minutes of hesitation, suddenly, they rushed

into. the open and disappeared in the tall grass of the hill.

About a quarter of an hour later, the parents appeared in their

turn in the porch and left the cave.

On our next visit, three days later, the pair of adults were there.

But the young ones definitely abandoned their parents.

NOTES ON BLANFORD’S RAT IN WESTERN INDIA 245

SCCIAL LIFE

Blanford’s Rat is a sociable species, although isolated individuals

are not rare (6 cases observed). The group is a family association:

a pair of adults with or without young.

During about 45 days after their birth, the young ones depend

on the parents. In certain cases, as in Kanheri, they dispersed

immediately after weaning. But in Bedsar three young about 24

months old were still living with the parents.

The observations are in conformity with what we know of the

social life of the other Rattus species associated with man, R.

rattus and R. norvegicus. For both, the social group is a family

one. If food is plenty, the young remain in the family group. If

food is scarce they leave the native biotope after weaning.

The Buddhist caves of Bombay State give refuge not only to Blanford’s

Rats, but also to! many other vertebrates, such as mice and rats

of different species, squirrels, bats, geckos, toads, etc. One can notice

that there is no inter-specific association amongst rodents in the

cavities; the presence of other rats or mice excludes that of R.

blanfordi. So, at the beginning of the rains, when a lot of different

rodents took shelter in the Kanheri Caves, individuals of a single

species were always seen in each cave. But Blanford’s Rats tolerate

very well bats and toads in their haunts. So, in several caves, I

saw toads, Bufo melanostictus, 11 the immediate proximity of Blan-

ford’s Rats. These toads come here during the monsoon, for their

moult, probably needing relatively dry air for this operation. It is

strange to see the toad taking off his skin with the help of his legs

and mouth, and gradually eating the removed skin. I observed such

an individual very busy in this work, while in the same dungeon.

a female Blanford’s Rat was suckling her young.

_ The association of the rat with bats in the same caves is common.

I saw species of bats, such as Hipposideros galeritus, Taphozous

melanopogon and kachhensis, and Megaderma lyra, cohabiting with

Blanford’s Rat. In a cave at Kanheri a colony of the rare bat

Megaderma spasma lived in good understanding with five R. blanfordi,

two adults and three young. Curiously enough the Megaderma or

False Vampire bats are known as eaters of small rodents. But, in

the present case, these ferocious Chiroptera did not attack the rats,

even the young ones during the first period of their life. Perhaps

like mary other raptors the hats have a zone of protection in the

immediate vicinity of their haunt. In any case we can consider the

association of rats with bats as a testimony of their mutual sympathy.

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

These associations are only phenomena of convergence, which bring

together in the same biotope different mammals having the same

ecological requirements.

REPRODUCTION

I was lucky enough to follow in good condition the reproduction

of a couple, in June, in Kanheri Caves. The female was

marked and had a second litter at the beginning of the autumn. I

saw also two other cases of reproduction, in Bedsar and Kanheri

Caves. I give the relevant particulars in the table below:

Kanheri: Pair No. 1 |

Bedsar Pair No.2

Kanheri :

First Litter | Second Litter

Young probably 24|Young 6-8 days|Young about 50|2 Young about 50 days

months old on 4th} oldon18thJune] daysoldon13th} old on 13th Novem-

June 1960 1960 November 1960 ber 1960

Date of birth (esti-|Date of birth |Date of birth | Date of birth (estimat-

mated): about 20th; (estimated): 10th} (estimated): 1st} ed): 1st October

March June October

The observations are not very significant about the periodicity of

reproduction. In fact, though we always saw young ones more or

less grown amongst these rats, the greater number of pairs were

without young ones, and nothing is known about reproduction in

winter. It is a fact that reproduction in the well-known species R.

rattus and R. norvegicus is primarily dependent on the quantity of

food, and has no special season. Probably, the reproduction of

R. blanfordi has no periodicity, and can take place at any time.

We saw in Kanheri Caves that 34 months separated the second

litter from the first. But this observation is perhaps also not signi-

ficant, for in the species of the Rattus genus the frequency of the

broods seems to be a function of the availability of food.

SIZE OF LITTER

We found as follows :

Bedsar .. 3 young.

Kanheri:

Ist couple .. 3 young (first litter)

.. 2 young (second litter)

2nd couple .. 2 young

NOTES ON BLANFORD’S RAT IN WESTERN INDIA 247

The cousins of Blanford’s Rat, R. rattus and R. norvegicus, have

from 7 to 12 young, with an average of 8'. The number of my

observations is not enough to give a definite idea of the litter-size

of R. blanfordi. Nevertheless, it appears that this size would be

extremely small for a rodent of the Rattus genus. As a compensa-

tion, juvenile mortality in R. blanfordi would be expected to be equally

low. No loss by sickness or predators was noticed in the four cases

observed.

THE NEST

Particulars of the nests observed are given below:

Kanheri; Pair No. 1 : :

: Kanheri : Pair

Bedsar No 2

First Nest Second Nest

Situation of |Ina deep crevice| In a corner of a| In a niche exca-!| In a niche exca-

the nest in a wall dungeon (see} vated in the| vated in the

plate) wall of a wall of a dun-

dungeon geon

Composition |No nest. The | Flat and rudi-| Nest made of|Nest made of

of the nest family lay on|} mentary nest,| small sticks; sticks and dry

the barren | ofafew sticks,) and pieces of! leaves

rock. and pieces of| match-box |

cardboard and

match-box |

Two remarks must be made. Firstly, the situation and the com-

position of the nest are variable. Secondly, the nest of R. blanfordi is

completely different from those of the other Rattus species; in fact.

R. rattus and R. norvegicus build a ball-shaped nest, fully furnished

in the interior with hairs, whereas no hair is visible in the flat and

primitive nest of R. blanfordi.

THE YOUNG, THEIR GROWTH, AND BEHAVIOUR

The growth is slow for a rat. The young ones seem unable to

get independent of the parent before 45 days.

When we saw for the first time the young ones of Kanheri Caves,

they were 6-8 days old. The body was covered with short and

1 The editors have drawn my attention to the fact that of the seven species of Mus

in Blanford’s FAUNA : 405 which are now accepted in the genus Rattus and of

which the number of mammae are recorded, two species have 10 to 12, one 10,

three 8, and blanfordi only 6. I have subsequently examined one female with one

young which had only 4 teats.

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

blackish fur. The white pencil of the tail was visible. The eyes

were closed; they opened only about ten days later.

During the first month, the young are continuously under the mother,

firmly fixed to her dugs. These dugs have a secondary utility, as

an organ of fixation. It appears also that the young ones possess

a special buccal reflex, which attaches them firmly to the dugs at

_ the approach of danger. So the mother can escape with her young

ones fixed under her belly. I saw several times at Kanheri the female

climbing quickly on the vertical wall, up to the ceiling of the dungeon,

with the three blind voung ones hanging on to her dugs. After the

end of the alarm the whole family returned to the nest.

Probably this method is regularly used by Blanford’s Rat mother

to carry her young ones to a safe place in case of predator-attack.

After about a month, the young ones were freely moving around

the nest. At this time, the male which till then was living alone in

an adjacent dungeon, came to join the rest of the family.

When the young were 45 days old, their size was a little more

than half of the size of the adults. They left the native home at

this time.

CONCLUSION

The social life of R. blanfordi seems similar to that of the well-

known town-rats. But other aspects of its biology, as ecology and

reproduction, are different.

In our epoch, when classification has ceased to be only a con-

venient system of grouping the species, and tries to give us a picture

of the evolution of living beings, ecology, behaviour, and reproduc-

tion are important elements for the differentiation of species, genera,

and families of animals. Perhaps one day, the systematists will put

Blanford’s Rat in a separate genus. It is certain that a psychological

character, like the aptitude or inaptitude to associate with man,

determines in a large scale the divergent evolution of the species

belonging to the actual genus Rattus. If we conceive the classifica-

tion not as a Static structure, but as a dynamic representation of

the history of the species, we must bear in mind this psychological

character, so important for the future of these rodents.

Obituary

ARTHUR STANNARD VERNAY

Arthur Stannard Vernay, the distinguished traveller, naturalist, and

explorer, and life member of the Society, died at the Rassin Clinic,

Nassau, Bahamas, at the age of 83 on October 25th 1960. He is

survived by his wife, Mrs. Marion Kelley Vernay whom he married

in 1908.

Born in England in May 1877, he moved to New York as a young

man, but retained his British nationality. In New York he founded the

Vernay Galleries, dealing in antiques. He retired in 1941, handing

the business over to his employees.

His first visit to India was in 1921, to stay with Ralph Morris.

on the Billigirirangan Hills. Never before had Vernay seen game

animals in their wild state, and he was very impressed. His ex-

_periences on this visit inspired the subsequent discussions he had

with the late Col. J. €. Faunthorpe, then Commissioner of Lucknow,

out of which came their joint offer to the American Museum of

Natural History to collect Asiatic mammals for a projected new hall

in the museum. Vernay financed the entire cost of the collections

and of their transportation. The first Vernay-Faunthorpe Expedition

in India was in 1922-23, and was quickly followed by five other

expeditions in India, Burma, Siam, and Malaya on which the collec-

tions of mammals, birds, insects, reptiles, and botanical specimens

for the Asiatic Hall were made.

In 1924-Vernay visited East Africa, and in 1925 he organized and

led the Vernay Angolan Expedition, to Portuguese Angola, where he

collected the Giant Sable group for the African Hall of the museum.

In 1928 he was elected Vice-Patron of the Bombay Natural History

Society for a grant which permitted a mammal and ornithological

survey of SE. India. The report on the ornithological section of

the survey by N. B. Kinnear and Hugh Whistler has formed for

many years the basic work on the taxonomic status of the birds of

peninsular India.

The Vernay-Hopwood Chindwin Expedition took place in 1935

and in the same year Vernay and Suydam Cutting visited Tibet at

the invitation of the Dalai Lama. On many of the expeditions

Vernay had personnel from the museum to assist in the preparation

250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

of the specimens for the museum groups. Two later expeditions to

Africa were those to the Kalahari in 1930, and to Nyasaland in 1946,

the last being his final major expedition. A fruitful expedition on

the botanical plane was that of 1938 when Vernay, together with

Cutting and G. K. Stanford, visited parts of north-eastern Burma,

never before explored by a scientific group. Vernay became a trustee

of the American Museum of Natural History in 1935, and held the

title of Field Associate in the Department of Mammalogy at his

death. He also made contributions of natural history specimens to

the Field Museum, Chicago, and the Transvaal Museum.

After 1946 he became interested in Orchids, and he soon became

one of the world’s authorities on orchids, of which he had a very

fine collection. He visited South America in his searches for orchids,

and studied the Spanish language for this purpose. This was so

typical of the man; whatever he took up he carried out with thorough-

ness and perfection.

He founded the Society for the Preservation of the Flamingo and

saved from extinction the Flamingo of the Bahamas. As a result

of his efforts, in co-operation with the National Audubon Society

of Washington, a sanctuary was established for the Flamingo on the

Island of Inagua—where they have greatly multiplied.

R.C.M.

Reviews

1. ATLAS DER VERBREITUNG PALAEARKTISCHER

VOGEL (=Atlas of Distribution of Palaearctic Birds). Edited by

Erwin Stresemann (Berlin) and L. A. Portenko (Leningrad). Pre-

pared by G. Eber, G. Mauersberger, L. A. Portenko, and J. Szijj.

Part I, containing 20 distributional and 4 migration maps in folder,

(c. 34X27 cm.). Published by Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 1960. Price

28 DM.

The geographical distribution of birds in the Palaearctic Region

is on the whole better documented than in any other part of the

world excepting perhaps N. America, witness the latest critical work

of Vaurie! reviewed in this journal Vol. 56, pp. 307-9.

By virtue of the very lavishness of the data, however, the necessity

had long been realized for organizing them in a graphic form which

would show a bird’s overall breeding distribution at a glance, without

the tedious and time-consuming labour of having to wade through

and collate the widely scattered multilingual literature in each case.

The published locality records, moreover, were of specimens collected

or observations made not necessarily of breeding birds only.

and therefore needing careful scrutiny and sifting. It was clearly a

task for co-operative teamwork by specialists imbued with a spirit

of dedication and unlimited patience. Happily for ornithology, such

a team has materialized, and this ATLAS is the fruit of its united

labours and erudition.

The 20 distributional maps contained in this first part, besides

4 of migration, are mostly the handiwork of G. Mauersberger.

The explanatory text by the editors, which accompanies each map,

is arranged under the following heads:

Relationship: The nearest species or group of species to

the one under consideration is indicated. For example, under

Emberiza melanocephala is mentioned its eastern neighbour

E. icterica and that both have obviously sprung from the same stock

due to prolonged geographical separation, and that they hybridize in

a small overlapping area near the Caspian Sea.

1 Charles Vaurie (1959) : THE BIRDS OF THE PALAFARCTIC FAUNA, London.

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Arrangement (Gliederung) of races, etc: Remarks on geo-

graphical races, if any recognized.

Distribution: Giving references to detailed distribution maps,

if any published in regional literature, and remarks.

Ecology: Indicating the types of summer and winter habitats.

Migration and Wandering: Routes and destinations as

deduced from specimens and published data, amplified by records

of ring recoveries where available.

The authenticated peripheral localities which, joined up, delineate

the bird’s summer (breeding) range are pinpointed on the map ‘by

means of solid triangles (numbered). A list of these is given under

each map with symbols (A, b, etc.) indicating the evidence upon |

which such point has been accepted from the literature, i.e. where

a bird has been reliably recorded as breeding, or with enlarged

gonads, or where a nest or fledgling has been found, and so on. A

list of publications from which such data have been extracted follows

localities and symbols under each map.

The hall-mark of authority on all the above is set by the invincible

combination of the editors, Erwin Stresemann and L. A. Portenko.

The latter’s expert knowledge of bird distribution in the eastern

Palaearctic Region, in the territories of the U.S.S.R., has proved

invaluable. |

In his Foreword Prof. Stresemann points out that on a consider-

ation of the 800 odd palaearctic birds it was felt that distribution maps

would be needed for at least 200 species, mostly passerine and wood-

pecker. Thus, at the present rate, the work will need 10 parts to

complete. No date-line is set for the succeeding parts. The maps,

as in the present part, will follow no particular sequence of classifica-

tion since their preparation is based on other considerations. They are

printed on unnumbered loose sheets enclosed in a folder so that

they can later be bound in the taxonomic order to be indicated in

the final part. This last will also contain a concluding chapter dis-

cussing the theoretical implications arising from a critical study of

the maps and the explanatory text.

This is a magnificent and much-needed ACen truly formidable

undertaking. Prof. Stresemann is to be congratulated upon the

realization of a dream which, in spite of interruptions and disappoint-

ments, he has steadfastly cherished for over 25 years and finally

brought to near fruition with such able helpers and with the far-

sighted and munificent co-operation of the Deutsche Akademie der

Wissenschaft zu Berlin. _

REVIEWS 253

The succeeding parts of this indispensable work will be eagerly

awaited.

S.A.

2. THE BIRDS OF BORNEO. By Bertram E. Smythies.

Pp. 562 (15.5 X 23.5 cm.). With 50 plates in colour by Comdr. A. M.

Hughes, 49 photographie plates (2 in colour), and special chapters by

Tom Harrisson, Lord Medway, and J. D. Freeman. Edinburgh and

London, 1960. Oliver and Boyd. Price £4 4s. net.

Borneo is the third largest island in the world, after Greenland

and New Guinea, and five times the size of England and Wales.

More than 80% of it is covered with luxuriant tropical forest. It

is sparsely inhabited by primitive tribes, poor in communications,

and little known ornithologically, especially the southern parts known

as Indonesian Borneo. It is true that several large ornithological

collections have been made in the island during the 19th and 20th

centuries and, in so far as the mere listing of species goes, both the

montane and lowland birds have been fairly well covered. Little

field work has, however, been done on their habits and ecology,

and recurring statements under various species such as ‘Not known’

or ‘Very little known’ only serve to emphasize the truth.

Therefore, for the would-be field student of Borneo’s birds, and

for bird-watching visitors to the island in general, it was essential that

all that was known about them should be collated and condensed

in a convenient form out of the many scattered scientific publica-

tions in different European languages, so that the amateur could get

a proper idea of what was known about the birds and what was not

known. Considering the richness of the avifauna and the exotic appear-

ance of many forms peculiar to the island and to that zoogeographical

region in general, good coloured illustrations were indispensable for

field recognition.

A fortuitous and happy combination of circumstances has made

such an extremely useful book as this possible: Tom Harrisson, the

versatile and dynamic curator of the Sarawak Museum, as the moving

force; Bertram Smythies noted for his BIRDS OF BURMA as author;

Commander A. M. Hughes, who made his debut in that publication

as a bird artist of unusual merit, as illustrator: and last. but not

least Loke Wan Tho, the widely reputed patron of ornithology and

254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

bird photographer of Singapore, as financier. With his habitual

generosity Mr. Loke financed, almost entirely, not only the 4-year

Sarawak-wide field collecting of birds, but also the painting of the

illustrations and their 4-colour reproduction as well.

The total number of species dealt with is 554 (including 5 strays)

of which 396 are resident and 158 migratory. Enviably enough almost

every one of these is illustrated in colour. The 29 monochrome

plates of birds are from superb photographs by Loke Wan Tho,

F. G. H. Allen, and B. D. Molesworth, excellently reproduced. With

such eloquence in illustration it has been possible to limit verbal des-

criptions to the minimum, and they mainly complement the pictures.

In the systematic list the descriptions start with a general account

of the Family followed by individual species numbered according to

the same author’s ‘Annotated Checklist of the Birds of Borneo’

published in The Sarawak Museum Journal in June 1957. Since the

book is meant chiefly for. the non-specialist, many of the details and

references pertaining to taxonomy, distribution, etc., given in the

Checklist are here omitted.

The paragraphs under each species, for most of which local names

are also given, cover Status and General Distribution; Description;

Habits; Nest and Eggs; and Races occurring in Borneo. Where

several species of a group of birds occur, e.g. Sunbirds, Spiderhunters,

Flycatchers, etc., workmanlike keys for diagnosis are provided.

Chapters 4, 6, and 7 entitled respectively ‘Birds and Men in Borneo’,

‘Iban Augury’, and ‘A Note on the Gawai Kenyalang, or Hornbill

Ritual of the Iban of Sarawak’ contributed by Tom Harrisson and

J. D. Freeman deal with the place birds occupy in the beliefs, super-

stitions, folklore, and domestic economy of the indigenous inhabitants

and are of great ethnological interest. Chapter 5 on ‘Cave Swiftlets’

by Lord Medway, which is more germaine in the context of current

Bornean avifauna, gives a very good account of the ecology, breeding

biology, and economic aspects of the several species of Edible-nest

Swiftlets (genus Collocalia) that inhabit the island’s caves.

Appendixes on the history of Bornean ornithology, and a full

bibliography of publications on Bornean birds follow; there is a fold-

ing sketch map of Borneo. inside the back cover.

The physical bulkiness of the book—it contains 660 pages includ-

ing the plates and weighs 1.623 kg.—obviously makes it inconvenient

for use as an accompanying field guide. Considering the wealth of

the material to be treated, this sacrifice of handiness was perhaps

unavoidable. The author and all concerned in the publication deserve

REVIEWS 255

high compliment upon the production of a much _ needed and

excellent handbook.

S.A.

3. BIRDS IN MY INDIAN GARDEN. By Malcolm Macdonald.

Pp. 192 (32.5X23 cm.). With coloured frontispiece and 98 mono-

chrome photographs by Christina Loke. London 1960. Jonathan

Cape. Price 45s.

During his three years or so as British High Commissioner in

India, Mr. Malcolm Macdonald lived at No 2 King George's

Avenue, a pleasant and comparatively quiet locality in the heart

of New Delhi. This 3-acre plot contained a charming garden

comprising spacious lawns, flower beds, jungly shrubbery, and

a sprinkling of old trees with gnarled trunks mainly along its

boundaries. This is the garden of the title. Whenever at his head-

quarters, it was part of Mr. Macdonald’s daily regimen to rise early

and stroll about his garden between 6 and 8 a.m. with binoculars

hung round his neck, and take stock of the comings and goings and

other domestic occurrences among the bird inhabitants of his estate

and its environs. This early morning bird watching was occasionally

supplemented during any lucid intervals that could be snatched

between weighty official responsibilities and such other inescapable

diplomatic preoccupations as cocktail parties, and welcoming and god-

speeding an endless succession of international V.I.Ps. All he espied

was meticulously jotted down, and by the end of his stay in Delhi

a veritable stack of note-books had accumulated. These notes.

judiciously distilled, form the basis of this very attractive volume.

For such as are constantly bemoaning lack of time and opportunity

for bird watching owing to mundane preoccupations, the book should

come as an eye-opener: it demonstrates what may be achieved with

Sustained enthusiasm and organized effort, notwithstanding.

Mr. Macdonald was especially fortunate in discovering Christina

Loke as his photographic collaborator. Many of her photographs

illustrating the book—carefully chosen from amongst a formidable

array—are certainly the finest portraits of Indian birds in existence.

It must be remembered, moreover, that most of them were made

under conditions of great physical discomfort from the cramped

interior of a hide in the sizzling heat of a Delhi summer. They

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

reflect the highest credit, not only on the aesthetic sense but also on

the dedication of the photographer.

In his treatment of the subject the author divides up the year

seasonally, chronicling the most important bird species and their

activities in each month or season. The special chapters on Green

Parakeets, the Coppersmith, Mynas, White-eyes, Crows and Koels,

and Ashy Wren-Warblers contain many shrewd observations of great

interest and permanent value, which have not been recorded by

previous observers, e.g. the role of the sexes in site selection, nest-

building, incubation, and feeding the young, as well as building

techniques, and so on. The total number of different birds recorded

in and from this garden was 136, including 30 species which actually

nested within its limits. The descriptions of the social behaviour of

the species towards one another, their competition for nest sites, their

nesting successes and failures, and their family lives are pleasantly,

and often amusingly, written. They convey to the reader some of the

enjoyment the author himself so obviouly derived from his watching.

The account suggesting the communal nesting of Jungle Babblers

—i.e. of more than one pair actively building a single nest, and

collectively feeding the nestlings—is of special] interest, since this state

of affairs among this sociable group was long suspected before and

has been amply corroborated since. The very full description on

pages 112-113 of a Honey Buzzard tackling a honeycomb within a

tree-hole is the first detailed eye-witness account I have seen of the

process.

A useful index at the end gives a list of all the birds recorded

in the book together with their Hindi and scientific names, with an

asterisk against those that nested in the garden. The record will

serve as an authentic standard for comparison ‘forty years on’ when

the present breakneck speed of development in Delhi will have

altered the character both of the environment and its avifauna

altogether.

Both the author and the photographer deserve congratulation upon

their achievement in producing this singularly attractive volume’ which

is sure to be widely acclaimed. Considering the high quality of the

production and the large number of excellent plates, the price of 45

shillings is by no means unreasonable. The only criticism I have

is that the format of the book is too large for convenient handling

and for the ‘syncopated’ modern homes in which it will mostly have

to dwell!

S.A.

REVIEWS . 257

4. PLANT MARVELS IN MINIATURE: 4 PHOTOGRAPHIC

sTuDy. By C. Postma. 173 pp. (32.5x25 cm.). 77 photographic

plates. London, 1960. George Harrap & Co. Ltd. Price 45s. net.

This collection of photographs, of magnifications varying from

X2.5 to Xx 3300, each accompanied by a short explanatory note, gives

the reader glimpses into the structure and development of plants,

and presents for his admiration and wonder the beauty of plant life

in miniature. The photographs are grouped in series illustrative of

different aspects of the subject and, with a little effort to understand

the text, will be found very informative. The illustrations, which

are of superlative quality, will be of interest to the student of botany.

D.E.R.

5. SERENGETI SHALL NOT DIE. By Bernhard and Michael

Grzimek. Translated from the German by E. L. and D. Rewald.

Pp. 344 (23X16 cm.). Numerous coloured and_ black-and-white.

photographs and 3 maps. London, 1960. Hamish Hamilton Ltd.

Price 30s.

There is a sad tale connected with this book. Considering that

the continued existence of the famous Serengeti National Park in

Tanganyika was threatened by a proposal for revising its boundary

and reducing its area, Bernhard Grzimek, Director of the Frankfurt

Zoo, and his son Michael, aged about 23 years, determined by a

study of the animals in the Park to satisfy the Government as to the

disastrous nature of the proposed change, and at tha same time to |

make a movie film of the Park and ifs animals which would interest

a wide public and make them aware of the danger which threatened.

Two problems which they set themselves had to be solved from the

air. So they learnt to fly, and set out for far-away Tanganyika on

their first independent flight in a newly-acquired aeroplane, which

they affectionately called the ‘duck’.

The first problem was the population of big animals in the Park.

Census by photography was not practicable as photographs would

have to be shot at close range for distinguishing the different animals

appearing in them, and the cost of the 50.000 photographs necessary

would have been prohibitive. There was nothing for it, therefore.

but to fly at heights varying from 150 to 300 feet (c. 45 to 90 m.)

258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

above the ground and actually count the animals in strips of about

500 yards (c. 460 m.) width covering the whole Park. Michael

piloted the ‘duck’ while the counting was done by his father assisted

by two game wardens, who had agreed to join in the work after

each of them had been insured for £10,000. By gradual degrees the

faculty was cultivated of counting the animals in groups of a dozen

or more. Even so, the census was a feat of mental aritnmetic and

memory as the figures could be noted only at the end of each flight, and

the animals belonged to about twenty different species and the flights

at times lasted as much as three hours. The census established the

number of large animals in the Park as being about 370,000.

The second problem concerned the seasonal migration of the

animals: was it confined to the proposed new area as the promoters

of the scheme believed or did it extend beyond the new border and

require a larger area? This problem necessitated the marking of

individual animals. A first attempt was made to catch zebras by

chasing them by motor-car and when an animal was sufficiently ex-

hausted passing over its head a noose at the end of a pole. The

operator of the noose was perched precariously on the bonnet of

the car and, in an accident which occurred at quite an early stage,

Michael got a wooden splinter into his neck and nearly died.

Fortunately, his father was able to fly him to Musoma, borrow a

car near the landing ground there, and take him to a hospital where

a competent Indian doctor removed the splinter. Next day father

and son were back at the scene of their labours, and within a week

they were chasing zebras in the Ngorongoro crater. Much later the

method of capture by motor-car chase was improved, capture being

made by catching hold of the animal by the root of the tail! In

between, the Grzimeks experimented with a much-advertized ‘miracle

gun’. The hypodermic bullets supplied for the gun were found un-

Suitable for use in a pursuing car, and the Grzimeks had to work

out their own hypodermic missile, and then by patient experiments

repeated separately for each species of animal to work out the

correct dosages.

And when all this was over and the animals were proved to move

beyond the new limits proposed, the reasons for the migration had |

to be found out, in order to meet the argument that if the animals

were confined to the new limits by suitable fencing they would adapt

themselves to it and continue to flourish. This involved further low-

flying, as much as 30 to 60 feet (c. 9 to 18 m.) above the ground,

and frequent landings to collect samples of soil and fodder plants.

REVIEWS 259

In the end they succeeded in collecting evidence to support their

contention that the migration routes were determined by necessity,

and that the soil in the new area proposed could not grow the fodder

plants required by the animals. .

Then, when the work was complete and the book was ready to

be written, a laconic message reached Bernhard Grzimek in his hut

in the Ngorongoro crater: ‘I am sorry to tell you that Michael] has

crashed in the aeroplane and been killed. He is lying at my house.’

So, although the names of both the father and the son appear as

co-authors, the book is written by the father alone.

In the course of telling us about what he and his son ‘did at

Serengeti, Dr. Grzimek tells us about many other things. My review

has already become unduly long, and I hope that what I have said will

induce readers to acquaint themselves at first hand with what Dr.

Grzimek has to say and to see for themselves the many superb photo-

graphs with which the book is illustrated.

There is one thing however which I cannot refrain from quoting:

‘I constantly run across Germans and Englishmen who declare

they can no longer bear to look at black faces. ... I am not a

a politician but a biologist and can only speak as such when dis-

cussing the black and white question. ... What we have found

is that all people and ‘races’ have about the same proportion of

criminals and murderers, of brilliant men and idiots. ... Hitler’s

Mein Kampf stated that it was ‘against Nature’ for black and

white people to intermarry. ... This, of course, is nothing but

ignorant nonsense... . There is only one human race and Mongo-

lians, Caucasians and Negroes are merely different types within

it. If they intermarry they do not ‘produce hybrids but inter-

mediary forms. . . . Animal breeders know that the children of

a cross between two pure, and therefore inbred, types of poultry

are larger and healthier, than their parent; they show ‘hybrid

vigour’. The interbreeding of human types should have the same

result... . For me a negro is an equal and a brother.’

Coming from a member of a nation so recently dominated by

leaders who preached the doctrine of Nordic superiority, these are

brave and memorable words. One hopes that they typify the spirit

of the new Germany.

D.E.R.

260- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

6. THE COUNTRYMAN NATURE BOOK: AN ANTHOLOGY

FROM THE COUNTRYMAN. Edited by Richard Fitter. Pp. 134 (22x15

cm.). 38 photographic plates and numerous drawings, Leicester, 1960.

Brockhampton Press. Price 15s.

This collection of nature notes from The Countryman contains

much to interest and amuse the nature lover, and has some beautiful

photographs. Of particular interest are an eye-witness account of

a mongoose-cobra fight, from start to finish a tense half-hour, and a

description accompanied by a photograph of the emergence of ichneumon

fly grubs from a parasitized butterfly caterpillar. I would also mention

photographs of the mechanism by which the Salvia flower deposits

its pollen on visiting bees. Some instances of animal intelligence

and behaviour related here are difficult to believe but, the more one

observes living creatures, the more one realises the wisdom of keeping

an open mind.

D.E.R.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. ‘SCALP’ OF THE ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN

(With three text-figures)

In the Journal (Vol. 52, pp. 594-598) we reviewed the evidence for

the existence of the veti or Abominable Snowman and referred in

particular to the ‘scalp’ at the Pangboche Monastery in north Nepal.

A hair from the ‘scalp’ was reported upon by Dr. L. A. Hausman of

New Jersey, U.S.A. and, though it was not possible to match it with

any other animal hair immediately available, Dr. Hausman said that

it was artificially coloured and that the photograph of the ‘scalp’

suggested that it was a moulded and sewed artifact.

Subsequently, Dr. Bernard Heuvelmans in ON THE TRACK OF

UNKNOWN ANIMALS (London, 1958) considered the evidence at length;

he came to the conclusion that the yeti is a giant biped anthropoid

hitherto unknown to science and named it Dinanthropoides nivalis.

Regarding the ‘scalp’ he stated that the hair tracks on it were arranged

in a pattern which made it impossible that it could have been

obtained from any known quadruped. A second specimen from the

Khumjung lamasery, not far away, was found to be similar, while a

third one discovered at Namche bazar appeared to be a fake.

Late in 1960 Sir Edmund Hillary, the leader of another expedi-

tion into the Everest area in search of the Snowman, was able to

borrow the ‘scalp’ at Khumjung and took it to Dr. Heuvelmans for

hig examination. Dr. Heuvelmans in a recent letter to the Society

communicates a change of opinion. His letter will be easier to

understand if we give the reasons for his former opinion, namely

that ‘on a hoofed mammal’s back the hairs all point towards the

hindquarters, parallel to the median line in what is technically

called ‘the primitive cranio-caudal line’ [Text-fig. 1 (a)], whereas ‘the

hairs in the alleged snowman scalps begin parallel to the median

line in what is thought to be the forehead, soon turn at right angles

to it and remain at an angle until the nape of the neck where they

return to this original parallel direction’ [Text-fig. 1 (b)]. Dr.

Heuvelmans writes: ‘When the so-called “scalp” was shown to me

in Paris by Sir Edmund Hillary I was struck by the appearance of

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

(a) (b)

Text-fig. 1. The arrangement of hair-tracts on (a) a quadruped’s back ;

(b) the supposed snowman’s scalp.

the fur and especially of the median erected crest of hairs, which

reminded me of the mane of a Serow. But I could not under-

stand how this relic could have been made from the skin of

the neck or shoulder of the Serow. I explained my doubts to my

friend and fellow zoologist Ivan T. Sanderson from New York, who

demonstrated that when a piece of skin is exaggeratedly stretched on

a milliner’s block there occurs a sort of shift of the various layers of

= |

TRB = — LA

the skin, which modifies completely the original inclination of the

hairs. The lower layer having a tendency to adhere to the block, the

whole skin is distorted: and the hairs become inclined towards the

direction of the traction (Text-fig. 2). So the original hair-tracks

(Text-fig. 3, A) become a pattern, which is exactly the one found on

the head of a tall primate (Text-fig. 3, B).

“When I understood this it remained to be seen whether my first

intuition about the identity of the animal whose skin had been used

to make the “scalp” was correct. There was no skin of a southern

Serow in the Paris Museum, but I found one in the Brussels Insti-

tute, not exactly from the Nepalese subspecies (Capricornis sumatrensis

thar Hodgson) but from the same species, the original Sumatran one.

I checked the hairs of this Serow against the hairs of the Khumjung

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES } 263

Text-fig. 3

scalp (given to me by Sir Edmund) and against the hairs of the

Pangboche scalp I already had. They are identical. It should be

stressed that Professor Teizo Ogawa (Dept. of Anatomy, University

of Tokyo) who studied microscopically the hairs from the various

scalps from Pangboche, Khumjung, and Namche bazar, has demon-

strated that they all come from the same kind of animal.’

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR RoaD, EDITORS

Bomsay 6,

March 8, 1961.

2. ‘OCCURRENCE OF THE SEA COW, HALICORE DUGONG

(ERXL.), OFF THE SAURASHTRA COAST"’®

A recent note by Mani (1960) which appeared under the above

title calls for some comments.

1. The occurrence of a dead and floating dugong in the sea

noticed near Kalyan lighthouse on 17 July 1959 is a rare sight indeed.

and to my knowledge this appears to be the first such record. The

natural tendency of many of the marine mammals is to sink when

they are killed and that such was not the case with the above speci-

men, in spite of its relative freshness, is interesting. The cause of

death, whether due to injury or excessive infestation from intestinal

1 Published with the parmission of the Chief Research Officer, Central Marine

Fisheries Research Station, Mandapam Camp. ‘¢

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

parasites or some natural cause is unknown. The sex' of this animal

is not given, but fortunately as the head appears to have been pre-

served, this could be easily verified.

2. The author mentions a second specimen, this time a female

caught from the same place on 30 July 1959 measuring? 13’ 4” (4.06

metres); if this length is correct, it is a record as there is up to now

no authentic report of any dugong of this gigantic size. The method

used in measuring is not given, but if it represents a straight line

measurement from the anterior end of the muzzle (snout) to the fork

of the caudal flukes, the size is exceptionally large. It is a pity that.

in spite of the animal being ‘retrieved intact’, a photograph and other

body measurements of the animal were not taken. In a way, the sex

of the animal is also interesting. The general tendency, I find, is

for the male dugong to attain larger proportions as is the case with

some marine mammals and, if this be so, should we expect some day

to find a still larger male? The average size of the Indian dugong is

about 2.5 metres and it is known to attain about 3.5 metres. The

Red Sea dugong which Gohar (1957) considers to be subspecifically

distinct [D. d. tabernaculi (Riippell)] is said not to exceed 3.15 metres.

3. The proximity and identical locations of the two occurrences

are noteworthy. Information as to whether dugongs are seasonal

visitors to the Saurashtra Coast will be of interest.

4. The author remarks that ‘This relation of the sea lions and

seals is reputed to use its forelimbs as hands for conveying food to

the mouth... It may be said in this connection that the dugongs

(Sirenia) are as distinct from the amphibious Pinnipedia (Carnivora)

as the elephant is from the lion, but the dugongs and the Pinnipedia

(sea lions, seals, etc.) evince some convergent resemblance on account

of the aquatic mode of life that they share. I have never during

my observations on the captive dugongs kept at the Central Marine

Fisheries Research Station, Mandapam Camp, seen them using the

flippers to convey food to the mouth, although in addition to their

natatory function they are used for other purposes, such as: for

supporting the anterior part of the body while resting at the bottom,

with the distal part of the flippers slightly flexed outwards; for

moving a few paces forwards or backwards on the bottom, with the

flippers in the same attitude as described above but used alternatively,

1 The skull received by the Society from Mr. Mani is that of a male, and since he

describes the second dugong asa female, must be the skull of the first.—Eps.

2 We are informed by Mr. Mani that the animal was placed alongside the wall

of a cold storage room and the tips of the snout and the caudal flukes marked off

on the wall and measured by him personally.—Eps.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 265

the movement itself being primarily governed by the action of the

tail flukes; and for making short forward or backward ‘glides’ in

mid-water, with both flippers used simultaneously. When beached

or when the water in the tank is kept low for cleaning, the animal

may flex back the anterior part of its body as though drawing itself

up on its flippers and make ineffective attempts to lunge or lurch

forward at the same time using both flippers simultaneously in a

few antero-posterior thrusts, all the while beating the tail strongly

up and down. Often such violent action results in the animal turn-

ing supine and when it rolls on to one side the flippers are used

to right itself to its normal position. Underwater, occasionally one

of the flippers may be flexed forwards in a rotatory movement to

brush the chin. However, these are only secondary actions, for the

primary mode of locomotion in the dugong as in the cetaceans may

be termed ‘tail propulsion’, where the swimming movements are effected

by the up-and-down movements of the posterior part of the body

and the horizontally-placed tail flukes.

5. According to Ellerman & Scott (1951), the correct nomen-

clature of the Indian dugong should be Dugong dugon (Miiller).

6. Incidentally, newspaper reports! dated 23 July 1959 referred

to the capture of a dugong on the Saurashtra coast as follows:

‘Fish RESEMBLING MAN CAUGHT: ... Townspeople of Jamnagar and

the surrounding areas have been flocking to the near-by port of Rozi,

to view with amazement a unique catch of a 400-pound, 16-foot-long

fish, whose head, features and chest formation are said to resemble a

human being. . . 2; ‘A fisherman, Juma Abdullah, of Bedi Port,

caught the giant fish in his net while out at sea.’ ‘The entire popula-

tion of the village of Bedi and large numbers of persons from Jamnagar

have been thronging the Rozi sea coast to view the strange catch—-

‘the first of its kind made in these waters. . . .. No doubt, these

reports refer to the first specimen mentioned by Mani (1960). The

length of 16 feet would appear to be an exaggeration, while the

weight of 400 lb. will be more correct for a dugong measuring about

2 metres. A 2.47-metre-long specimen weighed here scaled 260 kg.

(565 Ib.).

_ 7. There is an editorial comment at the end of the note to the

effect that ‘These Saurashtra specimens extend the recorded distri-

bution of the Dugong in India to north of the 15th parallel. ‘Bedi

(Jamnagar) is c. 22° 30’ N.’ (italics mine). While these two are

* NAFEN report in the Pioneer, Lucknow, and other daily papers.

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

definite records, the late Dr. S. T. Moses’s statement, ‘The dugong

is said to have been caught in a bush vada (a type of fence net) near

Sachana in 1877’, bears repeating (Moses, 1942).

8. For a recent informative account on the Indian dugong,

reference may be made to the article by Jones (1959). It might

interest all animal lovers in general and those interested in the

conservation of marine life in particular that steps are being taken

by the Marine Biological Association of India for the conservation

of this animal. It is earnestly hoped that the Dugong Research

and Conservation Fund, started under the auspices of the Association,

will receive support from all quarters.

CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES RESEARCH STATION,

MANDAPAM CAMP,

S. INDIA,

September 22, 1960.

E. G. SILAS

REFERENCES

Ellerman, J. R., & Scott-Morrison, J. Mar. biol. Ass. India 1 (2): 198-202.

LCs: (1951): Chesittict of Palaearctic and.

Indian Mammals—1758 to 1946.

Gohar, H.A.F. (1957): The Red Sea

Dugong. Publ. Mar. Biol. Sta., Al Ghar-

adqua, Egypt9: 3-50. |

Jones, S. (1959) : On a_ pair of captive

dugongs [Dugong dugong (Erxleben) ].

Mani, 8.B. (1960) : Occurrence of the

sea cow, Halicore dugong (Erxl.), off the

Saurashtra Coast. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 57 (1): 216-217.

Moses, S.T. (1942): The Fisheries of

the Gujarat Coast. J. Gujarat Res. Soc.

4 (2): 75.

3. ‘THE HISPID HARE, CAPROLAGUS HISPIDUS (PEARSON)

With reference to your interesting note in the Journal for August

1960 (Vol. 57, No. 2, p. 400) the following may be worth recording.

The Hispid Hare was not uncommon in parts of the Goalpara

Forest Division, Assam, when I served there from 1907 to 1911.

They lived mainly in Ulu-grass (/mperata sp.) i.e. thatch 3 or 4 ft.

high which at that time covered considerable stretches of the drier

prass-lands. We occasionally shot one when out with a line of

elephants and thought them quite good eating. Unfortunately, as

we then had no idea of their impending scarcity, I never kept a skin

or skull, and though I remember making a water-colour sketch this

is long since lost. My recollection is of an animal very like your

photograph of the Van Ingen specimen. The ears, though short and

normally laid back and held together, could certainly not be described

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 267

as ‘not projecting beyond the fur’. I find two old pencil notes in

my copy of Blanford reading: ‘body more the shape of a guinea-

pig than a hare’ and ‘some say he is not good eating but I have

found him all right’.

_ My Divisional Forest Officer, the late T. H. Monteath, told me

that nobody knew whether the young were born blind and naked

in burrows or fully developed in the open and urged me to try to

find out as he had never found a burrow himself. I searched likely

spots after a grass fire but never found a burrow though I saw a

few shallow ‘scrapes’, such as rabbits make, which might have been

due to hispid hare. When, in 1911, I was transferred from Goalpara

to Buxa Division (now in W. Bengal), Monteath, who had been in Buxa

earlier, told me I should find the hispid hare there but I saw very

few—only one that I can be positive about. In my early days in

Buxa I fairly often saw movements in Ulu-grass which I had come to

associate with groups either of hispid hare or of pigmy hog, but

by that time we realized that both these species were becoming rare

for I remember being asked to try to get a live (pair of either for

the Calcutta zoo.

Until I read your article I had not realized how rare the hispid

hare had become in India. Is it known to occur elsewhere? I ask

because, while a prisoner in Singapore, a friend told me of a hare

or rabbit that he had ‘seen in southern Thailand which, because

it lived in parties in kajang (the Malay equivalent of Ulu-grass)

sounded more like the hispid than the Indian hare. Unfortunately

I have lost touch with my informant and cannot even remember his

name.

THE SANDS HOUSE,

SOUTH NEWINGTON, E. O. SHEBBEARE

BANBURY, OXON, ENGLAND,

February 1, 1961.

4. PARENTAL CO-OPERATION IN THE FEEDING

OF NESTLINGS IN THE INDIAN ROBIN [SAXICOLOIDES

FULICATA (LINN,)]

A pair of Indian Robins [Saxicoloides fulicata (Linn.)] built

their nest in my room, between two toffee tins placed on a narrow

wall-shelf at a height of about 6 ft. (c. 2 m.). The nest was ready

on the 2nd of July 1960; the first egg was seen on the morning of

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

the 3rd, the second and the third, which completed the clutch, on

the 4th and Sth respectively. The first egg hatched on the 15th and

the other two nestlings were seen on the 16th morning.

The behaviour of the parents in the feeding of their nestlings was

observed from a hide built at a distance of about 4 ft. (c. 1 m.) from

the nest. The birds were seen to fetch food by turns and feed the

nestlings. Ordinarily, when the male came with food, the female

would be away. Between his visits the female would sit for some

time in the nest covering the nestlings. If the male arrived with

food during that time, she would hurriedly leave the nest to fetch

food; the male would then feed the nestlings. At times it would

so happen that, when the male arrived with food, the female would

continue sitting. In this situation the female. would stretch her head

towards the male and he would gently put the food into her beak.

He would then withdraw a little and, standing by, watch his mate

feed the nestlings with the same food. As soon as this feeding was

done he would quit to fetch the next feed, while she remained in

the nest for some time. This sequence of events was photographed.

Such behaviour was more frequently exhibited in the first few days

after hatching and more so in the mornings. With the progressive

growth of feathers of the nestlings this behaviour became rarer, and |

I did not see it after the 20th by which time the feathers were more

or less sufficiently grown to give them warmth.

This is an interesting case of parental co-operation. By this means

the female could rest a while by skipping one of her own turns of

fetching food. Also, the nestlings were not left alone without warmth

for long. The male seems to realise at once what his mate expects

him to do and responds readily; the initiative in this particular

behaviour rests with the female.

DIVISION OF AVIAN BIOLOGY,

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, J. C. GEORGE

M.S. UNIVERSITY, BARODA 2,

January 30, 1961.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 269

5. FURTHER NOTES ON THE WINTERING OF THE FOREST

WAGTAIL, MOTACILLA INDICA (GMELIN) IN INDIA .

Recently in Journal 57: 220 I recorded seeing 7 to 8 Forest

Wagtails, Motacilla indica (Gmelin), in the grounds of the Madras

Christian College, Tambaram, from 19th September to 7th October

presumably on their way south and west.

This year three to six birds were seen every day from 11th to

28th April in the same locality and it would appear that they follow

the same route in both directions. They had not yet broken up

into pairs nor was any change in their behaviour noticed. This

appears to be the first record of this bird in peninsular India on the

return migration and it would be interesting to try and obtain more

details of their movements.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT, P. J. SANJEEVA RAJ

STORRS, CoNNn., U.S.A.,

October 22, 1960.

6. THE NESTING HABITS OF THE EASTERN RACE OF

FINN’S BAYA, PLOCEUS MEGARHYNCAHUS SALIMALI

ABDULALI

In the last Journal Vol. 57 (3): 659-662 I separated Finn’s

Baya from the eastern end of its range as Ploceus megarhynchus

sdlimalii and drew attention to O’Donel’s records from the Bhutan

Duars which stated that the nests were untidy balls of grass strips

. . . loosely and carelessly put together with no lining and fixed to

the stems of grass. I referred to the nesting specimens of the eastern

race taken by Dr. Koelz from near Goalpara in Assam and, in the

absence of any information regarding the type of nest built by them,

‘suggested that they did not nest in trees like the typical race in the

west, but in grass. 7

I have now been able to contact Dr. Koelz and, in a reply just

teceived, he says: ‘My birds were nesting in trees in a grass area.

The trees as I recall were small Erythrina more or less stunted, some

15 feet (c. 4.5 m.) high. There was a scattered clump of them, may

be a dozen trees. The nests were the untidy type you describe not

the neatly woven tube-entranced nests of the weaver birds. Further-

more, the breeding birds caught my attention from afar by their

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Passer domesticus-like chatter. I don’t know where my notes are or

I could give you information on the number of nests etc... .’

Thougn it does seem unlikely that O’Donel was only referring to

the ‘doodling’ nests in grass described by Drs. Sdlim Ali & J. H.

Crook (J. Bombay nat, Hist. Soc. 56 : 463) and overlooked colonies

in trees, it would appear from Dr. Koelz’s report that the eastern

birds also build in trees.

BomMBAY NATURAL HIsTory SOCIETY, |

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BOMBAY 6,

February 28, 1961.

7. THE EASTERN STEPPE EAGLE [AQUILA NIPALENSIS

NIPALENSIS (HODGSON)] ON THE SOUTH COL OF

EVEREST

Members of the Indian Everest Expedition noticed three specimens

of large birds of prey, lying dead on the South Col at a height of

nearly 26,000 ft. (7925 m.) on 23rd May 1960. One of these was

brought down and later identified as the Steppe Eagle [Aquila

nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson)].

This species is a migrant between India and central Asia and it

is interesting to note that some of the birds migrate over the South

Col which is indeed one of the most difficult areas to cross. It

appears that the birds were overcome by weather conditions during

their spring migration to the northern range of their distribution. The

South Col is perhaps one of the regular migratory routes of this

species as Tenzing in his biography mentions seeing a dead eagle,

possibly of this species, on the South Col during the autumn expedi-

tion of the Swiss in 1952. :

The measurements of the specimen collected by the Expedition

are: Wing 585 mm.; tail 290 mm.; culmen 55 mm.; tarsus 98 mm.;

hind claw 35 mm.

HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINEERING INSTITUTE, GYAN SINGH

DARJEELING, Brigadier

June, 1960.

[Mrs. Desirée Proud in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53(1): 71 re-

cords this species as ‘very common’ in the Nepal Valley all winter—

EDS.]

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES _. 271

8. SOME THOUGHTS ON BIRDS OF PREY

(With a_ text-figure)

Some years ago, in the offices of the Bombay Natural History

Society, I was inspired to commence work on a new handbook of

the Diurnal Birds of Prey, bringing up to date in one volume the

available knowledge on all the species of birds of prey in the world,

and the book is now well under way.

Once started on a task of this sort the writer early becomes aware

of the inadequacy of the information already made available by those

who had the chance to provide it—by which I mean the many

collectors who have shot and skinned birds of prey in the past and

are no doubt still doing so. They recorded a few basic measure-

ments such as the wing, tarsus, culmen, and tail, often noted the

state of moult, and usually noted the stomach contents. These are

facts which tell you something about the bird after it is dead.

But few have recorded the weight, the wing span (which I find strange

because, in big birds, this is often a subject on which there is much

conjecture), and the wing area, although these are facts which can

tell you something about the bird in life, how it flies, how much it

could possibly lift, and so on.

Then again, there is the question of descriptions. Few descrip-

tions in standard works enable an observer to recognise a bird

of prey high up, as big soaring species are seen more often than

not. Most descriptions have been written from museum study skins,

from which the underwing patfern, so vital to the field observer,

cannot be adequately described. Perhaps the best example I know

of this failing is the African Bateleur Eagle, Terathopius ecaudatus,

where the male and the female can be distinguished at once by the

underwing pattern at a considerable range, but only with some

difficulty in any other way. This was a point that does not seem

to have been noted by the many collectors who have shot Bateleurs.

~I would therefore appeal to those who collect birds of prey at

any time to weigh the bird, measure the wing span and total area

(easily done by drawing the wing outline on a sheet of squared paper)

and, most important of all, hold up the bird with wings spread

against a strong light and make a diagrammatic sketch of the under

wing pattern. It need only be very diagrammatic, something like the

attached sketch of the Crested Serpent Eagle, Spilornis cheela, showing

the main pattern of light and dark, and the fact that the wings are

_ very broad and rounded, and that the tail appears rather long.

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

UNDERWING PATTERN Spilornis cheela

Another point that is very inadequately recorded, certainly for

eastern species, is their calls. How often one finds some such remark

as ‘this bird can be recognised by its characteristic call’. The writer

does not say what that call sounded like, and one is left none the

wiser. ‘A clear high scream’ is better, but ‘a clear high scream,

Peeeeee-ooo, is better still, as you then know that the first syllable

is high pitched and long drawn out, the second lower pitched and

shorter. To different ears and with variations this call could sound

like queeeee-loo or clheeeee-u, but the basic characteristic of all these

renderings is the same, and the reader then has a clear idea of what

the cal] is like—again a vital means of identification for birds of prey

which often soar and call high up in nuptial display. The calls of

some eastern species have been described, but what sort of noise does

Hieraaétus kienerii make, or Aviceda leuphotes?

To come to another aspect of the study of birds of prey—their

food. So many people seem to think that all birds of prey are harm-

ful that authoritative descriptions of the food taken, with the prey

species identified as accurately as possible, are needed to refute or con-

firm these views. I have a huge and powerful eagle nesting six hundred

yards from my house in Kenya, and several of my neighbours have

expressed alarm for their poultry. But I have been able to reassure

them, for from long past exiperience I can say that the chickens

are quite safe, this particular eagle being a mammal-eater living on

hyrax and small antelopes, and I have never known it to kill a bird.

To give another example the African Fish Eagle, Haliaettus vocifer

lives mainly on fish, and has therefore been thought by some to be a

danger to fishery interests. In fact, however, it preys chiefly on the cat-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 273

fish Clarias and the lungfish Protopterus in Lake Victoria, both of them

carnivorous fish which are a danger to the valuable Tilapia fisheries

in that they take Tilapia already caught in gill nets. Thus, a bird

which at first might be thought to be in direct competition with

mankind is in fact beneficial. Per contra, there are several species

of Snake Eagles (Circaétus) in Africa, and all Africans with whom

I have discussed the point think that because these birds eat snakes

they must be beneficial. Study of the species of snakes taken, how-

ever, indicates that they are nearly all non-poisonous eaters of rats

and mice themselves, so that on balance the eagles are probably harm-

ful to man in that they kill predators on crop pests.

In assessing whether a bird of prey can be harmful or beneficial

it is desirable to know not only what they eat, but how much. Some

of the earlier work on this subject was most misleading. For example,

authors would state that a pair of Golden Eagles would each eat

at least one grouse per day and so decimate the population of these

useful game birds. Recent work has shown that the daily food

requirements of a Golden Eagle are from 9-12 ounces, or between

5 and 7 per cent of the bird’s bodyweight. Thus a Golden Eagle,

even when it eats a whole grouse weighing about 14 lb., has taken a

meal that will suffice it for two days. :

In working on Golden Eagles in Scotland it had often ed me

that these great birds were able to live and thrive in, areas where

there were very few prey animals such as grouse and hare. Tentatively

I concluded that they must eat less than had been generally supposed,

and in more recent surveys, correlating the amount of potential prey

and carrion with the known food requirements of, a Golden Eagle,

it has become clear that in the hunting range of every pair the food

supply is far greater than the birds can possibly consume. And this

leads to the conclusion that it is not food supply alone which controls

the population density in a bird like the Golden Eagle, which seems

very surprising.

Long term studies of birds of prey, particularly the larger species,

are difficult, because few of us have the time to make them. I have

been lucky in this respect for I have been studying a group of eagles

living on a particular hill for the past 12 years. When I first began

this work there were six pairs of eagles on the hill, which had a

total area of 4.2 square miles (c. 11 sq, km.). They hunted away

from the hhill of course, but they never made use of another similar

hill of about the same area just across a valley. Despite 12 years’

work I am still at a loss for the reason why all the eagles chose

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

to nest on one hill and to ignore the other, apparently equally suitable

hill. |

From these studies, some interesting results have emerged. It

seems, for instance, that big eagles breed less often than small eagles

and may live longer. The largest eagle on the hill, the Crowned

Eagle, Stephanoaétus coronatus, has made 7 attempts to breed in 12

years, has reared five young in that time, and is rearing a sixth

as I write. The smallest eagle, a very rare species Ayres’s Hawk-Eagle,

Hieraaétus ayresii, has made an attempt to breed in each of 11 years,

and has reared 10 young; in only one year was breeding unsuccessful.

This seems to indicate that big eagles might be longer lived than small

eagles, and the supposition is borne out by the fact that at the Crowned

Eagle’s nest there have been only two changes of mate in 12 years,

while at the Ayres’s Hawk-Eagle’s nest there have been certainly

three, and probably four, changes in eleven years. At both nests a

succession of different birds occupies the nest, and one female and

one male Crowned Eagle have each lived a minimum of eight years

in the wild state.

This is the sort of study which takes time and requires the luck

to be able to watch the birds for many years.. One must start at

the age of 20 and go on as long as the strength lasts. But there is

a great deal of simpler and equally interesting work to be done on

Indian birds of prey. For instance, I cannot find anywhere a properly

detailed account of the nesting of that common bird the Brahminy

Kite, though my own scant observations have indicated that only the

female incubates and that she is fed on the nest by the male. _ And

there are other species which are rarer and consequently still less

well known. The value of the new monograph on the birds of prey

would. be greatly enhanced by careful studies of even a single nest-

ing cycle, and it is to be hoped that additional information about

some Indian species will come to hand before it goes to press.

KAREH,

KENYA COLONY, LESLIE H. BROWN

October 10, 1960.

ALZISCELLANEOUS NOTES Pai)

9. THE ASHY REEF HERON, EGRETTA GULARIS (BOSC)

ON THE EAST COAST

In spite of paucity of records from Eastern India the Ashy Reef

Heron, Egretta gularis (Bosc) is an establisned resident here all along

tne tidal mud-flats and estuarial areas of our coast. I have seen

it all along the coast from Moipadu—nearly due east of Nellore to

the upper reaches of the lagoon known as Pulicat Lake, at Moipadu.

_ Krishnapatam, Muttukur, Durgarajupatnam, and on the coast east

of Mallam.

It breeds during the summer from around April to May and there

is a colony that nests in a grove of Ficus trees just four hundred

yards due east of the Forest Bungalow on the northern bank of the

estuary. The birds are always seen, commonly along the Buckingham

Canal, tidal mud-flats, and the shallow waters of the estuary, usually

solitary or in pairs, stalking about on the mud or in shallow waters,

catching small crabs, molluscs, small fish, and prawns. The slaty-

blue pnase of plumage is in the majority and the breeding plumes.

two long elongated feathers forming a crest, are donned after the

cold weather is over, and the birds moult into their summer plumage.

There is no occasion when I have not seen it along the coast in the

environments mentioned. It is common and resident and _ well

established.

GUDUR (NELLORE),

S. INDIA,

_K. M. KIRKPATRICK

November 25, 1960. 7

10. OCCURRENCE OF THE SHELDUCK

[TADORNA TADORNA (LINN.)]

IN BHAVNAGAR, GUJARAT STATE

In the evening of 29th December 1960 I saw for the first time

the Shelduck, Tadorna tadorna (Linn.) in the salt pans in Bhavnagar.

The following morning with Shri Shivrajkumar and Shri Lavkumar

of Jasdan I watched them again while they were feeding and it was

noticed that two of them were drakes. They were seen again on

the 31st December.

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

I wonder if this is the southernmost record for this species in India?

Dit. BAHAR,

BHAVNAGAR, R. §. DHARMAKUMARSINHSI

January 7, 1961.

[South of Sind the Shelduck is a rare winter visitor. In Kutch

Col. C. B. O’Brien shot one near Bachan, while in Saurashtra a

pair was shot at Balambha 36 miles (c. 58 km.) north-east of Jamnagar

on 28th December 1918. Hume recorded it from ‘the mouths of the

Indus, coasts of Gulf of Cutch, and from Nowanugger, Kathiawar’.

Eastwards it has been obtained at Chilka Lake, Orissa, and extends into

Manipur and Burma. McCann noticed it at the Tulsi Lake near

Bombay, while it has been shot and/or noted near Poona and om

the Bhima River, 10 miles (c. 16 km.) south of Pandharpur, Sholapur

District, Maharashtra (Betham, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13:

187).—Eps.] |

11. OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACKNECKED GREBE,

PODICEPS CASPICUS (HABLIZL), NEAR

POONA, MAHARASHTRA

On the 20th October 1960, while shooting about 30 miles (c. 48 km.)

out of Poona along the Sholapur Road, we saw some duck on a

small tank along the road. After the first few shots the duck cleared out

leaving a few grebes (Podiceps ruficollis) and a pair of coot. Through

glasses one of the birds appeared to be slimmer and settled higher

out of the water than the others. It also showed more white on

the front of the neck, no doubt offset by the dark on the head and

nape. It was impossible to approach it in a canoe as it dived while

well out of range and swam considerable distances under water. After

one or two attempts we left the place, but making another attempt

in the afternoon the bird was secured and found to be a male

Blacknecked Grebe, Podiceps caspicus (Hablizl). This appears to be

a considerable southward extension of the known range of this bird

in India, the nearest record being from Bhavnagar, Saurashtra (now

Gujarat) (Dharmakumarsinhji, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50 : 664).

Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BOMBAY 3, __ | |

October 28, 1960.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 277

[As the wing measured 141 mm. against 126 mm. in the o& from

Bhavnagar and 125-138 mm. (average 133 mm.) in 5 specimens from

Irag, both the Indian birds were sent to Dr. E. Stresemann at the

Berlin Museum, who has very kindly confirmed our identification —

EDs.]

12. NOTES ON SOME NEPALESE BIRDS

Phylloscopus fuligiventer (Hodgson). We have found this bird to

be quite common in the Rapti Valley, the Dun country to the SW. of

Kathmandu. It is found only along the edges of streams, where

these have dense vegetation, grass or bushes along their banks. It

frequents both tiny streams, a foot or so wide, with the grass meeting

above the water, and the large slow-flowing rivers which are

a characteristic of the grasslands of this Valley. I have seen

them from Hitaura at 1200 ft. (c. 370 m.) to the banks of the

Narayani River at 600ft., (c. 180 m.). The first time I encountered it

I thought from its behaviour that it must be a bush warbler or even

some kind of chat. It Ilcoks very dark in the field, keeps on or near

the ground, and constantly utters a little ‘Cht ... cht. I was quite

amazed when my husband shot it, to find it was a Pnylloscopus. Since

then I have watched them many times. They are very easily observed

on the larger rivers as they are not at all shy, and come freely out

on to little islands, stones or pieces of driftwood in the river bed.

They often flutter over the water, catching insects, and hovering for

a minute above the water as they do so. On the larger rivers they

are usually in pairs, but on the smaller streams often solitary, perhaps

because here the food supply is less abundant. I thave never seen

them leave the rivers and they keep entirely to the vegetation growing

within a couple of feet of the water. Where there are tall stiff

grasses they will occasionally work their way up to 4 or 5 feet

but usually they keep close to the water or the ground on

its banks. There seem to be few records of this bird, and I was very

surprised to find it so common locally. We generally spend a fort-

night at Christmas in the Rapti Dun, so my observations are only

for the last fortnight in December and first week of January. Since .

discovering its habitat I have never failed to find it on any suitable

stream. I have never seen it in the Kathmandu Valley on migration,

but there is no suitable country for it there. If it breeds at very

high elevations in Tibet, it may travel down the great rivers, 5 of

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

which are united in the Narayani River, where it passes through

the Duns at Naraingarh. We shot two birds which | compared with

skins in the British Museum. I only saw a few skins but these

appeared to be identical in colour with my specimens. Dr. Fleming,

obtained a female at Bilauri in West Nepal (Rand & Fleming, Birds

from Nepal: 165) but otherwise I know of wo recent records.

I see that Dr. Rand considers it as probably a race of P. fuscatus, a

species I have never seen in central Nepal.

Both my birds are males. Wing formula 2=10. Wing measure-

ments 53 and 54 mm. This seems rather small compared with Dr.

Fleming’s bird (60 mm.) and the measurements given in Dr. Ticehurst’s,

GENUS PHYLLOSCOPUS.

I should be very interested to hear from anyone who has any infor-

mation on this bird.

Emberiza leucocephalos Gmelin. The Pine Bunting. We found

these birds quite common during the latter part of November in the

hills along the Seti River, north of Pokhara in West-Central Nepal.

They were in small flocks and of course in winter plumage. I have

never seen them in the hills round Kathmandu, and suppose Pokhara

to be about the eastern limit of their range.

Haematospiza sipahi (Hodgson). The Scarlet Finch. This bird is

seen occasionally on the hills round Kathmandu in winter. Several

sight records and we obtained a female on Sheopuri at 8000 ft. (c.

2440 m.) on 2nd February. A!l we have seen were in oak forest.

Aethopyga ignicauda (Hodgson). Firetailed Sunbird. The breed-

ing range of this species and A. nipalensis never overlaps, as this

bird breeds between 10,500 (c. 3200 m.) and 12,000 ft. (c. 3650 m.) and

nipalensis never above 9000 ft. (c. 2740 m.). In winter they are found

at the same elevations 4000-8000 ft. (c. 1220-2440 m.). During

January and February when ignicauda is in eclipse nipalensis is the

dominant bird. Flowers are rather scarce at this time, and I have

watched the two species in flowering Elaeognus latifolia, with nipalensis

very aggressive, and ignicauda always giving way, retreating to a

lower part of the tree, and finally leaving the area altogether, some-

times pursued a short distance by its rival. In March when ignicauda

is in full plumage the situation is reversed, and it is the Nepal Sunbird

which gives way, and generally leaves a tree in which it has been

feeding on the arrival of ignicauda. When there is an abundance

of blossom, as when the Leucosceptrum canum is in full bloom there

seems to be no rivalry between the species, and flocks of both these

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 279

birds together with A. saturata and A. siparaja will feed amicably

together in the same trees.

Vanellus cinereus (Blyth). The Greyheaded Lapwing. I can find

no records of this bird in the Kathmandu Valley, but it is in fact quite

a common winter visitor from the end of September to the end of

March. Flocks of from 6 to 20 birds being usually found along the

Manora River, feeding in old rice fields. A large proportion of the

birds are usually immatures without tne dark pectoral band.

BRITISH EMBASSY,

KATHMANDU, DESIREE PROUD

NEPAL,

January 3, 1961.

13. SOME BIRD RECORDS FROM NORTHERN BURMA

WITH A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SUBSPECIES

Mr. Oliver Milton, a field associate of this Museum, made a long

trip in Burma from November 1958, through December 1960, on behalf!

of a project known as the Burma Wildlife Survey sponsored by the

Conservation Foundation of New York, the New York Zoological Society,

the American Committee for International Wildlife Preservation and the

Peabody Museum of Natural History of Yale University. During this

trip Mr. Milton had the co-operation of the Burma Forest Department,

and officials of the Burma Government throughout were the soul

of courtesy and help as indeed they always are. It is very much to

be hoped that Mr. Milton’s arduous work which resulted in concrete

recommendations to the Government of Burma for wildlife

sanctuaries throughout the less encroached-upon and wilder portions

of that wonderful country will eventually form the basis for an

extension of the present park and reserved forest system. The larger

mammals such as the rhinoceros are in great danger of following the

European aurochs into oblivion. May the sad examples of neglect

of anima! species in other countries be heeded by the Governments of

the nations of Southeast Asia.

Some areas of northern Burma are still very little known as far as

the distribution of birds is concerned (vide Smythies, 1953) and I had

asked Mr. Milton when he was in such areas to make some observa-

tions on birds and collect a very few specimens here and there which

might add to the knowledge of the distribution of the Burmese

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

avifauna. Though hampered by physical difficulties and other pri-

mary duties, Mr. Milton collected some records which are worthy of

note, particularly in two previously uncollected areas:

(a) Hpungran Wang, a locality west of Putao in extreme northwest

Burma, Long. 97° E., Lat. 27° 35’ N., about fifty-five miles(c. 88 km.)

‘southwest of the Adung Valley.

(6) Mount Saramati, highest mountain south of the Himalayas,

lying on the India-Burma border in the Naga Hills, Long. 95° 03’ E.,

Lat. 25° 45’ N., reaching a height of over 12,500 feet (3800 m.) above

sea level. On my trip to the Indian Naga Hills (1952), I attempted

to reach Mount Saramati from the Indian side without success

although I climbed Mount Zephu, a lower [8408 ft. (c. 2560 m.)]

feature of the same chain. We could see Saramati plainly and my

heart beat faster each time I gazed fondly at its grassy alpine-appear-

ing upper slopes, fancying the unknown forms of animals to be found

there. As I wrote then: ‘But this problem (the ascent of Saramati)

will remain for another attempt. I certainly wish much luck and

God-speed to the ornithologist who visits that challenging mountain.’

Mr. Milton’s trip was of course not really ornithological. But the

fact that he could make any observations at all on the birds of

Saramati, and that now after ten years I could examine a few speci-

mens has seemed to me almost like an answer to an ornithological

supplication.

Following is a list of some of the records of specimens:

1. Alcedo hercules Laubmann

A male in breeding condition was taken February 18, 1951 at

Shangawng, Putao District. This is perhaps the third record for

Burma (Stanford & Ticehurst, 1935).

2. Jynx torquilla chinensis Hesse

A female from Hpungran Madin, Putao District April 5 at 7500

feet (c. 2280 m.) above sea level is worth recording.

3. Picus canus sordidior (Rippon)

A male from Kutkai, northern Shan States taken at 4500. feet

(c. 1370 m.) appears to represent this Yunnan subspecies.

4. Serilophus lunatus rubropygius (Hodgson)

A female from Sawkuti, Naga Hills near Saramati was collected at

3000 feet (c. 910 m.) altitude. I feel that these Broadbills can be

combined into one species and are allopatric in their distribution.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 281

5. Sturnus malabaricus malabaricus (Gmelin)

A female from Homalin on the upper Chindwin pelos to

the nominate form rather than nemoricola as listed by Smythies

(tom. cit.) 1953.

6. Garrulax caerulatus livingstoni Ripley

A specimen collected at Sahpao, Naga Hills near Saramati belongs

to the race described from Mount Japvo, Indian Naga Hills (1952)

extending the range quite logically into this adjacent area of northwest

Burma.

7. Garrulax rufogularis rufiberbis (Koelz)

In contrast to the above, a single specimen of Garrulax rufogularis

from Wailam Sanghkao, northeast of Saramati in the Naga Hills

belongs to a greyer, paler population rather than to assamensis of the

adjacent Indian territory. This race was described in 1954 from

Htawgaw.

8. Actinodura waldeni saturatior (Rothschild)

A single bird from Hpungran Wang, west of Putao, matches

Rothschild’s description (1921) in having a blackish crown with pale

silvery grey margins, in being dark above and below with rusty yellow

edgings on the feathers of the under surface, and with more silvery

grey ear coverts. This description applies also to Actinodura

nipalensis wardi Kinnear (1932) described from the Adung Valley

some fifty miles (c. 80 km.) as the crow flies from Hpungran Wang.

It seems wiser, therefore, to make wardi a synonym of saturatior as

Ticehurst (1935) first suspected.

A specimen from the vicinity of Mount Saramati agrees with topo-

typical waldeni from Mount Japvo in the Indian Naga Hills (Barrail

Range), although in general coloration it is a trace paler.

This species should be separated from nipalensis, being entirely

different in plumage pattern, as Rothschild (1926) long ago pointed

out. .

9. Garrulax striatus cranbrooki Kinnear

A small series from west of Putao measure:

Putao : Wing ¢ 139, 145. 9 140.5, 142 mm.

Mishmi Hills. Assam: Wing ¢ 140, 147. 2 133, 141 mm.

As Ticehurst pointed out (1935) the differences between cranbrooki

and ‘austeni’ (preoccupied in Garrulax, now = brahmaputra Hachisuka,

1953) are minor. I have compared these fresh skins and our series

from the Mishmi Hills of Assam adjacent to the Dafla Hills, the

typical locality for brahmaputra. There appears to be no difference

282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

in size.and the soiled or clear colour of the striae on the ear coyerts

is somewhat variable. One out of five Burmese skins has wnitish

striae, one out of four Mishmi and Margherita birds has more buffy.

less whitish striae. In this case it would seem useful to combine the

two populations under the one name cranbrooki (1932) which has

priority over brahmaputra.

10. Yuhina bakeri Rothschild

Obtained in the Burmese Naga Hills at Sawkkye in November as

well as west of Putao.

11. Yuhina flavicollis rouxi (Oustalet)

This is a rather variable form, and I think we were unwise to

salvage the subspecies baileyi (Baker) for the population of the Mishmi

Hills (1948). Three additional specimens from west of Putao show

considerable variation in the colour and amount of pale shaft streaking

of the upper parts and the colour of the nuchal collar. Perhaps all

the birds of northern Burma and northern and eastern Assam should

be combined under this one population name.

12. Alcippe vinipectus austeni (Ogilvie-grant)

A specimen from the Burmese side of Mount Saramati proves, as

might be expected to belong to the Assam Naga Hills subspecies.

13. Muscicapella hodgsoni hodgsoni (Moore)

A male in breeding condition was taken April 4 at Hpungran

Wang, western Putao adding a new district to those from which this

little-known flycatcher has been recorded in Burma.

14. Phoenicurus hodgsoni (Moore)

Shangawng, Putao District, February 18.

15. Seicercus poliogenys (Blyth) ;

A single male was collected at Hpungran Wang, Putao, in

November.

16. Seicercus castaniceps castaniceps (Hodgson)

A male in breeding condition was taken March 30 at Hpungran

Wang, western Putao district.

17. Phylloscopus davisoni disturbans La Touche

From Kutkai, northern Shan States, a male taken December 3 has

faint white edges to the inner webs of the outer rectrices and

evidently belongs to this form.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 283

18. Parus rubidiventris saramatii new subspecies

Type: o ad. (Y.P.M. No. 61240), collected December 9, 1959, on

Mount Saramati, Naga Hills by Oliver Milton.

Diagnosis: from beavani of the Himalayas and extreme northern

Burma, this form differs markedly by having the underparts deep olive

grey washed with drab, more particularly on the centre of the belly

and under tail-coverts. The upper parts are buffy olive rather than

blue-grey. From rubidiventris, this form differs on the upper parts

by being greyish buffy olive, rather than olive brown, the grey with

a faint isabelline cast, more pronounced on the rump. Below of

course these birds are again deep olive grey washed with drab rather

than grey.

Measurements : Wing ¢ 66.5, 2 65; tail ¢ 48, 2 46.5 ; culmen ¢2 10(2).

Remarks: these two specimens were collected at an altitude of

10,500 feet (c. 3200 m.) in heavy rhododendron forest. The feet are

marked as black on the labels. This is the first record for this

species south of the Brahmaputra River or, in Burma, south of the

Adung Valley or the Htawgaw area east of the Triangle. In both

these localities beavani has been taken at altitudes of approximately

12,000 feet (c. 3600 m.) above sea level.

19. Sitta formosa Blyth

In view of the rarity of records of this species from Burma, it!

should be recorded that a female was collected on Mount Saramati

on December 12 at an altitude of 5200 feet (c. 1580 m.).

YALE UNIVERSITY,

PEABODY MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY,

New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.A.

March 3, 1961.

S. DILLON RIPLEY

Director

REFERENCES

Ali, Salim & Ripley, S. D. (1948):

Rothschild, Lord (1926): On _ the

The Birds of the Mishmi Hills. J.

avifauna of Yunnan, with critical notes.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48 : 29.

Kinnear, N. B. (1932): Bull. Brit.

Orn. Club. 53 : 79.

Ripley, S. D. (1952): A collection

of birds from the Naga Hills. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 477, 497.

Rothschild, Lord (1921) : On a collec-

tion of birds from west-central and north-

western Yunnan. WNovit. Zool. 28: 38.

Novit. Zool. 33 : 274.

Smythies, B. E. (1953): THE BIRDS

OF BURMA, 2nd. ed., Edinburgh and

London.

Stanford, J. K. & Ticehurst, C. B.

(1935) : Notes on some new or rarely

recorded Burmese Birds. Ibis, Part 1:

46.0572 Part. 2:3 271.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

284

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 285

15. A SPECIAL METHOD OF FISHING FOR CLUPISOMA

GARUA (HAMILTON) IN THE GANGA RIVER SYSTEM

Apart from the traditional methods of catching Clupisoma garua

(Hamilton), a schilbeid fish of commercial importance in the Ganga

system, there are various interesting methods of ‘baiting’ this fish,

some of which have been described by Faruki & Sahai (1943) and

Job & Pantulu (1953). During the course of ceriain investigations

in the Ganga and the Brahmaputra rivers, the authors came across

a novel but effective method of catching Clupisoma garua by aliur-

ing, which is described in the present note.

The method, which in local dialect of North Bihar is known as

‘Lahke ke Marna’ or ‘catching by alluring’, is quite prevalent in the

River Ganga between Bhagalpur and Sahibgunj in Bihar and between

Jorhat and Tezpur along the Brahmaputra in Assam. It is effectively

employed during March to June in the Ganga and December to April

in the Brahmaputra. In one single operation by six fishermen

observed at Bhagalpur, as much as 75 kilograms of C. garua were

caught by this method. The whole operation which takes about 5-6

hours is carried out in three steps as follows:

(i) Preparation and casting of bait.

(ii) Alluring the fish to a selected area.

(iii) Netting operation.

For preparing the bait, small pieces of enterons of a goat are

boiled for some period and then sun-dried and crushed to powder.

This powder is mixed with some quantity of goat-fat and dried cow-

dung to make up the bulk of the bait, which is then soaked in crude

oil extracted from the Gangetic Dolphin, Platanista gangetica, a

Cetacean commonly occurring in the Ganga system. The odour

emitted by the Dolphin oil is very strong and pungent and

according to fishermen, C. garua favours this smell and is greatly

attracted by it. For one operation, about 8 kilograms of bait is

prepared which includes 3.75 kgm. of goat enterons, 0.12 kgm. of

goat-fat, 3.0 kgm. of dried cow-dung and 0.93 kgm. of crude

Dolphin oil.

The bait is cast in the water in small bits either from a boat or

a raised platform erected in shallow parts of the river. The strong

penetrating smell of the bait attracts C. garua and it is reported by

fishermen that fishes even from a distance of three miles move towards

the source of smell.

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

When a considerable number of fish are lured, the person casting

the bait gets off from the platform or the boat to stand in chest-deep

water and commences agitating the water with one hand and

throwing about bits of the bait with the other. Attracted fish

approach towards the person and at times they are known ‘to cling

to his body. When a sufficient number of fish have been lured

around this person, he gives a signal to other fishermen in the

boat. Four to six fishermen with a small drag net, locally known as

‘Bisara’ (measuring 11.6X7.3 metres with the mesh size of 1.27 cm.,

made from cotton twine), enter the water some distance upstream

and drag the net towards the person with the bait to haul in all

the fish lured into the area.

In the Brahmaputra, the operation is slightly different. The bait

made up with bright yellow Dolphin oil, liberal quantities of

macerated Dolphin flesh and dried cow-dung, is thrown in the river

from a boat and on reaching shallow portions along the bank, larger

quantities of bait are cast. After an interval of about 2-3

hours the fishermen drag-net the area steeped with ‘garua’ bait.

Inquiries in the area revealed that this method of fishing is mostly

practised by Bihar fishermen settled down along the Brahmaputra

in Assam. |

The fact that only C. garua, to the complete exclusion of other

riverine species of fish, are caught by this method is very significant

and it would appear that the olfactory perception in C. garua is

highly developed.

(CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES,

RESEARCH SUB-STATION, M. P. MOTWANI

ALLAHABAD (U.P.), . C. B. SRIVASTAVA

September 18, 1960.

REFERENCES

Faruki, A. J. & Sahai, R. (1943): Job, T. J. & Pantulu, V. R. (1953):

Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 13 (B): 198-214. J. Asiat. Soc. 19 (2): 175-196.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 287

16. HETEROPNEUSTES FOSSILIS (BLOCH), A NEW

ADDITION TO THE FRESHWATER FISH FAUNA OF

THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS'*

(With one text-figure)

During a recent visit to the Andaman Islands in February-Marcn

1960, we were able to collect, besides other species, 8 specimens

of the catfish Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) measuring from 99 to

245 mm. in standard length from a stream near the forest rest camp

about seven miles (c. 11 km.) from Mayabundur, Middle Andamans.

Subsequently, ten more specimens of the same species were obtained

by us from a local resident of Port Blair, South Andamans, wno

had collected them from a nullah at Farargunj, about six miles

(c. 9 km.) from Port Blair. A perusal of the literature shows: that

Blyth (1858, 1860), Day (1870), Annandale & Hora (1925), Mukerji

(1935), Hora & Rao (1938), and Herre (1939, 1941), who have all

reported on the fishes of the Andaman waters,-have not recorded this

species from there. The freshwater fish fauna of the islands has

been fairly well studied and it is unlikely that this species could

have escaped notice of the above workers. In view of this, we are

inclined to believe that H. fossilis is a more recent introduction and

from its occurrence in streams in both Middle and South Andamans,

it would appear that the species is well established in tnese islands.

We were interested to find four of the ten specimens from Farargunj

showing abnormality as regards the number of barbels. The normal

complement of barbels for this species is four pairs, one nasal, one

maxillary and two mandibular pairs. In three of the aforementioned

specimens tne inner pair of mandibular barbels are totally absent.

while in the fourth specimen only one of the inner pair of mandibular

barbels is absent (Text-fig. a-c). The position of these missing

barbels is indicated by depressions, but there is no indication that

the loss is due to external injury. To our knowledge this kind of

an abnormality has not been reported for H. fossilis, although similar

conditions have been noted among some members of the family

Siluridae. The fact that all these ten specimens exhibit weak and

flexible pectoral spines instead of the strong and well-ossified condition

as seen in the specimens collected near Mayabundur, suggests that

__ *Published with the permission of the Chief Research Officer, Central Marine

Fisheries Research Station, Mandapam Camp.

288. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Text-figure Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch): (a) Ventral view of head

showing the normal complement of four pairs of barbels ; (6) same, with

one of the inner pair of mandibular barbels absent ; (c) same, with the inner

pair of mandibular barbels absent.

these abnormalities may be on account of some localised environ-

mental phenomena rather than being of any genetic significance. In

characters, such as the body proportions, dentition, etc, both the

samples agree and in order to facilitate comparison with the main-

land representatives of the species, the frequency of occurrences of

three of the meristic characters of these specimens are given in the

accompanying table wherein A- and B- refer to samples from near

Mayabundur and Farargunj respectively.

TABLE

ANAL FIN RAYS

60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

No. OF GILL-RAKERS ON LOWER LIMB OF

OUTER ARCH

20 2 22 23 2A 25) 26, 27

DorsAL FIN

1.6 | 137 18 19

A- 1 Tepe oes

B- 10 — — 2

Freshly collected specimens, especially the larger ones had a light

yellowish tinge all over the body. On preservation this was lost, but

the specimens retarned the two characteristic lighter bands, one above

and one below the midlateral line of the body.

CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES RESEARCH STATION,

MANDAPAM CAMP,

September 14, 1960.

E.G. SILAS

E. DAWSON

REFERENCES

Annandale, N. & Hora, S.L. (1925):

The freshwater fish from the Andaman

Islands. Rec. Indian Mus. 27: 33-41.

Blyth, E. (1858): J. Asiat. Soc.

Bengal. Proceedings of the Asiat. Soc.

of Bengal (part). 27: 270-272.

— — (1860): ibid. 29: 145-147.

Day, F. (1870): On the fishes of the

Andaman Islands. Proc. Zool. Soc.

London: 677-705.

Herre, A. W. C. T. (1939): On a

collection of littoral and freshwater fishes

from the Andaman Islands. Rec. Indian

Mus. 41: 327-372.

Herre, A.W.C.T. (1941) : A list of the

fishes known from the Andaman Islands.

Mem. Indian Mus. 13: 331-403.

Mukerji, D. D. (1935): Notes on

some rare and interesting fishes from. the

Andaman Islands, with descriptions of

two new freshwater Gobies. Rec.

Indian Mus. 37: 259-277.

Rao, H. S. & Hora, S. L. (1938):

On theecology, bionomicsand systematics

of the Blennid Fishes of the genus Andamia

Blyth. ibid. 40: 377-401.

17. NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE TREE-ANT

TECHNOMYRMEX SP. NEAR ALBIPES SMITH

(DOLICHODERINAE: FORMICODEA)!

(With a photograph)

INTRODUCTION

Although several species of ants belonging to Dolichoderinae are

known from south India, very little information is available about

them. The genus Technomyrmex Mayr has not so far been reported

upon from this region. The species Technomyrmex sp. near albipes

_* Communicated by the Dean, Agricultural College & Research Institute,

Coimbatore.

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Smith has been noted in Coimbatore. The details of the life-history

and habits of this ant are presented in this paper.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

The black tree-ant (Tecinomyrmex sp.) occurs commonly on mango

trees and is completely arboreal. The workers are completely black

and about 2 mm. in length. The queen is only slightly bigger than

the worker and is not easily distinguished in the nest. The ant does

not possess a sting but only repugnatorial glands in the anal region

characteristic of the subfamily which produces the typical “‘Tapinoma’

odour somewhat resembling the smell of rancid coconut.

NESTING HABITS

The ant prefers to build its nest in bushy portions of the tree and

chooses shady places with overhanging branches. The nest is built

in a single leaf by rolling the leaf blade up along its longitudinal

axis on the upper surface. The sides of the leaf are brought together

to about 5 mm. of each other and are woven together by a silken

web. The silk is white and the weaving is done in a close knitting

Nest of Technomyrmex sp. near albipes Smith

to form a thick and tough sheet. This silken sheet is continued on

the surface of the leaf also and stuck to it. In the open portions

it extends as a roofing. Thus the nest gets a complete covering of

the silk on all sides in the interior portion. The chamber that is

formed is about 8 to 15 mm. in width and extends to the whole

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 291

length of the leaf, to about 10 cm. The distal edge of the nest is

closed and the entrances to the nest are situated only in the proximal

portion. There are two or three small entrances through which the

ants squeeze themselves through. There are also loose strands of silk

near the entrances in which dirt gets entangled. It then looks like

the nest of a spider which has been abandoned.

ORGANISATION INSIDE THE NEST

The ants keep the interior of the nest scrupulously clean and crowd

together in the small space available in large numbers. There is only

one queen in the nest; the others are all workers, and all of the same

size. Eggs, larvae, and pupae are stored in different places in the

nest but are not separated out into chambers. These stick together

by the mucilaginous material that is usually present on their surface

due to the constant licking by the workers. ‘The population of a

nest examined in September was as follows: Workers 1156, eggs 51,

larvae 92, and pupae 45.

No food material is stored in the nest nor have any inquilines

been noted in them.

SEASONAL HISTORY

The activity of this ant begins with the rains in July-August when

the new shoots of the tree are beginning to get tough. Only a few

nests have been noted on stray trees. However, there were three

nests on one tree alone. The nests were also found only in one

portion of the Agricultural College orchard, from which fact it may

be presumed that the species is not widely prevalent in this area.

The nests are found only in the green leaves and not in dry or

fading leaves. This shows that the ant founds the colony every year

in the leaves of the previous year which give some rigidity, and the

colony is abandoned by the next year when the leaves may dry. and

fall. Thus the colonies exist for only one year.

LIFE-HISTORY

For making observations on the development of the immature

stages, the nests were introduced in closed jars with the workers

allowed to move freely in them. Since the workers are accustomed

to wandering, this life in a confined area was not quite suitable for

their normal activity and development. Fresh workers were intro-

292 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

duced now and then so as to give favourable conditions for their

development. Some of the workers did not take kindly to the larvae

possibly because they did not accept them as belonging to their nest.

A small portion of the brood, however, survived and the following

results were obtained regarding their life-history.

The eggs were about 0.3 mm., elongate and white, covered with a

mucilaginous substance which was probably due to the licking of the

workers. The incubation period ranged from 4 to & days with an average

of 5.77 days. The first instar larva was stout, slightly tapering to

the anterior end, and covered with thin short hairs sparsely over the

body. It measured about | mm. The duration of the first instar

ranged from 4 to 7 days, with an average of 5 days. The second

instar resembled the first with a curvature in the anterior end and

more hairs on the body. It lasted from 5 to 8 days, with an average

of 6.44 days. The third instar measured about 1.5 mm. and was

covered with more hairs than the previous instar. It lasted 2 to 4

days and averaged 3 days. After this instar the larvae pupated in

naked pupae which were again licked by the adults. Those that were

not licked failed to emerge as adults. The pupal period lasted 5

to 7 days, with an average of 6.5 days. Thus, the total life cycle

worked out to an average of 26.71 days.

FoopD AND OTHER HABITS

Being a Dolichoderine ant, it fed on the saccharine exudations

of Coccids which are generally found on mango trees. The Coccids

on which it commonly attended were Rastrococcus iceryoides,

Phenacoccus mangiferae, and Pulvinaria psidii. It attended only

occasionally on the aphid Toxoptera odinae. Its other -food material

appears to be dead insects and other dead animals which are found

in the tree. These are brought to the nest and, after feeding on

them, the remains are left behind on the silk as dirt.

The ant is able to run quite fast and is very timid. There appears

to be no regular track on the tree and it has to use its sight for

finding out the food material. It is often found on a tree on which

the red tree-ant, Oecop/ylla smaragdina, lives, but it confines itself

to the branches not ordinarily frequented by them. The red tree-

ant, similarly, avoids the branches occupied by this stingless tree-ant.

When they meet on the branches of the trees, no enmity is shown by

either of the ants each going about its own way and not interfering

with the other.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 293

Since this tree-ant is stingless it is harmless, and when alarmed

it only tries to run away. It is unable to make a concerted attack

on any of its enemies. When the nest is disturbed, the workers

carry away the larvae in their mouth to some place of safety. It thus

lives unobtrusively on the tree avoiding trouble from all quarters.

The communication between members of the colony appears to be

by stroking the antennae only. The mutual licking and feeding by

regurgitation goes on as is usual in most of the ants.

INQUILINES AND PARASITES

No inquilines or parasites have so far been noted in the nests

or.the trails of the ants.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writer acknowledges with grateful thanks the permission

accorded by the University of Madras for publishing material which

formed part of a thesis for the M.Sc. degree. Thanks are also due

to the Government of Madras for permitting me to conduct research

in the Agricultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore. The

writer is specially thankful to Sri. M. Basheer, Government Entomo-

logist, for help rendered in various ways as Supervisor during the

course of the studies.

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

& RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

COIMBATORE, A. LEELA DAVID, M:Sc.,

September 26, 1960. Assistant Entomologist.

18. NOTES ON A NEW PEST, SPHENOPTERA DEDUCTA

KERR. (BUPRESTIDAE : COLEOPTERA) OF THE MAT-GRASS.

CYPERUS TEGETUM (ROXB.), IN SOUTH INDIA!

The mat-grass or Korai, Cyperus tegetum (Roxb.) is grown on ar

extensive scale in some localities in the States of Madras and Bengal

[Krishna Pillai, N. (1935): Cultivation of Korai (Cyperus tegetum) ot

mat-grass in N. Arcot District. Madras Agric. J. 23 : 371], and yields

valuable grass with which mats are made. Although the mat is in

common use in almost every house in India, very little is known about

the mat-grass. In recent years it has been prized as a cash-yielding

crop. In Madras State it is grown as a perennial crop in Wandi-Wash

and Cheyyar taluks on a large scale. So far no insect has been

_7Communicated by the Dean, Agricultural College & Research Institute,

Coimbatore.

294. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

known to damage the plants; therefore, the outturn of, and the cash

return from, the crop was well assured. This year, however, a jewel

beetle, Sphenoptera deducta Kerr., appeared on a mass scale causing

considerable injury to the crop. The characteristics of the beetle and

the damage by it to the crop are described below.

S. deducta Kerr. does not appear to have been mentioned as a pest

in the lists of Indian Insect Fauna so far. Insect collections in the

Agricultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore, include

specimens of this species collected on nut-grass, Cyperis rotundus, in

Malabar and Coimbatore. No further information is available on the ©

occurrence or the distribution of the species. This is the first record

of the insect on C. tegetum (Roxb.) in this region.

MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE INSECT

The beetle is about 1.5 cm. in length and dark shiny brown in

colour on the dorsum of the body including the elytra, as well as

on the sternum. It is covered with a dull white powder which gets

wiped off on handling. It is ovoid-elongate in shape with a width

of about 0.6 cm. in the middld. The head is truncated, as is typical

for the genus, and is closely embedded vertically in the thorax. The

thorax is rectangular with the elytra elliptical. The ventral portion

is yellowish on the sides and brownish in the middle.

The antennae are short, serrate, black in colour, and composed

of 11 segments. They are placed in the anterior portion of the head.

There is a patch of metallic green colour on the frontal portion of

the head. The legs are fairly long and black.

HABITS OF THE INSECT AND NATURE OF INJURY

The beetles usually rest on the culm of the plant just below the

inflorescence with their heads pointing downwards. During the middle

of the day when there is good sunshine and the day temperature is

high, the beetles crawl up to the leaves and begin gnawing away

portions from the sides. In several cases each leaf may have 2 or 3

beetles. Continuous feeding by the beetles causes complete defolia-

tion of the plant and they begin to wilt from the tip. Cuttings of

the crop are usually taken every six months. Damage by the insects,

however, causes the plants to wither away in two or three months.

On disturbance the beetles feign death and fall down from the

plants. They have a quick and strong power of flight and fly away

long distances.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 293

SEASONS OF OCCURRENCE

The beetles occurred on a large scale in Thennangur (Wandi-Wash

taluk) and Vadanangur (Cheyyar taluk) villages of North Arcot

‘district from February to April 1960. The incidence began in a

mild form but built up to a heavy density of population by March;

in April the population declined.

The insect is not an endemic one and the outbreak reported here

is of a sporadic nature. From reports received it, is gathered that

a similar incidence occurred eight years ago and caused enormous

loss to the cultivators.

TRIALS WITH INSECTICIDES

The incidence of the pest on a large scale was taken advantage

of for testing insecticides for its control. Two fields of about one

acre each were chosen and DDT 10% dust was applied in one

and Parathion (Folidol) 0.025% (1 oz. in 121 gallons of water) was

sprayed in the other. The observations showed that the beetles flew

away in large numbers from the DDT-dusted plots in a few hours.

Birds like crows and sparrows preyed upon these beetles. In the

field treated with Parathion the insects were not disturbed. However,

in both the plots no beetles were found after three days. This

suggests that both of the insecticides are able to control the pest.

ECONOMIC STATUS

C. tegetum is a perennial plant and gives cuttings of Korai culms

every six months. The incidence of the Mat-grass Jewel Beetle a

month or two after a cutting causes the culms to wilt and reduces

the yield to about a fourth of its normal one. Hence, the insect has.

to be considered as a serious pest. However, it has so far been only

a sporadic pest with heavy incidence occurring only occasionally.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his grateful thanks and deep sense

of gratitude to Dr. S. Kanakaraj David, Reader in Entomology, Post-

Graduate Training Centre, Coimbatore, under whose valuable sugges-

tions this material was prepared, and to Sri. P. P. Vasudeva Menon,

Research Assistant in Entomology, for helping him in identifying the

specimen.

POST-GRADUATE TRAINING CENTRE,

COIMBATORE, 3, A. ABDUL KAREEM

October 31, 1960.

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

19. BUTTERFLY NOTES FROM ASSAM : THE UNDESCRIBED

FEMALE OF YPTHIMA ATRA

Ypthima atra Cantlie & Norman. The co was described in the

Journal, Vol. 56, No, 1, pp. 66-71. A single 9 has now been taken

by Norman at Kangpokpi (Manipur) on 5-10-58. This was caught

a few miles from where the co‘ had been taken, at the same altitude

and in the same type of country. It is described below:

- Ypthima atra Cantlie & Norman— ?

The tiny ocellus above and below in space 2 of the fore wing, the

grey ground colour below with no trace of yellow and the bipupilled

ocellus at the tornus underhind are characteristics of atra. The ocelli

underhind are, however, like those of methora in position, those in

Spaces 5 and 6 being close but not touching, likewise those in 2

and 3. The bipupilled ocellus at the tornus is not circular as in the

previously taken co‘ of atra, but is like a figure of 8, exhibiting

semi-fusion of two ocelli; and this ocellus is at the same distance

from and in echelon with those in spaces 2 and 3, not in line with

them.

This 9 brings atra nearer to methora, although methora never has

the tiny ocellus in space 2 of the fore wing, and the tornal ocelli

underhind, although touching, are never, even partially, fused in the

latter species.

SELENG T.E..,

SELENG Hart P.O., KEITH CANTLIE

Upper ASSAM, T. NORMAN

February 22, 1961.

20. A NEW FRUIT BORER PEST RAPALA VARUNA

HORSFIELD (LEPIDOPTERA : LYCAENIDAE) ON

GUAVA IN SOUTH INDIA’

INTRODUCTION

Of the several pests noted on Guava (Psidium guajava L.) those

that attack the fruits are considered to be the most serious. The

fruits are frequently infested with the maggots of the fruit flies

Dacus ferrugineus F., D. ferrugineus dorsalis, and D. zonatus, and

1 Communicated by the Dean, Agricultural College & Research Institute,

Coimbatore.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 297

caterpillars of the castor capsule borer Dichocrocis punctiferalis Gr.

and the pomegranate fruit borer Virachola isocrates F. (1&2). Tea

blight Helopeltis antonii S., a reddish brown Mirid bug, commonly

punctures the guava fruit and causes the ‘blister disease’ by making

way for the entry of the fungi Petalotiopsis (Pestalotia) psidii and

Glomerella cingulatum or G. psidii (1). Sometimes the fruit sucking

moth Ophideres fullonica L. attacks the fruits at night; it pierces the

fruit and sucks the sap, causing the fruit to rot around the puncture.

Now, another caterpillar Rapala varuna H. has been found to cause

damage to the fruits by boring into them. The insect was found

in the trees in the Agricultural College and Research Institute.

Coimbatore, during June-July. Since this is the first record of its

occurrence on this host and as there is a possibility of its becoming

a major pest in future, the observations made are given below.

PREVIOUS RECORDS

Swinhoe (3) has recorded the larvae of Rapala varuna H. feeding

on the flowers of Zizyphus xylopyrus Willd. Wynter-Blyth (4) also

noted it, on the flowers of Quisqualis indica L., Zizyphus rugosa

Lamk., Z. xylopyrus Willd., and Sapindus laurifolius Vahl (trifoliatus

Linn.). It is also of much interest that the pest has been noted here

feeding on guava fruits which deviates from its normal flower feeding

habit.

THE LARVA

DESCRIPTION. Swinhoe (3) has described the larva similar to that

of R. schistacea in shape and protuberances but the colour is ‘green,

with a curved diagonal line almost pure white, to each segment; the

fifth segment is very dark green, in some cases almost black, forming

a band’. About R. sahistacea he says ‘Larva when full grown, quite

3” in length; the anterior segment contractile; rather stout; of the

usual onisciform shape—roundly cylindrical instead of flattened.

Head globular, very small, retractile and, when protruded, singularly

like that of tortoise. Outline from above, a hexagonal cylinder, very

slightly narrowing towards the head; segmental folds deeply marked;

the spiracular and sub-dorsal ridges very deeply serrated. The humps

are sharply pyramidal. Of these there are two unbroken series on

each side, one sub-dorsal and one spiracular. The sub-dorsal series

consists of 8 humps, continuous from the third to tenth segment.

The spiracular series consists of 11 humps, continuous from the third

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

to the 13th segment. Each humip bears 2, 3 or 4 short brown hairs.

The texture of the skin is soft, smooth and velvety.’ The caterpillar

taken here ‘coincides with the characters given above, except that

it is darker and more brown than green. : |

Foop Hasits. The caterpillar bores into the guava fruit and

eats the pulp from inside, rendering it unsuitable for consumption.

Only mature, unripe fruits are attacked, and at times the damaged

fruits fall down in numbers. Only one caterpillar is found in a

fruit and the affected fruit shows a large hole on it indicating the

presence of the pest.

It pupates in the fruit in the tunnel made by: it. The pupa is

brown with a dark brown median longitudinal line and many minute

dark spots, measuring about 1-1.4 cm. in length, without much

difference between the anterior and posterior ends.

DESCRIPTION OF THE BUTTERFLY

Rapala varuna H. is commonly known as the ‘Indigo Flash’.

Wynter-Blyth (4) describes it as follows: ‘Male: above, dull shining

dark blue, not blue shot, shading to dark border. Forewing. Female:

above, pale shining steel blue, dark border. co 9: below, ground

colour slaty brown, often with purple or greenish gloss, to almost

white in dry season forms. Forewing discal bands white-edged on

both sides and usually broad. Hindwing discal band generally

curved and parallel to termen; bar end cell usually close to or touching

discal band. Width of markings variable.’

ECONOMIC STATUS

So far the insect has been noted only in small numbers in a few

trees in the College orchard and the Cotton Breeding Station. The

affected fruits have only the outer rind left, the inner pulp being

completely scooped out. Many fruits had dropped to the ground due

to earlier attack. If the population increases it is bound to cause

considerable loss to: the cultivator.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Dr. S. Kanakaraj David, Reader in Entomology,

Post-Graduate Training Centre, Coimbatore, for valuable suggestions

given in the preparation of this paper.

FACULTY OF ENTOMOLOGY, S. JAYARAJ

POST-GRADUATE TRAINING CENTRE, A. ABDUL KAREEM

COIMBATORR, 3, P. P. VASUDEVA MENON

October 1, 1960.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 299

REFERENCES

1. Hayes, W. B. (1957) : Fruit growing 3. Swinhoe, Col. C. (1911-12) : Lepido-

in India: 295-96. Kitabistan, Allahabad. tera Indica. Vol. 9. Rhopalocera.,

2. Ramakrishna Ayyar, T. V. (1940): Family-Lycaenidae: 56-58, plate 718,

Handbook of Economic Entomology figs. 1, 1a, 1b.

for South India: 305. Govt. Press., 4. Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957) : Butter-

Madras. flies of the Indian Region: 361, 363,

499, pl. 47. Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay.

21. A SKIPPER BUTTERFLY [HASORA ALEXIS (FABRICIUS)]

CATCHES A SPIDER

It is not unusual for butterflies and other insects to be caught in

spiders’ webs. On July 21, 1960 an interesting phenomenon was

observed in Ahwa, Surat Dangs. A skipper, the common Banded

Awl, Hasora alexis, which is a member of the Hesperidae group of

butterflies, caught a tiny white spider and was firmly clasping it

with its six walking legs.

A teacher caught the skipper alive between his thumb and finger

and then brought it to me for observation. The skipper was very

reluctant to release the spider. Only when I started to drop both

live specimens in the ether jar did the skipper drop the spider.

What is the explanation of this butterfly’s behaviour? Have

butterflies ever been known to prey upon spiders or other living

animals?

AHWA, VIA BILIMORA,

DANGsS DISTRICT, E, M. SHULL

GUJARAT STATE,

July 25, 1960.

[Mr. H. G. Acharya to whom the spider was sent for identification

states that it appears to be one of the Crab Spiders, Family Thomisidae,

whose curious legs enable them to move sideways and backwards

like crabs. These spiders hunt their prey without the aid of webs

and are also known to change their colour to match the flowers on

which they lie in wait to capture insects visiting the flowers. The

mouth parts of a butterfly only permit it to suck nectar and other

liquids and we cannot help feeling that Dr. Shull was mistaken.

The spider might have attempted to catch the butterfly as they have

been known to do or they might have got entangled with each other

by accident—Eps.]

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

22. A CASE OF CANNIBALISM IN THE CATTLE-LEECH.

HIRUDINARIA GRANULOSA (SAVIGNY)!

In November 1959 about 200 Cattle-leeches (Hirudinaria granulosa)

were collected by us from a tank at Udipi (Mysore State) and kept in

a glass jar containing fresh water for about three weeks. Later,

while dissecting some of the specimens I was surprised to find in the

crop of one of them (120 mm. long and 12 mm. broad) another leech

of the same species. The latter (55 mm. long and 5.75 mm. in

breadth) lay between the second and the eighth central chambers of

the crop and was in a fresh condition.

As is generally known, leeches have their mouth adapted for suck-

ing blood and can scarcely be expected to swallow solid food, not to

speak of feeding upon another living leech presumably as active as

themselves. As far as I have been able to ascertain, this is the first

record of cannibalism in leeches.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

M.G.M. COLLEGE, V. BALAKRISHNAN

Upip1 (Mysore STATE),

April 6, 1960.

[Harding & Moore in THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, HIRUDINEA,

1927, say on p. 114 ‘predaceous leeches destroy large numbers of

worms, including other leeches . . .’.—EDs.]

23. THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF JSOLAIMIUM COBB,

1920 (NEMATODA), WITH A DESCRIPTION OF A

NEW SPECIES?

(With one plate)

A few females and large numbers of juveniles of a species of Isolaimium

Cobb, 1920, were collected from the soil of a jute field in 1954.

Additional specimens, including males, were found in 1960 in soil around

the roots of jute and groundnut at Government Experimental Farm,

Tajgaon, and around the roots of pineapple at Aminbagh, Dacca. The

species is new and is named Jsolaimium stictochroum.

Measurements were made of specimens after gentle heat fixation in

water. The type specimens, however, were first mounted in glycerine

and then measured.

+ Communicated by Dr. Beni Charan Mahendra, Dept. of Zoology, Agra College,

Agra.

2 Communicated by Rev. H. Santapau,s. J., Bombay.

we a. at i Wahi ANT. ave i" |

ay ny as hs ie aed tk 0 ON er 7 é

ang Lil y Dae . Tsp ok

BomMBAY NAT. HIstT. Soc.

JOURN.

—_- —=

(HIMITTITIRNTERN Oe

——"

Isolaimium stictochroum n. sp.

B. Oesophageal region ;

D. Male tail.

C. Female tail;

A. Male head ;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 301

Isolaimium stictochroum n. sp. (Plate A-D)

Measurements :

3 2° : Length=2.87-4. 62 mm. ;a=47.8-70 ; b=9-16 ; c=80-102 ; V=46.2-55.8% ;

Ovl=11.2-13.2% ;, Ov2=10,3-15.3%,

6 go: Length=4.11-5.4 mm. ; a=60-76 ; b=12-20.1 ; c=77.6-106.

Holotype female : Length=4.23 mm. ;a=62.1 ; b=12 ;c=78 ; V=47.6%. Stoma

160 microns.

Allotype male : Length=3.6 mm. ; a=67 ; b=16.5 ; c=75. Stoma 150 microns.

The specific name is derived from the Greek words o7ti«ros and

X pos, meaning ‘ with spotted skin ’.

Description : Cuticle moderately thick, with two distinct layers

visible ; fine close transverse striations in lower layer of cuticle ; promi-

nent longitudinal lines on surface, about 60 in number, consisting of

rows of fine dots, about 0.5 » from centre to centre. Head not set off ;

lips not distinct. Inner circle of 6 prominent, slightly recessed papillae,

with distinct innervations ; outer circle of 4 tiny papillae. Fine sub-

lateral innervations in anterior oesophageal region. Amphids tiny,

pore-like, with obscure amphidial pouch twisting towards ventral side.

Stoma cylindrical, with parallel walls, 108-160 » long in male, 112-170 p

long in female ; walls thickened just behind anterior end ; apparently

only thickened portion shed at moulting. Oesophageal region mus-

cular, not distinctly two-part, extending to base of stoma ; expanded

at base but not in form of distinct bulb ; triradiate lining heavily sclero-

tized and without expanded lumen at tips of radii. Oesophageal gland

nuclei not observed. Nerve ring not prominent, oblique, located at

about 50% of oesophageal length. Excretory cell and pore lacking.

Oesophago-intestinal valve 22 » long. Intestine with dark irregular

granules, giving body a ‘dirty’ appearance ; intestine light and tessel-

lated in specimens collected at end of dry season. Prerectum apparently

absent. Female reproductive system amphidelphic ; ovaries reflexed

4 to 4 their length ; oocytes not distinct ; ova brownish with clear

shell, 65x 30 ». Two testes in male, outstretched. Spicules somewhat.

dorylaimoid, cephalated, with internal division and blunt tips, 54-67 »

long ; lateral pieces absent ; gubernaculum 16-28 » long, with thin pos-

terior apophysis. 3-4 mammillate preanal supplements, more or less

uniformly distributed. Tail in both sexes subconoid, about | anal body

diameter long, bent slightly ventrally. 4 pairs postanal papillae on

male tail: 1 large subventral pair just behind anus, 1 small subventral

pair at mid-tail ; 1 small subdorsal pair at mid-tail, and 1 small subdorsal

or lateral pair on posterior half of tail. Postanal papillae less distinct

in female. Diagnosis: The present species differs from Isolaimium

papillatum Cobb, 1920, the type and only other described species, mainly

in the following characteristics : (1) the cuticle bears prominent longi-

tudinal striations, as opposed to the naked cuticle of I. papillatum ; (2)

302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

the male has 3-4 preanal supplements, whereas the male of J. papillatum

has 6 supplements.

Holotype female: Personal collection, No. S 11.

Allotype male: No. S 12.

Paratypes (male and female): No. S 13 and S 14.

Type habitat: Soil around roots of jute (Corchorus capsularis L.).

Type locality: Government Experimental Farm, Tajgaon, Dacca,

East Pakistan. 7

Discussion : Cobb (1920) gave sketches of only the extreme anterior

and posterior of Isolaimium papillatum. Since he could not clearly

distinguish the amphids, the systematic position of the genus has been

in great doubt. Cobb himself classified it in the Order Isolaimia ; how-

ever, other authors have not followed Cobb’s classification into orders

and it does not correspond even roughly to the current classifications.

Filipjev and Schuurmans Stekhoven (1941) included Jsolaimium as an

aberrant genus of the Mermithidae, but the oesophagus and intestine

are completely different from the true mermithids. T. Goodey (1951)

placed it questionably in the Family Axonolaimidae, Subfamily Cylin-

drolaiminae, stating that the systematic position is ‘ rather obscure owing

to lack of detailed information on form and structure ’.

Another possible placement for the genus, based chiefly on the long

cylindrical stoma and the oesophagus, is in the Subfamily Cryptonchinae

of the Family Ironidae. However, it seems best to propose Isolaimium

as an aberrant genus of the Superfamily Dorylaimoidea. The thickened

triradiate oesophageal lining, the oesophago-intestinal valve, the male

supplements, the spicules, and the caudal papillae are all basically of the

dorylaimoid type. The large size of the body, the short blunt tails, and

the lack of an excretory cell and pore further strengthen this affinity.

On the other hand, the amphids, which are an important diagnostic

feature in classification, are not dorylaimoid. Pore-like amphids, how-

ever, occasionally appear in various groups by way of exception to the

normal type. The greatest difference between Isolaimium and the typical

members of the Dorylaimoidea is the lack of a stylet. In one moulting

specimen that we observed, apparently only the thickened anterior

portion of the stoma was being shed. This might correspond to the

axial stylet of most dorylaimoids or to the vestibule of those forms pos-

sessing a mural stylet. Moreover, the Alaimidae, considered by many

authors as a family of the Dorylaimoidea, completely lack both stylet

and stoma.

NOTRE DAME COLLEGE, R. W. TIMM

Dacca, EAST PAKISTAN,

September 17, 1960.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 303

REFERENCES

Cobb, N. A. (1920): One hundred cultural helminthology. Leiden, Brill,

new nemas. Contrib. Sci. Nematol. 9: 878 pp.

217-343. Goodey, T. (1951): Soil and fresh-

Filipjev, I. N. & Schuurmans Stekho- water nematodes. London. Méethuen,

ven, J.H. (1941): A manual of agri- and New York, Wiley, 390 pp.

24. MOMORDICA DENUDATA CLARKE (CUCURBITAC.)

AND TREMA POLITORIA PLANCH. (ULMAC.): NEW

RECORDS FOR BOMBAY

In our exploration of Pavagadh Hill, 46.6 km. NE. of Baroda,

we have come across Momordica denudata and Trema politoria which

are not listed in Cooke’s FLORA OF THE PRESIDENCY OF BOMBAY.

Momordica denudata (Thwait.) Clarke in FBI. 2: 618, 1879; Cogn.

in DC. Monog. Phan. 3: 448; Trimen, FI. ‘Ceyl. 2: 249;

Chakravarty, Mon. Ind. Cucur. 98, f. 40, map 47, 1959.

M. dioica var. denudata Thwait. Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 126, 1858-64.

A slender climber; stem glabrous, furrowed. Tendrils slender.

Leave 7-8X6-6.5 cm., membranaceous, ovate-cordate, mucronate-

acuminate, dentate, slightly rough to the touch, some of the leaves

appear to be three-lobed, 5-nerved, petiole 3-4 cm. long. Flowers

yellowish, dioecious. Male peduncle many-flowered. Female peduncle

1-flowered, 1-2 cm. long. Fruit slightly globose, rostrate.

Flowering and Fruiting: 12th July 1959.

At the foot of the hill on a hedge; rare.

Index Kewensis gives Ceylon as the home. of this plant. The

plant seems to be endemic in S. India.

Trema politoria Planch. in Ann. Sc. Nat. (ser. 3) 10: 326, 1848; FBI.

5: 484.

Celtis politoria Wall. Cat. no. 3693, nom. nud.

A small tree; bark brownish, branches clothed with rough hairs.

Leaves 4-5X2.5-2.7 cm., stipulate, 3-4-nerved, alternate, oblique.

presence of bristly hairs, ovate, minutely cordate, serrate, petiole

2-3 mm. long. Flowers in axillary cymes, compact, not longer than

the petiole.

Flowering and Leafing: 12th August 1958.

In the forest, in lower part of. the hill; rare.

Index Kewensis gives Reg. Himal. as the. home of this plant.

The specimens referred to in the present note were collected by

304. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

the junior author from Pavagadh and are preserved in the Herbarium,

Department of Botany, M.S. University of Baroda.

These two plants have not been recorded from Bombay. They

are, therefore, new records for Bombay.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We record our sense of gratitude to Shri M. B. Raizada, F.N.1.,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, and to the late Dr. D. Chatterjee

of Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta, for helping in the identification.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

M.S. UNIVERSITY OF BARODA, A. R. CHAVAN

BARODA, G. M. OZA

December 31, 1960.

25. PLANT NOTES FROM ASSAM : MERREMIA TUBEROSA,

_- AND BAMBOO FRUITS

I was very interested to read Dr. Chatterjee’s notes on these two

subjects, published in the August issue of the Journal. —

A shaded plant house is rarely seen in Assam, but for many years

past Merremia tuberosa has been grown here as a shade creeper for

bungalows, hospitals and factories. It is usually grown on wire or

bamboo supports beside walls with a southern aspect, where it forms

a dense mat, lowering the temperature inside the building very

appreciably. It can also be allowed to grow over the roof with

equally good effect, but it is too heavy to be. perfect for this purpose,

requiring to be cut back at least every third year. M. tuberosa and

Ipomoea palmata (the Railway Creeper) thrive well together, and since

they flower at the same time pleasure can be combined with utility

by having a mixed planting, resulting in a most pleasing display of

colour.

I feel that I must also add a few observations of my own to Dr.

Chatterjee’s most interesting article on the fruiting of the mooli

bamboo. This bamboo has been fruiting in the wild state at least

since the cold weather of 1952/53, in the hills of South Manipur near

the Lotchow River. It would be interesting to know whether the

year of peak fruiting there coincided with the 1959/60 peak in the

Assam Valley.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 305

The kaka bamboo flowered, fruited and died in the forests of

Assam during the early ’fifties, the peak year having been preceded

by at least one year of sporadic flowering. Last cold weather

(1959/60) a few clumps of the jathi bamboo flowered and fruited in

Sibsagar District. Only a few culms of a very small proportion

(perhaps 5%) of the clamps flowered, but I think one can confidently

predict that within the next 5 years—and probably wihin the next

2 years—the jathi bamboos throughout the Assam Valley will flower

and die. Since the jathi is the species most widely cultivated in the

Valley, and since I would expect it to be relatively slow growing

from seed (unlike the mooli), its flowering will be a grave economic

and social disaster.

SELENG T. E.,

SELENG Hart P.O., T. NORMAN

Upper ASSAM,

January 29, 1961.

26. CRITICAL NOTES ON ACER CAMPBELLII HIERN

(With one plate)

Acer campbellii is described by Hiern in Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH

INDIA 1 : 696, 1875. Prior to this, Brandis in FOREST FLORA : 109,

1874, merely mentioned the name; hence A. campbellii, as there, is

a nomen nudum, and we disregard that publication. On this account

Hiern’s name is to be considered as the original publication of the

species. But the description offered by Hiern covers a wide range.

From a study of the material housed in the Central National

Herbarium, Calcutta (CAL)* and Forest Herbarium at Dehra Dun

(DD)* and my own collections from east Nepal, two varieties can be

recognised. Thus, necessary information and opinion was sought

from Arnold Arboretum and Kew. Dr. S. Y. Hu of the Arnold

Arboretum agreed with me after examining my specimens collected

in east Nepal as to the two different entities and informed me also

that the type material of A. campbellii is a mixture of two collections

as is borne out by the material in the Herbarium Hookerianum and

that in the Gray Herbarium of the Harvard University.

* Symbols asin Lanjou & Stafleu, Index Herbariorum, Pt. I, ed. 3, 1956.

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

Mr. C. E. Hubbard of Kew replicd to my enquiry saying that

the material written up by Thomson as ‘Acer campbellii Hk. f. & Th.’

consists of five sheets of Hooker’s, but added ‘While our material

seems to have the full range of the variations described by you, it

has not been found possible to distinguish the varieties which you

propose’. |

The material available in Indian herbaria was again critically

studied and plants in nature were closely studied. It became very

convincing that the entire material can be sorted out into two clearly

demarcated varieties. It, thus, involved the selection of a lectotype

for A. campbellii and to delimit the characters for the var. campbellii.

By kindness of Mr. Hubbard, this was made possible. Thus :

Acer campbellii var. campbellii Hk. f. & Th. ex Hiern in Hooker,

Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 :696, 1875, emend. Banerji. Acer campbeliii

Hk. f. & Th. ex Hiern in Hooker, Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 696, 1875.

Lamina foliorum truncata ad basim, marginibus serrulatis, nervis

glabris; inflorescentia densa.

Lectotypus: Hooker f. 110, lectus ad Darjeeling ad 7-8000 ped.

altit. servatus in Herbario Kew.

Representative specimens. SIKKIM: Sikkim, 7-10,000 ft. Hooker

(CAL); Sinchul 8000 ft. Anderson 408, July 1862 (CAL); Darjeeling

7000 ft. Clarke 26737, 19 June 1875 (CAL); Tongloo, Lister, May

1877 (CAL); Sandakphu, King’s collector, June 1887 (CAL); Dar-

jeeling, Griffith 926 (CAL); Darjelling-Takda, Lace 2201, 10th May

1902 (CAL); Suriel 5500 ft. Cousin 112, 29th May 1914 (CAL);

Sikkim, Biswas 81 (CAL); Darjeeling (DD 85298). Sinchul, Anon.

(DD 39198); Kurseong, Anon. (DD 19247).

NEPAL: Papung to Topke Gola 9000 ft. Banerji 774 (CAL.

BLAT, GH, & Meerut).

Acer campbellii Hk. f. & Th. ex Hiern var. serratifolia Banerji, var.

nov.

Folia majora, cordata ad basim, serrata ad margines, saepe bis

serrata, pubescentia ad nervos in pagina ventrali; inflorescentia

elongata.

Typus: Lace 2250, lectus ad Tonglo in Sikkim ad 10,000 ped.

altit. die 29 maii, anni 1902 et positus in Herbario Hortus

indici Botanici ad Calcutta.

Representative specimens. SIKKIM: Sikkim, Dungboo 22nd May

1876 (DD); Lachen, Pantling, May 1885 (CAL); Darjeeling—

Bhikabhanjan 10.000 ft. Osmaston 20th October 1903 (CAL),

NepaL: Lamjura 12,000 ft. Banerji 1064, 20th September 1956

“AOU “IVA DIOfIDAdaS “TRA 11Jaqduvd saopv NpjaqduMvs "eA Mpjaqduvs s400~

‘008 “LSTEH CLVN' AVEWOG “NwNOs

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 307

(CAL, BLAT, GH, & Meerut), Kalinchok to Rowlkhani (western face)

10,000 ft. Banerji 1259, 13th October 1960 (GH & Meerut).

It may be mentioned that unfortunately neither the Lace collection

nor any of the other specimens mentioned under var. serratifolia are

at Kew. Also the materials collected from east Nepal are different

from the specimens of the closely related Chinese species or varieties

that have been examined at the Arnold Arboretum and Gray

Herbarium. It is evident from the distribution of the two varieties

that they are restricted to Sikkim and extend westwards to east Nepal.

Intensive exploration of Nepal will show the further westward

extension of the species and its varieties. |

It is due to the kindness and help rendered by Dr. S. Y. Hu and

Mr. C. E. Hubbard that it has been possible to work out the material

and prepare this note. To Rev. Fr. H. Santapau I am _ deeply

indebted for having gone through the paper and made improvements.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT,

MEERUT COLLEGE, M. L. BANERJI

MEERUT,

~ November 15, 1960.

27. ON THE STRUCTURE AND LIFE-HISTORY OF A

NEW SPECIES OF ANABAENA (A. DESIKACHARYENSIS) ~

FROM HOSHIARPUR (PANJAB, INDIA)

(With four text-figures)

During the course of a systematic investigation of the Cyanophyceae

of Hoshiarpur (Panjab, India) the author came across a new species of

Anabaena, which was found. growing in the gelatinous thallus of Apha-

nothece pallida (Kiutz.) Rabenh., on the Ist September, 1960. It is des-

cribed below.

GENERAL MORPHOLOGY

The trichomes occur singly or in clusters within the gelatinous thallus

of Aphanothece pallida. An indistinct sheath is sometimes discernible

around individual trichomes. The trichomes are irregularly curved

sometimes coiled but never straight and are slightly attenuated at the

ends (Fig. 1). The cells are usually barrel-shaped, 5.1-5.7 « broad and

5.1-6.8 4 long. The trichome is distinctly constricted at the septa. There

is also an indication of the absence of cell sheath opposite the septa so

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

that the latter are only composed of the inner investment. The cell

sheath stains blue with iodine and sulphuric acid. The end cell is coni-

cal. The cells are full of cyanophycin granules.

The heterocysts are usually intercalary but terminal heterocysts are

also of common occurrence and may be present on one or both the

sides of the trichome (Fig. 1). They are conical in shape. The inter-

calary heterocysts are often spherical and sometimes barrel-shaped.

The ends are rounded. They are 5.7-6.8 » broad and as long as broad.

The contents are homogenous and pale blue.

The akinete formation is marked by the enlargement of the cells

and by the appearance of large number of cyanophycin granules. The

cell sheath becomes thickened and closes over the ends to form a spherical

akinete. Usually the akinetes are away from the heterocysts (Fig. 2)

but sometimes they may be contiguous to the intercalary heterocysts

(Fig. 3). In the latter case the akinetes are present only on one side of

the heterocyst and are usually in short chains of two to six. Some-

times the chains of akinetes are interrupted by an ordinary vegetative

cell (Fig. 1) which may later on shrivel up and die. The outer wall of

the akinete is thick and yellowish brown in colour. They are 8.5-11.5 p

in diameter.

GERMINATION OF THE AKINETE

The akinetes have been observed to germinate in situ (Fig. 4). Before

germination the contents of the akinete may slightly contract from the

wall and sometimes the akinete may even elongate and show an apparent

constriction in the middle owing to differential gelatinisation. The

contents undergo a transverse division to form a two-celled germling.

The germlings are released by the gelatinisation of the spore wall at one

end. By further division this germling grows into a full-fledged trichome.

SYSTEMATIC POSITION

The Hoshiarpur alga in its variable position of the akinetes resembles

Anabaena werneri Briinn., Anabaena scheremetievi Elenk., Anabaena

planktonica Brinn. and Anabaena randhawae Venketaraman. It differs

from the first in the absence of pseudovacuoles and the presence of ter-

minal heterocysts. It comes away from A. scheremetievi in possessing

irregularly curved trichomes, absence of ellipsoidal akinetes and in the

absence of a broad mucilaginous sheath. A. planktonica differs from it

in possessing smaller dimensions of the cells and in the absence of ter-

minal heterocysts. The present species resembles A. randhawae in the

presence of terminal heterocysts and in the variable position of the

akinetes ; but differs from it in possessing (a) broader trichomes that are

eeu ions ens - ek tes a! DATS e i in ee ae OL", Wh : : ¥ -

ran (f ch) = a ste } ip : ¥ : é / i} vay i , : a -

ae | ; ;

pte ~

mn vay

“yi i :

here

# Ly :

ei huge ay ; ee : q

' es :

Anabaena desikacharyensis sp. nov.

Fig. 1. A trichome showing conical terminal heterocysts at both the

ends. A vegetative cell is also shown intervening in the chain of

spores; Fig. 2. A portion of a trichome showing a chain of spores

contiguous to the intercalary heterocyst; Fig. 3. A portion of the

trichome showing short chains of spores remote from the heterocyst ;

Fig. 4. Showing germination of the spores.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 309

irregularly curved, (b) terminal heterocysts conical and present on both

sides of the trichome, and (c) in the greater dimensions of the spores.

Formation of terminal heterocysts brings this species away from 4A.

sphaerica, A. spiroides, A. gelatinicola, and A. anomala. The shape of

the terminal heterocyst and the attenuation of the trichome bring this

species closer to A. oryzae Fritsch ; but it differs from it in the follow-

ing respects : (a) broader trichomes, (5) the akinetes are broader, and

differs from all the above species in its endophytic habit.

The present species may, therefore, be regarded as a new species and

the author takes great pleasure in naming it after Dr. T. V. Desikachary

of the Madras University for his valuable contributions in the field of

algology.

DIAGNOSIS

Anabaena desikacharyensis sp. nov. (Figs. 1-4) .

Trichomata irregulariter curvata, attenuata ad apices, endophytica ;

cellulae doliiformes, 5.1-5.7 » latae et 5.1-6.8 » longae; heterocysta in-

tercalaria vel terminalia, intercalaria quidem sphaerica vel doliiformia,

5.7-6.8 p lata et 5.7-6.8 » longa ; terminalia vero conica, 5.1 y lata et

6.8 » longa, adstantia ad unum vel ad utrumque latus trichomatis ;

akinetes sphaerici, ut plurimum remoti ab heterocystis, nonnumquam

heterocystis intercalaribus contigui, 8.5-11.5 » diam., parietibus externis

luteo-brunneis.

Habitus endophyticus in thallo mucilaginoso Aphanotheces pallidae ;

crescit in solo madido in collegio Gubernii ad Hoshiarpur, lectus mense

septembri, anni 1960. Typus positus in herbario Hoshiarpur sub

numero Vasishta 4332.

Trichomes irregularly curved, attenuated at the ends; endophytic

cells barrel-shaped, 5.1-5.7 » broadand 5.1-6.8 w long; heterocysts inter-

calary or terminal, intercalary heterocysts spherical or barrel-shaped,

5.7-6.8 » broad and as long as broad ; terminal heterocysts conical, 5.1 z

broad and 6.8 » long, present on one or either side of the trichome ;

akinetes spherical, usually remote from the heterocysts, sometimes con-

tiguous to the intercalary heterocyst, 8.5-11.5 » in diameter, outer wall

yellowish brown. |

Habitat: Endophytic in the gelatinous thallus of Aphanothece

pallida (Ktitz.) Rabenh. ; collected from the moist floor of a pavement

in Government College, Hoshiarpur on September 1, 1960.

Type of the species is deposited in the Government College, Hoshiar -

pur herbarium under reference number Vasishta 4332.

310

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is extremely grateful to Dr. T. V. Desikachary for going

through the manuscript and giving useful suggestions and for approving

the new species.

His grateful thanks are also due to Prof. Rev. Fr.

Santapau, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, for kindly rendering the diag-

nosis into Latin.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

P. C. VASISHTA

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE, HOSHIARPUR,

December 14, 1960.

REFERENCES

Desikachary, T. V. (1959): Cyano-

phyta. Indian Council of Agricultural

Research Monographs on Algae (New

Delhi) 686 pp.

Fritsch, F. E. (1949): The genus

Anabaena, with special reference to the

species recorded from India and from the

adjacent Asiatic mainland. Jour. Indian

Bot. Soc. 28: 135-61. |

Geitler, L. (1932) : Cyanophyceae.

nathi sp. nov. from Hoshiarpur.

Bul. Sci.

63-67.

Vasishta, P. C. (1961) : A systematic and

ecological account of the Cyanophyceae —

of Hoshiarpur. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 57 : 579-589.

— — (1961): Two new species of

Phormidium from Hoshiarpur. Jour.

Indian Bot. Soc. 40 (2) (In press).

Res.

(N.S.) Panjab Univ. 11 (I1,ID:

In Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamenfilora, — — (1961): Three Colourless Cyano-

Leipzig 14: 1196 pp. phyceae from Hoshiarpur. Jour. Indian

Vasishta, P. C. (1960): Anabaena Bot. Society 40 (2 or 3) (In press).

28. NEW RECORDS OF PLANTS FROM THE ANDAMAN

AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

(With three text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

A botanical exploration tour to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands

was conducted by the Botanical Survey of India during January to

April, 1959. A careful scrutiny of the past literature dealing with

the vegetation of the above islands, as well as the specimens from

these islands present in the Central National Herbarium was made,

as a result of which the following species are noted as new records

in their flora. Some of the new records are either Malayan or Burmese

of origin. A short description of the newly recorded species together

with features of interest if any, as well as their exact locality is given

below. The two groups of islands are treated as one unit for PHEDOw

of deciding new records. !

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 311

BIXACEAE

1. Scolopia spinosa (Roxb.) Warb. Scolopia roxburghii Clos,

PORES - 190;

A spreading shrub growing to a height of 5 m. Flowers cream

white in colour, with a good scent. Artican, Sawai, Car Nicobar, rare,

in flower (31-3-1959), Thothathri 9353. One specimen of the above

Fick SCOLOPIA SPINOSA (Roxb) Warb.

Species from Burma is present in the Calcutta Herbarium (Helfer 211),

but the label bears distribution Tenasserim and Andamans. This

312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

specimen is kept along with similar Burmese specimens in the same

cover. Most of Helfer’s collections from Tenasserim bear similar

labels. So it is highly doubtful whether this specimen (Helfer 211)

was collected at all from the Andamans.

Distribution: Sumatra, Burma and Nicobar Is.

SAMYDACEAE

2. Casearia glomerata Roxb.

A small tree reaching a height of 8 m. with spreading branches,

growing in sandy and clayey soil. Flowers white. Kimios, Car Nico-

bar, rare, in flower and fruit (27-3-1959). Thotiathri 9332.

Distribution: India: Sikkim, Bhutan and Khasia. World: Hong

Kong and probably Malayan Peninsula.

3. Casearia tomentosa Roxb.

A small tree growing to a height of 7 m. in sandy soil. Flowers

yellowish green. Leaves and younger parts tomentose. Chaibagan,

South Andaman, common, in flower (4-3-1959). TY 2othathri 9248,

9260.

Distribution: India: Taroughout India. World: Ceylon, Malaya

and North Australia.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

4, Marsdenia volubilis (Linn. f.) Cooke. Dregea volubilis Benth. ex

Hk. f. F. B. I. 4: 46.

A. twining shrub in the beach forest of Car Nicobar. Mus Jetty.

Car Nicobar, rare, in flower (28-3-1959). Thothathri 9342.

Distribution: India: Bengal, Assam, and southern and western

India; common in plains and hi'ls up to 5000 feet in dry regions.

World: Ceylon and Java.

5. Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Tylophora asthmatica W. & A..,

F. B. I. 4: 44.

A twining shrub growing in sandy soil. Kimios, Car Nicobar.

common, in flower (27-3-1959). Thothathri 9333.

Distribution: India: Bengal, Assam, Cachar, Chittagong and

southern and western India; common throughout the plains in hedges

and open forests, up to about 3000 feet in hilly country. World: Burma,

Siam, Malaya Islands and Borneo.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 313

GENTIANACEAE

6. Canscora diffusa R. Br.

An erect slender, dichotomously branched herb growing by the side

of a small stream in North Andaman. Flowers pink. Taralait Bay,

North Andaman, common, in flower (8-2-1959). Thothathri 9196.

It is to be pointed out here that one specimen of the above species

(Helfer 5815) present in the Calcutta Herbarium bears a label with

the distribution data as Tenasserim and Andamans; no definite infor-

mation on the exact locality of collection was given.

Distribution: India: Throughout India ascending up to 1000 m.,

common from Kumaon and Bhutan to southern India. World: Ceylon,

Malaya, Australia and Tropical Africa.

ACANTHACEAE

7. Lepidagathis incurva D. Dunn. L. hyalina Nees., F. B. I. 4: 521.

A small under-shrub found growing in the forest floor, under the

shade of shrubs in North Andaman. Austin I, North Andaman.

common, in flower (1-2-1959), Thothathri 9156.

As in previous cases, Helfer 6137 present in the Calcutta Herbarium

bears a label with distribution data as Tenasserim and Andamans.

The specimen is however placed along with similar Burmese specimens

in the same cover.

Distribution: India: Throughout North India up to 1000 m.,

Jammu to Upper Assam and Chittagong, Bihar and Chota Nagpur

and Madras Presidency. World: Burma and China.

8. Staurogyne zeylanica O. Kze.

A small herb up to 10 cm., common in the forest floor of North

Andaman. Austin II, North Andaman, common, in flower (1-2-1959).

Thothathri 9160.

A specimen collected by Kurz from South Andaman was identi-

fied as Staurogyne glauca O. Kze. Clarke has remarked on this sheet

that it may be Staurogyne zeylanica O. Kze. On careful examination,

Clarke’s identification proved correct and our species is Staurogyne

zeylanica O. Kze.

Distribution: India: Khasia Hills, North Sylhet, Deccan and

western India. World: Ceylon.

314. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

LABIATAE

9. Hyptis capitata Jacq.

An erect herb growing in moist clayey soil. Port Blair, South |

Andaman, common, in flower (i2-1-1959). Thothathri 9038.

Distribution: India: Lower Bengal. World: America, Formosa

and the Philippines. ?

PROTEACEAE

10. Helicia serrata (R. Br.) Bl. A. crutisii Gamble, F. M. P. 142.

A shrubby plant growing to a height of 3-4 m. in sandy loam.

On the way to Taralait Bay

Flowers are cream yellow in colour.

ger

J é 4

2om.

Fic2 HELICIA SERRATA (R.Br) Blume. ae ae

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Bj)

from Mangrove Bay, North Andaman, rare, in flower (7-2-1959).

Thothathri 9186.

Distribution: Malaya.

ORCHIDACEAE

11. Aerides radicosum A. Rich.

A beautiful: epiphytic orchid. Flowers pink without any scent.

Lapati jungle, Car Nicobar, rare, in flower (26-3-1959). Thothathri

9324.

Distribution: Deccan plateau, Nilgiri and Pulney hills, Quilon

and Western Ghats.

12. Dendrobium pierardi Roxb.

- An epiphytic orchid. Flowers prominent, yellowish white and

sweet scented. Chaoldari, South Andaman, common, in flower

(26-3-1959). Thothathri 9237.

Distribution: India: Eastern Tropical Himalayas, Sikkim,

Sundarbans in Bengal, Coromandel and Coorg. World: Burma.

POLYPODIACEAE

13. Pyrrosia longifolia (Burm.) Morton. Niphobolus acrostichoides Rich.;

Bedd. Handb. 327.

An epiphytic fern found growing in association with Asplenium

nidus Linn., Vittaria elongata Sw., and Phymatodes scolopendria

(Burm.) Ching., on the branches of small trees in the beach forests

of Car Nicobar. The rhizome is clothed with ovate to ovate-

lanceolate, reddish brown scales. Mus Jungle, Car Nicobar, common,

i sori (28-3-1959). Thothathri 9344.

Distribution: Malaysia to Queensland and Polynesia.

Z ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses his sincere thanks to Dr. S. K. Mukerjee,

Keeper, Central National Herbarium for kindly going through the

paper and making valuable suggestions, and to Dr. J. C. Sen Gupta.

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

SCALEON THE

RHIZOME

x20

. A®

ne,

FIGS PYRROSIA LONGIFOLIA (Buy) Morton

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 317

Chief Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, for the kind encouragement

shown in the above work.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN BOTANIC GARDEN, SHIBPORE,

CALCUTTA,

January 16, 1961.

K. THOTHATHRI

REFERENCES

Proc. Asiat. Soc. Beng.: 156-175.

Hooker, J. D. (1872-1879): Flora

Prain, D. (1891) : The non-indigenous

of British India. London.

J. Asiat.

Kurz, S. (1870): Report on the vege-

tation of the Andaman Islands, Calcutta.

— — (1875): Descriptions of new

plants from the Nicobar Islands. J.

Bot. Lond.: 321-333.

— — (1876): A sketch of the vegeta-

tion of the Nicobar Islands. J. Asiat.

Soc. Beng. 45: 105-164.

species of the Andaman flora.

Soc. Beng. 59 : 235-261.

— — (1891): The vegetation of the

Coco group. ibid. 60 : 283-406.

— — (1893): On the flora of Nar-

condam and Barren Islands. 62 : 39-86.

Sahni, K. C. (1953): Botanical ex-

ploration in the Great Nicobar. Jndian

For. 79 : 3-7.

Parkinson, C. E. (1923): A forest

flora of the Andaman Islands, Simla.

Prain, D. (1891): On a botanical

visit to Little Andaman and the Nicobars.

— — (1958): Mangrove forests in the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands. ibid.

84 : 554-562.

29. A NEW GRASS FROM BOMBAY

Coelachne minuta Bor sp. noy. ab altis speciebus hujus generis

panicula laxa, spiculis mioribus, statura humili, foliorum laminis

ovato-acutis distincta.

Gramen annuum delicatulum. Culmi, panicula inclusa, usque

8 cm. alti, vaginis obtecti, glabri levesque. Foliorum laminae ovato-

acuminatae, planae, supra infraque nervis scaberulae, supra _pilis

Sparsis praeditae, marginibus scabrae; vaginae culmos arcte com-

plectentes, gabrae levesque; ligula ad seriem pilorum brevium redacta.

Panicula erecta, effusa, paucispiculata, usque 5 cm. longa, 2.5 cm.

lata. Spiculae biflorae, 1.5 mm. longae, pedicellatae. Gluma inferior

0.25 mm. longa, orbicularis vel late elliptica, apici truncata, enervia.

dorso glabra’ superior 0.5 mm. longa, elliptico-orbicularis, 1-2-nervia,

glabra levisque. Anthoecium inferius hermaphrod.; lemma 1.25 mm. long-

um, dorso inferiori parte piloso, late ellipticum, truncatum, enervium;

palea hyalina, 2-nervia; stamina 2; antherae 0.5 mm. longae; rhachillae

articulus 0.5-1 mm. longus. Anthoecium superius vacuum vel 9°;

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (1)

lemma elliptico-acutum, hyalinum, enervium; palea hyalina, 2-nervia.

bicarinata; rhachilla haud producta; caryopsis ellipsoidea; embryo

caryopsidis tertiae parti aequans; hilum punctiforme.

Bombay: Mahableshwar, 14-9-58, H. Santapau 22731; on rocky

very moist ground, rare. Typus in Herb. Kew.

This specimen is quite unlike anything hitherto described in this

genus. It resembles a specimen no. 523, collected by Griffith in

Burma, but the leaves seem to be a different shape. A very distinct

dainty species which should be collected again.

THE HERBARIUM,

ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS, N. L. BOR

KEW, RICHMOND,

SURREY, ENGLAND,

March 15, 1961.

Gleanings

Bernhard and Michael Grzimek: SERENGETI SHALL NOT DIE. Trans-

lated from the German by E. L. and D. Rewald. (Hamish

Hamilton Ltd., London, 1960).

Rhinos sleep soundly and do not like to be disturbed. The Masai

boys have devised a game based on this sound slumber. They steal

up to a sleeping rhino and place a stone on its back. The next

boy has to remove it without rousing the rhino. Then it is put back

again and so on until the animal finally wakes up. This game

is not without danger, of course, but it is typical of the Masai. (p. 50).

Contrary to general belief rhinos do not charge with the full

weight of the one-and-a-half tons, but stop before they reach a car

and prod at it with their ‘horn’. Usually this only causes a dent in

the coachwork. (p. 53).

Taxonomy: a neglected science. By John Hillaby, F.R.E.S., in the

New Scientist (No. 220), 2 February 1961, p. 263.

When ‘the recent expedition to South Chile, sponsored by the

Royal Society; returned to Britain, some 20,000 entomological

specimens from a relatively unknown part of the world were sent

to the Natural History Museum for identification. It took one

assistant nine months to set and mount the specimens which now

occupy fifteen store boxes. It would have taken the Museum about

25 years to identify them completely, but as they are now being

sent to specialists in many countries, the task will probably be

accomplished in about ten years.

Notes and News

We are informed that the Indian Council for Agricultural Research

is considering a scheme of research on the biology and life-history of

bird and mammal pests of agricultural crops. The proposal con-

templates the establishment of six regional centres, each studying one

major and not more than three ancillary pests. The staff per centre

will consist of one Agricultural Ornithologist, one Senior Assistant,

and two Fieldmen. They will work under the Project Co-ordinator

Dr. Salim Ali, who will have his headquarters at Bombay, and be

assisted by an Agricultural Ornithologist and a Senior Research

Assistant. There will be a Research Fellowship of Rs. 150 for a

B.Sc. or Rs. 200 for a M.Sc. attached to each centre. Ludhiana,

Kanpur, Poona and Hyderabad have been suggested for four of the

Research Centres. Among the pests proposed for study are Parrots

(2), Flying Foxes, Crows, Weaver Birds, Sparrows, and Rosy Pastors.

It is hoped that the Scheme will come into operation by April 1962.

We welcome the news and hope that it will stimulate in the student

community in India a greater interest in Field Ornithology than has

been shown in the past.

* * * *

William BE. Old Jr., Museum Specialist, The American Museum

of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York 24,

N.Y., U.S.A., is interested in obtaining specimens of seashells from

India. Persons and/or institutions likely to be of assistance to him

are requested to communicate directly with him.

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CONTENTS

THE DISTRIBUTION AND FEEDING HABITS OF THE GOLDEN LANGUR, Presbytis geei

GEE (KHAJURIA, 1956). By E. P. Gee .. eh ag map|

THE Moss FLoRA OF THE PALNI Hitts. By G. Foreau, s.J. s he

TAXONOMIC NOTES ON Sardia rostrata MELICHAR [ Homoptera, FULGoRoIDEA

DELPHACIDAE (= ARAEOPIDAE) |. ae N.T. Joseph se) ae .. 48

CriTICAL NOTES ON THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE. V. Eulophia R. Br.

& Aérides Lour. By H. Santapau, s.J., F.N.1., and Z. Kapadia, ph.p. ees)

COMPOSITAE OF DHARWAR AND ITS VICINITY. By H.R. Ladwa and R.M. Patil.. 68

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF MAJOR Carps IN MADHYA PRADESH. By

G. P. Dubey and R. P. Tuli s oA Le ey hee |

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE CONCHOSTRACAN BRANCHIOPOD

[CrustTacEA], Leptestheriella gigas KARANDE & INAMDAR, 1960. By Ashok

A. Karande and N. B. Inamdar. os itiate 5 se

THE BirDs OF NEPAL. Part 3. By Biswamoy Biswas .. «3 .. 100

More CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR. By P. C. Vasishta - pei 3)

THE GIANT STICK InsEcT, Eurycnema goliath (Gray). By H. J. Kitchener Pe |.

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI AND ITS IMMEDIATE NEIGHBOURHOOD. Part I. ‘By

K. S. Srinivasan and G. V. Subba Rao ee a a -'» LOD

THE EARTHWORMS: A REVIEW. By V. B. Tembe and P. J. Dubash. . “4 ean ed

WEEDS AND ALIEN PLANTS OF ASIRGARH, M.P. By J. K. Maheshwari ‘i 1202)

QuaIL BREEDING IN JAPAN. By Yoshimaro Yamashina “ er Us)

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE INCUBATING REDWATTLED LAP-

WING, Vanellus indicus indicus (Bodd. »; oe R. M. Naik, P. V. George, and

Dhruv B. Dixit .. ¥ : ake ay WEP:

ON SOME LARVAL AND JUVENILE STAGES OF THREE SPECIES OF Fig FROM THE

River JAMUNA AT ALLAHABAD. By K. L. Sehgal . : eee .. 231

SoME NoTEs ON BLANFORD’S, OR THE WHITETAILED Woop, RAT [Rates Pinas :

(THOMAS)] IN WESTERN INDIA. By A. Brosset ¢ 4 .. 241

OBITUARY : a es 4 ae are, .. 249

REVIEWS : 4 eg wee ei iy es ot, ea

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES : Nr a oe is .. 261

GLEANINGS : >. i. aif a8 is, cma 19

NOTES AND NEWS: .. a. es Le 4a -. 320

Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

Val: 58; No: 2

Editors

H. SANTAPAU, s.J., & HUMAYUN ABDULALI

AUGUST 1961

Rs. 15

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Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

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| | EDITORS,

91, Walkeshwar Road, Journal of the Bombay Natural

‘Bombay G4 \q).3)r ah) ie at _ History Society.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 58, NO. 2

PAGE

THE WHITE RHINO OF HLUHLUWE. By O.H.de St. Croix. (With two plates) 321

CRITICAL NOTES ON THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE. VI. Nervilia Gaud. &

Malaxis Sw. By H. Santapau, s.J., F.N.I., and Z. Kapadia, Ph.D. (With

three plates) ; a ne a DOL

NOTES ON THE TUNA AND FRIGATE MACKEREL FROM RATNAGIRI. By M.R.

Ranade. (With one plate) .. if the ie eens oe

NotEs ON INDIAN CAECILIANS. By Edward H. Taylor. (With two text-figures) 355

AMPHIPNOUS INDICUS, A NEW SYNBRANCHOID EEL FROM INDIA, WITH

A REDEFINITION OF THE GENUS AND A SYNOPSIS TO THE SPECIES OF AMPHI-

PNOUS MULLER. By E. G. Silas and E. Dawson. (With two text-figures and

two plates) wi sts ee cr a s1~ 366

NOTES ON SOME. CORVIDAE FROM NEPAL, PAKISTAN, AND INDIA. By Raymond

AG PAyYIMer.JEA ,c: bd Ae _ ee on 2D

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA. Part XXVI. A Contribution to our

Knowledge of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects of the Nival

Zones from the North-West Himalaya. Parti. By M. S. Mani and

Santokh Singh. (With eleven text-figures) ae o ie OIL

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI AND ITS IMMEDIATE NEIGHBOURHOOD. Part II. By

K.S. Srinivasan and G. V. Subba Rao .. . ee as 2. 407

A REVIEW OF SOME GRASS-INFESTING THRIPS FROM INDIA WITH A_ DESCRIP-

TION OF A New Species. By T. N. Ananthakrishnan. (With a_ text-

figure) ; . 420

THE WILDFOWL TRUST AT SLIMBRIDGE IN BRITAIN. By E. P. Gee. (With

two plates) Ai sa a ih sd in 429

VEGETATION OF JHUNJHUNU, MANDRELA, AND THE NEIGHBOURING PLACES. By

N. C. Nair. (With a map and a plate) .. ee e .. 433

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL. Part4. By Biswamoy Biswas. (With two text-figures) 441

ON THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE GULF OF KutcH. Part II—Gastropods. By

P. K. B. Menon, A. K. Datta Gupta, and D. Das Gupta. (With ten

plates) ne ne a ms BS v7 410

REVIEWS :

1. Forests of the Night. (Hugh Allen) ne a ae CES)

2. The Oxford Book of Wild Flowers. (H. Santapau) ae #2, DOU

3. Your Face from Fish to Man. (A. B.) zh a se 501

4. Tiger Trails in Assam. (B. Seshadri) ae a DOL

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. Golden Langurs Presbytis geei Gee (Khajuria, 1956) in captivity. By

P. L. Achard (p. 505). 2. Recovery of a ringed tiger! By C. M. Chaudhri

(p. 508). 3. Some notes on the Golden Cat, Felis temmincki Vigors & Hors-

field (With two plates). By E. P. Gee (p. 508). 4. What do large predators in

the forest live on? By Editors (p. 511). 5. Communal distraction display

in Large Grey Babbler [Turdoides malcolmi (Sykes)]. By R. S. Dharma-

kumarsinhji (p. 512). 6. The Moustached Sedge Warbler [Lusciniola melano-

pogon (Temminck)] and the Yellow Bittern [Jxcbrychus sinensis (Gmelin)] :

Additions to the birds of Kutch. By Y.S. Shivrajkumar (p. 513). 7. Rufousbel-

lied Hawk-Eagle, Lophotriorchis kienerii kienerii (E. Geoffroy) in North

Kanara. By R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 514). 8. Pelicanry at Kundakulam,

Tirunelveli District. By Margaret E. Wilkinson (p. 514). 9. Food of the Ruddy

Shelduck, Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas). By Editors (p. 516). 10. A late duck

record? By T. Gay (p. 516). 11. Notes on bird migration during a voyage

from England to India in September 1960. By Desirée Proud (p. 517).

12. The eggs and flight of the Gecko Ptychozoon kuhli Stejneger from Car

Nicobar (With one text-figure). By K. K Tiwari (p. 523). 13. The Common

Calotes or Bloodsucker Lizard [Calotes versicolor (Daudin)] as a predator

of birds. By M. J. Pereira (p. 527). 14. Occurrence of the Phoorsa, Echis

carinata (Schneider) along the Malabar coast south of Karwar. By K. G.

Adiyodi (p. 528). 15. Extension of range of the crab, Acanthonyx limbatus

Milne-Edwards, to Indian waters (With one text-figure). By B. F. Chhapgar

(p. 529). 16.‘ An unusual method of curing scorpion stings’. By P. H.

Sykes (p. 531). 17. ‘ Notes on the butterfly genus Ypithima’. By K. Cantlie

and T. Norman (p. 532). 18. Hesperiidae. Halpe scissa sp. nov. (With four

text-figures). By Keith Cantlie (p. 532). 19. Morphological differentiation

of the larval instars of Simulium ornatum Meigen (Nematocera, Diptera), with

a note on its metamorphosis and ecology (With a plate). By V. J. 1. Grant

(p. 534). 20. A new species of the genus Callantra Walker from India (Dip-

tera: Trypetidae) (With a plate). By Md. Zaka-ur-Rab (p. 538). 21. A com-

ment on the record of Khaya senegalensis A. Juss. from Pondicherry. By

A. K. Dutt (p. 542). 22. Shorea talura Roxb., a synonym of §. roxburghii G. Don.

By G. Kashyapa (p. 543). 23. Amended description of Hydrocera triflora Wt. &

Arn. (With a plate). By J. Venkateswarlu and B. S. M. Dutt (p. 544).

24. Boswellia ovalifoliolata sp. nov.: a new species of Boswellia from south

India (With two plates). By N. P. Balakrishnan and A. N. Henry (p. 546).

25. New record of a host (Litsea umbrosa Nees) for Korthalsella opuntia

(Thumb.) Merr. (With a_ text-figure). By K.™M. Vaid (p. 549). 26..New

plant record from Bombay: Physalis longifolia Nutt. By H. Santapau, s.J.,

G. L. Shah, and Mrs. Z. Kapadia (née V. Patel) (p. 550).. 27. New plant

record from Bombay: Alternanthera pungens H.B.K. By H. Santapau, s.J.,

and G. L. Shah (p. 551). 28. An interesting condition of fruiting in banana

(With one photograph). By G. S. Srivastava (p. 553). 29. The Ophioglossales

in Nepal. By M. L. Banerji (p. 554).

NOTES AND NEws as sa cs ee ae see

CORRIGENDA

558

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATU RAL

HES LORY. SOCIETY

1961 AUGUST Vol. 58 No. 2

The White Rhino of Hluhluwe

O= He DE ‘ST. -CROIx

(With two plates)

Mention of a game reserve in the Union (now Republic) of South

Africa usually turns the mind to the world-famous Kruger National Park

in eastern Transvaal, with its vast area and great range of wild life. It

may not be generally known that there are a number of much smaller

game reserves in different parts of the Union, some of them for the

protection of a particular species in its former habitat. The province

of Natal has been especially forward in establishing smaller game

reserves of this kind, most of which are in the Zululand area. Among

these are the two White Rhinoceros reserves at Hluhluwe and

Umfolosi, of which the former appears at present to be much the

better organised for casual visitors. .

The Zulu language, though melodious to the ear, presents some -

formidable problems to the foreign tongue, with its register of clicks

and other pitfalls of pronunciation. At first sight the word Hluhluwe

seems to be one of them. But if the two ‘hl’ sounds are pronounced

as rough aspirates and the ending is made to rhyme with ‘Hooey’

the result will be understandable to the local inhabitants.

This Reserve (estimated at 57,000 acres or 89 sq. miles) lies in

the northern part of Zululand about 180 miles north of Durban and

is easily accessible by motor road. For a start the way lies along

the new Natal north coast national road and one might be travelling

through the south of India so thick is the Tamil population of the

towns and villages along the first 30 miles or so of the route. Then,

after passing the modern town of Stanger, once the site of Shaka

322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Zulu’s royal kraal a fine new bridge carries the road over the

historic Tugela River into what is now the heart of Zululand. There

is ample evidence hereabouts that sugar is king, for on either side

of the road as far as the eye can see stretches an apparently limitless

sea of sugar cane. It is not grown here in small patches as in India

but in mass, sometimes extending unbroken over many acres. The

result is that the pastoral scenery typical of Zululand, with its gently

undulating down-like hills and occasional patches of bushveld, has

been transformed. |

On reaching Mtubatuba some 150 miles from Durban there are

signs that the modern way of life is being left behind. From here —

the road stretches away, metalled but not asphalted, to Swaziland and

the Mozambique border. The way to the Reserve shortly takes a

turning off inland and almost at once one is in a much wilder

environment. It is now a landscape of steeper undulations, extensive

stretches of bushveld, and occasional rocky outcrops. It is not a thickly

populated region and only small bee-hive kraals are to be seen dotted

about sparsely. There are not many signs of cultivation but cattle

of many sorts abound and there is every appearance of overgrazing.

Soon another turning branches off and thence the way is over

little more than a rough track. In a few miles this reaches the fenced

and gated boundary of the Reserve. Here visitors have to check in

with their reservations at the gate lodge and are also given comprehensive

information and instructions covering their stay. The road then

runs for several miles through the Reserve itself. At first it is past

Open savannah and park-like country. Presently thick bush. closes

in on both sides and, although a fair speed is being kept up, quite a

variety of wild life is to be seen in fleeting glimpses. A troupe of

baboons, a party of guinea fowl, several wart hog and Impala

antelope, a solitary Nyala buck are all visible by the roadside and

scarcely heeding. Then of a sudden the road starts twisting and.

climbing through picturesque scenery up to the ultimate destination. |

The camp site is ideally located along the fiat top of a narrow

ridge at an altitude of about 1500 feet (460 m.) above sea-level.

Coolness is thus assured at all times of the year and an absence of

insect pests. There are delightful views on either side over grass-

covered hills and deep wooded valleys. Thick forest lines the valley

floors wherever perennial watercourses run and, where the hillsides

have been sharply weather-carved, rocky cliffs and peaks protrude

to vary the scene. Sometimes through binoculars wild life can be

watched without even moving from the camp itself.

JourN. BomBay Nat. HIst. Soc. PLATE: I

Nyala Buck in Hluhluwe Reserve

Courtesy : Natal Parks, Game & Fish Preservation Board

JourRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLaTE II

The Common, or Black Rhinoceros in Hluhluwe Reserve

Courtesy : Natal Parks, Game & Fish Preservation Board

THE WHITE RHINO OF HLUHLUWE 32555

Accommodation in the camp is of two kinds. There are cottages

(not shown in the iilustration) each absolutely self-contained and

designed to house under one roof a party of up to six people if

necessary, but four more comfortably. The suite consists of 2 large

bedrooms, a sitting room, a dining room, a bath-room and a fully-

equipped kitchen with store-room. The rondavels (which are as

shown in the illustration) are bed-sitting rooms for two with washing

and eating facilities centralised externally. In either case the

accommodation is fully and comfortably equipped and_ spotlessly

clean. Literally, all the visitor has to bring are his food and drinks,

except drinking water. All one has to do on arrival is to hand over

one’s supplies to the well-trained Zulu staff and the rest, with very

little supervision, can be left to them. The camp has its own electric

supply with current cut off between the hours of 10 p.m. and 5 a.m.,

running hot and cold water, with flush sanitation, and a limited petrol

supply; telephone and telegraph facilities are also available. For

all this the inclusive cost of occupation (excluding food and drink)

should average between 15 shillings and 25 shillings per head per

day only, according to the type of accommodation used.

Other items of administrative interest are: no dogs are allowed,

bookings may not be made for more than 5 nights or more than 3

months in advance, there is a vehicular speed limit throughout of

25 miles (40 km.) per hour, and visitors are strictly confined to camp

between sunset and sunrise, no one may camp out or sleep in a

vehicle within the Reserve, no one may tour the Reserve without

an authorised Game Guard or get out of a car while touring unless

accompanied by him. It does not need much imagination to

appreciate that these regulations are framed for very good reasons

in the best interests of the visitors themselves.

Our arrival coincided conveniently with tea-time and, once the

essentials of registering at the camp office, unloading gear, and

onloading some tea are complete, we are ready to make the most

of an evening excursion. A Zulu guide is allotted to us without

delay, a strapping young man in smart khaki uniform and obviously

capable of dealing effectively with even the most tiresome visitor.

His knowledge of English is limited but one of the party is fortunately

fluent (though clickless) in the Zulu language which adds very

greatly to the interest of everything. These Zulu guides are also

guards vested with certain powers, the tangible evidence of which

is a pair of handcuffs fixed to their belts. They seem to be men

carefully picked, not only for their physique and intelligence, but. also

324. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

for their knowledge of and interest in wild life. They are certainly an

impressive body of men who would be a credit to any organisation.

So, fully imbued with confidence in our guide now installed in

the car, we set off not long after arrival down-hill in the opposite

direction to that from which we came. It is the dry season and

dusty, but the grass is short, visibility good, and the animals con-

centrated where there is good grazing. Almost at once we are in

sight of Wildebeest (Gnu), Zebra, and Impala, the last named in some

numbers. Presentiy, as the road descends into thicker bush, we

begin to see Nyala in ones and twos but quite frequently. This is

a species which is not so well known as most, being shy and a lover of

dense cover. But it is quite a speciality in this Reserve, where it

can be seen at very close quarters and to good advantage. It is not

very spectacular as antelope go, yet the illustration will show that

it has a distinctive beauty, a good deal of which is unfortunately lost

without the colouring. The adult buck is a deep chocolate-brown with

irregular, cream-coloured, vertical stripes, and quite modest horns with

a single backward-sweeping twist. The doe and the young are a

vivid chestnut and always seem to be in the sleekest of condition.

The next animal to come on view is a patriarch among male

baboons sitting with a bored, proprietary air on a rocky eminence

quite close to the road. But he is allowing no familiarities, for as

soon as the car stops he turns his back rudely and ambles away. He

utters a grunting signal call to his troupe as he goes and the swaying

of trees all over the hillside shows that they are taking rapid but

unseen evasive action. A little further on the guide suddenly jerks

to the alert and says the word for which we have ail been waiting—

‘Rhino’. But even with 2 pairs of binoculars trained on where he is

pointing there appears to be nothing but the usual termite heaps and

rocks protruding from the bushveld. Then one of them shifts and

turns and the identification is obvious. It is a tribute to the guide’s

keenness of sight that he could pick out an object like this from a

moving car about a quarter of a mile away. :A quick appraisal of

the situation now shows that we are up-wind, too far away and also

that the light is wrong for photographs. So the car is turned and a

long detour made to another road, which brings us down-wind and

much closer to the objective.

We are now about 150 yards (140 m.) only from the nearest rhino

and are able to see with some disappointment that it is one of the

nearly related and much commoner ‘Black’ species. But the dis-

appointment is partly offset by the prospect of possible excitement.

THE WHITE RHINO OF HLUHLUWE 325

For the guide at once makes it clear that no liberties whatever are to

be taken. We are allowed to get out of the car but only to move a

few paces from it. The doors are all left wide open and the engine

running, so that a very quick get-away can be made if necessary.

As soon as the binoculars are focussed the reason for these pre-

cautions as also for most of the rules governing all conduct in the

Reserve become obvious. The ‘Black’ Rhino is a most vicious and

ageressive-looking animal. Though very heavily built his quarters

give an impression of ponderous agility concealing a deceptive speed:

of movement, like an outsize all-in wrestler and just as ugly. His

head is held high, tapered and fully armoured, the business-end of

a powerful, self-activated battering ram. This one, the bull of the

party, is evidently feeling his responsibilities and prepared to take

on anything. He has detected the presence of humans but is unable

to locate them precisely, which is exactly what our guide had planned.

He shifts about, testing the air and snorting unpleasantly. We watch

him closely through binoculars while photographs are taken, to the

reassuring accompaniment of the car engine’ ticking over healthily.

He is joined by a female of the species which appears to have a

soothing effect; a third animal remains rummaging in the bush. But

this interesting encounter has to be cut short since the position of

the sun indicates a move homeward, somewhat to the guide’s relief.

He is under no delusion as to the Black Rhino’s real character.

The way back to camp is now by a wide circuit, touching the boundary

of the Reserve, which has to be covered at fair speed. Yet there is

something of wild life to see almost continuously. Unfortunately

birds are not very plentiful in such dry weather. Guinea fowl are

the most conspicuous and there are several glimpses of a small

bustard, whose shyness makes exact identification impossible. A stop

cannot be resisted when a herd of Buffalo is sighted, though some

way off, grazing slowly along a steep, grassy slope. Except for the

adult bulls they are not nearly such impressive animals as their Indian

counterparts. Time has by now almost run out and the study of them

has to be abandoned. As it is, the camp gate is reached only just

before sunset.

When leaving us for the night our guide made it firmly but politely

clear that a very early start was called for the following morning.

So the whole party is up with the sun and witnesses a smart parade

of the entire staff of Camp Guides. As soon as they are dismissed

we are rejoined by our man and are soon on our way to a part of

the Reserve not yet visited. At this early hour wild life is afoot in

abundance. At first it is wart hog which steal the show, since they

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

are the quite unwitting comedians of the bushveld. Almost invariably

they greet the visitor with a prolonged and searching stare. With

snout held high and the formidable array of tusk well to the fore,

there is a distinct resemblance to a senior army officer flaunting his

traditional bristling, white moustache in highly truculent mood. The

scrutiny complete, there is an abrupt about turn and the hog makes

off at a smart trot, his whip-like tufted tail held rigidly vertical as

an eloquent sign of extreme disapprova!. His plump little hind-

quarters seem to work overtime in keeping up with his more shapely

forelegs and look like those of a squat scrum-half whose shorts are

too tight for him.

Impala are on view in large numbers all along the road. A

small herd composed entirely of bucks all with fully-developed horns

shows what beautifully graceful creatures these antelopes in the

adult male stage really can be. Elsewhere some does with fawns

give an exhibition, for no apparent reason, of their well-known

running-jumping act. In succession they literally soar through the

ait with a series of immense, leaping bounds as though impelled by

hidden springs in their feet. If there were to be an animal Olympiad

an Impala would surely be the hop-step-and-jump gold medallist.

Further on a large herd of Wildebeest puts on for our benefit a sort

of mass manoeuvre like a squadron of riderless cavalry on parade.

They wheel and counter-march raggedly and then finish facing the

car in a bunched, irregular line-abreast pawing the ground and

snorting as though expecting applause.

Two new species now appear. A family of Waterbuck are seen

standing close together in the open, frozen to inconspicuousness.

Stocky and well built with heavy neutral-coloured coats, the buck

has thick, corrugated, lyre-shaped horns and they all give an im-

pression of extreme physical fitness and a capacity for endurance.

Then there is a passing glimpse of two doe Kudu, rather unshapely

and inelegant, with dowdy colouring and nervous, spinsterly tem-

perament. They lack distinction but raise our hopes high of seeing

a buck of the species, which certainly must share with the Sable

(apparently not represented in this Reserve) a claim to being the most

imposing and handsome of all the antelopes.

At a point where the road runs along the crest of a bare ridge

commanding a good view the car is stopped, and the whole party

deploys to bring binoculars into play. A long way off there is a herd

of buffalo, aloof and grazing busily. But they are too far away to be

watched with any interest. Somewhat nearer, on a steep open hill-

side is a large object like an animated, earth-coloured tank-lorry,

THE WHITE RHINO OF HLUHLUWE 327

shambling around evidently in urgent search of fodder which is not

so plentiful in this very dry season. The guide confirms that it is

a ‘White’ Rhino but it is too far off to approach closer on foot and

judging by its restless movements it has no intention of staying put for

very long. So we have to be content with this very distant view until

in a few minutes the Rhino disappears in its strenuous search for an

adequate meal to start the day. ,

We now turn homewards on a circuitous route but there is still

one more interesting encounter to come. From the top of a tallish

thorn tree protrudes a row of shapely heads and at first sight it

locks as though some of the larger antelope population have been

indulging in climbing exercises. But closer inspection reveals that

we have met the Reserve’s one family of Giraffes. We advance to meet

them on foot and, since they do not move, stand staring at them at

a few yards’ range with the thorn tree in between. The Giraffes,

a female with partly grown young, remain motionless and return the

stare with gentle, melting eyes, looking down on us with a pitying

expression on their faces. Soon tiring of this mutual admiration

society, we retrace our steps leaving the Giraffes still in the same

position as when we fitst saw them. On the way we meet the bull

of the herd, a huge handsomely-marked animal, by now quite a

well-known character in this Reserve. He appears overjoyed at see-

ing us and follows like a dog back to the car. Even when we get in

and slam the doors he still stands close by as if expecting something.

He is now so close as to be within touching distance and we see

every detail of his markings, including large numbers of ticks clustered

on his underside. But the limit is reached when, overcome by

curiosity or impatience, he tries to push his enormous head in at one

of the windows. We start off abruptly back to the camp for, however

friendly his intentions, a Giraffe of this size might be quite capable

of overturning the car.

Since we have still not had a proper view of the real object of

our visit, our guide insists that there will be no siesta. As this is

our last afternoon we are obliged to admit the force of his conten-

tion. So at about 2 p.m. we set off again. It is the hottest time of

a not very hot day and, unlike us, most of the animals are by now

enjoying their siesta. But whereas the majority of them find full

concealment in so doing, the ‘White’ Rhino, as our guide well knows,

has long since given up trying to hide his enormous bulk merely for

the observance of a daily routine. Thus for one who knows where

to look it must be the easiest time of day to locate this animal and

328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

by the way our guide is looking out of the window he is obviously

confident of success. Sure enough before long he makes an urgent

signal to stop and leaps out while the car is still moving. We look

in the direction he is pointing and there, about half a mile (800 m.)

away under an acacia tree, lies a mountainous grey shape, so

large as to make the tree look like a lady’s parasol. Binoculars

identify it at once as an enormous ‘White’ Rhino, lying fast asleep

with his legs tucked under him and his snout resting on the ground

as if tired of supporting the large, scimitar-like nose-horn. The

guide explains that we are now to make a tactical approach on foot

to within range for close-up photography, and off we go at a crack-

ing pace. A Zulu’s idea of a cross-country walk is austere to say the

least. It takes no account of thorn bushes, rocks, dry water-courses,

steep banks, and the like; nor does it make any allowance for the

softness engendered by ‘civilised’ life. We follow as best we can and

are soon past caring. Then of a sudden, before we are fully prepared

for it, we find ourselves with nothing but about 40 yards of bare

veld between us and the still slumbering Rhino. The guide obviously

scornful of our sweating and breathless condition, whispers that the

time for photography will be strictly limited. We try to steady our-

selves by looking through binoculars and are fascinated by what we

see at such close quarters. But the Rhino is not alone, for clamber-

ing about his body are two ox-peckers, drab-coloured birds of the

starling family, with blood-red beaks and about the size of a myna.

Their function is to relieve their host of ticks and other parasites

and this they are now doing with tireless energy, not omitting the

most intimate and impertinent inspections. By way of reciprocation

they appoint themselves as watchmen and presently these two give

the alarm. The Rhino springs to its feet with surprising agility and

at once stands facing us, apparently having been warned of our exact

position.

The first impression is of a creature of gigantic size, like a

sizeable elephant on short legs. It is now evident that this is a fully

adult male and one is told that these stand nearly 6 feet at the

shoulder and can weigh up to 5 tons. Yet its whole bearing and

attitude reflect a humble docility which dispels any feeling of fear

at the proximity of so huge a wild animal.

It may here be explained that the designation ‘White’ as applied

to this species is really a misnomer and that it should more properly

be called the ‘Square-lipped’ Rhino from a physical attribute which

the illustration does not show clearly (the illustration incidentally

THE WHITE RHINO OF HLUHLUWE 329

is of a much smaller specimen than that described). For whereas the

other species is a browser and, as we saw yesterday, stands with

his head held aggressively high, the Square-lipped Rhino is so equipped

for grazing, and stands ponderously with its head held low like a

corpulent old man bowed at the shoulders.

There is something enthralling about standing within a stone’s

throw of one of the world’s rarest and largest land animals. It does

not take long to realise why this one so nearly suffered extinction.

For despite its great size and potential strength it is ill-fitted either

physically or by temperament to protect itself against man’s incessant

persecution. Its equipment requires a sheltered, inoffensive life in an

environment governed solely by Nature’s own checks and balances.

The Rhino returns our inquisitive stare with timid, puzzled eyes

and turns from side to side as if uncertain what to do next. A cloud

of flies and other insects rises from its body at each movement and

hangs around it like a haze. Then, satisfied as to our harmlessness

and evidently convinced that it is not worth while resuming the

interrupted siesta, it ambles slowly away on an erratic course across

the veld grazing at random as it goes. We watch it out of sight with

mixed feelings, composed of sympathy for such a mountain of help-

lessness and of satisfaction that something substantial has been saved

from the welter of 20th century destruction.

As a finale we are taken to a place where the track ends on the

bare summit of a hill, whence a fine view is to be had. From here

there is a panorama covering a large area of the Reserve and com-

prising almost every type of scenery to be found in the South

African bushveld. With a few sweeps of the binoculars our now

practised eyes can pick out most of the species which have been

encountered at closer quarters. Zebra are present in numbers but

it is surprising how such a dazzle-coated creature can make itself

sO inconspicuous in broad daylight merely by standing still in the

shadow of a tree. On a grassy slope below us stands a solitary

Secretary Bird, easily identified by his slate-grey plumage and lanky

build, a characteristic but increasingly rare sight in this type of country.

He is an eagle on stilts, the arrangement of whose head feathers gives

him his name and makes him look like a Jean and spindly individual

who has not brushed his hair. As we watch he struts about with a

rolling, nautical gait searching the ground for food in a most un-

eagle-like way. In some scrub jungle just beyond a rhino is moving

around, but it is impossible to determine the species with only a rear

view of its broad back. Overhead a pair of Bateleur Eagles soar

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

and wheel in widening circles. While so doing they display their

curious propensity for side-slipping instability in flight as though

imdulging in a form of controlled aerobatics. Can this be due to

their having been equipped by nature with most unusually short tails?

Then an excited comment from one of the party draws all bino-

culars to the point on which he is focussed. The glint of sun on a

moving horn betrays the presence of a large animal. Can it be the

one species we have so far missed seeing? A pair of binoculars is

handed to the guide and without hesitation he confirms that it is

what we hoped for. At last we have located a Kudu buck and a very

fine one too. At first he is half concealed by the bush on which he

is browsing. But soon, as if to oblige, he steps out into the open and

stands in the full afternoon sunlight, showing to perfection what a

superbly magnificent creature a male Kudu is in its prime. He is as

large as a medium-sized pony and beautifully proportioned, with

long, massive spiral horns flowing straight up from his head in

perfect symmetry. The guide says there is a second buck present,

having somehow spotted it with his naked eye. He points disdain-

fully to help out our fumbling efforts with the binoculars; at last we

pick him out standing still in shadow, a marvel of protective colora-

tion. He is every bit as fine a specimen as his companion, and it

seems absurd that we could so easily have missed such a large animal

in the open. But even in daylight the mouse-dun coat broken up

with pale, irregular, vertical stripes provides a perfect camouflage

when motionless. Now for several minutes we are able to enjoy an

uninterrupted view, in a setting that could hardly be bettered, of a

species which is certainly one of Nature’s masterpieces. Then of a

sudden they both appear to sense that they are under human

observation and fade quietly into the bush.

We return to our base for the last time, reluctantly but with a

feeling of deep satisfaction at having seen all we set out to see under

such delightful conditions. There is a distinct atmosphere of de-

pression the next morning at having to go back so soon to the

‘civilised’ way of life.

What lessons does the example of the Hluhluwe Reserve hold

for the Indian conservationist? Local conditions and the type of

wild life to be preserved do, of course, differ widely. But certain

broad conclusions can undoubtedly be drawn.

Here in the first place is evidence that to be successful a Reserve

need not necessarily be of enormous size, even if located in a settled

agricultural region. For given good grazing with adequate perennial

THE WHITE RHINO OF HLUHLUWE 331

water supply, both properly husbanded and conserved, and provided

species suitable for the environment are selected for preservation, it

is evidently possible to contain a large stock within a limited area

without undue straying. In this context Hluhluwe maintains a very

considerable stock of grazing and browsing animals without, so one

is told, any predators. It would clearly be inadvisable to introduce

lions in so restricted an area, but there appears no reason why

leopard or cheetah could not be allowed. In the circumstances one

wonders how the necessary checks are provided so as to prevent the

usual consequences of overpopulation, which in the case of some

species already appears to be in sight. Possibly judicious control is

exercised by the wardens themselves or some of the lesser predators

may in fact be present unseen in small numbers. It is an interesting

question on which the writer unfortunately was unable to obtain any

authoritative information.

Then again conditions at Hluhluwe give a satisfactory answer to

the charge commonly made, and unhappily too often substantiated,

that a game reserve merely creates a poacher’s paradise. This will

only be so if there is an inadequate staff or a staff insufficiently

trained and of the wrong calibre or not vested with powers appropriate

to the efficient discharge of their duties. The confiding behaviour of

most of the animals in this Reserve bears eloquent enough witness

to the very thorough control over human molestation which the staff

is able to maintain.

Finally, and by no means least important, there is the practical

demonstration that a well-stocked and _ intelligently-administered

game reserve, backed by a soundly organised and comfortably (but.

not luxuriously) equipped rest camp can be an attraction to visitors

from overseas in large numbers. 20,000 people visited the park in

1960, and it can hardly be denied that this represents a significant

national asset.

Critical Notes on the Orchidaceae of

Bombay State

VI. NERVILIA GAUD. & MALAXIS SW.

H. SANTAPAU, S.J., F.N.I. AND Z. KAPADIA, PH.D.

(With three plates)

[Continued from Vol. 58 (1) : 67]

NERVILIA Comm. ex Gaud.

NERVILIA Comm. ex Gaud. Bot. Voy. Freycinet 421, 1826, nom.

cons. ; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6): 106, 1888 ; Schltr.

Orchid. 101, 1927 ; Sprague & Fischer in Kew Bull. 1927: 363; Holt-

tum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1: 104, 1953. Pogonia Endl. Gen. Pl. 218, 1837,

p. p.; King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8 : 265, 1898, p.p. ;

J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6: 53, 1905 ; Duthie in Ann. R. Bot. Gard.

Calcutta 9 (2): 157, 1906 (non Juss. 1769). Pogonia sect. Nervilia

Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3: 615, 1883 ; Hook. f. Fl. Br. India 6:

118, 1890.

The name Nervilia is derived from the prominent veins in the leaves

of several species.

Perennial, tuberous herbs, mostly coming into leaf after flowering.

Tubers globose, usually with small warty root-knobs, generally dirty-

white in colour. Leaf one, petiolate, broadly cordate or orbicular:

plicate, glabrous or variously pubescent. Inflorescence erect, bearing

1, 2 or several flowers in racemes. Flowers erect, horizontal, nodding

or drooping. Sepals and petals subequal, spreading, rather long and

narrow. Lip inferior, adnate to the base of the column, sessile or sub-

clawed, entire, or 3-lobed, often slightly saccate at the base, embracing

the column in the basal region. Column elongate, straight or slightly

curved, footless, broadening upwards to contain the stigmatic surface

and the anther. Anther sub-stipitate, almost horizontal; pollinia 2

bifid, or 4, granular, yellow, without caudicles or glands. Stigmatic

surface oblong, or somewhat quadrate, broad.

Species about 40 to 50, distributed from Africa to India and China,

and through Malaysia to Australia.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE . 333

The Bombay species have been put under Pogonia Juss. by Cooke

(in FL. PRES. BOMB. 2 : 706, 1907) ; in this he follows Hooker f. and

Bentham & Hooker f.’s treatment of this genus, though the latter

authors distinguish Nervilia Gaud. as a section of Pogonia Juss. We

consider Nervilia Gaud. a distinct genus, differing primarily from Pogonia

Juss. by the production of their flowers before the leaves, and by having

a separate stem which bears no leaves but may have scales or scaly

sheaths.

The generic name Aploséellis attributed in Ind. Kew. to Thouars,

Orch. Iles Austr. Afr. t. 24, 1822, has been adopted by Ridley (FL. MALAY

PENINS. 4 : 203, 1924) in place of Nervilia Gaud. (1826) on the ground of

priority of publication. Sprague and Fischer have shown that Aplostellis

Thouars is ‘. .. nota generic name but the name of a species. A

critical examination of Thouars’s preliminary paper “Sur l’histoire des

plantes orchidées des fles australes d’Afrique’”’ (Nouv. Bull. Soc. Philom.

Paris 1: 314-319, 1809) and of his ‘Orch. Iles Austr. Afr.’ (1822)

shows that he attempted to introduce two innovations into the nomen-

clature of Mascarene Orchids : (1) that all generic names of Orchidaceae

should end in orkis (orchis) ; and (2) that each Mascarene species of

that family should be known by a single name instead of a binary

combination. These innovations were not accepted by other botanists

and when Thouars published his plates of Mascarene Orchidaceae in

1822 he employed a double system of nomenclature in the tables and

plates, the names of these genera and species according to his own

peculiar method being followed by corresponding names in accordance

with the established system. Thus Aplostellis Thou. was the uninomial

name of a new species from Mauritius, which he placed under the new

genus Svellorkis (Stellorchis) ; he appended the new binary combination

Arethusa simplex for those who preferred to follow the generally accepted

methods of nomenclature. The mode of formation of the uninomial

names of the species was explained in Thouars’s preliminary paper. The

first half was an abbreviation or Greek translation of the trivial name ;

and the second half was composed of the first part of the generic name

with the suffix -is. Thus Aplostellis is a portmanteau word composed

of Aplo-, the Greek equivalent of simplex, and stellis a contraction of

Stellorkis.

‘ Aplostellis as a generic name was proposed by A. Richard in 1828,

but this is antedated by Stellorkis Thou. (1809) and Nervilia Comm. ex

Gaud. (1826) ’. The name Nervilia Comm. ex Gaud. has been conserved

for the genus.

The following is the synonymy of Nervilia (Aplostellis) as given by

Sprague and Fischer (loc. cit.) :

Nervilia Commerson ex Gaud. in Bot. Voy. Freycinet 421, t. 35,

1826, nomen conservandum. Stellorkis Thou. in Nouv. Bull. Soc.

334. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Philom. Paris 1: 317, 1809. Stellorchis Thou. Orch. Iles Austr. Afr.,

Tabl. Genres, 8, t. 24, 1822. Cordyla Blume, Bijdr. 416, 1825 (non

Lour. 1790). Aplostellis A. Rich. in Mem. Soc. Hist. Nat. Par. 4: 36,

1828. Roprostemon Blume, FI. Jav. vi, 1828, sub nomine Cordyla.

Haplostellis Endl. Gen. Pl. 219, n. 1603, 1837. Rephostemon Endl. loc.

cit. 216, n. 1578, 1837. Haplostellis Reichb. Nomencl. 1 : 56, 1841.

Most species of Nervilia are found in a definite ecological habitat.

In open fields they are often found under the shade of hedges of culti-

vated fields. Very often one or more rows of the orchid in leaf or in

flower may run parallel to the hedge. In forests these species are found

growing in spots with plenty of rotting leaves. The tuber produces an

inflorescence ; one leaf per plant appears after the wilting of flowers ;

each plant gives usually 2 slender horizontal, underground stolons,

which produce new tubers at their end. The latter at first produce leaves,

but in subsequent years flowers are first produced, then leaves. Thus

vegetative propagation is quite prolific in this genus. We have observed

that flowering in Nervilia strictly coincides with the very first showers

of the monsoon ; in N. Kanara, where the monsoon sets in early, often

by the last week of May, flowering is practically over by the first week

of June; in Salsette Island the monsoon generally does not begin till

about the middle of June, and the flowers of these plants usually come

about the third week of June.

Type species : N. aragoana Gaud.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF NERVILIA OF BOMBAY

BASED ON LEAF CHARACTERS

1. Petioles 2-5 cm. long; leaf-blade lying

more or less flat on the ground :

2. Leaf-blade glabrous, green with 5-7

broad chocolate-coloured bands

along the nerves ah ie ie -infundibulifolia

2. Leaf-blade pubescent, green or purple :

3. Leaf-blade pure green, with pale

green or somewhat white hairs :

4. Leaf-blade 2-12 cm. in diam.,

orbicular-cordate, subreni-

form, subplicate, hairy on

the upper surface, glabrous

or glabrescent below af monantha.

4. Leaf-blade 4-16 cm. in diam.,

ovate-cordate, acute or sub-

acute, plicate, hairy on both ;

~ surfaces te pee discolor

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE _ 335

3. Leaf-blade deep purple or green-

purple to rusty-brown with stiff

pale or deep purple hairs in

regular rows on both the sur-

faces discolor

1. Petioles 8-20 cm. long ; leaf-blade fot

lying flat on the ground a on juliana

aragoana

carinata

BASED ON FLOWERS

1. Scape 1-flowered :

2. Sepals and petals 13-15 mm. long;

lip 3-lobed; midlobe glabrous, entire,

obovate or obovate-oblong, rounded,

midnerve prominent and callus-like infundibulifolia

2. Sepals and petals 17-25 mm. long ; lip

scarcely lobed ; midlobe or its apical

portion much wrinkled, subfimbriate,

somewhat 3-4-lobulate, ia on the

nerves A monantha

2. Sepals and petals 25-35 mm. long ; lip

3-lobed ; midlobe rhomboid or

Fpemboid*ovate to rhomboid-lan-

ceolate, acute or subacuminate,

hairy within juliana

1. Scape 2-flowered ; flowers at right angles

to the scape ; lip scarcely lobed, the apex

somewhat retuse discolor

1. Scape several- to Many-fowered: Homer

drooping ; lip 3-lobed :

2. Floral bracts deflexed; lip slightly

saccate at the base; midlobe not

constricted at the base, ovate or

ovate-oblong, rarely | suborbicular,

rounded with incurved, erect edges ;

column rounded on the dorsal side,

flat in front a be aragoana

2h Floral bracts erect; lip not saccate

at the base ; Hidlobe somewhat con-

stricted at the base, straight, ovate

or rhomboid-ovate, tapered to an

acute or subacuminate apex ; column

with a strong keel on the dorsal side, a

making it 3-angled ae gga earinata

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES OF NERVILIA OF BOMBAY STATE

1. Nervilia infundibulifolia Blatt. & McC. in Journ. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 725, t. 3, 1932 ; Santapau in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind.

16 (1) : 304, 1953. N. hallbergii Blatt. & McC. ibid. 726, 1932;

Santapau 304. (See Plate XXXII).

Tubers 6-12 mm. in diam., subspherical, slightly flattened above and

below, sparsely covered with small root-knobs. Leaf flat on the ground —

or slightly above the surface; sheaths about 1-2 cm. long, light brown,

translucent, oblong, acute to subacuminate, entire, purple-nerved ;

petioles 2-4 cm. long, dark-brown purple above, turning lighter below,

terete, grooved, ridged, opening into a slightly enlarged funnel-shaped

mouth at the base of the lamina; lamina 2-3 x 3-4cm. glabrous,

broadly ovate, cordate to suborbicular, subacute, obtuse or slightly

retuse at the apex ; margins brown-maroon, crimped, irregularly and

minutely dentate-crenulate ; nerves 5-7, rarely 9 pairs, the last pair

generally thin; upper surface dark grass-green with broad chocolate-

coloured bands along the nerves, broadening in the middle but not

reaching the margin; lower surface light green with prominent dark-

brown nerves, corresponding to the depressed ones above. In-

florescence one-flowered ; scape 6-15 cm. (often reaching 27 cm. in

fruit) tall, terete, pale maroon, of 2 internodes ; sheaths linear-oblong,

obtuse, entire, 5-nerved ; the upper sheath about 3-3.5 cm. long, wide-

mouthed, the lower much shorter, closely appressed. Flower at about

right angles to the scape or nodding, greenish purple. Bract 3-7x 2-3

mm., subconcave, ovate, or ovate-oblong, acute, entire, 3-nerved, maroon,

the nerves deeper in colour. Pedicel 1-1.5 mm. long, curved, pale purple.

Sepals and petals similar, slightly concave, light maroon-green with

maroon veins, linear-lanceolate, broader in the middle, acute, entire,

glabrous. Sepals 13-15 x 3-4mm., 3-nerved. Petals 12-14 x 2-2.5 mm.,

sparsely or not at all gland-dotted, 3-nerved, the midnerve more promi-

nent. Lip 16-17 x 5-6 mm., saccate at the base, gland-dotted, 3-lobed ;

lateral lobes 8 x 2 mm., pale apple green, acute or subobtuse, entire,

more or less embracing the column to form a tube, the latter about

3 mm. broad at the mouth, narrower behind; midlobe 9-10 x 6-7

mm., broadly obovate to even suborbicular, rounded (rarely subretuse)

at the apex, the margin somewhat wavy, deflexed on the sides, minutely

denticulate ; the midlobe white or pink suffused irregularly all over with

more or less deep patches of rose-maroon, the midnerve callus-like,

white. Column 8 mm. long, 2 mm. broad at the top, 1 mm. below,

straight, flat in front, rounded behind, pale apple green with at times

faint red-maroon narrow longitudinal streaks. Anther 3 x 2 mm.

white or faintly tinged with purple-maroon in front ; pollinia 2, in the

shape of a broad exclamation mark. Stigmatic surface large, longer

JourRN. Bombay Nat. HIstT. Soc. PLATE XXXI

Nervilia infundibulifolia Blatt. & McC.

C. Sepals and petals dissected.

A. Plantinleaf; B. Plant in flower ;

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXXII

Asa

= pe SING

i =

Sane SS SS

Cp ne ee ee ie

=~ -

- -—

\ cay

Nervilia discolor Schltr.

A. Plant in leaf; B. Plant in flower; C. Sepals and petals dissected.

THE, ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 337

than broad, occupying the whole of the enlarged top portion of the

column. Ovary 4-5 x 3 mm., maroon, 6-keeled with alternate low

and high ridges. Capsules 18 x 6 mm., elliptic, maroon.

Flowering: May to June. Leaves: July to November.

Occurrence in Bombay State: W. GHATS: Khandala, Blatter

35235 ; Cooke ; Santapau 634, 643, 824, 2036-2037, 2060, 4510, 4515,

6812, 9140, 18843; Kapadia 520, 582, 1228-1230; Lonavla, Kapadia.

N. KANARA : Yellapur, Santapau 18709 ; Sedgwick 6066 A.

Distribution ; Konkan, W. Ghats, N. Kanara.

Notes : Blatter & McCann described this species but did not cite

any specimens actually examined by them. In the circumstances a

neotype must be selected for the taxon [Art. 7 (3), Int. Code Bot.

Nomencl. edit. 1956]. There are two old specimens in Blatter Her-

barium ; one is Blatter 35235 (from Khandala), the other is a flower-

ing plant, Sedgwick 6066 A (from Yellapur). These might possibly be

counted among the original collections, but were not cited as such by

the authors. We select, then, Sedgwick 6066 A as the neotype for

Nervilia infundibulifolia Blatt. & McC.

_ As Santapau has pointed out, there is no distinctive feature which

can separate N. hallbergii Blatt. & McC. from’ N. infundibulifolia

Blatt. & McC. After a very careful study of the descriptions of the two

species, we have come to the conclusion that they are identical. Since

the latter species is much more fully described and also figured, we

adopt infundibulifolia Blatt. & McC. as the epithet for this species, in

accordance with Art. 57 of the Code.

This species is usually found under dense shade, in loose, moist soil.

2. Nervilia monantha Blatt. & McC. in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist.

SOC# 39) 47 24,019352.

Tubers 12-22 mm. in diam., subglobose with several root-knobs.

Leaf broadly funnel-shaped on opening, later spreading on the ground,

appearing after the flowers; petiole 2-4 cm. long; lamina 2-12 cm. in

diam., orbicular-cordate or subreniform, uniformly green, subplicate

and velvety with short, glandular, greenish-white hairs on the upper

surface, glabrous below ; the hairiness is more prominent when the leaf

is freshly expanded. Scape 5-10 cm. long in flower, up to 25 cm. in

fruit, 1-flowered, pale pink with 2-3 acute or subacuminate pale-pink,

wide-mouthed sheaths. Flowers erect on opening, becoming suberect,

then at maturity nodding and deflexed. Bracts smail, triangular, acute,

about 2mm. long. Sepals and petals similar, greenish white, often rose

tinted, linear-oblanceoiate, broader above the middle, tapering to the

base, entire, acute ; midnerve subcarinate below, with 1-2 pairs of faint

lateral nerves. Sepals 17-22 x 3-5 mm., sub-concave. Petals slightly

shorter and narrower. Lip 18-20 mm. long, scarcely saccate, more or

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

less tubular, obscurely 3-lobed ; lateral lobes connivent around the

column, narrow-oblong, entire; midlobe 3-4-lobulate, lateral lobules

entire or subentire, slightly divergent, the middle one obscurely 2-lobed

or entire, much wrinkled, subfimbriate in the sinuses between the lateral

lobules. Lip pale pink, white at the base with 3 main nerves at the

centre giving off papillate, purplish, hairy outgrowths on the midlobe,

the lateral nerves on the midlobe also somewhat hairy. Column 7-9 x 2

mm., broad and clavate, flat in front, rounded behind, glabrous, walls

of the clinandrium denticulate. Anther2 1.5 mm., squarish. Ovary

5 x 2mm. long, oblong-ovoid ; pedicel 2 mm. long, curved. Capsules

21 x 7 mm., decurved, broadly fusiform, 6-ribbed ; beak 5-7 mm. long.

Flowering: June. Leaves: July to December.

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Bell 4073; Dandeli,

Kapadia 1690; Yellapur, Bell; J. Fernandes 1627; V. Patel 1845;

Kapadia 1967, 1987, 2010-2015, 2213, 2242, 2344-2345; Nagargali,

Sedgwick ; Karwar, Bell.

Distribution : Apparently endemic in N. Kanara.

3. Nervilia juliana (Roxb.) Schltr. in Bot. Jahrb. 45 : 402, 1911;

Blatt. & McC. 726. Epipactis juliana Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 453, 1832.

Pogonia juliana Wall. Cat. 7399, 1832, nom. nud. ; Hook. f. 119.

Tuber 10-15 mm. in diam., orbicular, warted with 2 or 3 transverse

bands. Scape 1-flowered, 7-9 cm. tall, erect; sheaths 2-3, oblong,

acute, the uppermost much dilated. Flower 30-35 mm. long, brac-

teate, very shortly pedicellate. Bracts 12-15 mm. long, erect, oblong,

acute, somewhat cymbiform, longer than the ovary. Sepals 28-33 x

3mm., straight (rarely curved), lanceolate, acute, entire, 5-nerved ;

midnerve keeled below. Petals 25-28 x 2-3 mm., lanceolate, acute,

3-nerved. Lip 30-32 mm. long, very slightly saccate at the base,

3-lobed ; lateral lobes 15 x 2 mm., falcate, subacute, connivent with

the column and concealing it, only the anther projecting beyond ;

midlobe 13-15 x 7 mm., rhomboid or rhomboid-obovate, acute, entire

or rarely subundulate, pubescent within.

The leaf and the colour of flowers are given by Blatter & McCann

as follows: ‘Leaf solitary, developing after the flowering of the

scape, petioled, broadly ovate-cordate, acute, about 5 cm. in diameter,

membranous, plicate with 5-7 veins radiating from the top of the petiole,

green or purplish beneath ;. . . sepals and petals green ; lateral lobes

white ; terminal white mottled with pink .. .’

Flowering : March (Assam).

Occurrence in Bombay State : N. KANARA : Bell.

Distribution : India: Assam, Lower Bengal, N. Kanara. World:

Ceylon, India, Burma.

Notes : The description has been drawn up from Collect 199, from

‘ THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 339

the Naga Hills; the specimen was kindly loaned by the National

Herbarium, Calcutta.

4. Nervilia discolor (Bl.) Schltr. in Bot. Jahrb. 45: 403, 1911;

Holttum 105, f. 16e ; Santapau in Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 24B : 139.

Cordyla discolor Bl. Bidr. 417, 1825. Pogonia discolor Blume, -Mus.

Bot. Lugd.-Bat. 1: 32, 1849, & 128, t. 57, 1858; J. J. Smith 54, f. 33.

Ponmong Wient, icon. d())a-22, T.riiss, Tsol; Hook f. 119. Nervilia

biflora (Wight) Schltr. in Bot. Taine 45: 403, 1911: ; Fischer 1459 ; Blatt.

& McC. 726. (See Plate XXXII).

Tubers \1-3 cm. in diam., globose to oval, satiate few rootlet knobs

and 2-4 transversely circular bands. Leaf appearing just after the

flowers, flat on ground and spreading; petiole 3-4 cm. long, arising from

one end of the tuber, and giving rise to 2 stolons just below the lamina ;

lamina 4-16 x 5-16 cm., ovate-cordate, rounded, acute or subacuminate,

plicate ; margins with stiff hairs ; upper surface pale green to dark green-

purple with many prominent purple or green nerves and an equal number

of depressed. ones in between, hairy all over; hairs 1-2 mm. long, purple or

pale green, stiff, in rows parallel to and on the nerves; lower surface pale

green to light mauve-purple with smaller and fewer hairs similar to the

ones above. Scape 4.5-17 cm. long, up to 30 cm. in fruit, brownish

mauve, longitudinally striated with deeper colour, greenish white below,

sheathed, sparsely tubercled, sheaths 2-3, the lowermost subterranean and

colourless, enclosing part of the foliar bud at the base; the upper ones

2.5-3.5 cm. long, brown-mauve tinged with green, about 9-nerved,

oblong acute, glabrous. Flowers 2 at the apex of the scape, one slightly

below the other, nodding, 20-25 mm. long. Bracts 3-8 x 1-4 mm., ovate-

lanceolate to subulate, acute, entire or very slightly toothed at the apex,

faintly 1-3-nerved, glabrous, brown-maroon tinged with green. Pedicels

5x1 mm. pale purple, faintly ribbed. Sepals and petals spreading,

brown-mauve, oblong-lanceolate, acute, entire, glabrous, sparsely gland-

dotted; sepals 20-27x4-5 mm., midnerve prominent below. Petals

23-24 x 3-4 mm., 7-nerved. Lip 18-20 x 1] mm., obovate-oblong or nearly

elliptical, shallowly 3-lobed, slightly saccate at the base, convolute round

the column, the tube narrowest a little above the base, widening

outwards, opening just beyond the column; lateral lobes very small,

entire, obtuse, purple-veined; midlobe 6x6 mm., oblong or oblong-

ovate, obtuse, narrowly emarginate, faintly crisped and crenulate ;

midnerve swollen and prominent, impressed on the underside. Colour

of lip rose-mauve with deeper lateral veins, the midnerve on the midlobe

much paler or white. Column 10-12x4-5 mm., erect, pale rose-pink,

sigmoidaily curved, clavate at the apex, shallowly grooved in front.

Anther rose-pink, red in front, somewhat square; pollinia oval, in 2

masses. Stigmatic surface 3X2 mm., broadly funnel-shaped. Ovary

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

5x3 mm., oblong-orbicular, brownish maroon, with 3 strong and 3

shallow ridges. Capsules fusiform, 10-16x6-8 mm., ribbed, winged

along the ribs; generally only 1 fruit develops.

Flowering : May to June. Leaves: June to November.

Occurrence in Bombay State: DANGS: Waghai, Santapau 19136-

19140, 19206-19207; Kapadia 671, 1254-1259, 1409-1411; Pimpri, Santa-

pau; Kapadia. DeccaAN: Bhimashankar, Kapadia 1464-1467. N.

KANARA: Yellapur, Bell 6066 (excluding A); Kapadia 2017-2018;

Sirsi, Bell; Santapau 18660.

Distribution : India : Dangs, Deccan, N..Kanara, S. India. World:

India, Malaya, Java.

Notes : From the literature, N. biflora Schltr. and N. discolor Schltr.

seem to be identical; the only point of difference seems to lie in the

raised, median band of lip (the midnerve) which is yellow in the latter

and white or pale rose-coloured in the former species; the basic floral

structure (including the position of the individual floral parts) is identi-

cal, and, therefore, we have fused the two species under the earlier specific

epithet, discolor of Blume.

The colour scheme of this species is strikingly variable. In dense

undergrowth, where little light reaches the forest floor, leaves are deep

purple to almost black in colour with deep purple stiff hairs. With an

increase of light, leaves turn brownish, often somewhat rusty-brown in

colour. We collected tubers from dense forest in the Dangs (where the

leaves were purple) and planted them in St. Xavier’s College garden ;

they gave pure green leaves with pale green hairs. Leaves collected

from Bhimashankar in a rather open habitat were also green. It would

seem, then, as if the deep colour of our Dangs plants was intimately con-

nected with light iniensity; as to the colour of the flowers themselves, we

have noted sepals and petals in the Dangs as brownish mauve; Blatter

& McCann recorded that in Yellapur they were brownish yellow with a

green shade. Malayan plants have them pale olive-green to dull

purplish, the veins of the lip being yellow to brown or purplish, the mid-

nerve itself being yellow.

This species is locally known as Dukkarkand in the Dangs Dist.,

and is used to promote lactation in women.

5. Nervilia aragoana Gaud. in Bot. Voy. Freycinet 422, t. 36, 1826 ;

Fischer 1459; Blatt. & McC. 729; Holttum 105, f. 16 d; Santapau

in Fl. Purandh. 128. Pogonia flabelliformis Lindl. [in Wall. Cat. 7400,

1832, nom. nud.; et] Gen. Sp. Orchid. 415, 1840 ; Hook. f. 121; Prain

1026; J. J. Smith 57, f. 36; Duthie 158, t. 125; Haines, Bot. Bih. Or.

1163, 1924. P. nervilia Bl. Mus. Bot. Lugd.-Bat. 1 : 32, 1849 ; & 130, t.

56, 1858. P. carinata Wight, Icon. 5°(1) 95,1. 1720, “18512 “P. seorar

Reichb. f. in Flora 276, 1872 ; Hook. f. 120, et in Ann. R. Bot. Gard.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 341

Calcutta 3:62, t. 93; 18955 King & Pantl. 269; +. 360; Prain 1026.

Nervilia scottii (Reichb. f.) Schltr. in Bot. Jahrb. 45 : 404, 1911.

Tuber 1.5-2 cm. in diam., subglobose, white, with parallel lines

along the circumference dividing into obscure lobes. Leaf appearing

after the flowers, erect, petiolate. Petiole 8-20 cm. long, purple turning

light green with purple lines ; generally 2 stolons arise on opposite

sides from the petiole just above the tuber. Lamina 9-12 < 8-11 cm.,

cordate, broadly ovate to almost orbicular, acute, acuminate or api-

culate, glabrous, dark green above, pale green below ; nerves up to 18

in number. Scape 10-25 cm. tall, 2-sheathed, green above, light purple

below ; lower sheath 2 cm. long, white with brown streaks, loose,

acute ; upper sheath about 2 cm. long, closely fitting round the

peduncle, similar to the lower one. Raceme few- to many-flowered,

lax. Flowers drooping, green, shortly stalked, about 20-25 mm. long.

Bracts 14 x 2 mm., decurved, linear-lanceolate, subacuminate, glabrous,

light green, faintly tinged with purple. Pedicels 3 mm. long, green,

curved. Sepals 17-25 x 2-4 mm., green or yellowish green, oblanceolate,

acute or subacute, entire, glabrous, often the midnerve subcarinate

below, the lateral pair of nerves fainter. Petals 14-25 x 2-5 mm., green,

similar to sepals, often narrower at the base. Lip 17-24 mm. long,

subsaccate and subclawed at the base, obovate in outline, 3-lobed ,

lateral lobes erect, 1-3 mm. broad, parallel and embracing the column;

narrowly oblong, acute or obtuse, pale green ; midlobe 4-6 < 5-7 mm.,

variable in shape, not constricted or deflexed, obtuse or subacute,

irregularly crenulate, somewhat crimped with incurved edges, pale

yellowish green, nerves red-pink, parallel, subwavy along the midlobe.

The 3 central prominent nerves along the entire length of the lip are

yellowish green, minutely hairy, the pubescence extending to some of

the lateral nerves also. Column pale green, 7-10 mm. long, dilated

above, placed at an angle to the ovary. Anther posticous, white above,

reddish towards the base; midnerve red-purple. Stigmatic surface

fairly broad, circular trapezoid. Ovary 4-5 mm. long, drooping, green

often flushed with pink, the ridges often winged.

Occurrence in Bombay State: DANGS: Waghai, Santapau 19141 ;

Dungarda, Santapau 19280. KONKAN: Bombay, cultivated, Kapadia

1357, 1917-1920 ; Neral, Blatter; Tansa, Santapau 2706 ; Borivli,

Santapau 2343-2344, 15026 ; R. Fernandez 1287, 1816-1817, 1838-1839;

1862 ; Herbert 2348 ; Kapadia 1244-1247; Wajreshwari, Kapadia

1293-1294 ; Mumbra, Shenoy 3462, 3641-3642, 3656, 3667; Badla-

pur, Kapadia 1284, 1288 ; K arjat, Irani 90 ; Kapadia 1217-1218, 1239.

DeccAN: Purandhar, Santapau 7130, 7246, 7248, 7254, 7263;

Kapadia 1316. N. KANARA: Yellapur, Kapadia 2233-2235:

Sampkhand, Sedgwick & Bell; Guddehalli, near Karwar,

Kapadia 2127.

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Distribution : India : Tropical Himalayas from Garhwal (1400 to

1600 m.) eastwards to Kumaon, Bengal, southwards to Saurashtra,

Dangs, Konkan, Deccan, N. Kanara, Mysore, Rampa and Pulney hills,

and Travancore. World : India, Malaya, and Java.

Notes: This species is often found under clumps of Euphorbia

neriifolia Linn. in open fields and around bamboo clumps in forests.

From the descriptions and plates of Hooker f. (in Amn. R. Bot.

Gard. Calcutta 5: 62, t. 93, 1895) and King and Pantling, Pogonia

scottii Reichb. f. seems to be identical with N. aragoana Gaud. The

:.tter is a very variable species with respect to the shape of the lip.

uthie mentions that the leaves, at least the younger ones, are hairy on

i; @ margins, and the midlobe, as figured in his t. 125 and described in

the text, is supposed to be deflexed from the general upward rising of

the lip. These characters are not in agreement with our observations

and those of others. The leaves are completely glabrous and the mid-

lobe is not deflexed.

6. Nervilia carinata (Roxb.) Schltr. in Bot. Jahrb. 45 : 406, 1911;

Fischer 1459; Blatt. & McC. 729. Epipactis carinata Roxb. FI.

Ind. 3 : 454, 1832 ; Graham, Cat. Bomb. Pl. 205, 1839. Pogonia cari-

nata Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orchid. 414, 1840; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI.

270, 1861 ; Hook. f. 121, et in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 5: 62, t.

94, 1895 ; Prain 1026 ; Duthie 159, t. 124, et Fl. Upp. Gang. PI. 3 : 217,

1920 ; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2 : 707, 1907.

Leaves similar to those of NV. aragoana Gaud. ; authors do not seem

to be in agreement about the characters of the leaves of this species ;

Hooker f., Duthie, etc., give the leaves as 7-9-nerved, and this number

is said to be distinctive of the species ; Hooker f., however, in Ann. R.

Bot. Gard. Calcutta states that the number of nerves is 7-9-12. As for

size, leaves are said to be 3.8-6.4cm. wide ; but these figures seem

rather low and probably refer to young, not yet fully developed leaves.

Scape 10-17 cm. long, 2-sheathed, bearing a terminal lax raceme of few

flowers ; sheaths 2-4cm. broad, oblong, obtuse. Flowers 18-22 mm.

long, drooping. Bracts 6-8 mm. long narrowly linear-lanceolate, acute,

somewhat erect ; pedicels 3-4 mm. long. Sepals and petals 19-21 x 3-4.5

mm., oblanceolate, acute, entire, the midnerve prominent below with

a pair of fainter lateral nerves; petals slightly shorter than sepals,

narrower in the lower third portion. Lip 20-21 mm. long, 3-lobed, not

saccate, subclawed at the base, rhomboid in outline ; lateral lobes

2-2.5 mm. broad, subacute, narrowly oblong; midlobe ovate or

rhomboid-ovate, slightly constricted at the base, tapering to an acute

or subacuminate apex, irregularly crenulate ; disc 3-nerved, sparsely

pubescent. Column 9 mm. long, subclavate and slightly curved at the

apex, strongly carinate along the back, the column being trigonous.

Ovary 5mm, long, strongly ridged, ovoid.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 343

Flowering : June.

Occurrence in Bombay State: W. GHATS: Khandala, Santapau

4501-4502. N. KANARA: Dharwar, Law; Kulgi, Bell.

Distribution : India : Sub-Himalayan tracts of Rohilkhand and N.

Oudh, Kumaon, Bengal, Konkan, W. Ghats, N. Kanara, Mysore,

Pulneys, Cochin. World: India, Burma.

Notes: Very similar to, if at all distinct from, N. aragoana Gaud.

Duthie stresses the number of nerves on the leaf, the erect bracts and

the shape of the midlobe of lip as typically distinguishing this species

from N. carinata ; these points appear far from clear on examination of

the actual specimens.

Prain separates the two species thus : Midlobe ovate, acute, crenate,

white with red or purple veins = carinata ; Midlobe ovate, acute, pure

white = aragoana. All our specimens show a white or greenish-white,

rarely yellowish lip, with various shades of red or purple or brown on

the veins.

In our opinion, the only more or less constant features on which N.

carinata Schltr. can be separated from N. aragoana Gaud. are : in carinata

the floral bracts are erect, the lip is neither saccate nor gibbous ; the

midlobe of the lip is narrow at the base, ovate and acute to acuminate.

To judge from the descriptions of this plant, the diagram of Hooker f.

in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 5: t. 94, seems to represent the present

plant correctly ; our Khandala plants are very close to Hooker’s plant.

Nevertheless, the position of N. carinata Schltr. remains rather

doubtful.

Imperfectly known Species

1. Nervilia hispida Blatt. & McC. in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

35 7 1285 1932.

This species was described from T. R. Bell’s manuscript notes.

According to Blatter & McCann, the species is distinguished from

N. aragoana Gaud. by its leaf being much smaller and densely hispid,

the hairs being minute, white and tubercular ; the scape is shorter and

the flowers several, smaller and appearing with the leaves ; the base of

the lip is somewhat saccate. From N. carinata Schltr. it is distinguished

by the much longer petiole, and the hispid, many-nerved leaf.

Flowering and Fruiting : June.

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Yellapur, Bell.

2. Nervilia plicata (Andr.) Schltr. in Bot. Jahrb. 45: 403, 1911 ;

Blatt. & McC. 727 ; Santapau 304. Arethusa plicata Andr. Bot. Rep. t.

321, 1803. Epipactis plicata Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3 : 454, 1832. Pogonia plicata

Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orchid. 415, 1840 ; Hook, f, 119; King & Pantl. 268,

t.°358 » ‘Cooke ’707.

344. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

We have not seen any specimen which may, with certainty, be said

to belong to this species; hence we give the original description of

Andrews: — |

“Generic Character. Calyx sheath leafy. Cup none. Blossom

gaping. Five petals oblong, nearly equal, 2 outer, ail converging into

a helmet. Honey-cup one leaved, tubular at the base, within the bottom

of the blossom two-parted ; lower lip reflexed, broad, wrinkled, the

length of the petals, hanging down forwards, upper lip linear, very

delicate, fixed to the shaft, lobed at the top. Stamens 2 threads, very.

short, fitting on the top of the pointal (pistil). Tips egg-shaped, flat-

tened covered by the folding of the inner lip of the honey-cup. Pointal

(pistil) seedbud oblong, beneath. Shaft oblong, incurved, clothed by

the inner lip of the honey-cup. Stigma funnel-shaped. Seed-vessel

capsule oblong, egg-shaped, one celled, 3-valved, splitting at the angles.

Seeds numerous, chaffy. Specific Character. Arethusa with a globular

root ; leaf heart-shaped, hairy.’

Flowering : July.

Occurrence in Bombay State : KONKAN: Bombay, Millard.

Distribution : India ;: Konkan (?), W. Ghats (?), Bengal (?), Sik-

kim (?). World : India, Philippines.

Notes : N. plicata Schltr. (= Pogonia plicata Lindl.) as described

in our provincial floras seems to be quite a different plant from Arethusa

plicata Andr., which is the basionym of both Schlechter and Lindley ;

the descriptions seem to agree with N. discolor Schltr. We feel quite

sure about the characteristics of the latter plant, but are rather doubtful

about those of N. plicata. To add to these doubts, we have studied

Cooke’s specimens in Kew Herbarium and in Poona, collected from

Khandala; such specimens do not agree with the description and diagram

of Arethusa plicata Andr., but with N. infundibulifolia listed above. The

plant mentioned as N. plicata in our floras is N. discolor Schltr. and not

N. plicata Schltr. nor Arethusa plicata Andr.

MALAXIS Soland. ex Sw.

MALAxis Soland. ex Sw. Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 119, 1788, non

Swartz 1789 nec auct. ; O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2 : 672, 1891 ; Correl,

Nat. Orch. N. America 255, 1950; Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1: 191,

1953. Achroanthes Rafin.in Amer. Monthly Mag. Crit. Rev. 4: 195,

1819. Microstylis (Nutt.) Eaton,:Man. Bot. North Am. (ed. 3) 115,

347, 353, 1822; Lindl. Orchid. Scel. n. 18, 1826; Endl. Gen. Pl. 189,

1837 ; Benth & Hook. f. Gen. PI. 3 : 494, 1883 ; Ridley in Journ. Linn.

Soc. (Bot.) 24 : 308 ; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6) : 130,

1880 ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 686, 1890 ; King & Pantl. in Ann. R.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 345

Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8: 14, 1898 ; Duthie, ibid. 9 (2); 87, 1906; J. J.

Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6 : 247, 1905 ; Schltr. Orchid. 155, 1927.

The generic name Malaxis is a Greek word meaning softness or

tenderness, probably in allusion to the soft texture of the leaves, or may

be with reference to the delicacy of the entire plant.

Terrestrial, rarely epiphytic or lithophytic herbs. Stems creeping,

with erect leafy apex ; or short, fleshy and close together, bearing few

to many leaves. Leaves broad, often unequal-sided at the base, thin,

more or less plicate, inarticulate, sheathing at the base. Inflorescence

terminal, in few- to many-flowered subumbellate racemes, or in an

elongated raceme of small flowers. Sepals free, or the lateral ones more

or less connate, spreading. Petals ovate-lanceolate to narrowly linear

or filiform, often strongly coiled. Lip sessile, superior, erect or spread-

ing, entire or 3-lobed, concave to saccate, often with a hollow near

the base, usually with 2 large lobes (called auricles) close to the sides of

the column and extending downwards below it, the apex often toothed.

Column very short, terete, hollowed on top, often toothed at the apex,

with or without fleshy arms. Anther terminal, sessile, erect on the

back of the column, its tip pointing upwards; pollinia 4, waxy,

ovoid, free or cohering in pairs to a viscid mass. Capsule small ovoid,

ellipsoid.

This genus consists of about 250 species distributed in the warmer

parts of .the World, extending into North Temperate regions. It

attains its maximum development in Asia and Oceania ; it is also

widely distributed in the Western Hemisphere.

Bentham & Hooker f. attribute the name Malaxis to Swartz in K.

Vet. Acad. Nya Handl. 21 : 233, 1800, where Swartz published the

species M. paludosa (L.) Sw.; O. Kuntze, however, has pointed the

existence of an earlier homonym, Malaxis Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ.

119, 1788, with two species M. spicata and umbellifera Sw. In the

opinion of O. Kuntze, Malaxis Sw. 1800 is the same as Malaxis of

Bentham & Hooker f., but is different from Malaxis Sw. 1788. The

name Hammarbya was proposed by O. Kuntze for Malaxis Sw. 1800;

and this has been accepted by Summerhayes (in Wild Orch. Britain

315, 1951) and other recent authors, with H. paludosa O. Kuntze as the

only species.

In most of the earlier works the generic name Microstylis is attri-

buted to Nuttal, 1818 ; this is not correct, for Nuttal made Microstylis

a section of Malaxis. The first author to treat Microstylis as a generic

name is undoubtedly Eaton (1822), and not Lindley (1826) as stated by

O. Kuntze.

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF MALAXIS OF BOMBAY

1. Leaves flat and spreading on the ground,

sub-coriaceous and subplicate ; inflores-

cence lax ; petals involute behind the large

lip, hardly visible; side lobes of lip

produced upwards into acute or obtuse

auricles, the apex bilobed .. mack innonii

1. Leaves erect, not flat on the ground, mem-

branous, much plicate; inflorescence

dense ; petals not involute, clearly visible

in ones sidelobes of lip not produced

upwards rete auricles, the lip somewhat

suborbicular, reniform, pectinate :

2. Stem stout, not pseudobulbous at base ;

leaves 5-18 cm. long, with a petiole 2-6

cm. long me versicolor

2. Stem slender, much ey anen and ts

tinctly pseudobulbous at base ; leaves

2.5-7 cm. long, sessile or nearly so... densiflora

ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES OF MALAXIS OF BOMBAY STATE

1. Malaxis mackinnonii (Duthie) Ames in Orchid. 6 : 289, 1920.

Microstylis mackinnonii Duthie in Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, I. 71 : 37,

1902, et in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 9 (2) : 88, t. 95, et Fl. Upp.

Gang. Pl. 3 : 184, 1920. Microstylis cardonii Prain, Beng. Pl. 1004,

1903, et in Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, II, 73 : 189, 1904 ; Haines, Bot. Bih.

Or. 1165, 1924 ; Mooney, Suppl. Bot. Bih. Or. 210, 1950.

Terrestrial herbs. Tuber small, corm-like, 7-10 mm. in diam., whitish.

Leaves 1-3, clustered and spreading on the ground, subfleshy, subplicate,

green or purplish on the under surface, continued below the ground level

into a Sheath which is more or less rigid, greyish, 1-4 cm. long ; lamina

3-13 x 1.3-7 cm., variable in shape, oblong-lanceolate, elliptic, oblong,

ovate-lanceolate, or broadly ovate to rarely suborbicular, acute or

obtuse, entire, about 5-9-nerved, the nerves often purplish below. Scape

together with the raceme 12-40 cm. long, erect, subflexuose, yellowish

green, angled, often slightly winged, rarely much thickened towards

apex. Flowers 3-4 mm. across, pale yellow or yellowish green. Bracts

4.x 1-1.5 mm., deflexed, pale yellowish green, narrowly subulate, sub-

acuminate or acute, entire, l-nerved. Sepals 2.5 x 1.5 mm., narrowly

oblong, obtuse with the entire margins folded backwards, 3-nerved,

pale yellowish green to yellow. Petals 1.5-2 mm. long, very narrowly .

linear to filiform, obtuse, twisted and much reflexed, normally not

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 347

visible in the flower, 1-nerved, pale yellow. Lip 5-5.5 mm. long, pale

yellow, superior, ovate-oblong in outline, somewhat constricted just

beyond the middle ; basal portion 3.5 x 3 mm., suborbicular with the

auricles about 1.5 mm. long, obtuse or acute, concave in the middle

about the attachment of the column, again convex on the sides outwards ;

the apical part 2 x 2 mm., broadly ovate-oblong, slightly curved

forwards, somewhat hooded, bilobed at the apex with a narrow sinus in

between, the lobes obtuse. Column about | mm. long, pale yellow, with

fleshy rounded arms. Anther minute, broader than long or suborbi-

cular ; pollinia 4, in pairs, ovoid-pyriform. Pedicel with the ovary 2-3

mm. long, pale greenish yellow, ribbed. Capsules 10 x 4 mm., erect,

obovoid, ridged, greenish yellow ; stalk 2-3 mm. long.

Flowering: August to September. Fruiting: September to

November.

Occurrence in Bombay State: DANGS: Waghai, Santapau 19088,

19142, 20000 ; Kapadia 688, 1421-1428.

This orchid has been recorded for the first time in Bombay State.

Distribution : N. W. Himalaya 1800 to 2000 m., Upper Gangetic

Plain, Bengal, Chota Nagpur, southwards to the Dangs District.

Notes: This species is locally abundant in open patches of forest,

usually around bamboo clumps.

We have checked our specimens with Mackinnon’s specimens in the

National Herbarium, Calcutta, on which Duthie based his Microstylis

mackinnonii. Except for the absence of the slight purple coloration in

the flowers, our specimens are identical with the ones in Calcutta.

Microstylis cardonii Prain seems to be identical with Malaxis

mackinnonii (Duthie) Ames. Further, both Duthie and Prain point out

the similarities in the floral structure of their plants to Microstylis

wallichii Lindl. ; but the structure and position of the leaves at once

distinguish these two plants.

2. Malaxis versicolor (Lindl.) Sant. & Kapadia, comb. nov.

Microstylis versicolor Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orchid. 21, 1830 (non Wight

1844-45); Ridley 343 (excl. syn. Malaxis rheedii Sw.); Cooke 678 ;

Haines 1165, 1924; Fischer 1408 ; Blatt. & McC. 259. Malaxis rheedii

Heyne ex Wall. Cat. 1939, 1828, nom. nud.; Graham, Cat. Bomb. PI. 202,

1839. Microstylis rheedii Wight, Icon. 3 (2): 9, t. 902, 1844-1845; Dalz.

& Gib. Bomb. Fl. 260, 1861 (excl. syn.); Hook. f. Icon. Pl. t. 1883, et

Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 690, 1890 ; Prain 1004 ; Gammie 565 ; Fyson, FI. Nilg.

Puln. Hill-Tops 384, 1915, et t. 510, 1920. Liparis intermedia A. Rich.

in Ann. Sc. nat. ser. 2, 15: 17, 1841 (2). (See Plate XX XIII).

Terrestrial, lithophytic or rarely epiphytic herbs. Stem erect, 3-25 cm.

tall, slightly swollen at the base, sheathed greenish-purple; sheaths

2-5 1-1.5 cm., ovate-lanceolate, acute or acuminate, green-purple

with 3-5 prominent purple nerves. Leaves 3-5, petiolate, sheathing

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

plicate ; petioles 2-6 cm. long, amplexicaul, green-purple with a few

purple nerves; lamina 5-18x2.5-11 cm., ovate-lanceolate or broadly

ovate or elliptic-lanceolate, acute, glabrous, 8-10-nerved ; margins

slightly crimped, denticulate ; nerves depressed above, prominent below,

purple-green. Inflorescence 8-35 cm. high, dense or lax; peduncles

3-10 cm. long, angled, purple with a few bracts at the top. Buds

green when young, turning yellowish to purple at maturity, ovate, obtuse,

slightly curved. Flowers 4x4mm., yellow with a pale purple tinge when

young, becoming deep reddish purple with age, and again somewhat

vellow on fading, pedicellate. Bracts 3.5x1-1.5 mm., erect and green

in bud, deflexed and slightly purple at the base after anthesis, lanceo-

late, acuminate, entire. Sepals unequal, purple, obtuse, entire, 3-nerved;

the dorsal one 4 mm. long, linear and reduplicate with a broad base;

the lateral ones 3X1 mm., broadly ovate and conduplicate with a

broad back, subfalcate. Petals 3.5 mm. long, purple, slightly curved,

acute, entire and reduplicate. Lip superior through a twist of 180

degrees, 2.5x4 mm., purple, rounded, reniform and somewhat fan-

shaped, pectinate except for a small portion in the middle; teeth

usually about 8-11, curved, pointing towards the centre; the claw small,

concave, just opposite the column. Column about 1.5x1 mm., yellow,

footless, somewhat constricted in the middle with 2 very short arms.

Anther whitish, globose ; pollinia 4, waxy, in pairs, broadly ovoid.

Stigmatic surface yellow, oblong-truncate. Pedicel with ovary 2-5 mm.

long, deep brown-maroon, strongly ridged. Capsules 10 <x 6 mm.

obovate, pyriform.

Flowering : July to August. Fruiting : September to March.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Law; Stocks; Bombay,

cultivated, Kapadia 1358; Hills west of Mulund, McCann; Matheran,

Chibber. W. GHATS: Khandala, Cooke; Hallberg ; Blatter 35233 ;

Blatter & McCann; Kapadia 640-641; Lonavla, Garade; Panchgani,

Blatter; Mahableshwar, Cooke; McCann; Santapau 11804-11805,

13197-13199, 13201, 13240; Kapadia 2086-2093. DECCAN: Koina

nagar, Kapadia 2880-2883, 2902. N. KANARA : Sedgwick ; Y ellapur,

Santapau 18710; Kapadia 1983-1986, 2241 ; Castle Rock, Kapadia

2851-2853 ; Guddehalli, near Karwar, Bell ; Kapadia 2143-2144.

Distribution: India : Chota Nagpur, Konkan, W. Ghats of Bombay

State and S. India, Deccan, N. Kanara. World : India, Ceylon. ©

Notes: The colour of the plant bears a striking relation to the kind

of light under which it grows. The Khandala plants were green tinged

with purple, with very deep purple prominent nerves, and the plant as a

whole looked purplish. These plants were cultivated in St. Xavier’s

College garden, more or less under the open sky ; the new shoots given

off from old stumps did not have the slightest trace of purple, leaves

being pure green. Thus the purple coloration seems to be inversely

JOURN. BomBay Nat. HIST. Soc.

C UG

wis

Malaxis versicolor Sant. & Kapad.

A. Plant in flower; C. Sepals and petals dissected.

PLATE XXXIII

—_s —— re _ oe -~ —. ai = — _ ad a SS

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 349

proportional to the light intensity. This effect of light has been more

clearly observed in the variations in the colour of the flowers. A

number of plants were collected from spots with varying light intensity,

from Mahableshwar : (1) In dense forest undergrowth; (2) at the edges

of dense forest ; and (3) along the road among shrubs. At (1) the spikes

of flowers were deep purple ; at (2) the flowers were purplish tinged

with greenish yellow ; at (3) the lowermost flowers, which were practi-

cally hidden in the shade were of a deep purple colour, the middle ones,

receiving some light, were yellowish ; the uppermost, receiving the full

sunlight, were pure green.

It is probably due to these variations in colour that Lindley gave the

specific epithet versicolor to this species.

The nomenclature of this plant is complicated by the fact that two

different plants have often been considered identical. O. Kuntze gives

the following plants as specifically identical: Malaxis resupinata

(Forst.) O. Kuntze (1891) ; Malaxis rheedii Sw.; Epidendrum resupinatum

Forst.; Microstylis versicolor Lindl.

Hooker f. in Icon. P/. t. 1883, distinguishes two plants : (a) Micro-

stylis rheedii Wt. ( = Malaxis rheedii Heyne ex Wall., non Sw. ; Rheede,

Hort. Mal. 12 : t. 27), which is our Indian plant, and (b) Microstylis

plantaginea (= Malaxis rheedii Sw., non Heyne ex Wall., Epidendrum

resupinatum Forst.) ; this is a Javanese and Pacific Islands plant, not

found in India.

It would seem, therefore, that if these 2 species are accepted as

distinct, the oldest legitimate name for our plant is Microstylis versi-

color Lindl. (non Wt.) and for this reason we herewith propose the new

combination, Malaxis versicolor Sant. & Kapadia.

3. Malaxis densiflora (A. Rich.) O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2 : 673,

1891. Liparis densifiora A. Rich. in Ann. Sc. nat. ser. 2, 15 : 18, t. 1 B,

1841. Microstylis versicolor Wight, Icon. 3 (2) : 9, t. 901, 1844-1845

(non Lindl. 1830) ; Hook. f. 691. M. luteola Wight, Icon. 5 (1): 4, t.

1632, 1851 ; Ridley 345. M. pratensis Ridley in Journ. inne Soc, 24:

344, 1888. M. densiflora (A. Rich.) Fischer in Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madr.

1409, 1928.

We have been unable to collect fresh flowers for detailed exami-

nation; the following is the translatron of A. Richard’s original

description : ‘Pseudobulbs ovoid, sheathed; leaves often in pairs,

ovate, acute, sheathing at the base, 7-nerved, plicate, glabrous ; scape

longer than the leaves, many-angled ; the spike many-flowered, very

dense, 2-3 inches long; the bracts lanceolate, acute, as long as the

flowers ; the lip foveolate at the base, flabellate, its margins reflexed and

fimbriate into narrow linear strips. Grows among grasses on the hills

near Ootacamund and Dodabetta. Flowers from July to December.

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Note : This species has rather small flowers, which are purple, at

times very deep purple. It approaches near many species, which are

already known, and, like the present one, native of India, among others

Liparis atropurpurea, L. nepalensis ; from all these the present species

is clearly distinguished by the beautiful spike and the lip that is concave

in its lower part, the margins of which are reflexed and cut into deep,

linear and narrow segments. Its flowers are very numerous and form

a very dense spike.’

Fruiting ;: October.

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Sirsi, Hallberg &

McCann 34975.

This species is not mentioned by Blatter & McCann in their

Revision. It constitutes a new record for Bombay State.

Distribution: India : N. Kanara, W. Ghats of Madras State at high

elevations. World : India, Ceylon.

Notes: This species is similar to M. versicolor Sant. & Kapad.

from which it differs in being much smaller and more slender, and the

base of the stem is swollen into a more or less distinct pseudobulb.

Notes on the Tuna and Frigate

Mackerel from Ratnagiri’

M. R. RANADE

Marine Biological Research Station, Ratnagiri

(With one plate)

Tuna fishery is being well exploited in. countries like the United

States of America, Japan, and Australia. Although potentialities exist

for similar exploitation in India, our tuna fishing is conducted on a

comparatively small scale. Six species of tuna have so far been recorded

from the Indian Ocean: three by Day (1886), viz. Euthynnus alletteratus

affinis (=Thynnus thunnina), Katsuwonus pelamis (=Thynnus pelamis),

and Neothunnus macropterus (=Thynnus macropterus) ; one by de Beau-

fort (1951), viz. Kishinoella tonggol ; and two by Jones (1958), viz. Auxis

thazard and Auxis tapeinosoma.

Ratnagiri, on the coast of Maharashtra State, is singularly fortunate

in having a good tuna fishery which is of considerable importance to

the local fishermen. During the course of investigation on this fishery

off Ratnagiri, the following four species have, so far, been recorded :

Scientific Name Common English Vernacular Name

Name

Euthynnus alletteratus affinis (Cantor) Little Tuna Bibya Gedar

Auxis thazard (Lacépéde) Frigate Gedari

Mackerel

Kishinoella tonggol (Bleeker) Blue-fin Tuna Khavalya Gedar

Neothunnus macropterus | Yellow-fin Pimp

(Temminck & Schlegel) : Tuna .

Of these four species nearly equal quantities of two species, viz.

Euthynnus alletteratus affinis and Kishinoella tonggol, form more than

nine-tenths of the total catch of tuna landed at Ratnagiri. It is reported

by fishermen that specimens of Oceanic Skipjack, Katsuwonus pelamis

(Linnaeus), are also occasionally found in Ratnagiri, but I have so far

not come across any specimen of this species.

1 Communicated by Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, State of Maha-

rashtra.

352. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

As there is some confusion with regard to the identification of tuna

fish, (Serventy, 1956), a field key is presented for the identification of

different species of tuna found in the Indian Ocean, along with some

notes on the variation in the number of gill-rakers in Auxis thazard and

Kishinoella tonggol.

KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN TUNA (cf. Plate)

1. Scales confined to the fore part of the body (the corselet)

and along the lateral line. Base of the first dorsal fin

equal or longer than head as

Fam. : KATSUWONIDAE

2. Body completely covered with scales and the base of the

first dorsal fin shorter than head.. =

Fam. : THUNNIDAE

Fam. : KATSUWONIDAE

3. Wide interspace between the first and second

dorsal fins .. am Genus : Auxis 5

4. The first and the second dorsal fins close together ek F

5. Corselet having not more than four rows of scales in the

band below the position of the second dorsal fin

Auxis thazard (Lacépéde)

6. Corselet having 7 to 12 rows of scales in the band below

.the position of the second dorsal fin ie

Auxis tapeinosoma Bleeker

7. Four or five dark stripes along the sides and belly

~ Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus)

8. Three to five black spots below the pectoral base ;

Euthynnus alletteratus affinis (Cantor)

Fam. : THUNNIDAE

9. Pectorals long, extending beyond the origin of the second

dorsal fin. Air bladder present. Second dorsal and

anal fin and finlets yellow

Neothunnus macropterus (Temminck & Schlegel)

JourRN. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

_ a. Auxis thazard (Lacépéde) ; b. Auxis tapeinosoma Bleeker; c. Katsuwonus pelamis

(Linnaeus); d. Ethynnus alletteratus affinis (Cantor); e. Neothunnus macropterus

(Temminck & Schlegel); f. Kishinoella tonggol (Bleeker)

THE TUNA AND FRIGATE MACKEREL FROM RATNAGIRI 353

10. Pectorals short, reaching end of the first dorsal fin. Air

bladder absent. Finlets yellow with grey edges

Kishinoella tonggol (Bleeker)

Auxis thazard (Lacépéde)

This species has a wide distribution in the warm seas of the Atlantic

and Pacific Oceans. Previous records of this fish from the Indian Ocean

are from Java and adjacent islands in Indonesia (de Beaufort, 1951),

coasts of Natal and Cape Province in South Africa (Smith, 1949), and

from the Ceylon coast (Munro, 1955). Jones (1958) recorded its occur-

rence in the Arabian Sea from Minicoy Islands, Malpe in South Kanara,

Colachel in South Travancore, and Mandapam Camp on the Gulf of

Mannar. The occurrence of Auxis thazard in Ratnagiri, therefore,

extends its known distribution in the Arabian Sea a little further north.

It would be interesting to see if 1t also occurs in the Gulf of Kutch where

tuna fish is reported by the Superintendent of Fisheries, Kutch, to be

available.

Wade (1949), describing this species in detail, has recorded the

number of gill rakers on the first gill arch as 37-43. Jones (1958), who

has described Auxis thazard from a single specimen, records the number

of gill rakers as 40. I had-an opportunity to examine a number of speci-

mens in September 1960. The gill raker counts made in 21 specimens

showed the following variations :

Upper arch: Number of rakers Tie) 10 11

Number of specimens Moi 14 3

Lower arch: Number of rakers 2 29 30 31 32

Number of specimens epee ml | 9 6 5

Total rakers : Number of rakers ee) 40 Al 42 43

Number of specimens oes A 6 5 3) 1

The gill raker formula is, therefore, 9-11 /29-32=39-43. The modal

formula is 10/30=40. This range of variation in the number of gill

rakers is quite within the range given by Wade (1949).

Kishinoella tonggol (Bleeker)

This species is recorded from Singapore, Java Sea, Sulu Sea, Celebes

Sea, Moluccas, and from Japan to Australia ; in the Indian Ocean from

the Gulf of Aden, Maldive Islands, and the coast of Ceylon (de Beaufort,

1951). Munro (1955) has also recorded this species from Ceylon. The

detailed distribution of Kishinoella tonggol in Australian waters is given

by Serventy (1942, 1956). This is the first record of occurrence of Kishi-

noella tonggol in the Arabian Sea on the west coast of India. The species

354. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

can be easily identified by the extension of the pectoral fin up to the

end of the first dorsal fin, the absence of the air bladder, and the finlets

being yellow with grey edges. The range of variation in the gill raker

count as 5-8/13-18=19-25 with a modal formula 6/16=22 is given by

Serventy (1956). However, the gill raker formula given by Nakamura

(1949) from Japan is 6/17=23. I have had an opportunity of examin-

ing only six specimens so far and gill raker count of all the specimens

was 8/18=26. In order to work out a raker formula, more specimens

will have.to be observed. It is possible that a distinct race occurs at

Ratnagiri, but it is premature to say this.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

*_ The author is highly indebted to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of

Fisheries, Maharashtra State, Bombay, and Dr. H. G. Kewalramani,

Research Officer, for suggestions and necessary corrections.

REFERENCES

Day, F. (1886): The Fishes of India.

Vol. I & II. London.

de Beaufort, L. F. (1951) : The Fishes

of the Indo-Australian Archipelago.

(Leiden) 9.

Jones, S. (1958): Notes on frigate

mackerels, Auxis thazard (Lacépéde) and

Auxis tapeinosoma Bleeker, from Indian

waters. Indian J. Fish. 5(1):189-194.

Munro, Ian S. R. (1955) : The Marine

and Fresh Water Fishes of Ceylon.

Nakamura, Hiroshi (1949) : The Tunas

and their Fisheries. Takeuchi Shobo,

Tokyo. (In Japanese). Translated by

W. C. Van Compen (1952). Special

Scientific Report. Fisheries No. 82,

U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and

Wild Life Service.

“— — (1956): Additional

Serventy, D. L. (1942): The tuna

Kishinoella tonggol Bleeker in Australia.

J. Coun. Sci. Industr. Res. Aust. 15:

101-112.

observa-

tions on the biology of the Northern Blue

fin tuna Kishinoella tonggol Bleeker in

Australia. Aus. J. Mar. Fre. Res. 7(1):

44-63.

*Smith, J. L. (1949): Sea Fishes of

Southern Africa, 298.

Wade, Charles B. (1949) : Notes on the

Philippine frigate .mackerels, Family

Thunnidae, Genus Auxis. U.S. Depart-

ment of the Interior, Fish and Wild Life

Service, Bull. No. 46.

* Not referred to in original.

pen. .

Notes on Indian Caecilians

EDWARD H. TAYLOR

Department of Zoology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, U.S.A.

(With two text-figures)

Peninsular India has one of the richest caecilian faunas in the world,

with no less than five recognized genera occurring there. Some of these

are known in northern and north-eastern India, but they are presumably

absent from the drier areas of north-western India and Pakistan.

In August 1959, I visited the Bombay Natural History Society and the

Honorary Secretary, Mr. Humayun Abdulali, permitted me to examine

the specimens in their collection (including one live specimen). All

the forms had been referred to their proper genera. As in most

museums all striped forms of Ichthyophis were regarded as I. glutinosus

(Linnaeus), and the uni-coloured forms as I. monochrous.

At the time of my visit, I had in press 2 papers dealing with the caeci-

lians of south-eastern Asia and the Indo-Australian Archipelago, des-

cribing certain Asiatic species, including a new genus from India.

The collection was handed over to me for study. Among other

forms, it contained representatives of two species I had recently des-

cribed in the two papers which were at that time in press in America.

It was too late to add data from these specimens to my papers.

However, since: they have now been published’ Mr. Abdulali has

suggested that I publish a short article in the Journal of the Society and,

to the data taken from the Bombay collection, add pertinent information

and. keys for other recently described Indian forms, so as to make the

article more useful to students in India. This I have done.

Indotyphlus battersbyi Taylor 1960

Indotyphlus battersbyi Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 49 : 31-36, figs. 1-4, 1960

[type locality, Khandala, Poona District, c. 1800 ft. (550 m.), India. Type, No. 49974,

American Museum of Natural History, New York].

Three preserved specimens are in the Bombay collection : No. 1121

from Lonavla (about three miles from Khandala), Poona District, and

two, Nos. 1178 and 1179, from the type locality, Poona District. Ihave

1On the caecilian species Ichthyophis monochrous and Ichthyophis glutinosus

and related species. Taylor (1960): Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 40 : 37-120, figs. 1-38 ;

A new caecilian genus in India, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 40 : 31-36, figs. 1-4.

—

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

examined also a living specimen obtained by Mr. Humayun Abdulali,

from under a stone near the type locality. These specimens are

— eas

—— qaewz woreg eee OS Oey

Text-fig. 1. Indotyphlus battersbyi

Head and anterior part of body, showing relative positions of nostril and tentacle

(the eyes are not visible). a. side view, 5. dorsal view. (From type, x 12)

presumably the only ones known, other than the type. Their variable

characters are given below:

AMNH | BNHS | BNHS | BNHS

Specimen type

49974 1121 1178 1179

Total length (in mm.) 33 170 200 205 220

Head length (1st groove) (in mm. \ a 4.2 4h ae aD 5.5

Head width (1st groove) (in mm. ) oes 3 Silat. boat 3.8

Body width (in mm.).. fi Sef BS ik MRIS 3 4.1

Width in length (times) £2 As 46 50 AG RASS

Primary folds as ¥ fl HO 138 133 141

Secondary folds = iS be 29 17 22 21

Total folds Bh oe 168 | 155 155 162

Maxillary-premaxillary teeth He hi. 9-9 | 12-12 11-11 14-14

*Vomeropalatine teeth a Bat ens) WA WP 13-14 13-14 17-17

*Mandibular teeth ... iy 2] 9-9 11-11 9-10 11-11

Splenial teeth as ~ a 2-2 2-2 2-2 2-2

*Number of teeth increases somewhat-with age. A |

NOTES ON INDIAN CAECILIANS RY

On each side of the tongue, near its anterior end, there is a some-

what elevated rounded area almost surrounded by a deep groove. These

areas are blackish, and in strong contrast. to the light colour of the

rest of the tongue. Superficially Indotyphlus battersbyi resembles

Gegeneophis carnosus, a form also occurring in southern India ; however,

=, << ~*~ aoa ) “saa “>

Text-fig. 2. Indotyphlus battersbyi

End of body, showing the transverse vent and the absence of a tail. (From type, x 12)

the two species may be readily separated by examining the point of emer-

gence of the tentacle. The position of the tentacular opening in

Indotyphlus is directly anterior to the hidden eye, in line between the eye

and nostril but much closer to the eye, whereas in Gegeneophis the open-

ing is close behind the nostril and somewhat below it. The eye of

Gegeneophis is hidden below the bones of the skull.

In my paper on caecilians (1960) in the key to the Indian genera I

repeated Boulenger’s error of stating that Gegeneophis lacks scales. I

have since examined the type of the genus and scales are certainly present

in the posterior part of the body where the secondary folds appear.

The type of Gegeneophis has 114 primary folds and only six secondary,

totalling 120.

In Indotyphlus the number of vertebrae in the type is 144, a number

exceeding that of other known Asiatic caecilians. The number of

vertebrae in Gegeneophis carnosus is not known.

The type of Indotyphlus, which does not bear the collector’s name,

may be one of the specimens collected by Charles McCann (1927) at

Khandala, Poona District, and reported by him as Ichthyophis mono-

chrous Boulenger, in the J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31(4): 1039. McCann

states: ‘When at Khandala during the month of September, 1919, I

secured several specimens of this batrachian. It lives under stones,

during the rains, in burrows much after the fashion of the earthworm

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

which it also resembles in its movements. At first sight it might well

be mistaken for one of these creatures as its body is also coated with

slime. On the removal of the stone under which it lives the animal soon

begins its descent into its burrow away from the light.’

In the Journal 42 (1) : 64, Mr. McCann (1940) writes : ‘ On the 6th

September 1931 while collecting frogs I discovered another specimen

[of Ichthyophis monochrous] living under a stone on the banks of the

lake behind a range of hills locally called the “Sausages”. I have

repeatedly hunted for this animal since its first discovery at Khandala;

but without much success. The 1931 specimen measured 232 mm.’

The species is named in honour of Mr. J.C. Battersby of the British

Museum of Natural History.

Uraeotyphlus malabaricus (Beddome)

Caecilia malabarica Beddome, Madras Month. Journ. Med. Soc. 2: 176, 1870,

(type locality, Malabar).

Uraeotyphlus malabaricus Peters, Monatsb. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1879, p. 933 ;

Boulenger, Catalogue of the Batrachia Gradientia s. Caudata and Batrachia Apoda

in the collection of the British Museum, Ed. 2, 1882, p. 92, pl. V., fig. 3.

A single specimen in the Bombay collection, No. 222, from

Ootacamund, Nilgiris, south India, is referable to this species. The

secondary folds cannot be distinguished from the primaries by their

appearance. The secondaries begin suddenly and at once have almost

the same dimensions as the primaries : that is, they do not alternate longer

and shorter as is typical of certain species of the genus. The total number

of folds is approximately 242 (difficult to count because of injury to the

specimen). The grooves lack the light lines that are typical of Certain

other species of the genus. Seven folds are confined to the tail. Scales

are absent or rare in the anterior third of the body ; they form an in-

complete row at the 64th fold, and extend practically around the body at

the 100th fold. Posteriorly there are two complete rows in each fold and

occasionally part of another row may be present.

_The teeth have the following formula :

Maxillary-premaxillary, 16-17 ; ; vomeropalatine, 17-19; mandibular,

19-20 ; splenial, 8-9.

The total body length is 157 mm. The body width, 7.6 mm.

Ichthyophis subterrestris Taylor 1960

Ichthyophis subterrestris Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 40: 65-67, 1960 (type

locality, Kottayam, Travancore, India. Type, No. 73927 ‘‘* Travancore-Cochin ”’,

Chicago Nat. Hist. Museum.)

NOTES ON INDIAN CAECILIANS 359

Two specimens in the collection of the Bombay Natural History

Society belong to this species :

No. 217, from Injiparai Estate, Anamalai Hills, agrees well with

the type in most characters. Only nine transverse folds can be counted

on the injured tail : the expected number is 16 to 18. The count of 355

for the folds is probably low, and should be 364, if allowance is made

for the missing caudal folds. The tooth formula is :

Maxillary-premaxillary, 23-23 ; vomeropalatine, 23-23 ; mandi-

bular, 20-20; splenial, 13-13.

No. 223, from Alibag, Kolaba Dist., Bombay, is a small specimen,

probably recently transformed, that has been broken into several pieces.

No attempt has been made to count the folds.

This species is seemingly distinguished from other species of

the Indian peninsula by the following combination of characters: the

shape and position of the tentacular opening ; the elongate tail with the

high number of transverse folds ; the tail length being contained in total

length only 22.2 times ; and the enlarged mandibular teeth. The colour

of the venter (dark) separates it from peninsularis and the body propor-

tions of the two species seem to be somewhat different.

Ichthyophis peninsularis Taylor 1960

Ichthyophis peninsularis Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 40 : 61-65, figs. 9, 10, 11,

. 1960 (type locality, Malabar, India. Type, B.M. No. 82, 12-12-6.)

Diagnosis : A large species with a broad, relatively short head ; the

eye invisible covered by a raised circular white spot ; the tentacle nearer

the eye-spot than to nostril ; body width in length 22 times ; tail long,

its length in total length nearly 22 times; transverse folds 363-366 ;

folds on tail, 185; vertebrae, 116. Splenial teeth 3-4 on each side ;

mandibular teeth large. Ventral surface very light, probably yellow or

cream colour in life. A well-defined cream spot at vent.

_ The increased number of vertebrae, the coloration of the venter, and

reduction in size of the vomeropalatine teeth seem to separate this species

from other Indian species. Other differences are evident on a com-

parison of the type descriptions.

Ichthyophis malabarensis Taylor 1960

Ichthyophis malabarensis Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 40 : 80-84, figs. 20, 21,

22, 1960 (type locality, Maduvangard, Travancore, India. Type B.M. 94. 3. 15. 3).

Diagnosis : Large, reaching a length of approximately half a metre,

and the largest Oriental species. Tail proportionally long, its length

in total length 23.5 times ; transverse primary and secondary folds 360,

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

14 confined to tail; vertebrae 111; splenial teeth, 10-10; tentacular

opening near edge of lip, closer to eye than to nostril. Scales four to

five in each fold except the most anterior ones.

Remarks : It would appear that this species is rare in its range or that

it burrows to a considerable distance below the surface of the earth.

A creature so conspicuous would otherwise be better known. Despite

the fact that it is the largest caecilian reported from Asia, it has

a relatively low number of vertebrae (111). The number of folds on the

tail is 14, a lower number than occurs in certain other Indian forms.

The specimen is a female containing many large eggs (5.6 mm. in

diameter), the number estimated to be more than 60.

Ichthyophis bombayensis Taylor 1960

Ichthyophis bombayensis Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 40 : 67-69, fig. 12, 1960

(type locality, Waghai Surat, Bombay, India. Type, B.M. No. 86. 6. 11. 1.)

Diagnosis : A large species (390 mm.) having 386 transverse folds,

14 confined to tail ; splenial teeth, 9-9 ; body width in length, 26 times ;

vertebrae, 121; colour in preservative, dark brown above, somewhat

lighter brown below ; tail relatively long contained in total length about

25 times ; tongue tending to cover the splenial teeth ; mandibular teeth

much larger than maxillary-premaxillary series ; vomeropalatine teeth

relatively small, scarcely extending through the thick gums.

Remarks : The increased number of vertebrae, the coloration, the

enlarged mandibular teeth and the reduction of the size of the vomero-

palatine teeth seem to HoT TEU this from southern Indian forms. The

specimen is a male.

Ichthyophis sikkimensis Taylor 1960

Ichthyophis sikkimensis Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 40: 91-95, figs. 28-30,

1960 (type locality, Darjeeling, India. Type, No. 64216, Calif. Acad. Sciences.)

Diagnosis : A medium-sized species, characterized by 106-108 verte-

brae ; primary and secondary transverse folds 276-292 ; series of splenial

teeth (9-9 or 10-10) ; tail short, contained approximately 50 times in total

length, bearing five or six folds from front of vent ; tentacle near lip,

closer to eye than to nostril. Scales sparse or absent in anterior half of

body ; two to four rows in each fold posteriorly.

Variation : No. 2685* has the pharyngeal region | considerably

thickened and widened. The eye area is milky white, the pupil

not visible. The tongue seemingly is not completely developed. It is

—

*Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard.

NOTES ON INDIAN CAECILIANS 361

very short, covering the splenial teeth, and its posterior limit is a ridge

curving forward. This specimen agrees reasonably well with the others

in tooth counts, vertebrae, and transverse folds. It is, judging from the

tongue, a recently transformed specimen that has not attained all the

adult characters. | 7

No. 2574*, the other Sikkim specimen, is very light, almost white,

on the venter and nearly white on the chin. I cannot be certain that

this specimen has not been faded somewhat by light. The two Darjeeling

specimens vary but little from each other. Nothing is known of the exact

habitats except that No. 2685 comes from the Rungeet Valley.

Ichthyophis tricolor Annandale 1909 i

Ichthyophis glutinosus tricolor Annandale, Rec. Ind. Mus. 3: 286, 1909 (type

locality, Maddathori, India) ; ibid 9 (4) (19) : 346-347, 1915 (Western Ghats, Cochin).

Ichthyophis tricolor Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 40 : 113-114, 1960.

Since I proposed the revival of the name tricolor for a species ~

of Ichthyophis in India, I have been able to examine certain specimens of

the species in the collection of the British Museum. These specimens

agree with the extremely brief colour description by Annandale, who

saw three specimens. He mentions one that measured 280 mm. in length,

but gives no other anatomical data. Annandale regarded tricolor

as a variety of glutinosus, but it is not known what form was called glu-

tinosus by him.

The two British Museum specimens are No. 93. 4. 18. 26 from

Peermed, Travancore, and No. 82. 12. 12. 5 from the ‘ Nilgiris’. The

second specimen was presumably taken in the same general locality as

four specimens of a different species that lacks the ventral white stripe.

The counts of the teeth of the two specimens are respectively :

Maxillary-premaxillary, 19-19, 20-21; vomeropalatine, 23-24,

28-29 ; mandibular, 15-15, 19-19 ; splenial, 24-23, 25-26.

The nrandibular teeth are the largest, while the splenials are relatively

very small. The tentacle is nearly equidistant from the eye and the

nostril (2.3 mm. and 2.45 mm. respectively). The number of transverse

folds is low, 245 for the male, 275 for the female. The lateral

yellow stripe extends from near the tip of the snout to the tip of the tail,

dividing at the angle of the mouth. A broad white (or yellow) midventral

stripe is separated from the yellow lateral stripe by a stripe of brownish

lavender, with a rather indefinite edge. The jaw and part of the chin

are cream with a slightly pigmented area near the centre of the chin.

*Berlin Museum,

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Scales are present throughout the body, the first folds having three

rows of rather large scales widened transversely, the posterior folds having

seven rows in each fold.

Variable characters of Ichthyophis tricolor Annandale :

: BM | BM

Specimen 93.4.18.26 82.12.12.5

Sex Male Female

Total length Gn mm. she oa is oe 226 296

Tail (in mm.) : ae Sf ag 4 4.85

Body width (in mm. ee : 12.8 12.8

Head width (ist groove) (in mm. val 8.1 9

Distance between eyes (in mm.) 5 5.5

Eye to tip of snout (in mm.) 4.65 5.6

Head length (to 1st groove) (in mm. J 11 13

Head length (to 3rd groove) (in mm. ) Dai 19.8

Eye to tentacle (in mm.) 2:3 2

Tentacle to nostril (in mm.) 25 2.6

Transverse folds 245 275

The male specimen came from an elevation of 3300 ft. (1005 m.).

Ichthyophis beddomii Peters 1879

Ichthyophis beddomii Peters, Monatsh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1879, p. 931, pl.—

figs. 1-3 (type locality, Nilgiris, India) ; Taylor, Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 40 ; 113, 1960.

Ichthyophis glutinosus (part.) Boulenger, Catalogue of the Batrachia Gradientia

s. Caudata and Batrachia Apoda in the collection of the British Museum, 1882, p. 90.

I have referred three specimens in the collection to Ichthyophis bed-

domii Peters. Theseare: Nos. 219 and 220 from Ootacamund, Nilgiri Hills,

southern India, and No. 527 from near Gersoppa Falls, North Kanara,

India (the last was taken on a laterite path by day, and was said ‘to

progress by a series of ripples reminiscent of a millipede ’).

Peters distinguished this species by the following characters : ten-

tacle near lip, nearly equidistant from the eye and the nostril ; the head

small, pointed or acuminate-; a lateral stripe on the body, and low num-

ber of transverse folds on the body (240 in the type).

The type of this species, formerly No. 5545 in the Berlin Miuiseinity

was not to be found on my recent visit there, and Dr. Heinz Wermuth,

the Curator, believed that the specimen had been lost.

It will be seen from the following table that the type has fewer

transverse folds and the body is narrower in proportion to ae than

the other specimens listed.

NOTES ON INDIAN CAECILIANS 363

: BNHS N

SEcouCR | 220 | 3 i | Ps | Type

Total length (in mm.) - ate 265 257 185 225

Head width (in mm.) a ies a — a2 aes

Head length (in mm.) ay AP 9.3 — 11 =

Body width (in mm.) aE = 16. 15 11 10

Width in length (times) a as 16.5 17 16.578 22:5

Transverse folds, total Ae a 293 284 281 240

Transverse folds on tail a we 5 5 =— 5

Maxillary-premaxillary teeth .. re 23-23 23-25 24-25 —

Vomeropalatine teeth ne ae 28-27 27-27 23-24 —

Mandibular teeth Bs mu 25-26 | 22-22 24-24 —

Splenial teeth ae an 26-25 er

| 24-25 25-26

Moreover the count of folds (240) is lower than in 15 other speci-

mens of the species I have been able to examine, most of which are from

the Nilgiri Hills. Three specimens in the British Museum from ‘ Wynaad,

Nilgiris, India’ have counts of 255, 263, and 273. The number of

maxillary teeth in these specimens is a little less than in the specimens

listed above. Tail length in total length about 30 times.

In all, the lateral yellow stripe is widened anteriorly so that there is

a suggestion of two yellow triangles joined to the lateral stripes on the

throat. A fork from the stripe beginning at the mouth-angle extends

anteriorly to the tip of the lower jaw.

Usually one or two rows of scales are present in the folds on the

anterior part of the body (beginning on the first or second fold). Pos-

teriorly there are usually four rows in each fold.

It is impossible to state now whether this variation in the number

of folds is a result of sex, elevation, or individual variation.

KEY TO GENERA OF GYMNOPHIONA IN INDIA

1, Tentacle closer to eye than to nostril (or tip of snout) or equal .. ant Sae

Tentacle closer to tip of snout than to eye.. 4d i ee 3

2. Anal opening transverse; the tentacle cone-shaped, on a level with a

line between eye and nostril; no tail; 144 vertebrae; splenial teeth

present. . a S. ut Re -. Indotyphlus

Anal opening longitudinal ; tentacle near edge of lip below level of a line

between eye and nostril; tail present; vertebrae not over 125 ; splenial

teeth present or absent ee ae oe .. Ichthyophis

3. Squamosal and parietal bones of skull separated by a diastema. Tentacle

flaplike situated almost directly below nostril near mouth; orbit circular

enclosed ; tail region wider than body . . Uraeotyphlus

Squamosal and parietal bones forming a common suture ne a a a

364

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

A single row of teeth in lower jaw. No splenials bas . . Gegeneophis

Two rows of teeth in lower jaw ; eye covered over by bone ; tentacle conical

somewhat behind nostril but below its lower level .. 58 Herpele

KEY TO INDIAN SPECIES OF /chthyophis

A lateral stripe of cream or yellow on side of body from head to tail;

splenial teeth usually more than 20 on each side.. a some 94

No lateral stripe of cream or yellow on side of body ; usually less than 20

splenial teeth on each side oy sis a Sot ea

Venter uniform brown lavender, to plumbeous; position of tentacle —

variable i = a: ae oa oe aA

Venter with a broad white or yellow mid-ventral stripe ; tentacle near lip

and nearly equidistant trom eye and nostril ; transverse folds 245-275 ;

tail length in total length 56.5 times ¢, 60 times 2 - tricolor

Tentacle nearly equidistant from eye and nostril; lateral yellow stripe

widens in region of throat; fewer transverse folds (240-293). .beddomii

Tentacle near lip, much closer to eye than to nostril ; higher count of ven-

tral folds (300-400) lateral stripe not widening under throat

B 5 2? glutinosus vars.

Number of folds on tail less than ten ; body tolds less than 300; taillength

in total length about 50 times ; splenial teeth 9 or 10 on each side; verte-

brae, 106, 108; scales sparse or absent anteriorly, two to four rows

in posterior folds : bf ee wy sikkimensis

Number of transverse folds on tail more than ten ; on body usually more

than 300 ; tail length in total length less than 30 times .. ue 5

Splenial teeth four or less on each side ; 18 transverse folds on tail; verte-

brae 116 ; body width in body length; 20-22 times ; venter light coloured

(perhaps cream or yellowish in life) ; total length, 330 mm. .. peninsularis

Splenial teeth five or more on each side in full-grown animals, transverse

folds 356-386 ; tail folds, 14-18 ans 38 a oO

Number of mandibular teeth high (28-28) ; tail in total length about 23.5

times ; body width in body length 27 times; vertebrae 111 ; scales in

anterior folds small sparse ; posteriorly four or five rows in each fold ;

venter light (perhaps cream or yellow in life); total length 494 mm.

. - malabarensis

Number of mandibular teeth reduced (17-20) ae a eae,

Mandibular teeth, 20-20; splenial, 9-9 ; transverse folds 386; 14 folds

confined to tail; width of body in total length 26 times ; tail length in

total length 25.6 ; venter brown to lavender brown; one row of scales

in anterior folds, three in posterior ; totallength,390mm. .. bombayensis

NOTES ON INDIAN CAECILIANS 365

Mandibular teeth very large, 17-17; splenial, 10-10; transverse folds

356-364, 18 confined to tail ; body width in total length 21 times ; venter

dark lavender brown ; two rows of scales in anterior folds ; four or five

in posterior rows; total length 295 mm. _.. _ ,. subterrestris

A study is in progress of the forms of Indian caecilians hitherto con-

fused with Ichthyophis glutinosus. The provenance of the type (still in

existence) has not been yet satisfactorily determined, and these forms

are not treated here.

Amphipnous indicus, a new synbran-

choid eel from India, with a

Redefinition of the genus and a

Synopsis to the species of Amphipnous

Muller’

E. G. SILAS AND E. DAWSON

Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Mandapam Camp

(With two text-figures and two plates)

INTRODUCTION

On 28 July 1957 while collecting fish from a stream passing,

through Krishnagiri National Park, Bombay, one of us (E. G. Silas)

came across a tiny eel-like fish 84 mm. in length. Subsequently a

second specimen was obtained just above the main falls at Kanheri

Caves about three miles further up. During the last week of

September and early in October of the same year, it was once again

possible, assisted by a party from the Natural History Section of the

Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Bombay, to collect

several specimens of similar eel-like fishes from a streamlet passing

through Robbers’ Cave, Mahableshwar, Satara District, and one

specimen from an adjacent stream at Mahableshwar. A note on the

fishes collected on an earlier occasion from the Robbers’ Cave

together with some ecological observations has appeared elsewhere

(Silas, 1953).

A close examination showed that all these eel-like fishes collected.

at Borivli (elevation between 30 and 75 metres above m.s.l.), and

Mahableshwar (elevation about 1400 metres) are identical, belonging;

to a hitherto undescribed species of the synbranchoid family

Amphipnoidae, known thus far from only two species, A. cuchia

(Hamilton), said to be the most highly evolved air-breathing fish in

India, and A. fossorius Nair. The new species is designated here as

* Published with the permission of the Director, Central Marine Fisheries

Research Institute, Mandapam Camp.

AMPHIPNOUS INDICUS, 4 NEW SYNBRANCHOID EEL 367

Amphipnous indicus sp. nov., based on its systematic description

given below. The anatomical details etc. will be dealt with separately.

Amphipnous indicus sp. nov.

Material:

Holotype: 1 specimen 412 mm. in total length.

Type locality:. Robbers’ Cave, Mahab!eshwar, Satara District.

Maharashtra State, India.

Paratypes: 43 specimens from Robbers’ Cave, Mahableshwar;

1 specimen from Dhobi Falls, Mahableshwar; 1 specimen from Davri

R., Krishnagiri National Park, Borivli, Bombay; 1 specimen from

above Kanheri Falls, Kanheri Caves, Bombay.

The type material will be deposited in the research collection of

the Bombay Natural History Society.

Diagnosis:

Body elongate, eel-like, head relatively short, snout bluntly

rounded, and occipital region dome-shaped and muscular; scales

present. in irregular rows on tail and in a narrow streak along dorsum

in posterior part of trunk and occasionally in a small isolated patch

midventrally in front of vent; palatine teeth anteriorly in three or four

rows; branchiostegals five; gills greatly reduced to highly vascularised

plate-like structures present on third and fourth branchial arches;

suprabranchial accessory respiratory chamber well developed; preanal

vertebrae 93 to 99.

DESCRIPTION

Body proportions:

In the following paragraph the body proportions are given in

thousandths of the total length as follows. First that of the holotype

is given followed in parenthesis by the range and mean for all the

specimens examined. For additional details reference may be made

to Table IV.

Head 76 (65-84 : 73); eye 5 (4-9 : 5}; snout 21 (14-23 : 19);

interorbital distance 19 (9-21 : 16); tip of snout to posterior nostril

19 (13-20 : 17); isthmus between gill openings 16 (12-21 : 16); width

of gill opening 6 (2-9 : 6); gape of mouth 27 (16-27 : 22); snout to

vent 794 (770-830 : 798); greatest height of body 36 (25-41 : 34);

width of body 31 (22-35 : 27); snout to occiput 70 (57-78 : 68);

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

height at occiput 30 (26-38 : 31); distance between anterior nostrils

9 (5-14 : 10); distance between posterior nostrils 12 (7-15 : 12);

snout to posterior nostril 19 (13-20 : 17); greatest width of upper

lip 9 (4-11 : 8); width of lower lip 4 (3-7 : 5); height of head

38 (25-42 : 35); depth of body at vent 28 (18-32 : 27); depth of body

midway between vent and caudal end 22 (16-32 : 24); width of body

at-vent 20 (16-25 : 21); end of maxilla to tip of snout 40 (26-45 : 37):

end of maxilla to tip of lower jaw, 34 (21-38 : 31); and length of

preanal scaly patch along dorsum 252 (110-392 : 226) in total length.

Head:

The head is conspicuous from the rest of the body by the dome-

shaped muscular occipital region and the bluntly rounded snout. A

profuse secretion of mucus, mostly from the anterior part of the body

was noticeable soon after the animals were caught and when pre-

served in formalin this formed into a thick opaque covering all over

the body, especially on the head and scaleless part of the trunk.

When the mucus layer is cleared, the glandular skin with the pitted

surface, especially on the head and nape region is discernible (Plate I,

figs. 10 & 11). ;

The eyes are greatly reduced and covered by skin. Usually, in

preserved specimens the opaque mucus layer completely obliterates

the eyes from view.

Part of the snout and upper jaw overhangs the ventrally positioned

mouth. The upper lip is thick and overlaps part of the lower lip.

Towards the extremity on either side of the symphysis the anterior

nostrils appear as two holes. The post-labial groove is not continuous,

being interrupted anteriorly at the symphysis of the lower jaw.

Dentition:

While the general pattern is the same both in the young and

adults of A. indicus, there is a tendency in the larger specimens for

an increase in the number of teeth on the maxillary, palatine, and

mandibular bands (Text-fig. 1). In a specimen 425 mm. long the

palatine band shows four rows of teeth anteriorly which progressively

decrease to a single row in the posterior third of the band. The

maxillary band has 5 to 6 rows of teeth near the symphysis, but

laterally it shows three rows becoming uniserial at the posterior end.-

When the mouth is closed, in the larger specimens part of the

maxillary band of teeth is seen exposed. The mandibular teeth are

arranged in three or four rows at the symphysis. The shape of the

teeth at different parts of the bands are indicated in Text-fig. 1.

AMPHIPNOUS INDICUS, 4 NEW SYNBRANCHOID EEL 369°

The pattern of the dentition is another important feature distinguish-

ing the new species from its congeners. In A. cuchia the palatine

and mandibular teeth are uniserial. In the case of A. fossorius the

maxillary teeth are arranged in two or three rows at the anterior end,

Text-fig. 1. Dentition of Amphipnous indicus sp. nov.

A. paratype 425 mm. long, and B. paratype 127 mm. long.

but uniserial in the posterior half and the palatine teeth are biserial

anteriorly and uniserial posteriorly; further, the teeth in A. fossorius

are more pointed and distinctly directed backwards than in A. indicus.

Caudal region:

The dorsal and anal ‘fin folds’ or ridges vary with age, being more

conspicuous in the young. In the latter, the dorsal ridge commences

about 0.25 length of head behind level of vent while it can be made

out only in the posterior third of the post-anal distance in the adults.

The anal ridge commences almost midway between the vent and the

end of the caudal in the young, while in the adults it is seen only

in the last fourth of the length of the post-anal distance. In A.

cuchia the dorsal ‘fin fold’ is said to commence slightly ahead of a

vertical line above the vent, while in A. fossorius the condition is

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

more or less as in A. indicus, but the anal fold in A. fossorius com-

mences from the mid post-anal distance. The caudal tip in A.

indicus is bluntly rounded.

Scales:

The scales are present in the post-anal part of the body. Anterior

to and above the vent they occur as a narrow band along the dorsum

extending to some distance in the front, but not surpassing

the mid-point of total length. The sides above the vent:

and slightly behind it are devoid of scales (Pl. I, figs. 4 & 14, and

Pl. Il, figs. B & C). In a few specimens a small scaly patch is

present in front of the vent midventrally.

Although the scales are not arranged in regular longitudinal rows,

they are nevertheless countable. Where they completely encircle the

body behind the vent there are on the average about 52 scales as

shown by the frequency of their occurrence in 40 specimens detailed

in Table I.

TABLE I

Frequency of occurrence of scales round body behind vent in A. indicus sp. nov.

pet 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

No. of

specimens _ 1 g3 313 3. eames 354 ye ee a Pg ie ee

The scales.are relatively much smaller when compared to those of

A. fossorius. A typical scale from the side of the tail of a specimen

372 mm. long shows the basa] nucleus extending to one-third the

‘length of the scale. The radii are complete, there being 8 apically

and 12 or 13 laterally on each side. The circuli are widely spaced

apically, numbering 12 in this region. Laterally they are placed

more close together and many terminate at the sides of the nuclear

area, so much so that only 3 closely placed .basal circuli are seen.

Variations from this general pattern are seen in scales from different

parts of the body and these will be dealt with elsewhere along with a

comparative account of the scales of all the three species.

Lateral: canal: system:

In A. indicus, the lateral canal system is well developed and is

clearly discernible even in the juveniles. The typical pattern as seen

in the larger specimens is shown in Pl. I, figs. 2, 3, & 4. The canal

‘gle ‘d aas suonvurdxa 104

vAaou “ds snoipul snoudiydup

SIE ye

SUT eT

s Pur

Zp @ePaReypg Re?” scat

ewe 7

ook ale Fs

eae

arenes

AS ETS eRe eee,

ee CENT TO NT "AV bp aeeconreses

I ALVIg

00§ “ISIH “LVN AVaWwog ‘Nunor

PLATE II

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

nova

Syhee

| indica sp

explanations see p

ipnous

Amph

For

AMPHIPNOUS INDICUS, 4 NEW SYNBRANCHOID EEL 371

system on the body appears discontinuous along the mid-lateral part

of the body where it is present as short linear streaks each having a

number of Open pores. The lateral canal system is generally not

visible unless the mucus over the body is cleared away.

The nature of the lateral canal system is not known in the case

of A. cuchia and A. fossorius. However, the condition seen in the

head region of A. indicus differs considerably from that of an allied,

synbranchoid fish Monopterus javanensis Lacépéde as described by

Yih (1948). The mandibular canal is present in both, but A. indicus

shows a distinct infraorbital canal (Pl. I, fig. 2), which is absent in

M. javanensis. The latter instead has the supraorbital canal well

developed. It is likely that the nature of the lateral canal system

may vary in the different species of the genus Amphipnous.

Vrerte brae:

X-ray photographs of 32 specimens were taken for vertebral counts.

From these, the pre-anal vertebrae could be clearly counted, while

those towards the end of the tail were rather indistinct. However,

two specimens cleared and stained with alazarin showed 95 and 99

pre-anal and 42 caudal vertebrae respectively.

TABLE II

Frequency of occurrence of pre-anal vertebrae in A. indicus sp. nov.

No. of pre-anal vertebrae. 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

No. of specimens —- — — 3 S10 Ne

The number of pre-anal vertebrae thus range from 93 to 99

(average about 95) while the total number of vertebrae for the species

is about 137 to 144.

The number of vertebrae differ in the three species of Amphipnous

as shown in Table ILI.

TABLE III

ES A. cuchia (Ham.) A. fossorius Nair

Characters a Bees (after Giinther, (after Nair,

ae 1870) 1951)

No. of pre-anal vertebrae 93-99 106 73

No. of caudal vertebrae 42-45 65 53-56

Total No. of vertebrae 137-144 ‘171 126-129

In this connection it is interesting to note that Nair (1951) found

the pre-anal vertebrae in A. fossorius to be constant (73), while the

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

caudal vertebrae were found to vary in number. The range for A.

cuchia is not known, but the figures given indicate a much higher

count for that species. The vertebral counts in the three species

also indicate another interesting trend of an increase from _ the

southern to the northern latitudes as seen in the lowest counts in

gg AMPHIPNOUS FOSSORIUS NAIR

i AMPHIPNOUS _INDICUS SP_NOV.

Text-fig. 2. Map showing the distribution of species of the genus Amphipnous Miller

A. fossorius from the southernmost part of India to the highest

counts in A. cuchia in the northernmost parts of India. Text-fig. 2

shows the natural distribution of the three species.

Bramenial Hee 10 ni:

The gill filaments of the third and fourth branchial arches are

reduced and fused to form plate-like organs which are highly vascular.

The first two branchial arches are placed close together, so much so

that, instead of a branchial slit there is only a shallow blind pocket

indicating the position in the wall of the bucco-pharyngeal cavity.

Behind this are three narrow branchial slits, the posteriormost one

being the broadest (Pl. I, fig. 6). The gill opening on either side is

narrow and is separated by a wide isthmus. The gill membranes:

AMPHIPNOUS INDICUS, 4 NEW SYNBRANCHOID EEL 373

unite with each other to form a slight ridge below the isthmus, but

the latter can be distinctly made out.

The walls of the accessory air chamber are also highly vascular

but, unlike A. cuchia where the accessory air chamber is much

elongate and shown by Das (1927) as surpassing posteriorly a line above

the gill opening, in A. indicus the chamber is relatively broader and:

falls short of a vertical above the gill opening. All three species

show differences in the branchial region which will be dealt with

elsewhere.

So x

There appears to be no noticeable difference externally between

the two sexes. In some of the larger males the testicular lobes extend

forwards to just below the posterior end of the liver. In mature

females, the single-lobed ovary also extends to below the liver. Two

of the specimens dissected showed fully gravid ovaries, while a few

others showed spent ovaries.

Colour:

Almost all specimens when caught fresh were reddish or flesh-

coloured. On preservation, with the mucus layer removed, dorsal

surface is generally greyish or dusky and ventral side dirty white.

Weight and size: f

~The maximum weight of, 72.1 ‘ei, was Noted" tor “a specimen

measuring 447 mm. in total length. The maximum length of a

specimen in the collection is 480 mm.

Altitudinal distribution:

The collection of A. indicus from about 1400 metres above m.s.l.,

at Mahableshwar, is interesting, and shows the distribution of the

species as occurring from just above sea-level to the colder waters

of the hill streams of the Western Ghats of Bombay. The smallest

specimen from Mahableshwar measures 82 mm. and this combined

with the condition of the ripe ovaries of two of the specimens

examined and the spent ovaries of a few others suggests the

possibility of the fish breeding inside the cave or in the marshy

areas in the vicinity of Robbers’ Cave. That the fish could.

be a resident in the cooler waters at that altitude is also suggested

by the recent discovery of its congener, A. cuchia, from the

Kathmandu Valley, Nepal (DeWitt, 1960). In view of this, it will

not be surprising if A. fossorius, at present known only from ‘the

374. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

low-lying areas near Trivandrum, is also found to occur in marshy

places along the courses of hill streams in the Western Ghats of

Kerala. In any case, the spatial distribution of A. indicus and A.

cuchia shows their adaptability to relatively cooler waters also.

TABLE IV

DETAILS OF BODY PROPORTIONS

(No. of specimens followed by range in thousandths of total length:

the averages are given in parentheses)

Species A. indicus sp. nov. 28

RN oil heater : x

0 - 100 101 - 200 | 201 - 300 | 301 - 400 | 401 - 500} 192

Total length mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. | mm.

Head length 5: 73-80 | 3 : 66-71 | 3 : 65-69 | 15: 66-78 |20: 74-84 | 83

(76.5) | (68.5) (66.6) (72.8) (78.4)

Diameter of eye 5: 5-9 3: 5-8 3: 4-5 15: 4-6 | 20: 4-6 6

(6.8) (7.0) (4.6) (4.8) (5.0)

Length of snout 5: 16-22 | 3: 16-18 | 3: 14-17 | 15: 16-22 | 19 : 18-23; 20

(18.8) (17.0) (15.3) 19.3) (20.4)

Height of body 5: 28-33 | 3: 25-37 | 3: 31-34 | 15: 31-40 | 20: 30-41; 29

(29.6) (30.3) (32.3) (35.3) (35.4)

Width of body | 5 : 22-30 | 3: 25-31 | 3; 24-29 |15 : 25-35 |20: 24-35| 23

(25.2) (28.0) (27.0) (27.8) (29.0)

Height of head | 4: 26-29 | 3: 25-31 | 3: 30-34 | 15: 33-39 | 20: 33-42) 33

(28.0) (27.6) (32.0) (35.7) (37.8)

Depth at vent 4: 23-29 | 2: 24-28 3.2.28.) 15.5 25-32,.1120 = 18232 | 29

(26.2) (26.0) (28) (28.3) (26.4)

Angle of mouth to| 4 : 26-39 | 2 : 31-33 | 3: 30-34 | 15: 31-40 | 19:35-45| 42

tip of snout (33.0) (32.0) (32.6) (36.1) (41.6)

Dist. bet. upper| 5: 18-24 2.2.20 3: 20-21 | 15 : 19-21 | 20: 18-23) 13

angles of gill) (20.2) (20.0) (20.6) (21.4) (21.7)

openings

Snout to vent 5 : 762-791|3 : 734-784|3 :_796-803/14 : 775-814 |20: 784-830) 779

(776.2) (768.3) (800.3) (811.1) (810.0)

Length of pre-anal |4 : 110-167 — 3 : 258-341/15 : 137-311 |20: 144-290) *167?

scaly patch (148.5) (286.1) (244.4) (208.5)

“In this specimen examined, the scales:are absent in the anterior part of the

trunk.

AMPHIPNOUS INDICUS, 4 NEW SYNBRANCHOID EEL . 375

REDEFINITION OF THE GENUS Amphipnous MULLER 1839

The last definition of the genus Amphipnous Miller given -by

Day (1878) reads as follows: |

‘Branchiostegals six. Gill membranes almost entirely grown to

the isthmus, and having a single transverse opening. Three branchial

arches with the laminae rudimentary, divided by narrow slits. A

respiratory air sac exists on the neck behind the head communicating

with the gill cavity. Palatine teeth in a single well-developed row.

Scales present and arranged in longitudinal rows.’

With the discovery of A. fossorius and A. indicus from peninsular

India, a redefinition of the genus is necessary and this is given below:

Genus Amphipnous Miiller

Amphipnous Miller, 1839, Adh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, p..244 (Orthotype: Unibran-

chapertura cuchia Hamilton).

Pneumobranchus McClelland, 1844, Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist. 5: 192 [Logo-

type: P. striatus McClelland =A. cuchia (Hamilton)].

Branchiostegals five or six; body elongate, cylindrical anteriorly

and tail compressed laterally; body partly or wholly covered with

small cycloid scales; posterior nostrils placed interorbitally; anterior

nostrils placed near end of snout in upper lip; fins totally absent, but

short dorsal and anal rayless folds of skin present on tail, confluent

at tip; suprabranchial accessory respiratory chamber present on either

side; gills greatly reduced and fused to form highly vascular plate-like

structures on two or three branchial arches; two or three branchial

slits leading from buccopharyngeal cavity to branchial chamber; a

pair of gill openings partly or well concealed by the fold of the united

gill membranes; teeth uniserial or multiserial on jaws and_ palate:

vertebrae 121 to 171, pre-anal vertebrae numbering 73 to 106.

The genus is distributed along parts of India, Pakistan, Nepal, and

Burma.

SYNOPSIS TO THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS AMPHIPNOUS MULLER

1. Palatine and mandibular teeth in two or

more rows ; vertebrae 126 to 144, pre-

anal vertebrae being 73 to 99 .. .. 3

2. Palatine and mandibular teeth uniserial ;

vertebrae about 171, pre-anal verte-

brae 106 (longitudinally arranged scales

present throughout body ;_ branchio-

stegals 6) fe ae o> + Amphipnous cuchia

(Hamilton)

376

~JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

3. Snout pointed ; skin of branchial region

of ventral side of head drawn out into

longitudinal folds; teeth on palate

anteriorly biserial ; body covered with

longitudinal rows of minute scales ;

branchiostegals 6; pre-anal vertebrae

73 ot im .. Amphipnous fossorius Nair

4. Snout bluntly rounded ; skin of branchial

region of ventral side of head not

drawn into longitudinal folds ; teeth

on palate anteriorly tri- or quadri-

serial ; scales present only on post-

erior half of body along dorsum in a

narrow streak and on sides of tail and

a small scaly patch may or may not

be present midventrally in front of

vent; branchiostegals 5; pre-anal

vertebrae 93 to 99. .. ie .. Amphipnous indicus sp. nov.

SYNONYMY AND NOTES ON THE SPECIES

Amphipnous cuchia (Hamilton)

Muroena Russell, 1801, Fish. Vizag. 1:25, pl. 35 (named Dondoo paum).

(Locality : a 1’11” specimen taken from Ankapalle Lake)

Unibranchapertura cuchia Hamilton, 1822, Fish. Ganges 16, 363, pl. 16, fig. 4.

(Type locality : Rivers and ponds in south-east parts of Bengal); Hora, 1929,

Mem. Indian Mus. 7 : 185 (reference only).

Cuchia Taylor, 1831, Edinburgh J. Sci. 5:42-50 (Anatomy) ibid. 5 : 33-42

(Respiratory organs) ; 1835, Isis (Oken) 307-10.

Ophichthys punctatus Swainson, 1839, Nat. Hist. Classif. Fish. 2 : 336.

Pneumobranchus striatus McClelland, 1844, Calcutta Journ, Nat. Hist. 5: 192.

(Type locality : Bengal)

Pneumobranchus leprosus McCleiland, 1844, ibid. 5: 195-96. (Type locality :

Bengal)

Pneumobranchus albinus McClelland, 1844, ibid. 5: 219. (Type locality : Bengal)

Amphipnous cuchia Miller, 1839, Akad. Wiss. Berlin 244 ; Cantor, 1850, Cat.:

Malayan Fish. 338; Bleeker, 1853, Verh. Bat. Gen. 25:78; Kaup, 1856,

Apodal Fish. 120; 1858, Denks. K. Akad. Wiss. Wein.-Nat. Cl.: 14; Gunther,

1870, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 8:14; Beaven, 1877, Handbook Freshw. Fish.

India 157; Day : 1877, Proc. Linn. Soc. London (Zoology): 205 (Respiration);

1878, Fish. India : 656, pl. clxvii, fig. 1; 1889, Faun. Brit. India, Fish. 1: 69,

fig. 27; Vinciguerra, 1889, Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. nat. Genova (2)9 : 355; Fea,

1897, ibid. (2) 17: 490, 497; Regan, 1912, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 9: 387;

_ Annandale, 1918, Rec. Indian Mus. 14 : 43; Das, 1927, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.

(B) 216 : 197-200, figs. 3 a-d, pl. 10, figs. 38-42 (Respiration); Prashad &

Mukerji, 1929, Rec. Indian Mus. 31: 170; Ghosh, 1933, J. G& Proc. Asiat.

Soc. Bengal 29 (4) : 328; Hora, 1937, Trans. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 1 : 1-16;

Shaw & Sheabbeare, 1937, J. Roy. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 3: 128, fig. 130;

Hora, 1939, Prec. Nat. Hist. Inst. Sci. India 5 (2) : 281-287; Das, 1947,

Proc. Indian Sci. Congr. Assoc., pt. 3, Abs. 42: 11-12; Nair, 1952, Proc. :

Indian Acad. Sci. 34(B) : 310 ; DeWitt, 1960. Stanford Ichth. Bull. 7(4) : 83.

AMPHIPNOUS INDICUS, A NEW SYNBRANCHOID EEL 377

Note:

No attempt has so far been made to study the variations in the

vertebral counts of this species. Material from Burma should be

specially examined in the context.

Amphipnous fossorius Nair

Amphipnous fossorius Nair, 1951, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 34(B) (6): 311-316,

321, 326-327, figs. 1,7. (Type locality : Marshy areas in the paddy fields and

banana plantations adjoining Karamanai River, Karamanai, Trivandrum,

Kerala State) ;

Note:

The single specimen of A. fossorius that we have examined is

devoid of scales in the anterior part of the body; the scales are arranged

in distinct longitudinal rows in the posterior half. The skin in the

anterior part of the body is smooth without any indication of scale

pockets. According to Nair (1951) ‘the body is covered by very

minute cycloid scales . . .; we feel that this character needs

rechecking in the type material also. Unlike in A. indicus, the gill

openings and the crescent-like opening is greatly arched. The

longitudinal furrows on the ventral side of the branchial region of

the head as in some of the true eels (e.g. Moringua etc.) are very

characteristic of this species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are very grateful to Dr. S. Jones, Director, Central Marine

Fisheries Institute, Mandapam Camp, for the facilities given for

carrying out this study; to Dr. M. Mathias, Nagercoil, for the X-ray

photographs of the specimens. To Mr. C. T. Samuel we are indebted

for making available for examination a specimen of Amphipnous

fossorius Nair. The senior author wishes to specially thank Mr.

V. K. Chari, Curator, Natural History Section, Prince of Wales

Museum of Western India, Bombay, for help rendered in the field

at Mahableshwar. The photographs of the new fish given on

plate II were taken by Mr. K. G. Nambiar of this Institute, and the

junior author assisted in the preparation of the figures given in

Plate I. The material on which the paper is based was collected by

the senior author while Registrar at the Bombay Natural History

Society.

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 538 (2)

REFERENCES

(Only those not listed under the synonyms to the species are given below.)

Silas, E: G. (1953) : Notes on fishes Yih, P. L. (1948) : The lateral canal

from Mahableshwar and Wai, (Satara system of Monopterus javanensis. Sinensia

District, Bombay State). J. Bombay. nat. 18 : 13-20.

Hist. Soc, 51 (3) : 579-589,

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

PLATE * I

Amphipnous indicus sp. nov.

1. Lateral view of holotype 412 mm. long; 2. Head region showing lateral

sensory canal system; 3. Middle of body showing scaleless condition as well as

discontinuous sensory canal system along the midlateral part of the body; 4. Part

of trunk and tail showing disposition of scales and discontinuous lateral sensory

canal system along midlateral part of body; 5. Ventral view of head and anterior

part of body; 6. Dissection showing both roof and floor of buccal cavity and

pharynx and indicating the position of the aperture to the air chamber and its

relation to the branchial slits; 7. Lateral dissection showing the position of the

accessory air chamber; 8. Fourth branchial arch and attached plate-like organ

composed of fused gill filaments; 9. Third branchial arch showing same structure

as 8; 10. Lateral view of head with part of mucus coating removed to show

glandular skin ; 11. Patch of skin of head magnified to show pitted glandular

nature ; 12. Suprapharyngeal bone and its teeth ; 13. Infrapharyngeal bone and its

teeth; 14. Ventral view of part of trunk and tail showing disposition of scales.

‘Abbreviations : aas aperture of accessory air chamber; an anterior nostril; as

accessory air chamber; ba cut ends of branchial arches; bc buccal cavity ; bp/ gill

filaments fused to form gill plates; br branchial arches; bs branchial slits; go gill

opening on one side; gsk glandular skin; ios infraorbital sensory canal; ipt

infrapharyngeal bone and teeth; ist isthmus between gill openings ; // discontin-

uous lateral canal system on side of body; md mandibular band of teeth ; mds

mandibular sensory canal; muc layer of mucus covering on head; mus muscular

body wall cut across ; mx maxillary band of teeth ; oe oesophagus ; pa palatine band

of teeth; plg post labial groove; sc scales; spt suprapharyngeal bone and teeth ;

t tongue; v vent.

PLATE II

Amphipnous indicus sp. nov.

A. Holotype, 412 mm. long ; B. Ventral view of part of trunk and tail showing

arrangement of scales; C. Lateral view of same, but showing more of the tail

portion and complete encirclement of scales in the posterior part; D. Lateral

view of head of paratype showing characteristic dorsal profile; E. Ventral view of

same, with the skin cut to enable counting of branchio.tegal rays.

Notes on some Corvidae from Nepal,

Pakistan, and India

RAYMOND A. PAYNTER, JR.

Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Harvard University, Cambridge,

Massachusetts :

The following observations were made during a study of the Corvidae

collected by the Harvard-Yale Expedition (1957-59) in the region about

Pokhara, central Nepal, in the vicinity of Darjeeling, India, in various

localities throughout East Pakistan, and in northern West Pakistan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

For permission to collect and for assistance in many ways I am grate-

ful to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Nepal and to the Zoological

Surveys of Pakistan and of India. A. R. Ranjha and M. S. U. Siddiqi

were of particular help in our work in Pakistan, as was H. Khajuria in

India.

I am indebted to the following for lending specimens in their care :

James D. Macdonald of the British Museum (Natural History), Robert

W. Storer of the Museum of Zoology of the University of Michigan,

Melvin Traylor of the Chicago Natural History Museum, and Charles

Vaurie of the American Museum of Natural History.

Humayun Abdulali, Honorary Secretary of the Bombay Natural

History Society, very generously provided me with descriptions and

measurements of that institution’s series of Dendrocitta vagabunda.

DENDROCITTA VAGABUNDA

Dendrocitta vagabunda exhibits much seasonal, individual, and geo-

graphical variation. In spite of the fact that it is a relatively common

bird over much of the Indian sub-continent, it has not been collected

systematically, either geographically or seasonally. Its patterns of varia-

tion are, therefore, difficult to analyse and the present study can only

attempt to outline the trends and problems.

The following seems to be the general pattern of variation. The

birds from Bengal, nominate vagabunda, are of moderate size and richly

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

coloured. North-westward in the lower ranges of the Himalayas the

_ birds remain generally dark, but there is a cline toward larger size which

reaches its extreme in the westernmost Himalayas. From Bengal west-

ward in the plains there is a trend toward paler coloration and larger size,

but the extreme size of the north-west Himalayas is nowhere reached.

South-westward the cline is toward paler and smaller birds, with

the smallest birds of the sub-continent (D.v. parvula)+ occurring on the

west coast from Mangalore to Cape Comorin.

Blyth (1846, p. 30), the first to be aware of geographical variation in

the species, described pallida from a specimen in a collection of birds

purchased in Calcutta and said to have come from the ‘ Western

Himalaya’. The form was described as differing from ‘ rufa’ (now

nominate vagabunda) in its paler colouring and ‘ considerably smaller

size’. The wing length was given as five and one half inches (140 mm.)

and the tail as eight and three-quarter inches (222 mm.).

Ticehurst (1922, p. 537), in examining a large series of Indian tree-

pies, mainly from the north, concluded that while pallida is distinguished

from vagabunda by its paler colour, it isnot much smaller, as Blyth noted,

but is ‘ considerably larger’. He named Simla as the type locality for

pallida and Calcutta as the type locality for vagabunda.

Ticehurst’s assumption that Blyth erred in describing pallida as a

small bird, and his designation of Simla as the type locality, seem to be

two unfortunate errors.

Although Blyth’s bird was said to have come from the Himalayas,

his description fits D. v. parvula of the south-west coast, or possibly

D. vy. vernayi of southern and south-eastern India. Both these races

are paler than nominate vagabunda and are smaller, with their size range

encompassing the measurements (wing 140 mm. ; tail 222 mm.) given

in the original description of pallida.

Designating Simla as the type locality of pallida compounded the

error, since this falls within the range of a large and dark Himalayan

population which ranges from the vicinity of Hazara District, or possibly

Somewhat farther north-west, south-eastward roughly to Dehra Dun.

While it seems probable that the type of Blyth’s pallida was a specimen

of the race now known as parvula, or possibly of vernayi, some element

of doubt remains since it is impossible to be certain that Blyth’s bird did

not come from the ‘ Western Himalaya’. It could, conceivably, have

been an unusually small specimen from the western lower foothills. I

am, therefore, reluctant to shift the name pallida from the population

1 Whistler & Kinnear (1932) described parvula as being much smaller than vaga-

bunda but similar to it in colour. However, Abdulali (in litt.) informs me that the

three specimens of parvula in the Bombay Natural History Society’s collection are

considerably paler than the nominate form, and in fact are very close to pallida.

I have seen._no specimens of parvula.

NOTES ON SOME CORVIDAE FROM NEPAL, PAKISTAN, & INDIA 383

of the north-western region of the sub-continent, where it has been

applied for more than 100 years, to either of the races of the south. The

best course would appear to be to designate a new type locality for pallida

since Simla, within the range of a large dark form in no way resembling

pallida, certainly could not have been the provenance of Blyth’s specimen.

I hereby designate Galkund, Surat Dangs, as the type locality of pallida.

This locality falls within the range of a moderate size, pale population

much more nearly approaching Blyth’s description.

The large, dark birds of the north-western Himalayas lack a name and

for these I propose :

Dendrocitta vagabunda bristoli subsp. nov.

Type : Adult male, No. 185, 365, Museum of Comparative Zodlogy,

Harvard College, Cambridge, Massachusetts, collected at Jabri (c. 11

miles west of Murree), alt. 900 metres, Hazara District, West Pakistan,

by Raymond A. Paynter, Jr., 17 December 1958.

Diagnosis : The largest of the races of D. vagabunda, nearest to pallida,

but with a considerably longer tail and a somewhat longer wing ; richly

coloured, but slightly paler than the nominate form.

Range : Lower ranges of the westernmost Himalayas from Hazara

District, West Pakistan, south-east to the vicinity of Dehra Dun, India.

Measurements: The wing and tail measurements of the type are

177.0 and 363.0 mm. respectively ; these measurements for two adult

male topotypes are 174.0 and 342.0 mm., and 179.0 and 334.0 mm.

The wings of three adult female topotypes are 174.0, 166.0, and 163.0

mm. ; the tails of the former two are 349.0 and 312.0 mm.

Remarks : The characters of the race are most pronounced at the

north-western limit of its range, which probably is also the limit of the

distribution of the species. To the west, south, and south-east there are

marked clines toward the contiguous races D. v. pallida and D. v. vaga-

bunda.

The race is named for Melvin Lee Bristol who, with enthusiasm and

industry, did much to make the Harvard-Yale Expedition a success.

Specimens Examined ; bristoli: 12 3, 102, and 4? from Jabri, Hazara

Dist. ; Rawalpindi Dist.; Jhelum Dist.; Kangra; Simla; and Dehra

Dun. pallida : 28 3, 19 2, and 13? from‘ plains near Ambala’ ; Lahore ;

Keshapur ; Ludhiana ; Ferozepore ; Sargodha ; Surat Dangs ; Sirohi ;

Kathiawar ; Junagadh ; Hyderabad (Sind); Khinjar Lake (Sind) ;

Soneri Lake (Sind) ; and Kohat. vagabunda: 5 3, 6 2, and 1? from

vicinity of Pokhara (central Nepal) ; Bastar Dist. ; Cachar ; and Sylhet

Dist. ;

In addition to the above series, Humayun Abdulali sent me descrip-

tions and measurements of 16 males and ten females, representing all

382. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

TABLE I

Measurements of adults of the races of Dendrocitta vagabunda on the Indian

Sub-continent

Character Race Sex | speci-| | Mean Sx Range

‘mens

ae | 12 169.9mm.' 2.1 | 157.0—179.0 mm.

bristoli pee ee es A SORE

Shea 163.8 1.5 | 158.0—174.0

Bae Lys digi ota | 161.3 08 | 14990172.5 0 23

pa l l ida orate iS Pian ie Dee Gny Cie mie Al Teron bas wa ThoeGe oS ea

Q | 28 153.5 1.0 | 144.0—165.0

Wine psiestload at] Aa taba d BAG 1.6 | 146.0—168.0

(flattened)| vagabunda ere eae ee ee

deal | 153.5 1.1 | 136.5—161.0

Ree. Bayle | 147.5 Mme eis Chimie

vernayi = oe = es

Oi 23 144.3 3.1 | 138.0—149.0

ce gOS Me wag is «| |436.0—4143.0

| parvula | ——— OS

Pies | 136.0 a3 U0 1a 0

Be a Aid 312.6 9.4 | 265.0—363.0

bristoli —— === ——

ey pele 14.0 | 269.0—349.0

Ne 3G | 262.3 3.1 | 217.5—297.0

pallida = ear es =F ee ae

$ | 27 | 2437 3.1 | 219.0—279.0

Tail a a

eee | 237.9 4.2 | 216.0—263.0

vagabunda ae ie SSS oa a? Ge oc ee oe ae

On Se opts 7.1 | 207.0—240.0

xis O 2] 2.5 | — | 200.0-223.0.

| vernayi eer a Le en, Lk aE | SS eas | RE Sanna a a

| Oho. cage 0 | — | 187.0—189.0

| J 1 184.0 | a a

parvula Ss SS ee Pyare ener

Q 2 202.0 | — | 201.0—203.0

ees yen oe Se a 143.5 em.) 1.6 140.6—146.2 gm.

(type locality), 9 | 3 132.0 | 6.8 | 119.5—143.0

Weight $$ —_|___|______— — —

ek ieee 119.0 | 4.9 | 112.0—128.3

vagabunda ———— Tas Bs

} 2 | 3 | 107.0 | 5.8 | 98.3—117.8

five of the sub-continental races, contained in the collections of the

Bombay Natural History Society.

NOTES ON SOME CORVIDAE FROM NEPAL, PAKISTAN, & INDIA 383

NUCIFRAGA CARYOCATACTES

In a review of the Himalayan races of the Nutcracker, Biswas (1950)

states that N. c. yunnanensis, now considered a synonym of macella

(vide Vaurie, 1954), could be differentiated from hemispila by its darker

colour, smaller spots, and heavier bill. Vaurie (1959) distinguished

macella from hemispila by these same characters, noting also that the

frequency of spotting was reduced ; he omitted mention of a difference

in bill size.

I concur that yunnanensis should be merged with macella, but I find

macella a relatively weak race, not nearly so distinct from hemispila as

would seem to be indicated by earlier workers. No difference in bill

size is apparent in the 35 specimens of both races examined by me.

Colour is an extremely variable character, as noted by Sanford & Mayr

(1940), with pronounced seasonal changes, as well as foxing, obscuring

any differences which might exist between the races. There remain as

characters only the size and frequency of the spots. I agree that the

‘spotting is heavier and more numerous in hemispila than in macella,

although even these characters are variable.

Biswas (1950) believed that birds from Nepal, Sikkim, Darjeeling,

Bhutan, south-eastern Tibet, northern Assam, and northern Burma

were referable to yunnanensis (now macella), rather than to hemispila

which has long been considered to range from about Kashmir eastward

through the Himalayas. Vaurie (1959) followed Biswas in listing macella

as the form from Nepal eastward. My eastern Himalayan material is

limited to five fresh specimens from Darjeeling District ; these are

definitely hemispila. Rand & Fleming (1957) referred their series of nine

birds from central Nepal to hemispila also. Thus it appears, contrary

to Biswas (1950) and Vaurie (1959), that hemispila occurs east at least

to Darjeeling.

CORVUS MACRORHYNCHOS

C. m. intermedius,.the race extending from Afghanistan through the

Himalayas to Nepal, differs from J/evaillantii, the form of Assam, West

Bengal, East Pakistan, the Andamans, Burma, and northern Thailand,

in having a distinctly longer tail and shorter, thicker bill, and a some-

what longer wing (Table II). This follows the usual pattern wherein

most montane races have longer wings and tails, and shorter bills (Allen’s

rule), than their lowland counterparts.

It is generally assumed that any intraspecific differences in the linear

dimensions of the wings and tail reflect differences in body size (=weight).

In other words, a long-winged, long-tailed race is presumed to be

a_heavier-bodied form than a short-winged, short-tailed race. While

this assumption is valid in the majority of instances, an increase in body

mass is not necessarily always accompanied by an increase in the length

384. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

of the wings and tail, or vice versa. The linear measurements of these

appendages may remain relatively constant while body weight varies.

This has been documented by Amadon (1943).

TABLE II

Measurements of adults of Corvus macrorhynchos levaillantii

and C. m. intermedius

No. of |

Character Race Sex | speci- Mean Sx Range

. “mens

| 3 | 3 | 326.1mm.| 8.7 | 308—335 mm.

levaillantii a |

Wing | 2 [5 9ngdon 5.3 | 280—329

(flattened) ——-—

3 | 7 | 335.9 3.9 | 320—349

intermedius SS ———_———

Q | 10 | 323.9 2.9 | 309-338

loa 3 190.0 5.2 | 181—190

levaillantii SS ee SSS ne aa SS

: | Q 8 | 178.7 3.7 | 165-192

Tail cae eB oo Se eee decent viee

4 | 6, |.219.2 4.7 | 199-241

intermedius —§ |———— = — |

| 10 | 204.9 3.0 | 185—215

epg : 68.0 6 | 67-69

levaillantii —— —

Culmen Oyler oO kao nor ear 60—65

(from base):\———-——-_—_

i bepmie.> fi 58 —63

intermedius —§ |——— ————————} >

Cc gth) S570 “Seon 50 —59

$ | 3 | 02.2em. E 23.7 | 554.8—625.6 em.

levaillantii a a

@ |. 9.4 502.0 16.4 | 419.3—565.7

Weight eee encase Eee callie NW st at Wr a Bel ES ee

4 7 | 522.4 15.1 | 460.4—582.3

intermedius ——— cee ee rs

9 | 10 | 456.3 | 9.6 | 392.0—495.1

The next step beyond a positive relation between wing and tail length

and the body mass, or stage where there is no change in appendicular

measurements while there is variation in weight, is that of a negative

relation between weight and the size of the wings and tail. This is clearly

demonstrated by a series of C. m. intermedius from East Pakistan and a

series of C. m. levaillantii from central Nepal and from Swat, Kurram

Agency, and Hazara District, West Pakistan (Table II). Here the long-

winged, long-tailed montane race is distinctly smaller in body mass than

the short-winged, short-tailed lowland form. The significance of this

phenomenon is obscure. I am not aware of it having been documented

before, but similar situations undoubtedly will be found — the weights

of birds are better known.

NOTES ON SOME CORVIDAE FROM NEPAL, PAKISTAN, & INDIA 385

WEIGHTS OF SOME CORVIDAE

There are few data available on the weights of Asiatic birds, although

this is an area of research of considerable interest and potential impor-

tance. Future students may find the following compilation of use :

rius interstinctus

TABLE III

Weights of adults of some Corvidae from the Indian Sub-continent

No. of; |

Sex speci-| Mean | Sx Range Locality

mens | |

Garrulus glanda- es 1 gr. gr.

ae — | Darjeeling Dist., India.

= > —-

3 | 7 | 103.5 | 1.7| 97.2-108.5 | Pokhara, Nepal;

Kaghan Valley, Kur-

Garrulus lanceolatus Oe A 96.9 | 2.7| 90.8—103.0| ram Agency, and

Swat, W. Pak.

Urocissa Aaviros: Ja 22 163.4 | — | 162.6—164.2|Vicinity Pokhara, Nepal;

irik ie are Q 2 153.1 | — | 143.7—162.5 Beare Valley, W.

ak.

Urocissa flaviros- | - ay fei cn Cae

rae Hoe 2 | 137.4 | — | 131.8—143.0} Darjeeling Dist., India.

Urocissa erythro-

rhyncha occipitalis

Cissa chinensis

chinensis

Dendrocitta for- |

mosae occidentalis 2

———$ __- —___-___—.

——$__— —___. __«

3 214.7 | 8.2; 205.0—231.1) Pokhara and_ vicinity

2 | 201.5 | — | 195.8—207.2| Nepal.

Be ee SP Asolo ra sealeatiara Neon cai.

3 i223 ional) pone mike radia.

1 | 104.4 | — — Hazara Dist., W. Pak.

Dene cia se forere OL 22 | 106.4 | 1.5) 90.3—121.0| Pokhara and_ vicinity

mosae himala- | | Nepal; Chittagong Hill

__ yensis Oe 2 ee 9937122018890 105.9 Tracts, E. Pak, ;

| Kalimpong Dist.,India.

Pf i | | a a te |g

Pica pica bactriana 6 | f ieee 46 190. 3211.7 Kurram Agency, W. Pak.

Nucifraga_ caryo- ee 1 190.7 Ee Lit Lol a aes ee

catactes multi | @! 3 | 159.1 | 5.7|147.8—165.4. oe Valley and Swat,

ieee a Foe Darjeeling Dist., India.

punctata |

Nucifraga caryo- Cala 2. | 209-6

catactes hemispila| © Dei

ns | ge | ee

Pyrrhocorax 3 1 243.7 | — —

graculus digitatus | 2 1 20Se p= M4 Saghan Valley, W. Pak.

Corvus monedula 3 ee 265.0 ie ities ae

soemmerringii Le 4 1"2935.0- | ae Kaghan Valley, W. Pak.

Corvus splendens | a PD | 336.0 | — | 310.0—362.1| Pokhara and _ vicinity

| 5 | 277.8 | 8.7, 252.0—304.5| Nepal; Sundarbans, E.

Pak.

splendens | 2

386

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

REFERENCES

Amadon, Dean (1943): Bird Weights

as an Aid in Taxonomy. Wilson Bull.

55 : 164-177.

Biswas, B. (1950): The Himalayan

Races of the Nutcracker, Nucifraga

caryocatactes (Linné) [Aves]. J. Zool.

Soc. India2 (1 & 2): 26.

Blyth, E. (1846): Notices and Des-

criptions of Various New or Little Known

Species of Birds. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal

15 : 1-54.

Rand, Austin L. & Fleming, Robert L.

(1957): Birds from Nepal. Fieldiana,

Zoology, 41 (1) : 1-218.

Sanford, J. K. & Mayr, Ernst (1940) :

The Vernay-Cutting Expedition to

Northern Burma. Ibis : 679-711.

Ticehurst, Claud B. (1922) : The Birds

of Sind (Part I). Ibis : 526-572.

Vaurie, Charles (1954): Systematic

Notes on Palearctic Birds. No.5. Cor-

vidae. Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 1668:

2pporr"

— — (1959): The Birds of the Pale-

arctic Fauna. Passeriformes. London.

Whistler, H. & Kinnear, N. B. (1932) :

The Vernay Scientific Survey of the

Eastern Ghats (Ornithological Section).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 505-524.

Entomological Survey of Himalaya

Part XXVI. A Contribution to our Knowledge

of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects

of the Nival Zones from the North-West

Himalaya!’

PART 1

M. S. MANI, D.Sc., F.L.S. and SANTOKH SINGH, Ph.D., F.R.E.S.

(With eleven text-figures)

I INTRODUCTION

The zoogeographical considerations of the nival insect fauna from

the north-west Himalaya, outlined here, are based on our four years’

work in the School of Entomology, St. John’s College, Agra. The nival

insects belong to an ecologically specialized, cold-adapted, mountain-

autochthone fauna, inhabiting the montane tundra beyond the timber

line (Fig. 1), above an elevation of 3000 metres and extending to over

6000 metres above m.s.l. We have recently described the field ecology

of these insects (100).

The earliest collections of the high altitude insects from the region

were probably made by von Higel (72). His collections, comprising

several hundred species, were described by various specialists in Europe,

like Kollar and Redtenbacher (80). The next important attempt at

collecting in the region was undoubtedly by the Yarkand Political Mission.

To Col. Stoliczka, the renowned geologist and naturalist of the Yarkand

Mission, should really go the chief credit for discovering the wealth of

insect life in these inaccessible and extremely inhospitable regions. His

collections were described by various eminent European specialists

(12, 13, 28, 107, 108, 125, 143). Guy Babault, the celebrated French

naturalist, who travelled through Kangra, Kulu, and Lahaul valleys,

through Ladakh and parts of Kashmir in 1914, brought back fairly large

collections of high altitude species. The Orthoptera from his collec-

tions were identified by Uvarov (151). The large collection of Cara-

bidae was described by Andrewes (2). The Curculionidae were worked

out by Hustache (73) and the Histeridae by Desbordes (24). In recent

years the Yale University North-India Expedition has also made valuable

ms For parts I-XXIII see References Nos. 8-10, 51, 56, 77, 90-99, 101, 130-133,

136-140 ; part XXIV is appearing in Proc. National Acad. Sciences, India, and XXV

in Proc. Zool. Soc

388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

collections of the high altitude insects, mainly from Ladakh (3, 21, 23,

74). Some collections of these insects were also. made by the Italian

Karakorum Expedition (14, 47, 48, 111) and by the German Nanga

Parbat Expedition (34). A special study of the high altitude insects of

the NW. Himalaya was initiated some years ago by the first author in

ETERNAL SNOW

S200M. PERMANENT SNOW-LINE,.1—~ .’.\ CENTRAL

ASIAN |

PLATEAU

(SEASONALLY - :

MONTANE TUNDRA/

| : f". SNOW-COVERED.

BIRCH & JUNIPER g&y

way

Fig. 1. A simplified diagram of the region of the north-west Himalaya, show-

ing the zone of the montane tundra above an elevation of 3000 metres above

mean sea level. This seasonally snow-covered zone is the home of the nival

insect fauna. (Not drawn to scale).

the School of Entomology, St. John’s College, Agra. The three ento-

mological expeditions to the NW. Himalaya, organized and led by him,

brought back over'15,000 specimens of large numbers of species of the

nival insects. Some of the results of the work of the three expeditions

have already been published (8, 9, 10, 51, 56, 77, 95-101, 130-140).

The localities from which the nival insects have so far been collected

are listed below under the three natural drainage areas of the NW.

Himalaya, viz. the Indus area, the Chenab-Beas area, and the Jhelum

area (Fig. 2). In the following pages we have briefly discussed the known

distribution of about 400 species so far found inhabiting the nival zones

in the region. Although this represents a fraction of the total nival

species still awaiting discovery, our account of the basic distributional

patterns is not likely to be affected by future additions. The general

pattern of distribution conforms to the known characters of high moun-

tain fauna, but most of the peculiarities are more or less. greatly

~ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 389

exaggerated in the case of the massive NW. Himalaya. Zoogeographical

analysis shows a high degree of endemism and the great predominance

of the Palaearctic faunal elements. Some of the limiting factors in the

distribution of nival insects are briefly outlined. On the basis

of the differences in the general species composition, the region is sub-

divided into three faunal provinces, which agree with the three natural

drainage areas. The available evidence indicates mainly the Pliocene

origin of endemism from an Angaran (central Asiatic) stock pari passu

with the third major phase of the uplift of the NW. Himalaya and the

Pleistocene survival of the nival species on nunataks. Some endemites

have also risen during the Pleistocene and there are a few post-Pleistocene

endemites also. ;

GILGIT ry

Fig. 2. Map of the région of the north-west Himalaya, showing the localities

from which the nival insects have been collected so far.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We take this opportunity of expressing our cordial thanks to the

members of the three entomological expeditions for their willing co-

operation and team work. We are particularly indebted to the authori-

ties of St. John’s College, Agra, for facilities and encouragement. We

are also grateful to the Agra University for part financial assistance for

the expeditions. Our thanks are also due to various specialists

for identification of the material. We are grateful to the authorities of

the Carnegie Institution, Washington, U.S.A., for important literature. .

390

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 58 (2)

Alchori

Anem La

Baltoro Glacier

Bao and Shaple

Bardumul

Biaho Valley

Boorgi Nulla

Braldo Valley Guede

Braldotal, Askole, Kro

Brok and Dusu)

Burzil Chauki

Chang Chenmo

Chang La

Chhota Deosi

Chongo Hot Spring

Chusul

Dakar

Damb Guru

Daulad Begoldi

Deosi (Lalpani)

Digar Polu

Doyan

Dumiltar

Dras

Ghulam Bagh

Gilgit

Igu

Kangral

Karbu

Kardong Pass

Kargil

Karpet

Kastet La

Kayann La

Khalatse

Kushumul

Kutie Pass

LOCALITIES FROM WHICH NIVAL INSECTS HAVE BEEN COLLECTED

INDUS DRAINAGE AREA

Shigar Valley 75° 39’ E., 35° 32’ N.

Somewhat E. of NW. end of Pongong Tso, near

78° 45’ E., 34° N.

76° 15’ to’ 76° 30” °E:, 35°45" N:

Near Shyok to NE. of-Leh in Ladakh

W. of Baltoro Glacier, 76° 1’ E., 35° 38’ N.

Tributary of Shigar River flowing into Indus

Tributary of R. Suru, S. of Skardu _ -

In Baltistan

In Deosi Plain, 75° 5’ E., 34° 50’ N.

Tributary of R. Shyok, N. of Pongong Tso

77° 56’ E., 34° 3’ N.; E. of Leh in Ladakh

Between R. Dras and Boorgi Nulla

In Braldo Valley, 75° 48’ E., 35° 40’ N.

S. of Pongong Tso, 78° 40’ E., 33° 36’ N.

On Tibetan border in Ladakh

Somewhat to N. of E. end of Pongong Tso

78° 54’ E., 33° 58’ N.

SE. of Karakorum Pass

In R. Dras drainage area

On S. slope of Ladakh Range; NE. of Leh ©

Near Nanga Parbat on R. Astor, on route to

Gilgit ; 74° 48’ E., 35° 30’ N.

Glacier, E. of Punmah Valley and N. of Braldo

Valley

Between Zojila Pass and Kargil, on road to Leh

in Ladakh ; 75° 45’ E., 34° 25’ N.

Near Ghucned (also palied Shushot), on left

bank of R. Indus in Ladakh ; 77° 44’ E. and

somewhat north of 34° N.

74° 18’ E:, 35° 58’ 'N:

Right pink of R. Indus above Leh in Ladakh

About 13 km. E. of Mu!bek

Near Mulbek in Indus Valley, Ladakh

N. of Leh on Ladakh Range

On the left bank of R. Suru on road to Leh from

Srinagar, in Ladakh

On S. shore of Pongong Tso, in Ladakh

Between Mitpal Tso and Yaye Tso, in Ladakh ;

182332, @Ee, 33 230 ONE

In Koh Lungpa Valley, between Leh and Shyok,

Ladakh

Between Kargil and Leh, right bank of R. Indus,

Ladakh ; 76° 53’ E., 35° 36’ N.

Shigar Valley, 75° 35’ E., 35° 36’ N.

N. of Karakorum Pass

36.

Sie

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 391

Kyam La and Kyam Hot Near E. of R. Chang Chenmo,'N. of Tso Pongong

Spring

Kyang La

Kro Brok

Lac Sale (Salt Lake), also

called Tso Kar.

Leh

Lopsang Bransa

Lukung

Marsimik La

Matyan

Mitpal Tso

Mulbek

Mundu

Mustag

SE. of the confluence of R. Chang Chenmo and

R. Shyok, in Ladakh ; 78° 25’ E., 34° 9’ N.

Braldo Valley, about 8 km. E. of Chongo Hot

Spring

NW. of Tso Morari in Rupshu

Capital of Ladakh on the right bank of R. Indus

N. of the Baltoro Glacier ; 76° 18’ E., 35° 48’ N.

Somewhat N. of NW. end of Pongong Tso;

78° 23’ E., 34° N.

N. of NW. end of Pongong Tso; 78° 40’ E

34° 12’ N.

On road between Zojila Pass and Dras in Ladakh

S. of Pongong Tso, between Pangur tse and

Yaye Tso

In Ladakh, 76° 25’ E., 34° 25’ N.

Mundu Glacier, S. of the Baltoro Glacier, near

716° 15° Bi, 35° 45" N.

N. of the santore Glacier ; 76° 15’ E., 35° 50’ N.

Nanga Parbat area, aoluding Partabgarh and Chamura (CER Nana Parbat.

Nima Mud

Nurla

Nyangtsu

Nyangri

Olthingthang

Ororotse Tso

Pango

Pongong Valley

Parkutta

. Peldo La

Phuga Hot Spring

Punmah Valley

Renka La

Saser La

Shaksgan Valley

Shakya La

Shergol

Shera La

Shigar Valley

Expedition Collections)

On the right bank of R. Indus, below S. end of

Pongong Tso in Ladakh

E. of Khalatse on the right bank of R. Indus ;

10% Bs 35-18 N.

Between Chang Chenmo and Pongong Tso;

78°. 50" B. 34° 2° N;

BW SOVEs, 342 2°N:;

Indus Valley, left bank of Suru tributary of R.

Indus and near its confluence with the latter

S. of the confluence of Chang Chenmo and Shyok,

in Ladakh ; 78° 28’ E., 34° 15’ N.

Near to and somewhat W. of Mulbek in Ladakh

NW..of Pongong Tso

Indus Valley, E. of Skardu ; 75° 55’ E.,35° 5’ N,

N. end of Tso Morari

N. end of Tso Morari ; 78° 20’ E., 33° 12’ N.

Includes many localities like Shimtsa, Punmah

Tal, Skiniltolmosa, Tsok, etc.,.N. of Braldo

Valley

Between Mitpal Tso and Yaye Tso, S. of Pongong

Tso.

Above Shyok, between and nearer to 78° than

TIS LES

N. of Karakorum Range

Near Shyok, W. of Bao and to the N. of E. of

Leh

About 8 km. W. of Mulbek

7288" Exvand. 33° 55’ N.

Opposite Skardu in Baltistan

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Shimsha

Skardu

Skoro La

Suru Basin near Kargil

Indus Valley

Baltistan, 75° 48’ E., 35° 33’ N.

Slope opposite Mulbe Gompa in Ladakh

Spitok (Pitok)

Spring below Fotu La

Sta-rtsk-puk-Tso

Suru Basin

Tagalang La

Tangyar

Tankse to Chagra

Tankse to Mugleb

Thla Brok

Thangman_ Tso

Tograma Tso

Tolti

Tsak-shang and Tsak-ra ne

Tso Morari

Tso Nyak

Urdukas

Widukas

Zarra

Zaskar

Right bank of R. Indus and S. of Leh

E. of Mulbek

SE. Tso Kar.

Indus drainage area

71°.45” E,, 33° 30° N.

NE. of Leh and S. of R. Shyok ; 77° 52’ E., 34°

15) aN i

On R. Tankse, a feeder of R. Shyok, near Shyok ;

78° 10’ E., 34° 2’ N. and Chagra 78° 28’ E.,

34° 5’ N. “a

About 10 km. E. of Tankse

Left bank of Braldo stream, 75° 52’ E., 35°

38’ N. :

East Ladakh

Near Padam, 76° 52’ E., 33° 28’ N.

E. of Parkutta; 76°°S" E., 34> 2° N:

On road from Tso Morari to Tso Kar in Rupshu

In Rupshu ; 78° 10’ E., 32° 30’ N.

E. of Pongong Tso j ;

Near Baltoro Glacier ; 76° 17’ E., 35° 45’ N.

In Braldo Valley ee

S. of Tagalang La ; 77° 40’ E., 33° 15’ N.

N. of main crest line of the Great Himalaya.

CHENAB-BEAS DRAINAGE AREA

Baijnath

Bahaura

Baralacha La

Batote

Bhabu Pass

Chamba

Chhatru

Cimur

Dalhousie

. Dharamsala

Dhauladhar

Dhorni

On road from Palampur to Jogendranagar on

Dhauladhar Range, S. slope; 76° 38’ E.,

32362 IN:

On right bank of R. Beas near and S. of Kulu

(Sultanpur)

On Great Himalaya, main pass _ connecting

Lahaul with Ladakh, with sources of Chandra

on S. and Bhaga on WN. ; 77° 27’ E., 32° 45’ N.

On road from Jammu to Srinagar, S..of Banihal

Pass ; 76° 15” E., 33° 22 -N.

W. of Sultanpur (Kulu)

Upper R. Ravi Valley on N. slope of Dhauladhar

Range

Chandra Valley (Lahaul), opposite Hamta Gorge ;

11° 23, eB 327-207 N:

Bhaga Valley (Lahaul) ; 77° 23’ E., 32° 20’ N.

On Dhauladhar Range; 76° 8’ E., 32° 15’ N.,

in Gurdaspur Dt., Punjab

Kangra Dt., Punjab, on Dhauladhar Range;

716° 20 EE 632° 13° N:

N. of Dharamsala

Upper Chandra Valley (Lahaul), between Koksar

and Chhatru ; 77° 18’ E., 32°22” IN,

“13.

14.

13:

16.

18.

19.

20.

21.

23.

24..

25.

26.

PAL:

28.

29;

30.

32.

38;

34.

35%

36.

ai.

38.

39.

40.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 393

Dibi Bokri and Runi Tach

Gharry

Gondhla

-Gramphu

Hamta Gorge

Hamta Jot and Hamta Pass

Jalori Pass

Jibhi

Kandi

Kangra

Kareri Lake

Keylang

Khoksar

Kote

Kulti Nal

Laka Pass

Mandi

Manikaran

Marhi

Naggar

Namu

Nilang Pass

Pangi

Parbati Valley

Patseo

Peak W. of Rohtang Pass

(Beas Rikhi Peak)

In Spiti Valley

Parbati Valley (Punjab)

Upper Chandra Valley (Lahaul), on road from

Koksar to Keylang ; 77° 2’ E., 32° 30’ N.

Upper Chandra Valley (Lahaul), below Rohtang

Pass and in front of Kulti Nal; 77° 15’ E.,

32° 234 N:

Upper Chandra Valley (Lahaul) after descent

from Hamta Pass and E. of Chhatru, on Pir

Panjal Range

Pir Panjal Range, on Manali-Kanzam La route,

TIDE 32 VION:

On route from Simla to Kulu, about 36 km.

from the junction of Manali-Kulu road and

Simla-Kulu road at Aut

6 km. from Jalori Pass toward Kulu

NE. of Mandi (a pass on way to Kulu)

Headquarters of Kangra District, Punjab (Kangra

Valley)

N. of Dharamsala on the S. slope of Dhauladhar

Range

Capital of Lahaul Valley on R. Bhaga; 77° 2’

Br ole on, |

Upper Chandra Valley (Lahaul), below Rohtang

Pass on road to Keylang

Upper Beas Valley, on road from Manali to Roh-

tang Pass ; 77° 13% E., 32° 20’ N.

Chandra Valley (Lahaul), on Great Himalaya

Range, N. slope, opposite Rohtang Pass, site —

of a large Pleistocene Valley Glacier, with the

present Kulti Ice Fall or Seragru Ice Fall

On Dhauladhar Range N. of and above Dharam-

sala; 76° 23’ E., 32° 18’ N., on road to Chamba

On left bank of R. Beas on way to Kulu from

Kangra

Parbati Valley (Kulu Division), Hot Spring ;

OO DHE 32.22.05 NG,

Below Rohtang Pass on Pir Panjal

Beas Valley N. of Kulu on way to Manali

On S. slope of Great Himalaya, in Upper Chenab

Valley, below Baihali Jot Peak and near Trilok-

nath;-76° 53” E., 32° 45’ N.

Spiti

Sutlej Valley, N. of Chini on Hindustan Tibet

roads /8° 16° Es, 31° 36° N:

In Kulu Division, Punjab

Bhaga Valley (Lahaul) ; 77° 15’ E., 32° 45’ N.

TT? 14’ B., 32° 22’ N.

Pir Panjal Range opposite Kulti Nal

Pulga

At the end of the Parbati Valley

394

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Purana Khoksar Nal

Ramban

Rahla

Rohtang Pass

In Great Himalaya, above Chhatru, Upper

Chandra Valley, with Sonapani Glacier and

Seri Ice Fall

River Chenab on way to Srinagar from Jammu.

Upper Beas Valley below Rohtang Pass; 77°

12’. E:,.32° 20’ N.

On Pir Panjal Range on way to Lahaul and

Keylang from Manali; 77° 15’ E., 32° 23’N.

Runang and Hungrung Pass In Spiti drainage area

Rohtang Valley

Seraj

Sidu

Solang Valley

Sumdeo

Tandi

Taulin Pass to Shipki

Pass

Tchary-Joni

Thirot

Tsho-Ti

Zingzingbar

Apharwat

Baltal

Gagarbal

Gond

Goorai Valley

Gulmarg

Kangan

Khilanmarg

Kolahoi Glacier

Lake Vishnshar

Liddar Valley

Liddarwar —

Prang

Razdhingan

Sintan Pass

Sonemarg

Songam

Srinagar

Tragbal Pass

. Yusimarg

Zoji La

Upper Beas Valley ; source of R. Beas; on the

S. slope of Pir Panjal Range .

Kulu area N. of Larji

Chandra Valley (Lahaul) ; 77° 8’ E., 32° 22’ N.

W. of Manaliin Kulu Valley

Bhaga Valley (Lahaul) ; 77° 13’ E., and 32° 40’

At the confluence of Bhaga and Chandra, in

Lahaul Valley ; 76° 58’ E., 32° 34’ N.

In Spiti drainage area

End of the Parbati Valley in Kulu Division of

Punjab.

Upper Chenab Valley ; 76° 47’ E., 32° 39’ N.

End of Parbati Valley

Bhaga Valley (Lahaul) ; 77° 20’ E., 32° 48’ N.

JHELUM DRAINAGE AREA

S. of Khilanmarg, on Pir Panjal Range (Kashmir)

Near and somewhat E. of Sonemarg in the Sind

Valley (Kashmir)

Between Kangan and Sonemarg in the Sind Valley

Sind Valley ; 75° 5’ E., 34° 18’ N.

N. of Tragbal Pass (Kashmir)

Kashmir, 74° 55’ E., 34° N.

Sind Valley ; 74° 55’ E., 34° 18’ N.

On Pir Panjal Range near Gulmarg, Kashmir,

approximately about 74 °25’ E., 34° N.

Kashmir ; 75° 25’ E., 34° 10’ N.

Near and N. of Avantipur, Kashmir, on route

to Srinagar

Kashmir, Liddar tributary of R. Jhelum

S. of Kolahoi Glacier

Sind Valley, near Sonemarg

Near Sonemarg

E. of Verinag ; 75° 35’ E., 33° 30’ N.

75° 18’ E., 34° 20’ N.

Sind Valley

Kashmir Valley ; 74° 35’ E., 34° 2’ N.

74° 40’ E., 34° 30’ N.

E. of Gulmarg on S. slope of Pir Panjal Range

On road to Leh from Srinagar; 75° 30’ E., 34°

20’ N. a

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 395

Il. THE NIVAL INSECT FAUNA

Nearly 400 species, belonging to 14 orders, occur above an elevation

of 3000 metres. The number of species and their percentage abundance

in different orders are summarized in Table I (Fig. 3).

TABLE I

Analysis of abundance of species of different Orders of the nival insect fauna

ae _ Order Pee Percentage

1 Plecoptera ve 3) 27

2 Odonata is 4 1.01

3 Orthoptera aS 14 3.30

4. Dermaptera ate ae 0.76

3; Heteroptera a 17 4.50

6. Homoptera ae 1 0.25

7 Coleoptera We 186 48.80

8 Hymenoptera ne 36 8.10

o: Neuroptera be 1 0.25

10. Trichoptera Ae 11 2.50

11. Lepidoptera se 91 22.60

12% Diptera a 7 1.70

13; Thysanura re 3 0.76

14. Collembola a 15 3.80

Total number of nival species = 394

c- 4

WwW

7 5

(+)

55 in

fog

35 2

< oO

a 0

it | < s a

= tl oz: § -

Cg uw < me << > ce « oO

« te a2 ae is aQ

ul ao w oO wW sf @ mes

mF <o ter Biases $5

Oo < 6 <. FO Eas ae ripen

On 2 ae Sei |S oy Duis fe as, nO

a OOP e = oO ao = a > O

One ts (hee z Pe Soe |

(299 3h Boe: 7 3

SJa of nes aamn sf

= iS ze) fe) O seus ©)

[Fig. 3. The total nival insects from the north-west Himalaya.

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

About half the known nival species belong to Coleoptera and nearly

one-fourth to Lepidoptera. Though the Diptera, so far described from

the region, seem to constitute less than 2.0% of the total nival insects,

the order is however extremely abundant, especially at extreme high

altitudes. Recent experience of the three entomological expeditions

(100) has shown that no less than 300 undescribed species exist above

the timber line. Diptera should eventually surpass Coleoptera and

prove to be the most abundant of nivalinsects. Except Collembola, the

remaining orders poprepent minor taxonomic elements of the nival insect

fauna.

The distribution and zoogeographical analysis of the different orders

of nival insects are discussed below. ?

PLECOPTERA

Although several species of stoneflies are widely distributed, often

at great elevations and close to the permanent snow line (100), throughout

the NW. Himalaya, a relatively small number of species has so far been

identified and described. Among the species listed below endemism

is high, viz. 80%. They are localized in the drainage area of the Chenab-

Beas system. The species belong to well-known Holarctic genera of

Tertiary origin. We do not at present know anything about the

Plecoptera of the mountain ranges drained by the Indus.

Nemourid@ae

*1. Capnia manii Jewett

Localities : Beas Valley, near Marhi 3352 m., Marhi 3657 m.

*2. Nemoura (Nemoura) cordata Jewett

Localities : Gramphu 3352 m., Chandra Valley 3352-3657 m.

*3. Nemoura (Nemoura) punctata Jewett

Localities : Gramphu 3657 m., Beas Valley near Marhi 3352 m.

*4. Nemoura (Nemoura) punjabensis Jewett

Localities : Chhatru 3352-3657 m., Rahla 2743 m., in Beas 3.5 km. below Rahla

3048-3352 m., Kulti Nal 3535 m., Gramphu 3657 m., Dhorni 3657 m., Pir

Panjal Range opposite Kulti Nal 3657 m., pontue Pass 3962 m.

5. Rhabdiopteryz lunata Kimmins

Localities : Kulti Nal 3535 m., Chhatru 3500 m., Hamta Jot 4420 m., Kulu

Valley.

Other Distribution : Rongbuk (Tibet) 5028 m., Everest Base Camp, Rongbuk

Glacier.

*Throughout this paper the species marked with an asterisk are endemites.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 397

ODONATA

Though our knowledge of this order occurring in the region is at

present very incomplete, there seems to be little doubt that the dragon-

flies are unimportant minor elements in the nival insect fauna of

the north-west Himalaya. As may be expected, endemism is rather

very low. All the known species seem to be localized in the drainage

areas of Jhelum and Chenab-Beas. Outside the NW. Himalaya, they

are widely distributed in the Holarctic Realm (Fig. 4). As explained in

our paper on the field ecology of the nival insects (100), the specializa-

tions of the Odonata do not seem to harmonize with the general ecologic

conditions in the biome of the montane tundra of the NW. Himalaya.

Coenagriidae

1. Enallagama cyathegerum Charp.

Localities : Kashmir 3000 m.

Other Distribution : Central Asia, Tibet, Europe, N. America.

Libellulidae

2. Libellula quadrimaculata Linn.

Localities : Yusimarg 3040 m., Gulmarg.

Other Distribution : Lahsa, Europe, Central and N. Asia, Japan, N. America.

ers

eR : pa

Pal “f ere oe Oe

y, = AY aCe Rens

iat pity eae

AA =

Fig. 4. The world distribution of the non-endemic nival Odonata from the

north-west Himalaya.

393 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

3. Orthetrum japonicum internum MacLach.

Localities : Kashmir 3000 m.

Other Distribution: The Himalayan districts of Bengal, Nepal, Tibet, SW

China, Assam.

*4. Sympatrum tandicola Santokh

Localities : Upper Chenab Valley near Tandi 3352 m.

ORTHOPTERA

This order constitutes about 3.3% of the total nival insect fauna

(Table I, fig. 3) and comprises mostly Acrididae. Nearly 71% of

the species are endemic. The Palaearctic elements constitute about

85.5% (Table X). There are several Mediterranean forms like

Sphingonotus and Oedipoda. ‘The central Asian elements are represented

by four species of Gomphomastax, a genus which Uvarov (151) believes

to have derived from ancient tropical and subtropical Eumastacinae.

Sphingonotus rubescens (Walk.) (Fig. 5) is also known from Pamir, Persia,

Baluchistan, Arabia, Palestine, Egypt, Lebanon, Sahara, Greece,

Sardinia, and Canary Islands. Outside the NW. Himalaya,

Sphingonotus savingnyi Sauss. (Fig. 5) occurs also in Sind and N. Africa.

The genus Sphingonotus does not seem to inhabit very high elevations.

Metrioptera is also common in Pamir, Alai, and other Turkestan moun-

tains. Bryodema luctuosa (Stoll.) is an endemic species, but the genus

Bryodema is known from Mongol-Tibetan border mountains and re-

presents the Manchurian or the east-Asian South Palaearctic component

of the nival insects of the region. Conophyma mitchelli Uvarov is an ex-

tremely interesting endemite. The genus Conophyma is also a central

Asian form, with 13 species from Pamir (106) and other neighbouring

Turkestan mountains (Fig. 6). Two other endemic species, Dicranophyma

hingstoni Uvarov and D. babaulti Uvarov, also often occur near the timber

line on the north slopes of the Great Himalaya in the Nanga Parbat area

and seem to represent ecologically transitional forms. It must be ob-

served that the genus Dicranophyma is itself endemic. The Indo-Malayan

element is represented by Aularches punctatus (Drury) (Fig. 5), which often

occurs at elevations of nearly 4800 m. above m.s.l. Though the great

bulk of the species of Orthoptera from the NW. Himalaya seem to be

generally localized at elevations of about 3500 m., the maximum alti-

tudinal record of 5000 m. above m.s.l. is reached by the Tettigonid

Hyphinomus fasciata Uvarov. The majority of the Palaearctic species,

especially the central Asian forms, are generally localized north of the

main crest line of the Great Himalaya Range and the Mediterranean

forms are similarly mostly localized in areas to the south of this crest

line. The zoogeography of some of the more common high altitude

Orthoptera from the NW. Himalaya has recently been discussed

by Uvarov in a series of short papers (146-157).

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 399

ce pies if =a a CaS oft 3

TY aT

Tf oar ~

CG Se Baa

LEP

bara e :

Vote LA |

y Me SUES L j

Z : Ned \

ie: tae

2 0

S fo)

es =a 5 PAP

Fig. 5. The world distribution of the non-endemic nival Orthoptera from the

north-west Himalaya.

Fig. 6. The area of endemism (shaded black) of Conophyma, comprising

central Asia and the north-west Himalaya.

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Acrididae

1. Aularches punctatus (Drury)

Localities : Kashmir, about 3000 m.

Other Distribution : Tibet, Nepal, Garhwal, Malaya, Java.

*2. Bryodema luctuosa (Stoll.)*

Localities : Tso-Morari 4520 m.

Catantops humilis (Serville)

Localities : Spiti, Gharry, about 300 m.

Other Distribution : Sikkim, Assam, Calcutta, Bombay, Ceylon.

WwW

*4. Conophyma mitchelli Uvarov

Localities : Srinagar 3350-3960 m.

*5. Dicranophyma hingstoni Uvarov

Localities : Astor District about 3000 m.

*6. Dicranophyma babaulti Uvarov

Localities : Gond about 3000 m.

*7. Gomphomastax bolivari Uvarov

Localities : Tragbal Pass 3200 m.

’ *8. Gomphomastax antennatus Brunner

Localities : Tragbal Pass 3200 m.

*9, Gomphomastax disparilis Uvarov

Localities : Tragbal Pass 3200 m.

*10. Gomphomastax sp.

Localities : Tso-Morari 4540 m.

*11. Ocedipoda himalayana Uvarov

Localities : Doyan 2440 m., Mulbek 4420 m.

*{2. Spathosternum prasiniferum (Walker)

Localities : Tragbal Pass 3200 m.

13. Sphingonotus rubescens (Walker) |

Localities : Leh, 3440 m.

Other Distribution: Baluchistan, Arabia, Persia, Palestine, Lebanon, Egypt,

Sahara, Greece, Sardinia, Canary Is., and Pamir.

14. Sphingonotus savingnyi Sauss.

Localities : Ladakh 3500 m.

Other Distribution : Sind, central and western India, North Africa.

Tettreoni dace

#15. Hyphinomus fasciata Uvarov

Localities : Dakar (Ladakh-Tibet border) 4572-4876 m.

*16. Metrioptera sp.

Localities : Tragbal Bes 3200 m.

*Bryodema inda Sauss. is recorded from Dakar on Tibet border. We have not

seen specimens of this species and, in the absence of fallen data, we are not including

this species here. F

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 401

DERMAPTERA

This order is represented by three species of the typically Palaearctic

genus Anechura, belonging to the mountain-inhabiting Anechurinae.

The genus Anechura occurs in N. and central Asia and Europe.

Anechura zuboyskii Sem. occurs north of the main crest line of the Great

Himalaya in the area drained by River Indus and the remaining two species

seem to be localized in the areas south of the crest line in the Chenab-

Beas drainage slopes. According to Burr (17), Anechura zubovskii Sem.

is a local subspecies of Anechura bipunctata Sem., the typical form of which

is known from Pyrenees, Alps, and the Balkan Mountains. In Crimea,

Persia, and the Caucasus the subspecies orientalis seems to be common,

Anechura zuboyskii Sem. is also known from western parts of Tibet.

Forficulidae

*1, Anechura bipunctata pirpunialae Santokh

Localities: Khoksar 3657 m., Marhi 3657.m., Kulti Nal 3530 m., Hamta Jot

4440 m.

*2,. Anechura himalayana Santokh

Localities : Khoksar 3657 m., Marhi 3657 m., Rahla 2745 m.

*3. Anechura zuboyskii Semenov

Localities : Ladakh, Kashmir, 3500 m., road from Srinagar to Gilgit.

HETEROPTERA

This order constitutes about 4.5°% of the total nival insect fauna of

the region (Table I, fig. 5) and comprises mostly Lygaeidae. The species

endemism amounts to nearly 65% and there are also two endemic genera

Dolmacoris Hutchinson and Tibetocoris Hutchinson. The Palaearctic

elements constitute nearly 94% and are largely represented by central

Asian and North Palaearctic forms (Table X). Bianchiella adelungi:

Reut. represents the Manchurian element of the nival Heteroptera from

the region. Lamprodema brevicollis Fieb., known from Dalmatia

(Europe), appears to contribute the Mediterranean element (Fig. 7).

The distribution of Microplax hissarensis Kiritsch. is shown in Fig. 7.

Nysius ericae (Schill.), found commonly in the high elevations of the NW.

Himalaya, is also known to occur in Pamir, Alai mountains, Astrakhan,

Turkestan mountains, Taurus mountains, central Russia, Algeria,

mountains of Yugoslavia, Rumania, Hungary, Austria, Switzerland,

Belgium, and Germany (Fig. 8). The genus Nysius is widely distributed

(Fig. 9) in Pamir and other Turkestan mountains, central Asiatic moun-

tains, Mongolia, Japan, Mt. Everest area of the Himalaya, Greenland,

Alaska, Egypt, Caucasus, Alps, Pyrenees, Syria, Canary Islands, Germany,

France, Belgium, Holland, Hungary, Lapland, and Leningrad area.

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

The pentatomid Phimodera rupshuensis Hutchinson, occurring at an

elevation of 4520 m. above m.s.1., is an interesting endemic. The genus

Phimodera is widely distributed (Fig. 10) in central and N. Asia and in

Europe. Chlamydatus pachycerus Kiritsch. is an interesting species

which has been reported from the Mt. Everest area in the E. Himalaya.

The genus is distributed (Fig. 11) in Caucasus, Siberia, Mongolia, Alaska,

Greenland, Canada, Europe, and Algeria. The only Indo-Malayan form

is the apterous Aradidae Brachyrhynchus tagalicus (Stoll.), confined to

the birch-juniper zone at the edge of the taiga on the Pir Panjal Range,

in the area drained by Chenab-Beas system. This species is ecologically .

and geographically a transitional form.

Four of the species are confined to an elevation of 3500 m. above

m.s.l. and five each above 4000 m. and 5000 m. WNysius ericae (Schill.)

occurs from an elevation of 3500 m. to nearly 5200 m. and Nysius ericae

alticola Hutchinson occurs as high as 5365 m., which at present represents

the maximum altitude record for Heteroptera in the NW. Himalaya.

Nearly 94% of the known species are localized in the area drained by

River Indus, north of the crest line of the Great Himalaya.

Some of the peculiarities of the distribution of the high altitude

Heteroptera from the NW. Himalaya and the neighbouring regions are

discussed by Hutchinson (74), Oshanin (114), Kiritschenko (78, 79),

and Reinig (123).

Pentatomidae

*1. Phimodera rupshuensis Hutchinson

Localities : Peldo la near north end of Tso-Morari 4520 m.

Coreidae

*2. Stictopleura sp.

Localities: Tsak-Shang and Tsak-ra, road from Tso-Morari to Tso-Kar 4570 m.

Lygaeidae

3. Bianchiella adelungi Reuter

Localities : Igu in the Indus Valley above Leh, 3400 m.

Other Distribution : North China, Mongolia, Siberia.

*4. Dolmacoris deterrana Hutchinson

Localities : Nying-ri and Chungang La, 5120-5180 m.

*5. Emblethis horvathiana Hutchinson

Localities : Renka-la 5580 m., between Mitpal-Tso and Yaye Tso.

- 6. Lamprodema brevicollis Fieb.

Localities : Tanktze to Chagra, Pongong Valley. 4270 m., Ladakh.

Other Distribution : Dalmatia (Europe).

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 403

7. Nysius ericae (Schill.)

Localities : Leh 3440 m., Tsak-shang north of Tso-Morari 4570 m., Kayam La

4880 m., Koh Lungpa Valley 4880 m., Renka La between Mitpal Tso and

Naye Tso 5180 m., and Ororotse Tso.

Other Distribution : Central Asia, Pamir.

*8, Nysius ericae alticola Hutchinson

Localities : Ororotse Tso 5280 m., Kyang La 5000-5300 m.

9. Microplax hissarensis Kiritschenko

Localities : Between Tsak-shang and Tsak-ra, road from Mitpal Tso to Tso Kar

4572 m.

Other Distribution : North Bukhara.

Aradidae

10. Brachyrhynchus tagalicus (Stoll.)

Localities : Pir Panjal Range, Chandra Valley near Gramphu 3657 m.

Other Distribution: Burma, Java, Philippines.

Anthocoridae

*11. Anthocoris gyalpo Hutchinson

Localities : Leh 3500 m.

*12. Ectemnus paradoxus Hutchinson

Localities : Igu in Indus Valley above Leh 3500 m.

Miridae

*13, Chlamydatus pachycerus Kiritschenko

Localities : Shakya La 5180 m., Kyang La 5120-5330 m., Ororotse Tso 5300 m.

Marsimik La 5300 m., Kyam La 4730m., Nyangtzu 4660 m., Paldo La

north of Tso Morari 4520 m., Tsak-Shang.

Other Distribution: Southern Tibet; Mt. Everest area Eastern Himalaya

4110-5030 m.

*14. Dicyphus physochlaenae Hutchinson

Localities : Damb Guru 4620 m.

15. Dicyphus senggae Hutchinson

Localities : Between Tankse and Mugleb 4175 m.

*16. Tibetocoris margaretae Hutchinson

Localities : Chang Chenmo near Pamzal 5180-5270 m., Nying-ri 5120 m.,

Chungang La 5300 m., Kakstet La 5365 m.

Saldidae

*17. Chiloxanthus alticola Kiritschenko

Localities: Bulaki-Murghai between Depsang and Tshangtsha, Shyok

4255 m.

404. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Fig. 7. The world distribution of two non-endemic nival species of Heteroptera

from the north-west Himalaya.

aon.

4 at YS a bee hick. "s

Fig. 8. The world distribution of Nysius ericae (Schill.)

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 405

ne aa as) ea PA

Ee a eee |

Bee aes coc inl ines nl ae ie

Fig. 9. The world distribution of the genus Nysius,

a rel

| SO

| lowpoesd | [|| | IL

ee ee

Fig. 10. The world distribution of the genus Phimodera.

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 38 (2)

Fig. 11. The world distribution of the genus Chlamydatus.

HOMOPTERA

This order is represented by Poophilus costalis (Walk.) (Cercopidae).

It is a widely distributed species found in other parts of Himalaya,

Calcutta, Bombay, Karachi, Ceylon, Singapore, S. and W. Africa. In

_ the NW. Himalaya the species has been collected from Dras 3100 m.,

Kargil 2740 m., and Leh 3440 m.

(To be continued)

The Flora of Parlakimedi and its

immediate Neighbourhood

PART II

K. S. SRINIVASAN AND G. V. SUBBA RAO

Industrial Section, Indian Museum, Calcutta

[Continued from Vol. 58 (1): 170]

s COMPOSITAE

Vernonia cinerea Less.

Parlakimedi.

Elephantopus scaber Linn.

Parlakimedi.

Grangea maderaspatana Poir.

Parlakimedi.

“Ifloga sp. (Only one species reported by Hooker from Upper Gangetic Plains— -

Ffloga fontanesii Cass.)

Parlakimedi.

Blainvillea sp. (Only one species rhomboidea Cass. was reported by Hooker & Gamble)

Parlakimedi.

Bidens pilosa Linn.

Parlakimedi : in rocky jungles near the top of the hill. Burkill, Grant & Candler

20477, Sept. 1903. i

Glossogyne pinnatifida DC.

Patapatnam: rare. Burkill 20500, Sept. 1903.

Tridax procumbens Linn.

Parlakimedi : very common.

CAMPANULACEAE

*Campanula canescens Wall.

A weed in the crops of millets etc.

Devagiri, Parlakimedi. Burkill 17968, Dec. 1902.

: PLUMBAGINACEAE

Plumbago zeylanica Linn.

Peddalogidi, Burkill, Grant & Candler 20587, Sept. 1903.

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 58 (2)

MYRSINACEAE

*Ardisia humilis Vahl.

Vern. Bontu (S.)

Parlakimedi. Corey. 20150, 1903.

SAPOTACEAE

Madhuca indica Gmel. (Bassia latifolia Roxb.)

Vern. Aba (S.) ; Ippa chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20525, Sept. 1903. 610 m. Corey & Rama-

murthy 20112, Sept. 1903.

EBENACEAE

Maba buxifolia Pers.

Parlakimedi : in sandy areas in low hill jungles. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20425,

Sept. 1903.

Diospyros tomentosa Roxb.

Parlakimedi : in jungles in valleys. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20527, Sept. 1903.

APOCYNACEAE

Carissa spinarum A.DC.

Parlakimedi: on sandy strips. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20527, Sept. 1903.

Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) Schum. (Thevetia nereifolia Juss. ex Steud.)

Parlakimedi: planted.

*Rauvolfia canescens Linn.

Parlakimedi : in jungles in the valleys. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20550, Sept.

1903.

*Alstonia neriifolia Don.

Parlakimedi: in rocky jungles. Burkill & Candler 17986, Dec. 1902; Burkill

Grant & Candler 20485, 20572, Sept. 1903.

Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall.

Parlakimedi: abundant in low jungles. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20493, 20566,

20567, Sept. 1903.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Hemidesmus indicus R. Br.

Vern. Eriji (S.) ; Sugandhu chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi: 915 m. Burkill 20132, Sept. 1903.

*Cryptolepis grandiflora Wight

Parlakimedi. Burkill & Candler 17987, Dec. 1902.

Cryptolepis elegans Wall.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20430, Sept. 1903.

Calotropis procera Br.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20554, Sept. 1903.

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI 409

Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov. (Daemia extensa R. Br.)

Parlakimedi: common in the valleys. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20546, Sept.

1903.

*Tylophora pauciflora W. & A.

Ramasagaram : on the bund. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20535, Sept. 1903.

Ceropegia tuberosa Roxb. :

Parlakimedi : in low jungles. Burkill & Candler 20402. Sept. 1903.

Caralluma adscendens Br.

Parlakimedi: very common among rubble. Burkill 20499, Sept. 1903.

GENTIANACEAE

Canscora decussata Roem. & Sch.

Devagiri: in thin jungles. Burkill & Candler 17936, Dec. 1902,

: BORAGINACEAE

* Cordia myxa Linn.

Vern. Bari (S.) ; Nakkare chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Corey 20173, 1903.

Ehretia microphylla Lamk. (Ehretia buxifolia Roxb.)

Parlakimedi: very common, Burkill, Candler & Grant 20495, Sept. 1903.

Trichodesma indicum Br.

Parlakimedi.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Evolvulus alsinoides Linn.

Parlakimedi: chiefly in sandy places at the foot of hills. Burkill, Grant & Candler

20419, Sept. 1903.

Erycibe paniculata Roxb.

Parlakimedi : in low jungles. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20433, Sept. 1903.

* Merremia gemella (Burm. f.) Hall. f. (Ipomoea polyantha Miq.)

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20474, Sept. 1903.

Merremia tridentata (Linn.) Hall. f. (pomoea tridentata Roth.)

Parlakimedi: at the bottom of valleys. Burkill & Caniller 18106, Dec. 1902.

Operculina turpethum (Linn.) Silva-Manso. (/pomoea turpethum Br.)

Vern. Tampatada (S.); Arategadi chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : 30.m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20186, Sept. 1903.

* Argyreia choisyana Wight

Parlakimedi : in the Sal forests in the valleys and also in low jungles. Burkill,

Grant & Candler 20514, Sept. 1903.

SOLANACEAE

* Solanum indicum Linn.

Vern. Jiddumunaga chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Corey & Ramamurthy 20135, Sept. 1903,

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Solanum melongena Linn. (Wild form)

Vern. Andarai (S.) ; Kondavankaya chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : in valleys at lower levels and roadsides. Burkill 18105, Dec. 1902 :

Burkill, Grant & Candler 20534, Sept. 1903 ; 915m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20133,

Sept. 1903.

Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20579, Sept. 1903.

*Capsicum minimum Roxb.

Parlakimedi, Devagiri : in cultivated patches ; 915 m. Burkill 17981, Dec. 1902.

Datura metel Linn. (Datura fastuosa Linn.)

Parlakimedi : in valleys near dwellings. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20545, Sept.

1903.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Mazus japonicus (Thunb.) Kuntze. (Mazus rugosus Lour.)

Parlakimedi.

*Lindenbergia indica (Linn.)O. Kuntze. (Lindenbergia polyantha Royle)

Parlakimedi, Devagiri. Burkill & Candler 17956, Dec. 1902.

Scoparia dulcis Linn.

Parlakimedi : common on bunds in sandy soils and near river courses. Burkill

17999, Dec. 1902. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20504, Sept. 1903.

*Melasma avense (Benth.) Pennell. (Alectra indica Benth.)

Parlakimedi, Devagiri : a weed in millet fields. 915m. Burkill & Candler 17970,

Dec. 1902.

Centranthera humifusa Wall.

Parlakimedi: in boggy sandy places and edges of ragi fields, also in glades in

valleys. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20521, Sept. 1903.

LENTIBULARIACEAE

Utricularia flexuosa Vahl.

Parlakimedi : in tanks with Nymphaeas. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20508, Oct.

1903.

BIGNONIACEAE

Kigelia pinnata DC.

Parlakimedi: planted.

*Tabebuia pentaphylla Hemsl.

Parlakimedi: planted. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20557, Sept. 1903.

Oroxylum indicum Vent.

Vern. Pampena (S) ; Pampena chettu, Konda pampena chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Corey & Ramamurthy 20196, Sept. 1903.

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI 411

PEDALIACEAE

Pedalium murex Linn.

Parlakimedi: in sandy roadsides. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20506, Sept.

1903.

Sesamum indicum DC.

Parlakimedi. Burkill 18104, Dec. 1902.

MARTYNIACEAE

Martynia annua Linn. (Martynia diandra Glox.)

Vern. Kinakarsi (S.) ; Puligoru chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi: at higher elevations up to 915 m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20122,

Sept. 1903.

ACANTHACEAE

Elytraria acaulis (Linn. f.) Lindau. (Elytraria crenata Vahl.)

Parlakimedi.

Asteracantha longifolia Nees

Parlakimedi.

Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees. (Ruellia prostrata Poir.)

Parlakimedi: common everywhere. Burkill & Candler 20403, Sept. 1903.

*Hemigraphis elegans Nees

Parlakimedi, Devagiri: in lower parts of jungles. Burkill & Candler 17935 7

17943, Dec. 1902.

Blepharis maderaspatensis (Linn.) Heyne ex Roth. (Blepharis boerhaviaefolia Pers.)

Parlakimedi : in rocky hill jungles. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20476, Sept. 1903 $

Burkill & Candler 17994, Dec. 1902. z

Blepharis molluginifolia Pers.

Parlakimedi: on dry rubble. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20494, Sept. 1903.

Barleria prionitis Linn.

Vern. Tamresa (S.) ; Mulugorinta chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20552, 30 m. Sept. 1903 ; Corey & Rama-

murthy 20162, 1903. :

Barleria strigosa Willd.

Parlakimedi, Devagiri : in dense shade and by streams. Burkill & Candler 17973,

Dec. 1902 ; Burkill, Grant & Candler 20461, Sept. 1903.

*Asystasia chelonoides Nees var. amoena Kurz.

Parlakimedi. Burkill & Candler 17995, Dec. 1902.

Andrographis paniculata Nees

Vern. Resan (S.) ; Nelavembu chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Burkill 17926, Dec. 1902, 305 m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20141,

Sept. 1903.

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Lepidagathis fasciculata Nees

Parlakimedi. Burkill & Candler 17921, Dec. 1902.

Justicia betonica Linn.

Parlakimedi : among Holarrhena bushes. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20503, Sept.

1903.

Justicia glauca Rottl.

Parlakimedi: plenty in low jungles Burkill, Grant & Candler 20437, Sept. 1903.

Rungia repens (Linn.) Nees. (Justicia repens Linn.)

Parlakimedi.

*Dicliptera beddomei Clarke

Parlakimedi : in hill jungles, plenty. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20467, Sept. 1903.

LABIATEAE

Orthosiphon pallidus Royle

Parlakimedi : on roadsides, sandy places and embankments. Burkill, Grant &

Candler 20501, Oct. 1903. :

Anisochilus carnosus Wall.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20415, Sept. 1903.

Dysophylla quadrifolia Benth.

Parlakimedi. Burkill & Candler 17996, Dec. 1902; Burkill, Grant & Candler

20563, Sept. 1903.

*Leucas mollissima Wall. var. strigosa Hook. f.

Parlakimedi : in low jungles. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20432, Sept. 1903.

Leucas cephalotes Spreng.

Parlakimedi: fairly common in sandy fields. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20558,

Oct. 1903.

Leucas aspera Spreng.

Parlakimedi.

AMARANTHACEAE

Celosia argentea Linn.

Parlakimedi: in ragi fields and sandy roadsides. Burkill, Grant & Candler

20537, Sept. 1903. . .

Allmania nodiflora Br.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20412, Sept. 1903.

*Allmania nodiflora Br. var. procumbens Hook. f.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20541, Sept. 1903.

Amaranthus spinosus Linn.

Parlakimedi.

Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Spreng. (Aerva javanica Juss.)

Parlakimedi,

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI L 413

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE

Aristolochia indica Linn.

Vern. Son (S.) ; Nagasara (T.)

Parlakimedi: 30m. Corey 20178, 1903.

PIPERACEAE

* Peperomia pellucida H.B.K.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20580, Sept. 1903.

LAURACEAE

Litsaea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Robinson (Litsaea sebifera Pers.)

Parlakimedi : in hilljungles. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20441, Sept. 1903.

VERBENACEAE

Lantana camara Linn.

Parlakimedi.

Stachytarpheta sp.

Parlakimedi.

Tectona grandis Linn. f.

Parlakimedi : planted.

Premna latifolia Roxb.

Vern. Orbonda (S.) ; Peddanelli chettu (T°)

Parlakimedi : 915m. Burkill 20131, 20139, Sept. 1903.

Gmelina asiatica Linn.

Vern. Nalla gummudu chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : 30 m. Corey 20188, Sept. 1903.

Vitex trifolia Linn. f.

Vern. Vayila (S.) ; Vayitaku chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi: 30 m. Corey 20167, Sept. 1903.

Vitex pubescens Vahl

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20519, Sept. 1903.

LORANTHACEAE

Dendrophthve falcata (Linn. f.) Ettingsh. (Loranthus longiflorus Dest.)

Host : Zizyphus incurva Roxb.

Devagiri. Burkill & Candler 17977, Dec. 1902.

* Scurrula philippensis (Cham. & Schlecht.) G. Don. Host: Emblica officinalis

Gaertn. & Randia brandisii Gamble.

Devagiri : 183m. Burkill & Candler 17931, Dec. 1902,

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20469, Sept. 1903.

Viscum orientale Willd. Host: Pavetta indica Linn.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20442, Sept. 1903.

414. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

EUPHORBIACEAE

Euphorbia hirta Linn. (Euphorbia pilulifera Linn.)

Parlakimedi.

Bridelia retusa Spreng.

Parlakimedi ; in low jungles. Burkill & Candler 17992, Dec. 1902.

Bridelia tomentosa Bl.

Parlakimedi : common in low jungles. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20533, Sept.

1903 ; 20456, Sept. 1903.

Cleistanthus collinus Benth.

Vern. Karada (S.) ; Odise chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi: very common in the valleys in places where Sal is not present.

Burkill & Candler 17990, Dec. 1902; Burkill, Grant & Candler 20516, Sept. 1903 ;

609 m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20102, Sept. 1903.

Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (Phyllanthus emblica Linn.)

Vern. Ener (S.); Usirika chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : 610 m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20117, Sept. 1903.

Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn.

Parlakimedi : on stony hill sides. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20561, Sept. 1903.

* Glochidion montanum Thw.

Vern. Kasakodi (S.) ; Torke chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : 30 m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20161, Sept. 1903.

Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Pax & Hoffm. (Flueggea microcarpa Bl.)

Vern. Janjan (S.) ; Kondapindi chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : 305 m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20145, Sept. 1903.

Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn.

Vern. Oderi (S.) ; Pultem chettu (T.).

Parlakimedi : 30 m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20183, Sept. 1903.

Antidesma diandrum Roth.

Parlakimedi : in jungles. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20465, Sept. 1903.

*Croton laevifolius Bl.

Vern. Parta (S.) ; Rana bhedi chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : 610 m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20114, Sept. 1903.

Mallotus philippensis Muell.

Vern. Goso (S.) : Kunkapu chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Corey & Ramamurthy 20160, Sept. 1903.

Ricinus communis Linn.

Parlakimedi, Devagiri : on the stony hill-side. 2.5 m. Burkill 17980, Dac. 1992.

Naupada, Ganjam Dt. Cuttirabad : 2’-3’ high. Burkill 17919, Dec. 1902.

Tragia involucrata Linn.

Vern. Janagatar (S.) ; Revatidulagundi chettu (T.).

Parlakimedi : 305 m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20144, Sept. 1903.

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI 415

Sebastiana chamaelea Muell. Arg.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Grant & Candler 20414, Sept. 1903.

MORACEAE

‘Ficus gibbosa BI. var. parasitica Koen.

Bund of Ramasagaram, Parlakimedi. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20555, Sept,

1903.

*Ficus mysorensis Heyne var. pubescens Roth.

Vern. Kambon-tu (S.) ; Kondamarri chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : 30 m. Corey & Ramamurthy 20168, 1903.

Ficus benjamina Linn.

Parlakimedi (after Lushington, 2 : 679).

Ficus religiosa Linn.

Bund of Sitasagaram, Parlakimedi.

Ficus bengalensis Linn.

Bund of Sitasagaram, Parlakimedi.

URTICACEAE

Pouzolzia zeylanica (Linn.) Benn. (Pouzolzia indica Gaud.)

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20471, 20484, Sept. 1903.

CASUARINACEAE

Casuarina equisetifolia Forst.

Parlakimedi : planted.

MONOCOTYLEDONS

ZINGIBERACEAE

Globba orixensis Roxb.

Vern. Sanodol, sulli (S.) ; Karupasupu chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Corey & Ramamurthy 20179, 1903,

HYPOXYDACEAE

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.

Parlakimedi : abundant in the woods. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20509, Sept.

1903.

AGAVEACEAE

Agave veracruz Mill.

Parlakimedi: not common. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20420, Sept. 1903.

Agave cantala Roxb.

Parlakimedi : common along the railway line. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20421,

Sept. 1903.

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

DIOSCOREACEAE.

Dioscorea pentaphylla Linn. 2

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20547, Sept. 1903; Corey 14511, Oct.

1903. |

Dioscorea hispida Dennst. (Dioscorea daemona Roxb.)

Parlakimedi. .

Dioscorea tomentosa Linn.

Vern. Barogi (S.) ; Nunetige chettu (T.)

Devagiri: 823 m. Burkill 17967, Dec. 1902.

Parlakimedi: common. Corey 20171, 1903; Burkill, Candler & Grant 20463,

Sept. 1903.

Dioscorea bulbifera Linn.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20530, Sept. 1903.

Dioscorea oppositifolia Linn.

Parlakimedi. Corey 112.

Devagiri: abundant. Burkill 17929, 17946, 17954, Dec. 1902.

Parlakimedi. Burkill 17991, 17997, Dec. 1902; Burkill, Candler & Grant 20470.

Sept. 1903.

Dioscorea esculenta Burkill (Dioscorea aculeata Linn.)

Parlakimedi: abundant at foot of hills in low jungles. Burkill 17984, Dec. 1902;

14957, 1903. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20444, 20454, Sept. 1903. :

*Dioscorea anguina Roxb.

Devagiri. Burkill 17932, Dec. 1902.

Parlakimedi. Corey 14989, 1903 ; Burkill, Candler & Grant 20440, Sept. 1903.

*Dioscorea glabra Roxb.

Parlakimedi. Burkill 17985, 17993, Dec. 1902.

LILIACEAE

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20486, Sept. 1903.

Gloriosa superba Linn.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20407, Sept. 1903.

SMILACACEAE

Smilax zeylanica Linn. (Smilax macrophylla Roxb.)

Vern. Ratu, Raathume nape (S.) ; Kondathamara chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi. Corey 20174, 1903.

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina nudiflora Linn. :

Peddalogidi. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20589, Sept. 1903.

Commelina benghalensis Linn.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20540, Sept. 1903.

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI 417

Cyanotis cristata (Linn.) Schultes.

Parlakimedi: among rocks in hill jungle. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20482, Sept.

1903.

Cyanotis axillaris Roem. & Sch.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20410, Sept. 1903.

PALMAE

Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.

Parlakimedi.

Calamus viminalis Willd.

Vern. Rere (S.) ; Pemu chettu (T.)

Parlakimedi : rattan of low jungles, grows to a height of 6 m., fairly common.

Burkill & Candler 17988, Dec. 1902. Corey & Ramamurthy 20126, 1903.

Cocos nucifera Linn.

Parlakimedi.

Borassus flabellifer Linn. (Borassus flabelliformis Murr.)

Parlakimedi.

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus castaneus Willd.

Parlakimedi: on sand. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20449, Sept. 1903.

* Cyperus cuspidatus H. B. & K. var. angustifolia Clarke.

Parlakimedi: on sand. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20450, Sept. 1903.

Cyperus rotundus Linn. (Cyperus tuberosus Rottb.)

Naupada : on sand. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20590, Sept. 1903.

Fimbristylis miliacea Vahl

Parlakimedi : common in sandy swamps. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20505,

Sept. 1903.

Fimbristylis monostachya Hassk.

Parlakimedi : very common in sandy places. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20487,

Sept. 1903.

Scleria lithosperma Sw.

Parlakimedi: common. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20422, Sept. 1903.

GRAMINEAE

*Saccharum arundinaceum Retz.

Parlakimedi. Burkill (through Dy. Tehsildar) 21792, Mar. 1904.

Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. var. ciliare Anders.

Vern. Jaya karra (T.)

Parlakimedi. Burkill (through Dy. Tehsildar) 24071, Feb. 1905.

Sorghum roxburghii Stapf var. semiclausum Stapf

Vern. Juar.

Devagiri : cultivated on hill sides. Burkill 17920, 17960, Dec. 1902.

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. (Andropogon aciculatus Retz.)

_Parlakimedi.

Hackelochloa granularis (Linn. f.) O. Ktze. (Manisuris granularis Linn. f.)

Parlakimedi : in hill jungles growing to a height of 1.5 to 2 m. Burkill, Candler

& Grant 20473, Sept. 1903.

Digitaria granularis (Trin.) Henr. (Paspalum pedicellare Trin. ex Steud.)

Parlakimedi: in sandy places. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20543, Sept. 1903.

Brachiaria distachya (Linn.) Stapf. (Panicum distachyum Linn.)

Parlakimedi : common in sandy places. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20583, Sept.

1903.

Panicum montanum Roxb.

Parlakimedi: common. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20436, Sept. 1903.

Setaria italica Beauv.

Parlakimedi.

Pennisetum typhoides (Burm. f.) Stapf. & Hubb. (Pennisetum typhoideum Rich.)

Vern. Bajri.

Devagiri: cultivated on hill sides. 30-915 m. Burkill 17962, 17969, Dec. 1902.

Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult.

(Eragrostis tenella Roem. & Schult. var. plumosa Stapf.) :

Parlakimedi : on rocky hill side. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20488, Sept. 1903.

Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees. (Eragrostis amabilis W. & A.)

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20491, 20523, Sept. 1903.

Cynodon dactylon Pers.

Parlakimedi. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20584, Sept. 1903.

Eleusine coracana Gaertn.

Devagiri: 610-915 m. Burkill 17959, Dec. 1902.

Parlakimedi : cultivated. Burkill, Candler & Grant 20536, Sept. 1903.

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Desf.) Beauv. (Eleusine aegyptiaca Desf.)

Parlakimedi.

Oryza sativa Linn.

Parlakimedi : wild and abundant (Burkill).

Devagiri. Burkill 17979, Dec. 1902.

Dendrocalamus strictus Nees

Parlakimedi : hill jungles.

SUMMARY

1. The Flora of Parlakimedi (18°47’ N. and 84°5’ E.) in the South

Ganjam District in India is described in detail.

2. The vegetation of the locality under broad ecological groups, as

those of sandy areas, low hill jungles, dry broken jungles, dry rocky hill

slopes, valleys, at different altitudes, river-sides, is described in detail.

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI

419

3. The total number of species listed from Parlakimedi is 286 under

229 genera and 75 families.

4. 45 species are reported as new to Ganjam District.

5. A new host report for Dendrophthée falcata (Linn. f.) Ettingsh.

is recorded.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Grateful acknowledgements are due to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.,

Bombay, for criticaily going through the manuscript and for his valu-

able advice and help in the preparation of this paper.

REFERENCES

Bor, N. L. (1947) : Common Grasses

of the United Provinces. Indian For.

Rec., n.s., 2 (1) : 1-220.

Burkill, I. H. (1913) : Determination

of the Prickly Pears now wild in India.

Rec. Bot. Surv. India 4 : 287-322.

Fischer, C. E. C. (1904) ; Notes on the

Flora of Northern Ganjam. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 15 : 537-556.

Gamble, J. S. (1884) : A short account

of the Forests of the Northern Forest

Circle, Madras Presidency. Indian For.

10 : 543-553.

— — — (1884-85) : Revised list of the

Trees and Shrubs of the Northern Circars

recorded on tour in 1883-84 and 1884-85.

Ann. Admin. Rep. For. Dept., Madras,

1884-85 : 317-331.

—-—— & Fischer, C. E. C.

(1915-1936): Flora of Madras Presi-

dency. London.

Hooker, J. D. (1872-97): The Flora

of British India. L. Reeve & Co.,

London.

Lushington, A. W. (1915) : Vernacular

list of Trees, Shrubs and Woody Clim-

bers in the Madras Presidency. Madras.

Majumdar, R. (1956): Studies on the

Grasses of 24-Parganas. Bull. Bot. Soc.

Bengal 10: 1-114.

Mukherjee, D.B. (1935) : Notes on a

collection of plants from Mahendragiri.

Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 14 : 305-311.

Raizada, M.B. (1958) : Name changes

in common Indian Plants. Indian For.

84: 467-538.

— — (1959).

mon Indian Grasses.

509.

Ravindra Nath, V. & Narasimha Rao,

V.L. (1959) : Additional hosts for flower-

ing parasite, Dendrophthée falcata (Linn.

f.) Ettingsh. (Loranthus _ longiflorus

re ee Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 38: 204-

Santapau, H. (1953): The Flora of

Khandala on the Western Ghats of India.

Rec. Bot. Surv. India 16(1): xxvii,

1-396, map 3.

— — (1958): History of Botanical

researches in India, Burma and Ceylon.

Pt. II. Systematic Botany of Angios-

perms. Ind. Bot. Soc. Spl. Publn.

Bangalore, 1-77.

Sastri, B.N., et al., (1952): Wealth of

India Raw materials 3.

Subba Rao, G. V. (1960) : Occurrence

of Rauvolfia canescens Linn. in Ganjam

District. Curr. Sc. 29: 25-26.

Name changes in com-

ibid. 85: 473-

A Review of some Grass-infesting

Thrips from India with a Description

of a New Species

T. N. ANANTHAKRISHNAN

Dept. of Zoology, Loyola College, Madras

Plants of the families Gramineae and Cyperaceae have been known

to harbour a wealth of Thrips fauna. But for records from random col-

lections, no precise information is available in this country of the thrips

infesting Gramineae, though an early attempt towards such a study was

made by Ananthakrishnan (1956)? on Andropogon pertusus. Several

species of Gramineae were subsequently examined, including Apluda

aristata, Chloris barbata, Cynodon dactylon, Cymbopogon citratus,

Eragrostis sp., Oryza sativa, Panicum maximum, Sorghum yulgare.

While it is natural to classify the graminivorous thrips as leaf sheath,

leaf blade, and inflorescence inhabitants, the degree of infestation is of

importance, particularly when it is observed that many grasses harbour

several species of thrips, some primary inhabitants, others secondary,

yet others casual or rare, with the possibility of being accidentally carried

by wind or other factors. For instance, in Andropogon pertusus,

Ananthakrishnan (1956) has recorded a large percentage of Podothrips

oryzae Priesner and Neolimothrips saccharivora Shumsher, moderate

numbers of Anaphothrips flavicinctus Karny, Phibalothrips peringueyi

Faure, and Caliothrips indicus (Bagnall), and negligible numbers of other

species. The same is the case with Panicum maximum, where Exothrips

madrasensis Ananthakrishnan and Anaphothrips flavicinctus occur

in very large numbers, while Chirothrips maximi Ananthakrishnan

and Caliothrips indicus occur in moderate numbers. The table below

shows that Anaphothrips flavicinctus, Neolimothrips saccharivora,

and Caliothrips indicus occur on several species of grasses and are hence

polyphagous. All the same, Anaphothrips flavicinctus shows special pre-

ference for the guinea grass (Panicum maximum) and is abundant

throughout the year. The same is true of Neolimothrips saccharivora

which, though occurring on sugar cane leaves and Chloris barbata in good

numbers, has a special preference for Andropogon pertusus. An interest-

ing feature of this host preference is that, besides Anaphothrips flavi-

cinctus, Exothrips madrasensis takes to Panicum maximum as the preferred

' Zool, Anz. 156 (1-2) : 29-33.

SOME GRASS-INFESTING THRIPS FROM INDIA 421

host, and this species is very rarely met with in other species of grasses

Caliothrips indicus, like Anaphothrips flavicinctus, is a highly polyphagous

species, known to feed on several plants other than grasses. Instances

of monophagous species are seen in Haplothrips (Trybomiella} apicalis

Priesner which heavily infests Cynodon dactylon almost throughout the

year, its distribution to the other host plants being restricted by its being

primarily an apterous form, though macropterous and brachypterous

forms are met with Ananthakrishnan (1957). Similarly, Ramakrishno-

thrips jonnaphila (Ramk.) inhabits the sheaths of Sorghum vulgare, while

Praepodothrips cymbopogonii Ananthak. infests leaf blades of Cymbopogon

citratus, and these species maintain this monophagous habit irrespective

of the environment, whether it be in the plains or at heights of 5000-

7000 feet as observed by the author in the Nilgiri and Kodaikanal hills.

The following table gives the host-species index together with

the degree of infestation :

Degree of incidence?

Host Thrips gS 2 =) fs a Distribution

= 3 5 Cs ~ tH

oO > 2 Qo

ee} A8\ dg

w~ =

Anaphothrips flavicinctus Karny 4 Oriental

Neolimothrips saccharivora xX India

Shumsher

Andropogon | Caliothrips indicus (Bagnall) xX India

pertusus

Sericothrips graminis Anantha- xX India

krishnan

Phibalothrips peringueyi Faure xX India & Africa

Podothrips oryzae Priesner »4 India, Siam, &

Java

Hoplandrothrips indicus Anan- 4 India

thakrishnan

Haplothrips apicalis Priesner xX India

Haplothrips gowdeyii (Franklin) x Cosmopolitan

Anaphothrips sakimurai Anan- X | | India

thakrishnan | |

Apluda Aptinothrips rufus Gmelin (<i ' Cosmopolitan

aristata |

Caliothrips SCIEN (Bagnall| X | India & S.

& Cameron) | Africa

| Caliothrips indicus iBaerat) xX | India

Chirothrips ramakrishnai Anan- | X | India

thakrishnan |

Chirothrips manicatus Haliday | X Cosmopolitan

+ The numbers mentioned represent those collected in an area of 50 sq. yards,

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

SSS LE EE a a EE I EE I I I a IS ER SS TL

Degree of incidence

Host Thrips aie oat Distribution

ON i Oo gs

a mh oO

oo ome) 36

oe 1 ae intone,

ca 2 | <3

Neolimothrips saccharivora x India

Shumsher ;

Chirothrips loyolae Anantha- | ,X India

krishnan

Chloris | Chirothrips manicatus Haliday xX Cosmopolitan

barbata

Chiraplothrips priesneri sp. nov. xX | India

Phibalothrips peringueyi Faure xX India &

S. Africa

Cynodon Haplothrips (Trybomiella) api- xX ; India

dactylon | calis Priesner

Cymbopogon | Praepodothrips cymbopogonii »4 India

citratus Ananthak. |

Eragrostis sp.' Caprithrips analis Faure xX India & S.

Africa

Aptinothrips rufus Gmelin 4 Cosmopolitan

Oryza sativa | Thrips (Oxyrrhinothrips) X India

oryzae Williams

Anaphothrips flavicinctus Karny | X India

Chirothrips maximi Anantha- xX India

Panicum krishnan

maximum

Exothrips madrasensis Ananthak.| X India

Caliothrips indicus (Bagnall) xX India

| eS India

Sorghum Ramakrishnothrips jonnaphila xX

vulgare (Ramk.) |

KEY TO GENERA OF GRASS-INFESTING THRIPS

Suborder TEREBRANTIA

Family THRIPIDAE Uzel

Upper surface of body deeply reticulate, with polygonal areas 7

terminal antennal joints long and thin

Subfamily HELIOTHRIPINAE

Upper surface not polygonally reticulate, but at most with trans-

verse striae. Antennae 7 or 8-jointed, rarely 6- or 9-jointed ; ter-

minal joints not long and thin :

} Subfamily THRIPINAE

SOME GRASS-INFESTING THRIPS FROM INDIA 423

Subfamily HELIOTHRIPINAE

Antenna 8-jointed, style 2-jointed ; joints 3 and 4 with forked

sense cones ; forewings with dark and pale transverse bands

s | Caliothrips Daniel

[C. indicus (Bagnall) and graminicola (Bagnall & Cameron)]

Antenna 7-jointed, style 1-jointed ; wings not banded

Phibalothrips Faure

(P. peringueyi Faure)

Subfamily THRIPINAE

1. Head distinctly produced in front of eyes into a projection on

which is inserted the antenna $3; . era ee

Head little or not produced ee + Gere eS

2. Antennal joints 3 and 4 with forked sense cones ; mouth

cone broadly rounded ; maxillary palpi 3-jointed

Ramakrishnothrips Shumsher

[R. jonnaphila (Ramk.)]

Antennal joints 3 and 4 with simple sense cones ; mouth cone

long and narrow ; maxillary palp 2-jointed

Neolimothrips Shumsher

(N. saccharivora Shumsher)

3. Pronotum without any strong bristles. . | 4

Pronotum with at least one conspicuous bristle at hindangles.. 6

Pronotum with two well-developed bristles at hind angles .. 7

4. Wings and ocelli absent in both sexes. . is seeere

5. Antennae 6-jointed ; body long and slender ; dorsal bristles

on IX fine ; teeth on abdominal sternites absent

Aptinothrips Gmelin

(A. rufus Gmelin)

Antennae 8-jointed ; dorsal bristles on IX stout. Abdominal

sternites with 10-15 teeth

Caprithrips Faure

(C. analis Faure)

6. Antennae 8-jointed, without across suture across joint 6; wings

and ocelli always present in the females ; absent in the males.

Foretibia of male unarmed

, Anaphothrips (Subgenus : Neophysopus)

424

10.

11.

12:

13.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Foretibia of male armed with a distinct tooth at apex within.

Antennal joint 1 of male stout, joints 4 and 5 curved within ;

females normal (Anaphothrips-like)

Exothrips Priesner

(EZ. madrasensis Ananthak.)

Antennae 8-jointed, style 2-jointed .. et nie tS

Antennae 7-jointed, style l-jointed .. a coat be

Pronotum with prominent anteroangular bristles cena,

Pronotum without prominent anteroangular bristles ee

Maxillary palp 2-jointed .. ms C3 asain

Maxillary palp 3-jointed .. A he ist

Antennae slender, style thin; wings banded, narrow, with

stout bristles; anteroangulars shorter than antero-

marginals

; Ayyaria Karny

(A. chaetophora Karny)

Anteroangulars longer than anteromarginals; both wing

veins with regularly set bristles throughout their length ;

antennal style normal

Frankliniella

(F. sulphurea Schmutz)

Pronotum with additional long bristle at lateral margin.

Anteroangulars and posteroangulars and wing bristles very

long

Scolothrips Hinds.

(S. indicus Priesner)

Forewings with both longitudinal veins distinct .. ees)

Forewings with only the upper vein distinct, the lower vein

being represented by a few scattered setae i ie

Lower vein with only four scattered setae ; outer postangulars

longer than inner a ae

Euphysothrips Bagnall

(E. minozii Bagnall)

Lower vein with regular series of setae ; postangular. pro-

thoracic setae subequal a ee

Taeniothrips A. & S,

14.

15.

16.

SOME GRASS-INFESTING THRIPS FROM INDIA 425

Abdominal segment IX with numerous prominent bristles

at posterior margin. Abdominal segments with dense

microsetulae st a

Sericothrips Karny

(S. graminis Ananthak.)

Pronotum and wings without particularly long bristles.

Wings without cross bars or dark areas as £77.16

Mouth cone long and narrow surpassing base of prosternum

Thrips, Subgenus :

Oxyrrhinothrips Pr.

(O. oryzae Williams)

Mouth cone shorter, not surpassing prosternum

Thrips s. str.

Suborder TUBULIFERA

Wings not narrowed nor constricted at middle .. nae

Wings narrowed or constricted at middle as Le a

Cheeks with bristle-bearing warts ; forefemora of male, with

one or two teeth at apex ; that of female unarmed

Hoplandrothrips Priesner

(H. indicus Ananthak.)

Forefemora and tibiae unarmed ae ee a, oe pee:

Forefemora unarmed, foretibiae armed with teeth ; foretarsus

with a well-developed tooth Podothrips Priesner

(P. oryzae Priesner)

Antennal joint 2 produced exteriorly, chirothripoid

Chiridothrips R. & M.

(C. indicus R. & M.)

Antennal joint 2 not chirothripoid ; cheeks parallel. Head

about as long as wide ; mouth cone broadly rounded, never

short. Foretibia normal Haplothrips Serville

Cheeks strongly convex; mouth cone very short, broadly

rounded. Foretibia pointed interiorly at apex

: Praepodothrips

Priesner & Seshadri

Several other species have also been recorded in many random collec-

tions on grasses, but these are of little or no value to be reckoned among

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

grass-infesting thrips. Some of these forms include £rythrothrips

asiaticus R. & M., Frankliniella sulphurea Schmutz, Ayyaria chaetophora

Karny, Euphysothrips minozzii Bagnall, Scolothrips indicus Priesner, and

Chiridothrips indicus R. & M.

Caprithrips analis Faure

1933 : Caprithrips analis Faure, J. C., Bull. Brook. Ent. Soc. 28 (1 & 2):

12-14.

This genus is being recorded for the first time in the Oriental region.

The only record of this interesting genus, which is monotypic, is by Faure

(1933) from two apterous females, from the base of tufts of a grass from

Pretoria (S. Africa). This genus is characterised by the 8-jointed

antenna, joint 6 not divided ; cheeks narrower, straight ; eyes bulging ;

sides of pronotum straight ; dorsal bristles of segment IX stout ; abdomen

broadly conical. at apex ; abdominal sternites with 10-15 teeth. Apte-

rous.

Habitat : Ten females on Eragrostis sp., Madras, March 1959.

Caliothrips graminicola (Bagnall & Cameron)

1932, Hercothrips graminicola (Bagnall & Cameron), Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist. (10) : 412-419.

1957, Caliothrips graminicola Faure, J. C., J. Ent. Soc. S. Africa

20 (1) : 79-88.

This species is a new record to the Indian region, the only other

species known hitherto being C. indicus (Bagnall). C. graminicola has

pale forewings, with four, short, dark patches, one each at base, at

apex and two in between. The forewings are narrow and the ring

vein is strong and prominent. Blackish brown wing vein setae are

absent. Costa of forewing has 5-8 setae at base and two at apex;

the lower vein has 4-7 setae, though a good many have only 4 or

5 setae.

Habitat: : Several males and females on the grass, Apluda aristata,

Madras, March 1961.

Haplothrips (Chiraplothrips) priesneri sp. n.

Chiraplothrips’ Priesner is reported for the first time from India and

this subgenus is quite distinct from other allied subgenera of Haplothrips

by the ‘ short and stout legs, forefemora at the apex of the outer margin,

with a small tooth-like projection ; wings narrow, with double fringes ;

joint 4 of antenna with only 2 sense cones’.

: *Priesner, 1931, Bull. de la Soc. Roy. Ent, d’Egypte : 271-272

SOME GRASS-INFESTING THRIPS FROM INDIA 427

Macropterous female :

Body brown, inclusive of antennal joints ; abdomen and foretibia

pale brown, the latter with yellowish tinge. Wings clear. Little red

pigment scattered all over. |

Haplothrips (Chiraplothrips) priesneri sp. n.

Head and antenna of female

Head 172 yw long, 154 « wide across eyes and 168 » across cheeks.

Eyes 70 » long and 49 « wide. Ocelli placed above the middle region

of eyes ; disposition broadly triangular ; median ocellus 16 « wide, placed

29 «from posterior ocelli, also 16 « wide, placed 48 w apart. Maxillary

bridge 90 u long, the maxillae at their point of articulation with the basal

piece, 128 » apart. Antennal joints short and stout, individual joints

measuring, length (width) in p:

29 (35) ; 48 (32) ; 38 (32) ; 45 (32) ; 43 (32) ; 43 (22) ; 38 (19) ; 32 (13).

Mouth cone 126 » long, reaching about the middle of prosternum,

168 » wide at base, 70 » at tip, broadly rounded.

Prothorax 196 » long at middle, 210 » and 322 » wide across anterior

and posterior margins respectively. FForefemora moderately stout, with

a small tooth-like projection at apex, on outer margin ; foretarsus with a

small tooth.

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Pterothorax, 350 » long, 294 » wide across mesothorax and 280 p

across metathorax. Forewings 1050 » long, constricted at middle, with

7 accessory cilia. Basal wing spines short, disposed of in a broad

traingle, 22, 22, and 19 yp long respectively.

Abdomen 294 » wide at base and middle, gradually narrowing at

apex. Abdominal segment VIII and IX, 266 and 140 » wide respectively

at base ; outer and inner bristle of IX 420 and 462 p» long. Tube 126 p»

long, 70 » wide at base and 35 p» at tip; tube setae 112 p» long. Total

body length 2.100 mm.

Macropterous male :

Coloration mostly as in the female, but with antennal joints 1 & 2

and 7 & 8 darker brown ; body with plenty of red pigment. Antennal

joints, as a rule, stouter than in the female, individual joints measuring,

length (width) in » : 26 (28); 43 (32). 43 (32); 48 (32); 45 (26); 43

(26) ; 38 (22) ; 32 (16). Forefemora stouter than in female, 74 » wide at

middle ; foretarsus with a stouter tooth. Total body length : 1°64 mm.

Habitat : Holotype 2 and allotype o*, on Chloris barbata, Madras,

January 1959.

This species is named in honour of Dr. Priesner of Linz (Austria)

who examined the material.

This species differs from C. faureanus Priesner in the uniformly

brown antennal coloration, and in the presence of 7 duplicate cilia on

the forewing.

The Wildfowl ‘Trust

at Slimbridge in Britain

E. P. GEE

(With two plates)

During July, August, and September 1960 I was fortunate enough

to be able to spend a number of very pleasant and instructive days

at the Wildfowl Trust at Slimbridge in the beautiful county of

Gloucestershire in Britain. I have written this note in the belief that

members of the Society and other readers of the Journal may like to

know more about this extremely interesting place.

The Trust is situated on the flats of the southern shore of the

broad Severn Estuary, 13 miles south-west of the city of Gloucester

and very near the village of Slimbridge. Only a few miles to the

east are the picturesque Cotswold Hills. On the Severn flats several

thousand wild geese and ducks come every winter to feed, the main

feeding grounds being just adjacent to the Trust itself, and members of

the Trust have special facilities for viewing these wild birds at close

quarters from hides near by. These wild geese are mostly White-

fronted Geese from Russia, though all thirteen kinds of British geese

have been recorded there.

Several hundred wild Mallard live and breed in the grounds of

the Trust at Slimbridge, and during the winter many other wild duck

such as Pintail, Shoveller, Teal, and Wigeon come into the pens of

their own accord. There may be a thousand or more of these wild

ducks in the Trust during the winter months, and they are very

willing guests, and welcome ones too.

From the above, it may be assumed that the winter is the best

time to see Slimbridge, especia!ly as most of the drakes are in their

best plumage (breeding plumage) at that time of the year. This is

true—if you can pick a mild day with sunshine in the English winter!

For obvious reasons, by far the greater number of visitors (including

the writer himself) go to Slimbridge in the summer, the peak times

of the largest numbers of visitors being the Whitsun weekend, and

the holiday months of July, August, and September. The countryside

is very nice during these summer months, but some of the wildfowl.

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

especially the drakes, are moulting and are in their ‘eclipse’ plumage.

For instance the Redcrested Pochard drake appeared to be neither

red nor crested in July and August, and only towards the end of

September began to look the handsome creature that it is.

There is a branch of the Trust at Peakirk, near Peterborough in

Northamptonshire, known as the Peakirk Waterfowl Gardens, opened

to the public in 1957. Both at Slimbridge and at Peakirk are main-

tained and operated two of the last Duck Decoys in England: these

are Berkeley New Decoy at Slimbridge, and Borough Fen near

Peakirk. In these hundreds of wild ducks are caught, ringed, and

released every year.

The Wildfowl Trust at Slimbridge was started in 1946, and is

now the largest and most varied collection of swans, geese, and ducks

in the wor!d. There are some 1500 birds here, of 160 different

species and races; and most of them are so tame that they will

readily feed out of your hand. There is no notice displayed telling

you to ‘keep off the grass’, but there is one politely asking you to

‘be careful not to step on the birds’.

Most of the birds are pinioned, to prevent them flying away—

mainly for their own safety, as they might get killed if they strayed

from the grounds. But many are ‘full-winged’, and fly from pen to

pen but seldom (if ever) leave. In particular, I noticed that a large

number of Snow Geese (from: Greenland and North America) were

full-winged and yet were so tame that they were nearly always getting)

fed by visitors. There were also a few Barheaded Geese (central

Asia and northern India, Pakistan, and Burma) that were flying about

full-winged. Of these, a Barheaded had paired off with a Snow

Goose, and this mixed pair together with a pair of Barheaded Geese

were always together, in some part of the grounds or another.

Such ‘mixed marriages’ are not encouraged by the Trust,’ but are

not always easy to prevent—as is evidenced by the large number of

hybrids in the Hybrid Pen, where the results of strange crossings

present a serious challenge to the experts when it comes to trying to

identify them!

Probably the greatest triumph of wildfowl conservation at

Slimbridge, and to a smaller extent at Peakirk, is the case of the

Ne-ne or Hawaiian Goose, the rarest of all the world’s geese. In

1947 there were only about 50 of these birds left in the whole world.

The Trust brought three birds from Hawaii in 1950 and 1951, and

these three had increased to no less than 126 in 1960, which was

about half the total world population of this goose. It is hoped

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Hawaiian Geese or Ne-nes, one of the most important exhibits at the Wildfowl

Trust

Part of the grounds of the Wildfowl Trust, as seen from the Acrow Tower

Photos : E. P. Gee

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

By Moses es

Whitewinged Wood Duck (drake) in Rushy Pen

oie

Comb Duck or Nukta (drake) in Rushy Pen

Photos : E. P. Gee

THE WILDFOWL TRUST ~AT SLIMBRIDGE IN BRITAIN 431

to re-introduce some of these geese back into Hawaii some day.

Hawaiian Geese are usually the first birds to greet you when you

arrive at Slimbridge, and they are so tame that they almost besiege

you for food, taking tit-bits from your hand very gently and carefully

—never biting your fingers in the process.

When I was there, I saw the Trumpeter Swans which had been

presented to the Queen, who is Patron of the Trust, by the Canadian

Government on her tour of that dominion, and which have been

placed in the care of the Trust. These are the largest of all wildfowl,

and the heaviest of all flying birds, weighing up to 30 lb. There

are probably not more than 1300 of them alive in the world today.

There was a nest of these swans in 1960, providing one of the very

few breeding records of this rare and magnificent swan, but un-

fortunately the five eggs never hatched. Another nest is reported

in 1961 and results are awaited.

In Rushy Pen are nearly all the fish-eating ducks. Here I was

most interested to see a pair of the rare Whitewinged Wood

Duck, a‘ species which is found in north-east India, East Pakistan,

Burma, and south-east Asia. Apparently nine of these ducks were

given to the Trust by a Buddhist monk of southern Thailand about

1954, and three of them died before 1960. In 1960 another four of

them died of lung fungus. The remaining pair nested in the spring

of 1960, but nothing came of it.

Apart from the last mentioned species, the breeding results at

the Wildfowl Trust are very good indeed. Nearly 100 species and.

subspecies breed every year here, and in 1960 no less than 1100

young birds were. successfully reared. Six species and _ severah

subspecies have bred in captivity for the first time ever in the grounds

of the Trust. I saw a pair of Bewick’s Swans nesting—the only

breeding pair in captivity in the world. These swans in the wild state

breed in northern Russia and northern Siberia, and winter in northern

Europe and central Asia.

The Wildfowl Trust is a non-profit organization, devoted to the

study of wildfowl both captive and wild. There is a research wing,

for the study of wildfowl biology including feeding, behaviour, food

consumption, diseases, mortality, migration, homing, orientation, and

SO on.

While the Trust owes its inception to the man who is now its

Honorary Director, Peter Scott, it surely owes its existence and

continuance to the enthusiastic support of the nature-loving British

people, who go there in large numbers not only to observe the

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

wildfowl but also to enjoy a quiet and peaceful day’s recreation in

the countryside. The total number of visitors to Slimbridge and

Peakirk in the twelve months ending August 1959 was 157,000.

Many foreign tourists go there, and the Trust has undoubtedly become

a major tourist attraction of Britain.

One of the things that struck me most, going there after many

years in India, was the fact that many schoolboys go there in their

holidays to work—for no pay at all. So great is their enthusiasm

for bird watching, that boys from even the most exclusive of schools

go there, stay in, a local hotel at their own expense, and work—hard

manual work making new ponds, digging, and shovelling, anc so on

—simply for the privilege of being inside the Trust and’ being among

all the wildfowl, for no pay (Indian school boys, please note!). I

met several of these boys, and they knew the names of practically

all the birds, and where they came from. Their enthusiasm was

remarkable.

The place is a bird photographer’s paradise. The great difficulty

is to keep far enough away from the birds, as they will come up to

you, so tame are they.

There is an opportunity for us in India to develop something

along these lines. A Slimbridge in India would not only help us

in some of our conservation problems by preserving and breeding

the rarer species, but also it would be a tourist attraction in a new

country which is fast building up her tourist industry. If no special

place for wildfowl alone can be developed, then surely one of our

better zoological gardens could specialise in the keeping and exhibiting

of wildfowl in natural conditions, with plenty of privacy for nesting

birds. Such a project would be a wise and far-sighted undertaking,

especially in view of the present rapid and alarming extermination

of wild life all over the country.

Vegetation of Jhunjhunu, Mandrela,

and the Neighbouring Places

| N: C. NAIR

Department of Botany, Birla College, Pilani, Rajasthan*

(With a map and a plate)

Studies on the vegetation of the arid and semi-arid regions of

Rajasthan have, in recent years, increased in both importance and number.

Still Rajasthan forms a floristically little-known part of India. There is

no complete published account of the flora of the region similar to the

floras of Madras, Bombay, Behar, Orissa, Bengal, Punjab, etc., and the

need for a flora of this arid tract is very pressing. Therefore, any contribu-

tion to the study of the vegetation of this area is of interest and

importance...

Joshi (1957, 1958) and Joshi & Khamboj (1959) have reviewed

the earlier literature. Other recent contributions include those of Nair

& Kanodia (1959) on the vegetation of Ajit Sagar. |

A perusal of the literature reveals that most of the floristic investiga-

tions of the area relate to cities or important towns that are accessible by

railway or motorable road, whereas there are many places in the interior

of the arid and semi-arid zones of Rajasthan which hardly any botanist

has visited.

The present account is based on a preliminary study of the vegetation

of Jhunjhunu, Mandrela, Manpura, Dilarpur, Bhaktavarpura, Dhattar-

wala, Kasimpura, Bagar, Gumansir, Bhamarwasi, and Lalpur (see map).

In this study particular attention was-paid to the Katli River bed. In

the attached list only trees and shrubs that constitute the structural frame-

work of the vegetation are included. The herbaceous flora will

be published after making intensive periodic collections.

VEGETATION

A general account of the climate, soil, and plant associations of Jaipur

division was given by Joshi (1957), in which mention is also made

of Jhunjhunu and its neighbouring places. A detailed ecological account

of the vegetation will, therefore, be superfluous. However, a few words

must be said about the vegetation of the interior places andthe

bed of the Katli River. __ |

_*Present address: Botanical Survey of India, Dehra Dun.

434. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

The vegetation in the area reveals a striking uniformity being typically

a thorny scrub. The components of the vegetation are characteristi-

cally similar to those found in adjacent areas (cf. Bakshi, 1954; Nair

& Nathawat, 1956; Nair & Joshi, 1957; Joshi, 1958).--The open

dry vegetation is characterised by associations of Prosopis, Capparis,.

Gymnosporia, Calotropis, Leptadenia, etc. In some places near Mandrela

there are extensive associations of Salvadora, Zizyphus, and Balanites.

In the vast plains near Bhamarwasi and Jhunjhunu the vegetation is

very sparse. The soil although stabilized supports only a few tree species

like Prosopis spicigera, Acacia arabica, Acacia leucophloea, etc. scat-

tered singly here and there (Fig. 2). Very often these trees are muti-

lated by cutting down the branches for fodder.

The road from Chirawa to Mandrela is lined on either side with a

more or less uniform vegetation consisting of trees like Capparis,

Prosopis, Balanites, Tecomella, Acacia, Zizyphus, etc. One significant

feature is that at places Tecomella forms the dominant element. The

undergrowth includes Tephrosia, Justicia, Peristrophe, Sida, etc. There

are a few sandy localities where the sand forms rippled dunes. These

dunes are practically devoid of any vegetation (Fig. 1), except stray plants

of Boerhavia verticillata, Aerva javanica, etc. In the close vicinity of these

rippled dune areas are found stabilized dunes of varying size, the largest

of them being sometimes over thirty feet in height. These dunes support

very good vegetation of Capparis, Gymnosporia, Ephedra, Balanites,

Erianthus, etc. Very often trees of considerable size like Prosopis spici-

gera, Tecomella undulata, and Acacia arabica, are seen growing on the

summit of these dunes. It must be mentioned that these tree species

have a very slow rate of growth. Seemingly, therefore, the dunes got

stabilized a considerable time ago by encroaching vegetation. This

excites two questions. Were the conditions in these places more in-

tense than at present? Is the area under consideration in a state of

natural regeneration ? Obviously, a thorough study of the nature, rate,

and trends of dune stabilization is necessary before anything can be said

with certainty. Perea 2 sip :

The banks of the Katli River (though called a river it contains water

only during July-September) are almost sandy and desolate. Here and

there pure associations of Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Calligonum poly-

gonoides, and Erianthus munja are present. At one or two places the

encroaching vegetation has made the sand stable.

There are only very few hills in the area studied. These are rocky

and barren. Sometimes stray plants of Acacia senegal and Azadirachta

indica are seen. One significant feature is the conspicuous absence of

Euphorbia nivulia and E. neriifolia, that are characteristic of the hills of

Rajasthan (see Nair & Nathawat, 1956; Nair & Kanodia, 1959), from

these hills. Only at one place, near Mandrela, a few clumps of Euphorbia

JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

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JourRN. BompBay NAT. HIstT. Soc.

Fig. 1. A rippled dune area near Mandrela. Fig. 2. A bird’s eye

view of the plains near Jhunjhunu showing trees of Prosopis

spicigera, Acacia arabica and A. leucophloea spotted here and there.

Fig 3. The vegetation near about a hilly area. Note the stunted

and cushion-shaped form of the plants like Securinega leucopyrus,

Zizyphus, Gymnosporia, etc.

VEGETATION OF JHUNJHUNU, MANDRELA, &c. 435

nivulia were seen cultivated as a hedge. Near about the hills, in the

plains, the vegetation is peculiar in that plants such as Gymnosporia

‘spinosa, Zizyphus nummularia, Securinega leucopyrus, etc. exhibit a stun-

ted cushion-shaped appearance (Fig. 3). Whether this peculiar form is

due to edaphic or biotic (grazing) or both factors remains unanswered

for the present.

Large temporary ponds are present here and there. The trees growing

near about these ponds reach a height of 45-50 feet (13-15 m.). The most

common trees around such ponds are Capparis decidua, Balanites aegyp-

tiaca, Anogeissus pendula, and Salvadora persica.

Jhunjhunu is the district headquarters. As a result of afforestation

work in the area many trees have been planted in and near about Jhun-

jhunu, and this imparts a green appearance to the neighbourhood. In

the outskirts of villages and towns pure associations of Xanthium stru-

marium and Croton bonplandianum are frequently seen.

LIST OF PLANTS

1. ANNONACEAE

*Annona squamosa Linn. *Polyalthia longifolia B. & H.

2. MENISPERMACEAE

ame

Cocculus pendulus (Forst.) Diels. Tinospora cordifolia Miers

3. CAPPARIDACEAE

Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Pax. Merua arenaria Hk. f.

4. TAMARICACEAE ©

Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst.

5. MALVACEAE

* Abelmoschus esculentus Linn.

Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Schott. & Endl.

*Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn.

Pavonia zeylanica Cav.

Sida grewioides Guill. & Perr.

Sida cordifolia Linn.

Abutilon fructicosum Guill. & Perr.

6. TILIACEAE

Grewia tenax (Forsk.) Fiori. ~ Corchorus tridens Linn.

*G. asiatica Linn. C. aestuans Linn.

G. oppositifolia Roxb.

* Cultivated

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

7. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Fagonia cretica Linn.

8. GERANIACEAE

* Averrhoa carambola Linn.

9, RUTACEAE

*Citrus aurantium Linn. *Aegle marmelos Correa

*Citrus medica var. acida Roxb. *Murraya paniculata (Linn.) Jack.

*Feronia limonia (Linn.) Swingle *M. koenigii (Linn.) Spreng.

10. SIMAROUBACEAE

Balanites aegyptiaca Linn. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.

11. MELIACEAE

*Melia azedarach Linn. Azadirachta indica Juss.

12. CELASTRACEAE

Gymnosporia spinosa (Forsk.) Fiori.

13. RHAMNACEAE

Zizyphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Z. xylopyra Willd.

W.&A. *Z, mauritiana Lamk.

14. SAPINDACEAE

Dodonaea viscosa L.

15. ANACARDIACEAE

*Mangifera indica Linn.

16. MORINGACEAE

Moringa oleifera Lamk.

17. LEGUMINOSAE

Crotolaria medicaginea Lamk. *C. fistula Linn.

C. burhia Hamilt. C. auriculata Linn.

Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (Linn.) Taub. *Parkinsonia aculeata Linn.

Indigofera tinctoria Linn. *Tamarindus indica Linn.

Rhynchosia minima DC. *Bauhinia sp.

Tephrosia purpurea Pers. *Delonix regia (Boj.) Raf.

Abrus precatorius Linn: - Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swartz.

Sesbania sesban var. picta Santapau | Prosopis spicigera Linn.

VEGETATION OF JHUNJHUNU, MANDRELA, &c.

Clitoria ternatea L. *P, juliflora DC.

*Phaseolus sp. - Mimosa hamata Willd.

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Acacia arabica Willd.

*Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. A. senegal Willd.

*Erythrina variegata var. orientalis A. leucophloea Willd.

(Linn.) Merr. A. catechu Willd.

Cassia occidentalis Linn. *A,. farnesiana Willd.

C. obtusa Roxb. Albizzia lebbeck Benth.

*C. siamea Lamk.

18. ROSACEAE

*Rosa indica Linn.

19, COMBRETACEAE

Anogeissus pendula Edgw. *Terminalia arjuna Bedd.

*Quisqualis indica L.

20. MYRTACEAE

*Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels. *Eucalyptus sp.

*Psidium guajava Linn.

21. LYTHRACEAE

*Lagerstroemia indica Linn. *Lawsonia inermis Linn.

*Punica granatum Linn.

22. CARICACEAE

*Carica papaya Linn.

23. CUCURBITACEAE

Coccinia cordifolia (Linn,) Cogn. Citrullus colocynthis Schrad.

24. CACTACEAE

Opuntia dillenii Haw.

25. COMPOSITAE

Xanthium strumarium Linn.

26, OLEACEAE

* Jasminum sp. *Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn.

27. SALVADORACEAE

Salyadora persica Linn. S. oleoides Decne.

437

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

28. APOCYNACEAE

*Nerium indicum Mill. *Plumeria rubra Linn. forma acutifolia

*Lochnera rosea (Linn.) Reichb. (Poir.) Woodson

*Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. *Carissa carandas Linn.

*Ervatamia coronaria Stapf.

29. ASCLEPIADACEAE

Calotropis procera R. Br. Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forsk.) Decne.

C. gigantea R. Br. Ceropegia tuberosa Roxb.

Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov. Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br.

30. BORAGINACEAE

Cordia dichotoma Forsk. f. C. rothii Roem.

31. CONVOLVULACEAE

*Ipomoea cairica (Linn.) Sweet. *Ipomoea pescaprae (Linn.) Sweet.

*Argyreia nervosa (Burm. f.) Boj.

32. SOLANACEAE

Solanum xanthocarpum S. & W. Withania somnifera Dunal

S. indicum Linn. *Capsicum frutescens L.

Physalis peruviana Linn. *Solanum melongena Linn.

Datura metel Linn. *Cestrum nocturnum Linn.

Lycium europaeum Linn.

33. BIGNONIACEAE

Tecomella undulata (Smith) Seem. *Kigelia pinnata DC.

*T. stans (Linn.) H.B.K. *Millingtonia hortensis Linn.

* Jacaranda mimosaefolia D.Don.

34, PEDALIACEAE

Martynia annua Linn. Sesamum indicum DC.

35. ACANTHACEAE

-Dipteracanthus patulus (Jacq.) Nees Lepidagathis trinervis Nees

D. prostratus (Poir.) Nees Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees

Barleria prionitis Linn. Adhatoda vasica Nees

36, WERBENACEAE

Stachytarpheta indica Vahl. C. inerme Benth.

*Vitex negundo Linn. *Duranta repens Linn.

Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn. Lantana camara Linn. var. aculeata (Linn.)

Moldenke

VEGETATION OF JHUNJHUNU, MANDRELA, &c. — 439

37. NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhavia verticillata Poir. *Bougainvillea sp.

*Mirabilis jalapa Linn.

38. AMARANTHACEAE |

Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Spreng. A. pseudotomentosa Blatter & Hallberg

Amaranthus spinosus Linn.

39, POLYGONACEAE

Calligonum polygonoides Linn. *Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.

40. EUPHORBIACEAE

Kuphorbia nivulia Buch.-Ham. Ricinus communis Linn.

*Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Croton bonplandianum Baill.

Securinega leucopyrus (Willd.)

Muell. Arg. :

41. MORACEAE

*Morus alba Linn. F. benghalensis Linn.

Ficus glomerata Roxb. *F, religiosa Linn.

*F, carica Linn.

42. SCITAMINACEAE

*Musa sapientum Linn. *Canna indica Linn.

43. AMARYLLIDACEAE

*Agave sp. *Crinum asiaticum Linn.

44, LILIACEAE

Aloe barbadensis Mill.

45. PALMAE

*Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.

46. GRAMINEAE

Erianthus munja (Roxb.) Jesweit *Arundo donax

*Saccharum officinale Linn. *Zea mays Linn.

*Pennisetum typhoides (Burm. f.) Stapf. & Hubb.

47. GNETACEAE

Ephedra foliata Boiss.

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

REFERENCES

Bakshi, T. S. (1954): Vegetation of

Pilani and its neighbourhood. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 484-514.

Joshi, M. C. (1957): Vegetation of

some areas in Jaipur division. J. Indian

bot. Soc. 36 : 272-291.

— (1958): A preliminary survey of the

sand dune vegetation of Pilani and its

neighbourhood. ibid. 37 : 309-327.

& Khamboj, O. P. (1959):

Studies on the autecology of Gisekia

pharnaceoides Linn. ibid. 38 : 8-34.

Nair, N. C. (1956) : Flora of Chirawa.

Proc. Rajasthan Acad. Sci. 6: 50-64.

———

Nair, N. C. & Joshi, M. C. (1957):

Sand dune vegetation of Pilani and its

neighbourhood. J. Indian bot. Soc.

36 : 599.

—— & Nathawat, G. S. (1956): Vege-

tation of Pilani and its neighbourhood.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54 : 91-106.

1957): Vegetation of Harsh

Nath, Aravalli Hills. ibid. 54 : 289-301.

—— & Kanodia, K. C. (1959): A

study of the vegetation of Ajit Sagar in

Rajasthan. ibid. 56 : 524-557.

—S=—

The Birds of Nepal

PART 4

BISWAMOY BISWAS

Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta

[Continued from Vol. 58 (1): 134]

Order PASSERIFORMES

Family EURYLAIMIDAE

*330. Serilophus lunatus rubropygius (Hodgson). Hodgson’s Broadbill.

The only record of Hodgson’s Broadbill from Nepal is based on

Hodgson’s collection (Gray & Gray, 1846, p. 56).

331. Psarisomus dalhousiae dalhousiae (Jameson). Longtailed Broad-

bill.

Dun: Hitaura, Kusumtar, Bhimphedi: 7 ¢¢, 6 99 (May 5-25, June 2, 3, 19).

The Longtailed Broadbill is common about ravines in dense forests

of the central duns. Both Scully (1879) and Ripley (1950b) failed to

notice it in Nepal, but Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 98) recorded it from

west-central Nepal at about 760 m.

A male had somewhat enlarged testes on June 3: R: 4°5 x 2°5 mm;

D6. 3) mm.

Colours of soft parts: Iris browa; bill green with yellow on anterior two-third of

culmen and yellowish green on edges ; legs and feet dull green; claws dark horny ;

pads white.

Measurements :

Tae | 6 99

Wing: 107, 111, 113 (2), 114 (2), 116 96, 99, 102 (2), 103 (2)

Tail : 116, 120, 122 (2), 124, 131, 132 HG. 1S. 1192 121 122.127

Bill : 21 (2), 22 (4), 22.5 21 (2),—, 22 (3)

The apparent sexual dimorphism in size can be proved only by measuring many

more correctly sexed specimens.

Family PITTIDAE

*332. Pitta nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson). Bluenaped Pitta.

Proud (1952b, p. 669) was the first to report it from Nepal after

Hodgson. She found it only once in the Nepal Valley in January.

Subsequently, Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 98) obtained a few specimens

from the Nepal Valley in February. 3

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

*333. Pitta brachyura brachyura (Linnaeus).’ Indian Pitta.

Hodgson’s collection (Gray & Gray, 1846, p. 78) provides the sole

record cf the Indian Pitta in Nepal.

334. Pitta sordida cucullata Hartlaub. Greenbreasted Pitta.

Dun : Hitaura, Kusumtar: 9 ¢¢, 3 92 (May 11-29, June 3).

The Greenbreasted Pitta is not an uncommon bird of the central

dun in dense forest, particularly at spots rich in undergrowth or where

the ground is covered with fallen leaves. Scully (1879), Ripley (1950b),

and Rand & Fleming (1957) all failed to find this pitta in Nepal. It

would, therefore, appear that ours is the first post-Hodgsonian record

of the species from Nepal.

A male specimen had much swollen testes? on June 3.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown; bill black; legs and feet dark slate ;

claws yellowish grey.

Measurements :

93d ee

Wing: 108, 110, 1F1,°113, 114 @), 115 @) 118 110, 112, 113

Tail : 37, 37°5, 38 (4), 39,—, 41 37, 37°5..40

Bill : 24°5, 25 (2), 26 (2), 27 (4) 255(2) 2595

Family ALAUDIDAE

*335. Mirafra assamica assamica Horsfield. Bengal Bush Lark.

Since Hodgson’s collection from the tarai (Gray & Gray, 1846,

p. 109), the Bengal Bush Lark has been reported from Nepal only by

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 99) from the western lowlands in winter and

the central plains in spring.

*336. Eremopterix grisea (Scopoli). Ashycrowned Finch-Lark.

The post-Hodgsonian records of the Ashycrowned Finch-Lark from

Nepal consist of Scully’s (1879, p. 337) who found it to be common in

the plains and tarai of central Nepal in winter, and Rand & Fleming’s

(1957, p. 99) who noted small flocks in the western and eastern tarai in

winter.

*337. Calandrella cinerea dukhunensis (Sykes). Rufous Short-toed

Lark.

The last Nepali record of this short-toed lark is based on Scully’s

(1879, pp. 337-338) finding it on passage in the Nepal Valley on autum-

nal migration (October).

1 The right testisgvas present in two lobes, an abnormal condition. The case had

already been reported (Biswas, 196Ic).

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 443

*338. Calandrella acutirostris tibetana Brooks. Brooks’s Short-toed

Lark.

The only post-Hodgsonian record of Brooks’s Short-toed Lark from

Nepal has been provided by Biswas (1960a) who reported it from c.

4570-5030 m. in Khumbu, eastern Nepal, in May.

*339. Calandrella raytal raytal (Blyth). Ganges Sandlark.

Scully (1879, p. 338) noted this lark to be common in the plains of

central Nepal, close to the tarai, in December, and Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 99) obtained a single example from the eastern tarai also in

December. These constitute the only post-Hodgsonian records of the

species from Nepal.

*340. Galerida cristata chendoola (Franklin). Franklin’s Crested Lark.

The post-Hodgsonian records of Franklin’s Crested Lark from Nepal

are Scully’s (1879, p. 338) who found it common in the central plains

near the tarai in winter, and Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 99) from the

central plains near the Indian border (Birganj) in April.

*341. Alauda gulgula Ihamarum R. & A. Meinertzhagen. Kashmir

Skylark.

Scully (1879, p. 338) was the first to report the occurrence of the

Kashmir Skylark in Nepal from a single specimen taken in the Nepal

Valley in February. He observed it in Nawakot district also, but since

he took no specimen there, he entered it in his Nawakot list (op. cit.,

p. 367) with a question mark (see Ripley 1950b, p. 380 in this connex-

ion). Later Ripley (loc. cit.) found it in the Nepal Valley and in

western Nepal in December. Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 98) specimens

from western, central, and eastern Nepal were not identified subspecifi-

cally. I am unable to state, therefore, if they represent this form or the

eastern inopinata or both.

Vaurie (1959a, p. 59) gives the range of this form eastward up to

the Punjab, placing the Nepal birds under inopinata. Ripley (in press),

however, gives Nepal as the eastern limit of this subspecies.

342. Alauda gulgula inopinata Bianchi. Tibetan Skylark.

NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: 2 3%, 2 9° (April 8-12).

The Tibetan Skylark is found in small flocks in central Nepal. It

occurs in the paddy fields during March-April.

Scully (1879, p. 338) had earlier recorded it from the Nepal Valley

in February-March.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Bis 102, 105 64, 68 P5257 16'5

2:99: 97, 99 59, 60 157521625

444. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

All these four specimens have already been studied and reported

upon by Vaurie (1951c, pp. 518, 522).

*343. Eremophila alpestris elwesi (Blanford). Elwes’s Horned Lark.

Tam unable to trace any record of Elwes’s Horned Lark from Nepal

after Hodgson’s collection (Gray, 1863, p. 58).

Family HIRUNDINIDAE

344. Riparia paludicola chinensis (J. E. Gray). Indian Sand Martin.

NEPAL VALLEY: nr. Kathmandu: 2 juv. ¢, 2 juv. 22 (April 5).

During late March and early April the Indian Sand Martin is found

to be common in flocks of 30-50 in the outskirts of Kathmandu, not far

from streams. On April 5, 1947, a large congregation of this sand

martin was noticed busily feeding on the myriads of insects that were

disturbed by the harvesting of pulses in a field situated on the bank of

a stream.

Scully (1879, p. 234) found it a resident bird of the Nepal Valley, and

reported it also from the Markhu Valley and Nawakot district in winter.

Ripley (1950b, p. 381) recorded it from the western tarai and the

Nepal Valley in winter. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 100) found it in the

western, west-central and eastern tarai and foothills in winter.

The coloration of the upper parts of my specimens agrees nicely with

that given by Baker (1926, p. 235) for the young birds, but the chin,

throat and breast have a rufous wash.

*345. Riparia riparia diluta (Sharpe & Wyatt). Collared Sand Martin,

The only post-Hodgsonian record of this sand martin from Nepal

is based on Proud’s (1949, p. 711) sight record in the Nepal Valley

throughout the year alongriver banks. It is significant to note here

that the very common Indian Sand Martin was missed by her in the

Nepal Valley.

*346. Hirundo rupestris Scopoli. Crag Martin.

We were unable to find the Crag Martin in Nepal. Scully (1879,

p. 234), however, noted it in central Nepal (Nepal and Markhu Valleys

and Nawakot district) in winter. Ripley (1950b, p. 380) found it at

c. 1525 m. in eastern Nepal in February. Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 100) reported it from west-central Nepal (c. 915 m.) in December.

347. Hirundo rustica rustica Linnaeus. Common Swallow.

Dun: Bhimphedi 1 4, 192 (March 12, 14). NepAL VALLEY: Thankot:

1 gd, 2juv. od, 1Q (March 21, 31, April 13, 14). :

The Common Swallow was observed by us from the upper dun

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 445

(Bhimphedi area) to the Nepal Valley from about the middle of March.

It was breeding in Bhimphedi area in mid-March.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

203: 121, 123 90, 94 12 (2)

Deg Ors 116; 117 tds 19 2>(2)

- The abovementioned specimens have been studied and reported

upon by Vaurie (1951b, pp. 19-25).

348. Hirundo rustica gutturalis Scopoli. Eastern Swallow.

Dun: Hitaura: 2 juv. 22 (July 15).

This appears to be the only record of the Eastern Swallow from

Nepal. For notes on these specimens, see Vaurie (1951b, pp. 23, 25).

*349. Hirundo smithii filifera Stephens. Indian Wiretailed Swallow.

Although not listed in either edition of the catalogue of Hodgson’s

collection (Gray & Gray, 1846; Gray, 1863), two specimens of the

Indian Wiretailed Swallow presented by Hodgson to the British

Museum have been included by Sharpe (1885, p. 151). The locality

for one of them has been given as Nepal, and for the other ‘ Behar ’.

There does not seem to be any other record of the species from Nepal.

*350. Hirundo daurica daurica Linnaeus. Daurian Striated Swallow.

The only record of the Daurian Striated Swallow from Nepal

appears to be that of Ripley (1950b, p. 380) who took a single example

in central Nepal at c. 1525 m. in December.

351. Hirundo daurica nipalensis Hodgson. Hodgson’s Striated Swallow.

Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 1 g, 1 juv. ¢ (May 6, June 2). CHITLANG

VALLEY: Chitlang: 2¢¢, 2 $2 (March 15-18). NepaL VALLEY: Kathmandu,

Thankot, Godavari: 4 ¢f, 5 22 (March 22-April 10, May 16).

Hodgson’s Striated Swallow is very common in the Nepal Valley as

well as in the lower ranges, usually in and around towns and villages.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 100) reported it from western, west-central

and central Nepal, at c. 275-1980 m. in winter. Biswas (1960a) recorded

it from eastern Nepal at c. 1525-2240 m. in June.

In April and May it was breeding in Chitlang and Nepal valleys.

Specimens taken in March had slightly swollen gonads ; those in April

had them more enlarged (a male, April 6, had the right testis 5 x 5 mm.,

and a female of same date had 8 x 5 mm. ovary with a 2.5 mm. ovum),

while a female taken May 16, had the ovary more developed.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown ; bill black; legs and feet dark horny ;

claws black ; pads greyish white.

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Measurements :

Miche ae Tee

Wings is, 116°C) 117 iss 120 109° 11543) 5 A6;(2),.120

Dail: 96, 91 (2),-92. 96,97, 102 82, 86 (2),—, 90, 91, 95

Bill : 10 (2), 10.5, 1042); 10.5.6) 1)

RS Oye os

Vaurie (1951b, pp. 28-34) had reported on a part of the above-

mentioned collection.

[Hirundo fluvicola Blyth. Indian Cliff Swallow.

Although Nepal is generally included in the range of the Indian

Cliff Swallow (Baker, 1926, p. 247 ; Vaurie, 1959a, p. 14; Peters, 1960,

p. 122, but not Ripley, in press), there does not seem to be any authen-

tic record of its occurrence there. The nearest I can trace is Sharpe’s

(1885, p. 201) listing of a single Hodgson specimen from ‘ Behar ’.]

*352. Delichon nipalensis nipalensis Horsfield & Moore. Nepal House

Martin.

The only post-Hodgsonian records of the Nepal House Martin are

Stevens’s (1925a, p. 375) from the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal, at c.

2440 m. in late April, and Biswas’s (1960a) from eastern Nepal at c.

1525 m. in June.

Family MOTACILLIDAE

353. Mbotacilla flava beema (Sykes). Indian Blueheaded Wagtail.

NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: 1 ¢ (April 12).

The Blueheaded Wagtail was rarely seen by us in central Nepal.

We came across it a few times when it was found to occur in small

flocks (4-6 individuals) in hill streams around Thankot in early

April, and a pair was once seen on the edge of water in an open

drain in Kathmandu on April 25.

Scully (1879) and Ripley (1950b) did not record it. Proud (1955,

p. 68) found it in the Nepal Valley in winter, and Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 186) reported it in addition from the western and eastern tarai

in winter.

Measurements: 1 4%: Wing 79; tail 69; bill 16.

354. Mbotacilla flava thunbergi Billberg. Greyheaded Wagtail.

Proud (1955, p. 68) is responsible for the only record of the Grey-

headed Wagtail from Nepal. She obtained specimens in the Nepal

Valley and reported its occurrence also in the eastern tarai on

passage in spring.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 447

*355. Mbotacilla flaya melanogrisea (Homeyer). Turkestan Black-

headed Wagtail.

This wagtail has so far been reported from Nepal only: once and

that was by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 186) from cut-over rice

fields in the lowlands of western Nepal in December.

*356. Mbotacilla citreola citreola Pallas. Yellowheaded Wagtail.

The only record of the Yellowheaded Wagtail from Nepal has been

made by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 187) from the western and

eastern tarai in winter.

357. Motacilla citreola calcearata Hodgson. Hodgson’s Yellowheaded

Wagtail.

NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: 1 ¢ (April 12).

This Yellowheaded Wagtail was observed by us only once in a

swampy patch at Thankot when the abovementioned specimen was

collected. It is apparently a rare bird of central Nepal. Scully’s (1879,

p. 316) only record was a probable sight record; Ripley (1950b) did

not find it ; and Proud (1955, p. 68) reported it as a passage migrant in

the Nepal Valley, a few remaining there for the winter. Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 187) record it from the western lowlands as fairly

common in winter.

Measurements 214: Wing 88 ; tail 84; bill 18.

The measurements as given by Baker (1926, p. 274) for this bird are

inaccurate.

358. Mbotacilla cinerea cinerea Tunstall. Eastern Grey Wagtail.

BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 2 92 (March 7). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang : 1

unsexed (April 17). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot: 6 ¢¢, 3 22 (March 24, April 5-13).

The Eastern Grey Wagtail is a common bird about streams and

tanks on the edges of forests in Nepal.

Scully (1879, pp. 315-316) found it common in the Nepal and Markhu

valleys and Nawakot district in winter. Ripley (1950b, p. 381) noted it

in the tarai and the Nepal Valley. Polunin (1955, p. 894) recorded it in

the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, at c. 3505 m. and 4115 m. in

summer. Lowndes (1955, pp. 34-35) observed it in Manangbhot, central

Nepal, from c. 2135 to 4115 m.in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 186) reported it in west-central and central Nepal from the tarai up

to c. 1980 m. during winter and spring.

_A female specimen (Thankot, March 24) has the chin and throat in

moult, while another female from. the same locality (April 10) has

some of its rectrices still growing. 3

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Measurements : a a 4

? ae Wing Tail Bill

635: 82 (3), 83 (2), 84 | 92 (2), 93 (2), 96, 98 16, —(2), 17 (3)

5 92 : ¥' 80,81, 82 (2)084 - >: 92 (2), —, 93, 97 16 (2); 17), 17.5

_ 1 unsexed : 82 Ga rez pat

The measurements of tail and tarsus as given by Baker (1926,

pp. 265-266) are evidently incorrect.

Vaurie (1957a, p. 10) has shown that both caspica Gmelin and

melanope Pallas should be synonymized with nominate cinerea.

Motacilla alba Linnaeus

Six races of the White Wagtail group have so far been recorded

from Nepal, and all of them from central Nepal. Curiously, Ripley

(1950b) did not report any.

359. Mbotacilla alba dukhunensis Sykes. Indian White Wagtail.

NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot: 3 $f (April 12).

This White Wagtail is fairly common in the Nepal Valley during

April on rivers, in paddy or wheat fields, etc.

Scully (1879, pp. 314-315) and Proud (1955, p. 67) reported it to

be common in the Nepal Valley throughout the winter up to May.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 185) found it from western to eastern

Nepal at c. 275-1340 m. between November and April. Biswas (1960a)

reported it from Chautara district, central Nepal, at c. 855 m. in

January.

Measurements: 3 $3: Wing 90(2),91; tail 90,91 (2); bill 17, —, 18.

*360. Mbotacilla alba personata Gould. Masked Wagtail.

Lowndes (1955, p. 35) reported the Masked Wagtail for the first

time from Nepal. He came across it in Manangbhot, central Nepal, at

c. 3505 m. in July. Proud (1955, p. 67) found it as a very rare winter

visitor to the Nepal Valley. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 185) recorded

it from the western and eastern tarai in winter.

361. Mbtacilla alba baicaiensis Swinhoe. Swinhoe’s White Wagtail.

NEPAL VALLEY : Kathmandu: 1 ¢ (April 8).

This wagtail appeared rare in central Nepal during March-April.

The specimen mentioned above was found on Bagmati River in a mixed

flock of M. a. alboides and M. a. leucopsis. None of Hodgson’s or

Scully’s specimens is baicalensis ; nor do their lists contain it (it was,

however, not recognized during Hodgson’s time), and Ripley (1950b),

and Rand & Fleming (1957) did not record it either. The only other

specimen of this race from Nepal that I could find was one in the

Bailey collection in the British Museum, labelled as Jeucopsis. Polunin .

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 449

(1955, p. 894) reported it from the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, in

summer. Proud (1955, pp. 67-68) found it on passage in the Nepal

Valley in spring, a few examples remaining there in winter.

My specimen had non-breeding testes.

Measurements : linda Wing 93 ; tail 92 ; bill 17.

362. Mbotacilla alba ocularis Swinhoe. Streakeyed Wagtail.

NEPAL VALLEY : Kathmandu: 1 ¢ (April 25).

The Streakeyed Wagtail was observed by us along Bagmati River

in very small numbers for about 10 days from mid-April. It was seen

in mixed flocks with M. a. dukhunensis. Scully (1879, p. 315) was the

first to report its occurrence in Nepal. He obtained a single example

in the Nepal Valley on May 7. Subsequently, it was observed only by

Proud (1955, p. 67) as common there on spring migration.

My specimen had non-breeding testes.

Measurements : 1d: Wing 97; tail 99 ; bill 16.

363. Mbotacilla alba leucopsis Gould. Whitefaced Wagtail.

NEPAL VALLEY: Kathmandu, Thankot: 7 dg, 6 22 (March 21, 23, April 8-12).

The Whitefaced Wagtail was found by us to be quite common in

the Nepal Valley during March-April on sandy banks and sandy islands

of rivers, frequently in mixed flocks with M. a. alboides.

Scully (1879, p. 314) found it common in winter from the Nepal

Valley down to the central plains. Proud (1949, p. 712; 1955, p. 68)

reported it.extremely common in the Nepal Valley in winter. Rand &

Fleming (1957) did not include it in their list.

All my specimens had non-breeding gonads.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

PES 8788 (2), 8912)5 91-2) 85, 86, 89 (2), 90(2),91 17 (4), 17.5, 18 (2)

6 Qo: 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90 86 (3), 87, 92 (2) 17 (4), 17.5 (2)

364. Motacilla alba alboides Hodgson. Hodgson’s White Wagtail.

, BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 ¢ (March 8). NEPAL VALLEY: Kathmandu, Than-

kot : 6¢4, 529, 1 unsexed (March 23, 24, April 9-14).

Hodgson’s White Wagtail is quite a common bird of the Nepal

Valley during March-April, usually at the same sites as WZ. a. leucopsis,

sometimes in mixed flocks with it. On a few occasions it has also been

seen roving over cultivated fields on river banks.

Lowndes (1955, p. 35) did not find it common in Manangbhot, c.

3655 m., central Nepal, in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 184)

recorded it from west-central to eastern Nepal (c. 290-2745 m.) in

winter. Biswas (1960a) reported it from eastern Nepal at c. 855-2135 m.

in January-February, and c. 3960-4570 m. in March-May.

All my examples had non-breeding gonads.

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

My female specimens are blackish grey on the upper side.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

733: 90,93, 94 (2), 95,96,97 90, 91 (2), 93, 94, 95,97 18 (2), 18.5, 19 (4)

a1POr: 87 (3), 88 (2) _ 86 (3), 88 (2) 18 (2), 18.5, 19,—

1 unsexed : 94 92 19

365. Mbotacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin. Large Pied Wagtail.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: | subad. ¢ (June 8). Dun: Hitaura: 3 subad. 3,

5 juv. gg, 7 subad. 2° (May 15, 16, 27, June 2, 12, 24, July 11, 18). MARKHU VALLEY :

Kulikhani: 1 ¢ (July 2). NepAL VALLEY : Thankot : 2 subad. ¢¢, 1 subad. 2

(April 10-12).

This pied wagtail is not a common bird of the Nepal Valley during

March-May, but fairly common along the principal rivers of the central

bhabar and dun insummer. Several times it was seen far away from

rivers on other bodies of water.

Scully (1879) did not record the species from Nepal. Proud (1949,

p. 712) found it very scarce in the Nepal Valley where Ripley (1950b,

p. 381) found itin December. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 184) reported

it from the lowlands and foothills of west-central and central Nepal in

winter and spring.

All the specimens marked subadult are not in full adult plumage.

They have nearly completed post-juvenile moult. This moult has just

started in three male specimens (Hitaura, June 12, 17, 22). Another

male bird (Thankot, April 12) has nearly attained the adult dress, while

the male specimen from Kulikhani (July 2) has just attained the adult

plumage, although its outer and two central pairs of rectrices are still

growing.

Measurements of adult and subadult birds :

Wing Tail Bill

4igse 91, 92, 93, 96 93, 94,—, 98 19-(2), 20 (2)

7 99 :¥188, 89, 90 (2),—91 (2) 90 (2),(2), 91 (2);95 19 (2), 19.5 (4),—

*366. Anthus novaeseelandiae richardi Vicillot. Richard’s Pipit.

Scully (1879, pp. 316-317) had a single female specimen of Richard’s

Pipit from the Nepal Valley in winter. He noted it as ‘ decidedly rare’.

Later, Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 188) recorded it only from the eastern

tarai in winter. There does not appear to be any other Nepali record

of this pipit after Hodgson’s.

367. Anthus novaeseelandiae rufulus Vieillot. Indian Pipit.

Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 1 juv. ¢, 2 29, 2 juv. unsexed (May 8, June 3, 4,

12,19). NepaL VALLEY: Burhanilkantha, Kathmandu, Thankot : 13 ¢¢, 1 juv. ¢, 1

subad. 2 (April 1-14, May 3).

The Indian Pipit is common in central Nepal, from the dun up to

the Nepal Valley in and about grasslands, and cultivated fields of

wheat, maize, etc.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 451

Scully (1879, p. 317) reported it resident in the Nepal Valley, and

common in the Markhu Valley and Nawakot district in winter. Ripley

(1950b, p. 381) found it in the Valley in April (breeding) and in the

central plains in November. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 188) noted it

from western to eastern Nepal (c. 275-1065 m.) in winter.

The subadult female specimen (Burhanilkantha, May 3) is in very

fresh plumage, immediately after a general moult. The blackish-brown

centres of feathers of its upper parts and tail are somewhat darker than

those of adult birds, and with broader and more prominent pale

fulvous edges. Underparts are similar to adults. Hindclaw is a little

shorter. It had non-breeding ovary.

Birds taken in April and May had fully breeding gonads, while a

female taken on June 12, had exhausted ovary. The June 12 female is

very worn.

Colours of soft parts: Iris brown to dark brown; upper mandible dark horny,

paler on edges and tip; lower mandible fleshy with yellowish tinge on base and smoky

on tip (the subadult female specimen lacks yellow); legs and feet yellowish fleshy (the

subadult female has yellow only on the dorsal side); claws horny; pads pale yellow

(white in subadult female).

Measurements :

13 dg 292 1 subad.9

Wing: 79.5, 81 (3), 82 (3), 82.5 (2), 83 (2), 84 (2) 76+, 78 80.5

Tail : 55, 57 (2), 38 (3), 59 (2), 59.5, 60, 62 (2), 63 55+, 60 59

Bill: 16 (2), 16.5 (4), 17 (5), 17.5 (2) 16, 17 15.5

*368. Anthus godlewskii (Taczanowski). Blyth’s Pipit.

Polunin (1955, p. 894) provided the first authentic post-Hodgsonian

record of this pipit from Nepal. He found a few specimens in the

Langtang Valley, central Nepal, at c. 4115 m. early in September.

Proud’s (1949, p. 712) report of the extra-limital Anthus campestris*

from the Nepal Valley, refers in all probability to this species with

which until recently, there has been a great deal of confusion (see Hall,

1957, pp. 726-731).

*369. Anthus similis jerdoni (Finsch). Brown Rock Pipit.

The only record of the Brown Rock Pipit from Nepal appears to be

that of Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 188-189) who occasionally found

it in western Nepal near cultivation in winter.

370. Anthus trivialis trivialis Linnaeus. Tree Pipit.

NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot: 1 2 (April 11).

The Tree Pipit is apparently a rare bird in Nepal. Neither Hodgson

(Gray & Gray 1846; Gray 1863), nor Scully (1879) or Ripley (1950b)

found it there, but Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 187) record a single

female specimen from west-central Nepal (c. 1370 m.) in December.

"We have a recent letter from Mrs. Proud stating that this was an error and she

never found this species in Nepal.— Eps.

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

My specimen was taken out of a flock of seven birds.

Measurements: 12: Wing 83; tail 62; bill 15.5.

Anthus hodgsoni Richmond. Indian Tree Pipit.

The Indian Tree Pipit is a very common bird of central Nepal from

Bhimphedi region to the Nepal Valley during March-April in gardens,

light forests, outskirts of and clearings in forests. They usually occur

in small flocks, individuals feeding together in a small patch of ground

or scattered over a wide area. During the third week of April, however,

one flock was found broken up into feeding pairs.

While I have not made any special study of this pipit, I find that the

latest and the best available revision of the species by Ripley (1948b),

has only limited utility by not answering many points. His characteri-

zation of the subspecies does not hold good in many cases. The

striations particularly are very variable, and I have examined many

specimens which, according to his definition, should be called hodgsoni

when their dorsal side alone is examined, but yunnanensis from the

ventral side. I believe, the question of the subspecies of Anthus hodgsoni

still remains open. |

I am not sure if the 33 specimens from Nepal at my disposal should

all be placed under one subspecies or more. On the basis of characters

of the dorsal side alone, as given by Ripley, they may, however, be

grouped under the two! subspecies that are known to occur in India, as

follows :

371. Anthus hodgsoni yunnanensis Uchida & Kuroda. Northern Tree

Pipit.

TARAI : Simra : 1 2 (March 4). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang : 1 2 (April 19).

NEPAL VALLEY : Kathmandu, Pashupatinath, Thankot : 4 $3, 6 22, 1 unsexed (March

21-April 17).

Ripley (1950b, p. 381) reported this form from western central and

eastern Nepal at c. 1220-2440 m. in winter and spring. Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 187) found it from western to eastern Nepal at c.

275-2775 m. in winter.

Most of my specimens are in some stage of moult, e.g.:

March 4, 2: crown and throat

21, ¢ : crown, chin, throat and tail

22, ¢ : crown, chin and throat; tail moult finished

23, 3: crown to nape and chin to upper breast

27, 2: crown

30, ¢: posterior crown with just grown feathers ; central rectrices in moult

30, 2: whole head and chin to upper breast

1 There appears to be no authentic record of the occurrence of the third accepted

subspecies, A. h. berezowskii Zarudny in India. Ripley’s (op. cit., pp. 623, 626) record,

followed by Vaurie (1959a, p. 68), is based on three specimens in the Koelz collection

from Uttar Pradesh (United Provinces) that are in fact juvenile Anthus pelopus.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 453

April 1, 2: crown, chin and throat

8,2: crown to upper back, and chin to upper breast

11,2: upper tail coverts

The gonads of a male (March 23) and two female (April 8 and 11)

specimens Were just beginning to swell.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown; upper mandible horny with fleshy

on base ; lower mandible fleshy with horny tip ; legs and feet horny fleshy ; claws

horny ; pads fleshy white.

Measurements :

Ags 822 1 unsexed

Wing: 85 (2), 87, 87.5 79, 80 (2), 81 (2). 82 (2), 83 84

Tail: 64, 64+, 66, 66+ 38, 59°(3);-61 (2);'62'@) 62

Bill: 15 (3), 16 15 (6), 16 (2) —

372. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni Richmond. Hodgson’s Tree Pipit.

BHABAR: Amlekhganj:1 4(March 7). DuN: Bhimphedi:1 ¢, 1 @ (March

11, 12). CuirLaNG VALLEY: Chitlang: 2 ¢3% (April 19, 20). NepAL VALLEY:

Kathmandu, Pashupatinath, Gowchar, Thankot, Chandragiri Pass: 8¢¢, 599, 2

unsexed (March 20-April 13).

Ripley (1950b, p. 381) found this Tree Pipit only in eastern Nepal in

winter, and Rand & Fleming (1957) did not find it at all.

Some of my specimens are in moult, e.g. :

March 7, ¢: moult just commenced on throat.

11, 6: crown, throat and tail.

20, 2: crown to upper back, and chin to breast

24, unsexed : crown to nape, and chin to upper breast

26, ¢: whole head, chin, throat

26, ¢ : just commenced on chin and throat

April 1, %: moult just finished

5, 6: head feathers still with sheaths

5, 2: crown to back, and chin to breast

0, unsexed: throat in moult, tail very worn

2, 0 : moult just finished

3, 3: sheaths still present on feathers of crown to upper back, and chin

to throat

19, %: posterior crown

20, 6: crown

All the specimens had non-breeding gonads.

Measurements :

12 ¢d 6 22 2 unsexed

Wing: 83 (2), 84, 85, 85.5, 86 (3), 87(3), 904 80, 81 (2), 82 (2), 82.5 81, 84

Tail : 59, 62 (4), 63 (2), 64 (2), 65.5, 66, 688 58, 59, 60 (2), 62 (2) —, 60

Bill : 15 (4), 15.5 (2), 16 (3), —, 164, 17 15 (3), 15.5 @) 15.5 (2)

a This, the largest specimen (Chitlang, April 19), also has the striations -on

the upper side intermediate between yunnanensis and hodgsoni.

454. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2) ©

* 373. Anthus cervinus (Pallas). Redthroated Pipit.

The only post-Hodgsonian record of the Redthroated Pipit from

Nepal has been furnished by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 188) who

took a single example in west-central Nepal at c. 5180 m. in December.

374. Anthus pelopus J. E. & G. R. Gray. Hodgson’s Pipit.

Anthus pelopus J. E. & G. R. Gray, 1846, Cat. spec. drawings Mam. Birds

Nepal pres. Hodgson, p. 154. (Nepal.)

A. (nthus) roseatus Blyth, 1847, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 16 : 437. (Nepal.)

NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot ; 5 ¢¢, 1 @ (April 9-12).

We did not find Hodgson’s Pipit to be common in central Nepal.

Small flocks were occasionally seen in wet fields and grassy patches.

Scully (1879, pp. 317-318), found it to be fairly common in the

Nepal and Chitlang valleys, central Nepal, from October to March,

but always solitary. Ripley (1950b) did not find it in Nepal. Polunin

(1955, p. 894) reported it as very common at c. 3050 m. up in the

Langtang Valley, central Nepal, during summer. Lowndes (1955, p. 35)

found it locally fairly common in summer up to c. 4725 m. in

Manangbhot, central Nepal. Biswas (1960a) reported it breeding at

c. 4570-4725 m. in April-May and observed it commonly up to c.

5335 m. in May in Khumbu, eastern Nepal.

A male specimen taken on April 10 is undergoing post-juvenile

moult.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

43d: 84.5 a, 86.54, 90, 91 634, 644, 67, 69 164, —, 174, 17

LECEE: 85 64 16.5

a These two specimens appear to be female from size, but they are marked

male on their labels.

375. Anthus sylvanus (Blyth). Upland Pipit.

MarkKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 ¢ (April 29). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang :

4 8d, 1Q (April 29, July 2, 26).

This pipit was occasionally found by us on the Chandragiri above

Chitlang and on the Mahabharat Range around Deorali.

Scully (1879, p. 318) and Proud (1949, p. 712) found it resident

on hills round the Nepal Valley. Polunin (1955, p. 895) reported

a single example in the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, at c. 2745 m. in

summer. Ripley (1950b) did not find it in Nepal. Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 189) record it from west-central Nepal at c. 1435 and 2285 m.

in winter.

It was breeding in iui

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Sad: © 78,79 (2), 80(2) 66, 69, 70 (3) 17.5, —, 18 (3)

1O% 79 69 18

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 455

Family CAMPEPHAGIDAE

376. Coracina novaehollandiae nipalensis (Hodgson). Large Hima-

layan Cuckoo-Shrike.

TaRAI: Simra: 2 é¢ (March 5, 6), BHABAR : Amlekhganj : 1¢',1 2 (March 9,

10). Dun: Hitaura: 1 4, 1 subad. J, 3 22 (May 22, 28, June 1, 9, 15). NEPAL

VALLEY : Godavari, crest of Chandragiri above Thankot:1 3, 3 22 (April 14, May

10, 15).

This large cuckoo-shrike isa common bird of different types of

forests of central Nepal, usually in pairs at least during spring and

summer. It is shy.

Scully (1879, p. 268) found it common in Nawakot district and

the central bhabar and dun in winter, but merely as a straggler in

the Nepal Valley from end October to mid-November. Proud (1949,

p. 707), however, reported it to be resident there from c. 1525 to

2440 m., and saw it even in January and February. Ripley (1950b,

p. 383) came across it from the tarai up toc. 1830 m. Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 104) reported it from c. 275 to 1830 m. in western

through eastern Nepal.

The subadult male specimen (Hitaura, June 1) is moulting into

adult dress. A female bird (Godavari, May 10) has the forecrown

and upper breast moulting. Two other birds (Hitaura, 9, May 22,

and o', June 15) are also in partial moult, while another female

(Hitaura, June 9) is finishing a complete moult.

In mid-April a female had granular ovary, measuring 10 x 6 mm.,

while in mid-May birds had almost breeding gonads, but females

taken on May 28 and June 9 had spent up ovaries.

Colours of soft parts : Iris brownish red ; bill, legs, feet and claws black ; pads

grey or yellowish grey.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

5 dd: 175,176, 180, 181, 187 132, 135, 136, 143, 148 31@), 32,32.5,33

6 Q9: 173, 177 2), 178, 179,180 133, 138, 141, 142 (2), 143 31 (3), 31.5 (2), 32

377. Coracina melaschistos melaschistos (Hodgson). Dark Grey Cuckoo-

Shrike.

TARAL: Simra : 1 2 (March 6). DUN : Hitaura, Kusumtar, Bhimphedi: 1 subad.

3,292 (May 6, 19, 31). MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 ¢ (May 1). CHITLANG

VALLEY: Chitlang: 1 subad. 3 (April 16). NepaL VALLEY: Thankot: 7 34,

3 99,2subad. 22,1 juv. 2 (March 21-29, April 1, 14, June 29).

This smaller cuckoo-shrike is common in the Nepal Valley from

about the third week of March. It is common also in the dun

during May-June. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 104) did not find it

to be common in the Nepal Valley. However, it was very fre-

quently heard and as a matter of fact, observed by us in fair numbers

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

on the slopes of Chandragiri about Thankot, also at Godavari

and in smaller numbers in the central woods.

Scully (1879, p. 267) noted it in the Nepal Valley from April to

September, while Proud (1949, p. 707) found it there from March to

mid-October. Ripley (1950b, p. 382) found it in the eastern tarai in

winter. Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.) recorded it from west-central Nepal

also.

A subadult female bird from Thankot (April 1) has the primaries

brown. The subadult male from Chitlang (April 16) has brown

primaries and some bars on the undertail coverts, while another

subadult male (Hitaura, May 19) has brownish general coloration

with brown primaries and rectrices. The juvenile female specimen

(Thankot, June 29) is barred both above and below.

Birds taken towards the end of March (28-29) had somewhat

swollen gonads, the ovaries being granular, and a female shot two

months later (Hitaura, May 31) had much developed ovary, measur-

ing 7 x 8 mm. witha few ova 3-4 mm. in diameter.

Colours of soft parts : Iris reddish brown ; bill, legs, feet and claws black; pads

dirty white, sometimes with yellowish tinge.

Measurements :

83d 629 |

Wing: 119,121 (3), 124, 125, 127, 128 114, 117,118 (2), 120, 122

Tail: 114, 117, 119, 120 (3), 121, 123 109, 110, 111,—, 118, 120

Bill. * 2055, 215-2 ho) 2273) a23 21 (3), 21.5, 22, —

378. Coracina melanoptera sykesi (Strickland). Blackheaded Cuckoo-

Shrike.

Lalage sykesi Strickland, 1844, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 13: 36. (Deccan?.)

Dun: Hitaura: 1 & (May 21).

The Blackheaded Cuckoo-Shrike was seen by us only once in a patch

of light forest bordering cultivated fields in the central dun. There~

does not appear to be any record of this species so far from Nepal.

Measurements : 13%: Wing 106 ; tail 94.

Delacour (1951, p. 14) has included this specimen in his studies on

this species.

*379. Pericrocotus roseus roseus (Vieillot). Rosy Minivet.

The Rosy Minivet does not seem to have been reported from Nepal

after Hodgson. ?

*380. Pericrocotus cinnamomeus peregrinus (Linnaeus). Northern

Small Minivet. |

We had not been lucky enough to come across the Small Minivet

in Nepal, nor was Scully (1879) either. However, Ripley (1950b,

-t Strickland referred to Sykes’s bird from the Deccan, Baker’ S (1921b, p. 696;

1924, p. 240 ; 1930a, p. 158) eee Aa of the age Keegy as " Calcutta.” was there-

fore an error.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 457

p. 382) found it in the western and eastern tarai, and Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 102) reported it from the western and west-central tarai.

381. Pericrecotus solaris solaris Blyth. Yellowthroated Minivet.

MaArRKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 3, 1 2 (April 29, 30).

The Yellowthroated Minivet was observed by us on two or three

occasions in the oak forest about Deorali towards the end of April

and early May. It was in all probability breeding around there. I

am unable to find any other post-Hodgsonian record of its occur-

rence in Nepal.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

boi: 86 102 16

(Oe 81 92 15

382. Pericrocotus ethologus favillaceus Bangs & Phillips. Western

Longtailed Minivet.

383. Pericrocotus ethologus laetus Mayr. Sikkim Longtailed Minivet.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 3, 1 2 (March 13, May 7). CHITLANG VALLEY:

Chitlang, Chandragiri above Chitlang: 2 ¢, 1 2 (April 18-24). NepaL VALLEY:

Thankot, Chandragiri above Thankot: 3 Jd, 1 juv. go, 4 29, 1 juv. 2 (March

24-April 13).

The Longtailed Minivet is quite common from Bhimphedi up to the

Nepal Valley, particularly in the forests at the foot of Chandragiri,

both on Thankot side and on Chitlang side. On some occasions we

observed it passing in a flock from one side of the range to the other

across the crest. This crossing would be done rather leisurely, the

birds stopping several times on the way to feed or indulge in love-

play.

Ripley (1950b, pp. 381-382) reported it from western and eastern

Nepal also. Lowndes (1955, p. 33) found it in Manangbhot,

central Nepal, occasionally at c. 3655-3930 m. in summer. Rand &

Fleming (1957, p, 102) recorded it from western to eastern Nepal.

On March 24, a male bird had quite enlarged testes, 10 x 6 (R) and

11 x 7 mm. (L), and a female on April 9 was laying; but another

female on April 13 had only granular ovary, 5 x 3 mm.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

6 d3: 89, 91, 92(2), 92.5, 94 102, 103 (2), 103.5, 104, — 15.5:(2), 16 (2), 16.5—

6 92: 89 (2), 89.5, 90,91, 92 101.5, 102 (2), 103, 107,108 15.5 (2), 16.5, — (3)

Scully (1879, pp. 268-270) listed all his specimens of P. ethologus

under the closely similar species P. brevirostris. Those of his specimens

that I have examined, undoubtedly belong to P. ethologus. Furthermore,

his description and measurements also bear this out. Ripley (loc. cit.)

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

called his eastern Nepal examples /aetus, and the central and western

ones, favillaceus, while Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.) placed all their

examples from western, west-central and eastern Nepal under favilla-

ceus. Lowndes (loc. cit.) identified his specimens from the westernmost

part of central Nepal as /aetus. From an examination of the collections

at the British and American Museums of Natural History, however, I

am unable to subscribe fully to their views. All my female specimens

have reduced yellow on forehead, thus approaching Jaetus, but olive

green on the back is not pronounced, thereby leaning towards favilla-

ceus. Moreover, the wing-tail ratio in the males is closer to that of

laetus. I would, therefore, treat the central Nepal population as inter-

mediate between the western Himalayan favillaceus and the eastern

laetus with perhaps a slight leaning towards the latter. The intergrading

zone extends eastward at least up to the Dudh Kosi Valley, for the

single specimen examined thence appears near favillaceus. Ihave not

had the opportunity to compare any specimen from west-central or

western Nepal, nor from east of the Dudh Kosi Valley. But from the

data furnished by Ripley and Rand & Fleming, I would imagine the

ranges of the two subspecies in Nepal to be as follows :

Western and west-central .. P.e. favillaceus.

Central and eastern up to Dudh

Kosi Valley .. Pe. favillaceus eS laetus

Eastern, Arun Valley eastward .. P. e. laetus

384. Pericrocotus brevirostris brevirostris (Vigors). Shortbilled Minivet.

MARKHU VALLEY : Deorali: 14, 12 (April 29, 30).

The Shortbilled Minivet did by no means appear to be common in

central Nepal. A small flock was seen in the pine forest near Deorali

when two specimens were collected. Very probably it breeds some-

where in central Nepal, for my specimens had much enlarged gonads,

and in the flock the males were seen chasing the females.

Scully’s birds listed under P. brevirostris are, as has been noted

above, all P. ethologus. Ripley (1950b) did not come across P. brevi-

rostris in Nepal, and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 101) hesitantly

placed an immature male specimen taken near Beni, west-central Nepal

(November) under this species. The reports of this species by Proud

(1949, p. 707) from the Nepal Valley, and Polunin (1955, p. 892) from

the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, are based on sight records. My

specimens would, therefore, constitute the first unmistakable record of

the occurrence of the species west of Sikkim.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

rege 90 101 15.3

1.9%: 89 95 15

sl lias

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 459

385. Pericrocotus flammeus_ speciosus (Latham). Indian Scarlet

Minivet. |

TARAI: Simra: 2 gf, 2 22 (March 4). BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 3, 2 99°

(March 6-11). DuN: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 6 33, 2 juv. gb, 7 22 (May 7-June 1,

12). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: 14,2 92 (March 23, April 1, 2).

The Scarlet Minivet is common in all the forests of central Nepal

except those of the tarai, probably because it had already started

moving to higher elevations by the time we arrived there in March. It

has also been found in eastern Nepal by Ripley (1950b, p. 381) in

February, and in western, west-central and eastern by Rand & Fle-

ming (1957, p. 101) in November-February.

All my male specimens have the first two outer primaries unmarked

and the females generally have three such unmarked feathers. The

following variations in the female may be noted :

1. First two primaries unmarked (as in male) : Two specimens

(Bhimphedi, May 7, and Hitaura, May 27).

The first-named specimen in this category has some faint

scarlet patches on the under tail coverts. This incidentally is the eee

of my female specimens.

2. First two primaries unmarked and the third primary with

about 8 mm. long mark : One specimen (Amlekhganj, March 6).

3. Three left and two right primaries unmarked, the third

right primary having only a small speck of yellow mark : One speci-

men (Hitaura, May 16).

The presence or extent of scarlet on the central tail feathers of

males is somewhat variable. Of the 10 examples noted above, there is

no scarlet on the central tail feathers in four of them, and in the

remaining six specimens it is present as follows :

(1) Asasmall wedge on the tip : Two specimens: Simra, March 4

(8 and 11 mm.), Amlekhganj, March 11 (4 and 4.5 mm.).

(2) Spindle-shaped, not symmetrical on the two feathers :

Three specimens :

(i) Simra, March 4—on one : 52 mm. long, tip to about

the middle of the feather, 4mm. across the widest

part, does not touch the shaft; on the other : 37 mm.

long, anterior end is at 15 mm. from tip of the

feather, 1.5 mm. across the widest part.

(ii) Thankot, April 1—similar to (i), but size 36x 2.5 mm.

and 45 x 3mm. does not reach the tips of feathers.

(iii) Hitaura, May 23—similar to (ii) but 55 x 3.5 mm. .

(3) Irregular and asymmetrical : one specimen—Hitaura, May 16.

On one central rectrix there is a6 mm. wedge, but on the other it

is as if a wedge has fused with a spindle-shaped mark (Fig. 1),

43 x 4mm.

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

yet

0mm,

Fig. 1. Right central rectrix of a male specimen of Pericrocotus flammeus

speciosus (Latham) from Hitaura, Nepal. The shaded area represents the irregular

and asymmetrical scarlet patch.

A male on April 1 (Thankot) had much swollen testes, but the

female of April 2 from the same locality had only granular ovary,

4x Smm. End May—early June specimens had the testes about

similar in size to those of April 1, but more enlarged ovaries.

Measurements :

10 33 13 99

Wing: 100 (3), 102 (2), 103, 104 (3), 105 96,97 (2); 97:5,-98:(2),498-5,0 99

100, 101, 102, 102.5, 103a

Tail : 98, 99, 100 (2), 103, 104, 105 (4) 94, 96, 96.5,98, 100 (3), 100.5,

102, 102.5, 103a, 104, 105

Bill : 20 (4), 20.5 (2), 21 (2), 21.5 (2) 19) 19755, 204), 20.5, 21.(3)sa2ilea.

2158.22

a Specimen with the first two primaries unmarked, Bhimphedi, May 7 (also

see above).

386. Hemipus picatus capitalis (Horsfield). Brownbacked Pied Shrike.

TARAI: Simra: 1 3, 1 2 (March 4, 6). BHaBAR: Amlekhganj: 1 g, 12

(March 6,7). Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 8 J3, 1 subad. 3, 3 92, 1 juv. 92, 1 un-

sexed (May 4-6; 15, 24-29, June 7).

The Brownbacked Pied Shrike is commonly found in pairs or small

parties in the denser parts of forests of the tarai, bhabar and dun of

central Nepal. We were unable to locate it in the Nepal Valley, where

Proud (1949, p. 707) found it but very rarely. Ripley (1950b, p. 382)

recorded it from western and central Nepal up to c. 1525 m. in winter

and spring. Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 102-103) found it in west-

central Nepal, c. 915-1400 m. in winter, and on the Chandragiri, c.

1830 m. central Nepal, in May.

The juvenile female (Hitaura, May 29) has the upper plumage

barred with rufous, lower plumage white with fulvous tinge in irregular

patches on throat, breast and abdomen ; wing coverts fulvous white

barred with brown. Its crown feathers have an interesting colour

pattern : a rufous bar on the tip, followed by a crescent of brown and

the rest pale ashy with white shaft (Fig. 2).

The subadult male (Hitaura, May 24) is undergoing the post-juvenile

moult. :

The unsexed specimen (Bhimphedi, May 4) is very worn; and an

adult female (Hitaura, June 7) is in moult. ye

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 461

tenia Neate

we vt Se eo

ar RNS Ne] Ne F

Fig. 2. A crown feather of a juvenile female specimen of Hemipus picatus

capitalis (Horsfield) from Hitaura, Nepal. The apical bar is rufous, the shaft is

white, the pale area adjacent to the shaft is pale ashy, and the remaining broad

crescentic portion is brown.

Towards the end of May, the female birds had spent-up ovaries,

and the males somewhat swollen testes ; breeding was evidently over.

Colours of soft parts: Iris brown (dark brown in juv. §); bill black;

legs and feet dark horny (slaty in juv. 2) ; claws black ; pads white.

Measurements :

10 ¢¢ nina

Wing : 62, 63 (2), 63.5, 64 (2), 64.5, 65 (2), 67 64 (2), 64.5 (2)

Tail : 59, 60, 61 (3), 62, 63, 64 (2), 65 61 (3), 63.5

Bill : 16, 16.5 (2), 17 (3), 17.5,— G) 17 (3), 18

387. Tephrodornis guiaris pelvicus Hodgson. Nepal Wood Shrike.

DuN: Kusumtar, Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 2 gd, 7 subad. ¢4, 2 juv. gd,

3 29, 6 subad. 9°, 1 juv. 2 (May 3-22, 31, June 3, 4, 16, July 15).

The Nepal Wood Shrike is common in the central dun. It usually

occurs in pairs in open parts of forests.

Scully (1879) did not record the species from Nepal. Ripley

(1950b, p. 382) found it in the tarai and dun. Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 103) reported it from the lowlands to c. 1065 m. of western,

west-central and eastern Nepal.

All the subadult specimens which do not differ from adults in

size, have somewhat barred secondaries and upper tail coverts, and

two of them (o, Kusumtar, May 31 and June 4) have some blotches

of brown on ashy grey of crown, and white or mixed white and

rufous tips of outermost rectrices (an adult 9, June 4, also has white

tips).

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 38 (2)

All the adult and subadult specimens are in worn plumage. One of

the juvenile specimens: (, May 19) is moulting into adult dress,

while another (9, July 15) is very young, with downy white feathers

on the underside, evidently born during that season.

It does breed in subadult plumage. A subadult male had 13 mm.

long testes on May 5. But towards the end of May and early in

June, males had the testes reduced, and females had shrunken and

exhausted ovaries.

Colours of soft parts: Iris yellowish brown (in one subad. ¢ almost reddish

brown) ; upper mandible brownish black with brownish horny on base and round

nostrils; lower mandible brownish horny, paler on base (in two subad. ¢¢ both

mandibles black); legs and feet dull plumbeous (with horny tinge.in a subad. 2);

claws black (horny ina subad. 4); pads yellowish grey.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

2:ad. ao: 120, 123 90, 91 27.5 (2)

6subad. fb: 119, 120 (3), 122 (2) 87 (3), 90 (3) 26, 27, —, 28, 28.5, 29

B-ad 2: —, 123 (2) 89, 90, 92 De eae PCAN Oe,

6 subad. 99 : 116, 118 (2),119, 84, 86 (2), 87 (2), 88 —, 27.5 (2), 28,

120, 121 28:5, 29

388. Tephrodornis pondicerianus pondicerianus (Gmelin). Common

Indian Wood Shrike.

Taral: Simra: 1 2 (March 4). Dun: Hitaura: 4 gd, 1 2, 1 juv. &

(May 18, 23, June 1, 12).

The Common Wood Shrike is not uncommon in smail flocks

in light forests of the tarai and duns of central Nepal.

Ripley (1950b, p. 382) found it in the western tarai also, and

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 103), from c. 275-455 m. in western,

west-central and eastern Nepal.

The March bird has the central rectrices in moult, and the other

adult examples (May-June) are worn.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

4d: 86 (2), 87, 91 64, 68 (2), 69 23 (4)

ZOO: 86, 86.5 68, 71 23, —

FAMILY PYCNONOTIDAE

389. Pycnonotus striatus striatus (Blyth). Himalayan Striated Green

Bulbul.

RAPTI VALLEY : Mahabharat Range above Bhimphedi: 1 ¢, 1 imm. ¢, 2 29

(May 4, 6). MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 ¢ (May 1). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang :

1 g, 1 2 (April 16, 25). Nepat VALLey: Thankot: 5 ¢¢,3 92 (March 30-April 8).

The Striated Green Bulbul is not uncommon in central Nepal.

It was found by us in small flocks during March-April on both sides of

Chandragiri above 1525 m., and in May on Mahabharat Range above

Bhimphedi about the same altitude. |

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 463

Scully (1879) did not include it in his Nepal list. Ripley (1950b,

p. 385) reported it also from c. 2285 m. in eastern Nepal.

A male bird (April 25) from Chitlang has two outer rectrices

still growing.

The immature male specimen (Bhimphedi, May 6) is smaller in

size and has narrow, but not pointed tail feathers.

A female example taken on May 6 (Bhimphedi) was laying.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Sido: 106, 107 @), 109 2). 1, 98, 99'(2); 100,101. © 20:5:@),21 (4), 21.5,

112, 113 102, 105, 106 22

6 2o: 105 (3), 106, 107 (2) 97; 100 (2); 101; 1032)" 20°5°@);21 GB); 28.5

390. Pycnonotus melanicterus flaviventris (Tickell). Blackcrested Yellow

Bulbul.

TARAL: Simra: 3 go, 3 22 (March 4-7), Dun: Hitaura, Bhairab

Thumka: 5 J, 3 22, 2 feathered chicks (May 16, 20, 30, June 1-6, 11).

The Blackcrested Yellow Bulbul is not uncommon in pairs in the

tarai, bhabar and dun usually in light forests, but on one or two

occasions was seen in fairly dense forests too.

Scully (1879, pp. 295-296) found it in the central bhabar in winter.

Ripley (1950b, p. 384) reported it from tarai close to the foothills.

Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 144-145) found it from western to eastern

Nepal c. 275-1065 m. |

A male on June 1 (Hitaura) had somewhat swollen testes. The

gonad of a female taken on the same day, however, was more advanced.

Another male collected on June 11 had fully breeding testes.

Colours of soft parts: Iris pale yellow; bill black ; legs and feet horny ; claws

dark horny ; pads yellowish white.

Measurements :

8 od 2°

Wing : 86 +, 89, 90 (4), 91, 93 86 (2), 87 (2), 88, 89

Tail : 85 + , 86, 87, 88 (2), 89, 90 (2) 83, 84, 85 (3), 86

Bill: 16 (6), 16.5, 17 15.5 (2), 16 (2), 16.5 (2)

Deignan (1954a, p. 123) has shown that Pycnonotus gularis, P.

flaviventris, P. dispar and P. melanicterus are all conspecific (contra

Ripley, 1946, p. 228; 1950b, p. 384; and Rand & Fleming, 1957,

pp. 144-145).

391. Pycnonotus jocosus pyrrhotis (Bonaparte). Northern Redwhiskered

Bulbul.

I.(xos) pyrrhotis ‘ Hodgs.’ Bonaparte, 1850, Consp. Gen. Av. 1: 265. (India=

Nepal, ex Hodgson, 1844, nom. nud.)

Otocompsa jocosa provincialis Whistler, 1931, Bull. Brit. orn. Cl. 52: 40.

(Kumaon Bhabar.)

Dun: Hitaura : 3 ¢¢, 329, 2 nestlings (May 12-27, June 9).

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

The Redwhiskered Bulbul is fairly common in the bhabar and

dun of central Nepal during May-June in scrub jungle and light

forests. It is usually found in small flocks, but pairs as well as mixed

feeding parties of this species and M. cafer are also seen.

Scully (1879, p. 296) reported only caged specimens. Ripley (1950b)

did not find it in Nepal. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 145) reported

it fairly common in the tarai and dun from western to eastern Nepal.

Almost all my adult examples are fairly worn. A female (May 17)

has worn body plumage but fresh wings and tail.

One of the nestlings (May 12) has a dark brown crest and incomplete

pectoral band, while the other specimen, taken June 9, is downy, with

a few black feathers on crest and a complete pectoral band.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

oWoteits 88 + , 90 (2) 85,85 + , 86 192) ——

Sata 80, 81, 83 73, 77 @) 18°5 (2), 19

392. Pycnonotus leucogenys leucogenys (J. E. Gray). Indian White-

cheeked Bulbul.

Brachypus leucogenys J. E. Gray, 1835, Illustr. Indian Zool. 2: pl. 35, fig. 3.

(India = Himalaya and in Kashmir, according to Blyth, 1845, p. 567; = Darjeeling

according to Baker, 1921a, p. 469 ; = Kashmir according to Vaurie 1958, p. 19.)

TARAI: Simra : 2 gf (March 4). BABAR: Amlekhganj: 2 ¢J, 1 juv. 29 (March

6,8). DUN: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 3 $4, 1 juv. 2, 1 unsexed juv. (March 11, May

6, 8, 25, 26). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 2 92 (April 18, 22). NEPAL VALLEY :

Sheopuri ridge (east of Burhanilkantha), Godavari, Thankot, Crest of Chandragiri

5 og,5 22 (March 23-30, April 2-9, May 2, 10-13).

The Whitecheeked Bulbul is a very common bird of central Nepal

from the bhabar up to the Nepal Valley. It was also reported from

western and west-central Nepal, up to c. 2440 m. by Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 145), northern part of central Nepal (Langtang Valley,

c. 2440 m.) by Polunin (1955, p. 889), and the Arun Valley (c. 1525 m.),

eastern Nepal, by Biswas (1960a).

A female taken March 30 (Crest of Chandragiri) had swollen ovary,

with ova as large as 2.75 and 2 mm., while another female collected at

Thankot on April 2 had a granular ovary. Birds taken in May and

June had full breeding gonads.

Colours of soft parts ; Iris dark brown ; bill, legs, feet and claws black ; pads grey

to white.

Measurements ' :

18 33 Oe 2 unsexed

Wing: 85,—, 86, 87, 88 (2), 89 (4), 82, 83, 84 (2), 85 (3), 86 86, 88

90, 91 (3), 92 (3), 94

Tail: 81, 82, 83 (3), 84, 85 (3),—(2), 80, 81 (2), 82, 84 (2), 85, 86 84, 85

86 (2), 87, 88 (2), 89, 90

Bill: 19 (3), 19.5 (5), 20 (6), 20.5 (2), 21,— 18.5 (4), 19 (4) 19, 19.5

1 Including those of some additional specimens from Nepal present in the Zoolo-

gical Survey of India.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 465

For a discussion as to whether the White-eared Bulbul, P. leucotis,

should be considered conspecific with P. leucogenys, see Vaurie (1958,

pp. 14-15 ; 1959a, p. 191) and Ripley (1958a, pp. 1-5 ; and in press).

393. Pycnonotus cafer bengalensis Blyth. Bengal Redvented Bulbul.

Tara: Simra: 1 2 (March 4). Dun: Hitaura: 1 4, 1 juv. 3, 2 29, 2 juv. 29,

1 chick in down (May 19, 26, 27, June 4, July 28). . CarrLANG VALLEy:: Chitlang :

3 gf (March 18, April 21, 24). NepaL VALLEY : Kathmandu, Thankot: 4 $3, 2 29

(March 21-24, 30, April 7, 9).

The Redvented Bulbul is a very common bird in central Nepal! from

the plains up to the Nepal Valley in and around villages. It has been

reported from western and eastern Nepal by Ripley (1950b, p. oD) and

Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 145-146).

A male and a female bird taken on May 19 and 26 respectively, are

not in full adult plumage : they have very brown primaries, but in size

they are fully grown. The male specimen has the central rectrices in

moult, but the female is worn. The juvenile female specimen of July

28 (Hitaura) has black feathers coming on the crown, throat and breast.

The chick in down (Hitaura, May 27) has brown body with paler vent,

and rufous on wing coverts and remiges.

A female taken on April 7 (Thankot) has just finished moult.

The gonads were already somewhat enlarged in the latter half of

March and early April. Towards the end of May the gonads were in

full breeding condition, and a female taken on June 4 had an exhausted

ovary.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown; bill black : legs, feet and claws very

dark horny to black; pads white.

Measurements :

| 8S BOP i.

Wing: 101, 102, 103; 104 (2), 106 (2), 107 91, 96, 97, 98, 100

Tail: 95 +,96+, 97, 98,99, 99+. 103, 103+ 87 (2), 92, 93+, 95+

Bill: °~ 20,2035, 21 (2), 21.5.2); 22 (2) £9,5;20;20,5; 2025.(2)

The sexual dimorphism of size in this species, already noted by

earlier authors (e.g. Whistler & Kinnear, 1932b, pp. 775-756), is not

apparent from the wing measurements given by Rand & oe (op.

cit., p. 146).

394. Cringer flaveolus flaveolus (Gould). Indian Whitethroated Bulbul.

Trichophorus flaveolus Gould, 1836, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. (4): 6. (in

Himalaya mountains, in Nepal, etc. 1, restricted to Nepal by Koeiz, eas p.' 40:)5<

Dun : Hitaura: 5 33, 6 29 (May 14-June 4).

1 Baker was obviously. wrong in giving the type. locality as ‘ (India) (Cachar) ’

(1921a, p. 466; 1922d, p. 363) or as ‘ Himalayas, Cachar’ -(1930a, :p. 75). His re-

striction cannot in any case stand, since Cachar is not in the Himalayas.

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

The Whitethroated Bulbul is not common in central Nepal. It was

observed by us in small flocks in the forests around Hitaura in the dun,

and was also seen once near Amlekhganj in the bhabar.

Scully (1879, p. 295) found it to be common in winter between the

bhabar and dun, but Ripley (1950b) and Rand & Fleming (1957) did

not report it from Nepal. |

A female specimen (May 23) has moulting central rectrices, the left

one being only half grown and the right one although apparently fully

grown, had still the sheath on base.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

3dbb6: 104, 105, 106 (2), 107 92, 93, 94 (2), 97 20;:2.11(2)}-210-5 6122

622: 100 (3), 102, 103, 105 —, 88, 90 (2), 93 (2) —(2), 21 (3), 21.5

395. Hypsipetes virescens meclellandii (Horsfield). Rufousbellied

Bulbul.

Hypsipetes mceclellandii Horsfield, 1839 (1840), Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. (7):

159. (Assam. )

Ixos mcclellandii vargus Koelz, 1954, Contr. Inst. Reg. Expl. (1): 10. (Bhim-

phedi, Nepal.)

Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 6 ¢¢, 4922, 1 unsexed (March 12, 13, May 6,

13, June 17, 18). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 2 ¢¢ (April 17, 20). NEPAL

VALLEY: Thankot: 8 ¢¢ (March 21-April 9).

The Rufousbellied Bulbul is common in central Nepal from the dun

up to the Nepal Valley in pairs or in small parties. It was also found

in western Nepal by Ripley (1950b, p. 385), and west-central Nepal by

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 146).

It was breeding in the forests of Bhimphedi during mid-June.

Colours of soft parts: Iris brownish red ; upper mandible very dark horny, a

little paler on the sides of the anterior half; lower mandible fleshy with horny on

base and tip ; legs, feet and claws dark horny ; pads rusty.

Measurements :

16 gd 4 99 1 unsexed

Wing: 100, 103 (2),—, 105 (3), 106, 107 (2), 100, 102, 104, 107 109

1082, 108 (2), 109 (2), 110

Tail : 98 (2), 100 (2), 101 (2), 102 (3), 99, 102, 104, 105 107

103a, 105 (3), 107 (2), 109

Bill: 25, 25a, 26 (5), 26.5, 27 (2),—, 28 (4), 29 25, 26 (2), 27 26.5

a Type of vargus Koelz.

The measurements of tail and tarsus as given by Baker (19224, p. 337),

viz. ‘about 110’ and ‘ about 19’ respectively, do not appear to be very

accurate. Sixty-nine specimens taken from all over its range (Kumaon

east to Manipur) measure :

Tail Tarsus

33 od: 98-113 (av. 105.2) 16.5—19 (av. 17.4)

12 Ors 99-109 (av. 104.2) 16.5—18.5 (av. 17.8)

24 unsexed : 100-112 (av. 105.0) 16—18.5 (av. 17.3)

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL — Sey

396. Hypsipetes flavala flavala (Blyth). Himalayan Brown-eared Bulbul. |

Hemixos flavala Blyth, 1845, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 14: 572. (‘ Sub-Himalayan

ranges, extending to Assam, Sylhet and Arracan’ =Nepal, ex Hodgson, MS. Hereby

further restricted to Hitaura, Chisapani Garhi district.)

Dun : Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 11 ¢¢, 6 29, 2 unsexed (May 3-5, 11-29, June

5, 18).

The Brown-eared Bulbul is not uncommon in the central dun. It

occurs in pairs in deeper forests. ‘ It was breeding in May-June.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 146) recorded it also from western and

west-central Nepal, c. 305-1065 m.

Colours of soft parts: Iris brownish red; bill black; legs dark horny ;_ feet

horny ; claws dark horny ; pads white.

Measurements : ee

ll ¢¢ 6 22 2 unsexed

Wing : 95, 96, 97, 98a, 98, 99 (3), 100 (2), 102 89, 93 (3), 94, 95 92, 98

Tail: 85, 87, 88a, 88, 89 (3), 90, 91, 92, 95 81, 83 (2), 84, 85,86 82,88

Bil: 20,205 (2), 21 ),\21.54; 21.5 (3), 22 20 (6) 20, 21.5

aThis specimen (Hitaura, May 14) has a rather long tarsus, 20 mm., against

19 oD: 17-1855:

397.. Hypsipetes madagascariensis psaroides (Vigors). Himalayan

Black Bulbul.

Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi : 10 ¢¢, 7 22 (March 12, 13, May 3-11, 19, 25-28).

MaARKHU VALLEY : Deorali: 3 ¢¢, 1 2 (April 29-May 2). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot :

1 § (March 29).

The Black Bulbul is common in the dense forests of central Nepal

from the dun to the Nepal Valley. In the latter place, however, it is

not so common as it is inthe dun. In May-June it was seen in small

loose parties or a few pairs feeding together.

Ripley (1950b, p. 385) noted it as common in central and eastern

Nepal, but did not see it in western Nepal. Polunin (1955, p. 889)

reported it from c. 2440 m. in the Langtang Valley, central Nepal. Rand

& Fleming (1957, p. 147) recorded it from western, west-central and

eastern Nepal. Biswas (1960a) observed it in Chautara district, central

Nepal and Ramechhap district, western Nepal, in January-February.

Birds taken towards the end of May had breeding gonads.

Colours of soft parts : Tris dark brown ; bill coral red ; legs pale orange ; feet deep

orange ; claws horny ; pads white to pale orange.

- Measurements :

14 3 8 2°

Wing: 116 (2), 121 (2), 122 (2), 123, 124 (3), 125 (2), 111, 115 (3), 116 (2), 118 ,122

128, 129

Tail: 102, 108, 109 (2), 110, 111 (2), 112 (4), 97, 99, 100, 101, 105, 106, 110, 111

114, 116 (2) :

Bill: 26 (2), 27 (3), 27.5 (3),—, 28 (4), 29 26 (3),.27.5,—, 28 (3)

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Family TRENIDAE

398. Aegithina tiphia tiphia (Linnaeus). Common Iora.

Dun : Hitaura : 10 gg, 2 subad. 33, 5 29, 1 juv. unsexed (May 14-June 6).

The Iora is common in the central dun usually in the borders of

forests near villages. During May-June it was generally seen in pairs,

but sometimes singly also.

We missed it in the Nepal Valley where Proud (1949, p. 700 ; 1955,

p- 60) and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 143) found it. Ripley (1950 b, p. 383)

reported it only from the tarai. Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.) recorded it

also in western, west-central and eastern Nepal, at c. 275-2000 m. Scully

(1879) did not find it in Nepal. It was not included in the earlier list of

Hodgson’s collection (Gray & Gray, 1846), but in the list of his later

collection (Gray, 1863, p. 38) it was entered without any locality.

The juvenile specimen (May 25) has pale yellow downy feathers on

underside. One of the subadult males (May 18) has the central rectrices

in moult, and the other subadult male (June 6) has only the two central

pairs of rectrices black.

The birds were breeding in May-June. Two males taken on May 28

and June 1 had much enlarged testes.

Colours of soft parts: Iris pale yellow; bill bluish slate, black on culmen and

whitish on tip of upper mandible ; legs and feet glee: tag claws bluish slate ; pads

white.

Measurements :

10 g¢ 5 99

Wing : 62 (2), 63.5, 64 (3), 65, 65+, 66 60, 61, 63, 64, 65

Tail: 49 (2), 49.5, 50 (3), 50.5, 51, 52 (2) 3 50 (3), 51, 52

Bill : —, 17.5, 18,18.5 4), 19:3) 18 (2), 18.5 (3)

Marien (1952) utilized part of the material mentioned above in con-

nexion with his studies on the species.

399. Chloropsis aurifrons aurifrons (Temminck). Gélarented Chlo-

ropsis.

TARAIL: Simra : 3 ¢¢, 3 G2 (March 4-6). BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 4 ¢¢

(March 7, 8, June 8). Dun: Hitaura,Kusumtar, Paharé Ghat: 4 3, 1juv. g,2 22,

1 juv. 2 (May 17, 18, 27-June 2, 11).

-The Goldfronted Chloropsis is common in the dense forests of lower

regions of central Nepal. |

Ripley (1950b, p. 384) recorded it also from the eastern tarai. Rand

& Fleming (1957, p. 144) found it in the west-central and eastern tarai.

Most of the specimens taken in March have freshly moulted wings and

tails, but moult has not started in two male birds (March 4) which are

in worn plumage. Two females (March 4, 5) are moulting into adult

dress. A male specimen of May 18 has its moult nearly finished, the

wittg coverts and crown still moulting. Other May-June Sere are

more or less worn.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 469

The. juvenile male specimen (June 11) looks somewhat like the adult

female. Its gold-orange on the forehead and forecrown is dull, it has no

trace of golden collar and has very little blue but more of black on the

chin and throat. 2 |

The juvenile female bird (June 2) has only the anteriormost part of

the forehead golden, the remaining part of the forehead and the fore-

crown have merely a trace of yellow on green. It has no trace of

golden collar or any blue patch on the wings or the edges of the wings.

Its chin and throat are mixed blue, green and black, and the under tail

coverts are with bluish terminal.halves. The bill is paler in colour.

Birds taken towards the end of May and early June had almost

breeding gonads.

_ Colours of soft parts : Iris dark brown ; bill black ; legs greenish slate ; feet plum-

beous ; claws black ; pads yellowish white.

Measurements :

ibe 5 29

Wing : 93, 95, 96 (3), 96.5, 97 (3), 98, 100 89 (2), 90, 92 (2)

Tail : 65, 68, 69 (2), 70 (4),—, 72, 73 66, 67, 68.5, 69, 70

Bill: 24.5, 25 (5), 25.5 (2), 26 (2), 26.5 24, 25 (3),—

On the basis of the measurements of the material available to me, I

do not see any great difference in size between the Cachar and Himala-

yan birds, so as to warrant the separation of the latter as Chloropsis

aurifrons hodgsoni Gould, 1861 (type locality Nepal), as suggested by

Deignan (1946) (see also Rand & Fleming, 1957, p. 144). My measure-

ments are as follows: 3

Wing Tail Bill

Nepal : 11 gd: 93-100 (96.5)a 65-73 (69.6) 24.5-26.5 (25.4)

10 specimens

DEOL: 89-92 (90.4) 66-70 (68.1). 24-25 (24,8) |

4 specimens

North Bengal : OF Oa: 94, 96 68, 69 25,—

i 2 87 — 24

Assam (Darrang,

Khasi Hills, .

Sylhet) : JHIATY OSE 97 TI 25

2 Ooh: 91, 95 65, 68 24 (2)

3 2 unsexed : 86, 90 62+, 66 . —(2)

Assam (Cachar): ia. 94 68 —

South Bengal, Bihar Tage 95-103 (98.9) 69-77 (72.1) 25-26.5 (26.1)

(Ranchi, Singhbhum): 6 specimens 4 specimens.

Orissa, Madhya Pradesh ei

(Mandala, Balaghat): 1 unsexed : 95 + 10° = =!

- a Mean values are given in parentheses.

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

400. Chloropsis hardwickei hardwickei Jardine & Selby. Orange-

bellied Chloropsis.

Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 4 33,6929, 1 subad. 2 (March 12, May

4-28). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: 1 3, 1 2 (March 26).

The Orangebellied Chloropsis did not appear to us to be parti-

cularly common in central Nepal. We found it in the lighter parts of

forests in the dun and the Nepal Valley, occurring in pairs or small

parties ; and on one or two occasions noted single specimens.

Proud (1949, pp. 700-701) observed it as very common in the

Nepal Valley. Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 143-144) reported it also

from west-central and eastern Nepal at c. 915-2285 m.

My March birds are in fresh plumage, and those taken later are

more or less worn. A female collected on May 6 has nearly finished

its body moult, while another female shot on May 13 has worn tail

feathers except the central pair which are moulting. Its body moult

is nearly finished.

The subadult female bird (May 22) has brown primaries.

A male specimen taken on May 28 had somewhat swollen testes indi-

cating its nearness to breeding.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown; bill black; legs bluish grey; feet

bluish slaty ; claws black ; pads white.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

GS: 94 (2), 95, 98 (2) 713, Td:{2); 79 @) 25, 25. 5,—, 26 (2)

722: 88 + , 90(3),91,92(2) 67, 68 (3),—, 69,72 24, 24.5 (3),—, 25 (2)

Family LANIIDAE

[Lanius collurio isabellinus Hemprich & Ehrenberg. Pale Brown

Shrike.

Ripley (in press) states under the range of this bird : ‘ stragglers

noted from Nepal’. I am, however, unable to find any record of this

species in Nepal. ]

*401. Lanius vittatus vittatus Valenciennes. Baybacked Shrike.

The only record of the Baybacked Shrike from Nepal, after Hodg-

son’s collection, has been provided by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 189)

who came across a few specimens in the eastern tarai in January.

402. Lanius schach tricolor (Hodgson) Blackheaded Shrike.

BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 ¢(March6). DuN: Bhimphedi: 1 ¢ (March

11). NepAL VAtLey: Kathmandu, Thankot, 3.5 km. E. of Thankot* on Kath-

mandu Road: 6 ¢¢, 8 29, 1 unsexed (March 21-April 10).

The Blackheaded Shrike is a common bird of the Nepal Valley

during March-April. In the lower regions of central Nepal, such as

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 471

‘the dun and bhabar, it was getting gradually scarcer from March when

it began moving towards the breeding grounds. As Ripley (1950b,

p. 383) has pointed out, it was found to prefer light forests, scrub

jungle and edges of forests in contrast to the Tibetan Shrike’s (L.

tephronotus) preference for more open country.

Polunin (1955, p. 892) found it at c. 2745 m. in the Langtang

Valley, central Nepal, in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 190)

reported it from western, west-central and central Nepal. Biswas

(1960a) recorded it late in May from Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at

c. 3050 m.

Hybrids between this form and erythronotus have been reported

from western and west-central Nepal by Ripley (loc. cit.) and Rand

& Fleming (op. cit., pp. 189-190). My specimen from Amlekhganj

(3, March 6) is also a hybrid.

One of my male specimens (March 29, Thankot) is highly mela-

nistic, as has already been reported (Biswas, 1950c, p. 452).

Birds were coming to breeding condition towards the end of

March and early April, their gonads showing various stages of

development. 3

Colours of soft parts : cis dark brown ; bill black (sometimes paling to slate

posteriorly near the base, and then to white on base) ; legs and feet very dark horny;

claws black ; pads white.

Measurements :

8 od 8 9° 1 unsexed

Wing: 94, 95 (2), 97 (3), 98, 99a 93 (2), 94 (2), 95 (3), 96 96

Tail: 117.5, 118, 120.5, 122, 123, 112, 114, 115, 117, 119,

1234, 127 (2) 121, -122;.123 —

Bill 1 21(2), 22 (3); 22.5; 23, 23:5 19.5, 20 (2), 21 (3), 21.5, 22.5 22.5

a The hybrid specimen.

403. Lanius tephronotus tephronotus (Vigors). Eastern Tibetan Shrike.

NEPAL VALLEY: Kathmandu, Thankot: 1 3, 1 juv. ¢, 1 2 (March 20, 24,

April 13).

The Tibetan Shrike did not appear to us to be common im the

Nepal Valley during March-April. Single specimens were seen from

time to time on tops of trees and other suitable perches in open

areas, scrub, about cultivation, etc., especially in the early mornings,

until about the end of April.

It was recorded in the Nepal Valley from late September to mid-

March by Scully (1879, p. 264), from November to March by Proud

(1949, p. 707), and in April by Ripley (1950b, p. 383). In northern central

Nepal it was found in summer by Polunin (1955, p. 892) in the Lang-

tang Valley between c. 3050 and 4265 m. and by Lowndes (1955, p. 33)

in Manangbhot from c. 2440 to 3960 m. Ripley (loc. cit.) recorded it

also from the eastern tarai in winter. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 190)

472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

reported it from western and ‘west-central Nepal, at c. 275-2440 m.’

in winter. Biswas (1960a) found it in Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at

c. 4570 m. in April, and preparing to breed at c. = in late Has

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Ley 102.5 116 22.5

1 unsexed : 108 124 : 23-5

I should think Koelz’s lahulensis (1950, p. 7) is a perfectly distinct

subspecies (contra Ripley, in press). Regarding the systematic Status

of the Tibetan Shrike, see Biswas er :

Family CINCLIDAE

404. Cinclus pallasii tenuirostris Bonaparte. Brown Dipper.

MaRKHUu VALLEY : Kulikhani: 1 juv. d¢, 19, 1 unsexed (April 27).

_ The Brown eee was not frequently encountered by us in central

Nepal.

| It was reported in central Nepal by Scully (1879, p. 281) from

Nawakot district, and the Nepal and Markhu valleys, by Proud (1949,

p. 701; 1955, p. 60) from the Nepal Valley, by Ripley (1950b, p. 385)

from the Markhu Valley, by Lowndes (1955, p. 31) from Manangbhot

at c. 3350 m. In west-central Nepal it was recorded by Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 147). In eastern Nepal, Stevens (1925a, p. 364)

reported it from the Mai Valley at c. 2285 m. in May; Ripley (loc. cit.)

found it in the Arun Valley in winter, and Biswas (1960a) in Khumbu

up to c. 4570 m. between February and May.

The female specimen is in moulting condition.

Measurements :

1 unsexed : Wing 100 +; tail — ; bill 24.5.

Vaurie (195la, pp. 15-17). utilized the abovementioned Specimens

for his studies.

_ Family TROGLODYTIDAE

_ *405. Troglodytes troglodytes nipalensis Blyth. Nepal Wren. |

Troglodytes nipalensis ‘ Hodgson’ Blyth, 1845, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 14 : 589.

(Nepal, hereby restricted to Sheopuri Range, Nepal Valley.)

_ We were unable to find this wren in Nepal, and so was Scully (1879).

-Smythies (1948, p. 440) noted it in autumn up to c. 4875 m. in the

Gandak-Kosi watershed, central Nepal, where Proud (1952a, p. 363)

also. found it in spring at c. 3050-3505 m. Ripley (1950b, p. 385)

reported it only from eastern Nepal at c. 2590-3050 m. Polunin (1955,

p- 890) found it common in the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, at

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 473

c. 4115-5030 m. in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 147-148)

recorded it in winter in west-central Nepal at c. 2895 m. and in eastern

Nepal at c. 3050 m.

*406. Troglodytes troglodytes kinneari Biswas. Kinnear’s Wren.

This wren has not been reported from Nepal by any one except

Biswas (1955, p. 87, and 1960a).

_ In my opinion, both tibetana Walton and kinneari Biswas are dis-

tinct from nipalensis Blyth (contra Vaurie, 1960, p. 419; Ripley, in

press).

Family PRUNELLIDAE

407. Prunella collaris nipalensis Blyth. Eastern Alpine Hedge-

Sparrow.

After Hodgson’s collection, the Eastern Alpine Hedge-Sparrow was

reported from Nepal by Smythies (1948, p. 441) in the Gandak-Kosi

watershed, central Nepal, at c. 4570 m. in autumn, by Lowndes (1955,

p. 32) in Manangbhot, central Nepal, at c. 4570-4875 m. in summer,

and by Biswas (1960a) in Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at c. 3655- 3485 m.

during March-May.

*408. Prunella himalayana - (Blyth). Altai Hedge-Sparrow.

After Hodgson’s collection (Gray, 1863, p. 36), the Altai Hedge-

Sparrow was recorded in Nepal by Proud (1952a, p. 364) in Gandak-

Kosi watershed at c. 2440-3505 m. in spring, and by Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 182) in the Kali Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, at c.

2810-4265 m. in winter.

*409. Prunella strophiata strophiata (Blyth). SOUS ere Hedge-

Sparrow.

The post-Hodgsonian records of the Rufousbreasted Hedge-Sparrow

from Nepal consist of Ripley’s (1950b, p. 387) from eastern Nepal at c.

1310 m. and 2670 m. in winter ; Polunin’s (1955, p. 891) from the Lang-

tang Valley, central Nepal, at c. 3655-4265 m. in summer ; Lowndes’s

(1955, p. 32) from Manangbhot, central Nepal, at c. 3960-4570 m. in

summer ; Proud’s (1955, p. 61) from Sheopuri Range, Nepal Valley, at c.

2135 m., and beyond Sheopuri on the north at c. 3655 m.; Rand & Fle-

ming’s (1957, p. 183) from eastern Nepal at c. 3050 m. in winter ; and

Biswas’s (1960a) from Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at c. 3655-5335 m. in

February-May.

Rand & Fleming’s (op. cit., pp. 182-183) birds from west-central

Nepal, taken at c. 1370-2775 m. in winter and listed under this form and

P. s. jerdoni (Brooks), are intermediate between these two subspecies

according to Ripley (in press).

474. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

410. Prunella rubeculoides rubeculoides Horsfield & Moore. Robin‘

Hedge-Sparrow.

After Hodgson’s collection (Gray, 1863, p. 36), the Robin Hedge-

Sparrow was recorded in Nepal by Smythies (1948, p. 441) in the

Gandak-Kosi watershed, central Nepal, in autumn (a doubtful observa-

tion), by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 182) from the Kali Gandak Valley,

west-central Nepal, in winter as an uncommon bird, and by Biswas

(1960a) who found it in small numbers in Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at c.

3960-5335 m. in February-May.

*411. Prunella fulvescens sushkini Collin & Hartert. Eastern Brown

Hedge-Sparrow. ?

The only record of the occurrence of this hedge-sparrow in Nepal is

to be credited to Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 183) who found a single

example in the Kali Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, at c. 2805 m. in

December.

*412. Prunella immaculata (Hodgson). Maroonbacked Hedge-Sparrow.

The only post-Hodgsonian records of the Maroonbacked Hedge-

Sparrow from Nepal are Ripley’s (1950b, p. 387) from eastern Nepal,

at c. 2745 m. in winter, and Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 184), also from

eastern Nepal at c. 2285 m. in winter.

(To be continued)

On the Marine Fauna of the

Gulf of Kutch

PART II—GASTROPODS

P. K. B. MENON, A. K. DATTA GuPpTA, AND D. DAS GUPTA

Department of Zoology, Birla College, Pilani

(With ten plates)

[Continued from Vol, 54 (3) : 706]

INTRODUCTION

The molluscans of the Gulf of Kutch have not yet been studied in

a comprehensive manner. Hornell (1916), in one of the pioneering

works on the marine zoology of Okha Mandal, described the most

common forms. The second attempt to study the marine fauna of

the Gulf of Kutch was undertaken by the Department of Zoology,

Birla College, Pilani, in 1956 (Gideon ef al., 1957). The present

account is based mainly on shells collected in three surveys made

after that between June 1956 and October 1958. Compared with the

Gulf of Kutch the littoral molluscan fauna of the Bombay coast has

been better studied (Melvill, 1893, 1894, 1896; Melvill & Abercrombie,

1893; Melvill & Standen, 1906).

The present study is undertaken with the additional aim of

studying the distribution of molluscans in the Gulf of Kutch and its

comparison with the other well-surveyed Indian coastal regions

(Subramaniam ef al., 1951; Gravely, 1927, 1942; Satyamurthi, 1952).

It is certain that several species are common to all these places but

at the same time there are a few which are characteristic of each

place. The authors believe that there are still a number of

Gastropods in this region which have not been collected. A key to

the identification of the Gastropods of the Gulf of Kutch will be

published after more material has been studied,

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The material for the present study was collected from Port Okha,

Pirotan Island, Byet Dwarka, and Sika. The collections were made

mostly from the intertidal zone, both in the morning and in ‘the

evening. The low tide allowed two to three hours of ‘collection. in

the morning and one to two hours in the evening.

Live specimens were narcotised before preservation. The classi-

fication followed is that of Thiele (1931) as adopted by Satyamurthi

(1952).

DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA SURVEYED

In addition to the regions already described (Gideon ef al., 1957)

the present survey covers the Beacon area of Pirotan Island and Sika

6 miles off Kanalus:

Beacon area. The Beacon area is mainly sandy interspersed with

broken coral rock. At low tide there is three to six inches of water

over the rocks, which are covered by a thin layer of mud. This

region is marked by the presence of a large number of Octopus,

Onchidium, and Tetradon. :

Sika. The intertidal zone of Sika is muddy and very vast. The

mud is deposited over coral rocks and is waist deep in places. This

area is surveyed for the first time.

Family FISSURELLIDAE

This family is represented by three genera and five species, as a

rule not very abundant. The three genera described here also occur

on the east coast of India (Satyamurthi, 1952). Hormell’s -(1951)

revised catalogue of Bombay Mollusca includes four genera of

Fissurellidae. ; 3

Genus Diodora Gray Syn. Glypvis Carpenter

The members of this genus are mostly confined to the rocky

shores of -Okha and Hanuman Dandi. Hornell (1951) observed that

they live below low-tide mark and are seldom found except by

dredging. This may bz true of some species of Diodora but in the

present survey a large number of living specimens were collected from

the rocky shore of Hanuman Dandi. In this area even in the spring

tides a large number of rock pools are cut off among the rocks and

these specimens were collected from the rocks which surround these

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH 477

rock pools. They are found associated with members of Patellidae,

Neritidae, and Turbinidae.

The members of this genus are known as the key-hole limpets

because of the presence of an oval or rounded aperture at the apex

of the conical shell. The shell is generally provided with radial and

trans-spiral ribs. The shape and size vary greatly even within the

species.

‘Diodora bombayana (Sowerby) (Plate 1, Figs. 1 & 2)

Collected from Okha and Hanuman Dandi. It is the only species of

‘this genus collected alive. In their natural environment most of them

are covered with algae and it is difficult to distinguish Diodora from

Celiana. :

Diodora funiculata (Reeve) (Piate 1, Figs. 3 & 4) 2

Only empty shells were collected from Okha and Hanuman Dandi.

- Diodora ticaonica (Reeve) (Plate 1, Figs. 5 & 6)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi. ©

Genus Emarginula Lamarck

The genus is represented by a single species. The shells are

popularly known as slit limpets and can be easily identified from

Diodora by the presence of a slit on the anterior margin of the shell

along the middle line.

Emarginula elongata (Phil.) (Plate 1, Fig. 7)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

Genus Scutus Montfort-

The genus is represented by a single species. The most

characteristic feature is the presence of a marginal notch. The shell

is flat and elongated and it does not cover the body of the animal

completely. There is no radial sculpture on the outer surface of the

shell. There is a line running all around the margin of the shell

forming a ring which is incomplete anteriorly.

Scutus unguis (Linn.) (Plate 1, Fig. 8)

Living specimens collected from the Beacon area of Pirotan Island.

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88 (2)

Family PATELLIDAE

The family Patellidae is represented only by a single genus and

a single species. vi

Genus Cellana H. Adams

The shell is conical and the inner surface of the shell has got a

pearly lustre. The shells are popularly known as true limpets and

can be easily recognised from the key-hole limpets by the absence

of the apical aperture. The surface of the shell in its habitat is

covered by greenish algae which match very well with the colour

of the environment.

Cellana radiata (Born) (Plate 1, Fig. 9)

They are abundant in Hanuman Dandi, common in Okha.

Family TROCHIDAE

Genus Trochus

The shells are conical in shape. The lower part of the body-

whorl is angular with flattened base. ‘The outer surface of the shell

is sculptured and the umbilicus is usually present. These are com-

monly found attached to the rocks at low tide.

Trochus stellatus Gmelin (Plate 2, Fig. 10)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi. This species is comparatively

rare.

Trochus radiatus Gmelin (Plate 2, Fig. 11)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi.

Genus Monodonta Lamarck

The shell is trochiform with inflated body-whorl. The surface is

provided with minute spiral ribs. The aperture is ovate. There is no

umbilicus. The outer lip is thick and ridged throughout while there

is a strong tooth in the inner lip. The shell is purple in colour with

white spots alternating with brown elongated spots.

Monodonta australis Lamarck (Plate 2, Fig. 12)

Very common in the coral reefs of Hanuman Dandi.

JouRN. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc.

CEE

¥. é

Fw CAS

=o rai gh Ns

tt oe ae

CS! Sis Soy

; aie . z.

LEO

Fig. 1. Diodora bombayana: _ side view x 14; Fig. 2. D. bombayana: from above

x 14; Fig. 3. D. funiculata: side view x 14; Fig. 4. D. funiculata: from above

13; Fig. 5. D. ticaonica: from above x 14; Fig. 6. D. ticaonica: side view x 13;

Fig. 7. Emarginula elongata: from above x 13; Fig. 8. Scutus unguis: from above ;

Fig. 9. Cellana radiata: from above x 13.

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 2

Fig. 10. Trochus stellatus : side view ; Fig. 11. T. radiatus : showing the base and the

aperture ; Fig. 12. Moncdonta australis : showing the aperture ; Fig. 13. Angaria plicata : from

above ; Fig. 14. A. plicata: from below ; Fig. 15. Clanculus microdon : showing the body-whorl ;

Fig. 16. C. microdon : showing the base; Fig. 17. Euchelus asper : side view ; Fig. 18. Callis-

toma sp. : side view ; Fig. 19. Callistoma sp. : showing the base and the aperture; Fig. 20. Um-

bonium vestiarium : showing the apex.

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH 479

-Genus Angaria Roding

It is represented by a single species. The shell is characterised by

a low flattened spire. The outer surface of the shell is covered by large

spiny processes. The spines are arranged in spiral rows. A _ large

umbilicus is present. The shell is thick, massive and reddish in

colour. |

Angaria plicata (Kiener) (Plate 2, Figs. 13 & 14)

Living specimens were collected from the low-tide mark of

Pirotan Island and were found attached to the smaller broken rocks.

Genus Clanculus Montfort

The shell is conical with rounded whorls. The outer surface is

smoothly sculptured consisting of beaded spiral ridges. The

umbilicus is rounded, large, and toothed inside. The shell is dark

reddish-brown with white spots.

Clanculus microdon A. Adams (Plate 2, Figs. 15 & 16)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi.

Genus Euchelus Phil.

The genus is represented by a single species. The shell in general

shape is rounded with a somewhat inflated body whorl. ‘The suture

is deep. The surface of the shell bears granular spiral ridges which

are very prominent below the suture. The shell is reddish brown

in colour.

Euchelus asper Gmelin (Plate 2, Fig. 17)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi.

Genus Calliostoma Swainson

The shell is conical, broader than high, with a pointed apex. The

body whorl is angular and spirally sculptured. The beaded spiral

ridges are very prominent in the lowermost whorl, while in the upper

whorl they are feeble. There is no umbilicus. The shell is whitish.

Calliostoma sp. (Plate 2, Figs. 18 & 19)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi.

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Genus Umbonium Link

The shells are generally known as button shells. Members. of this

genus comprise some of the most common and abundant shells on

the sandy area of Pirotan Island. This, shell is small, brightly

coloured, and highly polished. The spire is depressed and the

body-whorl is inflated with an angular base. The aperture is

somewhat D-shaped. The umbilicus is absent and is filled up by a

whitish callus. There is a wide range of colour variation within a

species.

Umbonium vyestiarium (Linn.) (Plate 2, Fig. 20)

This species was not found in Hanuman Dandi, Balarpur Bay,

or Sika. Many shells collected from Pirotan Island were harbouring

hermit crabs.

Family TURBINIDAE

The shells of this family are known as turban sheils though all

of them are not turban-like. Astrea looks very similar to top shells.

The operculum is stony. . oe:

Genus Turbo Linn.

The shells are of moderate size with a rounded and inflated body-

whorl. The aperture is round and the operculum is hard and stony.

Turbo intercostalis Menke (Plate 3, Fig. 21)

Turbo coronatus Gmelin (Plate 3, Fig. 22)

Next to Cellana these are perhaps the most common molluscans

in Hanuman Dandi and Okha.

Genus Astrea (Bolten) Roding

The shell is top-shaped without an umbilicus. The body-whorls

are spinous and the base is flattened. The shell in general appearance

resembles a Trochus. The colour is pale yellowish brown.

Astrea semicostata (Kiener) (Plate 3, Fig. 23) | ;

Collected from Hanuman Dandi. |

Family NERITIDAE

This family is represented in the Gulf of Kutch (ake a single ae

and three species.

JouRN. BomBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE 3

Fig. 21. Turbo intercostalis: showing the operculum; Fig. 22. 7. coronatus: showing

the aperture; Fig. 23. Astrea semicostata: showing the ridges ; Fig. 24. Nerita albicilla:

side view ; Fig. 25. N. albicilla: showing the aperture; Fig. 26. N. dombeyi: showing the

body-whorl ; Fig. 27. N. dombeyi: showing the aperture; Fig. 28. N. plexa: showing the

; Bere Fig. 29. Littorina undulata: aperture side ; Fig. 30. Turritella acutangula: Fig. 31. T.

columnaris.

JourN. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc.

PLATE 4

Sika.

ALT 77

Fig. 32. Architectonica laevigata : side view; Fig. 33. A. laevigata: from below; Fig. 34

Vermetes sp.; Fig. 35. Telescopium telescopium : showing the base; Fig. 36. 7. telescopium :

side view; Fig. 37. Cerithidea fluviatilis : showing the aperture ; Fig. 38. Cerithium obeliscus

x1: showing the aperture;

aperture side.

Fig. 39. C. scabridum xi};

Fig. 40. Strombus urecus :

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH 481

Genus Nerita Linn.

The shells are thick and are characterised by a large body-whorl

and a depressed spire. In some cases the spire may be absent. It

has got a D-shaped opercular opening. The umbilicus is absent.

The size, shape, and colour of the shells are variable. Living

specimens of this genus are abundant in Hanuman Dandi and Okha;

no specimens have been collected from Pirotan Island or Balarpur

Bay. i

Nerita albicilla Linn. (Plate 3, Figs. 24 & 25)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi and Okha.

Nerita dombeyi Récluz (Plate 3, Figs. 26 & 27)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi. Very rare.

Nerita plexa Chemnitz (Plate 3, Fig. 28)

Living specimens were collected from Pirotan Island.

Family LITTORINIDAE

They are popularly known as periwinkles. According to Hornell

(1951) they are found on rocky shores of all parts of the world. The

shells are Turbo-like in form but differ from it by the absence of the

pearly inner lining. The operculum is horny. Only one genus has

been found.

Genus Littorima Férussac

Littorina undulata Gray (Plate 3, Fig. 29)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi.

Family TURRITELLIDAE

Popularly known as ‘turret’ or screw shells. They are represented

by a single genus and are widely distributed in the Gulf of Kutch.

Genus Turritella Lamarck

Turritella acutangula (Linn.) (Plate 3, Fig. 30)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi.

Turritella columnaris (Kiener) (Plate 3, Fig. 31)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi.

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Family ARCHITECTONIDAE (= SOLARIDAE) (Bolten) Réding

Generally known as staircase shells. The umbilicus resembles a

winding staircase. Only one genus is recorded.

Genus Architectonica (Bolten) R6ding

The shell is broad with an angular lower edge and a flattened base.

Architectonica laevigata Lamarck (Plate 4, Figs. 32 & 33)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi.

- Family VERMETIDAE

They are known as worm shells and are generally confused with

the tube of Polychaetes. The shell is irregularly coiled, the aperture

is small, and the foot is reduced.

Genus Vermetes (Adanson) Daudin

Vermetes sp. (Plate 4, Fig. 34)

Large numbers of living specimens were collected from Pirotan

Island and Hanuman Dandi. Fine threads of mucus emerging from

the operculum are characteristic of this gastropod. They are found

in association with tubicolous Polychaetes.

Family POTAMIDIDAE

Popularly known as telescope shells. Two genera are recorded.

Genus Telescopium Linn.

The shell is elongated and its whorls are spirally ribbed. It has

got a broad flattened angular base. The shell is gradually narrowing

towards the apex. The ribs are alternately dark brown and light

brown in colour.

Telescopium telescopium Linn. (Plate 4, Figs. 35 & 36)

Collected from Pirotan Island, Hanuman Dandi, and Balarpur Bay.

Genus Cerithidea Swainson

The shell is narrow and elongated. The surface is ornamented

with small tubercles which are arranged in regular transpiral rows.

The aperture is ovate and the outer lip ts ce palidess The shell is

dark grey in colour.

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH “ARB

Cerithidea fluviatilis (Poti¢z & Michaud) (Plate 4, Fig. 37)

Found everywhere.

Family CERITHIIDAE

Popularly known as horn shells. According to Hornell (1951)

these gastropods have a tendency to migrate from sea to land.

Genus Cerithium Bruguicre

The shell is tower-shaped and the apex is drawn into an elongated

spire. It resembles somewhat the turret shells but differ from them

in having a widely channelled aperture and an everted thickened lip.

The surface is ornamented with small tubercles.

Cerithium obeliscus Bruguiére (Plate 4, Fig. 38)

Collected from Pirotan Island and Balarpur Bay.

Cerithium scabridum Phil. (Plate 4, Fig. 39)

Collected from Pirotan Island and Balarpur Bay.

Family CALYPTRAEIDAE

This family is represented by a single genus. The shells are

generally known as crucible shells. It is conical or cap-shaped with

an eccentric pointed apex. The interior of the shell is provided with

a folded appendage.

Genus Calyptraea Lamarck

Calyptraea sp. (Plate 10, Figs. 85 & 86)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

Family STROMBIDAE

Popularly known as wing shells.

Genus Strombus Linn.

The shell is very thick, smooth with the spire considerably wider

and less elevated. The aperture is elongated and narrow and the

484. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

outer lip is everted into a wing-like expansion. The columella bears

a thick callus. :

Strombus urecus Linn. (Plate 4, Fig. 40)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi.

Family NATICIDAE

The family is represented by two genera.

Genus Natica Scopoli

The shell is globular with a depressed spire. It is highly polished.

The operculum is horny. The body-whorl is very large. An umbilicus

is always present, and the callus is very thick.

Natica tigrina (R6ding) (Plate 5, Figs. 41 & 42)

Collected from coral reef off Pirotan Island and Hanuman Dandi.

Natica didyma (Réding) (Plate 5, Figs. 43 & 44)

Collected from Pirotan Island and Hanuman Dandi.

Natica lamarckii Chenu (Plate 5, Fig. 45)

Collected from Pirotan Island and Hanuman Dandi.

Genus Sinum (Bolten) Roding

The shell is very easy to identify by its characteristic depressed

spire, and its finely striated body-whorl which is inflated and ovoid

in shape. The shell is very thin and its inner surface is glossy and

iridescent. The spire is visible only in profile. Umbilicus is absent.

Sinum cuvierianum (Récluz) (Plate 5, Figs. 46 & 47)

Collected from Pirotan Island and Hanuman Dandi.

Family CYPRAEIDAE

They are popularly known as ‘cowries’ and are notable for their

polished surface and beautiful coloration. The shell is imrolled and

the aperture looks like a long narrow slit extending from one end to

the other. Both the margins of the aperture are toothed.

JOURN. BomBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE 5

Fig. 41. Natica tigrina; Fig. 42. N. tigrina: aperture side; Fig. 43. N. didyma : from

the apex ;- Fig. 44. N.didyma: aperture side; Fig. 45. N. lamarcki: aperture side; Fig. 46.

Sinum cuvierianum : showing the body-whorl; Fig. 47. S. cuvierianum : aperture side ; Fig. 48.

Cyparea ocellata : from _ above ; Fig. 49. C. ocellata : aperture side ; Fig. 50. C. arabica : from

above ; Fig. 51. C. arabica : aperture side.

Journ. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. | PLATE 6

alee MW

Ne:

A .

Fig. 52. Hemifusus sp.: aperture side; Fig. 53. Bursa spinosa: aperture side x 1};

Fig. 54. B. granularis: aperture side. ,

. .MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH | 485

Genus Cypraea Linn.

Cypraea ocellata Linn. (Plate 5, Figs. 48 & 49)

Live specimens were collected from Pirotan Island.

Cypraea arabica Linn. (Plate 5, Figs. 50 & 51)

Collected from Pirotan Island. :

Family VOLEMIDAE

This family includes shells which are commonly known as knobbed

chanks

Genus Hemifusus Swainson

The shell is large, thick and solid. The whorls are angularly

shouldered with nodule-like swellings in a row. The varices are

well developed. The aperture is provided with a long anterior canal.

The callus on the columella is thick and strongly wrinkled.

Hemifusus sp. (Plate 6, Fig. 52)

The species could not be identified since the shell was incomplete.

Family BURSIDAE

One of the most common families represented in Pirotan Island.

Genus Bursa (Bolten) Roding

The shell is strongly sculptured on the outer surface. In some

cases spines are present and in some granules. Most characteristic

feature is the presence of both the anterior and the posterior canals.

Bursa spinosa (Lamarck) (Plate 6, Fig. 53)

Collected from coral reefs off Pirotas Island.

Bursa granularis (R6ding)

Collected from Pirotan Island and Hanuman Dandi.

Family MURICIDAE

This family has a world-wide distribution. Tropical species are

numerous. and include many pretty and peculiar forms ornamented

with prominent ridges and spines. The shells are stoutly built, variabie

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

in form, sometimes fusiform but more often with a shortened spire

and a wide body-whorl. In many species the anterior canal is very

long and narrow. ; a

They are widely distributed in the Gulf of Kutch.

Genus Murex Linn.

The shell is large with a moderately high spire. The shape is

variable, often with varices bearing long spines or stout foliaceous

tubercles. The aperture is rounded or ovate; columella mostly with

folds; anterior canal long. |

Murex trapa Roding (Plate 7, Fig. 55)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

Murex virgineus (Roding) (Plate 7, Fig. 56)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

Murex adustus Lamarck (Plate 7, Fig. 57)

Living specimens collected from Pirotan Island and Hanuman

Dandi.

Genus Thais (Bolten) Roding

The shells are very variable in shape and, size. The spines are

generally short and the aperture wide. The sculpture is in the form

either of tubercles or of ridges.

Thais rudolphi (Lamarck) (Plate 7, Fig 58)

Collected from Pirotan Island and Hanuman Dandi.

Thais rugosa (Born) (Plate 7, Fig. 59)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

Genus Drupa (Bolten) Roding

The shells are small with a low spire. There is distinct sculpture

on the surface. The interior of the outer lip is strongly toothed.

The anterior canal is short and open.

Drupa tuberculata (Blainville) (Plate 8, Fig. 60)

Collected from Pirotan Island. .

JourN. BompaAy Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 7

ARN Z LM Sty

Se) Giga OL:

uy."

ER) ey ‘

Ae } pe e G

os yA) hao: Ie w

CLT AN MWY LAY

_ Fig. 55. Murex trapa: aperture side; Fig. 56. M. virgineus: aperture side;

Fig. 57. M. adustus: aperture side; Fig. 58. Thais rudolphi: aperture side x 1} ;

Fig. 59. T. rugosa : aperture side x 11.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC.

) \

N {yy DN) >

tuberculata: aperture side x14; Fig

aperture side

ide

2°5

de x 13;

color : aperture s

aperture side x 1

.61. D. margariticola :

aperture side x 2}.

Fig. 67. Nassa thersites : aperture Si

de x 2; Fig. 69. Fusus sp. :

ide x 1};

rture side x 2; Fig. 63. Pyrene versi

; aperture SI

de x 3; Fig. 65. Babylonia spirata :

ape

Fig. 60. Drupa

x 14; Fig. 62. D. heptagonalis :

x 3; Fig. 64. P. flavida : aperture si

Fig. 66. Cantharus undosus

Fig. 68. N. hepatica: aperture si

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH 487

Drupa margariticola (Broderip) (Plate 8, Fig. 61)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

Drupa heptagonalis (Reeve) (Plate 8, Fig. 62)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

Family PYRENIDAE

The shell is usually small and spindle-shaped. The aperture is

narrow and elongated. The surface is smooth or ridged. The outer

lip is thick and toothed inside. The anterior canal is open. There

is no umbilicus or posterior canal. |

Genus Pyrene (Bolten) Roding

Pyrene versicolor (Sowerby) (Plate 8, Fig. 63)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

Pyrene flavida (Lamarck) (Plate 8, Fig. 64)

Collected from Pirotan Island and Hanuman Dandi.

Family BUCCINIDAE

They are popularly known as whelks.

Genus Babylonia Schluter

The shell is more or less oval in shape and its surface is smooth.

The colour of the shell is white with brown patches. The spire is

not very elongated. The suture is deep and broad. The umbilicus is

present in younger animals, in older ones it is completely covered by

callus. A very characteristic feature of the genus is a continuous flat

winding shelf along the suture.

Babylonia spirata (Linn.) (Plate 8, Fig. 65)

Collected from Byet Dwarka (Balarpur Bay).

Genus Cantharus (Bolten) Roding

The shell is somewhat spindle-shaped with close-set spiral ribs.

A thick periostracum covers the shell completely. The aperture is

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

oval and the columella is arched. The outer lip is thick and grooved

inside.

Cantharus undosus (Linn.) (Plate 8, Fig. 66)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

N.B. When the periostracum remains intact it is greenish brown

in colour. It is reddish brown if it is worn out completely.

Family NASSIDAE

This family is represented by a single genus and two species.

Genus Nassa (Martini) Lamarck

The shell is without an umbilicus. The spire is pointed and the

aperture is oval. The spire is traversed by trans-spiral ribs.

Nassa thersites (Bruguiére) (Plate 8, Fig. 67)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

Nassa hepatica (Montagu) (Plate 8, Fig. 68)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

Family FASCIOLARIIDAE

Represented by a single genus.

Genus Fusus (Klein) Bruguiére

The shell is thin, more or less elongately spindle-shaped with a

turretted spire, and is sculptured with minute spiral ridges. There

is no umbilicus. The anterior canal is long and slender. The

columella bears a thin deposit of callus and is ridged anteriorly. The

body-whorl has got prominent shoulders. 7

Fusus sp. (Plate 8, Fig. 69)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi.

Family OLIVIDAE

This family is represented by two genera and three species. These

are generally known as olives and are notable for their highly polished

shells, These are burrowing forms.

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH 489

Genus Oliva Bruguiére

The shell is roughly cylindrical or barrel-shaped with a short

spire. The aperture is elongated and the columellar callus is either

smooth or is provided with feeble oblique ridges. A posterior canal

is present in the form of a distinct notch.

Oliva gibbosa (Born) (Plate 9, Fig. 70)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

Oliva nebulosa Lamarck (Plate 9, Fig. 71)

Collected from Pirotan Island and Hanuman Dandi.

Oliva lepida Duclos. (Plate 9, Fig. 72)

Collected from Pirotan Island and Hanuman Dandi.

Genus Ancilla Lamarck

The shell resembles Oliva in many respects. The posterior canal

is absent. The most important difference between Oliva and Ancilla

is the presence in the former of a canal running along the suture

which is absent in the latter.

Ancilla sp. (Plate 9, Fig. 73)

Collected from Pirotan Island and Hanuman Dandi.

Family MITRIDAE

Popularly known as mitre shells and are often very brightly

coloured.

Genus Mitra Lamarck

The shell is slender and spindle-shaped. There is no distinct

anterior canal. The spire is elongated. The shell has a broad whitish

band above the suture. They are small, exceeding not more than

half inch in length.

Mitra mica Reeve (Plate 9, Fig. 74)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Family VASIDAE (Turbine!lidae)

’

The shells are commonly known as chank or ‘sankha’.

Genus Xancus (Bolten) Réding

The shell is large, thick and heavy, and is covered with a thick

dark brownish periostracum. The body-whorl is large. The anterior

canal is elongated and broadly open. The columella bears strong

transverse folds.

Xancus pyrum (Linn.) (Plate 9, Fig. 75)

Collected from Pirotan Island and Sika.

Family CONIDAE

These are commonly known as cone shells.

Genus Conus Linn.

The shell is conical with a very short broad low spire. The

aperture is narrow and elongated. The lips are straight and parallel.

Conus punctatus Chemitz (Plate 9, Fig. 76)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi.

Family TEREBRIDAE

Generally known as auger shells.

Genus Duplicaria Dall.

The shell is tower-shaped with a tall spire bearing numerous

whorls which form a narrowly elongated straight-sided cone. The

spiral groove dividing each whorl is well marked and it is as deep as

the suture. The surface bears flattened trans-spiral ribs.

Duplicaria duplicata (Linn.) (Plate 9, Fig. 77)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi.

PLATE 9

ee Ee

SAN

ica

aperture

Fig. 71. O. nebulosa: aperture side; Fig. 72.

Fig. 76, Conus punctatus

ih val I \\ ve } ait 2 Sa Se

| nN P wi: Sy eA. Seka :

. vin ar Neal si Neus

Ida tN pw SANS

Fig. 73. Ancilla sp.: aperture side x 14; Fig. 74. Mitra m

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIstT. Soc.

on or

er DO

eras

Bod

~ :

ar sz

(D) oq

Ore Nas

SERS

ee:

so.

Sues

bo 2A

O83 x oh

(ane

. 8 OL

S ao}

Seas

iS BO

i §5 *

~~ HO

-2s

Oo sa

PLATE 10

JouRN. BomMBAY NAT. HIst. SOc.

( if

*\ \'

Kha at

—

5 Rete

x2"

. Hamino

hyllidiella sp ]

85. Calyptraea sp.

Fig. 80

: aperture side.

. Pleurop

; Fig.

Fig. 82

79a & 79b. Bulla ampulla

Fig

endrodoris nigra x 2

. Onchidium verruculatum

side ;

AN 8)

Fig. 84

1; Fig. 87. Cassidula nucleus

aperture

side view x2

Fig. 81

. 83. Bornella digitata x2

Fig. 86. Calyptraea sp.

Fig. 78. Hydatina velum

aperture side x 1}

fenera

Fig

® MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH 491

Family HYDATINIDAE

The shell has the form of bulla and is striped with black and white

bands.

Genus Hydatina Schumacher

The shell is thin and the body-whorl is oval. The spire is very

much reduced and sunk inwards to form a cavity. The shell is

yellowish brown in colour with alternating dark and white bands.

The foot is very we no columella and no umbilicus.

Hydatina velum (encin) (Plate 10, Fig. 78)

Collected from muddy region of Balarpur Bay (Byet Dwarka).

Family BULLIDAE

The shells are popularly known as bubble shells and the family is

represented by a single genus and a single species.

Genus Bulla Linn.

The shell is smooth and the body-whorl is very large. The spire

is deeply invaginated into a small cavity to form a crucible-like

depression. The columella is covered by a thick polished callus.

The shells are brownish in colour.

Bulla ampuila Linn. (Plate 10, Fig. 79a & 79 b)

Collected from Hanuman Dandi and Pirotan Island.

Family ATYIDAE

Represented by a single genus.

Genus Haminoea Turton

The shell is thin and ovoid, with a wide aperture. It resembles some-

what Bulla or Hydatina. The colour is greenish white. The shell

never completely covers the animal.

Haminoea tenera (Adams) (Plate 10, Fig. 80)

Live specimens are abundant in Pirotan Island and Balarpur Bay.

They prefer muddy to sandy areas.

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Family ELLOBIIDAE

Commonly known as ear shells.

Genus Cassidula Férussac

The shell is oblong or ovate. The outer and the inner lips are

thickened and expanded. The columella is strongly folded.

Cassidula nucleus Gmelin (Plate 10, Fig. 87)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

Family DORIDIDAE

The commonest of Indian Nudibranchs belong to the family

Dorididae, distinguished by the presence of a rough tubercu'ated

dorsal shie!d and the possession of external retractile gills.

Genus Dendrodoris Ehrenberg

The body is elongately ovate smooth and brightly coloured. The

head is small and placed between the overhanging mantle above and

the anterior end of the foot below. The gills are nine in number.

The colour of the specimen is dark brown. There are numerous

black spots on the dorsal side.

Dendrodoris nigra (Stimpson) (Plate 10, Fig. 81)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

Family ARMINIDAE

They usually burrow in sand or mud. The family is represented

by a single genus.

Genus Pleurophyllidiella Eliot

The body is flat. The dorsal side bears a series of well-developed

longitudinal ridges. The mouth is ventrally placed. There is no

external shell; dorsal papillae absent.

Pleurophyliidiella sp. (Plate 10, Fig. 82) |

Collected from Hanuman Dandi and Pirotan Island.

MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH 493

Family BORNELLIDAE

The body is more or less elongated and laterally compressed.

The rhinophores are large and long-stalked. The lateral margins of

the dorsal side bear a series of long-branched branchial processes.

Genus Bornella (Gray) Adams & Reeve

Bornella digitata Adams & Reeve (Plate 10, Fig. 83)

Collected from Pirotan Island.

Family ONCHIDIDAE

Members of this family are known as sea-slugs. The shell is

altogether absent.

Genus Onchidium Buchanan

The dorsal surface is convexly arched. The mantle is thick and

is provided with numerous tubercles of different sizes. The branchial

tubercles are placed towards the posterior margin of the dorsal side.

The head bears a pair of eye-bearing tentacles. It is dark green in

colour.

Onchidium verruculatum Cuvier (Plate 10, Fig. 84)

Collected from Okha, Pirotan Island, and Sika.

GENERAL REMARKS

In the present study 35 families, 51 genera and 72 species are

recorded which include those of the preliminary survey (Gideon et ai.,

1957). There are still many more shells which are being identified

and could not be included in the present report. It can only be

predicted at this stage that the Gulf of Kutch is as rich in Gastropod

molluscs as any other coasts surveyed.

It is interesting to note that a number of species which are not

recorded from Madras or Krusadai (Gravely, 1941, Satyamurthi,

1952) or even from Bombay (Subramanium et al., 1951) are found in

abundance in the Gulf of Kutch. Turbo coronatus (Turbinidae),

Nerita plexa (Neritidae), and Monodonta australis (Trochidae) are

494. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

recorded for the first time from the Gulf of Kutch. The authors hope

to bring out soon a full record together with a key to the identifica-

tion of the Gastropods of the Gulf of Kutch.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to the Zoological Survey of India for

kindly confirming some of our identified specimens. The authors are

also thankful to Dr. S. V. Gokhale, Fisheries Department, Jamnagar,

for providing all facilities during the survey work, and to Dr. S. M.

Mitra, Principal, Birla College, for his interest and encouragement

throughout the work.

Grateful thanks are due to the post-graduate students of the

Zoology Department, Birla College, Pilani, for their untiring assistance

in the collection.

REFERENCES

Gideon, P. W., Menon, P. K. B., Rao,

S.R.V., & Jose, K. V. (1957): On the

Marine Funa of Gulf of Kutch: A pre-

liminary survey. J. Bombay. nat. Hist.

Soc. 54 (3) : 690-706.

Gravely, F. H. (1927) : Littoral Fauna

of Krusadai Island, Mollusca. Bull. Mad.

Govt. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) 1 (1): 1-196.

————(1942) : Shells and other Ani-

mal Remains found on the Madras

Beach. Bull. Mad. Govt. Mus. .(Nat.

Hist.) 5 (2) : 1-104

Hornell, J. (1916): Report to the Govt.

of Baroda on the Marine Zoology of

Okhamandal in Kathiawar. Vol. 2.

London.

————(1951) : Indian Molluscs.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Bombay.

Melvill, J. C. (1893) : Description of

25 new species of Marine Shells from

Bombay. Mem. & Proc. Manchester

Lit. & Phil Soc. Ser. 7 (4) : 52-66.

Melvill, J. C.896): Description of new

Species of minute Marine Shells from

Bombay. ibid. 2 (8) : 108-116.

— ———& Abercrombie, A.

(1893): The Marine Mollusca of Bombay,

ibid. Ser. 7 (4) : 17-51.

Subrahmanyam, T. V., Karandikar,

H. R., & Murthi, N. N. (1951) : The

Marine Gastropoda of Bombay. Jour.

Univ. Bom. 20 (1) : 21-34.

Satyamurthi, T. (1952) : The Mollusca

of Krusadai Island. I. Amphineura and

Gastropoda. Bull. Mad. Govt. Mus. (Nat.

Hist.) 1 (2) pt. 6.

Thiele, J. (1931) : Handbuch der

Syste mmatiecnen Weichterkunde. Erster

and.

Reviews

1. FORESTS OF THE NIGHT. By Jack Denton Scott. Pp. 190

(21.514 cm.). 13 illustrations. London, 1960. Robert Hale Limited.

Price 1835.

Interest in Jack Denton Scott’s FORESTS OF THE NIGHT is aroused

right from the blurb when this tells us that for the first time the

Indian Government has invited an American hunter to shoot in our

jungles. Mr. Scott is an experienced journalist, and in return for his

trip he is going to write about shikar so that other Americans, with

their much-needed dollars, may be tempted to follow in his footsteps.

According to Mr. Scott, the shikar firm to arrange his tour was selected

by a Government official and the hunter in charge of the shooting

party was reputed to be ‘the best professional tiger hunter in the

business’.

From the start the story moves fast in a delightfully crisp and

smooth style. Many readers will already know Mr. Scott’s work, and.

those who do know it will be aware that he is a great sportsman who,

on his own ground, is a very sound man. In the course of the

book, Mr. Scott also has some very nice things to say about our

country and about Indians.

So far so good, but at this point there crops up a question which

needs an answer before going on: Does Mr. Scott’s book create a good

enough impression to attract foreign sportsmen to our jungles? The

answer, regrettably, is an emphatic ‘No’. Mr. Scott’s tour being

sponsored by the Indian Government, the methods described by him

will be taken by sportsmen abroad as typical of India and, as such,

will brand shikar in India as merciless slaughter, heedless of the safety

of the villagers living in the vicinity.

The first shock from this book comes on page 42: ‘It would be

dark soon, Rao told us and suggested that we use what light was

remaining to sight in our rifles. “We hunt for cats by jeep at night.

Our plan is to go out this night immediately after dinner.” ’ Then,

as if to make quite sure that Mr. Scott has understood him, Rao

Naidu says much the same thing again on page 44: ‘“We hunt the

cats and other night prowlers like the wild boar and even the sloth-

bear,” Rao said. “We use a light and drive the roads. Many of our

hunters find it interesting. Have you ever done it?”

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

‘“Tt’s against the law in the States to hunt most animals by night,”

I said. “Of course we don’t have animals that prey on people and

that makes all the difference, I guess.”

*“You will find that night is the element of the leopard and the

tiger,’ Rao said. “You are meeting him on, an uneven basis. He

knows the roads, the forests, every ravine around Bori better than

any of us. The light, however, almost puts us on an equal footing

with him. But not quite. These cats are animals that are always

hunting, always on the alert. They may be hunting us before we

know that we are hunting them.’

Is this how our Government would have shikar in Indian jungles

shown to hunters abroad? True American sportsmen will not come

thousands of miles to shoot animals approached in security and

comtort by jeep and dazzled by powerful lights. In case our

Government doesn’t know it, it should perhaps be said here that many

Americans will refuse to shoot a driven bird because they regard it

as a thoroughly unsporting proposition.

Next, from the bottom of page 47, we are taken out on one of

these sneaking, cowardly raids: ‘We hadn't ridden with Pathak (the

driver) ten minutes before we began to feel secure. This was half

the battle, for we would be spending much time in the jeep, hunting

at night.

‘Everyone was silent now and suddenly Rao switched on a sealed-

beam searchlight and began probing the dark forests with it, looking

for the burning eyes; every head in the jeep followed the movement

like spectators at a tennis match. Every head except that of Pathak.

He needed full concentration at the wheel... . |

‘Shortly, without warning, we were at a village. The gaon, a

slender man with an amazingly smooth face but faded old eyes and

practically no hair, held his arms high and said several Hindi words

to Rao. He was vehement and excited.

‘Climbing into the back of the jeep, Rao said to me, “He would

like us to try to kill the wild boars. Not only do the villagers need

the meat badly, but these animals are about as dangerous as anything

in the jungle. They charge without provocation.” _

“While we were driving to the spot where the wild boars were

supposed to be, Rao told of what one of the tusked monsters had

done a couple of months ago. It seemed that a shikar client had shot

at a boar, wounding it.

‘“This is our nightmare here in the jungle,’ Rao said soberly.

“It is one reason I try to be very careful of people I take out on shikar.

REVIEWS 497

When an animal like a boar, a bear or any of the cats is wounded,

its danger to humans is increased at least fifty per cent. Careless or

too quick shooting can wound a tiger or a leopard, and it can prey on

these unarmed villagers for months after the hunter has gone back to

America. I know you will be sure of your target. The man who

shot the wild boar was not. He flashed a shot at it as it headed for

heavy cover. He couldn’t really see enough of the animal to shoot,

and he wasn’t a good enough shot to try for the boar while it was

running.”

“They had trailed it and observed blood, but couldn’t find the animal.

So they forgot about it. “There wasn’t really much else we could

do,” Rao said (The italics are mine). “I did search for it again,

but it had penetrated deeply into the jungle apparently and we never

saw it again.”

‘But one of the village people did. One of the older men from

Bori was returning from a neighbouring village about ten miles away

where he had been working at a charcoal pit, walking quickly along

a yellow dust road, trying to make it to his hut before darkness fell.

*“We never found out exactly what happened,” said Rao. “There

were long, deep, scuffs in the road where the man had apparently been

dragged. From the tracks it was evident that it was a big boar. The

man was dead, his stomach had been almost completely ripped out.

He never had a chance.” ’

We are fot told the nature and duration of the search that was)

made for the wounded animal.

Another such incident is described from page 50. The italics again

are mine: ;

‘There was silence now and we watched the long beam of Rao’s

light as it pushed aside the patches of forest-dark. Then, suddenly,

dramatically, as these things always happen, the light picked out two

big, black animals. They wheeled immediately as the light hit them,

charged towards us, then veered, making a sharp, right-angled turn.

- Sitting on the outside, I tried for them. Rao attempted to keep the

light on their fleeing bodies. I swung, led the boar in the rear, and

squeezed the trigger. Jt was a clear shot in the open and the big .458

boomed like a cannon, but the pigs kept on going and vanished in

the thick tangle of ringal, a stunted bamboo growth where even the

light couldn’t detect them. I started to get out of the jeep.

‘“No,” said Rao softly. “Jt is not safe to get out into the darkness

with wild boars around. They are probably in there now watching

and may charge.” ....

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

‘“Wonder where the third one is?” I asked Rao.

‘His face impassive, he said, “It could be a wiser animal, standing

back in the thickets and watching us while the other two es a3

‘Are they that smart?”

*“Smarter,’ he said. “They are a-noble eae ;

- There we have it. The whole sickening sequence ending in the flat,

gutless refusal to get out and look for an animal that should never

have been fired at in this way and which may or may not have been

wounded. No one in that jeep could have been sure beyond doubt

that that boar had not been hit. It’s all a shocking revelation. One

man has already been killed, and now the stage may well be set for

another such tragedy. We are not told about a later search, if any,

made for the boar that was shot at. 7

The rest of the book is punctuated with several more shocks of

the same kind. There’s the incident of the wounded bison: ‘There

always seemed to be someone waiting with a message, someone .to

ask us to do something. I was looking forward to some much-

needed rest and anything that looked like an interruption was

unwelcome. “Another aInELEr Hye We might as well belong to a

fire-department!” | ,

‘Rao smiled. He, too, was tired. But we were his clients and

by damn he was going to see that we got our Be s worth. “Both

bad and good news,” he said.

‘ “Well, give me the bad first, then we can enjoy the good.”

‘You know that bison that Mr. Maddox (a client just before

Mr. Scott) shot at and I thought he had missed? He has been found.”

*“You call that bad news?”

‘“Yes, there is only half of him. Apparently Mr. Maddox did

hit him and he was dragged down by a tiger. One tiger could never

kill the great gaur. He had to be wounded.” ’

And Mr. Rao Naidu, professional shikari, didn’t know! He can

let a client shoot at an animal the size of a bison and, unless the

animal drops dead, can apparently remain in complete ignorance*

about the result of the shot! It’s all too horribly casual, and his

naive remark that ‘I thought he had missed’ sounds so like a snatch

from some old music-hall ditty that it would be funny if it did not

strengthen the impression already gained that, to Mr. Naidu, wounded

animals left to die simply do not. matter and are dust a natural

by-product vf any of his hunts. :

Towards the end of the book another caine leopard (there

were two before it) meets the jeep on the road: ‘It was close to

REVIEWS 499

dawn now with a light that made you think you were under water.

Rao stopped the jeep. There on a hummock, crouching at the sight

of us, was a leopard... It was Mary Lou’s (Mr. Scott’s wife) turn

to bat. She sat, cool as usual, the .308 at her shoulder, stock tight

against her cheek. Just before the rifle cracked I saw the cat crouch

farther down. Then he was gone on the other side of the knoll, and

we were out of the car after him. But he had disappeared. I had

stayed with the jeep and Pathak while the other three went searching.

‘I was leaning against the jeep talking to Pathak when I saw it.

The cat had come back, circling behind us, and there he was about

two hundred yards from me, crouching but moving forward, seemingly

almost on his stomach. Pathak was petrified. I had the .308 on

him fast—too fast. My first shot raised dust spirals beyond him,

the other, corrected too hastily, was a little lower but not low enough.

Then he was gone. Hearing my shots, Rao came on the run, Mary

Lou and Tiwang close behind.

‘Two misses. on one cat,” Mary Lou said. “That’s too much!

I can understand yours, the leopard was moving, but mine was almost

a set-up shot. I should have had him—.”

‘“He crouched just as you pressed the trigger,’ Rao said. “You

missed by a bare fraction.” ’

Perhaps. But it is here suggested that snenenced shikaris will

see in that last description one clear piece of evidence which shows

that the leopard had indeed been hit and deserved to be followed

up until the truth, one way or the other, was known. But almost

at once the jeep was on the move again, and it had hardly gone five

hundred yards when Rao said, ‘“Chausingha! —Fourhorned

antelope!”

_ ‘It was standing about a hundred yards off the road on the edge

of a patch of ringals. I got out fast, sighting on it as it broke into

a peculiar lope, heading for the trees. At the shot it eee ahead,

turned to the left and fell.’

They certainly got that one, and the shot wasn’t actually taken

from the front seat of the jeep: just near enough to catch the

unsuspecting animal off its guard. Now in Africa, and in America,

this kind of shooting would earn the guilty hunter a whopping fine,

and the firm responsible for taking him out would stand in peril of

losing its licence. Why not the same penalties here?

I have expressed my opinion on the facts as set out by Mr. Scott,

and as they will appear to the readers of the book. If the facts

are not correctly presented, I would invite the Government of India

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

at an early date to counteract the effect of the book by publishing

the true facts, and by expressing its disapproval of the methods of

shikar described.

HUGH ALLEN

2. THE OXFORD BOOK OF WILD FLOWERS. By S. Ary

and M. Gregory. Illustrations by B. E. Nicholson. Pp. viti+232

(24.518 cm.). Oxford University Press, 1960. Price 30s.

This is a splendid book, in no way inferior to the already rich

collection of volumes illustrating the flora of Britain. To this

reviewer this book is a sort of answer to prayer, the sort of dream I

have had for many years for the flora of India in general and of

Bombay in particular: a book with plenty of illustrations, and good

descriptions, and of a price easily within the reach of the average

university student.

The present book is meant particularly for the general educated

public, especially for such people as find it impossible to wade

through the heavy technical books in regional or national floras.

But even the experts will find this book interesting. The more

common plants of Britain are grouped in the various colour plates

by the colour of their flowers; by this grouping even a mere tiro can

identify many of the flowers of the field without undue leafing

through the book. The right-hand page shows a number, usually

4 to 6, of colour illustrations; on the page facing the plate there is

a simple explanation, often with neat line diagrams, of the plants

given in the colour illustrations; in addition some other species

allied to those pictured in colour are also described in the text. The

colour plates all carry an indication of the size. of the plants pictured

thereon; usually the paintings are life size, occasionally half or

one-third life size. |

Colour plates and text fill up to page 191; then there follow a

few pages of black-and-white illustrations (pp. 193-201); there is next

a set of very interesting line drawings (pp. 202-205) giving the

general outline and appearance of some of the commoner British

trees in winter, when they are leafless, and in summer with their

full foliage. ;

At the end of the book there are notes on naming and classifying

plants, on ecology, and on other matters, meant to help the more

REVIEWS 501

botanically inclined reader. The book closes with an index of all

scientific and vernacular names mentioned in the text.

This reviewer has gone through the book in detail, and finds

nothing but praise for the splendid and artistic illustrations and the

concise but very careful descriptions. To put it briefly: I find this

book a challenge to Indian botanists and artists. Our school children

would certainly feel more attracted to the study of nature in all its

aspects if we could provide them with books such as the present under

review at a moderate price.

The printing both of the text and of the illustrations and the

general presentation of the book is in keeping with the very high

standards of Oxford University Press. |

H. SANTAPAU

3. YOUR FACE FROM FISH TO MAN. By M. S. Mani.

Pp. 85+ii (19.25X12.5 cm.). With line drawings. Bangalore, 1960.

The P.T.I. Book Depot. Price Rs. 3.

This is the first of a series of popular books on biology. The

author gives a short account of vertebrate evolution, taking as his

central theme the evolution of the human face from the ancestral fish-

head. He discusses among other things the changes in the muscular

system which gave rise to the upright posture. This meant that the

head, instead of weighing down one end of the spinal column, was

balanced on top of it. It was therefore freed for growth. The bones

of the ancestral cranium bulged outwards to accommodate the larger

brain, and the bones of the face changed in size and proportion with

them. The facial muscles shifted their attachments and some of them

grew until they became capable of giving rise to the complex expres-

sions characteristic of the human face today. A final chapter sums

up the possible future of the race—not a very bright one from

the aesthetic point of view. If present trends continue, the

dominant species of the future will have a hairless, toothless brain-

case, to which a diminished trunk and limbs will be attached as an

appendage!

The illustrations are a valuable aid to the understanding of the

text.

One hopes that this series will succeed in introducing biology to

a wider public.

A.B.

502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

4, TIGER TRAILS IN ASSAM. By Patrick Hanley. Pp.: 174

(22.20 14 cm.). With 15 photographs and 1 map. London, 1961.

Robert Hale Ltd. 18s.

-A new book on India’s wild life is all too rare an event and is

therefore doubly welcome to the naturalist and the’ lover of wild

things, more particularly if its main content comprises personal

cbservations on the habits and ways of life of the animals, as opposed

to a recital of shooting trips. Mr. Hanley’s book has an added

interest in that it is almost exclusively about the wild life of Assam,

a subject on which the few books which have appeared in recent

years have had little to say.

The thesis of the book is very agreeable—‘there is far greater

thrill to be had out of watching and learning about the habits and

behaviour of wild animals in the jungle, than one can ever experience

when shooting them. And if danger and excitement is.wanted, there

is far more of these to be found in one journey into the jungle on

foot, unarmed, than can ever be had by hunting tigers, leopards, or

other wild animals from the back of an elephant, or from a safe seat

in a machan on a tree, or even by gunning for them on foot.’

I read with the greatest sympathy of the loss of the author’s entire

collection of photographs in the war, for they were taken, Mr. Han!ley

tells us, ‘at great risk’ and ‘recorded jungle incidents of the rarer

kind of animal behaviour which only falls to the lot of man to witness

perhaps once in a lifetime’. Some of these must have been unique, as

few men have had the uncommon good luck even to have seen such

jungle incidents, let alone photograph them.

Mr. Hanley makes no claim that what he has written is to be

taken as authoritative on animal behaviour, and says he merely

records what he saw at different times. This is disarming, but some

of his experiences and observations HORNS in’ “the book ~ -are Most

unusual.

He must have been singularly fortunate to have seen tigers ill

their prey on more than one hundred and twenty separate occasions

(I have seen it only once!), and have exercised an equally singular

attraction for tigers to have had sixty odd encounters with them at

distances from six to twenty feet. ‘He must, too, have seen more

giant encounters between the great animals of the jungle than -any

other man, living or dead—tiger- ‘against ‘tiger (more> than once),

fighting for a mate; tiger against wild boar; sambar against wild dogs:

leopard against python; leopard against tiger; and so on. His record,

REVIEWS 503

besides, of ducking out of a charging leopard’s way twice must be

unique. | i |

_ The account of Bengala, the great tiger, makes fascinating reading.

I was not however greatly convinced of this tiger's wisdom, about

which much is said when he is introduced to the reader. He was

said to have evaded every hunter for ten years despite their deter-

mined efforts to shoot him. Yet the same tiger gave so many separate

opportunities to Mr. Hanley to summarily get him. Or perhaps he

was that bit extra clever to know that Mr. Hanley was harmless.

Four times the author saw him in the moonlight standing still at

a distance of only a few feet. Mr. Hanley admits that if he had had

a gun with him, he could not have missed him. Then there was

the occasion when Bengala killed a buffalo to the rear of his bungalow

and made a sitting target while he settled down to a long and leisurely

meal.

The estimate of Bengala’s weight of 650 Ib. canrot be accepted.

A tiger ten feet six inches long (estimated) over curves cannot

possibly weigh this much. Compare Brig.-Gen. Burton’s estimate of

the weight of the great Ambari tiger which he shot and examined—

550 lb. for a length of nine feet eight inches nose to tip. Bengala’s

photograph shows a splendid, muscular tiger, without an ounce of

surplus fat on him. A great tiger immediately after a big feed might

conceivably weigh considerably more than normal, but a weight of

650 Ib. would be more appropriate to Baikov’s Manchurian tigers.

There aré a couple of these in the Alipore Zoo in Calcutta, and,

judging from size, might tip the scale well in excess of 600 lb. in

their natural habitat, the Taiga.

References to tigers and leopards hunting by scent contradict the

known facts about these animals. Even so great an authority as

Dunbar Brander showed conclusively that the sense of scent of the

tiger was extremely poor, and the great carnivores depended entirely

on sight and hearing both to hunt and for most other purposes.

Mr. Hanley makes the astounding statement that ‘the sense of

smell of a tiger is more acute than any other animal in the jungle

.’ I should think, on the other hand, that every other major

animal in our jungles has a far better sense of smell than the tiger.

Certain inaccuracies in the book could have been avoided by so

experienced an observer of wild life as the author. He divides the

leopard into three different types—the leopard, the cheetah, and the

panther. He admits that the panther is a leopard posing under a

silly alias. But he goes on to say that the panther is slightly larger

504. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

than the leopard. The fact is, of course, the leopard and the panther

are two names for the same animal—despite what some old-time

hunters and a few others have said. The two names have been given

based almost entirely on variation in size, and sometimes a small

variation in colour. The size differences are associated with differences

in skull conformation and it is known that the animal develops the

occipital ridge with age. Its absence in a younger animal does not

make it another variety. The cheetah is no kind of a leopard. The

name by which it used to be popularly known—hunting leopard—

was attractive, but a misnomer just the same.

Again, Mr. Hanley says that Assam hoolocks are called langurs

in other parts of India. This is of course incorrect. The hoolock is

a gibbon and an ape, and does not occur west of Assam. The langur

is a monkey with a very wide distribution. An incredible observa-

tion is that while sitting up in a machan overlooking a water-hole,

numbers of lynx and civet cats came down to drink. :

Nevertheless, Mr. Hanley’s accounts of jungle life are full of

interest, and his great humanity towards its inhabitants made a deep

impression on me.

B. SESHADRI

Miscellaneous Notes

1. GOLDEN LANGURS PRESBYTIS GEEI GEE

(KHAJURIA, 1956) IN CAPTIVITY

During early December 1955, a friend and I visited the Sankosh

River on a fishing holiday. On arrival at the Jamduar Forest

Bungalow, we found a scientific party there, who were collecting

specimens of the Golden Langur, Presbytis geei Gee (Khajuria, 1956),

for the Calcutta Museum. We helped the collectors obtain some

specimens during the course of which I acquired two baby Golden

Langurs, male and female, for myself. These I estimated to be 2-3

months old at the time of capture.

They did not show any signs of being afraid of humans, and took

quite readily to a bottle of diluted condensed milk, and also ate oranges

and bananas.

I took these young langurs back to the garden in the Terai

(Darjeeling District). There they were kept tied up on the lawn or

verandah during the day, and were put away in a box, well padded

with old blankets for the cold nights.

After a month or so they became very tame and would come

eagerly when they saw one approaching with food, and so I was able

to let them play around in the compound, where they generally stayed

in the bauhinia trees, and we could always catch them again. by enticing,

them with food.

At the end of about 3 months the male died, without having

shown any indication of ill health. The female thereupon became

very lonely, and showed her unhappiness by making the wailing,

almost a whistling, noise that seems to be peculiar to the Golden

Langur.

It so happened at this time that the female of a pair of tame

hoolocks of mine died. For a number of years these monkeys lived

a perfectly free and normal life in the jungle behind my bungalow,

which was at an elevation of approximately 1800 feet (550 m.).

They wandered over vast areas of jungle, but always came back to

the bungalow to take food, particularly when natural foods in the

jungle were scarce. After the death of the female the male hoolock

became lonely and dejected and seldom ventured far from the

bungalow. When his mate was alive they took little notice of the

young langurs, although they often fed together, but now the female

506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

langur appeared to be attracted to the hoolock, and though he was rather

shy of her approach to begin with, invariably taking to the roof of

the bungalow where the langur was unable to follow, he gradually

overcame his timidity. It happened that one very cold, wet morning

he actually allowed the langur to snuggle up to him while he was

sheltering under the front porch. They spent the rest of the night

Sheltering there and from that day on they were firm friends. The

hoolock used to go off occasionally into the jungle, and at such

times the langur would sit on the roof and wail as she could: not

follow, being too young to face the hazards of the jungle. The male

for his part never stayed away long, coming back almost every day,

but spending the nights in his own haunts among the trees.

As the langur grew stronger she followed more and more after

the hoolock. He would often be well ahead, but would come back

on hearing her wail and help her along, and in this manner soon

built up her confidence to move through the jungle on her own. Now

they would go off long periods at a time and, although to begin

with the langur always came back to the bungalow to pass the night

on the beams of the porch, she eventually adopted the habit of the

hoolock and took to spending the nights in the trees. They always

called at the bungalow first thing in the morning and were given a

meal of bread and milk and fruit, and then either sat on the bungalow

roof or went for a short jaunt in the jungle. They would return in

the early afternoon for a second meal, after which they played among’

the bauhinia trees in the compound, and as evening approached they

made off into the jungle to their sleeping places (which, ie the way,

I never discovered).

When natural foods were plentiful they often missed out their

visits to the bungalow for a day or two at a time.

This state of affairs continued until mid 1957, by which time the

langur was fully grown. The visits became very infrequent at this

time as far as the langur was concerned, but the hoolock continued

to come on his own, and ultimately the langur stopped coming

altogether. I rather think she must have paired up with a Common

Langur, as I had often noticed a troupe in the same area of jungle

where my monkeys used to live, particularly an old solitary male who

was often observed quite near the bungalow.

The following are points of interest poet ed duce the ee I

had the langurs:

_ FEEDING. When - first captured they were fed cae a bottle

containing very, diluted condensed milk which was. later replaced by.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 507

diluted cow’s milk. They became very used to the bottle and

frequently quarrelled over its possession. Oranges were eaten readily

from the outset, arfd later bananas, bread-and-milk, rice-and-milk,

and any fruits that were available, e.g. mango, papaya, litchis, etc.

From the age of about 5 months onwards, they started to catch and

eat insects such as_ spiders, grubs, and caterpillars, and had a

special liking for grasshoppers, which were caught for them. This

habit continued into the adult stage, as I often saw the female hunt-

ing insects immediately after having eaten her meal from the

bungalow. She appeared to be fond of any brightly coloured flowers,

with the result that the buds of orchids, bauhinia, roses, etc. were

pulled to pieces, and the tastier petals eaten with relish. I also

noticed her eating tender green leaves, but unfortunately do not know

the names of the trees from which they were taken. Amongst wild

fruit the yellow ficus or peepul was eaten as well as others, but wie

again I cannot give the names.

- COLORATION. When first obtained they were a light golden yellow

which. gradually darkened to a rusty go'd with maturity, the male

appearing to be a shade darker than the female. No change of colour

was remarked with the different seasons, but this may have escaped

my notice.

HABITS. Appeared to be extremely gentle by nature. Gregarious,

as at any time one was left it wou'd wail continually until reunited

with its companion. Curiosity not so marked as with other species

of monkey, but intelligence I would rate quite high. Did not show

any affection towards human beings, but very much so amongst

themselves, and of course later with the hoolock. Extremely clean

in all their habits: no distinctive body smell as is evident with other

monkeys.

They had the usual monkey’s fascination for a mirror. The

female used to spend hours together snuggling up to her own reflec-

tion in the window panes of the bungalow. Very playful in the

company of the hoolock.

SoLGAL PE. &:P.. O.,

CACHAR, - ae : P. L. ACHARD

ASSAM,

May 25, 1961. -~

508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

2. RECOVERY OF A RINGED TIGER!

Last March I had some guests at my farm near Kichha (Kumaon

terai) for a shoot. One of the tigers shot was found to have a collar

of twisted iron wire round its neck (two rounds of wire with a loop

in which the loose end of the wire was secured). The tiger, a male

measuring 8 ft. 7 in. between pegs, was in good condition and quite

wild. When followed up after being wounded, it charged our

elephants viciously and put them to flight before being shot. The

collar was quite loose indicating that the animal was not very young

when it escaped from captivity. The tiger had perhaps escaped from

a circus, but curiously we did not hear of any such escape, or of any

circus camping within 20 miles of the farm in the last year or so.

My brother mentioned that he had read in the Lucknow Pioneer of

a tiger escaping from a circus camping at Mainpuri a few months

back. A letter to the editor of the newspaper has remained

unreplied. Mainpuri is about 180 miles (290 km.) from Kichha in a

straight line. Do you think that the Mainpuri tiger could be the

one shot on the farm? The distance and the wildness of the tiger

are perhaps against the assumption.

464, BEHARIPUR,

BAREILLY, U.P., C. M. CHAUDHRI,

July 26, 1960. | L.F.S. (Retired)

[The Editor of The Pioneer has been unable to trace any reference

to a report of the tiger at any time between July 1959 and February

1960. Can any reader give us more information about this

tiger? —EDs.]

3. SOME NOTES ON THE GOLDEN CAT, FELIS TEMMINCKI

VIGORS & HORSFIELD

(With two plates)

This beautiful cat is found in Nepal, north-east India, Burma, and

south-east Asia down to Sumatra; Tibet, Szechuan, and (?) upper

Burma; and southern China. Ellerman & Morrison-Scott list three

subspecies in these three geographical areas respectively: F. t.

temmincki, F. t. tristis, and F. t. dominicanorum.

Journ. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Felis temminckhi temminckt

Perhaps the most handsome and brilliantly coloured of all the smaller cats

Photo :\ FE: P: Gee

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prare ld

About three-quarters grown. His size can be gauged from the tennis ball he is

retrieving

Photos : E. P. Gee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 509

_ F. temmincki is extremely variable in coloration, and the typical

race F. t. temmincki varies from very dark brown (even black) to

rusty red or chestnut, ochreous-tawny, and grey. There are prominent

striped markings on the face and cheeks, with faint markings on the

chest and under parts. The tail is dark above and whitish below.

This is a large cat,-the length of an adult male being 4 ft. 2 in.

(1.27 m.) including the tail.

This cat has very seldom been observed in the live state. One

was seen and shot at Maymyo over a calf it had killed, and another

was speared at Victoria Point, Tenasserim, while feeding on a buffalo

calf. A pair of them were shot at Shilingkhet (also in Burma?)

while feeding on a buffalo calf. In the Lushai Hills (of Assam) it

is said to live among rocks, while in the Mishmi Hills (of N. E. F. A.)

the female is said to lie up in hollow trees with her two young ones.

Sterndale quotes Hodgson to the effect that his first specimen

‘was caught in a tree by some hunters in the midst of an exceedingly

dense forest. Though only just taken it bore confinement very

tranquilly, and gave evident signs of a tractable disposition, but

manifested high courage, for the approach of a huge Bhotea dog to

its cage excited in it symptoms of wrath only, not of fear.’

E. QO. Shebbeare tells me that A. W. Pullan once kept a Golden

Cat in captivity, and eventually presented it to the London Zoo where

it died of feline distemper. It was said to be very tame, and was

‘grey with darker mottling’.

In April 1960, while in Goalpara town in western Assam, I found

a tiny kitten in the shop of an animal dealer, and instantly recognised it

as a kitten of F. t. temmincki. After much bargaining I acquired

it. I was told by the dealer that it and two others had been brought

from the Garo Hills near by in February. They must have been found

when very young indeed as this one had been in the dealer’s posses-

sion for a month and was still very tiny. The other two had been

~ sent to Calcutta but had both died on the way.

I took the kitten to my house in Upper Shillong, where he im-

mediately made himself at home both inside the house and also all

over the garden. ‘Tishi, as he was called, proved to be remarkably

tame and intelligent. He quickly came to know the servants and all

the windows and doors of the rooms. He would come instantly

when called, even without a chance of getting food, and would

follow me everywhere. Each time I passed a tree he would leave

me, dash up the tree almost to the top, dash down again and catch

me up in.time to do a repeat performance at the next tree. He

510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

seemed to be equally at home in a tree as on the ground—a pointer

to the habits of this cat in the wild. :

Tishi used to suckle the lobes of my ears, both as a kitten “ana

even when almost fully grown up, over 3 ft. 9 in. (1.15 m.) in length.

When he was bigger, I had to discourage this habit, as he sometimes

became over-enthusiastic. So instead he developed the. habit in later

months of springing up on to my shoulders clawlessly, and licking

my head. If I were to sit down, he would be in my lap immediately,

and would start treading with his paws and forming saliva at the

mouth. There is no doubt that, as he had hardly (if ever) seen his

own mother, he came to regard me as his own kind, as a sort of

father and mother combined.

As a kitten Tishi had been dark brown and fluffy. After a few

months he began to change colour, and by November had grown into

a strikingly handsome and truly golden cat. Everyone who saw him

remarked on his brilliant colouring, as well as on his extraordinary

tameness and devotion to me. Right up to the end of his stay with

me, he rarely showed any signs of temper and was almost invariably

well behaved and docile.

In the late afternoons he used to go ‘hunting’ in the forest below

my house, as much as a mile away. Sometimes he even entered

villages. But an hour or so after dark we used to call him, and

within a very short time he was back for his evening meal and to

be shut up at night—for his safety.

He would play for hours with the other cat, with the dogs, with

himself: and above all he loved to have a tennis ball to catch six

feet up in the air and bring back to hand—a veritable ‘ golden

‘retriever’.

As there had been. no chance of getting a mate for such.a rare

creature, and in order to improve the chance of his becoming and

remaining tame, I had had him castrated in July. Then, when the

following January (1961) came round and I was about to go on a

trip to south India, it became a problem what to-do with him. He

could not be left behind with the servants. Every day I was afraid

that a Khasi arrow might find its mark in him, or that he might get

run over on the main road outside my garden. There was only one

solution: Tishi must go to a zoo.

As there is no fully established hill zoo in India available to

take a golden cat, a creature of the mountains and forests, I made

arrangements with the London Zoo. On January 16th 1961 Tishi

‘travelled the 6000 miles (9700 km.) ie air to his new home; where

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES S11

he thrives. In his letter dated May 3rd the Curator of Mammals,

London Zoo, wrote: ‘Tishi has settled in splendidly and is in

marvellous condition. He is a superb exhibit... We have already

recorded a television programme ... in which Tishi featured and

I must say he looked magnificent when I saw the recording that was

made.’ |

EVERGREEN COTTAGE,

UPPER SHILLONG, | EB. P. GEE

ASSAM,

May 28, 1961.

4. WHAT DO LARGE PREDATORS IN THE FOREST

LIVE ON?

In January 1961 Mr. C. E. Norris, of Pingarawa Estate.

Namunukula, Ceylon, wrote to us commenting on Mrs. Jamal Ara's

estimate of the large predator population in her ecological survey of

the Hazaribagh National Park (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 325-338

at p. 334). He pointed out that, at an assumed killing rate of one

per week per predator and a recruitment rate of 20% per year for

the large herbivore population, there would have to be a herbivore

population of 20X52xX5=5200 to feed the ten tigers and ten

leopards estimated as living in the Park, whereas the estimate of the

deer population of the park is only 235. Mrs. Jamal Ara replied

by calculations showing the absurd results that followed from the

assumptions on which Mr. Norris’s figures were based. For instance,

the Palamau Forest Division in Bihar State, estimated by the Forest

Department in the 1930s to have a tiger population of 35 and perhaps

a leopard population of 25, would require for their maintenance a

herbivore population of 60X52x5=15,600,-a figure that even the

most ardent admirer of the richness of Palamau forest life would

not accept as possible. Similarly, the population of 250 lions

recently estimated to live in the Gir Forest would require a herbivore

population of 65,000. As a result of this correspondence Mr. Norris

has re-examined the question and, after consulting naturalists, game-

wardens, and other knowledgeable ‘persons in Ceylon, Africa,’ and

India, writes that the old belief of one kill per week is ‘very far from

correct’, and that in the course of his inquiries he has collected some

‘mteresting data’ which he is in the process of analysing. While we

512. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

await his report it would be interesting to have some other opinions

too.

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, EDITORS

BOMBAY 6,

July 29, 1961.

5. COMMUNAL DISTRACTION DISPLAY IN LARGE GREY

BABBLER [TURDOIDES MALCOLMI (SYKES)]

A pair of Large Grey Babblers [Turdoides malcolmi (Sykes)]

breed regularly in a solitary thorny tree in my compound here. On

19 May 1961 there were four fledglings in the nest, being fed by the

parents while the rest of the flock of babblers from time to time would

gather close by watching for danger and giving alarm on sighting

a crow, or mongoose, or pariah kite. On 25 May 1961 one of the

fledglings flew out of the nest and probably perished in a heavy rain

storm which occurred that evening. Another fledgling was missing

after the storm. On 29 May 1961 the two remaining fledglings left

the nest and hopped about on the ground, either following the group

of babblers or being followed by them. As the fledglings were at the

mercy of a mongoose living close by, the babblers defended the young

in a group, fluttering their wings and guiding the young ones in the

direction they ought to follow. The whole flock of 8 babblers would

surround the fledglings and flutter their wings. The babblers appeared

to be acting as a group, attracting attention to themselves and

distracting likely enemies from the young, and also somewhat guiding

the young. During my few days’ observation I noticed that only the

parents fed the young, and the rest of the group cordoned the young

ones when on the ground and were constantly on the look out for

danger. The group of birds now and then fluttered their wings and

often babbled in unison. When the group left for feeding, one pair

of babblers which I recognised to be the parents of the fledglings

remained with the young. Although communal feeding of the young

is possible, I did not see it being done in this instance.

Dit BAHAR,

BHAVNAGAR, R. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHIJI

June 6, 1961.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES S13

6. THE MOUSTACHED SEDGE WARBLER [LUSCINIOLA

MELANOPOGON (TEMMINCK)|] AND THE YELLOW BITTERN

[XOBRYCHUS SINENSIS (GMELIN)] : ADDITIONS TO

THE BIRDS OF KUTCH

At the BNHS/WHO Bird Migration Study camp at Wanoti about

‘9 miles north of Mandvi, Kutch, 10th to 26th March 1961, no less

than six Moustached Sedge Warblers, Lusciniola melanopogon

(Temminck), were trapped in bird nets, all singly on different days.

The only previous record from the whole of Gujarat is of Dr.

W. Koelz from Sihor near Bhavnagar. It would seem from the above

that this sedge warbler is not an uncommon winter visitor to Kutch,

but escapes notice in tne thick reed beds it frequents.

A Yellow Bittern, Jxobrychus sinensis (Gmelin), was noted and

later collected by P. W. Soman. The only record from Gujarat is

that of Butler from Deesa, where he found a few pairs breeding in

1876.

‘JASDAN,

SAURASHTRA, Y. S. SHIVRAJKUMAR

March 29, 1961.

[A specimen of Lusciniola melanopogon collected has the. wing

62 mm. and is no doubt of the eastern race L. m. mimica Madarasz.

The Yellow Bittern, /. sinensis, has not been specifically recorded

from Kutch but in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. 1, page 143, is

published a list of 102 specimens presented by A. H. T. Newnham,

. Which in the course of the Annual Report published on page 89 of

the same volume are said to be collected from Bhuj, Kutch. This

includes two specimens of J. sinensis though they no longer exist

with us. |

The Yellow Bittern is said to occur all over India and Ceylon,

east to South China through Burma, the Malay States and

Archipelago, to Celebes. In India, however, it has a more restricted

distribution. While common in Bengal, Assam, and parts of Burma,

the other records from India are restricted to the west, i. Sind,

~Deesa (Gujarat), Bombay, and Malabar, in all of which places it is

believed to breed.—EDs.]

514. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

7. RUFOUSBELLIED HAWK-EAGLE, LOPHOTRIORCHIS

KIENERII KIENERII (E. GEOFFROY) IN NORTH KANARA

While I was on tour in North Kanara as the Wild Life

Preservation Officer of the pre-1961 Bombay State, I had occasion

to visit the Dandeli Game Sanctuary which was then being completed.

The area of the Sanctuary is about 80 sq. miles and consists of moist

deciduous forest containing valuable teak forest but mostly overgrown

with bamboos and other trees. The area in some parts is hilly with

deep ravines. A beautiful view of this type of country is seen at

Sykes’s Point and it was here that I saw a _ Rufousbellied

Hawk-Eagle [Lophotriorchis kienerii kienerii (E. Geoffroy)] glide

past me and then rise up at an acute angle disclosing the upper and

lower parts of the body and wings. The first impression of the bird’s

coloration is much like that of the Indian Shahin, dark slaty upper

parts to the lores and ear coverts but with a light patch on the lower

side of the primaries, the lower wing appearing grey but the axillaries

and under wing-coverts looking rufous; breast whitish with dark

- stripes and belly deep chestnut; the small crest was also seen. While

gliding in air currents the bird was seen rising and falling with half

closed wings sometimes at steep angles. I had a number of

glimpses of the bird through binoculars on Monday, 19 December

1955. I also heard the grey junglefowl cackling when this Hawk-

Eagle swooped low over the forest roof.

26, Lotus Court,

JAMSHEDSI TATA ROAD, R. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHSJI

BOMBAY 1,

June 2, 1961.

[This race occurs in Ceylon and SW. India, the northernmost

record so far being from Settihalli, 2500 ft., Shimoga, Mysore, where

Dr. Salim Ali saw a single bird between 25 Jan. and 2 Feb. 1940

(J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44 : 20).—Eps.]

8. PELICANRY AT KUNDAKULAM, TIRUNELVELI

DISTRICT

In his article on the Grey, or Spotbilled Pelican (Pelecanus

philippensis Gmelin) in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society (Vol. 57, page 246) E. P. Gee writes of a small pelicanry

in the village of Kundakulam, Tirunelveli District, in the extreme

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES By)

south of Madras State. He says that since the visit of C. G. Webb-

Peploe in April 1944 (Vol. 45, page 426) there is no further news

of this diminutive colony of pelicans.

On January 7th 1960 I visited Kundakulam. ven that occasion,

although about a hundred Painted Storks [Ibis leucocephalus (Pennant)]

had arrived and were inspecting sites for nesting, I saw only one

pelican. Women from the village told me subsequently that about

a week after my visit further pelicans arrived.

On 22nd March of this year a friend visited Kundakulam and

brought me back the following information.

Pelicans had built in about five trees but there were no young in

the nests yet. There were two or possibly three nests in a tree along

with nests of Painted Storks in which there were already young birds.

There were also many nests of Night Heron and Little Egret.

Some of the trees on which the birds nest are quite low. They

include Azadirachta indica, Thespesia populnea, and Delonix elata.

The headmen of the village still protect the birds and their women-

folk spoke with scorn of a village of which they had heard where the

people had so ill-treated their birds that ‘not even a sparrow is to

be found there now!’ The women also said that a few years pre-

viously the birds came at their customary time but, finding no water

in the tank, they circled round for several days and then left. They

did not know where the birds nested that season but the following

year they returned to Kundakulam in their usual numbers. As the

Kundakulam tank is now fed by a channel from a newly constructed

dam in the mountains to the west it is more likely to be filled in

future even in years of poor rainfall.

In January 1960 I saw the nest of a pair of Black Ibis, Pseudibis

papillosa (Tem.)'. The nest was high up in a palmyra palm on the

edge of the village several hundred yards from the nearest tree on

which the Painted Storks were nesting.

DOHNAVOR,

TIRUNELVELI Dr., MARGARET E. WILKINSON

SOUTH INDIA,

March 4, 1961.

* This appears to be first definite record of ie Black Ibis, Pseudibis papillosa

(Tem.), breeding in south India.—Ebs.

516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

9. FOOD OF THE RUDDY SHELDUCK, TADORNA

FERRUGINEA (PALLAS)

On pages 273-4 of. Vol. 53 of our Journal there was some dis-

cussion regarding the statement that the Ruddy Sheiduck [Tadorna

ferruginea (Pallas)] feeds on carrion.

Though Meinertzhagen was quoted as having seen them lopping

up bits of a putrid horse and as many as 20 birds gorging on a

corpse in the Ganges, the stories of carrion-eating were generally

accepted as erroneous. In an attempt to obtain a clarification we

wrote to Col. Meinertzhagen and his reply reads in part: ‘It is

quite possible that the Ruddy Shelduck which I saw feeding on

carrion in India were feeding on maggots, but I’m quite sure they

were snatching meat, perhaps to expose maggots.’

It may therefore be interesting to record that P. S. Nazaroff in

HUNTED THROUGH CENTRAL ASIA (1932) .at page 246 says: ‘I have

found their nests even in fresh Kirghiz graves, and as they often feed

on carrion, joining in with vultures and crows, it is better to cut them

out of the list of edible game, especially as the meat is tough and

stringy.’

Andrews in NEW CONQUEST OF CENTRAL ASIA (1932), p. 49, refers

to experiences in Tuerin in Outer Mongolia. He says: ‘No water

within many miles but about 20 had taken up their residence among

the granite rocks. All day long we could hear their mournful notes

as they circled about camp and contended for a favourite roosting

place on one of the highest peaks. Often we would see one silhouetted

against the sky on the very summit of a ragged pinnacle, looking

more like an eagle than a water bird. We found them throughout

the desert. There, i suppose they feed as do cranes upon grasshoppers

and other insects, but I am sorry to say that I surprised one pulling

lustily at the decaying flesh of a defunct camel’

BomBay NATuRAL History SOcIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, EDITORS

BomMBAY 6,

July 26, 1961.

10. A LATE DUCK RECORD ?

During our recent holiday in Naini Tal, my children and I noticed

three different species of duck on the lake in May. A small flock

of about 10 Tufted Pochard [Aythya fuligula (L.)] (both sexes) kept

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 517

strictly to themselves; but two Redcrested Pochard [Netta rufina

(Pall.)] drakes were usually not far away from a flock of about 8

Common Pochard [A. ferina (L.)] (both sexes). All these birds

appeared to be wild, and were certainly under no sort of restraint or

protection. They showed almost no fear of mankind, and would

allow a fairly close approach by boat. They were invariably to be

seen along the Mall shore of the lake; this, though of course much

noisier and more populous than the opposite shore, probably affords

a richer food supply, thanks to all the drainage ditches that empty

from it into the lake.

All these duck were to be seen daily, right up to 16 May, on

which date we reluctantly left this delightful hill station. I am

sending this note, in case this constitutes a ‘late record’ for the

lingering of duck in Indian waters.

MAIDSTONE,

PANCHGANI, T. GAY

SATARA,

June 14, 1961.

[As a general rule these duck commence nesting in late April or

early May... None of them breed in India and the dates reported by

Mr. Gay are of interest——EDs.] |

11. NOTES ON BIRD MIGRATION DURING A VOYAGE

FROM ENGLAND TO INDIA IN SEPTEMBER 1960

Last year we returned to India on board S. S. Carthage, leaving

Southampton on 16 September and arriving in Bombay on 4 October.

Bird migration in the eastern Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the

Indian Ocean was in full swing; perhaps the following notes might

be of interest to other travellers.

We left Southampton in a dense fog and continuous rain. I have

seldom been so contented to leave my native land. The white cliffs

were totally invisible and we soon ran into a heavy gale which

continued until 19 September when we emerged into the Spanish

sunshine. The usual gulls and shearwaters were seen. Quite a

number of Great Skuas (how this species is increasing its numbers!)

and a few Arctic Skuas harrying flocks of Sandwich Terns, but no

small migrants rather to my surprise. In fact we saw none, except

a single Turtle Dove near Gibraltar, and a swallow off the Algerian

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

coast, until the 22 September when we passed Malta in heavy rain.

Swallows then began to appear in small numbers, and these increased

rapidly, together with wheatears etc. as we approached Port Said,

which we reached at midnight on 24 September. We left at dawn

for the Suez Canal. I was not on deck as early as I might have been

and bitterly regretted my laziness on hearing that I had missed several

hundred flamingos! The country on both sides of the Canal was

alive with birds. Thousands of waders swarmed along the little

irrigation canals. Greenshank, Redshank, and Ringed Plovers could

be identified, but the great majority could not. Shrikes, Doves,

Kestrels were numerous. Then I saw what looked like a black falcon

on the ground. At first I could not believe my eyes until I saw

another and then another and realised I was looking at the Redfooted

Falcon. The brilliant red legs and red eye patches could be clearly

seen. On consulting Peter’s invaluable FIELD GUIDE I read that they

often hunt insects on the ground. During the next two hours others

were seen, females as well as males.

Another excitement was a flock of Lesser Kestrels. The late Sir

Norman Kinnear had asked me to look out for these birds in Nepal,

and I sometimes wondered if I could have overlooked them and

confused them with the common Kestrel. Now that at last I did

see them it was clear that no mistake was possible. These birds are

much brighter, smaller, and in flocks. They called and chattered and

behaved in quite a different manner from the Kestrel. I am now

quite certain that I have never seen these birds in Nepal, nor any-

where else in India.

Caspian Terns were also common in the Canal, and many other

terns, some with black wings.

In fact it was utterly frustrating to be swept inexorably through

this paradise of bird life, on into the desert country further south

where little life was seen.

In the Red Sea there was also much migration and even in the

Indian Ocean where I had expected to see little except the Phalaropes,

which were there in their thousands. We also saw herons, swallows,

Short-toed Larks, and doves. We wondered how many of these

luckless birds would survive. 1 had never realised before what

terrible wastage must occur during the migrations.

A detailed list of species seen is given below:

Ardea cinerea Grey Heron.

_ A single heron was seen south of Crete, on 23 September, flying

in a south-easterly direction.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES o19

On 29 September a pair of these birds appeared-—we were then

about 5 hours out of Aden harbour. They flew very close to the

ship and made several unsuccessful attempts to land on the mast

and upper decks. They appeared tired and one bird had several

primaries missing. They continued with us for about an_ hour,

frequently fiying off to the north and then returning to the ship. It

was almost dark when they finally left us and flew off in a NNE.

direction. The captain said that land would be about 50 miles away

in that direction. They were flying strongly so I hope they made it,

but what could they have been doing there at all. I did not know

that herons were migratory, except locally.

Still stranger was the report of another passenger (who was a

very reliable observer) that he had seen two herons in the middle

of the Indian Ocean. We were then rather nearer Bombay than

Aden. He said they were flying due south and took no notice of

the ship. I suppose these last might have been Reef Herons, but

even so it was surely extraordinary for them to be so far from land.

Oceanites oceanicus Wilson’s Petrel.

A few of these birds were seen north of Sokotra on 30 September.

Singles and not more than a dozen altogether. None were seen as

We approached Bombay.

Eagles, Buzzards spp. ?

From Suez to Aden (26-29 September) there was a continual

migration of large brown raptores. They were most numerous in

the Gulf of, Suez where one was seen on an average every 5 minutes,

and less so as we went south. In the south Red Sea perhaps only

one would be noticed in 3 or 4 hours, but I saw an occasional bird

up to 10 hours of reaching Aden. They flew singly. Sometimes

2 or 3 birds could be seen at the same time, but they never flew

together. Some flew 20 feet or so above the water, but the great

majority just above the waves. They flew steadily in a SW. or W.

direction. The wind was strong from the N. or NE., so they flew

either across the wind or downwind. Sometimes an extra strong gust

seemed to bother them somewhat and they would turn into the wind,

banking for a moment and then resume their original direction.

They took no notice of the ship and were never diverted from their

steady flight. Unfortunately I was unable to identify them. They

appeared a uniform brown, some lighter than others. There were no

bars in the wing, no white on the upper tail-coverts. The underwings

could not be seen. It is very difficult to judge the size of birds at

520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

sea, as in the waste of water there is nothing to compare them with

and it is hard to tell how far away they are from: the observer. I

am inclined to think they were eagles, some race of A. rapax perhaps.

Once in the middle of the Red Sea, ‘north of the Apostles Islands,

I saw two buzzards, flying together and wheeling in great circles one

above the other. They had the moth-like pattern of a buzzard on

their underwings and seemed smaller than the others.

Accipiter nisus Sparrow-Hawk.

A very large sparrow-hawk came on board the evening before we

reached Aden, 28 September. It sat on the mast but frequently flew

off behind the ship, where it circled, sometimes disappearing behind

the low rain clouds, but it always returned flying rapidly after the

ship, and after alighting for a minute on the rigging in the stern

would fly up to the cross-trees on the main mast, and was still there

when darkness fell. It was so large that I might have thought it a

Goshawk, if the long yellow brittle-looking legs had not been so

clearly those of an Accipiter.

Next day as we left Aden in the afternoon another but much

smaller Sparrow-Hawk followed the ship, alighting in exactly the

same place. It also was still there at dusk but gone in the morning.

Circus aeruginosus Marsh Harrier.

A single male was seen in the north Red Sea, just north of the

islands, The Brothers. It was flying west.

Falco vespertinus Redfooted Falcon.

In the Suez Canal about 3 hours after leaving Port Said, on

25 September, I saw 5 males of this species together “in a fallow

field. They were on the ground. Later 2 females on telegraph

wires, then another single female. Later another group of 3 males

on the ground with a single female.

Falco naumanni Lesser Kestrel

A. flock of 15 of these birds was seen in the Canal. They were

restless flying about and then returning to a stunted tree on which

they congregated. They were very noisy, screaming and chattering

and behaving very differently from the Common Kestrel. They

were also much brighter. Later I thought I saw another flock but

a good distance away and I could not be sure.

Falco tinnunculus Kestrel

Very common all along the Canal, but I could not of course tell

what proportion were on migration. I never saw one of these birds

at sea.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 32]

Tringa totanus, T. nebularia, Calidris alpina

Greenshank and Redshank formed part of the huge flocks of

waders near Port Said. There were also I think large numbers of

Dunlin, and certainly Ringed Plover, but I could not tell which

species.

Phalaropus lobatus, P. fulicarius

Vast concentrations of phalarope were seen north of Sokotra on

30 September. Visibility was poor and no land could be seen, but’

from the chart I thought we were due north of the island. We began

to run into little groups of these birds at about 11 o’clock. By

midday there were thousands of them. Some of the flocks must have

contained 200 to 300 birds, but mostly they were in groups of 20 to

70 or so. They were often sitting on the water, riding very high and

looking incredibly fragile for ocean birds, but unfortunately the ship

always frightened them into flight before one could examine them

closely.

Twice single birds came on deck; these had black legs and very

fine black bills so were presumably P. lobatus, the Rednecked

Phalarope. On the water I could not tell to which species they

belonged. For three hours we sailed through great numbers of the

birds. Then the numbers grew rapidly less and by evening only

small groups of 5 or so were occasionally seen. Next day we passed

some single birds and a few small groups and these were all flying

west so perhaps on their way to joining the large flocks north of

Sokotra. ,

Streptopelia turtur? Turtle Dove

Doves formed a large proportion of the migrants seen. One was

seen near Gibraltar, and small numbers in the eastern Mediterranean.

In the Red Sea they were seen all the time, though there were

seldom more than 5 or 6 round the ship at one time. These last

appeared very pale, but perhaps this due only to the brilliant light

which makes everything appear to be drained of colour. None were

seen after leaving Aden until 24 hours out of Bombay when doves

again appeared but sat on the rigging too high for identification.

Migrating Turtle Doves are much attracted by a ship, and sometimes

seem unable to decide to leave it even when land is plainly visible.

I have often seen dead birds floating past the ship, although others

will rest for a moment and continue on their way.

1 This species does not occur in Indie.—Eps.

522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Merops apiaster European Bee-eater

This lovely bird came on board on 27 September, south of the

Gulf of Suez. It sat on the rigging and was very tame, allowing

passengers to come within a few feet of it. It remained on board

till dusk fell but was gone in the morning.

Upupa epeps Hoopoe

The Hoopoe was only seen once flying alongside the Shug near

Port Said on 24 September.

Hirundo rustica Swallow

No swallows were seen in the Atlantic, and only one in the

western Mediterranean off the Algerian coast. On 22 September as

we approached Malta swallows were seen in small numbers, and

often sat on the rigging to preen themselves. There were many young

birds with short tails. On leaving Malta a small party (5 birds),

which had been with us all day, took off in a NE. direction. Between

Malta and Port Said swallows were abundant and there were always

numbers round the ship. Several birds sat on the rigging with closed

eyes and one collapsed and died. It appeared in perfect condition.

All down the Red Sea swallows were seen, but not in great

numbers usually 2 or 3 together. They became fewer as we went

south, and none were seen in Aden.

Two days out from Bombay 3 birds came on board and remained

with us for a few hours before taking off in a due south direction.

I wondered if these had any chance of reaching land. 12 hours

from Bombay a single bird alighted on the rigging for a minute and

then flew on. It was definitely rustica not the eastern race. Near

Bombay I saw others but they did not come very close.

Hirundo daurica Redrumped Swallow

Several seen on 23 September south of Crete. A few were also

seen in the Canal and north Red Sea.

Delichon urbica House Martin

Two martins were seen south of Crete. They flew round the ship

and dipped low over the water exactly as if they had been sipping ©

it, though I could not see if they actually touched the water and.

it seems unlikely. Martins were also seen occasionally in the Red

Sea. 2 just as we passed the island the Apostles. None after that.

Riparia riparia Sand Martin

One seen with swallows near the Apostles Islands in the Red Sea.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 523

Oenanthe oenanthe Wheatear

None seen in the western Mediterranean, but frequently in the

eastern Mediterranean after Malta. One spent the night in the bar.

None in the Canal nor after that.

Calandrella brachydactyla

Short-toed Larks were seen 24 hours out of Bombay. We first

saw them sitting high on the cross-trees of the mast, 3 together.

During the day more were seen. They came down on to the decks

and drank water put down for them by passengers. They were very

tame. I mever saw any leave the ship and when we sailed into

Bombay on 4 October, there were still numbers on board. I could

not tell to which race they belonged. The short hind claw was

clearly visible. It is interesting to see what considerable migration

takes place out at sea when one would think it much easier for

birds to follow the coast line.

BRITISH EMBASSY,

KATHMANDU, DESIREE PROUD

NEPAL,

March 21, 1961.

12. THE EGGS AND FLIGHT OF THE GECKO PTYCHOZOON

KUHALI STEJNEGER FROM CAR NICOBAR

(With one text-figure)

The eggs of Ptychozoon kuhli Stejneger are unusual in two

features: they are hemispherical in shape with a flat, circular ‘base’,

and they are often laid (at least under natural conditions) on surfaces

vertical to, and above, the ground. I have seen a few pairs of such

eggs laid on bark of trees about 14 to 2 ft. (45 to 60 cm.) above

ground in Car Nicobar Island. These eggs, which are easily mistaken

for mushrooms and thus overlooked, are firmly attached to the bark

by a thick layer of a coarse cementing substance which often over-

flows the boundaries of the ‘base’ of egg. In a pair of eggs

collected by me from the bark of a tree at Passa Bridge in Car

Nicobar on 23 March 1959, the diameter of base measured 15 mm.,

while the maximum height was 11 mm. The shell was dirty white

in colour, and when broken open, one of the eggs yielded an almost

full-grown embryo of Ptychozoon.

524. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Tweedie (1954) has given an excellent photograph of a pair of eggs

of Ptychozoon kulkli cotlected from the bark of a tree in Malaya.

Those observed by me in Car Nicobar (see Text-fig.) were similar to

Tweedie’s photograph.

Cantor (1847), who was the first to record the eggs of Ptychozoon, °

refers to a female that deposited a single egg of a spherical form,

about half an inch in diameter, soft and of a yellowish white colour.

Bauer (1885), reporting later, mentioned a captive female of this

species from Java that laid a pair of eggs in the box in which she

was kept. He says nothing about the shape of the eggs but records

the long incubation period of the eggs which, laid in November, did

not hatch out until the middle of the following May. Annandale

(1904) refers to the eggs of P. homalocephalum, which are laid two

at a time and which ‘adhere to leaves and tree trunks’. Barbour

(1912) also remarks: ‘The two small white eggs of Ptychozoon are

always. found stuck together in pairs, usually against the wood

under the bark of trees’.

The period of incubation of the eggs of Ptvchozoon appears to be

variable. According to Bauer (1885) it should be about six months,

but Tweedie (1954) gives the actual time between laying and hatch-

ing of two eggs by a captive female kept by Mr. H. J. Kitchener as

73 days. The pair photographed by Tweedie hatched out 67 and

68 days after being found, and according to Mr. C. S. Ogilvie, who

actually got these eges, they were fresh at the time of collection. It

appears that the egg-laying period in this species is November-

December and the period of incubation may vary from about ten

weeks to more than five months. Annandale (1904) thinks that the

hard shell of the egg is impermeable to fluids. Its habit of attach-

ing the eggs to the bark of trees, leaves, etc., and the long incubation

period may account for the presence of this species of gecko in the

Ardaman and Nicobar group of islands. This is possible because

logs of wood, bamboos, etc. from the Burmese and Malayan coasts

quite often find their way to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands

drifting along with the current.

Ptychozoon is a genus of gecko which, among other features,

is characterised by the possession of widely-webbed digits and

lateral cutaneous expansions of head, body, and tail (the last

is frilled). The: function of these expansions was subject to much

speculation till recently. Cantor (1847) thought that these mem-

branous expansions act like a ‘parachute’, helping the animal in

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 525

Text-fig. Eggs of Ptychozoon kuhli Stejneger

‘flying’ from one branch to another. Boulenger (1908) confirmed

Cantor’s views by recording a specimen ‘caught by a native in the

act of flight’. Annandale (1905), however, disputed the flight theory.

He opined that these membranes, which lie curled round the body,

help to conceal the animal in its surroundings. Barbour (1912)

agreed with Annandale and said: ‘As for flying with such weak

supports this struck us at once as both being impossible and

ridiculous. Individuals were teased into jumping from a table, were

dropped from several feet up in the air, and were in every way

induced to try to use what has so often been called their parachute.

They never did this once.’ Smith (1935) rejected Annandale’s con-

tention and believed in Cantor’s view, suggesting that the extensions

are raised by wind resistance, thereby acting as sort of ‘parachutes’

and thus aiding the lizard in gliding.

Recently Tweedie (1950, 1954) performed certain experiments on

Ftychozoon kuhli to test the flight theory. He reports that these

cutaneous flaps lie curled round the body when the animal is

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

at rest or crawling, and are only accidentally expanded. They do

have a procryptic value, and help the animal in making it less

conspicuous against the background when expanded, but they are

not an adaptation to that end. On the other hand, when launched.

into the air from a height the animal, after a drop varying from 24

to 5 ft. (.75 to 1.50 m.), invariably glides, always in the direction

of the wind, making an angle of 52°-53° from the vertical. While

gliding the lateral cutaneous expansions are widely spread, the limbs

and tails are stiffly outstretched, landing on the ground like a true

Flying Lizard (Draco). On the basis of his experiments Tweedie

(1950) concludes that the dorsal pattern of coloration, in lighter and

darker shades of brown, ‘is very effective as an aid to self effacement

on a background of bark’, and the frilled tail and webbed feet

enhance the procryptic effect. The lateral expansions on the head

and body are adaptations for gliding alone, and in this again they

are helped by the widely webbed digits and frilled tail, all of

which, by offering resistance to wind, aid in the process.

As far as the procryptic nature of the dorsal pattern, the webbed

feet, and frilled tail are concerned, my observations are entirely in

conformity with those of Tweedie. Against a background of bark,

the animal almost totally disappears and is very difficult to make

out. However, I did not see any gliding by this gecko, which does

not seem to be uncommon in the Car Nicobar, during my fortnight’s

stay there. Though Barbour (1912), failing to induce his individuals

to glide, rejected the flight theory ‘as both being impossible and

ridiculous’, Tweedie’s experiments conclusively prove the gliding

capacity of Ptychozoon kuhli. In his first experiment Tweedie

launched the animal from a height of 20 ft. (6.10 m.), from the

ground, while in his subsequent efforts a height of 34 ft. 6 in.

(10.50 m.) was used. The descent had two components, an initial

drop of 24 ft. (.75 m.) and 5 ft.°(1.50 m.), followed by gliding at an ~

angle of 52°-53° to vertical in the direction of the wind. It is

apparent that Barbour failed because he did not launch his specimens

from a sufficient height, thus giving no time for the membranous

expansions to be raised by wind resistance. As these membranes

do not have any muscular supports, they cannot expand and shut

voluntarily, and are passive like parachutes. In falling from greater

heights, the wind resistance encountered is strong enough to open the

membranes, thus enabling the individual to glide obviously along

the direction of wind. It would thus appear that an important

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 527

factor in the gliding of Ptychozoon is the height from which the

animal launches itself into the air.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CALCUTTA-12,

June 12, 1961.

K. K. TIWARI

REFERENCES

Annandale, N. (1904): Contributions

to Oriental Herpetology I.—The Lizards

of the Andamans, with the description of

a new Gecko and a note on the Repro-

duced Tail in Ptychozoon homalocepha-

oe J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 73, Pt.2 Suppl.:

12-22.

— — — (1905) : Notes on some Ori-

ental Geckoes in the Indian Museum,

Calcutta, with Description of New

Forms. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (7) 15:

26-32.

Barbour, T, (1912) : A contribution to

the Zodgeography of the East Indian

Islands. Mem. Harv. Mus. comp. Zool.

44: 1-203, pl. i-viii.

Bauer, F. H. (1885): in Secretary’s

Boulenger, G. A. (1908) : Fishes, Bat-

rachians, and Reptiles. J. Fed. Malay

St. Mus.3: 64.

Cantor, T. (1847) : Catalogue of Rep-

tiles inhabiting the Malayan Peninsula

and Islands, collected or observed by

Theodore Cantor, Esqr., M.D. J. Asiat.

Soc. Beng. 16: 607-656.

Smith, M. A. (1935): Fauna Brit.

India., Rept. and Amph. Vol. 2 Sauria,

pp. ix + 422.1 pl.

Tweedie, M. W. F. (1950) : The flying

Gecko, Ptychozoon kuhli Stejn. Proc.

zool. Soc. Lond. 120: 13, pl.i.

— — — (1954): Notes on Malayan

Reptiles. No.3. Bull. Raffles Mus. 25

107-117, pl. i.

Report. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. : 718.

13. THE COMMON CALOTES OR BLOODSUCKER LIZARD

[CALOTES VERSICOLOR (DAUDIN)] AS A PREDATOR

OF BIRDS

During the recent (March 1961) Bombay Natural History Society /

World Health Organization Bird Migration work at Wanoti (Bhuj,

Kutch) I twice had occasion to rescue from a Common Calotes or

Bloodsucker Lizard [Calotes versicolor (Daudin)] birds caught in one

of our nets stretched out near a pond. In the first instance it was

a Bluethroat (Erithacus svecicus). Little damage was done as I was

present when the lizard ran along the ground and seized the bird

which was caught low down in the net.

A few days later I heard cries of distress from the same net and

saw that a Calotes had caught a Baya (Ploceus philippinus) in similar

conditions. The bird was bitten on the forehead and the wing but

flew away when released. The lizard, probably the same individual,

was secured and found to be a male measuring 16 inches (405 mm.).

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

There do not appear to be many specific records of this lizard

catching birds though I understand that it is commonly ‘known to

take eggs and nestlings of the smaller species.

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, |

91, WALKESHWAR Roab, ~ M. J. PEREIRA

BOMBAY 6,

April 27, 1961.

14. OCCURRENCE OF THE PHOORSA, ECHIS CARINATA

(SCHNEIDER) ALONG THE MALABAR COAST

SOUTH OF KARWAR

According to Smith [(1943) FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, REPTILIA AND

AMPHIBIA 3, SERPENTES] the Phoorsa, Echis carinata (Schneider)

(Malayalam : Churutta) is a common snake, inhabiting the whole of

India south of the Ganges but absent from Bengal and the coast

strip west of the Western Ghats, south of Karwar. It is well known

as a desert-loving snake. The Bengal and Malabar coasts get an —

abundant supply of rain, which would naturally act as a barrier to

the entry of FE. carinata into these areas. However, the snake is not

altogether absent along the Malabar Coast, being fairly common in

arid hilly regions especially from November to March, and rare or

even absent in the plains. One specimen was collected at Devagiri

(300 ft.=90 m. above sea-level), Calicut, Malabar. Its lepidosis is:

Costals at three head-lengths behind the neck ... 23

Costals at midbody st eras eae

Costals at three head-lengths in front of the vent 23

Ventral shie'ds 9 1 E139

Subcaudals (single) A oe) T2228

Anal teh: bs 1

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

St. JOSEPH’S COLLEGE, K. G. ADIYODI

DEVAGIRI, KOVUR, CALICUT,

March 23, 1961.

[Enquiry at the State Museum and the Zoo at Trivandrum and

Trichur, and the Government Museum, Madras, reveals that they have

no specimens from this area.—EDs.]

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 529

15. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE CRAB, ACANTHONYX

LIMBATUS MILNE-EDWARDS, TO INDIAN WATERS!

(With one text-figure)

In a collection of crabs made at Okha port (Gujarat State;

22° 28’ N., 69° 05’ E:), the author came across a single female

specimen of an Oxyrhynch crab. This was identified as Acanthonyx

limbatus Milne-Edwards. The characters of this crab are given below.

penal

4 MM.

Acanthonyx limbatus Milne - Edwards

Female, dorsal view

The carapace is sub-triangular, its greatest breadth being 3 the

length excluding the rostrum. The rostral horns are one-fifth the

carapace length, and bear hooked setae apically and along the inner

margins. In addition to the supra-ocular tooth, there are three well-

developed lateral teeth on each side of the carapace, decreasing in

size backward.

1 Communicated by the Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra.

530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

There are seven tubercies on the dorsal surface of the carapace

arranged in the following manner: three tubercles forming an inverted

triangle on the gastric region, one cardiac, one intestinal, and one

each on the mesobranchial regions. Hooked setae occur in front of

the anterior pair of tubercles on the gastric region, on the tips of

all the teeth and the rostral horns, and on swellings on the lateral

margins between the first and second pairs of lateral teeth.

The abdomen has five segments, segments 4-6 being fused.

Length of carapace (excluding rostrum) sa dd l2 mam.

Breadth of carapace (at the level of, and inclusive

of, the lateral teeth) ae ae OD mime

Length of rostral horns x : oe. 2.01 mm,

There is a difference of opinion about the generic position of this

crab. The type-specimen was placed in the genus Deyaanius on the

basis of the presence of seven segments in the male abdomen.

However, the specimens collected in Iran have been placed in the

genus Acanthonyx, the abdomen of these being six-jointed. The

validity of the genus Dehaanius has been challenged, as the most

important difference between the two is the number of segments in

the male abdomen, and this character.is not constant in the same

species, and so also the degree of coalescence of the abdominal

segments. In the absence of a male specimen from Okha, the author

has placed it in the genus Acanthonyx. ee

This species has been previously recorded from the Reunion

Islands (longitude 55° E.) by A. Milne-Edwards', and at Bustani and

Quais (longitude 54° E.) in the Persian Gulf by Stephenson?. Its

occurrence at Okha port (longitude 69° E.), therefore, constitutes the

first record of this species from India, as well as a considerable ex-

tension of its range of distribution eastward. The specimen will be

deposited in the collections of the Zoological Survey of India.

The author is thankful to Dr. (Mrs.) D. Gutnot-Dumortier of the

National Museum of Natural History, Paris, France, for sending

photostat copies of literature not available in India, to Mr. K. N.

Sankolli for donating the specimen, and to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director

1 Milne-Edwards, A. (1862) : Faune Carcinologique de |’Ile de la Réunion—in :

L. Maillard : Notes sur I’Ie de la Réunion (Bourbon), Paris, second partie, Annexes,

F, p. 7, pl. 17, figs. 4, 4a, 4b.

2 Stephenson, K. (1945): The Brachyura of the Iranian Gulf—in: Danish

scientific Investigations in Iran, Part IV, p. 102, fig. 19.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 531

of Fisheries, Maharashtra State, and Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Research

Officer, for going carefully through this paper.

‘TARAPOREVALA MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION,

Bompsay, , B. F. CHHAPGAR, M:Sc..

April 28, 1961.

16. ‘AN UNUSUAL METHOD OF CURING SCORPION STINGS’

I was interested in Mr. Humayun Abdulali’s letter of August Ist,

1960 (Vol. 57, No. 3) on the subject of curing scorpion stings.

I remember, when I was in the Army and my Division was, in

1942, in a training area in the Deccan, meeting an Irish doctor in

charge of a Field Hospital who told me he had to cope with some-

thing like a hundred scorpion stings a day. He said -he had been

most impressed by a method he had learned locally of how to cure

them. He stated that, provided the sting was on some part of the

body where you could work the poison out to an extremity, such

as a foot or a hand, a full cure could be achieved in relatively

few minutes. All that you had to do was to bring together, on to

the place where the patient had been stung, the points of—well, he

said more or less anything, a pair of sharpened pencils, a couple of

scissors or even two rusty nails!—and then slowly start stroking the

flesh, firmly but not to the point of breaking the skin, in a downward

direction towards an extremity. He said it was amazing how you

could literally push the poison along quite quickly, the end of the

exercise being achieved when you had brought it down to the ball

of, say, a finger-tip, at which stage you could, merely by pricking the

skin and exerting pressure with your thumb-nails, eject the blob of

poison out of the finger with a sharp pinch.

I never had the opportunity of witnessing the curing of a patient

by these means (though I was invited to do so) but that was his story.

TRIBENI TISSUES PRIVATE LTD.,

24B, PARK STREET, P. H. SYKES

CALCUTTA 16, |

July 26, 1961.

532. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 88 (2)

17. ‘NOTES ON THE BUTTERFLY GENUS YPTHIMA’

In our ‘Notes on the Butterfly Genus Ypthima in J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. (1959) 56 (1): 66-71 we said that Y. newara Moore should

be a species separate from Y. nareda Kollar and not merely a sub-

species, because the clasps were so different. Norman on a visit to

Japan has met Professor Takashi Shirozu of Kyushu University who

has informed him that he published the same opinion in 1955

(T. Shirozu in FAUNA AND FLORA OF NEPAL HIMALAYA vol. 1, ed.

H. Kihara, Kyoto). If we had known of this fact we would have been

glad to quote so eminent an authority.

5, UPPER WIMPOLE STREET, K. CANTLIE

Lonpbon, W. 1, T. NORMAN

June 13, 1961.

18. HESPERIIDAE. HALPE SCISSA SP. NOV.

(With four text-figures)

Found among the huge collection of Tytler in papers in the British ~

Museum (Natural History). Taken in East Dawnas, Burma, in

February 1926. The genitalia were examined by me in order to

identify the specimen. They were found to be unlike any figured

by Evans in plates 33 and 34 of his CATALOGUE OF THE HESPERIIDAE

OF EUROPE, ASIA AND AUSTRALIA, 1949. They are drawn below.

Description of facies. Upper fore: the spots in 2 and 3 (in this

case pale yellow) and the two tiny apical spots are all characteristic

of the genus. No cell spot. Male stigma present. Upperhind un-

marked, disc covered with tawny hairs. Underhind unmarked. F.

16 mm. Termen equal to dorsum. Cilia grey. Antennal club above

not whitish or yellowish ringed before apiculus.

Genitalia. Fig. 1 shows the uncus with a narrow deep cleft like

luteisquama. Fig. 2 shows the aedeagus. It is bent towards the

clasps, not towards the uncus. Fig. 3 is the inside of the left clasp

and Fig. 4 the outside. Footstalk unusually long, more slender than in

any other species, terminating in a long narrow point. It is not serrated.

The upper crest of the cuiller is serrated on its crest, which is wider

than any other flat-topped species and of a different shape. The

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 333

ee en

Text-figs. 1-4. Halpe scissa sp. nov.

1. uncus; 2. aedeagus; 3. inside of left clasp; 4. outside of left clasp.

clasp is best understood by looking at Fig. 4. The serrations are con-

tinuous from the lower branch to the upper branch, lying across the

figure of the clasp. Fig. 3 shows the upper branch folded over so as

to conceal the serrations from the lower to the upper branch as they

lie behind it. Evans does not fill in details. Folds exist for example

in homolea aucma and in arcuata. Their serrations are actually like

those in fig. 4 when viewed from the outside. The figure in Evans of

arcuata is incorrect. If he had shown the narrow fold of the upper

branch, diagonally across the clasp, it would have concealed some of

the serrations. As the fold is narrow in arcuata, if the clasp is not

viewed quite flat but at a slight angle, all of the serration is just

visible from the inside as so has been drawn on Evans’s figure. But

this is incorrect. On the other hand, to take some examples: the

figures of kumara, knyvetti, and wantona showing the complete

serrations are correct because the upper branch is not folded over.

The interior markings showing the edges of folds or edges of double

layers of the cuiller are very hard to figure as one is uncertain whether

they should be shown on the outer or inner aspect of the clasp.

I give the name scissa to the butterfly because of the deeply cleft

uncus. There are variations in depth of cleft in individuals of other

species. I have an arcuata with a cleft almost as deep.

5, UPPER WIMPOLE STREEFT,

LONDON, W. 1. KEITH CANTLIE

July. 15,..1961.

534 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

19. MORPHOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION OF THE

LARVAL INSTARS OF SIMULIUM ORNATUM MEIGEN

(NEMATOCERA, DIPTERA), WITH A NOTE ON ITS

METAMORPHOSIS AND ECOLOGY

(With a plate)

The following observations were made on thousands of living

specimens in the streams of Priddy and Limpleystoke, Bristol,

England, and also on larvae kept alive in large aquaria in the zoology

laboratory of the University of Bristol at 14°-16° C., and artificially

aerating the water.

It is a very old idea to presume that larvae are precocious

embryos. According to Lubbock (1874), the occurrence of metamor-

phosis arises from the immaturity of the condition in which some

animals quit the egg. This may be true in the case of the primary

larvae of some parasitic Hymenoptera, which have unsegmented.

abdomens and undeveloped respiratory and nervous systems on

hatching. This is not true, however, of all insect larvae, particularly

of the Simulium larva, because its morphological features and

anatomical structures are very well developed, even at the time of

emergence from the egg.

The larva of Simulium ornatum lives attached to stones or weeds

in swift-flowing streams (5-7 ft.=1.5-2.1 m. per second). Some of the

outstanding features possessed by the larva to cope with its aquatic

environment are: the specialized mouth brush for collecting food; the

sticky salivary secretion, often used for suspension when it is detached;

the thoracic proleg and the posterior sucker with hooks,

movement and fixation; and anal gills for respiration.

When the larva is detached from its point of attachment, it clings

on to a silken thread (Salivary secretion) and soon regains its original

position. In this endeavour the thoracic proleg and the posterior

sucker are of immense help. The posterior sucker is the main organ

of attachment. The radiating rows of hooks, about seventy-five in

number, strongly grip the sticky salivary secretion which fills up the

spaces between the hooks, forming a complete rim all round. The

term ‘posterior sucker’, adopted by many authors, suggests the idea

that this organ functions like a true sucker. Helped by the muscles

attached to the periphery of the sucker and the centre of the disc,

this organ actually works like a sucker, especially at the initial stage

of attachment, when the salivary secretion is not sticky enough for

the firm fixation of the hooks.

enabling

JOURN. BoMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

L 1:0 mm.

_ Fig. 1. 72-hour old first instar larva ; Fig 2. 120-hour old second instar larva ;

Fig. 3. 96-hour old third instar larva ; Fig. 4. 72-hour old fourth instar larva ;

Fig. 5. 120-hour old fifth instar larva ; Fig. 6. 72-hour old sixth instar larva ; Fig. 7.

108-hour old pharate pupa.

A. Antenna, AG. Anal gill, AS. Anterior sucker, ES. Eye spot, H. Hypo-

pharynx, HB. Haltere bud, LB. Leg bud, MB. Mouth brush, MN. Mandible, MP.

Mental plate, Mx. Maxilla, PL. Proleg, PS. Posterior sucker, RO, Respiratory

organ, S. Spine, WB. Wing bud,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES >ep)

Usually three generations are produced every year, with longer

intervals between the various stadia, during the winter.

According to Puri (1925) and Smart (1944) there are three

thoracic and eight abdominal segments in Simulium larvae. But,

actually there are three thoracic and nine abdominal segments, as

suggested by Grunberg (1910) and Hermes (1923). This is clearly

revealed by the arrangement of the muscles in the larva of Simulium

ernatum (to be published elsewhere).

During the initial stages of an instar, when the old and new

cuticles lie near to each other, the space between them is filled by the

exuvial fluid. Later on, when the space between them increases, the

moulting fluid is withdrawn and the space is partially filled with

air. At this stage the outer cuticle lies around the body as a loose

bag and many tonofibrillae connections between the two cuticles

become gradually detached. The old cuticle usually stays on for

several hours, even after all the tonofibrillae connections between the

two cuticles have become completely detached. This often leads to

underestimation of the age of the larva. Generally in calculating the

duration of each instar, the time spent by the new instar within the

cuticle of the previous instar is attributed to the old instar. But,

actually the moult has occurred already, though ecdysis has not taken

place. As pointed out by Hinton (1958), the detachment and the

retraction of the epidermis from the cuticle indicates the real moult.

First instar larva (Fig. 1). The three thoracic and nine abdominal

segments, with all the specialized organs are present in this instar.

A spine, the egg burster, situated dorso-medianly on the head in

between the eyes, is a characteristic organ of this larval instar. It

helps the larva to come out of the egg. The imaginal buds are not

morphologically evident. The length of the body is about 2 mm. and

thickness about 0.5 mm. This instar lasts for five to seven days.

Second instar larva (Fig. 2). The body is cylindrical in shape.

Three pairs of small spherical imaginal buds, one pair in each of

the thoracic segments, situated dorso-laterally, become morpho-

logically visible. The imaginal buds are not very distinct and

conspicuous.

The imaginal bud in the first thoracic segment is destined to give

rise to the respiratory filament, that in the second thoracic segment

to the wing, and that in the third thoracic segment to the haltere.

The body is about 3 mm. long and 0.8 mm. thick. This larval instar

lasts from six to eight days.

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Third instar larva (Fig. 3). During this stage the contour of the

body becomes a little altered. The thorax becomes humped and the

abdomen gradually assumes the clubbed shape. Abdominal segments

one to three are comparatively smaller than the rest. In addition to

the three thoracic imaginal buds of the previous instar, two imaginal

buds become evident, situated ventro-laterally in the second and

third thoracic segments. These two buds are destined to develop

into legs. The length of the larva is about 5 mm. and the thickness

is about 1 mm. This larval instar lasts for seven to nine days.

Fourth instar larva (Fig. 4). Another pair of buds appear on the

ventro-lateral aspect of the prothorax, near the place where the

proleg joins it. This is destined to develop into the prothoracic leg.

This is the six-bud stage. No more buds appear, but these six buds

gradually expand in size due to the multiplication of cells. Thd

length of the body is about 7.5 mm. and the thickness is about

12 mm. This larval instar lasts for six to eight days.

Fifth instar larva (Fig. 5). The larva attains its maximum length

at this stage. The humped thorax, club-shaped abdomen, and

cylindrical body gives the larva its characteristic graceful contour.

The respiratory bud becomes black in colour and shows the develop-

ing respiratory organ inside. The wing and the haltere buds have .

become roughly triangular in shape, with the base of the triangle

towards the dorsal aspect of the body. The wing bud is larger than

the haltere bud. The leg buds of the meso- and meta-thoracia

_Segments show the developing legs inside. The prothoracic leg bud

remains smaller than the other two leg buds. The length of the body

is about 9 mm. and the thickness is about 1.5 mm. This larval instar

lasts for six to eight days.

Sixth instar larva (Fig. 6). Due to rapid segmentation, all the

buds become enlarged and show the characteristic shape of the organ

into which they are destined to develop. The superficial lines of

demarcation between the three thoracic segments disappear. But

the three thoracic segments can be differentiated with the help of

their developing imaginal organs. The length of the body is about

9 mm. and the thickness about 1.8 mm. This larval instar lasts for

six to eight days.

Pharate pupa (Pre-pupa) (Fig. 7). This is actually the pupa within

the larval cuticle. According to Hinton (1946), the term ‘pharate’

Genotes the phase of an instar which is enclosed within the cuticle

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES S37.

of the previous instar. The thorax becomes much more humped and

the abdomen highly club-shaped. The body becomes shorter and

thicker. Dissections of this stage show that the mesothorax becomes

much enlarged, providing more space for the accommodation of the

rapidly differentiating indirect flight muscles. The imaginal buds have

spread out in such a way that the three thoracic segments become

indistinguishable externally. The respiratory organ remains con-

spicuous. Body of this instar is about 8 mm. long and 2 mm. thick.

This instar lasts for four to six days.

The termination of the larval stage and the onset of the pupal

phase necessitates the modification, replacement, or reconstruction of

some larval organs and tissues. This is because the aquatic larva has

organs to suit its immediate requirements and the transformation of

most of the organs becomes inevitable, since the adult has to live

in a different environment altogether. This requires a good deal of

internal change consisting of tissue destruction or histolysis, and

tissue rebuilding or histogenesis, along with external morphological

changes.

In Simulium ornatum the cocoon is spun by the pharate pupa and

not by the larva. The pharate pupa is active. At this stage the

larval muscles and imaginal muscles exist side by side, because the

larval muscles are necessary to spin the cocoon. After the cocoon

is spun the larval muscles have no significant function to perform

and hence they become histolysed. The pharate pupa becomes

inactive after the larval cuticle is shed. Subsequently the body is

reconstructed and remoulded resulting in the imago.

Large-scale biological observations on Simulium ornatum Meigen

are not possible in India owing to the paucity of its occurrence. It

is profusely present in many localities in the United Kingdom owing

to the favourable cold climate.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

SCOTT CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, V. J. I. GRANT

NAGERCOIL,

Apral 1251961.

[Simulium ornatum is a Palaearctic species but allied forms occur

in India, one of them, S. indicum, being a troublesome pest in parts

of the Himalayas.—EDs.]

538

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

REFERENCES

Grunberg, K. (1910): in Brauer, A.

Die-Sluisswasser Fauna Deutschlands :

2A. Diptera: Zweifligler.

Hermes, W. B. (1923): Medical and

Veterinary Entomology. The Macmillan

Company, New York.

Hinton, H. E. (1946) : Concealed pha-

Lubbock, J. (1874) : Origin and meta-

morphosis of insects. Macmillan & Co.,

London.

Puri, I. M. (1925) : On the life history

and structure of the early stages of Si-

muliidae. Parasitology 17 : 295-369.

Smart, J. (1944): The British Simulii-

dae—with keys to the species in the adult,

pupal and larval stages. Fresh. W. biol.

Assn. Brit. Emp. Sci. Pub. 9.

ses in the metamorphosis of insects.

Nature, London. 157 : 552.

— — — — (1958): Concealed pha-

ses in the metamorphosis of insects. Sci.

Progr. 46 : 260-275.

20. A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS CALLANTRA

WALKER FROM INDIA (DIPTERA: TRYPETIDAE)

(With a plate)

The genus Callantra was first proposed by Walker in 1860 with

a new species Callantra smieroides designated as the type. Genus

Mellesis Bezzi with Mellesis crabroniformis as the genotype was

transferred to Callantra by Hendel (1927). Malloch (1939) considered

Callantra as a sub-genus of Dacus Fabricius; this is not accepted by

recent taxonomists.

Callantra munroi sp. nov.

Female. General coloration of the body pale red; length of body

(excluding the oviscape) 1.0 cm.; wing 6.89 mm. long, 2.55 mm.

broad, 2.7 times as long as broad; entire body covered with very fine

white hairs. | |

Head. 1.09 mm. long, 2.31 mm. wide, 1.69 mm. high; frons

flattened, 0.37 mm. long, 1.04 mm. wide, 0.44 times as long as the

maximum width of either eye; colour of the frons yellowish red,

darker than the face; ocellar triangle black; face lighter in shade

than frons, 0.86 mm. long; face with a black, transverse band along

the epistomal margin, its ends slightly curving upwards; a black spot

on each gena slightly below the eye; lunule light black: a black

rectangular spot on either side of the top of the ptilinal fissure at

the level of lunule; a complete transverse band in the middle of frons -

connecting the eyes; a black spot on either side of the ocellar triangle

connecting the latter with the corresponding eye margin; each eye

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Callantra munroi sp. Nov.

Fig. 1. Adult female; 2. Abdomen, lateral view; 3. Head, lateral view

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 539

1.4 mm. high, 0.84 mm. wide; first antennal segment 0.42 mm. long,

0.13 mm. wide in the middle, 0.48 times as long as the face; second

antennal segment 0.42 mm. long, 0.17 mm. wide in the middle; third

antennal segment 0.9 mm. long, 0.19 mm. wide in the middle; first,

second and third antennal segments 3.23, 2.47, and 4.7 times as long

as wide, respectively; posterior surface of the head dirty yellow,

gulomental region a little darker; lower orbital one, black; upper

orbital one, black; inner verticals brownish yellow; outer verticals

brownish yellow; ocellars black; postorbitals (occipital row) approxi-

mately six, all brownish yellow; genal one, black; a few small black

hairs surrounding the inner verticals at base.

Thorax. Thorax yellowish red, covered over with tiny white

hairs; the following regions are yellow: humeral calli (slightly

tinged with red along postero-dorsal margin), sutural calli, a border

along the anterior margin of the suture laterally expanding to merge

with the yellow sutural callus on either side, a faint stripe in the

middle of scutum behind the suture sharply tapering anteriorly and

rounded posteriorly; the scutellum (basal margin narrowly tinged

with red), a large spot on the lateral plate of postscutellum, posterior

half of mesopleura, postero-dorsal region of sternopleura below the

mesopleural yellow band, upper region of the hypopleura; all coxae

concolorous with thorax; fore legs much shorter than others; fore

femora entirely red, proximal ends of mid and hind femora pale

white; fore femora with three stout black bristles beneath, and a

longitudinal row of five pale bristles on the dorsal side; all tarsi,

except the terminal ones, pale white; the terminal tarsi yellowish red;

mid tibiae with a stout black terminal spur flanked on either side by

a brownish yellow spine close to it, and two yellow smaller spines

situated slightly away; notopleurals two, brownish yellow; posterior

-supra-alars (anterior pair) brownish yellow; scutellars one pair (apical

pair), brownish yellow; mesopleural one, black and weak; pteropleural

one, very thin and pale‘red, discernible with difficulty; scutellum

0.71 mm. long, 1.36 mm. wide, 0.52 times as long as wide; wings with

first and second veins bristly; a broad costal band which is light

brown in colour and includes the costal cells, stigma, marginal and

sub-marginal cells, the anterior half of the first posterior cell, and the

anterior margin of the first basal cell; the apical spot of the costal

border fuscous and roughly triangular in shape (the base lying between

the ends of second and third veins, and the apex extending into the

first posterior cell); a small fuscous triangular spot along the upper

portion of the anterior cross-vein; stigma smoky yellow; base of the

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

anal cell extension slightly narrowed; anal cell extension 0.83 times as

long as the second basal cell; anterior cross-vein 2.2 times its length

away from the posterior cross-vein; anterior cross-vein sinuate; first

vein ending above the anterior cross-vein; halteres pale white.

Abdomen. Distinctly petiolate and clavate; yellowish red in

colour and covered over with abundant white hairs which are com-

paratively longer on the sternites; except these white hairs there are

no other bristles on the abdomen; length of abdomen (excluding the

oviscape} 4.38 mm., width 2.07 mm.; first segment 1.09 mm. long,

0.94 mm. wide at base, 0.52 mm. wide at apex, 2.09 times as long as

its width at the apex; abdomen highly arched up in lateral view;

second, third, fourth, and fifth segments approximately 1.5, 2.8, 3.1.

and 1.9 times as high as the first segment, respectively (all heights

taken in the middle of the segments concerned); junction of third

and fourth terga only moderately concave; oviscape in lateral view

1.5 mm. long, 0.82 mm. high at base, and 0.17 mm. high at apex,

tubular in shape; first abdominal tergum yellowish red, pale white

posteriorly; second tergum with a narrow black border along its

anterior margin getting broadened in the middle, a pale white border

along the posterior margin slightly arched anteriorly in the middle

of the tergum, rest of the tergum yellowish red; third tergum

uniformly yellowish red, darkest in shade, median part of its anterior

margin tinged with black; fourth tergum with a black border along

its anterior margin which gets broadened in the middle, a large pale

spot (faintly tinged with red) occupies a great part of the tergum in

the middle and extends up to the posterior margin restricting the

yellowish red ground colour of the tergum to the lateral sides; fifth

tergum strongly slopes down, with a black border along its anterior

margin and a black mid-longitudinal stripe traversing the entire

length of the tergum, the latter stripe unites with the former to form

a T-shaped black pattern, posterior margin of the fifth tergum pale

(faintly tinged with red); sixth tergum very small, completely con-

cealed by the fifth: first sternite yellowish red, the subsequent

sternites getting progressively darker in shade; the membrane inter-

vening between the terga and sterna pale white

M ale. Unknown.

Holotype: A single female in personal collection (ZR 2), taken

at light, 7-9-1958. The holotype will be deposited in the Zoology

Museum, Muslim University, Aligarh.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ; 541

Host: Unknown.

Locality: University Campus, Aligarh, India.

DISCUSSION

The present species differs from:

1. Callantra polistiformis (Senior-White) in having the central

transverse band of the frons complete, the presence of the ocellars,

one pair of upper orbitals, one pair of lower orbitals (two pairs in

_C. polistiformis), presence of anterior notopleura!s, only one pair of

posterior supra-alars (postalars), and the distinctly defined different,

abdominal markings.

2. Callantra destillatoria (Bezzi) in having the bristles brownish

yellow instead of black, the absence of scapulars and the anterior

supra-alars, and the different abdominal markings.

3. Callantra eumenoides (Bezzi) in having a complete central

transverse band on the frons, the presence of one pair of lower

orbitals, and the tubular oviscape which is uniformly coloured.

4. Callantra crabroniformis (Bezzi) in having the fore femora.

spined beneath, the yellowish red coloration of the body, and the

different pattern of the abdominal markings. . Moreover, the bristies

are brownish yellow and not black as in C. crabroniformis.

5. Callantra icariiformis Enderlein in having a complete black

border along the ventral margin of the face, the proximally pale hind

femora. The yellowish red underside of the first abdominal segment,

and the different pattern of the abdominal markings.

The species is named after Dr. H. K. Munro, Division of

Entomology, Department of Agriculture, Pretoria, South Africa, a

well-known authority on Trypetidae, in token of the high regard which

the present writer has for him.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The present writer feels privileged to acknowledge his grateful

thanks to Dr. S. M. Alam, in-charge Entomology Section, and Prof. .

M. A. Basir Khan, Head of the Zoology Department, for the pro-

vision of research facilities.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, -

ALIGARH. MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, MD. ZAK A-UR-RAB

ALIGARH, INDIA,

July 14, 1961.

542

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

REFERENCES

Bezzi, M. (1914) : Two new species of

fruit flies from South India.

Res. 5 (2): 153-154.

— — (1916): On the fruit flies of

the genus Dacus (s. 1.) occurring in India,

Burma and Ceylon. Bull. Ent. Res.7:

99-113.

Enderlein, G. (1920): Zur Kenntnis

tropischer Frucht-fliegen. Zool. Jb.

Bull. Ent. :

Malloch, J. R. (1939): The Diptera

of the territory of New Guinea, XI.

Family Trypetidae. Proc. Linn. Soc.

N.S.W. 44 (3-4) : 409-465.

Senior-White, R. (1922) : Notes on

Indian Diptera. Mem. Dept. Agr. India,

Ent. Ser., 7 : 156-164.

Walker, F. (1860) : Catalogue of the

dipterous insects collected at Makassar

(S'yst.) 43 : 336-360.

Hendel, F. (1927): Fliegen Palaearkt.

Reg. 49 : 1-221 (Trypetidae).

in Celebs by Mr. A. R. Wallace, with

description of new species. Proc. Linn.

Soc. Lond. 4: 153.

21. A COMMENT ON THE RECORD OF KHAYA

SENEGALENSIS A. JUSS. FROM PONDICHERRY?

Dr. K. A. Shankarnarayan’s claim (Shankarnarayan, 1959) that

Khaya senegalensis A. Juss. is a new plant record from Pondicherry

calls for comment. | ea

It is reported by Dr. Shankarnarayan (1959) and Viart (1960) that the

plant was introduced in the Empress Garden at Poona and in the

Botanical Garden at Pondicherry. The seeds for Poona were obtained

from Uganda in 1941; but the source of the seed for Pondicherry is

not known.

Khaya senegalensis A. Juss. occurs naturally under two types of

African climate—(i) the 'Sudano-Guinean climate, and (ii) the Sahalo-

Sudanese climate, and so far I am aware, the plant has not been

reported to be growing wild anywhere in India.

A plant is said to be a new record for a country when it is

indigenous to that couniry, but has not been reported earlier;

alternatively, as Rev. Fr. H. Santapau has pointed out in a personal

communication, a plant is a new record for a country when it was

brought into that country as a garden plant but escaped from the

garden and established itself freely in waste lands. This is the case

with plants of the genus Cosmos, which are garden plants but have

now been observed widely spread on the hills between Jeypore in

Orissa and Anantagiri in Andhra. It also happens sometimes that a

plant introduced in a country escapes and naturalises itself in the

neighbouring country. For instance Lantana camara Linn. a native

of tropical America was introduced into Ceylon and is now naturalised

in India. Similar, though not identical, are the cases with

1 Communicated by the Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 543

Gomphrena celosioides Mart., Eichhornia crassipes Solms., Martynia

diandra Glox., etc. Apparently Khaya senegalensis A. Juss. does not

come under any of these categories and the claim of Dr.

Shankarnarayan. needs modification. However, he deserves thanks

for giving us the morphological description of the plant and other

relevant information relating to the introduction into our country

of a plant, whose wood is reported to be akin to true Mahogany.

Since the record of Khaya senegalensis A. Juss. from Indian soil

may create subsequent complications, I consider it necessary that the

comment be published.

The author is grateful to Dr. L. D. Kapoor for kindly going

through the manuscript critically and to Rev. Father H. Santapau,

St. Xavier's College, Bombay, for his kind suggestions.

REGIONAL RESEARCH LABORATORY,

CANAL Roap, A. K. DUTT

JAMMU, .

May 2, 1961.

REFERENCES

Shankarnarayan, K. A. (1959) : Khaya Soc. 56 (2) : 370-374.

senegalensis A. Juss., A new plant record Viart, M. (1960) : Khaya senegalensis

from Pondicherry. J. Bombay nat. Hist. A. Juss. Ind. For. 8 (7) : 395-399.

22. SHOREA TALURA ROXB., A SYNONYM OF

S. ROXBURGAHI G. DON

In our Indian floras one species of Sai goes under the name of

Shorea talura Roxb. In accordance with the INTERNATIONAL CODE

OF BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE (ed. 1956), this name cannot stand and

must be changed to Shorea roxburghii Don.

The nomenclature of the plant given in Hooker’s FLORA OF

BRITISH INDIA (1 : 304, 1874) is the following: Shorea talura Roxb.

Hort. Beng. 93, 1814, nom. nud. et Fl. Ind. 2 : 618, 1832; S. laccifera

Heyne ex Wall. Cat. 967, 1829, nom. nud., A. DC. Prodr. 16 (2):

630, 1868; S. roxburghii G. Don, Gen. Syst. 1 : 813, 1831; S. robusta

Roth Nov. Pi, Sp. 221, 1821 @on Gaertn. f. Fruct. 3°: 48, t. 186,

1805-1807); Vatica laccifera Wt. & Arn. Prodr, 84, 1834, Wight,

Icon. t. 164, 1839.

544. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Of these names, Shorea talura Roxb. dates from 1814 but the

validity only counts from 1832, when the plant was given a descrip-

tion; S. laccifera Heyne ex Wall. was only validated by A. De

Candolie in 1868; S. robusta Roth was described in 1821, but the

name is a later homonym of that of Gaertner f. of 1805-07, and

therefore invalid in accordance with the copE. ‘The oldest valid

name for this plant, in accordance with the copE, is Shorea

roxburghii G. Don.

C.S.I.R., PUBLICATIONS DIVISION,

OLD MILL Roap,

New DELHi 1, G. KASHYAPA

May 25, 1961.

23. AMENDED DESCRIPTION OF HYDROCERA

TRIFLORA WT. & ARN.} |

(With one plate)

Since the description of the monotypic Indo-Malayan genus

Hydrocera as given in FLORAS (1, 2) has been found to be inadequate

and incorrect in certain respects, it was felt desirable to revise its

description to include certain features so far either unrecorded

or incorrectly described. For instance, extrafloral nectaries occur

on the leaf bases and this is not recorded in the descriptions

available so far. The fruit is described as a drupe, but on closer

examination it is found to be a capsular berry liberating the seeds.

The genus Hydrocera is distinguished from Impatiens by the

presence of two lateral petals that are free and the fruit which is

described as a drupe, whereas in /mpatiens the lateral petals are

united and the fruit is capsular. Since the fruit of Hydrocera is now

fount to be capsular the differences between this genus and

Impatiens become narrowed. However, the freedom of two lateral

petals and the distinctive aquatic habit may still serve to distinguish

the monotypic Hydrocera from the large genus Impatiens.

1 Communicated by Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Journ. Bompay Nat. HIst. Soc.

Hydrocera triflora Wt. & Arn. emend. Venkat. & Dutt

1. Basal part of the stem showing fibrous roots ; 2. A twig (note the extrafloral nectaries

on the leaf bases); 3, 4. Flower in front and side view; 5. A flower bud in side view;

6. Sepals ; 7. Petals; 8. Essential organs ; 9. Stamens; 10. Gynoecium ; 11. L. S. flower ;

12. L.S. Gynoecium ; 13. T. S. ovary ; 14. Fruit (note the dehiscence) ; 15. Seed.

Figures 1 & 2 x 0.44.

Figures 3 to 12,14 & 15 x 0.88.

Figure 13 x 2.64.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES _ 545

DESCRIPTION

Hydrocera triflora Wt. & Arn. emend. Venkat. & Dutt

Herba aquatica ‘profuse ramosa, radicibus longis fibrosisque

ornata, altitudinem attingens c. 1 m. Culmis pentangularis et cavus

in spatiis internodalibus diametiens c. 2.4 cm. ad punctum 20 cm.

supra solum. Folia alterna, linearia, 11.7*1.5 cm., sesSilia, glandu-

laria ad basim, serrata ad margines. Inflorescentia axillaris, cymosa,

constans floribus tribus, quorum unus vulgo abortivus, caeteri vero

bene evoluti sunt. Flores bracteati, zygomorphi; sepala 5, petaloidea

et imbricata, quorum posterius calcaratum et vexillare evadit anterius

in flore aperto ob resupinationem. Petala 5, libera, quorum bina

posteriora longiora, colorata et alis similia. Stamina 5, filamentis

brevioribus gynoecio sed supra evadentibus latioribus, antheris

connatis. Gynoecium 5-loculare, ad calcaris latus inclinatum, ovulis

ternis in singulis loculis placentae axiali insidentibus; stigmata

quina, sessilia, perdurantia in fructu. Fructus purpureo-ruber, ad

basim truncatus, rostro brevi et curvato ornatus constante stigma-

tibus perdurantibus; bacca capsularis dehiscit septicide, seminibus

remanentibus columnae axiali fixis sed postea liberis. Semina vulgo

solitaria in singulis loculis, curvata et rugosa, exalbuminata; coty-

ledones crassi, radicula brevi.

7 Profusely branched aquatic herb with long fibrous roots and

reaching a height of about a metre. Stem five-angular and hollow in

inter-nodal region and measuring about 2.4 cm. in diameter at a

height of about 20 cm. above soil level. Leaves alternate, linear,

measuring 11.7 cm. by 1.5 cm. Petiole 0; leaf base glandular, leaf

margin serrate. Inflorescence axillary, cymose with two well-

developed flowers and the third usually suppressed. Flower

bracteate and zygomorphic; sepals 5, petaloid and imbricate. The

posterior sepal spurred and vexillar becoming anterior in open flower

due to resupination. Petals 5, free, the two posterior longer, coloured

and alae-like. Stamens 5, filaments slightly shorter than the gynoecium

and becoming broader and united towards the connective; anthers

connate. Gynoecium 5-carpellary superior, bent towards the spur

side; ovary 5-locular with three ovules in each loculus borne on axile

placentae. Stigmas 5, sessile and persisting in fruit. Fruit purplish

red, truncate at base and with a short bent beak of persisting stigmas;

capsular berry dehiscing septicidally leaving the seeds attached to

the column but separating later. Seeds usually solitary in each cell.

curved and corrugated, albumin 0; cotyledons thick, radicle short.

(See Plate, Figs. 1 to 15.)

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J., for providing the,

Latin description and for suggestions in the preparation of this paper.

We are thankful to Mr. K. Satyanandam, M.Sc., for the drawings.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT,

ANDHRA UNIVERSITY, J. VENKATESWARLU

WALTAIR, B.S. M. DUTT

July 7, 1961. .

REFERENCES

1. Gamble, J. S. (1957) : Flora of the 2. Hooker, J. D. (1875-97) : Flora of

Presidency of Madras. British India.

24. BOSWELLIA OV ALIFOLIOLATA SP. NOV.: A NEW

SPECIES OF BOSWELLIA FROM SOUTH INDIA?

(With two plates)

Boswellia ovalifoliolata Bal. et Henry sp. nov., affinis B. glabrae

Roxb., a qua tamen differt eo quod sit penitus glabra, eiusque foliola

sint ovata, oblonga, obtusa retusaque ad apicem, rotundata ad basim,

marginibus integris vel paulum undulatis, paniculae profusius furcatae,

sepala et petala glabra. |

Arbor decidua 7-10 m. alta, cortice papyraceo, cinereo, decorticante ,

in frustula tenuia.. Folia 9-25 cm. longa, alterna, stipata ad apices

ramorum, imparipinnata, exstipulata; foliola opposita vel alterna,

sessilia, 9-13 numero, 16-7.4<1025.2 cm., ovato-oblonga, inaequalia

et rotundata ad basim, obtusa et retusa ad apicem, integra ad margines

vel paulum undulata, glabra, glauca infra, nervis rubescentibus.

Flores’in paniculas magnas axillares dispositi; paniculae foliis vulgo

longiores, 5-32 cm. longae; pedicelli 4-6 mm. longi. Calyx 5-dentatus,

lobis brevibus late triangularibus, persistentibus, glabris. Petala 5,

distincta, imbricata, glabra, angusta ad basim, obovata, oblonga:

4-5 mm. longa, 2.5-3.0 mm. lata, decidua. Discus annularis, crenatus,

‘carnosus, adnatus calycis tubo. Stamina 10, longa brevibus alter-

nantia, extus inserta sub discum; filamenta subulata, lata ad basim,

1 Communicated by Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s. J.

JoURN. BomMBAY NatT. HIstT. Soc. PLATE I

Ty EN L

OW g

ENT s Bake :

Boswellia ovalifoliolata sp. nov.

1. Leaf, 2. Inflorescence.

JOURN. BOMBAY NaT. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

= td uke o. ©

=~ ~ 2 oe

eb ee eee te

™~

a tbata bk:

Boswellia ovalifoliolata sp. nov.

3. 1. s. of flower; 4. flower with sepalsremoved; 5. petal, outer view;

6. fruit; 7. winged pyrene.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 547

+- 1 mm. longa; antherae versatiles, dehiscentes longitudinaliter, -

parietibus tuberculatis. Ovarium sessile, 3-cellulare, disco circum-

datum; stylus brevis, = 2.5 mm. longus, quadruplici sulco verticali

ornatus; stigma capitatum; ovula bina in singulis cellulis, collateralia,

pendula. Drupa trigona, 3-pyrena, 1.0-1.5 cm. longa, 5-8 mm. lata,

valvulis septicidis; pyrenae osseae, cordatae, ornatae apice longo et

ala lata circumdante, tandem dehiscentes ex axi trigono. Semina

compressa, pendula; testa membranacea.

Typus lectus in collibus Tirupati dictis, in Dist. Chittoor, in

regione Andhrica, ad altit. c. 300 m. die tertio mensis martii anni

1959 a cl. K. Subramanyam (7836 A-F): holotypus (K. Subramanyam

7836 A) positus in herbario regionis australis Bot. Surv. Ind. ad

Coimbatore, sub numero accessionis 15373; isotypi positi ibidem sub

numeris K. Subramanyam 7836 B-F.

Medium-sized tree, 7-10 m. tall; bark papery, ash-coloured, peel-

ing off in thin flakes. Leaves 9-25 cm. long, alternate, crowded at

the ends of branches, imparipinnate, exstipulate; leaflets opposite or

alternate, sessile, 9-13 in number, 1.6-7.4X1.0-5.2 cm., ovate-oblong,

inaequilateral and rounded at base, obtuse and retuse at apex, margin

entire or slightly wavy, glabrous, glaucous beneath, veins reddish.

Flowers in large axillary panicles; panicles longer than leaves, 5-32

cm. long; pedicels 4-6 mm. long. Calyx 5-toothed, lobes short,

broadly triangular, persistent, glabrous. Petals 5, distinct, imbricate.

glabrous, narrowed at the base, obovate, oblong, 4-5 mm. long,

2.5-3.0 mm. wide, deciduous. Disc annular, crenate, fleshy, adnate

to the calyx-tube. Stamens 10, alternately long and short, inserted

outside under the disc; filaments subulate, base broad, -- 1 mm.

long; anthers versatile, longitudinally dehiscing, anther-wall tuber-

culate. Ovary sessile, 3-celled, surrounded by the disc; style short,

-+- 2.5 mm. long, with four vertical grooves: stigma capitate; ovules

2 in each cell, collateral, pendulous. Fruit trigonous drupe contain-

ing 3 pyrenes, 1.0-1.5 cm. long, 0.5-0.8 cm. wide, valves septicidal:

pyrenes bony, cordate with a long apex surrounded by a broad wing,

finally separating from the trigonous axis. Seeds compressed,

pendulous; testa membranous (Figs. 1-7).

The type of this species was collected in Tirupati Hills, Chittoor

district, in Andhra, at an alt. of about 300 m. on the 3rd of March

1959 by K. Subramanyam (7836 A-F); the holotype (K. Subramanyam

7836 A) has been deposited in the herbarium of the Southern Circle

of the Botanical Survey of India at Coimbatore under accession

548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

number 15373; isotypes preserved in the same herbarium under the

numbers K. Subramanyam 7836 B-F. 7

It may be mentioned here that there is ~one specimen in Madras

Herbarium, under accession number 8776, collected by R. H. Beddome

from Nallamalai Hills of Kurnool Dist., Andhra Pradesh, which

perfectly matches the present specimen. Gamble has written on

~Beddome’s sheet: ‘Not in Br. Mus. This seems to be distinct from

Boswellia glabra and probably a new species. But the material is

insufficient for description. It should be carefully searched for again

in the Nallamalai Hills of Kurnool. :

B. ovalifoliolata Bal. & Henry Pip; glabra Roxb.

1. Leaves 9-25 cm. long, completely 1. Leaves 12-42 cm. long, rarely

glabrous ; leaflets 9-13 per leaf. - pubescent on nerves; leaflets

17-27 per leaf.

2. Leaflets ovate-oblong, suborbi- 2. Leaflets elliptic-lanceolate, acute

cular, obtuse or rarely retuse at or subacute at apex, margins

» . apex, rounded at base, margins entire or rarely crenate-serrate or

entire. | wavy.

3. Panicles up to 31 cm. long, longer | 3. Panicles up to 20 cm. long, shor-

than leaves, much _ branched, ter than leaves, very little

peduncles and pedicels glabrous. branched, peduncles and pedicels

Nose | pubescent..

4. Sepals and petals~ completely 4. Sepals and petals puberulous out-

glabrous; petals smaller, side ; petals larger, + : x 4mm.,

+5 x 3mm., obovate-oblong. ovate- oblong.

See Ee Vane

We thank the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for his kind

help in connection with the comparison of our specimen with the

specimens of Boswellia in Kew Herbarium. Our thanks are due to

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J., Chief Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, for

kindly translating the description into Latin. We are also thankful

to Dr. K. Subramanyam, Deputy Chief Botanist, Botanical Survey of

India, for having kindly placed the material for our study and for

his valuable guidance and encouragement.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

SOUTHERN CIRCLE; oN. P. BALAKRISHNAN!

COIMBATORE, ‘ A. N. HENRY

July 1, 1961. : :

* Present address : Botanist, Central National Herbarium, Sibpore.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 549

25. NEW RECORD OF A HOST (LITSEA UMBROSA NEES)

FOR KORTHALSELLA OPUNTIA (THUNB.) MERR.*

(With a text-figure)

In the NW. and central regions of the Himalayas this tufted,

little plant parasite, hitherto known as Viscum japonicum Thunb..,

has been thriving on the various species of Quercus. Although the

parasite exhibits a preferential partiality towards the Oaks, stray

cases of its presence on Rhus, Olea, Rhododendron, Punica, and

Apricot have also been reported.

Korthalsella opuntia (Thunb.) Merr.

It was a few years ago during a visit to Mussoorie that I chanced

tc find a couple of plants of this ‘banda’ parasite coming up on

a small tree of Litsea umbrosa Nees. Owing to my close proximity

to the place, I kept this particular tree of ‘shurur’ (Litsed) under

close observation and during the course of a couple of years watched:

* Communicated by Shri M.B. Raizada, Dehra Dun.

15A

550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

the steady spread of the parasite, which had infected almost every

branch of this tree. The parasite seems to have developed an

adaptability to grow on this new host, as another similar specimen

has recently been collected by Dr. M. A. Rau, Regional Botanist,

B.S.I., from Garhwal, a place much farther away from Mussoorie.

Specimen collected on 16-11-1958.

BOTANY BRANCH, ©

‘FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE, K. M. VAID

DEHRA DwN, |

March 28, 1961.

26. NEW PLANT RECORD FROM BOMBAY : PHYSALIS

LONGIFOLIA NUTT.

Physalis longifolia Nutt. in Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. 5: 93, 1837;

Dunal in DC. Prodr. 13 (1): 447, 1852.

Perennial herbs, erect, 90-120 cm. tall; stems stout, dichotomously

branched, hollow, deeply striate or furrowed, 2-2.5 cm. across near

the base, pale green, finely pubescent in younger parts, glabrascent in

older. Leaves 2-11.5X1.8-6 cm., ovate or oblong-ovate, subentire or

irregularly serrate, glabrous above, minutely puberulous beneath;

apex acute or shortly acuminate; base cuneate or rounded, decurrent,

sometimes oblique; petioles 2.5-7.5 cm. long, glabrous. Flowers

solitary, axillary or in the forks of the branches, erect or drooping;

peduncles 0.8-2 cm.- long, filiform, glabrous or minutely puberulous.

Calyx 3-6 mm. long, tubular-campanulate, puberulous outside, divided

to about the middle; lobes triangular, short, acuminate; in fruit entire

calyx accrescent up to 3 cm. long, purple-veined. Corolla pale to

lemon-yellow, with 5 purple or brownish spots on the inside at the

base, campanulate, 0.7-1.2 cm. long, limb 0.8-1.5 cm. across. Stamens

5; anthers greenish or greyish blue; filaments 2-3 mm. long, glabrous,

yellow. Berries about i cm. across, subglobose or somewhat ovate,

slightly depressed at the apex, yellow or orange, enclosed in the

persistent, accrescent calyx. Seeds auriculate about 1.5 mm. long,

yellow, minutely tubercled.

Common, often gregarious by the roadsides and railway lines;

occasional in undergrowth on hills.

Flowers and fruits: Nearly all the year.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Sal

Specimens examined in the Blatter Herbarium: Khandala,

Sartapau 9614, 11164, 12740; Karjat, Santapau 9650; Bombay and

Salsette Islands, Irani 2027; V. Patel 775-761, 963 1247, 1294, 1771;

Shai 152, 7023, 7036, 8407-08, 8967; Santapau 144-10, 5556, 9932,

20948; Shenoy 985, 1867, 1938, 4265; Andhra, SKW 6973.

‘World distribution: Native in America; introduced and at present

naturalised in the coastal parts of Bombay and Andhra.

Critical notes: In Bombay we have the following species of

Physalis: Ph. peruviana, Ph. minima, and Ph. longifolia. The first

is a fairly large shrub, and is found only under cultivation in gardens,

where the plant is a favourite of gardeners on account of the ‘Chinese

Lanterns’, that is to say the pendulous, enlarged calyx hanging down

from the plant in the manner of a Chinese paper lantern; the plant is

cultivated further for the sake of its fruit or berries, which under the

name of ‘Bombay Gooseberries’ are sold in the market, and make

excellent tarts etc. The other two species have often been confused,

but in general minima is much smaller than longifolia; they are further

distinguished thus : | |

Corolla uniformly yellow without spots, 5-8 mm.

long, the open flowers 4-8 mm. across; anthers

yellow | = minima

Corolla pale yellow with a few purple or brown —

spots, 7-12 mm. long, 8-15 mm. across; anthers

_ greenish or greyish blue | ... longifolia

ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, H. SANTAPAU, s.J.

BoMBAY 1, ; G. L. SHAH, M:sc., Ph.p.

June 1, 1961. MRS. Z. KAPADIA, (née V. Patel)

27. NEW PLANT RECORD FROM BOMBAY:

ALTERNANTHERA PUNGENS H.B.K.

Alternanthera pungens H.B.K. Nov. Gen. et Sp. 2 : 206, 1818:

Melville in Kew Bull. 13: 174, 1958. Alternanthera repens (L.)

Link, Enum. Pl. Hort. Berol. 1 : 154, 1821: Baker in Fl. Males. ser

I, 4 (5): 91 & 594, 1954; Santapau, Fl. Purandh. 112, 1957 (non

Gmelin, 1791). Achyranthes repens Linn. Sp. Pl. 205, 1753.

Illecebrum pungens (H.B.K.) Spr. in Syst. Veg. 1 : 820, 1825.

552. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Creeping herbs, rooting at the nodes, with radially spreading

branches, often closely appressed to the ground: stems and branches

slender, wiry, often rusty-brown, densely appressedly hairy, 10-40 cm.

long. Leaves 1.2-3X0.6-2.5 cm., broadly ovate, obovate or a!most

orbicular, alternate, subopposite or subfascicled, glabrous or thinly

hairy above, densely so beneath; apex obtuse, rounded or subacute,

minutely apiculate; base rounded, cuneate or tapering, at times

somewhat oblique; petioles 5-10 mm. long, slender, pilose; spikes

5-10 mm. across, solitary or 2-3 together, axillary, globose or oblong,

shining white, at length pale straw-coloured; bracts spine-tipped;

bracteoles hyaline, very acute or acuminate but not spine-tipped,

strongly 3-nerved; the median adaxial tepal is rather flat, hyaline,

dentate or toothed at the apex; the two lateral inner adaxial tepals

are smallest; all tepals bear a pair of small tufts of glochidiate hairs,

abaxial and median adaxial tepals at the base, lateral adaxial

tepals about the middle. Stamens five, all fertile. Seeds orbicular,

reddish brown. as)

An occasional weed along roadsides. and railway lines. Abundant

in reclamation in Bombay. The senior author has been watching

this weed for many years and has noted its spread in Bombay. He

first noted it as rather common in bare wasteland near the bus

station at Saswad, Poona Dt. Some three years later the plant was

observed in Poona; then again some four or five years ago he collected

this weed along the railway line just past Khandala station on the

way down the Ghats. It took the plant about two years further to

reach Mumbra, 26 miles along the railway line from Bombay. Finally

it has reached Bombay Is!and of late, but at the time of writing this

note it is not yet common nor troublesome. The spiny bracts and

perianth parts become hard on drying, and may be an unpleasant

surprise if trod upon with bare feet. From the way this’ plant has

been spreading in Bombay, it would seem as if it entered India via

the South and is gradually spreading northwards in all directions.

The junior author found this plant to be common at Broach and

Baroda.

Flowers and fruits: August-May.

Illustration: Melville, t. 2.

Specimens examined in the Blatter Herbarium: Nagpur, Mirashi

217: Khandala, Santapau 15541; Purandhar, Santapau 7075, 7274,

11311, 13927; Bombay and Salsette Islands, Santapau 3954, 7224,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 553

7353, 9945: Shah 7909; Broach, Shah 6509; Baroda, Shah 530;

Andhra, SKW 5203, 6123. |

World Distribution: Urban in Symb. Ant. 4: 221, 1905, makes

this plant native in the Central American Islands and in the American

continent; the senior author, in 1948, studied this plant in Kew

Herbarium, London, and to judge from the specimens available in

Kew, the plant in 1948 was found all over tropical America, extending,

westwards to the Azores (Funchal), the Canaries (Tenerife etc.),

Cadiz in S. Spain; and Balearic Islands. There were no specimens

from the area between Balearic Islands and India in Kew; specimens

trom India were very rare. At present it is spread ub over peninsular

India, and recently it was found in Java. :

Critical notes: The oldest name for this plant is Achyranthes

repens Linn. 1753; in the present genus, the name should have been

Alternanthera repens Link, 1821, which is the name by which the

plant is known to some authors in India; this name, however, is

preoccupied by Alternanthera repens Gmel. 1791, for quite a different

plant. The next oldest available name for the Linnean species in the

genus Alternanthera is Altern. pungens H.B.K., 1818.

ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, | H. SANTAPAU, s..

Bomsay 1, G. L. SHAH, m.sc., ph.p.

June ‘1, 1961. :

28. AN IN TERESTING CONDITION OF FRUITING IN

BANANA!

(With one photograph)

The stem of the banana plant is a pseudo-stem composed of a

collection of leaf stalks densely packed together. In the banana and

quite a few other plants the real stem is more or less a massive

rhizome that usually remains underground or just reaches the surface.

Flowering scapes appear on the top of the rhizome and normally

_ become elongated so that flowers and fruits emerge among the ex-

_ panded leaf blades on the upper part of the plants. If due to injury

this false stem is damaged, premature emergence of flowers and fruits

often occurs.

1Communicated by the Director, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow.

554. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

Recently some banana plants from a local orchard were trans-

planted at Banthra nursery of the National Botanic Gardens,

Lucknow. After transplanting some plants started drying up at the

top. They were cut back to about 45 cm. from the ground level.

One of the plants burst into flower and fruit as shown in the

above photograph. ; é

NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS,

LUCKNOW, G. S. SRIVASTAVA

May 26, 1961.

29. THE OPHIOGLOSSALES IN NEPAL

The Ophioglossales, due to their primitive position amongst the

living ferns, have long attracted the attention of botanists. The three

genera, Ophioglossum, Helminthostachys, and Botrychium, are closely

related and form a gradual series in complexity of vegetative struc-

tures; they have a limited distribution. Thus, the find of a specimen

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 555

provides material and creates interest in the study of the distribution

of the genus or even the species to which it belongs.

The Botrychia, also known as the Evergreen Grapeferns, have in

recent times received great attention; in America attention is being

focused on the distribution, classification, etc., even to the degree of

pigmentation amongst the different species. According to Clausen

(1944) the classification of the ternate Botrychia ‘still stands far short

of perfection’; they ‘are controversial taxonomically’ to quote the

words of Wagner (1960).

The distribution and taxonomy of the Indian Ophioglossum

species has been worked out by Chakravarty (1951). Information and

data about the representation of this order in Nepal are very incomplete,

and the aim of this note is to provide all information that has

accumulated so far. Raizada & Vaid (1952), who worked out the

collection of ferns made by Fleming from west Nepal, do not mention

any member of the order; similarly Alston and Bonner (1956), who

have described the sizeable collection of ferns made by Zimmerman

of the Swiss Mt. Everest Expedition during 1952 and 1954, make no

mention of any Ophioglossum species. My explorations of east Nepal

over several years have resulted in the collection of some

Ophioglossum and Botrychium, which throw some light on_ their

distribution in Nepal and the Himalayas in general. The different

species that are so far known from Nepal are detailed below. |

Ophioglossum vulgatum Linn. This species was first reported by

Burkill (1910), who collected on the ‘Trisuli banks below Naikot,

c. 2000 ft. (610 m.). My specimens have been collected in Kathmandu

Valley, c. 4200 ft. (1280 m.). In east Himalayas, this species is

reported from Suriel, 5200 ft. (1520 m.); Goke, 4000 ft. (1220 m.);

Rungeet, (no altitude given); south of Sinchul, 7500 ft. (2290 m.).

The Nepal specimens come from a lower altitude. |

Ophioglossum_ reticulatum Linn. My specimen comes from

Kalinchok Ridge c. 10,500 ft. (3200 m.). This was collected in

October 1960. There were many immature plants on the grassy slope

facing east, but I could collect only three mature specimens. This is

a new record for Nepal. There are two specimens of the same

gathering deposited in the Nepal Government’s herbarium. This

species has so far not been reported from east Himalayas. The

species is known from Assam, 200 ft. (60 m.); Burma, 6000 ft. (1830

m.); and also Mussoorie 6500 ft. (1980 m.). It may be worth

556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (2)

mentioning that I have not been able to find any record of

Ophioglossum growing at a height of 10.500 ft. (3200 m.). Thus, the

present collection records the maximum altitude not only for the

species but also for the genus. | |

Botrychium lunaria (Linn.) Sw. This species has been recorded in

‘ west Nepal only by Tagawa (1955) based on specimens collected at

Manaslu, c. 10,800 ft. (3290 m.). This is the only record for this

species.

Botrychium lanuginosum Wall. This species has also been

recorded from west Nepal by Tagawa (loc. cit.); he has named the

specimens collected at Chokang c. 9000 ft. (2740 m.) as Osmundopteris

lanuginosa (Wall.) Nishida'. I have collected this species from two

different localities in east Nepal. The first gathering was made in

September 1956 above Makaibari on way from Charikot to Kalinchok

at c. 8000 ft. (2440 m.). There were very few specimens growing: in

shade and all plants were fully mature. The second collection was

made in October 1960 at Sanga Soti c. 7500 ft. (2290 m.). .-Plants

were at different stages of growth and maturity.

Botrychium ternatum (Thunb.) Sw.? This species is being re-

ported for the first time from Nepal. Specimens collected are from

the same locality as for B. lanuginosum Wall., i.e. Sanga Soti_c. 7500

ft. (2290 m.). There were very few plants growing and only two

were fully mature, and these were pressed. These Nepal specimens

are much more robust than the specimens housed in the Calcutta and

Dehra Dun herbaria. This species is also reported from Mussoorie.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to the University Grants Commission for the travel

grant given to me to work out the ferns and fern allies collected in

east Nepal. I am indebted to Prof. V. Puri for his suggestions and

helpful consultations. ae

MEERUT COLLEGE, veer

MEERUT, : M. L. BANERJI

March 23, 1961.

1The genus Osmundopteris has recently been changed to Japano-Botrychium by

Nishida (See Amer. Fern Journ. 50 : 128, 1969).

2 According to Nishida, Scepteridium ternatum (Thunb.) Lyon var. ternatum

Nishida syn. Botrychium ternatum Sw. (See Amer. Fern Journ. 59: 131, 1960).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ait)

REFERENCES

Alston, A. H. H. & Bonner, C. E. B. Raizada, M. B. & Vaid, K. M. (1952):

(1956) : Candollea 15 : 193-220. Indian For.78 : 576-81.

Burkill, I. H. (1910): Rec. Bot. Surv. Tagawa, M. (1955): Fauna and Flora

Ind. 4: 59-140. of Nepal Himalayas. Kyoto, Japan.

Chakravarty, H. L. (1951): Bull. Bot. Wagner, W. H. (1960): Bull. Torrey

Soc. Beng.5: 1-10. Bot. Club 87: 303-325.

Clausen, R. T. (1944): Amer. Fern

Journ. 34 ; 55-60.

Notes and News

The XVIth International Horticultural Congress will be held

under the sponsorship of the Belgian Government in Brussels from

3ist August to 8th September 1962. The Congress secretariat is

located at the State Agricultural College, Coupure links, 235, Ghent,

whence all further information can be obtained.

* * foe *

Vol. Ill of the late J. L. Peters’s CHECK-LIST OF THE BIRDS OF

THE WORLD (1937) which has long been out of print has been

reprinted. This volume lists the Columbidae and Psittacidae and

related families, and is available from the Museum of Comparative

Zoology at Harvard College, Cambridge 38; Mass., for $10.

Vol. V ($7), VII ($6), and IX ($7.50) are still available.

With the co-operation of specialists all over the world work is

progressing rapidly towards completing the unpublished volumes.

Vol. XV, containing the Ploceidae, Sturnidae, Oriolidae, Dicruridae,

Paradisaecidae, Corvidae, etc., is in the press, and should be ready

early in 1962.

* * * *

Mr. Tom Schnabel, 224 Vance Street, Pacific Palisades, California,

U.S.A., is interested in exchanging specimens of American butterflies

for Indian varieties. Members interested will please correspond

directly with him.

* * ** *

A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, by S. Dillon

Ripley II, published by the Society is now ready.

Also, the 6th (revised and enlarged) edition of THE BOOK OF INDIAN

BIRDS, by Sdlim Ali, which includes eight new coloured plates

illustrating a total of 256 species.

* * * *

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS-~—11-11-1961. C6340

EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU & ‘HUMAYUN ABDULALI

———————

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CONTENTS

THE WHITE RHINO OF HLUHLUWE. By O. H. de St. Croix

CRITICAL NOTES ON THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE. VI. Nervilia

Gaud. & Malaxis Sw. By H. Santapau, S.J., F.N.Iey and Z. Kapadia, Ph.p.

NOTES ON THE TUNA AND FRIGATE MACKEREL FROM RATNAGIRI. By M. R.

Ranade hs ae ata ;

NOTES ON INDIAN CAECILIANS. By Edward H. Taylor

AMPHIPNOUS INDICUS, A NEW SYNBRANCHOID EEL FROM INDIA, WITH A

REDEFINITION OF THE GENUS AND A SYNOPSIS TO THE SPECIES OF

AMPHIPNOUS MULLER. By E. G. Silas and E. Dawson Bf

NOTES ON SOME CORVIDAE FROM NEPAL, PAKISTAN, AND sali ui sda

A. Paynter, Jr. + ;

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA. Part XXVI. A Contribution to our

Knowledge of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects of the Nival

Zones from the North-West Ptr tae Part 1. By M. S. Mani and

Santokh Singh fs ee .%

THE FLORA OF PARLAKIMEDI AND ITS IMMEDIATE NEIGHBOURHOOD. Part II.

By K.S. Srinivasan and G. V. Subba Rao i ,

A. REVIEW OF SOME GRASS-INFESTING THRIPS FROM INDIA WITH A DESCRIPTION

oF A New Species. By T. N. Ananthakrishnan .. se! Be

THE WILDFOWL TRUST AT SLIMBRIDGE IN BRITAIN. By E. P. Gee

VEGETATION OF JHUNJHUNU, MANDRELA, AND THE NEIGHBOURING PLACES. By

N.C. Nair AY af A

Tue Birps OF NEPAL. Part 4. By Biswamoy Biswas

ON THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE GULF OF KutTcH. Part Il—Gastropods. By

P.K.B. Menon, A. K. Datta Gupta, and D. Das Gupta 34

REVIEWS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES he Ae hos cy as

Nores AND NEWS

CORRIGENDA

321

332

351

355

366

379

387

ee ——- 5

i a a

Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

Vol. 58, No. 3

Editors

H. SANTAPAU, s.J., & HUMAYUN ABDULALI

DECEMBER 1961

Rs. 15

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

editors by observing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-

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or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

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Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 58, NO. 3

PAGE

THE BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE FOREST WAGTAIL, MOTACILLA INDICA GM. By

Irene Neufeldt. (With four plates) .. oa ae Sees)

A REDESCRIPTION OF THE INDIAN TERMITE, ODONTOTERMES BELLAHUNI

SENSIS HOLMG. & HOLMG., WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SUBSPECIES FROM

RAJASTHAN. By M. L. Roanwal and Geeta Bose. ih two Bares two

text-figures, and five tables) é 580

CRITICAL NOTES ON THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE. VII. Evia Lindl. &

Porpax Lindl. By H. Santapau, s.J., F.N.I., and Z. Kapadia, ph.p. (With

three plates) £33 xv se 5 4 ie os)

A New GENUS, EIGHT NEW SPECIES, SEVEN NEw FORMS, AND NOTES ON THE

LEPIDOPTERA OF SAUDI ARABIA, BAHRAIN, AND IRAN. By E. P. Wiltshire.

(With four plates and three text-figures) . ae a .. 608

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE SPINY LOBSTER, PAWULIRUS DASYPUS (H. MILNE-

EDWARDS) IN BOMBAY WATERS, WITH A NOTE ON THE SYSTEMATICS OF

BomBAY LossTErRS. By B. F. Chhapgar and S. K. Deshmukh. (With one

text-figure) ve it ee ges ee eH OSz

STUDIES ON THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SouTH InpbIA. I. Aeoloso-

matidae and Naididae. By K. Vanamala Naidu. (With three text-

figures) 28 A ae ate Lf .. 639

THE BirDS OF NEPAL. Part 5. By Biswamoy Biswas we ae O55

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA. III. At the middle of the

19th Century. By I. H. Burkill «s - re An O78

_A NATURAL SANCTUARY IN THE HIMALAYA: Nanda Devi and the Rishiganga

’ Basin. By Hari Dang. (With a map and two plates) pa a. LOT

THE GENUS OZDOGONIUM IN MysoRrE STATE. By Ella A. Gonzalves and G.R.

Sonnad. (With twelve text-figures) Bus “e at i DLS

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA. Part XXVI. A Contribution to our

Knowledge of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects of the Nival

Zones from the North-West Himalaya. Part2. By M.S. Mani and

Santokh Singh. (With nine text-figures) .. av ee an T24

FLORA OF DISTRICT MUZAFFARNAGAR IN THE DOAB OF THE RIVERS GANGA AND

YumMNA. By Raj Kumar Gupta. (Witha map) .. Ss .. 149

OBITUARY :

Sir Reginald Spence a iy: a ey, AIG

REVIEWS :

1. Birds of Ceylon. Book 4. (Zafar Futehally) ne SATS

2. Under the Banyan Tree(D.J.P.) .. ay oe en

3. A Biology of Crustacea (B. F.C.) .. an ye Stel

4. Orchids: Their Botany and Culture (D. E. R.) oe set LOD

5. Gnetum(P. V.Bole) .. sis “3 0% a. 783

6. Atlas of Avian Hematology (J.B. Chatterjea) .. ie ~. 184

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY UP TO 30TH SEPTEMBER 1961 .. SO

PAGE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. Mutual assistance between mother langurs [Presbytis entellus (Dufresne)].

By Ishwar Prakash (p. 790). 2. The present status of the Caracal (Felis caracal

Schreber). By Ishwar Prakash (p. 790). 3. The senses of the tiger. By Lt.-Col.

R.W. Burton (p. 791). 4. Note on a reputed skull of Nemorhaedus cranbrooki

(With two text-figures). By R. W. Hayman (p. 792). 5. The Dugong, Dugong

dugon (Miller), at Bombay ; an incorrect record. By Editors (p. 796). 6. On

the Indian Great Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus stentoreus (Hemprich & Ehrenberg)

breeding in Kerala. By P. V. George (p. 797). 7. ‘ The moulting of duck after

arrival in India’. By S. Chaudhuri (p. 798). 8. Notes on the Birds of Nepal.

By Desirée Proud (p. 798). 9. Corrections to ‘ Some notes on the birds of the

Nepal Valley’. By Desirée Proud (p. 806). 10. Recoveries of ringed migra-

tory and residential birds at Hingolgadh, Jasdan. By Yuvraj Shivrajkumar

(p. 807.) 11. Nocturnal ‘ predator’ of fruit of Yellow Oleander (Thevetia nerii-

folia). By D. E. Reuben (p. 808). 12. Jumping snakes. By C.R.S. Pitman

(p. 809). 13. Up-stream migration of elvers of Anguilla nebulosa (= bengalensis)

over the first anicut of the River Godavari (With a plate). By K. H. Ibrahim

(p. 810). 14. The Calanoid Copepod Pseudodiaptomus ardjuna Brehm—a new

description (With a plate). By H. V. Desai and D. V. Bal (p. 812). 15. Migra-

tion of butterflies. By R. Reuben (p. 815). 16. Occurrence of the Blue Mormon

(Papilio polymnestor Cramer) in Bombay. By D.E. Reuben (p. 816). 17. Mass

occurrence of the predatory stink bug, Cantheconidia (Canthecona) furcellata

(Wolff.) on Amsacta albistriga Walk. in south India. By B. Vasantharaj David

and M. Basheer (p. 817). 18. Strange behaviour of some dragonflies. By Hari-

narayan G. Acharya (p. 819). 19. Asymmetrical position of pale antennal

segments of Paralabis dohrni (Kirby) (Labiduridae, Dermaptera) (With one text-

figure). By P. V. Joshi (p. 821). 20. Observations on the spider Latrodectus

hasseltii indicus Simon with a note on arachnidism (With a text-figure). By

J. C. Daniel and P. W. Soman (p. 823). 21. Protective devices of some orb-

weaving spiders from India (With nine figures). By B. K. Tikader (p. 826). 22.

Occurrence of the echiuroid Ochetostoma zanzibarense Stephen in the Gulf of

Kutch (With a text-figure). By A. K. Datta Gupta and P. K. B. Menon (p. 829).

23. A note on the flower colour of Polygala erioptera DC. By G. L. Shah

(p. 831). 24. Occurrence of Utricularia hirta Klein in south India (With one

plate). By J. Joseph and K. Ramamurthy (p. 832). 25. A new species of Jatropha

from south India (With a plate). By J.L. Ellis and T. L. Saroja (p. 834). 26.

Emex spinosa Lim. Campd.: a new record for India (With one plate). By

V.S.Sharma (p. 836). 27. Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy, a synonym of Con-

volvulus microphyllus Sieb. By P. V. Bole and Virbala Shah (p. 838).

NOTES AND NEWS ee ee ee ee ee : ee 840

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR

1960-61 ee ee ee ee ee ee 843

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY .. 848

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING A SA ~. 853

FOR SALE

One °410 S.B.B.L. collecting shot-gun Belgian make, together with

ammunition. Apply to

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Bombay Natural History Society

91 Walkeshwar Road, Bombay 6.

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rt.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1961 DECEMBER Vol. 58 No. 3

The Breeding Biology of the Forest

Wagtail, Motacilla indica Gm.’

IRENE NEUFELDT

Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR,

Leningrad

(With four plates)

INTRODUCTION

The Forest Wagtail, Motacilla indica Gm., the most peculiar

member of the family Mootacillidae, is well known in India

as a winter visitor but very little has been published about the

breeding biology of this interesting bird. During her two expeditions

to Amurland the authoress has had a we'come opportunity of study-

ing the Forest Wagtail during its breeding season. The present article,

based for the most part on observations made by the authoress,

cannot be considered as a detailed monograpn as the observations

were made simultaneously with numerous other duties.

RANGE

For want of the necessary information the range of the Forest

Wagtail cannot be exactly delimited. In the Soviet Union the Forest

Wagtail inhabits only the south-eastern part of the country. It is

widely distributed in Amurland in the narrow belt of oak forests

* Communicated by Dr. Salim Ali.

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

along the Amur River, extending eastward from Kumara village

51° 36’ N., 126° 41’ E., (see Neufeldt, 1960) to the east of the city

of Khabarovsk. In Ussuriland it is known in nearly all the districts

of the Ussuri plain and:in the Khanka Lake depression; also in the

suburbs of Vladivostok (the Muraviev-Amurski peninsula) and Askold

Island and, lastly, from the south-eastern foothills of the Sikhote-

Alin Range northward to Tetyukhe village (Shulpin, 1931a; Spangen-

berg, 1949, Vorobiev, 1954). Gizenko (1955) recorded it in the

south-eastern part of Sakhalin Island, north of the town of Starodubsk

(approximately 47° 25’ N.).

In the Korean peninsula the Forest Wagtail is distributed in all

suitable biotopes (Austin, 1948). In China this bird occurs in the

north-eastern provinces (Manchuria) and in the provinces of Hopei

(Kansu) and Anhwei (La Touche, 1930: Wilder, 1938). - The distribu-

tion range shown on the map in Cheng’s LIST OF CHINA BIRDS (1958)

includes also the provinces located south of the Yangtse River:

Chekiang, Kiangsi, and Human, but the authority for this is unknown.

It is not at all certain whether any separate breeding range exists

in India. Stuart Baker (1926) includes Assam and adjacent parts of

Burma within the range of the Forest Wagtail, because of two nests

of the bird received by him from N. Cachar. The authenticity of

these two nests is evident from the detailed description published by

Stuart Baker (1934), but no more records come from that region.

Furthermore, Smythies (1953) pointed out that this species is not

to be found in summer in the northern parts of Burma. For this

reason I agree with C. Vaurie (1959) in considering these cases of

the breeding of this bird as exceptional.

Everywhere within its breeding range the Forest Wagtail is a

migratory species, wintering in S. Asia. Only in mild winters it stays

the year round in §. Korea (Austin, 1948). In winter it is common

in SE. China in the provinces Kwangsi, Kwantung, S. and W. Yunnan,

and Hainan Island (Caldwell & Caldwell, 1931). It is recorded as

a rather rare bird from the Riu-Kiu Islands (Kuroda, 1933), winters

in all the countries of Indo-China, and is well known from the plains

of S. Burma (Smythies, 1953) and Thailand (Deignan, 1945). According

to Jerdon (1863), Stuart Baker (1926), Salim Ali (1953) it has been

recorded nearly everywhere in Hindustan east of a line drawn from

the Sutlej Valley to the Gulf of Cambay. It has been regularly

observed in Mysore, Travancore, and Cochin, and along the Malabar

coast to the northern extremity of the Western Ghats. More

sporadically the Forest Wagtail occurs in other parts of the peninsula.

Since it is absent from the Eastern Ghats, Sdlim Ali (1953) thinks

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF MOTACILLA INDICA GM. 561

that the Forest Wagtail probably reaches its winter quarters in SW.

India and Ceylon by way of the Andamans!. Ceylon is the south-

western extremity of the winter range of the species, where the birds

were recorded sporadically in many parts of the island. The winter

quarters of the Forest Wagtail are known also from the Andamans,

the Malay peninsula, and the adjoining islands such as Penang.

Singapore, etc. (Robinson, 1927), and from a number of islands of

Malaysia, namely Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and others (Legge, 1880;

Kuroda, 1933; Delacour, 1947). In N. Philippines, many islands of

Japan, and in some provinces of China (Hupeh, Fukien, Szechwan,

and N. Yunnan) it is a straggler only (Caldwell, 1931; Delacour, 1946;

Anonymous, 1958).

THE SPRING ARRIVAL

The spring movement of the Forest Wagtail from its winter

quarters to the breeding range starts in March. The birds leave the

Malay peninsula in the middle of March; a little later date has been

recorded for their departure from the northern parts of the peninsula

(Robinson, 1927). Forest Wagtails leave Ceylon about the end of

March (Legge, 1880). ‘The latest spring records of these birds in

Burma were made at Martaban Bay on May Ist (Hume & Davison,

1878), and in Thailand near Doi Langka on May 2nd (Deignan, 1945).

According to data obtained in different parts of India, Forest Waguails

Jeave the country in May. And the same can be said of S. China:

Kwantung, Kwangsi, W. and S. Yunnan (Caldwell & Caldwell, 1931).

From what has been said above it is evident that the distances

between the two seasonal areas are not very great, and the main

routes of migration are within the limits of the winter and summer

areas of the species.

Forest Wagtails arrive rather late at their breeding places (in the

first half of May) and all within a very short space of time. In

Nanking (China) Forest Wagtails were recorded in 1944 on 30th

April and in 1946 on 3rd May (Hoffman, 1952). In N. China (Hopet)

their arrival was noticed at the middle of May (Shaw, 1936), in Peking

in 1946 on 22nd May and in 1947 on 18th May (Hoffman, 1952).

Among the birds listed by Austin (1948) from Korea the earliest birds

were taken in Kyonggi Do province on May 2nd and in the more

1 Recently it has been recorded on passage near Madras in both spring and

autumn (Sanjeeva Raj, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 : 220 ; 58 : 269).

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

north-western Pyongan Pukto province on May 9ta. In the collec-

tion of the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the

USSR in Leningrad there are the skins of birds co'lected near

Blagoveshchensk (Amurland) on May 12th.

In a tardy cold spring the arrival can be delayed to the end of

May. For instance, in 1945 the first Forest Wagtails were noticed

in a region of the Kedrovaya River (Ussuriland) only on 25th May

(Vorobiev, 1954). This was also the case in 1959 on the upper Amur;

in that year the first small flock of Forest Wagtai’s was recorded by

the autnoress near Simonovo village (NW. of Blagoveshchensk) on

26th May. The weather was cloudy with short periods of clear sky

and there was a weak north-east wind. The night temperature went

down to 3 or 4° C. below zero, and during the day rose to +8° C.

or more. On arrival the birds settled on the ground and on trees

in a thin Dahurian Birch (Betula dahurica) forest which had been

burnt that spring. They did not sing but flew from one place to

another uttering a very characteristic ping-teng. Next day (27th

May) the birds were very common in oak forests on the plateau. The

arrival of the Forest Wagtails in forests of the upper Amur in 1959

coincided with the time when oaks were covered with young leaves

and small fresh leaves began to come out on Dahurian_birches.

Many birds living in the same biotopes as Forest Wagtails had

already arrived and occupied their mnest-territories. They were:

Spotted Tree Pipits (Anthus hodgsoni), Yellowbacked Flycatchers

(Muscicapa_ narcissina), Grey Minivets (Pericrocotus divaricatus),

Needletailed Swifts (Hirundapus caudacutus), and Owlets (Otus sunia),

During migration Forest Wagtails prefer to keep in forest biotopes

of different kinds, but at that period there is much more possibility

than at other times to meet them out of forests. On the Amur-Zeya

plateau the incoming birds keep in very sparse and light parts of the

forests. In particular they readily occupied the parts of forests where

recently (approximately one month ago) a forest fire had taken place

and where the forest litter and dry twigs were burnt by fire. Just

after arrival, Forest Wagtails could be seen in small flocks of 15-20

birds usually in the outskirts of a forest, or near rides and forest

roads. They spent nearly all the clear portions of the day on the

ground, running in the short spring grass 1 search of food. On

being disturbed they would fly to the lower branches of the trees and

there continue their pursuit of insects. The males were extremely

animated and sang intensively from 27th May. It seemed that in

these noisy flocks females were absent till at least the end of May.

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF MOTACILLA INDICA GM. 563

Unfortunately, owing to the absence of sex dimorphism in the colora-

tion of the plumage and the calls of these birds, it was impossible

to judge about the sex ratio in the early spring flocks of Forest

Wagtails. |

BREEDING BIOTOPE

In Amurland the males usually secure their nest-territories by the

end of May. As a rule the nest-territory is a part of the territory

where the flocks- of feeding birds stayed after their arrival from the

south. In the region we have explored, only some of the Forest

- Wagtails were migrants. At the beginning of June the difference

between the local birds, which had had nest-territories, and the

migrant ones was especially noticeable. In 1959 before 6th June no

migrant birds had left. The relations between the local birds and the

migrants were absolutely peaceful; so also between the local Forest

Wagtails themselves, and between the Forest Wagtails and other small.

passerine birds breeding near by. No sign of quarrelling was noticed.

It was only when man or any large animal intruded into the nest-

territory that the male and female raised an alarm. In the upper

Amur area, which is nearly the north-western limit of the range, the

density of the Forest Wagtail population in suitable biotopes was.

rather high. For instance, on the narrow strip of the Amur-Zeya

plateau covered with oak forests (approximately 3 sq. km.) six pairs

of breeding Forest Wagtails were recorded in June 1959, the least

distance between the nests noticed being 250-300 m. The territory

occupied by each pair was not large; on the contrary the territories

were often close to each other or even overlapped. An observer

standing near one nest could see one or two other nests and hear

simultaneously as many as four singing males. Forest Wagtails are

very attached to their territory, which is not only their breeding place

but is also the main feeding biotope from the time of pair formation

till the nestlings leave their nests.

Forest Wagtails are real forest birds. In the south-western portion

of the Amur-Zeya plateau these birds breed mainly in the Mongolian

Oak forests, and show a preference for Mongolian Oak with under-

brush of Lespedeza or of Lespedeza and Dahurian Rhododendron.

Such oak-groves usually occupy flat elevations on the plateau

(approximately 280-300 m. above sea-level). This is the north-western

limit of the range of the Mongolian Oak, and the trees here are poorly

developed. The oldest are only 140-150 years old and are never

564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

taller than 25-27 m. More typical of this part of the plateau are

trees 10-12 m. in height, with a trunk diameter of 20-25 cm., and

a badly-developed crown; most of the branches extend horizontally,

the lowest a short distance above the ground. Admixture of other

kinds of trees in the oak-groves is insignificant. More common are

birches (Betula dahurica), \arches (Larix dahurica), and sometimes

pines (Pinus sylvestris). The trees stand far from each other, and

the forest looks like an orchard. The underbrush comprises mainly

low bushes (70-100 cm.) of Lespedeza (Lespedeza bicolor). Here

and there, thickets of the Dahurian Rhododendron (Rhododendron

dahurica) of 1-1.5 m. height are common too. Solitary bushes of

the hazel (Corylus heterophylla) and Dahurian Rose (Rosa dahurica)

form only an insignificant admixture in the very rich dense under-

growth. Due to plenty of light in such sparse forests the ground

is covered with an excellent carpet of herbs, nearly 60 species, for

instance Atractylodes ovata, Adenophora latifolia, Iris uniflora,

Vicia pseudorobus, Lathyrus humilis, Carex nanella, etc. Bare parts

of the ground and near-by bases of oak-trunks are usually covered

with mosses.

In undersized Amurland oak-groves Forest Wagtails find very

favourable conditions for breeding: the trees stand far from each

other, the peculiar structure of the crown of the Mongolian Oak is

very convenient for nest construction, the large oak leaves provide

the nests with excellent camouflage, there is plenty of building

material everywhere, and plenty of insects and other small invertebrata

for food. It is necessary to note that only the Grey Minivet

(Pericrocotus divaricatus), among other small passerine birds living in

oak-groves, finds optimal living conditions there. No birds breeding

on bushes live in the underbrush of the Mongolian Oak groves.

The reason is that the structure of Lespedeza and Dahurian

Rhododendron is inconvenient for nest construction. In Amurland

near the Simonovo village, besides the birds mentioned above (the

Spotted Tree Pipit, Yellowbacked Flycatcher, Grey Minivet, Needle-

tailed Swift, Owlet), a few more species were recorded by me in the

oak-groves: the Great and Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers (Dryobates

major and D. minor), the Willow Titmouse (Parus atricapillus), the

Nuthatch (Sitta europaea), the Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), and the

Siberian Capercaillie (Tetrao parvirostris). If we exclude the Goshawk

and the Siberian Capercaillie as non-characteristic of such biotope,

only ten species of birds can be considered as typical inhabitants of

the Forest Wagtail’s biotope. In comparison with other types of

ails

p js

i a A EE IE EOIN eT

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF MOTACILLA INDICA GM. 565

local forests the upper Amur oak-groves have the poorest population

of birds, as regards both number of species and density of population.

Many oak trees are rotten inside, and hollow trees are very common.

Owing to this the hollow-breeding birds are predominant over

other species of birds there.

According to Spangenberg’s observations (1940, 1949) at the Iman

River in Ussuriland, Forest Wagtails are inhabitants of sparse oak-

groves on slanting hill slopes. Shulpin (1931la) considers oak forests

with an admixture of birches (Betula costata and B. dahurica), lime

trees (Tilia amurensis), and an undergrowth of Lespedeza and hazel

bushes as a main biotope in south Ussuriland. Oak groves are also

the breeding biotope of this species in Sakhalin Island (Gizenko,

1955).

Such conservatism in the selection of breeding biotopes is the main

cause of the unevenness of the distribution of the species within the

limits of its breeding range. For instance, large territories along the

lower course of the Iman River in Ussuriland are covered with oak

forests, and the Forest Wagtails are widely distributed there,

Contrary to this these birds occur sporadically along the middle course

of the river where there is a spotted distribution of the oak-groves

(Spangenberg, 1949). In the upper Amur area the authoress never

met Forest Wagtails in small isolated oak groves, though the birds

were abundant near by in oak groves occupying large territories.

It is interesting to note that in the territory investigated by the

authoress the density of population of Forest Wagtails was rather

high, and some pairs lived in Dahurian Birch forests covering

terraces in glens. In appearance these Dahurian Birch forests are

very similar to oak-groves due to the same construction of the crown

of the trees. Like in the oak-groves there is, under the foliage

canopy, dense underbrush composed of Lespedeza and hazel bushes,

and rich herbage of Convallaria majalis, Thalictrum minus, Aster

scaber, Iris uniflora, Adenophora latifolia, Atractylodes ovata, etc.

BEHAVIOUR AND SONG!

Males sing regularly throughout the breeding period. In 1959 the

authoress recorded their songs from 27th May to 10th July. They

sang especially intensively before the beginning of nest-building, i.e.

from 27th May to 7th June. They were active during daytime, a

—

1 The song of the Forest Wagtail was described in detail by Hoffman (1952).

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

little more in the morning, less at midday. According to observations

made in the environs of Simonovo village on 28th May 1959 males

began to sing at five in. the morning, and on Sth June at five past

four in the morning. They became silent only at sunset, i.e. in June

approximately at half past twenty hours. According to Hoffman (1952)

in Nanking (China) the Forest Wagtails at the beginning and at the

middle of May began to sing approximately at 6 in the morning; on

28th May at 5.40 a.m.; on Ist June they sang with intervals from

5.35 a.m. till 8 p.m.; on 4th June males began to sing at 5.30 a.m..,

and on 9th June at 5.15 a.m.

The song is very simple but rather sonorous, and can be heard

from far away. It is somewhat like the song of the Great Tit (Parus

major), being composed of the disyllabic strophe tsi-fee. Usually the

male repeats its tsi-fee four or five times without a break; sometimes,

as if in haste, it includes in its song only two or even only one

strophe. The same male may use different variations of the song.

usually the long song, very seldom a short one. The male has no

favourite place for singing in its breeding territory where it could be

seen. Early in the morning at the time of maximal activity some

males sing perched on a dead twig at the very top of a high tree

(usually birch or aspen). The rest of the time they usually keep at

a moderate height in the crowns of oaks or Dahurian Birches. At the

period of highest excitement males do not cease singing even while

they fly from one tree to another. The authoress has not seen any

song-flight in the Forest Wagtails. In spring, at the end of May.

males in migrant flocks sang intensively while running on the ground

in search of insects. At intervals between songs males emit a call

clink, clink. Both males and females utter this call as an alarm when,

frightened and also as a signal to the others when beginning a flight.

Many ornithologists who have had the opportunity to observe Forest

Wagtails either in the breeding season or in their winter quarters

compare this call with ihe well-known cali of the Chaffinch: chwink,

_chwink. In Salim Ali’s (1953) opinion this call of the Forest Wagtail

resembles very much the call of the Crested Bunting (Melophus

lathami). When very much alarmed, Forest Wagtails utter another,

more prolonged call: tsee-fee-ten.

With the beginning of nest-building (in the south-western portion

of the Amur-Zeya plateau after 7th June in 1959) the intensity of

males’ songs markedly diminished. They could be heard all day.

but at long intervals especially towards evening. Males continued to

sing near their nests after the full clutches were completed and even

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BREEDING BIOLOGY OF MOTACILLA INDICA GM. 567

when the nestlings hatched out, but very irregularly. Singing ceased

with the end of the nestling period.

Among mimicking birds in Amurland, the Brown Shrike (Lanius

cristatus confusus) very often and very well reproduces the Forest

Wasgtail’s calls and song. Several times in 1959 the authoress heard

a male Brown Shrike which included in its own song phrases adopted

from seven species of birds: the Spotted Tree Pipit (Anthus hodgsoni),

Whitethroated Rock Thrush (Monticola gularis), Blacktailed Hawfinch

(Eophona migratoria), Radde’s Bush Warbler (Phylloscopus schwarzi),

Wryneck (Jynx torquilla), Indian Cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus) and,

distinctly and loudly, the Forest Wagtail.

The singing male, whether running or standing in one place,

sways as if in time with its song. To every syllable of the song

corresponds the inclination of the bird’s body, to one side or the

other. Such lateral pivoting of the body is also habitual with

females, and even with young birds recently fledged. This peculiarity

was the reason of the Japan name of the bird, Jokofury-sekirei, 1.e.

Sideways-swinging Wagtail (Austin, 1948). Unlike other wagtails

and pipits the Forest Wagtails never swing their tails in the same way’.

The Forest Wagtail is the only member of the large family

Motacillidae which builds its nest in trees. At the first acquaintance

with this very graceful and lively bird the observer is struck by the

wonderful ability of the bird to run very fast and easily along

horizontal branches of different thicknesses. Without any visib’e

difficulty they can climb or descend steep inclined branches (Plate I).

Within their small nest-territory they usually move on foot, flying only

from one tree to another, or between a tree and the ground. Unlike

woodpeckers, tree creepers, and nuthatches, Forest Wagtails have no

special adaptations for tree-living. In comparison with other wagtails.

the legs are a little shorter and the claws, including those of the hind

toe, are sharp and strongly curved.

At breeding time Forest Wagtails spend plenty of time in Oks

crown of the trees. Numerous and prolonged observations showed

that the birds can run with ease along comparatively narrow and

steeply inclined branches when the bark is very rough, but not if

it is very smooth. In Amurland, as in other parts of the range, oaks

and Dahurian Birches serve excellently for this purpose, as well as

for nest building.

As far as is known from literature, on migration and in winter

quarters Forest Wagtails keep mainly on the ground. Only when

ont very slowly up and down while pivoting from side to side on a branch.

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

disturbed they fly on to the nearest tree, run some distance along

a thick horizontal branch, and fly down very soon. No preference

for any definite kind of trees has been noticed at that period of its

life.

NEST

In Amurland in the region of the authoress’s study in 1959 the

majority of Forest Wagtails had begun to construct their nests by 6th

June. On 7th were met birds which had just started nest building,

and on 8th and 9th June were recorded five pairs whose nests were

nearly complete. At the same time (on 9th June) there were full

clutches in two nests. The female alone builds the nest, with build-

ing material which she collects from the ground. Usually she visits

many times a selected place which abounds in building material. At

the beginning of June in Amurland oak forests one frequently comes

across a number of Forest Wagtails flying in the same direction with

large bunches of moss, rotten leaves, or grass in their beaks.

Cautiously tracing such a bird it is easy to find a nest in course of

building. The male takes no part in nest building, but is constantly

somewhere near by; he accompanies his mate when bringing the

building material, and is the first to notice and warn her of danger.

The female is very cautious and never flies directly to the nest, even

when it is building; she perches on a lower branch of a near-by tree

and only after an assuring ‘all clear’ call from her mate does she fly

to the nest-tree, running inconspicuously along the branches to the

nest.

If disturbed at an early stage of nest building, the female

abandons the nest and, soon after, begins to look for a new site.

Later, when the nest is nearly completed, the birds become less shy

and do not stop building even after a short visit by the observer.

At breeding time, as in the early period after their coming back

from winter quarters, Forest Wagtails prefer the marginal and lightest

parts of the forest and avoid the inner dense and high-standing parts.

In all the cases known to the authoress the nests were built on

medium-sized trees (5-17 m. high) growing near forest ways and

vistas.

From Table I the preference given to oaks for nest building is evident.

The same took place in Ussuriland (Spangenberg, 1949; Vorobiev.

1954) and east China (La Touche, 1930). |

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF MOTACILLA INDICA GM. 569

TABLE I

Position of the Nests

Distance | Diameter of the

Sena Kind of tree | peas baer ipo tne Diaper Sup porung

1 oak | 7-8m | eons) 6mm:

2 oak 5-6 m. 3.0 m. | 87 mm.

3 oak | 6m. jay 005 66 mm.

4 | oak 10m. | 2.0) 10re 66 mm.

5) | Dahurian Birch 5m. 0.0 m. 62 mm.

6 oak 6.5 m. 0.0 m. 68 mm,

a oak | 4.5 m. 0.0 m.

8 oak S)as) Joe 2.50

9 Oak 4m. ileayion

1 We retain these numbers throughout the text.

Horizontal branches not very thick (66-68 mm. in ein are

very convenient for nest building. The birds usually select for

building the distal part of the branch 1.5-3.0 m. away from the main

trunk. A horizontal branch a little thicker than the internal diameter

of the nest-cup (Table II) is a safe support, and ensures a firm position

for the rather friable nest. Short additional twigs of the branch

support the nest from the sides (Plate III, fig. a, b, c). Most of the

known nests were located in the same way. Sometimes the birds use

vertical verticils, either at the end of thick inclined branches at a

significant distance from the trunk (Plate IV, fig. d) or at the top part

of the trunk (Plate IV, fig. e, f). The nests observed in Amurland

were built at a height of 4 to 10 m. above the ground. In some

cases Forest Wagtails build their nests at smaller height, only 3 or

even 1.5 m. above the ground.

For the construction of the nest walls the Forest Wagtails in

Amurland use dry blades of grass, dead leaves, small pieces of bark

or separate fibres of bark, smal! roots, and sometimes wool of rodents

(Pteromys volans and Microtus sp.). On the outside the nests were

faced with stems of green mosses, cocoons of spiders covered with

small particles of soil, dead leaves, and slender little stalks. The

nest built in the Dahurian Birch was decorated with numerous small

papery pieces of the Asian White Birch bark. The second nest.

built near the expedition camp, was ornamented with cotton wool.

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

The nests are so carefully and skilfully incrusted with these materials

that they are hardly visible against the background of the dark bark

covered with light spots of lichens. Sometimes, even at a _ very

short distance, it is impossible to recognise the limit between the

branch and the nest wall (Plate 1). The cup is usually plentifully lined

with thin roots and wool of the Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus).

Besides thai, there are inside nearly each nest one or two feathers

of the Hazel Grouse (Tetrastes bonasia). or the Ussurian Scops Owl

(Otus sunia stictonotus), or any small passerine bird. Horse-hair, the

very common lining of Forest Wagtail nests in Ussuriland and China,

was recorded by the authoress in one nest only. The reason for this

is the remoteness of the area of observation from human settlements.

The measurements of the nests taken by the authoress appear in

Mable wi;

TABLE II

Nest Measurements

External height |

Serial in mm. | External _ Internal Internal

No diameter diameter of | depth of cup

| eee cup in mm. in mm.

max. min. |

1 74 34 86 | 51 | 34

D 70 45 91 | 60 40

3} 80 75 88 S| 40

4 62 300s 91 65 40

| |

») 89 | 82 84 So | 42

6 61 | 50 87 63 | 35

7 69 | 48 90 58 : 33

These measurements coincide with the measurements given by

Spangenberg (1949) and Vorobiev (1954) for Ussuriland. Only the

external height is more variable, in accordance with the position of

the nest. For instance, before the birds were able to build the nest

No. 5, they had to fill with material the narrow space between the

bases of the twigs in order to prepare the basement for the nest proper.

BREEDING SEASON AND EGGS

Arriving late in their breeding range the Forest Wagtails have

time to breed only once. In most parts of the breeding range they

Journ. BomBay NAt. Hist. Soc. ~ PLATE III

Nests of Forest Wagtail (Motacilla indica) on horizontal branches of oak

a,b,c: from side; a,’ b’, c’: same nests from above

(Drawn from nature by V. Rozhdestvenskaya)

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV

RR DF SRP pot & Ny y

Vip ANG 87) FFA RNR Yj

Ge Vie * Fa Lf 7

NA) ASE: A

ony vO, +: P| , a * \ ; f f

~ \ ~\ 4

STH

ER pS

d RR,

l eZ

Vy; = cA

it ; :

LY, ifn:

2 —IWa

Nests of Forest Wagtail (Motacilla indica)

On end verticil of inclined branch of oak; e: on vertical fork of main trunk of Dahurian

Birch; f : on vertical fork of main trunk of oak; d’,e’, f’: same nests from above

(Drawn from nature by V. Rozhdestvenskaya)

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF MOTACILLA INDICA GM. onl

begin to lay the eggs in the first half of June. According to the

literature the following can be said about the breeding season. In

the suburbs of Peking on 2nd July the young were leaving their nests.

In Anhwei province on 8th June 1910 was found a nest with four

eggs, and on 21st June with two eggs (La Touche, 1930). In Korea

(Pyongan Namdo) Won collected on 3rd June 1938 a nest with five

eggs (Austin, 1948). In southern parts of Ussuriland fresh eggs were

recorded on 8th June 1939 (Spangenberg, 1949), and on 10 and 11th

June 1946 (Vorobiev, 1954). In the collection of the Zoological

Institute of the Academy of Sciences in Leningrad there are seven

nestlings (14-15 days old) collected by Shulpin in the Pkhusun river

valley (Ussuriland) on 5-9th July 1927. In the nests we found in

Amurland the first eggs were laid: in two nests on 6th June, in two nests

on 9th June, in four nests on 11-12th June, and in one nest on 17th

June. The last was a case of second laying after the first slightly

incubated clutch was destroyed. Spangenberg’s record (1949) of

nestlings on 6th June 1948 in the Iman river valley (Ussuriland)

seems doubtful. It would only be possible in case the eggs were laid

not later than 19th May, i.e. at an extremely early date.

The interval between nest-completion and egg-laying is one or

‘two days. In one nest which was kept under permanent observation,

attendance at the nest by the egg-laying female was recorded from

4.20-4.30 hours and again from 6-7 hours. After the egg was laid

the bird stayed at the nest for some time and then flew away till

the next morning. Incubation begins after the last but one egg is

laid. In a case with a full clutch of six eggs the female began

incubation after the fourth egg was laid. The normal clutch consists

of 4 or 5, and seldom of 6 eggs. In cases of late (repeated) laying

the clutch consists of 3, or even only 2 eggs.

Variation in size of eggs in the same clutch as well as in different

clutches and from different parts of the range is very small. This

is evident from the comparison of data from Ussuriland and Amurland

(Table Ill), China (La Touche, 1930), and Assam (Stuart Baker,

1934).

In coloration Forest Wagtail eggs closely resemble a very common

European variation of Chaffinch eggs, and sometimes the eggs of the

Spotted Tree Pipit (Anthus hodgsoni). They have a dirty-bluish

ground coloration with very sparse large grey spots concentrated

principally near the blunt end of the egg. Small grey spots are

distributed evenly all over the surface of the egg. Besides this, dark

brown speckles. sometimes with vague rusty margins and roundish

572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

black-viclet surface spots, cover the shell surface irregularly. In

only one clutch were the eggs of another type of coloration: light

greenish-blue ground covered with comparatively small, very indistinct

brownish-grey spots, more dense near the blunt end.

The behaviour of incubating females on approach by man to the

nests was varied. In some cases the female silently flew down nearly

brushing the man, and then began to attract the enemy away

by flying low above the ground and imitating the movements and

voice of a wounded bird. In other cases the female sat in the nest

very firmly and left it only when the observer began to climb up

the tree and shook it. Thereafter it perched somewhere in the lower

part of the crown of the tree and gave an alarm call, whereupon it

was joined by its mate and sometimes other Forest Wagtails living

near by. :

The male always feeds its mate in the nest. Now and then the

hen leaves its nest in search of food. Silently and unobtrusively it

comes back to the nest, running the last part of its way along branches

among dense foliage.

NESTLINGS, THE LIFE OF BRoopS, AUTUMN MIGRATION

The incubation period of Forest Wagtails is 13 days. As incuba-

tion begins before the clutch is completed, the hatching of all the

nestlings of the brood is not simultaneous. In fact, the female

incubates for 14 or even 15 days, and the last nestling hatches one

or two days later than the first ones. In nests examined in the upper

Amur Valley the hatching took place from 26th June to 4th July.

No addled eggs were recorded. All 39 eggs in these nests were

fertilised; from 36 the nestlings hatched safely, and 3 were stolen from

the nest probably by Chipmunks (Tamias sibiricus).

Immediately on hatching the young are blind, acoustic ducts closed.

and body naked with sparse golden-grey neossoptiles above the eyes

and on eyelids, nape, back, femurs, shanks, vent, shoulders, forearms

(humeral region), and inner side of hand (carpal region). It is

necessary to note that the nestlings of no other Motacillidae have

neossoptiles on their hands. The skin on the body of a recently

hatched nestling is yellowish pink, the mouth is orange-yellow, and

the tongue is yellow with a grey fringe near its base. The bill is

greyish with light yellow side protuberances. The weight of the

hatchling is 1.7-1.9 grammes.

At the end of the first day of the nestlings’ life the pterylae or.

feather tracts can be noticed in the form of dark areas on the dorsal

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF MOTACILLA INDICA GM.

TABLE

Ill

Egg Measurements

Absolute size (in mm.)

Ws)

Serial : eyciate size of

E eggs belonging

Locality Nee oi Nu a for alee

es Length | Breadth (in mm.)

I 19.2 15.0

1 le 2 i 192 14.7

mi | 192 14.5 re aa

Wet ae loo 14.7

—— 7S Pe oe oma ee? Ma nw

I 21.5 15.0

I 20.7 15.0

2 Il 20.2 14.8 20.6 x 148

IV 20.0 14.5

Amurland, I 215 15.3

Neufeldt | 3 Il 20.7 15.5 20.9 x 15.6

(1960) | UI 20.6 16.0

see jee One 15.00

itt 19.2 15.2

Ill 19.0 15.0

V 18.5 14.3

VI 18.3 14.6

Die a siols 14.7

u 19.0 15.0

5 Ul 19.0 15.0 19.2 14.9

IV 19.3 14.8

: V 19.3 14.8

I 21.0 15.0

Ussuriland, If 21.1 14.8

Spangenberg lil 21.2 14.8 21.0 x 14.8

(1949) IV 20.6 14.7

V 21.1 14.5

ia I 19.1 14.2

ll 19.0 14.4

Ussuriland, ul 19.3 14.4 19.5x 14.4

Vorobiev IV 20.0 14.4

(1954) Vv 20:3 14.6

and partly on the ventral sides of the body. Sometimes on the second

day appear the tiny needles of growing remiges.

three-day-old

nestlings the acoustic ducts open, the eyes are like narrow slits, the

growing primaries are about 1 mm. long, needle-like ends. of growing

rectrices are faintly visible, and the first feathers appear on the

dorsal side of the neck. On the fourth day the feathers on the

shoulders and neck begin to unfold. Next day unfold the feathers

574. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

cf the back, breast, and secondary coverts. In five-day-old nestlings

the eyes are nearly entirely open, and their second primaries are

5-8 mm. long. On the sixth day nearly all contour feathers unfold,

as far as the ends of the primaries and secondaries. The week-old

nestling weighs eight times more than a newly hatched one.

In the first days of their life nestlings of the same age and of

the same brood can have slight individual differences in their weight.

Some days later the differences become less noticeable. For instance,

in One brood the weights of three hatchlings were: 1.7, 1.9, and

i.9 gr. The weights on subsequent days were as follows:

I day old : 5.0: a0; See

2 days old: 4.9, 4.9, 5.5 SF.

3 days old : OS, 6.4, 6.9 gr.

4 days old : 8.3, 8.5, 8.6 gr.

5 days: olds)? 1025.01 1.05 = el 2 scr

6 days‘old-: PiOhus 11 tee aiccrar

7-days old: 14:3," 14255. > 14.3.er

10 days old

(just before

leaving nest): 17:03. a AO, ee oe

It is evident that the differences in weight become progressively less

noticeable.

The case is somewhat different with nestlings hatched one or two

days after other nestlings of the same brood. For instance, in one

nest the fourth nestling hatched one day later than others. Just

after hatching it weighed 1.7 gr., when it was one day old 3.0 gr.,

two days old 3.8 gr., four days old 6.5 gr., five days old 8.0 gr., six

days old 9.7 gr., seven days old 12.5 gr., ten days old 15.3 gr. On

the first two days of its life this nestling was of the same weight as

its brood-mates. But it was younger, and it is common in birds that

elder nestlings receive more food than the younger ones. For this

reason the difference in weight between it and its brood-mates some-

times rose to 3.2 gr. It is necessary to note that in none of the nests

which were under everyday observation was there registered any

influence of such difference in weight upon development of feathers,

acquirement of sight, etc.

Sometimes on the ninth, and as a rule on the tenth, day of their

life, nestlings begin to jump out of the nest on being disturbed by the

observer. In normal conditions they leave their nest on the eleventh

or even on the twelfth day. Owing to difference in age the younger

nestlings may leave the nest one day later than the elder ones.

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF MOTACILLA INDICA GM. 275

The total nesting period, from the laying of the first egg to the

leaving of the nest by the last nestling, is 28-30 days.

Nestlings, just after they leave the nest, are rather well feathered.

To the age of 14 days solitary down feathers can still be noticed

on the head and the back. Nestlings which have just left the nest

weigh 17.2-18.0 gr., ic. the same as their parents (oo 17.2-18.4 gr.,

2° 17.7-18.9 gr.).

During the first two or three days the brood remains at a very

short distance from its nest in spite of the young being able to flit

rather easily from one branch to another. From the age of 17-18

days the young birds become able to fly fairly strongly. Like the

adults they spend much time in the crown of the trees, where they

run without any difficulty along horizontal and inclined branches of

different thicknesses. A tame young Forest Wagtail, which lived in

our camp in 1959, preferred to climb to the shoulder of a sitting man

‘on foot’ in spite of being able to fly quite well. On its way it made

full use of all creases in the cloth. Frequently the young birds descend

to the underbrush following their parents searching for food on the

ground. But very often, before they begin to search for their food

independently, they keep themselves in the lower parts of the crown

of the trees. Fully plumaged young birds are on the whole similar

to the adults. The difference is in the predominance of greyish and

brownish shades on the upper parts of young birds; moreover the

double band across the breast is not so distinct and broad as in

aduits (Plate II).

For some time after leaving the nest young birds keep in families,

but very soon they become independent and broods disintegrate (from

the middle of July on the upper Amur). Adult birds keep in pairs

or solitary in oak groves, and the young belonging to two or three

broods unite in small flocks and migrate to the outskirts and thinned-

out parts of the wood. Here, Spotted Pipits, nuthatches, and tits are

often seen in company with flocks of young Forest Wagtails. Being

very silent, the Forest Wagtails are hardly noticeable at that period.

Males and females take an equal share in feeding the young,

Spiders, small grasshoppers, butterflies, beetles, and large cicadas were

recorded as food at that time. In Amurland during nearly all the

summer, cicadas and their moulting nymphs predominated in the diet

of the adult birds. They search for food preferably on the ground,

picking up insects from grass, forest litter, bases of tree trunks, lower

branches and leaves of bushes. According to the literature, in other

parts of the area and in winter quarters Forest Wagtails pick up

576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

not only insects, but small snails, molluscs, and worms. In Ceylon

in search of maggots they very often peck at cattle dung. Owing to

this habit the Singalese call them Gomarita, ie. dung-spreader (Jerdon,

1863). At the end of July and in August in Amurland they collected

their food mainly in crowns of trees. According to Stuart Baker

(1926) they can pursue insects in the air. .

Forest Wagtails spend a little more than three months in their

breeding range. The birds breeding at the northern limit of the area

begin movement to the south even at the end of August. In China

(Hopei province) they disappear at the beginning of September (Shaw,

1936; Wilder & Hubbard, 1938). They stay much longer in Korea.

and some of them, as stated above, winter there. Among the birds

examined by Austin (1948) were specimens collected in Kyonggi Do

province on 13th October.

According to the literature Forest Wagtails appear in their winter

quarters on the following dates. In the western and southern parts

of Yunnan in September, in Kwantung and Kwangsi in August

(Caldwell & Caldwell, 1931), in Hupeh in October (La Touche, 1930).

In Thailand between Wiang Pa Pao and Chieng Mai in 1914 the

earliest birds were recorded on 23rd August (Gyldenstolpe, cited by

Deignan, 1945), in Burma near Thandaung probable migrant birds

were noticed on 24th September (Smythies, 1953), in the Malay

peninsula they appear at the end of September (Robinson, 1927}, and

in Ceylon in the first week of October (Legge, 1880). In Java the

first specimen in 1909 was taken on 29th September (Bartels, 1910).

In their winter quarters Forest Wagtails keep to different kinds

of forest, especially jungles thinned out by felling, and openings,

ways, and paths in tropical forests. Shady parks and orchards are

also visited. In Travancore-Cochin they are commonly seen in the

coffee and cardamom plantations (Ali, 1953). In Ceylon according,

to Legge (1880) they are rather common under tamarind trees and

banana plants in small Singalese jungle villages. According to the

majority of literature data only solitary birds or pairs were recorded

at the non-breeding time. As an exception, Robinson (1927) observed

in the Malay peninsula large flocks of Forest Wagtails after storm

and heavy rain.

THE MOoOULT

Even the very scanty materials we have had at our disposal show

the marked difference in the process of the moult between young

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF MOTACILLA INDICA GM. Sit,

Forest Wagtails and young White Wagtails. According to Heinroth

(1926) the White Wagtail acquires the complete juvenile dress (including

all small feathers, remiges, and rectrices) at the age of one month

and, only 1.5 weeks after the juvenile dress is completed, they start

a partial post-juvenile moult. Contrary to this, in the Forest Wagtails

the partial post-juvenile moult begins long before the growth of

remiges and rectrices is completed. So, even in 11- or 12-day-old

nestlings at the edges of the pteryla gastralis and somewhere

on the neck and sides of the upper breast can be noticed apexes

of feathers of the dress that is to follow. The pteryla gastralis (on

the abdominal region), very small in nestlings, becomes somewhat

larger due to the appearance of new feathers. At the two-weeks-old

stage many contour feathers of the juvenile plumage moult and are

substituted by feathers of the first-winter plumage. The lesser wing

coverts and the feathers on the sides of the upper breast are the first

to moult. By the 20-22nd day large bunches of new feathers appear

on the breast and scapulars. The median wing coverts and the small

feathers on the head and throat are still in quill at that time. Four

or five days later the upper and under tail coverts moult. In Forest

Wagtails 30-36 days old the growth of the remiges and rectrices is

completed; in contrast to this, White Wagtails of this age have very

few juvenile contour feathers in their plumage. Only the secondary

coverts and a few feathers on the sides of the upper breast are still

growing at that time. In 45-day-old birds the moult is completed

(in Amurland at the end of July or the beginning of August). From

that age young birds wear the complete first-winter plumage, practi-

cally indistinguishable from the fresh autumn dress of adult birds.

In the following autumn the young birds have the first complete moult,

when they change all contour feathers, remiges, and rectrices.

In the upper Amur area the complete autumn moult of adult

birds begins in the second half of July, ie. simultaneously with the

end of the nesting period. The contour feathers and the primaries

moult at the same time, the direction of the moult of the primaries

being from the 10th to the Ist, including the rudimentary one. The

moult of the secondaries (from the Ist to the 9th) and the rectrices

(from the outer to the central ones) begins a little later. The moult

of the adult birds is very intensive, as can be seen from the following

description of moulting birds, taken in Amurland in 1959:

1. 22nd July, adult female: contour feathers on the back and

breast and all secondary coverts are in sheath or the tips of some

feathers have started to emerge from their sheaths; primaries of the

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

right wing: 10th=7/8 of the normal length, 9th=1/3, 7th is in

Sheath; primaries of the left wing: 9th=4/5, 8th=4/5, 7th=1/2,

6th is in sheath. ,

2. 25th July, adult male: all the contour feathers are moulting,

the secondary feathers: sheathed; primaries (symmetrically in both

wings): 10th are full-grown, 9th=5/6, 8th=1/2, 7th=1/3 of the

normal length, 6th are in sheath. |

3. 25th July, adult female: contour feathers are moulting;

primaries: 10th=1/2, 9th=1/5 of the normal length, 8th started to

emerge from their sheaths, 7th are in sheath, 6th recently sheathed.

4. 7th August, adult female: more than 50% of all the contour

feathers are intensively moulting; all the secondary coverts are in

sheath; 1-7th secondaries renewed and grown up to the normal length,

8th=2/3 of the normal length, 9th are in sheath; primaries: 10 and

9th are new ones, 8th=6/7, 7th=4/5, 6th=1/2 of the normal

length, 5th started to emerge from their sheaths; the primary coverts

are at the same stage; rectrices: 1st (external pair) are in sheath,

2nd started to emerge from their sheaths, 3rd=1/4 of the normal

length, 4th sheathed.

Due to absence of seasonal dimorphism in Forest Wagtails and

the lack of bird skins from winter quarters, we cannot answer the

question about the number of moults every year in this species. In

spring all the birds arrived at their breeding places have rather faded

plumage without the olive shade characteristic of the fresh autumn

plumage. For this reason it is possible to conjecture that Forest

Wagtails have only one complete autumn moult. But Deignan (1945)

said that the specimen taken in Thailand on 19th March ‘is under-

going prenuptial moult’!

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author is deeply indebted to Professor A. I. Ivanov, Head of

the Department of Birds of the Zoological Institute of the Academy

of Sciences of the USSR, Leningrad, for his kind help and encourage-

ment.

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF MOTACILLA INDICA GM.

579

REFERENCES

Ali, Salim (1953): The Birds of

Travancore and Cochin. Bombay.: 169-

170.

Anonymous (1958): A Hand-list of

the Japanese Birds. Tokyo.: 39.

Austin, O.L. (1948): The Birds of

Korea. Bull. Mus. Comparat. Zool. 101

(1): 240-241.

Baker, E. C. Stuart (1926) : The Fauna

of British India including Ceylon and

Burma, Birds. London. 3 : 275-277

(1934): The Nidifi-

cation of Birds of the Indian Empire.

London. 3 : 136-138.

Bartels, M. (1910) : Zur Vorkommen

von Limnodromus indicus Gm. auf Java.

Ornith. Monatsberichte 18 : 79.

Caldwell, H.R. & Caldwell, J.C. (1931):

South China Birds. Shanghai. : 58-59.

Cheng, Tso-Hsin (1958): A Distri-

butional List of Chinese Birds 2 : 33.

Deignan, H. G. (1945): The Birds of

Northern Thailand. Bull. U.S. Nat.

Mus. 186 : 505-510.

Delacour, J. (1947) : Birds of Malaysia,

New York. : 198.

— — — — — — & Mayr, E. (1946):

Birds of the Philippines. New York :-161.

Gizenko, A. I. (1955): Birds of the

Sakhalin Region. Moscow.: 255 (in

Russian).

Heinroth, O. & Heinroth, M. (1926) :

ve Vogel Mitteleuropas. Berlin. 1 : 144-

147.

Hoffman, A. (1952) : Uber den Gesang

der Indischen Baumstelze | Dendronanthus

indicus (Gmelin)]. Bonner Zool, Beitr.

1-2, 3: 11-16.

Hume, A.O. & Davison, W. (1878) :

A Revised List of the Birds of Tenas-

serim. Stray Feathers 6: 364-365.

Jerdon, T. C. (1863): The Birds of

India. Calcutta. 2 (1): 226.

Kuroda, N. (1925) : Avifauna of Riu

Kiu Islands. Tokyo. : 390.

eee Ce

— — Kuroda, N. (1933): Birds of the

Island of Java. Tokyo. 1 : 88-89.

La Touche, J. D. D. (1930): A Hand-

book of the Birds of Eastern China.

London. : 417-419.

Legge, W. V. (1880) : A History of the

Birds of Ceylon. London. : 614-616.

Neufeldt, I. (1960) : The Forest Wag-

tails (Dendronanthus indicus Gm.) in

Forests of the Upper Amurland. Dok-

lady Akad. Nauk. USSR. 132 (4) : 957-

960 (In Russian).

Robinson, H. C. (1927) : The Birds of

oy Malay Peninsula. London. 1: 293-

Shaw Tsen-Hwang (1936): The Birds

of the Hopei Province. Zoologica Sinica,

ser. B, 15 (1): 686, 688.

_Shulpin, L. M. (1931a): An ornitholo-

gical expedition to the region of the

Sikhote Alin range in 1928. Izvestia

Akad. Nauk.: 594,597 (In Russian).

— — — (1931b): Ubersicht der Ver-

breitung der an den Wald gebundenen

Vogel aus den Gebiete des Sichota-Alin

Bergrtckens. Zool. Anz. 93 (3/4): 75.

Smythies, B.E. (1953): The Birds of

Burma. Edinburgh. : 255-256, 592.

Spangenberg, E. P. (1940): Obser-

vations on distribution and biology of

Birds at the lower course of the Iman

River. Trudy Moscow zool. park 1:

121 (in Russian).

— — — (1949): New data on distri-

bution and biology of Birds of the

Ussuriland. Okhrana priridy 6: 3-14

(In Russian).

Vaurie, C. (1959): The Birds of the

Palaearctic Fauna. London.: 74.

Vorobiev, K. A. (1954): The Birds of

the Ussuriland. Moscow.: 201 (In

Russian).

Wilder, G.D. & Hubbard, H.W. (1938):

buds of North-eastern China. Peking. :

A Redescription of the Indian Termite,

Odontotermes bellahunisensis Holmg. &

Holmg., with Description of a new

Subspecies from Rajasthan

M. L. ROONWAL AND GEETA BOSE

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

(With 2 plates, 2 text-figures, and 5 tables)

CONTENTS

PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION ae oy .. 580

II. REDESCRIPTION OF Odontotermes bellahunisensis HOLMG. & HOLMG. .. 581

III. D&SCRIPTION OF NEW SUBSPECIES, O. b. guptai ts e868

TV. SUMMARY ie + He Perea )6)

REFERENCES ote A Rs . «393

APPENDIX (ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION OF O. bellahunisensis H.&H.) .. 594

I. INTRODUCTION

The original description of the Indian termite Odontotermes

bellahunisensis (Isoptera, family Termitidae, subfamily Metatermitinae)

as given by Holmgren & Holmgren (1917, pp. 150-151) is extremely

meagre and is unaccompanied by any illustrations, so that it is

virtually impossible to recognise the species from the ‘description

alone. Fortunately, the cotype material, consisting of all the castes

(alates, soldiers, and workers), is present with the Zoological Survey

of India. We, therefore, take this opportunity to redescribe the species

more fully and to give adequate illustrations for easy recognition.

One of the cotype soldiers has been selected as the lectotype.

The species was hitherto known only from the original locality,

viz. Bellahunisi (in the Bellary District) and Bangalore, both in the

Mysore State, southern India. Recently, we found it from the arid

zone of Rajasthan (western India) and Sind (West Pakistan), but these

specimens constitute a new subspecies which we describe below.

THE TERMITE ODONTOTERMES BELLAHUNISENSIS 581

This paper is a part of the work done under the Termite Research

Scheme (Taxonomy), financed by the Indian Council of Agricultural

Research.

Il. REDESCRIPTION OF QOdontotermes bellahunisensis

HOLMGREN & HOLMGREN

Odontotermes bellahunisensis Ho!mgren & Holmgren

(Plates I & II; Text-fig. 1; Tables 1-3; and Appendix)

1917. Odontotermes bellahunisensis K. Holmgren & N. Holmgren, Mem. Dept.

Agr. India, Calcutta 5(3), pp. 150-151 (imagos, soldiers, and workers). Type-

localities : INDIA : Mysore State : Bellahunisi (Bellary District), and Bangalore.

(a) MATERIAL

Two imagos, 6 soldiers, and 5 workers (1 major and 4 minor), all

cotypes, in spirit in a vial, Z.S.I. Reg. No. 5616/20, from Bellahunisi,

Bellary District’, Mysore State, India, coll. T. B. Fletcher, 30-viii-1912,

‘issuing from hole in gravelly soil at dusk. No mound at all.’

(b) DESCRIPTION

1. Imaco (Table 1; and Plate 1).

General. Head-capsule and mandibles brownish yellow, apices of

mandibles darker; clypeus labrum, and antennae pale yellowish

white; eyes black with pale ocular sclerites; thorax and abdomen

brownish yellow. Head and body densely covered with fine hairs.

Total length (without wings and antennae) c. 11.6-12.3 mm.

Head. WHead-capsule subcircular, broader than long (width with

eyes 2.20-2.25 mm.; length 1.75-1.80 mm.); sides convex, posterior

margin rounded; frons slightly sloping in front. Fontanelle. Small.

rounded, not prominent; lying a little above the middle of head.

Eyes. Present as a pair of large, subround compound eyes, one on

either side, protruding laterally; maximum diameter 0.60-0.63 mm.

Ocelli. Two lateral oval ocelli present, one on either side; separated

from the eyes by a little more than half their long diameter. Antennae.

With 18 segments; segment 1 cylindrical, longest; 2 more than half

as long as 1; 3 subequal to 2 and partially subdivided into a proximal

and a distal half; 4 shortest; 5 slightly longer than 4; 6-11 increasing

in size in that order; 12-14 subequal, slightly longer than 11;

* Bellary District was formerly in the Madras State but was transferred to the

Mysore State during the reorganisation of States in 1957.

582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

15-17 subequal, slightly longer than 14; apical (18) ovate, more slender

and longer than the penultimate one. (In another specimen with an

incomplete antenna, with 15 segments; segment 3 and 4 subequal;

5-14 increasing in size in that order; and 15 shorter than 14.)

Labrum. 'Tongue-shaped, broader than long; tip broadly rounded;

TABLE 1

Body-measurements (in mm.) of imagos of Odontotermes

bellahunisensis Holmgren & Holmgren: (Cotype lot)

Body-parts (2 pees

I. GENERAL

1. Total body-length (without wings) c. = 11.6-12.3

If. HEAD

2. Length of head to lateral base of mandibles ve 1.75-1.80

3. Max. width of head (with eyes) a 2.20-2.25

4. Max. height-of head (including ocellus) . 1.00-1.10

5. Median length of labrum ~ 0.60-0.65

6. Max. width of labrum Bc 0.65-0.70

7. Max. diameter of compound eye (including ocular

sclerite) aes 0.60-0.63

8. Max. diameter of lateral ocellus - 0.23-0.25

9. Min. diameter of lateral ocellus is 0.20-0.23

10. Min. eye-ocellus distance | cee 0.13-0.15

11. Min. eye-antennal distance ce 0:23:0.25

12. Min. ocellus-antennal distance is. 0.25-0.28

III. THORAX

13. Max. length of pronotum Wi 1.15-1.23

14. Max. width of pronotum As 2.10-2.25

15. Length of forewing scale a 1.10-1.13

16. Length of hindwing scale ei 1.00-1.03

with a few hairs on tip and on body. Clypeus. Divided into an ante-

and a postclypeus. Anteclypeus narrow, pentagonal, with a small

pointed median tip; apilose. Postclypeus distinctly separated from

JouRN. BomBAy NAT. Hist. SOc. PLATE I

aaa

Odontotermes bellahunisensis Holmgren & Holmgren. Imago caste

Fig. a. Head and pronotum, in dorsal view ; Fig. b. Head and pronotum, in lateral view; Fig. c.

Labrum ; Fig. d. Left mandible; Fig. e. Right mandible; Fig. f. Antenna

acl., anteclypeus ; ant., antenna ; ap.t., apical tooth ; e., eye; Ir., labrum; It. left; m,, mz, first

and second marginal teeth of mandibles; md., mandible ; oc., ocellus; pcl., postclypeus; prt., pro-

notum ; rt., right

(All drawings are from the cotype imagos; see text)

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. | PLATE II

le 0/2 ant ay, 0°5 mm. (6 mom a

Odontotermes bellahunisensis Holmgren & Holmgren. Soldier caste

Fig. a. Whole soldier, in dorsal view ; Fig. b. Head and thorax, enlarged, in dorsal view;

Fig. c. Head and thorax, in lateral view; Fig. d. Labrum; Fig. e. Left mandible; Fig. f. Right

mandible; Fig. g. Left antenna; Fig. h. Postmentum; Fig. i. Pronotum, in dorsal view ; Fig. J.

Pronotum, in lateral view ;

acl., anteclypeus ; ant., antenna ; at., anterior ; cer., cerci; Ir., labrum; It., left ; md., mandible ;

mst., mesonotum ; mtt., metanotum ; pcl., postclypeus ; prt., pronotum ; pt., posterior ; rt., right

_ (All drawings are from the lectotype soldier, from the cotype collection from Bellahunisi, Bellary

District, Mysore State, India, present in the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta)

THE TERMITE ODONTOTERMES BELLAHUNISENSIS 583

frons by a semicircular demarcation, strongly swolien and divided

into right and left halves by a median suture. Mandibles. Of the

Odontotermes-type. Right mandible with an apical and 2 marginal

teeth; apical long, bluntly finger-like; Ist marginal triangular, slightly

shorter than apical; 2nd short and blunt. Left mandible with an

apical and 2 marginal teeth; apical long, finger-like; 1st marginal

triangular, almost as long as apical; 2nd very short and blunt and

widely separated from the Ist.

Thorax: Pronotum. Trapezoidal, broader than long (width 2.10-

2.25 mm.; length 1.15-1.23 mm.); either narrower or subequal to

head-width (with eyes); with a T-shaped apilose mark in the centre,

and indistinct shoulder spots on antero-iateral corners; anterior

margin slightly upturned, with a weak median notch; anterior and

posterior angles rounded; posterior margin straight, without a median

notch. Wings. Broken in the specimens available to us; only wing-

scales present. Forewing scale. Triangular, 1.10-1.13 mm. long.

Hindwing scale. Also triangular; shorter than forewing scale (length

1.00-1.03 mm.). Legs. Long, tubular, densely pilose; tibial spur

formula: 3:2:2. Abdomen. Elongate, densely pilose. Cerei

2-jointed; 0.15 mm. long. Styli, single-jointed; 0.05 mm. long.

2. SOLDIER (Table 2; and Plate I)

General. Head-capsule, antennae, thorax and body pale yellowish-

white. Mandibles light reddish-brown. Head and body sparsely

pilose. Total length (including mandibles but excluding antennae)

c. 3.95-5.03 mm.

Head. Wead-capsule rectangularly oval; longer than broad (length

to base of mandibles 1.18-1.33 mm.; maximum width 1.03-1.15 mm.),

converging anteriorly; rounded at posterior end; frons slightly sloping

m front. Fontanelle. Indistinct. Eyes and_ ocelli. Absent.

Antennae. With 16-17 segments; segment 1 cylindrical, longest:

2 cylindrical, a little more than half of 1; 3 shortest in the 17-seg-

mented antenna, and 4 shortest in the 16-segmented antenna; 5 to the.

penultimate one progressively increasing in size; apical oval, longer

than penultimate one. Clypeus. Separated into an ante- and a

postclypeus. Amnteclypeus narrow, hyaline, apilose. Postclypeus

indistinctly separated from frons and with a few long hairs. Labrum.

Tongue-shaped, basally broad, apicaily converging to a slightly pointed

tip; several long and short hairs present near tip and on body.

Mandibles. Short, stout, basally broad, sickle-shaped and_ strongly

incurved at apex. Right mandible with a minute tooth above the

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

TABLE 2

Body-measurements (in mm.) and indices of soldiers of

Odontotermes bellahunisensis Holmgren & Holmgren :

(Cotype lot)

Leone

Range

Body-parts (6 specimens) Lectotype

I. GENERAL

1. Total body-length (without antennae) c. .. 3.95-5.03 4.65

II. HEAD

2. Head-length up to base of mandibles 1 .18-1.33 1.20

3. Max. width of head 1.03-1.15 1.05

4. Max. height of head 0.60-0.65 0.60

5. Head Index I (Width/ Length) | 0.86.0.89 0.88

6. Head Index II (Height/ Width) 0.52-0.61 0.57

7. Head Index III (Height/Length) 0.47-0.52 0.50

8. Head Index IV (Mandible length/ Head-

length) 0.52-0.57 0.57

9. Median length of labrum 0.30-0.35 0.30

10. Max. width of labrum acer 0.28 0.25

11. Min. length of mandible |

(a) Left mandible : 0.65-0.73 0.69

(b) Right mandible | 0.65-0.73 0.70

12. Distance of tooth from apex of mandible

(left) anh, 2 0.2-0.25 0.23

13. Min. median length of postmentum 0.63-0.70 0.65

14. Max. width of postmentum 0.45-0.55 0.48

15. Width of postmentum at anterior margin 0 .28-0.35 0.30

IfI. THORAX

16. Max. length of pronotum He 0.50-0.53 0.50

17. Max. width of pronotum steal 0.75-0.90 0.80

18. Max. width of mesonotum s 0.65-0.78 0.70

19. Max. width of metanotum 0.78-0.93 0.85

20. No. of antennal segments 16-17 17

middle on its inner margin. Left mandible, with a large blunt tooth

at its distal third (index Tooth distance/Mandibular length 0.29-0.34).

Postmentum. Parallel-sided, longer than broad (length 0.63-0.70 mm.:

width 0.50-0.55 mm.), slightly converging anteriorly.

Thorax: Pronotum. Weakly saddle-shaped, broader than long

(width 0.75-0.90 mm.; length 0.50-0.53 mm.);- anteriorly sharply

narrowing; anterior margin with a median notch; posterior margin

substraight- Mesonotum. Suboval, broader than long; narrower than

pronotum; sides rounded; posterior margin weakly convex.

Metanotum. Suboval; broader than pronotum; much broader than

THE TERMITE ODONTOTERMES BELLAHUNISENSIS 585

long; sides rounded; posterior margin substraight. Legs. Long, pilose;

apical tibial spur formula 3 : 2 : 2.

Abdomen. Oblong, elongate, moderately pilose. Cerci 2-jointed,

0.05 mm. long. Styli one-jointed, 0.05 mm. long.

| 3. WorKER Major (Table 3; and Text-fig. 1)

General. Head-capsule pale yellowish white; apices of mandibles

and mandibular teeth dark brown. Thorax and abdomen pale

yellowish-white. Head and body moderately pilose. Total length

(without antennae) c. 3.7 mm.

a 05mm | b

[eee |

TEXT-FIG. 1. Odontotermes bellahunisensis Holmgren & Holmgren.

Mandibles of worker major. (From the cotype lot)

ap.t., apical tooth; It., left ; m,,_m,, first and second marginal teeth of

mandibles ; rt., right

Head. WHead-capsule subsquarish, broader than long (width 1.13

mm.; length 1.08 mm.), flattened on top; sides straight; posteriorly

rounded. Fontanelle. Indistinct. Eyes and ocelli. Absent. Antennae.

With 17 segments; segment 1 longest, cylindrical; 2 cylindrical, more

than half as long as 1; 3 shortest; 4-17 (apical) progressively increasing

in size; apical (17) ovate, club-shaped, longer than the penultimate

one. Labrum. - Short, broad, tongue-shaped, with a broad tip; with a

few long hairs near tip and on body. Clypeus. Divided into an

ante- and a postclypeus. Anteclypeus an apilose, narrow, strip, with

a short pointed tip. Postclypeus swollen, with a few short hairs;

separated from frons by a semicircular demarcation; divided into

right and left halves by a median suture. Mandibles. Of the typically

Odontotermes-type; teeth rather blunt and short. Right mandible with

an apical and 2 marginal teeth; apical short, finger-like, Ist marginal

broadly triangular, longer than apical; 2nd short, blunt, with the

posterior margin longer than the anterior. Left mandible with an

586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

TABLE 3

Body-measurements (in mm.) of workers (major and minor of)

Odontotermes bellahunisensis Holmgren & Holmgren : (Cotype lot)

Range (mm.)

Body-parts Worker Workers

Major Minor

(1 specimen) } (4 specimens)

Total body-length (without antennae) c. .. 3.70 3.00-3.60

2. Length of head to base of mandibles So 1.08 0.70-0.75

3. Max. width of head Re aH 113 0.78-0.85

4. Max. height of head ‘ed *,. tee) OL 53 0.35-0.40

5. Max. length of pronotum a oe 0.40 0.35-0.40

6. Max. width of pronotum sh ae 0.63 0.53-0.60

7. Max. width of mesonotum ae ee 0.58 0.53-0.58

8. Max. width of metanotum ws of 0.85 0.70-0.75

9. No. of antennal segments ae a; 17 16-17

apical and 2 marginal teeth; apical short, finger-like; 1st marginal

triangular, slightly longer than apical; 2nd marginal minute, only

slightly demarcated from margin and widely separated from Ist

marginal.

Thorax: Pronotum. Saddle-shaped, broader than long, (width

c. 0.63 mm.; length c. 0.40 mm.); anterior lobe strongly upturned,

slightly notched medially; anterior angles narrowly, and posterior

angles broadly, rounded; sides and posterior margin straight.

Mesonotum. Suboval; much broader than long; narrower than pro-

notum; posterior margin straight. Metanotum. Suboval; much

broader than long; broader than pronotum; posterior margin straight.

Legs. Slightly swollen, moderately pilose; apical tibial spur formula

See

Abdomen. Oblong, moderately pilose. Cerci 2-jointed; 0.05 mm.

long. Styli one-jointed; 0.08 mm. long. \

4. WoRKER MINoR (Table 3)

Generally resembles worker major, but is smaller. Head sub-

squarish with straight sides, converging posteriorly to rounded margin.

THE TERMITE ODONTOTERMES BELLAHUNISENSIS 587

Antennae with 16-17 segments; segment 3 varying—either shorter, or

longer than, or subequal to 4.

Cotypes. The following cotype material is present in spirit, in a

vial, with the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta: 2 winged imagos

(wings damaged), 6 soldiers, and 5 workers (1 major and 4 minor).

Bellahunisi (Bellary District, Mysore State’, India), coll. T. B. Fletcher,

30-vili-1912.

Lectotype etc. Out of the above, we select one soldier (now

placed in a separate vial, under Z.S.I. Reg. No. 2651/H8) as the

lectotype and the remaining 5 soldiers in a vial, Z.S.I. Reg. No.

2661/H8, as the paralectotypes. The remaining cotype material

(2 imagos and 5 workers) is in the original vial, Z.S.I. Reg. No. 5616/20.

Type-locality. Bellahunisi (southern India), as above.

(7) GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

The typical species is confined to southern India (Bellahunisi and

Bangalore), but we have recently found a new subspecies further

north, from the arid areas of western Rajasthan (India) and Sind

(W. Pakistan). The new subspecies is described below.

(ec) COMPARISONS

Odontotermes bellahunisensis is very close to the Indian species

O. obesus (Rambur) and O. redemanni (Wasmann), from which,

however, it is distinguishable as follows:

(a) IMAGOS

1. From O. obesus (the type-specimen of O. obesus, lodged in

the Hope Collection, Oxford, was examined): (i) Head-capsule

shorter and narrower (head-length to base of mandibles 1.75-1.80 mm.

v. 2.00 mm., head-width with eyes 2.20-2.32 mm. v. 2.66 mm.).

(ii) Eyes smaller (maximum diameter 0.60-0.65 mm. v. 0.70 mm.).

See,

1See footnote above, p. 581.

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

(iii) Ocelli smaller (maximum diameter 0.23-0.25 mm. vy. 0.30 mm.);

separated from eyes by a distance of more than half its maximum

diameter (v. less than half its maximum diameter in obesus). (iv)

Pronotum smaller (length 1.14-1.23 mm. v. 1.47 mm.; maximum width

2.10-2.25 mm. v. 2.50 mm.).

2. From O. redemanni: (i) Head-capsule narrower (head-width

with eyes 2.20-2.32 mm. v. 2.66 mm.). (ii) Ocelli separated from the

eye of its side by more than half its (i.e. of ocellus) diameter (in

redemanni, by half its diameter).

(b) SOLDIERS

1. From O. obesus: (i) Mandibles shorter, stouter, and more

incurved: (ratio Mandible-length/Head-length to lateral base of mandi-

bles, 0.52-0.57 v. 0.59-0.70 in obesus (vide Roonwal & Sangal, 1960).

(ii) Pronotum without a median notch (a weak depression present in

one subspecies) in posterior margin (v. with a well-marked notch).

2. From O. redemanni: (i) Mandibles shorter and more strongly

incurved. (ii) Pronotum differs as in O. obesus above.

Ill. DESCRIPTION OF NEW SUBSPECIES, O. b. guptai

Odontotermes bellahunisensis guptai subsp. nov.

(Text-fig. 2; and Tables 4 & 5)

(a2) MATERIAL

Lot (A): 2 tubes with 6 soldiers and several workers, coll.

S. D. Gupta, near Bikaner, Rajasthan, India, as follows:

(i) No. T-21/16-7-52, Shivbari, Bikaner, 16-vii-1952, ex ‘ground’;

(ii) No. T-23/16-7-52, Ratanbai Quarters, Bikaner, 16-vii-1952.

Lor (B): 2 tubes with 6 soldiers and several workers, coll.

S. Biswas, western Rajasthan, India, as follows. (ii) No. 1/24-10-58,

Gudha near Sambhar Lake (Nagaur Dist.), 24-x-1958; (iv) No.

3/15-11-58, Sayadpura Salt Colony, near Sambhar Lake (Nagaur

Dist.), 15-xi-1958.

Lot (C): 4 tubes with several soldiers and workers, West Pakistan,

as follows: (v-vi) Karachi Air Port, near wireless station, coll.

A. Khan, 13-ix-1960, ex ‘cowdung’; (vii-viii) Behind “Federal Capital

Area’, c. 10-12 km. from Karachi, coll. Sohrab Ali, 13-ix-1960, ex

‘rotten wood’.

THE TERMITE ODONTOTERMES BELLAHUNISENSIS 589

(b) DESCRIPTION

1. IMAGO

Unknown.

2. SOLDIER (Table 4; and Text-fig. 2)

General. Head-capsule deep golden brown to dark brown;

antennae basally pale yellow, apically deep brownish yellow; ante-

clypeus whitish, hyaline; mandibles basally pale, apically reddish

brown; thorax and abdomen yellowish white. Head and _ body

moderately pilose. Total length (with mandibles but without antennae)

c. 3.86-4.93 mm.

SSS Suu |

TEXT-FIG. 2. _Odontotermes bellahunisensis guptai subsp. nov.

Head and thorax of soldier, in dorsal view (From a paratype, near

Gudha village, Nagaur District, Rajasthan)

acl., anteclypeus; ant., antenna (with segments 1-15); Ir., labrum; md .

mandible ; mst., mesonotum ; mtt., metanotum ; pcl., postclypeus ; prt., pronotum.

590

ce Ea SS TS SEIT

Body-parts (10 eae 5) Holotype

I. GENERAL

1. Total length (including mandibles and ex-

cluding antennae) c. 3.86-4.93 3.86

II. HEAD

2. Head-length to base of mandibles 1.08-1.20 1.08

3. Max. width of head 0.98-1.08 0.98

4. Max. height of head 0.60-0.63 0.60

5. Head Index I (Head-width/ Head-length) 0.87-0.95 0.90

6. Head Index II (Head-height/Head-length). . 0.50-0.56 0.55

7. Head Index III (Head-height/ Head-width). . 0.56-0.61 0.61

8. Head Index IV (Mandible-length/ Head-

length) 0.52-0.57 0.55

9. Median length of labrum 0.25-0.28 0.25

10. Max. width of labrum 0.23-0.28 0.23

11. Min. median length of mandibles :

(a) Right mandible 0.60-0.65 0.60

(b) Left mandible 0.58-0.65 0.60

12. Distance of tooth on left mandible from

apex of mandible : 0.15-0.20 | 0.20

13. Tooth Index. (Distance of tooth from |

apex/ Mandible-length) : 0.25-0.33 0.33

14. Median length of postmentum 0.63-0.65 0.63

15. Max. width of postmentum 0.45-0.48 0.45

16. Width at anterior margin of postmentum 0.33-0.35 0.33

III. THORAX

17. Max. length of pronotum 0.48-0.55 0.48

18. Max. width of pronotum 0.73-0.85 0.73

19. Max. width of mesonotum 0.63-0.73 | 0.63

20. Max. width of metanotum 0.78-0.88 0.78

21. No.of antennal segments Hind 15-16 | 15

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

TABLE 4

Body-measurements (in mm.) of soldiers of

Odontotermes bellahunisensis guptai subsp. nov.

THE TERMITE ODONTOTERMES BELLAHUNISENSIS 591

Head. WHead-capsule suboval; longer than broad (length 1.08-

1.20 mm., breadth 0.98-1.08 mm.); converging anteriorly, posteriorly

rounded. Fontanelle. Indistinct. Eyes and ocelli. Absent. Antennae.

With 15-16 segments; segment 1 longest; 2 about two-thirds of 1; 3

generally shortest, or sometimes 4 shortest; 4 longer than 3 but some-

times subequal to or even shorter than the latter; 5 longer than 3 or 4;

6 onwards gradually increasing in size in that order; apical (15 or 16)

ovate, longer than the penultimate one. Labrum. Tongue-shaped,

longer than broad, with strong hairs bordering the sides and 2 pairs

of long ones near the tip. Clypeus. Divided into an ante-.and a

postclypeus. Anteclypeus, a narrow, subtrapezoidal, apilose strip,

distinctly separated from postclypeus. Postclypeus indistinctly separated.

from frons; with 2 prominent hairs on anterior margin. Mandibles.

Short, stout and deeply curved inwards to a sharp tip. Left mandible

with a strong tooth lying at one-third the length of mandible from the

apex. Right mandible with a minute tooth a little below the distal

third from apex. Postmentum. More or less parallel-sided; longer

than broad (length 0.63-0.65 mm.; width 0.33-0.35 mm.), slightly

converging anteriorly; with a few hairs near and on the anterior

margin; anterior margin substraight; posterior margin concave.

Thorax: Pronotum. Saddle-shaped, broader than long; anterior

margin semicircular, slightly notched in middle; sides straight, con-

verging to a deeply-notched posterior margin.

Mesonotum. Subovate; broader than long; with a weak median

notch in posterior margin. Metanotum. Suboval, much broader than

long; posteriorly weakly concave; posterior margin with a weak median

notch. Legs. Long; femora slightly swollen; sparsely pilose; apical

tibial spur formula 3 : 2 : 2.

Abdomen. Elongate, oval. Cerci 2-jointed; 0.08 mm. long. Styli

single-jointed; 0.08 mm. long.

3. WorKER (Tab!e 5)

Similar to that of the typical form O. b. bellahunisensis, described

above, with minor differences as follows: It is not possible to

separate ‘major and ‘minor’ workers. The number of antennal

segments is usually 17, but sometimes 16. |

Holotype. One soldier, in spirit, in a vial, Z.S.I. Reg. No. 2652/H8,

near Gudha village (Nagaur Dist., Rajasthan), coll. S. Biswas (Field

592. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

TABLE 5

Body-measurements (in mm.) of workers of

Odontotermes bellahunisensis guptai subsp. nov.

Body-parts (8 peeks

1. Totallength (excluding antennae) c. sl 2.48 - 3.90

2. Head-length to base of mandibles . oe 0.98 - 1,20

3% Wire width of head ; - 1.08 - 1.30

4. Max. height of head - Se 0.50 - 0.60

5. Max. length of pronotum sm 0.33 - 0.53

6. Max. width of pronotum ae 0.53 - 0.70

7. Max. width of mesonotum 6 0.60 - 0.68

8. Max. width of metanotum ee 0.75 - 0.90

9. No.of antennal segments ane wale? kOe ey

Coll. No. 1/24-10-58), 24-x-1958; deposited in the National Zoological

Collections, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Morphotype. One worker in spirit in a vial, Z.S.I. Reg. No.

2653/H8, from the holotype lot and with the same data. Deposited

in the Zoological Survey of India, Ca!'cutta.

Paratypes and Paramorphotypes. Deposited as follows: (i) Four

paratype soldiers and four paramorphotype workers, in spirit in a

vial, Z.S.J. Reg. No 2654/H8, from the holotype lot and with the

same data, in the Zoological Survey ‘of India, Calcutta. (ii) One

paratype so:dier and two paramorphotype workers, in spirit in a vial,

from material No. T-21/16-7-52, Shivbari, Bikaner, coll. §. D. Gupta,

with Prof. A. E. Emerson, Department of Zoology, Chicago University,

Chicago, U.S.A. (iii) One paratype soldier and one paramorphotype

worker, from same material as (ii), in the Entomological Collections,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

(d). TYPE -WOC ALT TY.

_ INDIA. Rajasthan: Near Gudha village (approx. 26° 55’ N. iat.

and 75° 25’ E. long.), Nagaur District.

seen

sige eral

THE TERMITE ODONTOTERMES BELLAHUNISENSIS 593

(ec) GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

This subspecies seems to be confined to the arid areas of western

Rajasthan (India) and Sind (W. Pakistan), as follows:

InpiA. Rajasthan: Bikaner and vicinity (Bikaner Dist.); and near

Gudha village (the type-locality) and Sayadpura Salt Colony (both in

Nagaur Dist.).

WEST PAKISTAN. Sind: Karachi and vicinity.

(f) COMPARISON

Soldiers of O. b. guptai subsp. nov. differ from the typical form

as follows: SOLDIERS: (i) Head and body more hairy (v. very

sparsely pilose). (ii) Head more rounded. (iii) Antennae with 15-16

segments (v. 16-17 segments). (iv) Mandibles somewhat stouter.

(v) Pronotum with a weak median depression in the posterior margin

(v. without a depression). (vi) Anterior margin of pronotum more

curved, almost semicircufar (v. almost triangular).

1V. SUMMARY

1. The original description of the Indian termite Odontotermes

bellahunisensis (Termitidae, Metatermitinae) as given by Holmgren &

Holmgren (1917) was very meagre and was not accompanied by

illustrations, so that it is impossible to recognise the species from that

description alone. | ;

2. The species is redescribed from the cotype material consisting

of all the castes, viz. alates, soldiers, and workers.

3. A new subspecies, O. b. guptai, is described from the arid zone

of western Rajasthan (N. India), and Sind (W. Pakistan).

REFERENCES

Catalogue of Indian Insects. Part 27.

Isoptera. Pp. 2+1-94. Delhi (Govt.

of India Publ.).

Roonwal, M. L. (1958) : Recent work

on termite research in India (1947-57).

Ahmad, M. (1955) : Termites of West

Pakistan. Biologia 1 (2) : 201-264.

Lahore.

Key to the Indo-

— — — (1958):

Malayan termites. Biologia 4 (1 &2):

33-198-+i-xii. Lahore. Trans. Bose Res. Inst. 22: 77-100,

Holmgren, K. & Holmgren, N. (1917): 4 pls. Calcutta.

Report on a collection of termites from — — — & Sangal, S. K. (1960) :

India. Mem. Dept. Agric. India (Ent.)

5 (3): 137-171. Calcutta.

Holmgren, N. (1913) : Termiten-

studien. 4. Versuch einer systematischen

Monographie der Tetmiten der orien-

talischen Region. K. Sv. Vet. Akad.

Handl. 50 (2): 1-276, 8 pls. Stockholm.

Rattan Lal & Menon, R.D. (1953):

Variability in the mandibles of soldiers

in the termite Odontotermes obesus

(Rambur) (Isoptera, family Termitidae).

*Rec. Indian Mus. 55 (1-4) [1957] : 1-22.

Delhi.

Snyder, T.E. (1949) : Catalogue of the

termites (Isoptera) of the world. Smiths.

misc. Coll, 112: 1-490. Washington

594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

APPENDIX

Original description, in full, of Odontotermes bellahunisensis, as

given by K. Holmgren & N. Holmgren in the following paper (1917,

pp. 150-151):

HOLMGREN, K. and Ho“MGreNn, N. (1917, August). Report on a

collection of termites from India. Mem. Dept. Agric. India 5 (3),

pp. 2+137-171. Calcutta.

‘Odontotermes bellahunisensis, n. sp.

ImMaco. Smaller than O. obesus.

Dark-brown. Post-clypeus somewhat tinged with brown but

anterior margin of the transverse band scarcely lighter than, the re-

mainder of the head. Pronotum with a yellow T-shaped mark.

Shoulder-spots indistinct. Posterior part of the T detached from the

anterior. The anterior part of meso- and meta-notum also brown.

Wings grey-brown with yellowish ‘subcostal streak’.

Hairs moderate.

Head and antennae as in O. obesus. Ocelli separated from the

eye by their diameter, relatively small.

Length with wings it ff ae 24.00 mm.

» without ,, me e eee 14.50 mm.

Breadth of head a FS bee 232m.

er 5» pronotum mi oe bic 2.16 mm.

Eength?.;, Fe os 1.14 mm.

SoLDIER. Morphologically scarcely distinguishable from O. obesus.

Mandibles perhaps very slightly shorter and stouter.

Length of body me oe .. 3.5-4.00 mm.

Head with jaws oh a ae 1.95 mm.

» without jaws oe a ¥ 1.15 mm.

Breadth of head rs a 4 1.10 mm.

» 9 pronotum a a 0.80 mm.

Worker. Perhaps slightly smaller than the worker of obesus but

otherwise indistinguishable.

Localities:

(1) Madras; Bellary District, Bellahunisi; 30th August 11s

‘Issuing from hole in gravelly soil at dusk. No mound at all.’

(2) Mysore State; Bangalore; 17th July 1912. ‘Issuing from hole

in ground alongside road (no mound at all) just before heavy rain.

Only one hole of exit noticed.’

Critical Notes on the Orchidaceae of

Bombay State

VII. ERIA LINDL. & PORPAX LINDL.

H. SANTAPAU, S.J., F.N.I., AND Z. KAPADIA, Ph.D.

(With three plates)

[Continued from Vol. 38 (2) : 350]

ERIA Lindl.

ErRIA Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 904, 1825, nom. cons. ; Endl. Gen. Pl. 192,

1837; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3 : 509, 1883; Pfitz. in Engl. &

Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6): 175, 1889; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5 : 785, 1890 ;

King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8 : 115, 1898 ; Duthie,

ibid. 9 (2): 110, 1906; J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6: 375, 1905 ; Kranzl.

in Engl. Pflanzenr. 50: 15, 1911 ; Schltr. Orchid. 278, 1927 ; Holttum,

Rev. Fl. Malaya 1 : 353, 1953. Pinalia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, Prodr.

Fl. Nep. 31, 1825, pro syn. ; O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2 : 678, 1891.

The generic name Eria is derived from the Greek word ‘erion’=

‘wool’, referring to the inflorescence and flowers which are woolly-

tomentose in many of the species.

Epiphytic herbs. Each branch of the sympodium with a creeping

basal portion ; the erect part pseudobulbous, 1- to several-noded, one-

leaved near the apex only or leafy throughout, the basal portions shea-

thed. Racemes lateral or apparently terminal, with one to many flowers.

Rachis, ovary, and flowers externally often densely woolly, rarely the

_ leaves and the inner side of the flowers also. Dorsal sepal and petals

similar, free ; lateral sepals produced at the base, connate with the foot

of the column to form a more or less prominent mentum. Lip affixed to

the foot, slightly or not at all mobile, erect, simple, or + deeply 3-lobed;

the base of lip never forms a spur but unites with the edges of the foot ;

disc 2-callate, or in the form of 2 elevated lines. Column free, with an

elongate foot. Anther 2-celled, each cell again falsely 4-celled ; pollinia

8, pyriform, united in 2 groups of 4, with slender membranous caudicles.

Capsules oblong, fusiform.

A large and varied genus of over 400 species, distributed throughout

the East. It occurs in India, Ceylon, Malaya, Java, Pacific Islands, and

New Guinea.

596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

In the list of Nomina Conservanda, Eria is marked with a sign indi-

cating that conservation is unnecessary. This is correct only as far as

Pinalia Buch.-Ham. is concerned. O. Kuntze lists Dendrolirium, My-

caranthus, Trichotosia, Ceratium, Cylindrolobus of Blume, July 1825, as

earlier names for Eria Lindl., Aug. 1825. Conservation against these

names is certainly necessary. :

Eria Lindl. has been variously divided into sections by different

authors. The 5 Bombay species belong to the following 3 sections of

Hooker. f. : Eria sect. Conchidium (E. reticosa Wt.) ; Eria sect. Bryo-

bium (E. dalzellii Lindl., E. microchilos Lindl., E. exilis Hook. f.) ; and

Eria sect. Hymenaria (E. mysorensis Lindl.).

Type species : E. stellata Lindl.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF ERIA OF BOMBAY

1. Pseudobulbs discoid ;- flowers 20-30 mm.

long, solitary a se hs reticosa

1. Pseudobulbs discoid or _ conical-ovoid ;

flowers under 12 mm. long, in racemes:

2. Pseudobulbs conical-ovoid, 3 x 1.2 cm. ;

leaves 5-13 cm. long ; scapes shorter or

rarely equalling the leaves ; Peete

and ovary puberulous... mysorensis

2. Pseudobulbs discoid, 4-15 mm. in ees

leaves up to 8 cm. long ; scapes ees

than leaves ; pedicels and ovary gla-

brous :

3. Scape usually without (rarely with)

leaves, zig-zag, 1-4cm. long; flowers

2 mm. long, greenish-white nf exilis

3. Scape always with leaves, straight,

3-9 cm. long; flowers 7-9 mm.

long, pale yellow :

4. Flowers secund ; bracts up to 3

times longer than ovary; sepals

and petals fringed with capitate

glands, acute ; lip panduriform

without callosities at the base... dalzellii

4. Flowers usually not secund ;

bracts slightly longer than ovary;

sepals and petals entire, without

glands, acuminate ; lip narrowly

obovate-lanceolate, base with 2

callosities, apex tapered, distinct-

ly crenulate os ee microchilos

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. j PLATE XXXIV

! \\

SESS

e a,

EESCLED

Oe FA 7 NaN ro ee pc ha Sy BI

Eria reticosa Wight

A. Plant with support; C. Sepals and petals dissected.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 597

ENUMERATION OF 1HE SPECIES OF ERIA OF BOMBAY STATE |

1.. Eria reticosa Wight, Icon. 5 (1): 4, t. 1637, 1851 ; Hook. f. 787;

Gammie in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 17 : 36, 1906 ; Blatt. & McC.

ibid. 35 ; 272, 1931 ; Cooke, FI. Pres. Bomb. 2: 690, 1907; Santapau

in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 16 (1): 300, 1953. E. uniflora Dalz. in Hook.

Journ. Bot: 4: 111; 1852. £. braccata Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 262,

1861 (non Lindl. 1859): Kranzl. in Engl. Pflanzenr. 50: 18, f. 1 A-B,

1910; Fyson, FI. Nilg. Puln. Hill-Tops 2 : 386, t. 243, 1915 ; Fischer

in Gamble, FI. Pres. Madr. 1425, 1928 (an Lindl. ?). Pinalia reticosa

(Wight) O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 679, 1891. Eria rupestris Blatt. &

McC. in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 270, f. 6, 1931. (See Plate

XXXIV).

Epiphytes or lithophytes. Pseudobulbs 7-15 mm. across, discoid,

covered with a reticulate sheath, which becomes loose on drying. Shoots

1-2, arising from the base of the pseudobulb, sheathed at the base ;

sheaths 2-3, each 7-13 mm. long, cylindric, oblique at the mouth, denti-

culate, mucronate, greenish below, dingy purple above. Leaves 2,

appearing together with the flowers, 2-7 x 0.8-2 cm., ovate, broadly

oblong or oblong-lanceolate, tapered at base, acute, mucronulate, entire,

dark green, often tinged with brownish purple. Buds boat-shaped, pale

greenish purple. Scapes 1-flowered, arising from the upper sheath,

generally from the side, about 1 mm. thick, 2-4 cm. long, purplish,

curved by the weight of the flower, Flowers white, variable in size,

sweetly and strongly scented. Pedicels with ovary 4-5 mm. long, slightly

curved, white within the bract, light brown on emergence. Bracts

9 x 3-5 mm. membranous, pale brown-purple, almost orbicular in out-

line, cordate, mucronate, sheathing pedicel and ovary to a little more

than half their length ; margins frilled, wavy, slightly turned outwards ;

midrib and 2 lateral veins distinct. Sepals subequal, white or often

suffused with pale pink, broadly oblong-lanceolate, mucronate, entire,

glabrous, 9-nerved ; dorsal sepal 20-37 x 5-7 mm.; lateral ones 19-34 x

5-7 mm., somewhat broadly falcate ; mentum 8-11 mm. long, curved,

oblong-conical, white, emarginate. Pefals 18-32 x 5-7 mm., white, often

suffused with pink, oblorig-lanceolate, acute or submucronulate, 7-

nerved, glabrous. Lip 19-23 mm. long, oblong-obovate in outline, sessile

on foot of column, 3-lobed ; lateral lobes 5-7 x 1-2 mm., narrowly oblong,

+ ear-like, acute or rounded, entire, red-margined, with 2 orange-yellow

crests running from base of lip to beyond lateral lobes ; tips of lateral

lobes and area in between orange-yellow ; midlobe 8-10 x 4 mm., oblong,

often slightly dilated in apical half, rounded or tapering at apex, crenu-

_late. Column short, white, tinged with green ; foot 10 x 3 mm., curved,

narrowly oblong, yellow with reddish purple margins and parallel purple

veins on inner face, paler towards apex. Anther 3x 3 mm., white above,

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

reddish inside, obovate-oblong, produced into + conical apiculum in

front, subconcave at back; pollinia 8, yellow, the upper 4 ovoid-oblong,

lower 4 minute, all attached to short granular membrane. Stigmatic

surface pale green with stellate marking in centre. Capsules 12 x 8 mm.,

oblong to obconical, truncate at apex, erect, with 6 strong ridges.

Flowering : June to July. Fruiting : August to March.

Occurrence in Bombay State : KoNKAN: Woodrow. W. GHATS:

Dalzell; Khandala, Blatter ex Santapau; Lonavla, Gammie ;

Panchgani, Blatter 228-229; May Langham ; Kapadia 1348-1349,

2052-2053; Mahableshwar, McCann ; Sedgwick 7631; Santa-

pau 13225; Kapadia 610, 615, 1198, 1200, 2094-2095; Ramghat,

Ritchie. N. KANARA: Castle Rock, Bell 4336 ; Kapadia.

Distribution : Konkan, W. Ghats, southwards to Nilgiris and High

Wavy Mountains.

Notes : On perpendicular rocks or tree trunks in open situations,

always directly facing the monsoon currents.

We have examined Blatter 228, 229, ‘ Co-types’ of E. rupestris

Blatt. & McC., and have collected fresh material from its type locality.

Blatter & McCann distinguish their rupestris from reticosa Wt. by the

presence of a bilobed mentum. But Wight’s Icon of E. reticosa shows

the mentum emarginate, and in appearance bilobed. After careful

examination of fresh flowers we can see no difference by which to keep

the two species apart. There are, however, considerable variations in

the size of the floral parts, the Panchgani flowers being considerably

smaller than those collected from Mahableshwar.

2. Eria mysorensis Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3 : 54, 1858;

Hook. f. 793 ; Gammie 37; Cooke 692. E. pubescens Wight, Icon.

5 (1) : 4, 1851 ; Hook. f. 793 ; Kranzl. 64 ; Fischer 1425; Blatt. & McC,

275 (non Lindl. 1825). £. polystachya Wight, Icon. t. 1634, 1851 (non.

A. Rich. 1841). Pinalia mysorensis (Lindl.) O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2 :

679, 1891.

Pseudobulbs 3 cm. long, about 1.2 cm. broad at the base, conico-

ovoid, sheathed ; the older ones dry, rugose, irregularly and longi-

tudinally furrowed. Leaves 3-5, arising + from apical portion of

pseudobulb, 5-15 x 1.2-2 cm., oblong-lanceolate or elliptic-lanceolate,

acute, distinctly tapered, glabrous or sparsely pubescent. Scapes shorter

than the leaves, rarely equal to them, 1-2 per plant ; peduncles slender,

glabrous or sparsely puberulous, terete. Flowers 12-16 mm. long.

Bracts about 8 x 3-4 mm. ovate or ovate-lanceolate, often reflexed,

entire, glabrous, acute. Pedicel with ovary 10 mm. long, slender,

curved, sparsely puberulous. Sepals and petals linear-lanceolate, broad

at base, falcate, subacuminate, glabrous, entire, 3-nerved ; dorsal sepal

11-13 x 3mm. ; lateral ones 10-11 x 3 mm. Petals 9-10 x 2 mm. Lip

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 399

7-8 mm. long, minutely clawed, arcuate, subcordate at base, oblong,

subpandurate, about 4 mm. across the lateral lobes ; midlobe 2-3 mm.

long, obovate-triangular, acute or apiculate, finely irregularly crenulate ;

the base of the lip with 2 arched, slightly thickened ridges. Column

4 mm. long, slender, + straight ; foot at right angles to column, about

2.5-3 mm. long, narrow. The colour of the flowers is given in the

literature as white tipped with pink ; lip with purple blotches at the

base, apical part yellow.

Flowering : July.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Stocks. W. GHATS:

Mahableshwar, Hallberg ex Blatter & McCann. DECCAN: K oina

Valley, below Mahableshwar, Cooke. N. KANARA: Law.

Distribution: Konkan, W. Ghats, Deccan, N. Kanara, western

slopes of the Nilgiris.

Notes : Our description has been made from specimens examined in

the herbarium of the Bot. Surv. Ind. (West. Circle), Poona, with the

kind permission of the Regional Botanist.

There is a certain amount of confusion in the literature about the

present and related species. The identity of E. pubescens Wt. with

E. mysorensis Lindl. seems to be beyond doubt ; some of the confusion

seems to have arisen with Hooker f. who assigned to the former species

some of the characters of E. polystachya A. Rich.

In E. polystachya A. Rich. pedicel and ovary are densely pilose,

sepals densely pilose on the outer side, lip entire, ovate-lanceolate,

flowers pale yellow. E. mysorensis Lindl. has pedicel and ovary spar-

sely puberulous, sepals glabrous, lip oblong constricted in the middle,

flowers white. The true polystachya does not seem to occur in Bombay.

3. Eria exilis Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5 : 788, 1890, et Icon. PI. t.

2074, 1891; Kranzl. 21; Fischer 1425; Blatt. & McC. 274. Pinalia

exilis (Hook. f.) O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2 : 679, 1891. Eria micro-

phyton Schltr. in Fedde, Repert. 2 : 170, 1906. E. minima Blatt. & McC.

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 274, f. 2, 1931.

Minute epiphytes. Pseudobulbs 3-12 mm. across, flat, irregularly

orbicular, usually in 3’s forming a chain on tree trunks ; veins usually

running the whole length of the pseudobulbs, rarely branching. Leaves

sessile, appearing usually before the flowers, often persistent till

flowering, 2-3, arising from a pseudostem 2-3 mm. high, lamina 2-25

x 2-11 mm., obovate-elliptic or oblong to obovate, glabrous, 7-9-ner-

ved, tapering to the sheathing base, rounded apiculate at apex,

margins entire, minutely papillate. Scape 1-4 cm. long, from between

the leaves, sheathed at base, flexuose, capillary, bracteate at every bend.

Bracts 1-2 mm. long, broadly ovate, cordate, cymbiform, acute or

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

apiculate or acuminate, semi-amplexicaul, hyaline, entire, about as long

as the ovary. Flowers up to 12 in a raceme, each 2 mm. long, sub-

sessile, bracteate, translucently greenish white; generally only 1-2

flowers mature at a time. Sepals + equal; dorsal one 2 x 1:25 mm.,

oblong, entire, obtuse, l-nerved ; lateral sepals 2 mm. long, 1.5 mm.

broad at base, subfalcate, obtuse or apiculate ; midnerve prominent,

lateral pair of nerves indistinct. Mentum stout, saccate, about equal-

ling the upturned tips of the sepals. Petals 1.25 x 0.75 mm., shorter

than sepals, l-nerved, narrowly oblong or sublanceolate, acute, broadest

about the middle, entire. Lip 1.5mm. long, very slightly stipitate, arcuate,

oblong-ligulate, apiculate, -- equal to petals, fleshy, olive-green,

enclosed within the much longer sepals. Column very small with 2

small hook-like arms; foot 1.25 mm. long, curved, stout. Ovary about

1 mm. long, oblong, with a very short pedicel. Capsules 5 x 1.5 mm.;

broadly ovoid, green, faintly ribbed.

Leaves: June to October. Flowering : October to December.

Fruiting : October to May.

Occurrence in Bombay State: W. GHATS: Mahableshwar,

Cooke ; Blatter & Hallberg 1683 ; Sedgwick 7631 ; Ezekiel; McCann ;

Santapau 11873, 11979, 13133; Bole 329; Kapadia 583, 606, 611, 902,

937, 1210, 1917. N. KANARA : Anmod, Sedgwick; Bell; Siddha-

pur, Sedgwick; Jog, Sedgwick: Gersoppa Falls, Aallberg

& McCann 34855; Castle Rock, Santapau 17695.

Distribution : India : W. Ghats, N. Kanara, Travancore. World:

India, Siam.

Notes : Blatter & McCann give E. exilis Hook. f. for Bombay Presi-

dency on the evidence of Cooke’s sheet from Mahableshwar, preserved

in the National Herbarium, Calcutta.

Santapau in his MSS notes points out that the type of E. exilis

Hook. f. in Kew Herbarium (Travancore, Johnson, Herb. R. Wight

Propr.) has a bracteate scape. Hooker f. in his Icones refers to this

specimen, from which the Icon was drawn; the latter remarkably fits

Blatter & McCann’s description of E. minima.

In our specimens from Mahableshwar the petals vary slightly, being

more or less half as long asthe sepals; the lip more or less equalling

the petals.

Blatter & McCann describe the floral bracts of FE. exilis Hook. f. as

lanceolate ; but Hooker f. in his original description notes them as

large and cymbiform, (this is exactly like in E. minima Blatt. & McC.).

Actually Blatter & McCann’s description of E. exilis Hook. f. seems

to be more or less completely based on Schlechter’s description of

E. microphyton (which has been reduced to a synonym of E. exilis

Hook. f. by Kranzlin). :

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 601

The flowers of E. exilis Hook. f. as given by Blatter & McCann

are 3 mm. in length ; on the other hand, Sedgwick 7631, identified by

Blatter & McCann as E. minima, has flowers up to 3 mm. long.

It is clear, then, that EF. minima Blatt. & McC. is identical with

E. exilis Hook. f. and cannot stand as an independent species.

4. Eria dalzellii Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3: 47, 1858 (nom. et

syn. tantum, non descr.). Dendrobium dalzellii Hook. in Hook. Journ.

Bot. 4:: 292: 1852:;,. D, fembriatum Dalz. ibid. 4: -292, .1852,. nom.,

pro syn. (non Hook. 1825, nec Lindl. 1830). Eria -microchilos Lindl.

in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3: 47, 1858 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 262; Gammie 36;

Cooke 691; Blatt. & McC. 273 (excl. syn. D. microchilos Dalz.) ;

(omnes descr. tantum, non nom.). £. dalzellii Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind.

5: 789, 1890; Kranzl. 19 (partim). E. dalzellii var. fimbriata Hook. f.

FI. Brit. Ind. 5.; 789, 1890; Kranzl. 20; Fischer 1425. (See : Plate

XXXYV).

Epiphytes. Pseudobulbs 0.8-1.5 cm. in diam., discoid, the principal

veins white and flabellate. Leaves 3-5, sessile, sheathing at the base,

1-7 x 0.7-1 cm., elliptic to oblanceolate, obtuse, minutely micronulate,

olive-green, paler, entire, minutely papillate at the margins, the midnerve

depressed above, prominent below with 2 to 4 faint lateral nerves.

Racemes 3-9 cm. tall, erect, generally secund or subsecund; peduncle

3 cm. long, 0.5-1 mm. thick, greenish yellow, terete, glabrous, ebrac-

teate, usually slightly curved. Flowers faintly perfumed, pedicellate,

bracteate. Bracts 3-6 mm. long, 0.5-1 mm. broad at base, erect, pale

greenish yellow, lanceolate, subacuminate, entire, curved at apex. Sepals

and petals 6 x 1.5-3 cm., pale creamy yellow, triangular-ovate to

lanceolate, acute or subacuminate, 3-nerved ; the margin entire with

hyaline, stalked glands. Mentum about 0.5 mm. long, rounded, pale

orange-yellow. Petals slightly narrower than sepals and rounded at

base. Lip 3-4.5 x 1.5 mm., falcate, concave in basal half, straight up-

wards, minutely papillate, panduriform on spreading, the basal part

broad, ovate with edges entire incurved, and 2 fairly thick yellowish

orange ridges, which unite in the middle of lip and pass as one

furrow into the white, much smaller, rounded apical lobe ; the latter

has the edges somewhat crenulate and slightly decurved. Column

about 1 mm. long, pale yellowish, oblong, broad at base; foot 2

mm. long, + at right angles to column, broad at base, pale yellow,

tinged with orange at the obtuse apex. Anther ovate, yellow ; pollinia

yellow, waxy, 8, in 4 pairs, each pair consisting of one broadly pear-

shaped pollinium and another smaller narrowly linear. Stigmatic sur-

face minute, yellowish. Ovary and pedicel 2 mm. long, curved, greenish

yellow. Capsules 5 x 1.5 mm., elliptic to obovate.

Flowering: July to August. Fruiting : August to October.

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Occurrence in Bombay State : KONKAN: Stocks ; Gammie; Wari

Country, Dalzell & Gibson. W. Guats: Khandala, Hall-

berg ; Sedgwick ; Santapau 233.9, 233.13, 582, 624, 720, 1036, 2244, 2451,

4613-4614, 4706, 4743, 4894, 5050, 6828, 6829, 12903, 14488, 15688;

Kapadia 522, 556,580; Mahableshwar, Cooke ; Santapau 13164,

13167; Bole 408; Kapadia 602-603. DECCAN: Koina nagar,

Kapadia 2885, 2901. N. KANARA: Devimane, Hallberg & McCann

34466.

Distribution : Konkan. W. Ghats of Bombay and south peninsular

India, Deccan, N. Kanara.

Notes : There is great confusion in our botanical literature about

Eria dalzellii Lindl. and E. microchilos Lindl. These species are based

respectively on Dendrobium dalzellii Hook. and D. microchilos Dalz.

Some authors have actually fused the two species into one. We are con-

vinced that the two species are quite distinct, and may be separated

by the following characters.

E. microchilos

Slender herbs

Peduncle + filiform

Racemes not secund or subsecund

Floral bracts just longer than

ovary

Sepals and petals longer, acute.

Margins without glands

Lip + fleshy, scarcely lobed,

ovate-lanceolate, with 2 clear

callosities at base, apical por-

tion distinctly crenulate

E. dalzellii

More robust herbs

Peduncle + stout

Racemes secund or subsecund

Floral bracts up to 3 times longer

than ovary

Sepals and petals shorter, acute.

Margins with capitate glands

Lip thin, pandurate, without

callosities at base, apical por-

tion subcrenulate

5. Eria microchilos Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3: 47, 1858 (nom.

et syn. tantum, non descr.). Dendrobium microchilos Dalz. in Hook.

Journ. Bot. 3: 345, 1851. ria dalzellii Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3:

47, 1858 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 262 (partim); Gammie 36; Blatt. & McC.

273 ; Cooke 691; Fischer 1425; (omnes descr. tantum, non nom.).

E. dalzellii Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5 : 789, 1890; Kranzl. 19, f. 2 A-C

(partim). £. filiformis (Wt.) Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann. 6 : 268, 1891

(partim). (See Plate XXXVI).

Epiphytes. Pseudobulbs 4-10 mm. across, pale dull green, discoid,

principal veins reticulate. Leaves 2-5, sessile, 1.5-8 x 0.2-0.6 cm.,

oblong lanceolate or narrowly linear-oblong, distinctly tapered to the

base, rounded mucronulate at apex, entire, l-nerved. Scape slender,

often filiform, 2.5-8 mm. long, ebracteate, pale yellow. Flowers usually

not secund, pale yellowish white, pedicellate. Bracts about 3 mm. long,

JouRN. BomBAY Nat. HIsT. Soc. PLATE XXXV

oO QY

| me O 1 cM

1 = Cc

2, =

SEA

cM =z

(

—- = ae

Eria dalzellii Lindl.

A. Plant with support ; C. Sepals and petals dissected ; D. Side view of single

flower with lateral sepal and petal removed.

JOURN. BomMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXXVI

Cr)

LCR

Eria microchilos Lindl.

A. Plant with support ; C. Sepals and petals dissected; D. Side view of

single flower with lateral sepal and petal removed.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 603

longer than ovary, narrowly lanceolate, acute, entire. Sepals and petals

pale yellowish, spreading, often slightly reflexed at apex, narrowly

lanceolate-acuminate, thin, 3-nerved, margins entire without capitate

glands. Sepals 8 mm. long, 1.5 mm. broad at base ; mentum 1.5-2 mm.

long, obtuse, slightly curved, somewhat saccate. Petals 7 mm. long,

about 1.5 mm. broad at base. Lip 4 mm. long, narrowly oblong-

lanceolate, hardly divided; basal half about 1 mm. broad with 2

thickened yellow ridges throughout entire length; apical half very

narrow, margins crenulate, much tapered to acute apex. Column

minute, broad ; foot 1.5 mm. long, slightly curved. Anther more or

less quadrately-orbicular with a rounded apiculum on top; pollinia

8, in 4 unequal pairs. Ovary with pedicel 1.5-2 mm. long. Capsules

3-3.5 x 2 mm. long, ribbed ; stalk 1 mm. long.

Flowering: July to August. Fruiting : August to October.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Stocks. W. GHATS:

Igatpuri, Kapadia 1386; Khandala, 4Hallberg; Blatter.

McCann ; Santapau 623, 2450, 4604, 4707, 4895, 6903 ; Kapadia 505,

533, 2297; Lonavla, Chibber; Mahableshwar, McCann;

Kapadia 2099. DeccAN: Bhimashankar, Kapadia 1461;

IN; EKANARA: -Yecllapun, Bell 3909; Karwar, Bell; Jog,

Sedgwick 7171.

Distribution: Konkan, W. Ghats of Bombay, Mysore, Madras, and

Kerala States, Deccan, N. Kanara.

Notes : In the field, this species cenids out from £. dalzellii on

account of the type of inflorescence ; it is not secund as in the latter

species.

PORPAX LINDL.

PorPAX Lindl. in Bot. Reg. 31 : misc. 66, 1845; Pfitz. in Engl. &

Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6): 176, 1889; King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard.

Calcutta 8: 113, 1898 ; Kranzl. in Pflanzenr. 50: 162, 1911; Holttum,

Rev. FI. Malaya 1 : 393, 1953. Eria sect. Porpax Benth. & Hook. f.

Gen. Pl. 3: 509, 1883. Aggeianthus & Lichenora Wight, Icon. 5 (1) : 18,

1851.

The generic name Porpax is derived from a Greek word meaning

‘the handle of a shield’ probably referring to the shape of the lip of the

flower. According to E. Cooper (in Dict. Gard. 3: 1646, 1951) the

generic name refers to the form of the flower.

Minute epiphytic herbs. Pseudobulbs close together form a short

rhizome, nearly flat, discoid, covered with reticulately nerved sheaths.

Leaves 2, usually deciduous. Flowers solitary, sessile, terminal, large

for the plant. Sepals more or less connate below into a tube, free and

604. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

spreading above or the dorsal sepal occasionally connate up to half its

length; lateral sepals somewhat oblique and prominent at the base,

adnate to the column-foot, glabrous or pilose. Petals free, short, more

or less included within the tube and inserted on the dorsal side. of the

column. Lip short, fleshy, entire or somewhat 3-lobed, loosely articula-

ted on the foot of the column, rarely very minute. Column short,

terete, extended into a long foot. Anther opercular, semi-globose or

depressed, 2-celled, each of the loculi falsely 4-celled; pollinia 8, cohering

in pairs, one mass in each pair being usually smaller than the other,

more or less pyriform. Capsules small, ovoid-orbicular.

This is a small genus of about 6 species, distributed through the

Malayan Peninsula and tropical Himalayas to south peninsular India

and Ceylon.

The genus Porpax approaches nearest to Eria, but hee the habit of

Trias and the calyx of Masdevallia, as has been pointed out by Lindley.

It differs from Eria in its habit and in the sepals which are formed into

a tube.

Type species: P. reticulata Lindl.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF PORPAX OF BOMBAY STATE

Leaves developing after the flowers, obovate-elliptic or

spathulate, minutely papillate, more so on margins;

flowers tubular, deep red-brown, glabrous outside,

papillate or pilose within ba reticulata

Leaves appearing with the flowers, ablone? orbionlar

ciliolate, tessellated ; flowers 2-lipped, dirty orange-

brown, densely setulose, almost tomentose outside,

glabrous and smooth within a) ce a jerdoniana

ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES OF PORPAX OF

BOMBAY STATE

1. Porpax reticulata Lindl. in Bot. Reg. 31: misc. 66, 1845; Cooke

689; Kranzl. 165; Fischer 1422; Blatt. & McC. 268. Aggeianthus

marchantioides Wight, Icon. 5 (1): 18, t. 1737, 1852, (Hook. f. et

Kranzl. A. reticulatus per sphalm.). Eria reticulata (Lindl.) Benth.

& Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3: 509, 1883 ; Hook. f. 786 ; Gammie in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 17: 35, 1906. Pinalia reticulata (Lindl.)

O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 679, 1891. Porpax papillosa Blatt. & McC.

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 268, f. 4, 1931; Santapau in

Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 16 (1): 300, 1953.

Pseudobulbs about 2 cm. across, whitish green, button-like,

orbicular, covered with white lacy sheaths of reticulate nerves. Shoot

0.5-1 x 0.2-0.3 cm., slightly dilated at the base or not, sheathed; sheath

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 605

5 x 3-4 mm., light brown, membranous, crisped, broadly oblong-suborbi-

cular, acute, entire, minutely papillate, glabrous, gland-dotted, many-

nerved. Leaves very small at flowering, about 5 x 3-4 mm. becoming

5-5.5 x 1.5 cm. later, sheathing, sessile, broadly oblong or obovate-

elliptic or spathulate, entire, minutely papillate (papillae more prominent

in young leaves), acute or rounded with a minute blackish mucro; both

surfaces minutely papillate; the papillae often disappearing in old and

mature leaf-surfaces. Flower solitary, arising from below the pseudo-

bulb from a tube-like structure formed by the young leaves and the

sheaths surrounding them; tubular, deep red-brown (‘‘ Brazil Red”

_ [Ridg. I, 5-i] according to Santapau), very shortly pedicellate. Pedicel

with ovary 3-4 mm. long, deep red-brown. Bract 6 x 7 mm., pale dirty

brown, membranous, + flabellate, suborbicular, retuse, irregularly

denticulate, gland-dotted, l-nerved. Sepals united to form a subcam-

panulate tube, 14 x 6-8 mm., deep red-brown, saccate at base, 3-lobed

at the apex, glabrous outside, densely and minutely papillose in regular

rows inside; lobes broadly ovate, rounded, mucronulate. Petals 8x3

mm., deep red-brown, parallel, reaching the sinus of the calyx-tube

spathulate, subfalcate, acute, densely and minutely papillose, 3-nerved’

rarely indistinctly 5-nerved. Lip 5 x 4 mm., panduriform, somewhat

arcuate, 3-lobed, toothed at the base, shortly clawed; tooth about

2 mm. long, subulate, acute, entire, rounded at back, shallowly grooved

in front; nerves of lip 3; lateral lobes 3 x 2 mm., parallel, erect, broadly

triangular, rounded, entire or slightly wavy, minutely and sparsely

papillose ; midlobe 2 x 3 mm., broader than long, suborbicular, obtuse

or subentire, irregularly denticulate, densely papillose. Column 2 x |

mm., oblong, produced below into foot 2 mm. long, curved; clinandrium

—E square with 2 longitudinally parallel ridges. Anther 1 x 1 mm.,

broadly oblong with a rounded apiculate apex, seated on top of column

and articulated at back. Stigmatic surface broad, rounded, oblong;

Capsules 10 x 6-8 mm., obovoid-orbicular, pale green, ribbed, tumid;

stalk 3-4 mm. long.

Leaves: July to October. Flowering: June. Fruiting: August

to October.

— Occurrence in Bombay State : W. GHATS: Khandala, Hallberg ;

Blatt. Herb. 27629; Santapau 743, 823, 2150, 2252, 2620, 2808, 4516,

6930; Kapadia 525; Lonavla, Kapadia 549, 1168-1170. DECCAN:

Koina Valley, Kapadia: 2916. N. KANARA: Chandwar,

Ritchie; Yellapur, Kapadia 2237-2239; Sirsi, Sedgwick & Bell

7002; Kumbharwada, Bell 6040; Castle Rock, Kapadia

2822-2823; Anmod, Kapadia 1896-1897; Guddehalli Hill

near Karwar, Bell & Sedgwick.

Distribution : Throughout the Western Ghats, Deccan, N. Kanara,

Iyamalai Hills, and South Malabar.

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Notes : Khandala on the W. Ghats is the type locality of P. papillosa

Blatt. & McC. We have examined numerous flowers of this plant, and

cannot see how we can maintain it separate from P. reticulata Lindl. It

is true that in the literature we find no reference to the papillate leaves,

on which Blatter & McCann lay much stress. Such papillae are

quite clear in young fresh plants, but seem more or less to disappear in

old, especially dry plants. The lip is said to be ligulate, not panduri-

form in papillosa ; but in our collections from Khandala we have

always found the lip to be distinctly panduriform when properly spread

out. We consider P. papillosa to be conspecific with P. reticulata

Lindl.

2. Porpax jerdoniana (Wt.) Rolfe in Orch. Rev. 16: 18, 1908;

Kranzl. 163; Fischer 1422; Blatt. & McC. 269, f. 5. Lichenora

jerdoniana Wight, Icon. 5 (1): 18, t. 1748, 1851. Eria lichenora Lindl.

in Journ. «Linn, Soc... 3:. 46, 1859: Hook.f. 787) ;}Ganmamien 35°

E. jerdoniana (Wt.) Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann. 6: 267, 1861. Pinalia

jerdoniana (Wt.) O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 679, 1891. Porpax

lichenora (Lindl.) Cooke, Fl. Bomb. Pres. 2: 689. 1907.

Epiphytes or lithophytes. Pseudobulbs about 10 x 3-6 mm., variously

shaped, often discoid with reticulately veined sheaths, olive-green.

Leaves 2, appearing with the flowers, opposite, sheathing at the base,

about 1-2 x 1-2 cm., oblong-orbicular, retuse or mucronulate,

ciliolate; midnerve depressed above, prominent below, lateral ones

whitish, beautifully tessellated on a deep green background. Flowers

2 or 3 from the centre of the leaves, dirty orange-brown, almost sessile,

Clearly 2-lipped, densely setulose, almost tomentose, bracteate. Bracts

about 3 x 5 mm., transversely oblong-orbicular, membranous, trans-

lucent, sparsely gland-dotted, ciliolate. Sepals unequal, glabrous and

deep reddish brown inside, fleshy, densely setulose almost tomentose,

dirty orange-brown outside, with thick margins ; dorsal sepal7 x 5 mm.,

broadly obovate-oblong to almost orbicular, obtuse, 3-nerved, concave

and forming the upper lip of the flower, united at the base with the

lower _lip; lateral sepals united to form the lower lip, which is

9x 5 mm., concave, connate along the foot of the column, slightly

produced below to form a small globular sac. Petals 5-6 x 1-2

mm. pale yellowish orange, parallel, narrowly linear-oblong, -£

sinuately curved and + dilated at obtuse apex, entire, 3-nerved minutely

papillate. Lip minute, 3 mm. long, subarcuate, + mobile on the

column-foot, minutely clawed, shallowly lobed, yellowish orange, sides

erect; limb very obscurely pandurate-oblong, about 1.5 mm. broad,

apical part minutely papillate, with a small obtuse apiculum which is

also minutely papillate. Column minute, pale yellowish, foot 2-3 mm.

long, slightly curved and upturned at apex. Anther 1 xX 1.5 mm.,

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 607

broadly orbicular, with a minute apiculum; pollinia 8, waxy, narrowly

pyriform, apiculate, all equal. Ovary shortly pedicellate, densely

setulose, about 3-4 mm. long.

Flowering : June to July. Fruiting : July.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Stocks; Law; Tungar Hill,

N. Y. Das. DECCAN: Koina Valley, Kapadia 2917-2919. N. KANARA,

Belgaum Ghats, Spooner; Kadra, Bell; Anshi, Bell.

Distribution : Konkan, W. Ghats of Bombay State, Deccan,N. Kanara:

Bababudan Hills, Malabar and Travancore.

Notes : Our plants were found about 2 metres high ‘on a tree trunk ;

they were directly exposed to the strong monsoon blasts. It may be of

interest to point out that Cooke remarks that this species is very poorly

represented in Kew heroarium, there being but one specimen with

imperfect flowers.

We include this species within the genus Porpax with some hesita-

tion. In 1845, Lindley erected the genus Porpax with the type species

P. reticulata wherein the sepals are united in a tube, the lip has a

distinct erect slender tooth at the base, and each pollinium pair consis-

ting of an obpyriform and a very narrow linear mass. In this species

_(P. jerdoniana Rolfe) the sepals are 2-lipped, the dorsal and lateral ones

united at the very base only; the lip is without a tooth and the

8 pollinia masses are all equal in size and shape.

Lately we have seen very abundant material of this species collected

by N. Y. Das on tree trunks at Tungar Hill, at an altitude of approx.

300 m., and 1-3 m. from the ground.

A New Genus, eight New Species, |

seven New Forms, and Notes on the

Lepidoptera of Saudi Arabia,

Bahrain, and Iran’

E. P. WILTSHIRE

(With 4 plates and 3 text-figures)

The previous article in this taxonomic series dealt mainly with

in Sudwestdeutschland (Karlsruhe) (Bd. 19. H. 3, 1961). The present

deals with Lasiocampidae, Nolinae, Lymantriidae, and principally |

Noctuidae-Quadrifinae from Arabia, Bahrain, and Iran. ~ 3

The Saudi-Arabian material was mostly collected in Riadh by.

Dr. E. Diehl (ED) or in the Eastern Province by A. S. Talhouk (T)

for the Bavarian State Zoological Museum (ZM). (In brackets are

the abbreviations by which these names will be referred to below.) |

Some material from Kuwait in my own collection (EW) and from

Saudi Arabia in the British Museum (BM) taken by Messrs. D. V.

Fitzgerald (DVF), S. Gibbons (SG), McEwan (McE), A. R. Waterston

(ARW) and H. St. J. Philby (P), has also been included, together with

a few forms from the Hadramaut taken by Mr. G. Popov (GP).

The Bahrain material has been quite recently collected in the

island-state of Bahrain, which is only separated by a sea-strait of

about twenty miles from the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia, by

L. Aircraftsman D. Rush (DR) and myself (EW). This appears to

be the first material from this island, which lies north of the Tropic.

The Iranian material was in part collected by me between ten and

twenty-five years ago, and partly more recently for the Stuttgart State

Museum (SM), by Herren Richter and Shauffele (RS) or Richter

alone (R).

I am particularly grateful to Mr. D. S. Fletcher of the British

Museum and to Monsieur Charles Boursin for their aid to me in my.

researches; also to Messrs. W. H. T. Tams, P. Viette; also Dr. B.

1 This is the XVIth article in this taxonomic series on the Middle East Lepidop-

tera. Part XVth appeared in the J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 228-37.

NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA OF SAUDI ARABIA, ETC. 609

Alberti, and the Stockholm Natural History Museum for the kind

Joan of some important types. :

Family LASIOCAMPIDAE

Beralade gibbonsi Wilts. (comb. nov.)

Lambessa gibbonsi Wilts., 1947, Bull. Soc. Fouad ler Ent. 31, Plate Fig. 1.

This species, usually pure white, must be transferred to Beralade

(which is closely related to Chilena); a good series (P) exists in the

BM., all except one having the hindwing nervures 4 and 5 stalked as

in these two genera, but one having them connate as in Lambessa.

The interesting aberration described below reveals clearly the affinity

to Beralade rather than Lambessa as its grey markings are oblique

as in the former genus. Of the white forms from Arabia in the BM..,

only one example reveals traces of this oblique forewing stripe; the

original gibbonsi type did not show it. However, a o labelled Riadh

1-iii-58 (ED) shows traces of it. The species resembles pura Roths.

superficially. e

grisescens ab. nov. (Plate I, Fig. 4) ;

Forewing, with a faint grey-brown oblique straight line from the

apex to the middle of the hind margin, but reaching neither, and a

second, similar. but fainter line from the margin below the apex to

near the tornus, and with very slight grey powdering along the costa

aid termen; on the hindwing, a weakly-defined, grey broad marginal

border runs from below the apex to the anal angle. Forewing under-

side, with a grey-brown marginal shade, and with the termen weakly

(but more strongly than on the upper side) defined in grey; hindwing,

with a similar but less extensive marginal shade, absent from the

costa. 8 ie

Holotype: co, Saudi Arabia, Hayir, 27-i-60, ED, ZM.

Note on affinities of gibbonsi: Mr. W. H. T. Tams has kindly

examined the genitalia of gibbonsi from Arabia and of pura Roths.

from N. Africa and found differences justifying considering them

distinct species.

Family ARCTIDAE

Subfamily NOLINAE

Celama harouni Wilts. dilmuna subsp. nov.

The Bahraini race, here named after the ancient name of this

island (Dilmun) in Sumerian times, has a more grey-infused, cooler

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

brown hue than the typical form of Iraq (described in J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 49 (4) : 653-4, 1951);-the latter extends into Lebanon and

Persia. In some Bahraini examples, especially those flying in the

desert, where however it is rarer than on oasis-ground, the forewing

ground-colour is more whitish and contrasts strongly with the dark.

bands and scale-patches; this has not been noted in the typical form,

but occurs in some examples from Saudi Arabia, Nejd, Riadh (ED)

which have the warmer brown coloration of the typical form.

Holotype: co, allotype 92, and three paratypes co‘, Bahrain

(oasis), 12-11-61, EW.

Other paratypes: same locality, different dates: 26-xu-59, 9-1-60,

26-i-60, 23-ii-60, 16-iii-61, 16-iv-61, and seven examples bred ex ovo

hatched 11-14-v-61 (EW); also other examples from Bahrain (DR)

in BM.

The larvae ex ovo fed on Prosopis stephaniana and on one or

two species of trefoil; fuller details will be given in a later article

devoted to larval descriptions and photographs.

The humid maritime climate, with negligible rainfall but heavy

dews, of the island of Bahrain may be responsible for a tendency for

the lepidoptera there to form races distinguished from the mainland,

forms by cooler, darker colouring, often verging on melanic, and in

some cases smaller size. The melanic tendency is very marked in,

the Bahrain race of the Noctuid Cerocala sana Stgr., and the small

size characterises the desert Noctuid Scotia sardzeana Brandt the

Bahrain form of which is not different in colouring from the typical.

I refrain however from giving these island races new names in the

present article, because, in the first case, sana is very variable both

on the island and on both shores of the Persian Gulf, and in the

second case, because I have never thought fit to name a form whose

only distinction from others is its small size.

Family LYMANTRIIDAE

Euproctis cervina Moore

Synonyms: E. pusilla Moore

E. pygmaea Moore, praeoccupatum by pygmaea Walker

dana Swinh. syn. nov.

(nec pygmaea Walker)

This species is widespread in N. India and is now proved to occur

north of the Tropic in the Persian Gulf. According to Mr.

D. S. Fletcher, who has kindly examined the BM. material for me.

it is distinct from E. varians Walker which is widespread in SE. Asia.

JOURN. BomMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE [

Fig. 1. Victrix sassanica sp. nov. (SW. Iran); Fig. 2. Victrix tabora Stgr. (N. Iraq) ; Fig. 3.

Armada fletcheri sp. nov. (SW. Iran) ; Fig. 4. Beralade gibbonsi Wilts. grisescens ab. nov. ~& (Arabia) ;

Fig. 5. Catocala timur B.-H. richteri subsp. nov. (S. Iran) ; Fig.6. Cryphia polyphaencides sp. nov. °

(Bahrain) ; Fig. 7. Lygephila fereidun sp. nov. ¢ (N. Iran); Figs. 8, 9. Anumeta asiatica sp. nov. (8: S.

Iran, 9: Arabia) ; Figs. 10, 11. Anumeta arabiae sp. nov. (Arabia) ; Fig. 12. Anumeta sabulosa Roths.

(Arabia) ; Figs. 13, 14. Anumeta asiatica sp. nov. (Arabia) (x 5/7) ; Fig. 15. Anumeta atrosignata Walker

3 (Arabia).

(All enlarged except figs. 13 & 14)

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Fig. 16. Porphyrinia rushi sp. nov. 2 (Bahrain) ; Figs. 17, 18. Porphyrinia bistellata

sp. nov. (Bahrain); Figs. 19-21. Porphyrinia pallidula H.-S. khalifa subsp. nov. (Bah-

rain); Fig. 22. Porphyrinia pallidula H.-S. khalifa subsp. nov. (SW. Iran); Fig. 23.

Riadhia diehli sp. nov. 2 (Arabia) ; Fig. 24. Porphyrinia rushi Wilts. frigida ab. nov.

(Bahrain); Fig. 25. Porphyrinia bulla Swinh. 2 (Bahrain); Figs. 26, 28 Antarchaea

pyralomima sp. nov. ¢¢ (28 = holotype) (Arabia) ; Fig. 27. Riadhia diehli sp. nov. &

(Arabia) ; Fig. 29. Hypenodes orientis Brandt richteri subsp. nov. (S. Iran).

(Figs. 16-23: x 2, 24-267: x 3; 27,28: x 12/10)

NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA OF SAUDI ARABIA, ETC. 611

IT select as lectotype of varians Walker a @ from Foo-chow seen by

Walker in the British Museum.

Probably E. charmotanti Vuillot (Seitz Il, Pl. 21, i) is a N. African

race, if not a further synonym, of cervina Moore.

E. cervina Moore inhabits Bahrain and is there locally common

on oasis ground; it may well inhabit the Batina region of Oman and

perhaps Qatif and Hofuf, Saudi Arabia.

The first generation flies in Bahrain in mid-March and is larger

than the following generations, and often distinguished by grey-infused

hindwings; the second flies in late May. A third generation flies in

late summer, and is, to judge from a single representative available,

the smallest and palest: its span is only 18 mm. No female has

been taken yet, but the males are readily attracted to light after dark,

or may be taken flying in well-watered date-palm groves at dusk.

The male genitalia of Bahrain cervina are illustrated in two figures

(Plate III, Figs. 1, 2) herewith, as this may assist students of doubtful

Euproctis in Africa and Asia; it should however be mentioned that

the tail-parts are very three-dimensional and become distorted into

variable positions under a cover-glass; this explains the apparent dis-

crepancies between the two figures.

Family NOCTUIDAE

Subfamily TRIFINAE

Victrix sassanica sp. nov. (Plate I, Fig. 1)

Close to V. tabora Stgr. (=-Bryophila tabora) and more easily dis-

tinguished therefrom in the male than the female. The male antenna

is more ciliated; the genitalia also differ. Both species have variable

but confused markings; the new species is usually darker, with more

lead-grey infused forewing than tabora; it inhabits the Southern |

= Zagros whereas -tabora inhabits. the Northern Zagros and Anatolia.

Span: 24-29 mm. = ee

Male antenna, with ciliations as long. as breadth of shaft; whereas

in tabora it is only slightly setcse.

Male genitalia (see Plate III, Fig. 4): the valve is shorter. and -

slenderer than in tabora (Plate III, Fig. 3), but with’a more pronounced

costal. spine at the tip; in the proportionately longer aedeagus, the

-cornutus is of similar form but slighter.than in tabora.

Holotype: c*. (prep. 1133), SW. Iran, Fars, Pireh-Zan, c. 7000 ft.

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Allotype: 2, (prep. 1133), SW. Iran, Fars, Kazerun, c. 3000 ft.

(c. 900 m.), 4-x-50. ,

Paratypes: 1 o& and 7 @ 9, same data as holotype; also Fars,

Shiraz, 5000-6000 ft. (c. 1500-1800 m.), 18-ix-40, and 30-ix & 1-x-50,

EW. (in coll. m.). | |

This species inhabits hilly steppe and dry mountain sides, whether

deforested or wooded, the same is true of its relative tabora Stgr. (Plate

I, Fig. 2). Both are univoltine autumnal in flight, as is the case with

the closely related marginelota which inhabits Middle Heights of the

Lebanon. Probably this ecology and phenology characterises the whole

genus, which has previously been treated as Cryphia (Bryophila) and.

Oedibrya Hamps. [see Boursin, 1961, Beitr. naturk. SW-Deutsch.

19 (3)].

Subfamily QUADRIFINAE

(2) Cryphia polyphaenoides sp. nov. (Plate I, Fig. 6)

From all Cryphia (Bryophila) and related genera easily distinguish-

able by its coloration: pale grey forewing and dull orange hindwing.

Head and thorax, with neatly adpressed slate-grey, white-edged

scales, giving it, under magnification, a smoother aspect than the fore-

going and most other Cryphia species. Palps otherwise similar.

Frons, bulging in a slightly more rectangular form.

@ antenna, ciliate.

Forewing, comparatively wide and square, but in proportion to the

hindwing, similar to other Cryphia; pale slate-grey, with faint darker

yellowish grey markings mainly in the cell between the stigmata, before

the submarginal line, and on the termen. Reniform and orbicular

stigmata, vaguely paler; submarginal line, pale and wavy; termen, a

series of faint dark spots; other markings, obsolete; fringes grey.

Hindwing, dull orange-brown, infuscated submarginally; fringes

dull yellow, chequered with grey.

Undersides, much paler, the forewing being more yellowish than

on its upper side and thus less distinct from the hindwing in general —

colouring.

Span: 30 mm.

In the absence of a male there must remain some doubt whether

the generic attribution to Cryphia is right.

Holotype: @, Bahrain, Adari Pool Gardens, 23-11-60, EW (in

coll. m.)

This appears to be an oasis moth. Lichens and algae (on which

Cryphia feed) are found on desert vegetation in Bahrain, despite the

‘NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA OF SAUDI ARABIA, ETC. — 613

low rainfall, doubtless because of the heavy dews and humidity;-but no

Cryphia species has been taken in the desert there.

Porphyrinia rushi sp. nov. (Plate II, Figs. 16, 24)

A third species in the P. leucota Hamps.-nives Brandt group,

differing from them in habitat and phenology; less white than leucota,

smaller and with a more crooked but less oblique median-band than

nives. Probably the Sinai (U.A.R.) form in this group really belongs

to rushi, not nives.

Antenna of o, ciliated, with cilia “about as long as breadth of

Palp, second joint with pink-brown adpressed scales; third joint,

short.

Tongue, fully developed.

Thorax, grey; abdomen, whitish grey.

Forewing whitish marked with slate-grey and orange-brown, or

(ab. frigida ab. nov.) deep olive-brown. The latter form seems to be

due to wet cool weather, and lacks the more normal orange-brown

tints; the one example of it which I possess is strongly contrasted,

with white and dark grey forewing, rather like nives, except that

the distal edge of the median band has three irregularly prominent

angles; in nives these angles are all equally prominent, but in rushi

the second, on the cell, exceeds the others, thus giving the new species

a less straight median band. This band is at right angles to the hind-

margin, whereas in nives it is oblique. In less strongly marked forms

than ab. frigida the differences in the median band are not always

distinct but in all forms a further criterion is the course of the sub-

marginal line, which in nives is acutely inward-angled on nervure 2

only, but in rushi is more roundly-indented on both nervures 2 and 3.

There are sometimes two black cell-spots representing the orbicular

and reniform stigmata of the forewing; the latter spot is placed distally

of the median band.

The basal area of the forewing is mixed with white, grey, and

usually orange. The ante-median fascia is grey, suffuse, zigzag,

followed immediately by the broad cental band which in the normal

form is orange-brown. Between it and the wavy, not zigzag, mauve-

grey post-median fascia, is a suffused pale slate-grey area; beyond

this fascia is an area, wide at the costa, and narrower at the hind

margin, orange-brown, or, in ab. frigida, deep olive-brown, bordered

distally by a. wavy white submarginal line, against which, in the bays

formed by the mauve-grey submarginal area, are placed a few fine

614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

black spots, variable in number. The grey submarginal area reaches

the costa and the hind-margin. Termen, variable, a rather faint pale

jine, sometimes with a clear wavy brown proximal edge, and always

with grey distal spots on the fringe at the nervures, usually producing

a grey-chequered fringe with a fine white distal line. Fringe, pale

brown distally.

Hindwing, pale whitish, with an almost obsolete grey median band

and two parallel distal bands, sharply angled on nervure 2. In ab.

frigida the cell is infuscated, also nervures 1 and 2 basad. ‘Termen,

fine, grey. Fringe, grey, with a white basal line.

Underside, dirty whitish.

Span: 17-22 mm.

Genitalia, o%, (Plate IJ, Fig. 5). With uncus and aedeagus as in

leucota and nives. The three species differ in the development of

the harpe, which consists of a tongue-like sclerotised projection above

a setose angular process, and is widest and longest in nives, narrower

and shorter but still projecting beyond the process in Jeucota, shorter

and hardly projecting in rushi.

Q, posterior, apophyses comparatively long and slender, anterior,

comparatively short and spatulate; ostium, weak; ductus, chitined above

the twist; bursa, with a small field of internal spinules in the central-

upper (distal) part, extending over less ian half the circumference,

(Plate III, Fig. 6)

Holotype: co, (Prep. 1064) Bahrain, nr. Amar, southern desert,

27-ii-60, DR. (in coll. EW).

Allotype: 92, Bahrain, same locality, 24-iv-60 (EW),

Ab. frigida type: o%, Bahrain, Sakhir desert, 14-ii1-61- (EW).

(Plate II, Fig. 24)

Typical paratypes: 9, same data as holotype, DR, in BM.

Saudi Arabia, Eastern Province, 2 (Prep. WM. 139} Hofuf, 25-11-57.

T,, and oh, ditto, 15-11-57. Zvi).

In Bahrain this species is a univoltine vernal species inhabiting

limestone ‘desert with a slight sand cover in places, the vgetation

consisting of ‘grasses and a rather varied association ee

| Helianthemetum).

Porphyrinia bistellata sp. nov. (Plate IT, Figs. 17, 18)

Antenna, of o*, strongly ciliated; of 2, sparsely ciliated.

Tongue, absent or vestigial. 2

Thorax, grey; abdomen, light: grey.

Forewing, with straight costa, fairly pointed apex, and semi-circular

outer margin, paler or darker slate-grey; occasionally streaked narrowly

JouRN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE III

| Figs. 1, 2. Euproctis cervina Moore. & genitalia (x 23) two views : 1 : with tegumen viewed laterally, 2 : with

tegumen viewed ventrally. (AE = aedeagus ; LV=left valve ; J = juxta; RV = right valve; SA = saccus; SO = socii,

‘On tegumen) : Fig. 3. Victrix tabora Stgr. 6 genitalia (x 15), open ventral view aedeagus separated; Fig. 4. Victrix

Sassanica sp. nov. & genitalia (x 15), open ventral view with aedeagus separated ; Figs. 5, 6. Porphyrinia rushi sp.

‘Nov. genitalia (x 15): 5: ¢, open ventral position with valves semi-detached and aedeagus separated; 6: Q ventral

view ; Figs. 7, 8. Porphyrinia bistellata sp. nov. genitalia (x 15): 7: ¢, open ventral position with aedeagus separated,

md uncus also shown in lateral position on right; 8: Q ventral view; Fig. 9. Porphyrinia pallidula H.-S. race

riaca Stgr. Type % genitalia (x 23), open ventral position with aedeagus separated ; Figs. 10, 11. Porphyrinia bulla

Win. genitalia (x 15): 10: g, ventral view, left valve shut, right valve open; 11: 9, ventral view; Fig. 12.

zatocala timur B.-H. richteri subsp. nov. ¢ genitalia (x 15), ventral open position, with aedeagus separated.

‘aou ‘dsqns t4asyou (\puRsg) siualio Saporucpoyoudyy : yZ‘ USdO ATLA IYSII “NYS OATLA Yo] YIM “MeTA JeIJDCA *P “Ydyy Winsooujyg (HIyUDIYIG) Sapoueddyy *: EZ + Poyeredes snsvopoe

quam uonIsod usdo yemusA “P *acu ‘dsqns iMajyai4 (ypueIg) Suelo sapojuopoyoudyy > 77: (ST x) eyeyiucs ovulusdsY *¢7-7Z "SSI.J { poyeiedes sn8vepse YM UoTIscd usdo [e1}USA

“ez x) eyemueds ‘aou ‘ds vwuuojvsdd vanyaiwjup “17 “BI ‘ pajyeiedes snsveper YIM uvonIsod jeuea usdo “(Cy x) eleyWUues P sou “ds unplasafopiydaskT “OT °31q

‘ pajyesedas snSevapoe yim ‘uonisod Jeued uedo “(€Z x ) vIpeyUes ‘aou ‘ds “Aaou “USS Ifyalp VIYpYIY “G[ “BIA *(@dAL) “381g Vivjucp + gy] “ACU ‘ds mayojayf : LI :payeiedas snsvopor

Dpoullp *BI-LI ‘SBlq ‘Poyeiedes snsvopoe yA vorsod JesjU9A ucdo “(EZ x ) elyeyucs P ‘Aou “ds aviqnsv Djauinup *¢C] ‘317

YA uUcTIsod [eiyuaa uedo “(c] x) vipeyues P

9. M3

UMS

Al SLVI1g

‘NOTES ON LEPI{DOPTERA OF SAUDI ARABIA, ETC... 615

with paler colouring along the costa; in one exceptionally light. ex-

ample (from Hofuf) a light brown tint invades the whole wing

replacing the grey, but usually only the submarginal area is light

tawny brown. Termen, a brown line, sometimes black-spotted on the

nervures, with a white distal edge at the base of the fringe, which is

grey-brown. Reniform stigma, represented by two diffuse, whitish

star-like points, placed one above the other, and often united. A

black oblique apical streak is continued in an almost straight line to

near the tornus, sometimes as an interrupted series of black intra-neural

spots; even in the pale brown form, this oblique streak is indicated

in darker brown.

‘Hindwing, paler costad and basad, dull grey; fringe, slightly paler.

Underside, pale grey with a brassy metallic sheen, more yellowish

on the costa; apex and fringe, usually darker brown.

Span: 14-25 mm. (but nine out of ten are between 19-22 pee

Genitalia, o% (Plate III, Fig. 7): The uncus, in ventral view appears

not to taper, having a spine-like tip protruding from an apparently

roundly truncated end; but in profile or lateral view (Fig. 7 top right)

this character is less pronounced. The aedeagus is without even the

smallest cornutus. Q (Plate III, Fig. 8): bursa, with two narrow bands

of internal spinules, the upper (near the distal end) being narrower

and with stronger spinules; the lower (just below the centre) slightly

wider, less dense and with weaker spinules.

Holotype: oc, (Prep. 1069) Bahrain, nr. Amar, southern desert,

21-11-60, DR. (in coll. EW).

Allotype: 9, and three paratypes. both sexes, same data, in coll.

DR. in BM. & in coll. EW.

Other paratypes: 1 example, Arabia, Marrat, 6-11-35, P. (BM.):

examples, (2 o, | 9) Saudi Arabia, Eastern Province; Hofuf, 30-11- 57.

T, and Abqaiq, (Prep. WM. 105) 24-iv-57, T. (ZM.). Also 12 ex-

amples, same place ‘as Orns 5-iv-61, and 1 9, 5-x-61 (EW), in

coll. EW.

This new species may be placed Beek pallidila H.-S. and. tlie

African species arenostrota Hamps. and penicillata Hamps. - From all

of these*it can be superficially. distinguished by the two whitish points

which none of them possess.. From the pallidula forms, the male

- uncus,-and the narrow central band of minute spines on the female

“bursa of pallidula subsp. khalifa (see below) are structural. criteria.

P. pallidula khalifa actually flies with bistellata in Bahrain but 1s

~*- commoner, less local, and has more generations; as well as lacking the

616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

two white points, it lacks the oblique apical streak of bistellata.

P. penicillata may also be distinguished by the blackening of its

subcostal field and median area: P. arenostrota is also distinguished

by a pale suffused tawny streak along its forewing median nervure,

spreading as far as the submarginal area.

Porphyrinia pallidula H.-S. subsp. khalifa subsp. nov. Plate II, eS

19-22)

From the northern suospecies, comprising the typical ‘ante H.-S.

(Transcaspia) and also the forms cypriaca Stgr., (Cyprus, S. Turkey,

and Lebanon) (the o& genitalia of a type of which are shown in

Plate III, Figure 9) and griseola Ersch. (Central Asian Mountains),

I now distinguish a southern subspecies inhabiting Arabia, Bahrain

and the lower elevations of south Persia. I no longer consider the

latter group of forms representative of typical pallidula H.-S. and have

renounced my intention of selecting a lectotype from among them.

Instead, I propose to describe them under a new name on morpho-

logical and distributional grounds.

The new subspecies is smaller than the northern subspecies on

the average; the male vesica is less spiculated; its forewing termen

is usually an interrupted line. The colouring varies greatly with season

and locality. It seems already possible to distinguish two races

belonging to the subspecies, and perhaps when a series from more

localities collected all the year round is obtained, it may be possible

to distinguish more than two. At present fewer examples are

available from Saudi Arabia and S. Iran than from Bahrain, which

is the typical locality of the new subspecies.

Race khalifa: varies from whitish through pale brown and orange-

brown to dark slate-grey, the darker forms appearing in winter and

spring, the paler in summer and autumn, on the whole. In the darker.

the termen remains a clear white line with a dark grey proximal edge

interrupted at the nervures; in the paler, the proximal edge consists

of a series of light brown spots. The markings are very variable;

two dark cell-spots are usually marked, the reniform stigma being

represented by a larger circular spot than the fine point-like orbicular;

the post-median fascia is often absent even in the darker forms, and

is always less clear than these two points; when marked it is outlined

in smoky grey and curves round the cell and thence runs straight

to about the middle of the hind-margin.

Hindwing: dirty grey-brown, rarely paler.

NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA OF SAUDI ARABIA, ETC. 617

Span: between 12 mm. and 18 mm., the largest forms usually

appearing in winter and early spring and having darker colouring.

- Holotype: co, (Prep. 1024) Bahrain (desert), 26-1x-59.

_ Allotype: 9, Bahrain same date. (Plate II, Fig. 20)

- Paratypes: co (Prep. 1071) Bahrain (oasis), 28-ix-59; 2 other ex-

amples, same data as holotype; 2 examp!es, Bahrain (desert), 5-xii-59;

1 oo; Bahrain, Rifaa, (desert), 1-1-60; 4 examples. Bahrain, Jurdeh

(desert) 19-11-60 (one is shown in Plate II, Fig. 19); 2 examples, ditto,

myself and are in coll. m. except two which have been presented to

the Zoological Museum, Humbold University, Berlin; other paratypes

with similar data are in coll. m., including co, Prep. 1022, Plate II,

Fig. 12 in my previous article (1961) and again in this article, Plate IL.

Fig. 21; others, DR, from Bahrain, are in BM.

Race nejdi f. nova

This form is slightly larger than typical khalifa and is more whitish

and ‘pale brown, with a tendency to grey streaking along the cell,

and no trace of post-median fascia; the orbicular stigma is not

marked by any black point, but the reniform is indicated by a greyish

streaky cloud. The hindwing is also paler than the average typical.

An oblique apical shade on the forewing is usually defined in light

brown with a whitish proximal streak. The termen is light brown.

The hardly spiculated vesica makes this form belong to the

Bahrain subspecies rather than the more northerly.

Span: 19-22 mm.

Holotype: co, Saudi Arabia, Riadh, 13-11-60, (ED), (Prep. WM.

79), in coll. ZM.

Paratype: co‘, ditto (Prep. WM. 104) ditto.

Paratype: ot‘, ditto, ix-58.

The following may belong to this race or to a third; at present

the available material is insufficient for one to be sure: 1 co, Iran,

Khuzistan, 18 km. north of Shadegan, Jarrahi River Bank district,

28-iii; 6-iv-56, R.S., in coll. S.M. (Plate II, Fig. 22) (Prep. WM. 74).

For genitalia of both sexes of this new subspecies of pallidula

H.-S. see Figs. 14 & 18 of my preceding article; also see Plate III,

Fig. 9 for Cyprus race. 3 |

As regards griseola Ersch., illustrated in. my preceding article, I

do not consider it specifically separable from pallidula H.-S., despite

Erschoff’s opinion given in his description; and indeed most European

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

museums have had difficulty in distinguishing these. two. As I ex-

plained in the previous article, for years in the British Museum the

pallidula forms were correctly named but under’ griseola were placed

a series of conistrota Hamps. forms; this error however has now been

corrected. In Russia, it is clear, from specimens sent recently to the

British Museum as ‘griseola emanating from Transcaspia, that the

name griseola is there app'ied to a species also common in the

mountains of Iran (Persia) from Elburz to North Fars; its forewing

varies from yellowish unmarked to greyer with post-median fascia

marked. My conclusion is that griseola Ersch., as originally described

from a single grey specimen from the high mountains of Alai (Kokand)

and another specimen from N. Persia (Astrabad), is possibly a good

race of pallidulayin Alai but elsewhere in the range of this species

is a frequent aberration analogous to the darker forms of Bahrain.

I have been snformed by Dr. Alberti that the types of pallidula H.-S.

(described “from Syr-Daria Trans-Caspia) are no longer existent,

either in Berlin or Halle; and I therefore select as lectotype of

pallidula H.-S. the yellowish example from Nukus, Transcaspia, sent

as ‘eriseola by the Leningrad Museum to the British Museum,

London. This selection stabilises the two names as a conspecific unit.

Porphyrinia bulla Swin. (= P. tomentalis Rebel syn. nov.) (Plate II,

Fig. 25)

The other common Porphyrinia species of the desert of Bahrain

may be mentioned here, as it occurs elsewhere and its oldest name

has been overlooked. It is a true desert moth but sometimes also

flies in palm-gardens (oasis). It is widely distributed, as it ranges

from near Karachi, whence Swinhoe described it, at least to Egypt,

whence Rebel posthumously described it in 1948. The male genitalia

were shown in Fig. 39 of the LEPIDOPTERA OF EGYPT (1948, EW); :

the uncus’ is. characteristic and there are one or. two linked minute |

cornuti in the aedeagus. A larger figure may be useful, and is given

herewith (Plate Ill, Fig. 10); two ‘convergent dorsal ridges.on the

uncus are responsible for its club-like aspect: their presence is not

always easy to discern unless several preparations are made. Swinhoe’s

type has become dingy with age: however it exists in the BM., and —

Mr. Fletcher has kindly made a preparation of. its genitalia, which

are recognisable and agree with those of the Bahraini and Egyptian.

-forms, -The 9: genitalia are characterised by a wide field of small

spicules inside the bursa; this field: does. not however extend round"

Page 618, line 17: for ‘lectotype’, please read ‘neotype’.

- :

(

‘

Lae |

~ :

4 :

. =

+ ra

Ra e

- ? _

f 7 a ve

- : -!

1 aa > -

1 4

- { ry ~4 =

7 . ‘ 7 :

. . (>

ie a Se

4 x bs

7 a a

= e

- ‘

]

6 ; :

7 - =

NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA OF SAUDI ARABIA, ETC. 619

the whole circumierence; the posierior apophyses also are more than

twice as long as the anterior (see Piate Ill, Fig. 11). Tae moth varies

greatly in size and facies; a few summer and autumn forms may have

plain glossy waite or yellow forewings; but most commonly, and

especially at other seasons, slightly striated forms, of a powdery or

sandy appearance are to be taken; these have one or two black spots

in the forewing cell usually and sometimes are peppered sub-

marginally with biack or grey scales between the nervures. The

termen is never defined and there are no cross-lines. Two examples

from Riadh (ED, ZM): co, 3-ii-58, Prep. WM. 86 and Q, 1i-ii-58

(Prep. WM. 107) have been taken and show that this moth inhabits

Saudi Arabia, as indeed was to be expected once its synonymy with

tomentalis Rebel from Egypt was established.

Catocala timur B. H. richteri subsp. nov. (Plate I, Fig. 5)

The forewing agrees perfectly with British Museum’s series of

timur Bang-Haas (Transcaucasia), but the hindwing is paler pink, with

an orange tint, and not (as in typical timur) pink as in C. puerpera

hindwing; another difference in the hindwing is that the apical pale

patch (outer edge of the black border) is more pronounced; in fact

the hindwing is almost exactly the same as in C. neglecta: Staud. but

the forewing is quite different from that.

The genitalia of the male are shown in Plate III, Fig. 12.

Holotype: oo, (Prep. WM. 36), allotype 9, and paratypes 23 oc

and 3 ¢Q, S. Iran. Iranshahr, 800 m., 12-iii— 30-iv-54, R. (in coll.

S.M., ZM, EW).

Anumeta asiatica sp. nov. (Plate I, Figs. 8, 9, 13, 14)

This large and handsome form is closely related to spatzi Roths.

1915 and major Roths. 1913 and perhaps is no more than a sub-

species of one of them, if in fact they are distinct. Owing to

uncertainty on this point, I rmtroduce the new form as a separate

species, provisionally.

The type of major is a @ and there are no topo-typical oo in

the British Museum collections. The type of spatzi is a co; there is

in the Tring Museum a @ attributed to spatzi: this proves to have

similar genitalia to the major type, according to Mr. D. S. Fletcher,

who kindly investigated the typical material.

The Arabian-Iranian form is very variable; more material of it is

availab’e than was ever taken either of spatzi or major. It resembles

spatzi in markings, but most examples resemble major in size and

colour. The markings which appear to me, from my own inspection

620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

of the types, to distinguish Rothschild’s two forms from one another

are: 3 8s 2) ene

spatzi & asiatica | major

forewing, post-median bent distally tight round} more gently curved “dis-

fascia ieee tally and inwards to ner-

vure 2

hindwing spot

compact and almost

| more diffuse, less circular

| circular

The differences of thorax-colouring given in Draudt-Seitz do not

enable one to consider the Asiatic form as one or the other, but the

same author’s statement that the black hindwing spot is free in

major but in spatzi merges with the brown band, would indicate that

asiatica belongs to spatzi.

Antenna: oo, with cilia shorter than breadth of antenna; 9,

simple.

The forewing ground colour is white widely over-laid with

yellow-brown and purple-brown scales, less widely with black. The

post-median fascia is not always clearly defined. The nervures may

be defined with black and white scales, and a series of intra-neural

black wedges is usually present on the termen. Fringes, brown. There

is a very conspicuous wedge-shaped black basal streak below the

median nervure, and sometimes the median area between this and

the costa is filled with black. The ante-median fascia is only clear

on the costa; usually the costa is sprinkled with white between the

black spots marking the post-median fascia, and the apex.

The hindwing is white, but in the @ this colour only appears

as a ‘window’, narrow at the anal angle and wide at the middle of

the outer margin, on either side of the black spot between the sub-

marginal band and the termen; the rest of the wing in that sex is

brown-suffused; in the o the white colour also appears proximally

of the wide brown submarginal band to a variable extent. Termen,

wavy, brown. Fringes, white in both sexes.

Span: oo, 40-45 mm.; 2 9, 40 mm.

Male genitalia, (see Text-fig. 13): uncus, stout, very slightly arched,

of uniform thickness from base to the truncate end from the middle

of which projects the typical down-pointed fine tip; valve, without

neck, of more or less uniform thickness, with evenly-rounded end:

costa of valve, studded with many enlarged setae; near the ventral

NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA OF SAUDI ARABIA, ETC. 621

border on the inner side, a setose ridge parallel to that border runs

to the valve tip. Saccus, short. Aedeagus, sclerotised, cylindrical,

the ductus seminis entering near the proximal end which is sub-

rectangular; of uniform thickness for 2/3 of its length, then narrower

for the distal 1/3. Vesica, with a chitinous plate, usually placed

obliquely, shorter than diameter of the aedeagus at its broadest.

SS ara

1010

ae ERY 6}.

Fig. 13. Anumeta asiatica sp. nov. ¢ genitalia (= 15), open ventral position, with

aedeagus separated

Female genitalia: anterior and posterior apophyses of about same

length; ostium, not sclerotised; ductus, sclerotised and widening from

ostium to top of bursa, whence ductus seminis leads off; bursa, long,

sac-like, lacking internal spines, but uniformly stippled or roughened.

Ovum: To the abdomen of one of the 2 paratypes adhere a

number of ova, due to injury; they are bun-shaped (i.e., circular in

horizontal section, and semi-circular in vertical section) with strong

sculpture in the form of lines convergent apicad.

Holotype: co*, S. Iran, Khuzistan, Ahwaz, c. 400 ft., 26-v-38, EW,

in coll. m. :

Allotype: @, Arabia, Nejd, Riadh, xi-58, ED, in coll. Muenchen.

Paratypes: 2 o’c%, (Prep. 1010) Kuwait, desert, 2-v-43, EW; also

one 2, same data as holotype; all in coll. m.

5 oo, 4 2 2, Arabia, Nejd, Riadh, same date as allotype, or

2-14-vii-58, ED, in coll. Muenchen.

1 9, (Prep. 1010 L) same data, in coil. m.

2 ho, 2 29, SE. Iran, Iranshahr, ‘iv-54, R. (in coll. Stuttgart)

622. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Anumeta eberti Wilts. zaza subsp. nov.

Of this large species, described and illustrated in the preceding

article from the deserts of southern Afghanistan, a more variable form

inhabits the most inhospitable wastes of southern Arabia. It re-

sembles the typical in size and pattern elements, also in genitalia

(see Text-fig. 14), but the colouring is variable, with apparent sexual

dimorphism. The @@ have the forewing suffused completely with

sienna-brown; the o‘o on the other hand usually have a whitish

suffusion beyond the post-median fascia against which the nervures

appear darker; the post-median fascia and submarginal line are finely

edged distally with pa'er scales and with a series of isolated white

points.

Fig. 14. Anumeta eberti Wilts. zaza subsp. nov. jgenitalia (x 15), ventral

open position, with aedeagus separated

Holotype: ct, (Prep. 732) South Arabia, Sawada, 12-11-52 (Leg.

G. Popov) in coll. m. (EW).

Allotype: 9, (Prep. BM. 2976) South Arabia, Rub’ al Khali,

waterless part, Hadhat Hawaya, 28-i1-33, P. (BM).

NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA OF SAUDI ARABIA, ETC. 623

Paratypes: 1 example, Hadramaut, 17.05 N., 43.30 E., Arq Zaza,

11-52 (Leg. G. Popov) and 3 examples, same as holotype, in coll. m.

(EW). Also 5 examples, same as allotype, P. (BM).

Anumeta arabiae sp. nov. (Plate I, Figs. 10, 11)

This form was first taken at Hail in 1944 by A.W. and subse-

quently in the Dahana in 1946 by others of the Middle East Anti-

locust Units under Dr. B. P. Uvarov. Examples of this first series

were deposited in the British Museum and coll. m. (EW), and I

reported in my article on Arabian lepidoptera of 1952 the species

under the name dentistrigata Stgr. a central Asian species, as its

genitalia (Prep. 257) did not seem to differ from Oscar John’s figure

of the typical dentistrigata.

I now feel it should be considered as a distinct species from

Staudinger’s; it is less robust, and more obscurely marked on the

whole than the typical dentistrigata or than its dull, pale yellowish

race, subsp. languida Warren. The long series (ED) shows it is very

variable in colouring.

The male is the larger sex. In colour the sexes are not

characterised from one another. The co antenna is profusely ciliated

(length of cilia twice breadth of shaft), the Q antenna barely setose.

Thorax and forewing, yellow-brown more or less suffused with

white, black and fuscous scales. In some dull forms the general hue

is dull yellow-brown slightly infused with darker grey; in these the

forewing fasciae may be distinct but more often are obsolete. The

black markings in some forms are concentrated to form costal spots,

streaks in the cell, to delineate proximally the ante-median and post-

median fasciae (which are often delineated distally with a pale edge),

to darken the median area, particularly below the median nervure, to

form a sub-marginal shade running from the apex in an irregularly

wavy course towards the tornus, and to form a Series of intra-neural

terminal crescents; in the obscure forms where few of these markings

stand out, black scales are scattered generally over the forewing. In

some forms whitish or pale grey scales are concentrated along the

cell and sub-costally almost to the apex, also to form four white

costal spots beyond the post-median fascia; the median nervure in

some forms is quite outstandingly pale.

Hindwing, whitish, more or less suffused with smoky brown some-

times on the disco-cellular (to. form a crescent cell-spot), more often

along the nervures and often also to form a variable submarginal

band. Termen, brown, variable; in some forms an inner, finely wavy

624. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

dark terminal line can be seen; in others only a series of dark intra-

neural spots. Fringes, whitish.

Underside whitish, usually only slightly sprinkled with grey and

brown terminad; on both wings the cell-spot is sometimes indicated;

termen of hindwing, sometimes marked as in forewing.

Span: o, 35-38 mm.; Q, 31-35 mm.

Male genitalia (see Plate IV, Fig. 15): Proportionately small and

characterised by several scent scales attached to each valve, some being

remarkably broad. Uncus, short, slightly arched, stout with fine

down-turned tip, slightly constricted in the centre, the tip projects

from about the middle of the truncate end of the uncus; valve,

with a more sclerotised basal neck, thereafter wider and of.

uniform thickness and less sclerotised, with regularly rounded

end. The larger setae of the valves are not concentrated or numerous;

two or three widely-spaced enlarged setae are placed along the middle

of the inner surface of the valve in a row parallel to the costa; some

others, slightly smaller, are on the ventral border. Sacculus, deep,

tapering. Aedeagus, cylindrical but enlarged immediately distally of

the entry of the ductus seminis.

Female genitalia: Posterior and anterior apophyses of about

equal length. Ostium, membranous; ductus bursae sclerotised near

ostium. Bursa, membranous, long-oval, without signum but with a

central field of internal minute spines reaching to the bottom, anterior,

end, but not extending over the whole circumference.

Holotype: co, (Prep. 257) Arabia, Nejd, Dahana, Awania,

19-ii-46 (McE) in coll. British Museum, London.

Allotype: @ central Arabia, Nejd, Riadh, xi-58, ED in coll.

Muenchen. 7 |

Paratypes: 7 oo and 4 @ Q, central Arabia, Nejd, Riadh, xi-57, 1,

& ii-58, ED, ZM; 1 &% & 1 @, same place and captor, 27-i and

10-iv-58, coll. mea. Also 2 oct, same place and captor, summer

1958, 700 m., and | o& Eastern Arabia, Hofuf, 25-ii-57, T; ZM and

2 29, central Arabia, Riadh, 23-iii-58, & ix-58, ED, ZM. Other

paratypes in coll. mea. or BM are labelled: Arabia, Hail, 17-i-44,

ARW; Hinna, xi-46, McE.: and Dahana, 11-46, DVF & SG.

Anumeta atrosignata Walker (Plate I, Fig. 15; Text-fig. 16)

I take this opportunity to illustrate this species, which some

authors, following Warren-Seitz, have wrongly regarded as synonymous

with spilota Ersch. and harterti Roths. These last two are indeed

very close together but atrosignata is not like them at all but more

NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA OF SAUDI ARABIA, ETC. 625

resembles A. sabulosa Roths., and arenosa Brandt without being

identical with them.

WON. PD

Fig. 16. Anumeta atrosignata Walk. 3 genitalia (x 15), open ventral position, with

aedeagus separated

Walker’s type of atrosignata from India still exists in the British

Museum which also possesses a similar example from Arabia. Now

a further Arabian example has come to hand, taken at Riadh, xi-58,

ED, Prep. WM. 47, and is here illustrated.

A. sabulosa Roths., a more strongly marked and darker species,

was also taken at Riadh, 21-vii-58, ED, ZM, (Plate I, Fig. 12).

A revised list, therefore, of the Anumeta species of Arabia is as

follows :

A. asiatica Wilts.

A. eberti zaza Wilts.

A. arabiae Wilts.

A. atrosignata Walker

A. sabulosa Roths.

coll. mea.

A. straminea B.-H., Riadh, xi & xii-59 & 1-i-60, ED, ZM.

A. surcoufi Dumont, Riadh, 28-iv-59, ED, ZM, Hadramaut, leg.

Popov, coll. mea.

SG, coll. mea.

A. spilota Ersch. (? f. harterti Roths.), Riadh 18-iii-58, ED, ZM;

Abgqaigq, 6-iv-57, T, ZM ; Trucial Oman & Bahrain, EPW.

It is not yet possible to give a final opinion on the status of these

last two names.

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Armada fletcheri sp. nov. (Plate I, Fig. 3)

Smaller, more uniformly rosy-brown than the generotype Armada

dentata Stgr., to which its male genitalia show it is closely related.

Only one example is known, and the forewing of this lacks the

infuscated median area, edged with black fasciae and boldly con-

trasting with the white area on either side, typical of dentata, but

this criterion may be unreal and due to rubbing. Instead of two

fasciae the hind margin shows traces only of a single cross band,

apparently representing the median shade. Submarginal line, with

black denticulations, much as in dentata. Hindwing, similar to

dentata, but band and cell-spot weaker and more suffused. Until a

better preserved example is taken the species must be distinguished

principally by its genitalia.

Span: 21 mm.

Male genitalia: the characteristics which dentata and fletcheri have

in common are a normal, slender uncus, with pointed tip; a juxta

longer than wide, wider at its base, or proximal border which is

obtusely angled; assymmetrical valves of more or less equal size,

with a symmetrical small digitus on the costal extremity, and an

assymmetrical thumb-shaped harpe (on left valve only); the ex-

tension of the sacculus is more developed on the right valve; an

aedeagus with a distally sclerotised dorsal wall, the sclerotisation being

differently developed in the two species but in both tending to form

thorn-like excrescences. The new species differs in the form of the

valve end (as illustrated in Plate IV, Figs. 17, 18), in the smaller harpe,

and particularly in the aedeagus of which the dorsal sclerotisation

forms three thorns close to the tip, while in dentata there is only

one thorn, further back (i.e. more proximal) and less sharp; in dentata

there are two internal chitinous plates of equal size, almost of

cornutus-form, while in the new species there is nothing of the sort.

Holotype: o%, SW. Iran, Khuzistan, Ahwaz, [c. 200 ft. (60 m.)],

21-x-38, EW. 3

A revision of the genus Armada and its related genera based on

the characters ‘of the male genitalia is in preparation and will, it

is hoped, appear shortly. This group of genera may be called a tribe:

Armadini, and the new genus described hereunder, Riadhia, may be

placed in it close to Armada and Asplenia Hamps. Other genera in

the tribe are: Metoponrhis Christ., Acrobyla Rebel, Epharmottomena

Johns, and their synonyms. |

NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA OF SAUDI ARABIA, ETC. 627

Riadhia gen. nov.

Frons, with low crater-like round truncated prominence enclosing a

vertical process, projecting slightly at its lower end in front of the

crater-rim; this keel-like process is variable in form in individuals,

and in some is hollowed internally into the form of a U, the base

of which is most prominent: it never however approaches the blade-

like form of the keel-process inside the truncated cone of such

Armada species as maritima Brandt. The legs are as in Armada,

with short forelegs and particularly short foretibia. The male

genitalia are characteristic of the new genus: the valves are strongly

dissymmetrical; there is no cucullus, the valve-tip consisting of a

finger-like process thickly clad with adpressed bristles. The uncus

is less tapering than in Armada, Metoponrhis, etc. There is no harpe

or digitus on either valve, unless the hypertrophied process projecting

from the left-valve costa can be considered a harpe; the sacculus of

the left valve is also hypertrophied so that the whole apparatus is

twisted; the aedeagus is relatively simple, without internal cornuti or

external sclerotisations. Nervulation, as in Armada dentata Stgr.

Type: Riadhia diehli sp. nov. (below).

Riadhia diehli sp. nov. (Plate II, Figs. 23, 27)

Frons, with a prominence as described above partly covered with

white scales and hair.

co antenna, missing.

Tongue, present, normal. Palp, fine, fairly short.

Thorax, white. Abdomen, yellowish white.

Forewing, white, faintly marked with pale brown, especially the

reniform stigma and the submarginal area. Median area, sometimes

shaded with pale brown below the cell. Orbicular stigma, sometimes

clearly defined, a small brown spot; reniform stigma, fused with

median shade. Sometimes a white ill-defined submargina! line can be

seen, parallel to the termen, in the wide brown submarginal area;

this area reaches the hindmargin not far from the tornus, but is

wider at the costa, and leaves a characteristic clear white broad

post-median stripe. Fringes, white.

Hindwing, white, with comparatively large pale brown cell-spot

and wide pale brown submarginal border. Fringes, white.

Span: 16-19 mm.

Male genitalia, as described under genus above, and illustrated in

Pilate LV. Fie. 19.

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Holotype: co, (Prep. WM. 57) (lacks left wing, all legs, and

antennae), and allotype, 2 (the legs of which are mounted oni: left

side of slide, Prep. WM. 57) (lacks antenna): Saudi Arabia, Riadh,

18-vii-58, ED, ZM.

Paratypes: 2 oo’, 19, Saudi Arabia, Riadh, 1-15-vii-58 & 1-v-59,

ED, ZM.

Lygephila fereidun sp. nov. (Plate I, Fig. 7)

The pale straw, faintly marked forewing and brown collar dis-

tinguish this species from all its congeners; its pattern comes closest

to that of the Spanish species glycyrhiza Ramb., the genitalia of which,

however, I have not yet been able to examine to see whether a real

relationship exists.

Palp, pale buff.

Antenna, <, ciliated, with ciliations about as long as the breadth

of the shaft.

Neck and collar, sienna-brown.

Thorax, abdomen, fore- and hindwings, a!l pale buff or dull straw,

slightly more brown-tinged on the wings terminad. The only marking

is the faint brown crescent-formed reniform stigma on the forewing.

Vague traces of a light brown median shade appear below it.

Underside, similarly coloured but lacking the forewing stigma; how-

ever, the submarginal clouding of both wings is perhaps stronger than

on the upperside, and the nervures are slightly infuscated costad and

terminad. |

Span: 42 mm.

Male genitalia: the thickened uncus and some other characters

incline me to place this new species in a group with Jusoria and remote

from craccae L. The harpe, longer than that of craccae, is nevertheless

shorter than that of Jusoria. The vesica contains similar elements to

those of Jusoria but the proximal scobinated field is shorter and the

five or six teeth on the distal chitinous lump are larger and more

like cornuti than in /usoria. For exact details, see Plate IV, Fig. 20.

I feel obliged to mention that these and other Lygephila genitalia

show a close relationship to those of the genera Apopestes and

Autophila, transferred to the Trifinae by C. Boursin in 1940 (Mitt.

Muench. Ent. Ges. 30, Heft 2, p. 514). However as vein 5 from dis-

cocellular mid-way between 4 & 6 on hindwing is well defined, I do

not propose that Lygephila should be similarly transferred.

Holotype: ‘o%, (Prep. 116), N. Iran, Elburz Mts. Lar Valley,

c. 9000 ft. (c. 2700 m.), 5-13-vii-39 (EW), |

NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA OF SAUDI ARABIA, ETC. 629

(?) Antarchaea pyralomima sp. nov. (Plate II, Figs. 26, 28)

As the genitalia do not show marked affinity either to Antarchaea

viridaria or A. (Raparna) coniocephala, this new species is introduced

provisionally in this genus. It is a pale sandy species recalling, when

well marked, a Pyraustine Pyralid moth. A more scantily marked

example (the paratype) was for a time wrongly placed among Sterrhine

Geometrids. The neuration is typical of Noctuidae-Quadrifinae.

o antenna, strongly ciliated; tongue, developed. .

Frons, smooth, slightly bulging.

Palp, with laterally compressed scales, prominently upturned.

_ Tibiae, not spined.; midtibia, with a pair of terminal spurs:

hindtibia with two pairs of spurs.

Forewing, neuration: 3, 4, and 5 separate but close together from

lower corner of cell; 6 from corner of areole; 7 and (8 and 9) from

apical corner of areole, 8 and 9 on a long stalk; 10, 11, and 12

separate.

Hindwing: 3 and 4 on a short stalk, 5 from discoce!lular near

their origin; discocellular, distinct but weak; 6 and 7 on a short stalk.

Forewing, pale biscuit, with brown stigmata sometimes clearly

defined and fainter sandy brown streaky infusion along the nervures.

Orbicular stigma, a finely outlined dark brown, pale-centred oval, or

absent; reniform stigma, larger, less neat, with cloudy brown centre,

sometimes obsolete. The post-median fascia is vaguely outlined in

sandy brown without reaching either costa or hind margin; there are

no other cross-lines, but the paratype shows traces of a brown oblique

median shade. Termen, slightly undulate, with six dark brown spots

at the nervures, absent in the paratype. Fringe, concolorous.

Hindwing, pale biscuit, slightly more yellow-brown terminad.

Undersides, uniformly pale biscuit, unmarked. °

Span: 24-25 mm.

Male genitalia: Uncus, slender, normal, with spiny tip.

Valve, narrowest in centre, basal third at least double the thickness

of the rest; valve-tip, bifurcate, the ventral arm being a downward-

pointing pollex, the costal portion more rounded, membranous and

slightly setose. Juxta, weak, simple. Aedeagus, fairly thick,

cylindrical, slightly up-curved, with a small ventral-distal sclerotisa-

tion. Vesica, finely scobinated proximally, without any cornutus.

(Illustrated in Plate IV, Fig. 21.)

Holotype (Prep. WM. 106): o*. Saudi Arabia, El Riadh, 23-11-58

(ED) ZM.

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Paratype (Prep. WM. 140): co, Saudi Arabia, El Riadh, 4-ii1-56

(ED) ZM.

Rhynchodontodes orientis (Brandt) (nov. comb.)

(Hypenodes orientis Brandt, 1938)

Rhynchodontodes orientis richteri subsp. nov. (Plate II, Fig. 29)

After examining the type of Mypenodes orientis Brandt from

Tchurum, Fars, I find it closely related to Rhynchodontodes sagittalis

Rebel from upper Egypt, and not at all closely related to Schrankia

(=Hypenodes) species such as costaestrigalis and balneorum Alph. 1

illustrate the male genitalia of the latter (Plate IV, Fig. 23) and of the

orientis Brandt holotype (Plate IV, Fig. 22).

Brandt’s original description was also rather misleading in des-

cribing the palp as ‘quite short’; ‘shorter than in most Rhyncho-

dontodes species’ would be more correct. |

In Makran (S. Iran) a race occurs which I here distinguish by the

name of its captor, Herr Richter.

The median area is less brown and less separated from the rest

of the forewing’s grey ground-colour; there is a white diffuse lunule

distally edging the blackish crescent-formed reniform stigma, which

is absent in the holotype and the rest of the typical series illustrated

by Brandt.

To compare with the male genitalia of the holotype of orientis I

illustrate those of richteri; the only difference appears to be the

proportionately smaller and finer dimensions of the former, but this

may be individual rather than racial (Plate IV, Fig. 25). :

T also illustrate the female genitalia (Plate TV, Fig. 24).

Holotype: 9, S. Iran, Makran, Tiz near Putab, 25-iii-54, RS. (SM).

Allotype: co (Prep. WM. 35) and 3 paratypes, 9 9, S. Iran,

Makran, Kahuran, near Putab, 25-iii-54, RS. (SM and coll. EW)

(Prep. 1057). ,

Paratype: @, Baluchistan, Jranshahr, 800 m., 28 to 31-iii-54,

RS. (SM).

A provisional arrangement of the genus Rhynchodontodes based

on similarity of facies and development of aedeagus-probe would be

as follows:

(i) With probe rudimentary: antiqualis Hubn., and mardinalis

Stgr. (Genitalia illustrated in the preceding article in this series.)

(ii) With probe developed but not longer than aedeagus: orientis

(Brandt) and probably sagittalis Reb. (whose genitalia I have not been

able yet to examine).

NOTES ON LEPIDOPTERA OF SAUDI ARABIA, ETC. 631

(iii) With probe longer than aedeagus: ravalis Hubn., ravulalis

Stgr., revolutalis Z. (=syriacalis Stgr., eremialis Walk., centralis Stgr.).

(Genitalia illustrated in the preceding article.) I have not examined

yet the other species in the genus.

REFERENCE

Wiltshire, E. P. (1952) : Lepidoptera recently taken in Arabia. Bull. Soc. Fouad

I., Ent., 36 : 135-174.

On the occurrence of the Spiny

Lobster, Panulirus dasypus (H. Milne-

Edwards) in Bombay waters, with a

note on the Systematics of Bombay

Lobsters: =

B. F. CHHAPGAR, M.Sc. AND §. K. DESHMUKH, M.SC.

Taraporevala Marine Biological Station, Bombay

(With one text-figure)

During their investigations on the biology of spiny lobsters

occurring in Bombay, the authors came across three species of

lobsters. One of these was thought, at first, to be a colour variation

of the Common Lobster Panulirus polyphagus (Herbst). Detailed

examination, however, revealed that it was a different species, the

most significant character for differentiation from hitherto recorded

species (at Bombay) being the presence of transverse grooves on the

abdominal segments. It was then identified as Panulirus dasypus

(H. Milne-Edwards).

The record of an additional species necessitated a review of the

taxonomy of the lobsters of Bombay. While doing so, it was found

that there is considerable confusion in their identification. For

example, the Panulirus fasciatus of Fabricius and Milne-Edwards is

actually Panulirus polyphagus (Herbst), while the Panulirus fasciatus

of De Haan is Panulirus versicolor (Latreille). Rai (1933) and

Chopra (1939), both of whom have previously recorded these species

from Bombay, have given them different names. Thus Rai has re-

corded them along the Bombay-Sind coast as Panulirus ornatus var.

decoratus Heller cf. P. versicolor (Latr.), and Panulirus fasciatus

(Fabr.) respectively, stating that the former is the more common.

Chopra states that the common species of the Bombay coast is

Panulirus ornatus, while Panulirus polyphagus (=Panulirus fasciatus)

* Communicated by the Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra State, Bombay,

OCCURRENCE OF PANULIRUS DASYPUS IN BOMBAY WATERS 633

occurs commonly along the eastern coast of India. Actually, P.

polyphagus is the prevalent species off the Bombay coast, P. versicolor

being the rarest, although both Rai and Chopra have mentioned

otherwise.

Similarly, there is confusion in the identification of P. versicolor

and P. ornatus. Barnard (1950), following de Man (1916), gives as

the distinguishing character of P. versicolor the presence of a small

single-jointed flagellum on the exopodite of the second maxillipede,

whereas in P. ornatus the exopodite is without a flagellum, being

only tipped with a small tuft of setae. Holthuis (1947), on the other

hand, states that ‘the presence of one or more segments of the

flagellum of the exopodite of the second maxillipede in P. versicolor

and the total absence of a flagellum in P. ornatus is rather variable

in the former species, where it sometimes is absent too’. As such,

dependence on the key devised by Barnard would lead to incorrect

identification as regards these two species.

Classification of different species has been based, among other

characters, on the relative lengths of the antennular and antennal

peduncles and the walking legs. The authors, however, have found

these characters to vary in individuals of different sizes, and hence

these characters cannot be relied upon. The salient features of the three

species of lobsters occurring at Bombay are given below. As stated

by Holthuis, however, the most obvious character for identification

is the colour pattern, and particular attention has been paid here to

prepare a detailed colour description.

KEY TO IDENTIFICATION OF LOBSTERS OF BOMBAY

1. Abdominal somites with transverse

grooves (interrupted medianly) a P. dasypus (H. Milne-

Edwards)

Abdominal segments without trans-

verse grooves? 2

2. Exopodite of second maxillipede with

many-jointed flagellum .. P. polyphagus (Herbst)

Exopodite of second maxillipede ain

either a small single-jointed flagellum,

or without a flagellum ... P. versicolor (Latreille)

1 Young specimens of P. polyphagus and P. versicolor may sometimes show traces

of grooves.

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES

Panulirus polyphagus (Herbst)

Cancer (Astacus) polyphagus Herbst, Vers. Naturg. Krabben Krebse 2:90 (1793).

Senex ornatus Ortmann, Zool. Jahrb. Syst. 6:34 (1891).

Palinurus fasciatus Fabricius, Suppl. Ent. syst. : 401 (1798).

Panulirus orientalis Doflein, S. B. Bayer Akad. Wiss. 30 : 130 (1900).

Panulirus fasciatus Milne-Edwards, Hist. nat. Crust. 2: 295 (1837) ; Gavino,

Viaggio Circumnay. Caracciolo : 6 (1888); Annandale, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

18 : 927 (1908); Rai, ibid. 36 : 893 (1933).

Panulirus polyphagus Nobili, Boll. Mus. Zool. Anat. comp. Torino 18 (452) : 14

(1903) ; Borradaile, Fauna Geogr. Mald. Laccad. 2 (3) : 754 (1904); Chopra,

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41: 223 (1939) ; Holthuis, Temminckia 7 : 136 (1947).

Panulirus Powell, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 18 : 360 (1908).

The antennular plate (text-fig. a) bears only one pair of spines,

situated far forward. The median spine on the fused coxicerites of

the antennae (text-fig. d) is much stronger and projects far in front

of the two minute lateral ones. All three spines have wide bases.

\ te

Text-Figure

Antennular plates of : (a) Panulirus polyphagus, (b) P. dasypus, and (c) P. versi-

color. Fused coxicerites of the antennae of : (d) P. polyphagus, (e) P. dasypus, and

(f) P. versicolor.

The dimensions of a medium-sized individual are:

total length «es; W2DO Mam,

length of carapace ... 110 mm.

length of supra-orbital spine ve) 16.5 mm.

The cephalothorax and abdomen have a muddy-brown colour.

There is a row of six white spots on each of the lateral regions of

OCCURRENCE OF PANULIRUS DASYPUS IN BOMBAY WATERS 635

the carapace—the anteriormost spot being larger than the rest. Small

spines arise from these spots. From the postero-lateral corner of

the carapace to the region of the mouth parts runs a white stripe,

terminating in a broad white patch; another white stripe starts from

the same place, running along the bases of the legs. The spines on

the carapace have a brown base with yellowish tips. The antennular

flagella are alternately banded crimson and white.

Each of the abdominal somites has a brown transverse band on

the hind margin, with a narrow cream-coloured stripe running

through it. This stripe in the first segment may be broken. The

hinder third of the telson and uropods has a reddish tinge. The

telson, uropods, and abdominal appendages are bordered with cream-

coloured lines. The legs are brownish red, cream at the joints.

This lobster is locally known as ‘shevand’.

DISTRIBUTION. Mauritius, India, Malay Archipelago, Indochina,

Japan, and Polynesia. It has been previously recorded from

Bombay by Nobili (1903), Annandale (1908), Powell (1908), Rai

(1933), and Chopra (1939).

Panulirus dasypus (H. Milne-Edwards)

Palinurus dasypus H. Milne-Edwards, Hist. nat. Crust. 2 :300 (1837).

Panulirus dasypus Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zool., (ser. 2) 5 : 433 (1893) ;

Thurston, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. 3 : 120 (1895); de Man, Siboga Exped. Rep.

39a2:48 (1916) ; Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. (ser. 2) 1:138 (1927) ;

Hoithuis, Temminckia 7: 134 (1947); Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 38 : 549

(1950).

Senex dasypus Ortmann, Zool. Jahrb. Syst. 6 : 33 (1891).

There are four spines on the antennular plate (text-fig. b), the

posterior two being about 4 the length of the anterior two and being)

a little less distant from each other. A double row of spinules is

present between them. ‘The three spines on the fused coxicerites of

the antennae (text-fig. e) are minute, sub-equal, and placed in a line.

The exopodites of the second maxillipedes hardly reach the ex-

tremity of the merus. The first pair of legs are much stouter than

in the other two species.

Two spines are present in the middle line of the gastric region,

just in front of the cervical groove, and placed behind one another.

The abdominal pleura end almost horizontally.

The dimensions of a medium-sized individual are:

total length »» 250mm.

length of carapace con 112 mim,

length of supra-orbital spine Mie WAL Sys ooloee

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

The cephalothorax and abdomen are of a bluish grey colour,

speckled throughout with minute whitish spots. There is a row of

six to seven white spots (from which spines arise) on each of the

lateral regions of the carapace, the anteriormost being larger than

the rest. From the postero-lateral corner of the carapace to the

region of the mouth parts runs a blue line, terminating in a broad

white patch; another white line starts from the same place and runs

parallel to the bases of the legs. The spines on the carapace are

light brown with yellowish tips. The antennular flagella are alter-

nately banded brown and white. There is a blue line between the

eyes, on the antennular plate, and on the branchio-cardiac groove.

Two lateral white spots are present on each abdominal segment.

The hinder third of the telson and uropods have a reddish tinge.

The telson, uropods, and abdominal appendages are bordered with

cream-coloured lines. The legs are yellowish brown, blotched with

irregular cream spots.

DISTRIBUTION. From the western Indian Ocean to Japan and

Malay Archipelago.

Panulirus versicolor (Latreille)

Palinurus versicolor Latreille, Ann. Mus. Hist. nat. Paris 3 : 394 (1804).

Palinurus taeniatus Lamarck, Hist. nat. Anim. sans Vert. 5:211 (1818).

Palinurus fasciatus De Haan, Fauna Japonica, Crust. : 159 (1841).

Palinurus (Panulirus) ornatus var. decoratus Heller, Reise Novara Zool. 2:99

(1865). fe

Panulirus demani Borradaile, Willey’s Zool. Results 4 : 418 (1899).

Panulirus ornatus Rathbun, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 38 :560 (1910) ; Chopra,

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41: 224 (1939); var. decoratus de Man, Siboga

Exped. Rep. 39a2 : 54 (1916) ; Rai, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36 : 893 (1933) ;

var. laevis de Man, Siboga Exped. Rep. 39a2:55 (1916).

Panulirus versicolor de Man, Siboga Exped. Rep. 39a2:55 (1916); Holthuis:

Temminckia 7 : 142 (1947) ; Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 38 : 553 (1950).

Senex ornatus var. laevis Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. : 557 (1901).

The antennular plate (text-fig. c) bears two pairs of spines. The

posterior pair are slightly smaller and more closely situated than the

anterior pair; there are, very rarely, two denticles in front of and

between them. The three spines on the fused coxicerites of the

antennae (text-fig. f) are large and sub-equal, the median one being

slightly in advance of the laterai ones.

The supra-orbital spines are much longer and stronger than

in the preceding two species. The spines at the antero-lateral angles

OCCURRENCE OF PANULIRUS DASYPUS IN BOMBAY WATERS 637

of the carapace have their tips directed slightly outward. The spines

between these and the supra-orbital spines are also directed outward,

not forward. The three sub-median pairs of spines in front of, and,

the three pairs behind, the cervical groove form a parallel series.

The groove along the posterior margin of the carapace is not of

unitorm width, but widens in the median part.

_ The dimensions of a medium-sized individual are:

total length e200. Ini.

length of carapace tae OSs Imm:

length of supra-orbital spine | Su wa toate

The cephalothorax and abdomen have a green ground colour.

The carapace is marbled with confluent black spots and blotches,

edged with white. These spots continue on to the supra-orbital

spines. The antennules (including the flagella) have alternate black

and. yellowish-white longitudinal stripes. The antennal peduncles

are pink, their spines having black bases with lemon-green tips. The

flagella have green and white longitudinal stripes. The walking legs

have white stripes on a black background.

Each of the abdominal somites has a black transverse band on the

hind margin, with a narrow white stripe running through it. The

borders of the telson, uropods, and abdominal appendages are

fringed with white, while the abdominal appendages also have a

white central stripe. The spinules on the telson and uropods have

a green base with golden tips.

This lobster is locally known as ‘manjri shevand’.

DISTRIBUTION. From the east coast of Africa to Japan and

Polynesia. It has been previously recorded from Bombay by Rai

(1933) and Chopra (1939).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to express their grateful thanks to Dr. C. V.

Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, and Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Research

Officer, for critically going through their paper and for making

available the necessary facilities for observations.

638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

REFERENCES

Annandale, N. (1908): The Bombay

‘spiny lobster’. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

18 : 927.

Barnard, K. H. (1950) : Descriptive

catalogue of South African Decapod

Crustacea (crabs and shrimps). Ann. S.

Afr. Mus. 38 : 535-575, 5 text-figs.

Chopra, B. (1939) : Some food-prawns

and crabs of India and their fisheries.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 221-234,

pls. ili-v.

de Man, J. G. (1916) : The Decapoda

of the Siboga Expedition. Part III.

Families Eryonidae, Palinuridae, Scylla-

ridae and Nephropsidae. Siboga Exped.

Rep. 39a2 : 1-122, pls. i-iv.

Gravely, F. H. (1927) : Orders Deca-

poda (except Paguridea) and Stomato-

poda, in the Littoral fauna of the

Krusadai Island in the Gulf of Manaar,

with appendices on the vertebrates and

plants. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. (n. s.)

1 (1) : 135-155, pls. xix-xxvi, 2 text-figs.

Holthuis, L. B. (1947): Biological

results of the Snellius Expedition. XIV.

The Decapoda Macrura of the Snellius

Expedition. I. The Stenopodidae, Neph-

ropsidae, Scyllaridae and Palinuridae.

Temminckia 7 : 1-178, pls. i-xi.

Nobili, G. (1903) : Crostacei di Pondi-

chéry, Mahé, Bombay, etc. Boll. Mus.

eeel, Anat. comp. Torino 18 (352): 1-24,

pl. i.

Powell, A. (1908) : Panulirus, or ‘ the

spiny lobster’ of Bombay. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 18: 360-389, pls. A, B, 11

text-figs.

Rai, H. S. (1933) : The shell-fisheries

of the Bombay Presidency. Part II. ibid.

36 : 884-897, pls. i, ii, 2 blocks, 3

text-figs.

Thurston, E. (1895): Rameswaram

Island and Fauna of the Gulf of Manaar.

Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. 1 (1).

Studies on the Freshwater Oligochaeta

of South India’

I. Aeolosomatidae and Naididae

oe ASRUr ell

K. VANAMALA NAIDU

Government Arts and Science College, Chittoor (A.P.)

(With three text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The literature on the freshwater oligochaete fauna of the Indian

sub-continent reveals that the group was worked out around Lahore of

the North-Western Territory? and Calcutta of the Indo-Gangetic Plain

area by Stephenson (1907-1925), Annandale (1905-1906), and Mehra

(1920-1922), and around Travancore of the Southern Region by Aiyer

(1924-1930). Asa result of their work, they have recorded 25, 18, and

17 species of worms belonging to Aecolosomatidae and Naididae for the

Southern Region, Indo-Gangetic Plain area, and North-Western Terri-

tory respectively. Ceylon, Western Region, Main Peninsular Region,

Western Himalayan Region, North-East Frontier Region, and Burma

are known to have 4, 5, 4, 5, 0, and 3 species respectively (Table I).

After 1930 serious work on the group was not undertaken by anybody

in the sub-continent.

_ This paper deals with taxonomic diagnoses of 35 species of worms

belonging to 2 families and 10 genera, including a new subfamily and a

new genus, 7 new species, 11 new records for the Southern Region, and

2 new records for the Indian sub-continent. The description of each

of the species is made from 2 or 3 typical forms, which will be deposited

as holotype and syntypes in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, India. The

descriptions of new species include a diagnosis of the species.

Lastockinia gen. nov. is created to receive an aberrant species Aeolo-

soma nieznestnovae Lastockin (1935). Its diagnosis is given. Stephenson-

laninae nov. is created here for genus Stephensoniana Cernosvitov,

which is occupying a solitary position under subfamily Naidinae. With

the removal of this genus the Naidinae is more limited than it

was according to Sperber.

‘+ 4 Communicated by the Principal, Govt. Arts College, Cuddapah, in November

1959.

2 This and the other regions mentioned are listed by Stephenson in the FAUNA

volume on Oligochaeta (1923).

640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

The other 28 species treated here are : 3 species of Aeolosoma belong-

ing to the Aeolosomatidae ; and 3 species of Chaetogaster, 1 species each

of Nais, Haemonais, Stylaria, Branchiodrilus, and Stephensoniana, 6 species

of Dero, 3 species of Aulophorus, 2 species of Allonais, and 6 species of

Pristina, all belonging to the Naididae. Their re-descriptions are based

on 3 or 4 typical forms of each species (except in Pristina jenkinae), which

will be deposited in the Indian Museum.

Keys to the subfamilies of Naididae, to all the genera of Aeolosoma-

tidae, to the subfamilies of the Naididae, and to all the known and valid

species of the 10 genera treated here are given.

Complete synonymies of the majority of the species of the Naididae

are published by Sperber (1948). Wherever the synonymies established

by her are accepted, a repetition has been avoided by citing her paper.

Only synonymies established by the author are included. Important

papers published subsequent to 1948 are referred to. Complete synony-

mies are given for the 3 species of the Aeolosomatidae.

The descriptions of new species and re-descriptions of known species

include details regarding external characters, setal characters, digestive

system, septa, coelomocytes, brain, blood vessels, nephridia, budding

zones, sex organs, size of worms, etc. The measurements of the setae and

the positions of the nodulus are tabulated for most of the species.

Sketches of setae of all the species, and of the brain and nephridia of most

of the species are included. In addition the habits of many species, and

parasites and commensals of a few species are incorporated. |

All the 35 species described here were collected from the following |

freshwater sources in south India during the periods and visits noted

against them :

Localities Period of collection No. of No. of

Visits species

Bugga Stream, Cuddapah Sept. °52—April ’56 Nume-

Aug. ?57—March °58 rous 32

Pullalamadugu Stream, Cuddapah 10.9. 1955 One 1

Handri River, Kurnool 9.4.1958 One 1

Balaji Tank, Kakinada April-Dec. 1956 - Three 9

Kandakam Tank, Bellary April-May 1954 Five 11

Brucepettah Tank, Bellary April-May 1954 Four 3

Miller’s Tank, Bangalore April-May 1958 Two 2

Langford Town Tank, Bangalore April-May 1958 Six 9

Ulsoor Tank, Bangalore April-May 1958 Two 8

Sewage canal across Audagodi-Hosur

Road, Bangalore April-May 1958 One 1

The collections were made from Bugga Stream all round the

year during the 44 years, unlike in other localities. During this period

it was found that certain species of worms which are abundant in parti-

cular months are scarce or nearly absent in subsequent months, their

FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 641

place having been taken by some other species of worms. Thus, there is

a seasonal variation in the density of populations of all the species

of worms round the year.

Asexual reproduction by budding is common in all species and occurs

throughout the year. Sexual reproduction is rare, occurring only

seasonally. Many species of worms develop sex organs from January

to June. During the time that sex organs are developed all the species

of worms suspend asexual reproduction except Stylaria fossularis

and Pristina longiseta longiseta, which go through asexual reproduc-

tion along with the development of sex organs.

In every freshwater source some freshwater oligochaete or other

was collected. From Bugga Stream alone, where collections were made

intensively, 32 species of Aeolosomatidae and Naididae, 5 species of

Tubificidae?, and 1 species of Enchytraeidae+, were collected. This

number is the world record for a single water source. It is possible that

many other water sources would provide as many species of freshwater

oligochaetes if intensive collections were undertaken. In others only

samples of mud and water were taken and casual examination for fresh-

water oligochaetes was made. Even such casual examination has

yielded between 1 and 11 species from them. From this it is evident that

freshwater oligochaetes are available in all fresh waters.

II. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The present study was done mainly in the Natural Science Depart-

ment of the Government Arts College, Cuddapah. Iam greatly indebted

to the authorities of the institution for allowing me the use of the equip-

ment. I sincerely thank Dr. Christina Sperber of Uppsala, Sweden,

for her valuable criticism and suggestions made during the preparation

of this paper. My grateful thanks are due to Dr. C. P. Gnanamuittu,

Professor of Zoology, University of Madras, Madras, Prof. P.

Kotchukutta Menon, Presidency College, Madras, and Dr. B. R. Sesha-

char, Professor of Zoology, University of Mysore, Bangalore, for the

encouragement given to me; and to Dr. G. Krishnan, Professor of

Zoology (U.G.C.), Madras University, Madura Branch, and Dr. S.

Krishnaswamy, Reader in Zoology, University of Madras, Madras, for

useful suggestions for the preparation of the paper; and to Dr. K.

Pampapathy Rao, Reader in Zoology, S. V. University, Tirupati, for

going through the paper. My thanks are also due to Dr. Libbie H.

Hyman of the American Museum of Natural History, New York, for

giving me from her personal collection some valuable papers on the

group by Dr. Ernesto Marcus and Dr. Eveline du-Bois Raymond Marcus

of Sao Paulo, Brazil.

1 These will be dealt with in a subsequent paper.

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

III. MATERIAL AND METHODS

Collection: The worms inhabiting the aquatic plants, algae,

decaying vegetable matter, etc. were collected either by shaking up

decaying leaves, wood, cloth, etc. in water in dissection trays or by leaving

the algae and aquatic plants in large quantities of water in beakers for a

day or two, thus allowing them to settle on the walls of containers, and

pipetting them out. The mud-dwellers were collected by washing

samples of mud in trays and pipetting the coiled and moving worms

from small quantities of water.

Observation: Observations were made mainly on _ living

worms. Morphological studies were made chiefly on: the shape,

number, position, and lengths of setae ; the shape of the gut and brain ;

the position of the dorsal vessel, the number and position of contractile

lateral vessels ; the shape, structure, and number of nephridia ; the number

and position of the budding zones ; the position, shape, and structure

of the sex organs. The modes of locomotion and habits of the worms

were also noted. Fresh setal preparations were made by crushing the

worms between cover glass and slide for studying the number, shape, and

length of setae. Permanent setal preparations were made by crushing

the worms between the cover glass and slide and sealing off with Canada

balsam. Many sketches were drawn to measurements and others by

the use of the camera lucida.

Measurements: All measurements were made using the eye-

piece micrometer. The lengths of the setae and the position of the no-

dulus in the ratio D: P (the length of the shaft distal to the nodulus :

the length of the shaft proximal to the nodulus) is given for all

the Naididae. When a single measurement is given for the setae, it is

the length of the longest seta in the bundle. Needle-setae and hair-setae

are referred to as needles and hairs ; ventral setae are referred to as crot-

chets occasionally. When the teeth of needles are equally long, the

tooth on the side of the concave curvature is referred to as the inner and

the other as the outer. The teeth of the setae are referred to as teeth in

needles and as prongs in ventral setae.

IV. AEOLOSOMATIDAE AND NAIDIDAE OF THE SOUTHERN REGION

IN INDIA AND THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Stephenson (1923) tabulates only the following six species for the

Southern Region: (1) Nais communis, (2) Nais (=Allonais) pectinata,

(3) Naidium (=Pristina) breviseta, (4) Pristina longiseta (=Pr. longiseta

longiseta), (5) Branchiodrilus semperi, and (6) Br. menoni. Of these the

last named isasynonym of Br. semperi (cf. Sperber, 1948). Hence, there

were only five valid species of Naididae and no Aeolosomatidae known

for the Southern Region till 1923. In Travancore, Aiyer (1925, 1926,

FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 643

and 1930) recorded 19 more species, Stephenson (1925b) added 2 species,

and Sperber (1958) added one species to the region. They are (1) Aeolo-

soma bengalense, (2) Ae. hemprichii, (3) Ae. travancorense, (4) Nais pecti-

nata inaequalis (=Allonais inaequalis), (5) Naidium (=Pristina) menoni,

(6) Pristina aequiseta1 (7) Pr. proboscidea paraguayensis (=Pr. pro-

boscidea), (8) Stephensonia (=Stephensoniana) trivandrana, (9) Slavina

appendiculata, (10) Dero zeylanica, (11) D. limosa (=digitata),

(12) D. austrina (=dorsalis), (13) D. pectinata, (14) D. palmata, (15) D.

nivea, (16) Aulophorus furcatus, (17) A. michaelseni, (18) A. tonkinensis,

(19) Nais (=Allonais) paraguayensis paraguayensis, (20) Aulophorus

gravelyi, (21) Pristina synclites, and (22) Pr. foreli. Thus, the number of

species known for the Southern Region was 27 in 1958. With the 18

species mentioned in the next paragraph the number now stands at 45.

The thirty-five species treated here include 7 new species, and 11 new

records for the Southern Region. They are Nais menoni sp. nov., Dero

indica sp. nov., D. plumosa sp. nov., Aulophorus hymanae sp. nov., A.

indicus sp. nov., Allonais rayalaseemensis sp. nov., and Pristina sperberae

sp. nov. ; Chaetogaster diastrophus (Gruithuisen), Ch. langi Bretscher,

Ch. cristallinus Vejdovsky, Stylaria fossularis Leidy, Haemonais wald-

vogeli Bretscher, Dero cooperi Stephenson, D. sawayai Marcus, Allonais

gwaliorensis (Stephenson), Pristina minuta (Stephenson), Pr. aequiseta

Bourne, and Pr. jenkinae (Stephenson). Of these Dero sawayai and

Pristina jenkinae are new records for the Indian sub-continent. As a

result 45 species are known for the Southern Region and 53 species for

the Indian sub-continent.

TABLE I

DISTRIBUTION OF AEOLOSOMATIDAE AND NAIDIDAE IN THE NINE GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS

OF THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT

(av)

ai) is

Sree eae ei le

So ice rey OU eg 2

pe f Pe else &

S q € =| @ aie ar

Seo cel ao pee! | eOL eo 3

OS pee ae te ae SS Go|

>| EB) Sle) 315 Be gl §

O|a/s | 2 Sel 2) |e Ze tie

E | 1 | m |W | Ivy Vv | vi | vit |vuntr| 1x

AEOLOSOMATIDAE |

1. Aeolosoma bengalense* ae == ete

2. Ae. hemprichii* -, Sime =

3. Ae. viridae “A | aS

4. Ae. travancorense* = facie

5. Ae. ternarium? »-| +

1 This was an incorrect identification. The species was really Pr. evelinae.

2 Doubtful validity. —

* Species treated in this paper.

644

l ies

ib) 2

eee

S| Ase

S);a);s/&

i) io) as Oo

ae 2 m)/a\s

| alee

siaci|sis

S| 2) Sq |e

>| 2\/8i3/

Oa ee

ey | Te WE) Weal

NAIDIDAE

6. Chaetogaster diastrophus* +

7. Ch. langi* +] 4 ob

8. Ch. diaphanus | |

9. Ch. cristallinus* abe | a0

10. Ch. limnei limnei | |

11. Ch. limnei bengalense sg a0

12. Nais communis* ee us

13. N.menoni sp. nov.* a

14. N. barbata ae

15. N. elinguis | as

16. N. raviensis

17. Slavina appendiculata oy an

18. Stylaria fossularis* + aE

19. Haemonais waldvogeli* + | ae

20. Branchiodrilus semperi* ara

21. Br. hortensis ae

22. Dero dorsalis* at.

23. D. digitata* +.

24. JD. indica sp. nov.* ae

25. D. zeylanica* +/+

26. D. cooperi* + | ate

27. D. nivea* ee

28. D. sawayai* aS

29. D. pectinata ae

30. D.plumosa sp. nov.* +: |

31. D. palmata + |

32. Aulophorus furcatus* + | +4

33. A. michaelseni* ae se

34. A. hymanae sp. nov.* +

35. <A. gravelyi =e

36. A. indicus sp. nov.* +

37. A. tonkinensis* to) + ie

38. Allonais inaequalis* = ais

39. Al. paraguayensis | |

paraguayensis + + pt

40. Al.rayalaseemensis sp.

nov.* | a

41. Al. gwaliorensis* ale at

42. Al. pectinata J | + | +

43. Stephensoniana trivan-

drana* a |

44. Pristina minuta* a |

45. Pr. menoni + |

46. Pr. jenkinae* ae]

47. Pr. synclites* ae

48. Pr. breviseta Foca

49, Pr. aequiseta* La aig

50. Pr. evelinae* ak

51. Pr. longiseta longiseta* +) tipi st

52. Pr. proboscidea o) + ae

53. Pr. foreli fF as

54. Pr. sperberae sp. nov* | ae,

41451 5| 4

z= Species treated in this paper -

TABLE I—(contd.)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

North-western Territory

+ +4+++

___Region

North-east Frontier

Western Himalayan

Region

Burma

FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 645

TABLE IT

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF AEOLOSOMATIDAE AND NAIDIDAE

| | America

Australia | Asia | Africa | Europe

| | North! South

AEOLOSOMATIDAE

1. Aeolosoma bengalense .. So +-

2. Ae. hemprichii + + ++ 4+ “>

3. Ae. travancorense fe

NAIDIDAE

4. Chaetogaster diastro-

phus ts ae a aS

5. Ch. langi + + + = +

6. Ch. cristallinus alle ai a ae

7. Nais communis + + + ae +

8. Stylaria fossularis : =F alg le

9. Haemonais waldvogeli . . + - tb + ok

10. Branchiodrilus semperi. . 8

11. Dero dorsalis + + +

12. D. digitata 2 +- as de +

13. D. zeylanica -

14. D. cooperi + ++ ++

15. D. nivea + +

16. D. sawayai es +

17. Aulophorus furcatus .. = + 4- + + a

18. <A. michaelseni Age =e

19. A. tonkinensis 4. aL “ln

20. Allonais inaequalis + = oe

21. Al. gwaliorensis + 24

22. Stephensoniana

trivandrana +

23. Pristina minuta -|- of +

24. Pr. synclites aL

25. Pr. jenkinae “Fh “+ ++

26. Pr. aequiseta + +- + + +

27. Pr. evelinae ae + =a =-

28. Pr. longiseta longiseta. . + at a =i aR

2 Dil 13 14 11 19

V. SYSTEMATICS

Family AEOLOSOMATIDAE

Aeolosomatidae has only three valid genera, viz. Hystricosoma

Michaelsen, 1926 ; Aeolosoma Ehrenberg, 1831 ; and Potamodrilus Las-

tockin, 1935. The very aberrant species Aeolosoma nieznestnovae Las-

tockin, 1935, without setae and with paired lateral tubercles on the body-

wall and two post-anal appendages, does not fit into the genus Aeolosoma

characterised by the presence of setae and by the absence of paired tuber-

cles on the body-wall and post-anal appendages. I agree with the view

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

of Marcus (1944) that a fourth genus is necessary to receive this aberrant

species. As its presence in Aeolosoma is incongruous and as it does

not fit into either Hystricosoma or Potamodrilus, the two other genera

in the family, a new genus Lastockinia after the late Dr. D. A. Lastockin

is created to receive it,

Genus Lastockinia gen. nov.

Generic type: Lastockinia nieznestnovae (Lastockin)

Prostomium not separated by a well-defined groove from the rest of

the body, broader than following segments. External segmentation indis-

tinct. Setae absent. Paired lateral tubercles and two post-anal

appendages present. Skin glands usually present. Paratomy occurs.

Fig. 1. Aeolosoma bengalense Stephenson: A. Entire worm (ventral view); B.

Hair seta x 705; C. Nephridium. Fig. 2. Aeolosoma hemprichii Ehrenberg: A.

Nephridium. Fig. 3. Aeolosoma travancorense Aiyer: A. Hair seta x c. 1000. B. Needle

seta x c. 1000. C. Nephridium. D. Holotrichous Ciliate parasite, Radiophryoides.

a: anus; br: brain; gl: gland; in: intestine; npd: nephridial duct; npp:

nephridiopore ; nps: nephrostome; oe: oesophagus; pp: pharynx; st: stomach. ~

FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA _ 647

KEY TO ALL THE GENERA OF AEOLOSOMATIDAE

A-1 Setae present ; paired tubercles absent on body-wall

B-1 Prostomium separated from the body by a

well-defined groove *Hystricosoma

B-2 Prostomium not separated from body by

well-defined groove

C-1 Body provided with glandular post-anal append-

age ; worms attached *Potamodrilus

C-2 Body without post-anal appendage ; worms not

attached. Aeolosoma

A-2 Setae absent ; paired tubercles present on body-wall Bi *Lastockinia

gen. nov.

1. Genus Aeolosoma Ehrenberg, 1831

Generic characters : Eyes absent. Prostomium not separated from

the body by well-defined groove, semi-circular, flat with or without lateral

sensory ciliary pits. Skin glands coloured or colourless. Dorsal and

ventral setae from II on, composed of hairs or hairs and needles.

Pharynx funnel-shaped, oesophagus thin, stomach conspicuous, gut

entirely ciliated ; intestinal anti-peristalsis and ascending ciliary vibration

occur. Septa absent. Blood colourless ; dorsal vessel mid-dorsal and

contractile ; ventral vessel mid-ventral and non-contractile ; lateral

contractile vessels absent. Nephridia paired, start in II or III. Budding

zones 1-4 or more; produce prostomium and some anterior segments

to posterior zooid, and some hind segments to anterior zooid, before

fission.

KEY TO THE KNOWN AND VALID SPECIES. OF AEOLOSOMA

A-1 Secretions of skin glands coloured

B-1 Secretions of skin glands red, orange or dark garnet

C-1 Needle setae present

D-1 Needle setae smooth, present in ventral

bundles only ; skin glands red, present

dorsally ee *eyelinae

D-2 Needle setae toothed in dorsal and ventral

bundles ; skin glands present dorsally and

ventrally, light red we *corderoi

C-2 Needle setae absent

E-1 All the setae of a bundle are equal in length *quarternarium

E-2 Setae of bundles are of different lengths

F-1 Skin glands reddish, occurring only

dorsally ; stomach in V-XI sie * gertae

* Genera not known from the Indian sub-continent

648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

F-2 Skin glands reddish, occurring both

dorsally and ventrally ; stomach in

- VI-VII

G-1 Ciliated pits present on prosto-

mium ; skin glands red

G-2 Ciliated pits absent on prosto-

mium; skin glands red and

green

B-2 Secretions of skin glands yellow, green, lemon, olive

or blue-green

H-1 Needle setae present

I-1 Needle setae smooth

J-1 Needle setae present from III

J-2 Needle setae present from V

I-2 Needle setae serrated

K-1 Skin glands yellowish orange; teeth

on convex border of needle setae

distally

K-2 Skin glands bright yellow ; teeth on

concave border of needle distally

H-2 Needle setae absent

L-1 Zone of fission between VII and X

M-1 Skin glands yellow

M-2 Skin glands yellowish green

N-1 Nephridia begin in II

N-2 Nephridia begin in III

O-1 Nephridial funnel narrow ;

n=8-9

O-2 Nephridial funnel wide;

n=10

L-2 Zone of fission between XI and XV

P-1 Stomach upto XI

P-2 Stomach upto VIII

Q-1 Ciliated fields present on dorsal

surface of prostomium ;

body-diameter 0.2-0.3 mm.

Q-2 Ciliated fields absent; body-

diameter 0.06-0.1 mm.

A-2 Secretions of skin glands colourless

R-1 Needle setae present

S-1 Needle setae serrated (under oil immersion)

S-2 Needle setae smooth

R-2 Neédle setae absent

1. Aeolosoma bengalense Stephenson, 1911

Fig. 1, A, B.

Aeolosoma bengalense Stephenson, 1911, p. 204..

hemprichii

*kashyapi

*leidyi

*tenebrarum

*japonica

*sawayai

* flavum

-viridae

*yariegatum

*pointneri

*headleyi

bengalense

*aqureum

travancorense

*beddardi

*niveum

Aeolosoma bengalense Stephenson: Stephenson, 1923, p. 41: 1930, p. 136. Aiyer

1926, p. 131, fig. 1-3. Michaelsen & Boldt, 1932, p. 590. Marcus, 1944, pp. 16- -17.

* Species not known from the Indian sub-continent

FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 649

fig. 5 A, B. Du-Bois Raymond Marcus, 1944, p. 5, fig. 11-12. Yamaguchi, 1953,

pp. 280-281, fig. 1.

Aeolosoma sp. 1. Stephenson, 1931b, p. 298.

Material examined: Numerous worms collected from the Bugga

Stream, Cuddapah in July 1955, and from Ulsoor Tank, Bangalore,

in May 1958.

Worms (Fig. 1 A) whitish and of medium size. Prostomium with

sensory hairs, wider than anterior segments, about equal to the widest

body-diameter, with ventral ciliation and two small dorso-lateral ciliated

sensory pits. Body-wall colourless and transparent with skin glands of

larger, variously shaped, dirty yellow or greenish yellow, and of smaller

ovoid blue colour.

Dorsal and ventral bundles composed of hairs and needles ; hairs

(Fig. 1 B) bayonet-shaped, non-serrate, 280-350 » long, 1-4 per bundle

dorsally, and 200-220 » long, 4-7 per bundle ventrally ; needles non-

serrate, bayonet-shaped, 140-180 » long, 3-4 per bundle dorsally ;

100-120 p» long, 4-6 per bundle ventrally.

Mouth ventral, V-shaped. Pharynx in II, funnel-like. Oesophagus

in III, thin and wavy. Stomach in IV-sVIII, fusiform and bright yellow.

Intestine thin and wavy.

Brain ovoid with constrictions medially in front and behind.

Dorsal vessel arises in IV, runs dorsally over oesophagus and pharynx,

divides into two, descends on either side of the pharynx and unites with

non-contractile ventral vessel in II. Blood flows from behind forwards

in dorsal and from anterior to posterior in ventral vessels.

First nephridial pair in II, last in IX or X. Nephridium (Fig. 1 C)

has a minute funnel with a ciliated nephrostome, followed by a

long coiled ciliated duct passing through glandular mass and opening to

exterior by nephridiopore ventro-laterally. Cilia in the nephrostome and

nephridial duct beat down the lumen.

Worms with 1-4 budding zones common. Some hind segments to

the anterior zooid, and prostomium and a few anterior segments to the

posterior zooid are budded before fission. As the first budding zone is

proliferating segments to both the zooids, second, third, and fourth

budding zones are developed, second zone in front of the first,

third behind the first, and fourth anterior to the second zone.

Sexual worms not encountered.

1 (preserved) =1.0—1.2 mm.; d (preserved)=0.2 mm.; s=12-15;

n=9-10.*

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Calcutta (N. India) ; Travancore

(S. India). Now recorded from Cuddapah and Bangalore (S. India).

Habits : No swimming. Glides on substratum like Turbellarians.

: l=length; d =diameter ; s=number of segments of each worm ; and n=num-

ber of segments behind which budding zone develops.

650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

2. Aeolosoma hemprichii Ehrenberg, 1831

Fig. 2 A

Aeolosoma hemprichii Ehrenberg. Gervais, 1838, p. 14. Beddard, 1895, p. 183.

Smith, 1900, p. 443. Michaelsen, 1900, p. 14; 1905, p. 305. Bretscher, 1906, p. 6.

Pointner, 1911, p. 627. Piguet, 1913, pp. 112-113. Lastockin, 1918, p. 57; 1924,

p. 4; 1927, p. 65. Svetlov, 1926, p. 250. Oye, 1927, p. 359. Ude, 1929, pp. 18-19.

Cernosvitov, 1930, p. 9. Kondo, 1936, p. 382. Kenk, 1941, p. 6. Marcus, 1944,

pp. 21-22, fig. 7 A, B. Chen, 1944, p. 1. Causey, 1953a, p. 55. Yamaguchi, 1957,

pp. 161-163, fig. 1.

Aeolosoma venustum Leidy, 1850, p. 46, pl. IL, fig. 8-12.

Aeolosoma pictum Schmarda, 1861, p. 10, pl. XVII, fig. 155.

Aeolosoma stokesii Cragin, 1887, p. 31.

Aeolosoma kashyapi Stephenson. Aiyer, 1926, p. 138.

Aeolosoma hemprichii var. kashyapi Stephenson. Chen, 1940, pp. 23-24, fig. la.

Material examined: Numerous worms collected from the Bugga

Stream, Cuddapah in October and December 1955; from the Balaji

Tank, Kakinada in December 1956; from the Kandakam Tank, Bellary

in April 1954 and 1956.

Worms minute, transparent, colourless and invisible to naked eye,

Integument has numerous spherical and ovoid deep red cutaneous glands,

scattered irregularly dorsally and ventrally, with concentration in prosto-

mium and anal segment. Prostomium wider than body diameter, with

marginal sensory hairs, ventral ciliation and lateral sensory ciliated

pits. Its margin is highly mobile, constantly curling up and down as the

worm glides along the substratum.

Each seta-bundle has 3-5 bayonet-shaped hairs only ; when 3, central

hair longer than others, when 4, alternate ones longer, when 5, 3 longer

and 2 shorter. Longer hairs 90-120 wu long.

Mouth semi-circular with a thick ciliated rim. Pharynx in II, short

and funnel-shaped. Oesophagus in III, thin. Stomach in IV-VI, barrel-

shaped and brown. Intestine thin and sinuous from VII. Food material

rotates on its axis during its course through the gut. Coelomocytes

translucent, ovoid or spindle-shaped.

Brain dumb-bell-shaped.

Dorsal vessel mid-dorsally attached to gut, divides anteriorly into two,

branches unite with non-contractile ventral vessel below the pharynx.

Nephridia two per segment from II or III to TX. Nephridium (Fig.

2 A) is a long coiled ciliated duct with a ciliated nephrostome anteriorly

opening into the coelom, the duct traverses glandular mass and ends

by nephridiopore.

Worms with 2-4 budding zones common.

1 (living)=1.8 mm. ; d (living)=0.06 mm. ; s=12-14 ; n=7-8.

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Travancore (S. India); Lahore

(Pakistan). Now recorded from Cuddapah, Bellary, Kakinada (S. India).

FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 651

Remarks : Stephenson (1909a) identified the Lahore aeolosomatids

with deep orange skin glands as Ae. hemprichii and separated them as

Ae. kashyapi (1923) purely on the basis of their small size and the presence

of equally long setae in the bundles. Ciliated pits are stated to be absent

(Stephenson, 1909a). This important character was overlooked by him

in his diagnosis of Ae. kashyapi and he created the new species on the

differences in size and setae from Ae. hemprichii. Aiyer (1926) also failed

to observe this important character. Examining both Ae. kashyapi and

Ae. hemprichii in Brazil, Marcus (1944) found ciliated pits absent in the

former and present in the latter. He distinguished the two species

mainly on the presence and absence of the ciliated pits. He also found a

few greenish skin glands among the red ones in Ae. kashyapi, Brazilian

worms are 2 mm. long, Japanese worms are 1.5 mm. long (Yamaguchi,

1957) and Chinese worms are 3 mm. long (Chen, 1940). Bayonet-

shaped hairs and needles observed in the present worms were not pointed

out by the previous writers.

Habits : Swimming absent ; gliding occurs. Backward progression

by series of jerks.

3. Aeolosoma travancorense Aiyer, 1926

Fig. 3 A-D

Aeolosoma travancorense Aiyer, 1926, p. 136; 1930, pp. 16-19, fig. 1. Stephenson,

1930, pp. 723, 725. Marcus, 1944, pp. 24-25, fig. 11, 12, 15, 75.

Material examined : Many worms collected from the Bugga Stream,

Cuddapah in November 1953, June 1954 and December 1955.

Worms minute, whitish and live in tubes larger than themselves, made

of sand, mud and mucus. Integument with colourless ovoid skin glands.

Prostomium wider than body diameter and highly flexible. Prosto-

mium and anal segment bear sensory hairs.

Dorsal and ventral bundles composed of hairs and needles. In II

all are hairs, from II needles replace hairs, middle segments have 2-3

needles and 2-3 hairs, hind segments have all needles. Hairs (Fig. 3 A)

are bayonet-shaped, 63-80 » long. Needles (Fig. 3 B) are thicker and half

as long as hairs, bayonet-shaped, 35-38.5 » long, with one row of 10-12

teeth in the concave border distally.

Mouth ventral, four-cornered and ciliated. Pharynx in II, funnel-

shaped. Oesophagus in III, thin and wavy. Stomach in IV-VII, wide,

orange coloured. Intestine thin and ciliated, opening posteriorly in

anus. Coelomocytes absent.

Brain dumb-bell-shaped.

Dorsal vessel mid-dorsal and contractile ; ventral vessel mid-ventral

and non-contractile. No contractile vascular loops.

652 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

First pair of nephridia in III ; nephridium (Fig. 3 C) is a long coiled,

ciliated duct with a ciliated nephrostome opening in the coelom, a minute

nephridiopore opening to exterior ventrolaterally, and proximal half of

the duct compactly coiled and enclosed in gland tissue.

Budding zones 1-3 common; provide some hind segments to

the anterior zooid and prostomium and head seers to the posterior

zooid before they separate.

1 (living) =1.0 mm. ; d (living)=0.07 mm. ; s=12-13 ; n=7-8.

- Distribution in Taian sub-continent : Travancore (S. India). Now

recorded from Cuddapah (S. India).

Parasites : In the gut of several worms astomatous ciliates belonging

to genus Radiophryoides (Fig. 3 D) are harboured as parasites. They

are light green in colour in life, with flatly ovoid body, 160-180 » long, 70-

78 p wide and 35-40 p» thick, with longitudinal rows of cilia. They move

slowly rotating on their axes. Several ciliates have 1-2 buds attached

posteriorly.

Remarks : Aiyer (1926) states the presence of two rows of very minute

teeth in the concave border of the needles. I could see only one row of

them under oil immersion. The ciliate parasites have been found by

Aiyer (1930) in his worms.

Habits: No swimming. Moves by gliding.

(To be continued)

The Birds of Nepal

PART 5

BISWAMOY BISWAS

Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta

[Continued from Vol. 58 (2) : 474]

Family MUSCICAPIDAE

Subfamily TURDINAE

*413. Brachypteryx stellatus stellatus Gould. Gould’s Shortwing.

Gould’s (1868, p. 218) description was based on one of the two

specimens obtained by Lieut. Eccles from Nepal, the other specimen

was presented to the British Museum. However, both these speci-

mens were stated as coming from Sikkim by Sharpe (1883, p. 31) for

reasons best known to him. The only specimen that undoubtedly

came from Nepal was taken by Stevens (1925a, p. 356) in the Mai

Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 2135 m. on April 8.

*414, Brachypteryx leucophrys nipalensis Horsfield & Moore. Nepal

Shortwing.

The Nepal Shortwing is known from Nepal only from four speci-

mens, two of which (types) were presented by Hodgson to the Museum

of the East India Company in 1853 when he was living in Darjeeling.

It may therefore, be presumed that they came from eastern Nepal.

The other two specimens were collected by Stevens (1925a, p. 357)

from the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 2135 m. in early April.

415. Brachypteryx montana cruralis (Blyth). Whitebrowed Shortwing.

BuHaBar : Amlekhganj : 2 99 (March 8). MARKHU VALLEY : Deorali: 2 ¢2,

1 2 (April 29, May 2). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang : 1 ¢ (April 22). NEPAL VALLEY ;

Thankot : 1 9 (April 12).

The Whitebrowed Shortwing is not easily seen due to its habit of

skulking in heavy undergrowth. It occurs as a solitary bird.

Scully (1879) and Ripley (1950b) failed to find it in Nepal, but

Stevens (1925a, p. 357) took specimens in the Mai Valley, eastern

654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Nepal, at c. 2895 m. on April 8, and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 148)

reported it from central Nepal in the Nepal Valley and the dun.

All my male specimens are in female plumage. They all have the

supercilium as in slaty blue specimens. The supercilium is, however,

absent in my female specimens, as in Stevens’s (loc. cit.) and Rand &

Fleming’s (loc. cit.) birds, although it is said to be present in females

and is silky white (Baker, 1924, p. 18) or golden brown (Roonwal &

Nath, 1949, p. 325) in colour. Stevens had already pointed out that

the ‘males in many cases breed . . . in the feminine phase of colora-

tion. The white supercilium is present in males only .. .’; then he

cited examp‘es of two specimens, male and female ‘both in similar

plumage, female without supercilium’, and stated further: ‘All breed-

ing males in female garb have supercilium as in slaty blue specimens.’

With this I entirely agree. The descriptions of females given by

Baker (loc. cit.), and Roonwal & Nath (loc. cit.) would, therefore,

appear to be those of males in feminine plumage.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

SOG 8 68 (2), 69 42+, 45, 47.5 —, 16, 16.5

42°: 64, 66 (3) 43 (2), 44 (2) 15, 15.5, 16 (2)

*416. Erithacus calliope calliope (Pallas). Common Rubythroat.

The Common Rubythroat was not come across by us or by Scully

(1879). Proud (1949, p. 702) once observed a single example in the

Nepal Valley on April 1. Ripley (1950b, p. 386) found it in the

Arun Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 365 m. in February. Rand &

Fleming (1957; p. 148) reported it in winter from c. 915 m. in west-

central Nepal, and from c. 760 m. in eastern Nepal,

*417. Erithacus svecicus svecicus (Linnaeus). Redspotted Bluethroat.

We were unable to find the Bluethroat in Nepal; neither was

Ripley (1950b). It was reported from the Nepal Valley in small

numbers in winter by Scully (1879, p. 305) and Proud (1955, p. 60),

but the latter author found it very common on passage. Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 149) found it throughout the Nepal tarai in winter.

418. Erithacus pectoralis pectoralis (Gould). Himalayan Rubythroat.

Dun : Bhimphedi: 1 2 (May 10). CuITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 subad. ¢

(March 14). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot : 1 ¢, 1 2 (March 29, April 9).

The Himalayan Rubythroat is sporadically seen in central Nepal.

We found it to be rather shy, keeping usually in or close to dense

bushes.

It was reported in winter or spring from the Nepal Valley by

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 655

Scully (1879, p. 304), Proud (1955, p. 60) and Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 148). The last-named authors found it also in western

Nepal at c. 4570 m. in winter. Lowndes (1955, p. 32) recorded it

from Manangbhot, central Nepal, at c. 3960-4570 m. in July-August,

obviously breeding. Be

The breeding altitude for this bird has been given as c. 2745-

4570 m. (Baker, 1924, p. 93; Ripley, 1961, p. 496). Unless my May 10

specimen from c. 1280 m. (Bhimphedi) was a late comer from the

winter grounds the species perhaps occasionally breeds at elevations

lower than c. 2745 m. Unfortunately, no data on the specimen’s

breeding or the condition of the gonad were kept.

The subadult male specimen is olive-brown on the upper side.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Doe: 72°, 74 554, 64 1382,-18.5

DOr: 68, 70 56, 61 | ie es)

a Subadult specimen

According to Ripley (1961, p. 497) the breeding form in Nepal is the

eastern subspecies, E. p. confusus (Hartert). However, Lowndes’s

specimens from central Nepal were identified by Kinnear as pectoralis.

The breeding range of confusus probabiy starts from eastern Nepal

(see next form, below).

*419. Erithacus pectoralis confusus (Hartert). Eastern Rubythroat.

The only authentic record of the Eastern Rubythroat from Nepal

has been made by Biswas (1960a) who found it breeding in Khumbu,

eastern Nepal, at c. 4570-4875 m. in April-May.

420. Erithacus brunneus brunneus (Hodgson). Indian Blue Chat.

Dun : Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 444, 3 subad. 4, 6 92 (May 3-11). MARKHU

VALLEY : Deorali: 2 ¢¢, 1 subad. ¢ (April 28-30). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang :

5 $$, 12 (April 22-27). :

The Indian Blue Chat is common in central Nepal in dense forests,

usually on the ground, but occasionally perching on trees also.

Scully (1879) did not include it in his Nepal list. Stevens (1925a,

p. 356) found it breeding in the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal, in April-

May. It was reported from the Nepal Vailey in March-April by

Ripley (1950b, p. 386), and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 149). Proud

(1955, p. 60) reported it breeding ihere at c. 2560 m. in summer.

Smythies (1950, p. 515) also made a doubtful record from the Nepal

Valley (Phulchauki Danda) at c. 2590 m. in June. Polunin (1955,

p. 890) found a single example at c. 2745 m. in the Langtang Valley,

central Nepal, in summer.

656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

The subadult birds have brown primaries, and in addition, two

of them have the wing coverts with rufescent tips, and one has olive-

brown feathers on the posterior crown and nape.

Measurements :

15 go 799

Wing: 72.58, 738, 73, 74, 75a, 762, 76, 76.5, 71, 71.5, 72 (2),—, 73, 74

77 (2), 78 (2), 78.5, 79, 80

Tail : 46a, 47a, 47, 48 (3), 49a, 50a, 50 (2), 44, 45,—,46 (2), 46.5, 50

514(2),;52(2)5-53

Bill: 15.5a, 16a(3), 16 (5), 16.5 (2), 17 (2),—(2) 15.5, 16 (2), 16.5 (2), 17,—

* Subadult specimens.

It is said to breed from c. 1525 m. upwards (Baker, 1924, p. 15;

Ripley, 1961, p. 497). However, we obtained specimens between c. 455

and 1220 m. in May, but no data on the breeding of these specimens

is available.

421. Erithacus cyanurus rufilatus (Hodgson). Redflanked Bush Robin.

CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang, Chandragiri above Chitlang: 1 ¢, 1 (@), ljuv. 6,

2 22 (March 15-18, April 22). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot : 9 22 (March 21—April 2).

The Redflanked Bush Robin is not uncommon during March and

April on the Chandragiri, sometimes even on trees overhanging the

main Kathmandu trail. It usually occurs singly or in pairs and is

of rather restless disposition.

Stevens (1925a, p. 354) recorded it from the Singalila Range,

eastern Nepal, at c. 3100 m. in March-April. Proud (1949, p. 703)

reported it common in the Nepal Valley at c. 1525 m. upwards in

winter. Ripley (1950b, p. 386) found it in winter in western ‘and

eastern Nepal. Proud (1952a, p. 363) noted it as common in pairs

up to c. 3350 m. in the Gandak-Kosi watershed, central Nepal, in

spring. Polunin (1955, p. 891) found it in the Langtang Valley,

central Nepal, at c. 3960 m. in summer. Lowndes (1955, p. 32)

reported it very common in Manangbhot, central Nepal, at c. 3050-

3960 m. in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 149-150) found it

in western, west-central and central Nepal, at c. 1370-2285 m. in

winter and spring. Biswas (1960a) reported it preparing to breed in

Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at c. 3810-4420 m. in March-May.

My juvenile male specimen appezrs to be a first year bird. It is

in feminine garb, but the rump is blue and the upper breast slaty.

Measurements :

Ig 1 (3) 11 99

Wing : 84 81 77, 77.5, 78 (4), 79 (5)

Tail : 68 — 59 (2), 60 (3), 61 (2), 62 (2), 63, 65

Bill : 15.5 15 14, 14.5 (4), 15 (2), 15.5, 16,— (2)

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 657

An examination of fresh material from the Himalayas (Kashmir

to Sikkim, including topotypes of pallidior Baker and _ rufilatus

Hodgson) made me diffident to accept Baker’s western Himalayan

race pallidior. The alleged differences in coloration are apparent only

when old western Himalayan birds are compared with comparatively

recent collections from Nepal or Sikkim. The differences in size as

given by Rand & Fleming (op. cit., p. 150) are not borne out in

large series. Vaurie (1955b, p. 13) also came to the same conclusion

as mine regarding the taxonomic status of pallidior. But Ripley

(1961, p. 499) has recently upheld pallidior.

422. Erithacus chrysaeus chrysaeus (Hodgson). Golden Bush Robin.

NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot : 2 ¢¢, 1 2 (March 21-30).

The Golden Bush Robin is scarce in central Nepal. We observed

it only on a few occasions up to mid-April on Chandragiri (above

Thankot), always on the ground in dense bush or undergrowth.

It was not reported by Scully (1879), or by Ripley (1950b).

Stevens (1925a, p. 353) found it in the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal, at

c. 2135-2440 m. in early April. Smythies (1948, p. 441) reported it

common above tree-line in the Gandak-Kosi watershed, central Nepal,

in autumn. Proud (1949, p. 703) found it only on the Sheopuri Range

in the Nepal Valley at c. 1830 m. up from November to February.

Smythies (1950, p. 515) noted it in the Nepal Valley on Sheopuri and

Phulchauki ranges in October. Polunin (1955, p. 891) observed it

occasionally at c. 3505 and 4420 m. in the Langtang Valley, central

Nepal, in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 149) found it in west-

central and central Nepal (Nepal Valley) at c. 1405 and 1675 m. in

winter. Biswas (1960a) recorded it preparing to breed at c. 4625 m.

in Khumbu, eastern Nepal, in late April and early May.

A male specimen (March 23) has the central rectrices in moult.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Desa: 65, 66 53, — 15, 15:5

Orr: 65.5 54 reals

*423. Erithacus indicus indicus (Vieillot). Whitebrowed Bush Robin.

Neither Scully (1879) nor we found this bush robin in Nepal

Proud (1949, p. 703) reported it as a scarce bird of the Nepal Valley

on Nagar Jong in December-January. It was also recorded from

eastern Nepal by Stevens (1925a, p. 354) in the Mai Valley, at

c. 2440-2745 m. in March; by Ripley (1950b, p. 386) in’ the Arun

Valley at c. 2745 m. in winter; by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 150)

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

at c. 3050 m. also in winter; and by Biswas (1960a) in Khumbu at

c. 4265 m. in April-May.

*424, Erithacus hyperythrus (Blyth). Rufousbellied Bush Robin.

it appears that Hodgson’s collection (Gray, 1863, p. 34), probably

from eastern Nepal. and Stevens’s (1925a, p. 354) single example from

the Singalila Range, eastern Nepal, at c. 3595 m. taken on March 2,

form the only records of the occurrence of the Rufousbellied Bush

Robin in Nepal. 7

425. Copsychus saularis saularis (Linnaeus). Indian Magpie-Robin.

TARAL: Simra: 2 ¢¢ (March 4,5). Dun: Hitaura, Kusumtar, Bhimphed :

2 $d, 1 nestling J, 2 22, I nestling 9 (March 14, May 14, 26, June 2). NEPAL VALLEY:

Kathmandu, Thankot: 8 J¢,2(¢3), 5 92 (March 21—April 14).

The Magpie-Robin is one of the commonest birds about human

habitation im central Nepal, especially in the Nepal Ronee In the

dun it did not appear to ke as common.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 150) reported it also from western,

west-central and eastern Nepal, up to c. 1405 m. in winter. Biswas

(1960a) found it from the Nepal Valley east to the Singalila Range

up to c. 1525 m. between January and July. |

In the third week of March it was singing merrily and was starting

its love-play. March and April birds had enlarged gonads.

Measurements :

733 2 2¢

Wing : 101 (2), 101a, 102a, 103 (2), 106 935.95

Tail: 92, 92a (2), 94 (3), 95 19582

Bill : 22, 224, 22.5, 23,—4, —(2) PA, hee 54 7574

a Unsexed but (¢)

426. Copsychus malabaricus indicus (Baker). Indian Shama.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 9 (March 6). Dun: Hitaura: 1 ¢ (May 27).

The Shama does not appear to be at all common in central Nepal.

It was observed by us only a few times in the forests of the bhabar

and the dun. However, Ripley (1950b, p. 388) found it to be

common in the tarai forests of central Nepal, while Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 151) recorded it from the western, west-central and eastern

tarai where they noted it as common. Scully (i879) did not include

it in his Nepal list.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

ld: 96 147 21

12: 90 118 19.5

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 659

*427. Phoenicurus erythronotus (Eversmann). Eversmann’s Redstart.

The sole record of the occurrence of Eversmann’s Redstart in

Nepal is based on a single specimen taken at Jomosom (c. 2800 m.),

Kali Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, in December by Rand &

Fleming (1957; p. 151):

*428. Phoenicurus caeruleocephalus (Vigors). Blueheaded Redstart.

After Hodgson’s collection, Stevens’s (1925a, p. 355) collection

from the, “Singalila.. Range, eastern Nepal, at c. 3505.m., and

Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 151) from western to eastern Nepal, form

the only records of the Blueheaded Redstart from that country.

429. Phoenicurus ochruros rufiventris (Vieillot). Eastern Black Red-

Start.

NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot: 1 9 (April 9).

The Eastern Black Redstart appeared to be rare indeed in Nepal,

the above-mentioned specimen being the only one seen by us there.

Neither Scully (1879) nor Ripley (1950b) found it tm Nepal.

Proud (1949, p. 702; 1955, p. 60) observed very few in the Nepal

Valley on passage in spring. In northern central Nepal it was re-

ported in summer by Polunin (1955, p. 891) from c. 3350-4420 m.

in the Langtang Valley, and by Lowndes (1955, p. 31) from

c. 3655 m. in Manangbhot. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 152) found it

in the eastern Nepal tarai in winter.

Measurements : 12: Wing 89 ; tail 65 ; bill 16.5.

430. Phoenicurus hodgsoni (Horsfield & Moore). Hodgson’s Redstart.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 2 (March 13). NEPAL VALLEY : Kathmandu, Thankot :

6 3d, 7 22, 1 (2) (March 24—April 10).

Hodgson’s Redstart is common in central Nepal, especially in the

Valley where during March and the first half of April we found it on

boulders in streams, on bushes about streams passing through forests

and sometimes even in cultivated fields. It is, however, not so

common in the dun.

Ripley (1950b) did not record it from Nepal. Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 152) reported it also from west-central Nepal at c. 915-

2805 m. in winter.

All my birds had non-breeding gonads.

Colours of soft parts : Iris dark brown ; bill very dark horny to black, sometimes

with yellowish on gape ; legs, feet and claws very dark horny to black ; pads grey,

sometimes with a yellowish tinge.

660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Measurements :

63d ee

Wing: 84, 85 (3), 86, 87 81 (3), 82 (2), 82.5, 838, 84, 85

Tail : 68, 68+, 69 (3), 71 63, 65 (2), 66%, 66 (2), 67, 68(2)

Bill : 16 (2), 16.5, 17 (3) | 15.5*, 16 (2), 16.56); 17

* Unsexed but (2)

Baker (1924, p. 74) has given the measurements of tail and tarsus

in this species as ‘66 to 68’ and ‘about 26’, respectively. I measure

them in 81 examples from all over its range as:

39 od: Tail 66—72 (av. 69.5), tarsus 22—25 (av. 23.5)

4299 : 4a 62—71 (av. 66.5), is 22—24 (av. 23.1)

431. Phoenicurus frontalis Vigors. Bluefronted Redstart.

Dun : Bhimphedi: 2 34, 1 2 (March 13, 14). CaITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang :

1 9 (April 20). NepAL VALLEY: Thankot : 2 3, 1 2 (March 22-27).

The Bluefronted Redstart appeared to be a fairly common bird of

central Nepal during March-April. It was usually seen perched on

bushes in forests or open areas and on rocks, sometimes far away

from water.

Ripley (1950b, p. 386) found it in eastern Nepal above c. 2440 m.

in winter. In northern central Nepal, it was reported by Proud (1952a,

p. 363) in the Gandak-Kosi watershed up to c. 3350 m. in spring, by

Polunin (1955, p. 891) in the Langtang Valley at c. 3350 m. in

summer, and by Lowndes (1955, p. 31) in Manangbhot at c. 3505-

4570 m. in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 152) found it in

west-central, central and eastern Nepal between c. 1370 and 2895 m.

in winter. Biswas (1960a) observed it in central and eastern Nepal

(Nepal Valley, Chautara, Ramechhaép and Okhaldhunga districts)

between c. 1220 and 2440 m. in late January and early February, and

between c. 3050 and 5335 m. in Khumbu during mid-February to

May.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

4¢a: 86, 88, 90, 93 67. 71,:72576 15.5, 16 (2),—

3800): 82 (2), 86 64, 66, 68 15, 16 (2)

*432. Phoenicurus schisticeps schisticeps (J. E. & G. R. Gray). White-

throated Redstart.

The Whitethroated Redstart was not found in Nepal either by

Scully (1879) or by us. Ripley (1950b, p. 386) reported it from eastern

Nepal at c. 2745:m. in winter; Lowndes (1955, p. 32) from Manangbhot, |

central Nepal, at c. 3050-3960 m. in summer; Rand & Fleming (1957,

pp. 152-153) from west-central and eastern Nepal at c, 2745-3050 m,

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 661

in winter; and Biswas (1960a) from Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at c.

3810-4875 m. in March-May..

*433. Phoenicurus erythrogaster grandis (Gould). Guldenstadt’s Red-

Start.

Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 153) single specimen taken in the Kali

Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, at c. 2805 m. in winter, appears to

be the only post-Hodgsonian record of the occurrence of Giildenstadt’s

Redstart in Nepal.

434. Phoenicurus leucocephalus Vigors. Whitecapped Redstart.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj : 1 Q@(March 8). NEPAL LLeY: Thankot: 16,12

(March 23, April 12).

During March-April we found the Whitecapped Redstart to be

rather uncommon. It may be presumed that the majority of them

must have already left by then for their breeding grounds.

From previous reports (Scully, 1879, p. 304; Smythies, 1948,

p. 441; Proud, 1949, p. 702; Ripley, 1950b, p. 387; Polunin, 1955,

p. 891; Lowndes, 1955, p. 32; Rand & Fleming, 1957, pp. 153-154;

Biswas, 1960a) this species occurs in Nepal from west to east at

c. 275-2590 m. in winter and spring, but higher up, up to c. 5335 m.,

in summer.

The forecrown is moulting in both my female specimens taken on

March 8 and 23, the latter having nearly finished its moult.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

ia: 94 IAL 18.5

29°: 87+, 90 70 (2) 19 (2)

435. Phoenicurus fuliginosus fuliginosus Vigors. Plumbeous Redstart.

Dun : Bhimphedi: 1 ¢ (May 8). MArkKHu VALLEY : Kulikhani: 2 ¢¢, 1°

(April 28). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang : 1 9 (March 15). NEPAL VALLEY : Burha-

nilkantha : 1 ¢ (April 30).

The Plumbeous Redstart is not uncommon in central Nepal during

March-April, but appears to be scarce in May. It is found wherever

rapids and boulders occur in hill streams.

In northern central Nepal, Smythies (1948, p. 441) found a single

example at c. 2440 m. in autumn; Polunin (1955, p. 891) occasionally

observed it in the Langtang Valley at c. 3050-3655 mm. in summer;

and Lowndes (1955, p. 32) found it up to c. 4420 m. in Manangbhot

in summer. In west-central Nepal, it was reported only by Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 154) from the tarai up to c. 2440 m. in winter. In

eastern Nepal, Ripley (1950b, p. 387) observed it in the Arun Valley

662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

between c. 305 and 1525 m. in winter, and Biswas (1960a) recorded

it breeding at c. 3050 m. in Khumbu in May.

A male specimen taken April 30 had the testes but a little swollen,

measuring R: 4.53, L: 5X3 mm.

Colours of soft parts : Iris brown ; bill black ; legs and feet dark horny ; claws

black ; pads white.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

43d: 132d, COnds eae 50, 51, 54, 57 14, 15.5, 16, —,

DOE: 68, 71 48, 50 14.5 (2)

436. Hodgsonius phoenicuroides phoenicuroides (J. E. & G. R. Gray).

Hodgson’s Shortwing or Whitebellied Redstart.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 2 (March 6). DUN: Bhimphedi: 1 4, 1 subad.

3, limm. 3 (May 5-7). MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 2 imm. ¢, 2 99 (April 29-

May 1). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 1.imm. ¢ (April 20). NEPAL VALLEY : Than-

kot: 1imm. ¢ (April 2).

This shortwing was occasionally observed by us in central Nepal.

Tt appeared shy and always preferred dense bushes.

After Hodgson’s collection, it was recorded only in the northern

central Nepal in summer by Polunin (1955, p. 890) who found it

occasionally at c. 3350 and 3960 m. in the Langtang Valley, and by

Lowndes (1955, p. 31) who came across it at c. 2440 m. (once) and

c. 3050-4420 m. in Manangbhot.

The subadult male specimen (May 5) is in olive plumage, the

feathers of the nape and upper back having blue centres; upper tai!

coverts freshly grown and with rufous tips. chestnut on tail prominent:

otherwise worn.

The immature males (April 2—May 5) are also in olive plumage

with traces of chestnut on lateral tail feathers, the one of May 5

being olive-brown with still reduced chestnut on rectrices. Those

taken between April 20 and May 5 are moulting on the crown, chin

and throat.

The female taken on May 1 has the feathers of the forehead tipped

blue. apes

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Daan PALS TI. 792. 18.5, 192

ao. 69; 71; 7c US MAGES 18,818.5 (2)

*Subadult

437. Cinclidium leucurum (Hodgson). Whitetailed Blue Robin.

CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 5 ¢¢ (April 18-23). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot:

3 éo (April 7, 8).

The Whitetailed Blue Robin was found in small numbers by us

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 663

only on the Chandragiri, both on Thankot and on Chitlang sides, in

the forests near hill streams.

Scully (1879) did not record it from Nepal. Proud (1955, p. 60)

found it breeding on Nagar Jong, Nepal Valley, at c. 2440 m. Stevens

(1925a, p. 355) observed it in the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal, at

c. 2440 m. in April.

It is curious that all the specimens collected by Rip'ey (1950b,

p. 386) from Chitlang, and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 154) from the

Nepal Valley, are, like ours, males.

Measurements: 833: Wing 94, 96, 96.5, 97(2), 98,—, 100; tail —, 78, 79,

80, 81, 82, 84, 85; bill 18, 19(4), 19.5, — (2).

*438. Cinclidium frontale frontale Blyth. Bluefronted Callene.

The only Nepali record of the Bluefronted Callene is based on

Hodgson’s collection (Horsfield & Moore, 1854, p. 396; Gray, 1863,

D:235s, Sharpe, £883, ps 15).

*439,. Grandala coelicolor Hodgson. Hodgson’s Grandala.

The post-Hodgsonian reports of the grandala from Nepal consist

of two sight records, viz. Smythies’s (1948, p. 441) from the Gandak-

Kosi watershed, central Nepal, at c. 4570 m. in autumn, and Biswas’s

(1960a) from Khumbu, eastern Nenal, at c. 3655-3960 m. in mid-

February.

*440. Enicurus scouleri scouleri Vigors. Little Forktail.

~~ The Little Forktail was not found in Nepal by us or by Rip'ey

(1950b). It was reported from centrai Nepal by Scully (1879, p. 311)

in the Nepal Valley and Nawakot district; Smythies (1948, p. 441)

observed a single specimen on Tadi Khola at c. 3655 m. in autumn:

Proud (1949, p. 702) noted a few in the Nepal Valley in winter; and

Polunin (1955, p. 890) reported it from the Langtang Valley at

c, 2745-3350 m. in summer. In west-central Nepal, Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 154) found it in the Kali-Gandak Valley at c. 915 and

1525 m. in winter. Biswas (1960a) recorded it on Khimti Khola,

Ramechhap district, eastern Nepal, at c. 1830 m. in winter.

441. Enicurus immaculatus (Hodgson). Blackbacked Forktail.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 ¢, 2 subad. 22 (March 8, 9). Dun: Hitaura:

1 %, 1 subad. 3, 1 nestling (May 14, 29).

The Blackbacked Forktail was found by us in small numbers in

central Nepal on streams between c. 305 and 610 m.

664 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Scully (1879) did not record it in Nepal. Ripley (1950b, p. 386)

found it from c. 305 to 1220 m. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 154) re-

ported it from west-central and eastern Nepal at c, 275-915 m. in

winter.

While the adult male specimen of March 8 is in fresh plumage,

the subadult female taken on the same day, has brown primaries and

worn wing and tail, but fresh body plumage. Another subadult

female collected on the next day has brown primaries, is otherwise in

fresh plumage. Its crown and back are, however, brownish. The

adult male taken on May 29 is very worn, as also the subadult male

of the same day. This last example has brown primaries.

The nestling (May 14) has no white on forecrown, is sooty black

on the upper side, has the wing patch, rump and upper tail coverts

white. Its underside is downy white with traces of brownish spots

on the breast and flanks.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

3 6S: 93, 937, 96 —*,—, 124 - 207, 20, 20.5

2 92 : 892, 90# —* 1178 20° (2)

a Subadult

*442,. Enicurus schistaceus (Hodgson). Slatybacked Forktail.

Neither Ripley (1950b) nor we found the Slatybacked Forktail in

Nepal. Scully (1879, p. 311) noted it as a resident bird of the Nepal

Valley where Proud (1949, p. 702) also found it. Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 155) reported it from west-central Nepal at c. 915 m. in winter.

443. Enicurus maculatus maculatus (Vigors). Western Spotted Fork-

tail.

Dun: Hitaura : 1 juv. ¢ (May 20). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot :3 $2, 1 subad.

3, 3 22, 2 subad. 22 (March 22—April 8).

The Western Spotted Forktail is not uncommon in the Nepal

Valley during March-April. It occurs on the streams flowing down

the hills round the Valley. We observed it also on the smaller

streams in the forests of the dun.

Scully (1879, pp. 310-311) reported it from the Nepal Valley down

to the dun. Proud (1949, p. 702) observed it in the Valley. Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 155) found it from western to central Nepal between

c. 290 and 2285 m. in winter. Biswas (1960a) reported it from

Chautara district, central Nepal, at c. 1830 m. in winter.

The subadult specimens are birds of the year, having brown

primaries. The juvenile specimen is unspotted but with brown pri-

maries,

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 665

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

4c: 108, 1097, 110,111 ~~ 146(2), 148, 150@ 2A2 24, 24.5, 25

BOO ee 1 99-4-=. 101%; 102, 103) 21290). 134.135", 139% 22.5%, 23%)23(2), 24

a Subadult

As with Scully’s (loc. cit.) and Rand & Fleming’s (loc. cit.), my

birds are also somewhat variable in regard to the amount of black

and white. This variability prompted Scully to identify part of his

‘collection as representing the eastern form guttatus. However, all

those specimens had white crescents on the lower back, a characteristic

of maculatus".

*444, Enicurus maculatus guttatus Gould. Eastern Spotted Forktail.

There ‘appears to be only a single record of the Eastern Spotted

Forktail from Nepal, that is, Stevens’s (1924b, p. 68) from the extreme

eastern Nepal in the Mai Valley at c. 2195 m. and lower.

445. Cochoa purpurea Hodgson. Purple Thrush.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 ¢ (May 10).

The only specimen of the Purple Thrush encountered by us in

Nepal was in the dense forest east of Bhimphedi. It appeared very

shy and was skulking in dense undergrowth. I believe, this is the

first specimen of the species taken in Nepal since Hodgson’s time.

Ripley (1950b, p. 386) probably saw it at Bhimphedi, and Smythies

(1950, p. 515) observed it once on Sheopuri Ridge, Nepal Valley, at

¢:. 2135) m:

Measurements: 1%: Wing 142; tail1053; bill 24.

*446. Cochoa viridis Hodgson. Green Thrush.

The Green Thrush is known from Nepal only through Hodgson’s

original specimens (Gray & Gray, 1846, p. 96).

*447,. Saxicola insignis J.E. & G. R. Gray. Hodgson’s Bush Chat.

The only report of the occurrence of Hodgson’s Bush Chat in Nepal

is due to Hodgson’s collection (Hodgson, 1844, p. 83; Gray & Gray,

1846, p. 71).

*448. Saxicola torquata maura (Pallas). Siberian Stone Chat.

The Siberian Stone Chat was not found by us. It has not been

specifically mentioned in any Nepal list, but there are specimens of

1 Vaurie (1959a, p. 419) states that maculatus ‘ grades into guttatus in central

Nepal,’

666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

this subspecies in the British Museum from Nepal (ex Bailey collec-

tion). It is a winter visitor to Nepal and is so similar to the resident

form (indica) in winter plumage as to be easily confused. It is quite

likely that some of the winter records of indica refer to maura. Ripley

(1961, p. 513) has included Nepal within the range of this form.

449. Saxicola torquata indica (Blyth)!. Indian Stone Chat.

Dun : Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 1 ¢, 1juv. 6, 2 99, 1 juv. 2 (March 11, 12,

May 7, June 2!). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang : 2 ¢¢, 1 2 (March 15, April 19,

23). NEPAL VALLEY: Kathmandu, Godavari, Thankot: 9 6g, 1(6), 428, 1 (Q)

(March 23—April 12, May 10).

The Indian Stone Chat is common in central Nepal from the

Valley down to the dun, singly or in pairs, in open country, cultivated

land, scrub or rocky areas. |

Ripley (1950b, p. 387) reported it from eastern Nepal. Po!unin

(1955, p. 890) found a single example in the Langtang Valley, central

Nepal, at c. 4265 m. in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 156)

recorded it from western to eastern Nepal.

The two juvenile specimens from Hitaura (June 21) are spotted,

the male having in addition, the wing patch developed.

Some of my March and April birds were breeding, the earliest I

have is dated March 12. A female was laying on March 23. The

gonads of some March-April examples were in different stages of

development.

Measurements :

13 3g 8 29

Wing: 64(2), 64%, 65(2), 65.5, 66.5, 67(3). 67.5, 68, 68.5 62, 64, 64.5, 65,

65.5, 66, 69a (2)

Tail : 46, 47(2), 48(5), 48.5, 49(2), 49.5, 534 44, 45, 45.5, 46.5,

47, 48.5, 492, 50°

Bill : 14(4), 14.5, 14.5(5), 15(3) 14(2). 14.5(2), 15(2)

i 153515255

4 Sexed from plumage :

450. Saxicola torquata przewalskii (Pleske). Turkestan Stone Chat.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 2 ¢¢, 1 2 (March 11, 12). NEPAL VALLEY : Kathmandu,

Thankot : 3 ¢¢, 3 22 (March 20, 29—April 11).

This stone chat is not uncommon in the Nepal Valley and the

upper dun in open areas during spring. Like maura, this form is

also a winter visitor to Nepal.

1 The type locality of this form was originally given as ‘ India’ by Blyth (1847,

p. 129). Baker (1921b, p. 709) restricted it first to Kashmir, and later (1924, p. 28)

to Calcutta. The latter seems more reasonable because the Museum of the Asiatic

Society of Bengal had specimens from the vicinity of Calcutta, but not from Kashmir,

prior to 1847, )

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 667

Scully (1879, pp. 300-301) rightly suspected that some of his

specimens from the Nepal Valley (November to March) entered under

indica were different from that form. Those specimens are in fact

przewalskiit. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 156) found it in western,

west-central and eastern Nepal.

Some of my specimens are wearing off to the summer plumage.

All my specimens had non-breeding gonads.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

5 dd: 71, 73(2), 74, 75 OSs 4 DD, DOs ars 16, 16.5(2), 17

492°: Ti RES (2) 12 51, 53(2), 54 16(2), 16.5, 17.5

*451. Saxicola leucura (Blyth). Whitetailed Stone Chat.

The sole record of the occurrence of the Whitetailed Stone Chat in

Nepal is due to Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 156) who reported a single

example from the western tarai in January.

452. Saxicola caprata bicolor Sykes. Indian Pied Bush Chat.

Dun : Hitaura: 1 ¢, 1 2 (May 27).

The Pied Bush Chat is not particularly common in central Nepal.

Examples were seen by us from time to time in the dun in open areas

such as cultivated fields about villages.

Scully (1879) did not find this species in Nepal. Ripley (1950b.

p. 387) obtained specimens in the tarai of western Nepal only; Smythies

(1950, p. 515) found it on Sheopuri Range, Nepal Valley; Po!unin

(1955, p. 890) reported it from the Langtang Valley, central Nepal,

at c. 2135 m. in summer; and Proud (1955, p. 60) found only several

examples on Sheopuri Range, Nepal Valley, and noted it to be

common on the new road west of the Valley at c. 915 m. or lower.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 157), however, recorded it in western,

west-central and eastern Nepal between c. 275 and 1405 m. in winter.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Pe: 66+ 50 15

hoe 68.5 50 15.5

453. Saxicola ferrea ferrea J.E. & G.R. Gray. Dark Grey Bush

Chat.

MARKHu VALLEY: Deorali: 3 92 (April 29—-May 1). CHITLANG VALLEY :

Chitlang: 6 34, 2 92 (April 18—24). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot, Crest of Chandra-

giri: 1 3,229 (April 8—16).

The Dark Grey Bush Chat is common in the Nepal and Chitlang

valleys in opener parts and about fringes of forests, on shrubs and

lower branches of trees. It occurs singly, or in pairs or small parties.

668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

In central Nepal, it was reported from the Nepal Valley by Scully

(1879, p. 302), Proud (i949, p. 702; 1955, pp. 60-61), Smythies

(1950, p. 515) and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 157); from the Gandak-

Kosi watershed at c. 3350 m. in autumn by Smythies (1948, p. 440);

from Rapti Valley (Chisapani), Mahabharat Range, by Ripley (1950b,

p. 387); from the Langtang Valley at c. 2745-3350 m. in summer by

Polunin (1955, p. 890); from Manangbhot at c. 1830 m. in

summer by Lowndes (1955, p. 31); and from Chautara district at

c. 1830 m. in January by Biswas (1960a). Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.)

recorded it also from western and west-central Nepal at c. 275-1405 m.

in winter, and Biswas (loc. cit.) from eastern Nepal at c. 1525 m. in

February and at c. 3050 m. towards the end of May.

It was breeding in April. Two females taken on April 15 and 16

had ovaries measuring 5.54 (with large granular ova) and 9.25 x 4.75

mm. (with 2.5 and 2 mm. ova), respectively.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown ; bill, legs, feet and claws black ; pads

grey.

Measurements :

Gs i 2?

Wing : 67(3), 68, 69(3) 64.5, —(2), 66, 67(2), 68

Tail : 60, 61, 62(2), 64(2), 65 60, 62, 63(3), 64, 65

Bill: 15(2), 15.5(2), 16(2), — 15(3); 1525); 162)

Kinnear (1934, p. 357), Stresemann (1940, p. 225), Mayr (1941,

p. 220) and Ripley (1961, p. 516) suggested synonymizing the eastern sub-

species haringtoni Hartert with the nominate subspecies, but Vaurie

(1955b, p. 26) upheld them as separate races.

*454. Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis (Latham). Brownbacked Nor-

thern Indian Robin.

The post-Hodgsonian records of the Brownbacked Northern Indian

Robin from Nepal have been provided by Ripley (1950b, p. 387)

from the tarai (? western and/or central), and Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 157) from the western, west-central and eastern tarai.

[Saxicoloides fulicata erythrura (Lesson). Brownbacked Eastern

Indian Robin.

Ripley (1950b, p. 387; 1961, p. 521) suggested that the birds from the

eastern Nepal tarai might be erythrura which occurs in Bihar and

West Bengal.]

455. Mbonticola cinclorhynchus (Vigors). Blueheaded Rock Thrush.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 2 (May 5). Markuau VALLEY: Deorali, Kulikhani:

13,1 9, Ijuv. 9 (April 28, 29, July 2). NepaL VALLEY: Thankot: 2 99 (April

13, 14).

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 669

The Blueheaded Rock Thrush is not a common bird of central

Nepal. Examples were observed by us singly in dense bush or under-

growth in forests. :

It is interesting to note that like ours all the previous post-

Hodgsonian Nepali records of this species are from central Nepal,

namely Nepal Valley (Scully, 1879, p. 283; Proud, 1949, p. 704, and

1955, p. 61; Ripley, 1950b, p. 389; Rand & Fleming, 1957, p. 158);

Langtang Valley (Polunin, 1955, p. 891), and the dun (Ripley,

loe? Cit.):

My juvenile specimen is in spotted plumage.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

1d: 105 70 24.5

499; 97, 97.5, 99, 101 65, 66(2), 66.5 24, 24.5(2), 26

Several recent authors (Meise, 1934, p. 43; Meinertzhagen, 1951,

p. 456; Ripley, 1952, p. 36; Biswas, 1953, p. 47; Rand & Fleming,

1957, p. 158) considered this form as a subspecies of Monticola gularis

(Swinhoe, 1862). However, I prefer to follow Vaurie (1955b,

pp. 23-24) in treating them as separate species. Furthermore, even

if they are considered conspecific, Vigors’s name cinclorhynchus being

older must be used as the specific name.

456. Monticola rufiventris (Jardine & Selby). Chestnutbellied Rock

Thrush.

Dun : Bhimphedi: 1 ¢, 1 @ (March 12, 14). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang,

Chandragiri above Chitlang: 1 g, 3 92 (April 17-26). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot,

Crest of Chandragiri: 2 3, 2 subad. gd, 1 2 (April 1-14).

This rock thrush is not uncommon in central Nepal in open parts

or edges of forests where there are dense bushes, especially on

Sheopuri Lekh, Phulchauki Danda, Chandragiri (both sides) and the

Mahabharat Range.

Stevens (1925a, p. 361) reported it from the Mai Valley, eastern

Nepal, breeding at c. 2135 m. upwards. In the Gandak-Kosi water-

shed, central Nepal, it was found at c. 3350 m. in autumn by Smythies

(1948, p. 441) and at c. 2440 m. in spring by Proud (1952a, p. 363).

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 158) recorded it for west-central Nepal

at c. 1405 m. in winter.

The two subadult specimens of mine are in worn plumage.

The species was breeding in April. A female taken on April 9

had a much enlarged ovary with the largest ovum measuring 3 mm.

A male shot on April 14 had well-developed testes (R: 6x5,

L: 8X4.5 mm.), and another female collected on April 21 had a

4.55.5 mm. ovary with large granular ova.

670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Colours of soft parts : Iris dark brown ; bill black but sometimes with greyish

on the base of lower mandible ; legs, feet and claws very dark horny to black ; pads

grey or yellowish grey.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

4d: 121.5+, 124, 126.5, 129 100(2), 101.5, 105 21 (2), Qi.d3228

apsrs § 117, 118, 122(3) 96, 98+, 99, 100(2) 26, 21(3); 27-3

Meinertzhagen (1951, p. 457) followed by Biswas (1953, p. 47)

placed this species as a race of Monticola solitarius (Linnaeus). They

are, however, sympatric in a wide beit on the Himalayas, and indeed

should be treated as distinct species.

*457. Monticola solitarius pandoo (Sykes). Indian Blue Rock Thrush.

We were not lucky enough to find this rock thrush in Nepal.

Scully (1879, p. 282) ‘noted it as a winter visitor to the Nepal Valley

occurring in small numbers from October to early March. Ripley

(1950b, p. 389) reported it from the tarai in winter. Lowndes (1955,

p. 32) recorded it as a rare bird in Manangbhot, central Nepal, at

c. 3655 m. in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 158) found it as

an uncommon bird in the Kali Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, in

November.

458. Myiophoneus‘caeruleus temminckii Vigors. Himalayan Whistling

Thrush.

BuaBaR : Amlekhganj: 1 ¢, 1 2 (March 7, 8). Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi :

2 63, 2 22, 1 subad. 2 (May 10-31, June 10). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 1 J

(March 18). NEPAL VALLEY: Burhanilkantha, Godavari, Thankot: 2 ¢, 2 $92

(March 26, May 4-11).

The Whistling Thrush is a common bird of central Nepal on rivers

and streams in or adjacent to forests, from the bhabar to the Nepal

Valley.

It was recorded from western and west-central Nepal by Rip'ey

(1950b, p. 390) and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 159); from northern

central Nepal by Proud (1952a, p. 364) in the Gandak-Kosi watershed

up to c. 3505 m. in spring, by Polunin (1955, p. 891) in the Langtang

Valley at c. 2745-4265 m. in summer, and by Lowndes (1955, p. 32)

in Manangbhot up to c. 3655 m. in summer: from eastern Nepal by

Stevens (1925a, p. 362) in the Mechi Valley at c. 2745 m. in February,

and by Biswas (1960a) in the Dudh Kosi Valley at c. 1830 m. in early

February and in Khumbu between c. 3050 and 5180 m. in March-May.

* Vaurie (1959a, p. 415) has reverted back to the spelling Myophonus. It is true

that on the explanation of pl. 170 of Temminck & Laugier’s Planches color., livr.

29 (1822) the generic name is spelt as Myophonus, but two pages preceding it, where

the genus is described, it is spelt as Myiophoneus.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 671

The male specimen from Chitlang (March 18) lacks the white tips

of the median wing coverts.

The subadult female specimen from Hitaura (June 10), which had

fully breeding ovary (with ova as large as 3—5 mm.), is somewhat

duller in general coloration, the glistening spots are duller and smaller,

and the white tips of the median wing coverts dull white. It is,

moreover, smaller in size.

Birds taken in March had the gonads just commencing to enlarge,

while those of May were more or less in breeding condition.

Colours of soft parts ;: Iris dark brown ; upper mandible dusky yellow (yellow

in the subadult specimen) with blackish on base and culmen, and dark horny tip ;

lower mandible yellow ; legs, feet and claws black, pads yellowish grey.

Measurements :

6 od O22

Wing : 167+, 169, 173, 175(2), 184 160, 162, 164, 165, 167, 168+

Tail <. 129, —(2), 136, 138, 140 120(2), 121, —, 123, 127

Bill : 333/33.5,; 35(2), 36(2) 33(2),' 34(2), 35(2)

The tail length 116—122 as given by Baker (1924, p. 180) is much

too small. Delacour (1942, p. 256) has given it up to 141, with

which I agree.

459. Zoothera wardii (Blyth). Pied Ground Thrush.

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 subad. ¢ (April 25).

The above-mentioned specimen of the Pied Ground Thrush was

the only example of the species observed by us in Nepal, and this

incidentally appears to be the only post-Hodgsonian record from

that country.

The specimen appears to be a first-year bird. Some feathers of

its nape, mantle, lower back and rump are olive brown; primaries

brown, median wing coverts tipped rufous, and there are a few black

bars on the white of lower breast.

Measurements : 1 subad. gf : Wing 113 ; tail 76; bill 26.5.

460. Zoothera citrina citrina (Latham). Orangeheaded Ground Thrush.

Dun : Hitaura, Bhimphedi : 6 ¢¢,%1 2 (May 3-17, June 18, 21). NEPAL

VALLEY : Thankot : 3 ¢¢, 1 (38), 3 2Y, 1 (2) (March 22—April 8).

The Orangeheaded Ground Thrush is common in central Nepal

in dense undergrowths and bushes, usually feeding on the ground.

It was reported from the Nepal Valley only in summer by Scully

(1879, p. 283) and Proud (1949, p. 703). Although Ripley (1950b,

p. 389) did not find it in the tarai in winter, Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 159) reported it to be fairly common there in December and

February.

672, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

_ March birds are in quite fresh plumage. A few of my May

specimens and both the June ones are very worn.

It was breeding in May.

Colours of soft parts : Iris dark Browne bill very dark Nom to black some-

times with greyish on gape, base and ies of lower mandible ; legs fleshy with

brownish front or light horny brown with yellowish behind ; feet fleshy to light

horny brown ; claws fleshy to horny ; pads fleshy or yellowish fleshy.

Measurements : :

: 10 33 5 22

Wing : 116+, 118, 118+, —(2), 119(2), 117(2), 120, 121+, 123

120(2), 121

Tail : 75,16, 78, 79} 80@);'82(3);"83 76, 78, 79(2), 81

Bill : 23, 23.5(2), 24(6), 25 23, —, 24, 24.5, 25

Baker (1924, p. 149) has given 67-69 mm. as the tail length in the

male, which is, however, much too small. Fifty-two specimens

measure as follows: i

B7Ttgous. 0) 12=03av. 10.) 15°92 72-81 (av. 75.9)

(once 68) (once 69.5)

461. Zoothera mollissima mollissima (Blyth). Eastern Plainbacked

Mountain Thrush.

NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot : 1 2 (April 6).

The above-mentioned specimen was the only example of the

Plainbacked Mountain Thrush observed by us in central Nepal. It

was found in dense forest on the Chandragiri Range above Thankot

at about 1830 m.

Neither Scully (1879) nor Ripley (1950b) noticed it in Nepal.

Stevens (1925a, p. 362) reported it from the Mai Valley, eastern

Nepal, at c. 2135-2240 m. in March-April. Smythies (1950, p. 515)

saw it (or ? Z. dauma) only once on Sheopuri, Nepali Valley. Proud

(1955, p. 61) found it common in the Nepal Valley at c. 2440 m.

(occasionally at c. 1525 m.) in winter. Rand & Fleming (1957,

pp. 159-160) obtained a single example on the Phulchauki Danda,

Nepal Valley, at c. 1890 m. in February. Biswas (1960a) found it

in Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at c. 3655 m. in April.

Measurements : 1 2: Wing 134; tail 90; bill 26.

The size of the tail, 100-130 mm., as given by Baker (1924, D, 163)

is indeed much too large for this species. Vaurie (1955a, pp. 2-3)

has, however, given correct measurements of specimens studied by

him.

As Vaurie (op. cit. p. 7) has pointed out, the “specimen under

report is indeterminate as to subspecies. However, ‘since Rand &

Fleming (loc. cit.) found that Kumaon, Nepal and Sikkim (virtually

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL : 673

topotypical mollissima) birds are inseparable, I am listing my speci-

men under the nominate race. I agree with Vaurie (op. cit., p. 6)

that simlaensis Baker is best treated as a synonym of whiteheadi

Baker (see also Ripley, 1961, p. 528).

*462.. Zoothera dixoni (Seebohm). Longtailed Plainbacked Mountain

Thrush. : 7

Geokichla dixoni Seebohm, 1881, Catal. Birds Brit. Mus. 5 : 161. (Himalayas;

lists specimens from Nepal and Darjiling ; type locality hereby polacicd to Darjeeling

subdivision, West Bengal.)

This mountain Thrush was not found by us or by Scully (1879)

in Nepal. Smythies (1948, p. 441) observed it in the Gandak-Kosi

watershed, central Nepal, at c. 3505 m. in autumn. Ripley (1950b,

p. 389) obtained a single example in the Arun Valley, eastern Nepal,

at c. 2745 m. in February. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 160) reported

a single specimen from the Nepal Valley at c. 1675 m. in January.

463. Zoothera dauma dauma (Latham). Smallbilled Mountain Thrush.

Turdus dauma Latham, 1790, Index Orn. 1: 362. (India = Kashmir, according

to Baker, 1921b, p. 720.)

BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 4, 1 unsexed (March 9, 10). Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 2

(May 4). MarkHu VALLEY: Deorali: 2 9° (April 28, 30). CHITLANG VALLEY :

Chitlang : 2 gd (April 17, 19). NepaL VALLEY : Thankot, Crest of Chandragiri :

6 dd, 2 QY, 1 unsexed (March 22—April 16).

The Smallbililed Mountain Thrush is common in central Nepal

usually in dense forests or grassy clearings in or near forests. In the

bhabar it was not found by us as common in March, the majority

having evidently left for the breeding ground. On the hills around

the Nepal Valley, on the Chitlang side of the Chandragiri, and on the

Mahabharat Range (both on the southern and northern sides), it was

frequently seen from about the middle of March, usually in pairs.

Scully (1879, p. 286) noted it to be rare in the Nepal Valley

occurring ‘probably only’ on passage. Smythies (1950, p. 515) saw

it (or ?-Z. mollissima) only once on Sheopuri Range, Nepal Valley.

Proud (1952a, p. 363) found a single example in the Gandak-Kosi

watershed, central Nepal, at c. 2590 m. in March. Rand & Fleming;

(1957, p. 160) reported it common in the lowlands of western, west-

central and eastern Nepal in winter, and recorded a specimen from

the Nepal Valley at c. 1675 m. in January.

Specimens taken in mid-April had the gonads already enlarged to

some extent.

Colours of soft parts: Iris very dark brown ; upper mandible horny black ;

lower mandible pale brownish yellow on base, whitish on the middle, gradually turning

horny anteriorly until the tip is horny black ; legs and feet pale horny brown ; claws

pale horny, much paler on the tips ; pads veilonil white.

674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Measurements :

9 bd 5722 2 unsexed

Wing: 142, 142+, 143, 144, 145, 138, 139, 141.5, 143(2) 143, 144

147(2), 147.5, 148

Tail : 95,798, LOL 2102 104. 97, 98, 100, 102, — 103, 105

105(2), 106, 107 |

Bill #2 279,5- 20)s. 29 eee 28, 28.5, 29(2), — 28, 30

—a(2)e ole

464. Zoothera monticola monticola (Vigors). Large Brown Thrush.

Zoothera monticola Vigors, 1830-31 (1832), Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. (1): 172.

(Himalayas =Sikkim, according to Baker, 1921b. p. 721.)

NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot: 1 ¢ (April 5).

The Large Brown Thrush is apparently very rare in Nepal. The

only specimen that we came across was collected in dense under-

growth of the forest at Thankot.

Scully (1879) and Ripley (1950b) did not record it from Nepal,

but Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 160-161) reported a single specimen

from western Nepal at c. 305 m. in January.

Measurements: 1 3 : Wing 145; tail 85++; bill 44.

465. Zoothera marginata Blyth. Lesser Brown Thrush.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 2 (March 8). Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 g, 1 2 (May

5, 10).

This thrush appeared rare indeed in central Nepal. It was observed

by us only on a few occasions in dense undergrowths in the forests

of the bhabar in spring and the upper dun in summer. The species

has recently been recorded for the first time from Nepal by Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 161) who obtained a single example from the

western part of the country at c. 290 m. in January.

My male specimen (May 5) is moulting on the crown, but its

wings are worn.

Measurements: 222: Wing 126, 129; tail 76, 78); bill 34,—.

[Scully’s (1879, p. 284) record of the Blackbreasted Thrush, Turdus

dissimilis Blyth, from the Nepal Valley, was probably due to mis-

identification of his specimen. No such example was received from

Scully at the British Museum (Seebohm, 1881, p. 266) or the Indian

Museum, nor has the species ever been known from west of Assam

and lower East Pakistan.]

466. Turdus unicolor Tickell. Tickell’s Thrush.

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang : 5 ¢¢, 2 subad. Jd, 3 22 (April 18-25).

Tickell’s Thrush is occasionally found in the Nepal, Chitlang and

Markhu valleys from about the end of March. It usually occurs.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 675

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 161) reported it also from west-central

Nepal at c. 1430 m. in November.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Seieile 124 (4), 128 86, 87, 88, 90 (2) 23 (3), 23 .5,—

S) Be 119+, 120 (2) —, 84, 85 23, 23.5, 24

467. Turdus albocinctus Royle. Whitecollared Blackbird.

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 192 (March 15). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot

1 2 (March 22).

The Whitecollared Blackbird occurs singly on moss-covered

branches of trees on Chandragiri both above Thankot and above

Chitlang from c. 1525 to 2135 m., and on the Phulchauki Danda

above Godavari. It does not appear to be common.

It was reported as a winter visitor to the Nepal Valley (Scully,

1879, p. 286), leaving early in April (Proud, 1955, p. 61). Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 161) found it also in eastern Nepal at c. 3050 m.

in winter. Ripley (1950b) failed to notice it mm Nepal.

My Thankot specimen is somewhat lighter coloured both above

and below.

Measurements: 2 22: Wing 137, 140; tail 108, 111 ; bill 29, 30.

468. Turdus boulboul (Latham). Greywinged Blackbird.

TarAl : Simra : 299 (March 5). MArKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 ¢ (May 3).

CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang : 2 ¢¢, 1 2 (April 16-20). NepaL VArLey : Thankot,

Crest of Chandragiri: 3 3, 1 2 (April 4-18).

The Greywinged Blackbird is common in the forests of central

Nepal above the dun from April onwards. In the dun and tarai

only a few examples were observed by us in early March.

In western and west-central Nepal, Rand & Fleming (1957, pp.

161-162) reported it from c. 275 m. up to 1980 m. in winter. In

northern central Nepal, Proud (1952a, p. 363) noted it as common

up to c. 2745 m. in the Gandak-Kosi watershed during spring. In

eastern Nepal, Stevens (1925a, pp. 359-360) recorded it from the Mai

Valley up to c. 2745 m. in March-April, and Biswas (1960a) found

it around 2745 m. in the Hongu Valley in June.

Of the two specimens taken on March 5, one is in very fresh

plumage, while the other is worn all over. Two specimens taken

April 16 and 20 are in fresh plumage, the one of April 16 has, how-

ever, slightly worn body feathers. The remaining four birds taken

between April 13 and 20 are in more or less worn plumage. The

May 3 bird has fresh wings and worn body plumage.

676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

A female taken on April 17 was laying, and a male of 2 oe 18

had breeding testes.

Colours of soft parts: Iris brown; eyelids lemon yellow; bill orange with dark

horny on the tip of upper mandible; legs, feet and claws brownish yellow, pads yellow.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

63d: 141 (2), 142, 143+, 110+, 111+, .114, 27 (3), 27.5, 28,—

144, 148 116 (2), 116+

49°: 136, 138, 142, 148 100+, 110, 111 (2) | 25, 3, 20; 5 (2), 28

469. Turdus rubrocanus rubrocanus J. E. & G. R. Gray. Western Grey-

headed Thrush.

Turdus rubrocanus J. E. & G. R. Gray, 1846, Catal. spec. drawings Mam. Birds

Nepal Thibet pres. Hodgson, p. 81 (Nepal), nomen nudum, but validated by Copen-

hagen Decision 115 (2).

: Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 ¢ (March 12). NepAL VALLEY: Tankot: 1 ¢ (March

28).

The Greyheaded Thrush is quite uncommon in central Nepal.

We observed it only on a few occasions when it occurred singly in

dense forests.

Scully (1879, p. 286) did not come across it. Ripley (1950b,

p. 389) recorded it by sight only in eastern Nepal. Proud (1955,

p. 61) reported it as very uncommon in the Nepal Valley, but com-

mon on hills north of Pokhara, west-central Nepal. Rand & Fleming

(1957, p.. 162) secured a single example in the Nepal Valley (Nagar

Jong, 9,:February).

My specimen from Bhimphedi is worn.

Measurements: 2 6%: Wing 138, 138+ ; tail 106+, 107; bill 28, 29.

Baker (1924, p. 133) mentions a specimen also of the eastern race

T. r. gouldiae (Verreaux) from Nepal in the British Museum.

*470. Turdus obscurus Gmelin. Dark Thrush.

The only Nepali record of the Dark Thrush is based on a single

skin in the Hodgson Collection, not listed by Gray & Gray (1846)

or Gray (1863), but reported by Stevens (1925a, p. 360).

471. Turdus ruficollis atrogularis Jarocki. Blackthroated Thrush.

TARAI: Simra : 1 9 (March 6). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 ¢ (April 17).

NEPAL VALLEY : Kathmandu, Thankot : 3 J, 3 29, 1 unsexed (March 20—April 2).

The Blackthroated Thrush is quite common in central Nepal

during March-April. It occurs in pairs or flocks of varying sizes,

three to twenty or so, about cultivation, grasslands, edges of forests,

etc.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 677

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 162) reported it also from west-central

and eastern Nepal at c. 915-3810 m. in winter. Biswas (1960a) found

it in Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at c. 3960 m. in March.

One of my male specimens taken April 17 is somewhat worn.

The gonads of this specimen had just started swelling. Two

female birds (March 23: and 27) had finely granular ovaries.

Colours of soft parts : Iris dark brown ; upper mandible dark horny with yellow

on gape and sides ; lower mandible yellow with dark horny tip; legs yellowish or

brownish grey with dusky front; feet yellowish grey to horny brown; claws horny

or dark horny : pads white.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

4c: 131, 133, 134, 137 95 (2), 96, 100 24, —(2), 25

499: 129, 131 (2), 134 —, 95, 96, 97 2255; 23:55245 24.5

1 unsexed : 130 96 23

*472. Turdus naumanni eunomus Temminck. Dusky Thrush.

The only post-Hodgsonian report of the Dusky Thrush from

Nepal is due to Proud (1949, p. 703} who found it in the Nepal

Valley on Nagar Jong at c. 1525 m. in winter and spring.

*473.. Turdus viscivorus bonapartei Cabanis. Himalayan Missel Thrush.

| - The only record of the occurrence of the Himalayan Missel Thrush

in Nepal appears to be based on the single skin in the British Museum

ex Hodgson collection (Seebohm, 1881, p. 196).

(To be continued)

Chapters on the

History of Botany in India

lit: AT THE MIDDLE OF THE 19TH CENTURY

I. H. BurkILi

[Continued from Vol. 54 (1) : 86]

My reader will readily consent that India made such economic

progress at the middle of the 19th century that Botany could not

escape its influence. A great unification was effected by a vast network

of roads; the electric telegraph came (1851). From: 1850 forwards

railways were under construction. Parochialism receded. The inter-

ests of the majority were widened. As to the botanists, with whom

we are concerned, he among them with a little leave to take could

use it for enlarging his experience, and was not long in doing so. I

will begin the chapter by recalling the names of the botanists who

worked in India at the middle of the century.

The East India Company never engaged in Britain any officer

expressly for what he knew of Botany; when they wanted a

botanist they sought him among their officers already in India. It

was otherwise in the manner of appointments for service in Ceylon,

as Ceylon had no deep well to dip into, and in consequence only such

men as the ad interim holders of the post of superintending the

Peradeniya Garden on the death of Moon and the death of Gardner

were found locally. Frazer, acting in Ceylon when Gardner died,

seems to have collected a little. The Company’s procedure, unlike

that of Ceylon, left room for the chosen to have had time to grow a

little rusty. And in 1854, as if in anticipation of the coming»

administrative changes and in step with the passing out of British

politics of a conviction that laissez faire led to progress, the Court of

Directors accepted the planning of education as a duty. But the

acceptance of the duty did not press on the Directors, for their

authority was swept away too soon. Nothing came; but there was

an increase in the number of those who botanized which must be

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 679

attributed to diffusion of interest in botany in Britain in the stratum

of the population whence came.those who served in India.

Our science had been, as it were, an unexplored country into

which a route is first made and names are given to landmarks:

successive explorers perpetuate them. The route is marked on the

maps along with the places on it suitable for rest and refreshment.

Branch routes take off at these; their rate of establishment, like

elongation of the main road itself, depending on the terrain penetrated.

Into the kingdom of scientific Botany the main route is that of

taxonomy; the landmarks are genera and species; the places of rest

and refreshment are Botanic Gardens, Museums, Learned Societies,

and the like; the branch roads are the several divisions into which

the science has fallen, and the development of some may have been

hindered for tools such as the microscope to be improved, adjuncts

such as laboratories to be built, and data to be accumulated.

The resemblances are so close to reality that the facts recorded in

the next three sections are arranged on the analogy.

eo:

THE BOTANISTS WHOSE ACTIVITIES CONNECT THE SECOND

CHAPTER WITH THIS CHAPTER

Wight left India in 1855. For the last few years he had been

occupied in winding up his affairs. The Coimbatore Experimental

Farm had to be left so shaped that his successor could use it. He

seems to have ceased to collect and dry plants; at any rate he left

no collections from the Anaimalai Hills (teste C. E. C. Fischer in

Rec. Bot. Survey Ind. 9 : 5) from which Coimbatore is only 26

miles distant. Apparently his collections were already in packing

cases when the call came to close down; they had filled 10 bullock

carts at the last move and would be larger than in 1850. Of his

serial publications he closed these two: ILLUSTRATIONS OF INDIAN

BOTANY in 1850 and SPICILEGIUM NEELGHERRENSE in 1851. He did

not close down his ICONES PLANTARUM INDIAE ORIENTALIS; and a part

was added after he had reached London, where also a report on

cotton was finished and published.

Wight, who had learned the art of lithography in the house of

Sir William Hooker when on leave in Britain, was now back in

Britain and in contact with Sir William Hooker, whose resources for

naming plants he could use; and Kew was ready to distribute his

duplicate botanical specimens. Wight had dominated botanical work

in India so greatly that his departure was a major event by which

680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

the period changed. In some measure the See on his going

passed to H. F. C. Cleghorn.

Hugh Francis Clarke Cleghorn (1820-1895) was a Byandson of

Hugh Francis Cleghorn who, as recorded in the second chapter

(Journal 54 : 49), engaged Rottler to accompany him as interpreter

on an inspection tour in Ceylon. He had been born in Madras and

had taken a doctorate in medicine in Edinburgh. Having returned

to India he was sent to Shimoga in Mysore as Civil Surgeon (1842).

The teak forests of the district interested him; and in 1847 he called

attention to the waste of timber caused by the way in which the

land was exploited. In 1850, being on leave, he laid his case before

the British Association which was meeting in Edinburgh and the

Association appointed a Committee, of which he was secretary, to

report back in 1851. In 1852, having returned to India, he found

himself no longer a district surgeon, but a professor of Botany and

Materia Medica in the College at Madras. There, from a position,

which entitled him to a hearing, he addressed the Government (1856)

and im 1857 he was taken from his teaching to occupy a new post,

the post of Conservator of Forests. The reader notes the implication

of caring for more than teak in the title of his post; there was in

view wood-fuel, of all sorts; but teak-timber was most in view. From

1857 to his retirement in 1870 Cleghorn was occupied in- Forest

Service, and even afterwards as an adviser of the India Office. More

about Cleghorn will be found later. )

The reader doubtless appreciates the fact that Cleghorn came to

his forest service as a botanist. He had previously collected. dried

plants which were given to the Calcutta Garden and he had written

ecological papers. Contemporaries there were who were connected,

with conserving teak, but they were not botanists; they were practical

men; and the association of these with botanists was merely pro-

visional. One of these practical men was H. A. Conolly, Collector

of the district of Malabar, where the teak forests had- received. the.

most damaging exploitation. He had asked to be allowed to buy up.

and replant ruined teak forest, and had great success in restocking,

particularly in the Nilambur forest which is ideal for teak. . Nilambur.

is half-way between Calicut and Ootacamund. Of course restocking,

with cropping about 100 years ahead, does not allow Conolly’s

financial questions a place here; but Conolly showed himself a

pioneer.

While he was doing what he had undertaken, Captain Eredeeie

EY an engineer, was making a road along the border of the State

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 681

of Cochin; and he called attention to the teak that he saw in the

Anaimalai Hills—teak which Wight might have seen by going into

the Hills from Coimbatore. Cotton’s teak was put (1850) into the

charge of another army officer, James Michael, then a lieutenant,

ultimately a general. He held his charge until 1856, and did a little

collecting of plants; but very little. In 1856 he was succeeded by

one who was already a botanist, R. H. Beddome. It is to be noted

that the year of Beddome’s appointment is the year of the appoint-

ment of Cleghorn as Conservator of Forests; and that 1857 seems to

have been a year of thinking ahead—a Forest Service was coming

in Madras. In its foreshadowing is the third of the marks of our

new period. ° |

Michael in due time took leave and did not re-enter the Forest

Administration, though he kept his interest in forestry through life. In

the Anaimalai Hills he had tried to.minimize the injury that fire did

to his seedlings of teak by causing the coating of dying leaves that'

fell on them to be swept aside.

Richard Henry Beddome (1830-1911) had reached Jabalpur in

1848 and had commenced collecting there. The Government of

Madras, when in 1856 it took him into the “initial Forest Service,

employed him in the Palni Hills, where he picked up Wight’s mantle

in One respect, namely the illustrating of the plants of southern India

by the use of lithography. He threw himself with great energy into

collecting and made a considerable herbarium. He learned his

forestry by experience, but was all through his life predominantly a

botanist.

I have classified Cleghorn as an ecologist, calling him the second

ecologist that India had, the first having been Edgeworth. Both were

Edinburgh students, but it is not clear that their interest had a

common origin, though it is apparent that ecology was, so to speak,

in the air at Edinburgh. John Hutton Balfour (1808-1884) intro-

duced a little of it into his professorial teaching; and, though he had

not become professor until. 1845, he had given extra-mural lectures

in Edinburgh some ten years earlier. I suggest that this vigorous

teacher, whose classes were described as ‘thronged’ and as ‘the largest

ever brought together’, forced the contemplation of the life of the

plant into the teaching of his time; whereas Robert Graham, his

predecessor, by making his students carry pocket lenses on their ex-

peditions with him into the country, forced observation of the details

of the flower into the teaching.

682 Ce BOM EAS NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Wight, Mighael citenont and Beddome are not the only bota-

nical names of the Madras collections of about the fifties: these also

served: Heber Drury (1819-1872), a colonel in the Madras Army

was in Travancore; Sir Walter Elliot (1813-1887), an administrator of

wide interests, was at Vizagapatam: Thomas Caverhill Jerdon

(1811-1872), who made his reputation as a zoologist but also collected

plants, was in the southern part of the Presidency until 1868; Gideon

Thomson (see Chapter 2, Journal 54: 83) was collecting there until

1855; a missionary, E. Johnston, was a rather discriminating collector

of the south-western coasts; where also was another, Samuel

Mateer (1835-1893), who paid attention in particular to the vernacular

plant-names that he encountered. There were two horticulturists in

the Presidency who did excellent work in their own line, Andrew

T. Jaffray and William Graham Mclvor, the first at Madras, the

second in the Nilgiri Hills at Ootacamund. The zoologist Jerdon made

excursions into Botany and the botanist Beddome made excursions

into Zoology.

As Ceylon at this date hung on to Madras by accepting the

guidance that Wight gave, it is convenient at this point to look south-

ward to it. General Warren Walker had protested that the Peradeniya

Garden was in the charge of ‘an ignoramus who could not read the

language of Botany’. This was James George Watson (for whom

see page 50 of the second chapter), and the General’s protest had

borne fruit at Watson’s death, when Sir William Hooker had been

able to get his former pupil, the surgeon George Gardner, accepted.

Sir James Emerson Tennent was the Colonial Secretary; and between

him and Gardner a friendship arose which led to companionship;

one may say that the Botany in Tennent’s account of Ceylon had

been talked over with Gardner in joint rambles. It was during the

years of this friendship that the German surgeon Warner Hoffmeister

reached Ceylon (see the second chapter, Journal 54: 50). Neither he

~ nor Prince Waldemar of Prussia, with whom he was travelling, saw

Gardner who was away from Peradeniya at the time. Hoffmeister

wrote that Gardner was the only botanist in Ceylon; but this over-

looks amateurs who were there; and the meaning of Hoffmeister’s

words must have been that Gardner was officially the only botanist.

Another officer of the General’s name, Colonel James Thomas Walker,

collected plants in Ceylon between 1830 and 1840.

William Ferguson (1820-1887), by profession a surveyor, was in

Colombo. It is not quite sure when his interest in ferns developed;

but he assuredly was already interested in economic plants from his

arrival in 1839. He was a man of great ability and activity.

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 683

Harmanis De Alwis, the splendid artist of the Peradeniya Garden,

has a large claim for attention. He came on to Moon’s staff as a

clerk and Moon, discovering his talent, paid for his training as a

flower-painter. He served from 1823 to 1861 and a son succeeded

him.

Gardner on assuming charge, commenced work exactly as General

Walker would have wished, i.e. by collecting vigorously. He had

his artist to draw for him, and it is to be noted that perishable fungi

received his attention but to be regretted that from want of direction

these drawings, in Petch’s opinion, are impressions rather than

portraits.

Unfortunately Gardner’s death came suddenly in 1849, when the

Colonial Office appointed an equally efficient man G. H. K. Thwaites

to succeed him and we find this new man in the last days of that

year climbing the road from Colombo to Kandy to assume charge.

George Henry Kendrick Thwaites (1811-1882) was probably the

most liberal-minded botanist then in the East. As a _ young

man, earning his living by accountancy, he employed his

leisure to very .good effect in studying the lowest plants; then he

became a teacher himself in the School of Pharmacy at Bristol and

in succession to this in the Medical. School. From Bristol he applied

for a teaching post in Ireland; but he did not get it, though his

sponsors were among the most prominent botanists in Britain and

France. The reader, noting this, is made sure of the competence to

which Thwaites had brought himself. Instead of the post in Ireland

he was appointed to succeed Gardner in Ceylon. Thwaites in detail

did so; as he climbed the road to Kandy he moved exactly into the

work of Gardner, the work that General Walker had wanted; he

became a student of the Flowering Plants of the island. The study

of the Lower Plants was for those whom he could induce to work on

what he would collect. William Mitten worked up his mosses,

W. A. Leighton his lichens, and Miles Berkeley his fungi. Berkeley

took Christopher Edmund Broome for a fellow worker and between

them they carried the knowledge of the fungus flora of Ceylon a

vast way beyond that of India. Thwaites could not have done better.

Let it be stressed here that Gardner had set the example of

collecting the fungi.

Gardner seems to have brought a large personal herbarium to

Ceylon and to have amalgamated it with the collection started by

Moon. The amalgamation had to be undone so that Gardner’s

property could be sold for the benefit of his family. With that done

684 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

the growth of the herbarium became the work of Thwaites. Neither

Berkeley nor Broome visited Ceylon, and the species which they

named were those collected by Thwaites. A biographer credits

Thwaites with being ‘a naturalist, pure and simple, a keen and

accurate observer of great industry, quietly enthusiastic and with great

reasoning capabilities. Broome had known him when resident in

Bristol. Berkeley and Broome co-operated with equally great and

equally quiet enthusiasm; in fact they isolated themselves.

William Ferguson (1820-1887), by training as surveyor, in Ceylon

from 1839 until his death, developed, as already said, an interest in

economic plants and in ferns; and he took an interest also in the

seaweeds.

Thwaites used Wallich’s way of getting help from Europe, the way

of liberality, of distributing specimens in the hope of obtaining,

determinations; he made up sets of dried plants which were given

where a return was expected, and were on sale also. His greatest

help came from Kew, where Sir Joseph Hooker would compare the

Ceylon with Indian plants. Thwaites’s ENUMERATIO PLANTARUM

ZEYLANIAE CATALOGUS (1858) was made on the materials that went

into his sets.

The Colonial Government had been caused to transfer their

botanical work from the coast to the hills by the. rush into the coffee

districts of would-be planters, many of them agriculturally ignorant

and all in need of guidance, which they came to expect but did not

particularly go to seek. Thwaites seems to have been left in his first

years to find his feet. In 1854 came what Sir Emerson Tennent, the

Colonial Secretary, described in his CEYLON (2: 211) as ‘a murmur

of ill-informed utilitarianism against the expenditure bestowed on the

Botanic Garden and a proposal that the Garden be abandoned’.

Tennent shows that official opinion supported Thwaites; and Ferguson

took a leading part in upholding him; but Thwaites as a consequence

had more economic work thrown on him, while the preparation of

the ENUMERATIO was still in progress for yet another few years.

The following also botanized in Ceylon at this time: a chaplain,

John Gibson MacVicar, just before 1850, and apparently the judge,

Sir William Norris, in the period before he was transferred to Penang

(1836). That these two were actual collectors of Ceylon plants is not

certain; both may have developed collecting as a pastime after leaving

Ceylon. Edward Frederick Kelaart (1818-1850) was born in Ceylon,

but most of his botanical work was done elsewhere; and he was more

interested in zoology than botany.

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 685

Neitner, a German biologist, made a stay in the island (1854-1855)

and took a collection to Berlin.

-- It is time to turn northwards to the Bombay Presidency. John

Graham had died in 1839. Charles Lush and Joseph Nimmo had

died in 1854. A fourth botanist of Bombay of those years was. lost

to Bombay—Captain Henry Geburne, an Artillery officer, who left

by retirement (1846). John Sutherland Law remained as the doyen,

but not for long. He knew the plants of the districts in which he

had served; but he published little. Four years after the year in which

this chapter begins he also retired, taking with him a herbarium of

about 1500 species, part of which went to Oxford and the rest to Kew.

When Law left India, the leadership in Bombay passed to

Alexander Gibson who had been in charge of the Dapuri Garden in

Poona from 1836 to 1847 and had published thence several not

unimportant papers on economic plants including one on the Teak

tree (1840). In 1847 he was appointed Conservator of Forests for the

Presidency, a post he was still holding when Cleghorn came forward

in Madras. N. A. Dalzell was under Gibson. It was not until 1861

that their joint BOMBAY FLORA appeared: two years later Gibson

published his HANDBOOK TO THE FORESTS OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY,

and inserted into it an enumeration of the valuable forest trees of

India as a whole. In the year after this he retired, giving to the

Calcutta Garden, as he left, his collection of dried plants. Dalzell

did not immediately succeed Gibson; but by way of economy the

Bombay Government united the posts of Conservator of Forests with

the charge of the Dapuri Garden in the person of Eyre Champion de

Crespigny whose collection of dried plants is now the property of the

University’ of Manchester. de Crespigny retired in 1862: Daizell

remained in India for a few more years in charge of the forests.

The forties had brought the first opportunity of making acquain-

tance with the interesting flora of Sind. Military operations led to

it; they caused Nathaniel Vicary to be sent thither with his regiment.

Vicary had been in India from before 1832, but it was not until

more than ten years later that he found himself in Sind. He was a

diligent collector who, perhaps because of his repeated transfers of

station, let his collections suffer damage. It was probably the

inconvenient size of his possessions which in 1832 or 1833 led to the

gift of them to the Calcutta Garden. After that he began a new

collection and when he left India for Australia there was a second

gift. He published on the plants of Sind in 1854 and 1857.

The next to study the plants of Sind was J. E. Stocks. —

686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

John Ellerton Stocks (1822-1854) had been one of Lindley’s pupils

in London; and having qualified in Medicine he went to India in

1847 where he was sent out to vaccinate. At the end of a period of

service of normal length he took his collections to Kew for determina-

tion; but he died prematurely. Hyderabad (Sind) was within his

area and from Hyderabad he made his two expeditions into

Baluchistan.

A contemporary surgeon of Bombay with an interest in ferns was

Andrew H. Leith. His time of activity also spanned the year 1850.

His collection is now the property of the University of Manchester.

Another contemporary surgeon was H. J. Giraud. The Bombay

Government brought him out from Britain to teach in the Grant

Medical College and he was not of the Service which in general

provided the Company’s botanists. Herbert John Giraud (1817-1888)

arrived in 1841 or 1842 with the title of Professor of Chemistry. Not

at first, but after 1845 his teaching extended to Botany, and during

his years he held various civic positions in addition to his teaching

and is said to have been a popular lecturer. He returned to Britain

in 1867.

John Forbes Watson (1827-1892) arrived in India in 1850 and

taught Physiology in the Grant Medical College, then returned to

Britain in 1858 to take the place that Royle had had in the service of

India House as Reporter on Economic Products and Keeper of the

Museum at India House. This post he held until 1879. The brothers

George Christopher Molesworth Birdwood (1832-1917, knighted in

1877) and Herbert Mills Birdwood (1837-1907) arrived in India res-

pectively in the years 1854 and 1858. The eider did much for

Bombay. He had been born in the Presidency. He qualified in

medicine at Edinburgh with Hutton Balfour as his teacher in Botany

and was one of the keen men who helped in getting class-material

together. After reaching Bombay he taught various subjects in the

Grant Medical College; and a great interest in Materia Medica

induced him to pay a collector on the coasts near Aden to seek for

the trees yielding myrrh and frankincense. It led also, though less

directly, to a catalogue of the economic products of Bombay. He

served the city in many ways; among them he was Secretary of the

Agri-Horticultural Society; and he took the leading part in raising

money for a museum in the Victoria Park. When in 1868 ill-health

drove him out of India, he carried his interests to Britain and gave

his service to India through the India Office. The younger became a

judge who wrote in his leisure a FLORA OF MATHERAN AND

MAHABLESHWAR and an account of Indian timbers.

aie

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 687

It may be mentioned here that the French botanist, Charles

Gaudichaud-Beaupré, serving under Freycinet paid brief visits to

Pondicherry and Calcutta in 1837; and that in 1845 the Danish

exploring ship Galathea touched at Tranquebar, Pondicherry, Madras,

and Calcutta on her way to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,

Dietrich Ferdinand Didrichsen collecting.

In 1850 Sir Joseph Hocker and Thomas Thomson were collecting

plants with great thoroughness in the Khasia Hills. They had

collected separately in the Sikkim Himalayas and the remotest parts of

Kashmir; and were working for a joint account of the flowering plants

of India. They would have called their publication ‘Flora indica’,

taking into it as much as they could, making it an account of the

largest area that their knowledge could justify, just as Roxburgh had

done with his FLORA INDICA and as Griffith would have done had he

got so far as writing. ‘Flora indica did not mean ‘the Flora’ but ‘a

Flora’. From the Khasia Hills they moved southwards as signs of

autumn came over the uplands and, collecting through Sylhet, Chitta-

gong, and the Sunderbans, reached Calcutta to leave for Britain early

in February 1851.

Falconer was now in his second spell of work in India (1847-1855).

He had been to Moulmein to report on the teak forests and was

occupied, when Hooker left, in replanting the Calcutta Garden in the

wake of McClelland’s destructiveness. As for McClelland, after a

short time in Birbhum he had been sent to Pegu to collect through

the teak forests. Falconer had been of great service to Hooker by

receiving his collections and preparing them for sending forward to

London. He sent collectors of his own to the Khasia Hills to supple-

ment Hooker’s collections. Francis Jenkins was still the Governor-

General’s Agent in Assam and stimulating collecting from Gauhati.

His subordinate J. W. Masters collected up the Brahmaputra to Sadiya.

Vicary was making his last collections in India; he had collected in

several parts of the lower Ganges valley and Hazaribagh. The strength

of the army in the upper parts of the Ganges valley was so great that

there was nearly continuous study of its flora. Lady (Elizabeth)

Gomme wife of the Commander-in-Chief collected a little (1856).

William Jameson (1815-1882) was in charge of the Garden at

Saharanpur. He had been sent to Saharanpur in 1842 and when he

understood that Hooker and Thomas Thomson would write a flora,

he supplied them with plants in the hope of helping them . .

M. P. Edgeworth, now in Banda, was helpful from thence; and in the

year 1850 he was transferred to Multan where he made a list of the

688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

flora. Lieutenant William Hawtayne Parish sent Himalayan plants

from Kulu and Mandi. Brigadier J. B. Hearsey was sending to Kew

plants from the Punjab. Thomas Lebb was at the time collecting

plants worth culture for the firm of Veitch of Exeter; but of course

a bird of passage as to India. The following three botanists reached

India during the fiftics—John Lindsay Stewart (1853), Charles

Murchison (1853), and James Edward Tierney Aitchison (1858). The

work of the first and the last will be indicated later; that of Murchison

was little; during his two years in the Bengal Medical ‘Service he

made small collections of dried plants which he gave to Kew.

A missionary, Francis Mason (1799-1874), as avid of acquiring

knowledge as William Carey, had arrived at Tavoy in Tenasserim

and had moved to Moulmein in 1850 where he embarked on a book,

small in its first edition, on Burmese plants etc., entitled NATURAL

PRODUCTIONS OF BURMAH OR NOTES ON THE FAUNA, FLORA, ETC. OF

THE TENASSERIM PROVINCES AND THE BURMESE EMPIRE. ‘There was

a second edition from the author in 1860 and remotely (1882) a

greatly enlarged edition by another hand (W. Theobald’s edition).

At the beginning of our period (1852) Charles Samuel Pollock

Parish (1822-1897) went to Moulmein as Chaplain and threw himself

with energy into a search for interesting plants. One expedition took

him to the Andaman Islands.

BOTANIC GARDENS—THE BOTANIST’S FIRST CARAVANSERAIS

After the men, their memorials! And as an opening question,

by what is a botanic garden to be distinguished?

A garden becomes a botanic garden when its purpose is the bring-

ing of plants into some kind of philosophic study. It must be a

garden first. The missionaries of Tranquebar doubtless were provided

with a garden of vegetables as a supplement to which, from 1768

when Johann Gerhard Koenig came among them, they accepted what

interested him in his quest for knowledge and associated it with

the vegetables, as that was convenient. Then their garden became

a Botanic Garden, as they indeed called it. Equally the garden of

the magistrate M. R. Smith, at Sylhet, when he began to use it as

an entrepdt between the Khasia Hills and Roxburgh in the Calcutta

Garden, became a Botanic Garden; and so he and his friends named .

it. But the Calcutta Botanic Garden did not get the adjective

‘botanic’ into its name in the same way. Kyd in the letter that

carried his proposals to the Government of Bengal expressly excluded

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 689

from its operations the study of plants, i.e. the addition to the garden of

the operation that entitled Koenig’s and M. R. Smith’s to be called

botanic.

I have reached the conclusion that when Colonel Kyd set out to

address the Government of Bengal on his proposal for the establish-

ment of a Calcutta Botanic Garden, he had no clear mind as to the

name to give it. He described what he was asking for in terms

indicating a horticultural nursery. We have such nurseries today and

there were such in Britain in Kyd’s time: for instance, the first nursery

held by the Veitch family was for raising trees for planting in Devon.

Kyd would have the like close to Calcutta. He wanted something

that was more than just a garden; as something better than a garden

he called it a botanic garden. He proposed no pure botany for it

and in fact explicitly wrote that there would be none.

He pointed to 310 acres along the river just below Gites and

he estimated 200 rupees a month as the cost of maintaining. The

Government approved, and began operations without waiting for

sanction to come from the Directors in London. They used Kyd’s

name—Botanic Garden, and Botanic Garden it was to the man in the

street. His expectation determined that it should develop in that

direction, and so it did. Kyd lived on adjoining land and accepted

charge. When the approval of the Directors came there was a

comment with it that they would not have objected to a higher

estimate of cost; Kyd lived for a further 9 years and, when he died,

the Government called Roxburgh from Samalcottah to take his place.

We see from the time of Roxburgh’s arrival pure botany in place in

the Garden mixed into the increasing stock of the nursery. The

conduct of affairs now under Roxburgh diverged so much from the

proposals of Kyd’s first letter as to suggest that the adjective

‘botanical’ in Kyd’s name had driven botany into the administration,

actually during Kyd’s years of control, so that at the date of Kyd’s

death it was a natural thing to call in a botanist.

Who was the founder of the Garden? Kyd for horticulture,

Roxburgh in great measure for Botany.

To Banks and those in London who were taking part in the

advancement of Botany through Kew, Roxburgh’s greatest con-

tribution to the Science was through his descriptions and drawings and

it was customary for Banks to see the drawings.

Calcutta was in a great wave of prosperity and with consequent

liberal impulses the Government was prepared to retain all the 310

acres as garden, but later took some away. Little is the information

690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

preserved on the Garden’s early appearance. Its area was from a

ditch bordering the property towards Howrah, on which Kyd lived, to

the Great Banyan tree at the west end. This tree was young enough

not to have completely suffocated the Indian date-palm tree on which

its seed had germinated as an epiphyte. In depth the Garden

extended from the river bank to an untidy undefined area to which

Hooker thought the noisy picnickers from the city, amusing them-

selves by folk-dancing, might profitably be confined; and it is doubtful

if at Hooker’s visit the scenic possibilities of the river-front were

attractively developed. But when Maria Graham visited the Garden

as Roxburgh had it in 1810, she commented on its orderliness.

Orderliness need not imply finish, and the scattered tanks and

nurseries, remarked on by Griffith, indicate irregular and improvised

extending of cultivation. Landscape gardening was not aimed at; and

most certainly the Garden passed through a period when its greatest

beauty was not in it but in the youth of its trees—natural, therefore,

and not by art.

The founding of a garden in Calcutta led to a wish for other

gardens, the promoters seeing possibilities much as Kyd saw them,

but not as Roxburgh did.

Tipu Sultan of Mysore had converted a fruit-garden that his father

had made in Bangalore into a garden of ease. On his downfall in

1800 the fate of this garden had to be decided and, pending a

decision, it was put into the charge of Benjamin Heyne, he being the

Madras botanist at the time, and a proposal having been made that

it should become ‘a botanic garden’. After Heyne it was entrusted

to an agri-horticultural society; then relinquished but remaining an

open space. Cleghorn contrived to get the status of garden restored.

He made his recommendation in 1856; and it was to apply to 50

acres. A horticulturist named New, to whom there is a Strobilanthes

dedicated, was put in charge; then followed Allan Black, sent out

from Kew in 1863, but he lived for two years only. Black (1832-

1865) had had a horticultural training at Kew and had held the post

of Curator of the Herbarium. After him the Bangalore Garden had

for its Superintendent from 1873 to 1907 John Cameron, to whose

planting it has owed much of its beauty.

Another Cameron—William Cameron—had left Kew about 16 years

earlier for the similar service of horticulturist at Peradeniya. It is

said that when in 1857 he went to Ceylon he was entrusted with the

conveying of a consignment of cinchona plants. He left Government

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 691

service in 1860 for coffee planting, was hit by the coffee-leaf disease,

and piloted his estate back using cinchona.

One year before the death of Tipu, Ceylon had obtained a small

acclimatization garden in Colombo entrusted to a gardener named

Jonville, brought from Europe by a new Governor. This garden, to

give it a better position, was removed for a short distance in 1810:

then to increase the field of interest Banks caused William Kerr, a

Kew gardener, to be sent out in 1812. Kerr had travelled to collect

desirable plants and could be relied on to bring together such as he

could get and grow. The Colombo site however was still condemned,

as it was liable to be flooded; but there was available an abandoned

sugar plantation at Kalutara, which though 26 miles from Colombo,

was accepted; and the garden was moved. Kerr died in 1814, and

another who had had the same training in travelling and collecting,

Alexander Moon, was sent to Ceylon to replace him (1817). In that

year the Government completed its military road from Colombo to

Kandy. It was decided on this that Kandy should be the hot weather

station of the Government with a residence for the Governor, and,

following that, to use Nuwara Eliya as a sanatorium, for which purpose

the road was continued right to the very middle of the hills. It opened

a wide area for planting, and there was a rush into it of would-be

planters, many of them very ignorant of planting possibilities. To!

meet the situation, the Government set aside about 150 acres at four

miles from Kandy for a garden that could illustrate possibilities as

well as acclimatise and become a Botanic Garden. They closed

Kalutara and sent Moon uphill after the planters.

The Dutch when they held the coasts of Ceylon had tried to

introduce coffee-growing as an industry. They got no further than to

familiarise the bush in the coastal villages. The excellence of the

hill climate for growing it did not remain unkown; but the cultivation

in the hills came only with the entry of planters from 1817 forward.

One of Moon’s first acts when in possession of Peradeniya was to

lay out with coffee an area conspicuously where the new high road

passed the Garden and to lay out another with the traditional crop,

cinnamon. These, the reader realises, were demonstrations. Moon

added as he could, in order to attract the interest of the passers-by,

a few acres near the. gate of miscellaneous cultivation: the balance

behind remained in natural forest.

This founding was in many ways unlike that of the Calcutta

Garden; it was a lone job for Moon, whereas the founders of the

Calcutta Garden had abundant well-wishers and potential supporters.

692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 58 (3)

The two were alike in the liberal provision of land. Moon had the

London idea of what a Botanic Garden should be; he backed it up

by determining his plants, catalogued them and found an artist who

pictured them. What he got into the cultivated acres can be gathered

from his CATALOGUE OF CEYLON PLANTS, published in 1824. He died

in the next year, a great loss. There is evidence that Jonville collected

and dried plants.

Two years passed before Moon’s successor arrived. This was

James Macrea whose training for his work had equally been by

travelling as a collector of useful and ornamental plants. Macrea died.

in 1830 and again it took two years to secure a successor. He was

James George Watson, accepted on Wallich’s recommendation, but

not a success in the post. General Warren Walker’s scathing con-

demnation of him has been quoted. At the time of Watson’s death

in 1838, the Government was allowing the produce of the Garden

to be sold in Kandy; and it found locally successive caretakers, (i) in

J. G. Lear, a professional horticultural collector who had been sent

to Ceylon and (ii) and (iii) in two of the island’s surgeons, H. T.

Normansell and W. C. Ondaatje. They were naturalists and no doubt

did faithful curating. Normansell died. A little later we discover

Ondaatje on a visit to London where he joined the Linnaean Society.

Exhibits which he brought to meetings indicate that he had an interest

in medicinal plants. But in 1844, at last the post of superintendent

was filled, as General Walker urged, by one able to study the botany

of the island. This was George Gardner, with a qualification in

Medicine, a pupil of Sir William Hooker and with a reputation as

a botanist got from extensive plant-collecting in Brazil. At Peradeniya

a close friendship sprang up between Gardner and Sir Emerson —

Tennent, who was at the time Colonial Secretary, so close that the

botany in Tennent’s CEYLON must have been talked over by the two

in their rambles together. Tennent praises the Garden for horti-

cultural efficiency. There were flower borders but not yet any of the

art of landscape gardening.

Gardner died in 1849, and the custom established, of employing a

botanist, led to the appointment of Thwaites. When Gardner was

put in charge, 40 acres out of its 140 were in cultivation and, taking

into consideration the way in which the Garden had been officered.

it is hard to see how the planting community had had a real lead.

In 1821 the Governor-General of India, Lord Hastings, visited the

North West Province!. The reconstructed canal carrying water to Delhi

1 Later the united Provinces of Agra and Oudh, and now Uttar Pradesh.

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 693

was one of his interests and he visited Saharanpur near to its head.

In that pleasant station his attention was drawn to a neglected fruit-

garden supported originally by the revenue of seven villages on the

foundation of a public-spirited administrator and dedicated to the

improvement of local horticulture. In its neglected state, self-sown

inferior mango trees standing in coarse grass filled it. Lord Hastings

decided that it should be preserved and replanted under the care of

the Civil Surgeon, who at the time was the fully competent Geerge

Govan. Under him its small area of only a few acres was extended;

canal water was brought in; roading was done; lawns made and it

was dedicated anew to its original purposes. Govan, to extend its

work, opened a nursery at Nahan on one of the routes of trade from

the plains into the Himalayas. Retiring in 1823, he was succeeded

by the energetic J. F. Royle, who intensified the work and investigated

the flora on the near-by hills by sending collectors for plants and

seeds, creating a herbarium, employing agents to bring fruit trees

from Kashmir and, when Wallich went on leave, obtaining the services

of the Calcutta artists. He closed the Nahan nursery, when he was

able to open a larger and more elevated one at Mussoorie. Saharanpur

with Mussoorie in support had resembled Kalutara with Peradeniya in

support, if Kalutara had been retained; the years were the same.

Royle gave to Saharanpur all required to make it a Botanic

Garden, of the Kew type, the display, the botanical nomenclature, the

study of plants, and a recording in print and by illustration.

Assuredly he knew Kew. The distance of Saharanpur from Calcutta

and the entirely dissimilar climates kept the two Gardens from any

competition. But in the eyes of the Administrators, the elder was

always the elder brother, staffed therefore by the experienced, for

instance Hugh Falconer, Thomas Thomson, and Sir George King;

each in his time was entrusted with the care of Saharanpur CLIN

promotion to the care of the Calcutta Garden.

The north of India under Persian influence obtained a number of

gardens of ease. Tipu’s at Bangalore was the Persian influence

carried to the south of India. All that Tipu’s garden did towards

the promotion of Botany was to provide land used botanically after

a long interval. The Saharanpur Garden was not of the same kind

of origin; but again what it did was to provide land after a break

just as Tipu’s garden did.

Three of the north-western gardens of ease may be mentioned in

passing: (i) that at Fatehpur Sikri because it is so instructive in con-

struction: (ii) that at Shalimar, a little to the west of Lahore, because

694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

though never serving in pure Botany it played a part in fruit selection,

and (ili) the better known Shalimar Garden in Kashmir for we have

descriptions of it as it was. This garden, set on a superb site, exposed

too much art.

I have need to revert to the Calcutta Garden. In the year 1830,

Wallich being on leave in Britain, a Retrenchment Committee cut the

financial support for the Garden so severely as to arrest progress.

Wallich on his return to Calcutta in 1832 found he had to retrench;

he could not withdraw from raising large quantities of stock for giving

away and also for supplying to small experimental patches up and

down Bengal which were in his charge. He did not send out collecting

parties. and, as I have said elsewhere, showed an unwillingness to

maintain a collection of dried plants. His accumulation of drawings

suggests economy, for a record exists to the effect that during his

second period of service his artists gave him 552 drawings against the

2350 done for Roxburgh. I take it fair to say that this retrenchment

fell on the development towards a mature Botanic Garden; and that

the ideas of the Government retrogressed towards Kyd’s nursery

establishment.

Griffith, who criticised Wallich for abandoning Botany, took a

very curious and unjust position when, along with the attribution to

Wallich of what he saw amiss, he promised the Government in asking

sanction for undoing so much of Wallich’s work that he would do it

on his budget allowance: for this he implied that the allotment was

adequate. Of course the Government wished it to be so, and went

on wishing until the Crown displaced the Company.

GARDENS ADDED FROM 1830

The first of these gardens was that of Bombay; it was originated

by an agri-horticultural Society in 1830. Two years earlier John

Graham had reached Bombay; and he was involved in the Society’s

welfare from its foundation. He had reached Bombay without em-

ployment, but must have had reasons to expect it. It seems that

he was known in advance to the Governor, Sir John Malcolm, and

the Governor.took him into his own household on arrival. The

Society formed an acclimatization garden at the suburb of Sewree and

Graham could examine Bombay plants cultivated in it.

When Graham had ready for the press his CATALOGUE OF PLANTS

GROWING IN BOMBAY AND JTS VICINITY, the Society undertook to see

it printed. As we discover two grants of money from the Government

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 695

to the Society, one just before printing and one after, the inference

that the Government was helping to finance its publication seems

correct, although the Society had another cause for needing money,

namely their expenditure on the laying out of their grounds by an

expert named MacCulloch. Graham died when the type-setting had

reached its 200th page.

The Society had willing support from some of the best of the

citizens of Bombay. These may be named: George Buisk the Editor

of The Bombay Times, H. J. Giraud who was called to Bombay to

teach in the Grant Medical College and served the city in various

capacities, and Dr. George Birdwood who also taught.

George Christopher Molesworth Birdwoed (1832-1917, knighted

in 1877) was born in India, then graduated in Medicine in Edinburgh

and returned to India in 1854. In Edinburgh he had been a pupil

of John Hutton Balfour a great teacher. When he had returned to

Bombay, it fell to him to teach Materia Medica in the College. Out

of his great energy, the Victoria Museum came into existence in the

Agri-Horticultural Society’s park. In 1862 he catalogued the economic

products of Bombay; and he returned to Britain in 1868 on account

of illness, but to continue economic work at the India Office.

The city of Madras obtained a botanic garden in the same way

as the city of Bombay, namely through an agri-horticultural Society,

the date being 1838. The reader notes that it was within eight years

of the Bombay garden, and it is to be added that the Society grew

on the willing service of the citizens in a like measure. It has been

recorded that Wight in 1838 was taken from military service and

instructed to look into the state of Agriculture in southern India.

The year was that of the foundation of the Society’s garden and

Wight who had been called to Madras city looked after it. The

records cal! him Superintendent. H. C. F. Cleghorn similarly looked

after the garden when he was a professor in the Medical College

(1852 forward). An Army officer, Francis Alexander Reid was

Superintendent for a while. The Society for a considerable period

had the services of the horticulturist, Andrew T. Jaffray. Another

horticulturist, Robert N. Browne, trained in Edinburgh, succeeded

from 1857 to 1863, and wrote a guide book which went to a second

edition, edited by the surgeon, John Joseph Wood (1828-1867). He

at the time was on the staff of the Medical College. When Wood

left India the Garden was again superintended by one of the fighting

forces, an officer of the Army, Robson Benson (1822-1894, ultimately

a general) who had done the same service for the Agri-Horticu'tural

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Society in Rangoon at the time (1865-1869) when he was with his

regiment in Lower Burma.

Sir Joseph Hooker spent a day ashore in Madras at the very

beginning of 1848 and passed his time in the Garden. Catalogues

cf other dates than those named above were issued. Certainly the

Garden was very active.

A catalogue of the plants grown, prepared by James Matthew

Gleeson, Superintendent of the garden, who left Kew for India in

1870, in the first instance to superintend experimental cotton culti-

vation in 1899, runs to 95 pages. It was issued in 1884.

The Nilgiri Hills, as we have seen, were coming forward and

Ootacamund becoming a sanatorium in the days of Schmid, Metz,

von Hugel, and Baikie. This development led to the establishment

of a Garden of ease. A resourceful gardener from Kew laid it out

in 1848. This was William Graham Maclvor. He had more land

than he could immediately use, but it was not long before it was

required for the experimental raising of Cinchona, whereby the garden

may be said to have become a Botanic Garden. MaclIvor died at

his post in 1876.

To accommodate cinchona in Ceylon on its arrival the high level

plantation of Hakgala was laid out as a branch from Peradeniya.

The second horticulturist to be in charge of it, William Nock, whose

service in Ceylon lasted from 1881 to 1904, was sent to Hakgala in

1882, and he embellished the area by extending the range of the

olants cultivated. What he found the garden would grow may be

read in a contribution which he made to Lemesurier’s MANUAL OF

THE NUWARA ELIYA DISTRICT. For the sanatoria of the Himalayas to

get gardens may be regarded as natural; for a garden is a part of

the road to health. The Garden at Naini Tal and the Lloyd Botanic

Garden in Darjeeling were created on land donated for the purpose.

After the fighting in Lucknow in 1857, those who sought to

remove the disfigurements set aside an area for a garden. At first

it was but a garden of ease, indistinguishable in purpose from a

half-dozen other gardens in the northern plains of India, but the second

officer to-be in charge of it, the surgeon Emmanuel Bonavia, added

experimental studies of fruit trees (1876) and from that time it has

had a claim to the name of Botanic Garden. |

Emmanuel Bonavia (1826-1908) had entered the Bengal Medical

Service in 1857 and was in charge of the Garden at Lucknow in 1876.

It was then that he began to write about citrus fruits, their classifica-

tion, and their history in cultivation, and about the date palms and

ether botanical subjects. cae | |

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 697

HORTICULTURE IN ALLIANCE

Horticulture is one of Botany’s technologies. At any rate the two

are mutually helpful; and botanists have been not a little indebted

to the horticulturists for bringing the plant world under their eyes.

The whole of the credit of conveying tropical plants alive and keeping

them alive in temperate lands belongs to the horticulturists, for they

worked out ways of transporting over the sea between India and the

lands where Botany had a stronghold and they devised plant-houses

with an artificial climate for their reception. There had been a century

of experimentation from the time when the first plant-house was

built for Clusius to the time when Europe had stoves hot enough to

encourage a flow of plants from India to the curious in horticulture

in western Europe. This section of my paper is devoted to the gains

of Botany by reason of the aspirations of horticulturists, and the

Calcutta Garden was called in to aid, if not already in Kyd’s time.

at least as soon as Roxburgh had been called to Calcutta. In the

year after that (1c. in 1794) the Company appointed Christopher

Smith their ‘Botanist at Calcutta’. His business was the stocking of

the Company’s possessions in the East with economic plants and he

caused thousands of plants to be transported by sea within the tropics.

The transport to Europe, which of course was round the Cape, was

a somewhat more exacting task.

At that time a very generous friend of the Calcutta Garden was

M. R. Smith, the magistrate stationed at Sylhet. His position enabled

him to tap the riches of the Khasia Hills; and I would attribute to

him the beginning of horticultural exploitation. At the same time

Francis Pierard was sending to the Garden plants from the direction

of Chittagong. Francis Buchanan had been to Ava with the Symes

Mission and later was able to visit Chittagong where a flora of

Burmese type is met with; and he too enriched the Garden. Roxburgh

is known to have contrived to get orchids in good state to London

where they were established in stove cultivation and to flowering (1813).

Wallich, with the way shown to him, posted a collector at Pundua

to work from a boat where M. R. Smith had gardened up to his

death in 1819. Duty had sent Wallich to Lower Burma and to

Northern Tenasserim, where he personally touched a flora rich in

beautiful plants and after his return he had a collector there. He

sent plants into cultivation freely.

Let the reader suggest, if he can, why so many beautiful flowers

seem to have had their evolution there.

698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

In 1818 the Royal Horticultural Society of Britain, being 14 years

old and having created for itself a garden with greenhouses, set to work

to furnish these by sending gardeners to various destinations to seek and

bring back desirable, chiefly ornamental, plants. One of the gardeners

was John Potis, who went by ship of the East India Company to

Calcutta and to Canton. From Calcutta in spite of being based on

the Botanic Garden his success seems to have been small—Wallich

would be in Nepal at the time. But it was otherwise from Canton

where John Reeves was living; and Reeves put him into the way of

setting the showy plants of the Chinese flower market. Doubtless

Potts travelled back along with what he had obtained in Canton and

cared for it (1821), but was compelled to entrust to others his

earlier consignment from Bengal. The lesser success from Bengal may

not have been by his fault; but most certainly the Chinese had gone

further than Bengal in flower selecting. |

Many botanists must have asked exactly where Pundua is: it was

16 miles north-west of Sylhet, and owed its importance to shallowing

water arresting trade and making it a terminus on the river; and it

would be an excellent base for collecting. As Wallich’s collecting

trips would be somewhat expensive, the cessation of such after the

Retrenchment Committee’s sittings in 1830 is understandable; but a

trip such as de Sylva’s would have brought much living material into

the Garden.

When Wallich went on leave in 1828, he took living plants with

him as well as his accumulation of dried plants. Five years after

Wallich’s return the then Duke of Devonshire, who had adopted

orchid-growing with enthusiasm, sent a gardener by name John Gibson

to collect in the Khasia Hills. Gibson, aided by Wallich’s direction

and support, brought back large and possibly rather indiscriminate

supplies but a number of novelties to cultivation (1837). Only a

little more than a year earlier Wallich and Griffith had crossed the

Hills seeking the tea bush; and Griffith was at the time of Gibson’s

visit at the head of the Brahmaputra valley. He had not seen

Vanda caerulea, the gem of the Hills on that, his first crossing (1835),

but did so when he varied his route in 1837. But Griffith did not

take it alive; he dried specimens of it.

John Gibson (1815-1875), after some years at Chatsworth, moved

to London, and in a busy life laid out or controlled nearly all of the

large parks in London. :

It is very evident, and indeed natural, that greenhouse plants sold

in Britain more readily than stove plants; and therefore China was

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 699

the country to search but, if stoves were to be favoured, then the

- Khasia Hills were to be visited. The firm of Loddiges and Sons

employed a collector in India; but it is not recorded who he was nor

whither he went. It was to the Khasia Hills that the Duke of Devon-

shire sent his collector John Gibson.

Gibson’s cases of living plants would need to be carried round

the Cape and therefore be long at sea, and though the Wardian Case

had been invented (1836) it is not certain that he was able to use it.

In 1843 the firm of James Veitch and Sons of Exeter sent their

employee Thomas Lobb to Singapore as a collector. At Singapore

he was to determine if the disturbed state of China would allow him

to work there; if it would not, he was to go to Java: he went to Java

and some other parts of Malaysia. In 1848 he signed on for another

expedition and sailed for Calcutta. Among the many places he now

visited were the Khasia Hills. Later he went to Tenasserim and he

continued his travelling life over many years. He was away in 1853

when his employers moved that part of their business which was with

stove plants to London, splitting the firm; and Lobb’s services were

thenceforward concentrated on the London half which became the

predominant half. Hooker’s record of Lobb’s ‘circus’ passing him in

the Khasia Hills has been recalled.

Contemporaneously Simons, the Government’s apothecary at

Gauhati, was sending local plants into cultivation and so also was a

collector named Freeman, and a Captain Williamson who sent orchids

to his uncle John Day (1821-1888), whose enthusiasm as a cultivator

led him to make a trip to India, both to the north-east and the south,

to inform himself on their cultural requirements.

In the fifties the lure of the orchid began to move south-eastwards.

Charles Samuel Pollock Parish had become chaplain at Moulmein

(1852) and he probably brought more eastern orchids into cultivation

than anyone else, keeping the stream up at least until 1871. While

Parish was active from Moulmein, so equally was an officer of the

army, Robson Benson, ultimately a General (1822-1894), in Rangoon

where he looked after the Garden of the local agri-horticultural

Society. His most generous area was a transect of the country from

the Arakan Yoma at the Toungup pass through Prome and through

Toungu to the Shan plateau; the transect connects the best teak

forests of Burma with orchids, but he obtained plants from other

parts of Burma.

Following General Benson came Major-General Emeric S. Berkeley

who sent orchids into cultivation from various parts of India but

700. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

chiefly from Burma. Of the professional plant collectors, Thomas

Lobb’s activities were along the trail made by M. R. Smith, Wallich,

Gibson, and Simons and secondly in Tenasserim followed one of

Wallich’s trails which Parish had reopened. After these came

William Boxall, first penetrating the area of the Lower Burma teak

forests whence Robson Benson had drawn many orchids, then going

into the Shan States because the exploring of Sir Henry Collett had

exposed some of its riches.

There is a great interest but littie explored in delimiting the area

of the evolution of the magnificent orchids. The evolution has

required long ages of continual tropical humidity fixing the plant and

fixing its pollinating agents. Both are involved. Henry James Murton

(1855-1881), the first horticulturist to be put in charge of the Singapore

Botanic Garden, was seeking in the year after he had left Singapore

to start in business as an orchid collector; his area Siam. Another

collector of the same time was J. C. Prazer, who took employment

under Sir George King when it would seem he was in Manipur.

Thence he moved to the lower valley of the Salween.

‘THE LARGER MUSEUMS IN INDIA AND THEIR GROWTH IN

EDUCATIONAL VALUE

Long ago, about the year 280 B.c., a Greek in power in ancient

Egypt set apart a building, called the Museion, for the promotion of

learning—whence the word museum. This building seems to have

had attached to it land for the cultivation of plants and for the

exhibition of captive animals. It is nice to recollect how long the

word ‘museum’ has indicated a building where one stores to study

and displays to instruct; and then the historian enquires into the line

of culture intended by the dedication.

I propose to bring into one view the dates when India dedicated

in its turn buildings as museums and the different sciences which

benefited. The dates are somewhat clustered in the fifties of the last

century.

1817: the Asiatic Society in Calcutta, at that date 30 years old

and the possessor of a house holding their library and objects, mainly

archaeological, which had been donated to the Society, planned to

display these objects, and make the building function as an

Archaeological Museum (let us call this collection No. 1), and further

they would have it extended to Zoology (2), Geology (3), and

Botany (4). But Botany soon fell out of the planning.

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 701

1819: it seems that Madras put by a little museum material (see

Markham & Hargreaves, THE MUSEUMS OF INDIA: 176; 1936).

1840: the Government, directly interested and very desirous of

increasing the public interest in India’s mineral wealth, planned a

‘Museum of Economic Geology’ within 3, and

1841: brought into India from Britain a large collection of

minerals (5) which was p!aced beside item 3.

1841: the Government at the same time agreed to give sufficient

financial aid to pay a salaried whole-time Curator, and Edward Blyth

was brought from Britain. Under him the zoological material (2)

grew into a large collection.

1846: we read of a collection being formed in Madras (7) perhaps

based on that of 1819; and we read later of a collection which would

seem to have been the same or a part of it, being in the entrance

hall of the Madras Medical School.

1850: the Government of India created the Geological Survey; and

the Survey began to make a collection (8) in its own possession. In

1856 it was able to withdraw 5 from its position alongside 3 to its

own premises.

1853: the Government of Madras planned an Exhibition and started

energetic collecting for it (9), and absorbed 7. The London 1851

Exhibition doubtless suggested the Madras exhibition of 1855 to its

promoters. When the Madras Exhibition came to closing, the Govern-

ment desired to retain a part and having a building available converted

that building into the Madras Museum (1857).

1855: the founding of a museum in Bombay had been under

discussion for a few years; in 1855 a museum (10) of Economic Pro-

ducts of Bombay and processes of their manufacture took origin and

was opened in 1857, then disordered by a hasty removal. Sir George

Birdwood’s CATALOGUE OF THE ECONOMIC PRODUCTS OF BOMBAY

(1862) suggests what material was in it—at least in its earlier years.

It became a mixed local museum, after reorganization.

1856: though the removal of the economic minerals (5) from the

Asiatic Society’s building gave a little relief, the museum remained

overcrowded and the zoological collections (6) in particular were in

need of much more room, moreover the geographic range covered had

widened. Then the Asiatic Society memorialized the Government of

India for the establishment in Calcutta of an Imperial Museum, and

expressed their readiness to transfer all their extensive collections,

except their library.

702. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

1866: the Indian Museum Act was passed, whereon collections

1 and 6 became possessions of Trustees created under the Act, while

3 was transferred to the Geological Survey.

1872: the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, Sir George Campbell,

moved to get the economic products of his Presidency collected. A

committee was set up in every district which collected samples of the

grains, seeds, oils, fibres, timbers, and minerals. This collection (11)

doubtless was very comprehensive by 1879 and had a considerable

value; but the cart was before the horse, as the essential building—-

the Museum proper—to hold the collection was wanting. Disorganiza-

tion then set in with vagabondage.

1875: the new Imperial Indian Museum building was ready for

occupation by | and 6.

1882: an enquiry was raised if the Museum building could be

made to hold an economic line; to this the reply was ‘not without

enlargement’. This was followed by a request for the temporary use

of a part of the building to assist the holding of an exhibition; and

an agreement was made that in return for temporary use an economic

wing should be added.

1883-1884: the Calcutta Exhibition. By most energetic collecting

exhibits (12) were brought together into which 11 had been absorbed.

1891: the wing of the Indian Museum for the display of Bengal

economic products having been completed, stocking it began; but a

considerable amount of replacement had become necessary, and this

collecting (12) was set about. It required time. That which was

good in the material was used for the Exhibition, and the new collec-

tions were gradually brought together, and the gallery receiving them

was opened to the public at the commencement of 1901.

Until then Botany had had no place in the Museum; and, as my

reader understands, it was only economic botany that now obtained

a place. |

Museums are of many kinds; the best have grown with declared

purposes; some have been or have become no more than depositories.

After the founding of the Madras Museum several small museums

were set up by decree in the Presidency. One is said not to have

functioned; the others did in a way, but it is evident that they were

too small to maintain interest, though even the smallest may have

done good by intercepting historic stones and the like which were

exposed to loss; in this doing as the beginnings of the Asiatic Society’s

collection did.

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 703

There is a particular interest to be found in the earliest years of

that collection.

To the year 1817 the Society’s house would have been a depository,

though the establishment of a museum must have been adumbrated.

The first official suggestion came in that year from Wallich, who had

been 7 years in the East, had practised medicine in Serampur, and

now was residing in Calcutta seeking a new medical practice and had

not yet so succeeded as to be without leisure. He offered his

services. The Council took up the idea, discussed the 'scope, and

accepting Wallich’s offer drew up a list of classes of gifts that they

would receive, at the same time naming Wallich ‘Superintendent of

their Oriental Museum’. Difficulties for him were only just round the

corner. He was almost immediately accepted as an Assistant Surgeon

in the Medical Service, and ordered to join the column marching on

Kathmandu. Where now was his availability? Though he did not

join the forces he did not become fully available for the museum, as

he was sent to the Calcutta Botanic Garden to take Roxburgh’s place

-and the Garden needed the whole of his time. Wallich, however,

kept the title of Superintendent.

The archaeological exhibits as they came in went into the care of the

Librarian; it would be a simple matter for Wallich to separate the

geological and zoological and to take the botanical to the Botanical

Garden; but one does not know if there were many of the last. The

Society on second thoughts had decided that botanical objects belonged

to the Garden. After a few years so much travelling fell to Wallich

that he could have had nothing to do with this receiving and putting

away and a clerk looked after it; visitors were asked to help if they

could.

The list of desiderata prepared by the Council when asking for

specimens shows that the Society thought to educate their own

members, not the public. The next move was an attempt to educate

whoever it could reach in geological products, by the side of the most

praiseworthy steadfastness of the Society in taxonomic zoology.

Botany was kept apart, one may say, by the difference due to the

way of handling its specimens.

Before Wallich’s day, Roxburgh from the Calcutta Botanic Garden

had collected and dried plants. He valued them less as evidence than

he did his artists’ drawings; he had no museum -building and he

dispersed the specimens to those who had the means of storing them.

Wallich at 1828 likewise dispersed all that he had at that date. He

too had no museum building, but kept part of the specimens in the

704 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

basement of his own house and another part in a seedhouse for the

convenience of his more advanced horticultural staff.

The missionaries in Madras made an effort at continuous use of

dried plants for identification, and Rottler showed himself so con-

vinced that the Calcutta Botanic Garden should do as they did that

he forced on Wallich the recommencement of maintaining a collection.

Seeing him as he was on his way back to Calcutta in 1832, he gave

him a bundle of dried plants.

Wallich took the lesson and proceeded to rebuild the set for the

garden shed. Vicary seems to have followed by unloading his baggage

on to Wallich; and Wallich in this way seems to have found himself

not exactly with a herbarium but with a collection of collections. I

do not know which of his successors did most of the work of unifica-

tion; perhaps it was Thomas Thomson. Under King the material

increased very rapidly, and King was successful in persuading the

Government of Bengal to supply a fire-proof building for it (1883).

Common usage, because it associates display with museums, tends

to dissociate herbaria and museums.

Exhibitions are temporary museums; but that statement does not

carry a complete parting line. Exhibitions do not provide for research,

which is what museums do. However exhibitions display very generally

material suitable for museums and become part parent in consequence.

The first exhibition staged in India, that of Madras, gave hope to

those concerned with education that the illiterate, to whom a label

conveyed nothing, gathered knowledge by the sight of classified

objects. Certainly they do.

The organizing of the exhibition was put into the hands of Surgeon

Edward Green Balfour (1813-1889), who had been in India from 1838

and was to be Surgeon-General of Madras before he retired. His

organizing work in this connection led to the publication of two

books: his CYCLOPAEDIA OF INDIA, 1857, and his TIMBER TREES OF

INDIA, 1858. The Exhibition led to two other publications: Sir

Walter Elliot’s so-called FLORA ANDRICA, 1859, and Colonel Heber

Drury’s USEFUL PLANTS OF INDIA, 1858.

Walter Elliot (1803-1887, knighted in 1866) had had rather long

service in the southern Maratha country, where he had studied the local

fauna rather closely; in 1837 he became Private Secretary to Lord

Elphinstone, the Governor of Madras. Next he was transferred to the

Telugu-speaking part of the Presidency and was there at the date of

the exhibition. His so-called FLORA ANDRICA is a compilation of

plant names, got together by his contact with the people and through

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 705

pundits; and shows that he must have known the flora. He was a

man of many interests and a well-proved administrator.

Heber Drury (1810-1878) was a Colonel in the Madras army who

studied with not a little care the flora of the southern parts.

The following officers were connected with the exhibition in

different ways: General Wiliam Cullen, Resident in Travancore

with the same interest as Colonel Drury, and the horticulturist Andrew

T. Jaffray, then serving the Madras Agri-Horticultural Society. He

did great service in assembling the exhibits. Later the name will be

found in these pages in connection with the introduction of Cinchona.

Surgeon Balfour control'ed the Madras Museum which, as said,

was the outcome of the exhibition; and the study that he caused to

be made of visitors is interesting. He kept statistics of their ability

to read, and of course found a very large amount of illiteracy which

frustrated in their case all values in the labels. Nevertheless it

‘seemed that the illiterate did profit. The Government proceeded to,

arrange small museums for their Jarger towns. These must be called

on the whole failures.

_ Few know that colonial Botanic Gardens throughout the Empire

had received at one time instructions to keep small collections of

plant products in the round and in a small number of cases the

experiment succeeded.

The collection of miscellanea in Bombay did not come into their

Museum in a manner quite like those of Madras: they were brought

out of a store room in the Custom House as soon as there was a

Museum building in the Victoria Park into which to put them (1857).

The erection of this building has been mentioned earlier; the year

was 1871.

Why Calcutta got its museum buildings later was mainly because

it was a very much larger proposition to build the Indian Museum

than it had been to build the Museum in Bombay. The year was

1875, twenty years after the institution of the Geological Survey of

India, and 15 after the Asiatic Society in memorial to the Government

of India had asked for the building, not of a Presidency Museum, but

of an Imperial Museum, whereinto what they had stored could be

taken. The reader notes that the date of this coincides with the

creation of the Madras Museum and not unrelated to the planning

of the Bombay Museum.

All three museums of the presidency cities had attained functioning

when in 1882 the Government of Bengal sought to get the range of

the display extended on the economic side and received the reply that

706 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

this could only be by adding to the building. Then followed an

enquiry if the Museum could be made the focus of an exhibition and

the discussion ended in an agreement that in return for this temporary

accommodation the Government of Bengal would add a wing and so

it did in due time: the Economic Section. Meanwhile the Calcutta

Exhibition of 1883-1884 ran its course. The Government of Bengal

naturally passed over to it what there was in its ‘Economic Museum’

though the specimens were in a sorry state. ‘These—grains, fibres,

oil-seeds, drugs, timbers, and minerals that had been commandeered

from all parts of Bengal—had very soon after the institution of the

collection outgrown the space allotted to them and more than one

move had thrown them into disorder, into some neglect and disrepute.

The collection was advantageously broken up with the retention of

‘no more than was worth keeping and this now made part of a new

collection gathered from all parts of India. Now the native of other

parts of India who visited the exhibition could see what came from

beyond his own knowledge, and surely this was a gain on the showing

to the native of Bengal what might be familiar to him. The new wing

which the Government of Bengal had promised was ready in 1891

and the Exhibition’s collection, screened afresh and added to, was

arranged in it over the years 1891 to 1901. The reader can if he

desires get all the details for which he is likely to wish in the volume

issued by the Trustees in 1914 for the Museum’s Centenary.

The Imperial Museum in Calcutta and the Presidency Museums in

Madras and Bombay have been immensely popular and undoubtedly

have passed forward a great deal of elemental knowledge. The

Superintendent of the Madras Museum, Dr. E. G. Balfour, kept a

and the percentage of the latter was high enough to suggest that the

least promising gained something.

It is interesting to note that the earlier geologists of the Geological

Survey lent themselves to promoting the collecting of plants almost

_ as if they thought it incumbent in them. Thomas Oldham, Valentine

Ball, William Blanford, and Ferdinand Stoliczka were of the Survey

and remitted dried plants to the Calcutta Garden. Still more the

zoologists did this—the surgeon John Scully, the ornithologists

T. C. Jerdon, Allan O. Hume, and Eugene W. Oates; the entomologist

W. S. Atkinson; the malacologist Lt.-Col. Henry H. Godwin-Austen,

and others who will be named later. |

(To be continued)

A Natural Sanctuary in the Himalaya:

Nanda Devi and the Rishiganga Basin

Hari DANG

The Doon School, Dehra Dun

(With a map and two plates)

INTRODUCTION

Though I had heard of the natural sanctuary formed by a ring

of high mountains around Nanda Devi in 1942, it was only in 1960.

and again in 1961, that it was possible to actually visit the area,

primarily with the object of mountaineering and photography. The

second of these two trips eventually came to be sponsored by the

Indian Mountaineering Foundation, the Mount Everest Foundation,

London, and The Statesman newspaper, and the following report is

based on information gathered during these two trips.

Nanda Devi is not only the highest mountain in the central

Himalaya, but dominates 250 inaccessible square miles of the most

beautiful mountain scenery in the world. The area around Nanda

Devi is ringed by a continuous high ridge which descends below

eighteen thousand feet only where Rishiganga River, draining the

numerous glaciers of the region, has cut a deep and difficult gorge

through the western side. Nineteen known summits of over 21.000 ft.

stand on this ridge, which is located between the Dhauliganga and

Goriganga rivers of the Kumaun-Garhwal Himalaya.

Much of this 250 square miles of mountainous terrain is alpine

forest and pastureland, some accessible alps used by village flocks of

sheep and goats, the greatest part the haunt of a wide variety of animals

and birds characteristic of the higher Himalaya of the Indian region.

The floral abundance alone is astonishing, not only putting the famed

Bhyundar Valley (Frank Smythe’s Valley of Flowers) into the shade

in comparison, but also offering a potential - hunting- -ground for the

708 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

plant-hunter because of its insular virginity. If detailed and expert

surveys were carried out in the region, many instructive and useful

relationships, ecological and biological, might emerge about environ-

mental adaptation tn the complete absence of human influences such

as are not possible elsewhere in the higher Himalaya.

EAST NANDA=

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ALAKANANDA

It is the purpose of this article to consider a far-sighted plan for

preserving this whole self-contained watershed as something more

than a Game Sanctuary, which is its present status according to the

Forest Department. This may, it will be suggested, be profitably made

the first Wilderness Preserve in India, after the pattern adopted in

the United States. 3

HISTORICAL

The Survey of India had always looked upon the gap in their

knowledge of this area as more or less inevitable because of its

extreme inaccessibility. Light was first thrown on it by men. working

under the incentive of mountain-climbing and exploration,

A NATURAL SANCTUARY IN THE HIMALAYA 709

W. W. Graham, accompanied by two Swiss guides, Ulrich

Kauffman and Emil Boss, was the first enthusiast to try to force the -

gorge of the Rishi where it meets the Dhauliganga, some fifteen miles

above Joshimath on the route to the border pass of Niti. A lone

explorer and some hardy sportsmen, who have left no records, were

his only predecessors, and he failed entirely in his attempt to traverse

the almost overhanging lower section of the gorge, reaching the

relatively easier middle-section of the Rishi over the 13,000 ft. high

Dharanshi Pass situated on the outer ridge to the north, where it

descends from the 23,184-ft.-high Dunagiri Peak. Graham claimed.

to have climbed Changabang, an extremely difficult mountain above

the foot of the toughest portion of the Rishi gorge, from where the

Nanda Devi massif is only five miles away.

It was left to Dr. Longstaff in 1907 to make another attempt,

and this he did with the Swiss guides, the Brocherel brothers, and

- General Bruce, of the Gorkhas. He also entered only the easier

middle-section of the Rishi, known as the Outer Sanctuary, over the

Bagini pass to the north, and though successful in climbing Trisul

(23.360 ft.) he too failed to find a feasible route over the last few

miles of the Rishi gorge, despite gallant attempts from both banks of

the thundering, constricted river.

In 1926, 1927, and 1932, Hugh Ruttledge, 1.c.s., then Deputy

Commissioner of Almora in Kumaun and a mountain-enthusiast, tried

three other approaches to the Inner Sanctuary; from the south and

south-west, he was brought up short by the hanging-glaciers of

Sunderdhunga Col and the glaciers below Trisul overlooking

Nandakini River. From the north-east, up the Timphu glacier, the

prospect was no easier and the party abandoned the attempt.

Ruttledge remaining convinced of the uniqueness and attraction of

the Sanctuary, and equally certain that the Blessed Goddess, Nanda

Devi, was then beyond human capacity or endurance to approach

because of the obstacles it imposed on its votaries.

It was Eric Shipton and H. W. Tilman in 1934 who had the

privilege of pioneering a memorable route to the Inner Sanctuary by

forcing a passage up the upper Rishi gorge after weeks of ‘effort.

They rounded off the trip by descending the treacherous and insecure

ice-fall over Sunderdhunga Col to the south which had so frightened

Ruttledge. One of their two sherpas, Angtarkey, still recalls that

trip with righteous horror not unmixed with pride.

Since that first crossing, a survey party guided by Eric Shipton,

and four expeditions to climb Nanda Devi have followed their route;

710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

the French, who lost two climbers, in 1951, Major Jayal, who did

not make the summit either, in 1955, and Mr. Gurdial Singh and the

writer, accompanied by Major John Dias and others this year, in

1960 and 1961.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ECOLOGICAL

The central Himalaya can roughly be described as that section

lying between the river Sutlej in the west and the river Kali (Maha-

Kali), the Sharda of the plains, in the east. The Goriganga is a right

bank tributary of the latter and drains a very large glaciated area.

The Alaknanda, of which the Dhauli is a left bank tributary, joins the

Bhagirathi at Devprayag to form the Ganges of the plains. The

Rishiganga is the major left-bank tributary of the Dhauli and runs

roughly east to west, draining the vast system of glaciers within the

Nanda Devi area which, including in the term both the Outer and

the Inner Sanctuaries, coincides with the Rishi’s watershed.

Nanda Devi stands like a reigning deity at the end of the ridge

which may be said to represent the shorter central arm of an reversed

letter E, the two outer arms representing the high ridges which

enclose the inner arm. Two other arms enclose the two outer arms,

and Dunagiri and Nanda Ghunti are the western terminations of the

northern and the southern arm respectively.

Nanda Devi Khal (19,390 ft.), known popularly as Longstaff’s Col

because that doyen of Himalayan exploration first climbed it from

the east, and Sunderdhunga Col (c. 18,000 ft.) are the only two passes

ever crossed into the Inner Sanctuary, but both are out of question for

all but expert climbers. The only route feasible is up the Rishi, and

this is now fairly beaten up to the foot of the really impassable gorge.

known as Rhamani because a torrent of that name joins the Rishi

from the right bank there. Beyond this inner gorge lies the Inner

Sanctuary, an area of nearly a hundred square miles of mountain

and meadowland, gentle grassland, and rugged cliff faces, which is

unique even in Himalayan experience, bearing as it does the indica-

tions of Divine handiwork. This was terra incognita even to the local

shepherds and poachers, who would sacrifice the excellent musk-deer

and Burrhel prospects inside rather than face either the difficulties

and dangers of the gorge or the wrath of the Blessed Goddess who,

they felt, would surely punish any such desecration of ‘Dev-bhumi’

(holy ground) by mortals.

Ecologically, the Nanda Devi Sanctuary, including the Outer

Sanctuary, may be divided conveniently into the following types;

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JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. PLATE II

The main and east peaks of Nanda Devi. The climbing route used by

expeditions lies up the ridge to the right of the main summit, merging into

it tangentially.

Some more of the grasslands and mountain—scenery of the Inner Sanctuary

( Photos : Hari Dang )

A NATURAL SANCTUARY IN THE HIMALAYA 711

1. Mixed-Temperate and Temperate forest, growing along hillsides

and in sheltered re-entrants and warmer valleys to heights of 12,000 ft.

Blue Pine, Deodar, Maple, and Horse Chestnut near the confiuence

of the Rishi with the Dhauli give way to Spruce, Cypress, Fir,

Rhododendron (R. campanulatum), and Silver Birch higher up.

2. Temperate scrub continues above the tree-line, occasionally to

as high as 15,000 ft., near the snow-line. Dwarf Rhododendron

(R. anthopogun and R. lepidotum) and Berberis, Cotoneaster, and

Juniper are the chief representatives of this class.

3. Alpine pastureland, varying in luxuriance from the lush and

succulent, flower-rich alps of the lower areas to the scrawny, thin-

soiled growth higher up. This kind of vegetation extends as high up

as 18,000 ft., some mosses and pads extending a thousand feet higher

in favoured locations, depending upon season and insolation.

In the Inner Sanctuary, especially where Silver Birch stands are

few, there are extensive grasslands and excellent soil: villagers work-

ing for us have often expressed wistful longing to get their flocks up

for the rich grazing, and been treated to cold looks from conservation-

minded mountain-lovers. In addition there are miles of snowfields,

rock faces, and ice-cliffs, of apparent uselessness yet invaluable as

hallowed ground for the ardent mountaineer or nature-lover. Here,

too, are lakes that no one has ever seen, hundreds of high and

not-so-high mountains no one has ever climbed, passes that have yet

to be crossed, and cliffs and valleys that are still sacred to their

pristine inhabitants, the Burrhel and the Thar, the Snow Leopard

and the Musk Deer, and other slippery, lone!y-hearted, eagle-haunted

crags and pastures, beyond the leap of goat, beyond the gaze of man,

that still echo only to the shrill calls of the Monal and the melancholy

whistle of the Snow Cock. No village or human habitation mars this

pristine wilderness.

FLORA

Lacking expert scientific knowledge, I have not made any wide

and detailed observations or checklists, but I have personally seen

or photographed, or seen companions photograph over three hundred

different flowers, and this in the short period between climbing and

travelling.

ANIMAL LIFE

According to the Uttar Pradesh Forest Authorities, the entire area

lying between the mountains Nanda Devi, Dunagiri, and Trisul is a

712. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Game Sanctuary, in the sense that no one is permitted to shoot there

and shooting-permits are not issued. In fact, this is a ‘paper’

_Sanctuary, like its coeval the Govind Ballabh Pant Sanctuary in the

Tons Basin in Garhwal. Both have never been visited or explored

personally by the contemporary ‘paper’ forest officers, nor are

likely to be visited in the near future. Poaching on a grand scale

is normal in the Tons Basin, and not uncommon in the Rishi Basin.

Musk Deer are the chief quarry, hunted ruthlessly and bravely ‘by

the poor villagers for the valuable musk-pod, which sells at lucrative

rates in the Kumaun and Garhwal fairs. For, strange to relate, the

Government has given: complete protection to the Musk Deer and

yet permits the export of large quantities of musk to dollar

areas—at any rate, this was the situation till last year.? :

Burrhel (Ovis nahura) abound all over the less rugged areas. of

the Rishi Basin, and often even over difficult terrain. Their numbers

have dwindled greatly since Tilman and Shipton first saw large herds.

This is largely the result of poaching by villagers in the Outer Sanc-

tuary. Still, they are even now excessive for the limited feeding

which the pastures offer. Sheep. and goats from villages as far away.

as Wan give Burrhel keen competition, and may be spreading!

epidemics that might be decimating their numbers unknown to us.

The tenet that the wilder the animal the less its resistance to

infection from outside is only too true in this case. The Himalayan

Thar (Hemitragus jemlahicus) is a very plentiful game animal in the

basin, frequenting the most difficult terrain in the gorge of the Rishi,

coming out into the grasslands only in the post-monsoon months for

a spell before retreating to overhangs and precipices for the winter.

This animal, too, is suffering decimation by meat-hungry villagers

armed with new gun-licences. Even without guns, both Thar and

Burrhel, more so the former, are vulnerable through their habit of

coming to lower rock-faces when the snow lies deep on their summer

haunts. Here they are cornered and chased by villagers and actually

murdered with staves and spears. The means adopted to exhaust

them before administering the coup, are many and ingenious, includ-

ing lassoing them at night. | :

Musk Deer are still very plentiful, but are constantly molested,

both by shikaris with guns and by shepherds with dogs, the latter being

remorseless trackers of this highly odorous creature. Each time we

went up the gorge, we met at least one large party of shikaris, who

had had consistently successful hunting. One possible cause of the

+ The export of musk is still unrestricted.—Ebs,

> A NATURAL SANCTUARY IN THE HIMALAYA 713

Musk Deer’s abundance may be its greater propensity to take refuge in

heights where even the shikaris dare not follow.

The Snow Leopard is another glorious animal which remains

extraordinarily common, when a comparison is made with other

mountain areas. This is not only the result of indifference from

villagers, who are either too scared or too poor as marksmen to

hunt him, but also of the abundance of Thar, Musk Deer, and Burrhel;

its natural prey.

Though a few Black Bear have peeasionaily been seen, they are

not common in the Rishi Valley, and this is only natural when the

difficulty of terrain is considered.

Serow are not uncommon in the lower and less steep mixed-forests

of the Dudh-ganga, Ronti-nala, and Sat-pula-nala. Streams like these,

originating in the glaciers on either side of the Rishi abound, there

being no fewer than twenty major and easily one hundred minor

glaciers which feed the Rishi. All these subsidiary valleys have their

own pastures and forests. 7

Snow-foxes, Marmots, musk-rats, and tailless rats abound.

Of bird life, Monal Pheasants, Snow Partridge, and Snow Cock

are very common in their habitat. The Himalayan Rubythroat, seen

at between 13,000 ft. and 16,000 ft., was a constant companion of

base-camp off-days, serenading the occupants from the early hours of

the morning.

The Blue Rock Thrush was encountered in pairs and parties of

up to four couple, flying around above alpine grass'and. The

Himalayan Greenfinch, Hedge Sparrow, Redflanked Bush-Robin,

Whitecapped and ‘Plumbeous Redstart, the Stonechat, the Kashmir

Whitethroated Dipper were some of the more interesting birds seen

and clearly identified, while notes were compiled of birds seen but

not clearly identified. Detailed observations were not made as time

was short, and mountain-climbing the main objective.

The Lammergeier or Bearded Vulture and the Golden Eagle were

also seen. A large eagle (?) was seen in the act of swooping down

and carrying off a Thar ewe.

PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE

Though hitherto known to only a few enthusiasts, it is not unlikely

that the area will arouse—has in fact, already aroused—great curiosity

and covetousness, the former among prospective tourists, the latter

among villagers desirous of pasturage.

714. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Having observed with deep and helpless regret what the ‘paper’

Forest Department has done to the Valley of Flowers further west

(I refer to a four-foot high boundary wall which has been built to

fence off a horticultural scheme for some vague medicinal plants, right

across the valley), it is my intention that a similar programme be

frustrated by forestalling the authorities by making a wiser suggestion

to them which they cannot afford to ignore.

Poaching, rampant now, is bound to increase as the number of

guns increases. Already the Milam and some other valleys of

Kumaun and Garhwal have been shot clear of Musk Deer, Burrhel.,

and Thar, and skins of Burrhel and their young ones murdered in

winter can be purchased for a few rupees in any hill fair or market-

centre from Garbyang and Almora to Pipalkoti and Chamoli. In other

mountain areas of India mountain game has been wiped out en masse

by the army and the Border Police, and a likely increase in military

activity in Garhwal would deal a like blow to mountain game here;

hence the need for at least one region where not only the shooting

of game but also the construction of monstrosities like the Bhyundar

boundary wall can never occur. This requires something more than

a Game Sanctuary status for the area and, in the current official mood

of ‘paper’ sympathy for conservationist ideals, it would not be

difficult to muster sufficient strength and momentum for the idea of

a Rishi Wilderness Preserve to push through the necessary measure

through Parliament, by which’act alone can such a status be obtained.

SUMMING UP

Perhaps I am carried away by my enthusiasm for the Nanda Devi

area, which has for long represented to me an unattainable ideal, an

intensely personal wilderness reservoir. This need not detract from

the value of this wilderness in its unspoilt and untampered condition.

If we can retain the Rishi’s Sanctuary without a motorable or even

a bridle track, without boundary walls and Rest Houses, without

official interference or tourist-huts—and I do not think of the next

decade only, but of the next century, granted that we survive this

decade—then perhaps those who do not migrate from the earth will

find some consolation in its tranquil snows and mist-wreathed pastures,

its stupendous screes and gentle swards. This is the true aim of

this article, though an inadequate attempt has been made to cast

it in a formal mould.

The Genus Oedogonium in

Mysore State

ELLA A. GONZALVES AND G. R. SONNAD

Institute of Science, Bombay

(With twelve figures)

References to the occurrence in western India of genera and species

which belong to the Oedogoniales have been few, as has been shown by

the authors in a previous paper (*Gonzalves & Sonnad, 1957). In this

paper, species of Oedogonium from various places in the Dharwar,

Belgaum, and Karwar districts of Mysore State are recorded.

OEDOGONIACEAE

Genus Oedogonium Link

1. Oecedogonium suecicum Wittr. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27: 82, pl. 2,

f. 15, 1900. Attached to aquatic plants in a small pool at Nagargali, September

1952.

2. O. varians Wittr. & Lund. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 89, pl. 4, f. 23, 24, 1900. Ina

small pool at Londa, September 1952.

27: 87, pl. 4, f. 22, 1900. Attached to the leaves of rice plants in fields at Kyarkop,

August 1951.

4. O. franklinianum Wittr. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 88, pl. 2, f. 18, 1900. In a pool

at Naglavi, September 1951.

5. O.glabrum Hallas, Bot. Tidsskr. 26: 408, f. 18, 1905. In a pool at Naglavi,

September 1951. ;

6. O.intermedium Wittr. ex Hirn var. szechwanense Jao, Pap. Mich. Acad Sci.

19: 89, pl. 6, f. 15-17, 1933/34. Inasmall pool at Londa, September 1952.

7. O.fennicum Tiff., Ohio J. Sci. 34: 324, 1934. Attached to the leaves of rice

plants in a field at Mugad, September 1951.

8. O. hirnii Gut. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27: 93, pl. 5, f. 29, 1900. In

a tank at Masur, April 1952.

9. O. patulum Tiff., Ohio J. Sci. 34: 324, 1934. In a small pool at Gunji,

' January 1953.

10. O. globosum Nordst. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27 : 94, pl. 5, f. 30, 1900.

In a tank near Gadag, January 1953.

*Gonzalves, Ella A. & Sonnad, G. R. (1957). The Genus Bulbochaete in

Western India. J. Univ. Bom. 25 (5): 1-15.

716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

{1. O. fragile Wittr. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27; 96, pl.5, f.33; pl. 6,

f. 34, 1900. In a small pool at Anmode, August 1952.

12. O. fragile var. abyssinicum Hirn, ibid. 27 : 97, pl. 6, f.35, 1900. Ina pool

at Alnavar, September 1952.

13. O. vaucherii (Le Cl.) Al. Br.; Wittr. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 97, pl. 6, f. 36-38,

1900. In apond at Tavargatti, September 1952.

14. O. vaucherii var. parvum var. nov. (f.1, a,b)

Monoica. Ut plurimum plantae paucis cellulisconstantes. Cellulae vegetativae

cylindricae ; cellulae basales elongatae, terminales vero apicaliter acuminatae.

Oogonia solitaria, globoso-ovoidea vel ovoidea ; poro superiore. Oosporae globo-

sae vel subglobosae, oogonium haud implentes vel fere implentes ; parietes crassi~

et leves. Antheridia 1-5, subepigyna vel subhypogyna. Antherozoidea 2; divisio

horizontalis.

Cellulae vegetativae 18-32 m diam., 38-130 “ long.; oogonia 40 56 Mb

diam., 47-72 / long..; oosporae 34-50 / diam., 36-50 / long. ; antheridia 17-30 / .

diam., 6-10 / long.

Typus lectus in palude in loco aero mense februario 1952, et

positus in herbario auctoris senioris sub numero O.24.

The few-celled plants and the usually acuminate end cell differentiate this

variety from the type.

15. O. richterianum Lemm. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27 : 117, pl. 12, f. 63,

64,1900. Attached to aquatic plants ina pond at Bistenhatti, September 1952.

16. O. poendosboseu Hirn, ibid. 27 : 291 - plots. fOr Lely In a pool at Khana-

pur, October 1952.

17. O. oviforme (Lew.) Hirn, ibid. 27 : 116, pl. 12, f. 62, 1900. In a pond at

Tavargatti, September 1952. Inapool at Alnavar, September 1952.

18. O. brevicingulatum Jao var. robustum var. nov. (f. 2)

Monoica. Cellulae vegetativae robustae, cylindricae. Oogonia solitaria,

ovoidea vel obovoidea ; poro superiore. Oosporae globosae vel subglobosae, haud

penitus complentes oogonium ; parietes sporae leves. Antheridia 1-3. Anthero-

zoidea 2; divisio horizontalis.

Cellulae vegetativae 30-33 (-37) “ diam., 57-86 & long.; oogonia 49-57

diam., 60-72 #% long. ; oosporae 43-50 @ diam., 47-54 “ long. ; antheridia 30-32 u

diam., 8-13 / long.

Typus lectus natans in palude Nuggikeri, in loco Dharwar, mense

februario 1952 et positus in herbario auctoris senioris sub numero O.27.

The oogonia, oospores and antheridia of this variety are longer than those

of the type.

19. O. martinicense Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27 : 134, pl. 16, f. 92,1900. Ina

pond at Bistenhatti, September 1952.

20. O.kurzii Zell. ex Hirn, ibid. 27 : 135, pl. 16, f. 93, 1900. In a pond at

Devarayi, October 1952.

21. O. lageniforme Hirn, ibid. 27 : 291, pl. 13, f. 68, 1900. Tiff., Brittonia,

N. Y. 2: 168, pl. 1, f. 16, 17. 1936. In a pond at Tinaighat, January 1953. —

22. O. ellipsoideum Jao, Sinensia 8 : 305, pl. 3, f. 17-21, 1937. In slow-flowing

water at Castle Rock, August 1951.

a ee

THE GENUS OEDOGONIUM IN MYSORE STATE ea?

23. O. plagiostomum Wittr. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27 : 100, pl. 6, f. 39,

1900. In a pond at Nagargali, October 1951.

24. O.diversum (Hirn) Tiff., Ohio J. Sci. 34 : 324, 1934. In a pond at Londa,

October 1952.

25. .O. majus (Hansg.) Tiff., ibid. 34 : 324, 1934. In a pond at Devarayi,

October 1952.

26. O. oboviforme Wittr. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn, 27: 141, pl. 20, f. 103,

1900. Attached to aquatic plants ina pool at Bistenhatti, September 1952.

27. O. subrectum Hirn, ibid. 27: 141, pl. 20, f. 102, 1900. Attached to the

leaves of rice plants in fields at Mugad, September 1952.

1900. Ina small pool at Tavargatti, September 1952.

29. O.crassum (Hass.) Wittr. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 139, pl. 18, f.99, 1900. In a

pool at Tavargatti, September 1952.

30. O.amplum (Mag. & Wille) Tiff., Ohio J. Sci. 34 : 324, 1934. In a pond near

Bistenhatti, January 1952.

31. O.paludosum (Hass.) Wittr. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27 : 120, pl. 13,

f. 69, 1900. Attached to aquatic plants in a pond near Nagargali, September 1952.

32. QO. carolianum Tiff., Ohio J. Sci. 34 : 324, 1934. In a small pool at Kam-

barganvi, September 1952.

33. O. leiopleurum Nordst. & Hirn in Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27 : 126, pl. 14,

f.79, 1900. Attached to the leaves of rice plants in fields at Mugad, September

1952.

34. O-arcyosporum Nordst. & Hirnin Hirn, ibid. 27 : 104, pl. 7, f. 44, 1900. In

a pool at Londa, September 1952. In a pond at Gunji, September 1952.

35. O.areolatum Lag. ex Hirn var. elongatum var. nov. (f. 3 a, b)

Dioica, macrandra. Cellulae vegetativae cylindricae ; cellulae femineae.

masculis largiores. Oogonia 1-2, obovoidea vel ovoidea ; poro superiore. Oosporae

globoso-ovoideae vel ovoideae, haud complentes oogonium longitudinaliter, series

media parietum sporarum areolata; interior et exterior series leves. Antheridia

3-8. Antherozoidea 2 ; divisio horizontalis.

Cellulae vegetativae femineae 18-21 “” diam., 130-220 / long. ; cellulae

vegetativae masculae 14-19 “” diam., 100-201 # long. ; oogonia 50-56 “ diam.,

70-90 (-108) long.; oosporae 49-51 ~ diam., 60-70 “ long.; antheridia 13-17

diam., 8-11 “ long.

Typus lectusin uligine ad Khanapur, mense octobri 1952 et positus in

herbario auctoris senioris sub numero O.52.

The vegetative cells, oogonia and oospores of the above variety are longer

than those of the type.

36. O. dictyosporum Wittr. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27 : 103, pl. 7, f. 43.

1900. In a poolat Mugad, August 1951.

37. O.subareolatum Tiff., Brittonia, N.Y. 2 : 168, pl. 1, f. 13-15, 1936. Ina

pool at Alnavar, September 1951.

38. O.foveolatum Wittr. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27: 106, pl. 7, f. 46, 1900,

In a pool at Yellapur,September 1949. 4

718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

39. O.excavatum Jao var. minus var. nov. (f. 4)

Monoica. Cellulae vegetativae cylindricae. Oogonia solitaria, globosa vel

ovoideo-globosa ; poro superiore. Oosporae globosae, oogonium complentes, series

media parietum scrobiculata, interior atque exterior series leves. Antheridia 2-3,

subepigyna. Antherozoidea 2 ; divisio horizontalis.

Cellulae vegetativae 9-13 « diam., 40-93 / long. ; oogonia 38-41 « diam.,

40-50 # long. ; oosporae 34-40 # diam., 33-40 / long.; antheridia 7-11 “ diam.,

7-9 w long.

Typus lectus in oryzetis ad Kogilgeri, mense septembri 1952 et positus

in herbario. auctoris senioris sub numero O.56.

The variety described above is smaller than the type.

40. O. wyliei ite. Trans. Amer. micros. Soc. 45 : 90, pl. 1, f. 1-4, 1926. In rice

fields at Chendie, near Karwar, December 1951. In a pond at Bistenhatti, Feb-

ruary 1952.

41. QO. santurcense Tiff., Brittonia, N.Y. 2: 168, pl. 1, f. 20-22, 1936. Ina

rice field at Bistenhatti, September 1952.

42. OO. spinosum sp. nov. (f. 5 a-c)

Dioica, macrandra. Cellulae vegetativae cylindricae, masculae et femineae

cellulae eiusdem diametri; cellulae basales elongatae, terminales vero apicaliter

obtusae. Oogonia solitaria, obovoideo-globosa vel ovoidea; poro superiore.

Oosporae globosae, haud implentes oogonium ; exterior series parietum spinulis

magnis ornata, interior vero levis. Antheridia 1-3. Antherozoidea 2; divisio

horizontalis.

Cellulae vegetativae 14-22 m diam., 70-115 # long.; oogonia 46-47

diam., 52-56 / long.; oosporae 38-43 “ diam., 38-44 “ long.; antheridia 14-19 yu

diam., 6-9 / long.

Typus lectus in oryzetis ad Naglavi, mense octobri 1951 et positus in

herbario auctoris senioris sub numero O.60. .

The only other dioecious macrandrous species with oogonia opening by a

superior pore and with the wall of the oospores spiny is O. santurcense. ‘The latter

differs from the species described above in dimensions. Moreover, the spines on the

_wall of the oospores of this species are large and rather sparse, while they are fine

and closely arranged in O. santurcense.

43. O.pseudacrosporum Wittr. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn.27: 193, pl. 32,

f. 196, 1900. In a pond at Kogilgeri, September 1951.

44, O. paucostriatum Tiff., Ohio J. Sci. 34: 325, 1934. Attached to aquatic

plants in a pond at Bistenhatti, September 1952.

45. O.costatosporum Jao, Rhodora 36: 88, pl. 6, f. 8-10, 1934. Ina rice field

at Mugad, September 1951. In a pond at Mundgod, September 1950.

46. O.costatosporum var. longisporum var. nov. (f. 6 a-c)

Dioica, macrandra. Cellulae vegetativae cylindricae, eae quidem prope

apicem longissimae et angustae, basales vero breves et robustae. Oogonia solitaria,

subellipsoidea vel ellipsoidea, operculata ; divisio superior. Oosporae ellipsoideae,

fere implentes oogonium; series media parietis costis 25-30 ornata, series vero

externa atque interna leves. Antheridia non visa.

Cellulae vegetativae 7-19 “ diam., 72-190 / long.; cellulae basales 21-27

diam., 79 / long.; oogonia 38-44 “ diam., 68-96 (-105) / long.; oosporae 32-43 /&

diam., 57-74 / long.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

Fig. 1. a, b. Oedogonium vaucherii var. parvum var. nov.; Fig.2. O. brevicin-

gulatum var. robustum var. nov.; Fig. 3. O. areolatum var. elongatum var. nov.: a.

Part of a female plant; b. Part of a male plant; Fig. 4. O. excavatum var. minus

var. nov.; Fig.5. O. spinosum sp. nov.: a. Part of a female plant ; b. Part of a male

plant ; c. Basal cell ; Fig. 6. O. costatosporum var. longisporum var. nov.: a. Part of a

female plant ; b. Basal cell ; c. Terminal cell; Fig. 7. O. bharatense sp. nov.: a. Series

of oogonia; b. Cells near the apex of the filament ; c. Basal cell ; d. An antheridium ;

Fig. 8. a,b. O. variabile sp. nov. Filaments with antheridia of varying sizes ; Fig. 9.

O. kirchneri var. majus var. nov.; Fig. 10. O. illinoisense var. indicum var. nov.;

Fig. 11. O. laetevirens var. amplum var nov.; Fig. 12. O. pusillum var. minus var. nov.

THE GENUS OEDOGONIUM IN MYSORE STATE 719

Typus lectus in piscina ad Nagargali, mense septembri 1952 et positus in

herbario auctoris senioris sub numero O.65,

The longer oogonia and oospores as well as the longer and narrower

vegetative cells towards the apex of the filaments differentiate this variety from

the type.

In a pond at Bistenhatti, September 1952.

48. O. pratense, Trans.-Amer. J. Bot. 1: 297, pl. 29, f. 9-12, 1914. In a tank

near Naglavi, September 1952.

49. O. bharatense sp. nov. (f. 7 a-d)

Monoica. Cellulae vegetativae supra cellulas basales angustae, tenues et

capitellatae, eae quidem prope oogonium latae et breves. Oogonia 1-8, globosa

vel depresso-globosa ; operculata, divisio media, lata. Oosporae globosae, haud

implentes oogonium ; parietes leves. Antheridia ut plurimum solitaria, hypogyna

vel intercalaria. Antherozoidea 2 ; divisio horizontalis.

Cellulae vegetativae 13-28 diam., 34-150 ~ long.; oogonia 55-72 su

diam.., 50-63 “” long.; oosporae 43-50 “ diam., 43-50 / long.; antheridia 26-28 4

diam., 11-28 & long.

Typus lectus in puteo neglecto ad Gunji, mense januario 1952 et

positus in herbario auctoris senioris sub numero O.73.

This species resembles O. indicum Hirn at first sight, but the latter is

dioecious nannandrous. The difference in the size and form of the upper and lower

vegetative cells of this species is also distinctive.

50. O. mitratrum Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27: 302, pl. 24, f. 132, 1900.

Attached to the leaves of rice plants in fields near Tinaighat, October 1951.

51. O. welwitschii West & West ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 174, pl. 28, f. 162, 1900.

In rice fields in the village of Chendi, near Karwar, December 1951.

52. QO. pringsheimii Cram.; Wittr. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 170, pl. 27, f. 155, 1900.

In Kelgeri Tank, Dharwar, September 1951. Inasmall pond in the jungle near

Devarayi, September 1952.

53. O. pringsheimii var. nordstedtii Wittr. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 171, pl. 27, f. 156-

158, 1900. In Nuggikeri Tank, Dharwar, February 1952.

54. O. abbreviatum (Hirn) Tiff., Ohio J. Sci. 34: 325, 1934. In a pond at

Alnavar, September 1951.

(55. O. epiphyticum Trans. & Tiff., in Tiff., ibid. 34: 325, 1934. Ina ditch

at Devarayi, September 1952.

56. O. simplex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27: 158, pl. 24, f. 135, 1900. In a pool

at Haliyal, October 1949.

57. O. pyrulum Wittr. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 158, pl. 25, f. 136, 1900. In a

ditch at Londa, September 1952. In a pond at Nagargali, September 1952.

58. O. pithophorae Wittr. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 157, pl. 24, f. 134, 1900. In

a pool at Devarayi, September 1952;

59. O. variabile sp. nov. (f. 8 a, b)

Monoica. Cellulae vegetativae cylindricae. Oogonia 1-2, globosa, sub-

globosa vel obovoideo-globosa ; SNE divisio superior. Oosporae globosae

elt

720 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

vel subglobosae, haud implentes oogonium ; parietesleves. Antheridia 1-7, epigyna

vel hypogyna, latitudinis variabilis. Antherozoidea 2 ; divisio horizontalis.

: Cellulae vegetativae 16-20 # diam., 28-101 # long. ; oogonia 34-39 (-44) mu

diam., 34-45 & long.; oosporae 29-37 # diam., 29-39 # long.; antheridia 13-20

& cute 9-15 /& long.; et 24-29 u diam., 11-20 / long.

Typus lectus in palude ad Desur, mense octobri 1952 et positus in

herbario auctoris senioris sub numero O.78.

This species resembles O. autumnale Wittr. ex Hirn, but can be distin-

guished from it by the smaller oogonia and the varying sizes of the antheridia.

60. O. obesum (Wittr.) Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27: 166, pl. 26, f. 148, 1900.

In a pond at Bistenhatti, January 1952.

61. O. crispum (Hass.) Wittr. ex Hirn, ibid. 27 : 159, pl. 25, f. 138, 139, 141,

1900. Ina pond at Yellapur, September 1952.

62. O. crispum var. gracilescens Wittr. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 162, pl. 25, f. 143,

144 ; pl. 26, f. 144, 1900. Ina tank near Nagargali, September 1952.

63. O. crispum var. uruguayense Mag. & Wille ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 164, pl. 26,

f. 145, 146, 1900. In a pond at Tavargatti, September 1952. Attached to aquatic

plants in a pond at Nagargali, September 1952.

64. O. crispum var. hawaiense Nordst. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 165, pl. 26, f. 147,

1900. In a puddle in the jungle near Londa, September 1952.

65. O. rupestre Hirn, ibid. 27: 168, pl. 26, f. 152, 1900. In a small pool at

Nagargali, September 1952.

66. QO. rupestre f. pseudautumnale Hirn, ibid. 27 : 169, pl. 27, f. 153, 1900. In

a puddle near the railway lines between Londa and Devarayi, September 1951.

67. O. kirchneri Wittr. ex Hirn var. majus var. nov. (f. 9)

Monoica. Cellulae vegetativae cylindricae. Oogonia solitaria, ovoidea

vel ovoideo-ellipsoidea, operculata; divisio superior. Oosporae globoso-ellipsoideae

vel ovoideo-ellipsoidea, fere implentes oogonium ; parietes leves. Antheridia 1-3,

hypogyna vel subepigyna. Antherozoidea 2 ; divisio horizontalis.

Cellulae vegetativae 13-16 # diam., 28-56 “ long.; oogonia 28-36 “ diam.,

43-52 mw long.; oosporae 24-34 ~ diam., 40-47 / long.; antheridia 11-14 “ diam.,

6-10 / long.

Typus lectus in vado ad Gunji, septembri 1952 et. positus i in herbario

auctoris senioris sub numero O.104.

The larger oogonia and oospores and the occasional subepigynous

antheridia, in addition to hypogynous ones, differentiate this variety from the type.

68. O. gracillimum Wittr. & Lund. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27: 184, pl. 29,

‘f. 180, 1900. In a-pond near Nagargali, September 1952.

Attached to aquatic plants in a pond at Naglavi, September 1952.

70. O. hallasiae Tiff., Ohio J. Sci. 34: 325, 1934. In a pond at Khanapur,

September 1950.

71. O. undulatum (Breb.) Al. Br. ; Wittr. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27:

257, pl. 45, f. 273-275, 1900. In a pool at Londa, September 1951. ° ~ é

_ 72. QO. undulatum f. senegalense (Nordst.) Hirn, ibid. 27: 261, pl: 45, f. 276,

-277,1900. In a tank at Godgeri, January 1952. |

THE GENUS OEDOGONIUM IN MYSORE STATE 721

73, O.aster Wittr. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27: 198, pl. 32, f. 202, 1900.

In a pond at Tavargatti, August 1951.

74, -O, exospirale Tiff., Ohio J. Sci. 24: 184, pl. 2, f. 1-3, 1924. In a pond

at Nagargali, August 1951.

~ - 75,- Q. illinoisense Trans. var. indicum var. nov. (f. 10)

Dioica, nannandra, gynandrospora. Cellulae vegetativae cylindricae, cellulae

<suffulcientes paulum dilatatae. Oogonia 1-2, subglobosa vel obovoideo-globosa ;

poro medio. Oosporae globosae vel subglobosae, fere implentes oogonium ;

externa series muralis sporae spiraliter costata, costis 5-8 in aspectu optico.

Androsporangia 2-4, ut plurimum subepigyna. Mares nani cellulis suffulcientibus

insidentes. Antheridia externa. :

Cellulae vegetativae 17-22 “ diam., 70-130 / long.; cellulae suffulcientes

23-33 “ diam., 100-133 / long., oogonia 65-68 / diam., 69-72 “ long.; oosporae

“60-66 / diam., 60-67 / long.; androsporangia 17-19 “ diam., 17-19 / long.; marium

nanorum stipites 7-12 “” diam., 20-27 m~ long.

: Typus lectus in vado ad Londa, mense septembri 1953 et positus in

herbario auctoris senioris sub numero O.114.

The diameters of the vegetative cells, oogonia, oospores and androsporangia

are greater than those of the type, while the suffultory cells are less in diameter,

but longer.

76. O. spirale Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn, 27: 201, p1.33, f. 206, 1900. In a

puddle at Alnavar, September 1952. ;

77. Q. spirale var. majus Singh, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 8: 38, f. 4 A-C.,,

1938. Ina pond near Bistenhatti, October 1952.

_ 78. O. latviense Tiff., Ohio J. Sci. 34: 325, 1934. In a small pool at Mund-

god, September 1952. |

79. QO. subsexangulare Tiff., ibid. 34: 325, 1934. In a pool along the rail-

_ Way lines near the Devarayi railway station, September 1952.

- 80. O. stellatum Wittr. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27: 205, pl. 34, f, 210,

‘1900. Ina pool near Castle Rock, August 1952.

, 81. O. alternans Wittr. & Lund. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 251, pl. 42, f. 263, 1900.

Ina tank at Godgeri, September 1952.

82; | O. armigerum Hirn, ibid. 27: 203, pl. 33, f. 208, 1900. In a pond at

Devarayi, August 1952.

83. -O. cyathigerum Wittr. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 252, pl. 43, f. 265, 266, 1900.

Attached to the decaying leaves of rice plants in a field at Mugad, September

1952.

84. O.-wolleanum Wittr. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 220, pl. 37, f. 226, 1900. In a

tank at Yellapur, September 1951. Ina pond at Devarayi, September 1952.

85. O..concatenatum (Hass.) Wittr. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 223, pl. 38,.f. 230,

1900. In a pond near Nagargali, September 1952. ;

_ 86. O. hispidum .Nordst. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 210, pl. 35, f. 215, 1900. Ina

pond at Khanapur, September 1952. ey

__ 87... O, elegans West & West, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. (Bot.) 6 :128, pl. 17,

f. 6,7, 1902 In stretches of shallow water at Alnavar, November 1951. 12G2

722 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

a pond near Londa, September 1952.

to the leaves of rice plants in fields at Tavargatti, September 1952.

90. O.confertum Hirn, ibid. 27 : 272, pl. 46, f.291, 1900. In a pond at Tavar-

gatti, December 1951.

91. O. perspicuum Hirn, ibid. 27 : 273, pl. 46, f. 293, 1900. In Nuggikeri Tank,

Dharwar, January 1952.

The specimens were definitely idioandrosporous. The androsporangia

were | to 8-seriate.

92. O. oelandicum Wittr. ; Hirn, ibid. 27 : 273, pl. 47, f.297, 1900. Attached

to the leaves of rice plants in a field near Kambarganvi, August 1951.

93. O. platygynum Wittr. ex Hirn var. ambiceps Jao, Rhodora 36 : 208, pl. 287,

f. 26, 27, 1934. Ina pondat Alnavar, January 1952.

94. QO. senegalense (Nordst.) Tiff., Ohio J. Sci. 34:326, 1934. In a rice field

at Naglavi, October 1951.

95. O. decipiens Wittr. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27 : 266, pl. 46, f. 283, 284,

1900. Ina pool at Belgaum, October 1952. In rice fields at Kyarkop, Septem-

ber 1952,

96. O. decipiens var. dissimile (Hirn) Tiff., N. Amer. Flora 11 : 68, pl. 24, f. 384,

385, 1937. In a pool at Dandeli, October 1953.

97. QO.decipiens var. bernardense (Bates) Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27 : 268,

pl. 46, f. 286, 1900. Ina pool at Khanapur, September 1952.

98. O.rugulosum Nordst.ex Hirn, bid. 27: 241, pl. 40, f. 249, 250, 1900. In

a ditch at Belgaum, October 1952.

Dioica, nannandra, gynandrospora. Cellulae vegetativae cylindricae,

Oogonia solitaria, globosa vel obovoideo-globosa; operculata, divisio superior,

Oosporae globosae, oogonium implentes; parietes leves. Androsporangia 2-3,

subepigyna vel hypogyna. Mares nani oogoniis insidentes. Antheridia externa.

Cellulae vegetativae 14-23 “ diam., 50-80 “ long. ; cellulae basales 23

diam., 65 # long. ; oogonia 43-50 / diam., 44-56 “ long. ; oosporae 39-48 / diam.,

39-48 “ long.; androsporangia 14-23 “ diam., 10-21 / long.; marium nanorum

Stipites 10-12 “@ diam., 19-22 “ long.

Typus lectus in palude ad Gunji, mense octobri 1952 et positus in

herbario auctoris senioris sub numero O.151.

The above variety is much larger than the type.

100. O.implexum Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27 : 283, pl. 49, f. 316, 1900. In

stretches of shallow water at Alnavar, January 1952.

101. O. monile Berk. & Harv. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 229, pl. 38, 39, f. 235, 236,

1900. Ina pool at Desur, August 1952.

102. O. eminens (Hirn) Tiff., Ohio J. Sci. 34 : 326, 1934. Ina strip of shallow

water at Khanapur, October 1952.

1951.

THE GENUS OEDOGONIUM IN MYSORE STATE | 723

104. O. obtruncatum Wittr. ex Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27 : 284, pl. 49, f. 318,

1900. Attached to aquatic plants in a pool at Alnavar, September 1952.

105. O. tapeinosporum Wittr. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 297, pl. 23, f. 117, 1900. In

rice fields at Karwar, December 1951.

106. O. inconspicuum Hirn, ibid. 27 : 296, pl. 23, f. 116, 1900. In a small pool

at Devarayi, September 1952.

107. O. pusillum Kirch. ex Hirn, ibid. 27 : 299, pl. 24, f. 125, 1900. In a strip

of shallow water at Alnavar, September 1952.

Cellulae vegetativae cylindricae. Oogonia solitaria, subconico-ellipsoidea

vel subconico-globosa ; operculata, divisio media, lata. Oosporae subglobosae atque

tenuiter constrictae ad medium, haud penitus implentes oogonium ; parietes leves.

Cellulae vegetativae 2.5-4.5 “ diam., 10-21 “# long.; oogonia 10-14 u

diam., 11-16 / long.; oosporae 9-11 “# diam., 10-12.5 / long.

Typus lectus in palude ad Alnavar, mense januario 1953 et positus in

herbario auctoris senioris sub numero O.170.

This variety is smaller than the type, while the oogonia are not solitary

or in twos, but are up to 4-seriate.

109. O.inclusum Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27: 318, pl. 50, f. 324, 1900. At-

tached to aquatic plants in a pond at Haliyal, September 1952.

110. O. selandiae Hallas, Bot. Tidsskr. 26: 496, f. 14, 1905. Attached to aquatic

plants in a pond at Naglavi, September 1952.

111. O. flexuosum Hirn, Acta Soc. Sci. fenn. 27: 313, pl. 48, f. 310, 1900.

Attached to aquatic plants in Kempkeri Tank, near Dharwar, August 1952.

112. O. virceburgense Hirn, ibid. 27: 301, pl. 24, f. 128, 1900. Ina pond near

Khanapur, February 1952.

Occasionally oogonia up to 14-seriate were found.

113. O.calvum Wittr. ex Hirn, ibid. 27: 316, pl. 50, f. 323, 1900. In a rice

field near Kambarganvi, September 1952.

114, OO. pseudospirale Nyg., Trans. roy. Soc. S. Afr. 20: 136, f. 32,1932. Ina

tank near Tavargatti, September 1952,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are deeply grateful to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, 8.J., ph.p.

for the Latin diagnoses of the new types.

Entomological Survey of Himalaya

Part XXVI. A Contribution to our Knowledge

of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects

of the Nival Zones from the North-West

Himalaya

PART 2

M. S. MANI, D.Sc., F.L.S. AND SANTOKH SINGH, Ph.D., F.R.E.S.

(With nine text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 58 (2) : 406]

COLEOPTERA

We have given some account of the distribution of Coleoptera

from the NW. Himalaya in an earlier paper (99). The order re-

presents about 49% of the total nival insect fauna (Table I; Fig. 3).

About 190 species belonging to 18 families are so far known

(Table II; Fig. 12). |

Species. endemism is 59%. Nearly 96% of the species. are

Palaearctic (Tables II] and X); of these about 3% represent the

Mediterranean elements. About 5% of the species extend to the

Nearctic realm. Nearly half the species occur north of the crest line

of the Great Himalaya.

Carabidae, Staphylinidae, Tenebrionidae and Curculionidae are the

dominant families. Analysis of the faunal component elements is

summarized in Table HI and the percentage composition of the four

dominant families in Table IV (Fig. 13).

The family Carabidae, with 84 species belonging to 27 genera,

represents about 45.3% of the total nival Coleoptera above the timber

line. Of these, 33 species (under 10 genera) occur above an elevation

of 4000 m. above m.s.l. Nearly half the species are endemites. Of

the endemic species, 4 fall under the genus @4mara, 15 under

Bembidion, 4 each under Carabus and Cymindis, and 2 under Nebria.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 7125

TABLE Ii

Analysis of the abundance of species in different families of nival Coleoptera

Serial Be No. of | Percentage in total

No. ey Species | nival Coleoptera

i Cicindelidae 1 0.52

De Carabidae 84 45.30

3 Dytiscidae 7 4.16

4, Hydrophilidae 7 4.16

3: Histeridae 2 1.04

° 6. Staphylinidae 32 16.60

ih Cantharidae 1 0.52

8 Meloidae 1 0.52

9, Elateridae 1 0.52

10. Coccinellidae ) 1.04

11. Tenebrionidae 17 8.80

12: Scarabaeidae 3 2.08

13. Geotrupidae 1 0.52

14. Aphodidae 1 0.52

i>) Rutelidae 2 1.04

16. Cerambycidae 4 2.08

17. Chrysomelidae 4 2.08

18. Curculionidae 16 8.30

) Total nival species | 186

Sn <

a; §

50 as

WwW

F <

E £

Pipe ils =

30 : *

: 3 E

va uJ ao Ww Zz

‘ 20 w H(t nN ra BaP a = =

w < Ff Su OF 3m. (Os wl ae tay

= Oaiw ra) vw 3>w w =< ww VV w& o

2 = iO < Me = Wait 2 2 ye O eg =x F 2

a ic On task, SW We) oo oS OL 8

a One Me Oo Caer ye (Bo gy yee

S aus. ha COR cam

‘ 104 z Sir he EnOm Ole ae ee tO at |

y | fe) Fie Bt 3) < wv 5 O ge 3 o a > 0 °°

| OMe te Tel tT i Boe FF oOo oF

w a ga O n mw w O ao 2 Og oF

: - : 2 re} ro) Oo = wi Bee

q i JFig. 12. The nival Coleoptera from the north-west Himalaya.

acy ft

| 8 sThe endemites Bembidion pictum (Fald.), Bembidion hutchinsoni

re: andr. Bembidion irregulare Net., Bembidion ixion Andr., Bembidion

726

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

TABLE III

Faunal elements of the nival Coleoptera

ESS SS SSS SS SES EDN STA

e A ° =~

F ae 2 Palaearctic Ss : E

a ; ota Sigh

3 Family Species 5 2 E S Remarks

2 & Total | Medit. |O =

1. | Cicindelidae : | 1 —- 1 1 —

2. | Carabidae oe 84 44 81 3 4 2 spp.

extend to

Nearctic ;

ae 1 sp. wide-

3. | Dytiscidae a i. 4 7 — — |spread.

4. |Hydrophilidae .. Tonnes 7 — —

5. | Histeridae a 2 1 2 — —

6. | Staphylinidae ea 32 26 32 1 —

7. |Cantharidae jee 1 APG be

8. | Meloidae it 1 _ — — 1

9. | Elateridae oe 1 — 1 — =

10. | Coccinellidae i 2 — 2 — —

11. | Tenebrionidae a 17 16 | = _

12. | Scarabaeidae Sie 3 — 3 aa tic

13. | Geotrupidae ae 1 1 1 ee ss

14. | Aphodidae ns 1 1 1 = | a

15. |Rutelidae 2 1 2 qa) Baas

16. | Cerambycidae 4 1 4 — —

17. | Chrysomelidae 4 1 4 = =

18. | Curculionidae 16 12 | 14 — cases

Total 186 | 109 | 180 5 5 |

Percentage out of |

total 186 species. . 58:89 95838 — 41%

Percentage of the Mediterranean elements in | |

the total Palaearctic | 3.0%

TABLE IV

Percentage of the faunal component elements in the four dominant families

of nival Coleoptera

(

| | 2 Palaearctic

Serial . Ltotales | 3 2 Indo-

No. Eas ‘species 3 Malayan

| a Total | Medit.

= |

12 loaenans 84 52.0 98.0 | 48 | 2.0

2. |Staphylinidae 32 Sed 100.0 34 —

3. | Tenebrionidae ay, 94.0 100.0 — —

An | Curculionidae 16 75.0 87.5 — 12:5

ladas Andr., Bembidion leve Andr., and Bembidion livens Andr.

are strictly localized in the area drained by R. Indus north of the

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 720

crest line of the Great Himalaya, and also mostly occur at elevations

above 4000 m. B. pictum (Fald.), B. hutchinsoni Andr., B. ladas

Andr., and B. leve Andr. are never found below an elevation of 4000 m.

B. hutchinsoni Andr., found at 4734 m., represents at present the

maximum altitude record in the genus Bembidion in the NW.

Himalaya. Three species B. algidum Andr., B. caporoaccoi Net.,

and B. irregulare Net. often descend below 3000 m. to within the

fringe of the taiga.

IT. ENOEMICS

80 BN I. TOTAL PALAEARCTIC

BY IT, MEDITERRANEAN

: V7: IV, INDO- MALAYAN

604 gy

: Y Bl COLEOPTERA

gy NY CARABIDAE

am BN W, STAPHYLINIDAE

YZ = TENEBRIONIDAE

Wee |_| CURCULIONIDAE

| |

EI 4.

Fig. 13. The faunal elements of the nival Coleoptera from the north-west

Himalaya.

Of the four endemic Amara, two species ambigene Bates (4267 m.)

and lamia Andr. (3400-4664 m.) are also localized in the Indus

drainage area. Carabus (Imaibus) barysomus (Bates), Carabus

(Imaibius) dardiellus granulisparus Bates, Carabus (Imaibius) epiple-

uralis Sem., and Carabus (Imaibus) rostianus Sem. are localized near

the timber line in the area drained by R. Jhelum on the Pir Panjal

Range and south of the main crest line of the Great Himalaya.

Cymindis alticola Gebl., Cymindis babaulti Andr., and Cymindis

elabrella Bates, found near an elevation of 3200 m., and Cymindis

rubriceps Andr. found at an elevation of 5151 m., are localized in

the Indus drainage area. Also localized in the same area is Nebria

limbigera babaulti Andr., occurring at an elevation of 4420 m. The

typical form Nebria limbigera Solsky, found at elevations ranging

728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

from 4267 m. to 4541 m. in the Indus drainage area, is also known

from Kumaon Himalaya, Pamir, Alai, Kokand, and China (Fig. 14).

Outside the NW. Himalaya, we have the interesting record of the

occurrence of the three subspecies Nebria limbigera alaiensis Glas.

from Alai and Pamir, Nebria limbigera picta Sem., and Nebria

limbigera kandspstisa Glas. from Pamir. Among the other endemic

Carabidae, the monotypic Chaetobroscus anomalus (Chaud.), found.

between 3000 m. and 3657 m., is localized in the drainage area of

R. Jhelum, south of the main crest line of the Great Himalaya. Also

localized in the same area are Phaeropsophus stenoderus Chaud.

(Indo-Malayan) and Pristonychus kashmirensis babaulti Andr. The

typical form Pristonychus kashmirensis Bates, found between 3300 m.

and 4267 m., is localized in the Indus drainage area.

Bembidion has a total of 27 species and ‘is also characterized by

maximum species endemism. It is essentially a Holarctic genus, with

only one or two species found in the lowlands of India, but several

species are known from Finnoscandinavia, Alaska, and the far North.

The Holarctic Trechus, of which several species are known from

Turkestan mountains, is represented by three species in the NW.

Himalaya. Trechus cameroni bistriatus Jeann., an endemite, is

localized in the Chenab-Beas drainage area, south of the main crest

line of the Great Himalaya. The typical form is known from the

Simla Hills of the Garhwal Himalaya. The distribution of the non-

endemic species of Trechus is shown in Fig. 14. It is interesting to

Observe that the Palaearctic Harpalus, which with ona exception is

restricted to the Himalaya in India, is strictly localized in the drainage

areas of Jhelum and Chenab-Beas and is mostly found below an

elevation of 4300 m. The subgenus Nebria (Patronebria), with one

species himalayica (Bates), is also known from Garhwal, Kumaon,

Bhutan, Tibet, and Siberia. Among the non-endemites, Cymindis

mannerhemi Gebl., occurring between 4267 m. and 4520 m. and.

localized in the Indus drainage area, is also known from Pamir and

central Asia. Amara brucei Andr., found at an elevation of 5300 m.

in the Indus drainage area, is also reported to occur at an elevation

5030 m. near the Mt. Everest area in E. Himalaya. Amara

darjilingensis Putz., found at about an elevation of 3200 m.; is also

known from Kumaon, Sikkim, Darjeeling, and Khasi Hills. Amara

himalaica Bates, which occurs above an elevation of 3300 m.; is

reported at lower elevations from Simla Hills and Kumaon Himalaya

(Fig. 15). Of the non-endemic Bembidion (Fig. 15), five species

viz. braculatum Bates, gagates Andr., hasurda Andr., nivicola Andrt.,

aman 1

~ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 729

and pluto Andr., occur in other parts of the Himalaya, E. of the

R. Sutlej. Bembidion bucephalum Net. and Bembidion dardum

Bates are known from Turkestan mountains, Bembidion himalayanum

Andr. and Bembidion pamiricola Lut. from Pamir, and Bembidion

satanus Andr. from Hindukush. Bembidion fuscicrus Motsch. is

widely distributed in Pamir, central Asia, Siberia, and western pafts

of N. America (Fig. 16). sae

The Palaearctic element is high and amounts to nearly 95.0%

of the nival species known at present. Calosoma represents the

Mediterranean element. The subspecies Calosoma maderae auro-

punctatum (Herb.) is endemic but Calosoma maderae indicum Hope

is also reported from the lowlands of India and Peshawar in Pakistan.

Calosoma maderae kashmirense Breun. occurs in ‘Tibet also.

‘Phaeropsophus catoirei (Dej.), Phaeropsophus cosularis (Schm. & Boeb.),

Phaeropsophus stendderus Chaud., and Scarites predator Chaud.

comprise the Indo-Malayan forms, which are found mostly near the

timber line and do not seem to occur above an elevation of 3500. m.

Bradytus apricarius (Payk.), found in the Indus drainage area, is also

known to occur in Pamir, Canada, and the President Range in the

Nearctic Realm. The distribution of the genus Bradytus is eve! in

Jane 19h

Of the 7 species of Dytiscidae so far known in the nival zones of

the NW. Himalaya, 4 species are endemites. Six of the species are

localized in the Indus drainage area and often occur at elevations

ranging from 4267 m. to 4527 m. Potamonectes (Potamonectes)

eriseostriatus ‘Deg. (Fig. 18), found in many localities in the NW.

Himalaya, is also known from Europe, Siberia, and N. America.

In the Hydrophilidae, the only endemite is Helophorus (Meghelo-

Phorus) aquaticus Linn., occurring between 4175 and 4300 m.

Atracthelophorus frater dOrch., occurring at an elevation of 4724 m.,

represents at present the highest altitude record in the family. The

wide distribution of the remaining non-endemic forms in the Tibetan

Palaearctic is shown in Fig. 19. d’Orchymont (29) has briefly dis-

cussed the peculiarities of the distribution of the high altitude a yee

‘philidae of Tibet and Himalaya.

The family Staphylinidae, with 32 species, representing about 16%

of the total nival Coleoptera, stands next to Carabidae in abundance.

All’ the species are Palaearctic and the species endemism is about

81%. Of the 26 endemites, 19 belong to the genus Atheta, of which

there are also 3 other non-endemic forms. The five ‘species Atheta

(Acrotona) fungi kashmirensis (Gr.), Atheta (Aloconota) iguensis

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Cam., Atheta (Bessobia) submetallica Cam., Atheta (Dimetrota)

hutchinsoni Cam., and Atneta (Microdota) ladakiana Cam. are

mostly localized in the Indus drainage area and the remaining endemic

species are localized in the Jhelum drainage area. The rest of the

endemic species belong to the genera Geodromicus, Lesteva, Ocyusa,

Oxypoda, Philonthus, Pseudocyusa, and Tachinus.

Among’ the non-endemic Staphylinidae, the distribution of the

following species is interesting. Aleochara (Coprochara) _ bilineata

Gyll., occurring at an elevation of 4870 m., is also known from

Garhwal Himalaya, Caucasus, and Europe. Aftveta triangulum (Kr.),

a Mediterranean element, seems to be confined to: elevations im-

mediately above the timber line. Five species are found above an

elevation of 4000 m. Atheta (Dimetrota) hutchinsoni Cam., found at

an elevation of 5600 m., represents the highest aititude at which any

Coleoptera is known at present from the world. )

The family Tenebrionidae is remarkable for the highest degree of

species endemism in Coleoptera, viz. 100%. There are also two

endemic genera, viz. Bioramix and Chianalus. All the species are

Palaearctic forms. Outside the NW. Himalaya, the genus Ascelosodis

is known from Pamir only. Syachis is represented by one species

from Turkestan mountains and one species from Afghanistan.

Cyphogenia is widely distributed in the steppes of Asia from Mongolia

and China to Caspian Sea and has about eight species in Iran and

Afghanistan. Prosodes is also found in Iran, Afghanistan, Baluchistan,

and SE. Europe. Blaps is known from Palaearctic and south

Palaearctic of Asia, African Mediterranean, E. and central Europe.

It is also interesting to note that all the species are localized in the.

Indus drainage area. Two species of Blaps, Cyphogenia plana Bates

and Myatis quadraticollis Bates, occur above an elevation of 4000 m.

Species endemism in Curculionidae is 75% and the Palaearctic

elements amount to nearly 87%. The genus Catapionus (Fig. 20)

is known from Japan, Semirjetschensk, Siberia, Altai, Thian Shan,

Kasghar, Karakorum, Turkestan mountains, Sikkim, Tibet, Kurlien

Islands, and Amur. The genus Scepticus is distributed (Fig. 20) in

Kasghar, Turkestan Mountains, Altai, Japan, Okinawa, Formosa, and

does not extend west of Turkestan. In the NW. Himalaya it is widely

distributed in the areas drained by R. Indus, R. Jhelum, and Chenab-

Beas system, both N. and S. of the main crest line of the Great Himalaya.

Blosyrodes represents the Indo-Malayan element. Among the non-

endemic species, Otiorrhynchus russicus Stier. is known from Russia,

and Sitones calossus Gyll. is known from central and S. Europe and

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 731

central and W. Asia. Most of the species occur immediately above

the timber line but four species, which are all endemic, occur at

elevations above 4000 m.

9) “ ie ; as

ror eve °

NEBRIA @

TRECHUS ie

Fig. 14. The world distribution of the non-endemic nival species of Nebria and

Trechus from the north-west Himalaya.

Piet ee

aaa » D>

Ag ; ina ae

J seo i & (a

fs. e

be Be. te ie. Ae alti sae

ane

Fig. 15. The world dishibition of the non-endemic species of Amara and

Bembidion from the north-west Himalaya. Thearea of their endemism is confined

to the Pamir-Tibet-north-west Himalaya region.

732. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

ATUILLILLLL ER

Ci tearst el aa

eae :

Fig. 16. The area (striped) of the world distribution of the interesting

Holarctic species Bembidion fuscicrus (Motschulsky).

biped = Hiplldg Dir =

m= Se

Tele

- rai i aaa

Fig. iil ~The area (striped) of the world distribution of the asuad panties

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 733

SS Gis \

ge Es AES

“NY: ths veer wg epee OE

| y e J Aahe De, “, >

' ee Do | A

\ ru j “ ss ANE A ” F A

20 eee : ar \ a Sot os nase an

ad nes .

: ra] wi x

s C e “ >

POTAMONECTES (TR.S) GRISEOSTRIATUS fy

EE | ad pone es

ee eet eee (ee

160 200° 240°

Fig. 18. The area (striped) of the world distribution of Potamonectes

(Potamonectes) griseostriatus Deg.

- Fig. 19. The world distribution of the nival Hydrophilidae from the north-

west Himalaya, modified from d’Orchymont (29). 1. Helophorus (Lihelophorus)

ser Zait. 2. Helophorus (Meghelophorus) aquaticus Linn. 3. Helophorus (Helopho-

rus) splendidus immaensis @’Orchymont. 4. Helophorus (Atracthelophorus) _ frater

d’Orchymont. 5. Helophorus (Atracthelophorus) montanus d’Orchymont. 6. Lac-

cobius (Laccobius) hingstoni d’Orchymont.

734. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

—-—

= eooe.

42 a a:

10}

“h@:

rte.

(cap,

SK aos

cba:

Fig. 20. The world diction of the non-endemic nival species of a

onus and Scepticus from the north-west Himalaya.

Cicindelidae

1. Cicindela sublacerata balucha Bates

Localities: Skardu 3000 m,

Other Distribution : Baluchistan.

Carabidae

2. Agonum ladakense Bates

Localities : Kashmir about 3000 m.

Other Distribution : Pamir ; Jalalabad; Tibet 3960 m.

*3. Amara ambigene Bates

Localities : Pangong Valley between Tanktze and Chagra, 4267 m,

4. Amara brucei Andr.

Localities : Ororotse Tso 5300 m., Anem La 5181 m., Tso-Nyak region

4350 m.

Other Localities : Second Mt. Everest Expedition Base Camp 5030 m.

5. Amara darjilingensis Putz.

Localities : Jalori Pass 3290 m., Dharmsala, Naggar, Parbati Valley.

Other Distribution: Kumaon, Sundardhunga Valley, Sukha Tal, Gori

Valley, Bhurphu, Chuli Khad (Chakrata), Sikkim, Darjeeling, Lachung,

Khasi Hills.

«6. Amara depilatus (Bates)

Localities : Goorais Valley, Skardu about 3000 m.

Betas ee io

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 735

7. Amara himalaica Bates .

Localities: Dras 3100 m., Kargil 2740 m., Leh 3437 m., Sumdeo 3300 m.,

Bashahr (Poo) 2800 m.

Other Distribution: Simla Hills, Kotgarh, Matiana, Almora, Ranikhet.

*8. Amara lamia Andr.

Localities : Leh 3440 m., Tso-Morari 4664 m.

9. Amara nila Andr.

Localities : Manikaran, Pulga, Tchary-Djoni, Tsho-ti 3200 m., Kulu, Kandy,

Kote, Bajaura, Chamba.

Other Distribution: Mussoorie, Pindar Valley, Sundardhunga Valley,

Konain, Chitri Khud.

*10. Amara tiruka Andr.

Localities: Sonemarg 3000 m., Leh 3440 m.

*11. Amolops piliferus (Bates)

Localities: Goorais Valley, Skardu 3000 m., Murree.

*12. Anchomenus bernardi Andr.

Localities: Gondhla 3200 m., Keylang 3300 m., Sisu 3300 m., Pulga,

Tchary-Djoni, 3200 m., Manikaran, Kulu, Kote, Parbati Valley.

13. Anchomenus ladakensis Bates

Localities: Leh 3440 m., Kargil 2740 m., Pangong Valley between Tanktze

and Chagra 4267 m.

Other Distribution : Tibet (Gyangtse) 3600 m.

14. Anchomenus caesitius Andr.

Localities: Sisu 3300 m., Sumdeo 3300 m., Kulu, Kandy, Kote.

Other Distribution : Almora.

*15. Bembidion ajmonis Net.

Localities: Razdhainangan 3500 m.

*16. Bembidion algidum Andr.

Localities: Gulmarg 2438-2743 m., Khilanmarg 3350 m.

“17, Bembidion aquilum Andr.

Localities: Patseo 3500 m., Gond, Baltal 3000 m., Leh 3440, Mulbek 4520

m., Skardu, Gulmarg 2800 m.

*18. Bembidion atlanta Andr.

Localities : Lianmarg 3050 m.

*19, Bembidion beesoni Andr.

Localities: Khilanmarg 3350 m., Razhainangan 3657 m.

20. Bembidion braculatum Bates

Localities : Skardu 3000 m., Matayan 3050 m. . :

Other Distribution : Kumaon, Gori River gorge, Laptel 4572 m., Milam in

Gori Valley 3500 m.

736

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Bembidion bucephalum Net.

Localities: Chhota Deosi 3962 m., Boorgi Nullah 3657 m., Braldo alley

Kro Brok 3700 m., Thla Brok 4267 m., Punmah Valley, sBuniiliar 4267

m., Baltora, UWrdukas 4080 m., Naundie 3960-5000 m., Lopsang Bransa

4578 m. All Kashmir.

Other Distribution : Turkestan, Bukhara, Transcaspia.

Bembidion caporoaccoi Net.

Localities: Sind Valley, Kangan 2000 m., Olthingthang 2618 m., Shigar

Valley, Alchori, Kushumul all above 3000 m., Braldo Valley, Askole and

Biaho 3050 m.

Bembidion dardum Bates

Localities: Goorais Valley, Skardu 3000 m.

Other Distribution : Bukhara.

Bembidion fuscicrus Motsch.

Localities: Baltal 3000 m., Leh 3440 m., Mulbek 4420 m., Nurla, Salt

Lake 3627, Tso-Morari 4541, Nima Mud “4267 m., Pangur Tso 4437 m.,

Tso-Nyak 4470 m.

Other Distribution: Central Asia, Siberia, Western. States of North

America.

Bembidion gagates Andr.

Localities : Gond 3050 m., Manikaran, Pulga, Keylang 3220 m., Patseo

3300 m., Sumdeo 3300 m., Kulu, Kote, Kangra.

Other Distribution : Upto eastern Kumaon.

Bembidion hasurada Andr.

Localities: Gulmarg 2800 m., Apharwat 4260, Kangan, Mulbek 4420 m.,

Pulga, Batote, Raman, Kulu.

Other Distribution : Simla Hills, West Almora, Chakrata.

Bembidion himalayanum Andr.

Localities : Patseo 3300 m., Kangra, Baijnath, Dharmsala, Triund, Jalori

Pass 3280 m.

Other Distribution: Kurram Valley, Tibet.

Bembidion hutchinsoni Andr.

Localities : Kyam 4734 m. (Edge of hot spring).

. Bembidion irregularae Net.

Localities : Gond 2440 m., Shaksgan Valley 3962 m., Tarim Basin 4572 m.

Bembidion ixion Andr.

Localities : Matayan 3050 m.

Bembidion ladakense Andr.

Localities : Mulbek 4420 m., Gond 3000 m., Baltal 3000 m., sumdes

3300 m., Khalatse 4572 m., Biaho Valley, Barduaiul 3362 m.

Bembidion ladas Andr.

- Localities : Nima Mud 4267 m., Tso-Morari 4541 m., Salt Lake 3627 m. ss

‘Leh 3440 m., Mulbek 4420 m., Rango.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA dol

*33. Bembidion leve Andr.

Localities: Mulbek 4420 m.

#34, Bembidion livens Andr.

Localities: Khalatse 3048-3657 m.

*35. Bembidion luntaka Andr.

Localities: Suru Basin 3050 m., Shimtsa 3200 m., Karboo, Parkutta,

Tolti, Golskardu, Leh 3440 m., Mulbek 4520 m., Nurla, Baltal 3000 m.,

Sonemarg 3000 m., Nima Mud 4267 m., Keylang 3300 m., Sisu

3300 m., Zingzingbar 4267 m., Olthingthang 3140 m., Shigar Valley,

Juno, Alchori, Kushumul 2440 m.

36. Bembidion nivicola Andr.

Localities : Daulad Begaldi near Karakoram Pass 4730 m.

Other Distribution: Mt. Everest Base Camp 4730 m.

37. Bembidion pamiricola Lutchnik.

Localities : Biaho Valley, Bardumul 3352 m.

Other Distribution : Pamir.

38. Bembidion petrimagni Net.

Localities: Deosi, Lal Pani 3962 m., Baltoro 4000-4800 m., Widukas

4327 m.

Other Distribution : Pamir.

*39. Bembidion pictum (Fald.).

Localities: Leh 3440 m., Mulbek 4420 m., Nurla, Baltal 3000 m., Lac

Sale 3627 m., Tso-Morari 4541 m., Nima Mud 4267 m.

40. Bembidion pluto Andr.

Localities : Nima Mud 4267 m., Tso-Morari 4541 m., Salt Lake 3627 m.,

Leh 3440 m., Tangyar 4430 m., Lukung 4267 m., Igu 3637 m.

Other Distribution: Kumaon.

41. Bembidion satanas Andr.

Localities: Goorais Valley 2133 m., Gulmarg 2590 m., Liddar Valley

2743 m., Gond, Kolahoi 3360 m.

Other Distribution : Chitral.

42, Bradytus apricarius (Payk.)

Localities: Sind Valley, Sonemarg 3000 m., Dras 3100 m., Kargil 2740 m.,

Leh 3440 m.

Other Distribution : Between Sirikol and Panga, Canada, President Range >

(America).

*43. Calathus kollari Putz.

Localities: Sumdeo 3400 m., Pulga, Manikaran, Tchary-Djoni 3200 m.,

Bajaura, Kulu, Kote, Kandy, Baltal 3000 m.

*44, Calosoma maderae auropunctatum (Herb.)

Localities : Kulu, Sumdeo 3400 m., Patseo 3300 m., Keylang 3200 m.,

Cimur 3300 m., Rohtang Valley 3900 m., Chamba, Sonemarg, Kogyar,

Sind Valley, Dras 3100 m., Kargil 2740 m., Leh 3440 m.

738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

45. Calosoma maderae indicum Hope

Localities : Pulga, Tho-ti 3200 m., Manikaran, Gond, Srinagar.

Other Distribution: Peshawar, Taru, Kohat, Calcutta, Pusa (Bihar),

Chapra, Dehra Dun.

46. Calosoma maderae kashmirense Breun.

Localities: Kashmir, Kulu, Rohtang Valley 3900 m., Sumdeo 3300 m.

Other Distribution : Tibet 4000 m.

47. Clivinia tenuelimbatus Ball.

Localities: Goorais Valley, Leh 3440 m.

Other Distribution : Turkestan.

*48. Carabus (Imaibius) barysomus (Bates)

Localities: Goorais Valley, Pir Panjal, Batote 2440-3050 m., Hazara,

Lower Kagan Valley, Shran.

49. Carabus (Imaibius) boysi Tatum.

Localities : Sonemarg 3000 m., Kulu, Kani, Chamba, Pulga, Tchary-Djoni

3200 m., Tsho-ti 3200 m.

Other Distribution: Simla, Garhwal, Mundali, Deoban, Bodyar, West

Almora, Dhudatoli and Sundardhunga Valley.

*50. Carabus (Imaibius) dardiellus granulisparsus Bates.

Localities : Goorais Valley, Pir Panjal south of Srinagar 2440-3050 m.,

Jhelum Valley, Gulmarg 2750 m.

*51. Carabus (Imaibius) epipleuralis Sem.

Localities: Mountains west of Pir Panjal and north of Poonch 3000-

3500 m.

*52. Carabus (Imaibius) rostianus Sem.

Localities : North-east of Islamabad 1828 m., Songam Dusu, south-east

of Islamabad 1828-3050 m., Liddar Valley, Tanin 2750 m.

53. Carabus (Imaibius) stoliczkanus Bates

Localities : Mountains west of Pir Panjal 1820-3050 m., Murree.

Other Distribution : Campbellpore.

*54,. Chaetobroscus anomalus (Chaud.)

Localities: Sisu 3200 m., Rohtang Valley 3900 m., Shishramnag 3657 m.,

Khilanmarg 3050 m., Lidarwat 2750 m., Jalori Pass 3300 m., Tragbal Pass

3300 m., Chamba, Dalhousie.

55. Chlaenius caeruleus (Stev.)

Localities : Mulbek 4420 m., Goorais Valley, Srinagar, Seraj.

Other Distribution: Baluchistan, Armenia, S. Russia.

*56. Chlaenius tenuelimbatus Ball.

Localities: Leh 3440 m.

*57, Cymindis altica Gebl.

Localities: Between Dras and Leh 3100-3440 m.

*58. Cymindis babaulti Andr.

Localities: Leh 3440 m.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 739

59. Cymindis championi Andr.

Localities : Tso-Nyak 4357 m.

Other Distribution : Northern Kumaon, Tibet.

*60. Cymindis glabrella Bates

Localities: Baltal 3000 m., Ladakh 3200 m.

61. Cymindis mannerheimi Gebl.

Localities: Baltal 3000 m., Mulbek 4520 m., Pangong Valley 4267 m.,

Tangyar 4470 m.

Other Distribution: Pamir, Tarabagtai Mountains, Issyk-kul, all central

Asia.

*62. Cymindis rubriceps Andr.

Localities: Anem La 5181 m.

*63. Dyschirius ladakensis Andr.

Localities: Ladakh 3500 m.

*64. Harpalus amarellus Bates

Localities: Kangra, Bajaura, Mandi, Naggar, Cimur 3300 m., Keylang

3200 m., Sumdeo 3300 m., Sisu 3200 m.

65. Harpalus melaneus Bates

Localities: Baltal 3000 m., Sonemarg, Rohtang Valley 3900 m., Kote,

Pulga, Sumdeo 3300 m., Zingzingbar 4267 m., Patseo 3770, Sisu 3200 m.,

Keylang 3300 m. Gondhla 3200 m., Cimur 3300 m., Chamba, Murree,

Dalhousie.

Other Distribution : Mundali, Dehra Dun, Almora.

66. Harpalus quadricollis (Redt.)

Localities : Sisu 3200 m., Zingzingbar 4267 m., Patseo 3770 m., Sumdeo

3300 m., Keylang 3300 m., Pulga, Baltal.

aE Other Distribution: Rawalpindi, Kumaon.

67. Hypsinephus ellipticus Bates

Localities: Baltal 3000 m., Pangong Valley 4267 m.

Other Distribution : Supi River (Tibet).

*68. Leistus nivium Andr.

Localities: Dusu, Sintan Pass 3000 m.

69. Liocnemis himalaica Bates

Localities: Sumdeo 3200 m., Sonemarg 3000 m.

Other Distribution : W.Almora.

*70. Méetabletus tartarus Bates

Localities: Patseo 3770 m., Sind Valley.

71. Nebria limbigera Solsky

Localities : Tso-Morari 4541 m., Nima Mud 4267 m., Zingzingbar 4267 m.,

Mulbek 4420 m., Kargil 2740 m.

Other Distribution : Kumaon, Turkestan, Kokand, Alai Mountains, Pamir,

China : Monpin.

740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

*72. Nebria limbigera babaulti Andr. S : a NEE

Localities: Baltal 3000 m., Mulbek 4420 m. — a : e

73. Nebria (Patronebria) himalayica (Bates)

Localities : Goorais Valley, Skardu 3000 m., Parbati Valley, Bashahr (Poo).

Other Distribution: Almora, Milam in Gori Valley, 3500 m., Khedar Khud

(Chakrata Division).

*74. Pardileus indicus (Bates)

Localities: Pulga, Tsho-ti, Tchary-Djoni 3200 m., Bajaura, Kulu, Kandi,

Kangra.

75. Phaeropsophus catoirei (Dej.)

Localities: Bajaura, Kulu, Naggar, Mandi, Gharry, Baltal 3000 m.

Other Distribution : Ceylon, Burma, Andaman Island.

76. Phaeropsophus consularis (Schm. & Boeb.)

Localities: Gharry 3000 m., Kangra. .

Other Distribution : pene Dun, Ranikhet, Chhota Nagpur, Konbir,

Chapra, Sardah, Dacca, Assam, Silonibari, Sibsagar, Siliguri, Surada,

Karen Hills, Bhamo. =

*77, Phaeropsophus stenoderus Chaud.

Localities : Gharry 3000 m., Bajaura.

78. Pristonychus kashmirensis Bates

Localities: Goorais Valley, Liddar Valley, Khilanmarg 4000 m., Gulmarg

2750 m., Sintan, Pir Panjal, Upper Mundag, Kulu.

Other Distribution: Simla.

*79. Pristonychus kashmirensis babaulti Andr.

Localities: Tsho-ti, Tchary-Djoni 3200 m., Pulga, Sisu 3200 m., ., Gondhla

3200 m., Keylang 3300 m., Sumdeo 3300 m. Rohtang Valley 3900 m.,

Kote, Kandy, Sonemarg 3000 m. Po

80. Scarites praedator Chaud.

Localities: Gharry, Baltal 3000 m., Sonemarg 3000 m. '

Other Distribution: Sikkim, Aeseen, Bangla, Bihar, Orissa, Punjab,

Bombay, Kodaikanal, Nilumbur, Burma, Rangoon.

81. Tachys octostriatus Net.

Localities: Sind Valley, Kangan, Suru Basin 3000 m., Kareil 2740 m.

Other Distribution: Sangla 2440 m., (east of Sutlej Valley j in Bashahr).

82. Trechus cameroni Jeann.

Localities : Rohtang Pass 4150 m., Jalori Pass 3280 m.

Other Distribution: Simla Hills ; Narkanda 2800 m., Throch 3050 m:

*83. Trechus cameroni bistriatus Jeann.

Localities : : Kareri Lake 3050 m.

84. Trechus amends championi Jeann.

Localities : Pulga, Cimur 3300 m., Baltal 3000 -m., Ba 3000 m.,

Dharamsala, Mandi. ’

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 741

Other Distribution: Simla, Darjeeling, Gopalda, Ranikhet, Nainital,

Almora, Sikkim, Gumti Valley.

*85. Trichocellus roborowskii Tchitch..

Localities: Baltal 3000 m., Leh 3440 m., Lac Sale, Nima Mud 4267 m.

Dytiscidae

86. Dytiscus nitidus Fab.

Localities: Dras 3100 m., Kargil 2740 m., Leh 3440 m.

Other Distribution : Conal Europe.

*87. Coelambus flaviventris Motsch.

Localities : _Thongmon Tso above 4000 m.

88. Potamonectes (Potamonectes) griseostriatus Deg.

Localities: Kashmir, Ladakh, Digar Polu 3960 m., Kangral, Spring

below Fotu La, Chushul 4340 m., Tso Kar 4527 m., Ghulam Bagh,

Pangong Valley.

Other Distribution: East Europe, Siberia, N. America.

*89, Agabus (Anagabus) jucundus Guignot

Localities: Kargil about 3000 m.

*90. Agabus (Dichonectes) nitidus F.

Localities : Sonemarg 3000 m., Dras 3100 m., Kargil 2740 m., Nima

4267 m., Digar Polu 3960 m., Bao-Shaple 4570 m.

*91. Agabus (Gaurodytes) adustus Guignot

Localities : Chushul 4336 m,

92. Rahntus pulverosus Steph.

Localities : Ladakh, Sonemarg 3000 m., Kangan, Ghulam Bagh, Srinagar.

Other Distribution: Europe, North Africa, Asia, Australia, Sunda Isles.

Hydrophilidae

93. Helophorus (Atracthelophorus) frater d’Orch.

Localities: Kashmir, Tso-Morari 4541 m.

Other Distribution: Laptel, 4572 m.; border On Tibet and Kumaon,

_ Sangchar 4724 m.

94, Helophorus (eelepnocis) splendidus immaensis d’Orch.

Localities: Bai 4616 m., Kyam (Valley of R. Chang Chenmo) 4725 m.,

Sta-rtsk-puk-Tso (Tso Bat) 4538 m.

. Other Distribution: Central Tibet: Phar, Kampe, Dshong 4420 m.,

Lingka 4420 m., Tingri 4572 m.

95. Helophorus (Atracthelophorus) montanus d’Orch.

Localities : Fotu La 3720 m.

Other Distribution: Western Tibet: Sulphur spring of Lake Mangzka

5400 m., central Tibet: Tingri 4572 m., Lingka and Shekkar 4420 m.,

Gyangtse 3962 m., Tibet-Kumaon-Border Laptel 4572 m., outside Tibet

also from Aulie Ata on Syr-Daya.

742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

96. Helophorus (Lihelophorus) ser Zaitzera

Localities: Kyam in Chang Chenmo Valley 4725 m., Chushul south of

Pongong Tso 4300 m.

Other Distribution: Western Tibet: 50 kilometres east of Pongong Tso.

Central Tibet : 4863 m., Eastern Tibet: The region of Kuku-Nor, Mang

Tso 4429 m.

*97. Helophorus (Meghelophorus) aquaticus Linn.

Localities: East of Mugleb and between Mugleb and Tanktze 4175 m.,

north of Pongong Tso.

98. Hydrous pallidipalpus M’Leay

Localities : Kashmir 3000 m.

Other Distribution: Tibet 3900 m., Burma, China, Japan, Formosa,

Sumatra and Java.

99° Laccobius (Laccobius) hingstoni d’Orch.

Localities; Chushul south of Pongong Tso 4336 m.

Other Distribution: C. Tibet: Kampa, Dshong 3200 m., Tingri 4572 m,

Histeridae

*100. Hister indicola Desb.

Localities: Pulga, Kulu, Kandi, Keylang 3300 m., Sumdeo 3300, m., Sisu

3200 m.

101. Hister pullatus Erich.

Localities: Manikaran, Gharry about 3000 m.

Other Distribution: Badia, Bilaspur, Dahora.

Staphylinidae

102. Aleochara (Coprochara) bilineata Gyll.

Localities: Tsak Shang above Tso-Morari 4870 m.

Other Distribution: Chakrata, Dehra Dun, Simla Hills, Europe,

Caucasus.

103. Aleochara (Mesochara) inornata Cam.

Localities : Jalori Pass 3300 m.

Other Distribution: Chakrata, Deoban, Dehra Dun, Kumaon, Nainital,

West Bhalkot.

*104. Atheta (Acrotona) fungi kashmirensis (Gr).

Localities : Askole (Braldo Valley) 3100 m., Shimtsa (Punmah) 3200 m.

*105. Atheta (Acrotona) inequinata Cam.

Localities: Gulmarg 3050 m.

*106. Atheta (Aloconota) iguensis Cam.

Localities : Igu 3380 m.

#107. Atheta (Aloconota) morosa Cam.

Localities : Gulmarg 3050 m.

7 Spe ape ee a ED

eee ee ei

*108.

*109.

*110.

ttt

pea Ll (ae

“113.

*114,

TLid:

116.

ng hs

*118.

119:

*120.

si21.

ml22,

mZS.

*124.

125.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA

Atheta (Bessobia) submetallica Cam.

Localities : Tsak-Shang 4870 m.

Atheta (Datomicra) sordiduloides Cam.

Localities : Gulmarg 3050 m.

Atheta (Datomicra) subarenicola Cam.

Localities : Gulmarg 3050 m.

Atheta (Dimetrota) adjacens Cam.

Localities : Gulmarg 3050 m.

Other Distribution : Kotgarh, Narkanda.

Atheta (Dimetrota) associata Cam,

Localities : Gulmarg 3050 m.

Atheta (Dimetrota) hutchinsoni Cam.

Localities : Marsimik La 5600 m., Ororotse 5300 m.

Atheta (Dimetrota) nigrans Cam.

Localities : Gulmarg 3050 m.

Atheta (Dimetrota) suballocera Cam.

Localities: Gulmarg 3050 m.

Atheta (Liogluta) subumbonata Cam.

Localities : Gulmarg 3050 m.

Other Distribution : Chakrata, Deoban 2800 m.

Atheta (Microdota) amiculoides Cam.

Localities : Gulmarg 3050 m.

Atheta (Microdota) gracillima Cam.

Localities: Gulmarg 3050 m.

Atheta (Microdota) ladakiana Cam.

Localities : Tsak-Shang, above Tso-Morari 4870 m.

Atheta (Microdota) subluctuosa Cam.

Localities : Gulmarg 3050 m.

Atheta (Oreostibia) nimbicola Cam.

Localities : Apharwat 3960 m., Gulmarg 2743 m.

Atheta nigrolucens Cam.

Localities : Gulmarg 3050 m.

Atheta (Paraloconota) jaloriensis Cam.

Localities: Jalori Pass 3280 m., Bhabu Pass 2743 m.

Atheta (Paraloconota) musicola Cam.

Localities : Gulmarg 2433 m., Khilanmarg 3050 m., Kulu, Naggar.

Atheta triangulum (Kr.)

Localities: Gulmarg 2433-3050 m.

Other Distribution: Simla Hills, Gahan, Europe, Asia Minor.

743

744. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

*126. Geodromicus affinis Cam.

Localities: Kargil about 3000 m.

*127. Lesteva kargilensis Cam.

Localities: Kargil about 3000 m.

*128. Ocyusa (Cousya) quadrisulcata Bernh.

Localities : Baltora, Mondu 4300 m., Urdukas 4000 m., Lopsang Bransa

4500 m., Liligo 3800 m., Biaho-tal, Paju 3400 m.

129. Oxypoda (Podoxya) nigrita Cam.

Localities : Jalori Pass 3280 m., Jibhi, Seraj 1828 m., Gulmarg.

Other Distribution : Kumaon, Chakrata, Simla Hills.

*130. Philonthus diversus Schub.

Localities : Sintan, Shishram Nag, Liddar Valley 3657 m.

*131. Philonthus himalayicus Bernh.

Localities : Kulu 3050 m.

*132. Pseudocyusa kashmirica Cam.

Localities : Gulmarg, Khilanmarg 3050 m.

*133. Tachinus beesoni Cam.

Localities : Khilanmarg 3352 m.

Cantharidae

134. Cantharis biocellata Fair.

Localities : Karakoram 4000 m.

Other Distribution : Tibet 3900 m., North India, Hindukush. .

OMe don dae

135. Mylabris phalerata (Pall.) - a és ee

Localities: Lakka Pass 3657 m., Dharmsala, Dalhousie, Kulti Nal 3657 m.

Other Distribution : Throughout India.

Elateridae

136. Comsolacon aequalis Cand.

Localities : Kashmir 3352 m. fearon

Other Distribution: Wama (Afghanistan).

Coccinellidae

137. Coccinella septempunctata Linn.

Localities : Throughout Himalaya up to 4270 m.

Other -Distribution.;: . India, Europe.

APT AAAS oe ate og

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 745

138. Thea bisoctonata Muls.

So.

*140.

*141.

* 142.

* 143.

*144,

*145.

*146.

*147,

*148.

149.

«150.

*151,

#152,

lasik

Localities :

Dhaula Dhar 4270 m.

Other Distribution : Indian Aine Eeype Eritrea, Arabia, Palestine,

Cape Verde Isles.

lveine bir o.mabdeae

Ascelosodis assimilis Bates

Localities :

PREIS 3100 m. , Kargil 2740 m. , Leh 3440 m.

Ascaluepttis ciliatus Biss

Localities :

Dras, Kargil, Leh, 3000-3450 m..

- Ascelosodis grandis Bates.

Localities : :

Dras, Kargil, Leh, 3000- 3450 m.

Ascelosodis intermedius Bates

Localities :

Dras, Kargil, Leh, 3000-3450 m.

Bioramix ovalis Bates

Localities :

Dras, Kargil, Leh, 3000-3450 m.

Bioramix puncticeps Bates

Localities :

Dras, Kargil, Leh, 3000-3450 m.

Blaps ladakensis Bates

Localities :

Tangtze to Chagra, Pangong Valley 4267 m.

Blaps perlonga Bates

Localities :

Tangtze to Chagra, Pangong Valley 4267 m.

Chianalus costipennis Bates.

Localities: Dras, Kargil, Leh, 3000-3450 m.

Cyphogenia plana Bates a

Localities: Dras, Kargil, Leh 3000-3450 m., Pangong Valley. 4267 m.

Myatis quadriticollis Bates

Localities :

Between Leh and Yarkand.

Other Distribution : WEES

i @patcim oehthebiodes Fauvel

Localities :

Dras, Kargil, Leh, 3000-3450 m.

Prosodes trisulcata Bates

Localities :

Dras, Kargil, Leh ee m,

Syachis ajmonis Bates.

Localities :

High valleys of recat Dras, Kargil, Leh, 3000- a) m.

Syachis cugiae Gridelli

Localities :

High valleys 6f Kashmir, 3000- 3450 m.

746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 58 (3)

*154. Syachis himalaicus Bates

Localities: Dras, Kargil, Leh 3000-3450 m.

#155. Syachis picicornis Bates

Localities: Dras, Kargil, Leh 3000-3450 m.

Scarabaeidae

156. Onthophagus gibbosus (Scriba)

Localities: River Sutlej, Tibet-Indian frontier, 3050 m.

Other Distribution : Turkestan, Persia, Asia Minor, Europe,

-- 157. Onthophagus sutlejensis Splich.

Localities : Rajpur, Rampur, River Sutlej, Indian-Tibet frontier 3050 m.,

Bashahr.

Other Distribution : Wama, Nuristan (Afghanistan).

158. Onthophagus tibetanus Arrow

Localities : Khilanmarg 3050 m.

Other Distribution: Chaksam (Tibet) 3657 m., Brahmaputra Valley,

Gyangtse 3962 m., U.P. : Dhauliganga Valley, Almora 3220 m.

Geotrupidae

*159, Geotrupes kashmirensis Sharp

Localities: Dras, Kargil, Leh 3000-3450 m.

Aphodidae

*160. Aphodius kashmirensis Sharp

Localities : Dras, Kargil, Leh 3000-3450 m.

Rutelidae

*161. Adoretus ladakensis Ohaus.

Localities : Ladakh 3450 m., Murree.

162. Callistopopillia iris (Cand.)

Localities : Ladakh 3450 m.

Other Distribution : Tibet, Yatong 3200 m., Sikkim, Kurseong, Mungphu.

Cerambycidae

163. Apatophysis kashmiriana Sem.

Localities : Kashmir about 3000 m.

Other Distribution : Punjab, W. Tibet 3900 m.

164. Clytus monticola Gahan

Localities : Kashmir about 3000 m.

Other Distribution: W. Tibet 3900 m.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 747

*165. Leptura rubriola Bates

Localities: Murree, Gulberg, Liddar 3350 m.

166. Purpuricenus montanus White

Localities: West Kashmir about 3000 m.

Other Distribution : Campbellpore, W. Tibet 3900 m., outer Himalaya.

Chrysomelidae

167. Galeruca sexcostata Jacoby

Localities : Liddar 3350 m., Srinagar, Burzil Chauki 3350 m.

Other Distribution : Lahore.

*168. Leptosonyx octocostatus Weise

Localities: Khalatse 4572 m.

169. Longitarsus cyanipennis Bryant

Localities : Lahaul 3200 m.

Other Distribution: Kumaon, Surju Valley, Almora 2743 m., Nainital,

Darjeeling, Gopaldhara.

170. Merista quadrifasciata (Hope)

Localities: Ladakh 3450 m., Kashmir, Kangra Valley 1370 m., Abbota-

bad, Murree.

Other Distribution: Bhimtal 4500 m., Almora 1670 m., Nainital, Simla,

Ranikhet, Muktesar, Jeolikot, Mussoorie, Dehra Dun, Nepal : Gowchar,

Gopaldhara, Pharping, Mungphu, Rungbong Valley.

Curculionidae

*171. Achlaenomus babaulti Hustache

Localities : Leh 3450 m., frontier of Tibet, Lac Sale 3657 m., Tso-Morari

4541 m.

*172. Achlaenomus squamulosus Hustache

Localities: Patseo 3400 m., Zingzingbar 4267 m., Sisu 3200 m., Rohtang

Valley 3900 m., Kote, Kashmir.

173. Blosyrodes pubescens Marshall

Localities : Sisu 3200 m., Rohtang Valley 3900 m., Kashmir: Jarji 3410 m.,

towards Gilgit.

Other Distribution: Baluchistan.

174. Blosyrodes yariegatus (Redt.)

Localities: Kashmir, Kangra, Bajaura, Tchary-Djoni 3200 m., Pulga,

Gond.

Other Distribution : Mussoorie.

*175. Calmycterus distans (Faust.)

Localities : Tchary-Djoni 3200 m., Pulga.

*176. Catapionus basilicus Schnoh.

Localities: Koty, Gilgit, Tchary-Djoni, 3200 m.

748

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*185.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Heteronyx ferus Faust. ~

Localities : Tchary-Djoni, Tsho-Ti 3200 m., Pulga..

Heteronyx ferus loevior Hustache

Localities: Sisu 3200 m., Rohtang Valley 3900 m.

Legenolobus lineolatus Hustache

Localities : Leh 3450 m., Nima Mud 4267 m., Tso-Morari 4541 m.,

Lac Sale 3627 m., Tibet Frontier.

Leptomias marshalli Hustache

Localities‘: Gondhla 3200 m., Keylang 3300 m., Sumdeo 3300 m.

Leptomias scribicollis Marshall

Localities: Kashmir, Tchary-Djoni 3200 m., Pulga.

Otiorrhynchus russicus Stierill.

Localities : Kashmir about 3000 m.

Other Distribution: Sirikol, Russia : Tchaar-Tasch.

Rhyncolus himalayensis Stebb.

Localities : Tchary-Djoni 3200 m., Manikaran, Bajaura.

Scepticus nubifer Faust.

Localities: Kargil 2740 m., Dras 3100 m., Leh 3450 m., Sisu, 3200 m.,

Keylang 3300 m., Pateseo 3400 m., Sumdeo 3300 m., Zingzingbar

4267 m., Baltal 3000 m., Sonemarg, Gond, Rupshu, Tso-Morari 4541 m.

Sitones vergicolor Faust.

Localities: Keylang 3300 m., Sumdeo 3300 m.

Sitones callosus Gyll.

Localities : Gondhla 3200 m.

Other Distribution: Central, South-West Europe, Mediterranean Region,

West and central Asia.

(To be continued)

ee -

Flora of District Muzaffarnagar in the

Doab of the Rivers Ganga and Yumna

RAJ KUMAR GUPTA?*

Botany Department, D.A.V. College, Muzaffarnagar

(With a map)

PHYSICAL FEATURES AND TOPOGRAPHY OF THE AREA

Muzaffarnagar district, situated in the Indo-Gangetic plain in

Uttar Pradesh;.is bounded by the districts of Saharanpur in the north

and Meerut in the south. On the west the River Yumna separates it

from Panipat and Thaneshar tehsils of Karnal district (in East Punjab),

while on the east the River Ganga separates it from Bijnor district.

The main stream of the Ganga flows about 18 miles from the‘ town,

touching the boundary of the district at Sukhartal. The doab between

these two rivers is served by a network of tributaries of the Ganga,

namely the Kalinadi, the Budhiganga, the Solani, and the east Ganga

canal. |

The area is a plain consisting of recent alluvial deposits with kankar

intercalations underneath, and at most places the topmost ‘ kankar pan’

is within 6 ft. (2 m.) of the ground level. The top soil is variable, from

sandy to sandy loam and clay.

Erosion along the banks of the Ganga and the Yumna is com-

mon. During the monsoons, water collecting and running scores out

small gullies. As the ravines unite the intensity of soil erosion increases

and, with the increase in the volume of running water, the ravines are

dug deeper and wider. |

Excessive grazing, heavy human population, and the local agri-

cultural practices, all contribute to the erosion. Low-lying areas, either

arising naturally as depressions, eroded gullies, stream beds, and ox-

bows, or artificially dug pools, puddles, and tanks form a conspicuous

aspect of the landscape.

CLIMATE

- The climate is dry monsoonic ; 760-1015 mm. of the precipitation

falls during July to September. The mean annual temperature is about:

———s oS

1 Present address : French Institute, Pondicherry.

750 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

24° C.; the maximum during the summer may rise to 46° C., the mini-

mum may touch freezing point. Loo (hot wind) is prevalent during

summer, in the greater part of May and June, till the break of the rains.

Occasional frosts occur during winter.

SAHARANPUR

eee

QQ ¢

CHARTHAWAL *-*

@ ~

e JMUZAFFARNAGAR|

een)

1 inch = 8 miles

MAP OF :

MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT

VEGETATION

With the increase of population and consequent increase of culti-

vation, only a few areas exist where natural vegetation can be seen ;

these are the Ganga ‘ Khadars’ and ‘ Kholas’, and the ravines of the

Yumna and Ganga.

FLORA OF DISTRICT MUZAFFARNAGAR 751

The ‘ Khadars’ are the low-lying water-logged areas along the banks

of the Ganga. The natural vegetation comprises Tamarix sp., with

occasional patches of Butea monosperma(Lamk.) Taub. mixed with Phoenix

sp. The ‘Kholas’ run adjacent to the ‘ Khadars’ with occasional

trees of Salmalia malabarica Schott. & Endl. and undergrowth of Adha-

toda vasica Nees, Carissa spinarum A. DC., and Capparis decidua

(Forsk.) Pax ; the ravines along the rivers Yumna and Ganga in moist

localities have Acacia arabica Willd., Prosopis spicigera L., with shrubs

of Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Pax, Capparis zeylanica L., Adhatoda vasica

Nees, and Carissa spinarum A. DC. On the low ‘ usar’ land, shrubs of

Calotropis procera R.Br. with scattered trees of Acacia arabica

Willd., Butea monosperma and Azadirachta indica A. Juss. can be

seen. At some places trees are entirely absent and only few stunted

grasses exist. On sandy and badly-drained soils one may find stunted

trees of Butea monosperma. Where soil conditions are better Acacia

arabica Willd. and Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. are present along the banks

of the east Ganga canal.

Along the banks of the Ganga Phoenix sylvestris-Butea monosperma

association is frequent and, if unhampered by biotic and edaphic fac-

tors, may pass to Dalbergia sissoo-Acacia arabica association. On the

ravines in barren lands the first species to occur are the grasses, and as

the soil and moisture conditions improve other plants, such as Carissa

spinarum A. DC., Adhatoda vasica Nees, Prosopis spicigera L., and

Acacia arabica Willd. occur.

Dudgeon (1920), while discussing the ecology of the Upper Gangetic

Plain, distinguished four types of topographic succession, showing a

developmental tendency to the climatic types. Since the distribution

of rainfall and temperature during the year produce distinct climatic

seasons, the physiological responses of the plants to the climate are well

marked and have been described for the Gangetic Valley by Misra (1946),

Verma (1936), Puri (1957), and others.

During the rainy season (July-September) the vegetation is luxuriant

everywhere, and a closed community of Boerhavia diffusa L., Indigofera

enneaphylla L., Cynodon dactylon Pers., Evolvulus alsinoides L., Con-

volyulus pluricaulis Chois., and Justicia simplex L. are commonly seen

on the low-lying lands and cultivated fields. After the rains Cassia

tora L., Rungia pectinata L., Euphorbia thymifolia Burm., Convolvulus

arvensis L., Vernonia cinerea Less., Sida rhombifolia L., Heliotropium

indicum L., Croton bonplandianum Baill. are most common. On the

sides of the pools and puddles, where during the monsoons rain water

gets stored, plants like Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Rumex dentatus L.,

Scirpus maritimus L., Polygonum plebejum R.Br. are seen. November

to February is the season for the growth of many annual and perennial

grasses, but as the temperature decreases the process slows down and,

752. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

when a few sporadic showers fall, they stimulate the growth of many

wintel, annuals like Spergula arvensis L., Fumaria indica Pugsley, Stel-

DC., Sisymbrium irio L., Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit., Artemisia

parviflora Roxb., and Vicoa indica (Willd.) DC., etc. During March

most of the woody plants flower. June is the worst season for the vege-

tation ; annuals die and the flora assumes typical desert aspect, with

only a few species consolidating the soil against erosion. Common

plants are Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Pax, Capparis zeylanica L., Carissa

carandas L., Prosopis spicigera L., Acacia arabica Willd., Zizyphus mauri-

tiana Lamk., Randia spinosa Thunb., Calotropis procera R.Br., and

Phoenix sp. Thorny species predominate, affording protection against

grazing to the vegetation growing near them.

Vegetation in the monsoon pools shows definite succession from

submerged, floating leaf forms to amphibious forms. Common free-

floating forms are Ceratophyllum -demersum L., Trapa bispinosa Roxb.,

Eichhornia crassipes Solms., and Azolla pinnata. Submerged plants

are Hydrilla verticillata Royle, Potamogeton pectinatus L., Vallisneria

spiralis L., and Chara sp. Common fixed aquatic plants include Typha

elephantina Roxb., Ranunculus sceleratus L., Scirpus maritimus L., Poly-

gonum glabrum Willd., etc. During summer months the water dries up

and mud communities develop in the centre of these pools.

LIST OF PLANTS COLLECTED

The following is a list of the plants collected from the area, arranged

according to Bentham & Hooker’s system of classification. Where

nomenclatural changes have been made, the correct name is given first,

then the name given in Duthie’s FLORA OF THE UPPER GANGETIC PLAIN

AND OF THE ADJACENT SIWALIK AND SUB-HIMALAYAN TRACTS (1903-1920).

The numbers given after the plants refer to collections made by the

author. Plants marked with an asterisk have not been mentioned by

Duthie in his FLORA. Some of these plants have been recently reported

by Sri M. B. Raizada (1931-1958) ; they are really exotics but have now

become completely naturalised in the area.

Ranunculaceae

Ranunculus sceleratus Linn.

Erect annual with pale yellow flowers, near water streams and moist places. (Gupta

116, 148D, 357, 358)

Menispermaceae

Cissampelos pareira Linn.

Lofty climber, flowers green. May-August. (Gupta 551)

’ FLORA OF DISTRICT MUZAFFARNAGAR : 753

Nymphaeaceae

Nymphaea stellata Willd. :

Aquatic herb with white flowers . August-October. In ponds throughout the

district. (Gupta 641)

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.

Aquatic herb with rosy-red flowers. Cultivated in tanks near the temples.

- Papaveraceae

Argemone mexicana Linn.

Prickly annual with yellow flowers. March-May ; in waste places and roadsides.

(Gupta 170, 342)

Fumariaceae

Fumaria indica Pugsley. (Ff. parviflora Lamk.)

_ Pale green diffuse herb with rose coloured flowers. January-March ; in fields and

moist shady places. (Gupta 50, 344, 345)

Cruciferae

Capsella bursa-pastoris Medic.

Annual with white flowers. July-August; in fields and moist places. (Gupta

353)

Senebiera pinnatifida DC. (S. didyma Pers.)

Annual, leaves pinnatifid with strong smell when bruised. Flowers white, petals

dissimilar. January-March ; on moist places. (Gupta 350)

Sisymbrium irio Linn.

Annual; flowers yellow. _ January-March. (Gupta 355)

Sisymbrium thalianum Gay & Monn.

Annual, flowers white. January-March; it is reported to occur between 5000

and 10,000 ft. (1525 to 3050 m.) by Hooker but seems to have come down recently.

Capparidaceae

Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Pax. (Capparis aphylla Roth)

Much-branched shrub. Flowers red-brown. April-July ; in waste places and

ravines of the Yumna and Ganga. (Gupta 346, 347) |

Capparis zeylanica Linn. non Hk. f. & Th. (C. horrida Linn. f.) _

A shrub with stout recurved thorns. Flowers white. Common on roadsides

and fallow fields.

Cleome viscosa Linn.

Annual ; flowers yellow. July-September ; in waste places. (Gupta 522)

Gynandropsis gynandra (L.) Brig. (G. pentaphylla DC.)

Glandular pubescent herb, flowers purplish yellow. July-September ; in waste

places. ‘Leaves have peculiar smell. (Gupta 154, 349, 426) .—

754 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Caryophyllaceae

Stellaria media Linn.

Annual, flowers white, star-like; in cymes. February-April; in moist places.

(Gupta 315) raat a

Silene conoidea Linn.

Glandular. pubescent annual, flowers pink. February-March. (Gupta 180)

Dianthus chinensis Linn.

Perennial herb, flowers solitary terminal. February-March. (Gupta 553)

Saponaria vaccaria Linn.

Annual decumbent herb, flowers white. February-April; in fields. (Gupta 318)

Arenaria serpyllifolia Linn.

Annual decumbent herb, flowers white. February-April. (Gupta 317)

Spergula arvensis Linn.

Annual with linear subulate leaves in whorls, looking like that in Chara sp., flowers

white. January-March ; in moist places. (Gupta 321)

Polycarpaea corymbosa Lamk.

Annual or perennial herb with white flowers. August-November, in cultivated

fields. (Gupta 642)

Portulacaceae

Portulaca quadrifida Linn.

_ Annual, flowers yellow, solitary terminal. (Gupta 554)

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix dioica Roxb.

Sniall tree with pink flowers. Near the east Ganga Canal and elsewhere near

water.

Malvaceae

Sida acuta Burm.

Undershrub with yellow flowers. September-October ; on roadsides and waste

places. (Gupta 335)

Sida cordifolia Linn.

Erect undershrub, flowers yellow. August-September; on roadsides. (Gupta

333)

Sida rhombifolia Linn.

Erect undershrub, leaves rhomboid, flowers yellow. September-October. (Gupta

324)

Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke. (M. tricuspidatum A. Gray)

Erect herb, flowers yellow. September. (Gupta 473)

Urena lobata Linn.

Erect undershrub, flowers pink. August-September. (Gupta 337, 340 432A)

FLORA OF DISTRICT MUZAFFARNAGAR 755

Malva parviflora Linn.

Spreading annual, flowers pale pink. May-June. (Gupta 330, 331)

Abutilon indicum G. Don.

Annual, flowers yellow, opening in the evening only. March-September. (Gupta

338, 462A)

Abutilon polyandrum W. & A. :

Densely pubescent annual, flowers orange-yellow. September-December. (Gupta

329)

Hibiscus vitifolius Linn.

‘Annual, leaves 3-5 lobed, flowers yellow, with purple spot. Cultivated. (Gupta

341)

Bombacaceae

Salmalia malabarica Schott. & Endl. (Bombax malabaricum DC.)

Large tree with spreading branches and red crimson flowers. January-March.

Sterculiaceae

Firmiana fulgens (Wall. ex Mast.) Corner. (Sterculia fulgens Wall. ex Mast.)

Small tree, flowers covered with yellowish down. Cultivated. (Gupta 61)

Sterculia villosa Roxb.

Tree with velvety leaves, cultivated. (Gupta 463)

Tiliaceae

Grewia subinaequalis Wall. (G. tiliaefolia Vahl.) . .

Tree with purplish branches and feather-veined leaves. Drupe small. Flowers

March-May. (Gupta 480)

Corchorus aestuans Linn. non Forsk. (C. acutangulus Lamk.)

Annual herb, flowers yellow. August-September ; in waste places. (Gupta 421,

454A)

Corchorus olitorius Linn.

Annual, flowers yellow. August-September. (Gupta 555)

Triumfetta bartramia Linn. (7. rhomboidea Jacq.)

Suffruticose annual, flowers yellow. August-September. (Gupta 336)

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus terrestris Linn.

Annual prostrate herb, flowers yellow. May-July. Cocci with two long and two

short spines. In waste places and along railway lines. (Gupta 446)

Geraniaceae

Oxalis repens Thunb. (O. corniculata Linn.)

Perennial herb, flowers yellow. March-April. (Gupta 556)

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

*Oxalis latifolia H.B.K.

Erect herb, flowers pink. May-July: (Gupta. 440D) _

Impatiens balsamina Linn.

Herb, flowers pink. August-September. (Gupta 557)

Rutaceae

Murraya paniculata Jacq. (M. exotica Linn.) ff.

Shrub, flowers white. August-September. (Gupta 466)

Murraya koenigii Spreng. esi) Sean

Strongly scented shrub, flowers white. April-May. (Gupta 558)

Aegle marmelos Corr.

Small tree with greenish-white, sweet scented flowers. Wild and also cultivated

for the fruits and leaves. ;

Meliaceae

Azadirachta indica Juss. (Melia azadirachta Linn.)

A large tree commonly seen on the roadside. Flowers white.

Rhamnaceae

Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. (Z. jujuba Lamk. non Mill.)

Trees or shrubs, flowers greenish yellow. September ; on ravines. (Gupta 167,

185) .

Zizyphus xylopyra Willd.

Straggling shrub, flowers greenish yellow. April-May. (Gupta 559)

Sapindaceae

Dodonaea viscosa Linn.

Evergreen shrub. Cultivated as hedge plant. (Gupta 208)

Anacardiaceae

Mangifera indica Linn.

A large tree with yellow, odorous flowers. Common on roadsides and in

gardens. (Gupta 508)

Leguminosae

Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk.

Diffuse perennial herb, flowers yellow. April-September. (Gupta 284, 328)

Gorilla mysorensis Roth. .

Densely silky perennial herb, flowers yellow. July-September. (Gupta 290, 313)

Crotalaria juncea Linn. |

Shrub, flowers bright yellow. Cultivated for the fibre, sometimes wild also,

(Gupta 264)

FLORA OF DISTRICT MUZAFFARNAGAR dog

Melilotus indica All. (M. parviflora Desf.)

Annual, flowers pale yellow. March-April. (Gupta 273, 296, 308)

Melilotus alba Lamk.

Annual, flowers white. October-December ; in shady places. (Gupta 178, 272)

Medicago lupulina Linn.

Herb, flowers yellow. January-February.

*Medicago sativa Linn.

Herb, branched copiously, flowers yellow. June-July. (Gupta 281)

Desmodium gangeticum DC.

Undershrub, flowers whitish. June-July ; in moist places. (Gupta 280, 434A)

“Desmodium floribundum G.Don.

Undershrub, flowers lilac. July-August. (Gupta 294)

‘Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.

Erect tree with roundish 3-5 leaflets, flowers yellowish. March-May. (Gupta 266)

Dolichos lablab Linn.

Annual twiner, flowers reddish. Cultivated for the pod. (Gupta 301)

Alysicarpus rugosus DC. ,

Annual, flowers flesh-coloured. August-September. (Gupta 428)

Alysicarpus bupleurifolius DC.

Annual, flowers pink. August-September. (Gupta 265)

Lathyrus aphaca Linn.

Annual herb with abortive leaflets, flowers yellow. March-April. (Gupta 177,

304)

Lathyrus sativus Linn.

Annual, flowers reddish purple. January. (Gupta 168, 302)

Abrus precatorius Linn.

Climber with reddish flowers in racemes. August-September. (Gupta 560)

Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) W.F. Wight. (S. aculeata Pers.)

Annual shrub with pale yellow flowers, standard dotted with red. December-

February. (Gupta 173A)

Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. (S. aegyptiaca Poir.)

Perennial soft-wooded shrub, flowers pale yellow, tinged with red. December-

February. (Gupta 28, 285, 311A)

Teramnus labialis Spreng.

Climber with reddish flower. (Gupta 262)

Cajanus cajan (L.) Mill. (C. indicus Spreng.)

Erect shrub with yellow flowers. Cultivated for the pulse obtained from the seeds,

(Gupta 288, 295, 310, 312)

7158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Phaseolus mungo Linn.

Sub-erect annual, clothed densely with loose deflexed hairs, flowers yellow. Culti-

vated. (Gupta 301)

Clitoria ternatea Linn.

Climber, flowers bright blue, with orange centre. September-October. (Gupta

271)

Tephrosia purpurea Pers.

Sub-erect perennial shrub, flowers red-purple. July-September (Gupta 404)

Vicia tenera Grah.

Climber, flowers pale yellow. March-April. (Gupta 156)

Vicia sativa Linn.

Annual sub-erect herb, flowers red-blue. Cultivated. (Gupta 286, 300)

Atylosia scarabaeoides Benth.

Twiner, flowers yellow. August-September. (Gupta 267)

Trifolium repens Linn.

Trailing herb, flowers white in globose heads. March-July. (Gupta 269, 282)

Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. (Butea frondosa Koen. ex Roxb.)

An erect tree, commonly seen as scrub On sandy and badly drained soils through-

out the district. Flowers yellow ; February-May.

Indigofera enneaphylla Linn.

An annual, much-branched, spreading herb with small red flowers. July-October.

Common on grassy areas.

Trigonella foenum-graecum Linn.

An annual herb with yellow flowers. Cultivated for the leaves, used as pot herb ;

sometimes found as escape.

Cassia occidentalis Linn.

Diffuse undershrub, flowers yellow, petals with reddish veins. July-September.

(Gupta 268, 305, 407, 464)

Cassia sophera Linn.

Diffuse shrub, flowers orange-yellow. July-September. (Gupta 274, 277, 287)

Cassia tora Linn. (C. obtusifolia Linn.)

Gregarious annual with orange-yellow flowers. July-August. (Gupta 561)

Cassia mimosoides Linn.

Diffuse perennial, flowers yellow. July-August. (Gupta 260, 297)

Cassia javanica Linn.

Shrub, flowers yellow. Cultivated. (Gupta 212, 311B)

Bauhinia purpurea Linn.

Erect tree, flowers reddish, in terminal corymbs. September-November,

(Gupta 261)

FLORA OF DISTRICT MUZAFFARNAGAR 759

Caesalpinia bonducella (L.) Fleming

Prickly shrub, flowers yellow. April-September. (Gupta 270)

Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swartz

Shrub with few prickles, flowers reddish yellow. Cultivated. (Gupta 259)

Prosopis spicigera Linn.

Low prickly tree, flower heads in axillary spikes. July-September. (Gupta 363)

Acacia arabica Willd.

Common spiny tree, flowers yellow. July-September. Common on the ravines

and ‘ usar’ lands conserving soil against erosion.

Pithecellobium dulce Benth.

Spiny shrub, flowers yellow. Commonly grown as hedge plant.

Rosaceae

Fragaria indica Andr.

Perennial herb, flowers yellow. June-July. (Gupta 562)

Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.

Large tree with white fragrant flowers ; November-January. Cultivated for the

fruits.

Combretaceae

Terminalia belerica Roxb.

Tree with flowers in solitary axillary spikes. Cultivated on the roadsides and in

avenues.

Terminalia chebula Retz.

Tree with flowers in terminal spikes. Cultivated on roadsides and in avenues.

Quisqualis indica Linn.

A sub-scandent shrub with flowers in short axillary and terminal spikes. The

flowers are white when they open, soon becoming red. Monkeys are very fond of the

leaves. Cultivated in gardens.

Myrtaceae

Psidium guajava Linn.

Small tree with white flowers. Commonly cultivated in gardens for the fruit.

Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels. (Eugenia jambolana Lamk.)

Large tree with a thick and crooked trunk. Cultivated on the roadsides and in

avenues for shade and for the fruits.

Lythraceae

Ammannia multiflora Roxb.

Annual herb, flowers in compound peduncled cymes. (Gupta 56)

Lawsonia alba Lamk.

Spinous shrub, flowers white. Cultivated as hedge,

760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Onagraceae

Trapa bispinosa Roxb. .

A floating herb commonly cultivated in tanks for the fruit.

Cucurbitaceae

Melothria maderaspatana Cogn. |

Annual herb, flowers yellow. July-August. (Gupta 256)

Coccinia indica Wt. & Arn. : . |

Climber, flowers white. September-December. (Gupta 258)

Trichosanthes bracteata (Lamk.) Voigt. (7. palmata Roxb.)

Climber, flowers white. July-August. (Gupta 257)

Brynopsis laciniosa Naud.

Slender twiner, flowers greenish yellow. September-October. (Gupta 255)

Momordica dioica Roxb.

Climber with yellow flowers. July-August. (Gupta 563)

Ficoideae

Trianthema monogyna Linn.

Prostrate herb. Flower solitary. July-September. (Gupta 307)

Umbelliferae

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. (Hydrocotyle asiatica Linn.)

Prostrate herb, rooting at the nodes, flowers July-August. (Gupta 564)

Rubiaceae

Wendlandia exserta DC.

Small tree with white fragrant flowers. March-April. (Gupta 468)

Borreria stricta (Linn. f.) Schum. (Spermacoce stricta Linn. f.)

Annual erect herb with white flowers. August-September. (Gupta 565)

Borreria hispida (L.) Schum. (Spermacoce hispida Linn.)

Annual procumbent herb with white flowers. July-August. (Gupta 209)

Rubia cordifolia Linn. var. munjista Miquel.

Perennial climber. Flowers dark red. July-August. (Gupta 566)

*Leptodermis lanceolata Wall.

Erect shrub with white flowers; cultivated. (Gupta 532)

Oldenlandia diffusa Roxb.

Annual herb with white flowers. July-August. (Gupta 567)

Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn.

Annual herb with white flowers. August-September. (Gupta 568)

_ FLORA OF DISTRICT MUZAFFARNAGAR 761

Randia spinosa (Thunb.) Poir. (R. dumetorum Lamk.) ;

-_. Large spiny shrub with white flowers. May-June. (Gupta 569)

Hamelia patens Jacq. .

Evergreen shrub with reddish flowers. Cultivated in gardens.

~ Compositae

Vernonia cinerea Less.

Erect herb with pink flowers. March-April. (Gupta 230, 241, 249, 414, 447A)

Ageratum conyzoides Linn.

Softly hairy annual with pale blue flowers. March-April. (Gupta 159)

Erigeron canadensis Linn.

Erect annual with flowers having pale rose ligules. August. (Gupta 234)

*Erigeron linifolius Willd.

Hairy annual with flower heads having purple ray florets. August. (Gupta 570)

Blumea membranacea DC.

Glandular pubescent-annual with yellow florets. April-May. (Gupta 235)

Blumea aromatica DC.

Aromatic, glandular shrub-like herb with yellow flowers and red pappus. April-

May. (Gupta 232, 242, 253, 409)

Gnaphalium indicum Linn.

Slender woolly herb with small flower heads in spikes. February-March. (Gupta

245, 247)

Caesulia axillaris Roxb.

A semi-aquatic herb with white flowers in compound heads. September-October

(Gupta 192, 233, 246, 410)

Pulicaria crispa Schultz.

Shrubby perennial with yellow flowers. February-March. (Gupta 221)

Xanthium strumarium Linn.

Coarse herb with fruits covered with hooked bristles. August-September. (Gupta

182, 441)

Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn.

Pubescent annual with yellow flowers. September-October. (Gupta 572)

Eclipta prostrata Linn. (E£. erecta Linn.)

Strigose slender herb with white flowers. August-September. (Gupta 53, 406)

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff.

Erect annual with yellow flowers. August-September. (Gupta 236, 250, 472)

Tridax procumbens Linn.

Perennial straggling herb with yellow flowers. April-May. (Gupta 411A)

* Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kitt.

Herb with yellow flowers. September-October. (Gupta 243)

762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

*Artemisia parviflora Roxb.

Tall herb with wedge-shaped leaves. Flowers : August-September. Recently come

down. (Gupta 573)

Emilia sonchifolia DC.

Slender herb with pinkish-violet flowers. February-March. (Gupta 219, 251)

Launaea nudicaulis Hook. f.

Glabrous perennial with yellow flowers in cold months.

Launaea asplenifolia Hook. f.

Glabrous herb with yellow flowers in cold months.

Adenostemma lavenia (Linn.) O. Kuntze. (A. viscosum Forst.)

Annual herb with white flowers. August-September. (Gupta 574)

Sonchus oleraceus Linn.

Annual herb with yellow flowers. March-April. (Gupta 201)

Sonchus arvensis Linn.

Perennial with yellow flowers. March-April. (Gupta 89D)

Vicoa indica DC. (V. auriculata Cass., Inula indica Linn.) ;

Viscidly pubescent herb with orange-yellow flowers. (Gupta 198, 224, 225, 440A)

Vicoa vestita Benth. (Inula vestita Wall.)

Softly hairy herb with bright yellow heads. (Gupta 222)

Centaurea cyanus Linn.

Erect cottony herb with large blue ray florets. Cultivated but naturalised in the

area. (Gupta 226)

*Tanacetum vulgare Linn.

Robust perennial with yellow heads. Recently naturalised in the area. (Gupta

244)

*Gamolepis annua Less.

Glabrous wiry annual with bright yellow heads. Naturalised recently in the area.

(Gupta 228)

*Carthamus oxyacantha Bieb.

Thistle-like herb with orange-yellow flowers. (Gupta 408)

Taraxacum officinale Wigg. :

Herb with yellow flowers. (Gupta 575)

Centipeda oribicularis Lour.

Prostrate woolly annual with yellow flowers ; November-February. In fields and

waste places. (Gupta 644)

Solidago virga-aurea Linn.

Perennial herb with yellow flowers. (Gupta 645)

Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn.

A pubescent annual with yellow flowers. On the edges of the rice fields and in

Shady places. (Gupta 646) 7 ae

FLORA OF DISTRICT MUZAFFARNAGAR i: 763

Spilanthes acmella Linn.

Annual herb with yellow-white flowers. In waste places. (Gupta 647)

Plumbaginaceae

Plumbago zeylanica Linn.

Sub-scandent perennial herb with white flowers in spike-like racemes. August-

September. (Gupta 576)

Primulaceae

Anagallis arvensis Linn.

Annual herb with blue flowers. February-March. (Gupta 173, 319, 69D)

Oleaceae

Jasminum pubescens Willd.

Scandent shrub with white fragrant flowers. December-April. (Gupta 445)

Olea cuspidata Wall.

Tree with flowers in April-May. Cultivated. (Gupta 467)

Apocynaceae

Carissa carandas Linn.

Evergreen shrub with white faintly scented flowers. April-June. (Gupta 188)

Lochnera pusilla K. Sch.

Erect annual with white or pink flowers. (Gupta 439)

Ichnocarpus frutescens R.Br.

Evergreen climbing shrub with greenish-white flowers. August-December. (Gupta

186, 210, 534)

Carissa spinarum Linn.

An evergreen shrub with scented, white flowers April-June. In dry situations.

(Gupta 188)

Nerium odorum Soland.

An evergreen shrub with milky juice. Flowers fragrant, rose-red ; April-June.

_ Cultivated near temples, often found as escape.

Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K.Schum. (7. zxeriifolia Juss.)

Evergreen shrub with milky juice. Flowers bright yellow ; throughout the year.

Often grown as fences in gardens and near temples.

Plumeria acutifolia Poir.

Small tree with white, fragrant flowers. Planted near temples and in gardens.

Asclepiadaceae

_* Asclepias curassavica Linn.

Undershrub with bright orange flowers. August-September. (Gupta 578)

764 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Calotropis procera R.Br. seats

Large shrub with pink flowers having purple spots. March-May. (Gupta 577)

Cryptolepis buchanani R. & S.

Twining shrub with pale greenish-yellow flowers. March-April. (Gupta 589)

Leptadenia reticulata W.& A.

Twiner with pale brown flowers. May-July. (Gupta 590)

Leptadenia pyrotechnica Decne. (L. spartium Wight)

Erect leafless shrub with yellow flowers. December-January. (Gupta 62)

Marsdenia volubilis (Linn. f.) Cooke. [Wattakaka volubilis (Linn. f.) Stapf]

Twining shrub with yellowish-green flowers in drooping axillary cymes. April-

June. (Gupta 507)

Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov. (Daemia extensa R. Br.)

A foetid climber with flowers pale yellowish-green and red. (Gupta 62)

Loganiaceae

Buddleia asiatica Lour.

An evergreen shrub with white scented flowers. March-April. (Gupta 15)

Boraginaceae

Ehretia laevis Roxb.

Small tree with white flowers. February-April. (Gupta 187)

Cordia myxa Linn.

Tree with white flowers. March-April. Often planted.

Trichodesma indicum R.Br. a

Bulbous based hairy, annual herb with pale blue flowers changing to white.

December-February. (Gupta 206, 436) .

Heliotropium indicum Linn.

Hairy diffuse annual with white flowers. October. (Gupta 214)

Cynoglossum zeylanicum Thunb. (C. denticulatum var. zeylanica Clke.)

Annual herb with dark blue flowers. October-November. (Gupta 592)

Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

Parasitic twining herb with white flowers. September-February. (Gupta 38D)

Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. fine ;

Diffuse perennial with white or blue flowers. July-November. (Gupta 593)

Convolvulus arvensis Linn.

Pubescent annual with pink flowers having a pale: yellow centre.° December-

February. (Gupta 594) :

FLORA OF DISTRICT MUZAFFARNAGAR 765

Convolvulus pluricaulis Chois.

Diffuse perennial with pale rosy flowers. December-February. (Gupta 595)

Ipomoea pilosa Sweet

An annual twiner with purple flowers (Gupta 648)

Ipomoea nil (Linn.) Roth. (I. hederacea Jacq.)

An annual twining herb with blue flowers, tinged with pink. In the villages

flowering in the morning in winters. (Gupta 649)

Ipomoea palmata Forsk.

A perennial twiner with purple flowers. Often on trees in gardens. (Gupta 650)

Solanaceae

Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl.

Prickly perennial with bluish-purple flowers. March-April. (Gupta 529)

Solanum nigrum Linn.

Annual with small white flowers. June-July. (Gupta 445A)

Physalis minima Linn.

Annual with yellow flowers. May-August. (Gupta 527)

Datura stramonium Linn.

Coarse annual with large white flowers. (Gupta 526)

*Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv.

Annual herb with white flowers. August-September. (Gupta 596)

*Cestrum nocturnum Linn.

Sub-scandent evergreen shrub with pale yellowish-green flowers fragrant at night.

(Gupta 536)

Scrophulariaceae

Lindenbergia indica (Lehm.) O. Kze. (ZL. urticaefolia Link & Otto)

Glandular hairy annual with yellow flowers. August-September. (Gupta 600)

Lindernia nummularifolia (Roxb.) Wett. (Vandellia nummularifolia Don)

Herb with reddish-purple flowers. August-September. (Gupta 602)

Lindernia crustacea (L.) F. V. Muell. (Vandellia crustacea Benth.)

Annual with purplish-white flowers. August-September. (Gupta 605)

Lindernia ciliata (Colsmann) Pennell. (Bonnaya brachiata Link & Otto)

Herb with pink or white flowers. August-September. (Gupta 604)

Lindernia anagallis (Burm.) Pennell. (Bonnaya veronicifolia Spr.)

Herb with violet flowers. October-November. (Gupta 608)

Verbascum coromandelianum (Vahl.) O.Kze. (Celsia coromandeliana Vahl.)

Annual herb with yellow flowers. December-February. (Gupta 610)

766 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Verbascum thapsus Linn. ee

Stellate tomentose herb with pale yellow flowers on the banks of Kali River. April.

Antirrhinum orontium Linn.

Herb with pale pink flowers. December-February. (Gupta 615)

Mazus japonicus (Thunb.) O.Kze. (M. rugosus Lour.)

Annual with pale blue flowers. August-September. (Gupta 443)

Stemodia viscosa Roxb.

Viscidly pubescent aromatic herb with violet flowers. December-February, in

moist localities. (Gupta 619)

Torenia cordifolia Roxb.

Annual with bluish-purple flowers. August-September. (Gupta 621)

*Torenia fournieri Linden.

~Much-branched herb with pale violet flowers, yellow on back. Naturalised in

the area. (Gupta 440, 449A)

Scoparia dulcis Linn.

Undershrub with white flowers. August-September. Weed of cultivated land.

(Gupta 444A)

Veronica agrestis Linn.

Annual with blue flowers. December-February. (Gupta 205)

Veronica anagallis Linn.

Herb with pale purple flowers. December-February. (Gupta 83D)

Striga euphrasioides Benth.

Annual with white flowers ; in sugarcane fields. (Gupta 612)

*Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell

Creeping herb, rooting at the nodes with purplish-pink flowers. The plant resembles

Centella asiatica and prefers swampy localities.

Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janchen. (Linaria ramosissima Wall.)

Perennial herb with yellow flowers in ravines and dry localities. (Gupta 434, 438)

Orobanchaceae

Aeginetia indica Linn.

Parasitic leafless herb tinged with purple having solitary purple flower. (Gupta

627D)

Orobanche aegyptiaca Pers.

A leafless parasitic herb, branching from the base of the stem; flowers blue.

Common in mustard fields. (Gupta 651)

Bignoniaceae

Kigelia pinnata DC.

Ornamental tree with maroon-coloured flowers on long pendant racemes; on

roadsides. (Gupta 450)

FLORA OF DISTRICT MUZAFFARNAGAR 167

Pedaliaceae

Martynia annua Linn. (MM. diandra Glox.)

Tall herb with rose-coloured flowers. Fruit beaked by two strong curved spines.

(Gupta 511, 427A)

Acanthaceae

Hygrophila polysperma T. Anders.

Procumbent branched herb with pale blue flowers. July-September. (Gupta 174)

Eranthemum nervosum (Vahl.) R.Br. (Daedalacanthus nervosus T. Anders.)

Herb with deep blue flowers often cultivated. (Gupta 528)

Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus Nees

Evergreen shrub with orange-coloured flowers. March-April. (Gupta 469)

Barleria dichotoma Roxb.

Small undershrub with blue-purple flowers. August-September. (Gupta 175)

Justicia simplex Linn.

Small herb with pale purple flowers. August-September.

Adhatoda vasica Nees. (Justicia adhatoda Linn.)

Evergreen shrub with white flowers, corolla with pink or purple thread. February-

May. (Gupta 162)

Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees

Herb with pink flowers. August-September. (Gupta 457 D)

Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees. (R. parviflora Nees var. pectinata Clke.)

Annual herb with bluish white flowers. July-September. (Gupta 469 A & B)

Dicliptera bupleuroides Nees. (D. roxburghiana Nees var. bupleuroides)

Herb with pink flowers. (Gupta 625)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara Linn.

Prickly shrub with orange flowers. March-April. (Gupta 626)

Lantana indica Roxb.

Shrub with white, pale and yellow flowers. August-September. (Gupta 422 A)

Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl.

Erect shrub with rosy flowers. July-September. (Gupta 424)

Vitex negundo Linn.

Shrub with bluish flowers. July-August. (Gupta 638)

Clerodendrum serratum Spreng.

Shrub with blue-purple flowers. April-August. (Gupta 627)

Clerodendrum infortunatum Linn.

Shrub with white flowers tinged with pink. December-April. (Gupta 476)

768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

*Clerodendrum fragrans R.Br.

Undershrub with white-pink flowers. Cultivated. (Gupta 216)

Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn. f.

A large shrub with white or pink flowers. In hedges. (Gupta 652)

Duranta plumieri Jacq.

Erect spiny shrub with blue flowers. Cultivated as hedge. (Gupta 293, 294,

450 D)

*Caryopteris incana Miq. (Caryopteris mestacanthus Schauer)

Small shrub with violet-blue flowers. Cultivated. (Gupta 499, 509)

Labiatae

Ocimum sanctum Linn.

Herb with purplish-pink flowers. Sacred and cultivated in houses. (Gupta 520)

Ocimum basilicum Linn.

Herb with white-pink flowers. (Gupta 204, 419 D)

Ocimum gratissimum Linn.

Shrub with greenish yellow flowers. (Gupta 531)

Ocimum americanum Linn. (O. canum Sims.)

Herb with white flowers. (Gupta 514)

Anisomeles indica (Linn.)O. Kuntze. (4. ovata R.Br.)

Herb with pale purple and bluish flowers. September-October. (Gupta 176,

523)

Leucas aspera Spreng.

Annual with white flowers. August-September. (Gupta 515)

Leucas cephalotes Spreng.

Annual with white flowers in dense globose heads. July-September. (Gupta

435A, 517)

Leucas urticaefolia R.Br.

A hairy annual with white flowers in dense globose whorls. (Gupta 77 D)

Leonotis nepetaefolia R.Br.

Tall annual with orange-scarlet flowers in globose whorls. October. (Gupta 497)

Salvia pseudo-coccinea Jacq. (S. coccinea Juss.)

Slender herb with scarlet flowers. March-April; escape. (Gupta 500, 502)

*Salvia farinacea Benth.

Perennial herb with many clustered stems and violet-blue flowers, becoming

naturalised in the area. (Gupta 503)

Ajuga bracteosa Wall.

Perennial with pale blue flowers. August-September. (Gupta 628)

Ajuga macrosperma Wall. ex Benth.

Decumbent annual with blue flowers. March-April. (Gupta 524)

FLORA OF DISTRICT MUZAFFARNAGAR 769

Mentha piperita Linn.

Aromatic herb with blue flowers along the water course. July-August. (Gupta

629)

Nepeta hindoostana (Roth.) Haines. (N. ruderalis Buch.-Ham.)

Pubescent annual with bluish-purple flowers. March-April. (Gupta 183, 416,

519, 521)

Plantaginaceae

Plantago major Linn.

Perennial with small flowers. June-July. (Gupta 213, 460)

Nyctaginaceae

Boerhavia repens Linn. var. diffusa (B. diffusa Linn.)

Diffusely branched herb with small pink flowers. March-April (Gupta 54A,

405, 525)

Amaranthaceae

Deeringia amaranthoides (Lamk.) Merril (D. celosioides R.Br.)

Climbing shrub with pale yellowish-green flowers. August-September. (Gupta

422)

Celosia argentea Linn.

Annual with pink flowers when young. September-October. (Gupta 447, 425)

Digera muricata (L.) Mart. (D. arvensis Forsk.)

Slender annual with pink flowers. September-October. (Gupta 439A, 452A,

454, 455)

Amaranthus spinosus Linn.

Spinous shrub with greenish-white flowers. March-April. (Gupta 200)

Amaranthus gracilis Desk.

Annual with green flowers. March-April. (Gupta 446A, 453)

Aerva sanguinolenta Blume. (A. scandens Wall.)

Climbing undershrub with silvery flowers. March-April. (Gupta 172, 446, 448)

Nothosaerva brachiata Wight

Slender annual with glistening white flowers. July-August. (Gupta 449)

Achyranthes aspera Linn.

Weed with greenish-white flowers in terminal spike. July-August. (Gupta 412D)

Pupalia lappacea Juss.

Straggling undershrub with pink flowers in terminal spike. September-October,

(Gupta 423, 468A,B)

Alternanthera echinata Smith

A biennial herb with small flowers, in dense axillary spike-like. clusters. On

roadsides and backyards of houses. (Gupta 518)

7110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Chenopodiaceae

Chenopodium album Linn.

Herb with greenish flowers in clusters forming panicled spikes. August-September.

(Gupta 630)

Chenopodium murale Linn.

Foetid herb with flowers in dense cymes in axillary raceme. August-September.

(Gupta 452)

Polygonaceae

Polygonum plebejum R.Br.

Prostrate herb with pink flowers. July-August. (Gupta 197, 459)

Polygonum alatum Buch.-Ham.

Procumbent annual with flowers in heads. July-September. (Gupta 457)

Polygonum glabrum Willd.

Erect annual with pink flowers. August-September. (Gupta 458)

*Polygonum chinense Linn.

Herb about 5 ft. with flowers in heads. October-November. (Gupta 479)

Polygonum serrulatum Lagasc.

Annual with white flowers. August-September. (Gupta 467)

Rumex dentatus Linn.

Erect annual with green flowers changing to red. September-October. (Gupta

631)

Loranthaceae

Dendropthoe falcata (Linn. f.) Etting. (Loranthus longiflorus Desr. var. falcata)

Parasitic shrub with orange-red flowers on mango and guava. (Gupta 198)

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia microphylla Heyne ex Roth.

An annual herb with small leaves. In waste places. (Gupta 471D)

Euphorbia tirucalli Linn. ;

A small tree with spreading terete rush-like leafless branches. Often seen

as hedge plant in villages. (Gupta 653)

Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd.

A shrub, much cultivated in the gardens throughout the district.

Euphorbia dracunculoides Lamk.

Much-branched annual. April-June. (Gupta 485, 490)

Euphorbia hypericifolia Linn.

Decumbent annual, flowering throughout year. (Gupta 495)

Euphorbia thymifolia Linn.

Small annual herb flowering greater part of the year. (Gupta 471 A & B)

FLORA OF DISTRICT MUZAFFARNAGAR 771

Euphorbia hirta Linn. (E£. pilulifera Jacq.)

Annual herb, with flowers. April-September. (Gupta 443a, 494)

Euphorbia prostrata Ait.

Herb with many slender prostrate stems resembling E. microphylla Heyne ex

Roth. in habit. (Gupta 486)

Euphorbia geniculata Orteg.

Annual herb with flowers August-September. (Gupta 460 A)

Emblica officinalis Gaertn. (Phyllanthus emblica Linn.)

A moderate-sized tree, often planted near the villages for its fruit and near

temples, since it is held sacred.

*Croton bonplandianum Baill. (C. sparsiflorus Morung.)

Annual weed with white flowers in waste places. (Gupta 489)

Ricinus communis Linn.

Tall tree-like shrub with large flowers in racemes. February-March.

* Jatropha panduraefolia Andr.

Shrub with rose-pink flowers. Cultivated. (Gupta 487)

Phyllanthus niruri Linn.

An annual herb with minute axillary flowers; July-August. In cultivated

fields and as garden weed. (Gupta 654)

Acalypha indica Linn.

An annual herb with flowers in lax axillary elongate spikes. Common garden

weed in the area. (Gupta 655)

*Acalypha godsefiana Mast.

Shrub with green leaves, margin with cream colour. (Gupta 444, 488)

Urticaceae

Cannabis sativa Linn.

Undershrub with greenish-white flowers. May-June. (Gupta 632)

Pouzolzia pentandra Benn.

Perennial herb with cream-coloured flowers in clusters. August-September.

(Gupta 493)

Morus alba Linn.

Small tree with flowers on short ovoid spikes. February. (Gupta 451)

Ceratophyllaceae

Ceratophyllum demersum Linn.

A submerged aquatic herb. Common in the tanks and in still water.

Hydrocharitaceae

Hydrilla verticillata Royle

Slender aquatic herb with small flowers in running or still water. (Gupta 363)

772 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Vallisneria spiralis Linn.

Submerged stemless herb, common. (Gupta 40D)

Amaryllidaceae

Agave sp.

A perennial, commonly planted on the borders of the gardens and fields through-

out the district. The species could not be identified due to the absence of flowers.

It seems that there is more than one species cultivated in the area and which now

have naturalised completely.

Furcraea gigantea Vent.

A perennial, often grown as a hedge plant in the area and sometimes occurs on

the sides of the railway lines.

Liliaceae

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Scandent spinous undershrub with fragrant flowers. September-October. (Gupta

190, 314, 422)

Gloriosa superba Linn.

Herbaceous climber with scarlet flower. June-October. (Gupta 634)

Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav.

Annual herb with white flowers. December-February. (Gupta 161)

Pontenderiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes Solms.

Aquatic herb. Flowers blue. March-July. Common in pools and puddles.

(Gupta 431)

Commelinaceae

Commelina nudiflora Linn.

Diffuse annual with dark blue flowers. August-September. (Gupta 415)

Commelina benghalensis Linn.

Dichotomously branched annual with blue flowers. August-September. (Gupta

418)

Palmae

Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.

Tall palm. Flowering in December-January.

Phoenix humilis Royle

Shrub with scattered leaves. Flowering during December-January.

Typhaceae

Typha elephantina Roxb.

Tall bulrush with broad 3-gonous leaves above sheath. Common in pools and

puddles. (Gupta 635)

FLORA OF DISTRICT MUZAFFARNAGAR 773

Typha angustifolia Sibth. & Sm.

A tall marshy herb. Flowers in cylindric spikes, male and female often much

separated. (Gupta 656)

Aroideae

Colocasia antiquorum Schott.

Herb with a thick corm and ovate leaves, having broad triangular basal sinus,

Often cultivated for the leaves and for the corms that are edible.

Lemnaceae

Spirodela polyrrhiza Schleid.

A minute aquatic herb with several roots. Fronds dark green above usually

purple beneath. Commonly growing with Azolla pinnata R. Br. in the tanks,

(Gupta 657)

Wolffia arrhiza Wimm.

A minute aquatic herb, smallest of the flowering plants. Commonly covering

the water of the ponds like a green scum.

Alismaceae

Sagittaria sagitifolia Linn.

An aquatic perennial with sagittate leaves. Flowers white. Commonly seen near

the field channels. (Gupta 659)

Naiadaceae

Potamogeton pectinatus Linn.

Aquatic herb. Flowers: October-March. (Gupta 636)

Zannichella palustris Linn.

Aquatic slender herb with minute flowers. (Gupta 637)

Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus Linn. (Gupta 401)

Kyllinga triceps Rottb. (Gupta 639)

Scirpus maritimus Linn. (Gupta 640)

Scirpus lacustris Linn. (Gupta 91D)

Fimbristylis polytrichoides Vahl. (Gupta 44D)

Eleocharis spiralis R. Br. (Gupta 165)

Gramineae

Sporobolus diander Beauv. (Gupta 409)

Sporobolus commutatus Kunth. (Gupta 369)

Setaria verticillata Beauv. (Gupta 388, 396, 399, 463 C)

774. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Setaria glauca Beauv. (Gupta 394, 397, 418, 430D)

Themeda triandra Forsk. (Gupta 391, 400)

Sorghum halepense Pers. (Gupta 448)

Arundo donax Linn. (Gupta 404, 442B)

Eragrostris tenella Beauv. ex R. & S. (Gupta 456A)

Eragrostis pilosa Beauv. (Gupta 390, 393, 395, 398, 411)

Eragrostis major Host. (Gupta 373)

Eragrostis willdenoviana Nees. (Gupta 193)

Oplismenus burmannii Beauv. (Gupta 403A, 467A & B)

Chloris incompleta Roth. (Gupta 441A)

Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash. (Gupta 384, 420)

Amphilophis pertusa Willd. (Gupta 412)

Apluda mutica Linn. (Apluda mutica var. aristata (L.) (Pilger) Hack). (Gupta 27, 374)

Apluda varia Hack. (Gupta 392, 402)

Polypogon monospeliensis (L.) Desf. (Gupta 375, 381)

Panicum flavidum Retz. (Paspalidium flavidum A.Camus). (Gupta 383)

Thysanolaema maxima Kuntze. (Gupta 161, 385, 389)

Arundinella leptochloa (Nees ex Steud.) Hk.f. (A. /awsonii Hk.f.). (Gupta 386)

Cenchrus ciliaris Linn. (Gupta 387)

Desmostachya bipinnata (Linn.) Stapf. (Gupta 371)

Perotis indica (L.) O.Ktze. (P. latifolia). (Gupta 55D, 376, 377, 378)

Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link. (Gupta 379)

Tragus biflorus (Roxb.) Schult.

Sporobolus tremulus (Willd.) Kunth. (Gupta 78D)

Phalaris minor Retz. (Gupta 62)

Cynodon dactylon Pers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author takes pleasure in expressing his obligation to Shri M. P,

Kaushik, Head of the Botany Dept., D.A.V. College, Muzaffarnagar,

for the facilities provided during excursions, and to the Director,

National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, for his kind help in the identifica-

tion of some of the plant specimens.

FLORA OF DISTRICT MUZAFFARNAGAR

775

REFERENCES

Bor, N. L. (1941) : Common grasses

of the United Provinces. Jndian For.

Rec. (Bot.) 2(1).

Duthie, J. F. (1883) : List of grasses of

N. W. India, indigenous and cultivated.

Roorkee.

— — —, (1888): The Fodder Grasses

of Northern India. Roorkee.

— — —, (1903-20) : Flora of the Upper

Gangetic Plain and of the adjacent Siwalik

and sub-Himalayan tracts. Calcutta.

Dudgeon, W. (1920): A contribution

to the ecology of the Upper Gangetic

Plain. Journal of Indian Botany

1 (9 & 10) : 296-324.

Gupta, R. K. (1959): Vegetation of

District Muzaffarnagar in the Upper

Gangetic Plain. (Abstr.) Proc. Nat.

Acad. of Sci. (Annual number.)

Misra, R. (1946): A study in the

ecology of low-lying lands. Indian

Ecol. 1 : 27-46.

Puri, G. 8S. & Dabral, S. N. (1957):

Succession of ground flora species in the

forest plantations of New Forest, Dehra

Dun. Indian For. 83 (9) : 551.

Raizada, M. B. (1931) : Contributions

to Duthie’s Flora of the Upper Gangetic

Plain, from the neighbourhood of Dehra

Dun. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 10: 155-58.

— — —, (1935-39): Recently — intro-

duced or otherwise imperfectly known

plants from the Upper Gangetic Plain.

J. Indian Bot. Soc., 1935, 14: 339-48 ;

1936, 15 : 149-69 ; Indian For. Rec. (Bot.)

1939, 1(5) : 223-36.

— — —, (1950-51): New or note-

worthy plants from the Upper Gangetic

Plain. Indian For. Rec. (Bot.) 4(3): i-ii

65-72. Indian For. 1950, 76 : 489-97.

— — —, (1954): Grasses of the Upper

Gangetic Plain and some aspects of their

Ecology. Indian For. 80(1) : 24-46.

— — —, (1958) New plant records for

the Upper Gangetic Plain. Proc. Nat.

Inst. Sci. India 24(3) : 198-208.

Verma, S. C. (1936): Some ecologi-

cal aspects of the Upper Gangetic Flora.

J. Indian. Bot. Soc. 15(4) : 247-267.

Obituary

SIR REGINALD SPENCE

We sorrowfully record the breaking of another link with the past

by the death in England last September of Sir Reginald Spence.

Born in 1880, the son of Robert Spence of Bickley, Kent, young

Spence came out to Bombay in 1901 as an assistant in the firm of

Phipson & Co. From the very beginning of the Society, Phipsons

have been closely associated with it. Following this tradition Spence

took an active interest in the Society’s welfare and served as its

Honorary Secretary from 1920 to 1933, during which period the

Society extended its activities in several fields. Spence’s genial

personality won him many friends and the esteem in which he was

held by the public and the Government was of immense value to

the Society. The negotiations begun by his predecessors for the

transfer to the Government of Bombay of the financial responsibility

for the housing and proper care of the Society’s collections were

completed by him, and the detailed plans for the beautiful new Natural

History wing of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, were drawn

up before he left India, though he was not here to see them actually

carried out.

From 1907 to 1933 Spence was one of the editors of the Journal.

Towards the end, owing to the increasing demands made on his time

by business and social work, he had to leave much of the actual

editing to his colleagues, but he took an unremitting interest in the

Journal and guided its general policy throughout the period. Out-

standing contributions to the Journal, both written jointly with S. H.

Prater, were “The Fish Supply of the West Coast of India’ (34:

973-991, 35 : 77-88) and ‘Game Fishes of Bombay, the Deccan and

the Neighbouring Districts of the Bombay Presidency’ (36 : 29-66).

Spence was as public-spirited as he was sociable and, among his

many activities outside business and the Society, he found time to

represent the non-official Europeans of Bombay for several years at

first in the General Legislative Assembly, then in the Central Council

of State, and finally in the Bombay Legislature. His public services

were fittingly rewarded in 1926 by the conferment of a knighthood,

OBITUARY det

Retiring in 1934, Sir Reginald settled in Blackboys, Sussex, where

for many years he continued to take part in public affairs.

With his death the Society loses one of its oldest members—one

who was actively associated with the promotion of its welfare and

development in the twenties.

EDITORS

Reviews

1. BIRDS OF CEYLON. Book 4. By W. W. A. Phillips. Pp.

50 (18.5X12.5 cm.). With 20 coloured plates, 6 photographs, and

a coloured map. Colombo, 1961. The Associated Newspapers of

Ceylon Ltd. Price Rs. 8.50.

This is the fourth of a series of books written by the author on

the birds of Ceylon. The first dealt with the familiar birds of the

garden, the second with the birds of the swamps and tanks, the third

with the birds of the highlands, and this deals with the birds of the

Ruhuna National Park. With the completion of this book the author

has covered the 409 different species and subspecies of birds known

to exist in Ceylon either as residents or migrants.

The Ruhuna National Park on the south-eastern coastal region of

Ceylon contains about 200 species of birds. All these have been

listed by the author at the end of the book, and they are sensibly

arranged in different groups, e.g. Small Waders and Plovers; Falcons,

Eagles, Hawks, Kites; Large Wading-Birds, etc. From this list one

gets a very good idea of the types of bird that can be found in this

area. In this volume the author has described 25 of the more pro-

minent birds that are seen in this park. There are six good

black-and-white photographs by the author and 20 coloured plates

by Mrs. G. L. Lushington. Though Mrs. Lushington is apparently

an experienced and competent painter, the drawings and printing of

the plates in this volume are far from satisfactory. The one illustrat-

ing the Brahminy Kite and the Whitebellied Sea-Eagle is so bad

that it should not have found a place in this book.

Any book dealing with the birds of Ceylon has a special interest for

the birdlover in India. W. W. A. Phillips seems to have modelled

his work on that of Salim Ali, for this book has the same general

scheme as THE BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS. There is a coloured illustration

for every bird described, and in 300 words you find an account of

a species and information about nesting habits, distribution, song,

food, and general behaviour. The author writes from his own

personal observations and whatever he has. to say holds our interest.

The majority of the birds of Ceylon are just minor variations of

the kinds we have here, and when going through this book one has

REVIEWS 779

to remind oneself often that the book is not dealing with the birds of

our country.

It is curious, that some of the birds described, though belonging

to the same species and subspecies as those of India, appear to have

a different type of call, and sing a different tune. For instance, the

Whitespotted Fantail Flycatcher in India has a song consisting of

12 to 13 notes. The author says that in the Ruhuna Park in Ceylon

these birds have a song of only 7-8 notes. Again the Indian Stone

Curlew’s call is a distinct pick pick pick pika. We heard this bird nightly

in Saurashtra during September. But the call of the same bird in

Ceylon has been rendered by Mr. Phillips as whe whe whe whe whew

whew whew whew. In the case of the Blackbellied Finch-Lark,

however, whose call is so well described as jingly jingly jinely Ecee,

there is close correspondence between the birds here and those in

Ceylon. This is a useful little book to have in one’s bird library.

ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

2. UNDER THE BANYAN TREE. By Kala Teetur. Pp. 69

(2518.5 cm.). Numerous line illustrations. Cape Town, Union of

South Africa, 1961. Cape Times Limited.

This is a slim volume of reminiscences of small game shooting

in the plains of northern India.

The actual identity of the author is covered by the pen name ‘Kala

Teetur’, but the text reveals him to be a keen and experienced shikari,

a good naturalist, and obviously British. He has an eye that lets

very little go unobserved, and here lies much of the book’s charm.

Fortunately it does not fall into the class of shikar books which

concern themselves exclusively with killing and attempts thereat.

The good shikari sees a lot more than what he shoots at. In a shikar

outing “Kala Teetur’ observes and comments on the plants and the

soil, the people and their ways, the villages and the structure of

the houses. Then there are amusing accounts of the elaborate staff

work necessary for arranging the commissariat, and gathering suitable

personnel, factors which are so necessary for a well-planned and enjoy-

able shoot.

The book is given its title UNDER THE BANYAN TREE in token of

gratitude to and appreciation of that remarkable tree, which so often

must have afforded the solace of coolth and shade to the shikari

parched and weary after a hard morning’s shoot in the open plains.

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

The initial chapter ‘Introducing the Tree’ draws a brief character

sketch of the common trees of the plains and dwells at length on

the banyan, and the amazing variety of creatures that gather under

it for shade and sustenance. The subsequent chapters describe

typical outings throughout the shooting season, starting from the

opening shoot immediately after the rains and ending with the warm

and dusty excursion well on in March. The narrative obviously does

not recount events as they actually occurred, but each chapter is

put together from long and varied experience to make a composite

picture so typical that one feels that one has had just such a shoot

somewhere sometime.

I think I have made it clear that this is not a book of instructions

on good shooting. It attempts and succeeds in bringing back the

sights and scenes and the events which the author and presumably his

readers have enjoyed so intensely. To the middle-aged whose capa-

city for strenuous shooting is on the wane, these reminiscences of

days when both vigour and game seemed inexhaustible are particularly

enjoyable. Strangely, in memory, the inevitable fatigue and dis-

comfort of a shoot seem vague and unreal, but a difficult right and

left brought off long ago and good companionship enjoyed: are still

vividly exhilarating. The four middle chapters of the book are devoted

to accounts of “The Christmas Shoot’—that extremely improbable ritual!

with which the Nativity came to be celebrated in Anglo-India.

Strangely the institution of the Christmas Shoot appears to have taken

firm root in our native soil, and has been adopted reverently by the

keen Indian sportsman. He annually hears that strange clinking

staccato that intrudes on the pre-dawn stillness of a reedy jheel in

the early hours of Christmas morning. It is the chattering of his

teeth as he stands thigh deep in mud and icy water waiting for first

light. Not even mad dogs! ... but never mind that. As I have

just remarked the memory of that numbing chill brings no extra twinge

to the stiff rheumatic knees, but the old heart beats faster as one

reads: ‘A single shot rings out at the farthest end, sounding flat

and very distant ... Immediately there is a muffled roar like the

approach of an express train. In a black cloud a vast swarm of

duck and teal rise from the distant horizon .. .’

‘There are two more distant shots and then two more in rapid fire.

The shooting at the far end settles down to a steady barrage. The

birds begin to break up into small parties flying to and fro. For the

keen duck-shooting man this is his finest hour.’

D.J.P.

REVIEWS 781

3. A BIOLOGY OF CRUSTACEA. By J. Green. Pp. xv+180.

With four plates and 58 text-figures. London, 1961. H.F. & G.

Witherby Ltd. Price 30s.

Compared to the voluminous literature on insects, that on another

important group among the arthropods, viz. the Crustacea, is sparse.

Carcinologists will, therefore, welcome this recent addition to our

knowledge of Crustacea, where, in a concise form, the author has

given a general account of various important aspects of their study.

In the opening chapter, he has given the terminology and a bricf

morphological account of different animals and their position in

evolution. He then goes on to a more elaborate description of the

mechanism of, and adaptations to, filter feeding.

A good deal of space in the chapter on blood and circulation is

devoted to that in Daphnia. The nature of pigments, and _ the

mechanism of colour change and its nervous control are well treated.

In the fifth chapter, an account of the interesting phenomenon

of ecdysis and the inter-relationship of the moult-inducing and

moult-inhibiting hormones is combined with descriptions of the various

larval stages.

The reactions to environmental changes with reference to light,

sound, smell, gravity, humidity, etc., which together constitute

behaviour are discussed. The latter part of the book deals with

parasitic forms, distribution in space, and the impact of these animals

on man.

In a work of this size, it is to be expected that several important

topics have had to be excluded. The author has restricted his studies

to the exterior of the animal. Even then, some topics such as osmotic

regulation, terrestrial adaptations, autotomy and regeneration, etc. are

left out. However, the author has clearly explained his choice of

material for inclusion in the preface.

This book, written in simple language, will serve to stimulate

the interest of those who desire to have general information on

Crustacea available in one place. Lists of references at the end of

each chapter provide information to those who wish to make a further

study.

B.F.C.

782 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

4. ORCHIDS: THEIR BOTANY AND CULTURE. By Alex.

D. Hawkes. Pp. xii+297 (23X15 cm.). Coloured frontispiece and

several black-and-white photographs and line-drawings. London, 1961.

Peter Owen Limited. Price 45s.

The author of this comprehensive little handbook on Orchids is

well qualified for the task, being the editor among other horticulturai

journals of The Orchid Journal and The Orchid Weekly, and having

a working acquaintance with orchids extending over more than twenty

years.

The book is written in four parts. The first gives the reader

general information on orchids: what are orchids?; where are they

found? (how many of us know that they come from such diverse

places as the ‘frigid dales of Alaska’ and the ‘parched sandy deserts

of Australia and Africa’?); their colours, sizes, and forms (sizes may

vary from an overall height of less than a quarter of an inch to more

than 20 ft.); how they grow; their economic importance (Vanilla

planifolia was the original source of commercial vanilla extract, and

various orchids have supplied vegetables, a beverage made after the

fashion of tea, medicines, love philtres, glue, and material for weaving

and basketry work, and the pseudobulbs have been fashioned into

bracelets and even into horns or trumpets for use in special religious

ceremonies); the history of early orchid cultivation (it is encouraging

to the beginner to realise that the stronger orchids are able to live

through considerable mishandling). The second part deals with the

culture of orchids, and gives detailed instructions which the beginner

as well as the expert will find useful. An interesting section is that

dealing with orchids as plants to grow in the house—flowering

orchids will be a welcome change from the Money Plant, which is so

popular with Bombay residents. Part III begins with a list for

beginners of easily grown orchids. A list of the principal cultivated

orchids follows—about 200 species arranged in their respective genera.

The list is alphabetical, so that the orchid you are searching for is

readily found. General descriptions of the genera and species are

given, along with notes as to where they come from and instructions

about their culture. Several of the species come from the Himalayas,

Assam, Burma, Ceylon, Malaya, or some other place in SE. Asia,

and should be available to the orchid enthusiast in India. One longs

for a similar book dealing with Indian orchids generally. However,

the culture notes, even if they relate to different species, will suggest

various lines of treatment, one or more or a combination of which

may be found suitable. Part IV is for the more advanced orchid

REVIEWS 783

grower, and deals with hybrids and hybridization.

The correct pronunciation of all the generic and specific names

is indicated, and a glossary explains the meanings of the technical

terms used. The book is profusely illustrated with one colour plate

and several black-and-white photographs and line drawings. A com-

prehensive index finishes this very welcome handbook.

D.E.R.

5. GNETUM. By P. Maheshwari and Vimla Vasil. Pp. xii+142

(24X16 cm.). 2 photographs in black-and-white and 85 maps and

diagrams. New Delhi, 1961. Council of Scientific and Industrial

Research. Price Rs. 20 or 40s.

This is the first in a series of about thirty Botanical monographs

to be published by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,

India, with the object, as stated by Prof. M. S. Thacker in the foreword,

of bringing together all the information, at present scattered in

numerous scientific periodicals, with a view to stimulate further re-

search and to provide much helpful material for teachers and students

of Botany in India. There is no doubt that this very well-illustrated

treatise prepared by an outstanding botanist ably assisted by very

careful research workers will fulfil a long-felt need of many a teacher

in India and abroad.

In this monograph the authors present the distribution of various

species very clearly with the help of maps taken, with due acknow-

ledgement, from previous workers. The morphology, anatomy, and

embryology—particularly of Gnetum gnemon and G. ula—are presented

in full detail, and supported with very good illustrations. Previous

work on these and other species from S. America and W. Africa is

compared and discussed.

It might appear odd that the Delhi studies could not verify the

chromosome number in the two species on which extensive and care-

ful work was carried out. As often happens in such studies, suitable

material may not have been available to the authors for this. purpose.

It is also rather intriguing why the taxonomy of Gnetum should have

missed inclusion in the text. Photographs or figures of the Indian

species would have enhanced the value of this monograph considerably

as they are not available in Bharadwaja’s work. An inquisitive mind

will however find the extensive list of literature appended at the end

very helpful.

784 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

The chapter on relationships gives a scholarly and frank appraisal

of the situation as it obtains at present and ends with the statement

that Gnetum remains largely a phylogenetic puzzle. This interesting

genus is Gymnospermous but possesses. some. strong Angiospermic

features. It is to be hoped that further work will be carried out on

other species of Gnetum and on allied genera of this interesting group

of plants by this active school of phytomorphology to solve this puzzle.

The quality of this monograph will encourage other workers to

carry out critical work on many other facets of Indian botany. The

best feature of this monograph is the excellence of its production,

and the clarity of the photographs, diagrams, and other figures. It

is hoped that the monographs that follow will maintain the same

standard of scholarship and production.

P. V.. BOLE

6. ATLAS OF AVIAN HEMATOLOGY. BY Alfred M. Lucas

and Casimir Jamroz. Pp. vi+271 (26X20 cm.) 413 figures in

colour or monochrome. Washington, 1961. United States Department

of Agriculture. Agriculture Monograph 25. Price $4.

The ATLAS is the first of a series of publications SUENE to

provide the basic histology and anatomy of the fowl.

_ The descriptive material, profusely illustrated, is presented in

seven chapters. The first chapter outlines the methods of study

followed by different workers, and makes appropriate reference to the

necessity of employing standard criteria for the diagnosis of the cell

type. The second and most extensive chapter gives an exhaustive

account of the cells in the circulating blood of the hatched chicken,

and is illustrated throughout with an able delineation of cell lineage

and morphogenesis. The variations in morphological features due to

artefacts in technique are given due emphasis. The comments on

haemokonia and serum granules are unexceptionable. The third

chapter deals with the cells in the circulating blood of the embryo.

Blood cells from various haematopoietic organs of the embryo are

described in the fourth chapter. Blood cells from the bone: marrow

of the hatched chicken are detailed in the fifth chapter. Blood cells

of other avian species with particular reference to their difference from

the blood cells of the chicken are reviewed in the sixth chapter.

Standard techniques for the collection of blood, for staining blood

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 785

cells, and cytometric methods are clearly described in the seventh

chapter. Lastly a useful list of bibliography has been appended.

The illustrations are remarkable for their originality, precision,

and clarity. As an up-to-date account of avian haematology, the

book is indispensable to the research worker. As providing a ready

reference to the veterinarian for the appearance of the normal cell

types and their developmental stages, it will help in the fight against

disease. It is therefore very good value for the money.

J. B. CHATTERJEA

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY UP TO

30TH SEPTEMBER 1961

The following books have been added to the Society’s library since

August 1959: co

Abercrombie, M., Hickman, C. J., and Johnson, M.. L.: A

_ DICTIONARY OF BioLocy. Penguin Books Ltd., Harmondsworth,

1951. (Presented by Col. R. W. Burton)

Ali, Salim: THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT. Gujarat Research Society,

Bombay, 1956. (Presented by Gujarat Research Society)

Ali, Sdlim: THE BirDS OF TRAVANCORE AND COocHIN. Oxford

University Press, Bombay, 1953.

Allen, Hugh: ‘THE LONELY TIGER. Faber & Faber Ltd., London,

1960. (Review copy) )

Ary, S., and Gregory, M.: THE OxFORD BOOK OF WILD FLOWERS.

Oxford University Press, London, 1960. (Review copy)

Attenborough, David: Zoo QuEST FOR A Dracon. Lutterworth

Press, London, 1957. (Review copy)

Bourliére, Francois: THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAMMALS.

George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd. London, 1955. (Presented by

Col. R. W. Burton)

Bowley, A. L.: ELEMENTS oF Statistics. London School of

Economics and Political Science, London, 1926. (Presented by

Faiz S. B. Tyabji) :

Brander, A. A. Dunbar: WILD ANIMALS IN CENTRAL INDIA.

Edward Arnold & Co., London, 1923.

Carrington, Richard: A GuImDE To EARTH History. Penguin

Books Ltd., Harmondsworth, 1958. (Presented by Col. R. W.

Burton) |

786

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Chhapgar, B. F.: MARINE CRABS OF BomBay STATE. Tarapore-

vala Marine Biological Station, Bombay, 1957. (Presented by

Taraporevala Marine Biological Station, Bombay)

Corbett, Jim: JUNGLE Lore. Oxford University Press, London,

1953.

Corbet, Philips S., Longfield, Cynthia, & Moore, N. W.: Dracon-

FLIES. Collins, London, 1960. (Review copy)

Cousteau, J. Y., and Dumas, Frederic: THe SitENT WORLD.

Hamish Hamilton Ltd., London, 1953. (Presented by Col.

R. W. Burton)

Dadachanji, Rustom R.: LAw oF LITERARY AND DRAMATIC

1960.

Ditmar, Raymond L.: REPTILES OF THE WorRLD. The Macmiilan

Co., New York, 1959.

Fisher, James: THE FULMAR. Collins, London, 1952. (Review

copy)

Fitter, R. S. R.: THe ARK IN Our Mipst. Collins, London, 1959.

Gamble, J. S.: A MANUAL OF INDIAN TIMBERS. Sampson Low,

Marston & Co. Ltd., London, 1902. (Preserited by Col. R. W.

Burton)

Game ANIMALS OF THE Empire (Special Guide No. 10). The

Trustees of the British Museum, London, 1936. (Presented by

Col. R. W. Burton)

Glasfurd, A. I. R.: RIFLE AND ROMANCE IN THE INDIAN JUNGLE.

John Lane, London, 1906.

Goetsch, Wilhelm: THe Ants. The University of Michigan

Press, New York, 1957.

Grahand, Edward H., and Van Dersal, William R.: WILDLIFE FOR

America. Oxford University Press, New York, 1949. (Pre-

sented by Col. R. W. Burton)

Gray, James: How ANIMALS MOVE. Penguin Books Ltd.,

Harmondsworth, 1959. (Presented by Col. R. W. Burton) ~

Grove, A. J., and Newell, G. E.: ANIMAL BIOLOGY. University

Press Ltd., Foxton, 1942. (Presented by Col. R. W. Burton)

Hora, Sunder Lal: THe GAME FISHES OF INDIA I-XVI. Reprint,

Journal Bombay Natural History Society. (Presented by Col.

R. W. Burton) |

Huxley, Julian: EyoruTion IN Action. Chatto & Windus.

London, 1953. (Presented by Col. R. W. Burton)

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 787

Inglis, James: ADVENTURE IN TIGERLAND. Susil Gupta (India)

Ltd. Calcutta, 1950.

Kapadia, Gustad A.: ANIMAL LIFE OF MAHA GUJARAT. Gujarat

Research Society, Bombay, 1951. (Presented by Gujarat Re-

search Society, Bombay) i

Kapadia, Gustad A.: PLANT-LIFE OF MAHA GUJARAT. Gujarat

Research Society, Bombay, 1950. (Presented by Gujarat

Research Society, Bombay)

Lane, Frank W.: KINGDOM OF THE Octopus. Jarrolds Publishers

(London) Ltd., London, 1957. (Presented by Col. R. W. Burton)

Lock, A.: THE TIGERS OF TRENGGANU. Museum Press Ltd.,

London, 1954. (Presented by Col. R. W. Burton)

MacDonald, Malcolm: BIRDS IN MY INDIAN GARDEN. Jonathan

Cape, London, 1960. (Review copy)

Maheshwar, P., and Vasil, Vimal: GNeETUM. Council of Scientific

& Industrial Research, New Delhi, 1961. (Review copy)

_Mani, M. S.: Your FACE FROM FISH TO MAN. The P.T.I. Book

Depot, Bangalore, 1960. (Review copy)

McCann, Charles: 100 BrauTiruL TREES oF INpbIA. D. B.

Taraporevala Sons & Co., Bombay, 1959.

McPhee, David R.: SOME COMMON SNAKES AND LIZARDS OF

AUSTRALIA. Jacaranda Press, Brisbane, 1959. (Review copy)

Morrell, R.: COMMON MALAYAN BUTTERFLIES. Longmans, Green

& Co. Ltd., London, 1960. (Review copy)

Nature in the Wild: A SELECTION OF THE WORLD’S FINEST

PHOTOGRAPHS. Country Life Ltd., London, 1935. (Presented

by D. E. Reuben)

Noble, G. Kingsley: THE BioLOGY OF THE AMPHIBIANS. Dover

Publications Inc., New York, 1954.

Pal, B. P.: BEAUTIFUL CLIMBERS OF INDIA. Indian Council of

Agricultural Research, New Delhi, 1960.

Palmer, E. Laurence: A GUIDE TO CONSERVATION. International

Union for the Protection of Nature, Brussels. (Presented

by Col. R. W. Burton)

Prater, S. H., and others: THE WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN

EMPIRE AND THE PROBLEM OF THEIR PRESERVATION. Reprint,

Journal Bombay Natural History Society. (Presented by Col.

R. W. Burton)

Romer, Alfred Sherwood: MAN AND \THE VERTEBRATES. V6OIs.

I&II. Penguin Books Ltd., Harmondsworth, 1954. (Presented

by Col. R. W. Burton)

788

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Schatz, Albert, and Riedman, Sarah R.: THE STorY oF MICROBES.

Harper & Brothers, New York, 1952.

Scott, Jack Denton: FoRESTS OF THE NIGHT. Robert Hale

Limited, London, !960.

Shebbeare, E. O.: SooNDAR Moonr. Victor Gollancz .Ltd.,

London, 1958. (Presented by Col. R. W. Burton)

Shirozu, ‘Takashi: BUTTERFLIES OF FORMOSA IN COLOUR.

Hoikusha, Osaka, 1960. (Review copy) |

Smythies, Bertram E.: THE BIRDS OF BORNEO. Oliver & Boyd,

Edinburgh, 1960. (Review copy)

Spence, Reginald, and Prater, S. H.: GAME FISHES OF BOMBAY.

Reprint, Journal Bombay Natural History Society, bey,

1932. (Presented by Col. R. W. Burton)

Storer, Tracy J., and Usinger, Robert L.: GENERAL ZOOLOGY.

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1957.

Swinnerton, H. H.: THe EarTH BENEATH Us. Penguin Books

Ltd., Harmondsworth, 1958. (Presented by Col. R. W. Burton)

Tchernine, Odette.: THE SNOWMAN AND COMPANY. Robert Hale

Ltd., London, 1961.

Teetur, Kaéla.: UNDER THE BANYAN TREE. Cape Times Ltd.,

Cape Town, 1961. (Presented by H. De St. Croix)

Thornhill, Henry (Compiler): A List OF COMMON TREES FOUND

IN STATIONS, PLAINS AND Hits. G.C.B.P., Simla, 1909.

(Presented by Col. R. W. Burton)

Torfrida: More Birps oF INpiA. Thacker & Co. Ltd., Bombay.

1946. (Presented by Azeem Tyabjee)

Torfrida: FLOWERING TREES OF INDIA. Thacker & Co. Ltd.,

Bombay, 1947. (Presented by Azeem Tyabjee)

Tweedie, M. W. F.: COMMON MaAtLaAyaNn BirDs. Longmans,

Green & Co. Ltd., London, 1960. (Review copy)

Tweney, C. F., and Hughes, L. E. C.: CHAMBERS’S TECHNICAL

DICTIONARY. W. & R. Chambers Ltd., Edinburgh, 1959.

Vaidya, Suresh: AHEAD LIES THE JUNGLE. Robert Hale Ltd.,

London, 1958. (Presented by Col. R. W. Burton)

Voous, K. H.: ATLAS OF EUROPEAN BIRDS. Thomas Nelson &

Sons Ltd., Amsterdam, 1960.

Waddington, C. H.: ‘THE SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDE. Penguin Books

Ltd., Harmondsworth, 1948. (Presented by Col. R. W. Burton)

Ward, A. E.: BiG GAME SHOOTING OF KASHMIR AND ADJACENT

Hitt. Provinces. Reprint, Journal Bombay Natural History

Society. (Presented by Col. R. W. Burton)

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 789

Watt, George: ‘THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF INDIA BEING AN

ABRIDGEMENT OF THE DICTIONARY OF THE ECONOMIC PRODUCTS

OF InpIA. John Murray, London, 1908. (Presented by Col.

R. W. Burton) |

THE WEALTH OF INDIA (Raw Material) Vol. V, H-K. Council

of Scientific & Industrial Research, New Delhi, 1959. (Review

copy) Wigs | ,

Withner, Carl L. (Editor): THE Orcuips. The Ronald Press

“> Company, New York, 1959.

Miscellaneous Notes

‘1. MUTUAL ASSISTANCE BETWEEN MOTHER LANGURS

[PRESBYTIS ENTELLUS (DUFRESNB)]

On 10 February 1960 at Jaipur I was watching a small troop of

Langurs, Presbytis entellus (Dufresne), consisting of one full-grown

male, five full-grown females, and five babies. I was surprised to

see that one of the females (No. 1) was carrying two babies. The

troop settled on the roof of a near-by house and one of the two

babies was passed on to another female (No. 2), who immediately

suckled it. The langurs were disturbed by the occupants of the house,

whereupon female No. 1 took the baby from female No. 2 and

scamipered away with both the babies clinging to her breast. I noticed

that female No. 2 ran on three legs; the left forelimb was pressed

against her breast and appeared to be badly injured. The troop

again came to rest and the young one immediately came to its real

mother and started sucking. This ‘handing over’ and ‘taking over’

was observed several times in the course of two and a half hours.

The other three females took no part in looking after the baby.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

MAHARAJA’S COLLEGE, ISHWAR PRAKASH

JAIPUR,

August 10, 1960.

2. THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE CARACAL (FELIS

CARACAL SCHREBER)

Sen (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56: 317) and Srivastava (ibid.

57 : 214) have reported observing the caracal at Hazaribagh (Bihar),

Sariska (Rajasthan), and Saharanpur (Uttar Pradesh). While surveying

the Rajasthan desert for mammal studies in 1954, I saw a caracal skin

with a Sansi (local tribesman) who refused to sell it at any price. He

said that he had captured and killed it at Bikaner but, during our

Study, we did not collect any specimen of caracal from the Bikaner

region. Adams (1899, WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES: 170, Taylor &

Francis) states “The red lynx (Felis caracal) . . . are fairly numerous in

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 791

these states’. Pocock (1939, FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, MAMMALIA

1 : 309) speaks of its rarity and suggests that in all probability it will

follow the fate of the Cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus, unless strict measures

can be enforced for its protection. One of my shikari friends tells

me that caracal are still found in fair numbers in the Bundi region

of Rajasthan.

- DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

MAHARAJA’S COLLEGE, ISHWAR PRAKASH .

JAIPUR,

August 10, 1960.

3. THE SENSES OF THE TIGER

On a former occasion (1951, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49 : 732)

the present writer reported an instance of a tiger winding the presence

of a man at 50 yards. Here is a personal experience which affords

evidence of the tiger using his nose, and of his remarkable keenness

of vision. ie

On the morning of 22 March 1928 in the Central Provinces it was

found that a large tiger had killed my tethered buffalo calf, broken

the wire rope, and taken the kill about 200 yards, the latter part

through lantana. The only available tree was leafless. By 2.30 p.m.

a chair-machan was fixed on it, and screened all round and below

with leafy branches. Towards dusk the tiger uttered a ‘woof to scare

any intruder. Then came the shrill alarm call of a cock junglefowl.

Next I heard him using his nose—loud sniffs. He came to my left

and below me. More sniffs. Then he went away and began a

‘grumbling’ approach along the drag of the kill, through the lantana.

He was hungry. . Now arrived the last glimmer of daylight.

I had tethered the kill fore and aft so as to afford a sideways

shot. The electric-light box was suitably placed. My loophole was

screened by a khaki handkerchief tied at three corners with the lower

right hand corner secured by a large pin readily removable. The

arms of the chair, the shooting-bar, and the footrest were all padded

with khaki woollen putties. The seat of the chair had a leather cushion.

No movement of mine could make any sound. There was no breath

of air. Wanting to watch the tiger, I lifted a very small corner of

the pinned handkerchief. He must have had his eyes lifted upwards

as he crept along, for he instantly uttered a frightened ‘woof’ and

792 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

crashed away on his back tracks like a scalded cat. And that was

the last of him. |

He must have had some previous sharp experience, and perhaps been |

fired at and, maybe, slightly wounded.

c/o Lioyps BANK LTD., eet

39, PICCADILLY, R. W. BURTON,

London W. 1, LT.-COL., I.A. (RETD.)

October 31, 1961.°

4. NOTE ON A REPUTED SKULL OF NEMORHAEDUS

CRANBROOKI

(With two text-figures)

It is only recently (Hayman, 1961) that the existence of a bright

red goral from the north-east frontier region of Assam and from

extreme north Burma has been recognised and the name Nemorhaedus

cranbrooki proposed for it. The material described consisted of a

complete skin (the type) from the Adung Valley of Upper Burma,

collected in 1931 by Lord Cranbrook, and a rug made of pieces of

skin from animals collected in the Mishmi Hills of Assam in 1922

by Mr. H. L. Cooper. This material is in the collection of the

British Museum (Natural History). Reports were also quoted from

the literature as far back as 1912 indicating that the goral of this

region was very distinct in colour. A still earlier reference (Blyth,

1863) indicates that a red goral from Assam was known Hees a

hundred years ago.

Unfortunately, at the time of description of Nemorhaedus cran-

brooki (1961, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 136: 319) no skull was available

for description. The type was originally complete with skull, but

only the mandible could be traced. Although this gave a valuable

indication of the age of the animal and the probable proportions ‘of

the missing skull to which it belonged, an obvious gap in the lesen:

tion remained to be filled.

The skins forming the rug presented to the British Museum

(Natural History) by Mr. H. L. Cooper in 1960 were without skulls,

but I was informed by Mr. Cooper that at the time of collection a

more or less complete skin and skull of this animal was sent to the

Bombay. Natural History Society. As a result of enquiries I have

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 793

made recently, it appears that this skin can no longer be traced, but

that the Society has in its collection the skull of a goral from the

Mishmi Hills entered in its records as having been received in 1925

from Mr. Cooper. I am greatly indebted to the Honorary Secretary, Mr.

Humayun Abdulali, for making this skull immediately available to

me in London for examination. Detailed comparison of this skull,

B.N.H.S. No. 5091, with all other goral skulls available has disclosed

that in certain details of structure it can be separated at once from

all other known forms. The skull is unfortunately incomplete: the

nasal and premaxillary bones are missing, the horns are missing, the

back of the cranium has been cut away, and the first two premolars

on each side have been lost. The remaining teeth show that the

animal was adult but not aged. Its general condition and colour

suggest that it may have been acquired originally from a Mishmi

hunter or picked up in a Mishmi village, since it appears to have

been smoke-dried, and the cutting away of the back of the cranium

may well have been done to extract the brain for food.

In its general features the skull is undoubtedly that of a moderate-

sized goral. It is in the conformation of the anterior part of the

brain case that it differs from all other goral skulls seen. The plane

of the horn cores is only very slightly elevated above the plane of

the frontal bones forming the forehead; in most other goral skulls

there is a distinct angle. The brain case shows a comparative

shallowness best demonstrated by the following measurement. The

total depth of the post-orbital part of the cranium measured from

the surface of the frontal bone at the upper base of the horn core

to the surface of the glenoid fossa is 54.55 mm. In a Nemorhaedus

goral thodgsoni skull, B.M. No. 21.5.1.45, of the same approximate

age, of almost identical overall dimensions, and with an identical

maxillary tooth row length, the corresponding figure is 60. The

reduction in depth of the cranium in the Mishmi skull is quite obvious,

and in all larger or older goral skulls examined the difference in this

part of the skull is still more obvious, as is also the generally greater

elevation of the plane of the horns. (Text-fig. 1)

The distinctions outlined above leave me in little doubt that the

skull from the Mishmi Hills represents Nemorhaedus cranbrooki. Its

posterior reduction in overall depth is paralleled by the comparatively

shallow depth of the mandible of the type. The following skull

measurements of skull No. 5091 may be recorded here with, in

parentheses, the corresponding figures for the N. g. hodgsoni skull,

B.M. No. 21.5.1.45. Maxillary tooth row at alveoli 67 (67); palatal

794. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

breadth outside ml—ml 55 (56.5); zygomatic breadth 83.8 (83.5);

anterior edge of orbit to anterior point of maxilla 92 (92); length of

horn core from lower base 62 (50).

Text-fig. 1. Lateral view of goral skull to show measurement (dotted line) used

in comparison. x 3.

While making these comparisons, a hitherto undescribed feature

of the skull of the type and only known specimen of Nemorhaedus

baileyi Pocock from south-east Tibet was noted. Pocock gave no

details of the skull, and based his description of the animal as a

distinct species entirely on external characters. These do not indicate

any close relationship to N. cranbrooki although the latter is

geographically not distant. The distinctive feature of the skull of

N. baileyi, separating it clearly from all other goral skulls seen,

is the form of the nasal bones and their relationship to the adjoining

lachrymal bones. In all skulls of other gorals examined the posterior

part of the outer margin of the nasal bone curves sharply forward to

make contact laterally with the upper edge of the lachrymal bone

only at or about the anterior upper angle of that bone, close to its

junction with the upper edge of the maxilla. From that point the

outer edge of the nasal bone tapers forward evenly to its apex. Even

though the nasal bones are missing from the Mishmi Hills skull here

believed to represent N. cranbrooki, it is obvious from the position

of the sutures in relation to the lachrymals that the same pattern

occurs. (Text-fig. 2, B). :

On the other hand, in the skull of N. baileyi the posterior part of the

outer edge of each nasal, instead of curving forward to make limited

contact’ only with the anterior edge of the lachryma!, extends laterally

to meet the upper edge of the lachrymal about half way along its

length, i. about half way between the anterior margin of the orbit

and the anterior upper angle of the lachrymal. Thus the outer edge

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 795

of the posterior part of the nasal bone has a long contact, about

20 mm., with the upper edge of the lachrymal and the adjoining

upper edge of the maxilla. The outer edge of the nasal, instead of

then tapering forward evenly to the apex as in all other gorals, forms

a sharp inward angle before narrowing abruptly and then tapering

forward evenly to the apex (Text-fig. 2, A). In addition the

Text-fig. 2. Nasals and lachrymals of (A) Nemorhaedus baileyi, Type x 3 and

(B) N. goral and N. cranbrooki, x 4. (a) Nasals; (b) Lachrymals; (c) Orbits. :

greatest breadth of the combined nasals, 38 mm. measured across

their lateral junction with the lachrymals, is greater than in any other

skuil seen and very much greater than in most.

This modification of the form of the nasals, taken together with

the distinctive external characters of the animal, leads to the suggestion

that N. baileyi may eventually have to be recognised as a distinct

species, and not regarded as a local subspecies of N. goral as in

current classification. )

I may here put on record that although the skull of the type of

N. cranbrooki has remained wntraced, one of the horns, fully labelled,

has come to light recently. It is similar in form to those of other

small gorals, is rather slender, and measures 43 inches on the front

curve, 4 inches in a straight line.

Finally, I would appeal through the pages of this journal for

sportsmen, Officials, or travellers who may have the opportunity of

obtaining further specimens of the red goral from the Mishmi Hills or

north Burma, or from any adjoining hill territories to send complete

specimens, skins with skulls, with exact data of locality, to the

796 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Bombay Natural History Society in order that the characters and true

relationships of these little-known animals may be further studied.

BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL History), ~

CROMWELL Roap, R. W. HAYMAN

LonpDon, S.W. 7,

September 15, 1961.

5. THE DUGONG, DUGONG DUGON (MULLER), AT

BOMBAY; AN INCORRECT RECORD

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra State, has

drawn our attention to the statement at page 137 of Volume I of

THE GAZETTEER OF BOMBAY CITY AND ISLAND, published in 1909, that

the dead body of a dugong or sea-cow drifted ashore just opposite

Colaba Church, on Bombay Island, in the year 1849. A foot-note in

the GAZETTEER indicates that this statement is based on The Times of

India dated 13-5-1849 and 16-5-1849.

The Times of India in those days went under the appellation of

The Bombay Times and Journal of Commerce and appeared twice a

week. Through the courtesy of The Times of India we were per-

mitted to examine the files of old issues. There was no issue dated

13-5-1849, but the issue of 16-5-1849 carries a report that, in the

forenoon of the previous Sunday (13-5-1849), ‘a tolerably large species

of whale-bone whale’ drifted ashore on the rocks opposite to Colaba

Church. The report goes on to mention that ‘recently’ some people

in Ceylon had seen ‘a burra-muchee, which was later identified as

a dugong’. From the coincidence of the dates and the resemblances

between the two accounts it appears that a mistake has been made

and that the statement in the GAZETTEER, so far overlooked and

unquoted, has no basis in fact. This is an interesting example of the

necessity for careful scrutiny of assertions of fact, even in official

records.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WaLKESHWAR Roap, EDITORS

BoMBAY 6,

November. 15, 1961.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 197

6. ON THE INDIAN GREAT REED WARBLER,

ACROCEPHALUS STENTOREUS (HEMPRICH &

EHRENBERG) BREEDING IN KERALA

While collecting data on birds nesting in the reed beds of Vembanad

Lake in Kuttanad area in Kerala State, I was puzzled by the identity

of a pair of birds which I frequently heard calling out from the

reeds but was unable to see. Careful search in a boat revealed three

nests with eggs. The general characters and plumage coloration as

noted in the field pointed to one of two possibilities, either the

Thickbilled Warbler (Phragamaticola aédon) or the Indian Great

Reed Warbler (Acrocephalus stentoreus). By collecting a specimen

I determined the identity as the latter, an identification which was

kindly confirmed by Dr. Salim Ali, according to whom there is as

yet no record of this bird nesting in Travancore (1953, THE BIRDS

OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN).

The three nests with eggs were discovered on 17th August 1961.

Two empty. nests, similar in construction, appearance and _ location,

were discovered the next day. The nests were neat, deep, massive

cups, firmly slung between three to seven reed stems (Ochlandra

travancorica) standing in 54 to 6 ft. depth of water. They were made

of dead reed stalks and leaves with the inside lined with soft tender

reed leaves and were placed 2 to 34 ft. above the surface of the water.

The nests wefe within a circle about 100 ft. in diameter; the shortest

distance between two nests (both with eggs) was about 10 ft. Within

an area of about 100 acres searched, only these five nests were found.

and the birds were seen or heard. only in the immediate vicinity.

Each of the three clutches consisted of three eggs, oval in shape,

dirty bluish in colour, speckled with blackish brown, and without any

gloss. The speckling was heavier at the broad end than at the thin

end. The specimen collected had very worn plumage; the other birds

seen (two more were handled) also had worn plumage and appeared

to be in heavy moult.

VATTAPARAMPIL, KAINADY,

PALLOM, KERALA, P. V. GEORGE

October 25, 1961.

[Though long believed to be only a winter visitor to peninsular

India, in 1931 Sdlim Ali (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 450) recorded

that though no nests were found their behaviour left no doubt that

the species nested in mangrove swamps that fringed the tidal swamps

798 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

near Bombay. Subsequent observers have also seen and heard the

birds in July and August. Mr. George’s note records an interesting

discovery. The single specimen available does not permit racial

identification though A. s. meridionalis (Legge) is known to be

resident 1n Ceylon.-—EDs.]

7. ‘THE MOULTING OF DUCK AFTER ARRIVAL IN INDIA’

On 9 November 1961 I was shooting at a large lake in Nasik

District, Maharashtra, when I saw a duck swimming on the water

apparently unable to fly. When I approached it by boat, it attempted

to escape by diving repeatedly. Thinking it was injured, I shot it,

and, upon examination, found it lacking the primaries of both wings;

evidently this prevented flight. The bird in question was a female

white-eyed Pochard [Aythya nyroca (Giildenstadt)]. There are earlier

records of similarly moulting Common Teal, Shoveller, and

Wigeon having been obtained in the same area and at Bharatpur,

Rajasthan (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42 : 443-5; 44 : 300-1).

C/O IMPERIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES

(INDIA) PrvtT. LTD.,

CRESCENT HOUSE, WITTET RoaD, S. CHAUDHURI

BALLARD ESTATE, .

Bompay 1,

November 24, 1961.

8. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF NEPAL

I have followed with much pleasure Dr. Biswas’s interesting series

of articles in the Journal on the Birds of Nepal. The following notes

are written with particular reference to the first three parts and

include some fresh records collected during 1960-61. On the Pharping

road, SW. of Kathmandu, there is a small jheel called Taudah. It

is covered with water lilies and weeds and surrounded by grass and

reeds. As it is in a cultivated area and people are always present,

washing, watering cattle, or tending domestic ducks, I had not thought

there would be many wild birds on it and rather neglected this area

in the past. This year I found many new birds on it, and probably

many of Scully’s birds, not recorded since from the Valley, may have

come from this area.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 799

Podiceps ruficollis capensis Salvadori. Indian Little Grebe.

Not recorded in the Valley since Scully’s day. On 21 March 1961

I found two pairs on the Taudah jheel. They were constantly

uttering the peculiar whinnying cry which I have always associated

with breeding birds. I remember in England watching a pair building

in late February in a flooded quarry. As they collected water weed

and piled it on to the nest they uttered this cry continuously. I

visited the jheel again on 24 April. Only one pair was present, very

wary and diving whenever one approached them. In June they had

left the jheel and up-to-date (Oct.) they have not been seen there

again.

Nycticorax n. nycticorax (Linn.). Night Heron.

I was quite mistaken in recording this bird as a resident in the

Kathmandu Valley (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48 : 719). Dr. Fleming

first pointed out to me that it was certainly not here in winter and

this is quite correct. This year I kept careful records. It was seen

for the first time on 22 April, about 15 birds flying over the Royal

Hotel at dusk. Not noticed again until the end of May when odd

birds seen, also in June. Common July and August. Not noticed

in September, but a single bird flew over my garden on 3 October

in twilight. They used to be common standing along the side of

the Rani Pokhri in the monsoon, but this year very few birds seen

there. 2 birds on 19 October.

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin). Chestnut Bittern.

Only recorded by Biswas in the Dun of central Nepal, but one or

two pairs breed regularly in the Valley near Gowkarna. They live

in the rice fields during the monsoon. This year we shot a breeding

male on 17 June.

Anser indicus (Latham). Barheaded Goose.

There appear to be no records for the Valley, but Colonel Roberts

of the British Embassy shot one in the spring of 1959. He also

reported seeing a single bird in the same area, the Manora River,

just before Christmas 1960. On 10 October 1961 I saw a single bird

flying over my garden. It was quite low and could be clearly seen. All

these birds were solitary, and I suppose odd stragglers get separated

from flocks of migrating birds and wander by chance into the Valley.

Aythya nyroca (Giildenstadt). White-eyed Pochard.

Not recorded from the Valley since Scully’s time. Colonel! Roberts

tells me they are quite common on the lakes at Pokhara in central

800 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Nepal in winter. This year 2 females were seen on the Rani Pokhri

a small lake in Kathmandu town. They were there in the second

week in May and remained for several days.

Aythya fuligula (Linn.). Tufted Duck.

In early July I was told that there were 7 of these duck on the

Rani Pokhri. I went down on 15 July and saw 3 drakes and 1 duck.

They sat in a little knot in the middle of the lake. They were there

till 30 July when only 1 drake and 1 duck remained. On 1 August

1 drake only; on 4 August all gone and none seen since. This

seems a very odd record to me. Dr. Biswas has reported them on

high elevation lakes in May, so perhaps these were birds which had

finished breeding early, although one would think they had hardly

had time for this. .

Accipiter gentilis schvedowi (Menzbier). Goshawk.

Although not recorded from the Valley since Scully’s day the

Goshawk is in fact tolerably common on the forested hills round the

Valley. We have seen it many times on ali the main ridges about

7500-8500 ft. (2300-2600 m.), but it never leaves the forest. It fre-

quently perches on some prominent tree overlooking a little glade and

no doubt watches to pounce on partridges etc., although we have

never seen it do this. It does not appear to move at all with the

seasons. On May 18 on the Mamche Danda a Goshawk flew into

an oak very close to us. It was furiously mobbed by a pair of

Jungle Crows. It is a large bird and could not possibly be confused.

with any other species. When perched other birds take no notice of

it, but when it flies a chorus of terrified squeaks and calls accompany.

its passage.

Spizaétus nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson). Hodgson’s Hawk-Eagle.

Quite a common bird, although each pair has a very large territory.

One pair for the whole Sheopuri Ridge, where in spring they per-

form a very beautiful nuptial flight. It is then possible to approach

them closely. Another pair is resident on Phulchowk, and I think a

third on the Nangi Danda Ridge beyond, but this might be the

Phulchowk pair. Odd single birds are often seen on Nagar TNE:

perhaps young birds without territory. |

Aquila chrysaétos (Linn.). Golden Eagle.

Not uncommon on the Gandak-Kosi watershed above 9000 ft.

(2800 m.) in summer. I have seen 2 adults and 1 young bird soaring

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 801

over the ridge below Thare Pate. My husband watched one at 14,000

ft. (4270 m.) on the Gosainkund Lekh in May. It attacked a covey

of large partridges, perhaps the Tibetan Partridge, but he was unable

to identify them.

Circaetus gallicus (Gmelin). Short-toed Eagle.

During the weekend of 14-16 April we were on the Kakani Ridge

at 7000 ft. (2130 m.) and each day we saw this eagle soaring and

frequently hovering along the north side of this ridge. Several times

we saw it dive steeply into the Valley [which here drops abruptly to

about 2000 ft. (600 m.)] but we were never able to see the end of the

dive nor what it caught. On many later visits to this ridge we have

not seen it again.

Falco subbuteo Linn. The Hobby.

On 22 May 1961 on the Mamche Danda (the ridge north of the

hills bounding the Kathmandu Valley) we watched 3 Hobbies wheeling

round the oak-covered ridge on which we were camped. They were

there all day, but never seemed to catch anything but butterflies,

which they ate on the wing, holding them in their claws and tearing

off the wings before eating them. A few days later Dr. Fleming said

he saw 5 Hobbies behaving in exactly the same way on the ridge

near Kakani. Both ridges between 7500-8500 ft. (2300-2600 m.). I

have often seen them in winter, but then they are usually single.

I have never seen them on the hills south of the Valley.

Alectoris graeca chukar (J. E. Gray). Chukor.

Although we had constantly heard tales of Chukor on the hills

round Kathmandu, we had not come across them in 12 years of

searching, and were inclined to think the birds extinct in this area.

However, this year we saw a covey near Kakani [7000 ft. (2130 m.)]

in January, and in April my husband saw a bird calling. Dr. Fleming

has since shot a bird and said they were tolerably common well east

of Kathmandu, so our birds are not stragglers on the extreme eastern

limit of their range as we had supposed.

Francolinus francolinus asiae Bonaparte. Black Partridge.

I am sure this bird has increased very much in numbers during

the last 5 years. It is now really common on the hills round Kakani

at 5-7000 ft. (1520-2130 m.). Its call is heard on all sides during May,

June, July, but we have never heard it call after the beginning of

August.

802 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Ithaginis cruentus cruentus (Hardwicke). Blood Pheasant.

Common on the Gandak-Kosi watershed at 11-12,000 ft. (3350-

3660 m.) in bamboo forest. They are very tame. :

Grus grus (Linn.). Common Crane.

Anthropoides virgo (Linn.). Demoiselle Crane.

Both these birds are common in the Rapti Dun in winter. On

22 October my husband saw a flock migrating over the ridges beyond |

Kakani. He estimated the flock at about 300 birds. They flew at

least 1000 ft. (300 m.) above the ridges but, although this was not

necessary, they always flew directly, over the passes which form the

lowest point in each ridge. They flew directly south, avoiding the

Kathmandu Valley and were making in a direct line for the area

where we have seen them in winter. They appeared to have flown

down the Trisuli Valley which leads through the main Himalayan

mountains into Tibet. My husband was unable to tell to which .

species they belonged.

Porzana pusilla pusilla (Pallas). Baillon’s Crake.

Not recorded since Scully’s day. I saw one on Taudah jheel on

21 March 1961. The reed cover was very thin and I had an excellent view

as it walked nervously through the grass. I was able to get within

8 feet (c. 2 m.) of it. It must have been on migration as it has not _

been seen there again. |

Amaurornis phoenicurus chinensis (Boddaert). Whitebreasted Waterhen.

Common in the Rapti Dun, but seen only once in the Valley. A

single bird was in the rice near the Bagmatti River and when disturbed

flew over the wall of the King’s Reserve at Gowkarna. 17 June 1961.

Gallinula chloropus indica Blyth. Indian Moorhen.

Very common in suitable country in the Rapti Dun, but not

previously recorded from ithe Valley. This autumn I saw two birds

on Taudah jheel on 23 September. They were still there on the 25th.

On 7 October there were 5 birds. Teal and Garganey use this jheel

as a resting place when migrating and on 7 October there were 77

-Garganey on the jheel. The Moorhen kept together in a little

cluster. The Garganey got up as we approached the water. The

Moorhen did not fly with them but moved off together to the far side

of the jheel. 7

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 803

Eupodotis bengalensis bengaiensis (Gmelin). Bengal Florican.

Biswas says this bird has not been found in Nepal since Hodgson’s

day, but it is certainly not uncommon in the Rapti Dun in winter.

It is found in the open grass country between the Rapti and Narayani

rivers. I have seen them several times in December and last year

had an excellent view of one quite close to us. We had seen it fly

into a mustard field and failed to flush it -out, when it suddenly

walked out quite near us. When it crouches its camouflage is excellent

and it appears to melt suddenly out of sight.

Scolopax rusticola rusticola Linn. Woodcock.

Woodcock breeds quite commonly on the Gandak-Kosi watershed.

Most birds seen about 10,500-11,000 ft. (3200-3350 m.). We have

found it there in early and late May and often watched it roding in

the evenings. In winter it is also much commoner than I had sup-

posed on the hills north of the Valley, where there are many smail

damp valleys with berberis, camellia, etc. bushes. They are found

in the same place year after year.

Calidris subminutus (Midden.). Longtoed Stint.

Dr. Fleming obtained this bird on the Bagmatti in May. This

autumn I have examined carefully the flocks of Temminck’s Stints

which congregate on a small island in the Manora River from October

to April. There are usually about 30 birds there, and two or three

are darker than the others and spotted above. I had thought these

were birds still in breeding plumage but think now that probably one

or two Longtoed Stints are often present amongst the flocks of the

commoner species.

Rostratula benghalensis benghalensis (Linn.). Painted Snipe.

Not uncommon in the Rapti Dun in winter. We have seen odd

ones in the Valley during the monsoon. My husband shot a male

here in July and a female in November.

Burhinus oedicnemus indicus (Salvadori). Indian Stone Plover.

On 24 August 1961 we saw a pair of these birds near the Manora

River. They are obviously rare stragglers to the Valley during the

monsoon.

Cuculus poliocephalus poliocephalus Latham. Small Cuckoo.

This year we trekked up to the Gosainkund Lekh in late May

and found this bird absolutely abundant from 8000 ft, (2450 m.) to

804 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

nearly 12,000 ft. (3660 m.). A breeding male was shot at 10,500 ft.

(3200 m.). They start to call much later in the year than the other

cuckoos and continue calling until the end of July when most of

the other cuckoos are silent. I have not heard them before the first

week of May. The Cuckoo and the Himalayan Cuckoo start to call

in late March and the Indian Cuckoo in the first week of April. The

first two birds call till the 3rd week of June, the Indian Cuckoo till

the 3rd week of July.

Coracias benghalensis benghalensis (Linn.). Indian Roller.

Although never seen in the Nepal Valley it is common in the

Dun and lower hills below 3500 ft. (1060 m.). This year a bird re-

mained for some time on Kakani Ridge [7000 ft. (2130 m.)]. This

was in August during heavy monsoon weather. It spent all day

quartering the ridge and roosted at night in a solitary pine tree in

front of the bungalow.

Conostoma aemodium Hodgson. Great Parrotbill.

This bird is extremely local but very common in the limited area

where it occurs. This is the mixed bamboo, maple, etc. forest at

11,000-12,000 ft. (3350-3660 m.) along the head of the Tadi Khola

on the Gosainkund Lekh. Every naturalist who has visited that area

reports seeing them. We watched them for some time this year in

late May and shot one which proved to be a female near breeding.

The birds were very noisy with much churring and chattering very

like a Turdoides. They have also a characteristic note very harsh

krrarchah, krarch krachah. I did not hear the mellow whistle

described by Smythies. They keep very much to bamboo jungle, and

though large clumsy birds are skilful at keeping out of sight.

Myzornis pyrrhoura Blyth. Firetailed Myzornis.

On the Gandak-Kosi watershed in late May we found a pair of

these birds feeding young in the nest. This was in deep juniper

forest at 12,000 ft. (3660 m.). The parents were very busy collecting

insects on the trunks of junipers and they ran up the trees almost in

the manner of a tree-creeper. Their bills were absolutely crammed

with tiny black insects.

Callacanthis burtoni (Gould). Redbrowed Finch.

I can find no records of this bird in Nepal, and never saw it here

myself till this year. On 25 March, 3 of these birds were feeding on the

ground on Sheopuri at 8200 ft. (2500 m.). They were in an open glade

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 805

in deep forest. When disturbed they flew up into a bush but soon

returned to the feeding ground. A male shot was not in breeding

condition. They were quite silent. I have not seen them again.

Leucosticte nemoricola nemoricola (Hodgson). Hodgson’s Mountain

Finch.

Large flocks, at least 200 birds and probably many more, wander

on to the hills north of the Valley during January to early March.

They keep to the open grassy hillsides with berberis and pyrus bushes.

Propyrrhula subhimachala subhimachala (Hodgson). Redheaded Rose-

finch.

We found these birds feteeipy common in the high level mixed

forest above Pokhara in November, but had never seen them in the

Kathmandu Valley until this year. On 27 March on Sheopuri at

8400 ft. (2560 m.) I watched a pair of these birds feeding on the

berries of Mahonia nipalensis. The male was gorging on the green

berries, half hidden by them and obviously under the impression that

he was completely hidden for, when a cooly passed by, he froze and

allowed the man almost to brush against him. I managed to creep

very close and he continued feeding, sometimes turning almost upside

down to pick a berry and then reversing to normal position while

he ate it. He was presently joined by the female who perched lower

in the bush, and also ate the berries and was equally tame. A very

beautiful sight.

Carpodacus thura thura Bonaparte & Schlegel. Whitebrowed Rosefinch.

During the last week of May we found these birds very common

at Thare Pate on the Gandak-Kosi watershed. They were in pairs,

but the pairs kept together in loose flocks. A female shot was not

in breeding condition. They were always found in Rhododendron

campanulatum, which was still in flower between 12,000 ft. (3660 m.)

and 13,000 ft. (4000 m.). The birds were rather noisy. They had

a ringing call but harsh and ill-tempered in sound cha cha cha cha cha.

BRITISH EMBASSY,

KATHMANDU, DESIREE PROUD

NEPAL,

October 19, 1961.

806 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

9. CORRECTIONS TO ‘SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF

THE NEPAL VALLEY’

I would like to make the following corrections to my paper ‘Some

Notes on the. Birds of the Nepal Valley’ (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

48 : 695-719) which was based on sight records:

p. 711. Riparia riparia: Small Sand Martin.

This should of course be Riparia paludicola (Vieillot): . Plain

Sand Martin. I have seen birds with a faint dark band across the

breast, but all shot have been paludicola.

p. 712): Anthus campestris: Tawny Pipit.

A complete mistake. I have never found this pipit here. The

pipits of the Valley are as follows:

Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni Richmond: MHodgson’s Tree Pipit.

Breeds on the higher hills up to at least 13,000 ft. A few pairs breed

as low as 8000 ft. On 22 May 1961 I found a pair feeding young

in the nest at 8000 ft. on the Mamche Danda. They winter on the

hills round the Valley from 6500 to 8500 ft., but I have never found

one in the Valley itself.

Anthus hodgsoni yunnanensis Uchida & Kuroda: Yunnan Tree

Pipit. Abundant wintering bird in the Valley and Duns. First date

this year 22 September, a single bird in my garden. Most arrive first

week October. All gone by 19 April.

Anthus novaeseelandiae richardi Vieillot: Richard’s Paddyfield

Pipit. Winter visitor and passage migrant.

Anthus novaeseelandiae rufulus Viecillot: Paddyfield Pipit. The

common breeding pipit of the Valley and up to 7000 ft. in places.

Anthus pelopus J. E. Gray: Hodgson’s Pipit. Breeds commonly |

on the higher hills, above 11,000 ft. Very abundant at 12.000 to

13,000 ft. I have not been higher than this, so do not know to what

height it goes. Winters in the Valley and Duns.

Anthus cervinus (Pallas): Redthroated Pipit. I think a passage

migrant. A few are seen in the marsh round the rice fields each year

in September, but I have not yet obtained a specimen and _ this

may not be a correct identification.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 807

Anthus (Oreocorys) sylvanus (Hodgson): Upland Pipit. Common

on all the hills from 5500 to 8000 ft., but rather local.

p. 713. Aethopyga gouldiae: Mrs. Gould’s Sunbird.

This should be Aethopyga nipalensis (Hodgson): Nepal Yellow-

backed Sunbird.

p. 719. Nycticorax nycticorax: Night Heron.

' This is only a monsoon visitor to the Valley.

BRITISH EMBASSY,

KATHMANDU, DESIREE PROUD

NEPAL,

September 26, 1961.

10. RECOVERIES OF RINGED MIGRATORY AND

RESIDENTIAL BIRDS AT HINGOLGADH, JASDAN

An Orphean Warbler Sylvia hortensis ringed on 27th September

1960 at Hingolgadh, Jasdan, was recaptured at the same place on

21st September 1961. Similarly, a Wryneck Jynx torquilla ringed on

10th October 1960 at Panelia (barely 3 miles as the crow flies from

Hingolgadh) was recaptured there on 13th October 1961. These birds

must have travelled many thousands of miles during the year, but

they were recaptured in the same places.

There were several recoveries in Sept./Oct. 1961 of residential birds

ringed in Sept./Oct. 1960. In all these cases: 5 Redvented Bulbuls,

1 Indian Robin, 1 Rufousbacked Shrike, 1 Baybacked Shrike, 1 Great

Grey Shrike, no bird ringed at Panelia was recovered at Hingolgadh

and vice versa. In fact in the case of the Great Grey Shrike, the

bird was ringed on 10th October 1960 and recaptured on 13th October

1961 in the same babool tree as last year. This time it had brought

along its mate too and so both now have rings.

A House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) was caught at Jasdan, and

ringed (A 3072) and released at Hingolgadh 12 miles from Jasdan

on 27th September 1960. It was recaptured at Jasdan on 6th April

1961 where it was building a nest in the same room where it had

been caught in 1960.

THE PALACE,

JASDAN, YUVRAJ SHIVRAJKUMAR

October 15, 1961.

808 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

11. NOCTURNAL ‘PREDATOR’ OF FRUIT OF YELLOW

OLEANDER (THEVETIA NERIIFOLIA)

On several days in October last I found in the early mornings under

some mango trees in my garden the remains of the meal which some

creature of the night seemed to have eaten in the trees. Usually it

consisted of green guavas with the flesh partly eaten. On six

separate occasions, however, it was the fruit of the Yellow Oleander

(Thevetia neriifolia), which is said to be highly poisonous. On four

occasions a small portion of the flesh was eaten, and in the flesh that

remained there were pits dug by a beak-like mouth; in one case less

than half the flesh of the fruit remained; in another there was a

freshly denuded seed under the tree and I could not find any trace

of the flesh. Looking about near the place where the partly eaten

fruit has been dropping I found ten more seeds of Yellow Oleander.

There is no Yellow Oleander plant near by from which the seeds

could have come; so the night feeding has probably been going on

for some time. Could this be the work of a fruit-eating bat? One

night at about 9.30 my daughters saw a flying fox in flight near ne

mango trees but it did not settle.

There are records of Yellow Oleander fruit being eaten by the

Koel (M. Krishnan, 1952, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50 : 943-5) and

by the Grey Hornbili (K. K. Neelakantan, 1952, ibid. 51 : 738).

N. L. Bor & M. B. Raizada (1954, SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS

AND SHRUBS: 195) say that ‘all parts of the plant are poisonous’ and

A. P. Benthall (1946, THE TREES OF CALCUTTA AND ITS NEIGHBOUR-

HOOD: 303) that ‘all parts of the plant have to be used with great

caution’. Both these authors expressly speak of the latex, the seeds,

and the wood as poisonous, but make no special mention of the

fruit. M. Krishnan (loc. cit.) says that the pulp of the fruit is ‘known

to be definitely poisonous to mammals’, in which case it would be

remarkable if it is a bat that has been eating the fruit. From the

Editorial note to M. Krishnan’s Miscellaneous Note it appears that

Kirtikar & Basu (INDIAN MEDICINAL PLANTS) speak of the fruit as

poisonous. Could it be that that there is a stage in the development

of the fruit at which the poison is innocuous to certain animals, a

fact that helps the plant to spread its seeds?

49 Pati HILL,

BANDRA, D. E. REUBEN

BoMBAY 50,

November 4, 1961.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 809

12. JUMPING SNAKES

I have only recently seen Mr. A. E. Butler’s account of how the

Russell’s Viper, Vipera russelli, will jump to attack [J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. So Gli) 3 173);

I can state categorically that no known species of snake deliberately

jumps off the ground to attack. But just as directly it can be stated

that certain species of vipers in the act of striking do in fact

involuntarily jump off the ground, but the jump is unintentional.

The vipers (or adders) are poisonous snakes with movable or

hinged fangs which when not in use are folded back against the

roof of the mouth. To get the fangs into striking position the snake

has to depress the lower jaw, but this cannot be effected while the

creature is flat on the ground. In consequence, the strike is made

with an initial backward movement of the head, faster than the eye

can see, to enable the fangs to move into the striking position, and

at the same time the head comes forward in a flash to effect the bite.

This forward thrust can be so vigorous that sometimes the snake,

and particularly smaller ones, throws its body right off the ground.

The nature of this movement is well-illustrated by a vernacular

name of the African Puff Adder, Bitis arietans, which refers to the

snake ‘which has to turn on to its back before it can bite’.

But the best exponent of ‘jumping’ in Africa is the Night Adder,

Causus rhombeatus, a fairly slender species which rarely exceeds a

length of two feet. I have frequently seen examples of the Night

Adder lift themselves off the ground the equivalent of their own

length, but by no means all will do this, in fact the majority do not.

In order to reinforce the vigour of its strike this species sometimes

inflates the anterior third or half of its body, and as it strikes it

deflates with such force that the strike becomes a definite ‘jump’.

I hope these remarks afford a satisfactory and convincing explana-

tion of a snake’s ‘jump’.

FLAT 9,

12 CHELSEA EMBANKMENT, C. R. S. PITMAN

Lonpon, S.W. 3,

June 16, 1961.

810 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

13. UP-STREAM MIGRATION OF ELVERS OF ANGUILLA

NEBULOSA (=BENGALENSIS) OVER FIRST ANICUT OF

THE RIVER GODAVARI!

(With one plate)

During investigations on the freshwater prawn fishery in the river

Godavari the author came across the interesting phenomenon of the

up-stream run of young elvers of Anguilla nebulosa (=bengalensis)

over the first anicut at Dowleishwaram, situated 80 km. from the sea.

On 26 August 1960, shortly after dusk, small elvers of A. nebulosa

were noticed negotiating the anicut by slowly moving up-stream along

portions of the sloping cement pavement over which the current was

sluggish; the movement extended to adjoining areas which were kept

moist by spray from the stream. Subsequent regular observation

showed that this run of elvers continued throughout the period of

overflow of the water over the anicut. It ceased with the stoppage

of the overflow towards the end of February 1961. The up-stream

migration of the elvers started again in June 1961, when the water once

more began to overflow. During the non-flood period, when the

shutters of the anicut were raised, the elvers were observed to move

vertically up the iron shutters, particularly between two shutters where

there was slight leakage.

The anicut at Dowleishwaram covers the entire breadth of the

river, 6.4 km., and consists of four sections with islands in between.

The shutters, about one metre in height, fa!l automatically during

heavy flood and allow a continuous flow of water, often submerging the

entire anicut and maintaining the same water-level on both sides. The

run of the elvers was recorded on all edges of the anicut adjoining land.

In all, 452 elvers were collected and measured. The sizes ranged

from 48 to 58 mm., the size frequency distribution showing a unimodal

curve with a well-defined mode at 53 mm. Nearly 90% of the elvers

were between 51 and 55 mm. in length. Microscopic examination

of the skin and its scrapings showed no trace of scales on any part of

the body.

Rahimullah et al. (1944) recorded 152 mm. long elvers of

A. nebulosa from Nizamsagar Dam, higher up the Godavari River,

about 725 km. from the sea. Presuming it to be impossible that

1 Communicated by the Director, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute

Barrackpore, W. Bengal.

Journ. BomBAY Nat. HIST. Soc.

LOO

heb

BLESS

BRO Ne,

Elvers of Anguilla nebulosa (=bengalensis) moving up-stream over sloping cement pavement

of R. Godavari at Dowleishwaram.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 811

elvers of this size could have overcome the intervening obstacles of

two anicuts and some precipitous falls, they opined that A. nebulosa

probably breeds in fresh water. Pantulu (1956), relying on his study

of A. nebulosa from Hooghly River, felt that there was not sufficient

reason to accept the assumption of Rahimullah et al. The present

record of successful negotiation of the Dowleishwaram Dam _ by

49-58 mm. long elvers shows how migration can take place to the

upper reaches of the river. Pantulu (1956) recorded a monthly growth

rate in A. nebulosa from the Hooghly of 9 to 12 mm. for specimens

ranging from 47 to 150 mm. Considering the different size groups

recorded at Dowleishwaram and at Nizamsagar, we might estimate

that the elvers recorded at Dowleishwaram will reach Nizamsagar in

about a year.

In the third week of July 1961 in Godavari River elvers were

recorded in good number in the fry collection nets operated at Yanam

(20 km. from the sea), Kotipally (32 km.), and Kapileshwaram

(48 km.). At the first two places 62 elvers were taken in 15 hours

of fry collection, and the size frequency showed a well-marked mode

at 48 mm. (range of size 45-56 mm., 82% of collection ranging from

47-51 mm.). This along with the facts recorded above is evidence

supporting a migration of elvers from the sea to the upper reaches

of the river at Nizamsagar.

My conclusions are supported by the observation of Sundara Raj

(1916) that every year by about November a number of elvers

measuring 2 to 3 in. (50 to 75 mm.) ascend the rivers Cooum and

Adyar. I may mention also the observation of Frost (1954) that

elvers of A. nebulosa labiata ascend Tana River in Kenya, overcoming

many waterfalls including a vertical fall of 75 ft. (23 m.).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am gratefully indebted to Dr. M. P. Motwani for his kind en-

couragement and critical perusal of the manuscript, and Sri

Y. Ramarao of this Institute for supplying me with the elvers collected

at Yanam and Kotipally.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES

RESEARCH INSTITUTE, K. H. IBRAHIM

RAJAHMUNDRY,

October 7, 1961.

812

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

REFERENCES

Frost, W. E. (1954): Observations on

the Biology of Eels (Anguilla spp.) of

Kenya colony, East Africa. Colonial

Office Fishery Publication No. 6,

Pantulu, V. R. (1956): Studies on the

Biology of the Indian Freshwater Eel,

Anguilla bengalensis Gray. Proc. Nat.

Inst. Sci. India 22B (5)

Rahimullah, M., Mahmood, S., &

Kabir, S.A. (1944) : A note on the breed-

ing habits of a common eel, Anguilla

bengalensis Gray & Hardy. Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. 19B (1): 16-18.

Sundara Raj, B. (1916): Notes on the

Freshwater Fish of Madras. Rec. Indian

Mus. 12: 265-266.

14. THE CALANOID COPEPOD PSEUDODIAPTOMUS

ARDJUNA BREHM—A NEW DESCRIPTION!

(With one plate)

Pseudodiaptomus ardjuna was first created by Brehm (1953) for

two specimens collected by him from Thana creek, near Bombay, but

his description and illustrations are incomplete. Hence, an attempt 1S _

made here to illustrate and describe this species in detail from the

specimens collected from the plankton samples from Mahim back-

water in March 1959.

Pseudodiaptomus ardjuna Brehm

Female. Total length, 1.2 mm. (Plate, fig. 1). |

The proportional lengths of the cephalothorax and the abdomen are

63337=—100:

There are five cephalothoracic segments and the head is fused

with the first thoracic segment. Forehead rounded in dorsal view

and prominent and arched in side view; posterior thoracic margins

produced into small spines directed backwards and outwards; rostral

spines small, delicate, and curved downwards and backwards.

1 While this paper was still in the proof stages our attention was drawn to a

paper entitled ‘ Studies on Indian Copepods 4. Description of the Female and a

Redescription of the Male of Pseudodiaptomus ardjuna Brehm (Copepoda,

Calanoida) with Notes on the Distribution and Affinities of the Species’, by

A.N.P. Ummerkutty [J. Mar. biol. Ass. India, December 1960 (published on

11-11-1961) 2 (2) : 179-185] in which specimens obtained in the Gulf of Mannar

and the Palk Bay are described. We have, therefore, in consultation with the authors

deleted the descriptions of the swimming legs, and are retaining the rest as there

appear to be some differences in the two accounts.—Ebs.

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JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

The Calanoid Copepod Pseudodiaptomus ardjuna Brehm

1. Qentire, dorsal; 2. 2 genital segment, dorsal; 3. 2 genital segment ventral;

4. 2 genital segment, right side ; 5. 2 genital segment, left side ; 6. Q Ist swimming

leg; 7. 2 2nd swimming leg; 8. 2 1st antenna; 9. ¢ Ist right antenna; 10. ¢ S5tb

pair of legs. 11.9 5th pair of legs.

. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 813

The abdomen consists of four segments, the proportional lengths

of which are as follows:

‘Abdominal segments

Furca

26 195 21 | 14 | 19.5 | = 100

The genital segment is asymmetrical in shape and is the largest

of the abdominal segments. Its surface is ornamented with an

elaborate system of spinules distributed in different groups (Figs. 2, 3,

4, 5). On the ventral side the genital orifice is guarded by two

backwardly projecting spines. Posterior margins of the abdominal

segments 1, 2, and 3 are fringed with triangular teeth along their

dorsal aspect only. They gradually decrease in size towards the

lateral sides. Furcal rami are thrice as long as broad and are lined

with coarse hair along their inner margins. There are six furcal

setae; the second is the smallest and is situated somewhat dorsally.

Ovigerous female has a single ovisac with about 22 to 25 eggs.

First antenna (Fig. 8) reaches back to about the posterior margin

of the genital segment and consists of 21 segments, the proportional

lengths of which are as follows:

8-9 10 11 12 13 14

Segments : A

4 a)

—————————— ee — - ——$ $<

48 40 28 36 36 24 32 32 48 56 60

fo 6 be 18 19 20 74) 7p 23 24-25

64 68 68 64 60 40 44 48 48 56= 1000

Segment. 19 has a modified strong seta with margin serrated along its

inner side.

The remaining mouth parts are similar to those of the other

members of the genus like P. serricaudatus and P. hickmani.

Male. Total length, 1 mm.

Proportional lengths of cephalothorax and abdomen are 68 : 32=100.

814. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

There are five abdominal segments, the proportional lengths of

which are:

segments

BESee Eh

9-5 23 22 9 jus 15 | = 100

Posterior margins of the segments 2, 3, and 4 are fringed with

teeth as in the female.

Ist right antenna (Fig. 9) is modified to form a grasping organ. It

has 21 segments and it resembles the grasping antenna of P. hickmani.

Fifth pair of legs (Fig. 10):

The structure of the fifth pair of legs is the main distinguishing

character of this species. It resembles to some extent the structure

of the same appendage of P. hickmani (Sydney variety) as figured by

Dakin & Colefax (1940). The 2nd basal of the right side has double

spinous processes (endopod), one with a small hairy projection on

the tip and the other with a bifid tip. The latter is missing in the

figure given by Dr. Brehm. It is observed that this structure is

usually lost in handling of specimens. Exopodite is three-jointed.

First segment has a Y-shaped spinous process with the inner short

and the outer long arm with the bifid tip. There is a small spine

at its base. Along its inner anterior face there are 15 to 18 strong

blunt teeth arranged in U-shape. Second segment has a _ spine

distally on outer margin and a few teeth in front of its base. Third

segment is sickle-shaped. On the left side, the endopodite is sickle-

shaped but it has a bifid tip. Exopodite is two-jointed. First

segment has a spine distally on its outer margin. Second segment is

a plate-like structure, twice as long as broad, with a spine on its

Outer margin distally. Its distal margin is serrated and produced

into a beak-like structure on its inner extremity.

Discussion

Apparently the sketches given by Dakin & Colefax (1940) for

P. hickmani resemble our specimens in many respects, but P. ardjuna

can be easily distinguished from the former by the structure of the

Sth pair of legs in the male.

The Thana creek from which Dr. Brehm collected his specimens,

as well as the Mahim backwater from which the present specimens

were collected were formerly confluent water masses. The reclama-

tion programme of the Bembay Municipal Corporation has separated

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 815

these two bodies of water in recent years. No specimen of this species

was, however collected from the offshore waters of Bombay, tending

to show that it prefers low salinity.

We take this opportunity to thank Dr. S. Krishnaswamy, Reader

in Zoology, Zoological Research Laboratory, University of Madras,

Madras, for his valuable suggestions, and Mr. M. C. Joshi for supplying

the material.

INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, H. V. DESAI

BomMBAyY, DV. BAER.

July 10, 1961 Ph.D.

REFERENCES

Brehm, V. (1953): Wien. Osterr. Zool. waters off New South Wales.

Ze as 313-315), Sewell, R. B.S. (1912) : |Notes on the

Dakin, W. J. & Colefax, A. N. (1940) : surface living copepoda of the Bay of

Plankton of the Australian coastal Bengal. Rec. Ind. Mus. 7.

15. MIGRATION OF BUTTERFLIES

This report is sent to place on record a migratory flight of butterflies

witnessed by me on 4 August 1961. I first noticed it at about 9 a.m:

at Sathuperi, about 7 miles south-west of Veilore, three Common Indian

Crows (Euploea core Cramer) and one Blue Tiger (Danaus limniace

Cramer) floating slowly in a NE. to SW. direction. At the time I

was on my way to Kammavanpeth, 15 miles south “of Vellore. All

the way the flight continued, butterflies crossing the road singly or

in twos or threes, flying from a few inches to a few feet above the

ground except when clearing obstacles, all flying in the same direction

NE. to SW. At Kammavanpeth the migration was still in progress

but rather thin. As a rough test I counted the number of butterflies

passing between two trees about 60 feet apart. The figures were:

Ist 5 minutes: 4 D. limniace

2nd 5 minutes: 3 D. limniace and 1 E. core

3rd 5 minutes: 1 D. limniace

4th 5 minutes: nil :

The migration was still 1m progress along the whole distance of

15 miles when I drove back to Vellore at 11 am. At places it

appeared to be denser than at Kammavanpeth, but it was difficult to

estimate with certainty when driving a car. Except at Kammavan-

peth, the number of FE. core exceeded that of D. limniace.

816 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

A few butterflies were seen in Vellore town, one crossing the

main street.

VIRUS RESEARCH UNIT,

C.M.C. HOspPITAL, R. REUBEN

VELLORE,

September 13, 1961.

16. OCCURRENCE OF THE BLUE MORMON (PAPILIO

POLYMNESTOR CRAMER) IN BOMBAY

In my Miscellaneous Note dated 13 April 1960 [J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 57 (1): 231-3], I reported the occurrence of the Blue

Mormon butterfly (Papilio polymnestor Cramer) on Pali Hili in

Bandra and, having special regard to the uniformity of the direction

of flight observed by Mr. Basil W. Wirth at Colaba, I suggested that

this might be a case of local migration. Further observation on Pali

Hill shows that P. polymnestor occurs in several months of the year,

and that it does not fly in any one direction. My observations, made

in the compound of No. 49 Pali Hill and its immediate neighbourhood,

are as follows:

1960 | 1961 |

| /

Month No. of i Re Ne: of i

days on 0.0 ays on o. of

which times | which times Remarks

se seen seen seen

4 i

January nil 1/1

February 1/1 | 1/1

March | e/a | 7/10

April | nil 5/7

May | nil No observations

June | nil nil

August nil He, obseivaHons after July

1961

September — 6/6 |

October | ae Seen 4 times on one day.

| Flitted about in the garden

on two days.

November | 11/20 Seen flitting about in the

| garden on three separate

| occasions.

December | 3/3

5 }

On every occasion only one butterfly was to be seen. The

impression created was of one butterfly moving about in a restricted

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 817

area and being seen from time to time. For some days the butterfly

had a portion of a wing damaged and so it was possible to identify it

in several successive appearances.

In view of the facts noted it does not appear likely that Pali Hill

is merely a point on a route of local migration. It is possible that

there is a seasonal appearance of the butterfly on Pali Hill, a

possibility that can only be tested by observations over an extended

period.

49 Patt Hut,

BANDRA, | D. E. REUBEN

BompBay 50,

November 3, 1961.

17. MASS OCCURRENCE OF THE PREDATORY STINK

BUG, CANTHECONIDIA (CANTHECONA) FURCELLATA

(WOLFF.) ON AMSACTA ALBISTRIGA WALK.

IN SOUTH INDIA!

The red hairy caterpillar, Amsacta albistriga Walk. (Arctiidae,

Lepidoptera), is a very serious pest of the dry crops, especially

groundnut, in most of the rain-fed tracts of Madras State. Apart

from the record of the parasite Apanteles creatonoti Vier.

(Ramakrishna Ayyar & Margabandu, 1934) in Mysore, there seems

to be no record of any natural enemies on the pest under field con-

ditions in India. Under laboratory conditions the eggs were found

to be parasitised by Trichogramma sp. in Mysore (Kunhi Kannan,

1931), and the larvae attacked by the pentatomid bug Cantheconidia

furcellata (Wolff.) in Coimbatore (Cherian & Brahmachari, 1941).

Recently, however, during a study tour to the southern districts, the

bug C. furcellata (Wolff.) was observed in the field to account for

considerable mortality of the caterpillars of Amsacta albistriga Walk.

in Alagarkoil area (Valayapatti village) of Melur taluk in Madurai

district. Since this is the first time that it has been found to exercise

some natural check on the pest in the field, a short account of the

insect is given here.

While studying the recent outbreak of the hairy caterpillar pest

on groundnut crop in Alagarkoil area it was observed that many dead

_1 Communicated by the Dean, Agricultural College & Research Institute,

Coimbatore.

818 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

caterpillars were hanging, head downwards, from the under

surface of the leaves of the redgram (Cajanus cajan Mill.)

plants on which they were found resting after devastating

the whole groundnut crop. On examination it was found that the

mortality of the caterpillars was due to the attack of the bug C.

furcellata (Wolff.). A very large number of the bugs were present

on the redgram plants, and the last instar nymphs and the adults

of the bug were attacking the caterpillars of advanced stage, i.e.

from the third instar onwards. The mode of attack was to approach

the caterpillar from behind, place the rostrum in between the two anal

prolegs, and thrust the stylets into the posterior part of the larva.

Most probably the young bugs breed on the redgram plants or weeds

in the locality. This is in conformity with the observation of Cherian

& Brahmachari (1941) that the bugs feed at first on the plant sap and

only later turn their attention to the insect-food.

Cantheconidia furcellata (Wolff.) has a wide distribution. It

occurs in Formosa, Malaya, Borneo, Philippines, India, Ceylon,

Burma, Java, etc. and is well known as a predator of lepidopterous

larvae. In India so far it has been noted from Bihar, Bengal, Calcutta,

Ranchi, Bombay, Madras, Coimbatore, Saidapet, Musiri, and Aduthurai.

Previous records in India show that it has been noted as predaceous

on larvae of Laphygma exigua Hb. (Vassiliev, 1914), Prodenia litura

Fb., Athalia proxima Kl. (Ballard, 1922), Thosea cervina Moore

(Ananda Rau, 1936), Utetheisa pulchella Linn. in Central Provinces

(Fletcher, 1917), Hybloea puera Cram., Tusser silkworms Antherea sp.

(Distant, 1902), Semiothisa pervolgata Wlk., Terias hecabe Luinn.,

Catopsilia pyranthe Linn. (Cherian & Brahmachari, 1941). Under

laboratory conditions (loc. cit.) the bug was noted attacking the

caterpillars of Taracne nitidula Fb., Earias fabia Stoll., Orthaga sp.,

Spodoptera mauritia Boisd., Cirphis unipuncta Haw., Psalis securis

Hubn., Euproctis fraterna Moore, Argina cribraria Clerck., Hypsa

sericae Moore, Utetheisa pulchella Linn., Amsacta albistriga Walk.,

Eupterote mollifera Wik., Stomopteryx nerteria Meyr., Sylepta derogata

Fabr., Schoenobius incertellus Wlk., Scirpophaga sp., Papilio demoleus

Linn., P. aristolochiae Fab., Acherontia styx Westw., Melanitis

ismene Cram., and Parnara mathias Fabr. Fletcher (1914) has reported

an instance wherein the bug was bred in large numbers and released

in cotton and gram fields to check caterpillar attacks on these crops.

In the Insect Collections at the Agricultural College & Research

Institute, Coimbatore, a few bugs have been collected as predaceous

on the larvae of Athalia proxima Kl. (Coll: T. V. R. Ayyar, 1912),

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 819

Chloridea sp. on cotton (Coll: M. S. Kylasam, 1929), and Thiacidas

postica Walk. on Zizyphus (Coll: T. V. Subramanian, (1936).

Recent researches have indicated that the pest A. albistriga Walk.

can be controlled by dusting BHC. 10% at its most vulnerable stage,

i.e. when the caterpillars are a week old. Spraying 0.05% Parathion

to control grown-up caterpillars is practicable only in places where

there are water facilities available. Inasmuch as the bug has been

previously utilised by breeding and liberating in cotton and gram

fields for controlling caterpillar pests of the crops, it may possibly

be used in the biological control of the red hairy caterpillar A.

albistriga Walk.

POST-GRADUATE TRAINING

CENTRE,

COIMBATORE,

October 28, 1960.

B. VASANTHARAJ DAVID

M. BASHEER

REFERENCES

1. Ananda Rau, S. (1936) : Report of Ss the 2nd Entomological Meeting, Pusa:

the Entomologist. Rep. Tea Dep. U. P.

A. 8. I., 1935-36 : 35-45. Madras.

2. Ballard, E. (1922): An enemy of

Prodenia litura Fb. Madras Agric. Dept.

Year Book : 31-2.

3. Cherian, M. C. & Brahmachari, K.

(1941)": Notes on three predatory Hemip-

terons from South India. Jndian J. Ent.

3 (1): 115-19.

4. Distant, W.L. (1902): The Fauna of

British India, Rhynchota 1 : 248-49.

5. Fletcher, T. B. (1914): Report of

th: Entomologist. Rept. Agric. Research

Inst. & College, Pusa, 1913-14, : 62-75:

6. — — — (1917): Rept. of the Proc.

7. Kunhi Kannan, K. (1931): The

Mass Rearing of the Egg Parasites of the

Sugarcane Moth Borer in Mysore (Pre-

liminary Experiments. J. Mysore agric.

Expt. Union 12 (2): 57-61.

8. Ramakrishna Ayyar, T. V.,& Mar-

gabandu,“ V. (1934): Hymenopterous

parasites of economic importance in

South India. Madras Agric. J. 22: 430-46.

9. Vassiliev, E.M.(1914): Two Insect

Pests of Sugar-beet from Turkestan.

Herald of the Sugar Industry 3: 68-75.

Kiev. Review of Applied Entomology 2:

248-49,

18. STRANGE BEHAVIOUR OF SOME DRAGONFLIES

Chandola is a large irrigation lake three miles south of Ahmedabad

situated on the

Ahmedabad-Bombay National

Highway. Since I

started taking an interest in nature study more than thirty years ago,

Chandola Lake has been my field observatory for the study and

collection of butterflies, dragonflies, and other insects, fishes, birds,

and lately spiders. When full of weeds, it is populated by a large

number of dragonflies. :

I have noticed that, whenever I move on the bank of the Lake on

my bicycle, a number of dragonflies fly parallel with my back wheel.

820 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

about 8”-12” off and keep company. A sudden burst of speed or

slowing down does not inconvenience them, and they immediately

accelerate or decrease their speed. If I brake and stop, they also stop

without moving even a foot further and then disperse, some resting on

ground, some on grass stems, and some flying away. The moment

T start my bicycle again, several dragonflies collect from somewhere

(I am not sure if they are the same insects) and fly parallel to the

back wheel. They follow me for a distance of 50 to 100 yards

according to where I stop. This is not an isolated experience. It has

occurred time and again, more or less regularly, for a number of

years in seasons when dragonflies were plentiful. Their number varies

from 10 to 50. I have been too lazy to collect specimens and hence

am unable to name the species, but they invariably belonged to that

drab or dull (yellowish brown) coloured, short and thick-bodied kind

of insects grouped under the sub-order Anisoptera of the order

Odonata. None of the brilliantly coloured slender-bodied Zygroptera

was ever found to indulge in this pastime.

What is the explanation of this peculiar behaviour on the part

of the dragonflies? Apparently, they seem to be attracted by the

spinning back wheel (why not the front wheel?) or is the whirring sound

of the fast moving wheel the cause of this strange behaviour? That

excellent book DRAGONFLIES by Corbet, Longfie'd, and Moore (New

Naturalist, Collins, 1960) does not refer to any such habit.

In this connection, there is one side of the dragonfly character

which should not be lost sight of. They are by nature fun-loving

insects. They continuously chase each other without any apparent

reason, and also fight with each other if they are near water. Perhaps

this habit of continuous movement may be responsible for the peculiar

behaviour referred to above, being attracted by the moving wheel.

A. dragonfly sitting or resting on a weed or branch of some bush will

immediately leave its perch if another dragonfly flies over it and will

fly after the other.

Or is the action similar to that of flies (?) collecting round or

over the head of a human being in the form of a cloud, a thing we

often see?

GUJARAT NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

AHMEDABAD, HARINARAYAN G. ACHARYA

November 15, 1961.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 821

19. ASYMMETRICAL. POSITION OF PALE ANTENNAL

SEGMENTS OF PARALABIS DOHRNI (KIRBY)

(LABIDURIDAE, DERMAPTERA)

(With one text-figure)

In an attempt to identify the earwig Paralabis (Psalis) dohrni

(Kirby), I was struck by the fact that the position of the pale antennal

segments varies not only between different specimens of the species

but also between the left and the right antennae of the same specimen

(see text-figure). This was confirmed by the examination of more

than fifty specimens, handpicked from gardens in Poona and found

generally under earthen flower pots (kKundis). Out of the total

number examined two specimens had no pale segment and in four

there was symmetry between the antennae. In the table below I give

details of 11 of the specimens examined by me.

TABLE

Some asymmetrical positions of the pale antennal segments of

Paralabis dohrni (Kirby)

Left Antenna Taf Antemna | Rieht Antenna Right Antenna

Sp. No. Serial Serial

Total No. of Nos. of Total No. of Nos. of

segments pale segments pale

segments | segments

1 13 | E213 12 10,

2 17 14, 15, 16 13 11. 6/4, 2;

3 17 14 (3/4), 19 ISe16, 17,

tose 165 17

4 14 12) 13 12 12

5 18 14 (3/4), 15, 17 15, 163517

16, 17 (3/4)

6 15 is 14, 15 17 13149815

il 14 14 (1/4) 14 12 (1/4),

13 (1/4), 14

8 18 14, 15, 16 12 10 (1/4),

| Piel

9 12 10 af), 13 13 (1/4)

| 1D FF

10 | 16 13 (4, 17 13 (1/4),

14, 14, 15

11 | 17 nil 11 nil

“The late Dr. W. D. Hincks “(1960, 0, personal communication), of

the Manchester Paceline to whom I am grateful for confirming

822 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

L. 1s, R

Fic. 1: Some of the asymmetrical positions of the pale antennal segments of

Paralabis dohrni (Kirby). L: Left antenna. R: Right antenna. P: Pale segments.

Nos. 10,11, 12, etc.: Number of antennal segments,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 823

my identification observed: ‘It should be remembered that the

significant segment in the development of the antennae is segment 3,

which divides from instar to instar producing an increasing number

of segments per instar. The increase exhibits a different pattern in

different Species but within a species the pattern is surprisingly con-

stant. Occasionally something goes wrong with this process produc-

ing a slightly different pattern in a particular individual, which may

thus be asymmetrical if only one side is affected or symmetrical if

both sides are equally influenced.’ If Dr. Hincks’s suggestion is

correct and the asymmetry is attributable to an accidental cause, it

is remarkable that it should be found in such a large proportion of

the cases examined.

Similar asymmetry in the distribution of the pale antennal segments

was observed in Euborellia annulipes (Lucas), but I have not kept a

detailed record of my observations.

RESEARCH LABORATORY,

ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT, P. V. JOSHI

N. WapIA COLLEGE,

Poona 1,

Julys20. 1961.

20. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SPIDER LATRODECTUS

HASSELTII INDICUS SIMON WITH A NOTE ON ARACHNIDISM

(With a text-figure)

On 17 June 196! a temale spider Latrodectus hasseltii indicus

Simon, carrying a cocoon was collected by the junior author (PWS)

under a stone in open scrub country on the tableland 2000 ft. at

Suriamal in north Thana, Bombay. The spider was kept alive for

observation some time. To the account in Pocock’s FAUNA volume

on Arachnida which is restricted to the size and colour of the female

(?) it may be added from observation of this specimen that the two

terminal segments of all the legs of the adult female are reddish brown

in colour. The following further notes may be of interest.

On the 18th, in transport and transfer to its new home in a rect-

angular glass jar (20.5X10X24 cm.) the spider and the cocoon were

separated, the latter lying on the bottom. However, during the night

the spider spun a few strands in a corner of the jar c. 10 cm. off

the bottom, recovered the cocoon, and attached it to the web. She

showed no further interest in it though she usually spent the day on

the web quite close to the cocoon. On 22 June a second cocoon,

174

824. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

similar in dimensions to the first, was spun quite close to the first on

the same web. The cocoons were white in colour, coarse-textured,

spherical in shape, with a diameter of 10 mm.

On 9 July, 23 days after collection, young emerged from the

first cocoon, and on 13 July from the 2nd cocoon, 22 days after it

was spun. The spiderlings emerged through a small circular hole on

the cocoon. There are instances of the mother spider of other

species aiding the young by perforating the cocoon; in the present

case the young emerged at night and we were unable to make any

observations. The young spiders remained mainly on the web strands

and on the muslin cover of the jar. The spiderlings from the two

cocoons totalled 304, but it was not possible to keep separate counts.

The spiderlings differ markedly from the adult in colour and body

pattern. Unlike the jet black of the adult with the patches of scarlet

on the upper side of the abdomen and at the tip of the lower side of

the abdomen, the young are mainly white and brown. The thorax

is pale brown above and below, with a black border to the

edge of the sternum; abdomen white above with four black spots

arranged distally in pairs and a large pale brown proximal spot,

a middle brown patch, and a distal smaller brown spot, all situated

along the mid abdomen; ventrally white, with a black line along the

sides, which end above the spinneret; fangs black: legs translucent

brown. Size less than 1 mm. in length. 4

The cocoon and the colour of the young are in many respects

similar to those of the American species Latrodectus mactans.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 825

The adult was fed on flies and black ants (Crematogaster sp.).

but there are records of the species feeding on much larger insects.

The young were to a certain extent cannibalistic. None survived.

The genus Latrodectus is widely distributed, and is regarded as

particularly dangerous in widely separated parts of the world: L.

menavodi in Madagascar, L. katepo in New Zealand, L. geometricus

and L. indistinctus in Africa, the Black Widow (ZL. mactans) in West

Indies and North America, and the Karakurt or Black Wolf (L.

tredecimguttatus) in Southern Europe.

A comprehensive article on arachnidism entitled ‘The health

problem of Arachnidism’ by Z. Marectic and M. Stanic, based on

their observation and work, clinical and otherwise, in combating an

outbreak of Arachnidism in the Istrian region of Yugoslavia in the

late forties and early fifties, was published in the World Health

Organization Bulletin, 1954, 11 : 1007-1022. The notes below are com-

piled from that article as very little information is available on the

subject in India, where only one little-known species occurs.

In south Europe, where L. tredecimguitatus the type species of

the genus is common, there appear to be periodic fluctuations in the

number of specimens seen. In some years the spiders are found in

enormous numbers and then disappear for years, even decades. In

Austria and Yugoslavia, it is said to be extremely common and to be

collected from almost every square yard. The spider is not aggressive,

biting only in self-defence. During the period 1948-53 over 180

cases, mostly among agriculturists, were treated.

The effect though serious is not usually dangerous to life. The

reactions follow a set pattern. The first symptom, which appears in

10 to 20 minutes or in some cases even an hour or more later, is a

burning sensation at the site of the bite followed by pain in the

lymphatic nodes (axillary or inguinal). This is followed by a feeling

of pressure in the chest and pain in the belly, back, and extremities, .

particularly the legs. Intense agonising pain is in fact the main

symptom. In serious cases the patient is unable to stand erect and

becomes stiff. There is increased tendon reflex, profuse sweating,

sometimes shedding of tears, excessive salivation or a dry mouth,

convulsion, and in some cases tetanic spasms of the jaw muscles.

' There is also considerable restlessness, the patient having an urge to

move and walk, is convulsed and writhes. These movements, also

noticed in experimental animals, give a certain amount of relief from

pain, and are believed to be the origin of hysterical taranterism,

from which originated the name of the Tarantella dance.

826 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

The symptoms in untreated persons last for a week and con-

valesence takes a month or more. There is considerable loss of

weight, one patient having lost 5 kg. in 3 days. In experimental

animals there is an instance of a rat having lost 20% of its weight

in 24 hours.

Curiously enough the effect of the venom on different animals

varies and the relative size of the animal appears to be of no im-

portance. The poison is deadly to camels and horses (a horse injected

with the macerate of a single spider died within 24 hours) but has

no effect on goats! Among the smaller animals mice are highly

sensitive, death following a bite in 10 to 20 minutes. Rabbits and

dogs are resistant. The venom has no effect on reptiles. It is

especially effective on nerve cells, and is believed to have a toxic

effect 15 times greater than that of the rattlesnake. The venom is

of a clear lemon-yellow colour. The Ph changes with temperature,

becoming alkaline above 25° C. and consequently more toxic. It is

also established that the venom of different species is practically identical

and anti-venom against the bite of one species gives equal protection

against allied species. The method of treatment which gave the best,

results was simultaneous application of anti-venom and calcium;

however, injection of calcium salts alone in the absence of anti-venom

would be sufficient to give relief. An intravenous injection of calcium

gluconate, chlorate, or bromate gives immediate and great relief from

pain. The pain may recur but these relapses run a milder course.

Several injections of calcium are recommended to complete the

treatment.

The bite of most species of spiders causes no more harm than

momentary discomfort.

BoMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, J. Cc. DANIEL

BOMBAY 6, P. W. SOMAN

November 22, 1961.

21. PROTECTIVE DEVICES OF SOME ORB-WEAVING

SPIDERS FROM INDIA

(With nine text-figures)

In the course of my field collections of spiders in India I have

come across interesting examples of protective devices, mainly among

the orb-weaving spiders. In this note I summarise some of my

observations,

JourN. BomBay NatT. Hist. Soc

OSB

SERS

Wes

Text-fig. 1. Web of Argiope arcuata, with Text-fig. 2. Web of Argiope pulchella, with zigzag

X-shaped protective band protective band

a : aah

Text-fig. 3. Web of Uloborus sp. with broad Text-fig. 4. Web of Cyclosa sp. with circular

protective ban protective bands

JOURN. BoMBAY Nat. HIstT. Soc.

PESCS

Text-fig. 5. Web of Cyclosasp. with rod-like Text-fig. 6. Web of Gasteracantha arcuata, with

protective band protective masses of waste products

SoHE

Tetragnatha mandibulata, with Text-fig. 8. Web of Araneus dehaanii, with a leaf attached

the leaf of a leguminous plant

Text-fig. 7. Web of

the spider sheltering in

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 827

At first sight it must seem rather strange that the customary

position of a spider, in the middle of its web, is the one in which the

creature is conspicuously exposed to every prey and enemy.

The spiders of the genus Argiope are true orb-weaving spiders

and are very common all over India. All the known species are

beautifully coloured on their abdomen. They construct a net web.

often suspended between two adjoining branches of low-growing

plants. It is a large orb-shaped construction with four characteristic

white silken lines, making an ‘X’ in the centre. On these four white

lines the spider places its four pairs of legs in such a manner that

one is not able to see the spider from the other side. The spider

hangs vertically, head downward. If anybody approaches the web

from the front, the spider immediately goes to the other side and at

the same time vibrates the entire web in such a way that one cannot

see the spider. Argiope arcuata Simon makes the ‘X’ with wide

ribbon-like bands (Text-fig. 1). Argiope pulchella Thorell does so

with zigzag lines (Text-fig. 2).

Some species of Uloborus from western Sikkim occur on rock.

It is very difficult to spot these spiders on their webs. They prepare

their webs a few centimetres from the rock and at the centre of the

web is a spreading band. The spider and the band are of the same

colour. The spider hangs downward just. behind the central band.

and sometimes the egg mass also hangs along the band (Text-fig. 3).

A Cyclosa sp. from Shillong illustrates an extension of this mode of

concealment. It spins the central shield and round it adds rough

irregular circles of silk ribbon. These circular ribbons have a pro-

tective value and the spider sits just behind the central ribbon

(Text-fig. 4).

I have collected other species of Cyclosa from Sikkim. They

prepare their web in the normal way but in the centre of the web

they place vertically a rod-like band, in the middle of which there is a

small gap of dimensions depending on the size of the spider (Text-

fig. 5). When the spider rests in the gap, the band seems like a

continuous straight line. Different species of Cyclosa may be of

different colours, e.g. one is silvery white and another ash-coloured.

The colour of the protective band corresponds to the body colour.

The spiders of the genus Gasteracantha have large abdomens and

are beautifully coloured, and move very slowly. I have collected

some specimens of G. arcuata Fabr. from Kalimpong, West Bengal.

At first I was unable to discover the spider in the web but on careful

828 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

observation I detected it at the centre of the web, among many

rounded masses of waste products, woven by the spider itself and

almost similar in colour and size to the spider, scattered about on

the web (Text-fig. 6). I have collected Tetragnatha mandibulata

Walcknear from the twigs of a leguminous plant overhanging a

tank near Jodhpur, Rajasthan. The spider prepares its web so that

some of the twigs or leaves are in the web, and during the day rests

among them with its legs stretched out before and behind in line with

its body (Text-fig. 7).

Araneus dehaanii Dol. is a large spider but in the ‘day-time it

is difficult to find it in the web. I saw many new webs, here and

there, on the bank of Tista River near Nayabazar but not a single

spider. After careful observation I saw at least one big leaf of an

adjacent plant attached to each web and the spider resting during the

day-time just below the mid-rib of the leaf (Text-fig. 8).

Text-fig. 9. Web of Theridion sp. enclosing dry leaf

Some species of Theridion, from Maharashtra and Mysore, pre-

pare their web in a very irregular manner in the bushes. The spider

places at least one dry leaf in the middle of the web in such a manner

that the leaf is attached to the web. The spider rests inside the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 829

cavity of the twisted dry leaf, and comes out only at the time of

catching its prey (Text-fig. 9). |

WESTERN REGIONAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, B. K. TIKADER

POONA,

September 6, 1961.

REFERENCES

Ellis, R. A. (1912): Spiderland: 46-71. the desert’s edge: 192-214. G. Witherby,

Cassell and Co., London. London.

Fabre, J. H. (1912): The life of the Savory, T. H. (1928): The Biology of

Spiders: 253-302. Hodder and Stoughton, Spiders: 150-156. Sidgwick and Jackson.

London. Warburton, C. (1912): Spiders: 1-134.

Hingston, R. W. G. (1925): Nature at Cambridge University Press, London.

22. OCCURRENCE OF THE ECHIUROID OCHETOSTOMA

ZANZIBARENSE STEPHEN IN THE GULF OF KUTCH

(With a _ text-figure)

We found the interesting Echiuroid Ochetostoma zanzibarense

Stephen in the low tide belt of Pirotan Island in the Gulf of Kutch,

10 miles off Jamnagar, on 22 September 1960. The specimen was lying

about 1 foot deep in the water on the coral reef in the beacon area

south-west of the island. On lifting the specimen from the water we

noticed the peristaltic movement of the animal, the waves of con-

traction passing from the anterior to the posterior end.

The live animal was a little over 7 inches in length including the

proboscis and was greenish red in colour. The proboscis is a solid

structure, about an inch in length and pale yellow in colour. The

lateral margin of the proboscis is inflected. The region of attachment

of the proboscis and the body is very delicate. The body is covered

over by green papillae. There is a pair of ventral setae. The longi-

tudinal muscles are divided into 12 bands. The nephridia are of

characteristic shape with spirally coiled filaments. The anal vesicles

are sac-like. |

Dr. A. C. Stephen of the Royal Scottish Museum, whom we

consulted about its identity, very kindly sent us all the available

literature on Echiuroids. On comparing our observation with Stephen’s

830 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

description (1952) we identify this specimen as Ochetostoma zanzi-

barense Stephen. Since its discovery from Zanzibar in 1952 nobody

reported the animal. This is the second report on the occurrence of

PRobose:s

VENTRAL SETAE

NE PHRIDIOPORE

Ochetostoma zanzibarense Stephen

-echiuroids from the Gulf of Kutch, the first being that of Gideon

et al. (1956).

We are grateful to Principal S. M. Mitra, p.sc., for his interest

and encouragement throughout the work.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

BIRLA COLLEGE, A. K. DATTA GUPTA

PILANI, RAJASTHAN, P. K. B. MENON

August 21, 1961.

REFERENCES

Gideon, P. W., Menon, P. K. B., Rao, Stephen, A.C., & Robertson, J. D.

S.R.V., & Jose, K.V. (1956): Occurrence (1952): A preliminary report on the

of the Echiuroid worm Ikedella misakien- | Echiuridae and Sipunculidae of Zanzi-

sis (Ikeda) in Indian waters (Gulf of bar. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. B 64(4) :

Kutch). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 426-444.

201-202.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 831

23. A NOTE ON THE FLOWER COLOUR OF POLYGALA

ERIOPTERA DC."

Polygala erioptera DC. is an annual herb, generally flowering and

fruiting in August-October, sometimes up to March. The colour of

the flowers has been variously described by several authors.

According to Dalzell & Gibson (Bom. FI. 13, 1861 under P.

vahliana DC.), Cooke (FI. Pres. Bom. 60, 1901), Duthie (Bot. Bih. &

Oriss. 1 : 62, 1903), Gamble (FI. Madr. 1 : 41, 1957, reprinted edition)

and Mukerjee (Bull. Bot. Soc. Beng. 12 : 47, 1959) the flowers are

yellow. Saxton & Sedgwick (Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 6 (7) : 245, 1918)

report this plant from north Gujarat and state: ‘the flowers vary

from yellowish-pink to reddish-purple but never yellow’. Blatter &

Hallberg (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26 : 223, 1918) describe the

flowers as ‘pale-rose coloured with the tip of the keel petal and the

crest darker’. Phatak & Oza (ibid. 55 : 593, 1958) state that the

flowers collected in August-September from Pavagadh in Gujarat

State were of the usual yellow colour, whereas in October some

plants had rose- or red-coloured flowers and that the colour remained

even when the flowers began to fade. They consider the latter as a

red- or rose-flowered variant of Polygala erioptera DC.

In Blatter Herbarium there are several sheets of this plant from

Saurashtra, Baroda, and Broach, and a few from Nasik, Deolali,

Poona, Ahmednagar, Kolhapur, and Andhra; most of the sheets are

collected between August and November and bear the remark:

‘flowers pink, red, or pale purple’; occasional sheets have ‘white’

flowers. One sheet, collected from Poona by Razi on 7-7-1951,

bears the remark: ‘flowers yellow’. Ezekiel (No. 30458), who

collected this plant from Poona on 22-8-1917, describes: ‘flowers

yellow fading pink’. Plants from Andhra collected on 10-7-57 have

‘white or pinkish flowers’ (Wagh No. 5994).

On several occasions the author collected the present plant from

Baroda and Broach in Gujarat State, where it is fairly common among

grasses during August-October. The flowers were invariably found to

be pink, red, or pale purple; in no case were yellow flowers seen.

It would appear from the above data that the flowers of P.

erioptera DC. when fresh may be yellow but later on turn pink, red,

or even white. Such a change in colour is also observed in several

plants, e.g. Abelmoschus manihot Medik., Hibiscus lampas Cav. It

is worth while to make careful field cbservations on this point at different

1 Communicated by Professor P. V. Bole.

832 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

times during the flowering season in various localities to confirm if

the change in colour is on account of the time of the year and the

age of the plant or connected with some ecological factor.

ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

BOMBAY, G. L. SHAH,

November 17, 1961. M.SC., Ph.p.

24. OCCURRENCE OF UTRICULARIA HIRTA

KLEIN IN SOUTH INDIA

(With one plate)

Utricularia hirta Klein ex Link in Jahrb. 1. (3): 55, 1820 ; Oliver in

J. Proc. Linnean Soc. 3°(12) =. 183: 1859 > Hook.f.“ FE Brit ind:

4; 332° 1885.

This is a rare insectivorous plant collected by the junior author

from Gingee Reserve Forests of Madras State at an altitude of c.115 m.

during the botanical exploration tours of the Botanical Survey of

India, Southern Circle. There is no authentic report of its occurrence

in south India, nor has the taxon been described in any of the south

Indian floras. In India, it is reported to have been collected previously

at an altitude of c.650m. from Giridih, Hazaribagh District, by Clarke

and from Manbhum District by Campbell, both in Chota Nagpur,

and at c.1000-1600 m. from Khasia mountains by Griffith (Hooker,

1885) ; Klein’s collection of the species from Deccan Peninsula

is not specific as to the exact locality. Because this interesting taxon

has not been described in any flora of south India and the available

description is incomplete in many respects, a detailed description

is presented here.

The taxon has been found growing in abundance in two isolated

spots only of the whole forest floor. It was in wet sandy soil near

a rocky area but was not found on a rock surface or near a stream.

The plants come up on wet, open, sandy soil, the pH of which

varies from 6 to 5. They come up during the retreating monsoon from

middle of September to December and complete their life cycle before

the commencement of the next season. The leaves could not be

collected, probably due to their ephemeral nature. A detailed descrip-

_tion of the species is given below.

An ephemeral herb; Jeaves looked for but not found; bladders

minute, pyriform, on the capillary structures (stolons) at the base of

the scape, shortly stalked laterally ; stolons minutely and sparsely hairy ;

‘ia hes Ma het

‘

¥ fr

)

; i

inc eae

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIsT. Soc.

Utricularia hirta Klein

1. Entire plant; 2. Basal portion of scape with capillary structures bearing bladders;

3. Entire flower (side view) ; 4. Corolla showing position of essential organs at base of

upper lip ; 5. Lower lip of corolla with spur; 6. Fruit with persistent calyx; 7. Calyx

lobes with gynoecium and androecium ; 8 & 9. Seeds—side and dorsal views.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES : | 833

scapes slender, simple, 4 to 8 cm. high, rarely branched, densely hirsute

all over; 3- to 4-flowered, erect raceme with one or two sterile basal

bracts ; bracts basifixed, minute, as long as or a little longer than the

pedicels, hairy, bracteoles 2, both bracts and bracteoles linear, lanceolate,

acute, and erect; flowers c. 5 mm. short-pedicelled, semi-erect 5

calyx 2-lobed, ovate, obtuse, hairy, persistent, spoon-shaped c. 2 mm.

long and c. 2 mm. broad at the base, subequal; corolla white or

bluish-purple, deciduous, bilobed, upper lip oblong obtuse, constricted

at the middle, well appressed and bent over the hump of the lower

lip ; lower lip c. 3 mm. long and 4 mm. broad, sparsely hairy reflex-

ed with a high hump, 3-lobed, mid-lobe smaller and tooth-like, side

lobes auricular, acute, lobes slightly incurved, hump shows 2 yellow

dots ; spur conically cylindrical, horizontal with a slight upward bend

near the apex, a little longer than the lower lip and protrudes _be-

yond the lower lip, sparsely hairy, blunt end is cleft, with 2 conspicuous

yellow spots on the side ; stamens 2, in front of the ovary with short

filaments ; ovary globular, stigma sessile, ovules numerous, placenta-

tion basal ; fruit 2 to 3 mm. globose, semi-erect with persistent calyx

lobes ; seeds minute, numerous, brownish, rhomboid, reticulate.

The following are a few of the variations noted in the specimens

collected from south India and the description given for the species

by Oliver (1859). The scape is smaller and measures only 4 to 8 cm.

while Oliver records a wide variation from 2.5 cm. to 15 cm.; 3 or

4 flowers have always been found in south Indian species while the

former record is ‘ often 1-2 flowered’. The upper lip of the corolla

is oblong-obtuse, constricted at the middle, differing from the obovate

or oblong-obovate or quadrately oblong characters described formerly.

However, the species has been confirmed at the Royal Botanic Gardens,

Kew, by Mr. Peter Taylor to whom we are grateful. ihe

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, Pus

SOUTHERN CIRCLE, J. JOSEPH, 4

COIMBATORE, K. RAMAMURTHY:

June 26, 1961. | :

REFERENCES

Haines, H. H. (1921) : The Botany of Oliver, D. (1859) : The Indian. species

Bihar and Orissa 2: 645. of Utricularia. J. Proc. Linnean Soc. 3

Hooker, J. D. (1885): The Flora of (12): 183. te ‘ ye

British India 4: 332.

834 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

25. A NEW SPECIES OF JATROPHA FROM SOUTH INDIA

(With a plate)

A new species of Jatropha collected at Kallimedu in Vedharanyam

Forest, Tanjore District, Madras State, south India, is described.

Jatropha tanjorensis Ellis et Saroja, sp. nov.

Pertinet ad Euphorbiaceas Crotonoideas Cluytieas, affinisque est

Jatrophae glanduliferae Roxb., a qua tamen differt foliis supra medium

lobatis, stipulis brevioribus in segmenta filiformia ad apices glandulifera

incisis, floribus polygamis, florum vero bisexualium petalis ad tertiam

partem ex basi connatis.

Frutex glaber, puberulus tamen in juvenili conditione; caulis

longus, robustus, dichotome ramosus. Folia simplicia, alterna, 7.5-

11.5 cm. longa, aeque lata ac longa, palmatim 3-5 lobata supra

medium, lobis late ovatis, acuminatis, marginibus distanter serratis,

serrationibus singulis desinentibus in setam glanduliferam, sparse pilosa

in utraque pagina, velutina ad utrumque latus nervorum nervulorum-

que, tenuiter cordata ad basim sinu tenui; nervi principes 7-9, eminentes;

petioli 4.5-7.5 cm. longi, nonnullis capillis gianduliferis prope basim

supra ornati; stipulae breves, ciliatae, singulae desinentes in capitulum

glandulare. Flores polygami, corymbose cymosi, virides colore pallide

rosaceo tincti; bracteae 6-20 mm. longae, 2-5 mm. latae, lanceolatae,

acutae, capillis glanduliferis ad margines ornatae. Flores o breviter pedi-

cellati; calyx 5-lobus, quincuncialis, lobis liberis, ovatis, tenuiter serratis,

-- 4 mm. longis, extus pilosis; corollae 5-lobae segmenta libera, con-

torta, obtusa, rotundata, t+ 4 mm. longa; discus constans glandulis

5 minutis ad basim columnae staminalis sitis; stamina 8, libera;

antherae erectae, basifixae, 5-7 capillis ornatae, connectivo prominent,

cellulis polliniferis ad utrumque latus positis. Flores hermaphroditi

breviter pedicellati; calycis 5-lobi segmenta libera, 5-8 mm. longa,

quincuncialia, pilosa ad margines serratos glanduliferos; corollae

5-lobae segmenta connata ad tertiam partem ex basi, 5-8 mm. longa,

obtusa contorta, nervosa, intus pilosa; discus circum ovarium constans

glandulis 5, levis; stamina 6-8 libera; antherae erectae, complanatae.

basifixae, connectivo prominenti; ovarium superius, glabrum, triloculare.

syncarpum, uno ovulo pendulo in unoquoque loculo; styli 3, singuli

in duo stigmata furcati. Fructus non visus..

Holotypus, Ellis 11809 A, et isotypi, Ellis 11809 B-F, lecti a J. L.

Ellis ad Kallimedu, in silva Vedharanyam dicta, in regione Tanjorensi,

*ysip: P “ajNAoO JO 9IN}eU MOS 0} Uddo

: JOMOY eUlUe}s B JO WONOS [eUsUB], *¢ ¢ 9oVJINS [eIXeqe—pos1e[Ud CUIWL] JO UONJOg °Z { YouRIG BJO UOIMOg *|

‘aou ‘ds ‘eforeg 19 siq susuasolun) vydowor

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at teu

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 835

in Statu Madras, in India meridionali die 20 januarii anni 1961, et

positi in Herbario Bot. Surv. Ind. ad Coimbatore.

Jatropha tanjorensis Ellis & Saroja, sp. nov.

(Euphorbiaceae—Crotonoideae—Cluytieae), allied to Jatropha

glandulifera Roxb., but differs in having leaves lobed above the middle,

Stipules shorter with a few filiform glandular-tipped divisions, flowers

polygamous, and petals connate to one-third their lengths at the base

in bisexual ilowers.

Shrub glabrous, puberulous in young condition; stem long, stout,

dichotomously branched. Leaf simple, alternate; lamina 7.5-11.5 cm.

long and as broad as long, palmately 3-5 lobed above the middle,

lobes broadly ovate, acuminate, the margins distantly serrate, each

setrature ending in a gland-tipped bristle, sparsely hairy on both the

sides, velutinous on either side of the veins and veinlets, base slightly

cordate with a shallow sinus; main nerves 7-9, prominent; petioles

4.5-7.5 cm. long with a few glandular hairs near the base adaxially;

stipules short, ciliate, each ending in a glandular head. Flowers

polygamous, in corymbose cymes, green with pale pink tinge; bracts

6-20 mm. long, 2-5 mm. broad, lanceolate, acute with gland-tipped

hairs on the margins. Staminate flower shortly pedicellate; calyx free,

S-lobed, quincuncial, lobes ovate, slightly serrate, c. 4 mm. long,

pilose outside; corolla 5-lobed, free; segments contorted, obtuse,

rounded, c. 4 mm. long; disc of 5 small glands at the base of the

staminal column; stamens 8, free; anthers erect, basally attached, 5-7

hairs on the anthers, connective prominent with pollen sacs on either

side. Bisexual flower shortly pedicellate; calyx free, 5-lobed, 5-8 mm.

long, quincuncial; segments ovate, pilose inside with gland-tipped

serratures on the margins; corolla lobes connate to one-third their length

at the base, 5-lobed, 5-8 mm. long, segments obtuse, contorted, veined,

hairy inside; disc of 5 glands around the ovary, smooth; stamens 6-8,

free; anther erect, flat, basally attached, connective prominent; ovary

superior, glabrous, trilocu’ar, syncarpous, with one pendulous ovule

in each locule; styles 3, each bifurcating into two stigmata. Fruit not

seen.

Holotype, Ellis 11809 A, and Isotypes, Ellis 11809 B-F, were

collected by J. L. Ellis at Kallimedu in Vedharanyam Forest, Tanjore

District, Madras State, south India, on 20 January 1961. They were

incorporated in the Southern Circle Herbarium, Botanical Survey of

India, Coimbatore, south India.

836. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to express their thanks to the Director, Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, for his help in comparing this

species with the rest of Jatropha represented in Kew, and to Dr. K. M.

Sebastine, Systematic Boianist in charge, Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore, for his keen interest and kind encouragement through-

out the present study. Thanks are also due to Rev. Fr. H.

Santapau, s.J., Chief Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta,

for his constructive suggestions and rendering the diagnosis into Latin.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, ;

SOUTHERN CIRCLE, J. L. EEREIS

COIMBATORE, T. L. SAROJA

August 5, 1961.

26. EMEX SPINOSA (LINN.) CAMPD. (POLYGONACEABE):

A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

(With one plate)

The genus Emex Neck. (Polygonaceae) has only two known species.

One is E. australis Steinh., a native of South Africa, where it grows

as a common weed by river banks and on damp ground. This species is

kown to have spread in several parts of the world, e.g. Australia, where

it has naturalised itself as a common roadside weed of certain regions.

The second species, E. spincsa (Linn.) Campd. is said to be native of the

Mediterranean region and is seen to grow as a very common weed,

particularly in sandy waste places in Algeria, Egypt, Palestine, Crete,

Greece, and Arabia, and is also known from Spain, Portugal, Sicily,

Canaries, S. Africa, Australia, and Florida. This species is now being

recorded for the first time in India, where it seems to have been a

recent migrant from the Middle East countries.

Emex spinosa (Linn.) Campd.

Description. An annual, 20-80 cm. high, ascending or decumbent

glabrous herb. Tap root 5-15 cm. long, more or less fusiform. Stems

I- many, 5-15 mm. thick, cylindrical, with longitudinal whitish streaks

when green, sulcate and light brown when dry, sub-dichotomously

branched — generally near base; nodes somewhat swollen, internodes

up to 15 cm. long, rarely more; older stems fistular. Leaves 10-30 cm.

long, radical and basal, cauline with much longer petioles — about

JourN. BomBay NaT. Hist. SOc.

Emex spinosa Campd.

ne Whole plant (a small specimen); B. Male flower; C. Male flowers after

shedding anthers; D. Dissected female flower showing inside of perianth-tube and

position of inner perianth lobes ; E. Pistil; F. Fruit (cauline) in face view.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 837

two-third of the entire length; the petioles adaxially flat, much dilated

at base, the bases persisting; lamina 4-10 by 3-6 cm., apex round,

margins entire — sometimes undulate towards base, glabrous on both

surfaces, veins prominent beneath. Ochrea silvery, membranous,

tubular, soon becoming torn and jagged — ultimately lost at age.

Flowers monoecious. Fema'es usually forming axillary whorl-like

clusters of (6-) 8-10 (-12) flowers, sub-sessile, those in axils of pseudo-

verticillate radical leaves (‘radical flowers’) usually solitary, larger,

and sessile; perianth green — a triquetrous tube with deep pitted

obconic base and faces almost equal with a stout median ridge and

similar pittings (the radical flowers have nearly truncate base and the

outer faces broader and roundish with usually more than one ridge

and excessive pittings — the outer two faces being proportionately

reduced), 6-lobed, the lobes in two alternating series, outer three

divergent with spinescent apices extending along angles of the tube;

inner having lower halves erect with three prominent ribs, upper

halves deltoid and converging to form an almost closed trigonous top.

Ovary pink, trigonous, enclosed tightly by the perianth tube;

stigmas large, extruding through the angles of the inner perianth.

Male flowers in axillary clusters among the fema!es — excepting

radical clusters, or on short (up to 4 cm. long) axillary or leaf-opposed

shoots — often with few female flowers at lower nodes, pedicellate —

the pedicels 1-3 mm. long, slender; perianth segments (4-) 5-6 (more

commonly 5) in two alternating series, 1.5-2.5 by .5-1.5 mm., elliptic-

ovate, acute, sepaloid, outer three broader than inner. Stamens (6-)

5 (rarely 4) — when 6, a pair opposite each outer perianth segment

but usually one or at times two reduced to solitary; anthers slightly

extruding; filaments persistent. Fruit trigonous, brown, 5-7 by 4-5 mm.,

including the persistent perianth (now enlarged and much hardened);

the radical fruits with perianth up to 9 by 6 mm. with the spines

nearly blunt. Seeds trigonous with a pointed tip, brown, 3-4 by

2-3 mm., those of radical fruits proportionately larger.

Flowers and fruit: February-May.

V. S. Sharma 890 (Mall Rd., 2 March 1959): 1460 (Pushkar,

3 March 1960): 1676 (Adarshnagar, 8 March 1961). These are the

numbers of the specimens collected by the author during his studies

on the Flora of Ajmer (Rajasthan).

During the examination of a large number of locally - col'ected

fresh as well as dried specimens it was noticed that occasionally one

or more, especially outer perianth segments in male flowers, are on

838 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

the way to become quite thick and spinescent like those in the female

flowers. Some abnormalities like cohesion of two radical flowers are

also seen. :

The species by now has naturalised itself well in the cultivated

fields, especially of the sandy regions. Besides its occurrence in mostly

wheat and barley fields, I have frequently seen the weed in beds of

Spinacia oleracea Linn., where it generally remains stunted (probably

due to regu'ar plucking), resulting in the development of only radical

leaves which make the plant similar in appearance to the vegetable

crop. It appears that in the very near future, this species may spread

to other parts of the country and become one of the most trouble-

some weeds, a possibility that is quite conceivable with its abundant

fruits and owing to its adhesive perianth which provides an efficient

means of dispersal. In my opinion, the probability cannot be ruled

out that the present species may have already established itself in

other sandy regions of the State and in regions of west and south

Rajasthan during its migration.

I am greatly indebted to Dr. B. Tiagi, Reader, University Depart-

ment of Botany, Jodhpur, for guidance and to Shri Bhim Sen,

Principal, Government College, Ajmer, for providing all research

facilities. I also express my sincere thanks to Shri M. B. Raizada,

Officer-in-charge, Botany, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, for

Herbarium and library pares

SEIT Ts

DEPARTMENT OF Borie

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE, V. S. SHARMA

AJMER (RAJASTHAN),

October 30, 1961.

27. CONVOLVULUS PLURICAULIS CHOISY, A SYNONYM OF

CONVOLVULUS MICROPHYLLUS eee

mS --,

While attempting to establish the botanical Bie oe’ of Sen

pushpi, an important drug of indigenous medical practice, it was found

that C. microphyllus and C. pluricaulis formed two of the five different

sources of this drug. On further scrutiny of the literature, herbarium

specimens, and authentic drug samples, we found it practica'ly im-

possible to distinguish them from each other, and, therefore, suggested

[1961, Ind. Jour. Pharm. 23 (8) : 223-224] that the two species should

be merged into one. The fusion could not be accomplished then

as the type material could not be examined, and so we sought

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 839

the help of the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for ex-

amining the type material in their herbarium. The opinion of the

Kew authorities based on the type duplicates of both the species has

confirmed our earlier findings. They say: ‘The distinctions suggested

by Clarke (Hooker’s, 1885, FL. BR. IND. 4 : 218) between the widespread

C. microphyllus, extending from Egypt to India, and O. pluricaulis,

Which has only been identified as occurring in India and Pakistan, do

not appear to be tenable. It would seem that all the material should

be referred to a single variable species for which the correct name

would be C. microphylius. Detailed study would be required to

establish whether varieties should be recognised, but in the Indian

material none are readily distinguishable.’

The nomenclature of the Indian plant described under these two

names is given below:

Convolvulus microphyllus Sieb. ex Spreng. Syst. 1: 611, 1824.

Syn. C. pluricaulis Choisy, Convol. Or. 95, 1834.

_ The authors are grateful to the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens,

Kew, Richmond, Surrey, for his kind help.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT,

ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, P. V. BOLE

BOMBAY, VIRBALA SHAH

November 28, 1961.

Notes and News

Toxic Chemicals

The increasing use of toxic chemicals for the protection of

agricultural crops in India requires attention to be drawn to an aspect

that may be overlooked or noticed too late—the destruction of wild

animals and birds caused by these chemicals. Lovers of nature have

long been seriously concerned about this menace to wild life. Indis-

putable evidence, in the shape of post-mortem analyses of dead birds

and animals collected from different parts of England, has recently

been furnished by a Joint Committee of the British Trust for

Ornithology and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. As

a result of the activities of this Committee and criticism, both in

Parliament and in the press, a comp'ete ban has been placed on the

use for spring sown grain of seed dressings containing dieldrin, aldrin,

heptachlor, and in the other seasons their use is permitted only for

autumn and winter wheat ‘where there is real danger of attack from

Wheat bulb fly’. It is hoped that this matter will be carefully con-

sidered by our Central and State Governments before long-term

programmes are undertaken in this country.

* 2 * *

Red Goral

In Miscellaneous Note No. 4 at page 792 above a reference

is made to a bright red goral recently described from the Mishmi

Hills in Assam. Members resident in that area and others who have

the opportunity are requested to keep a look-out for this animal and

to try and obtain a specimen for the Society’s collection.

* * * *

Fall-out menace from Atom Bomb

In October 1961 the long-threatened atom bombs of gigantic pro-

portions were tested by Russia on the island of Novaya Zemlya in

the Arctic Circle, roughly 75° N., 56° E.

There have been several press reports in all parts of the world

NOTES AND NEWS. 841

stating that, in addition to atmospheric contamination by radio-active

material, the bombing tests have raised the possibility of migrating

birds being affected and carrying the contamination to other parts of

the world.

Enquiries have been received by the Society about the advisability

of shooting and eating duck and other game birds which visit India

during the cold weather.

With our present knowledge of bird migration and the wide dis-

tribution of many species, it was impossible to select any birds which

would be known to come definitely from the affected area, but single

specimens of the Common Pochard (Aythya ferina) and the Pintail

Snipe (Capella stenura) shot in Nasik District, Maharashtra State, on .

3 December 1961, were sent to Dr. A. R. Gopal-Ayengar of the Biology

and Medical Divisions, Atomic Energy Establishment Trombay,

Government of India, Bombay.

Analysis carried out at the laboratories of the Atomic Energy Esta-

blishment have revealed no traces of radio-active contamination in

any of these birds or the three other duck received from Bharatpur.

The Atomic Energy Establishment is keeping a close watch on the

activity levels of migratory birds and any harmful indication will be

brought to the notice of the public.

* *k ok *

MEScuebicotec in Piveld Ornithology

We are glad to be able to announce that the M.Sc. degree in

Field Ornithology (Zoology) has been awarded by the University of

Bombay to Shri Vijaykumar C. Ambedkar, who worked for the degree:

at the Bombay Natural History Society under the guidance of Dr.

Salim Ali. The subject of his thesis was ‘The Ecology and Breeding

Biology of the Indian Weaver Birds with special reference to Ploceus'

philippinus (Linn.). Shri Ambedkar was the first student at the

Society, which we believe is the first and only institution in India to

be recognized for M.Sc. courses in Field Ornithology.

*f * *K *

News suilding for ther Society

In the Annual Report for 1960/61 (page 843 below) we referred

to negotiations with the Ministry of Scientific Research and Cultural

18A

842 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

Affairs, Government of India, regarding funds for the construction of

a building to house the Society and its collections. The Ministry

have sanctioned an initial grant of Rs. 1.50,000 to the Prince of

Wales Museum of Western India, Bombay, for the construction of a

building in their grounds, which is to be let to the Society for a

nominal rent. The plans are under preparation and it is hoped to

commence work soon.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1960-61

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

SHRI SRI PRAKASA, Governor, State of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s. (Retd.)

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Mr. Humayun Abdulali (Hon. Secretary)

Mr. Surendr Lall (Hon. Treasurer)

Dr. D. V. Bal, M.sc., Ph.D.

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.C.s.

R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.Sc., Ph.D.

Mr. D. N. Marshall

Mr. K. J. Nanavatty, LP.

Mr. D. J. Panday

Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Dr. H. Trapido, M.D.

Ex Officio

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya, F.R.E.S. - .. Ahmedabad

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E. . Calcutta

Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., I.C.S. (Retd.). . New Delhi

-Rev- Pr. Dr. J. B.Breeman: M.A., LW, Ph.D., D.D. Mysore

Mr:‘E:-P.Gee,, M-A., G:M.Z.S... ve .. Shillong

Dr. Baini Prashad, D.Sc., F.N.I. at .. Dehra Dun

Mr. P. D. Stracey, LF.s. : .. Dehra Dun

Dr. M. L. Roonwal, M.sc., Ph.D., F.N.I., F.Z.S.1. wan. .Calciutia

Lt.- Gen. Sir H. Williams, C.B., C.B.E. M. I.C.E., M.LE. Roorkee

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1960-61

At the last Annual General Meeting of the Society, I presented a

report for the year ending 31st August 1960. The present report covers

the period of 12 months thereafter.

844. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

THE SOCIETY’S JOURNAL

Volume 57 was concluded and contained 3 articles on Game Sanc-

tuaries and Wild Life Preservation, 8 on birds, 1 each on fish and mol-

luscs, 2 on arachnids, 4 on insects, and 14 on botany. During the

current year, only one part of Volume 58 has been issued ; we hope to

catch up and issue the other two before long. The dearth of articles on

general Natural History continues.

GENERAL

It is still not possible to report any definite progress regarding the

negotiations with the Ministry of Scientific Research & Cultural Affairs

regarding a grant for anew building for the Society in the Museum

grounds.

The Society continues to assist Dr. Salim Aliin the bird migration

study project to which I referred in my last report. Some 7500 birds

have been ringed in the four seasonal efforts which have been made and

some 20% of them were migrants. Activities are being now directed to

duck and grey quail and it is hoped that this will increase the chances of

recovery. The World Health Organization have made an additional

grant of $5000 and it should be possible to continue this work for some

time.

In addition to several field trips into the Ghats near Bombay,

members of the Society’s staff were able to pay a short visit to Talewadi

on the western borders of Belgaum District, in Mysore State. They

have obtained several interesting bats and amphibians, some of which

are welcome additions to our collections.

During the year, some 800 additions were made to our vertebrate

collections—21 mammals, 132 birds, 108 reptiles and 540 amphibians.

Interesting additions include among birds the Spiny Babbler (Turdoides

nipalensis), and among mammals specimens of Wroughton’s Freetailed

Bat (Otomops wroughtoni) collected after a lapse of 50 years at Tale-

wadi, the type locality. At the same place, specimens of Taphozous

theobaldi which in India has so far been recorded only from Nimar,

Madhya Pradesh, were obtained. The identified reptiles include Oligo-

don juglandifer and Bungarus bungaroides and the amphibians Indoty-

phlus battersbyi (a new genus and species from Khandala, W. Ghats),

Tylototriton verrucosus, Megophrys major, Aelurophryne mammata, Rana

annandalli, Philautus annandalli, Ramanella montana, R. variegata and

Kaloula pulchra_ taprobanica.

The additional steel cabinets, ordered during the year, have also

been received and with the exception of the skins of the larger mammals,

it is hoped that our vertebrate collections will soon be properly arranged

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1960-61 845

and become more easily accessible for examination and reference than.

they have been before.

During the year, 64 books were added to the Library which includ-

ed 13 purchased, 7 received for review, and 44 presented; 30 journals

have been bound, and 7 books rebound. We obtain 10 journals and/or

magazines by subscription and 54 by exchange. The latter list is being

revised and suggestions from members would be welcome.

PUBLICATIONS

The revised 6th edition of THE BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS by Salim Ali,

and A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA & PAKISTAN by Dillon Ripley

were published in August this year. We have applied to the Ministry of

Scientific Research & Cultural Affairs for financial assistance for THE

BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS and also to enable us to proceed with the publi-

cation of the 2nd edition of THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS, the typescript

and pictures of which are ready.

The Ministry of Scientific Research & Cultural Affairs have autho-

rised the Society to reprint a second edition of M.A. Smith’s volume

on Snakes in the FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA series. This was published in

1943 but, after the first distribution in India, the stock was destroyed by

enemy action in London. Inthe absence of any other work on this

subject, the book is very badly needed in India. We hope to have it

ready by the middle of next year.

NATURE EDUCATION

The Nature Education Scheme for children, financed by the Gov-

ernment of Maharashtra, is now in its 13th year. Tours of the Natural

History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum and special talks on

natural history subjects with the aid of exhibits and other specimens,

films, and sometimes living animals, were continued and over 4500 chil-

dren attended.

Eight field trips to different places in the Island of Salsette were

arranged for members of Nature Study Clubs. The trips were followed

by meetings at schools to help children to learn to collect and preserve

specimens and to discuss items and topics experienced afield.

Three trips were arranged :

(a) To study the plant life of Khandala, led by Fr. H. Santapau ;

(0) To Bassein to study the geographical features of the area, led

by Principal C. B. Joshi of Parle College ;

Prof. R. N. Sukheswala.

846 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

The English edition of the 5th booklet OUR ANIMALS in the ‘Glimpses

of Nature’ series will be available shortly. The editions in the other

languages are under preparation. We cannot help referring to the poor

sales experienced by the publications, in spite of the low price and large

number of coloured illustrations included therein. es

MEMBERSHIP

The total membership on our books at the end of 1960 was 1101

including 235 life and 6 honorary members. Of the others, subscrip-

tions were received from 680 members up to the end of July this year,

leaving 180 who had either not informed us of their desire to resign or

could not be traced. During the 12 months, 85 ordinary members and

4 life members were enrolled as against 29 resigned and 5 ordinary and

2 life members who died during the year.

With funds made available by the Rockefeller Foundation, an _illust-

rated brochure depicting the history and the activities of the Society has

been prepared and sent to persons and institutions likely to be interested.

We hope to show an increase in membership during the current and

ensuing years.

REVENUE ACCOUNT, 1960

. During the year under review, the income of the Society, excluding

the special grant received from the Government of Maharashtra for the

maintenance of the Reference Collections, was Rs. 45,409:06 as against

Rs. 57,657°40 in the previous year. This drop of Rs. 12,224.64 was

partly (Rs. 2529°32) on account of fall in the income from subscriptions

during 1960 and mainly as our popular publications were out of print.

| The -operations of the Society during 1960 showed a deficit of

- Rs. 8966°43 as against Rs. 2221-49 in 1959. Expenses during the year

amounted to Rs. 54,376°29 as against Rs. 59,878°89 in the previous year.

~ You will notice that the Balance Sheet shows our stock of books as

worth Rs. 49,439:37. This represents the value of 8 publications of

which three, viz. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES, BUTTERFLIES OF THE

INDIAN REGION, and the Wall Charts for the Identification of Poisonous

Snakes, account for over Rs. 40,000-00. 2000 copies of the Tree books.

were published in 1955, and though we sold 551 copies in the first year,

the sales have dropped to 139 copies in 1960. Similarly, only 70 copies

of the Butterfly book were sold during the year. Your Committee are

considering ways and means of improving the rate of sale, but meanwhile

we have to contend with a very slow conversion of stock into cash, and

to this extent are handicapped in undertaking additional publications.

Members are requested to assist as much as. possible in the sales of

the Society’s publications.

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1960-61 847

STAFF

The Committee wishes to record its appreciation of the willing co-

- operation of the entire staff in the activities of the Society.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. J. L. Bernard who con-

tinues to look after the Society’s interests in the United Kingdom.

848

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58 (3)

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PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1960-61 853

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD IN THE

DURBAR (TOWN) HALL, BOMBAY, ON FRIDAY, 22ND

SEPTEMBER 1961 AT 6 P.M., WITH MR. G. V. BEDEKAR, L.c.s.

IN THE CHAIR

1. The Honorary Secretary’s report for the year ending 31st August

1961 having been previously circulated to members was taken as

read and adopted.

2. The Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts presented by

the Honorary Treasurer were approved.

3. The following were elected as members of the Executive and

Advisory Committee for the year 1961 :

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

SHRI SRI PRAKASA, Governor, State of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents Ex Officio

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1.m.s. (RETD.)

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Mr. Humayun Abdulali (Hon. Secretary)

Mr. Surendr Lall (Hon. Treasurer)

Dr. D. V. Bal, M.sc., Ph.D.

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s.

R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji

Mr. Z. Futehally

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.sc., Ph.D.

Mr. D. N. Marshall

Mr. D. J. Panday

Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Dr. H. Trapido, M.D.

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya, F.R.E.S. ah .- Ahmedabad

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E. .. New Delhi

Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.LE., 1.c.s. (Retd.) New Delhi

854 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 38 (3)

Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, M.A., L.T., Ph.D., D.D.... Mysore

Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S. gd .. Shillong

Dr. Baini Prashad, D.sc., F.N.I. + .. Dehra Dun

Mr. P. D. Stracey, 1.F.s. (Retd.) ie .. Shillong

Dr. M. L. Roonwal, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.N.I., F.Z.S.1. .. Calcutta

Lt.-Gen. Sir H. Williams, c.B., C.B.E., M.I.C.E., M.L.E. Roorkee

Y.S. Shivrajkumar of Jasdan ee .. Jasdan

4. The following Amendments to the Rules & Regulations of

the Society, previously circulated with explanatory notes, were put

to the vote and carried unanimously :

i. that the following paragraph be inserted at the end of the

existing Rule 7 :

‘It shall also be permissible for the Committee to decapitalize

such investments and use the proceeds as revenue, provided

that the market value of the capital remaining invested in

Government Securities after such transaction shall not be

less than the amount of the contributions and compounded

subscriptions paid by the then existing Life Members and

corporate members who have compounded their subscriptions.’

ii. that the following words be deleted from the existing Rule 25 :

‘....and printed in two newspapers published outside

Bombay ’.

5. The films BETWEEN THE TIDES and KEW GARDENS loaned by

British Information Services were exhibited and greatly appreciated.

6. The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to the British

Information Services for the loan of the films, to the Asiatic Society

for the loan of the premises, and to the Chairman of the meeting.

eee

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS-—8-2-1962, (C6711

EDITORS: ‘H. SANTAPAU & HUMAYUN ABDULALI

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Mammals

The Book of Indian Animals, by S.H. Prater. With many coloured and monochrome

plates. 2nd (revised) edition. (dn preparation) .

Birds

Game Birds of India, by E.C. Stuart Baker. Vol. III. Pheasants, Ist Edition. Rs. 20

(Price to Members Rs. 15) |

The Book of Indian Birds, by Sdlim Ali. With 64 coloured and many OE Betrsine

plates, 6th edition, revised and enlarged. Rs. 25

(Price to Members Rs. 20)

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripiey Il. An up-to-date

checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal, Sikkim,

Bhutan, and Ceylon. Rs. 25

“(Price to Members Rs. 20)

; Snakes

Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi.

Rs. 10.

(Price to Members Rs. 8) Pie

Miscellaneous

Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatterand Millard. With many coloured and

monochrome plates. 2nd edition. Revised by W. T. Stearn. Rs. 20

(Price to Members Rs. 16)

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With many coloured

and monochrome plates. Rs. 22

(Price to Members Rs. 17.50)

Butterflies of the Indian Region, by M. A. Wynter-Blyth. With 27 coloured and 45

monochrome plates. Rs. 28

(Price to Members Rs. 22.50)

Indian Molluscs, by James Hornell. With 2 coloured and many monochrome plates,

and text-figures. / Rs. 6

(Price to Members Rs. 4.50)

Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :

1. Our Birps I (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi.

80 aP

Kannada 62 nP

2. Our Birps II (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi.

62 nP

3. Our BEAUTIFUL TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, and

Marathi. 62 nP

Our Monsoon PLANTS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi,

and Marathi. 80

5. Our ANIMALS (with 8 coloured plates) in English. Rs. 1.25

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.

Obtainable from :

The Honorary Secretary,

Bombay Natural History Society,

91, Walkeshwar Road, Bombay 6.

Agents in England : .

Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley Ltd.,

Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Nr. Hitchin,

Herts., England.

The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, particularly

numbers prior to Vol. 45, from members who may not wish to preserve them. ’

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and a life membership fee of Rs. 500.

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and an annual subscription of Rs. 30.

The subscription of members elected in Qctober, November, and December. covers

the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA

The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members should

pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the

subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 32.50—to the Society in Bombay on the Ist

January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £2-10-0 should be paid

annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The National & Grindlays Bank Ltd.,

26 Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. 2.

CONTENTS

THE BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE FOREST WAGTAIL, MOTACILLA INDICA GM.

By Irene Neufeldt

A REDESCRIPTION OF THE INDIAN TERMITE, ODONTOTERMES BELLAHUNI-

SENSIS HOLMG. & HOLMG., WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SUBSPECIES FROM

RAJASTHAN. By M.L. Roonwal and Geeta Bose

CRITICAL NOTES ON THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE. VII. Eria Lindl.

& Porpax Lind]. By H. Santapau,s.)., F.N.1., and Z. Kapadia, ph.p. .

A New GENUS, EIGHT NEW SPECIES, SEVEN NEW FORMS, AND NOTES ON THE

LEPIDOPTERA OF SAUDI ARABIA, BAHRAIN, AND IRAN. By E. P. Wilt-

shire

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE SPINY LOBSTER, PANULIRUS DASYPUS (H.

MILNE-EDWARDS) IN BOMBAY WATERS, WITH A NOTE ON THE SYSTEMATICS

OF Bomsay Lossters. By B. F. Chhapgar and S. K. Deshmukh

STUDIES ON THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA. I. Aeoloso-

matidae and Naididae. By K. Vanamala Naidu

Tue Birps oF NEPAL. Part5. Biswamoy Biswas

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA. III. At the middle of the

19th Century. By I. H. Burkill

A NATURAL SANCTUARY IN THE HIMALAYA : Nanda Devi and the Rishiganga

Basin. By Hari Dang ~

THE GENUS OZDOGONIUM IN MysoRE STATE. By Ella A. Gonzalves and

G.R. Sonnad

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA. Part XXVI. A Contribution to

our Knowledge of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects of the

Nival Zones from the North-West a a Part 2. By M.S. Mani

and Santokh Singh ne ox cra

FLORA OF DISTRICT MUZAFFARNAGAR IN THE DOAB OF THE RIVERS GANGA

AND YUMNA. By Raj Kumar Gupta

OBITUARY

REVIEWS ate

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY UP TO 30TH SEPTEMBER 1961 7

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES He aes Ef = ae

NOTES AND NEWS .. He 3 ae ai og

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE

YEAR 1960-61 .. I ce ap - ve

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SociETY “A

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING ag Ee oh

359

580

595

608

632

639

653

678

707

715

724

749

716

778

785

790

840

843

848

853

ee ee