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Journal of the

eine Natural History pocicty

JOC SH

Vol. 59, No. 1

Editors

H. SANTAPAU, s.J., & HUMAYUN ABDULALI

APRIL 1962

Rs. 15

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific arucics are requesied to assist the

editors by observing the toiiowing iusirucuions:

1. Papers which have at the same ume been offered for publica-

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have aiready been published

elsewhere, should not be submitteu.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a

sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names 10 be printed in italics should be under-

lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names

always begin with a smdii ielier even ii tiiey refer to a person or a

place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis

or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

identification has been authenticaily established by comparison of

specimens actually collected. in aii other cases, or where identification

is based merely on sight, binomiais should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good

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7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the

paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name with the abridged

titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics), and titles of books

not underlined (roman type), thus:

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji, 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by

a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

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EDITORS,

91, Walkeshwar Road, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Bombay 6-WB. History Society.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 59, NO. 1

PAGE

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA. Part 1. By A. Brosset.

(With 11 maps and 3 plates) eT Ay) on Lae |

NOTES ON INDIAN COMMELINACEAE — I. By Seshagiri Rao Rolla and

R. V. Kammathy. (With 3 plates) ae Be aif D6

A DESCRIPTION OF THE HITHERTO UNDESCRIBED TADPOLE OF, AND SOME

FigeL>D NOTES ON THE FUNGOID FROG, RANA MALABARICA BIBRON.

By V. K. Chari. (With one plate) .. He i ASHE E

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA. Part XXVI. A Contribution to our

Knowledge of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects of the Nival

Zones from the North-West Himalaya. Part 3. By M. S. Mani and

Santokh Singh. (With ten text-figures) eA se Dasapia ia

THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOcIETY/WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

BiRD MIGRATION STUDY PRoJEcT. By Salim Ali. (With four plates) .. 100

STUDIES ON THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA. I. Aeoloso-

matidae and Naididae. Part 2. By K. Vanamala Naidu. (With five

text-figures) Ls a at o iy o. It

THE SWIFILETS (COLLOCAL/A) OF JAVA AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS, By Lord

Medway aS ae He ae, + .. 146

CRITICAL NOTES ON THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE. VIII. Some of the

smaller Genera. By H. Santapau and Z. Kapadia. (With six plates)

. 154

THE GREAT INDIAN BusTARD [CHORIOTIS NIGRICEPS (VIGORS)] AT THE

Nest. By R.S. Dharmakumarsinhji. (With two plates) oe Ad 6)

VEGETATION OF KODAIKANAL IN SouTH INpIA. II. A Supplementary list of

Trees, Shrubs, and Herbs. By Raj Kumar Gupta iy He aL SS

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL. Part 6. By Biswamoy Biswas ve .. 200

AN ACCOUNT OF A TRIP TO THE BARAPEDE CAVE, TALEWADI, BELGAUM DISTRICT,

Mysore STATE, WITH SOME NOTES ON REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS. By

Humayun Abdulali. (With one text-figure) a ee oe 228

A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF THE BIONOMICS AND TAXONOMY OF APHIDS FROM

Assam. By A. K. Ghosh and D. N. Ray Chaudhuri. (With a

text-figure) = ~ bg 238

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAz. Part I. By Sarojini R. Pillay. (With

four text-figures) . 254

OBITUARY :

Lieut.-Col. R. S. P. Bates, 1.4. (Retd.) (With a plate) 3 Rear

REVIEWS :

1, Nature Conservation in Western Malaysia, 1961. (R.R.) Bere)

2. A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. (B. Biswas) .. 216

3. The Study of Ants. (N.T.N.) .. 278

PAGE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES : |

1. The wild pigs in the Andamans (With two plates). By Humayun Abdulali

(p. 281). 2. Transmission of rabies without biting. By Editors (p. 283). 3.

Unusual plumage of the Little Cormorant [Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot)]. By

S. Dillon Ripley (p. 285). 4. Wigeon, Anas penelope Linn., and Redheaded

Pochard, Aythya ferina (Linn.), at Coimbatore, South India. By B. Subbiah

Pillay (p. 286). 5. The Great Indian Bustard [Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors)]

at the nest (With 2 plates). By Y.S.Shivrajkumar (p. 287). 6. Drumming by,

and an instance of homo-sexual behaviour in, the Lesser Goldenbacked Wood-

pecker (Dinopium benghalense). By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 288). 7. Thé

Lesser Whitethroat (Sylvia curruca blythi Ticehurst & Whistler) in Nepal: a

new record. By S. Dillon Ripley (p. 290). 8. Orangeflanked Bush Robin

[Erithacus cyanurus (Pallas)] in Dehra Dun. By Joseph George (p. 290). 9. A

note on the sexuality of the right ovary in birds. By P. N. Mehrotra (p. 291).

10. Migratory wagtailsin Kerala. By Satim Ali (p. 294). 11. Recovery of ringed

birds. By Editors (p. 297). 12. Notes on the bionomics of the Flying Lizard,

Draco dussumieri Dum. & Bib. By K.O.John (p. 298). 13. Further studies

on paddy-cum-fish culture at Hesseraghatta fish farm in Mysore State (With

one text-figure). By H. D. R. Iyengar (p. 301). 14. Crab-fishing at Bombay

(With two plates). By B.F. Chhapgar (p. 306). 15. A new species of Lepidia-

phanus from Kashmir (Entomobryidae : Collembola) (With a plate). By G. L.

Arora and Mohinder Singh (p. 309). 16. Danaus chrysippus form dorippus in

Rajasthan. By Julian P. Donahue (p. 312). 17. Tingidae of western U.P..

(Hemiptera: Heteroptera) (With one photograph). By David Livingston (p. 313).

18. The Giant Land Snail, Achatina fulica Ferussacin India. By K.C. Ghose

(p. 317). 19. A ‘weeping’ tree. By R.D.B. Hughes (p. 318). 20. Mollugo

nudicaulis Lamk.: a new record from Baroda. By G.L. Shah (p. 319). 21.

Nomenclatural notes on some Bombay plants. By G.L.Shah (p. 320). 22.

A note on Euryale ferox Salisb. in Alwar, Rajasthan. By N. C. Nair and

R. K. Bhartya (p. 323). 23. Physalis longifolia Nutt., a new record for Kerala

State. By N.C. Nair (p. 323). 24. On the identity of Dalechampia indica Wt.

from Cutch and Kathiawar. By A.R.Chavan, S.D.Sabnis, and S.J. Bedi

(p. 324). 25. Foliar variations in Naravelia zeylanicaDC. (With a photograph.

and a plate). By E. A. Siddiq (p. 325). 26. Ecological observations on the

orchids of North Karnatak. By H. R Ladwa (p. 327). 27. A preliminary

report of the fern flora of the Great Andamans. By B.K. Nayar and G. S.

Srivastava (p. 329).

NOTES AND NEWS “4 es a ep See oe .. 334

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY. SOCIETY

1962 APRIL Vol. 59 No. 1

The Bats of Central and Western India

PAR. |

A. BROSSET

(With 11 maps and 3 plates)

From 1860 to 1920, mammalogists such as Blyth, Dobson, Thomas,

and Wroughton have studied the morphology of Indian bats. Their

descriptions remain true today. From 1912 to 1920, the Mammal

Survey of India arranged by the Bombay Natural History Society

collected specimens in many places. From the Himalayas in the

north to the furthest south, bats were systematically recorded from

the principal types of biotopes existing in India, and good series of

the many species can be seen today in several museums.

Apart from these attempts at description and classification, we may

say that the older authors neglected to record data in the field. The

collection of specimens often by non-scientific people, and the measure-

ment of skulls and dry skins were the chief objects of their work.

Wroughton excepted, they were apparently not interested in the

habitat of the species that they described so carefully. Their con- -

ception of zoology was restricted. Nevertheless, we must admit that

a sound systematic knowledge is always necessary for the progress of

zoology. In this way, the older authors who studied Indian bats give

us a very remarkable and fruitful systematic background, and in most

cases it is difficult to improve on what they have done. The

‘mammalogists interested in these animals have now to turn their mind

from systematics, which can only be improved by minor details, to

studies in the field, which offer a new and fascinating subject.

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

For these reasons, when I came to Bombay in August 1959, I

selected bats as a subject for field work. I was well prepared to

undertake such research, for during the last 10 years I have contributed

a number of publications on the biology of. bats, especially their

ecology and their social life and reproduction, both in Europe and

‘in Africa.

I was lucky from the very start to be helped in many ways by the

Bombay Natural History Society, their library, collections, staff, and

experience being placed at my disposal. I was thus easily introduced

to the publications and collections of my predecessors, and given an

indication of the species which I was likely to meet. _

Bro. Navarro of St. Xavier's High School, who made a good

collection of local bats some 20 years ago, was kind enough to entrust

to me his collection and unpublished notes. I take this opportunity

to express my gratitude to Mr. Humayun Abdulali, the Honorary

Secretary of the Bombay Natural History Society, and to Bro. Navarro

for their help and assistance in the course of the present work.

GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT OF THE STUDY

The area covered by the present study was primarily determined.

by the place of my residence, and it was mainly around Bombay that

I had the opportunity to follow the annual cycles of several colonies

of bats. In addition, the principal types of biotopes of western and

central India were selected, and trips and camps were arranged to

these places—latitude, altitude, rainfall, and vegetational cover were

the factors which determined the choice of the localities visited.

Specimens and data were systematically collected and recorded in the

following places:

North Gujarat

Ahmedabad, Anand and neighbourhood, Baroda.

Konkan

Salsette Island, Alibag, Bassein, Arnala, etc.

North Kanara

Belgaum and Goa borders.

Arid enclave of Bellary

Badami, Pattadkal, Hampi.

Ghats at middle altitude (c. 800 m.)

Khandala and neighbourhood, Bhaja, Bedsar, Karla, Igatpuri and

neighbourhood.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 3

Ghats at high altitude (c. 1000-1200 m.)

Mahableshwar, Panchgani and neighbourhood.

Deccan

Poona, Junnar, Aurangabad, Ajanta, Ellora, Amraoti, etc.

Mountain ranges of central India

Chikalda.

Plateau border of central India

Mandu, Sanchi.

Border of the arid area of Rajasthan

New Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri.

Northern Madhya Pradesh

Jhansi, Orcha, Khajurao.

1, New Delhi

2, Tuglakabad Fort

3. Fatehpur Sikri

(

24. Arnala

4. Agra 25. Bombay

5. Gwalior +4 26. Bassein

6. Orcha 320f 22 27. Kanheri

7. Khajurao 3 iy 28. Khandala

8, Sanchi 29. Poona

g. Asirgarh 3 130. Panchgani

zo, Mandu 366 38.37 41 31. Mahableshwar

11. Bhuj 040 39a 32. Elephanta

12, Ahmedabad 33. Alibag

33. Rajkot 43 34. Satara

a4. Anand / 35. Ratnagiri

15. Vedtial 36. Belgaum

16, Baroda 37. Pattadkal

17. Chikalda 38. Badami

18. Amraoti 39. Dharwar

19. Ajanta 40. Krishnapur

20. Ellora 41. Vijayanagar

21. Aurangabad 42. Bellary

22. Pittalkora 43. Gersoppa

23. Nasik

Map 1. Localities where Bats were studied during the present survey

GENERAL COMMENTS

Bats in India are extremely common. Artificial or natural caves,

old buildings, above and underground, and wells are the haunts of

many individuals. Most Indian species are anthropophile and adapted

to the human habitation, in contrast to what one observes in tropical

a JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1) ©

Africa. Even the tree-species, such as the Flying Fox Pteropus

giganteus, are found living in middle of towns and villages. The

species inhabiting hollows in trees in thick forests are poorly repre-

sented in India, and it may not be worthwhile searching for bats in

the wild and secluded parts of the country.

Their smell and voices, peculiar to each family, can tell an

experienced mammalogist of the presence and identity of bats. For

instance, Tadarida colonies are very well concealed, but so noisy that

I discovered several colonies only by hearing their voices. When

searching for bats living in crevices and cliffs, looking down is more

profitable than looking up. On the ground there are usually traces

of guano which betray their presence. In every place visited

observations were carried out at sunset and many useful data

obtained. When the identity of the species was doubtful, I caught

Specimens with a Japanese mist net.

I also obtained many interesting data by visiting at night the

diurnal roosting places of several species. In fact many bats return

and occupy their diurnal biotope during the greater part of the night

and interesting observations can be made at this time.

METHODS USED TO OBTAIN SPECIMENS

In Europe bats can usually be caught without much difficulty,

but in tropical countries it is not always easy as very few individuals

hibernate. Several shy species cannot be caught by hand and almost

all bats bite severely in self-defence. Shooting at sunset is difficult

and costly. The ‘game’ is often missed or blown to pieces or lost

in the grass and other vegetation. The gun can only be a comple-

mentary instrument and the best method is by nets. Three kinds of

nets were used by me:

(a) A net similar to a butterfly net: This is made with pieces of

fishing net, an iron-wire frame, and a handle of one or more bamboos.

It is usually sufficient for work in caves and buildings. A large

butterfly net properly handled could also be used for the capture of

low-flying bats at sunset.

(b) Japanese mist nets were used to catch bats living in

inaccessible crevices, when they were leaving their haunts at sunset.

They were also used to catch bats hunting around at night.

caves or other roosting haunts when a large number of individuals

had to be taken, e.g. for ringing.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 5

RINGING

Only 253 individuals of 5 species were ringed. Valuable infor-

mation. regarding the smaller bats was recorded. Unfortunately the

larger species, especially the Megaderma and the Rousettus, could

not be satisfactorily ringed as they either bit off the ring or perished

because of infection of the forearm.

GENERAL SCHEME OF WORK

This paper is divided into two sections. In the first section the

species are dealt with one by one; after a short description, the

distribution in western and central India is noted in detail; this 1s

followed by a note containing such information as was available

regarding their ecology, food, field characters, reproduction, social life,

hibernation, and migration. The second section will deal with the

biogeographic affinities of the Indian bats, and will contain an

analysis of the ecological factors that influence their distribution, re-

production cycles, hibernation, and migration and a comparison will be

made with the information available for the European and African

bats.

GENERAL REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS

Finally, to avoid misunderstanding, I give certain necessary defini-

tions and explanations:

(a) Measurements. The soft parts of bats are difficult to describe

in words and the differences between closely allied species can only

be appreciated with fresh material for comparison. Unfortunately,

dry skins in museums are often much shrivelled and their sizes may

vary greatly, some individuals appearing twice as large as the others,

due mainly to the technique of preservation. However, even if the

specimen is completely rotten, the bones of the limbs retain their

original sizes. For the purpose of identification, the basic measure-

ments are those of the forearm and the metacarpal bones.

For each species, a table of these important and constant

measurements is attached.

The size of adult bats varies only to a small extent. I have

therefore limited the measurements to 6 to 10 specimens of each

species chosen at random and from different areas.

The skull measurements of a few specimens are also given.

(b) Description. It has not been thought necessary to repeat the

excellent descriptions of Dobson, Thomas, and Wroughton. New

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

attempts at description would merely confuse what is already perfectly

clear. I have only drawn attention to the more striking and easily

visible characters which help to identify the bat and to separate it

from closely allied species.

species level appears to be well established today. In contrast to

this the subspecies appear to be very confused. The trinomial classi-

fication which has given so valuable an impetus to ornithological

study has been a failure with bats. Bats have few differences among

themselves and most of the species have no valid races. This is true

not only in India but also in other parts of the old world. The

colour variations which are so often the basis of many subspecific

differentiations are not due to any geographical ‘factors but are

individual variations, or due to the season, or their micro-biotope,

and sometimes their social life. It is not unusual to observe two

totally different types of coloration in two colonies of bats of the

same species living side by side. Such differences cannot be accepted

at a subspecific level, and the subspecies so described must. be added

to the debit side of the ‘fanatics of systematics’. Nevertheless, it

cannot be denied that certain species possess ecological subspecies

differentiated by the colour of their fur, e.g. in India Hipposideros

bicolor in dry areas is mainly greyish-white but dull yellowish-brown

in the coastal plains. |

The subspecies described on measurements are usually more reli-

able, although sometimes based on insufficient material and therefore

liable to doubt.

In the present work, the subspecies is named only when sufficient

material is available, while in other cases only the specific name is

used.

(d) Method of Treatment of each Species

(i) Distribution. The general distribution is quoted from

Ellerman & Morrison-Scott’s CHECKLIST OF PALAEARCTIC. AND INDIAN

MAMMALS (1951), which has been the main source of information in

this respect. For each species a sketch map covers the distribution in

western and central India as recorded by the Mammal Survey, Bro.

Navarro, and myself. ga )

Gi) Field Characters. No attempt appears to have been

made to describe the Indian bats in the natural surroundings. I have

attempted to do this and also describe the hunting flight as far as

possible with words. pa ee |

(iii) Ecology. Following Verschuren, I give a table of

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA il

diurnal biotopes for each species observed by me. This table includes

the date, the estimated number of individuals in the colony, the

number actually examined, and a short description of the biotope.

As far as possible, data on the surrounding territory are also recorded.

(iv) Food. My notes on food are inadequate and the diet of

only a few species is known. The insects taken at sunset are quickly

digested and the stomach contents of the animals on the following

day only show masticated pieces which cannot be easily identified.

(v) Reproduction. Some information has been obtained

regarding the reproduction of most of the species. The periodicity of

their producing cycle, variations in external sexual characters, sper-

matogenesis, rut, pregnancy, and birth and growth of the young are

analysed for each species as far as the information permits.

(vi) Social Life. Observations on bats in Europe had

indicated many unexpected and extraordinary factors in their social

life. It was interesting to ascertain whether tropical bats showed the

same character. Sexual segregation, and specific and interspecific

associations are studied.

(vii) Hibernation. I have published a more extensive note

on the subject of hibernation in tropical bats in another journal

(Mammalia, December 1961, in French). In the present paper the

hibernation of Indian bats is analysed on the basis of experimental

researches and observations in the field and a summary of the same

is included.

(viii) Migration. Thousands of bats were ringed in Europe

over the last 20 years, but there is no definite evidence that bats are

migratory in the same way as birds. They only change their roosting

places regularly in connection with the time of their hibernation and

at different phases of the sexual. cycle (see Eisentraut for Germany,

Verschuren for Belgium, Brosset and Caubiere for France). Researches

were made in the course of the present studies to know if the Indian

bats show the same behaviour.

To conclude this introduction, I must say that the present work

does not profess to be exhaustive, but is a preliminary approach to

the study of the biology of Indian bats. Often the conclusions that I

propose are provisional, because the data recorded are not enough.

More information is to be collected to confirm’ or deny my sugges-

tions. The biology of several species inhabiting India is still unknown.

We only know of their existence and nothing more. An exteasive

field remains open to the zoologists and I hope that the Presents work

will form a suitable basis for study in the future.

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

SECTION I

LIST OF SPECIES FROM WESTERN AND CENTRAL INDIA

The taxonomy is mainly based on Ellerman & Morrison-Scott’s CHECKLIST OF

PALAEARCTIC AND INDIAN MAMMALS, with which I agree except for the genus Myotis.

Even so, several subspecies cited in the CHECKLIST have been suppressed as being

doubtful or unreliable. Rhinopoma kinneari is synonymised with R. microphyllum.

The following signs are used to indicate reference to the three main sources :

reports of Mammal Survey of India.

0 = Collections and notes of Bro. A. Navarro.

4 = My own collections and notes.

MEGACHIROPTERA

Rousettus leschenaulti Desmaret 1820 ©Ooa

Pteropus giganteus Brunnich 1782 ©oaA

Cynopterus sphinx Vahl 1797 ©OoaA

MICROCHIROPTERA

Rhinopoma hardwickei Gray 1831 ©Ooa

Rhinopoma microphyllum Brunnich 1782 ©oa

Taphozous perforatus . E. Geoffroy 1818 ‘Ojars

Taphozous melanopogon Temminck 1841 @©oaA

Taphozous longimanus Hardwicke 1821 ©Oaa

Taphozous theobaldi Dobson 1872 @A

Taphozous saccolaimus Lesson 1842 ©o

Taphozous kachhensis Dobson 1872 @©oA

Megaderma spasma Linnaeus 1758 Oud

Megaderma lyra Geoffroy 1810 ©OoA

Rhinolophus rouxii Temminck 1835 ©oA

Rhinolophus lepidus Blyth 1844 ©OoaA

Rhinolophus luctus beddomei Anderson 1905 Oud

Hipposideros speoris Schneider 1800 OaoA

Hipposideros bicolor fulvus Gray 1838 ©ad

Hipposideros bicolor pallidus Anderson 1918 @©A

Hipposideros galeritus Cantor 1848 ©Ooad

Hipposideros lankadiva Kelaart 1850 Oaa

Tadarida aegyptiaca E. Geoffroy 1818 ©oA

Otomops wroughtoni Thomas 1918 OA

Myotis peytoni Wroughton & Ryley 1913 ©

Myotis peshwa Thomas 1915 @©A

Pipistrellus coromandra Gray 1838 @©oA

Pipistrellus mimus Wroughton 1899 ©OoA

Pipistrellus ~ceylonicus Kelaart 1852 ©OodA

Pipistrellus dormeri Dobson 1875 ©OoaA

~ Hesperoptenus tickelli Blyth 1851 ©aod

Tylonycteris pachypus Temminck 1840 ©

Scotophilus temmincki Horsfield 1824 OA

Scotophilus heathi Horsfield 1831 ©oa

Miniopterus schreibersi Kuhl 1819 ©OvA

Kerivoula picta Pallas 1767 ©a

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 9

Suborder MEGACHIROPTERA

Family PTEROPIDAE

Genus Rousettus

Rousettus leschenaulti Desmaret 1820

Measurements (in mm.) :

Localities

eM ECG EME EMEA ES

rr las aa] M wo ch mO|}¢¥O |¥a

Forearm 81 86 82 78 15 | 12 83 78 2)

. 3 Metacarpal 32 35 35 32 30 35 34 34 30

“ & ( Phalange ee ee ab ecrieem clber dha ee PR i es Maa ea

5 ( Metacarpal 49 54 51 50 48 47 55 53 43

E 1st Phalange 32 37 35 34 34 29 36 31 30

Es | 2nd Phalange | 45 50 45 47 48 42 53 41 35

( Metacarpal 48° 53 50 49 49 46 54 45 42

£ | Ist Phalange 25 aI 28 26 26 91) 25 25 20

= 2nd Phalange 28 30 iy) 29 32 Di a2 25 Ze

5 Nebraes 45 al 50 45 44 45 53 44 39

R= iS Bhalanpcm lot Gm 28: (06 ale 25h |e OF E26) 24 9

a 2nd Phalange 2 28 29 26 25 24 27 25 21

Tarsus 35 34 36 36 34 34 34 30 29

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic Mandible Upper Lower

length breadth dental row dental row

Ad. 2 A Elephanta 38 23 31 15 18

Ad. @ A Elephanta 40 24 31 17 17

Description

As can be seen, the measurements of this frugivorous bat are

rather variable. The males appear heavier than the females. The

young grow very slowly. The adult size and definitive shape of the

skull are attained after more than a year. The young have two

molars in the upper jaw, the second appearing very late. On the

other hand,° old individuals often lack teeth.

The fur is uniformly light-brown, sometimes yellowish. The

colour differs with the sex and old males often have the flanks washed

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

with dull grey. During the moult, in spring and summer, individuals

almost completely naked are frequently seen.

This bat smells of fermented fruits. It is the host of many

parasites, Thaumapsylla (Fam. Ischnopsyllidae), Eucampsipoda (Fam.

Nycteribiidae), etc.

The young can be confused with the other fruit bat Cynopterus

sphinx, the number of teeth, the shape of the skull, and general

appearance being similar. Cynopterus, however, usually has a whitish

margin on the border of the ears, and the nostrils are clearly divergent.

Biogeographical Distribution of the Species

Nepal, Burma, Tenasserim, Kumaon, Rajputana, peninsula of

India, Ceylon ? (conspecific with Rousettus seminudus ?), north Siam,

Tonkin, Indo-China, southern China, and Java.

Distribution in western and central India

1. Chikalda A . Khandala 0

2. Mandu A . . Alibag OA

3. Mehmadabad AD . Mahableshwar ODA ,

4. Baroda A | . Krishnapur OA

5. Aurangabad A . Belgaum A

6. Elephanta OU A . Hampi A

7. Jogeshwari OA . Ratnagiri O

8. Kanheri A . GersoppaO

Map 2. Localities where Rousettus leschenaulti were studied

Rousettus leschenaulti is a common species. It occurs in ‘all

places, from the Konkan at sea-level to the top of the Ghats at

Mahableshwar, in dry parts of Gujarat and in the sees forests of

Kanara. It appears to require only:

(1) a quiet roosting place for the day, either underground, in

caves, or in deserted buildings, and — she! |

(2) ripening fruits near by.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 11

The Diurnal Biotope

This bat never lives in trees as Cynopterus and Pteropus usually

do. Natural caves are the normal roosting sites of this species and

are occupied wherever available. It has however adapted itself to

diverse man-made constructions, as the following table will indicate:

TABLE OF DIURNAL BIOTOPES OF Rousettus leschenaulti

| No. of |

: Date of visits | Size of | On S :

Locality to the biotope | the colony | rapture Matte (oh SIOlone

Elephanta | All over the | Varying from 61 | Artificial cave with ramifi-

year (For the | 2-3 individu- cations (forest area)

monsoon per- | als to 2000

iods: H.

Abdulali)

Kanheri All over the Estimated 2 | Ancient Buddhist cave

Cave No. 1 year 100-200 carved in the rock, ina

forested area of Salsette

Island

Kanheri All over the | Varying from 21 ditto

Cave No. 3 year 2 to 50-80

individuals

‘Chikalda December Estimated 1 Under a dome, in the ruins

2000 of the fort (forest area)

Alibag March 10-15 1 A natural cave (forest area)

Mahabl- February, Estimated 3 In the Robbers’ Cave (forest

eshwar April-May, 500 area). Natural cave

August

Hampi October 20 4 Ruins (cultivated area)

Jogeshwari| February, Estimated > Artificial caves carved in a

August 100-130 rock (still a place of very

active religious worship)

Auranga- | March 8-10 pi) Buddhist caves carved in the

bad rock (arid area)

Baroda November Estimated 1 In well in the park of the

80-100 Maharaja’s palace

Mehmada- | December 1600 1 In well, with underground

bad : (counted ona chamber (dry cultivated

| photograph) | area)

Krishna- May Big colony 3 Natural cave (forest area)

pur

Mandu February Estimated 2 Several colonies in the

1000-2000 mosque and ruins of the

3 | destroyed capital

Khandala December Big colony several 1933-40, in disused _ rail

. to tunnel (Navarro’s obser-

June vation). Now not existing

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

It will be noticed that natural caves (Mahableshwar and Krishna-

pur), artificial caves (Elephanta and Aurangabad), hypogean temples

(Kanheri), ruins (Mandu and Chikalda), railway tunnels (Khandala),

wells (Mehmadabad and Baroda) have all been used. Generally, the

bat prefers large cavities with high ceilings. Complete darkness is

not necessary but quietness is. If disturbed, it abandons its haunt

very easily. Several haunts which have been kept under observation

are regularly deserted over a period of several months and it is

believed that this is due to non-availability of fruit in the immediate

neighbourhood.

Nocturnal Territory

Trees bearing ripe fruit determine the nocturnal territory of the

species and it is astonishing to notice the sudden appearance of bats

where none were seen before, depending obviously on the ripening

of fruits. They are guided by smell, and I know of at least one

instance in which the Rousettus was accustomed to go into a flat

in a large building in Bombay in search of ripe fruit and was actually

caught eating a banana inside the kitchen at a place not visible from

outside.

The animals are noisy and continue to scream while feeding, and

this together with movements attract others from afar. At sunset,

on many occasions, I have observed these bats suddenly deviate from

a straight flight and turn to join a party already feeding in a fruit

tree.

Fruit-eating bats appear to have a good memory. For about a

month I observed about a dozen Cynopterus svhinx, four or five

Pteropus, and three Rousettus feeding in a single Ficus tree. Every

evening at sunset they flew without hesitation straight to the tree

although it was more or less concealed by larger trees.

In western India, all three species of fruit bats may be feeding

together in the same tree, the large Flying Foxes occupying the

higher part of a tree and the two smaller species the lower area.

This division of the feeding territory was observed in several places.

Fruit-bearing bushes and low trees are visited by Rousettus and

Cynopterus and not by Pteropus.

Field Characters in Roosting Places

In their diurnal haunts, the species is easily identified, large bats

in noisy colonies hanging from the ceilings of old buildings etc.

The number of individuals in a colony range from a few to about

two thousand. Their screams and smell are unmistakable. In the

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 13

colony the individuals hanging side by side are more or less crowded

and their large brilliant eyes separate them from the insectivorous

species (cf. Plate I). At human approach, their reaction is almost

always the same: the screams become louder and louder, and then

suddenly stop when the observer is some 5 metres away. At this

time some of the bats fly away. Often in the first rush, many

individuals fall to the ground. If the haunt is spacious the bats do

not fly out, but if the ceiling is low (as in the Robbers’ Cave at

Mahableshwar or at Elephanta) they abandon their retreat and take

refuge outside on the cliffs and on trees, where they are often attacked

by kites and crows, resulting in the loss of several individuals and

considerable disturbance to the colony.

Their time of departure in the evening is variable. Many indi-

viduals fly away at sunset, but others may be seen at the diurnal

haunt even after complete darkness has set in. The flight is heavy

with slow strokes of the wings. The absence of a tail is distinctive.

The Cynopterus has the same character, but it is usually possible to

Separate it by its swifter wing-beat, shorter body, and overall smaller

Size.

Social Life

Unfortunately, insufficient data were recorded to enable me to

indicate any definite results. Ringing was not successful, as the bat

either freed itself or died with infection on the forearm.

Usually, both sexes live together and no sexual segregation was

recorded. Adults were caught together as under:

At Elephanta a 10 females, 8 males (October)

6 females, 4 males (March)

At Kanheri Mee 5 females, 2 males (August)

At Chikalda se 6 females, 5 males (December)

At Mahableshwar .. 1 female, 2 males (May).

The colony at Elephanta which begins to form in the last days of

January was worked with members of the Society’s staff and on

11 February 1960, 33 adult males were captured against only a single

female. The females appear to arrive after the males. At the end

of March, we observed many females carrying young, with their

number apparently equal to that of the males. When the females

arrive, they are already pregnant; the difference in the time of arrival

of the two sexes does not seem to have any relation to their sexual

behaviour.

McCann records a huge colony at Tulsi Lake in which the males

and females lived separately. Unfortunately, more detailed informa-

tion is not available.

i4. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

The young when free from maternal care live apart from the

adults, behaviour very different from that of other bats but sup-

ported by the following observations:

(a) Kanheri: 2 or 3 young were regularly seen in several caves along with

Taphozous melanopogon (8 were captured for examination at various times).

(6) Elephanta: 1 to 3 juveniles were regularly present from the end of

October to the end of January when the adults were all absent (3 captured).

day-roosting colony of Hipposideros (February 1961, 2 captured).

(d) Jogeshwari: 15 to 20 juveniles together in August (5 captured).

(e) Baroda: Colony of 80 to 100 individuals, apparently juveniles

(December).

These juveniles, which can easily be distinguished by their much

smaller size, were never seen among adults in the many large colonies

examined.

Inter-specific Associations

A number of different interspecific associations were noticed:

With Hipposideros fulvus, Hipposideros speoris, Megaderma lyra in Elephanta

Caves.

With Taphozous melanopogon in Kanheri and Alibag caves.

With Tadarida aegyptica, Hipposideros lankadiva, Taphozous melanopogon

in Mandu. |

With Rhinolophus rouxii in Jogeshwari caves.

With Taphozous longimanus in Mehmedabad and Taphozous kachhensis in

Aurangabad.

With Rhinolophus lepidus and rouxii in Khandala.

These associations appear to be entirely due to ecological con-

vergence and no other reason.

Reproduction

External Organs. From December to October, the testes

of the adult males are well developed with a maximum length of

28 mm. The penis is completely invaginated and does not appear

externally. The mammae. are in a lateral position and_ specially

developed in old females. :

Rut Period. The spermatogenesis seems to continue over a

long time, probably from November to March. Two males dissected

in March had spermatozoids in the epididymus, but none was noted

in an adult dissected in October. The spermatogenesis may have

a stop time, probably in summer and the beginning of autumn.

Nevertheless, further studies are necessary.

Pregnancy and Birth of the Young

The duration of pregnancy is not known. McCann stated that it

lasts 15 weeks, but does not give the basis of his assertion. From the

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA iS

data available, this species appears to have two periods of parturition

every year, the first in March and the second in August, the latter

concerning a small number. For the first statement, I have the

following data: ©

_ Elephanta: At the end of March, hundreds of females with newly-born young.

Aurangabad: At the end of March, a few females with young.

Jogeshwari: Females with young born in March.

Kanheri: At the end of March, females with newly-born young.

Robbers’ Cave, Mahableshwar: Females with young in early April.

Khandala ; Females with young from March to May (Bro. Navarro).

Tulsi Lake ; McCann noted a great number of newly-born young in March.

On the second parturition, we have the following data:

Kanheri : In early August 1960, 70 to 80 Rousettus came into Cave No. 3, where

usually a few juveniles were living. This colony was made of adult males and

females bearing young 2 or3 days old (11 adults were caught, of which 3 were males

and 8 females with young). In August 1961, a small number of females with

newly-born young were again noted.

Elephanta: In October 1960, the colony was made up of about 2000 indi-

viduals, male and female adults and young of 2 sizes. The smaller ones, perhaps

several hundreds, were more numerous and still hanging from their mothers’ breasts.

The larger ones may have been of the March generation, but it was not possible

to determine whether they were the progeny of the females which had the small

young—in fact, even in equatorial regions, where the periodicity of bat parturition

is not very well marked, there is no evidence that the same female can have two

deliveries in the same year. The presence of these young must be taken to modify

to some extent my earlier remarks that the young do not live with the

adults. The hypothesis that the females bearing in August were born in March the

previous year is unlikely, as among those caught at Kanheri with new-born young in

August there were at least three old individuals with worn dentition. The morta-

lity among young is high and it is more likely that the second parturition is of

females who lost their young in March and in whom the consequent stop of lacta-

tion is followed by a second oestrus.

The Young

In my experience, only a single one is born and this is confirmed

by Navarro and McCann.

At birth, the young are fleshy pink and naked, being firmly

fixed to the teats (which are commonly used as organs for fixation) in

a transverse position. Mortality is heavy and the bodies of many

newly-born young were seen in every nursery. At Kanheri, early in

August, 7 were found on one day and a mother was also seen dead

with a young still in the placenta.

As compared with the insectivorous species, the young grow

slowly and are carried about by the mother for at least two months.

The adult size is reached after one year. Juveniles of the March

generation caught from August till November at Elephanta and

Kanheri had a short skull (30 mm.) and in certain cases incomplete

dentition.

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

The existence of separate colonies of immature individuals shows

that the mature stage begins only after at least two years.

Migration

In the cold and temperate countries, bats change their roosting

places often and regularly during their annual cycle. These move-

ments are important, being associated with hibernation and sexual

behaviour. In India, insectivorous bats are quite sedentary and no

movements were noted for any species; it is different with Rousettus

leschenaulti, and perhaps the other fruit bats too. Rousettus certainly

has very definite movements and their appearance at, and dis-

appearance from certain places at regular intervals is well known.

Unfortunately, no information is available regarding the direction of

their migration or the biological significance of their travels.

At Elephanta, the colony is formed in, February, the males

arriving first; on 11 February 1960 there were some 500 individuals.

A little later the females arrive for their first parturition, which takes

place at the end of March. At the end of October the colony migrates,

and during November, December, and January the cave is devoid of

this species, except for the few juveniles referred to earlier. My

observations in 1959 and 1960 confirm those of Humayun Abdulali

at the same place almost 20 years ago (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

47 : 522-526).

The colony at the railway tunnel at Khandala does not exist today,

but Bro. Navarro’s notes indicate that movements similar to those

observed at Elephanta were noted here for several seasons some 20

years ago.

Food

McCann (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41 : 805) lists the fruits eaten

by this species.

General |

There is no evidence of this species hibernating. Artificial cool-

ing with a considerable fall of the internal temperature produces in

it a torpid condition, but this is, I think, due to bad thermal regula-

tion and there is no indication of a hibernatory tendency. Int fact,

the individuals experimeatally cooled do not survive and the torpid

state is probably due to enervation and intoxication (Brosset,

Mammalia—WL’hibernation, chez les Chiroptéres Tropicau—December

1961).

Many of the diurnal haunts are old monuments of archaeological

interest. With the growing number of tourists, the managements have

LjnpUuay rsa] Snjjasnoy jo

AUOJOD

(3assolg ‘y : soqoug )

(sjeq 94} SMOYS MOLE

uekueg & JO S}JOOI [eIIDe UT BUI\SOI XUIYds Snsajdou

20S “ISIH_“LWN_AVaWOd NYNOL |

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. PLATE II

en cae ee

ata

ESR

ee ie

Colony of Rhinopoma microphyllum

( Photos : A. Brosset )

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 17

been induced to drive away the bats (e.g. at Elephanta in 1961). As

there is no doubt that their smell and droppings are unpleasant to

the average tourist, we presume that these roosts will in due course

be closed to them.

In some cases, the presence of Rousettus is a nuisance to in-

dustry. At the reversing station at Khandala, the steel pipes were

deeply corroded by the acidity of their droppings and constructional

work of some extent had to be undertaken for their exclusion.

Though often troublesome in its diurnal haunts, it feeds largely

on forest berries and wild figs in the wilder parts of the country and

is probably not so destructive to fruit gardens as the Flying Fox.

Genus Pteropus

Pteropus giganteus (Brunnich 1782)

This species is unmistakable and well known and _ measure-

ments are not necessary. In spite of its large size and the fact that

colonies are situated in the middle of towns aad villages, the biology

of the species is mot at all well known. The present paper does

not add very much information as I gave little attentioa to this

species.

General Distribution

In Ceylon and peninsular India, it is widely distributed. In

western and central India, it is very common and found all over.

Diurnal Haunts

During the day, this bat lives in colonies in large trees of

different species. It has been seen in bamboo clumps also. No

particular ecological conditions appear to be required; it was seen

in dry and humid areas, and from sea-level to the top of the Ghats.

A remarkable and very noticeable feature about its diurnal roost is

its constant aSsociation with man. Colonies are always found in

towns and villages and never in the forests or in the fields. Several

colonies exist in the centre of Bombay, one of the most crowded.

towns in the world. In Gujarat, I saw a colony up in a tree along-

side a noisy railway station and constantly troubled by the smoke

from the engines. In spite of this apparent attraction for man, the

animal is wary and the whole colony will fly away as soon as a man

attempts to climb the tree. |

Nocturnal Territory

They cover immense territories. Individuals from the colonies in

Bombay fly several miles across the sea to Alibag and other places

18: JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

aloag the coast.. About 20 minutes after sunset, the flying foxes lyave

their roosts one by one and at this time long lines consisting: of

individuals, all following one another in the same direction, may be

seen. The same route is followed regularly, and from my flat in

Bombay, I could see large numbers fly past at the level. of my

verandah (Sth floor), at the same time and in the same direction,

every evening. Like Rousettus, the Pteropus is helped in its search for

fruit by a good memory for places, as also the noisy behaviour of

other bats feeding on the trees.

Field Characters

When roosting in trees, the large size together with the comtinuous

and loud noises make this species unmistakable. During the day,

often with no apparent disturbance, individuals leave their roosts, fly

around, and return. They seldom appear to be sleepy but are often

busy fanning themselves with their half-open wiags. McCann has

suggested that this flapping is by the male to attract the female.

This may be true, but it also seems to be in connection with the

personal comfort of the bat which appears to fan itself during the

heat. It is in fact doubtful that only males flap their wings for I

have seen individuals, carrying young, performing the same action.

Dobson and Prater have given good descriptions of the behaviour

of this giant bat and those interested are invited to refer to their works.

Nocturnal Flights

The strokes of the wings are ample and slow, similar to those of

the Buzzard. The flight is pitching, with occasional glides, which

at first sight appears clumsy but is really faster than it seems.

Reproduction

Reproduction of the flying foxes in western India has been

studied by Moghe, who found spermatozoa in the lumen and uterus

in late August and early September. The pregnancy period is

believed to be 140 to 150 days, parturition taking place in early

February. In May, we saw half-grown young’ carried by their

mothers. It is almost certain that the periodicity of the reproduction

cycle is very regular and that only a single parturition takes place

every year, at least in western India.

Migration

Not known, but migration is probable.

Hibernation |

The species is always active and the question of hibernation must

be excluded.

-THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 19

Association with Man

The flying fox is a great nuisance and often does considerable

damage in gardens, especially to mangoes. The loud screaming

noises which it makes must also be troublesome in the vicinity of

the colonies.

Although these bats are eaten in many parts of the world, they

are not regularly hunted.

Live individuals are often sold on ‘the Bombay market as a

supposed cure for rheumatism. The skin removed immediately after

the animal is killed is applied to the ailing part of the human body

and this, according to people who have the belief, offers an efficacious

cure.

Genus Cynopterus

Cynopterus sphinx Vahl 1797

Measurements (in mm.):

Localities

a seat ~ So

meg 3 Oe an to ga Lo

| |

Forearm i ae7 ot aGT | 71 Derg 69 73

a |

zg E Metacarpal 30) ai) 225 28 29m) 4030 2 31

5 i Metacarpal 50 = 42 44 48 | 44 43 49

FS Ist Phalange 36S 98 30 30 30 29 32

= oe Phalange | 43 | 35 | 40 | 43 | 46 | 44 | 49

~ / Metacarpal Pet see 407) aay). 4aes |, somale cae

g ( Ist Phalange 25 23 23 24 25 23 | 24

S \ 2nd Phalange 27 22 24D 8 28 Dy, 29 32

+ ( Metacarpal 49 39 41 45 -| 43 44 | 47

g “ Phalange 24 20 21 20 20 21 21

3 2nd Phalange 24 19 23 Pap) 22 23 24

Tarsus 28 24 27 28 29 27 30

Tail 12 15 15 12 13 15 15

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 59 (1)

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic Mandible Upper Lower

length breadth dental row dental row

Adult os 34 20 21 12 13

Young “3 27 17 A) | 9 11

Description

The dog-shaped head, the short ears with a white margin, and

the divergent openings of the nostrils are unmistakable characteristics |

of this relatively small frugivorous bat.

Adult Male. The underparts are yellowish sometimes tinged with

olive, the upper parts bright rufous. Such brightly coloured males

represent on an average 25% of the individuals in the various colonies.

Females and Juveniles. Uniform yellowish grey, darker in the

young. The females are sometimes as richly coloured as the males.

This bat is smaller but heavier than Rousettus leschenaulti.

However, the young of both species are very similar and confusion

can easily arise, particularly because the dentition of Cynopterus and

young Rousettus is alike. The distinctive shape of the skull is also

attained only after one year. In the young—6 to 8 months old—it

is smaller and quite different in shape from that of the adult (cf. Table

of measurements).

The smell of Cynopterus is mild. The bat carries numerous

parasites.

General Distribution

Hainan, peninsular India (widely), Burma, Indo-China, Siam,

Sumatra, Java, Bali, Timor. }

Distribution in western and central India

A very common species found all over the area and in all sorts

of biotopes.

: 6. Belgaum A

1 rch 7 SiS

3. Vedtial OA | Beran

4. Bombay ODA

5. Poona O

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 21

Map 3. Localities where Cynopterus sphinx were studied

The Diurnal Biotope

TABLE OF DIURNAL BIOTOPES OF Cynopterus sphinx

‘ ; Number of

Period of Size of . Nature of

Place Specimens .

the year Colony captured biotope e

Bombay Aug.-Sep . 6-10 none Flying away at sunset

from the crown of a

palm tree

do. May 2 do. do.

Khandala February ? do. In a deep forested ravine ;

One individual flew away

from Ficus (sp. ?) when

a shot was fired under

Bombay August ? do. Two individuals flying

away at sunset from a

palm tree

Vedtial December 8 6 In the aerial roots of a

big Banyan (cf. Plate I)

Wadgaon May 6-10 none do.

Orcha March ie 2 Under the roof of a

deserted palace

Hampi October 2 6 Under the bark of a

Ficus

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Like Pteropus, this species is arboreal but, while flying foxes

expose themselves during the day, C. sphinx conceals itself and its

roosts are difficult to find. It appears to have a preference for palm

trees, hanging itself very high up at the base of the leaves. The

colonies can be detected only by traces of their droppings or when

they leave the roost at sunset. Banyans and other Ficus trees are

also used, particularly when palm trees are not available in the

vicinity. The species is therefore seen in different positions: en-

crusted against the aerial roots of the banyan, under the bark of

trees, or simply hanging against a trunk or a branch. In all cases

it is extremely well protected by its colour and is difficult to see.

There are a few records of the species living in old buildings, and

I have seen several in a deserted palace in Orcha, but such haunts

are exceptional.

Nocturnal Territory

These bats were seen on trees with ripening fruits in heavy

forests, in cultivated areas, as also in the midst of large cities.

They take to wing early in the evening, well before it is quite dark.

Several individuals may feed together on the same fruit trees, but

their visits to flowers appear to be solitary. In Bombay City, I had

excellent opportunities of observing their visits to. flowers in gardens

well illuminated by electric lights. The bat did not settle on the

flower but maintained itself in the air by swift wing-beats reminiscent

of Sphyngid moths. It passed from one flower to another very

swiftly and the same individual was seen exploring a group of flowers

for more than an hour.

As stated above, when this species meets the other Megachiroptera

on the larger fruit trees, its feeding territory is in the lower part of

the tree.

McCann and Navarro have observed individuals flying away with

a fruit in the mouth and settling high up on a palm tree where it was

eaten. This bat can therefore be considered as responsible for seed

dispersal.

Field Characters

During the day, a smali fruit bat concealed in a tree is always

a Cynopterus. The bright colour of the adults is another confirma-

tion. At human approach the animal keeps silent and motionless but

flies away when very closely approached. If captured, it emits a

strong and peculiar cry. On the wing, Cynopterus appears smaller

and faster than Rousettus.

‘THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA ~ P23

Reproduction P | es

I have no personal observations. |

S. A. Vamburkar collected females in late pregnancy at Poona

on 7 February 1956. The young specimens taken in North Kanara

‘and Ceylon, whose skins are in the Bombay Natural History. Society’s

collection, were probably born in March. It is however interesting

that. young probably. born in September also exist in this collection.

Like Rousettus leschenaulti, this species may have two periods of

parturition in a year, one at the beginning of spring and another

later. Moghe found young attached to the breast of the mother in

July. He states that the period of ‘gestation is 115 to 125 days.

Social Life

This species is not social.

Intra-specific Association

Males and females were found together in colonies observed at

Hampi and Vedtial. Such colonies are probably always small, vary-

ing from two to a dozen individuals.

Inter-specific Association |

C. sphinx does not associate itself with any other species.

Hibernation

Very improbable. All individuals seen were very active.

Association with Man

The species is probably a useful agent for pollination and seed

' dispersal. “Wild figs, chikoos,- and berries and fruits of many wild

plants of no value are eaten. Around Bombay it is very destructive

to chikoos. As it is silent and lives in trees, its presence is perhaps

never a great nuisance. Nevertheless, Prater and several earlier authors

have expressed the opinion that this species is a pest in gardens.

Opinions may perhaps vary according to the locality in which it occurs.

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Suborder MICROCHIROPTERA

Family RHINOPOMATIDAE

Genus Rhinopoma

Rhinopoma hardwickei Gray 1831

Measurements (in mm.) :

Localities

3 os

“OF ro Bot Bot Bot | Bro ER

E< oo 80 | g4 | 84 a ga a8

Forearm 87) 58 63 Sf, 59 57 : 62 | 60

5% | Metacarpal 40 | 40 | 42° |) 40.) 4b.) 4p). ane 40

Ae I Eatange 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 | 7

7 Metacarpal 4] 41 43 40 40 39 42 | 42

g ( Ist Phalange 8 8 9 8 9 9 10 | 9

5 ie Phalange | 17 si alsy ie ae 18 17 | 18 19

_ Metacarpal 35°}. 35:4) 136. 1) cS 3¥ule 332 a S4balr a sae eens

& ee ee 12 12 13 12 13 12 13 12

= 2nd Phalange i(dh 11 12 10 10 10 | 10 10.5

ay Metacarpal aif. 38 41 39 39 38 37 39

a= es Phalange |. 120) 12°39) 12 12) 2,1 eee ene

# eee. 1f 1 40/10) to |e: | corals ihe aes

Tarsus 28° | 95 | 30..|°-29 | 2089) 20% | 52Be a aeame

Tail 60 60 65 65 64 64 65 67

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic Mandible Upper dental Lower dental

length breadth row row

18.5 11.3 12.6 7 8.5

18 11 12..5.: 7 ae:

Description

In the genus Rhinopoma, the tail is very long and slender, pro-

jecting three-fourths of its length beyond the uropatagium (Plate

II). The muzzle is snout-shaped and these two very distinctive

characters make it easy to identify a Rhinopoma.

The difficulty is to separate Rhinopoma microphyllum from R.

hardwicket. |

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 25

In the hand, microphyllum always shows a longer forearm with

an average of 70 mm. against 60 mm. only in hardwickei. In the

former species, the tail is shorter than the forearm and longer in the

fatter. Finally, the skull of microphyllum is always noticeably

larger.

General Distribution

India, Pakistan, Lower Siam, Afghanistan, Arabia, Persia, Egypt

and Sudan. Perhaps also the Sahara.

Distribution in western and central India

The distribution of the Rhinopomas in Africa and in Asia is

associated with the xerothermic conditions being found in dry and

semi-desert countries.

In western India, they are completely absent from the Ghats, the

Konkan and Kanara, which are more or less forested and with heavy

rainfall. Even the western parts of the Deccan (Poona, Aurangabad,

Ajanta) are not inhabited by Rhinopoma, but bats of this genus are

common in the north of Gujarat, the north of Madhya Pradesh and

the north of the Mysore State. They are also known in Nagpur.

» New Delhi A

2. neces Sikri A

3. Agra 9. Asirgarh O

4. Orcha A Io. ee

5. Gwalior O tr. Mandu A

6. Sanchi A 12, Ahmedabad A

7. Bhuj O 13: Badami A

8. Anand O 14. Pattadkal A

15. Vijayanagar A

16, Vedtial A

Map 4. Localities where Rhinopoma hardwickei were studied

The Diurnal Biotope

TABLE OF DIURNAL BIOTOPES OF Rhinopoma hardwickei

Locality

Ahmedabad

Badami

Pattadkal

Vijayanagar

Vedtial

Anand

Amod

Chaklasi

Mandu

Sanchi

Orcha

Khajurao.

Fatehpur Sikri

Agra

Tuglakabad

Date of

observation

June

November

October

| December,

April

February

March

| April

April

November &

| 4 individuals

| colonies of

Size of

colony |

70-80 in

Nov.

25-30 in

June |

10-15

6 colonies

of 5-40

individuals

each —

3 colonies

of 10-30

each

80 colonies

from 2 to 30

individuals

each

Small colo-

nies of 2-5

individuals

15-20

reeset

Isolated

individuals

Several

8-10

Number of

specimens

captured

none

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Nature of biotope

Dada Hari Well—a

Moghul well with sub-

terranean retreats

On the

mosque

ceiling of a

' Colonies dispersed in

old temples

Old temples, specially in

the dark passages

around shrines

Very numerous colonies

in ruins of this ancient

capital

In inhabited houses in

Gujarati villages (ob-

servations of Navarro

and the author)

In the ‘ Hindola Mahal’

ruins of Mandu

Small

recesses close to the

Great Stupa

_underground

cesses of deserted

palaces—in associa-

tion with Rhinopom

microphyllum

In. the underground re-

| In old temples

Several small colonies in

dark rooms. Indivi-

duals observed in the

very big colony of

Rhinopoma_ microphyl-

lum in the’ under-

ground recesses.

In dark rooms of the

fort

In the underground por-

tions of the fort.

Associated with -hun-

dreds of Rhinopoma

microphyllum.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 27

This species is eclectic in its choice of diurnal haunts. The

biotope may be wide or small, dark or well lighted. Proximity of

humans is tolerated. In Gujarat, where all species of animals are

protected by man, they live in houses and during the day keep them-

selves on the smoky walls of living rooms. =—

Unfortunately, no observations were made on its hunting

territory. The flight is weak and it may be presumed that Rhinopoma

hardwickei only hunts in the immediate proximity of its diurnal

haunts.

Field Characters

The biotope of this species is impregnated with its unmistakable

smell which indicates its presence before a single individual is seen.

Two different resting positions were noticed. It affixes itself to

a wall with its forelimbs and is most frequently seen in this position

(see Plate II). It also hangs from ceilings by its hindlimbs as the

Rhinolophus does. At the approach of an intruder, the Rhinopoma

nervously waves its free and very long tail. In silhouette, the bat is

slender. The Rhinopoma has very long forearms and short fingers.

These anatomical characters make them poor fliers. In its diurnal

haunts, the Rhinopoma’s flight is slow and awkward. |

Food

Remains of Diptera were seen, in its guano. The teeth are weak

and: only fit for the mastication of small and soft insects.

No young were seen in October, November, December, February,

March, or April. Females dissected in March or April had no

foetuses. The colony at Ahmedabad seen in June consisted appar-

ently only of males (16 examined). From these negative observations,

we can infer that pregnancy and birth takes place between the end

of April and the end of September, June being the time of parturition.

The existence of young obviously born in June, in the B.N.HSS.

collections, supports this deduction. Reproduction, however, appears

to be very restricted. : | |

The false dugs of old females are well developed and the young

are undoubtedly carried by the mother in an inverted position as in

the horseshoe bats. | |

I had the opportunity of seeing 2 Rhinopoma in a furious battle.

While visiting a mosque at Ahmedabad in November, loud calls from

the ceiling drew my attention to 2 individuals fighting with their

forearms and biting each other in the manner of dogs. Not far away

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

on the same ceiling, a third individual was settled and holding itself

aloof.

Social Life

Rhinopoma hardwickei is a sociable species which gathers in small

colonies—the largest seen was about 75 individuals. Usually, only

4 to 10 of these bats live together in the same diurnal biotope. But,

the social group is in reality larger, because several small colonies

are close to each other and constitute scattered elements of the same

population. Thus, in the ruins of Vijayanagar I saw more than 80

colonies of this species in almost all of the monuments of this old

capital. Possibly, we have here a single society of bats dispersed in

many small groups. This type of grouping is rare in bats, but in

India we have another example in the Emballonuridae, Taphozous

kachhensis.

Sexual Segregation

In western India, the colonies are unfortunately far from Bombay,

and it was difficult for me to follow regularly the behaviour pattern

over the whole annual cycle. Nevertheless, two censuses made in

different colonies showed that both sexes lived separately :

Sanchi, 23 March 1961—14 captures, all females.

Ahmedabad, 29 June 1961—16 captures, all males.

More observations are required to prove definitely that sexual

segregation is the general rule in this species. It is hoped that Indian

mammalogists residing in the north, where the species is common, will

bring new observations on this problem.

Inter-specific Association

It is a well-known fact that in the desert areas of Asia and Africa,

two species of Rhinopoma, one big and one small, live side by side in

the same colonies. In India, this rule is also respected. North of the

Tropic of Cancer, where two species of Rhinopoma, one small and

one big, exist, they associate regularly in the same biotopes, a con-

stant inter-specific attraction existing between Rhinopoma hardwickei

and R. microphyllum.

South of the Tropic of Cancer only Rhinopoma hardwickei was

observed. This species, however, showed a sociable disposition and

its colonies are regularly mixed with other species, e.g. Taphozous

kachhensis, Taphozous melanopogon, Taphozous longimanus, and

Hipposideros speoris.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 29

Hibernation

It seems that the Rhinopoma never hibernate. In the course of

these studies, I never met any of these bats in a state of torpor. The

~ mammalogical literature available to me does not mention hibernation

in the genus Rhinopoma. Nevertheless, it is certain that these

species have cycles of extended rest, during which they live on their

biological reserves and do not hunt. In several places (Mandu and

Ahmedabad) I had the opportunity to observe individuals staying

in their diurnal haunts even during the night. One of these bats

dissected in Ahmedabad had nothing in the digestive tube. I believe

that such periods of rest are for the utilization of the enormous

quantities of fat that certain individuals show at the base of the tail

and in the uropatagium. In fact, the Rhinopoma seen resting during

the night in the diurnal haunts were in all cases excessively fat. We

shall see that other species show the same characteristics.

The Indian bats would have two different physiological processes

which allow them to overcome periods of rest without food:

1. Normal hibernation: Vespertilionidae and Rhinolophidae.

2. Fat reabsorption: Rhinopoma and Taphozous.

It seems that the fattening of Rhinopoma hardwickei is a seasonal

phenomenon. In November 1960, all the individuals observed in

Ahmedabad were extraordinarily fat, the weight of the fat in many of

them being equal to the weight of the rest of the body. In June

1961, at the same place, the 16 individuals captured, were all thin.

In February, in Mandu, one specimen dissected by me was moderately

fat; those of Sanchi at the end of March were normal, neither fat

nor thin. In NW. India, the reserve of fat would be formed in

October at the end of the monsoon, when the insect food is plentiful.

Progressively, these reserves are utilized during the winter and in

spring, and the whole reserve of fat disappears in May-June.

We also noticed that the cycle of fattening varies in different

geographical areas. Thus, in November 1960 the bats at Ahmedabad

were extraordinarily fat and, at the same time, individuals of

the same species 1000 km. to the south at Badami were normal with

no reserves of fat.

I noticed also that another species Taphozous kachhensis, which

has the similar capacity of accumulating fat but at the base of its

tail, possesses exactly the same cycle of reserves. The individuals of

the northern part of India are extraordinarily fat at the end of

autumn, while at the end of spring all of them become normal. We

saw that in October/November, Rhinopoma hardwickei were very fat

in Ahmedabad and normal in Badami.. Exactly, the same observation

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

was made on Taphozous kachhensis in both places at the same time.

These remarks prove that the fattening of these bats is TEE the

influence of geographical factors.

Association with Man |

While useful in destroying insects, the Rhinopoma are on the

other hand a source of annoyance to the tourists visiting certain

monuments where their smell is spread.all over. Their guano and

urine had certainly spoiled the frescoes of some of the old temples at

Badami in north Mysore.

Rhinopoma microphyllum Brunnich 1782

Measurements (in mm.):

Localities

Ehee Bigot Br Phe Bg Sorts ae 48

sag eas ans ce eee gOS Os BO2

Forearm 68 71 67 70 69 70 69 70

. 3 Metacarpal 46 46 45 45 47 45 46 47

“.& | Phalange 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4

‘ Metacarpal 46 46 46 45 47 47 47 49

e3 1st Phalange 9 10 10 11 11 11 11 12

\ 2nd Phalange | 20 19 19 19 | 20 18 18 19

: Metacarpal 38 39 39 37. 39 39 37 39

#2) Ist Phalange 14 16 21) 16 16 15 16 16 17

2nd Phalange ; 10 11 11 12 12 11 14 13

: Metacarpal 47 | 44 44 45 45 44 44 45

#2 Ist Phalange | 14 | 12 (Qed, {| of 11 12:4) vio

2nd Phalange 8 10 10 10 8 8 10 9

rr - ee ee

24 26 25 27 PA, 25 25 26

65 | 48 48 60 55 65 50 50

Tarsus

Tail

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic 2 Upper Lower

length breadth Mandible gentai row dental row

20 12 14 7 9

19 12 13 7 9

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 31

Description

Great variations of colour were noticed in this bat. They are of

three main types: i” iS Bie de. Sa rr ros

-Grey, more or less dull.

Tawny.

Reddish-brown, aan

These types can be seen in individuals of the same colony and are

individual variations with no systematic value.

This species was previously named Rhinopoma kinneari wrongly,

but Aellen has recently shown that kinneari is conspecific with

microphyllum.

Distribution

From Senegal to India, and in all arid and desert-like countries

between the Tropic of Cancer and the 35th parallel.

R. microphyllum inhabits northern India, Rajasthan, Kutch, the

northern part of Gujarat, the Punjab, the north-western part of

Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.

1, New Delhi A

2, Fatehpur Sikri A 4. Asirgarh O

3. Agra A 8. Anand (J

4. Orcha A “I

5. Gwalior O Beene)

6. SanchiA |

Map 5. Localities where Rhinopoma microphyllum were studied

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Ecology

TABLE OF DIURNAL BIOTOPES OF Rhinopoma microphyllum

. Size of Number Date of :

Locality colony captured | observations Nature of biotope

Sanchi 10-12 2 End of March |Small underground caves

near the Great Stupa

Orcha 1000-1500 8 do. In old palaces, two colo-

nies under roofs, one

underground

Tuglakabad 2000-3000 c. 30 April In undergrounds of the

(New Delhi) fort

do.

Fatehpur 2000-3000 10 Undergrounds of the

Sikri deserted capital

We crossed over the north of India in March and April 1961.

This species was common there and we were able, during this short

time, to collect some data on its ecology.

Nevertheless, more complete studies of their biological cycles

remain to be worked out.

In Sanchi, scattered individuals were seen in a small area under-

ground. In the other places, there were huge colonies in large

undergrounds, where many rooms communicated with cach other.

(See Plate II). These artificial cavities are very dry. The guano and

the extraordinary smell of these bats make it almost impossible for

a human being to go there.

The nocturnal flight was not observed. But we can presume that,

in accordance with its very short wing, Rhinopoma microphyllum is a

weak flier.

Field Characters

It is difficult to separate Rhinopoma microphyllum and Rhinopoma

hardwickei in the field. The difference in size cannot always be

appreciated. It is the shape of the tail which is the best field character.

The free tail is very slender and long in hardwickei, shorter and

thicker in microphyllum. This character permits separation of the

two species seen side by side.

Reproduction

In the first few days of April at Tuglakabad, Orcha, and Fatehpur

Sikri, males and females were found mixed together. It was the

period of rut, for in fact the sexual organs of both the sexes were

more or less turgescent. Three females were dissected—one had a

foetus just visible. The parturition probably takes place in June.

THE BATS CF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 33

[ntra-specific Association

Colonies of over 1000 individuals were seen in old monuments.

These consisted of large numbers of individuals closely pressed

together on the ceiling with a crowd of scattered individuals all

round. ‘Thus, the social life of microphyllum is different from that

of the closely allied species hardwickei. The swarms in Tuglakabad

and Fatehpur Sikri were not inside the undergrounds, but on well

lighted arches close to the entrance. At the approach of an intruder,

the swarm breaks up and the bats take shelter in the deeper parts of

the undergrounds.

Inter-specific Association

This species is always: mixed with R. hardwickei. It also

associated with some other bats of the genus Taphozous, e.g. T.

melanopogon in. Orcha and T. kachhensis in Tuglakabad and

Fatehpur Sikri.

Family EMBALLONURIDAE

Genus Taphozous

Taphozous perforatus Geoffroy 1818

Measurements (in mm.) :

Localities

TWO Tr

Bs (z2/e [zie is lz lz

BS soln re = ale Duala

ree SMS, oi) Toye eras Ona) |r O

SIA ela EP esc ed Oe ei ee

oO | "oO = xi a= ie < ,

Sime a < < < mst lee

Forearm GON e591 560! 4 “60 8 63 © 163) 115602 | 60

Ist finger | |

Metacarpal 51 51 BO eta a | 54 S17 11-250 50

eel Metacarpal 53 a3 52 53 a7 =) a2 ae

Or] |

e 2 ) ist Phalange Dee Se 20 acy 20K /s 21 19! 1S eng

eendiPNatenge ms. |p 250 625 (24 |, 25. | 26041-1251 |) 22) laa,

/ Metacarpal BN aaa ares anil ao eae) | cays’ lied

S |

ee Phalange Wp Pale ene eee 13 2a eel

ida) j |

\ 2nd Phalange Serer Seer 91S ie ge |” (9

eae Smee icle San wiaa2t ie Soe es4u bn 33,..| 32

S & ( ist Phalange (ee ere Worries ore ape | 12 | 43

E |

ee Phalange 8 10 Pies 9 9 OF pero.

Tarsus Dae OA ete eee | 25" |” 25. | 24 23

Tail Ziman) DOM 26h 3010 25: he 25 oe DSi 9G

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic Mandible Upper Lower

length breadth dentalrow dental row

Ahmedabad ste 20 11 16 8 10

Ahmedabad ae 20 11 15 8 10

Description

Several species of Indian Taphozous have a very similar morphology.

They are: Taphozous melanopogon, Taphozous longimanus, Taphozous

theobaldi, and Taphozous perforatus. The skulls of these species ara

practically the same except of theobaldi, which is the same shape,

but slightly bigger. It is difficult to separate specimens of these

Taphozous, specially the females, and many mistakes can be seen in

the collections concerning the arrangements and identificatioa of bats

of this difficult genus.

One can identify IT. perforatus by the following characters:

1. The size is slightly but consistently smaller than in melanopogon and the

forearm slightly bigger than in longimanus (see Table of Measurements).

2. The colour of the fur is pale grey below and duller on the back instead of

dark brown to sandy grey in the other species.

3. The adult males and females are all of the same pale colour. The male has

no beard as in melanopogon, and the gular sac so well developed in /ongimanus is not

very visible in perforatus.

4. Thetail is slenderer than in the other Taphozous.

This species has a weak but distinctive smell unlike the strong one

in longimanus. During the autumn (November—Ahmedabad), the

individuals collected were extraordinarily fat like the Rhinopoma and

Taphozous kachhensis, but the fat is concealed under the heavy skin

and not externally visible as in the previous species.

General Distribution

This species has a wide distribution over the arid and desert

parts of eastern Africa and western India.

Distribution in India

In the zoological literature only Kutch and Kathiawar are

mentioned, but Navarro and I have seen this species in Ahmedabad

and some other places in northern Gujarat (See map).

In the eastern and southern parts of the above region, Taphozous

perforatus disappears and its ecological place is occupied by the closely

allied Taphozous melanopogon. The two species have never been

seen living side by side. Where perforatus occurs, there are no

melanopogon and vice versa.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 35

I. Ahmedabad DA

2. Bochasan D A

3. Chaklasi O

Map 6. Localities where Taphozous perforatus were studied

4. Mehmadabad 0

Kutch and Kathiawar ©

Ecology

TABLE OF DIURNAL BIOTOPES OF Taphozous perforatus

: Date of Size of Number . .

Locality Observation colony captured Nature of biotope

Ahmedabad | November 2000 to 3000 |65 in Nov. |In November, a very huge

and in November | 7 in June colony in one mosque in

June 400 to 500 the middle of the town.

in June In June, several colonies

in mosques and monu-

ments.

Ahmedabad | November, Few individu- #/ In the Dada Hari Well

December als (Colony also observed by

and June Navarro 20 years ago)

Villages December Few individu-| 2 In the inhabited houses—

around | als mixed with colonies of

Anand T. kachhensis (Observa-

tions made with A.

Navarro)

In all cases, the diurnal haunts are in man-made constructions.

These are not ruins, but monuments in good condition, not completely

dark and where human beings are almost continuously present.

The biggest colony is situated in the middle of the large city of

Ahmedabad.

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Field Characters |

This is a noisy species, very shy, and flies away at the

least alarm and thus difficult to capture! The flight is fleet and

swift. The type of the biotope, the social life, and the general

appearance is the same as in 7. melanopogon and it is not easy to

separate them in their diurnal haunts.

Reproduction a 2

A single young in May. On 15th June in Ahmedabad, hundreds

of females were seen carrying young about 35 days old.

Intra-specific Associations

No segregation of sexes has been noticed. In Ahmedabad, where

72 individuals were captured, both sexes were seen in the same

colonies. The species seems highly gregarious, although we saw .

small groups of 2 to 5 individuals mingling with other species.

Inter-specific Associations

Regularly, we saw this species associated with Taphozous

kachhensis. Food, hibernation, and displacements have not been

observed. Generally speaking, we need more information on this

species, which appears restricted to the north-western part of India.

Taphozous melanopogon Temminck 1841

Measurements (in mm.): es

Localities

3 us 5 = 5 Specelpe = fe

BIB bbe

O M S) M “ NY, vy,

| |

Forearm 165-21) 69.5) 165) 655) =26aen| od eames

2nd finger Meee beh 54 54 Siete)

; | Metacarpal | 60. S580 ST) Mga tase i etaQ al eae

ze “Ist Phalange [20 We po) |20 1! oe Hope egae sages

2nd Phalange | 2220) eae 22 | 25 22 Ze 26

/ Metacarpal Re pewce oe) Ga

5% / ash Baaeaes 13. ods) 1a eee eerie eee ot yn

\ 2nd Phalange ete eer aes:

Metacarpal 35... 40. ¢)037 Is@ieeiengs tc 3a, 1aeae

=3 Ist Phalange 129 14 1g ia ee 13's ae

” \ 2nd Phalange go tg AG A eeetoer 9 | tie

Tarsus ee! chu 4S 24 27 24

Tail | 99 | 39. oy Wie") 57 || 37 sien

—————— dil

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA a

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic Mandible Upper dental Lower denta

length breadth row row

Kanheri a ZS 12.5 16 9 fl

Mandu ae 21 12.5 16 9 10

Badami weg Zl 12:5 16 5) 10

Description

Polymorphic species, which appears variable in size and colour.

These variations are in connection with sexes, age, and seasons.

Adult male. Sandy-yellowish grey, darker in summer and autumn.

A black beard of long and thick hair under the chin.

Adult female. Fur brown, more or less reddish. No beard.

Young. Fur darker than that of the adults—dull grey, and

similar in both sexes. In the young male, the beard appears at the

age of 5 or 6 months. This beard is less thick and less black than

in the adult.

This species has no gular pouch. But at the period of the rut

small glands under the chin of the male produce a thick secretion

which runs over the beard. The tail is rather thick and at its end is

a slight swelling. There is only a weak specific smell. The other

characters are the same as in the other Taphozous.

e7 e

rev Orena?Zs

2. Mandu A ea 8. Alibag OLA

3. Chikalda A 9. Pattadkal A

4. Ajanta Z\ 10. Badami A

5. Pittalkora A 11. Vijayanagar LA

6. Ellora A 12. Gersoppa

= Kanhen OGY ; 13. Asirgarh

Map 7. Localities where Taphozous melanopogon were studied

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

General Distribution

Approximately Java, Malay States, Sumatra, Borneo, Laos, Indo-

China, Yunnan, peninsular India.

Distribution in western and central India

A common species met in several places during this survey:

Konkan, Deccan, mountain ranges of central India, north Mysore,

and Madhya Pradesh. In the northern part of Gujarat, the closely

allied species J. perforatus occupies the ecological niche of T.

melanopogon. We saw no individuals at an altitude of more than

800 m. (Chikalda). The hills and rainy ranges of the Ghats also do

not seem suitable for this species.

The Diurnal Biotope

It would appear that large vertical faults of the cliffs are the

primitive biotope of this species (cf. my observations in Badami and

Pittalkora). Later, Taphozous melanopogon adapted itself to the

anthropic habitat, specially the ruins and the hypogean temples of

large size. These diurnal biotopes have in common, numerous dark

rooms with high ceilings. Human presence does not bother these

Taphozous, even if often disturbed by man as in Kanheri and Ellora.

Taphozous melanopogon is a very sedentary species, which

occupies the same haunts during the whole year. It seems, accord-

ing to regular observations of several individuals bearing rings in

Kanheri, that each individual possesses a special place—always the

same in the colony. For instance, a ringed male was met about ten

times consecutively during 4 months sitting exactly in the same

prominence of rock. Its immediate neighbours, on the left and on

the right, were also two adult males, regularly present at the same

place. We shall see in the following pages that the places occupied

by these Taphozous in their colonies seem determined by a special

social hierarchy.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA | 39

TABLE OF DIURNAL BIOTOPES OF Taphozous mejanopogon

GE ASE SETH

Period Size of

Locality of.” colony aerate Nature of Biotope

Observation | (estimated) ei

Kanheri

Caves

Alibag

Wetnieds

Badami

Pattadkal

Pittalkora

Ellora

Mandu

Orcha

The whole

year

May

December

October

August

March and

August

February

March

180-200

1000-2000

3000

2000-3000

150-200

1000-2000

3000-4000

2000-3000

35-40

8-10

15-10

15-20

8-10

Chaitya No. 3— Buddhist

Caves in hilly and

forested country

Natural cave in hilly and

forested country

Three different colonies

in the ruins of an enor-

mous fort

Several colonies in hypo-

gean temples and large

vertical faults in the

cliffs

In a temple—in a flat and

cultivated area

In the hypogean temples

and big vertical faults

of cliffs—(hilly country)

Three big colonies—in

the Kailasa, a Buddhist

Temple, and in a Jain

Temple—all hilly coun-

try

Several colonies in ruins

and mosques of this

ancient and _ deserted

capital

Two colonies in rooms

and undergrounds of the

deserted palace of the

Maharaja

Hunting Territory

The diurnal haunts were found generally in hilly and forested

country, with a lake, a river, or a pond in the vicinity, where these

bats can come to drink. The presence of water is always an im-

portant element in the biotope of all bats, specially during the

rearing and suckling of their young. This is true even in temperate

countries in Europe, where the females usually establish their nursery

close to water.

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

As Taphozous melanopogon often come back to diurnal haunt

in the course of the night (observations made at Kanheri), we can

assume that their hunting territory is not far away.

Field Characters

Species highly gregarious, never isolated, living in numerous

colonies. These bats attach themselves by the fore- and hind- limbs

on the rocky walls and ceilings and never take refuge in crevices,

except if disturbed. They are among the shyer bats of India, and

often fly away when the observer is 10 m. from the colony. At first,

they run along the wall in all directions and suddenly start flying

with noisy flapping and shrill cries. Their capture is difficult.

The best field character is certainly the very visible black beard

of the adult male, which even from afar makes this species unmis-

takable.

The nocturnal outings of the colony take place 25 to 30 minutes

after sunset (Kanheri and Mandu). The starts are made in waves

of three to a dozen individuals leaving together. During the suck-

ling period in Kanheri, the females go hunting 15-20 minutes before

the males. The nocturnal flight is straight, swift and pitching.

Reproduction

The rut is evidenced in the male by the state of the hairs of the

beard which are massed together as pencils by a pitchy secretion.

The upper parts of the breast are also partially deprived of hair,

and the testes which are not visible during the period of sexual rest

can now be seen under the skin.

The rut is evidenced in the male by the state of the haris of the

copulation (?) at Kanheri on the 12th of March. In Mandu at the

end of February two adult females dissected showed no foetuses.

But in Ellora on 27th March, a female had a foetus 10 mm. long.

On the same date in the colony at Orcha, I got two females with

foetuses 18 mm. long.

In Kanheri, I regularly followed the reproductive cycle of the

colony in 1960 and 1961. Parturition took place between the 20th

April and 15th May. The females have a single young which they

carry in a lateral position under the wing. For about 30 days, the

young does not leave the dug of its mother, to which it is fixed con-

tinuously. When the young leave their mothers at the age of about

one month, it is for ever. In spite of their very small size, the young

can fly very well and show the same watchful behaviour as_ their

FHE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 4]

parents. During this second period of their life, they were never

seen to be carried by the adults. They stay in the diurnal haunt

during the night, but do continual exercises of flight in the cave. The

first hunting flights of the young were observed in Kanheri in 1960,

around the 10th of July. On the 20th of July. we saw all the young

flying out at sunset, although all had stayed in the cave during the

night of the 12th of July. The duration of suckling would be

about two months.

The juvenile mortality was observed in Kanheri Caves where the

dead bodies lay on the flagstone and were easily collected. This

mortality is high and we found 17 bodies in 1960 and again 17 in

1961; an average of 1/Sth of the young died during the juvenile stages.

The size of the forearm in all the dead juveniles was between 50 and

52 mm. in length. This is the size of individuals 30-40 days old.

i.e. the stage at which they leave their mothers. Probably this is a

difficult period for the voung and great numbers perish——possibly due

to difficulty in finding the mother.

One female caught in June was without young, and the external

genital organs were suffering from some serious infection. —

The periodicity of the reproductive cycle in Taphozous melano-

pogon is absolutely strict, and no pregnant females or young were

noted at other times of the year.

Social Life

~The social life of Taphozous melanopogon shows certain pecu-

liarities which do not appear to have been, recorded in bats before.

Intra-specific Associations

Adult males and females usually live together in the same colonies.

Nevertheless, sexual segregation exists, the adult males being dis-

persed around a nucleus of females. If the shape of the colony is

elongated—-a colony formed at the top of a wall for instance—the

males are seen occupying both extremities in a linear disposition.

This is the case at the Kanheri Caves. I have enlarged on this new

and very curious observation in another paper (A. Brosset—-Sexualité

et reproduction des chiroptéres de l’ouest et du centre de I’Inde—

Mammalia, in press).

Sometimes the males inhabit a separate place, but this is close to

the colony of females. This was the case in the fort of Chikalda.

One small colony exclusively of males (150-200) was discovered

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

in a tower. A very big colony of females (estimated 1500-2000)

existed in another tower only 50 m. away. The same condition was

noted in Ellora in March 1960, where only males formed a huge

colony in a Jain temple, with the females living separately in other

temples. Nevertheless, in August, both sexes were seen together at

Ellora.

After weaning, there is no dispersal of the young as has been

observed for many species of vertebrates. In fact, the colony of

Kanheri, which had 180-200 individuals in April, consisted of about

270 after the rearing of the young and this number was stable till

October, when we got several young as big as the adults, but darker

grey and without beards in the males.

Inter-specific Associations

Several species associate themselves with Taphozous melanopogon:

Rousettus leschenaulti in Kanheri

Rhinopoma microphyllum in Orcha

Hipposideros speoris and Rhinopoma hardwickei in Badami

do. in Pattadkal

Taphozous kachhensis in Ellora

Rhinopoma and Rhinolophus lepidus in Mandu

The colonies of bats seen in Pittalkora and Chikalda were of

Taphozous melanopogon only. These associations are very variable

and probably due to ecological convergences.

Food

No valuable information was obtained. This species does not

bring insects into the diurnal haunt. Analysis of the guano gave

only remains of prey too masticated to be identified.

Hibernation

Taphozous melanopogon is a_ vigilant and active bat, which

certainly never hibernates. It seems that none of the Indian

Taphozous are able to fall into torpor, even when cooled experi-

mentally (Brosset, L’hibernation chez les chiroptéres Tropicauax,

Mammalia, December 1961).

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 43

Taphozous longimanus Hardwicke 1821

Measurements (in mm.):

Localities

a |g 2 |S i

Bor | Er | Ero | For | Bor | Bw | gw | Sw a

Z oO ete vO );4@0 S im) a Oo ES f: q é qJ

s |< |=

Forearm B55 essai St ST 5p he56> | 59.) 59° I 58

anevinpermme 558 |e 5e 8 8561/57 ees" a56 157 ul 55.4) 55

= { Metacarpal ai) 54 58 5 ap) 56 60 58 59

g 2 Iseenalanee (22 1 2ae |e Wd 24 hod | | a9) 34

| 2nd Phalange| 25 25 25 25 25 26 23 23 25

| Metacarpal | 45 | 42 | 43 | 45 | 45 | 45 | 48 | 45 | 44

oe istPHataigs | 11 | 12 | 12) 12 | 12 | 42 | a2 | 42 143

a 2ndPhalange| 9 | 8 8 9 8 8 8 |

Metacarpal | 35 | 31 | 33 | 34 | 34 | 35 | 33 | 33 | 32

#2) isePhalange |, 12-113) 13) 13 |) 129) 13°.) 42 ) we | 12

2nd Phalange| 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 10 9

Tarsus 24 22, 25

Tail

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic Mandible Upper dental Lower dental

length breadth row row

Ahmedabad .. 20 125 15 8 11

Anand ie 21 13 16 8 tS

Description

Compared with the two previous species, this Taphozous shows

few differences. The skull cannot be separated from that of melano-

pogon and perforatus.

The size of the forearm is slightly smaller than that of the other

closely-allied species. The fur is darker brown, the hair being often

speckled with whitish, especially on the back. The gular sac is very

large in the male, smaller in the female.

4d JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

This bat possesses a strong sui generis smell, which is so peculiar

that when known by the observer, it is sufficient to permit identifica-

tion of the species at a distance.

General Distribution

Approximately: Ceylon, India, Burma, Tenasserim, Malay

States, Sumatra, Java, Borneo.

Distribution in western and central India

Taphozous longimanus is known from the coastal part of the

country and also from the Ghats.

1. Ahmedabad A 5. Elephanta OA

2. Mehmadabad TA \, 6. Khandala OA

3. Anand OA 7. Sirsi O

4. Arnala Fort O 8. Ratnagiri O

Map 8. Localities where Taphozous longimanus were studied

Ecology

It is difficult to understand what factors determine the distribution

of Taphozous longimanus. In fact, the xerothermic indices and the

nature of the vegetational cover are completely different at Elephanta,

Khandala and Ahmedabad, where this species was found. I believe

that it is the territorial competition with other Taphozous which

determines the presence of Jonegimanus. We never saw Taphozous

longimanus in the biotopes occupied by melanopogon, perforatus

}

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 45

kachhensis, or theobaldi. It is the intolerance by longimanus of the

presence of the other species which probably confines this bat to the

habitats not occupied by the others. For instance, the Kanheri Caves,

which contain many suitable places but give shelter to a colony of

melanopogon, ate never visited by longimanus.

The Diurnal Biotope

TABLE OF DIURNAL BrotTopzs OF Zaphozous longimanus .

Daca Date of | Size of | Number | Nature of the

y observation | colony | captured — Biotope

Ahmedabad November 4 2 Dada Hari Well—a Mog-

hul well with subterra-

nean retreats

Mehmadabad December 15-20 8 A Moghul well with sub-

| terranean retreats

Anand December 1 none In the open air—on the

wall of a house

Anand December 1 none —

Anand December 7 30g In the external corner of

a roof

Arnala January 3 none In a dark room of the

old fort.

Elephanta March/June; 7 and 5 2 In a room adjacent to the

principal cave

Khandala March, 15-20 3 Under the roof of a mis-

May, June sion (observations of A.

Navarro and myself)

I noticed T. longimanus as an especially eclectic species for the

diurnal haunt, which can be:

A cave—an old building—a well—a roof—the external surface

of the wall of a house.

The latter is a biotope very rarely used by bats and it seems that

only Taphozous maritianus of the Congo was known to stay in the

open air during the day on the external walls of houses (ref.

Verchueren). This biotope is completely lighted up and exposes the

bat to the view of man and predators, requiring continual vigilance

by this animal. The same remarks were made by Shortridge who

wrote about numerous individuals seen near Dharwar: ‘They hang

up in rows under the eaves of the larger houses, quite exposed to the

46. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

light, merely shifting their position if the sun shines directly on

them. oe |

Individuals living in hollows of trees were noticed by Gopalakrishna

in the region of Nagpur, and by Phillips in Ceylon.

Hunting Territory

Hunting territories were observed at Anand and Khandala. The bats

fly away early from the diurnal haunt, about 15 minutes before

complete darkness. Each individual hunts alone, turning around over

a well-margined territory, which seems the same every day. These

territories are in the immediate vicinity of their diurnal haunts which

are themselves included in the nocturnal territory of some individuals.

Field Characters

This bat clings to vertical walls. Contrary to the other Taphozous,

this species can be observed in completely lightened places.

Although isolated individuals are frequently noted, Taphozous

longimanus usually lives in small colonies of 2 to 20 individuals. If

there are more than 3 or 4 bats together, they form a compact cluster

(see Plate III).

At human approach, two different reactions have been noted:

(1) Upon the observer’s close approach to the colony, all the

bats suddenly fly away.

(2) In the same circumstances, the bats may escape by crawling

away to take refuge in a hole or a crevice in the rock. This reaction

is sometimes centrifugal, sometimes centripetal.

Nocturnal Flight

T. longimanus can be recognised easily at sunset. It is a bat with

narrow wings and long tail, a solitary flier that spins around in one

place at a height of about 25 m. The flight is passably fast and

pitching.

Reproduction

I did not record data on reproduction at any of the colonies

that I observed.

We noticed in winter that a curious red secretion, which is perhaps

in connection with the rut, is exuded by the gular sac. The smell of

the secretion is very strong and disagreeable.

The reproduction of Taphozous longimanus had been studied by

A. Gopalakrishna at Nagpur and Amravati. This work is especially

important because it is probably the most detailed work on the re-

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. PLATE III

Colony of Taphozous kachhensis

( Photos : A. Brosset )

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 47

production of any Indian species, and also because these researches

have given quite unexpected results. Observations in the field,

together with physiological studies showed that this Taphozous

breeds all through the year. Each female becomes pregnant more

than once a year and most probably there is continuous breeding

with pregnancies following in quick succession. The conclusions of

Gopalakrishna are firmly supported by physiological examination of

135 females collected over six years.

The case of the reproduction of 7. longimanus is unique, as far

as we know, among the bats of the old world. The other Indian

Taphozous like melanopogon, perforatus, and kachhensis show a

normal cycle of reproduction as other bats: one liter born at a well-

defined period of the year in April, May, and July respectively.

Readers desiring more details about the reproduction of Taphozous

longimanus may refer to the work of A. Gopalakrishna [Observations

on the Breeding Habits and Ovarian Cycle in the Indian Sheath-tailed

Bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke). 1955, Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci.

India 21B : 29-41].

Social Life

Taphozous of different species are usually found living in huge

colonies. JT. longimanus forms an exception, living isolated or in

small colonies. Gopalakrishna had also noticed that this species is

not colonial in habit. No sexual segregation was observed. Most

often ZT. longimanus does not associate itself with other species.

Nevertheless, in Ahmedabad and Mehmadabad, there were some

Rousettus and Rhinopoma on the walls occupied by these Taphozous.

Hibernation |

T. longimanus certainly does not hibernate. The nature of the

diurnal biotopes, where the bat is often exposed to the view of

' predators, requires this species to be continuously watchful.

Taphozous theobaldi Dobson 1872

Description

Similar to the previous species, but bigger. The size of the

forearm is sufficient to separate this bat from the closely allied species.

The skull is also similar in shape, but noticeably larger.

The colour of the fur is rather variable, being of various shades

of reddish-brown. The adult male possesses a very distinct reddish-

brown beard, a character which, it appears, has not been noticed pre-

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (4)

viously. In one specimen coilected, the reddish hairs of the beard

are mixed with blackish. In one male, apparently young, there is

ne beard.

No. gular sac in either sex. The metacarpal pouch is well visible.

Measurements (in mm.):

Localities =

we ae epee ear eee

BO pb ss | Beles ie ES ele oun om

a¢ cg cg ge eg ah

Bag Gs re Becta 3S Ss

287 fas fas | #80) a0) 420

Mis iaik| Atom glatraty es acum Nees

Berek Pe RU ah eb eS

7 l

Forearm 73 ieee Hae 7 71 ie 72

2nd finger 59 te SMA oy 57 57 57

Metacarpal 62 63 62 62 64 61

2 Ist Phalange 25.7) 2a Hie ae 24 24

= | | |

2nd Phalange 25 ti. 25a ae 24 1,26 25

Metacarpal 50 DO) yg) ate 50 50 50

Sot

S %/ ist Phalange 13 Cae Why 14 15 13

TiS ) |

2nd Phalange 8 wale Abhek, gues 9 9 8

/ Metacarpal 40 | 40 38 40 40 40

i | |

¢ &! Ist Phalange 14 14 ae ae! 15 15

\ 2nd Phalange 8 Bing 9 9 9 8

Tarsus 28 29 1s 40, MS 226 27 28

Tail 27 afar Skog 35 35 30

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic Mandible Upperdental Lower dental

length breadth row row

Krishnapur 24 14 19 10.5 13

General Distribution

India (probably rare), Tenasserim, Malay States, Java.

Distribution in western and central India

Known only from two places in the whole of peninsular India

(see map).

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA . 49

1. Asirgarh O 2. Krishnapur O A

Map 9. Localities where Taphozous theobaldi were studied

Biology

The biology of T. theobaldi in India remains practically unknown.

In October 1911, C. A. Crump found two individuals at Asirgarh.

The collector gave no details of the circumstances under which they

were Obtained. Of these, only one is traceable in the B.N.HS.

collection. : :

In May 1961, a short trip was organised jointly with the Bombay

Natural History Society, to study the bats of North Kanara.

During this trip, P. W. Soman, Junior Research Assistant of the

Society, obtained the second record of T. theobaldi for India. This

colony, apparently of some size, was found in the Krishnapur Caves,

not far from the Goa border. This natural cave is situated in wild

and forested country, and also held a colony of Rousettus leschen-

aulti. Soman secured seven specimens, all males; measurements and

description of five of them are given above. |

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (A)

Subgenus Saccolaimus

Taphozous saccolaimus Lesson 1842

Measurements (in mm.):

a a

| Bombay Anand Sirsi Gers opp | Dhaurapur

eee as pO OS Oz

Forearm | 71 | 70 | 1P 71 72

Ist finger | 66 | 67 66 65 66

Metacarpal 67 [> 9569 68 65 66

ha |

ES (ist Phalange —»«--33 33 32 30 30

2nd Phalange 32 34 31 30 31

(oe. 50 51 50 50 32

Sel

32 a Phalange 21 24 22 22 23

2nd Phalange 7 8 8 8 8

Paar 36 36 37 37 37

#2 ( 1st Phalange 17 18 17 he elie gah

ere Phalange 11 2 11 8 12

Tarsus 29 28 27 | 26 26

Tail 29 26 30 | 30 25

er eeee eee eeeee eee eeeeceeeeee cence eee er ee re Ee a a EE a IE TX LE ES ToT Ae a

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic Mandible | Upper den- — Lower den-

| length breadth tal row tal row

Bombay Bes ae) 16.3 21 11.3 br 13

Anand rate 4a 16.5 Di 12 14

Description

With this species, we start to examine the second group of

Taphozous characterised by their large size, the presence of a gular

pouch, and a skull very different from that of the first group. In

India, this second group includes two species—Taphozous saccolaimus

and Taphozous kachhensis. aa oe

Taphozous saccolaimus is a very dark black-brown species,

completely black in certain specimens. The fur of the back and the

head is often studded with curious small white patches (?). The

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 51

lower parts are usually more brown-rufous and not so dull as the upper

parts.

The shape of the wing differs from that in the other species (see

measurements) in being very long and narrow. Males and females

both possess a large gular pouch, but an immature specimen in the

collection of A. Navarro has apparently none.

At the end of the tail are about ten hairs 1 cm. long. In the

skull, the brain case ts not raised higher than the facial block, as

in the previous species, but both have a linear profile.

General Distribution

Ceylon, Malay States, Java, Sumatra, perhaps Burma, nee of

India to Bengal.

Distribution in western and central India

A few specimens were recorded in the coastal area. (See map.)

1. Anand 3. SirsiO

2. Bombay O 4. Gersoppa O

Map 10. Localities where Taphozous saccolaimus were studied

Biology

Very little is known concerning the biology of this species. I

never met an individual alive. The records of Bombay, Gersoppa,

and Sirsi refer to bats shot or found accrdentally,

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Nevertheless, the specimen from Anand (Navarro collection) was

discovered with two others in a hole in a palm tree. Phillips,

from Ceylon, wrote that the hollows in decayed palm trees

formed the normal diurnal habitat of this Taphozous, which indicated

a very special ecology as compared with that of the other species of

the genus.

According to Phillips, Taphozous saccolaimus live in small com-

panies of five or six, both sexes together. It leaves its day’s hiding

place early in the evening. In Ceylon, the reproduction takes place

in autumn.

Perhaps, this Taphozous is a common species all over the country.

But living in small companies in the hollows of palm trees, its dis-

covery and observation are especially difficult.

Subgenus Liponycteris

Taphozous kachhensis Dobson 1872

Measurements (in mm.):

Forearm 68 68 | 10 75 12 72, 74 74

Ist finger 60 58 65 62 59 59 60 61

‘ Metacarpal 62 60 70 68 64 67 65 65

z be Phalange 28 | 62 | 30 | 29/) 28 |. 27 cepeza 27

A 2nd Phalange 35 34 32 32 3) 33 33 30

Metacarpal 49 50 34 53 51 51 53 a2

a. ist Phalange 16 ARG 1B: EO Tt S| ee ae

nd Phalange 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9

. Metacarpal 42 43 47 44 43 46 45 43

ai ist Phalange 4] a4. | 17-7 16) aed te ae ts: as

2nd Phalange 10 9 10 8 9 9 9 10

Tarsus 29 28 31 30 30 28 32 30

Tail 28 26 31 25 30 30 30 30

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 53

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic Mandible Upper dental Lower

| length breadth row dental row

Aurangabad A 28 17 21 12 14

Hampi A 26 16 20 11 14

This is one of the larger species of the genus Taphozous in India.

Like T. saccolaimus it belongs to the group having a flat broad skull.

The dentition is much stronger than that in melanopogon, perforatus,

longimanus, and theobaldi.

The adult male possesses a large and deep gular sac 10 mm.

broad, and in addition to this sac a deep circular gland of 4 mm. in

the upper part of the chest. In the female, the gular sac is less

visible and there is no gland on the chest.

The colour of the fur is of variable shades of yellowish-brown.

The individuals seen in Ahmedabad were much more greyish than

those of Aurangabad.

The specimens obtained in north Mysore (Vijayanagar) are notice-

ably duller than the northern population. Probably, a cline of

coloration exists for this species, with darker individuals in the south.

During certain periods of the year, varying with the different

localities, these Taphozous show enormous reserves of fat at the base

of the tail and in the uropatagium which give, by transparency, an

orange colour to the lower parts of these animals.

The sui generis smell of Taphozous kachhensis seems due to the

disagreeable emanations produced by its urine and guano.

General Distribution

Sikkim, Burma, Malay States, Iraq.

Distribution in western and central India

It occurs over the whole area of the present survey, excepting the

Konkan, the Ghats, and Kanara, where the humidity is too high for

this species. (The records from Gersoppa in the Mammal Survey

Report are doubtful.) No specimen in support of this statement can

be traced in the collections of the B.N.H'S.

The presence of this bat is associated with the scarcity of rainfall.

It appears where the annual precipitations are less than 50 inches.

The species is common in north Gujarat, Agra and Delhi, Madhya

Pradesh, the Deccan Plateau, and the arid portion of northern Mysore.

As is often the case in the ecology of birds, the rainfall determines

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

» New DelhiA 7

Orarcheur Siu TAIL

Agra A - BochasanO A

- Gwalior O . Ellora A

Sanchi A . Aurangabad A

: Khajurao A . AjantaOA

Bhuj O . Pattadkal A

- Rajkot O - Badami A

- Ahmedabad A . Vijayanagar OA

é » Sirsi O

Cot ankwne

Map ,11. Localities where Taphozous kachhensis were studied

the distribution of several species of bats and amongst them is

Taphozous kachhensis.

Diurnal Biotope

Until the species had adapted itself to human constructions, e.g.

artificial caves, temples, and tombs, crevices in rocks constituted

their original diurnal biotope. The most suitable places for this bat

are old monuments with deep cracks and fissures where it can rest

concealed and protected during the day, secure from disturbance and

the attack of predators. Sometimes, T. kachhensis may be found, as

at Ellora and Aurangabad, on the walls of caves without crevices.

The density of the population in a given area appears to be

directly linked with the number of suitable ‘lodgings’ available for

these bats. The more numerous the caves, the more abundant. are

T. kachhensis. At Ellora, a place famous for its many large caves

and temples, we found some 800 individuals. The Aurangabad caves,

with only six suitable cavities, give shelter to only 200: individuals.

At Sanchi, only a small temple is suitable for these bats, and only

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 55

14 individuals were found living there. They ordinarily gather in

small colonies of 10 to 50 individuals, Many such colonies may in

fact be very close to each other and form parts of really the same

population.

TABLE OF DIURNAL BIOTOPES OF Taphozous kachhensis

| Estimated Number :

Locality ee oe | number of of a as

| Individuals = — captures P

Vijayanagar October Several colonies 13 Old monuments,

of 50-100 indivi- specially the -

duals each. temples of the

500-1000 altoge- demolished

ther capital

Pattadkal October 3 colonies 50-100 4 Old temples

individuals

Badami October 3 colonies at 4 Old temples

least. 200-250

individuals

Aurangabad | March Several colonies. 8 Buddhist caves

| August 200 individuals

| estimated.

Ajanta March do. 7 do.

Ellora March 800-1000 30 Numerous colo-

August individuals nies, practically

present in each

cave

Vedtial December 50-100 4 At least 3 colonies

in barns and

inhabited houses

Bochasan December 100-150 none On the walls of a

4 barn

Ahmedabad November 50-100 11 Several colonies

July in the mosques

of the town

Khajurao | March 8-10 1 In an old temple

Sanchi March 14 14 In an old temple

Fatehpur April Great number a dozen Numerous colo-

Sikri several hundreds nies in under-

grounds and

crevices of the

buildings

Agra April do. ?) do.

Tuglakabad April 30-40 5 Several: colonies

in tombs and

undergrounds ~

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Nocturnal Biotope

These bats leave their diurnal haunts about 15 minutes after

sunset (observations made in Aurangabad and Ahmedabad). They

immediately flew away and it was unfortunately not possible to

observe this bat in its hunting territory. It also appeared that T.

kachhensis does not come back to its diurnal biotope during the night

(The caves at Aurangabad were watched for 3 hours after sunset).

Field 7 Characters

A large Taphozous, living in cracks of old caves and monuments,

or simply hanging against a wall in dark corners. In villages of

Gujarat, T. kachhensis inhabits barns and houses. Each colony does

not usually contain many individuals, but several such colonies may

be seen dispersed in the same group of temples and/or caves. The

individuals keep themselves close to each other, but do not form

clusters. (Plate III)

This species is not shy and it is easy to look at it from close

quarters. At the approach of an intruder, the most usual reaction is

to run in the direction of a crack, or a corner, where the bat tries to

conceal itself. The capture of Taphozous kachhensis is not difficult.

When caught, this species emits a loud cry and can bite seriously.

Nocturnal Flight

It is very strong, fast, and straight, quite similar to that of swifts.

At sunset, if the light is sufficient, one can see, at certain seasons, —

the orange colour of the lower parts due to the fat infiltrations, which

is peculiar to this species.

Reproduction

The gular sac and the pectoral gland are more distinct during

spring.

The rut seems to be at the end of March. At this time of the

year, pairs were observed in several places. At Sanchi, several

couples were caught in a small temple, each couple being isolated from

the other in one of the cracks in the temple. At the same period of

the year, pairs were obtained from crevices in the Tuglakabad Fort,

near Delhi. I have not seen newly-born young, but parturition

certainly takes place in the first half of July. At Ahmedabad, at the

end of June, the females were heavily pregnant, and several hundreds

of half-grown young were seen in Aurangabad and Ellora on 28th

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA a7

and 29th August. A single young was always observed with the

females.

For an insectivorous bat, the growth of the young is slow. About

6 months appear necessary for the young to reach full size. Young

seen at Badami in October and probably 4 months old were still with

their mothers, though they were able to fly well.

The young of this species shows an extraordinary behaviour never

before observed in bats. It keeps itself on the back of the mother

and not on her lower surface under the forearm, as in the other

Taphozous. (For more details, see Brosset—Sexualité et reproduction

des chiroptéres de l’ouest et du centre de ’Inde. Mammalia, in press.)

Hibernation

Never observed in this species. The state of activity is probably

continuous. Cooling experiments were without effect. ¢

_ Nevertheless, the existence of the enormous fat accumulations that

the species shows at the base of the tail during certain times of the

year appear to be in connection with prolonged periods of rest.

This animal probably stays in its diurnal haunt for long periods

without flying or feeding itself, as hibernating species do. In fact,

in November and December, I noticed in Gujarat colonies of extra-

ordinarily fat Taphozous kachhensis, which seemed to be in an

abnormal state. Although wide-awake and easily moving along the

walls, these bats refused to fly, even if caught in the hand or thrown

on the ground. Shortridge had noticed the same behaviour in

northern Mysore.

Association with Man

Taphozous kachhensis is a characteristic anthrophic species, pro-

bably adapted since several centuries to hypogean temples.

Although certainly useful, as other insectivorous bats, T.

kachhensis is an undoubted nuisance to monuments of archaeological

interest. Sculptures, walls, and ground in~caves and temples are

damaged by their urine and guano, and the strong smell spoils the

pleasure of tourists and visitors in many places. The Archaeological

Department has made war on this species in many places, but without

success. If disturbed, the bat takes shelter in cracks and crevices of

the edifice, where it is completely out of danger and can return after

it is past. Only at Khajurao was this species nearly eliminated by

placing wire lattices, closely affixed to the walls, at all the openings.

(To be continued)

Notes on Indian Commelinaceae—I

SESHAGIRI RAO ROLLA

Botanical Survey of India, Poona

AND

R. V. KAMMATHY

Junior Research Fellow, C.S.I.R.,: Poona

(With three plates)

In the course of our study on the ‘ Cyto-taxonomic Revision of

Indian Commelinaceae’ a few interesting points have been observed while

studying the specimens of the family from the following Herbaria :

Blatter Herbarium, Bombay (BLAT); Botanical Survey of India,

Western Circle, Poona (BSI); Botanical Survey of India, Southern

Circle, Coimbatore, formerly known as Madras Herbarium (MH) ; the

Osmania University (HY) ; and the Calcutta University (CU).

In order to clarify these points for better identification of some of

the species and for widening their distribution. particularly for western

India, the following notes are given under the respective species. Only

specimens which indicate new localities and which were misidentified and

published before are cited in this paper, though quite a large number of

specimens have been critically studied under each species. The mis-

identifications are marked with asterisks. The localities of some of the

species cited in this paper are marked as far as possible on the maps in

Plate III, indicating in general the distributional range of each species

and suggesting the possible extent of such distribution.

I. COMMELINA Linn.

1. Commelina subulata Roth.

Cooke’s FLORA includes this species, but he states : ‘ This has been

included on the authority of Woodrow [Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. v.

12 (1899)] but, as he gives no locality, it would seem as if he had himself

never found the plant. There are in all only 3 sheets in Herb. Kew,

one a wretched fragment from Wight’s and the other two from Rottler’s

1 The symbols used for each of the herbaria noted above, except for Calcutta

University, are according to the International Association for Plant Taxonomy. Such

symbols are given in brackets at the end of each set of specimens examined from the

particular herbarium.

NOTES ON INDIAN COMMELINACEAE—I 39

Herbarium. There is nothing to show that the plant is indigenous to

Bombay. The habitat (Peninsular India) embraces a very wide area.’

Fischer in Gamble’s FLORA OF THE PRESIDENCY OF MADRAS also indicates

its occurrence in Hills of Deccan, 3000-4000 ft. (910-1220 m.). Such notes

on distribution are very vague as the data on the species available with

Fischer were quite meagre and based on specimens collected from

Ramandrug (Bellary Dist.) only. Santapau’s record of its occurrence

at the foot of Purandhar Fort, on the basis of one specimen which was

examined, is quite interesting though, as noted below, this species is not

so rare as recorded earlier. In fact, there are 2 good specimens in Poona

Herbarium collected by Talbot from Dharwar as early as 1872 but mis-

identified as C. attenuata Koen.

Though the colour of the flower is noted as orange-purple drying

violet in different floras, it is distinctly observed from plants of different

populations growing in varied habitats as chrome-yellow.

Gargatwadi (Khed Taluka, north of Poona), Rolla 66273 ; in front

of Topegaon School 9 miles north of Belgaum, Rolla 73043 ; opposite

P. W. D. quarry, 9 miles south of Belgaum, Rolla 73048 ; Dharwar

(North Kanara), Talbot 2052 ; Stigaon, near Police Check Post at 223rd

mile on Poona-Bangalore Road, Rolla 73075 ; near Namadechilume

Forest Rest House, Tumkur, Rolla 73994; Devarayadurga, Tumkur,

Rolla 73392; Lalbagh Botanical Garden, Bangalore, Rolla 73488;

Osmania University Campus, Hyderabad, Kammathy 73965. (BSI)

Bhor Hill, Vartak 1473 ; Kudale (near Poona), Vartak 1683; Amba-

vada (near Poona), Variak 1886, 1887 ; Belgaum, Chikkanaiah in 1958 ;

Dastitop (Dharwar Dist.), Sedgwick 1937. (BLAT)

Ramandrug (Bellary Dist.), Madras Herb. No. 52262. (MH)

Marshy areas of Lalbagh Gardens, Bangalore, Krishnaswamy. (CU)

Pakhal, near Warangal (old Hyderabad State). (HY)

Distribution. Now, on proper scrutiny and with recent collections,

the species is considered to be distributed in different areas from north-

ern parts of Poona to as far as Bangalore but mostly on the Deccan

plateau region where it grows profusely in small patches at several

places. Strangely enough the species, though growing commonly in

Hyderabad and surroundings, has not been collected in the area between

Bangalore and Hyderabad and from Hyderabad to Poona, a point which

needs further study. Pl. III (1).

SPECIES OF MONOON SECTION

The species under the Monoon Section of Clarke are commonly

confused as revealed by the study of many herbarium specimens.

Practically all of them were misidentified as Commelina obliqua Ham,

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Haines (1924), however, in his FLORA distinguishes the three species—

C. kurzii Cl., C. obliqua Ham., and C. suffruticosa Bl.—but confuses with

the 3-celled and 2-celled character of the capsules. The 2-celled capsule

of C. kurzii and C. obliqua is formed from the second or third flower

of the inflorescence, the first flower producing the normal characteristic

three-celled capsule. The two-celled capsule of C. suffruticosa is distinct

by itself. Besides, there are a few distinct vegetative characters distin-

guishing these species. A comparative account of the characters of 5

species under the Section, noted after careful observation of the species

both in the field and under cultivation at Poona, is presented in Table I. ©

2. Commelina paludosa BI.

Enum. Pl. Java 1: 2, 1827. C. obliqua Buch.-Ham. ex Don, Prodr.

Fl. Nep. 45, 1825, nec Vahl.

Commelina obliqua Ham. ex Don is a later homonym to C. obliqua

Vahl [Enum. 2: 172, 1806] which is a Mexican species, and hence Don’s

species is a nomen illegit. The next available name is C. paludosa Bl.

whose type was examined by the senior author at Rijksherbarium

Leiden.

Lonavla, Bhide in Oct. 1919 ; Khandala, Gammie* 15461 (in part ;

the other bit of specimen is C. kurzii); Matheran, Wadhwa 67404 ;

Bombay Point Road, Mahableshwar, Mahajan 24641; Arthur Seat,

Mahableshwar, Ansari 67603 ; Castle Rock (North Kanara), Gammie

15523; Teppakulum, Shencottai (Kerala), K. N. Subramanian 71210 ;

Gangadhareswargudi, Billigirirangan Hills, Rolla 73709. (BSI)

Borivli (near Bombay), Herbert 2833 ; different areas of Mahablesh-

war, Santapau 13072 and other numbers, Sedgwick 4677, Bole 299 ;

Katlekan evergreen forest, J. Fernandez on 28-11-1950 ; Devimane Ghat

(North Kanara), Hallb. & McCann 35023 ; Kondapalli (Krishna Dist.,

Andhra), Wagh 3214 ; Gudem (Vizag. Dist., Andhra), Wagh 2117, 2119.

(BLAT)

Jolpad (South Kanara), Barber 2367 ; Charmadi (South Kanara),

Raju & Naganatham 18202; foot of Shiruvani (Coimbatore Dist.),

K, Subramanyam 1261, 1531. (MH)

Distribution. The species, due to misidentification, is reported to be

common in different parts of western and peninsular India; but it is

now observed that this species grows ina restricted manner, mostly in

hilly areas of the western coast, and is comparatively less common ; it is

well distributed in different parts of eastern India even beyond Assam

region. A recent careful study of this species from the Deccan plateau

area, particularly between Poona and Hyderabad on the northern part

and Bangalore on the southern part, further reveals that this species is

rather rare in this region when compared with C. kurzii which grows

quite commonly. .

NOTES ON INDIAN COMMELINACEAE—I 61

3. Commelina paleata Hassk.

Kanheri Caves, Bombay, Rolla 32737 ; Aarey Milk Colony, Bombay,

Rolla 32762 ; Khandala, Rolla 32772, Wadhwa 64075 ; Neral to Matheran,

Wadhwa 64108 ; Kirkee (near Poona), Garade 557; Karwar (North

Kanara), Talbot 1292. (BSI)

Sion Hill, Bombay, Santapau 219.3H, 219.6H; National Park,

Borivli, Bombay, Fernandes 21 and other numbers ; Aarey Milk Colony

and surroundings, Bombay, Tavakari 1382 and other numbers ; Malad,

Bombay, Shah 99 and other numbers ; Mumbra (near Bombay), Shenoy

98 and other numbers; different parts from Neral to Jummapatti

(Western Ghats), Jrani 4209 and other numbers ; Khandala, Santapau *

822, * 4656; Blatter Herb. No. * 27396 (noted under C. obliqua) ;

Parsik, Acland 1236 ; Santapau 219.9H. (BLAT)

Distribution. Though the species was reported by Fischer from

Coimbatore Dist., Courtallum etc. of south India, the specimens from

Madras Herbarium turned out on scrutiny to be C. ensifolia Br. On

putting aside such misidentifications, this species, as at present under-

stood, seems to be common in the Konkan area, but extending further

towards Poona area through Matheran and Khandala. Its further

extension to different parts of Deccan plateau as far as Hyderabad on

one side and Bangalore on the other side from Poona area has been

very carefully verified by recent field studies and it is, therefore, a point

of interest to record here that this species does not occur in general in

different areas of Deccan plateau. Pl. III(2). The citation of Hooker for

Malabar needs further verification.

4. Commelina kurzii Cl.

Bhopal Hills, Puri 4160a; Amkut (M.P.) Puri 23585; on way

to Devalia tank, Mt. Abu, Rolla 66661; Dhinodhar, Kutch, Jain

46919 ; Sasangir (Gujarat) Rolla 63835; Bassein Fort, Thana Dist.,

Chhibber 141; Jogeshwari, Bombay, Rolla 32769 ; B.S.I. compound,

Poona, Cherian. 65947; Ukkad, Belgaum, Puri 19965D; Yellapur

(North Kanara), Talbot in 1882 ; Eradimatti, Jogimatti State Forest,

near Chittaldrug, Rolla 73090; Jogi Hill, Chittaldrug, Rolla 73143;

Devarayadurga, Tumkur, Rolla 73355 ; Kitherdevargudi, between 18-20

miles from Chamarayanagar to Billigirirangan Hills, Rolla 73606

and 73636 ; Kallar, Coimbatore Dist., Kammathy 73928 ;.10 | miles

north of Attakatty Rest House, Annamalais, Kammathy 73938 and

73941 ; Osmania University Campus, Hyderabad, Kammathy 73969 ;

Narsapur, Medak Dist., Kammathy 73985; Tenmalai (Kerala),

K. N. Subramanian 71541 ; Hastinapur, near Meerut, Murthy & Singh

785. (BSI)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

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NOTES ON INDIAN COMMELINACEAE—I

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Comparative account of the various characters of 5 s

-ee——————__

C. paludosa

C. paleata

TaBLe I

C. kurzii |

C. suffruticosa

pecies of Commelina under the Monoon Section of Clarke

| C. ensifolia

1. Habit

2. Roots

3. Leaves

4. Spathes

3. Racemes

6. Flower

colour

7. Capsule

8. Seeds

Stout, erect or slender,

semi-erect herb, some-

times rooting at nodes on

scandent branches, peren-

nial. One or two nodal

roots become tuberous

in var. viscida and var.

| mathewii

| Slender fibres

10-15 cm. long and

|3-4 cm. broad, glabrous,

|leaf-base oblique with

|rusty brown hairs along

jthe margin of- leaf

| sheaths

3-8 cm. long and 1-2

|cm. broad, hairy, in var.

| viscida and var. mathewii

| _ 3-8 spathes crowded at

| the tip of branches with-

}out any smaller leaves

jin addition to the two

mature leaves subtending

the spathes. Spathes

mostly sessile, triangular,

|funnel-shaped and glab-

rous, (PI. I. B, i.)

Stout, scandent herb,

Tooting at almost all

nodes, internodes slightly

Thick fibres

10-12 cm. long and

2.5-4 cm, broad, hairy

Spathes axillary, soli-

tary, peduncle 1-5 cm.

long projected _ out,

closed at one end and

pointed at the other end,

hairy, (PI. I. C, i.)

5-8 flowers on a single

outer raceme

Blue |

2-4 capsules per spathe,

with first flower deve-

Racemes bifid, inner

with a single flower or

represented by a sterile

stump (Pl. I. C, i.),

outer raceme with 6-8

flowers

Deep blue

23 capsules per

spathe, with first flower

loping into complete

capsule. 3-equal celled

(Pl. I. B, ii.) and 3-yval-

j ved ; cells with one free

seedin each

Oblong or oval (PI. I.

B, iii.) with or without

creamy white powdery

developing into complete

|capsule. 3-equal celled

\(Pl. I. C, ii.) and 3-val-

|ved ; cells with one free

|seed in each

Oblong or oval, black

in colour with brown

patches (PI. I. C, iii)

covering

eerie branched, peren- |

Slender, erect or semi- |

erect herb, Profusely

branched, perennial

Thick fibres, unusually

}long sometimes more

than 30 cm.

5-12 cm. long and 2-3

cm. broad, hairy or|

| glabrous

3-5 spathes confined to

|the tips of branches ac-

companied by 2-4 smaller |

leaves in addition to the}

| 2 mature leaves subtend-|

jing the spathe, (Pl. I A).

Peduncle 0.5 cm. |

|covered by leaf sheaths, |

spathes triangular, closed

at one end and beaked|

at the other end, hairy

or glabrous, (PI. I.D, i). |

Racemes usually bifid,

inner sterile represented

by a small or long

stump, outer raceme 3-6

flowered

Violet or violet-purple

2-3 capsules per spathe,

with first flower develop-

ing into complete cap-

sule. 3-celled but 2-

valved, upper valve bear-

ing an indehiscent* (PI.

I. D, ii), warty cell with

one seed; the lower two

cells with one free seed

in each

Seeds oval with a

membranous margin (Pl.

I. D, ii)

Slender, erect herb,

mostly tufted and

branched, perennial

Thick long fibres

8-12 cm. long and 3-5

cm. broad, glabrous

Spathes 3-8, normally

one in young plants,

peduncle 1.5-2.5 cm. long

projected out, spathe

open and glabrous, (PI.

LE, i)

6-10 small flowers on a

single outer raceme

White

6-8 capsules per spathe,

with first few flowers de-

veloping into complete

capsules. 2-equal celled

(Pl. I. E, ii) and 2-valy-

ed; cells with one free

seed in each

Seeds hemispherical,

usually pale yellow in

colour and lightly pitted

(Pl. I.E, iii)

| Slender, spreading

|herb, rooting at nodes,

| profusely branched,

branches developing like

a rosette, perennial

Slender long fibres

| 6-12 cm. long, 1.5-2,5

cm. broad, glabrous or

| slightly hairy

Spathe solitary, axil-

lary, on a small peduncle

of 0.5-1 cm. long slightly

projected out. Spathe

hairy, triangular, closed

at one end and pointed

at the other end, hairy,

\(PL.I. F, i.)

4-6 flowers on a single

outer raceme

Light blue

1-2 capsules per spathe,

with the first flower de-

veloping into complete

capsule. 2-celled (Pl. I.

F, ii) and 2-valved ; cells

with one free seed in

each

Seeds nearly spherical

smooth (PI. I. F, iii) with

a white band around

— ee eee

i i lina kurzii,

‘a imens as noted under the last para of specimens cited under Comme ( 3+

properly dabieee oo any warty, indehiscent, posterior cell, but exhibit all the other characters clearly simila

however, show 3-equal valved capsules, all

r to those of C. Kurzii.

d Tenmalai of

i i i i i an

Even the chromosome numbers of these two types of specimens are so identical or in ie popUlat CEs) from Spershyatl populations from

the first type (with warty, indehiscent, posterior cell), the haploid number is 60 an Tespectively "This tacicates that the

Agumbe and Katraj ghat of the second type (with 3-equal valved capsule), the number is 60 and) age Respecnvely a

indehiscent nature of the posterior cell does not seem to form an important character of He Ispecles| ae ee ees

likely that this type of species may be a hybrid between C. kurzii and possibly C. paludosa wl g

sent. Itis also very

several populations.

it iti D ii only.

However, as this type cannot be distinguished from C. kurzii proper without the capsule, it is at present treated under C. kurz! ly

() 65 ‘19A ‘ALAIDOS “ISIH TEYNLYN AFANOP “TYNYNOL

I—dVFOVNITANWOD NVIGNI NO SALON

£9

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Iran River upstream, Sasan (Saurashtra), Santapau 16416 ; Waghai,

Dangs, Santapau 19273 ; Junagadh, foot of Girnar, Santapau 14906,

Bole 724; Sion, Bombay, Acland 1222, Santapau 219.4H, 219.5H;

Bandra, Bombay, Acland 1223 and other numbers; Vinayalaya, Andheri,

Santapau 14023, 14024; Aarey Milk Colony,. Bombay, Shah 1829,

Tavakari 1420, 1421 ; Malad and surroundings, Shah 9172 and other

numbers; Khandala, Gammie * 15461 (in part as the other bit of

specimen is C. obliqua); Belgaum, Sedgwick 2980 ; Tavargatti, Sedgwick

2637; Karwar (North Kanara), Hallb. & McCann 34966 ; Ratnagiri

(Vizag. Dist.) Santapau 20597, 20647; Vansalmamdi (Vizag. Dist.),

Santapau 20714; Lamasingi (Vizag. Dist.) Santapau 20758; Sinha-

chalam (Vizag. Dist.), Wagh 2014, 2015 ; Valley garden (Vizag. Dist.), -

Wagh 4633 ; Papikonda (West Godavari Dist.), Wagh 1900;

Kondapalli (Krishna Dist.), Wagh 3212, 3214. (BLAT)

Tigorda, Hirapur Reserved Forest (Saugor Dist.), Balakrishnan 11450 ;

Mahendragiri (Ganjam Dist.), Narayanaswami, 5669 ; forest near Araku

(Vizag. Dist.) Balakrishnan 10798 ; Dharakonda (Vizag. Dist.), Madras

Herb, No. 5221 etc.; east of Narsapur (Vizag. Dist.), Sebastine 6711 ;

Karakakonda (Vizag. Dist.) Barber * 1711 ; Kondapudi River, Goda-

vari Agency, Barber * 5226; Godavari gorge, Bourne * 3517 (noted

under C. obliqua in FL. MADRAS) ; Ginjee (South Arcot), Raju & Naga-

nathan 17968 ; Chengattu Patti (Tiruchirapally Dist.), Sebastine 6247 ;

Thekkumalai (Coimbatore Dist.), Sebastine 1376; Kodaikanal Ghat,

Bourne * 2255 (noted under C. obliqua in FL. MADRAS); on way to

Naterikal, (Tinnevelly Dist.), Madras Herb. No. 52204; Walayar Rail-

way Station, Malabar, Raju & Ratnavdu 18634. (MH)

Specimens having 3-valved capsule without an indehiscent cell :

Bhogaon, near Paud (Poona), K. N. Subramanian 64939; Katraj

Ghat, near Poona, Kammathy 71251; Agumbe (North Kanara),

R. S. Raghavan 74035 ; Jogi Hill, Chittaldrug, Rolla 73151 ; Minicoy

Islands (Laccadive), Wadhwa 69835. (BSI)

Near Unai Rest House, Dangs Santapau * 16989 (noted under

C. obliqua) ; Katraj Ghat, Sedgwick 7535. (BLAT)

(ee ae Reserved Forest (Vizag. Dist.), Madras Herb. No. 52211

; Nallamalai (Kurnool Dist.), 52217 etc. - (MH).

Distribution. The species, which was always mixed up with C. palu-

dosa (=C. obliqua) by different workers on western India flora, has not

been reported at all from western parts of India. The species, as under-

stood at present, is well distributed in different parts from Rajasthan to

Kerala, Deccan plateau, including Billigirirangan and Annamalai Hills,

south Indian hills, and Eastern Ghats. In fact this is more commonly

represented in peninsular India than C. paludosa. This is now newly

recorded from northern area at Hastinapur near Meerut. The distribu-

NOTES ON INDIAN COMMELINACEAE—I 65

tion of this species in different parts of the country will be examined

further on the basis of various collections from other herbaria including

the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta. Pl. IiI(3).

5. Commelina suffruticosa Bl.

Jogeshwari, Bombay, Rolla 32770 ; Borivli(Bombay), Rolla 32738;

Aarey Milk Colony, Bombay, Rolla 32761; Karjat, Puri 22879 ;

Agumbe (North Kanara), R. S. Raghavan 74035A ; Yellapur (North

Kanara), Talbot 698 ; Mothronwala, Dehra Dun, M. A. Rao 16392. (BSI)

Subir, Dangs, Santapau 19508 ; Waghai, Dangs, Santapau 19190 ;

Salsette, Acland 1239, Blatter Herb. No. 26263, 26267; Aarey Milk

Colony, Bombay, Tavakari 1339 and other numbers ; Mumbra, near

Bombay, Shenoy 58 and other numbers ; Malad, Bombay, Shah 9628 ;

Jummapatti, Irani 4127 ; Khandala, Santapau * 718, *2585 (noted under

C. obliqua) ; Thakurwadi, Irani 4173 ; Tungar (Thana Dist.), Santapau

219.8H. (BLAT)

Dhain-Bori Road (Hoshangabad Dist.), Joseph 11226. (MH)

Distribution. Though this spzcies is recorded from Bengal, Behar,

and central India, and recently from Bombay area, it is interesting to

note that the authors have collected this species from Assam plains and

Khasia Hills (specimens at Shillong Herbarium) ; the species is now

recorded from several new localities in Gujarat, lower and upper ghat

region from Bombay to Poona, and further south-east to North Kanara

in Mysore State. It is interesting to note here that the species has

recently been collected from Dehra Dun area which forms a very

useful record to extend the ‘distribution further north. Such distribution

from Assam to Bombay area of the west coast through Bengal, Behar and

. central India, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat, and further extending to-

wards northernmost points through Dehra Dun and North Kanara

through Western Ghats region needs further study in the light of

fresh collections to be made from other parts of the Uttar Pradesh and

Punjab and from Deccan Plateau and east coast. Pl. IlI(4). However,

recent field studies along different points on Deccan plateau from Poona

to Hyderabad and also to Bangalore indicate clearly that this species

is conspicuously absent in such areas of the plateau.

6, Commelina ensifolia Br.

Devarayadurga, near Tumkur, Rolla 73302; Lalbagh Botanical

Garden, Bangalore, Rolla 73480; Maruthumalai, Coimbatore, Kam-

mathy 73924 ; about 10 miles north of Attakatty Rest House, Anna-

malais, Kammathy 73937; Tenmalai and surroundings (Kerala),

K. N. Subramanian 70891 and other numbers. (BSI) |

Bollapalle Reserved Forest (Guntur Dist.), Madras Herb. No. 52240,

52242: Cuddapah Dist., Gamble 15114; Bangalore, Madras Herb.

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

No. 85046 ; Chingleput (Madras), Gamble 17621 ; Nagari (North Arcot

Dist.), Madras Herb. No. 52258-52260; Hosur Cattle Farm (Salem

Dist.), Narayanaswami 2908, 2962 ; Arepalayam, Kollegal (Coimbatore

Dist.), Narayanaswami 3469, 3477.; Maruthamalai (Coimbatore Dist.),

Sebastine 1296; slopes of Kuridimalai (Coimbatore Dist.),

K. Subramanyam 706; on way to the top of Pachamalai (Tiruchira-

palli Dist.), Sebastine 6160; Kodaikanal Ghat, Bourne 2267 ; Sirumalai

(Madura Dist.), Madras Herb. No. * 72918 (noted under C. undulata var

setosa in FL. MADRAS) 52227; on way to Naterikal (Tinnevelly Dist.),

Madras Herb. No. 52236, 52237; Mahendragiri (Tinnevelly Dist.),

Madras Herb. No. 52252 and other numbers ; on way to Mancholai

(Tinnevelly Dist.), Sebastine 4518; above lower Dam Papanasam

(Tinnevelly Dist.), Sebastine 8366; Courtallum (Tinnevelly Dist.),

Madras Herb. No. 52230 and other numbers. (MH)

Distribution. Though the distribution of this species is recorded in

Peninsular India from Bellary to Tinnevelly, specific localities within this

zone are recorded here for the use of different workers as this species is

mostly confused with C. paleata and C. undulata in the herbarium. By

the new record here from Tenmalai, Kerala State, where this species

grows profusely, the distribution is extended further west. Pl. III(4).

Il. MURDANNIA Royle

Royle in J/lust. Bot. Himal. 403, t. 95, fig. 3, 1839, described the

genus Murdannia, which he named after Murdan Aly. Its gender is

feminine as Royle published as M. scapiflora. Brenan in Kew Bull. 1952,

179, made this point clear enough, though the neuter gender was

adopted by Brtickner [Nat. Pflanzenfam., ed. 2, 1930], Santapau [J. -

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52; 658, 1954] and Raizada [Ind. For. 83:

498-499, 1958] which is wrong. All the specific names under Murdan-

nia ending in ‘um’ as noted by previous workers should therefore end

Ins ai

Two species, namely Murdannia simplex and Murdannia gigantea, are

often mistaken for each other, due to their partial similarity in external

morphology. Their distinguishing characters as observed from plants

under cultivation are presented in Table II.

1. Murdannia simplex (Vahl) Brenan

(Aneilema sinicum Ker-Gawl. as amended by Brenan in Kew Bull.

1952: 186.) | } :

Mahableshwar, Cooke (noted under A. secundum in FI. of Bombay) ;

Khanapur, Belgaum, Ahuja 43653; Agumbe (North Kanara) R. S. Ragha-

van 74284 and other numbers; Siddulgundi (North Kanara), Talbot on

10.10.1884 ; Karwar (North Kanara), Talbot 1510; Madapur, Coorg

JoURN. BomBay NAaT. Hist. SOc. PLATE I

A. Flowering branch of Commelina kurzii Cl. (note the smaller leaves accompanying the

Spathes). B,C,D,E, & F: (i) Spathe, (ii) Capsule, and (iii) Seeds (in dorsal & ventral

view). B. Commelina paludosa B1\. ; C. Commelina paleata Hassk. ; D. Commelina kurzii

Cl. ; E. Commelina suffruticosa Bl.; F. Commelina ensifolia Br. (Scale same for all)

‘Ajoatjoadsal o[nsdes pue yJuNy vwzjnNIn2 syouvdkD Jo NqQeH “H *O: AJaAtOedsel a_nsdes pue “J “yNyog (°7)

suppjixo syouvdkDd Jo uqey “yw? A SApoatedser spoas pue (odeos SuLIOMOL [BUIWI9} Ot} 9}0U) ‘UyoNIg ([YeA) VajunsIs DIUUDpANnPFw JO 1qQeH

‘dB 2D: Afoatjoodsal spsas oy} pue (soysueiq SULIOMOY OY} JO UISIIO [e19}e] ;

“2 — aie < eT ee Pome

ORONO SRI IA PRP ROLES OMIA AEM

Eh ee

2S dayeney

Cook ahs hen. Se

x ,

see

ee ne

eR aie

Sie SI OSES IASI SESIO ES ARS AERO

IL 3LV1d ‘90$ “SIH “LYN AVaWog ‘Nanos

NOTES ON INDIAN COMMELINACEAE—i 67

Dist., Rao A.S. 74965 ; about 5 miles north of Attakatty Rest House,

Annamalais, Kammathy 73944. (BSI)

Yellapur (North Kanara), Santapau 18734 ; Dandeli (North Kanara),

Santapau 18771, 18772; North Kanara, T.R.D. Bell 2702; Gersoppa

Falls (North Kanara), Sedgwick 7155; Tavargatti Sedgwick 2642.

(BLAT)

Poonachi, Annamalais, Barber 3705; between Alliar and Thora

Kadaviar, Annamalais, Barber 3680; Benne Forest (Nilgiri Dist.),

K. Subramanyam 10472; Karadisonai Betta top, Kollegal (Coimbatore

Dist.), Narayanaswami 3629. (MH)

TABLE II

Comparison of characters of Murdannia simplex and Murdannia gigantea

M. simplex M. gigantea

1. Habit

2. Seeds

A perennial spreading herb with

stout fibrous roots ; leaves radi-

cal, 15-30 cm. long and 1-1.5

cm. broad; flowering branches

a few, axillary, bearing very

small leaves, spreading laterally

and rooting at nodes (PI. II, A),

leaf sheath hairy

Seeds somewhat oval, brown

in colour, faintly rugose (PI.

A perennial erect herb with

stout fibrous roots; first few

leaves radical, 20-40 cm. long

and 1-2 cm. broad; peduncle

solitary, terminal, bearing smal-

ler leaves and developing erect

from the centre of the radical

leaves (Pl. LU,C), leaf sheath

mostly glabrous

Seeds flat, somewhat triangular,

orown in colour, obscurely

ditted (PJ. II, D)

Distribution. This species has so far been recorded from the

Western Ghats only from Konkan southwards.

On the basis of the

new localities cited above, the distribution can be extended towards the

Deccan plateau immediately east of Western Ghats up to North Kanara

in the east and up to the Annamalais, Nilgiris, and in the south through

the Western Ghats of Coorg district.

2. Murdannia gigantea (Vahl) Briickn.

(Aneilema giganteum Br.) |

Balmora track, Tenmalai (Kerala), K. N. Subramanian 70890;

Kazhuthurity, Arienkav (Kerala), K. N. Subramanian 70951.

Wight’s Herbarium, Madras Herb. No. 52365.

Distribution.

Pl. I11(5).

(BSI)

(MH). ,

The distribution of this species is quite interesting and

discontinuous as it is recorded so far from the Khasia Hills of Assam

and the mountainous districts of Madras State, the latter, however,

being quite vague. Though this species is now recorded from the

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Tenmalai region of Kerala hills, it is quite possible that it has a restrict-

ed distribution in the south Indian hills as it is mostly confused with

M. simplex. Further, this species does not seem to occur in Konkan-

Mahableshwar of western India as no specimen of this has so far been

collected from that area and as Cooke’s collection from Mahableshwar

and others’ collections from Dandeli, North Kanara, turn out to be

M. simplex on scrutiny. Pl. III(5).

III. ANEILEMA R. Br.

1. Aneilema scaberrimum Kunth

Nilkund (North Kanara), Talbot on 5.12.1883; Devala, Nilgiris,

Gamble 15702; Balmora track, Tenmalai (Kerala), K. N. Subramanian

70895 and other numbers; near main falls; Annamalais, Kammathy

73948. (BSD

Jeypore (Orissa), Santapau 21374, 21375. (BLAT)

Forest near Sunkarimetta (Vizag. Dist.), Balakrishnan 10925 ;

Vanathirtum (Tinnevelly Dist.), Sebastine 9669. (MH)

Distribution. This species which has been recorded from the

Western Ghats region from Coorg to Travancore of peninsular India in

FLORA OF MADRAS, is now reported from North Kanara, Nilgiris,

Annamalais, and Vizag. Districts of east coast and thus the distribution

of the species is extended further north and east of peninsular India.

Similarly this species was collected as a common weed by the senior

author from Siang Frontier, Lohit Frontier, Tirap Frontier divisions of

North-East Frontier Agency Himalayas, thus extending its distribution

further east from Sikkim Himalayas proper, and also collected from

Tripura State, thus extending its distribution further south from the

Khasia Hills. Pl. ILI(6).

IV. CYANOTIS Don

Cyanotis axillaris (Linn.) Schult. f. and Cyanotis cucullata Kunth are

two closely allied species and have puzzled many taxonomists. By the

correct identity of C. cucullata, several new localities not recorded before

are given here, thereby widening its distribution. The vegetative

characters, as noted from living plants both from Joe and under culti-

vation, are presented in Table III.

JOURN. BomBay NaT. HIST. Soc. PLATE III

e Maps of India showing the distribution of some species of Indian Comme-

naceae.

1. Commelina subulata Roth. ; 2. Commelina paleata Hassk.; 3. Commelina

kurzii Cl. ; 4. Commelina suffruticosa Bl. (area indicated by hatching) ; Commelina

ensifolia Br. (area indicated by crosses); 5. Murdannia simplex (Vahl) Brenan

(area indicated by hatching) ; Murdannia gigantea (Vahl) Britickn. (area indicated

by crosses; 6. Aneilema scaberrimum Kunth.

0 sia Se

. Bt eg Bite A ;

patted) | Ay ie8 Agger Btpow ecw

’ fay , ae te A

8 a a ag A Si aR a Pe Sac ante ee Rot Pa

seein

Coes

ee et ee

ray ‘ ap het

a +i ee ih

NOTES ON INDIAN COMMELINACEAE—I 69

TABLE III

Comparison of characters of Cyanotis axillaris and Cyanotis cucullata

C. axillaris C. cucullata

1. Habit A branched herb, leaves long,| A branched herb, leaves small

| narrow, 5-10 cm. long and 0.4-1| succulent, 3-6 cm. long occa-

cm. broad, internodes com- sionally up to 10 cm. long and

paratively longer even in the 0.8-1.2 cm. broad, closely deve-

‘upper portion, leaf sheath loped in the upper portion

though slightly bulged during covering the internodes, leaf

flowering and fruiting never sheath much swollen and cucul-

cucullate (PI. II, G) late at each node (PI. II, E)

2. Capsule | Capsule with a pointed end at Capsule with three red projec-

the tip without any depression; tions at the tip and depression

(Pl. I, H) at the centre (PI. II, F)

1. Cyanotis cucullata Kunth

Umarai, Central India, Puri 26509 ; Mendikare, central India, Puri

26451 ; Abaidullahganj, East Bhopal, Wadhwa 59597 ; between Dhari

and Visavadan, Saurashtra, Rolla 63788 ; between Veraval and Dholka,

Saurashtra, Rolla 63912 ; Olpad near Surat, Rolla 63603 ; Mukundpur

Rolla 68530; Ghavar, Mukundpur, Rolla 68547; Dahej, Bombay coast,

Toor on 20.10.1957; Bibi village, Khed Taluka, Rolla 66163; Law

College, Poona, K. N. Subramanian 64606; Chathursinghi, Poona,

R. S. Raghavan 64260; Pandharpur, Bhide in Sept. 1913; Karlimatti

Woodrow on 28.8.1892; Erandol, East Khandesh, Mahajan 6456; near

Veruba hill 3 miles from Alit, Satara Dist., Rolla 73036 ; Stigaon, near

Police check-post at 223rd mile on Poona-Bangalore Road, Rolla 73076 ;

Ranganalligudi, Chittaldrug, Rolla 73162, 73175; four miles from

Hiriyur, near Chittaldrug, Rolla 73209; on the northern side of Gaya-

thri reservoir canal, Rolla 73238; Budhawar Peth, Kurnool, Kammathy

73959 ; Osmania University Campus, Hyderabad, Kammathy 73974 ;

Narasapur, Medak Dist., Kammathy 73986 ; Dhangarwadi, near Wadi

Railway Station, Kammathy 73987 ; Coimbatore, Joseph. (BSI)

Near irrigation lake, Gondal, Santapau 14647; Gondal-Rajkot,

Bole 556; beyond Rajkot Station, Santapau 16852, 16853, and other

numbers; Sindhwai Temple Road, Broach, Shah 877; Diva Ghat,

Poona, Blatter Herb. No. 26616; near Purandhar bus stand, Santapau

11464 ; Jbudge, Patel on 19.9.1886. (BLAT)

Round about Hoshangabad (Hoshangabad Dist.), Joseph 11082;

Nagarjunsagar (Nalconda Dist.), Sebastine 9731 ; in cultivated field, on

way to Vaniampadi (North Arcot Dist.), K. Subramanyam 7491 ;

northern slopes of Kuridimalai (Coimbatore Dist.), K. Subramanyam

1465 ; Perianaickenpalayam (Coimbatore Dist.), K. Subramanyam 1314;

Sathyamangalam (Coimbatore Dist.), Raju 6195. (MH)

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Distribution. Generally on the basis of the available collections,

including the recent ones, it appears that C. axillaris is rather common

along the coastal areas on the west and east, though collected from

other parts of India along moist and marshy areas; whereas C. cucullata

is more common on the Deccan plateau, growing in several areas in

between Poona, Hyderabad, and Mysore, mostly along the cultivated

fields where possibly there is less competition of weeds. The more

common among the two in Poona and surroundings is C. cucullata

rather than C. axillaris.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors express their grateful thanks to the Council of Scientific

and Industrial Research, New Delhi, for their grant for the scheme

under which this work is being carried out, and to Rev. Father

Dr. H. Santapau, Chief Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta,

for kind encouragement and co-operation, and for his keen interest in

the progress of the work. The authors’ thanks are also due to the various

friends and colleagues who have been constantly co-operating in

sending the various specimens of the family from different parts of the

country.

REFERENCES

Brenan, J.P.M. (1952): Notes on

African Commelinaceae. Kew Bull.: 179-

208.

Briickner, G. (1930) : Commelinaceae.

In Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenfam., ed. 2,

15A : 159-181.

Clarke, C.B. (1881) : Commelinaceae.

In DC. Mon. Phan. 3: 148-245.

Cooke, Th. (1901-1908) : The Flora of

the Presidency of Bombay. (Commelina-

ceae in 4: 625 - 816, 1907).

Fernandes, R., Randeria, R., &

Santapau, H. (1954): New Plant Records

for Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

52 : 662 - 663.

Fischer, C.E.C. (1931) : Flora of the

Presidency of Madras. (Commelinaceae

in 9 : 1538 - 1550).

Haines, H.H. (1924): The Botany of

Bihar and Orissa. (Commelinaceae in

1077-1078).

Hooker, J.D. (1872-1897): Flora of

British India. (Commelinaceae in 6:

366-390, 1892).

Raizada, M. B. (1958) : Name changes

in common Indian Plants. Ind. For. 83:

498-499,

Santapau, H. (1953): Flora of Khandala

on the Western Ghats of India in Rec.

Bot. Surv. India 16 (1) : 323-327.

— (1954): The Genus Murdannia

in Bombay State. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

S0C..52-: 056.

——— (1955): Contributions to the

Botany of the Dangs Forest, Bombay

State. J. Gujarat Res. Soc.: 54-55.

——-—(1958): The Flora of Purandhar:

133-135,

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The Fungoid Frog, Rana malabarica Bibron

1. Mouth-disc showing additional row of teeth in lower lip; 2. Normal

mouth-disc: 3. Tadpole with spiracle visible ; 4. Ventral view of tadpole,

showing mouth-disc ; 5. Tadpole, showing streak between nostril and eye ;

6. 4-limbed stage, showing dark streak on side and bands on hind limbs

A Description of the hitherto

undescribed Tadpole of, and

some Field Notes on the

Fungoid Frog, Rana malabarica

Bibron

V. K. CHARI

Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Bombay

(With one plate)

cq aIe

During the 1957 monsoon, while collecting zoological material from

rain-water pools in the Krishnagiri National Park, Borivli, Salsette

Island, Bombay, I obtained a tadpole in its 4-limbed stage which

looked quite different from those already known from this locality.

It was taken in a dip-net from a pool on the west of Gandhi Smarak

Mandir Hill, close to a culvert on the road to the Kanheri caves. At

the same time I also took tadpoles of Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider,

the fishes Rasbora daniconius (Hamilton), Puntius ticto Hamilton,

and Channa gachua (Bloch), and a few dragon-fly larvae.

The flat flesh-coloured dorsum, the dark brown flanks, the con-

spicuous dark band extending from snout to hind-limb, the alternately

arranged prominent light and dark transverse bands on the limbs, and

the characteristic digits were all strongly suggestive of the specimen

being an early stage of the Fungoid Frog, Rana malabarica Bibron.

Efforts to obtain some more specimens of this tadpole on the same

day were in vain. Three subsequent collections, made on 1, 6, and

8 September 1957, were productive of fifty specimens including some

in the 4-limbed stage. The only other pool which yielded this

tadpole was one also adjoining the road to the Kanheri Caves and

situated on the southern side of the Gandhi Smarak Mandir Hill

about half-a-mile away from the first pool.

Eight of the tadpoles collected on 1 September were reared at

the Natural History Section, Prince of Wales Museum of Western

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

India, Bombay, three of which developed into the juvenile frogs of

Rana malabarica Bibron now in the collections of the Bombay

Natural History Society. The rest died at different stages of meta-

morphosis.

The description of the tadpole of Rana malabarica Bibron

_ recorded by Boulenger (1920) in ‘A Monograph of the South Asian,

Papuan, Melanesian and Australian Frogs of the Genus Rana’ (Rec.

Ind. Mus. 20 : 100), based on the tadpoles collected by Mr. Kemp

from Talewadi, near Castle Rock, North Kanara, and identified as of

this species by Dr. Annandale (ibid.) differs greatly from the specimens

collected in Borivli, whose identity is not in doubt.

The Talewadi tadpoles (vide Boulenger’s description) differ from

the Borivli tadpoles as wider:

Talewadi Tadpoles Borivli Tadpoles

1. Large, overall length 70 mm. Mediumesized, the

48 mm.

largest being

2. Tail 14 to 1% times the length of

head and body; the crest on tail not

extending on to the back.

3. Horny teeth in eight upper series,

the two outer continuous, the others

gradually decreasing in length; six or

Tail nearly twice the length of head

and body; the crest extending slightly

on to the back.

Horny teeth in one upper series ; com-

monly two lower series; of which the

inner row is interrupted in the middle,

seven lower series, the innermost rarely a Short 3rd outermost row.

narrowly interrupted, the others con-

tinuous.

Four of the Talewadi tadpoles (Z.S.I. No. 18270) were examined

by courtesy of the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. |

They were found close to Rao’s (1919) description of the tadpoles of

Rana curtipes Jerdon. They also compare well with the four tadpoles

of this species in the collections of the Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay, obtained by Mr. Humayun Abdulali from the

Kali-Nadi, Dandeli, North Kanara District, Bombay (now Mysore),

during Christmas 1951, B.N.H.S. Amphibian Collection No. 256.

Apart from these important structural differences, the respective

colours of these two-tadpoles in life are quite different. The Talewadi

tadpoles were said to have been of ‘black colour above and beneath’,

whereas those from Borivli are straw-yellow. There can, I think, be

no doubt that the Talewadi specimens and Boulenger’s description

refer to Rana curtipes Jerdon and not to Rana malabarica Bibron

leaving the latter tadpoles undescribed. I am, therefore. giving a

description of the tadpole of Rana malabarica Bibron ;

THE FUNGOID FROG, RANA MALABARICA BIBRON 73

Description of tadpole of Rana malabarica Bibron

Head and Body: Oval, the broader end being towards anus:

snout bluntly pointed and declivous; eyes dorsal, prominent; nostrils,

black and inconspicuous, nearer the tip of the snout than the eye:

dorsum flat.

Mouth-disc: Fairly big and sucker-like, ventral in position;

roughly spherical in shape, with a pointed emargination on either side:

the margin of the upper lip fringed with horny teeth and devoid of

papillae; the lower lip with two rows of horny teeth, the first row

interrupted and the second complete: rarely an additional ill-developed

third row, in which case the second row has a small concavity just in

the middle of its course into which the small third row fits (6 of

50 examined had this character); papillae lining the margin of the

lower lip of the mouth-disc extend laterally up to the upper lip on

either side of the mouth-disc, and are continuous with the row of

teeth fringing its margin; dental formula 1/1+1:1 rarely 1/1+1:2; -

the upper beak crescentic; lower broadly V-shaped; margins of both

finely serrated.

Tail: Nearly twice the length of head and body, tapering gradually

and sharply pointed; the fin-membranes well developed both dorsally

and ventrally and relatively broad, the upper commencing dorsally

from the posterior part of the body slightly above the origin of the

tail. |

Spiracle: Tubular in shape, located laterally roughly at mid-body

on the left.

Anus: Prominently tubular; extending to nearly 4 of the tail,

directed to the right.

Colour: General colour straw-yellow. Head and body blotched

with brownish black, and the ventral surface whitish: nostril black:

pupil black; iris golden yellow: spiracle whitish: tail straw-yellow with

light speckling of black: upper beak black: lower generally white,

rarely pearly-white with grey blotches, and margin black; a dark lire

commences at the nostril and continues backwards through the eye

and along the side of the body on either side to the base of the tail

in the four-limbed stage: hind limbs prominently barred transversely

and alternately in black and white; fore limbs also similarly barred but

less strikingly.

Field Notes: Both the pools from which the tadpoles were

obtained were open and not shaded by trees or shrubbery. The

water was ankle- to knee-deep, with a muddy bottom. and there was a

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

profuse growth of weeds, grass, and other monsoon-vegetation in and

around the pools.

TABLE

Measurements of 11 specimens of Rana malabarica Bibron in various stages of

development

mm. mm. mm. mmemm mm mm. mm.mm. mm. mm.

Total length 026 35.38. 41 Aa ASE AG a 36 Wie oo es LS

Length of head

and body een 13 14 15 6. 165 1S 30s 20 ney, 16

Breadth of head

and body ate 5 7 8 8 9 9 9 10 Ss a 6.5

Depth of body... 5 5 6 6 8 ql 8 8 8 6 4

. Greatest depth No

of tail ms 6 1 8 7. 9 | 10 6 4 3- tail

Note: No. 6 with well-developed hind limbs; Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10 in the 4-limbed

stage ; and No. 11 a juvenile frog.

It was interesting to note that the tadpoles in both the pools

were always found in company with those of Rana cyanophlyctis

Schneider, as every scoop of the net invariably brought out a small

mixture of both the species. Rana malabarica Bibron is ordinarily

solitary. It may be worthwhile drawing attention to the fact that,

though the frog is most often seen in rocky cisterns (but outside water)

in the caves, forts, etc. in the hills around Bombay, the tadpoles were

taken in an Open pool with a muddy bottom at sea-level.

Laboratory Notes: It took two months and eighteen days for the

tadpoles to grow into juvenile frogs, of which the last one died on

18 November 1957, probably for want of suitable live insect-food,

while the others died at various stages of development. Under

natural and more congenial conditions the period of development will

perhaps differ.

Every attempt was made to afford the tadpoles as much natural

environment as possible, including mud and weeds from the original

pools. They were fed on minced meat. .

These studies were carried out together with Dr. E. G. Silas,

then Registrar of the Bombay Natural History Society, and I would

like to record my gratitude for his assistance and co-operation.

_ THE FUNGOID FROG, RANA MALABARICA BIBRON. 75

._- In view of the paucity of field notes regarding this species, | am

gratefully accepting Mr. Humayun Abdulali’s offer to append his

personal notes (unpublished), which he has supplemented with those

of Mr. Charles McCann (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36 : 168-169).

Mr. Humayun Abdulali writes:

‘Some specimens which I obtained on the Kasara Ghat near

Igatpuri, Nasik District, and others in the Society’s collection from

Cannanore and Nelambur, in Malabar District, appear to represent

the northern and southern limits of this species. McCann recorded

it as fairly common in Bombay and Salsette Islands, generally in

forested areas but occasionally in open country. He continued: “It

is terrestrial and semi-arboreal in habit, and is frequently found

perched high up on the bark of trees and on the leaves of bushes.

In all probability it is a diurnal species as I have often come across

it during the day, but have so far not found it about at night.”

‘In the dry weather (January, March, and April) they may be

found in the stone cisterns at the Kanheri and other caves near

Bombay, usually on the hills between 1000 and 2000 feet. They were

noted on the wet soil or on the rocks and in crevices in the walls of

the cistern but never inside the water. I have not seen it on trees

but it does occur occasionally in the low country. The animal is not

gregarious and is usually seen singly—though on 30 March 1956 more

than 20 were seen together in one cistern. It is not at all shy and

can be easily captured. One handled at Tansa Lake in Sentember

1943 produced a smell like that of burnt rubber but this experience

was never repeated.

‘Jerdon in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Beneal, 1253,

p. 531, wrote: “Found orly on the West Coast and chiefly during

the monsoons when it enters houses and makes a gobbling so much

like a turkey that some people call it the Turkey Frog.” McCann

says: “when handled it utters a call not unlike the mew of a cat as

also a sort of high-pitched kut, kut, reneated several times”. A very

distinctive wuck, wuck, wuck in changing tones and notes heard at

night have been traced to this frog sitting at the edge of a small

rain-pool and shaded by mango trees. The pool held many skipper

frogs (Rana cyanophlyctis). On another occasion the call was traced

to an individual seated on the edge of a rock quarry and I have

subsequently often heard this call by the side of pools in the low

country, always at night.

‘On the night of 24 June 1954 a female loaded with eggs, each half

white and half black, was taken in one of the cisterns at Kanheri, but

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

in spite of periodic examinations no spawn or tadpoles were found

in the rock cisterns, where several other species are known to breed.

It would appear that the rock cisterns are frequented only for moisture

and that the breeding takes place in pools in open country.

“Two large and four small individuals were taken from the

congregation seen on 30 March—the two large ones were females

while the others were of both sexes. In all the organs were dormant,

the large female contained reddish fat bodies on the stomach.

‘The stomachs of small specimens examined held remains of

dragonflies (?), while a ‘large one taken at Kanheri contained the

remains of Rana leithii. The female loaded with eggs referred to

earlier contained four large centtpedes.’

Entomological Survey of Himalaya

Part XXVI. A Contribution to our Knowledge

of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects

of the Nival Zones from the North-West

Himalaya

PART 3

M. S. MANI, D.Sc., F.L.S.. AND SANTOKH SINGH, Ph.D., F.R.E.S.

(With ten text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 58 (3): 748]

HYMENOPTERA

Hymenoptera, with 36 species so far known, constitute about 8% of

the total nival insects (Table I, Fig. 3), with species endemism of nearly

47%, and Palaearctic elements amounting to almost 90%, (Tables VI

and X, Fig. 22). Of the ten families found (Table V, Fig. 21) so far,

Formicidae and Bombidae are the most abundant families.

TABLE V

Analysis of abundance of species in different families of the nival Hymenoptera

Serial : No. of Percentage in total

No. Family species Hymenoptera

{4 Tenthredinidae 1 S712

Ze Anthophoridae 1 3.12

Sy Andrenidae 1 3.12

4. Megachilidae 1 3.12

Ds Pompilidae Z 6.24

6. Sphegidae 2 6.24

7. Vespidae 1 3.12

8. Bombidae 8 25.00

9. Formicidae 13 40.63

10. Ichneumonidae 2. 6.24

Total 32

Note.—Four species belonging to Bombidae, the exact localities of their collec-

tion not being known, are not taken into consideration for the above calculation.

Including these species the total Hymenoptera is 36.

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

The Mediterranean element is represented by one species. Three

Species are also known to extend to the Nearctic Realm. Most of the

WwW

* a

Wl O

50 =

40 ee:

: ria)

30 {

re Wl

Wr ee a me

rat Mi =

2 yey 3

_- | ew \ ff

20-1) Sie i ee ome $

Oe Se ee =)

lJ SS ee LJ

ce ®? > xy Oa wy Zz

TO. vk - Ose T

re Oe ee Oe aa S)

Suse us | Sean ae 7

Lal t LW

pla ao tS

NN NN DO DOD a

om mm =

Fig. 21. The nival Hymenoptera from the north-west Himalaya.

Species occur in the neighbourhood of an elevation of 3500 m., but

about 9 species are known above 4000 m. The maximum altitude

4800 m. is reached by Formica (Serviformica) picea Nyl., in the Mustag

Glacier area. Of the 12 species of Bombidae so far known (all Palaear-'

ctic) from above the timber line in the NW. ‘Himalaya, Subterraneo-..

bombus melanurus subdistinctus (Richard) and Bombus longiceps Smith:

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA

Family

Tenthredinidae

Anthophoridae

Andrenidae

Megachilidae

Pompilidae

Sphegidae

Vespidae

Bombidae

Formicidae

Ichneumonidae

eee UN a ee

fama

Total

Percentage out of

36, except in the

case of Mediter-

ranean, where it

is out of the total

Palaearctic

TABLE VI

Ende- |

Faunal elements of nival Hymenoptera

“12

Total Palaearctic :

species | mites | Total Medit,, 240-Malayan

i am i ae he

fae = a 1

1 1 1 — —

1 — — == 1

2 pe 2 — —

2 — 1 1 1

1 — 1 — —

12 2 12 —_ vo

13 9 13 — —

2 1 iD —_— —_

36 15 a5 1 3

41.8 91.6 3.0 8.3

are endemic.

valestris Smith, Mendacibombus margreiteri O. Vogt, Lapidariobombus

WLLL

20 g

—

MMMM YY

LLL.

KKK

Lf,

OOY

WLLL

KKM

I. ENDEMICS |

ILTOTAL PALAEARCTIC

T.MEDITERRANEAN

WW. INDO-~MALAYAN

Fig. 22. Faunal elements of the nival Hymenoptera from the North-West Himalaya.

FORMICIDAE

WwW

OTHER HYMENOPTERA

These two species and Bombus alticus Evers., Bombus

separandus (O. Vogt), Lapidariobombus alagesianus pamirus Skorikov,

and Subterraneobombus melanurus (Lepel) among the non-endemics,

are mostly localized in the Indus drainage area N. of the main crest

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Ate

Be be

ae : FL

ra] a

a a,

Fig. 23. The area (striped) of the world distribution of Subterraneobombus

melanurus (Lepel).

Ae GSR,

i a as

; rT

‘oatae

rer

( ts

parson

Fig. 24. The area (striped) of the distribution of the genus Subterraneobombus

(After Skorikoy, 142).

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 81

line of the Great Himalaya. The last mentioned species is also found

in Tibet, Pamir, Altai, Gyangtse, and Transcaspia. The distribution of

these forms is shown in Figs. 23 and 24. Four species occur at

elevations above 4000 m. and Bombus atrocinctus terminalis Smith often

occurs below the timber line up to as low an elevation. as 1676 m.

The remaining species are found between 3000 m. and 3700 m.

The distribution of Bombidae (Fig. 25) from the NW. Himalaya

and the Pamir region has been discussed in some detail by Skorikov

(142). He analysed the mountainity of Palaearctic species and listed

the genera which are exclusively found on mountains of Eurasia. He

recorded about 32 endemic species from the entire Himalaya and

among the non-endemites about 34% are central Asian forms and 13%

are South Palaearctic elements. Furthermore, he observed the

endemism on the south slopes of the Himalaya to be 63% and on the

north slopes 43%. ‘The southern elements on the north slope constitute

about 21% and on the south slopes about 44%. 7

Species endemism in Formicidae is about 70%. The absence of

both Mediterranean and Manchurian elements should be noted. Of the

endemites, Plagiolepis balestrierri Menozzi is alone localized in the

Indus drainage area, Formica (Serviformica) picea Nyl. is widely

distributed in the drainage areas of Indus and Jhelum. Two species extend

across the crest line of the Great Himalaya from Chenab-Beas drainage

area to the Indus drainage area. Most of the endemic species occur

immediately above the timber line, but a few species, especially the

boreal Formica (Serviformica) picea Nyl., may be found nearly from

2500 m. to 4800 m. above m.s.1. Formica (Formica) gagates Latr., Formica

(Formica) rufibarbis Fabr., and Formica (Formica) sanguinea Latr., found

in the drainage area of Chenab-Beas, are also known from N. Asia,

N. Europe, and N. America. The range of the non-endemic species of

Formica from the NW. Himalaya is shown in Fig. 26.

The distribution and zoogeographical characters of the nival ants

from the NW. Himalaya, Tibet, and Central Asia have been discussed

in some detail by Menozzi (104), Mayer (102 & 103), Eidmann (33 & 34),

with special reference to Nanga Parbat.

Tenthredinidae

1. Allantus himalayensis Radozk

Localities: Khilanmarg 3352 m.

Other Distribution: Simla Hills, Kufri 2743 m., Phagu, Dehra Dun,

Chakrata.

Anthophoridae

2. Anthophora confusa Smith

Localities : Ladakh 3450 m.

Other Distribution : Barrakpore, Sikkim, Burma, Bombay.

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

es ieee (ESA See a» cart ne

3 acd ae ae a {

oa a a

Fis, 25. The area (striped) of the genus Bombus (After Skorikov, 142).

Loser

y ve

Fig. 26. The area of the world distribution of the non-endemic species of Formica

(Formica) from the north-west Himalaya.

- ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 83

Andrenidae

*3, Andrena floridula Smith

Localities : Dras 3100 m., Kargil 2740 m., and Leh 3450 m.

Megachilidae

4. Megachile vigilans Smith

Localities : Ladakh 3450 m. a:

Other Distribution : Sikkim, Ceylon, Tenasserim.

Pompilidae

*5. Pompilus moestus Bingham

Localities : Dras 3100 m., Kargil 2740 m., Leh 3450 m.

*6. Priocnemis rufofemoratus Smith

Localities : Dras 3100 m., Kargil 2740 m., Leh 3450 m.

Sphegidae

7. Ammophila laeta Bingham

Localities : Gramphu 3675 m., Dhorni 3675 m., Hamta Gorge 3675 m.,

Manali 1828 m.

Other Distribution : Afghanistan, Chaman.

8. Ammophila vagabunda Smith

‘Localities ; Dras 3130 m., Kargil 2740 m., Leh 3450 m.

Other Distribution : North China, Sumatra.

Vespidae

9. Vespa velutina Lepel

Localities : Marhi 3657 m., Dhorni 3657 m., Hamta Gorge 3657 m.

Other Distribution : Kumaon, Sikkim, Burma, Tenasserim, Java, China.

Bombidae

10. Bombus atrocinctus terminalis Smith

Localities : Dharmsala 1676 m., Shahpur, NW. Himalaya about 3000 m.

Other Distribution : Sikkim 3050 m., Garhwal, Kumaon, Almora, Tibet

4267 m., throughout China.

11. Bombus alticus Eversm.

Localities : Tanktze, Pangong Valley 4267 m.

Other Distribution : Asiatic Russia.

12. Bombus haemorrhoidalis Smith

_ Localities: Dras 3100 m., Kargil 2740 m., Leh 3450 m.,

Kangra Valley, Shahpur, Chamba, Kashmir: Srinagar.

Other Distribution: Simla Hills, Garhwal, Kumaon, Almora, West

Himalaya.

#13. Bombus longiceps Smith

Localities : Dras 3100 m., Kargil 2740 m., Leh 3450 m.

14.

15.

16.

tT;

18.

19.

20.

=2 1:

Popes

#235

*24,

m2:

26.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Bombus rufofasciatus Smith

Localities : Chhatru 3657 m., Namu 3050 m.

Other Distribution : Sikkim 3657 m.

Bombus vallestris Smith

Localities : Dras 3100 m., Kargil 2740 m., Leh 3450 m.

Other Distribution : Sikkim above 2133 m.

Lapidariobombus separandus (Vogt)

Localities : North-west Himalaya.

Other Distribution : Turkestan and Altai.

Lapidariobombus alagesianeus pamirus Sk.

Localities : North-west Himalaya.

Other Distribution : Turkestan, Pamir and Tibet.

Mendacibombus margreiteri O. Vogt

Localities : North-west Himalaya.

Other Distribution: Pamir, Altai, Alexander Mts. in Russia, Turkestan.

Subterraneobombus difficillimus Sk.

Localities : North-west Himalaya.

Other Distribution : Pamir and Tibet.

Subterraneobombus melanurus (Lepel)

Localities : Pangong Valley 4267 m.

Other Distribution : Tibet, Altai, Pamir, Turkestan, Transcaspia, Syria,

Siberia.

Subterraneobombus melanurus subdistinctus (Richard)

Localities : Pangong Valley 4267 m., Leh 3450 m.

Formicidae

Aphaenogaster (Aphaenogaster) sagei (Forel)

Localities : Lahaul to frontier of Tibet 3200 m. to 4000 m.

Camponotus (Camponotus) budhae Forel

Localities : Lahaul to frontier of Tibet 3200-4000 m.

Camponotus (Sylvaticus) paradichrora Em.

Localities : Jhelum Valley 1200 m., Suru 2700 m.,

Braldo Valley, Askole 3100-3200 m.

Cataglyphis (Monocombus) cugiai Menozzi

Localities: Dras 3100 m., Kargil 2740 m., Partapgarh near Nanga Parbat

2800 m., Skardu 2400 m., Braldo Valley: Dusu 2400 m., Askole 3250 m.,

Punmah Valley : Skiniltalmosa 3200 m.

Formica (Formica) gagates Latr.

Localities : Lahaul to Tibet frontier 3200-4000 m.

Other Distribution : Northern and Central Europe, North Asia and

N. America.

27.

28.

IN).

*30.

52;

#33).

*34.

35.

730.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 85

Formica (Formica) rufibarbis Fabr.

Localities : Lahaul 3200 m., Dharmsala, Himalaya over 3050 m.

Other Distribution : Sikkim, Europe and N. America.

Formica (Formica) sanguinea Latr.

Localities : Lahaul to Tibet frontier 3200-4000 m.

Other Distribution : Widespread in north Europe, Asia and N. America.

Formica (Formica) trunicola Nyl.

Localities ;: Lahaul to Tibet frontier 3200-4000 m.

Other Distribution : Widespread in northern and central Europe and

northern Asia.

Formica fusca glabaria rubescens Forel

Localities : Srinagar, Baltal 2900 m., Lalpani, Deosi 4000 m., Dras 3100 m.,

Chamur near Nanga Parbat 3200 m., Kangra 1900 m., Shirting 2500 m.,

Hot sulphur spring Chongo 3000 m., Shigar 2200 m.

Formica (Serviformica) picea Nyl.

Localities: Sind Valley, Kishanganga Valley, Chhota Deosi 3850 m.,

Lalpani 4000 m., Kamri 2400 m., Burzil Chauki 3400 m., Braldo

Valley : Hot sulphur spring Chongo 3000 m., Askole 3200 m., Thla Brok

4000 m., Punmah Valley: Tsok 2800 m., Dumiltar 3900 m., Skinmag

4300 m., Baltoro : Confluence of Baltore Dunge 3900 m., Liligo 3800 m.,

Robutz 3700 m., Urdukas 400 m., Mundu 4300 m., Jermanendu

4300 m., Mustag 4800 m., Moni Bransa 4600 m., Durbin Jungle 4000 m.,

Valley of K, 4200 m., Indus Valley : Karal Mafro 4300 m., Boorgi

Nullah 3600 m.. ;

Myrmica aimonis sabaudiae Menozzi

Localities : Gond 1939 m., Doyan near Nanga Parbat 2700m., Askole

3100 m., Tolti2400m., Skardu 2400 m., Kutty, Kushumul 2300 m., Dusu

2200 m.

Myrmica smythiesi cachmirensis For.

Localities : Chokpiong 2600 m., Askole 3100 m., Shimtsa 3200 m., Tsok

3500 m. (Punmah Valley). Kashmir.

Plagiolepis balestrierri Menozzi

Localities : Kargil 2740 m., Skardu 2200 m., Shigar 2300 m., Hot sulphur

spring Chongo. 3000 m., Askole 3100 m., Kro Brok 3700 m.

Ichneumonidae

Triptognathus subalpinus Heinr.

Localities : Dhorni 3657 m.

Other Distribution : Bavarian Alps.

Ichneumon americanocolor Heinr. & Gupta

Localities : Dhorni, Chandra Valley 3657 m.

NEUROPTERA

The order Neuroptera is represented by Myrmecaelurus punctulatus

Stev., collected at an altitude of about 3450 m. from Leh in the Indus

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

drainage area. The occurrence of this species in the NW. Himalaya

is interesting ; it is known from S. Russia and Hungary.

TRICHOPTERA

This order represents 2.5% of the total nival insects (Table I) and is

characterized by total endemism (Table X). All the species are

Palaearctic. The genus Stenophylina is endemic. There are besides

several endemic genera below the timber line and are not included

in our account of the nival fauna. Three of the species seem. to

be more or less localized in the Jhelum drainage area, and three

others are localized in the Indus drainage area. The majority of

the species are found at elevations in the neighbourhood of 3000 m.

The maximum altitude record is 4640 m., at which height Pseudohalesus

kaschmirus Mart. is reported to have been taken. The distribution

of 11 species so far known from the nival zones of the NW. Himalaya

is shown in Fig. 27. ise

=Geevomnon=|

®@ODCOO0GO@0

SE |

no kilometres

Fig. 27. The distribution of the endemic nival Trichoptera in the north-west

Himalaya. 1. Brachycentrus kozlovi Mart. ; 2. Pseudohalesus kaschmirus Matt. ;

3. Dolidophilcdea tibetana Kimmins ; 4. Dinarthrum sonamax Mosely ; 5. Eoth-

remma laga Mosely ; 6. Dinarthrum inerme McLach. ; 7. Apatidea brevis Mosely;

8. Platyphylax sp.; 9. Stenophylax micraulax Mosely : : 10, Stenophylina mit-

chelli Mosely ; 11. Stenophylina schelpei Kimmins. - -

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA Be

Sericostomatidae

*!. Brachycentrus kozlovi Martynov | |

Localities : Lake Vishanshar 3657 m., Basgo, Chushul 4340

*2. Dinarthrum inerme MacLach.

Localities : Leh 3450 m.

*3. Dinarthrum sonomax Mosely Pe

Localities : Sonemarg 3000 m., Ladakh-Tibet border 4000 m.

*4. Eothremma laga Mosely

| Localities: Gagarbal 3657 m.

Limnophilidae

*5. Apatidea brevis Mosely

Localities : Gagarbal 1590 m., Khilanmarg 3200 m.

*6. Platyphylax cp.

Localities : Leh 3450 m.

*7, Pseudohalesus kaschmirus Martynov

Localities : Kashmir 3000 m., Chagra 4640 m.

*8, Stenophylax micraulax Mosely

Localities: Leh 3450 m.

*9, Stenophylina mitchelli Mosely

Localities : Lake Vishanshar 3657 m.

*10. Stenophylina schelpei Kimmins

Localities ;: Dibikokri Nal, Runi Tach 3900 m. (Kangra Dt.).

Philopotamidae

*11. Doliphilodea tibetana Kimmins

Localities : Prang, Digar Polu 4420 m.

LEPIDOPTERA

About 23.0% of the nival insects belong to Lepidoptera:(Table I,

Fig. 3). Species endemism in Lepidoptera amounts to about 45.0%

(Table X, Fig. 29). All the species are Palaearctic, of which the

Mediterranean element is about 0.4% and is confined to the family

Pieridae (Table VIII). About 90 species, distributed over 28 genera and

13 families, are so far known from the nival regions of the North-west

Himalaya (Table VII, Fig. 28), |

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

TABLE VII

Analysis of the abundance of species in different families of nival Lepidoptera ©

Serial . No. of Percentage in total

No. Family nival species nival Lepidoptera

1 Alucitidae 1 1.12

2 Zy gaenidae 1 t12

3 Sphingidae 1 1.42

4 Brahmaeidae 1 1.12

5 Saturniidae 1 1.12

6 Lymantriidae 2 2.24

ii Noctuidae 4 4.48

8 Arctiidae 2 2.24

9 Phalonidae 1 1.12

10 Papilionidae sah 31 34.00

11 Pieridae ae 20 22.00

12 Nymphalidae sae 21 23.52

13 Lycaenidae 5 5.60

Total st 91

a uJ

° iz =

0 a. a

40 } a

+~ wW <<

< =

Oo «a.

fa ceaktty> 4

uJ >

30 0. =

en,

a oo

nun ON

<x wW Ld

20 Ww 78 <

w Ww aq eS eS ea a a

F &£ 59 322 2 06F 6 be

err z = « =zvu

U I fara oJ ~

picks Sapte le ea ee b

fH og vw. t+, 3 3.82 Pie

aa aa wv Sef

-fSscia ee

Fig. 28. The nival Lepidoptera from North-West Himalaya.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 89

TABLE VIII

Faunal elements of nival Lepidoptera

ai, Palaearctic

Serial . ota : Indo-

No. Fomuly species Endemites Malayan

Total |Medit.

1. |Alucitidae 1 1 1 — =

2. |Zygaenidae 1 — 1 — os

3. |Sphingidae 1 1 1 — =

4. |Brahmaeidae 1 — 1 — —

5. |Saturniidae 1 —— 1 — as

6. |Lymantriidae 2. 2 2 — —

7. |Noctuidae 4 3 4 — —

8. |Arctiidae 2: 2, 2 — oo

9. |Phalonidae a 1 1 1 — —

10. | Papilionidae an 31 19 31 — —

11. |Pieridae ‘= 20 3 20 4 —

12. |Nymphalidae aa 21 5 21 — —

13. |Lycaenidae = 5) 3 5 — —

Total 3 | 91 40 91 4 0

Percentages out of 91, except in the

case of Mediterranean, where it is out 43.9 100 | 4.4 )

of total Palaearctic.

TABLE 1X

Percentage faunal elements in the three dominant families

of nival Lepidoptera

Palaearctic

Total |

species

Serial

Endemites

Family

Total | Medit.

ie Papilionidae oe 31 61.2 100 _

2. Pieridae ne 56 15.0 100 19.4

3, Nymphalidae Pee oi 23.8 100

Of the 40 endemites, 19 belong to Papilionidae, 3 to Pieridae, 5 to

Nymphalidae, 3 to Lycaenidae, and the remaining 10 species are found

in six other families (Table VIII). Over 25 species are commonly found

at elevations above 4000 m. and about a dozen species occur above

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

5000 m. and often also as high as 5600 m. The highest elevation at

which nival Lepidoptera have been collected so far from the NW.

Himalaya is 5790 m. The endemites, which are more or less localized

in the Indus drainage area, represent about 28.0 % of the total nival

Lepidoptera of the area,

100 100-0

RY | J. ENDemics |

NZ I.TOTAL PALAEARCTIC

BY II. MEDITERRANEAN |

| OTHER LEPIDOPTERA

60 NV PAPILIONIDAE

Wy PIERIDAE.

| |NYMPHALIDAE

43.9

LLL 2

LEE,

NN]

MOY

2 3.8

Oo ENZ .

A) WW! of

I ll ii

Fig. 29. Faunal elements of the nival Lepidoptera from the North-West

Himalaya.

Nearly one-third of the nival Lepidoptera (Table IX, Fig. 28) are

Papilionidae, in which the species endemism is nearly 61%. There are

several local subspecies? in most of the genera. The Holarctic Papilio

machaon Linn. group is represented by two subspecies, one of which is

also known from Tibet and the other from Pamir. The distribution of

* Lepidopterists use the term ‘race’, and in other orders of insects the term

‘variety ’ is also used (46), ~ tag MS is

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA . 91

-both these subspecies above the timber line in the NW. Himalaya is

localized in the Indus drainage area. The Holarctic genus Parnassius

is represented by 8 species and 25 local subspecies; 18 of these under

6 species are endemites. While Parnassius acco (Gray).is widely distri-

buted in the Himalaya up to Darjeeling in the east, the subspecies

Parnassius. acco pundjabensis Bang-Haas is localized in the Spiti area

and the subspecies Parnassius acco tagalangi Bang-Haas is localized in

the Indus drainage area. The charltonius group of the Pamir element

is represented by 4 subspecies, two of which are endemites. The

delphius group of the Altai-central-Asian element has, in addition to the

typical form, five endemic subspecies in the Indus drainage area and

one endemic subspecies in the Jhelum drainage area. Five of the

delphius group inhabit elevations above 5000 m. This group is repre-

sented inthe Pamir and Altai mountains by the related subspecies

interjecta Verity, at an elevation of 3000 m. Localized in the Sutlej area

are two subspz2cies of the epaphus group. There are five subspecies of

simo group, of which Parnassius simo simo Gray also occurs in Nepal

Himalaya and Tibet, and the rest of the group are endemic. Peculiar to

the NW. Himalaya are three subspecies of Parnassius stoliczkanus Feld.,

the typical form of which extends east in Himalaya up to Kumaon.

The geography of Parnassius of the NW. Himalaya, Tibet, Pamir, and

central Asia has been discussed in some detail by Staudinger & Bang-

Haas (139), Avinoff (56), Menzbir (105), and Filipjev (38).

Pieridae amount to 22% of the total nival Lepidoptera (Table Ix,

Fig. 28). Endemism in the family Pieridae is relatively low, viz. only

16 %, and is restricted to Colias. The wide occurrence of Baltia schawii

(Bates) in the NW. Himalaya, in Karakorum, and on many glaciers

(e.g. the subspecies baitalensis Moore on Feldschenko Glacier 4500 m.)

in Pamir is extremely interesting. Of the 9 species of Colias so far

found in the nival zones of the NW. Himalaya, about half have

geographical subspecies. Colias electofieldi Men. is widely distributed

in the Himalaya and also extends to Baluchistan, Assam Hills, Upper

Burma, and China. Common to Pamir and Turkestan mountains

are Colias eogene eogene Feld., Colias stoliczkanus Feld., and Colias

leechi Gr.-Gr. Among the species common to the NW. Himalaya

and Tibet are Colias cocandica Ersch. and Colias ladakensis Feld. A

few of the species inhabiting the region above timber line are occasion-

ally found at comparatively low elevations within the taiga zone. Four

species occur above elevations of 5000 m. Though we did not collect,

there are good reasons to believe in the occurrence of Colias erate

pallida Stgr. and Pieris napae in the NW. Himalaya. The distribu-

tion of the 6 other species of Pieris is interesting from several points

‘of view. The Mediterranean element is represented by four species

in the family, |

oP JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Endemism (Table IX) in Nymphalidae is slightly higher than in

Pieridae, with two species in Argynnis, one each in Karanasa, Maniola,

and Melitaea. The Holarctic Argyznis is represented by five species, of

which two are also known from Pamir. Karanasa hiibneri Feld. has

many subspecies in different parts of its range, shown in Fig. 30. It is

also rather remarkable that Vanessa urticae Linn., common in Europe,

seems to be more or less localized in the Chenab-Beas drainage area and

has been collected somewhat above an elevation of 4200 m. Vanessa

ladakensis Moore, found at nearly 4900 m., seems to be a Tibetan form,

which extends west up to Chitral and in the east to Sikkim. There are

three endemic Lycaenidae and the two non-endemics are found in

Chitral and Baluchistan mountains. Lycaenia icarus (Roth.) is repre-

sented by the subspecies icadius (Gr.-Gr.) in Pamir.

VAR. DISSOLUTA

VAR. OUBLITZKY

VAR. MOOREI

AR. MOOREFGILGITICA

VAR. PAMIRA

VAR. PUPILLATA

VAR. SAFEDA

VAR. TALASTAUANA

VAR. VOIGTI

Fig. 30. The distribution of the local subspecies of Karanasa hiibneri Feld.

fs |e{+|a]o|

Among the remaining families, reference may be made to the endemic

Celerio euphorbiae nervosa Roth. The genus Celerio is represented at

an elevation of 4500 m. on the Feldschenko Glacier in Pamir.

Alucitidae

*1. Platyptilia superscandens Fletcher

Localities : Khilanmarg 3350 m.

Zygaenidae

2. Compylotes histrionicus Westwood

Localities : Kashmir about 3000 m.

Other Distribution: Throughout Himalaya, Afghanistan, NW. India,

Jeolikot; Mussoorie, Sikkim: Lebong, Raitdong 3050 m., Khasi Shillong,

Cherrapunji, and West China.

woe

+6.

=8:

79.

= 10;

Pt.

a2:

*14,

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 93

Sphingidae

Celerio euphorbiae nervosa Roth.

Localities : Ladakh 3450 m., foot of Zojila Pass 3050 m., Changla Gali

(Sabathu).

Brahmaeidae

Brahmaea wallichii Gray

Localities: Manali, Solang Valley 3050 m.

Other Distribution: Nepal, Sikkim, Khasi Hills, Assam, Upper Burma.

Saturniidae

Saturnia stoliczkana Feld.

Localities: Ladakh 3450 m.

Other Distribution: Yarkand.

Lymantriidae

Lachana ladacensis Moore

Localities : Kashmir, Ladakh 3450 m.

Laelia heterogyna Hampson _

Localities : Kashmir, Dras 3100 m.

Noctuidae

Agrotis accipiter Feld.

Localities : Ladakh 3450 m., Pangi 3050 m.

Other Distribution : Sikkim.

Agrotis tenuis Butl.

Localities : Laka 4267 m., (Kangra).

Agrotis monticola Hampson

Localities : Lahaul 3657 m.

Trichanarata ladakensis Feld.

Localities : Ladakh 3450 m.

Arctiidae

Arctia tibitica Feld.

Localities : Ladakh 3450 m, Kulu, Kashmir, Dharmsala.

Carcinophyga lichenigera (Feld. )

Localities : Ladakh 3450 m.

Phalonidae

Euxanthis innotatana (Warren)

Localities : Kalapani 4000 m., Dras 3100 m., Ladakh 3450 m.

nD:

16.

18.

E19:

#20:

P22.

23%

*24.

E28

26.

21.

PLS

#29,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Papilitonadae

Papilio machaon asiatica (Men.)

- Localities : Kashmir north of Indus around 4000 m.

Other Distribution: Up to Tibet in the east and

Chitral in the west.

Papilio machaon ladakensis (Moore)

Localities : Ladakh 3450-3960 m.

Other Distribution : Pamir.

Parnassius acco (Gray)

Localities : Ladakh 5181-5486 m.

Other Distributions : Up to Nepal and Sikkim.

Parnassius acco acco Gray

Localities : E. Ladakh about 4000 m.

Other Distribution : Tibet and Nepal.

Parnassius acco pundjabensis Bang-Haas

Localities : East Spiti, Tum-Tum-Thang Mts. 4870 m.

Parnassius acco tagalangi Bang-Haas

Localities : South Ladakh, Tagalang La 5335 m.

Parnassius actius yelyangi Bang-Haas

Localities : South Kashmir, Zaskar, Yelyangi Pass 4115 m.

Parnassius charltonius ssp. ?

Localities : NW. Himalaya 4267-5691 m.

Other Distribution : Pamir.

Parnassius charltonius bryki Haude.

Localities: Spiti: Nilang Pass to Shipki Pass, Tum-Tum-Thang Mts.

4667 m.

Parnassius charltonius charltonius Gray

Localities : Ladakh, Kharbu 3450 m.

Other Distribution : To Kumaon.

Parnassius charltonius deckerti Verity

Localities : Kashmir 3657-4387 m.

Parnassius delphius Eversm.

Localities ; Ladakh, Rupshu, Karakorum 5580 m.

Other Distribution : Turkestan, Pamir, SW. China, Sikkim, Bhutan.

Parnassius delphius atkinsoni Moore

Localities : Pir Panjal Range, north of Rocher (Stitiagar) aout 3900 m.

Parnassius delphius ladakensis Avinoff

Localities : Shera La 5480 m.

Parnassius delphius mamaievi Bang-Haas

Localities : South and western Ladakh 3500 m.

*30.

#3ilr

33:

34.

35.

#36.

*38,

=39;

*40.

41.

*42,

*43,

*44,

*45.

-ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY. OF HIMALAYA

Parnassius delphius rupshuana Avinoff

Localities : South and western Ladakh, Rupshu 5334 m.

Parnassius delphius shigarensis Bang-Haas

Localities : Baltoro Glacier 5472 m.

Parnassius delphius workmani Avinoff

Localities : Saltoro Glacier 5790 m.

Parnassius epaphus cachmirensis Oberth.

Localities : Sutlej Valley, Parbati Valley, Hamta on Pir Panjal 4257 m.

Other Distribution : Chitral to Kumaon.

Parnassius epaphus hillensis Bang-Haas

Localities: Spiti above 3500 m.

Other Distribution : Bashar.

Parnassius jacquemontii jacquemontii Boisd.

Localities : Keylang, Kulu, Kashmir about 3500 m.

Other Distribution : Turkestan, Chitral to Kumaon in the east, Pamir.

Parnassius simo saserensis Bang-Haas

Localities : Saser Pass 5335 m.

Parnassius simo simo Gray

Localities : Sutlej- Valley, Parbati Valley, Hamta 4257 m.

Other Distribution : Tibet, Nepal.

Parnassius simo simonides Austant ;

Localities: North Ladakh above 4000 m.

Parnassius simo simoides (Bang-Haas)

Localities : Ladakh, Zaskar, South-west of Leh 4000 m.

Parnassius simo zarraensis (Bang-Haas)

Localities : Tagalang La 5335 m., Zarra 4700 m.

Parnassius stoliczkanus ssp. ?

Localities: Kashmir, Ladakh, Kulu, North Kashmir to Ladakh 4000 m.

Other Distribution : Kumaon.

Parnassius stoliczkanus spitiensis Bang-Haas

Localities : Spiti, Tum-Tum-Thang Mts. 4572 m.

Parnassius stoliczkanus stoliczkanus Feld.

Localities : Ladakh to Kulu, Kutie Pass 5180 m., Baralacha Pass 5480 m.,

Runung and Hungrung Pass 4572 m.

Parnassius stoliczkanus zojilaica Tydler

Localities : Zoji la Pass 3534 m.

Polydorus philoxenus punchi : (Bang-Haas)

Localities : West Kashmir, Jhelum Valley 3352 m.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

32%

75,

54.

a5):

56.

exo

39):

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Pieridae

Aporia leucodice balucha Marshall

Localities : Ladakh 3450 m.

Other Distribution : Baluchistan to Chitral and Ladakh.

Baltia schawii (Bates)

Localities : Ladakh, Akatagh west of Karakoram Pass 4750 m.

Other Distribution : Chitral.

Baltia butleri butleri (Moore)

Localities: Ladakh 3450 m.

Other Distribution : Kumaon.

Colias cocandica Erschoff

Localities : Ladakh, about 3640 m.

Other Distribution : Turkestan to west China, Hindukush, Tibet.

Colias cocandica thrasibulus Frush.

Localities : Chonging Valley, Kardong Pass 4570-5625 m.

Colias electofieldi Men.

Localities : NW. Himalaya 761-4267 m.

Other Distribution: Chitral to Sikkim, Bhutan, up to 4267 m., Assam,

Baluchistan, Upper Burma, China.

Colias eogene eogene Feld.

Localities : Ladakh, E. Karakoram.

Other Distribution : To Kumaon.

Colias eogene francesca Watkin.

Localities : Baltistan Skoro La over 5000 m.

Colias ladakensis Feld.

Localities : Ladakh.

Other Distribution : Tibet, Kumaon, Chinese Tartary.

Colias leechi Gr.-Gr.

Localities : Chonging Valley, Kardong Pass 5625 m.

Other Distribution : Pamir.

Colias stoliczkana ssp. ?

Localities : Kashmir, Ladakh. Chang La 5630 m.

Other Distribution : Sikkim, Turkestan.

Colias stoliczkana stoliczkana Moore

Localities : Kashmir, Ladakh, Amdo 3960 m.

Pieris callidice (Esper)

Localities : NW. Himalaya above 3657 m.

Other Distribution : Chitral to Mussourie, from Altai Mts. to Himalaya,

China, Europe.

Pieris callidice kalora Moore

Localities ;: Manali, Parbati Valley, Sutlej Valley, Hamta 4250 m.

Other Distribution : Chitral to Kumaon.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

*67.

*68.

69.

70.

1H)

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 97

Pieris daplidice (Linn.)

Localities : Ladakh, Kashmir.

Other Distribution : Chitral, Baluchistan, Pamir.

Pieris deota (Nicev.)

Localities : Kashmir to Ladakh.

Other Distribution : Pamir. ©

Pieris krueperi deyta (Nicev.)

Localities : Ladakh, Kashmir.

Other Distribution : To Baluchistan.

Pieris rapae iranica Le Cerf.

Localities : Ladakh, Kashmir.

Distribution : Chitral, Baluchistan, N. Persia, Mesopotamia.

Pontia chloridice alpina (Verity) ~

Localities : Ladakh.

Other Distribution : To Chitral and Baluchistan.

Pontia daplidice moorei (R6ber)

Localities : Parbat Valley, Sutlej Valley, Hamta 4250 m.

Other Localities: Tibet, Yunan, Chitral, Baluchistan.

Nymphalidae

Argynnis aglaia vitatha Moore.

Localities ; North Kashmir, Goorais, Skoro La above 5000 m.

Other Distribution : Chitral, Tzhiptyk (Pamir).

Argynnis altissima mackinnoni Nicev.

Localities : Sutlej Valley, Parbati Valley, Hamta 4250 m., Gonas Pass

4570 m.

Argynnis hagemone Staud.

Localities : Ladakh, Hunza Valley above 3000 m.

Argynnis jainadeva Moore.

Localities : Sutlej Valley, Parbati Valley, Hamta 4250 m.

Other Distribution : Chitral to Kumaon.

Argynnis pales generator Staud.

Localities : North Ladakh, Hunza Valley above 3000 m.

Other Distribution : Afghanistan, Chitral, Turkestan, Pamir.

Erebia mani Nicev.

Localities : Ladakh.

Other Distribution : Chitral, Pamir.

Erebia shallada Lang.

Localities : Western Himalaya, Kashmir 3657.

Other Distribution ; Chitral, Mussoorie.

73.

74.

ibys

76.

“18:

79.

80.

mS.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Karanasa hubneri Feld.

Localities : Ladakh, Kashmir, NW. Himalaya.

Karanasa pimpla Feld.

Localities : Ladakh, NW. Himalaya.

Other Distribution: Afghanistan.

Lethe confusa Auriv.

Localities : Sutlej Valley, Parbati Valley, Hamta 4250 m.

Other Distribution : Simla to Sikkim, Assam, Burma, Tenasserim, Java.

Maniola pulchella (Felder)

Localities : Sutlej Valley, Parbati Valley, Manali, Hamta 4250 m., Ladakh,

Kashmir.

Other Distribution: Chitral.

Maniola pulchella pulchra Feld.

Localities : Kashmir, Ladakh, Dalhousie.

Other Distribution : Chitral, Ganges Valley.

Maniola coenonympha Feld.

Localities : Ladakh, Kashmir.

Maniola devendra Moore

Localities : Spiti, Ladakh.

Other Distribution : Chitral, Afghanistan.

Melitaea sindura Moore

Localities : Sutlej Valley, Parbati Valley, Hamta 4250 m.

Other Distribution : Tibet, Kunawar to Sikkim.

Melitaea sindura balbita Moore

Localities : Confined to high elevations in Kashmir.

Nytha baldiva (Moore)

Localities : Lahaul, Hunza above 3000 m.

Other Distribution : Chitral.

Nytha baldiva lehana Moore

Localities : Ladakh, Hunza 3000 m.

Other Distribution : Chitral.

Vanessa ladakensis Moore

Localities : Chang Chenmo 4870 m., Karatagh Tso, Nilang Pass.

Other Distribution : Western Tibet, Chitral, Sikkim (Eastern Himalaya).

Vanessa rizana Moore

Localities : Kashmir above 3050 m.

Other Distribution : Widely distributed in Sikkim (Eastern Himalaya).

Vanessa urticae Linn.

Localities : Sutlej Valley, Parbati Valley, Hamta 4250 m.

Other Distribution : Widely distributed in Europe.

*87.

88.

89,

*90

mol,

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA

Lycaenidae

Lycaena devanica Moore

Localities : Ladakh, Kashmir.

Lycaena icarus (Roth.)

Localities : Ladakh

Other Distribution : Chitral, Baluchistan.

Lycaena omphisa Moore

Localities : Ladakh, Lahaul 3300 m.

Other Distribution : Chitral.

Lycaena orbitulum jaloka Moore

Localities : Kashmir, Ladakh, 3450 m., Pangi 3050 m.

Lycaena pheretes lehana Moore

Localities : Ladakh 3450 m., Kashmir.

(To be continued)

The Bombay Natural History Society/

World Health Organization Bird

Migration Study Project

SALIM ALI

Chief Investigator, BNHS/|WHO Bird Migration Study Project

(With four plates)

INTRODUCTION

In March 1959 I attended, as a representative of the Bombay

Natural History Society, the meeting of a Scientific Group of ornitho-

logists and virologists convened at Geneva by the World Health

Organization to consider the question of research on birds as dis-

seminators of arthropod-borne viruses, and put forward a scheme for

the establishment of a bird-ringing centre in the Rann of Kutch.

This area seemed appropriate for the purpose in hand because a

considerable portion of the birds migrating into India from the north-

west, ic. from eastern Europe, Siberia, and central and northern Asia,

come down the Indus Valley and across the Great Rann into Kutch,

Gujarat, and the Saurashtra peninsula. There is also evidence that

Kutch lies on the eastern fringe of a broad stream of migration from

central and northern Asia in a south-westerly direction in autumn (and

vice versa in spring) across Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Sind, and the

Arabian Sea into British Somaliland, Abyssinia, and further south.

The outbreak of a form of encephalitis in the Kayasanur Forest area

in Mysore, the virus of which was reported in 1957 to be related to

a group of viruses occurring in Omsk in the U.S.S.R., suggested the

possibility of its having been carried by migrating birds. The

Scientific Group was impressed by the possibilities of the scheme and

recommended it for the consideration of the General Body of the

World Health Organization.

Pending the decision of the General Body I conducted a preliminary

survey of the area in April 1959 to select possible sites for the field

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT 101

stations, to investigate local conditions, and to estimate the require-

ments and plan the necessary details. The expenditure for the

preliminary survey was met out of funds placed at the Society’s

disposal by the Rockefeller Foundation.

PRELIMINARY FIELD SURVEY: KUTCH, 6 To 13 AprRiL 1959

I visited Kutch between 6th and 13th April 1959. A jeep was

hired from the Government Garage through the good offices and

co-operation of the Ministry of Local Self Government & Public

Health, Bombay, and of the Collector of Kutch. In all some 700

miles were covered during the week, and all the likely areas border-

ing the Great Rann, along the northern boundary of Kutch district,

were visited in two separate trips. The first started from Bhuj north

through the Banni to Khavda and Nir, travelling westward thence

through Kuar Bét, Dordha (2 miles south of Banri jhil), Hajipir,

Lakhpat, and back to Bhuj; the second from Bhuj eastwards through

Anjar, Bhachau, Gandhidam, Chitrod to Rapar, and thence through

Fatehgadh, Mouana, Bela, Balasar, and Desalpur, back to Rapar, and

to Bhuj. Unfortunately Khadir Island could not be visited as the

shortest route across the Rann from Chobari was still impassable

owing to its being wet. The places I particularly wished to see on

Khadir Island were Amrapur in the east and Dholovira in the west,

which from the map appear to be well situated for intercepting

migratory birds.

Fresh water is extremely scarce after the winter season, and with

the onset of the hot weather it is unobtainable except in a few spots

where there are scanty natural springs, or viris (deep-shafted wells).

The Banni area north of Bhuj though deficient in water is good grazing

country for cattle after a normal monsoon. Homesteads of maldharis

(property owners) possessing large numbers of excellent milch cattle are

dotted about the area, concentrated in small groups where water is avail-

able. As the season advances and the water dries up, these herdsmen

move on to other spots. The bird life for miles around concentrates

about the wells and water-holes to drink, and at the time of my visit in

April the early morning up to forenoon and then from about 4 o’clock

onwards was the best time for watching birds at these watering places.

To water the cattle the herdsmen draw from the deep wells and fill up

Shallow troughs prepared near by, and it is at these troughs that

all the birds gather.

102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

In selecting possible sites for camps, water was the foremost con-

sideration since it would be impossible to keep a camp supplied from

any distance. Population is sparse and daily labourers difficult to

hire, and no facilities for the transport of water are available. In

the neighbourhood of the wells and natural springs there is usually

fairly luxuriant vegetation, chiefly bushes and shrubs of Salvadora

persica and oleoides, Prosopis spicigera, Capparis aphylla, and such

other semi-desert species. The growth was of a nature that would

permit the effective use of mist nets.

The shade temperatures during the week I was in Kutch ranged

from 82° F. minimum after midnight to 108° F. maximum in the

day. Out in the sun it was far from pleasant, and the scorching

wind which blew in a gale over the sandy wastes all through the day.

particularly in the Banni, did not improve matters.

Although the greater part of the spring migration in Kutch was

over by the time of my visit (first half of April), the following

migrants were still present and were noted in varying numbers:

Circus aeruginosus, Tringa nebularia, T. totanus, T. ochropus,

T: hypoleucos, T. glareola, Charadrius dubius, Numenius -arquata,

Anas clypeata, A. querquedula, Gelochelidon nilotica, Sylvia curruca:

Hippolais calicata, 'Acrocephalus agricola, Motacilla f. melanogrisea,

Upupa epops, Anthus campestris (?), Hirundo rustica, Emberiza

melanocephala, _E. buchanani, Sturnus roseus.

‘The last two species were in the sreatest numbers: Rosy: Pastors

in perfect summer plumage were feeding everywhere on Salvadora

berries now ripening profusely. A succession of flocks was observed

at Rapar on 10th and 11th Aoril, flying purposefully due north at

sunset, obviously on migration.

‘Several places appeared suitable for netting camps : wad Wali Wai

(Well of the Banyan), Nad Viri, Gandi, Nera Wali Saran (ill-drained

ground ; spring?, bog?), Nir, Kuar Bét, Luna, Lakhpat, Fatehgadh, Bela

Island, Bela, Jatawala, Balasar, and. Desalpur. Of all these Kuar Bét

on the border of the Rann, besides being a delightful place to camp in,

appeared to have great possibilities for trapping birds in both the spring

and the autumn migrations. Possibly northern Saurashtra, along the

Gulf of Kutch and the Little Rann, would be an equally suitable area

and well worth investigation when the Kutch project was being expanded.

It certainly seemed to be more accessible at all seasons than the Great

Rann, and to present fewer problems of transport.

‘Another place that would need proper investigation was Suigam,

north Gujarat, at the NE. corner of the Little Rann, which also seemed

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. PLATE I

————————E

Mist net set along margin of field of bajri

( Photos : Harold Trapido)

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC.

PLATE

Removing bird from mist net

( Photos : Harold Trapido)

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT 103

very advantageously situated in relation to the general trend of migra-

tion over western India.

PiLtoT FIELD SESSION: KUTCH, 15 SEPTEMBER TO

1 OCTOBER 1959

In order to test the practical potentialities of the project and

to train our personnel in the use of Japanese mist nets and the various

techniques involved, a pilot scheme was launched in September 1959

while the autumn (inward) migration was in progress.

This was financed out of the grant received by the Society from the

Rockefeller Foundation, supplemented by a sum of $1000 from

W.H.O. as a token of their active interest.

The basic field party of the Bombay Natural History Society

comprised myself and three assistants P. W. Soman, P. B. Shekar, and

Fernando. In addition there were usually 2 to 4 volunteers in camp,

who underwent training and participated in the activities from 5 days

to a week each. The participation of these volunteers in the training

programme was taken as an implicit undertaking on their part to

offer their services again in March the next year. The Society

bore their living expenses and, in some cases, also the cost of their

travel to Kutch and back by air or rail.

Thanks to the grant from W.H.O., we were able to ashay the

cost of a return air passage from Switzerland for Dr. Alfred

Schifferli,. who kindly accepted our invitation to visit Kutch for a

few weeks to train our workers in the use of mist nets and other

relevant techniques employed elsewhere, particularly at the Swiss

migration study centre in Sempach (near Lucerne) of which he is the

Director. Dr. Schifferli arrived on 12th September and was in the

field with us till 2nd October. His help was invaluable, and the

training our staff recelved from him has stood them in good stead

for carrying out the work in March 1960 and later competently and

with confidence.

Unfortunately, the monsoon that year was phenomenally heavy

and long-drawn. The average annual rainfall in Kutch is 13-15 inches,

and for a succession of years it was not unusual to have much less,

giving rise to drought conditions. In 1959 the monsoon was quite

unprecedented. By the beginning of September, Kutch had already

received over 50 inches of rain, including one cloudburst in which

15 inches (c. 375 mm.) fell in 24 hours! It caused considerable

damage to houses, livestock, and agriculture. Many areas of sandy

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Semi-desert were converted into vast lakes. Road embankments and

bridges were washed away in places. The flooded country and the

ill-drained loamy soil rendered traffic impossible, and parts of the

district became completely isolated for weeks on end.

One of the worst to suffer in this way was Kuar Bet. The rains

continued ceaselessly, and it soon became clear that there was no

hope of our being able to reach the place while the autumn migration

lasted. We were thus driven to look for a more accessible alternative

spot where the training of the men at least could be put through with

whatever birds were available.

There is a preserve of stunted thorn forest abutting on cultivation

(Sorghum and Pennisetum), about three miles south of Bhuj, which

seemed to answer the requirements. It contained a good population

of resident birds and looked as if it would prove attractive to in-com-

ing migrants as well. It was decided to concentrate our attention on

this area. The results justified our choice; between 15th September

and Ist October over 1750 birds were caught in the mist nets and

ringed. They belonged to 56 forms, of which 27 were migrants and

the rest endemic. The birds were banded with aluminium rings of

three sizes A, B, and C bearing the legend ‘INFORM BOMBAY NAT. HIST.

Society’ and sNow se. ° They were identified, measured, weighed,

ringed, registered,, and examined for ectoparasites before being

released.

The Virus Research Centre, Poona, who were authorised by the

Indian Council of Medical Research to co-operate with the Bombay

Natural History Society in the project, sent two technicians. Dr.

Harold Trapido, Asst. Director of the V.R.C., visited the camp

for 2 or 3 days and laid down the procedure for his men. They

remained with the field party throughout the work in order to collect

ticks from the captured birds. Over 1700 birds were examined by

them. foes

Positive as well as negative results were recorded. Ticks were

found on 6 individuals of the following: Pycnonotus cafer, Passer

domesticus, Streptopelia senegalensis, Hirundo daurica, Emberiza

melanocephala, Emberiza buchanani. Of these species the last two

are migratory and the other four are endemic in, Kutch.

It became obvious that the most important bottleneck in any field

activities that we undertook in Kutch would be motor transport. No

vehicles are available in Bhuj for reasonable hire and, owing to the

remote and rugged nature of the place where the spring migration

work was planned (Kuar Bét), it was essential to have adequate trans-

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT 105

port arrangements which would guarantee free movement and inde-

pendence from the vagaries of rapacious hirers and dilapidated vehicles.

The Government jeeps and trucks upon which we had counted

had all to be diverted to flood relief work, and the transport problem

would have been crippling but for the helpful co-operation of the

Maharajkumars Shri Fatehsinhji and Shri Himmatsinhji who very

kindly placed their jeeps at the disposal of the party.

A list of the birds handled during, our September field work is

given in Table I. Migrant species are marked (M) and those from

which ticks were obtained with an asterisk.

TABLE I

List of Birds Netted and Ringed: Kutch, 15 Sept. to 1 Oct. 1959.

Parus nuchalis -. 2 Carpodacus erythrinus (M) vane eS

Turdoides caudatus LN OD Passer domesticus* on fs

Aegithina nigrolutea ee 8 Petronia xanthocollis wa DOF,

Pycnonotus cafer* Foy wie | Emberiza melanocephala (M)* .. 249

oo leucogenys leucotis .. 56 —— buchanani (M)* sie

Saxicola caprata (M) ce 2 Hirundo daurica* ieee ¢

Oenanthe picata(M) ee 3 Motacilla flava (M) at 1

Phoenicurus ochruros (M) ae 1 alba (M) e 1

Erithacus svecicus (M) a Z Anthus trivialis (M) & 1

Hippolais caligata (M) oes (0) Mirafra erythroptera ss 1

Saxicoloides fulicata yu 19 Eremopteryx grisea ae ks

Muscicapa striata (M) xen 10 Nectarinia asiatica ve od

Lanius vittatus ; 1 Dendrocopos mahrattensis at 1

collurio phoenicuroides (M) .. 8 Jynx torquilla (M) Prema Us:

Tephrodornis pondicerianus 4 Clamator jacobinus (M) ae 8

Acrocephalus stentoreus (M) q/ Eudynamys_ scolopacea 1

dumetorum (M) 77 Psittacula krameri 2

—-- — agricola (M) 1 Coracias garrulus (M) ia 1

Orthotomus sutorius 3 Merops orientalis at 6

Phragamaticola aédon (M) 1 Upupa epops (M) 22

Sylvia communis (M) 41 Streptopelia senegalensis* te LOS

—— hortensis (M) Z oo tranquebarica mp XS)

curruca (M) 6 —— decaocto ae 6

Prinia sylvatica 8 Coturnix coturnix (M) 3

——— subflava inornata 5 —— coromandelica 2

Sturnus roseus (M) 14 Francolinus pondicerianus ae 1

Acridotheres tristis ef 1 Tringa ochropus (M) 1

Ploceus philippinus ser 207 ns

Lonchura malabarica pets pO

Total number of birds netted and ringed (excluding the 297 recaptured during

the 17 days of field work) .. a AE ae Sey 7i5y |

————d

Incidentally the netting added three species to the Kutch

list: the Grasshopper Warbler (Locustella naevia), the Black-

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

throated Weaver (Ploceus benghalensis), and the Thickbilled Warbler

(Phragamaticola aédon), the last being new for Saurashtra and

- Gujarat as well’. This bird was a surprise, since it is known only as

an eastern species breeding in Siberia, Burma, Thailand, and south

China, wintering chiefly in Assam and East Bengal, Bhutan, etc. It

has been recorded also from Mysore and Kerala in winter. The

Grasshopper Warbler and the Blackthroated Weaver Bird do not

figure in the list because only one bird of each species was caught

and it was kept as a specimen for the Society’s collection. Two

Thickbilled Warblers were caught of which one was kept as a

specimen.

SPRING FIELD SESSION: KutTcH, 10 To 28 MARcH 1960

The venue selected was Kuar Bét which had stood first in my

order of preference (see-above). Several of the other likely places,

e.g. Nad Viri and Nir, were inaccessible for wheeled transport due to

the Rann still being wet or flooded after the previous year’s excep-

tionally heavy and prolonged monsoon.

Kuar Bét is a flat, rocky and sandy, grass- and scrub-covered

islet (directly opposite Kotda Police Outpost to the north). It is

separated from the Pachham mainland by an arm of the Great Rann

about a mile wide, and forms one of the most northerly points of

Kutch district. There is a shallow depression in the middle of the

islet which becomes a jheel during the monsoon and holds water till

about. January. The only ‘fresh’ water on the isiet, such as it is, is

provided by a well in the bed of this jheel. This well harboured a

dense population of frogs (Rana cyanophlyctis) and was the only

source of ‘fresh’ water on Kuar Bét. Its water, analysed by the

Public Health Laboratory, Bhuj, gave a pH value of 7.5 with a

Permanent Hardness (as CaCo,) of 100.4 and Temporary Hardness

of 24.4. It was not potable, and drinking water for the camp had

to be transported in drums by motor truck daily from the mainland,

from. -a well called Wad Wali Wai some 6 miles distant. Adjoining

the Kuar Bét well is a mud-built trough for watering cattle and

camels, to which all the birds for miles around repair to drink.

The jheel bed is thickly covered with rank grass (Cyperaceae).

‘This was still fresh and green in March and held numbers of Streaked

‘Fantail Warblers (Cisticola juncidis) and a few Grasshopper Warblers

1 See Salim Ali (1960): J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 56 : 635.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC.

PLATE III

Placing the ring

A Whitethroat in the mist net

Harold Trapido )

( Photos

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. PLATE IV

Ringing equipment

( Photos : Harold Trapido )

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT 107

(Locustella naevia). The surroundings are well wooded with shrubs

and moderate-sized trees of Babul (Acacia arabica), Kandi (Prosopis

spicigera), Acacia senegal, Capparis aphylla, Salvadora persica and

S. oleoides, Zizyphus jujuba, and other species. Capparis and

Salvadora are the commonest bushes on the rest of the island, and

patches of ground here and there are covered with jhil (Chenopodium

album ?) a foot to 3 ft. high. Among the less pleasant features of

Kuar Bét was the extraordinary abundance of the Phoorsa or Saw-

scaled Viper (Echis carinata) and scorpions on the island. In

‘etrospect, it seems little short of a miracle that, in spite of narrow

escapes almost every day and night, such a large party should have

escaped without casualty.

In the advance party I was accompanied by Mr. D. J. Panday,

Mr. Loke Wan Tho, and Mr. Charles Ho. We arrived in Bhuj by

air from Bombay on 1 March in order to make arrangements for

establishing camp on Kuar Beét. Tents, camp furniture, and other

requisites were hired locally from the Public Works Department of

Gujarat, and efficient arrangements for transport of the equipment

and extra personnel were made by the Department of Public Health

of Gujarat. The main party consisting of 14 persons arrived by rail

and air on 8 March. It included 4 technicians of the Virus. Research

Centre, 4 field assistants from the Bombay Natural Sa ce!

and 6 amateur ornithologists as voluntary helpers.

The question of local mobility for the field party was aera torily

solved, thanks to our Vice-Patron Mr. Loke Wan Tho, who generously

placed a station wagon at the disposal of the Society, and the Tata

Locomotive & Engineering Co, Ltd. who loaned to us one of their

Mercedes-Benz multi-purpose vehicles ((Unimog’). These two vehicles,

together with a third 4-wheel-drive station wagon from the Virus

Research Centre, proved invaluable for the unhampered movement

of personnel, and of necessities such as food supplies and drinking

water. | ae

The field work started on 10 March with an average of some 20

nets, several of them consisting of more than one unit (one of 10).

deployed over an area of about 1 square mile surrounding the jheel

bed. eee eee

During the first week of our activities, 10-18 March, Capparis

aphylla was in profuse blossom all over the island. The attractive

salmon-pink flowers of this shrub contain a copious supply of sugary

nectar which seems to serve as both food and drink to birds of many

‘species and is eagerly sought by them. All the visitors get their fore-

head feathers thickly coated with pollen, and they doubtless play an im-

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

portant part in cross-pollinating the flowers. The birds invariably

in attendance on these flowers were babblers (Turdoides caudatus) and

bulbuls (Pycnonotus leucogenys leucotis) among the resident birds,

and Rosy Pastors (Sturnus roseus), Orphean. Warblers (Sylvia hortensis

jerdoni), Lesser Whitethroats (Sylvia curruca blythi), and Tree Warblers

(Hippolais caligata) among the migrants. Nets placed near flowering

Capparis bushes took all these species.

Immediately encircling the dry lake bed, on the edge of which

our camp was pitched, was a fairly dense green belt of moderate-

sized trees and shrubs frequented by warblers and other small birds,

both migratory and resident. This wooded belt and the flowering

Capparis bushes beyond formed the principal features which dictated

the placement of the nets, and on the whole yielded fairly satisfactory

results. During the period of operation, 10-28 March, the total

number of birds ringed was 1001. In addition to these there were

188 recaptures, particularly of the resident babblers and bulbuls,

while a great many others (particularly babblers) captured in the nets

and found positive for ticks were handed over to the virus technicians

directly, without registering or ringing, as they were required to be

killed for detailed examination.

In all 39 species of birds were captured and ringed, of which

21 species (or 54%) were migratory. Of the total number of

individuals, 322 (or 32.2%) were migratory and the rest resident. The

migratory species ringed are listed in the table at the end of this paper.

Unfortunately weather conditions after 18 March became freakish

and abnormal, and produced a marked set-back in the flow of migra-

tion. While our two best days were 17 and 18 March with 109 and

106 birds respectively (excluding recaptures), they were abruptly |

followed by one of the worst. On the 19th only 21 birds were

ringed. A heavy gale had sprung up during the night of the 18th

which continued with unabated intensity all the next day. The windy

season in the Rann of Kutch area normally commences only in the

first or second week of April. The abnormality of weather was

further emphasized by the unseasonable rain which fell on Kuar Bet

on 10 and 11 March. In some portions of Kutch, notably in the

Banni a little north of Bhuj, the downpour was so heavy and con-

tinuous that the countryside was turned into a quagmire, disrupting

motor traffic for over a week. This was followed by occasional dust

storms and an unprecedented drop in the temperature, which touched

40° F. during the night of 21 March and 48° F. at 7 p.m. on the 22nd,

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT 109

and kept in that neighbourhood for two more days. Completely

unprepared for near-freezing temperatures so late on the season, the

party spent some memorably uncomfortable nights.

Reports from bird watchers in other parts of Kutch and in

Saurashtra confirmed that, presumably due to the exceptionally heavy

and prolonged SW. monsoon of 1959 and the continuance of abnor-

mally cool weather into -March 1960, the spring migration was

greatly retarded, the species and quantities of migratory birds com-

monly seen at this time of year not yet having appeared by the end

of that month. Whether they would come along at some later date,

in April, remained to be seen though, as far as Kuar Bet was concerned,

there was little hope of ascertaining this on account of the remoteness

of the locality and difficulty of access to it.

We found the best conditions for success with mist nets to be

when the sky is cloudy and overcast, and cool at midday with the

air still or a light breeze blowing, as on our two best days. Mist nets

proved completely useless under windy conditions. In addition to

the fact that high wind directly inhibits local bird activity, mist nets

have a tendency to bunch in folds at one end in a cross-wind,

rendering the net so taut over the rest of its length that even when

a bird flies into it, it bounces back and is usually able to escape.

When the wind is head-on to the net, the net billows out so much

to the lee that it becomes equally ineffective in ‘bagging’ the bird.

Altogether the field work on Kuar Bét in March proved less

successful than was anticipated. To what extent abnormal weather

was accountable for this disappointment it is difficult to assess. It

might be worthwhile to try here once again during the autumn migra-

tion if the approach through the Rann at that season permits. It

struck me, however, that perhaps a more rewarding course in future

work would be not to be encumbered with a large central camp in

any one place, but to split up into small independent units each

consisting of a couple of ornithologists with local helpers and a couple

‘of virus technicians with the necessary equipment for camping and

working at a number of selected points over a wider area in northern

Kutch and Saurashtra. In this way it may be easier to hit upon the

most suitable places for intercepting migrants.

The netting on Kuadr Bét in March added two more species to the

Kutch bird list, namely the Blackcrowned Finch-Lark [Eremopterix

nigriceps affinis (Blyth)] previously recorded within Indian limits

only from Rajasthan and eastern Punjab, and the Grey Hypocolius

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

(Hypocolius ampelinus) a Persian and Iraqi bird of which only two

specimens have so far been taken in India as rare vagrants.’

In addition to the above, the Eastern Rosy Pelican (Pelecanus

onocrotalus roseus) was discovered, for the first time, to nest in India.

The nests were found among worn-down old flamingo nests on the

periphery of the occupied Flamingo City in the Great Rann. These

pelicans were heretofore only known as winter visitors, and the large

colony of an estimated 3000-4000 adults in early summer and

hundreds of nests with eggs or young are of particular interest. It is

reported by the flamingo warden that he observed these birds nesting

here for the first time only in 1959, so they would now appear to be

establishing themselves as a breeding species. A more detailed note

has appeared in the Journal.?

A further point of interest, and a somewhat intriguing one, was

the netting, on 10 March of one more example of the Thickbilled

Warbler, Phragamaticola aédon. The unprecedented and unexpected

meeting with this species in Kutch the previous September (recorded

above) had raised speculation as to whether the examples then captured

were merely vagrants, or whether the species is possibly a regular

winter visitor (or autumn passage migrant) but overlooked in the

past. The capture of a third specimen, in March poses the question

whether the bird had spent the winter in Kutch, or was now

on northward passage to its breeding grounds from its known winter

quarters in SW. or eastern India—whether indeed the hitherto re-

corded status of this warbler needs amending.®

AUTUMN FIELD SESSION: SAURASHTRA, 8 TO 30 SEPTEMBER 1960

Owing to the difficulties of getting the transport vehicles across

the Little Rann from Saurashtra into Kutch and also of reaching the

outlying areas bordering the Great Rann so soon after the monsoon,

field work for the autumn migration was confined to the Saurashtra

peninsula in Gujarat. This lies between 21° N. lat. and the Tropic

of Cancer, and 69° and 72° 30’ E. long., therefore well athwart the

NW. route of bird migration into India. =

Two field camps were established, one on Jalandar (or Jhillander)

Bet, an islet separated from the border village of Jhinjhuvada by a

mile-wide arm of the Little Rann, the other at Hingolgadh the

private estate of the Raja Saheb of Jasdan, about 12 miles from the

capital of that quondam Indian State.

1 Pp. B. Shekar (1960): J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 224-5.

2 SAlim Ali (1960): J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 : 412-5.

® Since then it has also been taken in Rajasthan (see p. 123):

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT 111

Jalandar Bét is a flat, sandy islet, covered with semi-desert scrub

which in some places is quite dense. This is particularly so in and

along the dry, often steeply eroded, water-courses with which the islet

is scoured. The vegetation is of a xerophytic character and the

over-all ecology of the place is reminiscent of Kuar Bet in Kutch

Prosopis spicigera, Capparis aphylla, Salvadora persica, and S. oleoides,

stunted trees and bushes, are common and abundant, and when in

flower and fruit in spring must constitute a great attraction for many

species of passerine birds — warblers, Rosy Pastors, and others.

In recent years Prosopis juliflora has been widely planted by the

Forest Department in the barren, sait-lands bordering the Rann as

part of their desert reclamation programme. It has taken well, and

now forms flourishing and extensive thickets here and_ there.

Curiously enough, in spite of the shade it provides in a land where

any shade is welcome and, contra its congener P. spicigera, this

species is studiously avoided by birds of all kinds.

Hingolgadh is situated more inland, in central Saurashtra. It is

an undulating area of rocky and stony thorn scrub, which has been

closed to grazing, hacking, and felling for many years and, under

strict protection, has now become an island, or oasis, of fairly dense

thorny vegetation set in the midst of the extensive champaign under

cereal and groundnut cultivation. The activities at the Hingolgadh

camp were under the efficient and enthusiastic direction of Yuvraj

Shri Shivrajkumar of Jasdan.

Each of the two camps was manned by a more or less equal basic

complement of workers: two members of the field staff of the

Bombay Natural History Society, and three technicians of the Virus

Research Centre, Poona. These teams were assisted at either camp

by two post-graduate Avian Biology students of the Baroda Univer-

sity. Dr. R. M. Naik of the Department of Zoology, Baroda

University, who received his training at our Kuar Bét camp earlier

in the year, was in charge of the Jalandar Bét camp. It was

refreshing to find such flexibility and useful co-operation from

a university department which, in India, are normally so rigidly

conventional and hide-bound. It is to be hoped that more

universities and science-teaching institutions will realize the value of

the facilities these field camps afford and will second their biology

teachers as well as senior students to participate in the activities of

the Bombay Natural History Society. Participation in such outdoor

scientific activities can prove of very great mutual advantage. The

Society’s ringing work with migratory birds in India will begin to

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

pay dividends only when it can be expanded to cover all parts of the

country. This cannot be achieved without voluntary effort and the

co-operation of universities in encouraging their post-graduate biology

students to take part in our field work while keeping their academic

terms. ;

The combined teams of the Bombay Natural History Society and

the Virus Research Centre, Poona, arrived at their respective posts

on 7 September, and field operations commenced on the morning of

the 8th. The Jalandar camp remained in operation till 25 September

(18 days), and Hingolgadh up to 28 September (21 days).

The failure of the monsocn in the Jalandar area caused abnormally

high day temperatures in September, the daily maximum ranging

mostly between 95° and 105° F. in the shade, with a relative humidity

of between 64% and 79%. The sun temperatures at midday were

so high that many birds died in the nets if left exposed even for a

‘few minutes. During the last few days this necessitated our putting

the nets out of action after 11 a.m. and opening them again only

when it became relatively cooler in the afternoon—a circumstance

which naturally reflected adversely on our daily catches. The position

at Hingolgadh was somewhat better, but there also a _ certain

amount of mortality among the netted birds dictated similar precau-

tions latterly.

The destruction of our nets by the large and ever increasing

numbers of cattle, driven in for pasture to Jalandar from the sur-

rounding drought-ridden villages, swelled to such an extent that we

were compelled to abandon the work on 25 September, 4 days before

schedule. The results of the field work, in so far as the total number

of ringed birds is concerned, are comparable in both camps but, as

will be seen from Table II below, the composition of the catches in

the two areas was Strikingly different. During the 18 days of rather

fitful operation on Jalandar Bet 1008 birds were ringed. They re-

presented 46 forms, of which migrants accounted for 22. The most

abundant migratory species here proved to be Sylvia hortensis jerdoni

(94), followed by Sylvia curruca blythi (58), Hippolais caligata rama

(47), Sylvia communis icterops (41), Jynx torquilla ssp. (16), and

Erythropygia galactotes familiaris (13). During the 20 working days

at Hingolgadh camp (3 more than at Jalandar) in all 1232 birds

representing 72 forms were ringed. Of these over 50% were migratory.

The most plentiful migrant species in the Hingolgadh area during this

period was Sylvia communis icterops (256 examples), which ranked 4th

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT 113

in order at Jalandar. Sylvia hortensis jerdoni, which was No. 1 at

Jalandar, came next. At Hingolgadh, Rosy Pastors (Sturnus roseus) were

present in enormous swarms (as they were also at Jhinjhuvada, but

not so many at Jalandar) although only 58 were taken in the nets.

These birds, which had already arrived in large numbers by early

August, continued in abundance in the 2 localities, and more or iess

throughout Saurashtra, during September. They were now feeding

chiefly on the ground on grasshopper nymphs, and on the ripening

jowar and bajra (cereal) standing crops. They roosted in enormous

swarms in the dense grove of trees surrounding the Rest House at

Jhinjhuvada, where large flocks converged from all directions at

sunset. There was a large roost also on the edge of the netting area

at Hingolgadh.

Hingolgadh had 10 Kashmir Rollers (Coracias garrula semenowi)

while Jalandar had none, only 2 examples being noted during the

entire period and that within the last week; whereas against the 13

Greybacked Warblers (Erythropygia galactotes familiaris) ringed at

Jalandar none was caught at Hingolgadh and only one observed in the

area during the entire period. The difference in the composition of the

resident bird population is even more striking, but this may be

accounted for largely by the difference in ecological conditions. For

the migrants, most of which would be merely passing through at both

places, the composition of the catches respectively provides the first

positive datum suggestive of the pattern on which bird migration takes

place in this part of the country, and pinpoints the need for further

analysis and investigation. The captures at the two field stations,

operating simultaneously and no more than about 50 miles apart as the

crow flies, afford interesting comparison, of the differentia! movements

of various species during migration, but many more data will be

needed before the position can be understood. Additional interest is

lent to this problem by the results of 4 days’ subsequent netting (on

10-11 and 20-21 October) by Yuvraj Shivrajkumar in the Hingolgadh

neighbourhood, about 3 miles distant from the September area.

With 4 helpers, using on an average 10 nets, his catches amounted

to 45, 96, 54, and 149 birds, or a total of 344. They included 263

migrants of 18 species, of which the most promiment were:

Calandrella cinerea (120), Emberiza buchanani (79), Upupa epops (12),

Sylvia curruca (11), Hippolais caligata (11).

From the point of view of arthropod-borne viruses, a very

striking contrast in tick infestation is presented in the two areas.

114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

While the percentage of positive birds at Jalandar Bet (semi-desert

country) was comparatively insignificant, at Hingolgadh (fairly thick

thorn scrub forest) it was over 16%. The significance and implica-

tions of this differential tick infestation will be better understood when

the material has been identified and ecologically studied. This, as

well as the results of the bleeding of several species of birds under-

taken by their technicians, will be reported on separately by the

Virus Research Centre.

Of the 980 migrants examined at the 2 camps 86 individuals

(8.7%) bore ticks, while 155 (14.5%) of the 1062 residents

were so infected. In the latter, infestation among the ground-

dwelling partridges and quails was as high as 85% (22 examined)

and 61% in the Indian robins (108 examined).

Our greatest handicap today is the lack of competent | field

ornithologists and trained field personnel. These camps, which are

in the nature of continuing seminars, provide admirable opportunities

not only for learning bird identification and migration study

techniques, but also for co-operative living and team work by persons

of kindred scientific interests, and for stimulating informal dis-

cussions on a variety of ornithological and technical problems.

The Bombay Natural History Society invites university biology

teachers and students, and others seriously interested in the problems

of Indian migration and in the role of birds as disseminators of

arthropod-borne viruses, to take advantage of the opportunities

afforded by its spring and autumn field camps, so that they may

qualify themselves to conduct similar work in other parts of the

country independently, and contribute towards making up some of

the leeway from which scientific ornithology suffers in India.

Visitors: Drs. Harold Trapido and Jorge Boshell, of the Virus

Research Centre, Poona, spent several days at each camp sharing in,

and directing, the activities of their entomologists and the technicians.

In addition, the camps were visited for varying periods by a number

of persons, either to assist in the work or for training and experience.

Among these were Messrs Zafar Futehally, Dinshaw and Jamshed

Panday (Bombay), R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (Bhavnagar), K. S.

Lavkumar (Rajkot), Prof. J. P. Joshua and Mr. Gift Siromoney

(Madras).

During the field work on Kuar Bet (Kutch) in March 1960, blood

smears from about 60 netted birds were taken at the request of

Dr. Marshall Laird of McGill University, Canada, who is interested

in studying the zoogeographical status of avian haematozoa from our

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT 115

region, particularly the species of Plasmodium. A detailed report has

still to come, but he writes that a preliminary glance through the

material has shown several of them with Haemoproteus infections

(i.e. mosquito-transmitted bird malaria), and a number of Turdoides

c. caudatus to be harbouring Atoxoplasma. A further collection of

62 smears was made for Dr. Laird from birds netted on Jalandar

Bet during September.

SPRING FIELD SESSION: KUTCH, 9 TO 26 MARCH 1961

Following the deficient SW. monsoon of 1960, the greater part of

Kutch was officially declared a scarcity area. Many of the smaller

bunded irrigation reservoirs dried up by January, and it was only

the unexpected 3 inches or so of unseasonable rain that fell in late,

February that ameliorated the situation somewhat, and averted

drought conditions.

The northernmost areas, along the edge of the Great Rann, were

amongst the most seriously affected. The only source of water on

Kuar Bet, where the spring migration field camp had been operated

in 1960, was almost dry by early March, and in contrast to the

lush conditions of vegetation in 1960, the island presented a

desiccated and forbidding appearance. The few places in the

northern areas where any water was available were overrun by village

cattle driven in from scarcity areas far around, and past experience

had amply demonstrated that cattle and mist nets cannot co-exist!

It was a problem to find a place with the required conditions for

netting, yet free from cattle. Two promising sites were finally

selected, (1) at Chaduva about 14 miles WSW. of Bhuj, and (2) in

Wanothi Rakhal (or forest preserve) near Assambia village, c. 9 miles

N. of Mandvi.

1, Chaduva (c. 23° 15’ N. X 69° 40’ E.): This is the private estate

of H. H. the Maharao of Kutch. It contains a well-watered, well-

wooded orchard of mango, guava, mulberry, and other fruit trees.

This garden is situated immediately below the dam which impounds

the extensive Pragsar tank (or reservoir). A seepage nala (or stream)

trickles through the garden, the bed of which for about 200 yards or

more is densely overgrown with coarse reeds (Saccharum?) 10 to

12 ft. high. Bordering this garden on one side is a stretch of

cotton fields, lying fallow at this season. The surrounding hummocky

country which forms the catchment area of the two large bunded

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

(dammed) tanks Pragsar and Pharsar is stony and sparsely scrubbed

with the normal semi-desert type of vegetation characteristic of Kutch.

The Chaduva garden is the nightly roost of enormous hordes. of

House Crows (Corvus splendens), estimated as c. 10,000, which gather

from before sunset and into dusk from long distances around to

sleep in the large leafy trees, whereas the smaller mango grafts and

guava trees together with the adjoining reed-bed are patronized by

Common Mynas (Acridotheres tristis), estimated as 5000+, and Rosy

Pastors (Sturnus roseus), estimated as 2000+, together with hundreds

of bulbuls, both Pycnonotus cafer and P. leucogenys leucotis, Bank

Mynas (A. ginginianus), and countless weaver birds (Ploceus

philippinus).

Besides myself, the personnel here consisted of 1 member of the

Society’s field staff, a personal attendant trained for the work, Mr.

F. V. Rajamannar of the Delhi University Zoology Department, and

Rev. Axel Krebs, a Danish Missionary from Madras State. A second

member of the Society’s staff, D. Mathew, and V. C. Ambedkar,

a post-graduate Field Ornithology student of the Bombay University,

joined the party a few days before the operations were wound up.

Two technicians of the Virus Research Centre looked after tick

collection from the birds.

2. Wanothi Rakhal (c. 22° 50’ N. X 69° 30’ E.): This is an area

of thorn forest preserved by the Forest Department principally for

cattle fodder and fuel (firewoed). The vegetation is composed largely

of species such as Acacia arabica, A. senegal, Prosopis spicigera, and

the others usual to a semi-desert biotope. The Mandvi District of

southern Kutch, within which the reserve is located, is rather fertile,

well-watered and well cultivated, and dotted about with green and

flourishing wddis (market gardens), and lush lucerne fields irrigated

from ring wells and dammed reservoirs. There are several rivers in

this section with sandy beds which stiil ran trickles of water by the

end of March, with puddles and squelchy patches here and there

covered with dense reedbeds, large and small, which afforded com-

munity roosts to wagtails, swallows, and weaver birds.

The camp itself was located just below, and adjacent to, the dam

of the Assambia tank, at the head of an effluent feeder canal. The

seepage from the dam formed several stagnant marshy pools, over-

grown along their edges by bulrushes (Typha), and these marshes and

their surroundings provided attraction for wagtails, warblers, swallows,

and other species, both resident and migratory. The Wanothi camp

was under the direction of Yuvraj Shivrajkumar of Jasdan assisted

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT 117

by P. W. Soman, M. Pereira and P. Swami of the Society’s staff, and

A. R. K. Das, post-graduate Avian Biology student of Baroda

University. Unfortunately, being pre-occupied with other commit-

ments elsewhere, no entomologists or technicians could be spared by

the Virus Research Centre for this camp, tence some valuable oppor-

tunities for tick collection from migrant birds such as swallows and

wagtails were missed.

On the whole it seemed that bird movement was tardy during

the period of operation of the camps, and that possibly migration

was delayed. This impression was partly confirmed by reports

coming in from Saurashtra as well. However, up to a point it may

also be that the netting sites themselves were less favourable as

compared with the more forward areas in northern Kutch along the

borders of the Great Rann. When motoring back through eastern

Kutch and Saurashtra at the end of March, Blackheaded Buntings

(Emberiza melanocephala) were observed in large numbers which

looked as if they were working their way westward and northward.

Rosy Pastors were also far more abundant and widespread in

Saurashtra and Gujarat at that period than they were in Kutch.

During this spring session one more species was added to the

Kutch list, namely the Moustached Sedge Warbler (Lusciniola

melanopogon)', of which six examples were taken in the nets at

Wanothi. This warbler is not uncommon in winter in West Pakistan,

but has only been recorded exceptionally in India as far south as

Madhya Pradesh, and also in Saurashtra. The number caught

suggests that it may perhaps be less rare than supposed. |

An interesting experience, worth recording, was the re-capture of

two ringed bulbuls (1 Pycnonotus cafer, 1 P. leucogenys leucotis) during

a morning’s snap netting at Changalra (Bhuj neighbourhood) in the

identical half-mile square that was worked during the first session

of this series 18 months earlier—in September 1959. Both the birds

were registered as adult at that time.

During this latest session our attention was increasingly shifted to

the overriding advantage .of netting migratory birds like the Rosy

Pastor and wagtails and swallows at their communal roosts. The

possibility of bulk capture of these species—of significance from the

tick infestation and virus dissemination point of view—was_ lime-

lighted by the experience at Wanothi where, within an, hour’s netting

at a wagtail roost at sunset, over 170 birds were caught, and at

a swallow roost near-by over 50. It appeared that our most fruitful

1 J, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 : 513.

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

course for future activities would be to search out suitable roosts in

marshy reedbeds etc. and concentrate all effort on these. However,

our experience with Rosy Pastors, roosting in their close-packed

tantalising thousands amongst similar reedbeds and shrubbery, proved

thoroughly futile and disappointing! These birds are far too cunning

for ordinary mist netting, and seem to possess an uncanny instinct for

avoiding the nets. Perhaps our most rewarding course with them

would be to employ professional bird catchers with their special

techniques. The Rosy Pastor seems a particularly desirable subject

for attention, both from the migration study and from_ the

virus dissemination, points of view. (A significant proportion of those

examined previously were found positive for ticks.) This is a fairly

large, conspicuous, and widely distributed species in its Indian winter

quarters. It comes in enormous swarms, and lives, feeds, moves

about, and roosts in vast congregations. It is destructive to cereal

crops, and is itself relished as an article of food and, therefore, largely

shot and netted everywhere as well as all along its migration routes,

thus increasing the chances of ring recoveries.

A total of 2192 birds representing 69 species were captured and

ringed at the two camps. They included 641 migrants (c. 30% of

the total) of which 578 (c. 90%) were taken at Wanothi including

276 Yellow Wagtails (Motacilla flava melanogrisea and other races),

159 White Wagtails (M. alba mostly dukhunensis), and 32 Yellow-

headed Wagtails (M. citreola), and 73 Common Swallows (Hirundo

rustica).

Among the common resident birds in the present series, most

frequently and consistently found with ticks attached were the

Common Babbler (Turdoides c. caudatus), the Indian Robin (Saxi-

coloides fulicata cambaiensis), and the Weaver Bird (Ploceus p.

philippinus), in that order. Among the migrant species, although the

samples examined were inadequate, a high frequency of tick infesta-

tion was indicated by the Bluethroat (Erithacus svecicus ssp. ?) and

the Redstart [Phoenicurus Ochruros phoenicuroides (?)].

In several instances it was noted that a bird, found negative for

ticks when first ringed and released, had ticks attached to it when

re-captured two, three, or more days later. This could be due either

to the ticks having escaped detection on the first occasion, or to their

being picked up during the interval.

The identification of the ticks in the present series awaits study in

the Virus Research Centre laboratory at Poona. The majority of those

taken during the spring of 1960 (on Kuar Bét) have been reported as

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT 119

Haemaphysalis (intermedia ?) with a small percentage of Hyalomma sp.

As against this, the ticks collected from birds in Saurashtra during

autumn 1960 (Jalandar Bet and Hingolgadh) included, in addition to

Haemaphysalis (intermedia ?) (the majority), a few larvae and nymphs

provisionally identified as Hyalomma sp., Amblyomma sp., and | or

2 examples of Rhipicephalus sp.

The Hyalommas are described as ticks of relatively dry areas.

This genus as well as the species Haemaphysalis intermedia are not

known to occur in the epizootic region of the Kayasanur Forest Disease

in Mysore etc., though another species of the latter genus, namely

Haemaphysalis spinigera,.is abundant there and the principal carrier

of the Kayasanur Forest Disease virus.

AUTUMN FIELD SESSION: 11 To 30 SEPTEMBER 1961

Heavy monsoon rendered work in Kutch impracticable for the

purpose of transport and communication, and a search had to be

made for alternate venues for the autumn camps.

A restricted area in the neighbourhood of Bhavnagar town was

selected for one of the camps. A second camp was established at

Bharatpur in eastern Rajasthan (about 160 km. south-west of Delhi),

which some pilot mist netting in late spring had indicated as a pro-

mising venue for migratory wagtails, swallows, warblers, and other

passerines.

ly Bhavnagar (@ 21° 45 N. x 72° 15° E.), 12 to 30 September

1961

The netting here was principally done in a fenced-in area of

reserved thorn jungle and scrub of about 500 acres under the Forest

Department, known as Victoria Park. The area is protected against

lapping of trees and grazing and browsing by domestic animals. It

used to be a model wild life sanctuary in miniature in former years,

and still holds some nilgai and wild pig. The vegetation consists

of moderate-sized trees and shrubs of Acacia arabica, A. senegal,

A. catechu, Prosopis spicigera, with an intermingling of Salvadora

persica and S. oleoides, and the recently introduced all-too-flourish-

ing Prosopis juliflora. At the end of the monsoon, which was again.

much above the average here, the Park presented a _ luxuriant

appearance, and being in the nature of an island of greenery on the

edge of the town, surrounded by cultivation and open country, it

seemed to offer attractive conditions for migratory passerines on

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

arrival. It had, in fact, been reported as a favourite halting place.

The Park contains a low-lying basin of several acres, which becomes

a lake during and after the monsoon and retains some water all the

year round. Around its margins are beds of reeds and sedges

suitable for reed warblers, and as night roosts for swallows and

wagtails. In spite of these apparent advantages, the results of our

18 days’ netting in the Park proved disappointing. Whether the second

half of September is too early in the season for strong incoming

migration (as we now suspect), or whether the vagaries of the

monsoon were responsible for retarding it that year, or whether the

choice of the venue itself was basically wrong, it is difficult to assess,

but this much is certain that migration had apparently just com-

menced to trickle in by the end of September when the camp was

being wound up. A total of 466 birds (58 species) was ringed in

Bhavnagar, of which 90 (17 species) were migrant, i.e. about 19%.

In regard to tick collection, it is unfortunate that the Virus

Research Centre were unable to render the necessary co-operation to

our field teams this autumn as they had done on _ previous

occasions. In the absence of special technicians to examine the

birds, valuable opportunities were lost. The ornithological personnel

in both camps, despite the voluntary help it periodically received from

visiting bird students, was short-handed and otherwise pre-occupied.,.

and often also grossly overworked. Some more satisfactory arrange-

ment will need to be worked out for the future to ensure the fullest

advantage being taken of the valuable opportunities afforded by these

field sessions for studies of the role of birds in the dissemination of

arthropod-borne viruses.

2. Bharatpur (27° 13. N. xX 77> 32_E)11 to.30 September, 196"

Mist netting here was done chiefly in and around the Forest

Nursery situated within the Keoladeo Ghana Wild Life Sanctuary, and

in the swampy fallow fields adjoining Jatoli village immediately

outside. The higher ground in the village precincts was under maize,

jowar, and bajra cultivation, most of which had suffered badly from

the exceptionally heavy and late-continuing rains—already more than

double the annual average—which had caused widespread floods and

devastation in many parts of central and northern India. The

Keoladec Ghana, a natural depression some 7000 acres in extent

densely covered with thorn jungle, is under the protection of the Forest

Department. The vegetation consists largely of trees and shrubs of

Acacia arabica, Prosopis spicigera, Capparis horrida, Salvadora

THE BNHS/[WHC BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT 121

persica and §S. oleoides, and Zizyphus jujuba, with a sprinkling of

large and ancient trees of Stephegyne parviflora. Dense shrubbery of

Clerodendrum (phlomoides ?) occurs outside the forested area. In a

year of good monsoon (such as the present) a large portion of the

Ghana forest becomes inundated and teems with fish brought down

by the various rivers that contribute to its water supply. This re-

markable abundance of food is the basis of the phenomenal concen-

trations of nesting storks, egrets, herons, cormorants, and other water

birds, for which the Keoladeo Breeding-Waterbird Sanctuary has

acquired fame within the country and abroad. The lake also affords

winter refuge to countless migratory ducks and geese, and is reckoned

as one of the finest duck-shooting jheels in India.

By April the greater part of the Ghana dries up, furnishing rich

grazing to thousands of cattle from the town and _ surrounding

villages. Little ‘islands’ of sedges and bulrushes then stand out here

and there amidst swampy patches on its bed to serve as night roosts

for wagtails, swallows, and reed warblers. It was the chance stumbling

upon one such roost in May 1961, which yielded 370 birds (including

184 migrants) on five consecutive evenings’ mist netting, that first gave

a clue to the inherent potentialities of the Ghana for ringing passerine

migrants and prompted its selection for the present field camp.

During the period between 10 and 30 September there was a great

surfeit of flood waters everywhere and most of the reedbeds were

submerged. No roosts of swallows or wagtails were discovered among

them. Bird migration was on the whole distinctly tardy and, as in

Saurashtra, it appeared that here also we were as yet too early for

most species. But for a fortunate and fortuitous rush of Yellow

Wagtail (Motacilla flava) migration, our results would have been no

less disappointing than in Bhavnagar. Only small numbers of

wagtails were observed on 10th September, yet three days later the

marshy fallow fields were literally swarming with them—mostly the

three subspecies thunbergi, beema, and melanogrisea. Their flocks

in the air were reminiscent of major locust swarms. I cannot recall

ever Seeing such masses of wagtails together! Of the total number of

1122 birds caught and ringed in Bharatpur during the twenty days

(see Table II) 681 were Yellow Wagtails. Since other migrant species

were as yet in insignificant quantities only, it was decided to focus

all our efforts on the wagtails alone. Owing to a continuous wind

in the exposed fields, at least thrice as many birds bounced back

and escaped from the nets before they could be removed, but even

ctherwise these would have represented merely a very small fraction

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

of the wagtails present in that area of a few hundred acres! Over

and over again experience has proved mist nets to be almost completely

ineffective on windy days, especially in the case of such light-weight

birds as wagtails and warblers. As yet no remedy for this has been

found.

Working under pressure, it was early realized that there was little

point in ringing common resident birds such as bulbuls, babblers,

and mynas. Whenever it was practicable to examine the captives for

ticks this was done; but otherwise, in most cases, such birds were

promptly set free. In this way possibly some 300 or more birds were

released unringed. Therefore in Table II any comparison by pro-

portion of the percentages of resident and migrant species would be

irrelevant.

A proposed innovation referred to at p. 118 above was tried out

during the present field session, namely the employing of professional

netters in order to supplement our own catches by sizeable quantities

of migratory birds such as ducks, Grey Quails, Rosy Pastors, and

waders (in-coming Ruff & Reeve pass through Bharatpur in autumn

in enormous numbers). Two sets of 2 men each were imported from

Bareilly (a centre of the wild bird trade) claiming to be experts in,

the art. One set was assigned to Bhavnagar, the other to

Bharatpur. In both cases the experience proved a dismal failure and

the claims of the men to be exaggerated out of all recognition! It

is true that September may have been too early, considering the

abnormal weather conditions, for Grey Quail and Ruff & Reeve, but

the trappers even failed to catch any Rosy Pastors at a populous roost

in Bhavnagar, and only a very negligible quantity of some of the

common resident birds! Moreover, most of their catching was done

with bird lime, a method quite unsuited for birds intended for ring-

ing and prompt release. Though the experiment proved dis-

appointing and disproportionately costly, it is felt that it may be

worth repeating under more favourable auspices.

Besides the birds caught in mist nets, 111 nestling water birds!

were ringed in the Keoladeo Breeding-Waterbird Sanctuary. This

was in continuation of previous ringing work in this heronry,

in an attempt to study the post-breeding dispersal of its seasonal

occupants, which obviously converge here from over a very extensive

range. One of the nestling Openbill Storks (Anastomus oscitans)

ringed in the sanctuary on an earlier occasion was recovered at a

* Chiefly Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea manilensis), and the White Egrets (Egretta

intermedia and E. g. garzetta).

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT 123

distance of over 500 miles a few months later—an unsuspected

wandering. The vast concentrations of nestling waterbirds and their

young at this unique heronry (chiefly the families Phalacrocoracidae,

Ardeidae, Ciconiidae, and Threskiornithidae) would seem to offer

unparalleled opportunities for serological studies connected with the

problem of virus transmission through bird-biting mosquitoes and

other arthropods.

An interesting addition to the Rajasthan bird list, and a signi-

ficant extension of its known winter range in India, was provided by

a single specimen of the Thickbilled Warbler (Phragamaticola aédon)

taken in the nets at Bharatpur on 15 September. This large warbler,

which could easily be mistaken in the field (and no doubt often is)

for the Great Reed Warbler (Acrocephalus stentoreus), breeds in the

USSR from eastern Altai and Kemerovo to Manchuria, and in central

Japan. It winters at low elevations in the eastern Himalayas and.

Assam, and mainly on the eastern side of the Indian peninsula; also in

Kerala, Mysore, and southern Maharashtra. It will be recalled that

in autumn 1959 it was obtained for the first time (see pp. 105, 106) as

far north on the western side as Kutch.

TABLE II

Summarized statement of the 3366 Migratory Birds ringed in five

ringing sessions, 1959-61

2. 5 = |

Species 2 = £e E S ie Eee | Total

iO) Be Sa aS Sh

ia Nn < Nn | < |

1. Sparrow-Hawk, Accipiter nisus 1 1

2. Pale Harrier, Circus macrourus .. iv 2 Af cs been Re

3. Kestrel, Falco tinnunculus fea ee -, ne 1 aa eet

4. Common Quail, Coturnix coturnix | 3 2 eu ee on | 5)

5. Green Sandpiper, Tringa ochropus 1 ees ee a ie 1

6. Wood Sandpiper, Tringa glareola .. ae eae ae 6 Da 6)

7. Fantail Snipe, Capella gallinago ..| .. or s 1 se A

8. Pied Crested Cuckoo, Clamator

jacobinus - 8 S + sie Sern ele

9. European Nightjar, Caprimulgus |

europaeus unwini ene hl ae 1 ee i ee

10. Bluecheeked Bee-eater, Merops

superciliosus es DW, D

as...

124. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Summarized statement of the 3366 Migratory Birds ringed in five

ringing sessions, 1959- 61 (contd.)

| Sheba de :

Species 2 = EK | 5 S tes ies Total

le) Nie ee hela ne Maken hoe

a8 nn < Nn <

11. European Roller, Coracias gar-

rulus Re 1 ie 13 = i 14

12. Hoopoe, Upupa epops a 22 12 10 1 15 60

13. Wryneck, Jynx torquilla re 16 14 33 SI 30 96

14. Short-toed Lark, Calandrella

cinerea 6 fi 6

15. Swallow, Hirundo rustica ce a a ae 73 2 15

16. Redbacked Shrike, Lanius collurio | 8 | 2 | 37)... | .. | 47

17. Golden Oriole, Oriolus 0. kundoo | .. a“ | Lest okie es 9 10

18. Grey or Ashy Drongo, Dicrurus is |

leucophaeus | ve ae na ili oe 1 2

19. Rosy Pastor, Sturnus roseus ae | 14 | 60 10° 49 ‘- 153

20. Spotted Flycatcher, Muscicapa | | |

striata Phe Oe. 2 i 43

21. Redbreasted Flycatcher, |

Muscicapa p. parva a ghee teas Se 18

22. Paradise Flycatcher, Terpsiphone | | |

paradisi “ie 2 4 6

23. Moustached Sedge Warbler,

Lusciniola melanopogon ee a 6 Pas (SS

24. Grasshopper Warbler, Locustella |

naeyia straminea a 1 | 1

25. Thickbilled Warbler, Phragama-

ticola aédon ss a eI SF ai eM ae 3

26. Indian Great Reed Warbler, | | |

Acrocephalus stentoreus argh ee ates heccwae ds 2a

27. Blyth’s Reed Warbler, Acroce- | |

Dhalus dumetorum Bs ie 23 48 | 4 38 1990

28. Paddyfield Warbler, Aces | | |

agricola reall 1 Me be 8 “e 9 f

29. Booted Warbler, Hippolais

caligata ts 30 | 22 56 sae | et

30. Whitethroat, Sylvia communis .. Aj af 305 4 4 | 350

31. Orphean Warbler, Sylvia | | |

hortensis 23 2 61 149 | 1] 223

32, lesser; Whitethroat, Sylvia

curruca ae 6 64 - |.-132 16 Lil gee)

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT 125

Summarized Statement of the 3366 Migratory Birds ringed in five

ringing sessions, 1959-61 (contd.)

a, | = a 5

Species a= ae Ee eo | SS. | Total

OMe Sates) SS

3 It see n <

33. Hume’s Lesser Whitethroat, | | | |

Sylvia althaea ie et ae ie Gar ees ees G

34. Brown Leaf Warbler, or Chiffchaff, |

Phylloscopus collybita tristis .. ne 3 fecha 14 urine hy

35. Bright Green Leaf Warbler, | !

Phylloscopus _nitidus a Ue Miekees 1 =f 1 2

36. Greybacked Warbler, Er eee |

galactotes familiaris om cae 13 ae a 13

37. Bluethroat, Erithacus svecicus .. 2 4 8 8 paps

38, Black Redstart, Phoenicurus

ochruros oe Lea? 6 15a 08 4. 34

39. Stone Chat, Saxicola torquata .. 3 e Biradd Liat 4 | 4

40. Pied Bush Chat, Saxicola caprata 2 2 | 2 6

41. Pied Chat, Oenanthe picata en gay peer Wer iia oe 4

42. Blue Rock Thrush, Monticola | |

solitarius pandoo a Ag LRT sos Dey ed am 1 1

43. Tree Pipit, Anthus trivialis sf Lee: 10 ae 12 23

44. Tawny Pipit, Anthus campestris .. bat lk eS. Diaeiicer 1 6

45. Blyth’s Pipit, Anthus godlewskii .. | 1 1

46. Brown Rock Pipit, Anthus similis fe oe Ne 1 ag 1

47. Yellow Wagtail, Motacilla flava ssp.| 1 123 | 680 | 804

48. Pied, or White, Wagtail, Motacilla | |

alba 3 1 | | 159 Ty e161

49, Blackheaded Yellow Wagtail, | |

Motacilla f. melanogrisea | | 153 153

| |

50. Yellowheaded Wagtail, Motacilla | | |

citreole R | | 32 32

51. Common Rosefinch, Carpodacus

erythrinus 13 1 1 se 27 42

52. Blackheaded Bunting, LEmberiza

melanocephala vec te 249 6 4 1 a 260

53. Redheaded Bunting, Emberiza

bruniceps ae oe 2 AY Le 14 14

54. Striolated pune, Emberiza

striolata Seip erec He 15 cs sie 15

55. Greynecked Bunting, Emmberiza

buchanani ne 12 3 20 1 as 36

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

FIELD SURVEY: ASSAM, 11 TO 29 NOVEMBER 1961

As indicated earlier our knowledge of bird migration has been

very meagre. Unlike NW. India which, on account of its strategic

importance, has enjoyed the benefit of many knowledgeable ornitholo-

gists, chiefly British army and political officers, posted there for long

periods in the last hundred years, the NE. frontier areas have

suffered comparative neglect due to the absence of resident ornitho-

logists. Such information as is available thence is the result of

haphazard observations, mostly of botanical and zoological collectors

who chanced to be working in various parts of the country at the

appropriate seasons. But, meagre as they are, the data suffice to

indicate that a considerable amount of movement occurs through the

valleys of the Brahmaputra and its network of tributaries, and across

some of the high mountain passes through the Himalayan barrier

between Tibet and Indian territory.

Recent efforts for extending our field work elicited certain

suggestive clues that seemed worth following up. Two of the areas,

one in NEFA, the other in the North Cachar hills, seemed particularly

promising. Accompanied by Mr. E. P. Gee of Shillong, a member

of the Society’s Advisory Committee, I visited the areas from 11-29

November 1961 for a personal investigation of their possibilities.

1. Tuting, roughly 29° N, x 95° ES the headquarters) of the

Assistant Political Officer of the Siang Frontier Division, lies at an

altitude of about 2000 ft. in an elongated crater-like valley, c. 2-3

miles long and 1.5 miles at its widest, running N. and S. through

a titanic jumble of steep-sided heavily-forested Himalayas rising

9-12,000 ft. all round. The lower slopes of the mountains around

the settlement are dotted sparsely here and there with clearings for

the shifting cultivation of the jJocal Abors. Within the valley is

situated the P.S.S.-covered airstrip on which Dakotas of the Kalinga

Airlines periodically land with supplies for the outpost. Before the

airstrip was made a few years ago, the journey to Tuting meant

14 days’ marching on foot from Pasighat; now the plane from

Mohanbari airfield (Dibrugarh) took us there in 40 minutes. Our

fellow travellers in this severely austere craft were mostly bags of

atta and dal, tins of kerosene, drums of petrol and oil, and such

other supplies. Flying with the doors wide open was a novel ex-

perience in air travel and added to the thrill of the endless succession

of peaks, ridges, and perilous gorges below. The gigantic snow-

covered mountains flanking the route did sometimes seem a bit too

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT 127

close to the wing-tips for peace of mind! All around was evidence

in the shape of gigantic scars high up on, the mountains of land-

slides, especially those caused by the historic earthquake of 1950.

The settlement of Tuting is about 10 miles south of the frontier

post of Geling, as the crow flies. On a clear day the lofty snow-

capped ranges on the Tibetan frontier loom on the horizon with the

giant Namchebarwa, over 25,000 ft., standing out prominently. The

settlement is largely official, consisting of quarters for the political

staff, a school, a hospital, the agriculture, the animal husbandry, and

the public health centres, a public works office, and various community

development agencies. Where it is not cleared for the construction

of buildings or experimental cultivation, the valley is under dense

secondary scrub in which a species of sugarcane-like Saccharum grass,

tall, coarse, and saw-edged, with plumes of silky pinkish magenta

flower-heads, and the ubiquitous Eupatorum weed predominate.

Tuting is situated on one of the two main tributaries of the

Brahmaputra, namely the Tsangpo or Siang, almost where it enters

India (the other being the more easterly Lohit). Further south the

Siang is known. as the Dihang until it merges with the Brahmaputra.

A former A.P.O. of Tuting, Shri Nalni Jayal who was a competent

bird watcher, had strongly recommended Tuting as a suitable locality

for observing migration. During his 24 years at Tuting he had

noticed intense bird activity during the spring and autumn migrations,

whereas at other seasons not much bird life was visible there. This

latter I also found to be true at the time of my visit, 14-20 November,

particularly in regard to migrant species. The scarcity and extreme

shyness of all birds, large and small—here as in most other parts of

the Assam hills—is no doubt due to their relentless persecution, with

bows and blunt arrows and every other means, by the local tribals

for food. According to the present A.P.O., Shri S. S. Yadav, large

numbers of geese (?) were observed in the second half of

October flying more or less directly N. to S. over the valley of the

Siang River, in successions of wedges or echelons. From other local

testimony, and from the general physiography of the area, it seems

certain that at the appropriate periods in spring and autumn Tuting

must be an exceptional venue for observing migration in progress,

but possibly Jess satisfactory for mist netting of the smaller

passerine birds. Apart from this uncertainty, there is the question of

precise timing. Since migration appears to rush through rather

hurriedly within short periods, it would be extremely difficult to plan

the field work in advance. Owing to its remoteness and the difficulty

128) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

and cost of transporting a field party and equipment all the way from

Bombay, Tuting therefore seems an impracticable proposition for our

present project. This is an activity that seems only feasible—and

certainly very worthwhile—for ornithologists resident at the Spot,

who can go into operation at short notice immediately the oppor-

tunity presents itself. The A.P.O., Shri Yadav, is a very keen and

energetic young man and, though not an experienced bird watcher, is

sufficiently interested in the proposed study to keep a special look-

out at the appropriate seasons in future and keep us posted with

bird movements in his area.

2. Jatinga (c. 2006 ft.). This is a smail settlement or village in

the North Cachar hills, about 4 miles distant from the sub-divisional

headquarters Haflong (c. 25° N.x93° E.), at the head of Jatinga

Valley running roughly N. and §. The place has acquired a wide

‘reputation’ for the large numbers of ‘migratory’ birds killed by the

inhabitants at bright lights exposed outside their houses during

certain seasons of the year. On this account Jatinga was recom-

mended to us as worth investigation for the proposed extension of the

migration field project to Assam. Thanks to the kindness and good

offices of Mr. Gee, I was enabled to visit the place in his company

between 23 and 29 November. We motored down the 250 odd miles

from Shillong through Garampani in his jeep, mostly over narrow

winding and spectacular contour roads, largely through magnificent

lofty evergreen hill forest. Unfortunately, here also, the timing was

wrong. The most favourable period for the bird-catching activity at

Jatinga is said to be between the middle of August and the end of

October (i.e. during the monsoon), the best month being September.

Nevertheless, we visited the actual spots where the operations had

been carried out as lately as a few weeks before, and in an attempt

to identify some of the victims of these holocausts, picked up a

quantity of feathers strewn about the place. From Mr. E. W. Suchiang,

an intelligent young Khasi resident of Jatinga, who has himself

participated in the ‘sport’ for many years, the following particulars

were obtained:

A suitable night is one that is dark and moonless, cloudy and

overcast, preferably with a light drizzle, and with heavy mist or fog

near the ground, with wind blowing S. to N., ie. against the flow of

migration. If the wind direction is not right no birds will come to

the petromaxes, bonfires, or flares. The light is screened on the

southern side for the hunter to remain invisible to the birds as they

fly in from north. Under the requisite conditions the birds are attracted

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT 129

to the lights in large numbers. All the inmates of Jatinga village

sally forth with their petromaxes or flares and sticks to kill the birds

with, and also those of the outlying hamlets and homesteads, in order

to gather in this harvest of bird meat. The movement is confined

to the immediate vicinity of Jatinga only, and even 2 miles further

away, in apparently identical situations, no birds come to the lights.

During a season several thousand birds may be taken. As many

as 5-600 birds are often killed in a single night at 50 to 60 lights.

The best time is from 7 to 10 p.m., and then again from 2 to 4 a.m.

During the rest of the night there are only a few individual stragglers.

About 10 years ago, our informant, then a boy, claims to have killed

over 200 birds in a night single-handed. The birds are plucked of

their feathers, and either eaten fresh or smoke-dried and preserved

for future consumption.

As regards the species of these birds there seemed to be much

uncertainty. Our informant described them as ‘geese, small ducks,

waterbirds with long legs like storks, and others sparrow size and

even smaller’. Unfortunately no diagnostic parts of the birds were

available for examination since, before drying, the head, bill, and legs

are discarded. The collection of feathers picked up on the sites of

slaughter and brought to Bombay for study with the Society’s

reference collection of birds gave no evidence of any geese or ducks,

but some species whose identity is unmistakable were as follows:

Malay Bittern (Gorsachius melanolophus).

Little Egret (Egretta garzetta).

Hill Partridge (Arborophila rufogularis ?).

Kalij Pheasant (Lophura ?).

Green Pigeon (Treron sp. ?).

Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica).

Whitebreasted Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis).

Ruddy Kingfisher (Halcyon coromanda).

Necklaced Laughing Thrush (Garrulax moniligerus).

Many other feathers could not be properly identified. The curious

thing, however, is that all the species in the above list are what is

known as ‘resident’ birds, though our informant asserted that they

are not met with in that part of the country at any other time,

excepting only ‘green pigeons’ of which considerable numbers appear

to be attracted to the lights at this period. The identification of

Emerald Dove feathers was confirmed by two live examples kept in

a cage, taken at a light a few weeks previously.

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

This seasonal nocturnal mass movement of ‘non-migratory’ birds,

all of which are diurnal except the bittern and should normally be

roosting peacefully, is difficult to understand and worthy of closer

investigation by some knowledgeable bird student resident in that

neighbourhood. It is hoped that this note will help to focus atten-

tion on the ‘mystery’. I understand that this cruel practice of

wholesale destruction of birds at lights is prohibited by law; that

it continues, nevertheless, and without anybody apparently being

much concerned about the ban, is all too evident. Here again, there

is a fruitful venue for ringing birds on the appropriate occasions by

persons resident on or within easy reach of the spot. Owing to

distance and the uncertainty of the occurrence of the requisite weather

conditions, it would obviously be impracticable for the Bombay

Natural History Society to undertake the work departmentally.

Studies on the Freshwater Oligochaeta

of South India

I. Aeolosomatidae and Naididae

PAR TY2

K. VANAMALA NAIDU

Government Arts and Science College, Chittoor (A.P.)

(With five text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 58 (3): 652]

Family NAIDIDAE

KEY TO ALL THE SUBFAMILIES OF NAIDIDAE

A-1 Nephridia absent cre 1 Paranaidinae

A-2 Nephridia present

B-1 Segment III strongly elongated ; no pharyngeal

diverticulum ; none to one pair of commissural

vessels a Chaetogastrinae

B-2 No specially elongated segments ; pharynx with

dorsal diverticulum ; 4 or more pairs of com-

missural vessels, simple, branched or forming

plexus

C-1 Dorsal setae begin in IV, V, or VI ae Naidinae

C-2 Dorsal setae usually begin in II (in Pristina

macrochaeta in III or IV)

D-1 Four segments budded at anterior end

by budding zone; testes in IV and

ovaries in V .. *Stephensonianinae nov.

D-2 Seven segments formed at anterior end

by budding zone; testes in VII and

ovaries in VIII Pristininae

* Members of this subfamily are not recorded from the Indian sub-continent.

2 Represented by one genus only.

132. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

a. Subfamily CHAETOGASTRINAE Sperber, 1948

KEY TO ALL THE GENERA OF CHARTOGASTRINAE

Dorsal setae absent ; ventral setae of III-V absent ve Chae togaster

Dorsal setae present ; ventral setae present throughout .. 1 Amphichaeta

2. Genus Chaetogaster von Baer, 1827

Generic characters : Worms whitish and transparent. No eyes. Body

surface with fine outgrowths. External segmentation absent. No dorsal

setae, ventral setae absent in III-V. Pharynx in II-III, oesophagus in

IV, pharyngeal and oesophageal glands absent, stomach conspicuous

and barrel-shaped; intestinal anti-peristalsis and ascending ciliary action

absent. Septa present, no septal glands. Coelomocytes absent. Dorsal

vessel contractile and mid-dorsal ; ventral vessel non-contractile and

mid-ventral ; contractile lateral vessels (‘hearts’) 1 pair in IV. Brain

with or without statocyst. Nephridia exonephric, start from VI or VII.

Budding zones 1-7.

KEY TO ALL THE KNOWN AND VALID SPECIES OF CHAETOGASTER

A-1 Setae simple-pointed te * setosus

A-2 Setae double-pointed

B-1 Setae with strongly curved teeth (at right angles

to the shaft) one limnaei

B-2 Setae with normally curved teeth (at obtuse

angles to the shaft)

C-1 Prostomium conspicuous

D-1 Sensory hairs long on prostomium ;

body size medium (1-5 mm. long); setae 4-8

per bundle in I, 3-5 in others oe diastrophus

D-2 Sensory hairs extremely long on pros-

tomium and later segments; body

size small (0.6-1.7 mm. long) ; setae

4-6 per bundle in II, 3-5 in others .. * palustris

C-2 Prostomium inconspicuous

E-1 Distal tooth reduced “ * krasnopolskiae

E-2 Distal tooth of setae longer than prox-

imal .

F-1 Prostomium with median incision cristallinus

F-2 Prostomium without median inci-

sion

G-1 Setae large (145-350 } long,

4.5 thick in IT) are diaphanus

1 Members of this genus are not recorded from the Indian sub-continent.

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 133

G-2 Setae small (60-100 / long,

less than 2 / thick in ID)

H-1 Pulsatile ‘heart’ on ventral

vessel in IV ; body size (0.5-

1.2 mm.) ; setae 4-6 per bundle

and 59-73 / long in II re * parvus

H-2 Pulsatile ‘ heart’ absent,

body size 0.8-2.0 mm.; setae

3-9 per bundle and 63- 100

long in II é langi

4. Chaetogaster diastrophus (Gruithuisen, 1828)

Fig. 4

Chaetogaster diastrophus (Gruithuisen). Pointner, 1911, p. 629. Lastockin, 1918,

p. 58; 1927, p. 65. Svetlov, 1925, p. 472. Cordero, 193la, p. 349; 1931b, p. 333.

HrabS, 1939, p. 209. Chen, 1944, p.2. Sperber, 1948, pp. 59-62, fig. 3C, 6, 7A

B, G, pl. I, fig. 1 ; 1950, p. 52, pl. fig. 1.

Material examined : Many worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah, in March and December 1955 ; from the Kandakam tank,

Bellary, in April 1956. —

Worms minute, imperceptible to unaided eye. Prostomium

well developed, bluntly pointed with long stiff sensory hair.

Ventral setae bifid with strong proximal noduli, shaft straight above

and bent below nodulus. Distal prong longer and thinner than the

proximal. Setae of II, 6-7 per bundle, 98 » long; in others 4-5 per

bundle, 70 » long.

Mouth ovoid and ventral, always open, gape increasing and decrea-

sing. Oesophagus $-3 as long as pharynx. Stomach in V-VI, with

transverse vascular loops giving a striped appearance. Intestine

yellowish, wide in VII and VIII, narrow behind it. Chloragogues from

V onwards with bluish globules. Septa delicate.

Brain incised in front and behind, conspicuous with semi-circular,

mid-dorsal, greenish-blue statocyst in living worms. Ventral nerve cord

well developed with irregular outline.

Dorsal vessel contractile, contractions starting behind and surging

forwards; ventral vessel non-contractile. Two lateral contractile

vessels in IV.

Nephridia from VII on, two per segment, without nephrostomes,

compact, consisting of glandular tissue enclosing a long coiled nephri-

dial duct ; ectal duct thick, nephridiopores opening ventro-laterally.

Worms without fission zones rare ; chains composed of 2-5 zooids

common. First budding zone always appears between IX and X,

* Species not recorded from the Indian sub-continent.

134. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

second zone a segment anterior to it. A chain of 8 zooids had the

following composition :

No. OF

Zoo No. SEGMENTS IN THE TYPE OF SEGMENTS

ZOOID

I Zooid 8 all of parent

VI fission zone

II Zooid 3 1 old + 2 new

II fission zone

Ill Zooid 4 1 old + 3 new

IV fission zone

1V Zooid 3 all new

I fission zone

V Zooid 8 3 old + 5 new

VII fission zone

VI Zooid 1 old

III fission zone

VII Zooid 4 all new

V fission zone

VIII Zooid 2 + undiff. region 2 old + rest new

1(p*) = 1.0-1.2 mm. (chain of 2); d(p*) = 0.1 mm.;s= 14; n—9.

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Lake Inle of S. Shan State

(Burma) ; Lahore (Pakistan). Now recorded from Cuddapah, Bellary

(S. India).

Habits : The worms live in Spirogyra and other algae and feed on

them.

Remarks : Chaetogaster punjabensis Stephenson and Ch. annandalei

Stephenson, as Chen (1940) and Sperber (1948) pointed out, are un-

doubtedly Ch. diastrophus. Ch. gulosus Leidy (1850), with ‘a digitiform

upper lip’, is Ch. diastrophus ; length of setae 1/133 inch (= 184 pz)

ought to be 1/233 inch (= 108 «), which evidently as Sperber (1948)

Suggests 1s a misprint. The setae cannot be so large for a worm of

2 mm. length.

5. Chaetogaster langi Bretscher, 1896

Fig. 5 A—C

Chaetogaster langi Bretscher. Pointner, 1911, p. 629. Lastockin, 1924, p. 4; 1927,

p..65. Pasquali, 1938a,"p. 20; 1938b; p. 28. fig. 3,54. Hrabe (1941 os 1952

p. 2. Chen, 1944, p. 2. Svetlov, 1946, p. 103. Berg, 1948, pp. 40, 46, fig. 30c.

* Preserved

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 135

Sperber, 1948, pp. 63-65, fig. 7c, H, pl.I, fig. 2 ; 1950, p. 52, pl. I, fig. 2; 1958,

. 46,

. Chaetogaster pellucidus Walton. Causey, 1953a, p. 55.

Material examined: Many worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah, in April 1955 ; from the Kandakam tank, Bellary, in May

1954.

Worms (Fig. 5A) minute. Prostomium inconspicuous with rounded

margin, fringed with sensory hairs.

Setae (Fig. 5B, C) 4 per bundle, 63-77 » long in II, 42-52 » long

in others, have conspicuous proximal nodulus, shaft below it is bent.

Prongs equally thick, distal longer and more curved than the proximal.

Mouth subterminal, ovoid, always open, gape increasing and

decreasing. Oecsophagus half as long as the pharynx and narrow.

Stomach in V-VI, yellowish, barrel-shaped with transverse vascular

loops. Pharynx and stomach push septa 3/4 and 4/5 into IV. Intestine

begins in VII, yellowish. Septa present.

Brain slightly opaque, without statocyst.

Dorsal contractile and ventral non-contractile vessels are median,

above and below the gut; two contractile lateral vessels in IV.

Nephridia 2 per segment, exonephric, from VI or VII onwards,

consisting of a glandular mass and a coiled nephridial duct.

The worms have 1-3 fission zones. In a chain of 3 zooids, the

earliest formed zone is between IX and X, the next formed zone a

segment in front of it. Sexual worms not encountered.

(oe — elim Chainoie2)-..d-(p)a— 10) lemme: s —10s1> 3 n)—- 9:

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Calcutta (N. India); Khandala

(W. India). Now recorded from Cuddapah, Bellary (S. India).

Habits: When pebbles with encrustations of plant and animal

material were left in beakers for two days, these worms appeared on

the wall of the containers. They were never found in the algae and

other aquatic plants.

Remarks : Chaetogaster spongillae Annandale (1906) is a synonym

of Ch. langi as pointed out by Chen (1940) and Sperber (1948), for

the length of the oesophagus is a variable character in the same species

as pointed out by Pointner (1914) and Sperber (1948, pp. 58 and 64).

Ch. pellucidus Walton (1906) from N. America with a length of

1.5 mm. and 12 or more stomachal ducts is a synonym of the species.

6. Chaetogaster cristailinus Vejdovsky, 1883

Fig. 6 A—H

Chaetogaster crystallinus Vejdovsky. Pointner, 1911, p. 629. Lastockin, 1918,

p. 58; 1924, p. 4; 1927, p. 66. Svetlov, 1925, p. 472. Hrabé, 1939, p. 209. Chen,

1944, p. 2. Sperber, 1948, pp. 68-71, fig. 7E, K, pl. I, fig. 3, pl. II, fig. 1-3 ; 1950,

Delo, Din he..3.

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Material examined: Many worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah, in January 1954, December 1955 ; from Langford Town tank,

Bangalore, in May 1958.

Worms (Fig. 6A) very much larger than Ch. langi and Ch. diastrophus.

Prostomium (Fig. 6B, C) inconspicuous with a median incision and

with sensory hairs of 2 lengths, longer alternating with shorter.

Ventral setae (Fig. 6D) in II, 6-7 per bundle, 180% long; in

others 2-6 per bundle, 119-140 » long and have strong proximal

nodulus (D: P: : 32: 16 in II, 22: 16 in others), with shaft straight

above and bent below nodulus ; prongs curved, distal longer than the

proximal in all. Length and position of nodulus vary from seta to seta

in each bundle.

Mouth circular and subterminal. Pharynx thick-walled, spinose

externally. Oesophagus thin and S-shaped with longitudinal wrinkles

and lumen closed when empty, distending during food passage.

Stomach in V—ésVII, barrel-shaped with 26-30 transverse vascular

loops giving striped appearance, narrow anteriorly, widening abruptly

behind, its wall contracting near septa forming 3 temporary compart-

ments in deflation, disappearing in inflation. Intestine yellowish, wide

in 4VIJ—VIU and narrow behind.

Brain (Fig. 6E, F) with a median statocyst, bluish, with gray granules

in and around it in the young worms, without granules in the older

worms. Nerve ring (Fig. 6G) thick, ventral nerve cord with well

developed ganglia, free from the bodywall.

Dorsal vessel mid-dorsal, contractile ; ventral vessel mid-ventral and

non-contractile ; one pair of contractile transverse vessels in IV.

Nephridia exonephric, start in VII, attached to body-wall near setal

bundles, (Fig. 6H) composed of irregular glandular mass, enclosing

highly coiled nephridial duct, opening by nephridiopore near the setal

bundles. No ciliary vibrations in nephridial duct.

Worms with 2-5 zooids common. Ina chain of 5 zooids J, II, III,

IV formed budding zones are between X and XI, VIII and IX, XV and

XVI, and XIX and XX respectively. I to V zooids are each composed

of 8, 2, 5, 4, and 6 segments respectively.

1 (living) = 5— 6 mm. (chains); d (living) = 0.3 — 0.6 mm. ;

s=— 12— 16¢m-— 10:

Lengths of longest ventral setae in « and position of nodulus in the

faniowD-4P =e «

I VI Vil Vill IX xX XI XII

133 133.4 490s |

Cele 136.5 133 133 126

chet 39-16 . 23 16," 2216 22:16? 23e5 §Q1E44 249116 DOR

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 137

Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Calcutta (N. India). Now

recorded from Cuddapah, Bangalore (S. India).

Habits: The worms live among filamentous algae, Spirogyra etc.,

and contain bits of algal filaments, protozoans, rotifers, crustaceans, and

oligochaetes in their gut. Those in captivity contained in the gut,

pieces of the body and setae of their kin.

Commensals : Vorticellids are attached to the body of many worms.

Parasites : Several unidentified spherical ciliate parasites with blue-

green inclusions are found in the gut.

Remarks : Chaetogaster sp. Annandale (Stephenson, 1923), with a

length of 2-3 mm.; n = 8or 9; anterior end ‘ somewhat truncated ’,

cerebral ganglion containing a densely pigmented mass (statocyst), is

no doubt Ch. cristallinus, as suggested by Sperber (1948, p. 64), not

Ch. langi. ‘The statocyst, hitherto not noticed by earlier workers, has

been noticed in the present worms.

Chaetogaster sp. Svetlov (1924) also agrees with cristallinus except

in the presence of a well-developed pharyngeal plexus. The presence or

absence of pharyngeal plexus is not a constant and dependabie character

(Pointner, 1914, and Sperber, 1948).

In the present worms the transverse stomachal ducts are 26-30 (as

against 20-22) ; setae of II, 168 » and of others 136 » long (as against

165 » and 130 p» respectively) found in literature for this species.

b Subfamily NAIDINAE Lastockin, 1924

KEY TO ALL GENERA AND SUBGENERA OF NAIDINAB

A: 1 Dorsal bundles with crotchet-like or stout, straight

needles only

B-1 Needles crotchet-like ; several in a bundle

C-1 Dorsal setae from II a * Homochaeta

C-2 Dorsal setae from Vi ae * Uncinais

B-2 Needles stout, straight, 1 per bundle ie * Ophidonais

A-2 Dorsal bundles with hairs and needles

D-1 Prostomium with proboscis

E-1 Ventral setae present in all segments from

II, hairs not specially elongated

F-1 Dorsal bundles with 8-18 hairs, 9-12

needies ; spermathecal ampulla spheri-

Callies’ ae * Arcteonais

F-2 Dorsal bundles with 1-3 hairs, 1-3

needles; spermathecal ampulla

elongated ie Stylaria

F-2 Ventral setae absent in IV-V;_ hairs

especially elongated in VI-VIII a * Ripistes

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

D-2 Prostomium without proboscis

G-1 Branchial processes present

H-1 Gills finger-like dorso-lateral pro-

cesses ; 2 per segment anteriorly .. Branchiodrilus

H-2 Gills around anus in funnel-shaped organ at

hind end

I-1 Ventral setae all of one type only * Allodero

I-2 Ventral setae of II-V sharply distinct from

the rest

J-1 Branchial organ with palps Aulophorus

J-2 Branchial organ without palps Dero

G-2 Branchial processes absent

K-1 Dorsal bundles start from XVIII, XIX,

or XX in adults Haemonais

K-2 Dorsal bundles start from IV, V. or Vl

L-1 Asexual reproduction by fragmentation ;

dorsal setae starting in VI Alona

L-2 Asexual reproduction by budding

M-1 Dorsal bundles with strongly serrated

hairs ; (simple pointed needles)

M-2 Dorsal bundles with smooth hairs

N-1 Hair setae of VI very long; body

with rows of sensory papillae

covered by foreign matter

N-2 No elongated hair setae

O-1 Ventral setae of II-V mostly

sharply differentiated from

the rest pe

O-2 Ventral setae all of one type

only

P-1 Eyes absent ; penial setae

present oe

P-2 Eyes present ; penial setae

absent

* Genera not known from the Indian sub-continent.

3. Genus Nais Miiller, 1773

* Vejdovskyella

Slavina

Nais

* Specaria

* Piguetella

Generic characters : Dorsal setae from VI; ventral setae of II—V

differentiated from others. Pharynx in II—III; pharyngeal and oeso-

phageal glands present, chloragogues begin in VI, entire gut ciliated ;

intestinal anti-peristalsis and ascending ciliary vibration occur. Septa

developed ; no septal glands. Coelomocytes present. Dorsal vessel

contractile, placed ventrally to the left for the most part and mid-dorsal

in anterior 6 segments. Ventral vessel non-contractile and mid ventral.

Nephridium composed of pre-septal ciliated nephrostome, followed

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 139

by a neck connecting the post-septal, consisting of a fusiform ampulla

followed by a long ciliated coiled duct, partly enclosed in gland

tissue, its ectal part opening by nephridiopore ventrally in front of

the ventral bundles. Budding occurs; budding zones provide pro-

stomium and 5 head segments to the posterior zooid, some hind

segments to the anterior zooid before fission. Sperm-sac and ovi-sac

are back-pouchings of septa 5/6 and 6/7 respectively, extending back-

wards, the former inside the latter.

KEY TO ALL THE KNOWN AND VALID SPECIES OF NAIS

A-1 Needles spatulate

A-2 Needles single pointed

B-1 Ventral setae of II - V with distal tooth

enormously elongated and _ hooked,

proximal tooth reduced or vestigial

B-2 Ventral setae of II-V, 2-5 per bundle and of

normal shape

C-1 Needle seta more or less hair-like with

long sharp tip

D-1 Nodulus slightly distal in needles ;

ventral setae from VI on much

shorter, stouter and more curved

than anterior ones, with prongs

equally long; hairs and needles

each up to 5 per bundle

D-2 Nodulus 1/3 from tip in needles ;

ventral setae behind V thin, not

strongly curved with distal tooth

about 1.5 times as long as proxi-

mal; hairs and needles 1-3 per

bundle

C-2 Needle seta with short fairly obtuse tip

E-1 Needles with nodulus 1/5-1/4 from

tip ; distal prong of ventral setae of

II—V, twice as long and equally

thick as proximal ie

E-2 Needles with nodulus 1/3 from dista

end ; ventral setae of II-V with distal

prong thinner and longer than

proximal

F-{ All ventral setae of about equal

length =

F-2 Ventral setae of II-V longer tha

in following segments ;

A-3 Needles double-pointed

G-1 Ventral setae of some segments behind V very

thick with distal prong several times as long

as proximal

*schubarti

*behningi

*barbata

* pseudobtusa

* alpina

* andina

* simplex

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

H-1 Thick ventral setae begin in VII; some

segments (VIII—XID) often have giant

setae without proximal prong ; stomach

dilates slowly ae *bretscheri

H-2 Thick ventral setae begin in VI; no giant

setae ; stomach dilates abruptly; en-

larged cells project into lumen round

the opening of oesophagus ab * pardalis

G-2 No enlarged ventral setae at all

I-1 Needle teeth long, almost parallel; all vent-

ral setae with distal prong twice as long

as proximal ae elinguis

I-2 Needle teeth short diverging; prongs of

ventral setae of approximately the same

length

J-{ Ventral setae of II—V twice as long as

those of following segments oe raviensis

J-2 Ventral setae of II—V slightly longer

than those of following segments .. variabilis

J-3 Ventral setae all of about equal length

K-1 Needle teeth minute and equal ; no

swimming s4 communis

K-2 Needle teeth distinct, proximal

thicker than distal; swims by

spiral movement Se: menoni sp. nov.

7. Nais communis Piguet, 1906

Fig. 7A-F

Nais communis Piguet. Pointner, 1911, p. 631. Lastockin, 1918, p. 58 ;° 1924,

p. 4; 1927, p.66. Stephenson, 1922b, p. 280; 1931a, pp. 34-38. Hrabé 1937, p. 6;

1952, p. 4. Chen, 1944, p.5. Berg, 1948, p. 40, fig. 31. Sperber, 1948, pp. 102-107,

pl. VII, fig. 1 3 1950; p. 60, pl. 1, Bg: 7; 19585 p46. iGausey, 19534. p. 555) Yama=

guchi, 1953, pp. 286-288, fig. 6. 7

Nais communis var. punjabensis (Stephenson). Mehra, 1920, p. 457.

Material examined: Many worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah, in January 1956; from the Langford Town tank, Bangalore,

in May 1958. |

Worms delicate, pale white, with bright yellow pigment in I—VI.

Prostomium bluntly triangular, containing coelomic fluid and corpuscles,

and fringed with sensory hairs. Eyes at the base of the prostomium, —

black with violet tinge. Segmentation clear.

Dorsal setae from Vi, 1 hair and 1 needle (rarely 2 of each) per

bundle. Hair simpie, nearly straight, smooth, 168-186 » long. Needle

* Species not known from the Indian sub-continent.

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 141

(Fig. 7C) bifid, 56-65 » long, with indistinct nodulus, about a third

from distal end, shaft nearly straight below and gently curved above

the nodulus. Teeth distinct, short, equal, and diverging. Ventral

setae (Fig. 7A, B) begin in II, bifid, 3-5 per bundle, 70-90 p» long, with

distal prong thinner and longer than the proximal! ; nodulus proximal

(Die P14 10)P im IV... median, (D.P +: 10: .10)in. VI, distal

(DeoP 10) 12) in, fest. Setae im il——-V are less..curved than, in

others.

Mouth ventral with prostomium overhanging. Pharynx in I—IU,

wide. Ocsophagus in IV—VI, thin and wavy. Stomach in VII—VIU,

broad anteriorly. Intestine thin in [IX and wide from X. Anus postero-

dorsal. Chloragocytes brownish. Coelomocytes spherical, 10,

diameter, with greenish globules. Septa well developed.

Brain (Fig. 7E) incised deeply behind and less deeply in front.

Blood yellowish. Dorsal vessel divides anteriorly into 2, branches

unite below the pharynx with ventral vessel. Lateral contractile vessels

3 pairs in III—V, first 2 pairs arise about the middle of III and IV,

each branching into 2; third pair arises near the posterior septum of

V and unbranched ; all vessels meet the ventral vessel.

First nephridium (Fig. 7F) in VII with its nephrostome in VI,

succeeding segments have 2 nephridia each.

One fission zone common, 2 or 3 Zones rare. Ina chain of 4, first

formed fission zone between XVI and XVII, second formed a segment

in front, third formed some segments behind the first zone. Fission

zones are in different stages of development.

Clitellum from 4V—VII (245 segments). Testes not observed.

Ovaries a pair of light brown irregular bodies on the posterior face of

septum 5/6. Sperm-sac and ovi-sac, back-pouchings of septa 5/6 and

_ 6/7, former within the latter, extend to IX and X respectively. In sexual

worms alimentary canal degenerates. Spermathecae ovoid in V with

their openings in front of ventral bundle of V. Atrial ampullae roundish

in VI, with their openings near the ventral setae of VI. Penial setae

(Fig. 7D) 2 per bundle, 63 » long in VI.

1 (living) = 4-5 mm. ; d (living) = 0.2 mm. ;s = 27-28; n = 15-19,

16 common.

Lengths of setae in » and position of nodulus in the ratio D: P: :

ee rey Vi ya Se x

Hair — — — — 140 143.5 145 145 145

ere ee 200K) NS IE Beige? yy AG 15015

| sto sth So sm 32

Sees 05. 17. 77 70.805 7 7 735

Pe OL AAO (3-9 pe 12) WOe 1010) MY 2 12--10212 310.312.107.411

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Kasauli, Agra (N. India);

Khandala (W. India); Bheemanagar, Travancore (S. India); Lahore

(Pakistan). Now recorded from Cuddapah (S. India). |

Habits : Worms live in aquatic vegetation feeding on it and on

protozoans, rotifers, etc. Occasionally they inhabit delicate tubes.

They entangle themselves into knotty masses ; on removal to a slide

with some water, they disentangle and move away in all directions.

Swimming absent.

Commensals : Sessile vorticellids are found attached to setae at

either end of worms.

Parasites: Three sporozoans parasitise these worms. Numerous

cysts of two actinomyxid sporozoan parasites, Triactinomyxon naidanum

Naidu (1956) and Triactinomyxon sp. (Naidu, 1959b) were found in

the intestinal wall of a few worms. Sporocysts of a microsporid

sporozoan, Mrazekia caudata Leger & Hesse (Naidu, 1959a), were found

in the coelom of two worms. ‘These parasites cause the death of their

host.

Remarks : Lengths of setae are slightly greater than those tabled

out by Sperber (1948), p. 106, but fall within the extremes observed by

her and those found in literature.

As suggested by Sperber (1948), the two Indian varieties Nais

communis punjabensis and N. c. caeca of Stephenson (1923) have no

taxonomic status, as they agree with the main form in all characters

and differ from it only on trivial characters, the absence of pigmentation,

shorter prostomium, finer teeth of needles ; and the latter variety differs

further in the absence of eyes. Absence of eyes cannot be taken as a

character to create a new species, as it is found that forms without eyes

have been met with in Stylaria fossularis also in the family.

Nais heterochaeta Benham (1893) and N. parvula Walton (1906)

undoubtedly belong here as pointed out by Sperber (1948).

Nais communis and N. communis f. magenta reported by Marcus from

Brazil, as suggested by Sperber (1948), belong to a new Species distinct

form N. communis already recorded from Peru, S. America (Piguet, 1928).

8. Nais menoni’ sp. nov.

Fig. 8 A-F

Material examined: Numerous worms collected from the Bugga

stream, Cuddapah, in January 1956; from Langford Town tank,

Bangalore, in May 1958.

1 Named after my teacher Sri P. Kotchukutta Menon, Professor of Zoology,

Presidency College, Madras 5.

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 143

Worms small, slender, and brownish, without any pigmentation in

I - V. Prostomium bluntly triangular with sensory hairs. Eyes absent.

Dorsal setae start in VI, 1 hair and 1 needle per bundle, hairs

slightly bayonet-shaped, 140 - 175 » long ; needles (Fig. 8B) bifid, sickle-

Shaped, 40- 45 » long, with distal conspicuous nodulus (D: P: :2 : 10)

and teeth equally thick, distal straighter and longer than the proximal.

Ventral setae (Fig. 8C) in II - V, 2-4 per bundle, less curved, 40-48 pz

long, with proximal to median nodulus (D:P::7:6 or 6:6), distal

prong 1.5 times longer than the proximal; the rest (Fig. 8D) 2-6 per

bundle, 43-50 » long, with distal nodulus (D: P::6: 8) and prongs

equally thick and long.

Pharynx in II-III, wide with a longitudinal slit in its roof and a

protrusible diverticulum. Ocesophagus in IV- VII. Stomach IX - X,

weak and gradual.. Intestine sacculated; antiperistalsis and ascending

ciliary action occur. Anus (Fig. 8A) postero-dorsal. Entire gut ciliated.

Chloragocytes brownish, occur from VI onwards. Coelomocytes

numerous, colourless, granular, and spherical (morula-like). No septal

glands.

Brain (Fig. 8E) incised deeply in front and less deeply behind.

Blood yellowish. Dorsal vessel laterally attached to left of the gut

up to VI and mid-dorsal in head segments. Pharyngeal vascular plexus

formed by the loops of the dorsal vessel. No lateral contractile

vessels.

First nephridium (Fig. 8F) in VIII with its pre-septal funnel

containing nephrostome in VII on the left side; post-septal with fusi-

form brown ampulla followed by a long ciliated duct, partly free and

partly enclosed in gland tissue, opening by nephridiopore ventrally.

Worms develop one budding zone at a time, buds off hinder part of

anterior zooid and prostomium and head segments to the posterior

zooid before fission.

Sexual worms not encountered.

1 (p*) = 2.5 — 3.0 mm. ; d(p*) = 0.2 mm.;s = 20—35; n = 22 in

one:

For lengths of setae and position of nodulus see Table ITI.

Type: The type specimen is being deposited with the Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta.

* Preserved

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

144

L:9

SES 4

E29

8°¢

SST

| O1:S°%

LEY

TOT

TH] agave

d : CG Ones oY} UI snyNpoU jo UOT sod oy} puv 7 ur oR}es Jo sySuaT

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JOURN. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Text-figures 4-8.

_ For explanations see p. 145.

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 145

Habits: Swim with brisk spiral movement.

Remarks : Of the 13 known species of Nais, this form very closely

resembles Nais communis but, however, differs from it in the shape of

the needle setae. The needles of this form have distinct teeth; the

distal tooth is thinner, longer, and straighter than the proximalas against

the minute, equal, and straight teeth of N. communis. Further, the

nodulus is 4 the distance from the distal end in the former and 4 from

the distal end in+the latter. Other differences are: stomach in IX—X

(VII—VIII in N. communis); lateral contractile vessels absent (present

in N. communis) ; swimming present (absent in N. c.) ; worms of small

size, 2.5—3.0 mm. long (medium sized, 4—5 mm. in N. communis).

(To be continued)

Explanations to Text-figures

Fig. 4. Chaetogaster diastrophus (Gruithuisen): Lateral view of anterior

part of the body. Fig. 5. Chaetogaster langi Bretscher: A. Entire worm (ventral

view) ; B. Ventral seta of II x 850 ; C. Ventral seta of VI x 850. Fig. 6. Chaetogaster

cristallinus Vejdovsky: A. Entire worm (lateral view); B. Anterior part of the

worm (ventral view) in relaxation ; C. Anterior part of the worm (ventral view) in

contraction ; D. Distal part of seta of II x525; E. Brain of old worm; F. Brain

of young worm; G. Nerve ring and ventral nerve cord; H. Nephridium. Fig. 7.

Nais communis Piguet: A. Ventral seta of XJI x 625; B. Ventral seta of {I x 625;

C. Needle seta x 1050; D. Penial seta x 1050; E. Brain ; F. Nephridium. Fig. 8.

Nais menoni sp. nov.: A. Posterior end of the worm; B. Needle seta x 1100;

C. Ventral seta of IT x1150; D. Ventral seta of VIII =x 1275; E. Brain;

F. Nephridium.

a: anus; br: brain; bz: budding zcn2; dv: dorsal vessel; gl: gland;

Ah: heart ; in: intestine; m: mouth; mc: mouth cavity ; na: nephridial ampulla;

npd: nephridian duct ; mpp: nephrostome ; oe: oesophagus ; ph: pharynx ; pr:

prostomium ; s: septum; sh: sensory hair; st: stomach ; sfc: statocyst; vc:

ventral seta; va: ventral nerve cord.

The Swiftlets (Collocalia) of Java

and their Relationships

LorD MEDWAY

University of Malaya

INTRODUC TLoOwN

In 1960/61 I spent six months in Indonesia engaged on a study of

the swiftlets (Aves, Apodidae, genus Collocalia Gray) of Java. The

genus is widespread in south-east Asia, and all species characteristic-

ally nest in caves or cave-like situations. I was able to travel freely

in the provinces of West Java, Central Java, and Jogjakarta, where

I investigated most regions of limestone outcrop and many known

Coilocalia nesting sites. Breeding colonies of five species were located,

one of which (C. maxima) had not previously been recorded from

Java. In the following pages, the specimens collected are listed by

locality, and are described briefly; heights A.S.L. are given in metres.

All measurements are given in millimetres; the furcation of the tail is

given as the difference in length between the longest (outer) and

shortest (inner) pairs of retrices, expressed as a percentage of the

length of the longest pair.

In this difficult genus the form and materials of the nest are of

taxonomic importance (Sims 1961). Accordingly, as many specimens

as possible were collected on or in close association with nests, and

these are described in some detail. On the basis of nest-type as well

as external morphology, the interrelations between Javanese forms

and other Collocalia in adjacent regions (including India) are dis-

cussed, with particular reference to grouping and correct nomenclature

at the specific level. |

All prepared skins have been deposited at the British Museum

(Natural History), with duplicates at the Museum Zoologicum, Bogor,

Indonesia.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported in Indonesia by a fellowship from the

Siswa Lokantara Foundation. I am also grateful for facilities offered

THE SWIFTLETS OF JAVA AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS 147

by the directors and staff of the following institutes: Museum

Zoologicum, Bogor; British Museum (Natural History); Rijksmuseum

van Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden; National Museum, Singapore; and

Zoologische Museum, Berlin.

ANNOTATED SPECIMEN LIST

Collocalia esculenta linchi Horsfield & Moore

Local name : Kapinis (Sundanese) ; seriti, kelintji (Javanese)

Specimens : Mt. Lawu, central Java, 1500 m.* 2 unsexed: wing 99, 100, tail 43,

44 (furcation 9%, 11%)

Tepus, Jogjakarta, 40 m. 2: wing 99, tail 44 (furcation 5%)

This swiftlet is adequately described elsewhere (Kuroda 1936,

Delacour 1947); its small size and white belly are diagnostic. It is

abundant throughout the island, at all altitudes. It was seen in

numbers in the active crater of Mt. Gedeh (2960 m.) where it appeared

to be resident, although no nesting colony was found.

This swiftlet cannot utter the so-called rattle call, which has been

shown to be indispensable for echolocation among Collocalia (Novick

1959, Medway 1959a, and in press).

Nests: Nests of this swiftlet from, Java have been described by

Spennemann (1928) and Hoogerwerf (1949); from Lombok by Hartert

(1896). They are bracket-shaped (Lack 1956), always made chiefly

of strands of vegetable material bound together by a sparse applica-

tion of the characteristic salivary nest-cement, which is copious only

at the base of the nest, at the juncture between nest and supporting

wall. |

The chief vegetable constituents evidently depend partly on the

availability of suitable material, and partly on individual preferences.

Thus, in the colony on Mt. Lawu, among cultivated Pinus forest at

high altitude, all nests were made of the lichen epiphytic on the trees;

in a small colony at Klapanunggal, West Java, among agricultural

land from which all natural forest cover has been felled, all nests

were made of threshed rice ears; nests at Tepus, a barren and

deforested area where the chief crop is cassava, were made of blades

of grass and broad leaves. But where a variety of acceptable

material is available, neighbouring nests may include entirely different

kinds of material. For example, three adjacent and partially adjoined

nests taken from a house in Bogor (near the Botanical Gardens)

- 1 Collected cn nests by M. Pierre Jauffret, to whom I am grateful for information

concerning the habitat.

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

consisted of the following principal materials, in approximate pro-

portions: (1) lichen 80%, pine needles 10%, grass; (2) Arenga palm

fibres 95%, lichen and pine needles; (3) pine needles 70%, casuarina

foliage 20%. It is clear from these examples that the precise identity

of the vegetable material used in the nest is not taxonomically im-

portant; the form and manner of construction of the nest, however,

remain constant despite the use of different materials, and it is these

that are significant.

Collocalia gigas Hartert & Butler

Specimens : None.

This swiftlet was not seen and I include it only for the sake of

completeness.

Nest: Described by Hoogerwerf (1949) as a vegetable nest, with

thick walls, mainly consisting of aerial roots and fibrous material.

Collccalia maxima maxima? Hume as lowi Sharpe

Local name : Dekok (Sundanese)

Specimens : Tjiampea, West Java, 200m. 34, 9,1 unsexed: wing 128-136, tail

52-58 (furcation 2-10 %)

Dorsum dark blackish-brown; rump slightly paler than back and

tail, with dark shaft-lines on paler feathers. Concealed white in the

plumage of back and venter (Mayr 1937, Medway 1959b, Sims 1961)

is reduced. Tarsi bear a conspicuous row of feathers on the outer-

side, and are also feathered, but less conspicuously so, on the

innerside.

This swiftlet utters the rattle call (see above).

The species has not hitherto been recorded from Java.

Nests: Typical bracket-shaped ‘black nests’ (Medway 1959b,

Sims 1961), consisting of the swiftiet’s own feathers bound together

dy copious nest-cement. This species was found in only one cave in

the Tjiampea district. It was weil known, to the local birds’ nests:

contractor, but its nests were regarded as worthless and were not

collected. I neither found nor heard indications of another colony

of this swiftlet elsewhere in any region of Java that I was able to

visit.

Discussion: Black nests are known to be built by C. maxima

maxima in Malaya and peninsular Thailand (Chasen 1939, under the

name C. lowi robinsoni), by C. maxima lowi Sharpe from Sarawak

a Formerly Collocalia lowi robinsoni Stresemann. The name maxima is based on

somewhat disputable grounds (Deignan 1955 a), but since it has already been used by

Smythies (1960) and Medway (1959 a, b, and in press), I prefer to retain it.

THE SWIFTLETS OF JAVA AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS 149

and North Borneo (Smythies 1960), and by C. maxima tichelmani

Stresemann from south-east: Borneo (Stresemann 1926a). With the

addition of the present specimens, these black-nest builders form a

natural morphological group of large swiftlets, distinguished by size,

by a relatively square, slightly furcated tail, and by a _ thickly

feathered tarsus.

The two races Jowi and maxima are separated by rump colora-

tion. In the former, the rump is entirely concolorous with back

and tail; in maxima the rump is distinctly paler. The colour of the

rump of the present specimens is intermediate and they cannot be

assigned definitely to either race, as indicated above. Indistinguish-

able from these Javanese birds are two skins from Tapanuli, Sumatra,

in the Museum Zoologicum, Bogor, (nos. 18165-6), formerly ascribed

to the race lowi (Peters 1940).

Black nests, indicating the presence of this species, have also been

recorded from the mountains of Assam (Stuart Baker 1927, under

the name C. brevirostris). Among the swiftlet skins from east

Bhutan and southern Tibet [Ludlow/Sheriff collection in the British

Museum (Natural History)], two forms can be distinguished, attribut-

able to C. brevircstris and C. maxima respectively; the latter has not

previously been recognised from the area. Skins of C. maxima are

distinguishable by a longer wing, a less deeply forked tail, and a

thickly, as opposed to a sparingly, feathered tarsus. Respective

measurements, taken from the skins, are: C. brevirostris (5 speci-

mens): wing 124-126, tail 51-55 (furcation 15-22%); C. maxima

(7 specimens): wing 128-135, tail 50-58 (furcation 11-15%). The

specimens of C. maxima are not distinguishable from the nominate

trace. Both species occur up to the highest altitude recorded, 12,750

feet (c. 3890 m.).

Collocalia brevirostris vulcanorum Stresemann

Specimens : Crater of Tangkuban Perahu, West Java, 2076 m. 4,22 : wing

124-125, tail 54-57 (furcation 11-13 %)

Dorsum dark blackish-brown; rump paler than back and tail, a |

uniform band of greyish-fawn with dark shaft lines. Concealed

white in the contour plumage of back and venter is imperceptible.

The tarsi of the male are entirely naked; the tarsi of the females

bear 2 to 7 small and inconspicuous feathers on the outersides, and

are naked on the innersides.

These specimens have been compared with a_ paratype of

vulcanorum from the crater of Mt. Gedeh (9: wing 122, tail 55,

furcation 22%) from the Bartels collection in the Rijksmuseum van

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Natuurlijke Historie, and with the type of brevirostris in the British

Museum (Natural History).

This swiftlet utters the rattle call.

Nests: These birds were netted (1/iv/61) at the mouth of a deep

fissure in the wall of the first crater (Kawah Ratu) on Mt. Tangkuban

Perahu, into which descent was not possible. Cries of young birds

were heard, but nests were not seen.

A nesting colony of this swiftlet was found on Mt. Gedeh, West

Java, by Bartels (Kuroda 1936), and was known to Hoogerwerf

(1949). But there is no record that the nests were collected, and no

published description of them exists. The fissure in the crater wall

of Gedeh that used to be occupied by these birds was shown to me.

Nowadays it directly overhangs the newest crater opened by the

violent eruptions of 1947-8, and is uninhabited. The only swiftlet I

saw around the summit of Gedeh was C. esculenta linchi, and the

colony of C. brevirostris is evidently extinct. The only description

of their nests available is a volunteered statement by Sdr. Kudit, an

employee of Tyibodas Botanical Gardens, who told me that he had

entered the cave before the last eruption, and had collected what

would purport to be bracket-shaped vegetable nests. Vegetable

nests were also found in the crater of Mt. Tjeremai by Junghuhn (see

Stresemann, 1926b), but cannot be attributed with certainty to this

swiftlet.

Discussion: The taxonomy of this species is particularly con-

fused. Stresemann originally considered all the larger grey-brown

swiftlets to be conspecific, uniting them under the prior name of

brevirostris McClelland. He therefore described the newly dis-

covered form vulcanorum as a subspecies of C. brevirostris (Stresemann:

1926b). Later (1932) Stresemann separated the forms building black

nests from C. brevirostris, on morphological grounds including

vulcanorum with the former for which he used the specific name C.

lowi Sharpe. In the same paper (Stresemann 1932) he tentatively

united the controversial innominata Hume with the equally con-

troversial ‘fuciphaga’ Thunberg (correctly known as C. salangana

Streubel, see below). No other specimens of vulcanorum were

collected, and Kuroda (1936), Peters (1940), and Hoogerwerf (1949)

all followed Stresemann, assigning this swiftlet to the species C. lowi

(=C. maxima, see above).

C. innominata was distinguished from the black-nest builders (i.e.

C. maxima) by both Robinson (1928) and Chasen, (1939), and has

since been shown by Deignan (1955b) to be conspecific with C.

THE SWIFTLETS OF JAVA AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS 151

brevirostris. Sims (1961) has suggested that C. brevirostris replaces

C. ‘fuciphaga’ (=C. salangana) on the Asiatic mainland; however, the

present specimens of vulcanorum were found together in the same

cave with C. salangana (see below) and the two are clearly specifically

distinct. The race vulcanorum is adequately distinguished from

the nominate race C. b. brevirostris by the reduced feathering of the

tarsus.

Specimens attributable to C. brevirostris (wing 125) have also been,

collected in north Sumatra (Robinson & Kloss 1924: 243, under the

the name C. innominata). Here they were taken on nests ‘made of

moss and other vegetable matter fixed to the wall with the welk

known slimy secretion from the buccal glands’. The specimens dis-

cussed (Robinson & Kloss, loc. cit.) have been lost as a result of

the war, and I have been unable to compare them with skins from

Java.

The species C. brevirostris has a wide distribution eastwards from

the Himalayas, where it is sympatric with C. maxima (see above),

through Burma and Thailand. This swiftlet has also been collected

in Malaya; but here all specimens were winter-caught and were

considered by both Chasen (1939, under C. innominata) and Deignaa

(1955b) to include representatives of a more northerly breeding

population which is migratory. This population was named rogersi

by Deignan (1955b). Measurements of winter-caught Malayan C.

brevirostris show a wide variation, suggesting a mixed population:

(12 specimens) wing 121-132, tail 51-58 (furcation 14-23%). Since

the species is now shown to be resident in Sumatra and Java, it is

possible that some Malayan specimens also represent a_ resident

population, nesting in the as yet poorly known hinterland. In the

circumstances, the position of rogersi is obscure. The minimum

wing measurement given by Deignan (1955b) is well below the least

wing measurement of any other race of C. brevirostris, and it is

possible that rogersi (as defined) includes more than one species.

Collocalia francica fuciphaga (Thunberg)

Localnames : Walet (Sundanese) ; Jawet (Javanese)

Specimens: Tjiampea and Klapanunggal, West Java. ¢, 2 2, 2 unsexed : wing

111-115, tail 48-53 (furcation 12-16%).

Karangduwur, Central Java, 0m. 24, 39: wing 113-118, tail 48-51 (furcation

13-15%)

Dorsum dark blackish-brown; rump very little paler than back

and tail; in the midline the exposed parts of the vanes of the rump

feathers are in fact quite as dark as the back plumage, and only the

152. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

lateral feathers are paler, with dark shaft-lines. One female has tarsi

naked, the remainder have tarsi sparsely feathered. Concealed white

in the back is pronounced in nestlings and recent fledglings, but on

aged birds may be very inconspicuous, reduced to the distal tips of

only a few of the fluffy basal barbs. Deignan (1955b) noted a greater

amount of concealed white in the contour feathers of juveniles as

opposed to aged adults among C. brevirostris too, and Sims (1961)

noted variation in the extent of the white areas in C. maxima. Sims

(1961) has suggested that the distribution of concealed white on the

basal barbs of the contour feathers of the back might be used to

distinguish between those species which possess the character; but it

is clear that some caution is required.

This swiftlet utters the rattle call.

Nests: Bracket-shaped ‘white nests’, in general composed ex-

clusively of nest-cement. Among a large collection of nests from a

sea cave at Karangbolang on the south coast,.there were a few

examples in which filaments of algae were incorporated; these were

later identified as ‘chiefly Cladophora, but also some Lyngbya and

one fragment of Sphacelaria (Dr. J. Th. Koster, in litt. 1962).

Similar algae, I was informed by the nest collectors, grew on the

spray-splashed rocks around these nests. At the time I had no

hesitation in crediting the rest collectors’ belief that the inclusion

of these algae in the nest was accidental (see Smythies 1960).

This species is responsible for building all white nests throughout

the island. The problem of its nomenclature has been discussed

elsewhere (Medway 1961).

Collocalia salangana salangana Streubel

Local name : Lukut (Sundanese)

Specimens : Tjiampea, West Java, 250 m. 54, 69, 2 unsexed: wing 115-123,

tail 49-54 (furcation 6-17%).

Tangkuban Perahu volcano, West Java. 2076 m.@: wing 123, tail 52 (furcation

10%)

Dorsum uniform dark blackish brown; rump entirely concolorous

with back and tail. There is no concealed white in the plumage of

back and venter. The tarsi of all specimens from Tyjiampea are

naked: the left tarsus of the female from the cave in the crater wall.

of Tangkuban Perahu bears one small feather on the outerside.

This swiftlet utters the rattle call.

Nests: Rounded vegetable nests (see Bartels in Stresemann

1926b). Nests collected from Tyjiampea with the present specimens

were made principally of Arenga fibres, aerial rootlets, threshed rice

THE SWIFTLETS OF JAVA AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS 153

ears, fine dead twigs, dead grass, and other leaves; tufted moss

formed only a small proportion of the vegetable constituents, and

to apply the term ‘mossy nest’ (Sims i961) would be misleading.

These materials were agglutinated with a sparse amount of soft,

moist nest-cement, which was no more copiously applied at the back

of the nest than elsewhere. Each nest rested on an irregularity in

the cave wall.

Discussion: The presence of this swiftlet in Java was discovered

by Stresemann (1914) who restricted the use of the name fuciphaga to

this species. It was under the name C. fuciphaga that it was included

by subsequent authors (Stresemann 1925, 1932, Chasen 1935, Kuroda

1936,. Peters 1940, Sims 1961). However, as shown elsewhere (Med-

way 1961) the name fuciphaga must be applied to the previous species

(above), and the builder of rounded vegetable nests is correctly known

as C. salangana. The nominate race salangana can be distinguished

from the race natunae Stresemann of the Natunas and Borneo

(Medway 1959b, under C. fuciphaga natunae) by the very reduced

(or totally absent) feathering of the tarsus.

REFERENCES

Chasen, F. N. (1935): Handlist of

Malaysian Birds. Bull. Raffles Mus. 11 : 1-

389.

—— (1939): Birds of the Malay

Peninsula. Vol. IV. Witherby & Co.,

London.

Deignan. H. G. (1955a): The identity

of Collocalia maxima Hume. Bull. Brit.

Orn. Cl. 75 : 82.

—___—. (1955b): The races of

the swiftlet Collocalia brevirostris (McClel-

land). Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl. 75 : 116-118.

Delacour, J. (1947): Birds of Malaysia.

MacMillan, New York.

Hartert, E. (1896) : A collection of birds

made in Lombok. Nov. Zool. 3 : 591-599.

Hoogerwerf, A. (1949):De Avifauna van

Tjibodas en omgeving. Bogor.

Kuroda, N. (1936) : Birds of Java. Vol.

II. Tokyo.

Lack, D. (1956) : Genera and nesting

habits of swifts. Auk 73 : 1-32.

Mayr, E. (1937) : Collocalia. Am. Mus.

Novit. 915 : 1-19.

Medway, Lord (1959a) : Echolocation

among Collocalia. Nature 184 : 1352-1353.

—— (1959b): Thunberg’s

Swiftlet, Collocalia fuciphaga. Sarawak

Mus. J. 8 : 683-689.

—_____——-— (1961): The identity of

Collocalia fuciphaga (Thunberg). Jbis

103 a : 625-626.

Novick, A. (1959) : Acoustic orientation

in the cave swiftlet. Biol. Bull.117: 497-503.

Peters, J. L. (1940) : Check-list of Birds

of the World. Vol. IV. Harvard Univer-

sity Press, U.S.A.

Robinson, H. C. (1928): Birds of the

Malay Peninsula. Vol, II. Witherby & Co.,

London.

———— & Kloss, C.B. (1924):

Birds from west Sumatra. J. Fed. Malay

States Mus. 11 : 189-347.

Sims, R. W. (1961) : The identification

of Malaysian species of swiftlets. Ibis

103a : 205-209.

Smythies, B. E. (1960): Birds of Borneo.

Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh.

Spennemann, A. (1928) : Collocalia

esculenta linchi. Beitr. Fortpfl. biol. Vog.

4: 53-58, 98-103.

Stresemann, E. (1914) : Was ist Colloca-

lia fuciphaga? Ornith. Ges. Bayern 12: 1-12.

- (1925) : Bruchstucke

einer Revision der Salanganen. Mitt. Zool.

Mus. Berlin 12:179-190.

———_-——_-— (1926a) : Kenntnis der

Salanganen S. O. Borneos. Ornith. Mbr.

34 : 104-108.

-—-——_ (1926b): Bruchstucke

einer Revision der Salanganen, II. Mitt.

Zool. Mus. Berlin 12 : 349-353.

———-— -—— (1932): Swiftlets of

Malaysia. Bull. Raffles Mus. 6: 83-94.

Stuart Baker, E. C. (1927) : Fauna of

British India, Birds. Vol. IV. Taylor and

Francis, London.

Critical Notes on the Orchidaceae of

Bombay State

VU. SOME OF THE SMALLER GENERA

H. SANTAPAU, S.J., F.N.I., AND Z. KAPADIA, Ph.D.

(With six plates)

[Continued from Vol. 58 (3) : 607]

1. SPIRANTHES L. C. Rich.

SPIRANTHES L.C. Rich. in Mem. Mus. Paris 4: 50, 1818, nom.

cons. ; Endl. Gen. Pl. 212, 1837; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3: 396,

1883 ; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6): 113, 1888; Hook. f.

Fi. Brit. Ind. 6: 102, 1890; King &-Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. ‘Gard:

Calcutta 8: 276, 1898 ; Duthie, ibid. 9 (2): 163, 1906 ; J. J. Smith, FI.

Buitenz. 6: 81, 1905; Schltr. Orchid: 109,° 1927 > Correl) Nat... Orch.

N. America 184, 1950; Holttum, Rev. FI. Malaya 1: 139, 1953.

Gyrostachis Pers. Syn. 2: 511, 1807. Ibidium Salisb. in Trans. Hort. Soc.

12291, 1812. nom-. nud:

The name Spiranthes is derived from the Greek words speira=a

spiral or a coil, and anthes = a flower, in allusion to the spiral arrange-

ment of the flowers in many of the species.

A polymorphic genus of about 300 species, widely distributed

throughout the temperate zones of both hemispheres. One of the

few orchid genera with round-the-world distribution.

According to Correll, these plants flourish under a variety of

habitats. This ability to adapt themselves to various habitats may be

the reason for the world-wide distribution of the genus.

Spiranthes lancea (Thunb. ex Sw.) Backer, B. v. d. Brink Jr. & v.

Steenis in Blumea 6: 361, 1951; Holttum, 734, add. Ophrys lancea

Thunb. ex Sw. in Vet. Acad. Handl. Stockh. 21 : 233, 1800. Aristotelia

spiralis Lour. Fl. Coch. 522, 1790, (non Spiranthes spiralis Koch. 1849).

Epidendrum aristotelia Raeusch. Nomencl. ed. 3, 265, 1797. Neottia

sinensis Pers. Syn. 2: 511, 1807. Spiranthes australis Lindl. in Bot.

Reg. 10: sub t. 823, 1824 ; Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 1: 178, 1857 :

Wight, Icon. 5 (1): 15, t. 1724, 1851 (media fig. et dextra tantum) ;

Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 270, 1861 ; Hook. f. N. Zeal. Fl. 272, 1867 ;

Hook. f. 102 ; King & Pantl. 278, t. 369 ; Prain, Beng. Pl. 1038, 1903 ;

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 155

J. J. Smith, 81, f. 55 ; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2 : 707, 1907 ; Fyson, FI.

Nilg. Puln. Hill-tops, 397, t. 251, 1915; Haines, Bot. Bih. Or. 1161,

1924; Briihl, Guide Orch. Sikk. 162, 1926; Spiranthes longispicata

A. Rich. in Ann. Sc. Nat. ser. 2, 15: 78, 1841. Spiranthes sinensis

(Pers.) O. Ames, Orchid. 2: 53, 1908 ; Fischer, Fl. Pres. Madr. 1454,

1928 ; Blatt. & McC. in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 730, 1931 ;

F. T. Hubbard in Bot. Mus. Leafl. Harv. Univ. 4: 85, 1937; Holttum,

139. Spiranthes aristotelia (Raeusch.) Merrill in Philipp. Jour. Sci.

15: 230, 1919, et in Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. n. s. 24: 122, 1935.

Herbs 6-52 cm. or more high, slender. Roots clustered, tuberous,

up to 6 cm. or more in length. Leaves present or absent at the time

of flowering, subclustered at the base of stem or not, broadly sheathing

below, subpetiolate, passing above into bracts, 1.5-6 x 0.3-1 cm.,

narrowly linear-lanceolate, or oblong-lanceolate or narrowly elliptic,

acute or subobtuse, entire. Peduncle 4-22 cm., spirally twisted, somewhat

terete, with a few oblong-lanceolate, acute or subobtuse, entire,

subamplexicaul bracts, + glandular pubescent. Spikes 3-22 cm. long,

secund or subsecund. Flowers sessile, bracteate. Bracts 5-7 x 1-1.5 mm.,

narrowly oblong-lanceolate, acute, glabrous or pubescent, 1-nerved.

Sepals 3-5.5 x 0.75-1.5 mm., whitish, 1-nerved, connivent and slightly

spreading at apex, glabrous or glandular-pubescent on the outside,

narrowly linear-oblong, obtuse or subacute, entire. Petals 2-4.5 x

1 mm., + cohering with the dorsal sepal but slightly shorter, 1-nerved,

narrowly oblong-spathulate, obtuse, glabrous. Lip 5.5 mm. long, with

2 spherical calli at the subconcave base, obscurely 3-lobed ; lateral

lobes 1.5-3 mm. long, very narrow, acute, slightly widening about

middle, pale green, connivent above to enclose column; midlobe

1-2 x 1-2.25 mm., white, deflexed, somewhat cuneately ovate, the apical

part irregularly crenulate, retuse or obtuse, the margins somewhat erect.

Column pale greenish-white, about 2-2.5 mm. long, narrow below, wide-

ning about middle and again tapered to the retuse, shallowly 2-toothed

rostellum. Anther about 1.5 x 1.5 mm., cuneately-ovate ; pollinia

obpyriform-ovate, lamellate with a small, opaque, suborbicular, exposed

gland. Ovary sessile or shortly stalked, 2-4 mm. long, glabrous or

glandular-pubescent.

Flowering : March to September.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Stocks. W. GHATS:

Panchgani, Kapadia 1916 (coll. Rukminibai); Chorla Ghat,

Dalzell & Gibson.

Distribution : India : Throughout India from Punjab to Upper Assam

and southwards to Chittagong and the Nilgiris and Palniys. World:

Ceylon, India, W. Tibet, Afghanistan, N. Asia, Siberia, China, Java,

Philippines, Australia and N. Zealand.

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Notes : The plant described here was discovered by accident on St.

Xavier’s College terrace garden. Mrs. Rukminibai collected a group

of lily bulbs from Panchgani, just below the Ist Tableland and planted

them in pots for their flowers. The next year in March; this orchid was

found in flower among the lilies. |

Our plant from Panchgani is glandular-pubescent all over including

the flowers, whereas the Kotagiri specimens of Saldanha are more

or less glabrous.

2. DIDYMOPLEXIS Griff.

DipyMop.exis Griff. in Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist. 4: 383, 1844.

Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 121, 1890; King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot.

Gard. Calcutta 8: 260, 1898; J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6: 76, 1905;

Schltr. Orchid. 102, 1927; Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1: 107, 1953.

The generic name Didymoplexis is derived from the Greek

Didymos = double, and plexis = a plaiting or weaving, probably in

allusion to the connate sepals and petals.

A genus of a few species (about 10), distributed from India through

Malaysia to New Caledonia and Fiji.

D. pallens Griff. was the only species described when the genus was

first erected; it must be considered the type species of the genus

Didymoplexis Griff.

The genus Didymoplexis Griff. has not been mentioned by Cooke

nor by Blatter & McCann for Bombay State.

Type species: D. pallens Griff.

Didymoplexis pallens Griff. in Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist. 4: 383,

t. 17, 1844; Hook. f. 122; King & Pantl. 260, t. 346; Prain, Beng.

Pl, 1025, 1903; J. J. Smith 77,..f. 51; Holttum 1087. Apeiaion

minutum Wight, Icon. 5 (1): 22, t. 1758, 1851. Cheirostylis kanarensis

Blatt. & McC. in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 732, f. 4, 1932.

We have collected only fruiting specimens of this species. The

details of the flowers are taken from Blatter & McCann’s description.

Rhizome 20 x 8 mm., usually horizontal about 2-7 cm. below surface

level ; one to several per plant, ellipsoid. Scape 3-7 cm. long, leafless,

pinkish-brown, erect, bracteate, terete. Bracts minute, cupular, persis-

tent, brown. Flowers usually 3, at right angles to scape, 10 x 6 mm., —

pure white, light brownish in bud. Dorsal sepal linear-oblong, 9 x 2.5

mm.; petals 5 x 2 mm. similar to dorsal sepal, subfalcate, entire.

Lateral sepals 5 mm. long, nearly semi-circular ; sepals and petals

3-nerved, the veins very prominent on the back. Lip 5 x 4mm., with 2

large, rounded, + incurved lateral lobes, the midlobe shorter, shortly

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 157

rounded ; attached to the short foot of the column, with a central

yellow, broad, furry ridge which is transversely very irregularly and

deeply impressed, not pinnately divided, leaving the central axis entire.

Column white, with 2 large, square expansions parallel to each other,

occupying the upper one-third or more, one on each side of the round

~ stigmatic surface; pollinia greyish, powdery, long-ovoid. Ovary

slightly twisted at the base, 7 mm. long.

Flowering and Fruiting : June.

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Tat wal, about 10 miles

from Yellapur, Bell ; Kapadia 2002-2009.

Distribution : India ; Distributed over the whoie of Bengal and

Assam from the base of Sikkim Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal ; also

in N. Kanara, and South India. World: India, Malaya, Java.

Notes : We have found this species in black soil, locally abundant in

dense undergrowth, usually around bamboo clumps. |

Our specimens have been collected from the exact locality mentioned

by Blatter & McCann for Cheirostylis kanarensis. ‘The leafless sapro-

phytic habit, the structure of the flowers and the considerable

elongation of the fruiting pedicel are typical and preclude this species

from Cheirostylis Bl.; the plant clearly belongs to the genus Didymoplexis

Griff.

3. SIRHOOKERA O. Kuntze

SIRHOOKERA O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 681, 1891. Josephia Wight,

Icon. 5 (1): 19, 1851 (non Salisb. et Kn. 1809); Benth. & Hook. f.

Gen. Pl. 3: 516, 1883; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6): 126,

1888 ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 823, 1890; Schltr. Orchid. 129,

1927.

The generic name Sirhookera commemorates the distinguished

botanist Sir J. D. Hooker.

There are only 2 species in the world, endemic to S. India and

Ceylon. ; )

Josephia Wt. (1851) is a later homonym of Josephia Salisb. & Kn,

(1809), Josephia Vell. (1825), and Josephia Steud. (1840). Josephia

Salisb. & Kn. commemorates Sir Joseph Banks; Wight named his

plant in honour of Sir Joseph D. Hooker.

The name Sirhookera has not been accepted in any of the major

provincial floras of India published after 1891. The conservation of

Josephia Wt., which is the only name used in our floras, deserves

careful attention.

Sirhookera lanceolata (Wt.) O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 681, 1891.

Josephia lanceolata Wight, Icon. 5 (1): 19, t. 1742, 1851 ; Hook. f.

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

823; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2: 681, 1907; Gammie in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 17: 942, 1907; Blatt. & McC. ibid. 35: 268,

1931; Fischer, Fl. Pres. Madr. 1428, 1928. (See Plate XX XVII).

Perennial epiphytes. Roots stout, with a thick velamen. Leaves

sheathing at the base, somewhat coriaceous; petioles 2-5 cm. long,

sulcate ; lamina 6-8 x 1.5-2.5 cm., oblanceolate, oblong or oblong-

elliptic, acute, entire ; in dried leaves, the nerves are fairly prominent

beneath, giving the lamina a tessellated appearance ; there is a marginal

nerve running near the margin. Inflorescence 5-14 cm. long, axillary ;

peduncles 0.5 mm. thick, sheathed with scaly bracts at the nodes, and

bearing panicles towards the apex ; branches racemose. Buds minute,

about 2 mm. in diam.

We have had no means of examining fresh flowers in detail.

According to Wight the flowers are whitish tinged with purple and with

a reddish-lilac lip. Blatter & McCann on the authority of Hallberg

add: ‘Sepals white tinged with yellow. Petals and lip white.

Anthers opercular, yellow with a brown spot on the connective. Stig-

matic lobes just in front of tip of anther.’

Flowering : August to September.

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Stocks. This species

has never been gathered in the State after Stocks.

Distribution : N. Kanara, W. Ghats of Madras State, High Wavy

Mtns., Ceylon.

Notes: Our description has been made from Stocks’s specimen,

kindly loaned by the National Herbarium, Calcutta.

Cooke and later Blatter & McCann state that there has been an

error in Wight’s Icones 1742 and 1743, in that the inflorescence and

flowers have been interchanged ; in our opinion there has been no such

interchange.

Wight on Jerdon’s authority mentions that the same pile of Sir-

hookera latifolia O. Kuntze comes into flower repeatedly.

4. TROPIDIA Lindl.

TROPIDIA Lindl. [in Wall. Cat. 7386, 1831, nom. nud. ; et] in Bot. Reg.

sub t. 1618, 1833 ; Endl. Gen. Pl. 214, 1837; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen.

Pl. 3: 592, 1883 ; Phtz. an. Enel. & Prantl Pianzent 240) 4121 alsss

Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 92, 1890; King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot.

Gard. Calcutta 8: 274, 1898; J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6: 131, 1905;

Schltr. Orchid. 124, 1927 ; Correll, Nat. Orch. N. America 247, 1950 ;

Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1: 140, 1953. Govindooia Wight, Icon. 6:

35, t. 2090, 1853.

JOURN. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXXVII

=e eee PN

sa WN Se So

— ae ee

vee Wad Se A ie

RY eS ss

oS SW pai pat | a

Lip Uf, by Y ff f y ‘ih

Ayla P ge

fA | ay

rf af

' aff My j

{ h, i er}

i} I i fs

| Mt iG

]

Sirhookera lanceolata O. Kuntze.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXXVIII

° 1

cM 5

Zeuxine strateumatica Schltr.

A. Whole plant. B. Top view of column, lip and lateral sepals.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 159

The generic name Tropidia is derived from a Greek word meaning

‘keel ’, in allusion to the boat-shaped lip.

This isa small genus of about 20-30 species, mainly of the East

Indies, Malaya, China and Japan, with only one or two found in the

Americas.

Type species : T. curculisioides Lindl.

Tropidia angulosa Bl. Orch. Arch. Ind. 122, 1858; Hook. f. 92;

King & Pantl. 275, t. 355 ; Fischer 1452 ; Mooney, Suppl. Bot. Bih. Or.

208, 1950. Govindooia nervosa Wight, Icon. 6: 35, t. 2090, 1853. Tro-

pidia bellii Blatt. & McC. in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 736,

1932,

We have not seen any flowering specimens of this species. In

absence of the original description of the species, we give King & Pant-

ling’s description : ‘Stem 8 to 12 in. high, slender, erect, clothed with

obtuse sheaths an inch or more in length, and bearing at the apex two

broadly elliptic plicate many-nerved leaves with acute apices and widely

sheathing bases, 4 or 5 in. long and 2 to 3 in. broad. Spike solitary,

terminal, conical, shorter than the leaves, its peduncle bearing numerous

linear spreading bracts nearly as long as the flowers. Flowers resupinate,

crowded, .65 in. long; floral bract lanceolate, caudate-acuminate,

curving upwards, longer than the sessile ovary. Sepals subequal,

oblong-lanceolate, the lateral pair connate nearly to the apex. Petals

somewhat smaller and less acute. Lip about as long as the petals,

oblanceolate-oblong, obtuse, entire, concave towards the base; adnate

to the column, the base with a cylindric, blunt spur half as long as and

parallel to the column. Column short ; the rostellum and anther very

long, lanceolate, acuminate ; pollinia clavate-cylindric, elongate, deeply

grooved, united below; the caudicle long and slender; gland linear,

half as long as the caudicle. Capsule clavate-cylindric, boldly ridged,

.75 in. long. ... The flowers are white flushed with pale ochre-colour.’

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Siddhapur, Blatter &

Hallberg 34634; Guddehal11, Bell.

Distribution: India: Sikkim Himalaya at about 1000 m., N. Kanara,

Bababudan Hills, Malabar, Travancore. World: India, Burma,

Malaya, Java.

Notes: Although we have not seen the type of T. bellii Blatt. & McC.

(T. R. Bell 2992), we cannot find any significant character in Blatter &

McCann’s description to differentiate the above species from 7. angulosa

Bl. We, therefore, unite T. bellii Blatt. & McC. with the earlier 7. angu-

losa Bl.

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

ZEUXINE Lindl.

ZEUXINE (‘ Zeuxina ’) Lindl. Coll. Bot. App. n. 18, 1826 ; Orch. Scel.

9, 1826, et Bot. Reg. 19: sub. t. 1618, 1833, nom. cons. ; Endl. Gen. Pl.

216, 1837; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen: Pili 3: 599, 1883 ; Pitz. in Enea

Prantl,,-Pilanzenf. 2.(6): 116, 1888; Hook Fl Brits ind: 6 2106,

1890; King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8 : 285, 1898 ;

Duthiemibid. 9 (2) : 168; 1906; J. J. Smith, Fl Buitenz: 6-107, 1905:;

Schitr. Orchid. 120, 1927; Correll, Nat. Orch. N. America 244, 1950;

Holttum, Rev. Fi. Malaya 1 : 130, 1953. Adenostylis Blume, Bijdr. 414;

1825 (non Adenostyles Cass. 1816).

The name Zeuxine is a Greek word meaning ‘ joining’, in allusion to

the partial union of the lip and column.

Perennial, terrestrial, rhizomatous herbs. Rhizome creeping, fleshy,

ascending or erect. Leaves membranous on drying, somewhat fleshy

when fresh, sessile or petiolate, ovate to lanceolate or linear. JInflores-

cence of few to many small flowers. Flowers scarcely opening. Sepals

subequal ; dorsal one erect, concave connivent with the petals to form

a hood ; laterals free, enclosing the base of the lip. Petals somewhat

narrower. Lip with a saccate base, which usually contains two glands,

edges usually inflexed ; limb (blade) transversely widened, entire or 2-

lobed, small, connected to the saccate base by a short neck or more or

less elongated claw. Column short with or without appendages in the

front. Anther erect or antrorsely inclined, membranous, dehiscent, oblong,

shortly apiculate, somewhat stipitate; pollinia 2, entire or 2-partite

lamellate, with a caudicle, anda small gland from the base in between

the narrow divided, rostellar arms. Stigmatic surface at the base of the

rostellum, convex, broad, depressed or in the form of viscous calli,

Capsule small, erect, ovoid to subglobose.

About 30 species, extending from tropical Africa, through India and

Malaysia to Samoa; Correll writes that Z. strateumatica Schltr. has

been recently and accidentally introduced in Florida in the U. S.

This genus is closely related to Hetaeria Bl. but is distinguished,

according to Holttum, by the flowers, which have the lip in the usual

inferior position and usually with a distinct, transversely widened

blade at the end of the lip. |

Type species : Z. sulcata Lindl. = Z. strateumatica (L.) Schltr.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF ZEUXINE OF BOMBAY

1. Leaves sessile, linear or linear-lanceolate,

grass-like ; peduncles, ovary and sepals

glabrous ; lip equalling the sepals or slightly

shorter, narrowly panduriform, apical lobe

suborbicular or transversely elliptic oe strateumatica

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 161

1. Leavespetiolate, broad, ovate or ovate-oblong;

peduncle, ovary and sepals glandular-

pubescent outside with long, retrorse, lax

or dense hairs ; lip equalling the sepals or

longer, the apical portion (or blade) 2-lobu-

late :

2. Dorsal sepal and petals about 7 mm.

long ; lip about 12 mm. long, white,

thin, with a small globular sac at the

base ; claw connecting the sac and the

blade 3-4 mm. long ; blade 2-lobulate,

lobules about 8 x 2-3 mm. narrowly

and obliquely oblong, oe

toothed on the outer margin , longilabris

2. Dorsal sepal and petals about 3-4 mm.

long; lip 4-4.5 mm. long, very fleshy ;

sac orange-red with 2 curved papillae

within; claw very short, hardly 1 mm.

long ; blade 2-lobulate, lobules white,

1.5-2 x 15-2. mm., oblong-orbicular,

entire ss 2 Sst gracilis

ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES OF Zeuxine OF BOMBAY STATE

1. Zeuxine strateumatica (L.) Schltr. in Fedde. Repert. Beih. 1 : 77,

1911; Fischer, Fl. Pres. Madr. 1456, 1928 ; Blatt. & McC. in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 731, 1932; Correll 244; Holttum 131.

Orchis strateumatica Linn. Sp. Pl. 2: 943, 1753. Zeuxine sulcata Lindl.

Gen. Sp. Orch. 485, 1840, et in Journ. Linn. Soc. 1: 186, 1857 ; Hook.

f. 106; King & Pantl. 286, t. 381; Prain, Beng. PI. 1029, 1903;

J. J. Smith, 108, f. 76 ; Duthie 168, et Fl. Upp. Gang. Pl. 3 : 219, 1920;

Cooke, FI. Pres. Bomb. 2: 708, 1907; Haines, Bot. Bih. Or. 1161,

1924; Briihl, Guide Orch. Sikk. 170, 1926. Pterygodium sulcatum

Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 452, 1832. Zeuxine bracteata Wight, Icon. 5 (1): 16,

t. 1724 bis, 1851. Z. brevifolia Wight, Icon. t. 1725. Z. robusta Wight,

Icon. t. 1726. Adenostylis strateumatica (L.) Ames in Orchid. 2: 57,

1908 ; Mooney, Suppl. Bot. Bih. Or. 209, 1950. (See Plate XXXVIII).

Herbs 7-40 cm. tall from an underground rhizome which is covered

over by a fine network of thin hair-like roots. Stems leafy upwards,

terete, fleshy, the underground portion reddish-brown, aerial parts

greenish or creamy-white. Leaves several, alternate, pentastichously

arranged all along the stem, pale olive-green to yellowish, 1.8-9 x

_ 0.3-0.6 cm., linear or linear-lanceolate, acute, the margins entire, slightly

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

turned outwards. Inflorescence erect or slightly decurved, 1.5-18 cm.

long. Flowers sessile, bracteate, in dense spirally arranged secund or

subsecund spikes. Bracts 5-18 x 2-5 mm., longer than ovary, ovate-

lanceolate, acute or subacuminate, entire, glabrous, 5-nerved, greenish-

white tinged with pale pink. Sepals unequal, white, obtuse, entire,

glabrous; lateral ones 5 x 2 mm., subobliquely linear-oblong, cymbi-

form, I-nerved; the dorsal one 7 x 3 mm., ovate-oblong, concave,

faintly 3-nerved. Petals 6 x 3 mm., white, obliquely oblong-elliptic,

obtuse, entire, glabrous. Lip 4.5 x 2 mm., minutely glandular-papillate,

slightly saccate at base, narrowly panduriform, obtuse or sub-emarginate

with 2 subconcave depressions in continuation with each other, in the

2 lobes ; colour of lip pale purple at base, yellow from a little above

middle. Column very short, produced into 2 white, iridescent wings

folded on top of column. Anther 1.7 x 1mm., brown, broadly comma-

shaped, apiculate and opening longitudinally, depressed in the folds

of the columnar wings; pollinia 2, 1 X 0.5 mm. lamellate, yellow,

obpyriform ; caudicle 1 mm. long, narrowly oblong tapering at base

with a small oblong-orbicular gland. Stigmas 2, subobliquely cuneate,

parallel, dull-brown, situated just below the columnar wings. Ovary

7-8 x 3-4 mm., ovoid, tumid, greenish-white, sessile, ribbed. Capsule

broadly ovoid, beakless, strongly ribbed. Seeds minute, powdery, deep

brown in colour.

Flowering : January to March.

Occurrence in Bombay State: Baroda, Shah 7061. Danas:

Banks of Ambika Nalla, Waghai, Bell. W. GHats: Deolali,

Acland 1180. DECCAN: Paschan, near Poona, Gammie; Kapadia

1823-1827, 1049-1052; Gokak Falls, Sedgwick. N. KANARA:

Law; Dharwar, Law.

Distribution : India: Hooker f. mentions this as the commonest

orchid in India. It is found abundantly in grassy places throughout

India, ascending to about 1600 m. on the outer Himalayan ranges,

Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Upper Gangetic Plain, Gujarat, Dangs, W.

Ghats, N. Kanara, Ganjam, Mysore. World: Afghanistan, Pakistan,

India, Ceylon, Malaya, China, Japan, Philippines; recently reported

from the United States.

Notes : According to Correll the specific name strateumatica is a

Latin adjective meaning ‘ military’, doubtless in allusion to the erect,

soldier-like aspect of the plant or to the ascending rigid sword-shaped

or bayonet-like leaves. This species is commonly found in moist,

swampy ground, often in running water, among short grasses.

The type locality of this species is Ceylon. Correll has pointed

out that this is the only Asiatic terrestrial orchid which has been

introduced into the eastern parts of the U.S. According to him,

Ames in 1938 rightly conjectured that this orchid was brought from

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 163

China into Florida with the seeds of Eremochloa_ ophiuroides, which

was first introduced in 1917 and is now a common lawn-grass in

Florida and other parts of the Southern states.

Correll credits the combination Z. strateumatica to Schltr. in Bot.

Jahrb. 45 : 394, 1911; Mooney credits Adenostylis strateumatica (Linn.)

to Ames, in Fedde, Repert. Beith. 1:77, 1911; Index Kewensis

gives the references as mentioned in our synonymy.

Haines considers Z. membranacea Lindl. distinct from Z. strateu-

matica Schltr. ( = Z. sulcata Lindl.). The 2 species are distinguished

by him on the following characters :

Median sepal 0.2-0.25”, lip with terminal lobes,

anther broad-ovate, cuspidate e ve Z. sulcata

Median sepal 0.1”, lip with 2 lateral wings,

anther narrow saggitate .. BS: .. Z. membranacea

Blatter & McCann follow Haines in keeping the 2 species separate.

2. Zeuxine longilabris Benth. ex Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 107,

1890; Prain 1029; Cooke 709: Fischer 1456; Blatt. & McC. 731.

Monochilus longilabre Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 487, 1840, et in Journ. Linn.

Soc. 1 : 186, 1857 ; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 271, 1861. Monochilus

affine Wight, Icon. 5(1): 16, t. 1728, 1851, (non Lindl. 1840). (See

Plate XXXIX).

Herbs 23-48 cm. tall. Rhizome fleshy, greenish-brown, up to

6 mm. thick, swollen at the nodes. Leaves clustered at the base,

pale olive-green, subcoriaceous, membranous on drying, 1-7 x 0.8-3 cm.,

somewhat loosely sheathing, ovate-oblong to ovate-lanceolate, acute,

entire ; midnerve prominent with 3-5 faint, lateral ones ; petioles up to

2cm. long. Peduncle 8-22 cm. long, terete, bracteate, densely and

retrorsely villous-tomentose ; bracts 0.7-2 cm. long, ovate-lanceolate,

acute, entire, villous-tomentose, the lower ones sheathing the peduncle.

Racemes 2-17 cm. long, lax, secund or subsecund. Flowers greenish-

white, bracteate, very shortly pedicellate. Sepals unequal, brownish-

green, villous-tomentose outside, glabrous inside, acute, entire,

l-nerved ; dorsal sepal 7 x 5 mm., ovate-triangular; lateral ones

5 x 2.5 mm. ovate, subfalcate. Petals 7 x 2.5 mm. slightly shorter

than the dorsal sepal. Lip white, 1.2 cm. long; claw 3-5 mm. long

with a small globose pouch-like sac at the base, pubescent outside, con-

duplicate, spreading into a broad, white limb, which is about

8 x 4-6 mm. and 2-lobed ; lobules obliquely oblong, irregularly toothed

on the outer margins, about 8 x 2-3 mm. Column small. Anther about

3 x 1.5 mm. the apiculus about 14-2 times as long as the cells covering

the caudicle only the gland being exposed ; the dorsal surface with 2

broad parallel, red bands meeting about the centre and then again

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

diverging ; pollinia 2, oblong, lamellate, with an oblong tapering caudi-

cle and a small, ovate-orbicular gland. Stigmatic surfaces 2, pale brown.

Ovary brownish-green, 1 x 0.2 cm. oblong, with long woolly inter-

woven hairs.

Flowering : February to March.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Law; Stocks. N. KANARA :

Kumbelli Mines, about 17 miles from Supa, Kapadia 2697-2698,

2708-2713; Anshi, J. Fernandez; Kapadia 2860; Anmod,

Talbot ; Sedgwick ; J. Fernandez 8671.

Distribution: India: Bengal, Assam, N. Kanara, W. Ghats of

S. India from the low country to 1300 m., High Wavy Mountains.

World : India, Ceylon.

Notes : This species is generally found at the edges of high sloping

ground, with the rhizome creeping under a covering of dry, decaying

leaves. ,

In the literature the binomial Z. Jongilabris is attributed to Bentham

(in Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. P/.3: 600, 1893). But Bentham, did not

actually make the combination (see Art. 32 of the Int. Code Bot.

Nomencl., 1956). He merely reduces the genus Monochilus Lindl. to a

section of Zeuxine, stating that all the Monochilus species should pass

to the genus Zeuxine. It was Hooker f. who actually published

Z. longilabris and the combination should be credited either to Benth.

ex Hook. f. or simply to Hook f.

3. Zeuxine gracilis (Breda) Bl. Fl. Jav. N. S. 56, t. 18, f. 2. t. 23 D,

1858; J. J. Smith 110, f. 78 ; Holttum 134, f. 22. Psychechilos gracile

Breda, Gen. Sp. Orch. t. 9, 1827. Monochilus affine Lindl. Gen. Sp.

Orch. 487, 1840. Zeuxine affinis Benth. ex Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6:

108, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 290, t. 387 ; Zeuxine blatteri Fischer in Kew

Bull. 1928 : 76, et Fl. Pres. Madr. 1456, 1928. |

Herbs 15-50 cm. tall. Rhizome creeping but becoming erect, sheathed

at the nodes, fleshy, smooth, dark green. Leaves 4-6, fading at the time

of flowering, olive-green to greyish-green, or often somewhat reddish-

brown, sheathing at the base, very shortly petiolate ; sheaths about 1 cm.

long, laxly embracing the stem, tubular, nerved, glabrous; petioles

about 5 mm. long; lamina 3-6 x 0.7-2.5 cm., oblong or oblong-lanceo-

late or ovate or ovate-lanceolate, acute, rounded at the base, glabrous.

Peduncles with spike 15-35 cm. glandular-pubescent with long, lax,

retrorse hairs, and with 2-3 bracts which are sheathing, oblong-lanceo-

late, about 7-12 mm. long, glandular-pubescent. Flowers 4-6 mm. long,

sessile, bracteate, scarcely opening. Bracts 4-7 mm. long, equalling the

ovary or shorter, pale green, lanceolate, acute or acuminate, entire,

glandular-pubescent, the hairs retrorse. Sepals subequal, ovate or

ovate-oblong or ovate-lanceolate, obtuse, entire, 1-nerved, somewhat

JOURN. BOMBAY Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXXIX

Zeuxine longilabris Benth.

A. Whole plant. B. Lateral view of ovary, column and lip.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. .. PLATE XL ,

Pholidota imbricata Lindl.

A. Whole plant. B. Sepals and petals dissected.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 165

gland-dotted, glandular-pubescent, the hairs long, lax, retrorse, pale

green with paler tips; dorsal one 4 x 2-2.5 mm. concave at the

base ; laterals slightly shorter and narrower. Peta/s 3.25-4 « 1.5 mm.,

oblong-lanceolate, obtuse, entire, 1-nerved, somewhat gland-dotted, pale

green with white tips or pale pink, cohering with the dorsal sepal.

Lip 4 mm. long, fleshy, strongly saccate at base, with 2 curved papillae

within the sac, the margin of the very short neck cohering ; limb of

2 lobes, which are oblong or oblong-orbicular to even subcuneate,

glabrous 1.5-2 x 1.5-2 mm., about 4 mm. across. Sac orange-red with

the blade white. Column 1.5 x 1.5 mm. Anther ovoid, pale pink,

shortly stipitate, dehiscent; pollinia narrowly oblong with short

caudicle and a small gland. Stigmatic surfaces 2, brownish at base of

rostellum ; rostellum of 2 subulate processes, containing the gland of

the pollinia in between at the base. Ovary about 9 mm. long, green

with long, retrorse, lax glandular-pubescent hairs, sessile. Capsule

about 10 mm. long, narrowly ellipsoid, glabrescent.

Flowering and Fruiting : March. |

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Kumbelli Mines,

about 17 miles from Supa, Kapadia 2665-2672, 2704-2707.

This species has been recorded for the first time for Bombay State.

Distribution: India: Khasia Hills, Sikkim, N. Kanara, High Wavy

Mtns. World: India, Burma, Malaya, Java, Sumatra, Borneo.

Notes : After a very careful examination of the descriptions, it seems

to us that all the above names belong to one and the same species.

All the descriptions seem to fit our specimens from N. Kanara. Fischer

distinguishes Z. blatteri from Z. affinis Hook. f. by the broader leaves,

narrow petiole, glabrous sheaths and the lip which is saccate, fleshy,

ecalcarate within the lobes of the lip, orbicular, glabrous, distant. The

leaf-sheaths in Z. affinis are not pubescent, and the lip is not

calcarate within; in our specimens the lobes of the limb vary from

oblong, oblong-orbicular to subcuneate, and are glabrous.

In the literature the combination Z. affinis is attributed to Bentham

(in Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3: 600, 1883). But.it was Hooker f.

who actually published the combination and therefore it should be

attributed to him, or to Benth. ex Hook. f.

J. J. Smith remarks that Z. gracilis Bl. is similar to the Indian

Z. affinis Hook. f. Holttum writes : ‘ Whether the Malayan plants are

quite identical with Z. gracilis from Java, or with Z. affinis from India,

is not certain. There is much variation in this group of Zeuxines and

the exact limitation of species is not certain without more careful obser-

vation of living plants.’

In our opinion the 3 species, Z. rcleiis BI., Z. affinis Hook. f. and

‘Z. blatteri Fisch. are identical. The earliest valid specific epithet is

gracilis, and the correct name for the plant Z. gracilis (Breda) BI.

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

There are variations in the colour of the lip. J. J. Smith describes

it as pale flesh-coloured at the base, becoming paler and whitish or

yellowish upwards. Holttum gives it as yellowish at the base with a

white blade. King & Pantling describe the lip as yellow; the blade is

also coloured yellow in their plate. Fischer gives the sac of the lip as

orange, and the limb white. We have noted the following colour

details : sepals greenish with paler or white tips ; petals greenish, paler

or white at the tips, rarely pale pink; sac of the lip orange-red to

orange, with the limb white or pale-yellowish. In formaline preserved

flowers the sac changes to a pale yellow colour. The anther is pink.

It may be further pointed out that this species has not been recorded

for Bombay State until now. It constitutes a new record.

6. PHOLIDOTA Lindl.

PHOLIDOTA Lindl. in Hook. Exot. Fl. sub t. 138, 1825; Endl.

Gen. Pl. 190, 1837; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen Pl. 3: 520, 1883 ; Pfitz.

in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6): 127, 1888; Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

Ind. 5: 844, 1890; King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta

8 : 144, 1898 ; Duthie, ibid. 9 (2): 115, 1906; J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz.

6: 150, 1905 ; Pfitz. & Kranzl. in Pflanzenr. 32: 142, 1907; Schltr.

Orchid. 152, 1927 ; Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1: 233, 1953. ;

The generic name Pholidota is derived from the Greek words

Pholidos = scale, ous or otis = ear or ear-like, in allusion to the scaly

bracts of the flowers which are ear-like.

There are about 40 species distributed from India and southern

China to Australia.

Along with the generic diagnosis, Pholidota imbricata Lindl. was the

only species described ; this must, then, be considered the type species

of the genus Pholidota Lindl.

Type species : P. imbricata Lindl.

Pholidota imbricata (Roxb.) Lindl. loc. cit. 1825; Wight, Icon. 3:

9, t. 907, 1844-1845 ; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 262, 1861 ; Hook. f.

845; Grant, Orch. Burma 161, 1895; King & Pantl. 144, t. 201;

Duthie 115, et. Fl.-Upp. Gang. PI: 3.: 190, 19202 Prain-| Bene. Pie

1012, 1903; J. J. Smith 151, f. 112; Pfitz. & Kranzl. 154; Gammie

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 17: 942, 1907; Blatt. & McC.

ibid. 35: 267, f. 3, 1931: Cooke; Bl? Pres. Bomb: 2: 088.5. 1907--

Haines, Bot. Bih. Or. 1167, 1924; Briithl, Guide Orch. Sikk. 96, 1926;

Fischer, Fl. Pres.’ Madr. 1431, 1928; Holttum 234. Cymbidium

imbricatum Roxb. Hort. Beng. 63, 1814, nom. nud. et FI. Ind. 3:

460, 1832. (See Plate XL).

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 167

Pseudobulbs 2-6 x 1.5-3 cm. broadly ovoid-conical, dull grey-green

or dull brown to mauve-brown, with broad grooves on the sides making

them somewhat 4-angled. Leaf solitary, from the top of pseudobulb,

coriaceous, subplicate, pseudopetiole 2-5 cm. long; lamina 12-30 x

3-6 cm., elliptic to broadly oblanceolate or oblong, entire, acute, many-

nerved. Rachis from the base of pseudopetiole and from the top of

pseudobulb, raceme up to 45 cm. long, smooth, terete, pendulous.

Raceme synanthous, drooping. Flowers dirty-pink arising in a closely

distichous manner, pedicellate, bracteate, not wide opening. Bracts

7.5 x 2.5-3 mm. convolute, round the shorter ovary, dirty pinkish-

brown, broadly elliptic on spreading, obtuse, entire, the apical portion

minutely irregularly serrulate. Pedicel with ovary about 5 mm. long.

Sepals subequal, pale pinkish-brown, concave, 3-nerved, entire; the

dorsal one 5X4 mm. broadly oblong-suborbicular, obtuse; the lateral

ones 6X 2.5-3 mm., broadly sickle-shaped, subacute, strongly carinate.

Petals 5-6x 1-2 mm. narrowly linear-oblong, subfalcate, acute, entire,

glabrous, somewhat gland-dotted, 1-nerved. Lip pale pink, 5-7 mm.

long, deeply saccate, almost globose ; hypochil (or base of lip) up to

the lateral lobes with a circular callus in the middle, the lateral lobes

4x3 mm., erect, broadly oblong, entire, obtuse, the lip about 7.5-8 mm.

broad ; epichile (or blade of lip) consisting of the midlobe 2x 3-4 mm.

deflexed, somewhat incurved, 2-lobulate with a broad sub-truncate

sinus, the lobules subobliquely truncate, subacute. Column 3-3.5~x

2-3 mm., broadly winged, the margins irregularly serrulate. Anther

1.5x1 mm. golden-brown ; pollinia 4, in pairs, each pair consisting of

a large ovoid pollinium and a small one on the inner side. Stigmatic

surface broadly funnel-shaped, brownish. Capsules 20x 12mm. tumid,

pale-brown, shiny, ovoid.

Flowering : June to July. Fruiting : September to May.

Occurrence in Bombay State : KONKAN: Stocks ; Dalzell ;

Vengurla, Dalzell and Gibson. N. KANARA; Sampkhand,

Sedgwick and Bell; Sirsi, Santapau 18506; Siddhapur, Kapadia

2360-2361; Shintheri Rocks, between Dandeli and Gundh,

Kapadia 1751-1753; Jog-Mavingundi, Santapau 18614.

Distribution : India : Chota Nagpur, Konkan, N. Kanara, W. and

E. Ghats of S. India, 600-1000 m. World: Ceylon, India, Nepal, Burma,

Malaysia, Southern China, Philippines, Pacific Islands, Australia.

Notes : The life-history of this plant deserves attention. Towards

the end of the dry season, leaves are given off from the rhizome in the

axils of large bracts near the base of old pseudobulbs. In the early

part of the monsoon the inflorescence comes out from near the base of

a leaf; gradually with the advance of the season, the base of the leaf

begins to swell_and thus eventually pseudobulbs are produced ; the

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

rachis of the fruiting inflorescence is attached to the top of the pseu-

dobulb. :

Holttum distinguishes his Pholideta longibulba from P. imbricata

Lindl. in the following way :

Pseudobulbs not angled; lip deeply

bilobed ai P. imbricata

Pseudobulbs angled ; blade of lip entire P. longibulba

Pfitzer and Kranzlin describe the pseudobulbs of P. imbricata

Lindl. as tetragonal ; King and Pantling speak of them as furrowed ;

Lindley in his original description gives them as sulcate. We have noted

that very young pseudobulbs are ovoid and completely smooth without

any furrows ; with advance in age and size, the longitudinal grooves

make their appearance, so that the mature pseudobulbs become con-

spicuously angled. The colour of pseudobulbs and leaves in P.fimbricata

Lindl. varies from green to brown or mauve-brown, the shape of the

pseudobulbs varying from ovoid-conical to almost suborbicular.

Hooker f. and J. J. Smith have united P. pallida Lindl. with

P. imbricata Lind|. Smith is unable to differentiate P. imbricata Lindl.

from P. loricata Reichb. f., as P. imbricata Lindl. varies greatly in the

shape of the pseudobulbs, the colour and size of the flowers ; in conse-

quence he has fused the two species into one.

Pfitzer and Kranzlin distinguish 3 species, P. loricata Reichb. f.,

P. pallida Lindl., and P. imbricata Lindl. thus :

Bracts ovate, acute, clearly longer than broad,

about equalling the flowers .. £. loricata

Bracts broadly ovate or almost orbicular:

Midlobe of lip trilobulate, midlobule round.. P. pallida

Midlobe of lip emarginate, lobules round .. P. imbricata

In view of their acceptance of these 3 species, it is difficult to see how

these authors can give Coelogyne pallida Reichb. f. as a synonym of

both P. imbricata Lindl. and P. pallida Lindl. Further they list

P. imbricata Bot. Reg. t. 1213, 1825 (non Lindl.) as a synonym of

P. pallida Lind\. (1835) ; in the same book they give the reference to

Bot. Reg. t. 1213 under P. imbricata Lindl. (1825). All this is very con-

fusing to say the least. In the key they accept -the separate identity

of the three plants, but this is denied in subsequent pages.

We consider the three species P. pallida Lindl., P. loricata Reichb.

f., and P. imbricata Lindl. as identical.

7. :LAPARIS TCs Rich.

Liparis L. C. Rich. in Mem. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 4: 43, 1818,

nom. cons. ; Endl. Gen. Pl. 189, 1837 ; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3:

495, 1883; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2(6) : 130, 1887 ; Ridley

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 169

in Journ. Linn. Soc. 22 : 252,887; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 691,

1890; King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8: 22, 1898;

Duthie, ibid. 9(2) : 89, 1906; J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6: 258, 1905;

Schltr. Orchid. 157, 1927; Correll, Nat. Orch. N. America, 271,

1950 ; Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1: 197, 1953. Leptorkis Thou. in

Nouv. Bull. Soc. Philom. Paris 1: 319, 1809. Leptorchis Thou.

©. Kuntze, ‘Rev'~Gen. Pl. 2’: -669)' 1397.

The generic name is derived from the Greek word meaning ‘ fat’

or ‘smooth’ or ‘oily’, in allusion to the typically fleshy-thickened

shiny leaves.

Perennial, epiphytic or terrestrial herbs. Stems -+ creeping,

branches somewhat pseudobulbous and short and thick, or long and

narrow, sheathed. Leaves one or more, from the top of pseudobulb or

stem, sheathing, -t plicate. Scape terminal, terete or angled and winged.

Racemes dense or lax. Sepals and petals erect or reflexed ; sepals mostly

oblong-lanceolate, free, spreading ; petals narrowly linear to filiform,

very rarely broader. Lip clawed, - parallel to column, narrow; limb

broad, entire or bifid ; calli absent, or if present 1 or 2, conic, at base

of lip. Column footless, rather long, curved, with narrow lateral

wings above, rarely short. Anther ovate, 2-celled, terminal, incumbent,

opercular ; pollinia 4, waxy, ovoid, united in pairs at their apices.

Capsules ellipsoid or pyriform, erect or subpendulous.

This is a large and complex genus of about 260 species, one of the

most widely-spread genera of the family. It is found in most parts of

the world except in polar regions ; the greatest concentration of species

being found in tropical Asia. 3

Liparis Rich. is closely allied to Malaxis Sw. in its habit (particularly

the terrestrial species), but can easily be distinguished by the lip being

inferior, without auricles and nearly always sharply bent at or below the

middle; also by the rather long curved column with 2 small mem-

branous wings on the sides of the stigmatic surface.

Type species : L. Joeselii (L.) L. C. Rich.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF LIPARIS OF BOMBAY

Leaves flat on ground, almost sessile and op-

posite ; flowers green, often faintly tinged

with yellow; bracts deflexed ; lip minutely

clawed, green with 2 fleshy, shiny, conical

calli at base, lamina orbicular or transver-

sely oblong-orbicular, minutely denticulate

with a central oblong shiny patch ig prazeri

Leaves erect, alternate on stem, + shortly

stalked ; flowers pale yellow, often tinged

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

with purple ; bracts erect; lip sessile, pale

yellow with a purple tinge ; calli 2, meeting

at the base, often with a minute third one

in between ; the lip obcordate in outline on

spreading a3 nervosa

1. Liparis prazeri King & Pantl. in Journ. As. Soc. Bengal II, 66: 582,

1897. L. flavo-viridis Blatt. & McC. in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

35: 260, f.'6, 1931..L. paradoxa...Reichb.f.? Gammie. in- Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16 : 565, 1905. (See Plate XLI).

Terrestrial herbs. Corm tuberous, about 7-11 mm. in diam. Stem

underground, not more than 2 cm. high, sheathed. Leaves usually 2,

often up to 5, flat and spreading on ground, sessile, sheathing -at base,

6-16 x 2-9 cm., broadly ovate, elliptic, or ovate-lanceolate, acute or

abruptly tapered to an acuminate apex, fleshy, plicate, green, about

7T-nerved. Scape 7.5-32 cm. long, 0.75-2 mm. thick, green, angled,

winged. Flowers in lax racemes, long-pedicelled, bracteate, green, often

somewhat yellow. Bracts 4-6 x 1-2 mm., deflexed, lanceolate, sub-

acuminate, entire, pale green. Pedicel with ovary about 10 mm. long,

green, erect. Sepals 9 x 3 mm., pale green, acute, 5-nerved, lanceolate;

the dorsal one bent backwards almost along the ovary, with involute

margin ; lateral ones straight, slightly incurved at base and apex, lying

behind the lip. Petals9 x 1mm., pale green, lying behind the lip, along

with lateral sepals, margins involute narrowly linear, on spreading about

2 mm. broad, linear-obspathulate, acute l-nerved. Lip dark green,

clawed ; claw about 2 mm. long, erect, + parallel to the column, with

inflexed edges, the base with 2 conical, shiny, dark green calli nearly

touching the column; limb about 7 x 7 mm., bent at right angles to

the claw; transversely oblong-orbicular or obcordate-orbicular or

orbicular-reniform, emarginate at apex with or without a minute

apiculum, minutely denticulate on the margin with a narrowly-oblong,

shiny, subconcave, nectar-secreting patch extending up to the middle

or a little beyond. Column 4 mm. long, pale green, strongly curved

forwards at the top, linear-oblong, base much dilated ; lateral wings

small. Anther 0.75 x 0.75 mm., ovate-oblong, pale green. Stigmatic

surface deep seated. Capsules 15 x 7 mm. long, obovoid, strongly

ribbed ; pedicels 7-9 mm. long.

Flowering and Fruiting : August.

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Londa, Spooner ;

Dandeli, Bell; Yellapur, Bell; Kapadia 2243-2250.

Distribution’: India: N. Kanara, World : India, Burma.

Notes : Our specimens have been collected from one of the original

localities given for L. flavo-viridis by Blatter & McCann. They may,

PLATE XLI

JouRN. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

Liparis prazeri King & Pantl.

B. Sepals and petals dissected.

A. Whole plant.

JOURN. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE XLII

Liparis nervosa Lindl.

A. Whole plant. B. Sepals and petals dissected.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 171

therefore, be considered authentic for the purpose of clarification of

the identity of the species.

We have examined the type specimen of L. prazeri. Our specimens

exactly match it. On the type specimen there is a note in Rolfe’s

hand ‘Not identified, but not in condition for comparison. The few

flowers are badly dried and tightly glued to the sheet.’ This sheet is

labelled Liparis prazeri King & Pantling. King & Pantling in their

original description point out that the species resembles L. deflexa

Hook. f. but differs in having nearly sessile broader leaves and an entire

lip. Actual examination of flowers of the type specimen, shows that

the lip is not entire but minutely denticulate, just as in our specimens

from N. Kanara.

There seem to be very slender differences between L. prazeri King &

Pantling and L. deflexa Hook. f. King & Pantling describe the stem of

L. deflexa Hook. f. as 5-7 cm. long; in our specimens of L. prazeri

King & Pantl., the stem is never more than 2 cm. high. This seems to

be the only difference, which does not seem to be enough for specific

differentiation. ‘They also mention that the lip is deflexed from the very

base, and give this as another distinguishing character for L. prazeri.

This again does not seem to be quite correct ; from our specimens

examined in the fresh condition it is clear-that the lip has a very small

claw, which is inflexed parallel to the column ; this can scarcely be seen

in pressed specimens, especially in the badly preserved material at the

disposal of the authors. The 2 species certainly seem to be identical.

Hooker f., Duthie, Cooke, and Blatter & McCann cite Liparis

diphyllos Nimmo (in Graham, Cat. Bomb. PI. 252, 1839) as synonymous

with Habenaria diphylla Dalz. We quote Nimmo’s description, which

although short seems adequate : ‘ Leaves pressing on the ground, ovate,

acute, plaited ; flowers greenish, lip large and round’. In MHAabenaria

diphylla Dalz. the leaves are pressing on the ground and fleshy, but are

certainly not plaited ; the lip is 3-partite with long, somewhat filiform,

slender spreading segments, and definitely not large and round.

Nimmo’s description clearly fits one of the Liparis discussed above and

cannot be referred to Habenaria diphylla Dalz. The locality given by

Nimmo is Konkan, and most probably refers to L. prazeri King & Pant-

ling, but the description is too short for a satisfactory identification of

the plant.

2. Liparis nervosa (Sw.) Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orchid. 26, 1830 ; Cooke, FI.

Pres. Bomb. 2: 678, 1907; Haines, Bot. Bih. Or. 1166, 1924 ; Fischer,

Fl. Pres. Madr. 1410, 1928 ; Blatt. & McC. 259, f.5. Melaxis nervosa

Sw. in Vet. Akad. Nya Handl. Stockh. 21 : 235, 1800. Liparis paradoxa

(Lindl.) Reichb. f.in Walp. Ann. 6: 218, 1861 ; Ridley 261 ; Hook. f.

697 ; Grant, Orch. Burma 24, 1895 ; King & Pantl. 27, t. 34; Prain,

172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Beng. Pl. 1005, 1903 ; Brithl, Guide Orch. Sikk. 49, 1926. L. dalzellii

Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 698, 1890 ; Gammie 565. L. nervosa (Lindl.)

O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2 : 671, 1891. (See Plate XLII).

Terrestrial herbs. Corm 5-10 mm. in diam., whitish. Stem erect,

3-13 cm. tall, slender to 8 mm. thick, 1-2-sheathed. Leaves generally

2, rarely 3, -- erect, shortly stalked, plicate, alternate, 4-15 x 1-5 cm.,

elliptic or oblong-elliptic or oblong-lanceolate, acute, entire, 5-7-nerved.

Inflorescence about 10-20 cm. long, erect, lax ; peduncle ebracteate,

greenish, subterete. Flowers long-pedicelled, pale yellow or yellow

tinged with pale purple on the lip, bracteate. Bracts about 3 mm. long,

erect or suberect, narrowly linear, acute. Pedicel with ovary about

9 mm. long, the apical portion straight or curved upwards, yellowish-

green. Sepals unequal, subacute, entire, 3-5-nerved, pale yellow ; the

dorsal one 6 mm. long, curved, at first erect, later reflexed with the mar-

gins much involute giving the sepal a narrow linear appearance, linear-

oblong, about 2 mm. broad on spreading ; lateral sepals 5 - 6 mm. long,

spreading. Petals 5-6 mm. long, pale yellow, narrowly linear-oblong,

slightly broader in upper half, margins involute, acute, 3-nerved. Lip

6 mm. long, 4.5 mm. broad on spreading, obcordate in outline ; the basal

half erect, parallel to the column, the calli meeting at the base, often with

another minute one in between ; the colour of the lip is pale yellow,

often tinged with pale, brown or purplish on the sides of the deflexed

apical half. Column 4-4.5 x 1-1.5 mm., erect, at about right angles

to the ovary, curved forwards at the apex. Anther 2 X 1.5 mm. ovate,

acute.

Flowering and Fruiting : August.

Occurrence in Bombay State : N. KANARA: Law ; Londa, Spooner ;

Yellapur, Kapadia 2251-2258 ; Castle Rock, Sedgwick : Gud-

dehalli, near Karwar, Kapadia 2126; Karwar, Hallberg & Mc-

Cann 34263. . .

Distribution: India : Punjab, Kumaon, Khasia Hills, 1200— 1900 m.,

Bengal, Konkan, N. Kanara, Nilgiris, Annamalais at 1000 m. World :

India, Nepal, Burma, Japan.

The Great Indian Bustard [C/oriotis

nigriceps (Vigors)| at the Nest

R. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHII

(With two plates)

On 13 August 1961 I arrived in the typical Great Indian

Bustard, Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors), habitat of south Saurashtra.

The rains had been early this year with spells of hot sunshine; the!

country looked green and clear water flowed in the numerous streams.

The habitat consists of low undulating hilly country studded with

bushes and covered with various grasses and monsoon plants. With

a foundation of trap and basalt and quartz, this strip of grassland

extends for about three miles. It is intersected by cart tracks and

is hemmed in by fields of groundnut. On the outskirts lie scattered

villages, bordered by extensive cultivation, the fields being divided by

grass hedges. A river flows close to a main metalled road leading

to a town.

It was a bright sunny day with cumulus clouds—a break in the

weather that was ideal for me. This grassland where bustard is

known to remain throughout the year was protected from grazing as

it was administered by the Gujarat State Forest Department and was

reserved for the planting of forest trees.

With the help of the Forest staff a nest was soon discovered. At

13.00 hours, alighting from a jeep station wagon at the margin of

the grassland where a cart road skirted cultivation, we proceeded on

foot for half a mile. Fifty yards away a pile of outcropping stones,

resembling the inverted keel of a boat, stood out prominently in a

slight depression—I shall refer to this as the boat-pile. The terrain

formed a raised grassland, from which emanated shallow gullies con-

taining innumerable Zizyphus bushes, some Balanites saplings, and

young Acacia amidst a sea of short grasses with patches of tall thin

grasses mixed with many species of small plants with variously

coloured flowers. :

174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

From the boat-pile, which pointed north and south, the ground

sloped easily eastward through shallow gullies and eroded clefts to

end in a bowl of grassland full of tall grass and a stand of stunted

trees. To the west it rose for about 100 yards and then dropped in

undulations to reach a road and a river about 600 yards away. On

the south a belt of stony country stretched past knolls and gullies

for about 400 yards and veering eastward merged in a chain of low

hills, intersected by cartroads and bordered here and there by cultiva-

tion, through which narrow ravines trickled with. water. To the

north, close behind the boat-pile, was a conspicuous rise which sloped

gently down to groundnut fields, and a separate tongue of bare

stony hills reached across a ravine into grazing land. Near the base

of the rise a small khakra bush (Butea monosperma) and an Acacia

arabica sapling provided cover for the bustard. Scarring the entire

grassland reserve were artificial scrapes for seeds of forest trees, many of

which had germinated. On the south-west at a distance a village

could be seen against a background of higher ranges of forested hills.

This then is the nesting habitat of the Great Indian Bustard.

Falling into single file the Forest Guard and I proceeded silently

till, following his signal with my eyes, I saw about twenty yards

away the slow retraction of a bustard’s snake-like head and neck as

it watched our approach. Passing on without stopping, I could with

difficulty make out the hen bustard sitting tight on the nest. Her

brown upper parts blended well with two outcropping rocks and a

near-by boulder, making detection very difficult. The nest was on

the eastern side of the boat-pile, near its top, and could only be

seen from this side. Circling twice around the nest in a spiral

approach we got to within 25 feet, but I did not try to take a

photograph for fear of flushing a bird sitting on its egg. Leaving an

observer, ‘A’, I returned to camp.

At 17.30 hours I was back with observer ‘B’. The hen bustard

having left five minutes before our arrival, all three of us walked

to the nest—a typical bustard-scrape, oval in shape and about

a foot in length, pointing north-south, in short and long thin

grass with Zizyphus bushes and a dry leafless plant close by. It

contained one egg, greenish-brown, splashed with reddish brown

lying lengthwise of the scrape. The slight depth of the scrape,

the slope of the boat-pile, and the surrounding vegetation

prevented the egg being seen from more than fifteen feet

away. So some cutting of the grass would be ‘ecessary for

the bird and the egg to be photographed together. The egg had

THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD AT THE NEST WD

been seen ten days prior to my arrival, so incubation must have

been well advanced. A used cart track passed about 20 yards east

of the boat-pile, and was used morning and evening by the

cultivators working in their fields. Also, we were informed that

earlier in the season, when the forest guards and labourers were

planting seed, at least half a dozen bustards including the cock had

been seen feeding and the cock had displayed close to them. So

it appeared possible that the bustard would tolerate our ‘gardening’.

Selecting a site for the hide about 60 yards east of the boat-pile and.

across the cart track, I turned back to watch the bird, which in

the meantime had returned to its nest unknown to us. At 17.45 hours

the bustard left the nest and moved north over the rise after feeding

steadily and calmly. Seizing the opportunity, we quietly erected the

hide and camouflaged it with cut grass. Then we retreated south

along the cart track to a small rise 200 yards away, which I chose

as my observation post. From here we could see the movements of

the bird as it left the nest and as it wandered to feed in the central

depression of the sloping ground. It also controlled the cart track,

so that one could from here request persons using the cart track

to circle round and avoid disturbing the bird. Outside the

depression it was not possible to watch the bird without posting a

large number of observers, which would be undesirable with a

suspicious bird like the bustard. A thick ber bush at the top of

the observation post offered cover to an observer lying down or

sitting crouched, and gave him an opportunity to retire undiscovered

if necessary. :

Making a scrape like that of a bustard close to the ber bush, I

lay down and silently watched through the binoculars. At 18.04

hours the hen bustard walked briskly from the rise behind the boat-

pile; it moved down the slope, turning its head left and right in

true bustard fashion, the neck outstretched and held high, the bill

pointing slightly upwards. I could see the unbroken dark pectoral

band as the bird walked quite fast straight towards the nest. Half

way down the slope, when almost in the shallow pocket in which the

boat-pile lay, it stopped and faced sideways, standing with neck held

high and slightly behind the vertical neck line. This pose is a sign

of alarm and, without hearing the usual short hook call, I knew I

had been seen. My head must have been cutting the sky-line and

been fairly conspicuous. Embarrassed but patient, I waited to see the

reaction. Remaining motionless for a minute or more, the bird crept

at right angles to me, the head held low and just in line with the

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

back, the neck in a wide loop or U, the whole body crouching, to

the solitary khakra bush. Taking cover behind it, with only the head

and a small portion of the neck visible, and the head facing sideways,

the bird remained for well over 10 minutes, and then withdrew its

head. A quarter of an hour later it suddenly appeared behind: a long

tuft of thin grass and gazed steadily for some time; then it skulked

‘back to the khakra bush, and watched me suspiciously with only the

head visible. For nearly 45 minutes it made no attempt to approach

the nest. As the bird was watching me intently and with suspicion,

I ducked and withdrew. 15 minutes later I crept back and, seeing

no bird, thought it had moved to the nest. Suddenly I saw a move-

ment, and training my glasses in that direction I saw the bustard,

which again began to slink away, turning its head sideways anid

looking at me. This action appeared deliberate and it surprised me

that the bird should act in this manner at such great distance, when

one could hardly see it with the naked eye. Failing in its ruse to

draw me out, the bird hid behind the khakra bush and again began

to watch me. I made no movement but watched the antics of the

bird with a thrill, suspecting at the same time that there might be

two birds, one with young and the other on the nest. Soon after

sunset, when there remained a bright glow, I turned back to camp.

On 14 August observers ‘A’ and ‘B’ watched from the observa-

tion post from before sunrise while I was engaged with other observa-

tions in the vicinity. |

At 8.30 hours the hen bustard left the nest and walked slowly

over the rise to the north, picking up food here and there. Flocks

of house crows and cattle egrets were seen flying over the fields and

grassland. At 10.15 hours the bustard approached the nest and,

seeing ‘A’, crouched low and repeated its behaviour of the previous

evening. ‘A’ kept out of view, and when he looked three-quarters

of an hour later found that it had settled on the nest. At 14.35 hours

the bird left the nest and walking westwards began feeding, mainly

on grasshoppers. Half an hour later it walked back to the boat-pile

and was seen to remain there. At first it was presumed to have

settled on the nest, but watching revealed the bird on the ridge of

the boat-pile. When I took over at 4 p.m. the bird was on the nest.

I watched attentively until 17.10 hours when I saw it circling the

boat-pile and realised that it had crept off the nest when I was not

looking. Slinking behind bushes and grass tufts in zigzag manner it

returned to the boat-pile, where it waited for a considerable time,

apparently watching the hide. Then without ceremony it slowly walked

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. PLATE I

The Great Indian Bustard, Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors)

_. walked into the nest without hesitation

.,...,8traddled the egg

( Photos : R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji )

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. PLATE II

The Great Indian Bustard, Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors)

......Slowly raised its neck and head in stages

( Photos : R. S: Dharmakumarsinhji )

THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD AT THE NEST 177

to the nest-site, and yet I did not see it settle, having I imagine

crouched low when entering the nest. The next thing I saw was the

head and neck appear like a snake above the nest-site. Observer ‘A’

continued the watch from this stage till after dark, and at 20 hourg

the hide was moved as silently as possible to a pre-selected site across

the cart track to within 90 feet of the nest.

On 15 August again observers ‘A’ and ‘B’ took over while I went

to investigate another portion of the grassland. As before, flights of

house crows and cattle egrets flew over in the early morning, farmers

went past to their fields with their bullocks, and labourers worked

in the adjoining fields. One house crow, noticing observer ‘A’, circled

over his head cawing. Then another house crow came and both

searched for food. At 9.05 hours when the crows departed the

bustard left the nest and walked to the feeding ground across ‘north

rise’. As soon as the bird had disappeared, ‘A’ placed ‘B’ on duty

and, walking across, discovered that the egg was not visible from the

hide and that the hide would have to be moved closer to the nest.

At 10.20 hours observer ‘B’ saw the bird walk briskly towards the

boat-pile from ‘north rise’. After crouching and steadily staring at

the hide it began false feeding and preening itself, and then slunk

slowly closer to the boat-pile. Realising that the bird had become

very suspicious ‘B’ kept out of view. The weather was warm and

clouds were blanketing the sky. At 11.35 hours some travellers

passed by. In the meantime the bird settled on the nest. At 15.00

hours it left the nest and, after feeding some 150 yards away to the

west and north, returned to the boat-pile at 16.20 hours in the usual

slow approach and then moved secretly to the nest and settled down

without betraying itself. Only when the neck was raised could the

observer tell that it had settled. In the evening the bustard remained

on the nest until almost sunset. At 19.05 hours, having seen the

bird depart over ‘north rise’, ‘A’ and ‘B’ went forward and moved the

hide to about 40 feet from the nest. Then they returned to the

observation post, whence ‘A’ watched the bird enter the boat-pile

and then as it grew dark he left his post.

On the following morning we arrived at the observation post at

dawn. At 8.45 hours the bustard left the nest to feed. When it was

out of sight I approached and discovered that I could not see the egg

from inside the hide. The hide was therefore moved to a distance

of 334 feet from the nest. While I was arranging the camera and

settling myself comfortably the bustard returned and passed from

bush to bush watching us closely but I continued the necessary work.

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

In spite of intervening cover it kept about 80 yards from us. At

10.45 hours I was ready but the curiosity of a wandering house crow

had been aroused; it had spied the egg and was cawing over our

heads. We tried hard to scare it away but failed. Then an idea

struck me. I entered the hide and told the men to wait a little and

then leave me as if they were by themselves and to move away

talking, watching at the same time to see whether the crow would

follow. The crow, which had settled some distance away, followed

the two men as I had hoped. At 11.25 hours I heard some chirping

above the hide and discovered that a pair of Whitethroated Munias

was perched on top of the hide, the grass on which had dried and

made it a conspicuous patch of brown. The munias apparently were

‘searching for a nesting site. They troubled me for some time,

entering the opening where my telephoto-lens was placed, peeping

into the lens, and twice alighting inside the lens hood.

At 11.35 hours I saw the bustard about 60 yards away oats

fixedly at the hide. Then it moved slowly to the side, stopping and

walking slowly with head and neck erect. Looking at the observa-

tion post, where ‘A’ and ‘B’ were on duty, I was disgusted to see the

outline of a human head on the sky-line, so conspicuous that no

bustard could miss noticing it. As time passed and the bustard did

not come to the nest the sight of the man’s head became an eyesore.

It was 12.15 hours when I heard a caw and saw a house crow alight

six feet from the nest. I felt like leaping out of the hide and was

about to shout when, to my surprise and relief, the hen bustard

rushed out from the side and attacked. With feathers puffed out,

the mantle, crown, and neck feathers raised, wings spread sideways

in shield-like manner, and the tail fully cocked, it lunged forward

with bill and neck outsiretched and drove away the crow. Then it

turned to the nest and stood defiantly over the egg, with evident

anger in its eyes, seemingly too irritated to settle down on the egg.

The crow, realising that its game was up, flew away, while the bustard

quietly retreated eyeing the hide with suspicion. The sky had

become overcast with the light fluctuating between cloudy-bright to

dull. At 12.45 hours the bustard walked into view from the right

hand side, approached hesitatingly, stopped, and scanning the

countryside with head and neck held erect stood for a couple of

minutes a few yards from the nest. I turned my head for a moment

to peer at the observation post; no head protruded. The bird came

closer and walked into the nest without hesitation. Promptly, I took

photographs. The bird walked up to the egg, turned round to face

THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD AT THE NEST i79

right, then straddled the egg, paused for a moment, and settled

down. Four rapid photographs were taken in succession on 35 mm.

Kodak Tri-X film at 1/250 of a second with a tele-lens of 300 mm.

focal length. It is not difficult to photograph a bustard incubating,

but I had at last achieved my ambition of taking it in the act of

entering its nest with the egg visible in the picture, a feat which I

believe no one else has yet achieved.

After settling down the bird kept its head and neck pressed down

on its mantle and maintained a frozen attitude. Slowly, the head

moved slightly from side to side; I even saw the eyeballs move with

a look in the eyes of a frightened rather than an angry bird. Rain-

laden clouds began to gather and to darken the sky. The wind

was blowing towards me in gusts. At 13.30 hours the bird siowly

raised its neck and head in stages until it was almost fully stretched

up like a cobra .with hood open and erect body. When the bird

faced me with bill pointing slightly upwards, it was reminiscent of

an Ostrich and also reminded me of the pose of a Little Bittern

when attempting to conceal itself in front of danger. I took two more

photographs, and that was all, as by some fate the camera shutter

jammed. Nevertheless, I continued my observations. But for the constant

turning of the head and slight neck movement by which it kept a

ceaseless watch over its surroundings, the bird did not move. At

14.45 hours, sunlight shot through the clouds after a brief shower

of rain and a piercing beam of light lit the landscape. The wind

dropped, and it became quite hot. The bird opened its bill slightly

and then rapidly moved its throat breathing. Presently, the clouds

covered the sky and it became suddenly cool. The bird closed its

bill. At 15.04 hours, the bird raised itself, turned the egg with the

ventral part of the lower mandible, and with a slight backward

movement and then a deliberate forward action combined in one,

settled down on the egg in straddled squatting pose. Quite unlike

a Sarus Crane which first stands over the nest and egg and then

squats down to it vertically, the bustard straddles the egg sitting on

its tarsi before settling on the egg. I have also noticed this with

the hen Lesser Florican. I noticed that, when the bustard settles on

its egg, the egg lies slightly rear of the breast, or it seems so on

account of the long overlapping neck plumes.

A spell of sunlight fell through the clouds at 15.17 hours and

I noticed that the mantle of the bird was raised, the bill slightly

open, and the gular region moving rapidly. I saw another move-

ment. The bird turned its neck and head round facing the tail and

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

pecked at the feathers of the scapula, picking some louse-like animal

and swallowing it. After this, it commenced to preen the mantle,

inner shafts of secondaries and primaries, and then the lesser wing-

coverts and the bastard-wing all while sitting. The bird appeared

quite at ease raising the neck, looking round, and listening.

At 18.16 hours, the bustard left the nest for feeding. It walked

slowly and, when it flushed a locust or grasshopper, it would follow

it, look down, and with a sudden lowering of the head catch it and

swallow it. It would sometimes run to catch an insect which had

flown up. Yet the bird was not as active as I have seen other non-

nesting bustards when feeding. I also noticed that food was scarce.

The bird fed in a circular manner on the west side of the boat-pile

only to disappear over ‘north rise’.

‘A’ and ‘B’ continued the watch from the observation post. The

bird, returning from ‘north rise’ at 19.00 hours, settled on the nest

by 19.20 hours. Soon after, farmers were seen returning homewards.

At 22.00 hours, rain fell intermittently with heavy downpours during

the night.

17 August was a cloudy morning with a slight drizzle which

ceased at 6.45 hours. The absence of predatory animals such as

Jackals, Wolves, and Foxes in the vicinity of the nest was surprising.

So far we had seen none, although signs of their droppings were

noticed in gullies and in the forest stand. Chinkaras were regularly

seen in the nest area and a single female Blackbuck. It was observed

that the bustard did not leave the nest while the feeding flights of

crows were in swing or when the sound of a crow cawing in the

distance was heard. At 8.16 hours, the bird left the nest and

gradually walked away to the north. Ten minutes later a crow cawed

in the distance. Immediately the hen bird came back over the ‘north

rise’ and walked towards the boat-pile. The crow soon appeared,

flying straight towards the nest. The bustard moved into the boat-

pile—I again realised how amazingly quickly a bustard can walk

when it wants to. Breaking speed, the crow circled over the boat-

pile. The bustard puffed its feathers and in the characteristic

aggressive manner stabbed at the flying crow. The crow settled close

by and after a time flew towards us. It circled over our heads and

then departed. At 9.10 a strong breeze commenced and low rain

clouds began to pass by. At 9.42 hours, when the weather had

changed to cloudy-bright, we approached the nest talking, following

the cart road. I was hoping the bird was not on the nest, but we

found it present. With head pressed in and down it huddled low.

THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD AT THE NEST 181

When we reached the hide there was a shuffling movement, the two

wing shoulders pressed tight by the side moved alternately once and

then twice, and suddenly the bird flew off the nest with the legs

dangling for a time; and then in a slight zigzag flight it shot away

low—a distraction display which I recognized as an attempt to draw

us away from the nest. The bird alighted 150 yards or more behind

some bushes. I entered the hide at 10.12 hours, and sent the men

away to the east. Soon after the bustard approached, moving fairly

quickly, and stopped in the boat-pile where I could not see it.

Suddenly, the head appeared over a bush. Then it went down and

reappeared, reminiscent of a crocodile’s head surfacing in water.

The head went down again and came up behind a tuft of grass. For

a minute the bird, almost invisible except for a slight movement of

the head, stared at the hide. Then it walked slowly and erect on

top of the boat-pile and down to the right side to enter the nest

gracefully. Inside the hide, I tapped the wooden side and whistled.

This made no difference. Before entering the hide I had turned |

the egg cross-wise of the oval scrape-nest. On straddling the egg the

bird immediately turned the egg with its bill so that it again lay

lengthwise of the oval, and then settled down. This was at 11.05

hours. At 12.35 hours light rain commenced, and later came a

downpour with gusty winds. At 13.45 hours, when the rain had

stopped, the bird rose from its nest, walked away a few feet, and

raising its neck and crown feathers and also the mantle and scapulars

gave itself a good shaking. It then stood for a while with slightly

Open wings and walked slowly away. It had no appetite, for when a

small grasshopper got up in front of it, it made no attempt to pursue

but walked listlessly, now and then trying half-heartedly to catch

an insect. 18 minutes later it returned, passing within 10 feet of

the hide and giving me a very close view. Entering the nest at

14.12 hours it incubated steadily till 15.23 without a movement

except of the head. Soon after I vacated the hide, leaving my

observers on duty.

After a shower of rain in the evening the bird was again seen to

leave the nest, shake itself, and preen its feathers, and after feeding

leisurely close by it returned to the nest at 19.06 hours. An after-

sunset glow brightened the sky. A pair of Great Horned Owls was

seen perched on boulders. Hares came out on the cart road, and

Sykes’s Crested Larks, Lesser Floricans, and Painted Francolins called

incessantly until darkness fell.

On 18 August at dawn the watch was resumed. I took over at

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

8.15 hours. At 8.34 hours the bustard left the nest, and I walked

over and again changed the position of the egg. I re-entered the

hide at 9.00 hours. At 9.15 hours, a crow approached from the. west.

Immediately I heard the alarm hook of the bustard, and the bustard

came flying low over the rise towards the boat-pile and the crow

disappeared. The bustard walked up to the boat-pile and stood on

the ridge. Rain-clouds darkened the sky. At 10.24 I heard the

hoot of a Great Horned Owl and this call was repeated till 10.50 at

intervals of 5, 8, 6, and 7 minutes. Rain Quail were calling too.

At 10.54 hours the hen bird walked into the nest and, immediately

turning the egg lengthwise of the scrape, sat in a semi-squatting

pose. Bending its neck, it placed its ear close to the egg as if

listening to the chick inside. Turning its face the other side it

again ‘listened’ and after moving the egg slightly backwards settled

down.

At 11.22 hours, I heard close by the double booming sound of

a cock bustard. The hen bustard reacted by raising its head and

listening. Again the double boom was heard. The hen bird

stretched her neck high and turning the head looked round in almost

a circle. She kept on listening and turning her head, and at 11.40

hours walked off in the direction from where the cock had boomed.

At 12.11 I was relieved from the hide. However, I had seen the

cock bustard displaying, and the hen approaching within 50 yards

of the cock though they did not meet. |

At 13.30 hours the bird returned to the nest cautiously. Some

vultures were flying high and I saw the bustard turn its head

slantingly upwards. Quite suddenly it withdrew its head, pressing

it down, and froze, the eyes looking slightly upwards. A White-eyed

Buzzard-Eagle was soaring, but lower down a Short-toed Eagle was

gliding. As soon as the latter passed the nest area up went the head

and neck of the bustard. At 14.23 hours the bird without giving

any warning crept off the nest and hid behind the boat-pile and

returned after a short interval. I failed to discover what had dis-

turbed it. After some time the bird placed a small dry stick the

size of a match on its scapulars and picking up what seemed like

a dead bee placed it next to the stick. I also noticed it pecking at

a twig of a dry Saddler’s Plant and at some dry grass at the side

of the nest restlessly. Was it bored, I wondered, and trying to

amuse itself? Dark clouds gathered and threatened heavy rain. A

cool strong wind commenced to blow and it became dark and

gloomy. As my men approached to relieve me the bird crouched

THE. GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD AT THE NEST 183

with head pressed down; then the ruffling of the shoulders as seen

previously; as they reached the hide the bird flew off and I noticed

the downward curvature of the wings as seen from the rear. It

started to rain and we quickly left and watched from a distance.

The time was 16.15 hours. ,

At 18.38 hours, the sky cleared and the rain stopped. Looking

through the binoculars after sunset, I saw the bird brooding.

The final day was the 19th August. In the early morning we were

at the observation post. Observer ‘A’, watching in the early hours,

had not seen a sign of the bustard or any other animal life. After

10.15 hours we walked to the nest and found it empty except for

small bits of egg shell. About 30 feet downwind I found half an

egg shell, clean and bloodless. The edges of the shell had minute

serrations as if a chick had pecked at it. A search was made in the

area but no sign of the bustard was found. Observer ‘B’ was placed

on watch in the grassland. He saw a hen bustard flying and settling on

the west side of the grassland. At 18.05 hours a hen bustard flew

high overhead but did not settle in the nesting ground. A hen

bustard with a newly hatched chick is known to leave the young and

fly to water for drinking and return later. Such behaviour was not

observed.

SYNOPSIS

This is a study of the Great Indian Bustard, Choriotis nigriceps

(Vigors), at the nest from 13 to 19 August 1961 when, it is presumed,

the single egg hatched out. With this species the hen bird, which

alone incubates, sits close as incubation advances and permits close

approach by the observer, but is very wary off the nest. The con-

clusions drawn from the study are that the bird leaves the nest when

all is quiet and feeds regularly in the morning, afternoon, and

evening. As the time for hatching approaches, it feeds closer to the

nest and maintains a careful watch. Though feeding is routine, the

sitting bird has a small appetite and eats little. Walking activity seems

vital, presumably to stretch and exercise its legs, and also for feeding. It

was observed to dangle its legs and fly in a zigzag manner when danger

threatened its nest, a distraction display that I have observed before.

This particular nesting bird was not seen to fly to water or to its

feeding ground or to make a sound or alarm call other than when

its egg was threatened by a House Crow. The House Crow appears to

be a constant menace and its call caused great agitation to the nesting

bird. Ground predators were not a serious threat, though I have known

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Wolves to be a menace to the species. An occasional eagle flying

overhead caused the bird to ‘freeze’ on the nest. During the period

of observation insect food seemed scarce, though in certain patches

of grass away from the nesting place hoppers and locusts were

found in moderate number, while snakes, scorpions, and lizards were

scanty. Some large and small mammals were seen. A few photo-

graphs were taken of the bird while entering the nest and settling

on the egg, the first ever taken of this species showing the egg and

parent bird together. Photographs were also obtained during

incubation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In conclusion I wish to thank the Conservator of Forests,

Junagadh, for the co-operation rendered to me by his subordinate

staff in my studies. I also wish to thank Shri Ramjibhai Kamani

for his kind hospitality at Ram-Bagh.

Vegetation of Kodaikanal in

South India

If. A Supplementary list of Trees, Shrubs, and Herbs

RAJ KUMAR GUPTA

French Institute, Pondicherry

(Continued from Vol. 57 (1) : 65)

INTRODUCTION

The present paper is the result of a tour undertaken by the author

during the month of June 1960 and embodies observations made by’

him on the vegetation of the area in and near Kodaikanal.

LIST OF THE PLANTS COLLECTED

I. Angiosperms

Magnoliaceae

Michelia nilagirica Zenk. (Fyson 1: 14)

Trees with elliptic flat and drooping leaves. Flowers white. Common in the

sholas above 1500 m.; in Tiger and Bear sholas.

Violaceae

Viola serpens Wall. (Fyson 1 : 27)

Perennial with ovate leaves, deeply cordate; petiole not winged. Common in

sholas above 2000 m.; in Tiger shola.

Pittosporaceae

Pittosporum tetraspermum W. & A. (Fyson 1 :31)

A small tree with grey bark, twigs with yellow pustules in bunches of 3 or 4

together. Leaves whorled at the end of twigs. At the edges of the sholas; in

Tiger shoja below Kodaikanal.

Pittosporum floribundum W. & A. (Fyson 1 :31)

A small tree; twigs with yellow pustules. Flowers in contracted racemes.

Below Shembaganur in Tiger shola 2000 m.

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Polygalaceae

Polygala arillata Hamilton (Fyson 1 : 33)

A large shrub. Flowers.in drooping racemes, yellow. Above 1200. m. in Bear

shola, Tiger shola and Bombay shola, quite common.

Polygala rosmarinifolia W. & A. (Fyson fi : 34) |

Branched annual, stem pubescent. Flowers greenish, On the western slopes of.

Perumalmalai in the grassy areas. eb BA who

Ternstroemiaceae

Gordonia obtusa Wall. (Fyson 1 : 55)

An evergreen tree of moderate size. Leaves acute at both ends. From a dis-

tance the tree is often confused with Acacia mzlanoxylon. Common near water in

Tiger and Bear sholas.

*Schima wallichii Choisy

Large evergreen tree. Flowers resembling very much those of Gordonia

obtusa. Not mentioned by Fyson. Planted along the lakesides.

Malvaceae

Urena lobata Linn. (Fyson 1: 59)

Stellately hairy undershrub. Leaves deeply lobed. Flowers in leaf axils. On

the way to Perumalmalai on grassy slopes. 2

Sterculiaceae

*Eriolaena hookeriana W.& A. — -

A small tree, common in the Tiger shola below Kodaikanal at 1800 m. Not

mentioned by Fyson. |

Tilitaceae

Triumfetta pilosa Roth. (Fyson 1: 62)

Perennial undershrub, uniformly hirsute. Flowers yellow. On way to Perumal-

malai on roadsides in the grassy slopes.

Elaeocarpaceae

* Elaeocarpus serratus Linn.

A small tree with greyish wood.. Not recorded by Fyson. Gamble records it .

in Western Ghats up to 1800 m. The tree can be collected from dace shola at

1800 m. -

Geraniaceae

Biophytum intermedium Wight. (Fyson 1: 76) , vagy

Small annual with branching stem. Leaves pinnate at-the end of branches.

Flowers yellow. Common onthe roadsides in shady places in and near Koga

kanal. Pan

VEGETATION OF KODAIKANAL IN SOUTH. INDIA 187

Impatiens viscida Beddome. (Fyson 1 : 93)

Small herb, stem decumbent. Flowers purple-pink. On wet rocks near Kodai-

kanal; quite common.

Rutaceae

Evodia lunu-ankenda Merr. (Fyson 1 : 98 under E. roxburghiana Benth.)

Small tree. Leaves 3-foliate. Flowers in cymes. Reported from Western Ghats

by Gamble ; from plains it could be collected up to 1800 m. only.

Acronychia laurifolia Blume. (Fyson 1 : 103)

Small evergreen tree with 1-foliate leaves. Flowers in axillary or terminal cymes.

Common in the sholas near Ghat road below Kodaikanal.

Burseraceae

*Garuga gamblei King.

A large tree. Leaves imparipinnate. Inflorescence long. Fruit small. Large

trees can be seen along the roadsides and in the low level sholas mixed with Toona

ciliata. The tree can b2 easily confused with Toona ciliata but distinguished by its

fruits, leaves and the blaze of the bark. Fruits resemble that of Lannea coro-

mandelica. ;

Meliaceae

Cipadessa baccifera Miq. (Fyson 1 : 103)

Shrub with imparipinnate leaves. Flowers small in axillary peduncled pani-

cles. Gambie reports up to 1800 m. from Western Ghats. It can be collected from

Tiger shola below Shembaganur.

* Heynea trijuga Roxb.

Small tree with pinnate leaves; long petiolulate. Flowers small in corymbose

panicles, pale creamy in colour, with bright orange-yellow stamens, massed in centre.

Not mentioned by Fyson ; common in Tiger shola below Kodaikanal.

Nothapodytes foetida (Wight) Sleumer. Syn. Mappia foetida Miers. (Fyson 1 : 106)

Tree with alternate simple leaves. Flowers foetid in terminal corymbose cymes.

Gamble records the plant from the Nilgiris. Fyson mentions it from the downs of

the Palnis. Can be collected from Tiger shola.

Aquifoliaceae

Ilex denticulata Wall. (Fyson 1 : 108)

Large tree with spreading branches. Leaves denticulate. Fyson records it as quite

common on Nilgiri downs but notin Palnis. The plant can be collected from Tiger

shola below. Kodaikanal.

Celastraceae

Celastrus paniculata Willd. (Fyson 1 ; 114)

... Large woody, unarmed climber with nearly circular leaves. Common in the

sholas near Kodaikanal; Tiger shola, Bear shola, etc,

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

* Elaeodendron glaucum Pers.

A tree with simple glaucous leaves. Not mentioned by Fyson. Gamble records

it in the deciduous forests of western coast. Can be collected from Tiger shola

below Kodaikanal.

Rhamnaceae

Rhamnus wightii W. & A. (Fyson 1 : 120)

A large shrub, sometimes a tree. Flowers in fascicles in the axils of leaf. In

Tiger shola near Silver Cascade.

Vitaceae

Tetrastigma muricatum Gamble. (Fyson 1 : 123)

Climber with simple or forked tendrils. Leaves mostly 5-foliate. Abundant

in the Bombay shola and Bear shola. Fyson mentions it below 2000 m. Recently

reported by Pallithanam.

Staphyleaceae

Turpinia cochinchinensis (Lour.) Merr. Syn. T. nepalensis W. & A. (Fyson 1 ; 126)

Tree with drooping foliage. Flowers pale yellow in axillary panicles. Common

in sholas everywhere, in and near Kodaikanal.

Sapindaceae

Allophylus serratus Radlk. (Fyson 1 : 128)

Tree with leaves having 3 leaflets. Flowers small in unbranched spikes with

cyme-like fascicles, small globular. Fyson does not mention it from Kodaikanal. It

can be collected below Kodaikanal from Tiger shola.

Leguminosae

Crotalaria leschenaultii DC. (Fyson 1 : 147)

Small shrub with long, narrow and wedge-shaped leaves. Flowers yellow in

spikes. On open downs and paths near Kodaikanal and on Perumalmalai slopes.

Crotalaria notonii W. & A. (Fyson 1 : 152)

Thickly pubescent shrub. Flowers yellow in axillary racemes. Fyson does not

mention it from Kodaikanal. It can be collected near Kodaikanal and from the

Perumalmalai slopes in grassy areas.

Indigofera pedicellata W. & A. (Fyson 1 : 155)

Perennial with slender, wiry and trailing branches. Flowers red, crowded 6-12

in small corymbs. Common on the slopes of Perumalmalaiin grassy areas, gravel

paths and exposed slopes.

Indigofera pulchella Roxb. (Fyson 1 : 156)

Shrub with slender branches, leaflets 11-15. Flowers pinkish, mostly before the

leaves. Common in open downs above Kodaikanal.

Desmodium rufescens DC. (Fyson 1 : 161)

Shrub with slender branches. Leafstalk, veins of the underside of leaves and

stipules covered with dense reddish brown hairs. Flowers purple to deep blue.

Common in thickets near Kodaikanal.

VEGETATION OF KODAIKANAL IN SOUTH INDIA 189

Moghania grahamiana (W. & A.) O. Kze. Syn. Flemingia grahamiana W. & A. (Fyson

ie: 173)

Spreading shrub, branches and leaflets clothed with hairs and dark glands.

Flowers yellow. On western slopes of Perumalmalai and on rocks near Kodai-

kanal.

Cassia mimosoides Linn. (Fyson 1 : 183)

A low diffused perennial. Leaves with hairy leafstalks; leaflets 30-50 with

one gland below the lowest pair of leaflets. Flowers yellow. On grassy slopes of

Perumalmalai.

* Acacia mollisima Willd. |

Native of Tasmania, Victoria, Queensland and South Australia. -Planted near

the lake. Not mentioned by Fyson.

*Acacia elata A. Cunn.

Native of New South Wales in shady ravines. Planted near the lake for

ornamentation. Not mentioned by Fyson.

Rosaceae

* Prunus cerasioides D. Don. Syn. P. padus Roxb. ex Wall.

Unarmed glabrous tree. Leaves minutely toothed, long pointed. Flowers

white in drooping racemes. Planted along the roadsides near the lake. Not

mentioned by Fyson.

Photonia notoniana W. & A. (Fyson 1 : 201)

Large tree with spreading branches. Flowers white tinged with pink. On the

outskirts of the sholas and upto 1500 m. mixed with the evergreen species. Quite

common.

Pyrus communis Linn. (Fyson 1 : 204)

Tree with broadly ovate, crenate leaves. Flowers white in short racemes.

Planted for the fruits in the gardens.

* Pygeum wightianum Bl.

A large handsome tree. Bark mottled and streaked. Leaves and fruits

smell of Prussic acid. Flowers white. Not mentioned by Fyson; can be

collected from Tiger shola.

Crassulaceae

Kalanchoe grandiflora W. & A. (Fyson 1 : 208)

Thick stemmed shrub with thick succulent leaves. Flowers bright yellow. On -

poor soil and rocky ground near Kodaikanal.

Droseraceae

Drosera peltata Smith. var. lunata Ham. Syn. D. /unata Ham. (Fyson 1: 211)

Small herb with crescent-shaped leaves, fringed with long stalked glands.

Flowers white. On open downs in grassy areas.

190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Hammameliadaceae

* Symingtonia populnea (R. Br.) van Steenis. Syn. Bucklandia populnea R. Br.

A large tree with long petioled leaves, densely silky when young. Native of

temperate Himalayas, planted on the lakesides. Not mentioned by Fyson, recently

reported by Pallithanam.

My £ 0a,c ,ecare.

Syzygium arnottianum Walp. (Fyson 1 : 219)

Large spreading tree. Leaves lumpy, drooping. Flower buds red in bunches.

On the downs by the wayside or in sholas over-topping most other trees; in

Tiger shola and slopes of Perumalmalai.

Syzygium montanum Gamble. (Fyson 1 : 220)

Large tree with wings on the four edges of youngest branches. Leaves large,

veins not closely set. Fyson does not mention it from Kodaikanal, but refers

as common near Ootacamund. Recently Pallithanam collected it from Bombay

shola ; I could also collect the trees from sholas above golf course and Bombay

shola.

Syzygium calophyllifolium Walp. (Fyson 1 : 221)

Large tree, branches with brown bark arising 3-4 together. Leaves almost

round set closely. Fyson mentions the plant from Nilgiris. Gamble also records

it from Nilgiris above 2000 m. The tree can be collected from Tiger shola

and the slopes of Perumalmalai.

I yt biteac evar

Rotala rotundifolia Koehne. (Fyson 1 : 234)

Creeping herb forming large patches; conspicuous by its terminal spike of

rose coloured flowers. Common on the margin of the lake and in damp places.

Passifloraceae

Passiflora calcarata Mast. (Fyson | : 240)

Climber, leaves 3-lobed with large stipules. Flowers with purple corona

having blue tips. Native of Madagascar, a garden escape near Kodaikanal lake

sides. Fyson records it for Nilgiris only.

Beeonilace ac

Begonia malabarica Lamk. (Fyson 1 : 245)

Large succulent shrub. Leaves unequal-sided, cordate. Flowers rose

coloured. Common in sholas in moist places.

Umbelliferae

Heracleum ringens Wall. (Fyson 1 : 255)

Tall erect perennial. Leaves with slightly lobed leaflets. Flowers creamy

yellow. On open downs and grasslands of Perumalmalai.

Sanicula europaea Linn. (Fyson 1 : 249)

Erect perennial. Radical leaves 3-foliate on long stalk.- Flowers white in

groups of about 3. In shady places near Kodaikanal and downs to 1700 m.

VEGETATION OF. KODAIKANAL IN SOUTH INDIA — 191

Caprifoliaceae

Vikeficm acuminatum DC..(Fyson 1 ; 263)

Small tree with elliptic acuminate leaves, margins recurved. Underside of the

leaves covered with small rusty scales. Fryson mentions it from lower levels of

Palnis but not from Kodaikanal. Collected from the sides of the lake ; planted,

Viburnum punctatum Ham.

Small evergreen tree with white flowers. In the lower sholas at 1800 m. Included

by Fyson with Viburnum acuminatum. . \

Lonicera leschenaultii Wall. (Fyson 1 : 266).

Climbing shrub with reddish brown papery bark. Leaves broadly ovate

dull green above, white below. Flowers creamy white. Straggling over small

trees below Kodaikanal.

Rubiaceae

Wendlandia notoniana Wall. (Fyson 1 : 270) |

A small tree, leaves 3 at a node. Flowers white or pink in panicles.

On the lower downs below Shembaganur in Tiger shola.

Ophiorhiza brunonis W. & A. (Fyson 1 : 278)

Small herb, leaves ovate elliptic. Flowers white-pink arranged in terminal

cymes. In sholas below Kodaikanal.

Knoxia mollis W. & A. (Fyson 1 : 281)

Herb with ovate many-veined leaves, densely pubescent on the: undersurface.

Flowers blue in terminal corymbs. Common on.the grasslands of _Perumalmalai

slopes. Bi

Ixora notoniana Wall. (Fyson 1 : 284)

Small tree. Flowers in hemispherical clusters, massed in broadly rounded panicles;

pink. In sholas below Kodaikanal, Tiger shola and shola on Old Ghat Road.

*Canthium rheedii DC. Syn. Plectronia rheedii Bedd.

Scandent thorny shrub. Flowers greenish-white. Below Kodaikanal in Tiger

shola.

Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Merr. Syn. Plectronia didyma Kurz. (Fyson 1 : 283)

Fair-sized tree with coriaceous leaves. Flowers in dense shortly eaketrnee

cymose umbels. Below Kodaikanal, Old Ghat Road sholas.

*Canthium ficiforme Hook. F. Syn. Plectronia ficiformis Gamble.

An evergreen tree with elliptic leaves. Flowers in compound umbels. Not

mentioned by Fyson ; collected from sholas below Kodaikanal.

*Psychotria subintegra Hook. f...

A large shrub. Flowers in cyme. Below Kodaikanal from Tiger shola, not

mentioned by Fyson.

Psychotria bisulcata W. & A. (Fyson 1 : 288)

- A dark-leafed shrub. Flowers starry, corolla white, tipped with green. Below

Kodaikanal. Gamble mentions it from Nilgiris; also not mentioned by Fyson.

192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Lasianthus coffeoides Fyson. (Fyson 1 : 291)

A shrub with upright undivided stem. Leaves much in the habit of cultivated

cotfee. Flowers white. In Bombay and Bear sholas; quite common.

Lasianthus yenulosus Wight. (Fyson 1: 290)

Well-branched shrub. Flowers yellowish-white in sessile cyme. Common under

the shade of trees above Kodaikanal in the sholas above golf course.

Valerianaceae

Valeriana hookeriana W. & A. (Fyson 1 : 296)

A pubescent herb, bearded at the nodes. Leaves pinnate, leaflets 7 or more.

Flowers white. Common on the downs under the shade of shola trees in and

near Kodaikanal.

Compositae

Vernonia pulneyensis Gamble. (Fyson 1: 310)

Much-branched shrub with cottony hairs. Pappus dirty white. Fyson mentions

from Shembhaganur hillside; it can be collected above Kodaikanal and near the

Lake also.

Anaphalis oblonga DC. var. elliptica Hk. f. Syn. A. elliptica DC. (Fyson 1: 330)

A soft woolly herb. Stems, many ascending from the root. Leaves 3-5 nerved.

Involucral bracts white. On the west slopes of Perumalmalai. Only dried specimens

were collected.

Anaphalis lawii Gamble. (Fyson 1: 330)

A cottony herb with leaves in compact terminal masses. Involucral bracts

white-pink. Common everywhere on poor soil.

Anaphalis wightiana DC. (Fyson 1: 332)

Herb with stem woody below. Leaves white underneath. Flower heads large

with several rows of cottony bracts. In damp and cool places, on the slopes of

Perumalmalai.

*Helichrysum bracteatum Anders.

Branched minutely scabrous herb. Flowers yellow. Native of Australia. A

garden escape on roadsides.

*Helichrysum luteo-album Reichb.

Herb with yellow-white flowers. Native of Australia. Garden escape on the

roadsides.

Dichrocephala chrysanthemifolia DC. (Fyson 1: 317)

Herb with chrysanthemum-like leaves. Flowers purplish in spherical heads.

On open downs and slopes of Perumalmalai.

Picris hieracioides Linn. (Fyson 1: 352)

Stiffy hairy annual, stem juicy. Flowers yellow in numerous heads; involu-

cral bracts black, hairy. On open downs and slopes of Perumalmalai in grassy

areas.

VEGETATION OF KODAIKANAL IN SOUTH INDIA 193

Primulaceae

Lysimachia deltoides Wight. (Fyson 1 : 370)

A trailing herb. Leaves opposite. Flowers yellow. In cool and shady places

and on damp hillsides in and near Kodaikanal.

Myrsinaceae

Rapanea wightiana Wall. (Fyson 1: 374)

A tree with ascending branches. Leaves streaked with glands at the end of

branchlets. In and near Kodaikanal.

Sapotaceae

Xantolis tomentosa (Roxb.) Rafin. Syn. Sideroxylon tomentosum Roxb. (Fyson 1 : 377)

Small tree with long axillary spines. Closed flowers pointing downwards like

cones with protruding curved style. Common in the sholas above Kodaikanal ;

above golf course, Bear shola and Bombay shola.

Oleaceae

Jasminum humile Linn. var. bignoniaceum. Syn. J. bignoniaceum Wall. ex Don.

(Fyson 1: 387)

Erect shrub with angular branches. Flowers yellow at the end of twigs. In

the sholas all over the downs near Kodaikanal.

Ligustrum perottetti DC. (Fyson 1 : 390)

Small shrub in dense tufts. Flowers profusely in panicles with white fragrant

flowers. On roadsides and margin of sholas upto 1000 m.

Apocynaceae

*Alstonia veneanta R. Br.

Shrub with long closely nerved leaves. Flowers white. Below Kodaikanal in

Tiger shola at 2000 m., not mentioned by Fyson.

Rauvolfia densiflora Benth. (Fyson 1: 393)

Shrub with leaves in whorls of 3 or 4, Flowers white in bifurcating cymose

cymes. Common in sholas below Kodaikanal and in sholas near golf course.

Not mentioned by Fyson from Kodaikanal.

Asclepediaceae

Tylophora tenuis Bl. (Fyson 1 : 398)

Glabrous twiner. Leaves lanceolate with rounded base. Flowers dark purple

in racemes. On grassy slopes near Kodaikanal.

Gentianaceae

Gentiana pedicellata Wall. var. wightii Kurz. (Fyson 1 : 409)

Small herb. Flowers with bright blue corolla. Common on grassy slopes.

Fyson does not mention it from Kodaikanal; recently reported by Pallithanam

194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Solanaceae

Solanum giganteum Jacq. (Fyson 1 : 422)

Large shrub. Branches and undersurface of leaf white. Flower lilac in dense

corymbs. Not mentioned by Fyson from Kodaikanal. Near the sholas.

Scrophulariaceae

*Linaria (supina ?)

Small herb with white flowers. Not mentioned by Gamble, Fyson and Hooker

(FBI). Quite common on the grassy slopes of Perumalmalai.

Striga lutea Lour. (Fyson 1 : 431)

An erect branching parasitic herb. Flowers in slender spike. Common on open

downs and dry grassy slopes of Perumalmalai.

Gesneraceae

Didymocarpus tomentosa Wt. (Fyson 1 : 440)

Herb with broadly elliptic leaves, wrinkled with shallow crenations. Flowers

mauve pink. Below Kodaikanal.

Verbenaceae

Verbena venosa Gill & Hooker. (Fyson 1 : 460)

Pubescent herb with serrated leaves, stem clasping. Flowers pink in spike.

Native of Brazil, escape at Kodaikanal.

Labiatae

Coleus forskohlii (Poir) Briq. Syn. Coleus barbatus Benth. (Fyson 1 : 468)

Softly hairy perennial. Flowers pale blue. Not mentioned by Fyson from

Kodaikanal.

Prunella vulgaris Linn. Syn. Brunella vulgaris Linn. (Fyson 1 : 477)

Small perennial with hairy leaves. Flowers purple having a broad bract often

with purple margins. Common in grassy area on open downs in and near

Kodaikanal.

Leucas vestita Benth. (Fyson 1 : 482)

Perennial with leaves acute at both ends. Flowers with brown upper lip of the

corolla. On open hillsides above Silver Cascade and slopes of Perumalmalai.

Calamintha umbrosa Benth. (Fyson 1 : 475)

Herb with a weak pubescent stem. Leaves ovate. Flowers purple in the whorls

arising in axil of leaves and at the end of short branches. Common in the woods

and on the downs above Kodaikanal.

Lauraceae

Cinnamomum macrocarpum Hook. f. (Fyson 1: 504)

A large tree with long leaves, strongly 3-nerved. Flowers in short panicles.

oe ION OF KODAIKANAL IN SOUTH INDIA 195

Not mentioned by Fyson from Lodi ei Can be collected from sholas near the

golf course.

Machilus macrantha Nees. (Fyson 1: 504)

Large tree with brown branches when dry. Leaves elliptic, acute at both ends.

Panicles terminal in open corymbs. A tree in sholas upto 2330 m.

Litsaea deccanensis Gamble. (F yson 1: 506)

Tree with alternate leaves, underside yellowish, glossy above. Clusters solitary.

Sholas below Kodaikanal], Tiger shola.

Litsaea ligustrina Nees. (Fyson 1 : 506)

A small tree, leaves elliptic with fine reticulations. Umbels solitary axillary or

lateral. Sholas above Kodaikanal; Bombay shola.

Phoebe lanceolata Nees. (Fyson 1: 509)

Trees with alternate penni-nerved leaves. Inflorescence and leaf beneath

minutely grey puberous. Branchlets nearly black. Fyson mentions on the authority

of Gamble at an elevation of 1600 m. The plant can be collected from Tiger shola

near Silver Cascade.

Neolitsaea zeylanica Merrill. (Fyson 1 : 508)

A small glabrous tree. Leaves elliptic lanceolate, acute at both ends. Flower

clusters in dense masses at the leaf axils. Fyson does not mention it from Kodai-

kanal; recently reported by Pallithanam. The tree has been collected from Bombay

shola. .

Loranthaceae

Taxillus tomentosus (Roth.) van Tieghem. Syn. Loranthus tomentosus Heyne.

(Fyson 1: 514)

A parasitic shrub with brown tomentose branches. Flowers brown in bunches

at the axils of the leaves; bract conspicuous. Not mentioned by Fyson from

Kodaikanal. CoHected from sholas on the Old Ghat Road.

Erytranthe loniceroides Engler. (Fyson 1 : 518)

Parasitic shrub with large flowers having red deflexed petals. Common on the

trees of Acacia melanoxylon that are invariably infected with this parasite. Fyson

mentions it from the lower levels of Palnis but it can be collected from the trees

planted along the sides of the lake.

Buxaceae

Sarcococca trinervia Wt. (Fyson 1 : 524)

Glabrous shrub with smooth green branchlets. Leaves dark green, 3-nerved

glossy. Sholas below Kodaikanal ; Tiger shola.

Euphorbiaceae

Glochidion velutinum Wight. (Fyson 1 : 531)

Small tree with crooked stem and branches. Young parts pubescent and light

coloured. In shola forests below Kodaikanal ; Tiger shola and sholas on the Old

Ghat Road.

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Glochidion neilgherense Wight. (Fyson 1: 531)

Small tree with flattish rounded outline and angular trunk. Fyson mentions it

below Kodaikanal. Recently Pallithanam reported it from Bombay shola above

Kodaikanal. I could collect the specimens from Tiger shola and sholas on the Old

Ghat Road.

*Glochidion hohenackeri Bedd. Syn. G. ellipticum Wt.

Small tree with slender branches. In Tiger shola. Not mentioned by Fyson.

Daphniphyllum glaucescens Blume. (Fyson 1 : 533)

Trees with erect leaves having curved margins. Common on the sholas and downs

above and below Kodaikanal.

Antidesma menasu Miq. (Fyson 1 : 534)

A small tree. Leaves elliptic oblong with long spikes (10-15 cm.). Common on

the sholas below Kodaikanal, Tiger shola and shola on the Old Ghat Road.

Mallotus phillipensis Muell.- Arg. (Fyson 1 : 535)

Shrub with leaves 3-nerved at the base. Young parts covered with reddish

hairs. Ovary covered with crimson glands. Common as undergrowth in the shola

below Kodaikanal.

Macaranga indica Wt. (Fyson 1 : 536)

A large tree. Leaves rounded but pointed and peltate. Panicles lateral. Often

confused with Mallotus albus, but distinguished by its leaves. Fyson mentions from

Niligiris ; can be collected from Tiger shola.

Ulmaceae

Celtis australis Linn. (included with C. tetrandra Roxb. in part by Fyson 1 : 538)

A middle-sized deciduous tree with whitish specks on the bark; branchlets

drooping. Leaves tough, serrated from near the base. Distinguished from C. tet-

randra by its globose orange-red drupes. Below Kodaikanal.

Celtis tetrandra Roxb. (Fyson 1 : 538 including C. australis Linn.)

A large medium-sized tree with pubescent leaves, serrated from above the middle.

Fruit a purplish black ellipsoidal drupe. Fyson does not record it from Kodai-

kanal ; recently recorded by Pallithanam from Bombay sholas. I have collected the

plants from Tiger shola.

Celtis wightii Planch. (Fyson 1 : 538)

Large tree with smooth bark; branchlets brown pubescent. Flowers in small

pubescent panicles. Not recorded by Fyson from Kodaikanal ; recently reported by

Pallithanam. Can be collected from Tiger shola.

Moraceae

*Ficus hirta Vahl.

Small tree. Leaves ovate elliptic rounded. Not recorded by Fyson, collected

from Tiger shola.

Urticaceae

Girardinia zeylanica Dene. Syn. G. heterophylla Dene. (Fyson 1 : 544)

Shrub with long stinging hairs. Leaves deeply divided palmately. In sholas and

downs In and near Kodaikanal. :

VEGETATION OF KODAIKANAL IN SOUTH INDIA 197

*Debregeasia velutina Gaud.

A small tree, with rough branches having warty excrescences and scars of fallen

leaves. It grows well below Kodaikanal in the sholas. Not recorded by Fyson;

recently reported by Pallithanam. Common in Tiger shola.

Pouzolzia wightii Benth. (Fyson 1 : 551)

A tall robust herb with broadly ovate leaves. Common near Kodaikanal.

Cup udite rae

*Quercus robur Linn. Syn. Q. pedunculata Linn.

A large deciduous tree widely distributed throughout Europe, mainly confined to

the lowlands. Planted in the garden ; Bryants Park. Not mentioned by Fyson.

*Alnus nepalensis D. Don.

Large deciduous tree, distributed in the Himalayas in moist shady ravines near

the water courses. Planted along the lake sides. Not mentioned by Fyson.

Casuarinaceae

*Casuarina suberosa Ott. & Dietr. Syn. C. leptoclada Miq.

Small sized tree. Native of ali states of Australia except western Australia.

Planted near the lake. Not mentioned by Fyson.

Amaryllidaceae

Hypoxis aurea Lour. (Fyson 1 : 601)

Small herb with linear leaves. Flowers yellow, solitary on slender stalks. In

damp places on the downs and grassy slopes in and near Kodaikanal.

Commelinaceae

Cyanotis fasciculata Schultes. (Fyson 1 : 619)

A small annual, cottony all over. Flowers in terminal cymes. Below Kodai-

kanal, on the slopes of Perumalmalai.

Juncaceae

Juncus prismatocarpus Gr. (Fyson 1 : 620)

Tufted herbs. Leaves in two ranks. Flowers at the ends and the forkings of

branched inflorescence, pale yellow, 6-10 in a bunch. On the downs and in Kodai-

kanal lake.

Eriocaulaceae

Eriocaulon brownianum Rubl. (Fyson 1 : 627)

Herb witha thick rhizome having 2-3 flowering stalks. On Kodaikanal downs

and near the lake,

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

- > Cyperaceae

Mariscus cyperinus Vahl. (Fyson 1 : 637) yee

Lower sheath of leaves red. Spikes at the top of stem. At the top of Peru-

malmalai. }

Fimbristylis uliginosa Steud. (Fyson 1 : 640)

Tufted plants clothed at base with dead sheaths. Leaves hair-like, spikelets many,

tufted at the top. Atthe top of Perumalmalai.

Gramineae

Andropogon foulkesii Hk. f. (Fyson 1 : 665) -

Perennial with sl2nder stem. Leaves finely acuminate with spreading hairs,

Axils of the spike bearded with long soft hairs; spikelets purple. At the .top of

Perumalmalai.

Pollinia phaeothrix Hack. (Fyson 1 : 663)

Annual clothed at the base with rusty coloured tomentose sheaths. Leaf blades

slender, hairy on the back. Spikes golden brown in colour. Near Kodaikanal and

at the top of Perumalmalai. .

II. Gymnosperms

*Cupressus torulosa Don.

Large evergreen tree, wood fragrant. Wild in west Himalayas mostly on lime-

stone and in hot dry aspects. Planted near the lake. Not mentioned by Fyson.

*Cupressus funebris Endl.

Tree with pendulous branches. Grown for ornamentation near the lake. . Not

mentioned by Fyson. i

*Cedrus deodara Loud.

Large evergreen tree. Indigenous in western Himalayas from Afghanistan to

Garhwal. Planted for ornamentation. Not mentioned by Fyson.

*Cryptomeria japonica Don.

Large straight, fast-growing tree. Native of Japan. Planted in the gardens for.

ornamentation. Not mentioned by Fyson. ; eae ae

*Araucaria cunninghamii Ait.

Tall cylindrical tree. Native of coastal scrub (rain forest) areas from the Hastings

River, New South Wales to North Queensland, also in mountain regions of New

Guinea. Planted in the gardens.. Not mentioned by Fyson.

*Araucaria bidwilii Hook. f.

Large cylindrical-stemmed tree. Native of south-east Queensland. Planted ‘in

the gardens. Not mentioned by Fyson.

* Callitris rhomboidea R. Br.

Small tree of fastigiate form. Restricted distribution in eastern coastal districts

of Australia, occurring in certain parts of New South Wales; in the. neigh-

bourhood of Sydney. Planted near the lake. Not mentioned by Fyson.

VEGETATION OF KODAIKANAL IN SOUTH INDIA 199

* Pinus radiata Don. Syn. Pinus insignis Doug}.

A large tree. Native of Monterey, California along the sea coast on slopes and

ridges. Planted in the gardens. Not mentioned by Fyson.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is deeply indebted to Rev. Fr. G. Foreau and

Rev. Fr. Matthew, of the Sacred Heart College, Shembaganur, for

their kind help in the identification of some of the plant specimens ;

and to Mr. M. Viart, Assistant Director, French Institute, Pondicherry

for his constructive suggestions and help in the field.

REFERENCES

Fyson, P. F. (1932): Flora of the Matthew, K. M. (1959): The Vegeta-

South Indian Hill Stations. Madras. tion of Kodaikanal Grassy slopes.

2 Vols. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56 : 387-422.

Pallithanam, J. (1957): Observations Troup, R. S. (1932): Exotic Forest

on the Flora of Kodaikanal. J. Bombay Treesin the British Empire. Oxford.

nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 836-844.

The Birds of Nepal

PART 6

BISWAMOY BISWAS

Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta

[Continued from Vol. 58 (3) : 677]

Subfamily TIMALIINAE

474. Pellorneum ruficeps mandellii Blanford. Mandelli’s Spotted

Babbler.

BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 3, 3 22 (March 6-9). DuN: Hitaura, Bhimphedi :

ll gdb, 4 99, 1 juv. 2 (May 5-31, June 12), NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: J 2,

1 2 (April 7).

The Spotted Babbler is very common in central Nepal occurring in

bushes, scrub, bushy undergrowths of forests, sometimes even on

grasslands. It did not, however, appear so common in the Nepal

Valley as it was in the bhabar and the dun.

Scully (1879) did not report it from Nepal. Ripley (1950b, p. 390)

found it at c. 305-1370 m. from western to eastern Nepal. Smythies

(1950, p. 514) noted it on Nagar Jong, Nepal Valley, at c. 1525 m.

Polunin (1955, p. 889) recorded it from Nawakot in the Trisul Valley

(c. 915 m.) in summer. Proud (1955, p. 58) found it scarce in the

Nepal Valley but common in the tarai. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 121)

reported it from west-central to eastern Nepal at c. 290-1675 m.

I am unable to agree with Ripley’s (loc. cit.) observation that it is

found in the tarai and duns in winter but higher up in spring. I do

not think it moves much seasonally. We found it very common and

breeding in the dun in May-June.

Some of my April and May birds are worn and some moulting.

Birds were in fully breeding condition in April and May. A

female had an exhausted ovary on June 12.

Colours of soft parts : Iris crimson to deep crimson (reddish brown in juvenile) ;

upper mandible dark horny, sometimes paler on tip or horny black on basal

half; lower mandible light yellow on the posterior half, bluish white on the anterior

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 201

half, with dusky tip, the dusky portion is variable and may extend up to nearly

the middle ; legs, feet, claws and pads fleshy, sometimes the claws may be light horny.

Measurements :

18 4G Soe

Wing: 68, 70, 71+,—(2), 72 (2), 73, 73+, 66, 66+, 67 (2), 68 (3), 69+

74, 75 (3)

Tail : FO(D) (6) 72574) 7576, 77 65, 66, 66.5, 67, 68+, 70,—(2)

Bill: 18 (2), 18.5 (2), 19 (7), 20.5, 21 IWadsnlS, 18.585). L9) (2), 19°5

*475. Trichastoma abbotti abbotti (Blyth). Abbott’s Babbler.

Abbott’s Babbler was not present in NHodgson’s first lot of

specimens presented to the British Museum (Gray & Gray, 1846). It

was, however, included in his later presentation from Nepal (Gray,

1863, p. 40). The only other report of this species from Nepal that

I can trace, is Ripley’s (1950b, p. 390) from Chatra, eastern Nepal tarai,

in winter.

476. Pomatorhinus montanus schisticeps Hodgson. Slatyheaded Scimitar

Babbler.

Dun: Hitaura: 4 3,1 juv. 3,4 29, Ijuv. 9 (May 14-29, June 1, 19).

The Slatyheaded Scimitar Babbler does not appear to be uncom-

mon in the central Nepal dun. During May-June, it was found

in pairs.

Ripley (1950b, p. 390) reported it from western Nepal at c. 1525 m.

in winter; Smythies (1950, p. 514 noted it on Sheopuri Range, Nepal

Valley; and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 122) recorded it from western

and west-central Nepal at c. 455-1065 m., also in winter.

The wing and tail are more or less worn in all my specimens.

The juvenile male (May 2i) is reddish olive on the upper side,

rufous on the forehead, and its supercilia and eye-stripes are

developing. Its underside is downy with the breast and flanks rusty.

The juvenile female specimen (May 18) appears a little older than

the juvenile male specimen.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

436: 100 (2), 101, 102 104+,111, 113, 115 31 (3), 31.5

422: —, 97+, 97.5, 100 106, 107, 109, 110 31, 31.5, 32,—

477. Pomatorhinus ruficollis ruficollis (Hodgson). Nepal Rufousnecked

Scimitar Babbler.

MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 19 (April 28). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot : 44,

1 subad. 3, 6 29, 1 subad. 2 (March 22-26, April 6, 14).

This scimitar babbler is not uncommon in thick forests on the

hilis round the Nepal Valley during March-April. A few were also

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY IN HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

observed by us in similar biotope on the Mahabharat Range, Markhu

Valley. -

Ripley (1950b, p. 390) found it also in western Nepal; Polthin

(1955, p. 889) from the Langtang Valley, northern central Nepal; and

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 122) in west-central and eastern Nepal.

The subadult birds are more rusty above than the adults.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

5 od: 74, 78, 80 (3) 84, 84+, 85 (2), 86 230d, 24:3): 25

722 | 76 (2); 78, 78.5, 79 (2), 84° 80, 82> 83..834-5 84, 23:55 244), 2425-2)

85, 91

*478. Pomatorhinus ruficollis godwini Kinnear. Godwin’s Rufousnecked

Scimitar Babbler.

The only record of Godwin’s Rufousnecked Scimitar Babbler for

Nepal was furnished by Ripley (1950b, p. 391) on the basis of a single

specimen taken at Mangalbaré (c. 2745 m.) on Tinjure Danda, Tamur

Valley, eastern Nepal.

479. Pomatorhinus erythrogenys erythrogenys Vigors <= haringtoni Baker.

Nepal Rustycheeked Scimitar Babbler.

Dun : Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 2 ¢¢, 5juv. 66, 1 & chick in down, 3 22 (March

12, 13, May 3-18, June 4). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: 2 ¢¢, 722 (March 21-29,

April 7-14).

The Rustycheeked Scimitar Babbler is common in hill forests from

the central duns to the Nepal Valley. It usually occurs in small

parties of about half a dozen individuals in dense forest as well as

along the edges of forests bordering cultivation.

Ripley (1950b, p. 391) reported it also from western Nepal, Polunin

(1955, p. 889) from northern central Nepal, and Rand & Fleming ee

pp. 122-123) from western to eastern Nepal.

Many of my March-April specimens have a very worn tail.

Very young birds, including the chick in down, were taken in

May and June. A young bird of May 3 has the forehead and sides of

the crown rufous, underside downy with budding feathers on the

chin and throat, undeveloped malar stripe, rufous breast and flanks,

and white centre of abdomen. Two other young specimens taken

on May 7 and 10, appear a little older than the May 3 specimen.

They both have the throat feathered, without malar stripes, with

dusky stripes on the upper breast, and downy lower abdomen and

vent. Another young bird collected on May 13 appears still older.

The chick in down taken on May 18, has rufous feathers on the

head. but reddish down on the back, an almost naked chin. and

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 203

throat, whitish down on the centre of abdomen, and rufous down

on the breast, flanks and vent.

Measurements :

5 od 10 2°

Wing: 96 (3), 98 (2) 92,92 + (2), 93, 93.5 +, 94, 95 (3), 96

Tail : 100, 101, —(3) 96 +, 97 +,98 +, 99 (2),—(5)

Bill: 36:(2)537 5.39.39 34.5, 35 (3), 36 (3), —, 37, 38.5

My central Nepal examples represent a variable intermediate

population, specimens ranging in characters from typical erythrogenys

of western Himalaya to typical haringtoni of Sikkim. Scully (1879,

p. 289) noted characters of haringtoni in his Nepal Valley specimens.

Polunin’s specimens from central Nepal are close to haringtoni.

Rand & Fleming noted the variable and intermediate nature of their

series from western, west-central, central and eastern Nepal. It would

appear, therefore, that Pomatorhinus ferrugilatus Hodgson, 1836

(type locality sub-Himalayan Nepal) refers to this intermediate group,

and this name has been used by both Ripley and Rand & Fleming,

for their Nepal birds. It seems unnecessary to use a separate name

for such a variable intermediate population.

*480. Pomatorhinus erythrogenys haringtoni Baker. Baker’s Rusty-

cheeked Scimitar Babbler.

The only record of this scimitar babbler for Nepal is based on

Stevens’s (1923b, p. 731) report from the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal,

at c. 1065-2135 m.

*481. Pomatorhinus ferruginosus ferruginosus Blyth. Coralbilled

Scimitar Babbler.

After Hodgson’s later collection (Gray, 1863, p. 45) the only

report of the Coralbilled Scimitar Babbler from Nepal consists of a

doubtful sight record by Scully (1879, p. 288) near Nawakot, central

Nepal.

*482. Xiphirhynchus superciliaris superciliaris Blyth. Slenderbilled

Scimitar Babbler.

This scimitar babbler was not present in Hodgson’s earlier collec-

tion (Gray & Gray, 1846), but it was included without locality in his

later collection (Gray, 1863, p. 45), and one cannot be sure as to

whether it was taken in Nepal or the Darjeeling district. However,

Stevens (1923b, pp. 731-732) provided the only authentic report of its

occurrence within Nepal. He found it on the Nepal side of the

Singalila Range near Kalipokhari at c. 2440-3050 m. in April-May.

204. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

*483. Pnoepyga albiventer pallidior (Kinnear). Western Scalybreasted

Wren-Babbler.

The Western Scalybreasted Wren-Babbler was first reported from

Nepal by Ripley (1950b, pp. 391-392) from the Karnali Valley,

western Nepal, at c. 275 m. in winter. It was later found by Rand &

Fleming (1957, pp. 123-124) in western and west-central Nepal at

c. 1065-1980 m. in winter. ;

Rand & Fleming’s specimens from central and eastern Nepal

should belong to the eastern subspecies (See next item, below).

484. Pnoepyga albiventer albiventer (Hodgson). Eastern Scalybreasted

Wren-Babbler. |

Tesia albiventer Hodgson, 1837, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng.6:-102. (Nepal, hereby

restricted to the slopes of Chandragiri above Thankot, Nepal Valley.)

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 juv. 9 (March 6). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang :

2 22 (March 14, April 22). Nepat VALLEY: Thankot: 4 ¢¢, 5 22 (March 26-

April 12).

The eastern form of the Scalybreasted Wren-Babbler is not un-

common in the Nepal Valley among boulders and in dense under-

growths of forests, particularly near hill-streams. We found it also

on the southern side of the Chandragiri at its foot above Chitlang

in small numbers, and once only in central bhabar in dense forest

near Amlekhgan).

Neither Scully (1879) nor Ripley (1950b) reported it from Nepal.

Proud (1955, pp. 58-59) found it only on higher elevations in the

Nepal Valley. Polunin (1955, p. 890) noted it occasionally in the

Langtang Valley, central Nepal, at c. 3960 m. in summer. Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 123) found it in the Nepal Valley at c. 2745 m.

in April, and at c. 2285 m. in eastern Nepal in December.

All my adult specimens are moulting in one part of the body or

the other, except a female (April 22) which has just completed the

moult.

The immature bird has no fulvous spots on the upper side [cf.

Ripley’s (1950b, pp. 391-392) only example (o%) of P. a. pallidior

from western Nepal, also lacks those spots].

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

43d: 58, 60, 61, 62 17 (2),—, 18 —,14, 14.5 (2)

USS 57 (3), 59(2), 60 (2) 17(2),—(2), 18 (3) —,14 (5), 14.5

I am unable to agree with Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 123-124)

in placing birds from western, central and eastern Nepal all together

under the western race pallidior Kinnear. While I have not had the

opportunity of examining any example from the west of the Nepal

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 205

Valley, I am convinced from a study of the material in the British

Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, and the Koelz

Collection, that the central Nepal birds are albiventer. Ripley

(1950b, p. 392) came to the same conclusion. It is, however, theoreti-

cally possible that pallidior and albiventer intergrade somewhere in

west-central Nepal, if western birds are true pallidior. Recently,

however, Ripley (1961, p. 357) followed Rand & Fleming in giving

the ranges of these forms.

Although restriction of the type locality of Hodgson’s albiventer

to eastern Nepal, as suggested by Rand & Fleming, may help their

thesis, we cannot disregard the following facts: (a) that Hodgson

was stationed in Kathmandu in 1837 when the form was described,

and when it certainly was much easier for him to get virtually local

material than from far-off eastern Nepal, and (5) that Hodgson’s

earlier collection contained very few, if any, eastern specimens. I

am, therefore, unable to agree with Rand & Fleming’s suggestion,

nor with Ripley’s (loc. cit.) restriction of the type locality to Tam

district, eastern Nepal. I am of the opinion that if restriction of the

type locality is at all desired, it should be in the Nepal Valley, as

I have done above, which will conform to facts.

485. Pnoepyga pusilla pusilla Hodgson. Brown Wren-Babbler.

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang : 1 ¢, 12 (April 22, 25). NEPAL VALLEY : Than-

kot : 1 ¢ (April 14).

We did not find this wren-babbler at all common in central Nepal.

Only a few specimens were observed by us in the dense undergrowths

of the forests on the Chandragiri on both the Thankot and Chitiang

sides.

It was not reported from Nepal by either Scully (1879) or

Ripley (1950b). Proud (1955, p. 58), however, found it common in the

Nepal Valley from c. 1525 to 2435 m. Rand & Fleming (1957, p.

124) recorded it from the western tarai and the Nepal Valley.

All my three specimens are worn, the Thankot specimen very

much so. There is no sign of moult in the male specimens, but it

has just started on the crown of the female specimen.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Bee: 50 (2) 13,— —(2)

Ore 50 15 BES

*486. Spelaeornis caudatus David & Oustalet. Tailed Wren-Babbler.

The Tailed Wren-Babbler was first obtained in Nepal by Hodgson

(Gray, 1863, p. 28) when he was living in Darjeeling. It has not

been reported from that country since then.

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

*487. Stachyris ruficeps ruficeps Blyth. Redheaded Babbler.

The first record of the occurrence of the Redheaded Babbler |

in Nepal is based on Hodgson’s later collection (Gray, 1863, p. 45).

Subsequently, it was obtained in Nepal only by Stevens (1923b, p. 733)

from the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal, and observed by Smythies

(1950, p. 514) on Sheopuri Range, Nepal Vailey on October 27.

488. Stachyris pyrrhops Blyth. Redbilled Babbler.

Stachyris pyrrhops Blyth, 1844, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng.13: 379. (Nepal.)

Stachyris pyrrhops ochrops Koelz, 1954, Contrib. Inst. Reg. Explor. (1): 6.

(Kotla, Kangra district, Punjab.)

Dun : Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 5 $3; 3 92 (March 11-13, May 7-23), MaRKHU

VALLEY : Deorali: 1 2 (April 30). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 1 Q (April 17).

NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot: 2 ¢¢, 1 2 (March 21—April 7).

The Redbilled Babbler is fairly common in central Nepal from

the dun up to the Nepal Valley in light forests, scrub jungles, etc.

Scully (1879) did not obtain this species in Nepal. It was re-

ported from western and west-central Nepal (c. 305-2435 m.) by

Ripley (1950b, p. 392) and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 124).

All my specimens taken in mid-April and afterwards, and two

males of March 11 and 21 are worn, those dated May 18 (1 co‘) and

23 (1 @) are very much so, but only one specimen ( e April 30)

was moulting on the crown.

Worn birds have much redder crown, sides of the head and

underside than birds in fresh plumage.

Measurements :

Wing i Tail Bill

Fae ete 2,195) 3-1 eos 48.5, 49 (2), 50 (2), 14:5; 15°(2); 15.5 @);

54 (2), 55 —,51 16,—

6297-95152 (2)352.9,35—— 49 (2),—(3), 51 14.5, 15 (2), 15.5,—- (2)

As has already been said above, birds in fresh plumage from Nepal

and elsewhere are less red (=ochrops Koelz).. However, in season-

ably comparable material, Kangra and Rampur-Bushahr birds seem

to be slightly paler than Nepal birds, to which those from Simla

to Kumaon are quite close.

*489, Stachyris chrysaea chrysaea Blyth. Nepal Goldenheaded

Babbler.

The sole post-Hodgsonian record of this babbler in Nepal is

Proud’s (1955, p. 58) observation in Pokhara area at c. 2435 m. in

west-central Nepal.

490. Stachyris nigriceps nigriceps Blyth. Blackthroated Babbler. —

Dun: Bhimphedi: 5 gg, 1 imm. g, 2 92 (March 12, 13, May 4-8).

MARKHu VALLEY : Deorali: 2 ¢¢ (April 29, May 2). CaITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 207

2 do (April 17, 22). NepAL VALLEY: Thankot:.7 gd, 2 22 (March 21-29,

April 8).

The Blackthroated Babbler is quite common in flocks of about six

to ten (early and mid-March) or in pairs (late March-May) in dense

or light forests of central Nepal from the dun up to the Valley. On

a few occasions we observed it in mixed feeding parties with other

birds in March.

It was not included in Scully’s (1879) list. Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 124) found it also in west-central Nepal at c. 760 m. in

January-February.

It was breeding as early as March 12 at Bhinipeds

Measurements :

16 3¢ 4 99 -

Wing : 57, 58, 59 (4), 59+, 59.5 (2), 60 (2), 60+, 61 (4) 56.5,58 (3)

Tail : 52, 52+, 52.5+, 53 (3), 53+, 53.5, 54 (2),—,

55 G3); 56 :@) 50 (2), 51 (2)

Bill : 17.5, 18 (6), 18.5 (4), 19 (4),— 17.5, 18 (2),—

*491. Dumetia hyperythra hyperythra (Franklin). Northern Rufous-

bellied Babbler.

The first record of the Rufousbellied Babbler from Nepal was

made by Ripley (1950b, p. 392) from the western tarai where it was

subsequently taken by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 125).

492. Macronus gularis rubricapilla (Tickell)2mayri Koelz. Yellow-

breasted Babbler.

BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 6 gd, 1 2 (March 6-8). Dun: Hitaura: 5 3d,

2imm. od, 2 22, 1 imm. 2 (May 14-30, July 9).

The Yellowbreasted Babbler is common in the bhabar and dun

of central Nepal. It occurs in flocks of a dozen or more birds, in

scrub forests, bamboo jungles, etc. :

Scully (1879) did not find it in Nepal. Ripley (1950b, p. 392)

obtained it only in the eastern tarai and dun, and Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 125) from similar areas of western to eastern Nepal.

Ripley (loc. cit.) remarked that this 'species ‘has not previously

been reported from Nepal’, following which Rand & Fleming (loc.

cit.) stated: ‘it has not been recorded before from central or west

Nepal’.. However, it may be noted that Hodgson (1845, p. 23) not

only collected specimens of this ‘species in Nepal, but described it

also aS a new species, Mixornis ruficeps. It was included in his

earliest list (Hodgson, 1844, p. 83) as ‘Mixornis ruficeps, v. Timalia

gularis Horsf. 699° and in Gray & Gray’s (1846, p. 85) catalogue of

Hodgson’s earlier collection under the ‘Streaked-throated Timalia’

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Furthermore, Baker (1922d, p. 273) included Nepal within the range

of this species. As to whether Hodgson obtained his specimens

from the western, central or eastern region, nothing is known for

certain. But I should imagine it more likely that his collection of

this species came from the bhabar and/or dun of central Nepal,

because it is so common along the main trail to Kathmandu through

that region.

Measurements :

ll $3 3 22

Wing : 58.5 (2), 59 (5); 59-5, 60°), 61 56 (2), 56 +

Tail : 51,—(2), 52: (4), 52.5 (2), 53,.53:5 48,—,49

Bill : 15.5 (2), 16 (6), 16.5,—(2) 15,15.5 2)

I am unable to agree with Ripley (1961, p. 366) in synonymizing

mayri Koelz (1951, p. 27) from Darjeeling district and assamicus

Koelz (op. cit., pp. 27-28) from the Garo Hills with rubricapilla

Tickell from Purulia district, West Bengal. Comparison of fresh

material leaves one without any doubt as to the validity of mayri. 1

am, however, not so sure about assamicus, not having seen enough

good material. But the few I have examined from the Garo Hills,

Assam, are different from both rubricapilla and mayri. It would

appear that the species is in need of revision.

493. Timalia pileata bengalensis Godwin-Austen. Bengal Redcapped

Babbler.

Dun: Hitaura: 3. ¢¢ (May 18-27).

The Redcapped Babbler was observed by us only a few times in

the scrub forests of the central dun during May-June.

Scully (1879) did not find it in Nepal, while Ripley (1950b,

p. 392) and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 125) reported it only from

western Nepal.

All my specimens are in worn plumage, those of May 18 and 26

more So.

Measurements: 3 63: Wing 58, 61, 62; tail65,—, 67 +; bill 18 (3).

494. Chrysomma_ sinense sinense (Gmelin). Indian Yellow-eyed

_ Babbler.

Dun: Hitaura: 5 gd, 222 (May 14-27, June 21).

The Yellow-eyed Babbler is found in small numbers in scrub, tall

grass and in bushes of the central dun. It usually occurs in pairs

during May-June.

Scully (1879) did not record it from Nepal. Ripley (1950b,

p. 393) and Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 125-126) found it only in

western Nepal.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 209

All my specimens are in very worn plumage, and only one (c%,

May 23) has the forehead in moult.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Erotcte 66 + (2), — 3) 80 +, —(4) 14.5 (2), 15 (3)

2 Oo; 65, -— 78 +,— 14, 15

*495. Turdoides nipalensis (Hodgson). Spiny Babbler.

The Spiny Babbler is probably endemic in Nepal, having been

known from, that country alone, except for a single example said to

have been taken by Pinwill at Lohoo Ghat across the Nepal border

in Kumaon. However, Pinwill’s collection is well known for inaccurate

locality records on the labels. I shall not be surprised if Pinwill

in fact purchased a skin while at Lohoo Ghat from Nepali people

who seasonally go across the border to Kumaon for trade.

The first post-Hodgsonian report of the species from Nepal is

to be credited to Proud (1949, p. 699) who noted it* occasionally

in Kathmandu. Later, in reporting on his specimen (the first one

taken in Nepal after Hodgson) from c. 1525 m. in western Nepal,

Ripley (1950b, pp. 393-394) gave an account of its rarity. Upon this,

Proud (1952b, p. 667) thought she made a mistake in the identity of

the bird. Subsequently, however, it was found to be ‘in fact quite

common in suitable localities’ (Proud, in litt.) of the Nepal Valley

(see also Fleming, 1952, p. 661; 1957, pp. 766-767). Rand & Fleming

(1953, p. 941; 1957, p. 126) found it in western and west-central Nepal

at c. 915-1430 m. in winter.

*496. Turdoides earlei earlei (Blyth). Eastern Striated Babbler.

After Hodgson’s collection, the Striated Babbler has been recorded

from Nepal by Ripley (1950b, p. 393), and by Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 126) in the western tarai.

*497. Turdoides longirostris (Horsfield & Moore). Slenderbilled

Babbler.

The occurrence of the Slenderbilled Babbler in Nepal is known

only from MHodgson’s later collection (Horsfield & Moore, 1854,

p. 408; Gray, 1863, p. 44).

498. Turdoides striatus striatus (Dumont). Bengal Jungle Babbler.

DUN: Hitaura :4 gg, 4 29 (May 12-23, June 10-23). ?

The Jungle Babbler is common in central Nepal from the plains

up to the duns, about cultivation, in grassland and scrub.

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

It was also reported from the western tarai by Ripley (1950b,

p. 393) and from the tarai to duns of western, west-central and

eastern Nepal by Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 127-128).

All my specimens are in very worn plumage and moulting in one

part or the other. Thus, a male taken May 23 is just beginning to

moult; two males and four females (May 12, 19, 22, June 12, 13, 23)

have their head and neck moult almost finished; and one male

(June 10) has new body and wing feathers but still moulting tail.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

48¢: 103 +, 104, 107, LOR =: 103 +, 104+ (2), 106 24 (3), 24.5

4°02: ° 101 + @), 103, 103 + 102 +, — (2), 104 + 24 (3), 24.5

Ripley (1958, pp. 5-10) has shown that the correct specific name

of the Jungle Babbler is Turdoides striatus (Dumont) and not 7.

somervillei (Sykes) as currently used.

499. Garrulax albogularis albogularis (Gould). Whitethroated Laugh-

ing Thrush.

CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang, Chandragiri above Chitlang: 1 ¢, 3 99,

(April 16-20). NepAL VALLEY: Thankot, Chandragiri above Thankot: 7 dd, 6 92,

1 unsexed (March 21—April 13).

The Whitethroated Laughing Thrush is quite common in forests on

hills round the Nepal Valley southward to about the upper limits of

the central dun. It occurs in flocks of about six to fifteen individuals.

It was also reported from western Nepal by Ripley (1950b, p. 394);

western and west-central Nepal by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 128):

northern regions of central Nepal by Proud (1952a, p. 362) in the

Gandak-Kosi watershed and Polunin (1955, p. 888) in the Langtang

Valley; eastern Nepal by Stevens (1923b, p. 729) in the Mai Valley,

and Biswas (1960a) in the Likhu Valley in February.

Specimens taken during the last days of March and in April are

in different stages of wear. A male and a female collected at

Chitlang on April 19 and 16 respectively, are very much worn.

It was breeding in April.

Colours of soft parts: Tris dull white to bluish white ; bill horny black ; legs and

feet plumbeous ; claws grey (once plumte us) ; pads yellowish white.

Measurements :

Se 9 22 1 unsexed

Wing: 126 +, 130 (2), 131, 132, 127, 128 (2), 129 (2), 130 (2), 135

. 133, 134,— 135, —

Tail 2" 128'4-, 129 45,133, 135.2), 123 4; 1322-2). 133.

. 139 (2),— 134, 134 +, 135, 136 142

Bills ~. 25 (2), 26 (3), 27 (2),— += 24.5, 25 (3), — , 26 (2), 26.5,27 25.5

I agree with Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 128) that G. a. whistleri

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 211

Baker from western Himalaya is a valid subspecies, contra Berlioz,

1930, p. 135 (see also Vaurie, 1954b, p. 5).

*500. Garrulax moniliger moniliger (Hodgson). Indian Necklaced

Laughing Thrush.

The first post-Hodgsonian record of the Necklaced Laughing

Thrush from Nepal consists of Proud’s (1949, p. 699) observation in

the Valley on Phulchauki Danda at c. 1675 m. in June. It has

subsequently been found only by Rand & Fleming (1957, p 129) in

west-central Nepal at c. 915 m., central dun and eastern bhabar.

501. Garrulax pectoralis pectoralis (Gould). Indian Blackgorgetted

Laughing Thrush.

BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 subad. 2 (March 6). DuN: Hitaura: 3 4,

4 subad. 3, 1 juv. ¢, 1 2, 2 subad. 22, 1 juv. 2, 1 nestling unsexed (March 29,

May 19, 29 — June 1, 19-23, July 19,20).

This laughing thrush is common in the central dun, particularly in

forests with dense undergrowths. It occurs in flocks of 10-20

individuals. !

Scully (1879) and Ripley (1950b) both failed to find it in Nepal,

and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 129) reported it only from eastern

Nepal.

All my subadult and adult birds are much worn. The subadult

examples have rufous anterior to the pectoral band, and have thinner

bills. :

The two juvenile birds (c‘, 9, July 19, 20) are similar to adult

birds in coloration of the upper side, but have down feathers on the

abdomen.

The nestling (unsexed, June 11) has the chin and throat almost

naked, and the pectoral band downy.

502... Garrulax striatus vibex Ripley. Nepal Striated Laughing Thrush.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 ¢ (May 5). MarkKaUu VALLEY: Deorali: 1 2 (May 1).

CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 2 ¢¢, 2 92 (March 14, 15, April 19, 20). NEPAL

VALLEY: Godavari, Thankot: 6¢¢, 3 subad. ¢¢, 5 22 (March 21—April 5, 14,

May 13).

The Striated Laughing Thrush is common on hills round the

Nepal Valley. We observed it particularly on the Chandragiri above

Chitlang and Thankot, and the Mahabharat Range on both Deorali

and Bhimphedi sides, in dense forests, undergrowths, as well as on the

lower branches of trees. During March-May it was found in pairs.

It has been reported also from western Nepal by Ripley (1950b,

p. 394), west-central Nepal by Proud (1955, p. 58) and Rand & Fleming

212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

(1957, p. 129), and from the Trisul Valley, central Nepal, by Polunin

(1955, p. 889). ;

It was breeding in April-May. A female taken on March 31 had

fairly well developed but not fully breeding ovary, while a male

specimen had fully breeding testes on May 13. |

Colours of soft parts: Iris brownish pink to dull brick-red with a thin yellow

inner ring ; bill dark horny, paler on the base of lower mandible ; legs and feet pale

slate ; claws horny to pale horny ; pads yellowish grey. ;

Measurements :

9 3d oe

Wing : 138+, 139, 140, 141.5, 142,—, 133, 133+, 136, 136+, 138, 139,

147 (2), 148 141, 142

Tail : 128, 129 (2), 130,—, 132 (2), 133, 134 126 (3), 128+, 129, 130, 132, 139

Bill: 29 (3), 29.5 (2), 30 (2),—(2) 28 (2), 28.5, 29, 29.5, 30 (2),—

Rand & Fleming (op. cit., p. 130) have fully discussed the status

of this subspecies.

*503. Garrulax striatus sikkimensis (Ticehurst). Sikkim Striated

Laughing Thrush.

The only report of the occurrence of this laughing thrush in

Nepal is based on Ripley’s (1950b, p. 394) record from Mangalbaré

on Tinjure Danda, eastern Nepal.

504. Garrulax leucolophus leucolophus (Hardwicke). Himalayan White-

crested Laughing Thrush. ane

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 5 gg (March 7-9). Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi :

4 bd, 5 92 (March 11, May 4, 17, 27, June 6). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: 1 ¢

(March 25).

The Whitecrested Laughing Thrush is very common on hills round

tie Nepal Valley down to the bhabar in flocks of about half-a-dozen

to a dozen individuals.

Ripley (1950b, p. 395) reported it from c. 305 and 1525 m. in

western Nepal and c. 305 m. in eastern Nepal in ‘winter; Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 130) from west-central Nepal at c. 455-1370 m.

in winter; and Biswas (1960a) in eastern Nepal at c. 1525 m. in June.

March specimens are somewhat worn, but those of May-June are

still more so. |

A female taken on May 31 had already laid: it had an exhausted

ovary; while another female taken June 6 had an oviducal egg with-

out shell but with layers of albumen, and an enlarged ovary, the

largest ovarian ovum measuring 15 mm.

Colours of soft parts : Iris reddish brown ; orbital skin pale bluish slate ; bill

black ; legs and feet dull black ; claws dark horny ; pads yellowish grey.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 213

Measurements :

1S 5 £2

Wing: 130+, 132, 132+, 133, 133+ (3), 134, 134+, —, 135, 135+

135, 135+, 136

Mak 125-2) 126. G), 128, 130 ©): 131 125-8. 12821287) 131,—

Bill: 27.5, 28 (2), 29 (3), 29.5, 30 (3) 28.5, 29 (3), 29.5

The name G. |. hardwickii Ticehurst, 1926, currently used for the

eastern subspecies (Ripley, op. cit., p. 395; Rand & Fleming, loc. cit.)

is a synonym of G. I. patkaicus Reichenow, 1913 [type locality: Patkai

Hills, North East Frontier Agency (formerly part of Assam), India],

as has been shown by Mayr (1942, p. 526).

*505. Garrulax variegatus variegatus (Vigors). Eastern Variegated

Laughing Thrush. ;

Cinclosoma variegatum Vigors, 1831, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. (1) : 56. (Himala-

yas=Simla-Almora, according to Ticehurst & Whistler, 1924, p. 471. The earlier res-

triction of the type locality by Baker, 1920b, p. 243, to eastern Nepal does not seem

to be based on any authenticity.)

The first post-Hodgsonian report of this laughing thrush from ,

Nepal is based on Proud’s (1952a, p. 362) observation from the

Gandak-Kosi watershed, central Nepal, at c. 3350 m. in spring. It

has subsequently been found in the northern regions of central Nepal

by Polunin (1955, p. 888) in the Langtang Valley at c. 3050-4115 m.

in summer, and Lowndes (1955, p. 30) in Manangbhot at c. 2745-

3960 m. in sumimer; and in the Kali Gandak Valley, west-central

Nepal, at c. 2590-2745 m. in winter by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 130).

506. Garrulax rufogularis rufogularis (Gould). Eastern Rufouschinned

Laughing Thrush.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 f,1 juv. 9 (May 4, 5). Markyu VALLEY: Deorali:

1 § (May 2). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: 4 29 (March 21, April 5, 14).

The Rufouschinned Laughing Thrush did not appear to be

common in central Nepal. We occasionally saw pairs or small

parties of three to six individuals in dense undergrowths of forests

or in scrub on their edges.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

DES: 93, 98 103, 110 23, 24

499: 92, 94 (3) 98, 100 (2), 103 23.5, 24 (2), 25

I am unable to accept Ripley’s (1950a, p. 104) grosvenori from

western Nepal, to which Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 131) examples

from west-central Nepal have been relegated. Although I have not

had the opportunity to examine any west-central or western Nepal

skin, a comparison between fresh birds from Garhwal, Kumaon,

214. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

central Nepal and Darjeeling district has revealed that the central

Nepal specimens (=rufimenta Hodgson) themselves show a tendency

towards occidentalis Hartert from Dehra Dun. Ripley’s grosvenori

appears, to all intents and purposes, to represent nothing but an

intermediate population between occidentalis and rufogularis, where .

the intermediate characters must be a little more accentuated than

in central Nepal birds.

*507. Garrulax ocellatus ocellatus (Vigors). Eastern Whitespotted

Laughing Thrush.

The first record of this species from Nepal after Hodgson’s

collection was made by Polunin (1955, p. 888) from the Langtang

Valley, central Nepal, at c. 2745 m. in summer. It was later reported

only by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 131) from Okhaldhunga district,

eastern Nepal, at c. 3050 m. in winter.

508. Garrulax caerulatus caerulatus (Hodgson). Greysided Laughing

Thrush.

MARKHU VALLEY : Deorali: 1 2 (April 30).

This laughing thrush appeared rather uncommon in central

Nepal. It was: observed by us only on a few occasions in small

parties of three or four birds on Chandragiri above Thankot in early

April, on Phulchauki Danda above Godavari in May, and on the

Mahabharat Range about Deorali towards the end of April.

Scully (1879) did not find it in Nepal. All other reports of this

species from Nepal referred to the ‘central region (Proud, 1949,

pp. 698-699, 1955, p. 58; Ripley, 1950b, p. 395; Rand & Fleming,

1957, pp. 131-132). | .

Measurements : 1 2: Wing 104 ; tail—; bill 26.

*509. Garrulax ruficollis (Jardine & Selby). Rufousnecked Laughing

Thrush.

Hodgson’s collection (Gray & Gray, 1846, p. 82) represents the

sole record of the Rufousnecked Laughing Thrush from Nepal.

510. Garrulax lineatus setafer (Hodgson). Nepal Streaked Laughing

Thrush.

MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 ¢ (April 29). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang:

1kQ (April 22). NepaL VALLEY: Thankot : 6 fo (March 28, 29, April 13, 14).

The Streaked Laughing Thrush is not particularly common in

central Nepal. We encountered it only occasionally in small parties

of two to six specimens on both sides of the Chandragiri, on

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 215

Phulchauki Danda and on the Mahabharat Range, in undergrowths,

scrub, open parts of forests, and even near cultivation.

Smythies (1948, p. 440) found it in the Gandak-Kosi watershed,

central Nepal, at c. 2435 m. in autumn, and later (1950, p. 514) on

the Mahabharat Range at c. 1890 m. ‘but never in the Nepal Valley’;

Ripley (1950b, p. 395) reported it from the Chandragiri Pass, central

Nepal. Polunin (1955, pp. 888-889) recorded it from the Langtang

Valley, central Nepal, up to c. 3350 m. in summer. Lowndes (1955,

p. 30) noted it in the Marsiyandi Valley on the way to Manangbhot,

central Nepal, at c. 1980 m. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 132) found

it in winter in western Nepal at c. 1065 m., in west-central Nepal at

c. 2745 m., and in eastern Nepal at c. 2435 and 2745 m. Biswas

(1960a) reported it from Sangasoti Danda, Chautara district, central

Nepal, at c. 2130 m. in January, and Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at c. 3050-

3960 m. in April-May.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

6 gd: 77, 78 (3), 80.5, 81 90, 90+, 93, 96, 97 (2) 18, 19 (2), 19+, —(2)

Beer Qs: 76 90+ 19

It may be noted that the Nepali birds (setafer) have the black

subterminal band on lateral tail feathers much wider than those of

western Himalayan birds (lineatus Vigors)—a character not mentioned

by Baker (1922d, pp. 180-181). The Nepali race also appears to be

a little smaller than the western. 7

Regarding the use of the different names for the races of the

species, see Ripley (1961, pp. 391-392).

511. Garrulax squamatus (Gould). Bluewinged Laughing Thrush.

NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: 1 2 (March 21).

This laughing thrush appeared rare indeed in central Nepal, having

been met with by us only once in dense bush on the bank of a

stream in the forest of Thankot. The only other post-Hodgsonian

record of the species from Nepal is Stevens’s (1923b, p. 730) from

c. 1370-2130 m. in eastern Nepal.

Measurements : 1 2: Wing 103 ; tail 103 ; bill 23.

*512. Garrulax subunicolor subunicolor (Blyth). Plaincolored Laugh-

ing Thrush.

The post-Hodgsonian reports of this laughing thrush from Nepal

consist of Stevens’s (1923b, 729) from the Mai Valley, eastern

Nepal, at c. 1825-2130 m., and Biswas’s (1960a) probable sight record

from Sangasoti Danda, Chautara district, central Nepal, at c. 2130 m.

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

*513. Garrulax affinis affinis Blyth. Western Blackfaced Laughing

Thrush.

Since Hodgson’s days this laughing thrush has been reported from

Nepal by Smythies (1948, p. 440) in the Gandak-Kosi watershed,

central Nepal, at c. 3350-3960 m. in autumn; Proud (1952a, p. 362)

in the same area at c. 3505 m. in spring; Polunin (1955, p. 888) in

the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, at c. 3050-4115 m. in summer;

Lowndes (1955, p. 30) in Manangbhot, central Nepal, at c. 2745 and

3655 m. in summer; and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 132) in \ the Kali

Gandak Valley, west-central Nepal, in winter.

*514.. Garrulax affinis bethelae Rand & Fleming. Eastern Blackfaced

Laughing Thrush.

The Blackfaced Laughing Thrush from eastern Nepal belongs to

this subspecies. It has so far been recorded there by Ripley (1950b,

p. 395) at c. 2745 m. in winter; Rand & Fleming (1956, p. 2; 1957,

p. 133) in Okhaldhunga district at c. 3050 m. in winter; and by Biswas

(1960a} in Khumbu from c. 3050 to 4570 m. in February-May.

515. Garrulax erythrocephalus kali eens Nepal Redheaded Laugh-

ing Thrush.

CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 4 ¢¢, 1 @ (April 16-22). NEPAL VALLEY :

Thankot: 4 ¢¢, I juv. ¢, 5 29, 1 (2) (March 22—April 18, June 29, July 22).

The Redheaded Laughing Thrush is not uncommon on hills

round the Nepal Valley in pairs or small parties of four to six birds

in undergrowths of forests.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 133) reported it also from west-central

Nepal.

A male specimen has its tail moulting on April 20.

The juvenile male bird taken July 22 is similar to atdult, but has

the mantle and sides of the neck olive rufous, a few feathers having

black subtips; the feathers on the breast have black subtips but not

those of the neck. :

Measurements :

Sy Giich 7 2°

Wing : 100, 101, 102 (4), 103, 104 94, 95, 96a, 96+, —, 97, 99

Tail : 114 (4), —, 115 (2), 117 —, 106, 1068, 106+, 107+', 108, 108+

Bill : 24.5"(2)5 2534) 25.5126 24, 24.5 (2), 254, 25, —(2)

a Marked ¢ on label, but very probably wrongly sexed.

Rand & Fleming (op. cit., pp. 134-135) have given an excellent

summary of the geographical variation in the populations of this

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL pai t4)

species from Mussoorie to Sikkim. J would only add that the

specimens listed above have the ear coverts margined generally with

pink and in a few cases with pink and white. Only five specimens

have traces of dusky on the crown.

*516. Garrulax erythrocephalus nigrimentus (Oates). Sikkim Redhead-

ed Laughing Thrush.

This form was first reported from Nepal by Gray (1863, pp. 42-43)

based on Hodgson’s later collection and was entered under the name

Pterocyclus chrysopterus. It was subsequently obtained in eastern

Nepal by Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 133-134) from Okhaldhunga

district, and by Biswas (1960a) from the Dudh Kosi Valley.

Vaurie (1953a, pp. 78-79) questioned the occurrence of this sub-

species in Nepal because the manuscript name of Hodgson’s figure on

which Oates named this form was based on a specimen which, according

to Kinnear (quoted by Vaurie), almost certainly came from Sikkim.

However, Gray (op. cit., p. 43) gave Nepal as the locality, and there

is no doubt that a good deal of eastern Nepal elements were present

in Hodgson’s later collection.

Rand & Fleming’s specimen mentioned above is perhaps not true

nigrimentus, nor are perhaps Biswas’s (1960a) (see also Ripley, 1961,

Bee 295).

*517. Liocichla phoenicea phoenicea (Gould). Nepal Crimsonwinged

Laughing Thrush.

The Crimsonwinged Laughing Thrush is known from Nepal only

through Hodgson’s and Gould’s specimens.

518. Leiothrix argentauris argentauris (Hodgson). Silver-eared Mesia.

Dun : Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 9 ¢¢, 6 22 (March 14, May 1!1—June 5).

The Silver-eared Mesia is not an uncommon bird of the central

dun, especially in the Hitaura region. It occurs in small flocks of

six to ten birds on bushes in the forests.

It was also reported from western and west-central Nepal by Ripley

(1950b, p. 395) and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 135).

Some of my May-June birds are fairly worn.

Measurements :

93d 629

Wing: 75, 76 (2), —(2), 78 (3), 81 73.5 +, 15:6), 77.5,.78

Tail: 66, 67, 68 (2), 69 (3), 71 (2) 63+, 67 (2), 69 (2), 70

Bill: 17, 18, 18.5 (4), 19 G) 17.5 (2), 18 (3), —

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

519. Leiothrix lutea calipyga (Hodgson). Eastern Redbilled Leiothrix

or ‘ Pekin Robin’.

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 7 $3, 6 2? (April 16-26).

The Redbilled Leiothrix is a common bird of central Nepal. In

April-May it was found by us in the Nepal and Chitlang Valleys

occurring in pairs or small parties of four to six individuals in scrub

cr bushes in forests.

Smythies (1950, p. 514) found only a solitary example in the

Nepal Valley on Sheopuri at c. 2135 m. on September 1, 1942, but

none in June, July or August. Proud (1952a, p. 363) reported it also

from the northern region of central Nepal in the Gandak-Kosi

watershed at c. 2435 m. in spring; and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 135)

from west-central Nepal at c. 915 and 1400 m. in winter. It was not

found by Scully (1879).

Some of my specimens are somewhat worn.

Measurements : :

e788 6 99

Wing: 66+, 67 (2), 69, 70 (3) 65 (2), 67, 67.5, 68, 69

Tail: 5) -b, 56 (2)5 57,6) 52 53,55.(2), 56,.5%(2)

Bills. 15; 15.55,16.(3), 16:5, — £5, 15.5 2); —@C)

*520. Myzornis pyrrhoura Blyth. Firetailed Myzornis.

The post-Hodgsonian records of the Firetailed Myzornis from

Nepal consist of Stevens’s (1923b, p. 739) from the Singalila Range,

eastern Nepal, at c. 2285-3050 m. in March-April, and Ripley’s (1950b,

p. 396) from eastern Nepal at c. 2745 m. in winter.

521. Cutia nipalensis nipalensis Hodgson. Nepal Cutia.

MarKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 4¢¢, 222 (April 28—May 2). CHITLANG

VALLEY: Chitlang: 2 ¢¢ (April 18).

The Nepal Cutia does not appear to be a common bird of central

Nepal. We observed it in small parties on Phulchauki Danda above

Godavari, Chandragiri above Chitlang, and on the Mahabharat

Range at Deorali, in deep forests.

Neither Scully (1879) nor Ripley (1950b) reported it from Nepal.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

6 od: 90,912), 93. @), 96-58, 59 (2), '60"(2), 60:5" = 22.5 (2). 23: By, 23.5

2300's 85, 88 56:5, 58 21 (2)

*522. Pteruthius rufiventer Blyth. Rufousbellied Shrike-Babbler.

The specimens of the Rufousbellied Shrike-Babbler from Hodgson’s

later collection received by the Museum of the East India Company,

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 219

were entered as coming from Nepal (Horsfield & Moore, 1854, p. 173),

but those received by the British Museum were stated to be coming

from Darjeeling (Gray, 1863, p. 50). I am unable to trace any other

record of the species from Nepal.

523. Pteruthius validirostris ripleyi Biswas. Himalayan Redwinged

Shrike-Babbler. ;

MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 3 92 (May 2-3). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang,

Chandragiri above Chitlang: 3 go, 4 92 (March 15, April 18-21). NEPAL VALLEY :

Thankot, crest of Chandragiri: 6 g¢,5 22 (March 28—April 15, 23).

The Redwinged Shrike-Babbler is a common bird of central

Nepal occurring in pairs in the forests on hills round the Nepal Valley,

as well as on the Mahabharat Range. During March-May it was

not seen much below 1830 m.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 135) reported it also from western and

west-central Nepal.

It was breeding from mid-April, laying in early May. A male

taken April 18 had the testes measuring R: 75.5, L: 9.255 mm.:;

and another male shot on April 21 had them R: 7X45, L:

8.25X5.75 mm.; while two female specimens of April 15 and 20 had

9x7 (largest ovum 2.5) mm., and 10X5.25 (largest: ovum 2) mm.

ovaries, respectively. :

Colours of soft parts: Iris greenish grey ; upper mandible black with bluish

slate on edges and sides of the basal third, lower mandible bluish slate p aler, on tip ;

legs and feet fleshy ; claws horny ; pads fleshy white.

Measurements :

Idd | 12 99

Wing: 80(2), 81.5, 82, 84, 85 (4) 78, 79, 79+, 81 (3), 82, 83, 84, 84.5, 85, 87

Tail: 59 (2), 60 (2), 61 (3), 62, 64 57, 58+, 59 (2), 60 (2), 61 (2), 62 (2), 63, 64

~ Bul: 18, 18.5 (2), 19 (5), 19.5 18.5 (3), 19 (6), 19.5 (2), 20

*524. Pteruthius xanthochloris xanthochloris J.E. & G.R. Gray. Green

Shrike-Babbler.

The post-Hodgsonian Nepali records of the Green Shrike-Babbler

have been provided by Proud (1955, p. 60) and Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 136) from the Nepal Valley at c. 2130-2435 m. The latter

authors found it also in the Maulung Valley (Okhaldhunga district),

eastern Nepal, at c. 3050 m.

525. Pteruthius melanotis melanotis Blyth. Chestnut-throated Shrike-

Babbler.

MARKHU VALLEy : Deorali: 1 ¢, 1 2 (April29, May 1).

We came across this shrike-babbler in central Nepal only on a few

occasions in April-May, when it occurred in pairs.

220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Neither Scully (1879) nor Ripley (1950b) reported it from Nepal,

but Proud (1955, p. 59) and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 136) noted

it in the Nepal Valley.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

lg 61.5 ‘alGgiao dis

1iO=* = 56 . 39+ 13

526. Actinodura egertoni egertoni Gould. Nepal Barwing.

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 2 (April 16).

The Nepal Barwing was found by us to be rare indeed in central

Nepal. It was observed only once in a small party of four or five

birds in dense forest at the foot of Chandragiri above Chitlang. It

would appear that the present specimen is the only example of the

species collected from Nepal since Hodgson’s days.

The specimen is in worn plumage.

Measurements: 19: Wing 85 + ; tail 113+ ; bill 19.

527. Actinodura nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson). Nepal Hoary Barwing.

CHITLANG VALLEY: Chandragiri above Chitlang: 6 30,5 99 (April 16-25).

This barwing was commonly found by us on hills round the Nepal

Valley, including thé southern face of Chandragiri above Chitlang.

It was seen to occur in small parties of three to six individuals in

oak forests, usually above 1830 m.

Smythies (1948, p. 440) and Proud (1952a, p. 362) found it in the

Gandak-Kosi watershed, central Nepal, between c. 2130 and 2745 m.

(once at c. 3350 m.); Smythies (1950, p. 514) reported it as resident

above c. 2440 m. on Phulchauki Danda and Sheopuri Lekh, both in

the Nepal Valley; and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 136) found it also

in west-central Nepal at c. 2130 m.

All the specimens listed above are worn, a few being very much so.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

6 cd: 91,914+(2),—(2), 93 82+, 83, 84, —(3) 215322135)

De Sa 87+, —(2), 89+(2) 77,—(@), 79, 80 20.5, 21 (3), 21.5

*528. Actinodura nipalensis vinctura Ripley. Eastern Hoary Barwing.

The Hoary Barwing from eastern Nepal to Bhutan was separated

by Ripley (1950a, p. 104) as distinct from the western populations.

This form was recorded only twice from Nepal, by Ripley (loc. cit.,

and 1950b, p. 396) from the type locality, and by Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 137) from Okhaldhunga district, eastern Nepal.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL pupa)

*529. Minla ignotincta ignotincta Hodgson. Redtailed Minla.

Neither Ripley (1950b) nor we came across the Redtailed Minla

in Nepal. In central Nepal it was reported from the Nepal Valley

by Scully (1879, pp. 319-320), Proud (1949, p. 701; 1955, p. 59),

and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 137), and from Sangasoti Danda,

Chautara district at c. 2285 m. in January by Biswas (1960a). Rand

& Fleming found it also in Okhaldhunga district, eastern Nepal.

530. Minla strigula strigula (Hodgson). Stripethroated Siva.

CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 1 ¢,2 92 (April 20-24). NEPAL VALLEY :

Thankot: 1 ¢ (April 12).

The Stripethroated Siva did not appear to be particularly common

in central Nepal. It was seen by us only on a few occasions on

Phulchauki Danda above Godavari, and on Chandragiri both on

Thankot and Chitlang sides. Our observation in this regard agrees

with Ripley’s (1950b, p. 396) rather than with Scully’s (1879, p. 319).

In west-central Nepal, Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 137) found it

in the Kali Gandak Valley at c. 2130-2745 m. in November. In the

northern regions of central Nepal, it was reported from the Gandak-

Kosi watershed by Smythies (1948, p. 440) at c. 2130-3350 m. in

autumn, and Proud (1952a, p. 363) at c. 2435-2745 m. in spring; from

the Langtang Valley by Polunin (1955, p. 889) at c. 2745-3050 m. in

summer; and from Manangbhot by Lowndes (1955, p. 31) at c. 2435-

3050 m. in summer. In eastern Nepal, it was recorded from

Okhaldhunga district at c. 1825-2285 m. by Rand & Fleming (op. cit.,

p. 138), and in Dhankuta district by Ripley (loc. cit.) at c. 1980-

2745 m. in winter.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

26d: 70(2) 69, 72 14°5, 15

22: 66, 69 67, 68 15(2)

The length of tail ‘about 70 to 72 mm.’ as given by Baker (1922d,

p. 313) for this bird (ssp. strigula+simlaensis) does not appear to be

quite correct. Thirty specimens, males and females, from Nepal,

Sikkim, Darjeeling and Bhutan measure: 65(1), 66(3), 67(4), 68(4),

68.5(2), 69(5), 69.5(3), 70(3), 71(3), 72(2).

531. Minla cyanouroptera cyanouroptera (Hodgson). Bluewinged Siva.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 2 (May 4). MarkHu VALLEY: Deorali: 33'3,,.1-95:1

juv. Q (April 29—May 2). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: 1 3, 12 (March 22,

April 8). j

The Bluewinged Siva was found infrequently in central Nepal by

us. In the Nepal Valley it was seen at Godavari and Thankot, but

appeared commoner on the Mahabharat Range around Deorali.

222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Scully (1879, p. 319) noted it as scarce-in the Nepal Valley where

Smythies (1950, p. 514) recorded it as a resident species above

c. 2440 m. on the Phulchauki and Sheopuri Ranges. Rand & Fleming

(1957, p. 138) reported it as one of the commonest species of central

Nepal. They found it also in western and west-central Nepal.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

43¢: 63, 65, 65.5, 65 66.5, 68, 69, 70 17(2), —@)

Bor 65 (2), 67 67, 68 (2) 16 (2), 17

*532. Yuhina bakeri Rothschild. Chestnut-headed Ixulus.

The first post-Hodgsonian record of the Chestnut-headed Ixulus

from Nepal has been provided by Ripley (1950b, p. 397) who found

it in Dhankuta district, eastern Nepal. It has subsequently been

reported by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 139) from west-central and

central Nepal, at c. 1825 and 2285 m. in winter, ‘and by Biswas

(1960a) from Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at c. 3960 m. in early April.

*533. Yuhina flavicollis albicollis (Ticehurst & Whistler). Western

Yellownaped Ixulus.

The Yellownaped Ixulus was first reported from Nepal by Ripley

(1950b, p. 396) in the western region. Later, it was again recorded

from western and west-central Nepal by Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 138). They, however, list all their birds from western to central

Nepal under the nominate flavicoillis. I have followed Ripley (1961,

p. 408) in assigning the western and west-central birds under

albicollis.

534. Yuhina flavicollis flavicollis Hodgson. Yellowheaded Ixulus.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 2 (March 13). MarkHu VALLEY: Deorali: 1 @

(April 28). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang : 2 é¢,3 29 (April 17-22). NEPAL VALLEY :

Thankot : 7 gg, 422 (March 24—April 7).

The Yellowheaded Ixulus is common in central Nepal on hills

round the Nepal Valley and on the Mahabharat Range. It occurs

in small flocks on bushes or on lower branches of trees in the forests.

It was reported from the northern regions of central Nepal by

Proud (1952a, p. 363) in the Gandak-Kosi watershed at c. 2435-

3050 m. in spring, Polunin (1955, p. 889) in the Langtang Valley at

c. 2745 m. in summer, Lowndes (1955, p. 31) in the Marsiyandi

Valley at c. 1980 m. in summer. In eastern Nepal, it was reported

by Stevens (1923b, p. 737) on Singalila Range in, May, and Ripley

(1950b, p. 397) from Dhankuta district in winter.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 223

_ Measurements:

93d 2 29

Wing : 63 (3), 64 (2), 65 (3), 65.5 61 (2), 61.5, 62 (2), 63 (2), 64, 64+

Tail: 50 (6), 51 (2), 32 : 48, 49, 49+, —, 50(3), 51 (2)

Bill : 14 (5), 14.5 (2), 15 (2) TAG). 14.5, 15. —(2)

535. Yuhina gularis gularis Hodgson. Eastern Stripethroated Yuhina.

MarKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 2 ¢¢, 2 92 (April 28—-May 1). CHITLANG

VALLEY : Chitlang: 6 ¢3,5 @92 (April 21-26). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: 1 ¢>

2 22 (April 2).

The Stripethroated Yuhina is common in central Nepal in bushes

and lower branches of trees. It occurs in flocks and at an altitude

of about 1825 m. upwards.

In west-central Nepal, it was found by Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 139) at c. 2130 m. in November. In the northern regions of

central Nepal, it was reported by Proud (1952a, p. 362) in the Gandak-

Kosi watershed up to c. 3350 m. in spring, Polunin (1955, p. 889)

in the Langtang Valley at c. 2745 and 3340 m. in summer, and,

Lowndes (1955, p. 31) in the Marsiyandi Valley at c. 2435 m. in

summer. In eastern Nepal, it was recorded from Dhankuta district at

c. 1980-2745 m. in winter by Ripley (1950b, p. 397), and Okhaldhunga

district at c. 3050 m. in December by Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.).

Most of my specimens are in different stages of moult. A few

however, have not started moulting yet, while a few others have just

completed moult.

Measurements :

93d ees

Wing : 70+, 72, 73 (2), 74 (4), 77 68+, 69, 71, 71+, 73 (3), 73+, 74

Tail : 56 (4), —, 57 (2), 58 (2) 53 (2), 54, 55 (3), —, 57, 58

Bill : 17°5, 18 (8) 17°5, 18 (6), —(2)

*536. Yuhina occipitalis occipitalis Hodgson. Rufousvented Yuhina.

This yuhina was not obtained by us, or by Ripley (1950b) or

Rand & Fleming (1957). However, Scully (1879, pp. 321-322) found

it to be restdent in the Nepal Valley, and Proud (1949, p. 700) noted

it common there on higher hills. She further (1952a, pp. 362-363)

reported it from the Gandak-Kosi watershed, central Nepal, at

c. 3350 m. in spring. Polunin (1955, p. 889) recorded it in the

Langtang Valley, central Nepal, at c. 3050 m. in summer. Lowndes

(1955, p. 31) found it in the Marsiyandi Valley, central Nepal, at

c. 2435 m. in summer.

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

537. Yuhina nigrimentum nigrimentum Blyth. Blackchinned Yuhina.

Dun : Bhimphedi: 2 ¢¢, 2 29 (March 12, May 3, 4).

The Blackchinned Yuhina appeared rather uncommon in central

Nepal. We saw it on a few occasions in smal! flocks on the upper

branches of trees in the forests of Bhimphedi region, in the dun.

Ours appears to be the only post-Hodgsonian record of the species

from Nepal.

A female taken March 12 has the moult on the forecrown nearly

finished. Incidentally, this specimen was breeding, somewhat early for

the species.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

23d: 55, 7 38, 39 8

292: 55 (2) 38, 39 14 (2)

538. Yuhina zantholeuca zantholeuca Blyth. Whitebellied Erpornis.

Dun: Hitaura: 5 gg, 2 92 (May 11-22).

The Whitebellied Erpornis is not a common bird of central Nepal.

We observed it in pairs on bushes and trees in the forests of the

Hitaura dun.

Scully (1879) did not find it in Nepai, but Proud (1949, p. 700),

Ripley (1950b, p. 397) and Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 140-141) noted

it on hills round the Nepal Valley. The last-named authors also

reported it from west-central and eastern Nepal.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

533: 64, 65, 66, 68 (2) 44, 45, 46, 47, 48 14.5,215-(3);45.5

2008: 62,63 42, 45 14.5, 15

*539. Alcippe chrysotis chrysotis (Blyth). Goldenbreasted Fulvetta.

The only record of the Goldenbreasted Fulvetta from Nepal since

Hodgson’s days is Stevens’s (1923b, p. 734) from the Mai Valley,

eastern Nepal, at c. 2435-3050 m. in March-May.

*540. Alcippe cinerea (Blyth). Dusky Green Tit-Babbler.

The only post-Hodgsonian record of this species from Nepal

consists of Proud’s (1949, p. 700) observational report above Godavari

at c. 2130 m. on Phulchauki Danda, Nepal Valley, in April.

541. Alcippe castaneceps castaneceps (Hodgson). Chestnut-headed

Tit-Babbler.

MarkKHu VALLEY: Deorali: 2 ¢¢ (April 28, May 1). CHITLANG VALLEY :

Chitlang: 5 ¢¢, 4 99, 1 unsexed (April 18-26). NepaAL VALLEY: Thankot,

Chandragiri Pass: 5 Jd, 6 99, 1 unsexed (March 22—April 18). ©

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 229

The Chestnut-headed Tit-Babbler is a common bird on hills round

the Nepal Valley and on the Mahabharat Range. It occurs in small

flocks, usually above 1825 m., in undergrowths, dense bushes, some-

times even on trees.

Measurements :

12 od 10 22 2 unsexed

Wing 2 50,550.5(2)5, 50:5 5127), 08 (2),.59) 535,53.0(2): 544); 55 GB) 355,55

Tail: 42, 43(3), 44(4), 44.5, 45(2), 45.5 41(2), 41.5, 42(3), 42.5(2), 43,— 42, 45

Bill : 12.5(2), 13(7), —@) 11.5, 12(7), 12.5,— 123.13

Ripley (1950b, pp. 397-398) has discussed the geographical varia-

tion in this species on the material available to him, and concluded:

‘From the speciation point of view there are probably several different

populations, but I hesitate to recognise them. From the point of

view of convenience in arranging these specimens in drawers ia a

museum (a necessary if arbitrary process) I would be inclined to

recognize castaneceps as the race of Nepal, Sikkim, Assam, Burma,

Yunnan and Siam, ...’ And recently, he (1961, p. 411) followed

this arrangement, synonymizing brunneicauda Sharpe and garoensis

Koelz with nominate castaneceps. However, an examination of fresh

skins from the Himalayas and southern Assam shows that the

populations from the Garo and Khasi Hills are indeed paler than

that of central Nepal, the chestnut of the head being palest in Garo

Hills birds, so that both brunneicauda Sharpe (1883, p. 609) and

garoensis Koelz (1951, p. 29) should be admitted for the Khasi and

Garo Hills birds, respectively.

542. Alcippe vinipectus vinipectus (Hodgson). Hodgson’s Fulvetta.

CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 3 ¢¢, 3 22 (April 20-25). NepAL VALLEY

Thankot : 12 (April 6).

We did not find Hodgson’s Fulvetta to be common in central

Nepal. It was seen in small flocks on both sides of the Chandragiri

in undergrowths and bushes on the edges of forests during April.

Scully (1879) did not observe it in Nepal. In the northern regions

of central Nepal, it was found by Smythies (1948, p. 440) in autumn

at c. 3350-3655 m. in the Gandak-Kosi watershed where Proud (1952a,

p. 362) also came across it at c. 2895-3350 m. in spring; Lowndes

(1955, p. 31) in the Marsiyandi Valley at c. 2435 m. in summer.

Smythies (1950, p. 514) reported it as a probable resident species on

Phulchauki and Chandragiri Ranges, central Nepal, above c. 2440 m.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 141) noted it in the Kali Gandak Valley,

west-central Nepal, at c. 1525-2745 m. in winter.

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Measurements :

Wing | Tail Bill

33d: 54+(2), 55 48, 49(2) 10.5, 11, 12

49°: 51, 51+, 53, 54 46, 47, —, 52 10.5, 11 (2), 11.5

*543. Alcippe vinipectus chumbiensis (Kinnear). Eastern Fulvetta.

The Eastern Fulvetta ranges from eastern Nepal eastward. It has

been recorded for the first time from Nepal by Ripley (1950b, p. 398)

from Dhankuta district, at c. 2745 m. in winter. It has subsequently

been reported by Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 141-142) from

Okhaldhunga district at c. 2130-3050 m. in winter, and Biswas (1960a)

from Khumbu at c. 3655-3960 m. in the Dudh Kosi and Imja valleys

during the latter half of February and early March, and in the Imja

Valley at c. 4265 m. early in May.

544. Alcippe nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson). Nepal Babbler.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 3 ¢¢, 2 29, 1 unsexed (March 12, May 4-7). MARKHU

VALLEY : Deorali: 2 ¢¢, 1 Q (April 28—May 2). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang :

5 éd, 1 Q (April 17-26). NEPAL VALLEY: Phulchauki Danda above Godavari,

Thankot : 14 ¢¢, 5 99, 1 juv. 2 (March 16—April 9, May 13).

The Nepal Babbler is a very common bird of central Nepal. We

found it in pairs or small parties on hills round the Nepal Valley

near their bases, and on the Mahabharat Range, on bushes as well as

on trees usually above c. 1525 m. (cf. Baker, 1922d, p. 276).

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 142) reported it also from west-central

Nepal at c. 760-1675 m. in winter.

The juvenile female specimen has a rufous tinge on the back and.

tail.

Measurements :

; 24 oo 9 2° 1 unsexed

Wing: 57+, 59, 60 (7), 60+, 60.5, 58, 59.5, 60(3), 60.5(2), 60

61 (8), 61.5, 62(3), 62.5 62, 63

Tail : 57, 58, 59(6), 59.5, 60(4), —, 58, 59, 59.5, 60(3), 61.5, 59

61 (3), 61.5(3), 62 (2), 62.5, 63 62, 64

Bill : 13.5 (2), 14 (13), 14.5 (8), — —, 14(5), 14.5, 15 (2) 14

545. Heterophasia capistrata nigriceps (Hodgson). Nepal Blackheaded

Sibia.

Dun : Bhimphedi: 1 ¢, 12 (March 11, May 6). MARKHU VALLEY : Deorali: 2¢'

(April 30). CHiTLANG VALLEY : Chitlang : 3 go, 2 $Y (March 15). NEPAL VALLEY :

Thankot, Chandragiri above Thankot, Crest of Chandragiri: 8 gd, 2 2, 1 unsexed

(March 23-31, April 14-18).

The Blackheaded Sibia is quite a common bird of central Nepal

in forests above 1525 m. ;

In the northern regions of central Nepal, it was recorded by Proud

(1952a, p. 363) in the Gandak-Kosi watershed at c. 2435-2745 m. in

spring, Polunin (1955, p. 889) in the Langtang Valley at c. 2590-

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 227

2895 m. in summer, and Lowndes (1955, p. 31) in the Marsiyandi

Valley and Manangbhot at c. 1980-3200 m. in summer. Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 142) found it in western and west-central Nepal

at c. 1065-2130 m. in winter.

Measurements: —

14 gd 5 22 1 unsexed

Wing : 96(3), 97(2), 98(3), 99(2), 100(2), 101, 102 90, 90+, 91, 92, 93 96

Tail : 99+, 100(2), 101(2), 102(2), 103(3), 105(3), 106 94, 95(2), 97, 99 106

Bill: 92252250). 23(2), 23-1 2515(2)) 24) | 22: 22-54 23,.23:5,—.s-23.5

*546. Heterophasia capistrata capistrata (Vigors). Eastern Black-

headed Sibia.

Cinclosoma capistratum Vigors, 1831, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. (1):56. (Hima-

layas = Darjiling, according to Baker, 1922d, p. 296.)

Leioptila capistrata bayleyi Kinnear, 1939, Ibis (14)3:752. (Taktoo, near

Sakdan, Bhutan.)

This eastern form has been recorded from eastern Nepal by Ripley

(1950b, p. 399) in Dhankuta district at c. 2130 m. upwards, Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 142) in Okhaldhunga district at c. 2285 and 2745 m.

in December, and Biswas (1960a) on Sangasoti Danda and in Likhu

Valley, Ramechhap district, at c. 1740-1980 m. during late January

and early February, in the Hongu and Tamur valleys and on the

Nepal side of the Singalila Range between 1830 and 2745 m. in June.

Ripley (loc. cit.) has discussed the question of the nomenclature

of the Himalayan races of this species. As additional evidence for

synonymizing bayleyi Kinnear with capistrata Vigors, I may mention

here that although Kinnear (op. cit., pp. 751-752) thought that

Vigors’s description of capistrata ‘dorso medio pallidé brunnescenti-

griseo’ applied only to the western Himalayan bird, he described

bayleyi as having ‘darker colour of the back, which is sooty brown,

tinged with grey’. Kinnear’s description of bayleyi would appear to!

fit in admirably with Vigors’s of capistrata.

Recently, however, Ripley (1961, pp. 416-417) has gone back to

Ticehurst-Whistler-Kinnear arrangement in fe-restricting the type

locality of capistrata Vigors to Simla, in spite of earlier restrictions by

Baker, Ticehurst and Whistler.

*547. Heterophasia picaoides picaoides (Hodgson). Longtailed Sibia.

The sole post-Hodgsonian Nepali record of the Longtailed Sibia

is Scully’s (1879, p. 293) who reported it to be ‘tolerably common

about Nimboatar [in the central dun] in winter, but was not observed

elsewhere in Nepal’.

(To be continued)

An Account of a trip to the Barapede

Cave, Talewadi, Belgaum District,

Mysore State, with some Notes on

Reptiles and Amphibians

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

(With one text-figure)

In May 1961, I accompanied Mon. A. Brosset on a short trip to

the Barapede Cave at Talewadi (Belgaum District, Mysore State).

The main objective was Wroughton’s Free-tailed Bat, Otomops

wroughtoni (Thomas), discovered here by the late Mr. S. H. Prater

in 1912 and not recorded since then from anywhere. We took

with us two members of the Society’s staff, P. W. Soman and

M. J. Pereira. The ‘long-lost’ bats were present in numbers in

cracks in the roof of the cave, and specimens were caught in a

net thoughtfully brought by M. Brosset all the way from Bombay—

a net with a long handle made up of poles which fitted into each

other. In the course of the trip, Soman visited a large and extensive

group of caves at Krishnapur, some six miles down the valley to the

west of Talewadi and close to the Goa border, and collected some

bats, including 5 males of Taphozous theobaldi Dobson. This species

has a wide distribution over Burma, Malaya, and Java, but there is

-only one previous record of it from India—3 males obtained at

Asirgarh, Nimar, Central India, during the Mammal Survey in 1911.

M. Brosset is reporting on the bats in the course of a paper dealing

with the species met by him during his sojourn of two years in

India. I am giving a short account of the other aspects of the trip

as readers may find it of interest.

Leaving Bombay by car on the morning of the 19th May, we

arrived the same night at the Forest Bungalow at Khanapur (on the

road to Karwar) which was to be our headquarters. On the 20th,

we drove to Shiroli twenty miles away and proceeded thence by car

to Hemadga (4 miles) and then on foot to Talewadi and the Cave on

TRIP TO THE BARAPEDE CAVE, MYSORE STATE 229

the top of the Ghat, a distance of another five miles. On the way,

at Hemadga, we were joined by Mr. P. L. Menezes, a retired miner,

who took a share in our bat-catching and other natural history

activities.

‘Our trip was discussed when M. Brosset first arrived in Bombay,

but was finally arranged at short notice. Only a day before we left

Bombay, we discovered that Talewadi and the Barapede Cave lay in

a Security Area and that special permission was required to visit it.

In response to telephonic and telegraphic requests, the Commissioner

of the Division very kindly arranged to send a message to Talewadi

and left a copy of it with the Forest Department at Belgaum,

which we picked up on our way through. On our way to the Cave,

we happened to by-pass the hamlet and the police outpost at

Talewadi. Coming back from the Cave and nearing Talewadi, we

found ourselves being rapidly approached by three armed persons,

one of them carrying a Sten gun ready for action, and evidently a

police patrol guarding the Goa border. We were a party of seven,

carrying two guns and including a European. Conscious how sus-

picious our appearance and movements must seem and how short a

time there had been for the local authorities to be informed about

our presence in the area, we tried to look unconcerned and waited

for them to come up to us. There were a few tense moments.

Fortunately, we were able to satisfy them as to our bona fides and

they took us to their camp and entertained us to a very welcome

cup of tea.

After the successful catch at the Barapede Cave, Mr. Menezes

offered to show us the way to the Krishnapur Caves, about which

we had been told at Talewadi. As we had effected our main object,

we thought it would be more interesting to visit the Dandeli Game

Sanctuary. So the party broke up and Soman stayed over at

Hemadga to visit Krishnapur, while the others returned to Khanapur.

On the 21st, we drove over hilly and forested country to Dandelli.

It was raining ‘most of the time and we arrived to find that the

causeway over the river bordering the Sanctuary had been flooded

since the morning and would be unusable for the duration of the

monsoon! On the way back, we had to make a detour of several

miles to go round another impassable causeway. Hurrying to

Shiroli in the evening to pick up Soman, we found the road beyond

it impassable and returned to Khanapur, leaving him to spend

another night at Hemadga. On the 22nd morning, we were back at

Shiroli and met Soman, who had had a strenuous but interesting and

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

successful walk to Krishnapur. We then turned back and, spend-

ing a night at Satara, reached Bombay on the 23rd, after making a

short stop at Mahableshwar. |

On the open plateau at Talewadi, we saw marks of bison

which are said to visit this place in some numbers during certain

seasons of the year. Beyond these hoof prints, we saw no trace

of any game (in which term I am including hare} in all our travelling,

some of which was at night. On the Nagargali Ghat, a forest

contractor drove past and stopped to chat. A shot-gun rested against

his seat, ready for action. There can be little doubt that here, as

in Bombay and almost all over the country, most of the larger

animals have been killed off by indiscriminate shooting from cars,

and by the large number of crop-protection guns.

Of birds, we did not see many. No partridge, junglefowl, or

peafowl was seen. A few miles before Belgaum was a raptor’s nest

high up in a tree, visible from the road. On the return journey, we

stopped for a while and the single full-fledged young of the Booted

Eagle (Hieraaétus pennatus) flapped away from the nest. At the

same place, we saw White-eyes (Zosterops palpebrosa) and Bay-

backed Shrikes (Lanius vittatus) building, while Brabminy Mynas (Sturnus

pagodarum) were seen entering a hole up in a tree. At Khanapur,

Red-rumped ard Wire-tailed Swallows (Hirundo daurica erythropysia

and H. smithii filifera) were both present. A pair of the former was

attending to a nest still unlined and empty under a culvert. A party

of 4 adult and 5 young Wire-tailed Swallows were settled on a half-

built bridge across the river. The adults perched on steel rods

projecting horizontally from the structure, while the young, which

flew about, appeared to cling to vertical surfaces only. I did not!

have the opportunity of watching them long enough to be sure, but it

would indeed be interesting if such a difference in perching

habits at different ages could be confirmed. Four young of the Pied

Bush Chat (Saxicola caprata) in the spotted stage were noted. Only

the male parent was seen and the small amount of white on the

lower surface, restricted to the vent, separated him from the migrant

form bicolor, but it was not possible to decide whether it was

burmanica of Baker which breeds at Khandala, or nilgiriensis of

Whistler described from Ootacamund, Nilgiris.

A pair of Crow-Pheasants (Centropus sinensis) attracted attention

—one chased the other, hopping along the ground and in short flights,

over several hundred yards. One or both, usually the pursuer, had

the tail spread out to one-and-half times or twice the normal width.

TRIP TO THE BARAPEDE CAVE, MYSORE STATE 231

It was also often held at an absurdly tilted angle. Is this some form

of courtship?

During the trip, with Soman’s assistance, we secured several frogs

and reptiles. In view of the scarcity of information regarding these

creatures in India, I am listing them together with such fragmentary

notes as we were able to record, and take this opportunity of

including notes previously made by me from other places.

LIZARDS

1. Hemidactylus brooki Gray :

Under stones in burnt clearings in the forest at Talewadi. A

juvenile was seen near two round eggs side by side under a stone.

The young are of the same colour as the adult.

As already noted by McCann (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41:

756-7), this gecko is common near Bombay but is found more often

in trees and under stones, its place in the house being taken by

H., flaviviridis Riippell, though at Nasik I have seen them in a house

under conditions identical with those of the latter.

2. Hemidactylus prashadi Smith :

Several were seen on the walls of a forest bungalow at Shiroli in

the evening. One young, black and strongly marked with white, was

also obtained. Two recently hatched eggs close together on the

top of a wooden box inside the bungalow were also noted. This

appears to be a small extension of the known distribution of this

species, which is recorded SO far only from Jog (Gersoppa), the type

locality.

3. Hemidactylus frenatus Dum. & Bib. :

Specimens were obtained on a lamp post in a garden in Belgaum:

at about 8 p.m., capturing insects attracted by the light. Though

recorded from Bengal and eastern Nepal, this appears to be the

northernmost known limit of this species in peninsular India’.

4. Hemidactylus leschenaulti Dum. & Bib. :

One taken at Satara Dak Bungalow.

5. Mabuya carinata (Schneider) : The Common Skink :

Was seen but not collected.

6. Riopa guentheri (Gray) :

Two juveniles and two adults were found under stones in open

1 T have subsequently obtained this species on a tree at Kihim, Kolaba District,

Maharashtra, and found three specimens from Salsette Island, Bombay, in the

Society’s collections,

232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

country adjoining the forest at Talewadi. This southern species ex-

tends northwards to Matheran, Kolaba District (Smith), and we have

obtained it at Mahableshwar earlier.

7. Calotes rouxi Dum. & Bib. :

On the western slopes towards Krishnapur.

SNAKES

Dryophis nasutus (Lacépéde) :

A single specimen of the Green Whip Snake was captured near

Talewadi. One taken at Mahableshwar on 2 November 1954 had an

entire anal, while another brought in later from the same place by

Fr. Norman Fuller had it normal, i.e. divided.

AMPHIBIANS

1. Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider :

Common in small pools on open plateau at Talewadi. They call

both by day and night and also almost all through the year, though

there is no evidence that they breed all the time. Many, including

Babar in his MEMorRS, have referred to its habit of skipping over the

surface of the water. It does not however appear to have been noted

that the last hop never stops on the surface, but is continued under

water, with the frog emerging a short distance away to rest at the

surface.

2. Rana tigerina Daud. :

Noted at Khanapur and other places. Tadpoles were obtained on

the Talewadi plateau in pools as much as a hundred yards from the

forest. This species also calls by day and night, but only during the

breeding seasons and when seated in the water or on mud or land.

McCann in the course of his excellent Notes on Indian Batracians

(J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36 : 158-166) refers to the pale lemon

yellow of the adults being apparently due to aestivation. It is,

however, strange that this colour should have been noted in males

only, implying that females do not react to aestivation in the same

manner. On 20 June 1955, I drove into the Krishnagiri Park, near

Bombay. The monsoon was late, but it had rained a little. On the

way in at about 8 a.m., I noted 2 large yellow frogs seated on the

damp bottom of a pond along the road below Gandhi Mandir. There

TRIP TO THE BARAPEDE CAVE, MYSORE STATE 233

was yet no water on the surface. When we returned after about

14 hour, it had been raining all the time and there was quite a lot

of water collected in the tank. A large number of yellow ftigerinas

had appeared from somewhere, and were all waiting to jump on to

anything that moved. From a distance of about 10 yards, one could

hear a low ‘gurr’ uttered by them.

3. Rana limnocharis Wiegm. :

Noted between Shiroli and Talewadi. This frog has a loud and

distinctive call which is only uttered at night. Tadpoles may be

found in shallow monsoon streams and even in rain water flowing

over a road. They were also seen in deeper monsoon pools with

stagnant water, and in rock-bound cisterns. The breeding season appears

to be prolonged, for I have seen large numbers of tiny frogs in a

swampy marsh along the edge of a lake not far from Nasik on 26

December 1954. The adult is reluctant to swim.

4. Rana rufescens (Jerdon) :

One obtained at Talewadi. This species described from Malabar

also extends as far north as Khandala, and at the Kanheri Caves near -

Bombay on 17 June 1956 a pair was seen in copula in the water of

a cistern with vertical walls. Both had orange patches at the back

of their fore-arms and on the sides of the neck. On land, its habits

are toad-like. The eggs and tadpoles of this frog are yet unknown,

5. Rana breviceps Schneider :

A specimen obtained at Satara had only one tubercle on its feet

(cf. Bhaduri & Kirpalani, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 620-623).

6. Rana beddomii Gunth.: -

Talewadi.

7. Rana malabarica Bib. : |

Talewadi.

8. Rana curtipes Jerdon :

Cn the way to Talewadi, adults were obtained on the road near

a stream and in a dry river bed. The adults are sluggish in their

movements. In May 1953, they were found to be numerous under

dry leaves on damp soil along a stream at Anmode near Castle Rock.

234. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

They are uncomfortable in water and, if driven or thrown in

immediately swim ashore.

Soman obtained tadpoles with fore and hind legs in a stream of

running water on the western slopes: of the Ghats beyond Talewadi.

They did not keep together in a shoal. The dentition agrees with the

descripion of the tadpoles of this species by Rao (Rec. Indian Mus.

10 : 265-266) but in colour the present series is all black and not

‘uniformly dark with a few darker spots above, and dirty white below’.

During Xmas 1951, I obtained some tadpoles (see text-figure) at

Dandeli which swam in compact shoals. As the dentition agreed

with Rao’s description, I have considered them as of this species.

They however had a prominent orange-red paratoid gland on the back.

GREYISH GREEN

CSipe Mew)

CRE

‘GREY ISH GREEN

Sketch of Tadpole collected at Dandeli

Rao specifically stated that the tadpoles described by him had

no paratoid glands which in Soman’s specimens are visible, though

smaller than and not brightiy-coloured as those referred to above.

Mr. V. K. Chari in his description of the tadpoles of Rana

malabarica (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 : 71-76) refers to tadpoles,

also from Talewadi, in the collections of the Zoological Survey of

India (ZSI No. 18270) which were originally said to be of Rana

malabarica. The dentition in these tadpoles agrees with that for

TRIP TO THE BARAPEDE CAVE, MYSORE STATE 235

curtipes, and the colour is also said to be dark, though no reference

is made to the presence or absence of the paratoid glands:

The colour of the tadpoles, the size and colour of their paratoid

glands, as well as their habit of swimming together or apart, may

change with age or development, but it is possible that the tadpoles

referred to above are of more than one species,

9. Rana temporalis (Gunth.) :

Were observed at Mahableshwar on the way back (23 May).

Further to my observations in the Journal (52 : 636-637), I noted

them as very common during the day at the Dhobi’s Waterfall at

Mahableshwar on 21-25 October 1955. Few attempts were made at

calling and they were also very tame and could be easily caught.. One

was timed sitting under water for 12 minutes. A large, almost black

female was 82 mm. long. Her stomach contained 2 small frogs and

a pebble 12 mm.xX9 mm. (11 a.m.). Another male had eaten a R.

limnocharis. An earlier note states that when calling, a yellowish

patch shows at the throat. ,

10, Nyctibatrachus humayuni Bhaduri & Kirpalani :

Seen at Mahableshwar. A male obtained on Fitzgerald Ghat

(21-25 October 1955) had orange patches under the thighs (cf. yellow

in female, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 859) but the testes were not

enlarged. Its stomach as well as that of another individual (both

taken at about 9 p.m.) was packed with Neuropterous insects.

11: Philautus leucorhinus (Lichten. & Martens) :

This species was very common in the forest near Shiroli. Attention ©

was first drawn to them at sunset when they started calling, all

perched on trees between 4 and 5 ft. from the ground, and facing,

downwards at an angle of 45° from the vertical. On 2 June 1953,

I took one specimen among the stones on the bank of a stream near

Castle Rock. The call has been recorded and may be syllabilised

thus: a loud tréék uttered every four seconds, some of the calls being

slightly prolonged, tré2-ek, and almost disyllabic; at irregular intervals

the same individuals (?) produced a drumming noise, kuk being rapidly

repeated four to five times.

12. Ixalus sp. :

One taken at Talewadi does not agree with any of the specimens

available for comparison.

13. Kaloula pulchra taprobanica Parker :

As we drove out of Dandeli at about 2-30 p.m., it was drizzling

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

slightly and attention was drawn to two loud calls emanating from

roadside pits which now contained water. One was traced to this

Species which was larger and more numerous than Ramanella

montana (Jerdon) which was responsible for the other. The call

was uttered invariably from near the shore, but seated in water with

usually only the head and chin showing above water. The species

was sluggish in its movements. Several were seen in copula in the

water, the grip being axillary.

14, Ramanella montana (Jerdon):

Though smaller, its call was deeper than that of Kaloula pulchra,

and always uttered from the shore or seated on a floating stick,

outside water.

15. Uperodon globulosum (Gunth.) :

On the night of the 20 May, it was raining heavily at Khanapur,

and a loud call immediately outside the house was traced to this

species. A further examination revealed it calling all over the neigh-

bourhood. The rain-water gutter along the railway station held several

individuals, calling while floating at an angle of 45° with their snouts

touching the vertical side. They were also seen in shallow standing

water where individuals floated on their bellies when they could have

settled at the bottom. The shape and bulk of the species perhaps

makes it easier for them to float than to sit.

They appeared to be common and also widely scattered over the

area—quite unlike the earlier records of this species which have been

extremely localised and restricted. The present record forms an

extension of the recorded distribution, the nearest locality so far having

been Bombay (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 637-639).

It will be recalled that they were first discovered at the same

time in 1954 at the Kanheri Caves and at Thana. In subsequent

years, it was seen again at Kanheri but not at Thana.

On 16 June 1957, a cistern at the Caves was dry and contained

no water, but one corner held an unrecognisable lump and the other

what appeared to be a large Rana tigerina. Pebbles thrown at the

first failed to move it, but as it appeared to be some organic matter,

I descended into the 5 ft. rock-bound tank and found it to be a

female Uperodon. The large ‘bull frog’ was found to be a mass of

1 bull frog, 11 Rana breviceps (7 females and 4 males), and 4 male

Uperodons. A pair of each species was taken and the female

Uperodon was found to contain large masses of eggs which showed

as a white mass with many black specks therein. Under the micro-

TRIP TO THE BARAPEDE CAVE, MYSORE STATE 23

scope the eggs were seen, to be round, half-white and _ half-black.

The place was re-visited on the night of 22 June; the cistern contained

2 feet of water but, except for the 2 very large tigerinas and 1 water-

snake (Natrix piscator), there was no trace of the 9 breviceps and

3 male Uperodons.

A loud grunt-like ‘oink’ led me to a near-by cave outside which

a male was calling seated on the wet stone floor. Another was call-

ing similarly about 15 yards away. When uttering the call, the black

chin was inflated and a much larger grey bag appeared below. In

the torchlight, a larger female was seen approaching him with long

strides, not hops. Unfortunately, the first male which had been

picked up was dropped near the second and, though the latter called

again, something appeared to have gone wrong and there was no

activity for 10 minutes, all three remaining in the same position a

few inches apart.

No regular notes and/or observations were retained at Kanheri

Over subsequent years, but it does appear fairly certain, as is also

supported ‘by the evidence from Thana, that this species does not —

breed successfully every year and this, together with its strictly

nocturnal habits, may account for the fact that so few persons have

seen and/or recorded it.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Young Imran Tyabji, on holiday from Shri Shivaji Preparatory

Military School at Poona, accompanied us and took a lively part in

our activities. It is hoped that the interest he showed in Natural

History wili continue and develop. As mentioned above, P. W.

Soman was actively associated with the collection of specimens, and

M. J. Pereira was helpful in many ways. Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator,

Bombay Natural History Society, has assisted in the identification

of the specimens. I also record my indebtedness to Mon. A Brosset

for having given me the opportunity of making the trip, and to the

Forest Department, Government of Mysore, particularly to Shri G. B.

Narvekar, Range Forest Officer at Khanapur, without whose active

collaboration in several ways we would have been unable to reach

Talewadi.

A Preliminary Account of the

Bionomics and Taxonomy of Aphids

from Assam

A. K. GHOSH, M.Sc. AND D. N. RAy CHAUDHURI, D.Sc.*

Zoology Laboratory, Charuchandra College, Calcutta

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

Assam is bounded on the north by Bhutan and Sikkim, on the

south by Burma, on the west by West Bengal and East Pakistan, and

on the east by Manipur and Burma. The average temperature varies

from 15.6° C. to 21.1° C. throughout the year, while the average

monthly rainfall ranges from three inches in January to sixteen inches

in July. From the available literature, it is observed that only two

species of aphids have so far been recorded from this region, by

Buckton? (1896) and van der Goot*® (1916).

The present survey was done in January 1960 and collections were

made from Pandu (alt. 200 m.), Gauhati (c. 200 m.), Titabar

(c. 200 m.), Tocklai (c. 200 m.), and Shillong (c. 1500 m.). At the

time of collection, the temperature of the different places as well as

the biology of the various species were also noted. Collections have

been made from 43 types of plants.

Altogether 17 species belonging to twelve genera are recorded

here, with notes on their biology and catalogue of food plants.

Definite identification of five species is not possible at the present

moment.

1 Present address of the authors: Entomology Laboratory, Dept. of Zoology,

University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Calcutta 19.

2 Buckton, G. B. (1896) : Notes on two new species of gall forming aphids from

north western Himalayan region. Ind. Mus. Notes 4: 50-51.

* Goot, P. van der (1916): Notes on two undescribed aphids from collection of

Indian Museum. Rec. Ind. Mus. 12(1): 1-4.

BIONOMICS AND TAXONOMY OF APHIDS FROM ASSAM — 239

SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES

I. Genus APHIS L. 1758. Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 451.

(1) A. gossypii Glov. 1876. Rept. com. Agr. U.S.A. (1877), p. 36.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS £70

Apterous viviparous female. Longest hair on HUI segment of

antenna 4 to 3 basal diameter of the segment. Antennae imbricated,

4 to % length of body. Processus terminalis about 24 times as long

as base of segment VI. Rostrum reaches little beyond hind coxae.

Hairs on dorsum of abdomen mostly acute. Siphunculi imbricated.

Cauda with 6 to 7 hairs. Hairs on Ist tarsal segments 2, 2, 3.

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body 2.13

Antennal segments—III : IV : V : VI—0.28: 0. at 0.13 :0.11 + 0.28

Siphunculus : length 0.36

_ breadth at base, at apex 0.07, 0.06

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.04

Alate viviparous female. Longest hair on III segment of antenna:

#th basal diameter of the segment. Antennae imbricated’ Processus

terminalis 24 times as long as base of VI. Hairs on dorsum of

abdomen like those of apterous form. Siphunculi imbricated. Cauda

with 3 to 4 hairs. Hairs on Ist tarsal segments 2, 2, 3.

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body 2.1

Antennal segments—III : IV : V : VI—0.28 : 0.12 : 0.12: 0.11 + 0.24

Siphunculus : length 0.14

breadth at base, at apex 0.07, 0.05

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.3

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Pandu (6-i-60): from Clitoria ternatea; Shillong (7-1-60, 8-1-60):

from Duranta plumieri, Spirea cantonensis, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis,

Helianthus annuus, Vitex negundo; Titabar (16-i-60, 17-i-60); from

Capsicum frutescens, Dahlia sp., Bougainvillaea sp., Hibiscus sabda-

riffa, and Solanum tuberosum.

Total number of specimens: 47 apterous, 15 alate, and 57 nymphs.

BIOLOGY

_ The insects were mostly collected from the undersurface of leaves

of -different physiological ages, except in the case of Duranta plumieri

where infection was found on the growing region of the stem. In

life, the colour of the imsects varies from light green to brown. In

association with specimens collected from D. plumieri, adult coccinel-

lids were noticed.

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Il. Genus AULACORTHUM Mordvilko 1914. Faune de Russie,

in Hem. 1, p. 68.

(2) A. (Neomyzus) circumflexus Buck.) 1876. Hille Ris Lambers, D.

(1949), Temminckia 8, p. 198.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

Apterous viviparous female. Longest hairs on III segment of

antenna + basal diameter of the segment. Antennae imbricated, 1%

times as long as body. Processus terminalis 25 times as long as

base of segment VI. Rostrum reaches 2nd coxae. Hairs on dorsum

of abdomen with acuminate and blunt apices. Siphunculi long, slender

and imbricated. Cauda with 3 to 4 hairs. Hairs on Ist tarsal

segments 3, 3, 2.

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body 2.37

Antennal segments—III : IV : V : VI—0.61 : 0.47 : 0.40 : 0.30 + 0.82

Siphunculus : length 0.50

e breadth at base, at apex 0.08, 0.04

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.03

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Shillong (7-i-60): from Hydrangea hortensis, Cestrum sp., and

lpomea sp.

Total number of specimens: 6 apterous and 16 nymphs.

BIOLOGY

The specimens were found to infest the flowers of Hydrangea

hortensis. Heavy infection. was noticed on the young leaves of

Cestrum and on the undersurface of the matured leaves only of

Ipomea sp. In living condition the colour of the specimens is green.

II. Genus CINARA Curtis 1835. Bri. Entom. 12 (144), no. 576.

(3) C. (Cinarella) pineus Mordv. 1895. Hille Ris Lambers, D.,

1948, Trans. R. ent. Soc. London 99, p. 275.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

Apterous viviparous female. Longest hair on III segment of

antenna 21 times as long as basal diameter of the segment. Antennae

4 length of body. Processus terminalis 2 length of base of VI.

Rostrum reaches beyond 3rd coxae. Hairs on dorsum of abdomen

long, with acute and acuminate apices. Siphunculi on hairy cones.

Cauda helmet-shaped with many long acute hairs.

BIONOMICS AND TAXONOMY OF APHIDS FROM ASSAM 241

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body 4.3

Antennal segments—III : 1V : V : VI—0.71 : 0.32 : 0.40 : 0.22 + 0.08

Diameter of siphunculus 0.7

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.1

Alate viviparous female. Longest hair on III segment of antenna

34. times as long as basal diameter of tite segment. Antennae

imbricated, 4 length of body. Rostrum reaches beyond 3rd coxae.

Hairs on dorsum of abdomen mostly with acute apices. Siphunculi

very small, pore-like. Cauda with many long acute hairs.

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body (distorted)

Antennal segments—III : IV: V : VI—0.45 :0: 24: 0.30: 0.18 + 0.04

Diameter of siphunculus 0.6

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.05

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Shillong (10-i-60): from Pinus insularis.

Total number of specimens: 4 apterous, 1 alate, and 20 nymphs.

BIOLOGY

Heavy infestation was noticed on the host plants at the junction

of the needles and growing part of the stem. At the time of

collection the colour of the specimens was deep brown.

IV. Genus CAPITOPHORUS van der Goot 1913. Tijdschr, Ent.

56, p. 84.

(4) C. hippohaeus (Walker) 1852, van der Goot, P., 1915. Beitr. Z. Kennt-

nis. Holl. Blattlause, pp. 122-125.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

Apterous viviparous female. Longest hair on III segment of

antenna 3%; basal diameter of the segment. Antennae imbricated,

11 times as long as the body. Processus terminalis 8} times as long

as base of VI. Rostrum reaches middle coxae. Hairs on dorsum of

abdomen capitate. Siphunculi long, slender, imbricated. Cauda with 7

to 10 hairs. |

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body 2.00

Antennal segments—III : 1V : V : VI—0.50 : 0.35 : 0.38 : 0.05. + 1.04

Siphunculus: length 0.6

i breadth at base, at apex 0.07, 0.03.

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.03

242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (i)

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Shillong (8-i-60): from Polygonum chinense.

Total number of specimens: 7 apterous, 22 nymphs.

BIOLOGY Mr ee tle)

The insects were collected from the underside of the mature leaves

of the host plant. The insects were light green in colour. This

insect was found in association with Macrosiphum (Sitobion) fragariae

(WIk.) ?.

V. Genus LIPAPHIS Mordv. 1928. in Filip., Insect Key, Moscow,

200.

(5) L. erysimi (Kalt.) 1843. Doncaster, J.P., 1954, Proc. R. ent. Soc.,

London 23 (B), p. 83.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

Apterous viviparous female. Longest hair on III segment of

antenna 3 basal diameter of the segment. Antennae imbricated,

4 length of body. Processus terminalis 25 times as long as base

of VI. Rostrum reaches 2nd coxae. Hairs on the dorsum of

abdomen mostly acute. Siphunculi slender, imbricated. Cauda with

4 to 5. hairs.

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body 2.26

Antennal segments—III : IV: V : VI—0.35 : 0.18: 0.15 : 0.10 + 0.27

Siphunculus : length 0.23

breadth at base, at apex 0. 07, 0.03

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.04

Alate viviparous female. Longest hair on HI segment of antenna

4 basal diameter of the segment. Antennae imbricated. Processus

terminalis 21 times as long as base of VI. Rostrum reaches 2nd coxae.

Hairs on dorsum of abdomen with acute and acuminate apices.

Siphunculi slightly constricted at apex, imbricated. Cauda with 4 to

5 hairs. Hairs on Ist tarsal segments 3, 3, 2.

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body 2.64

Antennal segments—III : IV: V : VI—0.32 :0.14: 0.14: 0.11 + 0.25

Siphunculus : length 0.11

oe breadth at base, at apex 0.03, 0.03

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.02

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Pandu (6-1-60): from Rhaphanus sativus, Brassica oleracea vat.

botrytis; Shillong (8-i-60): from Lactusa sativa; Gauhati (13-i-60):

BIONOMICS AND TAXONOMY OF APHIDS FROM ASSAM 243

‘from Tropelium majus; Titabar (17-i-60): from Brassica rapa, and

Brassica oleracea var. capitata; Tocklai (18-i-60): from Ficus hetero-

_phylla and Calendula. |

Total number of specimens: 9 apterous, 104 alate, and 7 nymphs.

BIOLOGY

The colour of the insects varied from dull green to green or

blackish and in .all cases only undersides of leaves were infested.

The specimens collected from Brassica rapa were visited by ants, while

in no other case were ants seen.

VI. Genus LACHNUS Burmeister 1835. Handbuch der Entom. 2,

p.. 91. |

(6) Lachnus sp. A

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANT

Shillong (11-i-60): from Pyrus khasiana.

Total number of specimens: 28 apterous and 2 alate.

BIOLOGY

The colour of the insects in life was green. The insects were

noticed to attack only the young growing portions of the stem.

(7) Lachnus sp. B

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Titabar (16-i-60): from Heteropanax: fragrans.

Total number of specimens: 55 apterous.

BIOLOGY

The insects have the same colour as Lachnus sp. A, but could be

collected only from the underside of the leaves of the tree.

N.B. Lachnus sp. A, and sp. B seem to be not only distinct from the

rest of the known species of this genus but also specific difference exists

between A and B. Due to the lack of material for comparison their

specific identification is not possible at the present moment. How-

ever, this will be reported on later.

VII. MACROSIPHUM Passerini 1874. Glif. afidi, 27.

(8) Macrosiphum ibarae Mats. 1917. subsp. rosaeformis Das 1918.

Matsumara, S., 1917, Jl. Coll. Agr. Sapporo 7, p. 397.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS — :

Apterous viviparous female. Longest hair on Ill segment of

antenna } basal diameter of the segment. Antennae imbricated, &th

244. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

length of body. Processus terminalis 44 times as long as base of Vi.

Rostrum reaches almost 2nd coxae. Hairs on dorsum of abdomen

with acute, acuminate, and blunt apices. Siphunculi imbricated, except

distal 4-1 portion which is reticulated. Cauda with 9 to 10 hairs.

Hairs on Ist tarsal segments 3, 3, 3.

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body 3.16

Antennal segments—III : IV: V : VI—0.74 : 0.54 : 0.47 : 0.10 + 0.64

Siphunculus : length 0.84

breadth at base, at apex 0.14, 0.04

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.04

Alate viviparous female. Longest hair on III segment of antenna

4 basal diameter of the segment. Antennae 14 times as long as body.

Processus terminalis 42 times as long as base of VI. Rostrum

reaches almost 2nd coxae. Hairs on dorsum of abdomen with acute

and acuminate apices. Siphunculi twice as long as cauda. Cauda

with 15 to 17 hairs.

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body 3.1

Antennal segments—III : IV: V : VI—0.85 : 0.71 : 0.58 :0.05 + 0.92

Siphunculus : length 0.71

a breadth at base, at apex 0.14, 0.7

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.03

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Shillong (7-1-60 & 9-i-60): from Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Rosa spp.

Total number of specimens: 16 apterous and 30 alate.

BIOLOGY

The yellowish-red insects were collected only from the leaves of

various physiological stages and the flower buds.

(9) Macrosiphum (Sitobion) fragariae (W1k.) ? 1848. Hille Ris Lambers,

D., 1939, Temminckia 4, p. 113.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

Apierous oviparous female. Body elongated. Abdominal tergite

pale in bleached specimen; brownish small muscal platten arranged

in longitudinal rows near stigmata. Antennae imbricated, longer

than body, IV and V subequal, processus terminalis longest; rhinaria

on II absent; longest hair on HI with blunt apex, about 4 as long as

basal diameter of the segment. Rostrum with rather blunt apex

reaching base of 2nd coxae. Hind tibiae much stouter than Ist and

2nd, with numerous small pseudosensoria on basal 2 portion (text-

figure). Abdominal hairs with acute and acuminate apices. Siphun-

BIONOMICS AND TAXONOMY OF APHIDS FROM ASSAM — 245

culi faint brown, with distal 4 portion reticulated, rest very slightly

imbricated. Cauda with 11 hairs.

TEXT-FIGURE

Basal portion of hind tibia of Macrosiphum (Sitobion) fragariae (WIk.),

showing pseudosensoria

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body 1.92 .

Antennal segments—III : IV : V : VI—0.47 : 0.34 : 0.32 : 0.12 + 0.57

Siphunculus : length 0.47

a breadth at base, at apex 0.1, 0.04

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.03

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Shillong (8-i-60): from Polygonum chinense.

Total number of specimens: 1 apterous.

BIOLOGY

This specimen was green in colour in life and was collected from

the underside of the leaves of the host plant along with Lipaphis

erysimi (Kalt.) and Myzus persicae (Sulz.).

N.B. The find of one oviparous female suggests that the specimen

visited the plant for the purpose of laying eggs. The host plant can

therefore be regarded as a primary host.

(10) Macrosiphum sp.

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Shillong (8-1-60): from Lactusa sativa.

Total number of specimens: 1 alate.

BIOLOGY

This specimen is green in colour in life and was collected from

the underside of one of the mature leaves of the host plants along

with Myzus persicae (Sulz.) and Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.).

N,.B. Though Lactusa sativa has been mentioned as the host

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

plant, we believe this is probably not the host of the species. It may ©

be that only one alata in course of flight to some other host

plant rested over there. Although this specimen seems to be a

distinct species, it is premature to name it on only one specimen

which is available to us.

VIII. Genus MYZOCALLIS Passerini 1860. Gli. afidi, 28.

(11) M. bambusifoliae (Tak.) Takahashi, R., 1931, Aph. Formosa, pt. 6,

p. 84.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

Alate viviparous female. Longest hair on III segment of antenna

1 basal diameter of the segment. Antennae imbricated. Hairs on

dorsum of abdomen long and acute. Siphunculi small, imbricated.

Cauda with many hairs. Hairs on 1st tarsal joints 5, 3, 3.

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body 2.6

Antennal segments—III : IV: V: VI :—90.54": 0.26 : 0.26: 0.20 + ?

‘Siphunculus : length 0.09

we breadth at base, at apex 0.08," 0.05

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.04

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Shillong (7-1-60): from Phyllostacus manii.

Total number of specimens: 4 alate and 40 nymphs.

BIOLOGY

The insects were red and were found to attack only tue undersides

of young leaves.

IX. MYZUS Passerini 1860. Gli. afidi, 27.

(12) M. persicae (Sulzer) 1776. -Buckton, G. B., 1875, Mono. Brit,

Aphids, pt. 1, p. 178.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

Apterous viviparous female. Longest hair on III segment of

antenna 4 basal diameter of the segment. Antennae imbricated, 4th

length of body. Processus terminalis about 4 times as long as basal

part of VI. Rostrum reaches 2nd coxae. Hairs on dorsum of

abdomen with acute and acuminate apices. Siphunculi long, slender,

‘imbricated. Cauda with 5 to 6 hairs. ‘ )

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body 2.68

Antennal segments—III : IV : V : VI—0. 40 : 0.36 : 0.27: 0.12+0,50

BIONOMICS AND TAXONOMY OF APHIDS FROM ASSAM — 247

Siphunculus : length 0.51

a breadth at base, at apex 0.11, 0.05

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.03

Alate viviparous female. Longest hair on III segment of antenna

1 basal diameter of the segment. Antennae nearly @ length of body.

Broceesus terminalis twice as long as base of VI. Rostrum reaches

2nd coxae. Hairs on dorsum of abdomen, with acute or acuminate

apices. Siphunculi swollen towards apex. Cauda with 5 to 6 hairs.

Hairs on the Ist tarsal joints 3, 3, 3.

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body 2.35

Antennal segments—III : IV : V : VI—0.51 : 0.48 : 0.28 : 0.14+0.30

Siphunculus: length .40

Ae breadth at base, at apex, at middle 0.07, 0.05, 0.02

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.04

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Pandu (6-i-60): from Beta vulgaris, Brassica oleracea var. capitata,

B. rapa, Duranta plumieri, Rhaphanus sativus; Shillong (8-i-60):. from

Oxalis trifolia, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Lactusa sativa, Petunia sp.,

Pyrus communis, Solanum sp.; Titabar (17-1-60): from Brassica rapa.

Total number of specimens: 19 apterous, 21 alate, and 35 nymphs.

BIOLOGY

All the insects collected from the different plants were green and

attacked only the undersides of leaves. The infestation was com-

paratively heavy on Rhaphanus sativa and Beta vulgaris. The speci-

mens collected from Brassica rapa were visited by ants.

xX. Genus RHOPALOSIPHUM Koch 1856. Die Pflazenlatise Aphiden

Pepe ls:

(13) Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominalis (Sasaki) 1899. Doncaster, J. P., 1956,

Bull. Ent. Res. 47, p. 741.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

Alate viviparous female. Longest hair on III segment of antenna

11 times as long as basal diameter of the segment. Antennae long,

imbricated. Processus terminalis 44 to 6 times as long as base of

V. Rostrum reaches almost 2nd coxae. Hairs on dorsum of abdomen

with acute and acuminate apices. Siphunculi imbricated. Cauda

with many hairs.

~ Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body (distorted)

Antennal segments—III : IV : V—0.54: 0. 17: 0.10-+-0.5]

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Siphunculus : length 0.21

ey breadth at base, at apex 0.07, 0.04

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.04 -

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Shillong (11-i-60): from Pyrus communis.

Total number of specimens: 1 alate.

BIOLOGY

The colour of the insect was green at the time of collection and

the collection was a mixed one, consisting of Myzus persicae (Sulz.)

and Aphis gossypii Glov. amongst others.

N.B. From the find of only one alate it is doubtful whether Pyrus

communis can be regarded as one of the host plants. Generally the

species attacks the graminaceous plants.

XI. Genus TOXOPTERA Koch 1856. Die Pflazenlatise Aphiden,

Heft? 28; p:253:

(14) Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer) 1841. Koch C., 1856, Die Pflazenlaiise

Aphiden, p. 254.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

Apterous viviparous female. Longest hair on III segment of

antenna 3 basal diameter of the segment. Antennae imbricated, th

length of body. Processus terminalis 44 times as long as base of VI.

Rostrum reaches just beyond 2nd coxae. Hairs on dorsum of

abdomen with acuminate apices. Siphunculi tapering towards apex.

Cauda with 15 to 17 hairs. Hind tibiae with stridulatory organs

(spines) in row.

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body 1.85

Antennal segments—III : IV: V: VI—9.32 :°0.28 :°0.257: 0.13+0.58

Siphunculus : length 0.27

ate breadth at base, at apex 0.05, 0.02

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.02

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Shillong (7-i-60): from Hibiscus rosa-sinensis; Titabar (16-i-60):

from Ailanthus sp., Camellia sinensis, Litsea_ salicifolia; Tocklai

(18-1-60): from Ficus heterophylia.

Total number of specimens: 48 apterous, 3 alate, and 68 nymphs.

BIOLOGY

The insects were black in colour. This species was noticed to

attack the buds and young leaves surrounding the buds. In so far as

BIONOMICS AND TAXONOMY OF APHIDS FROM ASSAM — 249

the leaves are concerned, the insects were noticed both on the upper

as well as on the lower side. The insects were noticed to be

myrmecophilous.

(15) Toxoptera citricidus (Kirk.) 1907. Eastop, V.F., 1952, Entom. 85,

pp. 57-61.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

Apterous viviparous female. Longest hair on III segment of

antenna, almost equal to basal diameter of the segment. Antennae

less than 4 length of body. Processus terminalis 41 times as long as

base of VI. Rostrum reaches just beyond 2nd coxae. Hairs on

dorsum of abdomen mostly acute. Siphunculi imbricated. Cauda with

15 to 20 hairs. Hind tibiae with stridulatory organs.

Measurements of one specimen in mm.:

Length of body 2.42

Antennal segments—III : IV : V : VI—0.30: 0.20: 0.17: 0.084 0.35

Siphunculus : length 0.24

e breadth at base, at apex 0.08, 0.05

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.05

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Titabar (17-1-60): from Citrus grandis.

Total number of specimens: 21 apterous and 11 nymphs.

BIOLOGY

The insects were reddish-brown in colour at the time of collection

and were found to infest the underside of the leaves of citrus.

(16) Toxoptera odinae (van der Goot) 1917. Eastop, V. F., 1952, Entom.

85, pp. 57-61.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

Apterous viviparous female. Longest hair on TI segment of

antennae 21 times as long as basal diameter of the segment. Antennae

5th the length of body. Processus terminalis 2} times as long as base

of VI. Rostrum reaches just beyond 2nd coxae. Hairs on dorsum

of abdomen with acute apices. Siphunculi short, cylindrical, imbri-

cated. Cauda with 8 to 9 hairs. Hind tibiae with stridulatory organs.

Measurements of one specimen in mm.:

Length of body 3.28

Antennal segments—III : IV: V : VI—0.35 : 0.24 : 0.27 : 0.12-+0.33

Siphunculus : length 0.10

i" breadth at base, at apex 0.08, 0.04

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.03

Alate viviparous female. Longest hair on III segment of

250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

antennae twice as long as basal diameter of the segment. Antennae

long, imbricated. Processus terminalis. 24. times as long as base

of VI. Rostrum reaches 2nd coxae. Hairs on dorsum of abdomen

with acute and acuminate apices. Siphunculi cylindrical, imbricated.

Cauda with 7 hairs. Hind tibiae with stridulatory organs.

Measurements of one sp cimen in mm. :

Length of body (distorted)

Antennal segments—III : IV : V: VI—9.28 : 0.20 : 0.21: 0. 11423

Siphunculus : length 0.10

= breadth at base, at apex 0.10, 0.05

Breadth at middle of bind tibia 0.02 -

LOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Shillong (9-i-60): from Viburnum feetidum.

Total number of specimens: 26 apterous, 1 alate, and 10 nymphs.

BIOLOGY

The colour of the insects was bottle green. The undersides of

the apical leaves and the growth parts of the stem were attacked by

the species.

XI. Genus TUBEROLACHNUS Mordvilko 1908. Ann. Mus. Zool.

Acad., St. Petersburg 13, p. 374.

(17) Tuberolachnus saligna (Gmelin) 1788. Takahashi, R., 1931, Aph.

Formosa, pt. 6, p. 21.

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

Apterous viviparous female. Longest hair on III segment of

antenna #th basal diameter of the segment. Antenna ;%,th length of

body. Processus terminalis 4 base of VI. Rostrum ee beyond

3rd coxae. Hairs on dorsum of abdomen with acute and acuminate

apices. Sitphunculi small, ring-like, on hairy cone. Cauda helmet-

shaped with many fine: hairs. |

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body 3.78

Antennal segments—IIT : IV: V: VI—0.40: 0.17: 0.18: 0.1440. 07

Diameter of siphunculus 0.03

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.11

Alate viviparous female. Longest hair on IT segment of antenna

2 basal diameter of the segment. Antennae 2th length of body.

Processus terminalis 2th base of VI. Rostrum reaches 3rd coxae.

Hairs on dorsum of abdomen like those in apterae. Siphunculi

ring-like. Cauda helmet-shaped.

BIONOMICS AND TAXONOMY OF APHIDS FROM ASSAM 251

Measurements of one specimen in mm. :

Length of body: 4.1

Antennal segments—III : IV : V : VI—0.51 : 0.18 : 0.18 : 0.14-]-0.05

Breadth of siphunculus (distorted) _

Breadth at middle of hind tibia 0.07

TOCALITY AND HOST PLANTS

Shillong (9-i-60): from Salix babylonica.

Total number of specimens: 15 apterous, 1 alata, and 23 nymphs.

BIOLOGY

The insects were jet black in colour. The bare woody stem was

noticed to be heavily infested with the insect.

CONCLUSION

The aphids, collected from a few places in Assam and so far

identified, reveal seventeen species from forty-three host plants. These

seventeen species are distributed over twelve genera, while the

recorded species of the Indian plains are restricted to a much smaller

number of genera. Mordvilko’st (1908) supposition about the origin

of Aphids in temperate countries can perhaps be supported from the

find of these different genera from Assam which can definitely be’

regarded as a temperate zone in India.

So far only two male and one oviparous female aphids have been

recorded from high altitudes in India. In addition to them an

Oviparous female of Macrosiphum (Sitobion) fragriae (Wlk.)? is

reported.

We believe that further survey of Assam will reveal many new

interesting features about aphids.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Bombay Natural History Society for the

travelling grant out. of funds made available by the Rockefeller

Foundation which has made this survey possible. The Charu-

chandra College authorities are thanked for laboratory facilities given

us. In connection with collecting materials: from different places in

Assam thanks are due to Sri S. P. Bhattacharya, Pandu, Dr.

1 Mordvilko, A. ( 1908) : Tableaux pour servir ala determination des groupes

et des genres des Aphides. -. Ann. Mus. Zool."Acad. Sc. Petersburg 13: 374,

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

S. Chaudhuri of the Sericultural Research Station, Titabar, and the

Director of Tocklai Experimental Research Institute. The Botanical

Survey of India, Eastern Zone, Shillong, and the late Professor Anutosh

Dasgupta, Bangabasi College, Calcutta have helped by identifying a

few host plants,

FOOD PLANT CATALOGUE

Foop PLANT NAME OF APHID

1. Acronychia laurifolia Macrosiphum sp.

Ailanthus sp. Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer)

Oxalis trifolia Myizus persicae (Sulz.)

RY P

Beta vulgaris Aphis gossypii Glov.

Myzus persicae (Sulz.)

5. Bougainvillaea sp. Aphis gossypii Glov.

6. Brassica oleracea var. capitata Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.)

7. B. oleracea var. botrytis Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.)

Myzus persicae (Sulz.)

8. Brassica rapa Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.)

Myzus persicae (Sulz.)

9. Calendula sp. Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.)

10. Camellia sinensis Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer)

11. Capsicum frutescens Aphis gossypii Glov.

12. Cestrum sp. Aulacorthum (Neomyzus) circumflexu

(Buck.)

Myzus persicae (Sulz.)

13. Citrus grandis Toxoptera citricidus (Kirk.)

14. Clitoria ternata Aphis gossypii Glov.

15. Coranaceae N.O. Aulacorthum circumflexus (Buck.)

16. Dahlia excelsa Aphis gossypii Glov.

17. Dryopteris sp. Aphis gossypii Glov.

18. Duranta plumieri Myzus persicae (Sulz.)

19. Eupatorium adenophorum Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.)

20. Ficus heterophylla Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer)

21. Helianthus annuus Aphis gossypii Glovy.

2, Heteropanax fragrans Lachnus sp,

708).

24.

2D.

26.

28.

30.

32.

33.

34.

35%

36;

a7;

38.

39%

40.

41.

42.

43,

BIONOMICS AND TAXONOMY OF APHIDS FROM ASSAM 253

FooD PLANT

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Hibiscus sabdariffa

Hydrangea hortensis

Ipomea sp.

Lactusa sativa

Liliaceae N.O.

Litsea salicifolia

Phyllostacus manii

Pinus insularis

Polygonum chinense

Pyrus communis

Pyrus khasiana

Rhaphanus sativus

Rosa sp.

Salix babylonica

Solanum tuberosum

Solanum sp.

Solanum melongena

Tropelium majus

Viburnum foetidum

Vitex negundo

AME OF APHID

Aphis gossypii Glov.

Macrosiphum (Sitobion) ibarae Mats.

Aphis gossypii Glov.

Aulacorthum (Neomyzus) circumflexus

(Buck.)

Aulacorthum (Neomyzus) circumflexus

(Buck.)

Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.)

Myzus persicae (Sulz.)

Aphis gossypii Glov.

Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer)

Myzocallis bambusifoliae Tak.

Cinara (Cinarella) pineti Mordv.

Capitophorus hippohaeus (Koch)

Macrosiphum _ (Sitobion) fragariae

(WIk.)?

Myzus persicae (Sulz.)

Lachnus sp.

Lipaphis erysimi (Kalt.)

Myzus persicae (Sulz.)

Macrosiphum (Sitobion) ibarae Mats.

Tuberolachnus saligna (Gmelin)

Aphis gossypii Glov.

Myzus persicae (Sulz.)

Aphis gossypii Glov.

Myzus persicae (Sulz.)

Toxoptera odinae (v.d.G.)

Aphis gossypii Glov.

A Revision of Indian Mugilidae’

ParT I?

SAROJINI R. PILLAY =

Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Calcutta

(With four text-figures)

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION oe “ ss - “i =e 4

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF MUGILIDAE -. ee Rey =)3)

FAMILY MUGILIDAE .. i bye Sf $e ZS

Kry TO THE INDIAN GENERA OF MUGILIDAE ae se are OZ

GENUS Sicamugil FOWLER ae a Bi Es A 203

GENuS Plicomugil SCHULTZ 56 ene A o AVA SS |

APPENDIX A bie +. Ms ea a we 210

INTRODUCTION

Workers on the grey mullets (Mugilidae) all over the world seem

to have experienced considerable difficulty in distinguishing the

different species of the family owing to the very close resemblance

between them. This has led to a search for more reliable and

distinctive characters for distinguishing the various species; and the

generic revisions of the family by Schultz (1946) and Smith (1948)

are notable contributioas in this direction.

Little or no progress has been made in the study of the taxonomy

of the Indian species of the family Mugilidae since Day’s compre-

hensive account, FISHES OF INDIA (Day, 1876-1888) and FAUNA OF

BRITISH INDIA, FISHES (Day, 1889), although local species in various

1 Communicated by Dr. H. Srinivasa Rao, F.A.sc., F.N.I. Part of the thesis

that formed the basis for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the

University of Madras.

2 Genus Mugil Linnaeus, genus Rhinomugil Gill, and some ‘doubtful species ’ will

appear as Part II of this paper together with the complete list of references.

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 255

parts of the country have been studied by Whitehouse (1922) at

Tuticorin, Pillay (1951) in Bengal, and Devasundaram (1951) in

Chilka Lake. Some of the later workers have questioned the validity

of certain species described in Day’s publications. A detailed bio-

metric comparison of samples of the Indian species, Mugil dussumieri

Valenciennes and M. parsia Hamilton, made by me (Sarojini, 1953)

has shown that the two are synonymous. Following this interest-

ing finding, it was considered desirable to re-examine the systematics

of all the known Indian species of the family.

The present study is based mainly on the collections of mullets in

the Zoological Survey of India which contain many of Day’s original

Specimens, But fresh collections of mullets made by me in West

Bengal, and those obtained from Visakhapatnam, through the

courtesy of Dr. N. K. Panikkar, and from Ennore, Krusadai Island,

and Cochin, through the courtesy of Dr. T. V. R. Pillay, were also

available for study.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF MUGILIDAE

Previous studies have shown that many of the characters considered

to be of taxonomic value undergo marked changes with growth.

Jacot (1920), Sarojini (1953), and Pillay (1954) have observed the

absence of adipose eyelids in young stages (of M. cephalus, M. parsia,

and M. tade respectively) and their progressive development with

the growth in size of the fish. Thompson (1954) also recognised this

fact, though he has made use of this character to distinguish certain

Australian genera and species of mullets.

Pillay (1954) has. observed variation in the size of the eye of

M. tade in relation to the size of the fish.

Jacot (1920) observed in M. cephalus that the cycloid scales of

the young fish become ctenoid later. Pillay (1951) has corroborated

the same in M. cephalus, M. tade, M. parsia and M. corsula.

While Day (1878, 1889), Giinther (1861), and Whitehouse (1922)

have attributed considerable taxonomic importance to the size and

Shape of the uncovered chin space of mullets, I have found these

to vary markedly with the growth of the fish.

The number of rays in the anal fin has also been used as a

diagnostic character by many workers. Jacot (1920) found the first

soft ray in the anal fin of the young M. cephalus gradually ossifying

to become the third anal spine. A similar change with growth has

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

also been observed in M. parsia by me (Sarojini 1953, 1957) and

in M. tade by Pillay (1954).

Day (1889), Whitehouse (1922), and others considered the mandi-

bulary angle to be of taxonomic importance in mullets. Weber &

de Beautort (1922) and Thompson (1954), however, found this angle

varying with age in some species. The acute angle in the young of

M. cephalus becomes gradually obtuse as the fish grows.

The length of the 3rd anal spine has also been used as a diagnostic

feature by Day. But, as pointed out elsewhere (Sarojini, 1953), this

cannot be relied upon, as with the growth of the fish the base of

the fin gets more and more densely covered with fine scales which

makes measurement of the length of the spine subject to bias.

A comparative study of the young and the adults of the Indian

species of mullets has shown convincingly that the characters,

mentioned are of no taxonomic importance owing to their variability

with the growth of the fish. A sound taxonomic key should enable

the identification of both the young and the adult stages of each

species. So these characters have not been used in the diagnosis of

the species considered in this study. But where the characters attain

a certain constancy of form after a particular stage in the growth

of the fish, as seen in the scale characteristics, the number of anal

rays, the presence of adipose thickenings around the eye, etc., they

have been included in the descriptions.

Though Schultz (1946, 1953) and subsequently Smith (i948)

and Thompson (1954) laid great stress on the nature of the dentition

for distinguishing the genera of mullets, in the present study this

character has been used only in the diagnosis of species. In some

species, however, the structure of the teeth changes with the growth

of the fish, having simple tips in young and bifid or even trifid in

large adults (Schultz, 1946).

The dorsal profile of the mullets which has been considered a

diagnostic character by Day (1878, 1889) and Weber & de Beaufort

(1922) is greatly altered by the degree of distension or contraction of

the body muscles after death and is, therefore, not considered in this

study as a reliable distinguishing character.

Examination of fresh material of the available species has shown

' the relative height of body to be of some use as a specific character.

But many of the preserved specimens in the Zoological Survey of

India, the abdomen of which had been slit open for the purpose of

preservation, had the cut edges of abdominal wall curled in and

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 257

could not be measured correctly for body height. So this could not

be used as a diagnostic character in the present study.

Another diagnostic feature of somewhat limited application is the

relative position of the anal and second dorsal fins. Its inter-specific —

variability consists of the proportion of the basal length of the anal

in advance of the origin of the second dorsal, which usually ranges

between 4 and 2. In actually measuring this, i.e. by dropping a vertical

line from the point of origin of the second dorsal to meet the base

of the anal and then measuring the distance from that point to the

origin of the anal, there is a likelihood of much personal error

occurring. Hence no stress has been laid on this character for

diagnostic purpose.

Smith (1935) has suggested that the arrangement of the ventral fins

and the inter-ventral flange may have some significance in specific or

generic distinction. As many of the specimens in the Zoological

Survey of India collections had been cut in this region for preservation

it was not possible to examine its significance.

Measurements studied:

The measurements employed in this study for calculation of body

proportions were taken with fine point dividers. Some of the

measurements used, such as standard length, length of head, least

height (depth) of caudal peduncle, and the distance from snout to.

anal were taken as defined by Pillay (1954) land some others, the

forkal length, length of snout, height of body, distance from snout

to Ist dorsal, snout to 2nd dorsal, and snout to the ventral, as taken

by Thompson (1954). Hence these are not re-defined here. The

various other measurements used here are defined below:

Total length—from the tip of the snout to the end of the longest ray of the

ventral lobe of the caudal fin

Height of head—the maximum height between the dorsal and ventral aspects

of the head taken just before the operculum bends upwards

Width of head—the maximum width of head, measured from cheek to cheek

Height of snout—measured just in front of the anterior rim of the orbit

Width of snout—measured just in front of the anterior rim of the orbit

Diameter of orbit—usually the distance between the anterior and posterior rims of

the orbit. Where the orbit was not exactly circular, the diameter between the

dorsal and ventral rims were also noted

Width of anterior adipose eyelid—from the anterior rim of orbit to the edge of the

anterior eyelid

258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Width of posterior adipose eyelid—from the posterior rim of orbit to the edge of

the posterior eyelid

Inter-orbital distance—measured across the head as the distance between the

uppermost points on the dorsal rims of the orbits

Length of caudal peduncle—from the posterior edge of the base of anal fin to the

end of hypurals

Height of 1st &2nd spines of the 1st dorsal—from the base of the spines to

their tip

Length of pectoral—from the point of origin of the pectoral fin to the tip of its

longest ray

Morphological characters:

The following morphological characters were found to be of help

in distinguishing the different genera and species of mullets:

1. The presence or absence of opercular spine

The presence or absence of folds and papillae on the upper lip

The position of the lips (terminal or ventral)

Nature of the serrations on the extremity of the pre-orbital

Nature of the symphysial knob

Exposed or concealed position of the end of maxilla when mouth is closed

2 2 wR wD

Presence or absence of notch on the ventral aspect of the lower lip below

the symphysial knob

8. The relative position of the pre-orbital

9. Presence or absence of pointed scale in axil of pectoral fin

FAMILY MUGILIDAE

Since the erection of the genus Mugil by Linnaeus in 1758, several,

workers have attempted to subdivide it; and there have been several

generic revisions of the family. Of the numerous genera thus created,

the genus Liza of Jordan & Swain (1884) was considered valid by

Indian workers and some Indian species were assigned to this genus

(Chaudhuri, 1917; Whitehouse, 1922; Hora, 1923; Herre, 1941, and

Devasundaram, -1951). Recent workers in other countries (Smith,

1948; Herre, 1953, and Thompson, 1954) have also recognised this

genus. The distinguishing character of Liza Jordan & Swain is the

absence of adipose eyelids; but many of the species assigned to this

genus do possess adipose eyelids, though their degree of develop-

ment may be less than those of Mugil. Moreover, as pointed out

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 259

on page 255, the adipose eyelids are not evident in the young of

most of the Mugilids, even though they may be well developed in

the adults. Hence, as Roxas (1934) rightly pointed out, this genus

cannot be considered valid, its revival by Oshima (1922) notwith-

standing.

Schultz (1946) was the first to conduct a comprehensive study of

the world genera of Mugilidae. He drew attention to the taxonomic

importance of the mouth parts and other qualitative characters in the

family, and defined 13 genera which he considered valid. Of these

the genera under which certain Indian species have been placed,

are Rhinomugil Gill, Crenimugil Schultz, Mugil Linnaeus, and Chelon

Rose.

Rhinomugil Gill, has for its genotype Mugil corsula Hamilton, and.

the distinguishing characters of this genus are stable and distinct

enough for it to be accepted as valid.

Crenimugil Schultz was erected to accommodate Mugil crenilabis

Forskal. Mugil labiosus Valenciennes, which occurs in Indian waters

also, has been assigned to this genus by Thompson (1954). But he

had presumably not seen Schultz’s recent contribution (Schultz,

1953) wherein he created a new genus, Plicomugil, to accommodate

Mugil labiosus Valenciennes. The distinguishing characters of this

new genus are stable and very distinct from those of Crenimugil

Schultz, and are in complete agreement with the specimens of Mugil

labiosus examined by me. Plicomugil Schultz, and not Crenimugil

Schultz, is therefore accepted here as one of the valid Indian genera.

The characters of Mugil Linnaeus and Chelon Ro6se are, however,

overlapping. The original descriptions of the genera, with Mugil

cephalus Linnaeus and Mugil chelo Valenciennes respectively as

genotypes, do not differ from each other in any significant details.

Schultz (1946), who has elaborated on these genera, has also not laid

down any clearly defined and stable differentiating characters for

them. He has placed undue importance on certain characters, such

as the presence or absence of adipose eyelids. There are also some

vaguely defined characters in his descriptions, such as ‘the pre-orbital

is also bent posteriorly at a more or less sharp angle’ in Chelon,

while in Mugil ‘the pre-orbital has the front edge straight or nearly so;

maxillary not notably exposed’; ‘upper lip usually not ‘so wide as

distance between nostrils; ‘teeth probably present on vomer .. . etc.’:

(the italics are mine). The differentiating characters of the two

genera given by Schultz (1946, 1953) are tabulated below:

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Mugi! Linnaeus

1. Distance between nostrils wide,

equal to or greater than width of

upper lip (upper lip usually not so

wide as distance between nostrils)

2. Anterior and posterior nostrils

widely separated, farther apart

than anterior nostril is from

groove that separates upper lip

from rest of snout

3. Posterior edge of pre-orbital nar-

rower than distance between nos-

trils, its posterior tip scarcely or

not reaching past front of eye.

Anterior edge straight or nearly

so without a conspicuous con-

cavity

4. Maxillary and premaxillary not

hooked downward, maxillary not

notably exposed, both in line with

front edge of pre-orbital

5. Adipose eyelid well developed

reaching to or nearly to pupil ex-

cept in young

6. No teeth on vomer or palatine

7. Teeth in certain species become

bifid or trifid in very large sized

adults

Chelon Rése

Upper lip wider than distance bet-

ween nostrils

Nostrils closer to each other than

anterior is from groove behind upper

lip

Posterior edge of pre-orbital is wider

than distance between nostrils. Ante-

rior edge of pre-orbital concave or

angular

Maxillary with its posterior part

notably exposed, sharply curved down-

ward over posterior part of premaxil-

lary and extending below pre-orbital a

distance greater than width between

nostrils. Premaxillary with its front

margin sharply angular, non-dentate

posterior portion hooked backward and

downward almost at right angles to

toothed portion

No adipose eyelid present

Villiform patches of teeth on vomer

and palatines present or absent

Teeth simple in young as well as

large sized adults

A close study of these characters will show that most of them

are not distinct enough for a clear differentiation between the two

genera. The only characters which show clearly marked difference

are the relative position of the two nostrils and the shape of the

maxillary bone. From the present study it is seen that these charac-

ters can be assigned only specific significance. Mugil seheli Forskal,

which Schultz (1953) has assigned to Chelon Rése, in fact shows

affinity, in the relative position of its nostrils, to Mugil Linnaeus rather

than to the former. Mugil parsia Hamilton and Mugil tade Forskal

show what may be called intermediate characteristics in that the

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 261

distance between the nostrils is equal to the distance of the posterior ©

border of upper lip from the anterior nostril. At the same time ‘the

other characteristics of these species do not allow of inclusion in

any other tenable genus of Mugilidae. Again, according to Schultz

(1946, 1953) the maxillary in Mugil is not notably exposed, while

in Chelon it is notably exposed. In Mugil seheli Forskal the

maxillary is not exposed when the mouth is closed; yet Schultz (1953)

has assigned it to the genus Chelon. In the shape of the maxillary

bone, the different Indian species show varying degrees of inter-

mediate characteristics between those laid down by Schultz (1946,

1953) for Mugil and Chelon. Besides, I am at variance with

Schultz’s (1946, 1953) statement that both Mugil and Chelon

have cycloid scales. In fact, all the Indian species allotted to

these genera by Schultz himself have cycloid scales in the young

and ctenoid scales in the adult, the only exception being Mugil

seheli Forskal (Chelon seheli, according to Schultz, 1953) which has

cycloid scales when young as well as when grown to a large size. After

a considered study of all the differentiating characters between Mugil

Linnaeus and Chelon Rose as described by the original authors and

by Schultz (1946, 1953) I am of opinion that the difference between

the two, if any, cannot be given importance, at any rate as far as the

Indian Mugilidae are concerned. Chelon Rose has, therefore, not

been recognised here.?

Whitley (1930) created genus Ellochelon with Mugil vaigiensis

Quoy & Gaimard as genotype, and subsequently Smith (1948) has re-

cognised this genus. The distinguishing characters of the genus are ‘the

broad head, truncate caudal and dark fins’. These characters, as

Schultz (1953) pointed out, are not sufficiently distinctive or stable to

be bestowed generic importance. Ellochelon Whitley is, there-

fore, considered here as a synonym of Mugil Linnaeus.

Valamugil (Smith, 1948) has for its genotype Mugil seheli Forskal.

The distinguishing characters given were: “No adipose eyelids. Upper

lip thin, no papillae, maxilla bent down over. pre-maxilla, end con-

cealed. Lower margin of pre-orbital concave. Anal starts about

opposite 2nd dorsal.’ Schultz (1953) contends that, since these,

characters are not in any way different or distinct from those attri-

buted to Chelon Rése, genus Valamugil Smith should be considered

a synonym of the former. I am in agreement with Schultz (1953)

1 It has not been possible to examine the genotype of Chelon Rése, Mugil chelo

Valenciennes of the Mediterranean. Chelon Rose has not, therefore, been brought

here under the synonymy of Mugil Linnaeus, — ' ees

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

that Valamugil Smith cannot be considered a tenable genus, and sO

have brought it under the synonymy of Mugil Linnaeus.

Liza Jordan & Swain and Valamugil Smith have been recognised by

Thompson (1954) as valid genera; but, for the reasons already discussed,

I am unable to agree with him in this respect.

Fowler (1939) erected the genus Sicamugil to accommodate Mugil

hamiltoni Day. Schultz (1946, 1953) and Thompson (1954) did

not consider this genus to be tenable and, therefore, assigned it to

the synonymy of Trachystoma Ogilby. The present study showed

M. hamiltoni Day and the closely allied species M. cascasia Hamilton

to be different from all other known Musgilids in the possession of an

opercular spine. So it becomes necessary to separate these two

species under a distinct genus. Sicamugil Fowler is, therefore, removed

from the synonymy of Trachystoma Ogilby and emended here to

include this distinct character, namely the presence of an opercular

spine. In Fowler’s (1939) description of the genus he has laid.

emphasis on ‘the strongly spinate pre-orbital, the head largely and

completely covered with small scales, especially over its lower

surfaces, absence of adipose eyelids and peculiar facies (Sica=dagger,

with reference to the pre-orbital spine’. He has not mentioned the

presence of the opercular spine though it is seen in the figure given

by him. I am of the opinion that this particular character, viz. the

presence of an oOpercular spine, is of greater generic significance than

the characters emphasised by Fowler. It may also be pointed out here

that’ Fowler’s (1939) figure appears” to be sou Sve exaggerated | in

ond to the pointed snout.

~ In view of the above discussion it is possible to recognise only four

genera for the Indian species of grey mullets studied here. ¢

These genera may be distinguished by. the following key:

KEY TO THE INDIAN GENERA OF MUGILIDAE |

1. Opercle with a spine .. -- Sicamugil Fowler

_ Opercle without spine REL

2. Upper lip with paired

fleshy papillate lobes .. Plicomugil Schultz

Upper lip without paired ipa: eee

_ - fleshy papillate lobes ers

3. Upper lip terminal of snout .. Mugil Tianeetcn

Upper lip ventral of snout .. Rhinomugil Gill-

1In her recent paper on the grey mullets of Kayamkulam’ Lake, John

(1955) has ‘recognised Liza and Valamugil. In view of the reasons-laid down in the’

foregoing pages, I am unable to support her recognition of these genera.

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 263

Text-fig.. 1—(a) Lateral view of the head of Sicamugil cascasia showing the

opercular spine and the tri-cuspid pre-orbital ; (b) Lateral view of the head of Plico-

mugil labiosus showing the folded papillate lips; (c) Lateral view of the head of

Rhinomugil corsula showing the overhanging snout and elevated eyes ; (d) Ventral

view of the head of Rhinomugil corsula showing the position of lips and mouth.

Genus Sicamugil Fowler

Sicamugil Fowler, Notul. Nat. Acad. Philad. 17, p.9, 1939 (genotype Musil

hamiltoni Day) (Rangoon, Burma).

An Opercular spine present (Text-fig. 1). oe terminal and with-

out lobes or papillae. Nostrils in level with upper rim of orbit.

Symphysial knob present. No distinct teeth on jaws. Anterior edge

of pre-orbital without conspicuous notch and its extremity with a few

well-developed spines. Mouth protrusible.

ae KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES OF GENUS Sicamugil

Extremity of pre-orbital distinctly tri-cuspid .. S. cascasia (Hamilton) —

Extremity of pre-orbital distinctly’

| tetra-cuspid .. §. hamiltoni (Day) *

1 Though S. hamiltoni (Day) has not been recorded from Indian waters,

a description of the species based on specimens in Day’s collections.in the Zoological

Survey of India has been included in this paper,

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Sicamugil cascasia (Hamilton)

Mugil cascasia Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, pp. 217-380, 1822 ; Cuvier & Valenciennes,

Hist. Nat. Poiss, 11, p. 145, 1836 (N. Bengal) ; Day, Fish. India, p. 355, pl. Lxxv,

fig. 6, 1878-1888 (Delhi) ; Fauna Brit. India, Fishes 2, p. 351, 1889 (upper waters

of Jamuna and Ganga ; also Indus and Brahmaputra).

Text-fig. 2. Sicamugil cascasia (Hamilton) (After Day, 1878)

DIV,1+8;A. I+ 8-9;V. I+ 5;P. 14-15;L. 1. 36-39; L.

tr. 16-18.

Length of head greater than height of body. Head higher than

broad. Tength of snout equal to or very slightly less than its own

height, which is again less than its breadth. Diameter of orbit equal

to or slightly greater than length of snout, and less than inter-orbital

distance. Insertion of D, conspicuously nearer tip of snout than to

base of caudal. Origin of pelvic fins nearer anal than to tip of snout.

Length of caudal peduncle less than height of head and equal to or

slightly less than width of head. The Ist spine of D, longer than

the 2nd spine. Insertion of pectoral fin below middle of body.

Caudal fork fairly deep.

Proportionate measurements: vide Appendix A.

Scales: 36-39 on the longitudinal series and 16-18 on the trans-

verse. Pre-dorsal scales 16. No elongated scale in axil of pectoral.

Bases of all fins except D, covered with minute scales. Scales of body

strongly ctenoid.

Orientation of fins: Insertion of D, above 7th-8th, of D, above

22nd-24th, and of anal below 20th-22nd scales of the longitudinal

Series. Pelvic fin inserted below 4th-5th and reaches to the 11th-

13th L.1. scales.

Teeth not present on jaws. Lips very thin. Upper lip forms tip of

snout. and part of dorsal profile. Pre-orbital bent and strongly

serrated on the anterior and ventral aspects. The extremity is

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 265

distinctly tri-cuspid. Nostrils of unequal size, the posterior larger

than the anterior. The distance of the posterior nostril to the orbit

is less than that of the anterior to the upper lip, which in turn is

slightly greater than the distance between the nostrils. Symphysial

knob double. Adipose eyelid absent. End of maxilla hardly visible

when mouth is closed. Opercle with one strong spine.

Colour: Bright yellow._on sides. Dorsal and dorso-lateral parts of

body streaked with black bands on the bright yellow background.

Ventral aspect white and silvery. A large yellow blotch on base of

caudal fin and a smaller one on base of pectoral. Base of anal and

pelvics tinged yellow.

Material: 3 specimens from Delhi, Z.S.I. Nos. 2044 to 2046;

2 specimens from Assam, Z.S.I. Nos. 1392, 2043 (Day’s collections).

12 specimens collected from the Yamuna at Allahabad and Delhi.

Distribution: Type locality: River Ganges. This species has

been recorded only from India, where its occurrence is restricted to |

the upper reaches of the larger river systems of north India, viz. the

Ganga, the Yamuna, the Brahmaputra, and the Indus. This is a

purely freshwater species. The lowermost point on the Ganga river

system where this has been recorded is Patna.

The species does not grow beyond a size of 10 cm.

Sicamugil hamiltoni (Day)

Mugil hamiltoni Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London. p. 614, 1870 (Rivers of Burma)

Fish. India, p. 354, pl. Lxxv, fig. 5, 1878-1888 ; Fauna Brit. India, Fishes 2

p. 349, 1889 (Rivers of Burma).

D.IV,14+ 8; A.I+9;- V.14+5; P. 12-14; C. 18; L. 1.

43-47; L. tr. 16-18.

Length of head greater than height of body. Head higher than

broad. Length of snout equal to or slightly less than its own height,

which is again equal to or slightly less than its width. Diameter of

orbit equal to or slightly less than length of snout and distinctly less

than the interorbital distance. Insertion of D, nearer to base of caudal

than to tip of snout. Origin of pelvic fins nearer to origin of anal

than to tip of snout. Length of caudal peduncle greater than

width and height of head. Least height of caudal peduncle less than

width of head. 1st spine of D, longer than the 2nd. Insertion of

pectoral either in middle of body or very slightly above middle.

Caudal fork is deep. |

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Proportionate measurements: vide Appendix A.

Scales: 43-47 rows on the longitudinal and 16-18 on the trans-

verse series. Pre-dorsal scales 32-34. Elongated scale not present in

axil of pectoral. Scales on body are strongly ctenoid.

Text-fig. 3. Sicamugil hamiltoni (Day) (After Day, 1878)

Orientation of fins: Insertion of D, above 15th-17th, of D, above

the 27th-29th and of anal below the 23rd-25th L.1. scales. Pelvic

fin inserted below 6th-8th and reaches to the 16th-18th scales. The

pectorals reach to the 9th-11th L. 1. scales.

No distinct teeth on lips. Upper lip very thin, forming tip of

snout and part of the dorsal profile. Pre-orbital very conspicuous,

has a very slight bend and is strongly serrated on the anterior and

ventral margins. Extremity distinctly tetra-cuspid. Nostrils of un-

equal size, the posterior larger. The distance between them. is equal

to the distance of the anterior from the upper lip and less than that

of the posterior from the orbit. Symphysial knob single. No adipose

thickening over the eye. End of maxilla hardly visible when mouth

is closed. Opercle with one strong spine.

Colour: Silvery, shot with gold, leaden along upper half of body.

Material: 3 specimens from Burma, Z.S.I. cat. Nos. 136 (Sittang),

355, 1401 (from Day’s collections). |

Remarks: It has not been ‘possible to study fresh specimens of

this species. Those in the collections of the Zoological Survey of

India were not in a good state of preservation, most of the fins having

been damaged. The proportionate measurements, where expressed

in relation to total length, and the coloration given’ here are taken

from Day’s (1889) descriptions.

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 267

Distribution: Type locality: Rivers of Burma.

This species has so far been recorded only from the rivers of

Burma where it is a purely freshwater form. The largest size of this

species recorded is only 11.5 cm.

Genus Plicomugil (Schultz)

Plicomugil Schultz, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull, 202, pp. 315 and 320, 1953 (genotype,

Mugil labiosus Cuvier & Valenciennes).

No spine on opercle; lips terminal, with lobes and papillae;

nostrils in level with upper rim of orbit; symphysial knob present;

no teeth on jaws. The characteristic feature of this genus is the

distinctly lobed (folded) upper lip, which has 2 paired lobes ventral

to edge and 4 more at corner of mouth on each side. The lobes are

fleshy and fringed with papillae. Front edge of pre-orbital with a

conspicuous deep notch into which the lobes of the lip at corner of

mouth fit, when mouth is closed. Mouth is protrusible.

Monotypic, Plicomugil labiosus (Valenciennes).

Plicomugil labiosus (Valenciennes)

Mugil labiosus Valenciennes, (in Cuvier & Valenciennes), Hist. Nat. Poiss., 11, p.

125, 1836 (Red Sea); Day, Fish. India, p. 357, 1888 (Andamans) ; Fauna Brit.

India, Fishes 2, p. 352, 1889 (Andamans). _

~ Mugil macrochilus-Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 685, 1870 (Andamans).

. Mugil crenilabris Day, Fish. India, p. 355, 1888 (Andamans) ; Fauna Brit. India,

Fishes 2, p. 350, 1889 (Andamans and Nicobar).

Liza’ labiosa Fowler, Copeia, 58, p. 62, 1918 (the Philippines).

~ Liza labiosus Herre, Mem. Indian Mus. 13, p.-347, 1941 (Andamans).

- Plicomugil labiosus. Schultz, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 202, pp. 320-322, 1953 (Biking

Roncelap: Kwajalein Atolls, Romuk and Reer asters the Philippines, the Red Sea).

Text-fig. 4. Plicomugil labiosus (Valenciennes) (After Schultz, 1953)

Di Veh 8 3A. I+ VE a 3 (PH4- 155 Cl4—15 5 LI.

32-36; L. tr. 10 --12. : so ; a

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Tength of head less than height of body. Head higher than

broad. Length of snout less than its height, which in turn is less

than the width. Diameter of orbit equal to or slightly greater than

length of snout. Diameter of orbit more than half of inter-orbital

distance. Insertion of D, conspicuously nearer base of caudal than

to tip of snout. Origin of pelvic fins nearer origin of anal than to

tip of snout. Length of caudal peduncle less than width of head.

Length of Ist spine of D, exceeds that of the 2nd. Insertion of

pectoral above middle of body. Caudal fork not very deep.

Proportionate measurements: vide Appendix A.

Scales: 32 to 36 on the longitudinal and 10 to 12 on the trans-

verse series. 17 to 18 predorsal scales. No elongated scale in axil

of pectoral. Bases of all fins except D, covered with minute scales.

Scales on body ctenoid.

Orientation of fins: Insertion of D, above 10th-12th, of D, above

23rd-24th, and of anal fin below the 18th-21st scale of the longitudinal

series. Pelvic fins inserted below 3rd-5th and reach to 12th-13th;

pectorals reach to the 9th-11th L. 1. scales.

Upper lip, forming tip of snout and part of dorsal profile, is broad

and fleshy with two folds, the outer overhanging the snout. The

outer fold is well folded on itself at the two corners of the mouth.

All along the margin of this fold there is a row of short fleshy double

papillae. The inner fold is fringed with a row of long fleshy single

papillae. Lower lip thin, enlarged and reflected, with a wavy margin |

and without teeth or papillae. Pre-orbital with a large “very con-

spicuous notch and serrated only on the ventral margin. Nostrils

closer to each other than the posterior nostril is to the orbit, the

distance of the latter being equal to that of the anterior nostril from

the upper lip. The posterior nostril is larger than the anterior, the

latter with a raised rim. Adipose eyelids absent. End of maxilla

slightly visible when mouth is closed. Symphysial knob present but

feeble.

Colour: Olivaceous grey or brown on back, dull white on sides and

below. Pectoral with a dark axillary spot.

Remarks: While describing this species for the first time,

Valenciennes (Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836) pointed out its closeness

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 269

to M. crenilabis Forskal. Day (1870) described M. macrochilus

Bleeker from the sea off Andaman Islands but later, in his FISHES

OF INDIA (1878-1888), considered it a synonym of M. crenilabis Forskal

and recorded an allied form, M. labiosus Valenciennes, also from the

Andamans. 2 specimens of M. labiosus and one labelled M. macro-

chilus, of Day’s collections, were examined by me and it was found

that these three specimens were identical in all essential details.

Therefore, if, as Day considered, his M. macrochilus is synonymous

with M. crenilabis Forskal, Day’s M. labiosus will also have to be

considered a synonym of M. crenilabis Forskal, the latter name

getting priority. Most of the descriptions of M. crenilabis and M.

labiosus available are overlapping, the distingushing points being in

the number of L. 1. scales and some vaguely described differences

in the morphology of the lips. Schultz (1953), however, has given a

clearly defined description of the differences between the two when

he separated them under two different genera, Crenimugil and

Plicomugil. The specimens examined by me (Day’s M. labiosus

and M. macrochilus) both come under Schultz’s (1953) Plicomugil

and not under his Crenimugil. The Indian species is, therefore,

the same as M. labiosus of . Valenciennes, M. macrochilus and M.

crenilabris of Day being its synonyms.

Material: 2 specimens from Andamans—Z.S.I. Nos. 1409, 1410

(M. labiosus from Day’s collection); 1 specimen Z.S.I. cat No. 353,

from Andamans (labelled M. macrochilus).

Distribution: Type locality: Red Sea.

In India this species has been recorded only from the Andaman

Islands. Its distribution outside India extends to Indonesia, Philip-

pines, Australia, Marshall and Marianas Islands, and the Red Sea.

This species grows to over 40 cm. in length.

(To be continued)

Appendix A overleaf

270

APPENDIX A

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Proportionate Body Measurements of Indian species of the

Mugilid genera Sicamugil and Plicomugil

| Sicamugil Sicamugil Plicomugil

cascasia hamiltoni labiosus

Total length 4.40-5.00 4.25-5.50 4.50-5.40

Length of head

Standard length 3.53-3.63 3.50-3.64 3.47-5.00

Length of head

Total length 4.50-5.25 4.50-5.00 4.33-5.25

Height of body

arrcnes jength 4.08-4.14 3.77-4.00 i

Height of boas : : 3.10-3.28

_Length of head_ 3.40-4.00 3.50-4.33 3.00-4.00

Diameter of orbit

Inter-orbital distance 1.09-1.37 1.25-1.62 1.51-1.75

Diameter of eye et ia

Length of head 1545-1-62 x 1.56-1.75

Hasire : , ; : 1.42-1.58

Length of head 1.60-1.72 9 a 0 |

NGC HG EInGaal 1.92-2.00 1.47-1.65

2 ES a eae aro [se re

Length of head | 261-3.16 2.66-2.80 1.95-2.11

Inter-orbital distance | ; :

_Lengthofhead _ 12621086 eS) 1.00-1.05

Length of pectoral fin

____ Length of head 1.60-1.90 1.40-1.66 1.60-1.90

Length of caudal peduncle

Length of head ‘ 2.15-2.40 205-24

Least height of caudal peduncle eee

Length of caudal peduncle 1233041 1736-1260 1.11-1.25

Least height of caudal peduncle

ee Total length | | 5.25-5.50

Length of caudal fin Peete

Standard length 2.20-2.23 | 1,881.91 1.70-1.76

Snout to D,

Standard length 1.28-1.32 We eibeke 1931-40

Snout to D,

Standard length 2.40-2.55 2.37-2.45 2.27-2.47

Snout to pelvic fin

Standard length _ 1.35-1.38 1.32-1.44

Snout to anal fin

= 1.34-1.41

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC.

Obituary

LizuT.-CoL. R. S. P. BATES, 1.4., (Retd.)

(With a plate)

It is sad to record the death of Lieut.-Col. R. S. P. (Pat?) Bates, 1.a.

(Retd.) on 3rd August 1961. He died suddenly of a ruptured

aneuryson and aorta in hospital where he was rushed from his home

in Thursley, Surrey. Col. Bates joined the Bombay Natural History

Society in 1921 and became a Life Member in 1937. Throughout his

service in India, and even after retirement and leaving the country

in 1947, Col. Bates maintained the closest association with the Society, ©

_and was a model of what a really active member should be.

An ardent lover of birds and a knowledgeable and painstaking field

ornithologist, he made significant contributions to Indian ornithology as

his numerous notes and articles in the Journal testify. His love of

the Indian countryside and, in particular, his passion for Kashmir and

its birds were unquenchable. Many of his leave periods were spent in

exploring the various valleys and their bird life, and his descriptions,

apart from their fascination, are a useful and valuable guide for the

nature-loving visitor to Kashmir.

But perhaps Bates’s chief accomplishment and pioneering contri-

bution lies in the field of bird photography in India. Up to the

time he published his popular series on ‘Bird Nesting with a Camera

in India’ in the Journal (1924), bird photography here was a neglected

art. The articles opened up a wide field of interest and possibilities,

which were soon taken advantage of and developed by other

enthusiastic photographers. Many of his portraits of Indian birds

must still rank amongst the finest ever made. And when it is re-

membered that in those early years cameras, telephoto lenses, and

films were far less perfect than today, his achievement seems doubly

creditable. That he could attain the perfection many of his photo-

graphs show with the apparatus and material his modest means could

command was largely due to his ingenuity and skill in improvising

and preparing with his own hands simple little gadgets to meet special

requirements. : |

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Bates was fortunate to have in India during the same period

FE. H. N. Lowther, an officer in the then East Indian Railway, also

an accomplished field ornithologist and bird photographer. These

kindred spirits soon discovered one another and became fast friends

till the latter’s death in 1954 (Obituary in Vol. 50: 913). Many

of their furloughs were purposely timed so that they could trek and

camp together in Kashmir watching and photographing birds. The

partnership proved rewarding and is immortalized by BREEDING BIRDS

OF KASHMIR, a book of great charm and usefulness, every page of

which testifies to the devotion, attention to detail, and scientific

accuracy both men brought to bear on their study of birds.

Bates kept up his lively interest in birds and bird photography

even after retirement in England, though his letters often complained

about his circumscribed opportunities as compared with India, and

lack of time from the mundane domestic chores that go with house-

holding and life in general in the England of today. In spite of

all this, however, he managed to keep his interest alive by taking

active part in many local natural history societies, having latterly

become an ardent convert to trapping and ringing birds. That he

also missed no opportunity of indulging in his pet hobby of bird

photography, and had lost none of his old cunning through want of

practice was evident from the Xmas and New Year cards which his

friends unfailingly received from him, portraying some English bird

which had nested in or near his charming garden in Thursley.

Gardening was another of Bates’s minor passions. A few months

before his death he wrote enthusiastically in a letter to me: ‘My

efforts at turning this garden into a wee bird sanctuary at last seem

to be bearing some fruit. We have at last got both Green and

Greater Spotted Woodpeckers in it regularly, and the Greater Spotted

is at last digging a hole in a poplar stump I specially left standing

for its delectation.’

Ever since his retirement, Bates had been dreaming and schem-

ing for one more spell of birding in his beloved Kashmir, but alas

it was fated otherwise. A man of gentle, loveable charm and

modesty, and peaceful, cultured interests, he used to say that some-

times he was amused to see himself in soldier’s uniform when he

felt so little warlike within, and so much at peace with the world

and all it contained! That he made a very good soldier nevertheless

is proved by the high record of his military career. Bates’s death

is indeed a sad loss for Indian ornithology as it is for his numerous

ornithological friends. He was one of the last links in the chain of

OBITUARY 273

distinguished British ornithologists working on Indian birds before

the focus shifted lock, stock, and barrel to Africa. To Mrs. Bates,

his constant helpmate and collaborator, who shared all his interests

and hobbies, in India as in England, we offer our sincerest sympathy.

A list of Col. Bates’s contributions to the Journal is placed below:

1923 (1) Notes on Hugh Whistler’s ‘A Con-

tribution to the Ornithology of

5 Cashmere ’ in Vol. XXVIII, No. 4. .. 29 : 798

1924 (2) Birds’ nesting with acamera in India ., Part I, 29 : 947

, ~eeurary 1-30: 97

Part III, 30 : 306

Part IV, 30 : 600

Pare 2V,7307:, 793

wo eParl: Vio 277

1927. (3) Impressions of Pachmarhi birds es 31 : 918

1929 (4) A Reed-bed in the Dal Lake, Kashmir .. 33 : 656

1931 (5) A note on the nidification and habits

of the Travancore Laughing Thrush

Trochalopterum jerdoni fairbanki ce 35 : 204

1932 (6) Migration of Paradise Flycatcher

(Tchitrea paradisi) 35 : 896

1935 (7) Notes on the habits of some indian

birds f | 37 3 902

1935 (8) Some birds of Chittagong 38 : 158

1936 (9) On the birds of Kishenganga Valley,

Kashmir 38 : 520

1937 (10) Do birds employ ants to rid themselves

of ectoparasites ? 39 : 394

1938 (11) On the parasitic habits of the Pied

Crested Cuckoo (Clamator jacobinus

Bodd.) 40 : 125

1938 (12) Rosefinches and other birds of the

Wardwan Valley ne 40 : 183

1939 (13) Bird photography in India = 40 : 666

1942 (14) A month in the Kazinag Range uu 43: 60

1942 (15) Extension of the Range of the Atlas

Beetle (Chalcosoma atlas) 43 : 274

1943 (16) A note on the Feeding Habits of the

Little Bittern (Ixobrychus minutus) .. 44 :179

1948 (17) Astanmarg 48: 38

1949 (18) The Merbal Glen and some birds of the

Pir Panjal . 48 ; 399

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

1949 (19) Peculiar Behaviour of the Darter

(Anhinga melanogaster Pennant) 2s 48 : 810

1950 (20) The lower Sind Valley, and some further

observations on bird photography .. 49 : 178

1952 (21) (with E. H. N. Lowther) The History of

Bird-Photography in India 2 50 : 779

1952 (22) Possible association between the Yellow-

naped Woodpecker (Picus flavinucha)

and the Large Racket-tailed Drongo :

+e 50 : 941

(Dissemurus paradiseus)

1955 (23) Monkeys and Panther a 53 : 254

1956 (24) Fighting among Birds 36 54:191

1959 (25) Communal nest feeding in Babblers .. 56 : 630

Besides he was the author of a book BIRD LIFE IN INDIA published

by the Bombay Natural History Society in 1931 (now out of print) and,

jointly with E. H. N. Lowther of another entitled BREEDING BIRDS OF

KASHMIR published by the Oxford University Press, 1952.

S.Aa

Reviews

1. NATURE CONSERVATION IN WESTERN MALAYSIA,

1961. Malayan Nature Journal 21st Anniversary Special Issue. 45

papers by 41 authors. pp. 261 (25X16.5 cm.). 44 plates, 15 text-

figures and maps, embellished with numerous line drawings. Price

$5.00 (Malayan).

To celebrate their 21st anniversary the Malayan Nature Society

have produced a special issue on Nature Conservation. The publica-

tion is timely. There is beginning to be a more general awareness

of the need for conservation all over the world. In September 1961

an all-African conference was held in Arusha, Tanganyika. This has

been followed up by an International Biological Programme, one of

the aims of which is ‘to promote a world-wide inquiry into natural

biological communities menaced by human _ transformation § or

destruction’. 7

The contents of the volume under review range from the preserva-

tion of rare ferns and orchids, and wild life, to fossils. Malaya has

a rich heritage of archaeological sites. There are many caves with

deposits containing fossils. These have been depleted in many

cases, the deposit being removed for use as fertiliser. In addition

fossil-bearing rocks are exposed while quarrying or while digging

foundations. Legislation is urgently needed for the temporary pre-

servation of such sites, and for the permanent protection of a few

typical localities which contain so much vital information about

Malaya’s pre-history.

It is often mistakenly thought that conservation is a sentimental

concept. Sir Julian Huxley, at Arusha, emphasised that wild life,

conserved and wisely cropped, would provide a better source of

protein than cattle, which are expensive and susceptible to tse-tse-

borne sleeping sickness. This type of good management of natural

resources is exemplified by the management of the Birds’ Nest Caves

in north Borneo. The birds in question are two species of swiftlet

(Collocalia fuciphaga and C. brevirostris) the nests of which are

exported to form the basis of birds’ nest soup, providing quite a

valuable source of income to the Government. Only licensed con-

tractors are allowed to collect the nests. C. fuciphaga builds: three

nests in a season. Of these two sets are collected before the eggs

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

hatch but the third nesting is not disturbed. C. brevirostris builds

two nests in a year. Both sets are collected, but the second harvest-

ing is delayed until most of the fledglings have flown. Thus both

species are preserved, although exploited.

The concept of mere preservation has given way to that of con-

servation of the habitat as a whole, since there is a complex inter-

dependence of species. This is stressed in an article by J. L. Harrison

on Small Mammals. He argues that the diversity of competing

species in any environment prevents the undue increase of any one

of them. Destruction of any one species could upset the balance

and cause the emergence of another in sufficient numbers to con-

stitute a pest.

There is a wealth of interesting information in this volume.

G. E. Stubbs describes races of butterflies found on islands off the

east coast of Malaya which diifer strikingly from specimens of the

same species found on the mainland. These have not been des-

cribed by any other author and are not yet figured. Many of them

are far nearer the Bornean races than the Malayan. This opens up

fascinating speculations on the land connections of these islands in

prehistoric times. One could quote indefinitely: up to six cubs may

be born to the Malayan tigress, but more than two seldom survive to

maturity; the Sumatran Rhinoceros, the Pangolin, the Orangutan, and

many others are discussed.

Although the examples may be new, the concepts dealt with wil!

be familiar to all readers of the Bombay Natural History Society's

Journal. The aim of all Natural History Sucieties is to promote

nature conservation, and the appearance of a book like this is to be

welcomed.

R.R.

2. A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN.

By Sidney Dillon Ripley II. pp. xxxvi+703 (2315.5 cm.). Bombay,

1961 Bombay Natural History Society. Rs. 25.00.

The impact of zoological neo-systematics has been particularly

marked in ornithology. Indian ornithology in its turn has tried to

keep pace with the modern concepts. The large number of organized

regional studies on birds conducted during the last three decades or

so in India and the adjacent countries, and the numerous recent

revisional studies of different groups of birds, have resulted in an

REVIEWS 277

accumulation of new data on the distribution, status, relationship,

etc., of various Indian birds and a rearrangement of different

taxonomic categories, so as to render Stuart Baker’s FAUNA OF BRITISH

INDIA, BIRDS (2nd ed.), vols. 1-8 (1922-1930), somewhat out-of-date.

The want of a work incorporating the up-to-date information about

Indian birds has been keenly felt for some time. The publication

of Dr. Ripley’s SYNopsis is, therefore, most opportune and will be

warmly welcomed as an ihdispensable reference work by all bird

students not only of India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Ceylon—the Countries

it covers—but of other adjacent countries also.

The book opens with an introductory chapter, the highlights of

which are clear but brief accounts of the history of the ornithology

of the area -since the publication of Stuart Baker’s FAUNA, different

forest types, zoogeography, and a very important list of endemic

species. There are two maps here. One shows India and Pakistan

before the reorganization of the Indian States, and the other shows —

the relief features of the subcontinent in colour. Furthermore, in a

pocket inside the back cover there are two sets of maps printed on

transparent plastic. One of them shows the reorganized States of

India as from 1956, and the various climatic types are depicted in

the other. This last- set, when superimposed on the coloured reiief-

feature map, becomes a map of the forest types. All these maps are

exceedingly useful.

The main text covers some 638 pages. Here the largest unit

chosen is the family. The grouping of families into orders has been

avoided (except in the ‘Contents’), and the use of subfamilial names

is resorted fo only when absolutely necessary. The author has

followed an arrangement of families ‘which reflects’ his ‘own pre-

ferences’. Even the sequential arrangement for the Passerine families.

as recommended by a Committee of the 11th International Ornitho-

logical Congress for the continuation of Peters’s CHECK-LIST, has not

been adopted.

The familial names are followed by generic names with original

references and genotypes. Then each species is given with the author’s

name (but without original citation and reference), its common

English name, and the range. Under each species the various sub-

species are listed, each with the original citation and reference,

synonyms, and range. Such information as is available about its

breeding or wintering quarters, stray occurrences, the habitat it pre-

fers, or the forest type it inhabits, is all included under the range

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

A species of which no subspecies is recognized is treated in the same

way as a subspecies, i.e. all the above-mentioned information is

given under the species. The subspecies (or species without sub-

species) are serially numbered, and there are more than 2060 such

entries. And this gigantic task has been carried out more or less

singlehanded by Dr. Ripley! It has indeed been a _ courageous

undertaking to attempt to cover such an extensive field. The results,

while inevitably not commending themselves in all details, especially

in the recognition or synonymization of many races, to everyone

interested, must, however, command the maximum respect and

admiration. :

Detailed comments on the omissions or errors, which are probably

inevitable in such an undertaking, are being published separately.

However, three instances where the Direction or Ruling of the Inter-

national Commission on Zoological Nomenclature have not been

followed may be mentioned here. They are about the spelling of the

familial name formed from the generic name Podiceps Latham (p. 1),

the use of the name Podiceps caspicus (Hablizl) for the Blacknecked

Grebe (p. 2), and the use of the generic name Capella Frenzel

(pp. 122-125).

These and other omissions and errors noticed are matters of

detail, however, well outweighed by the merits of the book.

The get-up of the book is good, and the printing surprisingly free

from typographical blemishes (one casually noted is that page number

563 has been printed as 653). The publishers deserve warm commenda-

tion for fixing such an incredibly low price for the volume. And

Dr. Ripley is to be congratulated for writing the SyNopsis which, I

am sure, is going to remain as one of the most important and

standard reference publications in Indian ornithological literature.

Be BISWAS

3. THE STUDY OF ANTS. By S. H. Skaife. pp. vii+178

(22X14 cm.). One plate and 61 text-figures. London, 1961.

Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd. Price 25s. net.

The ant is everywhere very conspicuous, indoors and out, owing

to its incessant activity. Many people, therefore, have worked on

this interesting creature and have published their results. Even so,

there are big gaps and naturalists working on this subject can throw

fy eR lath “= “REVIEWS | 279

light on a number of points which are still obscure. Dr. Skaife, with

his vast experience gained from experiments in his laboratory in

South Africa, has recorded some of his observations and his inter-

pretations thereof in this little book. Though several points made

‘by him are covered by previous workers, like Lubbock & Myers

(1929, ANTS, BEES AND wasps), D. W. Morley (1952, ANTS), W. Goetsch

(1957, THE ANTS), &c., his observations on others are illuminating,

e.g. the chapters on installing and feeding ants, mixed communities,

parasites guests and predators, and remedial measures.

The book deals with 11 species of South African ants. The

author has grouped them in five classes and has devoted one chapter

to each class. A general account is given of each species, the races

and the varieties if any, their habits, the composition of the colonies,

&c. Well-drawn illustrations accompany and clarify the text.

Unfortunately, in most cases the measurements of the insects are not

given, which causes a confusion in the mind of the reader about the

size of the insect. Also, it would have added to the usefulness of the

book if the main distinguishing characters of each species had been

given. However, very interesting points are explained in these

chapters. The ant community differs vastly in its habits from species

to species. Some species, like the Argentine Ant, live in colonies of

thousands with a number of queens, 50 to 100, in the same nest.

whereas some other species, like the Spotted Sugar Ants, have small

colonies of 200 or less with one or even no queen at all. Some

species marshal their forces in regular defined lines, as against others

which, though they have their small colonies, wander about individu-

ally in an irregular way as if each ant is living independently. Some

species have a marriage flight and mate in the air, whereas in others

no mating is seen and even queen ants are absent. Some varieties

live underground, some under stones, and some in the trees. There

are a number of such features which make absorbing reading.

The next chapter deals with artificial nests for ant-rearing. For

minute observations of the habits and breeding of any insect it is

necessary to create natural conditions in a restricted area by erecting

artificial barriers. The author has devised a number of such artificial

nests and describes them with illustrations. His account will be

useful to any worker studying non-flying insects or other non-flying

small animals. The next two chapters deal with the collection of

the ants from the natural sources, and their installing, feeding and

rearing for observational purposes. A chapter is devoted to the study

of the sense of smell in ants. Reference is made to previous study on

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

this subject by other workers and the author’s methods are described.

‘From the point of view of economic entomology this information

may be useful to evolve attractants and repellents. Next comes a

chapter on intelligence tests. Lubbock, Wheeler, and others devised

various experiments to see the intelligence of these animals. The

author has devised his own and explains them in detail with ex-

planatory drawings. In spite of his minute observation, however, he

has not been able to draw definite conclusions. At times ants follow

a method without any particular intelligence; at others their behaviour

is inexplicable. There appears to be still a vast field for work in

this direction.

In the chapters on mixed communities and reproduction very

interesting facts of ant life are related. Two different species can never

be induced to live amicably together in the same nest. This is in, contrast

to the findings of some of the previous workers. In the case of repro-

duction, in spite of keen observations, it could not be ascertained as to

what makes the eggs hatch into queens or soldiers or workers from

the same brood. In some species there were no queens, and the

virgin workers and soldiers laid eggs which hatched and carried on

the colony. There were still other species which did not give any

clue as to the method of their multiplication. The chapter on

parasites, guests, and predators reveals an amazing number and variety

of creatures found in or near ant nests. Some insects, like the

aphids, scales, and lycaenid larvae, are reared by the ants to suck the

honey-dew produced by them: some beetles or other insects go there

to feed on the ant larvae and eggs and are tolerated as the ants

get a sweet juice from them; to some intruders the ants are indiffer-

ent, probably because they act as scavengers; and a large number go

there to parasitise the eggs, the larvae, or the pupae. Apparently,

except for this parasitisation, ants suffer from no disease. The final

chapter, on remedial measures, after a brief discussion, concludes that

DDT serves the purpose best. An index completes the book.

Nicely got up, well arranged, and well printed and _ illustrated,

the book is recommended as a useful guide to students of ant life.

The chapters about the establishment and maintenance of ant colonies

in captivity will be especially helpful to workers in India, whether

amateurs or professional scientists. |

N. T.N.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. PLATE I

1. Short-snouted pig from Great Andamans

2. Short-snouted pig from Little Andaman

( Photos : L. Cipriani )

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. PLATE II

3. Long-snouted pig from Little Andaman

(Photo: L. Cipriani )

Miscellaneous Notes

1. THE WILD PIGS IN THE ANDAMANS

(With two plates) .

Some time back, Mr. A. K. Ghosh, Lc.s., Secretary, Ministry of

Scientific Research and Cultural Affairs, Government of India,

informed me that there were two kinds of wild pigs in the Andamans,

where he was Commissioner from 1949 to 1953.

As the CHECKLIST OF PALAEARCTIC AND INDIAN MAMMALS. by

Ellerman & Morrison-Scott, 1951, refers to only one species Sus

scrofa andamanensis Blyth 1858 from the Andamans, Mr. Ghosh.

suggested that I write to Dr. Lidio Cipriani, an Italian. anthropologist

who was examining kitchen-middens in the Andamans from 1951 to

1954 and who had more direct experience of these animals.

Dr. Cipriani very kindly sent me three photographs of pigs which

he had shot in the area and these present an interesting problem

which requires the collection of additional specimens for its solution.

The photographs were sent to Mr. J. E. Hill of tlie British Museum and

the following tentative identifications are endorsed by him.

Photograph 1:

This was shot in the Middle Andaman and represents the common

wild pig of the Great Andamans; it appears to be the domestic

animal run wild. Mr. Hill was in Car Nicobar in 1947 and _ his

recollection of pigs there is that they were of this type and roamed

the island in a semi-domestic state.

Photograph 2:

This represents a short-snouted pig which Dr. Cipriani shot in

the Little Andaman, where it occurred along with the long-snouted

form shown in photograph 3, the two separate forms being dis-

tinguished as such by the Onges (Andaman islanders). This is

probably the form described by Blyth 1858 (Journal Asiatic Society

of Bengal 27 : 267) as Sus andamanensis. Wis description was based

on ochred skulls found in native huts at Port Blair. According to

Blyth, these skulls seemed akin to S. papuensis of New Guinea and

Hodgson’s Pigmy Hog of the Nepal Sal Forest, Porcula salvania.

From the size of the adult skull he estimated that the animal would

282. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

not exceed 15” in height at the shoulder, but later (ibid 29 : 103)

he referred to a complete skeleton from which the height at the

shoulder was estimated at 19 or 20”. As far as one can judge, this

would be near the height of the animal photographed by Dr. Cipriani.

In the same journal (28 : 271), Blyth had an additional note that

the tail was reduced to a mere tubercle and that the animal was well

clad with somewhat shaggy black hair. Blanford (FAUNA, p. 562)

stated that the one skin examined showed no distinct crest on neck

or back.

Photograph 3:

This represents a small pig about the same size as the short-

snouted one (No. 2). It was found by Dr. Cipriani only in the

Little Andaman. He says that the body was more slender and less

heavy than that of No. 2. This was always attended by only one

young. :

Mr. Hill agrees that this represents a third variety occurring in,

the Andamans. His letter reads in part: ‘The long snout, with

the tushes set far back, suggests a relationship to Sus barbatus of

Borneo, Malaya, and Sumatra, but the specimen portrayed is small

for this species. However, Sus barbatus is distributed over many of

the small islands of the Malay Archipelago, and the occurrence of

a form of it on the Andaman Islands cannot be entirely discounted.’

Dr. Cipriani, to whom the above separation into three varieties

was put, does not agree. In his opinion, the short-snouted pigs,

(Nos. 1 and 2) are of the same variety, the apparent difference in

size between them being probably due to difference in age. He

describes this short-snouted variety as attaining a maximum height

of 55 cm., about the same as the long-snouted one, but says that

it is stouter and heavier and may be as much as 80 kgm. in weight.

He adds that, as in the long-snouted variety, the short-snouted

females are followed by only one young, a fact which he would

attribute in both cases to the inability of the mother pigs to protect

more than one young one against the attacks of the Varanus Lizard

(V. salvator ?). He states that the short-snouted variety reminded

him strongly of a semi-domesticated form that he saw in south Asia

and on the south-eastern slopes of the Himalayas. So also, he says,

the Abors of the high Brahmaputra Valley have a_ pig which re-

minded him of the ~~ short-snouted Andamanese form. These

observations suggest an explanation which may usefully be explored.

In a paper, ‘Excavation in Andamanese Kitchen-Middens’, read by

him at the 4th International Congress of Anthropological and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 283

Ethnological Sciences at Vienna in 1952, Dr. Cipriani explained the

derivation of ‘Sus andamanensis’ thus: ‘In _ the Nicobars, male

pigs were invariably castrated in order to fatten them. Male and

female pigs roam free in the jungle in daytime, but are called

back to the house by special sounds in the evening. Females are

fecundated by wild males. There can be little doubt that the wild

pigs of the Nicobars- are descendants from young animals which,

before being castrated, did not obey to the evening calls of their

owners and thus became feral. Similarly, Sus andamanensis, of late

appearance in the kitchen-middens, would seem to be derived from

a semi-domesticated breed.’ Bearing these observations in mind, it

seems possible that there is a gradation of intermediate forms

between the local wild pig and the domestic pig, and this accounts

for the difficulty which Dr. Cipriani feels in separating the short-

snouted form into two varieties.

Material -is required to clear up the doubts enumerated in this

note and I would request sportsmen and other persons who are in |

a position to help to send to the Society’s Offices specimens of

different varieties of the wild pigs of the Andaman Islands, together

with notes as to their appearance, size, weight, habits, etc.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR Roapb, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BOMBAY 6,

March 12, 1962.

2. TRANSMISSION OF RABIES WITHOUT BITING

In October 1961 Y. S. Shivrajkumar of Jasdan drew our attention

to a report in an American journal about the transmission of rabies

by bats without the victims being bitten. We thereupon made

inquiries and, as the subject is important and of general interest, we

publish the information so far obtained.

The new feature about the association of bats with the trans-

mission of rabies is the probability that rabies may be transmitted

without the victims being bitten. Regarding this, with the kind

permission of Dr. Ernest S. Tierkel, Chief of the United States

Public Health Service Rabies Programme, we reproduce below an

extract from a report presented by him before the recently concluded

284. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Interprofessional Seminar, University of Missouri Medical Centre,

Columbia, Missouri:

‘It had been noted previously that two individuals died of rabies

after having been in Frio Cave, a large limestone bat cave in Southern

Texas. Before their death, both men denied knowledge of being

bitten by bats or other mammals, suggesting the possibility of a

non-bite route of rabies transmission, at least under the environ-

mental conditions existing in Frio Cave.

‘In July 1961 a. large group of animals were placed in a part of

Frio Cave occupied by suckling and lactating female bats. They

were held in the cave for approximately one month. The animals

were placed in four different types of cages, each differing in the

protection afforded against cave fauna. Cage type I was made of

escape-proof 2.5 cm. metal mesh; type II had the same plus an

additional cover of 6 mm. wire mesh to prevent contact with bats

or other cave animals; type III was similarly enclosed and covered.

with 1.4 mm. plastic mesh in place of the 6 mm. wire mesh to pre-

vent entrance of arthropods; Type IV was covered and sealed with

transparent plastic, except at each end which was covered with 1 mm.

dacron mesh plus the 1.4 mm. plastic mesh. The caged animals

were separated from the meshed-in ends by a ‘moat’ of glycerine

soaked spun-glass padding to insure against even the tiniest arthro-

pods such as bat mites from entering the animal cages within the

enclosure.

‘A variety of carnivores including coyotes, foxes, dogs, cats,

skunks, racoons, ringtails and opossums were used. Foxes and

coyotes were distributed in each of the four types of cages. To date,

all of the coyotes (10) in each of the four types of cages and all the

foxes (10) in cage types I, If and IV died of rabies. Rabies virus

was isolated from each animal and identified by serum-neutralization

tests. The animals in the test had been caged in isolation for a

quarantine period of 10 to 20 months before placing them in the cave.

Exceptions were one coyote in cage type I and one fox in cage type

IV, which were held four months previous to cave test. Two of

the animals in the experiment (cage type II) were silver foxes and

had been born in captivity three years previously.’ Negative results

for the presence of serum-neutralizing antibody were obtained on

a'l test animals previous to the study.’

According to the Virus Centre at Poona besides in vampire bats

(Desmodus spp.), there is evidence of rabies in the following genera

of bats:

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 285

_Tadarida,. Dasypterus, Lasiurus, Moiossus, Myotis, Artibeus',

Uroderma’.

Of these only representatives of ties genera Tadarida and Myotis occur

in India.

The only case of rabies associated with a bat in India is reported,

in the Annual Scientific Report of the Pasteur Institute, South India,

for the year 1955, as follows:

‘Bat Rabies—(N. Veeraraghavan). It has been reported that

the first case of Hydrophobia following bite by an insectivorous bat

occurred in Srikakulam District of the Andhra State.

‘With the co-operation of Major T. Joga Rao, Civil Assistant

Surgeon, Tekkali, and Dr. Bh. Janakiramayya, Veterinary Assistant

Surgeon, Tekkali, bats were shot in the area where the patient was

bitten and examined for the occurrence of natural ,rabies infection

among the bat population. So far, 12 bats have been examined.

Negri bodies and the virus were not demonstrable in the brains of

the baits.’

Unfortunately, the Director of the Pasteur Institute has no record

of the species of the bat Sears for the bite or of the 12 bats

examined.

BomMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, EDITORS

BOMBAY 6,

March 12, 1962.

3. UNUSUAL PLUMAGE OF THE LITTLE CORMORANT

[PHALACROCORAX NIGER (VIEILLOT)]

In the bird collection of the late Charles M. Inglis, the bulk of

which is now housed in the Yale Peabody Museum, there is a male

Little or Pygmy Cormorant, Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot) which

deserves mention. It was collected on 25 February 1935 on the Kamla

River, Darbhanga District, Bihar. This appears to be an adult bird in

winter plumage, with a white throat and lacking filamentous feathers

about the head, but the whole plumage has a silvery-grey tone. Only

the top of the head and round the neck are somewhat brownish.

For the rest the bird is silvery-grey, paler below especially on the

abdomen, many of the feathers, both of the back, primaries, and

* These are both frugivorous.

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1) ©

scapulars, and also the abdomen, edged with white. The effect is that

of a partial albino, or bleached bird, nearly pearly in tone rather than

white. I do not know of any other record of this type of plumage in

one of the Indian Cormorants. 7

YALE UNIVERSITY,

NEW HaAveEn, Conn., U.S.A., S. DILLON RIPLEY

February 26, 1962.

4. WIGEON, ANAS PENELOPE LINN., AND REDHEADED

POCHARD, AYTHYA FERINA (LINN.), AT

COIMBATORE, SOUTH INDIA

I am writing to report the occurrence of Wigeon, Anas penelope

Linn., and Redheaded Pochard, Aythya ferina (Linn.), at Coimbatore,

South India.

A pair of Wigeon, male and female, were sighted and the former

was shot in the Big Tank at Coimbatore on 30 March 1900.

E. C. Stuart Baker has written about this duck: ‘Within our own

limits, it is found everywhere, excepting the extreme South and

Ceylon.’ Phythian-Adams has recorded it from Mysore but says:

‘not found further south’. In my long duck-shooting experience this

is the first occasion I have sighted them in Coimbatore. To my

knowledge, Wigeon has never before this been shot or sighted by

anyone in these parts.

On 19 November 1961 six Redheaded Pochards were sighted in

the Red Tank, about three miles from Coimbatore Town. Three

of them, two male and one female, were shot by my son—weight of

male 1 lb. 15 oz., weight of female 1 lb. 11 oz. Mounted specimens

of both these species were examined by Mr. Humayun Abdulali during

his visit to the meeting of the Indian Board for Wild Life at

Ootacamund, and their identity was confirmed by him.

15, PERUMAL Koil STREET,

FORT, COIMBATORE, | B. SUBBIAH PILLAY

December 13, 1961.

[Mr. G. V. R. Frend shot one of several Wigeon at Haripur,

Chitaldrug District, on 26 January 1960 and another at Kankuthia

Tank about 50 miles further south on 25 February 1960. . Phythian-

Adams has noted that this species is erratic in its occurrence.

( spwiny[D4Alys “5 “4 2 $010Ug ) (s103IA) Sdas14siu sijolsoyD “preysng UeIPUT yeoId) SY

sso OY) SUIUIN], Aq desu MOJO & SuIZ0S UO dn paynd

] ALV Td ‘OOS “LSIH “LVN AVAaWOd ‘NuaNnofr

( spwinyfosalys *§ “A + $020Ud ) (s103IA) Sdar1481u sioloy) “preysng UeIPUy Iw oy

hq aeou Jaddoysseis e dn yoid 0} 839 oY} WOIJ SOI *” | A[njored SSuIpuNOIns dy} Sulake SINOY JOJ popoolq **°

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 287

The Redheaded Pochard also is rare in southern India. The

report on the Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats con-

tained only two records of this species from Vizagapatam and

Bellary. Subsequent to this on page 400 of Vol. 46 of the Journal

H. G. Lumsden referred to seeing a few around Madras.—Eps.]

5. THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD [CHORIOTIS NIGRICEPS

(VIGORS)] AT THE NEST

(With 2 plates)

The Great Indian Bustard, Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors), because of

ceaseless persecution, is extremely wary at the nest. I therefore

consider myself very fortunate to get the photographs of this bird

at its nest, which I am sending you and which I think will interest

you and your readers. In one of them the bird is seen with its

feathers puffed out to drive off a crow which was flying low over the

nest.

I take this opportunity to stress the need for protecting this

magnificent bird. Once found in numbers in the Punjab, Rajasthan,

and Sind, through central India, Kathiawar, and the Deccan to Mysore,

it is now found in a few patches scattered here and there in its former

range. In Saurashtra a nomadic race, the Dafers, are its worst

enemies. Equipped with guns and camels they are perhaps res-

ponsible for wiping out more game birds and animals than any other

single agency. Why they are allowed to keep guns is a mystery.

As the range of the bird is large it is perhaps not possible to

adequately protect it throughout the range, but sanctuaries should

be established at selected places in Rajasthan, Saurashtra, and the

Deccan. Also, as they have a tendency to breed together and their

breeding areas are well known, they should be strictly protected at

the breeding season when they are most susceptible to attack.

My thanks are due to M. K. Dharmakumarsinhji without whose

inspiration and guidance this note would not have been possible.

THE PALACE,

JASDAN, Y. S. SHIVRAJKUMAR

January 2, 1962.

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

6. DRUMMING BY, AND AN INSTANCE OF

HOMO-SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR IN, THE LESSER GOLDEN-

BACKED WOODPECKER (DINOPIUM BENGHALENSE)

On 20 April 1960, a friend and I were out watching birds. At

6.25 p.m. we heard a woodpecker drumming. A male Lesser

Goldenbacked Woodpecker (Dinopium benghalense) was clinging to

the trunk of a low palmyra palm which stood near two saplings of

Cassia fistula on a fieid-bund. The bird was 12 ft. above the ground

and just below the base of the lowest frond. Between 6.25 and

6.45 the bird drummed twelve times. Each session seemed to last

about 3 seconds. During the 20 minutes the bird clung to the same

place doing nothing in the intervals between drumming except once,

after the 7th or 8th drumming, when it preened its breast. After the

fourth drumming I noticed another woodpecker, a female of the same

species, on a slender branch of a Cassia sapling. I do not know if

the bird was there when the male started drumming. Anyway, the

female did not seem to take any notice of the male. She was busy

hopping up the branch and pecking at, or plucking, certain leaves

which had been curled into well-sealed cylinders by some insect. She

reached the top of the branch at 6.45, and at once flew off without

uttering any call-note then or later. But the male flew after her

immediately. He too did not utter any cail.

I went up to the palmyra tree to examine the spot where the male

had drummed. Most of the lower leaves of the tree had been cut

off, and the remnants of the lowest fronds had become quite dry.

The base of the frond under which the woodpecker had drummed

was twisted, so that there was a hollow space just above the junction

of the frond and the trunk. On the closely ridged outer-skin of the

broad lower end was a pale buff patch. The bird’s bill had appeared

to be directed towards the centre of this. As J thought that the

woodpecker’s bill had made contact with the bark during the

drumming, I expected to see an abraded area on, the buff-coloured

patch. But even the closest scrutiny revealed no such evidence of

friction. It may be that the surface was so hard as to remain un-

scratched, or the bird’s action so light as to leave no mark on it.

I had heard Goldenbacked Woodpeckers drumming on the dry

stumps of thick mango branches often during the previous two weeks.

The sound produced on this occasion appeared to be no louder than

that produced by drumming on dry mango branches, though in this

instance there was a natural resonance box in the shape of the hollow

between the trunk and the base of the frond.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 289

I had a curious hunch that the birds would be there next

evening also, and so my friend and I went to the same place at

6.25 p.m. the next day. At 6.30 a woodpecker came and alighted on

the trunk of the Cassia sapling. It hopped up and plucked off two

or three leaf-whorls and ate the contents. Flying to the palmyra

tree, it alighted 6 in. below the place where the ‘drummer’ had perched

the previous evening, and hopped up to the exact spot. It flicked

its tongue a number of times into the air like a snake, and preened

its breast for a short while. Then it drummed twice within 90

seconds.

I had taken up a position from where I could see the bird in profile

against the sky to note whether the bird’s head moved up and down

or from side to side in drumming. I found that on both occasions

that evening the movements of the head and bill were from side to

side and that the are described by the tip of the bill was very small.

In fact, it looked as though the bird’s bill was just rapidly vibrating.

A few moments after the second drumming, another woodpecker

(Bird No. 2), uttering the characteristic call note, came flying straight

towards the drummer. The latter flew to a branch of the Cassia and

the two birds appeared to be in danger of collision. But bird No. 2

turned off in the nick of time and flew off to a distant neem tree. A

third woodpecker now flew to the Cassia and alighted on the branch

where No. 1 (the drummer) was. No. 1 at once sidled up to No. 3

and mounted it. The copulatory action was brief and not very lively.

No calls were uttered. No. 1 stepped cff and sat touching No. 3

which was now ‘squatting’ across the branch with the body horizontal,

wings slightly open and wing-tips arched down towards the ground

and hanging down lower than the feet. A few seconds later No. 3,

on which No. 1 had mounted, jumped on to the back of No. 1 and

quite vigorously copulated. The tail was sharply bent down and

thrust almost under the belly of No. 1.

After this, one of the two—I think it was No. 1-—hopped up

to the top of the Cassia and the other flew off to a tamarind tree

30 yds. away. A little later three woodpeckers called. The bird on

the Cassia tree, which had remained silent, flew to a palmyra tree

very near the tamarind to which No. 3 had gone. Here it was joined

by No. 3 and the two flew to the base of a tall palmyra. A third

woodpecker joined them here and all three ran round the trunk for a

few moments. Then they dispersed.

Next evening the birds did not turn up at all.

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

The two woodpeckers which had mounted each other were of

identical appearance. Both had black foreheads without any pro-

minent white spots.

A very curious fact was that for a time before copulation, during

copulation, and for a few moments thereafter, the woodpeckers were

perched across the branch like any ordinary passerine bird.

A few furlongs away we had seen a fully-fledged young bird of

the same species accompanied by an adult.

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE,

CHITTUR, K. K. NEELAKANTAN

KERALA STATE,

August 14, 1960.

7. THE LESSER WHITETHROAT [SYLVIA CURRUCA

BLYTHI TICEHURST & WHISTLER] IN NEPAL:

A NEW RECORD

Among the warblers collected in Nepal by Dr. Raymond A’ Paynter,

Jr., on the Harvard-Yale Expedition of 1957 is.one specimen which

is a new record for that country. This is the Lesser Whitethroat,

Sylvia curruca blythi Ticehurst & Whistler. A male was collected

on 30 October 1957 at Phewa Tal, Pokhara (800 metres), Nepal.

This species winters normally at low elevations, so that perhaps the

October date and the altitude together signify a passage migrant.

YALE UNIVERSITY,

New HAVEN, Conn., U.S.A., S. DILLON RIPLEY

February 26, 1962.

8. ORANGEFLANKED BUSH ROBIN [ERITHACUS

CYANURUS (PALLAS)] IN DEHRA DUN’

A male Orangeflanked Bush Robin, Erithacus cyanurus (Pallas),

was seen in New Forest, Dehra Dun, (altitude 2100 feet) at the end

of December 1961.

Ripley in A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN states

* Communicated by Mr. Zafar Futehally.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 291

that the bird winters as low as 4000 feet in the western Himalayas,

although in Assam it is seen as low as 1500 feet rarely.

The above record for Dehra Dun appears to be noteworthy.

NEW FOREST,

DEHRA DUN, JOSEPH GEORGE

January 18, 1962.

9. A NOTE ON THE SEXUALITY OF THE RIGHT

OVARY IN BIRDS

During my studies on the sexual cycle of the Ashycrowned Finch-

Lark, Eremopterix grisea, I came across six birds (out of nearly

150 birds dissected during a year) possessing paired ovaries but only |

the left oviduct; no trace of the right oviduct was present. In all the

cases both the ovaries were equally well-developed in size and

presented similar histological structure. The oocytes of the right

ovary surrounded by their follicular layers were similar to those in

the left ovary. The oocytes of the right ovary of two of these birds

were in an advanced stage of maturity. Thus it seems obvious that

both the ovaries are capable of functional maturation. Since the

right oviduct is invariably absent, the ova from the right ovary must

be passing out through the left oviduct.

A very thorough examination of slides was made by me to see

whether any primordial germ cells could be seen in the right ovary

using the criteria laid down by Firket (1914) and Swift (1914) for the

identification of these cells. There is absolutely no evidence for the

persistence of primordial germ cells in the right ovary of Eremopterix

grisea.

Occasional presence of the right ovary has been, reported in other

birds by different investigators, viz. Biswas (1961), Chappellier (1914).

Domm (1927), Gunn (1912), Kumerlowe (1930, 1931), Macklin (1923),

McKenny (1931), Riddle (1925), Snyder (1931), Stanley (1937), Stieve

(1924), Witschi (1935), etc. Diverse theories based on morphological

and physiological considerations have been advanced by various

authors, viz. Chappellier (1914), Disselhorst (1904), Firket (1914),

Gadow (1912), Gunn (1912), Hoffmann (1892), Koch (1926), Stanley

(1937), Stieve (1918), Swift (1915), Witschi (1923), in an attempt to

292 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

explain the problem of asymmetry in the development of the nght

ovary in birds, a review of which has been given in Stanley’s paper.

The most plausible answers to the normal absence of the right

ovary in birds come from embryological studies. Dantschakoff &

Guelin Schredina (1933) believe that in birds the germ cells originate

in the preoral region and are carried to the gonad primordia by the

blood stream. They maintain (1) that the arterial complex behind the

mesenteric arteries acts as a filter to the germ cells as they are carried

along in the blood stream, and (2) that the asymmetry in arterial system

developed coincidentally with the turning of the embryo on its left

side is responsible for the uneven distribution of germ cells to the

two sides, and this results in the asymmetry in the reproductive

system.

Witschi (1935), in his work on the Redwinged Blackbird, the

English sparrow, and the chick, states that the germ cells are nearly

evenly distributed up to the end of the third day of incubation,

following which the endoderm withdraws from the dorsal body wall.

Presently the mesentery is formed in the gonad region by the inward

movement of the splanchnopleures so that the mesenchymatous plates

containing the primordial germ cells become fused. Immediately

after fusion, migration of the germ cells from the right to the left begins

and by the end of the fourth day the 5:1 ratio of Firket or some

similar left-right ratio is established. Witschi accounts for the unequal

migration of the germ cells by assuming a deficiency in the inductor

strength of the right cortex. According to him the primordial germ

cells are attracted across the forming mesentery by the stronger left

side. He concludes that the deficiency is fixed in the genetic make-up

of the bird.

Much light has been thrown on the nature of the vestigial right

gonad of birds by the experimental studies of Benoit (1923), Brode

(1928), Domm (1927), Gray (1930), Fiuilay (1925), and Zowadowsky

(1922). They have shown that ovariotomy of the left gonad will

produce a compensatory growth of the rudiment of the right gonad.

and a testis may come to exist at the site of the previous gonad

rudiment or, in some cases, even an ovary or ovotestis may develop.

Domm (1927) has stated that if only medullary tissue remains in the

right gonad, a testis or a testis-like organ will be produced. If a

sufficient amount of cortical tissue is present it will give rise to an

ovary, and if there are inadequate amounts of cortex and medulla

an ovotestis will be produced. Thus the various possible develop-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ; 293

ments on the site of the right ovary, both under normal and

experimental conditions, seem to be determined by the embryonic

composition of the rudiment in addition to other possible factors.

Brode (1928) has suggested that probably the left ovary inhibits

the development of the cortex of the right ovary just as it inhibits

the medullary components of the right gonad. Stanley (1937) has

shown that the hereditary deficiency of the right embryonic gonad

characteristic of the chick, the sparrow, and the Redwinged Black-

bird as reported by Witschi (1935), is not present in the hawks, which

invariably possess paired ovaries; here (in hawks), an even balance’

exists between the two gonad primordia and hence little if any

migration occurs across the mesentery from the right to the left.

It is therefore obvious that in birds the cortex of the right female

embryonic gonad has an inherent deficiency in its inductor strength.

and this leads to the disappearance of the right ovary and the corres-

ponding oviduct. The occasional presence of the right ovary in birds |

including Eremopterix grisea can perhaps only be explained by assum-

ing that, due to an abnormality in their development. the inductor

strength of the two gonad primordia is made even, resulting in an

equal distribution of germ cells to the two sides. ,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am thankful to Dr. K. C. Bose, Professor and Head of the

University Department of Zoology, Ranchi University, for guidance

and for providing all facilities of work.

UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

RANCHI UNIVERSITY, P. N. MEHROTRA

RANCHI.

Sepiember 6, 1961.

294

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

REFERENCES

Biswas, B. (1961): Some cases of

ovarian abnormalities in Birds. Science

and Culture 27: |

Brode, M. D. (1928): Significance of

asymmetry of the ovaries of the fowl.

J. Morph. & Physiol. 46 : 1

Chappellier, A. (1914): Persistence et

development des organes genitaux droits

chez les femelles adultes des oiseaux.

Bull. Scient. de la France et de la Beleg.

47: 361

Dantschakoff, W. & Guelin Schedrina,

A. (1933): Keinzella und gonade, VI-

Asymmetrie der gonaden beim Huhn

Primare quantitative asymmetrie der

gonadenlagen. 2Z. Zellf. mikr. Anat.

19 : 50

Domm, L. V. (1927): New experi-

ments on ovariotomy and the problem

of sex inversion in the fowl. J. exp.

Biol. 48 : 31

Firket, J. (1914): Recherches sur

V’organogenese des glandes sexuelles chez

les oiseaux. Arch. de Biol. 29 : 201

Gadow, H. (1912): The one sided

reduction of the ovaries and oviducts in

the Amniota with remarks on mammalian

evolution. Proc. Zool. Soc. London

82 : 808

Gray, J. C. (1930): The development,

histology and endocrine function of the

10. MIGRATORY

compensatory right gonad of the hen.

Amer. J. Anat. 46: 217

Gunn, T.E. (1912) : On the presence

of two ovaries in certain British birds,

more specially the Falconidae. Proc.

Zool. Soc. London 82 : 63

Macklin, M. T. (1923): A description

of material from a gynandromorph fowl.

J. exp. Zool. 38 : 355

-~McKenny, F.D. (1931): A persistent

right oviduct in the domestic fowl. Anat.

Rec. 49: 51

Riddle, O. (1925) : On the sexuality of

the right ovary in the birds. Anat. Rec.

30 : 365

Snyder, L.L. (1931) : Paired ovaries in

the hawks. Auk 48: 117

Stanley, A.J. (1937): Sexual dimorph-

ism in the North American hawks, I.

Sex organs. J. Morph. 61 : 321

Stieve, H. (1924): Beobachtungen

uber den rechten eierstock und rechten

Legdarm des Huhnerhabichts (Falco

palumbarinus). Morph. Jahrb. Leipzig.

54 : 137

Swift. C.H. (1914): Origin and early

history of primordial germ cells in the

chick. Amer. J. Anat. 15 : 483

Witschi, E. (1935): Origin of asym-

metry in the reproductive system of

birds. Amer. J. Anat. 56: 119

WAGTAILS IN KERALA

In December 1961, Mr. P. V. George of Kerala who had earlier

attended two of our BNHS/WHO Bird Migration Study field camps,

observed vast numbers of migratory wagtails, mostly the Yellow

(Motacilla flava), feeding regularly during daytime in the extensive

dyked paddylands in the Kuttanad area of Vembanad Lake, Kerala,

(c. 9° 20’ N., 76° 38’ E.). Every evening, an hour or so before

sunset he noticed that the birds formed themselves into dis-

orderly flocks or rabbles 200 or 300 feet up in the air and commuted

in a south-easterly direction. With commendable enterprise and

erseverance George and a companion decided to trail these flocks

cross-country, through intervening canals over tortuous bands through

paddy fields, and other obstacles, a mile or two further each evening,

till on the 17th day they finally succeeded in running down one of

the roosts in a sugarcane field at Kuttoor, near Thiruvalla,

some 15 to 25 miles away. Here, in an area of about one

acre of standing sugarcane Mr. George estimated a roosting con-

centration of 10 to 12 thousand birds; the actual number may

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 295

well be considerably higher. Presently they discovered several other

such roosts in that area, all exclusively in standing sugarcane fields

of the variety known as ‘Java’. This variety is an upstanding cane

with broad, robust, arching leaves for the birds to rest on, and com-

paratively free from prickly spines and saw-edging. Later, George

and his companion discovered some more roosts in the Edanad area,

(near Chengannur) a few miles further south-east, where the con-

centrations of wagtails were even greater. Edanad is virtually an

island of about 650 acres surrounded by the Pamba River. It has

extensive sugarcane fields interspersed with patches under paddy and

tapioca. The island is dotted about with the characteristic Kerala

homesteads set amongst ‘kampongs’ of coconut and betelnut palms,

jack fruit, kokam (Garcinia) and banana trees, and pepper vines. The

arrival of the wagtails at dusk to roost in the sugarcane and their

departure at dawn is a phenomenal spectacle. Around sunset, about

6.30 p.m. in February, the first scouts and small parties appear above

the fields. The flocks swell as more and more birds arrive, till soon’

the sky overhead becomes a seething mass of undulating motes milling

around in a disorderly rabble tier upon tier. They spread from

horizon to horizon in numbers that defy estimation and can only be

compared with locust swarms. Settling for the night commences just

before dark and lasts for about 20 to 30 minutes from the first arrivals.

Birds from the lower tiers drop directly into the cane from a height

of 50 to 100 feet at a steep angle—first in 2s and 3s, then in dozens

and scores—looking like a shower of falling leaves, and reminiscent

also of wounded birds dropping to a ‘browning’ shot. Within 10 or

15 minutes of settling, complete silence prevails. The birds perch

singly on the cane leaves and not huddled together. No noise or

clamour emanates to betray the colossal hordes within; the acrid smell

of their excreta is the only evidence. The departure of the birds in

the morning is equally spectacular. At about 6.35 a.m. (when the

light intensity is about the same as at roosting time) a solitary scout

or small party flies out of, and 10-15 feet above, the standing sugar-

cane. This is the signal for the roosters. Presently other wisps, then

flocks, then swarms, begin leaving the cane fields in quick succession.

The noise of the rustling leaves as flock after flock takes off is like

surf breaking on a sandy shore, or like an advancing rain storm

over distant forest. The larger swarms at Edanad contained perhaps

5000, perhaps 20,000 birds, each. With several such swarms aloft in

the sky, there was nothing but wagtails from horizon to horizon.

The traffic rush lasted a full 25 minutes till the last party had left

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

at about 7 a.m. Thereafter only belated ones and twos continued

for another 5 minutes or so. The total number leaving this cane patch

of perhaps less than 10 acres must be quite quarter to half a million

birds. The thought that this is but one of the many such roosts

in Kerala—itself but a minute dot in the birds’ winter range—and

that when they return to their breeding grounds the majority will

pair, occupy individual territories and produce a family of 5 or 6

each, is staggering in its implications.

In 20 days’ netting at Kuttoor and Edanad during January and

February nearly 1900 Yellow Wagtails were ringed, mostly of the

races beema, thunbergi, melanogrisea, and simillima. Among them

were also a good number of M. citreola and a few (33) Motacilla

indica—the Forest Wagtail. The last, of which 1 to 5 examples were

taken each day, were sharing the roosts with the others. They

probably came from the neighbouring homestead gardens where twos

and threes were commonly to be met with feeding quietly on the

ground in the shady ‘kampongs’. Only a single recapture of a

Yellow Wagtail was recorded. It was caught at the same roost where

ringed exactly two weeks before. Owing to a shortage of trained

hands the de-ticking could unfortunately only be done rather hurriedly

and superficially. Even sc, it is noteworthy that of over 1700 birds

examined not a single one was found positive for ticks.

The occurrence of the Yellow Wagtails in such unsuspected

abundance in Kerala is a new discovery. I certainly never came

across anything like the scenes described above, during the ornitho-

logical survey of Travancore and Cochin in 1932-33.

33, Pati HILL,

BANDRA, SALIM ALI

Bompay 50,

March 6, 1962.

297

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

12. NOTES ON THE BIONOMICS OF THE FLYING LIZARD,

DRACO DUSSUMIERI DUM. & BIB.

Draco dussumieri Dum. & Bib., an arboreal Agamid lizard, is

common in many parts of Kerala, but the distribution appears to be

local and erratic. In all 36 specimens (22 99, 14 oo) were

obtained, some from hilly regions, e.g. Kallar (200 m.) in Trivandrum

District and Pathanapuram (60 m.) in Quilon District, and some from.

low country, e.g. Kulakulam (50 m.) in Kottayam District and

Piravom (20 m.) in Ernakulam District. In the two places named last

the lizards were found in the coconut and arecanut plantations on

the banks of the Moovattupuzha River.

The agility and the swiftness which the lizards display on the

trees is in marked contrast to their relative helplessness on the ground.

On the tree the body is held close to the trunk with the head raised

at an angle of about 45°. As noted by Giinther (1864, REPTILES OF

BRITISH INDIA: 122) the ordinary movements of the lizard climbing a

vertical trunk are a series of jerky movements; but if pursued the

patagia are slightly opened and the animal leaps a short distance

dodging if necessary to avoid capture.

The patagium or ‘wing’ membrane is normally supported by six

patagial ribs, but in two specimens, one 9 and one c, seven patagial

ribs were found; usually folded along the sides; when expanded

convex above and concave below; margin frilled.

The erectile gular pouch below the throat and the wattles on the

side of the head are believed to function as secondary sexual

characters; it is possible that the sudden erection of the gular pouch

and wattles is a protective device, as this reaction is generally observed

when the animal is captured.

The animals are generally seen in pairs, one male and one female.

Coloration in life. Ashy grey dorsally with longitudinal

series of black circles along median line. Head has two cross-bands

touching orbits. Ventrally the body is greenish yellow. Throat and

neck greenish with scattered black spots; black band across throat

behind gular pouch. Gular pouch bright yellow. Dorsal side of

patagium brown near body and purplish black with yellow

patches near outer edge, this colouring being more pronounced

anteriorly. Ventral side of patagium yellow with marginal series of

black patches, this bright colour pattern being visible only when

patagium is expanded.

The coloration is cryptic and harmonizes with the black and bright

ash-grey patches on the trunks of coconut and arecanut palms, the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 299

bright colours showing up only in movement. It was. noticed that

specimens collected from hilly regions are darker. In this connection

it may be relevant to mention that an animal kept in a small cage for

a day was seen to be dark; on removal to a larger, well-lighted cage,

however, it would resume its normal coloration within a few minutes.

In preserved specimens the body is greyish brown with dark

markings, sometimes with a series of black circles on the back. It

would appear from this that Malcolm A. Smith’s remark: ‘Colour

in life not described’! (1935, THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, REPTILIA AND

AMPHIBIA Vol. II. Sauria: 143) is not confined to the colour of the

patagia.

Distineurshing, characters between sexes. The

males are usually smaller than the females. The gular appendage

in the male is about three times as long as it is in the female, and

when extended forward reaches beyond the snout. In addition, the

male has a nuchal fold and a low but distinct caudal crest.

Egg-laying to hatching. A _ gravid female measuring:

190 mm. in total length was collected on 18 July 1960 at

Mulakulam and kept in a fairly large cage with wire-gauze netting at

the laboratory. For the first two days it refused food, later it began

to feed on small grasshoppers and other insects. To provide a

natural environment as far as possible a heap of moist soil with

decaying leaves was placed on the floor of the cage. It was also

provided with water. On the morning of 25 July 1960, it made a small

pit in the moist soil about one-and-a-half inches deep and two inches

in diameter. In the afternoon of the same day at 2.15 p.m. the

animal was seen moving near the pit and still working at it. Crouch-

ing on the soil, with hind-limbs stretched apart, the clawed fore-

limbs were used alternately to remove the earth from the pit. Ii

appeared very active and excited; but, disturbed by a slight move-

ment of the observer, it stopped digging, covered up the pit with soil.

and left the place. After some time it went round the heap of soil

and examined various places and finally, selecting a new spot, made

another pit. It lay crouched over the pit with the snout touching the

soil, the tail slightly lifted up and, with the vent bent downwards into

the pit, laid four white eggs. The eggs were then covered with soft

soil completely and the pit was so well covered that it was difficult

* In J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. (1940) 42: 46 McCann in ‘A Reptile and Amphibian

Miscellany ’ refers to a live specimen which he obtained in N. Kanara. He

describes the colour pattern but prefaces his remarks with the statement that it is

‘by no means constant as it keeps changing within certain limits.—Epbs.

300. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

to locate it afterwards. It remained near the pit for some time and

then climbed on to the wire-gauze netting of the cage. The whole

process took about half an hour.

The egg is oval, slightly pointed at one end rounded at the

other. It has a hard, resilient, partly calcified shell. The freshly

laid egg is pure white in colour. The surface of the egg is sculptured

with. longitudinal striations extending from one end to the other. An

egg was 14 mm. in length and 8.1 mm. in breadth and ‘weighed

0.54 gm.

The eggs were kept buried in soil which was frequently kept moist

to prevent dessication. During the incubation period the egg changes

in size and shape, becoming more rounded as development proceeds.

The dimensions of the egg during this period are below:

Period of incubation | Length | Breadth

Freshly laid egg (25-7-1960) ee a 14 mm. | 8.1 mm.

2 weeks oe a 13.5 mm. : 19.05 mm.

3 weeks ts, ad 12.5 mm. 10.5 mm

4 days before hatching (9-9-1960) “ie 16.5 mm. 13.5 mm

The egg hatched out on 13 September 1960, fifty days after it was

laid. The newly hatched young was quite active from the time of

hatching. It was dark in colour, but after a few minutes of exposure

to light it assumed the characteristic colour pattern of the adult.

The gular pouch is small and yellow in colour. The patagium is

not large enough to enable the lizard to glide. But it can run about

actively on the ground, contrasting with the clumsiness of the adult

when on the ground.

The dimensions of the newly hatched lizard are given below:

Head and body a s 32 mm.

Tail ie .. 52mm.

Patagium on one side ~ as 15 mm.

Patagium extended fully on both sides .. 35 mm.

Gular pouch -s <5. Os), iim,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 301

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. A. P. Mathew for guidance and to the Council

of Scientific and Industrial Research for the award of a Research

Assistantship during which the work was undertaken.

MAR IvVANIOS COLLEGE,

TRIVANDRUM, - K. O. JOHN

KERALA,

January 23, 1961.

13. FURTHER STUDIES ON PADDY-CUM-FISH CULTURE

AT HESSERAGHATTA FISH FARM IN MYSORE STATE

(With one text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

In India several attempts have been made to popularise fish culture in

paddy fields. In earlier pilot studies carried out, the author (1953) »

reported a production of 100 lb. (45.36 kg.) of fish per acre (0.405

hectare) of paddy field, and an increase of 7% to 13% in paddy yield.

Dr. S. L. Hora, commenting on these experiments, observed that the

poor results were due to defective selection of fish, and that the high

rate of escapement and consequent low production were accounted for

by murrel being an air-breathing fish able to travel across paddy

fields. He recognised the value of the experiments, however, as

there was an indication of an appreciable increase in the yield of

paddy, and recommended the culture of any of the carps in such

experiments.

The Fisheries Research Committee of the Government of India

in its report (1954), while reviewing these experiments conducted in

Mysore State, observed:

‘although the murrel is not the ideal fish for experiments of

this kind, we are of the opinion that, on account of the preference

for this fish in the State, the experiments should be continued.’

The members of the Committee also discussed the design of the

experiments and advised the lines on which further experiments should

be carried out. The experiments were continued accordingly.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

ipa b addy. p1:0:t:s

The experiments were conducted in specially designed paddy plots

situated between the nursery pond and the fry nurseries in the

302, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Hesseraghatta Fish Farm (Text-fig.). The period of the experiment was

from 28 August 1954 to 28 December 1954.

The paddy plots, twelve in number, were arranged in three

terraces, and each terrace had four plots each measuring 242 sq. ft.

each (2 guntas'). The terraces were designated A, B, and C and the

plots A,, A,, etc. as shown in the text-figure. One plot (indicated by

the subscript c) was kept as a control plot in each terrace.

Pe een

| 300 400 | 200

errs “ol Bel

B, Bo Alege B

300 | 200 400

—|_—

Cc: Cc C, Cc

Text-fig. showing the lay-out of paddy plots. The numbers indicate the number

of murrel fish fingerlings stocked in each plot.

The control plots were selected at random. A trench 1 ft. (0.30 m.)

deep and 14 ft. wide was dug around each plot and the bunds were

raised from 1 ft. to 14 ft. The water outlet from each plot was

kept 4 in. (10.16 cm.) above the soil level, to prevent the plots from

going dry inadvertently. The water inlets and outlets were provided

with velon netting to prevent the escape of fish fingerlings.

After all these arrangements were completed, the paddy plots were

carefully prepared for the transplantation of paddy. Fifteen days

before transplantation 600 Ib. (272 kg.) of compost manure and, one

day before transplantation, 224 lb. (102.50 kg.) of a 50:50 mixture

of ammonium sulphate and super-phosphate were applied to each

plot.

The paddy seedlings were transplanted on 31 July 1954. Twenty-

four rows of seedlings were transplanted in each plot. The actual

area under paddy was 64 ft.x24 ft. (19.51 m.x7.32 m.).

2. Fish fingerlings

2700 fish fingerlings of murrel (Ophiocephalus striatus) from

different broods were collected, and without mixing were distributed.

740 guntas=1 acre

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 303

in the nine plots at the rate of 900 fish fingerlings per terrace. Three

densities of 400, 300, and 200 fingerlings per plot were observed, the

density per plot being fixed at random.

The fingerlings were released into the plots on 24 August 1954.

The number released in each of the plots is shown in the text-figure.

None were released in the control plots. Prior to the release of the

fingerlings the total weight of the fingerlings released in each plot

and the lengths of 30 selected at random from among them were

recorded.

No observation was made of the growth of the fish at regular

intervals, except at the time of harvest. On 28 December 1954, the

day of harvesting, the water was drawn, off so as to be maintained only

in the trenches around the plots. The paddy yield in each plot and

the growth and survival records of fish in the respective plots were

carefully recorded. The readings are shown in the table on p. 305.

DISCUSSION

(a) Gain in length

The average length of the fish in each plot at the time of introduc-

tion ranged from 32.00 mm. in plot No. C, to 90.17 mm. in plot

No. A,. The gain in length was 62.45 mm. and 80.01 mm. in the

respective plots. The average length of the fish fingerlings at the

time of introduction for all the plots was 50.65 mm., and that at

the time of harvest was 107.15 mm., the average gain in length

over a period of 123 days being 56.50 mm. The significant gain in

length of 80.01 mm. in plot A, was perhaps due to the fact that

fingerlings at an advanced stage were introduced into it.

(6) Weight of fish produced

The total weight of the fingerlings (2700) at the time of release was

4.9896 kg. and that of the 347 fish recaptured was 10.0291 kg.

Thus, a produce of 5.0395 kg. in 18 guntas of paddy was recorded.

This works out to a production of 11.1988 kg. of fish per acre.

Bish recaptured

Out of the 2700 fish fingerlings introduced 347 were recaptured

recording a recovery rate of 13%. Fish loss was mostly due to

escapement and predation.

(d) Paddy yield

The paddy yield in control plots A., Be, and C. was 75 seers,

80 seers, and 64 seers respectively, averaging 73 seers. As against

304. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (A)

this the yield in the nine plots with fish ranged from 64 seers to 86

seers with an average yield of 79 seers. The increase in yield is six

seers for 2 guntas or about 120 seers per acre.

The following analysis of the data brings out an interesting point:

Total No. | No. of Average

Plots of fish | fish cap- ated si paddy yield

introduced tured in seers

ine (2) 2G) (OI AO) ee

Ag; Bs, Cy 1200 107 8.90 eng. 76.7

(400 each) |

A. Bi; Cs 900 110 12.22 ie 61.81 EG)

(300 each) |

AABSIC: 600 2| 130 21.70 55.96 | 81.7

(200 each)

It is significant to note that of the three densities in stocking, 200

fingerlings per plot seems to give the best general results in respect of

recapture, gain in length, and yield of paddy. !

Even though it is not possible at this juncture to draw any

definite conclusions, this experiment adds weight to the finding that

there is a slight increase in paddy yield and that the paddy plots

could be used profitably for nursing the fry and fingerlings of

economically important freshwater fishes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Dr. N. K. Panikkar, Fisheries Develop-

ment Adviser, Government of India, and Dr. W. H. Rich, Stanford

University, U.S.A., for their guidance.

MINISTRY OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT &

CO-OPERATON,

(DEPT. OF COMMUNITY DEV.), H. D. R. YYENGAR

KRISHI BHAVAN,

New DELHI 2,

April 20, 1961.

REFERENCES

lyengar, H.D.R. (1953): Paddy-cum- Government of India (1954): Report

fish culture. Pilot studies conducted at of the Fisheries Research Committee,

Hesseraghatta and Visweswaraya Canal. Ministry of Food & SLIT p. 23,

Farms in Mysore State. Ind. Jour. Vet. para. 43.

Se. A, H. 23 (4) : 289-297.

305

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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306. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

14. CRAB-FISHING AT BOMBAY?

(With two plates)

The crab fishery of Bombay, though of less commercial importance

than the prawn and lobster fisheries, is widely dispersed all along

the sea coast. Rai (1933), in his account of the shell-fisheries of

Bombay, has dealt very briefly with the crabs. A more elaborate but

preliminary note on the fishery, especially of fishing methods, was

therefore considered necessary for future investigators.

CRABS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Of the various species.of crabs found in the seas around Bombay,

the most important from the economic point of view is the common

rock crab, Scylla serrata (Forskal), locally known as_ khadapi

chimbori. It is available in, quantities larger than all _ the

other species put together. The average size of the crab sold in the

market is about 4—5 in. across the carapace, although it can grow to

a little more than 8 in. —

Next in importance are the blue crabs, Neptunus (Neptunus)

pelagicus (Linnaeus) locally known as nili chimbori, and the three-

spotted crab, Neptunus (Neptunus) sanguinolentus (Herbst) locally

known as fin-doli chimbori. These are smaller species, seldom

exceeding 5 and 3 in. respectively in width across the carapace.

Charybdis (Goniosoma) cruciata (Herbst), as large as the crabs of

the genus Neptunus, is seldom seen in the markets, being more

abundant offshore and occurring in large numbers in trawler

hauls taken at a depth of 25 fathoms.

Matuta lunaris (Forskal), locally known as penkai, a crab grow-

ing to 14 in. across the carapace (excluding the lateral spines), takes

the place of Varuna litterata (Fabricius) in Bengal in being used as

the poor man’s food in Bombay. |

During the rainy season a freshwater crab, Paratelphusa (Barytel-

phusa) jacquemontii (Rathbun) locally known as gorey panyachi

chimbori, which grows to as much as 5 in. and is caught in paddy

fields and around lakes and streams, is also brought for sale to the

markets.

Other varieties of crabs caught by the fishermen are retained by

them for domestic consumption and are not brought to the markets

for sale. |

1 Communicated by Dr. C. V. Kulkarni.

JOURN. BOMBAY NaT. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Crab-fishing at Bombay

a. A hoop net being let down. Note the bait in the centre of the ring.

b. An ulendi in use.

JOURN. BOMBAY NaT. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

Crab-fishing at Bombay

a. & b. Two vatieties of dharkan; c. & d. Two varieties of aankdi; e. A kaabey in position ;

J. A pagavli

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 307

METHODS OF FISHING

Various types of gear, used mainly to catch fishes, also trap crabs,

e.g. the pera, a type of seine ‘net, often brings in large hauls of

pelagic crabs.

There are also various contrivances used exclusively to catch crabs.

Some are different from those described for other parts of India and

are described here: (1) The phuck or hoop net (Plate I, a): known

by other names in different localities, e.g. fug (at Uttan), aankha (at

Arnala), asu (at Bassein), gada (at Manori, Madh), garanda (at

Naigaum), Aili (at Uran), hila (at Karanja).

It consists of a bamboo or iron hoop (known as gada) which may

be as small as | ft. in diameter, but is usually 3 ft., or sometimes even

5 ft. (at Arnala). To this is fastened a basket-shaped net of cotton

twine. When a wooden hoop is used, it is weighted with three to four

stones of a total weight of about 6 lb. The net is made in the following

manner. Thirty meshes are made to start the bottom portion of the

net. At intervals along the height of the net, there is an increase of

30 meshes: this is called vasang. There are in all three vasangs,

making the total number of meshes 120 at the hoop. Each mesh is

14 to 2 inches.

Two cross-pieces of thicker twine, tied tightly across the hoop,

hold the bait which is locally known as. ghas. This may be the

flesh, fresh or dried, of mushi (shark), pakat (ray), wagti (ribbon fish),

or kaleti (Trypauchen vagina). The intestines of goats or sheep are

also used when fish bait is scarce. Though crabs are known to be

scavengers, the fishermen believe that fresh bait attracts them more

than dried or putrefying bait. They also say that crabs are attracted

by sight rather than by smell, and therefore prefer wagti as bait since

the skin of this fish shines brilliantly by reflected light. The flesh

or the skin of shark come next in preference, as they are tough and

take more time for the crab to consume.

The phuck is let down and hauled up by a long cord attached

to the hoop by three bridles. A dried hollow tumdi or gourd at the

other end of the cord acts as a float or buoy to indicate the location

of the net.

About 10-15 phucks are used at a time by the fisherman. They

are carried in tonis (dug-out canoes) to the fishing grounds, which are

at three to four fathoms depth. The phucks are laid down, spaced

at suitable intervals so that the hoops rest completely on the sea

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

bottom. They are hauled up at intervals of 10-15 minutes to remove

the crabs caught, and are set again. |

Crab-fishing is often indulged in by young boys or poor fishermen who

sometimes cannot afford even a toni, and a novel contrivance is used.

Locally known as ulendi or taranda (Plate I, b), this is a flat log of

the light pangara wood (Erythrina indica Lam.) 9 ft. long and 9 in.

thick, tapering to a roughly rounded point at the front end, and

weighing from one to 14 maunds when dry. The fisherman lies on

it, grips it between his thighs, and using his arms and legs as in the

crawl stroke propels himself to the fishing grounds. Although frail

and precarious in appearance, it serves well in the calm, relatively

Shallow waters where the phucks are used.

Although the phuck is mainly used for trapping crabs and lobsters,

other animals, e.g. groupers (Ephinephalus spp.) and catfish

(Tachysurus spp.), are sometimes caught in it. A similar contrivance,

with minor adaptations, is used for catching crabs in California (Lahr,

1939} and lobsters in South Africa (Chopra, 1936).

(2) The dharkan (Plate II, a) is used for pulling out crabs from

their burrows. It is a steel rod about 44 ft. long and 4 in. thick with

a barb at one end. Instead of a complete rod, a short barbed piece

6 in. long is sometimes tied to a bamboo stick (Plate II, b).

A similar appliance is the aankdi (Plate II, c). This is simply a

1-foot-long steel rod with the last 2 inches bent at right angles, and fixed

to a stick. Sometimes an ordinary fish-hook tied to the end of a

stick serves the same purpose (Plate II, d).

(3) The kaabey (Plate Il, e) is used at Gungwara. It appears like

an angler’s rod and line and consists of a 3-ft.-long stick at the end

of which is tied a string of the same length. To the free end of the

string is tied the bait (no hook being used). A number of these are

fixed in crevices of rocks in waist-deep water and inspected from

time to time, any crabs clinging to the bait being removed.

(4) The pagavli or pagavni (Plate II, f). This is the most commonly

used method of catching crabs around Bombay. A string varying

from 100 to 200 ft. in length is used. Bait is tied at intervals of 3 ft.

along the line. One end of the line is fixed to a wooden stake

driven into the mud. The line is paid out by the fisherman wading in

chest-deep water. To the other end of the line is fixed a cork float.

Crabs attracted to the bait cling to the line, which is inspected at

intervals. The line is lifted by one hand, and a net known as aankha

is slipped under, and the crab is jerked into it.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 309

MARKETING

Crabs are highly esteemed for their nutritive value. Medicinal

properties are also attributed to them. Hence, they have a ready

local market, and are caught and sold wherever they are available

without a regular sales organization. They are brought to the

markets in baskets, packed between layers of sea-weed soaked in

sea-water to keep them cool and moist. They fetch a retail price

ranging from 75 nP. a dozen (carapace breadth 2 in.) to one rupee

a pair (carapace breadth 6 in.).

TARAPOREVALA MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION,

BOMBAY,

November 22, 1961.

B. F. CHHAPGAR

REFERENCES

Chacko, P.I. & Palani, E. (1955): An

unusual crab fishery in the sea off Ennur,

Madras. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52:

946, 947.

Chopra, B. (1936) : The Cape crawfish

industry of South Africa with some obser-

vations on the prawn and crab fisheries in

India. Curr. Sci. (7)4 : 529-533.

— — — — (1939) : Some food prawns

and crabs of India and their fisheries. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41 : 221-234, pls.

i-v.

Hora, S. L. (1935): Crab-fishing at

Uttarbhag, Lower Bengal. Curr. Sci.

(11)3 : 543-546, 8 text-figs.

Jones, 8S. & Sujahsingani, K.H. (1952):

Notes on the crab fishery of the Chilka

Lake. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51: 128-

134, 5 text-figs.

Lahr, L. E. (1939) : The crab industry

at Eureka, California Fish & Game

(4) 25 : 330-335, 5 text-figs.

Menon, M. Krishna (1952): A note on

the bionomics and fishery of the swim-

ming crab, Neptunus sanguinolentus

(Herbst) on the Malabar coast. J. Zool.

Soc. India 4 (2): 177-184, 3 text-figs.

Prasad, R.. R.-& Tampi, P. -R.- S.

(1951): An account of the fishery and

fishing methods for Neptunus pelagicus

(Linnaeus) near Mandapam. J. Zool.

Soc. India (2) 3, : 335-339.

Rai, H. S. (1933): The shell-fisheries

of the Bombay Presidency. PartII. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 884-897, pls.

i, li, 2 blocks, 3 text figs.

Reddy, A R. (1936): Crab-fishing in

the Ceded Districts. Curr. Sci. 5: 178-179,

1 text-fig.

15. A NEW SPECIES OF LEPIDIAPHANUS FROM KASHMIR

(ENTOMOBRYIDAE: COLLEMBOLA)

(With a_ plate)

The collembolan species described in this paper was collected by

the authors at Srinagar during the Panjab University Entomological

Expedition to Kashmir in August 1958.

The identification has been

based on keys ard descriptions of species by Salmon (1949, ’51).

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Lepidiaphanus kashmirensis sp. nov.

Colour: In alcohol, the body pale yellow with irregular patches

of dark brown granular pigment on all the segments except Abd. VI,

where the pigmentation is weak; the antennae and furcula of a lighter

shade than the body; Abd. V with two lateral irregular patches of

granular pigment; Abd. I, II, III, IV each with a dorsal dark brown

longitudinal band; and dark brown granular pigment on the top of

the head (Fig. 1).

Clothing: Head, body, and appendages fringed with both ciliated

and simple setae of various sizes and covered with lightly striated

hyaline scales (Fig. 2). Lasiotrichia absent.

Body: Length from 1.45 to 1.50 mm.; head about half as long. as

antennae; the four antennal segments related as 6:10:6:14; Ant. IV

without an apical exsertile knob and clothed with short ciliated setae,

amongst which are scattered short, tapering straight simple sense rods

(Fig. 3); Ant. III with setae similar to that of Ant. IV and its apical

sense organ consisting of two short straight sense clubs on a weak

cuticular ridge (Fig. 4); sub-apical sense organ of Ant. II consisting

of a large stout apically rounded sense club and a short pointed

sense rod, the two lying close together on the side of a strong cuticular

ridge (Fig. 5); a pair of ocelli on each side of the head (Fig. 6),

surrounded by a mass of dark brown pigment granules; Abd. IV

approximately 3 times as long as Abd. III. :

Legs: Unguis strong with 2 small outer lateral teeth, and with

a pair of fine inner teeth about one-third from its proximal end; a

simple inner fine tooth at two-thirds distance from the base; unguiculus

simple, lanceolate, sharply pointed and about one half as long as

unguis; a simple short, non-clavate tenent hair present on each foot

(Fig. 7).

Furcula: Manubrium and dentes nearly equal in length; dens

annulated and corrugated, its terminal uncorrugated portion about

three times the length of the mucro; mucro small, falciform, narrow

bidentate, with a basal spine reaching the tip of the curved pre-apical

tooth; the apical tooth distinctly longer than the pre-apical

and curved inwards; mucro slightly over-reached by long ciliated

setae on the terminal part of the dens (Fig. 8).

Remarks: The genus Lepidiaphanus was instituted by Salmon in 1949

with L. eudyptidus Salmon as the type species. It was obtained by him

from Campbell Island south of New Zealand during the New Zealand

Cape Expedition. It was collected from leaf-mould under Draco-

phyllum on the south coast below Mt. Dumas under stones in a colony

JOURN. BomBay NAT. HIST. Soc.

Lepidiaphanus kashmirensis sp. nov.

Text Figs. 1-8—(1) Lateral view of whole insect ; (2) setae and scales from the body ; (3) apex of

Ant. IV ; (4) sense organ of Ant. III.; (5) sense organ of Ant. II ; (6) ocelli ; (7) hind unguis ; (8) mucro

and apex of dens.

is bit

oP OL ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES : 311

of penguins. No other species of this genus has been, so far,

described from anywhere in the world. The present species L.

kashmirensis is the first record of the genus from India and was

collected (only two specimens) from a dung heap on the left bank of

the river Jhelum at Srinagar (Kashmir) 5500 ft. above sea-level.

It is possible that the species of Lepidiaphanus from Kashmir belongs

to the colder regions of the north and future surveys of the Collemboles

might throw more light on the distribution of the genus.

The new species L. kashmirensis differs from the described species

L. eudyptidus in the following characters: ,

1. L. kashmirensis measures 1.5 mm. as against 1.4 mm. of L.

eudyptidus.

2. The pigment granules are dark brown as against grey purple of

L. eudyptidus.

3. There are no transverse pigment bands in the BreSene species

in Abd. I-IV (present in L. eudyptidus).

4. Abd. I-IV with dark brown dorsal longitudinal bands: si (absent

in L. eudyptidus).

5. Antennal-segments-ratio is 6:10:6:14 as against 5:9:5:12 in

L. eudyptidus. |

6. There is a large, stout sense club of the sense organ of Ant. II

as against the short pointed sense club of L. eudyptidus.

7. Abd. IV is about 3 times as long as Abd. III in the present

Species as against 5-6 times as long as Abd. III in L. eudyptidus.

8. Claw has an additional inner tooth at distal 4 in L. kashmirensis

(absent in L. eudyptidus).

9. The apical tooth of mucro is distinctly longer fant the pre-

apical (quite the reverse in L. eudyptidus).

Holotype: Marked specimen collem. 1 on slide deposited in the

Entomological Collection of Panjab University, Zoology Department,

Chandigarh. Paratype—one complete specimen in the authors’ collec-

tion. The above description is based on the two complete specimens.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

PANJAB UNIVERSITY, G. L. ARORA

CHANDIGARH, | MOHINDER SINGH

July 27, 1961.

REFERENCES

Salmon, J.T. (1949): New sub- antarctic Salmon, J. T. (1951): Keys and Biblio-

Collembola. eae Exped. ser. Bull, Dept. graphy to the Collembola. Zool. Pub.

Sci. & Ind. Res. 4 : 1-56. Vict. Univ. Coll, 8: 1-82,

312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

16. DANAUS CHRYSIPPUS FORM DORIPPUS IN RAJASTHAN

For more than two years the writer has collected thousands of

butterflies throughout India. Over a hundred Danaus chrysippus

(Linnaeus) were collected in that period, and thousands more were

seen. Not once in that period was a form dorippus Cramer

encountered.

However, the capture of a male dorippus was finally effected at

Sumerpur, Rajasthan (Pali District, 45 miles SSW. of Pali) on 5

October 1961, during a brief stay there.

The day was warm and sunny, and while collecting in a garden

a very distinctive dorippus was seen flying in the company of

normal specimens of D. chrysippus. Needless to say, the capture

was made with all haste. The insect was not perfect, however. It

was somewhat faded and had a few nicks in the margins of the hind

wings.

Listed as rare, Wynter-Blyth (1957) states that dorippus mainly

occurs in the drier regions of India. Marshall & de Nicéville (1882)

record dorippus (which they list as a full species, Danais dorippus

Kiug) as occurring only in West Pakistan in the Indian Region, while

the ‘species’ has a range that extends through eastern Europe to

Africa, where it is common. They record it from West Pakistan in

January, June, August, September, November, and December.

Menesse (1950) also records dorippus from West Pakistan, and Harman

(1950) records it from north Bihar.

Woodhouse & Henry (1942) state that form dorippus is rare in

Ceylon, and is ‘. . . more likely to be captured in the low country

dry zone, though it has been taken in Colombo’.

Best (1954) records dorippus from Calcutta, and an editorial addition

to that paper further lists Campbellpur, Punjab; near Poona; near

Trincomalee, north-east Ceylon; and the south and east Ceylon coasts

as localities where this form has been collected.

116, SUNDAR NAGAR,

New DELHI,

JULIAN P. DONAHUE

November 28, 1961.

REFERENCES

Best, A. E. G. (1954): Occurrence of

Danaus chrysippus var. dorippus at Dum

Dum Air Port. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 52 (1): 218.

Harman, A. C. (1950): Champaran

Butterflies— North Bihar. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 49 (1) : 93-100.

Marshall, G. F. L. & Nicéville, Lionel

de (1882): The Butterflies of India,

Burma and Ceylon, -Vol. I, Calcuttal.

Menesse, N. H. (1950): Butterflies of

Sind. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49 (1):

20-24.

Woodhouse, L. G. O. & Henry,

G. M. R. (1942): The Butterfly Fauna

of Ceylon. Colombo.

Wynter-Blyth, M. A. (1957): Butter-

flies of the Indian Region. Bombay.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 313

17. TINGIDAE OF WESTERN U.P. (HEMIPTERA:

HETEROPTERA)

(With one photograph)

The morphology, biology, and ecology of oriental Tingidae have

been incompletely studied, due perhaps to the smallness of the

insects and lack of knowledge of mass-rearing techniques. But the

damage caused by these insects especially to garden plants is immense.

In recent years attention has been directed to the biological aspect

of the study of these insects. The biology of two indigenous species

has been partially worked out: Urentius echinus Dist. by Patel &

Kulkarny (1955) and (Monanthia globulifera Walk.) by Sharga (1953).

The life-history of an imported lace bug Teleonemia scrupulosa Stal.

(Lantana Bug) was completed by Khan (1945) and Roonwal (1952).

The only available record on the regional survey of Tingidae is that

made by Menon & Hakk (1959), which shows seven species of Tingids

attacking garden plants in the Delhi area and they give a revision of the '

genus Urentius. The Oriental Region should be rich in tingifauna

and an intensive regional survey is bound to be rewarding.

In western U.P. an up-to-date survey has revealed ten genera and

fourteen species of tingids, mostly attacking plants of great economic

value. The various species, their host plants, and their parasites and

predators are summarised in the following tables. Detailed study

on the incidence, population frequencies, structure of eggs, and the

biological aspects of the various species and those of the predators

will appear in series elsewhere.

TABLE I

TINGID SPECIES OF WESTERN U.P. AND THEIR Host PLANTS

Tingid species Host plants

1. Galeatus scrophilus Saunders, 1876 Compositae

Helianthus annuus

Gaillardia

Marigold

Launaea

Vernonia

Crysanthemums*

Echinops echinatus

Papaveraceae

Argemone mexicana

2. Corythauma ayyari (Drake), 1933 Oleaceae

(The tingid that makes leaf curl gall, see photo.) Jasminum spp.*

* Already recorded host plants.

314

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

Cysteochila delineata (Distant), 1903 Papilionaceae

Bauhinia sp.

Dasytingis rudis (Drake & Poor), 1939 Verbenaceae

Vitex negundo

Dictyla cheriana (Drake & Poor), 1936 Tree (unidentified)

Dictyla sufflata (Drake & Poor), 1939 Boraginaceae

Ehretia laevis

Monanthia globulifera Walker, 1902 _ Labiatae

Salvia splendens

Mentha*

Ocimum sanctum*

Ocimum basilicum*

Ocimum gratissimum

Monosteira minutula Montandon, 1897 (a new

record in the Orient) Rhamnaceae

| Zizyphus jujuba

Stephanitis typicus (Distant), 1903 Musaceae

Musa paradisiaca*

Tingis buddleiae Drake, 1930 Verbenaceae —

Vitex trifoliata

Tingis sp. (new) Compositae

Echinops echinatus

Urentius echinus Distant, 1909 Solanaceae

Solanum melongena*

Urentius euonymus Distant, 1909 Malvaceae

Abutilon indicum

Hollyhock

Urentius maculatus Malvaceae

Abutilon indicum

Sida

TABLE II

PARASITES OF TINGID SPECIES

Trichogramma sp. (Chalcidae-Hym.). This is an egg parasite noted on

G.scrophilus and C.ayyari. This is the first record of a Trichogramma

sp. parasitising tingid eggs. Claridge (1959) recorded another species of

Trichogramma (Monorthochaeta pulchella) in the eggs of Mirids (Heterop-

tera) and the first record of a tingid egg parasite belonging to the genus

Anaphes (Mymaridae-Chalcidae) was made by Southwood & Scudder

(1956).

Leptus sp. (Erythraeidae-Acarininae). The adults and immature stages of

G. scrophilus, C. ayyari, and U. euonymus are being parasitised by this mite.

TABLE III

PREDATORS OF TINGID SPECIES

Apollodotus sp. (Capsidae-Heter.). Nymphs and adults of this bug feed on

C. ayyari, D. sufflata, and S. typicus.

Larvae of Chrysopa (Chrysopidae-Neuro.) are found foodie on C. ayyari, D.

sufflata, and T. buddleiae.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 315

3. Anunidentified species of spider was observed predating on D. cheriana.

4. Ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae-Coleop.) Grubs of some species were found

feeding on D. sufflata, and the following species have been noted by Sharga

(1953) on M. globulifera: 1. Grubs of Brumus suturalis Fab.

2. Grubs of Chilominus sexmaculata Fab.

and 3. Grubs and adults of Coccinella septum-

punctata Linn.

Leaf-curl gall formed on Jasminum sp. by Corythauma ayyari (Drake),

with adults and immature stages on it.

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

A fungus belonging to the genus Cladosporium grows on dead

adults, nymphs, and faecal matters of D. sufflata and C. ayyari. It

does not however cause the death of the insects.

SCHOOL OF ENTOMOLOGY,

St. JOHN’S COLLEGE,

AGRA,

June 19, 1961.

DAVID LIVINGSTON,

Govt. of India Research Scholar

REFERENCES

Claridge, M.F.A. (1959): A new species

of Trichogrammatid. (Hymenoptera,

Chalcidoidea) Parasitic in Mirid eggs

(Hemiptera: Heteroptera). Proc. R. Ent.

Soc. Lond. (B) 28 (9-10) : 128-131.

Distant, W. L. (1903): The Fauna of

British India, including Ceylon and

Burma. Rhynchota. 2 (1) (Heteroptera) :

120-145.

—— — — — (1910): The Fauna of

British India, including Ceylon and

Burma. Rhynchota, 5 (Heteroptera:

Appendix) : 100-126.

Drake, C. J. (1928): Anew subgenus

and species of Tingids from Burma.

Indian For. Rec. 13 (3) : 283 : 284.

——— (1933): On Some Tingidae

from S. India including two new species.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36 (4):

1015-1016. im

——— (1936): An undescribed Tingid

from S. India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 39 (1): 145. <

(1937): Some Tingidae from

China, East Indies and India. Lingnan

Sci. J. 16 (3) 385-388.

(1954): Miscellany of New

Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.

& Davies, N. T. (1960):

Morphology, Phylogeny and_ higher

classification of the Family Tingidae

including the description of a new species

of subfamily Vianaidinae (Hemiptera :

Heteroptera). Entomologica Americana

39 (New Series) : 1-100.

eS ew li Gy UIE). B ER

undescribed Tingidae from India (Hemi-

ptera), Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 48 (4):

104-106.

——— & Poor, M. E. (1936): New

Indian Tingidae, Indian For. Rec. New

Delhi 2 : 141-149.

——— & Maa, T. (1953): Chinese

and Other Oriental Tingidae (Hemiptera),

J. Taiwan Mus. 6 (2) : 88-110.

& Ruhoff, F. A. (1960):

Lace bug genera of the World (Hemip-

tera: Tingidae). Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.

112 : 1-105.

Tingidae.

67 : 1-15.

—

Ghulamullah (1941): Aphidae and

some other Rhynchota from Afghanistan.

Indian J. Ent., 3 (2): 225-243.

Khan, A. H. (1945): On the Lantana

Bug (Teleonemia scrupulosa Stal). Indian

J. Ent. 6 (1-2) : 149-161.

Kirkaldy, G. W. (1902): Memoirs on

Oriental Rhynchota. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 14 : 297-299.

Menon, M.G.R. & Hakk; A. (1959 a) :

Some Tingids of economic importance

from Delhi State. Proc. 46th Ind. Sci.

Cong., Patt 32.392;

(1959 b):

A revision of the genus Urentius Dist. with

descriptions of five new species (Hetero-

ptera: Tingidae) ibid. part 3,: 393.

Patel, R. G.. & Kulkarny, HH. L.

(1955): Bionomics of Urentius echinus

Dist. (Hemiptera: Tingidae) an important

pest of Brinjal (Solanum melongena) in

North Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

53 (1): 86-96

Roonwal, M. L. (1952): The natural

establishment and dispersal of an impor-

ted insect in India - - the Lantana bug

Teleonemia scrupulosa Stal. (Lantanae

Dist. Hemiptera : Tingidae) with descrip-

tion of egg, nymphs and adult. J. Zool.

Soc. India, 4 (1) : 1-16.

(1953): Further re-

marks on the distribution of the Lantana

bug Teleonemia scrupulosa Stal in India

since its introduction in 1941 from

Australia. Indian Forester 79 (11) : 628-

629.

Sharga, U. S. (1953): Bionomics of

Monanthia globulifera Walk. (Hemiptera :

Tingidae) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51

(4) : 885-889.

Sinha, S. S. (1951) : Some observations

on an attack of Urentius echinus Dist. on

Brinjal at Sabar farm. Indian J. Ent. 13

(2) > 182:

Southwood, R.R.E. & Scudder, G.G.E.

(1956): The bionomics and immature

stages of the Thistle Lace Bugs (Tingis

ampliata H. S. & T. Cardui; Hemiptera :

Tingidae). Trans. Soc. British. Ent, 12

(13) : 93-112.

ees ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 317

18. THE GIANT LAND SNAIL, ACHATINA FULICA

FERUSSAC, IN INDIA

The giant land snail, Achatina fulica Férussac, is a mative of

Africa. Today it is as common in some parts of India and the Indo-

Pacific islands as in Africa, spreading as far west as the Hawaiian

Islands.

In general shape and colour the Indian specimens appear more

like those from the East African populations than those of Indonesian

and Pacific populations (personal communication—Prof. A. R. Mead,

1959). In the following respects the Indian specimens differ from the

nominate insular race in other countries.

The nepionic shell is of a very light horny colour. The streaks

in some of the early post-nepionic whorls are brown and do not

easily fade out. The ‘criss-cross’ texture in the early post-nepionic

whorls is prominent. The columella is white with a bluish tinge

towards the base, but the rest of it in the adult shell or the whole.

of it in the young shell is always pure white, without any trace

of bluish tint.

The snail has a very limited range of distribution in India. It

is found in considerable numbers in some districts of East Pakistan,

in the northern and eastern parts of the State of West Bengal, and

in' Balasore District of Orissa. The species is rare in the western

districts of West Bengal, and some parts of Bihar (Santhal Parganas)

and Orissa (Cuttack). The distribution of this snail is totally un-

Known in other states of India and Pakistan.. As far as my informa-

tion goes, these snails are not found in the vicinity of Allahabad and

Hyderabad and the Zoological laboratories of these areas obtain their

snail supplies from Calcutta. A shell obtained from Nagpur is in the

collections of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta; but this does

not prove its distribution and presence there.

ZOOLOGICAL LABORATORIES,

City COLLEGE, K. C. GHOSE

CALCUTTA,

October 25, 1961.

REFERENCES

Bequaert, J. C. (1950): Studiesin the Rees, W.J. (1950) : The Giant Afri-

Achatininae, a group of African land can Snail. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 120

snails. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv. (3): 577-98.

105 (1): 1-217.

318° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

19. A ‘WEEPING’ TREE

A tree (Ormosia travancorica Bedd.) growing in evergreen jungle

near this Estate has recently been causing a good deal of wonder

among those who have seen it.

Standing underneath the tree one experiences a light but continu-

cus drizzle falling from the branches. The tree is about 80 feet

tall and has small pale green leaves of a leguminous type. These

appear to be just in the process of opening.

Local opinion credits the tree with a demon or god engaged in

busily pumping up water from the soil into the branches!

Recently I took a small party from the Estate into the jungle to

try and find a more logical explanation for the phenomenon. The

first thing noticeable was the almost overpowering noise from cicadas

coming from the tree—much louder than in the surrounding jungle

which was fairly loud with insect life. The ‘rain’ appeared to be

falling from almost all the branches and descending to the ground

in the form of a fine spray. At first I wondered whether sap could

be dripping from wounds in the branches caused by the cicadas and

sent a man up the tree to cut a branch. As the man climbed, great

clouds of cicadas flew out of the tree and both noise and drizzle

subsided!

Was the drizzle in fact caused by excretions from the cicadas

feeding on the rich sap flow from the tree?

THe BomBay BURMAH TRADING CoRPORATION LTD.,

OoTHu ESTATE, . R. D. B. HUGHES

SINGAMPATTi GROUP,

MANJOLAI Post, KULLADAKURICHI P.O.,

TIRUNELVELI DIST.,

April 18, 1961.

[The plant was very kindly identified by the Curator of the

Central National Herbarium from the leaves sent by Mr. Hughes.

‘Weeping’ is a common phenomenon and is usually due to jassid

infestation. A. P. Benthal in THE TREES OF CALCUTTA AND ITS

NEIGHBOURHOOD (1946), p. 225 explains the name of the Rain Tree

Enterolobium saman thus: “The usual English name of this tree

originated from the fact that in some places it is infested with cicadas

which sometimes discharge moisture in the form of innumerable small

drops, like rain, on passers-by beneath.—Eps.]

~ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 319

20. MOLLUGO NUDICAULIS LAMK.: A NEW RECORD

FROM BARODA!’

MOLLUGO NUDICAULIS Lamk. Encycl. Meth. 4: 234; 1797; Ser.

in DC. Prod. 1: 391, 1824; Wt. & Arn. Prod. 43, 1834; Clarke in

Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 664, 1879; Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madr. 1 : 390,

1957 (reprinted edition). Mollugo bellidifolia Ser. in DC. Prod. 1:

391, 1824. Pharnaceum spathulatum Spr. Syst. Veg. 1: 948, 1825.

An erect or diffuse, annual herb, 10-30 cm. tall. Leaves

1-3X.5-1 cm., obovate-oblong or spathulate, numerous, crowded, all

radical, glaucous-green, glabrous, obtuse or slightly acute at the apex,

attenuated at the base; petiole 5-15 mm. long, slender, glabrous.

Scape trichotomously panicled, leafless, glabrous, shallowly to deeply

grooved. Flowers minute, white or very \pale-creamy. Pedicels

5-8 mm. long, glabrous, filiform. Sepals five, persistent. Petals

absent. Stamens three; filaments filiform, whitish, slightly flattened at

the base. Capsule about 2 mm. long, glabrous, ellipsoid or sub- —

cylindric, three-valved, membranous. Seeds reniform, reddish-brown

to almost black, shining, minutely tuberculated, with a microscopic

scale-like appendage at the hilum. Embryo whitish, annular.

_An occasional plant, collected from hedges along railway lines

near Vishwamitri Station about 4.8 km. south of Baroda. It is a new

record for the old Bombay State.

Flowers and fruits: August-November.

Specimens examined in Blatter Herbarium: Krishna, SKW 3423;

Varadia (near Broach), Shah 302; Baroda, Shah 6493; Ahmedabad,

Saxton 1873; Jodhpur 6847, 6849-51 (all without collectors’ names).

World distribution: Tropical Africa, India (Punjab, Upper Gangetic

Plain, Gujarat, Madras, Andhra) and Ceylon. According to Clarke,

this plant is also found in New Caledonia and Cuba. .

Critical notes: Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk. and Mollugo pentaphylia

L. are very similar and likely to be confused; the two differ as follows:

Leaves all radical; seeds very minutely

appendaged _... ee ... Hudicaulis

Leaves both radical and cauliae; the

‘Jatter whorled at the nodes; seeds not

appendaged ... B, ... pentaphylla

’ Communicated by Prof. P.V. Bole.

320. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

This plant is not given by Saxton and Sedgwick in plants of

Northern Gujarat (1918).

ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

BOMBAY 1, Gi SHAH

June 26, 1961. M.Sc., Ph.D.

21. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME

BOMBAY PLANTS

(1) Hibiscus lampas Cav. Diss. 3: 154, t. 56, f. 2, 1787 ; Blatter in

Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 634, 1930; Bor, Man. Ind. For. Bot.

167, 1953; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 1 : 63, 1957 (reprinted edition). Thespesia

lampas Dalz. & Gibs. Bom. Fl. 19, 1861 ; Santapau in Rec. Bot. Surv.

Ind. 16° (1): 23, 1953; “Hu, “Maly. Fi Chinas 69.) 1955... tinesmesia

macrophylla Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bom. 1: 114, 1901 (non Blume 1825).

This plant has been variously placed under Hibiscus and Thespesia.

In his monograph on the genus Hibiscus in Ann. Cons. Jard. Bot.

Genéve 4: 57, 1900, Hochreutiner writes for Hibiscus lampas:

‘Following Engler & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam., we join this species to

Hibiscus because of its clearly lobed style, its noncaducous involucre, of

its calyx which terminates into five distinct lobes and of the woody

capsule, which is dehiscent and many seeded and of which the exocarp

does not become separated as in Thespesia populnea.....’

The two genera can be distinguished as follows :

Calyx five-lobed or five-fid, valvate, spathaceous or

circumsciss ; fruit a five-valved capsule ee Hibiscus

Calyx truncate, entire ; fruit fleshy, indehiscent or |

very tardily dehiscent <7 a ea Thespesia

(2) Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Enum. Pl. Carib. 22, 1760 ; Cooke,

FI. Pres. Bom. 1: 117, 1901. Bartramia indica Linn. Sp. Pl. 389, 1753

(non T. indica Lamk. 1789). Triumfetta bartramia Linn. Syst. (ed. 10)

1044, 1759 (nom. illeg.) ; Merrill, Interp. Herb. Amb. 354, 1917 ; Blatter

in Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 890, 1931 ; Santapau in Rec. Bot.

Surv. Ind. 16 (1): 30, 1953. Triumfetta angulata Lamk. ; Dalz. and

Gibs. 25.

Merrill, Blatter, and Santapau consider JT. bartramia L. as a valid

name ; however, this name is illegitimate on two counts : (1) the binomial

nomenclature is inconsistent with Art. 55 of the International Code of

Botanical Nomenclature ed. 1956. Since Bartramia indica L. (1753) is

the earliest name for the present plant, it should have been called T.

indica; this name, however, cannot be taken up now, as it is pre-

occupied by T. indica Lamk. for a different plant ; (2) the next name is

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 321.

T. bartramia L. (1759), which is nomen ambiguum it being a mixture of

Urena L. and Commersonia bartramia (L.) Merrill. Merrill (1917)

remarks : ‘ 7. bartramia L. has priority (1762) but Linnaeus might have

included in it more than T. rhomboidea Jacq. as now understood.’

Linne in Systema ed. 10 (1759) refers to Rumph. Herb. Amb. 3: t. 119

and in Species Plantarum 1762, to Lappago amboinica Rumph. Herb.

Amb. t. 25. f. 2. According to Merrill, in the later reference, the illus-

tration and the description are certainly those of Urena L., while the

drawing of the flowers are those of Triumfetta. Rumph. 3: t. 119 is

Commersonia bartramia (L.) Merrill, belonging to Sterculiaceae. The

only valid and nonambiguous name for the present plant, then, 1s

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. |

(3) Sapindus laurifolius Vahl, Sym. Bot. 3: 54, 1794; Cooke, FI.

Pres. Bom. 1 : 266, 1902. Sapindus trifoliatus Linn. Sp. Pl. 367, 1753 ;

Santapau in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 16 (1) : 57, 1953. Sapindus trifoliatus

Linn. forma genuinus Radkl. in Pfreich. 98 C : 657, 1932.

Linne lists Sapindus trifoliatus in Species Plantarum 367, 1753 and

describes it simply as Sapindus with ‘ ternate leaves’ ; further he refers

to Rheede, Hort. Malab. 4: 43, t. 19. According to Rheede, this plant

is a tree which has leaflets 7” long and 3”-4” broad, with acuminate

apex. On the strength of the leaf character, it would seem that the

Linnean plant corresponds to S. /aurifolius Vahl. Trimen in Journ. Cey.

Br. Roy. As. Soc. 9 : 20, 1885, and Handb. FI. Cey. 1 : 306, 1893, states

that the plant Linne called by the absurd name of S. trifoliatus is Con-

ghas Herm. which seems to be Schleichera oleosa Oken. There, then,

seems to be some doubt about the identity of the Linnean plant and in

consequence the Linnean name, S. trifoliatus L., becomes at least a

nomen ambiguum. This being the case, Vahl’s name is the oldest,

unambiguous one for this plant.

(4) Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) Merrill in Philip. Journ. Sci. Bot: 9:

130, 1914. Cerbera peruviana Pers. Syn. 1 : 267, 1805. Thevetia nerii-

folia Juss. ex Steud. Nom. ed. 2, 2 : 680, 1841 ; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bom.

2: 144, 1904.

Several authors such as Bailey (Man. Cult. Pl. 809, 1949), Bor &

Raizada (Some Beaut. Ind. Climb. & Shrubs 193, 1954), Santapau

(Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 16(1), ed. 2: 134, 1960), attribute the authority of

this plant to K. Schumann in Pfam. 4(2): 159, 1895. This, however,

ig not correct, since Schumann calls the present plant 7. neriifolia Juss.

even though he was of the opinion that it should be called T. peru-

viana. The later name is invalid according to Art. 33(3) of the

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature ed. 1956, because. it is

merely an incidental mention by the author, who did not introduce

the combination as a valid name.

(ea

322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

(5) Chloris barbata Sw. Fl. Ind. Occ. 1: 200, 1797 ; Cooke, FI. Pres.

Bom. 2: 1035, 1908; Blatter & McCann, Bom. Grasses 256, 1935 : Bor,

Grasses Pak. Ind. Burm. & Cey. 465, 1960. Andropogon barbatus Linn.,

Mant. Pl. Alt. 302, 1771 (non Linn. 1759). Chloris inflata Link.

Enum. PI. Hort. Berol. 1: 105, 1821 ; Senaratna in Perad. Man. 8 : 88,

1956 ; Raizada in Ind. For. 85(8) : 479, 1759.

For the nomenclature of this plant Bor remarks: ‘ The epithet

barbatus is illegitimate in the genus Andropogon since A. barbatus L.

(1771) is a later homonym of A. barbatus L. (1759), both being based

on different plants. The epithet barbata, however, is not illegitimate

in the genus Chloris and Swartz was. perfectly in order in calling his

plant Chloris barbata, there being no other epithet available. Ch.

barbata Sw. is regarded as a new name dating from 1797’.

(6) Themeda quadrivalvis (L.) O.K. Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 794, 1891;

Blatter & McCann, Bom. Grasses 118, 1935; Bor, Grasses 252,

1960. Andropogon quadrivalvis Linn. Syst. (ed. 13) 758, 1774.

Anthistiria ciliata L. f. Suppl. 113, 1781; Fl: Bee Ind F202:

1897. Themeda ciliata (Lf), Hack in DC. Mon. Phan. 6: 664,

1889 ; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bom. 2 : 994, 1908.

Boned in Blumea 4:522, 1941 considers J. quadrivalvis (L.)

O.K. and T. arguens (L.) Hack. as synonyms and accepts the

latter name for the present plant. Hackel named the Javanese

grass T. arguens, based on Stipa arguens L. 1762. Henrard accepted

Hackel’s name on two grounds: (1) Stipa arguens L. (1762) has

priority ; (2) Merrill (vide Henrard) examined the type specimen of the

Linnean plant and proved that it did not occur in Java but it was the

same as Anthistiria ciliata L. f. from British India, Bourbon, and

Mauritius. .

On the other hand, Bor considered 7. quadrivalvis and T. arguens

distinct. According to him, the two species differ as follows :

Spikelets arranged in large flabelliform

clusters 4- 5 cm. long, excluding awns ;

5-7 cm. long; an annual or occa-

sionally perennial es . TT. arguens

Spikelets arranged in much smaller cee

awns much shorter; annuals or peren-

nials Ls ie .. IZ. quadrivalvis

Our plant fits with T. quadrivalvis (L.f.) O.K. in the key given

by Bor.

ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

BomsBay 1, © | G. L. SHAH, M.sc., Ph.D.

December 1, 1961.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 323

22. A NOTE ON EURYALE FEROX SALISB.

IN ALWAR, RAJASTHAN

Euryale ferox Salisb. is an interesting member of the Nymphaeaceae,

widely distributed in south-east Asia. The plant- has been in

cultivation for a long time in China where it is valued for its

nutritious seeds. The seeds are popularly known as fox-nuts (makhana

in Hindi and Bengali, jewar in Punjabi). They are sold in our

bazaars and are eaten raw or roasted in hot sand. The seed flour is

used as an invalid food and as a substitute for arrowroot.

The species has so far been recorded from Kashmir, Oudh of Uttar

Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, Assam, Manipur, Tripura, and its occurrence’

in other parts of the country is, therefore, of interest. Recently the

authors found it growing luxuriantly over a large area in Bandadi

of Salisgerh Lake in Alwar, Rajasthan. While it is possible that it

may have been introduced there in the past, there is no evidence to

confirm this from local sources; at present the plant thrives along

with other aquatic species like Typha angustata Chaub., Nymphaea

sp., Polygonum glabrum Willd., etc.

The Alwar specimens have leaves up to 1.5 m. in diameter with

the dense prickly petioles as long as 2 to 3 m. The flowers have

20 to 24 petals in 5 to 6 whorls which are progressively smaller

towards the interior and of which the innermost are white with violet

spots. The spherical prickly berry has a crown of persistent sepals. The

flowering period is May to June with the fruits ripening in September-

October. The floating portions of the plant decay and die during the

cold season and regeneration from the buried rhizome starts in April.

Since Rajasthan abounds in lakes this taxon could be introduced

in them for its economic importance.

We are grateful to Dr. M. A. Rau for going ‘out this note.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

63, RAIPUR Roap,

DEHRA Dvn, N. C. NAIR

December 9, 1961. R. K. BHARTYA

23. PHYSALIS LONGIFOLIA NUTT., A NEW RECORD

FOR KERALA STATE

Physalis longifolia Nutt. is an American weed recently reported to

be naturalized in the coastal parts of Bombay and Andhra States

(Santapau, Shah, & Kapadia, 1961). Earlier taxonomists confused

324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

this species as a form of P. minima but it can easily be distinguished

from the latter by its perennial habit, the larger size of the plant, the

hollow stem with purplish streaks, almost entire leaves, larger flowers,

purplish spots on the inside of the corolla towards the base, greenish

o1 greyish blue anthers, and reticulately purple-veined calyx in fruits.

The author has observed the species growing gregariously in bare

waste land near the segregation ground Changanacherry in 1956 and,

since then, has collected it from several localities. The sheets are

deposited in the Herbarium of the Botanical Survey of India,

Northern Circle, Dehra Dun, under the collection numbers of the

author 1152, 1156, 1161-1164, 1254.

The author is grateful to Dr. G. L. Shah, St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay, for comparing his specimens and confirming the identity.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

DeEHRA DUN, N. C. NAIR

January 17, 1962.

REFERENCE

Santapau, Shah, G. L., & Kapadia, Z. (1961): New plant records for

Bombay, Papas longifolia Nutt. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 : 550-551.

24. ON THE IDENTITY OF DALECHAMPIA INDICA WT.

FROM CUTCH AND KATHIAWAR

The genus Dalechampia is represented by only three species in

India. D. velutina and D. kurzii have been recorded from high

altitude regions of Nilgiri Hills and Assam _ respectively, while

D. indica is restricted to the plains of the Deccan peninsula, Coro-

mandel, and Ceylon, and to a few hillocks in Cutch and Kathiawar.

Very recently the authors have added one more species, i.e. D. scandens

L. var. cordofano (Hochst.) Muell.-Arg., from Vasad about 10 miles

NW. of Baroda.

The plant was determined at Kew by Dr. G. Taylor, Director,

Royal Botanic Gardens, who in his personal communication writes:

“You may be interested to know that a few fragments, which were not

previously identified to species but match your specimen exactly, were

sent by Dalzell in 1866 from eastern Kathiawar’. While writing about

the identification of the same plant, Mr. M. B. Raizada, Head,

Division of Forest Botany, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 325

remarks: ‘The plant comes very near D. indica Wt. but is not typical

of the same’.

These very comments, coming as they do from such eminent

systematists, created in our minds a doubt about the authenticity of

D. indica Wt. reported by some of the previous workers from

Kathiawar. In an attempt to solve this riddle, herbarium specimens

of the said plant were obtained on loan from a few herbaria in Cutch

and Kathiawar. A few specimens were also collected during this

monsoon by one of our M. Sc. students from Palitana in Kathiawar

(Saurashtra). After critical examination of all this plant material, we

are inclined to conclude that D. indica Wt. does not at all occur in

Cutch or Kathiawar, and that whatever has so far seen publishea

under that name is nothing but D. scandens L. var. cordofana.

Taking into consideration the confusion that exists regarding the

identity of Dalechampia of this part of the country, it would certainly

not be out of place, if a key based on obvious external morphological

characters, to differentiate the two species, namely D. indica Wt.

and D. scandens L. var. cordofana, is presented:

Leaves 3-foliolate, leaflets shortly petiolate D. indica

Leaves simple, deeply 3-lobed, sometimes up

to the middle only .... D. scandens L. var.

cordofana

We are indeed grateful to Rev. Father H. Santapau, Chief

Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, for critically going through the

manuscript and making useful suggestions.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, A. R. CHAVAN

M.S. UNIVERSITY OF BARODA, S. D. SABNIS

BARODA, S. J. BEDI

January 25, 1962.

25. FOLIAR VARIATIONS IN NARAVELIA ZEYLANICA DC.!

(With a photograph and a plate)

Naravelia zeylanica DC. belonging to the family Ranunculaceae is a

climbing shrub of the tropical plains. The leaves are trifoliate with the

unpaired terminal leaflet modified into a tendril with three hooked

branches (Gamble, 1915).

1 Communicated by the Dean, Agricultural College, Coimbatore.

21a

326° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

- Foliar variation has been reported in several species like Mirabilis

jalapa L., Ficus religiosa L., and Eranthemum atropurpureum Hort. by

Singh (1930, 1931, 1935), Anacardium occidentale L. by Sabnis (1931),

Aralia sp. by Saran (1934), Ipomea pulchella Roth. by Sinha (1933),

Azadirachta indica A. Juss by Sundararaj et a/. (1953), and Arachis

hypogea L. by Srinivasalu et al. (1956). No record of any such variation

seems to have been made in Naravelia zeylanica.

The following variations were observed in a plant growing See near

Walayar of Kerala State :

1. Simple Leaf. Occasionally the leaves were found to be rece

(Fig. 1). It might have been due to the union of all the three leaflets

of a typical leaf.

2. Bifoliate leaf. Another feature noted was the presence of bifoli-

ate leaves. The unpaired third leaflet which is normally modified into

the tendril might have united with a leaflet on one side resulting in this

condition (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Occurrence of simple and bifoliate leaves

3. Trifoliate leaf. Very often leaves with all the three leaflets were

found (Fig. 2). }

4. Tendril ending in three leaflets. This was another interesting

variation observed. This suggests that the three hooks of the tendril of

a typical leaf may be the modifications of three leaflets (Fig. 2).

5. Pentafoliate leaf. Leaves with .five leaflets were also found

(Fig. 3). This lends support to the suggestion that the typical leaf is

pentafoliate with the portion of the rachis above the first pair of leaflets

modified into the tendril and the three terminal leaflets into three hooks.

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MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 327

The author’s thanks are due to Dr. D. Daniel Sundararaj, Mr.

J. Sakharam Rao, and Mr. G. Thulasidas for their valuable help in the

preparation of this note.

BOTANY SECTION,

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE,

COIMBATORE-3,

December 14, 1961.

E. A. SIDDIQ

REFERENCES

Gamble, J.S. (1915): Flora of the Presi-

dency of Madras. Adlard & Son Ltd.,

London. :

Sabnis, T. S. (1931) : Notes on Indian

Plant Teratology. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 10:

21-26.

Saran, A. B. (1934): Notes on the tera-

tology of certain Indian plants. ibid 13:

165-167.

Singh, T. C. N. (1930): Notes on the

feratolopy of certain Indian plants. ibid.

: 249

Singh, T.C. N. (1935): Notes on the

ser Oey of certain Indian plants. ibid.

Sinha, B. S. (1933): A note on the

variations of leaf in railway creepers—

Ipomoea pulchella. ibid. 12 : 48-49.

Srinivasalu, N. & Krishnaswamy, P.

(1956): Variations in the leaflets of

Groundnut, Arachis hypogea Linn. Madras

Agric. J. 43 : 36-37.

Sundararaj, D.D., Girija Lakshmanan,

& Ramakrishnan, V. (1953): The Pheno-

1S Sees (1931) : Notes on the teratolo- menon of Leaf forkingin a few dicotyle-

By of certain Indian plants. ibid. 10: donous plants. Madras Agric. J, 40:41-42.

26. ECOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE ORCHIDS

OF NORTH KARNATAK

During the preliminary survey of the orchids growing in the three

districts of Karwar, Belgaum, and Dharwar (formerly parts of the old

Bombay State and now of the new Mysore State), it was observed that

certain species grow abundantly in restricted localities while others

show distinct preference for certain forest types. It therefore seemed

possible that they could be taken as indicators of certain environ-

mental conditions. On reviewing the literature relating to this group

it was noticed that there is hardly any information in regard to their

restriction to certain localities or to their being of any value as indi-

cators. It was thus felt that my observations in this connection might

be published.

Oberonia brunoniana Wight is only found on tops of branches in

the evergreen or semi-evergreen forests.

Dendrobium macrostachyum Lindl., D. aqueum Lindl., D. lawianum

Lindl., D. macraei Lindl., Trias stocksii Hook. f., Pholidota imbricata

Lindl., Cottonia macrostachya Wight, Sarcanthus peninsularis Dalz.,

Cymbidium aloifolium Swartz., Aérides ringens Fischer, Rhynchostylis

retusa Blume, Luisia macrantha Blatt. & McCann, L. truncata Blatt. &

328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

McCann, Habenaria crinifera Lindl., etc. are epiphytes of the ever-

green or semi-evergreen or moist deciduous forests.

The most characteristic orchids found in dry deciduous areas or

on open borders in the moist deciduous tracts are Dendrobium bar-

batulum Lindl., D. mabelae Gammie, D. ovatum (Willd.) Kranzl.,

D. microbulbon A. Rich., Oberonia brachyphylla Blatt. & McCann,

Acampe praemorsa Blatt. & McCann, Vanda parviflora Lindl.,

Aérides crispum Lindl., A. maculosum Lindl., etc. Of these, the Den-

drobiums are most commonly found on low trees of Randia dumetorum,

R. uliginosa, Tectona grandis, Careya arborea, Terminalia paniculata,

Emblica officinalis, etc., growing isolated or in small clumps in open

grasslands. Acampe praemorsa Blatt. & McCann is found to be very

common on Mangifera indica, Eugenia jambolana, and other roadside

trees. In some cases, it has been found to cover the entire surface of

some branches. Vanda parviflora Lindl. is quite common on old road-

side trees of Ficus bengalensis in Dharwar.

Many of the species of Habenaria, Peristylus, and Platanthera are

terrestrial inhabitants of grassy patches and meadows. The occurrence

of a large number of species of Habenaria is likely to indicate the

predominance of grasslands in that tract. For instance, Razi (1952)?

lists 17 species of Habenaria out of a total list of 28 species of orchids

from Poona and neighbouring districts.

There are a few terrestrial orchids that prefer heavily shaded

localities in semi-evergreen or moist deciduous forests or bamboo

clumps. They are Zeuxine longilabris Benth., Malaxis versicolor

(Lindl.) Sant. & Kapad., Liparis flavo-viridis Blatt. & McCann,

L. nervosa Lindl., Nervilia ‘discolor (Bl.) Schltr., N. monantha Blatt.

& McCann, Eulophia nuda Lindl., and £E. macrostachya Lindl.

These are found thriving best in the shadow of trees in fairly moist

soil.

Bulbophyllum neilgherrense Wight, Trias stocksii Hook. f., Pholidota

imbricata Lindl., and Dendrobium macraei Lindl. are epiphytes of ever-

green forests growing luxuriantly on branches and trunks of trees that

hang over bodies of fresh water such as ponds, brooks, streams, rivers,

etc., or in the vicinity of Areca and banana plantations. They are also

found growing on outcrops of rocks on the banks of rivers flowing

through evergreen tracts. Thus they seem to prefer localities with a

warm and a constantly moist air.

There is an interesting observation as regards the concentration of

the orchids on the roadsides. In a given locality, the Orchids (parti-

cularly epiphytic) characteristic of that area are found to be more

1 Razi—Some aspects of the vegetation of Poona and Neighbouring Districts—

Jour. Poona University 1, No. 2, 1952.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 6)

concentrated on the roadside or the borders of open areas than else-

where. In other words, the density of orchids is greater on

the roadsides and borders of open areas than in the interior of forests.

This is perhaps due to the free distribution of orchid seeds consequent

upon the easy movement of wind in such localities. It may also be

attributed partly to the availability of large masses of dust that settle on

branches and trunks of trees growing on roadsides and borders of open

areas consequent to vehicular traffic.

However, the above observations have to be taken with a certain

amount of caution. The orchids of one or more of the above indi-

cator groups may be found in a transitional tract. For instance, the

orchids typical of moist deciduous forests may be found on or under

some old trees in the dry deciduous area which is situated in a tran-

sitional belt or has undergone depletion due to biotic activity or

interference. In such cases they are to be considered as relicts that

indicate the type of vegetation that existed in the immediate past.

However, the writer is of the opinion that many of these orchids still

have good indicator value.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author expresses his grateful thanks to the Bombay Natural

History Society for financial assistance to carry out a survey of orchids

in this area.

KARNATAK SCIENCE COLLEGE,

DHARWAR, H. R. LADWA

August 26, 1961.

27. A PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE FERN FLORA

OF THE GREAT ANDAMANS

_ The Andaman Archipelago consists of over 200 small islets with a

total land area of 649,572 hectares, situated between 10°30’— 13°45’ N.

latitude and 92°15’—93°15’ E. longitude in the Bay of Bengal, about

1200 km. east of Madras. The main part of this group, known as

the Great Andamans, consists of five closely placed islands, North

Andaman, Middle Andaman, South Andaman, Baratang Island,

and Rutland Island, as well as many small islets lying close to

the shores of the main group. The coast lines of the islands have

deep tidal creeks, often bordered by dense mangrove swamps. There is

a low mountain range, nearly 600 m. high, towards the middle line,

lying closer to the eastern side of the islands than to the west. The

general topography is rugged with many hills covered by dense, almost

impenetrable forest, enclosing narrow valleys. Very few perennial

freshwater streams occur.

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

The Andamans have an equable climate with the temperature

varying on an average from 24° to 36°C. Due to the low altitudes and

the position of the islands in low latitudes, the climate may be con-

sidered as more or less uniform throughout. There is little difference

between the summer and the winter, and rains occur more or less

throughout the year with the minimum fall during January-April and

the maximum in June-July and October-November. The average

annual rainfall varies from 280 to 430 cm., the northern islands

receiving comparatively less rainfall than the southern. The atmos-

pheric humidity is high throughout, reaching a maximum of c. 90%

in May-June.

The present communication is a preliminary account of the fern

flora of the Great Andaman Islands, compiled from collections recorded

by a party of botanists from the National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow,

who visited the Islands in April-May, 1961. In the accompanying list

the genera are arranged according to Copeland’s system of classifi-

cation (Copeland, 1947). The species under each genus are alphabetically

arranged. The numbers in brackets following the locality of collection

refer to the collection number in the Herbarium of the National Botanic

Gardens, Lucknow, where the specimens are deposited.

I. SCHIZAEACEAE

(1) Lygodium Swartz.

(a) L. circinnatum (Burm.) Swartz. Common in forests of Long

Island (78282), Parlobjig, Middle Andaman (79509), and Mt. Harriet

(88490).

(b) L. flexuosum (L.) Swartz. Common in the littoral forests along

the coast between Panighat and South Point, South Andaman (76820).

Very common near Port Blair (88776).

forests near Jirkatang Camp at the foot of Mt. Choulanga, South

Andaman (53165).

II. GLEICHENIACEAE

(2) Dicranopteris Bernh.

D. speciosa (Presl.) Holtt. Grows in patches on clay soil, forming

vigorous clumps on slopes near footpaths in the T.L.D. Range, South

Andaman (68136).

Ill. HYMENOPHYLLACEAE

(3) Cephalomanes Presl.

C. javanicum V. d. B. Grows on clay soil cuttings in shaded areas in

the T.L.D. Range, South Andaman (68135, 68136).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 331

IV. PTERIDACEAE

(4) Microlepia Presl. |

_M. speluncae (L.) Moore var. villosissima C. Chr. Grows in isolated

clumps at the foot of Choulanga Hills, Jirkatang, South Andaman

(53140).

(5) Lindsaea Dryander apud Smith.

L. ensifolia Sw. Stunted fern on clay soil in moist places near small

gutters and waterways in the T. L. D. Range, South Andaman (68115).

(6) Pteridum Scopoli.

P. aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. Common towards the summit of Mt. Har-

riet, near Japani Morcha (76817).

(7) Pteris Linn.

(a) P. biaurita L. Common in the Elphinston Harbour area, North

Passage Island (79583).

(b) P. longipinnula Wall. Common in forest clearings and fringes

below the summit of Mt. Harriet (76847).

Blair (88413).

(8) Acrostichum L.

A. aureum L. Very common, covering extensive areas in marshy

localities. Specially abundant in coast land from Port Blair (88433) to

Bambooflat (79506) as well as Baratang Island at Nilambur and adja-

cent areas (79614).

(9) Pityrogramma Link.

P. calomelanos (L.) Link.. Common, especially on earth cuttings and

forest clearings, forming isolated dense clumps in Baratang Island

(79411), near water drains at Port Blair area (88775), fringes of dense

forest belts at the foot of Choulanga Range, South Andaman, in Jirka-

tang (53153, 53168), and on the sides of the road cuttings in Parlobjig,

Middle Andaman (79514).

V. PARKERIACEAE

(10) Ceratopteris Brongn.

C. siliquosa (L.) Copel. Very abundant in open, marshy areas near

freshwater streams in T. L. D. Range, South Andaman (68119), and in

freshwater ditches near the sea-coast in Port Blair area (88432).

VI. DAVALLIACEAE

(11) Davallia Smith.

D. solida (Forst.) Sw. Epiphytic on large trees, covering exposed

areas of the substratum and forming elegant patches. Very common

332. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (1)

near Bambooflat and Wimberlygunj, South Andaman, growing mainly

on the trunks of Samanea saman, on the basal half of the trunks, but

usually not reaching the top (88318).

VII. ASPIDIACEAE

(12) Polystichum Roth.

P. lentum (Don.) Moore. Sparsely distributed towards the summit

of Mt. Harriet (68537).

(13) Egenolfia Schott.

E. vivipara (Ham.) C. Chr. On rocky soil near Parlobjig, Middle

Andaman (79581), and on boulders near creeks at Jirkatang.

(14) Tectaria Cav.

(a) T. heterosora (Bak.) Ching. Sparsely distributed in forest beds

at Nilambur, Baratang Island (79490), and Parlobjig, Middle Andaman

(79569).

(15) Cyelosorus Link.

(a) C. contiguus (Rosenst.) Copel. Near mangrove marshes on the

margin of creeks of Baratang Island (79625). Not common.

(b) C. latipinna (Hk.) Tardieu Blot. Sparsely distributed on the

margins of creeks on more or less dry land at Parlobjig, Middle Andaman

(79535).

in open areas in lime soil at Panighat, South Andaman (78762).

(16) Athyrium Roth.

A. asperum (Bl.) Milde. Large ferns with stems about a foot high,

growing close to freshwater streams in deep nallas at Parlobjig area,

Middle Andaman (79562). More or less common.

VII. BLECHNACEAE

(17) Blechnum L.

(a) B. finlaysonianum Hk. et Grev. Common on the fringes of

mangrove clumps, forming dense clusters often 1.0 to 1.5 m. tall, at

Parlobjig area, Middle Andaman (79513).

(b) B. orientale L. More or less common in the T.L.D. Range,

South Andaman (68134).

(18) Stenochlaena J. Sm.

S. palustris (Burm.) Beddome. Very common climber in the

littoral forest, covering stems and branches of small trees and other

supports near Panighat and Wimberlygunj, South Andaman (68149).

Common in the forest belts near creeks in Parlobjig, Middle Andaman

(79515).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 333

IX. ASPLENIACEAE

(19) Asplenium L.

A. musaefolium Mett. Grows in clumps on branches of trees,

usually not towards the bases. Very frequent in Parlobjig area, Middle

Andaman (79505).

X. POLYPODIACEAE

(20) Pyrrosia Mirbel.

P. longifolia. (Burm.) Morton. Very common epiphyte, densely

covering tree trunks in the Port Blair area (88772).

(21) Drymoglossum Presl.

D. piloselloides (L.) Presl. Very common epiphyte on tree trunks:

in exposed areas near Parlobjig, Middle Andaman (53103, 79535).

(22) Microsorium Link.

(a) M. congregatum (C. Chr.) Copel. Common epiphyte on trees

in evergreen felling areas, opposite Baratang Island (79461).

(b) M. punctatum (L.) Copel. Common epiphyte on trees

especially towards the foot of Mt. Harriet (88333).

(23) Drynaria (Bory) J. Sm.

D. quercifolia (L.) J. Sm. Common epiphyte on tree trunks and

other supports, often forming extensive colonies at Wright Myo, South

Andaman (68167). Very common all over the Port Blair area (88415).

XI. VITTARIACEAE

(24) Vittaria Smith

V. angustifolia Bl. Forms small clumps on the branches of trees and

supports at Mt. Harriet area (68538).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors’ grateful thanks are due to Prof. K. N. Kaul, Director,

National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, and to the Forest Department,

Andaman and Nicobar Islands, for their help and for the facilities

provided by them for the present study.

NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS,

LUCKNOW, B. K. NAYAR

November 4, 1961. G. S. SRIVASTAVA

REFERENCES

Copeland, E. B. (1947) : Genera Filicum. Waltham, Mass., U.S.A.

Notes and News

Reprint of M. A. Smith’s FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, Snakes

In the Annual Report for 1960-61 we mentioned that the Ministry

of Scientific Research and Cultural Affairs, Government of India, had

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that the book was almost ready. It is now available with the Manager

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2nd edition of S. H. Prater’s THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS

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agreed to take up half the edition for Rs. 25,000 and thus enable us

to place orders for its printing. It is hoped to have this available

next year. :

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CONTENTS

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA. Part 1. By A. Brosset

NOTES ON INDIAN COMMELINACEAE—I. By Seshagiri Rao Rolla and

R. V. Kammathy

A DESCRIPTION OF THE HITHERTO UNDESCRIBED TADPOLE OF, AND SOME FIELD

NOTES ON THE FUNGOID FROG, RANA MALABARICA BIBRON. By

V.K. Chari } c

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA. Part XXVI. A Contribution to

our Knowledge of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects of the

Nival Zones from the North-West Himalaya. Part 3. By M.S. Mani

and Santokh Singh ae he ee 2%

THE BomBAay NATuRAL History Society/WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION

Birp MIGRATION Stupy Project. By Salim Ali

STUDIES ON THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA. I. Aeoloso-

matidae and Naididae. Part 2. By K. Vanamala Naidu

THE SWIFTLETS (COLLOCALIA) OF JAVA AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS. By Lord

Medway : aA

CRITICAL NOTES ON THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE. VIII. Some of

the smaller Genera. By H. Santapau and Z. Kapadia

THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD [CHORIOTIS NIGRICEPS (ViGORS)] AT THE NEST.

By R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji - va ie 7

VEGETATION OF KODAIKANAL IN SouTH INp1A. II. A Supplementary list of

Trees, Shrubs, and Herbs. By Raj Kumar Gupta

THe Brrps oF NEPAL. Part6. By Biswamoy Biswas

AN ACCOUNT OF A TRIP TO THE BARAPEDE CAVE, TALEWADI, BELGAUM

District, Mysore STATE, WITH SOME NOTES ON REPTILES AND AMPHI-

BIANS. By Humayun Abdulali

A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF THE BIONOMICS AND TAXONOMY OF APHIDS

FROM AssaM. By A. K. Ghosh and D.N. Ray Chaudhuri ..

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE. PartI. By Sarojini R. Pillay

OBITUARY ib M bie

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES £6 ina ae ae ee

NOTES AND NEws .. ae A ost es on

100

131

146

154

173

185 4

200 |

228

238

254

275

281

334

Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

m6. 54

BIL

Vol. 59, No. 2

Editors

H. SANTAPAU, s.J.. & HUMAYUN ABDULALI

AUGUST 1962

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 59, NO. 2

PAGE

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA. IV. The Royal Gardens at

Kew begin to guide the direction of Botany in India. By I.H. Burkill .. 335

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA. Part XXVI. A Contribution to our

Knowledge of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects of the Nival Zones

from the North-West Himalaya. Part 4. By M. S. Mani and Santokh

Singh. (With eleven text-figures) . 360

CRITICAL NOTES ON THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE. IX. Some of the

smaller Genera (Continued). By H. Santapau and Z. Kapadia. (With

eight plates) ys wes se EY i 382

THE BrrDs OF NEPAL. Part 7. By Biswamoy Biswas .. fs .. 405

SOME REPTILES OF SOUTH INDIA. (A Reprint). By R. H. Beddome. (With two

plates) ae . 430

ALGAL FLorRA OF JODHPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS. I. Charophyta. By S. K. Goyal.

(With two plates) .. ; B » 447

ie MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS. _

PartIV. By E.P.Gee. (With two plates) me i i 45ae

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE ERSTWHILE TEHRI GARHWAL STATE—III. By

Raj Kumar Gupta a us +s oo 2.486

THE GENUS ANTSOPS (HEMIPTERA : NOTONECTIDAE) IN CEYLON. By C. Y.

Leong and C. H. Fernando. (With three plates) an ae we 513

STUDIES ON THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA. I. Aeolosomatidae

and Naididae. Part3. By K. Vanamala Naidu. (With eleven text-figures) 520

A REVISION OF INDIAN MuGILIDAE. Part II. By Sarojini R. Pillay. (With two

plates) a - ae ae se 547

LiFE-HISTORY AND HABITS OF THE LEAF WorM, NAUSINOE GEOMETRALIS

(GUENEE) (PYRAUSTIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA). By S. Kanakaraj David and

S. Venugopal. (With one text-photograph) ar oy <4 ONE

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA. Part 2. By A. Brosset. (With 9

maps and 4 plates) hee ee ee oe | S83

REVIEWS :

1. VIII Bulletin of the International Council for Bird Preservation. (H.A.) 625

2. Spiders, Men, and Scorpions. (R.R.) : a .. 626

3. Directory of Zoological Taxonomists of the World. (H.A.) 2. 628

4.- African Handbook of Birds, Series Two : Birds of the Southern Third

of Africa, Vol. I. (J.C. D.) ae as . 629

5. The Wealth of India: A Dictionary of Indian Raw Materials and In-

dustrial Products. Raw Materials. Vol. VI: L-M. (R.J.K.) .. 630

6. A Bibliography of Indology, Vol. IL: Indian Botany, Part I. (P. V.

Bole) OSL

7. The Birds of Sikkim. (S. Dillon Ripley) ane ay -» 033

- PAGE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. Tiger Trails : A story of commercialised shikar. By Hugh Allen (p. 636).

2. A Leopard Cat (Felis bengalensis Kerr) in captivity (With a plate). By E. P.

Gee (p. 641). 3. Twin elephant calves and interval between births of successive

elephant calves (With a photograph). By Tun Yin (p. 643). 4. The function of

external glands in mammals. By Editors (p. 645). 5. Are domestic animals

overgrazing the Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary in Rajasthan? (With two plates).

By Julian P. Donahue (p. 645). 6. Occurrence of the Red-billed, or Short-tailed,

Tropic Bird (Phaéthon aethereus indicus Hume) at Bombay. By A. Navarro, S.J.

(p. 649). 7. Extension of the range of Grey Heron, Ardea c. cinerea Linnaeus.

By Editors (p. 651). 8. Increase of Cotton Teal [Nettapus coromandelianus

(Gmelin)! in western India. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 652). 9. Pale Harrier

[ Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin)] taking a Pond Heron [Ardeola grayii (Sykes) |.

By A. Navarro, s.J. (p. 653). 10. The Grey Partridge [Francolinus pondicerianus

(Gmelin)] eating snake. By P. W. Soman (p. 653). 11. The unusual bath ofa

Lorikeet [Loriculus vernalis (Sparrman)] and a Magpie-Robin [Copsychus saul-

aris (Linn.)]. By Julian P. Donahue (p. 654). 12. An ornithological trip to the

Gulf of Kutch. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 655). 13. Supplementary notes on

‘The Birds of Gujarat’ from birds collected in the Surat Dangs. By Ernest M.

Shull (p. 658). 14. Notes on birds from south India. By M. C. A. Jackson

(p. 660). 15. Recovery of ringed birds. By Editors (p. 662). 16. Notes on

some amphibians of the Darjeeling area, West Bengal (With four plates). By J.C.

Daniel (p. 666). 17. A note on the natural destruction of valuable fish seed (With

a photograph). By S. J. Rajan and D. Veeraraghava Reddi (p. 668). 18. A

note on the coloration of Halieutaea stellata (Wahl.) (With a plate). By T.

Venkateswarlu (p. 670). 19. Intertidal echinodermata of Bombay (With a map

and a plate). By S. R. Sane and B. F. Chhapgar (p. 672). 20. Dragonflies and

Bicycles. By C. Brooke Worth (p. 676). 2i. Notes on the Red Cotton Bug

(Dysdercus cingulatus Fabr.). By Charles McCann (p. 677). 22. Abdominal

markings on a Thomasid spider (With a photograph). By J. C. Daniel (p. 681).

23. Studies on some spiders of the genus Oecobius (Family Oecobiidae) from India

(With two text-figures). By B. K. Tikader (p. 682). 24. A new locality for

Gymnosporia bailadillana Narayan. & Mooney. By S. L. Kapoor and G. S.

Srivastava (p. 685). 25. Canscora decussata Roem. & Sch.: a new record for

Bombay State. By A.R.Chavan and S. J. Bedi (p. 687). 26. Gregarious flower-

ing of Strobilanthes and Bamboos (With a plate). By H. Santapau, s.J. (p. 688).

27. Vivipary in bamboo, Melocanna bambusoides Trin. (With a plate). By K.M.

Vaid (p. 696). 28. Some new records of Plagiogyria from India. By Farrukh

Kazmi (p. 697). 29. Turbinaria from Okha (With one plate). By J. J. Shah

(p. 699). 30. On self-conjugation in a new species of Spirogyra Link (With one

plate). By N.A. Erady (p. 700). 31. Use of air-guns by minors. By Humayun

Abdulali (p. 703).

GLEANINGS a or ae ue , 3 hos

NOTES AND NEWS AS sa ee ae a% F006

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1962 AUGUST Vol. 59 No. 2

Chapters on the -

History of Botany in India

IV. THE ROYAL GARDENS AT KEW BEGIN TO GUIDE

THE DIRECTION OF BOTANY IN INDIA

I. H. BURKILL

[Continued from Vol. 58 (3) : 706]

My first chapter covered the service that Wallich gave prior to

his long leave (1828-32). His predecessor, William Roxburgh, had

come near to instituting a ‘botanic survey’ when he sent his sons,

William and John, field-collecting. Wallich moved further in that

direction, for he sent out a series of collecting parties whose activities

when added to the collecting in the field that he did himself most

obviously made up a ‘botanic survey’ of limited extent. Its limits

were towards the north-east of India, towards the north, east, ‘south-

east, and south of Bengal, excluding other directions. He himself

collected through the tarai of Oudh, into the Himalaya to Kathmandu,

through the Ganges plains, the Brahmaputra Valley, Sylhet and: the

Khasia Hills, and up the Irrawaddy to Ava and the edge of the

Maymyo Hills, as well as in the Straits Settlements: His collecting

parties worked in Kumaon, Nepal, Chittagong, Sylhet, and Tenasserim

(the Moulmein and Tavoy districts). We cannot withhold the term

‘survey’ from so wide an effort. Wallich distributed the whole of the

spoil to date during his leave, and at the’ same time ‘there was

deliberating in Calcutta a Retrenchment Committee, Which ‘cut the

‘provision for the Calcutta Botanic Garden so severely as to prevent

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS?. SOCIETY, Voi. 59 (2)

any reconstruction of the survey. So it was that Wallich returned in

1832 to a difficult position, and, unfortunate man, in addition to his

troubles his health broke down. The delegation to Assam in

search of tea which followed-was only carried out by a great effort.

He had professorial duties at the Medical College and he had his

obligation to provide from the Garden whatever growing stock was

reasonably demanded; and for more administration ines this he

seems not to have had the energy.

My reader will recall that Wight, immediately on spbomtineat: to

the post of Madras Government Botanist at Samalcottah (1825),

made a long collecting trip—a trip of duration equal to some of

Wallich’s, and indeed proper for inclusion in the ‘survey’. He will

recall also that Wight proposed a longer -trip .in the -next year and

was promptly called to heel and sent back to military duty. This

checking of Wight was part of the retrenchment from which Wallich

suffered. :

The Retrenchment Committee had been called by Governor-

General Lord William Bentinck and rightly, for the finances of the

Company had been tremendously disordered by war with Burma and

there was not the money to spare for promoting undertakings in which

the Company saw little to gain. It is a reasonable comment that

immediately Wight and Griffith declared their faith, Wight by begin-

ning publication and Griffith by the zeal of his collection and

intention to use the same for the preparation of a FLORA. Wight may

be said to have been already in the breach. Official planning put the

Calcutta Garden out of action in one respect; volunteer surveying

took its place.

Of course progress was hindered; but it would be wrong to say

seriously. Chapter 3 has given the reader the names of almost a

hundred who promoted botany in India during the years of the

middle of the 19th century. Picking out from them those whose

botany was of a level high enough to reach print, I put the following

sequence of arrival before my reader.

Wight, who arrived in Madras in 1819, begins the list. J. S. Law

teached Bombay in 1826; John Graham reached Bombay in 1828;

General Warren Walker to Ceylon in 1830; John McClelland to

Bengal in the same year; David Ritchie to Bombay in 1831; William

Griffith to Madras and Hugh Falconer to Upper India in 1832;

Joseph Nimmo appeared in Bombay in 1834; Alexander Gibson

reached Bombay in 1835; Thomas Thomson to Upper India in 1839;

N. A. Dalzell to Bombay in 1841; General William Munro to southern

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 337

India in 1843; George Gardner to Ceylon in .1844; Sir Joseph Hooker

and John Ellerton Stocks to northern India (Stocks initially to

-Bombay) in 1847; R. H. Beddome to the central parts of India in

1848. ! ;

Sir Joseph Hooker was the only one of these who owed his

coming to botanical knowledge; and he was not in the service of the

East India Company. ;

It would be easy to gather together a second group of con-

temporaries whose botany was that of collectors; the group would

tell the same story, namely that these came one after another, as the

first group did. But what I have given suffices for the recognition

of arrival after arrival of men botanically minded. I desire that my

reader shall understand that the coming of Botany was a conse-

quence of a knowledge of Botany being spread through Britain so

widely as to come as it were by accident. It was not exactly invited;

its arrival was somewhat welcomed; its possession sometimes brought

rewards. The country was not ready to assimilate it; the results of

the studies done in India had to be carried outside in order to be

assimilated internationally. i

THE GROWTH OF KEW THAT MADE IT THE PLACE FOR THE

INTERNATIONAL ASSIMILATION OF INDIAN STUDIES

The little village of Kew had held a royal residence long before

the year 1791, when the widowed mother of a king found pleasure

in embellishing her garden in various ways and carried the embellish-

ment from design to a great discrimination in the choice of plants

grown in it. This discrimination was continued by her son George III

after her death and, better to succeed, the advice of Sir Joseph Banks

was sought and in a measure followed. Banks, who had travelled

much, who had visited Newfoundland, Iceland, and Australia, and

had sailed with Captain Cook round the world, who had created for

himself a considerable herbarium and scientific library, who was

so eminent as to be President of the Royal Society, quite naturally

saw the means of advancing Botany and used what persuasion he

had to that purpose. It is said that he sought sanction for the

maintaining of a herbarium by the side of the plants in growth; but

this did not come about. At his death in 1820 his own herbarium

and_ scientific books were willed to his librarian Robert Brown, from

whom they were to go to the British Museum. That parted the

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

living and the dead—the exotics in the houses and parterres at .Kew,

trom the references dried and preserved.

In the years of Banks, the flow of interesting plants into. oulian-

tion at Kew was maintained by sending collectors abroad who

remitted them, and by the services of acclimatization offices in the

possessions overseas. We have already seen that William Kerr and

Alexander Moon went to Ceylon at the choice of Banks. Of dried

plants from India Banks received bundles from Francis Buchanan

and Gerhard Koenig, and then by will the whole of the latter’s

herbarium. Banks used his influence to recommend Roxburgh’s

work to the East India Company.

Apart from India, in the year of his death he promoted another

appointment of great interest, namely the appointment of William

Jackson Hooker, who was quietly studying plants at Moiesworth in

Suffoik, to the professorship of Botany in the University of Giasgow.

Buchanan, now retired and whose surname had been changed to

Hamilton in 1820, wrote expressing expectation that Hooker would

be distinguished, and then in 1822 followed this by ‘Dr. Hooker at

Glasgow I see frequently ... He is more active than Graham (the

professor who preceded Hooker). . ... Hooker’s influence on Wight’s

publications has already been referred to [see p. 859, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 51 (3) and p. 47, ibid. 34 (1)].

The University of Glasgow was quick to give its new professor a

doctorate; and the Crown knighted him in 1838. The two honours

equally reached his son Joseph Dalton Hooker, who was but four

years old when the move to Glasgow came. The son obtained a

doctorate in medicine in 1839, and was knighted in 1877. It is

convenient, ignoring the dates, here to write of them as Sir William

and Sir Joseph.

One of Sir William’s activities in Glasgow was the fathering of

a new botanic garden, which held about 9000 species in the year

after Sir William’s arrival, and about 20,000 in the year before he

resigned his professorship. By the side of the growing collection

went the great growth of his personal herbarium until it was the

largest in Britain in private hands. When Sir William removed to

Kew, and of course took his private collection with him, the living

and dead records, which I remarked were parted by Banks’s will,

came into juxtaposition and so they were when Sir Joseph returned

to his father’s Kew house bringing what he had from India with

him (1851). Sir William’s private collections were purchased from

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 339

him in 1861, but through the years to 1861 had been freely open to

students.

THE GREAT COLLECTIONS OF SiR JoSEPH HOOKER AND DR. THOMAS

THOMSON LINK KEW AND INDIA TOGETHER : THAT WHICH KEW

REGARDS AS SPECIFIC LIMITATIONS PASSES TO INDIA, TO

INDIA’S GREAT ADVANTAGE

A species is a concept; there is no possible definition, save by

consent. The wider the consent the better the international under-

standing of the concept. Divergent understandings have led to the

subdividing with a recognition, say of micro-species or Jordanian

species; and other subdivisions will appear. For the advance of

knowledge in line, there must be a ruling standard. In brief Kew

worked out by consent an idea of permissible variation and on the

leadership of Kew the taxonomy of Indian spermatophytes rests.

The following concisely states what happened to the applied work

of the two botanists. They had attended the botanical classes given |

to the medical students by Sir William Hooker, had sat in 1839 for

the ‘same examinations and qualified. The one then joined Sir James

Ross’s ship Erebus as Assistant Surgeon and sailed with Ross to

the Antarctic to fix the position of the South Magnetic Pole; the

second went into the service of the East India Company and was

sent to the Upper Gangetic Plain. They were not to meet for ter

years. The meeting took place at Christmas 1849, in Darjeeling.

Thomson, his delegation to the remoter parts of the north-western

Himalayas over, went to the Sikkim Himalaya, where he waited for

his old college mate, who meanwhile had the uncomfortable adven-

ture of being held prisoner by an intriguing Sikkim official.

Hooker was bringing back to his base his last specimens. I

need to quote what Hooker wrote of the finish of this part of his

expedition: “Thus terminated . . . my last Himalayan exploring

journey, which in a botanical and geographical point of view had

answered my purposes beyond my most sanguine expectations, though

my collections had been in a great measure destroyed by so many

untoward events. It had enabled me. to survey the whole country

and to execute a map of it, and Campbell (Dr. Archibald Campbell,

the Superintendent) had further gained knowledge of its resources

which the British Government should all along have possessed as

the protector of the Rajah and his territories.’

My reader notes the reference to mapping. The Government of

India subsidised Sir Joseph’s travel to a little under half the cost of

340 JOURNAL,-BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

it. Why? ---Because they needed the geographical information and

it was this that they were buying, not the botany. We learn from

the same statement that Sir Joseph had lost bundles of his dried

plants from time to time; for instance from other sources we know

that a large part of what he had collected to illustrate the genus

Impatiens fell into.a river at a certain fording place. The Company

had had at other times and from other botanists similar service.

The meeting of the two botanists was followed by discussion of

ways of joining work on the collections. It is evident that this was

anticipated by both with considerable enthusiasm.

Hooker wished for another year in the Himalaya, and ‘that he

could spend it in Nepal. But the Maharajah was unwilling as he

was to be away and did not care that strangers should be in the

country in his absence. This being so, Hooker and Thomson con-

sented to a season in the Khasia Hills, and after a business visit to

Calcutta, where the collections were then lodged, they put in 74

months of energetic collecting in the hills, seldom having fewer than

16-18 men daily searching the country for plants. Here they

collected not only species for drying, but exhibits in the round for an

economic museum at Kew, which Sir William had commenced in

1847—timbers, ‘bamboos, dry fruits, gums, resins, etc. This went on

until signs of autumn with a cessation of flowers made the flower

hunt uncomfortable. Then with about 200 men’s loads of spoil they

descended to the low country of Sylhet to get water carriage for it

to Calcutta. They themselves went southwards to Chittagong, and

thence made Calcutta through the Sundarbans. |

Does not this collecting again remind us of the thoroughness of

Hooker’s work? What he lost of his collections, such as most of

his specimens of the Sikkim species of Impatiens in crossing a

swollen river, does not detract from this judgement.

Calcutta was reached on 28 January 1851, and England on

5 March of that year. Naturally Kew and his father’s roof was Sir

Joseph’s destination, and naturally Kew was likewise Thomson’s.

There they lodged the collections and together began to work on the

venga of the higher PS

Hooker MAKES THE BEST POSSIBLE USE OF THE HOLD-UP

OF HIS FLORA INDICA

Thomas Thomson would have buried himself in species-describing,

if undisturbed. Sir Joseph Hooker had a mind that took in a much

greater breadth of. botany. Seemingly both of them had started the

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 341

FLORA expecting that the East India Company would promote it just

as the Admiralty was promoting the publication of the results of

Hooker’s work in the Antarctic. on Ross’s expedition. The Company

did not respond. - Other possible bodies which might support the

publication were tried in vain. The disappointment fell much- more

heavily on Thomson than on Hooker, for Hooker had a crowd of

other interests and the work of Assistant Director to attend to; which

was increasing as Sir’ William Hooker was beginning to lean on his

advice. Hooker then did the great service of directing his collections

to the advantage of Kew. The distribution of the duplicates. as

exchanges of material could be done; there were such assistants as

Allan Black (1852-1865) to take the burden of such service.

Hooker had described Wallich’s: distribution of his. collections of

1832 as ‘the most. valuable contribution of its kind to Science’; and

Hooker put precept into practice by his own distributing.

-Kew, it is recorded, sent out at this time no fewer than 300,000

specimens to institutions and individuals, jointly advancing the inter-

nationality of Botany, ticketed with locality of origin and named as '

far as possible. Moreover by doing this on so large a scale Kew

made a great contribution towards fixing on the indefinite unit

‘species’ an approximate value. This, declared each packet of

exchanges, is the Kew standard; these specimens are eee for

critically enquiring if the standard holds.

The Hooker-Thomson sets were being distributed when Wight

finally returned to Britain. with the balance of his collections for the

same treatment. Hooker succeeded in getting India House to

release Falconer’s 76 cases ee in 1841 and they also were

distributed.

From these distributions the Calcutta Botanic Garden came into

possession of so much material. which carried the Kew imprint as to

get a great lift forward; and by the gifts by wellwishers of Wallichian

specimens that were duplicates to them, it had the disadvantage of

Wallich having kept nothing for Calcutta in 1832 very largely wiped

out.

Justly to. he Peeemecea for his services at ge at this time was

Allan A. Black (1832-1855). He had had a horticultural training at

Kew from. which he had been taken into the Herbarium where he

proved. himself most valuable. In 1863 he was appointed Superin-

tendent of the Bangalore Garden, but died at sea invalided from his

post in 1866. | |

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a. ag)

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

- GENERAL WILLIAM Munro (1818-1880)

I introduced General William Munro to the reader in Chapter 2

[J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54 (1), p. 54] as a Lieutenant who botanized

in the State of Coorg in the year 1834. He was in India until 1848

and collected wherever he went, specializing in grasses until he was

the leading authority on them. His last collecting places were in the

Himalayas. He had supplied grasses from Agra to Wight; but the

two never met. He was resolving the perplexities of the bamboos

and was engaged on a monograph on the Gramineae when he died.

His collections were bequeathed to Kew. In the year 1837 he pre-

pared a catalogue of the plants in the nursery of the old garden at

Bangalore. In 1847 he published a book THE TIMBER TREES OF

BENGAL. He was a great advocate of ‘soldiers’ gardens’, and belong-

ing to a British Regiment he was no doubt the originator of an

interest in gardening in many of his men when they were in India.

~ HuGuH FALCONER, SUPERINTENDENT OF THE SAHARANPUR GARDEN, ~

_ 1832 To 1841, AND SUPERINTENDENT OF THE CALCUTTA

GARDEN, 1848 To 1855

Hugh Falconer (1808-1865) arrived in India with Griffith; Griffith’s

voyage ended at Madras; Falconer proceeded to Calcutta, whence he

was sent to the Upper Gangetic Plain; and when Royle departed from

India in 1832 on long leave, he took Royle’s place after so little as

two years in India. Though charge of the Saharanpur Garden in

general fell to a young man, to be appointed so young as Falconer

would seem remarkable. His scientific equipment was more geological

than botanical; but then at that time a young scientific man was

expected to have wide unspecialized knowledge. No sooner had he

landed in Calcutta than we see him seeking geological information

which he desired from the museum of the Asiatic Society. Hooker

called Falconer ‘a mountain of admirable and accurate information’

and ‘a scientist of inflexible and uncompromising integrity’. ae

~ By a coincidence, at the time of Falconer’s arrival in the Upper °

Gangetic Plain fossil bones were discovered to exist in quantity in

the Siwalik sandstones by the constructors of the Jumna Canal-head

Works at that river’s exit from the Himalayas. Govan seems to

have known that they existed. Falconer, his geological interests

alive, started to collect them, and so did the engineer Sir Proby

Cautley. To work out what the animals were could not be done. in

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 343

India; the bones had to be brought to Britain and were brought when

that was convenient.

Falconer conducted the affairs of the Saharanpur Garden on the

economic lines that Royle had adopted. The reader will recollect

that Royle had looked to Kashmir for plants of value to bring into

the Garden. Falconer was required in 1836 to join Sir Alexander

Burnes in an economic mission over the north-western frontier and

he left Saharanpur late in that year. Politics called away Burnes,

causing him and Falconer to part at the Indus, Falconer seeking a

way up the river; but at his third march, when at Darband close to

the Black Mountain, his progress was interrupted, force threatened.

and he was diverted through Hazara to Kashmir where he wintered.

In the next spring he took that route northwards which keeps closest

to the Indus though really far from its impassable gorges, until he

reached the river again at Sukaram Murbal. Thence he was able,

crossing it, to go to Askole, and also up the river through Baltistan

and Ladakh. In what way he had contrived to have names for the

plants which he collected is not recorded; but he certainly had them, ©

as we know from a letter written to Royle in London and published

by Royle. He must have carried books of reference. Falconer’s

collectors were required to record the localities of the collecting on

the coarse packing paper. He was more methodic in this than others

of his time. What he published later shows an economic interest.

Falconer was back in Saharanpur at the end of the summer of 1838.

Then he turned his collectors into the mountains of Kumaon up to

the Niti pass; no doubt they also helped him in bringing to him the

fossil mammalian bones of the nearer hills.

In 1841 illness drove him to take leave and he took these collec-

tions with him, 76 cases of dried plants and 5 tons of the bones.

The dried plants were placed in India House and Falconer got to

work on his major interest, the bones. So brilliant was his work

that his time in Britain was extended that he might get on with it.

Furthermore, it led to his election as a Vice-President of the Royal

Society.

On his return to India in 1847 he was appointed Superintendent

of the Calcutta Garden, from which, as already recorded, he did all

that he could to facilitate the work of Hooker and Thomson. From

Calcutta he was required to go to Moulmein that he might advise on

the teak forests: What he did in Tenasserim is given in the next

chapter. The reconstruction of the disordered Calcutta Garden has

been referred to in the second chapter,

344. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 59 (2)

THOMAS THOMSON (1817-1878)

Thomas Thomson, son of a Glasgow professor and, as already

recorded, fellow student of Joseph Hooker, had entered the service

of the East India Company in 1839, when he was sent to the Upper

Gangetic Plain. In 1841 he was with the troops sent into Afghanistan

and lost his all, including whatever collections he had made to date.

He was at Ghazni in the next year. Three years later he served

through the Sutlej campaign. Between these disturbances he studied

the flora of the northern Indian plains and appears to have collected

about 1000 species. As a reward for his zeal he was called in 1847

from the medical charge of troops to serve as one of three Com-

missioners who were to report on the geography and general _ con-

ditions of the Kashmir-Tibet border. Because Thomson’s travels

were continuous with Hooker’s, whom he joined at Darjeeling in

1850 for a further year of collecting, it has been convenient to me

to describe them at pages 339-340 above. Thomson took leave and

was in Britain from 1851 to 1854, working at Kew, part of. the time

on earned leave and part of the time on leave without’ pay;

then he returned to India having been appointed Superintendent

of the Calcutta Garden, where the new plantings of Falconer

were now 4 to 5 years old. Immediately, Thomson counted

his means of organizing a general herbarium in the Garden out of

the collection of bundles of dried plants which came into his charge.

He had of course brought to Calcutta as much as he could of his

own collecting, and through the generosity of friends he had received

a very fair representation of the Wallichian dispersal. He reported

on the materials that he +had, and sent the report to the Asiatic

Society of Bengal for publication (Jour. As. Soc. Beng. 25 : 405, 1856).

Thomson’s interest was in the dried plant. With facilities given he

might have put in order a very fair working basis for determining

Indian plants. Perhaps the living plants in the open garden were too

young to interest one whose bias was away from them; and -he would

not be able to open out under the: imposed financial stringency : and

again the disaster of the Oudh Mutiny came during his years. "Was

it by a mis-judgement of his that his horticulturist, Robert - Scott,

was allowed to slip away to Burma on a collection trip which’ was

prolonged for a whole year, as Thomson’s successor says, to the

damage of the cultivation which was his proper charge? Finally,

Thomson became ill and was invalided out of India in 1861. Mention

has been made of the PRAECURSORES AD FLORAM- INDICAM,. published

for Hooker and Thomson after they had been compelled to drop

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 345

their FLORA INDICA. The last of the PRAECURSORES appeared in

1861, and with that year Thomson’s activity in defining Indian plants

ended. |

Circumstances had been against him at either end of his service,

but with a (to him) golden period of three years of uninterrupted

Botany in the middle. |

Captain R. S. Simpson, who was in Simla when Thomson was

starting for the remote parts of the Indus watershed, now reappears

as a collector in the Khasia Hills. What he collected reached the

Fielding Herbarium and was sent forward to Sir Joseph Hooker at

Kew.

__. THOMAS ANDERSON, THE LAST OF THE SUPERINTENDENTS OF

: THE SECOND CALCUTTA BOTANIC GARDEN

Thomas Anderson (1832-1870) succeeded Thomas Thomson in 1861.

Five years later his brother John Anderson (1833-1900) followed him to

Calcutta having been selected by the Secretary of State for India in.

1865 to be the Curator (shortly afterwards called Superintendent) of

the zoological and geological collections which the Asiatic Society

were ready to pass over to the new Indian Museum [see pp. 701-2, J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 (3)]._ There ate two conditions here for the

reader to understand: the one that at the date there were two

geological collections in Calcutta, the newer in the possession of the

Geological Survey which had been formed in 1851, and the older still

in the hands of the Asiatic Society because of agreements not yet

completed; and the other condition how it happened that John

reached India as much as 10 years after Thomas though only one

year younger. This is how it happened. Thomas, having qualified

in Edinburgh in Medicine in 1853, went out to India without delay;

John went into business, but left it again and qualified in Medicine

in 1862, at which time the admission of candidates into the medical

service in India had been temporarily suspended. He then taught

the Natural Sciences in the Free Church College of Edinburgh until

the appointment to the Indian Museum became his. As both brothers

collected plants the reader is warned against confusing them. How-

ever they were only together in Calcutta from September 1866, when

John arrived, until 1868, when Thomas was invalided out of India.

During that short time they demonstrably aided each other. John

was sent as naturalist on the Yunnan expedition of 1867-1868 and

collected between Bhamo in Burma and Momein in Yunnan, i.e. in

country never approached by Thomas, The leader of the expedition

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

was Major E. B, Sladen and the plants collected went to the Calcutta

Garden where they were in time named by Kurz. Thomas had no

connection with them, as illness had overtaken him before they could

have reached Calcutta. Thomas’s overseas collecting was done in

Aden (1860), and Singapore and Java (1861).

When appointing Thomas Anderson to be superintendent the

Government had told him that he would be required to introduce!

Cinchona cultivation into the Sikkim Himalayas. Its experimental

cultivation had already showed promise in southern India and Ceylon.

I propose at once to show how the proposals for extension were

entangled with Anderson’s charge in Calcutta and the reader will

find the history of the experiment later.

It was in the nature of governmental policy that such a require-

ment should be made to the Superintendent of the Garden. My

reader recalls that Kyd described the garden which he proposed as

one would describe a horticultural nursery. He will recollect that it

was laid out on blocks for supplying others. He may be reminded

that Wallich met large demands from the Medical Storekeeper for

making syrups, lotions, etc., and he may be reminded also that

Wallich was in charge of little patches of trees up and down Bengal.

There appeared now a demand enormously exceeding anything the

Medical Storekeeper might make, a demand in comparison with

which Wallich’s scattered acres or half acres were insignificant; and

moreover to meet which a mountain site was needed. I stress this

for it forcefully pulled forward the horticultural nursery and therefore

the botanic garden backward.

Anderson took over charge, pulled the Garden’s horticultural staff

together, making the reluctant Robert Scott to return from _ his

holidaying in Burma—it had lasted a whole year and Anderson said

it had been to the damage of the Garden—and then went to Darjeeling

to look into his prospects.

The Government’s control of the Darjeeling hills had commenced

out of the desirability of keeping the Lepchas from subjugation by

Nepal. In 1840 a local quarrel caused the Government to send into

the hills as arbiter James William Grant, then of Malda. He was

the Grant to whom Griffith dedicated his genus Grantia, and he was

once for a short time in charge of the Calcutta Garden. Grant, when

he returned from arbitrating, suggested that the establishment of a

sanatorium in the hills might repay the cost of establishing it. With

this in their mind the Government sent to Darjeeling Archibald

Campbell who was then their Residency Surgeon at Kathmandu,

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 347

choosing him for his two qualifications—-a knowledge of what a

sanatorium could be and a knowledge of at least some of the hill

folk.

Campbell’s bridle-paths had by 1861 made the interior accessible

enough for tea planters to seek land, and then came Anderson look-

ing for land for Cinchona. He was ciearly at a disadvantage; he

could not yet know exactly where to find a situation for his purpose

Where: considerable expansion would remain possible if the crop

became a success. The tea planters had obtained some of the most

accessible positions. Anderson it seems was able to put Cinchona

plants out experimentally at various elevations and aspects; then he

returned to Calcutta and sailed for Java because an exchange of

planting material had been arranged with the Dutch, and he had to

give and get what was promised on either side. It was on this trip

to Java that he collected in Singapore. He returned via Madras,

leaving some of the Cinchona plants that he had got with Mclivor at

Ootacamund and taking thence other plants with which he “went

back to Darjeeling, the horticulturist Andrew 'T. Jafiray accompany-

ing him. It is not surprising that the difficult first start involved

seeking a new place. The use of abandoned army huts ai the greatest

convenient elevation was a makeshift, and the foggy rim where the

clouds bank up an unsuitable position. Anderson would seem to

have broken his health in the toil of going down hill by day and up

hill in the evening. The Government was sympathetic and recognized

that they asked much of him.

As a first contribution towards his success, they engaged in

Britain a most excellent horticulturist, John Scott (? 1838-1880). He

had been trained in Edinburgh and aiso employed by the Duke of

Devonshire in his orchid houses at Chatsworth. John Scott’s name

is met with in Darwin’s account of Various contrivances by which

Orchids are fertilised by insects (1862) as making observations at

Chatsworth. 3 ot |

A second horticulturist followed John Scott; this was James

Alexander Gammie. The change of position of the plantation came

just before the latter’s arrival.

~ Anderson had had the use of abandoned buildings at the fore-

front of the mountains, constructed as part of the unsuccessful

military sanatorium, not accepted by him for his use as suitable, but

because they had to be put to use. The position of the new planta-

tion was down hill. | ‘¥ 7

James Alexander Gammie artived in 1866, at which time Robert

348. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST; SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Scott had just resigned his post in Calcutta. Gammie became

Manager of the Mungpu plantations and John Scott was given the

post of Curator of the Calcutta Garden in the place of Robert Scott.

The reader needs here to be told that the “Robert Anderson’, to

whom is credited a CATALOGUE OF CALCUTTA PLANTS, did not exist.

While Robert Scott was still in Calcutta, Thomas Anderson had

prepared a catalogue of the Garden’s plants and it would seem that

the name Robert Anderson was due to confusion between Robert

Scott and Thomas Anderson. John Scott served in Calcutta until

1880.

Anderson’s administrative ability is seen in his seed lists for

exchange and his several catalogues. When he returned from Java

with the Dutch collections he reported to the Government on that

Herbarium, which would have been Thomas Thomson’s joy but was

Anderson’s burden. He explained that he was the only officer at

the Garden competent to work it up and that he could not do it for

want of time. He went on to tell the Government that he had found

two botanists willing to accept the post of Curator of the Herbarium

at quite a small salary provided quarters could be given them. Ona

in fact was already working without pay in the Herbarium. This

was Jean-Baptiste Louis Pierre (1835-1905), of French origin, a native

of the island of Réunion and an émigré thence because a tornado

had destroyed his coffee plantation. The other was Wilhelm Sulpiz

Kurz (1833-1878), a German, who had been a pupil of the eminent

botanist von Martius. He had found it advisable to flee from his

native land and enlist under an assumed name in Java. His ability

discovered, he was made useful to Teijsmann, who held the post of

Hortulanus at the Buitenzorg Garden. Anderson, having gone thither

to get his Cinchona plants, heard of Kurz who, like Pierre, was in

trouble and that is why they were prepared to take service in India.

The Government sanctioned the employment of both; but Pierre

almost immediately had an invitation to Pondicherry; and then

another to Saigon where he was to build up a Botanic Garden and

where he did most excellent work on the forest trees of Indo-China.

Kurz became the Curator of the Herbarium in the Calcutta Garden

where, be it noted, his appointment created a staff of two botanists,

himself and Anderson, which was the first botanical reorganization

of the Crown when the Company was displaced.

Kurz had commenced to publish on the Malaysian flora before

he left the Dutch service; then after taking service .in Calcutta he

began to publish through the Asiatic Society on Indian plants, chiefly

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 349

on those of Bengal. He wished to publish a Flora of Bengal and

some pages were actually in print when his attention was redirected.

The shadow of Sir Dietrich Brandis falls across the page in this.

Brandis was in Simla as Inspector-General of Forests; and he

influenced the Government of India not unreasonably to send Kurz

about Forest business. Kurz received instructions early in 1866 to

proceed to the Andaman Islands to study the timber trees, to

determine them, to get seedlings and seeds to grow in the Calcutta

Garden, and to-report. Accordingly he went to Port Blair in April

and was away until July. The first part of his stay was disappoint-

ing as nothing was in flower, and there was almost a disaster when

the Burmese convicts told off to serve him set on him and left him

bound in the forest. Kurz returned to Calcutta in the early part of

the rains and got together as much information regarding the

Andaman. flora as the Calcutta Garden had. Various officers had

been there, Kyd was one; two surgeons, named Liebig and Playfair,

had collected; and there were others. Kurz visited Arakan in the

next year. Surely then it was to help the Forest Service for Schlich |

was there. He was in the Andaman Islands again when he emended

his first report, and for the whole of the rest of his service he worked

entirely on trees of the Burmese flora, travelling considerably. The

culmination was his FOREST FLORA OF BRITISH BURMA, 1877, in two

volumes. When, shortly, I come to the work of Sir Dietrich Brandis,

the cause of the switch-over from Bengal to Burma will be more

evident. Kurz, his BURMA FLORA written, took leave and would have

visited his earliest collecting grounds in the Dutch Indies, but he died

in Penang (1878) on his way there. |

While the stay of Robert Scott in Burma in 1860-1861 was -to

Brandis’s advantage, it is not certain that it was at his suggestion.

But a remark made by Thomas Anderson in a letter suggests that

the Calcutta Superintendent was not certain that he would be allowed

to keep John Scott now on his way to India.

When Anderson had had but three years at the Calcutta Garden, a

tremendous disaster fell—-waves estimated as 164 feet above normal

for a high spring tide broke into the Garden. It could not have

been foreseen. The saline water did great damage. And three years

later, after heavy rains had softened the soil, a tornado toppled the

trees over like ninepins. This is the record that was made: ‘almost

the only trees dating from before 1800 that were spared were the

Great Banyan tree and a second and smaller tree of the same sort,

some Pipals (Ficus religiosa), country almonds (Terminalia catappa),

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

about 20 Mahoganies, and some palms’. Someone, seeing that

timber specimens would be acceptable in the Bengal Economic

Museum, made hand-samples that a little might come from the

calamity. Perhaps a few of them still exist in the Industrial Section

of the Indian Museum. Anderson’s health broke down, and he

could not repair the damage and the distress of it must have fallen

severely on John Scott. Therein was virtually the end of the second

Calcutta Garden. |

In some other ways Anderson’s years had been years a great

achievement, an aftermath of the considerable unification of India.

The head of the Bay of Bengal has a record of destructive

but, fortunately, spaced tornados travelling into it: In 1842 the

Garden suffered damage by one; in 1897 another hit Chittagong and

destroyed 600 acres of planted teak.

The hollow land, that was taken in 1787 for the Botanic

Garden, may well have owed freedom from trees to earlier cyclones

with flooding from the river.

Reference has been made to the way in which Lord Bentinck’s

Retrenchment Committee cut Wallich’s funds for the Botanic Garden;

it was after this that 24 acres of the Garden were put at the service

of Carey’s Agri-Horticultural Society. The area was raised later to

25. After the flooding the Society could no longer use it as it was

saline.

CHRONOLOGY OF THE INTRODUCTION OF CINCHONA INTO INDIA

I propose to give the history of the bringing oe Cinchona into

India in a series of statements:

(i) The Physicians had decided after? an abundance of experience

that sulphate of quinine was their sovereign remedy against malaria;

but the supply of the bark, whence it was prepared, was subject to

manipulation for the sake of financial profit in the Andean states

where the wild supplies grew.

(ii) The supplies of bark reaching the ports of shipment showed

that the species drawn on were several, and not of eeay value. The

question of exact specific origin therefore came up. 7

(iii) The British, chiefly for the benefit of India, and the Dutch,

for the benefit of their eastern islands, decided to possess themselves

of the desirable species. This required’ expeditions in search of

them; and the probability that the quest would meet with pyrouden

had to be faced. 7 3

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 351

(iv) Before the agents of either country started, the French

explorer, Hugh Algernon Weddell, had returned to Europe from the

Andes with a little seed from which a small number of seedlings were

raised, some in France and some in Edinburgh. The French gave

a seedling to the Dutch who sent it out to Java; and one successful

cutting was taken from it before it died. It died at Bogor

(Buitenzorg); the cutting survived by transfer to the hill garden of

Tjibodas. The seedlings raised in Edinburgh were sent to India,

conveyed to Sikkim, and there all died. Thus Weddell’s exploration

left a single plant in Java for a commencement of the work.

(v) The Dutch chose for their mission to the Andes, Justus Karl

Hasskar!, a former employee in Java whom they recalled from

retirement, and sent to Bolivia where, overcoming considerable

difficulties, he collected a quantity of seeds and seedlings and they

were got down to the coast and conveyed to Java (1854).

(vi) In Britain Clements Robert Markham (1830-1916, knighted

in 1896), already knowing the parts of the Andes which had to be

visited and able to converse in at least two of the languages that

were talked, was given authority to organize a more extensive search.

He planned a 3-pronged attack, taking for himself the most equatorial

latitude for penetration, engaging for penetration a little further

north Q. T. Pritchett and engaging also the well-known traveller

Richard Spruce to penetrate further south over the lower slopes of

Chimborazo; but Spruce fell ill, whereafter Robert Mackenzie Cross

took up Spruce’s work. Between the three lines of attack very nearly

the whole was covered of the latitudes at which the best kinds were

expected to occur. A little latitude was added in the north when

the German botanist and explorer, George Hermann Karsten, fell in

with valuable seed a little further north than Pritchett’s line.

Instructions had been given to Markham that he should send his

spoil to Britain; some have said unwisely, as the risks in transport

were increased; there was shipment up the South American coast and

shipment from the Isthmus of Panama to Britain before the risk of

' transmitting via Suez to India. The Dutch had avoided such increases

in the sea risk. Markham had considerable losses, cancelled out by

the largeness of the collecting. Considerable use of Kew was made

as a half-way depot.

(vii) An unexpected windfall fell when a merchant, Charles Ledger,

offered a packet of seed for sale which had reached him as a gift, the

excellence of which he did not know. .

(viii) The Government of India had been very well advised,

352 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

largely by Markham, on the conditions required for plantations; and

preparation had been made both in Ceylon and southern India,

chiefly at Ootacamund in the Nilgiri Hills where the horticulturist

W. C. MelIvor was now in charge of an experimental garden.

Cleghorn had been associated in the choice of land in the Nilgiris.

In Ceylon Thwaites laid out a high level plantation at Hakgala ta

receive the plants and raise the seedlings: it was under his horti-

culturist William MecNicholl, who however did not remain long; then

it passed into the horticultural charge of William Nock who added

attractive planting. :

(ix) The climate of Hakgala proved to suit some of the

Cinchonas so perfectly that they grew as weeds; and some showed

ready vigour at Ootacamund, so that there was little risk after the

journey to India was over. Markham visited the East and approved

of what he saw.

(x) The acclimatisation had thoroughly started as the reader sees,

in the most equatorial part of Asia where the rainfall is spread fairly

well and there is an evenness in the day lengths. Is not this of

interest because the genus Cinchona is in the Andes at its best

equatorially? Furthermore the equatorial preference draws attention

to the existence of a latitudinal geography in southern India.

(xi) When an exchange of plants had been arranged between India

and Java, as recorded on p. 347, Anderson went to get what the

Dutch had to give and tock to Darjeeling his material for experiment

there, almost assuredly quite ignorant of possible effects of a two-

season climate high in rain and day-lengths. The sequel was

observation that what suited the south did not do so well in the north.

We find Anderson at first with the assistance of the horticulturist

Jaffray, then with John Scott, and then with James Gammie.

(xii) Free growth could not be assumed to produce the best bark

in the market; chemists were required and the Government engaged

John Broughton in London to proceed to India. A laboratory was

built for him at Ootacamund where he did the essential analyses.

(xiii) At the same time he sought to cheapen the costs of extract-

ing the alkaloid; but he had no success.

(xiv) This did not prevent the planters of Ceylon from adopting

Cinchona as a crop selling the bark on the market. The quantity

offered depressed market prices and so discouraged them. Most of

the tea planters in Darjeeling toyed with little experiments but did

not accept Cinchona as a crop. The Ceylon planters who had

accepted Cinchona soon abandoned it for Tea. Two Nilgiri Hills

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 353

estates were offered for sale, but the Government could not get their

price, though these estates were stocked with Cinchona calisaya which

had been shown in India, as elsewhere, to yield the most sulphate of

quinine. The work done had demonstrated an ability to increase the’

supplies of sulphate of quinine but not an ability to cheapen it.

And as there had been a most generous distribution of seeds to

many parts of the world, the -condition was evidently world-wide.

(xv) The work done in India had now made it obvious that two

species, Cinchona calisaya and Cinchona succirubra, promised better

returns than others in this way—the first gave the most sulphate of

quinine, the second the more total alkaloids; the first grew more freely

in the south, the second in the north.

(xvi) McIvor experimented with increasing the thickness of the

bark by injury, but, though he believed in his method, there seems

to have been nothing of advantage in it.

(xvii) The Government’s promoting of Cinchona was an entirely

different adventure from that in Tea. In the case of Tea the Company

did the work of proving that the tea plant was present and its culti-

vation possible. Then the industry took the natural trading profit.

But in the case of Cinchona the philanthropic intentions of building

a barrier against malaria knocked the natural profit out; for any. in

sight needed to be sunk in the price.

(xviii) The physicians’ opinion that sulphate of quinine was the aK

stance to use kept Cinchona calisaya as the more desired therapeutic,

and therefore the southern source of supply seemed that to be in

particular exploited. After Anderson’s departure from India (1868)

C. B. Clarke, given the acting post, went to the Nilgiri plantation on

inspection and Sir George King, later in Anderson’s post, did the same.

Cinchona calisaya var. ledgeriana had meanwhile won the first place.

(xix) To C. D. Wood, a chemist in the service of the Government,

employed in Calcutta, was given the work of trying to cheapen the

cost of extracting the alkaloids from the bark, but he failed as

Broughton had failed. The Government of India then threw the

responsibility for this on the Superintendent of the Calcutta Garden,

ie. on King as their Quinologist; and King happened, though not

immediately, to learn when visiting the Netherlands a fact which he

took to Wood, now retired from India and in business in London.

Wood elaborated it of his own free will. King took Wood’s process

to the Sikkim Plantation where Gammie directed it into commercial

lines.

354 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

(xx) There was one thing yet for King to do. At the Sikkim

Plantations he could have the total alkaloids extracted at an advant-

ageous cost from Cinchona succirubra; he had yet to get the surgeons

in India to accept it. Several tried it and reported well.

(xxi) The business passed, next, to a group of able administrators

who set to work to canalize the course of the febrifuge between

factory and the malaria-stricken in the villages in need of it, defeat-

ing at the same time speculation by traders who tried to cut in. -

The above is the epic of Cinchona establishment. Anderson

during its enactment had died from the consequences of malaria,

which was almost certainly contracted during his search for land in

the Sikkim Himalaya for the raising of the remedy.

The alkaloids, like tannin and some other substances which Man

extracts from plants, are seasonally increased. This Broughton

learned. No doubt there was little call at 1868 for further enquiry

into this physiological matter.

ON THE BOTANICAL SIDE OF PHARMACOLOGY

_ Two appointments were made for the control of the Cinchona

work in southern India, respectively in 1882 and 1884. The first was

the appointment of Malmaduke Alexander Lawson (1840-1896) as

Director of a Botanical Department covering the Cinchona under-

taking, with headquarters at Ootacamund; the other was the appoint-

ment of Dr. David Hooper as Chemist under Lawson. Lawson’s

transfer to India from Oxford, where he was holding the combined

Sherardian and Sibthorpian professorships, was not what would have

been expected, but I believe it was at his own suggestion. He had

been teaching Botany in Oxford for 14 years and had had a part in

the great advances in teaching methods instituted by Huxley, but

administratively he had not pushed his department forward; nor did

he get far in India; he had no personal acquaintance with the flora

before he went to India except that he had elaborated three small

families for Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA. One may say that

he was still getting to know the Indian flora when in 1896 he died,

Dried plants that he collected in the course of his learning went into

the Calcutta Herbarium. Hooper had a long and useful service in

India, though more away from Madras than in the Presidency.

~ David Hooper (1858-1947) studied Pharmacy in the Pharmaceutical

Society’s I.ondon school and then in various manufacturing labora-

tories in London and in the Netherlands. In 1884 he accepted the

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 355

post of Government Chemist, Madras. When the chemical work in

the Nilgiri plantations lessened, he was transferred to the Industrial

Section of the Indian Museum in Calcutta with the title of Curator.

A laboratory was his and a very wide range of material coming in

on which he was able to work. The zoologists and the geologists of

the Museum had their strong research side; Hooper’s laboratory

brought the economic annexe into line by providing the research for

the annexe. Without it, there had been some want of matching.

Of Hooper at work a biographer has said he was’ meticulously

accurate, careful, industrious in collecting facts, in arranging them,

and in publishing them, and in the course of this became an authority

on the drugs of Asia.

Much of Hooper’s work got its first publicity through Dymock,

Warden, & Hooper’s PHARMACOGRAPHIA INDICA.

William Dymock (1832-1892) had entered the Indian Medical

Service in 1857 and was posted to Bombay. Chance sent him out

to sea on a mission westwards and in the ports then visited he seems |

to have obtained his first interest in the drugs of their markets.

Gifted in languages he turned to what he could get out of Flukiger’s

PHARMACOGRAPHIA and began to make his own study on the material

referred to in that book. His first book is based on it. He held

the post of Professor of Materia Medica in the Grant Medical College

(1874-1881) and was the Government’s Medical Storekeeper. He

could not have been better placed, for the doors of the trade of the

Parsee community had been opened to him. His much larger work,

PHARMACOGRAPHIA INDICA, came when he joined with Lieut.-Col.

C. H. J. Warden and Dr. David Hooper; and the three volumes

which make it up appeared in parts. Colonel Warden was Chemical

Examiner, Bengal, and Professor of Chemistry in the Calcutta Medical

College; and from 1899 to his death in 1900 the official Examiner of

Medical Stores. The PHARMACOGRAPHIA deals with Indian .drugs int

turn, thoroughly and with authority. |

The work of the Indigenous Drugs Committee must be passed by

as it was without sufficiently deep roots.

John Shortt, who went to Madras in 1846 and was there until

1878, wrote much: some useful. Edward John Waring’s BAZAAR

MEDICINE of 1860 is a book not to overlook. Henry John Carter.

who was in Bombay from 1842 to 1862, a man of many sides, studied

the sources of frankincense. Professor Kanoba Ranchhodas Kirtikar

(1850-1917) of the Grant Medical College made himself an authority

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 59 (2)

on poisonous plants and in his subject was followed by Jean-

Ferdinand Caius.

In Calcutta Udoy Chand Dutt wrote an informative MATERIA

MEDICA OF THE HINDUS (1877) with a glossary by Sir George King,

C. A. BARBER (1861-1933)

When Lawson died, the post of Madras Botanist went to Charles

Alfred Barber. Barber had been successively a demonstrator in the

Botany School at Cambridge; the Superintendent of the Botanical

and Agricultural Department, Leeward Islands, where he met with his

first sugarcane cultivation; Professor of Botany at-Cooper’s Hill

1895-1898; then Government Botanist, Madras, and again in contact

with sugarcane among a variety of other crops. The importance

historically of Barber’s transfer to India lies in the circumstance that

he may be called a pioneer specialist in agricultural botany of a new

school, and the work that he did in the great efforts commenced

chiefly in the early years after 1900 to increase the return got from

Indian crops. His work with sugarcane was of great excellence.

THE MUNGPU COMMUNITY

It is obvious that the congregation of trained horticulturists grow-

ing Cinchona at Mungpu would promote the study of the flora of

the Sikkim Himalaya. They were considerably isolated and had to

discover uses for their leisure. Exploration of the flota was an

obvious outlet. | SMe:

James Alexander Gammie (1839- 1924) reached Mungpu. in 1865.

Before his arrival the land which Anderson had chosen at first had

been abandoned as unsuitable and a new start had been made. Ha

took over charge as ‘Manager’ with almost entirely new cultivation

in hand. He found diversion for his own leisure in the animal life

about him, saying that by so doing he sought the means of removing

his thoughts as far as possible from the consideration of the problems

which Cinchona produced. But King was very soon highly praising

his handling of these problems. His interest in the animal kingdom

was well spread. He collected information on birds, mammals, and

reptiles, and then moved on to insects. But he admitted plants into

the attentions of his leisure by making a pleasure garden and

bringing into it local plants. The zoologists welcomed, his animal

records. Some of. Gammie’s subordinates deserve mention. A,

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 3377,

Biermann joined Gammie in 1867 and then was sent from Mungpu

to try how the Cinchona would grow in the Khasia Hills whence,

after securing information that it would grow, he was recalled to

Mungpu, where the erowth was such as to suggest that extension in

the direction of the Khasia Hills would not be needed. Biermann

later became Curator at the Calcutta Garden. A third recruit was

Robert Pantling (1857-1910). He was not long in Mungpu in the

first part of his service for, Biermann dying, he was required to take

his place in Calcutta; but he returned to Mungpu in 1879 as Senior

Assistant: in the place of J. L. Lister who, after a short service in

Mungpu, had resigned to become a tea planter. Pantling completed his

service in Mungpu, succeeding James Gammie on the latter’s retirement

in 1897. Pantling devoted his leisure and opportunities in a way

suggested by Gammie’s gardening, and brought from the hill-sides all

the orchids that he could get-and, being a good draughtsman, he

drew and supplied the plates for a volume, conjointly with Sir George

King, of the ANNALS OF THE ROYAL BOTANIC GARDEN, CALCUTTA.

Joseph Parkes went to India a year after Pantling, and it fell to

him to experiment with Cinchona at Kalimpong. The next assistant

due here for naming was Amos C. Hartless whose first destination

was Calcutta (1889). In 1900 or thereabouts he was transferred from

the Calcutta Garden to Mungpu and while at Mungpu he wrote upon

the Agriculture of the Darjeeling district. After that he was

successively at Bombay, Poona, Mahableshwar, and finally Superin-

tendent of the Saharanpur Garden. He obtained a wide knowledge

of Indian horticulture from this extensive experience. He left India

in 1923 and died in 1941.

Close on. the turn of the century, other assistants arrived whose

names a taxonomic student of: the Indian flora will find on the

labels of herbarium specimens. One who took a considerable. part

in advancing botanical. exploration .from Mungpu was George H.

Cave. He reached Jndia in 1897. Oliver Teetgen Hemsley followed

in 1898. ye ay ae ye accra |

Mungpu was Gs acaily. a centre -which the Calcutta Garden could

use as a base for native collectors. _ Sir George King so used it.

Hooker’s. appreciation of the LLepchas’ familiarity with -the ‘hill forests)

was echoed by King, who tried also to use Tibetan familiarity with

the. way to live in high valleys for getting what he could from the

back of the mountains. One of King’s men was the Tibetan

Dungboo. We. hear later of the Lepchas Ribu and Kari, making

annual trips for seed, which passed into the exchanges with gardens

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

outside India, and for other material for the Calcutta Garden. Cave

at one time directed this collecting of seed. Later, but after the

period of this chapter, he made in the company of Sir William

Wright Smith an arduous collecting trip in north-eastern Sikkim

(1909).

Q. T. Hemsley, son of W. B. Hemeley: was at Mungpu for 4 years

on either side of the turn of the century.

The reader doubtless recognizes that, thanks to the attractiveness

of the Sikkim hills, thanks to the succession of botanically-minded

forest officers who have served in the Darjeeling District, and thanks

also to the steady exploitation directed from Calcutta through

Mungpu, our knowledge of the flora has grown a long way towards

the possibility of a complete list. It has grown at the same time

in a fair measure in regard to local dispersal and altitudinal ex-

tension—so much in regard to altitude that there seemed to be profit

already in 1925 in putting on record altitudes for comparison with

altitudes in the Abor Hills (Rec. Bot. Survey Ind. 10); but there is

need for a great deal of further collecting before a complete Flora

(Flowering plants and Ferns only) can be produced. No other part

of the Eastern Himalayas is known appreciably.

FURTHER COLLECTIONS OF THE END OF THE CENTURY

It is time now to mention George Alexander Gammie (1864-1935),

son of James Gammie. I have separated him from the succession

of Mungpu collectors, because most of his collecting was done

elsewhere and his training was not that of Kew. But his name was

on the service register of Mungnu in 1892 in which year he made a

collecting tour in Sikkim. In 1894 he collected up the Brahmaputra

Valley; and in Chamba and Kangra. He was in charge of the

Saharanpur Garden and the Lloyd Botanic Garden in Darjeeling at

different times and had acted as Curator of the Calcutta Garden,

when he was transferred to Poona, first in a Botanic Survey, then

with the title of Economic Botanist.

It is time also to introduce the names of various collectors of the

north-western borderland, some of them collecting just because they

desired to help forward the publication of Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH

INDIA. This is evident in the records of plants inwards to the Kew

Herbarium. One collector, Colonel Meade, was particularly interested

in the grasses of the dry north-west, and would seem to have been

very thorough in his collecting (1872) for he sent no fewer than

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 359

140 in number. In the next year Colonel Johnstone, when on duty

in Kandahar, made a collection; and these following officers collected

during these years near India’s frontiers: J. S. Gibb, Sawkins, Spratt,

and G. W. H. Talbert. The well-known traveller and_ scientist,

Henry John Elwes, made the first of his expeditions in Sikkim in

1877 and his collection reached Kew. Another collector of Sikkim

was the chaplain Meuntford. In 1877 Sind collections came from

W. S. C. Pinwill, who from Sind went to the Malay Peninsula and

then returned to create a beautiful garden in Cornwall. The orni-

thologist Thomas Caverhill Jerdon gave plants from peninsular India.

A horticulturist trained at Kew who had become a tea planter,

Richard L. Keenan, sent to Kew an extensive collection from Cachar.

This welcome assistance was to continue through the next decade

and beyond. Another student of grasses, Collins, a veterinary officer

sent grasses of the Punjab (1881).

Intense collecting in the Gilgit Valley, extending into Wakhan

and other near parts of the hills, was carried out by Dr. (Surgeon-

Major) G. M. J. Giles from which Kew greatly benefited.

Surgeon-Captain Henry Alfred Cummins collected in Sikkim and

on the borders of Bhutan in 1888; Elwes again collected in Sikkim.

The District Commissioner Stephen Lushington Aplin collected in

the Shan Hills. A. R. Nairne author at a later date of THE FLOWER-

ING PLANTS OF WESTERN INDIA (1894) was sending plants in 1888

from Bombay. ie |

Sir William Wright Smith wrote in his account of his collecting

trip in 1909 after referring to the work done in the Sikkim Himalaya

by Sir George King, C. B. Clarke, Sir David Prain, Robert Pantling,

_ George Gammie, and officers of the Forest Service: ‘probably no

corresponding area in India has been more fully ransacked for its

flora and none so well as the Sikkim Himalaya’. His estimate may

be approximately right; at any rate it is the opinion of one entitled

to express an opinion. .

The mountain of Tonglu, which Hooker visited from the eastern

side in May 1848 in pouring rain, was made approachable from the

south by a new bridle path and C. B. Clarke took an opportunity of

visiting it in September 1875. The same rain! Many have used that

path since. A number of the flowers along it have the interest of

facing downwards so that their pollen is not damaged by the rain.

(To be continued)

Entomological Survey of Himalaya

Part XXVI. A Contribution to our Knowledge —

of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects

of the Nival Zones from the North-West _

Himalaya

PART 4

M. S. MANI, D.Sc., F.L.S., AND SANTOKH SINGH, Ph.D., F.R.E.S.

(With eleven text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 59 (1): 99].

DIPTERA

In the present state of our knowledge, it is difficult to discuss the

distribution of Diptera. As pointed out in an earlier paper (100),

the bulk of the Diptera collected by the three Entomological Expedi-

tions is still in the hands of specialists. Though the number of

species.so far identified amounts to hardly 2% of the total nival

insect fauna, there is reason to believe that no less than 300 nival

species exist at present in the NW. Himalaya. Many of them are

found at elevations of almost 6000 m. above m.s.l. above the per-

manent snow line. Diptera would surpass Coleoptera and would

almost represent half the nival insect fauna of the region. —

_ The unidentified Diptera belong to the following families:

eee, - NEMATOCERA

1. Tipulidae 8. Deuterophlebiidae

2. Mycetophilidae . 9. Blepharoceratidae |

3. Sciariidae” 10. Simuliidae

- 4, Diadocidiidae : 11. Chironomidae

5. Scatopsidae _ sare eS ~. 12. Ceratopogonidae

6.. Bibionidae x _ 13. ‘Psychodidae

~ 7. Ttonididae fee 14. Culicidae ;

BRACHYCERA

15. Stratiomyiidae | : 18. Empididae

16. Tabanidae POE Ea 29, * Asihidae

17. Rhagionidae 20. Dolichopodidae

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 361

CyYCLORRHAPHA—ASCHIZA

21. Phoridae By Syrphidae

22, Lonchopteridae

CyCLORRHAPHA—SCHIZOPHORA—CALYPTRATAE

24. Calliphoridae 27. Anthomyiidae

25. Sarcophagidae on 28. Muscidae

26. Tachinidae - |

= -- €YCLORRHAPHA—SCHIZOPHORA—ACALYPTRATAE

29. Ochthiphilidae ei : 32. Helomyzidae

30. Ulidiidae o 33, Ephydridae

31.- Piophilidae

Among the species so far ‘identified, the distribution of Deuter-

ophlebiidae is extremely interesting (Fig. ier rhtt addition to

Deuterophlebia mirabilis Edw., we have collected large numbers of

the larvae of an unnamed species at an elevation of 3500 m. in the

Chenab-Beas drainage area. The family is known from the mountains

of central Asia, Korea, Japan (Honshu and Kyushu Islands), Canada,

N. Colorado, Wyoming, Oregon, and California in N. America. The

distribution of the family is discussed by Pennak (116). i

PARA a3 rf io os

ede te nae

OPN EAS !

peer, My f

aan ae ee oe

| Fig. 31. The world distribution of Deuterophlebiidae

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

The Culicid Aédes. (Ochlerotatus) pullatus Cog. is also. of

particular interest. It is widely distributed in the NW. Himalaya

320°

ramets | |e

ag . ge ete |

eae

P| po a 5

amie Em

aie cas +

Fig. 32. The world distribution of the two non- -endemic nival Diptera from

the NW. Himalaya.

and is also known from S. Europe and western North America

(Fig. 32).

The family Ephydriidae is represented by two endemic species

and a third species known previously from Europe, S. Russia, and

central Asia. The family is also known from Siberia and Alaska.

Among the unidentified material there are many genera which

are previously well known from Greenland, Finnoscandinavia, Alps,

Siberia, Alaska, and central Asian mountains.

Deuterophlebiidae

1. Deuterophlebia mirabilis Edw.

Localities : Kashmir 3050 m.

Other Distribution : Altai Mts.

Culicidae

2. Aédes (Ochlerotatus) pullatus Coq.

Localities : Gulmarg, Deosi plains, Chhota Deosi, Shingo River, Indus

Valley, Baltistan.

Other Distribution : Central and south Europe, Western North America,

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 363

3, Theobaldia niveitaeniata (Theob.)

Localities : Western Himalaya, about 3000 m., Murree. ; ;

Other Distribution: Kasauli, Theog, Hindustan-Tibet Road, Nainital,

_Muktesar, Dehra Dun, E. Himalaya north of Yutang, Tibet near Sikkim

border 3657 m.

Syrphidae

4. Criorrhina imitator Brunetti

Localities : Kashmir, 3050 m.

Other Distribution : Onari, Andarban, Garhwal Himalaya 3352 m.

Ephydridae

5. Ephydra glauca Meigen.

Localities : Tso-Kar 4554 m. :

Other Distribution : Europe, Rumania, central Asia, South Russia. -

*6, Ephydra tibetensis Cresson

Localities : Kyam hot spring 4750 m., Phuga hot spring 4420 m.

*7, Halmopota hutchinsoni Cresson

Localities : Tso-Kar 4535 m.

THYSANURA

The order is represented only by Machilanus hutchinsoni_ Silv.,

and two unidentified species of Crfenolepisma. The order constitutes

roughly 0.76% of the total nival insect fauna of the region (Table I,

Fig. 3). All the three species are, as far as is known at present,

localized in the Indus drainage area.

COLLEMBOLA

The Collembola constitute the most widely distributed order of

insects in the nival fauna from the NW. Himalaya. They surpass

all orders in the abundance of their individuals. They have been

found inhabiting elevations slightly above 6000 m. above m.s.l. in

different parts of the NW. Himalaya.

The species endemism is at present 60% (Table X). The only

Indo-Malayan species, which is often found up to an elevation of

4572 m., is Tomocerus ocreatus Denis and this species is also

localized in the Chenab-Beas drainage area. A widespread species

Sminthurides aquaticus (Bourlet), known from Europe, Algeria, and

Australia, occurs at an elevation of 4763 m. in the Indus drainage

364. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 59 (2)

area. Of the endemites known at present, 4 species are localized in

the Indus drainage area. Among the non-endemic species, two are

known from the mountains of Afghanistan border and one from the

other parts of the Himalaya (E. of R. Sutlej) and from the Nilgiri

Hills in S. India. Most of the genera found in the nival zones of

the NW. Himalaya are also known to inhabit Greenland, Siberia,

Alaska, Alps, Caucasus, and central Asian mountains.

In addition to the 15 species listed below, Mr. H. N. Baijal, who

was a member of the second and third Entomological Expeditions and

who has made a specialized study of the Collembola, has been able to

recognize 14 new species in the material collected by the three

Entomological Expeditions. Since the descriptions of these new

species have not yet been published, we have not included them in

our analysis. They belong to the following genera:

Hypogastrura, one species from the Seri Ice Fall, Sonapani Glacier, Great

Himalaya (Lahual), 4400 m.

Womersleya, one species from Marhi (Pir Panjal Range), 4000 m.

Bagnallela, one species, slope of Pir Panjal opposite Kulti Nal (Lahaul),

4000 m.

Folsomia, one species from Purana Koksar Nal, Great Himalaya (Lahaul),

Seri Ice Fall, Sonapani Glacier area, 3650 m.

Salmonia, one species from Gramphu, N. slope of Pir Panjal (Lahaul),

4000 m.

Proisotoma, one species from Seri Ice Fall, Sonapani Glacier, Purana LSS

Nal, Great Himalaya (Lahaul), 3650 m.

Isotoma, one species from Seri Ice Fall, ene Glacier, Great Himalaya

(Lahaul), 4300 m.

Papillomurus, one species from Gramphu on N. slope of Pir Panjal (Lahaul),

opposite Kulti Nal, 3500 m.

Entomobrya, 4 species from various localities including Marhi, Gramphu, Kulti

Nal, Rohtang Pass, Seri Ice Fall, etc., in the Chenab-Beas drainage area.

Altitudes ranging from 3540 to 4500 m.

Sminthurides, one species from Hamta Jot, 5180 m.

Mr. Baijal has also found in the same material the interesting

lsotoma palustris Miller from various localities like Marhi, Gramphu,

Kulti Nal, etc., at elevations of about 3620-4000 m. This species is

already known from Siberia, Spitzbergen, Bear Islands, and Canada.

- The identification reached us too late to be included in our general

faunal analysis of the Collembola.

Hypogastruridae

#1, Friesea excelsa Denis

Localities : Ororotse La 5500 m.

*2. Friesea maxima Baijal

Localities : Gramphu (Chandar. Valley) 3657 m.

*3).

*4,

"6,

*8,

“9.

S10:

11.

"A2.

13.

14.

15.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 365

Onychiurus kultia Baijal

Localities : Gramphu (Chandra Valley) 3657 m.

Isotomidae

Isotoma spinicauda Bonet

Localities : Nyangtsu, Ladakh, Ororotse La south side 5300 m.

Other Distribution : Wazirastan near Afghanistan border.

Proisotoma ladaki Denis

Localities: Mitpal Tso north edge 5180 m., Togarma Tso.

Mydoniidae

Drepanosira subornata (Denis) |

- Localities : Damb-Guru 4603 m., Takht-i-Sulaiman, Srinagar 1585 m.

Entomobrya (= Mydonius) himalayensis (Baijal)

Localities : Glaciers and streams near Thirot 3000-3350 m., Upper Chenab

Valley.

Mydonius hutchinsoni (Denis)

Localities : Shakya La east side 5440 m.

Orchesellides boraoi Bonet

Localities : East of Shakya La 5200 m., Ororotse La south side 5300 m.,

Marsimik La 5600 m., Ororotse Tso 5513 m.

Othér Distribution : Wazirastan.

Seira brahamides (Denis)

Localities : Karpet south shore of Pangong Tso 4250 m., Hen 4400 m.

Sinella montana Imms

Localities : Gramphu, Kulti Nal, Ghhaten 3657 m., Marhi 3657 m.,

Hamta Gorge 4267 m., Rahla 2743 m.

Other Distribution : Badrinath, Garhwal, Nilgiris.

Podura himalayana Baijal

Localities : From glaciers, Upper Chenab Valley 4267 m.

Sminthuridae

Sminthurides aquaticus (Bourlet)

Localities : Kyam, spring surface 4763 m.

Other Distribution: Eastern Europe, possibly America, Algeria and

Australia.

Sminthurides (Stenacidia) violaceus (Reuter)

Localities : Bao east of Shakya La, surface of pool 4661 m.

Other Distribution : Tibet, Europe (rare).

Tomoceridae

‘Tomocerus ocreatus Denis

Localities : Rahla 3050 .m., Marhi 3657 m., Manali-Rahla Road, Rohtang

Pass 4110 m., Gramphu 3657 m., Chhatru 3405 m., peak to the west

of Rohtang Base 4572 m., Purana Khokear Nal 3820 m.

Other Distribution : Indo-China.

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

III. THE COMPONENT ELEMENTS OF THE NIVAL INSECT FAUNA

The geographic location and the high altitudes of the NW.

Himalaya are associated with a number of interesting peculiarities in

the composition of the nival insect fauna. Analysis of the material

presented in the foregoing section would show that the fauna of the

region is heterogenous. There is a complex intermingling of

endemites, Tertiary. and Pleistocene relicts, Interglacial penetrants,

Post-Glacial arrivals, cold-adapted mountain forms, boreal elements,

north and central Asiatic Palaearctic elements, Mediterranean forms,

Tibetan forms, east Asiatic south Palaearctic (Manchurian) elements,

and Indo-Malayan derivatives. The results of the evaluation of

some of the major component elements are summarized in Table X

and graphically shown in Fig. 33 and 34.

M@eENOEMICS << ,

FATOTAL PALAE ARCTIC

E|MEDITERRANEAN

|| INDO-MALAYAN

TOT 95-0

Fig. 33. Faunal elements of total nival insects from NW. Himalaya

MOUNTAIN ELEMENTS. The greatest bulk of the known species,

estimated at about 97.0% of the total nival insects from the region,

are typical cold-adapted, mountain-autochthone forms. It is also

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 367

extremely interesting to observe that more than two-thirds of mountain-

autochthone species are inhabitants of Tertiary mountain systems of

comparatively recent uplift. The remaining one-third represents

elements derived from the relatively older central Asiatic mountains

of the Angaran land mass. As indicated by us in an earlier paper

(100), the eurytherm lowland species constitute an extremely

TABLE X

Major Component Elements of the Nival Insect Fauna

Palaearctic %

aS 8 =| 2 ¢

No.| Orders 9 = 3 Sole > Remarks

Se Ss = a3 ®

S [a Ss /$ai 2/4

oO i) ~~ oO Lo} !

oe eee eee el taO0g

oO —

Z sa E Oo |Ro] & i=

1. |Plecoptera 5 80.0 | 100.0; — 20.0; — —

2. ‘Odonata 4 |-25.0-+100.0 | — | 25.0: | — | 2spp. wide-

spread in

Holarctic

3. Orthoptera 14° 41°F¥.45\28525 | 50.0 — | 33.3 | 14.3

4. |\Dermaptera 3 | 100.0 | 100.0; — — ae

5. |Heteroptera 17 64.7 | 94.0.) 18.7 | -— — 6.2

6. Homoptera 1 0.0 — — aS — — | Widespread

7. Coleoptera 186 59.0 | 96.0 8.0 | 14.0 | 3.0 4.1 | 1 sp. wide-

spread

8. Hymenoptera! 36 47.0 | 90.0 | 31.0 | 10.3 | 3.0 9.3

9, \'Neuroptera 1 OO 00 Oe ear — —

(Or irichoptera #) 11. |-100.0|,1000) — |.— |e FG

11, Lepidoptera | 91 | 44.3 | 100.0] 181 | 80] 45 | —

12. Diptera 1 — — — — — 2

13. |Thysanura 3 1000" 2100.0! eee) ee pole |

14. Collembola 15 60.0 | 86.6 — — — rie 1 sp. wide-

spread

= ie aa cee | | | ——————

Total 394 | 56.0 | 95.0 | 15.0 | 10.0 | 4.0 3.5 | 0.7

Species fepearsy woiaes (see ahs he i aE) Sak eG) i VO!

Note: Diptera not included

insignificant proportion of the nival insect fauna, confined mostly to

the southern slopes of the outer ranges and should in all probability

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

be considered as comparatively recent arrivals. This pronounced

mountainity, evident in nearly every order and family, is associated

with a great many of the peculiarities in the ecologic characters of

the nival insects and their geographical distribution. ‘There is also

a considerable number of mountain autochthone genera, as for

example Gomphomastax, Metrioptera, and Conophyma, even in a

typically tropical and lowland group of insects like Orthoptera.

Anechurinae (Dermaptera) are, as is well known, wholly mountain

inhabitants. In Coleoptera, genera like Amara, Bembidion, Cymindis,

Trechus, and Atheta are predominantly mountain forms, or the

species occur in the high north and are also circumpolar. The

Lepidoptera Colias, Erebia, and Parnassius should also be considered

as largely mountain types.

Fig. 34. Analysis of the Palaearctic components of the nival insect fauna from

the NW. Himalaya

The older central Asiatic mountain element is typified by the

distribution of the interesting mountain midges of the family Deuter-

ophlebiidae (Fig. 31), which has spread NE. to the Nearctic Realm

and S. and SE. to the NW. Himalaya, but like nearly every other

central Asiatic mountain derivative, has not extended to Europe on

the chain of Tertiary mountains, which are not however sufficiently

high between Europe and Himalaya.

There are also in addition to the strictly mountain elements,

several mountain species of genera which are, properly speaking, not

mountain genera. It may also be noted that in the majority of cases

the strictly mountain autochthone genera and also genera which have

mountain autochthone species belong to Tertiary forms, which had

undoubtedly existed before the Pleistocene. The strictly mountain

autochthone elements of the fauna of a large mountain range system

are often likely to be intermingled with the lowland types from the

surrounding area, depending upon the area immediately surrounding

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 369

the mountain range, the slope, and numerous other factors. The

penetration of the lowland forms is relatively well pronounced on

mountain ranges rising gently from the plains around, but in a

relatively young, vast, and massive elevated region like the NW.

Himalaya the intermingling may be considered as absent for all

practical purposes, at least above the timber line.

A considerable proportion of boreal forms is also found. Many

of these forms occur not only in Siberia and Finnoscandinavia, but ©

further north in Greenland and arctic Alaska and are truly circum-

polar in distribution. This is, for example, the case with Nysius,

Chlamydatus, Bembidion, Colias, Parnassius, Proisotoma, etc. Formica

(Formica) gagates Latr., Formica (Formica) trunicola Nyl., and

Myrmeca smythiesi (of which the subspecies cashmirensis Forel occurs

in the NW. Himalaya) are also typical boreal elements, some of

which have spread even S. of the main crest line of the Great

Himalaya (34). .

EnpEMics. A fact of considerable zoogeographical and evolu-

tionary significance is the existence of large numbers of endemites,

both genera and species, in almost all the orders (Table X, Fig. 33).

Endemism of species is total in some groups like Dermaptera,

Trichoptera, and Thysanura, and very high in others like Plecoptera,

Orthoptera, Heteroptera, Coleoptera, and Collembola. There are

several extremely interesting endemic genera like Dicranophyma,

Dolmacoris, Tibetocoris, Chaetobroscus, Ascelosodis, Bioramix,

‘Chianallus, and Stenophylina. The total number of strictly endemic

species, which have had their origin and have their range at present

restricted within the NW. Himalaya, is 217, representing almost 56%

of the total nival insect fauna above the timber line (Table X).

There are, in addition, the following 16 efflorescent elements, which

also have had their origin within the NW. Himalaya, and have

within comparatively recent times extended their range across the

R. Sutlej to the rest of Himalaya, in some cases as far as W. Nepal

(Fig. 34).

EFFLORESCENT ELEMENTS

Coleoptera

1. Amara himalaica Bates 8. Pristonychus kashmirensis Bates

2. Bembidion gagates Andrewes 9. Tachys octostriatus Net.

3. Bembidion hasurda Andrewes 10. Trechus cameroni Jeann.

4. Bembidion himalayanum Andrewes 11. Atheta (Dimetrota) adjacens Cam.

5. Bembidion pluto Andrewes 12. Oxypoda (Podoxya) nigrita Cam.

' 6. Harpalus melaneus Bates 13. Apatophysa kashmiriana Cam.

7. Harpalus quadricollis (Redt.) 14. Clytus monticola Gahan

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Hymenoptera

15. Bombus haemorrhoidalis Smith

Lepidoptera

16. Maniola pulchella pulchra Feld.

The strictly endemite and the efflorescent elements amount to a

total of 233 species of true endemites, representing nearly 60.0% of the

nival insect fauna.

There are besides, a number of species which have risen un-

questionably in the NW. Himalaya and have apparently spread

eee

PAMIR fF: .

PLATEAUF ©.

: " MASHERBRUMA

NANGA °s

PARBAT -

Drs,

320-KLMS.

Fig. 35. The crest lines (broken lines) and the water partings (thick continuous

lines) of the mountain ranges in the region of the NW. Himalaya meeting

together in the so-called Pamir Knot. (After Burrard & Hayden, 18).

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 371

westward to the high Tertiary mountain ranges of Hindukush, Iran,

and Afghanistan. Recent geological evidence (81) seems to show

that the Himalayan mountain system does not terminate at Indus,

but continues beyond westward. We have some evidence of such

faunal continuation also, especially in the case of mountain

autochthone insects. We are, however, unable at present to accurately

evaluate the extent of this distribution.

The Pamir-NW. Himalaya constitute a continuous geographic

system (Fig. 35) and are faunistically closely related. There are

about 25 species known in the NW. Himalaya, which are endemic to

this system. The total number of species which thus appear to have

become differentiated in the region cannot in any case be less than

about 260. Almost 70.0% of the species occurring above the timber

line would thus appear to have had their origin in the region. The

endemites include numerous geographic and local subspecies. We

know wellnigh 70 local subspecies in different orders, especially in

Lepidoptera. A region like Pamir-NW. Himalaya, which is quite

young geologically and has not yet ceased undergoing pronounced

physiographical changes, with considerable possibilities for isolation

on various high massifs, extremes of ecological conditions, and time

for peopling areas, favours the formation of not only numerous local

geographical subspecies but also species, subgenera, and genera.

Skorikow (142) has recognized these facts in his zoogeographical

discussions on Bombus from Pamir and found the endemism to be

nearly 53.0% in the bumble bees from the NW. Himalaya. Eidmann

(34) has also laid special emphasis on the origin of considerable

numbers of species and subspecies of ants in the: Nanga Parbat area

of the NW. Himalaya.

ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL ELEMENTS. The NW. Himalaya lies within

the latitudinal boundaries of the Oriental Realm, but its high altitude

accounts for the remarkable southward extension (127) of the

southern limits of the Palaearctic Realm (Fig. 36). The

Mediterranean or the South Palaearctic of Europe attains also its

maximum eastward extension in the NW. Himalaya. Here we have

thus the meeting point of boreal, Palaearctic. and Indo-Malayan.

As we ascend higher and higher on the NW. Himalaya, we may

observe a _ succession of the Indo-Malayan, South Palaearctic,

Mediterranean, or rarely also Manchurian, North Palaearctic, and

boreal elements at successively. higher elevations. This succession

is precisely similar to what we see as we proceed N. from S. on

lowland and is associated with iso-ecologic conditions at higher

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

latitudes. Ascent to higher elevations in the NW. Himalaya generally

involves also reaching higher latitudes. Eidmann (34) considered an

elevation of about 2000 m. above msl. as the boundary. altitude

between the Indo-Malayan and the Palaearctic on Hsifan Ranges in

W. China and somewhat lower in the Nanga Parbat area (situated

at somewhat higher latitude) of the NW. Himalaya. The approxi-

mate boundary altitudes of the Indo-Malayan, Southern Palaearctic,

ES Ye

X Vm

———

(Se

—,

9) Se eT

Fig. 36. The areas of the northern Palaearctic (1), the southern Palaearctic

(2),and the Oriental Realms (3). Note the southward extension of the northern

Palaearctic owing to the influence of the high altitudes in the region of the

Himalaya. (After Eidmann, 34)

Northern Palaearctic, and the boreal faunal elements on the different

ranges of the NW. Himalaya are shown in Fig. 37. It may be

observed that, beyond the Pir Panjal Range, the general elevation

of the ranges is higher than that of the boundary altitude of the

Indo-Malayan, and similarly the boreal altitude boundary is higher

than that of the Dhaula Dhar Range, on which the boreal elements

are naturally absent. The boundary altitudes thus differ on the

different ranges and are by no means rigid even on the same

range, and vary within fairly wide limits, depending on the direction

of the ranges, the slope, topographical peculiarities, and numerous

other local conditions. The longitudinal high valleys of the major

rivers like Indus, Chenab, etc. also introduce considerable differences.

and frequently narrow inroads and even isolated pockets of one

faunal component element occur in the heart of the area of another.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 373

The Indo-Malayan elements, for example, extend on the south slope

higher than on the north slope, and deeper north along the river

€ O £3 6

0°

6° A. OHAULADHAR

5600

= 8. PIRPANJAL

5490 C.MAIN HIMALAYA

e186 0 ZASKAR RANGE

E LADAKH RANGE

4880 | | 7

F.KARAKORAM

ny 4570 |

= |

= 4265

Ls f ft

= 3960

= 3655 le

Ww 3350

(o)

2 oO

gece y BOREAL ea,

, 2745 Z NORTH paLacarcTic{..J

q 2440 SOUTH PALAEARCTICZ] ~

INDO-MAL AYAN Be

‘nn LATITUOE

OO ¢ WwW

Lt Plog Wat)

Fig. 37. The boundary altitudes of the faunal Realms on the different ranges

of the NW. Himalaya, at a line drawn approximately north through Kangra,

somewhat east of 76° E. lat.

valleys often into the heart of the Himalaya. The boundary altitudes

should be considered merely as indicators of a more or less irregular,

intergrading zone rather than a line. The differences in the boundary

are mainly the result of the differences in the increasing latitudes

and higher elevations of the ranges successively further north. The

relation between latitude, altitude, and the boundaries of the various

faunal Realms is shown in Figure 38, with special reference to the

NW. Himalaya.

We are now in a position to discuss the relative frequency of the

different zoogeographical elements in the nival insect fauna of the

NW. Himalaya. In the light of the remarks made above on the

374. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

general succession of these elements with the increase in altitude, we

should expect an extremely insignificant proportion of the Indo-

Malayan and a correspondingly very pronounced abundance of the

10000

o oo

re) re)

ie) ie)

fe)

ALTITUDE In METRES

rx)

fe)

ie)

60 70 80

LATITUDE

Fig. 38. The Altitude-Latitude relation of the faunal Realms in the region of

the NW. Himalaya, about 76° E.lat. (Modified from Eidmann, 34)

Palaearctic forms. This has already been shown to be the case in

nearly every order discussed in the foregoing section. There are, for

example, no Indo-Malayan forms in 9 of the 14 orders occurring

above the timber line. A reference to Table X will show that

the maximum strength of the Indo-Malayan elements in the nival

insect fauna from the NW. Himalaya is 14.39% (Orthoptera). The

percentage is much lower in the rest of the 4 orders. On the whole,

hardly 3.5% of the total nival insect fauna belongs to the Indo-

Malayan faunal element. The majority of the species (listed below)

are ecologically transitional types, which mostly inhabit the river

valleys at elevations immediately above the timber line and are also

localized in the area south of the main crest line of the Great

Himalaya.

INDO-MALAYAN ELEMENTS

Orthoptera

Aularches punctatus (Drury)

2. Catantops humilis (Serville)

Heteroptera

3. Brachyrhynchus tagalicus (Stall.)

Coleoptera

4. Phaeropsophus catoiroi (Dej.)

*5, Phaeropsophus stenoderus Chaud.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 375

6. Phaeropsophus consularis (Schm.)

7. Scarites praedator Chaud.

8. Blosyrodes pubescens Marshall

9. Blosyrodes variegatus (Redt.)

10. Mylabris phalerta (Pall.)

Hymenoptera

11. Anthophora confusa Smith

12. Megachile vigilans Smith

13. Ammophila vagabunda Smith

Collembola

14. Tomocerus ocreatus Denis

Most of the species do not occur at elevations above 3500 m., but

the maximum altitude up to which isolated members of the Indo-

Malayan elements have succeeded in penetrating is 4372 m., at which

the collembolan Tomocerus ocreatus Denis is found at the end of

the Upper Beas Valley on the south slope of the Pir Panjal Range.

The localities from which the Indo-Malayan species have so far been

collected in the NW. Himalaya are shown in Fig. 39. The Indo- .

Malayan elements therefore constitute insignificant recent arrivals,

practically still restricted to the southern fringe of the otherwise

Palaearctic fauna (vide infra VII. Concluding Remarks).

INDO=-MALAYAN ELEMENT

t. INDUS PROVINCE

2. CHENAB-BEAS PR

3. JHELUM PROVING

Fig. 39. The distribution of the Indo-Malayan elements in the nival insect

fauna from the NW. Himalaya

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

It is thus evident that the nival insect fauna above the timber line

is composed almost exclusively of Palaearctic elements, amounting

to over 95.0% of the total nival species known at present. The

Palaearctic element is total in 7 of the orders and is never below

85.0% in 5 of the remaining orders. All the 91 species of

Lepidoptera so far found inhabiting the nival zones of the NW.

Himalaya are, for example, Palaearctic. In Coleoptera, of which

96.0% of the total species belong to the Palaearctic faunal elements,

the families Staphylinidae and Tenebrionidae wholly come under the

category (Table IV). Carabidae, with 98.0% of the species belonging

to the Palaearctic faunal components, stand second. In several of

the minor families like Dytiscidae, Hydrophilidae and Histeridae all

the known species belong to this faunal component. The same is

also the case with Bombidae and Formicidae among Hymenoptera.

The high percentage of the Palaearctic forms in many of these groups,

which we have cited as examples here, are closely correlated with

the general massiveness of the mountain ranges and the average high

altitudes which they inhabit in the NW. Himalaya. The greatest

majority of species in these groups never descend below an average

elevation of 3900 m. Many species of Carabidae, Staphylinidae,

Hydrophilidae, Formicidae and Lepidoptera (all of which are

Palaearctic forms) occur at much higher average elevations. The

very pronounced dominance of Palaearctic components is also partly

the result of the higher latitudes of the major mountain ranges and

the disposition of the trend line of the Great Himalayan Range itself,

on which the species are mostly localized.

It is extremely significant that almost 58.0% of the 371 Palaearctic

species are endemites. With the single exception of Phaeropsophus

stenoderus Chaud. (Coleoptera : Carabidae), the remaining 216

endemites belong to the Palaearctic complex. This pronounced

endemism in the Palaearctic faunal component elements may be

illustrated by reference to some of the major orders. About 83.0%

of the Palaearctic species are endemic in Orthoptera, 69.0% in

Heteroptera, 61.0% in Coleoptera, 52.0% in Hymenoptera and

44.0% in Lepidoptera. It is therefore apparent that not only nearly

all endemic species are Palaearctic, but there is also a high degree of

endemism among the total Palaearctic species above the timber-line

altitudes. ne cs ||

For the rest, the Palaearctic faunal elements include a large pro-

nortion, viz. 14.096 of the Pamir-Central-Asian forms (Fig. 34).

Reference to Table X shows that 50.0% of the Palaearctic species of

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA. / 377

Orthoptera are of the Pamir-Central-Asian stock. In Heteroptera the

Pamir-Central-Asian element is not so high and it is also extremely

weak in Coleoptera, but nearly four times more numerous in

Hymenoptera (31.0%). In Lepidoptera this element is about equal

to that of Heteroptera. The typical Pamir-Central-Asian forms

belong to the interesting genera such as Conophyma, Metrioptera

and Gomphomastax among Orthoptera; Nysius in Heteroptera;

Agonum, Bembidion, Bradytus, Nebria and MHelophorus among

Coleoptera; Lapidariobombus, Mendacibombus and _ Subterraneo-

bombus among Hymenoptera; Parassius, Colias and Erebia among

Lepidoptera; and the remarkable Dipterous family Deuterophlebiidae.

The species of the Pamir-Central-Asian stock are listed below.

PAMIR-CENTRAL-ASIAN ELEMENTS

Orthoptera

1. Conophyma, 2. Metrioptera, and 3. Gomphomastax

Dermaptera

4. Anechura

Heteroptera

5. Bianchiella adelungi Reut.

6. Microplax hissarensis Krit.

7. Nysius ericae (Schill.)

Coleoptera

8. Agonum ladakense Bates

9. Bembidion bucephalum Net.

10. Bembidion dardum Bates

11. Bembidion fuscicrus Motsch.

12. Bembidion pamiricola Andrewes

13. Bembidion petrimagni Net.

14. Bradytus apricarius (Payk.) Z

15. Clivinia tenuelimbatus Ball.

16. Cymindis mannerhemi Gebl.

17. Nebria limbigera Solsky

18. Helophorus montanus d’Orch

19. Myatis quadriticollis Bates

20. Onthophagus gibbosus (Scriba)

21. Otiorrhynchus russicus Stieril

Hymenoptera

22. Bombus alticus Eversm.

23. Lapidariobombus saparandus (Vogt)

24. Lapidariobombus alagesianus pamirus Skor.

25. Mendacibombus margareiteri Vogt

26. Subterraneobombus difficillimus Skor.

27, Subterraneobombus melanurus (Lepel.)

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Lepidoptera

28. Saturnis stoliczana Feld.

29. Papilio machaon Linn.

30. Papilio machaon ladakensis (Moore)

31. Parnassius charltonius Gray

32. Parnassius jacquemontii jacquemontii Boisd.

33. Parnassius delphius Eversm.

34. Colias cocandica Ersch.

35. Colias eogene eogene Feld.

36. Colias leechi Gr.-Gr.

37. Colias stoliczana Moore

38. Pieris callidice (Esper.)

39. Pieris daplidice (Linn.)

40. Pieris deota (de Nicev.)

41. Argynnis aglaia vitatha Moore

42. Argynnis pales generator Staud.

43. Erebia mani de Nicev. :

Diptera

44. Deuterophlebia mirabilis Edw.

45. Ephydra glauca Meigen

PAMIR-CENTRAL ASIAN @

TIBETAN-HIMALAYAN O

PANGONG

0 TSO C

Fig. 40. The distribution of the Pamir-Central-Asian and of the Tibetan

Himalayan (i.e. Himalaya east of the R. Sutlej) in the nival insect fauna in the

NW. Himalaya

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 379

Next to the Pamir-Central-Asian stock, the Tibetan-Himalayan

(ic. the Himalaya east of R. Sutlej) elements are important (about

10%, vide Fig. 34) and attain their maximum strength of 25.0%

(Table X) of the total nival Palaearctic species in Odonata from the

NW. Himalaya. In Coleoptera the Tibetan-Himalayan element is

stronger (14.0%) than the Pamir-Central-Asian (8.0%). On the other

hand, the strength of the Tibetan-Himalayan component in

Hymenoptera (10.3%) is only one-third that of the Pamir-Central-

Asian element. While we observe that the Pamir-Central-Asian

element is extremely poor in Coleoptera, the Tibetan-Himalayan

element reaches its minimum in Lepidoptera (8.0%). The Tibetan-

Himalayan component elements belong to Amara, Bembidion, Helo-

phorus, Bombus and other genera. The species are listed below.

TIBETAN-HIMALAYAN. ELEMENTS

Odonata

1. Orthetrum japonicum internum Mac Lach.

Coleoptera

2. Amara brucei Andrewes

3. Amara nila Andrewes

4. Anchomenus caesitius Andrewes

5. Anchomenus ladakensis Bates

6. Bembidion braculatum Bates

7. Bembidion nivicola Andrewes

8. Carabus (Imaibius) boysi Tatum.

9. Cymindis championi Andrewes

10. Aypsinephus ellipticus Bates

11. Liocnemis himalaica Bates

12. Nebria (Patronebria) himalayica Bates

13. Trechus indicus championi Jeann.

14. Atracthelophorus frater d’Orch.

15. Hydrous pallidipalpus M’Leay.

16. Helophorus (Helophorus) splendidus immaensis @’Orch.

17. Helophorus (Lihelophorus) ser Zait.

18. Laccobius (Laccobius) hingstoni d’Orch.

19. Alaeochara (Mesochara) inornata Cam.

20. Atheta (Liogluta) subumbonata Cam. —

21. Onthophagus tibetanus Arrow

22. Purpuricenus montanus White

23. Longitarsus cynipennis Bryant

24. Merista quadrifasciata (Hope)

25. Callistopopillia iris (Cand.)

Hymenoptera

26. Allantus himalayensis Radzok.

27. Bombus atrocinctus terminalis Smith —

28. Bombus rufofasciatus Smith

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Lepidoptera

29. Campylotes histrionicus Westwood

30. Brahmaea wallichii Gray

31. Papilio acco acco Gray

32. Pontia daplidice moorei (Rober)

33. Colias ladakensis Feld.

34. Melitaea sindura Moore

35. Vanessa ladakensis Moore

Diptera

36. Theobaldia niveitaeniata (Theobald)

37. Criorrhina imitator Brunetti

In the distribution of the Pamir-Central-Asian and of the Tibetan-

Himalayan faunal elements within the NW. Himalaya (Fig. 40), we

have extremely interesting examples of localizations and discontinuity.

The existence of these two elements in the nival insect fauna of the

NW. Himalaya, suggested by the works of Skorikow (142), Filipjev

(38), Kiritschenko (78), Hutchinson (74) and Eidmann (34) may now

be considered as satisfactorily established.

The southern Palaearctic, especially the Mediterranean element,

which according to Eidmann (34) reaches its maximum boundary

altitude at 3000 m. in the Nanga Parbat area, is perhaps the weakest

(4.0%) of the total Palaearctic in the NW. Himalaya (Fig. 34).

It attains its maximum strength of 33.0% in Orthoptera but never

more than 4.0% in Coleoptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera. It

includes, in addition to the strictly Mediterranean, a few of the east

southern Palaearctic or the Manchurian elements, like Bryodema

(Orthoptera), with one endemic species in the Indus drainage area.

The typical Mediterranean forms fall under genera like Sphingonotus,

Calosoma and Pieris.

SOUTH PALAEARCTIC ELEMENTS

Orthoptera

Bryodema luctuosa (Stoll.)

Sphingonotus savingnyi Sauss.

Sphingonotus rubescens (Walker)

Oedipoda himalayana Uvarov

Pack fa SOD Lee

Coleoptera

Calosoma maderae auropunctatum (Herb.)

Calosoma maderae indicum Hope

Calosoma maderae kashmirense Breun.

Atheta triangulum (Kr.)

Cicindela sublacerata balucha Bates

CoN AM

Hymenoptera

10. Ammophila laeta Bingham

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 381

Lepidoptera

11. Colias electo fieldi Men,

12. Pieris krueperi devta (de Nicev.)

13. Pieris rapae iranica Le Cerf,

14. Pontia chloridice alpina (Verity)

The distribution of the south Palaearctic elements in the NW.

Himalaya (Fig. 41) is characterised by marked concentrations in

localized patches. Though most of the species occur at elevations

of about 3000 m. some, like those of Calosoma and Colias, reach

up to an elevation of 4267 m. Uvarov (155) recognized the penetra-

tion of the extreme eastern refuge of the Mediterranean faunal

elements, especially the Orthoptera like Metrioptera and Oedipoda,

in the NW. Himalaya to be situated in Kashmir. Eidmann (34)

assumed the extreme eastern limits of these elements to be in the

Nanga Parbat area. We may now however observe the penetration

- further east to the drainage areas of Chenab-Beas.

MEDITERRANEAN ELEMEN

1. INDUS PROVINCE

2. CHENAB-BEAS PRDV.

3.JHELUM PROVINCE

Fig. 41. The distribution of the Mediterranean elements in the nival insect

fauna of the NW. Himalaya

In addition to the Palaearctic and the Indo-Malayan faunal

elements, the following 5 widespread species are also known to occur

in the NW. Himalaya: Enallagama cyathigerum Charp, and Libellula

quadrimaculata Linn. (Odonata); Poophilus costalis (Walk.) (Homo-

ptera); Rahntus pulverosus Steph. (Coleoptera), and Sminthurides

aquaticus (Bourlet).

(To be continued)

Critical Notes on the Orchidaceae of

Bombay State

IX. SOME OF THE SMALLER GENERA (CONTINUED).

H. SANTAPAU, S.J., F.N.I., AND Z. KAPADIA, Ph.D.

(With eight plates)

[Continued from Vol. 59 (1) : 172]

8. THUNIA Reichb. f.

THUNIA Reichb. f. in Bot. Zeit. 764, 1852 ; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl,

Pflanzenf. 2 (6) : 122, 1887; Schltr., Orchid. 244, 1927 ; Holttum, Rev.

Fl. Malaya 1: 183, 1953. Phaius Hook.f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 816, 1890

(partim, non Lour. 1790).

The generic name Thunia was erected in honour of Franz A. Graf

von Thun (1786-1873) of Bohemia, a great orchid collector and

enthusiast.

Species about 4, found in India and Burma, extending southwards

to the extreme north of Malaya.

This genus has been included under Phaius Lour. by several of the

older authors. According to Gammie (in J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 17: 941, 1907), Reichenbach f. distinguishes the genus Thunia

from Phaius by the former having terminal inflorescence on top of leafy

shoots, fleshy membranous leaves, persistent bracts, and 4 pairs of

pollen masses ; further the flowers turn brownish or remain white, not

blue as in Phaius, on drying.

The only species described when the genus Thunia was erected is

T. alba Reichb. f., which must, therefore, be considered as the type

species.

Type species : T. alba Reichb. f.

Thunia venosa Rolfe in Orchid Rev. 13: 206, 1905 ; Cooke 2 : 692,

1907 ; Haines, Bot. Bih. Or. 1167, 1924; Fischer, Fl. Pres. Madr.

1427, 1928 ; Blatt. & McC. in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 845,

1932. Phajus albus Hook. f. 818 (partim) ; Gammie in Journ. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 17 : 940, t. 3, 1907. (See Plate XLIII.)

Journ. BomBay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE XLIII

Thunia venosa Rolfe

JOURN. BoMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. i PLATE XLIV

Polystachya flavescens J. J. Smith

A. Whole plant with support. B. Sepals and petals dissected.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 383

Leaves 10-13 x 1.8 cm., alternate, distichous, sessile, sheathing at

the base, elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate, acute, entire, 3-7-nerved.

Inflorescence in compact, somewhat compressed racemes terminating

the leafy stem, from a cluster of apical leaves. Peduncle very short,

about 0.3-0.5 cm. thick, terete. Flowers pedicellate, bracteate. Bracts

3.5-5 x 1-1.5 cm., spathaceous, ovate-oblong or ovate-elliptic, acute,

- entire, several-nerved. Pedicel and ovary about 3 cm. long. Sepals

4x 1cm., oblong-elliptic, acute, entire, glabrous, 5-nerved. Petals

similar, but slightly smaller. Lip much shorter than sepals and petals,

fimbriate at apex, spurred. Spur 5-7 mm. long, linear, obtuse or

emarginate.

The description has been drawn from Carstenson’s sheet from

Mahableshwar (loaned by the National Herbarium, Calcutta). The

Specimen unfortunately is badly preserved and the structure of the

flowers is not very clear. Moreover, the colour of the flowers is not

mentioned. We have collected this species only in fruit.

Flowering: July. Fruiting : March.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Matheran, eastern

side, Dalzell. W. Guats: Khandala, Graham ; Santapau 4645 ;

Mahableshwar, Carstenson ; Fairbanks ex Birdwood. N. KANARA:

Anmod, Kapadia 1912.

Distribution : India : Kumaon, Mussoorie, Sikkim, Assam, Khasia,

Chota Nagpur, Konkan, W. Ghats, Travancore, Andamans. World :

India, Burma.

Notes : According to Haines 7. venosa Rolfe is distinguished from

T. alba Reichb. f. by the latter species having a more elongate

raceme, more numerous and much larger flowers, a yellow disc to the

lip and a few lilac radiating veins on the side lobes.

- Gammie describes the veins on the lip as purple or red. Dalzell

mentions the veins to be carmine.

9, POLYSTACHYA Hook.

PoLysTACHYA Hook. Exot. FI. t. 103, 1825, nom. cons.; Endl. Gen.

Pl. 192, 1837; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3 : 540, 1883 ; Pfitz.in Engl. &

Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6) : 133, 1889; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 20, 1890;

io Smit, Fi Buitenz. 6° 284. 1905); Schitr. “Orchids” 292, 1927 ;

Correll, Nat. Orch. N. America 309, 1950; Holttum, Rev. FI. Malaya,

1: 542, 1953. Dendrorkis Thou. Nouv. Bull. Soc. Philom. Paris 1:

318, 1809. Dendrorchis Thou. Hist. Pl. Orch. 1822; O. Kuntze, Rev.

Gen. Pl. 2: 658, 1891.

The generic name is derived from the Greek words polys=many,

stachys =spike, in allusion to the numerous spikes borne upon the scape.

384. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

This genus has over 100 species, mostly tropical in distribution. It |

attains its maximum development in Africa, with a few species (probably

only one) in India, Malaya, Java and tropical America.

Type species: P. luteola Hook.=P. minuta (Aubl.) Britt.

Polystachya flavescens (B1.) J.J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6 : 284, f. 218,

1905 ; Holttum, 542, f. 161. Onychium flavescens Bl. Bidjr. 325, 1825.

Polystachya zeylanica Lindl. Bot. Reg. misc. 78, 1838; Hook. f. 21;

Alston, Kandy Fl. 75. f. 398, 1938. Polystachya wightii Reichb. in

Walp. Ann. 6: 640, 1861; Hook. f. 21; Gammie in Journ. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 18 : 588, 1908; Fischer, FI. Pres. Madr. 1437, 1928.

Polystachya purpurea Wt. Icon. 5 (1) : 10, t. 1679. 1851 ; Hook. f. 21 (?).

Polystachya luteola Hook. Exot. Fl. t. 103, 1825; Wight, Icon. 5

(i): 10; t- 1678, 13851) (See Bilateral.)

Pseudobulbous epiphytes. Pseudobulbs 5-10 mm. long, close together,

ovate, usually 2-3-noded, pale green with dense clusters of thick fibrous

roots. Leaves 2-5, each 4-10 x 6-12 cm., narrowly oblong-lanceolate,

tapering at the base, glabrous, entire, acute or emarginate, often

unequal-sided at apex, midnerve prominent ; lower ones the smallest ;

sheaths keeled on back. Inflorescence terminal, erect, 4-11 cm. long,

simple in all our specimens ; scape with usually 2-3 large sheaths, which

are glabrous, oblong, obtuse or sub-acute, flattened, sharply 2-angled,

yellowish green. Flowers small, +: distichous, somewhat close together

towards apex of peduncle, bracteate, shortly pedicellate, greenish-

yellow. Bracts 3-5 mm. long, persistent, broadly sheathing and

concave at base, becoming strongly apiculate and sharp-pointed at

apex. Ovary with pedicel about 3 mm. long, ribbed, pale greenish-

yellow. Sepals subequal, pale greenish-yellow, subfleshy, entire,

glabrous ; dorsal sepal 3 x 2.5 mm., subobtuse, faintly 5-nerved ;

lateral ones 4 mm. long, 3.5 mm. broad at base, broadly and obliquely

ovate-triangular, apiculate, 3-nerved ; mentum wide, 2.5 mm. long, pale

greenish-yellow, obtuse, subtruncate. Petals 3 x 1.5 mm., somewhat

incurved, narrowly linear-oblong, apiculate, entire, 1-nerved. Lip 3.5

mm. long, strongly arcuate, sessile, hinged on the foot of column,

3-lobed, pale yellow; lateral lobes 1 x 0.75 mm., erect, small,

triangular, acute or subobtuse, entire ; midlobe 1.5 x 2mm., broadly

oblong-suborbicular, not constricted at base, crenulate, rounded or sub-

retuse, ‘ with a white mealy covering composed of single loose round

cells ’ (Holttum), the apical part deflexed. Column nearly 2 mm. long,

oblong ; foot about 2 mm. long, stout, at right angles to column, both

forming a wide obtuse angle with the ovary. Anther 1-1.5 mm. long,

transversely oblong-orbicular, mucronate on the upper lip. Capsule

9 x 3-4 mm., turgid, fusiform ; pedicel 2-3 mm. long.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 385

Flowering : August. Fruiting : September onwards.

Occurrence in Bombay State : N. KANARA: Gammie; Belgaum,

Gammie; Yellapur, Bell; Kapadia 1761, 1962, 2210-2212, 2347;

Sampkhand, Hallberg & McCann 34199; Kumbelli Mines,

Kapadia 2678; Anmod, Kapadia 1900.

Gammie has recorded this species from Bombay State ; but Blatter &

McCann do not include it among their revised list of Bombay orchids.

Distribution : India: N. Kanara, W. Ghats southwards at 600-

1200 m. World : Ceylon, India, Malaya, Sumatra, Philippines.

10.. CALANTHE. R. Br.

CALANTHE R. Br. in Bot. Reg. t. 573, 1821, nom. cons. ; Endl. Gen.

Rie 2071837 > Benth. & Hook. f.Genx Pl. 3 2 520; 1883": “Pitz. - in

Engl. & Prantl], Pilanzenf. 2 (6): 153, 1889; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5 : 847,

1890; King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8: 164, 1898;

Duthie; abid.- 92): 1185190653. J.: Smith, Fl. Buitenz..6:¢201,

1905 ; Schitr. Orchid. 302, 1927; Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1: 146,

1953. Alismorkis Thou. Nouv. Bull. Soc. Philom. Paris 1: 318, 1809.

Alismorchis Thou. Hist. Pl. Orch. 1822; O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. PI.

2: 650, 1891.

The generic name Calanthe has been derived from the Greek

kalos = beautiful, and anthos = flower, in allusion to the brightly

coloured flowers in many of the species.

A fairly large genus with about 40 or more species, widely distributed

from South Africa and the islands of the Indian Ocean through India to

China and Japan, and southwards and eastwards through Malaysia to

Australia and Tahiti.

_ The characteristic feature of the genus Calanthe R. Br. is the union

of the column with the base of the lip. It can be readily distinguished

from its very near ally, Phaius Lour., by the adhesion of the pollen

masses to a separable gland ; whereas its other closely allied genus,

Limatodes Bl., can be separated by its lateral inflorescence and a free

cucullate lip.

Type species: C. veratrifolia R. Br.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF CALANTHE OF BOMBAY

Leaves sparsely puberulous only in lower surface;

floral bracts 20-25 mm. long, sparsely pube-

tulous; sepals about 3-7 cm. long; lip

20-25 mm. long, lateral lobes falcate-oblong. . . masuca

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Leaves densely puberulous on both surfaces;

floral bracts 4-7 mm. long, densely pube-

rulous; sepals about 11 mm. long; lip 6-7

mm. long, lateral lobes oblong-suborbicular,

obtuse. purpurea

1. Calanthe masuca (D. Don) Lindl. [in Wall. Cat. 7337, 1832,

nom. nud. et] Gen. Sp. Orch. 249, 1833, et in Bot. Reg. misc. 51, 1842,

t. 37, 1844; Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann. 6: 915, 1861; Hook. f. 850;

King &-Pantl: 173, t. 234: Bruhl) Guide! Orch. Sikk; 108, 1926.

Fischer, Fl. Pres. Madr. 1432, 1928; Blatt. & McC. in Journ. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 485, 1932. Bletia masuca D. Don, Prodr. FI,

Nep. 30, 1825. Calanthe versicolor Lindl. Sert. Orch. t. 42, 1826, et

Bot. Reg. sub. t. 37, 1844. C. emarginata Wight, Icon. 3 (2): 10,

t. 918, 1844-1845.

We have not seen any specimens. In the absence of the original

description of Lindley, we give the one of King & Pantling: ‘ Pseudobulbs

narrowly conical, with annular scars, 2 to 3 in. in length. Leaves

more or less broadly elliptic, acute, narrowed at the base into a petiole,

or sessile ; length 6 to 15 in., breadth 2.75 to 4.25 in. ; petiole 2 to 6 in.,

or 0. Peduncle exceeding the leaves in length, stout, with two or three

scattered acute lanceolate bracts. Raceme about 6 in. long, many-

flowered, pubescent. Flowers rather crowded, depressed, 2 in. across,

with a curved slender cylindric spur longer than the ovary. Sepals

elliptic or elliptic-lanceolate, acute, spreading, the lateral pair slightly

longer than the dorsal. Petals smaller than the sepals, sub-acute. Lip

as long as the sepals, attached to almost the whole length of the

column, 3-lobed ; the basal lobes oblong, blunt, sub-falcate, directed

forwards ; apical lobe large, sub-rhomboid, or cuneately reniform,

deeply emarginate at the apex; the disc between the side lobes with

three unequal elongate tubercular calli. Column very short. Stigmatic

surface in two halves and the rostellum consisting of two projecting

plates. Anther pointed ; pollinia 8, subequal, clavate, sub-sessile ona .

small oblong gland. Capsule elliptic, 1.5 in. long.

‘. . . The flowers: are of an almost uniform violet tint, becoming of

a rusty colour when beginning to wither. The calli of the lip are yellow.

The coloration however varies. In the form which was named

C. versicolor the perianth is white, the lip being purple, changing to

yellow. In another form the sepals are crimson and the lip deep

Duapleniy. (3%

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Malemani Ghat,

Sedgwick.

Distribution : India : Tropical Himalaya in Sikkim 500-1300 m.,

Deccan, N. Kanara, southern parts of W. Ghats at 1000-2000 m.

World : India, Nepal, Malaya, Java.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE XLV

Calanthe purpurea Lindl.

A. Whole plant. B, Sepals and petals‘ dissected,

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE XLVI

Pachystoma senile Reichb. f.

A—A’. Plant in flower, B. Plantin leaf. C. Sepals and petals dissected.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 387

2. Calanthe purpurea Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 249, 1833, et Bot. Reg.

sub. t. 37, 1844; Reichb. f. 915; Hook. f. 851. C. masuca Thwaites,

Enum. Ceyl. Pl. 308, 1884 (2). (See Plate XLV.)

Pseudobulbs not seen. Stem sheathed at the base; foliar sheaths

2 or 3, sessile, plicate, oblong-lanceolate, acute, shortly hirsute, the

hairs whitish ; the sheaths forming a pseudostem about 7 cm. long.

Leaves 4, clustered at the base, somewhat spreading, long-petioled ;

petioles 13-15 cm. long, 2-5 mm. thick, sheathing at base, prominently

ribbed, sub-hirsute ; lamina 20-28 x 3.5-7 cm., oblong-lanceolate to

lanceolate tapering to an acute apex, entire, plicate, many-nerved,

dark-green, hirsute with whitish shiny hairs, more so on the upper

surface. Peduncle 72 cm. long, about 1.5-3 mm. thick, ridged, twisted

towards the apex, -t fulvous-hirsute, with bracteate sheaths ; lowermost

basal sheath 7 cm. long, the other 3, 1-2 cm. long, lanceolate, hirsute.

Flowers long-pedicelled, bracteate, in few-flowered lax racemes at apex

of peduncle. Bracts 4-7.x 1.5-3 mm., persistent, lanceolate, acute,

entire, l-nerved, hirsute. Pedicels 8 mm. long, thin, hirsute. Ovary

12 x 2mm,, hirsute. Sepals 11 x 5-7 mm., entire, 5-nerved, acute with

a minute curved apiculum ; dorsal one slightly broader than laterals,

broadly ovate ; lateral one oblong, broadest a little beyond the middle.

Petals 11 x 6 mm., elliptic, ovate acute, without an apiculum, entire,

glabrous, 3-nerved. Lip 6-7 mm. long, 3-lobed, very shortly clawed ;

lateral lobes 4 x 2 mm., erect, oblong, obtuse, the lip across the lateral

lobes 8 mm. broad; midlobe 4x 5.5 mm., deltoid-oblong, dilated

at apex, retuse, subentire; calli 3, small, in between the lateral lobes

in the centre of the lip. Spur 17 mm. long, linear, straight. Column

structure not distinct in dried flowers. Anther 2 x 3 mm. oblong-

ellipsoid, with a somewhat long apiculum; pollinia 8, each 1.2 mm.

long, waxy, in pairs, narrowly oblong-linear, clavate, with a small,

somewhat orbicular, separable gland. Capsules 2.6 x 1-1.2 cm., elliptic,

hirsute ; pedicels 1.6 cm. long hirsute.

Flowering and Fruiting : October.

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Gersoppa Ghat,

Hallberg & McCann 34754, This species has been mentioned by

Hooker f. only for Ceylon. It is not given in any of the regional

floras of India; this, therefore, constitutes a new record for India

and Bombay.

Distribution : India: N. Kanara. World: India, Ceylon.

Notes: Thwaites has united this species with C. masuca Lindl.

But as Hooker f. has pointed out, C. purpurea Lindl. can be

distinguished from C. masuca Lindl. by the former having much smaller

flowers, leaves hairy on both surfaces, much smaller bracts and

slender spur, which more or less equals the pedicel and the ovary.

388. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol; 39 (2)

11. PACHYSTOMA BI.

PACHYSTOMA BI. Bijdr. 376, 1825; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3:

511, 1883 ; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6): 156, 1889 ; Hook.

f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 811, 1890; King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard.

Calcutta 8: 101, 1898 ; Duthie, ibid. 9(2): 108, 1906; J. J. Smith, FI.

Buitenz. 6: 186, 1905; Schltr. Orchid. 312, 1927; Holttum, Rev. FI.

Malaya 1: 145, 1953.

~The name pachystoma is derived from the Greek words pachys =

thick, and stoma = mouth, in allusion to the thick lip.

A small-genus of about 6-8 species, distributed from India, through

Malaysia to New Guinea.

The only species described at the time of erection of the genus

Pachystoma was P. pubescens B'.; this must, therefore, be considered the

type species.

Type species : P. pubescens BI.

Pachystoma senile (Lindl.) Reichb. f. in Bonpland. 3 : 250, 1858 ;

Hook. f. 812; King & Pantl. 101, t. 140; Duthie 108, et Fl. Upp.

Gang. Pl. 3: 192, 1930; Haines, Bot. Bih. Or. 1169, 1924 ; Briihl,

Guide Orch. Sikk. 74, 1926; Fischer, Fl. Pres. Madr. 1426, 1928 ;

Blatt. & McC. in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 484, 1932.

Apaturia senilis Lindl. [in Wall. Cat. 3739, 1831, nom. nud. et] Gen.

Sp. Orch. 130, 1831. Apaturia lindleyana Wight, Icon. 5 (1) : 8, t. 1662.

1851. (See Plate XLVI.)

Leaf one, about 30 x 1.2 cm., narrowly oblong-lanceolate, acute,

entire, subplicate, sheathed below. Inflorescence 30-40 cm. long,

erect, sheathed in the basal region; sheaths 3-5 cm. long, - hyaline,

lanceolate, acute or acuminate, entire, glabrous. Flowers at first erect,

drooping after fertilization, bracteate, pedicellate in lax racemes.

Bracts 1-2.5 x 0.3-0.5 cm., erect, — hyaline, membranous, narrowly

lanceolate, acute or sub-acuminate, entire, many-nerved, glabrous.

Sepals about 10 x 3.5 mm., entire, 5-nerved, shortly pubescent ; dorsal

one oblong, subobtuse; the laterals oblong-lanceolate, suboblique,

slightly saccate at base, + sharply acute. Petals 10 x 1-2 mm.,

natrowly spathulate, acute, sparsely pubescent, 3-nerved. Lip 10 mm.

long, subsaccate at base, 3-lobed, sparsely pubescent ; lateral lobes

3-4 x 2.5 mm., erect, + connivent over the column, oblong, entire,

truncate-rounded at apex; midlobe 5x3 mm., obovate-oblong,

entire, apex shortly-pointed and slightly deflexed; disc with

5 longitudinal, parallel ridges. Column 6 mm. long, curved, pubescent,

apical part much dilated, 3-lobed, Anther 1.75 x 1.5 mm. broadly

THE ORCHIDAGEAE OF BOMBAY: STATE 389

orbicular, sparsely subrugose, anterior lip truncate-subretuse. Ovary

6 x 2.5 mm., pubescent ; pedicel 5 mm. long.

Leaves : August. Flowering : March.

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Belgaum, Bell 942;

Chikkannniah.

Distribution: India: Plains and foothills of N. India from

Garhwal to Sikkim, Khasia Hills, Manipur. W. Ghats of Bombay and

Madras, N. Kanara. World : India, Malaya, (?) Java.

_ Notes: This species was found by Bell in black soil of grasslands in

Belgaum. Specimens of this species were kindly sent to us by Prof.

P. G. Chikkanniah, Head of the Botany Department, Lingaraj College,

Belgaum.

12. BULBOPHYLLUM Thou.

Bulbophyllum Thou. Hist. Pl. Orch. Tabl. esp. 3, 1822, nom. cons.;

Endl. Gen. Pl. 191, 1837; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6):

1785) 1889: Hooke ft. PL Brit; Indi 7.752) 1890; King. & Pantl: in

Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8: 64, 1898 ; Duthie, ibid. 9 (2)-: 103,

1906 ; J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6: 414, 1905 (partim) ; Schltr. Orchid.

319, 1927 ; Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1: 394, 1953 (partim). Phyllor-

iss Thou. Nouy. Bull. Soc; Philom: Paris I: 319; 1809.

The name Bulbophyllum is derived from the Greek words bolbos =

bulb, and phyllon = leaf, in allusion to the bulb which bears leaf on top.

Certain authors, like Sprengel (Syst. Veg. 3: 732, 1826) and Pfitzer

adopt Bolbophyllum ; Sprague notes (in Kew Bull. 349, 1928): ‘Itis a

pity that Thouars did not adopt the form Bolbophyllum from Bohhoa

and Yuhhov instead of compounding the Latin word bulbus with the

latter. Nevertheless the generic name must stand as published by

Thouars (Art. 50). (Art. 73, ed. 1956 of the Code).

One of the largest of all orchid genera. In a wide sense there are

probably 1000 species, distributed through tropical Africa and Asia,

extending into S. Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and Korea,

and also into Brazil and S. America.

This large genus has been variously divided into sections on the

basis of the wide range in vegetative form and floral structure. As

pointed out by Holltum, ‘A full survey of the genus, and a compara-

tive account of the various sections based on modern knowledge, has

still to be written.” Here we have considered the genus Bulbophyllum

in a restricted sense, excluding Cirrhopetalum, which has been included

as a section of the former genus by J. J. Smith and Holttum. The for-

mer (in Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenz. ser. 2, 8: 19-29, 1912) has shown

that, when all known species of the genus are considered, the distinctive

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

features of the genus Cirrhopetalum can be easily accommodated within

Bulbophyllum. However, orchidologists like Pfitzer, Rolfe, and Fischer

are of opinion that Cirrhopetalum should be maintained as an

independent genus. Asfaras our Bombay orchids are concerned, the

2 species Cirrhopetalum fimbriatum Lindl. and Bulbophyllum neilgher-

rense Wt. are quite distinct in many respects and can be well separated

into 2 independent genera. It may be worth noting that both these

species are sympodial in structure, as Dendrobium, although the

rhizome appears to be continuous, and the pseudobulbs to rest upon it.

Each new branch of the sympodium begins as a bud at the base of a

pseudobulb, grows horizontally as a rhizome for a short distance, and

ends in a new pseudobulb with a leaf upon it; next year’s growth

continues by a new bud produced from the old pseudobulb.

Type species: B. nutans Thou.

Bulbophylium neilgherrense Wight, Icon. 5 (1) : 6, t. 1650, 1851 ; Bot.

Mag. t. 5050, 1858; Hook. f. 761; Gammie in Journ. Bombay nat.

Hist, Soc. 17.233, 1906: Blatt. & McC ibid= 35 266) 471" 198i

Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2: 686, 1907 ; Fischer, Fl. Pres. Madr. 1418,

1928. Phyllorchis neilgherrense (Wt.) O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2 : 677,

1891.4 (See Plate, XVID

Epiphytes or lithophytes. Rhizome 2-3 mm. thick, creeping,

giving out at intervals a pseudobulb and a cluster of roots. Pseudobulbs

2-8 x 2-3 cm., ovoid or conical-ovoid, yellowish-green, fleshy,

irregularly 3-5-angled. Leaf 1, from the top of the pseudobulb, fleshy,

coriaceous, tapering into a petiole 1 cm. long; the lamina 4-15 x

1.5-3.5 cm., oblong or elliptic, obtuse, emarginate, entire, glabrous ;

midnerve depressed above, prominent below with faint 4-6 lateral

nerves ; upper surface deep grass-green, lower much paler. Inflorescence

up to 12 cm. long, generally shorter than the leaves, arising from the

base of a pseudobulb, somewhat drooping, dense; peduncle 2 mm.

thick, mauve-purple, sheathed at the base. Flowers 14-15 mm. long,

pedicellate, bracteate, chrome-yellow, smelling of highly rotten meat.

Bracts 7X 2 mm., about as long as or shorter than the ovary,

membranous, pale brown, oblong-lanceolate, acute or subacuminate,

entire, 3-nerved. Pedicel with ovary 5 mm. long, pale green. Sepals

unequal, yellow very lightly tinged with green, entire, glabrous, faintly

5-nerved; dorsal sepal 6 x 3.5 mm., concave, ovate, the acute apex

upturned ; lateral ones 9 x 5 mm., subfalcate, sharply acute, obliquely

united by the inner margins to form a hollow concave, cymbiform

structure, which is produced below about the middle, into a short

subglobular sac. Petals 4 x 1.5 mm., pale yellow, gland-dotted, parallel

along the column, subobliquely ovate-triangular, entire, 1-nerved, with

PLATE XLVII

JouRN. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

ANY

Bulbophyllum neilgherrense Wight

JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XLVIII

Cirrhopetalum fimbriatum Lindl.

A. Leafy plant with support. B. Flowering plant. C. Sepals and petals dissected.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 39]

an apiculum 1 mm. long. Lip 7 x 4 mm., strongly arcuate, hinged

on the column-foot, 3-lobed ; lateral lobes 2-3 « 1 mm., purplish-brown

with red margins, erect along the foot, linear, acute, entire; midlobe

4-5 x 2-3 mm., ovate-lanceolate, fleshy, subacute, serrate, yellow with 2

brownish ridges in between the lateral lobes. Column 5x2 mm.,

flat or subconcave and red on the inner side, rounded and yellow

on the dorsal; produced above from the sides into 2 slender acute

teeth 1 mm. long; foot 3 mm. long, slightly curved, at about right

angles to the column, rounded and orange-yellow on the dorsal surface,

broadly red-streaked and subconcave on the ventral, truncate at the

apex. Anther yellow, subconical, obtuse, with the anterior lip minutely

serrulate ; pollinia 4, attached in pairs, waxy, brownish-yellow; glandular

disc small, somewhat flask-shaped. Stigmatic surface yellow with red

margins, elliptic

Flowering : December.

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Belgaum Ghats,

Gammie; Sampkhand, Woodrow; Hallberg & McCann 34842;

Vell ap ur, “Sedgwick; \ Kapadia; ) Kumbarwada, ~— Bell;~.

Shintheri Rocks between Dandeli and Gundh, Kapadia 1740-

1746; Londa, Santapau 10840-10841; Siddhapur, Kapadia

2357 ; Jog, Kapadia 2330-2431. |

Distribution : N. Kanara, W. Ghats of Bombay State and S. India.

Notes : This species has been observed by us to be both epiphytic

and lithophytic, and rarely flowers in cultivation. The flowers have a

most disgusting odour of carrion, probably a great attraction for

carrion flies, which may be serving as agents for pollination.

13. CIRRHOPETALUM Lindl.

CIRRHOPETALUM Lindl. [in Bot. Reg. t. 832, 1824, nom. nud. ; et]

Gen. Sp. Orch. 58, 1830, cum descr., nom. cons. ; Endl. Gen. Pl. 191,

1837; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3: 504, 1883; Pfitz. in Engl. &

Praneheeianzent-. 2 (0): 178, 1689: Hook. -f, Fl. Brit. Ind. 5; 7725

1890 ; King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8: 85, 1898 ;

Duthie, ibid. 9 (2) : 105, 1906 ; Schltr. Orchid. 328, 1927. Bulbephyllum

Thou. sect. Cirrhopetalum J, J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6: 467, 1905, et

Bull. Jard. Buitenz. ser. 2, 8: 19, 1912; Hoittum, Rev. Fl. Malaya

1: 400, 1953. Zygoglossum Reinw. ex Blume, Cat. Gew. Lands PI.

Buitenz. 100, 1823, nom. nud. et in Hornsch. Syll. Pl. Nouv. Ratisb.

2: 4, 1828, cum descr. Ephippium Blume, Bijdr. 308, 1825. Hippoglossum

Breda, Gen. Sp. Orch. t. 14, 1827.

The name Cirrhopetalum is derived from the Greek kirrhos =

yellowish, and petalon = petal, referring to the prevailing yellow colour

392. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

in the sepals of the first species ; Graham (Cat. Bom. PI. 205, 1839) and

Chibber (in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24: 280, 1916) incorrectly

give the derivation of the generic name from Cirrhus = a tendril,

and petalum =a petal, in allusion to the long filiform tendril-like

termination of the lateral sepals.

Species about 50; this genus is more or less confined to the Old

World from Madagascar through India and Malaysia to the Philippines

and New Guinea.

Type species: C. thouarsii Lindl. ( = Bulbophyllum longiflorum

Thou.).

Cirrhopetalum fimbriatum Lindl. in Bot. Reg. misc. 72, 1839 ; Wight,

Icon. 5 (1): 6; t. 1655, 1851; Bot. Mag. t.:4391, 1848 : Dalz. & Gibs:

Bomb. Fl. 261, 1861 ; Hook. f. 774; Gammie in Journ. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 17: 34, 1906; Cooke, FI. Pres. Bomb! 2-:4'686°1907 ;

Fischer, Fl. Pres. Madr. 1420, 1928. Cirrhopetalum wallichii Graham,

Cat. Bomb. Pl. 205, 1839 (non Lindl. 1830). Bulbophyllum fimbriatum

Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann. 6: 260, 1861; Blatt. & McC. in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 265, 1931. (See Plate XLVIII.)

Epiphytes. Rhizome 2-4 mm. thick, brown, woody, bearing pseudo-

bulbs not more than 2 cm. apart. Pseudobulbs 10-25 x 8-20 mm., yellow,

leafless at the time of flowering, conical ovoid, irregularly and

longitudinally grooved. Leaves usually 2 per shoot, spreading from a

short pseudostem which is 5-15 x 4-8 mm., sheathed; leaves 4-12 x

1.1-2 cm., sessile, subcoriaceous, oblong-lanceolate or elliptic, acute,

1-nerved, margins whitish, entire, minutely papillate. Scape 8-20 cm.

long, 1-2 mm. thick, brown-green, rigid, erect, with a few sheaths,

which are 5-10 mm. long, oblong, acute, brown; the apex with an

umbellate raceme is erect in bud, gradually becoming reflexed with the

opening of flowers. Buds pale green ; with the expansion of the flowers,

the lateral sepals turn yellow. Flowers about 2 cm. long, bracteate,

pedicellate, foul-scented, -: radiating in all directions from the apex of

the peduncle. Bracts 4x 1 mm., ovate-oblong, acuminate, entire, pale

greenish-brown, 3-nerved. Pedicel about 1 mm. long. Ovary 2x1 mm.,

subclavate, ribbed, pale green. Sepals unequal; dorsal sepal 6 x 2.5

mm., deep pinkish-yellow with purple fimbriae, ovate, acuminate

3-nerved, the lateral nerves faint ; lateral sepals 2 x 0.6 cm. green in

bud, changing to yellow with age, oblong, acute, 3-nerved, more or less

saccate at base, united by their inner margins into a subcymbiform,

structure which is emarginate at the apex. Petals 4 x 2.5 mm., similar

to dorsal sepal in colour, but with longer fimbriae, oblong to ovate,

acuminate, 3-nerved. Lip 3 x 1.5 mm., yellow at base and along the

centre, the sides crimson, elliptic-oblong, obtuse, thick, fleshy, somewhat

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 393

ligulate. Column 2 x 1mm., oblong, white with 2 deep crimson curved

horns ; foot 1.5 mm. long, narrow, white with a few, small, reddish

spots on the inner face. Stigmatic surface yellow. Anther minute,

reddish-brown, papillate. Pollinia 4, waxy, ovoid, with a small glandular

viscid mass. Capsules 12 x 6 mm., obpyriform, green ; pedicels 5 mm.

long.

Leaves : June to November. Flowers : March to April.

Occurrence in Bombay State: W. Guats: Mahableshwar,

James ; Hallberg; Mahableshwar-Pratapgad, Kapadia 1924-

1927, 1937, 2096. DECCAN: Purandhar, Kapadia. N. KANARA:

Tinai Ghat, Bhide; Anmod, Kapadia 1869-1870, 1901-1904;

Castle Rock, Kapadia 2835-2836; Astoli, Bell; Astoli-

Chandwadi, Bell.

Distribution : Konkan, W. Ghats, N. Kanara, Deccan, Coorg.

Notes: This species is often known as the ‘ Umbrella Orchid °

on account of its characteristic umbellate racemes, where the flowers

more or less radiate from the apex of the peduncle like the ribs of an

umbrella. It is usually found in open deciduous forests. The flowers

give off a foul scent.

C. wallichii Grah. seems to be this species; Graham gives the

locality as Rotunda Ghat; we have found this species very abundant

on Rotunda Ghat along the short cut to Pratapgad from Mahableshwar.

14. TRIAS Lindl.

Trias Lindl. [in Wall. Cat. 1977, 1829, nom. nud. et] Gen. Sp. Orch.

60, 1830; Endl. Gen. PI. 191, 1837; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3: 505,

1883 ; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6): 180, 1889 ; Hook. f. FI.

Brita ind. 522780; 1890:; Schite,.- Orchid: 333, 1927.

The generic name Jrias is derived from the Greek word treis = three,

alluding to the arrangement of the sepals.

This genus has only 4 to 5 species endemic in India and Burma ;

restricted to Tenasserim, but for one, which is found in south India.

T. ovata Lindl. is a native of SE. Asia.

Trias stocksii Benth. ex Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 781, 1890:

Gammie in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 17: 34, 1906; Blatt. & McC.

ibid. 35 : 267, 1931 ; Cooke, FI. Pres. Bomb. 2 : 687, 1907. (See Plate

XLIX.)

Rhizome dirty brown, terete, about 2-3 mm. thick. Pseydobulbs

1 x 1.3-1.7 cm., shortly conical-ovoid, dark olive-green or brownish-

purple, with a few faint grooves. Leaf ‘one, 1.5-4.5 x 0,7-2 om.,

coriaceous, erect or deflexed, entire, acute or obtuse, l-nerved, dark

394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 359 (2)

olive-green above, brown-purple below. Scape 0.6-1 cm. long, thin,

1-flowered, with 2 loose, membranous, gland-dotted sheaths. Flowers

9-11 mm. across, pedicellate, bracteate, deep chrome-yellow ; all the

floral parts thick and coriaceous. Bracts tubular, oblong, just above

the sheaths of the scape and similar to them. Pedicel with ovary about |

1 cm. long, slightly curved, the ovary clavate, ribbed. Sepals subequal

9x 6mm, deep chrome-yellow spotted with orange in the basal

region, ovate-oblong, obtuse, mucronulate, entire, glabrous, faintly

7-nerved ; dorsal sepal concave ; lateral ones subsaccate and concave at

base, and adnate to foot of column to form a broad mentum 3-4 mm.

long, emarginate. Petals 3-4 x 1-2 mm., narrowly linear-oblong,

broad at base, acute, entire, l-nerved, gland-dotted. Lip mobile on

the apex of the column-foot, the basal third inflexed and parallel to

the foot, glabrous ; the upper two-thirds of lip deflexed at right angles

to basal portion, oblong, tuberculate on upper surface, rounded, entire,

faintly grooved down the middle, or not ; at the junction of the glabrous

and tuberculate portions, there are 2 minute, apiculate, erect auricles on

the sides representing the lateral lobes of the lip. Column 7-9 x 2-4

mm. broad, oblong, produced in front at the apex into 2 broad, sub-

entire, apiculate wings ; back of the deep clinandrium produced into an

apiculum to which the back of the anther is attached; foot broad,

slightly curved, at right angles to the column, about 2-3 mm. long.

Anther cells about 1 <x 1 mm., with a horn 1-2 mm. long, slender ;

pollinia 4, waxy, in pairs, oblong. Stigmatic surface deep seated.

Capsules 12-14 x 12 mm., ovoid-orbicular ; pedicels about 7 mm. long,

curved ; the capsule with 6 strong, 1-2 mm. deep grooves.

Flowering : Feburary to March. Fruiting : November.

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Castle Rock,

Kapadia 2819-2820; Siddhapur, Kapadia 2358-2359; Anmod,

Kapadia 1864; Jog, Kapadia 1844-1845.

Distribution : Apparently endemic in N. Kanara and the Konkan

parts of Bombay State.

Notes ; A few flowering specimens of this species were given to us by

Prof. Ladhwa of Karnatak College, Dharwar, for which we are very

grateful ; they have been of real help in framing our description.

15. GEODORUM Jacks.

GeEopoRUM Jacks. in Andr. Bot. Rep. t. 626, 1810; Endl. Gen. PI.

200, 1837; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3 : 538, 1883; Pfitz. in Engl. &

Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6): 156, 1889; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 16,

1890; King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8: 181, 1898;

Duthie, ibid. 9 (2): 130, 1906; J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6 : 222, 1905 ;

Schltr. Orchid. 340, 1927; Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1 : 534, 1953.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE XLIX

Trias stocksii Benth.

A. Plant with support. B. Sepals and petals disected.

PLATE L

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

Geodorum densiflorum Schlitt.

A. Whole plant.

B. Sepals and petals dissected.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 395

The generic name Geodorum is derived from the Greek words ge =

the earth, and doron = a gift, meaning a gift of the earth, in allusion to

its terrestrial habit.

A small genus of about 10 species distributed from India, Ceylon,

Burma, Malaya, and Java to Australia.

The species on which the genus Geodorum was erected is G. citrinum;

this, therefore, must be considered the type species.

Type species : G. citrinum Jacks.

Geodoram densiflorum (Lam.) Schltr. in Fedde, Repert. Beih. 4:

259, 1929) Fischer, El. Pres. Madr. 1437, 1928; Blatt. & McC. in

Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 487, 1931. Limodorum densiflorum

Lam. Encycl. 3: 516, 1791-1792. ZL. recurvum Roxb. Pl. Corom. 1:33,

Eo EOS cle bile inde: 3 7409, lool. 6. nutans: Roxb. “Pi. Corom.

1: 34, t. 40, 1795, et Fl. Ind. 3: 469, 1832 (2). Malaxis nutans Willd.

Sp. Pl. 4:93, 1805(?). M. cernua Willd. Sp. Pl. 4: 93, 1805 ; Graham

Cat. Bom. Pl. 203, 1839. Geodorum purpureum R. Br. in Ait. Hort.

INewecd. 0. 20/5 ldl3 5 spreng. syst. Ves. 3° 726, 1826: Dalz. &

Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 266, 1861 ; Hook. f. 16; King & Pantl. 181, t. 245;

Duthie 130; J. J. Smith 222, f. 163 ; Holttum 535. G. dilatatum R. Br.

inet, Wor. wweow.- cd: 2-527 207.1813 5 Spreng. 726: Wight,: Icon.

3 (2): 10, t. 912, 1844-1845; Hook. f. 17; Grant, Orch. Burma 233, 1898;

Pram beng. PivlOly., 1903°:" Cooke, FI’ °Pres. Bomb: 2°: 695, 1907 ;

Gammie in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 18: 587, 1908; Haines

Bot. Bih. Or. 1170;. 1924; Duthie, Fl. Upp: "Gang. PI’~3 = 203, 1920.

G. recurvum (Roxb.), Alston in Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceyl. 6 : 276, 1931.

(See Plate L.)

Terrestrial herbs. Pseudobulbs tuberous, ovoid-conical, + regular in

shape, greenish-brown with transverse circular bands, about 5 x 3 cm.

Leaves | or 2, forming a pseudostem about 16 mm. tall, and 1-1.4 cm.

thick; the leaves 11-40 x 5-10 cm., sheathing at base, subplicate, many-

nerved, obovate-oblong, elliptic or elliptic-lanceolate, acute, entire, the

upp2r ones tapering into a long narrow petiole. Scape 28-32 cm. tall,

arising from the tuber away from the leaves, green, terete, with a few

oblong-lanceolate sheaths; the apical part decurved. Jnflorescence about

4 cm. long, a compact subcorymbose raceme, facing downwards.

Flowers 1.5 cm. long, pinkish-white or white, opening very little,

bracteate, shortly pedicellate. Bracts 1.2-1.4 x 0.2-0.3 cm., lanceolate,

acute or subacuminate, entire, glabrous, 3-nerved, green. Sepals 12x 4

mm., pure white or white flushed with very pale mauve, more so in the

basal regions, acute, entire, 3-nerved; dorsal sepal obovate-oblong,

slightly broader; lateral ones suboblique, narrowly oblong, somewhat

keeled. Petals 12x 6 mm., similar to sepals but slightly broader, elliptic-

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

oblong, acute, entire, 3-nerved. Lip attached all along to the foot, form-

ing a 5 mm. deep, concave, rounded trough, flattening out a little at

the apex ; in colour white flushed with pale pink or mauve on the out-

sid2 as sepals and petals, the inside with deep purple veins on the sides,

a central yellow disc bordered with deep mauve and with 2 thin purple

veins in the centre of the disc. The lip 12 mm. long, 10 mm. broad on

flattening, deltoid-oblong in outline, obscurely 3-lobed ; lateral lobes

broad, subentire, middle one crenulate, emarginate. Column5 x 2 mm.,

white, subclavate, minutely puberulous, produced upwards from behind

into an apiculum to which the back of the anther is attached ; clinand-

rium white with a central faint, transverse, pink line. Foot short, broad

above, narrowing downwards, margined and tipped with deep mauve.

Anther 2-2.5 mm. broad, suborbicular, dorsal surface very pale yellow,

with the flaps purple-margined. Stigmatic surface broad, pure white.

Ovary with pedicel 0.8-1 cm. long, green, clavate, ribbed, not

twisted.

Flowering : June.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Stocks ; Law; Dalzell;

S. Konkan, Graham; Ghats in S. Konkan, Stocks; Wari

Country, Dalzell & Gibson; Cultivated in St. Xavier’s College

Garden, Kapadia 2921. N. KANARA: Kalanadi,_ Ritchie;

Yellapur-Arbail, Kapadia 2044.

Distribution : Considerable confusion has resulted in the synonymy

of this species since Roxburgh’s publication of 2 species of Limodorum,

L. recurvum and L. nutans. In his FLORA INDICA he distinguishes

L. nutans from L. recurvum in the following way: ‘ Here (L. nutans)

the bulbs are smooth, there striated. Here the leaves are oval, there

lanceolate ; here the scape is longer than the leaves, there not half as

long. Here the spike is oblong, and pendulous, there globular retro-

fracted. Here the flowers stand at some distance from one another, there

they are crowded. Here they are of a beautiful rose colour, there white.

Here the lip is sharp-pointed, there circular and crenulate.’

R. Brown based his G. purpureum and G. dilatatum on Roxburgh’s

plates of Limodorum nutans and L. recurvum, of which unfortunately

no specimens exist. | |

The inflorescence scape is definitely known to elongate after flower-

ing, as has been pointed out by King & Pantling, and has been observed

by us. The flower colour varies from rose-purple to pure white ; our

specimens, when first collected, had fairly deep rose-purple flowers ; the

next year in cultivation the flowers were white. Therefore, it seems

that the only significant characteristic between L. nutans and L.

recurvum which cannot be easily accounted for, is the ‘ .. sharp-pointed

tip ..’ of the lip. Hooker f. remarks that, the characters described for

L. nutans Roxb. such as. scape jonger than the leaves, a lax-flowered

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 397

raceme, and an acute lip have not hitherto been found in any Geodorum.

Further : ‘.. if it be allowed that the elongate scape and lax-flowered

raceme are due to the lengthening of the axis of the scape after flowering,

and that the appearance of an acute lip is due to the infolding of its

margins towards the apex, then G. purpureum is the commonest and

widest-distributed Indian species. Dalzell & Gibson alone identify a

plant with G. purpureum Br., and I have examined authentic specimens

of it, which they did not, for they give Brown’s characters for this

species, whilst those of their specimens are what I have given above.’

(i.e. the tip of the lip 2-lobed, not acute). Thus Hooker f. while

showing the very close similarity between these two species, keeps them

apart and refers the Deccan plants to G. purpureum.

Cooke, following Prain, calls our Bombay plants G. dilatatum Br.,

since it is under this name that the lip is referred to as obtuse and 2-fid

at the apex and not acute. He further adds: ‘In his “ Flora Indica”’,

v. 3 ({832) p. 469, Roxburgh again describes the lip of Limodorum

nutans as acute and cites Rheede (Hort. Mal. v. 11, t.; 35), who however

in his figure of Bela-Pola shows the lip as subpandurate, obtuse and 2-fid °

at the apex. The lip as figured by Rheede corresponds exactly with the

lip of G. dilatatum.’ Therefore it seems that Roxburgh himself was not

very sure of the species. Further Cooke adds: ‘After spending much

time over drawings and descriptions, I have come to the conclusion

indicated by Sir J. Hooker (Trimen’s Fl. Ceyl. v. 4, p. 179) that G.

dilatatum and G. purpureum are both forms of one species, and as

Brown’s description of G. dilatatum fits the plant better than his

description of G. purpureum, the former name has been adopted.’

It may be pointed that all the authors describing this species under

the name of G. purpureum R. Br., including King & Pantling, J. J.

Smith, and Holttum, give the lip as obtuse, emarginate or 2-fid at the

apex, not sharp-pointed or acute. It does seem probable that the true

form described and figured by Roxburgh as Limodorum nutans (= G

purpureum R. Br.) with a sharp-pointed or acute lip has not been met

with after Roxburgh ; its very existence seems to be questionable.

16. CYMBIDIUM Sw.

CyMBIDIUM Sw. in Nov. Act. Sc. Upsal. 6: 70, 1799; Endl. Gen.

Pl. 199, 1837; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3: 536, 1883; Pfitz. in

Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6) : 184, 1889 ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 8,

1890; King & Pantl.in Ann. in R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8 : 184, 1898 ;

Duthie, ibid. 9 (2) : 133, 1906; J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6 : 475, 1905 ;

Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6 : 8, 1890 ; Schltr. Orchid. 354, 1927 ; Holttum,

Rey. Fl. Malaya 1 : 513, 1953.

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

The generic name Cymbidium is derived from the Greek kyme=boat,

in allusion to the hollowed boat-shaped base of the lip in many of the

species.

This genus consists of about 50 species, found in Madagascar, in

Asia from Ceylon and India to Japan, and through Malaysia to

Australia.

Cymbidium aloifolium Sw. in Nov. Act. Upsal. 6 : 73, 1799 ; Roxb.

Fl. Ind. 3: 458, 1832; Graham, Cat. Bomb. Pl. 203, 1839; Wight,

Icon. 5 (1) :..11, tt. 1687-8, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 266, 161 =

Hook. f. 10 (partim) ; King & Pantl. 189, t. 252; Duthie 136, et FI.

Upp. Gang. Pl. 3: 206, 1920; J. J. Smith 482, f. 367 ; Cooke, Fl. Pres.

Bomb. 2: 696, 1907; Gammie in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

18: 586, t. 5, 1808 ; Blatt. & McC. ibid. 35: 487, 1931; Brihl, Guide

Orch. Sikk. 115, 1926; Fischer, Fl. Pres. Madr. 1436, 1928. C. bicolor

Hook. f. Fl. Brit. 6: 11, 1890; “Alston, Kandy FI, 75; 400, “1938

(an Lindl. 1833 ?).

Robust epiphytes, the roots forming a dense, thick matting over the

support. Pseudobu/bs 4-6 cm. long, ovoid, sheathed by the leaf bases.

Leaves 20-55 x 1-3 cm., coriaceous, oblong, entire with a prominent

midnerve, tapering at the base into a petiole 4-10 cm. long, which is

marked by a transverse deep green line ; apex notched, with 2 unequal,

rounded, lobes. Inflorescence 25-45 cm. long, peduncles erect, racemes

pendulous, sheathed at the base. Flowers bracteate, pedicellate. Bracts

Minute, persistent, ovate to triangular, acute, 2-5 mm. long. Pedicel

with ovary 20-25 mm. long, greenish below, purplish above. Sepals

24-27 x 3-4 mm. spreading, vinaceous purple, lanceolate or oblong-

lanceolate, entire, acute, l-nerved ; the lateral ones somewhat falcate.

Petals 20-22 x 4-5 mm., yellowish, vinaceous in the centre, oblong,

acute, often subfalcate, entire, l-nerved. Lip 16-20 mm. long, some-

what saccate at base, 3-lobed; lateral lobes 7 x 2-3 mm., oblong-

obtuse, entire, mottled with brown-purple ; midlobe 8-10 x 6-8 mm.,

broadly ovate, acute, sub-entire, much recurved, yellow with broad

purple stripes. The throat of the lip with 2 yellow calli. Column about

12 mm. long, clavate, vinaceous-brown all along inside, except near top.

Anther 3 X 2mm., 2-celled, broadly oblong ; pollinia 2, waxy, yellow,

obliquely oblong with a small gland which tapers at the ends. Capsules

6.5 X 2.5 cm. ovoid, elliptic, deep green longitudinally and shallowly

grooved ; pedicels 10-12 mm. long.

This description is after detailed field observations of H. Santapau.

Flowering: May. Fruiting : June onwards.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Stocks; Law;

S. Konkan, Dalzell; Ghats and the hilly parts of the K onkan,

Graham ; Alibag, Dalzell & Gibson;? Salsette, Dalzell & Gibson.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 399

N. KANARA: Tamboli, near Sawantwadi, F. X. Miranda; Sirsi,

Woodrow; Santapau 18662-18664.; Hallberg & McCann 35196;

Ghandwar,) Kkiucwey “Kalanadi; --Ritchie ; Gundh,

J. Fernandez 1522; Kapadia 1722-1724; Siddhapur, Kapadia

2372-2374: Dandeli, Kapadia 16/6.

Distribution: India: Sikkim, Bengal, Assam, Andaman Islands,

Konkan, N. Kanara, and ali the hilly tracts of south peninsular India.

World: India, Ceylon, Burma, S. China, and southwards to Sumatra

and Java.

Notes: Dalzell & Gibson give Salsette as one of the localities for

this species. No subsequent worker has been successful in re-locating

it in this area; the species seems to be more or less restricted to the

districts of N. Kanara.

C. aloifolium Sw. has often been confused with C. pendulum Sw.,

C. bicolor Lindl. and C. simulans Rolfe.

King & Pantling have clearly shown the differences between C.

aloifolium Sw. and C. pendulum Sw. ; these two species were founded

on figures and not on actual plants ; the first was based on Rheede’s

plate (Hort. Mal. 12: t. 8), which was named Epidendrum aloifolium

by Linne (Sp. P/. 953, 1753). C. pendulum was based on Epidendrum

pendulum Roxb. (PI. Cor. 1: t. 44),

Hooker f. united the 2 species after a study of the herbarium

material, which has little to distinguish them. But King & Pantling

having had an opportunity to observe them in nature kept them apart,

putting down the differences as follows: ‘The plants as they grow,

which they do side by side in Sikkim, appear so different that we have

kept up both as a species. The sepals and petals of C. aloifolium, as

we have figured, are yellowish, each having a broad mesial purple strip.

Upper surface of the lip is purple, with darker lines of the same colour

and a patch of whitish at the base of the apical lobe. The outer surface

is yellowish and striped only on the apicallobe. It has broader, blunter,

more coriaceous leaves than C. pendulum and their apices are notched ;

the peduncle of the raceme being erect while the raceme itself is

decurved ; whereas in C. pendulum the peduncle is decurved from its

origin from the stem.’

~ From a careful study of the literature, C. bicolor Lindl. does not

seem to be a distinct species. Hooker f., though maintaining the 2

species as different, finds difficulty in keeping them apart and says :

“TI. am much puzzled with this (C. aloifolium Sw.) and the following

species, (C. bicolor Sw.), which appear to differ in so far as my copious

materials show, only in the comparative length of the epichile and

hypochil of their lips, and in their geographical ranges, aloifolium being

strictly northern and eastern, and bicolor as strictly western. These

characters would be absolute were it not that Rheede’s figure of the

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Malabar plant has the lip of aloifolium.’ As noted by Hooker f.

himself, C. aloifolium Sw. is a very variable species. It should, there-

fore, include the slight variations in the comparative lengths of the

hypochil and epichile.

Lindley under his C. bicolor cites the Javanese C. aloifolium BI.

(Bijdr. t. 19.); the latter has been partly included under C. pubescens

Lindl. by J. J. Smith.

From these considerations it seems very doubtful if C. bicolor Lindl.

can be considered an independent species, the Indian and Ceylon

plants being probably equal to C. aloifolium Sw., and the Javanese ones,

to C. pubescens Lindl.

Holttum has fused C. simulans with C. aloifolium. Edward Cooper

(in Dist. Gard. 2 : 610, 1951) has the following note under C. aloifolium:

‘Distinct from C. simulans by spikes erect, midlobe of lip long,

acute ... Probably not in cultivation. C. aloifolium of gardens is

a synonym of C. simulans.’

H. Santapau has noted this plant as very common and remarkably

abundant on roadside trees in the neighbourhood of Haliyal in North

Kanara ; most trees at the main fork of their branches held a clump

over 1 m. in diameter ; due to their position along the road, most plants

were densely covered with dust. Lately the sap of the leaves has been

shown to have highly valuable styptic properties ; this seems to have

caused the disappearance of the plant from some of its former areas.

17. CHILOSCHISTA Lindl..

CHILOSCHISTA Lindl. in Bot. Reg. sub. t. 1522, 1832, nom. nud. et

Gen. Sp. Orch. 219, 1833, cum descr.; Endl’-Gen: Pl 204.0 1s37-

Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, PAlanzenf. 2 (6): 216, 1889; J. J. Smith, Fl.

Buitenz. 6: 533, 1905. Sarcochilus sect. Chiloschista Benth. & Hook, —

f. Gen. Pl. 3): 575; 1883; Hook. f Fle Brit? Ind: 6% 375 1890:

The generic name Chiloschista seems to be derived from the Greek

words cheilos = lip, and cheista shaped like the Greek letter X, in

allusion to the shape of the lip.

A very small genus with but a few species (probably 2 or 3) found

in India, Nepal, Ceylon and Java.

King & Pantling (in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8 : 206, 1898) have

included this genus under Sarcochilus R. Br. with the following note :

‘ ,. has the characters of the genus as we believe Robert Brown

originally constituted it, and which occur in the only species which he

described, viz. S. falcatus. These characters are the presence in the

lip of two very large side lobes and of a very short anterior lobe,

together with the total absence of a spur’. They further add under

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 401

Sarcochilus luniferus Benth. ex Hook. f.: ‘in the structure of its

flowers this exactly agrees with Sarcochilus falcatus R. Brown, as

figured by Fitzgerald in his Orchids of Australia, part 5. Brown’s

generic description is a very brief one, and contains nothing that does

not fit this plant, which without hesitation we refer to Sarcochilus, as

Brown defined it’.

Schlecter (in Die Orchid. 533, 1927) has also united Chiloschista

Lindl. with Sarcochilus R. Br.

We have followed Pfitzer, J. J. Smith and others in the recognition

of Chiloschista Lindl. as an independent genus. Pfitzer considers the

leafless habit sufficient for keeping the genus distinct. J. J. Smith

distinguishes Chiloschista Lindl. from Sarcochilus R. Br. by the lateral

sepals, petals and lip oi the former being inserted on the column-foot,

whereas in the latter genus only the lip is inserted on the foot of

the column.

Type species: C. usneoides Lindl.

Chiloschista lunifera J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6 : 553, 1905 & f. 169,

1912. Sarcochilus luniferus Hook. f. in Bot. Mag. t. 7044, 1889 et FI.

Brit. Ind. 6: 37, 1890 ; Grant, Orch. Burma 302, 1895 ; King & Pantl.

in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8: 207, 1898. Chiloschista glandulosa

Blatt. & McC. in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 488, 1932,

(Chilochista).

Small, leafless epiphytes. Roots greyish-green, up to 2 mm. thick, --

radiating in all directions ; in the absence of leaves the roots seem

to have taken up the function of photosynthesis. Stem 0. Scape 2-4

cm. long, from the centre of the root cluster, thin at base, gradually

thickening upwards, jointed, bracteate, the lower portion glabrous, the

upper glandular-pubescent, hairs white, minute, conical. Flowers

minute, 2-4, bracteate, almost sessile. Bracts 2.5 x 2mm. ovate in

outline, subentire, gland-dotted, -strongly 1-nerved, with a small

apiculum. Sepals unequal, entire, 5-nerved ; dorsal sepal 5 x 2 mm.

obovate-oblong, obtuse ; lateral ones 3.5 x 2.5 mm. broadly oblong,

subacute. Petals slightly longer than the lateral sepals, broadly

truncate, rarely with a minute mucro at the apex. Lip superior, inflexed

on the foot of the column, 3-lobed; lateral lobes more than twice

as long as the midlobe, curving upwards and inwards; on spreading

the lip has a small pouch-like depression just at the base of the

midlobe. Midlobe of lip 1.5 x 1.5 mm., broadly obovate, truncate,

slightly emarginate ; the 2 lobules woolly-white. Column very short,

with a foot which is incurved, stout, 2 mm. long. Anther broad,

obcordate, mucronate, 2-celled; pollinia 2, obovate, slightly compressed,

deeply grooved with short extensible caudicles. Ovary pale brown,

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59% (2)

7 mm. long, glandular-pubescent. Capsules 13x 3 mm. purplish-

brown, curved, tapering at base, somewhat 4-angled at apex, with

minute, erect, conical, white, hairs.

The colour details of the flowers given by Blatter & McCann are as

follows : sepals and petals yellow spotted and blotched irregularly and

often densely with brown-red ; column white, with foot purple-blotched :

anther yellowish.

Flowering : January to March. Fruiting : March to June.

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Karwar, Bell:

Dandeli, Bell; YelWapus, Bell: Kapadia® 2869 Voids:

Dandeli, Kapadia 2767.

Distribution : India : Sikkim, N. Kanara. World : India, Burma, and

Java.

Notes: Our specimens of Chiloschista glandulosa Blatt. & McC.

exactly agree with the description and figures of C. Junifera J. J. Sm.

as given by J. J. Smith and King & Pantling. The only difference

seems to lie in the fact that the scape of the N. Kanara plants never

reaches the large size of 20 cm. or more as found in Sikkim and

Javanese plants.

There seems to be very little difference between this species and

C. usneoides Lindl., as has been pointed by Hooker f., who however,

keeps them apart merely on the basis of colour difference in flowers.

J. J. Smith is of opinion that the two species may be identical.

18. “RH YNCHOSTY LIS Bi.

RHYNCHOSTYLIS BI. Bijdr. 285, 1825 (Rhynchostylis); Benth. &

Hook. f. Gen, Pl. 3 : 574; 1883; Pfitz..in Enel.-é& Prantl, Pilanzent.

2:(6): 218, 1889 ; Hook. fy Fl. Britedind 69325 1890" Kamer sonra

in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8 : 213, 1898 ; Duthie, ibid. 9 (2): 143,

1906; J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6: 628, 1905; Schltr. Orchid. 546,

1927; Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1 : 697, 1953.

The generic name Rhynchostylis is derived from the Greek rhynchos=

beak, and stylos = column or pillar, in allusion to the column which

is beak-like.

This is a small genus of about 4 or 6 species, distributed from India

to Malaya, Java and Philippines.

The closer allies of this genus are Saccolabium Bl. and Aérides

Lour. Rhynchostylis can be distinguished thus: (1) the lip is scarcely

lobed ; (2) the lip is not sharply distinguished from the column-foot ;

(3) the spur is backward-pointing and laterally compressed ; and

(4) the rostellum is strongly beaked. Holttum has pointed out that

when not in flower, the pale lines on the leaves serve to distinguish

the plants of this genus. We have, however, observed that dry speci-

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE - 403

mens of Vanda testacea Reichb. f. and V. tessellata Hook. ex G. Don

show pale longitudinal lines on the leaves.

When the genus Rhynchostylis was erected by Blume, he included

2 species, R. retusa and R. praemorsa, under it. The two species are

now considered to be synonymous. Consequently R. retusa Bl. can be

taken as the type species of the genus.

Type species: R. retusa Bl.

Rhynchostylis retusa (L.) Bl. Bijdr. 286. t. 49, 1825; Hook. f. 32;

Grant, Orch. Burma 290, 1895; King & Pant]. 213, t. 284; Duthie

f43et Fi Upp; Gang. Pl. 3: 209) 1920°; Prain, Beng. Pl. 1020, 1903 ;

J. J. Smith 629, f. 471; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2 : 698, 1907 ; Gammie

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 18: 833, t. 7, 1908; Blatt. & McC.

ibid. 35: 490, 1932; Haines, Bot. Bih. Or. 1178, 1924; Briihl, Guide

Orch. Sikk. 128, 1926 ; Fischer, FJ. Pres. 1440, 1928 ; Santapau in Rec.

Bot. Surv. Ind. 16(1): 302, 1953; Holttum 697. Epidendrum retusum

Ie Sp. Ply 953, 1753. Aerides retusum’ Sw. in Schrad. Journ. 2: 233,

1799 ;-Willd. Sp. Pl. 4: 130, 1805; Graham, Cat. Bom. Pl. 204, 1839.

A. guttatum Roxb. FI. Ind. 3 : 471, 1832. Saccolabium guttatum Lindl.

(iar Walls Cat. 7303;, 1832, nom. nud. et) Gen: Sp. Orch. 220: 1833;

cumadeser...ct Journ. Linn. Soc. 3:: 32,1858; Wight, Icon. 5 (1); 19) tt.

1745-46, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 263, 1861. Gastrochilus

neiusus (.) ©: Kuntze, Rev.-Gen. Pl: 2: 661, 1891.

Epiphytes. Stem sheathed, stout, about 7 mm. thick. Leaves

coriaceous, channelled, up to 30 X 2 cm., with a_ sharply-pointed

praemorse apex. Racemes dense, cylindric, drooping, up to 30 cm.

long ; peduncles about 6 cm. long, and 2-3 mm. thick, terete, with a

few membranous, brown, sheathing bracts. Flowers pale pink with

deeper-coloured spots, pedicellate, bracteate. Bracts 3-42 mm.

persistent, membranous, oblong-lanceolate, acute, entire, glabrous.

Ovary whitish or pale pink, spotted with deeper-coloured spots.

Dorsal sepal7 x 5 mm. ovate-oblong, obtuse, entire, glabrous, faintly

many-nerved; lateral sepals 8 x 7 mm. obliquely and broadly oblong,

somewhat decumbent on the column-foot, acute. Petals7 x 3 mm.,

of same colour as sepals, oblong, tapered at apex and base, entire,

glabrous. Lip pink-purple, whitish at base, curved upwards and for-

wards, about 9 mm. long, 2-2.5 mm. broad at the base, the lower half

. oblong, widening upwards to 7 mm., apex emarginate. Spur 6-7 x 2

mm. laterally compressed, pinkish, -- oblong and at right angles to

ovary. Anther small, pink. Capsules 1.5-2 x 0.7-1 cm., obovoid-

oblong, winged ; pedicels 12-15 mm. long, subclavate; capsules usually

reflexed.

Flowering: May to June. Fruiting : July onwards.

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Stocks; Salsette,

Dalzell & Gibson; Thana, Ryan; Bhiwandi, Santapau 233.2;

Chandal-Karjat, Blatter & Hallberg; Karjat, Kapadia 1953-

1955; Malad, Shah 4625-4627, 4630; Kasara, Kapadia 900.

DeEccAN : Lanzeon Kolhapur-Ratnagiri Road, Bhide. N. KANARA:

W. of Dharwar, Mrs. Wilkinson 4018; Kalanadi, Ritchie;

Yellapur, Santapau 18705. )

Distribution : India : Tropical Himalaya from Punjab eastwards to

Sikkim up to about 1200 m., Assam, Khasia Hills, Chota Nagpur,

Konkan, Kanara, W. Ghats, Deccan, Malabar. World : India, Nepal,

Bhutan, Ceylon, Burma, Malay Peninsula, Siam, Java, Philippines.

Notes : This species is commonly known as the ‘ Fox-tail orchid’.

Considerable variations in the colour and shape of the floral parts have

been recorded ; such variations seem to be more or less local and have

often been made the basis of specific or varietal distinctions.

(To be continued)

The Birds of Nepal

PART 07

BISWAMOY BISWAS

Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta

[Continued from Vol. 59 (1) : 227]

Subfamily PARADOXORNITHINAE

*548. Conostoma aemodium Hodgson. Great Parrotbill.

The Nepali records of this parrotbill consist of collections by

Hodgson (Gray & Gray, 1846, p. 162) and Eccles (in Gould coil.,

see Sharpe, 18383, p. 485), and observation by Smythies (1948, p. 440)

in the Gandak-Kosi watershed, central Nepal? at’c, 3350" m. “in

autumn.

*549, Paradoxornis unicolor unicolor (Hodgson). Brown Suthora or

Parrotbill.

The only record of the Brown Parrotbill from: Nepal since

Hodgson’s time is to be credited to Ripley (1950b, p. 393) who

obtained a single example out of a small flock in Dhankuta district,

eastern Nepal, at c. 2865 m. in winter.

*550. Paradoxornis fulvifrons fulvifrons (Hodgson). Fulvousfronted

Suthora or Parrotbill.

The sole post-Hodgsonian record of the Fulvousfronted Parrot-

bill from Nepal is due to Stevens (1923b, p. 727) who found it on

Singalila Range, eastern Nepal, at c. 2745-2895 m. in April-May.

*551. Paradoxornis nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson). Ashy-eared

Suthora or Parrotbill.

Since Hodgson’s early record, Smythies (1950, p. 513) was the

first to report the Ashy-eared Parrotbill from Nepal. He observed

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

it on Phulchauki Danda, Nepal Valley, at c. 2590 m. The first post-

Hodgsonian collection of this form from Nepal was, however, made

- by Fleming (see Rand & Fleming, 1957, p. 126) from Phulchauki

Danda, Nepal Valley, at c. 2715 m: in April-May.

This parrotbill is said to occur in Nepal only (Baker, 1922d,

p. 109), or as restricted by Ripley (1961, p. 370) in “Central Nepal in

the hills adjacent to the Kathmandu Valley’. There is, however, a

specimen (@) in the Koelz collection taken at Girgaon, Kumaon, on

June 7, 1948. It is, therefore, quite possible that it occurs from

Kumaon all the way east at least to the Nepal Valley, in suitable

locations.

*552, Paradoxornis nipalensis humei (Sharpe). Blackfronted Suthora

or Parrotbill.

The Blackfronted Parrotbill was recorded from Nepal for the first

time by Stevens (1923b, p. 726) in the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal, at

c. 2285 m. in March, and subsequently by Ripley (1950b, p. 393) on

Tinjuré Danda, Dhankuta district, eastern Nepal, in winter.

Gray’s (1863, p. 37) definite statement (entered under Suthora

poliotis) that Hodgson’s specimens came from Darjeeling was appar-

ently overlooked by Sharpe (1883, p. 487). He did not designate any

specific type locality for humei, but listed Hodgson’s specimens (as

coming from Nepal) first, followed by skins from Sikkim and the

‘Himalaya’. We may, therefore, accept the locality of Hodgson’s

specimens, Darjeeling, as the type locality. Any restriction of the type

locality within Nepal, such as Ilam district by Ripley (1961, p. 370)

is, therefore, untenable. This form was unknown from Nepal until

Stevens found it there and it was so reported by him.

*553. Paradoxornis flavirostris flavirostris Gould. Gould’s Parrotbill.

_ The only definite record of this parrotbill from Nepal appears to

be based on Gould’s original specimen which, however, was entered

as from ‘N.E. India’ by Sharpe (1883, p. 496). It was not listed in

the catalogue of Hodgson’s earlier collection (Gray & Gray, 1846),

and in that of the later collection (Gray, 1863, p. 60) it was entered

without locality, listing only a drawing. Sharpe (loc. cit.), however,

mentioned a specimen from ‘Nepal tarai’ presented by Hodgson.

Ripley (1961, p. 373) gives the range of this form as from eastern

Nepal eastward. There is, however, nothing on record to suggest that

Gould’s specimen was taken in eastern Nepal.

THE .BIRDS. OF NEPAL 407

Subfamily SYLVIINAE

554. Tesia cyaniventer Hodgson. Slatybellied Wren-Warbler.

BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 (4), 2 92 (March 7, 8). MARKHU VALLEY:

Deorali: 2 go (May 1, 2). CmiTLaNG VaLLey: Chitlang: 1 se 22s Ee)

(April 18-25). NepaL VALLEY : Thankot: 3 ¢¢ (April 1-10).

The Slatybellied Wren-Warbler is not uncommon in _ central

Nepal in dense bushy undergrowths of forests from the bhabar right

up to the Nepal Valley.

Scully (1879) did not find it in Nepal. Ripley (1950b, p. 403)

recorded it from c. 150 to 1830 m. in western, central, and eastern

Nepal. Proud (1955, p. 65) found it very common in the Nepal

Valley at c. 1525-1830 m. Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 172-173) re-

ported it only from west-central Nepal at c. 915 m. in winter.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Te cane) OQ) Sar 922053, 53.53 DAs 251992) 20 44) 2155 15 (5), 15.5, —

6. O0r: 47, 47.5, 48, 49 (3) 16.5, 17, 17.5, 18 (2), — 14.5 (2), 15 (2),— (2)

555. Oligura castaneocoronata castaneocoronata (Burton). Chestnut-

headed Wren-Warbler. i:

CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 3 $3, 3 @Q (April 16-26). NEPAL VALLEY:

Thankot : 4 Jd, 3 2°, 3 unsexed (March 15-30).

This wren-warbler was occasionally found by us in dense under-

growths on the Chandragiri both on Thankot and Chitlang sides.

Scully (1879) did not report it from Nepal. Stevens (1924a, p.

1013) found it in the Mai: Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 2440 m. and

upwards in April-May. Smythies (1950, p. 515) noted it as a pro-

bable resident bird on Phulchauki Danda, Nepal Valley, above

c. 2440 m. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 172) recorded it from west-

central and central Nepal at c. 915-2895 m.

Measurements :

ASS. HSS 6 2° 3 unsexed

Wing : 47, 48, 49 (3), 50 (2) 47 (2), 47.5, 48 (2), 49 48, 48.5, 49

Tailts «26 (2); 2615) Q)s 27;-21.55 28 DIOL), 246d, 20.4520 24.5.:25; 27

Bill : 1235.2), 13°G)e13.54,14. 12.5 (3), 13, — (2) 13 (2), —

Delacour & Jabouille (1930) separated the Tonkin birds as abadiei,

Deignan (1951, p. 3) described the birds from Szechwan and north-

Western Yunnan as ripleyi, and Koelz (1954, p. 11) named the

population from Mizo district (=Lushai Hills), Assam, as_ regia.

While there can be no doubt as to the validity of abadiei, I am not

sure about ripleyi and regia. I have examined only four specimens

from Yunnan, which measure: W/T1: 49/25, 52/29, 52.5/—, 57/34,

the smallest bird (unsexed) coming from Shweli-Salween Divide. The

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

differences in coloration do not appear to be well marked in my

specimens (see also Rand & Fleming, loc. cit.). I have not examined

any example from Mizo district, but the description of regia, as given

by Koelz, is very vague: it does not say how regia differs from ripleyi

and from abadiei, nor does it give any measurements of regia.

Ripley (1961, p. 441) treats regia as a synonym of nominate castaneo-

coronata.

556. Cettia pallidipes pallidipes (Blanford). Blanford’s Bush Warbler.

TARAI: Simra: 1 2 (March 4). BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 2 (March 7).

Dun: Hitaura: 1 4, 1 unsexed (May 11, 16).

Blanford’s Bush Warbler appeared to us rather scarce in Nepal.

It occurred in scrub and grassy patches in the tarai, bhabar and dun

of central Nepal.

Neither Scully (1879), nor Rand & Fleming (1957) found it in

Nepal, but Ripley (1950b, p. 404) recorded it from western Nepal.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

Ve: a 42 14

2.20% 52) (2) 41.5, 43 14, 14.5

1 unsexed : 52 42 14

Ripley’s example, a female, was quite a large bird, wing 57.5.

*557. Cettia montana fortipes (Hodgson). Strongfooted Bush Warbler.

*558. Cettia major major (Moore). Large Bush Warbler.

Both these bush warblers do not seem to have been recorded from

Nepal since Hodgson’s days.

559. Cettia flavolivaceus flavolivaceus (Hodgson). Aberrant Bush

Warbler.

Dun : Bhimphedi : 1 ¢ (March 11). MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali, Kulikhani :

2 9° (April 28, 29). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang : 1 ¢%, 12 (April 18, 24). Nepal

VALLEY : Thankot: 1 3, 6 29, 3 unsexed (March 22—April 4, 14).

The Aberrant Bush Warbler is not uncommon in dense bushes

and undergrowths of forests in central Nepal from about 1220 to

1830 m.

Scully (1879) and Ripley (1950b) failed to find it in Nepal. Stevens

(1924a, p. 1028) recorded it from the Singalila Range, eastern Nepal,

at c. 3050 m. in May. Proud (1955, p. 65) reported it from Pokhara,

west-central Nepal, at c. 760-1830 m., and on the new road west of

the Nepal Valley at c. 915 m. in winter. Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 171) also found it in west-central Nepal and the Nepal Valley.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 409

One of my male specimens, taken on March II, has the throat

in moult, and an unsexed specimen of April 14 has its forehead in

moult.

Measurements :

3 bd IDS) 3 unsexed

Wines) 753,556.55 37 50) 2 90852917 (2)s 515 5752.5:(@2),,53, D2 D9e- DOD

54.5

Tail : SLOOAE oT 505 50 +2, 5:1, — ©), 53 (2); 93.5, 55.5 . 53.5 +,.56, 56.5

Bill : 14 (3) 13 GC) lai ©): 145,50) 13.5, 14 (2)

*560. Cettia acanthizoides brunnescens (Hume). Hume’s Bush Warbler.

The only definite record of Hume’s Bush Warbler from Nepal

appears to be Stevens’s (1924a, p. 1028), based on a single example

from the Singalila Range, eastern Nepal, taken on April 29 at

c. 3050 m. }

The only catalogue that listed Hodgson’s material, after the

publication of Hume’s description of this bird, was that of the British

Museum collection, in which Hume’s brunnescens was given only in

the synonymy of Cettia fortipes and as many as 15 specimens of

Hodgson from Nepal were mentioned there (Seebohm, 1881, p. 137).

It is possible that some of those specimens are in fact C. a.

brunnescens.

561. Cettia brunnifrons brunnifrons (Hodgson). Rufouscapped Bush

Warbler.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 2 (March 8). MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 ¢,

3 92 (April 30-May 1). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 1 ¢, 2 99, 1 unsexed

(April 17-26). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot : 1 2 (April 6).

This bush warbler was not uncommonly observed by us in central

Nepal in dense bushes, scrub and undergrowths of forests. It was

rather difficult to observe owing to its skulking habits.

Scully (1879) did not find it in Nepal. Stevens (1924a, p. 1029)

reported it from the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 2440 m. up-

wards in March-May.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

ZO: 45, 47 43.5, 45 EES, 2

792: 45 (2), 45.5, 46 (2), 47 (2) 42 +, 44 (3), 45,46.5,47 11 (3), 11.5 (4)

1 unsexed : 47 44 + 115

Iam unable to agree with Vaurie (1954d, pp. 5-6) in treating this

species as monotypic. The characters of whistleri Ticehurst seem to

be well substantiated (see also Ripley, 1961, p. 445).

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

*562. Bradypterus thoracicus thoracicus (Blyth). Spotted Bush Warbler.

The only post-Hodgsonian report of the Spotted Bush Warbler

from Nepal has been furnished by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 171) who

obtained a single specimen (a female) from c. 455 m. in eastern

Nepal in December. ;

*563. Bradypterus luteoventris luteoventris (Hodgson). Brown Bush

Warbler.

This bush warbler does not seem to have been recorded from

Nepal since Hodgson’s days.

*564. Hippolais caligata caligata (Lichtenstein). Booted Warbler,

The Booted Warbler has not been reported from Nepal since

Hodgson’s time.

eebohm (1881, p. 86) listed two Hodgson skins in the British

Museum, one of which was entered as from ‘Behar’, and the other

from Nepal. This latter specimen was also the “Type of Aypolais

swainsoni Hodgson’ which has been known to be a synonym of

Phylloscopus nitidus Blyth!

Ripley (1961, p. 468) gives it as a passage migrant through Nepal.

*565. Graminicola bengalensis bengalensis Jerdon. Large Grass

Warbler.

*566. Megalurus palustris toklao (Blyth). Striated Marsh Warbler.

The only records of the occurrence of these warblers from Nepal

appear to be those of Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 171-172) who

found them in the western tarai in winter.

*567, Phragamaticola aédon aédon (Pallas). Thickbilled Warbler.

The only post-Hodgsonian record of the Thickbilled Warbler

from Nepal has been provided by Ripley (i950b, p. 404) who took

a single example at Chatra, eastern Nepal tarai, in winter.

[Chaetornis striatus (Jerdon). Bristled Grass Warbler.

I have not been able to trace any authentic record of the occur-

‘rence of this warbler from Nepal, although ‘Nepal terai’ has been

included in its range by Ripley (1961, p. 463).]

568. Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth. Blyth’s Reed Warbler.

Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth, 1849, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 18: 815. (No

locality ; type specimen from the vicinity of Calcutta where the type locality is

-hereby restricted.)

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 411

Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 2 33, 6 99, 1 umsexed (May 3-24). MARKHU

VALLEY: Kulikhani: 1 ¢ (April 28). NepAL VALLEY: Thankot: 1 3, 1 @

(April 9, 12). ;

We came across this reed warbler in small numbers in bushes,

hedges and scrub from the central dun to the Nepal Valley during

spring and summer. In contrast to Rand & Fleming’s observation

(1957, p. 171), we found it to be commoner in the dun during May

than it was in the Valley during spring.

Scully (1879) did not find it in Nepal, and Rand & Fieming (loc.

cit.) recorded it also from the eastern tarai in winter. .

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

4dcd: 60, 61, 62, 65.5 515394595 iC) 17.5 (2)

eG oe: G02). 6r 2), Ole. 50) Sl 7.52 6) Gras 17), 17.5, 18 GB)

62, 66 54, 54.5

1 unsexed : 62 53 17

569. Acrocephalus agricola agricola (Jerdon). Paddyfield Warbler.

TARAI: Simra: 1 ¢ (March 4). 2

We encountered the Paddyfield Warbler only once in central

Nepal, in reeds near Simra. Proud (1949, p. 708) noted it in the

Nepal Valley only on passage in spring. Neither Scully (1879), nor

Ripley (1950b) or Rand & Fleming (1957) reported it from ne

Measurements: 1 ¢: Wing 56; tail 56; bill 16.

*570. Acrocephalus stentorius brunnescens (Jerdon). Indian Great Reed

Warbler.

Hodgson’s collection of the Indian Great Reed Warbler forms

the sole record of its occurrence in Nepal.

«571, Phylloscopus collybita tristis Blyth. Siberian Chiffchaff.

The post-Hodgsonian records of the Siberian Chiifchaff from

Nepal consist of Proud’s (1949, p. 708) observation in the Nepal

Valley as a common winter visitor, and Rand & Fleming’s (1957,

p. 164) report from western, west-central, central and eastern Nepal,

in the tarai upwards to c. 1370 m. in December, January and April.

*572. Phylloscopus subaffinis arcanus Ripley. Western Buffbellied

Leaf Warbler.

The Buffbellied Leaf Warbler (Phylloscopus subaffinis) had been

unknown in Nepal until Ripley (1950a, p. 105; 1950b, p. 400) dis-

covered it from the western and central parts of the country. The

only other report of this form is a doubtful sight record from the

Nepal Valley by Proud (1955, p. 64).

412 JQURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

573. Phylloscopus affinis (Tickell), Tickell’s Leaf Warbler.

NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot : 2 ¢¢, 1 unsexed (April 10-24). .

This leaf warbler was found by us in small numbers in scrub,

shrubs on the edges of forests ot on wayside bushes of the Nepal

Valley in March and April.

It was reported from the Valley on passage in spring and autumn.

by. Scull, (1379; p. 307) and Proud 3949) “p- 708 105555 p02 sae

was also recorded from western and eastern Nepal in winter by

Ripley (1950b, p. 400); from the Gandak-Kosi watershed, central

Nepal, also on passage in late March by Proud (1952a, p. 364); from

Manangbhot, northern central Nepal, at c. 3655-4265 m. in summer

by Lowndes (1955, p. 33); and from Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at

c. 3655 m. in March, and preparing to breed at c. 4265-4570 m. in

April by Biswas (1960a).

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

260: 56, 63 46, 51 12.5, —

1 unsexed : 59 48 12.)

*574. -Phylloscopus fuscatus fuligiventer (Hodgson). Smoky Leaf

Warbler.

Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 165) report of this leaf warbler from

the western tarai constitutes its only record for Nepal since Hodgson’s

days.

I concur with Vaurie (1954c, pp. 9-10) that P. fuligiventer

(Hodgson), P. tibetanus Ticehurst, P. weigoldi Stresemann and P.

fuscatus (Blyth) are ‘best considered conspecific. However, Ripley

(1961, pp. 475-476) treats tibetanus conspecific with fuligiventer and

weigoldi with fuscatus.

575. Phylloscopus fuscatus fuscatus (Blyth). Dusky Leaf Warbler.

NepAL VALLEY: Kathmandu: 1 unsexed (March 23).

The Dusky Leaf Warbler was found by us to be very uncommon

in central Nepal. The few that were observed were found in March

around Kathmandu on bushes, hedges and on small trees, ee

those with small leaves.

Scully (1879) was unable to find it in Nepal; and Ripley (19500,

p. 400) and Rand & Fleming (1957, Ee 165) took only single examples

in eastern Nepal in winter.

Measurements: 1 unsexed: Wing 57; tail 48; bill 12.5.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 413

*576. Phylloscopus pulcher kangrae Ticehurst. Western Orangebarred

Leaf Warbler.

This western form of the Orangebarred Leaf Warbler is known

from Nepal only through Ripley’s (1950b, p. 401) and Rand &

Fleming’s (1957, pp. 165-166) records from western Nepal in winter.

The latter authors also listed an eastern Nepal specimen from

Bahaduri, obviously due to oversight, under this form.

577. Phylloscopus pulcher pulcher Blyth. Eastern Orangebarred Leaf

Warbler.

Ph, [ylloscopus] pulcher ‘ Hodgson ’ Blyth, 1845, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 14 :592.

(Nepal, hereby restricted to Nepal Valley ; earlier restriction to eastern Nepal by

Ripley, is not admissible. See discussion below.)

Phylloscopus erochroa G. R. Gray in J. E. & G. R. Gray, 1846, Catal. spec.

drawings mamms. birds Nepal pres. Hodgson Brit. Mus.152. (Nepal, restricted to

Chandragiri Pass, Nepal Valley, by Ripley, 1950b, p. 401.)

Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 9 (March 14). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 1 4d, 629

(March 15, April 16-20). NepAL VALLEY: Thankot, Chandragiri above Thankot -

7 63,7 22, 2 unsexed (March 21—April 6).

The Orangebarred Leaf Warbler is common in central Nepal from

the dun to the Nepal Valley on bushes and trees in forests during

March and April.

Stevens (1924a, p. 1020) found it in the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal,

at c. 2135-3050 m. in March-April. In the northern regions of

central Nepal, it was recorded by Proud (1952a, p. 364) in the

Gandak-Kosi watershed at c. 2440-3505 m.~in spring, and Polunin

(1955, p. 892) in the Langtang Valley at c. 3505 m. in summer. It

was reported in eastern Nepal also by Ripley (1950b, p. 401) from

Dhankuta district, and by Biswas (1960a) from Khumbu at c. 3810-

4265 m. in April-May, and at c. 1525 m. in the Arun watershed

in June.

Some of my March female specimens are moulting. Four of

them taken on March 14, 21, 25 and 28 have moulting forecrown, the

last. mentioned bird having in addition, moulting central tail feathers.

Another specimen taken March 22 also has the central tail feathers

moulting.

One of my female specimens, taken March 30, showed signs of

enlargement of its ovary. |

Colours of soft parts: ris dark brown ; upper mandible black ; lower mandi-

ble dark horny with yellowish on base, gape and sides; legs, feet and claws horny,

pads dull chrome yellow.

Measurements :

8 od 14 22 2 unsexed

Wing: 56, 58(3), 60(3), 61 52 (2), 52+, 52.5, 53(2), 54(3), 52, 60

55(2), 56, 56.5,57

Tail: 40, 42, 43.5, 44(3), 44.5, 45 37(2), 38, 39(4), 40, 41, 42,—(4) 37, 44

Bill : 12, 12.5(2), 13(4), 13.5 12(5), 12.5(8), 13. hia

414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

I am unable to agree with Ripley (1950b, p. 401) in reviving

Gray’s name erochroa for the birds from the Nepal Valley east to

the Arun river. The difference between the specimens of Nepal

Valley and of Sikkim-Darjeeling is very slight indeed, and I agree

with Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 165) that a name at each end of the

cline, namely kangrae and pulcher, are enough.

Ripley (op. cit., p. 400) restricted the type locality of the nominate

pulcher to llam district, eastern Nepal, because he assumed that

‘many of Hodgson’s specimens of this period (1845, when Blyth’s

description of pulcher was published) came from east Nepal and

Sikkim’. As a matter of fact, however, Biyth’s description of pulcher

was based on Hodgscn’s specimens registered at the Museum of the

Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1844, that is, before Hodgson returned

from England to live in Darjeeling. Blyth’s types undoubtedly

formed parts of Hodgson’s earlier collection which was divided inta

several lots and presented to the principal museums of the world

from time to time. It would appear that Blyth described pulcher

from the lot received by the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and Gray

provided a description to Hodgson’s nomen nudum, erochroa, using

material from the lot received by the British Museum. There can be

no doubt, therefore, that pulcher Blyth and erochroa Gray represent

one and the same subspecies. Furthermore, Hodgson’s specimens of

this form were most probably obtained in the Nepal Valley where

he had been living and where it is very common. Ripley’s restriction

of the type locality of pulcher to Jiam district is, therefore, untenable.

578. Phylloscopus inornatus humei (Brooks). Green Leaf Warbler.

MaARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 unsexed (May 1). CHITLANG VALLEY

Chitlang : 3 ¢¢, 5 2¢ (April 17-26). NepaL VALLEY : Kathmandu, Thankot : 10 3g,

8 29, 4 unsexed (March 21—April 9).

This leaf warbler is perhaps the: commonest of all warblers in

central Nepal during March-April at c. 1220 m. and above.

It occurs on the edges of forests, in villages, as weil as in the gardens

of Kathmandu town. Although Scully (1879, p. 308) and Proud

(1949, p. 708; 1955, p. 63) found it common in the Nepal Valley

from October to April, Ripley (1950b, p. 401) noted it ‘on passage

from the edge of the Terai up to the Valley in central Nepal in late

April, and again in mid-November’. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 166)

listed specimens taken in the Nepal Valley in February and April,

and in western, west-central and eastern Nepal in December-January.

The coloration of the upper parts, particularly the crown, in my

central Nepal specimens (as ‘well as in many specimens from other

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL . A 415

areas in India) is somewhat variable. “Specimens range° from’ being

brownish on forehead to crown,- sometinies. with olive (see also

Scully, op. cit., p. 307), and back and rump green with a brownish

wash, to very green coloration as figured by Seebohm (1881, pl. 4.

fig. 1). I am unable to correlate this colour variation with age, sex.

season or locality of the specimens.

One of my specimens (co%, March 21) has the chin and throat in

moult. All the sexed March-April specimens had non-breeding

gonads.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown; upper mandible very dark horny ;

lower mandible fleshy or light brown with dark horny tip ; legs horny to dark horny;

feet and claws horny to pale horny; pads yellowish white.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

4g: 55, 56, 58(2) 41, 42(2) — 11, 11.5, 12@)

5 unsexed : 52, 53, 55,56,60 37, 40(2), 41, 42 LOIS(@2)5 Al. 55 12; 12:5

*579. Phylloscopus inornatus inornatus (Blyth)?. Yellowbrowed Leaf

Warbler.

Proud’s (1955, p. 63) is the only report of the Yellowbrowed

Leaf Warbler from Nepal. She observed it in fair numbers on

passage through the Nepal Valley in spring and autumn, when she

obtained specimens there. :

*580. Phylloscopus proregulus simlaensis Ticehurst. Ticehurst’s Leaf

| Warbler.

Ripley (1950b, p. 401) was the first to record Ticehurst’s Leat

Warbler for Nepal. He found it at c. 275 and 1525 m. in western

Nepal in winter. The only other record of this form from Nepal

is Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 166) who took specimens in winter

at c. 290 m. in western and at c. 915 m. in west-central Nepal.

581. Phylloscopus proregulus chloronotus (G. R. Gray). Nepal Leaf

Warbler. .

Dun : Bhimphedi: | 9 (March 11). CaiTLanG VALLEY: Chitlang: 1 2,

1 9,1 unsexed (March 15, April 21). Nepat VALLEY: Thankot: 5 gd, 2 99,

1 unsexed (March 22—April 2).

1 The type locality of Regulus inornatus Blyth [= PA. inornatus (Blyth)] was given

by Ticehurst (1938, p. 100) as ‘ near Calcutta’, presumably based on specimens of

this form entered in the Catalogue of the Asiatic Society’s collection (Blyth, 1849,

p. 184). However, the specimens from the neighbourhood of Calcutta were received

by the Society in 1844, that is, two years after the description of the species was pub-

lished. Besides, Blyth (1842, p. 192) stated after the description of inornatus :

‘Locality of the specimen unknown, but I am told that this inhabits the vicinity of

Darjeeling’. Furthermore, in the paper in which the description of inornatus was

published, Blyth was mainly reporting on a collection of birds made by Dr. Pearson

from the vicinity of Darjeeling. The type locality of Regulus inornatus Blyth

should, therefore, be taken as the vicinity of Darjeeling.

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

We came across this leaf warbler not uncommonly in small parties

in scrub and lighter parts of forests of central Nepal above 1370 m.

in March-April.

From the northern regions of central Nepai, it was reported by

Lowndes (1955, p. 33) in Manangbhot at c. 3655 m. in summer. In

eastern Nepal, it was found by Ripley (1950b, p. 401) in Dhankuta

district during winter, and by Biswas (1960a) in Khumbu breeding

at c. 3960-4265. m. in April-May.

The forecrowns in two of my specimens (2, March 11: co‘, March

26) are in moult.

Colours of sojt parts : Iris dark brown; upper mandible very dark horny ;

lower mandible yellowish fleshy with dark holtny tip (cf. Alexander, 1955, p. 297) ;

legs light horny ; feet light horny, sometimes with a yellowish tinge; claws light

horny with darker tips ; pads light yellow.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

60: 48, 53(3), 55, 58 37.5, 39, 40(3), — 10(2), 10.5(2), 11(2)

49°: 49(3), 50 35(2), 36\ 2) 9.5, 10, 10.5(2)

2 unsexed : 50, 55 37, 40 9.5, 10

582. Phylloscopus maculipennis maculipennis (Blyth). Eastern helping

Leaf Warbler.

MARKHU VALLEY : Deorali: 1 ¢ (May 2). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: 1 3

(April 1).

The Greyfaced Test Warbler is not a common bird of central

Nepal during March-May. It occurs on bushes as well as on large

trees in forests above c. 1525 m.

Scully (1879) did not find it in Nepal. Ripley (1950b, p. 401)

collected it in western, central and eastern Nepal. Polunin (1955.

p. 892) reported it from the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, at

c. 2745-3350 m. in summer. Proud (1955, p. 63) observed it on the

hills bordering the Nepal Valley. Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 166-

167) found it in western, central and eastern Nepal at c. 1675-2895 m.

im winter.

Measurements: 23%: Wing 50, 51; tail 37, 40; bill 10.5, —.

I am unable to recognize Ripley’s centralis (type locality Rekcha.

Dailekh district, western Nepal), for it represents merely the centre

of a small but gradual and continuous cline. See also Vaurie (1954c,

p. 17; 1959a, p. 287) and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 167), who also

kame to the same conclusion regarding centralis.

583. Phylloscopus magnirostris Blyth. Largebilled Leaf Warbler.

BBABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 ¢, 1 2 (March 6, 8). DuN: Hitaura, Bhimphedi:

5 gg (May 7-20). MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1g, 3 unsexed (April 28-May 1).

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 unsexed (April 27).

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 417

We found the Largebilled Leaf Warbler common in central Nepal

in May, but only occasionally during March-April, and none in June.

It occurs on bushes and on trees in the opener parts of forests.

Scully (1879) and Ripley (1950b) did not include it in their lists.

Proud (1949, p. 709) found it occasionally in the Nepal Valley on

spring passage, and later (1955, p. 63) noted it also in August-

September there. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 167) obtained a single

specimen from the Nepal Valley in April.

A female specimen taken on March 6 is undergoing pre-nuptial

moult.

Measurements :

Tice 4 unsexed

(probably all 22) ©

Wing: P62.) +, OS Ore 10,71, 12:55c135 63, 63.5, 64, 65

Tail : 52:(2),.52:5,. 54, 55; 56(2) 32092 Ds 05554

Bill : 13:5,.1455,, 15¢2)3.15.5,,16(2) 14(2), 14.5, —

Two. specimens (1 co‘, Hitaura, Dun, May 17; 1 @, Deorali,

Markhu Valley, April 30—not listed above} could not be separated

from “P. magiirostris on coloration, but are appreciably smaller

(close to P. t. trochiloides). They measure:

Wing Tail Bill |

ee: 59 48 15

eee; 60 50 13

*584, Phylloscopus trochiloides viridanus Blyth. Greenish Leaf

Warbler. |

We had not been able to find the Greenish Leaf Warbler in Nepal.

Scully (1879, p. 306) reported it as fairly common in the Nepal

Valley in winter till the beginning of May. Ripley (1950b, p. 402)

noted it as one of the commonest leaf warblers in central Nepal

from the tarai up to c. 1830 m., and recorded it also from eastern

Nepal in winter. Proud (1955, p. 64) reported it as abundant on

passage through the Nepal Valley in March-May and in autumn.

Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 167-168) found it in western and eastern

Nepal at c. 275-290 m. in winter, and at c. 305-2285 m. in central -

Nepal during April and May.

585. Phylloscopus trochiloides trochiloides (Sundevall). Dull Green

Leaf Warbler.

Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 1 ¢, 1 9, 3 unsexed (May 5-12). MaArkKHU

VALLEY : Deorali: 3 ¢¢, 1 9, 2 unsexed (April 29-May 2).

This leaf warbler was found by us in small numbers in the forests

on the Mahabharat Range and the duns of central Nepal during

April-May.

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. §9 (2)

It was reported from central Nepal in the Nepal Valley by Scully

(1879, p. 307) late in May, Proud (1955, p. 64) on April 30 and in

September-October, and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 167) in April; in

the Gandak-Kosi watershed by Proud (loc. cit.) breeding at 2895-

3655 m.; in Manangbhot by Lowndes (1955, p. 33) at c. 2440-3960 m. in

summer; and in the dun by Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.) in April.

In eastern Nepal, it was reported by Stevens (1924a, p. 1024) from

the Mai Valley at c. 2590 m. on April 27; Ripley (1950b, p. 402)

from the Kosi Valley at c. 150 m. in February; Rand & Fleming

(loc. cit.) from the Kamala Valley at c. 275 m. in December; and

Biswas (1960a) in Khumbu breeding at c. 4265 m. in early May.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

4dd: 62, 63, 64(2) 50 Si) 13(2), 13.5(2)

DO Ou: 57, 60 45, 46 13(2)

> unsexed : 563-59, Ol; 62.565 44, 47, 49(2), 50 13(2), 13.5, 14, 14.5

The Baltistan form of the species, P. t. ludlowi Whistler, has been

included in her Nepal list by Proud (loc. cit.) on the basis of a single

breeding male specimen taken on Sheopuri (Nepal Valley) at c.

2440 m. on May 31, in spite of the fact that it was identified by the

late Sir Norman Kinnear ‘as an intergrade between this race [ludlowi]

and P. ¢t. trochiloides’. Furthermore, Proud’s (loc. cit.) thesis that

since ‘it was in forest and fairly low, it would in any case not overlap

with trochiloides which is not found in summer below 10,000 ft. and

usually in more open country—small bush type of country’ is not

borne out by Scully’s (loc. cit.) observation and ours: specimens of

trochiloides were taken by us in May at as low as 455 m. (1500 ft.).

Phylloscopus trochiloides ludlowi Whistler should, therefore, be

removed from the Nepal list.

586. Phylloscopus nitidus Blyth. Bright Green Leaf Warbler.

CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 1Q (April 21). NepAL VALLEY: Thankot:

2 63, 3 GQ, 2 unsexed (April 10-14).

We found the Bright Green Leaf Warbler in small numbers in

the Chitlang and Nepal valleys during April. It was observed usually

singly among foliages of trees on the edges of forests.

It may be noted that all the recorded collections of this species

in Nepal (Scully, 1879, p. 306; Ripley, 1950b, p. 402; Rand &

Fleming, 1957, p. 168) are dated April, and that all are from central

Nepal. Scully (loc. cit.) held that it was found in the Nepal Valley

on passage to and from its winter quarters, but Proud (1955, p. 64)

noted it on passage only in spring.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL... : BAe 419.

Measurements* :

# Wing Tail Bill

3 od: 64(2), 65 48, 49, 51 13.5, 14(2)

429: 58, 60, 62(2) 43, 46(2), 47 13.5, 14.5(2),—

2 unsexed : - 62, 64 46, 49 14, —

587. Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis (Blyth). Large Crowned Leaf

Warbler. |

MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 ¢ (May 1).

The only specimen of the Crowned Leaf Warbler found by us

in Nepal was in a mixed feeding party with the Yellowcheeked Tit

(Parus xanthogenys), Greyheaded Flycatcher (Culicicapa ceylonensis),

etc., in the canopy of a large oak tree at Deorali. a

As far as I can ascertain, this species has not so far been obtained

in Nepal*. Proud (1949, p. 709), however, observed it in the Nepal

Valley as a scarce passage migrant in spring.

Measurements: 1 3: Wing 63; tail 51; bill 13.5.

588. Phylloscopus reguloides reguloides (Blyth)°. Blyth’s Leaf Warbler.

TARAI: Simra: 1 unsexed (March 6). BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 2 (March 8).

MarKHu VALLEY: Deorali: 2 ¢3, 1 @ (April 29, 30). CHITLANG VALLEY :

Chitlang : 1 g, 1 2 (March 15, April 16). Nepat VALLey : Thankot: 7 ¢¢, 19, 1

unsexed (March 22-April 14). ec

Blyth’s Leaf Warbler was found by us as common in central

Nepal during March-April_on bushes and trees in dense forests.

Scully (4879) did not include it in his list. Ripley (1950b, p. 402)

found it in the western and eastern tarai in winter, and on Chandra-

giri Pass, central Nepal, in December and April. Polunin (1955,

p. 892) reported it from the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, at

c. 3050 m. in summer. Lowndes (1955, p. 33) recorded it from the

Marsiyandi Valley, central Nepal, at c. 1980-2440 m. in summer.

Proud (1955, p. 64) noted it breeding on the hills round the Valley

at c. 1220-2440 m. after March. Biswas (1960a) found it breeding

in the Dudh Kosi Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 3050 m. in May.

Measurements :

10 3d 4 29 2 see

Wing : 56, 57 (2), 58, 58.5 (2), 59, 60 (3) 55, 56, 57, 58 - 56, 58- ~~

Tail : 42, 43 (2), 44 (3), 46, 46.5, 47, 48 40, 42, 43, 45 42,45. |.

Bill : 12.54(5)3.13 ©) 1259 3 (8) > (2.5,, 13...

1 Including additional Nepalese material present in the Zoological Survey of India.

® Under Ph. occipitalis, Seebohm (1881, p. 51) listed one Hodgson skin from

Nepal in the collection of the British Museum, marked as ‘Duplicate. type of

Hippolais swainsoni Hodgs.’ which is, however, a synonym of Ph. niticus:

3 Ripley (1961, p. 484) has shown that the type locality of this species should

be taken as Darjeeling and not Calcutta as has been given by Baker (1930, Dp. 189),

Ticehurst (1938, p. 165), Vaurie (1959a, p. 294), among others,

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

*589. Regulus regulus himalayensis Bonaparte = sikkimensis R. & A.

Meinertzhagen. Nepal Goldcrest.

Very few specimens of the Goldcrest seem to have been taken

in Nepal. Those collected in west-central Nepal and in Okhaldhunga

district of eastern Nepal by Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 173), as well

as the one in the British Museum from northern central Nepal

(reported by Vaurie, 1955c, p. i100), are intermediate between the

western Himalayan himalayensis and the eastern sikkimensis. ‘The

Nepal Valley birds which Proud (1949, p. 709) saw at c. 2440 m. in

winter, probably also belong to the intermediate population.

Gadow (1883, p. 82) listed two specimens from Nepal, a female

presented by Hodgson, and a male by Gould.

*590. Regulus regulus sikkimensis R. & A. Meinertzhagen. Sikkim

Goldcrest.

The lone record of the Sikkim Goldcrest from Nepal has been

provided by Stevens (1924a, p. 1014), who found it on the Nepal side

of the Singalila Range, eastern Nepal, near Tonglu, at c. 3050 m.

in January.

*591. Leptopoecile sophiae obscura Przewalski. Tibetan Tit-Warbler.

The first and the only record of the Tibetan Tit-Warbler from

Nepal appears to be Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 173) who obtained

a single specimen, a male, in the Kali Gandak Valley, west-central

Nepal, at c. 3655 m. in December.

592. Seicercus burkei burkei (Burton). Blackcrowned Flycatcher-

Warbler. .

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang, Chandragiri above Chitiang: 5 ¢¢ (April 17-

26). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: 10 4, 2 unsexed (March 21-April 3).

The Blackcrowned Flycatcher-Warbler is common in central

Nepal from the Mahabharat Range above Bhimphedi to the Nepal

Valley during March-April, in small parties on bushes and trees.

Scully (1879) did not report it from Nepal. Stevens (1924a,

p. 1025) found it on the Singalila Range, eastern Nepal, at c. 3050 m.

in April-May. Proud (1949, p. 709) noted it in the Nepal Valley

up to c. 2135 m. in winter. Smythies (1950, p. 516) came across it

only on Phulchauki Danda, Nepal Valley, above c. 2440 m. Ripley

(1950b, p. 399) found it in all parts of Nepal from the tarai up to

c. 1830 m. Polunin (1955, p. 892, reported it from the Langtang

Valley, central Nepal, at c. 2745 m. in summer. Lowndes (1955.

p. 33) recorded it from Manangbhot, central Nepal, at c. 2745-3050 m.

err a.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 421

in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 162-163) found it from

western to eastern Nepal at c. 275-2745 m. in winter and spring.

Most of my specimens taken between March 21 and 29 have the

forehead and forecrown in moult.

A male collected on April 17 had non-breeding testes.

Colours of soft parts: Tris very dark brown; upper mandible horny black,

paler near the tip and yellowish on the edges and the extreme tip ; lower mandible

brownish yellow; legs and feet light horny brown; claws light horny; pads

white. ,

Measurements :

15 od 2 unsexed

Wing: 35 (2), 55.5, 56, 57.5 (2), 58 (3), 59 (4), 59.5, 60 57, 58

Tail : 43, 45, 46, 46.5, 47, 49 (2), 50 (3), 51 (2), 52, 53, — 49,—

Bill : 12.5, 13 (11), 13.5 (2), 14 13 (2)

The measurement of the tail, 45 to 46, as given by Baker (1924,

p. 487) is obviously very small.

593. Seicercus castaniceps castaniceps (Hodgson). Chestnut-headec

Flycatcher-Warbler.

MaRKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 2 (April 29). CHITLANG VALLEy : Chitlang :

1 g (March 15). NepAL VALLEY: Thankot, Chandragiri above Thankot: 4 ¢2,

2 99, 1 unsexed (March 23-31, April 14).

This flycatcher-warbler did not appear to us to be particularly

common in central Nepal. We found it in small numbers on bushes

and trees on the Mahabharat Range and the hills round the Nepal}

Valley. Smythies (1950, p. 516) also found it scarce, having come

across it only once on the Chandragiri in November.

It was also reported from eastern Nepal by Stevens (1924a, p.

1026) in the Mai Valley in April; Ripley (1950b, p. 400) in the tarai,

Kosi Valley, in February; and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 164) at

Okhaldhunga, c. 2285 m. in December.

One of my female specimens taken on March 15 is marked

‘breeding’ on its label.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown; upper mandible dark horny, paler on

edges and tip ; lower mandible yellowish brown; legs, feet and claws pale greyish

horny ; pads white to yellowish white.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

SoC: 1552, 2s 53:35'(2) 40, 41 (2), 42, 43 10,10.5, 11,—(2)

309: 47,47.5, 50.5 35, 37,38 10.5 (3)

1 unsexed : 50 37 10.5

#594. Seicercus affinis Moore. Allied Flycatcher-Warbler.

The record of the Allied Flycatcher-Warbler in Nepal is based

on Hodgson’s later -collection, probably from eastern Nepal (Hors-

field & Moore, 1854, p. 341; Gray, 1863, p. 33),

422. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

*595. Seicercus poliogenys (Blyth). Greycheeked Flycatcher-Warbler.

The sole post-Hodgsonian record of this flycatcher-warbler from

Nepal is based on Proud’s (1955, p. 65) report. She observed it as

very scarce in the Nepal Valley, having come across a few examples

only in Kathmandu in November.

*596. Seicercus xanthoschistos albosuperciliaris (Jerdon). Western

Greyheaded Flycatcher-Warbler.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 163) found the western race of the

Greyheaded Flycatcher-Warbler in western Nepal at c. 275 and

1830 m. in winter, and that forms the only record of this form

from Nepal. Ripley’s (1950b, p. 399) earlier winter collection from

western Nepal was placed by him with the eastern race xantho-

schistos. 1 have not myself examined any example from western

Nepal, and therefore, am not sure if both the races occur there in

winter. —

597. Seicercus xanthoschistos xanthoschistos (G. R. Gray). Eastern

Greyheaded Flycatcher- Warbler.

Dvn : Bhimphedi : 3 ¢¢, 1 unsexed (March 11,12, May 9). MARKHU VALLEY:

Deorali: 3 ¢¢ (April 30, May 1). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang, Chandragiri above

Chitlang : 7 ¢¢, 2 29, 1 unsexed (March 31, April 17-26). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot,

Godavari: 5 ¢d, 7 22, 2 unsexed (March 23—April 13, May 10).

The Eastern Greyheaded Flycatcher-Warbler is common on hills

round the Nepal Valley, and both sides of the Chandragiri and the

Mahabharat ranges during March-May. It usually occurs on shrubs

or lower branches of trees along mountain trails and on the edges of

forests, generally above c. 1220 m.

Polunin (1955, p. 893) recorded it from the Langtang Valley,

central Nepal, at c. 2745 m. in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957,

p. 163) reported it from west-central and eastern Nepal at c. 1370-

1525 m. in December.

Two males taken on March 11 and 12 were marked ‘breeding’ on

the labels, and two other males of April 17 and 21 had fully breed-

ing testes.

Colours of soft parts: Tris brown to dark brown ; upper mandible dark horny

to almost black, paler on tip and/or edges ; lower Eredible brownish yellow; legs

feet, and claws pale horny to horny brown ; pads white.

Measurements :

Wing Tail | Bill

I8d¢:- 54.3), 55(2), 56(D, 42 (4), 43.3), 43.5, 12 (4), 12.5 (1;

aed 56.5, 57 (4), 58 _ 44(8), 45 (2) 13 (6), —

SUS Be rey iperien by Bey dt 4) eum Poy 53 (2), 39, 4 (4), 40.5, © moles b 9 3; 42 (4),

is : 53.5, 54 (2) S19 ATGADS(DpOe' 1536) SD: operat 13 (2):

4 unsexed : 52, 54, 56, 57 .. 39,43. (2) 45 noe 12 (3), 13

awe

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 423

_ As: has. been said under the preceding form, Ripley (1950b, p. 399)

placed his western Nepal birds under the nominate race. However,

Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 163-164) identified their western Nepal

material as albosuperciliaris Jerdon (type locality Kashmir), and the

west-central, central and eastern birds as xanthoschistos. I have not

examined any western Nepal specimen, but as Rand & Fleming have

noted, the Nepal Valley specimens are slightly paler than Sikkim

examples, but darker than those from Kashmir. Hodgson’s collection

on which Gray’s description of the species was based, was presented

to the British Museum in 1843, and must have been collected while

Hodgson was still the Resident at Kathmandu. It is quite likely that

he obtained those specimens in the Nepal Valley where the type

locality of xanthoschistes may be restricted.

598. Abroscopus superciliaris flaviventris (Jerdon). Yellowbellied Fly-

catcher-Warbler.

Abrornis albigularis Blyth, 1861, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. : 200. (Sikkim.) Not

Abrornis albogularis Moore, 1854.

Abrornis flaviventris Jerdon, 1863, Birds India 2 (1) : 203. (Darjeeling, northern

West Bengal.) New name for Abrornis albigularis Blyth, 1861, preoccupied.

Dun : Hitaura: 5 ¢¢, 2 juv. fd, 5 99, 2 unsexed (May 11-29).

The Yellowbellied Flycatcher-Warbler was met with by us only

in the central dun along the edges and in the lighter parts of forests.

The present report represents the only one from Nepal since

Hodgson’s days. It may be noted that Nepal has not been included

within the range of this form by Ripley (1961, p. 488).

One of the juvenile males (May 13) is similar to adult in colora-

tion, but has the forecrown ashy, green of upper side a little darker.

yellow on the underside duller, and it still has some down under-

neath. The other juvenile male (May 29) is a trifle older. It has

an almost adult size, brownish grey on forecrown, rufous edges to

rectrices, and a little down on the underside.

Measurements ;

Wing Tail Bill

Soe: 50.5 (2), 51, 52 (2) 42, 43 (3), 44 12 (2), 12.5 (3)

5 9973; 46, 47, 48 (3) © 36, 39, 40 (3) | 12, 12.5 (2), 13 (2) |

2 unsexed : 47, 48 40, 41 | 12.5,, 13

#599. Abroscopus albogularis _albogularis Moore. Whitethroated

Flycatcher-Warbler. oe:

The. only | tecord of the Whitethroated Flycatcher-Warbler from

Nepal is based on the type specimens that formed a part of Hodgson’ S

later collection. The examples of the species. from the same collec-

424. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

tion presented to the British Museum have, however, been listed as

coming from Darjeeling (Gray, 1863, p. 32).

600. Abroscopus schisticeps schisticeps (G. R. Gray). Blackfaced

Flycatcher-Warbler.

MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 ¢, 1 9, 2 unmsexed (April 30-May 2).

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 3 go (April 16-21). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot :

7 $S,1, 1 unsexed (March 23-April 14)

We found the Blackfaced Flycatcher-Warbler not uncommonly on

hills round the Nepal Valley, above c. 1525 m.

Scully (1879) did not report it from Nepal, and curiously, other

Nepali records (Ripley, 1950b, p. 400; Proud, 1952b, p. 668, 1955.

p. 65; Rand & Fleming, 1957, p. 164) all relate to central Nepal only.

Measurements :

1D Pern 200 3 unsexed

Wing: 45.5, 46, 47, 47.5 (2), 48 (4), 49 (2) 46, 47 47,48.5, 49

Tail : 42 (2), 43 (4), 43.5, 44 (3) .— 41, 43 43, 45,—

Bill : 105°10;5 (2); 1G) 11.5 11 (2) 11, 11.5, —

*601. Abroscopus hodgsoni (Moore). Broadbilled Flycatcher-Warbler.

The. only record of the Broadbiiied Flycatcher-Warbler from

Nepal is based on Hodgson’s later collection.

I agree with -Ripley (1961, p. 488) that Tickellia Blyth is not

generically distinct from Abroscopus Baker. Se |

602. Orthotomus sutorius patia Hodgson. Nepal Tailor Bird.

TaRAL: Simra: 1 ¢, 1 Q@ (March 5, 6). BHaBAR: Amlekhganj: 1 @

(March 8). Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 11 ¢¢,1 (8), 4 29 (March 11, 12, May

3-25, June 1). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot, Kathmandu: 6 ¢6, 2 (é2), 2 22

(March 22-April 8).

The Tailor Bird is very common in central Nepal from the tarai

to the Nepal Valley in gardens, orchards, edges of forests about

villages, etc., up to about 1675 m.

Ripley (1950b, p. 402) reported it also from eastern Nepal, and

Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 168-169) from western through eastern.

’ In March-April many birds were undergoing or had just com-

pleted the pre-nuptial moult of the tail. It appears that the central

tail feathers moult last (tail moult being sometimes continued up to

May), except for two specimens (c‘o', March il, 31) where they

moulted first. It is quite possible, however, that those two specimens

underwent post-juvenile moult. Such dissimilarity in the sequence

of caudal moult between adult and juvenile has been known in

Cisticola sp. |

Birds were breeding in late March and April.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 425

Colours of soft parts; Iris yellowish brown ; upper mandible dark horny (once

with fleshy on edges) ; lower mandible fleshy (once with dusky on sides and tip); legs

and feet fleshy horny to horny brown; claws horny to horny brown ; pads fleshy

white to yellowish white.

Measurements :

18 3d 3 ($d) 8 29

Wing: 46 (3), 46.5, 47 (2), 47.5, 48 (2), 48 (2),50° 44, 45, 45.5, 46 (5)

48.5, 49 (4), 50 (4)

Tail: 43, 44, 46 (2), 47, 49, 52, 54 (2), 45 (2),57 37, 38, 39 (2), 40 (3), 41

Bill: 15 (2), 15.5 (4), 16 (8), 16.5 (2), — (2) 155 0) 15.4); 15:5 G6) —

603. Prinia socialis stewarti Blyth. Stewart’s Ashy Wren-Warbler.

Dun : Hitaura: 5 ¢¢, 3 22 (May 19-30).

The Ashy Wren-Warbler is not an uncommon bird in the central

duns, occurring in scrub, bushes and grass near cultivation.

Scully (1879) did not record its occurrence in his area. Ripley

(1950b, p. 403) and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 170) found it only in

western Nepal.

One of my male specimens (May 19) has the central tail feathers

moulting. A female (May 22) has the tail in moult. Another female

(May 25) has the right central rectrix in moult, while yet another

female taken May 28 still has the sheaths or the bases of the central

rectrices.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

wed: 47 (2), 48, 49, 51 50, 52, 53,54 +, — 14 (3), 14.5, —

sae Oe: 45, 46 (2) 52 +, — (2) 1352.14 @)

Ripley (loc. cit.) identified his single specimen from extreme

western Nepal as inglisi Whistler & Kinnear, 1933 (type locality

Bhutan Duars, Jalpaiguri Dist., northern Bengal). It thus extended

‘the range of this race [inglisi] five hundred miles to the west, pre-

sumably throughout the Nepal lowlands’. This he followed up even

in his recent publication (1961, pp. 454-455) where Nepal has been

excluded from the range of stewarti but included under inglisi.

However, all my eight specimens from the central dun are no doubt

stewarti. Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.) also obtained a single example

from extreme western Nepal, but they did not identify it subspeci-

fically. Extension of the range cf inglisi on the basis of a single

individual is not justified, especially in the light of our data. Ripley’s

Specimen may represent an individual variation, for all we know.

*604. Prinia subflava fusca (Hodgson). Nepal Brown Wren-Warbler.

The first post-Hodgsonian record of the Brown Wren-Warbler

from Nepal was made by Ripley (1950b. p. 403) who found it in the

425. JOURNAL, BOMBAY. .NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

western tarai. Subsequently, it was also reported by Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 170) from eastern and western Nepal at c. 275 m.

*605. Prinia sylvatica gangetica (Blyth). Northern Jungle Wren-

Warbler.

Ripley’s (195Gb, p. 403) report of the Jungle Wren-Warbler from

the western tarai appears to constitute the first record of this species

for Nepal. Later, Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 170) also found it in

western Nepal at c. 275 m. :

606. Prinia hodgsoni rufula Godwin-Austen. Northern Greybreasted

Wren-Warbler.

TARAI : Simra: 3 ¢¢ (March 4, 5). BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 3,1 2 (March

8).. DUN: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 13 ¢¢, 1 9, 2 unsexed (May 6-28, June 9).

We noted this wren-warbler common in the tarai, bhabar and

dun of central Nepal. It occurred in small flocks during March, but

in breeding pairs during May-June on scrub, grass, etc., in jungie

clearings and along the edges of forests.

Scully (1879) did not include it in his list. Ripley (1950b,

pp. 402-403) reported it from western (up to c. 1525 m.), central

(including the Nepal Valley) and eastern (up to c. 365 m.) Nepal.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 159) found it in western through eastern

Nepal from the tarai up to c. 1370 m.

March birds are in very worn winter plumage. One of them

(o°, March 5) has the wing in moult.

Late May and June birds had fully breeding gonads.

Colours of soft parts: Iris and edges of eyelids dull brownish orange; * bill

black ; legs and feet yellowish brown, paler on the hinder aspect of legs; claws

horny ; pads white, sometimes with a light brownish wash.

Measurements :

17 oo 2 22 2 unsexed

Wing: 44, 46 (2), 46.5, 47 (6), 47.5, 48 (4), 49 ,— 43,47 = 43, 47

‘Fails. 45 (3), 46.5, 47 (3), 47.5, 48 (3), 49, 50, — (2) 39, 45

= 50 +,52 +,55, —

Bill : 12.5, 13 (4), 13.5 (7), 14 3), — (2) 13 (2) 13 2)

607. Prinia rufescens rufescens Blyth. Beavan’s Wren-Warbler.

Hodgson’s collection provides the only record of the occurrence

of Beavan’s Wren-Warbler in Nepal. Although there were no specific

entries of this species in the catalogues of _Hodgson’s- collection

(Gray & Gray, 1846; Gray, 1863), two specimens (one ex Indian

Museum) of -Hodgson were listed by Sharpe (1883. p. 256).

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL Maas. 429

608. Prinia criniger criniger Hodgson. Brown Hill Warbler.

Dun : Hitaura, Bhimphedi : 8 ¢¢, 4 29,1 subad. 2 (March 13, May 6-29).

MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 ¢ (April 28). NepAL VALLEY: Thankot: 1 ¢

(April 13).

The Brown Hill Warbler was found by us in small numbers in

central Nepal from c. 455 to 1525 m. It occurred in low bushes and

scrub.

Polunin (1955, p. 893) reported it from the Trisul and Langtang

valleys, central Nepal, at c. 1830-2745 m. in summer. Rand &

Fleming (1957, p. 170) found it in western, west-central and eastern

Nepal at c. 1370-2135 m. in winter.

Three of my male specimens taken April 13, 28 and May 6, have

long (winter) tails in summer plumage. 3

The rectrices of two male specimens (May 8, 22) are very worn;

those of a female (May 11) are in moult; while in another female

bird (May 24) the lateral tail feathers are in moult, but the central

ones very worn.

Measurements :

10 3d 4 29

Wing : 55, 56, 56 + ,.57 (2), 58 (2), 58.5-(2), 59 47, 49, 50, 51

Tail : 90, 92 +, 95, 96 (2), 105, 112 (2) ,— (2) 74, 84, — (2)

Bill : 14.5, 15 (4), 15.5 (4), — 14 (3), 14.5.

Deignan (1957a, p. 25) has shown that Prinia polychroa and P.

criniger are best treated as separate species.

*609. Prinia gracilis lepida Blyth. Indian Streaked Wren-Warbler.

The only post-Hodgsonian record of the Streaked Wren-Warbler

from Nepal is due to Proud (1955, p. 65) who observed it as a very

common bird at c. 915 m. on the new road west of the Nepal Valley.

610. Prinia cinereocapilla Moore. Hodgson’s Wren-Warbler.

Dun : Hitaura: 9 63, 4 29, 3 unsexed (May 13-29),

This wren-warbler was found by us to be common in the central

dun during May, frequently occurring together with or at locations

adjacent to these of P. hodgsoni rufula.

Neither Scully (1879) nor Ripley (1950b) reported it from Nepal.

but Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 170) obtained it only in western Nepal.

The presence and amount of rufous on the head in my specimens

is somewhat variable. These variations may be grouped as follows:

(a) A little rufous present, grey feathers fresh.

Rufous may be present on the forehead and along a narrow

line over each eye (1 co, May 22); or only along a narrow line

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

over each eye (1 oc’, May 22); or only on forehead (1 ot, May 26);

or on lores only (2 unsexed, May 28, 29). |

(b) Mixed rufous and grey, some worn some fresh (2 oc,

May 14); or all worn feathers (1 9, May 16); rufous may be very

pale (1 9, May 23); or it may be very much reduced (1 co‘, May

293-2 OO May. 35, 22):

May 16, 18, 22; 1 unsexed, May 22).

The precise significance of these variations is not understood from

my material. Perhaps a study of the plumage sequence from

juvenile to adult may explain the variations.

A male specimen (May 14) has the forecrown in moult. One of

its right tail feathers, the one next to the central, is also growing.

A female (May 23) has its forehead and forecrown moulting.

Another male (May 18) has its central tail feathers moulting. The

female bird mentioned above and an unsexed specimen (May 22)

both have their outer tail feathers growing, the central ones being

already grown.

Colours of soft parts : tris and edges of eyelids yellow ochre with a pinkish

tinge ; bill black ; legs and feet yellowish brown ; claws horny ; pads white.

Measurements :

9d 4 9° 3 unsexed

Wing : 42, 42.5 (2), 43, 44 (3), 45, 46 42 (3), 43 42, 44, 45

Tail : 40 (2), 41, 43 (2), 44, 50,—(2) 39, 40, 41.5, 44 45, 47 +-, —

Bill : 13 (2), 13.5 (2), 14 (3), —(2) 13.5 (2), —(2) 13, 14 (2)

*611. Prinia flaviventris flaviventris (Delessert). Yellowbellied Wren-

Warbler.

Hodgson’s collection of the Yellowbellied Wren-Warbler consti-

tutes the sole record of its occurrence in Nepal.

*612. Prinia atrogularis atrogularis (Moore). Blackthroated Hill

Warbler.

Stevens’s (1924a, p. 1029) report from the Mai Valley, eastern

Nepal, forms the only record of the occurrence of the Blackthroated

Hill Warbler in Nepal since Hodgson’s time.

*613. Cisticola exilis tytleri Jerdon. Yellowheaded Fantail Warbler.

The first and the only record of the Yellowheaded Fantail

Warbler from Nepal is to be credited_to Rand & Fleming (1957.

p. 169) who reported it from western Nepal at c. 275 m. in December.

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 429

*614. Cisticola juncidis cursitans (Franklin). Streaked Fantail

Warbler.

The post-Hodgsonian records of the Streaked Fantail Warbler from

Nepal consists of Proud’s (1949, p. 708) observation in the Nepal

Valley as a common bird from April to September, and Rand &

Fleming’s (1957, p. 169) report as a common bird in the western

- and eastern tarai in winter.

(To be continued)

~ Some Reptiles of South India

(A Reprint)

R. H. BEDDOME

(With two plates)

[In the Madras Monthly Journal of Medical Science, 1870-1,

Major R. H. Beddome published a series of three papers describing

17 new species of reptiles from south India. In 1935 Dr. Baini

Prashad, then Director, Zoological Survey of India, sent the Society

a typed copy of the three papers with the photographic reproductions

of the accompanying plates, prepared from the only traceable set of

the journal which was available at the Madras Medical College.

Madras. As the papers are of considerable importance, they are

being reprinted for the use of research workers. The names used

by M. A. Smith in the second edition of FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA,

Reptilia and Amphibia, volumes II (1935) and III (1943), are

indicated in parentheses under each name. For the Caecilians

reference is made to Boulenger’s FAUNA volume on Reptilia and

Amphibia (1890).—EpDs.]

Descriptions of some new Lizards from the

Madras Presidency, with 2 Plates. By Major

R. H. Beddome, Officiating Conservator of

Forests, Madras.

[From the Madras Monthly Journal of Medical Science, Vol. I.

pp. 30-35, (1870), Art. IL]

Sphenocephalus ? pentadactylus (Bedd.). [Chalcides pentadactylus.

742 VK

The anterior legs minute and fitting into a groove, fingers five,

the third slightly longer than the fourth, first and fifth very small;

posterior legs well formed, toes five, the fourth longer than the

PLATE J

JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

waar

ay.

é)

meh

Sphenocephalus? pentadactylus (Bedd.).

(Reproduced frcm Madras Monitlily Journal of Medical Science, Vol. 1, 1870)

Journ. BoMBAy Nat. Hist. Soc. a CAPD “APCATE if

o&,

mat

EaRE se &

<ak

‘<2

ae.

‘ey

¢3

pas

comet

Pea)

‘©

vit Lathe

at.

Me)

‘ee

Calodactylus aureus (Bedd.).

(Reproduced from Madras Monthly Journal of Medical. Science,-Vo]. 1, 1870)

SOME REPTILES OF SOUTH INDIA ‘ 431

third, the fifth very small; form slender, four and quarter inches long,

as thick jas a goose quill, two-thirds cylindrical, flat and laterally

angled beneath as far as the vent; the body and tail covered with

small smooth lustrous hexagonal scales, with a median row of

broader subcaudals; upper lip covering the mouth, eyes minute,

surrounded by small scales; no external trace of ears; nostrils in

small single shields let into the posterior side of the rostral, with a

small post-nasal behind each, and two large shields in the loreal

region between the post-nasal and the eye; rostral square behind, a

single prae-frontal narrow and a parallelogram in shape; post-

frontal single six-sided, vertical broader behind; occipitals rounded

behind, with a small shield between them, which is let into the

posterior base of the vertical; five plates (some divided) over the

eye, and between it and the vertical and post-frontal; upper labials

8-9, the fourth and fifth below the eye, some large shields over the

posterior ones; the distance between the axils of the fore and hind

limbs is a little more than one and three-quarter inch; colour of a

uniform dark brown; hind limbs a little more than half an inch long;

fore limbs very slender, and not quite a quarter inch long.

On the sandy banks of the Kuddle Poondy, a tidal river near

Beypore. Described and figured from a unique specimen in the

Madras Museum collected by Mr. Carter. It is very similar to

Mr. Blyth’s Sphenocephalus tridactylus from the Punjab, but as it

has five fingers and toes instead of three, and the shields of the head

differ considerably, it will probably have to be formed into a new

genus. The eyes were injured, and I could not detect whether the

lower eyelid was transparent or not. (See Plate I.)

Calodactylus (Bedd.). [Calodactylodes Strand, 1926 (1928), 2: 77].

A new genus of Geckos. Gen. Char.: Fingers and toes 5-5,

dilated in their whole length, with two series of small transverse

plates beneath; the thumbs and the first toes ending in a single pair

of flat plates, with the claw between them; the other four fingers and

toes provided with two pairs of similar plates, one pair terminal

and the other pair one-third down the finger or toe, and separated

from the terminal pair by several rows of the smaller scales; no

cutaneous appendage.

Calodactylus aureus (Bedd.). [Calodactylodes aureus, 2: 78}.

Head and back uniformly granular, with very small scales, some

few of which are very slightly enlarged; scales of the belly small

nearly square in about thirty transverse series; eye large, without

eyelids, pupils elliptic erect (shaped thus ap ); nostrils behind each

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

angle of- the rostral, with two plates between them; fourteen upper

labials, last two very small, thirteen lower ones; opening of the ear about

quarter the size of the eye, not denticulate; no femoral or preanal pores,

no plates on the chin beneath except the lower labials; length 64

to 7 inches, of which the tail is 34 to 34; length of fore limbs

15 inches, hind limbs 1% inches; of a brilliant golden colour, freckled

with brown over the whole of the upper surface (the yellow colour

turns nearly white in spirits).

Amongst rocks in dark shady ravines on the Tripatty hills in

North Arcot. (See Pilate II.) |

Gymnodactylus marmoratus (Bedd.). [Cnemaspis beddomei (Theobald),

18/6, 752° FA?

Of stout form, body and tail coarsely granular, some of the scales

enlarged but not spinous; of a dark colour, almost black, clouded

with greyish white markings, or sometimes grey, clouded with black

markings; belly uniform greyish; tail uniform greyish brown, or

sometimes with black and grey alternate bands; pores eight, in a

continuous line across the preanal region, and occupying the same

breadth as the vent; outer scales in the same row, and 18-20 scales

of the two anterior and some scales of the posterior rows enlarged

flat and white; one enlarged white scale at the base of the tail on

each side of the vent; some of the subcaudals considerably enlarged,

very irregularly six-sided; rostral plate large, grooved behind, with

two small plates behind the nasal organs; upper labials 6-8, the first

very large the last 2-3 very small; lower labials 6-7, the median

lower labial very large, produced back into a square base and

entirely separating the chin shields; pupil round; length up to 34

inches, of which the tail is 1.

Under stones on the South Tinnevelly and Travancore hills,

3-5,000 ft.

Gymnodactylus gracilis (Bedd.). [Cnemaspis gracilis, 2: 74).

Of slender form, with rather elongated head, grey coloured, tail

banded with black, body with a row of white blotches along the

centre of the back, and sometimes with irregular cross bands of

black markings; belly pearl coloured, with very minute black dots

on the scales; limbs and toes banded with black markings; body

‘coarsely granular, with some of the scales considerably enlarged, but

scarcely spinous; regular rows of spines on the thick part of the

‘tail; subcaudals enlarged; femoral or preanal pores none; 6-7 upper

SOME REPTILES OF SOUTH INDIA 433

labials, six. lower ones; median lower labial large angled behind,

rostral moderate; pupil round; total length up to 23 inches.

Under stones on the Palghat hills.

Gymnodactylus Wynadensis (Bedd.). [Cnemaspis wynadensis, 2: 69].

Head and body finely granular, many of the scales on the latter

being enlarged but not spinous; tail without any spines, rounded,

tapering; subcaudals large, ventral scales small, nearly round; preanal

scales very small; femoral pores five, rarely only four on each thigh;

upper labials 5-6, the first very large, others gradually smaller, last

two minute; lower labials 6-8; rostral large grooved behind with

several small scales behind it; pupil round; length 3-34 inches; colour

blackish, with brown mottlings, sometimes a white line from the back

of each eye to shoulder; grey beneath.

- In the moist forests of Wynad, found under stones in the day

Gymnodactylus ornatus (Bedd.). [Cnemaspis ornata, 2: 70].

Head and body covered with fine granular scales, some of those

on the latter being enlarged about four times, but not spinous; tail

without any enlarged scales or spines; some. of the subcaudals

enlarged; belly with about 34 rows of nearly round scales; preanal

pores seven in front of the preanal region; opening of the ear small,

pupil round; seven upper and seven lower labials; median. lower

labial large, narrow and square behind, with one plate behind it

and two plates between it and the first lower labials; length three

inches, of which the tail.is one and a half; of a brown colour, with

an indistinct row of white black-edged spots down the centre of the

back, a white band black-edged anteriorly, across the neck, just in

front of the shoulders; a white line through the lower part of the

lower labials which extends to beyond the ear, but not to the cross

band. on the nape; a similar white band from the cleft of the mouth

to the ear; a die-shaped white mark on the centre of the head

between. the eyes, and a large shaped white mark on the

posterior part of the head, which has a black spot in the lower part

of it, and is joined on each side by a white line which proceeds from

the eye, (in a single female specimen the band across the nape and

the black spot in front of it are conspicuous, but the other markings

are faint or obsolete);* South Tinnevelly hills at no elevation, under

rock, in dry jungles. art aysn ce fee 7 4

434. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Hemidactylus aurantiacus (Bedd.). [Hemiphyllodactylus typus

aurantiacus, 2: 108]. |

Head, body, and tail covered with numerous small granular scales,

none of which are enlarged; tail without any spines, snout very short

and obtusely rounded; nine upper labials, last three very small,

9-10 lower ones, no shields on the chin beneath, except the labials;

belly covered with rows of small rounded scales, no femoral or

preanal pores, pupil elliptic, erect, shaped thus ge , subcaudals

not enlarged, brown with black streaks on the neck and anterior

portion of the body, and black blotches on the centre and posterior

portion; tail orange coloured, blotched with black, belly white, with

minute brown dots; length 23 inches, of which the tail is 14.

Shevaroys, under stones about Yercaud and elsewhere, at an

elevation of 4,000 feet. I have a single specimen of apparently the

same species, but somewhat larger and of thicker build, from the

Anamallays, at 5,500 feet elevation.

Hemidactylus reticulatus (Bedd.). [2: 94].

Head uniformly granular, body granular with some scales enlarged

and conical; tail with rows of spinous tubercles near the base; preanal

pores 7 in front of the preanal region; nine upper labials, three

last very small, 7-8 lower labials; opening of the ear small; 32

longitudinal series of scales across the belly; pupil very narrow,

elliptic, erect; length 24 inches, of which the body is 14, and of stout

form; colour reddish grey, with a large net pattern of black markings,

the enlarged conical scales being reddish.

Colegal, under stones about rocky ground.

Ateuchosaurus Travancoricus (Bedd.). [Ristella travancorica, 2: 331].

Supranasal shields none; each scale with two heels, a large single

prae-frontal in contact with the rostral and vertical, the latter shield

being very narrow behind; occipitals two pair. ‘a large diamond

shaped shield between the posterior pair, and one large temporal on

each side of the posterior pair; five superciliary shields, with the

superciliary region generally very convex; opening of the ear very

small, and not fringed; scales in 26 longitudinal series; limbs rather

feeble, the third and fourth toes nearly equal in length; the fore

legs do not reach the eye when laid forward; preanals and sub-

cauidals not enlarged; length 34 inches, of which the body is 13;

colour of a uniform nacreous brown above, pearl coloured beneath.

Travancore hills, Wynad. and the Anamallays up to 5,000 feet.

SOME REPTILES OF SOUTH INDIA 435

Mocoa Travancorica (Bedd.}. [Leiolopisma travancoricum, 2: 304].

Supranasal shield none, the lower eyelid with a round transparent

space, a single prae-frontal is in contact with the rostral as well as

the vertical; four superciliary shields with a row of very small shields

between them and the eye; anterior occipital single or rarely double,

a diamond shaped shield between the upper part of the posterior

pair of occipitals; ear without tubercles or denticulations; vent with

a pair of large anals; subcaudals broad, scales in 22 longitudinal

series: limbs feeble, the fore lezs extend nearly to the eye, the hind

leg rather more than half way to the axils of the fore; the fourth

hind toe is a quarter or a little more shorter than the third; greenish

olive above, and very shining; a narrow black band sometimes

broken into spots down the centre of the back, disappearing on the

tail, and irregular or wanting on the neck; sides blackish, belly pearl

coloured; tail bluish beneath, the black band down the back is

sometimes entirely absent. Travancore hills and Wynad.

Cabrita Jerdoni (Bedd.). [2: 375].

Two loreals, snout more pointed than in C. Leschenaultii;

posterior occipitals joined into one large shield with four raised lines

on it; small scales on the front margin of the ear; dorsal scales keeled

about five times as large as in Leschenaultii; lower eyelid trans-

parent; upper labials seven, the four first without ridge, fifth very

large and under the eye, lower median labial large, seven lower

labials; six pair of large chin shields behind the lower median labial;

the three first meet, the fourth is the largest, and the sixth is rather

small; ventral scales in six longitudinal and twenty-six transverse

series; vent covered with a large central scale; femoral pores twelve

on each thigh; brown with two reddish white longitudinal bands on

each side as in Leschenaultii, but not so distinct and not edged with

black, two rows of black blotches down the centre of back, between

the two white bands; a lateral white band on each side from the

snout to the axils of the hind legs, running below the eye and through

the tympanum; throat and chin speckled with black underneath; tail

reddish brown; length five inches, of which the tail is three and a half.

In C. Leschenaultii, there is a pair of posterior occipitals with a

small shield between them in this species the posterior occipitals

form one large shield with four high raised corrugated lines along

it, and all the shields of the head are much more corrugated than in

Leschenaultii, and in the latter, the four first labials are furnished

witha lateral ridge, and are bent over at the sides. ,

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Only a single specimen of this interesting lizard was procured

between Colegal and Caverypooram. In its large scales it much

resembles an Ophiops, but has a distinct lower eyelid.

An Ophiops, which I take to be O. Jerdoni (Blyth), is very abundant

near the banks of the Tamboodra, north of Adoni, on red soil; and

I have found the same species at Pothanore. It is very similar in

colouration to the Cabrita here described and the scales of the back

are similar in size, it however wants the lower eyelid, and differs in

the shields of the head and has a much shorter tail, and only 8-9

femoral pores on each side. A casual observer, however, might take

the two to be the same species. Whilst this is passing through the

press I have discovered a new species of Ophiops on the tops of

the Bramahgherries (5,000 feet elevation).

** a ee: * *

Descriptions of new Reptiles from the

Madras Presidency. By Major R. H. Beddome,.

Conservator. of Forests. aa

(In eOrtan on bf Article IT, Vol. T)

[From the Madras Monthly. Journal of Medical Science, Vol. U,

No. EX, pp. 169-176 (1870). Art. XIIT.]

Cercaspis Travancoricus (Bedd.). [Lycodon travancoricus, 3: 259].

Rostral deeply grooved below, not much produced back between

the anterior frontals, anterior frontals small, not half the size of the

posterior, vertical shield-shaped three-sided pointed behind, occipitals

longer than the vertical pointed behind, loreal much longer than

high, preocular reaching the surface of the head and touching the

post-frontal and vertical, eight upper labials, 3rd, 4th and Sth enter

the orbit, two post-oculars, scales in 17 rows quite smooth, with

small apical groove, ventrals angled at the sides, 66 entire subcaudals,

or a few of them double towards the apex of the tail; total length

15 inches, of which the tail is 23; colour black, with white transverse

bars, belly uniform whitish, very like Lycodon striatus, but with

entire subcaudals.

Travancore hills, Attraymallay, 5,000 feet elevation—under stones, .

rare; it has quite the colouration of Lycodon striatus. Two speci-

mens were found, one of which had all the subcaudals single, and

the other had the first 38 entire, and te 28 small ones Lov the

apex of the tail double.

‘SOME REPTILES OF SOUTH INDIA 437

Melanophidium bilineatum (Bedd.). [3: 66].

Fifteen rows of smooth scales, tail compressed (as in Plectrurus)

ending in a single point, head rather elongate, snout rounded, mouth

large, produced back to a level with the eye over the ocular shield,

eye very small, no supra-ocular, a median groove, belly and back

uniform bluish black, very nacreous and assuming all the colours of

the rainbow in the sun, a broad yellow streak from the snout to the

tail on each side, which occupies the whole of the second scale from

the abdominals and half the first and third scales, subcaudals 14 pair,

total length eight inches, as thick as a goose’s quill.

This very lovely species was found near the summit of the Peria

peak in the Wynad, elevation 5,000 feet and also at a similar

elevation on the Tirrhioot peak, both under stones.

Silybura Canarica (Bedd.). [Plectrurus canaricus, 3: 72].

Scales in 15 rows, anal large bifid, subcaudals 12, abdominals about

154, snout obtuse, rostral triangular behind produced back between the

nasals, nasals forming a suture behind the rostral, vertical four-sided .

very pointed behind, eye rather large in front of a large ocular shield.

pupil round, caudal disk laterally compressed (as in Plectrurus), each

scale with 3-5 inconspicuous keels and ending in two sharp spines

one above the other. Very variable in its marking, but generally

of a brownish colour, with only the anterior portion of the trunk

variously streaked, blotched and dotted with yellow, tail always

yellow beneath. Length of largest specimen 16 inches, girth of trunk

11 inches. This species has only 15 rows of scales as in macrolepis,

but its caudal disk differs from that species, and it must be arranged

in a different section, as I look upon all the species with a flat caudal

disk like Silybura Shortii as sectionally (if not specifically) distinct

from the species with the tail of Plectrurus.

South Canara, very common on the top of the Kudra Mukh, a

mountain 6,000 feet high, under stones and in heaps of rubbish. No

Uropeltidae were met with on the Ghats north of the Kudra Mukh,

though most careful search was made every day under stones. On

the eastern coast, the most northern limit at which I have detected

this tribe, is the Golcondah hills near Vizagapatam, where, in a

fortnight’s search, I found a single specimen of Silybura Elliottii, and

Silybura Beddomii is scarce on the Nullay Mallays near Kurnool.

Uropeltidae or rough-tails, are, I believe, confined to the mountains

or the forests very near their base. I have accasionally found

Rhinophis sanguineus in the plains of Malabar, but then always in

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

the dense forests not far from the Ghats, and Silybura Elliottii and

Beddomii are found on the table-land of Mysore, elevation about

3,000 feet; all the other species have only occurred to me on the

mountains, and I believe Dr. Giinther is in error in giving the

neighbourhood of Madras as a locality for Silybura Elliottii.

Pseudophiops monticola (Bedd.). [Ophisops beddomei (Serdon) 1870,

2237/8). ;

Nostrils lateral in the lower part of a large nasal shield, with two

small post-nasals, the lower one the larger, but both together not

equalling the nasal, loreal region concave, loreals two, the posterior

much the larger and separated from the eye by several small shields;

nine upper labials. the fifth very large and under the eye, eight lower

labials all nearly equal; medial lower labial very large, six pairs of

chin shields (exactly the same as in P. Jerdonii), the three first pair

forming sutures, the sixth very small; anterior frontals one small

pair about the size of the nasal or rarely three shields, the inter-

mediate one being larger than the two lateral; posterior frontals three.

the intermediate one being: the smallest, rarely only two, vertical

superciliaries and occipitals as in P. Jerdonii, but the shield between

the post-occipitals is rather larger than in that species, and all the

head shields are longitudinally plicated as in P. Jerdonii, but more

warty; femoral pores 10 on each side, none in the preanal region; a

single large preanal shield, with a second one behind it about half

its size (as in P. Jerdonii): scales of the back in 25-26 rows, acutely

keeled except in the two rows adjoining the abdominal scales; keels

more prominent towards and on the tail, and forming continuous

raised ridges; abdominal scales large and smooth in six rows. Colour

uniform brownish above, with sometimes a paler indistinct streak

along each side of the back from the post-occipitals to the tail, and

a more prominent whitish streak along each side from the ear to the

hind leg; belly uniform whitish.

On the summit of the Bramagherries in Wynad in grassy places,

elevation 5,000 feet, common, and in the plains in South Canara

near Sooleay. very rare; the single specimen found in the plains

differed from the mountain form in having no intermediate shield

between the post-frontal, whereas it is present in all the specimens

collected on the Brumagherries; but these latter have some of them

only two anterior frontals, whereas others have three. This species

is not so prettily coloured as its congener P. Jerdonii, which is of a

more reddish brown, has the four white streaks very distinct, and

SOME REPTILES OF SOUTH INDIA 439

numerous black spots on the back and sides. The latter species is

very common in the plains near the Tumbudra river north of Adoni. |

I have also found it at Coimbatore, and Dr. Jerdon found it at

Mhow, and he has lately sent it to me from the Punjab under the

name of Ophiops bivittata, but he changes this name in his ‘Notes

on Indian Herpetology’ (published in the Asiatic Society’s Journal)

to Pseudophis Theobaldi, and states that it differs from P. Jerdonii

in the post-frontals being ‘separated by a small shield, and in the

third pair of chin shields forming a suture instead of being separated

by small scales; but in my very numerous specimens of P. Jerdonii,

I find both these differences very general. Dr. Jerdon has established

the genus Pseudophiops for these Indian species as they differ in

having the rostral in a single plate followed by two nasals, instead

of between two plates followed by three nasals as in the typical

Ophiops, he proposes the name of Beddomii for this species, but I

had already distributed it under the name of monticola.

Fam. SEPSIDAE. Sepsophis. New genus.

Sepsophis punctatus (Bedd.). [2: 353].

Muzzle rounded, rostral large square behind, nostril in the front

of a minute shield in a notch at the hinder side of the rostral plate,

and just over the first labial, supra-nasals one large pair contiguous,

anterior frontal large, pointed in front and square behind, post-frontal

six-sided, vertical similar to the post-frontal, anterior occipitals three,

post-occipitals two. very much longer than broad, five large plates

over the eye, loreals two, region not concave; six upper labials,

fourth under the eye: five lower labials; eye small, lower eye-lid

transparent; no external ears; median lower labial large, square

behind; first chin shield single, followed by three pair, the first of

which form a suture together; scales of the back, sides and belly

all equal and similar, smooth, imbricate and rounded behind, in

22 transverse series round the trunk, and thirteen round the tail;

two large anal plates; body and tail of nearly equal thickness

throughout, the end of the tail being nearly as thick as the head,

and ending with a single rounded shield (perhaps injured and grown

over); no external limbs, but a minute fin-like pointed process about

half a line long let into a groove at the position where the fore-legs

should be, and a depression in the body on each side of the vent.

which is occupied by several very small scales; total length nearly

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

six inches, of which the tail is 13; circumference {ths of .an inch;

portion of the trunk, eventually running into two regular lines of

minute dots, which become four lines towards the end of the tail;

sides very black, belly grayish, with black spots on the scales.

A single specimen of this very curious limbless lizard was found

at Darakondah on the Golcondah hills near Vizagapatam (elevation

3,000 feet), under a stone: a long search did not reward me with a

duplicate example.

Gymnodactylus speciosus (Bedd.). [Gymnodactylus _ collegalensis

Beddome, 1870, 2: 561. ght |

Of stout form, body finely granular, all the scales being of the

same size; scales of the tail larger, of a reddish brown colour, with

three broad white transverse bands, one across the neck, one across

the middle of the back, and one just in front of the hind legs, each

being a quarter inch broad, or half the width of the interspaces of

ground colour, and edged with black; crown of the head white, with

six reddish brown blotches, three across the occipital region, the

centre one of which is elongated, two across the vertical region, and

one on the frontal region; belly uniform whitish, chin beneath blotched

or maculated; tail with four transverse white blackedged bands as

on the body; femoral or preanal pores none; subcaudals not enlarged;

rostral large, groove behind with two small plates behind it; pupil

erect, gs shaped; upper labials eight, two last very small; lower

labials seven, medial lower labial large, pointed behind, first pair of

chin shields rather large, forming a suture behind the medial lower

labial, second pair about half the size, total length 33 inches.

In a tope near Erode, very rare.

Gymnodactylus Collegalensis (Bedd.). [2: 56].

In every respect as in Gymnodactylus speciosus, but with a very

different colouration; ground colour, pale grayish, with four dark

brown 8-shaped marks edged with white across the body, and a

transverse band of large spots between each marking; head with

eight irregular dark brown blotches on a light ground; tail

with about six 8-shaped transverse blotches, becoming indistinct

towards the tip. Be

Under stones on the lower slopes of the Balarangams in dry forests

near Yellundur.

- These two lizards agree in every respect, except in colouration,

which, however, is very different; they are both beautifully marked

SOME REPTILES. OF SOUTH INDIA 441

species, and must be very rare. Only a single specimen of each

has been obtained, and considerable search and expense has not

rewarded ‘me with a duplicate of either. | |

Gymnodactylus maculatus (Bedd.). [Cnemaspis sisparensis (Theobald),

1867, 2:69].

Of.a stout form, body and tail rather finely granular, some of the

scales of the body being rather enlarged, but those of the tail all

uniform, no spines, subcaudals enlarged; of a brown colour, with

regular transverse bands of oblong dark coloured spots across the

body, and bands across the tail; rostral large grooved behind, with

two small plates behind it; seven upper labials, the seventh very

minute; nine lower labials, the last 3-4 very minute; lower medial

labial large triangularly pointed behind; chin shields 2-3 small pairs

not forming sutures; pupil round; femoral pores eight on each thigh

in two continuous lines, no pores or enlarged scales on the preanal

region; toes very long, slender and laterally compressed; total length

four inches, of which the tail is 21.

At Sholakal, the foot of the Sispara ghat, under logs and stones.

Gymnodactylus nebulosus (Bedd.). [2: 56].

A very small species of rather stout form, muzzle short, rounded,

body and tail finely granular, many of the scales on the former being

enlarged, scales on the latter uniform; subcaudals not enlarged; no

spines; no femoral or preanal pores; of a dull brown colour,

beautifully clouded with irregular dark blotches, which are edged

with white. In some specimens the markings are almost obsolete,

and in others they form transverse bands; rostral large, grooved

behind followed by two small shields; upper labials nine, last two

very small; lower labials 8-9, last 2-3 very small; medial lower

labials not very large, pointed behind, first pair of chin shields large.

and forming a suture behind it; pupil erect, Z|; shaped; total

length 21 inches.

*Golcondah hills near Vizagapatam, under stones at 2,000-3,500 feet

elevation, rare.

From the Anamallays, I have what I take to be the Euprepes

(Tiliqua) macularius of Blyth, it is uniform bronzed olive green above,

and white spotted on the sides of the body and tail, each scale

5-keeled, otherwise differing in no way from Euprepes rufescens.

From the higher ranges of the Balarangams, I have a very beautiful

Euprepes, it is bronzed olive green above with numerous black spots

442. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

on the body, particularly on the posterior portion; sides white-

dotted, each scale seven keeled, but differing in no other way from

Euprepes rufescens. I cannot look upon either of these varieties as

specifically distinct from Euprepes rufescens of Cantor, though they

may both rank as varieties, in which case the species must be

described as 3-7 keeled. The colouration of my numerous examples

of the ordinary three-keeled form are much more varied than what

is described by Giinther. In my Cabrita Jerdoni (described in the

January number of this Journal), the nostrils are in the lower part

of single shields, the pair of which meet and form a suture between

the rostral and single anterior frontal; behind each nasal plate and

in front of the anterior loreal are two very small post-nasal plates,

the posterior frontals have a very small intermediate shield. I add

this additional description as this lizard is not a true Cabrita, and

will form a new genus between Cabrita and Pseudophiops, which

may be called Cabritopsis.

Eumeces Dussumierii. [Lveosoma dussumieri Dum. & Bibr., 1839,

2. 1286). |

Forty longitudinal rows of scales, eight of which run along the

back, 66 transverse series between the axils of the fore and hind legs,

those immediately behind the fore legs being very small; belly uniform

white, tail red, a black streak running from the axils of the fore legs

to the axils of the hind legs; sides with a broad jet black streak,

margined with white, commencing at the eye and becoming lost about

the middle of the tail, the black colour occupying the width of. 4-44

scales; back fulvous with two longitudinal series of black blotches,

forming continuous lines on each side of the back; nasals lateral in

a single rather square plate, followed by two loreals and one ante-

ocular; anterior frontal or intra-nasal single, square in front and

pointed behind: post-frontals one pair, square in front and pointed

behind; vertical triangular in front, produced into a long point

behind between the supra-oculars; supra-ocular region much swollen,

and covered with four large plates, the first of which is equal in size

to the other three; anterior occipitals two, the two together forming

a triangle; post-occipitals two, posterior margin much broader than

anterior; one intermediate shield; ears large, oval not denticulate, but

the anterior margin scaly; some of the subcaudals enlarged; feet with

warty excrescences, fourth toe a third longer than the third; upper

labials seven, none of which enter the orbit, as there are small scales

between them and the eye, sixth labial much the largest; seven

SOME REPTILES OF SOUTH INDIA 443

lower labials, medial lower labial square behind, followed by a single

broad chin shield, behind which again are four pair, the first only of

which forms a suture; lower eyelid scaly; total length 53 inches, of

which the tail is four.

This very beautiful species, which has been confounded by

Dr. Giinther with Eumeces Indicus of Gray, is, I believe, the

? Lygosoma dussumierii of Dum. and Bibr. I have lately found it

in Malabar, at Nellicottah, between Nullumbur and the foot of the

Carcoor ghat.

Caecilia Malabarica. [Uraeotyphlus malabaricus (Beddome),

Boulenger’s Reptilia & Batrachia: 518].

Body short, total length 54 inches, as thick as a goose’s quill,

terminating in a pointed tail, which is prolonged to about 1/7th of

an inch beyond the vent; body and tail surrounded by 238 folds,

almost every one of which meet under the belly; snout flattened and

shelving downwards, subnasal grooves at the edge of the flattened .

snout below, but rather in front of the nasals. 7

Malabar—rare, a much smaller species than the common

C. oxyura, and differing in its snout and the annular rings.

Epicrium = carnosum (Bedd.). [Gegenophis carnosus, Boulenger’s

Reptilia & Batrachia: 518].

Head very much depressed; eves quite invisible; labial groove

much nearer the nasal than the eye; point of tail quite rounded, not

prolonged more than 4 a line or a line beyond the vent; annular folds

120, quite continued round the body and belly throughout the whole

length; total length seven inches, with a circumference about as

thick as a crow’s quill; of a uniform bright fleshy colour when alive,

fading to a reddish brown in spirits.

Peria peak, Wynad, at an elevation of about 5,000 feet; under

stones, rare.

I have lately found the beautiful Gyminodactylus deccanensis of

Giinther in South Canara, at Hospet (nearly sea level), and at the

top of the Codachy Parwat (5.000 ft.). The cross bars are a brilliant

yellow, but turn white after the animal is put into spirits; it is

evidently a very rare species, as during a tour of more than a month

I only obtained two specimens. It has no femoral or preanal pores.

ok + *

444. JOURNAL, BOMBAY -NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Descriptions of new Reptiles from the Madras

Presidency. By Major R. H. Beddome,

Conservator of Forests.

(in continuation of Art. AMTII, Vol. 1, p. 176)

[From the Madras Monthly Journal of Medical Science, Vol. IV.

871) 4

Callophis pentalineatus (Bedd.). [Callophis nigrescens Ginther, 1862,

32 422).

7 upper labials, 2 post-oculars, 1 ante-ocular; of a cherry colour

with 5 longitudinal black streaks from the neck to the end of the

body, and 3 along the upper part of the tail, the middle streak is

the broadest, the lowest streak is between the Ist and 2nd scales from

the abdominals, the 2nd between the 3rd and 4th, the 5th row of

scales is untouched by any of the black streaks, the broad, central

streak occupies the whole of the centre row of scales along the top

of the back and part of the row on each side of it, ; Dellyiou uniform

cherry red, neck black, head with black markings.

This very beautiful species I lately discovered at Péermede, on. the

Travancore hills (3,500 feet elevation); it grows to 3 feet long with

a circumference of not more than a man’s little finger.

Melanophidium punctatum (Bedd). [3: 66].

Snout obtuse, rostral shield rather small simply convex nearly as

high as broad, nasals large forming a suture behind the rostral,

vertical hexagonal nearly as broad as long with an obtuse angle in

front and an acute angle behind, eye in a large shield, no supra-orbital

or post-ocular, the first pair of lower labials form a suture together

behind the median shield and are followed by one large and one

small pair of chin shields, the median line running between all three.

Scales in 15 rows, shining and smooth or more. or less covered: with

small glandular raised blotches, ventrals 186-191, twice as broad as

the adjoining scales, shining smooth or glandular, anal large bifid,

terminal horny scale about 2 lines long, bicuspid in adults, slightly

rough on the sides, above concave with a serrated ridge on each ‘side,

back uniform bluish-black shining ‘nacreous and exhibiting all the

colours of the rainbow, belly and sides whitish, each of. the 3 lower

scales on each side with a very regular oblong black blotch forming

3 very regular parallel lines on each side, each ventral with a large

parallelogrammoid black blotch (transverse with the oblong blotches

of the side), subcaudals 15-17 pair each with a black blotch.

SOME REPTILES OF SOUTH INDIA 445

This very beautiful Uropelt I have only lately discovered in

Travancore, one adult specimen was found under a stone in the

Mutikuli vayal, a- little valley on the Asamboo range (4,500 feet

elevation), in company with a large specimen of Tropidonotus

Beddomii, it was 18 inches long; another adult and a young one were

afterwards found at Peermede, where it is said to be not uncommon,

the former of these was found under a stone with a fine Riopa

punctata, and immediately on being put in spirits it disgorged a

large worm.

SCINCIDAE

Ristella Gray

Scales smooth or 2-keeled, supra-nasals none, nostril in a single

nasal shield, ears distinct supra-orbicular, not toothed or fringed,

lower eyelid scaly, subcaudals enlarged, limbs 4, toes 4-5, the palatal

notch is placed far backwards.

This genus is indicated by Gray in his CATALOGUE OF LIZARDS,

p. 85, but has been overlooked by Giinther.

Ristella Travancorica (Bedd.). [2: 331].

Muzzle obtusely conical, rostral very much broader than high, a

large single prae-frontal in contact with the rostral and vertical, the

latter produced into an acute angle behind, occipitals 2 pair, a

diamond shaped shield between the posterior pair, superciliary region

generally rather convex, with 7 shields, the first and last very small,

6 upper labials, loreal region rather concave, the nasal shield above

the. Ist labial and followed by 3 shields in the loreal region, lower

labials 5, the large median shield is followed by a single chin shield

and .this is followed by 3 pair of shields, the Ist of which form a

suture together, the 2nd. are separated by 1 small shield and the

3rd by 3 small shields, the forelegs reach to beyond the ear, hind

legs small (5-6 lines in length), 3rd and 4th toes nearly equal, the

4th being slightly the larger, body surrounded by 25-26 rows of

scales perfectly smooth, or those of the back and sides very pro-

minently 2-kKeeled, or with only a faint indication of the keels, some

of the scales on the sides of the tail with 3-4 keels, the anterior 8-9.

subcaudals scarcely enlarged, posterior ones much enlarged; total

length 44 inches, body up to 14 inches long, tail 3 inches, uniform

bronze above and iridescent, or often each scale with a small apical

black dot, chin and throat white or black or blotched with black and

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

white, sides more or less mottled with black and white, the black

generally predominating, belly uniform whitish, tail black beneath or

white, or mottled with black and white, legs generally mottled.

This lizard is common throughout the moist jungles of the

western chain of ghats in the Madras Presidency (2-5,000 ft. elevation).

I formerly described it in this Journal as an Ateuchosaurus, not

observing that it had only 4 toes on the fore feet, and when I lately

found it on the Anamallays with perfectly smooth scales and observed

the peculiarity of the toes, I did not connect it at first with my

Ateuchosaurus. I now find from a careful examination of a large

number of specimens, that though the scales are generally prominently

2-keeled, they are sometimes perfectly smooth, and in other speci-

mens faint keels are only to be detected under a lens; it has always

4 toes only on the fore feet, and it appears to be referable to the

genus Ristella of Gray.

Gymnodactylus planipes (Bedd.). [Cnemaspis littoralis (Jerdon), 1853,

2 reO ls

Of slender form, snout elongate, body and tail uniformly granular

without tubercles, pupil round, subcaudals enlarged, 8 upper labials,

the 2 last being very minute, 6 lower labials, median shield very ~

large angular behind and separating the chin shields of which there

are 2 small scale-like pair, femoral pores 16-17 on each thigh, none

in the preanal region, the plates on the lower portion of the fingers

and toes large and flat, the terminal one much dilated and 3 times

as large as the others; maximum length 23 inches, of a greyish colour

with a prominent black blotch on the nape of the neck and generally

a row of white black edged spots down the back.

I have only met with this curious little species in the dry Teak

forests near Nellicootah below the Nilgiris (on the western side),

where it is found on trees in the day-time. Its peculiar feet almost

inclined me to constitute a new genus for it.

Algal Flora of Jodhpur and

| its Environs

I. Charophyta’

S. K. GOYAL?

Department of Botany, Jaswant College, Jodhpur

(With two plates)

INTRODUCTION

Very little is known about the algal flora of Rajasthan State.

Blatter & Hallberg (1918-20) listed a few species of Chara from Kaylana

near Jodhpur. Ghose (1934) and Godbole (1951) recorded a few

species from Sambar Lake. Singh (1949) studied the ecology of the

subaerial algae of Mt. Abu. Bhandari (1952) listed about 107 species of

algae from Jodhpur and its environs. He (1955) also described some

abnormalities in Characiosiphon rivularis Iyengar, collected from Umed

bund near Jodhpur.

The object of the present series is to give a systematic account of

the algal flora of Jodhpur and its environs, in Rajasthan State.

This communication deals with the critical descriptions of the

Charophyta flora and includes 5 species of Chara and 1 of Nitella.

The area under consideration is semi-arid. The maximum and

minimum temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall during the period

of investigation are given in the Table below.

Se ee ee - a ore =a

Part of the thesis submitted for the M.Sc. Degree in Botany, University of

Rajasthan, 1960. é

2Present address: Algal Laboratory, Division of Botany, Indian Agri-

cultural Research Institute, New Delhi-12.

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

TABLE

METEOROLOGICAL DATA OF JODHPUR FROM OcT. 1958 To DECEMBER 1959

SHOWING RAINFALL, TEMPERATURE, AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY

| Mean Mean

Year| “Month |. ,Afesimumm (p(Minuenitn | Rene ea

(°C.) °C.) umidity

1958 | Oct 34.6 20.6 33 | 2.6

Nov 3122 13:5 31 25.4

Dec. 26.6 12.4 38 0.7

1959 Jan. 24.3 9.7 28 0.0

Feb. 27.4 11.5 21 1.2

March 36.2 18.7 ul 0.0

April 39.7 23.6 12 0.5

May 41.7 27.2 18 9.6

| June 40.3 28.7 33 55.8

‘July 35.6 26.5 60 101.1

boku Bie 24.9 67 ey)

Sept. 32.9 24.3 63 | 103.7

Cet. 35.7 22.2 34 |. 04

Nov 30.5 15.0 24 4.5

Dec PLES Lil 25 0.0

The mean maximum temperature was 41.7°C. in May and mean

minimum temperature was 9.7°C. in January. The relative humidity

was minimum in the hot summer months (March to May) and maximum

during the monsoon months (July to September).

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION

1. Chara braunii Gmelin, Flor. Badens. Alsat. (Suppl.), 646, 1826;

Groves & Bullock-Webster, British Charophyta 2: 11, t. 26, 1924.

(= C. involucrata Roxb.; C. coronata Ziz.; C. coronata var. coromande-

lina Br.; C. coronata var. braunii Br.)

Monoecious, incrusted, incrustation annular and stout, internodes

usually of the same length as the branchlets or longer, stem and branch-

lets entirely ecorticate, whorls: of 8-12 branchlets, usually fewer ;

- ALGAL FLORA OF JODHPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS 449

stipulodes well developed, in a circle, equal in number to the branch-

lets and alternating with them ; branchlets usually straight, sometimes

incurved, 4- to 6-segmented ; gametangia produced at 2 or 3 lower

branchlet nodes, the uppermost segment extremely short, sometimes not

longer than the surrounding bract cells; bract cells variable in number and

size, usually 4 to 6, exceeding or not exceeding the length of the oogonia,

posterior bract cell lacking ; gametangia produced at lower 2 or 3 nodes

but never at the base of the whorl; antheridia solitary or in pairs,

277.78-380.12 j. in diameter ; oogonia ellipsoidal, solitary or in pairs,

each with an antheridium below ; oogonium 804.10-1052.64 jp» long,

321.86-453.22 « broad; spiral cells form 10-12 convolutions, coronula

190.04-263.16 » broad at the base ; oospore ellipsoidal, black, with 8-11

prominent ridges, 511.70-544.94 w long and 292.4-336.36 uw broad (Plate

II, fig. 17,18, and 20-22).

Habitat: From Ratanada tank in Jodhpur (10-1-60) ; from Moti

Kund near Jodhpur (10-6-52) (ieg. M. M. Bhandari).

The oogonia and oospores are slightly smaller in this material and

it differs from the south Indian plants (see Sundaralingam, 1959) in

having incrustations.

Zaneveld (1940) distinguishes six varieties under this species, viz. var.

braunii, var. schweinitzii, var. coromandelina, var. perrottetii, var. oahuen-

sis, and var. kurzii, of which var. coromandelina and var. kurzii are

known from India (Sundaralingam, 1959).

2. Chara corallina Willd. In Mem. Acad. Berlin 83, t. 2, f. 2, 1803.

Monoecious, plants 6 to 30 cm. long, very stout, incrusted ;

internodes usually smaller than the branchlets, occasionally longer ;

stem and branchlets entirely ecorticated ; whorls of 6-8 branchlets ;

stipulodes rudimentary but elongate, acute in younger parts, in one

series, aS many as the branchlets and alternating with them ; branchlets

variable in size, ? to 14 inches of 4 to 6 segments, uppermost segments

being very short ; bract cells 3-4, long, acute, never developed at the

ultimate node ; antheridia and oogonia solitary or two together on one

or two lowest branchlet nodes and in large numbers at the base of the

whorls of branchlets ; antheridia 350.88-526.68 » in diameter, situated

either by the side of the oogonium or below it, oogonium very large,

ovate oblong, 866.2-1109.6 p» long, 701.76-958.0 » broad; coronula

114.56-146.2 p» high, 190.6-219.30 » broad at the base; oospore black

with 7 to 8 prominent ridges, 657.8-716.58 pz long, 511.70-544.94 » broad

(Plate II, fig. 23-26).

Habitat : Collected from Akhey Raj.Ji’s Tank (20-10-59) and from

Kaylana (1952) (leg. M. M. Bhandari). 3

The oogonia and oospores are slightly smaller in this material.

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

3. Chara brachypus Braun. In Hooker’s J. Bot. 1: 298, 1849;

Braun & Nordstedt p. 185, 1882; Zaneveld 4 (1) : 199, ff. 15, 1-d, 1840 ;

Sundaralingam in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 49B : 39, 1959.

Monoecious ; incrusted throughout, 15 to 20 cm. long; stem

moderately stout ; internodes of the same length or smaller than the

branchlets ; triplostichous ; cells of the secondary rows as broad as the

cells of the primary series ; spine cells solitary, conical ; whorls of 8-10

branchlets ; stipulodes in two rows, well developed, elongated, acuminate,

8 in number, upper longer than the lower; branchlets corticated,

8 to 10 segments, lowest very short, one to two uppermost also very

short and ecorticated; bract cells 4, anterior pair elongated, about

half as long as the oogonium ; antheridium 232.54-299.4 » in-diameter.

Gametangia on the lower 1-3 segments of the branchlets ; oogonium

more or less cylindrical, 730.5-877.2 yw long, 438.6-501.6 ys broad ;

spiral cells forming 9 convolutions ; coronula 117.04-146.2 » long,

190.06-293.15 « broad; cells conical; oospore oval, black, 438.9-482.46 yu

long, 307.02-350.88 y broad, showing 10-12 ridges, outer membrane

thin, rigid and densely granulate (Plate I, fig. 1-4).

Habitat: From Mahadev Ji’s Tank near Jodhpur Fort on Jaswant

Memorial Road (10-12-1959).

This form agrees with the type. The south Indian forms are some-

what shorter and have ecorticate apical segments of the branches

(Sundaralingam, 1959 ; see Agharkar & Kundu, 1937).

Two varieties of this species are known, viz. var. gracilescens and

var. ehrenbergiana, of which the former was recorded from Madras.

4. Chara zeylanica Willd. in Mem. Acad. Berlin, 86, t. 2, f. 1,

(= C. verticillata Roxb.; C. gymnopus Br. var. macilenta Br., C.

gymnopus vat. ceylonica Br. ; C. polyphylla var. ceylonica Br.)

Monoecious ; incrusted ; stem moderately stout ; internodes exceed-

ing sometimes 2-3 times the branchlets; stem corticate; cortex

triplostichous, regular ; spine cells conical or acuminate, whorls of 8-10

branchlets ; stipulodes in two rows, well developed, cylindrical, acumi-

nate ; branchlets incurved, of 4 to 8 segments, lowermost segment very

short and ecorticate, upper one also ecorticate; bract cells 4, well

developed, conical; bracteoles always exceeding the fruits ; fructifica-

tions usually not produced at the first branchlet nodes; antheridia

292.4-350.88 « in diameter ; oogonia 657.90-730.0 w long, 438.6-511.70 yz

broad; spiral cells showing 12-14 convolutions ; coronula usually

spreading, 102.34-131-67 » high, 173.04-204.68 yp broad at the base ;

oospores black with 10-11 ridges, 453.22-511.70 mw long, 292.4-405.30

w broad (Plate I, fig. 9-12).

JourN. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc.

Iki

NWF

Fic. 1-4: Chara brachypus Br. 1. A portion of a plant; 2. Stem node; 3. Portion of a

branchlet ; 4. Branchlet node with oogonium and antheridium. Fic. 5-8: Chara fragilis

Desv. 5. Upper portion of the branchlet enlarged; 6. A portion of a plant; 7. Branchlet

node with oogonium enlarged; 8. A stem node. Fic. 9-12 : Chara zeylanica Willd., 9. A

portion ofa plant; 10. Stem node; 11. Branchlet node showing the lowermost node and two

uppermost nodes ; 12. Base of a branchlet with oogonium,

JouRN. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc. af PLATE II

Fic. 13-16 and 19: Nitella hyalina Ag. 13. A portion of a plant; 14. Branchlet node

showing antheridia ; 15. Branchlet showing oogonia; 16. Oogonium; 19. Upper portion of

oogonium showing crown cells. Fic. 17-18 and 20-22 : Chara braunii Gm. 17. A portion

of a plant ; 18. Stem node ; 20. Apex of a branchlet ; 21. Branchlet showing oogonium and

antheridium ; 22. Oospore. Fic. 23-26. Chara corallina Willd. 23. A portion of a

play 24. Stem node; 25. Branchlet node showing oogonium and antheridium ; 26.

Ospore,

ALGAL FLORA OF JODHPUR AND ITS ENVIRONS. 451

Habitat: From Kaylana along with Oedogonium crosdalae Jao

(21-10-1959), |

This is a common and extremely variable species. 5 forms are known

from India, viz. f. macilenta, f. inconstans, f. hildbrandtiana, f. humboldtii,

and f. corassavica.

Braun created a large number of varieties under Chara‘ zeylanica.

Zaneveld (1940), however, differentiated two distinct categories based

on whether the branchlets, spine cells, and the bract cells are longer or

shorter. This species has been found to have quadriscutate antheridia

(Groves, 1931 ; Sundaralingam & Francis, 1958).

5. Chara fragilis Desv. A. Br. in Flora 18: 68, 1835, pro parte ;

Groves & Bullock-Webster 2: 64, t. 43, 1924.

Monoecious ; stem slender, incrusted or not, internodes of about the

same length as the branchlets ; corticated, triplostichous ; cortex regular

spine cells rudimentary and rounded ; whorls of 7-8 branchlets, branch-

lets ecorticate, diplostichous, spreading straight, incurved or recurved,

4-10 segments, the upper 1-3 segments ecorticate ; bract cells, usually

8 ; bracteoles usually do not exceed the oogonia ; antheridia and oogo-

nia solitary, produced at the two or three lowest branchlet nodes;

antheridia 232.54-350.88 » in diameter ; oogonia ellipsoid, 877.2-906.44

p long, 467.84-511.70 » broad ; spiral cells showing 13-15 convolutions ;

coronula 146.2-175.86 yw high; 190.06-219.30 mw broad at the base,

slightly spreading, ocspore blackish with 11-14 ridges, 526.32-555.56

t long, 336.46-395.74 » broad (Plate I, fig. 5-8).

Habitat: From Mahadeo Ji’s tank near Jodhpur Fort on Jaswant

Memorial Road (10-1-60) and from Mandore (10-12-59) (leg. M. M.

~ Bhandari).

6. Nitella hyalina (DC.) Agardh, Syst. Alg. 126, 1824. (= Chara

condensata et C. interrupta Ruprecht, Sym. Hist. Pl. Ross. 78, 1845).

Monoecious ; 20 to 25 cm. long; stem very slender, 28 to 35 p

thick ; internodes about 2-4 times the length of the branchlets ; three

rows of branchlets in each whorl, one row of primary branchlets having

two rows of accessory branchlets, one above and another below;

primary branchlets 7-8,one to three times furcate; each branchlet is

further divided into rays; primary rays 4 to 3 of the branchlet; rays,

at first furcation 6-10 of which few remain unbranched ; at the second

4-6, of which some again furcate into 3-5 quarternary rays; dactyls of

equal size, uniformly two-celled, the lower cell slightly tapering towards

the base of the upper cell, which is small, narrowly conical, and pointed ;

upper accessory branchlets once furcate or remain as such, while the

lower ones furcate 1-2 times.

452

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

. Antheridia and oogonia usually- borne at the furcation of all the

branchlets, but usually absent at the first furcation of the primary

branchlets ;

antheridia 321.85-355.76 mw in diameter, oogonia solitary,

438.6-511.76 » long, 336.26-350.68 p» broad;

spiral cells showing 8-9

convolutions ; coronula upto 58.48 » high, 73.10 » broad at the base ;

oospore 336.26-409.36 mw long, 292.4-310.88 » broad; membrane

yellowish brown, finely granulate (Plate II, fig. 13-16, 19). ~

. ! Habitat :

From Kaylana near Jodhpur (21-10-59).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Shri M. M.

Bhandari, Department of

Bo'any, Jaswant College, Jodhpur, Rajasthan for his guidance, and

to Dr. G. S. Venkataraman of the Indian Agricultural Research Insti-

tute, New Delhi, for his advice.

REFERENCES

- Agardh, C. A. (1924): Systema AI-

gavum: 123-130. Lund.

Azharkar, S P., & Kundu, B. C. (1937):

Charophytes of Benga!. J. Dep. Sci.

Calcutta Univ. N.S.1: 1-23.

Bhandari, M. M. (1952): A preli-

minary note ona collection of Aluae

from Jodhpur and its environs. Univ.

Raj. Studies 1: 103-120.

=— (1953) Occurrence of Chara-

ciosiphon rivularis Iyengar. Curr. Sci.

24: 16-17.

Blatter, E., & Hallberg, F. (1918-20) :

Flora of the Indian Desert. pt. VI. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 27: 278.

Braun, A. (1835) : Uebersicht der

genauer bekannten Chara-arten. Flora

18: 49-73.

—— (1849) : Characeae Indiae Orien-

talis et insularum_ maris pacifici.

Hooker's) Jour. Bot. & Kew Garden

Misc. 1: 292-301.

ae ey Nordstedt, O. (1882) : Frag-

mente einer Monographie der Characeen

(Nach den hinterlassen Manuscrinten

A. Braun’s hersusgegben von Dr. Otto

Nordsted'). Abh. Kon. Akad. Wiss.

Berlin : 1-211. ;

Ghose, S. L. (1934) : Some halophyl-

Jous and halotolerant algae from the

Sambar lake of Rajnutana. 21st Proc.

Ind'on Sc. Congr. : 295.

Gmelin. C.C. (1826): Flora Badensis

Alsatica IV : 643-47. Karlsrug.

' on the. sub-aerial

Godbole, N. N. (1951) : Does Sambar

lake owe its salt to the Rann of Cutch.

Re Raj. Acad. Sci. (Spzcial Issue)

ome ite

Goyal, S. K. (196%) : Chlorophyceae

of Jodhpur. M.Sc. thesis. Univ. Rajas-

than, 1960

Groves, J. (1931) : On the antheridium

of Chara zeylanica Willd. J. Bot. 69:

97-98.

—— & Bullock-Webster, G. R.

(1929-24): British Charophyta. Part L,

1920; Part IT, 1924. Roy. Soc London.

Ruprecht, F.J. (1845): Symbolae ad

Historiam et Geographiam Piantarum

Rossicarum : 75-80. Petrograd.

Singh, R.N. (1949) : Ecological studies

algae of Mt. Abu

(Rajputana). Annual Report Nat. Inst.

Sci. India: 51.

Sundaralingam, V.S. (1959): A syste-

matic account of the South Indian

Caracere. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.

4938 : 7-61.

—_—___—_—__—— & Francis, K.J.

- (1958): On the antheridium in Characeae.

Curr. Sci. .27.: 138.

Willdsnow, C.L. (1805): Du Genre

nommé Chara. Mem. Acad. Roy. Berlin,

1803 : 79-90.

Zaneveld, J.S. (1940): The Charo-

phvta of Malaysia and adjacent coun-

tries. Blumea 4: 1-224.

The Management of India’s Wild Life

Sanctuaries and National Parks

EB. P. GEE, M.A., C.M.Z.S.

PART. LV

(With two black-and-white plates)

[Continued from Vol. 54 (1) : 21]

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION ae e453

A PRELIMINARY NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY a, oe .. 454

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE INDIAN BOARD FOR WILD LIFE ON WILD LIFE

SANCTUARIES Sie ts ee ~- 458

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE INDIAN BOARD FOR WILD LIFE ON NATIONAL

PARKS aa ig ie .. 460

STANDARDS FOR NATIONAL PARKS IN INDIA: A STATEMENT OF NATIONAL

PARK POLicy ca oa oe .. 463

FOREST FIRES AND WILD LIFE i ae .» 466

MovING RARE SPECIES TO ALTERNATIVE LOCALITIES oe, .. 470

Forest DEPARTMENT PLANTATIONS WITHIN SANCTUARIES (AND NATIONAL

PARKS) Me oe ar .. 474

THE HOLDING OF WILD LIFE PHOTOGRAPHIC EXHIBITIONS Aa .. 476

PROCEDURE IN REPORTING CASES OF POACHING, BOMBING OF FISH, ETC. Sale ae

INFORMATION TABLES FOR SANCTUARIES, NATIONAL PARKS, ETC. .. 480

REFERENCES = eo, ae 6 A809

INTRODUCTION

This paper forms the fourth and. concluding part of the series,

Part I having appeared in the Society’s Journal, Vol. 51, No. 1

(December 1952), Part II in Vol. 52, No. 4 (April 1955), and Part IT

in Vol. 54, No. 1 (December 1956).

454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Since writing the last paper, the writer has visited Europe twice,

the United States of America and Canada once, and many places

throughout the subcontinent of India—many of these for the second

or third time—in order to study wild life management and in order

to see the conditions prevailing in national parks and sanctuaries.

A PRELIMINARY NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY

This note has been written in the hope that it will give publicity

to the need for adopting a uniform, standard and correct terminology

in sporting and conservation circles in India. It is, in fact, a

tabulated statement of the relevant terms officially approved by the

Indian Board for Wild Life during the last nine years, as far as

possible in conformity with international practice.

Full understanding and wide acceptance of these terms and their

meanings in India cannot but contribute to the good cause—the

continuance of wild life both for the present and for future genera-

tions.

I GENERAL A ssnort fact-finding survey to consider the

various words used in India and other parts of the world relating to

game, wild life and so on would not resuit in the answer that it is

a mere academic quibble over slightly differing terms. Rather it

would show that each of these words has its own definite meaning,

and that each is used for an entirely different purpose.

There is, of course, no suggestion that the usage or interpretation

of words by any single individual or organization should be forcibly

thrust on others: rather it is a matter of necessity for a standard and

uniform system of terminology to be adopted, to the advantage of all

concerned.

In fact, it will be found that not only the serious wild life con-

servationist but also even the happy-go-lucky sportsman has to

choose the right word even in ordinary conversation, if he is to

avoid confusion in his own mind as well as in the minds of others!

For apart from the fact that certain words have definite and distinct

meanings, some words have come to be officially adopted by certain

countries for specific purposes. In certain words, moreover, there

has been a gradual evolutionary change in their meaning, or they

have been discarded altogether.

2. PROTECTION. Take the word ‘protection’ for example

Correctly it means ‘guarding and defending against danger and

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 455

injury’. Even recently it was somewhat loosely used by several

organizations when they meant ‘preservation’. For instance there was

the International Union for the Protection of Nature. But objections

were raised that ‘protection’ implies a total closing or locking up

(of resources) so as to prevent use (of them). So the word ‘protection’

came to be dropped by this organization in favour of the word

‘conservation’, and I. U. P. N. became the International Union for the

Conservation of Nature. The word ‘protection’ continues, of course.

to be used: for example in India partial protection of certain species

is done by closed seasons and restricted shooting. Total protection

is done by sanctuaries or by legally prohibiting the killing or maiming

of a particular species at any time and in any place.

In addition to the above; after the Indian Board for Wild Life

made a recommendation dated February 1955 a ‘protected area’ is

now Officially recognised as ‘an area constituted by an order of a

State Government in India to give protection to wild life in places

other than parks and sanctuaries. It refers chiefly to areas near

River Valley Projects and other irrigation works, in and around large

towns and sacred places’.

3. PRESERVATION. Preservation means ‘saving or maintain-

ing from injury or destruction; keeping safe and undisturbed for

private and public use’. It is correctly used now by various societies

in relation to game and wild life.

Incidentally a ‘preserve’ is ‘ground set apart for protection of

game or for shooting of game’, and is generally used in India for the

private (game) preserves of the former princes, if they still exist.

4. CONSERVATION. Originally ‘conservation’ meant ‘pre-

servation and preventing waste, a meaning which came to be

associated with locking up resources and preventing their use’.

Nowadays it has a broader meaning—‘the effort to increase and

sustain the supply of resources we now need and will continue to

need for generations to come’. Briefly it could now be said to mean

‘planned management and wise use of natural resources’.

5. GAME. There is still a lot of confusion about when the

term ‘game’ or ‘wild life’ should be used. This is surprising because

there is a very big difference between them! The term ‘game’ refers

to ‘those species of mammals, birds etc. which are hunted or shot

either for trophies or for their meat or for sport, or for a combina-

tion of any of these’.

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 @)

In pre-Independence days the sanctuaries of India were called

‘game sanctuaries’ because they were created by the former Provincial

Governments to stop game animals from becoming extinct, and to

keep the numbers of game animals at a high level-—mainly for the

benefit of sportsmen, for big and small game shooting. In those days

the modern concepts of general nature conservation do not seem to

have reached India.

In recent years, especially since the formation of the Indian Board

for Wild Life in 1952, the distinction between ‘game’ (animals and

birds which are shot by sportsmen) and ‘wild life’ (which embraces

all wild animals, birds ctc.) has been officially adopted. In a

resolution at the Meeting of the Indian Board for Wild Life at New

Delhi in February 1958 it was acreed ‘that the term “game” should be

replaced by the term “wild life” in all cases where conservation of

nature was concerned. The term “game” should, however, continue

to be used where sport or shooting legislation was concerned’.

In some of the smaller and very local newsnaners one sometimes

reads the absurd term ‘games sanctuaries’, which coniures up

thouchts of wild animals nlavine badminton or football! Still more

absurd, but with potentially interesting imnlications, was the state-

ment of a Forest Beat Officer in western India who, when describing

a theel with water birds such as snipe, said ‘In the old days British

officers used to come here and play small games’!

6. Wittp LIFE. The term ‘wild life’ includes all mammals,

birds. rentiles etc. as annosed to ‘game’ which includes only those

mammals, birds. etc.’ wh’ch are shot for trophy, meat or sport. This

word is usually snelt ‘wildlife’ in the U.S.A. and Canada. Fishes are,

of course, wild life. but are often not included in wild life manage-

ment unless specified (cf. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service). In

India the policy of the Indian Board for Wild Life has been not to

deal with fishes. except when they happen to come within the

manacement of sanctuaries and national parks.

Wild life in its widest possible sense would also include plant

life, but at the inaugural session of the Indian Board for Wild Life

in 1952 it was agreed that vegetation would not officially be included

in ‘wild life’ except when it provides cover or food for mammals.

birds, reptiles etc. But special provision was made for medicinal

plants in the resolution: ‘Special “preservation plots” may be con-

stituted where plants of medicinal value or species of special botanical

interest may need to be preserved along with or without wild life’.

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES. AND NATIONAL PARKS 457

Incidentally, good wild life conservationists.are not at all opposed

to sportsmen or to shooting of game: they are only trying to stop the

indiscriminate and often illegal slaughter of animals and birds, in

order that there may be a sustained surplus for bona fide sportsmen

to shoot legally---both now and in subsequent years.

‘Wild l:fe’ is, of course, a collective noun, and singular. One is

apt to shudder when one reads in small local newspapers the absurdly

coined plural ‘wild lives’!

7. RESERVES. In India a ‘reserve’ is ‘(reserved) forest, or

an area in which wild life is protected, by being so constituted under

the Indian Forest Act or other forest law’. Internationally, however.

‘nature reserves’ or ‘natural reserves’ are areas which can be of

various special categories, and these have not been officially adopted

in India. Most ‘reserves’ or reserved forests in India in which

reasonable numbers of wild life are found have by now been

up-graded into wild life sanctuaries.

8. PROTECTED AREAS. The term ‘protected area’ has been

Officially adopted by the Indian Board for Wild Life when in 1955

a resolution was passed: ‘Protected Areas. In many States there

may be areas where it mav be considered expedient:

(i) to afford special protection to wild life, in order to enabie

species of wild life which are on the verge of extinction to re-establish

themselves,

(ii) to. afford protection to wild life attracted to water im-

pounded in River Valley Projects and to other irrigation works,

(iii) to afford protection to wild life in and around large towns

and sacred places. | ,

Such areas may be constituted by an Order of the Government

which may also lay down the degree of protection.’

It should be noted that the protection of wild life does not

necessarily imply the protection of vermin. Those wild animals and

birds etc. which are injurious to other animals, or to the long-term

interests of man, can be kept under control, or even destroyed

altogether in extreme cases, in certain places.

Oo Wiltbp., TInE “SANCTUARIES. .The term ‘wild life

sanctuary’ in India is ‘an area constituted by the competent authority

in which killing, hunting, shooting or capturing of any species of bird

or mammal is prohibited except. by or under the control of the

highest authority in the department responsible for the management

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

of the sanctuary’. In India a sanctuary is usually created by an

Order or Gazette Notification of the State Government.

The weakness of a sanctuary in India is that it can be ‘de-

sanctuarised’ merely by another Order or Gazette Notification of a

State Government, as it is not safeguarded by any proper legislation.

Many of the better wild life sanctuaries of India have by now been

up-graded into national parks by the States concerned.

10. NATIONAL PARKS. The definition of a national park

in India as defined by the Indian Board for Wild Life at its inaugural

session in 1952 is: ‘An area dedicated by statute for all time, to

conserve the scenery and natural and historical objects of nationai

significance, to conserve wild life therein and to provide for the

enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will

leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations, with

such modifications as local conditions may demand.’

In most countries of the world a national park can only be created

by the national, central or federal government of the country. But

under the Constitution of India, ‘wild life’ is a State Subject and not

a Concurrent or Central Subject, and therefore a State Government

can constitute a national park in its State Legislature—preferably

subject to certain standards which are now being drawn up by the

Indian Board for Wild Life.

At the moment some States have created national parks, and some

have not. Therefore a wild life sanctuary of one State need not

necessarily be inferior to a national park of another State.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE INDIAN BOARD FOR WILD LIFE

ON WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES

Various resolutions relating to wild life sanctuaries and national

parks have been passed by the Indian Board for Wild Life and its

Executive Committee at successive meetings from 1952 to 1961.

These are to be found scattered here and there among resolutions

on other subjects in the Proceedings of the nine meetings, and it has

been considered advisable to extract them and publish them in a

compact form in the order in which they were passed.

The relevant resolutions on wild life sanctuaries are as follows:

‘The creation of wild life sanctuaries (or wild life refuges) of

such size and in such numbers which the needs for the preservation

of wild life, more particularly of the species which have become

scarce or which are threatened with extinction, may demand.

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 459

‘The expression “wild iife sanctuary” shall denote an area con-

stituted by the competent authority in which killing, hunting, shoot-

ing, or capturing of any species of bird or animal is prohibited except

by or under the control of the highest authority in the department

responsible for the management of the sanctuary. The boundaries

and character of such a sanctuary will be kept sacrosanct as far as

possible. Such sanctuaries should be made accessible to visitors.

‘While the management of sanctuaries does not involve suspension

or restriction of normal forest operations, it would be generally

desirable to set apart an area of one to about twenty-five square miles

within a sanctuary where such operations may not be carried out, to

ensure the nursing up of wild life undisturbed by human activities.

Such sacrosanct areas may be declared as abhayaranya, i.e. a forest

Where animals could roam without fear of man. Such a sanctuary

within a sanctuary would also ensure the preservation of plant life

unspoiled and undisturbed.

‘In the management of sanctuaries, control should be exercised

over elements adverse to the maintenance of wild life including

destruction of vermin and predators. In the case of any difficulty,

expert advice may be obtained from the Indian Board for Wild Life.

‘In the event of a sanctuary being located in one State contiguous

to a sanctuary in another State, the desirable co-ordination may be

effected through the Indian Board for Wild Life.

‘That buffer belts of sufficient width be declared around all

sanctuaries within which no shooting, other than that required for

legitimate crop protection, will be permitted and within which no

professional graziers will be allowed to establish their cattle pens .. .

and that State Governments be requested to inoculate systematically

and periodically domestic cattle in the neighbourhood of national

parks, sanctuaries and reserves where and when necessary.’

(Inaugural Session, Mysore, 1952)

‘Wild life sanctuaries are areas ordinarily set apart by an Order

of the State Government for the purpose of preserving wild life.

The management of such sanctuaries is adequately dealt with under

Resolution 6: “Protection of Nature and Wild Life” of the Mysore

Session of the Board held in 1952. The Board recommends that

sanctuaries conforming to the standards laid down under Resolution

6 (b) of the Mysore Conference may be constituted as such.

‘In many States there may be areas where it may be considered

expedient:

(i) to afford special protection to wild life, in order to enable

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)°

species of wild life which are on the verge of extinction to re-establish

themselves,

(ii) to afford protection to wild life attracted to water

impounded in river valley projects and to other irrigation works,

(iii) to afford protection to wiid life in and around large towns

and sacred places.

Such areas may be constituted by an Order of the Government

which may also lay down the degree of protection.’

(Second Session, Calcutta, 1955)

‘That the State Governments take suitable steps for providing

sufficient food and cover to wild life in the sanctuaries.’

(Fourth Session, Ootacamund, 1961)

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE INDIAN BOARD FOR WILD LIFE

ON NATIONAL PARKS

There has been a slight ‘but significant evolutionary change in

the policy concerning legislation to be adopted for national parks in

India. In 1952 and 1953 it was hoped that by a slight revision of

Schedule VII of the Indian Constitution it would be possible to get

national parks placed on List II (the Concurrent List). Later it was

found that this was not possible, and so then became apparent the

anomaly that national parks, essentially an all-India affair, were a

State subject and would have to be created by Acts of the State

Legislatures.

In order to ensure the national character of such parks and

uniformity in the various States, it was then. decided to draw up a

Model Bill which would serve as a basis on which States could frame

their own legislation for national parks. This model bill was

circulated to all States for comment and suggested amendments, and

was then vetted by the Law Ministry. In its finalised form it was

sent to all States in February 1957.

The relevant resolutions on national parks in the Proceedings of

the successive meetings of the Indian Board for Wild Life and its

Executive Committee are as follows:

‘The creation of national parks in conformity with the general

objectives laid down by the International Lines for the Conservation

of Nature and affiliated bodies.

‘Provided that should a State create a natignal park?’ the advice

of the Indian Board for Wild Life will be taken to ensure its national

character.

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 461

_ ‘The term “national park” for this purpose would generally denote

“an area dedicated by statute for all time, io conserve the scenery and

natural and historical objects of national significance, to conserve

wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in

such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for

the enjoyment of future generations, with such modifications as local

conditions may demand”.

(Inaugural Session, Mysore, 1952)

‘It is also essential that there should be uniformity in the manage-

ment of national parks and the standards to be maintained should

be of a high order. The main reason for the non-establishment of

national parks in the country is that the State Governments are not

in a position to finance wholly by themselves the establishment of

national parks. National parks, the establishment of which has been

recommended separately, may not come into being without central

advice and assistance from the centre. In the United States

“national parks” is a federal subject and such parks are entirely

financed and controlled by the Federal Government. The Central

Government was contemplating amendment of the 7th Schedule of

the Constitution (list of Union, State, and Concurrent Subjects) on

the recommendation of the Commodity Controls Committee. Ad-

vantage of this fact should be taken and, therefore, recommends to

the Central Government that the subject of “‘national parks” be added

to List Ill (Concurrent List) in Schedule VII of the Constitution.’

(Executive Committee, Kanha, 1953)

‘National parks are areas set apart by an Act of the competent

Legislature for permanent preservation. Such areas may have for

their objective the preservation of one or more of the following

features: geological, pre-historical, historical, archaeological, scenic,

faunal, and floral.

‘It is not an essential condition of national parks that there should

be no human intervention. Where it is desired to exclude human

intervention altogether, it may be. possible to set apart a suitable

part within the national park—sanctum sanctorum—which may

receive absolute protection.

‘Such parks are not to be created lightly.

‘In framing proposals for the constitution of national parks, the

Board considers it desirable that State Governments should consult it

and avail themselves of the technical knowledge and experience at

its disposal.

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

‘The Board recommends further that legislation to be enacted in

various States for the creation and management of national parks

should follow a common pattern. In order to facilitate this the Board

will prepare and circulate a model draft bill.

‘In order to ensure the national character of such parks, the

Board recommends that in the authority set up under the legislation

the Central Government and the Board be represented through the

Inspector General of Forests or his nominee.’

(Second Session, Calcutta, 1955)

‘The Executive Committee resolved to advise the State Govern-

ments that pending the constitution of any sanctuaries into national

parks, any attempt that might be made to change their existing

character or whittle away their resources in any way should be

guarded against. é

‘The Committee also authorised the Secretary to examine the

feasibility of suggesting io the State Governments the desirability of

referring their National Parks Bilis to the Centre before presentation

to the State Legislatures.

‘The Committee examined the draft Model Bill clause by clause

and made a number of suggestions in the bill and requested the

Inspector General of Forests to take into consideration the suggestions

made and redraft the bill, also incorporating any suggestions that

might be received from the members within the next 10 days.

Thereafter, the bill was to be vetted by the Ministry of Law and

circulated to State Governments.

(Regarding the point whether it would be desirable to call these

parks ‘national’ as these parks were to be constituted by State

Governments) ‘the whole idea was to give a national character to the

park. Some standards on a national level were to be laid down for

all the parks even though they were to be constituted by the State

Governments in different States. A national character could be

secured by having the Central Government’s representation on the

Board of Management. Furthermore, there was a proposal to give ©

some financial aid to the parks by the Government of India. It

would therefore be in the fitness of things to call them national

parks.’

(Executive Committee, Ootacamund, 1955)

‘Model Bill for constitution of national parks which may be

suitably adapted or added to, to provide for any special or local

requirements. This Model Bill aims only at ensuring that the technical

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 463

requirements will be fully covered in any State legislation regarding

“state parks’. As will be seen, it is considered best that each park

in a State should be so constituted by a separate Act of the State

Legislature. It would follow that any alteration or alienation of the

area of the park would also require sanction of the Legislature.

‘As the bill provides exclusively for action by the State in respect

of an area entirely within the State, these parks, it is considered, may

be designated as “state parks”. Where a State would elect to

dedicate any park so constituted for use for national purposes and

agree to the management and control of the park to be put on a

national basis, such dedicated parks could be adopted as “national

parks”.

(Central Government letter with model bill, February 1957)

‘In keeping with international practice, the Committee decided

that the national parks and sanctuaries should be kept open to

visitors only from dawn to dusk.’

(Executive Committee, Shivpuri, 1959)

‘The Board recommended that national parks may also be set up

under the Acts of the State Legislatures, but before naming them as

national parks the approval of the Board may be obtained. The

Board will grant such approval only to such parks that will fulfil

certain minimum requirements.’

(Fourth Session, Ootacamund, 1961)

STANDARDS FOR NATIONAL PARKS IN INDIA: A STATEMENT OF

NATIONAL PARK POLICY

J. DEFINITION

National Parks are areas ‘dedicated by statute for all time, to

conserve the scenery and natural and historical objects of national

significance, to conserve wild life therein and to provide for the

enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will

leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations, with

such modifications as local conditions may demand’.

From this definition, passed at the Inaugural Session of the Indian

Board for Wild Life in 1952, it follows:

1. That national parks must be areas of national significance to

India as a whole, and of importance to the rest of the world, and not

areas of mere local significance.

464. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

2. That the natural scenic beauty of the area must be carefully

preserved so that it will remain unspoilt and unimpaired for the

enjoyment of future generations. This means that there should be

no forest operations such as the extraction of timber and planting of

plantations in a national park, unless they can be justified on the

basis of the very pressing economic needs of the country. In areas

of outstanding beauty or holding valuable fauna, where it may not

be possible to forego such forest operations (where they are already

being done), the natural scenic beauty should be preserved as far as

possible, and certain areas should be left strictly protected as ‘inner

sanctuaries’ or abhayaranya.

3. That the existing and indigenous wild life of the area must be

strictly preserved for the enjoyment of future generations. This

implies that no ‘foreign’ or exotic species of fauna or flora should be

introduced, though a species which once existed in the area and has

within historical times become extinct can be re-introduced if an

expert ecological study of the area favours such a step. A national

park may preserve either rare and valuable species of fauna in

danger of extinction, or typical fauna representative of the region,

or a combination of both.

4. That development of the area must be carefully planned and

executed so as to provide for its enjoyment by the public and by

foreign visitors in such a way as to leave the natural scenic beauty

and wild life unimpaired for future generations. This means that

access roads should be made, and roads and paths inside the park

for the use of visitors. And that rest houses and suitable accommoda-

tion should be provided. And that motor transport, riding elephants,

boats and so forth be provided as local conditions may demand.

5. That national parks, wherever possible, must be of such size

as to make them viable and ecological units, and comprehensive

units embracing the amount of territory required for effective

administration and for the continuance of the representative fauna

and flora.

Il. LEGISLATION

As wild life is a State subject, the legislation for the creation of

parks will be enacted by the State Legislature concerned. It is con-

sidered advisable that there should be a separate Act of the State

Legislature for each park, and not a general Act or an enabling Act

for several parks. It is recommended that the model bill, as drawn

up by the Indian Board for Wild Life and approved of by the Law

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 465

Ministry, should be used as a basis for any State legislation, in order

to ensure uniformity and an all-India character in the parks of the

country.

As the term ‘national has a country-wide, all-India significance,

it is recommended to State Governments that the standards as laid

down should be strictly adhered to, and that the approval of the

Indian Board for Wild Life be obtained before designating a park as

a national park. A park in a State can then be dedicated to the

nation, and become a national park. Existing national parks in the

country which are up to the standards laid down should remain as

originally constituted.

Ill. ADMINISTRATION

In administering national parks it is recommended:

1. That for each national park, or for the national parks of each

State, there should be a Management or Advisory Board or Committee

consisting of members of the Government and Forest Department,

eminent conservationists, representatives of public interests and so

on. At any time considered desirable, the advice of the Indian

Board for Wild Life should be sought.

2. That national parks be administered with the primary

objective of conserving the scenic beauty and wild life in their

natural state, and of preserving and safeguarding all objects within

them. And that management, control, modifications and other such

human intervention be done only under expert advice and in con-

formity with the standards as laid down.

3. That, wherever possible, buffer belts or buffer zones of

sufficient width be constituted outside the boundaries of national

parks, in order to ensure their inviolability—especially against poach-

ing, grazing by domestic cattle, cattle-borne diseases, cutting of

vegetation and so on.

4. That undesirable commercial activities and non-conforming

recreational activities be avoided, as violations of the standards as

laid down. Fishing with rod and line for sport, subject to local

regulations, is permissible in national parks.

5. That carefully planned and restricted forest operations be

permitted only when there are overriding reasons to justify them,

such as the pressing economic need for timber and the revenue derived

from it. In such cases steps must be taken to preserve the scenic

beauty and to set aside preservation plots, inner sanctuaries or

abhayaranya.

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

6. That roads and paths be constructed to enable visitors to see

and enjoy the scenic beauty and wild life and for the purpose of

administering and protecting the area, with the least interference with

the natural scenery. ,

7. That buildings for accommodation of visitors and staff be

constructed, but that they be as unobtrusive as possible and in

harmony with their surroundings. While luxury for visitors is not

recommended or desirable, there should be a high standard of the

basic requirements of the present-day traveller.

8. That appropriate steps be taken to provide publicity to attract

visitors from within the country and tourists from abroad. In

addition, full information on each park should be available in the

form of a well-illustrated booklet, which will be of use not only to

visitors but also for educational purposes. The services of guides

should be available, if required by foreign visitors. Picture postcards

and other mementoes should be available for sale, if there is a demand

for them.

9. That every step taken in the development and use of national

parks conforms to the standards, so that the area may be left,

unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations. If ever any

doubt may arise, the ultimate interests of the people of the whole

country and of future generations should be taken into account.

FOREST FIRES AND WILD LIFE

1. General

First of all, it is not possible to generalise on the subject or to

formulate a forest fire-control policy which would be acceptable to

all countries, or even to all regions in any one country. Only

intensive studies conducted in each region, even in each individual

reserved forest, sanctuary or national park could enable one to come

to any definite policy decision for a particular place.

For instance, what might be the fire-control policy in certain

forests or national parks of Canada may not be suitable for parts of

Africa or India, where the local conditions of climate, environment

and wild life are totally different.

Broadly speaking, it should be recognised that where such con-

ditions exist that a forest fire could be very sudden, very widespread,

and involving a very large area, then the fire hazard is very great and

the potential loss to wild life, as well as to timber, very considerable.

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 467

2. United States and Canada

Such dangerous conditions exist in parts of the United States and

Canada, that elaborate precautions are taken in parts of these two

countries to fight fire. In some of the national parks of these two

countries, where there are vast areas of pine forests, fire-control is

done not so much to save the timber (for this is not exploited as a

forest resoufce) but to prevent disfigurement of the park and to

protect the wild life from destruction.

Here it should be mentioned that it is generally admitted by

wild life conservationists in the United States and Canada (as well

as in Africa and India) that: (i) nearly all wild life species ‘are

dependent upon habitats which have not reached the limit of floral

succession, i.e. are sub-climax’; (ii) fire is one of the chief causes of

a sub-climax vegetation; and (iii) grazing mammals require sub-

climactic grasses and reeds, and browsing mammals need an adequate

supply of broad-leaved trees and shrubs which are not often

associated with a climax growth in some parts of the world.

Forest fires can be divided into two types: man-caused (either

deliberate or accidental) and lightning-caused (natural). In the

United States the official policy of the National Park Service is ‘to

reduce the number of man-caused fires to the smallest attainable

minimum, and to combat any fire which occurs, regardless of size,

origin, or location . . . Lightning causes few fires in eastern areas

because the deciduous vegetation is usually green when lightning

storms occur. In the western areas lightning and man-caused fires are

of about equal occurrence.’

As the result of this policy a peculiar position has arisen in some

of the national parks of the United States, for instance in Yellow-

stone. Many years of fire suppression have resulted in a consider-

able amount of dead and highly imflammable trees, branches and

leaves lying on the ground all over the park. Thus, by suppressing

all localised and small fires a situation has arisen in which, should a

fire occur, it might become so serious and so widespread as to do

far more damage at one time than would have been done by all the

intermittent localised fires. There arose a controversy in Yellowstone

as to whether lightning-caused, natural, localised fires should not,

after all, be allowed to run their course as they have done since time

immemorial, and as to whether complete fire-suppression is not

actually an undesirable act of intervention by man in the course of

nature.

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

36 Africa

Fire-suppression and controlled burning have been the subject of

much discussion in many parts of Africa. Perhaps the most interest-

ing case in this continent is the history of the controversy in the

former Belgian Congo. For many years the Belgian Government

practised the ideal of complete non-intervention, with a minimum

of wild life management. As part of this policy, man-caused fires—

and also lightning-caused fires—-were rigidly suppressed, thus pro-

ducing a climax type of vegetation quite unsuitable for the herbivorous

animals which exist there in large numbers.

This was particularly so in the Parc National Albert, where

through the centuries many of the antelopes and other mammals of

the Rwindi Plain had become specialised for existence in and on

sub-climax type of vegetation brought about by natural fires. It

turned out that these were poorly adapted to the climax growth which

followed the elimination of burning. Thus, to suppress fires altogether

was not really a policy of non-intervention but was in fact an act

of intervention by man. The Belgian authorities realised this, and

reversed their policy and permitted fires to run their course in the

Parc Albert—to the benefit of the wild life of that park.

In the Serengeti National Park of Tanganyika in East Africa an

interesting case occurred where burning proved beneficial to wild life

conservation. African villagers living outside the park boundaries in

the region of Sereneri burned off some of their grazing areas in

order to attract the park animals outside the park where they could

shoot them. The Park Warden cleverly countered this move by

burning off a large area within the park boundaries—with great

success.

In South Africa controlled burning of the veldt has been done in

order ‘to improve’ the grazing by destroying the dense high grass

of the previous year. It has been found in the Kruger National Park,

however, that ‘the growth of the new and palatable shoots is soon

checked, and in a short time the tender current growth on unburned

veldt, while less conspicuous to the human eye, is considerably tailer

and probably more abundant’. Consequently an investigation was

conducted to determine the facts. An ample area, however, was still

being burned to provide material for study.

4. India

In this subcontinent most of the wild life is found in or near

the reserved forests, which are generally protected against man-

INDIA’S WILD LITE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 469

caused and lightning-caused fires in order to conserve the timber.

One method of fire-suppression is controlled burning of the highly

inflammable grassy areas inside and around forests, often conducted

in the early part of the dry season when the fire hazard is less.

This ‘cold burning’ done in these grassy areas is undoubtedly essential

for the existence of the herbivorous mammals, which thrive on the

resultant sub-climax type of vegetation.

In Kaziranga Sanctuary of Assam, burning of the dense tall

elephant-grass is done in patches each year, thus providing suitable

areas of sub-climax grasses and reeds for grazing and also leaving

areas of climax growth which provide necessary cover for the wild

life of the sanctuary.

In Jaldapara Sanctuary of north Bengal controlled burning

somehow came to be suspended for some years, resulting in a climax

type of impenetrable vegetation unsuitable for the purpose for which

the sanctuary was intended—the preservation of the Indian rhinoceros

and other herbivorous wild life. This fault, I understand, has now

been remedied and controlled burning has again been instituted.

An opinion was recently expressed by a Chief Conservator of

Forests of a south India State that burning of forest areas reduces the

numbers of certain undesirable insects, such as ticks. Probably some

beneficial insects might also get destroyed, and this could be a subject

of further research.

From a forestry point of view I understand that the natural

regeneration of certain trees in India is actually benefited by con-

trolled burning, while that of others is adversely affected. From the

wild life standpoint, the burning of climax growth in patches and

thus producing areas of sub-climax vegetation would be generally

desirable—except when such burning occurred during the breeding

season of birds and certain mammals.

A further benefit derived from the burning of climax grass and

scrub undergrowth in national parks and sanctuaries is the improved

visibility for the visitors who come to see wild life. As the economic

or tourism value of wild life as a fcrest crop is very great, it is

important to have open areas where herbivorous mammals, as well as

their predators, can be seen and photographed by visitors.

5. Summary

-- Burning of vegetation, either man-caused or lightning-caused,

can be destructive to wild life if uncontrolled or too widespread.

On the other hand restricted and localised natural fires or controlled

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

burning, especially of tall dense grasses and undergrowth, will

produce the sub-climax type of vegetation not only beneficial to but

often essential for the existence of herbivorous mammals and other

wild life.

Controlled burning of scrub and grassy areas in and around forests

and sanctuaries, therefore, should continue to be practised in India

whenever it is found, after careful study of local conditions, that it

will be beneficial to wild life and not detrimental to other interests.

MOVING RARE SPECIES TO ALTERNATIVE LOCALITIES

It is the policy of the Indian Board for Wild Life to find suitable’

alternative homes in India for some of the rarer species. In the case

of the Indian lion, for example, it was resolved at the Inaugural

Session of the Board at Mysore in December 1952 that an additional

locality be found for this species, within its former range and with

suitable conditions of environment.

As a result of this resolution, it was subsequently proposed to

move a few lions from the Gir Forest in north-west India into the

Chakia Forest in Uttar Pradesh. This was not a case of introducing

a new species into an area, but of re-introducing a species into a

suitable locality within its former range and with suitable conditions

of environment, which is in accordance with the accepted principles

of present-day wild life management. (The reason why ‘suitable

conditions of environment’ have to be searched for within the former

range is that climatic and vegetative conditions in India have changed

considerably in the last thousand years or so. Regions in the north-

west, once green and fertile and holding such mammals as the rhino,

have now become barren wastes.)

Subsequently, however, there has been a suggestion put forward

that rare species from other parts of India be obtained for re-stocking

sanctuaries which to some extent have become depleted of wild life

by poaching. For example, it was once suggested that a few Indian

rhino from north-east India be introduced into Periyar Sanctuary in

Kerala; and that a few swamp deer from Uttar Pradesh, musk deer

from Kashmir, brow-antlered deer from Manipur, and chinkara from

north and central India could well be introduced into Mudumalai

Sanctuary in Madras.

Now let us examine these suggestions. It is obvious that the musk

deer, which is a species of very high altitudes near the snow line

and which feeds on mosses, lichens, and such-like vegetation, would

not thrive in Mudumalai. It is also, of course, doubtful if the

(29D ‘d ‘Yq - o1oyd)

UOT] URIPUy oy L

I aLVIg

PLATE II

JOURN. BomMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC.

The Gaur or Indian Bison

E. P. Gee)

(Photo

PL ae

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 471

chinkara, which is an animal of dry and open regions, would. thrive

there. Therefore, musk deer and chinkara can be ruled out.

On the other hand it is possible that rhino, swamp deer, and

brow-antlered deer would thrive in Mudumalai or Periyar, for these

species do well in zoological gardens in other countries. But is it

desirable to introduce these species as new species into these two

sanctuaries which may become national parks in the near future?

The stated object of introducing new species into Mudumalai was

that it ‘will not only sustain the interest in wild life but also attract

tourist traffic’. The object of introducing the rhino into Periyar was

‘to make the sanctuary more popular with visitors and tourists’.

Thus, the objective in these two cases appeared not to be to

provide suitable alternative homes for rare species so that they may

stand more chance of survival. If this was the primary motive, then

it could very strongly be argued that there are far more suitable

“alternative homes” for the swamp deer in central and north-east

India, and for the rhino and brow-antlered deer in north and north-

east India ‘within their former range and with suitable conditions of °

environment’.

The real motive was to bring these species from north and north-

east India with a view to attracting more visitors and tourists to

their sanctuaries. Now, is this type of human intervention, i.e.

introducing new species in order to attract more visitors, permissible

in a wild life sanctuary or national park? Certainly not, by the

present-day internationally accepted principles and standards of

national park administration.

At the meeting of the Executive Committee of the Indian Board

for Wild Life held at Periyar in January 1957 it was resolved that

in such cases a thorough ecological study of the conditions both of

the present home of a species (such as the Kaziranga home of the

rhino) and also the proposed receiving sanctuary (possibly Periyar)

should always precede any definite plans for such moves. This is a

correct decision, but unfortunately it implies that if the ecological

studies indicated that the species (say rhino) would thrive when

moved from the supplying area (say Kaziranga) to the receiving area

(say Periyar), then the introduction could take place. The resolution

does not take into account the principles which govern national park

administration and which do not permit the introduction of new species

from outside.

Both Mudumalai and Periyar are valuable wild life sanctuaries

with prospects of being created as national parks in the foreseeable

472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

future. Now, the emphasis in the case of national parks and wild

life sanctuaries is placed on conserving the native wild life, on

preserving the existing character of the place, on preserving the

typical or representative fauna and flora in an area maintained

unspoilt for future generations. It is not permissible, according to

internationally accepted principles and standards, to allow human

intervention such as the introduction from outside of new species.

One of the most valuable and interesting facts about the Gir

Forest is that it contains the Indian lion now living, as it did in former

days and possibly since time immemorial, as a wild animal in its

natural habitat. Similarly, Kaziranga houses the Indian rhino in

its natural habitat, just as it probably did many thousands of years

ago. The brow-antlered deer of Manipur live in their last marshy

stronghold on the Logtak Lake---in their primeval natural habitat.

The fauna of south Indian sanctuaries, also, hold a similar unique

position as being truly representative of the region in which they

are found, having existed there from time immemorial. Now to put

rhino from Kaziranga into Perivar, or brow-antlered deer from

Manipur into Mudumalai, and so on, or conversely to put ‘bison’

from Periyar into the Gir Forest, or chital from Mudumalai into

Kaziranga would be a case of putting species into places where they

have never formerly existed. Such an intervention would be

tantamount to violating the pristine integrity and natural sanctity of

these fine places. No longer would the original fauna be seen

in its natural and original habitat, but 2 miscellany of wild animals

from different parts of the sub-continent would be grouped together

haphazardly, in the manner of zoological parks.

In any case the introduction of, say, a pair of rhino into Periyar

would not solve the problem of how to provide more attraction to

visitors—unless these creatures after importation were confined in an

enclosure at the side of the lake and artificially fed by hand, as in a

zoological park. For rhino are solitary beasts and great wanderers.

They would probably not remain as a pair, but would wander far

afield as individuals and would be rarely if ever seen by anyone—

that is if they survived being shot by poachers or by cultivators in

defence of their crops.

Similarly, the introduction of a pair, or even several pairs, of

swamp deer into Mudumalai would not provide the answer to the

problem. They would probably disperse and be rarely seen by

visitors—even if the wild dogs were systematically reduced or ex-

terminated beforehand. They would also probably fall very easy

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 473

victims to tiger and leopard, especially after capture, transportation

and introduction into a strange and new habitat. Like the rhino,

swamp deer and brow-antlered deer are great wanderers.

The same objections would apply to any proposal to re-introduce

rhino into the Corbett National Park or into the Hazaribagh National

Park, where they are believed to have once existed. If let loose into

these parks, rhino would be sure to wander far afield into the

cultivated areas and destroy the crops of villagers not accustomed to

such beasts. Even if they survived the wrath of the villagers, any

calves born would run a grave risk of being killed by tigers—rhino

calves appear to be a favourite food of tigers in Kaziranga.

At this point it should perhaps be admitted that these three species:

could not so increase in numbers as to become a nuisance or harmful

pest as in the case of the red deer in New Zealand and the reindeer

in Alaska. The objection to the introduction of these three species

from north and north-east India into south India would seem io be

based on the fact that they would be a failure and therefore a waste

of money, in addition to being a violation of the principle of not »

introducing new species into any area.

The two last-mentioned objections (failure and waste of money)

would seem to apply to the recent proposal to introduce nilgai into

Bandipur Sanctuary from some part of Madhya Pradesh. When the

pair were placed in a ring fence near the sanctuary, even the cow

could not be left in the same enclosure as the bull as the latter tried

to kill his prospective mate. When turned loose into the sanctuary,

it seemed probable that they would separate, and ultimately fall

victims to tigers in this new habitat.

A further objection to such introductions is that ‘there is evidence

that parasites and diseases of introduced mammals are at least partly

transferred with their hosts to new biota’.

If it is becoming increasingly difficult to find wild life in certain

sanctuaries, and if it is required by the authorities administering these

places that there should be more wild life for visitors to see, then

surely the first and foremost thing to do is to reduce poaching and

other illegal shooting both in the neighbourhood of the sanctuaries

and also within the sanctuaries themselves.

Surely it would be advisable to preserve the integrity of these

two potential national parks of Periyar. and Mudumalai, and not to

allow the high standards of wild life management adopted at the

Mysore Session of the Indian Board for Wild Life to lapse into

oblivion. : :

474. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

It is essential that these high standards be rigidly preserved.

This subject has been thoroughly examined by other countries which

have been studying the conservation of nature over a great number

of years. May India not fail to profit from the experience of other

countries, and may she continue to foliow the highest standards of

internationally accepted national park administration.

SUMMARY

Rare and vanishing species can be safeguarded by moving a few

individuals to a new locality: but this new locality should, if possible,

be within the former range and with suitable conditions of environ-

ment. Such a move should always be preceded by a careful

ecological study of the conditions both of the supplying and of the

receiving localities.

In sanctuaries and national parks where wild life has become

depleted through poaching, the first step should always be to put an

end to poaching and to re-habilitate the depleted wild life. /

Introduction of new species into a new locality is usually a failure

and a waste of money—unless accompanied by undesirable, ex-

pensive and artificial protective measures.

One of the internationally accepted standards of sanctuaries and

national parks is that the native wild life should be conserved, and

that no non-native species should be introduced. It is desirable that

this standard should be maintained in India.

FOREST DEPARTMENT PLANTATIONS WITHIN SANCTUARIES

(AND NATIONAL PARKS)

The definition of a national park in India as laid down by the

Indian Board for Wild Life at its inaugural session at Mysore in

1952 is: ‘An area dedicated ... to conserve the scenery and

natural . . . objects...” Therefore it would appear to follow that

the planting of trees and shrubs in a sanctuary or national park

should be avoided.

Alsc, one of the generally accepted principles of wild life con-

servation and management of national parks and sanctuaries is that

the planting of trees within a sanctuary or park would amount to

an act of human intervention or interference with nature which

would be undesirable.

But in certain countries, such as India, where over-grazing by

domestic cattle or excessive felling for timber and firewood has

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 475

resulted in the disappearance of vegetative cover and forests, it may

be advisable—even desirable—to resort to afforestation. For in this

case such afforestation or plantation work in a sanctuary might be

necessary in order to remedy the much greater interference by man

in the past, which has resulted in bare and arid conditions, soil erosion

and so on. 3 :

_ If it is a case of felling existing uneconomical forest and replac-

ing it with trees of commercial value, then each case would have to

be judged on its own merits. If a State Government could justify

the planting of such plantations in a sanctuary on the ground of

pressing economic needs, this might take precedence over purely wild

lite considerations. But if such plantations can be avoided or if the

plantations can be outside the sanctuary to serve as a buffer zone,

this will be very much more desirable.

However, in doing any kind of afforestation or plantation work

inside sanctuaries, the following points could well be observed in order

to achieve the best results with the minimum amount of disturbance

to the natural beauty of the place: |

1. Plantations should as far as possible be on or near the edges

of the sanctuary. This helps as a method of demarcation of the

boundaries and as a protection against illegal incursion by cultivators,

grazers and poachers. (This has been tried out with success at

Laokhowa Sanctuary in Assam.)

2. Piantations should as far as possible (except in the case ot

those on the boundaries which would follow the direction of the

boundaries) be irregular and natural-looking in shape. In other

words they should avoid regular square and rectangular patterns and

Straight lines, so as to make the resultant artificially-produced forest

later on appear to be a natural one.

S The introduction of exotic species of trees and shrubs should

be avoided. If those indigenous, local species which are most beneficial

were to be planted, this would be very commendable.

4, If the plantations could be of mixed species, with a few trees

which are beneficial to wild life-—such as those with berries palatable

to birds or suitable for their nesting, or with leaves palatable to

herbivorous animals, and so on—-this would assist in justifying the ~

project.

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

THE HOLDING OF WILD LIFE PHOTOGRAPHIC EXHIBITIONS!

1. The exact definition of the term ‘wild life’ should be given in

the rules governing entries for the exhibition. If entomological and

botanical subjects are to be included, this should be clearly stated;

otherwise it might be assumed that the entries should include only

mammals, birds, reptiles and fishes. Different sections can be

arranged for each branch of wild life, if considered advisable.

2. The term ‘wild life’ should be further defined, so as to

exclude all entries depicting captive or tame animals such as are

found in zoos. Only photographs of genuine wild animals taken in

a state of nature, ic. in their wild state, should be entered. If

required, a separate section or class can be made for photographs of

animals which are captive or tame. Alternatively, the exhibition

could be termed a ‘natural history exhibition’, and then photographs

of captive or tame animals could be included—but in this case it

should be cleariy stated on both the entry forms and on the photo-

graphs that the subject was in captivity.

3. The panel of judges should comprise an odd number, pre-

ferably five; and these judges should have had ample experience of

photographing the subject of the exhibition, namely wild life. Among

the judges should be at least one person with sufficient knowledge of

natural history to judge the biological merit of entries. (If wild life

is to include entomological and botanical subjects, then an appro-

priate proportion of the judges should have had experience of this

type of photography.)

4. In judging wild life photographs the following important

points should always be looked for:

(a) The main subject should be critically sharp.

(b) Composition: the main subject should be nicely placed and

lighted, and properly balanced.

(d) There should be detail in both highlight and shadow.

(e) The print should be nicely but plainly mounted, and any

spots or dust marks carefully retouched so that they cannot be seen.

Any particularly objectionable highlight should be toned down.

(f) The picture should have natural history interest. Other

things being equal, preference should be given to subjects of greater

biological interest, such as pictures of rarer wild life, or wild life

seen in interesting circumstances.

1 My acknowledgements are due to Eric J. Hosking, FR.p.s , and Lt.-Col.

C. L. Boyle for help in compiling this section.

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 477

5. Marks for each entry might be given in the following pro-

portion :

Technical and artistic excellence [Clause 4 (a) to (d)] 40%

Biological interest of subject and habitat [Clause 4 (f)] 40%

Presentation, mounting, touching, etc. [Clause 4 (e)] 20%

6. The judges themselves may submit photographs for the

exhibition, but they should leave the room when their own entries

come up for selection. Alternatively, a special section of the

exhibition could be arranged to consist entirely of the work of the

judges.

PROCEDURE IN REPORTING CASES OF POACHING, BOMBING OF FISH, ETC.

In many cases no action is taken by the authorities, to whom

reports of poaching or bombing have been sent, owing to the fact

that either insufficient data have been given or the report has been

incorrectly submitted. The following note is intended to assist the

would-be reporting members of the public in correct reporting and

thereby assisting in preserving wild life and in ensuring a continuance!

of bona fide sport for the future.

Reto to, Teport sano incide nt

(i) It is necessary to give all possible information as to witnesses

of the incident or malpractice, exact location, exact date, exact time

and all available clues as to the identity of the alleged culprit (s).

(ii) It is necessary to submit the report as soon as possible after

the incident or malpractice has occurred. —

(iii) It is advisable to write the report in factual and correctly

phrased language, as the report may be copied to others and referred

to subsequently.

(iv) It is advisable to give reasons for reporting, e.g. firstly as a

well-wisher of India desiring to co-operate with the authorities in the

prevention of law breaking, secondly to preserve a fast-vanishing

national asset from wanton destruction, and thirdly to ensure the

continuance of sport for bona fide sportsmen who obey the laws and

take out permits, licences, etc.

(v) It is advisable to request, in return for one’s help in reporting,

~ acknowledgement of the report. In some cases one could also ask

for intimation in due course as to what action has been taken. Even

better, personal contact could sometimes be established with the

authorities in the matter. If no acknowledgement of a report is

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 59 (2)

received, a reminder should be sent with a copy to the next senior

officer for information. If, after that, no reply is received a copy

of the full report should be sent to the Head of the Department

concerned, with covering letter. For this it is advisable to type

extra copies of the report in the first instance.

2. Tro Whom reports “showld bey sent

In those States in which there is a separate Wild Life or Game

Department, all reports should be sent to the Officer or Warden

concerned. In States where there is no separate Department for

Wild Life, this subject usually falls under two different administrative

departments—the Forest Department and the Civil Authorities

(Police).

(i) National Parks, Wild Life Sanctuaries, Game Reserves,

Reserved Forest and so on come under the jurisdiction of the Forest

Department. Reports of incidents or malpractices in these places

should be ‘sent to the Forest Officer in charge of the place. If Beat

Officers (lowest in status) are omitted, the next higher officer is the

Range Officer. Above him is the Divisional Forest Officer. Above

him is the Conservator of the Circle. At the head of the Department

is the Chief Conservator of Forests (in some States there are varia-

tions of this title). Above him is the Forest Minister.

(ii) Outside those places under the Forest Department as listed

in No. (i), all places usually fall under the jurisdiction of the Civil

Authorities and the Police. Therefore the report should be sent to

the local Magistrate concerned, i.e. the Sub-Divisional Officer (or

equivalent), the Deputy Commissioner (or Collector). Above these

Officers is the Commissioner (in some States). Above him is the

Chief Minister.

In North-east India there are additional administrative areas:

(i) North East Frontier Agency, containing four Frontier Divisions

of Kameng Frontier Division, Siang Frontier Division, Luhit Frontier

Division and Tirap Frontier Division. Reports should be sent to

the nearest officer of the Frontier Division concerned, either Forest

or Civil—preferably the former. Above him is the Director of

Forests, N.E.F.A., Shillong. :

(ii) Naga Land. For offences in this State reports should be

addressed to the Forest Officer, Naga Land, Manipur Road P.O.

Above him is the Commissioner, Naga Land, Kohima P.O.

(iii) Hills Districts under VI Schedule in Assam. These Hills

Districts are United North Cachar and Mikir Hills District, United

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 479

Khasi and Jaintia Hills District, Garo Hilis District, M:zo His

District, etc. Reports. on offences in Reserved Forests in these

Districis should be sent to the Divisional Forest Officer concerned.

For offences ouis.de the Keserved Forests in these D.siricts, reports’

should be addressed to the Forest Officer of the D.str.ct Council

concerned, or to the Chief Executive Member of that Dzstrict

Council.

3. Service Personnel

If Service Personnel are suspected of an offence, a report should

be sent to the Commanding Officer of the Unit concerned (with a

copy to the local Divisional Forest Officer), The Chiefs of Staff of

the three Services have pledged their full support for the enforcement

of the Game Laws, Shooting Rules, etc. among their personnel, who

are bound to obey these in the same way as civilians are. Serv.ce

personnel have no special rights or privileges with regard to shoot-

ing and fishing in Reserved Forests and elsewhere, and must take

out permits and licences from the authorities in just the same way

that c:vilians must do. In the case of Army Personnel, if no satisfac-

tion is received from the Command.ng Officer, a report may be sent

to the Sub-Area or Area Commander, or in extreme cases to the

Adjutant Generals Branch of Chef of Army Staff, New Delhi.

Reference may be made to Army Orders 214/56 and 593/57, and to

the Notices published in Army Orders dated 24-12-55 and 25-8-56.

In these Not:ces it is said that disciplinary action will be taken

against personnel who offend the game laws of a State or for misuse

of Government ammunition/explosives. In the Not:ce dated 25-8-56

the relevant extract from the Indian Fisher:es Act, 1897, Section 4 (1),

is reproduced: ‘If any person uses any dynamite or other explosive

substance in any water with intent thereby to catch or destroy any

of the fish that may be therein, he shall be punishable with impr-son-

ment for a term which may extend to two months, or with fine which

may extend to two hundred rupees.’

4. Additional Recommendations

(i) It is recommended that a copy of a report be sent to any

person who is closely concerned, for information only, if it is known

that this wll help matters.

(ii) If, in spite of correctly reporting a clear-cut case, no act on

is taken even when sent in the last instance to the Head of the

Department, then the matter should be taken up with the Minister

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89 (2)

concerned. Ultimately, if no action is taken, the matter should be

reported to the Honorary Regional Secretary, of the Region

concerned, Indian Board for Wild Life, or to the Secretary, Indian

Board for Wild Lite, Minstry of Agriculture, New Delhi. Publicity

of the whole case may also be given in the Press, to invoke public

support—for public opinion is by far the strongest ally of all in the

fight against wanton destruction of a valuable national asset.

Many people, when they see or hear of poaching, bombing, etc.

being done, are apt to become either angry (sometimes writing an

irate letter to someone), or frustrated (sometimes taking no action

at all). ‘Such people usually say to themselves: ‘What is the use

of reporting? Nothing will be done about it. The authorities

themselves have a hand in the racket!’

But if the above suggestions in correct reporting are fully followed

_by sportsmen, naturaLsts and other members of the public, it is

certain that appropriate action will in most cases be taken, because

all Government Depariments are pledged to enforce the game laws

etc. In most cases action will be taken by the first officer to whom

the report is sent, and there should be no need for the subsequent

suggested procedure.

If a member of the public remains silent and ind.fferent and does

not report a case, he is to some extent acquiesc.ng in the misdeed.

If he does report, he is not only doing his duty as a good citizen but

also he is actively contributing to the preservation of a valuable but

. fast-vanishing national asset.

INFORMATION TABLES FOR SANCTUARIES, NATIONAL PARKS, ETC.

Seasonal, climatic, sociological, ecological and other conditions

vary so much even from place to place in the same country, that

some system of tabulating information as to the times of the year

when suitable conditions may be encountered for particular objectives

becomes desirable. :

Nearly everyone is familiar with the seasonal and climatic varia-

tions of the country, or at least the region, in which he has resided

for some time. But a visitor from Europe or North America can be

very little aware of the changing conditions from region to region

of countries in Africa and Asia, and vice versa.

In many parts of Africa and Asia there are one or more rainy

seasons during which some of the parks/reserves become quite

’ inaccessible. These rainy seasons are often preceded by dry, hot and

dusty periods, to be followed by spring-like or summer-like con-

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 481

ditions. Even if the seasonal and climatic conditions of a given

region or country could be fully asceriained in advance, there are

many other conditions which are not altogether dependent on seasons

and climate, but which vary according to altitude, existence or other-

wise of water, types of terrain and vegetation, migrations of certain

species of wild life and so on.

For instance, in East Africa there are two short rainy seasons

with varying rainfall in different parts of the country; and during

these wet spells certain parks/reserves may be closed to the public.

Is it not desirable to know beforehand exactly when these rainy

seasons occur, and which parks are closed for which periods, and

what the conditions are like immediately before and after these rainy

spelis?

Also in Ceylon there is a north-east monsoon and a south-west

monsoon, but exactly when do these occur? It is reported that both

the main parks of the country are closed during September—a month

of not excessive rainfall. Information Tables, with index numbers

0 to 5, would appear to be most desirable in order to convey to

intending visitors wnen they can best visit the parks of this country.

Also in India, as another example, it is essential that intending

tourists and visitors should know that the Corbett Park is closed

from June to October, and Kanha Park impossible to visit from the

middle of July to the middle of November. At this very season,

however, Dachigam and Shivpuri are at their best, and other places.

are well worih visiting during these months in India. In the case of

India’s bird sanctuaries it is essential to know that the breeding of

water birds in Ranganthittoo is usually at its best in June, July and

August; Keolaleo Ghana usually at its best in August, September and

October; and Vedanthangal usually at its best in November, December,

January and February. |

Accordingly it is suggested that a Table be drawn up for each

sanctuary/park/reserve, giving such general information as to show

the months of the year in which visitors with varied interests can

visit these places to their best advantage. Only by such means can

visits be successfully planned by persons from far-away countries

without frustration, disappointment and unnecessary expense.

At first sight it might appear that there would be a danger of too

much crowding of visitors during the months which are shown on

the Table to be the most suitable months for a visit. In actual

experience, however, exactly the opposite is the result. For by

studying the appropriate Table beforehand visitors would see at a

482. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2):

glance that certa:n months are more popular with the general public,

and they themselves could avoid these rush months—espec.ally if

certain other months are favourable for particular objectives and

individual interests. |

For instance some national parks in South Africa are very

crowded during certain school holiday periods. A careful study of

Tables giv.ng information about these parks would reveal that this

crowded season could be avoided, with entirely satisfactory results.

Again the crowded vacation season fills some of the national parks

of North Amer.ca during the months of July and August, while June

and September are almost as good but very much less crowded and

the best months for photography of wild an.mals in them are actually

April and October.

Part.cular items can be shown in the Tables for persons with special

interests, e.g. the flowering times of lower and higher altitude flowers,

autumnal colours, best months for fishing in rivers and in lakes,

best months for mountaineering and so on. As these times often

d:fler from those which attract the greater holiday crowds, there

would be a wider selection of months resulting in less crowding and

less disappointment for persons w.th special interests. The informa-

tion contained in these Tables w.ll be of benefit both to those wth

sc.entific or spec.ai.sed interests as well as to the general publ.c.

Thus, so far from result:ng in overcrowding during the rush

months, such Tables would actually produce a levelling-out effect,

both to the benefit of the sanctuary/park/reserve administration and

to the v.sitors themselves. Many other questions affect.ng personal

clothing to be worn, equ:pment to be taken and so on can be

effectively and conc.sely answered in such a Table.

In the first place, a separate Table is necessary for each sanctuary/

park/reserve, to be drawn up by the administrative officers and those

best acquainted with local conditions. Then a comprehensive Table

showing the sanctuaries/parks/reserves of a country, preferably region

by region, g.ving monthly index figures only, could be made, thus

enabl-ng visitors to plan beforehand a tour to include several places

in the order in which the most favourable conditions for their

particular objectives could be found. If such Tables could be

internationally accepted and standardised, considerable advantages

would result.

_A Table for a sanctuary/park/reserve, once made, need not remain

as a r.gid and permanent fixture: amendments and modifications can be

made after a study both of human and of wild life interests. In cases

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 483

where disturbance by visitors might be harmful, such as the breeding

seasons and localities of rare species, this item of information could

be excluded from the Table. Improvements in all-weather roads

and accommodation may enable an up-grading of a low-indexed month

to a higher rating to be made.

Two specimen Tables are given: (i) a Table for Kaz:ranga

Sanctuary in India, with which the writer has been closely associated

for over thirty-four years, and (ii) a comprehensive Table for the

whole of India showing the chief wild life sanctuaries region by

region.

Best MONTHS OF THE YEAR FOR VISITING KAZIRANGA

SANCTUARY, ASSAM

(Altitude 250 feet above sea level, Annual Rainfall 80 in )

Temperature |

Month Index* Weather inc; Remarks

Max. Min.

January 4 | Fine, cool 75 45 | Early morning mists. Dry.

| Afternoon visits better.

February 5 | Fine, cool 80 55 | Grass being burnt of. Best

time.

March 5 Fine, cool 85 60 | Grass burnt cff. Best time.

April 4 Showers, 90 65 | New grass growing up. Good

warm ; time.

May 3 Rains start 95 70 | Conditions uncertain. All right

| if dry.

June » Rains | 95 75 | Only smal! areas of Sanctuary

may be visited, where a few

rhino graze.

July 2 | Rains | 95 | +75 : do.

August 72 Rains 95 VSYERS, do.

September 2 | Rains 95 S| do.

October 3 Rains finish 90 65 | do. Improving.

November 4 | Fine, cool 85 SS | Swamps boggy, grass high in

| | places. Improving.

December | 4 | Fine, cool Ws 50 | Early morning mists. Drier.

| ean Afternoon visits better.

| i

ee Key to Index Numbzrs: 5 = Best | time of all; 4 = Nearly as good; 3 =<

All right, but less good ; 2 = Possible, not fully recommended ; 1 = Just possible

at times, not recommended ; 0= Impossible, or not allowed, or closed.

484. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2) ©

A COMPREHENSIVE TABLE SHOWING THE BEST MONTHS OF THE YEAR FOR

VISITING INDiA’s WILD LiFe SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS

as = | |

See belie 3|.1%

Month vA el El &| Si si) Fi s/s! .i/S s/s

Pa ao [= a ‘

f| 2/2] 8) 2/2] ale] 2) 2 8) 8) 8 el ei8

| 8|8) 5) 81 sie) 8|3/8 21 8|8\ Sige

O/ M/A) O\/O/Mlalmis|M 2) aim) aoe

January | 3 p | ca) el cael alas a des ra 4 5s

February eo! OS ea Pee ae da fs fe ade ace Plies) ihe alee, | sbo iy

March bee 315) 54 4:45 Sa oils mero ses gilli

April aha 4.| 5 |, St A5' | gas St ail 3 Soules tole

| | | et

May 5; 4 S48) Sih 5 koa ye eh sea a!

{

June e 1) 5,| 0.) 93-194 aaa ieB meres)

July (eieaal 0) 3 cle 5 |) 2 Mhalghy2sl Liledagl Sean ones

leer | |

August Bie erie ed heal es eee pe) 4) 2} Ziel ele ewe 2 A

September LS, sit ee O44 1p aeetiMrocet es Sule 2

October 24-5 5-130 le 34\) Olde eo aes 3) 2 i| 3.2

November | 3/ 2/3/11 3/1] 4/313) 4) 5] 4| 2/4] 4] 3

| |

December} 4/ 2/1] 2] 4 3) 4 a} aja) sla 2) 4) 5i4

This system of Information Tables has (commendably) been

adopted by the Indian Board for Wild Life and recommended for use

to all State Governments. It has been utilised in full by the

Department of Tourism, Government of India, in its recently

published Wild Life Sanctuaries in India. The system has been sent

to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature, which has

acknowledged its great possibilities. It has also been sent to the

National Park Service of America and to the Department responsible

for the administration of national parks in Canada: both these

countries have expressed their deep interest in the possibilities of

such a system.

If this system of Information Tables, with index numbers from

0 to 5, could be universally adopted throughout the world in all guide

books and leaflets, there is no doubt that a great deal of work and

time would be saved—to the great advantage of everyone concerned

with the administration of parks, and .to the benefit of travel

agencies and the general public.

INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 485

REFERENCES

Butcher, D. (1954): Exploring Our

National Parks and Monuments. Boston,

U.S.A.: 266-271.

Cahalane, V. H. (1951) : Management

of Large Nature Reserves. 1L.U.P.N.

Technical Meeting. The Hague.

Gee, E. P. (1952-56): The Manage-

ment of India’s Wild Life Sanctuaries

and National Parks. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 51 (1) : 1-18 ; 52 (4) : 717-734;

54 (1): 1-21.

Indian Board for Wild Life: Proceed-

ings (1952): 53-64; (1953): 1-29;

(1955, March): 55-60; (1955, July):

46-55; (1956) ; 95-109 ; (1957) : 153-162;

(1958) : 180-193; (1959): 72-77; (1961)

Munro, D. A. (1949) : Notes on Game

Biology (Wildlife Management in

Canaua).

National Park Service (1957): Infor-

mation Handbook.

Zoologica (1956): Introduced Mam-

mals and their Influence on Native

Biota. Scientific Contributions of the

New York Zoological Society, 41 (4).

(Concluded)

Botanical Explorations in the Erstwhile

Tehri Garhwal State—III

Ray KUMAR GUPTA!

Government College, Tehri

[Continued from Vol. 54 (4) : 886]

INTRODUCTION

Since no previous work had been done and no collections made

from th:s area, this study has been taken up after the study in the

Bhillangna Valley made earlier by the author (Gupta 1956, 57).

The area taken up for exploration includes Tehri town (746 m.)

situated on the left bank at the confluence of rivers Bhillangna and

Bhagirathi; Pratapnagar (2350 m.) the summer capital of the former

Tehri Garhwal State about 14 km. from Tehri town; Chandrabhadni

peak (2500 m.) towards Deoprayag (491 m.) and Surkhanda peak

(2938 m.) which is the place where the ridge coming down from Mt.

Bandarpunch meets after a zgzag course between Yumna and

Uttarkashi forest divisions. From Surkhanda peak three prominent

spurs take off, one running westwards via Mussoor.e to the banks of

River Yumna, the other two to the banks of River Ganga enclosing

between them the River Hinul which meets the Ganga at Shivpuri.

Collections from. these areas were made by the author during

different months during the years 1956 and 1957, and the plant

specimens have been identified at the Central National Herbarium,

Calcutta.

VEGETATION

Earlier workers like Troup (1921), Champion (1936), Heske (1929),

and Dudgeon & Kenoyer (1925) classified the vegetation of west

Himalayas in relation to the climatic zones, but it was later found

that the forests occurring in identical climates on different strata are

* Present address: French Institute, Pondicherry.

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHRI GARHWAL 487

different. Mohan & Puri (1957) and Puri (1950) have revealed a

closer relationship of plant communities with soil and geology in

other parts of Himalayas. More recently Gupta (1959) classified the

vegetation of Tehri Garhwal in relation to rock and soil.

The following types of vegetation can be distinguished from the

area :

Chir-pine on quartzite and limestone. Forests of Pinus roxburghii

Sarg. predominate round about Tehri, Nagni, and Chamma, on all

metamorphic rock formations including slate, quartzite, and limestone.

It prefers a deep, sandy, well-drained silicious soil. It has also

been noticed that the growth and regeneration of chir-pine is good

on northern slopes of the hills while on southern slopes poor quality

of chir is met with.

In pure chir forests Pinus roxburghii is the only tree species in the

upper canopy, but in mixed forests it is associated with Anogeissus

latifolia Wall., Albizzia stipulata Boiv., Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.,

Acacia catechu Willd., and Bauhinia purpurea Linn.

The shrub flora varies in different environmental conditions, being

chiefly composed of Carissa opaca Stapf., Dodonaea viscosa Linn.,

Mallotus philippinensis Muell. & Arg., Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.,

Berberis ceratophylla G. Don., Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham., Indigofera

gerardiana Wall., and Euphorbia royleana Boss. on hard rocky

precipices.

Herbaceous growth is generally present which is not dense, but

may consist of Micromeria biflora Benth., Leucas aspera Spreng.,

Cynoglossum wallichii G. Don., Myractis wallichii Less., etc., with a

few grasses like Chrysopogon montanus Trin. ex Spreng., Dicanthium

annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf., Themeda anathera (Nees ex Steud.) Hack..,

and Heteropogon contortus (Linn.) Beauv. ex R. & S., etc.

These forests have been considered as climatic climax by Champion

(1936). Dudgeon & Kenoyer (1925) consider them as edaphic climax.

Osmaston (1922) is of the view that they are not the true climatic

climax but kept in equilibrium by the action of periodic fires which

are the result of biotic influences. This view is based on the com-

parative immunity of this species to damage by fire than any

exceptional dryness of the soil peculiar to the chir forests. The present

author also feels that the above status of chir-pine is true and that

they may be regarded as a bio-edaphic climax showing a secondary

succession to the oak climax and are seral in nature.

Quercus incana on limestone. Above the limit of Pinus

roxburghii level Quercus incana Roxb. occupy the foothills and the

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

low-lying valleys along the nalas and khuds. In cool and temperate

aspect it is chiefly associated with Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude,

Myrica nagi Thunb., Pyrus pashia Linn., Rhododendron arboreum

Smith., Benthamidia capitata (Wall.) Hara., and Pinus roxburghii

Sarg. in varying proportions according to the degree of exposure to

light and moisture content of the soil.

The main shrubs are Berberis aristata DC., Viburnum cotinifolium

Don., Daphne bholua Ham. ex Don., Deutzia corymbosa R. Br..

Myrsine africana Linn., Jasminum humile Linn., Desmodium tiliae-

folium Don., etc. Rosa moschata Mill. and Rubus ellipticus Smith

are most conspicuous of the climbers.

On rocky precipitous areas, the growth is stunted and the under-

growth is also scanty. The best type of oak is found on deep, fertile

and moist soil in cool shady aspects. Since the oaks form the best

fodder for the cattle of the inhabitants. it is extensively lopped and

cut for fuel and for cheap agricultural implements. Various degraded

scrub stages of oak, dry and moist type, can be seen within the area.

Chir-pine comes in the Ouercus incana climax when it is maltreated

by felling, burning, and lopping. When looped extensively from a

distance, most of the ban forests show distinct strins in the lower

side reduced to a bushy growth, while the upper sides are left in a

flourishing condition.

The undergrowth also varies according to the local conditions.

Where the soil is fresh and well drained, plants like Viola

canescens Wall., Fragaria nubicola Lindl., Galium rotundifolium

Linn.. Geranium nepalense Sweet, Geranium wallichianum Sweet.

Rubia cordifolia Linn., and various fern species are common: where

the soil is dry and in hot aspects species of Berheris, Indigofera.

Desmodium, Sarcococca saligna, etc. are most important.

Cedrus deodara and Pinus wallichiana forests on schist, phyllites,

and flood plain deposits. Though no natural groves of deodar and

kail are present in this area, it is mixed with Quercus incana Roxb.

towards Pratapnagar and is the result of biotic influences or peculiar

conditions of the rock and soil. ;

Towards Surkhanda Pinus wallichiana A. Jones mixes with Silver

Fir Abies spectabilis (D. Don.) Spach., and its chief associates in

this zone are Populus ciliata Wall., Prunus cornuta Wall., Juglans

regia Linn., Betula cylindrostachya Wall., Quercus dilatata Lindl..

Quercus semecarpifolia Smith, Aesculus indica Colebr.,.Acer sp., and

Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss.

BOTANICAL EXPLORAT IONS IN TEHRI GARHWAL 489

The undergrowth is chiefly of Daphne bholua Ham. ex Don.,

Viburnum cotinifolium Don., Viburnum mulluha Ham. ex Don., and

Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardw.

Mixed oak conifer forests. Between Quercus incana and Quercus

semecarpifolia level Quercus dilatata mixes with these two species

of oak and is seldom found as a pure community. It is associated

with other broad-leaved species such as Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.)

Drude, Acer pictum Thunb., Celtis australis Linn., Juglans regia Linn.,

Populus ciliata Wall., Ulmus wallichiana Planch., Carpinus viminea

Wall., etc. Conifers like Cedrus deodara and Pinus wallichiana

are commonly associated with them at many places. Species covering

the ground include Berberis aristata DC., Myrsine africana Linn..

Prinsepia utilis Royle, Daphne bholua Ham. ex Don., Lonicera

quinquelocularis Hardw., and Pilea scripta Wedd., etc.

Pure patches of Quercus semecarpifolia can be seen towards

Surkhanda but not very common and are chiefly associated with

Abies spectabilis, Picea smithiana, Aesculus indica, and Taxus —

wallichiana Zucc., etc. Sometimes Arundinaria falcata Nees and

Arundinaria spathiflora make dense thickets in the forest.

West-Himalayan conifer forests on morainic deposits. Pure forests

of Abies spectabilis and Picea smithiana are present on the moraines

in other parts of the district but not found in this part, extensively,

except at Surkhanda. Betula utilis Don. and other plants of the

sub-alpine level cannot be seen in this area. At the top of the hills

in Open grassy slopes plants like Pedicularis pectinata Wall., Anemone

rivularis Buch.-Ham., Drosera lunata Buch.-Ham., Ranunculus laetus

Wall., Taraxacum officinale Wigg., Senecio chrysanthemoides DC.,

Parnassia nubicola Wali., Potentilla nepalensis Hk. f., and Corydalis

~ cornuta Royle were observed to occur frequently.

LIST OF THE SPECIMENS COLLECTED

The plants given in the following list have been collected from

the area. The reference numbers given after each specimen refer to

the herbarium sheets possessed by the author and the duplicates are

preserved in the Central National Herbarium at Calcutta. Every

effort has been made to adjust the nomenclature of the plants

according to the latest findings on the subject; plants marked with

an asterisk have not been described by Collett in FLORA SIMLENSIS.

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Ranunculaceae

Clematis grata Wall.

Climbing shrub. Flowers cream-coloured and fragrant; August. Common at

Pratapnagar. (Gupta 782)

Thalictrum rostellatum Hk. f. & Th.

Herb with 3-lobed orbicular leaves. Flowers white; August. Common

at Chamma. (Gupta 400)

Anemone obtusiloba Don

Herb with white flowers tinged with blue near the base; May-Aug. In

ban-oak forests, everywhere. (Gupta 759B)

Anemone vitifolia Ham.

Herb with robust pubescent stem. Flowers white; June-Sept. In oak

forests at Surkhanda and Pratapnagar. (Gupta 549, 563, 748, 753)

Ranunculus diffusus DC.

Herb covered with soft hairs. Flowers bright yellow; May-Sept. In shady

places at Surkhanda and Pratapnagar.

Ranunculus laetus Wall.

Perennial with long closely adpressed hairs. Flowers bright yellow; May-

Sept. At 1500 m. (Gupta 460, 461)

Aquilegia vulgaris Linn. var. moorcroftiana Wall.

Pubescent perennial. Flowers yellow-green; June-Aug. In ban-oak forests

at Pratapnagar and Kaudia. (Gupta 105A)

Magnoliaceae

*Michelia champaca Linn.

Evergreen tree. Flowers pale-yellow; April-June. Cultivated at Tehri in

the compound of Government College and Motibagh.

Menispermaceae

*Pericampylus glaucus (Lam.) Merrill (Pericampylus incanus Miers.)

Climbing shrub. Flowers in 2-3-chotomous cymes; July-August. At Tehri.

(Gupta 7)

Stephania rotunda Lour.

Climbing shrub. Flowers green-yellow with narrowly wedge-shaped sepals;

July-August. (Gupta 475, 476)

Cissampelos pareira Linn. :

Climbing pubescent shrub. Flowers small; May-August. At Tehri climbing

on Carissa opaca and Rhus parviflora. (Gupta 479)

Berbertdaceae

Berhberis ceratophylla G. Don. (B. lyclum Roylé) :

Shrub, leaves with small teeth, upper surface bright green, lower pale.

Flowers yellow; April-May. At Tehri in chir forest. (Gupta 202)

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHRI GARHWAL 491

Cruciferae

Arabis glabra Crantz

~* Herb with hairy radical leaves, disappearing soon. Flowers white; May-

July. On way to Chandrabahadni Peak. (Gupta 155)

Cardamine oxycarpa Hk. f. & Anders. (C. hirsuta Linn.)

Annual with small white flowers; petals twice as long as the very small

sepal; March, At Tehri near Simlasu. (Gupta 159)

Capparidaceade

Cleome viscosa Linn. (C. icosandra Linn.)

Annual viscidly pubescent herb. Flowers yellow; June-Sept. A common

weed, in waste places and rubbish heaps at Tehri during rainy season. (Gupta

258)

Violaceae

Viola canescens Wall. (V. serpens Wall. var. canescens Wall.)

ensely pubescent herb with short stem producing long leafy runners.

Flowers lilac; April-Nov. -Common on damp places in ban forest. (Gupta 620)

Polygalaceae

Polygala tatarinowii Regel (P. triphylla Buch.-Ham.)

Weak-stemmed herb. Flowers pink; August-Oct. Near palace at Pratapnagar.

(Gupta 800) ;

Caryophyllaceae

*Silene indica Roxb.

Dichotomously-branched herb. Flowers white, petals 2-fid. Common in

shady places at Tehri and Pratapnagar. (Gupta 722, 733, 741)

Polycarpaea corymbosa Lamk.

Pubescent much-branched herb. Flowers white, crowded, petals shorter

than sepals; July-August. On way to Chandrabhadni. (Gupta 186)

Py pernicace ac

Hypericum perforatum Linn.

Perennial with 2-angled stem. Flowers yellow, black dotted on the margin

of petals; April-October. At Pratapnagar and Chamma. (Gupta 814)

Hypericum elodeoides Choisy

Perennial with stoloniferous stem. Flowers yellow; July-August. In shady

and damp places. (Gupta 671, 1098)

Hypericum dyeri Rehder (H. lysimachioides Wall.)

Shrub with 4-sided branches. Flowers yellow; April-June. In Simlasu

reserve forest and on way to Chandrabhadni. (Gupta 138, 668)

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89 (2)

Malvaceae

Malva rotundifolia Linn.

Herb with a decumbent stem. Flowers pale lilac with dark streaks; June.

At Tehri from the compound of Government College.

*Malvastrum coromandelianum Garcke (M. tricuspidatum A. Gray)

Erect branched .herb. Flowers yellow; August. In waste places at Tehri.

(Gupta 90, 194, 418)

*Abutilon graveolens Wt. & Arn. var. hirsutum G. Don

Copiously hispid undershrub. Flowers large, orange-coloured; June-August.

Common weed at Tehri. (Gupta 104)

Sida veronicaefolia Lamk. (S. humilis Willd.)

Low stellately hairy herb. Flowers pale yellow; August-October. Common

weed at Tehri. (Gupta 252)

“Hibiscus pungens Roxb.

Perennial shrub, stem with scattered black spots. Flowers yellow with purple

centre; May-July. In forests and shady places on way to Pratapnagar. (Gupta

655)

Linaceae

Reinwardtia trigyna (Roxb.) Planch.

Erect shrub. Flowers yellow, solitary ance April-May. On roadsides

at Tehri. (Gupta 188)

- Geraniaceae

Geranium nepalense Sweet

Perennial pubescent herb; branches rooting at the joints. Flowers pale

purple; May-September. On way to Chandrabhadni, Chamma, and Pratapnagar.

(Gupta 152, 427, 454)

Geranium ocellatum Camb.

Pubescent annual. Flowers pink with dark purple base of the petals form-

ing almost a black spot at the centre of the flowers; March-May. At Pratapnagar.

(Gupta 439)

Geranium wallichianum Sweet

Hairy perennial. Flowers blue-purple; July-September. Very common in

the oak forests everywhere. (Gupta 647, 682, 783)

Impatiens scabrida DC. (/. cristata Wall.)

Erect pubescent herb. Flowers yellow, spotted with brown excluding the

spur. Lip funnel-shaped, abruptly contracted into cylindrical spur; July-Sept.

At Pratapnagar. (Gupta 684, 786)

Rutaceae

Boenninghausenia albiflora Reichenb.

Perennial with leaves having a strong disagreeable smell when crushed; locally

called pissumar. Flowers white; July-September. Common in the ban-oak forests

during rainy season. (Gupta 547, 661, 665)

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHRI GARHWAL 493

Murraya koenigii (Linn.) Spreng.

A small gland-dotted shrub. Flowers white; May-June. The leaves have

strong disagreeable smell when crushed, called gandéla locally. In damp places.

(Gupta 300)

Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb.

Shrub, stem with long and sharp prickles. Flowers yellow; April-June.

In hot valleys up to 1600 m. (Gupta 457)

Meliaceae

Cedrela serrata Royle

Tree with longitudinal fissures on the bark. Flowers pink: May-June. Often

planted along the roadsides at Tehri.

Aquifoliaceae

Ilex dipyrena Wall.

Small tree. Flowers small in axillary clusters; April-June. In oak forests.

(Gupta 167)

Vitaceae

Ampelocissus divaricata (Wall.) Planch. (Vitis divaricata Wall.)

Pubescent shrub. Flowers red-brown; June. On way to Chandrabhadni.

(Gupta 230)

Tetrastigma serrulatum (Roxb.) Planch. (Vitis capreolata D. Don.)

Shrub with creeping wiry stem. Flowers yellow-green; July-September.

Near Surkhanda. (Gupta 630)

Sapindaceae

Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn.

Climbing annual. Flowers white; August-September. On Chandrabhadni

road. (Gupta 233)

Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. ¢

Large tree. Flowers small, purple; May-July. Cultivated in Motibagh.

Dodonaea viscosa Linn.

Evergreen shrub. Flowers yellow; June-September. On way to Tipri on

the hillsides, also cultivated as a hedge plant at Tehri.

Anacardiaceae

Rhus parviflora Roxb.

Shrub covered with soft red-brown tomentum. Flowers pale yellow; Mav-

June. Common at Tehri; extensively lopped for fodder. (Gupta 99, 175)

Rhus cotinus Linn.

Shrub. Flowers pale purple in hairy drooping panicles; April-May. In

open shady places in Simlasu reserve. (Gupta 119B)

494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Leguminosae

Atylosia scarabaeoides Benth.

Pubescent trailing herb. Flowers yellow in axillary clusters; July-Sept. In oak

forests at Pratapnagar. (Gupta 973)

Atylosia mollis Benth.

Densely pubescent trailing herb. Flowers yellow in racemes; July-Sept. -

In oak forests at Pratapnagar. (Gupta 696)

Moghania vestita (Grah.) O. Ktze. (Flemingia vestita Benth. ex Baker)

Procumbent hairy shrub. Flowers bright red; August-Sept. At Pratapnagar.

(Gupta 729)

Moghania strobilifera (Linn.) St. Hill. ex Jack. (Flemingia strobilifera R. Br. var.

fruticulosa Wall.)

Procumbent shrub. Flowers pink in small clusters enclosed in folded bracts;

August-Oct. Pratapnagar. (Gupta 673, 726)

Abrus pulchellus Wall.

Branched climber. Flowers pink in small racemes; August-Sept. (Gupta 180)

Desmodium tiliaefolium G. Don.

Erect shrub. Flowers pale pink; July-August. At Tehri. (Gupta 805)

Desmodium floribundum (D. Don.) G. Don.

Shrub with hairy stem. Flowers pale pink; June-Sept. On Chamma-

Mussoorie road. (Gupta 492)

*Desmodium laxifloram DC.

Undershrub. Flowers pink; July-Sept. On Chamma-Mussoorie road. (Gupta

440)

*Desmodium podocarpum DC.

Densely pubescent herb. Flowers pink; July-Sept. On Chamma-Mussoorie

road near Kanatal. (Gupta 509, 545)

*Desmodium microphylum (Thunb.) DC. (D. parvifolium DC.)

Densely pubescent trailing herb. Flowers in racemes; August-October. At

Tehri. (Gupta 136, 950)

Indigofera enneaphylla Linn.

Perennial with silvery pubescent stem. Flowers bright red; January-Dec.

Common at Tehri after the rains in grass. (Gupta 79)

Indigofera dosua Buch.-Ham.

Densely hairy shrub. Flowers bright red; May-June. Common in grassy

areas and fire terraces. (Gupta 115)

*Indigofera linifolia Retz.

Silvery pubescent annual. Flowers red; July-Sept. At Tehri. (Gupta 226)

Lespedeza gerardiana Grah.

Densely pubescent shrub. Flowers pale yellow; August. In chir forests

at Tehri. (Gupta 664)

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHRI GARHWAL 495

Lespedeza sericea (Thunb.) Miq.

Densely pubescent shrub. Flowers white-purple; July-August. On Mussoorie-

Chamma road. (Gupta 429)

Campylotropis eriocarpa (DC.) Sch. (Lespedeza eriocarpa DC.)

Pubescent shrub. Flowers deep purple-red; September. In ban-oak forests.

(Gupta 801A)

*Lespedeza variegata Camb.

Undershrub with crowded leaves. Flowers pale purple; August. At Tehri.

(Gupta 801B)

Trifolium repens Linn. :

Slender herb with procumbent stem. Flowers white tinged with pink;

April-July. In grassy areas everywhere. (Gupta 522, 775)

Argyrolobium flaccidum Jaub. & Spach.

Small erect shrub. Flowers yellow; May-September. At Pratapnagar,

Chamma and Nagni. (Gupta 412, 419, 435, 438, 445, 456, 846)

Cassia mimosoides Linn. var. wallichiana DC.

Procumbent perennial. Flowers yellow; August-November. On_ grassy

slopes at Tehri. (Gupta 450)

Cassia tora Linn. (C. obtusifolia Linn.)

Shrubby annual. Flowers yellow in sessile pairs in the axil of the leaves;

July-Sept. Common weed in the bianks during rains. (Gupta 13)

Cassia fistula Linn.

Small tree. Flowers yellow in drooping racemes; May-June. Cultivated

at Tehri and wild in sub-tropical deciduous forests in the valleys at Narendranagar

and elsewhere. (Gupta 2102)

Mimosa himalayana Gamble (M. rubicaulis Lamk.)

Prickly pubescent shrub. Flowers purple at first and then changing to

white; August-Sept. On fallow and grassy lands upto 1500 m. at Tehri.

(Gupta 21)

Rosaceae

Prunus cerasoides D. Don. (P. pudum Roxb.)

Moderate-sized tree. Flowers pink or rose coloured fading to white; March.

Cultivated or wild in the outskirts of the villages. (Gupta 465)

Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham.

Small tree, branchlets ending with a spine. Flowers white, tinged with pink;

April-May. (Gupta 254, 631)

Potentilla leschenaultiana Ser.

Robust herb with thick villous rootstock. Flowers yellow; July-Oct.

Pratapnagar. (Gupta 122, 812)

Potentilla nepalensis Hk. f.

Perennial. . Flowers dark crimson; July-August. Common in the oak forests

and on top of Surkhanda. (Gupta 579, 678, 683)

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Potentilla fragarioides Linn.

Perennial. Flowers yellow; July-Sept. Common at Tehri and on Mussoorie-

Chamma road. (Gupta 94, 470)

Potentilla fulgens Wall. (P. splendens Wall.)

Densely hairy perennial. Flowers orange-red; August-Oct. Locally called

bajradanti. On the open piaces. (Gupta 690, 718)

*Potentilla reptans Linn.

Small glabrous perennial, rootstock with runners. Flowers yellow; August-

Sept. At Pratapnagar.

*Potentilla microphylla Don. var. achileaefolia Hook. f.

Tufted perennial, leaflets pointing, obliquely forwards and upwards, almost

perpendicular to the plane of leaf. Flowers small, yellow; September. At

Pratapnagar. (Gupta 568)

*Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb.

Hairy perennial. Flowers yellow; July-Sept. In ban-oak forests. (Gupta

675, 701)

Prinsepia utilis Royle

Spiny shrub, spines leaf-bearing. Flowers white; April-November to February

again. On roadsides and in abandoned fields. (Gupta 178, 637)

Spiraea vaccinifolia Don.

Pubescent shrub. Flowers white; May-August. On _ roadsides. (Gupta

658, 659)

Pyracantha crenulata (Don.) Roemer. (Crataegus crenulata Roxb.)

Spiny shrub, leaves crowded on lateral branches. Flowers white; May-June.

On abandoned fieids and roadsides. (Gupta 133)

Geum elatum Wall.

_ Softly hairy perennial. Flowers yellow; Sept.-Oct. At Tehri and

Pratapnagar. (Gupta 110)

Rubus ellipticus Smith.

Tomentose shrub, with trailing branches. Flowers white; March-April. At

Tehri. (Gupta 63)

Saxiftragaceae

Saxifraga moorcroftiana Wall. (S. diversifolia Wall.)

Perennial. Flowers yellow; August-Sept. On open places at Surkhanda

peak. (Gupta 491)

Pergenia liguiata (Wall.) Engl. (Saxifraga ligulata Wall.)

Herb with thick rootstock. Flowers red-white; March. On rocks at Tehri,

Pratapnagar and Chamma. (Gupta 371) .

Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle

Perennial. Flowers white; August-Sept. In open grassy slopes at Pratapnagar

and Surkhanda. (Gupta 553)

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHRI GARHWAL 497

Crassulaceae

Tillaea pentandra Royle

Small annual with procumbent stem. Flowers pink; July-Sept. On rocks

at Pratapnagar. (Gupta 559, 762)

Sedum linearifolium Royle var. sinuatum Hamet. (8. trifidum Wall.)

Succulent herb. Flowers pale pink; August-Sept. On rocks and trees trunks.

(Gupta 650, 763)

Sedum multicaule Wall. Ot:

Succulent herb. Flowers yellow; July-August. On rocks and trees. (Gupta

372) |

Droseraceae

Drosera peltata Sm. var. lunata (Ham.) C. B. Clarke. (D. lunata C.Bc.)

Erect herb with semi-circular leaves having glandular hairs. Flowers white;

August-Sept. On open grassy slopes at Pratapnagar and Surkhanda up to

3000 m. (Gupta 501)

. Myrtaceae

Punica granatum Linn.

Large shrub, branches armed. Flowers red; April-May. Common at Tehri,

wild.

Onagraceae

Oenothera rosea Ait.

Herb. Flowers pink; Juiy-October. Common at Pratapnagar and Chamma.

(Gupia 442)

*Oenothera sp. (glaucus Mich.)

Herb. Flowers pink; July-Sept. At Pratapnagar near the-palace. (Gupta

697, 711)

*Oenothera biennis Linn.

Herb. Flowers yellow; July-Sept. Common near the palace at Pratapnagar.

(Gupta 92)

Cucurbitaceae

*Trichosanthes anguina Linn.

Twining herb. Flowers white; August. Common at Tehri. (Gupta 11)

Begoniaceae

Begonia tenella Don. (B. amoena Wall. ex A. DC.)

Succulent herb. Flowers pale pink; July-August. At Pratapnagar. (Gupta

560)

Umbelliferae

Bupleurum candollii Wall.

_ Perennial. Flowers yellow, bract leaf-like; July-Sept. Common at 2000 m.

everywhere. (Gupta 222, 505)

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Bupleurum longicaule Wall. ex DC.

Shrub-like herb. Flowers yellow, bract prominent; August-Sept. Common at

Pratapnagar. (Gupta 672)

Bupleurum tenue Don.

Herb. Flowers yellow, bract lanceolate; July-Sept. Up to 2700 m. (Gupta

399, 500, 760, 819)

*Bupleurum setaceum Fenzel

Herb. Flowers yellow, bract lanceolate; July-Sept. Up to 2700 m. (Gupta

660)

Sanicula europaea Linn.

Erect herb. Flowers small white in heads; June-August. Common at

Pratapnagar and Kanatal. (Gupta 487)

Pimpinella diversifolia DC.

Hairy herb with pinnate leaves. Flowers white; July-Sept. Common between

1200-3000 m. (Gupta 424, 428, 477, 483, 517, 519, 720, 780)

Pimpinella acuminata C.Bc.

Perennial. Flowers white with 1-5 bracts; July-Sept. Common between

1200-2500 m. (Gupta 727)

Selinium tenuifolium Wall.

Perennial, stem hollow and grooved. Flowers white, bracts 1-8; July-Oct.

Between 1800-2000 m. (Gupta 982)

*Selinium payraceum C.Bc.

Perennial resembling the above species, but the leaves are less compound.

Flowers white; August-Oct. At 2000 m. Pratapnagar. (Gupta 794)

Trollis japonica (Houtt.) DC. (Caucalis anthriscus Scop.)

Erect annual. Flowers pale pink; June-July. Between 900-2700 m.

Araliaceae

Hedera nepalensis Koch. (H. helix auct. non Linn.)

Shrub, climbing by means of adhesive roots. Flowers yellow-green; Sept.-

Oct. Common on ban-oak trees. (Gupta 626, 634)

Caprifoliaceae

Zabelia triflora (R. Br.) Makino (Abelia triflora R. Br.)

Shrub. Flowers pale pink; May-June. (Gupta 198)

Viburnum cylindricum Ham. (V. coriaceum Blume)

Shrub with pubescent young shoots. Flowers white; May-June. On way

to Surkhanda. (Gupta 540)

Rubiaceae

Oldenlandia coccinea Royle

Slender herb. Flowers bright red; August-Sept. On grassy slopes up to

1500 m.

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHRI GARHWAL 499

Leptodermis lanceolata Wall.

Shrub, leaves foetid when crushed. Flowers white, sometimes tinged with

purple; June-Sept. Common on roadsides. (Gupta 397, 651, 792)

Rubia cordifolia Linn. var. munjista Miquel (R. cordifolia sensu Hook. f. non

Linn.)

Climbing perennial. Flowers red, tinged with green; July-Aug. In shady

moist places. (Gupta 771)

Galium rotundifolium Linn. (G. elegans Wall.)

Trailing herb. Flowers white, tinged with green; July-Aug. (Gupta 97,

120, 432) :

Galium mollugo Linn. ssp. asperifolium (Wall.) Kitmura (G. asperifolium Wall.)

Trailing perennial. Flowers red; September-Oct. Common in oak forests

in moist places. (Gupta 209, 400, 444, 480, 568, 682)

Valerianaceae

Valeriana jatamansi Jones (V. wallichii DC.)

Perennial. Flowers white tinged with pink; March-April. Common up to

3000 m. (Gupta 161, 628)

Valeriana hardwickii Wall.

Perennial with pubescent rootstock. Flowers white: July-Sept. Between

1200-3000 m. (Gupta 156)

Dipsacaceae

Dipsacus inermis Wall.

Robust herb. Flowers white in solitary head; July-October. Common in

the ban-oak forests. (Gupta 507, 790)

Morina longifolia Wall.

Shrub. Flowers deep pink; July-September. In ban-oak forests. (Gupia

781)

Compositae

Vernonia cinerea Less.

Pubescent herb. Flowers purple; August-September. Weed at Tehri.

(Gupta 93, 431)

Ageratum conyzoides Linn. ~

Hairy herb. Flowers pale blue; May-Sept. Common weed at Tehri. (Gupta

183, 811, 818, 971)

*Mpyriactis nepalensis Less.

Hispidly hairy herb. Flowers yellow; June-Sept. At Pratapnagar. (Gupta

Zio 191)

Mpyriactis wallichii Less.

Pubescent herb. Flowers with yellow ray florets and white disc florets;

June-Sept. Up to 1200 m. (Gupta 746)

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2).

Solidago virga-aurea Linn.

Pubescent herb. Flower of outer series white, inner yellow; June-Sept.

Common at Pratapnagar. (Gupta 732, 797, 808)

Erigeron alpinus Linn.

Biennial or perennial herb. Flowers with reddish pappus; May-Aug. At

2200. m. (Gupta 124, 639, 731)

*Erigeron canadensis Linn.

Annual herb. Flowers with dirty white pappus; May-August. Up to

2000 m. (Gupta 401, 402, 408, 423, 710)

Erigeron multiradiatus Benth.

Pubescent annual. Flowers with dirty red pappus; August-September.

Between 2000-2700 m. (Gupia 320)

Youngia japonica DC. (Conyza japonica Juss.)

Softly hairy herb. Flowers pale yellow; July-Sept. Up to 1500 m. (Gupta

430, 441, 443)

Conyza stricta Willd.

Pubescent herb. Flowers yellow; August-Sept. Up to 2000 m. (Gupta 221,

468)

*Anaphalis perfoliata Wall.

Herb with white flowers in head; July-September. (Gupta 552, 566) —

Anaphalis busua (Ham.) Handel.-Mazzetti. (A. araneosa DC.)

Softly hairy herb, woolly. Flowers white; September. Surkhanda. (Gupta

485, 669)

Anaphalis cinnamomea C.Bc.

Softly hairy herb, lower surface of leaves cinnamon-red. Flowers white;

September. At Surkhanda. (Gupta 524, 531, 736, 756)

Anaphalis contorta Hook. f.

Decumbently branched herb. Flowers white, bracts often pale purple;

August-September. At Surkhanda and Pratapnagar. (Gupta 670, 740)

Vicoa indica (Willd.) DC. (Vicoa auriculata Cass., Jacoba indica O. Ktze.)

Roughly pubescent herb. Flowers orange-yellow; Sept.-Oct. Common weed

at Tehri. (Gupta 239, 421, 449, 667)

Xanthium strumarium Linn.

Common weed of the waste places at Tehri. (Gupta 473)

Eclipta prostrata Linn. [E, alba (Haask.) Linn.]

Roughly pubescent herb. Flowers white; April-Sept. Common weed at

Tehri. (Gupta 257)

Sclerocarpus africanus Jacq.

Pubescent herb. Flowers yellow; July-August. Weed in the rice fields at

Tehri. (Gupta 405, 425)

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHRI GARHWAL. 501

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. et Sherff. (B. pilosa Linn.)

Robust herb. Flowers yellow; ligules white. Sept.-Oct. Common at Tehri.

(Gupta 208, 498)

Galinsoga parviflora Cav.

Weak-stemmed herb. Flowers with yellow disc; January-Dec. Common

weed at Tehri near houses. (Gupta 29, 433, 516)

Achillea millefolium Linn.

Erect pubescent herb. Flowers white; August-Oct, Pratapnagar. (Gupta 704)

Artemisia roxburghiana Besser. (A. hypoleuca Edgew.)

Shrub-like herb with creeping rootstock. Flowers greenish white; August-

Sept.. Near Chamma at 1700 m. (Gupta 407)

Artemisia scoparia Waldst.

Shrub-like herb. Flowers tinged with green; Sept.-Oct. Common weed

at Tehri. (Gupta 240)

Artemisia parviflora Roxb.

Hairy herb. Flowers yellow, tinged with green; Sept.-Oct. Up to 2000 m.

(Gupta 680, 750)

Senecio chrysanthemoides DC.

Shrub with yellow flowers; August-Sept. Up to 2000 m. Common at Tehri

and Pratapnagar. (Gupta 551, 574, 671, 813)

Senecio rufinervis DC.

Shrub-like herb with tomentose branches. Flowers yellow; August-Sept. Up

to 2700 m. (Gupta 745)

Echinops niveus Wall.

Tall thistle-like herb. Lower surface of leaves cottony white. Flowers in

solitary globose heads; August-Sept. At Tehri and on way to Pratapnagar.

(Gupta 653)

Hieracium vulgatum Koch.

Perennial with milky juice. Flowers yellow, August-Sept. On way to

Chandrabhadni. (Gupta 109)

Taraxacum officinale Wigg.

Perennial with milky juice, Flowers yellow in solitary heads; March-Nov.

Common everywhere up to 5000 m. (Gupta 35, 78, 744) One

Lactuca macrorhiza Hk. f.

Perennial with thick woody rootstock. Flowers grey-blue; August-Sept.

Common at Pratapnagar. (Gupta 814) |

Lactuca dissecta Don. |

Tufted herb. Flowers pale blue; August-Sept. (Gupta 654)

Sonchus oleraceus Linn.

Succulent herb. Flowers yellow; July-Oct. Weed in the fields. (Gupta 172.

182)

502. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. §9 (2)

Sonchus arvensis Linn.

Succulent herb. Flowers yellow; July-Oct. Common weed in the fields

at Tehri. (Gupta 415, 420)

Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn

Herb clothed with crisped hairs. Flowers yellow; Sept.-Oct. Common up —

to 2000 m. (Gupta 39)

“Chrysanthemum incutianum Turez.

- Herb with white flowers. Escape near Pratapnagar palace. (Gupta 696, 698)

*Dahlia gracilis Ortz. var. superba

Herb with yellow and red flowers. Escape near Pratapnagar palace. (Gupta

526)

*Zinnia palmari Gray

Herb with purple-white flowers. Escape near Pratapnagar palace. (Gupta

705)

Campanula ceaic

Campanula colorata Wall.

Roughly hairy herb. Flowers pale lilac; May-Oct. Common on moist places

at Pratapnagar. (Gupta 656, 728, 766)

Ericaceae

Rhododendron arboreum Smith

Tree conspicuous by its bright red flowers during March to May. (Gupta 632)

Plumbaginaceae

Plumbago zeylanica Linn.

Diffused, rambling undershrub. Flowers white; June-August. In open scrub

forests up to 1200 m. (Gupta 207)

Primulaceae

Primula denticulata Smith

Herb with pale lilac flowers during March to April. In ban-oak forests.

(Gupta 639, 640)

Androsace rotundifolia Hardw.

Glandular hairy herb. Flowers pink on tufted scapes; April-June. On

rocks near Tehri. (Gupta 91)

Androsace sarmentosa Wall.

Softly hairy herb, runners rooting and forming rosettes of leaves at the end.

Flowers pink; June-August. (Gupta 108)

Lysimachia alternifolia Wall.

Slightly pubescent herb. Flowers yellow; June-Sept. At Tehri up to 1300 m.

(Gupta 403, 409, 413, 472)

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHRI GARHWAL 503

Lysimachia pyramidalis Wall.

- Glabrous herb. Flowers pale purple; June-Oct. In chir forests up to

1200 m. (Gupta 406, 411, 463)

Lysimachia !obelicides Wall.

Glabrous herb. _ Flowers pale purple or white; May-July. In chir forests

at Tehri. (Gupta 119A)

Myrsinaceae

Myrsine africana Linn.

Pubescent shrub with small flowers; March-May. Common in the chir

forests. (Gupta 150)

Apocynaceae

*Vinca major Linn.

Evergreen shrub with lilac flowers; March-June. In shady places at Pratap-

nagar. (Gupta 633)

Gentianaceae

Gentiana argentea Royle

Small herb with blue flowers; April-May. In shady places on grassy slopes.

(Gupta 641)

Swertia purpurascens Wall.

Erect herb. Flowers pale red-purple with complete dark ring at the base

of petals; Sept. On grassy slopes at Tehri. (Gupta 173)

Swertia chirata Ham.

Robust herb with terete branches. Flowers green-yellow, tinged with purple;

Sept.-Nov. In ban-oak forests. (Gupta 809A)

Swertia paniculata Wall.

Erect herb. Flowers white with 2 purple blotches at the base of petals;

Sept,-Oct. In ban-oak forests. (Gupta 861)

Swertia cordata Wall.

Erect herb. Flowers yellow-white, margin of petals marked with short pale

‘purple streaks; August-September. At Tehri. (Gupta 1102)

Boraginaceae

Heliotropium strigosum Willd.

Small procumbent perennial. Flowers white; July-Sept. Common weed

at Tehri. (Gupta 116)

Trichodesma indicum R. Br.

Rough annual. Flowers pale blue turning to pink; Sept.-Oct. Common

weed at Tehri. (Gupta 21171)

Cynoglossum micranthum Desf.

Erect herb. Flowers pale blue; June-August. Common up to 2500 m.

(Gupta 244, 898)

504 +JOURNAL, BOMBAY. -_NATURAL -HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Cynoglossum zeylanicum Thunb. ex Lehm. (C. furcatum. Wall.)

Erect hairy annual. Flowers pale blue; June-Sept. At Tehri and Pratap-

nagar. (Gupta 119C) ~

Cynoglossum wallichii G. Don.

Erect hairy herb. Flowers blue; July-Oct. At Tehri. (Gupta 231, 298)

Cynoglossum glochidiatum Wall.

Erect hairy herb. Flowers dark blue; July-Oct. Up to 2700 m. (Gupta 533)

*Cynoglossum denticulatum A. DC.

Erect softly hairy herb. Flowers blue; Sept. At Tehri. (Gupta 533B)

Convolvulaceae

Ipomoea purpurea Lamk.

Twining herb. Flowers large pink; August-Sept. At Tehri. (Gupta 708)

Evolvulus alsinoides Linn.

Softly hairy herb. Flowers white; March-Oct. Common weed at Tehri.

(Gupta 189, 205)

Solanaceae

Solanum nigrum Linn.

Erect annual. Flowers white; Sept.-Oct. Up to 2000 m. (Gupta 187)

Nicandra physaloides Gaertn.

Erect annual. Flowers blue; July-Sept. On roadsides up to 2000 m. (Gupta

649, 715)

“Datura metel Linn. (D. fastuosa Linn.)

Coarse minutely pubescent herb. Flowers whitish purple; ‘ August-Sept.

Common weed of waste places.

*Nicotiana tabacum Linn.

Viscidly pubescent herb. Flowers pink; March-June. Common on waste

places at Tehri, escape. (Gupta 177, 210)

Scrophulariacae

Verbascum thapsus Linn.

Herb densely clothed with soft yellow hairs. On waste places.

Mazus surculosus Don. ,

Small-tufted herb. Flowers pale blue; May-Oct. At Tehri. (Gupta 123)

Sopubia trifida Buch.-Ham.

Slender pubescent herb. Flowers yellow; JIune-Oct. At Tehri. (Gupta

743) ‘

Leptorhabdos parviflora Benth. (L. benthamiana Walp.)

Erect herb. Flowers pale pink; August-Oct. Pratapnagar. (Gupta 730)

—

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHRI GARHWAL 505

Pedicularis carnosa Wall.

Pubescent herb. Flowers bright pink; August-Sept. In open grassy places

at Surkhanda peak. (Gupta 497, 507, 648)

Gesneraceae

Didissandra lanuginosa C. Bc.

Perennial with small stem. Flowers pale blue; August-Sept. Up to 2000 m.

(Gupta 145)

Bignoniaceae

Amphicome emodi Lindl.

Perennial, Flowers white; May-July. Up to 1500 m. (Gupta 625)

Acanthaceae

Pteracanthus alatus (Wall. ex Nees) Brem. (Strobilanthes alatus Nees)

Erect shrub. Flowers dark blue; August-Oct. Above 2000 m. (Gupia 486,

506, 520)

Goldfussia dalhousiana Nees (Strobilanthes dalhousianus C. Bc.)

Erect shrub. Flowers dark blue; June-Sept. Common at Pratapnagar near

the palace. (Gupta 686, 778)

*Rostelularia procumbens (Linn.) Nees (Justicia procumbens Linn.)

Procumbent herb. Flowers in dense cylindric spikes; July-Sept. Common

at 1200 m. (Gupta 496)

Barleria dichotoma Roxb. (Barleria cristata Linn.)

Hairy erect herb. Flowers lilac. Common at Pratapnagar. (Gupta 820)

Adhatoda vasica Nees

Erect shrub. Flowers white, dotted with pink; December-April. Common

weed at moist places in Tehri. (Gupta 765)

Dicliptera roxburghiana Nees var.bupleuroides Nees

Diffuse herb. Flowers deep blue; May-Dec. Common on roadsides. (Gupta

765B)

Verbenace ae

Verbena officinalis Linn.

Perennial. Flowers lilac; April-June. At Pratapnagar and Chamma.

(Gupta 809B)

Lantana indica Roxb.

Roughly hairy shrub. Flowers variously coleured; April-June. Common

weed at Tehri; difficult to eradicate,

Lantana camara Linn. var. aculeata Moldenke

Roughly hairy shrub with recurved prickles. Common weed at Tehri,

(Gupta 21120) |

506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl.

Densely tomentose erect shrub. Flowers pink; July-Nov. Along the ravines.

(Gupta 250)

Vitex negundo Linn. var. incisa Clarke

Grey pubescent shrub, Flowers blue-purple; March-June. On _ roadsides

up to 2000 m. (Gupta 414)

Labiatae

Isodon plectranthoides Schrad. ex Kudo. (Plectranthus rugosus Wall.)

Stellately pubescent shrub. Flowers white, upper lip of corolla purple;

March-Oct. Common between 1000-2500 m. (Gupta 699)

Plectranthus gerardianus Benth. var. graciflora Benth. (P. graciflora Benth.)

Erect shrub. Leaves red-brown when dry. Flowers white; August-Sept.

Common between 1000-3000 m. (Gupta 962)

Plectranthus striatus Benth.

Pubescent herb. Flowers white; August-Oct. Near Pratapnagar and

Kanatal. (Gupta 815)

Colebrookea oppositifolia Smith

Erect tomentose shrub. Flowers while in cylindric spike; Oct.-Feb. Common

at Tehri. (Gupta 105B)

Elsholtzia fruticosa (Don.) Rehder. (E. polystachya Benth.)

Pubescent erect shrub. Flowers pale yellow; August-Oct. Up to 3000 m.

associated with Indigofera on grassy slopes. (Gupta 562, 675)

Origanum vulgare Linn.

Erect herb, clothed with short hairs. Flowers pink; August-Sept.

Common between 2000-3500 m. (Gupta 118, 434, 502, 739)

Calamintha clinopodium Benth.

Shortly hairy herb. Flowers pink; July-September. Common between 1200-

3600 m. (Gupia 488, 525, 776, 802, 816)

Scutellaria grossa Wall.

Pubescent shrub-like herb. Flowers dark blue; June-Oct. Between 1800-

2000 m. (Gupta 139, 543, 670, 681, 767)

Scutellaria linearis Benth.

Pubescent tufted herb. Flowers pale purple; March-June. Between 1000.

2400 m. (Gupta 130)

Prunella vulgaris Linn. (Brunella vulgaris Linn.)

Hairy perennial. Flowers white-purple; March-Oct. Pratapnagar. (Gupta

798)

Craniotome versicolor Reichenb.

Softly hairy herb. Flowers white, pink, or yellow; August-Oct. Common in

shady places in ban-oak forests. (Gupta 779)

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHRI GARHWAL 507

Stachys sericea Wall.

Erect herb covered with long silky hairs. Flowers pink spotted with purple;

July-Oct. (Gupta 535)

*Stachys tibetica Vatke

Perennial with pink flowers; September. At Pratapnagar. (Gupta 436, 777)

Leucas lanata Benth.

Perennial with softly woolly stem. Flowers white; June-Oct. Common

weed at Tehri. (Gupta 228, 234, 416)

Ajuga bracteosa Wall.

Softly hairy herb. Flowers pale blue; April-Oct. Common between 600-

2000 m.

Plantaginaceae

Plantago major Linn.

Stemless perennial. Flowers green, crowded in cylindric spikes. April-Oct.

Common at Pratapnagar. (Gupta 148, 417, 774)

Nyctaginaceae

Boerhavia diffusa Linn. (B. repens Linn.)

Diffused, branched herb, with pink flowers; January-Dec. Weed of cultiva-

tion. (Gupta 248)

Amaranthaceae

Deeringia amaranthoides (Lamk.) Merrill. (D. celasioides R. Br.)

Climbing undershrub. Flowers pale green-yellow; July-Oct. Common at

Tehri. (Gupta 200)

*Amaranthus gracilis Desf. (A. viridis Linn.)

Erect herb. Flowers green in lax clusters; September. In waste places

up to 1500 m. (Gupta 243)

*Amaranthus spinosus Linn.

Spiny annual. Flowers green in clusters on long spikes; July-Oct. Weed

of waste places. (Gupta 201)

*Pupalia lappacea Mog.

Straggling undershrub. Flowers green; September-Oct. Up to 1000 m.

(Gupta 176, 192, 216)

Aerua sanguinolenta Blume. (A. scandens Wall.)

Grey tomentose climbing undershrub. Flowers silvery white; July-Oct.

Common at Tehri. (Gupta 151, 821)

Achyranthes bidentata Blume

Straggling undershrub. Flowers green, tinged with purple; May-Oct.

Common between 1200-2000 m. (Gupta 539, 557, 773)

508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Polygonaceae

Polygonum amplexicaule Gaertn.

Erect herb with pink or deep red flowers; July-Oct. Common in oak

forests. (Gupta 504, 521, 735)

Polygonum alatum Ham.

Erect herb with white-purple flowers; January-Dec. On moist places and

roadsides up to 1200 m. (Gupta 495, 503, 725, 755, 764)

Polygonum -hydropiper Linn.

Prostrate herb rooting at lower joints. Fiowers pink; July-Oct. Up to

2000 m. (Gupta 95, 407, 464)

Polygonum recumbens Royle

Prostrate herb. Flowers white in axillary clusters; July-Sept. Up to

2000 m. (Gupta 494, 499, 518, 567, 784)

Polygonum capitatum Ham.

Perennial with trailing stem. Flowers pink in dense heads; June-Nov. On

rocks and roadsides. (Gupta 1522)

Rumex orientalis Benth.

Erect herb. Flowers crowded in whorls; July-Oct. Between 1500-2000 m.

(Gupta 459)

Rumex hastatus Don.

Erect herb, leaves hastately 3-lobed. Flowers polygamous in small whorls;

May-Oct. Common up to 2500 m. (Gupta 141)

Lauraceae

*Lindera pulcherrima Benth.

Large tree, leaves 3-nerved beneath. Flowers in 5-6-flowered umbels;

March-April. Between 1200-3000 m. (Gupta 627)

Thy metlaveaceae

Daphne bholua Ham. ex Don. (D. pupyracea Dene., D. cannabina Wall.)

Evergreen shrub. Flowers white; March-April and Nov. Common in

deodar and oak forests between 1200-3000 m. (Gupta 162, 164, 636)

Wikstroemia canescens Meissn.

Small shrub. Flowers yellow; April-June. On roadsides. (Gupta 657, 785.

806)

Loranthaceae

Taxillus vestitus (Wall.) Danser. (Loranthus vestitus Wall.)

Robust woody parasite. Flowers rusty outside; Oct.-March. On Quercus

incana trees at Pratapnagar. (Gupta 643, 663)

Viscum nepalense Spreng. (V. articulatum Burm., V. liquidambricolum Hayat)

Much-branched leafiess parasite. Flowers sessile, in 3-flowered spikes; Julv-

Oct. On trees of Pyrus pashia, Benthamidia capitata, etc. (Gupta 635)

diy

may |

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHRI GARHWAL 509

Euphorbiaceae

*Euphorbia hirta Linn.

Prostrate annual; involucral gland globose. Common weed at Tehri.

(Gupta 190, 224)

Euphorbia maddeni Boiss.

Erect annual. Involucre solitary in the forks of branches. Flowers May-

July. (Gupta 197)

*Sarcococca hookeriana Baill. (S. pruniformis Lindl. var. hookeriana)

Evergreen erect shrub. Flowers yellow in short axillary racemes; March-May.

(Gupta 803)

Sarcococca saligna (Don.) Muell. & Arg. (S. pruniformis Lindl.)

Evergreen erect shrub. Flowers yellow; March-May. (Gupta 787)

Andrachne cordifolia Muell. & Arg.

Small shrub with green flowers; July-Sept. (Gupta 544, 687)

Urticaceae

*Celtis cinnamomea Lindl.

Evergreen tree. Flowers pale yellow. Near Chamma. (Gupta 458)

Cannabis sativa Linn. var. indica Lamk.

Erect herb. Flowers yellow-green; July-August. On roadsides and waste

places. (Gupta 199, 478)

*Morus laevigata Wall.

Tree with ovate-lanceolate leaves. Fruit yellowish white, small. On the

sides of river Bhillangna near Tehri. Planted. (Gupta 467)

Ficus foveolata Wall.

Climbing or creeping shrub. Figs warty globose; June-July. Up to 2000 m.

(Gupta 645)

Urtica parviflora Roxb.

Erect herb covered with stinging hairs. Flowers green; Aug.-Oct. Common

on abandoned fields up to 2000 m. (Gupta 213)

Urtica dioica Linn.

Erect herb, covered with stinging hairs. Male and female flowers on

separate plants; June-Sept. On abandoned fields. (Gupta 453, 717)

Girardiana zeylanica Decne. (G. heterophylla Dcne.)

Robust herb with stinging hairs. Leaves deeply lobed. Flowers June-Sept.

Near fields and waste places. (Gupta 716)

Pilea umbrosa Wedd.

Hairy erect herb. Flowers green; June-Sept. Near water-courses up to

2000 m. (Gupta 512, 713)

510. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Pilea scripta Wedd.

Glabrous erect herb. Flowers green in axillary panicles; June-Sept. Near

water streams. (Gupta 546)

Cupuliterac

Quercus incana Roxb.

Large tree. Flowers in catkins; May-July. Common between 1000-2500 m.,

but lopped extensively for fodder and fuel. (Gupta 174)

Quercus dilatata Lindl.

Large tree. Male spikes drooping, female short; April-Aug. Between

2000-3000 m. with Quercus incana at the lower level and Quercus semecarpifolia

at higher levels. (Gupta 662)

Salicaceae

Salix tetrasperma Roxb.

Small tree, branches silky. Flowers in drooping catkins coming after the

leaves; Feb.-April. On river banks and moist places. (Gupta 466)

Orchidaceae

Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames. (S. australis Lindl.)

Terrestrial with pink flowers crowded in spiral spike; Sept. On open grassy

slopes up to 3000 m. (Gupta 677)

Herminium angustifolium Benth.

Terrestrial, roots with 2 small tubers. Flowers green in spike; Aug. Between

1200-2500 m. (Gupta 532, 756, 772)

Habenaria intermedia Don.

Terrestrial. Flowers green-white; July-Aug. At Chandrabhadni. (Gupta 103)

Satyrium nepalense D. Don.

Terrestrial with tuberous roots. Flowers pink, bract tinged with pink;

July-Sept. Between 1200-3000 m. (Gupta 359, 514, 541, 685, 738)

Epipactis royleana Lindl.

Terrestrial with creeping rootstock. Flowers red with yellow centre; Sept.

(Gupta 759A)

Scitamineae

*Roscoe purpurea Smith

Herb with thick rootstock. Flowers lilac, tinged with pink. Common

up to 3000 m. (Gupta 751)

Hedychium spicatum Buch.-Ham. var. acuminata Wall.

Herb with thick horizontal rootstock. Flowers pale yellow, fragrant; August.

(Gupta 584)

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHRI GARHWAL Stl

Haemodoraceae

Ophiopogon intermedius Don.

Herb, stem clothed with remains of old leaves. Flowers white, tinged

with lilac. July-Aug. On rocks between 2000-4500 m.

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea deltoidea Wall.

Herb twining to the left. Flowers in spike; May-July. Up to 2000 m.

(Gupta 260)

Liliaceae

Smilax aspera Linn.

Climbing shrub, branches grooved, prickly. Flowers white; Sept.-Nov. Up to

2000 m. (Gupta 511, 536)

Commelinaceae

Commelina coelestis Willd.

Robust herb. Flowers blue in spikes; July-Oct. Common at Tehri. (Gupta

688) .

Commelina cristata Schult.

Herb with leafy stem. Flowers blue in clusters; July-Aug. (Gupta 508)

Araceae

*Arisaema tortuosum Schott.

Herb with 2-3 leaves; leaflets 5-18, petiole mottled with purple. Spathe

pale green, spadix appendage like the tail of a rat; June-July. At Tehri.

(Gupta 101, 542)

Cyperaceae

Eriophorum cosmosum Wall.

Grass-like herb with brown spikelet. (Gupta 212)

Cyperus compressus Linn.

Tufted annual with green spikelet. (Gupta 214B)

Cyperus rotundus Linn.

Perennial with wiry rhizome. Spikelet red-brown. Up to 2000 m. (Gupta

242A)

Gramineae

Digitaria cruciata (Nees) A. Camus. (Paspalum sanguinale Lamk. var. cruciatum

Hook. f. D. pruriens Biise)

Stem with branched base, rooting at the joints. (Gupta 267, 286)

“Panicum miliaceum Linn.

Stem tufted, leafy up to the panicle. At 300 m. (Gupta 241)

512. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Setaria glauca (Linn.) Beauv.

Erect stem. Spikelet pale brown, tinged with purple.

At 2500 m. (Gupta

455) .

Erianthus fulvus Nees ex Steud.

Perennial.

(Gupta 796)

Spikelet glabrous, basal hairs white, concealing the spikelet.

Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) Chois. (Andropogon monticola Forsk.)

Perennial. Spikelets in 3’s on solitary geminate spike. (Gupta 817)

Neyraudia arundinacea (Linn.) Henr. (N. reynaudiana Keng., N. madagascariensis

Hook. f. var. zollingeri)

Perennial. Spikelet purple-brown. (Gupta 168, 193)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is deeply indebted to Dr. J. C. Sen Gupta, Chief

Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for his kind help in the

identification of some of the plant specimens, and to Rev. Fr. H.

Santapau, Director, Biological Section, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay,

for his constructive suggestions and going through the manuscript.

REFERENCES

Champion, H.G. (1936) : A Preliminary

survey of the forest types of India and

Burma. Indian For. Records (N.S.),

Silvic.; 1.-

Collett, H. (1921): Flora Simlensis.

Thacker Spink & Co., Calcutta and

Simla.

Dudgeon, W. & Kenoyer, L.A. (1925) :

The ecology of Tehri Garhwal. A contri-

bution to the ecology of Western Hima-

laya. J. Indian bot. Soc. 4 : 233-285.

Gupta, R. K. (1956-57): Botanical

explorations in the Bhillangna valley of

the erstwhile Tehri Garhwal State. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 581-594

(1956) & 54 878-886 (1957). :

——— (1959) : Vegetation of Tehri

Garhwal (North-West Himalayas). Proc.

Indian Sc. Cong. Association. (Abst.)

pt. 3 : 309-310. Crk

Heske, Fr. (1929): Beitrag zur Kennt-

nis der Waldzonen des West-Himalaya.

Acta Forest Fennica 34: 1-30.

Mohan, N.P. & Puri, G. S. (1957) :

The Himalayan conifers. Pt. [[1I—The

succession of forest communities in oak-

conifer forests of Bashahr Himalayas.

Anes For. Records (N.S.), Silvic., 10(2) :

Osmaston, A. E. (1922) : Notes on the

forest communities of the Garhwal Hima-

layas. J. Ecol. 10: 129-167.

Puri, G. S. (1950) : The distribution of

conifers in the Kulu Himalayas with

special relation to geology. Jndian For.

76 : 144-153.

Troup, R. S. (1921): The silviculture

of Indian trees. Oxford. 3 vols. .. .-

The Genus Anisops (Hemiptera :

Notonectidae) in Ceylon

C. Y. LEONG AND C. H. FERNANDO

Department of Zoology, University of Malaya, Singapore

(With three plates)

INTRODUCTION

Anisops is the commonest genus of the Notonectidae in south-east

Asia. In Ceylon it is very widespread, occurring chiefly in the low

country. In spite of its commonness it has been recorded only on a

few occasions. Distant (1906, 1911) mentioned one species ‘“Anisops

fieberi’ and described a new species Anisops ali. Lundblad (1933)

mentions Anisops ali Distant and Anisops nasuta Fieb. as occurring

in Ceylon. Brooks (1951) records one species Anisops breddini

Kirk. from Ceylon. Fernando (1959, 1961a) recorded three species.

Anisops batillifrens Lundb., A. crinita Brooks, and A. nivea (Fabr.).

Mendis & Fernando (1962) have mentioned eight species from

Ceylon. The present paper is a report on material collected by one

of the authors (C.H.F.) in Ceylon. A short account of the genus

Anisops with keys to the genera of Notonectidae and the Ceylonese

species of Anisops are also included. Brief mention is made of the

biology of Anisops in south-east Asia, especially its occurrence at

artificial lights and in isolated habitats.

BIOLOGY

A large number of species of Anisops occur in south-east Asia.

They. constitute the most abundant species- among the large back-

swimmers (Notonectidae). They live chiefly in the shallow water of

ponds and the edges of lakes. Sometimes they are also found in slow-

running streams. They are predaceous in habits and feed largely

on small arthropods. In south-east Asia they are numbered among

the. important enemies of mosquito larvae (Dempwolff, 1904;

514. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Hinman, 1934; and Laird, 1956). Some species are extremely

mobile and fly from pond to pond. They have been recorded in

isolated habitats in many taxonomic works and also by Laird (1956)

and Fernando (1959). They sometimes fly to artificial lights (Brooks,

1951; and Fernando 196la, 1961b). Halee (1924) records large

numbers of Anisops flying off from a lake early in the morning.

Fernando (1961a) recorded two species, Anisops batillifrons and A.

nivea, flying in the morning in Ceylon. It is likely that Anisops fly

mainly at dawn.

Eggs are inserted into the soft parts of plants (stems and leaves).

Stridulation has been recorded in some species. Little is known of

the biology of Anisops in south-east Asia. The only detailed

accounts are those of Hale (1923) in Australia and Poisson (1926)

in Africa.

"TAXONOMY

Whilst the generic diagnosis of Anisops has proved relatively easy,

specific diagnosis was based on unsatisfactory characters like colour

and size. This led to considerable confusion until Brooks (1951)

revised the genus including all species so far described. He made

use of the chaetotaxy of the fore-legs of the male, the shape of the

rostral prong and the facial tubercle which were used by earlier

workers. He also utilised the shape of the labrum and the femur of

the first leg of the male as additional features to be relied on for

specific diagnosis. In the present paper we have compared our

material with the excellent descriptions of Brooks (1951) and used

easily observable characters for illustration to make diagnosis

accurate and easy for the Ceylonese species. Since Brooks (1951)

has given detailed descriptions of all the species we have recorded,

we have given only the important diagnostic features for each

species. 7

The Notonectidae are represented in Ceylon by three genera:

Anisops, Nychia, and Enithares. A key to the separation of these is

given below:

1. Hemelytral commissure with a hair-lined pit (PlateI, A-B) .. Anisops”

Hemelytral commissure without a hair-lined pit - 2

2. Femur of middle leg with antapical protuberance (Plate I, E) ..

Eyes not holoptic a Re eS: rd Enithares.

Femur of middle leg without antapical protuberance (Plate I, D)

Eyes holoptic .. Ne os a “te Nychia

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

A. Dorsal view (diagrammatic) of Anisops (s=synthlipsis, v=vertex) ; B. Enlarged view

of hair-lined pit of Anisops; C. Diagrammatic drawing of fore-leg of male Anisops ;

D. Diagrammatic drawing of middle leg of male Nychia ; E. Diagrammatic drawing of middle

leg of Enithares,

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IJ |

The chaetotaxy of fore-legs of the males of: A, & Ag. Anisops breddini; B, & Bs. Anisops |

exigera; C, & Ca. Anisops nivea; D, & Dg. Anisops barbata ; E, & Eq. Anisops bouvieri ; Fy « Fe.

Anisops extendofrons.

[HE GENUS ANISOPS IN CEYLON 515

The genus Anisops is further easily recognised by the one-

segmented tarsi of the male fore-legs. These bear bluntly rounded

tarsal claws. There is also a stridulatory comb on each fore-leg

(Plate I, C). A generalised drawing of Anisops is shown in Plate EA:

CEYLONESE SPECIES

In the present paper eight species are recognized as being found

in Ceylon, namely Anisops ali Distant, A. batillifrons Wundb.,

A. bouvieri Kirk., A. extendofrons Brooks, A. barbata Brooks,

A. exigera Horv., A. nivea (Fabr.), and A. breddini Kirk.

Anisops ali Distant

No specimens of this species were available to us. Anisops ali

is known only from the female and there is the possibility that it is

the synonym of Anisops allaudi Poisson! (personal communication

by I. Lansbury, Hope Department of Entomology, Oxford).

The type locality of this species is Diyatalawa and a brief des-

cription is given by Distant (1911) which has been transcribed by

Brooks (1951).

Anisops batillifrons Lundb.

The following materia! was availabie to us: 3 males, Kadahapoda,

Kurunegala District, 29-7-57; 5 females, 22nd mile Kurunegala-Maho

Road, 14-7-57; 1 male, 5 females, Wilpattu 23-6-52; 3 males, 5

females, Habarana, 7-3-57; 1 male, 3 females, Divulapitiya, Nattan-

diya, 28-7-57; 3 males, 2 females, Watupitiwela, 9-11-56; 5 males,

6 females, Thunmodera, Nattandiya, 21-6-57; 2 males, Kotadeniya,

13-10-57; 1 male, 1 female, Kiniyama, 3-5-58; and 3 females,

Nugegoda, 16-11-57. |

The male measures 5.2-6.82 in length and 1.3-3.1 in breadth.

The females are 5.5-€.5 long and 1.5-1.9 broad. This species is

easily the commonest in the collections we have examined. It is

easily recognized by the short cephalic projection (Plate III, E), and

the chaetotaxy of the male fore-leg (Plate II, C-D).

Anisops batillifrons has been recorded in Ceylon by Fernando

(1959, 196la). It is a widely distributed species occurring in

1 From Reunion I. Eps.

2 All measurements in mm.

516. JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Formosa, Hainan, China, Burma, Assam, India, Philippines, Okinawa,

and Ceylon. It is likely that earlier records of the species were confused

with those of Anisops bouvieri, the females of which are indistinguish-

able from A. batillifrons, and A. nasuta which it resembles super-

ficially.

Anisops batillifrons flies readily and has been recorded in

isolated habitats by Fernando (1959) and at light (Fernando, 1961a).

It is often found in paddy fields (Fernando, 1959),

Anisops bouvieri Kirk

Only a single male from Mandativu, Jaffna Peninsula, 5-12-57,

was available for study besides a pair of mounted fore-legs of a male.

We have also measured a female collected in Malaya.

The male measures 6.8 including the cephalic projection and is

1.9 broad. The female is 6.5 long and 2.0 broad.

Though the females of Anisops bouvieri and A. batillifrons are

indistinguishable, the males of A. bouvieri can be easily separated

from A. batillifrons by the longer, acuminate cephalic projection

(Plate ITI, F), and the chaetotaxy of the male fore-legs (Plate II, E,-E.).

Anisops bouvieri is widely distributed in south-east Asia. It

occurs in New Guinea, Malaya, Siam, Burma, Assam, India, and

Ceylon. It is a very mobile species and has been recorded at light

in India by Brooks (1951).

Anisops extendofrons Brooks

Only a pair of mounted fore-legs of the male was available from

Ceylon. The specimen was collected from Ambalantota on 22-5-57.

According to Brooks (195!) the male measures 6.4-6.8 in length and

1.5-1.7 in breadth. The females are 6.0 in length and 1.8 in breadth.

This species resembles Anisops bouvieri very closely and the

males have a long cephalic projection. It can however be dis-

tinguished from A. bouvieri by the chaetotaxy of the male fore-legs

(Plate TE iE -F:):

Anisops extendofrons has so far been recorded only from two

localities in India (Brooks, 1951). This is the first record of this

species from Ceylon, except the mention of its occurrence by Mendis

& Fernando (1962).

Anisops barbata Brooks

One male and one female of this species was available to us

besides a pair of mounted fore-legs of the male. The former were

Journ. Bomray NaT. Hist. Soc. PLATE III

A-B. Anisops breddini: A. Dorsal view of head to show holoptic eyes ; B. Profile

of head. C-E. Anisops batillifrons : C. Chaetotaxy of male fore-leg ; D. Enlarged

ou of stridulatory comb; E. Profile of head. F. Anisops bouvieri: Profile of

ead.

LHE GENUS ANISOPS IN CEYLON a aly)

collected in Ratmale on 14-7-57, and the latter from Maradamaduwa

on 24-6-52.

This species is the largest of the Ceylonese Anisops. It has a

wide synthlipsis, a character it shares with only one other Ceylonese

species, namely Anisops nivea.

The male measures 9.0 long and 2.6 broad. The only female in

our collection was sent to Mr. I. Lansbury of the Hope Department

of Entomology, Oxford, who kindly identified this species for us.

Anisops barbata can be easily identified by its large size (over 8.0).

The chaetotaxy of the male fore-leg is shown in Plate IH, D,-D..

This species occurs in Burma, India, Java, Formosa (Brooks, 1951),

Malaya (Lansbury, personal communication), and it is recorded here

for the first time in Ceylon.

Anisops exigera Horv.

The following material was examined: Ratmale, 1 male, 1 female.

collected on 14-7-57. Besides this we have examined a pair of

mounted fore-legs of the male from the same locality.

The male measures 5.0 in length and 1.5 in breadth. The female

measures 6.0 in length and 1.5 in breadth. Anisops exigera is a

relatively small species and has a narrow synthlipsis and no cephalic

projection. It resembles Anisops nivea superficially but can be

distinguished from this species by the narrow synthlipsis. The

chaetotaxy of the male fore-leg is shown in Plate II, B,-B..

Anisops exigera is so far known from the type series from N.

Guinea and occurs in’ south and central India (Brooks, 1951). It has

been recorded in Malaya by us and reported from Ceylon by

Fernando (1961a) as A. crinata.

Anisops nivea (Fabr.)

The following material was available to us for study: 1 male,

Wilpattu, 23-6-52; 2 females, Habarana, 7-3-57: 3 females, Kadahapoda.

29-7-57. Besides this we have examined a pair of mounted fore-legs

of the male from Wiipattu 23-6-52.

The male measures 6.0 in length and 1.5 in breadth. The female

measures 6.0-6.9 in length and 1.5-2.0 in breadth. Anisops. nivea

- resembles A. barbata in having a wide synthlipsis but can be

separated from the latter by its small size. The chaetotaxy of the

male fore-leg is shown in Plate IT, C,-C,,.

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Anisops nivea occurs in Sumatra and India (Brooks, 1951). It

has also been collected by us in Malaya and has been recorded in

Ceylon by Fernando (1961a).

Anisops breddini Kirk.

Three females from Lahugala Tank collected on 14-4-58 were

available for study, besides a pair of mounted male fore-legs. We

have also measured a single male from Malaya.

The male measures 5.5 in length and 1.5 in breadth. The female

5.0-6.0 in length and 1.2-1.4 in breadth.

This species is easily recognized by the holoptic eyes (Plate III, A).

The second rostral segment of the male is produced into a flap-like

process extending beyond the third and fourth rostral segments

(Plate III, B). Superficially this species resembles Nychia sp. but has

a hair-lined pit on the hemelytral commissure and the typical one-

jointed tarsi of the male.

Anisops breddini occurs in India, Burma, Cotta (Brooks, 1951).

It is the commonest species in Malaya. It has been recorded at light

in Malaya by Fernando (1961b). |

KEY TO MALES OF CEYLONESE SPECIES OF Anisops

The following simple key has been drawn up for the males of the

Ceylonese species of Anisops. We have omitted Anisops ali whose

male is unknown and A. nasuta whose presence in Ceylon is

doubtful.

1. Eyes holoptic te a as £3 A. breddini

Eyes not holoptic oe Bs ae 2

2. Synthlipsis wide, one-third or more the anterior width a

vertex wis 3

Synthlipsis narrow, less than one- third the anterior width of

vertex as ae ae see 4

3. Large, more than 8.0 mm. ieee i ae oe A. barbata

Less than 8.0 mm. long ae oe as A, nivea

4. Cephalic projection present ie) oe a =)

Cephalic projection absent i ee fy A. exigera

5. Cephalic projection more or less acuminate ae Se 6

Cephalic projection short, pointed es .. A. batillifrons

6. Chaetotaxy of first male leg as in Plate II, E,-E. of A. bouvieri

Chaetotaxy of first male leg as in Plate II, F,-F, .. A, extendofrons

+ Spi

THE GENUS ANISOPS IN CEYLON 519

OTHER SPECIES IN CEYLON

‘Anisops fieberi’ has been recorded by Distant (1906). This is

indeterminate and probably Anisops nivea. Anisops nasuta has

been recorded by Lundblad (1933), but we .consider that this is

probably an error and refers to Anisops batillifrons. Anisops

nasuta does not occur in India and seems restricted to the Pacific,

and the Malaya Archipelago, whilst A. batillifrons is a widespread

species, occurring in India.

SUMMARY

Eight species of Anisops are recognised as being present in

Ceylon. Specimens of all of them except Anisops ali have been

examined and short notes of important diagnostic structural features

are given.

A short account of the biology of Anisops and the distribution

of the Ceylonese species has been included, with records of the

occurrence of members of the genus at light and temporary habitats.

Keys to the genera of Notonectidae and the Ceylonese species of

Anisops are given.

REFERENCES

Brooks, G. T. (1951): A revision of

the genus Anisops (Notonectidae, Hemip-

tera). Kans. Univ. Sci. Bull. 34: 301-

519.

Dempwolff, H. (1904): Bericht uber

eine Malaria-Expedition nach Deutsch-

Neu-Guinea. Zeitschr F. Hyg. U. infec-

tionskrankh 47 : 81-132

Distant, W.L. (1906): The Fauna

of British India. Rhynchota Vol. 3.

Taylor and Francis. London.

——(1911) : Rhynchota indica (Hetero-

ptera). Entomologist 44 : 104-107.

Fernando, C.H. (1959) : Some obser-

vations on aquatic insects found in

temporary and artificial habitats in

Ceylon. Ceylon J. Sci.2: 1-4.

—— (196la) : Aquatic insects taken at

light in Ceylon with a discussion and

bibliography of references to aquatic in-

sects at light. Ceylon J. Sci. (Bio. Sci.)

4: 45-54.

—— (1961b) : Notes on aquatic insects

caught at light in Malaya with a discus-

sion of their distribution and dispersal.

Bull. Nat. Mus. Singapore 30: 19-31.

Hale, H.M. (1923): Studies in Aus-

tralian aquatic Hemiptera. No. 11

Family Notonectidae. Rec. S. Aust.

~ Mus : 405-412.

—— (1924): Notes on eggs, habits

and migration of some Australian

aquatic bugs (Corixidae and Notonecti-

dae). S. Aust. Nat. 5: 133-135.

Hinman, E.H. (1934) : Predators of the

Culicidae I. The predators of larvae and

pupae exclusive of fish. J. Trop. Med.

Hyg. 37: 129-134.

Laird, M. (1956): Studies of mosquito

and freshwater ecology in the South

Pacific. Bull. Roy. Soc. N.Z. No. 6,

Dunedin : 213 pp.

Lundblad, O. (1933): Zur Kenntnis

der aquatilen und semiaquatilen Hemip-

tera von Sumatra, Java und Bali. Arch.

Fur Hydrobiol. Suppl. 12: 1-195 ; 263-498.

Mendis, A.S.& Fernando, C.H(1962):A

guide to the freshwater fauna of Ceylon.

Bull. Dept. Fish. Ceylon. No. 12. Ceylon

Govt. Press. (160 pp.)

Poisson, R. (1926): L’Anisops pro-

ducta Fieb. (Hemiptera, Notonectidae)

Observations sur son anatomie et sa

biologie: Arch. Zool. exp. gén. 65: 181-

Studies on the Freshwater Oligochaeta

of South India

I. Aeolosomatidae and Naididae

PART .3

K. VANAMALA NAIDU

Government Arts and Science College, Chittoor (A.P.)

(With eleven text-figures) ©

[Continued from Vol. 59 (1): 145]

4. Genus Stylaria Lamarck, 1816

Generic characters: Prostomium with long proboscis. Eyes pre-

sent. Dorsal setae from VI on, each bundle with hairs and simple-

pointed, nodulus-less needles. Ventral setae all alike, with proximal

nodulus, proximal part bent and with weak proximal prong. Pharynx

and oesophageal glands present. Stomach present. Coelomocytes

present. Commissural vessels present. Nephridia start in VI or VII.

Atria with prostate glands. Penial setae present. Spermathecae present.

KEY TO ALL THE KNOWN AND VALID SPECIES OF STYLARIA

Proboscis projecting from a notch between 2 lateral lobes ;

proximal part of ventral setae with 2 sharp bends; hair

setae with serrations 1 Jacustris

Proboscis projecting from tip of the pointed prostomium ;

proximal part of ventral setae with 1 sharp bend ; hair

setae smooth fossularis

9. Stylaria fossularis Leidy, 1852

Fig. 9 A-H

Stylaria lacustris (L.) Stephenson, 1913b, pp. 739, 744; Yamaguchi, 1958, pp.

292-293. |

Stylaria fossularis Leidy. Chen, 1944, p. 6; Chu, 1945, pp. 194-206, fig. 1-8;

1946, pp. 229-239, fig. 1-7; Sperber, 1948, pp. 149-151.

‘Species not recorded in the Indian sub-continent

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA py

Material examined : Many worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah in January 1956.

Worms pale white with very transparent body wall, and delicate,

short hairs, more on prostomium and anal segment. Eyes crescentic,

blackish purple, at the base of prostomium on either side of the mouth.

Prostomium proper semi-circular, 0.16 mm. long, with a conspicuous,

thin antero-median proboscis (Fig. 9A), 1.4 mm. long, 0.07 mm. and

0,02 mm. broad at the base and apex respectively.

Dorsal setae begin in VI, 1-2 hairs and 1-3 needles per bundle, hairs

simple, straight, longer than the body diameter, 300-420 p» long;

needles single pointed, straight 63-70 » long, anodulate. Ventral setae

(Fig. 9B) all of one type, bifid, 6-10 per bundle, decreasing to 2 per

bundle in hind segments, longer anteriorly, 91-126 y» long, length

gradually decreasing posteriorly, with proximal nodulus (D:P::18:13),

single proximal bend, distal prong very much longer, thicker and hooked

than the rudimentary proximal prong. Lengths of setae of a bundle vary.

Pharynx in II-IV, wide, bright yellow, partly eversible through the

mouth. Oesophagus in V-VI, thin. Stomach in VII-IX, distinctly

barrel-shaped. Intestine from XII on. Gut ciliated, flame-like ciliary

vibration and vigorous anti-peristalsis occur in intestine. Chloragocytes

from VI, greyish. Coelomocytes absent; brownish spherical oil globules

present in coelom. Contraction and relaxation of proboscis wall

decreases and increases the volume of the proboscis.

Brain (Fig. 9C) incised deeply behind and less deeply in front.

Blood colourless. Dorsal vessel lateral, and mid-dorsal anteriorly.

Simple contractile vessels 3 pairs in III-V.

Nephridia begin in VII or VIII, 2 (occasionally 1) per segment.

Nephridium (Fig. 9D) in two segments, its pre-septal ciliated, nephros-

tome in the anterior, and post-septal duct partly enclosed in glandular

mass and opening by nephridiopore in front of the ventral bundles in the

posterior of the two segments.

Worms without budding zones are very rare in laren Those

developing sex organs also form budding zones, and go through asexual

reproduction repeatedly until sexual maturity, when fission is suspended.

A proboscid prostomium and 5 anterior segments for the posterior zooid

and some hind segments for the anterior zooid are budded off by the

budding zone before fission.

Testes and ovaries paired, ovoid, white structures on either side of

the oesophagus in V and VI respectively. Sperm sac, a back-pouching

of septum 5/6, extends to X or XI. Seminal funnels cup-shaped (Fig.

9E) in V, followed by thick-walled vasa deferentia entering atria (Fig.

9E)in VI. Atrial ampullae ovoid with irregular exterior, open by short

ducts ventro-laterally in VI. Ventral setae of VI modified into penial

setae (Fig. 9F), 2-3 per bundle, 84-91 » long, 4-5 yw thick. Ovi-sac,

522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

a back-pouching of septum 6/7, extends to XI or XII when full with

ova (Fig. 9H). Female funnels small on septum 6/7, open into ovi-sac.

Clitellum not very distinct, body wall of V-VII thicker than the others.

Spermathecae (Fig. 9G) club-shaped, do not enter sperm sac, with their

openings ventro-laterally in V.

I(living) =4-5 mm., (chains) 8-9 mm.; d(living) = 0.3 mm.; s= 30-35

followed by slender nndificreniinted zone ;n = 19-23, 21 commen:

Lengths of setae in » and position of nodulus inthe ratio D: P::

II III IV V VI VII VIII IX xX

Hair: a =F aa 0 = = 420 — 308

Needle : — = = — 63 63 63 63 63

Long 126 M55 1125, 10825’. 210855 e105 2 UI2b 108.5) 108.5

crotchet DA d2 222-1 De 20 asl £93124 S18 312792138) si Sets creat 8213

Short 108.5 98 LOTS AOS, 945 94.5 94.5 91 94.5

crotchet 21:10 18:10 19:10 18:11 16:11 16:11 16:11 16:10 16:11

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Calcutta, Bhim Tal (N. India) ;

Lahore (Pakistan). Now recorded from Cuddapah (S. India).

Habits : Worms live in filaments of Spirogyra and other algae,

feeding on the decaying vegetable matter. No tube formation. They

swim with brisk wriggling movement in horizontal plane.

Remarks : The present worms have no coelomocytes, in which they

agree with Chen (1940). In coelomic fluid brownish spherical oil

globules are seen, which may have been mistaken for coelomocytes by

Stephenson (1909a). A distinct stomach is present, in which they agree

with Yoshizawa (1928), Stephenson (1923), but differ from Chen.

Needles are longer, 63-70 p» long as against 40-50 » long found in

literature.

5. Genus Haemonais Bretscher, 1900

Generic: characters : Eyes absent. Dorsal setae hairs and bifid

crochet-like needles, originally beginning in VI and as worms mature

hairs and needles are lost in a number of anterior segments. Ventral

setae of anterior segments differ in shape from the posterior setae.

Dorsal vessel lateral. Vascular plexus in anterior segments. Coelomo-

cytes present. Clitellum absent between male pores. Vas deferens

entering atria antero-dorsally. Prostate absent. Penial setae present.

10. Haemonais waldvogeli Bretscher, 1900

Fig. 10 A-C

Haemonais waldvogeli Bretscher. Lastockin, 1924, p. 5; 1927, p. 66; Sperber,

1948, pp. 154-155, fig. 18C, 27B ; 1950, p. 70.

Haemonais laurentii Stephenson. Marcus, 1944, pp. 63-64, fig. 51, 52. Du-Bois

Raymond Marcus, 1947, pp. 5-6; 1949, pp. 2-3, fig. 1-2.

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 523

Material examined : Many worms collected from the Langford

Town tank, Bangalore, in May 1958.

Worms of moderate size, light brown, tapering anteriorly. Pros-

tomium triangular, without sensory hairs. Eyes absent.

Dorsal setae, in mature worms, start in any segment from XVII to

XX, 1 hair and 1 needle per bundle, hair slightly S-shaped, 130-140 pz

long, slightly longer than needles; needles (Fig. 10A) bifid, S-shaped,

crotchet-like, with distal nodulus (D: P:: 12:15), 91-98 » long, 4 pu

thick, outer tooth thinner and longer than inner. Ventral setae (Fig.

10B, C) 2-3 per bundle, 84 » long in II and III, decreasing to 80.5 » in

IV and V; 87.5 » long in VI, increasing to 94.5 w in VIII and gradually

diminishing to 80.5 » long in the middle and posterior segments ; in

II-X VIII longer and slender, with proximal nodulus (D: P:: 15: 12),

distal prong longer and thinner than proximal; from XIX backwards

more curved with distal nodulus (D: P:: 11: 13), distal prong thinner

and shorter than proximal.

Pharynx in II-IV, wide. Oesophagus from V, thin, insensibly

continues into intestine. Stomach absent. Anus dorsal. Chloragocyte

dark brown, start from II, absent in III. Intestinal anti-peristalsis and

ascending ciliary vibration occur. Coelomocytes spherical, of different

sizes, clumping into masses on septa of anterior segments. Septa well

developed and unperforated ; no septal glands.

Brain incised in front and behind.

Blood red. Dorsal vessel ventrally attached to left of gut up to

VI and mid-dorsal in II-V. Anterior segments have a network of

longitudinal and transverse vessels below the parietes, the former closer

to one another than the latter, which are 2 pairs per segment.

First nephridium in VIII with its nephrostome to the left in VII;

pre-septal funnel with a ciliated nephrostome, passes into a thin neck,

and pierces through septum and connects post-septal, latter consisting

of a long cylindrical body followed by a thin, long ciliated coiled

duct, partly free and partly enclosed in gland tissue before opening by

nephridiopore.

Budding zone proliferates a prostomium and 5 anterior segments to

posterior zooid, and several hind segments to anterior zooid before

fission. As budding is going on, the dorsal setae of anterior segments

of the posterior zooid are gradually shed, first hairs, then needles ;

and later thick, short, curved ventral setae are gradually replaced by

thin, long, less curved setae. Sexual worms not encountered.

1(p.) = 6mm.; d(p:) = 0.4 mm.;s = 42-+-undiff. region ; n=31-37.

Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Agra (N. India); Lahore

(Pakistan). Now recorded from Bangalore (S. India).

Habits : No swimming. Live in soft mud ; not tube-dwelling.

524

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

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THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 525

Remarks : Needles of this form are shorter, 91-98 » long, than

those of Lahore worms, 105 y» long (Stephenson, 1915) and Russian

worms, 105-115 » long (LastoCckin, 1924 ; Malevich, 1929).

Haemonais ciliata Hayden (1922) agrees in all characters with

H. waldvogeli except for the presence of pigmentation at both ends of

the pharynx, the ciliation of the body surface in a number of anterior

segments, and the vascular system, ‘more like the usual naid type

than that of AH. waldvogeli’, with contractile loops in most of the

segments, IV-XX. These characters of the vascular system are peculiar

and hence need reinvestigation.

Haemonais laurentii Stephenson of Chen (1940) with the dorsal

bundles starting in II, if it is not a case of worms regenerating the

anterior end, is certainly a distinct species.

6. Genus Branchiodrilus Michaelsen, 1900

Generic characters.: Eyes absent. Anterior segments with transverse

brown stripes. Dorsal setae from IV, V or VI, hairs in anterior seg-

ments and hairs and simple-pointed needles in hind segments. Ventral

setae all alike or of anterior segments slightly different from those of

posterior segments. Branchial processes from IV, V or VI onwards on

a number of anterior segments. Stomach absent. Dorsal vessel lateral.

Vascular plexus in anterior 5 segments ; gill bearing segments have a

pair of transverse vascular loops each, which enter into the gills. Coe-

lomocytes present. Clitellum in V-VIII. Vasa deferentia entering atria

on their antero-dorsal face. Prostate absent. Atrial duct surrounded

by gland cells. Penial setae present.

Till recently two species of this genus were known only from Asia,

Br. semperi. and Br. hortensis from India; Br. hortensis from Japan

(Yamaguchi, 1938, 1953) and from China (Chen, 1940). Dahl (1957,

pp. 1155-57) described Br. cleistochaeta Dahl from the French Came-

roons in Africa. With its discovery in Africa, the genus is known for

the first time outside Asia.

KEY TO ALL THE KNOWN AND VALID SPECIES OF BRANCHIODRILUS

A-1 Needle setae of posterior segments curved distally sempert —

~ A-2 Needle setae of all segments with straight tips

B-1 Ventral setae of all segments of one type only ;

with equally long prongs; usually one hair

projecting freely in posterior branchial :

segments : F hortensis

B-2 Ventral setae of two types, anterior ones sen

equally long prongs, posterior ones with distal

prong longer than proximal ; all hairs enclosed

in gills By: 1 cleistochaeta

1 Species not known from the Indian sub-continent.

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

11. Branchiodrilus semperi (Bourne, 1900)

Fig. 11 A-F

Branchiodrilus semperi (Boutne). Sperber, 1948, pp. 156-157.

Material examined : Many worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah in January 1954; from the Kandakam tank, Bellary, in

April 1954.

Worms large, brown, with dorso-lateral gills starting from V in

Bellary specimens and VI in Cuddapah specimers, 1 pair per segment,

extending to the middle of the body. Pre-branchial region appears

thicker than the region following it in the moving worms. Dark grey

pigmentation is irregular in anterior 14 or 15 segments, besides regular

transverse bands covering blood vessels in anterior gill region. Prosto-

mium bluntly triangular. Anus postero-dorsal (Fig. 11 A, B). No

eyes. Anterior segments shorter than succeeding ones.

Gills about 50 pairs of 40 y thick, ciliated, cylindrical hollow struc-

tures afising as dorso-lateral projections of the body wall with slight

constrictions at the place of attachment. Each encloses an inverted

U-shaped blood vessel. First pair 0.75 mm. long, when turned forwards

stops short of the tip of the prostomium ; second pair 1 mm. long and

reaches well in front of prostomium. Gills decrease in length posteriorly

and at about 40th segment they are mere tubercles, gradually disappear-

ing by about the 50th segment.

Dorsal setae from V or VI, 1-2 hairs and 1-2 needles per bundle,

embedded in gills and free in tuberculate segments and others ;

straight, smooth, 332-504 uw long, twice as long as needles, shorter than

body diameter ; needles (Fig. 11 C, D) single pointed, anodulate, straight

and simple anteriorly, and peculiarly bayonet-shaped with distal curve,

120-210 » long, posteriorly. Ventral setae (Fig. 11 E, F), bifid, 1-3 per

bundle, in II-V thinner than rest, 73.5 » long in II, decreasing gradually

to 52.5 » in V; nodulus median (D:P::9:9 or 10: 11), distal prong

thinner and longer than proximal; in others nodulus_ distal

(D:P:: 11:14 or 14: 18), 73.5-87.5 » long in VI, increasing gradually

to 113.7 » in succeeding segments, prongs equally long, distal half as

thick as proximal.

Pharynx in II-VI, wide. Oesophagus from VII, thin, insensibly

passing into wide sacculated intestine. Stomach absent. Intestinal

anti-peristalsis occurs ; no postero-anterior ciliary vibration. Chlorago-

gues from VI, brown, meagre on oesophagus. Septa perforated ; septal

glands absent. Coelomocytes granular, opaque, colourless, spherical,

largest 14 » wide.

Blood yellowish red. Dorsal vessel contractile, laterally attached to

left of the gut up to VII and mid-dorsal in 6 anterior segments. Ventral

vessel non-contractile, mid-ventral. Branchial segments have paired

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 527

contractile lateral loops enclosed in gills and connected to dorsal and

ventral vessels. In segments with branchial tubercles and subsequent

ones, lateral loops are short, non-contractile and at the base of

tubercles ; in pre-branchial region they form an irregular plexus.

First nephridium in XII with its pre-septal funnel in XI on anterior

face of septum 11/12 ; a short neck passes and connects post-septal,

latter consisting of a fusiform, granular body followed by a long coiled

ciliated duct opening by nephridiopore ventro-laterally.

Budding zones develop one at a time, starts as a slight constriction

about the middle of the body, later a narrow strip of undifferentiated

~ region is formed for the anterior zooid in front of the zone. Budded

hind segments of the anterior zooid do not develop gills until after they

are fully formed. Budding zone provides an undifferentiated region for

anterior zooid, and prostomium and 5 head segments for posterior

zooid before fission.

Sexual worms not encounteved.

1 (p.) = 8.5-11.5 mm. ; d (p.) = 0.6-0.7 mm. ; s = over 100 + undiff.

region ; n = 64-68.

Lengths of setae in p» and position of nodulus in the ratio D: P: :

Meee LVet Ne Vi, ile VIX X XI

Hair ee fens as ty 5459) 5.7): 990) sia sANs 402.5). 402:5.>. 402.5

Needle ee ee Ah 6210.2 210) e210 122.5 1 19-5

@rotchet is. 73.9), 66) 59:5 52.5% 87.55 101.5 103°2), 1OtS 113.7 112

LOR 9989 Sato LISA AS 16F P4155 13167 14:18'5- 14:18

Crotchet2 — — — — 73.5 98 98 91 110.2 106.7

9212 12°16 213715 12:14 14:17.5. 14:16:5

Recorded only from Madras (S. India). Now recorded from

Cuddapah and Bellary (S. India).

Habits: Swimming absent. Live in mud ; not tube-dwelling.

7. Genus Dero Oken, 1815

Subgenus Dero Oken, 1815

Sub-generic Characters: No eyes. Prostomium bluntly triangular.

Dorsal setae from IV or VI ; ventral setae of II-V sharply differentiated

from others. Pharyngeal glands present ; chloragogues begin in VI,

brownish or greyish ; intestinal anti-peristalsis and ascending ciliary

action occur. Coelomocytes absent. Septa developed ; septal glands

present. Dorsal vessel contractile, ventrally to left for most part, mid-

dorsal in anterior 6 segments ; ventral vessel -non-contractile, mid-

ventral. First nephridium in VII (rarely in VIII) with pre-septal

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

nephrostome in VI (rarely in VII) connected by a neck to the post-

septal, consisting of a fusiform ampulla followed by a long coiled

ciliated duct, partly enclosed in gland tissue, opening by nephridio-

pore ventrally. Budding zone provides prostomium and 5 anterior

segments to the posterior zooid, and some hind segments and _ branchial

organ to the anterior zooid before fission. Sperm-sac and ovi-sac, back-

pouchings of septa 5/6 and 6/7, extend backwards, former within latter.

Spermathecae | pair in V, their pores lateral to or in front of ventral

setae in V. No penial setae.

KEY TO ALL THE KNOWN AND VALID SPECIES OF DERO

A-1 Dorsal setae beginning in IV ; branchial fossa with

5 pairs of gills z3 dorsalis

A-2 Dorsal setae beginning in VI, branchial fossa with

more or less than 5 pairs of gills

B-1 Branchial fossa with 7-40 pairs of gills

C-1 Needle teeth fine and equal ; 8 pairs of

gills 60 *evelinae

C-2 Proximal tooth of needles weak or |

vestigeal ; 7 pairs of gills ai * multibranchiata

C-3 Proximal tooth of needles slightly

thicker than distal, about 40 pairs of

gills 5S * botrytis

B-2 Branchial fossa with 4 pairs of gills

D-1 Needle teeth unequal; distal tooth

longer than proximal ae digitata

D-2 Needle teeth fine and about equal

E-1 Dorsal bundles with 1 hair and

1 needle in all segments rs cooperi

E-2 Dorsal bundles with 2 hairs and

2 needles in anterior and middle

segments ss indica sp. nov.

E-3 Dorsal bundles with 3-4 hairs and

3-4 needles in anterior and

middle segments iiie. zeylanica

B-3 Branchial fossa with 2-3 pairs of gills

F-1 Hairs bayonet-shaped and plumose

G-1 Needles bifid, nodulus 1/5-1/6

from distal end plumosa sp. nov.

G-2 Needles trifid, nodulus 1/4 from

distal end Sr pectinata

F-2 Hairs simple

H-1 Needles palmate os | palmata

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 529

H-2 Needles with 3-4 intermediate

teeth between strongly diverging

main teeth a * asiatica

H-3 Needles simply bifid

I-1 Needle teeth equal; ventral

setae of II-V longer than the

rest

J-1 Stomach beginning in VIII nivea

J-2 Stomach beginning in IX

or X a8 * obtusa

I-2 Needle teeth unequal, proxi-

mal longer and thicker than

distal ie sawayai

* Species not known from the Indian sub-continent.

12. Dero dorsalis Ferroniére, 1899

Fig. 12 A-H

Dero dorsalis Ferroniere. Sperber, 1948, pp. 162-165 ; 1950, pp. 70-71, fig. 22.

Material examined : Many worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah in April 1954 ; from the Balaji tank, Kakinada, in July 1956.

Worms of medium size, yellowish. Segmentation clear.

Dorsal setae from IV, 1 hair and 1 needle, rarely 2 of each, per

bundle ; hairs (Fig. 12A) bayonet-shaped, 245-266 » long, shorter than

body diameter, needles (Fig. 12B) bifid, sickle-shaped, with strong distal

nodulus (D: P: : 9: 20), 84-102 p» long, with minute teeth, outer longer

and thicker than inner. Ventral setae (Fig. 12C, D) 4,3 and 2 per

bundle in anterior, middle and posterior segments respectively ; in II-V,

less curved than in others, with median nodulus (D: P:: 15: 15 or

16:15) and prongs about equal in thickness, distal 14 times longer

than proximal ; in others nodulus distal (D:P:: 14: 16), distal prong

thinner and longer than proximal. In II longest, 112-122.5 » long and

in others 91-112 » long, gradually decreasing behind. Nodular position

and seta length vary from seta to seta in each bundle.

Branchial organ (Fig. 12E, F) has 5 pairs of ciliated foliate gills iu

fossa ; I pair in supra-anal diverticulum broader than long, II and III

pairs on inner surface of lateral margins, ventral and lateral to I, IV and

V pairs on the floor of fossa. Anterior margin of fossa entire and ciliated

posterior margin with non-vascular, non-contractile, short, broad, flat

and diverging palp-like processes, which curl and close over branchial

fossa in contraction. }

Pharynx in II-III wide, with glands. Oesophagus in IV-VIII, thin

and wavy, continuing into straight, thin intestine in IX. Intestine wide

530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

and sacculated from X. Stomach absent. Chloragogues greyish. Septal

glands in IV and V. }

- Brain (Fig. 12G) incised deeply posteriorly and less deeply

anteriorly.

Blood red. Contractile vascular vessel 9 pairs in VI-XIV. In bran-

chial organ (Fig. 12F) ventral vessel divides into 2, branches run along

margins of fossa supplying 5 branchial vessels in each half ; branchial

vessels loop in gills and on emerging from them, unite to form dorsal

vessel.

First nephridium (Fig. 12H) in VII, its nephrostome in VI.

One budding zone common, when two, second budding zone always

appears in posterior zooid.

Sexual worms not encountered.

1(p.) = 7-9.5 mm.; d(p.) = 0.35-0.4 mm.; s = 60-70 followed

by undifferentiated zone and branchial organ; n = 36 and 42 in

2 worms.

Lengths of longest setae in » and position of nodulus in the

ratio DP.

Ul I IV Vv VI VII VILE

Hair ° a. &. 245 245 266 = 262.5

Needle — — 84 94.5 99.7 101.5 98

7.5:16.5 9:18 9:19,5 9:20 8:20

Crotchet 122.5 210825 108.5 105 101.5 112 105

17:18 16:15 16:15 15:15 14:15 14:18 14:16

IX xX XI XII XII XIV

Hair : 252 ae BAS Sie 245 238 234.5

Needle 98 101.5 101.5 98 98 87.5

) 9:19 10:19 9:20 10:18 8:20 8.5:16.5

Crotchet 106.7 “105 105 99.7 98 98

14:16.5 13217 14:16 151135 14:14 12:16

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Madras, Trivandrum (S. India).

Now recorded from Cuddapah and Kakinada (S. India).

Habits : These worms are the largest among the species of Dero in

the locality and live in soft mud without tubes, along with Aulophorus

michaelseni, Dero digitata and D. indica. Swimming absent.

Remarks ; Present’ worms agree in the absence of stomach with

Madras worms (Stephenson, 1925a), but disagree with Travancore

worms (Aiyer, 1930). Stephenson describes 4 pairs of gills from a single

worm with branchial organ from Madras. Aiyer describes 5 pairs of

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 531

gills. Present worms have 5 pairs of gills and agree with Aiyer’s des-

cription. Body length is within 10 mm., while Aiyer gives it between

10-18 mm. and Chen (1940) between 10-30 mm.

13. Dero digitata (Miiller, 1773)

Fig. 13 A-H

Dero limosa Leidy. Brode, 1898, p. 142. Lastockin, 1918, p. 62; Cordero

1931a, p. 349 ; 1931b, p. 334 ; Chen, 1944, p. 7 ; Causey, 1953a, p. 55.

Dero incisa Michaelsen. Pointner, 1911, p. 632.

Dero digitata (Miiller). Pointner, 1911, p. 632. Lastockin, 1924, p. 5; 1927,

p. 66; Sperber, 1948, pp. 165-178, fig. 19 A-E, 27A, pl. XIV, fig. 2-5, pl. XV, XVI,

XVII, XVII, fig. 1-3, 6 ; 1950, p. 71, pl. II, fig. 1,2. Causey, 1953a, p. 55.

(?) Dero digitata (O. F. Miiller). Sperber, 1958, p. 49.

Material examined: Numerous worms collected from the Bugga

stream, Cuddapah, in September and November 1953, March 1954 and

May 1955 ; from the Balaji tank, Kakinada, in November 1956 ; from

the Kandakam tank, Bellary, in April 1954; from the Ulsoor tank,

Bangalore, in May 1958.

Worms medium-sized, reddish, epidermis with uniform orange-red or

pink pigment, concentrated in head segments and branchial organ.

Body surface covered with slender fuzzy outgrowths. Prostomium with

sensory hairs. |

Dorsal setae from VI, 1 hair and 1 needle per bundle ; hair slightly

bayonet-shaped, 140-182 » long, shorter than diameter of body ; needle

(Fig. 13 A) bifid, sickle-shaped, 59.5-63 » long nodulus distal (D:P::

5 : 13), distal tooth 14 times longer, thicker and straighter than proximal.

Ventral setae (Fig. 13 B, C) of II-V, 4-5 per bundle, longer, thinner and

- straighter than those of others, 91-94 » long, nodulus proximal (D:

P :: 16:10), prongs equally thick, diverging, distal 13 times longer than

proximal ; from VI on, 4 setae per bundle, decreasing to 3 and 2 poster-

iorly, 70-73.5 » long. Length of distal prong and position of nodulus

varies from seta to seta in each bundle. Distal prong slightly longer than

proximal, nodulus about middle (D:P:: 10:11) in outer seta, dista]

prong is shorter than proximal and nodulus distal (D:P:: 6: 12) in

inner seta ; with intermediate lengths of distal prong and position of

nodulus in other setae of the bundle.

Branchial organ (Fig. 13 D, E) has 4 pairs of ciliated gills, 1 dorsal

and small, 1 lateral and 2 ventral, all foliate. Anterior margin of fossa

entire, convex and ciliated ; posterior margin prolonged into a flat non-

ciliated lip.

Pharynx in II-IV, wide with eversible dorsal diverticulum. Oeceso-

phagus in V-VIII, thin. Stomach in IX or IX-X. Intestine starts in X

or XI. Gut ciliated. Chloragogues brownish. Septa well developed,

septal glands in IV-VI,

332. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Brain (Fig. 13 F) incised in front and behind.

Blood is red. Contractile lateral vessels 5 pairs in VI-X.

First nephridium (Fig. 13 G) in VII.

Budding zone normally single in a worm.

Clitellum from $V-VII (23 segments). Gonads absent but sexual

cells of both sexes present in sexually mature worm with clitellum.

Epidermis between spermathecal openings bright yellow. Sperm-sac

and ovisac extend to IX and XI respectively when full, former lying in

latter. Male and female funnels not observed. Atrial ampulla (Fig.

13H) ovoid, thick-walled with its ectal duct opening at the place of

ventral bundle of VI. No penial setae. Spermathecae (Fig. 13H)

ovoid, thick-walled with openings lateral to ventral bundles of V.

I(p.) = 2:5-3.5 mm: ;° d(p.) = 0:25-0:3 mim:; Ss = 25-40)-- unditt:

region and branchial organ ; n = 17-25.

Lengths of longest setae in p and positions of nodulus in the ratio

DP:

Si alVi ea VI VIE Vil cixsevx XI XO XIiil

Hair eagih icao hot ques yeoman ee 00) 161 182 175140) ATS Sea i825

Needle ee i 99D O13 Os. 595 63 63 63 63

3125 S312/5 S313 51275 5:13 213k) oe

Crotchet 94.5 94.5 91 Ot 77.40 70. 735) (73:36. 13.5) A32da THO 70

16:11 17:10 16:10 16:10 10:10 10:10 10:11 10:11 10:11 10:11 10:10 10:10

Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Trivandrum and Kottayam

(Travancore, S. India). Now recorded from eae Bellary and

Bangalore (S. India).

Habits : When left in a vessel with large quantity of water, the

worms settle in groups with their tubes attached parallel to one another

on the wall near the surface of water, evidently for respiratory purposes.

Swim with spiral movement. Live in tubes of mucus and sand.

Commensals : Sessile vorticellids are found attached to setae of the

hind segments of worms.

Remarks : There is great deal of confusion ceeds) Dero digitata as

it was described as a distinct species by every writer on trivial characters

of the branchial organ. On examining 8 species of Dero and particular-

ly the group of closely related species D. digitata, D. cooperi, D. indica

and D. zeylanica, it boils down that proper identity is possible only

when characters of the needle setae are considered.

Two species with 4 pairs of gills with dorsal bundles composed of 1

simple hair and 1 bifid needle starting in VI, can easily be separated

into D. digitata with unequal needle teeth distal longer than proximal

tooth, and into D. cooperi with short equal teeth in needles. Thus

D. limosa from S. India (Aiyer, 1930), from Germany (Schuster, 1915,

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 533

pp. 16-17), from N. America (Mayhew, 1922), from Japan (Kondo, 1936),

from China (Chen, 1940), D. incisa-like from Lake Akero ’tjarn

(Sperber, 1948, p. 175) with distal needle tooth longer than proximal

are synonyms of D. digitata.

The characters of setae of the present worms and of D. digitata

(D. limosa) from S. India and China are similar; those of Sweden and

N. America differ in being larger.

Setal characters of D. kawamurai and D. tanimotoi from Japan

(Kondo, 1936); D. michaelseni from Russia (Svetlov, 1924); D. incisa

from Germany (Michaelsen, 1903); D. intermedius (Cragin, 1887) ;

D. acuta (Bousefield, 1887); D. phillippinensis (Semper, 1887, Bouse-

field, 1886, Vaillant, 1890) are not available. Lengths of setae of

D. michaelseni and D. incisa (Michaelsen, 1903) agree very closely with

the European form. The setae of D. kawamurai and D. tanimotoi are

larger than those of the Asiatic form and approach the European and

N. American form.

D. incisa from Abyssinia (Stephenson, 1932) resembles D. digitata in

the absence of incision in the dorsal margin of the branchial organ ; in

having similar branchial organ, and in the form of setae (length un-

known), but differs in having very fine needle teeth. This was found

living together with D. cooperi in the same locality. Stephenson

examined them together and described them as two different species.

It is possible that the needle teeth are equal in length, which Stephenson

may have failed to observe in the present worms. Hence this may be

D. cooperi.

14. Dero indica sp. nov.

Fig. 14 A-G

Material examined: Many worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddaph in October 1953, March-May 1955, January 1956 ; from the

Balaji tank, Kakinada in July 1956; from the Langford Town tank,

Bangalore in May 1958.

Worms of medium size, sturdy and pale red. Eyes absent. Prosto-

mium bluntly triangular with sensory hairs.

- Dorsal setal bundles start in VI, each bundle with 2 hairs and

2 needles in segments of anterior half, 1 hair and 1 needle in others ;

hairs (Fig. 14 A) 226-280 yw long, shorter than body diameter and

bayonet-shaped ; needles (Fig. 14B) bifid, 87.5-105 yw long, sickle-shaped

with nodulus a third from distal end, teeth strong, outer longer than inner.

Hairs and needles of a bundle alternate. Ventral setae (Fig. 14C, D) of

II-V, 4 per bundle, longer, thinner and straighter than those of others,

112-126 p» long, prongs equally thick, diverging, distal prong 14 times as

long as proximal, nodulus about middle (D:P::18: 18 or 19:17); in

534. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

others, 3-4 per bundle, 80.5-102 » long, nodulus distal (D:P :: 11 : 16),

distal prong thinner and slightly longer than proximal.

Branchial organ (Fig. 14 E, F) funnel-shaped with postero-dorsal

opening, its anterior border ciliated, flat, convex and entire; posterior

margin non-ciliated, flat, broad, entire with a conspicuous transverse

dark brown band in older fossae. Gills 4 pairs, foliate, ciliated ; I pair

short, ovoid and flat, arise from supra-anal diverticulum ; II pair broad,

flat, arise from inner surface of lateral margins; III and IV pairs long,

flat, spindle-shaped, spring from floor of fossa, one behind the other.

In full expansion I pair curl up and bend forward, II pair distend on

either side, III and IV extend laterally and posteriorly, when branchial

organ resembles a flower. In contraction I pair is not seen, II, III and

IV pairs appear like knobs.

Pharynx in II-IV, wide and yellow. Oesophagus in V-VIII and wavy:

Stomach in IX-4X, barrel-shaped. Intestine thin in XI-XII, wide and

sacculated behind, and opens in branchial fossa. Chloragogues from

VI, brownish. Ascending ciliary action and anti-peristalsis occur in

intestine. No coelomocytes. Septa well developed, septal glands in IV

and V.

Brain incised in front and behind.

Blood orange-red. Dorsal vessel contractile, mid-dorsal in I-V and

ventrally attached to gut on left side from VI on, covered by chlorago-

gues. Ventral vessel non-contractile, formed by the union of branches

of dorsal vessel in II, mid-ventral all along, divides into 2 marginals,

running along lateral margins of fossa supplying vessels to gills.

Branchial vessels form loops in gills and on emerging from them, unite

to form the dorsal vessel. Contractile lateral vessels 5 pairs in VI-X,

connect the above vessels. Dorsal vessel gives off lateral vessels to form

a plexus in pharyngeal region.

First nephridium (Fig. 14 G) in VII, its pre- septal funnel with a

ciliated nephrostome in VI, connected by a thin duct to post-septal,

consisting of a brown fusiform ampulla followed by a highly coiled,

ciliated duct partly free and partly passing through gland tissue, opening

by nephridiopore ventro-laterally in the middle of the segment.

Budding occurs with 1 (rarely 2) budding zone; I budding zone

appears between the last segment with 2 hairs and 2 needles per bundle

and first segment with 1 hair and 1 needle; II zone appears about the

middle of posterior zooid after its anterior segments have developed

2 hairs and 2 needles, again between last segment with 2 hairs and

2 needles and first segment with 1 hair and 1 needle per bundle. Budding

zone produces 5 head segments and prostomium for posterior, and

several hind segments and branchial organ for anterior, zooids before

fission.

Sexual worms not encountered.

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I55

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA

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536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

1 (living) = 6.5-8.5 mm.; d (living) = 0.35-0.40 mm. ; s = 36-70;

n = 24-32.

Type: The type specimen is being deposited with the Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta.

Habits : Live in soft black mud without tubes along with Branchio-

drilus semperi, Dero digitata, Branchiura sp., Limnodrilus_ socialis,

Aulophorus hymanae and A. furcatus. They coil into spirals when

touched or disturbed. Swim by spiral movements.

Taxonomic discussion: Of the 14 species known for the

sub-genus Dero, the present species closely resembles D. digitata and

D. zeylanica. In having 2 hairs and 2 needles per bundle in the

anterior and middle segments, this species is intermediate between

D. digitata with 1 hair and 1 needle, and D. zeylanica with 3-4 hairs and

3-4 needles per bundle. In the possession of large conspicuous needle

teeth, it differs from D. digitata and D. zeylanica both with minute needle

teeth. In having long and more curved prongs in the ventral setae of

the head segments, it further differs from D. zeylanica with shorter and

less curved prongs and in having divergent prongs, it differs from

D. digitata with nearly parallel prongs. Hence this is assigned the

status of a new species.

Diagnosis of Dero indica sp. nov : No eyes. Dorsal setae from VI

onwards, 2 hairs and 2 needles per bundle in anterior and middle

segments, 1 hair and 1 needle behind. Hairs bayonet-shaped ; needles

bifid with distal tooth longer than proximal. Ventral setae of II-V 4 per

bundle, nodulus middle, prongs diverging, distal thinner and longer than

proximal. Stomach in IX-X. Nocoelomocytes. Septal glands in IV-

V. Dorsal vessel ventrally attached to gut on left side; lateral

contractile vessels 5 pairs in VI-X; vascular plexus in pharyngeal

region. Branchial organ with dark brown band on posterior margin,

4 pairs of foliate gills, 1 dorsal, 1 lateral and 2 ventral. Budding

present ; 5 head segments are budded.

15. Dero zeylanica Stephenson, 1913

Fig. 15 A-K

Dero zeylanica Stephenson. Sperber, 1948, pp. 178-179.

Material examined : Many worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah in May and December 1955; from the Handri River at

Kurnool in April 1958 ; from the Brucepettah tank, Bellary in April

1954 ; from the Sewage canal at Bangalore in May 1958.

Worms of moderate size, sturdy and light brown with ends

yellowish. Prostomium with sensory hairs.

Dorsal setae from VI on, each bundle with 3 hairs and 3 needles

(occasionally 4 hairs and 4 needles) in anterior, 2 hairs and 2

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 337

needles in middle and 1 hair and 1 needle in posterior segments.

Hairs slightly bayonet-shaped, 210-250 long, shorter than body

diameter. Needles (Fig. 15 A) bifid, sickle-shaped, 82-91 long,

with distal nodulus (D: P::9: 17), teeth small, distal longer than

proximal. Hairs and needles of each bundle arranged in a row alterna-

ting with each other. Ventral setae (Fig. 15 B-D) in II-V, 4-6 per

bundle, longer, thinner and straighter than others, 108-115 long

nodulus median (D: P:: 16: 17), prongs diverging, distal slightly

longer than proximal; in others, 4-6 setae per bundle, 80-94, long,

nodulus distal (D: P:: 10 : 16), prongs equally thick, distal prong

slightly longer than proximal.

Branchial organ (Fig. 15 E, F, G, H,I) with an ovoid postero-

dorsal fossa, anterior margin flat, convex, entire and ciliated ; posterior

margin flat, non-ciliated, entire with transverse brown band in older

fossae. Gills 4 pairs, foliate; I pair dorsal, ovoid, flat, arise from

supra-anal diverticulum, curl upwards and forwards when relaxed ; II

pair large, broad, arise from inner surface of lateral margins, stretch

sideways in expansion; III and IV pairs are triangular, spring from

floor of fossa, one behind the other, stand upwards slanting to sides

in distension.

Pharynx in II-IV, wide, ciliated, with dorsal diverticulum protrusible

as a disc through mouth. Oesophagus in V-VIII, thin and wavy.

Gland cell aggregations occur on gut in IV and V. Stomach in IX-X,

fusiform. Intestine thin in XI-XII, wide and sacculated behind ; anus

in branchial fossa. Chloragogues greyish brown. Septa well developed;

septal glands absent.

Brain (Fig. 15 J) widely and deeply incised in front and less

deeply behind.

Blood orange-red. Efferent branchial vessels unite into dorsal

vessel, and runs forward giving rise to non-contractile simple loops

up to XI, contractile vessels 5 pairs in X-VI and divides into 2 branches,

which unite with ventral vessel. Ventral vessel divides posteriorly into

2 marginals and traverse dorso-lateral border of fossa supplying

afferent vessels to gills. Pharyngeal vascular plexus is formed by

anastamoses of lateral loops of dorsal vessel.

First nephridium (Fig. 15 K) in VII.

First budding zone usually appears between last segment with 3

hairs and 3 needles and first segment with 2 hairs and 2 needles; and

second zone appears in posterior zooid between last segment with 2

hairs and 2 needles and first segment with 1 hair and 1 needle normally.

Clitellum in $V-VII (25 segments). Worms with clitellum have no

gonads, resorbed after production of sex cells. Sperm-sac and ovi-sac

extend to IX and XIII respectively. Sperm funnels laterally on

anterior face of septum 5/6, followed by thin vasa deferentia entering

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

thin-walled, ovoid atrial ampullae, opening by short thick ectal duct

ventrally in VI. Ventral setae of VI absent ; no penial setae. Oviducal

funnels and ducts not observed. Spermathecae club-shaped, enter

sperm-sac when full, and open laterally to ventral bundles of V.

1 (p.) = 5-7 mm. simple, 10-12 mm. chains; d(p.) = 0.3-0.4 mm. ;

Sa 28-825) Mice 3-29:

Lengths of longest setae in » and position of nodulus in the ratio

D73Re:

Th. WES Re ov og eT Cas a et ee

Hair i a Ps spas 5 Sndlg Thee v Aan Salons a7sde5t 20gs

Needle — — — — 94.5 91 94.5 91 91 89:3" (687.5

9:18 9:17 °° 10:17 “STF 9:1 BSAT Sit?

Ventral. 115° 112 108 108 94 92.8 OL ie, 94:5 1 94S 159258 91

seta 16:17 15517 15:16 ~15:16' 11:16°10:16.5 10:16 “11:16 1116 11:16. 1046

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Kandy, Ceylon ; Trivandrum,

S. India. Now recorded from Cuddapah and Bangalore, S. India.

Habits : Worms live in soft black mud along with Limnodrilus

socialis, Aulodrilus remex, Dero indica, etc. Rarely found in tubes of

mucus, sand and clay. Swim by slow spiral movement.

Remarks : Present worms differ from Ceylon worms (Stephenson,

1913a) and Travancore worms (Aiyer, 1930) in (1) lesser dimensions of

body and setae (2) lesser value of n (23-29 as against 31-33) ; (3) greater

number of contractile vascular vessels (5 pairs as against 4 pairs).

16. Dero cooperi Stephenson, 1932

Fig. 16A-I

Dero limosa Leidy. Stephenson, 1914, pp. 330-332, fig.6; 1923, pp. 88-89 ;

Mehra, 1920, pp. 457, 458.

Dero incisa Michaelsen. Schuster, 1915, pp. 17, 18, 67, fig. 8-9. Stephenson,

1932, pp. 234-236, fig. 6, 7.

(?) Dero quadribranchiata Cernosvitov, 1937, pp. 145-147, fig. 25-30.

Dero cooperi Stephenson. Sperber, 1948, pp. 179-180.

Dero bonairiensis Michaelsen, 1933, pp. 336-338, pl. I, fig. 3-6.

Material examined : Many worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah all round the year; from the Balaji tank, Kakinada in July

1956 ; from the Ulsoor tank, Bangalore in May 1958.

Worms smali, pale red, with epidermal orange spots lateral to dorsal

bundles in all except head segments. Prostomium with sensory hairs.

Body surface covered with short, thin out-growths.

Dorsal setae from VI, 1 hair and 1 needle per bundle. Hairs

slightly bayonet-shaped, 182-210 » long, shorter than body diameter.

Needles (Fig. 16A) bifid, sickle-shaped, 70-77 » long, nodulus distal

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 539

(D:P:: 7: 14), with teeth equal and short. Ventral setae (Fig. 16

B, C, D) of Il-V, 4-5 per bundle, straighter, thinner and longer than

others, 105-125 » long, nodulus proximal (D:P:: 20: 14), prongs

nearly parallel, distal thicker and 13 times longer than proximal ; in

others 3-5 setae per bundle, 71-77 » long, nodulus distal, distal prong

thinner; equally long or longer than proximal. Position of nodulus,

length of distal prong vary from seta to seta in the bundle from VI

onwards.

Lengths and position of nodulus in a bundle.

Seta length Position of nodulus D: P: :

(CD) eG OB ela? 10:11

G2) 273055 9:12

(3) 5913,5 B12

(4) 70.0 4 6:14

Branchial fossa (Fig. 16 E, F, G) with anterior margin flat,

broad, ciliated and slightly convex ; posterior margin prolonged into

flat, convex lip, which is spout-like in contraction. Gills 4 pairs,

ciliated ; 1 dorsal, digitiform ; 1 lateral, 2 ventral, both foliate. Ventral

surface of branchial organ has epidermal thickenings.

Pharynx in II-IV, wide with dorsal diverticulum protrusible as a

bulb. Ocesophagus in V-VIII, thin and wavy. Stomach in IX-X,

fusiform. Intestine thin in XI, wide and sacculated from XII on. Gut

ciliated. Chloragogues greyish brown. Septa well developed, septal

glands in III-V.

Brain (Fig. 16H) deeply incised in front and behind.

Blood red. Contractile vessels 5 pairs in VI-X, near posterior septa.

Dorsal vessel bears non-contractile simple lateral loops from XI on.

First nephridium (Fig. 16 I) in VII with its nephrostome to the left in

VI. Post-septal composed of a greenish grey fusiform ampulla followed

by a long, coiled, ciliated duct, anterior 4 free and thin-wailed,

middle 4% enclosed in gland tissue and posterior 4 thick-walled,

swelling into a vesicle before opening by nephridiopore in front of the

left ventral bundle.

One budding zone formed at a time.

Clitellum from $V-VII (25 segments). In sexually mature worm,

after proliferation of sex cells, gonads disappear and alimentary canal

degenerates. Sperm-sac and ovi-sac extend to IX and XI respectively

when full, former within latter. Seminal-funnel cup-shaped, ciliated

followed. by short, thick ventral ejaculatory duct opening at the situation

of ventral bundles of VI. No genital setae. Spermathecae large, ovoid

with short ectal duct, opening in a shallow depression in front and

lateral to ventral bundles of V. :

1p.) = 3-4.5 mm.; d (p.) = 0.30-0.35 mm.; s = 33-51 + un-

diff. region and branchial organ; n = 18—27.

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Lengths of longest setae in » and position of nodulus in ratio D:

Pee

I IIL IV V VI Vil Vill six x

Hair pal as =< as 182 210 210 196 210

Needle — = = = eT T1.T fh THOS ATO. oh 010s

6.5:14 6.5:14 G fod Nar 4 () 7:13

V. seta 22:5 7119.0 119.0 115.5 1335 TED THO OTTO HAO?

21:14 20:14 20:14 19:14: | 10:12 10:12 lO: 12 0:12 10:1

Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Agra (N. India) ; Lahore

(Pakistan). Now recorded from Cuddapah and Bangalore (S. India).

First record for south India.

Habits : Live in tubes of mucus, sand and mud ; protrude either end

from tube. Swim with spiral movement.

Remarks : In all naids with ventral setae of II-V longer, slender and

straighter than those of the rest, the nodulus as a rule is proximal.

Stephenson (1932) in his original description of Dero cooperi states that

the nodulus is median. This obviously is a mistake. He was examining

preserved specimens and probably he could not clearly see the position

of the nodulus in the anterior ventral setae. The present worms have

proximal nodulus in the setae of IJ-V as in other Deros.

Lengths of setae of D. bonairiensis from West Indies (Michaelsen,

1933), D. limosa from Lahore, Pakistan (Stephenson, 1914, 1915c) agree

with those of D. cooperi; and they are synonymous with the latter.

D. incisa from Germany (Schuster, 1915, p. 17) with longer setae is also

D. cooperi. u |

D. quadribranchiata Cernosvitov (1937) from Argentine has hairs and

needles as D. cooperi (D. incisa) from Europe but has comparatively

shorter needles with small equal teeth, and more accentuated lateral

angles in its branchial organ. This probably is a distinct species and

needs reinvestigation.

17. Dero nivea Aiyer, 1930

Fig. 17 A-C

Dero nivea Aiyer. Sperber, 1948, pp. 184-186, fig. 19G, pl. XVIII, fig. 4 ; 1950,

p. 72, pl. 4 ; 1958, p. 49, fig. 5-7.

Material examined : Many worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah in January 1956.

Worms small and yellowish. Prostomium with sensory hairs.

Dorsal setae start in VI, 1 hair and 1 needle per bundle. Hair

simple, nearly straight, 94.5-105 » long. Needle (Fig. 17A) bifid, sickle-

shaped, 35-45.5 » long, with minute equal teeth and distal nodulus (D:

P::3.5:9). Ventral setae (Fig. 17 B, C) from lon, 4 per, bundle:

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 541

decreases to 2 posteriorly ; in H-V, setae. have proximal nodulus (D :

P::12:8.5 or 10: 7), longer and thinner than others, length decreases

from 71.8 » in II to 59.5 » in V; distal prong nearly twice as long as

proximal ; in others nodulus distal (D:P::7:13 or 4: 14), length

decreasing from 70 » long in VI to 61 » posteriorly ; prongs equally

long, distal thinner than proximal. Length, thickness and curvature of

setae and position of nodulus vary from seta to seta in a bundle.

Branchial organ resembles the sketch of branchial organ of Aiyer

(1930). It is narrower in contraction and wider in relaxation than the

region in front of it, with anterior margin flat, convex, ciliated, wavy ;

posterior margin non-ciliated, entire with sensory hairs, curl downwards

in distension. Gills 3 pairs, short and stumpy; 1 pair arises from

supra-anal diverticulum, II and III pairs arise from floor of fossa. In

contraction fossa closes withdrawing gills and posterior lip-like margin

trails behind.

Pharynx in II-IV, wide. Oesophagus in V-VII, thin and sinuous.

Stomach in VIII, fusiform. Intestine thin in IX, wide and sacculated from

X on. Chloragogues brownish, Septal glands in IV-VI.

Brain incised in front and behind. |

Blood tinged red. Contractile lateral vessels 3 pairs in VI-VIII,

close to posterior septa.

First nephridium in VII.

Budding commonly occurs by 1 budding zone.

1 (p.) == 2.0-2.5 mm. ; d (p.) = 0.14 mm. ; s=18-24 ; n=14-15.

Lengths of longest setae in p» and position of nodulus in ratio

Det ePES 3

il Ii IV Vi VI vil Vill IX

Hair — — = = 94.5 115.5 105.0 105.0

Needle = ae a = 43.5 45.5 45.5 43.5

35529 SEP EHD) Ses eae Samm sepia,

V. seta 71.8 63.0 59,5 59:5 70.0 70.0 70.0 68.2

13°8.58-41125:6.5:.. 0° 10:7 10:7 7:13 7:13 7:13 PADS

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Trivandrum (Travancore, S.

India). Now recorded from Cuddapah, south India.

Habits : Not tube-dwelling. Swim briskly by spiral movement.

18. Dero sawayai Marcus, 1943

Fig. 18 A-G

Dero sawayai Marcus. Sperber, 1948, p. 186.

Material examined : A few worms collected from the Ulsoor tank,

Bangalore in May 1958.

542. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Worms small, delicate and pale yellow. Prostomium with sensory

hairs.

Dorsal setae start in VI, 1 hair and 1 needle per bundle. Hair

bayonet-shaped, smooth, 80.5-100 long. Needle (Fig. 18A, B) 35, long,

with strong nodulus about a third from distal end, inner tooth longer

and thicker than the outer. Ventral setae (Fig. 18 C, D) 4 per bundle,

decreasing to 2 posteriorly ; in II-V longer, thinner and straighter than

rest, 66-71 » long, nodulus proximal (D: P:: 13:8), prongs slightly

diverging, outer thinner and 14 times as long as inner ; in others 38-45

long, nodulus distal (D: P::5:7), outer thinner than inner prong.

Position of nodulus, thickness and length of seta vary from one to

another in a bundle.

Branchial organ (Fig. 13 E, F) Bron and tapers behind ; with 2

pairs of gills, small, digitiform ; 1 dorsal and 1 ventral, invisible in

contraction.

Pharynx in II-[V, wide. Oesophagus in V-VII, thin. Stomach in

VIII, distinct and abrupt. Intestine thin in IX and X, wide and saccu-

lated in succeeding segments. Chloragogues brownish. Septal glands

in IV-VI.

Blood yellowish. Contractile vascular vessels 2 pairs in VI-VII

close to posterior septa. Stomach with a plexus of transverse vessels as

in Chaetogaster. Head segments also have a plexus formed by vessels

from dorsal vessel.

First nephridium (Fig. 18 G) in VII to the left.

One budding zone develops at a time in a worm.

Sexual worms not encountered.

1 (p.) = 2mm.; d (p.) = 0.2 mm. ; s= 26 + undiff. zone and bran-

chial organ ; n= 14.

Lengths of longest setae in » and position ofnodulus in ratio D: P: :

II Ill IV Ve VI VII VIL IX

Hair = = = — 80.5 84.0 84.0 98.0

Needle a =o) eee B50 as 45D. 950

2:8 2:8 28 2:8

V. seta 70.0. 73.5. 100) «665 2h ae Pe) 43.7 42.0

12:8 13:8 12:8 12:7 5:8 3:8 Sh Sti

a 68.3 73.5 70.0 66.5 45.5 42.0 42.0 40.2

127.5 13:8 12:8 127 5:8 Bi Sad: 4.5:7

55 68.3 70.0 66.5 66.5 42.0 38.5 42.0 40.2

LADS 12:8 gif 1A ge Bole a) 4:7 4.5:7.5 4.5:7

ee 66.5 66.5 66.5 — 38.5 38.5 38.5 38.5

11:8 237 12:7 — — 4:7 4:7 4:7 4:7

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Now recorded from Bangalore,

(S. India), for the first time.

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 543

Habits : Construct attached mucus tubes and live in them. Swim

by brisk wriggling movement.

Parasites : Four ovoid sporocysts containing immature spores of

unidentified microsporid sporozoan are found in the coelom of IX

and X.

Remarks : Transverse vascular plexus on stomach similar to one

seen in Chaetogaster is seen in these worms unlikein the Brazilian worms

(Marcus, 1943). Characters of setae agree with the South American

specimens.

19. Dero plumosa sp. nov.

Fig. 19 A-H

Material examined : A few worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah in 1954, May and December 1955 ; from the Kandakam tank,

Bellary in May-June 1954.

Worms slender, pale white and nearly transparent, smallest of all

Deros. Prostomium bluntly triangular, longer than broad with sensory

hairs. Body surface covered by delicate outgrowths. Eyes absent.

Segments of anterior 4 of body are longer than others.

Dorsal setae start in VI, 1 hair and 1 needle per bundle. Hair

(Fig. 19A) bayonet-shaped with a row of close-set oblique barbs on

convex border in distal $ of shaft giving appearance of a feather,

77-87.5 long, twice as long as needle and shorter than body diameter ;

barbs longer at base decrease in length towards apex, absent near the

tip. Needle (Fig. 19B) bifid, somewhat bayonet-shaped, 36.8-38.5 y

long, with nodulus distal (D: P : : 2.5: 8.5) and minute teeth. Ventral

setae (Fig. 19C, D, E) 4 per bundle, decreases to 3 and 2 posteriorly ;

in II-V twice as long, less curved and more slender than rest, with

proximal nodulus (D: P: : 15: 10), 70-87.5 » long, prongs equally

thick, distal 14 times as long as proximal ; in others 36.8-43.8 » long,

with distal nodulus (D: P : : 5: 7) distal prong thinner and shorter than

proximal.

Branchial organ (Fig. 19 F) wider than preceding region, anterior

margin convex and ciliated; posterior margin converging to a point and

non-ciliated. Gills 2 pairs, digitiform, ciliated, anterior pair short and

lateral ; posterior pair long and ventral, project far beyond fossa

in expansion, anterior pair upwards and sideways, posterior pair

slightly upwards and backwards.

Pharynx in II-III, wide with dorsal diverticulum eversible through

mouth for feeding. Oesophagus in IV-VII, thin and sinuous. Stomach

in VIII, fusiform. Intestine thin, bent in IX, wide and sacculated

in succeeding segments; anus in branchial fossa; intestinal anti-

peristalsis and ascending ciliary action occur. Chloragogues greenish

544. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

brown, start in VI. Septa thin and complete ; septal glands in IV and

V, transparent. No coelomocytes. |

Brain (Fig. 19 G) incised deeply in front and behind.

Blood yellowish. Dorsal vessel ventro-lateral mostly and mid-dorsal

in head segments; collects blood from gills and pumps forward.

Ventral vessel non-contractile, mid-ventral, supplies blood to gills.

Contractile lateral vessels 2 pairs in VI-VII.

First nephridium (Fig. 19 H) in VII, its nephrostome in VI ; post-

septal with fusiform, brown, granular ampulla followed by a thin long,

ciliated duct running obliquely to left side, bends over and passes to

right, partly through gland tissue, forms a coiled mass before opening

by nephridiopore in front of and slightly median to right ventral bundle.

Budding zone buds some hind segments and branchial organ to

anterior zooid and prostomium and 5 anterior segments to posterior

zooid before fission.

Clitellum from 4V-VII (24 segments). Sexual cells present and

gonads absent in sexually mature worms. Sperm-sac and ovi-sac extend

to VIII and IX respectively, former within latter, when full. Atrial

ampullae ovoid with thick ejaculatory ducts, opening in the position of

ventral bundles of VI. Penial setae absent. Male and female funnels

not observed. Spermathecae twice as long as broad, open in front

of ventral setae of V.

1 @.) = 1.2-1'5 mm:;iod(p.) = 0:15 mm. :) S = 19-25.) sont ron-

mative zone and branchial organ ; n = 14-17.

Length of setae in » and position of nodulus in the ratioD :P::

Il ont IV V VI Vil VU IX xX ~~ XI

Hair _ —_— —_ —_ 77 80.5 84 80.5 87.5 80.5

Needle — — _ _ 36.7 38.5: 738.5 38.5) i 3855 38.5

2.5:8. 2.5:8.5) 2.9505. 2,955.5) 2 OLED OS

V. seta 87.5 84.0 80.5 77.0 — 42.0 42.0 42.0 42.0 42.0

15:10, 15:9, 14:9 13:9 ~ o)// 7 =)8// S27 5:7

a 80.5..577.0' 773.5 70.0 — 36.8 38.5 S851 ALIS8i5 38.5

14:9 14:8 13:8 12:8 — 4:6.5 4:7 4:7 4:7 4:7

Type : The type specimen is being deposited with the Zoologica]

Survey of India, Calcutta.

Habits: Live in transparent gelatinous tube covered with sand and

mud, tubes fused parallel to one another. Swim by brisk serpentine

movement resembling wriggling.

Taxonomic Discussion: This species very closely resembles Dero

pectinata Aiyer. In having bifid needles it differs from the latter

with trifid (pectinate needle, which character gives its specific name).

This was first taken for D. pectinata because of the presence of

IB 43¢

Text-figure 9-14

For explanations see p. 546.

Text-figure 15-19

For explanations see p. 546

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 545

peculiar plumose hairs, but its bifid needles in place of trifid needles

made me examine several fresh setal preparations to make sure of

the absence of trifid needles. In the original diagnosis and description

(Aiyer, 1930) stray presence of bifid needles is not indicated, and

here again no trifid needle is seen in these worms. Further the nodulus

in needles is less distal (D : P: : 2.5 : 8.5) than in D. pectinata(D: P ::

2.5: 11.5). Hence this is considered as a distinct species.

Diagnosis of Dero plumosa sp. nov.: No eyes. Prostomium bluntly

triangular. Dorsal setae begin in VI, 1 plumose hair and 1 bifid needle

per bundle. Ventral setae 2-4 per bundle, in II-V twice as long as those

in others. Branchial organ with 2 pairs of digitiform gills. Stomach

in VIII, fusiform. Septal glands 2 pairs in IV-V. Coelomocytes absent.

Dorsal vessel ventrally attached to the left of gut. Contractile lateral

vessels 2 pairs in VI-VII. First nephridium in VII. Five head segments

budded during asexual reproduction. Clitellum from $V-VII. Atrial

ampulla ovoid with thick ejaculatory duct. Penial setae lacking.

Spermathecae twice as long as broad.

(To be continued)

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Explanations to Text-figures 9—14.

Fig. 9. Stylaria fossularis Leidy: A. Anterior end of the worm; B. Ventral

seta of Il x 160; C. Brain; D. Nephridium; E. Seminal funnel, vas deferens

and atrium; F. Penial seta x 330; G. Spermatheca; H. Immature ovum.

Fig. 10. Haemonais waldvogeli Bretscher: A. Needle seta x 540; B.-C. Ventral

setae x 410; Fig. 11. Branchiodrilus semperi (Bourne): A. Posterior end of the

worm (dorsal view); B. Posterior end of the worm (lateral view) ; C. Needle seta

of the posterior segment x 330; D. Needle seta of the anterior segment x 330;

E. Ventral seta of Il x 500; F. Ventral seta of XV x500. Fig. 12. Dero dorsalis

Ferroniére: A. Hair seta x 160; B. Needle seta x 330; C. Ventral seta of

II x 330; D. Ventral seta of XVI x 330; E. Branchial organ (preserved) ;

F. Branchial organ (relaxed); G. Brain; H. Nephridium. Fig. 13. Dero digitata

(Miiller): A. Needle seta x 530; B. Ventral seta of II x 530; C. Ventral

seta of middle segment x 530; D. Branchial organ (relaxed); FE. Branchial

organ (contracted); F. Brain; G. Nephridium; H. Sexual organs. Fig. 14. Dero

indica sp. nov.: A. Hair seta x 530; B. Needle seta x 530; C. Ventral seta

of II x 530; D. Ventral seta ofa posterior segment x 530; E. Branchial organ

relaxed under cover glass; FF. Branchial organ (fully relaxed) ; G. Nephridium.

Explanations to Text-figures 15—19.

Fig. 15. Dero zeylanica Stephenson: A. Needle seta x 530; B. Ventral seta

of II x 530; C. Ventral seta of VI x 530; D. Distal end of the ventral seta of

the posterior segment x 530; E. Branchial organ of preserved worm; F. Bran-

chial organ moderately relaxed ; G. Branchial organ fully relaxed; H. Branchial

Organ moderately relaxed (lateral view); I. Branchial organ (contracted) ;

J. Brain; K. Nephridium. Fig. 16. Dero cooperi Stephenson: A. Needle seta

x 530; B. Ventral seta of II x 530; C and D. Ventral seta of middle and

hind segments ;_ E. Branchial organ fully relaxed ; F. Branchial organ contracted ;

G. Branchial organ moderately relaxed (lateral view); H. Brain; I. Nephridium.

Fig. 17. Dero nivea Aiyer: A. Needle seta x 560; B. Ventral seta of II x 460;

C. Ventral seta of VI x 460. Fig. 18. Dero sawayai Marcus. A. Needle seta

x 990; B. Needle seta (front view) x 990; C. Ventral seta of II x 1060;

D. Ventral seta of the middle segment x 1060; E. Branchial organ moderately

contracted; FF. Branchial organ relaxed (lateral view); G. Nephridium. Fig. 19.

Dero plumosa sp. nov: A. Hair seta x 500; 3B. Needle seta x 660;

C. Ventral seta of II x 500; D and E. Ventral setae of VII x 660; F. Branchial

organ fully relaxed ; G. Brain; H. Nephridium.

a:anus; amb: anterior margin of branchial fossa; at: atrial ampulla; bf:

branchial fossa ; cl: clitellum ; dv: dorsal gill; e: eye; g: gut; gl: gland; m:

mouth; mf: male funnel; mp: male pore; na: nephridial ampulla; nd:

nephridial duct; npp: nephridiopore ; nps: nephrostome ; 0s: ovi-Sac ; pb: pro-

boscis ; pr : prostomium ; s : septum ;spa : spermathecal ampulla ; spp : spermathecal

pore ; ss : sperm-sac ; vd : vas deferens ; vn : ventral nerve ; 1: I pair of gills; 2: I

pair of gills; 3: III pair of gills ; 4:IV pair of gills.

A Revision of Indian Mugilidae

ParT II

SAROJINI R. PILLAY

Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Calcutta

(With two plates)

[Continued from Vol. 59 (1): 270]

CONTENTS

PAGE

Genus Mugil LINNAEUS a by 4 ai pes: /

GENuS Rhinomugil GILL aie bs < Si .. 568

DOUBTFUL SPECIES ans - y. = se 0

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Bee

REFERENCES sou

APPENDIX B . 574

Genus Mugil Linnaeus

Mugil Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, p. 316, 1758 (genotype, Mugil cephalus

Linnaeus) (European Ocean).

Cephalus Lacépéde, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 2, p. 589, 1800, new name on Plumier

M.S. (genotype, Mugil cephalus Linnaeus).

Arnion Gistel, Naturgeschichte des Thierreichs, p. 10, 1848, substitute name for

Mugil (genotype, Mugil cephalus Linnaeus).

Ello Gistel, Handbuch der naturgeschichte fur alle Stande, p. 356, 1850 (1847),

and Naturgeschichte des Thierreichs, p. 109, 1848 (considered a synonym

of Mugil Linnaeus by Whitley, Austr. Zool. 6, (3), p. 251, 1930).

Liza Jordan & Swain, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 7, pp. 261 and 262 (1884),

1885. (genotype, Mugil capito Cuvier) (Mediterranean and seas of Europe).

Ellochelon Whitley, Australian Zool. 6, pt. 3, p. 251, 1930 (genotype, Mugil

vaigiensis Quoy & Gaimard) (Waigiou).

Valamugil Smith, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., series 11, 14, p. 841. (1947) 1948.

No spine on opercle; lips terminal and without fleshy lobes and

papillae; nostrils in level with upper rim of orbit or slightly above

548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

it. Symphysial knob present. Teeth present or absent on lips and

when present may be distinct or embedded. Pre-orbital with or

without slight notch on the anterior edge. Mouth protrusible.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS Muegil

1. Symphysial knob single. ane M. carinatus

Valenciennes

Symphysial knob double sites

2. End of maxilla visible when mouth is closed ... 3

End of maxilla not visible when mouth is

closed sede

3. Breadth of upper lip greater than distance between

nostrils ven M, macrolepis Aguas

Breadth of upper lip not greater than distance

between nostrils ae

4. A notch present on the ventral aspect of the

lower lip just below the symphysial knob ... M. parsia Hamilton

Notch absent on the ventral aspect of the lower

lip below the symphysial knob Be M. tade Forskal

5. Pre-orbital reaching beyond angle of mouth ... 6.

Pre-orbital not reaching beyond angle of

mouth eA M. cephalus

Linnaeus -

6. Elongated pointed scale present in axil of |

pectoral pete

Elongated pointed scale not present in axil of

pectoral a M. vaigiensis

Quoy & Gaimard

7. Teeth present on lip ve, M. cunnesius

Lay Valenciennes

Teeth absent on lip M. seheli Forskal

(1) Mugil carinatus (Ehr.) Valenciennes

Mugil carinatus (Ehr.). Valenciennes (in Cuvier & Valenciennes), Hist. Nat.

Poiss. 11, p. 148, 1836 (Red Sea). Day, Fish. India p. 349, 800, 1876-1888

(Malabar; Bombay); Fauna Brit. India, Fishes 2, p. 344, 1889 (W. coast of India),

Mugil klunzingeri Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 264, 1870 (Bombay);

Fish. India (Supplement) p. 800, 1888 (Bombay); Fauna Brit. India, Fishes 2,

p. 343, 1889 (Seas of India).

D. IV, 14+8;" AM + 9; V.a4-5) 2 d4 do. 6a ioe

Le 1 30234: OL). te04-2 la aa :

Head either equal to height of body or greater. Head higher than

broad. Snout higher than long and broader than high. Diameter of

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 549

orbit less than length of snout or occasionally equal to it. Inter-

orbital distance greater than diameter of orbit. Insertion of D,

nearer base of caudal than to tip of snout. Origin of pelvic fins

nearer origin of anal than to tip of snout. Length of caudal peduncle

greater than width of head, but less than height of head. Least

height of caudal peduncle less than width of head. First spine of

D, longer than the second spine. Insertion of pectoral fin in middle

of body or sometimes slightly above middle. Caudal fork not very

deep.

Proportionate measurements: vide Appendix B.

Scales: 30-34 on the longitudinal and 10-12 on the transverse

series. 22-25 pre-dorsal scales. No elongated scale in axil of

pectoral. Bases of all fins except D, covered with scales. Scales

on body cycloid in young, ctenoid in adults.

Orientation of fins: Insertion of D, above 9th-11th, of D, above

20th-21st, and of anal below 19th-20th scale of the longitudinal

series. Pelvic fins inserted below 5th-7th scale and reaching to the

11th-13th scale and the pectoral fins reach to the 9th-11th L.1. scale.

Upper lip somewhat thick and forms tip of snout and part of

dorsal profile. This lip bears a single row of teeth. Lower lip very

thin. Pre-orbital hardly bent, is serrated and tapering to a point at

the extremity. Nostrils in level with the upper rim of orbit, the

posterior more than twice as big as the anterior. They are closer

to each other than the anterior is to the upper lip or the posterior to

the orbit. The posterior nostril is closer to the orbit than the anterior

is to the upper lip. Symphysial knob single. Adipose eyelid

present, often equally developed anteriorly and posteriorly; but some-

times better developed posteriorly. End of maxilla visible when

mouth is closed.

Colour: Greenish grey dorsally, silvery on the sides and below.

Dorsal, caudal and pectoral fins with fine black spots on their basal

halves.

Material: 1 specimen from Bombay Z.S.I. No. 1407 (Day’s

original of pl. 74, Fig. 2, FISH. INDIA); 2 specimens from Sind—

Z.S.1. Nos. 1398 & 1399 (from Day’s collections); 2 specimens from

Karachi—Z.S.J. Nos. 1810/! & 1825/1 (from the collections of

W. D. Cumming).

Remarks: Valenciennes (Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836) described

Ehrenberg’s type specimen as having a very much depressed snout.

the suborbital notched and produced into a strong spine or keel on

each corner of mouth, maxillary visible, dorsal sufficiently sharp.

550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

fins small and scaly and the caudal slightly forked. According to

him the scales have small elevations which form 3 or 4 raised keeled

lines on each side of the body. Day (1888 and 1889) while describing

this species from Indian waters did not mention about the keeled

lines on the body, but remarked that the middorsal row of scales

immediately in advance of the first dorsal fin are raised to form a

keel ‘for some little distance’. This particular character is evident

in the original specimen described by him (and featured in pl. 74,

fig. 2 of the FISHES OF INDIA), which is available in the collections of

the Zoological Survey of India, but is absent in two other specimens,

also from Day’s collections, that are available in the Zoological

Survey of India collections. Moreover, the original distinguishing

characters given by Valenciennes, viz. the presence of keeled lines

on the sides of the body and the pre-orbital ‘produced to a spine’

have not been commented upon by Day. However, Day’s original

specimen agrees with the descriptions of Valenciennes, except that

there is no evidence of the keeled lines on the sides.

M. klunzingeri Day appears to be only an exceptionally broad

specimen of M. carinatus Valenciennes. Day’s description of this

species agrees fully with his own description of M. carinatus except

in the proportionate height of body. Only one specimen of M.

klunzingeri was available to the present author for comparison. This

specimen agrees in all respects with Day’s original specimen of

M. carinatus. Unfortunately, however, it has not been possible to

compare the relative height of body of the two species, since all

Day’s specimens of M. carinatus and the specimen of M. klunzingeri

had the abdomen slit for preservation. Since the viscera had been

removed, the edges of the body wall had curled in and it was found

impossible to measure the body height of these specimens. In respect

of all the other characters complete agreement is present between

the two species and so they have been considered synonymous. It

is of interest that Day himself first described his M. klunzingeri under

M. carinatus Valenciennes.

Distribution: Type locality: Red Sea. In the Indian sub-

continent, the species has so far been recorded only from Bombay

and Malabar on the west coast of India and from Karachi in

Sind, West Pakistan. Outside the sub-continent, it has been recorded

only from the Red Sea. This is not a common species in any of

these areas.

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 551

(2) Mugil macrolepis (Smith) Aguas

Mugil macrolepis Smith, Illustr. Zool. S. Africa 4, pl. 28, fig. 2, 1849 (S.

Africa); Roxas, Philipp. J. Sci. 54, p. 415, pl. 1, 1934 (Mangarin, Mindoro,

Philippines).

Mugil borneensis Bleeker, Nat, Tijds. Ned.-Ind. 2, p. 201, 1851 (East Indies);

Day, Fish, India, p. 357, 1878-’88 (Seas of India); Fauna Brit, India, Fishes 2,

p. 353, 1889 (Seas of India—Madras, Calcutta).

Mugil adustus Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned.-Ind. 5, p. 503, 1853 (East Indies).

Mugil Troschelii Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned.-Ind. 16, p. 277, 1858-59 (Java).

Mugil troschelii Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 3, p. 448, 1861 (Ceylon;

Borneo); Day, Fauna Brit. India, Fishes 2, p. 355, 1889 (Seas of India).

Mugil poicilus Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 33, 1865; Fish. Malabar,

p. 140, 1865 (Cochin); Fish. India, p. 351, 1878-1888 (Bombay).

Mugil cunnamboo Day, Fish. Malabar, p. 141, 1865 (Malabar).

Mugil troschellii Day, Fish. India, p. 358, 1888 (Malabar).

Mugil poecilus Day, Fauna Brit. India, Fishes 2, p. 345, 1889 (Bombay &

West Coast of India).

Liza troscheli Jordan & Seale, Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish, 25, p. 217, 1906 (Apia &

Pago Pago, Samoa).

Liza borneensis Kendall & Goldsborough, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv.

26, p. 258, 1911 (Pacific); Herre, Mem. Indian Mus. 13, p. 347, 1941 (Andamans);

Devasundaram, J. Zool. Soc. India 3, p. 24, 1951 (Chilka Lake).

Liza troschelli Whitehouse, Madras Fish. Bull. 15, p. 89, 1922 (Tuticorin);

Devasundaram, J. Zool. Soc. India 3, p. 24, 1961 (Chilka Lake).

Mugil troscheli, Weber & de Beaufort, Fish. Indo-Austr. Archipelago 4,

p. 248, 1922 (East Indies); Pillay, J, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51, p. 382, 1953

(Cochin & Ennore backwaters).

Liza macrolepis, Herre, 1940-41 Exped. (the Philippines); Mem. Indian

Mus. 13, p. 347, 1941 (Andamans).

D. IV.1+8; A. W+9; V.1+5; P. 14-16; C. 14;

L. I. 28—33; L.tr.9—11. |

Length of head usually equal to and sometimes greater than

height of body. Head as broad as high, or sometimes broader than

high. Snout broader than high and higher than long. Diameter of

orbit half or more of the inter-orbital distance. Insertion of D,

usually nearer base of caudal than to tip of snout; but occasionally

in large specimens, is midway between the two. Origin of pelvic

fins nearer origin of anal than to tip of snout. Length of caudal

peduncle equal to the height and width of head, or occasionally

slightly greater. Least height of caudal peduncle usually less than

height and width of head; but sometimes equal to these. The Ist

spine of D, longer than the 2nd. Imsertion of pectoral varying,

sometimes slightly below or above middle of body. Caudal fork not

very deep.

Proportionate measurements: vide Appendix B.

Scales: 28-33 on the longitudinal and 9-11 on the transverse series.

18-21 pre-dorsal scales. No elongated scale in axil of pectoral.

552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

The bases of all fins except D, covered with minute scales. Scales

on body are cycloid in young and ctenoid in adults.

Orientation of fins: Insertion of D, above the 10th-1ith, of D,

above the 20th-23rd, and of anal below the 18th-21st scale of the

longitudinal series. The pelvic fins inserted below the 4th-6th reach

to the 11th-13th scales, and the pectorals reach to the 8th-l1th LL.

scales.

Upper lip somewhat thick, has minute teeth and forms tip of snout.

but does not form part of the dorsal profile. Lower lip very thin.

Pre-orbital bent and serrated on both anterior and ventral margins.

Nostrils above dorsal rim of orbit, the posterior much larger than the

anterior. The distance between the two is less than that of the anterior

from the upper lip and of the posterior from the orbit, both of which

are equal. Symphysial knob double. End of maxilla visible when

mouth is closed. Adipose eyelids present.

Colour: _Olivaceous-grey on back, silvery on the sides. Fins

grey, the ventral fins whitish.

Material: 2 specimens labelled M. borneensis from Day’s

collections, Z.S.I. No. 1412 (from Calcutta) and Z.S.I. No. 1416 (from

Madras); one specimen Z.S.I. No. 1423 from Bombay (M. pacaess

Day’s original of pl. Lxxv, fig. 4, 1888).

2 specimens from the Chilka Lake, Z.S.I. No. F. 9471/1 (labelled

M. borneensis) and F. 9472/1 (labelled M. troschelii), Chilka Survey

collections; 1 specimen from S. Andaman, Z.S.I. No. F. 72/2 (M.

troschelii from H. S. Rao’s collection). |

22 freshly preserved specimens, collected from Ennore (Madras)

and 12 from Cochin. ;

Remarks: In Day’s (1878 and 1889) descriptions of the Indian

species of Muegil there are three species, M. borneensis Bleeker, M.

troschelii Bleeker, and M. poecilus Day, which are merged here and

considered synonymous with M. macrolepis A. Smith.

Pillay (1953) has shown that M. poecilus Day is not in any way

different from M. troschelii Bleeker. The only significant distinguish-

ing character given by Day was the presence of round black spots

on the scales of M. poecilus Day. These spots were found by Pillay

(1953) to be only groups of growing algae. Day’s M. poecilus could

not, therefore, be held valid and had to be merged with M.. troschelii

Bleeker.

Several authors have noticed marked similarity between M.

borneensis Bleeker, and M. troschelii Bleeker. Jordan & Seale (1905)

considered the two synonymous and described the specimen under

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 333

the name Liza troscheli. Whitehouse (1922) found it very difficult to

refer his specimens (collected from Tuticorin) to either of the two

species, as they answered to the descriptions of both. However, he

also finally described them under the name Liza troschelli. Roxas

(1934) has found M. troscheli, and M. borneensis to be synonymous

with M. macrolepis A. Smith. In view of the above, the species

described from Indian waters as M. troscheli, and M. borneensis are

to be considered synonymous with M. macrolepis, the latter name

getting the priority'.

Distribution: Type locality: S. Africa. In India the species is

distributed from Kathiawar on the western coast, down the coasts

of Bombay, Malabar, Travancore-Cochin, and round to Gulf of

Mannar and up the east coast of Madras to Chilka Lake; also in the

sea around Andaman Islands. The species does not occur in Bengal

waters.

~ The distribution of this species extends from the east coast of

Africa and Madagascar to China, Japan, and the Marshall and

Tuamotu islands through Ceylon, the East Indies, and Philippines.

The maximum size of this species recorded is 28 cm.

(3) Mugil parsia Hamilton

Mugil parsia Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, p. 215, pl. 17, fig. 71,° 1822 (River

Hooghly); Day, Fish. Malabar, p. 142, 1865 (Malabar); Fish. India, p. 350,

pl. Lxxv, fig. 2, 1878-1888 (Hooghly, Calcutta); Fauna Brit. India, Fishes 2, p.

344, 1889 (Seas & estuaries of India); Pillay, Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 17, p. 414,

420, 1951 (W. Bengal); Sarojini, Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 19, p. 437-445, 1953

(Hooghly, Sundarbans, Midnapore coast, Visakhapatnam).

Mugil dussumieri Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 11, p. 147, 1836

(Coromandel coast & Bombay); Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 352, pl. 74,

fig. 4, 1870; Fish. India, p. 352, pl. Lxxiv, fig. 4, 1878-1888; (Hooghly, Calcutta);

Fauna Brit. India, Fishes 2, p. 347, 1889 (Seas, estuaries & rivers of India);

Herre, Mem. Indian Mus. 13, p. 348, 1941 (Andamans).

Mugil subviridis Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 11, p. 115,

1836 (Ganges); Giinther, Catal. Brit. Mus. 3, p. 423, 1861 (Coast of Malabar,

Madras); Day, Fish. Malabar, p. 138, 1865; Fish. India, p. 353, 1878-1888:

Fauna Brit. India, Fishes 2, p. 348, 1889; Hora, Mem. Indian Mus. 5(2), p. 766,

1923 (Chilka Lake); Devasundaram, J. Zool. Soc. India 3, p. 23, 1951 (Chilka

Lake).

Mugil macrolepis Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned.-Ind. 3, p. 422, 1852 (Borneo)

(nec. Smith) (name preoccupied).

Mugil cantoris Bleeker, Verh. Batavia Genoot. 25, p. 100, 1853 (River

Hooghly, Calcutta).

* John (1955) has attempted to retain M. borneensis and M. troscheli as

separate species. But as seen from the discussions here, the distinctions drawn

by her are based on extremely unstable characters.

554. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Mugil sundanensis Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned.-Ind. 4, p. 265, 1853 (Sumatra);

Day, Fish. Malabar, p. 138, 1865 (Sea of Malabar).

Mugil oligolepis, Bleeker, Nat. Tijds, Ned.-Ind. 16, p. 275, 1858 (Batavia);

Day, Fish. India, p. 358, 1878-1888 (Sundarbans); Fauna Brit. India, Fishes

2, p. 355, 1889.

Mugil valenciennesii Bleeker, Nat, Tijds. Ned.-Ind. 16, p. 277, 1858-1859

(East Indian Archipelago).

Mugil nepalensis Giinther, Cat. Brit. Mus. 3, p. 424, 1861 (Nepal).

Mugil compressus Giinther, Cat. Brit. Mus. 3, p. 451, 1861 (New South Wales).

Mugil meyeri Giinther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 9, p. 439, 1872 (Luzon;

Celebes).

Mugil olivaceus Day, Fish. India, p. 357, 1878-1888; Fauna Brit. India,

Fishes 2, p. 354, 1889 (Sea & rivers of India).

Mugil jerdoni Day, Fish. India, p. 352, 1878-1888 (Malabar); Fauna Brit.

India, Fishes 2, p. 347. 1889 (Sea of India); Whitehouse, Madras Fish. Bull. 15,

p. 84, 1922 (Tuticorin); Hora, Mem. Indian Mus. 5(2), p. 766, 1923 (Chilka

Lake); Devasundaram, J. Zool. Soc. India 3, p. 23, 1951 (Chilka Lake).

Liza compressa Jordan & Seale, Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 25, p. 218, 1906

(Samoa).

Liza oligolepis, Jordan & Richardson, Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish, 27, p. 244, 1908

(Panay).

Musgil stevensi Ogilby, Ann. Qd. Mus. 9, p. 17, 1908 (Gold Is., Queensland).

Musgil tadopsis Ogilby, Ann. Od. Mus. 9, p. 27, 1908 (Moreton Bay).

Liza dussumieri Thomson, Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 5, p. 97, 1954

(Madras; Ellice Is.; New Guinea; Papua).

D. IV. 1+8; A. TI+9; V.1+5; P.15-16;C.14; L. 1. 29—23;

L. tr. 9—11.

Length of head greater than height of body. Head as broad as

high or sometimes broader than high. Length of snout less than its

height. Snout broader than high. Diameter of orbit equal to or

slightly less or greater than the length of snout. Inter-orbital

distance greater than diameter of orbit. Insertion of D, in relation

to tip of snout and base of caudal varying. Origin of pelvic fins

nearer origin of anal than to tip of snout. Least height of caudal

peduncle less than the height and width of head; but the length of

caudal peduncle in relation to these measurements is varying. Ist

spine of D, longer than 2nd. Insertion of pectoral in middle of

body or slightly above middle. Caudal fork not very deep.

Proportionate measurements: vide Appendix B.

Scales: 29-32 on the longitudinal and 9-11 on the transverse

series. 18-21 pre-dorsal scales. No eiongated pointed scale in axil

of pectoral. Bases of all fins except D, covered with minute scales.

Scales on body cycloid in young and ctenoid in adults.

Orientation of fins: Insertion of D, above 9th-11th, of D, above

18th-21st and of anal below 17th-20th L.1. scale. Pelvic fins inserted

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 555

below 4th-5th and reach to the I1th-13th scale of the longitudinal

series. Pectoral reaches te the 7th-8th scale in this series.

Upper lip somewhat thick with a single row of teeth and forming,

tip of snout, but only a very insignificant part of the dorsal profile.

Lower lip thin and with rounded granulations on the inner aspect.

Pre-orbital bent and is serrated on the anterior and ventral margins.

Anterior nostril below dorsal margin of orbit but the posterior

nostril is in line with it; posterior nostril larger than the anterior and

the distance between the two is almost equal to that of the anterior

from the upper lip and the posterior from the orbit. Symphysial

knob double. Adipose eyelid present, broader posteriorly than

anteriorly. End of maxilla visible when mouth is closed.

Colour: Brownish grey dorsally with a tinge of green posteriorly.

The sides silvery becoming silvery white ventrally. Large-sized

specimens caught from the sea usually have a few faint stripes along

the longitudinal row of scales on the upper half ‘of body. These

stripes are not evident on small-sized fish or on fish caught from less

saline waters. Fins greyish white. Margin of caudal dark.

Material: The following have been studied from the named

collections in the Zoological Survey of India: M. parsia: 1396,

F. Day (Calcutta); F. 1436/1 and F. 1437/1, I. H. Burkill (Akyab, ~

Burma); M. dussumieri: 1413, F. Day (Bombay); 1414 and 1415,

F. Day (Madras); 1417, F. Day, original of pl. 74, fig. 4, of FISHES

OF INDIA, 1878 (Madras); M. oligolepis: 2143, F. Day, original of

pl. 69, fig. 2 of FISHES OF INDIA, 1898 (Sundarbans, Bengal); M.

jerdoni: 1404 and 1405, F. Day (Madras); F. 9474/1 and F. 9475/1,

Chilka Survey (Chilka Lake); unnumbered specimen, N. P. Panikkar

(Travancore); M. olivaceus: 2142, Day, original of pl. 76, fig. 1 of

FISHES OF INDIA, 1878.

Specimens of M. subviridis were not available in the collections

of the Zoological Survey. Over one hundred specimens of M. parsia

collected from Bengal waters and from the Coromandel coast and

a few specimens of M. subviridis obtained from Chilka have been

studied.

Remarks: The synonymy of M. dussumieri Valenciennes with

M. parsia Hamilton has been discussed in detail in the earlier paper

(Sarojini, 1953). From the present study it is seen that M. subviridis

Valenciennes, M. oligolepis Bleeker, M. jerdoni Day, and M. olivaceus

Day are all to be considered synonymous with M. parsia Hamilton.

The original descriptions of M. subviridis by Valenciennes (Cuvier

& Valenciennes, 1836) are of a highly superficial nature. Though

556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

the type specimen described was from the Malabar coast, he had also

obtained specimens from the Ganges and from Pondicherry on the

Fast Coast. Day’s subsequent descriptions of the species (Day, 1888

and 1889) show clearly that he considered this species to be very

similar to M. dussumieri Valenciennes. John’s (1955) recent diagnosis

of this species appears to be defective in the number of soft rays in

the anal fin, the presence of an axillary scale and the number of

Ll. scales.

It has not been possible for the author to examine the type

specimen or holotypes of M. oligolepis Bleeker. But, the original

specimen described by Day as M. oligolepis Bleeker (collected from

the Sundarbans) is available in the collections of the Zoological

Survey of India. Examination of this specimen and Day’s des-

criptions (Day, 1888 & 1889) strongly indicate that this species should

be considered synonymous with M. parsia Hamilton. The slight

variations evident in the descriptions fall well within the range of

variations normally seen in M. parsia.

M. jerdoni, and M. olivaceus both of which were first described

by Day, do not show any significant differences from his own

descriptions of the other allied species which form synonyms of

M. parsia Hamilton. The examination of the type specimen of M.

olivaceus in the collections of the Zoological Survey of India has

confirmed that it cannot be considered a separate species. Two

specimens of M. jerdoni collected by Day from Madras, were also

available for comparison.

The morphometry of these various species are presented in

Table I (p. 574).

Distribution: In India M. parsia is a common species, distributed

on the west coast south of Bombay and all along the east coast,

entering tidal rivers and estuaries. It is the commonest mullet in

Bengal waters. It has been recorded from the Andamans also.

Outside India its distribution is restricted to the Indo-Pacific area,

Where it occurs in the sea and brackish waters in Indonesia,

Philippines, Thailand, Hong Kong, New Guinea, Guam, Australia,

Ceylon, and Karachi.

The maximum size attained by this species is about 33 cm.

(4) Mugil tade Forskal

Mugil crenilabris tade Forskal, Descript. anim. 14, p. 74, 1775 (Arabia).

Mugil tade Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 11, p. 114, 1836 (Red

Sea); Day, Fish. India (Supplement), p. 350, 1888; Fauna Brit. India, Fishes 2,

p. 344, 1889 (Hooghly, Calcutta); Herre, Mem. Indian Mus. 13, p. 348, 1941

SuoyMEH visund pinyy *€ {(6h6T “UsIwWE JOY) YIWIG “y stdaposonm NENW *Z < (8LEI

[BYSIO apyj isn “py

‘Ab Jos) SOUUUSIOUSVA SNjDULIDD ISN *T

I aLV1g

‘00S ‘ISIE “LVN AvaWwog ‘Nuno¢

PLATE IIT

JoURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

1. Mugil cephalus Linnaeus (After Smith, 1949) ; 2. Mugil vaigiensis Quoy & Gaimard

(After Smith, 1949); 3 Mugil seheli Forskal (After Smith, 1949); 4. Mugil cunnesius

Valenciennes (After Day, 1878) ; 5. Rhinomugil corsula (Hamilton) (After Day, 1878)

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE Dou

(Andamans); Devasundaram, J. Zool. Soc. India 3, 21, 1951 (Chilka Lake);

Pillay, Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 17, p. 414, 419, 1951 (w. Eee ibid. 20,

p. 189, 1954 (Sea coast & estuaries of W. Bengal).

Mugil planiceps, Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 11, p. 122, 1836

(Calcutta); Bleeker, Verh. Batavia Gen. 25, p. 101, 1853 (Bengal); Giinther,

Catal. Brit. Mus. 3, p. 428, 1861 (Calcutta; Ceylon; Penang; China); Day, Fish.

India, p. 350, 1878 (Hooghly, Calcutta); Whitehouse, Madr. Fish. Bull. 15,

p. 82, 1922 (Tuticorin).

Mugil cephalotus Cantor (nec. Cuv. & Val.), J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 18,

p. 1077, 1850 (Penang).

Mugil bontah Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned.-Ind. 13, p. 336, 1857 (Java).

Mugil belanak Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned.-Ind. 13, p. 337, 1857 (Java); Day,

Fish. India, p. 351, 1878-1888; Fauna Brit. India, Fishes 2, p. 345, 1889

(Bombay).

DOW. Wes Alia OG Vo oR isl) 5 Cc. 1415),

ily Ih SOS255 § Legos Oe

Length of head greater than height of body. Head broader than

high. Snout conspicuously compressed, broader than long and longer

than high. Diameter of orbit less than length of snout, but equal to it

in young ones. Inter-orbital distance conspicuously greater than

diameter of orbit. Insertion of D, nearer base of caudal than to tip

of snout. Origin of pelvic fins nearer origin of anal than to tip of

snout. Length of caudal peduncle about equal to width of head or

sometimes slightly greater. Least height of caudal peduncle less than

height of head. First two spines of D, usually of equal length, second

spine being sometimes shorter. Insertion of pectoral slightly below

middle of body. Caudal fork not deep.

Proportionate measurements: vide Appendix B.

Scales: 30-35 on the longitudinal and {0-11 on the transverse

series. 18-19 pre-dorsal scales. There is only a short blunt scale in

the axil of pectoral. Bases of all fins except D, covered with minute

scales. Scales on body cycloid in young and ctenoid in adults.

Orientation of fins: Insertion of D, above the 10th-12th, of D,

above the 20th-23rd, and of anal below thé 19th-22nd L.1. scale.

The pelvic fins are inserted below the 5th-6th and extend up to the

12th-13th Ll. scale. The pectoral reaches the 8th-9th scale of the

longitudinal series.

Upper lip somewhat thick and forms the tip of snout and to a

slight extent, part of dorsal profile. It has a single row of teeth.

Lower lip thin and with granulations on the inner aspect. Pre-orbital

very slightly bent at the extremity and is serrated on the anterior

and ventral edges. Nostrils above upper rim of orbit, the posterior

larger than the anterior. The distance that separates them is equal

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

to that of the anterior from the upper lip and greater than of the

posterior from the orbit. Symphysial knob double. Adipose eyelid

present, broader posteriorly than anteriorly. End of maxilla visible

when mouth is closed. Not more than } of eye forms part of dorsal

profile.

Colour: Olivaceous abdove, silvery below, with 5-7 indistinct

longitudinal marks on the upper half of body. Caudal fin edged

with black, other fins light. Coloration is subject to slight variation

in different environments. The stripes on the body are not evident

in young specimens.

Material: From the collections in the Zoological Survey of

India: M. planiceps: Dept. Cat. 189, F. Day (Calcutta); 2147, F.

Day (Calcutta); M. belanak: 8440/1, Annandale (Chilka).

Large number of specimens of M. tade from the sea and estuaries

of Bengal have also been studied.

Remarks: Day (1889) and Pillay (1951) have commented on the

identity of M. planiceps Bleeker with M. tade Forskal. The present

study confirms that the two are synonymous. Weber & de Beaufort

have considered M. belanak Bleeker as a synonym of M. tade Forskal.

One specimen in the collections of the Zoological Survey of India,

labelled M. belanak, comes well within the range of variations

observed in M. tade Forskal.

Distribution: Type locality: Arabia. In India this is one of the

economically important species, more so on the east coast than on

the west. It occurs on the Bombay and the Malabar coasts, but is not

very common in the backwaters of Travancore. On the east coast,

however, the species occurs in large numbers all along the coastline,

entering estuaries and backwaters. The species occurs in the sea

around the Andamans also.

Outside India the species has been recorded from the Red Sea,

Sokotra, Ceylon, East Pakistan, Penang, Malacca, China, Marianas,

and Guam. Though Weber & de Beaufort (1922) stated that this

species occurs in the Philippines and in Australia, Herre (1953) in

his checklist of Philippine fishes, and Thomson (1954) in his paper

on the Mugilidae of Australia, have not included this species.

The maximum size attained by this species is about 70 cm.

(5) Mugil cephalus Linnaeus

Mugil cephalus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 316, 1758 (European Ocean);

Russell, Fish. Vizag. 2, p. 64, 1803 (Sea, Vizagapatam); Hamilton, Fish. Ganges,

p. 119, 1822 (Ganges); Pillay, Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 17, p. 414, 1951 (W.

Bengal); Devasundaram, J. Zool. Soc. India 3, p. 21, 1951 (Chilka Lake).

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 559

Mugil albula Linnaeus Syst. Nat., ed. 12, p. 250, 1766 (Charleston, S.

Carolina). .

Mugil dir Forskal, Descript. Anim., p. 74, 1775 (Red Sea).

Mugil cephalotus Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 11, p. 110, 1836

(Pondicherry); Whitehouse, Madras Fish. Bull. 15, p. 80, 1922 (Tuticorin).

Mugil japonicus Schlegel, Fauna Japonica, Pisces, p. 134, pl. 72, 1846

(Nagasaki); Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen. 25, p. 41, 1853 (Bengal).

Mugil macrolepidotus, Richardson, Ichth. China and Japan, p. 249, 1846.

Mugil bontah Bleeker, Verh. Batavia Genoot. 25, p. 48, 1853 (Bengal).

Mugil dobula Giimnther, Cat. Brit. Mus. 3, p. 420, 1861 (Perth, W. Australia;

Aneiteum).

Mugil cunnesius Day, Fish. Malabar, p. 136, 1865 (Sea of Malabar, Cochin)

(nec. Cuv. & Val.).

Mugil oeur Klunzinger, Abhandl. Zool.-bot. Gesell. Wien 20, p. 829, 1870;

Day, Fishes of India, p. 353, 1878; Fauna of Brit. India, Fishes 2, p. 348,

1889 (Bombay).

Mugil perusii Hutton, Fishes of New Zealand, p. 36, 113, 1872 (New

Zealand).

Mugil occidentalis Castelnau, Proc. Zool. Acclim. Soc. Vict. 2, p. 135, 1873

(Port Philip).

Mugil grandis Castelnau, Res. Fish. Ausir., p. 32, 1875 (New South Wales).

Mugil mulleri Klunzinger, S. B. Akad. Wiss. Wien 80, p. 395, 1879.

Mugil gelatinosus Klunzinger, S. B. Akad. Wiss. Wien 80, p. 395, 1879.

Mugil marginalis De Vis, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 9, p. 870, 1885.

Mugil marginatus Saville-Kent, Great Barrier Reef, p. 294, 1893 (Barrier

Reef).

Mugil hypselosoma Ogilby, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 22, p. 74, 1897

(Tasmania).

Mugil our Jordan & Snyder, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 23, p. 744, 1901.

POV a8 5 A es V5 Pe l6 18 3. 1 C. I8—20 ;

L. 1. 37—42; L. tr. 13-15.

Length of head conspicuously greater than height of body. Head

broader than high. Length of snout less than its own height and

the width of snout greater than its height. Diameter of orbit less

than length of snout and less than half of inter-orbital distance.

Insertion of D, in relation to tip of snout and base of caudal varying.

Origin of pelvic fins nearer origin of anal than to tip of snout.

Length of caudal peduncle less than width of head but not less than

height of head. The least height of caudal peduncle less than height

of head. The first spine of D, longer than the second. Insertion of

pectoral fin above middle of body. Caudal fin deeply forked.

Proportionate measurements: vide Appendix B.

Scales: 37-42 on the longitudinal series and 13-15 on the

transverse. Pre-dorsal scales 23-25. Elongated axillary scale present

in axil of pectoral fin. The bases of all fins except D, covered with

minute scales. Scales on body cycloid in the young, and _ feebly

ctenoid in adults.

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Orientation of fins: Insertion of D, above 12th-14th, of D, above

24th-27th, and of anal below 23rd-26th scales of the longitudinal

series. Insertion or pelvic fins below 6th-8th L.l. scale, reaching to

the 13th-16th scale of this series. Pectoral fin reaches to 9th-12th

L.1.. scale.

Teeth present on both jaws in a band. Upper lip terminal,

forming tip of snout and part of dorsal profile. Pre-orbital not bent

and is serrated on both anterior and ventral edges. Distance of

anterior nostril from upper lip is less than its distance from the

posterior nostril and equals the distance of the latter from rim of

orbit. Anterior nostril is below the level of the eye while the

posterior is above it. Symphysial knob double. Adipose thickening

over the orbit is conspicuously well developed in the adults, more

than in any other species of Mugilidae. End of maxilla is concealed

when the mouth is closed. |

Colour: Dark greyish brown dorsally, lighter on the sides which

are dull silvery. The ventral aspect is whitish. There are 5-7

horizontal bands along the lateral row of scales. Fins are grey,

except the pelvics which are dull yellowish. There is a dark blue

blotch on the base of pectorai. The body coloration is variable

according to the environment. In marine environment the coloration

is not so dark as in less saline waters.

Material: 4 specimens labelled M. cephalotus in Day’s Collec-

tions—Z.S.I. Nos. 1934 & 2137 (from Madras) and Z.S.I. Nos. 1408

& 2145, from Bombay); 6 specimens labeiled M. oeur—Z.S.I. No.

F. 8464/1 (in Zugmayer’s Collections from Baluchistan), Z.S.I. Nos.

F. 9454/1, F.9455/1, F. 9456/1, F.9458/1 & F. 9461/1 (Collections

from Chilka); 35 fresh specimens collected from the sea at Jaunput

(Midnapore district, West Bengal) and Narakkal in Cochin.

Remarks: The specimens named M. cephalotus by Day are

referrable to M. cephalus. Day (1878) has recognised M. cephalotus

Valenciennes as synonymous with M. oeur Forskal, the descriptions

of which are in complete agreement with that of M. cephalus

Linnaeus.

Distribution: Type locality: European oceans. ‘This species has

almost a world-wide distribution, occurring in the Atlantic, Pacific

_and Indian Oceans. In India it occurs all along the coast in the sea,

ascending backwaters and tidal rivers, and is one of the common

mullets of Indian waters. Outside India this species has been

recorded from Carolina Islands, Babuyan Islands, Java, Borneo and

New Guinea in the East Indian regions (where it is not very common),

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 561

Philippines (rare), Japan (excessively common), Hawaiian Islands,

Guam, Marshall Islands, Honolulu, Hong Kong and Swatow in China,

South Carolina, Red Sea, the east and west coasts of Australia and

New Zealand.

M. cephalus grows to about 90 cm. in length.

(6) Mugil vaigiensis Quoy & Gaimard

Mugil vaigiensis Quoy & Gaimard, Voy. ‘Uranie’, Zoologie, p. 337, pl.

59, fig. 2, 1825 (Waigiou).

~ Mugil macrolepidotus Rupell, Atlas Reise, Nordl.. Afrika, Fische Rothen

Meeres, p. 140, 1828 (Red Sea).

Mugil melanochir (Koch & Van Hasselt) Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat.

Poiss, 11, p. 143, 1836 (Java; Guam).

Mugil peddaraki Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 11, p. 137, 1836

(Coromandel coast); Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen. 25, p. 48, 1853.

Mugil rossii Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned.-Ind. 7, p. 45, 1854 (Cocas Island).

Mugil waigiensis Gimther, Cat. Brit. Mus. 3, p. 435, fig. 9, 1861 (Red Sea;

Sea of Pinang; East Indian Archipelago; N.W. Australia; S. Australia); Day

Fish. Malabar, p. 144, 1865 (Sea of Malabar, entering fresh water); Fish. India,

p. 359, 1878 (Bombay); Fauna Brit. India, Fishes 2, p. 356, 1889.

Mugil ventricosus Castelnau, Rec. Philad. Exhibition, p. 32, 1875.

Mugil delicatus Jouan, Mem. Soc. Nat. Sci. Cherbourg 21, p. 333, 1878.

Liza vaigiensis Jordan & Seale, Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 25, p. 175-455, 1906

(Samoa); Herre, Mem. Indian Mus. 13, p. 347, 1941 (Andamans); Thomson,

Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 5, p. 102, 1954 (Australia, Queensland; Great

Barrier Reef; Madras).

Liza waigiensis Seale, Occas. Papers Bishop Mus. 4, p. 15, 1906 (South

Pacific); Whitehouse, Madras Fish. Bull. 15, p. 95, 1922 (Tuticorin).

Mugil rossi Weber, Siboga Exped. 57, Fische, p. 138, 1913 (East Indies).

Mugil ogilbyi Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 70, p. 5, fig. 2, 1918

(Philippines).

Ellochelon vaigiensis Whitley, Austr. Zool. 6, p. 250, 1930 (Waigiou); Smith,

Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist. 11, p. 840, 1948 (S. Africa).

Daly. bh SA tl -s8> Vit 5: PP. 16-17; €. 14; £1.

25—29; L. tr. 9—12.

Length of head greater than height of body, head broader than

high. Length of snout less than its own height, and its width greater

than the height. Diameter of orbit less than length of snout and

about half of inter-orbital distance. Origin of pelvic fins nearer

origin of anal fin than to tip of snout. Origin of D, nearer base of

caudal than to tip of snout. Length of caudal peduncle less than

the width and height of head. Least height of caudal peduncle less

than height of head. Ist spine of D, longer than the 2nd. Insertion

of pectoral in middle of body.

Proportionate measurements: vide Appendix B.

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Scales: 25-29 scales on the longitudinal series and 9-12 on the

transverse. 15-16 predorsal scales. No elongated scale in axil of

pectoral fin, Bases of all fins except D, covered with minute scales.

Scales on body ctenoid in adults.

Orientation of fins: Insertion of D; above 8th-9th, of D, above

17th-19th, and of anal below 15th-17th scales of the longitudinal

series. Insertion of pelvic fins below 3rd-4th scale and they reach

upto the 9th-llth LJ. scales. Pectoral reaches to the 7th-8th L1.

scale.

Teeth scattered, embedded externally on upper lip. Upper lip

forms tip of snout and part of dorsal profile. Pre-orbital bent and

serrated on anterior and ventral margins. Nostrils large, the posterior

oniy slightly larger than the anterior. Distance of posterior nostril

from orbit less than that of the anterior from upper lip, the distance

between the two nostrils being less than either of these. Nostrils are

in level with the dorsal margin of orbit. Symphysial knob double.

Adipose thickening not present over eyes. End of maxilla visible

(in some only slightly) when the mouth is closed. Caudal fin only

very slightly forked (lunate).

Colour: Olive-brown dorsally, merging to dull yellowish brown

and silver on the sides. Light on the ventral aspect. Fins are pale

yellowish grey at the bases, changing to dark grey towards the outer

margins. Pectoral fin almost black except along the ventral margin

which is dull pale yellow. Dark horizontal bands on sides formed

by groups of pigment spots arranged length-wise on each scale.

Material: 3 specimens in Day’s collections in the ZS.1.: Z.S.L.

No. 2041 (from Akyab), Z.S.I. No. 2042 (from Bombay), and Z.S.I.

No. 2141 (from Madras); and 25 fresh specimens collected from

Krusadai Islands (Pamban).

“Remarks: Thomson (1954) states ‘adipose eyelid rudimentary,

not obtruding onto eye’ and ‘distinct patches of gelatinous adipose

tissue are present both in front and behind the eye’. In the 31,

specimens examined during this study, it has not been possible to

detect the presence of adipose thickening and so on this point the

author differs from Thomson (1954) and is in agreement with the

observations of the others, Giinther (1861), Day (1889), Weber & de

Beaufort (1922), Whitley (1930). Smith (1948) and Schultz (1953) who

have stated that there is no adipose eyelid in this species.

Distribution: Type locality: | Waigiou'. This species occurs in

the sea and tidal rivers from the east coast of Africa to the East

1 South Pacific.

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 563

Indies, China, Philippines, and east to the Marshall and Tuamotu

Islands and south to Australia.

In India the species occurs all along the west coast, and on the

east coast up to Madras. It does not occur in the Chilka Lake or

in the coastal waters of Orissa and Bengal.

The maximum size of this species recorded from Indian waters

is just over 30 cm. But it has been known to grow to 55 cm.

(Thomson, 1954).

(7) Mugil cunnesius Valenciennes

Mugil cunnesius Valenciennes (in Cuvier & Valenciennes), Hist. Nat. Poiss.

11, p. 114, 1836 (Vizagapatam & Bombay; Moluccas); Day, Fish. India, p. 349,

1878-88 (Bombay); Fauna Brit, India, Fishes 2, p. 342, 1889; Devasundaram,

Journ, Zool. Soc. India 3, p. 22, 1951 (Chilka Lake).

Mugil speigleri Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned.-Ind. 16, p. 279, - 1858- 1859 (Java);

Giinther, Cat. Brit. Mus. 3, p. 435, 1861 (after Bleeker); Day, Fish. India, p. 348,

1878-88 (Bombay); Fauna Brit. India, Fishes 2, p. 342, 1889; Devasundaram,

nat. Inst. Sci. India 17, p. 414, 1951 (W. Bengal); Devasundaram, J. Zool.

Soc. India 3, p. 22, 1951 (Chilka Lake).

Mugil suppositus Day, Fish. Malabar, p. 143, 1865 (Sea—Cochin, Malabar).

(nec. Giinther).

D.IV,I+8; A. WI+9; V.I4+5; P. 14-16; C. 14-15;

L. 1. 33—38 ; L. tr. 10-12. |

Length of head less than height of body, or sometimes equal to

it. Head higher than broad. Length of snout distinctly less than

its height which in turn equals its width. Diameter of orbit equal

to, or often greater and sometimes less than length of snout.

Diameter of orbit more than half of inter-orbital distance. Insertion

of D, in relation to tip of snout and base of caudal varying. Origin

of pelvic fins nearer origin of anal than to tip of snout. Length and

least height of caudal peduncle less than width and height of head.

Ist spine of D, longer than the 2nd, but sometimes equal. Insertion

of pectoral above middle of body. Caudal fork not very deep.

Proportionate measurements: vide Appendix B.

Scales: 33-38 on the longitudinal and 10-12 on the transverse

series. 19-22 pre-dorsal scales. A pointed elongated scale present

in axil of pectoral fin. Bases of all fins except of D, covered with

minute scales. Scales on body cycloid in young as well as in adults.

Orientation of fins: Insertion of D, above 11th-13th, of D, above

21st-25th and of anal below 19th-23rd scale of the longitudinal series.

Pelvic fins inserted below 6th-7th and reach to the 13th-16th Lu.

scales. Pectoral fins reach to the 12th-14th L.1. scales.

Lower lip thin with a single row of teeth. No distinct teeth on

upper lip which forms tip of snout and part of dorsal profile. Pre-

564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

orbital bent only at the extremity and serrated on both anterior and

ventral margins. Nostrils above level of eye, the posterior larger

than the anterior. The distance of the posterior nostril from the

orbit is less than of the anterior from the upper lip, which in turn is

less than the distance that separates the two. Symphysial knob

double. Adipose eyelid present, broader posteriorly than anteriorly.

End of maxilla not visible when mouth is closed.

Colour: Olivaceous-grev on back, silvery on sides with a tinge

of green on the upper half. Silvery white on the ventral aspect.

Fins yellowish at the base, the rest grey with dark margins. In young

fish the back is more greenish than in adults and there are dark

pigment spots arranged in a single row along the myotomes which are

clearly visible as dark lines a little while after death, and remain so

even when preserved in formalin. These lines are not evident in

large sized fish in the fresh condition; but when presrved in

formalin, they appear as faint lines.

Material: 5 specimens in the collections in the Zoological Survey

of India labelled M. speigleri—Z.S.1. No. 1406 (in Day’s collections

from Bombay); Z.S.I. Nos. F. 9507/1, F.9508/1, F.9509/1 &

F.9510/1 (in the Chilka Survey collections from Chilka Lake); 6

specimens in the collections of the Zoological Survey of India labelled

M. cunnesius—Z.S.1. Nos. F. 9262/1, F. 9263/1, F. 9497/1, F. 9501/1

& F.9502/1 in the Chilka Survey collections (from Chilka Lake);

and Z.S.1. No. F. 2508/1 (in Annandale’s collections from Cohin);

and fresh specimens collected from the sea and estuaries of West

Bengal and specimens collected from Cochin.

Remarks: M. cunnesius was described by Russel from the sea

of Vizagapatam (Visakhapatnam, Coromandel coast), as a ‘“Mugil

with a lanceolate scale at the pectoral and ventral fins; three spines

in the anal fin; tail sub-lunate’. He, however, did not give it a

specific name. Valenciennes (Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836) dis-

cussed the taxonomic position of this species which he named Mugil

cunnesius. He distinguished the species by ‘the pointed scale of its

pectoral, by the maxillary which is near to the head, the sub-orbital

neither visibly notched, neither dentate nor truncate; the small head

which is convex, the short snout which occupies only 4+ of the length

of head and is equal to the diameter of eye; height of body 4, and

length of head 54 times in the length and the jaws that are almost

equal’. From an examination of the named collections in the

Zoological Survey of India [ found ihat there was striking similarity

between the specimens named M. cunnesius Valenciennes and M.

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 565

speigleri Bleeker. Day’s (1878 & 1889) descriptions of the two

species from Indian waters do not show any significant differences

between the two. The differences in the proportionate measurements

mentioned are very slight and fall well within the intra-specific ranges

usually seen in the species of Mugil. The only difference of any

taxonomic value is firstly in his statement that in M. speigleri the

maxilla is ‘uncovered’ and in M. cunnesius it is entirely concealed

or just visible. It is of interest that in specimen No. 1406 in the

Zoological Survey of India collections, which was purchased from

Day as M. speigleri, the maxilla is not visible when the mouth is

closed. Day’s (1878 & 1889) M. speigleri has 40-42 L.1. scales

while M. cunnesius has only 33-35. But Weber & de Beaufort (1922)

give 42-43 L.1. scales for M. cunnesius and c. 40 for M. speigleri.

In the large number of specimens examined by me it is seen that

the number of L.I. scales is greatiy varying and ranges for both the

species overlap considerably. In none of the specimens of either

species examinud were there more than 38 LJ. scales present.

Devasundaram (1951) has described the two species separately, and

the only distinguishing character given by him is the relative length

of the pectoral fin. The present study has shown that this feature

is not constant and overlaps to an appreciable degree.

The morphometric comparison of the two species in respect of the

various characters is given in Table II (p. 575). As can be seen;

the value of P obtained is greater than O.l. in respect of all the

measurements.

Distribution: Type locality: Bombay and Vizagapatam, India;

Malaccas. In India the species is distributed on both the west and

east coasts, from Baluchistan to West Bengal.

Outside India, the species has been recorded from the Red Sea,

Abyssinia, Dutch South New Guinea, sea of Penang and Singapore in

the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, Shanghai, Philippines, and

Queensland in Australia. |

The maximum size to which this species grows is about 30 cm,

(8) Mugil seheli Forskal

Mugil crenilabis seheli Forskal, Descript. Anim. p. 73, 1775 (Lohaja, Red

Sea).

Mugil caeruleo-maculatus Lacépéde, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 5, p. 385 & 389, 1803

(Mauritius); Day Fish. India, p. 356, 1878 (Andamans); Fauna Brit. India,

Fishes 2, p. 351, 1889.

Mugil seheli Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 11, p. 113, 1836; Day,

Fish. India, p. 355, 1878; Fauna Brit. India, Fishes 2, p. 350, 1889.

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Mugil cylindricus Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss. Il, p. 132, 1836;

Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen. 23, p. 9, 1850 (Java).

Mugil axillaris Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss. 11, p. 139, 1836;

Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned.-Ind. 4, p. 280, 1858-59 (East Indies); Day, Proc. Zool,

Soc. London, 1869, p. 300, 1870 (Malabar).

Mugil melanicranus Richardson, Rep. Brit. Assn. 1845, p. 248, 1846 (Canton).

Mugil caeruleomaculatus Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned.-Ind. 2, p. 484, 1851

(Riouw).

Mugil parsia Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned.-Ind. 3, p. 166, 1852 (Borneo) (nec.

Hamilton, 1822).

Mugil barbonicus Bleeker, Nat. Tijds. Ned.-Ind. 15, p. 279, 1858; ibid. 16,

p. 375, 1859 (East Indies).

Mugil bleekeri Giinther, Cat. Brit. Mus. 3, p. 445, 1861 (Rivers of Banka).

Mugil decem-radiatus Giinther, Cat. Brit. Mus. 3, p. 452, 1861 (Coasts of

Batavia & Timor).

Mugil delicatus Alleyne & Macleay, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 1, p. 341,

1877 (Cape York).

Liza caeruleomaculatus Jordan & Seale, Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 25, p. 217,

1906 (Samoa); Herre, Mem. Indian Mus. 13, p. 347, 1941 (Andaman Islands);

Devasundaram, J. Zool. Soc. India 3, p. 23, 1951 (Chilka Lake).

Liza caeruleo-maculata Whitehouse, Madras Fish. Bull. 15, p. 93, 1922

(Tuticorin).

Liza seheli Herre, J. Pan-Pacif. Res. Instn. 8, p. 3, 1933 (Sandakan, N.

Borneo); Mem. Indian Mus. 13, p. 347, 1941 (Andaman Ils.).

Valamugil seheli Smith, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (11) 14, p. 840, 1948 (S.

Africa); Thomson, Austr. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 5, p. 108, 1954 (Cape York;

Great Barrier Reef; Samoa; Bombay).

D. IV, 14+ 8; ATE +9: Vi PS 56 ee 15-163 Gat 3 ak

35—38; L. tr. 11 —13.

Length of head equal to or less than height of body, occasionally

greater especially in young ones. Head higher than broad, occa-

sionally as broad as high. Length of snout less than its height,

which, in turn is less than the width. Diameter of orbit more than

half of inter-orbital distance in young specimens but is only half in

large-sized fish. Insertion of D, nearer base of caudal than to tip

of snout. Origin of pelvic fins nearer origin of anal fin than to tip of

snout. Length of caudal peduncle less than width of head. Ist

spine of D, longer than the 2nd spine. Insertion of pectoral above

middle of body. Caudal deeply forked.

Proportionate measurements: vide Appendix B.

Scales: 35-38 on the longitudinal series and 11-13 on the trans-

verse. 18-20 pre-dorsal scales. Elongated pointed scales present in

axil of pectoral. The bases of all fins except D, covered with minute

scales. Scales on body cycloid in young as well as old specimens.

Orientation of fins: Insertion of D, above 11th-12th, of D,

above 23rd-24th, and of anal below 2Ist-23rd Lil. scale. The pelvic

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 567

fins inserted below 5th-7th and reach to the 13th-{4th scale of the

longitudinal series. Pectorals reach the 10th-13th L.1. scale.

Upper lip thick and forms tip of snout but does not form part

of dorsal profile. Lower lip thin. Lips without teeth. Pre-orbital

slightly bent and mildly serrated on anterior and ventral margins.

Nostrils well separated, the distance between them being greater than

the distance of the posterior from the orbit, which again is greater

than the distance of the anterior from the upper lip. Posterior nares

larger than the anterior and slit-like in appearance: adipose eyelids

absent. End of maxilla not visible when mouth is closed.

Symphysial knob double. ee

Colour: Brownish dorsally with a greenish tinge on_ back.

Silvery on sides and below. Pectoral with a bluish spot. On the

upper half of body of large specimens the scales have dusky centres,

forming indistinct longitudinal lines.

Material: 2 specimens labelled M. caeruleomaculatus in the

collections of the Zoological Survey of India—Z.S.I. Nos. 1425 (in

Day’s collections from Andamans) and F.9473/1 (from Chilka

Lake—Chilka Survey).

One specimen labelled M. seheli—Z.S1I. No. F.69/2 in

D. D. Mukherji’s collections from Port Blair, Andamans.

Remarks: There has been considerable overlapping in the

characters attributed to M. seheli Forskal and M. caeruleomaculatus

Lacépéde by the various authors. Fowler (1928) considered the latter

to be a synonym of M. seheli. But this did not find approval of

certain later authors like Smith (1935) who considered the two to

be separate species. Thomson (1954) did not find any significant

difference between the two species and, therefore, considered M.

caeruleomaculatus Lacépéde to be a synonym of M. seheli Forskal.

Examination of the specimens in the named collections of the

Zoological Survey of India did not show any significant difference

between the two. One large-sized specimen of M. caeruleomaculatus

(25.7 cm. in standard length) had two distinct patches of teeth on the

tongue, but in a smaller specimen of the same, and in another small

specimen of M. seheli examined, it was not possible to detect the

presence of teeth on the tongue. It is inferred, therefore, that the

teeth become evident only when the fish have reached sufficiently large

size. This obviously overcomes the objection of Smith (1935) to the

merger of the two species. The present author, has, in view of the

aboye considered M. caeruleomaculatus Lacépéde as a synonym of

M. seheli Forskal.

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Distribution: Type locality: Lokajae, Red Sea. In India this

species has been recorded from Kathiawar and Bombay coasts in the

west, Gulf of Mannar and the east coast of Madras, Chilka Lake and

the Andaman Islands. This species has not so far been recorded

from Bengal waters or from Malabar coast.

Outside India, its distribution extends from the Red Sea to the

Indian coast, coast of S. Africa, East Indies, Indian Ocean—west

Pacific, Hawaii and Marshall Islands, New Guinea, Australia and

Hong Kong, and Canten in China.

This species grows to over 30 cm. in length.

Genus Rhinomugil Gill

Rhinomugil Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1863, p. 169 (genotype,

Mugil corsula Hamilton) (River Ganges, Bengal).

No spine on opercle; lips ventral, without lobes and papillae.

The distinguishing feature of this genus is that the upper lip does not

form tip of snout or part of dorsal profile, but is distinctly ventral, over-

hung by the snout. The mouth, therefore, is conspicuously ventral

in position. The nostrils are situated low on the side of head, in

level with the ventral rim of orbit. Symphysial knob present. . Teeth

indistinct, anterior edge of pre-orbital without notch. Mouth

protrusible. End of maxilla concealed.

Thomson (1954) has assigned Squalomugil Ogilby to the synonymy

of this genus. But since in his descriptions he states that the mouth

is not protrusible, I have not considered Squalomugil Ogilby as a

synonym of Rhinomugil Gill, even though in most other characters

there seems to be close affinity between the two.

Monotype: Rhinomugil corsula (Hamilton).

Rhinomugil corsula (Hamilton)

Mugil corsula, Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, pp. 221, 381, pl. ix, fig. 97, 1822

(River Ganges, Bengal); Gtinther, Cat. Brit. Mus. 3, p. 460, 1861 (Calcutta);

Day, Fish. India, p. 354, 1878-1888; Fauna Brit. India, Fishes 2, p. 349, 1889

(Calcutta; Burma); Hora, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40(1), pp. 62-68, 1938

(Bengal); Pillay, Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 17, p. 414, 1951 (W. Bengal).

Liza corsula Chaudhury, Mem. Indian Mus. 5(6), p. 498, 1917 (Chilka Lake);

Hora, Mem. Indian Mus. 5, p. 766, 1923 (Chilka Lake); Devasundaram, J. Zool.

Soc. India 3, p. 25, 1951 (Chilka Lake).

D. IV, +8; A. WT +9; V.14+-5; P. 13-15. C45 162

1 48 —33 Lair, 15—17:

Length of head conspicuously greater than height of body. Head

broader than high. Length of snout greater than its height, but less

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 569

than its width. Diameter of orbit less than iength of snout and almost

equal to or slightly less than the inter-orbital distance. Insertion

of D, nearer base of caudal than to tip of snout. Origin of pelvic

fins nearer origin of anal than to tip of snout. Length of caudal

peduncle greater than width of head and either equal to or slightly

greater than height of head. Least depth of caudal peduncle less than

height of head. The first two spines of D, are of equal length.

Insertion of pectoral fin below middle of body. Caudal fork not

very deep.

Scales: ‘There are 48-53 scales on the longitudinal and 15-17 on

the transverse series. Pre-dorsal scales 25-27. No elongated scale

in axil of pectoral fin. The bases of all fins except D, are covered

with minute scales. Scales are cycloid in young and strongly ctenoid

in adults.

Orientation of fins: Insertion of D, above 16th-18th and of D,

above 33rd-34th scales of the longitudinal series. Anal commences

below 25th-28th lateral scale. Insertion of pelvic fins below the

8th, and they reach to 16th-19th L.1. scale. Pectoral fin reaches to

13th-15th Ll. scale.

Upper lip does not form tip of snout or part of dorsal profile.

Mouth distinctly ventral and protrusible. Pre-orbital is not bent and

is serrated on both anterior and ventral edges. Pre-orbital does not

reach beyond angle of mouth. Its extremity pointed and without

concavity. Nostrils almost equal in size and are situated below the

dorsal rim of eye almost in level with the ventral rim. The posterior

nostril very close to the orbit, the anterior nearer to the upper lip

than to the posterior. Adipose eyelids present in adults. Eye

prominent and bulging, more than 3 of which forms part of the dorsal

profile. End of maxilla concealed when mouth is closed. Symphysial

knob feebly double.

Colour: Dull olive-brown dorsally gradually becoming light on

the sides. Dull white on the ventral aspect. Fins with greyish

tinge.

Material: Named collection in the Zoological Survey of India:

M. corsula: 2140, F. Day, original of pl. 71, fig. 6 of Fishes of India,

1878 (Calcutta); 313, May Sladen (Mandalay): Several specimens

collected from the Sundarban area were also studied.

Remarks: Day (1889) has stated that this species has no adipose

eyelids. Though in the young stages these are absent, in fairly

large-sized specimens the adipose thickenings are clearly visible, being

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

more prominent behind the eye than in front of it. These encroach

to some extent over the eyes in large-sized fish.

Distribution: ‘Yype locality: River Ganges. Day (1889) has

indicated the rivers and estuaries of Bengal and Burma as the habitat

of this species. It has been observed during the course of this

investigation that the species occurs in the sea off the Midnapore

coast of Bengal in fairly large numbers. So in fact the sea, estuaries,

and rivers form the natural habitat of the species, which is also

found far above the tidal influence. In India this species has been

recorded only from the Ganges; and outside India it is known to

occur only in the rivers and estuaries of Burma, thus having a very

limited distribution.

This species is known to attain a length of about 46 cm.

DOUBTFUL SPECIES

Of the 27 species described by Day (1889) 24 have been dealt

with in the foregoing pages. Of these only 12 species are retained

as valid, the others having been merged or obscured according to the

taxonomic principles involved. However, there still remain three

species, the systematic status of which could not be assessed with

certainty for want of sufficiently well-defined and exhaustive des-

criptions, or authoritatively named specimens. These are, M.

amarulus Valenciennes, M. kelaartii Gimther, and M. buchanani

Bleeker. It appears from a close perusal of the literature on these

species that they may not remain valid as independent species. The

relevant points are discussed below.

1. Maugil amarulus Valenciennes

Valenciennes (Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836) gave the following

distinguishing features for this species: “compressed body, head very

much smaller than the height of body, the front slightly convex, the

sub-orbital truncated bluntly without notch, one axillary scale above

pectoral’. These characters are strongly reminiscent of the charac-

teristic features of M. cunnesius Valenciennes. The author stated

that there was no spot or blotch on the pectoral in his specimens

which were only 2-3 inches in length. It may be pointed out in this

connection that even in M. cunnesius the dark spot at base of pectoral

is absent in young specimens and becomes evident only in the

fingerling stage. Day (1878 and 1889), however, mentions the

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE 57

presence of a dark spot on base of pectoral of his M. amarulus.

Whitehouse (1922) states that he found it difficult to distinguish this

species from M. troscheli. This might be because he did not study

the original descriptions of Valenciennes which certainly show a

greater affinity towards M. cunnesius than towards M. troscheli.

2. Mueil kelaartii Ginther

Giinther’s description of this species is based on two specimens

44 inches long, one of which was obtained from Point de Galle

in Ceylon and the other from the Philippines. Day’s (1878 and

1889) descriptions of this species are very similar to his descriptions

of M. speigleri and M. cunnesius. Whitehouse (1922) has drawn

attention to this point and expressed considerable difficulty in dis-

tinguishing the species from M. cunnesius of Day. However, he

assigned his specimen to M. keiaartii Ginther, based on certain

affinities to Giinther’s descriptions and on the argument that since

M. kelaartii was present in the sea off Ceylon, it must be present at

Tuticorin also. But his descriptions show that his specimens were

extremely similar to M. cunnesius Valenciennes. Earlier in his paper

he remarks: ‘I have found it impossible to recognise Mugil cunnesius

(Cuv. & Val.) though Dr. Chaudhuri identifies this species from

specimens sent to him from Tuticorin.’ It is possible, therefore, that

he prejudged the identity of his specimens. This raises the doubt

as to whether M. kelaartii Ginther is present in Indian waters at all.

Though Day has included ‘seas of India’ in the habitat of the species,

it is possible he meant the sea south of Ceylon (after Giinther) since

in his time Ceylon formed an integral part of India. Apart from

Whitehouse’s (1922) record, there is no other to show that

M. kelaartii is present in Indian waters.

It is, however, of interest here to point out that M. kelaartii

Giinther may not any longer be a valid species but only a synonym

of M. engeli (Weber & de Beaufort, 1922. and Roxas, 1934).

3. Maugil buchanani Bleeker

_ The type specimen of this species is said to have been collected

from the River Hooghly. Though Bleeker’s (1853) description of this

Species is not very clearly defined, the figure reproduced by Smith

(1948) shows that this species has certain distinctive features peculiar

to it, such as the shape and disposition of the fins. Day (1878)

remarked that this species is the same as M. ceylonensis of Giinther.

Though he observed that he had examined the type specimen of

572, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Bleeker, he did not make it clear whether his descriptions were based

on Bleeker’s specimen, or on Giinther’s, or whether he had been able

to collect any from Hooghly (the type iocality) or from any other

part of India. The present author has not come across this species

in the Hooghly or any other river system or in the coastal waters of

Bengali during the extensive surveys of the mullet fishery of Bengal.

Apart from Bleeker’s (1853) there is no other record of this species

from Indian waters. Even outside India its distribution is greatly

restricted and it is known to occur only in East Africa (Smith, 1935

and 1948) and Marianas (Pellegrin, 1898, and Fowler, 1928).

Thomson (1954) has recorded it from Australia, but states that only

one specimen could be referred to this species. In the absence of

specimens for scrutiny and of any comprehensive description of the

species, it is not possible to examine further its systematic position in

relation to Indian Mugilidae.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My grateful thanks are due to the late Dr. S. L. Hora for facilities

to study the mullet collections in the Zoological Survey of India and

for critical perusal of the manuscript and to Dr. H. S. Rao, and

Dr. L. P. Schultz (of the U. §. National Museum) for reading

through the manuscript and offering their criticisms on it. I am

indebted to Dr. N. K. Panikkar and Dr. T. V. R. Pillay for making

available freshly preserved specimens of some of the species dealt

with in this paper.

REFERENCES

Bleeker, P. (1853): Nalezingenop de

ichthyologische fauna Von Bengalen

Hindustan. Vorh. Batavia Genoot. 25:

1-164.

_ Chaudhuri, B. L. (1917) : Fauna of the

Chilka Lake—Fish, Part III. Mem.

Indian Mus. 5 (6) : 491-508.

Cuvier, G. & Valenciennes, A. (1836):

Histoire Naturelle des Poissons Vol. XI.

Day, F. (1865): Fishes of Malabar.

London.

—— (1870) : Remarks on some of the

fishes in the Calcutta Museum. On the

freshwater fishes of Burma, pt. 1. Proc.

Zool. Soc. Lond. 1869 : 511-727, 548-560.

—— (1888) : Fishes of India, 2 Vols.

London.

—— (1889): Fauna of British India,

Fishes, 2 vols. London.

Devasundaram, P. (1951) : Systematics

of Chilka mullets with a key for their

identification. J. Zool. Soc. India 3 : 9-29.

Fowler, H. W. (1928): The fishes of

Oceania. Mem. Bishop Mus., Honolulu

No. 10.

—— (1929): Further notes and des-

criptions of Bombay shore fishes.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 100-109. —

—— (1939): A small collection of

fishes from Burma. WNotul. Nat. Acad.

Philad. 17. :

Ginther, A. (1861): Catalogue of

Acanthopterygian Fishes in the British

Museum. Vol. III.

Hamilton, F. (1822) : An account of

the fishes found in the river Ganges and

its branches. London.

A REVISION OF INDIAN MUGILIDAE

Herre, A.W.C.T. (1941): Fishes from

the Andaman Islands. Mem. Indian Mus.

13: 331-403.

—— (1953): Checklist of Philippine

fishes. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Res. Rept.: 20.

Hora, S. L. (1923): Fauna of the

Chilka Lake—Fish, Part V. Mem. Indian

Mus.5 (11): 739-69.

Jacot, A. P. (1920) : Age, growth and

scale characters of the mullet Mugil

cephalus and Mugil curema. Trans. Amer.

Mic. Soc. 39: 199-229.

John, C. M. (1955): The grey mullets

of Kayamkulam Lake, India, and their

fishery. Copeia 3 : 225-30.

Jordan, D. S. & Seale, A. (1906) : The

fishes of Samoa. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish.

25 : 175-455.

—— & Swain, J. (1885) : A review

of the American species of marine Mugi-

lidae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 7: 261-75.

Oshima, M. (1922): A review of the

fishes of the family Mugilidae found in

the waters of Formosa. Ann. Carneg.

Mus. 13 : 240-59.

Pellegrin, J. (1898) : Contribution a

letude ichthyologique de iles Mariannes,

d’apres les envois de M. Marche. Bull.

Mus. Hist. Nat., Paris. 4: 228-29.

Pillay, T. V.R. (1951) : Structure and

development of the scales of five species

of grey mullets of Bengal. Proc. nat.

Inst. Sci. India 17 (6) : 413-24.

—— (1953) : Mugil poecilus Day, same

as Mugil troscheli Bleeker. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 51 (2) : 378-383.

—— (1954) : The biology of the grey

mullet Mugil tade Forskal, with notes on

its fishery in Bengal. Proc. nat. Inst. Sci.

India 20 ; 187-217.

By/[S)

Roxas, H. A. (1934): A review of

Philippine Mugilidae. Philipp. J. Sci.

54: 393-431.

Russel, P. (1803): Descriptions and

figures of two hundred fishes collected at

Vizagapatam on the coast of Coro-

mandel. Vol. 2. London.

Sarojini, K. K. (1953): Mugil dussu-

mieri Valenciennes aS a synonym of

Mugil parsia Hamilton—A biometric

study. Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 19:

437-45.

—— (1957) : Biology and fisheries of

the Grey Mullets of Bengal—1. Biology

of Mugil parsia Hamilton with notes on

its fishery in Bengal. Indian J. Fish. 4:

160-207.

Schultz, L. P. (1946) : A revision of

the genera of mullets, fishes of the family

Musgilidae, with descriptions of three

new genera. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 96:

377-95.

—— (1953) : Fishes of the Marshall

and Marianas Islands. Bull. Smith. Inst.

U.S. Nat. Mus. 202. Vol. 1.

Smith, J. L. B. (1935) : The fishes of

the family Mugilidae in South Africa.

Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 30 (19) : 587-644.

—— (1948): A generic revision of the

mugilid fishes of South Africa. Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist. (11) 14 : 833-43.

Thomson, J.M. (1954): The Mugilidae

of Australia and adjacent seas. Austr. J.

Mar. Freshw. Res. 5 (1): 70-131.

Weber, M. & de Beaufort, L. F. (1922):

The fishes of the Indo-Australian Archi-

pelago. Vol. 4. Leiden.

Whitehouse, R.H. (1922) : The grey

mullets of Tuticorin. Madras Fish. Bull,

15 : 71-98.

Whitley, C. P. (1930) : Five new

generic names for Australian fishes, Aust,

Zool. 6 (3) : 250-51.

Please turn over for Tables I and IJ, and Appendix B.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

574

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Life-history and Habits of the

Leaf Worm, Nausinoe geometralis

(Guenee) (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)’

S. KANAKARAJ DAVID AND S. VENUGOPAL

Agricultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore

(With one text-photograph)

INTRODUCTION

Although several insects affecting the jasmine crop (Jasminum spp.)

have been recorded in south India (Ramachandra Rao, 1930;

Ramakrishna Ayyar, 1940) some of the destructive ones remained

unnoticed until recently. The importance of these latter insects was

brought to light by one of the authors (David, 1958). The Leaf

Worm, Nausinoe geometralis (Guenee), (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera),

is one of them; it infests the plants in many localities in south India

and damages them to a considerable extent. Since the biology and

habits of the insect in this area are not known, a study was under-

taken in the Agricultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore,

during the years 1957 and 1958 and the features of interest noted are

presented below.

HISTORICAL

Hampson (1896), the first to record the Leaf Worm in the Indian

region, included it in the genus Lepyrodes Guenee. There seems

to be no further mention of it in Indian literature. In the present

investigation it was noted in Coimbatore and was identified by

Dr. Tams through the courtesy of the Director, Commonwealth

Institute of Entomology, London.

*Communicated by the Dean, Agricultural College and Research Institute,

Coimbatore.

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

DISTRIBUTION

The range of occurrence of the insect given by Hampson (1896),

includes west Africa, the whole of India, Ceylon, Burma, Java,

Formosa, China, and Australia. In India the localities where it had

been collected are not given. So far as south India is concerned,

the collection of insects in the Agricultural College and Research

Institute, Coimbatore, which fairly represents the insects of the

region, does not include this species. Since, as stated above, con-

siderable attention has been paid to the insects affecting Jasmine in

south India, a conspicuous insect of this type which damages the

plant in a marked manner could not have been easily overlooked. It

has, therefore, to be concluded that the insect has spread to this

region only recently. As there is no reference to this insect even

from other parts of India, it has to be regarded as rare. Currently

it has been collected in Cuddalore in the north-east, Coimbatore in

the mid-west, and Kovilpatti in the southern parts of Madras State,

and in Pattambi (Palghat District) in the central part of Kerala State.

THE INSECT AND ITS IMMATURE STAGES

The moth. The adult moth (Text-photo, 3) is about 10 mm.

in length with a wing expanse of 22 mm. for the largest specimen,

which is slightly smaller than the 26 mm. quoted by Hampson (1896).

The yellow, filiform antennae reach the tip of the wings. The palpi

are yellow and fluffy and project in front of the large, black eyes.

The abdomen is purplish brown interspersed with dorsal and lateral

white patches in each segment; it is slightly swollen in the middle

and tapers towards the anal end. The wings appear brownish but

are marked with yellow and black transverse lines; the fore wing has

five large irregularly elongated white spots and four small circular

ones, while the hind wing has five large spots and one small spot.

The moth generally rests by hanging under the lamina of a leaf.

It chooses leaves on the outermost portions of plants and faces away

from the shaded, bushy stem, evidently preferring to face the open,

lighted space. The wings are held half open at an angle of about

45° with the abdomen. It gets disturbed easily by the approach of

a person or the shaking of the plant, and flies away in a quick and

zigzag manner. It flies only a short distance and alights in another

portion of the plant. It is usually active during the day and many

can be seen flying about when the plant is shaken.

LIFE-HISTORY AND HABITS OF THE LEAF WORM 579

The evg. ‘The moth lays eggs singly on the laminae of the leaves,

either on the upper or the lower surface. It does not appear to

The Leaf Worm, Nausinoe geometralis : 1. The larva;

2. Pupae ; 3. Adults.

discriminate between the tender and older leaves, as the eggs are

found on any portion cf the plant in the field. The egg is greenish

yellow, translucent, circular, and flat. It measures about 1 mm. in

width and can only be distinguished with difficulty on the leaf.

Occasionally three or four eggs may overlap each other. In captivity

the moth laid only 15 to 20 eggs in all.

The larva. The caterpillar which hatches out from the egg

measures about 6 mm. and is slender with a light yellow colour.

The head is as long as broad, and narrower than the body. It

undergoes 4 moults and becomes full-grown when it measures about

20 mm. in length (Text-photo, 1). It turns green, with the head

having a brownish wash and with smaller or longer dark longitudinal

bands on the dorso-lateral aspect of the thorax and abdomen. Thin,

580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 39 (2)

white, short hairs are found on the abdomen surrounded by dark,

thin, circular lines which, however, may not be developed in some

cases. Each segment of the abdomen bears three tubercles with dark

spiracles. The five pairs of prolegs are yellowish and have circular

crochets.

The caterpillar attacks the leaves of the plant mostly in the lower

bushy and shaded portions. Occasionally, however, it appears also

on the terminal tender shoots. It webs the leaves in an open and

loose manner. The threads of silk are seen like cobweb on the

surface of the leaves or between the leaves. Faecal pellets get

entangled in some places and make the web appear dirty. The web

gets extended over the adjacent leaves as the successive generations

of caterpillars feed on other leaves in the vicinity. Thus a composite

web of loose connecting strands over the whole branch or a number

of side branches is developed, which stands out characteristically in

the infested plants.

The caterpillar is found on the upper or lower surface of the

leaves and scrapes only the parenchymatous matter in the early as

well as in the later stages. Several caterpillars may feed at one

time on different portions of the same leaf. In severe cases the

webbings become a nest which harbours several caterpillars almost

in a gregarious manner. The skeletons of the leaves, riddled with

small holes in some places, dry up in course of time but are held

intact in the webbing. If the plant is left undisturbed the area of

attack increases to a considerable extent.

The pupa. The insect pupates in the loose silk strands of the

webbing, suspending the pupa in them. When the caterpillar is

about to pupate it comes to rest on the web, mostly in a horizontal

position .and in rare cases vertically. Further strands of silk are

added to the head and anal regions so as to make these portions

thick and strong. It then contracts itself into a smooth, green.

spindle-shaped, naked pupa held in position by the pointed ends,

which are attached to the silk threads. The swollen portion of the

pupa is broadest in the anterior third and tapers to both ends. The

fore part is sharply conical while the hind one is elongate and

gradually diminishes in size. ‘The appendages stand out distinctly

and fall only slightly short of the full length of the pupa (Text-

photo, 2). In two or three days the pupa turns yellow and looks

like a dry leaf; it remains like this till the moth emerges.

LIFE-HISTORY AND HABITS OF THE LEAF WORM 581

LIFE AND SEASONAL HISTORY

Observations on the life and seasonai history of the eat Worm

made during the last two years in Coimbatore showed that it occurs

all through the year on the plants in gardens. The density of

population increases from May onwards and reaches the peak in July.

It continues to be heavy up to December and diminishes thereafter

till it reaches the lowest level in April.

In laboratory rearing the life cycle of the insect was found to

range from 22 to 24 days in the monsoon season of July and August.

The egg, larval, and pupal periods lasted 3 to 4, 12 to 15, and 6 to

7 days respectively.

Foop PLANTS OF THE INSECT

In south India the insect has been so far noted only on Jasmine

and is here taken to be monophagous. It may be noted here that

the food plant of the insect had not so far been known in India.

Among the different species of Jasmine it occurs on Jasminum

sambac and J. flexile quite commonly, but only occasionally has been

noted on J. auriculatum. Stray incidence of the insect has been

noted on J. grandiflorum but J. malabaricum was not affected.

ECOLOGY

In Coimbatore the insect occurred on the terminal shoots during

periods of dry and sunny weather in summer, and in bushy portions

in dense foliage with elaborate webbing in the rainy season. Even

heavy rains did not have any deleterious effect on the progress of

the insect. The distribution of the insect in south India given above

shows that the insect breeds with equal ease both in the warm and

dry plains of the east and the rainy and humid hills of the west.

NATURAL ENEMIES

Although the Leaf Worm occurs in rather great abundance in this

area, no regular parasites have been obtained from any of the stages

of the insect so far. However, stray pupal cases of Apanteles sp.

were noted in the webbings in the plants and it is believed that

Apanteles attacks the insect in its larval stage.

Several instances of fresh attacks of the insect in terminal portions

of the plant with the characteristic feeding and webbing were found

arrested and the caterpillars were missing. This would appear to

be due to the predatory activities of spiders and mantids which visit

382° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIENYS Vol.2 72)

the plants often. Some spiders live in the rolled-up leaves of the

plant itself and account for the disappearance of various insects

which affect the plants. However, when the insect lives in its

extensive webbings, it appears to be fairly free from the inroads

ot predators.

EcoNOMIC STATUS

As stated above the characteristic feeding of the insect reduces

the leaves to mere veins which dry away in course of time. When

the density of population increases the severity of damage is con-

siderably increased. Consequently the vitality of the plant is reduced

which tells upon the growth of the plant and the production of buds.

J. sambac being a slow grower suffers more from the attack than

J. flexile which easily overcomes the infestation by rapid and

extensive production of new shoots. When the insect attacks the

terminal shoot, only the second or the third leaf is damaged, leaving

the top shoot to grow in the normal way, but the vigour of the shoot

is much reduced.

CONTROL OF THE INSECT

When the infestation of the insect becomes severe, it becomes

necessary to institute control measures. A fairly heavy infestation

occurred in September on J. sambac. DDT 0.1%, BHC 0.05%, and

Parathion (Folidol) 0.025°% were sprayed in different portions of the

affected area of the garden and were compared against untreated

ones. It was found that the plants treated with insecticides were

kept free from the infestation for the next one month; later the

infestation in the untreated plants also dwindled.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writers are grateful to the Director, Commonwealth Institute

of Entomology, London, for kindly identifying the insect. Their

thanks are due to the Director of Agriculture, Madras, and the

Government Entomologist, Coimbatore, for the facilities given for

pursuing the studies.

REFERENCES

David, S. Kanakaraj (1958): Insects Ramachandra Rao, Y. (1930): Con-

and mites affecting Jasmine in the trol of the Jasmine bug (Antestia) by

Madras State. Madras agric. J. 45 (4): cyanogas. Madras agric. J. 18 (1): 2-5.

146-150. Ramakrishna Ayyar, T. V. (1940):

Hampson, G. F. (1896): Fauna of Handbook of Economic Entomology :

British India, Moths 4: 367. 368, ‘

erat

The Bats of Central and Western India

PART II

A. BROSSET

(With 9 maps and 4 plates)

[ Continued from Vol. 39 (1): 57]

Family MEGADERMATIDAE

Genus Megaderma

Megaderma spasma Linnaeus 1758

Measurements (in mm.) :

Localities

| {a0}

au Se Seo ay. PS ele a

ero) Sc: ac Sot gr Sto) Bt) Bot

a < B< a < ed £q 20} 60 s ©)

ere ME ee ere eae oe

Lees M

Forearm 61 Dei 59 58 35) 54 56 57

;Metacarpal | 43 Lidge Waa ida anh ay | ag las

2nd

finger

Ist Phalange 3 3 2. 3 3 3 3 3

Metacarpal 40 37 38 40 36 38 39 40

Ist Phalange Dee seeped?) 22 22 22 22 22 22

3rd finger

2nd Phalange| 45 42 46 45 1, 40 40 45

Metacarpal 43 43 42 45 42 43 45 44

ist Phalange 12.5 13 12.5 14 12 13 13 12

4th finger

2nd Phalange| 18 20 19 21 20 20 20

Metacarpal 48 45 47 50 46 48 50

Ist Phalange | 15 15 15 15 15 PS 4) eid 15

5th finger

2nd Phalange| 19 19 19 17 iain ais

Tarsus B25 sr *\) 30 a0 aba er lec)

584. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 59 (2)

Description

Unmistakable. The size of the forearm and the shape of the nasal

leaflets easily separate Megaderma spasma from the closely allied species

Megaderma lyra.

General Distribution

Ceylon, peninsula of India, Burma, Tenasserim and Indo-China,

Siam, Malay States, Sumatra, Java, Borneo.

Distribution in western and central India

This species was seen only in a few places in the Ghats and in the

coastal areas. It appears to be rare and localized.

3. Khandala

|r. Borivli

4. Talewadi

2. Kanheri

Map 12. Localities where Megaderma spasma were studied

Ecology

This bat seems to be a species of humid and forested countries. Its

ecology would be complementary to that of M. lyra. We never saw both

species side by side. In fact, although Megaderma lyra may be met

almost anywhere, it is found in areas drier than those occupied by

Megaderma spasma.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 585

The Diurnal Biotope

_ TABLE OF DIURNAL BroTropes oF MVegaderma spasma

| No. of

; Date of Size of the ~ . Nature of

Locality | observations| colony naniaiedl biotope

eas

Kanheri The whole | From 4 to 27, 19 In a secluded dungeon

year usually a dozen

Khandala ? ts 1 Observed by A. Navarro

in the house of the

Jesuit Fathers

Talewadi May 4-6 3 Large natural cave in

Cave wild and forested

country

Natural caves seem to be its primitive haunt (e.g. colony at

Talewadi). Later the species has adapted itself to anthropic biotopes,

e.g. Buddhist Caves at Kanheri and houses in Khandala. The size of

the biotope, the extent of the humidity, and the proximity of human

activities do not appear to be important factors in the ecology of this

species. The vicinity of large forests is the only constant character of its

diurnal biotope.

Nocturnal Territory

At the Kanheri Caves, I obtained some data on feeding territory and

the nocturnal behaviour of Megaderma spasma. In June, July, and

August 1960, on several occasions I watched the bats at sunset and

during the first part of the night when they regularly came back to eat

some of their larger food inside the caves. They also settled outside on

protuberances of the cliffs, always visiting the same places under which

their distinctive guano and the wings of moths could be seen. At

Kanheri, a number of such places were observed, all within 500 m. of

their diurnal haunts. These observations also indicate that the feeding

territory is not far from its diurnal roost.

Field Characters in Roosting Places

When resting, this species appears very similar to the larger

Megaderma lyra. The capture of a specimen is the best method of

being sure of its identity.

The colonies observed were not numerous—from 4 to 27. The indi-

viduals were hanging from the ceiling, usually scattered but also some-

times in ‘packs’. In Kanheri, I took several photographs of these

‘packs’ of Megaderma spasma.

Nocturnal Flight

This species is a very nocturnal one. The Megaderma take to wing

only about 30 minutes after sunset. The start is made one by one, or two

586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

by two, but the bats do not hunt immediately after departure ; instead,

they come back to the cave, go out, come again, fly around the porch,

etc. After some time, they disappear but never for a long time.

The nocturnal flight is fast, very low, almost touching the ground.

I saw individuals exploring the surface of the rocks. Very often, the

Megaderma perches under a rock or under a branch of a tree. Some

observations of A. Navarro in Khandala confirm what I saw myself in

Kanheri.

Food

This species brings its prey into the diurnal haunt, and the ground

under the colony is strewed with varied remains. I saw at Kanheri a

very great number of wings belonging to large grasshoppers and moths

of different species. I never saw remains of beetles or small vertebrates, |

which are caught and eaten by the closely allied species Megaderma lyra’

The food of Megaderma spasma consists exclusively of large insects:

Reproduction

Rut Period. The rut seems to be in December and January.

Nevertheless, no remarkable change was noticed in the appearance of

the external genital organs, but at this time of the year pairs in the

position of copulation can be seen (cf. Brosset, Sexualité et reproduc-

tion des chiropteéres de l’ouest et du centre de l’Inde. Mammalia, in

press).

I dissected three females on 9 January 1960. In the uterus of one

of these was a small foetus 3 mm. in length. In the others, no foetus

was visible.

Pregnancy, and Birth of the Young

The duration of pregnancy is still not vee eon The births of

the young are not simultaneous as is the case in the greater number of

insectivorous Indian bats, but take place in the course of about two

months. The first newly-born young was seen in the first week of

April, and the last one on the 5th June. The periodicity of reproduc-

tion is not as strict as it is for many species. |

The number of young is usually one. But two were found by

Wroughton and myself. Wroughton says that gemellar birth occurs

once for six normal parturitions of a single young. But Wroughton

does not say how many parturitions he recorded. I saw personally one

female carrying two young and 11 females with only one.

The Young

In Kanheri Caves, the young show great differences in size, and

certainly each female knows, feeds, and carries her own young. The

young keeps itself strongly fixed by the mouth to the false dugs of the

mother. It grows quickly and, when it is 45 days old, seems almost as

(lossoAg ‘Pp : 0J0Ydq)

(0961 “snsny) oyUuey 1e pwspds pulsaposay Jo AUOTOD

A] aLvId ‘90S ‘LSIH ‘LVN Avawog ‘Nuno[

JOURN. BomBay NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE

Megaderma lyra in typical diurnal biotope at Aurangabad (1960)

(Photo: A. Brosset)

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 587

_ bigas the adult. In spite of its weight, the mother continues to carry

the young from one place to another if disturbed in the diurnal haunt.

But during the night the young remains alone hanging from the ceiling.

If strong enough, it trains itself to fly inside the cave and sometimes

appears at the entrance fora short outing. The mother comes back

frequently to bring to the young some. big insect, moth or grasshopper.

These insects are given completely intact, and it is the young which cuts

off the wings and masticates the prey without the help of its mother.

This behaviour was observed at Kanheri Caves on several occasions.

For Megaderma spasma a mixed diet, i.e. milk and insects, begins

certainly early and continues till the young reach their full size. In

fact, it is not rare to see a suckling young almost as big as the mother.

The young becomes independent when about two months old.

Social Life and Migrations

The number of individuals in the colony of Kanheri Caves is very

variable and they often change from one diurnal haunt to another,

even if not disturbed. I give below the result of a few observations

of individuals made in 1960:

DATE No. OF INDIVIDUALS

9 January “Es wee |

6 February Le .. hone

3 March Be a 1

15 April an .. 14

20 July iG pee Ae)

16 August ay s Nie 224

13 November es Pm 4)

5 December * 3 nw None

On 9 January, the whole colony was caught for examination. There

were 10 females and 11 males only.

We had made an attempt to ring these bats. The forearm of the

Megaderma is too big for the rings suitable for small birds, and these

rings were fitted around the feet. Unfortunately, it seems that the bats

succeeded in destroying the rings and for this reason it was not possible

to follow these bats individually.

Inter-specific Associations

At Kanheri, the Megaderma cohabit with Blanford’s Rats, toads,

and big geckos (Hemidactylus maculatus). Even a python was found in

the vicinity of the colony of bats. But the other bats, numerous in

these caves, seem always to avoid the cave inhabited by the colony of

Megaderma spasma.

At Talewadi, Ofomops wroughtonii and. Rhinolophus lepidus cohabit

with Megaderma spasma. But, as the cave is wide and has ramifications,

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

the presence of these species together is not really significant concerning

their social affinities.

Megaderma lyra Geoffroy 1810

Measurements (in mm.) :

Localities

as} so) : | 2 ig | aad

Sos ake ly 6 I Bot | Bg Ba $2.

ai} 8d)/g4/ 84 | #4 | a4 | a0 |5a0

5 =| aa) = = 5 a eee

eal < [2 \4° (8

Forearm 64.8 | 66 | 67. | 865115 166 ||) G5- lr u68 lro7

= 5 /Metacarpal 2) 55 55 52 52 54 D7 53

AS \ist Phalange 4t-}.40 | 10 | doe) tom tt 9 9

‘ (Mstecettal AT 47 NAT A Ag AT AT er eet

= $( Ist Phalange 26 |, 26) 229.4609 a 06 eal OTe eee

Salad Phalange 51 a7 MS a) SOeaaes0eelo-47) sles oea enol

Metacarpal 52°) 53 | 501 Si e507 50 meso ena

S a Phalange 18 16 4) 218 16 16 1G: ol 16

a be Phalange QA || 93 | 623-1) 999 oD) le Asa eae am eet

pe 57 56 59 56 55 35) aD op)

28 ist Phalange 20 | 49) 419 W919 419 | oe aty areas

ae Phalange 19 1°20 | 290-3. 21s 920s 0 at eee

Tarsus 34 36 34 35 34 34 33 33

Description

Similar to the previous species, but slightly larger and the shape of

the nasal leaflets is different. The skull is noticeably bigger, and there

is no tail.

The subspecies caurina (Anderson & Wroughton, 1907) cannot be

maintained. In fact, we collected many specimens in the area assigned

to the subspecies caurina, but the greater number are bigger and have the

size of Megaderma lyra lyra. The small size of the specimens from

which the race caurina was described is due to individual variations

only. We consider that all Megaderma lyra of central and western

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 589

India are /yra lyra and the subspecies caurina has therefore to be struck

off the checklist of Indian bats. (See preceding Table of Measurements.)

Biogeographical Distribution

Approximately south of China, Sikkim, peninsula of India, Burma,

Malay States.

Distribution in western and central India

Common species with wide distribution. Nevertheless, it seems to

avoid hilly countries, and was not met with in the Ghats.

. Agra

6. Borivli

, acee 7. Kanheri

: aa 8. Powai Lake

oes) 9. Belgaum

. Aurangabad 10. Pattadkal

Map 13. Localities where Megaderma lyra were studied

The Diurnal Biotope

Megaderma lyra are completely adapted to anthropic biotopes, e.g.

hypogean temples, old buildings, wells, artificial undergrounds. This

species is an eclectic one and inhabits undergrounds of different types.

Elements of the biotope, as origin, size, shape of the cavity, degree of

humidity, structure of walls and ceilings, do not interfere in the ecology

of this bat.

590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

TABLE OF DIURNAL BIOTOPES OF Megaderma lyra

Locality

Agra

Ajanta

Ellora

Powai Lake

Borivli

Kanheri

Caves

Elephanta

Belgaum

Aurangabad

Vijayanagar

Pattadkal

Date of

observations |

April

March

August

September

February

May

November

April

Throughout

the year

October

March

August

October

Size of the |

colony |

25-30

1500-2000 in |

March 100-150

in August

4-6

10-12

8-10

Number of

Specimens

capture d

(

Nature of

Biotope

Artificial

ground

fort

under-

in the

Buddhist cave No.

3. In a dungeon

In the ‘Kailasa’

artificial under-

ground

Buddhist cave. Ina

dungeon

Underground in the

ruins of a factory

Hypogean temple.

In a dungeon

In the caves, er-

ratic individuals

In the last cave, ir-

regular presence of

a few individuals

Series of dark cel-

lars in the fort of

Belgaum

Underground inthe

‘Bibi Makbara’

mausoleum

Buddhist cave

In a temple

Nocturnal Territory

In Aurangabad, we saw these bats hunting in the immediate vicinity

of the diurnal haunt to which they come back regularly to eat the big

prey that they catch.

On the other hand, this species possesses special places where they

regularly rest and eat during the night, most often arches or ceilings of

buildings.

This is a general habit of both species of Indian Megaderma.

Under these nocturnal roosts are usually seen a lot of remains of prey

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 351

and the special guano of this species. By the existence of such places

one can appreciate the extent of the territory of a colony of Megaderma.

This extent does not seem wide, but spreads out to about one mile

around the diurnal haunt (observations made in Aurangabad).

This bat is a very nocturnal one. We saw individuals leaving

undergrounds at Aurangabad more than one hour after sunset. The

first appeared after complete darkness only.

Field Characters

Bat of large size with very long ears, a mobile head, living usually

in small colonies. Individuals are seen hanging from ceilings. They

are shy. If caught, this bat defends itself with extreme vigour and bites

severely.

Hunting Flight and Food

Megaderma lyra is a celebrated species because its diet consists

partially of small vertebrates, birds, reptiles, mammals, etc., a case

quite unique in the Chiroptera. The observations of the author confirm

the previous records and bring several precise data concerning the nature

of prey and the method adopted by this species in catching vertebrates.

We collected the following data on the nature’ of prey :

Nasik : Two wings of pipistrelles, pluckings of a crag martin.

Elephanta: Tails and pieces of skins of young rats, several pluckings of crag

martin.

Belgaum and Ellora: Pluckings of crag martin.

Aurangabad : Pluckings of crag martin, wings of pipistrelles, a number of legs of

frogs.

These remains were collected under the roosts of Megaderma. The

possibility of other predators having carried them to the place has to

be excluded. In Aurangabad, for instance, the remains of the food were

lying deep in the undergrounds and on small muddy islands. It is

certainly Megaderma that bring and eat small vertebrates at such

places.

The question which arises is : how can a bat catch terrestrial verte-

brates ? The observation of Megaderma hunting and the nature of the

prey suggest the solution. The hunting flight is very different from the

flight of the other species (M. spasma excepted). This bat flies around

almost touching the ground, or the walls of the cliffs. Megaderma lyra

when hunting explores, not the open air as the Pipistrellus or Taphozous

do, but the surface of obstacles. Several observations, especially in

Aurangabad, were made on this special flight.

Nature of the Vertebrates captured

Wroughton notes that Megaderma catch and eat geckos, a reptile

living on walls and cliffs. In five cases observed by me the remains of

592. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

birds belonged to the Dusky Crag Martin, Hirundo concolor. The

feathers, especially the remiges and rectrices, were not fully developed,

and these birds were evidently taken out of nests. The nest of Hirundo

concolor is an open cup of mud fixed to a cliff.

The legs of frogs are found during the monsoon. In India, this is

the period of the year for the reproduction of the batracians, when

certain species keep themselves during the night on vertical rocks, below

cisterns or patches of water, and call.

On the other hand, the pipistrelles, one of the prey of the Megader-

ma, frequently rest on the surfaces of walls during the nocturnal flights.

Putting together these observations, we can deduce confidently the

methods of hunting of Megaderma lyra. Geckos, crag martins, frogs,

and other bats are caught on walls and cliffs. The prey is taken by

surprise: nocturnal sleep for crag martins, breeding b2haviour for

frogs, time of rest and perhaps of semi-torpidity for Pipistrellus.

Vertebrates are only a part of the diet of Megaderma lyra; big

insects are also eaten. We found under the roosts remains of grass-

hoppers, moths, large Coleoptera. Only the body is utilized and the

wings are abandoned by the bat. Humayun Abdulali found under

roosts of Megaderma lyra: wings of the Tussor Silk Moth (Eupterote

sp.), and the moths Ophideres fullonica and Ophiusa coronata, and also

the hindwings of an Acridid grasshopper.

Reproduction

Sexual organs. The testes never show a large development.

The old females have false dugs very visible. The mature stage is reached

at probably two years. In Aurangabad in March I saw immature

females of one year old mixed with pregnant adult females’.

Parturition

One young born 15 April. The periodicity seems strict in Mega-

derma lyra, and the young of a colony, as we saw in Aurangabad, do

not differ greatly in size. Growthis fast. The mothers carry young

even as big as an adult.

At Aurangabad, after the rearing of the young, the huge colony is

dispersed, and small colonies probably formed by individuals coming

from the ‘ Bibi Makbara’ are seen in caves in the vicinity, and even in

the houses in the town (observations made in August 1960).

1K. R. Ramaswamy of Karnatak University, Dharwar (Mysore) in a paper

submitted to the Second All-India Congress of Zoology states that in specimens from

Agra (Uttar Pradesh), Nagpur and Bhandara (Vidarbha region—Maharashtra State)

spermatogenic activity commences in July and reaches its peak in the latter part of

October and November.—Ebs.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 593

We noticed that young and immature individuals are found regular-

ly with adults and do not form separate colonies.

Social Life

This is a gregarious species, forming colonies from two to

1000-1500 individuals. Colonies of 15-20 are the most frequent.

Intra-specific Association

No case of sexual segregation is recorded for Megaderma lyra.

Males and females are found together.

Inter-specific Associations

No other bat was seen in the huge colony of the ‘ Bibi Makbara’ in

Aurangabad. Nevertheless, in several places we saw M. lyra associated

with varied species : Hipposideros fulvus, H. speoris, Rousettus leschen-

aulti in Elephanta ; Rhinopoma hardwickei, Hipposideros speoris, Tapho-

zous kachhensis, Rhinolophus sp., or Hipposideros fulvus in Pattadkal.

Hibernation

Certainly, this species does not hibernate. The individuals observed

were always active and shy.

Association with Man and future of the Species

The biogeographical extension of the species had been undoubtedly

facilitated by human constructions, which are now practically the only

diurnal haunt of this bat.

The presence of Megaderma lyra is never a great disturbance for

man. To compensate the capture of some small birds, it destroys a lot

of big insects, and the action of this large and strange bat towards the

natural balance of the species is probably a benefit for agriculture.

594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Family RHINOLOPHIDAE

Genus Rhinolophus

Rhinolophus rouxi Temminck 1835

Measurements (in mm.):

Localities

3 oo a S ~|o Ss

SOt] Soe a oD [BOM | ZS | -wweS |} For] S

= ica Gy = ei] ee = 5 |) 2 = *o

gO) 55 |AOS |2O2| “O5)| 200) S41) 5.

Forearm | 48 | 48 48 48 49 48 49 48

Second finger; 38 | 38 | 37 |

' Metacarpal S437 34 |

Ist Phalange | 16 | 16 15 | 15 16 pares eres ptt ts)

2nd Phalange | 24 | 25 23

3rd finger

——_ —— —.

3 / Metacarpal | 35 | 36 36 35 36 37. 1 36“534

& J ist Phalange | 11 | 11 11 12yae 2 12° De let

= \ 2udPhalahge | a2 93) |Pmot ad ee 14 | 14

+ /Metacarpal | 32/33) |-136 -| 35 93601) 3g) Mas ulg as

g ae Phalange | 11 | 12 | 11 13:4 folie bee dgey Oops emt

2 (ae Phalange| 14 | 13 | 12 | 13 | 13 13-2 P73 PH 43

Tarsus 21 21 21 | 21 21 22 22 72)

Tail O5 al 252 D5 | 25 ||| 25ialeP5 <5 leas

The skull measurements are as follows :

Total Zygomatic Mandible Upper Lower

length breadth dental row dental row

Karnala A ¢ 23 10 16 10 11

Description ,

The shape of the nose immediately points out this bat as being a

Rhinolophidae. The existence of central and vertical leaflets, known as

the sella and the lancet, separate the genus Rhinolophus from the closely

allied genus Hipposideros, which possesses only flat leaflets, without

central protuberance.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 595

Three species of Rhinolophus inhabit western and central India :

Rhinolophus luctus, Rhinolophus lepidus, and Rhinolophus rouxi. The

last may be easily separated as being much bigger than Jepidus, and

much smaller than /uctus (see measurements).

Two different types of colour have been observed in the adult

rouxl ¢

Type grey-brown, more or less dark.

Type golden-orange, very bright. This phase of colour is not the

commonest. | ee

Intermediate individuals, red-brown, have been seen in several places.

All the young are dull grey.

General Distribution

Approximately : Ceylon, peninsula of India, Nepal, Darjeeling, south

of China. ~

Distribution in western and central India

The area of Rhinolophus rouxi is narrowly restricted to areas with

heavy rainfall. The species is a common one in the Ghats, at all

levels, in Kanara and in the Konkan. But the Deccan, Gujarat, Madhya

Pradesh, and all regions of the dry and continental central part of India

seem out of the range of the distribution of Rhinolophus rouxi.

17 08

2 306

3 4

'} eIc

I. Bassein A 6. Lohogad

Beh : gad Fort A

2. Borivli AO 7. Bhaja Caves A

13. Vihar Lake A 8. Khandala an

14. Kanheri Caves ADO 9. Mahableshwar ADO

15. Karnala A 10. Sirsi A

4 Map 14. Localities where Rhinolophus rouxi were studied

596

The Diurnal Biotope

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 59 (2)

TABLE OF DIURNAL BIOTOPES OF Rhinolophus rouxi

Number af | |

| |

. | Date of Size of the | :

Locality | | specimens Nature of biotope

observations | colony | captured Pp

Karnala Nov.-May 1-3 | 5, all Very small underground,

July males dark with a patch of

permanent water in the

| bottom near Funnel

Hill

Kanheri Caves | All over the 1-5 7, all Scattered in different

year males small and dark caves,

along the stream

Kanheri ' July 60-80 22, all Colony seen a single time

| males in a dungeon of a

cave, along the stream

Bhaja | Rebruary, 2-5 1 male In a deep, but a very

, March, June scanty natural under-

| ground, near the

| Buddhist caves

Bassein Fort (December 400 (estima- 32, all Artificial underground,

April ted) in Dec-| females low, wet and muddy,

ember. c. 70 m. long, under

25-30 in April the fortifications

Lohogad Fort | March 3-400 14, all In tWo artificial caves

(estimated) pregnant excavated in the rock,

females at the entrance of the

fort

Robbers’ Cave | Apel May, 250 2 females | In the bottom of a natu-

(Mahableshwar) August (estimated) lonly. But all) ral cave with perma-

| are femalesin}| nent water inside,

| May, each associated with an

| individual enormous colony of

| carrying one| Miniopterus schreibersi

| young

Cave near April, May, | 150 17, all At about 200 m. from

Mahableshwar | August | males the preceding cave.

Natural cave, low,

with ramifications

Khandala March, May, varying from About 40, | Deserted railway tunnel

July a dozen to | all females at the top of the Ghats

at least a in May in Khandala. These

thousand bats occupied large

excavations of the ceil-

ing, where there is no

light and no draught

Vihar Lake August, Several hun- | 2 males Cemented underground,

November dred in under the ruins of an

August. A old factory

few indivi-

duals in

November

Jogeshwari August Several 1 male In the Hindu caves

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA By)

Ecology

The diurnal haunt is established in subterranean cavities, dark, often

of small size, but with a high degree of humidity and without draught.

It is the classical biotope of the numerous species belonging to the genus

Rhinolophus which spread all over the old world — Asia, Africa, and

Europe. The cavity may be artificial or natural. Shortridge found

colonies living in hollow trees in North Kanara.

Nocturnal Territory

Rhinolophus rouxi is a forest species. All colonies observed were

situated in forest, or in places where the trees are numerous, like

Bassein. The weakness of the flight of these bats indicates that the ©

nocturnal territory is around the diurnal haunt.

Field Characters

In the diurnal haunt: Rhinolophus rouxiis a bat of middle

size, living in subterranean cavities, sometimes isolated or in small

groups, sometimes in large colonies. In the colony, the individuals

are never agglomerated in clusters, but are scattered on the ceilings of

the cavities, from where they hang like cocoons.

From close quarters, one can notice the pointed ears, continuously

moving, and the characteristic nasal leaflets.

This bat is rather shy, and usually flies away when the observers are

at 3 or 4 metres from the roosting place.

In the l®unting territory: Rhinolophus rouxiis a very

nocturnal bat, which appears only about 30 minutes after sunset. The

flight is rather slow, low, with continual turns. This bat hunts in the

glades, above paths in the forests, and around the bushes. It explores

the foliage, and frequently perches under tiny branches to eat some big

prey. These observations were made in Mahableshwar and Khandala.

In the hunting ground, the Rhinolophus were always observed flying

alone. On the contrary, the Hipposideros which appear quite similar

were seen hunting in groups. This difference, if constant, may be a

good character to separate the Rhinolophus and the Hipposideros in the

hunting territory.

Food

At Mahableshwar I saw an individual eating a grasshopper of middle

size. The wings of the prey were cut close from the body, and fell down.

Moths and grasshoppers, insects very common in the biotope of

Rhinolophus rouxi, are probably the principal food of this species.

Reproduction

Rut Period: Thecolony seen in Bassein on 6th December was

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

a colony of females exclusively. In an adult male dissected on 13th

November, the epididymis was empty of spermatozoa. In connection

with the time of the parturition, which is in April, and the duration of

the pregnancy which can be estimated at 60-70 days for the species of

the genus Rhinolophus, we can presume that the spermatogenesis in the

male and the oestrus in the female take place during a short period, in

January-February.

Birth of the Young

The females give birth to a single young (at least 150 precise observa-

tions). The periodicity of the parturition is strict, and all adult females

deliver around 15th April.

Lohogad Fort: 14 females collected on 20 March 1960 had

large foetuses. The date of birth was estimated as 10 April.

Robbers’ Cave: About 150 females were seen on 4 May

1960 each carrying one young about 20 days old, i.e. born on 15 April.

Khandala: In 1960 and 1961, I and Bro. A. Navarro observed

hundreds of females carrying one young each, whose date of birth was

estimated as 15 April.

The Young

The young keeps itself firmly fixed to the mother, sometimes to the

pectoral dugs, more often to the false teats under the pu&fls. The growth

of the young seems fast, but the mother continues to carry the young

even as big as itself. Sexual maturity is reached after one year. In

July I got in Khandala, amongst adults, females obviously born the

previous year and still immature. These observations are in conformity

with what is known about the biology of the European and African

species belonging to the genus Rhinolophus.

Intra-specific Association

The social life of this bat is made remarkable by its vigorous sexual

segregation during the greatest part of the annual sexual cycle. The

males are met isolated, or in small groups, or rarely in colonies of a

few dozen individuals. The females gather in big colonies of several

hundred individuals, from where the males are completely excluded (cf..

the Table of Diurnal Biotopes of Rhinolophus rouxi).

We may notice that this sexual segregation in bats is a regular and

general behaviour in cold and temperate countries like Europe (cf.

Lasteret-Brosset et Caubere for France). On the contrary, in tropical

India this sexual segregation in bats is exceptional and concerned, so it

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 599

seems, only with species of the genus Rhinolophus and _ perhaps

Rhinopoma.

Inter-specific Associations

In Asia as in Europe and Africa association of several species of

Rhinolophus in the same colonies is common. For instance, in the west

and south of the Palaearctic Region Rhinolophus ferrumequinum and

Rhinolophus euryale are regularly living in good understanding in the

same roost.

In tropical India exists the same phenomenon. Rhinolophus rouxi

associates itself regularly with Rhinolophus lepidus. This is the case in

the colonies of Khandala, Lohogad, Karnala, and Mahableshwar.

Hibernation

Rhinolophus rouxi is a hibernating species, even in tropical countries.

So, in August 1960, in a cave near Mahableshwar, Humayun Abdulali

and I had the opportunity to observe many individuals in a state of

complete hibernation. Cooling experiments were also made with

several individuals of this species. The tested individuals fell into deep

torpor after a few hours at 8°. They do not suffer from these experi-

ments and recover the normal state at the end of the artificial cooling.

In the Palaearctic Region, and even in Nepal where I was able to

observe the fact myself, the periods of hibernation were principally

in connection with the rhythm of the seasons. It seems that in tropical

countries hibernation which only a few species undergo is influenced by

individual rhythms independent of the seasons, and is conditioned by

purely internal factors. The reader who is interested in this problem is

invited to refer to another work where this question is studied (cf.

Brosset, L’hibernation chez les chiroptéres Tropicauax. Mammalia,

December 1961). :

Finally, regarding hibernation of Rhinolophus rouxi, | draw atten-

tion to the fact that the biology of the different species of the very large

group of bats belonging to the genus Rhinolophus seems the same

throughout their immense area of distribution. So, the ecology, the

behaviour, the social life, and the reproduction of a typical Palaearctic

species, such as the Greater Horseshoe Bat, Rhinolophus ferrumequinum,

are very similar to those of the Indian species, Rhinolophus rouxi, in

spite of the great distance separating the two species.

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 59 (2)

Rhinolophus lepidus Blyth 1844

Measurements (in mm.) :

Localities

a |

S258) ao ele ms !

Sor | Bro $0 | Ft Sor | | St

= = a o ro) r) os

q@O /99 |) 94 | sd | 84 | Aa | §4

fe oo) ros Mw fo) on]

M = ee =) N.

| {

Forearm 37 42 38 42 41 40 38

2nd Finger 29 32 29 31 31 31 30

by | Metacarpal 27 30 27, 29 30 29 29

oY)

a 1st Phalange 12 11 11 12 12 12 11

om \2nd Phalange 17 18 17 17 17 18 17

5 Metacarpal 28 31 29 30 31 30 29

L=¥1)

& ( Ist Phalange 9 8 9 9 9 ) 9

t \2nd Phalange 11 11 9 11 10 10 9

bs Metacarpal 28 30 29 30 31 30 29

& ( Ist Phalange 9 10 9 11 10 10 9

1 (2nd Phalange 12 12 13 13 13 13 12

Tarsus 13 Ly 15 17 16 17 16

Tail 16 18 15 20 17 20 17

The skull measurements are as follows :

Total Zygomatic Mandible Upper Lower

length: breadth dental row dental row

Karnala A ¢ 18.5 8.5 11.5 6 75

Description

Similar to the preceding species, but much smaller. At close

quarters the shape of the nasal leaflets is different. This bat also

possesses several types of coloration: a grey-brown type, a fawn colour

type, and a pale grey type. The pale grey type of specimen is normal

from the dry part of northern India (Delhi). It is a constant fact not

only for the birds, but also for the bats that the colour of the popula-

tions which inhabit dry countries is paler than that of those of the

same species living in humid areas,

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 601

General Distribution

Oriental species, found in India, south of China, Burma, etc.

Aellen recently gave the description of this species for Afghanistan.

Distribution in western and central India

Widely distributed. It seems that the species can be met with in all

places where quiet and dark cavities secure suitable diurnal haunts for

it.

I. Delhi 7. Lonavla

2. andu hogad Fort

3. Kanheri Caves : anal i

4. Nasik Road Mahableshwa

. Karnala a reas ine

é Kisadale 11. Ratnagiri

12. Gersoppa Falls

Map 15. Localities where Rhinolophus lepidus were studied

The Diurnal Biotope

Similar to the diurnal biotope of the other species of Rhinolophus,

quiet and dark subterranean cavities without draught.

The diurnal haunts observed are situated in forested country, or

in places with numerous trees and bushes.

Hunting Territory

Frequent observations have been made on the nocturnal behaviour

of Rhinolophus lepidus in Kanheri, Khandala, and Mahableshwar.

602

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST,.SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

. No. of

; Date of Size of | 5 :

Locality in, | specimens Nature of biotope

observations the colony | captured

Karnala | November, 3-5 at each 5 Very small artificial under-

February- visit ground near Funnel Hill

May, July

Kanheri All over the 3-4 at each 11 In the dungeons adjacent to

year visit the main caves

Panchgani | February- 3-5 at each 3 In the natural caves, at the

April, visit base of the cliffs above the

August village

Maha- April, May, 4-6 at each 2 In a natural cave of small

bleshwar | August visit size

Near April, May, 50 10 In a natural cave, relatively

Robbers’ | August (estimated) dry, with low ceiling and

Cave, ramifications

Maha-

bleshwar

Lohogad | March 300-400 8 In two artificial caves excava-

Fort (estimated) ted in the rock, at the base

of the walls of the fort

Tunnel at | All over the |More thana | c. 40 Deserted railway tunnel at

Khandala | year (obser- thousand the top of the Ghats. The

vations by | bats gather in the large

Navarro and excavations of the walls

Brosset) and the ceiling —

Reversing | Very large Several |Colony observed by A. Na-

station in ? | specimens varro 20 years ago. Artifi-

Khandala in the cial underground serving

collection as a passage for big water

of A. Na- pipes

varro

Ruins of | February 60-80 16 One colony and _ isolated

Mandu | individuals hibernating in

old buildings and under-

grounds

Caves of | February 100-150 ql Colony in the dark and

Mandu (estimated) humid part of these caves

Tuglaka- ; |

bad Fort | April 6-8 3 In subterranean silos

(near New |

Delhi) |

The hunting territory is probably very small, and close to the haunt.

At Kanheri, the individuals living there were observed on several

occasions hunting at the entrance to the caves, and even under the

porches in case of heavy rains. I saw in Mahableshwar another individual

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 603

exploring the foliage of the same tree for at least one hour. The hunt-

ing territory seems very well marked, and one can see individuals of

this species hunting regularly at the same place every sunset.

Field Characters

In the diurnal haunt. Small horse-shoe bat, hanging

from the ceiling of cavities, sometimes isolated or in scattered groups,

sometimes in very compact clusters. At human approach it actively

moves its nose and ears, trying to localize the intruder with its ‘ radar ’.

This species is usually rather shy.

Ine the hunting “territory. Like others of the: genus,

Rhinolophus lepidus hunts alone. The identification of this species is

easy. Its very small size, its slow, low, and fanciful flight and its short,

broad, and rather transparent wings make its silhouette very peculiar.

But its manner of hunting is still more unmistakable. Usually, the bat

explores the foliage of the trees, coming and going through the branches,

with frequent stops to pick up an insect on a leaf. The behaviour of

this bat hunting reminds one of the sphyngid moths, hovering in one

spot while searching for the nectar of the flowers and passing suddenly

from one clump of plants to another. Often, this small Rhinolophus

perches under a branch, probably to rest or to eat big prey. It

also hunts frequently under porches and verandahs, especially during

the rains, and on several occasions in Mahableshwar and Khandala

I saw individuals entering into houses during the night.

Food

In Mahableshwar I had the opportunity of observing for a long

time an individual eating insects attracted by an electric light on the -

verandah. It appears that all small insects, e.g. mosquitoes, small

moths, and Coleoptera are preyed upon by this bat.

Reproduction

Spermatozoa have been observed in the epididymis of a male dis-

sected in January. On 19 February 1961, I found many pairs in

Mandu made up of two individuals in the mating position. These bats

were in a state of torpidity and their examination was easy. We also

verified that several pairs were made up of individuals of the same sex,

and the significance of this behaviour remains unknown.

Two adult females dissected in February had no visible foetus. As

the birth of the young takes place in the beginning of May, the duration

of pregnancy is probably rather short (60-70 days ?).

Parturition

The periodicity is strict. All the young—one per female—are born

at the beginning of May.

604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

At Lohogad Fort 8 females taken at the end of March were all in

the same state of pregnancy.

The enormous colony of Rhinolophus lepidus was observed regularly

in 1960 and 1961 by Bro. A. Navarro and myself. Each female seen

at the end of May was carrying one young. No case of reproduction

was noticed during other seasons.

Social Life

The social life shows an interesting peculiarity. The formation of

clusters, where individuals from a dozen to several hundreds are pressed

close together, is the normal manner of grouping for many Vesper-

tillionidae, like Miniopterus schreibersi for instance. It is extremely

rare in the genus Rhinolophus, and only Rhinolophus lepidus is known

to have such a behaviour.

Inter-specific Associations

A. Navarro who collected a number of specimens in the colony at

Khandala noticed that males and females live in separate clusters

in May-June. Nevertheless, the sexual segregation which is the rule

practically all over the year for Rhinolophus rouxi is not a permanent

behaviour in R. lepidus. In fact, in colonies observed during spring and

winter in Mandu, Lohogad, and Mahableshwar, adult males and females

were mixed.

Hibernation

Rhinolophus lepidus is a characteristic hibernating species in tropi-

cal India. Several observations made on the hibernation of this bat

are given below :

Panchgani. On 28 February 1960 one individual was deeply h‘bernating.

Robbers’ Cave, Mahableshwar. On 7 August 1960 several individuals collected

were in a state of complete hibernation.

Mandu. On 20 February 1961 about 60 individuals were observed in com-

plete hibernation.

Khandala, W. Ghats. Bro. A. Navarro and myself regularly observed hiber-

nating individuals during the whole annual cycle.

In Mandu, a cluster of 18 Rhinolophus lepidus, all deeply hiber-

nating, was observed and photographed. This is an unusual observation

as in the other cases there were individuals active and hibernating

mixed together. This proves that hibernating rhythms are individual

and not due to climatic or other external factors.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 605

Rhinolophus luctus beddoiaei Anderson 1905

Measurements (in mm.) :

Localities

| oe & ea S|

md Ad 5 Au d oO v Oo | ga oO

Forearm 62 61 58 59 63 61 62 60

2nd finger AWUEWE Ai oh PADe Ad AS Ade Ase a

Metacarpal 38 38 39 39 42 38 38 39

= E | ist Phalange pal 23 Dee Do) OS S05" bos 4 94

2nd Phalange 35 32 31 318 38 36 35 35

f Metacarpal AS | 455 40s | 44g AS) Ad AA 4s

c= 7 Ist Phalange 12 12 le 12 16 | 14" 14 a4

2nd Phalange Dea Ogu 90. rae il 235 i 20" 19D) | |eo- 20

a { Metacarpal 44 46 47 43 50 49 50 45

r= E ist Phalange 2m ae te eta 13 4 14h tA

| 2nd Phalange 24 23 22 24 25 24 ZS 24

Tarsus 32 eh 32h 3Qn te Shot 82-99" 34 34

Tail 40 | 40 2 ? i ? ? ?

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic . Upper Lower

length breadth Mandible dental row dental row

Bhaja ¢ 2] 13 17 10.5 12

Description

Rhinolophus luctus is a large species with long and woolly fur, a

big head and well-developed nasal leaflets. The pointed ears imme-

diately separate this bat from the Megaderma, which are of the same

size but show very long, rounded ears.

Several good subspecies are known. The race beddomei charac-

terized by its relatively small size inhabits the mountain ranges of

western and south India, and Ceylon.

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

General Distribution

South of China, India, Nepal, Sikkim, Burma, Tenasserim, Malay

States, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. :

Distribution in western and central India

Narrowly limited to the forested area of the Ghats at 600-800 m.

1. Khandala

2, Karla

3. Bhaja

The Diurnal Biotope

TABLE OF DIURNAL Bioropes OF Rhinolophus luctus

Map 16. Localities where Rhinolophus luctus were studied

: Date of Size of the _ Number of Nature of

Locality . | Specimens :

observations colony captured biotope

Karla September, | One or two at 2 Buddhist caves of Karla

August, | each visit (observations of A.

May, | Navarro in 1938-45,

December | of H. Abdulaliin Decem-

ber 1948, and myself in

| 1959-61)

Bedsar June 1 | Nil Buddhist caves of

| Bedsar

dala 9 One or two at. 4 Observations and cap-

ca each visit | tures made by A. Navar-

( fide ro in old_ barracks,

A. Navarro) houses, and tunnels

Bhaja January, One or two at, 3 In the dungeons adjacent

| March, each visit | to the Buddhist caves

May, June |

ee EE EEEEEEEERERRRERRE a

THE BATS OF. CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 607

This species is a rare one, represented in western India by a small

number of individuals only. The ecological requirements seem very

precise, and this bat is localized in a narrow area.

The Buddhist caves of Bhaja, Karla, and Bedsar are regularly the

haunt of a few individuals. A. Navarro got specimens in old barracks,

and houses in Khandala. Shortridge observed Rhinolophus luctus in

hollow trees in North Kanara. The species is an eclectic one for the

diurnal biotope, and it is the ecological surrounding (nocturnal and

feeding territory) which determines the localization of this big bat.

Field Characters

In the diurnal ‘haunt. Big horse-shoe bat, of a dark

colour in appearance, hanging isolated in a secluded corner of some

dungeon, cave, or old building, in the Ghat mountains.

In the hunting territory. No personal observations

but, for the Himalayan subspecies, Capt. Hutton states that ‘it com-

mences its flight early in the evening and does not soar high’.

Reproduction

The little information collected is as follows :

Karla. 22 May 1934, A. Navarro observed a female carrying young: On

16 May 1961, I observed a female at the same place carrying one young.

Social Life

~ Rhinolophus luctus is an unsociable mammal. The other species of

Rhinolophus usually gather in large colonies, but Rhinolophus luctus on

the contrary lives alone or in pairs, and does not associate in com-

munities. This behaviour quoted by Hutton, Shortridge, Navarro, and

myself is rare among bats.

Hibernation

In western India, hibernation was not observed in nature, but the

biology of this species is not sufficiently known. Probably, this horse-

shoe bat hibernates in the Himalayas. Individuals experimentally

cooled entered into a state of deep hibernation. The species possesses

hibernatorial aptitudes, like the other species of the genus Rhinolophus

(cf. Brosset, L’hibernation chez les chiroptéres Tropicauax. Mammalia,

December 1961). |

608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Subfamily HIPPOSIDERINAE

Genus Hipposideros

Hipposideros speoris Schneider 1800

Measurements (in mm.) :

Localities

Ss es ah ae S = &

30 0 Biot SO Bot 3 % Ho

gn oOure Slee Pet a

Forearm 51 ah Sy ol 50 OZ a2

2nd finger 39 40 39 39 39 41 42

z | Metacarpal 36 37 37 36 37 39 39

ze Ist Phalange 5°) 15: | 444 44s 106 Gl ote

2nd Phalange 17 17 16 17 17 18 18

Metacarpal 34 34 32 a2 35 a7 38

g8 c Phalange 128 ADEA | Pat! OM A aaa 3

2nd Phalange 10 10 10 10 8 13 12

Metacarpal 33 32 32 32 32 33 33

= % 1st Phalange 12 13 13 13 13 15 15

5 | 2nd Phalange 10 10 8 10 10 11 11

Tarsus B24 Oy SAS 198 90" 207 ads aaeae

Tail 26 26 22, 16 16 25 28

‘The skull measurements are as follows :

Total Zygomatic Mandible Upper Lower

length breadth ' dental row dental row

Badami ¢ 20 11 13.5 7.5 9

Description

The examination of the nasal leaflets immediately differentiates

Hipposideros from a Rhinolophus. The last vertebra is free out of the

tail, this character being unique amongst the Rhinolophidae of western

India.

The species of Hipposideros in western and central India are:

H. speoris, H. bicolor, H. lankadiva, and H. galeritus. The measurement

—— or

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 609

of the forearm is enough to distinguish H. speoris, which is bigger than

bicolor and galeritus, and much smaller than lankadiva (see Table of

Measurements). The ears are pointed in speoris, long and rounded in

bicolor, short and pointed in galeritus.

Three phases of coloration exist in Hipposideros speoris :

A yellowish brown type—the commonest,

A bright yellow-orange type—8 922 in the BNHS collections

belong to this type, and :

A grey type—the colour of the young and immature individuals.

General Distribution

India, Ceylon, Borneo, Timor.

Distribution in western and central India

A common species in the Konkan, North Kanara, and southern

Mysore. Itis not known from Gujarat, and generally speaking not to

the north of a line from Bombay to Hyderabad. Hipposideros speoris

seems to inhabit only the southern and central part of the country.

I. ElephantaOOA 6. Hampi OA

2. Borivli O 7. Pattadkal A

3- KanheriA 8. Badami A

4. PoonaA g. Gadag O

5. Alibag OA fi 10. Gersoppa O

Map 17. Localities where Hipposideros speoris were studied

The Diurnal Biotope

Caves and old buildings. The primitive haunt of this bat was pro-

bably natural caves, but the species is today very well adapted to all

sorts of constructions and excavations made by man. The size of the

haunt, the degree of humidity, the height of the ceilings, and the darkness

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

seem to be some of the points of importance which ° decide the localiza-

tion of this bat. ;

TABLE OF Dee BIOTOPES OF Hipposideros speoris

| Date Number of

Size brcued

Locality of of the specimens Nature of biotope

e observations colony . captured

Elephanta The whole | 350 186 In an artificial-cave

year ahs ga

Alibag May 1000 _ 4 - | In anatural cave ona hill

(estimated) behind Alibag

Borivli I Numerous 2 In a hypogean temple

agl: : (observations of Bro.

Navarro. The colony is

Sane not in existence today.) -

Poona January “20-50 vce eee S Artificial cave of small

oe size, on a hill, about 25

km. west of Poona

Khandala January, 2 4 In the tunnel on the top

March, of the Ghats, mixed with

May, a great number of Rhi-

August nolophus -

Pattadkal October 300-400 2 In old temples

(two colonies)

Badami October 200 5 In a hypogean temple

Vijayanagar | October 500-700 3 In old temples

(estimated)

(three large

colonies)

Gersoppa January, Numerous? | A dozen | Inanold temple (observa-

May- specimens in) tion of Shortridge)

June the BNHS

collections

The surrounding biotopes of the haunt are forested hills—Elephanta,

Khandala, Alibag—as well as dry and flat country, as in Pattadkal.

Hipposideros speoris has no precise requirements for its localization ;

it is an eclectic species which adapts itself to varied biotopes, not only

for its diurnal haunts but also for its hunting territory.

Field Characters ae iatw 28h book

In the diurnal haunt. Gregarious species living in colonies

from about 20 to about 1000 individuals. These Hipposideros keep

themselves hanging from the ceilings of caves ot buildings, always in

the darker parts of the haunt. They do not form clusters: and the

individuals of a colony are scattered, and not in contact with each other:

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA | 611

At human approach, they turn their heads in all directions, vividly

moving their muzzles and their ears, and fly away when the observer i is

about 1 or 2 metres from them.

In the hunting territory. In Badami, I had the opportunity

of observing under favourable conditions,.a colony of this species in its

hunting territory. These bats leave the diurnal haunt about 10 minutes

after sunset. The nocturnal territory is in the immediate vicinity of the

haunt. Contrary to Rhinolophus which hunt isolated, Hipposideros

hunt in groups of 10 to 15 individuals.. They fly close to the ground,

almost touching rocks and. bushes, with a slow but very skilful flight,

with continual changes of direction. If the observer keeps himself

motionless, these bats come to hover a few centimetres from his face

and his body, perhaps out of curiosity or, more probably, attracted by

mosquitoes. which poece the Maton eunale naturalist.

Food

In Badami, we saw individuals of the species catching mosquitoes

and. flies.

Reproduction “

External sexual characters. .In autumn and winter, the

scrotum of the male grows considerably thick, and forms. a sort of

muscular capsula of considerable size. The biological significance of

this phenomenon was not observed in the other species of bats and

remains to be elucidated. During the same seasons, due probably to

the sexual activity, the penis grows, and its size may reach 15 mm. in

certain individuals. The young male, less than a year old, does not

show these peculiarities. During the spring, the sexual organs of the

adult male become normal again.

In old females, the false teats are often very developed, one being

much bigger than the other.

Rut Period. The young do not mate in the first year of their

life, but only during the second, as could be observed from a number

of immature males and females caught in February at Elephanta. I

had under controlled observation a female ringed as an immature in

November 1959 ; she was seen carrying one young in May 1961.

The spermatogenesis in the male seems short. An adult male dissected

on 2 December 1960 had no spermatozoa in the epididymis, and two

females had no spermatozoa in the vaginal duct. Each of two other

adult females dissected on 11 February 1961 had a just visible foetus,

and a third no visible foetus. The rut Sage ly takes. place in January.

Parturition

The periodicity is absolutely strict for this species, ad all females

deliver together in May. The first to do so were observed around Sth

May, and the last around the 25th of the same month.

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

A single young is the rule. About 200 females carrying one young

have been noticed in Elephanta and Alibag, and no case of twins has

been met with.

Growth of the Yi oung

The young are born naked, and have their eyes closed ; the skin is

of a greyish shade.

When it is not suckling, the young keeps itself firmly fixed by its

mouth to the false teats on the pubis of the mother, who carries her

young continuously. The position of the young in relation to that

of the mother is inverted, giving both a good equilibrium.

When 35-45 days old, the young reaches three-fourths of its adult

size, and ceases to be carried by the mother. Juvenile mortality seems

low in this bat, and no dead young were found under the roosting

places. Young, less than one year old, are grey with visible immature

sexual organs, and are easily separable at the first glance from adults.

Social Life

The social life of Hipposideros speoris is quite well studied in the

colony at Elephanta which was regularly visited, and where 186

individuals were caught. Of these 151 were ringed in November 1959 and

February 1961 with the co-operation of the Bombay Natural History

Society.

There is no sexual segregation in Hipposideros speoris. During the

whole annual cycle males and females are found together. Nevertheless,

as is the rule in colonies of bats, the sex-ratio is not balanced in the

colony at Elephanta. The details of individuals ringed are

15 November 1959 : 18 ¢¢,54 99

11 February 1961 : 24 gg, 55 99.

The females are more than twice as numerous as males during a

period which is the mating time. I cannot find a satisfactory explana-

tion for this disparity. In fact, at the same period of the year, the males

are more numerous in certain colonies of Hipposideros (cf. Hipposi-

deros bicolor and H. lankadiva, infra).

As already said, the young remain with the adults after weaning. In

autumn and spring, the population of this bat at the Elephanta colony

reduces itself to about a third of its total number.

Inter-specific Association

Hipposideros speoris is a sociable species which associates itself with

a number of other species :

Rousettus leschenaulti and Hipposideros bicolor in Elephanta,

Rousettus leschenaulti and Taphozous melanopogon in Alibag,

Hipposideros lankadiva in Gersoppa, and

Taphozous kachhensi and Rhinopoma hardwickei in Mysore.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 613

These variable associations are certainly due to ecological conver-

gence, and not due to psychological attractions.

Displacements and Migrations

H. speoris is a sedentary species, which inhabits the same biotope

during the whole annual cycle, and probably many individuals keep to it

during a whole lifetime. So, the individuals ringed at the beginning of

the present studies were regularly observed at the same place during

1960 and 1961. The number of ringed individuals was half in February

1960, and only a quarter in May 1961. This decreasing percentage

seems to be normal, owing to the birth of two generations of young,

and natural loss of individuals from old age, sickness, or predators.

Hibernation

H. speoris never hibernates in the natural state. Experimental

studies made with individuals of this species proved that H. speoris does

not possess hibernatorial faculties ; it remains active even if artificially

cooled.

Hipposideros bicolor fulvus Gray 1838

Hipposideros bicolor pallidus Andersen 1918

Both these subspecies which differ only by the colour of their fur are

studied together.

Description

A Hipposideros of small size, with long and rounded ears. The nasal

leaflet is small and square. :

Three types of coloration exist in western and central India :

A fulvous type. The individuals of this type which are to be included in the

subspecies fulvus inhabit the humid parts of the country, e.g. Konkan,

Ghats, and North Kanara.

A pale grey type. Thiscoloration is special to the subspecies pallidus which

inhabits the dry areas like the Deccan (Aurangabad), northern Gujarat, and

as it seems through the specimens of the BNHS collections the whole of

north-western part of India.

A golden-orange type. Very bright. Was seen both in the area of the sub-

species fulvus (in Lonavla), and in the area of the subspecies pallidus (in

Aurangabad). This golden-orange type is rare, and is purely an indivi-

dualistic character. In fact individuals of this type are associated with a

great majority of normal individuals in the same colonies.

A female collected in Mahableshwar has the posterior margin of the

leaflet unrounded, but in the shape ofa trident. This abnormal specimen

reminds one by its appearance of a closely allied Rhinolophid, Asellia

tridens, which inhabits the Asiatic and African deserts. Nevertheles

614. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.-SOCIETY, Vol, 59 (2)

the. other characters of external a aed are those of me Coats

bicolor.

Measurements (in mm.) :

Localities |

MF ipposideros bicolor fulyus Ht Tag os

pallidus

£0 £5) #0) 88 | 2) 82 | ga.

8) (eee eee

) <

Forearm 41 39 40 40 42 42 41

2nd finger 30° 1, 2320132) 1. 82/al3elid eagzeha32

. _ Metacarpal 29 28 29 29 29 29 29

E ist Phalange Be ebScs) dS Ag tes, ste a

«2nd Phalange 90 | (20° \> 20 0c 3701, 296. oe

, _/ Metacarpal 31 | -30°-, 29 {32° 4°3o° | 32 | 30

é acne hope (ao eae asahegs sone tiegs

= ioe Phalange {207 SUT, Ouse a oe eto eet

5 ora 32. | 430° 42904) 32 ae 82 a ane on

" one 15 13 io 15 15.4 Asis

Tarsus 16.s): 47.0) Fc Ae | tel eae

Tail 31 19725) Bets OR Oe She 254 oa

The skull measurements are as follows :

Total ‘Zygomatic Mandible Upper . “Lower

length breadth dental row dental row

Aurangabad ¢ 19 9.5 12s 7 8

General Distribution

India, Ceylon, Burma, Tenasserim, Lower Siam, Formosa, and

Nicobar Islands.

Distribution in western and central India

A common species all over the area studied.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 615

‘1. BhujO — 9g. Bombay A

2. Rajkot © 10. Vihar Lake A

3. Bochasan A 11. Lonavla A

4. Hoshangabad O 12. MahableshwarQA

5. Chikalda -O 13. Ratnagiri O

6. Aurangabad A - 14. Gadag O

7. Nasik A

8. ElephantaOOA

| 15.. VijayanagarO

Map 18. Localities where Hipposideros bicolor were studied

Diurnal Haunt and Nocturnal Territory

As wecan see from the above Table of Biotopes, Hipposideros

bicolor is a very eclectic species which adopts all sorts of cavities for the

diurnal rest. Even inhabited houses are selected as haunts by this bat,

and colonies can be found in a busy city like Bombay. The ecological

elements surrounding its biotope are of little importance, and the species

has been observed in the most varied biotopes, such as dry plains,

forests, at the highest level of the Ghats, as well as on small islands in

the sea. Hipposideros bicolor having no special ecological requirements,

may be found all over western and central India.

Field Characters

In the diurnal biotope. Very similar to Hipposideros

speoris. The disposition of the individuals in the colonies and their

reactions to human approach are the same. But from close quarters,

the rounded and long ears easily separate Hipposideros bicolor from

Hipposideros speoris, the latter having the ears pointed and shorter.

In the hunting territory. The behaviour of a colony

of this species hunting in the nocturnal territory was observed several

times under favourable conditions in Aurangabad. These Hipposideros

flew away from the porcupine holes which are used by them as a

diurnal haunt a long time before complete darkness. At first they flew

616

No. of

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 59 (2)

TABLE OF DIURNAL BIOTOPES OF Hipposideros bicolor

: Date of Size of the 5 Nature of

Locality . specimens :

observations colony captured biotope

Elephanta All over 120-250 81 Artificial cave 25 m.

Island the year deep with several

(H. Abdulali rooms and ramifi-

during the cations

monsoon)

Aurangabad March, July, 30-40 1 Open cave with holes

August at the bottom in

which foxes and

porcupines dwell, and

where the bats take

shelter

Bochasan December 10-12 2 Dark room of an

(Gujarat) inhabited house in

the middle of a vil-

lage

Lonavla August, Sep- 30-35 5 Artificial underground

tember about 15 m. deep

Karla May 12 3 In a dungeon of the

Buddhist caves

Bombay August, 25-30 | 11 Cemented — under-

October, | ground under the

December house of the Gover-

nor (Raj Bhavan,

Malabar Hill)

Vihar Lake August 8-10 1 Cemented under-

ground under the

ruins of a factory

Mahableshwar | April, May, 100-150 in 17 Natural cave with low

August April, ceiling and_ several

| 30-40 in ramifications

August

Bombay-Nasik | May, 30-35 1 Deserted railway tun-

Road August nel in the Ghats

under the porches of the caves for about 10 minutes before they left for

hunting. The hunting ground is in the immediate vicinity, and indivi-

duals of the party continually came back for a moment to the diurnal

haunt. On 29 August 1960, one hour after sunset, the whole colony

had returned home and was resting on the ceiling of the porch; the

time of nocturnal activity is certainly curtailed by a number of rest

intervals during which the individuals gather in the diurnal biotope.

The flight is slow, low, and fluttering. This Hipposideros hunts very

close to the ground, and flies in groups of four or five together, like

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 617

the closely allied Hipposideros speoris, Its weak dentition indicates

that this bat is an eater of soft and small insects.

Reproduction

Annual sexual cycle. The external sexual organs show

no noticeable changes during the annual cycle. Until one year old, the

young are sexually immature, and reproduction begins certainly after

the first year only.

Rut Period, There are no external manifestations of rut in this

species. Two adult males dissected on the 2nd of December had their

epididymis flat and empty of spermatozoa. From the date of birth of

the young, we can assume that the spermatogenesis in the males and

the oestrus in the females takes place in January.

Parturition

The periodicity is strict, and all the young are born in April. The

following data may give an idea to the reader :

Elephanta : Two females dissected on 19 March 1961 were heavily pregnant.

On 16 May 1961 about 30 young were seen, which were about 20-30 days

old. -

_ Mahableshwar : On 16 May 1960 about 50 females were seen with young

30-40 days old.

Karla: On 15 May 1960, five females were seen with young about 35-40

days old.

Each female gives birth to a single young, which is carried by

the mother firmly fixed to the false teats, till it reaches the adult size.

Social Life

No sexual segregation was observed in this species. Males and

females were mixed together in all the colonies studied. In Elephanta,

where half of the colony has been ringed, the account of the captures

is as follows :

15 November 1959 : 28 ¢¢, 12 22

11 February 1960: 19 gg, 928

The males are more numerous than the females at Elephanta, 47 34

and 2122 only. It is exactly the inverse proportion for the sex ratio

of Hipposideros speoris which inhabit the same cave. The origin of

this frequent unbalanced sex-ratio in colonies of bats remains unknown,

the more so because sometimes it is the males which are more numerous

and sometimes the females.

Inter-specific Associations

Hipposideros bicolor is not a very sociable mammal. This bat

usually forms small colonies, which do not associate with other species.

Nevertheless, associations with Hipposideros speoris (at Elephanta), and

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Rhinolophus rouxi (at Vihar Lake, ana ant ‘Manableshwan) have

been observed.

Migration .

H. bicolor is a sedentary species. The ringed individuals are regu-

larly seen in Elephanta all over the year. The colony at Elephanta was

studied by Humayun Abdulali twenty years ago. This Hipposideros like

many other species of bats, shows remarkable Cons in keeping to

its favourite haunts. ne

Hibernation |

This species never hibernates. If artificially cooled, it dies after a

few hours. .

Hipposideros galeritus Cantor 1848

Measurements (in mm.) :

Localities

Eb Br Br B+ Bot §r

g° |e |e | Stele as

Forearm 45 46 46 46 47 47

2nd finger 38 38 38 37 39 38

5 Metacarpal 35 34 34 34 35 35

& / 1st Phalange 15 16: - 15 15 16 16

koua Phalanee 18 20 150) 20 793 22

, ( Metacarpal 36 35 35 34 36 36

f= Ist Phalange 11 11 11 11 4 11

3 ee Phalange 9 i 105 © > 46 40> 215 "10

t; _/ Metacarpal 30 31 30 30 31 30

g ( ist Phalange 14 ~ 13 14 13 14 14

load phalaieoes 4 aid 12 pied ep ad 80

Tarsus 16 19 20 19 20° - 20

Tail 25) 33 34 26 32 34

The skull measurements are as follows :

Total | Zygomatic : Upper Lower

length breadth Mandible dental row. dental row

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 619

Description

A small Hipposideros with dark fur, short and pointed ears (see

Plate VI). The size is smaller than that of Hipposideros speoris, and

the shape of the ears separates it immediately from Hipposideros bicolor.

At least two types of colour phase exist in Hipposideros galeritus :

- A dark type. Brown, with blackish membranes.

A pale type. Grey with sepia coloured membranes.

The former type inhabits the humid area of Konkan, and the latter the

dry area of the Deccan and Mysore (Chikalda, Badami).

General Distribution

India, Ceylon, Malay States, Sumatra, and Borneo.

Distribution in western and central India

Probably all over. Nevertheless, this bat is rare everywhere, and

its populations seem to be formed by a very small number of indivi-

duals. _. ie : cay

| ox Chikalda A | -< 4 BombayA

2 ElloraA 5 Bedsar Caves A

3. KanherioA e a 6 Badamia ;

Map 19. Localities where Hipposideros galeritus were studied

620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

The Diurnal Biotope

TABLE OF DIURNAL BIOTOPES OF Hipposideros galeritus.

Date of Number of

: Nature of

Locality . Size of colony | specimens | :

observations captured biotope

Kanheri February, Isolated indivi- 6 The dungeons adjacent

March, April,|duals (all males)| to the principal caves

June, August | |

November |

Chikalda December 1 | 1 ‘A dark corner in a tower

| of the fort .

Bedsar Caves |June 7 1 | 1 A dungeon adjacent to

the principal cave

Ellora August 4 | 3 A dungeon adjacent to

| the principal cave

Badami October | 3 | 3 An old and dark tem-

ple

The haunts observed were all in artificial caves or rooms, dark and of

small size. For the hunting territory the bat seems to have no special

ecological requirements, and had been found in varied biotopes. The

behaviour on the hunting territory is not known.

Field Characters

A small Rhinolophid, hanging isolated in a dark corner of a small

room or cavity. The bat appears especially dark, the silhouette being

elongated and ended by a round head with short ears which are conti-

nuously moved. |

This species is rather shy ; the flight is agile and skilful.

Japanese mist nets were used to obtain specimens.

Reproduction

The biology of Hipposideros galeritus, owing to the scarcity of the

species, remains insufficiently known. No data concerning the reproduc-

tion have been recorded.

Social Life

This small bat seems ta be an unsociable one. Only isolated indivi-

duals, or very small colonies of a few individuals have been observed.

Hipposideros galeritus avoids the other species of bats, and does not

appear to have any inter-specific associations.

Displacements

The individuals seen in August at Ellora were not in this place about

five months earlier. Six isolated individuals were collected in Kanheri,

the single individual caught at each visit occupying the same place where

BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. PLATE VI

Hipposideros galeritus

(Photo: A. Brosset)

(lassolg’ “Pp :o1l0oyq) ae a

ye vaippyuY] SOsapisoddiyy Jo Auojo‘)

IIA 3LV1d

‘00S “LSI ‘LYN Avawog ‘Nuno[

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 621

another had been collected during a preceding visit. These are probably

displacements of the species from one diurnal haunt to another.

Hibernation

Very improbable. Experiments have proved that individuals of this

species die if artificially cooled.

Hipposideros lankadiva Kelaart 1850

Measurements (in mm.):

on SS

Tarsus 34 33 33

Localities

ise) | {50} 3

| iS ) ~) =

Forearm 83 83 87 83 82 83 80 81

2nd finger 64 64 66 62 58 58 58 57

5 Metacarpal 54 54 a5 54 55 56 56 55

s Ist Phalange 27 Di 27 30 26 26 26 25

= udiPhatange | 250 25. 8s | 29° |. 25 |. 95 | 261425

tb Metacarpal o2 52 55 55 5p) ae) 56 56

& Ist Phalange 20 20 20 20 20 21 20 20

2 2nd Phalange; 15 15 13 14 13 13 13 1S

wo Metacarpal 49 48 52 52 48 51 50 49

é 1st Phalange 22 21 21 21 20 21 20 20

a 2nd Phalange | 12 14 15 14 13 13 13 12

The skull measurements are as follows :

Total Zygomatic : Upper Lower

length breadth Mandible dental row dental row

Mandu ¢ a 31 19 23 13°5 16

Mandu ¢ ig 31 19 2375 14 16

Description

A very large Hipposideros, much bigger than the closely allied species.

The dentition is extremely strong.

622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

A number of colour types have been noticed :

A fulvous brown type. This is the ordinary type.

A reddish brown type. Numerous individuals possess this type

A grey-brown type. This colour phase exists in a few specimens in the BNHS

collections. These specimens originate from Vijayanagar. _

A bright red type. This colour, which is quite extraordinary for a KaaEMal has

been noticed in several individuals in Mandu.

A creamy type. Very pale. This rare type of coloration has been observed in

a few individuals in Mandu.

Intermediate individuals between these types are frequent.

Andersen had described several subspecies: mixtus (1918) for

eastern Mysore, unitus (1918) for the Central Provinces, schistaceus

(1918) for Vijayanagar, and indus (1918) for Gersoppa. As only four

colonies were known in India in 1918, we can remark that Andersen

created one special subspecies for each known colony of Hipposideros

lankadiva where specimens have been collected. The principal differences

between these so-called subspecies is the colour of the fur—an extremely

variable factor as we saw in individuals living in the same colony.

Till more serious information is available on this question I consider

the subspecies created by Andersen as being without real existence.

General Distribution

India and Ceylon.

1 Hoshangabad O

Vij O

2 Mandua 3 yayanagar

4 Gersoppa o

Map 20. Localities where Hipposideros lankadiva were studied

ah,

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 623

Distribution in western and central India

This species lives, it seems, in enormous colonies. But these colonies

are rare, and very far from each other. No record of this bat is

known in Maharashtra and Gujarat States.

The Diurnal Biotope

TABLE OF DiurRNAL Brotopes oF Hipposideros lankadiva

| . | Numter of

. Date of ob- Size.of— - | s :

Locality servations | colony | eaatiied SEIU Onlochads

Mandu February 5000-7009 91 Subterranean retreats

with numerous ramifica-

tions under the ‘ Cham-

pa Baoli ’, the old palace

of the deserted capital.

Vijayanagar July, ‘Plentiful ’ Several In the Pattabhiram

August (observations | specimens Swami Temple. This

of Shortridge) | in the colony was not in this

BNHS place in October 1960,

collections and seems to have dis-

appeared.

Gersoppa February, ; ‘Plentiful ’ do. In an old temple

July (observations

of Shortridge)

Shortridge had observed two colonies in old temples. The colony

that I discovered in Mandu inhabits the vast undergrounds. These

Hipposideros, more or less crowded, were hanging from the ceiling, or

hooked themselves on the stones by their limbs in the deeper and

darker parts of the cavity. A considerable quantity of guano lies

onthe ground. The chaukidars and villagers refuse to approach this

enormous colony of big bats. Superstitions are probably the reason of

their fear which is a good thing for the tranquillity of this very remark-

able colony.

Nocturnal Territory

According to Shortridge Hipposideros lankadiva is ‘frequently a

high flyer’. In Mandu, the surrounding country is made up of forest

hills, and lakes, and no precise information could be collected on its

hunting territory.

Food

The species does not abandon remains of food in the diurnal haunt.

Pieces of wings and elytra have been found in the guano. Coleoptera

are eaten, and the very strong dentition probably allows the mastication

of big and hard insects.

624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Reproduction

Two females dissected on 20 February were not pregnant. Young

have been observed in Gersoppa in June. More information on the

reproduction of Hipposideros lankadiva would be useful.

Social Life

This species forms clusters, where hundreds ice individuals are

closely pressed. This sort of association had not been seen in other

species of Indian Hipposideros.

Nevertheless, as may be seen in our photograph (Plate VII) big

groups of scattered individuals have also been observed.

The sex-ratio in Mandu was far from balanced. In 91 captures,

only 19 were females. Perhaps another colony, occupied especially by

the females, exists in the surroundings. All individuals of the colony

were fully adult.

Hibernation

On 19 February 1961, the members of the camp organized in Mandu

as well as the naturalist photographers were informed that the whole

colony of Hipposideros lankadiva was in a period of non-activity. Dur-

ing the day it was easy to photograph the bats many times from close

quarters, and get specimens with the hand as numerous as necessary

for study. These bats were in a state of semi-torpor but not in hiber-.

nation. The eyes-of the bats were open, and they were moving their

nose and their ears at human approach, but were flying away only after

being touched.

During the two following nights, we observed the behaviour of the

colony. The bats did not hunt during this period, and did not go out

of the underground. Only a few hundred were flying inside the cavity,

making temporary clusters not far from the entrances. Two indivi-

duals collected and dissected early in the morning had their digestive

tubes completely empty.

A genus of bats which does not hibernate certainly passes over pro-

longed periods of rest. In the course of these periods they do not eat

and do not leave the diurnal biotope during the night. Similar obser-

vations have been made on Taphozous melanopogon and Rhinopoma

hardwickei. It seems that reabsorption of the enormous quantities of

fat that certain species collect at the root of the tail, is connected with

prolonged periods of inactivity.

(To be continued)

Reviews

i. VU BULLETIN OF THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL

FOR BIRD PRESERVATION. Edited by Prof. S. Dillon Ripley

and others. pp. 124 (24xi5 cm.). 1 coloured and 12 black and.

white plates, and one map. Tokyo, 1962. The International Council

for Bird Preservation. Price 15s.

This Bulletin covers the XIth and XIIth Conferences of the

International Council for Bird Preservation held at Helsinki, Finland,

in 1958 and at Tokyo, Japan, in 1960. It is really the first formal

information which we have regarding the resolutions passed at the

2 conferences, at both of which India was represented by Dr. Salim

Ali. Many problems were discussed, some of them of particular

importance to us:

J. Protection of Birds of Prey. Legislation in most countries is

antagonistic to the birds of prey. In spite of widely-held beliefs to

the contrary, many of the birds of prey are useful in different ways.

It has been suggested that the laws in the different countries be care-

fully studied and recommendations be made for suitable alterations.

2. Effect of Pesticides. It was reported that, under the malaria

control and technical-aid programmes, insecticides were widely dis-

tributed in the south-east Asian countries, and these were often used

without proper care, thus leading to the destruction of wild life. In

view of the danger of pesticides to human beings and animals and

the unexplored after-effects, including the development of mutants,

resistant strains of insects and other organisms, the International

Council for Bird Preservation opposed the use of pesticides without

thorough previous research as to their biological effects and urged the

encouragement of additional research and investigation.

3. Birds which are a Menace to other Species. The problem of

some birds being a menace to other specics, especially the Herring-

Gull, was discussed. In the Common Crow, we have an example of

an extremely destructive scourge to birds and their eggs.

Other matters discussed included the problem of oii pollution

(which fortunately does not affect India), the protection of the larger

Bustards in various parts of the world, the standardisation of the

conditions as regards shipments of live birds, and the prohibition of

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

trade in small birds as delicacies (apparently prompted by the import

of tinned sparrows from Japan into Great Britain).

In spite of the statutory restrictions, an appreciable number of

Peacock and Junglefowl feathers are smuggled out of India. The

Bombay Natural History Society had suggested that the importing

countries, particularly the U.S.A., should co-operate to the extent of

prohibiting the import of these feathers. The Council has called for

information from all the countries, so that international co-operation

could be sought. |

Several interesting reports on the position of bird life in different

countries are included, as well as notes on specific species. The

report of the Indian National Section reters particularly to the

Pinkheaded Duck and the Great Indian Bustard. Reference is made

to persons seeing a male Pinkheaded Duck on a jheel 40 miles south

of Simla on 28th and 29th February 1960. The report was published

with due caution, but it may be worthwhile mentioning that at a

personal meeting, the author admitted that the two days were

actually from after dusk to before sunrise on the following morning,

the observations being made by torchlight!

The Netherlands National Section reported an interesting method

of removing 3 species of gulls and the lapwing (Vanellus vanellus}

from airfield runways where they were an appreciable menace to

aircraft. The distress calls of these four species have been recorded

and before the take-off or landing of the plane, these are broadcast

via an amplifier, causing all the birds to disappear from the

runway. 7

The booklet is excellently got up and has some _ interesting

photographs. One hopes that the Indian Section of the Council will

meet more often and in addition to passing resolutions be able to

persuade the different State Governments as also the Centre to prepare

and enforce suitable legislation in all the aspects of bird protection.

HA.

2. SPIDERS, MEN, AND SCORPIONS. By Theodore H.

savory, M.A; F-z.S: pp: 191 @115 cm.).. 15 “plates, im. blacks and

white. London, 1961. University of London Press Ltd. Price 30s.

There can be few branches of natural history which have a book

devoted exclusively to the story of their development. SPIDERS, MEN,

AND SCORPIONS iS a somewhat deceptive title for a very scholarly

REVIEWS 627,

history of Arachnology, excluding Acarology of which the author

says: ‘. . . Acarology (is) in a different category, attracting a

different type of zoologists, whose attitude to their work and its

applications is undeniably strange to the devotees of the spiders and

scorpions named in the title of this book’. This strikes me as an

unfortunate attitude to take to applied science. Although Acarology

is too vast a subject to be covered in this book, it should be re-

membered that here—as well as in the rest of Arachnology—

collection, preservation, and description are the basis of all further

work. Academic interest in a subject is not lessened because it

happens to have an applied significance.

Spiders attracted the attention of the ancient Greeks, and were

immortalised by Ovid in the legend of Arachne. The first scientific

approach to the subject was that of Aristotle, who in his A HISTORY

OF ANIMALS described with a surprising degree of accuracy the

courtship and web-spinning of spiders. He knew that scorpions

produce live young, and was aware of the existence of pseudo-

scorpions—‘in books other small animals are found, some of which

are like scorpions without tails’.

In the Middle Ages spiders became notorious, in particular the

tarantula (Lycosa tarantula). Its bite was supposed to induce alarm-

ing behaviour in its victims, who could only be cured by music and

dancing. Outbreaks of ‘tarantism’ became common in_ southern

Europe, where this spider is found, and it was a long time before it

was generally recognized that this species is harmless. Finally,

tarantism was dismissed as a hysterical phenomenon. The venom of

spiders can, however, cause serious discomfort. An article in World

Health Organization Bulletin for 1954, quoted in a recent Miscellaneous

Note in this Journal, gives a more sober account of the effects of the

venom of the south-European Latrodectus tredecimguttatus on man

and animals. These effects include writhing and convulsions.

Perhaps Mr. Savory is being somewhat hard on the mediaeval victims

of tarantism; they might not have been pretending, their symptoms

may have had some physical cause although they blamed the wrong

spider.

The history of Arachnology in India begins with Pocock. Though

he worked all his life in London he studied collections brought from

the East, and the result was a volume on spiders in the FAUNA OF

BRITISH INDIA series. R. W. G. Hingston deservedly gets honourable

mention for his beautifully designed experiments, and the delightfully

teadable manner in which his observations are recorded. The only

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

contemporary worker mentioned is A. P. Mathew of University

College, Trivandrum. Very recently, however, M. S. Mani has added

to our knowledge of arachnology with his list of spiders, scorpions.

and pseudo-scorpions from the north-west Himalaya.

. A history of arachnology is incomplete without mention of Mr.

Savory’s own considerable contribution. I hope that in future

editions some other arachnologist will add a chapter rectifying this

omission. The book could also do with a much more complete

bibliography.

R.R.

3. DIRECTORY OF ZOOLOGICAL TAXONOMISTS OF

THE WORLD. Compiled by Richard E. & Ruth M. Blackwelder.

pp. xvit+404 (23.5 15.5 cm.). Carbondale, Ilinois, 1961. Southern

Illinois University Press for The Society of Systematic Zoology.

Price $10.00.

This is a most useful compilation intended to enable one to get in

touch with persons competent to advise and help in the identification

of the many forms of animal life. Over 9000 taxonomists are listed.

It was obviously impossible to check upon the qualifications of each!

party, and all those who returned the forms sent to them, either

directly or on recommendation, have been included; asterisks mark

those whose names were received from third parties, and from whom

no direct information was obtained.

In the first hundred pages, the taxonomists are listed under groups,

commencing with fossil forms, cave faunas, parasites of different

hosts, Protozoa, and ending with mammals. Each group is again

divided into smaller groups and, where the information warrants,

re-distributed under World, Nearctic, Neotropical, Palaearctic,

Oriental, etc. Only about 150 entries cover taxonomists from India,

Pakistan, and Ceylon, and these include 30 for fishes, 5 for

amphibians, 6 for reptiles, and 4 each for birds and mammals. In

several cases, One person is mentioned under more than one head!

The compilers describe how the information was collected and

recorded in the form of a card index from which a preliminary

typescript was prepared; from this at a later stage a final typescript

was prepared on a special typewriter and kept up-to-date as further

information was received, till finally it was printed off by a process

of photographic reproduction, thus eliminating printer’s devils,

REVIEWS 629

It is hoped that this wonderful piece of work will be widely and

profitably used in India,

H.A.

4. AFRICAN HANDBOOK OF BIRDS, Series Two : Birds

of the Southern Third of Africa, Vol. I. By C. W. Macworth-Praed,

MA, FZS, MEB.O.U. and Capt. €.°- HB. Grant, F.ZS., _M.B.0.U.

pp. xxiv+688 (22x14 cm.). 38 coloured and 11 plates from photo-

graphs: marginal distribution maps and drawings. London, 1955,

Longmans Green & Co. Ltd. Price 50s. net.

The book is-a companion volume in the excellent series oni

African birds which have been already noticed in the pages of this

Journal [Series I, Vol. I in 51 (3) at p. 709 and Vol. IT in 53 (2) at

p. 242] and forms Volume I in the second series covering the birds

of the southern third of the African Continent. The plan of the

book is identical with that of the earlier volumes. 573 species

comprising all non-passerine and three families of passerine birds are

described concisely with brief notes on their distribution, habitat,

habits, breeding, food, and calls. The 38 beautiful coloured plates

prepared by several gifted artists, the excellent photographic repro-

ductions, and the sketches of birds and distribution maps given

marginally to the text should prove a boon to the casual bird watcher

as well as the serious student. It is unfortunate that, to keep the

cost of production within reasonable limits, so many species are

crowded on a plate. This has resulted in loss of clarity in some

instances and has almost reduced out of existence some of the smaller

species in ‘mixed bags’. | 3

A book on African birds is of more than casual interest to the

Indian ornithologist from the close faunal affinity that exists between

the two regions. Approximately half the genera described in the

present volume occur in India, though nature has been prodigal, as

for example among the Hornbills, in the number and variety’ of

species in Africa. It is of interest that the only other species of the

genus Rhinoptilus, besides our own Jerden’s Courser, occurs in

Africa. The habitat of both species appears similar and it is

reasonable to assume that Jerdon’s Courser also is crepuscular and

given to considerable local movements as its African cousin, and

may yet be rediscovered in India if the factors of habitat and habits

are carefully kept in mind by its explorers,

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 59 (2)

The book has its share of ‘name changing’, for example the

Yellow Wagtails familiar to all as Motuaciila are reverted to Budytes.

It is a pity that taxonomists are nowadays becoming more and more

finicky, shifting names around faster than a nervous cat does her

litter. However necessary some may consider it to be, it is most

disconcerting to the non-specialist who cannot help but feel a sense

of loss to see the old familiar names disappear. Luckily this is not

for long; most of them come back when the wheel has turned a full

circle!

Not enough praise can be given for the effort that has gone into

the production of this volume. Both as a reference work and as a

field handbook it is of immense value. We await with interest the

appearance of the second volume in the series.

ECD:

5. THE WEALTH OF INDIA : A DICTIONARY OF INDIAN RAW

MATERIALS AND INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS. RAW MATERIALS. Vol. VI:

L-M, pp. xxxi+483+xiv (27.7X21.5 cm.). 14 plates and 185 text-

figures. New Delhi, 1962. Council of Scientific and Industrial

Research. Price Rs. 40 or 80s.

The Sixth Voiume of the WEALTH OF INDIA series deals with raw

materials that fall in the alphabetical category L-M. It is written

with the same care, knowledgeability, and concern for painstaking

detail that characterises the previous five volumes, and it should be

of interest to the general reader as weil as to the student. There is

an elaborate system of references and cross references that should

prove useful to the researcher who wishes to pursue any topic further.

but the ordinary reader should find himself more than content with

the material in the volumes themselves.

The subject of these volumes includes the plants, animals, and

minerals to be found in India. It gives accounts of their main groups

and even, at times, proceeds to subsidiary groups. The animals of

the L-M category, lions, monkeys, mongooses, etc., are rather per-

functorily dealt with, but that is to be expected—indeed, one wonders

how they find a place at all in this book. On the other hand, there

is a particularly good, well-illustrated article on Molluscs.

Actually—but this may be merely a matter of personal taste—I

find the articles on fruits, and on Minerals, the best and the most

REVIEWS 631

rewarding. ‘Thus, while dealing with Mangoes—and here the book

touches a subject of peculiar interest and importance in India, and

often missed in many Natural History Encyclopaedias compiled

outside India—the author gives a comprehensive description of the

tree and its fruit, its distribution, and its varieties; here is a full and

accurate account of its cultivation (it may come as a surprise to a good

many readers to learn that, within India, the tree thrives in a wide

variety of climates and soils), its propagation, planting, irrigation,

flowering and fruiting, diseases affecting it and their eradication, and

finally of their marketing—‘the majority of growers pack large-sized

attractive fruits on the top, and small, diseased or damaged fruits at

the bottom of the basket’, a fact only too well known by prospective

buyers!

Several other fruits and plants are dealt with in an equally full

and knowledgeable fashion, and one of the more praiseworthy features

of the book is the care that has been taken in detailing modern

developments in the cultivation and use of the plants, e.g. in the

article on the Manihot we learn that Tapioca macaroni has been

recently developed by the Central Food Technological Research

Institute, Mysore.

The many diagrams and photographs are almost uniformly good.

clear, and well chosen, and I have seldom seen a finer collection of

line drawings than the one in this volume. In passing, I might mention

that it seems a pity to have produced such a fine, well got-up volume,

and then to have spoiled the general effect by the tasteless and ugly

outer binding used---but that, of course, hardly matters. The book

itself is a good and scholarly work, and it should prove a very

popular reference book for any library, inside and outside India.

R.J.K.

6. A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDOLOGY, Vol. II: INDIAN

BOTANY, Part I. Authors A-J. Compiled by V. Narayanaswami.

pp. xlu+370 (24.516.3 cm.). Calcutta, Government of India, 1961.

The Librarian, National Library. Price Rs. 8.00.

This is the Second volume in a tentative list of 56 in the series

belonging to the project of A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDOLOGY taken in

hand by the National Library, the first volume being on Indian

Anthropology. This, the first part of a very elaborate work, includes

632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

5374 entries covering the authors alphabetically from A-J, their work

being mentioned against each name. The second part is expected to

cover authors from K-Z, and a third part will contain the index. The

bibliography covers the period 400 B.c. to 1958 and part of 1959 a.p.

It thus covers a vast period and a vaster field in the various branches

of Botany for a single compiler. This reviewer is personally aware

of the immense labour undertaken by the compiler Mr. Narayanaswami

during his life-long service in the Botanical Survey of India, at the

Indian Botanica! Gardens, Calcutta. for extracting information from

the rich treasures, often neglected and unappreciated, of books,

periodicals, pamphlets, drawings, etc. in the library attached to the

Gardens. To any. serious worker in that institution Mr.

Narayanaswami’s labour of love—-though then incomplete—was a

useful guide. That this work is now available to active botanists is a

matter of joy to Mr. Narayanaswami’s many friends, pupils, and

admirers. .

It is to be regretted that even the review copy contains faults of

binding. Section 22 at pp. 169-176 appears at a wrong place and is

repeated. Entry No. 2343, i.e. Chopra, R.N., would appear to refer

to a person different from the three earlier ones, though there is

nothing in the set-up which would suggest this. Similarly 2584 and

2585 refer to two different persons. Perhaps it may be worthwhile

devising some other means of distinguishing between different persons.

Some references have escaped vigilance during production,

e.g. this reviewer’s article published in this journal in Vol. 50 on

pp. 428-30. The reviews of books by some authors are included but

not by all. Journals such as Economic Botany and Qualitas Plantarum

Materia Vegetabiles should have found a place in the BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Works in vernacular, e.g. Bambhdai, G. K.: VANASPATI SRISTTI, in

Gujarati, a treatise in economic botany in four volumes, could have

been included if the compiler had been able to visit libraries in

western India. It is obvious that the proofs have been seen under the

strain of illness as mentioned by the publisher. However, these little

omissions and other defects do not deprive this very painstaking

work of its utility and importance. Parts II and III will be eagerly

awaited by Indian botanists as well as all others interested in Indian

Botany. ion ae

)

P. V. BOLE

REVIEWS 633

7. THE BIRDS OF SIKKIM. By Salim Ali. pp. xxx+414

(25.5x17 cm.). 9 half-tone, 17 colour plates ‘and 41 line drawings,

Madras, India, 1962. Oxford University Press. Price Rs. 30.

The publication of yet another regional faunistic book on birds of

the Indian area, by Dr. Salim Ali, is a long-awaited event. Dr. Salim

Ali not only writes well, but has a comprehensive approach towards his

subject, which always insures that his publications will maintain the

highest standard and, in addition, be continuously readable. The

country of Sikkim, sandwiched between Tibet on the north, Nepal on

the west, Bhutan on the east, and the adjacent Indian State of West

Bengal, is a fascinating area with a great and diverse variety of biotopes.

From the heights of the snow-capped mountains of over 27,000 feet,

down to the lowlands of the jungle- and farm-covered plains of the

lower Teesta River, this small country of some 2818 square miles

possesses a relatively tremendous avifauna. Although classically Dar-

jeeling and ‘native Sikkim’ have served as the type locality for many

of the species of birds described from the Himalayan chain, relatively

little recent work has been done in this area, and it was a significant

event when Dr. Salim Ali and Mr. Loke Wan Tho arranged, with the

generous co-operation of the Sikkim Government, to make an avifaunal

survey. It seemed most appropriate, therefore, when after the comple-

tion of the survey, conversations ensued with the Government of Sikkim

which resulted in a subvention to insure the publication of the report.

This book is of great value to distributional-minded ornithologists

and ecologists as it incorporates many scattered and difficult-of-access

field notes by earlier workers from the time of Mandelli on, which

have been scattered in the literature often in rather inaccessible form.

From the zoogeographic point of view, Sikkim is particularly interesting

not only because it spans such a wide variety of altitudinal zones,

but also because it is on the western extremity of the area in the

Himalayas where the more saturated, more richly coloured eastern sub-

species tend to commence to trend into the more western, paler, lighter

coloured subspecies. This general trend of darker coloration in the

east to paler coloration in the west has been noticeable to all the

investigators of the Himalayan vertebrate fauna since the days of Gould.

Sikkim, with its dense rainfall and its heavy jungle cover is an area, like

Bhutan and Assam, which harbours dark, richly-coloured populations

of animals within its borders. This correlation between humidity and

more saturated appearing colours of plumage or pelage has often been

referred to as Gloger’s hypothesis. It is a significant aspect of the

appearance of the animals which inhabit Sikkim as compared with those

which inhabit Nepal and the Himalayas of Uttar Pradesh.

The introductory part of Dr,. Salim Ali’s book is of particular.

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

interest in that it delineates and describes the forms of terrain and the

altitudinal zones. Following this, there are short sections on migration

and on the literature on Sikkim birds, after which there is a general

account arranged in systematic order of the species of birds found

within the country. In each case in the account there is a description

of the appearance of the bird, its status and habitat in Sikkim, follow-

ed by an account of its distribution outside the State, and then a section

on general habits. Following this is a section on nesting, if in the

country, and then a general summary of which related species, if any,

may occasionally be met within the State.

In each family there is at least one species represented in a full des-

cription of this sort. Sometimes, as in the case of ducks, a shorter para-

graph refers to relatives of the species described, which may be found

more or less commonly within the borders of the country, presumably in

migration. Sometimes the treatment of these species seems unequal in

that certain species which obviously live in Sikkim, as wellas that one

described in extenso, are treated in a shorter, more condensed manner.

For example, on page 5 the Indian Sparrow-Hawk, Accipiter nisus

melaschistos, receives a page and a third of description, as well as a bold

heading giving its name. Following this there is merely a paragraph in

small bold type on the Crested Goshawk, Accipiter trivirgatus indicus,

which is also a resident in Sikkim, even though it is said to be rare. I

am not entirely clear on why Dr. Salim Ali has decided to describe the

Indian Sparrow-Hawk so extensively, and give such a small write-up

to the Crested Goshawk. Hereand there similar discrepancies occur

throughout the text. For example, on page 9, Bonelli’s Hawk-Eagle,

Nisaétus fasciatus, is described in extenso while the Booted Hawk-Eagle,

Hieraétus pennatus, receives the smallest paragraph and treatment.

Some forms, which I had always believed to be birds occurring in

Sikkim, seem to have been left out entirely. One of these is the problem-

atical Psittacula intermedia, Rothschild’s Parakeet, which is said to

have been collected in ‘native Sikkim’. Another is the Hanging Parakeet,

Loriculus. One or two of the nightjars also seem to have been omit-

ted, but perhaps in some cases this is deliberate, so as not to have too

many species of the same families listed ? Or, perhaps, there may be no

actual record which Dr. Salim Ali had been able to track down of the

occurrence of such forms as Caprimulgus affinis monticolus. In any

case, some of the additional species are referred to in the Appendix by

Dr. Salim Ali, although not all seem to have been treated.

I am glad to see that some stability is going to be possible in India,

both in the arrangement of the birds and also in their common names.

In this connection, it is important to point out, as far as India is

concerned, the Shahin Falcon is the form peregrinator, in spite of what

has recently been published by two other ornithologists,

REVIEWS 635

An Index, in addition to the aforementioned Appendix, completes

the volume.

It is a delight to record the appearance of this volume on THE BIRDS

OF SIKKIM, and all of us who value Dr. Salim Ali’s capable field notes

and encyclopaedic knowledge of the birds of India, will welcome the

appearance of this splendid volume.

The plates, by various artists, add greatly to the handsomeness of

this volume, and are also nearly as comprehensive as the text. For the

first time in some years, a number of the rarer and less-illustrated

species of the Himalayas are here delineated in an excellent manner.

S. DILLON RIPLEY

Miscellaneous Notes

Il. TIGER TRAILS : A STORY OF COMMERCIALISED

SHIKAR

To what depths can Indian shikar be brought when it involves

foreign sportsmen? It has fallen to my unfortunate lot to throw a

little light on the whole sorry situation, because the incident below

happened to a shikar firm in which I was a partner.

This firm was called Tiger Trails, and I was tempted to join it

because one of the partners appeared to have a fine record as a

shikari and was, by all appearances, a great sportsman. On paper,

this man was so much better than most in the hunting field that I

stood down almost entirely from the shikar side and contented myself

with running the camps. To suggest that we should write into the

partnership agreement a clause binding the partners to observe the

forest rules seemed completely unnecessary.

The very first shoot opened my eyes. We had thoroughly discussed

the matter of shooting from jeeps at night and were both agreed that

this would not under any circumstances ever be part of our policy.

Even so, the jeep started to go out night after night right from the

first day, and there was no doubt that it was prowling the forest roads.

Then I discovered that some animals had been taken into Betul for

skinning without my knowledge. That seemed suspicious, and a few

enquiries tended to confirm my fears that animals were being shot at

night by spotlight. The result was that at the end of the shoot some

registered letters passed between myself and the partner in charge of

shikar.

At this stage I normally should have got out of the firm fast, but

our next client was Robert Ruark, the American author. There were

two reasons why I particularly wanted to meet Bob Ruark. The first

was that as a would-be writer myself it would be worth-while to meet

someone from the front rank of contemporary American literature.

The second reason was to try and correct the unfortunate impression

of shikar that Ruark had obviously been given on his first shoot in ©

India in 1956, on returning from which he wrote an article for The

Saturday Evening Post entitled, ‘Shooting Tigers in India is like

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 637

Shooting Rabbits from a Sherman Tank’. I was going to do every-

thing I could to prevent another article like that.

Just before Ruark arrived (April 1962), I extracted a promise

from my partner to the effect that there would be no shooting from

jeeps at night. I also warned him that I was going to ask Ruark for

his co-operation in this matter the moment he reached camp. The

result was disastrous. With the jeep firmly anchored in camp every

night, not a single animal was shot and very few were even sighted

for the first twelve days. Nor did this surprise me; the efforts going

on during the day to bring animals up to the gun seemed to me

unlikely to succeed for a number of reasons. Bob Ruark noticed this

and, to start with, he looked on in astonishment. Then he got

annoyed. ‘What has happened to my much vaunted and highly paid

shikari?’ he asked. To all intents and purposes, this shikari had

now given up the unequal struggle and was spending a great part of

the day on his bed.

On the 13th day the whole sorry mess boiled to a head. That

morning I had told my partner that Ruark was getting restless and

that he wanted me to take over the shikar side unless things im-

proved. The answer came that same evening. Just at dusk the jeep

screamed into camp trailing a cloud of dust. My partner was excited,

and in a breathless voice told Ruark to get ready at once. ‘If we

go now we can shoot a leopard in 20 minutes’, he promised.

In an hour the jeep was back. Bob got out and came to where

his wife and I were having a drink in front of the bungalow. He was

looking very thoughtful. ‘I didn’t shoot at it,’ he said, “Why not?’

I asked. ‘There was something wrong—it just didn’t behave like a

leopard.’ We were still discussing it two hours later. Bob could not

get the idea out of his head that he had been invited to fire at a dead

leopard. To this, however, I could not agree. I just could not

believe that a professional shikari would ever try a stupid trick like

that on a sportsman of Bob Ruark’s experience.

At 11.30 we were still talking outside the bungalow. The shikari

had not put in an appearance the whole evening and had apparently

gone to bed. Without warning I heard the jeep start up. I raced

out and caught it before it could get away. In answer to my question

about where it was going at this time of night, I was informed that

it was a trip ‘to look at tiger baits’. That convinced me. It also

confirmed a remark that Ginny Ruark had made just a short while

before: ‘If the jeep goes out tonight, you can be quite sure it’s going

to bury a dead leopard’. I took the key and the rotor from the jeep

638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

and later, when everybody had gone to bed, went out on my own to

see what I could find.

It lay about 40 yards off a forest road. A fine big leopard laid

out as though it was crouched down by a bush. I judged it to have

been dead for the best part of a day.

To use his own words, Bob blew his top when the ae was

brought in to the bungalow. Then, in words I could do nothing

but agree with, he ordered the perpetrator of this outrage from Oe

camp.

At this stage the matter should have ended. Bob was anxious

to go on with his shoot if I took over the hunting. Although

quite willing to do this, I suggested to my partner that he might be

reinstated if he made Bob a sincere apology. He wouldn’t hear of

it. He felt that he had been ‘grossly insulted’ by being turned out

of camp and that his reputation had suffered irreparable damage.

The dead leopard was waved aside as of little account, and I was

warned that ‘Mr. Ruark has not heard the last of this’.

He hadn’t indeed, and what followed still makes me blush with

shame. A part of Bob’s bill was owing, and this he told me he

would normally have paid without a second thought. But what about

the trick with the dead leopard? And what about his highly paid

shikari spending most of his time snoring on his bed? Once again

I could do nothing but agree with him, but as I was now expecting

trouble from the other side, I advised Bob to come with me to the

District Magistrate and put everything on record. This he did.

When it was known that no more of the bill was to be paid, the

firm of Tiger Trails in the form of the other partners really dis-

tinguished itself. Still taking the attitude of injured innocence, and

still ignoring the dead leopard, express wires were sent to the

American Consulate and to the Government of India Tourist ‘Offica

asking that Ruark be stopped when he reached Bombay. What the

Tourist Office thought I cannot imagine, for at this time the firm

had stil! not received recognition. In addition to the two wires,

there was good reason to believe that an attempt would be made to

seize Bob’s luggage on Betul station. ‘To save him this embarrassment,

he was smuggled out through Itarsi Junction late at night with the

help of Dr. Moss of the Swedish Mission at Parda.

This story made the headlines in some 130 American papers

through Bob Ruark’s syndicated column. He certainly pulled no

punches and there was no reason why he should. It must have been

a nasty jolt for the Government of India which in all innocence was

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 639

involved too. But the worst effect of all was undoubtedly on Indian

shikar in general. For the past 12 years a picture of shikar as it is

today has been building up in the minds of sportsmen abroad. With

tales in glossy magazines of tigers shot at night from jeeps and of

bison gunned down over water-holes, the picture has seldom been a

good one. To it was now added a dead leopard solemnly laid out

for an unsuspecting and trusting client to shoot at—surely the most

damning brush stroke of all.

In fairness there should be a footnote. On his previous shoot

Bob had shot three tigers but no leopard. This time, therefore,

leopard was his first objective, and I had this at the front of my mind

as soon as I took over. On the second night a big male leopard

killed a bait which had been tied by a pile of shrub-sprinkled rocks

to one side of a cultivated field. The next day a hide was made on

the ground 50 yards from the dead buffalo. Bob and I arrived at

5 o’clock and almost at once heard a leopard calling from a strip of

jungle near by. It went on calling, and it was soon apparent that at

least one and possibly two other leopards were about. When the

day faded the scene was lit by a rising quarter moon. Soon after

8 o'clock a leopard glided swittly past the kill. It did this several

times during the next hour, on each occasion disappearing into the

shadows cast by the rocks. It was still calling at frequent intervals

and showed no signs of settling down to feed.

We had decided to sit until 9.30, and if no chance had come by

then, we were going to get the. leopards out the next day by a neat

method Bob had learned in Africa. No chance did come, so when

it was time to go we left the hide quietly and set off for the forest

road 300 yards away. We were almost there when our torches picked

up eyes—-the eves of a leopard in a small patch of jungle 30 yards

off the path. Bob knocked it flat with a 30.06, but as there were

still signs of life I handed him his 20 bore loaded with buckshot. He

gave the leopard both barrels.

Even after that it was still breathing, so now I suggested another

shot from the rifie. The light from the moon was tricky, and if the

leopard should suddenly get up it might not be easy to deal with it

in this particular patch of jungle. It was at this moment that Bob

found that a round had jammed in the magazine of his rifle after the

first shot. For a few seconds I was unaware of this, and it was in

those seconds that the leopard charged. It came at incredible speed

and snarling like a fury. It slapped a paw at Bob but this just tore

his shirt. A blow from the butt of the shot gun drove it off, but it

20 |

640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

stopped within 20 yards. As it was whipping round to come again

a blast of buckshot crumpled it to the ground. It dropped so

suddenly that by all the rules it should have been dead, but we were

not to know then that the ammunition for the 20 bore, bought fresh

for this shoot in India, was in fact very old stock. The buckshot

was hardly penetrating the leopard’s hide and, although it was now

lying as still as death, it was in reality only stunned by three pellets

at the back of the head.

It had gone down in some brush and was difficult to see. By

now the last of the rounds which had been brought for the 20 bore

had been fired and Bob’s rifle was still jammed. He was nevertheless

still hurriedly striving to clear it even though it seemed beyond doubt

that the leopard was very dead. It had absorbed terrific punishment

from a 30.06 and four charges of buckshot. But all at once it was

coming again, and with the speed of an animal that might never have

been wounded. This time there was no stopping it.

I saw it spring at Bob’s throat. ‘Then they were both crashing to

the ground. The rest was wild confusion. With only the light from

the moon the leopard was just a blur of bared teeth and flashing

claws. It had seized Bob by the arm, so the butt of the shot gun went

smashing down on its head. This at last made it let go and turn

to retaliate. As its head snapped round its mouth was wide open.

With an empty gun there seemed to be only one thing to do and an

instant later the barrels of the 20 bore were hard down its throat.

This apparently was the right action. In a flurry of flailing legs the

leopard flipped on its back and clawed wildly at the barrels of the

gun. That enabled Bob to roll clear and spring to his feet.

His arm had been badly mangled and he was in considerable pain,

but he set to at once to clear his rifle. How he did it one-handed

I still do not know, but all at once came the rip of a bolt slamming

home and then the blast of a shot. An instant later the leopard went

limp and the fracas was over.

Since that night this affair has been the subject of much comment,

and certain interests hurried off to high places with loud cries of

‘inexperience’ and that this sort of incident was spoiling the game.

This really was only to be expected, but to the charge of inexperience

I should like to say that this leopard was in sight from the moment it

was wounded to the end of the fight. Never at any time was there

any question of following up a wounded and invisible animal in the

dark. It has been suggested that we should have withdrawn well

away to a place of safety as indeed we could have done. But to have

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JouRN. Bombay Nat. HIST. Soc.

Leopard Cat at closet

ing

Leopard Cat rest

(Photos: F. Keppie)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 641

done that would almost certainly have resulted in the leopard getting

away either to die in agony or perhaps to become a menace to both

stock and human life. If this is inexperience then I have to plead

guilty and so would Bob Ruark.

It has also been said that our most elementary mistake was not

to have climbed a tree and pot at the leopard from the safety of its

branches. That of course we could have done as we could also have

gone shooting bison over water-holes and rabbits from a Sherman

tank. As it was we were already face to face with a wounded leopard,

and if the plain truth has to be told it simply seemed to us more

sporting to give it a fair fight on its own ground where the odds were

about even. That we both got hurt was surely just part of the game

and nothing that any sportsman would ever complain about. Certainly

Bob Ruark never complained.

And he got a good story. Indeed. when I think of what he wrote

about Sherman tanks and tigers after his first trip, it seems to me

that some good did come out of this shoot after all.

MANDIKHERA ESTATE,

P.O. MATKULI, HUGH ALLEN

PiIpARIA, M.P.,

August 6, 1962.

2. A LEOPARD CAT (FELIS BENGALENSIS KERR) IN

CAPTIVITY

(With a plate)

Of all the wild cats of Asia, the Leopard Cat (Felis bengalensis

Kerr) is believed to be the most intractable and difficult to tame. My

personal experience confirms this, and the four which I have kept at

various times remained extremely wild. It is therefore all the more

surprising to hear of the very pleasant experience of a tea planter

couple of north Bengal, Mr. Keppie and his wife, who found a young

leopard cat to be a very tame and lovable creature. I am very

grateful to Mrs. Keppie for giving me the full story.

Apparently in March 1960 two kittens were brought from the

forest near the Bhutan foothills when they were just a few weeks

old. They would not take milk and were very wild, hissing and

spitting every time attempts were made to feed them. Then a piece

of raw meat was tried, and eagerly devoured. After that they were

fed on raw meat and water, but they would take only very little milk.

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

After a month the weaker of the two kitiens died. The remaining

one ‘became ill with ‘loose motions’ but’ was carefully nursed by

Mrs. Keppie and dosed with sulphathalazole—each tablet broken into

four pieces and each piece placed in a piece of raw meat. After three

days of this treatment the kitten was cured. It seemed to appreciate

the attention given to it, for after that it became very tame.

For house cleanliness a sand-box was placed in the mosquito room

on the verandah where the kitten lived, but she (it was a female)

would not use it, preferring a hole in the wooden floor. Later on,

when the kitten found her way round the bungalow, she started

using the outlet hole in the bath tub, and appeared to be happy near

water ‘for her habits’. One day she was found swimming up and

down the bath tub filled with water. Another day she fell into the

water-closet in the bath-room, and was later seen perched on the edge

of the seat and using this item in the correct manner. Ever after-

wards she used the water-closet in this way, thus eliminating that

tiresome cleaning up usually encountered when wild creatures are

kept in the house.

As she grew up she became very fond of the Labrador dog.

During daytirne she preferred to sleep on a tree and at night came in

when called. Then she started spending much time in the tea

bushes, and on returning to the bungalow in the evening she was

Kept in the bedroom for safety. She had evidently by this time

become a very tame and affectionate pet. |

But in October, when she was about eight months old, she began

to show signs of restlessness. She disliked being shut up at night,

and would sit at the window longing to be out in the darkness.

‘Then one evening early in November, she came in as usual for

her evening meal and then went out again, and I thought she wanted

to play a bit more so I left her for a while; when I again went out

to call her in, she kept on looking at me, and walking away towards

the bushes, and then came back to me if I did not follow, almost

asking me to go with her into the jungle, as if I was a jungle pal of

hers. I left her for a while, and then when I went once again to

call her in, she did not answer or come in ever again. ... Then one

or two labourers told my husband that they saw her with another cat,

but we did not ever see her again to our great sorrow. I thought

she may have returned some time to have her kittens but this she

never did.’

UPPER SHILLONG,

ASSAM, E. P. GEE

April 30, 1962.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 643

3. TWIN ELEPHANT CALVES AND INTERVAL BETWEEN

BIRTHS OF SUCCESSIVE ELEPHANT CALVES

(With a photograph)

On 26 October 1961, a timber-working female elephant No. 918,

Htwar Aye Ma, belonging to the State Timber Board, gave birth to

twins, a male and a female, in the Indawgyi circle, Myitkyina Timber

Extraction Division. |

The male calf was dropped at 06.30 hours and the female calf at

10.00 hours. The male calf measured 2 ft. 9 in. and the female calf

ft. 8 in. at the shoulder. |

-The Forest Department maintains a register of all timber-working

elephants. According to this register the age of the dam which gave

birth to the twins was 26 years. She had previously given birth to

female calf on 10 June 1959. The sin-ok (head mahout) in charge

of the elephant camp reporied that the gestation period of the twins

was 22 months, The dam was mated with a male timber-working

elephant, No. 1744, Than Kyaw, from the same camp.

Twin Elephant Caives

This is the second record of the birth of twin elephant calves in

Burma. The birth of twin elephant calves previously was recorded

by Mr. Gordon Hundley in “Twin Calf Elephants’ J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 27 : 628-9). )

Mr. A. J. Ferrier who was in Burma for 34 years with Messrs

Steel Brothers & Co. Ltd. writes from Ayrshire, Scotland, on 10 April

644 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

1962: ‘Hundley’s Thoungyin Twins are well known as_ twin

elephants are very rare in the first, and don’t often survive in the

second place.

‘I believe that twins were born to a Steel’s elephant in Prome

in 1931 but they died at birth and I believe the B.B.T.C.L. had twins

in the Chindwin some years later but they also died.

‘I personally have never seen twin elephants.

‘The size of the calves 2 ft. 9 in. and 2 ft. 8 in. at the shoulder is

just a shade below average but single calves of this size and even

less are born every year.

‘The period between the birth of a single calf on 10 June 1959

and of the twins on 26 October 1961 is certainly surprising and is

less than I have ever known. I remember a few cases of around

two years and 7 months and never so little as two years and 34

months.’

Mr. E. O. Shebbeare writes from Banbury, Oxon, England, on

4 April 1962:

‘T think Sanderson is right in saying: “Elephants breed about

once in two and a half years” (THIRTEEN YEARS AMONG THE WILD

BEASTS OF INDIA: 61). He appears to base it on the relative size

of the two calves sucking the same dam, also assuming gestation to

take 22 months. This allows eight months after giving birth before

her next heat—which sounds reasonable.

‘Khedda work sometimes throws an independent light on this too

when, as often happens, a family group forms the entire catch in a

small stockade. Looking at the matriarch with all her surviving

offspring (except perhaps a few of the older males) you will have no

difficulty in placing her family in order and will generally get the

impression that the normal interval is two or three years.’

Mr. E. P. Gee contributed an excellent note on this point entitled

‘The Indian Elephant (E. maximus): Early Growth Gradient and

Intervals between Calfing’ (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 : 125-128).

25, INYA MyAInGc RoaD,

UNIVERSITY P.O., TUN YIN

RANGOON, BURMA, ;

July 24, 1962.

_ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 645

4. THE FUNCTION OF EXTERNAL GLANDS IN MAMMALS

A short note in Nature 193 (4817) : 799, of 24 February 1962,

entitled “Territorial Function of Chin Gland Secretion in the Rabbit,

Oryctolagus cuniculus (L.’ by R. Mykytowycz, describes these

animals in an enclosure as marking posts, grass, branches, edges of

burrow entrances, walls and ceilings of cages, and even kittens and

does during amatory behaviour with small amounts of the secretion.

It is suggested that ‘territorial marking is of value among gregarious

species by advertising that the area is at present occupied and thus

minimizing aggressive fighting’. Chin glands were found to be less

developed in the hare, Lepus europaeus Pallas, which has a. much

larger home-range than the rabbit. :

These observations are of interest as many of the larger wild

mammals in India, e.g. sheep, goats, antelope, deer, etc., have

prominent. glands (infra-orbital, inter-digital, inguinal, etc.) whose

function and significance still remains to be discovered.

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, EDITORS

BOMBAY 6,

July 10, 1962.

5S. ARE DOMESTIC ANIMALS OVERGRAZING THE

KEOLADEO GHANA SANCTUARY IN RAJASTHAN?

(With two plates)

The seven-thousand acre Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary is located

near Bharatpur, north-eastern Rajasthan, about 100 miles south of

New Delhi.

In late February 1962, I made a brief three-day visit to the

sanctuary to photograph birds and add new species to my life list.

The highlight of the 94 species identified was the thrill of seeing

three Siberian Cranes (Grus leucogeranus), scarce winter visitors to

India from North Asia. But the buffaloes, which are permitted to

graze in the water on aquatic plants, miei them off before I

could photograph them.

_ Which brings me to the reason for writing this note—the live-

stock, The Range Officer at the sanctuary informed me that there

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

are some 20,000 head of cattle (both cows and buffaloes) that daily,

and throughout the year, graze in the sanctuary. Some of the effects

of this grazing could be seen immediately. I can only imagine other

effects which I did not have the time to examine.

The level unflooded ground has been packed hard by the constant

trampling of thousands of heavy hoofs. There is very little under-

storey —- young trees and shrubs necessary for reproduction — in the

thorn forest. As a result, there probably will be slow replacement

of the natural vegetation. (Plate IT, 1)

In addition to wildfowl and waterbirds, the Keoladeo Ghana

Sanctuary also harbours herds of cheetal, black buck, pig, and an

occasional panther.

Depending on the food habits of the animals that live in the

sanctuary, there may be competition for food -— interspecific com-

petition between species, or intraspecific competition within a single

species. For example, if cows and blackbuck both graze the same

plants in the same area, then interspecific competition results, and

one or both species suffer. Or, if the population of buffaloes is too

great then there will be intraspecific competition among the buffaloes,

again to the detriment of the competitors. However, if all the species

feed on different plants in the same area, or feed in different areas

entirely, and assuming a sufficient supply of food, then there

will be no competition.

The question arises, therefore, can the range support all the

animals? (‘Range’, as used. in this paper, refers to an unfenced,

naturally-vegetated area where livestock are permitted to forage

freely for food.) To answer this a study of the food habits of the

animals (do they graze or browse?) must be made, along with a

determination of the favoured food plants and the carrying capacity

of the range (the maximum number of animals the range can

support).

However, regarding the present large population of livestock

present in the sanctuary, I would like to adduce information from a

study made in the United States.

The Keoladeo Ghana area receives an average of 27 inches of

rainfall each year. In tropical India, this amount of precipitation is

considered semi-arid. Jn an area receiving 25-30 inches of rainfall

in the United States (a sub-humid condition in temperate North

America), it was found that eight to 15 acres of range in good

condition were required to support each cow for an entire year

(Chapline & Cooperrider, 1941). Jn contrast, it appears that at the

(onyouog ‘qd uvyng : o10yd)

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JOURN. BoMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I]

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Semi-arid thorn forest in Keoladeo Ghani Sanctuary: Typical of the un-foldec parts

of the Sanctuary. [n many places the trees are widely-spaced, and the ground is hard The

growih of grass is very sparse, and those which remain are probably of the less-palatable species.

(Photo: Julian P, Donahue)

SR Sessa eis a

screener onniess

An exclosure in Rajkot District, Gujarat: Within two years of the establishment of

the exclosure the more favourable tall-grass food species have begun to dominate. Compare

this with the area outside the excl»sure, where excessive grazing has continued

Photo taken in early July 1957, about two weeks after onset of monsoon,

(Courtesy of the photographer: Roy L. Donahue)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 647

Ghana Sanctuary each cow receives about a third of an acre of range,

or less than one-twentieth of the range required to properly maintain

an American cow without damage to either the range or the cow.

Because of the difference between the North American and Indian

situations, and also because these figures include the flooded as well

as the unflooded portions of the Ghana, it is difficult to draw a

satisfactory conclusion. However, it does appear that either the

Indian cow and buffalo can thrive on a fraction of the food required

by an American cow (which I do not believe) or that the range is

being overgrazed.

Briefly, this is what happens when a range is overgrazed. When

the vegetation is at its peak luxuriance (during the monsoon, in this

case) there is usually sufficient food for a normal number of cattle.

However, the cattle tend to choose the more palatable species as

they graze, and shun the undesirable species. As a result, the choice

food species are damaged so much by constant grazing pressure that

they frequently fail to produce seed, which is vital to maintain natural

revegetation. Only after the choice species have been grazed off do

the cattle begin to put any pressure on the less palatable species

which, by this time, may have produced seed. As a net result of

this process, the less palatable species tend to multiply. The most

palatable of these remaining plants are then eaten first and damaged,

which encourages the even more unpalatable species. ‘The process,

one can see, is a vicious circle that, year by year, encourages the

production of more and more weeds (Sampson, 1952).

If I understand correctly, the high livestock population of the

Ghana is maintained throughout the year. This situation is largely

a result of the protection of cattle by religious sentiment which, in

India, complicates range-management greatly. When the range

deteriorates in beef-eating countries, the cattle population is reduced

to a level that the range can safely support. At the present time

this cannot be done in India, and the cattle graze throughout the year.

In a situation like this, unregulated and constant grazing is one of

the most harmful methods that can be used. There are several

systems of controlled, rotated, or regulated grazing that would be

much more productive, both in terms of improvement of the range

and more food for cattle (Sampson, 1952).

Unfortunately, there are other complicating factors involved,

which I can only mention. The solution of these will have to be

sought by those. more qualified than I.

The buffaloes spend a large part of the day grazing on water

648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

plants. Because the production of aquatic vegetation may be, and

probably is, different from the production of terrestrial vegetation, a

new problem is introduced: How many acres of aquatic vegetation

are required to support a buffalo? Then again, the buffalo’s grazing

may be beneficial in that it prevents the aquatic plants from

dominating and completely choking the bodies of water.

The livestock, particularly buffaloes, may also be beneficial in

that they contribute nitrogenous waste to the water, thereby increas-

ing the fertility of the water which must produce the enormous

amounts of food necessary to maintain the huge bird populations—of

course, the fertility of the water will increase only if some of the

contributed waste is derived from terrestrial sources, in which case

the land area suffers the loss of that material removed (D. C. Finfrock,

personal communication). Or, as they graze, the buffaloes may

destroy or disturb the nests and young of birds which nest on or in

the aquatic vegetation, such as the Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus),

Pheasant-tatled Jacana (Hvdrophasianus chirurgus), Purple Moorhen

(Porphyrio porphyrio), Wattle Grebe (Podiceps ruficollis), White-

breasted Waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus), and others.

Another point for consideration is whether the disturbance of the

water by wallowing buffaloes, and the increased turbidity which

results have adverse or beneficial effects on the aquatic animal and

plant life.

Use of an exclosure is widely employed to judge the severity of

overgrazing, and to demonstrate what the range can produce if it is

properly managed. An exclosure is simply an area fenced to exclude

livestock, so that the natural vegetation can be observed undisturbed.

This method of study has been tried in India with surprising results.

In Rajkot District, Gujarat, an exclosure just two years old demon-

strated how rapidly the choice plant species repopulate an area

(Plate II, 2). Herdsmen must be told how they will benefit from

these studies, and how apparently wasted, lush vegetation will

eventually actually result in more food for their animals. In some

instances, the exclosure plots have been the object of local hostility.

and clandestine attempts were made to burn the plots.

These are just a few of the questions and problems that arise

when domestic livestock are permitted to range in the sanctuary,

seemingly indiscriminately. Although the Ghana Sanctuary is ‘.. .

protected by the Forest Department from the villagers’ axe and other

misuse .. ... (Bombay Natural History Society, undated page 2), I

think an equally serious condition is allowed to persist — what

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 649

appears to be serious overgrazing, trampling and compaction of the

soil, and destruction of natural habitat by livestock.

After the establishment of the Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary

through the persevering efforts of the Bombay Natural History Society,

the Bird Wing of the Indian Board for Wild Life, and the Government -

of Rajasthan, it would be a travesty to permit the existence of an

unnatural condition which detracts from the appreciation and effecti-

veness of this otherwise excellent sanctuary. Though the Forest

Department has a vested interest in the cattle population (one rupee

per year per cow, four rupees per year per buffalo), the choice must

be made whether the forest and range—the proper development of

which is apparently the prime function of the Department—are to

suffer so that the coffers can be enriched. Eventually, a more pro-

ductive forest and range should be more profitable if they are managed

with proper, scientifically-backed judgment.

116, SUNDAR NAGAR,

New DELHuI,

June 21, 1962.

JULIAN P. DONAHUE

REFERENCES

Allred, B. W. (1950) : Practical Grass-

land Management. Interstate Printers

and Publishers, Inc., Danville, [linois.

285 pp.

Bombay Natural History Society (un-

dated) : Breeding Waterbird Sanctuary :

Keoladeo Ghana, Bharatpur. Bombay.

28 pp.

Chapline, W. R. & C. K. Cooper-

rider (1941): Climate and grazing.

Climate and Man: 1941 Yearbook of

Agriculture. United States Department

ot ae 459-476. Washington,

Odum, Eugene P, (1959):

Funda-

mentals of Ecology, 2nd ed. W. B.

Saunders Company, Philadelphia. 546

pp.

Oosting, Henry J. (1958) : The Study

of Plant Communities, 2nd ed. W. H.

Freeman and Company, San Francisco.

440 pp.

Sampson, Arthur W. (1959): Range

Management—Principles and Practices.

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

570

pp.

Sharma, Y.M.L. (1959): Lessons in

Forestry. Indian Council of Agricultura]

Research, New Delhi. 186 pp.

United States Department of Agricul-

ture (1948): Grass: The 1948 Year-

book of Agriculture. Washington, D. C.

892 pp.

6. OCCURRENCE OF THE RED-BILLED, OR SHORT-TAILED,

TROPIC BIRD (PHAETHON AETHEREUS INDICUS HUME)

| AT BOMBAY

Rather late in the evening of 11 February 1962, in Versova

Creek, Salsette Island, Bombay, I noticed a strange bird.

It had all

the appearance of a tern flying in a straight line over the extensive

mangrove that covers the land from Manori Creek to Versova Creek.

650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

As it approached closer, I observed that its tail resembled that of

a parrot. At the point where the Versova Creek enters the sea it

flew rather low, hovering over the water for some time. At that

moment I noticed the colour of its bill to be orange-red, and the white

and black patterns quite clearly visible showed it to be a Tropic

Bird.

On Ist of July, a friend brought me a live sea bird that was

caught on the hook as it was trying to swallow the bait of a fisher-

man’s line, along the Marine Drive Avenue; and while trying to fly

away, had got entangled with the line and was thus caught alive.

Except for a long puncture inside its gullet, the bird was in perfect

condition. I soon realized that it was the same bird observed at

Versova Creek on the Ilth of February 1962. It was the Red-

billed, or Short-tailed, Tropic Bird, Phaéthon aethereus indicus Hume.

When skinning the bird, I noticed.that one of its testes was large,

about 17 mm. in length, and the other about 10 mm.; its stomach was

altogether empty. The next day a number of ticks were noticed in its

plumage. The fact that the bird was seen twice ‘in February and

July, together with the statement in the FAUNA that it breeds from

March to April would suggest the possibility that this bird may have

bred on some of the rocks that are not totally submerged during the

high tides, along the sea coast from Alibagh to Virar.

St. XAVIER’S HIGH SCHOOL.

BOMBAY 1, A. NAVARRO, s.J.

July 28, 1962.

[The Mallophaga obtained by Br. Navarro were sent to Dr. (Miss)

Theresa Clay, British Museum (Nat. Hist.), London, for identification,

and her reply reads in part: “There are two species of Mallophaga

represented: one, Saemundssonia sp. is not the species usually found

on Phaéthon aethereus, but appears to be near S. upoluensis (Rudow.

1870). Unfortunately, there is only one male and this is not in

sufficiently good condition for exact determination. Further material

from Phaéthon a. indicus is needed to show whether the population on

this bird represents a new species. The second species is Austro-

menopon becki (Kellogg, 1906), family Menoponidae. This species

appears to be parasitic on all the species of Phaéthon.’

Phaétnon indicus was described from the Mekran Coast and lays

its single egg on bare rocks under the shelter of a ledge or in a crevice

on the islands in the Persian Gulf. Sinclair (J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc,, 1886, 1; 168) stated that a white tropic-bird or ‘Boatswain-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 651

bird’, Paaeton candidus or Phaeton aetherius is not uncommon on

the Konkan coast, 16° to 21° north latitude, while Eha in ‘Ihe

Natural History of a Voyage trom Liverpool to Bombay’ (ibid., 1888,

3: 242) noted the species between Aden and Bombay.

Again Phillips (ibid., 1947, 46: 612) saw it every day trom Ist to

7th July 1945 between Aden and Karachi. Stray birds have been

secured in Ceylon and the Laccadives.—EDs.]

7. EXTENSION OF THE RANGE OF GREY HERON,

ARDEA C. CINEREA LINNAEUS

Dr. S. S. Godboie, Associate Professor of Anatomy and Curator

of the Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, sent us a ring bearing

Moskwa No. C-86541 obtained from a Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea

Linn.) found in early April 1962 on the banks of the Suvarna River,

Perampalli, Shivaili Panchayat, Udipi Taluk, South Kanara, Mysore

State.

The Russian Bird Ringing Bureau report that the ring was placed

on a young heron at Kazoty Lake on the lower reaches of the Talas

River, Dzhambul Region, Kazakh S.S.R. (c. 70° S.x40° 48’ N.) on

30 June 1961.

Stuart Baker in the FAUNA 6 : 339 accepted two races of the Grey

Heron (Ardea cinerea Linn.) in Indian limits, the typical form (type

locality : Sweden) being said to be a casual straggler to Sind and

Baluchistan, while the race rectirostris Gould (type locality : New

South Wales, later restricted to India) ranges from Mesopotamia to

Persia, India, Ceylon, Burma and further eastwards. Ripley in the

SYNOPSIS (p. 12) extends the range of cinerea southwards to Kutch

but does not mention the authority.

We do not have a sufficiently representative series to determine

the plumages at different ages, but the present specimen is a darker

grey above than the others in the same stage from peninsular India,

which together with the place of original ringing leaves little doubt

that this is of the typical race. This would therefore appear to be

a considerable extension of the recorded range of A. c. cinerea in

India.

This race is a well-known wanderer. In Aquila, the Journal of

the Institute of Ornithology, Hungary, for 1960-61, pp. 92 and 121.

reference is made to a young bird ringed at Kisbalaton 46° 40’ N.

and 17° 15’ E. in Hungary on 5 August 1957, being recovered at

652. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Bagimneda, French Sudan, in April 1958, some 4000 km. to the

south-west, and another juvenile ringed at Roya, Vessicgorsk, Kalima

District, S.S.R. (58° 30° N. and 37° 30’ E.) on 24 June 1951 being

found at Gyoma, Hungary on 10 June 1959, after 8 years.

BoMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY, .

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, EDITORS

BOMBAY 6,

June 30, 1962. :

8. INCREASE OF COTTON TEAL [NETTAPUS

COROMANDELIANUS (GMELIN)] IN WESTERN INDIA

in Blanford’s FAUNA (1898) the Cotton Teal [Nettapus coroman-

delianus (Gmelin)] was said to occur throughout the greater part of

India, and the neighbouring countries to the east, but to be rare in

Malabar, the Bombay Presidency, and Kathiawar and wanting in the

desert parts of Rajputana, Sind, and the western Punjab.

Subsequent to this it was noted from several places in Gujarat

but its rarity in Sind (Stuart Baker, INDIAN DUCKS AND THEIR ALLIES,

1921; Ticehurst, BIRDS OF SIND, 1923), Kutch (Abdulali, 1938, J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 122), and Bombay (Ali & Abdulali.

1939, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40 : 649) was not in doubt.

Up to about 1940, I had only seen the species twice near Bombay.

On 2 January 1939, C. J. Rae reported a bird trom Ghoti, Nasik

District, and on 3 March 1940 i shot one of a pair at Madhmeshwar

about 30 miles away from Nasik.

I then saw a pair at Powai, Salsette Island, in 1948, and noted

them again on 30 November 1951 (4 at Shil, Thana), 10 May 1953

(6 at Kihim, Alibag), and 18 May 1954 (a pair at Kihim).

In subsequent years they have increased in numbers and may now

be seen regularly in village tanks in the Konkan large enough to hold

duck. At Madhmeshwar, Nasik District (Bombay Deccan) small

flocks can now be seen on every trip.

In February 1959 and again in mid-March 1960, I had the oppor-

tunity of shooting in Kutch with M. K. S. Fatehsinhji. The Cotton

Teal was very frequently seen on the small lakes over which we

shot. There appears to be no doubt that this species has now spread

to and well established itself in areas where it was rare and/or absent

not many years ago. The bird is associated with weedy patches of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 653

water and it may be worthwhile examining its food to ascertain if

the distribution is associated with the seed of any aquatic plant which

may be its staple food. 7

BomsBay NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BompBay 6,

July 10, 1962.

9. PALE HARRIER [CIRCUS MACROURUS (S. G. GMELIN)|

TAKING A POND HERON [ARDEOLA GRAYII (SYKES)]

On 12 March 1962 while bird-watching with a group of students

at Ambernath, Kalyan Taluka, Thana District, Bombay (Maharashtra)

we saw a female Pale Harrier [Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin)]

suddenly drop and capture a Pond Heron [Ardeola grayii (Sykes)]

standing by the lakeside about 150 yards away from us. It continued.

its flight with its prey and settled some distance away. As I thought

it unusual for a harrier to take so large a bird I shot it and its

identity has been confirmed.

ST. XAVIER’S HIGH SCHOOL,

Bompray 1, A. NAVARRO, s.J.

June 21, 1962.

[Very little information is available regarding the food of harriers

in India. THE HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS, 3rd impression, Vol. 3,

p. 71, states that in addition to mice, field voles, water voles, frogs

and lizards, small birds including buntings, larks, sparrows, pipits.

and chicken were taken by harriers. In its winter quarters a Little

Crake is mentioned in its food, but there appears to be no record of

any bird as large as a Pond Heron having been captured by this

species. The larger Marsh Harrier (C. aeruginosus) often picks up a

dead or wounded duck.—Ebps.]

10. THE GREY PARTRIDGE [FRANCOLINUS

PONDICERIANUS (GMELIN)] EATING SNAKE —

Dr. Harold Trapido of the Virus Research Centre, Poona, recently

sent us the remains of a snake which Capt. H. A. Mohite had obtained

in the gizzard of a Grey Partridge Francolinus pondicerianus

(Gmelin) short near Dehu, Poona, Maharashtra State. The front

654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

portion of the snake was digested, but the markings and scalation on

the tail end showed it to be Boiga trigonata which must have been

some nine inches in length. Partridges are omnivorous but I have

been unable to find a record of one eating a snake!

BomBay NATuRAL History SOcIEgTY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, P. W. SOMAN

BOMBAY 6,

May 4, 1962.

ll. THE UNUSUAL BATH OF A LORIKEERT [LORICULUS

VERNALIS (“SPARRMAN)] AND A MAGPIE-ROBIN

[COPSYCHUS SAULARIS (LINN.)]

On the morning of 11 December 1961 I went from Kodaikanal,

Madurai District, Madras, down to the 16-mile post on the road to

the plains (9 miles ENE. Kodaikanal, map distance) to do some

birdwatching. The area, at an elevation of 3900 ft. (c. 1200 m.) in the

Palni Hills, consisted largely of banana plantations with an under-

storey of coffee. There were also patches otf forest scattered throughout

the area.

The day was overcast, and it had rained a few hours before,

during the night. All the vegetation was wet and, as there was little

or no wind, droplets of water remained on the vegetation.

The strange behaviour of a Lorikeet, Loriculus vernalis

(Sparrman), then attracted my attention. The Lorikeet was standing

on the midrib of a slightly-inclined banana leaf, on the surface of

which some droplets of water had collected. Then the bird lay down

and, still clutching the midrib with its toes, rolled its body in an arc

along the surface of the leaf. The bird then stood up, fluffed its

feathers, and repeated this cycle several more times—apparently

taking a bath with the aid of the few drops of trapped moisture.

After several minutes of this activity the bird departed. The bird

was silent during the entire period of observation.

A short while later, in the same area, I got a glimpse of a

Magpie-Robin, Copsychus saularis (Linnaeus), which seemed to be

taking a similar bath, but this bird was utilizing the moisture standing

on the leaf of an unidentified broadleafed tree.

116, SUNDAR NAGAR,

New DELHI, JULIAN P. DONAHUE

August 14, 1962.

_—__—

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 655

12, AN ORNITHOLOGICAL TRIP TO THE GULF OF KUTCH

In June, 1962, while discussing possible ornithological excursions

with K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji we thought that a visit to the Chankha,

Nora, Baida, Ajar, and other uninhabited islands at the western end

of the Gulf of Kutch, in which area Lester many years ago suspected

the nesting of Curlew (Numenius arquata), would be interesting.

The Department of Fisheries (Survey & Research), Government of

Gujarat, were very co-operative and offered to place a launch at our

disposal at Salaya near Jamnagar. Landings could apparentiy be

made at high tide only. A trip planned for 28 June had to be

cancelled at the last mom€nt owing to unfavourable weather, but another

was arranged for 28-30 July, and on Friday, 27 July, I arrived at

Jamnagar, the launch having left for Salaya the previous day. Before

we left for Salaya a message arrived that high winds had forced the

boat to take shelter at Sikka half way down the Gulf, followed by

messages from Y. S. Shivrajkumar of Jasdan and Mr. H. N. Acharya

of Ahmedabad that they would not be able to join me at Jamnagar

as scheduled. As the Society’s Field Assistant, P. B. Shekar, had

reached Jamnagar, I thought we would visit Sikka and decide if the

trip was possible. The country between Jamnagar and Sikka was

cultivated and studded with patches of scrub eminently suitable for

partridge, Not a single partridge was seen along the 20-mile drive;

local information was that all game birds and antelope had been

shot out by the military personnel stationed in the neighbouring

areas. Peafowl appeared to have been spared and in one village at

least they were plentiful and tame — we stopped to watch a cock

displaying (with his back to the wind) to two hens a few yards away.

both of which appeared to be quite uninterested and unconcerned.

The loud pee-haon of the cock uttered with the neck drawn back

prompted similar calls from at least five other cocks, none of which

was more than 300 yards away. When displaying, the chestnut wing

quills are hung low near the ground, and quivered most of the time.

During the 9 minutes that we watched the display the tail feathers

were thrice vibrated, moving the larger tail (coverts) too.

At Sikka, there was still a high wind and Mohamed, an experienced

assistant of the Fisheries Department, and Usman, in charge of the

launch, were agreed that it would not be possible to go westward to

Nora. However, they offered to take us to the islands around the

Pirotan Lighthouse and work back to Jamnagar. They were sure

that many birds nested on the islands. The 30-ton launch was rest-

ing high and dry in a tidal creek but with the rising of the tide at

656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.’SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

about 11 a.m. we took off. A flock of 30-40 Whimbrel (Numenius

phaeopus) was seen in the mangrove at Sikka, as also Curlew (N.

arquata), Redshanks (Tringa totanus), and a few Marsh Sandpipers

(Tringa stagnatilis). A flock of Blacktailed Godwits (Limosa limosa),

several of which had rust-coloured breasts, passed over us and I saw

a single Great Stone Plover (Burhinus oedicnemus). A little after

we left the shore, large green ‘islands’ showed on all sides, but upon

closer approach they turned out to be the tops of mangroves standing

in several feet of water and with no dry areas on which plover or any

other ground-breeding birds could nest. However, we saw several

colonies of Painted Storks (/bis leucocephalug). The nests were only

a few feet above the water level and the birds, standing by their eggs

and seen from a distance of about 20 yards, presented a most

beautiful spectacle. In the adjacent mangrove numbers of Grey

Herons (Ardea cinerea), Reef Egrets [Demiegretta asha (?)], Large

(or Middle?) Egrets (Egretta alba or intermedia), White Ibis

(Threskiornis melanocephala), and Darters (Anhinga melanogaster)

were also nesting. As at other colonies of this kind, House Crows

were present and waiting for a chance to steal an egg or a chick.

Several crow nests were also seen in the mangrove swamp (one with

two half-fledged young), indicating that the crows have colonised

these ‘islands’.

The Darter has always been treated as a freshwater bird and it

is interesting to note that here some nested in tidal waters. An adult

which dived and swam well was collected and found to have its

wing quills moulting and hardly an inch and a half in length. This

flightless condition has been noted in several species of duck, while

wintering in India, but I have not seen it mentioned for any of the

Phalacrocoracidae.

Without a small boat or canoe, the mangroves were impenetrable.

We saw a countrycraft on a strip of sand along a large flat island

just south of the Pirotan Lighthouse. The sand appeared to have

been recently wetted but the boatmen assured us that the island was

extensive and we pulled alongside the countrycraft which was loaded

with sand. We dropped into waist-deep water and wading to the

Shore walked along the sand-strip towards the Lighiouse which

appeared to be only a couple of miles away. The strip of sand bore

a sparse growth of stunted Salvadora persica which bordered a large

mangrove swamp. Here we saw old droppings of camel, and Curlew.

Whimbrel, and Redshank frequently.

As the tide receded and exposed larger areas of mud, we returned

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 657

to the launch to consider further activities and found it high and

dry and tar from the water’s edge. The sand-laden craft, we now

learnt, had been there for four days and was waiting for a tide high

enough to float it off! We were assured that it would be possible to

take off on the night tide and we spent the rest of the day walking

about the island. Several Gull-billed Terns (Gelochelidon nilotica)

and Little Terns (Sterna minuta) were seen. Three specimens of the

latter were collected, two with yellow bills tipped with black, and all.

black in the third which also showed immature plumage on the upper

surface. The legs and feet were yellowish-green in all the specimens

which together with the black shafts to the first three primaries,

appeared to make them saundersi.

Single specimens of Oyster-Catcher (Haematopus ostralegus), Grey

Plover (Pluvialis squatarola), and Little Green Bittern (Butorides

striatus) were noted, as also a pair of Black-necked Storks

(Xenorhynchus asiaticus). Small parties of Sand Plovers (Charadrius

leschenaulti, and asiaticus) were seen; two leschenaulti collected had

undeveloped gonads. Except for a glimpse of a bulbul, a Wren

Warbler (Shekar reported an Ashy Wren Warbler), and a few swifts

(Apus affinis) which hawked over the island for some time, no other

birds were seen. As the tide dropped, large areas of mud were

exposed and it was possible to walk on to an island half a mile away,

which no doubt was similarly connected with the one beyond and

sO on.

A coral reef exposed many small and brightly coloured animals’,

including several octopuses (Octopus sp.) in shallow pools—the'’

boatmen were quite familiar with the extraordinary manner in which

the octopus would flow and disappear into narrow slits or crevices

as soon as one of its arms had found and entered it. We also saw

them throw out smoke-screens which were extraordinarily effective.

At night we saw a pair of jackal and wondered what they did when

the island was completely flooded.

The night tide failed to float us off and we were cheerfully

informed that the next one would certainly do so. The following

morning was also spent wandering around the island and anxiously

waiting for the tide which took us off before noon. On the way to

Jamnagar, we circled round an island colony of Painted Storks and

had a better look at their nests and the other birds. The Reef Egrets

nesting in the mangrove appeared to be much larger and darker than

1 See P. W. Gideon et al., (1957) : On the Marine Fauna of the Gulf of Kutch,

A Preliminary Survey. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54 (3): 690-706,

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

the birds usually seen in and around Bombay. Actually I shot the

first bird which I saw at Salaya as after examination through glasses

it appeared to me to be a species I had not seen before. The material

available in Bombay does not permit a definite identification.

Except for a flight of Little Cormorants (Phalacrocorax niger) and

a tern with a yellow bill and a long forked tail (Sterna aurantia) no

other birds were seen. We reached Bedi Bunder at about 2 p.m.

on Sunday, and flew into Bombay the following day.

Mr. Sukumaran of the Fisheries Department, Government of

Gujarat, was with us all the time and we are grateful for the assistance

received. It has not been possible to obtain a very clear indication

of the islands, but several of the birds mentioned above and believed

to be migrants into India are exceptionally early. Perhaps they may

be found breeding on some of these little known places, I hope that

it will soon be possible to reach these islands and settle the matter

one way or the other.

BomBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BOMBAY 6,

August 24, 1962.

13. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON ‘THE BIRDS OF

GUJARAT’ FROM BIRDS COLLECTED IN THE SURAT DANGS

in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society [Vol. 52

(2 & 3), August-December 1954, and 52 (4), April 1955] Dr. Salim Ali

published an excellent paper on “The Birds of Gujarat’.

It is the purpose of this note to add a few supplementary notes

to Dr. Ali’s list of the birds in Gujarat State.

-Through the courtesy of Mr. Charles E. O’Brien of the American

Museum I have received photo copy lists of my first 238 specimens

as identified and entered into the Museum catalogue; and more

recently a list of the remaining 225 specimens in my collection

(Collection numbers 239-463) as identified by Dr. B. Biswas of the

Zoological Survey of India. From my total collection of 463 speci-

mens 298 were collected in the Surat Dangs area. In all, 140 species —

of birds were collected in the Surat Dangs, but only the six species

which represent some new information concerning the birds for the

whole State of Gujarat will be mentioned here.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 659

The systematic list below follows the same arrangement of families

as listed in Dr. Sdlim Ali’s ‘The Birds of Gujarat’.

Circus pygargus (Linnaeus): Montagu’s Harrier

S4lira Ali wrote: ‘No specimens collected and not definitely

identified in the field, .... [4. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 (2 & 3):

400].

The following specimens were collected by me:

Sept. 18, 1954, Ahwa, Coll. No. 344, of.

Oct. 23, 1954, Pandwa, Coll. No. 362, 9.

This species is an uncommon winter visitor in the Dangs.

Cuculus poliocephalus poliocephalus Latham : Small Cuckoo

This bird is not listed in the Survey report. One specimen was

collected as follows:

Oct. 5, 1953, Mulchond, Coll. No. 136, 9.

Cuculus micropterus micropterus Gould : Indian Cuckoo

This bird is not listed in the Survey report. One specimen was

collected as follows:

July 14, 1954, Mulchond, Coil. No. 327, 92, ovaries enlarged.

The fact that this specimen was in breeding condition would

indicate that this species breeds in Gujarat State.

Pitta brachyura brachyura (Linnaeus) : Indian Pitta

The Journal states: ‘Not seen or heard by the Survey between

August and mid April, in Kutch, Saurashtra or Gujarat’ [J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 52 (2 & 3): 454].

The following specimens were collected:

July 4, 1954, Mulchond, Coll. No. 326, ot, testes enlarged.

August 13, 1954, Mulchond, Coll. No. 333, imm.

_ The Pitta is fairly common during the monsoon months in the

Dangs and breeds in this area.

Turdus citrina cyanotus (Jardine & Selby): Whitethroated Ground

Thrush

Only one specimen was collected in the State of Gujarat and this

represents ‘the sole example met with by the Surveys.’ [J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 52 (4): 770]. |

The following specimens were collected:

March 20, 1954, Mahal, Coll. No. 259, co, testes not enlarged.

August 17, 1954, Mulchond, Coll. No. 337, 9, ovaries enlarged.

This species is an uncommon resident in the Dangs,

660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Calandrella cinerea dukhunensis (Sykes) : Short-toed Lark

The following specimens were collected:

Oct. 20, 1954, Ahwa, Coll. No. 357, 358, oc", testes not enlarged.

Not listed in Survey report. Status uncertain in the Dangs.

The remaining 134 species of birds collected in the Surat Dangs,

and now in the American Museum, agree with the species recorded

in ‘The Birds of Gujarat’. Some of the subspecies, as identified for

me, are different from those recorded by Salim Ali in his survey but

their discussion does not come within the scope of this note.

DANGS RURAL BOARDING SCHOOL,

CHURCH OF THE BRETHREN MISSION, ERNEST M. SHULL

AuHWA, VIA BILIIMORA,

DANGS DistTRICT, GUJARAT STATE,

July 25, 1962.

14. NOTES ON BIRDS FROM SOUTH INDIA

The following notes on birds of south India may be of interest.

Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert) : The Whitenecked Stork

A pair of these birds have nested in a Bombax tree near the

Aranya Nivas Hotel in the Periyar Game Sanctuary this year. This

is an extremely uncommon occurrence as the bird is distinctly rare

here and I have only once observed it at the Periyar Lake hitherto.

The previous observation was made on 19 March 1961 when a pair

of birds were seen flying overhead near to the present nesting site,

I noticed an old nest in the same tree so it seems likely that the birds

bred or attempted to breed here last year. At the time of writing

the pair seem to be looking after young in the nest and it seems likely

that they will be successful in rearing the brood as the nest is in

an extremely inaccessible spot.

Halcyon pileata (Boddaert): Blackcapped Kingfisher

I had the good fortune to see a pair of these kingfishers at a

tank near Uthamapalayam in the Cumbum Valley of the Madurai

District on the 24th and the 26th December 1961. As this place is far

inland from the sea, over 100 miles, I think the occurrence

of these birds there must be very unusual, and so this record may be

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 661

of interest. A single bird was seen at the same place on 15 April

1962.

Motacilla indica (Gmelin) : Forest Wagtail

Mr. P. J. Sanjeeva Raj noted the Forest Wagtail at Tambaram,

Madras (Chingleput District, from 19 September to 17 October (J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 1960, 57 : 220-1) presumably on their way

south and then again from 11 to 28 April (ibid., 1961, 58 : 269) on

their way back. I have the following dates of their arrival in the

Peermade-Vandiperiyar District of Kerala at an _ altitude of

é= 3000 it:

1948 wh 23 September

1949 a 19 September

1950 = 5 October

1951 Ay 7 October

1952 a No record

1953 a 4 October

1954 ats No record

1955 a No record

1956 c 5 November

1957 oe 19 September

1958 ie No record

1959 of 21 September

1960 ms No record. The species seemed to be very scarce

this year.

1961 Ae No record

The reason for no record in certain years is because I was away

from India. I have very few records of the date last seen in the

district but it would seem that the bird passes through this district

at the beginning of May because I have the following last seen

records: 2 May 1954, 2 May 1955, 6 May 1961.

PAMBANAR ESTATE,

PEERMADE P.O., : M. C. A. JACKSON

KERALA STATE, SOUTH INDIA,

March 24, 1962.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

662

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15:

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS

)

——_—$ $$

Ring No. Species Date of Ringing Rae Recovered on | Roe Remarks

| | |

| | 3

Moskwa Ardea cinerea | | 1/15-6-1952 Astrakhan-Zapo- December 1956 | Shatra, Muntafik | The recovery was re-

C 32.154 | juv. vednik c. 45° 50’ Liwa in SW. Iraq ported in /raq. nat,

| N., Astrakhan Hist. Mus. Publica-

Region. | tion No. 14: 20

| | | (1958), and the in-

| | | formation regarding

| | the date and place

| of ringing subse-

quently received

from the USSR.

Moskwa Anas clypeata 19-8-1955 Astrakhan-Zapo- | December 1956 do. | ibid. This was record-

E 287-730 ad. 2 vednik c. 46° 14’ | edasa Grey Heron

| N. x 49° 00’ E. |

x — ee | E

Moskwa Plegadis falcinellus 3/4-7-1956 Kyzyl-Agach December 1956 | do. do.

D 313-477 juv. Zapovednik c. | |

39° N. = 48° 50’ | |

E., Azerbaijan,

| USSR. |

Moskwa Egretta alba 5-7-1956 Nr. Primorsko- 19th Dec. 1957 | 60km. E. of Mosul, do.

B 49.570 juv. Akhtarsk c. 46° | Iraq

03’ N. x 38° 09’ | |

E., Krasnodar | |

territory

Moskwa Sturnus yulgaris | 25/29-5-1959 Nicolaevka, c. 53° | 22nd Feb. 1960 | 60 km.E. of Mosul, do.

F 559-117 | juv. 08’ N.x 47° 12’ | Iraq

| E., Oulianovak,

| USSR.

| |

| | | > |

Moskwa | Nycticorax nyctico- | 28-5-1954 Kyzyl-Agach | 5th April 1949 | Near Baghdad, The recovery was re-

C 57.137 rax juv. Zapovednik, c. | Iraq | ported in Iraq. nat.

39° N. x 48° 51’ | Hist. Mus. Publica-

| E., Azerbaijan, | tion No. 18: 33

| USSR. | | (1960), and the in-

| | formation regarding

| | the date and place

| | | of ringing subse-

| | | quently __receiyed

| | from the USSR.

| | |

Moskwa | Sturnus vulgaris 25-5-1959 Leninsk-Kuznetskii, 3rd Jan. 1960 Lahore, West Pakis- Reported by Mr. Mian

F 608-118 poltaratskyi juv. c. 54° 40’ N. x | tan Nasim Akhtar, 57

| 86° 10’ E., Keme-| Higa tNever Road,

i aghbanpur,

rovo Region Tabores Py. Pakis-

tan.

| } =

Moskwa | Anas strepera 18-7-1959 Kurgaldzhin Lake,c.| 26th Feb. 1961 | Srinagar, Kashmir | Reported by Col. H.

E 551-110 | ad. 50° 30’ N. x 69° Nedou, Srinagar.

| 35’ E., 150 km.

| | SW. from Akmo- |

| linsk Kazakh

| SSR., USSR. |

| | | |

799

(2) 6§ ‘1°A ‘ALFIDOS “ISIH TRYALYN A¥IWOT ‘TYNYNOL

SALON SQOUNFVTIFOSIN

£99

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

664

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS—(contd.) R

ae. ee een

RingNo. | Species Date of Ringing | Place of ue :

| e inging Ringing Recovered on | Renae | Remarks s

hats a | 2

| | | 5

Moskwa | A | 2 | i | a

Mosk nas acuta SUEUR |Kurgaldzhin Lake, ¢.| January 1959 | Bodhnambal Jheel, | Reported by ShriS.S. &

4 | | ad. BY, ay Ne 69 | 11 miles from Gergan, Game ' 8

| RC km. Srinagar | Warden, Srinagar. S

| SW. from Akmo- e ; &

| linskKazakh SSR. | | a

| | ¥

| | z

— q

Moskwas Anas acuta | 4-8-1946 [Near about Shilokh-| November 1947 | 50 km. south of _ | Reported by the Bird S

i | ad. ¢ vost, Astrakhan Madras, S. India | Ringing Centre Ss

See Sanctuary, | USSR Academy of

of River | i a

Volga, Astrakhan | issn oe 5

| District. 2 :

| iS

| Q

| | E | 5

Moskwa Ardea cinerea cinerea 30-6-1961 Kazoty Lake on the! Oo | i =<

| | n the banks of the| Obtained Ee

C 86541 lower reaches of early April Suvarna River, | ed by DeSS od. ~

the Talas River | 1962 Perampalli, Shi- bole, Associate Pro- 2

(c. 70 E, = 40 valli Panchayat, fessor of Anatomy wy,

48’ N.), Dzham- Udipi Taluk, and Curator, Kas- ©

bul Region, South Kanara, turba Medical Col-

Kazakh SSR. Mysore State. lege, Manipal,South —

Kanara.

— Oe acces easiness

Bombay | Passer hispaniolen- 31-3-1962* | Bharatpur, Rajas- 2nd June 1962 | Near Chokpar | Reported by the Bird

A-11523 sis. transcaspicus ad. ¢ than, 27° 13’ (Chekinda), | Ringing Centre,

INGE TP EVIE || Georgievka Dis- || USSR Academy of

| | | trict, Dzhambul. || Sciences, Moscow,

j region, Kazakh || USSR.

SSR, c. 43° 03’

N. x 74° 43’ E. ||These are two of the 12

| ringed birds found

| amongst 53,500

| dead sparrows ex-

Bombay Passer hispaniolen- 3-4-1962* do. | 29th May 1952 do. , amined out of over

A-12039 sis transcaspicus ad. ¢. 1.8 millions recently

destroyed by pois-

| oned grain, by the

| Djambul Plant Pro-

tection Station. All

| the others had been

tinged in the same

| locality in previous

| years.

j i |

a 88

* These two birds were ringed in the course of BNHS/ WHO Bird Migration Field Project

SALON SQOFANVTIFISIN

BomBay NATURAL HIisToRY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD,

Bomsay 6, . EDITORS

August 8, 1962.

$99

666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

16. NOTES ON SOME AMPHIBIANS OF THE DARJEELING

AREA, WEST BENGAL

(With four plates)

Between 1958 and 1959 a small collection of amphibians was

made in and around Darjeeling, 7200 ft.. (2200 m.), Darjeeling

District, West Bengal. The number of species found is small and

1 am inclined to believe that elevations ranging from 0 to 5000 ft.

(c. 1500 m.) are likely to be more productive for variety of species.

Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson: The Himalayan Newt (Plate I)

This is reported by Annandale to be abundant between 4500 ft. to

5000 ft. (c. 1400-1500 m.) in the Kurseong area. His statement that

it is found in restricted areas is perhaps due to the fact that these

secretive creatures are only seen during the breeding season in May

when they. congregate at pools to lay their eggs.

Specimens were collected from a perennial pool at an elevation

of 6500 ft. (c. 2000 m.) at Sonada in May. I was reliably informed

that newts have been observed breeding in this pool for several years

and it appears to be one of the regular breeding sites. It may be

noted here that Annandale observed them breeding in temporary rain-

water pools at Kurseong. The newts were usually seen resting in

water at the edge of the pool. Occasionally a newt would come up

from the depths of the pool to capture tadpoles of the toad (Bufo

himalayanus) swimming at the top. In captivity they stayed out of

water, and remained motionless for considerable periods, becoming

active only when earthworms, which they took readily, were put into

the container. They were uniform brown in colour with the tail

edge orange. They cast their skins approximately every fortnight.

In amplexus the male approaches the female from below and holds

her by hooking his forelegs over hers.

Tadpoles of the Himalayan Newt, which stay at the bottom were

also collected from the same pool. They were olive-brown in colour,

profusely speckled with darker markings. All the tadpoles collected |

were in the four-legged stage, and three of them metamorphosed in

captivity. The change-over to the adult form is completed in two

days during which the animal does not feed. Eight tadpoles varied

in size from 39 mm. to 57 mm. agreeing with those described by

Smith (Rec. Ind. Mus. 26 : 309). The juvenile newts measured 50,

48, and 55 mm, |

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLADE |

TYLOTOTRITON VERRUCOSUS ANDERSON

Adult

Tadpoles

(Photos: Durga Das)

JouRN. BomBAy Nat. HIST. SOC. PLaTE J]

Megophrys parva Boulenger

(Photos: Durga Das)

JouRN. BomBAY Nat. HIsT. Soc. PLATE III

; i

: i

{

: i

i i

i ;

{

é i

Rana annandalii Boulenger

JoURN. BomMBay Nat. HIST. SOc. PLATE IV

PHILAUTUS ANNANDALII BOULENGER, MALE

SERS

Calling

(Photos: Durga Das)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 667

Megophrys parva Boulenger (Plate IT)

This Pelobatid toad is common in the vicinity of Darjeeling. The

call resembles the sound produced by striking two stones together,

and can be heard during the early part of the rainy season emanating

from heavy undergrowth bordering hill streams.

In breeding males the inside of the thighs are bright red. The

characteristic tadpoles with the funnel-shaped mouth were not found

near Darjeeling, but were collected at an altitude of c. 5500 it.

(c. 1700 m.).

Megophrys major Boulenger (Plate IT)

Only two specimens, both females, were collected, one at

c. 5500 ft. and the other in a forested area at Darjeeling where its

uniform brown coloration with darker markings perfectly matched

the dry leaves on the forest floor. The Darjeeling specimen (80 mm.)

collected in September had the ovaries dormant whilst the specimen

(101 mm.) from the lower elevation collected in June had enlarged

ovaries with eggs 2 mm. in diameter.

Bufo himalayanus Gunther : The Himalayan Toad

This is the common toad in the Darjeeling area. Breeding begins

as early as March and tadpoles are abundant in still pools during

June-July. This species differs from Bufo melanostictus Schneider,

the Common Indian Toad, only by the smaller tympanum (less than

half diameter of eve as against 2 in melanostictus). Bufo melano-

stictus was not noted in Darjeeling but has been collected at

Kalimpong, 4500 ft. (c. 1400 m.). These toads retire to their winter

shelters in late November and appear again in March.

Rana leibigii Giinther : The Himalayan Bull Frog

This is common but rarely seen as it prefers forested area and

Streams with heavy vegetational. cover at the sides. The four

specimens collected were all females. There is considerable variation

in colour from light brown to dark grey. The ovarian eggs are rather

large averaging 5 mm. in diameter. In the Darjeeling area large

numbers are caught as they are considered to be of medicinal value.

This species has an altitudinal range from 4000 ft. to 13,000 ft.

(c. 1200-4000 m.).

Rana annandalii Boulenger 1920: Annandale’s Frog

Tadpoles of this are common in almost all hill streams in the

vicinity of Darjeeling during the monsoon. They are seen usually

under rocks at the bottom of pools in the stream. The buccal disc

668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

has papillae on the sides and two complete rows of papillae on the

lower lip, which are used for holding on to rocks against the flow of the

current. The adult is hard to find in the dense herbage by the side

of streams. In this species the dorso-lateral glandular fold peters

out at the shoulder as can be seen from the photograph in Plate III.

Philautus annandalii Boulenger 1906: Annandale’s Bush Frog

This is the commonest frog in the Darjeeling area during the

months of May, June, and July, when hillsides resound to their call

at night. The calling gradually goes down in intensity after July and

ceases by September. The call which has a ventriloquistic effect can

be syllabilised as dik dikdik. The vocal sac, which acts as a

resonator is, when inflated, equal to or slightly larger than the frog

in size.

They are mainly nocturnal but are sometimes heard during the

day, when the sky is overcast and misty.

' The frogs vary in colour being light or dark grey-brown or

blackish-brown. The markings on the body are constant, consisting

of a dark band between the eyes and a similar streak running from

behind ithe eye along each side of the body on to the thigh and leg.

Ventrally it is an immaculate white. The male has the inside of his

thighs bright red in May, June, and July. The specimens collected

varied in length from 17 mm. to 20 mm. Tadpoles were not

collected.

This species has an altitudinal range of 3000 to 9000 ft. (c. 900-

2700" m.):

BomMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR RoaD, J. C. DANIEL

BomBay 6, Curator

August 22, 1962.

17. A NOTE ON THE NATURAL DESTRUCTION OF

VALUABLE FISH SEED!

(With a photograph)

Most of the Indian carps are known to breed during the

monsoon months from June to August, in shallow marginal areas of

rivers. Their fecundity is very high, but much of the spawn is

destroyed in large quantities at various stages of development and 19

1 Published with the kind permission of the Fisheries Development Adviser to the

Government of India, New Delhi.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 669

not available for recruitment to the fishery. Large scale destruction

of breeders and juvenile fishes has been reported by various workers.

Jhingran & Chakraborty (1958) have described in detail the loss

sustained by the destruction of fingerlings in the River Ganga. This

note describes two interesting observations on the large scale mortality

of valuable fish seed at the egg stage, due to natural causes.

Impressions on soft mud left by stranded eggs

Narbada River. The senior author (SJR) while working

in “Boori’ Narbada, a breeding ground in Narbada River of Madhya

Pradesh, observed spawning taking place on the morning of 23-8-1957

(Rajan & Kaushik, 1958). Spawn collection nets were fixed and

twenty lakhs of eggs were collected from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m., when

the water stopped abruptly and there was no further coliection that

day. Early next day large quantities of eggs in an advanced stage

of development were found stranded on the margins of the channel,

in the soft mud. Spawn collection nets fixed in the channel, where

the water was flowing, did not yield any results. About 22 lakhs

of eggs were quickly collected from the soft mud with drag sheets.

A large number, however, could not be collected as they hatched out

and died, leaving egg impressions on the ground. These egg im-

pressions were noticed from near Tamacheru village to Muriakhera

village, a strip about 14 miles long and 4 to 5 ft. wide, forming a

closely fitted mosaic of uniform dots on the smooth and siiky mud.

On an average there were about fifty impressions in each square inch

of mud.

670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

In 1958 on the day of observation, the flow of water was continuous

in ‘Boori’ Narbada and all eggs collected were by spawn collection

nets fixed in the channel; the stranding of eggs was not noticed.

Manjira River. For the past three years (1959-61) the

present authors have collected large quantities of eggs near Sardana

village, on the Manjira River (a tributary of the Godavari) in Andhra

Pradesh. The collection was being made in the river on the

northern bank. Under normal conditions three good collections are

made coinciding with the three floods in the river, during June, July,

and August. In 1959 and 1961, large quantities of eggs were collected

in the June flood; large numbers of eggs were however found stranded

on the northern bank, leaving millions of deep impressions on the

soft mud (see photograph). These impressions were not found on the

southern bank; nor were they seen during the other months (July

and August). In 1960 there were drought conditions in this area and

the first flood came only in July; here again the egg impressions were

not noticed.

The destruction of breeders and fingeriings, usually by human

agencies, stands no comparison with the natural destruction described

in this note. Since it is not practicable to prevent the stranding of

the spawn, it is felt that the only method of saving such large quanti-

ties of valuable fish seed is by collecting them from breeding grounds.

CENTRAL FISHERIES EXTENSION UNIT,

HYDERABAD, S. J. RAJAN

May 20, 1962. D. VEERARAGHAVA REDDI

REFERENCES

Jingran, V.G. & Chakraborty, R.D. Rajan, S.J. & Kaushik, D.K. (1958) :

(1958): Destruction of major carp fin- ‘Boori’ Narbada makes a good fish

gerlings in a section of river Ganga and breeding sanctuary. Indian Farming

its probable adverse effect on fish pro- 7(12) : 20-3

duction. Indian J. Fish. 5: 291-9.

18. A NOTE ON THE COLORATIGN OF HALIEUTAEA

STELLATA (WAHL.)

(With a_ plate)

FHalieutaea stellata (Wahl.), a representative of the interesting

genus Halizutaea Cuv. & Val., the Pediculati or anglers, occurs in

the seas of India and Malaya Archipelago. Day (1878) has given a

figure of a specimen of this species, which he collected from Madras.

The colour of the fish is described as pinkish.

JOURN. BomBAY NAT. HIstT. Scc.

Pomacanthus semicirculatus (Cuv. & Val.)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 671

Very recently a single specimen of this species was obtained at

Porto Novo in fish catches with thuri valai, from about the six fathom

line in the sea. In the diagnostic characters the specimen resembles

very closely H. stellata described by Day (i878). But one striking

difference is found in the coloration. The dorsal surface is pinkish,

and the ventral deep pink. The most characteristic feature, however.

is the presence of dark markings on the dorsal surface. The local

Muslims decipher in these markings the words ‘Muhammed-Hussain’

in Arabic characters. Large numbers of Muslims have been visiting

the Biological Station to see this specimen. This reminds us of what

Norman (1958) has written regarding the markings on Pomacanthus.

semicirculatus (Cuy. & Val.), which caused considerable excitement

in Zanzibar.

Apart from the validity of this, the markings are interesting as

they have not been previously described either by Day (1878) or by

Munro (1955). The markings do not fade in the preserved specimen

unlike the pink background which fades rapidly in the preserved

condition.

The specimen obtained in Porto Novo measures 16.8 cm. It is

now preserved in the Ichthyological Museum of the Marine Biological

Station, Porto Novo. A photograph of the specimen is reproduced.

The ‘tentacle’ at the snout is retracted and does not appear in the

photograph.

My’ thanks are due to Prof. R. V. Seshiya, Director, Marine

Biological Station, Porto Novo, for his kind help and encouragement.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION,

Porto Novo, S. INp1A, T. VENKATESWARLU

December 12, 1961.

REFERENCES

Day, Francis (1878): The Fishes of and Fresh Water Fishes of Ceylon.

India. London Canberra.

Munro, I.S.R. (1955): The Marine Norman, J.R. (1958): A History of

Fishes. London.

[Along with the photograph sent by T. Venkateswarlu, we re-

produce one of the Koran, or Butterfly-Fish (Pomacanthus semicir-

culatus). The markings on the tails of some of the specimens can be

read as Shan-e-Allah (Greatness of God). It is common in the

Indian Ocean and specimens have been exhibited at the Taraporevala

Aquarium, Bombay, to whom we are grateful for the photograph

reproduced.— EDs. ]

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

i9. INTERTIDAL ECHINODERMATA OF BOMBAY!

(With two plates)

The taxonomy of echinoderms in Indian waters has attracted

attention of scientists since the last seventy years. ‘The collections of

the Indian Marine Survey Ship ‘Investigator’ and those of the Indian

Museum have been dealt with by Wood-Mason & Alcock (1891),

Alcock (1893), Anderson (1894), Koehler (1898-1927). Koehler &

Vaney (1905, 1908), and A. H. Clark (1909-1932). Bell (1886, 1887),

Doderlein, Pearson (1903), Chadwick (1904), Herdman (1904), and

H. L. Clark (1915) have published several reports on the echinoderms

of Ceylon. Duncan & Sladen (1889), Carpenter (1889), and Brown

(1910) have worked on the echinoderm fauna of Mergui Archipelago.

Bell has described the echinoderms of the Andamans (1887), Bengal

(1888), ‘Tuticorin (1888), and the Laccadives and Maldives (1902).

Lastly, Thurston (1887) and Gravely (1927) have worked on the

echinoderms of Rameswaram and Krusadai respectively.

The echinoderm fauna of the west coast of the Indian subcontinent

however, has not received much attention in the past, except for the

records by Kurian (1953) of the echinoderms of Travancore: (south

India). The vast area north of this up to the Persian Gulf has

remained unexplored, except for stray records of a few specimens

from Karachi, Honavar, and Mangalore by Koehler (1927), and for

the work of Patil (1953) at Karwar. The latter has, however,

identified most of the specimens only up to their genera. It was,

therefore, decided to make a representative collection of echinoderms

from Bombay.

Collections were confined to the inter-tidal zone at various parts

along the foreshore in Greater Bombay, viz. Cuffe Parade, Chowpatty,

Worli, Mahim, Danda, and Versova. They were also extended to

Manori which, although not within the limits of Greater Bombay, was

included as it harbours large numbers of feather-stars, which were

elsewhere collected only occasionally.

A total of 16 species, belonging to seven different orders and

10 families, comprises the present collection. None of these has so

far been recorded from Bombay. Moreover, the species Amphipholis

* The Echinodermata are characterized by radial symmetry, a calcareous exoske-

leton in the form of plates or spicules usually beset with tubercles or spines, which

give the phylum its name. Locomotion is by tube-feet. They are marine forms with-

Out exception, and none are colonial. They comprise the starfishes, sea urchins,

sea cucumbers, brittle stars, and feather stars.— EDs.

Communicated by the Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra State.

‘(/) uoutioads sv adie] sv SMOIS PUL UOIPAJOSOId SuLANp yuNAYs jos sey (7) Usuttosdg

suasn{uod auodyy, (U) { vaidd] situnoanooulop (UL)

pjayloiydgQ (f) <‘1dusiavs sijopiydoQ (2) “ds auodyip (Y)

——

‘ds pad yuvjotg (7)

‘ pipwipnbs sijoydiydup (2)

‘sijppaod vianyjojoxy (8) <({) syiov4s vidpup (f)

{ YOMO] DUldaISp (Pp) <{ vioujod vIDULDd DAJoWOAdUIDT (2) { Djopidsy xisyjolydoszvP (Q)

: UBj-eas & UO ‘apunp

Spiqnp Slasauoiydge (2a)

{snaujpunadoy Sndanajdouua, (v)

"90S “LSI “LYN AVaWog ‘Nanos

—~ = — — =

Journ. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

SCALE

}-——____—_1

2 MILES

Map of Bombay showing localities where collections were

made. The numbers correspond to those against the names

in the systematic list.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 673

squamata, Macrophiothrix aspidota, and the genus Athyone have not

so far been recorded from India.

It will be seen from the following list that some of the forms have

not been determined up to the species, due to difficulties experienced

during preservation and identification, and due to the rarity of some

species.

For example, one of' the species of Cucumariids cannot be positively

identified as it appears to have none of the ordinary skin spicules,

although the curved rods and end plates in the tube feet and the

spicules in the tentacles are present. It has been referred to the

subfamily Thyoninae from the mosaic-like calcareous ring inside the

introvert with long posterior prolongations. It appears to be allied

to Athyone transitoria (Vaney), known from a single specimen 16 mm.

long in the western Indian Gcean, which, too, has very few spicules.

One of the forms of Thyone also cannot be identified up to the

species, as its small size precludes determination of the form of the

calcareous ring.

Nor are the authors sure about the species of Protankyra, in

which there are a number of Indo-Pacific species with very similar

spicules. |

The specimens of Anapta in the present collection resemble

Anapta gracilis, but differ from the latter in having only four,

instead of five, pairs of digits on the tentacles.

Some of the specimens of Ophiactis savignyi have less than the

usual six arms; also, there is only one distal oral papillar on each

side.

SYSTEMATICS

Subphylum PELMATOZOA

Class CRINOIDEA

Order ARTICULATA

Suborder Comatulida

Family Mariametridae

(1) Lamprometra palmata palmata (J. Miiller)

Clinging to stones, sea-fans, etc.

Subphylum ELEUTHEROZOA

Class HOLOTHURIIDAE

Order AsPIDOCHIROTA

(2) Holothuria pardalis Selenka

Collected from mud under stones.

674. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Order DENDROCHIROTA

Family Cucumariidae

(3) Actinocucumis typica Ludwig

Collected from mud under stones.

(4) Athyone sp.

Collected from mud under stones.

(5) Thyone conjugens (Semper)

Collected from mud under stones.

(6) Thyone sp.

Collected from mud under stones.

Order APODA

Family Synaptidae

(7) Protankyra sp.

Lying fully exposed on mud.

(8) Anapta gracilis ?

Lying fully exposed on mud.

Class ECHINOIDEA

Subclass REGULARIA

Order DIADEMATOIDA

Suborder Camarodonta

Family Temnopleuridae

(9) Temnopleurus toreumaticus (Leske)

Collected from mud under stones, algae, etc.

Class ASTEROIDEA

Order SPINULOSA

Family Asterinidae

(10) Asterina lorioli Koehler

Collected from mud under stones.

Class OPHIUROIDEA

Order OPHIURAE

Family Amphiuridae

(11) Amphipholis squamata (Delle Chiaje)

Collected from mud under stones.

Family Ophiactidae

(12) Ophiactis savignyi (Miller & Troschel)

Collected from crevices of sponges.

(13) Ophiactis sp.

Collected from rock crevices.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 675

‘Family Ophiothrichidae

(14) Ophiothela danae Verril! ;

Entwined around the stalks of sea-ferns.

~ (15) Macrophiothrix aspidota (Miller and Troschel)

Collected from mud under stones.

Family Ophiochitonidae

(16) Ophionereis dubia (Miiller and Troschel)

Collected from sandy mud.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to express their grateful thanks to Miss Ailsa

Clark, of the British Museum of Natural History, London, for the

identification of some of the forms and for confirmation of the

identification of others. Thanks are also due to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni,

Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra State, for facilities for work at

the Taraporevala Marine Biological Research Station, and to Dr.

H. G. Kewalramani, Research Officer, for critically going through this

paper.

TARAPOREVALA MARINE BIOLOGICAL

RESEARCH STATION,

BOMBAY,

June 21, 1962.

S. R. SANE

B. F. CHHAPGAR

REFERENCES

‘Anderson, A. R.S. (1894): Natural

‘History Notes from H. M. Indian Marine

Steamer ‘Investigator’. Ser. ii, No. 16.

On the Echinoidea collected during the

season 1893-94. Journ. As. Soc. Bengal

(2) 63: 188-195.

Bell, F. J. (1888a): On the Echino-

dermata of the sea of Bengal. Rep. Brit.

Asscn.: 718.

————-— (18885): Report on a

collection of Echinoderms made at Tuti-

corin, Madras, by Mr. Edgar Thurston,

C.M.Z.S., Superintendent, Government

Central Museum, Madras. Proc. Zool.

Soc. London : 383-389.

Clark, A. H. (1909): New

Indian crinoids. Proc. Biol.

Washington 22 : 143-151.

(1912a): The Crinoids

of the Indian Ocean. Echinoderma of

the Indian Museum, part VIL: 1-325.

—_—— (19125): On a small

collection of recent Crinoids from the

Indian Ocean. Rec. Indian Mus, 7:

267-271.

recent

Soc.

Clark, A. H. (1932): On a collection

of Crinoids from the Indian Ocean and

Bay of Bengal. ibid. 551-556, pls. xix-xx.

Gravely, F. H. (1927): The littoral

fauna of Krusadai Island in the Gulf of

Manaar, with appendices on the verte-

brates and plants. Bull. Madras Govt.

Mus. (nat. hist. section) (1) 1 : 163-173.

Koehler, A. & Vaney, C. (1908): An

account of the littoral Holothuroidea

collected by the R.I.M.S.S. ‘Investigator’.

Echinoderma of the Indian Museum, part

IV : 1-54, pls. i-iii.

Koehler, R. (1898): Echinodermes

recueillis par l’Investigator dans 1’Ocean

Indien. Mém. 2. Les ophiures littorales.

Bull. Scient. France Belgique 31.

(1900) : Illustrations of

the shallow-water Ophiuroidea collected

by the R.I.M.S.S. ‘Investigator’ Echino-

derma of the Indian Museum part IL:

1-4, pls. xv-xxi.

—————— (1910): Astéries du

musée de Calcutta. II. Les astéries lit-

torales. ibid., part VI: 1-191, pls. i-xx.

676

Koehler, R. (1914): Echinides du

musée a Calcutta. I. Spatangidés. Echino-

derma of the Indian Museum, part VIII :

1-258, pls. i-xx. .

+—— (1922): ibid. II. Cly-

peastridés et Cassidulidés. ibid., part

IX : 1-161, pls. i-xv.

(1927): ibid. III. Ech-

inides réguliers. ibid., part X: 1-158,

pls. i-XXvVii.

Kurian, C.V. (1953): A preliminary

survey of the bottom fauna and bottom

deposits of the Travancore coast within

the 15-fathom line. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci.

India (6) 19 : 747-775.

Patil, A.M. (1953): Study of the

marine fauna of the Karwar coast and

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

the neighbouring islands. Part IV.

Echinodermata and other groups. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51 : 429-434.

Thurston, E. (1887): Preliminary

report on the marine fauna of Rames-

waram and the neighbouring islands.

Govt. Central Mus., Madras, Science

Ser., No. 1: 1-41, 6 pls.

(1895) : Rameswaram Is-

land and fauna of the Gulf of Manaar.

2nd Ed. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. No. 3.

Wood-Mason, J. & Alcock, A. (1891) :

Natural History notes from H.M. Indian

Marine Survey Steamer ‘Investigator’,

Commander R.F. Hoskyn, R.N., Com-

manding. No. 21, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist.

(6) 7: 1-19, 186-202, 258-272.

20. DRAGONFLIES AND BICYCLES

During 1959 and 1960 I made some observations on dragonflies

attending bicycles at Ndumu in Norih-eastern Natal, South Africa,

which are comparable with those of Mr. Harinarayan G. Acharya

(Journ. Bombay Natural History Society 58 : 819-820). I also was

‘too lazy to collect specimens’, but I can state that they too were

ordinary-looking insects of the suborder Anisoptera. So far as I am

aware they flew a few inches ahead of my front (not the rear) wheel,

but I miust confess that I was too busy looking forward to know

what was going on behind me. They, again, adapted their speed to

mine in order to maintain a constant position with respect to the wheel.

However, there was an additional phenomenon which may indicate

that the wheel as such (i.e. flashing spokes, whirring noise) was not

the attractive stimulus. When I walked along the same sunny trails.

the dragonflies would keep pace with my advancing feet, flying close

to the ground a few inches ahead. In fact I sometimes thought that

IT would step on one, though of course this never happened. Thus it

seemed that the insects were responding indiscriminately to the sight

of a relatively large moving terrestrial object.

I discussed these matters with my colleague, Mr. Hugh Paterson,

and we finally arrived at a conjecture that this might be a hunting

strategy of dragonflies. Almost everyone has seen Cattle Egrets

waiting tor cattle to stir up grass-hoppers, and there are other birds

elsewhere that do much the same thing. Since dragonflies also prey

on small flying game, why should they not have become adapted to

attending large mammals for the sake of catching minute insects that

these leviathans put to flight as they blunder along? Perhaps some

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 677

dragonflies have become adapted to the hind legs and others to the

fore legs, which might explain their divergent orientation to bicycles.

P. O. Box 164,

PORT OF SPAIN, C. BROOKE WORTH

TRINIDAD, W. INDIES,

July 8, 1962,

21. NOTES ON THE RED COTTON BUG (DYSDERCUS

CINGULATUS FABR.)

Clad in scarlet livery with black facings, the Red Cotton Bug

(Dysdercus cingulatus) is at all times, a very conspicuous insect. Its

slow nonchalant gait almost suggests that it is ‘aware’ of its aposematic

coloration. Seasonally, it is very common on the islands of Bombay

and Salsette and further afield. Under favourable circumstances the

ground is literally covered with a living carpet of a red and black

pattern. Its abundance and periodicity coincides with the flowering

and fruiting of certain Bombacaceae and Malvaceae, particularly the

species of Bombax (malabaricum and insigne) and the introduced Silk

Cotton Tree, Ceiba pentandra. These trees normally produce a

large amount of silk cotton and numerous seeds. The silk, an aid in

seed dispersal, is taken advantage of by the bugs for a safe parachut-

ing to earth from the tops of the trees and as a means of effecting

their own wide dispersal. The annual prolificity of the bugs is

usually in proportion to the fecundity of the trees.

The annual appearance and abundance of the bugs varies from

year to year in response to the climatic conditions governing the

flowering and fruiting of the trees. In some years the ground is

literally scarlet with the vast numbers of bugs on its surface; in other

years the bugs may be few and far between and, on rare occasions,

entirely absent. The adult stages of the insect feed almost exclusively

on the fallen seeds, thereby constituting a natural check on the

host plants.

In the season of 1940, Bombax flowered most profusely but, for

some unaccountable reason, the majority of the fruit produced dried

up before reaching maturity. Examination of some of the fruit led

me to suspect a fungus or virus as responsible, but I could not

establish the cause with any degree of certainty. A black mould was

found in some of the pods but this could have developed after their

drying. In 1941 a similar calamity befell the Bombax but the ‘attack’

678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

was not as severe as in the previous year. Both seasons were marked

by a diminution in the bug population to be seen.

Normally, in the areas mentioned, Bombax fruit matures in

March, just in time to catch the “March winds’ to aid in the dispersal

of its seeds cradled in silk. The winds are fairly regular and strong,

and assist many plants in seed dispersal. The ‘arrival’ of the bugs

coincides with this period. Where they come from or where they

have been in retreat since the end of the previous monsoon rains

awaits solution’.

At first the bugs appear to arrive singly, but gradually their

numbers increase prodigiously. On first ‘arrival’, the males preceding

the females, the insects usually shelter under foliage and remain

there apparently fasting. The ‘retreat’ is soon broken and the bugs

begin to move about freely—they are seen everywhere, on the

ground, on the trunks of trees, and on the vegetation generally.

Mating soon ensues.

In 1941, the first cotton bugs were seen at Andheri on 26 March.

Just odd ones were seen here and there. On 6 April I made a note

in my diary: ‘No profusion of cotton bugs yet. A very few flying

about.’ Their numbers were decidedly fewer than in the previous

year. On 12 April I noted that most of the bugs were pairing and

that the Bombax silk was drifting about. I also noted that the

‘March winds’ did not blow strongly as they usually do. On 19

April I made an entry to the effect that the bugs had left the ground

and had assembled on the branches and twigs of Bombax. This

movement from the ground to the trees led me to suspect that the

eggs are laid on the twigs. The discovery of newly hatched nymphs

in some of the pods partly confirmed this suspicion, but in ‘the

absence of more facts the matter must be left over for further

observation?.

To continue with my notes. On 22 April the first young ones

were observed, i.e. ten days after general mating and about four days

after the adults had taken to the trees. The young moved around in

the lint of indehisced pods. The nymphs are cradled to the ground

in the lint on the bursting of the pods. On reaching the ground the

* According to Fletcher (1919, Proc. III Ent. Meeting, Pusa, p. 262) and Lefroy

(1909, INDIAN INsEcT LIFE, p. 691) the bugs feed on the seeds of almost all malvace-

ous plants and thus get food all through the year ; they move to Bombax which seems

to be their most favourite food, as soon as it comes into bloom.—Ebs.

? According to Hem Singh (1923, J. & Proc. Asi. Soc. Bengal 19: 35) and

T. V. R. Ayyar (1941, HANDBOOK oF Economic ENToMOLOGY, p. 248), the eggs are

laid on meaewennd and the young nymphs on hatching go to their food in large

numbers.—Epbs.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 679

nymphs begin their ‘terrestrial’ existence and large numbers may be

seen clustered round fallen seeds of Bombax. In a normal season

the ground would soon be red with bugs. The adults cluster round

fallen seeds also, but they ‘prefer’ to walk around with a seed

dangling from the proboscis. Even bugs in copula may be seen each

with a seed at the tip of the proboscis. Examination of discarded

seeds reveals that the hard shell is perforated by numerous fine

punctures and the contents are sucked dry.

On 18 May 1941 I noted that the young were almost the size of

the adults, but with only wing-pads—a very few already had wings.

The same day some were observed pairing near the Powai Lake,

Salsette. This may indicate the possibility of a second brood in the

same season, but it was not clear whether the mating pairs were

adults of the previous season or insects which had reached maturity

during the current season.'

Soon after the monsoon rains set in the bugs ‘disappear’ and very

few are to be seen on the ground. During the rains I have

occasionally noticed these bugs clustered in large numbers on Breynia

patens and other plants but, apparently, not feeding. Incidentally,

B. patens is frequently infested with another plant bug during the

rains, namely Chrysocoris purpurens (?). A point of interest about

this species is that when heat is applied to the body of the living

insect the brilliant green changes rapidly to a metallic blue as it

normally does in collections, and on cooling changes back to the

original green. Reverting to the cotton bug, after the rains are over

the cotton bug is very rarely seen till the new season sets in. It would

be interesting to know where this species spends the resting season.

incidentally, I have often found other species of plant bugs clustered

together in hollows or along the branches of trees, in a quiescent

State, during the winter months. Disturbance did not spur them on

to any great activity. They were definitely lethargic. Like the

cotton bug, many of these bugs are not gregarious outside the rest-

ing period. But, I have never come across the Red Cotton Bug

spending the winter months in such a manner.

At Andheri, I recorded the first appearance of Bombax flowers

on 1 February 1942. On 21 February I made a note that no Red

Cotton Bugs had been observed till then. In the garden of the

Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, I observed a number of Red

* According to Hem Singh (1923, J. & Proc. Asi. Soc. Bengal 19:17) the bugs

feed and breed continuously and where there is no severe cold have a number of

generations during the year ; in the colder tracts the adults hide in crevice: of the

soil during the winter.—Eps.

680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Cotton Bugs (a large number for the small area) in copulation on the

Hollyhocks on 26 February 1942. There were still no signs of bugs

at Andheri, On 2 March 1942 I noticed that the first single

bugs were seen at Andheri and that the Bombax trees now had

young fruit. On 7 March very few bugs were seen in copula in the

Museum grounds, and still none appeared at Andheri—they had all

‘gone’. No bugs were seen. On 9 March there were very few adults

on the Hollyhocks at the Museum, but newly hatched nymphs were

observed inside the calyxes of the flowers and fruit. Many Bloodsuckers

(Calotes versicolor) were in attendance on the Hollyhock bed at the

Museum, some on the ground and some on the plants. The lizards

were feeding on the bugs. Although the lizards took a comparatively

heavy toll during this period, many bugs took to wing. By 11 March

all adults had disappeared.

On 15 March 1942 I noted that no bugs were seen over a wide

area at Andheri. At the same time I wrote: ‘Conditions same as last.

year. March winds not strong—occasional gusts.’ Although Bombax

flowered somewhat earlier than in the previous year (1941), a large

majority of the fruit dried up long before reaching maturity.

On 20 March, and 3 and 4 April numbers of bright red nymphs

appeared on the Hollyhocks in the Museum grounds. At Andheri

no bugs were recorded. On 7 June JI found some nymphs, 4 to

5 mm. long at Andheri. They appeared in small numbers under a

few of the Bembax trees. There was no carpet of bugs as in more

normal years. In the meantime, the nymphs at the Museum had

matured and disappeared from the locality. No other bugs were seen

in any other part of Salsette Island that I visited. The Red Cotton

Bug season was a complete failure in keeping with the fruiting season

of Bombax which had also failed.

These few random observations clearly indicate that, in the areas

referred to, the Red Cotton Bug is largeiy dependent on the successful

flowering and fruiting of Bombax for its well-being; and that the

vagaries of the weather control the life-cycle of both the plants and

the insects.

Among the more noticeable enemies of the Red Cotton Bug, I

have already mentioned the Common Bloodsucker (C. versicolor).

This lizard appears to feed on this bug when other insects are in

short supply. The Forest Bloodsucker (C. rouxi) preys largely on the

Red Cotton Bug when in season. Few birds ever take the Red Cotton

Bug. The visits of the migratory Bay-banded Cuckoo (Penthoceryx

s. sonnerati) appear to coincide with the Red Cotton Bug season and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 681

during this period it subsists almost exclusively on these bugs. The

stomach contents of one of these birds yielded thirty undamaged bugs

and the remains of many others'. The bugs are usually collected

on the branches and twigs of the Bombax.

In addition to vegetable food the bugs may frequently be seen

feeding on the carcase of one of their own fellows but this does not

appear to be deliberate cannibalism, as they do not appear to kill

one another but just feed on a dead comrade that they may find’.

I have not observed these bugs feeding on any plant tissue other

than seeds.

An excellent account by Maxwell-Lefroy of the life-history of the

Red Cotton Bug appears in Volume 2 of The Memoirs of the Depart-

ment of Agriculture of India.

DOMINION MUSEUM,

WELLINGTON, NEW ZEALAND, CHARLES McCANN

January 16, 1961.

22. ABDOMINAI MARKINGS ON A THOMASID SPIDER

(With a photograph)

Mr. Kalyan Gupta of Shillong has sent us the photograph of a

spider whose abdominal markings bear a remarkable resemblance to

a human face.

The photograph was sent to Dr. B. K. Tikader of the Zoological

Survey of India who identified the species as the Thomasid or Crab

Spider, Psitius sreepanchamii recently described by him from Shillong

in the Journal of the Linnean Society, 1962, 44 : 572. He states that

‘the abdomen of the adult female looks like this photograph before

Oviposition’. Apparently the markings are evident only when the

abdomen is distended. One is reminded in this context of the skull-

like markings on the thorax of the Death’s Head Hawk Moth.

* According to D’Abreu (1919, Proc. III Ent. Meeting, Pusa, p. 867) the Red-

Rented eeu (Molpastes haemorrhous) is another bird se ce SPN TE on this

ug.—Ebs.

* According to Fletcher (1919, Proc. III Ent. Meeting, Pusa, p. 262) in the

absence of their usual food the bugs turn cannibalistic and feed on their own

species.—EDs.

682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

Spider with ‘ Human Face’

Acherontia styx Westwood, though it is difficult to imagine how these

markings benefit these animals.

BomMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR RoapD, | J. C. DANIEL

BOMBAY 6, Curator

August 22, 1962.

23. STUDIES ON SOME SPIDERS OF THE GENUS OECOBIUS

(FAMILY OECOBITDAE) FROM INDIA

(With two text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

Spiders of the family Oecobiidae are little known from the Oriental

Region. They occur in crevices and corners in buildings and under

stones. They like close proximity to man, so these spiders have been

carried by man through baggage to other parts of the world from

their original locality. One known and a new species of Oecobius

are described here.

The type specimens will in due course be deposited in the

collections of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 683.

Oecobius putus O. P. Cambr.

General: Cephalothorax and abdomen light to deep brown, legs

pale green. Total length 2.60 mm. Carapace 0.09 mm. long,

1.10 mm. wide; abdomen 1.80 mm. long, 1.10 mm. wide.

Text-fig. 1. Ocecobius putus O.P.Cambr.: a. Dorsal view of female ; 6. Dorsal

view of male; c. Male padipalp; d. Epigyne

Cephalothorax: Wider than long, depressed on the centre but,

cephalic region slightly high and eyes group situated on the top.

margin encircled by a deep brown line. Eyes unequal in size and

dissimilar in form. The anterior median and posterior lateral eyes

684 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

dark in colour and others pearly white; posterior medians triangular

in size, both rows procurved but anterior row more procurved than

posterior. Legs long, clothed with fine long hairs and all legs trans-

versely banded with dark brown bands but in male no such bands.

Male padipalp as in Text-fig. 1, c.

Abdomen: Long, slightly pointed behind, clothed with long hairs,

dorsum ornamented by dark and chalk-white irregular patches, mid-

dorsally with a spear-shaped black area extending from base to

behind the middle. ‘The hind spinnerets long and two-jointed; the

second segment longer than the first and furnished with a comb of

long spinning tubes on the inner side. Epigyne as in Text-fig. 1, d.

Distribution: Egypt, Tripoli, Yemen, Tanganyika; India: Madras,

Poona, Lahore, Mansahra (5000 ft.), Calcutta.

Oecobius marathaus sp. nov.

General: Cephalothorax and legs light green, abdomen reddish.

Total length 1.90 mm. Carapace 0.60 mm. long, 0.80 mm. wide;

abdomen 1.40 mm. long, 1.20 mm. wide.

Text-fig. 2. Occobius marathaus sp. nov.: a. Dorsal view of female; b. Epigyne

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 685

Cephalothorax: Wider than long, depressed but cephalic region

high and elevated, eyes group situated on the top of the elevated

region, margin encircled by a deep brown line but this line not

uniformly wide, only near the base of each leg with wide deep brown

broader line, middle portion and ocular area with deep brown patches.

Eyes unequal in size and dissimilar in form, the anterior median and

posterior lateral eyes dark in colour and rest pearly white, posterior

median triangular in size, both rows procurved but posterior row

more procurved than anterior. Legs long clothed with fine long

hairs and all legs transversely banded with dark-brown bands.

Abdomen: Slightly longer than wide, rounded behind, clothed

with fine long hairs, dorsum ornamented by irregular chalk-white and

black dots or patches as in Text-fig. 2, a. The hind spinnerets long

and two-jointed, the second segment longer than first and furnished

with a comb of long spinning tubes in the inner side; posterior 4

portion of hind spinnerets with deep brown. Epigyne as in Text-

fig. 2, bz

Holotype: One female; paratype: one female in spirit.

Type-locality: Jangli Maharaj Road (in side building), Poona.

Coll. B. K. Tikader, 4-vi-!961.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN REGIONAL STATION, B. K. TIKADER

Poona,

August 13, 1962.

REFERENCES

Comstock, J. H. & Gertsch, W. J. Simon, E. (1892): Histoire naturelle

(1940) : The Spider Book. New York. des Araignees, Paris, 1 : 244-247.

: pie eu Bull. Zool. Punjab Univ.

24. A NEW LOCALITY FOR GYMNOSPORIA BAILADILLANA

NARAYAN. & MOONEY

Gymnosporia bailadillana has been established by Narayana-

swami, V. and Mooney, H. F. [1941, /. Indian bot. Soc. 20 (4):

191-193] on the basis of specimens collected by Mooney from

Bailadilla Hill, Bastar State, Orissa (Type: H. Mooney, no. 890, in

Cal. Herb. Other collections: Mooney. 390 and 900, in the dark

glens and shady ravines or in open moist valleys on the Bailadilla

Hill, between 3000 and 3500 ft.). Mooney later on in his Supplement

686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

to the Botany of Bihar and Orissa [1950, p. 41] reported this species

from Karlapet, Kalahandi State also, where it occurred in rocky

ravines between 3000 and 3600 ft. and increased in abundance

towards the head of tne giens at 3500 ft. along watercourses but

always on rocky, dry ground above the bank. As far as known to

the authors the occurrence of G. bailadillana has so far been recorded

from the above two localities only.

The authors have now collected fruiting specimens of G.

bailadillana at Mahendragiri Hills of Orissa (18° 58’ N. latitude and

84° 26’ E. longitude), from the forest growth between Rajbasa and

Kunti Daur at about 3000 ft. under ecological conditions similar

to those of the previously known localities (G. S. Srivastava & party,

16-3-1959, coll. no. 58852, N.B.G. sheet no. 42425). The identifica-

tion of these specimens have been confirmed by getting them matched

at Cal. Herb. |

G. bailadillana may be expected to occur anywhere in Bailadilla

Hill—Karlapet—Mahendragiri tract between 3000 and 3600 ft. in

ecological conditions stated above though it has not been collected

many times. It may partly be because of its close resemblance with

G. rufa Wall. var. latifolia Haines [Botany of Bihar and Orissa,

1921, Part IT, p. 188] which too has been collected at the Mahendragiri

Hills by the authors. It may be of advantage to note that the flower-

ing and fruiting times of the two species are different. While G. rufa

var. latifolia flowers and fruits March-April and Nov.-Dec. res

pectively, G. bailadillana flowers and fruits Nov.-Dec. and Jan.-March

respectively.

The occurrence of G. bailadillana at Mahendragiri Hills is interest-

ing for this may possibly be the easternmost boundary for the

occurrence of this species.

The authors are thankful to Prof. K. N. Kaul, F.L.s., Director,

National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, for facilities of work and to

Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, Keeper, Central National Herbarium, Sibpore,

Howrah, for getting the identification of the specimens confirmed.

NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS, : Pie!

LUCKNow, ; S. L. KAPOOR

July 30, 1962. G. S. SRIVASTAVA

— a:

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 687

25. CANSCORA DECUSSATA ROEM. & SCH. : A NEW

RECORD FOR BOMBAY STATE!

In the course of intensive botanical studies in the Ratan Mahal

hills, an essentially unexplored area in Panch Mahal district, (Gujarat

State), we collected some specimens of the genus Canscora. The

distinctly winged nature of the calyx and the winged stem created a

special interest. The plant has been identified as Conscora decussata

Roem. &-Sch. As far as can be ascertained from the available

literature this seems to be a new record for Bombay State'.

Canscora decussata Roem. & Sch. iii Mant. : 299, 1827. Hooker

in Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 104, 1885. Gamble, Fl. Presidency of Madras

Ze O18 (Nep..cd) 1957). Mrimien, Ceylon 3: -185, 1895.

A small erect glabrous herb; stem 10-45 cm., 4 winged, the wings

broader at the top. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, sessile, 3-nerved. Cyme

rigid, erect, terminal, bracts at its bifurcations. Calyx distinctly

winged. Corolla white, tube as long as calyx.

The plants were found inhabiting the steep slopes and the

escarpments along the roadsides near Taramb Kach and Patan Mata

in Panch Mahal district.

Flowering time: September-January.

Fruiting time: October-January.

Herbarium Specimen No.: Bedi 1517, 1518, 1519, 1520.

_ Critical Notes: Hooker mentions the plant as occurring through-

out India; from Himalaya to Burma; abundant in Bengal plains. Not

uncommon in Ceylon. During our explorations in various regions of

Gujarat we have come across this plant for the first time. As far as

We are aware no mention of the said plant has been made in any of

the works on the flora of Bombay State.

The authors are indeed grateful to Dr. G. Taylor, Director, Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, for the determination of the plant.

Our thanks are also due to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau for critically going

through the manuscript of this note.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

FACULTY OF SCIENCE, A. R. CHAVAN

M.S. UNIVERSITY OF Baxropba, S. J. BEDI

BARODA,

July-2'5 1962.

a — = Soe re —— eee

1 The area implied includes the present States of Gujarat and Maharashtra.

688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

[This is an interesting find for Bombay; the plant has a high repute

in indigenous systems of medicine, and is at present in great demand

for research into its biochemistry. The Botanical Editor of this

Journal has found the plant very abundant, though highly localised,

on the Eastern Ghats; in the Calcutta Botanic Garden at Sibpur, it

is one of the commonest weeds growing on lawns-and flower beds

immediately after the monsoon.—EDs.]

26. GREGARIOUS FLOWERING OF STROBILANTHES AND

BAMBOOS' | /

(With a plate)

During the Christmas vacation of 1960 I visited Mahableshwar

with a party of students; we had the good fortune of seeing one of the

periodical general flowerings of Thelepaepale ixiocephala Bremek.

(=Strobilanthes ixiocephalus Benth.), the plant locally known under

the name of Waiti.

On the Mahableshwar plateau along most of the roads, paths,

and ‘rides’ there were not just some plants in flower, but dense banks

of plants profusely covered with white or very pale lilac flowers; along

the Dhobi Waterfall ride the banks of flowers were almost un-

interrupted especially on the inner side of the path, that is to say on

the side away from the ravine; the same was the case in the under-

growth along Tiger Path or Falkland Ride and elsewhere. The

accompanying photograph taken on this occasion will give an idea of

the numerous flowers that could be seen on a single clump of plants.

SIZE AND SCENT OF WAdIT/I PLANTS

We noted with interest that flowering seemcd to be independent of

the size of the plant; whilst some of the plants along the edges of the

undergrowth might well reach over the head of a tail man and this

was often the case, we did find specimens growing on the road itself

and reaching but a few centimetres in size; even such minute plants

sported one or more flowers, in fact in some cases we did count more

flowers than leaves on these dwarf plants. 4

* In these notes I cite a number of plants by names that may appear strange to

some readers. I have followed the nomenclature of Bremekamp, who has satisfac-

torily shown that the genus Strodilanthes Bl. in a restricted sense is confined to

Sumatra and Java.

(Cf °S' ‘nodvjuvs *H :0j0Y4d)

0961 “90d UF AeMYsorqeYyeY Ul OY

"20$ “LSIF[ “LVN AVaWOog ‘NuNo¢

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 689 |

Walking through such areas, one could perceive a very pleasant,

scent; this was so when going along the paths without touching the

plants. If one touched the plants, then the scent became very

powerful and seemed to emanate from the oily glands on the flowering

branches. The whole inflorescence is fairly densely covered with

hairs, each of which consists of a slender transparent stalk and a

globular ball filled with oil; when hairs become old, the stalk may

remain transparent or whitish, but the oil ball turns yellowish and

more strongly scented. In general the scent is of a resinous type

and rather pleasant and persistent.

In connection with the scent of this and other species of

Strobilanthes, I may be permitted to copy a few remarks of F. C.

Constable in Kew Bulletin of 1896: ‘There was in the air a sweet

resinous, pleasant odour from the buds'. My hands were covered.

with what they exuded, and . . . though I washed my hands three’

times, the pleasant scent remained.’ These observations I have myselt

made on many occasions, and so can vouch for their correctness.

HONEY FROM THE W4/TI FLOWERS

In the local bazaar we were informed that this general flowering

meant a great crop of honey pf higher quality than usual. The

bazaar prices for honey might be an indication of the quality of the

same: at the time of our visit, Waiti honey sold for Rs. 4.50 per Ib.,

against Rs. 3.25 for Jambul and Rs. 3.50 for Ghela honey.

On several occasions we did note a few bees about these bushes,

nothing remarkable for their numbers; perhaps this was due to the

fact that we came out into the field in the early cool hours of the

morning. But on one occasion at about noon along the Dhobi

Waterfall ride we noticed great activity on the part of bees on Waiti

shrubs, especially in spots where flowing water was available near the

flowering plants. An intense hum was clearly audible before coming

to the spot and after passing it, a clear indication that the bees were;

both very busy and very numerous.

THE FLOWERING OF WAITI

In many years of scouting through the jungles of the Western

Ghats, I have noted that Wuaiti comes into flower more or less

-_—_

2Constable is incorrect when he states that the scent came from the buds ; the

buds of the karvi plant, of which he was writing, have no scent ; it is only the fruiting

cones that give out this strong and pleasant scent.

690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

regularly every year, with a real outburst or general flowering about

every few years; however, I have not paid particular attention to

the period between two general flowerings, as I have done for the

other common shrub of the W. Ghats, the Karvi plant, Carvia callosa

Bremek. (= Strobilanthes callosus Nees). I have gathered the follow-

ing information from published sources on the Waiti. H. M. Birdwood

(1) states that it flowers once in seven years; Talbot (15) that it

flowers annually. . There is no contradiction between these two,

statements: Waiti flowers more or less abundantly every year, but

after six or seven years it comes into an explosion of flowers. Some

friends, whom we met in Mahableshwar, were positive that there was

a general flowering of Waiti in 1944 and in 1951-1952; there is

certainly a general flowering at the time of writing (January 1961),

and all these dates would seem to indicate a cycle of 7-8 years for

a general flowering of Thelepaepale ixiocephala.

GREGARIOUS FLOWERING OF KARVI

There was a more or less general flowering of Karvi in

Mahableshwar in the autumn of 1960; this is the plant that is listed

in most of our floras under the name of Strobilanthes callosus Nees,

and which in modern nomenclature is referred to as Carvia callosa

Bremek. The general flowering did cover a large area in the western

parts of India besides Mahableshwar; going out into the field with

my students from September 1960 onwards, we noted the Karvi plant

in flower in the National Park, Borivli, on many of the hill slopes

at Khandala, in the higher parts near Mumbra, and elsewhere. In

Khandala some of slopes did show a general flowering the year before.

the rest of the area only came into flower in 1960. The Karvi plant

is supposed to come into general flowering every 6-8 years, but

Opinions are not in complete agréement on the subject; Duthie

writing in this Journal (5) said that Karvi flowers every 8-9 years,

but added that the local population ‘say that it flowers every three

years; Graham in his CATALOGUE (6) wrote that people on the W.

Ghats ‘have a tradition that it flowers once in 10 years’. As a rule,

I have seen this coming into flower at a given area in the following

manner: one year a few scattered plants come into flower; the follow-

ing year there may be a general flowering; the third year a few

scattered plants again come into flower. In short, there is a general

flowering one year, preceded and followed by reduced flowering

of a few plants. In Khandala there was a general flowering in

1944-45, another in 1950-51, a third in 1959-60.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 691

GREGARIOUS FLOWERING OF OTHER SPECIES OF STROBILANTHES

Phlebophyllum kunthianum Nees (=Strobilanthes kunthianus T.

Anders.) of the Nilgiris, which because of its profusion of blue flowerg

has given the name to the hills, is said by Mrs. Robinson (8) to come

to general flowering every 12 years, at least from 1826 to 1934, for

which years she has produced records; A. F. Hutton (7) recorded it

for the High Wavy Mountains in !948; in 1959 at Kodaikanal I saw

the plant in fruit all over the hills, obviously having flowered in 1958.

The cycle of 12 years seems well established for Phlebophyllum

kunthianus; the plant, according to Mrs. Robinson, flowers ‘once in

twelve years, with lesser outbursts of flowering in scattered areas at

other times’; she further adds that on the Nilgiris, as it also happens in

Mahableshwar, a gregarious flowering of Strobilanthes is accompanied

by intense activity on the part of the honey bee, but the honey is

more bitter than usual; in the Niigiris this abundance of honey

‘tempts hill bears to come in search of their favourite food’; we have

not heard of bears in Mahableshwar.

Going through my field diaries for the last few years, I have

found other references to general flowering of Strobilanthes species.

There was a general flowering of Nilgirianthus reticulatus Bremek.

(=Strob. reticulatus Stapf) in Mahableshwar in 1950; the plant was

noted as particularly abundant in flower in the neighbourhood of the

Lingmala Falis. A second general flowering was recorded also for

Mahableshwar in October, 1958; in the open fields near Kate’s Point

and along the road to the same point for about a mile, Nilgirianthus

was a charming sight. This species grows in small clumps, seldom

over 1 m. in diameter, the plants themselves being about 60-75 cm.

high; the flowers are profuse in number, and of an intense gentian

blue colour. As in the case of Karvi and Waiti, so also with

Nilgirianthus a few scattered plants may come into flower in years

other than those of general flowering; this last year in December we

saw a few plants in flower in the neighbourhood of Chinaman’s Falls.

CAUSES OF STROBILANTHES FLOWERING

What is it that prompts Strobilanthes plants to come into flower

at all after so many years of vegetative growth? What causes them

to come into flower at one and the same time? I have been trying

to find an answer to these questions, but regretfully I have to say

that up to the present there is no satisfactory answer. Most of the

species of Strobilanthes of Bombay behave like annual plants, even

692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 59 (2)

though they live for several years; I mean to say, they grow vegetatively

for a number of years, and then after flowering and fruiting but once,

they die, just as the balsams and petunias of our gardens and other

annuals do. ‘The striking difference is that Strobilanthes lives for

several years, and often attains sizes which one can only call gigantic;

their stems are solid and woody, as is the case in common trees and

shrubs. For this group of plants that live for several years and die

soon after flowering and fruiting, the name ‘plietesials’ has been

applied (Santapau, 10); this name can be applied with equal right not

only to the Karvi and Waiti plants, but also to most bamboos, agaves,

furcreas, etc. All these plants agree in cone point: they live to attain

large, even tree-like sizes, then flower and fruit but once and die;

this flowering and fruiting only once is the habit of annual or

ephemeral herbs!

In a number of cases it is agreed that flowering is, to some extent,

due to climatic conditions; perhaps the previous season was parti-

cularly cold, or it was more wet, or perhaps more persistently dry

than usual. This explanation has been suggested by some authors,

for instance, for orchids. Some orchids do respond ’to the lowering

of temperature after a hot summer, as happens for instance after a

sharp shower just before the onset of the monsoon; experimentally

this has been proved to be the case with some Malayan orchids, as

shown by Burkill (3) and Coster (4). As regards Strobilanthes, van

Steenis (14) writes: “This is a most obscure phenomenon; hitherto

no explanation has been offered for its appearance.’

From my own observations in the field, I find it very difficult to

say that climatic or soil conditions are ithe cause of this general.

flowering of Strobilanthes. In a previous note in this Journal

(Santapau, 9) I have recorded for Khandala that, e.g. in 1949, the

top of Bhoma Hill was neatly and clearly divided by an invisible

line: every plant on the west side was in flower, none of the east side

was in flower that year, but came into flower the following year.

Similarly in 1959 (Santapau 13) I recorded that the slopes of Echo

Point in Khandala were in full bloom from the top to about the height

of the Saddle, or the depression separating Echo Point from Bhoma

Hill; lower down there was not a plant in flower; the following year,

1960, most plants from the Saddle downwards were in full bloom. It

is difficult to understand that climatic or soil conditions were or could

be so different on either side of such a very definite though imaginary

line!

Size or even age does not seem to be responsible for flowering

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 693

either. Some of the Karvi plants in Khandala come into flower,

apparently quite independently of the size of the plant; giants over

6 m. tall have been noted as covered with flowers on the main trunks,

branches, and other parts; but also dwarfs only a few centimetres high

were a mass of flowers (Santapau Ji). This last winter in

Mahableshwar we noted large shrubs of Waiti, as well as dwarfs only

8-15 cm. high, in full bloom. It was clear at once that such minute

plants, growing along the sides of frequented paths or roads, could

not be of the same age as the larger shrubs found at the edge of the

undergrowth.

We say, then, in all honesty that simply we do not know what

internal or external forces move these plants singly or individually

to come into flower; we do not know what natural forces induce

Strobilanthes plants to burst into flower over large areas of the

country at one and the same time.

This same ignorance, I am sorry to have to confess applies also

to bamboos; in the case of most species of bamboos we do not know

what causes them to flower at the same time over large tracts of the

forest, nor even how long it takes them to come into flower.

Blatter (2) in a series of articles published in this Journal in 1929-30:

gave the flowering cycle of bamboos as between some 15 and 45 years,

WHAT CAUSES THE FLOWERING OF BAMBOOS

Blatter discussed at some length what may be the causes

affecting bamboo flowering. One of the striking points he mentions

is that perhaps due to very hard or unusual climatic conditions

there is often a famine preceding the flowering of bamboos; such

hard conditions may cause the usual crops to fail over large areas.

There are extant records of crop failures over large parts of

Maharashtra, when the local population could be saved by eating

the seeds of Bambusa arundinacea,and Dendrocalamus strictus, that

came into fiower after the failure of the crops. Forsyth, as quoted

by Blatter, writes: “The rare occurrence of the general seeding of

the bamboo forest is a godsend to the aboriginal tribes ... An

abundant supply of wholesome grain is afforded, not only to the wild

tribes but to multitudes of the poorer inhabitants of the open country

and the cities around, who crowd to the spot to obtain the share of

the heaven-sent provender. There is a proverb that this occurrence

portends a failure of the common food staples of the country; but like

many such if*has not been verified by experience.’

694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 59 (2)

In the summary of his discussion, Blatter confirms what has been

stated above on Sitrobilanthes: ‘It is scarcely necessary to repeat

that flower-formation depends essentially on influences coming from

the outer world. These external factors are the general conditions

to which every vital process is subject. For flower-formation are

characteristic the special combination and intensity of these factors,

as light, nutritive salts, Carbon dioxide, Oxygen, absorption of water,

transpiration, temperature, and perhaps others of which we are not

conscious. It does not seem possible to analyse the constant and

intricate co-operation of all these factors and to find out what exact

effect is produced by each of them. Some facts, however, appear to

justify the assumption that fiower-formation is brought about in the

first place by an increase in C-assimilation and by an absolute or

relative decrease of certain nutritive salts, especially of those contain-

ing Nitrogen. We are thus allowed to assume that a certain con-

centration of those substances in the meristematic cells of the plant

forms the necessary internal condition of reproduction. Every attempt

to trace these relations more accurately and to define them more

clearly, seems to be hopeless at the present moment. This is

certainly a subject that offers a fine challenge to our Plant Physiologists;

the solution ought not to be as hopeless as Blatter made it appear

thirty years ago.

UNEXPECTED RESULTS FROM GREGARIOUS FLOWERING OF BAMBOOS

In connection with the rare general bamboo flowering there is

another point that might be of interest to our readers. I have gathered

plenty of information on the subject from my own field observations

and from contacts with various people all over India. When the

bamboo flowers, we do not have greater activity on the part of bees;

but we certainly have a most definite increased activity on the part of

rats, mice, and similar vermin. A general fiowering of bamboos

attracts not only the poorer people of India, but is also accompanied

by a highly increased population of rodents of all kinds. Such

rodents can feed properly and easily, and so they reproduce in

alarming numbers, ‘This is the reason why in many parts of the

country, where bamboos are abundant, the local people fear such

general flowering; they know from past experience that in all pro-

bability such general flowering will be followed by a _ year of

famine in the area. The armies of rodents, that have appeared during

the year of plenty, will persevere in the field for one or more years;

as there are no more bamboos to feed on. they go for cultivated crops,

and may in fact be responsible for severe famine over large areas.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 695

Humayun Abdulali tells me that in the monsoon following the

gregarious flowering of bamboos (Dendrocalamus stricta) near Bombay

in 1960, he discovered many specimens of the Little Indian Field

Mouse, Mus booduga Gray, under logs and stones turned over in

forest areas in search of frogs and reptiles. He did not remember

ever finding these mice under similar conditions before.

ABNORMAL FLOWERING OF STROBILANTHES

To make this note complete, I may refer readers to my note in

this Journal (Santapau, 12). On Echo Point at Khandala some plants

were collected that had clearly come into flower the previous year,

and were not dead when the next flowering season arrived; the

remains of the fruit were still on the plant, but fresh leaves and buds

for the next flowering season were also on the same plants. This is

most unusual for Strobilanthes, though it is normal for most other

shrubs and trees. It would show that the Karvi plants, though

generally behaving as plietesials as mentioned above, can and do, at

least on some occasions, behave like normal shrubs, bringing forth

flowers and fruits on more than just one season.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

14, MADAN STREET, H. SANTAPAYU, s.J.

CatcuTra. 13,

January 27, 1961.

REFERENCES

1. Birdwood, H.M. (1896) : A cata-

logue of the flora of Matheran and

Mahableshwar. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

10 : 394-439,

2. Blatter, E. (1929-30) : The flower-

ing of bamboos. ibid. 33 : 899-921, 1929;

34 : 135-141, 447-467, 1930.

3. Burkill, I. H. (1917) : The flower-

ing of the pigeon orchid, Dendrobium —

crumenatum,. Gard. Bull. ‘Stre Setl. 1:

400-405.

4. Coster, C. (1926) : Periodische

Bltiteneracheinungen in den Tropen.

Ann. Jard. Bot. Bitenz. 35 ; 125-162.

5. Duthie, J. F. (1890) : Periodical

flowering of Strobilanthes spps. and of

Aechmanthera tomentosa Nees. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 5 : 417-418.

6. Graham, J. (1839): A Catalogue

of Plants growing in Bombay and its

Vicinity. Bombay. —

7. Hutton, A. F. (1949) : Mass

flowering of Strobilanthes kunthianus on

the High Wavy Mts.,

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48 : 614,

e3A

in August 1948, -

8. Robinson, M. E. (1935) : The

flowering of Strobilanthes in 1934. ibid.

38 : 117-122, tt. 1-8.

9. Santapau, H. (1950): The flower-

ing of Strobilanthes. ibid. 49 : 320-321.

10. ——— (1951) : The Acanthaceae

of Bombay. Bot. Mem.

2: 38 in note.

11.. ——-— (1952) : The flowering of

Strobilanthes in Khandala. IV. J Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 430-431.

12. — (1960): The flowering of Stro-

bilanthes. ibid. 56: 677, t 1.

13. ——— (1960) : The Carvi Plant.

State Trans. Rev. Bombay 10 (11) :

38-40, t. 1.

14. Steenis, C. G. G. J. van. (1938) :

Gregarious flowering of Strobilanthes

(Acanthaceae) in Malaysia. Ann Roy.

Bot. Gard. Calcutta 150th Anniv. Numb.

pp. 91-97.

15. Talbot, W. A. (1911) : Forest

Flora of the Bombay Presidency and

Sind. 2; 330,

Univ. Bombay

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

27. VIVIPARY IN BAMBOO, MELOCANNA BAMBUSOIDES

TRIN.!

(With a plate)

With reference to the excellent article on ‘Bamboo Fruits’

published by D. Chatterjee in the Journal 57 (2) : 451-53 J give the

following comments. WS | 2 |

The author has stated on p. 453: ‘The germination was so quick

that it was even suspected that some fruits must have germinated

while still on the tree. On careful examination, however, no,

viviparous fruits were noticed but the occurrence of this phenomenon

‘cannot be altogether ruled out as stated by Gamble.’

A few clumps of this bamboo were planted a long time ago in

Dehra Dun and, strangely enough, the profuse fruiting of muli bamboo

here coincided exactly with its fruiting periodicity in Bengal (where

it is native) in the summer-rainy season of the year 1960. During

this period, extending over several months, I watched the fruiting

of this bamboo and give the following observations which might prove

useful to your readers and interest the botanists.

- Melocanna bambusoides Trin. is essentially of a viviparous type.

The pear-shaped, pointed fruits start appearing in great profusion

(once in about 35 years’ time) on the entire plant, and the fruiting

period extends over several months.. It is so profuse that the fruits

appear at the nodes on the main clump, on the thin long branchlets,

and even at the ground level springing up from the panicles arising

out of the partially exposed rhizomes. The point of attachment of

the fruit with the plant is so fragile that when they aftain a little

maturity and weight, a slight breeze or wind tends to shake off the

fruits from the slender branchlets long before they can fully develop

into the viviparous state. The fallen fruits of course start regenera-

tion on the ground. Some of those fruits which are clinging close

to the nodes on the main clump and near the ground level are not

easily disturbed by the wind. Late in the season, when there is

enough of humidity in the atmosphere, these fruits get a chance of

developing into a good sizeable fruit with a 6-8 inches long shoot

growing out of the broader end while still on the tree, thus establish-

ing for certain the phenomenon of vivipary in this bamboo.

* Communicated by the Head, “Division: of Forest ‘Bo‘any, Forest Research

Institute, Dehra Dun, U.P.

(PIDA "WM ¢ S0104d)

syndy snoredialA yuouldojaaep Jo sa8ejs snowea Ul WIZ ooquieg

‘NIU L SACIOSNAWVE VNNVYOOTEW

‘00S “LSIH “LVN Avawog ‘Nunof

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 697

_ The accompanying two photographs amply illustrate my observa-

tions in establishing this fact. 7

FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE, | |

DeHRA Dun, U.P., K, M, VAID

May 30, 1962.

28. SOME NEW RECORDS OF PLAGIOGYRIA FROM INDIA

Plagiogyria is a genus of about 50 species of tropical ferns about

40 of which are Oriental. In India the genus is restricted to the hill

regions of Assam and 4 species, viz. P. distinctissima Ching, (P.

adnata Bl.), P. glaucescens Ching (P. glauca Bl.), P. pycnophylla Kunze,

and P. euphlebia (Kunze) Mett., are reported by earlier workers

(Beddome, 1892; Ching, 1958). During the course of a detailed

morphological study of the genus Plagiogyria in India an extensive’

collection was made frem various regions of Assam during the year

1958-1961. In addition to the four species already reported, four new

species P. triquetra Mett., P. communis Ching, P. simulans Ching,

and P. virescens (C. Chr.) Ching were collected. The present com-

munication is a report on the occurrence of these species in India and

details regarding them are given below. Specimens of all the species

reported here are deposited in the Herbarium of the National Botanic

Gardens, Lucknow. In the accompanying list the number following

the name of each species refers to the collection number of the

Herbarium, which is followed by the locality of the collection, the

name of the collector, and the date of collection.

(1) Plagiogyria communis Ching. NBG 77007. Elephant Falls

(1500 m.), Shillong, Assam. Mr. Prakash Chandra. 18 May 1961.

A large fern, often over a metre tall, growing in dense clusters

on the sides of streams in semi-marshy surroundings. The dense

clusters of roots enveloping the rhizomes innake it appear stump-like.

The rachis and stipe are tetragonal. The pinnae are closely placed,

and possess serrate margins.

Occurs more or less abundantly in the vicinity of Elephant Falls.

(2) Plagiogyria simulans Ching. NBG 77008. Elephant Falls

(1500 m.), Shillong, Assam. Mr. Prakash Chandra. 18 May 1961.

A medium-sized fern of deeply shaded, semi-marshy areas near

streams and rivulets, forming small isolated clusters. Full grown

plants ate 50-60 cm. tall. The stipe and rachis are tetragonal. The

698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

pinnae are more or less closely placed, lanceolate falcate, and with

sharply toothed margins.

More or less abundant.

(3) Plagiogyria triquetra Mett. (Stenochlaena triquetra J. Smith).

NBG 77359. Shillong Peak (1600 m.), Khasi & Jaintia Hills, Assam.

Dr. B. K. Nayar, 17 November 1959.

A large fern, nearly 1.5 m. tall, growing in small clusters in deeply

shaded, semi-swampy areas in the forest beds. ‘The stipe is trigonal

while the rachis is flat on the upper surface and smoothly rounded on

the lower. Pinnae are loosely placed on the rachis, lanceolate falcate,

and with subcrenate margins.

More or less frequent in the forest near Shillong Peak.

(4) Plagiogyria virescens (C. Chr.) Ching. NBG 77328 Pynursla

(1300 m.), Khasi & Jaintia Hills, Assam. Dr. B. K. Nayar.

13 November 1959.

A medium-sized fern, growing in deeply shaded moist nallas in

swampy soil. Full grown plants are 60-80 cm. tall. The stipe and

rachis are tetragonal. Pinnae are loosely placed, and with serrate

margins.

Rather abundant in the deep nallas around Pynursla village.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Prof. K. N. Kaul for his encouragement,

to Mr. Prakash Chandra for kindly supplying the material from his

collections, and to Dr. B. K. Nayar under whose guidance this work

is done. !

PTERIDOLOGY LABORATORY, ,

NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS, FARRUKH KAZMI

LUCKNOW,

August 6, 1962.

REFERENCES

Beddome, R. H. (1892): Handbook to Ching, R. C. (1958): The Fern genus

the Ferns of British India: With Sup- Plagiogyria on the mainland of Asia.

plement. Calcutta. Acta. Phytotax. Sinica. 7 : 108-154.

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Turbinaria sp. from Okha

Fig. 1. Entire plant with branched holdfast, x1.4; Fig. 2. A fertile specimen

(Note the branched receptacles), x 1.4; Fig. 3. A vegetative specimen, x 1.4 ; Fig. 4.

A single leaf-like appendage with branched receptacles, x 1.4

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 699

29. TURBINARIA FROM OKHA

(With one plate)

On a recent trip for collecting marine algae at Okha and Dwarka,

the writer with the help of his student Shri P. G. Abraham obtained

at Okha three specimens of Turbinaria (Phaeophyceae, Fucales), one

of which was an entire plant (Fig. 1). They were all washed ashore.

As far as I am aware (I am thankful to Professor M. O. P. Iyengar

and Dr. T, V. Desikachari for confirming this information) Turbinaria

has not been officially reported from Okha and Dwarka. This genus

is widely known and reported from the southern coasts of India.

Thus, this finding can be considered as an interesting one as Okha

and Dwarka are famous for the richest algal vegetation in India. It

ig well known that Professor F. Borgesen and others have made

extensive collections from these places since 1927.

The entire plant is stunted and measures about 7.0 cm. (Fig. 1).

The holdfast is branched. The stem is unbranched but short spur

branches are occasionally observed (Figs. 1, 2). Professor Wm. R.

Taylor of the University of Michigan who is at present carefully

studying the genus informs me that my specimens do not agree with!

the description of any completely single-stemmed species and appear

to be young or stunted. The leaves are obpyramidal and measure

about 1.0 cm. in length (Figs. 1, 3, 4). The petiolar part of the leaf

has three ridges which bear spiny projections (Figs. 1, 4). The

truncated end of the leaf has a flattened top with a fairly broad,

rounded-triangular expansion having an aculeate-dentate margin.

The cryptostomata are scattered (Fig. 4). Out of the three collected

specimens two fertile ones (Figs. 1, 2) are similar while the sterile one:

appears to be different (Fig. 3). The leaves of the sterile one are

generally vesicular at the upper region and longer and broader than

those of the fertile ones. The branched receptacles are abundant

and more or fess axillary.

On the basis of my drawings Professor Taylor says that my

specimen ‘looks like 7. turbinata (L.) Kuntze’. But I must admit

that the specimens collected at Ckha do not fully agree with the

descriptions of this species. On the suggestion of Professor Taylor

further collections and investigation on Turbinaria of Okha and

Dwarka are being planned.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF SCIENCES, J, J. SHAH

GUJARAT UNIVERSITY, ANHMEDABAD-9,

March 31, 1962.

700 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

3). ON SELF-CONJUGATION IN A NEW SPECIES

OF SPIROGYRA LINK

(With one plate)

Until quite recently no case of self-conjugation by the formation of

loops was known in the Zygnemaceae. Iyengar (1940, 1958a) was the

first to report and describe in detail this type of conjugation in Temnoga-

metum tirupatiense Iyeng. Later Singh (1958a, 1958b) observed this type

of conjugation in Sirocladium kumaoense Randh. and Zygnema terrestre

Randh. A similar type of conjugation was also reported by Randhawa

(1959) in Sirocladium maharashtrense Randh. But as far as the author

is aware, sexual reproduction by this method has not so far been recorded

in any species of Spirogyra. Recently the author had the opportunity of

collecting and studying a species of Spirogyra showing this type of con-

jugation from Palghat, Kerala State. The alga also seems to be new

and a decription of it based on a study of living specimens is given

below.

The alga was found growing intermingled with other algae includ-

ing species of Oedogonium, Zygnema, Spirogyra, Mougeotia, Bulbo-

chaete, Scytonema, etc. in very shallow water in exposed ditches con-

stantly moistened by thin films of water spreading from a tempo-

rary pool and flowing into the Malampuzha reservoir near Palghat,

Kerala State, in October 1961. The cells of the alga are 33-38.5p

broad, 225-630 long, and with plane end walls. They are slightly

dilated at their ends. Each cell has 2, rarely 3 chloroplasts coiled

to the right making 3.5-7 turns (Plate, fig. 1).

The only method of sexual reproduction observed in this alga

is by self-conjugation and this appears to be the normal regular

method of conjugation in this species. Here the filaments coil before

conjugation in a very intricate and irregular manner forming loops of

various sizes and shapes (Plate, fig. 2). A varying number of cells situ-

ated at different places in the same filament are thus brought, somewhat

parallel to each other or allowed to cross over others. Sometimes a

limited number of cells lying in a series are brought parallel to other

cells of the same filament by the bending of the latter through an

angle of 180 degrees (Plate, fig. 8). In many cases these approximated

cells develop into gametangia. Normally the cells which enter in conju-

gation are separated by one or more vegetative cells. But in certain

cases the coiling may be very complicated and involve the conjugation

of two or more pairs of gametangia. (Plate, fig. 3-4) .

In a pair of conjugating cells the entire or at least the major part of

the conjugation tube is constituted by the male gametangium. A tube

which has established connection with the female cell is invariably

broader towards its distal end and may reach a length of up to 65z.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 701

There is also a lateral expansion of the female gametangium before the

dissolution of the wall separating the conjugants. Hence it is possible

to make out the receptive cell even in the early stages of conjugation.

Stages in the formation of the male gamete, its movement towards

the female cell through the conjugation tube and the process of gametic

union are exactly similar to those recorded in the scalariform conjuga-

tion of other known species of Spirogyra.

After conjugation the zygospore is formed inside the female game-

tangium and when ripe is provided with a thick five-layered wall

(Plate, fig. 9). The exospore is made up of two layers of which the

outer is thin, firm, hyaline, and with a reddish violet hue on the outer

surface, the inner colourless, mucilaginous, and with fine granules dis-

tributed towards its inner face. -The mesospore is also two-layered.

Its outer layer is firm, smooth, and pale yellow in colour. Its inner

layer is thicker, rigid, light yellowish brown in colour, and irregular-

ly reticulate, the ridges being thick and imperfectly dentate. The

endospore is colourless, thin, and distinct. The mature zygospores are

ellipsoid and with rounded ends. They are 56-66.5 » broad and

82.3-112.5 » long.

This alga resembles Spirogyra corrugata Transeau (Transeau, 1934)

and Spirogyra crenulata Singh (Singh, 1938 b). The former was reported

from China and U.S.A. and the latter from India. The features of

similarity include: (1} the presence of plane cross walls, (2) the for-

mation of the conjugation canal solely by the male gametangium, (3) the

width of the cells ranging between 30 and 40 p», and (4) the presence of

two chloroplasts in each cell. The present alga, however, is sufficiently

different from the two species mentioned above to be considered as a

separate species. It differs from S. corrugata in the possession of

usually longer vegetative cells, broader zygospores, and in the structure

of the zygospore wall. In having a five-layered zygospore wall, the

present alga comes nearer to S. crenulata than to Spirogyra corrugata,

but is easily distinguished from the former by the relatively larger size

of the vegetative cells, the shape and size of the zygospore, and the

structure of the different layers of its wall. Again, the author’s alga is

unique in showing a peculiar type of conjugation so far not recorded

in any other species of Spirogyra. These striking differences seem to

warrant the establishment of a new species which may be called

Spirogyra palghatensis sp. nov.

DESCRIPTION

Spirogyra palghatensis sp. nov.

Vegetative cells cylindrical, six to fifteen times as long as broad,

33-38.5 x 225-630 » ; end walls plane; chloroplasts generally 2, rarely

3 making 3.5 to 7 turns.

702 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 59 (2)

Filaments monoecious, conjugation unique in being brought about

between cells situated apart from each other in the same filament

through the intricate coiling of the intervening portions of the filament;

conjugation tube wholly formed by the male gametangium, female cells

swollen when mature; zygospores ellipsoid with rounded ends,

56-66.5 xX 82.3-112.5 3; spore wall of five layers, outer exospore

hyaline, upto 1.5 » thick, and with a reddish violet hue on the outer.

surface, inner exospore colourless, mucilaginous with finely granulated

inner side, and up to 7.5 » thick ; outer mesospore thin, smooth, and

pale yellow, inner mesospore light yellowish brown, irregularly reti-

culate, reticulations thick and imperfectly dentate ; endospore colourless,

thin and distinct.

Habitat. In very shallow water in ditches near Malampuzha

reservoir, Palghat, Kerala in October 1961 along with species of

Oedogonium, Mougeotia, Spirogyra, Bulbochaete, Scytonema, etc.

Type material of Spirogyra palghatensis has been deposited in the

Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Spirogyra palghatensis sp. nov. |

Cellulae vegetativae cylindricae, 6 plo. - 15 plo. longiores quam latae,

33 - 38.5 x 225-630 «3; parietes terminales plani; chloroplasta vulgo

bina, raro terna, rotationes 3.5 ad 7 efficientia.

Filamenta monoica ; conjugatio unica in eo quod efficitur inter duas

cellulas eiusdem filamenti distantes sed in unum advectas per spiras

multiplices partis filamenti interjectae. Conjugationis tubus penitus

productus per gametangium masculum, cellulis foemineis ad maturi-

tatem tumescentibus; zygosporae ellipsoideae, apicibus rotundatis,

56- 66.5 x 82.3 - 112.5 » ; sporarum parietes quinque seriebus constant;

exterius exosporium hyalinum, ad 1.5 » crassum, externa facie rubro-

violaceo colore tincta, exosporium interius incolorum, mucosum, ad

7.5 » crassum, facie interna pulchre granulata ; mesosporium exterius

tenue, leve et pallido-luteum, interius vero pallide luteolo-brunneum,

irregulariter reticulatum, reticulationibus crassis et imperfecte dentatis,

endosporium incolorum, tenue et distinctum.

In aqua tenuissima in fossis ad cisternam Malampuzha Palghat,

Kerala, mense octobri anni 1961 simul cum speciebus Oecedogonii,

Mougeotiae, Spirogyrae, Bubochaetes, Scytonematis, etc.,a N. A. Erady.

Typus lectus a N. A. Erady et positus in herbario Hortui Regii

Kewensis in Anglia sub No. 1095.

SUMMARY

The process of sexual reproduction in a new species of Spirogyra,

Spirogyra palghatensis sp. noy., which comes near S. crenulata Singh

JouRN. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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Sl inlet Ee

Spirogyra palghatensis sp. nov.

_ Fig. 1. Vegetative cell; Fig. 2. Part of a vegetative filament showing a stage prior to

conjugation ; Figs. 3-5. Early stages in self-conjugation ; Figs. 6-8. Late stages in self-conjugation ;

Fig. 9. Surface view of a part of the Zygospore wall.

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 703

and S. corrugata Transeau is described. It is based on a study of living

specimens collected at Malampuzha, Palghat, Kerala State. In this

monoecious species the filaments show a peculiar tendency for coiling in

a profuse and intricate manner before conjugation. Cells of the same

filament which are brought close together as a result of coiling enter in

conjugation. This type of self-conjugation is found to be a regular

normal method of reproduction in this species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author’s sincere thanks are due to Rev. Fr. Dr. H. Santapau for

rendering into Latin the diagnosis of the new species.

GOVERNMENT VICTORIA COLLEGE,

PALGHAT, KERALA,

December 15, 1961.

N. A. ERADY

REFERENCES

Iyengar, M. O. P. (1940): Notes on

three species of Temnogametum from

South India. Proc. 27th Indian Sci.

Congr. Part III (Abstract).

(1958a) : Three New species

of Temnogametum from South India.

Jour. Ind, Bot. Soc, 37 : 212-215.

Randhawa, M.S. (1959) : ‘ Zygnema-

ceae ’—a monograph. I. C. A. R. publi-

cation.

Singh, K. P. (1958 a): Some observa-

tions on Conjugation in Sirocladium

kumaoense Randh. Current Sci. 28 : 22-3.

Singh, K. P. (1958. b): Some peculiari-

ties in conjugation in Zygnema terrestre

Randh. Sci. & Culture 24 : 331-2.

Singh, R. N. (1938): The Zygne-

moideae of United Provinces, India II.

Jour. Ind. Bot. Soc. 17 : 378.

Transeau, E. N. (1934. b): The genera

of the Zygnemataceae. Trans. Amer.

Micr. Soc. 53 : 227.

———— (1951) : The Zygnemataceae.

Ohio State Univ. Press. Columbus.

31. USE OF AIR-GUNS BY MINORS

The Annual Report for 1961 of the British Section of the Inter-

national Council for Bird Preservation makes an interesting reference

to the problem of air-guns. Under British law, air-guns (and shot-

guns!) may be used by children of any age and by people with no

knowledge or experience of shooting—the only requisite being the

possession of a shooting licence which can be purchased by anyone!

for a fee of 10 shillings per annum.

In India, the problem fortunately only covers the less powerful

air-gun and, in the States of Maharashtra and Gujarat at least, the

killing of almost all birds and animals by any means is prohibited

except under a game licence and in accordance with the conditions

thereof. The application for a game licence, however, requires

details of the arms-licence, which not being available to persons under

104. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (2)

18, prevents them from engaging in legitimate shooting until they

are of age.

While there can be no doubt that the killing of birds by boys with

air-guns should and must be stopped, I think it unreasonable and

undesirable to prevent their legitimate participation in sport until

they are 18 years of age. Many of the keener sportsmen commence

their shooting activities at about 12 and, unless they begin early, they

cannot give the matter the same interest and attention that makes the

really good shikari or sportsman.

Recent issues of The Indian Rifleman contain reference to children

of 12 and 14 doing well at rifle ranges—I do not know if they are

covered by suitable licences.

In England, a private member of Parliament recently presented a

Bill on the subject of Gun and Game Licences containing a clause

which would prohibit children under 15 from using guns (including

air-cuns), except under the supervision of an adult. The Bill failed

to pass the Committee stage in the House of Commons.

The change proposed by the Bill appears very reasonable and it is

hoped that these matters will soon be suitably adjusted in India.

BompBay NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

01, WALKESHWAR ROAD, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BoMBAY 6,

July 10, 1962.

Gleanings

THE DESCRIPTION AND NAMING OF NEW SPECIES

In The Annals & Magazine of Natural History for December 1961,

in a note on the numerical data published in Volume III of his

BIBLIOGRAPHIA ARANEORUM, Pierre Bonnet gives facts and makes

suggestions relating to the systematics of Arachnology which may

usefully be read and pondered over by systematists in other branches

of natural science as well.

M. Bonnet points out that of the 45,140 species named in the

period 1758-1939 as many as 17,634 have been found by subsequent

workers to be invalid, and that of the 22,398 accepted species named

during this period as many as 15,560 have not been collected again

since their original discovery. So many species cannot all be rare

and it is unlikely that any substantial proportion of them have ceased

to exist. Are they really valid species, or have they already been

described under some other name? He rightly comments on the

enormous waste of labour involved, and presses for greater caution ir

describing new species. The four principles which he enunuciates,

however, are rules of perfection which it will be difficult to enforce

rigidly.

AN INDIAN ORPHEUS

‘In refreshing contrast to this cruel and unseemly procedure

(shooting dazzled wild animals by night from motorcars) . . . was the

delightful propensity of the Maharaj Rana of Dholpur for establish-

ing friendly contacts with wild creatures. .... In his younger days

he had been one of the finest small-game shots in India, but as he

grew older he tired of killing and turned to the cultivation of

amicable personal relations with birds and beasts. It became his

habit to go unarmed into the jungle and, like a latter-day Orpheus,

attract its denizens by dulcet sounds. Relying not upon musical,

instruments but upon his own delightfully modulated voice, he

achieved almost incredible success. Shy sambhur stags and hinds

eventually emerged from the thickets to take food from his hands,

and wild birds would perch upon his shoulders.’

Sir Kenneth Fitze (1956): TWILIGHT OF THE MAHARAJAS

Notes and News

The XIIth International Congress of Entomology will take place

in London from 8-16 July 1964, under the presidency of Professor

G. W. Richards, F.R.S.

The Congress will be divided into twelve sections and emphasis

_ will be placed on sessions organized around selected topics of current

importance, to which contributions will be invited from intending

members. Visits are being planned both to research institutes and to

well-known collecting areas.

Full Membership is open to all at a fee of £8 sterling. Full

Members’ families and undergraduate students are eligible for Asso-

ciate Membership at £4 but will not receive the printed Proceedings

and may not read papers.

The languages of the Congress are English, French and German.

Persons wishing to attend the Congress, who have not received an

invitation to attend, should inform Mr. Paul Freeman, Secretary,

XIIth International Congress of Entomology, c/o British Museum

(Natural History), Cromwell Road, London, S.W. 7, England.

* * %* *

Mr. Julian Donahue of 237 Gunson, East Lansing, Michigan,

U.S.A., would be glad to hear from persons who have collected Delhi

butterilies.

* * oe *

We congratulate Dr. M. L. Roonwal, Member of the Advisory

Committee of the Society, on whom the University of Cambridge has

recently conferred the degree of Sc.D.

* * * *

Dr. H. Santapau, Chief Botanist, Botanical Survey of India,

accompanied by Dr. S. K. Mukherjee, Dr. M. A. Rau, Dr. T. S.

Sadasivan, Dr. T. S. Mahabalé, and Dr. S. M. Sarcar, is leaving for

the US.S.R. in September 1962. This visit is part of the programme

of Cultural Exchange Agreement between the two countries and

under which six Russian Botanists had visited India from 1 March to

31 May, 1961. The delegates will be the guests of the Soviet

Government, and will be visiting the various laboratories and

Botanical Gardens for study of the flora of that country and the

methods of preservation and utilization of the same.

The Society is in a position to distribute some small amounts for

specific pieces of work in natural history. Members interested may

write to the Honorary Secretary giving a précis of the work to be

carried out and details of the expenditure likely to be incurred.

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CONTENTS | fa ia

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA. IV. The Royal Gardens at

Kew begin to guide the direction of Botany in India. By I. H. Burkill Bi 335

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HimaLayA. Part XXVI. A Contribution to our | ob.

~ Knowledge of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects of the Nival Zones

from the North-West Himalaya. Part4. By M.S. Mani and Santokh Singh 360

CRITICAL NOTES ON THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE. IX. Some of the

smaller Genera (Continued). By H. Santapau and Z. Kapadia Baz

THE BirDs OF NEPAL. Part 7. By Biswamoy Biswas .. | es -. 405

SOME REPTILES OF SOUTH INDIA. (A Reprint). By R. H. Beddome .. 430

ALGAL FLORA OF JODHPUR AND ITS Environs. I. Charophyta. By S. K. Goyal 447

THE MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS.

PartIV. By E. P. Gee att ae HA ue .. 453

BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE ERSTWHILE TEHRi GARHWAL STATE—IIL. By

Raj Kumar Gupta i #3 Ai Be .. 486

THE GENUS AN/SOPS (HEMIPTERA : NOTONECTIDAE) IN CEYLON. By C. Y. Leong

and C. H. Fernando Le ,e aA oe Aas 3) i

STUDIES ON THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA. I. Aeolosomatidae

and Naididae. Part 3. By K. Vanamala Naidu .. ates ; 2.520

A REVISION OF INDIAN MuciLipag. Part II. By Sarojini R. Pillay .. oa q

LiFE-HISTORY AND HABITS OF THE LEAF WoRM, NAUSINOE GEOMETRALIS

(GUENEE) (PYRAUSTIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA). By S. Kanakaraj David and

S. Venugopal aE ~e t: Y, ate on

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA. Part2. By A. Brosset a 3)

REVIEWS .. em a a a5 Ys -. 625

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Ay is 7 ae .. 636

GLEANINGS a ws - a .. 705

NOTES AND NEws us iA He Rye tk .. 7106

Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

SO68S F

Cpe

Vol. 59, No. 3

Editors

H. SANTAPAU, s.J., & HUMAYUN ABDULALI

DECEMBER 1962

Rs. 15

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

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or Dimeria blatteri.

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Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268. | :

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

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EDITORS,

91, Walkeshwar Road, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Bombay 6-WB. History Society.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 59, NO. 3

Tue BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA. Part III. By A. Brosset. (With

nine maps, one text-figure, and one plate)

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA. V. The undertaking of

two great enterprises, The Flora of the Higher Plants and the Forest

Service. By I. H. Burkill

EARLY STAGES OF OLD WoRLD LEPIDOPTERA—XII. By E. P. Wiltshire. (With

four plates)

ECcO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN DESERT GERBILLE, MERIONES HUR-

RIANAE (JERDON). I. Feeding behaviour, energy requirements, and

selection of bait. By Ishwar Prakash and C.G. Kumbkarni. (With two

figures) ae :

THE BirDs OF NEPAL. Part8. By Biswamoy Biswas

ODONTOTERMES PARALATIGULA, A NEW SPECIES OF TERMITE FROM BURMA.

(ISOPTERA : TERMITIDAE : MACROTERMITINAE). By P. N. Chatterjee and

P. K. Sen-Sarma. (With three text-figures)

CRITICAL NOTES ON THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE. X. Some of the

smaller Genera (Continued). By H. Santapau, s.J. and Z. Kapadia.

(With two plates) we see

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA. Part XXVI. A Contribution to

our Knowledge of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects of the

Nival Zones from the North-West Himalaya. Part 5. By M.S. Mani

and Santokh Singh. (With thirteen text-figures)

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW District. By S. L. Kapoor. (With a map)

STUDIES ON THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA. I. Aeoloso-

matidae and Naididae. Part 4. By K. Vanamala Naidu. (With eight

text-figures) ae we as

THE BNHS/WHO Birp MIGRATION StuDY PRoJECT—2. Activities from

15-12-61 to 15-10-62. By Salim Ali ..

REVIEWS :

1. The Migration of Birds. (S.A.)

2. A Hunter’s Saga. (H.A.)

3. Birds in the Sun. (S.A.)

4. Jungle and Backyard. (H.A.)

5. Introduction to High Altitude Entomology : Insect Life above the

Timberline in the North-West Himalaya. (R.R.)

ee ee

PAGE

707

747

778

800

807

822

827

843

862

897

922

930

933

934

935

936

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. The panther of Nagri. By D.H. Kulkarni (p. 938). 2. The identity

of the Malayan Mole. By The Earl of Cranbrook (p. 942). 3. Gestation

period of the Fourhorned Antelope Tetracerus quadricornis (Blainville). By

E. M. Shull (p. 945). 4. Nocturnal ‘ predator’ of Yellow Oleander ( 7hevetia

neriifolia). By S. K. Chatterjee (p. 947). 5. The Small Indian Swallow

Plover, Glareola lactea Temminck, near Bombay. By Humayun Abdulali

(p. 948). 6. Peculiar behaviour of Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas).

By Salim Ali (p. 948). 7. Eggs of the Crow-billed Drongo, Dicrurus annec-

tans (Hodg;ion), from Burma. By J. O. Harrison (p. 949). 8. Taxonomic

notes on some Himalayan Paridae. By Raymond A. Paynter, Jr. (p. 951).

9. Occurrence of the Whitecapped Bunting [Emberiza stewarti (Blyth) ] in

Gujarat. By Yuvraj Shivrajkumar (p. 956). 10. Notes on the birds of the

districts of West Godavari, Krishna, and North Arcot. By Humayun

Abdulali and Daniel Mathew (p. 957). 11. Notes on the range of certain

birds as given in S. D. Ripiey II (1961) : A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA

AND PAKISTAN. By H. W. Waite (p. 958). 12. Recoveries of ringed migratory

birds at Hingolgadh, Jasdan, Saurashtra. By Yuvraj Shivrajkumar (p. 963).

13. Recovery of ringed birds. By Editors (p. 964). 14. Extension of range

of the Skink Riopa guentheri (Gray). By J.C. Daniel (p. 965). 15. Sex ratio

and size of the Garden Lizard (Calotes versicolor Daud.). By G.S. Singh

and J. P. Thapliyal (p. 965). 16. Extension of range of Olivaceous Smooth

Snake [Rhabdops olivaceus (Beddome)]. By P. W. Soman (p. 966). 17.

Extension of the known range of the Catsnake Boiga forsteni (Dum. & Bibr.).

By J. C. Daniel (p. 966). 18. An instance of partial ambicolouration in the

Oriental Sole, Brachirus orientalis (Bloch & Schneider) (With a plate). By

R. M. Pradhan and M. J. Pradhan (p. 967). 19. Migration of elvers in the

west Highlands of Scotland (With two plates). By Editors (p. 968). 20. Fish

mortality at Shahdra Fish Farm, Delhi. By R. M. Chaturvedi (p. 970). 21.

Marine bivalve mollusc Solenomya mediterranea Lamarck from Cochin, South

India: A new record (With one plate). By S.T. Satyamutti (p. 974). 22.

Termite ‘ Odontotermes obesus (Rambur)’ : Royal Chamber with four

queens and two kings (With two plates). By M. L. Roonwal and O. B. Chho-

tani (p.975). 23. Observations on the flora of Agri District with some new

records. By S. L. Kapoor (p. 976).

_ NOTES AND NEws

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR

1961-62 7 ae e? es ee ee

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HIsTORY SOCIETY

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING at, be %

PAGE

984

986

991

999

hese cracks. (Aurangabad, 1960)

inhabits

is species

A large colony of th

Typical biotope of Tadarida aegyptiaca.

JOURN. BomBay }

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1962 DECEMBER Vol. 59 No. 3

The Bats of Central and Western India

PART III i

A. BROSSET

(With nine maps, one text-figure, and one plate)

[Continued from Vol. 59 (2):624]

Family MOLOSSIDAE

Genus Tadarida

Subgenus Tadarida

Tadarida aegyptiaca (E. Geoffroy, 1818)

Measurements (in mm.) :

Localities zen. Pieoue:

pee. Be | |

S S Ss 5 = 5°) 2

got | “g™O | Ot | “Sot | Bro] gto| 2.2

Silesia. see) Sq. ea | or

S| etek ie oT heen all thas | Loge

= = =) =]

oye < <

Forearm 49 47 45 46 48 32 45

2nd Finger 44 45 42 43 46 | 50 Al

is Gera 46 46 45 46 46 52 41

fof?)

& / 1st Phalange 18 18 18 19 19 | 20 14

no}

on oe Phalange 17 17 16 18 17 24 19

as 46 40 41 45 44 49 41

fof)

& ¢ Ist Phalange 16 16 15 15 17 18 12

Aveo]

+ oe Phalange 10 9 9 9 9 13 6

bs ce 27a 2Geubis. |e OONNOSY (133° 71025

oD |

& (ee ee Wile 11 13 id Pn 13

ts;

\ \ 2nd Phalange eres 8 Shoslt az 8 Hl 5

Tarsus Par 16 15 15 15 15 12

Tail - WB glamaD lesan hare 400 ban | as

708 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic . Upper Lower

length breadth Mandible dental row dentalrow

Aurangabad 19.5 12 (35 8.7 8.7

Aurangabad 19.5 12 14 8.5 8.5

As is often the case in the other species of Tadarida the

measurements in Tadarida aegyptiaca are rather variable.

Description

The Tadarida, or Wrinkle-lipped bats, are unmistakable. The head

is extraordinary, the round, broad, and thick ears being joined on the

front of the muzzle, in the manner of a shade. The upper jaw is

deeply wrinkled. The body is heavy, and the wings narrow. The

fleshy tail projects out of the membrane for about half its length.

The feet show rows of stiff hairs.

Two allied species are found in India. These are Tadarida tragata

and Tadarida plicata. The former possesses 6 incisors in the lower

jaw (against 4 in Tadarida aegyptiaca) and the latter (subgenus

Chaerephon) has no palatal emargination, which special character is

shown by all species of the subgenus Tadarida.

Like most species of bats, Yadarida aegyptiaca shows great

variations in the colour of the fur. Two principal types have been

seen in western India:

A : Warm brown above and lighter brown-grey below,

B: Reddish brown both above and below.

Three subspecies, described on the basis of differences of size and

colour are known for western India. They are:

T. a. gossei Wroughton, 1919 (Poona),

T. a. thomasi Wroughton, 1919 (Bhuj, Kutch, and Dharwar),

T. a. sindica Wroughton, 1919 (Upper Sind Frontier).

A few specimens of each race are known. From the biogeo-

graphical point of view, it seems improbable that Tadarida aegyptiaca

of Poona (gossei) should be different from thomasi which is found

both north (Bhuj) and south (Dharwar) of Poona. Also the specimens

named thomasi (Bhuj) and gossei (Poona) in the Bombay Natural

History Society’s collection are morphologically inseparable. Allow-

ing for the high degree of individual variability in Tadarida aegyptiaca

and the insufficient material seen by Wroughton, we may consider

that the distinctions made by this author on the basis of size and

colour are without real value. Probably, all Tadarida aegyptiaca

of western India are of the same form.

General Distribution

Egypt, Kenya, India.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 709

Distribution in western and central India

Probably all over, but never numerous.

1. Bhujo 4. Mandu &

2. Anand 0 5. Aur angabad A

3. Poona O 6. Dharwar o

Map 21. Localities where Tadarida aegyptiaca were studied

The Diurnal Biotope

Narrow and deep crevices in the stones of cliffs or large buildings.

Where they are inaccessible to man.

TABLE OF DIURNAL BiotTopes OF Tadarida aegyptiaca

: Number of

; Date of Size of the : Nature of

Locality , : specimens .

observations colony captured biotope

Aurangabad | March, 30-50 11 In a deep and narrow

August - crevice of a cliff, at

about 3m. from the

ground

Mandu | February 2 1 Narrow crack in a pil-

lar of the principal

mosque

Mandu December 14 2 The individuals collec-

ted blundered into

houses at night

Poona ae 7 Several (in |In the Sassoon Hospital

BNHS and BM

ieauecuiom)

710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Nocturnal Territory

It seems to be far from the diurnal haunt. None was observed

around the cliff of Aurangabad after members of the colony left the

diurnal biotope at sunset.

Field Characters

In the diurnal biotope. The Wrinkle-lipped bats are

very well concealed, but extremely noisy even during the day. The

smell of their guano is unmistakable. The smell and the screaming

make it possible to trace them in narrow crevices. A glance inside

the crack confirms the identity of its dwellers which retire backwards

to the deeper and more inaccessible corners of the haunt.

In the huntinge territory. This bat flies out carly at

sunset. At Aurangabad, the members of the colony started off in

waves from the top of the crevice, 3 to 7 bats threw themselves off

together into empty space and immediately went far away with a

swift and straight flight. About 3 minutes after the first departure,

the crevice was completely empty. On 28 August 1960, no

individuals returned to the haunt during the first two hours of night.

Verschuren states that the African Tadarida do not come back to

their diurnal biotope during the night, and we can presume that this

behaviour, unusual in bats, also exists in the Asian species of the

genus.

Reproduction

Generally speaking, the reproduction of all species of the genus

Tadarida is as badly known in Asia as in Europe and Africa.

Among 7 females got in Aurangabad on 29 August 1960, six were

heavily pregnant and a general parturition in September appeared

certain for the females of this colony. A young individual obviously

born in September-October was collected in Anand, by A. Navarro.

A single foetus was found in all the females of Aurangabad.

bee ee

Food, hibernation, and migrations

Not known.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 711

Genus Otemops

Otomops wroughtoni (Thomas, 1913)

Measurements (in mm.):

Localities

gor] Br sel ar gt | etl as

" hye Gs Ee ee ese

Forearm 65 65 62 62 66 65 66

2nd Finger GAulbCEs, 1) 624162 | 63.263 | 266

Metacarpal 66 65 60 61 62 64 | 65

= ey Ist Phalange DF 2A wade le 2a ela a 2A. 224

bs lond Phalange 24 22 ZS 23 27 28 24

Metacarpal 56 5) =) 56 59 58 58

af» Phalange 16 15 15 16 15 il) 15

2nd Phalange 12 vs 11 11 12 12 12

Metacarpal 29 25 29 27 31 30 30

s e Ist Phalange Pahl 10s. Wi gl elraii oe soak bates Gilat Wide,

ia ee Phalange 9 8 8 8 9 10 8

Tarsus 21 20 20 21 19 19 19

Tail \ 45 44 43 50 50 50 45

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic : Upper Lower

length breadth Mandible dental row’. dental row

3d 25 13 16.5 9.5 10

fe) 25 2s 13 sty) 9.5 10

Description

Remarkable for its rarity and its extraordinary morphology. In

this Journal, Thomas (1913) has given a precise description of

Otomops wroughtoni (Vol. 22 : 87). It is therefore unnecessary to

describe this unmistakable species a second time.

I will however note that in Otomops, also, at least two types of

colour can be observed. Certain individuals are grey below, and

others are bright rufous. The shade of the fur, warmly and curiously

parti-coloured in the living animal, quickly fades in the skins.

712. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Both sexes have the same deep gular sac, concealed under the fur

of the upper chest.

Distribution

Otomops wroughtoni is known from a single place all over the

world: the Barapede Cave, Talewadi, Belgaum district. Jean Dorst,

in a general survey of the genus Otomops, has drawn attention to

the scarcity of all species of this genus throughout the area of their

distribution (Tropical Africa, Asia, and Oceania). In fact, most of

them are known by a few specimens only.

Otomops wroughtoni was found for the first time in Talewadi

50 years ago. Since 1912 this species had not been seen again. In

May 1961 with Mr. Humayun Abdulali and the staff of the Bombay

Natural History Society, I organized a camp in the Belgaum district.

We were able to reach the Barapede Cave, and find Otomops

wroughtoni again, where this bat was discovered half a century ago.

Due to these circumstances, a certain amount of new data can be

added to the original observations recorded in 1913 (loc. cit.).

Ecology

The diurnal biotope is a vast natural cave at an altitude of 800 m.,

situated in remote country, on a plateau rising above a forested valley.

The porch, high and broad, opens on to a grassy maidan, the grazing

place of herds of bison. Trees and bushes conceal the entrance.

Many wild pigeons live there.

The cave is about 40 m. deep, 25 m. broad, and 6-7 m. high, with

dark corners, permanent patches of water, and a high degree of

humidity. The Otomops hide in the ceiling, at great heights from the

ground. They inhabit two types of holes:

(i) a deep narrow crack in the roof not far from the entrance;

(ii) cavities in the shape of overturned funnels, situated in the

lateral ramifications of the cave.

The duration of our stay in Talewadi was unfortunately too short to

allow observations of Otomops in its hunting territory.

Field Characters

The location of Otomops in its diurnal biotope is not easy.

The bats keep silent and motionless, hidden in deep hollows and

crevices, high in the ceiling. They hang in packs of 5 to 7, and only

the extremity of their muzzles can be seen from below. The guano

under inhabited crevices betrays their presence. When disturbed,

this bat flew inside the cave from one hollow to another. The flight

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 713

is very strong, fast, and straight. If caught, Otomops emits sharp

We a)

Otom Ops 4

cries.

The Barapede Cave and the diurnal biotope of Otomops

Food

The dentition is relatively weak, and unsuitable for crushing big

and hard insects. Prater’s observation regarding an Otomops eating

banana and figs was probably due to the fact that the individual was

kept in captivity and suffered from dehydration. In fact, it is very

improbable that Otomops eats fruit in the wild state, its guano being

that of a typical insectivorous bat.

Reproduction

The 12 specimens collected in May 1961 were in a state of sexual

rest. The dissections of the genital tract of one male and one female

confirmed the external examination.

On the reproduction of Otomops wroughtoni Prater mentions

the finding of a female in December with a young one clinging in front

and of 3 or 4 more with single foetuses (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 23:

788). Reproduction in winter is a unique fact amongst Indian bats.

In India, the species which have a periodical reproduction give birth

to their young in spring and summer. Nevertheless, Tadarida

aegyptiaca, another Indian Molossid, delivers in September. Perhaps

Asian Molossidae have a sexual cycle quite contrary to the annual

cycle of the greater number of Indian bats.

Social Life

The specimens collected in 1961 were 7 males and 5 females.

Prater had noticed that the colony of Otomops wroughtoni’ showed

no segregation of the sexes. It seemed that the whole colony at

714 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Talewadi was made up of about 40 individuals, scattered in packs of

half a dozen in the crevices of the cave.

A few Megaderma spasma and Rhinolophus lived in the cave

inhabited by Otomops.

Family VESPERTILIONIDAE

Subfamily VESPERTILIONINAE

Genus Myotis

The systematics of this genus have not been clearly worked out

for the Indian species. In western India they are rare and not many

specimens are available today in the collections to permit a clarifica-

tion. My own opinion on the subject is also not based on sufficient

definite evidence, because I had little material for comparison at my

disposal. However, I believe that at least two species of Myotis

inhabit western India. They are:

Myotis peshwa (Thomas, 1915),

Myotis peytoni (Wroughton & Ryley, 1913).

Ellerman & Morrison-Scott are certainly wrong when they bring

together Myotis peytoni and M. emarginatus, the latter being of the

Palaearctic area. Great differences in the measurements, shape, and size

of the skull and the teeth amongst other characters have been noticed

between these two bats. Myotis peytoni is closely allied to Myotis

sicarius Thomas, 1915. ‘The general appearance and the shape of the

skull are similar. But peytoni is noticeably smaller; its second

premolars are well developed and in the line of the other teeth,

whereas in sicarius the second premolars are extremely small, and

crushed on the internal side of the jaw. Differences can be also

noticed in the shape of the ears. Myotis peytoni seems a good

species allied to sicarius.

The material available for comparison was 12 specimens of M.

peytoni, two of M. sicarius, and five French specimens of M.

emarginatus.

The identity of Myotis peshwa was not easy to settle. While I

got a single individual of this species, no specimens exist in the

collection of the Bombay Natural History Society, and the type is in

the British Museum in London. I do not know the whereabouts of

the other specimens, if any. Thomas’s description of M. peshwa

corresponds with the morphology of my specimens, and the place of

the capture of these two bats is Bombay. So it is certain that the

bat called Myotis peshwa by Thomas and the specimen of Myotis

caught by me belong to the same species.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA mS

Can we bring together, as has been done in the more recent works

of systematics, Myotis adversus and Myotis peshwa? Certainly not.

The skulls of the two species show great differences, and adversus and

peshwa, if the material of the former species belonging to the Bombay

Natural History Society! is correctly identified, cannot be said to be

synonyms. The facial part of the skull is more massive in Myotis

adversus, with a depression at the contact of the cranial part, which

is not found in Myotis peshwa. The upper and lower premolars are

well developed and in the dental row in Myotis peshwa. In Myotis

adversus the upper second premolar is very small and crushed

internally and the lower is almost invisible.

Thomas says that Myotis peshwa is aliied to Myotis horsfieldi of

Java. This question needs to be reviewed again. Until better

information is available, I consider M. peshwa as being a good

species.

Myotis peytoni (Wroughton & Ryley, 1913)

Measurements (in mm.):

Localities

2 oan Fores (ie omens 2

s s rs S s ss ss

creer) ace tora) Cao

5 ue ligey = aq | 2O] &

PON ge SO) source 750

je) oe) CREAMS) Oe eS) e)

Forearm 46 48 46 46 45 46 47

Metacarpal 42 42 40 39 38 41 41

= 8 “ Phalange 16 16 15 15 15 15 16

2nd Phalange 20 24 2. 2A 20 22 22

Metacarpal. 40 40 38 38 36 40 41

Sey

= 5 Ist Phalange 10 ee tOr NOese 10) 12 12

| 2nd Phalange 7 10 Re 10

" Cae 39 38 37 37 38 38 39

s 2 Ist Phalange 10> 10 9 9 | 10 | 10 9

| 2nd Phalange 7 9 8 8 8 8 8

Tarsus 17 19 19 19 19 | i 19

1 The specimens of adversus of the Bombay Natural History Society are called

hasselti Temm., which is now recognized as conspecific with adversus.

716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Description

Bat of middle size, with long and pointed tragus, and ears

emarginated externally. Above, the fur is entirely chestnut-brown

and, below, the hair is brown at the base and yellowish at the tip.

Examination of the skull and the dentition shows immediately the

relationship of this bat to the genus Myotis.

Distribution

_ This bat has been found only in one place: the Gersoppa (Jog)

Falls, in North Kanara. It has not been seen again since 50 years

ago, when it was described by Wroughton & Ryley, 1913, [A new

species of Myotis from Kanara’ (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22 : 13).

Biology

Shortridge found them swarming among rocky crevices at the

foot of the Jog Falls. Living in swarms is normal for bats of the

genus Myotis. Amongst 12 specimens collected in May, 4 were young

and obviously born at the beginning of April.

Myotis peshwa (Thomas, 1915)

Measurements (in mm.):

A single specimen, collected by me in Elephanta, has been

examined.

Forearm 38

2nd Finger 34

Metacarpal 35

Ist Phalange 16

3rd finger

2nd Phalange 18

j Metacarpal 34

ist Phalange 11

2nd Phalange 25

Metacarpal 33

1st Phalange 10

5th finger 4th finger

2nd Phalange 8

Tarsus 16

The skull measurements are as follows:

Greatest Zygomatic : Upper Lower

length breadth Mandible dentalrow dental row

15 10,5 12 7.9 8

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 717

Description

Like a big Pipistrellus: with woolly hair, brown above and lighter

rufous-brown below; muzzle, jaws, and ears very dark, almost black;

long whiskers, large feet, and narrow and relatively long ears with

an external emargination.

Examination of the skull and the dentition proves immediately the

relationship of this bat with Myotis.

Distribution

Known from Poona, Thana (Wroughton), and from Elephanta

(Brosset). Certainly a rare species.

Biology

Nothing is known of the biology of Myotis peshwa. The individual

collected by me at Elephanta (19 March 1961) was roosting in a

hole in the ceiling in the room of the lingam, in the Main Cave. It

was with another individual, which escaped. This species is agile,

aggressive in spite of its small size, and bites severely.

Genus Pipistrellus

Pipistrellus coromandra (Gray, 1838)

Measurements (in mm.):

Zu. | Bo | Bx Bor | Bor | Bor | Bos

ZO gO a Be nit} sa) ss

Forearm 29 29 Ze: 29 31 29 | 28

5 | Metacarpal 28 27 29 | 28 28 28 28

& ist Phalange LOR EON De DR ie eT a

oa \2nd Phalange a - i ne 9 9 9

bs Metacarpal OL | 26 28 Dy | 28 28 28

f= 1st Phalange 12 11 11 12 12 11 12

3 2nd Phalange 8 10 9 10 9-| 10 9

by ee 26 24 27, Dil 27 27 26

g Ist Phalange qi! 6 5 6 7 ii 6

5 I, Phalange ; 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

Tarsus 10 10 10 11 12 12 11

Tail a os a ue 2) 25 25

718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic 3 Upper Lower

length breadth BEWCIIG dental row dental row

Hampi 2 13 7.5 9.5 5 6

Description

More than a hundred species of Pipistrellus are described in the

Old World. They include small or very small bats, often very

difficult to identify correctly. Representative material with skulls and

specimens in spirit is required to study properly the classification of

this large genus.

The colour of the fur of the western Indian species is very variable

from specimen to specimen and, except for Pipistrellus dormeri which

‘is whitish below, the colour is a useless character for correct identifica-

tion. The dry skins of the museums are often material which cannot

be utilized, and many confusions can be seen in collections. Never-

theless, with good material for comparison, the systematics of the

Indian Pipistrellus appear clear and well established.

General Distribution

Southern China, Hainan, Indo-China, Burma, Bhutan, Sikkim,

India, and Ceylon.

Distribution in western and central India

Perhaps all over, especially in the south. The species has been

found in most places where bats have been collected. Nevertheless,

it does not seem so common as the other species of the same genus.

Biology

The biology of this common species is not well known.

Ecology

I saw two colonies of Pipistrellus coromandra. One of them was

under the bark of a big Ficus, in Hampi. Four specimens, all females,

were collected. The second colony, which included at least a dozen

individuals, inhabited the roof of the house of Mr. Humayun

Abdulali; three specimens were obtained from this place.

Field Characters

In Hampi, the individuals of the colony flew away very early at

sunset, and we saw members of the second colony coming back to

their roost place in the morning, a quarter of an hour after the day

THE BATS OF. CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 719

was beginning to dawn. This species seems to be the earliest and the

latest flyer amongst bats of western India.

4. Dharwar O

5. Hampi

6. Bellary O

1. Surat O

2. Bombay ODA

3. Ratnagiri O

Map 22. Localities where Pipistrellus coromandra were studied

In Hampi, individuals were hunting around big trees, and often

entered inside the foliage and entanglements of branches. The flight

is rather slow, and very fluttering and erratic.

Food

In Hampi, the specimens collected a few minutes after sunset were

eating small flies, which abounded around a big Ficus bearing ripe

fruits. The stomach and bowels of these small bats were full of an

astonishing quantity of these insects.

Reproduction

Two young were found by Mr. Humayun Abdulali in May. One

female, heavily pregnant, was also collected by him in September’.

At least two periods of reproduction seem to occur in the annual

cycle for this species.

1 This female and the two young ones were found under an electric bell in the

verandah of the first floor which appeared to be the regular roosting place of one or

two Pipistrellus, some 50 ft. away from the larger colony in the roof.—Ebs.

720 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

The number of foetuses found in the female collected in September

was two. -

Hibernation, social life, and migrations have not been observed

in this species. !

Pipistrellus mimus Wroughton, 1899

Measurements (in mm.):

Localities

Anand Anand Anand Vedtial

ales A? Ag AS.

Forearm 25 27 26 28

5 Metacarpal 25 vl 25 27

& ( Ist Phalange 11 10 11 12

e | 2nd Phalange qd i 7 8

5 | Metacarpal 25 Daa 24 26

& Ist Phalange 10 10 10 10

= 2nd Phalange 8 if 8 8

s / Metacarpal 23 25 23 25

& Ist Phalange 8 8 8 7

= | 2nd Phalange 5) 3) 5) 5)

Tarsus 11 | 10 11 11

Tail 25 7) 24 28

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic . Upper Lower

length breadth Mandible dental row dental row

Anand 2 itti de) 8 ier: (FS) 5

Description 3

Measurements permit the identification of this bat, the smallest

Indian species. P. ceylonicus and dormeri are much bigger; coro-

mandra is slightly larger and the shape of the skull is different in this

species.

General Distribution

Approximately Ceylon, India, Sikkim, east to western Burma, and

Annam. : : |

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA ges)

Distribution in western and central India

A common species found all over except in mountainous areas like

Mahableshwar and Khandala.

1. Kutch 7. Hoshangabad O

(Wroughton) 8. Bombay 00

2. Kathiawar 9. Karnala A

(Wroughton) 10. Poona O

3. Vedtial A 11. Dharwar O

4. AnandDA 12. Vijayanagar O

5. Surat O 13. Bellary O

6. Chikalda O Ty

Map 23. Localities where Pipistrellus mimus were studied.

The Diurnal Biotope

TABLE OF DIURNAL BIOTOPES OF Pipistrellus mimus

Number of

. Date of Size of the | 3 Nature of

Locality . specimens .

observations colony captured biotope

Anand December | 11 1] Behind frames against a

| wall ofan external cor-

ridor of the Catholic

| Mission

Vedtial February | 2 ] Crack between a_ wall

and the wood of a

window

Kanheri Allover the! Individuals | 1 Individuals hunting at

Karnala year seen one by | sunset in heavy forest.

one Probably living during

the day in holes of

trees, under bark or in

empty bamboos

722 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

The species probably frequents all sorts of places with narrow

cracks and crevices where the bat can slip in with the back and the

underparts of the body in contact with stone or wood.

Nocturnal Territory

Pipistrellus mimus prefers woody country, although the species is

not rare even in towns. Wroughton says that it is an inhabitant of

the heavy jungle. In fact, around Bombay, this small Pipistrellus is

the commonest bat in patches of forest, as in Kanheri or Karnala.

It can be found near or far from houses.

Field Characters

In the diurnal haunt, this species is very difficult to identify with

certainty. The capture of a specimen, and careful examination and

comparison with other specimens is almost always necessary.

On the wing, the species can be more easily recognized, especially

in forest. The very small size and the erratic and fluttering flight

are distinctive features. This bat hunts early at sunset, along

and around big trees or clumps of bamboo, between 5 and 15 m. high.

Reproduction

No records for India. In Ceylon, Phillips saw females with young

(one or two for each) in March, May, and December. The specimens

obtained in Anand in December were in a state of complete sexual

rest.

Social Life

These bats seem to gather in small colonies in their diurnal haunts.

Males and females were mixed together at Anand (5 o‘c% and 6 @ Q).

Hibernation

All individuals observed in Anand in December were in a state

of deep hibernation. Their capture was made at midday, when the

temperature was 25° C. Nine of them, placed on their backs, in the

hot sun, stayed in this position for about 10 minutes before they flew

away. Nevertheless, on the same day and at the same place, I saw

several individuals hunting at sunset.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 123

Pipistrellus ceylonicus (Kelaart, 1852)

Measurements (in mm.) :

Localities

3 of g *o es Ot P ot | Sor] Sr 3 OF

5 q § 4d | 94 5 SHOES ais 5 <

é |

Forearm 38 36 37) 37 38 36 39

2nd Finger 33 33 33 33 34 33 36

{ Metacarpal 35 35 36 34 36 35 39

ze Ist Phalange 1ay fiom 4a ee\h dan bran 4

2nd Phalange 11 10 10 10 10 10 11

Metacarpal 35 34 35 33 35 33 37

gh - Phalange 14 | 13 14 E21 Bon 83

2nd Phalange 8 7 8 8 8 8 9

Metacarpal 33 33 34 32 33 33 36

s& | 1st Phalange 9 8 8 8 8 8 8

2nd Phalange 6 6 6 7 i 6 6

Tarsus 14 14 15 14 15 14 14

Tail 35 32 35 32 35 33 36

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic Upper Lower

length breadth Mandible dental row dental row

Bombay ¢ 15 10 11 6 7

Poona 2 15 10 11 6 7

Description

The relatively large size separates this species from the other

Pipistrellus of western India (see measurements).

The colour of the fur is extremely variable and shows various

shades of brown, rufous, and grey. Bright reddish specimens are not

rare, and it is such an individual which is the type of the species

described by Wroughton as chrysothrix, a species later recognized as

724. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

invalid. In fact, reddish and brown individuals are found in the

same colonies, and these variations of colour are individual characters.

General Distribution

India, probably Burma, and Indo-China.

Distribution in western and central India

Extremely common all over. Specimens were obtained at every

place where bats were collected, and the number of individuals of this

species exceeds that of all the other species put together.

. Bhuj | - (9. Nasik

Rajkot - 10. Junnar

F eeeacad s eanee

andu | 13. Satara

Chikalda 14. Dharwar

Anand \ 15. Bellary

Baroda

Ajanta

CS aN

Map 24. Localities where Pipistrellus ceylonicus were studied

The Diurnal Biotope

In Ceylon, Phillips reported having seen the species in holes in

trees, and hollow branches. Pipistrellus ceylonicus is an_ eclectic

species which can be found in all sorts of cracks, holes, and crevices

in wood as well as in stone or other material.

Nocturnal Territory

Especially in towns and villages, these bats are so numerous that

it is difficult to determine if an individual territory exists for each

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 725

bat. But it is improbable, because their number varies from one

sunset to another, and the hatching of ants attracts them from afar.

sometimes hundreds of individuals being seen together. It seems

TABLE OF DIURNAL BIOTOPES OF Pipistrellus ceylonicus

a =

. Number of .

. Date of Size of the Nature of

Locality . specimens .

observations colony captured biotope

Bombay July i 1 In the Kanheri

Caves

Junnar May 2 2 In a crack of the

ceiling of a cave,

ie in the Shivneri

| Fort

Poona January, One at each 1 Under a roller-blind

February, time but caught in the Wellesley

April again several | Hotel

times

Karla May, 100-150 47 In the cracks of the

August, ceilings of several

December Buddhist Caves

Lonavla ? ? 6 In houses (observa-

tions of A

Navarro)

Anand December 2 2 Under frames,

against a wall

Mehmadabad December At least — In a well, in cracks

6 of the stone

Near Poona May At least a 1 Under entangle-

dozen ments of aeria

roots of a large

banyan

Gadag ? Plentiful ? Hiding in crevices,

in a Hindu temple,

at Gadag (obser-

vations by Short-

ridge)

that these bats often gather temporarily in places where the food is

plentiful, and, contrary to several other species, there is no individual

territory.

7126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Field Characters

In their diurnal haunts, all species of Pipistrellus are more or

less similar. Capture and careful examination is usually necessary

to identify the species.

In the nocturnal territory, Pipistrellus ceylonicus appears early at

sunset. The flight is rather fast, sometimes very high, sometimes close

to the ground. It spends the greatest part of the night in its diurnal

place, and seems to be out only for short hunting periods (observations

made in Poona).

Reproduction

In Ceylon, Phillips saw two (sometimes only one) young in

September. Wroughton, for the Konkan, made similar observations.

Two young born in autumn. A female collected by me on 24th

September had two foetuses. On the other hand, I dissected one

female on 8 April 1960, two on 12 June 1960, 21 on 10 August 1961,

and no foetus was seen in the genital tract of these females. The

parturition—-probably a single one in the annual cycle—takes place

in October in western India.

Hibernation

This species hibernates quite continuously during the day, and

even during the night. The individual observed in Poona was caught

by me three times at the same place, by day and night, always in a

state of deep hibernation. Similar observations were made in Junnar,

Bombay, Karla, Anand, Mehmadabad at practically all seasons.

It is a known fact that in temperate countries the Pipistrellus are

quite continuously in a state of torpor even during the summer,

activity being restricted to short periods. We observed the same

behaviour in tropical Pipistrellus, in spite of the hot temperature and

the availability of insects. The hibernatorial behaviour of these

bats is not necessarily connected with the climatic and ecological

conditions.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA nag |

Pipistrellus dormeri (Dobson, 1875)

Measurements (in mm.) :

Localities

EIEIKIR/EIRIE

< < < =< < < <

Forearm 36 35 S15) 35, |. 234 36 35

2nd Finger 34 35 33 34 33 33 32

7 { Metacarpal 33 35 33 34 34 35 33

<( Ast Phalange me 1S 13 13 13 14 13 13

= 2nd Phalange 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

5 Coons 35 36 32 35 33 34 32

a Ist Phalange 12 12 12 12 12 13 12

3 2nd Phalange 7 8 8 8 9 8 9

bs Metacarpal 34 34 32 32 34 33 32

g 1st Phalange 10 9 10 11 9 9 10

= \ 2nd Phalange 5 5) 6 6 6 6 5

Tarsus 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Tail 35 34 35 35 35 35 33

TEE I EE I I LE cE EE a a en ee ae

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic . Upper Lower

length breadth Mandible dental row dental row

14 10 11 6 7

Anand

oe 14.5 10 11 6 7

Description

Much lighter than the other species of Pipistrellus. Whitish below.

grey above, the membranes and skin having little pigment and being

almost transparent. A single incisor of large size appears in the

upper jaw, although two are easily visible in the other species.

728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

General Distribution*

India from Kutch, Kathiawar, Bengal, Bhutan Duars, south of

Bombay, Dharwar, and Bellary.

Distribution in western and central India

Probably all over. The species seems common in Gujarat.

a] eo?

e@ «8

1. Kutch O 6. Chikalda O

2. Junagadh O 7. Hoshangabad O

3. Vedtial A 8. Bellary o

4. Anand CA 9. Vijayanagar O

5. Bombay O 10. Dharwar O

Map 25. Localities where Pipistrellus dormeri were studied

Biology

The biology of Pipistrellus dormeri is practically unknown.

Wroughton’s remarks about this species are vague and not convincing.

Navarro got 5 females in Anand under the tile of a roof. In the

same place at sunset I caught two males flying away from a roof with

a minaret.

These bats are noisy in their diurnal haunts. They fly out about

10 minutes after sunset.

1 IT would remind the reader that General Distribution of the species is taken

from Ellerman and Morrison-Scott’s CHECKLIST OF PALAEARCTIC AND INDIAN

MAMMALS 1758 to 1946.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 723

Genus Hesperoptenus

Hesperoptenus tickelli (Blyth, 1851)

Measurements (in mm.):

Localities

z OF z OF es OF : *O : O+ z Ot 2 OF

aero ape a | ao k

Forearm ey 55 55 58 58 Sy 54

2nd Finger 53 51 3/8) 55 54 53 49

by Metacarpal 49 49 51 53 51 51 47

é Ist Phalange | 22 | 24 | 23 2B Dann o4paa leo

5 { 2nd Phalange 20 19 22 22 22 24 20

i3 f Metacarpal 47 48 50 50 St 51 46

a ist Phalange 19 Zi 19° 19 18 20 17

3 ae Phalange 18 14 15 15 17 16 15

5 Metacarpal 46 48 49 50 49 50 | 44:

a= ( Ist Phalange 12 19 11 10 12 12 11

% (ond Phalange | 8 | 8 9 10 11 10 9

Tarsus 20 21 23 20 23 23 18°

Tail | 50 Eo le ees 35 a) 51 54

The skull measurements are as follows :

Total §Zygomatic . Upper Lower

length breadth Mandible dental row dental row

_ Bombay 2 19 13 11.5 8.5 7

Description

Rather large bat. The fur, pale yellowish grey becoming pure

grey on the head, extends broadly on to the membranes and the

external surface of the uropatagium. A tuft of whitish hairs exists

at the base of the ears. The naked parts of the body, ears, muzzle,

forearm, and fingers are of a fleshy colour. The wings are long, and

the third finger is ended by a third phalange. This remarkable

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

character appears to have been noted only in a few of the

Vespertilionidae and in the Phyllostomatoidae of the New World.

General Distribution

India and Ceylon.

Distribution in western and central India

Probably a common species all over this area. But its capture is

difficult, and there are only a few records.

| 1. Bombay OUA

1 2. PoonaQ

3. Dharwar O

Map 26. Localities where Hesperoptenus tickelli were studied

Biology

Practically nothing is known of the biology of this species in

western India. The specimens obtained by the Mammal Survey,

Navarro, and myself in Bombay were individuals which had acci-

dentally flown into flats or houses. The only specimen I got was

discovered during the night in the verandah of my flat, hanging on

the wire-work of an empty cage. This bat was in a state of torpidity

and was easily caught.

Some interesting data on this species were recorded by Phillips

in Ceylon. He said it appears very early. The flight is rather slow

and steady, wheeling in large circles, each bat keeping more or less

strictly within its own territory. The diurnal haunt is probably in

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 731

hollow trees, but it is very difficult to discover the retreats of this

bat. The young, a single one per female, are born in May.

Genus Tylonycteris

Tylonycteris pachypus (Temminck, 1840)

Measurements (in mm.):

Localities

Sirsi Belgaum | Dharwar | Belgaum Sirsi

C2 Od OP OF OF

Forearm 28 28 28 24 2)

2nd Finger 23 25 25 23 23

' Metacarpal 24 26 Ds) 23 23

= Ist Phalange 24 26 25 23 23

= | 2nd Phalange 11 1 11 11 i!

= Metacarpal 24 26 25 23 23

E Ist Phalange 11 11 11 11 11

3 2nd Phalange 9 9 9 9 9

Ho / Metacarpal 23 26 25 23 23

r= Ist Phalange 8 8 8 5 6

2 2nd Phalange 6 6 ? 5 6

Tarsus 12 12 11 11 ?

Tail 24 26 24 22 22,

Description

With Pipistrellus mimus this is the smallest Indian bat.

Tylonycteris pachypus may be easily separated from the Pipistrellus

by the golden rufous colour of its fur, and by the soles of the feet

being expanded into fleshy pads. The upper jaw has only one

premolar, although there are two in Pipistrellus. The third finger

possesses a third phalange, as in Hesperoptenus.

Two subspecies have been described for India on the basis of colour.

They are fulvida Blyth, from the eastern part of the country, and

aurex Thomas from Belgaum and Kanara. Small series of both

exist in the collections of the Bombay Natural History Society. I

cannot separate specimens of aurex and fulvida, and these subspecies

are probably without value.

732. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

General Distribution

Approximately Yunnan, southern China, Burma, Sikkim, India,

Tonkin, Laos, and Annam, Indo-China, Malay States, Borneo, Java,

Bali, Sumatra.

Distribution in western and central India

Known only from Kanara (Belgaum, Dharwar, Sirsi).

Biology

The biology of this species in India remains practically unknown.

It seems to be a bat of heavy forest. Shortridge and Wroughton say

that Tylonycteris pachypus is ‘an early and erratic flyer

probably roosting, as it does in Java, in parties of from ten to twenty

in hollow bamboos, especially in those used in house roofs, and in

the thinner hollow branches of trees.’

Genus Scotophilus

Scotophilus temmincki (Horsfield, 1824)

Measurements (in mm.):

Localities

Sirsi Sirsi Palanpur | Junagadh | Junagadh

OF 0 3 | O¢d O¢d

Forearm 48 | 47 47 46 45

2nd Finger 45 46 46 47 47

by Metacarpal 44 44 44 44 44

£ : 1st Phalange 16 15 16 15 15

B | 2nd Phalange 21 20 20 20 20

5 Metacarpal 43 aS ae 44 43 43

FI | ist Phalange 13 12 12 13 12

3 . 2nd Phalange 12 9 10 9 9

5 Metacarpal 40 40 40 40 40 -

= Ist Phalange 9 i 8 7 8

S | 2nd Phalange 1 6 6 7 6

Tarsus 16 16 17 16 17

Tail | 42 | 45 39 42 40

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 733

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic Mandible Upper Lower

length breadth dental row dental row

Gadag 18 12 14 7 8

Dharwar 19 13 15; 7 8

Description

A vespertilionid of middle size, rufous-brown above, light yellowish

brown below. The Scotophilus have a single incisor and a single

premolar on each upper jaw. The tragus is narrow, long, and

pointed.

General Distribution

Hainan, Formosa, Ceylon, peninsula of India where widely dis-

tributed, Sikkim, Bhutan, Burma, Tenasserim, Siam, Annam, Indo-

China, Malay State, Java, Bali, Burma, and the Philippines.

Distribution in western and central India

This species, although probably common is difficult to find, and

few records are known in this area.

‘el.

e4,

| 05 }

8. :

| 06,

1. Gwalior O 7

pce) anrebad oe FS eae 4

4. fe a ro) 7. Dharwar O

: ae 8. Bombay O

Map 27. Localities where Scotophilus temmincki were studied

734. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Biology

Navarro has never met this species around Bombay and in the

Ghats. I observed only a single colony in Aurangabad. This colony,

of a few individuals, was roosting under a roof, and in holes of walls.

An immature specimen was collected there in July.

Wroughton says that 32 specimens were collected by C. A. Crump

in Kathiawar: ‘All found in the palmyra palms, where they hide

in the dead leaves, which hang down the trunk .... Both sexes

were found together.’

The best information available on the biology of this species,

especially their reproduction is given by A. Gopalakrishna [Studies

on the embryology of Microchiroptera, Part IV. An analysis of

implantation and early development in Scotophilus wroughtoni

(Thomas). Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 30 B (4) : 226-242, 1949]. ‘The

data recorded by Gopalakrishna in Mysore is probably correct for

central and western India.

Scotophilus heathi (Horsfield, 1831)

Measurements (in mm.):

Localities

3 C3 fa) Mo}

5 5° 5° Eo Bot BO 5% e %o

O49) 64 lnod oS os iodo ;: J

ea) za zal | za | mA A pA a

Forearm | 57. | 59 fis 59" 58a noe | 62:4) 64.9)" 56

2nd Finger 55 Sb) 55 oe) 59 59 59. 50

: | Metacarpal 55 | 55 | 56 7) 55 62s A 60a es on eon

5 ep Ist Phalange 21 20 | 21 20 71922 sale 21 18

Metacarpal 551755 | 552 | 55 1 62e | 59eh S92 a aoe

g8 Ist Phalange 160 | 46 1. 16-1) 1629 17 lal ee lee

2nd Phalange 13 13 12 13 13 13 11 11

eee S749) leo 51 yh Soy Th S's

cI B} ist Phalange 11 10 | 10 10 11 11 11 9

5 ie Phalange 8 8 8 8 9 9 8 7

Tarsus 24) 423 D4. | 2A al V9.6 ae 5 eal le

Tail 62 58 | 65 62) 55. <e) 165i) Ore d

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 735

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic Upper Lower

length breadth Mandible dental row dental row

Belgaum & 22 16 16 9 10

Ahmedabad ¢ 21 15 15 8 9

Description ~

The light canary yellow of the underparts is the most striking

feature in this bat, no other Indian species showing this colour, which

serves to identify it at the first glance. Nevertheless, a reddish type

also occurs; the young are not so bright, and the silky gloss of the

fur fades quickly after the death of the animal.

This bat possesses relatively short ears, and a long tail entirely

included in the membrane. The skull is strongly built, with a

developed sagittal crest. The living animal emits a very peculiar

sui generis smell. Usually, many parasites are found on this bat.

The size and colour of Scotophilus heathi is subject to large

variations. Some of them are perhaps connected with ecological

factors, or with the localisation of the populations. More material

for comparison would be necessary to permit any definite opinions.

1. Ahmedabad A 6. Ajanta o

2. PetladA 7. Thana o

3. Mehmadabad A 8. Elephanta A

4. Anand Q 9. Belgaum A

5. Surat 0 10. Dharwar o

Map 28, Localities where Scotophilus heathi were studied

736 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

General Distribution

Yunnan, Hainan, Burma, Bhutan Duars, Sikkim, India, Ceylon,

Tonkin, Annam, Indo-China, Lower Siam.

Distribution in western and central India

A very common species all over, except in mountains and in

forested areas.

The Diurnal Biotope

TABLE OF DIURNAL BIOTOPES OF Scotophilus heathi

Date Size Number of |

Locality of | of the specimens Nature of biotope

\ observations colony captured

Belgaum May, 6 4 Under the roof of Green’s

October Hotel

Petlad December 12-15 2 Between a wall and the

(Gujarat) wood of the roof

Ahmedabad November | ? 1 In the Moghul wells several

individuals were seen in

cracks and in corners of

the arches

Anand April Several

In an old temple (observa-

individuals

tions of A. Navarro)

In crevices of vaults of

Moghul well

Mehmadabad| December 10-15

(Gujarat)

Elephanta May 18 In a hole of the ceiling of

the Main Cave, near the

‘Mahashivamurti’

Several other observations were made on individuals inhabiting

roofs or timber work. This species most often slips into narrow

crevices or cracks, but may also be observed in swarms in large

holes in ceilings, as at Elephanta. Complete darkness of the diurnal

haunt is not necessary.

Hunting Territory

I had the opportunity to see individuals in many places in their

hunting territory. This species is one of the bats which can easily

be seen everywhere around towns and villages, at sunset. The

well-marked territory is in the immediate vicinity of the diurnal

haunt. It is not large; the individuals inhabiting Green’s Hotel,

Belgaum, hunted every sunset below the gardens and in the grass-

lands close to the building.

Pres

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA TB

This species spends the greatest part of the night in the diurnal

haunt. In Belgaum on the night of 20 October 1960, after the

departure of the colony, I put a mist net at the entrance of their hole

in the roof, and very quickly caught three individuals coming back.

Their haunt was situated in the wood of the roof, just above my bed,

and on previous nights my sleeping time had been disturbed by the

bats fighting and pursuing one another almost without a stop. One

of them finally fell down on my mosquito net where it was caught.

When satiated with insects, the Scotophilus came back to their

diurnal place, where they seemed to enjoy animated and noisy

“parties’.

Field Characters

In the diurnal biotope. A big bat, of pale colour, with

short ears, usually silent and motionless. The animal keeps itself

wedged into a crack, a corner, or a hole in the ceiling, hanging by its

forelimbs. A state of hibernation is normal during the day, and not

a single one of those observed by me was then really active. If

disturbed with a stick, for instance, they do not fly away but widely

open the mouth, and emit grinding cries, in the same manner as the

other Vespertilionidae disturbed during their period of hibernation.

Later, they creep backwards to the deeper corners of the cavity, and

refuse to leave.

In the hunting territory. The flight is unmistakable

to those accustomed to observe bats hunting at sunset. This species

appears very early, immediately after the Pipistrellus. It is a large

bat, with broad wings, long tail, and wheels in large circles, at middle

height, around houses and big trees in gardens. Usually three or four

individuals hunt together.

Food

The individuals caught in Belgaum during the night had an

enormous quantity of flying ants in the digestive tube.

‘Reproduction

Females dissected in October and December had no foetus. Ten

females were caught on 16 May 1961; six of them had two foetuses

each, three a‘single one, and one female none.

The state of development was not the same in all, and we can

estimate that the first parturition takes piace around 15 June and

the last around 10 July. These dates are concordant with those of

Scotophilus temmincki observed by Gopalakrishna in Mysore.

A single young is the rule for the majority of Indian bats.

738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Nevertheless, the Scotophilus and the Pipistrellus give birth most

often to two young.

Hibernation

The state of torpor is normal for this species during the day.

They also cover prolonged periods of complete hibernation. During

these periods, the bat sleeps in the diurnal haunt even during the

night (cf. Brosset, L’hibernation chez les chiropteres Tropicauax.

Mammalia, December 1961). ;

Several observations on hibernating individuals were made by me

in western India:

November—Ahmedabad : 2 in deep hibernation,

December—Fetlad : 12-15 individuals in hibernation during day and

night,

December—Mehmadabad : 10-15 individuals, all hibernating,

May —Elephanta : 18 individuals, all in torpid state.

Subfamily MINIOPTERINAE

Genus Miniopterus

Miniopterus schreibersi (Kuhl, 1819)

Measurements (in mm.):

hs Localities

oH oO oO 4 oO O O 4

se |2 |82 | Be |B | Be

Bot | CBr | SO Gor | P Be] HB | > gr

eo, | gS | 85 | bo. | gs 53

OS oss Wessel CoS Saperecom 4

7 3 = 3 2 3 ie 3 S os ‘ cs

ee |ee | ee [ee | ee | we

Forearm 47 48 46 48 46 47

2nd Finger 43 43 40 43 42 43

Metacarpal 45 44 41 43 42 45

z s | Ist Phalange 12 12 11 10 11 10

eed

\ 2nd Phalange 26 28 29 31 31 29

Metacarpal 42 41 39 41 40 41

ae f 3

= a \ Ist Phalange 10 10 | 10 8 10 8

2nd Phalange 18 19 18 16 18 16

Metacarpal 38 38 37 38 38 38

S ist Phalange 10 10 9 9 9 9

arts

2nd Phalange 9 10 9 7 y a

Tarsus 20 21 19 19 20 21

Tail 57 62 60 61 60 65

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 739

The skull measurements are as follows:

Total Zygomatic . Upper Lower

length breadth Mandible dental row dental row

Mahableshwar 2 16 8.5 12 6 8

Mahableshwar ¢ 16 8.5 12 6 7.5

Description

Rather small bat, with long wings and tail. The head is small,

with short ears, and a convex forehead. ‘The penis is very long in the

male, and the fur gives shelter to an astonishing quantity of large

parasites.

Several subspecies of M. schreibersi have been described from

Asia, on the basis of the colour of the fur. This colour is extremely

variable even in specimens belonging to the same population. For

instance in the colony at the Robbers’ Cave in Mahableshwar, grey

brown more or less dull, bright reddish, and creamy white specimens

have been collected together. All intermediate types between

these different colours were also observed there. These variations in

the colour of the fur are of no taxonomic value. All Miniopterus

schreibersi of Europe, Africa, and western and southern Asia

probably belong to the nominate form Miniopterus schreibersi

schreibersi. :

General Distribution

Amongst the many species of bats, Miniopterus schreibersi

probably has the largest area of distribution. This covers the entire

southern part of the Palaearctic region, from France to Japan, North

Africa, Formosa, Hainan, Ceylon, India, Nepal, Burma, Java.

Borneo, Sumatra, Philippine Islands, New Guinea, and northern

Australia.

Distribution in western and central India

The colonies of this bat are extremely rare. One was examined,

unique but enormous, near Mahableshwar. At least 100,000 indivi-

duals are living there, and this colony seems to be the largest known

anywhere in the world.

Ecology

The ecology of this species was partially disclosed by the studies

of Constant and myself in France. My experience in Europe, Africa,

and Asia showed very peculiar and consistent characters.

740. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

The principal element of the biotope is always a large natural

cave, usually with a subterranean river inside. This cave, invariably

situated m hilly and forested country, constitutes the ‘mother house’

of the colony. It is there that one can observe the largest swarm of

individuals, the annual cluster of young, and it is also the sleeping

place of the colony during the winter, i.e. in temperate countries.

Within a radius of 70 kilometres of the ‘mother house’, there are

several other secondary habitats, where groups of individuals belong-

ing to the colony go and stay periodically. These secondary habitats

are almost always natural caves of smaller size, and rarely buildings

(churches). The Miniopterus which live in the secondary habitats

are not permanent residents, but frequently travel to and from the

‘mother house’. This behaviour has been studied in France, where

thousands of Miniopterus schreibersi were marked (cf. Constant &

Brosset for France, and Brosset for North Africa).

The “mother houses’ are always very far from each other, and

the bats from each have large areas to move over. The cave of

Rancogne seems to be the centre of periodical dispersal and regroup-

ing of all Miniopterus of western France. In Africa the cave of

Zegzel appears to be used in the same way by the Miniopterus

of western Morocco. Probably, the Robbers’ Cave is the ‘mother

house’ of all Miniopterus of the northern part of the Western Ghats.

A secondary habitat was noted in one of the caves situated above

Panchgani, and we can presume that there are several others within

a large radius around the Robbers’ Cave.

Description of the Rebbers’ Cave

The cavity is situated near Mahableshwar, at an altitude of about

1200 m. in a depression in a partly forested plateau. The origin of

the cave is not quite clear, limestone being absent in the neighbour-

hood. In shape the cavity is like a simple gallery, about 5 m. broad,

2.5 m. high, and 60 m. deep. A portion of the roof has fallen in

lighting up the first 30 m. of the gallery, which becomes quite dark

afterwards. The floor of the cave is partially filled with guano, mixed

with water. ‘The observer who wishes to go further than the entrance

must enter into this foul-smelling mud more than half a metre deep

and covered with varying depths of water at different seasons. The

water maintains the humidity of the cave, and also protects its inhabi-

tants against predators. The walls and the ceiling of the cavity are

completely covered with the bats. The bottom is closed by the

classical syphon, which very often marks the end of natural caves.

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 741

The secondary habitat at Panchgani is a natural cavity, rather

large and well lighted, high but not deep, with ramifications. facing

outwards on the cliff above the town.

Hunting Territory

For such an enormous colony, the territory must be immense,

and probably covers all the forests and mountains far around the

Robbers’ Cave.

I had the opportunity of noting their evening departure which

lasted for about 20 minutes. After numerous goings and comings at

the entrance of the cave, the bats fly out early at sunset. They do

not stay near the cave, but immediately go far away, all following

their own ways above paths or between the trees. Their ways lead

them in all directions. Each bat perhaps has its own well-established

hunting territory, for the start of each individual is made without

hesitation, in a direction apparently familiar to the animal.

I saw some Miniopterus hunting around the village of Mahablesh-

war, 4 kilometres from the Robbers’ Cave.

Field Characters

In the diurnal biotope, the proximity of a colony of Miniopterus

is betrayed by the screaming of these bats which reminds one of the

noise of fish put in hot oil for frying! Each cry is probably weak,

but when uttered by thousands at a time, as is usually the case, the

noise may be detected from afar. The smell of the guano is strong,

and sometimes permitted location of the haunt from more than 200

metres. Finally, the sight of thousands of bats closely pressed,

covering the ceiling of the cave in several layers, is an amazing sight

usually sufficient to identify the species.

On the wing, M. schreibersi appears as a strong and fast flyer.

Due to the long tail and wings, the silhouette of this bat recalls that

of swallows. The individuals seen in their hunting territory were

flying alone, wheeling in large circles, at middle height.

Food

The analysis of the guano is difficult, if not impossible. I was

able to recognize therein wings of Diptera, and small pieces of

Coleoptera. The dentition, sharp but weak, denotes that M. schreibersi

is an eater of small and soft insects.

742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Reproduction

The reproduction of Miniopterus presents remarkable peculiari-

ties. I will give here a summary of my observations which will be

developed in detail in another paper (cf. Brosset, La repreduction des

chiroptéres de POuest de l’Inde. Mammalia, August 1962).

Reproduction begins for both males and females after the first

year. In fact, during the spring, non-pregnant young females and

males without secondary sexual characters (baldness of the top of the

head) seemed numerous (about one-third) in the colony at the Robbers’

Cave. The rut probably takes place at the end of winter. The

duration of pregnancy seems exceptionally long for a small insecti-

vorous bat. Three females dissected on 7 April had foetuses 11 mm.

long, seven dissected on 13 May had foetuses 19 mm. long, and the

birth of all young takes place around 25 June. It seems that the

duration of pregnancy is about five months. The periodicity of the

reproduction is absolutely strict; parturition for all females takes placa

at the same time at the end of June, with a single young for each

one. So on 6 August 1960, all the young were about 40 days old,

with a difference of not more than 4 or 5 days between the youngest

and the oldest.

The young are not carried by the mothers, but are put all

together in an enormous swarm, which in the Robbers’ Cave contained

thousands of young. The parents are not mixed with them, but are

among the swarms of adults at the sides. The suckling of the young

is not an individual but a communal business. The female places

herself on the surface of the swarm of young and suckles the first

that contacts her. Often, two young feed together. If a young is not

active enough, another takes its place. This behaviour was principally

observed in France, but there can be no doubt that it is the same in

the Robbers’ Cave.

For the first 50 days, the young, even when as large as the

parents, are a flesh-coloured pink, and completely naked. According

to my observations in Europe and Africa, the growth of the fur is

exceedingly fast, and only requires a few days. The young are able

to attend to their own needs when two months old.

Social Life

The highly gregarious Miniopterus schreibersi form the largest

known colonies amongst bats, in Europe, Palaearctic Africa, and India.

Without experience it is not possible to estimate correctly the number

of individuals living in one colony. I had the opportunity of

attempting a census of individuals in the colonies at Rancogne in

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 743

France, and Panchgani in India. I was lucky enough to find the

former colony, one day in April, in a state of deep hibernation. It was

easy to separate a measured section of the bat-covered surface, count

the bats in-it, and calculate the total number by the rule of three.

The surface counted was 0.20 sq. metres, in which area the number

of bats was 400. In Panchgani Mr. Humayun Abdulali and I dealing

with a small swarm of Miniopterus counted a test area of 0.20

sq. metres and found almost the same density. A French naturalist

and friend of mine, G. Goguyer, made in France a census of this

species; his conclusions are approximately the same: an average

density of 2000 per square metre. If we consider that the colony in

the Robbers’ Cave covers about 80 sq. metres of the ceiling, we can

confidently say that this colony consists of more than 100,000

individuals.

In the swarm, the bats keep their heads down, extraordinarily

pressed together, and often in several layers. Isolated individuals

hanging by their fore limbs are scattered all round. There is no

segregation of the sexes, inimatures, adult females, and males are all

mixed together (observations in Europe, Africa, and India, and

supported by 7000 captures). Only the non-flying young lived aside

separately. i

Migrations

It. seems that the displacements or movements of the individuals

are connected with the ecology of the species. Frequently, they

travel from the ‘mother house’ to their secondary habitat and then

return. In France, where this behaviour has been studied by ringing,

the secondary habitats were within a radius of 70 km. around the

main cave.

Similar displacements are certain in India. The caves of Panchgani

which constitute a secondary habitat of the giant colony at the Robbers’

Cave, was inhabited by 20-30 individuals in February, 5-10 in May,

and 400-500 in August. These bats, although all adult, had no young

with them in August and were apparently not reproductive individuals.

In France, also, reproduction was never observed in the secondary

habitats.

Connection with man |

The colonies of Miniopterus are usually situated in areas rich

in insects, and the bats are probably a very important element in the

natural balance of species in their biotopes. Thousands of millions

744 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

of insects are certainly destroyed each year by a single colony like

that*“at the Robbers’ Cave. We see, unfortunately, in Europe, such

colonies decreasing and even disappearing, due to the arrangements

made for tourists, or the disturbance caused by the repeated visits of

naturalists. We hope that similar errors and destruction will be

avoided in India.

Subfamily KERIVOULINAE

Genus Kerivoula

Kerivoula picta (Pallas, 1767)

Measurements (in mm.):

Tail 34 25 | 35

Localities

a0 £0 BO gO Ne)

Forearm 33 32 35 35° 19635

2nd Finger 33 34. i 33 30 «| 36

Metacarpal 33° 33 - 34 34 - 34

E @ ( Ist Phalange 17 16 16 STO

es see Phalange pe AR ean, Wee 25 oA

f Metacarpal 34 34 33 34 | 34

s r Ist Phalange 12 12 10 10 -| 10

a | ona Phalange |) 12] 92 one goo | 12

Biesece: 33 33 32 | 32 Sasrae

2 zl ( ist Phalange 11 i Desde ed 9

- Fk 2nd Phalange 11 12 10 | 9 10

Tarsus: i250 IPS Tae eee ( 14 14

35 40

Description

‘The bright colour of the fur bad the membranes make this bat

vensiveleie It is reddish, more or less bright above and lighter

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA 745

below, varying from rufous to orange. These colours extend largely

on to the wings, and along the fingers. The ears are funnel-shaped,

and the tragus is very long, narrow, and transparent. A row of stiff

hair can be seen on the border of the uropatagium membrane.

General Distribution

Approximately southern China, Hainan, Ceylon, India, Burma

(Blanford), Malay States, Sumatra, Java, Bali, and Borneo.

Distribution in western and central India

Probably a common species, at least in the Ghats, the Konkan,

and Kanara. But the capture and even the observation of this bat

is difficult and all specimens known for India seem to have been

found accidentally.

112

1. Bombay O 4. Satara o

2. Borivli O 5S. Dharwar 0

3. KhandalaO

Map 29. Localities where Kerivoula picta were studied

Biology

Phillips has given a few notes from Ceylon. He said it was

usually discovered hiding singly or in pairs in the dry hanging

leaves of a plantain or other large-leaved tree. The flight he

746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

says is rather fluttering similar to that of a large moth. When handled

it opens its mouth as wide as possible and stays in that position

emitting an inaudible sound.

Navarro made enquiries at Bassein, Bombay, where plantains are

largely grown and got no information regarding any species of bat

frequenting the area.

Chapters on the

History of Botany in India

V. THE UNDERTAKING OF TWO GREAT ENTERPRISES,

THE FLORA OF THE HIGHER PLANTS AND THE FOREST

SERVICE

I. H. BURKILL

[Continued from Vol. 59 (2): 359]

1. A TEXT-BOOK FOR THE TAXONOMY OF INDIAN FLOWERING PLANTS

In 1861 Daniel Oliver was appointed Professor of Botany in the

University of London in succession to John Lindley. In 1864 he

published a small book entitled LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY BOTANY which

was intended to supplement the teaching of his British students in taxo-

nomic botany on British types. Substituting Indian types he sought to

adjust the book for use in India, and as the floras of Britain and India are

so diverse the whole had to be rewritten and the illustrations replaced.

With the title FIRST BOOK OF INDIAN BOTANY it appeared in 1869 and long

held its place. Who they were who bought and referred to it is hard

to say; but it was fitted to be a refresher to surgeons serving in India

and a vade-mecum to those beginning service.

THE INDIA OFFICE REALISES THE PRIOR NEED OF A FLORA

It has been mentioned in the last chapter how it was that the FLORA

INDICA of Hooker & Thomson came to an end from Hooker’s failure

to obtain financial aid towards its printing. As he was at the time receiv-

ing help from the Admiralty towards the publication of his Antarctic

results, the unwillingness of the East India Company to see his work

through was a great blow. They had given a grant which covered rather

less than one half of his travel-expenses and with that their subvention

ended ; it is not incorrect to say that the Directors’ subvention was a buy-

ing of geographic information which they needed ; the Botany did not

interest them. Hooker had sought support in other places without

‘success.

About 1870 the India Office had decisions to take touching Botany

in India ; and someone reminded the Office that Hooker had proposed a

FLORA seeking financial support from the East India Company.

748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

So far had this proposal gone out of sight that all the Office’s papers

could not be found and some had to be replaced by copies from files at

Kew. Thomson was still alive but in poor health ; Hooker was available

and moreover had all the resources of Kew behind him. Hooker was

asked if he could undertake to produce a FLORA and consented. By way

of economy there was to be compression ; and the whole was to be in

English. Thus originated Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA in seven

volumes ; and, because the FLORA INDICA that Hooker and Thomson

had commenced could be used as far as it went, the first volume of the

new work was out of the press in 1872. The admission of the Directors

that it was a duty to plan Education bound their successors in the India

Office to see to the publication of a FLORA.

2. CHARLES BARON CLARKE (1832-1908)

This brilliant mathematician—the third Wrangler of his year at

Cambridge—spent the next 10 years of his life quietly teaching mathe-

matics and using his leisure to botanize in Britain, Switzerland, and

Madeira. In 1866 he left Cambridge to teach in the Presidency College,

Calcutta. As if to call attention to his change he published a list of the

plants of his native town, Andover, a very small town on the edge of the

Salisbury Plain. It was the only publication made by him to that date.

He returned to his interest in the Madeira flora later. He had been

in India but two years when Thomas Anderson was invalided and he was

appointed to act for him. The following statement corrects several con-

fusions that have appeared in print.

Thomas Anderson had taken up his pest in 1861 id had received

instructions to establish Cinchona in the Sikkim Himalaya ; he proceeded

at the end of that year to Java with plants for the Dutch in exchange for

others that he brought back. He discovered in Java that Kurz would

accept a post in the Calcutta Botanic Garden, and on his return arranged

it. Anderson had the assistance of A. T. Jaffray in getting the Java

Cinchona and Cinchonas from the Nilgiri Hills to Darjeeling. Jaffray

belonged to Madras and went back. To Anderson John Scott was sent

out (1864) and was followed by James A. Gammie (1865). When Robert

Scott, the then Horticultural Curator in the Botanical Garden resigned

(1865), John Scott was called to Calcutta to take his place. Kurz had

settled down to write a FLORA OF BENGAL ; but a report on the forest

wealth of the Convict Settlement in the Andamans was wanted and Kurz

was delegated (1872). After the Andamans flora Kurz was directed to

that of Burma, on which he began to publish in 1872 and on which were

all the further publications of his life.

~C. B. Clarke had arrived in Calcutta in 1866. He made use of his

first long vacation to visit and collect in the Khasia Hills. Then

Paps Ate

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 749

Anderson’s health gave way entirely and Clarke was appointed to act.

He took over charge in Calcutta and then of the Cinchona plantation at

Mungpu where James Gammie was extending his planted area. He

seems to have contrived in Sikkim to do a little collecting. In the next

year he visited the Nilgiri plantations and also collected. In 1871 he

was again in Sikkim to enable King to take over from him. In each of

the following years he made one long collecting journey : the Khasia Hills

for the second time (1872), Kangra and Chamba (1874), Sikkim (1875)

again, and lastly, before taking leave, Kashmir and through to Karakoram

(1876). Through Clarke’s two years it seems that the Cinchona under-

taking moved on the lines that Anderson had given it and John Scott was

doing what he could to restore the damaged Calcutta Garden ; Kurz

was on a profitable line of work and all that he wanted were facilities

for it. By the way in which Clarke threw himself into collecting when

back to the Education Service, he probably chafed when tied to Calcutta

until Surgeon Captain George King, who had now had 6 years in India,

was appointed Superintendent of the Garden in 1872 and relieved him.

Between inspections of schools up and down the Bengal plain he

went on with his collecting. There the weeds of cultivation may be said

to have intruded on his interest, for most of his travelling was through the

cultivated fields, where the glare of the sun combined with his shortness

of sight made him in general look down. Nevertheless his near vision

was excellent. These circumstances seem to have heightened his interest

in the Cyperaceae, Commelinaceae, and little Scrophulariaceae—three

families in which field-weeds abound.

He botanized further away in the school vacations, sometimes going

far, and did it with the methodic ways of a mathematician : the specimens

were always ticketed and annotated before there was any chance of in-

formation going astray. When long leave became due to him, which was

in 1877, he took to Britain very considerable collections from the north

of India, including the Khasia Hills, Sikkim, the north-west Himalaya,

both the forward parts and back to the Upper Indus and beyond

to Askole. Along with these of the north of India, he had plants from the

Nilgiri Hills. He took all to Kew for elaboration, and he offered his

services there to Sir Joseph Hooker, who had now commenced the print-

ing of the second volume of the FLORA. The reader will find information

in § 3 below regarding his substantial aid. When the termination of his

leave approached an arrangement was made by which he continued to

work at the FLORA at Kew until 1883. Returning to India after that he

had a further four years in the East, half of it in Bengal and half of it in

Assam. |

Every botanist familiar with the Herbarium at Kew, knows the geo-

graphic arrangement of the species-covers : the planning of it was largely

Clarke’s. He interested himself in geographic botany and wrote on it.

750 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

As recorded in the last chapter Hooker and Thomson elaborated in

the first half of the only published volume of the FLORA INDICA a way of

dividing India into what they called provinces. It is impossible to deal

with plant-geography without putting forward such divisions ; Clarke

came to it and treated the flora differently, though there is evidence that

there had been discussion between him and Hooker. Clarke’s use of

the word ‘ area’ for a geographic expanse is thoroughly commendable

and so is his use of sub-area and sub-sub-area for divisions of the area.

Hooker started froma different position. He, and Thomson working with

him, had a political unit and this they divided into three parts that they

called regions. Their regions are geographic, not phyto-geographic.

Clarke starts with geographic south-eastern Asia—his adjective is Indo-

Chinese—and he takes out of it a sub-area which is India. He is still

geographic here: but at the next stage—his sub-sub-area stage—he

endeavours to be phyto-geographic, i.e. to have got down to an area

small enough to have distinguishing characters in its vegetation. To the

problems raised by this approach to phyto-geography I shall need to

return later. What I desire here is to attribute to Clarke his due. The

chief paper in which he laid out his facts is the presidential address that

he gave in 1898 to the Linnean Society.

Clarke’s interest extended over the ferns and he published a mono-

graph of those of northern India. He reprinted at his own cost

Roxburgh’s FLORA INDICA, not because he had a liking for the Linnean

system of classification, but because he felt that the medical students had

a need of a classification and that such a work in the Natural System as

Griffith suggested was not a thing for which he had time.

3. HOOKER’S HELPERS AND PROGRESS WITH FLORA OF

BRITISH INDIA

It has been mentioned that the preparation of Hooker’s FLORA OF

BRITISH INDIA began with a revision of families that had had a place in

Hooker & Thomson’s FLORA INDICA. Hooker, tied by his official

duties, enlisted the co-operation of several eminent botanists : Thomas

Anderson, Alfred William Bennett, Michael Pakenham Edgeworth, William

Turner Thiselton-Dyer, Maxwell Tylden Masters, William Philip Hiern,

and Malmaduke Alexander Lawson ; between them they relieved him of

two-thirds of a volume of 700 pages, published in 1872. There were

larger and more exacting families just ahead. Of these John Gilbert

Baker took the Leguminosae ; Hooker reserved the Rosaceae for him-

self, and entrusted the Myrtaceae to John Firminger Duthie. Meanwhile

Charles Baron Clarke appeared at Kew on leave from India and began to

take part, writing all but a very little of the remaining part of volume 2

which was out in three parts, 1876, 1878, and 1879. Clarke’s work began

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 751

to appear in the last of these three parts. He had brought his own most

extensive collections to aid. A fourth botanist, George Henslow, had a

small part in this volume. Clarke continued to aid; of volume 3 he

wrote almost 200 pages and 520 out of the 734 pages of volume 4, Hooker

writing the rest. It was Clarke’s permission to stay in Britain that enabled

him to give this great help; but the time came when a return had

to be faced and consequently to the last three volumes his only contribu-

tion was the Cyperaceae. All the difficult families of these three volumes

were elaborated by Hooker but the sub-order ‘ Bambuseeae’ which was

the work of General William Munro. Hooker’s work on the Gramineae

was wonderful. The self-effacing work of Clarke is to all botanists a

matter of extensive gratitude. The last volume of the FLORA was

published in 1897.

4. SrrR GEORGE CAMPBELL ENDEAVOURS TO PROMOTE THE

TEACHING OF BOTANY WITH AN UNFORESEEN RESULT

Sir George Campbell, Liecut.-Governor of Bengal, whose interest in

the rural economy of his Presidency led to the building up of the collec-

tions of the Bengal Economic Museum, suggested that Botany and

Chemistry should be taught in the Presidency College, Calcutta. The

proposal became exceedingly controversial ; and it is difficult to see how

it could have been otherwise. But he carried his advocacy so far as to

get from Britain a teacher (professor) for each subject. The teacher

chosen for the botanical professorship was George Watt.

George Watt (1851-1930) had newly qualified in Medicine at the

University of Glasgow. He asked for a little delay in sailing and when

he reported his arrival in Calcutta (November 1873), Sir George Campbell

_ had taken leave prior to retirement and the opponents of bringing Botany

into the teaching of the Presidency College held the field. It happened

that Clarke had to receive Watt for the head of his Department and tell

him, which he did with a measure of hesitation, that he would not teach

in the College, but that a post at Hoogli was open to him, and that certain

compensation would be given if he would accept it. Watt did, and went

to Hoogli.

A fitting reward had been offered for a text-book, and it was to get

it that Watt wrote his FIRST STEPS IN BOTANY. This the Government

caused to be translated and published in Bengali (1876). It had no sale

as there were no students. Watt followed it up by a smaller book written

(1877) at the suggestion of a mission, but it is not known to have been

used for teaching. It would have been exacting on one so new to India

to hit on the perfectly apt plants for illustration, but the writing was to

him invaluable in that during writing he himself was learning. In vaca-

tions he made collecting trips—one (1879) to Kulu in the north-west

752. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Himalaya, and one (1881) to Jongri in Sikkim. He began to think there

was in travel a way out of his frustration and made attempts to induce the

Government to give him opportunities. They gave him one: he was

attached as a Surgeon to a commission demarcating the Burma-Manipur

boundary. He made good use of his time in the field, but did not work

out his collections as he saw another opening, for which immediately

after the months in Manipur, he asked. It was employment on the staff

of the Calcutta Exhibition of 1883-1884 ; and he got it. Now at last,

with 10 years of Indian experience behind him, he was where his genius

came to the front. He threw his immense energy into amassing exhibits.

He brought his ability for organizing into action and by a great effort

compiled in a few months a statement of over 1700 pages enumerating

the economic products of India, a statement which served firstly as an

indent on the Provinces and secondly as a catalogue for the exhibits, and

thirdly as a scheme for their arranging. A man who could do this was

clearly capable of more ; for instance he could put his knowledge into a

cyclopaedia ; and he was given the work of compiling his DICTIONARY OF

THE ECONOMIC PRODUCTS OF INDIA. Furthermore he was told that he

would be required for the forthcoming Indian and Colonial Exhibition

in London.

Watt commenced the compiling of his DICTIONARY while waiting for

the time of departure for London and had the first volume in print before

he sailed. Called to teach in the Presidency College, he never did so ;

but was from this time devoted to the service of a much larger audience

to whom it was his to expose the ‘ wealth of India’.

When the Indian Court of the Indian and Colonial Exhibition had

been closed and he had returned to Calcutta, his first duty was to com-

plete the writing of his DICTIONARY. Then followed the creating of a

permanent exhibition for Calcutta ; one may call it the DICTIONARY ~

illustrated for the illiterate as well as the literate. And lastly came the

exhibition of Indian Art at the Delhi Durbar of 1902. On the occasion

of this last he was knighted—a very great man on the instruction side of

applied Botany in India.

His last work was a revision of the major articles in the DICTIONARY

being those on products which command a place in trade.

5. ‘THE SAHARANPUR GARDEN DURING THE TIME OF THE

SECOND CALCUTTA GARDEN, AND AFTER

For the resuscitation of the Saharanpur Garden with George Govan

in charge, the reader is referred to Chapter I, [J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

51 (4), p. 871]. The charge was given, because Govan was the Civil

Surgeon and quite competent to take it as an addition to his medical

work. Govan soon retired ; and Royle succeeded him as Civil Surgeon

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 753

. and in charge of the Garden. He was active in stocking it with pretty

plants and economic plants ; and by reason of climate and distance from

Calcutta he did this without overlapping. When he took long leave—

leave from which he did not return—the post went to Hugh Falconer, who

had been for such a short time in India that the promotion is astonishing :

but Falconer was of outstanding ability. In this appointment he had 9

years but through two of them he was away exploring. His arrival in

Upper India coincided with the discovery of fossilized mammal bones

where the Canal Engineers were constructing the intake of the Jumna

Canals and being at heart a geologist he entered into a study of them with

zeal and with immense credit to himself. In 1841 his health gave way,

and he was forced to leave. The post now went to William Jameson

who held it for 33 years. He had been in India only 4 years when ap-

pointed to it. The reader may be reminded that this was the third time

that the appointment had gone to a comparative novice, whereas that of -

Calcutta was reserved for older men ; and it may be called to his attention

that two of the Saharanpur superintendents became, when older, super-

intendents of Calcutta. The Calcutta post was intended to be a larger

responsibility.

William Jameson (1815-1882) had qualified in medicine in Edinburgh.

He reached India in 1838 and for a short time was in Calcutta where he

aided the Asiatic Society in their Museum. During his long tenure of the

Saharanpur post he did much towards pushing crops into the neighbouring

hills, but comparatively little that was botanical. He would collect if a

demand reached him, but not determine what he had collected. In this

way he made collections for Hooker when he expected Hooker and

Thomson to elaborate their FLORA INDICA at once. He had an unpleasant

adventure in the very beginning of his service, when having gone to the

Indus below Attock to enquire what the cause had been of disastrous

floods there, the Chief of Kohat set on his company and imprisoned him.

In his economic work there was a lack of incisiveness which let him

labour too long at causes which were destined to disappoint. The Kangra

tea planting was one. Royle and Falconer had so stoutly recommended

trials, that he was bound to try the crop. And he did, and succeeded in

demonstrating that within the species Thea sinensis races exist suited for

the north-west Himalaya. But to raise a crop does not insure a market

if quality be lacking ; that was patent. Yet Jameson went on and he

actually became a planter himself on retirement. A second quest

on which he spent much time was directed towards getting the flax plant

raised for fibre. It could be raised for linseed, why not for fibre ? Again

the inhibition was economic. A third quest was in potato raising. The

raising was all right : Simla, for instance got its potatoes from close at

hand ; but when the crop was harvested, the rain carried away the now

754. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

bared soil and sterilized the hillside. Much hill-soil went down the Sutlej

and Jumna. |

Of course during Jameson’s 33 years in the Saharanpur post there

were several periods of leave. In one of them J. L. Stewart acted ;in

another George King.

When Jameson’s retirement came, J. F. Duthie was appointed

his successor (1876), the post going outside the Medical Service, for Duthie

_ was not a Surgeon, he had been holding a professorship in the Agricultural

College at Cirencester. It looks as if those who selected Jameson’s

successor were seeking a man of economic interests such as Jameson was ;

instead they obtained a man of strong taxonomic interests, but all the same

he gave to the Government much in point relating to economic plants,

The following is, in a very curtailed form, Duthie’s outline.

John Firminger Duthie (1845-1929) with a degree taken at Cambridge

in the Natural Sciences (1867) and, after travelling in the Mediterranean

collecting plants, became the Professor of Natural History at the Ciren-

cester Agricultural College, followed in the next year (1876) by appoint-

ment to the care of the Saharanpur Garden, where he started by taking

stock of the flora, wild and cultivated. Of the wild he compiled an

enumeration. The great need of fodder in the dry north-west drove him

to pay attention particularly to the grasses, on which he wrote and which

he illustrated. Jointly with Joseph Bampfylde Fuller (afterwards

knighted) he illustrated in a like way the crops, starting in 1882. Year

by year he made a long exploring expedition, bringing into the

Saharanpur herbarium considerable material. These expeditions were

more often in the Himalaya than in the low country and were spread from’

Gilgit to the western edge of Nepal. By degrees the information on the

plants of the plains grew adequate for the compiling of a FLORA, and he

published his first part in 1903, by which time he had been collecting

material for it‘for a quarter of a century. He was extremely particular

in matters of detail ; and this so delayed him that he did not finish it.

Moreover the area which he accepted was large, being as the title has it a

FLORA OF THE UPPER GANGETIC PLAIN AND OF THE ADJACENT SIWALIK AND

SUB-HIMALAYAN TRACTS. The lay-out deserves great praise. On the

other hand for the north-western Himalaya there never was, nor could

have been the material for a FLORA : Duthie’s labours caused materials

to accumulate. He returned to Britain in 1903 and was for a short time

Assistant for India at Kew ; the position enabling further work, notably

a full report on the plants of Sir Richard Strachey’s traverse of the Kumaon

Himalaya from the Gangetic Plains to the upper or gritty Tibetan Plateau.

Duthie trained a notable collector, Inayat Khan, who came to know the

vegetation of the District of Hazara with remarkable thoroughness ;

and Duthie also exercised considerable influence over Upendranath

Kanji Lal, whose FLORA OF THE SCHOOL CIRCLE, DEHRA DUN, has the lay-out

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 755

of Duthie’s FLORA. He caused the Saharanpur Garden to be a collecting

centre to which Army officers sent gatherings from remote places, so

saving them from being lost. His teaching in the Forest School at Dehra

Dun by excursions with the pupils was of immense value to the Forest

Service.

It is convenient to mention here in passing a botanist of the Punjab

of almost the same years as Duthie, but not closely associated with him.

This was James Ramsay Drummond (1851-1921), nephew of two men who

made their mark as collectors in different parts of the world—James

Drummond. (1784-1863) in Australia and Thomas Drummond (?-1835)

in North America. James Ramsay Drummond collected in India as if

collecting were in the blood, employing trained men. His consi-

derable collections were given to Kew.

6. PRAIRIE FIRES

Prairie fires and forest fires intrude into our history. Their effects

are so obvious as to compel a botanist’s attention ; they reshape the

medium in which he works, their economic consequences keep them in

the highest lights. Prairie fires are fed by grasses and spread under the

open sky ; forest fires spread under and among trees. They grade into

each other, the first the less destructive. The cumulative effects of forest

fires at close intervals prepare the surface for prairie fires; and the

cumulative effect of prairie fires is degenerated prairie.

On a hot cloudless afternoon in the hottest part of the year it hap-

pened once that my work took me to the border of the Toung-Yin teak

forest in Tenasserim. I had crossed the level land from Moulmein and

had just reached the first rise of the Dawna Hills within which this forest

begins, when a line of fire arrived through the virgin forest of the plain.

The flames were gentle ; they scarce exceeded 12 inches in height. My

road happened to part the level from the first rise of the hills. A spark

leapt across it, and there followed a rush of flame up the hill through

shrubs, small bamboos, and the lanky grasses that straggled into these.

The bamboos exploded as the grass about them burned. Timid animals

appeared from hiding places and fled. The contrast between the fire on

the level and the fire on the slope was great. Nature was helping the

latter in two ways : one was by the rising of the ground ; the other in the

deteriorated scrubby state of the vegetation as the result of the passing

of previous fires. Nature greatly helps. In this case the aid was re-

motely through the drainage of the slope of the hillside ; secondly by the

advantage to the fire of a slope to ascend ; and thirdly by the use of an

established fire-path. The big trees had gone from it ; fires attack them

by killing their seedlings as well as by exposing to drying the damp soil

which suits them. The light let in had favoured grasses and bamboos:;

756 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

and the fire was the fiercer consequently. As I saw at the foot of the

Dawna Hills, so everywhere the effect of firing varies with its relation to

the contribution that Nature makes.

An extreme case of contribution is when a big river sterilizes. areas

by depositing sand as sandbanks.

After accepting that areas are naturally exposed in ate degree to

the effects of fire the next step is to note the consequences of recurrent

firing, and that the longer lived by nature the trees that are removed the

more remote becomes recovery.

My readers if they have access to Sir Dietrich Brandis’s book, INDIAN

TREES (1906), will find interesting facts in it to which I would now refer.

At various pages he directs attention to relatively lowly woody plants

which grow in places frequently fired and survive by possessing the power

of making good after a fire has passed, from underground stems ; and

it is the covering of soil which secures survival. They have evolved the

provision of protected buds where buds are relatively unusual in their

allies. One of these plants is Indigofera hamiltonii. Its specificity was

not admitted in the FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA, where the above name will

be found as a synonym under J. atropurpurea Ham. Others are Flemingia

nana Roxb. and F. sericans Kurz, and Erythrina resupinata Roxb., equally

belonging to the family Leguminosae ; Ochna pusilla Ham. of the Ochna-

ceae ; Olax nana Wall. of the Olacaceae ; Careya herbacea Roxb. of the

Myrtaceae ; Combretum nanum Ham. of the Combretaceae ; Mussaenda

uniflora Wall. and M. incana Wall. of the Rubiaceae ; Premna nana

Collett & Hemsl. of the Verbenaceae; and Jasminum smalesianum Brandis

of the Oleaceae. To these may be added Grewia scabrophylla Roxb.

of the Tiliaceae in which the character is rather variable, for it grows into

a tall shrub if not annually burned down.

Further, attention may be drawn to such herbs as the orchid, Pachys-

toma senile Reichenb. f., whose annual cycle keeps it underground through

the months when grass-fires are liable to spread. More could be cited ;

but those named suffice. I ask my reader to keep in mind the presence

of such plants in India ; and I have further to ask him to note that they

are Indian apparently by origin and for that reason evidence of Brass

fires in India over their time of evolution.

My reader, having consented that the existence of such plants is evid-

ence of exposure to fires for as long a time as their evolution has required,

asks where did the exposure take place. And the answer, taken from

their present distribution, is—in the part of Asia which is now India and

most probably in India itself. The answer implies firing in India.

Grass can be fired by agencies which Man does not control—by

lightning for instance ; by sparks that a landslide produces when its

stones collide ; by long continued friction in a steady breeze of one dry

bamboo over another. But such occurrences would seem to be far too

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA (pu

rare for a plant to develop characters to counteract. On the other hand

pastoral Man’s deliberate incendiarism suffices. Over how many cen-

turies can its operation be claimed? The cultivator in south-western

Asia can be shown to have started his selection of cereals 7 or 8 millenia

ago and probably earlier (See Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. 164, p. 42, 1953).

The pastoralist came before him, and it were not unreasonable to think

of 10,000 years as serving the pastoralists. Inasmuch as the cultiva-

tion of annual crops has extracted from them cultigens, the pastoralists

would have had time enough for their annual fires to have led to the

evolution of new species in the grasslands, so long as Nature co-opera-

ted with them. I am prepared to think that as remotely as the passing

away of the Glacial Period such firing could have commenced to be

fairly regular in the Near East with extension to northern India. I am

also prepared to think that in the course of time this incendiarism spread

down the peninsula of India on the eastern side of the Western Ghats.

And I recommend the problems raised to those who can study the

northern plains, the southern grassy hills, and the patanas of Ceylon.

The pastoralist who begins to use fire would continue until it became

a religious observance carried out even without needing to fire in order

to get herbage for animals.

It is impossible to travel about the wide plains of the Indus and the

Ganges without recognizing that at one time they carried trees that have

gone.

Forest destruction colours the imagery of the Mahabharata, and the

suggestion has been made that Alexander the Great was favoured in

his crossing of the Indus to attack Poros by trees then existing in con-

cealing density (326 B.C.). It is impossible to look at many southern

hillsides without thinking of their lost trees. The removal of forest

. brings interference with the springs by drying of the ambit of their sources.

This was effectively brought to the notice of those who built the first

permanent houses in the Nilgiri Hills ; they found their supply of water

uncertain. The villagers, too, found that they had further to go for

water as for fuel. A realization of this, unreasonably late in time, led to

ideas of the importance of forests and contemporaneously ecologica]

ideas touched the more thoughtful in India. It is with this that my next

sections deal.

7. SAFEGUARDING THE GROWTH OF TEAK IN BURMA

In the year 1826 by a treaty between the East India Company and

the King of Burma, the province of Tenasserim was put into the charge

of the Company ; and Wallich was immediately sent to report on the

teak forests. He returned saying that there was plenty of standing teak

and that a crop should be taken, but that the teak forests should be

758 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

declared ‘ preserved’ at once, otherwise they would be ruined in a

scramble for that timber. The Company acted on his advice for no

longer than two years and then took the short cut of substituting a system

of leasing out rights to exploit. It is not necessary here to discuss this ;

it suffices to note the rapidity with which Moulmein grew rich when the

Administration had thus put itself into blinkers. One hundred and

nine ships were built in the 20 years between 1830 and 1850 with a great

wastage of timber, not in the dockyard but in the forests where the logs

were felled in preparation for marketing and then not removed.

In 1837 an Austrian explorer Johann Wilhelm Helfer arrived in Tenas-

serim, having an idea that he would like to settle there, and the Company,

thinking to get good independent advice, sought it from him. He said,

as others were saying, that the forests were being destroyed. Two years

later the Company sent Hugh Falconer to visit the two forests that were

exploited from Moulmein, that of the Toung-yin and that of the upper

Attaran River. Falconer reported on the latter ; his time ran out before

he could visit the former ; but the opinion he gave applies to both. It

was that distant control, attempted from Moulmein by officers who

had other affairs to attend to, was ineffectual.

Falconer pointed out that the teak tree is there invariably in a mino-

rity among the associated trees and that competition is a normal factor

in its life. He listed the competitors ; but the end of the fine weather

coming, he could not get far. |

As a result of what Falconer said, the Company sent McClelland to

the Pegu forests that he might collect the competing species there, which

he did thoroughly enough. His report (1855), not however by its matter

but by the circumstance that the receipt of it drew the attention of the

Governor-General Lord Dalhousie to teak, led to the writing of a most

important memorandum on the policy which he thought should be

pursued. Then began a search for an administrator with the required

preliminary knowledge of botanical methods and the choice fell on

Dr. Dietrich Brandis, son of a Professor of the German University of

Bonn and himself a teacher of Botany there.

Falconer’s suggestion that the teak tree normally lives in competition

did not give rise to the thought that there might be compensations.

Ecology was too primitive for the idea that the mixed forest by the result-

ant isolation of the individual could get a measure of protection against

the spread of diseases. Meanwhile the coffee planters in Ceylon were

leading up to a position that made obvious the possibility. Teak very

rarely grows in small pure stands.

Here we part with McClelland. He remained in India until 1865

having reached it in 1830. He has been described as having mediocre

ability, but ‘ born to be a hodman’. He arrived in India with a repu-

tation for geology and was employed studying soils in the hills of Kumaon

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 759

and was there when required to report on the soils where tea could be

found, and so went to Assam with Wallich and Griffith (1835). His

report was held to be good. After this he was in and out of Calcutta

and for a time worked on the collections of the Asiatic Society, writing

a report on the species of carp in India. His central position in Calcutta

led to the founding (1841) of his Calcutta Journal of Natural History

which lasted to 1847. His comradeship with Griffith ended in worship ;

and it was to Griffith that he became hodman. When he had reported

on his work in Pegu, the successor to whom the forests were handed >

was Sir Dietrich Brandis.

8. "TEAK IN THE PENINSULA OF INDIA

Ring the bark of the ripe teak trees ; and let the trunks die standing :

they will grow light enough to float and then, felled, use all possible

water-porterage to get them to where they are wanted. That treatment

has made them peculiarly serviceable down the Bombay coast. We

know that teak beams were carried to the Euphrates at least as early as

800 B.C. If teak was carried, teak ships conveyed it. Where were they

built? The merchant Cosmas Indikopleustes, writing much later

however of ‘ sesame logs exported from Calliana ’, apparently referred to

teak that was sent westwards from the Bombay coast. The trade would

be slow but continuous. Teak could reach the sea down rivers on the

Malabar coast from the Narbada southwards, and on the side of the

Bay of Bengal from the Godavari southwards. We read later of navies

in the Bay.

The East India Company’s activity in their Bombay Dockyard pro-

duced a demand which strained the supply from time to time and pro-

voked demands for control. I have mentioned in Chapter 1 (J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 51 (4), p. 874) an attempt about 1800 A.D. at controlling

felling in the southern part of Malabar to safeguard the dockyard’s

supply. The control was not allowed to last long ; but there was another

demand in 1822 and with it a claim that the control was workable as it

had succeeded in the limited area of Travancore. There was nothing

botanical in these spasmodic controls, nor requiring our attention until

1842 when the Government of the Presidency of Madras ‘ to safeguard

the future’ permitted the Collector of the District of Malabar, H. V.

Conolly, to buy up worked-out teak forest and to spend money on plant-

ing teak in it. Within what was his District are the Nilambur forests

with conditions ideal for teak ; and he is said to have planted over 50,000

seedlings. Conolly has been mentioned in Chapter 3 (J. Bombay nat.

. Hist. Soc. 58 : 680) and along with him Lieutenant Michael who made an

attempt at fire-protection by sweeping dead leaves from the seedling

plants. Michael’s operations were done in the Anaimalai Hills and so a

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

little to the south of Conolly’s. Cleghorn, who had earlier recom-

mended fire-protection ,obtained his first knowledge of teak further to

the north in the Shimoga District. Michael’s protective sweepings begin

the real history of care for the teak tree in peninsular India. The Swiss

horticulturist, Georges Samuel Perrotiet, employed in Pondicherry,

passing by, was asked what he thought of Michael’s sweepings and with

an illuminating insight suggested the need of directions from a ‘ vege-

table physiologist’. Conolly’s wish for a ‘ properly qualified conser-

vator’ suggests that he too was aware of his and his associates’

inadequacy. Michael gained a commendation from the Company’s

Directors in London for a report made in 1849, and the expression of

a hope that the forests under him would escape ‘ the serious injury that

other forests had incurred’. So we see that the Company was awake :

indeed they had before this appointed Conservators of Forests, Cleghorn

and Gibson, for Madras and Bombay respectively. Appreciating

Michael’s activity they sent him to Moulmein in 1861 to learn the

Tenasserim way of transporting logs, which seems to have been good.

The Moulmein fault was waste in the forests by felling and neglecting to

take away. |

Cleghorn took the position that the fault in Mysore was letting forest

fires run through the forests ; and he had a temporary administrative

success in getting shifting cultivation prohibited ; but the Mysore Govern-

ment went back. Later he experienced the same vacillation from the

Presidency Government whose land records were in a confusion which

took years to unravel. This briefly was why the Madras Forest Act

came to be the last of its series ; it came only in 1882.

Passing to Bombay, attention falls on Alexander Gibson (1800-1867).

He, like Cleghorn, was an Edinburgh student, but took his qualification

in Medicine twenty years earlier. He went to Bombay in 1825, and in

the first part of his service was connected with the Company’s shipping.

In 1836 he was employed through the Deccan and Khandesh in vaccinat-

ing, and this rural occupation was the introduction to charge of the

Dapuri Experimental Garden at Poona (1838) in succession to Lush.

Among the many reports that he wrote from Dapuri was one on teak

(1840). It led, but not immediately, to the post of Conservator of

Forests falling to him (1847). It seems that the practice of shifting

cultivation was on the increase ; and he had a difficult position to main-

tain. Presumably he had been collecting and drying plants from the

days when the work of vaccinating came to him (1836). He seems to

have continued to collect to 1867 when his herbarium, which contained

contributions from Stocks and Dalzell, was given to the Calcutta Garden.

A custom, very extensive on the Malabar side of India, is that called

rab. The rice plot is prepared by lighting fires about its surface, and

the forest in its neighbourhood is raided to add fuel to the fires, There

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 761

is no doubt in regard to the benefit of the firing and therefore resistance

was to be expected from interference with the cultivators. Gibson had

to save the teak which they would lop ; and to do it against resistance

which came to actual violence ; but in the end he succeeded in getting

the use of teak forbidden and later the use also of the branches of Dal-

bergia latifolia, the Black Wood. 7

Four years before his death Gibson published A DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF

THE FOREST TREES OF INDIA, a book which covers rather more than the

title indicates, for it contains a discussion of conservancy, i.e. it touches

on the life of the tree that has been described.

9. Two ILLUSTRATIONS OF SILVICULTURE AS APPLIED ECOLOGY

The deodar (Cedrus libani var. deodara) is a very valuable timber tree

which occurs gregariously in the Himalaya ; a companion which grows

with it is the woody climber, Clematis montana, a lover of the sun, which

when it has the opportunity will gain the sun and rob the deodar by

climbing on it even to surmounting it. Its seedlings take advantage of

the humidity of the shade marginal to the deodar ; the grown plant gets

the sun in its turn as soon as it can. The perennial stems leaf each year

to the detriment of the host and the pretty flowers follow. Lady Amherst,

who has been mentioned as one of the first botanists of Simla, saw it

there and sent it into cultivation in Europe. An Indian forester knows

that by cutting the Clematis down he has an easy way of giving back the

advantages to the deodar. Should he do so, he is applying an elementary

ecological observation to a simple silvicultural operation.

The second illustration is taken from the teak tree, Tectona grandis.

The ecologist uproots a seedling and observes the size of its taproot ;

he sees it to be large and by the simplest of reasoning deduces that there

is a value to the plant in its capacity ; and clearly one of the materials

it holdsis water to secure growth. Then he sees that there is an advan-

tage to the seedling in the cover of the accompanying vegetation, for it

keeps the moisture from evaporation in the direct sunlight ; but the

seedling is seen to be light-hungry and disadvantaged if the associated

vegetation takes the light. A silvicultural problem appears with the

question how can the seedling get the best of its position. The seedling

is of rapid growth if favourably placed. Moreover it is desired to en-

courage the single stem which under the best circumstances will result

in a straight and well-grown trunk. The silviculturist has problems of

“competition to consider and the responsibility on him of a harvest dis-

tant may be a hundred years and more, with moreover reproduction

thrown in. Advanced silviculture discovers that it can be possible to

welcome a little firing if it frees the teak from competitors. However,

this is not the place in which to show that the advanced silviculturist

762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

needs exceedingly high qualifications, which were not at all in view when

Michael swept fallen leaves away and Falconer listed competing trees.

Everything recommendable is then qualified by its expense. The end

is reached in this way not by, but through, Botany.

10. THE INDIAN FOREST SERVICE HAD THREE STAGES

The Indian Forest Service developed from nothing, not evenly, but

in three stages. The first covered operations directed at safeguarding

the supplies of the timber of one particular tree, the teak tree. These

operations were extended to other trees, notably trees useful for fuel, and

by provisions for soil-conservancy and water-conservancy, for which the

wardens, all, even the lowest, required an elementary knowledge of these

trees. The third stage came when the forests were treated as a whole

and there was importance in a knowledge of the grasses and herbs of the

carpet under the trees, among at least a leaven of the more responsible.

One may say that the Forest Service lived experimenting not only

with their material but with their personnel. As to personnel it suffered

from the disadvantage that, while able to obtain from Europe experts

trained in the methods of the Forester, they had been trained in their

application to trees that the Forester was not to encounter in India.

These Foresters had inevitably to learn the Indian trees after their arrival

in India, in other words to go on learning even under difficulties. The

Forest Officer who proved at the same time a conspicuous botanist was

manifestly an enthusiast in Botany.

11. Sir DIETRICH BRANDIS AND THOSE UNDER HIM IN THE

FOREST SERVICE WHO WERE BOTANICALLY-MINDED

Dr. Dietrich Brandis (1824-1907, knighted in 1887) was son of a

Professor of Philosophy in the German University of Bonn. After a

prolonged education there and elsewhere he became a teacher of Botany

in the University. He married a daughter of the Calcutta scholar and

missionary, John Clark Marshman, whereas another daughter married

the soldier Sir Henry Havelock whose conspicuous service to India is so

well known. Thus Brandis had obtained an indirect connection with

India a little before his name was brought to the Governor-General when

the appointment of an officer to save the teak in Burma was under con-

sideration. It was natural to think of the possibility of the right man

matter of some pride to the landowners. In the end Brandis was ap-

pointed to the charge of the Pegu forests, Cleghorn and Gibson being at

the time respectively Conservators of such Madras and Bombay forests

as had not been alienated. All three gained their position as botanists,

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 763

the two already in India, also as tried administrators. Brandis had his

administrative reputation to gain.

Brandis passed through Calcutta at the end of the year 1855, seeing

the Governor-General to whom he outlined his plans and from whom he

got not only approval but the remark that the plans would prove of great

value. Brandis went forward to Rangoon and took over what had been

McClelland’s last charge.

Few records connected with Brandis are so enlightening as his first

report ; but I will quote first in Brandis’s own words what he regarded

as his duty : ‘ The object of my being appointed in January 1856 by Lord

Dalhousie to the charge of the Pegu forests was purely practical. My

duty in Burma was to place the management of the teak forests upon a

safe footing so as to ensure the maintenance and gradual improvement

of the valuable growing stock while utilizing timber not exceeding the

amount annually produced in the forests’. It would have been strange

if Brandis had not visited the Botanic Garden in Calcutta when passing

through. That he did, seeing some of the trees planted in Kyd’s time

which were still growing, and making a personal estimate of the years to

maturity on which his average fellings would have to be calculated.

Brandis sent in his first report as annual from the time of his arrival,

i.e. January to December. Later the reports were based on the Govern-

ment’s year that ended with March.

I revert to his first report ; in it with a kind of austerity Brandis keeps

the teak tree as his only subject ; there is no mention of any other. The

austerity was characteristic ; Brandis allowed himself to be a botanist

when Forestry was not in view ; when it was, he was wholly a Forester ;

and in dealing with his staff he expected the same of them. I have

referred earlier (§ 6) to his book INDIAN TREES. It was written in re-

tirement, when he could allow himself to see plants botanically. Of

course in his first years he was learning what names belonged to the

associates of the teak ; but until they came within a Forester’s interest

they were to him outside the day’s work. He mapped the areas whence

teak could be drawn at mercantile costs without compromising the future

and planned extraction. And the report was so well received that in the

next year the Tenasserim forests were added to his charge.

In the years from 1856 to 1862, during which Brandis did service

entirely in Burma, he made his reputation. Powerful interests sought to

frustrate him, as he himself records. Those competent to judge call his

appraisal of the position correct and praise him for prevailing.

There was not much ordered knowledge of the Burma flora when he

arrived ; but there was a missionary at Moulmein engaged in getting it

together. This was Francis Mason (1799-1874). He had resided at

Tavoy for a time and then moved to Moulmein. He was a man after

the mould of William Carey, of great industry ; and he was intent on

764 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

collecting ail the knowledge that he could about things Burmese. In

1850 he published as a small book the first edition of his NATURAL PRO-

DUCTIONS OF BURMAH, OR NOTES ON THE FAUNA, FLORA AND MINERALS

OF THE BURMESE EMPIRE, a Second edition following in 1860. Later (1882-

1883) came Theobald’s edition, a completely changed book.

Brandis would find Mason’s equating of Burmese and botanical plant

names useful. Kurz joined in that work, but not until 1866 when he

tried to extract plant names from Burmese convicts in the Andaman

Islands. Kurz renewed his efforts when shortly he began to travel in

Burma. —

Cleghorn and Alexander Gibson alike published on Forestry in 1861 ;

then Gibson retired. Meanwhile the Government began to consider the

possibility of a Forest Service for the whole of India. Two circumstances

hindered them ; one was inability to get at Cleghorn because he was on

leave and the other the anticipation that they would need to give Brandis

leave.

When Cleghorn returned to India in November 1861, he was not

allowed to go back to the Madras Presidency, but was sent to the Punjab

to study the timber and wood-fuel supplies. By then trains were being

hauled in the Punjab plains by engines using wood for fuel and this in a

part of India where fuel counted for much. Fuel was also in short

supply elsewhere, even in the very south where fuel was wanted for smelt-

ing. It is easy to understand why the north-west of India was marked

out for fuel study. Moreover there were wise men in Simla with a de-

monstration at their doors of waste of hill land by the washing away

of soil bared of forest in the raising of potato crops (see § 5).

In 1862 Brandis, now back from his leave, was called to Simla and

brought into a prolonged contact with Cleghorn to debate the possible

service. Their joint report was in print in January, 1864. The Govern-

ment retained the contact between Brandis and Cleghorn making them

jointly Inspectors-General. Meanwhile a little engaging of staff had been

done ; but the number required was so enormous that great courage was

needed to face it. There were in India capable men who fancied life at a

distance from the cities; men for instance like General Michael

who became a great game-hunter. A few of such men came forward ;

but made barely a handful. There were no means of learning Forestry

in Britain such as might serve in supplementing the influx: but there

were Forestry Schools in continental Europe ; and they were drawn on.

The French had a most efficient school at Nancy where young men

learned how to take care of growing oaks, pines, and other trees of their

countrysides and look after the water supplies. German landowners

had combined to create institutions in which their young men qualified

for managing the production of timber. By agreement provision for

training at the French school at Nancy was arranged. Brandis in 1866

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 765

asked that he might be allowed to recruit two trained men from Germany

and personally selected Wilhelm Schlich and Berthold Ribbentrop.

Cleghorn retired from india in 1867 and became an adviser at the India

Office on the selection of entrants whether students from Nancy or with

other qualifications. Ribbentrop tells us in his FORESTRY IN INDIA (p.

227) that between 1871 and 1880, i.e. within the period with which we

are concerned, 95 men were accepted who had received teaching at Nancy.

They had had the opportunity of learning Botany, up to what was con-

sidered qualifying and of course illustrated by trees of a temperate climate,

very generally artificially consociated. The Nancy students were by no

means exclusive ; but just some among many. |

Brandis on Cleghorn’s retirement became the sole Inspector-General

with a great deal of legislation to help forward. He may be said io have

inherited the services of two botanists, N. A. Daizell and R. H. Beddome,

the first in Bombay and the second in Madras. There was at the time in

the Punjab Medical Service John Lindsay Stewart (1832-1873) who reached

India in 1856 from Edinburgh and was so botanically-minded that he set

to work at once accumulating notes with the intention of writing a FLORA.

He continued to do so for the rest of his life and he could say in 1873

that he had tramped over all the districts of the Punjab. Brandis secured

him as Conservator of Forests, Punjab, in 1864, and later we find the

two touring together. Brandis secured Gustav Mann in the next year in

quite a different way.

Gustav Mann (1838-1916) was born in Germany and trained in horti-

culture, proceeding to Kew in 1859 for further experience. When at

Kew he was offered the post of botanist on the Niger Expedition in the

place of William Balfour Baikie who had died ; and he accepted it. After

returning from the Guinea Coast he was offered service in India and sent

to Assam and Sikkim (1863 to 1881). The India-rubber plantation at

Charduar on the Brahmaputra was of his establishing.

I call these four men—Dalzell, Beddome, Stewart, and Mann—

Brandis’s botanical scouts. That was exactly their place ; behind them as

Brandis’s front line were other men, engaged in India or brought out

from Britain.

I have in previous pages made it clear to the reader that the East

India Company brought out ‘ surgeons’ and picked them over when they

happened to need a botanist. After the four scouts, recruiting of botanists

into the Forest Service was not unlike the East India Company’s way ;

they imported botanists asit were by accident. Those among the Forest-

ers sufficiently botanically-minded showed their flair after reaching India;

they had perhaps some knowledge of the names and ways of European

trees ; setting foot in India they were learners still, the trees different,

the conditions different, and of a certainty presenting difficulties. With

those entrants who did not turn to Indian Botany we are not concerned :

766 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

but among the few who did we find some in the front line. It is convenient

to name them at once and give the dates of their arrival in India : Schlich

and Ribbentrop had as said, been recruited in 1866; ‘William Rogers

Fisher, 1866 ; George King 1869, serving only to 1871; James Sykes

Gamble 1871 ; Alexander Talbot, 1875 ; James William Oliver, 1874 ;

John Nisbet, 1875 ; John Henry Lace, 1881, and George Michael Ryan,

1883, but of the Bombay Presidency Service.

Brandis had been himself in 1856 in the same position as the new-

comers into the service from 1866 forward, namely in need to learn his

material, but fortunate in the instructions centred on the teak tree.

Transfer to Simla brought the need of learning the ways of a very unlike

lot of trees. Certain it is that he looked with great hope on the assistance

of Stewart. After appointments as Conservator, Stewart had leave and

took his collections to Kew for authoritative naming ; then he returned

for further work, Brandis expecting a FLORA from him ; but Stewart died

(1873) with it unwritten, whereon Brandis, being on leave, hastened to

Kew and, getting Stewart’s memoranda, within a rather astonishingly

short time wrote his own version of the FLORA, namely the story of the

woody plants. By Brandis’s energy the volume was out of the press in

1874, under the title: Stewart & Brandis, FOREST FLORA OF NORTH-WEST

AND CENTRAL INDIA ; and Brandis added to it a volume of plates by the

botanical artist, John Nugent Fitch. It is a pity that he devised the name

‘Forest Flora’ for botanists had long accepted the word ‘ Flora’ as

something of geographic import and here was a new and undefined class

of guide-book. Perhaps one should say it is a pity that the Forest Service

in India adopted the term, for successive compilers were never sure what

to omit. |

One reason why Brandis was so prompt with his book was that by

omitting all the herbaceous families he avoided that which would have

delayed him, namely in general the Gamopetalae and Monocotyledons,

which Hooker had not yet reached in his FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA. He

owed extensively to Hooker for that which Hooker had already done.

The make-up of the book indicates how much more Brandis was cast-

ing a line for a Forester than for a Botanist. It is difficult to see how it

could have been otherwise, as Brandis was working against time. .

Just before Brandis went on the leave in which he took Stewart’s

place, he had seen through a major event in the history of his Service :

it was the setting up of the Forest Survey Office at Dehra Dun. I call it

‘major’ chiefly because it clinched the connection between the Service

and Dehra Dun. The great surveyor, George Everest, had made the

connection between surveying and Dehra Dun.

I have called Stewart one of Brandis’s scouts. Brandis by taking up

the writing of the FOREST FLORA put himself into that exploratory posi-

tion. It is time to turn to what I have called his front line. I would

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 767

remark in doing so, that the front line had more need of ecology than the

scouts ; and of course there could be no preparatory teaching of it in the

undeveloped state of that branch of Botany.

Brandis was in the Indian service for 27 years. Schlich and Ribben-

trop were under him for 17 years, Gamble 14, Talbot 12, Oliver 9, Nisbet

8, and Lace only 2.

Schlich by his close association with Brandis influenced the service

more than any other after Brandis. He proved the apostle of forest

education. It has been suggested that Brandis contemplated a teaching

staff ; but whatever he thought was not presented to Government so as

to quicken matters ; action there was but it is Schlich’s name that is parti-

cularly connected with the course forest education took.

Wilhelm Schlich (1840-1925), his school years over, entered the

University of Giessen ; he associated with his studies the Forestry train-

‘Ing available in Germany ; and had completed that when Brandis, seeking

for two trained men whom he was authorized to engage, found him and

persuaded him to adopt India for his profession. His University in 1867

awarded to him a doctor’s degree. After arriving in India he had service

successively in Pegu, Arakan, Sind, and Bengal ; and the service in Bengal

extended over the years 1872 to 1881. His task in Arakan was a rather

special one, it was to extend a measure of control over the extraction of

the timber of Xylia dolabriformis, the pyinkadu of the Burmese, which had

come into demand for railway sleepers. The REPORT ON THE PYINKADOH

FORESTS OF ARAKAN published after he had been in India for 4 years holds

the names, both botanical and Burmese, of many associated trees and

thus is definitely, as could be expected, a study of the forest and in making

it Kurz seems to have joined. After this Schlich was transferred to parts

of India where Burmese names were not the help that they had been where

his native staff was Burmese ; and it must have been brought home to

him then that Forest Rangers needed a common nomenclature ; and he

would recognize that the only naming that could possibly suffice is that

of Botany.

For seeing what could be done in this direction at small cost Brandis

had the experiment tried of sending Forest Rangers in training to the

engineering schools where they were to get appropriate teaching. The

apprentices, their year’s course done, returned to forest work under the

Conservators and those of Bengal came from Roorkee to serve under

Schlich who had become Conservator. Schlich reported in 1873 that

they returned, maybe, with a good deal of useful engineering knowledge

but with little or nothing gained in forestry. However, only in 1878

did the logical action follow ; it was agreed then to set up a school, and

Dehra Dun was chosen for the situation. The teaching commenced in

1881, in which year Schlich succeeded Brandis as Inspector-General,

and that being so, we may ascribe the early guiding of the school to

768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Schlich. The teaching of the lower classes was in the vernacular and

so the School could not serve the south of the Peninsula nor Burma.

Schools in these parts came later and did not function within the period

under our consideration. This northern School was firmly established

before Schlich, in 1885, left India to found and organize forest education

in Britain at Cooper’s Hill and to guide its subsequent removal to Oxford

(1905). From Oxford Schlich, though he wrote nothing purely botanical,

wrote much of value in applied botany and encouraged others most

extensively to do the same. Gamble, as a very junior member of the

service, came under Schlich in 1872 and owed to Schlich’s broad-minded

outlook the facilities he had for doing excellent botanical work during his

years in northern Bengal.

Schlich just before he left India had done another thing for the Dehra

Dun organization—one of importance as great as the original found-

ing ; he had assigned the preparation of working plans to Dehra Dun and

that assured a double portion of the botanical ability of the Service being

concentrated there.

In 1869, i.e. three years after Schlich joined the Service, William

Rogers Fisher (1846-1910) was recruited. He was an Australian by birth ;

then took a degree in Cambridge and a training in Forestry at Nancy

where his course was interrupted by the Franco-Prussian War. During

his years in India he took to translating works on Forestry and that led

to a transfer to a teaching post at Cooper’s Hill and later to the

Professorship of Forestry at Oxford in succession to Sir William Schlich.

In this way his mark on Indian Forestry fell only indirectly. Gamble’s

was very different.

James Sykes Gamble (1846-1925) had taken mathematical honours

at Oxford, before deciding on Forestry as his life-work and so proceeded

late to the Ecole Nationale des Eaux et des Foréts at Nancy in France.

Then his course was interrupted by the Franco-German war, but

escaping to Britain he went under the tuition of Cleghorn in Edinburgh

for a while, until he could return to Nancy to finish his course. He

reached India in 1871. During service in northern Bengal (1872 for-

ward) he compiled A LIST OF THE TREES AND SHRUBS FOUND IN THE

DARJEELING DISTRICT (1878, revised 1896). He followed this up by a

paper, the like of which no one in India had thought of : it was an account

of the distribution of species of trees on the Darjeeling hills—a most

interesting ecological study. Gamble was now a marked man, and was

appointed Personal Assistant to the Inspector-General (1877-1879),

During these years he prepared the first edition of his MANUAL OF INDIAN

TIMBERS. A second edition came out in 1902 and had been entirely

rewritten. After 1879 he was Conservator of Forests, Bengal, then later

of Madras, then of Uttar Pradesh, with the Directorship of the Imperial

Forest College as part of his duties. We may call him an administrator

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 769

sent to large charges to bring them to pattern. When retirement set him

free he gave himself over to taxonomic research aiding Sir George King by

taking over the unfinished MATERIALS FOR A FLORA OF THE MALAY

PENINSULA ; and he commenced a FLORA OF MADRAS. Ten years passed

from the arrival of Gamble to the arrival of J. H. Lace.

John Henry Lace (1857-1912) reached India in 1881. For him there

were two charges in succession of north-western areas, the first the forests

of the State of Chamba which had been put under the direction of the

Forest Service by the ruler of the State, the second the forests of the

Quetta uplands in Baluchistan. Of each he compiled lists of the flora.

In 1900 he was appointed Assistant Inspector-General of Forests and col-

lected then about Simla. After this administrative exigencies sent him to

Bengal (1901) and after that to Burma (1904) and kept him there until

retirement in 1913. Lace throughout his time was a diligent and critical

collector, a pioneer both as to the floras of Chamba and Baluchistan ;

and he would have issued a FLORA OF MAYMYO in the Shan Hills had he

lived a little longer. Generous with his material he supplied much to

Kew, Calcutta, Dehra Dun, and what he had at the time of his death was

given to the Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.

William Alexander Talbot (1847-1917) went to India in 1875 and spent

his whole time in the Bombay Presidency. He compiled A sysTEMATIC

LIST OF THE TREES, SHRUBS, AND WOODY CLIMBERS OF THE BOMBAY PRESI-

DENCY (1894), and followed it by a FOREST FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESI-

DENCY AND SIND (in two richly illustrated volumes, 1909 and 1911). ‘The

reader will note that he, Gamble, and Lace were all students from Nancy,

In the years when Brandis was a teacher of Botany at Bonn he would

instruct taxonomically by a German system ; wisely, he conformed to the

taxonomic usages of Britain so as not to disturb the knowledge which

candidates for enrolment brought to their work ; and when these men

came to know enough of their forests to list the species, they inevitably

arranged them by Hooker’s FLORA. Brandis did his best to build on the

work that the taxonomic botanists were doing and to the furtherance of

this came the accident—accident it was as far as he was concerned—of

Hooker’s sequence leaving the herbaceous Monocotyledons to the last.

By the date of Brandis’s retirement Hooker had published on the

majority of the families that are woody.

I would have the reader note that the botany of those who came to

their service under Brandis was taxonomic. This was natural. The

Forest Service had not reached an ecological level ; and did not before

1880, so that Professor Troup needs to point out that of instructions for

forest treatment none before that date were deserving of the name of

Working Plans. 7

In 1881 when the function of preparing these was assigned to the

College at Dehra the first period of the Forest Service was over.

770 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Brandis as soon as he had seen through the press his FOREST FLORA

left taxonomy alone for a time and became again the forester ; and though

he published during his years up to retirement a variety of papers they

were strictly practical. Collections of dried plants such as came to him,

he passed over to taxonomists. A Conservator of the very early years,

Richard Horatio Ely Thompson, had the forests of Oudh which were under

him, collected over : he sent the collection to Brandis (1870) and Brandis

sent it, as received, to Kew. The collections of a Moravian missionary

seeking to get determination for use in a Tibetan dictionary were treated

inthe same way. About the same timea collection went to Berlin from

another missionary named Herzog.

To make it easy to get the early Forest Service into perspective I

propose to list the dates in series :

1855: Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General lays down a policy

for safeguarding the supplies of Burmese Teak, and Dr. Dietrich Brandis,

a teacher at the University of Bonn, is engaged and appointed Conservator

of the Pegu forests, a large part of which had been having some protec-

tion under Burmese rule.

1856: Brandis takes over, and in 1857, the forests further south are

added to his charge.

1862 : H. F. C. Cleghorn having experience as Conservator of Forests,

Madras, is brought to the Punjab to widen his experience ; and Brandis

is brought into contact with him that the two may advise on a Forest

Service for the whole of India where a scarcity of woods other than teak

‘was also causing concern.

1864 : The joint report printed.

1865: The first Indian Forest Act passed. :

1866: Recruitment of staff in progress. The first recruits from

Nancy and two trained in German methods arrived ; local engagement

on general ability.

1867 : Cleghorn retired. Brandis left the sole adviser.

1872 : Surveying of the forests in charge of a special branch provided

with offices at Dehra Dun where the Headquarters of the Great Trigono-

metrical Survey had long been.

1872: Plans for the teaching of Forest Rangers. Brandis realized

that tuition would be needed ; he experimented by sending Rangers in

training to the Engineering schools for a year.

1873: Schlich, if not also others, condemned the result and

advocated teaching within the Service.

1874 : Brandis devised the FOREST FLORA which shows a kind of tui-

tion he thought needed by the executive staff.

1877: J. S. Gamble initiated the working lists by an enumeration

of the woody plants of the messes District.

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA Ti

1878 : Effect given to the recommendation that there should be

teaching for locally recruited staff, by planning a School at Dehra Dun.

1881 : Teaching begins in the School ; J. F. Duthie called in to help.

1881: Schlich succeeded Brandis as Inspector-General.

1881: The first edition of Gamble’s MANUAL ON INDIAN TIMBERS. ,

1882: The Madras Forest Act, completing the series. Schlich

assigned the work of preparing working plans to Dehra Dun.

1885 : Schlich left India to organize the teaching of Forestry in

Britain, B. Ribbentrop succeeding him as Inspector-General.

Dehra Dun was pre-eminently suitable for the central place, for there

was place available through which Duthie, called in to help, would lead

- students in parties among the trees teaching them to know their bota-

nical names. In time the College became self-contained. Stewart had

already written on the flora of the Siwalik Hills. The College produced

in time an ideal teacher among its own men, Upendranath Kanji Lal.

It was not altogether without irregularities that the Forest Service spread ;

Kerala for a time remained outside the area of the Imperial Forest Service.

During these years Lieutenant-Colonel Alfred Augustus Davidson col-

lected in the State and gave his collections to Kew in 1883. When Kerala

obtained a Forest Officer, he was Thomas Fulton Bourdillon who had been

coffee planting. Ceylon in like manner provided itself with a Forest

Officer, who had formerly planted coffee. This was Frederick Lewis

(1857-1930). After a service of 15 years he was transferred to Land-

settlement. He was connected with the introduction of Para rubber,

planting out the first for the Government.

12. THE THIRD CALCUTTA GARDEN : THE GARDEN OF

SiR GEORGE KING AND SIR DAVID PRAIN

Sir George King (1840-1909) lost his parents at a very early age and

had a business training under an uncle who was his guardian, but as soon

as he was at liberty to shape his own course, an inherent iove of Nature

led him to decide to enter the Medical profession, which then was the

only avenue holding promise to a Naturalist. He wished also for travel

and that particularly in the East. He qualified in Medicine in the Univer-

sity of Aberdeen (1865). The avenue to employment in India had been

closed in 1860; there was no recruitment of surgeons ; but to his delight

it. was reopened just in time for him, and to Bengal he went. He was

stationed in Calcutta, but illness supervened ; on that account in the

hope that a drier climate might cure it, he was sent to the Upper Gangetic

plains and had service successively at Agra, Mathura, Goona, Deola,

Mount Abu, and Jodhpur. Such leisure as he had in these places was

employed in collecting data on famine foods. Then came a short spell

772, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

as acting Superintendent of the Garden at Saharanpur (1868), followed

by a spell (1869-1870) at Dehra Dun as an Assistant Forest Conservator,

during which he was called on to put an end to a deep network of ex-

tensive frauds and did so with conspicuous effect, which led to the offer

of .permanent employment in the Forest Service ; but the Secretary of

State for India had to find a successor for Thomas Anderson who had

been invalided, and he appointed King to the post in the Calcutta Garden.

Thus he returned to Calcutta, not now a surgeon in its hospitals, but with

the triple duties of (i) Superintendent of the Garden, (ii) Professor of

Botany in the Medical College, and (iii) the responsibility for the Cin-

chona experiment in. the Darjeeling Himalaya. Something, I do not

know what, though it may have been the change from rule by the Com-

pany to rule by the Crown, caused him to hope that there would be made

an Imperial Botanic Service, and he was disappointed; but his friends

and counsellors pointed out that the Bengal Government had a deeper

pocket than the Government of India and an intenser urge to restore the

Garden. King settled to his arduous responsibilities and, with the hope

of an Imperial Service gone, he proposed that the botanists under the

various presidential and lesser Governments be united into a loose fede-

ration with the advantage of a common journal for publication. The

command of the journal would be in itself the promoting of research on

connected lines. King from this became charged with direct access to

the Government of India as Director of the Botanical Survey with the

Records of the Botanical Survey of India as its Journal (1891).

King’s awareness that India provided for no survey of the lowest

plants, caused him to ask for the addition of a Cryptogamic Botanist to

his staff ; but he met with a refusal.

By agreement a regional interest was recommended to the different

centres of botanical work by which Calcutta had priority in the Eastern

Himalaya, Bengal, Assam, Burma, and eastward in general.

When King was appointed Superintendent, Kurz and John Scott y were

both alive and at their posts in Calcutta, and James Gammie was man-

ager of the Cinchona plantation. Scott seems to have aided King with

the Herbarium work after Kurz’s death ; then Scott retired. The post

that Kurz had had was given to Lewis Jones Knight Brace (1852-1938)

but Brace became ill very soon after his appointment and, though he

nominally occupied the post to 1886, he was never for long at a time fit

for work. His successor was David Prain (1857-1944, knighted in 1912).

Sir David Prain had qualified in Medicine both in Aberdeen and in

Edinburgh (1883) and then had entered the Indian Medical Service. He

acted as Curator of the Calcutta Herbarium in 1886 for half of the year,

Brace being ill ; and in 1887 was appointed to the post. which he held to

1897, when illness driving King into retirement, he succeeded him in all

the four duties that had been King’s. In 1905 he was appointed Director

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA 173

of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and held that great responsibility

with its wide ramifications until 1922.

King had collected plants in central India during his first years, then

he collected when serving temporarily in the Forest Service in the Kumaon

Himalaya ; after appointment to the Calcutta Garden, he collected on a

short trip in the Sikkim Himalaya and on a visit to the Malay peninsula,

but the responsibilities at home in Bengal outgrew his ability to find time

and he stimulated collecting by friends and employed collectors when

he could find such as were reliable. His use of Mungpu as a centre from

which to collect has been mentioned (p. 357 above). His largest effort

in this line was the employment of an Australian, Hermann Kunstler, over

the years 1880-1886 to collect for him in the Malay peninsula. At that

time Sir Joseph Hooker was interested in Malay plants because he was

requested to include the Malay peninsula in his FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA ;

and lest the sum of information about them be very meagre, King under-

took this work of helping ; there was also a proposal that Hooker and

King should work them out together which, when Hooker decided that

he could not find time, was reduced to a MATERIALS FOR A FLORA OF THE

MALAY PENINSULA by King. It was an exacting work and, although the

Monocotyledons were handed over to Henry N. Ridley, King did not

live to finish it. This was done by J. S. Gamble, and an appendix was

added by V. Narayanaswamy of the Calcutta staff in 1931, made neces-

sary largely by Scortechini’s erratic spelling of place-names. King was

able to send George Gammie collecting up the Brahmaputra Valley to

Sadiya. G. A. Gallatly collected for King in the Khasia Hills, J. G.

Prazer, a professional orchid collector, in Cachar and then in the Salween

Valley ; his Garden collectors Abdul Huq, Abdul Khalil, and Shaik Mogim

collected in the remoter districts of the Irrawaddy and in the Shan Hills.

This was keeping to the understanding that Calcutta’s field of interest

was to the eastward of Calcutta. That, of course, did not limit the direc-

tion from which good friends sent dried plants. The zoologist, Dr.

John Scully, stationed in Kathmandu sent dried Nepalese plants, in part

collected by Mrs. Scott, wife of one of the Residency staff. The reader

sees here a weakening of the botanical momentum of the Garden ; the

Superintendent tied by his duties to his desk ; contact with living vege-

tation left to others. Prain so long as he was Gi of the Herbarium

was able to travel. His longest travel was by the Government’s Survey

ship to the Andaman Islands and the quiescent volcano, Barren Island.

He travelled next through upper India in connection with field weeds,

seeking with Lieutenant-Colonel D. D. Cunningham an alternating host

for rust of wheat. Another collecting trip was a brief one to Kham-

bajong in Tibet where the Mission of 1903 was halted. Other journeys

in India there were but they were not collecting trips.

A visit to the Laccadive Islands had been intended for 1897, but could

7714 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

not be arranged; and collecting from the ‘ Investigator’ which went

thither for coastal survey, was done instead by Colonel William Alcock,

the Surgeon-Naturalist and by the ship’s apothecary, John Fleming.

When in 1897 Prain stepped from the post of Curator of the Herbarium

to that of Superintendent of the Garden, the post of Curator was given

to Surgeon-Captain Andrew Thomas Gage and he like those before him

travelled collecting until the larger responsibilities fellon him. He collect-

ed along the southern margin of the Lushai Hills in 1899 and later he

collected through the Burmese District of Minbu from east to west.

There had been also a short trip in the hills of Ganjam. The reader will

note the considerable but not absolute measure in which eyes were direct-

ed east in Calcutta agreeable to the understanding that Calcutta’s in-

terests were on that side. King’s paid collectors were employed almost

entirely to the east of the Bay of Bengal.

Under King the Herbarium grew greatly and a new fire-proof build-

ing was provided for it. The precaution was underlined as wise when

later Gamble’s small collection of the Forest Service at Darjeeling and

the whole herbarium at Poona were destroyed by fire.

King had had the idea that centres of Forest work would be more

efficient if the officers had a small collection for reference and was pre-

pared to make up sets ; but seems to have been discouraged by Brandis

who saw in them an invitation to scatter energy away from the few econo-

mic trees of the very young service.

One of King’s constant thoughts was how to forward Hooker’s pro-

gress with the FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA. It was done not only by the flow

of herbarium material, but by the preference he gave to work on families

of complexity. The Government of Bengal sanctioned the publication

of King’s illustrated taxonomic monographs as the sumptuous ANNALS

OF THE ROYAL BOTANIC GARDEN, CALCUTTA as fulfilling this purpose. The

Asiatic Society agreed_to publish the descriptions of the Malayan plants.

King’s solicitude extended to the use that he made of funds that he

had for sending out collectors. They were sent eastward under the

agreement that Calcutta’s special interests were towards the east. By

their work, the Shan Hills were explored and also the Ruby Mine District

of Burma and some mountainous parts of Assam which were penetrable

to these men. Under King and after King these served—Abdul Hug,

Abdul Khalil, Badam Khan, and Shaik Moqim. The last named went

with Pottinger in 1896 into the wild country north of Myitkyina.

Immediately east of Sikkim is the Chumbi Valley, politically Tibetan,

but a valley of wild roses, smiling and in features mid-Himalayan. Into

this valley an expedition went in 1888 and serving on it was Surgeon-

Captain Henry Alfred Cummins of the Royal Army Medical Corps, and

finally Professor of Botany at Cork, an enthusiast who collected where-

ever he went, as well as in the Chumbi Valley. Another who collected

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA TIS

in the valley at this same time was E. H. Walsh, the political officer.

Some years later a member of the Chinese Customs Service, H. E. Hobson,

was stationed at Yatung within the valley and made collections too which

were given to Kew. Later, but after 1900 an engineer making a road,

Searight, added his quota. The consequence is that an interesting list

of the plants is possible.

Contemporaneously, collecting was done on the northern frontier of

Sikkim ; it was commenced by Sir Francis Younghusband when he arrived

at the frontier on a mission to Tibet. Sir David Prain was enabled to

make a short visit to the same centre and collect. The collecting was

then taken by the surgeon, Walton, who continued it all the way to Lhasa.

Another surgeon also collected ; this was Lieut-Col. Lawrence Austine

Waddell. Prain had intended to study these collections but pressure of

work prevented him.

King’s handling of the reconstruction of the Garden was masterly,

The reader recalls that the double disaster was due to overmuch water in

two forms, saline tidal at the first flooding, saturation of the soil at the

second. King saw that the filling of hollows behind the banks was the

remedy needed. He took the measure of the earth required to fill these

hollows completely ; he calculated the increase of area of the tanks in the

Garden that would be necessary to supply it. He plotted its dispersal

in a way that would enable visits to be made in favourable positions ; he

calculated the cost of the labour that would be adequate ; he proposed

the spreading of the work over a series of years—nine was agreed on—

and in nine it was done. The tanks making one-ninth of the whole sur-

face, were connected by underground pipes and provision made for

pumping water into or out of the system. It is probable that no other

superintendent in the succession had such clear artistic appreciation as

King ; at any rate they had not shown it. Roxburgh may have been a

victim of circumstances ; he had to build slowly and therefore patchily.

Wallich seems to have been unappreciative. Griffith was an iconoclast

and the remark that Falconer had to close little winding paths shows

McClelland to have lacked taste. Falconer apparently did not have time

for planning ; Thomson probably lacked the energy and Anderson the

opportunity. King’s designing was bold and his business-like way,

along with that, got him such great credit that he was asked to plan the

new Zoological Garden and the gardens of official residences in Calcutta

andin Darjeeling. Trust in King brought him sanction for large improve-

ments in the Garden, new lattice plant-houses, propagating pits and their

adjuncts, new quarters for staff and, most important of all, the fire-

proof building for the Herbarium.

In 1870 a resident in Darjeeling, William Lloyd, generously gave land

for a garden in the station ; and this land became an annexe to the Calcutta

Botanic Garden, serving it as the Mussoorie Garden served. Saharanpur,

716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

for experiments with plants impatient of the climate of the plains. If

when King was appointed Superintendent, the state of the Garden was

depressing, the state of the cinchona experiment almost one of despair.

The East India Company had found the establishment of tea expensive,

but it had been worth while, as the preliminary expenditure could be

called buying knowledge ; likewise a large preliminary expenditure was

incurred over cinchona which was justified, but after that the two enter-

prises were not parallel because a new item had been brought into the

estimates for cinchona, the need of splitting profit between a natural gain

and a philanthropic attack on malaria. They were optimists who, en-

visaging that the claim for the latter could be satisfied, asked of King the

apparently unattainable. However, King’s horticulturists were succeed-

ing in the part that was theirs.

King in 1884 had cause to visit the Netherlands on a quest not con-

nected with Cinchona ; but when there an accident brought to him a little

light on the manufacture of quinine which he passed to the chemist,

C. D. Wood, who after his work on Cinchona at Mungpu (p. 353 above)

was now in London. Wood of his own free will resumed chemical in-

vestigations and produced a laboratory process, which King took to

Gammie and Gammie converted into a manufacturing process. There

was now the possibility that if the medical faculty would accept the total

alkaloids of Cinchona succirubra for use in India, a cheap malaria remedy

could be made available. King put that to the faculty and on the obser-

vations of a number of physicians in India it was accepted. King’s

factory at Mungpu made the febrifuge ; the prisons made it up in doses ;

the post-offices throughout India sold it and the middle man who had

tried to intervene was kept outside a country-wide undertaking.

Truly King deserved well of the country of his service.

Prain, working under King from 1887 to 1897, was as King in all the

Garden’s undertakings, save that a slight preference for economic botany

began to show itself in his publications, a preference that was to develop.

It fell to Prain to prepare plans against contingencies ahead. King’s

plans were largely scenic. Prain prepared for gradually sorting the trees

ona geographic base; for instance, trees A and B, both natives of Australia,

which had now by chance come to be displayed at opposite ends of the

Garden by Prain were destined to come together, when one or the other

should need to be replaced.

Prain, except that he contrived to make a short collecting visit to

Khambajong in Tibet in 1903, was as King had been a prisoner of his

administrative work.

| Gage when Curator of the Herbarium made a collecting trip to the

southern Lushai border in 1898-1899 and another in Ganjam in the com- -

pany of C.E. C. Fischer. After 1900 he made a journey through the

Burmese District of Minbu from the Irrawaddy River to the waterpart-

CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA C/T

ing towards Arakan. Reports on the first and the last may be found in

the Records of the Botanical Survey. He remained Superintendent of

the Calcutta Garden until 1895, but left India with leave prior to retire-

ment in 1924.

Facts show how deeply the Cinchona experiment acted on the Calcutta

Garden. Teak and Tea had broken into the Superintendent’s routine

at different periods and for short times ; but Cinchona entered into the

routine and there was no travel for the sake of collecting for the Superin-

tendent as for the Curator. The voluntary collector, the botanist whose

pleasure it was to collect lost none of his importance, now Prain realized

that and tried to work up the Botanic Survey.

(To be continued)

Early Stages of Old World

Lepidoptera—XII

E. P. WILTSHIRE, F.R.E.S.

(With four plates)

Previous articles in this series have mostly appeared with the title

‘Early stages of Palaearctic Lepidoptera’. A few Tropical species,

penetrating the Palaearctic Zone, have been described in them. My

present sojourn in Bahrain (lat. 26° N.), closer to the Tropical Zone

than hitherto, has led me to study a local fauna with a_ higher

percentage of Tropical species. In fact the oasis fauna of the island

(which of course must be differentiated from the desert fauna) is at

least half Tropical Indian. Four or five species, therefore, described

in the present article are more Tropical than Palaearctic and it seems

appropriate to modify the title accordingly, though the numbering

follows on after that of my previous ‘Early stages’ article (which

appeared in October 15, 1957, Zeits. d. Wiener. Ent. Ges. 42, B. 68:

149-155); it falls quite naturally into that series.

As did previous ‘articles, the present article publishes hitherto

unrecorded biological and morphological details, with photographs, of

the immature stages in most cases; but before proceeding to the

descriptions I should like here to summarise three or four points of

general interest:

i. The foodplant in the Middle East of the local races of the

widespread butterfly Junonia orithya L. can now, for the first time.

be given, and proves to belong to a botanical family not hitherto

reported for this butterfly. The particular race at Bahrain is the

little-known subspecies cheesmani Riley.

ii. In its first larval instar Drasteria yerburyi Butler (=Syneda

pica Brandt, syn. nov.) has its abdominal feet much less developed

1 For the convenience of our readers we give the references to the previous

articles in the series: I 1935, Ent. Rec. 47: If 1936, ibid. 48; III 1939, Mitt.

Muench. Ent. Ges. 29; IV 1940, Ent. Rec. 52; V 1944. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

43; VI 1946, ibid. 44; VII 1944, Ent. Rec. 56: VIII 1946, ibid. 58; IX 1948.

ibid. 60; X 1952, Bull, Soc, Fouad. I. 36; XI 1957, Zeits. d. Wiener. Ent. Ges.

42.—Ebs.

EARLY STAGES OF OLD WORLD LEPIDOPTERA—XII Te

than in its final instar. This genus belongs to the Noctuidae-

Quadrifinae, a group of subfamilies distinguished from the Trifinae

by hindwing neuration and usually larval abdominal feet; some of

the largest Quadrifine genera (e.g. Catocala, Anua, Clytie, and

Pandesma), though not transitional in neuration to the Trifinae, have

hitherto been regarded as so transitional in larval foot-structure. It

is now clear that Drasteria must be added to this group; I note,

however, from Forbes Pt. ITI (Memoir 329) that in some Acronyctinae

(that is, Trifinae) the young larvae are ‘semi-loopers’ so it is doubtful

Whether this observation of the early instar of Quadrifinae is of

taxonomic significance. It should also be noted that other Quadrifine

larvae. also described in this article, namely Thiacidas, Cerocala, and

Acantholipes do not follow Drasteria (and presumably Catocala etc.),

as the degree of development of their abdominal feet does not change

with larval growth; in the former, though its neuration is Quadrifine,

the larva, even in its early instars, is indistinguishable from the

Trifinae, having five pairs of equally developed abdominal feet; but

the other two have but three pairs.

iii. Raphia cheituna Brandt has proved to be a synonym of the

Indian species Thiacidas postica Walker, but, as it was not a true

Raphia, only the subgeneric name Tiessa Brandt and the specific name

cheituna need sink to Walker’s names. The larvae and cocoons shed

further light on the anomalous group of genera placed under

Pantheinae (=Mominae), and the chaetotaxy, neuration, and genitalia

are also illustrated.

iv. Rather different phenological rhythms have been observed in

Bahrain from those observed further north in the Palaearctic Desert

Zone; in some species (e.g. Drasteria yerburyi and Cerocala sana,

both of which are desert species), a summer diapause alternates with a

bivoltine, overlapping winter phenology; but in the oasis-dwelling

species Semiothisa syriacaria there is a multivoltine overlapping

summer phenology; yet despite great variation in the length of the

pupal period, the moths emerged strictly at a given hour in the

evening. The phenology of the oasis-dwelling Thiacidas also con-

trasts with these types.

Family NYMPHALIDAE }

Junonia orithya subsp. cheesmani Riley (Plate I, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4)

D. G. Sevastopulo, in ‘The Early Stages of Indian Lepidoptera’

Pt. VII (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42 (4), Dec. 1941, p. 748) gives

some references to earlier descriptions, and redescribes the larva and

780 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

pupa of the Indian subspecies ocyale Hubn. The Bahrain race lacks

the orange mark on the head and the orange collar there described.

J. C. S. Marsh, in HONG KONG BUTTERFLIES (Hong Kong, 1960), in a

very brief description of the typical race, also mentions an orange

neck. The foodplant in Hong Kong would appear to be violets, while

in India it is recorded as Acanthaceae. For many years I have been

unable to discover what this butterfly’s foodplant in the Middle East

is, and my final discovery of this in Bahrain probably will be valid

also for Iraq and Persia, where the race is subsp. here Lang.

The full-grown larva in Bahrain is velvety black dorsally, dark

grey ventrally, and it is, of course, equipped with typically Nymphalid

spines. The two dark areas, particularly the dorsal, are marked with

many fine white points, widely spaced, and arranged in lines, the

dorsal stripe is broad, suffused, yellowish white with a finer black

interrupted central line. There are white lateral circumflex-marks

on somites 5-9. All spines are black but the lateral and sublateral

ones have brown bases. A fine white sublateral line, almost un-

interrupted, runs along somites 4-10, but on somites 1-3 it is widely

interrupted. The head is glossy black. The feet are brown marked

with glossy black. Ventral line, smoky black.

The pupa is suspended by the tail; it is inconspicuously coloured.

blackish and pale whitish brown, without any metallic glint, resembling

rather a fragment of wood. The figure Sa in Horsfield & Moore, 1857,

Plate V, CATALOGUE OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECTS IN THE MUSEUM

OF THE HON. EAST-INDIA COMPANY, 1857-9, well depicts the pupa as in

Bahrain also, but Fig. 5 id. does not match the Bahrain larva. Pupal

period, in March, 12 days.

Foodplant: A creeping vervain Lippia nodiflora. (This family

of plants has not been mentioned for this butterfly before; perhaps

each race is monophagous on a different plant-genus or species.) It

is an obscure oasis plant but sometimes spreads on lawns and is then

regarded as a pest, as it kills off the grass. In Bahrain one sees

females settling on lawns not infrequently, doubtless attracted by the

plant and perhaps even ovipositing. However, the larva would hardly

survive on a mown lawn, and is best looked for in wet ditches in

date-palm gardens, where the foodplant also grows. Fig. 3 shows a

male on this foodplant on a lawn: the male exhibits the peculiar

character of the Bahrain and East Arabian subspecies, the complete

blue suffusion of the post-discal white band of other races.

One presumes that little migration from other parts of the Middle

East, where subsp. here Lang flies, to Bahrain and eastern Saudi Arabia

takes place; otherwise the subsp. cheesmani would not be distinctive,

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc, PLATE: |

A. Junonia orithya cheesmani Riley: Fig. 1, 2,4. Larva on foodplant Lippia; Fig. 3. Male

imago and foodplant. B. Sterrha mimetes Brandt: Fig. 5. Larvae on foodplant Taverniera.

C. Chlorissa discessa Walker : Fig. 6,9. Larvae on foodplant Clerodendron. D. Scopula adelpharia

Pung.: 7. Larva on foodplant Convolvulus. EE. Scopula ochroleucaria H.-S.: Fig. 8. Larva.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

PLATE II

Sn iene Me oe

A. Cerocala sana Stgr.: Fig.1, 4. Larva on foodplant Helianthemum. B. Euproctis cervina

Moore: Fig. 2, 6. Larva on foodplant Terminalia catappa. C. Nola harouni dilmuna Wilts. :

Fig. 3. Larva on foodplant Trifolium. D. Perigea illecta Walker: Fig. 5. Larva on foodplant

Pluchea. E. Mocis frugalis F.: Fig. 7. Larva. F. Acantholipes circumdata Walker: Fig. 8. Larva

on foodplant Taverniera. G. Drasteria yerburyi Butl.: Fig. 9. Larva on foodplant Taverniera.

EARLY STAGES OF OLD WORLD LEPIDOPTERA—XII 781

and would lack the blue suffusion and other characters. This is

strange, because the butterfly is generally migratory, and I have heard

of considerable migrations of here in Iraq.

Family NOLIDAE

Nola harouni dilmuna Wilts., 1951 (Plate II, Fig. 3) —

This subspecies was described in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38 (3),

and the species placed in Celama; however, my attention has now

been drawn to the fact that Celama is a synonym of Nola (of which

the typical species is cucullatella as pointed out by Franclemont in

Cornell Exp. Station Memoir 371, Forbes Pt. IV, 1960), both having

similarly bilobate male valves. According to that work, the genus

which I have hitherto called Roeselia becomes Meganola.

The early stages of N. harouni now observed in Bahrain confirm

its close relationship to N. centonalis (aerugula) as both have

papilionaceous foodplants, low herbs, but the somewhat different

pattern confirms the specific distinctness.

The ovum is pale grey, bun-shaped, with fine vertical sculpture;

they are laid in small adhesive masses of, ‘say, SiX ova. |

The freshly hatched larva is yellow-grey with long black sub-dorsal

hairs springing from warts; head, blackish brown.

When 11 days old, the larva is 5 mm. long, pale brown, with a

yellowish or pale olive-green dorsal line edged with darker brown,

wider at the anterior part of each somite. Each somite has a band

of six warts, three on either side of the dorsal line: the dorsal strive

thus lacks verrucae; from these warts spring short, black hairs; there

are also many longer pale hairs. Head, brown. I could find no

pattern of V-marks as described by English authors for aerugula.

One month after the ova were laid and 22-23 days after the larvae

hatched, they spun cocoons; about 2 weeks later the moths emerged.

making a total life cycle, in April-May, of 36-7 days. The cocoon is

boat-shaped, cryptic. and in captivity is woven out of paper fragments,

if paper is supplied.

Phenology: Miultivoltine, perhaps with a summer diapause; I

have only taken the moth from December to May, in Bahrain.

Foodplant: Prosopis stephaniana, and several trefoils. The moth

is mainly an oasis moth, but I have taken it in certain tracts of desert,

not far from gardens, and with comparatively good vegetation.

782 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Family LYMANTRIIDAE

Euproctis cervina Moore (Plate II, Figs. 2, 6)

See my article (1961) in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 (3) for

taxonomic notes on this species and its close relatives, and their

distribution. |

Ova, laid in piled-up masses consisting of about 100, covered with

pale yellow wool from the mother’s anal tuft, the second batch, laid

on the second night in a different place, less well covered; green,

globular. They hatch in 8 or 9 days in March, also in May.

The larvae are semi-gregarious, feeding in small groups, but readily

falling off if frightened; this must tend to reduce the size of. the

groups and to scatter the larvae. They do not change much in

appearance during growth, but naturally the markings are clearest

when full grown.

The full-grown larva is a black ‘woolly bear’ with a fine, white,

double dorsal stripe and two white dorsal spots just behind the head.

Sooty-brown hair tufts stand up in a manner recalling somewhat

Syntomis larvae. Head, small, glossy black; maxillary palps, white-

marked. On somites 9 and 10 are small crimson dorsal tubercles.

Abdominal feet, marked laterally with orange-brown and appearing

paler than the rest of the body which is pitch black; thoracic feet,

black. Spiracles, inconspicuous. Lateral stripe, pale grey. The

larvae of a single batch feed at unequal rates of growth; the quickest-

growing in May spun up 35 days after hatching, the slowest 59 days;

The pupal period, however, is less variable; in March it is 14 days;

in May it is 9 days. Pupa, glossy yellow-brown, with inconspicuous

short concolorous hairs on thorax and abdomen; the cremaster is a

cone, tipped with at least six short pale brown bristles. The pupa

is formed in an oval, semi-transparent but blackish cocoon.

Both the ova-masses and the cocoons are hidden low down. The

female moth seldom flies, is paler than the male, and has obscure

habits; in fact only the male is conspicuous, and that only in the

perfect stage. The male flies freely an hour before sunset and also

after dark when it will come to light.

The habitat is localized; certain restricted, well-watered grassy

gardens. |

Foodplants: Tropical almond (Terminalia catappa) which is planted

as a tree in these gardens, and also the undergrowth thorn Alhagi

(Camel-thorn). The tree is more widespread than the attendant moth,

and the moth’s smaller habitat may well be due to the fact that, in

most places in the island where the tree is planted, the garden is an

EARLY STAGES OF OLD WORLD LEPIDOPTERA—XII 783

adjunct to a house, a ilower garden rather than a date palm garden,

and has little or no undergrowth, so that if the young larva once falls

off the tree there is no alternative foodplant, and its chances of

finding the tree again are small; moreover this sort of garden is full

of ants, which are particularly active on Terminalia leaves, being

attracted by their glands. These ants are, however, also carnivorous

and are probably an enemy of this moth.

Mating takes place immediately after sunset. The moths remain

united for a couple of hours, after which the female starts laying.

The moth emerges from the cocoon late at night, between 10 p.m.

and 2 am. There are at least three broods between March and

October, and the caterpillar continues to feed throughout the winter;

the moth is thus multivoltine, without diapause but they do not

emerge during the cooler months.

Family NOCTUIDAE

Perigea illecta Walker (Plate II, Fig. 5) |

Warren-Seitz wrongly sunk to capensis Gn. a number of old world

Tropical species of Perigea (=Propsalta). The genus seems attached

to Pluchea and possibly other composite fleabanes. At least the

Egyptian and ‘the Persian Gulf species, distinct from one another,

both seem to have the same foodplant, which is also fed on by

Hadjina viscosa Freyer in both countries. The Egyptian species,

widespread in Africa, is P. pauperata Wkr. (=Propsalta coptica mea,

syn. nov.) of which the male genitalia, with simple harpe, were

illustrated in Bull. Soc. Fouad. Ent. (Cairo) 32, 1948, p. 254, Fig. 35

in my list of Egyptian lepidoptera and also by Viking Nystrom in his

‘Macrolepidoptera from the Cape Verde Islands’, Fig. 54, (Comm.

Biol. 17 : 7; Helsingors, 1958). Those of P. illecta Walker, the Indian

species, which I have recently studied in Bahrain, are distinguished

from those by the bifurcate harpe in the male genitalia.

The larva is bright green with yellowish somital joints, and five

equally developed pairs of abdominal feet. ‘The dorsal and sub-

dorsal lines are represented by a few faint white spots. The head is

marked with two black triangles, apex towards the mouth. At full

maturity a widely interrupted purple dorsal line appears, leading to

a white purple-rimmed spot on somite 11. The thoracic feet are

black and glossy, the abdominal, brownish. The spiracles, white,

black-rimmed. Before spinning up the larva turns entirely purple-

brown.

Foodplant: Pluchea (Conyza) dioscorides.

784. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

The pupa is glossy red-brown; the abdominal somites do not taper,

the tail being rounded and blunt; the cremaster consists of two straight

spines. The pupal period in March-April is twelve days. The

foodplant only seems to grow in Bahrain in certain well-watered

gardens and consequently the moth is rather scarce and local. It is

probably multivoltine.

Gardner’s description of Perigea capensis Gn. (Indian Forest

Records 6 : 269, 1941) disagrees completely with the larva described

above but may well be some congeneric species; his following des-

cription (id.) of a different species, which he failed to name, merely

referring to it as ‘Perigea sp.’ appears to be identical with my illecta

larva.

Spodoptera mauritia Boisd. (Plate III, Fig. 5)

The larva is numerous, often destructive, on lawns in Bahrain; it

is widespread in the Tropics. In Bahrain it occurs together with

S. cilium subsp. latebrosa Gn. which penetrates further north into the

Palaearctic zone. ‘The moth is common to light in oases, and

occasionally migrates across the desert.

The ova are pale olive-green and are laid in neat batches in 1 close

diamond formation, one batch containing about 100 ova. They

hatch after 5 days.

The freshly hatched larva is grey-green, with black head. The

setae and legs are glossy black.

The full-grown larva is very different; it is not unlike that of S. cilium

latebrosa, described in the preceding article in this series (1957);

the character which distinguishes it from that most readily is the

black marking on the sub-dorsal stripes; this is in the form of an

interrupted black edge, and the black streaks are in mauritia broader

and less circumflex-formed, being also rather irregular in form,

particularly on the upper edge; moreover, the two pairs of black marks

on somites 10 and 11 are roughly wedge-shaped, that on 10 tapering

tailwards, that on 11 the reverse; they thus form a kind of open box

mark. The thoracic somites lack black sub-dorsal markings. Thoracic

and anal plates, dull brown with whitish lines. Ground colour,

glossy pink, green ventrally and sublaterally. The pale sub-dorsal

stripes are rather broad but not outstanding. ‘The lateral stripe is

also broad and is freckled pinkish, but its upper edge is fine, clear

white, and interrupted. Spiracles pink, black-rimmed. Head, glossy

brown. Setae, black, very fine.

Pupa, red-brown, glossy; cremaster, a two- onde fork.

Pupal period, 10 days

JOURN. BomBAY NAT. HIst. SOC. PLATE JU)

Soe

OSS

A. Thiacidas postica Walker: Fig. 1. Larvae in third moult on foodplant Zizyphus

spina-christi; Fig. 2. Larva preserved skin, lateral view, and imago, male;

Fig. 3. Larvae, full grown, dorsal view; Fig. 4. Male imago, showing neuration.

B, Spodoptera mauritia Boisd.: Fig. 5. Larva and foodplant, lawn-grass.

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> JOYA VISOg¢ sppiavly ]

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EARLY STAGES OF OLD WORLD LEPIDOPTERA—XII 785

Foodplant: Grass.

When lawns are flooded (which is done twice a week, as a rule)

numbers of these larvae are disturbed, and fall a prey to sparrows

which gather in flocks.

Thiacidas postica Walker (= Raphia cheituna Brandt, syn. nov.) (Plate

III, Figs. 1-4 ; Plate IV, Figs. A & B.)

_. This larva was described by J. C. M. Gardner in Jndian Forest

Records 6 (8 & 9) (1941). It is not however a Lymantriid, as was

first pointed out by Dyar, 1897, Canad. Ent. 29 : 12; Dyar said it

seemed to be a Noctuid, perhaps of the Apatelinae. However, the

hindwing neuration, so clearly Quadrifid (see Fig. 4) makes it fall

rather into the Pantheinae (=Mominae) as defined by Forbes (Lepid-

optera of New York and the neighbouring States, Pt. II, p. 290).

Raphia Hubner is placed by him in this subfamily, and he gives details

of the larvae. It is clear from this and other facts that the genus

Raphia is attached to the tree-genus Populus and has an Holarctic

range; the larvae are smooth and green, quite unlike those of

Thiacidas and other Mominae. Brandt’s subgenus Tiessa created

especially for cheituna is a pure synonym of Thiacidas Walker, which

was monotypic. But Raphia is a good genus, of which Thiacidas

(=Tiessa) cannot be considered a subgenus.

_ The larva is gregarious for the first three instars, and the third

moult is performed gregariously; there are usually little groups of

caterpillars, about six per leaf at this stage, nearly always on the same

branch, doubtless all from a single egg-batch. The coloration does

not change markedly during the growth of the larva. The ground

colour is pale green, sometimes olive-yellow at full growth, but revert-

ing to green in the pre-pupal diapause. Sub-dorsal lines, wavy,

interrupted, yellowish green; they are heavily edged with black on

somites 9 and 10, but the black edging is not connected, taking the form

of two triangles, of which the base rests on the dorsal area, and the

equilateral apex, pointing downwards, is rounded off by a downward

wave of the sub-dorsal line; the triangular form is, however, only

approximate. Below this is a darker, blue-grey, wide lateral stripe

contrasting with the paler dorsal area. Long light brown hairs are

arranged in bands across the centre of each somite, thickest on the

back and scantiest on the sides. Long single black hairs issue laterally

from these bands. A pale brown dorsal tuft on somite 10 is cons-

picuous. All the hairs arise from large pale brown warts. The head

is glossy black with small white spots near the mouth and a large

white triangular central spot in front, apex uppermost. The black-

786 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

rimmed spiracles are placed just below a pale yellow sublateral stripe

edged with black below. The thoracic feet are brown; the abdominal

feet are, all five pairs, equally developed, and pale green.

After the third moult (see Plate III, Fig. 1) the larvae grow too big

to be more than one on a single leaf; but they usually remain near one

another on a single branch till full growth. They are thus easily found

by the patch of defoliation in one part of a tree, and by the droppings

underneath.

Foodplant: Christ-thorn, Zizyphus spina-christi (Arabic: Nebk,

Sadr).

I have only found larvae in October and November in Bahrain,

though the moth flies twice a year. When full grown, the larvae leave

the tree and scatter widely before pupating in some remote cranny.

The cocoon is strong but thin, and composed of silk into which are

woven larval hairs. Usually a long pre-pupal diapause ensues before

the larva finally pupates. During this time the larva is green, naked

except for a few short hairs near the head and tail, and with warts

very prominent, now greenish; the black lateral markings and black

head offer contrast.

One larva which spun up on November 13 produced a moth on

March 25 next; but all others, and I have bred several scores, con-

tinued the pre-pupal diapause through the following summer and

pupated in late September or early October, and the moths emerged

about three weeks later. Some moths fly in the wild state in March-

April, others in October, giving the appearance of a bivoltine

phenology; but it is curious that despite search I have never found

larvae in: April-May.

The pupa is light brown, very glossy, with a cremaster composed

of two spines, rather short and wide apart.

In Plate IV, I illustrate the larval chaetotaxy and male genitalia.

The latter show affinity to Panthauma Stgr. and Trissuloides Butl. as

illustrated by Kozhantsikov, FAUNA OF USSR 12. The former is not

unlike the chaetotaxy of Diphthera Ochs., id. All these three genera

were placed in the Mominae by that author, who includes, like Forbes,

Raphia Hubn. in the same subfamily despite the smooth larva; I

agree with Forbes rather than Kozhantsikov, however, in placing this

subfamily in the Noctuidae-Quadrifinae, not the Orgyidae (Lyman-

triidae).

Mocis frugalis F. (Plate II, Fig. 7)

J. C. M. Gardner (Indian Forest Records 6 : 285, 1941; and Trans.

R. Ent. Soc. Lond. 98, pt. 4, p. 66, 1947) has described the chaetotaxy

EARLY STAGES OF OLD WORLD LEPIDOPTERA—XII 787

of this larva, and some other characters from Indian material. The

pupa was not described there. |

The full-grown larva is pinkish yellow laterally, more greyish

dorsally. The dorsal line is partly double, fine light brown, white-

edged externally, the white edging in turn being dark-edged. The

lateral stripes are fainter than the dorsal, and are double, brown.

Spiracles, inconspicuous, black-rimmed, placed on a double brown

stripe. ‘The rather flat, rounded head is yellowish, shaded with dark

grey and edged below with a white stripe on either cheek, below which

five ocelli (Gardner says six) can be distinguished under magnifica-

tion. Setae, fine, black, placed eccentrically on a whitish oval.

Ventral stripe, fine, black, variable. Under magnification, the longi-

tudinal striation appears as faint orange-brown lines on a milky grey

ground. The spiracular stripe is creamy and contains one brown

strand; it is blackish or purplish-edged below. Abdominal feet,

purplish-marbled, three pairs only, equally developed; at their base,

mauve or blackish pencilling forms a sublateral stripe.

Foodplant: Grass. (The photograph shows the larva on a leaf of

Pluchea; it was in fact found on this, showing that it wanders, but

it never ate any of this shrub.) It is so coloured that it would be

inconspicuous amongst grass; in fact its markings are much the same

as those of many grass feeders, Satyridae and Hadenidae ‘Wainscots’.

The latter Wainscots when alarmed fall into the grass roots and roll

up into a circular spiral; Mocis however, being a semi-looper, falls

and rolls up but not into a circle but rather into a flattened elongated

ring, head to tail; at such a time the characteristic Mocis black marks,

absent in most Wainscot larvae, appear; these are narrow black

transverse bands across the back in the somital joints between somites

4, 5, and 6; these marks also sometimes appear when the larva is moving,

and tensely looped, but normally are hidden. Their visual effect would

be to disrupt the larva-shape and render it perhaps less recognizable.

The pupa is red-brown with a lilac bloom, purplish on the thorax,

but the abdominal segments lack bloom and are darker brown. The

spiracles are dark brown. The tail is blunt and rounded, the cremaster

consisting of several ridges and about eight fine looped setae. There

are, as in all Noctuidae, five entirely exposed abdominal somites

posterior to the wing-cases. Pupal period, under two weeks. The

moth is multivoltine and flies both by day and night, though in its

day-flight it keeps to shady places. It inhabits the moister, grassier

gardens of the Bahrain oasis, never the desert. It may be seen at

most times of the year. I have received slightly larger paler forms of

788 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

this moth fom south-west Arabia, and it is widespread in the Tropics

of the Old World.

- Before leaving the subject of this moth, I would like to add that

its genitalia have been illustrated very well, but under the wrong name,

by Nystrom in the same work referred to under P. illecta Walker

above; p. 33, Fig. 92 represents frugalis, not Anticarsia irrorata ahs as

stated there.

Cerocala sana Stgr. (Plate II, Fig. 1, 4)

This moth inhabits warm, rather sandy deserts in the Middle East.

Its early stages were quite unknown ue as also those of its

congeners.

The ovum is sub-oval, yellowish nacreous, sans poets ‘but with

a shallow depression on one side; though it adheres slightly it seems,

in captivity, to be laid at Tag On. The ovum hatches in two weeks

in November.

The young larva has three pairs of abdominal feet; the head is

black, the thoracic plate brown, glossy and small; before eating, the

body is yellowish grey with interrupted purplish crimson double sub-

dorsal lines, of which the outer strand is thickened in the middle of

each somite. When about 1 cm. long, the larva is pale grey with

purplish or olive-brown stripes; the dorsal line is fine, olive-brown

and slightly interrupted; the sub-dorsal stripe is double, purplish,

with its upper strand slightly interrupted, its lower strand thicker and

darker, broadening on each somital joint. Setae, black, very fine.

Abdominal feet, grey, yellowish distally; thoracic feet, pale, yellow-

tipped. Thoracic plate, pale grey, with two U-marks on either side

of a central line, open forwards. Head, light brown.

In the last two instars, when about one inch long, the larva retains

the above general pattern and colouring but acquires a dorsal lozenge-

pattern also; the lozenges are pale, with a wider, basal part towards

the posterior of each somite, and a dark, diffuse, oblique shade on

each side arising from the deep purple lateral spot forms the anterior

part of each lozenge. |

If one preserves the larval skin by blowing, the colour fades due

to the scanty pigmentation; the skin appears whitish with crimson-

brown markings. From such a skin the following. details were noted:

anal flap, rounded, sclerotised; pale brown; the two well-developed

pairs of feet on somites 8 and 9 have a giossy, chitinous, ivory-coloured

skin and uniordinal brown crochets; on somites 6 and 7, instead of

claspers there are simply pairs of long ventral setae not different

from those on somites 4 and 5; i.e. there is no swelling, wart, or

EARLY STAGES .OF OLD WORLD LEPIDOPTERA—XII 789

rudimentary abdominal feet on these segments. The thoracic plate is

pale brown with a darker fine brown posterior border; head, light

brown, with black ocelli; all setae are inconspicuous except the ventral

tactile ones.

Foodplants: Helianthemum kahiricum and H. lippii; these are

two characteristic dwarf desert shrubs, leafless for much of the year,

widespread on limestone desert in the south of Bahrain, and also

quite widespread in Middle East deserts. The larva feeds at night,

grows rather slowly. From ova laid in November larvae attain full

growth in mid-March.

The moth seems to appear on the wing in the southern deserts of

Bahrain regularly every year in November, whether rain has fallen

by then or not; in some years I have also taken it in these localities in

January, March, and April, but not all: perhaps a lack of rain inhibits

further flights. In slightly more northerly localities (e.g. Ahwaz, in

S. Iran, or the coast of the Lebanon, where it is confined to coastal

dunes) the moth appears from its flight, in March and October, to be

bivoltine, but my breeding experience now makes me doubt this.

Only when a number of larvae have been successfully brought through

the pupal stage in different months will the truth appear.

A curious feature of the larva’s behaviour is that, if alarmed, it

often drops and remains limp; sometimes, however, it will appear

limp and lifeless without falling, remaining attached by the hooks of

one clasper; or by the forelegs. Plate II, Fig. 1, illustrates this pose.

Drasteria yerburyi Butl. (=Syneda pica Brandt, syn. nov. = Syneda

albifasciata Gaede, syn. nov.) (Plate II, Fig. 9)

This is a desert moth ranging from Somaliland, whence Gaede

described it as new, to South Persia, whence Brandt did likewise. ‘The

type was taken at Aden, and it now proves to inhabit Bahrain.

Ovum, bun-shaped, unsculptured, pearly white. The period is

short, but was not noted exactly.

The young larva has three pairs of abdominal feet well developed,

but the pairs on somites 6 and 7 are represented by tiny papillae each

bearing two setae. This is so until the third instar. In the last instar,

the two anterior pairs of abdominal feet are still less developed than

those on somites 8, 9 and 12, but by then have developed to an inter-

mediate stage; the pair on somite 7 are equipped with crochets, while

the pair on somite 6 has no crochets, but still consists of papillae

with two apical setae, and also a few setae at its base. I have con-

firmed this by observations in two successive years, the first with

larvae bred ex ovo, the second with larvae bred to imagines, all being

examined microscopically (see Plate IV, C & D).

790 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

In colouring the larva is at first greenish, later pinkish grey; the

skin is ridged transversely; spiracles, oval. yellow-brown, black-

rimmed. Under magnification the pattern consists of white longi-.

tudinal lines pencilled with mauve-grey. Underside of head, marked

heavily with black; upperside of head, marked with white stripes con-

tinuing from the body’s sub-dorsal, lateral and sublateral stripes, and

clearer than those. The five ocelli are arranged in a sickle-like row;

the uppermost three are brown, the lower two and endmost of the

the row are black. In the last instar, when over 3 mm. long, the

larva’s linear markings are more distinct, consisting of a pale grey

dorsal stripe containing darker grey transverse bands towards the

posterior edge of the somites, divided by the dorsal line and adjacent

to paler sub-dorsal stripes resembling the dorsal but with more diffuse

central line; lateral stripes, more olive-grey than the dorsal; subspira-

cular stripe, pale grey, continuous on somites 1-7, thereafter interrupted

and wavier. Ventral surface, dappled olive-grey.

Foodplant: Taverniera spartea, a pink-flowered desert-broom

characterised by blue-green stems and small scanty oval leaves; the

larva is monophagous on this, and eats, not the flowers or leaves,

but the green rind of the stem. The photograph shows a part of the

stem thus eaten, behind the larva. It feeds at night, and hides in

the soil by day, at least when large.

Pupa, in a weak flimsy cocoon hardly worthy of the name, below

the surface of the soil; red-brown, the cremaster being a blunt

sclerotised tongue-like projection with two terminal spines. Pupal

period in February, March, 30-40 days. Pupae, formed later, died

but probably over-summer. The moth flies between October and April,

and larvae of different sizes may be found during the cooler season

while the moth still flies. There would thus appear to be two genera-

tions linked by a spread emergence of the first brood; the whole life

cycle is interrupted by a strong diapause during the very hot summer

months but it has not been observed in what stage this takes place.

Acantholipes circumdata Walker (Plate II, Fig. 8)

This moth is widespread in India and also inhabits South Persia;

in Bahrain it is rather rare, inhabiting deserts together with the

preceding moth, D. yerburyi, which is commoner here, but more

truly eremic.

The larva has only three pairs of abdominal feet, even when full

grown, and no traces of rudimentary feet on somites 6 and 7. It is

grey, slender, tapering, with a fine, paler, double dorsal line clearest

on the somital joints; the other markings are intricate but weakly

defined; the head is flattened, the hindmost feet or claspers are

—

EARLY STAGES OF OLD WORLD LEPIDOPTERA—XII 791

stretched backwards and complete the spindle-formed stream-lined

silhouette; the larva is thus only easy to see when moving.

Foodplant: Taverniera spartea, at night. It is smaller and less

common than the larva of the preceding species but, like it, eats only

the green rind of the plant stem. It may well feed on some other

papilionaceous shrub in India and elsewhere in its range, and in that

case probably does not confine itself to the rind; this diet charac-

terises lepidopterous larvae on Taverniera of which, doubtless, the

rind is the most nutritious and permanent available pabulum.

Pupa, very slender and tapering; the thorax and wing-cases are

dull green until the end of the pupal period, the abdomen yellow-

brown, terminating in a blunt short cylinder without hooks or true

cremaster. The pupa-case, after emergence, is light yellow-brown all

over. The pupal period is about two weeks.

I have only observed two vernal generations of this moth but

presume that its phenology resembles that of D. yerburyi, above.

Acrobyla kneuckeri Rebel

This is a widespread Saharan-Sindian moth, its largest and darkest

form having been described under the name ariefera Hamps.,

inhabiting the deserts around Karachi; it extends westward across

Arabia and North Africa.

The ovum is glossy yellow, bun-shaped, and very faintly sculp-

tured. It hatches after 9-10 days. The young larva has only three

pairs of abdominal feet, but has bristly setae representing the pairs

on somites 6 and 7; the whole larva appears bristly at this stage owing

to the prominent grey setae on every somite, springing from wide

black hoops or bands. Its general appearance is of a black and grey

banded, bristly semi-looper. It proved impossible to breed further,

tejecting all kinds of foodplant offered.

The moth is bivoltine, flying in March and November. It is very

local in Bahrain, doubtless because its foodplant is localized; as I

have only taken it at the Acacietum near Sakhir, it seems very likely

that Acacia arabica is its foodplant; however there are one or two

other herbs characteristic of this peculiar habitat, namely Litho-

spermum and Heliotropium tuberculosum; the larva refused all of

these, so its life-history is a mystery. It is mostly found elsewhere in

rather southerly deserts with Acacia stands.

Family GEOMETRIDAE

Chlorissa discessa Walker (Plate I, Figs. 6 & 9)

This Indian Emerald moth is found on both sides of the Persian

Gulf, e.g. at Bushire and Bahrain. Its larva and pupa are generally

dee JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

enntae to ice of C. faustinata Mill. in aspect but not foodplant;

the latter species has been observed on Acacia arabica in Egypt.

The ovum of discessa is green, glossy, flattened, oval and minutely

reticulated; it hatches after 5-6 days.

The young larva is pinkish white with pale bristles but after feed-

ing it becomes dirty yellow-green or yellow in colour, with a pink

dorsal line also sometimes visible. Slight transverse wrinkles are also

to be noted, the most marked of which are the whitish somital joints.

The head is rounded on top, and somite | has two pairs of small

rounded dorsal protuberances. The setae are white and at this stage,

under magnification, prove to be bifurcate, branching parallel to the

body surface, recalling minute palm-trees, in silhouette. There are

two pairs of abdominal feet; head and feet, whether thoracic or

abdominal, yellowish or dirty yellowish green.

After two weeks (of growth in the cool season) the larva is mauve-

grey, tinged with pale green at head and tail; the skin is roughened

with whitish warts, the larger of which are arranged in two sub-dorsal

rows, leaving a mauve-grey dorsal area irregularly dotted with smaller

white specks. At this stage, a few only of these warts have the tree-

like branching setae noted earlier. On the sides, similar warts are

arranged in interrupted oblique short lines, between which and the

sub-dorsal warts there is a lateral area similar in colour and markings

to the dorsal. The head is now strongly bicornuate, and the first

somite has as before two pairs of dorsal protuberances mimicking the

two head points; this character is found in all the larvae of the

subfamily (Hemitheinae) known to me. The head is pale dirty green,

with fine white specks; on each side near the mouth two ocelli stand

out, black; the thoracic and abdominal feet are still coloured as the

head; the anal flap has two particularly long setae but is otherwise

of normal form. The Spec: are “qneepepieueus: The length is —

now about 7 mm.

The rate of growth varies individually; some larvae when already

half-grown begin to show dorsal arrow-marks.

When full grown, the larva is dull olive-grey, rather pale, peppered

with white spots of various sizes, circular and wart-like; the setae are

black. A purple dorsal suffusion concentrated at the somital joints

in the best-marked forms resembles a series of dorsal arrows pointing

forwards. The foremost pair of abdominal feet is laterally purple

suffused, the final pair less so. The two hindmost pairs of thoracic

feet (those on somites 2 and 3) are now purplish, peppered with white

specks, while the foremost pair is lighter coloured; there is also a

purplish tinge on the head tips and the tips of the dorsal protuberances

ieee

—. »

EARLY STAGES OF OLD WORLD LEPIDOPT ERA—XII 793

on somite 1. Each somite is divided into seven or eight rings

demarcated by skin wrinkles less deep than the somital joints.

The frail cocoon is spun between leaves and in litter.

The pupa is light wood-brown, sometimes rosy-tinged, with a

clear black dorsal line, and infuscated wing-cases. Under magnifica-

tion the thorax appears pale orange-brown with fine black setae, a

dorsal line is black on the head and somite 1 only; the wing-case is

more greyish, less rosy with forewing neuration indicated in heavy

black. On top of the head, close to the dorsal line, are two little eye-

like knobs. The abdomen is more transparent grey, with whitish grey

freckling; on the abdomen the dorsal line is black, almost continuous,

and sublateral lines are considerably interrupted wider and vaguer

black; the spiracles are black-rimmed, but less conspicuous than the

lateral setae. The remarkable cremaster consists of a flattened

tongue-like process from which issue eight hooks with curly ends,

arranged laterally and symmetrically, in an elegant pattern recalling

wrought iron; these hooks however are brittle.

Foodplant: Chiefly the common hedge-shrub Clerodendrum inerme

sometimes called ‘false jasmine’. The larva will however also eat,

if offered, a little Caesalpinia and grass.

The moth’s habitat is strictly oasis in Bahrain, i.e. gardens not

desert. There may well be a summer diapause; in any case, in two

consecutive years I obtained ova from females flying in November

from- which moths were bred in January and February. As I have

also taken the moth on the wing in May there appear to be three

generations a year. There is another Emerald moth which flies in

Bahrain, namely Microloxia herbaria; it is smaller than Cr discessa

and inhabits certain parts of the desert.

Sterrha: faimnetes Brandt (Plate I, Fig. 5)

This eremic moth is found in deserts along both ides of ‘the

Persian Gulf. oy,

The ova are laid loose and are oval, blunt at either. end, with

fer teatasl ribbing sculptured, each rib being notched transversely.

coloured a dull matt pearl, later orange.

The freshly hatched larva, under magnification, appears purplish

black with two fine greenish white dorsal lines and a broad greenish

lateral stripe. The head is yellow-brown, and the thoracic plate has

three fine white dorsal lines. The setae are fine, sparse, frosted white.

When full grown, the larva is pinkish grey, roughened with

transverse ridges; the dorsal stripe is broad, dark brown, transversely

black between ridges in two places at each somital joint with a con-

794 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

tinuous fine whitish central line and a whitish sub-dorsal edging

consisting of white dots, each ridge being a white dot; this edging

follows a wavy course rendering the stripe now narrower, now broader.

Below this sub-dorsal line is placed a series of blackish dots or

streaks, widely separated. The setae are short, springing from fine

white points. The sublateral stripe is whitish, broad, diffuse, and

continuous, with an interrupted white lateral stripe above it; below it,

is a darker purplish grey sublateral area. The spiracles are incon-

spicuous. The head is pale buff, and the thoracic plate similar in

colour, but composed of two crenate transverse ridges, the posterior

being the lesser.

In March the ovum hatches after 12-14 days and the larva is full

grown a month later. The moth flies from September to November

and again from February to April in both desert and oasis but mainly

the former.

The foodplant has not been observed wild; this genus is often

polyphagous on low herbs; in captivity I could only persuade the

larvae to feed on desert herbs, which are rather hard to keep fresh;

they rejected the more succulent garden herbs. Among those they

ate with relish were the flowers of the Composita Launaea nudicaulis

and the flowers of Helianthemum lippii and kahiricum. As these are

available for a short season only I found that the easiest way to rear

them was to give them the pink-flowered desert broom Taverniera

spartea; of this they eat not the leaves or flowers but the green rind

of the stem, as can be seen in the illustration. This desert plant is

rather local and the moth also inhabits parts of the desert where it is

unknown, though perhaps commonest where it grows abundantly.

Sterrha granulosa Warr. & Roths.

This eremic moth was described from the Sudan and also inhabits

the eastern desert of Egypt; its characters were given by me in Bull.

Soc. Fouad. Ent. (Cairo) 33, pp. 404-5 (1949). In Bahrain, curiously,

where I also discovered it to fly, it inhabits oases and is very local.

The identity of Bahrain examples has been confirmed from the female

genitalia which are characteristic.

The ovum is irregularly oval in form, resembling a lemon some-

what, and whitish in colour. The ova hatch after two weeks. I

failed to rear the larvae.

The moth seems to be bivoltine, flying in May, and September-

October.

Scopula adelpharia Pung. (Plate I, Fig. 7)

This moth, previously known from Palestine and Egypt has been

found commonly in Bahrain flying together with Scopula ochroleucaria

EARLY STAGES OF OLD WORLD LEPIDOPTERA—XII 795

H.-S. which has more denticulate fasciae. Both moths are oasis

moths, inhabiting Bahrain gardens, not deserts. The larva of the

latter species has already been described and is shown in the same

plate (Fig. 8). It may be useful, however, if I redescribe it here,

after describing the larva of adelpharia.

The ovum of adelpharia is at first whitish, later reddish; it is

long-oval, sculptured with longitudinal ridges which are counter-

notched. It hatches after ten days in March, after only six days in

May.

The freshly hatched larva is purplish, and, like other Scopula

larvae, assumes a coil-like pose. When more mature they are long

and slender and rest extended. They are longer and thinner than

Sterrha larvae.

When half grown the larva is darker than that of ochroleucaria,

but later becomes paler; the whole dorsal area at this stage is purplish

black with only interrupted fine white sub-dorsal lines faintly showing;

the lateral stripe is broad, pale olive-green; the sublateral and ventral

areas are almost as dark as the dorsal area. Ten days later, when

mature, the larva is pale green-grey with a darker grey or purplish

sublateral area terminating between the pairs of abdominal feet.

Under magnification, fine transverse ridges may be seen, but leave

smooth areas of skin on the anterior part of each somite on the back,

sides and venter; this area is interrupted by a raised sublateral ridge.

identical with the sublateral stripe. The head is pale, powdery purple-

grey with two white sub-dorsal lines on each lobe; on the body, the

dorsal and sub-dorsal lines are paler and dark-edged for the whole

length of the body, the edging of the dorsal line being the darkest.

Some forms have black lateral spots just above the sublateral stripe

on somites 4-8; below this stripe, on some somites, are similar black

spots, but these are not placed immediately below the upper lateral

spots. Dark forms have the sublateral and whole ventral areas

purplish, the purple hue being most intense on the sublateral.

Foodplant: Convolvulus, Prosopis stephaniana.

The pupa is lightly chitined, yellow-brown, the eyes soon turning

black; the spiracles are fine and black. It is formed in an oval, rather

weakly built, cocoon among litter and leaves.

From ova laid on March 12, a first generation of moths hatched

between April 30 and May 11. From these a further generation of

moths was bred, hatching between mid-June and mid-July. The

moth is certainly multivoltine and might probably be obtained in

almost any month of the year, perhaps excluding August,

7196 JOURNAL, cle rah MENISCI HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 89 (3)

Scopula ochroleucaria H.-S. (Plate I, Fig. 8)

_ The ovum is at first pale green, then dull honey-coloured irregularly

spotted with rose, giving it a reddish aspect except under magnifica-

tion; the sculpture, consisting of longitudinal ribbing, is faint. The

ova hatch after eight days in the cool season (January-February).

The freshly hatched larva is purplish dorsally and ventraliy but

pale green laterally; it adopts a pose resembling a cursive capital L.

On the thoracic somites are visible pale green dorsal and sub-dorsal

lines, widening towards head; feet, pale green. Head, pale green,

purplish marked.

When half grown, the larva often still adopts the same coil-like

pose. Its pattern is now more variegated, and there are two distinct

colour forms, yellow and olive-green. The anal flap is rounded; the

skin, transversely wrinkled; there are very short pale hairs. In the

yellow form, the dorsal area is darker grey and bordered by an

interrupted yellow sub-dorsal line; it contains only traces of a fine

dorsal line after somites 1-3. The sides are yellowish grey, the feet

pale yellowish. In the second form the markings are more developed;

in addition to those mentioned for the yellow form there are also black

sub-dorsal marks, and the dorsal pattern is complicated, in places

resembling a chain of arrow marks pointing backwards. Head, olive-

green, with white spots and fine black specks: feet, pale green; sub-

lateral line, pale yellow or white, wavy, almost continuous. Ventral

surface, darker, containing a fine, pale ventral line.

~ Foodplants: Convolvulus, Nasturtium, Rose.

Cocoon and pupa, similar to the preceding.

The description by Turati, quoted by Prout in Seitz IV, Supple

ment, p. 37, should also be noted. |

Semiothisa syriacaria Stgr.

Having already described the larva, in the third article in this

series (Mitt. Muench. Ent. Ges. 29 : 1, 1939) I will confine myself here

to describing the pupa, and giving biological-phenological notes made

recently in Bahrain. The larva there is as described already, except

that brown forms were not observed at all.

The foodplant is, in Bahrain, as in Iraq and Iran, Prosopis

stephaniana; it is remarkable how the larvae will die of starvation

rather than eat the foliage of Prosopis spicigera, so widely planted in

Bahrain, or the various kinds of Acacia which somewhat resemble

the true foodplant and are not distant in relation, The foodplant is

deciduous and leafless in winter; while P. spicigera is evergreen

Despite this advantage, spicigera does not find favour with the

lepidoptera (there are several species) attached to stephaniana,

EARLY STAGES OF OLD WORLD LEPIDOPTERA—XII T97

The ovum hatches after only four days, even in the first genera-

tion in March, as well as in mid-summer, as already noted. The life-

cycle is, however, very variable due mainly to the varying length of

the pupal stage. I bred two generations in captivity and of these the

life-cycle of both varied somewhat similarly. From ova laid in March

and hatching after four days, four moths emerged after a life-cycle

of 30 days, one of 32 days, one of 59 days, one of 66 days, two of

67 days, and one of 76 days; the emergences were thus spread between

April 11 and May 27. The second generation, from ova laid on

April 12, emerged between mid-May and late July, one moth having

a life-cycle of 33 days, one of 36 days, one of 37 days, one of 45

days, two of 66 days, one of about 80 days (exact date not observed),

one of 91 days, one of 97 days, and one of 106 days. The actual

pupations took place within a week of each other. While the length

of the pupal period varied so strikingly. the hour of emergence was

invariably shortly before midnight, usually 10 p.m.

The pupa is heavily chitined, deep purple-brown; the cremaster

is a single strong forked spine.

The Bahrain race of this moth is strongly banded with black, even

the weakest-marked form being f. tenuiata Stgr. I have taken the

imago on the wing at Bahrain from March to August. Whether it

flies in the autumn is doubtful; it certainly does not fly in the coolest

month when its foodplant is leafless, though many other species of:

moths fly at this season. Presumably the cool weather acts on the

pupa and causes it to delay its emergence, in all cases, instead of, as

in summer, only in some individuals.

Family PYRALIDAE

Ceutolopha isidis Z.

The larva is green, browner dorsally, reddish at the somital joints;

there is a double white dorsal line and a broader white spiracular

stripe: the spiracles are white. On each side of somite 11 there is

a conspicuous white seta above the spiracle, and there is a similar pair

of setae on the anal flap.

The larva lives in a shelter formed of the leaves of its Food plant

which is Acacia nilotica (‘Sunt’). This observation was made in

Egypt in 1947, and the imago which hatched from the above larvae

was recently determined by Dr. H. G. Amsel. The larvae were taken

at Maadi near Cairo in September and the moth hatched the same

month. The phenology is probably multivoltine.

798 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Prochoristis crudalis Led.

It seems likely that the genus Prochoristis is attached to the plant

genus Capparis (Caper). At least I can state that the species P.

rupicapralis Led. can be best obtained by beating Caper bushes in

northern Iraq, and another species, crudalis Led., described below, has

been found feeding on the same foodplant in Cyprus.

The larva tapers slightly towards the head and more towards the

tail; it is green, pale brown dorsally, orange laterally, with a series

of black lateral spots or setae, especially large on the thoracic setae.

Top of head, black; rest of head, olive-brown. Dorsal line, double,

darker olive; on either side of it are two double, pale olive, sub-dorsal

lines; legs and ventral area, green.

Foodplant in Cyprus: Capparis spinosa.

Pupal period in spring 27 days.

Family TORTRICIDAE

Enarmonia coluteana Amsel, 1959 (Laspeyresia coluteana Ams., Bull. Soc.

Ent. Egypte 43 : 59)

The larva feeds internally in the pods of a leguminous shrub; it is

ivory-coloured without markings, and with a brown head; the feet are

‘pale, the spiracles inconspicuous. In another form, however, the

larva is green with vague purple sub-dorsal stripes and the head and

small anal plate are brown-marked. The tracheae are visible forming

dark bluish webs internally from the spiracles. In a third form, the

larva is purplish; this form was noted in a rather dried-up pod.

The pods inhabited by the larva were yellowish with small brown

holes and larger brown stains. ‘The habitat of this moth and its food-

plant were Middle Heights, the woodland zone, Kurdistan, northern

Iraq; the actual locality, Salah-ud-Din, 2500 ft.

I regret that although the types were labelled as having been bred

from pods of Colutea, there has probably been an error in determina-

tion of the foodplant, as Colutea has disc-like pods, while the pods

in which this larva was found were more like pea-pods; in fact they

were most probably Anagyris foetida.

Cnephasia orientana Alph. |

The larva is about half an inch long, fairly fat, dull green with

paler lines. The spiracles are black, the setae, fine, black and whitish

circled. 7 :

Foodplant: Verbascum; locality: Shiraz.

The moth is fairly common and widespread in Persia.

EARLY STAGES OF OLD WORLD LEPIDOPTERA—XII 799

The pupal period is short; a larva found full grown in early April

produced an imago in late April.

Family GELECHIIDAE

Anacampsis malella Amsel, 1959 (‘Irakische Kleinschmetterlinge.’ Bull.

Soc. Ent. Egypte 43 : 65)

The larva was found between leaves, spun together, of apple

(Pyrus malus). On May 2, they had already pupated in this position

and the two moths from which this species was described emerged

on May 5 and 6. The locality was an apple orchard on the west bank

of the Tigris at Baghdad.

Family GRACILLARIIDAE

Lithocolletis turanica Graeser

The larva mines the largest leaves of its foodplant close to the

central rib, causing a kind of blister-mine, over which the leaf half

curls up. In 1956 such leaves were collected in late February and

produced moths in early March, but in 1957, a more severe winter,

leaves picked on December 30 1956 produced a moth on March 20.

Foodplant: Apple (Pyrus malus). The locality is the same as

for the preceding species.

Eco-toxicology and Control of the

Indian Desert Gerbille, Meriones

hurrianae (Jerdon)

I. Feeding behaviour, energy requirements, and

selection of bait

ISHWAR PRAKASH AND C. G. KUMBKARNI

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur

(With two figures)

INTRODUCTION

The Indian Desert Gerbille, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon) (Ger-

billinae, Rodentia), is the dominant mammal species in the Rajasthan

desert (Prakash, 1961). Being a herbivore it is extremely destructive

to vegetation (Prakash, 1959a). This was known as early as 1890; the

Forest Administration Report of the former Jodhpur State of the

year 1890 mentions that during the winter months considerable damage

was caused to young seedlings and transplants in Jodhpur plantation

by ‘field rats’ (meaning thereby gerbilles): “They appeared in swarms

and devoured all the young vegetation’. Wagle (1927) declared this

gerbille as ‘harmless’ in rice fields but Prakash (1959, 1959a, 1960,

1962) pointed out its colossal damaging propensities. Recently

Ganguli & Kaul (1962) tried two poisons to eradicate this rodent.

Since unplanned poisoning is hazardous to farm animals, the minimum

lethal dose of the proposed poisons and their toxicity should be

studied before measures on a large scaie are tried in the field. Also,

the correct assessment of the most preferred food of Meriones and its

daily consumption must be made in order to select a suitable medium

for poison-baiting. With this viewpoint trials were conducted in the

laboratory. Besides this, the paper deals with feeding behaviour, the

effect of various feeds on body weight, particularly that of the seeds

of plants found in the natural habitat and of those which are of

afforestation importance, and the energy requirements.

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBILLE 801

OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

Feeding behaviour

Meriones hurrianae is essentially a diurnal species. In nature, it

comes out of its burrow for feeding just after dawn and retires after

a few hours before it is too warm. It again comes out at about

6 p.m. and retires at 7.30-7.45 p.m. In winter, however, it is out of

its burrow throughout the day but not during the mornings and even-

ings when it is quite cold. Due to human intervention in the

laboratory the gerbilles adjusted their feeding times to avoid the

working hours (Fig. 1). 62% of the total daily intake was consumed

from 6 a.m. to 10 a.m. and the rest between 5 p.m. and 7 p.m. This

was observed all the year round.

2 ; |

o FIG.1. SHOWING THE HOURLY °/ FOOD

fi CONSUMPTION

= &

230

(a)

2 20

fe)

uw ]

~ 10

0600 0700 0800 0900 loco loo 1200 1300 1400 1500 [600 I700 1800 [900

HOURS fener a

Total daily intake (TDI)

The gerbilles did not accept any food when they were freshly

brought under captivity, although the size of the cage was large, viz.

225X75X75 cm., and not more than six gerbilles were kept in one

cage. After 3-4 days the rodents started eating meagre amounts and

about 10 days after their capture their TDI became stationary.

Table 1 shows the average TDI of various grains and pulses as con-

sumed in 24 hours per gerbille. During this series of experiments

only one food item was tried at a time with a group of 6 to 12 gerbilles.

Water was provided for drinking during every trial. It is observed

that wheat flour is most preferred. Table 1 aiso shows the calorific

values of the various TDI. It is calculated that with food giving

12-15 calories of energy a day, one gerbille of 45-55 gm. weight

group can maintain its body weight. |

802 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

TABLE |

Average Total Daily Intake of Gerbilles and its Calorific Value*

Food TDI in gm. fe a Boca eee TDI

Wheat flour .. | 7.04 + 0.38 3 12.2 24.71

Sorghum, Sorghum vulgare .. | 6.5 + 0.28 10.5 11.9 22.11

Millet, Pennisetum typhoideum. |5.5 + 0.26 8.9 12.4 19.8

Moong (green gram), :

Phaseolus radiatus .. | 5.0 + 0.48 8.06 10.4 16.7

Whole wheat, Triticum

aestivum .. | 4.0 + 0.15 6.4 12.8 13.92

Bengal gram, Cicer arietinum .. | 4.0 + 0.56 6.4 9.8 14.0

Maize, Zea mays .. | 3.8 + 0.41 6.1 14.9 13.0

Moth, Phaseolus aconitifolius .. 3.6 + 0.67 5.8 _ —

Barley, Hordeum vulgare .. | 3.4 + 0.35 5.4 1235 13.3

Guar, Cyamopsis tetragonoloba | 1.98 + 0.30 3-2 — =

* After Aykroyd et. al. (1960)

Seed consumption

It was observed earlier that in nature the gerbilles consume seeds

up to 60% in January, and thereafter the percentage decreases to

10 in July; it then increases to 60 in December (Prakash, 1962).

Seeds of the following plant species could be identified from the

stomach contents of gerbilles which were collected and analysed all

the year round: Cenchrus spp., Boerhavia diffusa, Tephrosia purpurea,

Crotalaria burhia, Farsetia jacquemontii, Capparis decidua, Zizyphus

spp., Cynodon dactylon, Trianthema portulacastrum, Cucumis trigonus,

Colocynthis vulgaris, Prosopis juliflora, and Eragrostis ciliaris. It

was, therefore, considered that the seeds of plants found in the gerbille

habitat form their main food. This was confirmed by the Silviculture

Section of the Institute, more than 50% of the sown seeds being

destroyed by the gerbilles. Therefore, seeds of plants found around

gerbille burrows and those of afforestation and grassland importance

were given to them to study the seed consumption in 24 hours. Trials

were conducted with groups of animals after their adaptation to

captivity. In some groups water was provided, and in others the

gerbilles were maintained without water, but there was no appreciable

difference in the consumption. The data in Table 2 show the average

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBILLE 803

amount of seeds consumed during 24 hours per gerbille. When

compared to millet (Pennisetum typhoideum) and sorghum (Sorghum

sp.) controls, the TDI of seeds is significantly very low. Amongst the

grass seeds, those of Panicum antidotale were consumed in larger

quantities. Next higher consumption was of Dichanthium annulatum,

Lasiurus hirsutus, and Cenchrus setigerus seeds: Amongst other

plant seeds those of Zizyphus nummularia were consumed at the

average rate of 1.75 + 0.65 gm. during 24 hours per gerbille. Seeds

of Acacia spp. were least consumed. jeter

TABLE 2

Average Seed Consumption per Gerbille auine 24 hours

| Consumption in

Seeds of 24 hours in gm.

; | per gerbille

1. Panicum antidotale aa ; : se 3.25 + 0.79

2. Dicanthium annulatum .. = oe 2.5 + 0.76

3. Lasiurus hirsutus aS Re mA oe 0.48 ;

4. Cenchrus ciliaris ve ie Pale 0185 22025

5. Cenchrus setigerus a ak ie 2.1 + 0.41

6. Zizyphus nummularia .. re ue 1.75 + 0.65

7. Tecomella undulata & e gastcie. 1.50 40.33

8. Prosopis juliflora - Can) 2 Teta 0.96

9. Albizia lebbeck a és oe 1.20 + 0.40

10. Aerva tomentosa Be ee sus 0:66 + 0.17

11. Acacia senegal fs a5 as 0.40 + 0.05.

12. Acacia arabica Ay, we vs 0.37 + 0.16

Significance at 5% level Items 2-12 P < .001 with millet and sorghum control

Item 1 P< ‘01 with millet control

Item 1 P << .001 with sorghum control

Seed preference

There are many factors governing the seed consumption when

seeds of only one plant species are provided to gerbilles for preference

trials. The seeds may have spines, they may be very hard, or when

there is only one food for the starving gerbilles they may be forced

to feed upon that particular seed. As in the previous trials, the

amount of seed consumption may not be indicative of their true seed

804. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

preference. Seeds of various plants were, therefore, given to gerbilles

in combinations. The gerbille was placed in a smaller cage

(75X75X75 cm.) and the experimental food was given in equal

quantities in two. petri dishes of the same size. To minimize the factor

of availability during every trial the positions of the samples were

rotated. Combinations of two and three seeds were tried. The

preference was denoted by the amount of seeds consumed during

24 hours. The results are expressed in Tables 3 and 4, following the

method of Cott (1951) and Prakash (1957). The arrows point toward

the preferred species. By comparing data in Table 2, 3, and 4 it will

be observed that the preference and choice of gerbilles is quite

consistent. ,

TABLE 3

Showing Preference of Grass Seeds

Panicum antidotale eo ?$ i?

Dicanthium annulatum i T PURPA cee 1 aes

Lasiurus hirsutus ee mee et es pa

Cenchrus setigerus a V | | | | ba

Cenchrus ciliaris t | | |

TABLE 4

Showing Preference of other Plant Seeds

meme

Prosopis juliflora es a, | | t | | | t |

sili |

aniiimens 9. ole 1

Body weight in relation to feeding without water

Meriones practically do not get drinking water in nature. In

captivity they readily accept water and on an average a gerbille

consumes 2.78 =+70.18 ml. water during 24 hours when being fed on -

ait-dried* seeds. To ascertain the influence of water consumption on

body weight, wheat was provided to gerbilles with and without water.

‘The experiment lasted for about a month. The group of gerbilles

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBILLE 805

being fed without water lost weight considerably but the other group

maintained body weight (Fig. 2). These results from experiments in

captivity are particularly interesting since gerbilles-not only maintain

but add to their body weight when they do not get any water in

nature.. : ae ae

BODY WEIGHT IN

RELATION TO.

GRASS SEEDS f

OTHER PLANT SEEDS |

WHEAT WITHOUT WATER

WHEAT WITH WATER

DAYS FIG. 2

- BODY WEIGHT IN RELATION TO VARIOUS FEEDS

Body weight in relation to seed food

The graph (Fig. 2) indicates two curves, one showing the body

weight losses when a group of gerbilles was fed on grass seeds and

the second shows the body weight on other seeds. Till the 21st day

while feeding on grass seeds, the curve declines steeply whereafter

there is an increase in body weight, but when the gerbilles were fed

on other seeds the body weight fell so much in 12-14 days that the

gerbilles started dying and strong cannibalistic tendencies were induced

due to starvation. After this critical period the body weight was

maintained by the remaining gerbilles of the group.

806 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our grateful thanks are due to the Director, Dr. P. C. Raheja, for

providing facilities and making suggestions during the progress of the

work, and to Dr. P. K. Ghosh, Animal Physiologist, for suggestions

and help.

REFERENCES

Aykroyd, W.R., Patwardhan, V.N., &

Ranganathan, S. (1960): The nutritive

value of Indian food and the planning of

satisfactory diets. Health Bull. No. 23.

Govt. of India, New Delhi.

Cott, H. B. (1951): The palatability

of the eggs of birds: Illustrated by

experiments on the food preference of

the hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus).

Proc. Zool. Soc. London 121 : 1-41.

Ganguli, B.N., & Kaul, R.N. (1962):

Preliminary study on the behaviour and

control of Indian desert gerbille (Meriones

hurrianae). Indian For. 88 : 297-304.

Prakash, Ishwar (1957): A survey and

ecological studies of the mammals of the

desert of Rajasthan with special

reference to food and feeding habits of

certain insectivores and rodents. Docto-

ral Thesis. University of Rajasthan,

Jaipur.

Prakash, Ishwar (1959) : Food of Indian

desert mammals. Jour. Biol. Sci. 2:

100-109.

=== (1959a):: Destruction of

vegetation by desert animals in Rajas-

than. Indian For. 85 : 251-253.

_ ————— (1960): Food of certain

insectivores and rodents in captivity.

Univ. Raj. Studies, 4: 1-18.

————— (1961) : Die saugetiere der

Rajasthan Wuste in Indien. Natur und

Volk 91 : 443,

————— (1962): Ecology of the

gerbilles of the Rajasthan desert, India.

Mammalia 26 : 311-331.

Wagle, P.V. (1927): Injurious field

rats of lower Sind and their extermi-

nation. Dept. Agri. Bull. No. 138,

Bombay.

The Birds of Nepal | |

PART 8 |

BISWAMOY BISWAS

Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, ee

[ Continued hap Vol. 59 (2) : 429]

Subfamily MUSCICAPINAE

615. Terpsiphone paradisi leucogaster (Swainson). Himalayan Paradise

Flycatcher. ao

Dun : Hitaura : 1 juv. ¢ (June 11).

The Paradise Flycatcher is not an uncommon bird in certain. areas

of central Nepal, such as Kathmandu and its suburbs in the Nepal

Valley and in the dun. However, we did not find it common in the.

Hitaura region. It occurs in the gardens of Kathmandu town from

about the last week of March, and in other areas on bushes or trees in

the forests as well as about villages.

Rand & Fleming (1957) did not report it from Nepal.

My specimen is a male in chestnut plumage without streamers, and.

has the chin and throat dark grey, and the breast ashy grey.

616. Monarcha azurea styani (Hartlaub). Northern Indian Blacknaped

Flycatcher.

Dun: Hitaura: 9 63,1462, 4 22, 1 chick in down (May 12-29), }

The Blacknaped Flycatcher was not uncommonly found by us in the’

forests around Hitaura in central dun. It was seen in pairs along the

edges of forests as well as some distance inside. 2

Scully (1879), Ripley (1950b), and Rand & Fleming (1957) failed te

find itin Nepal. Ours, therefore, appears to be the only record of this

bird from Nepal since Hodgson’s days.

The specimen (May 21) referred to above as ‘1?’ is labelled a but |

has female coloration. _ |

Chick in down (May 29) ; Feathers are just growing on head. Neck and upper

back naked. Lower back, rump and wings brown. Tail feathers just growing.

Feather track.along the midline of chin and throat just appreciable, as also the

track along the edges of lower mandible to the angle of the jaw. Breast to vent.

silky white down, tipped smoky brownish on the breast.

808 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Measurements :

9 3d 1 5 7a 4 29

Wing: 70 (2), 71 (2), 72, 74 (3), 75 71 68, 71 (3)

Tail : 69, 70, 71, 71.5, 72 (2), 74, 74.5,.76 73 69, 72 (2), 72.5

Bill : 15-542) 16 Gy 16.5; 07 28k PPE 16 SSO) 6 ag

a Marked ¢ on the label, but has female coloration.

*617. Ficedula parva subrufa (Hartert & Steinbacher). Western

Redbreasted Flycatcher.

Proud (1955, p. 61) is responsible for the only record of the occur-

rence of the western race of the Redbreasted Flycatcher in Nepal. She

observed it only once, obviously a stray one, in Kathmandu on

April 10.

618. Ficedula parva albicilla (Pallas). Eastern Redbreasted Flycatcher.

BHABAR: Amilekhganj: 1 ¢& (March 6). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang :

19 (April 19). NepaAL VALLEY: Thankot: 1 9 (April 12).

~- The Redbreasted Flycatcher was found by us in small numbers in

central Nepal from the bhabar up to the Nepal Valley during March-

April. It was seen on bushes, hedges and lower branches of trees near

villages.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 174) reported it also from western, west-

central and eastern Nepal from c. 275-1370 m. in winter.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

1 - : 12 51 14

ZOOS: 66367; ty 2 49 (2) 14 (2)

619. Ficedula erushine strophiata (Hodgson). Orange-gorgetted Fly-

catcher. me

- Siphia strophiata Hodgson, 1837, India Rev. 1(12) : 651. (Nepal.)

‘Siphia strophiata euphonia Koelz, 1939, Proc. biol. Soc. Wash. 52: 67. (Kulu,

Kangra Dist., Punjab.)

Gann VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 ¢ (April 22). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot:

3. $d,.2 subad. od, 5 22, 4 subad. 29 (March 22-31, April 10, 11).

The Orange-gorgetted Flycatcher was not uncommonly found by us

in the Nepal Valley at bases of the surrounding hills during March and

April. It occurred on bushes and trees along the edges of forests.

Ripley (1950b, p. 404) states that it is ‘not found in the Valley

except in winter in late November’. However, Scully’s (1879, pp. 278-

279) specimens from the Nepal Valley were collected in March and

May ; Smythies (1950, p. 515) saw it only above c. 2440 m. on Phul-

chauki:and Sheopuri ranges where, according to him, a few pairs were

probably summer residents ; our specimens were taken in March and

April; and Rand & Fleming” s (1957, p. 175) in January and February.

In the northern regions of central Nepal, it was reported by Proud.

Kithi

_. THE. BIRDS OF _NEPAL......— .- -.. 809

(1952a, p. 364) from the Gandak-Kosi watershed at c. 3475 m. in

spring, by Polunin (1955, p. 892) from the Langtang Valley at c. 3050 m.

in summer, and by Lowndes (1955, p. 32) from Manangbhot at c. 2590

and 3655 m. in summer. Rand & Fleming (loc. cit.) found it in western

through eastern Nepal at c. 915-1830 m. in winter. Biswas (1960a)

reported it from the Dudh Kosi Valley, Khumbu, eastern Nepal, at c.

3655 m. in April, preparing to breed.

The specimens designated above as sibadult all have comewnnt

juvenile coloration and pointed tips of rectrices. The throat is not

bluish black, but light chestnut, sometimes mixed with light blue-grey

except ina male (March 23) where the throat is almost wholly dark

blue-grey with traces of rufous on the tips of a few worn feathers.

Measurements : ‘

| 43 2subad. jf 5.29 4 subad. 29°

Wing: I2aO.shd, 19 68, 74 70(2), 71, 73(2) 68, 69, 70, 71

Tails: ~~ i59,,61:5, 62, 552, 58 ~ 55(3), 57, 58 52, 53, 54(2)

Bill : 13.5, 14, 14.5,15 | 13.5, 14 14(3), 15,— 13, 13.5,14,—

The paratypic series of Koelz’s euphonia is too similar to the above-

mentioned topotypic series of strophiata to justify recognition (see also

Vaurie, 1954e, p. 5; Ripley, 1961, p. 424).

*620. Ficedula monileger monileger (Hodgson). White-gorgetted Fly-

catcher.

The only two post-Hodgsonian records of this flycatcher from Nepal

are Stevens’s (1924b, p. 63) fromthe Mai Valley (eastern Nepal) in April,

and Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 175) from Godavari (Nepal Valley), at

c. 1675 m. in January.

_ Although Sharpe (1879, p. 461) listed three specimens presented by

Hodgson to the British Museum, this species was curiously not included

in either-edition of the catalogue of Hodgson’s collection, and Baker

(1924, p. 244) did not even include Nepal within the range of the species.

621. Ficedula hyperythra hyperythra (Blyth). Rufousbreasted Blue

Flycatcher. 3 droits |

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 ¢, 2 99 (March 7, 8). MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali:

2 63,12 (April 29-May 1). CHITLANG VALLEY : _Chitlang : 3 od, 3 22 pen

19-25). NEPAL Valley : Thankot : 1 ¢ (April 11).

The Rufousbreasted Blue Flycatcher was found by us in small num-

bers in central Nepal during March-May. It was seen singly on bushes

and shrubs in the undergrowth of forests.

Scully (1879) did not record it from Nepal. Stevens (1924b, p. 61)

found it in the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal, below 2135 m. in April-May.

It was also reported by Ripley (1950b, p. 405) from western to eastern

Nepal, and Rand & Blomne (1957, p. i) from western to central

Nepal: ;

_ One of my specimens (3, April 24) i 1S very worn,

810 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

_ A female specimen (April 19) has traces of blue on the forehead.

-) Measurements :

Ceres 733 6 29

Wine ;- 394, 60.5, 61 (2), 61.5; 62 (2) -.-- 56.5, 58 (2), 58.5, 59, 60

Tail: 414, 42, 43, 44 (2), 45 (2) 39 (2), 39.5, 40 (2), 41

Bill: 12.5, 13 (4), 13.5,— 12.5 (2), 13 (3), —

622. Ficedula hodgsoni (Verreaux). Rustybreasted Blue Flycatcher.

CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 2 92 (April 21, 26). NEPAL VALLEY :

Thankot: 1 ¢, 1 unsexed (March 29, 31).

_ The Rustybreasted Blue Flycatcher was encountered by us only

on Chandragiri, both on the Chitlang and Thankot sides, where it

was found to occur in dense oak forests, in thick scrub as well as on

trees.

This species has been reported only recently from west of Sikkim,

namely in the Nepal Valley by Proud (1955, p. 61) who observed it

as fairly common there in winter and early spring.

The unsexed specimen is in feminine plumage.

Measurements :

; Wing ~ - Tail Bi!l

1? 74 58 Jha)

2eo: 66, 68 50, 54 1251225

1 unsexed : 71 55 13

623. Ficedula westermanni collini (Rothschild). Indian Little Pied

Flycatcher.

Dun: Bhimphedi: 3 ¢¢ (May 4). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang: 2 #9

(April.18). NepAL VALLEY : Thankot: 1 ¢ (April 1).

We did not find the Little Pied Flycatcher particularly common in

central Nepal, small parties or pairs being seen by us only a few times

on both the sides of the Chandragiri and the Mahabharat Range (above

Bhimphedi), between c. 1220 and 2135 m.

— Scully (1879) and Ripley (1950b) did not report it from Nepal.

Polunin (1955, p. 892) occasionally observed it in the Langtang Valley,

central Nepal, at c. 2745 m. in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 176)

reported it from western, central and eastern Nepal.

- One of my female specimens (Chitlang, April 18) has traces of blue

on the forecrown.

This flycatcher was breeding in April.

Measurements t

Wing Tail Bill

ASS: 57, 58, 59, 61 42, 43 (2), 45 12.5, 13 (2), 13.5

Neyo: 57, 60 40, 43 13, 14

624. Ficedula superciliaris aestigma (G. R. Gray). Little Blue-and-

White Flycatcher.

BHABAR: Amlekhganj: 1 3 (March 6). MARKHU VALLEY: Deorali: 2 ¢¢

(May 2, 3). CHITLANG. VALLEY: Chitlang, Chandragiri above Chitlang: 6 ¢,

THE BIRDS. OF NEPAL 811

1 (6) (April 14-27). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot, Crest of eee 35 3d, 3 29,

1 (2) (March 25-April 14).

The Blue-and-White Flycatcher was not uncommonly found by us in

central Nepal, usually above 1525 m. from March. It was observed in

pairs or small parties in fairly deep forests on bushes or low trees, some-

times even on tops of lofty trees.

An almost breeding bird (with fairly enlarged but not fully developed

gonads) was obtained as early as March 27.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown; bill black ; legs- dark to very dark

horny ; feet horny to very dark horny; claws black ; pads greyish white to pure

white.

Measurements :

Muelle tiie 4 2°

Wing: 60, 60.5, 61, 62(2), 62.5, 63(3), 64(4), 65,66 60(2), 61, 62

Tail : 40+, 43, 45(6), 46(4), 47.5, 48, — 42, 43, 44, 45

Bill : 14(2), 14.5(3), 15(6), 15.5, —(3) 13.5(2), 14, 15

The series from central Nepal is intermediate between the birds from

western Himalaya (Punjab-Kumaon) and eastern Himalaya (Bhutan)

and Assam. The major distinguishing characters of these populations

(in males) may be summarized as follows :

W. Himalaya C. Nepal (21 examined) era Assam

(46 ex.) 18 ex.)

White patch on base | Large and Large and prominent in| Absent

of outer rectrices prominent 8 specimens

Absent in 7 specimens

Intermediate (i.e. present

but not large or cons-

picuous) in 6 specimens

White supercilium Well defined | Well defined in 4 speci-| Very faint or

mens absent

Absent in 2 specimens

Intermediate in 15 speci-

mens

Coloration of the | Paler Generally darker Darker

upper parts |

It may further be added that Sikkim-Darjeeling birds are almost as

variable as those of central Nepal. |

_ The western Himalayan bird has the name superciliaris Jerdon, 1840;

and it has been customary to apply the name aestigma Gray, 1846, to

birds from Nepal eastward. Now, aestigma was described on the basis

of Nepal specimen(s) having a very inconspicuous or no white patch on

outer rectrices and supercilium, and the superciliaris-type of bird from

the same collection was described as hemileucura by Gray (loc. cit.). It

would appear, therefore, that aestigma refers, strictly speaking, to the

intermediate population. But since this name alone has been in-use for

812 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

the past 116 years for the eastern bird without whie on tail and super-

cilium, it should be retained for that bird, inappropriate-though it

appears to be. If, however, this is not acceptable, the eastern bird

should be known as cleta oe 1954 (type locality Mawphlang, Khasi

Hills, Assam).

Vaurie (1954e,’ pp. es 6) ane also disousked the variation in the Nepal

birds.

625. Ficedula tricolor tricolor (Hodgson). Western Slaty Blue Fly-

catcher.

Digenea tricolor Hodgson, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. : 26. (Nepal = central hills

of Nepal, according to Gray & Gray, 1846, p. 92.)

Cyornis tricolor notatus Whistler, 1930, Bull. Brit. orn. Cl. 50 : 70. (Guud,

Kashmir.)

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 ¢ (March 8). Dun: Bhimphedi: 1 ¢ (March 11).

NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot : 1 ¢, 4 92 (March 25—April 1). |

This flycatcher did not appear to be common in central Nepal. It

was observed by us singly or in pairs on bushes and trees in forests. -

Both Scully (1879) and Ripley (1950b) were unable to locate it in

Nepal. Polunin (1955, p. 892) observed it in the Langtang Valley,

central Nepal, at c. 3050 m. in summer. Proud (1955, p. 62) found it

also along the new road west of the Nepal Valley at c. 915 m. in winter.

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 176) reported it from western through central

Nepal.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

36d: 61(2), 62 55(2), 56 12.5, 13(2)

4 99: 54, 58, 59, 60 47.5, 50.5, 51(2) 12.5, 13, 13.5(2)

In his. studies on the geographical variation in Ficedula_ tricolor,

Vaurie (1953b, pp. 3-4) has restricted the type locality of nominate

tricolor to eastern Nepal, because ‘there is no certainty that the type came

from central Nepal. It may have come from eastern Nepal or even

Sikkim, for . . . Hodgson had left Nepal for Sikkim in 1843.’ In point

of fact, however, Hodgson left Nepal in 1843 but went to England and

lived there till 1845 when he returned to India to live in’ Darjeeling.

Moreover, the name tricolor was first published as a nomen nudum by

Hodgson in 1844 (in Gray’s Zool. Misc., p. 84) when he was in England.

Furthermore, before Hodgson left Nepal, he donated portions of his

collections to various museums of the world, including the Museum of

the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta and the British Museum, London,

both these institutions receiving their shares in 1842. In the Asiatic

Society’s collections (which are now with the Zoological Survey of

India), there is a specimen of tricolor, still bearing Hodgson’s label with

number 795. The British Museum received two specimens (Gray &

Gray, 1846, p. 92). It would appear, therefore, that Hodgson’s des-

_._ THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 813

cription of tricolor was based on those specimens which were collected

while he was stationed in Kathmandu, hence very likely from the Nepal

Valley. In any case, since Gray & Gray (loc. cit.) had already

restricted its locality to the central hills, Vaurie’s resiighion is super-

fluous.

As Vaurie (op. cit., p. 3) has already shown, the specimens of the

species from central Nepal are indistinguishable from those of Kashmir

and northern Punjab. Whistler’s notatus should, therefore, be considered

a synonym ofthe nominate tricolor. For the darker eastern race the

name minuta Hume, 1872 (type locality Sikkim) is available.

*626. Ficedula sapphira (Blyth). Sapphireheaded Flycatcher.

Since Hodgson’s days, the Sapphireheaded Flycatcher has been

reported from Nepal by Stevens (1924b, p. 62) in the Mai Valley,

eastern Nepal, at c. 2135 m. in April, and Ripley (1950b, p. 405) from

Chatra, Kosi Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 150 m. in February.

627. Niltava grandis grandis (Blyth). Large Niltava.

MARKHU VALLEY : Deorali: 3 é¢, 1 2 (May 1, 2). CHITLANG VALLEY:

Chitlang, Chandragiri above Chitlang : 3 ¢¢, 1 9 (April 16-27). NEPAL VALLEY :

Thankot: 1 4, 2 22 (March 22-31). :

The Large Niltava was occasionally observed by us in central Nepal

on hills round the Nepal Valley, on the southern slope of the Chandra-

giri, and on the Mahabharat Range. It occurred in dense forests, in

undergrowths and on shrubs or smaller trees.

Scully (1879) did not include it in his list.

The birds were breeding in April. A male taken April 18 had fully

developed testes, measuring R:7 x 4.5 and L: 8 x 4.5 mm.

Colours of soft parts : Iris very dark brown; bill, legs, feet and claws black ; pads

grey.

Measurements :

Ueic) 4:29

Wing: 104, 105, 106, 107(2), 109, 112 101, 102, 103, 104

Tail : 88, 90, 92, 93, 96, 97, 100 90(2), 91(2)

Bill : 20, 20.5, 21(2), 21.5(2),— 20, 20.5, 21(2)

The length of the tail given by Baker (1924, p. 257) is 65-70 which is

very much smaller than what it actually is. Forty-eight specimens

from Nepal east to Assam measure :

27 8b : 88-100 (av. 93.2) ; 21 QY : 85-95 (av. 88.9).

628. ; Niltava macgrigoriae macgrigoriae (Burton). Western Small Niltava.

Dun : Bhimphedi: 5 ¢¢, 1 2 (March 13, May 4-12). CarrLaNG VALLEY : Chit-

lang: 1 (March 15). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot : 4 gg, 7 92 (March 21-April 2,

14).

The Small Niltava is not uncommon in central Nepal above 1065 m.

814 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

during March-May. It occurs in dense forests and ay not far from

streams. .

Ripley (1950b, p. 406) and Rand & Fleming (1957, Dp. 177) reported

it-also from western and west-central Nepal.

One of my female specimens (Thankot, March 23) had developing

ova, yet it is in adult male plumage.

Measurements : a

10 gd 829

Wing : 62, 63(3), 64(3), 66(2), 67 63(3), 64(2), 64.5, 65(2)

Tail : 49, 50, 51, 52, 53(4), 54(2) 50(2), 51(4), 52.5, 55

Bill : 13, 13.5(5), 14(3),— _— 13(2), 13.5(5), 14

Rand & Fleming (op. cit., pp. 177-178) have shown that this species.

is best divided into two subspecies, namely nominate macgrigoriae

(Punjab to Nepal) and signata Horsfield, 1840 (Sikkim to Indo-China).

629. Niltava sundara sundara Hodgson. Indian Rufousbellied Niltava:

CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang, Chandragiri above Chitlang: 10 gg, 3 99

(April 16-25). NEPAL VALLEY : Thankot: 11 ¢¢, 599 (March 21—April 14).

The Rufousbellied Niltava is a common bird on hills round the

Nepal Valley. It prefers bushes in dense forests. | ,

Scully (1879) did not include it in his list. Ripley (1950b, p. 406)

and Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 178) found it also in western and west-

central Nepal. Biswas (1960a) observed it at c. 1800 m. in the Likhu

Valley, eastern Nepal, in February. |

It was breeding in April.

Measurements :

20 33 8 2°

Wing: 78+, 79, 80(2), 81(2) 81.5, 82(6), 83(5), 85, 86 76, 77, 79, 80 (3), 81, 81.5

Tail: 64+, 65(2), 67(5), 68, 69, 70(4), 71(4), 72, 73 62, 63, 65, 66(2), 67, 68 (2)

Bill : | 16.5(5), 17(9), 17.5(3), 18(2),— 16, 16.5, 17(5),—

630. Niltava poliogenys poliogenys (Brooks). Brooks’s Flycatcher.

BHABAR : Amlekhganj: 1 3, 3 29 (March 6, 7). DuN: Hitaura: 6 ¢é¢,12

(May 13-23).

This flycatcher was occasionally encountered by us in the central

bhabar and dun, where it occurred in the open parts of forests, some-

times on the saa of forests, on bushes and undergrowths, as well as on

trees.

Ripley (1950b, p. 406) obtained it for the first time west of aSHneti

Bengal in eastern Nepal at Chatra, Kosi Valley (c. 150 m.) in February.

Later, Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 178) reported extension of its western

limit to the west-central Nepal tarai.

Measurements :

Wing Tail fk Bill

1663 72, 74, 75(4), 76 60, 62(2), 63(2), 64, 65 15.5, 16(4), 16.5, 17

499: 71.5, 72(2), 74 56, 592); 620 #: 15, 15:5, 16(2)

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 815

631. Niltava unicolor unicolor (Blyth). Pale Blue Flycatcher.

Dun : Hitaura, Bhimphedi:6 63,5 92 (May 4-16).

The Pale Blue Flycatcher appeared rather uncommon in central

Nepal. It was noted by us in the Hitaura dun, presumably breeding,

and it occurred in dense forests on undergrowths, bushes and sometimes

on trees.

This species has not so far been known to occur in Nepal, its western-

most limit being Sikkim-Darjeeling. The present record from central

Nepal, therefore, extends its range westward by about 320 km.

A female (May 4) bird was laying.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

655: 80, 82, 83(2), 84.5, 85 70(2), 71, 73, 74, 76 17, 17+, 17.5, 18(3)

See 80, 82(2), 83, 84 69, 70(2), 71, 72 16.5, 17(2), 17.5,18

632. Niltava rubeculoides rubeculoides (Vigors). Bluethroated Flycatcher.

Dun: Hitaura, Kusumtar, Bhimphedi: 20 ¢¢, 2 juv. gg, 5 22, 3 juy. eo)

3 juv. unsexed (May 3-June 6). NepAL VALLEY : Thankot, Phulchauki Danda above

Godavari : 2 ¢¢ (April 5, May 15).

The Bluethroated Flycatcher did not appear to be at all common in

the Nepal Valley during March-May, but was very common in the

central dun during May-June. It was found by us in the forests on

bushes, smaller trees and undergrowths.

Rand & Fleming (1957) did not record this species from Nepal.

One of my male specimens (Hitaura, May 22) exhibits partial

gynandromorphism, having feminine coloration on the left side of the

head, neck, chin and throat. There are also a few olive-brown feathers

amongst normal blue feathers on the right side of the posterior crown

and nape.

The juvenile specimens agree with the description of ‘ young’ birds

given by Baker (1924, p. 232).

It was breeding in April-May. A male taken on May 15 had fully

developed testes, measuring 9 x 6 mm. each.

Colours of soft parts : Iris dark brown ; bil] black (pale yellow on gape in juve-

nile) ; legs and feet slaty horny (legs pale yellowish fleshy and feet fleshy in juvenile) ;

claws horny (fleshy horny in juvenile) ; pads yellowish white to white.

Measurements :

3 22 bd 5 29

Wing : 69(2), 70(3), 71(5), 71.5, 72, 72.5, 73(6), 68.5, 69(2), 70.5, 71

: 74, 74.5, 75

: Tail: 53(3), 54(5), 54.5, 55(3), 56(4), 56.5, 57, 52, 53.5, 54, 55,—

58(2), 59(2)

Bill: 14, 14.5(2), 15(11), 15.5(4), 16(2), 16.5,— 15(4),—

The tarsus measurements ‘ about 20’ for the male and ‘ about 19”

for the female as given by Baker (loc. cit.) are not correct. In birds

from all over its range, the tarsus measures : i

25 $5: 15.5-18.5 (av. 17.2) ; 15 99 : 15.5-18 (av. 17.1)

816 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. $9 (3)

*633. Niltava banyumas magnirostris (Blyth). Largebilled Blue Fly-

catcher.

- Although this flycatcher was not listed in either edition of Hodgson’s

collections, two specimens presented by Hodgson to the British Museum

were listed by Sharpe (1879, p. 454). The only other Nepali record is

Lowndes’s (1955, p. 33) from the Marsiyandi Valley, central Nepal, at

c. 2590 m. in summer.

*634, Niltava tickelliae tickelliae (Blyth). Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher.

Rand & Fleming’s (1957, p. 179) report from the western and west-

central lowlands of Nepal constitutes the only definite record of Tickell’s

Blue Flycatcher from that country. It was not listed in either edition

of catalogue of Hodgson’s collections, but Sharpe (1879, p. 449)

mentioned two Hodgson specimens from ‘ Behar ’.

#635. Muscicapella hodgsoni (Moore). Pygmy Blue Flycatcher.

Since Hodgson’s original specimens were obtained in Nepal, the

Pygmy Blue Flycatcher has been reported from that country by Stevens

(1924b, p. 63) in the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal, in March; Ripley

(1950b, p. 405), Proud (1955, p. 62) and Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 179-

180) in the Nepal Valley in winter and summer.

I agree with Ripley (1955a, pp. 86-87) in recognizing the genus Mus-

cicapella Bianchi to accommodate this flycatcher.

536. Muscicapa sibirica cacabata Penard. Nepal Sooty Flycatcher.

DuN: Bhimphedi: 1 ¢& (May_ 5). Markuu VALLEY: Deorali: 1 ¢, 2 29,

1 unsexed (April 29-May 1). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 1 ¢ (April 23). NEPAL

VALLEY : Thankot. Chandragiri above Thankot, Phulchauki Danda above Godavari:

6 3g, 429, 1 unsexed (March 30-April 12, May 12).

The Sooty Flycatcher was observed by us in central Nepal from the

last week of March, becoming commoner from early April. It occurred

singly on tops of trees from where it would hawk for insects in the

typical flycatcher fashion.

Scully (1879) did not report it from Nepal. Stevens (1924b, p. 60)

found it breeding in the Mai Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 2135 m. in

April-May. In the northern regions of central Nepal, it was reported

in summer by Polunin (1955, p. 891) from the Langtang Valley at c.

2745 m., and by Lowndes (1955, p. 32) from the Marsiyandi Valley at c.

2440 m.

In a male taken on March 31, the testes had just commenced enlarge-

ment, and measured R: 2.5 x 1.5, L: 3 x 1.25 mm. only, while a

female taken on May 12 had a granular 5 x 2.5 mm. ovary.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown; bill, legs, feet and claws black; pads

grey. i

_ THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 817

Measurements :

OE aoe 6 29 2 unsexed

Wing.*. 70; 71, 72(2);.73, 75;.75.5; 76(2) 70, 71, 73,735; 74,. 73 74, 76

Tail : 46(2), 46.5, 48(2), 49(3),— 47(2), 48, 49, 50, 52 49, 50

Bill : 12(7), 12.5(2) 11.5, 12(4), 12.5 12.5(2)

Baker (1924, p. 204) gave 50-55 and ‘about 13’ as the lengths of

its tail and tarsus respectively. Twenty-five specimens from all over its

range, however, measure as follows :

Tail Tarsus

15 gg: 45-51 (av. 47.7) 10.5-12.5 (av. 11.3)

10 92: 47-52 (av. 48.6) 10.5-12.5 (av. 11.3)

637. Muscicapa latirostris Raffles subsp.? Brown Flycatcher.

Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi: 2 ¢¢ (May 6, 16).

The Brown Flycatcher appeared rather uncommon in central Nepal.

The few that we observed were rather shy. Scully (1879, pp. 276-277),

however, found it common in the Nepal Valley, and social except

during the breeding season. Proud (1949, p. 705) and Ripley (1950b,

p. 404), on the other hand, came across but a few examples there.

Rand & Fleming (1957) did not list it.

Measurements : 2 6b : Wing 72, 73 ; tail 50, 52 ; bill 15.5 (2).

There have been some divergent opinions regarding the Indian form(s)

of Muscicapa latirostris. Thus, Baker (1924, pp. 249-250) identified all

Indian birds as poonensis Sykes (type locality Poona, Maharashtra).

Whistler & Kinnear (1932c, p. 85) were of the opinion that poonensis

was based on a seasonal variation in the plumage and they treated it as

a synonym of nominate Jatirostris (type locality Sumatra). Vaurie

(1954e,.p. 7) accepted Whistler & Kinnear’s view. Deignan (1957b,

pp. 340-342) held that there appeared to be two subspecies in India, one

breeding in the Himalayas, while the other was widely distributed over

the plains, and pointed out the difficulties of correctly assigning the two

available names, poonensis Sykes and terricolor Blyth (type locality

Nepal) to one or the other of them. Recently, Ripley (1961, p. 421)

treats /atirostris as a monotypic species with poonensis and terricolor as

synonyms.

It has not been possible for me to go into this question in detail,

mainly for want of suitable material, but from whatever material I

have examined, I am inclined to agree with Deignan that two subspecies

are involved in India.

638. Muscicapa ruficauda Swainson. Rufoustailed Flycatcher.

MarKHuU VALLEY: Deorali: 1 ¢ (May 2). NepaL VALLEY: Thankot: 1 ¢

(April 13). in” ms

We did not find the Rufoustailed Flycatcher at all common in central

Nepal. It was observed only on a few occasions on the Chandragiri

818 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

near Thankot and on the Mahabharat Range at Deorali, between c. 1830

and 2135 m. on bushes in forests.

Lowndes (1955, p. 33) was the first to report its occurrence in Nepal.

He took a single example out of two in Manangbhot, northern central

Nepal, at c. 3655 m. in July. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 180) also

obtained a single specimen on the Phulchauki Danda in the Nepal

~ Valley at c. 2440 m. in May.

The breeding range of this species has been known up to Garhwal in

the east, but the specimens collected by Lowndes, Rand & Fleming, and

by us, presumably all from the breeding grounds in central Nepal,

extend it by about 640 km. eastward.

Measurements: 2 63: Wing 73, 77; tail 57, 60 ; bill 15, 15.5.

*639. Muscicapa ferruginea (Hodgson). Ferruginous Flycatcher.

Since Hodgson’s days, the Ferruginous Fiycatcher has been recorded

only twice from Nepal ; by Stevens (1924b, p. 60) in the Mai Valley,

eastern Nepal, at c. 2135 m. in April-May, and by Proud (1955, p. 61)

on Sheopuri Lekh, Nepal Valley, c. 2440 m. in May.

640. Muscicapa thalassina thalassina Swainson. Verditer Flycatcher.

Dun: Bhimphedi : 1 ¢, 1 2, 1 juv. 2 (May 5-10). MarkKHu VALLEY: Deorali:

1 ¢ (April 28). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang, Chandragiri above Chitlang: 4 $6,

2 22 (March 15, April 20-22). NepAL VALLEY: Thankot, Chandragiri above

Thankot, Crest of Chandragiri, Godavari: 11 ¢é¢, 722 (March 21-April 23, May

13),

The Verditer Flycatcher is a very common bird of central Nepal

from above Bhimphedi up to the Nepal Valley during March-May. It

occurs singly or in pairs, in light or open parts of forests.

In the northern regions of central Nepal, it was reported by Proud

(1952a, p. 364) from the Gandak-Kosi watershed up to c. 2590 m. in

spring, by Polunin (1955, p. 892) from the Langtang Valley at c. 2745 m.

in summer, and Lowndes (1955, p. 32) from the Marsiyandi Valley at c.

1980 m. in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 180) found it in western,

west-central and central Nepal at c. 275-1525 m. in January and March.

It was breeding during late March-May.

The juvenile female specimen (May 10) has no spots on the dorsal

side except on the forecrown and the sides of the head. On the ventral

side it has elongated fulvous spots except on the abdomen where the

spots are larger, round and white.

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown ; bill, legs, feet and claws black; pads

grey. ; Pie Bi oek : ;

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 819

Measurements :

17 3d 10 92 1 unsexed

Wing: 80 (2), 82, 83 (4), 84 (3), 79, 79.5, 80 (4), 80.5, 81

85 (2), 86 (3), 87 (2) 182 2)283

Tail ; 65, 66, 68, 69 (3), 70 (6), 64, 64. 5 (2), 65, 66, 67, 72

71, 72, 73 (3) 68 (2), 69,—

Bill : 13.5, 14 (8), 14.5 (6), 15 (2) 13.5 (3), 14 (7) 14

641. Culcicapa ceylonensis pallidior Ticehurst. Himalayan Greyheaded

Flycatcher.

Dun : Bhimphedi: 2 ¢¢, 2 22 (March 11, 12, May 3, 6). MARKHU VALLEY :

Deorali: 1 ¢ (May 2). CHITLANG VALLEY : Chitlang: 4 ¢¢, 19, 1 unsexed (April

18-23). NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot, Chandragiri above Thankot, Godavari: 3 $3,

2 22, 3 unsexed (March 25-April 4, May 11, 13).

The Greyheaded Flycatcher is quite common in central Nepal from

Bhimphedi upwards to the Nepal Valley from about mid-March. We

found it in mixed feeding parties with other smaller birds, usually in

light forests, on undergrowths, smaller trees, etc.

Ripley (1950b, p. 406) recorded it also from the western and eastern

tarai in winter. Lowndes (1955, p. 33) found it in the Marsiyandi

Valley, central Nepal, at c. 1980 m. in summer. Rand & Fleming

(1957, pp. 180-181) reported it from western through central Nepal in

November, January and March. Biswas (1960a) found it breeding in

the Hongu Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 2745 m. in June.

The birds were breeding from late March till mid-May at least. One

of the female specimens (Chitlang, April 18) had its functional ovary on

the right side instead of the left (already reported by Biswas, 1960b).

Colours of soft parts: Iris dark brown; upper mandible horny to dark horny,

darker still on tip, or the whole of it very dark horny ; lower mandible fleshy with

or without horny on the sides of anterior portion ; legs and feet yellowish brown or

horny brown (once yellowish fleshy with pale horny on front of legs); claws pale

horny to horny (once with pale tips) ; pads yellowish white to pale orange.

Measurements:

10 é¢ ae? 6 unsexed?

Wing : 63, 64(2); 64.5, 65 (4), 66, 68 57, 59, 60 (2),66 59, 60, 62, 64, 65, 6

Tail : 54, 56(2), 56.5, 57 (2), 58 (4) 51k, 52(2)), 53:58 53.@G); 95357,-58

Bill: 12 (2), 12.5 (2), 13 (2), 13.5, 14,—(2) 12 (4), 13.5 P15 7 12.G);, 12:5, 13

The Greyheaded Flycatcher from West Pakistan and Kashmir to

Sikkim was separated as pallidior by Ticehurst (1927, type locality Simla)

from the nominate ceylonensis Swainson of the rest of India and Ceylon

(type locality). Whistler (1944, p. 154) accepted pallidior and showed

that ceylonensis should be regarded as an insular race. In his review of

the species Deignan (1947) admitted the insular status of ceylonensis, but

united all non-Ceylonese populations from India, Burma, China,

Indo-China, Siam, Malaya and western Sumatra under one subspecies,

; te Including additional Nepalese material present in the Zoological Survey of

ndia.

820 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

namely calochrysea Oberholser, 1923 (type locality Tenasserim, penin-

sular Burma), with pallidior asa synonym. Ripley (1950b, p. 406 ; 1961,

p- 434) and Rand & Fleming (1957, pp. 180-181) followed Deignan in

designating their birds from Nepal as calochrysea. From an exami-

nation of the material available at the British Museum and the

American Museum of Natural History (including the Koelz Collection),

I am unable to agree with Deignan in synonymizing pallidior with

calochrysea. The populations from western Himalaya and Tenasserim

appear to me sufficiently distinct to be treated as two separate sub-

species. Birds from Nepal and Sikkim, though showing some leaning

towards ceylonensis (see also Whistler, loc. cit.), are closer to western

Himalayan birds.

A thorough revision of the species with adequate and fresher

material seems necessary.

642. Rhipidura hypoxantha Blyth. Yellowbellied Fantail Ftycatcher.

Rhipidura hypoxantha Blyth, 1843, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng.12: 935. (Darjiling.)

Chelidorhynx hypoxantha noa Koelz, 1939, Proc. biol. Soc. Wash. 52: 58.

(Naggar, Kulu, Panjab.)

Dun: Bhimphedi: 1¢ (March 14). CHITLANG VALLEY: Chitlang : 1 9 (March 15).

NEPAL VALLEY: Thankot: 2 ¢¢, 1 (6), 3 22 (March 23-April 9).

The Yellowbellied Fantail Flycatcher was found by us in small

numbers during March-April in central Nepal from the upper dun to

the Nepal Valley. It occurred in forests on bushes and low trees, some-

times also on tall trees about cultivated areas in or near forests. Ripley

(1950b, p. 406) thought that it left the Valley before April, but we took

specimens there (about Thankot) up to April 9, and observed it on the

Chandragiri above Thankot at least up to April 20. Again, Smythies —

(1950, p. 515) found a few pairs as summer residents on Phulchauki and

Sheopuri above c. 2440 m.

Ripley (loc. cit.) reported it also from the western tarai. Polunin

(1955, p. 892) recorded it in the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, at c.

3655-3960 m.in summer. Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 181) found it in

west-central Nepal through eastern in winter. Biswas (1960a) noted it

in the Khimti Valley, eastern Nepal, at c. 1830 m. in February, and in

Khumbu at c. 3655-3960 m. in March-May.

Measurements :

Wing Tail . Bill

434: 55, 57(2), 58 56, 58 (2), 58.5 10.5,11 (2), 11.5

49°: 53, 54 (3) 54,56, 58 (2) 10.5 (2),11 (2)

643. Rhipidura albicollis albicollis (Vieillot). Whitethroated Fantail

Flycatcher.

BuHaBaR : Amlekhganj: 1 3, 12 (March 6, 7). Dun: Hitaura, Bhimphedi : 43d,

19, 1 juv. 2 (May 6-14, 29). Marxau Vattey : Deorali: 1 2 (May 1).

THE BIRDS OF NEPAL 821

We came across the Whitethroated Fantail Flycatcher in small

numbers in central Nepal from about 300 to 1675 m. during March-

May. It was observed in undergrowths of forests, and on bushes along

the forest edges.

Scully (1879) did not find it in Nepal. Ripley (1950b, p. 407) and

Rand & Fleming (1957, p. 182) recorded it also from western and

eastern Nepal. .

The juvenile specimen (2, May 6) matches well with the description

given by Baker (1924, p. 280).

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

ie 75, 78, 79, 81, 82 97, 99, 103 (2), 107 14, 15 (3), 16

SOO: (PAE ILS) 97 (2), 100 14, 15 (2)

Koelz (1939, p. 68) described the western Himalayan birds as

canescens (type locality Bhadwar, Kangra Dist., Punjab), but Whistler

(1942, p. 35) cast doubt on its validity. I am, however, inclined to agree

with Ripley (1955b, p. 41) in accepting Koelz’s canescens as a distinct

subspecies. According tu Ripley (1961, p. 436) canescens and albicollis

‘intergrade in western Nepal.

644. Rhipidura aureola aureola Lesson. Whitebrowed Fantail Flycat-

cher.

BuasBar : Amlekhganj: 12 (March 6). Dun: Hitaura: 1 ¢ (May 6).

The Whitebrowed Fantail Flycatcher appeared scarce in central

Nepal. We encountered it only on a few occasions in undergrowth as

well as on trees in thick forests near Amlekhganj and the Hitaura

dun.

Scully (1879) did not record it from Nepal. Ripley (1950b, p. 406)

found it only in the western tarai in winter. Rand & Fleming (1957, p.

181) reported it from the western and eastern tarai in winter.

My male specimen (May 6) is worn and looks browner.

Measurements :

Wing Tail Bill

1d: 82 91 16

12 78 86 15

(To be continued)

Odontotermes paralatigula, a new

Species of termite from Burma.

(Isoptera: Termitidae:

Macrotermitinae)

P. N. CHATTERJEE AND P. K. SEN-SARMA

Branch of Forest Entomology, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun

(With three text-figures)

Through the courtesy of the Central Silviculturist, Burma Forest

Department, a good collection of termites from Burma was received

in 1950. Two papers on this collection were published earlier by

Mathur & Sen-Sarma (1958), and Roonwal & Sen-Sarma (1960).

In this paper a new species of Odontotermes is described.

Frequency distribution of the measurements (in mm.) and indices

of each body part has been given in stick-diagrams on the basis of

measurements of 50 samples. ‘This method presents the numerical

data in the original form which can be utilised for subsequent

statistical analysis when more data accumulate. We consider this

an improvement over the current practice of presenting the numerical

data in tabular form, giving only the range and mean value of

each measurement.

Odontotermes paralatigula sp. nov.

MATERIAL

One vial containing numerous soldiers in spirit, collected from

a mound at Hlegu Range, Insein Forest Division, Burma, by the

Range Officer.

DESCRIPTION

1. Imaco: Not known so far.

2. SoLpIER: (Text-fig. 1-3, Table)

ODONTOTERMES PARALATIGULA SP. NOV. 823

General. WHead-capsule brown to chocolate brown; antennae paler

than head-capsule, distal segments slightly darker than proximal

segments; labrum almost as dark as head-capsule; mandibles paler

Lele:

“WUIG-0

0 Nee

h L_0'5mm._}

fie e0'Smm. 5 8

Odontotermes paralatigula sp. nov., soldier caste

Text-fig. 1. (a) Head, dorsal view. (6) Head, side view (left). (c) Head-

capsule, ventral view. (d) Antenna. (e) Labrum, dorsal view. (/-g) Left and

right mandibles, respectively. (4) Pronotum, dorsal view. (i) Pronotum, side

view (left). sibs

ant. antenna ; at. anterior; /r. labrum; /t. left; md. mandible ; pmt. post-

mentum; pf. posterior ; rt. right

All figures are drawn from paratype specimen from the holotype colony.

824 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

basally, darker distally; pronotum, legs and body pale yellow to light

brown; head and pronotum moderately hairy; legs and body densely

pilose. Approximate total body length (straight line distance) 5.5-

7.0 mm.

Head. WHead-capsule suboval, widest at the occiput whence sides

progressively narrow down anteriorly; in profile, arched, both dorsally

and ventrally; somewhat egg-shaped; posterior margin convex.

Fontanelle. Indistinct. Antennae. With 17 segments; segments 1

and 2 sparsely and others densely pilose; segment 1 largest and

cylindrical; 2 longer than 3; 3 and 4 subequal; 5 shortest; remaining

segments progressively increasing in length and becoming club-headed

Clypeus. Postclypeus distinguishable from frons by weak elevation:

rectangular, broader than long; with a pair of hairs anteriorly.

Anteclypeus narrow; rectangular, white, membraneous and _ apilose.

Labrum. Tongue-shaped; longer than broad; with long setae almost

arranged in 2 rows. Mandibles. Sabre-shaped, thin and rather

sharply hooked at the tip; more than half the length of head-capsule

(head mandibular index 0.53-0.62). Left mandible with a prominent

tooth situated a little posterior to outer third (tooth index 0.65-0.70);

basally with 1-2 small teeth anterior to molar projection. Right

mandible with two very minute teeth, one situated a little anterior to

the middle and another lying basally. the basal tooth slightly larger

than the anterior one. Postmentum. Large; in profile, greatly arched

ventrally; margined with dark chitin; widest at the middle whence

the sides gradually converge both anteriorly and posteriorly; anterior

margin transversely truncated; with two long hairs anteriorly.

Thorax: Pronotum. Saddle-shaped; hairy; much narrower than

head-capsule; length a little more than half the width (index 0.57-0.64):

in profile, the middle area only weakly concave, with deep depressions

laterally; both anterior and posterior margins incised. Mesonotum.

Narrower than pro- and meta-notum; posterior margin of both meso-

and meta-notum weakly emarginate medially. Legs. Long, slender.

and hairy; tibial spurs 3:2: 2; tarsi 4-segmented and ending in

weak claws. | |

Abdomen. Elongate and hairy: hairs on tergites shorter than

those of sternites. Cerci short and hairy; 2-segmented, basal segment

broad, distal segment narrow and chitinised.

3: WorKER: Unknown

42 8 ) postmentum - wipTH 18

MAX, HZAD WIDTH

TOOTH DISTANCE FROM Ti? (KIGHT)

BODY - LENGTH

29 HEAD - LENGTH 2 20 - 5 \4

| =

tal

(=)

[>]

i094 3

(=)

(ey

ot A

oso 6 fiSSti<iGsti‘i GS «SC ]SCPRONOTUM - LENGTH 20

105 110 115 1,20 1,25:

= tasrum.winty !6

MIN. HEAD-WIDTH

. 20

MGAD (MIN WIDTH/MAX, WIDTH)

% 43

ao 20

04 19

0 Be SeERES @

0,95 0,80 0,65 @.78 0.25 0.50 0.35 0.49 8.45

Odontotermes paralatigula sp. nov.

Text-fig. 2. Stick diagrams showing frequency distribution and measurements

(in mm.) and indices (shown along abscissae) of body parts of soldiers of

Odontotermes paralatigula sp. nov., based. on measurements of 50 specimens.

Ordinates represent number of individuals. Bold numerical figure at top right hand

corner of each diagram indicates serial number of body parts etc. in Table at p. 825.

pA tally (HEAD(LENGTH)

19 PRONOTUM - WIDTH 5) HEAD (HEIGHT/LENGT:IQ «=?

” 30 aL

6 .

045 060 «0.55 (0.60 oe ;

Ms HEAD - HEIGHT 5

15 7 HEAD (WIDTH/LENGTR) Bi

; .60 0.65 0,78

6. 0.25

0,70 0.75 0,89 0.85 £9

POSTMENTUM -. LENGTH

be}

ca)

(o}

6,73 0,80 6.85 0,90 0.85 1,0

MANDIBLE - LENGTH(RIGHT)

10 40

30 30

20 20

10 20

0 0

080 08 0.909 0,95 Le

@.20 0.25 0.30 0.35

TOOTH DISTANCE FROM TIP(LEFT)

MANDIBLE - LENGTH(LEFT)

Odontotermes paralatigula sp. nov.

Text-fig. 3. Stick diagrams showing frequency distribution of measurements

(in mm.) and indices (shown along abscissae) of body parts of soldiers of

Odontotermes paralatigula sp. nov., based on measurements of 50 specimens.

Ordinates represent number of individuals. Bold numerical figure at top right

hand corner of each diagram indicates serial number of body parts etc. in the

Table at p.825

ODONTOTERMES PARALATIGULA SP. NOV, 825

TABLE

Measurements (in mm.) and indices of various body parts of soldiers of

Odontotermes paralatigula sp. nov.

Geral No. of Mode with

NG Body parts speci- Range Mean frequency

; mens in bracket

1. | Total body length (head+

body 5.50-7.00 6.23 6.50 (11)

2. |Head eneie to lateral base

of mandible he 1.50-1.75 1.65 1.65 (19)

3. |Maximum width of head.. a 1.40-1.60 1.49 1.50 (25)

4. |Minimum width of head at

base of mandible ie > 0.85-1.00 0.95 0.95 (33)

5. | Height of head poset

tum) ft 0.75-0.90 0.83 0.80 (20)

6. |Head index I (width/_

length a 0.51-0.63 0.57 0.57 (12)

7.. |Head index II (height/—

length) an 0.45-0.56 0.50 0.50 (10)

8. |Head index III (height/-

width) Rs 0.75-1.00 0.69 0.84 (12)

9. |Length of left mandible

(from condyle) fe 0.85-1.00 0.95 0.95 (35)

10. | Left mandibular tooth dis-

tance from distal tip .. s 0.25-0.35 0.30 0.30 (37)

11. |Length of right mandible

(from condyle) .; 0.85-1.00 0.95 0.95 (35)

12. | Right mandibular tooth

distance from distal tip 33 0.32-0.40 0.38 0.40 (25)

13. |Head contraction index

(minimum width/maxi-

mum width) a eh 0.57-0.69 0.63 0.63 (23)

14. |Head mandibular index :

(mandible derail Dee

length) 3 0.53-0.62 0.58 0.57 (16)

15. | Length of labrum 2 0.35-0.50 0.44 0.45- (26)- -

16. |Maximum width of

labrum o- ” 0.30-0.45 0.35 0.35 (32)

17. | Length of postmentum .. - 0.80-1.00 0.89 0.85 (17)

18. | Maximum width of post-

mentum - ss 0.70-0.80 0.74 0.75 (25)

19. |Postmentum head index

(postmentum length/

head length) oh ; 0.48-0,59 0.54 0.53 (12)

20. | Length of pronotum i 0.65-0.75 0.70 0.70 (32)

21. |Maximum width of pro-

notum ey 1.10-1.25 1.19 1S (23)

22. |Pronotum index (length/

width) a 0.57:0.64 0.60 0.58 (16)

TYPE SPECIMENS

All specimens from a single source.

Holotype. Soldier, in spirit, in a vial deposited in the Entomo-

logical Collection of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

826 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Paratype. Soldiers from the holotype colony are distributed as

follows: (i) Forest Research Institute; Dehra Dun: 20 soldiers;

(ii) Prof. Alfred E. Emerson, University of Chicago, Chicago (U.S.A.):

5 soldiers; (i11) Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta: 5 soldiers; (iv)

Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi: 5 soldiers.

TYPE LOCALITY

Burma: Hlegu Range, Insein Forest Division.

COMPARISON

The soldiers of Odontotermes paralatigula are very close to

O. latigula Snyder from which, however, they differ on the following

characters: (i) Larger species; (ii) head-capsule more globular in

shape; (ili) right mandible with two minute teeth, one lying anterior

to middle and another basally placed; (iv) antennae with 17 segments,

segment 3 as long as 4th.

REFERENCES

Mathur, R. N. & Sen-Sarma, P. K. Roonwal, M. L. & Sen-Sarma, P. K.

(1958): Hitherto unknown imago caste of (1960). Contributions to the systema-

the species of Globitermes, Microceroter- tics of Oriental termites. Indian Counc.

mes, and Odontotermes from Indo- agric. Res., Ent. Mongr. No. 1, 14 plus

Malayan region (Isoptera: Termitidae). 404 pp. including 65 pls.

Indian For. Bull. (Ent.), Delhi, No. 219, -

pp. 1-9 plus 3 pls.

Critical Notes on the Orchidaceae of

Bombay State

xX. SOME OF THE SMALLER GENERA (CONTINUED)

H. SANTAPAU, S.J., F.N.I., AND Z. KAPADIA, Ph.D.

- (With two plates)

[Continued from Vol. 59 (2): 404]

2 19. LUISIA Gaud.

LuisiA Gaud. Freyc. Voy. Bot. 426, 1826; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen.

Pl. 3: 571, 1883 ; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6) : 210, 1889 ;

Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 6 : 22, 1890 ; King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard.

Calcutta 8 : 201, 1898; Duthie, ibid. 9 (2): 139, 1906; J. J. Smith, FI.

Buitenz. 6: 544, 1905; Schltr. Orchid. 549, 1927; Holttum, Rev. FI.

Malaya 1: 689, 1953. Birchea A. Rich. in Ann, Sc. Nat., Ser. 2,15:

66, 1841.

The generic name Luisia commemorates Don Luis de Torres, a Spanish

botanist.

The genus consists of about 25 species, native in India through SE,

Asia to Japan. The genus is best represented in Burma.

Type species: L. teretifolia Gaud.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF LUISIA OF BOMBAY

1. Leaf-apex acute, obtuse or slightly apiculate ;

| inflorescence 2-4-flowered ; flowers -+ 7

mm. long; petals equalling or slightly

longer than sepals us Ag

1. Leaf-apex obtuse, apiculate or caudate ; in-

florescence 1-flowered; flowers -+ 18-25

mm. long; petals 14 to 24 times as long

as sepals :

2. Leaf-apex with a jointed tail; flowers

about 18 mm. long; lip somewhat

- pandurate in outline sy ae tenuifolia

ai ne 7 var. evangelinae

teretifolia

828 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

2. Leaf-apex obtuse, often with a conical

apiculum on outer side; flowers

about 25 mm. long; lip oblong in

outline ae e 3 macrantha

1. Luisia teretifolia Gaud. Bot. Freyc. Voy. 427, t. 37, 1826; Hook.

f. 22 ; Grant, Orch. Burma 236, 1895; King & Pantl. 202, t. 271; Prain,

Beng. Pl. 1018, 1903 ; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2: 701, 1907 ; Gammie

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 18 : 588, 1908 ; Blatt. & McC. ibid. 35:

491, 1932 ; Brithl, Guide Orch. Sikk. 123, 1926 ; Fischer, Fl. Pres. Madr.

1948, 1928 ; Alston, Kandy FI. 75, f. 401, 1938. Cymbidium triste Roxb. .

Hort. Beng. 63, 1814, nom. nud.; Bot. Mag. t. 3648, 1838; Wight,

Icon. 3: 11, 1844-1845 (descr. tantum) ; (non Willd. 1805). C. tenui-

folium Wight, Icon. 5: t. 1689, 1851. Luisia truncata Blatt. & McC. in

Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 491, t. 9, 1932.

Erect epiphytes. Stems up to 40 cm. long, about 2-5 mm. thick,

brown or ash-grey. Leaves 2.5-12 cm. long, 3-5 mm. thick, uniformly

thick throughout, falcate, green mottled with purple, the apex rounded

or somewhat acute, purple, often the young leaves completely purple.

Inflorescence 2- to 4-flowered, extra-axillary ; peduncles stout, about 3-7

mm. long. Flowers 3-4 mm. across, drooping, fleshy, shortly pedicellate,

bracteate. Bracts 1.25x1 mm. persistent, subscabrid, 1-nerved, oblong

or quadrately-oblong, obtuse or subacute, minutely irregularly serrulate.

Sepals 3-5 x 2-3 mm. fleshy, pale green, tinged with reddish-brown more

so towards apex, acute, entire, glabrous, faintly 3-nerved ; dorsal sepal

ovate, the apex slightly incurved ; lateral ones subconcave, somewhat

keeled below, ovate, boat-shaped. Petals 3-5 x2 mm., narrowly oblong,

obtuse, entire, faintly 3-nerved, pale green, tinged or rarely spotted with

purple. Lip 3-5x2-3 mm., panduriform in outline ; hypochil quadrate,

subconcave, green, broadly margined with purple and with a broad purple

patch at the base ; epichile somewhat deflexed, rhomboid or obscurely

3-lobed, truncate or obtuse at the apex, pale green margined and faintly

streaked with purple. Column 2 mm. long, stout, oblong, deep purple.

Anther pale yellow with 2 central reddish lines and a truncate, reddish

anterior lip; pollinia 2, yellow, ovoid-orbicular, attached to a stout

caudicle with a broad-oblong gland. Stigmatic surface large, oblong-

orbicular, pale yellow. Ovary with pedicel 5 mm. long, curved, green,

pale brownish at base. Capsules 18-20x3-5 mm., narrowly spindle-

shaped, tapering towards the base, strongly ribbed.

Flowering : The general time of flowering is May. But « our speci-

mens, collected in December, flowered 3 in January, probably as a result of

constant watering.

Occurrence in Bombay State : Rae : Vettora, Sabnis. N.

KANARA:. Devicop, Sedgwick 5786; Usheli, Ritchie; Wadehukli,

- THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 829

Bell; Yellapur, Bell; Kapadia 1972; Gundh, Bole 1502; Kapadia

1731-1734; Castle Rock, Bell; Santapau 17825; Samphkand,

Hallberg & McCann 34195.

Distribution: India: Sikkim, Bengal, Khasia Hills, Andamans,

Konkan, N. Kanara, W. Ghats, Vizagapatam Hills. World: Ceylon,

India, Burma, Java, China.

Notes : This species shows a considerable amount of variation in

the size of the leaves, flowers and fruits. King & Pantling remark that

Blume’s figures show much larger flowers than those of the Indian plants.

We have observed that in specimens from Andhra (S. K. Wagh 2815,

2935 and Santapau 20764, 20857), the flowers are considerably larger ;

the capsules are up to 305 mm.

Blatter & McCann have described their L. truncata from illustrations

of Miss E. Bell and manuscript notes of Mr. T. R. Bell ; they do not cite

any specimens examined by them. After a careful examination of their

description and plenty of fresh material from the N. Kanara area, we have

come to the conclusion that L. truncata Blatt. & McC. is identical with

L. teretifolia Gaud.

Blume referred Epidendrum triste Forst. to Luisia teretifolia Gaud.

O. Kuntze followed him, and made the combination L. tristis. Hooker

f. keeps Epidendrum triste Forst. apart from L. teretifolia Gaud., stating

that the petals and lip are different ; he makes Epidendrum triste Forst.

the basionym for his L. tristis.

2. Luisia tenuifolia Bl. var. evangelinae (Blatt. & McC.) Sant. &

Kapadia, stat. nov. L. evangelinae Blatt. & McC. in Journ. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 493, t. 11, 1932. JL. tenuifolia Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind.

6: 24, 1890 (partim) ; Cooke 702 ; Gammie 589 ; Blatt. & McC. 492.

(?). |

Slender epiphytes. Stems brownish-green ; internodes about 15 mm.

long, 3-5 mm. thick, longitudinally striated. Leaves up to 250.2 cm.,

terete, dark green, usually straight, caudate at apex ; the cauda 0.2-3 cm.

long, + jointed to the leaf and at an angle to it. Peduncles very short,

stout, sheathed, dark-brown. Flowers opening one at a time, fleshy,

pedicellate, bracteate. Bracts minute, brown, somewhat woody.

Pedicel with ovary 12-14 mm. long, twisted, greenish and straight, but

curved at apex. Sepals subequal, narrowly ovate-oblong, acute, mucro-

nate on the back a little behind the apex, entire, glabrous ; dorsal sepal

8-10 x 3-4 mm., slightly keeled on the back, the sides somewhat conni-

vent, giving it a linear-oblong appearance ; lateral ones 8-12 x 3-5 mm.

boat-shaped, very much keeled on the back. Petals 15-20x2-3 mm.,

narrowly linear-oblong, somewhat falcate, obtuse, entire, faintly 1 nerved,

glabrous, green in the upper half, purplish below. Lip 10-13 mm. long,

somewhat pandurate or obovate-oblong, more or less square at the base

830 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

with 2 small rounded lobes, much constricted towards the apex, ending in

2 divergent, upturned, oblong-orbicular lobes; hypochil smooth,

separated from the epichile by its purple markings and by the origin of the

3-callate disc of the latter ; central callus thick, triangular in transverse

section, highest in the middle, ending in a mucronulate apex in between

the apical lobes of the epichile, the lateral calli of uniform height, slightly

diverging from the origin, shorter than the middle one. The general

colour of the lip is white, often tinged with green, the hypochil has a central

quadrate-oblong, deep purple spot which continues into the basal lobes

partly or completely ; the central larger callus of the epichile often has a

V-shaped purple marking, the hollow side facing inwards, which may be

reduced to a spot. Column 5x3 mm. semiterete, broader on top ; the

large oblong-orbicular stigmatic surface dark purple. Anther 3.5x

2.5 mm., nearly white, quadrately-oblong, the lip truncate ; pollinia about

1.5 mm. in diam., somewhat diverging on a large caudicle and slightly

infolded gland. Capsules 30.5 cm. purplish, fusiform ; pedicles 1 cm.

long.

Flowering: March to April. Fruiting: April onwards.

Occurrence in Bombay State: DECCAN: Koina Valley,

Kapadia 2912-2915. N.KANARA: Bell 5397; Astoli, Bell; Chand-

wadi, Bell; Castle Rock, Bhide ; Kapadia 2777-2780, 2803-2812 ;

Anmod, Kapadia 1888-1891.

Distribution : Deccan, N. Kanara.

Notes: Blatter & McCann have described their species from

T. R. Bell’s manuscript notes and a painting by Miss Evangeline Bell,

no specimens having been examined by them. According to Art. 7

(Note 3), a neotype for the taxon must be selected ; in the absence of the

original plate, which was never published, we choose Kapadia 1891 as

the neotype for this variety.

Blatter & McCann differentiate their 2 species, L. pseudotenuifolia

and L. evangelinae, from L. tenuifolia Blume ; but no reference is made to

the similarities between the 2 species themselves, which in reality are

considerable. After a very careful comparison of the original descrip-

tions of L. pseudotenuifolia Blatt. & McC. and L. evangelinae Blatt. &

McC., we have come to the conclusion that they are identical. The only

apparent differences between the 2 species, from the original dercpogte

may be put down thus:

L. pseudotenuifolia L. evangelinae

Leaves forming a knee 2 or 3 cm. Leaves long-tailed at the apex;

from the apex and becoming tail about 2 cm. long and more

much thinner and ending in a or less jointed to the rest of the

very sharp point. leaf, and projecting in a different

plane.

Dorsal] sepal linear rounded, Dorsal sepal obtuse.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 831

From this comparison it appears that the characteristic shape of the

leaf-apex is identical in both the species, although the descriptions have

been worded differently. The linear shape of the dorsal sepal can be

accounted for by the fact that it is deeply concave with its margins more

or less erect, giving it apparently a linear-oblong appearance ; but actually

when it is properly spread out the sepal is found to be clearly ovate-

oblong, and not linear.

We have selected evangelinae as the epithet for the taxon in preference

to pseudotenuifolia because the former taxon is figured and is more fully

described than the latter.

The only difference between L. evangelinae Blatt. & McC. and L.

tenuifolia Bl. lies in the caudate and more or less jointed leaf-apex in the

former species ; the flowers being identical. In the literature available

to us, there is no mention of a caudate and jointed leaf-apex in L. tenui-

folia Bl. In fact Cooke mentions the leaf-apex to be obtuse. Wight

(under Cymbidium triste in Ic. t. 911, 1844-1845) and A. Richard (under

Birchea teretifolia in Ann. Sc. nat., ser. 2, 15 : 66, t. 10, 1841) illustrate the

leaf-apex as obtuse or subacute. Santapau’s photograph of Law &

Stocks’s sheet of L. tenuifolia Bl. from the Konkan (preserved in Kew

Herbarium), shows the leaf-apices to be distinctly caudate as in L.

evangelinae Blatt. & McC. ; the photograph of Bourne 5979 from the

Nilgiris shows the leaf-apices acute or obtuse, not tailed. It appears,

then, that 2 distinct types of leaf-apices are met with in L. tenuifolia BI.

However, we have no means of checking them, since we have had no

access to either the type specimen or the original description of the species.

For these reasons we have reduced L. evangelinae Blatt. & McC. toa

variety of L. tenuifolia BI.

It is doubtful whether the true L. tenuifolia Bl. with the rounded or

acute leaf-apex occurs in Bombay State. Law & Stocks’s specimen from

Konkan has a caudate leaf-apex. Neither Blatter & McCann nor their

assistants have collected it. Under L. tenuifolia Bl. they cite ‘ Locality :

Add : W. Ghats : Castle Rock (Bhide !)’. We have examined the speci-

mens of Bhide in the Herbarium of the Bot. Surv. of India (West. Circ.),

Poona; these have caudate and jointed leaf-apices, characteristic of the

variety. We have collected only the variety, from several places

in Bombay State. Cooke seems to be the only person to mention the

obtuse leaf-apex for our Bombay specimens.

3. Luisia macrantha Blatt. & McC. in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist.

soc, 59°:.492, t. 10) 1932:

Stout epiphytes. Stems up to 50 cm. in length ; internodes 2.5-3.5

cm. long, about 5 mm. thick, scabrid, dark greenish-brown. Leaves

10-20 x 0.3-0.5 cm. ascending, straight or flexuose, dusty green, terete,

the apex bluntly rounded, often with a short conical apiculum on the outer

832 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

side. Inflorescence short, extra-axillary, arising from a short woody

cylindrical axis, which is covered by small membranous, closely appressed,

brownish-grey sheaths. Buds deep purple, oblong in outline, strongly 2-

angled, convex on the dorsal side, subconcave on the ventral, the apex

truncate-emarginate. Flowers facing downwards, bracteate, shortly

pedicellate, variable in size, the basic apple-green colour of the freshly

opened flower changing to deep brown-yellow with age. Sepals 17-22 x

10-13 mm. subequal, apple-green or yellow, blotched and speckled with

dark maroon, more so towards the base, glabrous, entire ; dorsal sepal

subconcave, obovate-elliptic ; lateral ones boat-shaped, oblong-elliptic,

subemarginate-mucronate, the mid-nerve strongly keeled below. Petals

25-35 X2-3 mm. apple-green or yellow, blotched with dark maroon

patches at the base, spreading, strap-shaped, subclavate, obtuse. Lip

22-28 x 7-9 mm., oblong, broadest a little before the middle ; hypochil

somewhat square, 4-6 mm. broad at the base with 2 small rounded, ear-

like lobes at the corners ; epichile oblong, slightly raised upwards ending

in 2 processes which are rhomboid-orbicular, obtuse, 6x5 mm. Calli

on the epichile 3, the middle one triangular, 2-3 mm. high, ending in a

small, blunt, yellow mucro, in between the apical processes ; lateral ones

much smaller, rounded. The basic colour of the lip is apple-green or

yellow ; lower surface with a broad, purple patch ; hypochil deep purple

except for the margin ; epichile apple-green or yellow, the calli deeper.

Column 4-5 x 2-3 mm., white, oblong, subclavate above. Anther white

suffused with purple, somewhat square, the anterior lip truncate ; pollinia

1 <0.75 mm. ovoid, foveolate on the back, the caudicle 2x 2 mm. oblong,

broadly tapering to the narrow, transversely-oblong, gland. Stigmatic

surface white. Ovary with short pedicel 19-22 2-3 mm., narrowly ob-

long, brownish-yellow. Capsules 70.5 mm., narrowly spindle-shaped,

tapering at the base, strongly ribbed ; pedicels about 0.8 cm. long, twisted.

Flowering : This species seems to flower practically throughout the

year. We have collected the flowers in November, December, March

and also in June.

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Yellapur, Bell;

Pirson ; Kapadia 1764-1766, 1989-1990, 2353; An mod, Sedgwick ;

Kapadia 1865-1867, 1880-1882, 1905; Siddhapur, Kapadia 2351;

Dandeli, Kapadia 1678; Devimane, Mallberg & McCann

34567.

Distribution : This species seems to be wide-spread in N. Kanara,

apparently endemic. It may also be found further south.

Notes : The type of this species is Bel] 5397.

20. VANDA R. Br.

VANDA R. Br. in Bot. Reg. t. 506, 1820; Endl. Gen. Pl. 204, 1837;

Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3 : 578, 1883 ; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflan-

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 833

zenf. 2 (6) : 214, 1889 ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6 : 49, 1890 ; King & Pantl.

in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8 : 214, 1898 ; Duthie, ibid. 9 (2): 144,

1906 ; J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6 : 590, 1905 ; Schltr. Cree. 350; °1927 ;

Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1 : 709, 1953.

The generic name Vanda has been derived from the Sanskrit name of

the first species described, V. roxburghii.

This genus consists of about 30-40 species, which are native in India,

Ceylon, E. Indies, Malaya, Borneo, Philippines, Java and Tropical

Australia.

Vanda can be principally distinguished from its close ally Angraceum

by its fleshy, 3-lobed lip ; on the other hand Ascocentrum is merely a much

reduced Vanda. Asa rule most of the Vandas have fairly long and wide,

flat leaves with the mid-nerve depressed above ; but V. hookeriana Reichb.

f. and its hybrid offspring Vanda Miss Joaquim and a few others form a

special group with terete leaves and long-climbing habit. For this latter

group Schlechter has proposed a new generic name, Papilionanthe.

According to Holttum, however, a careful examination of the longitudinal

section of the flowers and of their pollinia shows no essential differences

from the other Vandas.

The genus Vanda lends itself very well to the creation of inter-specific

and inter-generic hybrids, as has been well discussed by Holttum. Many

hybrids have been produced between the terete and the non-terete-leaved

groups of Vanda. These have leaves intermediate between the two types,

ie. they are narrow and deeply channelled, and are often called semi-

terete. ‘The plants are also intermediate in habit, with longer internodes

than the usual non-terete Vanda, but do not have quite the climbing

habit of the true terete-leaved species. Among the inter-generic hybrids

may be mentioned Vandaenopsis (Vanda x Phalaenopsis) and Aranda

(Vanda x Arachnis).

Sect. Anota (containing V. densiflora Lindl. and V. violacea Lindl.)

of Bentham & Hooker f. and Hocker f. was made an independent genus

by Schlechter. J. J. Smith and Holttum consider V. violacea Lindl. to be

a Rhynchostylis ; the other species (V. densiflora Lindl.) has often been

referred to the genus Saccolabium.

Our 2 Bombay species belong to sect. Euvanda of Lindley, the name

of which must be changed to Vanda sect. Vanda in accordance with Art.

22 of the Code, since it contains the type species of the genus, V. tessellata

Hook. ex G. Don (=V. roxburghii R. Br.).

_ Type species: V. tessellata Hook. ex G. Don.

834. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF VANDA OF BOMBAY

Sepals and petals pale yellow, about 8 mm. 7

long ; capsule with pedicel 4-5 cm. long .. testacea

Sepals and petals about 23-25 mm. long,

greenish-yellow somewhat brown tessellated

on the upper surface, the lower one being

pure white ; capsule with pedicel 12-13 cm.

long as; Ev As tessellata

1. Vanda testacea (Lindl.) Reichb. f. in Gard. Chron. II, 166, 1877 ;

Alst. Kandy Fl. 75, f. 402, 1938. <Aérides testaceum Lindl. Gen. Sp.

Orch. 238, 1833. A. wightianum Lindl. [in Wall. Cat. 7320, 1832, nom.

nud. et] Gen. Sp. Orch. 238, 1833, et in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3: 40, 1858 ;

Wight, Icon. 5 (1): 8, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 265, 1861;

Thwaites, Enum. Pl. .Zeyl. 305, 1864. Vanda spathulata Graham, Cat.

Bomb. Pl. 204, 1839 (non Spreng. 1826). V. parviflora Lindl. in Bot.

Reg. 30 : Misc. 45, 1844; Wight, Icon. t. 1669, 1851 ; Hook. f. 50; Grant,

Orch. Burma 256, 1895 ; King & Pantl. 215, t. 286 ; Duthie 144, et FI.

Upp. Gang. Pl. 3: 210, 1920; Prain, Beng. Pl. 1021, 1903 ; Cooke, FI.

Pres. Bomb. 2: 703, 1907 ; Gammie in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

19 : 624, 1909 ; Blatt. & McC. ibid. 35 : 494, 1932; Haines, Bot. Bih.

Or. 1181, 1924 ; Briihl, Guide Orch. Sikk. 129, 1926 ; Fischer, FI. Pres.

Madr. 1444, 1928.

Epiphytes. Stem 1-1.5 cm. thick, sheathed. Leaves spreading, 3-15

x 0.4-0.7 cm., channelled, coriaceous, oblong or linear-oblong, irregularly

2- or 3-toothed at apex. Racemes 3-17 cm. long, erect; peduncles 1-3

mm. thick, terete, brown with a few, 2-4 mm. long, oblong-acute, sheaths.

Peduncles are persistent and often 9 or more old ones may be seen on the

same plant. Flowers pale yellow, long-pedicelled, bracteate, generally

produced at the apical region of peduncle. Bracts 2.5X2.5 mm., ovate

or ovate-oblong, acute, scabrid, brown, irregularly serrulate or subentire,

3-nerved. Sepals subequal, 8x5 mm., obovate-oblong, obtuse, pale-

yellow, the lateral ones slightly broader and subacute. Petals 8x4 mm.,

broadly obovate-oblong, somewhat clawed, obtuse, rarely slightly retuse,

entire, glabrous, 1-nerved, pale yellow. Lip 3-lobed ; lateral lobes adnate

to foot of column, arising from the sides of the mouth of the spur, oblong,

obtuse ; midlobe 6x4 mm., decurved, oblong or cunneate-oblong, the

apex dilated, somewhat 3-lobed or perfectly semicircular, obtuse or retuse,

subentire or irregularly crenulate, the portion below the apex with 2

blue-lilac caruncled ridges and a central channel in between. Spur 2.5

mm. long, conical, obtuse, yellow, formed by the direct continuation of the

lateral lobes of lip. Column small, pale yellow, with a short foot. Anther

2.5x2 mm., oblong-orbicular, apex emarginate ; pollinia 2, cleft, glo-

bose, with a short caudicle and a small transversely-oblong gland. Ovary

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 835

with pedice] 8 mm. long, shallowly grooved, pale yellowish-green.

ada 2-2.5 0.7 cm., fusiform or oblong-elliptic ; pedicels 1-1.5 cm.

ong.

Flowering : May to June. Fruiting: July onwards.

Occurrence in Bombay State: DANGS: Waghai, Kapadia 1163-

1164. KONKAN: Stocks; Law; Gibson; Woodrow; S. Konkan,

Dalzell & Gibson; Thana, Santapau 10970; Kapadia 1166. W.

GHATS: Kasara, Kapadia 901. Deccan: Mawal, Woodrow;

hills round Mahableshwar, Cooke; Koinanagar, Kapa-

dia 2899; Belgaum-Kolhapur, Ritchie. N. KANARA: Devi-

cop: Sedgwick 5927; Yellapur, Sedgwick; Wadehukli,

T. R. Bell; Gundh, Kapadia 1739; Kumbelli Mines, Kapadia

2689. -

Distribution: India: Kumaon, Sikkim, Assam, Chota Nagpur,

Dangs, Konkan, W. Ghats, N. Kanara, southern peninsular India in the

hilly tracts from 300 to 1200 m. World: India, Nepal, Burma and

Ceylon.

Notes : Hooker f. distinguishes two varieties under Vanda parviflora

Lindl. : var. testacea, with brown sepals and petals from Ceylon ; and

var. albiflora, with white sepals and petals, the lip white with red speckled

ridges and broader spur, from Moulmein. In our opinion these colour

variations do not warrant even varietal rank. Therefore, we have united

Vanda testacea Reichb. f. (= Aérides testaceum Lindl.) with Aérides wight-

ianum Lindl. following Lindley himself (in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3: 40,

1858). Moreover, Alston describes the Ceylon plants with cream-

coloured flowers ; which further goes to prove that the slight variations

in flower-colour should be included within the same species. The earliest

valid specific epithet is testaceum of Lindley, and the correct binominal

is Vanda testacea Reichb. f. :

2. Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G. Don in Loud. Hort. Brit,

372, 1830; Haines 1181; Blatt. & McC. 494; Fischer 1445. Epiden-

drum tessellatum Roxb. Pl. Corom. 1: 34, t. 42, 1795. Cymbidium

tessellatum Sw. in Nov. Act. Upsal. 6 : 75, 1799 ; Roxb. FI. Ind. 3 : 463,

1832. C. tesselloides Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3; 463, 1832. Vanda roxburghii

R. Br. in Bot. Reg. 6: t. 506, 1820 ; Graham 204 ; Wight, Icon. 3 (2):

10, t. 916, 1844-1845 ; Thwaites 303 ; Hook. f. 52; Grant 257; Prain

1021 ; Duthie t. 116, et Fl. Upp. Gang. Pl. 3: 210, 1920; Cooke 704;

Gammie 625, t.9. V. roxburghii R. Br. var. spooneri Gammie in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19 : 625, 1909. (See Plate LI.)

Epiphytes. Stem 0.5-1.2 cm. thick, sheathed. Leaves spreading,

recurved, coriaceous, 5-25 x0.4-1.2 cm., linear-oblong, strap-shaped,

entire, the apex irregularly praemorse with usually 2 unequal rounded

lobes and an acute one in between. Racemes usually longer than the

836 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

leaves, 2-to 10-flowered ; peduncle 6-14 cm. long, terete, erect or sub-

pendulous, about 2-3 mm. thick, with bracts, which are 2-3 mm. long,

ovate, acute, acabrid, sheathing. Flowers about 5 cm. across, bracteate,

pedicellate. Bracts small, scabrid, persistent. Sepals subequal, the

inner surface greenish-yellow tessellated with brown, pure white on the

outer surface, 2.5 x 1.5 cm., obovate-oblong, the dorsal sepal with a longish

claw, obtuse, margins irregularly waved and crisped. Petals 2.3x1.5

cm., clawed, similar to sepals. Lip 3-lobed ; lateral lobes 1 x 0.3 cm. white,

erect, parallel, obliquely elliptic, subfalcate, acute ; midlobe 1.6x1 cm.,

+panduriform, thick, fleshy, sides deflexed ; apex dilated, 2-lobed with

a wide retuse sinus in between ; upper surface of midlobe ridged, varying

in colour from purplish-blue to red, with white streaks or white with

yellow streaks. Spur 7X4 mm., conical, obtuse, pubescent within.

Column 85 mm., oblong, clavate, white ; foot short, centrally grooved

with 2 yellow patches on either side. Anther 4x2 mm., oblong-obovate,

base truncate, apex mucronate, white ; pollinia 2, waxy, yellow, globular,

with a broad oblong caudicle and a small transversely-oblong gland which

is folded upwards. Stigmatic surface cordate-oblong, white. Ovary

with pedicel 5 cm. long, twisted, white, ribbed. Capsules 81.5 cm.,

oblong, sharply winged, the wings 3 mm. broad ; pedicels 4 cm. long.

Flowering: March to June. Fruiting: April onwards.

Occurrence in Bombay State: GuyaRatT: Chikli, Gibson.

Dancs: Waghai, Kapadia 1160; Pimpri, Kapadia 1583.

KONKAN: Woodrow. N. KANARA: Bell 5398; Kalanaddi,

Ritchie; Astoli, Bell; Anmod, Kapadia; Castle Rock, Ka-

padia 2830-2832.

Distribution: India: Dehra Dun, Sub-Himalayan tracts of Rohil-

khand and N. Oudh, Bengal, Bihar, Chota Nagpur, Madhya Pradesh,

Gujarat, Dangs, Konkan, N. Kanara, southern peninsular India from

sea-level to about 600 m. World: India, Ceylon.

Notes : The colour of the flowers of this species varies considerably ;

some plants show an over-all greenish-blue tint in sepals and petals with

a bluish-purple midlobe of lip ; others have reddish sepals and petals

with pale pink midlobe. In our plants from Castle Rock sepals and petals

were dull yellowish-brown, the lip pure white with a central orange-

yellow spot in between the lateral lobes. Such variations in the colour

may be noted even on one and the same plant ; some of our plants, when

collected in the Dangs forest, showed a bluish lip ; under cultivation in

Bombay, the flowers of the next season had pale pink lips.

It is clear, then, that such variations in colour, as noted by Gammie

for his var. spooneri, cannot be made the basis of a variety, in a species

which is noted for its colour variations.

JOURN. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. a PR OA op eer Deane LIT

Vea i .

2+ B }

3 J ( f (\\

i p

' cM y

Vanda tessellata Hook.

JOURN. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc.

PLate LII

)

1 2s

cM cm

Gastrochilus dalzellianus Sant. & Kapad.

A. Whole plant. B. Sepals and petals dissected. C. Front view of flower.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 837

21. COTTONIA Wight

CoTTONIA Wight, Icon. 5 (1) : 22, 1851.; Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. PI.

3 : 572, 1883 ; Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6) : 211, 1889 ; Hook.

f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6 : 26, 1890 ; Schltr. Orchid. 569, 1927.

The generic name Cottonia was given in honour of Maj.-Gen. Cotton

of the Madras Engineers, collector and cultivator of orchids, who found

Cottonia macrostachya for the first time in Malabar.

This genus consists of a single species C. peduncularis Reichb. f.

(=C. macrostachya Wt.), native in the south-western parts of India and

of Ceylon. |

Type species: C. peduncularis Reichb. f.

Cottonia peduncularis (Lindl.) Reichb. f. in Cat. Orchid. Schiller 52,

1857 ; Thwaites, Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 303, 1864. Vanda peduncularis Lindl.

Gen. Sp. Orch. 216, 1833. Cottonia macrostachya Wight, Icon. 5 (1) :

21, t. 1755, 1851 ; Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3 : 39, 1858 ; Dalz. & Gibs.

Bomb. Fl. 263, 1861 ; Bot. Mag. t. 7099, 1890 ; Hook. f. 26 ; Cooke,

Fl. Pres. Bom. 2 : 702, 1907 ; Gammie in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

18: 589, t. 6, 1908 ; Blatt. & McC. ibid. 35 : 494, 1932; Fischer, FI.

Pres. Madr. 1439, 1928. i

Epiphytes, Stem 0.7-1 cm. thick, closely sheathed. Leaves 5-17

x 1-2 cm., lorate, spreading, straight or recurved, sessile, narrowly

elliptic-oblong, entire, coriaceous, keeled on the underside and abruptly

ending in 2 unequal rounded lobes with a broad acute sinus in between.

Peduncles 9-80 cm., greyish-green mottled with purple, bracteate at the

nodes, with a few branches usually near the apex. Flowers few in

a raceme at the very apex of the branches of peduncle, bracteate, pedi-

cellate, usually opening one ata time. Bracts minute, cupular, brown.

Pedicel with ovary about 1.2 cm. long, slightly curved, greenish-brown.

Sepals and petals recurved backwards -& along the ovary, brownish-

yellow with 4-6 reddish-brown longitudinal streaks ; dorsal sepal 9x4

mm., obovate-oblong, concave in the upper half, acute ; lateral sepals

8x4.5 mm., ovate-oblong, subobtuse, 5-nerved ; petals 8-9x3 mm.,

narrowly obovate-oblong, obtuse-truncate, 5-nerved. Lip 1.40.8 cm.,.

fleshy purple with a central brownish-yellow streak about 0.6 cm. long,

and a golden-yellow villous margin ; lateral lobes ear-like, small ; mid-

lobe panduriform with an abruptly acute apex. Column 5x4 mm.,

puberulous, footless, yellowish-brown ; from the sides of the column

just above the stigmatic surface 2 projections are given out which meet

in the centre to form a ledge, on which the gland of the pollinia rests.

Anther 2-celled, subpandurate, broadly retuse at apex ; the underside

reddish-brown with a central blue-black streak on the upper half, and

yellow on the lower half ; pollinia 2, yellow, waxy, ovoid ; caudicle 1 mm.

838 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

long, with a small, somewhat square gland. Stigmatic surface U-shaped,

yellow with a red margin and 2 red longitudinal streaks in the centre.

Capsules 5-6 X<0.5-0.7 cm., oblong-fusiform, strongly ribbed, pedicels

2 cm. long.

Flowering : March to May. Fruiting: May onwards.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Stocks ; Dalzell; Thana,

Kapadia 1167. W. GHaTts: Khandala, Santapau. N. KANARA:

Supa, Ritchie; Kumbelli Mines, Kapadia 2557;Poutelli

Ghat, Kapadia; Yellaputr, Sedgwick; Kapadia 1981-1982,

2864-2865; Astoli, Bell; Sirsi-Siddhapur, Hallberg &

McCann 34580; Sirsi, Santapau 18697; Londa, Santapau

10815-10818, 10867 ; Anmod, Kapadia 1910-1911; Castle Rock,

Kapadia 1815; Dandeli, Kapadia; Gundh, Kapadia 1721.

Distribution: India: Konkan, W. Ghats, N. Kanara, Anaimalais,

Travancore. World: India, Ceylon.

Notes : We have noted this species on a large number of trees and

shrubs ; it is usually found in open deciduous forests and is very easy to

locate on account of its long erect branching peduncles.

The earliest valid specific epithet for this species is peduncularis of

Lindley which, therefore, must be reinstated. Index Kewensis credits

the binominal Cottonia peduncularis to Thwaites ; Pfitzer gives Reichen-

bach f. as the author ; Hooker f. follows Pfitzer.

22. GASTROCHILUS D. Don

GASTROCHILUS D. Don, Prodr. Fl. Nep. 32, 1825 ; O. Kuntze, Rev.

Gen. Pl. 2: 660, 1891 (partim) ; Schltr. Orchid. 573, 1927 ; Holttum,

Rev. Fl. Malaya 1: 656, 1953 ; (non Wall. 1832). Sarcochilus Spreng.

Syst. Veg. 3 : 721, 1826 (partim). Saccolabium Endl. Gen. Pl. 205, 1837 ;

King & Pantl. in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8: 217, 1898 ; Duthie,

ibid. 9 (2) : 146, 1906 ; (partim, non Blume 1825). Micropera Dalz. in

Hook. Kew Journ. Bot. 3: 282, 1851 (non Lindl. 1832).: Sarcochilus

sect. Micropera (Dalz.) Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3 : 575, 1883. Sac-

colabium sect. Longilabellatae Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3: 579, 1883;

Pfitz. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. 2 (6) : 213, 1889. Saccolabium sect.

Calceolaria Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6 : 60, 1890. Saccolabium sect. Platy-

rhizon Hook. f. ibid. 6: 63, 1890. Saccolabium sect. Gastrochilus (D.

Don) J. J. Smith, Fl. Buitenz. 6 : 632, 1905.

The generic name Gastrochilus is derived from the Greek words

gaster=belly, cheilos=lip, in allusion to the inflated, ventricose hypochil

of the lip in the species.

This genus contains about 15 species distributed from India, and

Ceylon through Malaya to Java and northwards to Japan.

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 839

In 1825, D. Don erected the genus Gastrochilus with a single species

G. calceolaris, based on the manuscript name Epidendrum calceolare of

Hamilton. Lindley (Gen. Sp: Orch. 223, 1833) reduced this to Sacco-

labium BI. Subsequent authors, including Endlicher, Bentham & Hooker

f., Hooker f., Pfitzer, King & Pantling, etc. follow Lindley in fusing

Gastrochilus with Saccolabium or at the most keeping it as section under

various names. —

J. J. Smith in 1905 put Gastrochilus as a section of Saccolabium ; but

in 1927 raised it to generic rank. Several modern orchidologists, includ-

ing Schlechter, Hayata, Ames & Quisumbing, and Holttum, have

recognized the generic status of Gastrochilus.

Gastrochilus D. Don can be differentiated from its close allies Sarco-

chilus R. Br. and Saccolabium Bl. by the following characters: (1)

Flowers fleshy, wide-opening, lasting for several days. (2) Lip not

movable, with a cup-shaped saccate base and the midlobe, which is flat

semicircular, brim-like, wider than the cup, often hairy and fringed. (3)

Column very short, footless. (4) Pollinia shorter than the narrow

caudicle.

The generic name Gastrochilus D. Don (Feb. 1825) is listed as a

rejected name in favour of the later conserved Saccolabium Bl. (Dec.

1825), in the list of Conserved generic names in App. 3 of the International

Code of Botanical Nomenclature (1956 edit.). But Art. 14 (Note 4)

states : ‘ When a name has been conserved against an earlier synonym,

the latter is to be restored, subject to Art. 11, if it is considered the name

of a genus distinct from that of the nomen conservandum. We do consider

Gastrochilus D. Don as distinct from Saccolabium BI.

Two of the Bombay species, described by Dalzell under Micropera,

M. viridiflora and M. maculata, clearly belong to the genus Gastrochilus.

Gen. Plant. and FI. Brit. India include them under Saccolabium. Cooke

puts them under Sarcochilus.

Type species : G. calceolaris D. Don.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF GASTROCHILUS 0F BOMBAY

1. Midlobe of lip fringed or fimbriate e dasypogon

1. Midlobe of lip neither fringed nor fimbriate :

2. Inflorescence usually longer than the

leaves, racemose ; flowers yellow with

or without a peddish spot .. : maculatus

2. Inflorescence shorter than the leaves in a

cluster at the apex of the rachis;

flowers greenish-white .. <i dalzellianus

1. Gastrochilus dasypogon (Sm. ex Rees) O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl,

2: 661, 1891. Aérides dasypogon Smith in Rees, Cycl. 39: n. 10, 1818.

Saccolabium dasypogon’ Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 222, 1833 ; Hook. f. 66;

840 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

King & Pantl. 224, t. 299. Saccolabium flabelliforme Blatt. & McC.

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 722, f. 1, 1931.

Epiphytes. Stems very short, stout, about 1 cm. thick. Leaves 2-5,

each 4-14 x 1-2.5 cm., narrowly oblong or linear-oblong, rarely narrowly

oblong-elliptic, coriaceous ; apex shallowly, unequally 2-lobed, the lobes

rounded. Inflorescence about 2-2.6 cm. long, somewhat corymbose,

few- to several-flowered. Flowers pedicellate, bracteate. Bracts 3x

2 mm., persistent, scabrid, ovate-oblong, acute or subobtuse. Pedicel

with ovary 7-9 mm. long, slightly curved or straight. Sepals and petals

7-8x2 mm., somewhat obovate-oblong, spreading, fleshy, obtuse or

rarely subretuse, entire, glabrous ; petals slightly shorter and narrower.

Lip with minute, erect lateral lobes ; sac (hypochil) about 3-4 mm. in

diam., nearly hemispherical, slightly laterally compressed; midlobe

(epichile) about 3 mm. long, 6-8 mm. wide, slightly deflexed, almost

semicircular, outer edge minutely fimbriate. Column very short, about

2 mm. long, footless. Anther convex, oval; pollinia 2, minute, globular

with the slender caudicle as long as the diam. of both together.

The colour of floral parts, according to Blatter & McCann, is the

following : sepals and petals apple-green sometimes with a rose-coloured

spot ; spur greenish, often sparsely pale-purple-spotted ; midlobe of lip

white with a central fleshy yellow triangle, which is bordered with rose-

coloured dots and short lines ; column white, usually strongly suffused

with deep rose ; anther yellow ; pollinia orange-yellow.

Flowering : September to October.

Occurrence in Bombay State: N. KANARA: Bell 5424; Devi-

mane Ghat, Gammie; Sedgwick & Bell; Hallberg & McCann

34568, 34464; Sirsi, Sedgwick; Sirsi-Siddhapur, Hallberg

& McCann 34381; Kapadia 2442-2443; Yellapur, Bell; Kapadia.

- Distribution: India : Sikkim, Assam, and southwards to N. Kanara.

World : India and Nepal. 3 |

Notes : The specimens of Saccolabium flabelliforme Blatt. & McC.

in Blatter Herbarium clearly agree with Saccolabium dasypogon Lindl.

as figured and described by King & Pantling. The latter authors give

the following note under Saccolabium dasypogon Lindl. : ‘ ... This is

closely allied to S. calceolare Lindl. with which for many years it has been

confused. The two plants, although much alike, are not really difficult

of separation. In the first place they live at different elevations and flower

at different seasons. S. calceolare is found between 4,000 and 6,000

feet, and flowers during March and April ; while S. dasypogon is found

at or below 1,000 feet and is in flower during November and December.

The leaves of S. dasypogon are broader, and the apical notch is less than

is the case in the leaves of S. calceolare, and the stem of S. dasypogon

is shorter. The colouration of the flowers of S. calceolare is constant ;

but in that of S. dasypogon the perianth may be pale or deep yellow, and

THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE 841

either without spots or with numerous spots. Finally the lips of the two

differ. In S. calceolare the sac is smaller ; the apical lobe is papillose-

hairy ; while in S. dasypogon the apical lobe has deeply laciniate edges

and its upper surface is perfectly smooth.’

O. Kuntze in making the transfer of Saccolabium dasypogon Lindl.

to Gastrochilus gives ‘ (Sw.) Lindl.’ as the authors from whom the speci-

fic epithet is derived. The original author of the specific epithet is,

however, Smith, and not Swartz.

2. Gastrochilus maculatus (Dalz.) O. Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 661,

1891. Micropera maculata Dalz. in Hook. Journ. Bot. 3: 282, 1851 ;

Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3 : 38, 1858 ; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 263,

1861. Sarcochilus maculatus Pfitz. Vergl. Morph. Orch. 15, 1881;

Cooke, FI. Pres. Bomb. 2 : 698, 1907 ; Blatt. & McC. 488. Saccolabium

maculatum (Dalz.) Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6 : 64, 1890; Gammie in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 20: 127, 1910.

Stem about 1 cm. long. Leaves 2-3, coriaceous, sheathing at the base,

4-8 x 1.7-2.3 cm., narrowly oblong, dark greyish-green often mottled

with purple, tapering at the -+-plicate base, entire, emarginate with unequal

lobes, 1-nerved. Jnflorescence up to about twice as long as the leaves,

several-flowered, arising from the base of the leaves somewhat horizon-

tally ; often 2 or more per plant. Peduncles 1-2 mm. thick, subterete,

purplish. Flowers about 8x10 mm. almost sessile, bracteate. Bracts

1.5-2.5x2 mm., broadly oblong-ovate, persistent, coriaceous, brown.

Ovary with short pedicel 3mm. long, stout, erect. Sepals and petals

subequal, yellow with a purple spot, or pure yellow, free, obovate-oblong,

rounded, entire, glabrous, faintly 1-nerved ; dorsal sepal 63.5 mm.,

concave and hooded in the upper half, slightly narrowed to the base ;

lateral sepals 5x 3-mm. tapered towards the rounded submucronulate

apex ; petals 5x3 mm., -+ incurved in apical half and somewhat conni-

vent over column. Lip fleshy, white flushed with pink, 3-lobed ; lateral

lobes 2.5 mm. long, erect, nearly meeting at the base just above the mid-

lobe, about 3 mm. apart at the narrow, subacute apex, anterior margins

pink ; midlobe (epichile) 24.5 mm., obscurely 3-lobed, entire, rounded,

forming a sort of brim to hypochil, somewhat like a side-saddle. Spur

broadly conical, 5 mm. long below the midlobe. Column 2 mm. long,

stout, footless, semiterete; rostellum divided, pointing downwards.

Anther 1.25 1.75 mm., opercular, conical, anterior lip obtuse ; pollinia

2, 0.75 mm. in diam., caudicle 1-1.25 mm. long, narrow ; gland small, thin.

Flowering: May.

Occurrence in Bombay State: W. GHATS: Dalzell; Phunda

Ghat, Ritchie. N. KANARA: Idigangi, Bell; Yellapur,

Sedgwick; Anmod, Kapadia 1883-1884; Jog, Kapadia 1850,

Distribution : Apparently endemic in N. Kanara, 7

842 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

_3. Gastrochilus dalzellianus (Sant.) Sant. & Kapadia, comb. nov.

Sarcochilus dalzellianus Santapau in Kew Bull. 1948 : 498, 1949 et in Rec.

Bot. Surv. Ind. 16 (1) : 302, 1953. Micropera viridiflora Dalz. in Hook.

Journ. Bot. 3: 282, 1851. Saccolabium viridiflorum Lindl. in Journ.

Linn. Soc. 3: 36, 1858 ; Dalz. & Gibs. 263 ; Hook. f. 63.. Sarcochilus

viridiflorus (Dalz.) T. Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2 : 697, 1907 ; Blatt. & McC.

488 ; (non Hook. f. 1890). (See Plate LIT.)

Epiphytes. Stem very short, sheathed. Leaves usually 2 with a

small one in between, 3-9 x 1.5-2 cm., elliptic-lanceolate, tapering at base,

entire, unequally bilobed at apex, lobes entire. Racemes corymbose-

umbellate, at apex of peduncle ; peduncles suberect, about 1-2 mm.

thick, 3-5 cm. long, terete, bracteate ; bracts 1.5-2 x 1.2 mm., lower ones

completely ensheathing the peduncle, upper ones not so, broadly ovate-

oblong, entire, subobtuse to acute. Flowers greenish-white, pedicellate,

bracteate. Pedicel with ovary 7 mm. long, brownish-green. Sepals

subequal, broadly obovate and tapering at base, entire, rounded or

mucronulate, pale green ; dorsal sepal 7 x 3-3.5 mm., often with a few

yellowish-red. spots at base ; lateral sepals 6 x 3-3.5 mm. Petals 6-7 x 3.5-

4 mm., pale green, obovate and tapering at base, entire, obtuse, slightly

falcate, with somewhat incurved apices. Lip fleshy, white ; lateral lobes

erect, about 1 mm. long, acute, their anterior margins red-streaked ;

midlobe (epichile) semicircular, 2.5-35-7 mm., apiculate; spur 3.5

mm. long, fleshy, conical, rounded, white with a crimson patch at back

inside corresponding to the red streaks of lateral lobes of lip. Column

about 2 mm. long, stout, semiterete, footless ; clinandrium green with

dark reddish-brown patches on top and sides. Anther pale yellow,

1.5X1.25 mm., broadly obpyriform with a truncate apiculum ; pollinia

2, deeply grooved, 0.5 mm. in diam. ; caudicle 1.5 mm. long, narrow ;

gland narrow, linear, erect, 0.5 mm. long. Capsules 3-5 cm. long, narrowly

fusiform, ribbed, purplish-brown. ,

Flowering : May to June. Fruiting : June to March.

Occurrence in Bombay State: KONKAN: Dalzell. W. CGmHATs:

Mahableshwar, Cooke; Khandala, Santapau 487, 1352,

4521, 9077; Kapadia 1939-1940; Lonavla, Kapadia 1121, 1171; -

Amboli Ghat, Gammie. DECCAN: Koina Valley, Bole

1179; Kapadia 2904-2905, 2908-2909; Amba, Bhide; Acland 1178.

N. KANARA: Ushelli, Ritchie; Chandwar, Ritchie; Tinai

Ghat, Bhide;. Castle Rock, Acland 177; Kapadia 2774,

2798; Dandeli, Santapau 18794.

Distribution: Apparently endemic to Bombay State.

Notes: This is an inconspicuous plant, often seen epiphytic on various

species of Ficus.

The earlier specific epithet viridiflorus Dalz. cannot be used here on

account of Gastrochilus viridiflorus (Lindl.) O. Kuntze.

(To be continued)

Entomological Survey of Himalaya

Part XXVI. A Contribution to our Knowledge

of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects

of the Nival Zones from the North-West

Himalaya |

PART §

M. S. MANI, D.Sc., F.L.S., AND SANTOKH SINGH, Ph.D., F.R.E.S.

(With thirteen text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 59 (2): 381]

IV. PECULIARITIES OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE NIVAL INSECTS

Correlated with the specific ecologic characters and the topography

of the Himalaya, the distribution of the nival insects above the timber

line shows many striking peculiarities. Some of these are characteristic

of the distribution of mountain autochthone species in general, but many

are also to be attributed directly to the massiveness of the trend lines of

the mountain ranges and the high altitudes of the elevated areas in the

NW. Himalaya. When we carefully examine the distributional range

of the individual species, we may recognize the following important

features: 1. Localization; 2. Discontinuity ; 3. Concentration; and

4. Isolation (Fig. 42).

Localization. Localization results when the range of a species is

small and restricted wholly to a relatively small area, often along a single

spur of a given mountain range, and the species does not occur anywhere

else. The range is often so small that the species may be said to be scarce

in the NW. Himalaya. Sometimes this localized area of the species is

comparatively large. In discussing the distribution of the different

orders, we have already had occasion to refer to numerous examples of

localization of species and genera. We may therefore consider here

only a few examples. Tibetocoris, an endemic genus of Heteroptera,

occurs, for example, only on the Chang Chenmo spurs in the neighbour-

hood of Pongong Tso (Fig. 43) and is never found below an elevation of

5000 m. Phimodera rupshuensis Hutchinson (Fig. 10), another endemic

844. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Heteroptera that never descends below an elevation of 4000 m., is simi-

larly strictly localized on the Zaskar Range in the Tso Morari area. The

area of the endemite Bembidion hutchinsoni Andrewes (Fig. 44), which

_ _Fig. 42. Distribution patterns of nival insects in NW. Himalaya above

timber line: 1. Localization; 2. Discontinuity ; 3. Concentration

is an inhabitant of elevations above 4500 m., is likewise localized in a

most interesting manner near Kyam Hot Spring on the Chang Chenmo

spurs north of the Pongong Tso. A great many endemic species of

Atheta are also localized. The two endemic species of Blaps are strictly

localized on a spur from the Ladakh Range in the Pongong Tso area.

Not only are most of the endemites localized in this manner in one area

or the other, but the distribution of the non-endemites is also mostly

localized. Colias leechi Gr.-Gr., of the Pamir-central-Asian faunal

element, is strikingly localized in the Kardong Pass area of the Ladakh

Range. Another Pamir form, Bembidion petrimagni Net., is localized

in the area of the Baltoro Glaciers. The interesting central Asian Dip-

tera, Ephydra glauca Meigen (which is also known from south Russia

and Romania), is strictly localized in the Tso-Kar area in Rupshu. The

Tibetan-Himalayan Amara brucei Andrewes and Bembidion nivicola

Andrewes are localized in the Pongong and Karakorum Pass area.

Discontinuity. Although several species are localized in a single

more or less small area, a considerable proportion of both endemites

and others are generally localized in more than one, irregular, unequal,

and often more or less widely separated patches. The range of these

species, though relatively extensive, is conspicuously discontinuous. The

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 845

distribution of nearly 80% of the endemites is in such localized, discon-

tinuous, and isolated patches. Bembidion irregulare Net., an endemite

from the mountain ranges drained by Indus River and occurring gene-

rally above an elevation of 4500 m., is localized for example in two

widely separated and unequal patches (Fig. 45), one of which is situated

on the central Karakorum and the other on the Great Himalaya in the

neighbourhood of Nun Kun Peaks. The total range of another ex-

tremely interesting endemite, Bembidion luntaka Andrewes, is similarly

broken up into two irregular discontinuous patches, a larger patch (Fig.

45) on the spurs. between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges and a smaller

patch on the south slope of the Great Himalaya in the neighbourhood of

Bara Lacha La. The ranges of Bembidion ladas Andrewes, Bembidion

leve Andrewes, Bembidion livens Andrewes, and. Bembidion ixion Andrewes,

all of which are endemites, are similarly characterised by the same patchi-

ness and discontinuity. Bembidion aquilum Andrewes, an endemite

occurring at elevations ranging from 3000-4500 m., has its total range

broken up in four isolated and widely separated patches (Fig. 46), the

largest of which lies on the north slope of the Great Himalaya near Nun

Kun Peaks. The localized range of the central Asian Bembidion fusci-

crus Motsch. is broken in three patches in the Indus drainage area (Fig. 47).

Localization and discontinuity characterize the distributional ranges

of nearly 210 endemites. Nearly 153 non-endemic species also exhibit

a similar pattern of distribution. The remaining 7 endemites, though

widely distributed in the whole of the NW. Himalaya, still have their

total range broken into numerous isolated patches on all the mountain

ranges. The ranges of 14 non-endemic species, which occur throughout

the NW. Himalaya, are again split up into many isolated patches, scat-

tered likewise on all the mountain ranges. This pronounced tendency

for severe localization and discontinuity, a characteristic of mountain

insect life, has been observed by Holdhaus (65) and several others in the

Alps, and is greatly exaggerated in the case of the insect fauna above the

timber line in the more massive NW. Himalaya. References to some of

these peculiarities have already been made by us in another connection

(100).

Concentration. Owing to the peculiar ecologic conditions, the nival

species are localized in areas where alone they find the specific optimal

conditions for existence. Localizations of large numbers of species of

different orders tend to condense into certain centres. The centres of

localization of several species thus superimpose to a greater or lesser

extent, and we therefore find corresponding concentrations of species.

Several species are thus localized in the same area. Some of the localized

and isolated concentrations contain as many as 40 species belonging to

several orders like Heteroptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera,

Diptera, Thysanura, and Collembola. The great majority of the species

846 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

of such localized concentrations do not occur outside the area of con-

centration. Localized concentrations in the Tso Morari area include,

for example, about a dozen species like Bryodema luctuosa Stoll., Phimo-

dera rupshuensis Hutchinson, Microplax hissarensis Kiritsch., Atracthe-

lophorus frater d’Orch., Aleochara (Coprochara) bilineata Gyll., Atheta

(Bessobia) submetallica Cameron, Atheta (Microdota) ladakiana Cameron,

Parnassius acco tagalangi Bang-Haas, Parnassius actius yelyangi Bang-

Haas, Parnassius simo zarraensis (Bang-Haas), and Ephydra glauca

Meigen.

The localized concentrations of species are generally grouped in a

most significant manner along the main ranges of the NW. Himalaya or

‘on its major spurs. Nearly 170 endemites and 115 non-endemites are

thus localized in concentrations on the main ranges and about 55 species

on the major spurs. Localizations of species of Bembidion are concen-

trated along the Ladakh, Zaskar, and the Great Himalaya Range (Fig. 44).

Bembidion ladas Andr., Bembidion leve Andr., Bembidion livens Andr.,

and Bembidion ixion Andr. are, for example, concentrated on the Ladakh

and Zaskar ranges. The general pattern of localized concentrations of

the insect fauna of the nival zones in the NW. Himalaya is an unmis-

takable indication that the distribution of various species follows the

general trend line of the Himalayan ranges. In other words, we have

the general average picture of a more or less parallel series of linear

arrangements of localized and discontinuous concentrations of species

(Fig. 48). The concentrations of species on the different mountain

ranges are also on the whole in the immediate vicinity of and around the

high peaks and crest lines. In areas with a close group of several high

peaks (Fig. 49), the concentrations are extensive and massed. A map

of peaks above an average elevation of 6000 m. would more or less exactly

reflect the pattern of distribution of nival insects. The massing of the

nival insect species around high peaks is so constant that chance co-

incidence cannot explain it. An unmistakable connection exists between

the distribution of peaks of an average altitude of 6000 m. and the dis-

tribution of nival insects. From ecological considerations and on the

basis of the available evidence of past distribution, such a massing of the

greatest bulk of the nival forms around high peaks should naturally be

expected.

Massed concentrations of species around high peaks is particularly

conspicuous in areas which were formerly more or less heavily glaciated

and from which the Pleistocene ice sheets and valley glaciers have since

receded (27). Several species occur so constantly in such areas alone

that they may be considered as indicator species. We thus find a remark-

able wealth of species around many of the glacial lakes like Pongong

Tso (29) and Tso Morari (Fig. 50). In these areas are also grouped to-

gether a very large number of peaks rising above an elevation of 6000 m.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 847

The single largest massing of localized concentration of nearly 43 species

in the NW. Himalaya is perhaps in the vicinity of Pongong Tso. The

following species are massed around high peaks in this area:

SOME TYPICAL INDICATOR SPECIES OF FORMERLY GLACIATED AREAS

Hyphinomus fasciata Uvarov

Dolmacoris deterrana Hutchinson

Emblethis horvathiana Hutchinson

Lamprodema brevicollis Fieb.

Nysius ericae (Schill.)

Nysius ericae alticola Hutchinson

Chlamydatus pachycerus Kiritsch.

Dicyphus physochlaenae Hutchinson

Dicyphus senggae Hutchinson

Tibetocoris margaretae Hutchinson

Chiloxanthus alticola Kiritsch.

Amara ambigene Bates

Amara brucei Andrewes

Bembidion hutchinsoni Andrewes

Bembidion nivicola Andrewes

Cymindis championi Andrewes

Cymindis rubriceps Andrewes

Potamonectes (Potamonectes) griseostriatus (Deg.)

Agabus (Gaurodytes) adustus Guignot

Helophorus (Helophorus) splendidus immaensis d’Orch.

Helophorus (Lihelophorus) ser Zaitz.

Helophorus (Meghelophorus) aquaticus Linn.

Laccobius (Laccobius) hingstoni d’Orch.

Atheta (Dimetrota) hutchinsoni Cameron

Blaps ladakensis Bates

Blaps perlonga Bates

Bombus alticus Eversm.

Subterraneobombus melanurus (Lepel)

Doliphilodea tibetana Kimmins

Parnassius delphius ladakensis Avinoff

Colias cocandica thrasibulus Frusch.

Colias leechi Gr.-Gr.

Ephydra tibetensis Cresson

Ctenolepisma sp.

Machilanus hutchinsoni Silv.

Friesea excelsa Denis

Isotoma spinicauda Bonet

Proisotoma ladaki Denis

Mydonius hutchinsoni (Denis)

Orchesellides boraoi Bonet

Seira brahmides (Denis)

Sminthurides aquaticus (Bourlet) |

Sminthurides (Stenacidia) violaceus (Reuter)

The environs of Tso Morari contain another large concentration of

about 16 species, of which Nysius ericae, Chlamydatus pachycerus, and

848 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Potamonectes (Potamonectes) griseostriatus also occur near Pongong

Tso.

It is also extremely interesting that in the distribution of species, we

can readily recognize a very pronounced tendency for clustering near

present day glaciers (Fig. 51). Localized concentrations of several

species are massed together in areas where there are larger glaciers, more

than in case of some of the smaller glaciers. The extensive occurrence of

many species in the neighbourhood of the present day larger glaciers

justifies us in calling them indicators of the glacier localities. The

following species are, for example, exclusively massed near present day

glaciers :

SOME TYPICAL INDICATOR SPECIES OF AREAS OF PRESENT GLACIERS

Bembidion bucephalum Net.

Bembidion pamiricola Lut.

Atheta (Acrotona) fungi kashmirensis (Gr.)

Ocyusa (Ocyusa) quadrisulcata Bernh.

Myrmeca smythiesi cachmirensis Forel

Parnassius delphius shigarensis Bang-Haas

Parnassius delphius workmani Avinoft

Colias eogene francesca Watkin

oN AN RYN

Isolation. The existence of considerable ecologic isolation in the

insect life above the timber line was described by us in an earlier paper

(100). The pronounced localization and discontinuity of concentrations

have the concomitant result of isolation in the greatest majority of species.

The isolation is either geographical, topographical, or also ecolo-

gical. The populations of each of the species with discontinuous patches

of distribution are truly allopatric. Though macrogeographically ap-

parently sympatric, in actual practice the distribution is a case

of microgeographically allopatric. Isolations are brought about by a

variety of conditions like steepness, slope (aspect), altitude, topography,

habitats, and other ecological conditions. Though thus often not geo-

graphically separated, most species are actually completely separated topo-

not appear to be total, and hybrid populations are met with at the areas

of contact of the two species or subspecies, especially among Parnassius

and Colias. Though allopatric populations are the general rule, such

hybrid populations in areas of contact of two ranges in the Lepidoptera

of the Alps have also often been described (118, 119, 120). The high

endemism and the existence of numerous local geographical subspecies

are without doubt to be correlated with the pronounced isolation and

rapid evolution on high massifs. The extensive researches of several

workers like Babler (7), Lindroth (84, 85, 86, 87), Holdhaus (57, 58),

Janetschek (75, 76), and others have shown that discontinuity and isola-

tion characterize the distribution of nival insects, especially the terri-

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 849

colous Coleoptera, from the Alps also. Most of these alpine distribu-

tional peculiarities are more or less conspicuously exaggerated in the

case of the much more massive NW. Himalaya.

aes

aor

Fig. 43. The localization of the endemic nival Heteroptera in areas, which

were under heavy valley glaciers during the Pleistocene : for example, the Pongong

Valley area, with Tibetocoris (area obliquely striped) district and the Tso Morari

area (vertically striped) with Phimodera district. The Tibetocoris-group of species

are distributed on the Ladakh Range and across the Chang Chenmo spurs to the

southern slopes of Karakorum. In this and in the following figures, the thick black

lines indicate the crest lines of the mountain ranges, and the thin lines, the ridges.

V. Tue FACTORS GOVERNING THE DISTRIBUTION OF NIVAL INSECTS

The peculiarities of distribution and the faunal characters of the

nival insects, which we have outlined above, are closely linked up with

their past distribution, their special ecologic characters, some of the more

recent phases of the orogenic movements leading to the uplift of the

Himalaya, and a number of other factors. Some of the major factors

governing the distribution of these insects can partly be observed in the

field and others can be readily deduced from their known distribution.

A great many of the distributional peculiarities may be traced to the

high ecologic specialization of the nival insect fauna (100). The nival

insects are cold-adapted species, which inhabit the montane tundras

above an elevation of 3000 m. They are predominantly endogeous or

terricolous, flightless, hygrophiles, with a pronounced preference for

850 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

\ <M,

pa U7,

{ 74

Fig. 44. The distribution of Bembidion ladas Andr., Bembidion ixion Andr.,

Bembidion leve Andr., and Bembidion livens Andr., which are localized between

the Ladakh Range and the Zaskar Range in the area drained by R. Indus .

(Indus Valley glacier of the Pleistocene) (striped oblique). Note the extension to

the north slope of the Great Himalaya on the spurs near Nun Kun Peak. The

Chang Chenmo area (striped horizontal), north of the Pongong Tso is the centre

of localization of Bembidion hutchinsoni Andr. ;

S]LADAKENSE |_|

IRREGULARE

Fig. 45. The distribution of the Juntaka-group of species of Bembidion in the

NW. Himalaya. Note the discontinuity of distribution along the main ridges and

spurs. The crest line of the Great Himalaya (with Nun Kun Peak) is crossed only

at two points, viz. near the Baralacha Pass and the Zojila Pass,

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 851

| AQUILUM

GILGIT@ CAPOROACCOI

PICTUM

aid RINAGA

MURREE @ a!

pelum JAMMU. KEVLAG es

J ) eS AMBA aa

yer ba :

of i ee f

KANGRA\

32 © _e 32

4 Kulu

& \

B. Suflej

74 76 78

Fig. 46. The distribution of the pictum-group of species of Bembidion in the

NW. Himalaya.

74 76 78 80

any ¢00 0080 0

fP 0c o gH dq 0 OM

6 & oP +> =

CN ° ey N nol FUSCICRUS

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OGHAM BARS ;

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Fie. 3 estan idi ] abet a embidi. ephalum

Fig. 47. The distribution of Bembidion fuscicrus Motsch., Bembidion bucephau

Bates) Bembidion dardum Bates, Bembidion pamiricola Lutch., and. Bembidion

petrimagni Net. in the NW. Himalaya.

852 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

_Fig. 48. Parallel series of linear, localized, and discontinuous concentrations of

nival species in the neighbourhood of high peaks.

Peaks with permanent snow shown black ; concentrations of nival insects with

B . Bottom row shows elevation, and rows 1-4 on different ranges as viewed from

the alr.

areas seasonally under snow cover. The maximum ecologic stability

in the majority of the species is reached at about an elevation of 4000 m.

above m.s.l. but many species are integral parts of the environment

far above the permanent snow line. All the species are characterized

by prolonged hibernation under snow cover, with a relatively short and

active period of rapid development in the brief summer. ‘The specific

optima of ecologic requirements for nearly all the species are found only

in irregular, discontinuous, greatly isolated patches or islets, which alone

have the concentrations of population. These ecologic specializations

have largely contributed to the localization, discontinuity, and concen-

tration in isolated patches. The factors which admittedly govern the

distribution include the means of dispersal, topography, the massiveness

of the NW. Himalaya, permanent snow line, geology, and Pleistocene

glaciations. We shall briefly consider some of these factors.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 853

@25!9

38087

Fig. 49. Map of the region of the NW. Himalaya, showing the location

(black circles) of the high peaks of an average altitude of 6000 metres above mean

sea level and higher. Note that the areas of masses of peaks are also the areas

of heavy concentrations of the nival insect species.

Fig. 50. Map of the region of the NW. Himalaya, showing the concentra-

tions of species in areas which were formerly glaciated (+ inside circles) and

areas of the present day glaciers (+-)

854. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 39 (3)

y #6 6

Vesa eS,

@CHAMBA °S— So, &

<a NY ¢

@KANGRA

76 78

Fig. 51. Map of the region of the NW. Himalaya, showing the more impor-

tant present day glaciers.

Means of Dispersal. An ecologically highly specialized group of

insects, comprising predominantly flightless, endogeous or terricoious

forms, have greatly limited means of dispersal. The dispersal of the

greatest majority of the nival species is more or less purely passive and

is often brought about by glacier movements, erratics, avalanches, etc.

The slow sliding of the submerged stones helps the passive dispersal of

most torrential types. The active dispersal of species, which still retain

wings and are thus capable of sustained flight, such as is the case with

Lepidoptera and many Diptera, is mostly restricted by the localization

of their larval food plants and limited flight range and is therefore not

appreciably faster than passive dispersal. It is indeed interesting that

in the case of species with active means of dispersal, the distribution is

more localized and the isolation greater than in those with passive means

of dispersal. The dispersal is in all cases limited to the short and fleeting

summer, when the snow cover is temporarily lifted for a brief period.

The actual range of the greatest bulk of the nival species therefore per-

sists substantially unchanged, often for prolonged periods.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 855

Topography. The topographical peculiarities, which are important

from the point of view of the distribution of the nival insects, centre

around the trend lines of the parallel and more or less converging moun-

tain ranges, the disposition of the inter-connecting spurs and ridges, the

water partings and the location of the high peaks. These peculiarities

act not merely as physical barriers to dispersal but have often also favoured

and in many cases routed the distribution of different species and of

faunal exchanges with neighbouring regions. The effects of topographical

differences may often be more or less masked at lower elevations, but

are generally greatly exaggerated above the timber line. The nival

species, especially the endemites, the Pamir-central-Asian elements and

the Tibetan-Himalayan elements are distributed along the trend lines of

the main ranges and their spurs. The parallel series of discontinuous

localized concentrations of species, with greater or less isolation and

microgeographically allopatric populations, described above, are mostly

mirror images of the locations of the massive high peaks along the trend

lines and main crest lines of the different mountain ranges. It is only

where the southern slope of a mountain range impinges on the northern

flank of the neighbouring range as, for example, in the mountain knot of

the Bara Bangahal in the Chenab-Beas drainage system, or when suffh-

ciently high spurs connect the ranges, as for example, near the Nun Kun

Peak in the Indus drainage area, that the distribution is at right angles

to the general trend line of the Himalaya. These places are also the

actual lines of inter-communication between the species complex of the

different mountain ranges. Particular attention should, in this con-

nection, be drawn to the fact that the endemites are mostly associated

with the high massifs, the Mediterranean elements have spread mostly

on the southern slopes, and the Indo-Malayan elements have penetrated

through the valleys. Another point of interest is that the crest line of

the Great Himalaya continues unbroken and unpierced by the rivers,

right from the River Sutlej to the River Indus, the whole length of the

NW. Himalaya. The mass of granite of the Great Himalaya seems to

constitute an effective barrier to faunal exchanges between the Indus

drainage area and that of the Chenab-Beas and Jhelum in the south.

Such faunal exchanges occur only near the Baralacha La and the Zojila

Pass. Localizations and discontinuous concentrations are admittedly

the result of the ruggedness of the terrain and the differences in the ecologic

optima on the different mountain ranges, their major spurs and ridges.

The major details of the distribution of any species change only when

the topography becomes altered conspicuously in any part of its total

distributional range.

The permanent snow line. The distribution of a great many species

is undoubtedly limited by the permanent snow line. Many species like

Dolmacoris deterrana Hutchinson, Nysius ericae (Schill.), Colias eogene

856 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

francesca Watkins, Argynnis algaia vitatha Moore, and Proisotoma

subornata (Denis) may be considered as indicators of the permanent snow

line and are never found at lower elevations. There are numerous other

species which occur exclusively at elevations far above the permanent

snow line. The Heteroptera, Emblethis horvathiana Hutchinson (5520 m.)

and Tibetocoris margaretae Hutchinson (5180-5365 m.) are, for example,

confined to elevations above the permanent snow line. MNysius ericae

alticola Hutchinson (5000-5300 m.), and Chlamydatus pachycerus Kirit- -

schenko (4525-5335 m.) are found immediately below the permanent

snow line and also at higher elevations. The same is the case with the

Carabid, Amara brucei Andrewes (4350-5300 m.). The Staphylinid

Atheta (Dimetrota) hutchinsoni Cam. is confined to elevations from 5300

to 5600 m. above m.s.l. and naturally much above the permanent snow

line. Five local subspecies of Parnassius delphius Eversm. occur at ele-

vations ranging from 5330 m. to nearly 5800 m., all above the permanent

snow line. Parnassius simo zarrensis (Bang-Haas) and Parnassius

stoliczkanus stoliczkanus Bang-Haas ascend up to nearly 5600 m. Colias

leechi Gr.-Gr. and Colias stoliczkanus Moore both occur at elevations

higher than 5600 m. Numerous Collembola like Friesea excelsa Denis

(5500 m.) and Orchesellides boraoi Bonet (5200-5600 m.) also belong to

the areas above the permanent snow line. The distribution of these

species above the permanent snow line is confined to nunataks (vide infra).

The permanent snow line on the different mountain ranges of the NW.

Himalaya seems to greatly influence the abundance and extent of the

seasonal snow cover which, as discussed in an earlier paper (100), is an

important favourable factor for the distribution of most species of nival

insects. The permanent snow line on the different mountain ranges

thus exerts a profound influence on the abundance of species and the

elevations at which they occur. Most species ascend higher where the

permanent snow line is high. The wealth of species is however distinctly

large where the permanent snow line is relatively low. We have, for

example, a much larger concentration of species at elevations on the

Ladakh Range (permanent snow line 5640 m. on the north slope and

5790 m. on the south slope) than on the Zaskar Range (permanent snow

line above 6000 m. on the south slope and 5940 m. on the north slope),

The south slopes of the Karakorum, drained by the River Indus, with

the permanent snow line at about 5640 m., are the areas of the distribution

of much larger numbers of species than the Zaskar Range. The minor

fluctuations in the permanent snow line from year to year are generally

reflected in similar fluctuations in the distributional pattern of the species

immediately above and below.

Geology. As is well known, geologists generally recognize three

more or less distinct stratigraphical zones. The northern or the so-

called Tibetan stratigraphical zone lies mostly to the north of the main

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 857

crest line of the Great Himalaya and comprises continuous series of

marine fossiliferous sedimentary rocks ranging from the Palaeozoic Era

to the Eocene. A central Himalayan zone of crystalline and metamor-

phic rocks like granite, gneiss, schists, etc., often also with ancient un-

fossiliferous sedimentary rocks, comes next. We then have the so-called

sub-Himalayan zone comprising mostly the Upper Tertiary river sedi-

mentaries and conglomerates (Figs. 52, 53). The geological characters

SiG) Coc Un OO

sjeliefeleerele eness

dreteleneie ele.

72 74 : 76 78 80

Fig. 52. Geological map of the region of the NW. Himalaya. (After

Burrard & Hayden,’ 18)

SUTLES spits INDUS

: 1

Sw. t { Ne

<SUB-HIM?<--H | M A LiA Y A WN Z ON €E-->€----T ees —E YT wN zs 0) fh) TE opsok

: t

KALKA SIMLA 1 { eh A A te 1

miei A= he Kae FEISS SH BS DEERE NAN LY

ery ° Fi

GRANITE 2,PURANA 3.HAIMANTA 4.MUTH, KANWAR & S.LILANG 6.INDUS VALLEY7.SIRMUR 8,LOWER 9.UPPER

GROUR SYSTEM, KULING SYSTEMS. SYSTEM. TERTIARY SERIES, SIWALIKS. SIWALIKs.

Fig. 53. Diagrammatic section of south-north through the region of the NW.

Himalaya, showing the general geological structure.

of the substratum are likely to influence the distribution of a number of

species through their action as limiting factors on the distribution of their

larval food plants. The marine sedimentary strata north of the crest

line of the Great Himalaya, with the typically arid Artemisia-steppes,

are, for example, characterized by a remarkable community of species,

which are, as far as is known at present, apparently confined wholly to

these areas. Both the Indo-Malayan and the Mediterranean faunal

elements also appear to be more or less restricted to the Indus Valley

858 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

shales and the Spiti shales. The relation between the distribution of the

nival insects and the geological peculiarities of the NW. Himalaya is dis-

cussed further below.

Pleistocene Glaciations. The Pleistocene climatic changes are pro-

bably also at the back of the dominance of several typical nival groups

like Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Coleoptera and the total or almost com-

plete absence of. others like Odonata (118). The large valley glaciers of

the Pleistocene occupied the gorges and the valleys and remoulded them

in many localities, transported large boulders and other erratics, and pro-

foundly altered the general topography of the region and thus indirectly

influenced the spread of most species. The effects of the Pleistocene

glaciations on the nival insect fauna from the NW. Himalaya are referred

to again further below. .

VI. FAUNAL SUB-DIVISIONS

The analysis of the distribution of the endemites and of the concen-

trations of species in general, presented in the foregoing sections, shows

an unmistakable tricentric pattern. There are three general centres of

species endemism and massing of species, coincident with the three major

drainage areas and separated from each other by more or less well-marked

water partings. The main water parting largely coincides with the main

crest line of the Great Himalaya Range. To the north of this is the

vast area drained by the River Indus. South of the main crest line of

the Great Himalaya we have the areas drained by two distinct systems,

separated by another water parting, viz. the Chenab-Beas system (in-

cluding Ravi River) in the east and the River Jhelum in the west. The

three chief drainage areas constitute also three natural faunal sub-divi-

sions or faunal provinces of the NW. Himalaya (Fig. 54). The nival in-

sect fauna have apparently had different histories in the three provinces.

The Indus province includes the mountain ranges drained mainly

by the River Indus in its upper reaches, before turning south near Bunji,

viz. the north slopes of the Great Himalaya, the Ladakh Range, the

Zaskar Range, parts of the Karakorum and Kailas ranges. The whole

of Ladakh, Baltistan, Zaskar, Rupshu, northern parts of Kashmir in the

area of Nanga Parbat, Deosi, and parts of Gilgit are within the Indus

faunal province. Its boundaries are defined in the north by the main

crest line of the Karakorum and in the south by the main crest line of the

Great Himalaya, from the Shipki Pass in the area drained by River Sutlej

on the India-Tibet border in the east and stretching north-westward to

1The water parting lies north of the crest line of the main range in the portion

of the Himalaya east of River Sutlej ; it is only in the NW. Himalaya that the water

parting and the crest line coincide, so that none of the rivers cut across the main range

from the north, but run parallel to it for great distances,

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 859

the River Indus after its Bunji bend to the south, to the north-west of

Nanga Parbat. This faunal province contains the maximum number of

high peaks and present-day glaciers and also the largest number of areas

which were more or less heavily glaciated during the Pleistocene. The

74 75 7

sa 6 80 |

1oNe cs oo Golfo at PANS INDUS PROVINCE

GiLeiT git No Aes \ CHENAB-BEAS PROV.

Bee SP aslha JHELUM PROVINCE [fi

T+ coe PT . . |

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S, xe RR . s ae UG AON 4 5 . « . G . 5 : . aie

wy + + + + + + Pe oer ar . he : . . . . . . . : a

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yaa

three faunal provinces coincide with the three natural drainage areas.

Indus province is also more arid than the Chenab-Beas and the Jhelum

faunal provinces. Nearly 240 species have been collected from about

100 localities in the Indus province. The Chenab-Beas faunal province

comprises the mountain ranges drained by the rivers Beas, Ravi, Chenab,

and partly also the Sutlej, viz. the southern slopes of the Great Himalaya

Range, the Great Pir Panjal Range, and the Dhavla Dhar. Lahaul,

Spiti, Kulu, Kangra, Mandi, and Chamba are within the limits of this

faunal province. The crest line of the Great Himalaya demarcates the

northern boundary and. in the west the water parting between the Jhelum

and Wadhwan (a tributary of Chenab River) to Kishtwar. There are

fewer high peaks than in the Indus faunal province and also fewer and

shorter glaciers. Atmospheric aridity is high but not so high as that of

‘the Indus province. The general elevation is high in the east and shows

a general tendency to diminish in the west. Nearly 150 species have been

collected so far from about 60 localities in this faunal province. The

Jhelum faunal province contains the areas drained by the River Jhelum

860 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

and its tributaries, viz. the western parts of the south slopes of the Great

Himalaya, the western end of the Pir Panjal, Kashmir Valley, and parts

of Pakistan. The number of high peaks and glaciers is lowest as also

the general elevation. Aridity is least marked in the whole region. About

160 species have come from about 30 localities.

The percentages of the nival species of the different orders and their

faunal component elements in the three faunal provinces are sum-

marized in tables XI and XII respectively.

TABLE XI

Analysis of the percentage abundance of species in different orders in the three

faunal provinces

Serial Order Total Indus Prov. Chenab-Beas Jhelum

No. species Proy. Prov.

5 : he

ih Plecoptera 5) | —— 100.0 —

2 | Odonata ern att 25.0 75.0

3 Orthoptera 14 | 46.1 7.6 46.1

4 Dermaptera 3 | 33.3 66.6 33.3

3) Heteroptera 17 94.1 Sy: _-

6 Homoptera if 100.0 — —

‘| Coleoptera 187 53:0 33.0 49.0

8 Hymenoptera 36 75.0 28.1 15.6

9 Neuroptera 1 100.0 — —

10 Trichoptera 11 | 54.0 9.0 G3e7

11 Lepidoptera 91 | 76.0 36.2 37.3

12 Diptera 7 | yal — = ie

13 Thysanura 3 100.0 — =

14 Collembola 15 60.0 40.0 6.6

Note.—The percentages are calculated out of the total species of the order in the

NW. Himalaya ; in the case of Hymenoptera the percentages are out of only 32 species,

because the exact distribution of the 4 remaining species is not known at present.

TABLE XII

Analysis of the faunal elements in the three faunal provinces

Palaearctic

Serial Total | Autochthone |---| !ndo-Malayan

No. Province , ° fe

Species 0 Total Medit.

Ya | %

1 Indus 240 42.6 97.0 4.0 2.0

2 Chenab-Beas 121 26.0 97.0 58.0 3.0

3 Jhelum 155 22.0 95.0 5.0 5.0

A I Ne nc Te ee eR nn er OO

Note.—The percentages are out of total species from the province, except in the

case of the Mediterranean elements, where it is out of the total Palaearctic of the pro-

vince,

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA 861

A reference to Table XII will show that the largest number

of autochthone species is found in the Indus province, in other words

the species endemism is here at the maximum. There are as many as

102 endemites (47%) and about 60 non-endemites on the mountains

drained by the River Indus. The Indus province is also a region

of maximum localized concentrations of nival species. Among Coleop-

tera nearly 54% of the nival Carabidae, 86% of Hydrophilidae, the

_ whole of Tenebrionidae, and about 70% of Chrysomelidae are found in

the province. About 75% of the Bombidae and 92% of the Formicidae

are Hymenoptera of the Indus province. In Lepidoptera, it is interesting

to observe that the percentage of species in the major families is

similarly high, viz. Papilionidae 71%, Pieridae 95°, and Nymphalidae

63%. Almost all the central-Asian elements so far known from the

NW. Himalaya occur in the Indus province. Localizations to the south

of the crest line of the Great Himalaya in the Chenab-Beas province

include about 32 endemites and 30 non-endemic species. In the Jhelum

province we have about 37 endemites and 25 non-endemites. About

14% of the species found in the Indus province also occur in the Chenab-

Beas province and about 28% in the Jhelum province. The percentage

of the Indo-Malayan element is highest, viz. 5%, in the Jhelum province.

The Mediterranean elements are high (8 %) in the Chenab-Beas province.

The Indo-Malayan and the Mediterranean elements are low (2% and

4% respectively) in the Indus province. The area of contact of the Indo-

Malayan and the Palaearctic Realms thus appears to be situated between

the crest lines of the Great Himalaya and the Pir Panjal ranges.

(To be continued)

On the Botany of Lucknow District’

S. L. Kapoor

National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow

(With a map)

SYNOPSIS

The present paper is a revision of Anderson’s work (1859) on the

flora of Lucknow District, Uttar Pradesh, and gives a comprehensive

list of the plants of the district, both wild as well as commonly cultivated.

In all 914 species have been recorded, of which 391 are additions to

Anderson’s catalogue. Salient notes on the location and topography

of the district, soil, factors influencing the vegetation, and vegetation in

general have also been given.

Important families met with in the area are, in order of dominance,

Gramineae, Leguminosae, Compositae, Cyperaceae, Euphorbiaceae,

Acanthaceae, Convolvulaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Amaranthaceae, Labia-

tae, Malvaceae, and Polygonaceae. The flora of the district can be styled’

as agrarian with an introduced flora of considerable amount and a large

jumber of truly cultivated species. As indicated by the climatic con-

ditions, the tropical element is dominant. There are practically no

natural formations, as the trees have been cut and the forests removed

in the past by growing population.

INTRODUCTION

Anderson, an Assistant Surgeon in the garrison at Fort William

about the middle of the 19th century, published his paper ‘ Notes on

the flora of Lucknow with catalogues of the cultivated and indigenous

plants’ in the year 1859, which seems to be the only work on the flora

of Lucknow, besides the recently published builetin on the economic

plants of Lucknow by the National Botanic Gardens and Patil’s list

(1960) of common geasses with a key to the genera. After Anderson’s

work no worthwhile detailed study appears to have been made to sup-

1 Communicated by the Director, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow.

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT 863

plement his list. Duthie (1903-1929), in FLORA OF THE UPPER GAN-

GETIC PLAIN, includes very few species from Lucknow. [ak

Anderson could not publish a complete list ; as he explains : ‘ my list

is not so complete as it might be, for, as my original collections were

lost during the mutinies, it has been compiled from a set of duplicates

I sent to Dr. Thomson, and from a small collection I made, while on

service at Lucknow last year’. Again he could not give any climatolo-

gical data as his records of meteorological observations ‘ were destroyed

during the mutinies of 1857’, It has been difficult to ascertain the

actual boundaries of the district at the time Anderson made his collec-

tions, for the first recorded settlement took place only during 1862-71

(LUCKNOW GAZETTEER, 1958). At that time the parganas of Kursi and

Dewa on the north and north-east, and Auras-Mohan on the south-

west were transferred to the districts of Barabanki and Unnao respect-

ively. Since then the boundaries of the district have remained unchanged.

Considering the above mentioned facts it appeared quite desirable

for some worker in the field to study the flora of Lucknow in detail. Even

otherwise the flora of a region normally requires reinvestigation after a

period of 25 years as there can be introduction of a large number of

species and the disappearance of many, ‘besides the nomenclatural

changes. Santapau (1956)' has emphasized the importance of local

floras when he observed : ‘ The area to be selected for botanical explora-

tion should not be too big; . . . I would recommend that an area about

10 miles in diameter . . . be taken as first object of exploration; .. .

the area may then be expanded . . . , and thus gradually the whole of

India may be finally covered by the research workers ...’ Thus there

is a great need to have detailed district-wise floras. The author has,

therefore, attempted here a comprehensive list of the plants of Lncknow

together with notes on location and topography, factors influencing the

vegetation, and vegetation in general. The list is based on the author’s

observations spread over a period of five years during which he worked

out the Weed Flora of the National Botanic Gardens also, supplemented

with the specimens lodged at the herbarium of the National Botanic

Gardens, Lucknow.

Location. The district of Lucknow lies between 26° 30’ — 27° 10’

N. and 80° 30°— 81° 13’ E. It is bounded on the north by the district of

Sitapur, on the south by that of Rae Bareli, on the east by that of Bara-

banki, on the north-west by the district of Hardoi and on the south-west

by that of Unnao. The river Sai forms the only natural boundary for

a short distance on the south and south-west. It is an irregular quadri-

lateral with an average length of 72.5 kilometres (45 miles) and an

1 The Botanical Exploration of India (Presidential Address delivered at the 35th

Annual Meeting of the Indian Botanical Society held at Agra in January 1956).

J. Indian bot. Soc. 35 : 4-5.

864. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

average breadth of 40.3 kilometres (25 miles), the city and cantonment

of Lucknow being situated almost in the centre. The area of the district

SCALE

1 cm. = 4830 m.

1. Pargana Malihabad ; 2. Parg. Mahona; 3. Parg. Kakori; 4. Parg. Bijaor;

). Parg. Lucknow; 6. Parg. Nigohan; and 7. Parg. Mohanlalganj.

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT 865

is 624,900 acres (c. 253,700 hectares) (being worked out by the Survey

of India according to LUCKNOW GAZETTEER), It is the smallest district

in Uttar Pradesh with the exception of the district of Rampur.

Topography. The district falls in the main Gangetic Plain of Uttar

Pradesh. It is almost level except for some deep ravines caused by the

rivers and rivulets. There could be three natural divisions, viz. the

Gomti basin, the Sai and its catchment area, and the central upland on

the higher watershed, running from the north-west to the south-east.

The Gomti basin has Gomti River meandering and forming a deep

bed with high banks that are cut up at places by ravines or rivulets that

join the river. It includes parts of the pargana of Malihabad on its

right, those of Mahona on its left, the central portion of Lucknow tahsil

and the north-eastern part of tahsi] Mohanlalganj. The valley of the

river is alternately narrow and wide and the banks may be steep, sloping,

or almost at the level of the river. At places there may be moist tarai

or khadir land between the two banks formed from silt deposited by

floods. This tarai land is very fertile and, if free from the floods of the

river, yields good crops. The high banks of the river Gomti consist

either of wide tracts of undulating sand or raised ridges of rugged

ground from which the soil has been washed and cut away by the rains.

These sandy dunes are fit for nothing except the cultivation of poor

crops of bajra or thatching grass. The light sandy soil in parganas

Malihabad and Mahona is remarkable for excellent crops of melons for

which Lucknow is so famous. The course of the tributaries of the

Gomti is mostly marked by unculturable land abounding in beds of

kankar and locally called usar.

The Sai and part of its catchment area lie to the south and south-east

of the district and are characterized by the presence of large areas of

alkaline lands or usar. The tracts of barren land extend sometimes for

several miles and present practically no sign of vegetation excepting a

few scrubby plants and some hardy species here and there. The bed of

the river Sai is shallow in comparison with that of the river Gomti and

the land on its banks is also less broken by ravines. The river has sandy

tracts similar to those of the Gomti but the tarai of the river is very small

extending over a few villages only.

The central upland, which forms the most fertile part of the district,

lies between the Gomti basin and the Sai and its catchment-area.

The whole area is dotted with numerous depressions which dry up

in hot weather, shrinking into small ponds containing about only 90 cm.

depth of water ; during rains the level of water in these rises to as much

as 4.5 m. or so. Among such important ditches or lakes is the Karaila

Jhil of Mohanlalganj, which is estimated to cover an area of about 320

hectares. The Hardoiya jhil has an area of about 80 hectares while the

Sissendi jhil is a smaller one with an area of about 60 hectares, In

866 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

pargana Bijnor, the only lake of any importance is the Khartola jhil with

an area of about 20 hectares. Near Amausi there is another jhil called

the Kusela jhi] covering an area of about 200 hectares. The Kathauta ta]

of Chinhat and Moti jhil of Aishbagh are also important.

There is a gradual slope in the land of the district from the north

and north-west to the south and south-east with an imperceptible fall

of about 19.0 cm. per kilometre. At its extreme north near Mahona

the level is 137 m. above the mean sea-level. At Alambagh which may

be considered almost in the centre of the district near Lucknow, the -

altitude is 120m. And at Nagram on the south-east it is only 113.3 m.

above sea-level.

Soil.! In the pargana of Malihabad there runs a narrow irregular

belt of light loam across the centre from the border of Hardoi up to

the town of Malihabad. This portion of the pargana is drained by the

small Akraddi and Jhingi streams. The west and centre of the pargana

is occupied by a somewhat low-lying and ill-drained tract of stiffish loam

with patches of usar. The extreme west and south of the pargana has

a soil generally of light loam. The north-western part of pargana

Mahona lies in the tarai of the river Gomti whereas the western centre

has got a stretch of undulating sand. There is a narrow belt of dumat

along the Sitapur road and flanking the tarai and bhur soils. Further

towards the south-east along the metalled road to Kursi there are usar

lands with patches of reh. The land in the north-east is covered with

clay. In the tahsil of Mohanlalganj the tracts along the river Gomti in

the north-east are characterized by bhur. The soil in the neighbour-

hood of the river Bakh, a tributary of the river Sai, is generally a loam

of fair quality,-changing into sandy bhur as it approaches the river Sai.

The rest of the Mohanlalganj tahsil consists of an extensive matiyar

plain which is suitable for rice cultivation. The north-central tract,

however, consists of dumat soil. In addition to these there exist some

tarai areas, Which are mostly inferior, along the Gomti and .the Sai.

The watersheds of the rivers Gomti and Sai are seldom well defined

‘and frequently stretches of low-lying, ill-drained land are found in

which the water collects to form large jhils and where usar has been

formed as the result of saturation. In the pargana of Lucknow the

upland overlooking the Gomti and its tributaries is sandy, while

further inland there are villages on either side of the river possessing

fertile loam of a “better texture. In the extreme west and south of

the district flows the river Behta, whose course is characterized by

ravines and inferior sandy soil with numerous reefs of kankar. South

1 dumat (or loam), a mixture of matiyar and bhur in various proportions ; matiyar

(or clayey soil) contains compounds of silica and alumina, iron, potash, soda, and

other substances ; bAur (sandy soil).

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT 867

of Malihabad, in the pragana Kakori, the area north of Ghazi-ud-din

Haider Canal has a soil of a fair light loam. In the southern area of

the canal and also in the extreme south of pargana Lucknow the soil is

stiffish heavy loam with vast shallow depressions. In the pargana of

Lucknow most of the central portion has matiyar soil. Here the

cultivation of rice is important. The north-eastern part comprising the

Gomti region has a fair light loam degenerating into sand on the slopes

of ravines and on the edge of the high banks of the Gomti.

The district of Lucknow forms a portion of the Indo-Gangetic

plain formed by the deposits of the rivers laid in the post-tertiary period.

The geology of the district exposes nothing but the ordinary Gangetic

alluvium. The nature and depth of this alluvium shows coarse sand

and sandy silt with occasional beds of clay and kankar. Apart from

kankar, brick earth and marl beds occur in various parts of the district.

FACTORS DETERMINING THE VEGETATION OF THE DISTRICT!

Climatic Factors

Rainfall. The average annual rainfall is 953.2 mm., as indicated in

Table 1. 3

From the table it will be seen that 88.6% of the annual rainfall

occurs during the four monsoon months, viz. June, July, August, and

September. The month of October receives only 3.4% of rain while

March, April, and May together receive only 3.2% of the annual

rainfall. The cold months of November, December, January, and

February receive together 4.7% of the annual rainfall only. July and

August are the rainiest months of the year receiving 30.3% and 28.7% of

rain respectively.

The number of rainy days varies from month to month (See Table 1).

During the monsoon months the rains may at times be torrential,

at times gentle, and may last for one or more days. The intense heat

and drought of the days bakes hard the soil and wherever the drainage

has been established the violent rains quickly run off. Consequently

under such conditions erosion is heavy and the soil is wet only to a

slight depth. The water may get stored up in shallow depressions to

form seasonal lakes.

Large variations in rainfall from year to year are not infrequent.

Table 2 illustrates the annual variations.

1 Dudgeon’s paper on the ecology of the Upper Gangetic plain has formed the

basis for this discussion, ~

868 JOURNAL, BOMBAY

NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

. - (oe)

Hd uosuey | SRR RALUAMALANA

% Ut ‘H ‘YW IAIN a)

E Tl co ~ \Oo | ~~

OBVIDAV SHRGAMDROROOS

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TABLE 12

‘>, Ul ‘dure,

*xeul ATIep Udy

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jo ‘ou URoJ

[reyuret

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Teyurey

Months

NENIearqeoeneonna

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QC OS CVO ES ONO TOs

MNOMmMN ar OOMOM

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FCS Sy NOG TE Sy ico Ca

CONNER ON N 00

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320m. ow Bese

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SmatAaasnlinoZa

| 32:2 19.2

49.2

953.2

Over 12-month

period

2 Meteorological observations have been taken from the DISTRICT GAZETTEER (1958).

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT 869

TABLE 2

Ver Annual rainfall | Vent pent eine

1933 650.0 - 1950 714.0

1934 1073.0 De 195) 542.0

1935 564.0 1952 840.0

1936 1618.0 | 1953 1263.0

1937 848.0 1954 1011.0

1947 1260.2 1955 1255.0

1948 1364.0 1956 855.0

1949 1240.0 “1957 1032.0

The highest annual rainfall for Lucknow, during a period of 83

years ending 1951, was 1867 mm. in 1915, which is 196% of the normal.

The lowest rainfall was 365.8 mm. in 1876, which is 38% of the normal.

The heaviest rainfall in a day in the district did not exceed 330.2 mm.

during the period from 1891-1920. As regards the- frequency of the

rainfall covering the years 1868-1950, 14% of the years recorded rainfall

exceeding 125% of the normal and 18% of the years received rainfall

less than 75% of the normal. 41% of the years had rainfall greater than

normal.

Temperature. The climate of the district is distinctly continental.

The nearest large body of water, the Bay of Bengal is more than 960 km.

eastward. As a result of this the temperature exhibits a fae range

between day and night.

Table 1 shows the mean maximum and minimum monthly temper-

atures. The highest and the lowest temperatures ever recorded in the

district are also given in the table based on observations from 1881 to

1940—as usual the temperatures have been recorded at a height of

1.22 m. (4 ft.) above the ground.

The table shows that the lowest mean daily maximum and minimum

temperatures occur in January (23.4°C. and 8.4°C. respectively).

February is slightly warmer, the maximum and minimum temperatures

being 25.9°C. and 10.8°C. respectively. After this there is a rapid

rise in both maximum and minimum temperatures up to June. As

seen from the averages, May is the hottest month of the year with

the temperatures ranging between 25.8°C. and 40.8°C., but the highest

temperatures of the hot months are recorded in the month of June.

The highest temperature recorded on any day within a period of 70 years

870 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

is 48°C. and the lowest is 1.7°C. The data collected in recent years

show that in the months April to June, the temperature may exceed

38°C. on an average of 3 to 6 hours daily. At this time the hot

dry winds further aggravate the situation which is detrimental to

plant life. From July to October the maximum temperature is almost

constant while the minimum temperature gradually falls from 26.4°C.

in July to 24.8°C. in September and then suddenly it falls to 19.2°C. in

October. After this the fall in both maximum and minimum temper-

atures is rapid, reaching ultimately 24.4°C. and 8.5°C. respectively

in the month of December.

Table 1 also shows that the daily range of temperature is large

throughout most of the year. In the monsoon it reaches a minimum

of 6.7°C. in August, whereas it rises to 17.0°C. during the month of

April. The highest daily range of temperature may easily extend to

22°C. on individual days.

Humidity. Table 1 gives the mean monthly R. H. in per cent at

two times of the day (the figures are based on observations from 1881 to

1940).

The abovementioned table shows that from 81% in January the

R. H. falls rapidly to a minimum of 39% in April and then rises again to

86% in August. There is a slow fall in September to 82% and in

October to 72% after which it again starts rising. It falls very rapidly to

the minimum in April as there is a rapid rise in temperature and

very scanty rain.

The daily humidity range is highest in the month of January and

lowest in July. As a rule the range is great throughout the winter

season and least throughout the rainy season ; during the hot season it

is intermediate.

It may be pointed out that the month-wise figures of mean relative

humidity give a very inadequate picture of the severe conditions to

which plants are subjected in the hot season. For example, during April

the mean values at 8.0 hrs. and 17.0 hrs. have been recorded as 39% and

19% respectively while there are many days when it falls as low as 10%.

During the rainy season the humidity is generally high and at

all times very favourable for plants. During the cold season the

highest mean maximum is 81% in January. The daily range is greatest

during this period. There is a heavy fall of dew also at night. The

humid nights permit the vegetation to recover from the drought of day.

During the hot season, however, there is little opportunity for recovery

following the extremely dry day and none but the most xerophytic

of the herbaceous plants are able to survive during this difficult period.

Wind. Uttar Pradesh experiences NW. winds during the cold

season, causing a winter monsoon. The wind during this period is

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT 871

mostly dry with only occasional slight precipitation. During May

and June and sometimes even in April, there is a strong hot wind (/oo)

from NNW. which starts before 11.00 hours and continues till 17.00

hours or sometimes all the 24 hours of the day, exerting a powerful

dessicating effect on vegetation so that practically no herbaceous vegeta-

tion is able to survive. Only those plants that are favourably situated

with regard to water supply are protected from the dessicating effect

of loo.

Climate and climatic seasons. From the foregoing it will be clearly

seen that the climate is characteristically periodic like that of the whole

of northern India, with its three well-marked seasons, viz. rainy, cold,

and hot; corresponding to them are three distinct vegetational

seasons. The district has a sub-tropical monsoon type of climate.

The rainy season begins about 20 June and lasts to the end of Septem-

ber or beginning of October. Sometimes, depending upon the monsoon

from the Bay of Bengal, the rainy season may commence as early as

the beginning of June or may be delayed as late as the first week of July.

_ Itis characterized by high rainfall, low insolation, high temperature, and

high humidity. July and August may be taken as the typical months

of the rainy season. In July the R. H. ranges from 75% to 82% and

the temperature from 26.4°C. to 33.6°C.; in August R. H. from 77% to

86% and the temperature from 25.9°C. to 32.6°C. Such conditions are

optimum for plant growth and therefore, a luxuriant herbaceous

vegetation, springs up.

The rainy season gradually merges into the cold season which extends

from early October to the end of February. It is characterized by low

rainfall, high insolation, low temperature, and relatively high humidity.

December and January may be selected as the typical months of the cold

season. In December R. H. ranges from 54% to 80% and the temper-

ature from 8.5°C. to 24.4°C.; in January R. H. from 47% to 81% and

the temperature from 8.4°C. to 23.4°C. Such conditions result in a

vegetation that is mesophytic comprising a large proportion of temperate

plants.

The hot season extends from beginning of April to the end of. June,

the month of March being transitional. This season is characterized by

low rainfall, high temperature, high insolation, low humidity, and

strong winds. May is the typical month of the hot season with the

R. H. ranging from 28% to 46% and the temperature from 25.8°C.

to 40.8°C. The climatic conditions during summer months are distinctly

xerophytic, with the result that the mesophytic vegetation of the

cold season disappears and only those plants that are adapted to

conditions of severe drought are able to survive. In some areas, where

there is a sufficient supply of moisture, the mesophytic vegetation is also

able to sustain itself forming a distinctly green cover.

872 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: 59 (3)

Biotic Factors

Biotic factors are also quite responsible and important in shaping the

vegetation of the district. In this connection it will be of interest to throw

a glance at the growth of population in the district. From 1869 to 1951

the population of the district has increased from 7,78,195 to 11,28,101

in an area of 624,900 acres (c. 253,700 hectares) or from 1.2 per acre

to 1.8 per acre. Besides the human population a large number of

domestic grazing animals, like cattle and buffaloes, sheep and goats, and

horses and donkeys, etc., interfere with the vegetation.

The influence on the vegetation due to increase in human population

has resulted in extensive as well as intensive cultivation, as also in

grazing by animals and cutting down of plants for fodder and fuel.

Cultivation. Of the total area of the df&trict 60.5% was under

cultivation in 1956-57, whereas only 3.3% was covered with forest.

Forests have been cut down. Wild plants have been uprooted and their

place has been taken up by annual ruderals. Cultivation tends to make

an area more and more xerophytic, as after the harvest of the crops

the soil is left practically bare and dries up speedily. Of this Lucknow

is a glaring example.

Grazing by animals. Because of increased domesticated animals

the uncultivated land is subjected to progressive denudation, the effect of

which becomes pronounced in the cold season. Ultimately during the

hot summers all grasses and other associated plants are eaten down

to the soil surface and the ground is left practically bare, exposing

the earth to dry hot winds. Even sporadic thorny shrubs and small trees,

with a few inedible exceptions, do not escape, as the animals which

are very often subjected to famine conditions in summer browse upon

them.

Cutting for fodder and fuel. Men indiscriminately lop off the tall

woody shrubs and small trees and also the xeric grass covering the

soil surface, rendering the dry earth further exposed to scorching heat and

dessication. The trees planted along the roads are also no exception to

this cruel treatment. This cutting for fuel has been responsible to

a considerable extent for reducing the forest areas in the district of

Lucknow.

Wild grazing animals are of no importance so far as Lucknow district

is concerned. Earthworms are abundant during the rains and their

burrows are of importance in promoting aeration and water penetration

which is helpful in maintaining the vegetation.

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT 873

VEGETATION

It has already been stated that a major part of the district has been

under cultivation from time immemorial and has practically no natural

formations. There is evidence indeed to show that the district of

Lucknow at one time had a considerable area under forests. As the

population increased, the biotic factors became active and the area

under forests diminished to practically nil. The total area under jungle

(under trees or bushes) during 1901-1902 was reported to be about

30,000 hectares which dwindled down to 10,000 hectares in 1951-52,

which is about 4.3% of the total area of the district and, as already stated,

in 1956-57, only 3.3% was under forest cover. Kukrail Forests situat-

ed on both sides of the river Kukrail before it joins the river Gomti

form a compact block of 2,043 hectares, reserved by the Government of

U.P. recently. A large number of economically important plants have

been introduced here and this afforestation will be beneficial in prevent-

ing soil-erosion although it may take years to transform the area into a

rich and dense forest. Small areas of scrub jungles which might have

been thick deciduous forests at one time may be seen in the parga-

nas of Mohanlalganj, Mahona, and Malihabad.

The flora of the district can correctly be styled as agrarian with

an introduced flora of considerable amount and with a large number of

truly cultivated species. Many species indigenous to other parts of the

country or belonging to foreign countries were planted in the past in

local gardens. Asthese old gardens were abandoned the introduced

plants continued to grow and spread as escapes throughout the area.

Ultimately many of these plants have become completely naturalized,

and have become well established within the area as wild plants. To

these may be further added other widely spread species introduced by

various foreigners from time to time. Thus the main constituents of the

vegetation as seen in the forests of the district of Lucknow are: Acacia

arabica A. leucophloea, Adina cordifolia, Alangium salvifolium, Albizzia

lebbeck, Azadirachta indica, Butea monosperma, Capparis decidua,

C. sepiaria, C. zeylanica, Carissa spinarum, Casearia tomentosa,

Clerodendrum phlomoides, Cordia dichotoma, C. rothii, Diospyros

montana, Ehretia laevis, Ficus hispida, Flacourtia indica, Gardenia turgi-

da, Gmelina arborea, Mitragyna parvifolia, Oroxylum indicum, Phoenix

sylvestris, Randia dumetorum, Stereospermum personatum, Streblus

asper, Zizyphus mauritiana, Z. nummularia, Z. oenoplia, etc.

The common shrubby elements which are found dispersed through-

out the area are : Adhatoda vasica, Calotropis procera, Datura innoxia,

D. metel, Jatropha gossypifolia, Lantana camara var. aculeata, and

Pluchea lanceolata. .

874. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

The herbaceous vegetation is seasonal mostly either during the rains

or during winter,

The common rainy season plants are: Acalypha ciliata, Anisomeles

indica, Borreria hispida, B. stricta, Cassia occidentalis, C. tora, Cleome

icosandra, Commelina spp., Corchorus aestuans, Cyperus spp., Euphor-

bia hirta, Fimbristylis spp., Gynandropsis gynandra, Indigofera ennea-

phylla, I. linifolia, Justicia spp., Leucas .aspera, L. cephalotes, Malvas-

trum coromandelianum, Murdannia nudiflora, Oldenlandia spp., Peristro-

phe bicalyculata, Phyllanthus spp., Physalis minima, Rungia pectinata,

Scirpus spp., Sida spp., Solanum nigrum, Tephrosia purpurea, Trian-

thema decandra, T. portulacastrum, and scores of other species, and

many grasses.

The common winter season herbs, a large number of which occur as

common Weeds also, are: Ageratum conyzoides, Amaranthus gracilis,

A. spinosus, Anagallis arvensis, Argemone mexicana, Blainvillea acmella,

Blumea spp., Chenopodium album, C. murale, Conyza aegyptiaca, Coro-

nopus didymus, Crotalaria medicaginea var. luxurians, Eclipta prostrata,

Euphorbia hirta, E. thymifolia, Fleurya interrupta, Fumaria indica, Gnap-

halium indicum, G. purpureum, Launaea nudicaulis, Lindernia ciliata,

L. crustacea, Mazus japonicus, Melilotus alba, M. indica, Portulaca olera-

cea, Potentilla supina, Ranunculus sceleratus, Salyia plebeia, Scoparia

dulcis, Spergula arvensis, Stellaria media, Tribulus terrestris, Vernonia

cinerea, Veronica agrestis, etc.

The common species in and around the lakes and ponds are:

Aeschynomene aspera, A. indica, Aponogeton crispum, A. monostachyon,

Azolla pinnata, Bacopa monniera, Ceratophyllum demersum, Eichhor-

nia crassipes, Eriocaulon sieboldianum, Hydrilla_ verticillata, Hygroryza

aristata, Ipomoea aquatica, Jussieua repens, J. suffruticosa, Lagarosiphon

_alteranifolius, Lemna polyrrhiza, Monochoria vaginalis, Nelumbo nucifera,

Neptunia oleracea, Nymphaea spp., Nymphoides cristatum, N. indicum,

Ottelia alismoides, Pistia stratiotes, Potamogeton crispus, P. pectinatus,

Sagittaria guayanensis, S. sagittifolia, Typha angustata, Utricularia

flexuosa, U. stellaris, Vallisneria spiralis, Wolffia arrhiza, Zannichellia

palustris, etc. |

The insectivorous plants of the district of Lucknow are: Utricularia

flexuosa and U, stellaris, which can be collected from Chinhat and

other lakes.

The important parasitic plants of the district are: Cuscuta reflexa,

Dendrophthée falcata, Striga euphrasioides, and Orobanche indica.

Common roadside trees of the district are: Albizzia lebbeck, Azadi-

rachta indica, Cassia fistula, and other Cassia spp., Dalbergia sissoo,

Delonix regia, Emblica officinalis, Ficus benghalensis, F. glomerata,

F. lacor, F. religiosa, Holopteleaq integrifolia, Madhuca indica, Mangifera

ie 5 dni

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT 875

indica, Pterospermum acerifolium, Schleichera fe Syzygium cumini,

and Tamarindus indica.

Plants commonly planted near the temples are : Hibiscus rosa-sinen-

sis, Jasminum multiflorum, J. sambac, Lochnera rosea, Mirabilis jalapa,

Nerium indicum, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Rosa spp., Tabernaemontana

coronaria, Tagetes erecta, and Thevetia peruviana.

The orchard trees in the district are mainly mango, guava, jamun,

and litchi. The dassehri and safeda varieties of the mangoes of Luck-

now are famous and the former are exported to earn foreign exchange.

The other famous fruit of Lucknow is kharbooza (melon) which is thin-

skinned and has no rival in softness and sweetness.

Important plants of medicinal value found in Lucknow are

Adhatoda yasica (aroosa), Andrographis paniculata (kalmegh), Azadi-

rachta indica (neem), Boerhavia diffusa (punarnava), Centella asiatica

(brahmi), Cissampelos pareira (ambashtha ; parhee), Cocculus hirsutus

(chhimta ; jamti-ki-bel), Curculigo orchioides (musli), -Dioscorea spp.

(ratalu and its forms), Hemidesmus indicus (anantmool), Ocimum spp.

(tulsi and its forms), Pedalium murex (bada-gokhru), Piper longum (pipli),

Rauwolfia serpentina (sarpgandha; dhamarbarua; chhota_ chand),

Tinospora cordifolia (gurch), Tribulus terrestris (chhota-gokhru), etc.

Some of the species reported by Anderson as indigenous to the area

have very meagre chances of occurring in Lucknow. These are:

Nasturtium palustre DC.* (itis a temperate species), Malva rotundifolia

Linn.* (it occurs in N.W.P., Kumaon, Sindh, Bengal, and Mysore),

Trigonella sp. (?)*, Ammannia octandra Linn.* (it is distributed in the

Deccan, Ceylon, Chittagong, and Malaya), Myriophyllum spicatum Linn.*

(it is found in Kashmir and Kumaon), Blumea hieracifolia DC. (Duthie

has reported it doubtfully from the region of Upper Gangetic Plain),

Cirsium wallichii DC. (=Chnicus wallichii Hk. f.; it is a Himalayan

species, also occurring in the Nilgiri Hills; a variety of this species has

been reported to occur at Dehra Dun), Carissa edulis Vahl* (not in

F.B.1.), Cynoglossum furcatum Wall.*, Ipomoea cymosa R. & S.*

[=Merremia umbellata (Linn.) Hall. f.], Leucas zeylanica R. Br.* (it

occurs only in Assam, Cachar, and Chittagong), Desmochaeta atropur-

purea DC. * (= Pupalia atropurpurea Moq,.; it is found in Nepal, Bengal,

and the Deccan), Chenopodium hybridum Linn.* (it is a temperate

species occurring in Ladakh etc.), Rumex acutus Roxb. (= R. mari-

timus Linn.; included by Duthie in his FLORA doubtfully), Chrozophora

tinctoria A. Juss.* (it occurs in the Punjab, Sindh, and Deccan),

Euphorbia helioscopia Linn.* (it is found in the Punjab and Western

Himalaya and also introduced in the Nilgiris), Zsolepis squamosa (2)*,

* Not reported in Duthie’s FLORA OF UPPER GANGETIC PLAIN, besides the

species of Gramineae.

876 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Crypsis schoenoides Lam. (it occurs in the Punjab, W. Tibet, Sikkim, and

Kashmir), Phalaris canariensis Linn. (J. D. Hooker says in F.B.I.: ‘is

given as a N.W. India Grass by Duthie and others, but I have seen no

specimens ; it closely resembles P. minor, differing in the quite entire

wings of the gls.’ It is found in North Africa and Europe. P. canariensis

Wall. is a synonym of P. minor Retz. and this species has been included

in my list), Alopecurus agrestis Linn. (= A. myosuroides Huds.; it

occurs in temperate and subtropical Himalayas and in Khasia Hills),

and Eragrostis interrupta Nees (2).

The probability of the occurrence of the following species, reported

by Anderson as indigenous to Lucknow, cannot be ruled out, though

they have not been included in the present list as they have not been

spotted by the author himself: Tamarix gallica Linn., Waltheria indica

Linn., Corchorus depressus Linn. (= C. antichorus Roeusch.),

C. trilocularis Linn., Glycosmis pentaphylla Corr., Ameletia indica DC.

( = Ammannia peploides Spreng.), Ammannia pentandra Roxb.,

A. rotundifolia Buch.-Ham., Vahlia viscosa Roxb., Blumea aurita DC.

(='Laggera aurita Schult.-Bip.), Matricaria chamomilla Linn., Glossogyne

pinnatifida DC., Machlis hemisphaerica DC. ( = Cotula hemisphaerica

Wall.), Erythraea roxburghii Don, Hydrolea zeylanica Vahl, Ehretia

aspera Roxb., Solanum verbascifolium Linn., Herpestis hamiltoniana

Benth. [ = Bacopa hamiltoniana (Benth.) Wettst.], Bonnaya veronicaefolia

Spreng. (Syn. B. verbenaefolia Spreng.), Verbascum thapsus Linn.,

Amaranthus tenuifolius Willd., Aerva javanica Juss. = A. javanica

(Burm. f.) Spreng.], Typha elephantina Roxb., Potamogeton indicus

Roxb., Eriocaulon quinquangulare Linn., Carex wallichianus Presc.,

Eleocharis palustris R. Br., Mariscus dilutus Nees ( = M. microcephalus

Presl.), Panicum umbrosum Retz. [ = Brachiaria reptans (Linn.) Gard.

& Hubb.], Digitaria sanguinalis Scop., Aristida setacea Retz., and

Eragrostis koenigii [= E. interrupta (Lamk.) Beauv.].

Iséetes sp., Ophioglossum reticulatum L., Azolla pinnata R. Br.,

Marsilea quadrifolia Linn., and Equisetum debile Roxb. have also been

collected from Lucknow, of which the third and fourth have been

reported by Anderson also. Fquisetum arvense L. included in

Anderson’s. catalogue may also be found. The species of Algae as

reported by Saxena (1960) have been excluded. :

Of the 914 species of Phanerogams enumerated in the list, 391 are

new to Anderson’s catalogues.

A botanical survey of Lucknow District reveals that in order of

dominance the first ten positions for the families are: Gramineae,

Leguminosae, Compositae, Cyperaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Acanthaceae,

Convolvulaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Amaranthaceae, Labiatae, and

Malvaceae and Polygonaceae. This compares well with the position in

Gangetic Plain where the order of dominance is: Leguminosae,

' ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT 877

Gramineae, Compositae, Cyperaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Acanthaceae,

Urticaceae, Malvaceae, Rubiaceae, and Labiatae.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Prof. K. N. Kaul for facilities for work.

Thanks are also due to Sri Hira Lal Yadav, National Botanic Gardens,

Lucknow, for helping the author during the identification of specimens.

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION OF PLANTS

The arrangement of the families is practically in the same order as

in Hooker’s F.B.I. Raizada’s papers on name changes and volumes of

WEALTH OF INDIA, RAW MATERIALS have been consulted in order to give

the most up-to-date name. INDEX KEWENSIS has helped in tracing out

Anderson’s old synonyms. The symbols used are * for specimens not

recorded by Anderson, and + for specimens cultivated. The species

of grasses reported from Lucknow recently by Patil are marked {.. The

second name in brackets under a species is the neo used. OF

Anderson.

RANUNCULACEAE

Delphinium ajacis Linn.-++ Nigella sativa Linn. -+-*

Ranunculus sceleratus Linn.

MAGNOLIACEAE

Michelia champaca Linn.+

ANNONACEAE

Annona reticulata Linn. + Polyalthia longifolia Benth. et

A. squamosa Linn. + Hook. f.+

Miliusa velutina Hook. f. et T.* (Gautteria longifolia Wall.)

P MENISPERMACEAE

Cissampelos pareira Linn. Tiliacora acuminata Miers.*

Cocculus hirsutus (Linn.) Diels. Tinospora cordifolia Miers.

(Cocculus villosus DC.)

NYMPHAEACEAE

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Nymphaea pubescens Willd.

(Nelumbium speciosum Willd.) _- (Nymphaea lotus auct.)

N. stellata Willd.

PAPAVERACEAE

Argemone mexicana Linn. P. dubium Linn. +

Not seen by the author.

Papaver rhoeas Linn, + P. somniferum Linn. +

878 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,. Vol. 59 (3)

FUMARIACEAE

Fumaria indica Pugsley

(F. parviflora Lam. var. vaillantii)

CRUCIFERAE

Brassica campestris Linn.

var. sarson Prain +*

B. juncea Czern. et Coss. +

(Sinapis juncea Linn.)

Reported by Anderson ag cultivated

and indigenous both ; it is seen grow-

ing as escape.

B. napus Linn. +

B. oleracea Linn. var.

botrytis Linn. +

B. oleracea Linn. var.

capitata Linn. +

Capsella bursa-pastoris (Linn.)

Moench.*

Cheiranthus cheiri Linn. +

Coronopus didymus Sm.*

Eruca sativa Mill. +

Lepidium sativum Linn. -

Reported by Anderson as cultivated

but it has now run wild.

Raphanus sativus Linn. +

Sisymbrium irio Linn.

CAPPARIDACEAE

Capparis decidua Edgew.

(C. aphylla Roth)

C. sepiaria Linn.*

C. zeylanica Linn.

(C. horrida Linn.)

Cleome icosandra Linn.

(Polanisia viscosa DC.)

Crataeva nurvala Buch.-Ham.*

Gynandropsis gynandra Briq.

(G. pentaphylla DC.)

VIOLACEAE

Hybanthus enneaspermus F. Muell.

(lonidium suffruticosum Ging.)

FLACOURTIACEAE

Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr.

(F. sapida Roxb.)

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala chinensis Linn.

(P. arvensis Willd.)

P. erioptera DC.

(P. vahliana DC.)

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Arenaria serpyllifolia Linn.*

Dianthus chinensis Linn. +

Polycarpaea corymbosa Lamk.

Reported by Anderson under

Paronychiaceae.

Polycarpon indicum (Retz.) Merr.

(Hapalosia loeflingiae Wall.)

Reported by Anderson under

Paronychiaceae.

Saponaria vaccaria Linn.+

Reported by Anderson as indigenous 3

has been seen growing as escape

Silene conoidea Linn.

Spergula arvensis Linn. *

S. pentandra Linn.

Stellaria media Cyrill.

(S. media Sm.)

PORTULACACEAE

Portulaca grandiflora Hook. -+-*

P. quadrifida Linn.

P. oleracea Linn.

P. tuberosa Rox. *

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT 879

TAMARICACEAE

Tamarix articulata Vahl ?*

T. dioica Roxb.*

ELATINACEAE

Bergia ammannioides Roxb.

MALVACEAE

Abelmoschus esculentus Moench-++

A. moschatus Medic.+

Reported by Anderson as indigenous,

though it is only cultivated and has

often been seen growing as escape.

Abutilon indicum Sweet

Adansonia digitata Linn.+*

Althaea rosea Cav.-+

Gossypium arboreum Linn.+*

G. herbaceum Linn.+

Hibiseus cannabinus Linn.+

H. lobatus O. Ktze.*

H. mutabilis Linn. +

H. rosa-sinensis Linn. -+

H. sabdariffa Linn.-+

Malvastrum coromandelianum Garcke*

Malva sylvestris Linn.-++

M. verticillata Linn.*

Salmalia malabarica Schott. et Endl.

(Bombax malabaricum DC.)

Under Bombaceae in Anderson’s

catalogue.

Sida acuta Burm. f.

S. cordifolia Linn.

S. rhombifolia Linn.

(S. retusa L.)

S. spinosa Linn.*

S. veronicaefolia Lamk.

(S. humilis Willd.)

(S. mysorensis W. et A.)

Thespesia populnea Soland.-++*

Urena lobata Linn.

STERCULIACEAE

Guazuma ulmifolia Linn.*

Melochia corchorifolia Linn.

Pentapetes phoenicea Linn, +

Pterospermum acerifoliam Willd. +-*

P. semisaggitatum Ham. + *

TILIACEAE

Corchorus aestuans Linn.

(C. acutangulus Lam.)

C. capsularis Linn.

C. olitorius Linn.

C. tridens Linn.*

Grewia asiatica Linn. +

Has been seen growing as escape.

Triumfetta bartramia Linn.*

7 T. pentandra A. Rich.*

Duthie includes it from Lucknow.

LINACEAE.

Linum usitatissimum Linn. +

Reinwardtia trigyna Planch.-++

(Linum trigynum Roxb.)

Anderson has reported it both as

indigenous as well as cultivated but

it is only cultivated.

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Tribulus terrestris Linn.

OXALIDACEAE

Averrhoa carambola Linn.-+

Has been collected as apparently wild.

Biophytum sensitivam DC.*

Oxalis corniculata Linn.

O. latifolia H.B.K.

O. martiana Zucc.*

BALSAMINACEAE

Impatiens balsamina Linn. +

880

Aegle marmelos Corr.-+

Reported by Anderson as indigenous.

Citrus aurantifolia Swingle-++*

C. aurantium Linn.+

(C. bergamia Risso.)

C. limettioides Tanaka-+

(C. limetta Risso.)

C. maxima Merrill+-

(C. decumana L.)

C. medica Linn. +

Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. +

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

Also cultivated.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 59 (3)

RUTACEAE

C. paradisi Macf.-++*

Feronia limonia Swingle+-

(F. elephantum Corr.)

Reported by Anderson as indigenous.

Murraya koenigii Spreng.-++

(Bergera koenigii L.)

M. paniculata Jack. -+-*

Ruta graveolens Linn. var.

angustifolia Hook. f.+

(R. angustifolia Pers.)

SIMARUBACEAE

Balanites aegyptiaca Del.*

BURSERACEAE

Garuga pinnata Roxb.+*

MELIACEAE

Melia azedarach Linn.-+

M. sempervirens Roxb.+

Soymida febrifuga A. Juss.+-*

CELASTRACEAE

Celastrus paniculatus Willd.*

Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.

(Z. jujuba Lam.)

Also cultivated.

Z. nummularia W. et A.*

Ampelocissus latifolia Planch.*

Cayratia carnosa Gagnep.*

Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn.*

Dodonaea viscosa Jacq.+

Also seen as escape.

Litchi chinensis Sonner.+

(Nephelium lichi W. et A.)

RHAMNACEAE

Z. oenoplia Mill.

Z. vulgaris Linn.+

Now rarely cultivated.

AMPELIDACEAE

Cissus quadrangularis Linn.-+-*

Vitis tenuifolia W. et A.*

V. vinifera Linn.+

SAPINDACEAE

Sapindus emarginatus Vahl

Also cultivated.

Schleichera oleosa Oken. -+ *

ANACARDIACEAE

Mangifera indica Linn.+

MORINGACEAE

Moringa oleifera Lam.

(M. pterygosperma Gaertn.)

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT 881

PAPILIONACEAE

Abrus precatorius Linn.

Aeschynomene aspera Linn.*

A. indica Linn.

Alhagi camelorum Fisch.

(A. maurorum Loutr.)

Alysicarpus bupleurifolius DC.

A. monilifer DC.

A. rugosus DC.*

A. rugosus DC. var.

heyneanus Hk. f.*

A. vaginalis DC.

A. vaginalis DC. var.

nummularifolius Miq.

(A. nummularifolius DC.)

Arachis hypogaea Linn.++*

Butea monosperma Taub.

(B. frondosa Roxb.)

Cajanus cajan Millsp.+-*

Also seen growing as escape.

Canavalia ensiformis DC.-+

(C. gladiata DC.)

Cantharospermum scarabeoideum Bail.*

Cicer arietinum Linn.-++

Clitoria ternatea Linn.-++

Crotalaria chinensis Linn.*

C. juncea Linn.

Also cultivated.

C. medicaginea Lam,*

_C. medicaginea Lam. var.

luxurians Baker

(C. luxurians Benth.)

C. medicaginea Lam. var.

neglecta Baker

(C. neglecta W. et A.)

C. mysorensis Roth

C. sericea Retz.

C.verrucosa Linn.*

Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Taub.+

(C. psoraloides DC.)

Reported as indigenous by Anderson.

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb...

Also cultivated.

Desmodium gangeticum DC.

D. gangeticum DC. var.

maculatum Hk. f.*

D. latifolium DC.

D. triflorum DC.

Dolichos lablab Linn. +

(Lablab vulgare Savi and L. cultratum

DC.)

Erythrina suberosa Roxb.-+*

E. variegata Linn. var.

orientalis Merr. +-

(E. indica Lam.)

Heylandia latebrosa DC.

Indigofera cordifolia Heyne ex Roth*

I, enneaphylla Linn.

I. hirsuta Linn.

I. linifolia Retz.

I. tinctoria Linn. -

Reported by Anderson both as culti-

vated as well as indigenous ; now rarely

cultivated.

I. viscosa Lamk.*

Lathyrus aphaca Linn.*

L. sativus Linn.

Reported by Anderson as cultivated;

but it has now run wild.

L. sphaericus Retz.*

Lens culinaris Medic.-+-

(Vicia lens)

Medicago denticulata Willd.

M. lupulina Linn.

M. sativa DC.-++

Melilotus alba Desr.

(M. leucantha Koch.)

M. indica All.

(M. parviflora Desf.)

Millettia ovalifolia Kurz +*

Mucuna capitata W. et A. +*

M. prurita Hook.

Also cultivated.

Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacq.

Reported by Anderson as cultivated,

but it has now run wild.

P. lunatus Linn.+

P. mungo Linn.+

P. radiatus Linn. +

Pisum sativum Linn. +

Has been seen growing as escape.

Pongamia pinnata Pierre.+ *

Psoralea corylifolia Linn.

Also cultivated.

Rhynchosia capitata DC.*

R. minima DC.

(R. medicaginea DC.)

R. sericea Span.”

Sesbania bispinosa W. F. Wight

(S. aculeata Pers.)

S. grandiflora Poir.+*

S. paludosa Jacq. ex. DC.+ *

882. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Sesbania sesban Merr. T. occulta Del.*

(S. aegyptiaca Poir.) Uraria picta Desv.

Also cultivated. Vicia faba Linn.

Tephrosia pauciflora Grah.* V. hirsuta Gray

T. purpurea Pers. V. sativa Linn.

T. tenuis Wall.* Reported by Anderson as cultivated;

T. villosa Pers.* but it has now run wild. —

Teramnus labialis Spreng. Vigna catiang Walp. +

(Glycine labialis Linn.) (Dolichos sinensis Linn.)

T. labialis Spreng. var. Zornia diphylla Pers.

mollis Bak.* (Z. angustifolia Sm.)

Trigonella foenum-graecum L. +

Also seen growing as escape.

CAESALPINIACEAE

Bauhinia racemosa Lam. + C. fistula Linn. +

(B. parviflora Vahl) C. occidentalis Linn.

B. tomentosa Linn. + * Reported by Anderson as cultivated;

B. triandra Roxb. + but it grows wild.

(B. purpurea Linn.) C. pumila Lam.

B. variegata Linn. C. siamea Lam. +*

Also cultivated ; a white flowered form CC. sophera Linn.

reported by Anderson underthe name C. sumatrana Roxb.+*

of B. variegata var. candida is also C. surattensis Burm. f.

cultivated. (C. suffruticosa K6n.)

Caesalpinia bonduc Roxb.+ C. tora Linn.

(Guilandina bonduc Ait.) Delonix regia Rafin.-+*

Reported by Anderson both as culti- Parkinsonia aculeata Linn.+

vated as well as indigenous. Peltophorum pterocarpum Backer ex K,

C. pulcherrima Swartz+ Heyne +*

(Poinciana pulcherrima Linn.) Saraca indica Linn.-++*

Cassia absus Linn.* Tamarindus indica Linn. +

C. auriculata Linn.+ Also seen in forests.

MIMOSACEAE

Acacia arabica Willd. A. procera Benth. +*

A. auriculaeformis Cunn. ex Bth. + * Mimosa pudica Linn. +

A. catechu Willd.* M. rubicaulis Lam.

A. farnesiana Willd. + Neptunia oleracea Lour.

Reported by Anderson as indigenous, (Desmanthus natans Willd.)

but it is only cultivated. Pithecelobium dulce Benth. + *

A. leucophloea Wilid.* Has a tendency to spread.

Albizzia lebbeck Benth. + Prosopis juliflora DC. + *

(Acacia serissa Buch.)

ROSACEAE

Eriobotrya japonica Lindl. + Prunus triflora Roxb. +

Potentilla supina Linn. Though not seen by the author.

Prunus persica Stokes + Pyrus sinensis Lindl.

(Amygdalus persica L.) Rosa centifolia Linn. +

Anderson has reported var. nectarina R. indica Linn.-+

and var. cordifolia Roxb. also.

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT 883

CRASSULACEAE

Bryophyllum pinnatum Oken. +

(B. calycinum Salisb.)

COMBRETACEAE

Quisqualis indica Linn. +*

Terminalia arjuna W. et A.-+*

T. muelleri Benth.+

Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. +*

E. umbellatus Dornin.+*

Eugenia jambos Linn. +

MYRTACEAE

Psidium guajava Linn.-+

(P. pyriferum Linn. and

P. pomiferum Ling.)

Syzygium cumini Skeels. +

(Eugenia jambolana Lam.)

Ammannia baccifera Linn.

(A. vesicatoria Roxb.)

A. multiflora Roxb.

A. salicifolia Monti *

Punica granatum Linn.+

Lagerstroemia indica Linn. +

Jussiaea repens Linn.

J. suffruticosa Linn.*

LYTHRACEAE

L. parviflora Roxb. +*

L. speciosa Pers.+*

Lawsonia inermis Linn.+

(L. alba Lam.)

Also seen growing in forests.

Woodfordia fruticosa Kurz +*

ONAGRACEAE

_ Ludwigia parviflora Roxb.

Oenothera rosea Soland.+*

Trapa bispinosa Roxb.

SAMYDACEAE

Casearia tomentosa Roxb.*

PASSIFLORACEAE

Passiflora foetida Linn.

_ CARICACEAE

Carica papaya Linn.+

CUCURBITACEAE

Bryonopsis laciniosa Naud.

(Bryonia laciniosa Linn.)

Citrullus colocynthis Schrad.+

Doubtfully wild

C. vulgaris Schrad.-+

(Cucurbita citrullus Linn.)

C. vulgaris Schrad. var. fistulosus

Duthie et Fuller +-*

Coccinia cordifolia Cogn.

(C. indica W. et A.)

Cucumis melo Linn.-+

C. melo Linn. var. agrestis Naud.* |

C. melo Linn. var. momordica

Duthie et Fuller -+

(C. momordica Roxb.)

C. melo Linn. var. utilissimus

Duthie et Fuller -+

(C. utilissimus Roxb.)

C. sativus Linn.-+

Also seen growing as escape.

C. trigonus Roxb.* _

Cucurbita maxima Duch.-+

C. moschata Duch, ex Poir.-+*

884 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

CUCURBITACEAE—(contd.)

Cucumis pepo Linn.-++

Also seen growing as escape.

Lagenaria vulgaris Ser.+*

Also seen growing as escape.

Luffa acutangula Roxb. +

Also seen growing as escape.

L. cylindrica M. Roem.-+

(L. pentandra Roxb.)

Also seen growing as escape.

L. echinata Roxb. +*

Also seen growing as escape.

Melothria maderaspatana Cogn.

(Bryonia scabrella Linn.)

Momordica charantia Linn. +

Anderson has reported it both as indi-

genous as well as cultivated but it has

only been seen growing as an escape

from cultivation.

M. dioica Roxb. ex Willd.*

Trichosanthes anguina Linn.++

Also seen growing as escape.

T. cucumerina Linn.

T. dioica Roxb. -+*

Also seen growing as escape.

CACTACEAE

Opuntia dillenii Haw.-+

(Cactus indicus Roxb.)

Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn.*

Glinus lotoides Linn.

G, oppositifolius A. DC.

(Mollugo spergula Linn.)

Mollugo nudicaulis Lam.

M. pentaphylla Linn.

Anethum graveolens Linn.-+

(A. sowa Roxb.)

Also seen growing as escape.

Centella asiatica Urban.

(Hydrocotyle asiatica L.)

Coriandrum sativum Linn.+

Also seen growing as escape.

Cuminum cyminum Linn. +*

Also seen growing as escape.

FICOIDEAE

Trianthema decandra Linn.

(T. pentandra L.)

T. portulacastrum Linn.

(T. obcordata Roxb.)

T. triquetra Willd. ex Rottl.

(T. crystallina Vahl)

UMBELLIFERAE

Daucus carota Linn.+*

Foeniculum vulgare Mill .+

Oenanthe javanica DC.”

Trachyspermum ammi Sprague +-

(Ligusticum ajowain Roxb.)

Has been seen growing as escape,

T. roxburghianum Craib +

(Pimpinella involucrata W. et A.)

T. stictocarpum Wolff. *

ALANGIACEAE

Alangium salvifolium Wang.*

Adina cordifolia Hook. f.

(Nauclea cordifolia Roxb.)

Also cultivated.

Borreria hispida Schum.

(Spermacoce hispida LL.)

B. stricta Schum.

(Bigelowia lasiocarpa W.et A.)

Dentella repens Forst.*

Gardenia florida Linn.+ —

G. lucida Roxb.-++*

G. turgida Roxb.*

Hamelia patens Jacq. +*

Hamiltonia suaveolens Roxb. +

RUBIACEAE

Ixora coccinea Linn. +

Mitragyna parvifolia Korth, *

Morinda tinctoria Roxb.

(M. citrifolia Linn.)

Also cultivated.

Mussaenda frondosa Linn. +

Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn.

(Hedyotis burmaniana Br.)

O. dichotoma Hook. f.*

O. diffusa Roxb.*

O. gracilis Hook. f.*

Randia dumetorum Lam.

R. uliginosa DC.*

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT

885

COMPOSITAE

Ageratum conyzoides Linn.*

Artemisia vulgaris Linn. +

(Artemisia indica Willd.)

Reported by Anderson both as indi-

genous as well as_ cultivated—now

only cultivated.

Bidens biternata Merr. et Sherff.

(B. decomposita Wall.)

Blainvillea acmella Phil.

(B. latifolia DC.)

Blumea amplectens DC.*

B. glomerata DC.*

B. lacera DC.

B. laciniata DC.*

B. membranacea DC.*

B. oxyodonta DC.

B. wightiana DC.*

Caesulia axillaris Roxb.

Calendula officinalis Linn. +

Callistephus chinensis Nees +

Carthamus tinctorius Linn. +

Also seen growing apparently wild.

Centaurea cyanus Linn. +

C. moschata Linn. +

(Amberboa moschata DC.)

Centipeda minuta A. Br. et Aschers.

(Myriogyne minuta Less.)

Chrysanthellum indicum DC.

Chrysanthemum indicum Linn. +

C. sinense Sabine +

Cichorium intybus Linn. -+-*

Also seen growing as escape.

C. endivia Willd.+

Not seen by the author.

Cnicus arvensis Hoffm.*

Conyza aegyptiaca Dryand.*

C. ambigua DC.?*

Cosmos bipinnatus Cav. -+-*

Cotula anthemoides Linn.*

Echinops echinatus Roxb.

Eclipta prostrata Linn.

Elephantopus scaber Linn.

Emilia sonchifolia DC.

Galinsoga parviflora Cav.*

It is surprising to find one specimen

of this species in N.B.G. herbarium

collected from Lucknow proper ; pro-

bably it got accidentally introduced.

Gnaphalium indicum Linn.

G. luteo-album Linn.

G. pulvinatum Del.

(Filago prostrata DC.)

G. purpureum Linn.*

Goniocaulon glabrum Cass.-+-

(Amberboa indica DC.)

Grangea maderaspatana Poir.

Gynura aurantiaca DC. --*

Seen growing as escape.

Helianthus annuus Linn. --

H. tuberosus Linn. +-

Inula vestita Wall.

Launaea aspleniifolia Hook. f.

(Microrynchus asplenifolius DC.)

L. nudicaulis Hook. f,

(Microrynchus nudicaulis Less.)

Mikania scandens Willd. ?*

There is a single poor specimen

collected by the author.

Pluchea lanceolata Cl.

(Berthelotia lanceolata DC.)

P. tomentosa DC,-+-*

Pulicaria crispa Sch.-Bip.

(Francoeuria crispa Cass.)

Sonchus arvensis Linn.*

S. asper Hill*

S. oleraceus Linn.

Sphaeranthus indicus Linn.

(S. mollis Roxb.)

Spilanthes acmella Murr.-+*

Also seen growing as escape.

Tagetes erecta Linn. +

T. patula Linn. -+

Tridax procumbens Linn.*

Vernonia cinerea Less.

Vicoa indica DC.

Volutarella ramosa Santapau

(Microlonchus divaricatus DC.)

Xanthium strumarium Linn.

CAMPANULACEAE

Campanula canescens Wall.

Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn.*

Wahlenbergia gracilis Schrad.*

PRIMULACEAE

Anagallis arvensis Linn.

886 JOURNAL, BOMBAY

Madhuca indica Gmel.+

(Bassia latifolia Roxb.)

Diespyres montana Roxb.*

Jasminum humile Linn. +

(J. revolutum Sims)

J. multiflorum Andr.+

(J. pubescens Willd.)

NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

SAPOTACEAE

Manilkara hexandra Dub. +*

M. kauki Dub. +

(Mimusops kauki Linn.)

EBENACEAE

D. tomentosa Roxb.+

OLEACEAE

J. sambac Ait.+

Reported by Anderson as indigenous

though it is only cultivated.

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn. +

J. officinale Linn. var. grandiflorum

Kob.+

(J. grandiflorum Linn.)

SALVADORACEAE

Salvadora persica Linn.

Allamanda cathartica Linn. +

Alstonia scholaris R. Br. +*

Carissa congesta Wt.+

(C. carandas auct.)

C. spinarum Linn.*

Ervatamia coronaria Stapf +

APOCYNACEAE

L. rosea Reichb.+

(Vinca rosea L.)

Nerium indicum Mill.+

(N. odorum Lam.)

Plumeria rubra Linn. forma acutifolia

Woodson +

(Tabernaemontana coronaria R. Br.) (Plumeria acuminata Ait.)

Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. ex G. Rauvolfia serpentina Benth.*

Don +*

Ichnocarpus frutescens Br.*

Lochnera pussilla Schum.

(Vinca pusilla Murt.)

Calotropis gigantea R. Br.+

R. tetraphylla Linn.*

Thevetia peruviana Schum. +

(T. nereifolia Juss.)

Vallaris heynei Spreng. -+*

Wrightia tinctoria R. Br.+* |

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Leptadenia pyrotechnica Dcne.*

Reported by Anderson as indigenous. L. reticulata W. et A.*

C. procera Br.

Ceropegia longifolia Wall.*

Gymnema sylvestre R. Br.+

Marsdenia tenacissima W. et A.*

Oxystelma esculentum R. Br.*

Telosma pallida Craib.

Reported by Anderson as indigenous. (Pergularia pallida W. et A.)

Hemidesmus indicus R. Br.*

Buddleia lindleyana Fortune+ *

LOGANIACEAE

B. neemda Buch. ex Roxb.+*

Strychnos nux-vomica Linn.+*

= ae -

ON THE

BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT

887

GENTIANACEAE

Canscora diffusa R. Br.*

Enicostema littorale Blume

(Slevogtia orientalis Griseb.)

Hoppea dichotoma Willd.*

Nymphoides cristatum Kize.

(Limnanthemum cristatum Griseb.) .

N. indicum Ktze.*

POLEMONIACEAE

Phlox drummondi Hook.+*

BORAGINACEAE

Arnebia hispidissima DC.

Coldenia procumbens Linn.*

Cordia dichotoma Forst. f.-+

(C. myxaauct.)

.. Has also escaped to the forests.

C. macleodii Hk. f. et T.-+*

C, rothii R. et S.

Khretia laevis Roxb, |

Heliotropium eichwaldi Steud. ex DC,

(H. europaeum L.)

H. indicum Linn.*

H. scabrum Retz.*

H. strigosum Willd.

(A. brevifolium:- Wall.)

Trichodesma indicum R. Br.

£ CONVOLVULACEAE

Argyreia nervosa Boj.-++

(A. speciosa Swt.)

Convolvulus arvensis Linn.

C. microphyllus Sieb.*

C. pluricaulis Choisy

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

Evolvulus alsinoides Linn.

E. nummularius Linn.”

Ipomoea alba Linn.-+-*

I. angulata Lam.-+-

(Quamoclit phoeniceum Choisy)

I. aquatica Forsk.

(I. reptans Poir.)

I. batatas Lam. +

(Batatas edulis Choisy)

I. cairica Sweet-+*

I. hispida R. et S.

(I. sessiliflora Roth) —

I, Jearii Paxt.+-*

I. maxima Don. ex Sweet

(1. sepiaria Koen.)

I. muricata Jacq.

(Calonyction muricatum) :

Reported by Anderson as cultivated ;

it has now run wild.

I. nil Roth

(Pharbitis nil Choisy and P. coerules-

cens Choisy)

Reported by Anderson both as wild as

well as cultivated but not preferred

for cultivation now.

. obscura Ker-Gawl.*

. pes-tigridis Linn.

. pilosa Sweet

. purpurea Lam.-+

(Convolvulus purpureus L.)

Has a tendency to spread.

I. quamoclit Linn. +

(Quamoclit vulgare Choisy)

A white-flowered form reported by

Anderson under the name of Q. vulgare

var. album has also been seen.

Merremia aegyptia Urban.

(Batatas pentaphylla Chois.)

M. dissecta Hall. f.*

M. emarginata Hall. f.*

Operculina turpethum

Silva-Manso-++*

Porana paniculata Roxb.-+*

Lin cee HO ae OO

NOLANACEAE

Nolana paradox LindI.-++*

888 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

SOLANACEAE

Capsicum annuum Linn. var. N. rustica Linn.+-*

acuminatum Fingh.+ N. tabacum Linn.+

(C. annuum Linn.) Physalis minima Linn.

Datura innoxia Mill.* P. peruviana Linn.-++

D. metel Linn. Solanum incanum Linn.*

(D. alba Nees and D. fastuosa L.) S. melongena Linn.-++

Hyoscyamus niger Linn.+- S. nigrum Linn.

Reported by Anderson as indigenous _ S. tuberosum Linn.+

but it is only cultivated and has been S. xanthocarpum Schrad. et Wendl.

seen growing as escape near cultivation. (S jacquini Willd.)

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.+- Withania somnifera Dunal

Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv.* (Physalis flexuosa) L.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Antirrhinum majus Linn.-+* L. parviflora Haines

A. orontium Linn. (Ilysanthes parviflora Benth. and Bon-

Bacopa monniera Pennell naya parviflora Benth.)

(Herpestes monniera Humb. et Kunth) Mazus japonicus Ktze.

Dopatrium junceum Buch.-Ham. (M. rugosus Lour.)

Limnophila indica Druce Russelia juncea Zucc.-+-

(L. gratioloides R. Br.) ~ Scoparia dulcis Linn.*

Lindenbergia indica Ktze. Striga euphrasioides Benth.*

(L. urticaefolia Lehm.) Torenia fournieri Lind.-+*

Lindernia ciliata Pennell Also seen growing as escape.

(Bonnaya brachiata Link et Otto) Verbascum coromandelianum Ktze.

L. crustacea Muell.* (Celsia coromandeliana Vahl)

L. hirsuta Pennell* Veronica agrestis Linn.

V. anagallis Linn.

OROBANCHACEAE

Orobanche indica Buch.-Ham.

(Phelipaea indica G. Don)

LENTIBULARIACEAE

Utricularia flexuosa Vahl* U. stellaris Linn. f.

BIGNONIACEAE

Heterophragma adenophyllum Seem.+ * Oroxylum indicum Vent. *

Has a tendency to spread. Stereospermum personatum Chatt.*

Millingtonia hortensis Linn. f. + Tecoma stans H.B.K. + *

MARTINIAGEAE

Martinia annua Linn. (Martynia diandra Glox.)

PEDALIACEAE

Pedalium murex Linn.* Sesamum indicum Linn. +*

Also seen growing as escape.

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT

889

ACANTHACEAE

Adhatoda vasica Nees

Andrographis paniculata Wall. ex Nees

Duthie includes it from Lucknow.

Asteracantha longifolia Nees

Barleria cristata Linn. +

Anderson has reported it as wild but it

is only cultivated.

B. prionitis Linn.

Also cultivated.

Blepharis maderaspatensis

Roth*

B. molluginifolia Pers, *

Elytraria acaulis Lindau*

Hemigraphis hirta T. Anders.*

H. latebrosa Nees var.

rupestris Cl.

(Ruellia latebrosa Roxb.)

Heyne ex

Hygrophila polysperma Anders.*

Justicia diffusa Willd.

(Rostellaria procumbens Roxb.)

J. gendarussa Burm. +*

Also seen growing as escape.

J. quinqueangularis Koen. ex Roxb.*

J. quinqueangularis Koen. var. peploides

C.B:Gi.

J. simplex D. Don*

Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees

Ruellia prostrata Lam.

(R. ringens Roxb. and Dipteracanthus

dejectus Nees)

R. tuberosa Linn.*

Rungia pectinata Nees

R. repens Nees

VERBENACEAE

Clerodendrum infortunatum Linn.*

C. phlomidis Linn. f.*

Duranta plumieri Jacq. +*

Gmelina arborea Roxb.*

G. asiatica Linn. +

Anderson has reported it both as

indigenous as well as cultivated but it

is only cultivated in the whole of

Upper Gangetic Plain and is often seen

growing as escape.

Petrea volubilis Linn. + *

Phyla geminata (H.B.K.) + *

Lippia geminata H.B.

gen. et sp. li : 266

P. nodiflora Greene.

(Lippia nodiflora Rich.)

Stachytarpheta indica Vahl +*

Verbena officinalis Linn.

Also cultivated.

Vitex negundo Linn.

et K. nov,

Lantana camara Linn. var. aculeata Also cultivated.

Mold.* V. negundo Linn. var. incisa Cl. +

Also cultivated. (V. incisa Lam.)

LABIATAE

Anisomeles indica O. Ktze.

(A. ovata R. Br.)

Hyptis suaveolens Poit.*

Leonotis nepetaefolia R. Br. +

Also grows spontaneously here and

there.

Leucas aspera Spr.

L. cephalotes Spr.

Mentha viridis Linn. +

Nepeta hindostana Haines

(N. ruderalis Hamilt.)

Ocimum americanum Linn.*

Also cultivated.

O. basilicum Linn.

Also cultivated.

O. kilimandscharicum Guérke. +*

Also seen growing as escape.

O. sanctum Linn.

(O. inodorum Koen.)

Also cultivated.

Orthosiphon pallidus Royle ex Benth.*

Duthie reports Anderson’s specimen

from Lucknow though Anderson has

not included it in his catalogue.

Pogostemon plectranthoides Desf.*

Salvia plebeia R. Br.

PLANTAGINACEAE

Plantago major Linn.

Reported to be cultivated also,

P. ovata Forsk. +

(P. isphagula Roxb.)

890

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhavia difiusa Linn.

Bougainvillea buttiana Holtt. et Standl.*

B. glabra Choisy +*

B. spectabilis Willd.-+*

Mirabilis jalapa Linn. +

Achyranthes aspera Linn.

Aerva lanata Juss.*

A. sanguinolenta Blume*

Alternanthera echinata Sm.*

A. paronychioides St.*

A. sessilis R. Br.

Amaranthus blitum Linn.*

A. caudatus Linn. +*

Also seen growing as escape,

A. gracilis Desf.*

A. spinosus Linn.

A. tricolor Linn.

(A. gangeticus L., A. polygamus L.)

AMARANTHACEAE

A. oleraceus L., and A. polygonoides

L.)

May be cultivated also.

Celosia argentea Linn.

C. cristata Linn. +

Digera muricata Mart.

(Desmochaeta muricata DC.,

Digera arvensis Forsk.)

Gomphrena celosioides Mart.*

G. globosa Linn.+

Nothosaerva brachiata Wt.*

Pupalia lappacea Juss.

(Achyranthes lappacea L.)

and

CCHENOPODIACEAE

Basella rubra Linn.+

(B. alba L.)

Beta vulgaris Linn.+

(B. bengalensis Roxb.)

Chenopodium album Linn.

C. ambrosioides Linn.*

C. murale Linn.*

Kochia indica Wight*

PHYTOLACCACEAE

Rivina humilis Linn.*

POLYGONACEAE

Antigonon leptopus Hook. et Arn. +*

Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. + *

Polygonum glabrum Willd.

P. hydropiper Linn.*

P. hydropiper Linn. var. glandulosissima

Gage®

P. lanigerum R. Br.

P. limbatum Meissn.*

P. plebeium R. Br.

(P. roxburghii Meisen.)

Reported by Duthie

Lucknow.

P. plebeium R. Br. var. effusa Gage*

P. serrulatum Lagasc.

(P. flaccidum Roxb.)

Rumex dentatus Linn.*

R. nepalensis Spreng.*

also. from

PIPERACEAE

~ Peperomia pellucida H.B.K.*

Piper betle Linn. +

P. longum Linn. + *

LORANTHACEAE

Dendrophthoe falcata Etting.

(Loranthus longiflorus Desr.)

SANTALACEAE

Santalum album Linn. +

ON THE. BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT

Acalypha ciliata Forsk.*

A. indica Linn.*

Antidesma diandra Heyne +

Reported by Anderson as indigenous.

Baliospermum montanum Muell. Arg.*

Chrozophora parvifolia Klotz.*

Duthie reports Anderson’s specimen

from Lucknow, though Anderson has

not included it in his catalogue.

C. prostrata Dalz.*

C. rottleri A. Juss.

(C. plicata A. Juss.)

Cicca acida Merr.+

(C. disticha L.)

Croton bonplandianum Baill.*

Emblica officinalis Gaertn. +

Euphorbia antiquorum Linn.+

E. dracunculoides: Lam.

E. geniculata Orteg.*

E. granulata Forsk.*

E. hirta Linn.

891

EUPHORBIACEAE

E. hypericifolia Linn.

(E. parviflora Roxb.)

_ E. microphylla Heyne ex Roth*

E. milii Ch. des Moulins + *

E. pulcherrima Willd. +*

E. thymifolia Linn.

E. tirucalli Linn. +

Jatropha curcas Linn, +

J. gossypifolia Linn.*

Kirganelia reticulata Baill.*

Manihot esculenta Crantz. -+ *

Pedilanthus tithymaloides Poit. -+

Phyllanthus niruri Linn.

P. simplex Retz.

P. urinaria Linn.*

Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. + *

Ricinus communis Linn. +

Has a tendency to spread.

Securinega virosa Paxt. et Hoftm.

(Fluggea retusa Roxb.)

URTICACEAE

Artocarpus integrifolius Linn. f.+

Cannabis sativa Linn.+

Also seen growing as escape.

Ficus bengalensis Linn. +

(F. indica L.)

Also seen growing spontaneously

on building walls and tree trunks.

F. carica Linn. +

F. glomerata Roxb. +*

Has a tendency to spread.

F. hispida Linn. f.*

F. lacor Buch.-Ham. +*

F, palmata Forsk

(F. caricoides Roxb.)

F, religiosa Linn. +

Also seen growing spontaneously on

building walls and tree trunks.

F, rumphii Blume + *

Fleurya interrupta Gaud.*

Holoptelea integrifolia Planch. + *

Morus alba Linn.*

Also cultivated.

M. laevigata Wall. +

Anderson has reported M. cashmeriana

Royle as cultivated but this binomial

is untraceable in INDEX KEWENSIS.

Streblus asper Lour.

(Trophis aspera Retz.)

CASUARINACEAE

Casuarina equisetifolia Forst.+ *

_SALICACEAE

~ Salix babylonica Linn.+

S. tetrasperma Roxb.

CERATOPHYLLACEAE

Ceratophyllum

demersum Linn.*

CONIFERAE

Cupressus sempervirens Linn. +

Pinus roxburghii Sarg.+”*.

Not cultivated commonly.

Thuja orientalis Linn. +

892. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

CYCADACEAE

Cycas circinalis Linn. + * C. rumphii Miq.+*

HyYDROCHARITACEAE

Hydrilla verticillata Royle Ottelia alismoides Pers.*

Lagarosiphon alternifolius Druce* Vallisneria spiralis Linn.*

ORCHIDACEAE

Zeuxine strateumatica Schlect. (Z. sulcata Lindl.)

SCITAMINEAE

Canna indica Linn.+ Curcuma longa Linn. +

Costus speciosus Smith* Zingiber officinale Roscoe +

BROMELIACEAE

Ananas comosus Merr.+ (A. sativa L.)

TRIDACEAE

Iris chinensis Curt. +

AMARYLLIDACEAE

Agave americana Linn. +* C. defixum Ker.-Gawl. +*

A. cantala Roxb. + C. latifolium Linn. +

A. sisalana Perr. +* Furcraea gigantea Vent. -+- *

Crinum asiaticum Linn. + Pancratium zeylanicum Linn. +

Polianthes tuberosa Linn. +

DIOSCOREACEAE

Dioscorea aculeata Linn. var. fasciculata D. alata Linn.+

Prain et Burkill+* D. bulbifera Linn.*

Duthie includes it from Lucknow. D. wallichii Hook. f. ?+*

LILIACEAE

Allium ascalonicum Linn. + Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav.

(A. ascalonum L.) (A. fistulosus L.)

A. cepa Linn. + Gloriosa superba Linn.

A. porrum Linn. + Also cultivated.

A. sativum Linn. + Hemerocallis fulva Linn. +

Asparagus racemosus Willd. +

Reported by Anderson as indigenous.

PONTEDERIACEAE

Eichhornia crassipes Solms.* Monochoria vaginalis Presl.*

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina benghalensis Linn. Cyanotis axillaris Schult. f.*

C. forskalaei Vahl" C. cristata Schult. f.*

C. hasskarlii Cl.* Murdannia nudiflora Brenan.

C. obliqua Buch.-Ham. (Aneilema nudiflora Kunth)

(Commelina communis L.)

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT 893

JUNCACEAE

Juncus bufonius Linn.

PALMAE

Borassus flabellifer Linn. + Cocos nucifera Linn. +

At a few places only

Caryota urens Linn. + Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.

PANDANACEAE ,

Pandanus tectorius Soland. ex Park.+ (P. odoraitssimus Roxb.)

TYPHACEAE

Typha angustata Chaub. et Bory.*

ARACEAE

Pistia stratiotes Linn.*

Typhonium trilobatum Schott.*

Amorphophallus campanulatus B1. + *

Colocasia antiquorum Schott.+

LEMNACEAE

Lemna polyrrhiza Linn. (L. orbicularis Roxb.)

Wolffia arrhiza Wimm.*

ALISMACEAE

Sagittaria guayanensis H.B.K.* S. sagittifolia Linn.*

POTAMOGETONACEAE

Aponogeton crispum Thunb.*

A. monostachyon Linn. f.*

Potamogeton crispus Linn.*

P. pectinatus Linn.*

ZANNICHELLIACEAE

Zannichellia palustris Linn.*

ERIOCAULONACEAE

Eriocaulon sieboldianum Sieb. et Zucc. ex Steud.*

CYPERACEAE

Bulbostylis barbata Kunth C. laevigatus Linn.

(Usolepis barbata R.Br.) (C. mucronatus Rottb.)

Cyperus aristatus Rottb.*

C. compactus Retz.*

C. compressus Linn.

C. difformis Linn.

C. distans Linn. f.

C. esculentus Linn.*

C, exaltatus Retz.

(C. racemosus L.)

C. iria Linn.

C. niveus Retz.

C. pumilus Linn.

C. rotundus Linn.

C. tuberosus Rottb.*

Eleocharis atropurpurea Kunth*

E. plantaginea R.Br.*

Fimbristylis annua R.etS. var.

diphylla Kuk.

(F. communis Kunth)

894. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Cy PERACEAE—(contd.)

Fimbristylis bisumbellata Babeni*

F. ferruginea Vahl*

F. junciformis Kunth*

F. miliacea Vahl*

F. monostachya Hassk.*

F, quinquangularis Kunth*

F. schoenoides Vah|*

Juncellus pygmaeus C.B.Cl.

(Cyperus pygmaeus Vahl)

Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb.*

K. monocephaia Rottb.

K. triceps Rottb.

Mariscus paniceus Vahl var.

roxburghianus Ci.”

Scirpus articulatus Linn.*

S. grossus Vahli*

Anderson has reported it as indigenous.

S. maritimus Linn.

S. maritimus Linn.var. affinis Cl.*

S. mucronatus Linn.

S. roylei Beetle.

(Isolepis lupulina Nees)

S. supinus Linn.

(Isolepis supina R.Br.)

_ GRAMINEAE

Acrachne verticillata Chiov. +

(Eleusine verticillata Roxb.)

Alloteropsis cimicina Stapf*

Apluda mutica Linn.var. aristata Pilger +

(A. aristata Linn.)

Aristida depressa Retz.*

Arundinella nepalensis Trin. ? *

Author has seen a single specimen at

N.B.G. herbarium collected at Gomti

bandha; might have been introduced

through the river.

Arundo donax Linn.

(A. bifaria Retz.)

Also cultivated.

Avena fatua Linn.

Bambusa sp. +

Bothriochloa odorata A. Camus+* |

Brachiaria brizantha Stapf -+ *

B. distachya Stapf*

B. ramosa Stapf* f

Cenchrus barbatus Schum.

(C. echinatus Linn.)

C. ciliaris Linn. +

(Pennisetum cenchroides Rich.)

C. pennisetiformis Steud.*

C. setigerus Vahl*

Chloris dolichostachya Lag.*

C. gayana Kunth +*

C. inflata Link.

(C. barbata Swartz)

C. montana Roxb.*

C. virgata Sw.*

Chrysopogon fulvus Chiov. +*

Coix lachryma-jobi Linn,

Cymbopogon jwarancusa Schult.* +

(C. iwarancusa Roxb.)

Anderson has reported it as indigenous.

C. martinii Wats. + *

Cynodon dactylon Pers. +

Also cultivated.

C. plectystachyum Pilger + *

Dactyloctenium aegyptium Beauv. ft

(D. aegypticum Willd.)

Dendrocalamus strictus Nees + *

Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf t

(Poa cynosuroides Retz.)

Dichanthium annulatum Stapf*

D. caricosum A. Camus*

Digitaria adscendens Henr.*

D. bicornis R. et S.*

D. biformis Willd.*

D. granularis Henr.* {

D. preslii Henr.*

D. stricta Roth*

D. timorensis Bal. 2*

Echinochloa colonum Link. tf

(Panicum colonum Linn.)

E. crusgalli Beauv.* +

E. frumentacea Link. +

(Oplismenus frumentaceus Roxb.)

E. stagnina Beauv.*

Eleusine coracana Gaertn. +

(E. stricta Roxb.)

E. indica Gaertn. Tf

Eragrostis ciliaris Link.*

E. curvula Nees*

E. diarrhena Steud.*

E, gangetica Steud,*

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW DISTRICT 895

Eragrostis japonica Trin.*

E. megastachya Link.

(Poa flexuosa Roxb.)

E. nutans Nees ex Steud.

E. pilosa Beauv.

(E. verticillaris)

E. poeaeoides Beauv.

(E. poaeformis Link.)

EK. tenella Beauv. ex R. et S. {

(Poa tenella L. and P. viscosa Retz.)

E. tremula Hochst.*

KE. unioloides Nees ex Steud.*

Eremopogon strictus A. Camus* ~

Erianthus munja Jesweit.*f

Eriochloa procera C. E. Hubb.*t

Eulalia leschenaultiana Ohwi*

Eulaliopsis binata C. E. Hubb.* +

(Andropogon involutus Steud.)

Anderson has reported it as indigenous.

Garnotia elata Janowsky*

Hackelochloa granularis O. Ktze.*

Hemarthria compressa R. Br.t

Heteropogon contortus Beauv. ex R. et S.

Hordeum vulgare Linn. +

(1. hexastichon L.)

Hygroryza aristata Nees

(Zizania aristata Kunth)

Imperata cylindrica Beauv. +

(I. arundinacea Cyr.)

Ischaemum rugosum Salisb.*

Iseilema laxum Hack. t+

Leptochloa chinensis Nees* +

L. panicea Ohwi +

(L. tenerrima R. et S.)

Lolium temulentum Linn.

Mnhesithea laevis Kunth*

Oplismenus burmannii Thw. ft

(Panicum burmannii Retz.)

Oropetium thomaeum Trin.*

Oryza perennis Moench+ f+

(O. sativa L.)

Anderson has reported it both as

cultivated as well as indigenous.

Panicum antidotale Retz.* +

P. austroasiaticum Ohwi*

P. maximum Jacq.+

Reported by Anderson as indigenous.

P. miliaceum Linn. +

Also seen growing as escape.

P, paludosum Roxb.

P. repens Linn.

(P. uliginosum Roxb.)

P, trypheron Schult.*

Paspalidium flavidum A. Camus* t+

P. punctatum A. Camus.*

Paspalum dilatatum Poir.+*

Also seen growing as escape.

P. distichum Linn.t

P. scrobiculatum Linn.+

Also seen growing apparently as wild.

Pennisetum orientale Rich. + *

P. purpureum Schum. + *

Also seen growing as escape.

P. typhoides Stapf et Hubb. +

(Panicum spicatum Roxb. and Penicil-

laria spicata Willd.)

Anderson records it both as indige-

nous as well as cultivated but it is

only cultivated within the area.

Perotis indica O. Ktze.

(P. latifolia Ait.)

Phalaris minor Retz.*

Phragmites karka Trin. ex Steud.

Poa annua Linn.

Pogonatherum paniceum Hack. ++ *

Polypogon monspeliensis Desf.*

Rottboellia exaltata Linn.f.*

Saccharum officinarum Linn. +

S. spontaneum Linn. f

Schizachyrium exile Stapf*

Setaria barbata Kunth* f

Probably accidentally introduced.

S. glauca Beauv.

S. italica Beauv. +

(Pennisetum italicum R.Br.)

S. pallidifusca C. E. Hubb.*

S. tomentosa Kunth* +

S. verticillata Beauv. 7

(Panicum verticillatum Linn.)

Sorghum vulgare Pers.*

S. halepense Pers.* f+

Sporobolus coromandelianus Kunth*

S. diandrus Beauv.* t

S. marginatus Hochst. ex A. Rich, ? *

S. orientalis Kunth*

Themeda arundinacea A. Camus*

Tragus biflorus Schult.

(Lappago racemosa Willd.)

Triticum aestivum Linn. +

(T. vulgare Willd.)

Also seen growing as escape.

Urechloa panicoides Beauv.

(Panicum repens Roxb.)

Vetiveria zizanioides Nash.*

Zea mays Linn. +

896 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

REFERENCES

Anderson, T. (1859): Notes on the

Flora of Lucknow with Catalogues of

the Cultivated and Indigenous Plants.

Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 28 (2) : 89-120.

Anon. (1895-1959) : Index Kewensis.

(1958): Plants of Economic

Importance of Lucknow District. Bulle-

tin No. 9. (Published by National Botanic

Gardens, Lucknow).

——— (1948-59): Wealth of India:

Raw Materials.

Dudgeon, W. (1920): A Contribution

to the Ecology of the Upper Gangetic

Plain. J. Indian bot.1 : 296-324.

Duthie, J. F. (1903-29) : Flora of the

Upper Gangetic Plain and of the Adja-

cent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan Tracts.

Hooker, J. D. (1872-97) : Flora of

British India.

Kapoor, S. L.: Weed Flora of the

National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow.

(Ined.)

Patil, R.P. (1960): A Key to the

Genera of the Common Grasses of

Lucknow and its Environs. Proc. Indian

Acad. Sc. Sec. B. 51 : 122-32.

Raizada, M.B. (1958) : Name Changes

in Common Indian Plants. Jndian For.

84 : 467-538.

(1959): Name Changes in

Common Indian Grasses. ibid. 85:

473-509.

Saxena, P.N. (1960): Algal Flora of

‘ Usar’ Lands in Uttar Pradesh. Sc.

and Cult. 25 : 542-43.

Sharma, V.C. (1959): Uttar Pradesh

District Gazetteers. Vol. 37. Lucknow.

Studies on the Freshwater Oligochaeta

of South India

I. Aeolosomatidae and Naididae

PART 4

K. VANAMALA NAIDU

Government Arts and Science College, Chittoor (A.P.) +

(With eight text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 59 (2): 545]

Subgenus Aulophorus Schmarda, 1861

Subgeneric characters : No eyes. Dorsal bundles with hairs and

needles ; ventral setae of II-V distinct from the rest. Stomach present

or absent; intestinal anti-peristalsis and ascending ciliary vibration

occur ; chloragogues from VI on. Coelomocytes present or absent.

Branchial organ with non-contractile, avascular palps. Dorsal vessel

contractile, ventrally to the left for the greater part, mid-dorsal in 5-6

anterior segments. Ventral vessel non-contractile and mid-ventral,

divides posteriorly into 2, branches traverse the margin of the fossa sup-

plying vascular loops to the gills ; loops on emerging from the gills unite

to form dorsal vessel. Contractile lateral vessels connect the main

vessels. Budding zones provide prostomium and 5 head segments to

posterior zooid, and some hind segments and branchial organ to

anterior zooid, before fission. Sperm-sac and ovi-sac, posterior

diverticula of septa 5/6 and 6/7, former within latter, extend backward.

Penial setae absent. Spermathecae a pair in V.

KEY TO ALL THE KNOWN AND VALID SPECIES OF AULOPHORUS

A-1 Dorsal setae beginning in IV ar *superterranus

A-2 Dorsal setae beginning in V

B-1 Needles bifid with intermediate teeth

C-1 Intermediate teeth 2-4 between main

teeth of needles ; 4 pairs of gills e *pectinatus

C-2 One short intermediate tooth between

main needle teeth ; 3 pairsof gills .. indicus sp. nov.

B-2 Needles simply bifid without intermediate

teeth

1 Present address: S. R. R. and C. V. R: Government College, Vijayawada-4.

898 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

D-1 Needle teeth of equal length ;--with 4

pairs of gills ;

D-2 Needle teeth of unequal length

E-1 Distal tooth thinner and shorter

than proximal ae

E-2 Distal tooth thinner and longer

than proximal |

F-1 Hairs bayonet-shaped; no

coelomocytes ; 3 pairs of foliate

gills au

F-2 Hairs simple; coelomocytes

present ; 4 pairs of digitiform

gills

A-3 Dorsal setae beginning in VI

G-1 Needles simply bifid without intermediate

teeth

G-2 Needles bifid with intermediate teeth

H-1 Needles with minute short blunt inter-

mediate teeth between main teeth with-

out webbing ; 4 pairs of gills

H-2 Needles with short teeth with a concave

intermediate webbing between main

teeth ; 3 pairs of gills

G-3 Needles palmate

I-1 Ventral setae of II-V more than twice as

long as the rest :

I-2 Ventral setae of II-V twice or less as long

as the rest

J-1 Web of the needle with ribs

J-2 Web of needle without ribs

K-1 Needles _ with intermediate

teeth a

K-2 Needles without intermediate

teeth .

L-1 Dorsal bundles with 1 hair ~

and 1 needle

L-2 Dorsal bundles with 1-2

hairs and 1-2 needles |

M-1 Needles 64-80 /& long ;

branchial organ with 2

pairs of gills normally ;

spermathecae absent

M-2 Needles 80-120 / long;

branchial organ with 3

pairs of gills ; spermathe-

cae present

*Species not known from the Indian sub-continent

*borellii

furcatus

hymanae sp. nov.

michaelseni

gravelyi

“beadlei

*caraibicus

*fabellige

*hug ronensis

- *vagus

*schmardai

tonkinensis

*carteri

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 899

20. Aulophorus furcatus (O.F. Miler, 1773)

Fig. 20 A-G

Dero furcata Oken. Brode, 1898, p. 143.

Aulophorus furcatus (Oken). Stephenson, 1915b, p. 784 ; 1925b, p. 46. Lastoékin,

1918, p. 62 ; 1927, p. 66. Cordero, 193la, p. 350; 1931b, p. 334. Michaelsen, 1933,

p. 338. Weisenberg-Lund, 1937, p. 339, fig. 403. Chen, 1944, p. 7. Du-Bois

Raymond Marcas, 1947, pp. 6-7. Sperber, 1948, pp. 191-194, fig. 20B-D ; 1950,

pp. 72-73, fig. 25; 1958, p. 49. Causey, 1953a, p.55.

Material examined: Numerous worms collected from the Bugga

stream, Cuddapah in October 1953, May and December 1955 ; from the

Balaji tank, Kakinada in November 1956 ; from the Brucepettah tank,

Bellary, Langford Town tank and Ulsoor tank, Bangalore in May 1958.

20h | 206

Fig. 20. Aulophorus furcatus (Muller). A. Needle seta x 900; B. Needle seta

(front. view) x 900; C. Distal end of ventral seta of II x 900; D. Distal end of

ventral seta of VII x 900; E. Branchial organ relaxed; F. Branchial organ

preserved ; G. Nephridium.

amb : anterior margin of branchial fossa ; g/: gland; ma: nephridial ampulla;

npd : nephridial duct ; mpp : nephridiopore ; “ps : nephrostome ; p : palp ; s ; septum;

yy: ventral vessel ; 1, 2,3: I, IJ, and III pair of gills.

900 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Worms small, light brown. Prostomium bluntly conical with stiff

sensory hairs.

Dorsal setae start in V, 1 hair and 1 needle per bundle. Hairs 130-

145 » long, smooth, slightly curved. Needles (Fig. 20 A, B) sickle-

shaped bifid, 49-55 » long with distal nodulus (D: P:: 6: 9), distal

tooth thinner, shorter, and straighter than proximal. Ventral setae

(Fig. 20 C, D) 4 per bundle anteriorly, 2-3 per bundle posteriorly ; in

II-IV longer than in others, 63-70 » long, with median nodulus (D:

P::10:10o0r 10:9), prongs equally thick, distal 1.5 times longer

than proximal ; in others 49-60 » long with distal nodulus (D: P:: 7:

9), distal prong shorter and thinner than proximal. Length and

thickness of crotchets, and length of distal prong, position of nodulus

varv from seta to seta in bundles.

Branchial organ (Fig. 20 E, F) funnel-shaped, with 2 thin palps pro-

vided with sensory hairs, 0.4 mm. long and 70 » wide at base, gradually

tapering ; they diverge in distension, and curl their tips upwards with

an obtuse angle between in contraction. Gills 3 pairs, foliate, I pair

arise from supra-anal diverticulum, II pair from inside lateral margins,

and III pair from the floor of fossa ; in distension I pair stretches later-

ally and curls upwards, II pair extends laterally, II pair stretches

posteriorly ; in contraction they are withdrawn into fossa, when I pair

is invisible.

Pharynx in II-V, wide. Oesophagus in VI-VII, thin and continues

into intestine in VIII. Stomach absent. Chloragogues brownish.

Septa well developed, each with colourless, transparent swellings ; septal

glands in IV and V. :

Brain incised anteriorly and posteriorly.

Blood yellow. Contractile vessels 5 pairs in VI-X, connect dorsal

and ventral vessels. Simple non-contractile loopsin I-V.

First pair of nephridia (Fig. 20 G) in VI, pre-septal funnels with

nephrostomes in VI; post-septal is a highly coiled duct, early part in

gland tissue, later part opening by nephridiopore ventro-laterally.

Worms have 1-5 fission zones as in Argentine worms (Cernosvitov,

1942). After formation of first budding zone about the middle of the

worm, two zooids develop and further fission zones appear successively

in either zooid alternately. In a chain of 5 zooids, I and III zooids are

composed of more segments than others.

Clitellum in 4V-VII (23 segments). Gonads absent in sexually

mature worms. Sperm-sac with spermatozoa and ovi-sac with single

ovum extend to VIII and XI respectively, former within latter. Sperm-

funnels cup-shaped, open in sperm-sac; vasa deferentia thin, enter

atria antero-dorsally. Atrial ampulla ovoid, with short ejaculatory duct

opening at the position of ventral bundles of VI. No penial setae.

Spermathecae long, club-shaped with ampullae twice as wide as ectal

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 901

duct, extend to VII or VIII in sperm-sac ; open slightly lateral to ventral

bundles of V.

1 (p.) = 2-4 mm.; d (p.) = 0.22 mm.; s = 30-41 ; n = 16-20.

Lengths of longest setae in p» and position of nodulus in the ratio

DeeP::

fF oOo WV Vv VI Vil Vill 1X xX XI XII

Hair — — — 129.5 133 133 136.5: 4 133 1335s 133 136.5

Needle — — — 525 £49 49 49 49 49 49 49

6:9 5:9 5:9 5:9 5:9 5:9 5:9 5:9

V. seta LO?66.5 633" 5625955 +5935 56 Loy wus ii 56 SOES

10:10 10:9 9:9 8:8 8:9 8:9 7:9 He OSS 7:9 6:9

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Lahore (Pakistan) ; Bombay

and Khed (W. India) ; Madras and Trivandrum (S. India). Now record-

ed from Cuddapah, Kakinada, Bellary, and Bangalore (S. India.)

Habits : Constructs tubes with mucus and foreign matter and lives in

them. Buries anterior part of the body in mud, keeps the hind end pro-

truded in water with gills distended, withdraws it into mud when disturb-

ed. Swims with brisk horizontal transverse movements.

Remarks : The worms described here have no stomach, and have

five pairs of contractile lateral vessels in VI-X, and a ventro-lateral

dorsal blood vessel. In the absence of a stomach and in the presence

of five pairs of contractile vessels, they resemble those of Stephenson

(1923) and differ from the Swedish worms with a stomach and 2 pairs of

contractile vessels. The dorsal vessel is ventro-lateral as in the Swedish

worms, and Stephenson’s statement that it is dorsal must be incorrect, as

it is never found to be so in any species of Aulophorus. Setae length of

the present worms agrees with those found in literature. The gills are

foliate as in the Chinese worms (Chen, 1940). The spermathecae are

club-shaped as in the Brazilian worms (Marcus, 1943).

Sexual organs resemble those of the Bombay (India) worms

(Stephenson, 1916) and the Brazilian worms of Marcus (1943), except in

the shape of the spermathecae. Stephenson described the spermathecae

as ovoid sacs, when actually they are long and club-shaped. He examin-

ed, as he states, preserved, ‘not quite fully mature’, worms, and so

there is every possibility of the spermathecae still being in coiled

condition giving an ovoid appearance. His statements—the clitellum,

‘not distinguishable except in sections ’, and ‘ the individuals which were

examined by sections had already copulated (presence of spermatozoa in

the spermathecae)’—are contradictory. The worms could not have

copulated before the full development of the clitellum, and the sper-

mathecae cannot contain spermatozoa without copulation. Hence it is

obvious that the ‘spermatozoa and granular matter’ in the ‘ovoid sacs,’

902 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

were actually the cut ends of the coils of the long ectal duct and ampulla

of the spermatheca. The differences in the shape of the atria and the

position of entry of the vasa deferentia into the atria between the

Bombay worms of Stephenson on the one hand and the Brazilian and

the present worms on the other are, again, due to the immature condition

of the sexual organs in the former.

Aulophorus africanus Michaelsen (1914), with very slight incision in

the dorsal border of the branchial organ and flattened form of the gills,

has no distinct taxonomic status, as the gills have been found to be flat

(foliate) in A. furcatus from China by Chen (1940) and in the present

worms ; further the branchial organ varies considerably in the members

of a species. Stephenson’s (1931b) key for the species of Aulophorus

isi

‘1. Dorsal setae begin in segment IV | A. superterranus

Dorsal setae begin in segment V |

Dorsal setae begin in segment VI

2. Two or three pairs of gills

Four pairs of gills

3. Palps diverge at an obtuse angle A. furcatus

Palps close together, diverge but slightly A. africanus’

It is clear from the above that he could not find more tangible

characters for separating A. africanus from A. furcatus, and hence

differentiated them on the very trivial character of the divergence of the

palps. Hence A. africanus is a synonym of A. furcatus.

Dero roseola Nicholls (1921) from Australia agrees with A. furcatus

in all characters except in the larger size of the zooids, rarer budding

zones, and value of n = 11-25 for furcatus in literature and n = 28 for

roseola. These minor differences do not call for a specific status for

roseola. As suggested by Marcus (1943) and Sperber (1948) this is also

a synonym. Pi

hw a N

21. Aulophorus michaelseni Stephenson, 1923

Fig. 21 A-E

~ Aulephorus palustris Michaelsen. Stephenson, 1916, p. 306.

Aulophorus michaelseni Stephenson, 1923, pp. 93-94, fig. 35 ; ; Aiyer, 1930, p. 43,

fig. 18.

Material examined : Many worms collected from the Biggs stream;

Cuddapah in April 1954, May and December 1955 ; from the Kanda-

kam tank, Bellary in April 1954 ; and from the Ulsoot tank, Fees oe

in May 1958.

Worms of medium size, and pale red. Bye absent. Prostomiumt

bluntly conical. | ; ale ' gHoiee

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 903

Dorsal setae from V, 1 hair and 1 needle per bundle. Hair 175-200 p

long, smooth, nearly straight, shorter than body-diameter. Needle

sickle-shaped (Fig. 21A) 65-70 p» long, with distal nodulus (D: P: : 7: 12),

NA OB

Ale

Fig. 21. Aulophorus michaelseni Stephenson: A. Needle seta x 450; B. Ventral

seta of II x 400; C. Ventral seta of VIII x 450; D. Branchial organ relaxed

under cover glass ; E. Branchial organ fully relaxed.

Pp: palp; vv: ventral vessel ; 1, 2, 3, 4: I, Il, III, and IV pair of gills.

teeth small, equally thick, distal longer than proximal. Ventral setae

(Fig. 21 B, C) 2-4 per bundle ; in II-IV, 77-98 » long, with proximal

nodulus (D: P:: 15: 13), thinner, less curved than in others, prongs

equally thick, distal 1.5-2 times longer than proximal ; in other segments

60-73.5 p» long, with distal nodulus (D: P:: 8: 11), distal prong half as

thick as proximal. Length and thickness of setae and nodular position

vary from seta to seta in bundles. Distal prong is longer, equal to, and

shorter than proximal in outer, middle, and inner setae respectively in a

bundle. |

Branchial organ (Fig. 21 D, E) funnel-shaped, anterior margin entire,

ciliated, posterior margin bears 2 non-contractile elongated, thin,

diverging palps. Géills 4 pairs, digitiform ; I pair dorsal, II pair lateral,

III and IV pairs ventral: From I-IV pair length increases. In full

distension gills curl in all directions like tentacles.

Pharynx in II-V, wide and whitish. Ocesophagus in VI-VIII, thin,

wavy, continues into intestine without stomach intervening. Septa

well developed ; septal glands on septa 4/5 and 5/6. Chloragocytes

brownish. Coelomocytes spherical, colourless with 15 » diameter.

_ Blood deep orange-red. Simple contractile vessels 4 pairs in VII-X

connecting dorsal and ventral vessels.

First nephridium in VII, its pre-septal ciliated nephrostome opening

into VI : post-septal nephridial duct opening by nephridiopore ventro-

laterally in VII.

904 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Budding zone 1, rarely 2; when 2, second fission zone always

appears about the middle of posterior zooid.

1 (p.) = 4-5 mm.; d (p.) = 0.3 mm.; s = 40-45 + undifferentiated

zone and branchial organ ;n = 23—27.

Lengths of longest setae in » and position of nodulus in the ratio

|B ee ee

Il iil IV V VI VII VIII IX xX XI

Hair = = = 182 182 1) Fi 17S) 175 175

Needle = — — 70 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 64.8

S212 P12 TA a PT ae ale oe

V. seta 98 98=5 96.2 S.7. 355 8 TO 70 70 66.5 70

$5513) ASS M5212°9 11 SS Sie 9 al 91 91> Slt 8:12

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Kandy (Ceylon), Trivandrum

(Travancore, S. India). Now recorded from Cuddapah, Bangalore, and

Bellary (S. India).

Remarks : Stephenson (1923) separated the Indian specimens of

Aulophorus palustris Michaelsen under the name A. michaelseni from

those described by Michaelsen (1905a) on account of the needles of the

former having been referred to ‘ Hakenborsten,’ which term Stephenson

considers applicable only to setae resembling the form of ventral setae.

Stephenson is right as needle with proximal tooth thicker than the

distal is referred to as ‘ Hakenborsten’ by Michaelsen in A. palustris

(1905a), and A. borelli Michaelsen (1900) differs considerably from the

needles with equally thick teeth in A. michaelseni Sperber (1948).

Sperber (1948) probably unable to distinguish A. michaelseni as a distinct

species from the available descriptions included it with A. furcatus

giving a comprehensive diagnosis for the latter. Characters of A. mich-

aelseni warrant a specific status, hence it is here reassigned as a separate

species after Stephenson (1923) with a diagnosis.

Habits : The worms swim with a transverse horizontal movement.

When disturbed they coil into loose spirals, and uncoil and move away

after a short time. Live along with Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri.

Diagnosis of Aulophorus michaelseni Stephenson: No eyes. Dorsal

setae begin in V, 1 hair and1 needle per bundle ; hairs simple, nearly

straight ; needles with distal nodulus, bifid, teeth small, equally thick,

distal tooth longer than proximal. Ventral setae 2-4 per bundle; in

II-[V thinner, straighter than others, with proximal nodulus, prongs

equally thick, distal 1.5-2 times as long as proximal ; in others nodulus.

distal, distal prong half as thick and longer, equal to, or shorter than

proximal. Branchial fossa with 4 pairs of digitiform gills, 1 dorsal, 1

lateral, and 2 ventral. Stomach absent. Septal glands on 4/5 and 5/6.

Coelomocytes occur. Dorsal vessel ventrally to left ; hearts 4 pairs in

VII-X. First nephridium in VII, Budding zone buds 5 head segments.

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 905

22. Aulophorus hymanae’ sp. nov.

Fig. 22 A-F

Material examined : Many worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah in September 1953, May 1955 ; from Miller’s tank, Langford

Town tank, and Ulsoor tank, Bangalore in May 1958.

Worms large and sturdy. Prostomium bluntly conical, longer than

broad, with fine sensory hairs.

AQ A Qo Sto Qa

ALB

Fig. 22. Aulophorus hymanae sp. nov. : A. Hair seta x 275; B. Needle seta x

700 ; C. Ventral seta of II x 650; D. Branchial organ fully relaxed ; E. Nephri-

dium ; F. Spermatheca.

gl: gland; na: nephridial ampulla; npd: nephridial duct ; npp: nephridial

pore; mps : nephrostome; p: palp ; s: septum ; spa: spermathecal ampulla ; spd:

spermathecal duct ; vy: ventral vessel.

_ Dorsal setae start in V, 1 hair and 1 needle per bundle. Hair (Fig.

22 A) smooth, bayonet-shaped, 224-273 long. Needle (Fig. 22 B) sickle-

shaped bifid with distal nodulus (D: P:: 7: 14), shaft above nodulus

curved with longitudinal ridge on outer margin, 73.5-80.5 » long, distal

tooth straighter, thinner, and slightly longer than curved proximal.

Ventral setae (Fig. 22 C) 4-5 per bundle decreasing to 2-3 posteriorly, in

1 Named after Dr. Libbie Henriette Hyman of the American Museum of Natural

History, New York,

906 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

II-IV, 91-98 » long, thinner, straighter than in others, nodulus median

(D: P: : 14:14 or 13:14), distal prong longer (less than twice as long) and

thinner than proximal ; in others, 73.5-87.5 p long, distal prong thinner

than and about equal in length to proximal ; position of nodulus, lengths

of setae and outer prong vary from seta to seta in bundles.

Length of ventral Position of nodulus Relative length of

seta DyeePese distal prong to proximal

84.0 11313 longer

80.5 10 : 13 slightly longer

80.5 102213 equal

78.5 OF1355 shorter

Branchial organ (Fig. 22 D) funnel-shaped with 1 pair of long non-

contractile, avascular palps and 3 pairs of digitate gills; I pair arises

from supra-anal diverticulum, II and III pairs spring from floor of

fossa ; longest gills shorter than palps.

Pharynx in II-V, wide, yellowish, with dorsal diverticulum, eversible

through mouth during feeding. Oesophagus thin, starts in VI, insensibly

continues into intestine. Stomach absent. Chloragogues greenish grey.

No coelomocytes. Septa well developed; each with 2 lateral colourless

glassy swellings.

Brain incised anteriorly and posteriorly.

Blood red. Dorsal vessel contractile, mid-dorsal in head segments

and ventrally attached to left of the gut from VI on, divides into 3

branches, which unite in II with non-contractile mid-ventral ventral

vessel. Non-contractile simple loops in II-V ; contractile vessels 6 pairs

in VI-XI.

First pair of nehpridia (Fig. 22 E) in VII, pre-septal funnel with

nephrostome in VI, a slender neck connects it to post-septal, consisting

of a fusiform ampulla followed by a duct, whose proximal part is thick-

walled, middle part glandular, and ectal part thin-walled, with a vesicle

before opening ventro-laterally.

Fission zones 1-2 common. In a 3-zooid chain, I fission zone is

behind XXIV; after some segments are budded for anterior zooid,

IT zone is developed at the same place as the I (1.e. between XXIV and

first new segment). Composition of 3 zooids in one chain is: anterior

zooid has 24 segments of parent body; middle zooid has all newly

budded segments ; posterior zooid has posterior segments of parent body

and a few newly budded segments.

Clitellum from $V-VIT (25 segments), weaker between male pores.

In fully mature sexual worm gonads absent, sexual elements present.

Sperm-sac and ovi-sac extend to X and XI respectively when full, former.

within latter. Sperm-funnels thick-walled cups on anterior face of

septum 5/6, with vasa deferentia entering atria in VI. Atrial ampullae

ovoid, their ejaculatory ducts open at the position of ventral bundles of

907

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA

vl-6 = E16 vI-6 S1-6 S1°6 VI-OL €1:0L =P 6 PLOL = SPLOL PETE «ETE = Piel €l-el trl

£08 LE 5°08 v8 v8 v8 ¢'08 $°08 v8 L’S8 ¢°L8 v8 S'v6 16 86 =. OYDIOID

PES'8 PIL VIL = PEL DEL = =6oPEL VI-L VIEL SI-8 vI:8 = S HTB 8

Eolas SUL GEL CEL SG) Geek SEL SiEL $°08 LL L’8L LL =a ai ae S[TPSON,

S*8b7 SbZ SVC 6SC CST S8pC = S 8HT SG HET Sb Sv 8EC CC ape eS ae eH

IAX AX AIX IIx IIx IX xX XI IIIA HA IA A AI III Il

>: q@ id Oel oy} Url sn[npou jo Uontsod pue wf ur o¥jOs jsadUO] JO sysuIT

908 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

VI on papillae, round which clitellum is absent. Female funnels not

observed, female pores indistinct in VII ventrally. Spermathecae

(Fig. 22 F) a pairin V, club-shaped, extend to VIII in sperm-sac ; open

lateral to ventral bundles of V. No penial setae.

I(p.) = 8-10 mm.; d (p.) = 0.4 mm.; s = 50-80; n = 22-39.

Habits : Worms live in mucus tubes with anterior 4-3 buried in mud,

and the rest protruding vertically up in water with gills fully distended.

When disturbed, they withdraw their hind ends and disappear into mud.

Hind part of body is not waved about. Swim with horizontal trans-

verse undulations.

Commensals : Vorticellids are found attached to setae at either end

of body.

Taxonomic discussion: Of the 15 species (13 of Sperber, 1948, Aulopho-

rus michaelseni, and A. indicus sp. nov. created here) this resembles

only 5 species in its dorsal setae startingin V. Amongst these it further

resembles A. furcatus (Miller), A. borelli Michaelsen, and A. michaelseni

Stephenson in having bifid needles (A. pectinatus Stephenson and A. in-

dicus sp. nov. have pectinate and trifid needles respectively). It resem-

bles closely A. furcatus in having 3 pairs of gills and differs from

A. michaelseni and A. borelli both with 4 pairs of gills. With the distal

tooth of the needle longer than proximal and the hairs peculiarly

bayonet-shaped, it differs from A. furcatus with distal needle tooth

shorter than proximal and hairs simple, nearly straight. Minor differ-

ences are more hearts (6 pairs as against 5 pairs); greater body size (8-10

mm, as against 2-4 mm.) and greater size of setae (hairs 224-252 » long

as against 85-200 yu, needles 73.5-80 » long as against 45-62.5 ; ventral

setae 77-98 » long as against 52-72 p).

Diagnosis of Aulophorus hymanae sp. nov.: No eyes. Dorsal setae

start in V, 1 bayonet-shaped hair and 1 bifid needle, with distal tooth

straighter, thinner, and slightly longer than curved proximal, per

bundle. Ventral setae 4-5 per bundle anteriorly, 2-3 posteriorly; in

TI-IV longer, thinner, straighter than in others, nodulus median, distal

prong longer and thinner than proximal ; in others distal prong thinner,

about equal in length to proximal, position of nodulus, lengths of setae

and distal prong vary from seta to seta in bundles. Branchial fossa

with 1 pair of long palps and 3 pairs of foliate gills, one dorsal and 2

ventral. Stomach absent. No coelomocytes. Septa with colourless

swellings. :

Blood red. Dorsal vessel ventrally to left, simple non-contractile

loops in II-V, contractile lateral vessels 6 pairs in VI-XI. Clitellum in

3V-VIL; seminal funnels cup-shaped ; atria ovoid; no penial seta;

spermathecae club-shaped.

Budding present, 5 head segments are budded.

Type : The {type specimen is being deposited with the Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta.

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 909

23. Aulophorus indicus sp. nov.

Fig. 23 A-D

Material examined : A few worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah in April 1954.

Worms of medium size and crimson colour. Prostomium bluntly

triangular without sensory hairs. Eyes absent.

2S kh 93¢

23 8 (23d

Fig. 23. Aulophorus indicus sp. nov.: A. Distal end of needle seta (old) x 2000;

B. Distal end of needle seta (new) x 2000; C. Distal end of ventral seta of IJix

2500 ; D. Distal end of ventral seta of VIIIL x 2500.

Dorsal bundles begin in V, each bundle has 1 hair, smooth, bayonet-

shaped, up to 200 » long and 1 needle (Fig. 23 A, B), bifid, 1.5 gz

thick, with one short intermediate tooth, thick in old segments, fine in

newly budded segments, main teeth equally long, proximal thicker than

distal, nodulus distal, 21 » from distal end. Ventral setae (Fig. 23 C,

D) in II-V, 3 per bundle, 2 » thick, with proximal nodulus, equally

thick prongs, distal more than twice as long as proximal ; in others, 3-4

per bundle anteriorly, 1-2 posteriorly, with distal nodulus, 2.8 y» thick,

prongs equally long in anterior segments, distal prong decreasing in

length posteriorly, proximal twice as thick as distal.

910 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Branchial organ wide, cup-shaped with postero-dorsal opening,

1 pair of short palps and 1 pair dorsal and 2 pairs ventral gills; palps

thin and fold over fossa in contraction.

Pharynx in II-V, wide. Oesophagus in VI-VII, thin. Stomach

in VIII-IX. Intestine narrow in X and XI, wide behind ; ascending

ciliary action and anti-peristalsis occur. Chloragogues from VI on.

Coelomocytes opaque, spherical, and morula-like. Septa well developed ;

septal glands not observed.

Blood crimson red. Dorsal blood vessel ventrally to left from hind

end to VI, mid-dorsal cephalad. Simple contractile loops 4 pairs in

VI-IX, first 2 pairs thinner than others. Ventral vessel median and

wavy. ae

First nephridium i in X, its preseptal funnel in IX.

Brain incised medianly at either end. |

No budding zones observed in 8 worms. Fragmentation seems to

occur. In one worm segments behind XXX are smaller and younger,

evidently regenerated after fragmentation. From newly developed

first dorsal bundle in V, it is obvious that 5 segments are regenerated

anteriorly for posterior fragment.

Sexual worms not encountered.

1(p.) = 3-6 mm.; d(p.) = 0.2 mm. ; s = 47-60 + undifferentiated

region ending in branchial fossa ; n = 30 (in one). |

Taxonomic discussion: This species closely resembles Aulophorus

pectinatus Stephenson. In having a small, short, intermediate tooth

between main needle teeth, 3 pairs of gills, and a distinct stomach, it

differs from the latter with 2-4 long intermediate teeth between main

needle teeth, 4 pairs of gills and no stomach. Hence it is given the

status of a new species.

Diagnosis of Aulophorus indicus sp. nov. : No eyes. Dorsal setae

start in V, 1 hair and 1 needle per bundle. MHair bayonet-shaped ;

needle bifid with short intermediate tooth, nodulus distal. Ventral

setae of II-V straighter, longer, and thinner than rest, 3 per bundle

with proximal nodulus, equally thick prongs, distal more than twice

as long as proximal; in others 1-4 per bundle, teeth equally long in

anterior segments, distal tooth decreasing in length posteriorly ; proxi-

mal twice as thick as distal. Stomach, coelomocytes, septal glands

absent. Gills 3 pairs, 1 dorsal, 2 ventral. Architomy (fragmentation)

occurs, 5 head segments are regenerated.

Type: The type specimen is being deposited with the ae ae

Survey of India, Calcutta.

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 911

24. Aulophorus tonkinensis (Vejdovsky, ee)

Fig. 24 A-H

Aulophorus tonkinensis (Vejdovsky). Stephenson, 1913b, pp. 738, 744, 757.

Sperber, 1948, pp. 196-197 ; 1958, pp. 49-50, figs. 8-9.

Material examined: Numerous worms collected from the Bugga

stream, Cuddapah in March 1954, May 1955, January 1956; from the

Pullalamadugu stream near Cuddapah on 10-6-1954 ; from the Balaji.

tank, Kakinada in November 1956; from the Langford Town tank,

Bangalore in May 1958. | |

Worms small, pale white, and transparent. Head end swells in

preservation. Prostomium bluntly triangular with stiff sensory hairs.

Eyes absent. | 2

24A au | :

| be QhC ie

AED

i ane AeH af 7,

w = = a & x eee ear Pare 0S

ee {QUIT fe cane ti semper

GS a,

LUTLATIGnAMNUNCUs wren ee msCHN CACO TA AC Cezirere Te TTA TT TT ETT TET

Fig. 24. Aulophorus tonkinensis (Vejdovsky): A. Needle seta x 500; B. Ventral

seta of IIx 500; C. and D. Ventral seta of the posterior segment x 500; E. Bran-

chial organ (relaxed) : F. Branchial organ (contracted) ; G. Pe RCE H. Ante-

rior part of sexual worm.

- at: atrium; cl: clitellum ; dg: dorsal gill; g: gut; gl: gland; mp: male

pote; a: nephridial ampulla ; npd : nephridial Hen npp : nephridial pore ; nps :

nephrostome; OS : OVi-Ssac ; p: Palp ; s: septum ; ss: sperm-sac ; ; vg: ventral gill.

OO to== IMM

Dorsal oe begin in VI, 1 hair and 1 needle (occasionally 2 of

each) per bundle. Hairs bayonet-shaped, smooth, 105-122.5 yp long,

shorter’ than body-diameter. Needles (Fig. 24A) palmate, nearly

912 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

straight, 63-70 « long, nodulus distal (D: P : : 7: 11), with 2 very long

teeth with webbing, without ribs, resembling oars. Ventral setae (Fig. 24

B, C, D) in II-V straighter, thinner than others, 4-5 per bundle, 80-98 p»

long, with proximal nodulus (D: P:: 17: 10 or 16: 10), distal prong

longer and thinner than proximal ; from VI on 3-4 per bundle, 49-56

# long, with distal nodulus (D: P:: 6:9), distal prong shorter and

thinner than proximal.

Branchial organ (Fig. 24 E, F) cup-shaped, fossa opening posteriorly

with 2 palps, armed with stiff sensory hairs, palps parallel in contraction

and diverge in relaxation. Gills 2 pairs, digitiform, shorter than palps ;

1 pair dorsal, longer, stretching backwards, gills parallel to each other ;

1 pair ventral, shorter, diverge slightly and curl upwards in relaxation

and are completely withdrawn into fossa in contraction. |

Pharynx in II-V, ciliated and thick-walled, eversible through the

mouth in the form of disc-like sucker, used for feeding and locomotion.

Oesophagus in VI-VIII, thin. Stomach in IX, marked. Intestine

thin in X-XI, thick from XII on; chloragogues cover gut from VI,

greyish. Coelomocytes spherical and granular. Septal glands absent.

Brain incised deeply in front and behind with a faint dorso-median

groove.

Blood yellow. Simple contractile vessels 2 pairs in VII-VIII, connect

dorsal and ventral vessels.

Nephridia commence with VIII or IX, one per segment (Fig. 24 G),

pre-septal in anterior, post-septal in posterior, of the two segments.

Budding zone single.

Clitellum from V-SVIII (34 segments), weak ventrally in V. Gonads

absent in sexually mature worms (Fig. 24 H). Sperm-sac with develop-

ing sperms and ovi-sac with single large ovum extend to XII and XIII

when full, former within latter. Sperm-funnels and ovi-ducts not

observed in living worms. Atrial ampullae club-shaped, enormously

long, extend to VIII within sperm-sac, when full. Penial setae absent.

Male pores in the situation of ventral bundles of VI, female pores

in the groove between VI and VII vebtro-laterally. Spermathecae

absent. . :

1 (p.) = 1.2-2.0 mm.; d (p.) = 0.16-0.18 mm.; s = 20-25 + formative

zone ending in branchial organ ; n = 15.

Lengths of longest setae in p» and position of nodulus in the ratio

DP:

II Ill IV Vo ONE VII VIll IX xX XI

Hair — — — — 122.5 122:5- - 122:5s>; 119 ~ 2105 112

Needle — —_ — — 63 63 63 66.5 66.5 66.5

7:11 Tl Tit: FAQ Slt st

V. seta 98 96.2 94.5 Sint 52-5 54.2 54,2- .S32i53% $6 1/56

18:10 16:11.5 17:10 16:10 7:8 7:8.5 9:5 6:9 1:93 ehD

_ THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 913

Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Calcutta, Lucknow, Bhim Tal

(N. India); Travancore (S. India). Now recorded from Cuddapah,

Bangalore, and Kakinada (S. India).

Habits : Worms live in thin transparent chitinous tubes covered with

fragments of leaves and wood, dark granules, sand, etc., tubes hang

down with one end attached. They move freely within the tubes

and can turn round interchanging positions of head and branchial

organ. While resting, head end and branchial organ are protruded out

of tubes. Extending the anterior part of its body some distance in front

of the tube, it everts pharyngeal sucker and stretches anterior ventral

setae, fixes them to substratum and contracts the body, dragging the

tube along. Swim with brisk horizontal undulations when freed from

tube.

Remarks ; Present worms have a marked stomach. Stephenson

(1923) indicates presence of stomach in IX. Chen (1940, p- 62) in his

diagnosis points out: ‘ no special stomachic dilatation. Oesophagus

swelling in VIII’. His ‘ Oesophageal swelling in VIII’, obviously is the

stomach.

Though Michaelsen (1914) suggested that Aulophorus oxycephalus

Schmarda, 1861 is identical with A. tonkinensis (Vejdovsky, 1894), and

Chen (1940) united the two into one under the former name on nomen-

clatural priority ; it is difficult to determine the identity of the former

either as a distinct species or a synonym of the latter. All the characters

that are available of the former from the original description

are: (1) presence of two short appendages (palps) at the posterior

end, (2) circular mouth with a pharyngeal sucker, (3) presence

of a tube round its body, (4) dragging type of locomotion similar to

that seen in A. tonkinensis and A. vagus, (5) absence of a stomach, (6)

length :5 mm., diameter: 0.25 mm., (7) dorsal bundles with 3 hair-like

setae and ventral bundles with 3 forked setae. In characters (1) to (4)

it resembles A. tonkinensis. It differs in the absence of a stomach.

Length of 5 mm. is greater than that known for A. tonkinensis (3.5 mm.)

and the 3 setae in the ventral bundles are the minimum found in the

hind segments of A. tonkinensis. The absence of information regarding

the shape etc. of the needles and the setal lengths does not permit of

a definite identity. Further investigation on this form is necessary

ree any decision is reached.

Dero stuhlmanni Stieren (1892) from Trinidad, West Indies, with dorsal

setae starting in VI with 1 hair and 1 simple pointed needle; ventral

bundles with 5 setae ; branchial organ, with 2 pairs of gills and 1 pair of

palps ; length : 2 mm., agrees with A. tonkinensis except in the simple-

pointed condition of the needles. As pointed out by Michaelsen (1914),

the palmate needles often show themselves on their narrow side, when

914 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

they appear simple-pointed. It is highly probable that Stieren observed

the needles on their narrow side and described them as simple-pointed,

which is erroneous. This form is most probably a synonym of A. ton-

kinensis.

8. Genus Allonais Sperber, 1948

In the diagnosis of the genus, Sperber (1948) includes absence of

stomachal dilatation as one of the characters. In the three species I

examined the stomach is present. It is barrel-shaped from XIV-XX

or XXI in A. inaequalis, fusiform from XI-XII in A. rayalaseemensis,

and weak from IX-X in A. gwaliorensis. Its presence evidently was not

clear in the single preserved worm of A. gwaliorensis examined. by

Stephenson (1920) and was overlooked by Chen (1940). a

A. gwaliorensis has penial setae, as is the case with all other species

of the genus. Chen (1940) seems to have overlooked them.

- Generic characters : Eyes absent. Prostomium bluntly triangular.

Dorsal setae normally from VI, hairs and double-pointed or pectinate

needles ; ventral setae of II-V only slightly different from those of other

segments. Stomach present (or absent ?) ; intestinal anti- -peristalsis and

ascending ciliary vibration occur ; chloragocytes from VI on. Septal

glands absent; coelomocytes present. Dorsal vessel contractile,

attached ventrally to the gut on the left side from the hind end to VI,

mid-dorsal in 5 anterior segments; ventral vessel non-contractile and

mid-ventral ; usually a vascular plexus in II-V ; and simple vessels in

following segments present. Budding zones absent; fragmentation

occurs; 5 or 6 head segments budded. Sperm-sac and ovi-sac,

posterior diverticula of septa 5/6 and 6/7, the former within the latter,

extending backwards ; vasa deferentia enter atria above the atrial duct ;

no prostate gland cells ; penial setae present.

Generic type : Allonais inaequalis (Stephenson)

Key TO ALL THE KNOWN AND VALID Species or ALLONAIS —

A-1 Needle setae bifid

B-1 Needle teeth curved (distal end horse- shoe

shaped) seas * chelata

B-2 Needle teeth straight

C-1 Distal tooth of needles longer than proxi-

mal’: < ws gwaliorensis

C-2 Proximal tooth of needles longer than

distal

_D-1 Needles with noduli; dorsal setae

beginning in VI; regenerate an-

~ terior 5segments — - -

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 915

E-1 Needle teeth parallel .. paraguayensis para-

guayensis

E-2 Needle teeth diverging ue rayalaseemensis

3 sp. nov.

D-2 Needles without noduli; dorsal setae

beginning in VII; regenerates an-

terior 6 segments 2. * paraguayensis

, aequitorialis

A-2 Needle setae pectinate

-._- F-1 Needles have proximal tooth longer and thicker

than the distal ae inaequalis

F-2 Needles have equally long and thick teeth .. pectinata

* Species not oe from the Indian sub-continent.

25. Allonais inaequalis (Stephenson, 1911)

ee Fig. 25 A-C

Allonais inaequalis (Stephenson). Sperber, 1948, pp. 201-202, Fig. 21A-D.

Material examined : A few worms from the Bugga stream, Cugdepab

in January 1956.

Largest of all naidid worms in the locality, light brown, with irre-

gular reddish brown patches near dorsal bundles. Eyes absent.

Prostomium longer than broad, without sensory hairs.

AS [3 95C

Fig. 25. Allonais inaequalis (Stephenson): A. Distal end of needle seta,

B. Distal end of ventral seta of IL; C. Distal end of ventral seta of a middle

segment. —

Dorsal setae Begin in VI, 1-2 hairs and 1-2 needles per bundle.

Hairs smooth, slightly curved and about half the body-diameter.

Needles (Fig. 25A) have 2 straight teeth with 1-3 fine, long, intermediate

teeth, nodulus 3/8 - 2/5 from distal end, proximal tooth thicker and 1.5

916 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

times longer than distal. In one worm hairs 192.5-364 p long, needles

98 » in VI and 129.5-143 » long in others ; ventral setae 101.5-105 pz

long, in II-V and 115.5-127.7 » long in others. Ventral setae (Fig.

25 B, C) have median nodulus in II-V, distal in others ; prongs unequal,

distal thinner than proximal, length of distal prong slightly longer to

equal in the setae of bundles.

Pharynx in II-V, wide, protrusible in the form of bulb through

mouth for feeding. Oesophagus in VI-XIII, narrow. No pharyngeal

and oesophageal glands. Stomach in XIV-XX or XXI. Intestine narrow

in XXII and XXIII, wide behind ;, chloragogues brown. Coelomocytes

granular. Septa well developed, no septal glands. Anus postero-dorsal

in a miniature fossa. |

Brain incised in front and behind.

Blood red. Dorsal vessel mid-dorsal in anterior 5 segments, later-

ally to left in remaining segments. Contractile vessels 10 pairs in

VII-XVI, connect dorsal and ventral vessels. Anterior segments with

vascular plexus.

Nephridia begin in VIII, 1 per segment, pre-septal funnel with

ciliated nephrostome, connected by slender duct to post-septal, consisting

of fusiform brown ampulla and a long duct, its middle part passing

through gland tissue, ectal duct ending in nephridiopore ventro-

laterally.

No budding ; fragmentation occurs. Hind fragment regenerates 5

head segments and prostomium, anterior fragment an indefinite number

of hind segments.

Clitellum from V-VIII (4 segments), absent between male pores.

Gonads not seen in sexually mature worms. Sperm-sac with sperms

and ovi-sac with single ovum extend to VIII and X respectively. Sperm

funnels thick-walled cups opening into sperm-sac. Atrial ampulla

spherical, with short, thick ejaculatory duct opening by transverse pore

slightly lateral to penial setae in VI. Penial setae 2-3 per bundle with

simple distal hook. Female pores large and transverse in interseg-

mental groove of VI and VII, in a line with ventral bundles. Dorsal

bundles of VI-VIII are lost in sexual worms. Spermathecal ampullae

ovoid (smaller than atrial ampulla) in V with their pores a little median

to and in front of ventral bundles of V.

1 (p.) = up to 20 mm.; d(p.) = 0.7 mm. ; s = up to 110 + undiffer-

entiated zone ; n = 47 (in one).

Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Agra (N. India); Bheema-

nagar (Travancore, S. India). Now recorded from Cuddapah (S. India).

Habits : Live in aquatic plants and decaying vegetable matter, feed-

ing on them. Swim by slow horizontal undulations.

Remarks ; Setal measurements of the present worms are larger than

those found in literature.

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 917

26. Allonais rayalaseemensis sp. nov.

Fig. 26 A-F

Material examined : Several worms collected from the Bugga

stream, Cuddapah in November 1953, January 1954; from the Kanda-

kam tank, Bellary in April 1954.

- Worms large, yellowish brown, with orange-red ates in head

segments at sexual maturity. Eyes absent. Prostomium bluntly trian-

gular, longer than broad, with sensory hairs, enclosing coelomic fluid

and corpuscles.

RiGAs ant Bi TALC 4. 516 D

ALE gar

Fig. 26. Allonais rayalaseemensis sp. nov. : A. Needle seta x 500; B. Ventral seta

of II x 500; C. Ventral setae of XIII x 500; D. Penial seta x 575 : E. Brain ;

F, Nephridium.

dv: dorsal vessel; g/: gland; na: nephridial ampulla ; npd: nephridial duct

npp : nephridial pore ; mps : nephrostome ; s: septum.

Dorsal setae start in VI, 1-2 hairs and 1-2 needles per bundle. Hairs

simple, smooth, straight 238-366 » long. Needles sickle-shaped (Fig.

26 A) bifid, 80.5-105 yw long, nodulus distal (D: P:: 11:18), teeth

diverging, proximal tooth slightly bent, twice as long and thick as distal.

Ventral setae (Fig. 26 B, C) 4-7 per bundle, in II-V with median

nodulus (D: P: : 13: 12), in others distal nodulus (D: P: : 11:15);

in II up to 91 p» long, gradually decreasing to 84 p» in V, abruptly increas-

ing to 91 p in succeeding segments. Distal prong thinner and longer than

proximal.

918 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Pharynx in II-V, wide and ciliated, partly eversible through mouth

for feeding. Oesophagus in VI-X, thin and wavy. Stomach in XI-XII,

fusiform. Pharyngeal and oesophageal glands absent. Intestine thin

in XIII and wide in following segments, ascending ciliary vibration and

anti-peristalsis occur. Anus dorsal, extends from side to side, anterior

margin medianly incised, and resembling miniature fossa with inner

surface ciliated. Chloragogues from VI, greenish brown. Coelomocytes

granular, spherical, 14-17 mw in diameter. Septa well developed, no

septal glands.

Brain (Fig. 26 E) incised deeply behind and less deeply infront.

Blood orange-red. Dorsal vessel attached to left wall of gut from

hind end to VI, mid-dorsal anteriorly, divides into 2 in prostomium,

branches unite with ventral vessel in II. Anterior 5 segments have a

plexus of blood vessels formed of lateral vessels ; contractile vessels 6

pairs in VI-XI.

First nephridium (Fig. 26 F) in VIL with its nephrostome in VI,

connected by a neck passing through septum to post-septal, consist-

ing of an anterior fusiform, granular ampulla and a long coiled

nephridial duct, middle part passing through gland tissue and ectal

part forming a vesicle before opening to exterior ventro-laterally.

Budding absent ; fragmentation occurs. Posterior fragment regene-

rates 5 head segments and prostomium ; anterior fragment regenerates

several hind segments.

Clitellum opaque from 4$V-4VIII (3 segments). In worms with

clitellum gonads absent, evidently absorbed after production of sexual

cells, Male and female funnels not observed owing to opacity of

clitellum. Atria with ovoid ampullae and short thick ejaculatory

ducts open near ventral bundles of VJ. Penial setae (Fig. 26 D) 4-5

per bundle 119 » long and hooked distally. Sperm- and ovi-sac,

back-pouchings of septa 5/6 and 6/7, extending to X and XIII respec-

tively, the former within the latter. Spermathecal ampullae ovoid and

open by pores in front of ventral bundles of V.

1 (living) = 18-20 mm.; 1 (preserved) = 11-13 mm.; d (p.) =

0.4 mm.; s = 93-118 + undifferentiated zone; n = 48 and 54 in

2 worms.

Lengths of longest setae in » and position of nodulus in the ratio

De2P i2 ;

I THE: “EV Vv iNI vil Vit IX xX XI

Hair = Sa SS —— 70g 245 294 322 301 366

Needle _ joss — 0) OL. 101.5 105 101.5 101.5 101.5 |

917 11:18 10:19 11:18 14:18 91198

Crotchet _ 2.91. _ 87.3: ..84 84. -87.5.. 87.5 oi SIs als 87.5. 4

14:12; 13312 12:12 12:12 tisl4 1114 12214 12:14 4i15, eis

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA ~~ 919

' Habits: Live among algae and decaying vegetable matter feeding

on them. Worms left in a vessel of water (without any aquatic

plants) entangle themselves with one another to form knotty masses ;

on removal to a slide with some water, they move away in all direc-

tions. Swim by slow transverse movements.

Taxonomic discussion : Of the 5 species in this genus, it closely

resembles Allonais paraguayensis paraguayensis (Michaelsen) in the

possession of non-pectinate needles with proximal tooth thicker and —

longer than distal; and differs from it in having diverging needle

teeth (teeth nearly parallel in paraguayensis), and smaller setae (larger

in paraguayensis).

Diagnosis of Allonais rayalaseemensis sp. nov.: No eyes. Dorsal

setae begin in VI. 1-2 hairs and 1-2 needles with straight diverging

teeth, proximal twice as long and as thick as distal; nodulus

distal. Ventral setae 4-7 per bundle, all about equally long with

distal prong slightly longer and thinner than proximal, in anterior

segments nodulus median, in others distal. Vascular system forms a

plexus in II-V ; 6 pairs of contractile lateral vessels in VI-XI. Stomach

in XI-XII. Clitellum in 4V-SVIII; atria ovoid ; penial setae with

simple distal hook, 4-5 per bundle. Fragmentation occurs.

Type : The type specimen is being deposited in Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta.

27. Allonais gwaliorensis (Stephenson, 1920)

Fig. 27 A-F

Allonais gwaliorensis (Stephenson). Sperber, 1948, pp. 205-206.

(?) Allonais gwaliorensis (Stephenson). Sperber, 1958, p. 50, figs. 10-12.

Material examined : Several worms collected from the Bugga stream,

Cuddapah, all round the year from 1952-55 and 1957 ; from the Balaji

tank, Kakinada in July and November 1956.

Worms of medium size, delicate, slender, and pale white. Prosto-

mium bluntly triangular, slightly longer than broad without sensory

hairs.

~-- Dorsal bundles of setae begin in VI, 1-2 hairs and 1-2 needles per

bundle. Hairs simple, smooth, 140-161 » long. Needles sickle-shaped

(Fig. 27 A), bifid with weak nodulus, a third from distal end, 59.5-66.5 yu

long, distal tooth thinner, slightly longer, and straighter than proximal,

with deep acute angle between the teeth. Ventral setae (Fig. 27 B, C)

in II-V, 4-5 per bundle, 56-63 p» long, 2 » thick, thinner, straighter than

others, prongs equally thick, distal longer and more hooked than proxi-

mal ; in others, 4-6 per bundle, 52.5-56 p long, 2.5 » thick, distal prong

thinner and slightly longer than proximal. Nodulus slightly proximal in

920 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

II-IV, median in V, and distal in others; position of nodulus is nly

constant in setae of bundles. :

a4 2]8, 27 sa

Fig. 27. Allonais gwaliorensis (Stephenson): A. Needle seta x 1200; B. Ventral

seta of II x 1200; C. Ventral seta of XIII x 1200; D. Brain; E. Nephridium ;

F. Penial setae x 800.

dv: dorsal vessel; gl: gland; na: nephridial ampulla; mpd: nephridial BHO,

npp : nephridial pore ; mps: nephrostome ; s: septum.

Pharynx in II-V, ciliated, wide, and eversible through the mouth in

the form of a bulb for feeding. Oesophagus in VI-VIII, narrow. No

pharyngeal and oesophageal glands. Stomach in IX-X, weak. Intes-

tine thin in XI and XII, wide in rest. Anus is postero-dorsal. Chlora-

gogues greenish brown. Coelomocytes whitish, spherical 10-14 » in

diameter. Septa well developed, no septal glands.

Brain (Fig. 27 D) incised deeply posteriorly and less deeply

anteriorly.

Blood yellowish. Contractile lateral vessels 2 pairs in VI-VIII ; non-

contractile vessels 4 pairs in II-V.

Nephridia (Fig. 27 E) start in VII, one per segment, placed to left;

pre-septal funnel with ciliated nephrostome in one segment, and post-

septal with a brown, fusiform ampulla followed by a coiled duct partly

THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SOUTH INDIA 921

passing through gland tissue and opening ventro- laterally in next

segment.

Budding absent ; paddmentttion occurs. A worm kept in a tube of

water for a day fragmented into 2, each fragment with 29 segments.

Posterior fragment regenerated 5 head segments and prostomium and

anterior fragment regenerated several hind segments.

Sexual worms abundant in winter. In January 1954 several sexual

worms were collected. Testes and ovaries develop first in V and VI,

after production of sex cells they are resorbed. Clitellum develops later

from 4 V-VII (24 segments). Sperm- and ovi-sac extend to XII and XIII

respectively when full, the former within the latter. Sperm-funnels

cup-shaped with ciliated margins, open in sperm-sac. Vas deferens

thin, coiled, and open into large ovoid atria in VI. Atrial ejaculatory

ducts short and open to exterior ventro-laterally in a shallow depression

by the side of penial setae in VI. Penial setae (Fig. 27 F) 3-5 per

bundle, 63 » long. Female funnels not observed. Spermathecae ovoid,

thin-walled, 15-2 times as long as broad, ectal ducts short and open in

front of ventral bundles of V. Clitellum begins to form before male

funnels and spermathecae are fully formed, but only after sperm- and

Ovi-sac are fully developed.

1 (living) = 4-12 mm.; d (living) = 0.2 mm.;s = 23-86 ; n = 29 (in

one worm).

Lengths of longest setae in » and position of nodulus in the ratio

DP:

II Il IV Vv VI VII Vill IX X

Hair = a ae 140) oldie sie alee 64a 140

Needle — ee 59:5 63 63 63 63

; 5112 6:12 6:12 6:12 6:12

V. seta 63 59.5 56 56 56 52.5 52.5) 5215, 525

9:9 9:8 9:7 8:8 7:9 7:8 (gs Ek:

- Distribution in Indian sub-continent : Gwalior (central India). Now

recorded from Cuddapah and Kakinada (S. India).

Habits: Worms live in algae and aquatic vegetation; do not

construct tubes. Swim by transverse undulations.

Commensals : Number of sessile Vorticellids are found attached to

setae of these worms. |

Parasites : Holotrichous astomatous Ciliates akin to Anoplophrya

are seen in the gut of some worms.

Remarks: The descriptions of Allonais gwaliorensis available in the

literature are incomplete. Details regarding the blood colour, vascular

system, lacking in the descriptions, are here included. Penial setae are

present, 3-5 per bundle, and are similar in shape to those of Nais

variabilis. Chen (1940) seems to have overlooked them. Stomach,

stated to be absent by the previous authors, is also present.

(To be continued)

The BNHS/WHO

Bird Migration Study Project—2

Activities from 15-12-61 to 15-10-62. —

SALIM ALI

Chief Investigator, BNHS/|WHO Bird Migration Study Project

[Continued from Vol. 59 (1) : 130]

1. EDANAD, KERALA: 21 DECEMBER 1961 TO 25 JANUARY 1962 AND

18 Marcu 1962 To 6 ArRIL 1962

In December 1961, soon after I returned from the exploratory trip in

north-eastern India, intimation was received from Mr. P. V. George of

Kerala—one of the Baroda University Zoology post-graduates who

had assisted in the field camps in Saurashtra and Rajasthan earlier—

of the discovery of some large roosts of Yellow Wagtails (Motacilla

flava) at Edanad near Chengannur (c. 60 miles S. of Cochin,

9° 20’ N.xX76° 38’ E.) in standing fields of sugarcane. The story

of how the roosts were located after a fortnight’s trailing of the birds

has been related elsewhere (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 : 294-6).

I sent off two of Bombay Natural History Society’s experienced field

assistants to assist Mr. George who meanwhile had managed to

recruit some local helpers. |

Netting started in the area on 21 December but, owing to difficulty

in getting adequate supplies of rings, work was intermittent and

finally closed down on 25 January pending the arrival of further rings

from Europe. In the 20 days of irregular netting 1897 birds were

netted and ringed. Attention was restricted. to migrant species;

resident birds that blundered into the nets were merely examined

for ectoparasites, and if negative were promptly released. Owing to

pressure of time and the labour involved in handling such dase catches

this was the only practicable course.

I visited Kerala in the latter part of January to inspect the scene

of operations, arriving at Edanad via Cochin on the 2 and return:

ing to Bombay on the 26th.

The wagtails spend the day feeding in the dyked paddylands of

Kuttanad in Vembanad Lake (near Alleppey) and commute 20 to 25

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT—2 923

miles SE: every evening to roost among the sugarcane fields at Edanad

in fantastically large numbers. On arrival at the roosting ground they

mill around 50 to 100 feet over the cane fields filling the sky

from horizon to horizon, looking like a swarm of locusts. Gradually

the birds begin to drop into the cane at a steep angle, first singly, then

in twos and threes, and then in scores and hundreds. By half an

hour after sunset all the birds have settled in, leaving the sky clear

again. Soon their soft chittering dies down so that there is nothing

to suggest the presence of the enormous numbers hidden within the

cane. It shows how easily one could miss even such a large roost

unless one chanced to be on the spot during just the crucial half hour

or so into which all the activity is packed.

A line of nets, a couple of feet higher than the cane tops, had

been strung along the edge of the fields. Since the birds entered the

cane by dropping from above very few were caught at the time of

settling. After all the birds had settled, and while there was still some

daylight left, a couple of men entered the cane field from the opposite

side to disturb the birds, which then flew out more or less horizontally

and straight into the nets. In this way it was possible to make

sizeable catches at the same roost day after day without scaring the

birds away.

~ On the replenishment of the stock of rings, work on ie Kerala

wagtails was resumed. A field camp was set up at Edanad under the

leadership of Mr. George. He was assisted by four staff members of

the Bombay Natural History Society, four of his zoology students

from St. Berchman’s College, Changanacherry, and Rev. A. Krebs, a

Danish missionary from Madras State.

During the period between 18 March and 6 April, a further 4067

birds were caught and ringed by the Kerala party, all but 4 of which

were Yellow Wagtails (M. flava) of at least four subspecies represent- -

ing populations from more or less the entire Palaearctic Region west

to east (see list below). :

2. MAHIM, GREATER BOMBAY, MAHARASHTRA: FEBRUARY 1962

In the interval, in February 1962, a fortunate circumstance had

led to the discovery of a populous roost of the migratory Eastern

Swallow (Hirundo rustica gutturalis) almost at our doorstep, so to

say, right within the limits of Bombay City. It was situated in a

dense patch of mangroves adjoining the dilapidated hovels of squatters

along the edge of Mahim Creek at the Bandra Lise end. of the

Causeway.

Several thousand swallows concentrate to roost in this mangrove

924. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

patch, not more than a couple of acres in extent, from their wide-

spread foraging around the City. During three evenings 497 swallows

were ringed. Since then, much public interest has been aroused in

bird migration and in the Society’s ringing activities by the showing

all over the country of a documentary news film of our operations at

Mahim made on that occasion by the Films Division of the Govern-

ment of India. |

- Work was held up thereafter for want of rings of the appropriate

size. There was a gap of 15 days till a further supply was procured,

but in the interval the birds were found to have abandoned the roost

completely. Whether they had suddenly shifted to some other roost,

or had already started on their northward emigration was uncertain.

However, the discovery of this roost so near Bombay opens up promis-

ing possibilities for ringing migratory swallows—and, may be, also

wagtails and other species-—throughout their winter sojourn in these

parts. These possibilities will be fully explored in the coming season.

3. BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN: 16 MARCH 1962 To 3 APRIL 1962

The second camp for the spring migration ringing was again

conducted in Bharatpur (Rajasthan). Local clues furnished by H.H.

the Maharaja led to the discovery of a gigantic communal roost of

migratory sparrows, the Eastern Spanish (Passer hispaniolensis

transcaspicus) and the Turkestan House Sparrow (P. domesticus

parkini and/or bactrianus ?). The former’s breeding range extends

from Asia Minor eastward to Transcaucasia, Iran, Russian Turkestan,

and northern Afghanistan; the latter breeds throughout Hazara,

Kashmir, and Baltistan, to Ladakh, Turkestan, etc. They both visit

north-western India in winter, usually keeping in mixed flocks, but

neither my own experience nor the literature had ever suggested such

unbelievable hordes within Indian limits. Guesswork estimates are

always unsatisfactory, but a million birds for this roost would

perhaps be on the cautious side. The area of the roost, situated

about 7 miles out of Bharatpur on the Deeg road, perhaps a

hundred acres or somewhat more, shows signs of monsoon

inundation and is dotted with bushes, shrubs, and small (mostly

thorny) trees, singly and in mixed clumps, of Zizyphus, Capparis

aphylla, Acacia, Prosopis spicigera, Salvadora, etc. The sparrows

gather here at sunset from the wide expanse of surrounding

wheat fields where they commit their depredations throughout the

day. They fly about in dense black clouds, settling from time to time

on the ripening wheat crops. When shouted off by the watchmen,

the cloud rises only to resettle in a neighbouring field. The slings

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT—2 925

and yells of the farmers merely serve to keep the birds on the mova

and prevent concentrated damage in any one area. Before retiring

into the roosting bushes at sunset the birds fly about restlessly,

perching in thick clusters on leafless bush- and tree-tops, silhouetted

against the sky like a crop of dense foliage. Apart from a strategic

deployment of the nets in the shrubbery across the line of the birds’

approach, much success was experienced by two persons carrying an

open net stretched between bamboo poles and raised high against a

roosting bush after dark. When disturbed from the opposite side.

masses of birds flew out straight into the net, often in such quantities

that it became difficult for the netters to support the weight.

_.In 19 days of netting in the Bharatpur area nearly 3000 birds

were caught and ringed. The majority of these consisted of the twa

sparrows, but also included were about 300 wagtails and 78 Garganey

Teal (the latter got from professional fowlers). All the wagtails,

chiefly Motacilla flava and M. citreola, were taken at the reedbed

roost in Keoladeo Bird Sanctuary where about 150 had been ringed

in May last year. One of the latter (VM. citreola No. A-5542, ringed

15-5-1961) was recaptured in the identical spot on 26-3-1962,

presumably having been to its homeland and back during the

interval. |

The grand total of migratory birds ringed at all stations during the

period from 15-12-61 to 15-4-’62 is 8931, broken up as under:

Motacilla alba dukhunensis 12

Motacilla flava beema 2573

Motacilla flava thunbergi 1270

Motacilla flava melanogrisea 303

Motacilla flava simillima 364

Motacilla flava subspecies ? 1232

Motacilla citreola 355

Motacilla indica 355

Hirundo rustica rustica 9

Hirundo rustica gutturalis 501

Passer hispaniolensis transcaspicus 1294

Passer domesticus parkini and/or bactrianus ? 457

Acrocephalus stentoreus 13

Erithacus svecica subspecies ? 21

Emberiza bruniceps 33

Anas querquedula 78

Total of other species less than 10 each 61

Total

8931

[Sa

926 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Yellow Wagtails in immature and winter plumages are notoriously

difficult to distinguish. In the list above I feel almost certain that

many M. f. simillima at least have been misidentified as either M. f.

melanogrisea or M. citreola.

4. HINGOLGADH, SAURASHTRA: 15 SEPTEMBER 1962 Tr

1 OCTOBER 1962

The physiography of the netting area has been already described

[J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 (1): 111]. The monsoon had been

poor and the rainfall the lowest in years. Up to the time the

field work commenced only very little rain had fallen. Grass cover

was scarce and depressions, ponds, and tanks were largely dry.

Except for some heavy showers that fell on 22-24 September there was

practically no more rain, and the monsoon ended with a considerable

deficit. Rosy Pastor migration was noticeably weak, but the other

passerine migrants appeared in their usual numbers. High winds

hampered mist netting seriously, and on a number of oe even

rendered it impossible. | ,

Owing to the large number of village cattle let into the netting

area for grazing, due to scarcity conditions outside the reserve, the

damage caused to the nets was considerable and made their use

uneconomical. Since the work proved only moderately productive it

was decided to close down the Hingolgadh camp on Ist October and

transfer some of the personne! to Bharatpur which nie more

hands.

Yuvraj .Shivrajkumar, whe directed the Hingolgadh camp, took

the opportunity of inviting the Forest Minister and other officials of

the Gujarat Government, together with over 300 local celebrities

chiefly Sarpanchest from the surrounding villages, to explain and

demonstrate to them the BNHS/WHO bird netting and ringing project

and to explain its significance for the study of arbor-virus dissemina-

tion. This was chiefly in order to enlist local interest and co-operation

and to allay prejudicial rumours about our activities. The function

was a great success, and the publicity given to the Project should be

of considerable help in furthering the field work in Gujarat.

One of the more interesting catches at Hingolgadh was a Sylvia

curruca (blythii) ringed at the same place on 24 September 1961,

exactly one year before. With this, and several other similar re-

captures, evidence is fast accumulating that many Indian migrants

1 Heads of village councils

THE BNHS/|WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT—2 927

are also ‘oristreue’ or faithful to their wintering areas, as they have

been shown to be to their nesting places.

One S. hortensis, in fact, originally ringed at Hingolgadh on 27

September 1960 was recaptured there on 21 September 1961, and then

again in the same place on 18 September 1962', showing the regularity

of return and parochiality of migrants in their winter haunts. The

Hingolgadh camp ended with a total of 509 birds (63 species) ringed,

of which 353 (25 spp.) were migrants. Prominent among them were

Sylvia communis icterops 77, S. curruca blythii 74, Calandrella cinerea

(dukhunensis) 74, Muscicapa striata neumanni 48, Sylvia hortensis

jerdoni 35, Anthus campestris 22.

The netting in Hingolgadh added one more species to the Gujarat

and Saurashtra bird list, viz. the Whitecapped Bunting. Emberiza

stewarti, which has not been recorded so far south in India before’.

5. BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN: 15 SEPTEMBER 1962 TO

15 OcTOBER 1962

The Spanish Sparrow roost area where some very successful

netting was done in March-April 1962 was flooded and not easily

approachable except by boat across the intervening deep canals.

Flocks of sparrows and Redheaded Buntings (E. bruniceps) were, all

the same, observed flying to the roost at sunset. The sparrows were

mostly Passer domesticus indicus, but definitely with numbers of the

large migratory race parkini among them. Apparently P. hispanio-

lensis arrives somewhat later, since none were identified amongst

those observed or taken in the nets.

By watching the steady streams of yellow wagtail flocks flying in

a tixed direction before sunset for 3 or 4 successive evenings, the roost

was finally traced down to an extensive area (about a square mile

or more) of flooded sugarcane fields about 10 miles NE. of Bharatpur

(near Pengore village in Kumher tahsil). The number of wagtails

arriving at this roost from all directions at sunset defy estimation.

The sky above the cane fields just before the birds dropped in for

the night was a dense seething mass of milling wagtails—reminiscent

of a gigantic swarming of bees. There may be a million birds or just

as credibly several million. The large numbers of Redheaded

Buntings among them at first seemed to get progressively fewer day

by day, presumably as the birds dispersed to other wintering areas.

In spite of the physical difficulties of working this roost, involving

a daily round trip of. 2 ee plus 8-10. miles across country

2 infra, p. 963, casi ipety

2 infra, p. 956: [Has been’ collected at Nagpur, Maharashtra (D’ Abreu, 1931

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 218).—Epbs.]

928 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

on foot over slippery bunds and swampy fields in the midday heat

and staggering back again Jaden with birds in more or less complete

darkness, very satisfactory results were obtained. The Bharatpur

autumn session ended with a total of 2102 birds ringed, nearly all

of them migrants. For shortage of personnel and pressure of time all

resident birds netted were merely examined for ticks and released

without ringing, except for a few birds ringed at the beginning of the

session.

Twenty-one species of migrants are represented in the above, with

Motacilla flava (subspecies beema, thunbergi, melanogrisea, simillima)

778 and M. citreola (2 races) 854 heading the list. Also included are

163 Erithacus svecicus (ssp. ?), 172 Emberiza pipe 28 Hirundo

rustica, 19 Anthus trivialis.

6. ECTOPARASITES

Disappointingly enough, from all the hundreds of migratory

wagtails and swallows examined for ticks in Kerala, Rajasthan, and

Bombay during the winter and spring and early summer (December

1961 to April 1962) only a single M. f. beema from Bharatpur (No.

A-34052) was found positive for ticks. It carried a single nymph of

Hyalomma m. isaaci, described as a common ixodid (hard) tick of

dry areas of NW. India, adults of which are commonly met with on

cattle in Kutch and Saurashtra. The only other tick collected during

the spring migration operations was a nymph of Haemaphysalis

intermedia’ on a Spanish Sparrow, Passer hispaniolensis (No. A-34050),

also in Bharatpur. Both of these ticks could have been locally

acquired. As against the above it is interesting to note that four of

the 330 Yellow Wagtails examined in Bharatpur during the previous

autumn immigration (September, 1961) carried larvae and nymphs of

Haemaphysalis m. isaaci. The differential infestation probably has

some seasonal significance. While none of the migratory swallows

(Hirundo rustica) taken in Bombay or Bharatpur were infested, it is

noteworthy that all the four resident Cliff Swallows (Hirundo

fluvicola) examined in Bharatpur (i.e. 100%) carried argasid ~ (soft)

tick larvae (3, 7, 9, and 49 specimens each respectively) of what may

prove to be an undescribed species or subspecies of the genus Argus.

In the autumn 1962 operations ticks were collected from 85 of the

Hingolgadh birds, whereas of the very much larger number examined

1 Kindly identified by the Virus Research Centre, Poona, who report that

presently there is some confusion about the name ‘ intermedia’ which will probably

have to be replaced.

THE BNHS/WHO BIRD MIGRATION STUDY PROJECT—2 929

in Bharatpur only 19 proved positive. The preserved tick material

is being identified by the Virus Research Centre, Poona. For want

of laboratory facilities no live ticks were collected for virological study.

Compared to Bharatpur, the percentage of birds positive for ticks

at Hingolgadh was considerably higher. This may be because of the

nature of the country, the dry scrub jungle being a more suitable

habitat for ticks than the swampy fallow and grazing lands and

inundated sugarcane fields frequented by the yellow wagtails which

formed the majority of the catches in Bharatpur.

The most productive species as regards ticks were:

Hingolgadh :

Sylvia communis icterops (migrant) -ie 33

Saxicoloides fulicata cambayensis (resident) Ms 3

Bharatpur :

Motacilla flava all sub-spp. (migrant) i 9

Motacilla citreola (migrant) % 5

Anthus trivialis (migrant) 3

At the invitation of W.H.O., Prof. G. I. Netzky, pace olor

of the Institute for Diseases with Natural Foci, Omsk, U.S.S.R.,

spent about 3 weeks at our Bharatpur camp. The object of the visit

was to acquaint himself with the nature of our activities and

techniques with a view to devising ways and means for closer co-

operation and collaboration with the Omsk Institute. It has seemed

unfortunate that, through restriction of their laboratory facilities, the

Virus Research Centre, Poona, has not been able to make any

virological studies on the arthropod material collected from birds by

our field teams. Prof. Netzky will consult his colleagues in Russia

and work out a scheme for greater reciprocal usefulness. In addition

to ticks he was very anxious that we should also collect Gamasid

mites from birds, both migratory and resident, and from birds’ nests,

since in the opinion of Russian workers Gamasid mites could play a

highly significant role in the dissemination of viruses.

Reviews

1. THE MIGRATIONS OF BIRDS. By Jean Dorst. Translated

(from the French) by Constance D. Sherman. With a Foreword by

Roger Tory Peterson. pp. xix+476 (21X14 cm.). With photographs,

maps and diagrams in the text. Heinemann, London, 1962. — Price

50s. net. ,

Bird migration and the many mysteries that enshroud it have

excited the wonderment of man through the ages. Many theories

and beliefs, often quite fantastic, were entertained by the ancients,

some of which persisted even till the dawn of what may be called

the modern scientific era. The scientific study of bird migration,

however, really began at the turn of the century with the initiation

(by a Danish schoolmaster) of the method of marking birds with metal

rings round. their legs, bearing the address of the ringer to enable

all recoveries to be reported back. Thus gradually accumulated

precise scientific data in place of conjecture and guesswork concern-

ing the lives and seasonal movements of individual birds or

geographical populations—knowledge impossible to obtain in any

other way. With the progressive refinement and development of the

technique, bird ringing—or ‘banding’ as it is called in America—has

now become one of the most important and universally employed

tools for bird migration study. The basic information it has yielded

has made possible the branching out of migration study into a large

number of subsidiary scientific investigations previously unthinkable.

Concomitantly with ringing have been developed and perfected other

methods of study as a result of modern advanced technology. The

rising tempo of investigations and the resulting torrent of migration

literature, in many languages and in many countries, made it

physically impossible for even a serious worker to keep abreast with

current knowledge. Thus, the timely publication of this book by a

biologist of Dr. Dorst’s stature and experience is a significant event.

It contains the distilled essence of all the more important recent

publications on bird migration in Europe and America as evidenced

by the truly formidable bibliography of no less than 60 pages at the

end—a compilation which in itself is of the highest usefulness for

the student.

It is not possible in this short review even to attempt to do proper

justice to a work of such wide comprehensiveness. One is struck

with admiration at the masterly way in which the author has

REVIEWS es 931

marshalled the vast array of material confronting him, and moulded

and condensed it all into the limits of one useful and fascinating

volume. It surveys the entire field of bird migration, and the reviewer

can do no better than indicate its coverage by the chapter headings

and some of the topics discussed: |

Old Explanations of Bird Migrations

(Hibernation, lying torpid at bottom of marshes, etc.)

Methods of Studying Migrations

(Visual observation, Ringing, Moon-watching, Radar)

Migrations in Europe and Northern Asia

Migrations in North America

(Availability of so much detailed information about routes

and goals of migrants indicates the value of large scale ringing

with the co-operation of a wide network of amateur bird

students and associations) |

Migrations in the Southern Hemisphere

[Contra the position in the northern hemisphere, although many

boreal birds winter in Patagonia (the only land closest to the

South Pole with a warm summer and cold winter), not a

single austral bird crosses the intertropical zone during the

southern autumn migration. Most do not fly north even to

the equator]

Migrations in Intertropical Regions

(Influenced chiefly by rhythmic. succession of wet and dry

seasons which profoundly affect animals and plants, and thus

food supply—hatching of insects, ripening of fruits, etc.)

Sea-bird Migrations

(Gives interesting information about the astonishing move-

ments of many species, e.g. albatrosses, penguins, eider. ducks,

etc., by gliding on widespread wings and drifting with wind

currents, or by swimming. Effect of gales in abnormal

migrations. Hurricane hazards to sea birds) |

Modes of Migration

(Topographical features as guides. Speed. Altitude. Distances

covered in a day. Time taken in entire migratory journey.

Importance of meteorological conditions. Diurnal and Noctur-

nal migrants. Greatest activity of latter between 8 p.m. and

4 a.m. with peak just before midnight)

Bird Invasions

(Not true migrations. Influenced by food cycles, often at

more or less regular intervals. Pallas’s Sandgrouse, Waxwing,

Rosy Pastor, etc.)

932

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

40. Hibernation in Birds

IJ.

122

13:

(Some birds capable of reacting to cold and food scarcity in

winter by becoming torpid with reduced temperature and

metabolism. Swallow, Swift, Poor-will of California)

The Physiological Stimulus of Migration are vrei

(The various experiments and theories. Migration depends on

a complex internal rhythm, like Moult and Reproduction.

Influence of endocrine system, particularly the pituitary gland,

on cycle of genital organs, accumulation of fat, and general

metabolism) 7

Orientation of Migratory Birds |

[The importance of visual and meteorological landmarks.

Bearings obtained from constellations at night (Sauer’s ex-

periments) and from sun in daytime (Kramer’s and Matthew’s

experiments)] 7 |

The origin and Evolution of Migrations

(Origin explainable by power of flight in birds and changes in

geography and climatology since the Tertiary period. Changes

in distribution due to alternation of glacial and interglacial

periods. Some curious patterns of migration that have

evolved: certain birds from Alaska migrate south-west, right

across Asia and Europe to Africa. Process of range extension

due to climatic changes as observable even today in

Scandinavian countries. Role of migratory birds in the

dissemination of plants and viruses)

The book concludes with this significant paragraph:

‘All of this reveals that we must be on guard against the over-

simplified explanations which have been advanced ever since mankind

became interested in ornithology. Migrations, like birds themselves,

are multiple and involve a number of different elements which cannot

be reduced to a rigid formula.’

This review must not end without a note of high praise for the

translator. If the book had been written directly in English it is

doubtful if it could have: been made more absorbingly readable.

S.A.

REVIEWS 933

2. A HUNTER’S SAGA. By W. Robert Foran. Foreword by

Captain C. R. S. Pitman. pp. 192 (22x15 cm.). 8 half-tone plates.

London, 1961. Robert Hale Limited. Price 18s.

This book is a welcome change from the ‘modern’ shikar stories

written by persons who make fortnight-long trips for ‘guaranteed’

tiger and other game.

Major Foran commences at the turn of the century and, though his

experience in India was over a relatively short period, he shot 3 tigers

from a machan in one night, a man-eater while it was fatally mauling

a man, and also watched a battle between a cow buffalo and a tiger

in which the latter was mangled and killed.

In Africa, he shot 400 elephants in 6 years and the illustrations,

which on the whole are indifferent, include a picture of ivory valued

at £3000 which he had poached in 6 months in the Belgian Congo.

Commercialised hunting of this kind, though it may have appeared

laudable and harmless then, has helped to decimate wild life in all

parts of the world. There can however be no doubt that the killing

of so many elephants, and all on foot, must have produced many

reasons for his opinion that the elephant is the most dangerous of alk

wild animals.

In his long career, he has had many strange and exciting ex-

periences. He was surrounded by cow elephants which continued to

enjoy their noontime siesta and, as time dragged on, he remained

motionless—legs and arms becoming cramped—‘at last I could stand

the strain no longer. .... cautiously I took the spear from the

tracker’s hand and swung the weapon to wallop the rump of the cow

with a hard blow..... the steel head of the spear hit her posterior

with a resounding thud and the shaft broke into 3 pieces... .. the

cow sprang to life, emitted a shrill and ear-piercing scream, tucked

her tail well in and was off into the bush.’ The other elephants ail

stampeded and left the area. )

He was tossed by an elephant, and was attacked by a buffalo

while lying between the sloping buttress-roots of a tree near a salt

lick. Protected between the roots he grasped his hunting knife in

both hands and drew its long and keen blade across the bull’s shaggy

throat!

The small game shoots which were carried out in the mornirigs

on working days ‘included greater and lesser bustard, francolin of

diverse subspecies, guineafowl, spurfowl, sandgrouse, quail and snipe

».. .. It was rare to return with less than a hundred birds and

several times the total was double that.’

934° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Among his experiences in North America, he refers to ‘big-horned

sheep leaping from a height of approximately 20 or 30 feet and

alighting on the spread of their horns and thereby saving themselves

from a possible fractured or dislocated bone’.

Sport, then and now, are indeed very different from each other.

Conditions have changed completely over this period and much of

what lie writes reads as out of a fairy tale, but is of course in keep-

ing with what others wrote about the same time.

The author has written several books on shikar and adventure

and, with our fast disappearing wild life, such excursions into the

past are interesting.

H.A.

3. BIRDS IN THE SUN. Text by Malcolm MacDonald; photo-

graphs by Christina Loke. pp. 128 (21.5X28 cm.) including 49

photographs in colour. H. F. & G. Witherby, London/D.B. Tara-

porevala & Sons, Bombay. Price 48s. or Rs. 34.00 net.

Bird-lovers who enjoyed BIRDS IN MY INDIAN GARDEN, have been

eagerly asking for more. Here is the answer to their prayer. This

magnificent production deals with 43 species of Indian birds, mostly

from the Delhi neighbourhood but which may also be met with

practically throughout the country.

The book commences with a Foreword by the photographer

giving some vital statistics of her technique, the equipment she used,

and so on, which persons aspiring to emulate her achievements will

value greatly. Let such persons be warned, however,—as the

reviewer's sorry experience has taught him over and over again—that

in the final reckoning it is perhaps not so much the camera BO

matters as the man behind, of whichever sex!

_ The Introduction by the author, which follows, is largely a

narration of his bird watching experiences in and around Delhi, and

of the circumstances, difficulties, and physical discomforts—even

danger—under which many of the photographs were made by

- Christina Loke. The chapter is, in fact, largely a tribute of admira-

tion to her skill, determination, and sense of dedication to the task

she had set out to perform. 3

For each of the birds illustrated in the succeeding pages there is

one facing page of descriptive text. In some species, e.g. Short-toed:

Eagle, Crimson-breasted Barbet, and Purple Sunbird—where several

REVIEWS 935

photographs are devoted to each—the text is spread over two pages

or more.

Mr. MacDonald’s previous writings have already established his

reputation as a keen and observant field ornithologist, and a gifted,

highly readable writer. Most of Christina Loke’s photographs are

superb, and fully corroborate what this reviewer claimed on an

earlier occasion, that they are amongst the finest camera studies of

Indian birds extant. To which may now be added that they are also

the first colour photographs of many of the species dealt with. The

attractive get-up of the book leaves little to be desired, though it must

be said that the reproduction of the plates is rather variable in

quality and often does scant justice to the original transparencies.

In some cases, e.g. Golden Oriole (p. 93), Tailor-bird (p. 111),

Baya Weaverbird (p. 121) the colour rendering is unsatisfactory and

even misleading. |

BIRDS IN THE SUN is a welcome addition to popular literature on

Indian birds, and sure to receive a warm welcome from the perceptibly

widening circle of bird lovers in this country.

S.A.

4. JUNGLE AND BACKYARD. By M. Krishnan. pp. 142

(20.5% 14 cm.). With numerous illustrations by the author. Delhi,

1961. National Book Trust, India, Publications Division, Govern-

ment of India. Price Rs. 3.00.

This small booklet presents a series of 34 short articles broken

up into sections for Beasts, Birds, Pets and Livestock, (animal) Guests

and Co-tenants, and Herbs, Shrubs and Trees. The author is a

well-known contributor to English dailies and magazines in India,

and is one of the few who have been trying to arouse public interest

in the much neglected subject of natural history.

He is keenly interested and some of his observations are interesting

and provocative of further inquiry. He refers to a cat jumping to a

height which is too high to be achieved in a single leap: ‘It leaps

straight up towards its objective, touching the wall a little over half

way up’, and says that it kicks sideways to go upwards. He suggests

that the African Klipspringer, which is said to reach a vertical height

of some 25 feet from a standing start, and the panther, which can

jump out of enclosures that are safe for holding tiger, use the same

movements.

In the article “The Lizard on the Wall’, he states that the gecko

has suckers on its feet and moves less easily on glass than on a wall,

936 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

for on the former each foot has to be plucked away separately. If

the observation is correct, it is due to the fact that the smoother

surface of the glass does not have the roughness which the fine ‘hair’

on \the pads of its feet must mect. There is no suction pad, as in the

tree-frogs (Rhacophorus), and the gecko would not be able to climb

on any surface which is technically absolutely smooth.

The essays make pleasant reading and show the great scope

for natural history notes of this kind in India. It is unfortunate that

they should include references to a panther with a cub being shot at

a waterhole at night and the skin of a bear cub, though this was

shot (‘almost entirely’) by accident. Is all shikar in India inevitably

linked with methods looked down upon by sport and law?

The booklet has been received for review rather late and at the

Society’s special request. It is strange that the copy received had

obviously been handled and the text was underlined and marked in

many places.

H.A.

5. INTRODUCTION TO HIGH ALTITUDE ENTOMOLOGY :

INSECT LIFE ABOVE THE TIMBERLINE IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA.

By M. S. Mani. pp. xix+302 (22.3X14.5 cm.). 2 coloured and 8

haif-tone plates, and 80 line illustrations. London, 1962. Methuen

& Co. Ltd. Price 42s.

Most people, if they think of insects at high altitudes at all, think

of them as surviving precariously in spite of the intense cold and

low atmospheric pressure. This is far from being the case.

Between the line where trees cease to grow and the permanent snow

line on the Himalayan slopes there is a zone which supports a

flourishing insect fauna so well adapted to the prevailing conditions

that it survives because of, rather than in spite of, the climate. The

nival insects, as they are called, follow the retreating edge of the

melting snow in spring. There they find vast quantities of dead

insects, pollen grains, and organic debris which have been carried

up from the plains by air currents and deposited in the ice. Various

Diptera, and a species of Lycaenid butterfly suck the juices from the

softening bodies of these derelicts at the edge of the snow. Beetles

bite off parts of them, while Collembola feed on pollen grains. Pre-

daceous beetles and spiders follow and hunt these scavengers, and

mites parasitize predators and victims equally. When winter comes

the nival insects find hiding places for themselves beneath stones and

hibernate under the snow till the melt water reactivates them in spring.

REVIEWS 937

There are features common to all the nival insects. They all

display some degree of melanism. This serves to protect them

against ultra-violet radiation, and to absorb heat efficiently. They

are smaller than related species on the plains, so that they can creep

into crevices. Most species have atrophied wings, an adaptation due

to the mechanical difficulties of flying at reduced atmospheric

pressures and in high mountain winds. Finally they avoid high

temperatures which could result in dessication at the low humidities

prevailing in the zone they inhabit.

Professor Mani has a fascinating story to tell, based on personal

acquaintanceship with the north-west Himalaya and its fauna. He

has apparently infected his students and his family with his

enthusiasm. Their expeditions have resulted in a formidable list of

papers, and this book makes much of the acquired knowledge accessible

to most of us.

Not the least valuable part of the book are the diagrams which

are excellent. They bear the stamp of a professor who is used to

making things simple. The main fault of the book, repetition, is

also a lecturer’s trait. For instance, on pages 35 and 36 we are told

in the same section in at least four different ways that there is a

complex interdependence of environmental factors, all of which

affect insects simultaneously. The value of repetition in lectures to

students is undeniable. In a book, however, its value is doubtful.

If it were removed from the earlier chapters, there might be room

for the author to enlarge on statements like one made towards the

end of the book—that in his opinion the fauna of the NW. Himalaya

constitutes a separate entity, distinct even from other parts of the

Himalaya. This is an interesting point for speculation. But no evidence

is cited for this statement. One presumes the opinion is based on

geographical isolation of the region and differences in the fauna of

different parts of the Himalaya, but one would like to be sure. A

glossary of terms would also be useful. The general reader would like

to look up ‘autochthone’; and ‘cryptophile (cold stenotherm)’ is not

likely to help him. It seems a pity to exclude the general reader when

there is so much here to interest him. Finally, the photographs

deserve honourable mention.

It would be pleasant to think that there were other people in

Indian universities following their obsessions so successfully. We

need many more books like this, covering every aspect of our rich

and varied natural history.

R.R.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. THE PANTHER OF NAGRI

In the students’ mess of the Rangers’ College at Coimbatore, above

the mantelpiece on the wall, hangs {at least it did so when I last visited

in 1960) an old trophy of a medium-sized panther—skin and head—

in a dilapidated condition. To a casual visitor it may look a

miserable decoration. But there is a story behind, which makes it a

prize trophy.

How many will believe that, when I first fired at it, this panther

was perched 110 feet above the ground on a branch of a 130 feet tall

tree? How many will believe that, when I finally shot it, we were

standing face to face on a tiled roof with less than 8 feet between us?

It may sound incredible, but it is true. Over five hundred men,

women, and children of Nagri village were witnesses, standing all round

watching this feat. As for the authenticity of the heights, the students

of the senior class of the Rangers’ College checked them with

instruments.

It happened on the 20th of January 1955 at Nagri, a prosperous

village amidst the sal forests of South Raipur Division of Madhya

Pradesh, of which I was then the Divisional Forest Officer. I was in

the verandah of the Forest Rest House, disposing of accumulated dak

before my departure from the camp. At about 9.30 am., some

excited villagers reported that a panther had been sighted on a tree

right inside the village sarna (sarna in that part of the country means

a grove of old trees left untouched by villagers out of sanctity). The

sarna of Nagri was a well-stocked patch, less than 10 acres, of tail

forest trees just adjacent to the abadi on one side and surrounded by

cultivation on the other three. The village itself, together with the

area under cultivation, was a much bigger enclave inside extensive

sal forest.

Cases of panther prowling at night on the village roads in search

of goat, dog, or calf were quite common. Usually, before daybreak

they would retire to the jungles. This particular panther evidently

wished to avoid the trouble of having to cross and re-cross the culti-

vated belt each night to reach the village abadi. His presence was

betrayed by an alarm raised by monkeys and peafowl.

When the villagers bring such news to an officer, they expect him

to prove his worth by shooting the animal, I had not anticipated

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 939

any. shoot in that camp and so all I had was a double-barrel

twelve-bore with one LG and one ball. With these I rushed to the

sarna.

By that time practically the whole village had poured out to see

the fun, and were surrounding the tree. I made them vacate the

sarna, posting more of them towards the outer edge rather than

towards the abadi, so that the panther might not escape to the outside

forest. I noticed that the tree on which the panther was sitting was an

imli (Tamarindus indica) but, unlike the familiar spreading imli

trees of the village, this one had a straight clean round bole up to

about the half of its total height and, even where the branching

started, the crown was like that of a typical forest tree, for it was

growing amidst many other tall trees.

From beneath, when I looked up, I saw the panther lying along the

horizontal portion of a side branch which was a little thicker than a

man’s thigh. The panther lay over it lengthwise with its tail

straightened, just like a woolly caterpillar sticking on to the green

stalk of a plant. It was such a clever way of camouflage that, but

for the villagers telling me, I would never have been able to spot the

animal even after seeing it half a dozen times. From below all I

could see was the white fur of the sides of the belly and two small

projecting ears. The rest of the body was completely covered by

the thickness of the branch. Despite the shouts and tumult of

hundreds of villagers below, the panther did not move a bit for

over an hour.

At first, I thought of shooting from the ground; but the animal was

not visible from the side, and only barely so when viewed

from underneath. Therefore, the chances of hitting the animal

squarely were remote. The various attempts to disturb it and to

compel it to descend or change position failed. Drums were beaten,

smoke created, stones thrown; but there was not even a flicker of the

ears. 7

The villagers started getting impatient and even out of control.

Toying with the only two cartridges in my pocket I pondered; and

decided, as the only chance, to disturb the animal by one shot (LG)

and kill it with the other (ball) as it descended. The villagers were

repeatedly warned not to break through and rush. I loaded both the

barrels, took off the safety-catch, threw aside my hat, and taking

good aim fired vertically up. ,

The panther immediately rose, his coiled tail straightened and

thick like a white bottle-brush! The angry animal descended head

first, with full confidence and without hurry, but taking care to avoid

940 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

my gun by keeping to the diametrically opposite side of the tree trunk,

just as a lizard would do when teased by children. Despite my going

round and round the bole of the tree, the panther skilfully dodged me.

Yet, I kept on saying to myself: ‘Let the brute touch the ground and

>, Yes, it did come down, and in no time! But, alas! The

crowd!

The loud bang of the gun filled the villagers with excitement and

they completely ignored my instructions. There was a rush towards

the tree from all sides. When the panther touched the ground and

gave a side glance at me, my finger was on the trigger. But I hesitated.

I thought, if I fire the second shot and miss, I will surely hit at least

one villager, if not more. Even if I do not miss, the injured panther

will finish off quite a few before actually dying. I, therefore, dared

not fire. |

Being surrounded by sc many men, the panther played its usual

trick. It gave a resounding and breath-taking grunt that completely

reversed the advance of the villagers. As fewer of them were

towards the village the panther easily created a gap in the line of

fleeing men. Through this gap it shot like a flame towards the

nearest hut and disappeared in the village.

This made the situation worse than I had ever anticieated: The

way the animal responded to my shot, I was sure that it was injured.

(Later, this was confirmed because the thicker base of one of its

earlobes was found to be punctured). It would not have been wise

to leave the injured panther inside a house in the village. So, If

postponed my departure from Nag7i.

Then started a house-tc-house hunt. When the panther entered

the village it must have found it almost empty, as almost the whole

population had come out to the sarna to see the tamasha. It was a

problem for me to organize a house-to-house search. A _ villager

might get mauled. Besides, Nagri is a peculiar village. Its houses

are so congested that often there are common walls between adjacent

huts, with doors and windows in all possible directions.

The search continued for two hours. While I was combing one

end of the village, commotion and shouts from the other end would

indicate the presence of the ‘thief? there; but before I could reach the

spot he escaped and vanished into some other house.

At last came an excited old woman. Being too old to find any

interest in the sarna-show, she was sitting in her courtyard cleaning

the paddy when the big cat rushed past her. She came running

towards us using the choicest of bad names in her Chhatisgarhi hindi

for the panther who, she swore, had just entered her house and was

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 941

inside it then. Fortunately her house was a one-roomed hut with only

one door. I carefully examined it from outside. Peeping through

the door with levelled gun, expecting the panther’s charge any

moment, I was surprised to find that the room was empty; only a few

utensils stood by the chula. I stepped back and told the old woman.

She said the animal must be sitting on the afari (a part-ceiling, just

below the roof, on which the villagers store corn, flax, bamboo flute,

grain, etc.). Realizing that this might be possible, I quietly closed the

door and climbed the tiled roof.

It was not a tall house and the tiles were of the usual country type,

flattish and small. Bending down I removed bits of the tiles at one

place of the sloping roof and saw, a few inches below, white fur which

must have been the tail-end of the panther. Hurriedly I made

allowance for the length of the panther’s body to ascertain the point

on the roof at which the heart of the animal would be located. With

the object of putting the muzzle of the gun at the right place, I

removed more tiles but on looking through this second aperture I

found nothing below. Perplexed I went back to the first aperture.

And then I got another and a bigger shock—there was no tail there.

What did all this mean? In utter confusicn I knelt on the roof and

peeped through as much as possible. The atari was devoid of any

panther. |

Just then I heard the distant upsurge of shouts and agitated

commotion amongst the people, who by that time had made a wide

circle surrounding the house. I looked towards the people, still

kneeling on the roof. They were frantically waving their hands. I

could not hear them but they were trying to draw my attention to

something behind me. I stood on the roof, loaded gun in hand, and

looked back. There it was—the panther on the roof, no less per-

plexed than me! In the history of shikar 1 doubt if anybody had a

chance like that before—of levelling a gun from a roof at a panther

also on the same roof and firing his last cartridge, with hundreds of

men, women, and children below shouting and cheering. The

panther fell on the sloping roof, rolled and rolled, and finally dropped

down dead with a thud on the vacant bed of the kitchen garden of the

old lady, bringing down with it a good number of loose broken tiles.

The ovation that I got from the crowd would have beaten even the

most fantastic Hollywood scene!

What must have happened? Probably on hearing my footsteps

on the roof and seeing light coming through the first aperture, the

panther must have tried to escape and found the door was sealed.

The only way left was the narrow gap between the roof and the top of

942 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

the side-wall. He must have tried that. But while getting out he

must have seen a thick wall of human beings at a distance but right in

front. In trying to avoid them he had no alternative but to mount

the roof, little realizing that on the other slope of the roof I was still

searching for him. |

The dead body of the panther served as a suitable specimen for

me to teach the boys of the Forest Rangers’ College how to flay for

trophies. The skinning was done by the vegetarians amongst the

students. I thought it best to present the trophy to their Mess.

INDIAN FOREST COLLEGE, :

DEHRA DUN, D. H. KULKARNI,

August 4, 1962 Dean

2. THE IDENTITY OF THE MALAYAN MOLE

The Malayan Mole was first described by Chasen (1940) from two

specimens obtained in the Cameron Highlands, Pahang, Malaya, in 1937.

Of these only the type (British Museum No. 47.1418 : Raffles Museum

No. 4334) is now available for comparison. Chasen named the new form

malayana, and placed it in the species Talpa klossi Thomas 1929, from

Thailand, distinguishing between the two races klossi and malayana on

coat colour alone. In his description he noted that when a fresh skin

of malayana and the type of klossi (collected in 1924) were ‘ placed side

by side malayana shows up as dark iron-grey against the paler brownish

colour of the more northern form’.

In March 1962 four more moles were caught in the Cameron High-

lands (Cranbrook & Medway 1962). Of these, two have been presented to

the Department of Zoology in the University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,

and two to the British Museum (Natural History) in London. All four

were ‘dark iron-grey’ in colour and should clearly be assigned to

malayana. The two specimens taken to London were compared with

the type of malayana in April 1962. This was found to have faded and

to be indistinguishable in colour from the type of T. klossi (B.M. No.

28.5.3.1) with which it had been compared in 1939. In both the tips

of the hairs were ‘ paler brownish’ and the over-all appearance brown,

but in both the ‘ dark iron-grey’ colour could clearly be seen on the

basal two-thirds or so of the hairs when these were parted.

The taxonomy of the moles of SE. Asia is in some confusion, but all

specimens known seem to fall into one or other of the species or sub-

species originally described as T. micrura Hodgson 1841, T. leucura

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 943

Blyth 1850, 7. klossi Thomas.1929, and T. k. malayana Chasen 1940.

Stroganov (1948) distributed them amongst three genera as Eoscalops

micrura, Parascaptor leucura, and Euroscaptor klossi. Schwarz (1948)

and (following Schwarz) Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) treated

leucura as a subspecies of 7. micrura, reducing klossi and malayana to

synonyms. Subsequently Stein (1960) eee Snes the following :

Genus Talpa Linnaeus 1758: dentition 4+ (44) |

T. k. klossi Thomas (Thailand, Tonkin). Diagnosis : Coat

colour brown

T. k. malayana Chasen (Malaya). Diagnosis : Dark iron-grey

aS against light brown of nominate form

T. micrura Hodgson (Southern Himalayas, Nepal, Sikkim,

Assam). Diagnosis : Tail hidden in fur

Genus Parascaptor Gill 1875 : dentition }° (42)

P. leucura Blyth (Assam, Burma, to north ee and

eastward into Yunnan). Diagnosis : Dentition 32 (42)

The dried skins of the forms with 44 teeth, which Stet resiane to.

the genus Talpa, are liable to fade to a greater or lesser extent. As has

been shown above, the type of T. k. malayana has faded badly. The same

may be true of the type of T. klossi. The only specimens of T. k.

klossi, other than the type, available for comparison in London are three

collected in Tonkin by Delacour & Lowe in 1929 (B.M. Nos. 33.4.147,

148, & 149). In April 1962 all were dark iron-grey in colour, like the

freshly captured specimens of malayana from the Cameron Highlands.

There are two skulls which have dentition +4 (44).

Blanford (1888) says of T. micrura : ‘ Colour uniformly velvety black

when fresh .. . dried skins are often brown.’ Of 17 skins of T. micrura

in the British Museum (Natural History), 15 collected between the

middle of last century and 1920 have faded to a ‘paler brownish

colour’, like that of the types of T. klossi and T. k. malayana today.

In most of them some trace of dark iron-grey remains at the base of

the hairs. Two collected in 1947 have a brownish tinge on the tips of

the hairs, but look black at first sight. It is clear that the dried skins of

klossi, malayana, and micrura are liable to fade and that any diagnosis

based on the coat colour of any save freshly caught specimens must be

suspect. This is in marked contrast with the skins of the European

and western Asiatic species of Talpa. Of 150 skins of these in the

British Museum all seem to have retained their original colour.

Skins of Jeucura, with 42 teeth, which Stein assigned to the genus

Parascaptor, may fade to a limited extent though none of those in the

British Museum (Natural History) have faded as much as is suggested

by Blanford (1888), who says of Jeucura : ‘ Colour uniformly brown in

all the skins that I have seen, ‘but described as black by Anderson,

perhaps variable.” Anderson was a collector and saw the animals in

944 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

the flesh. I collected Jeucurain Upper Burma in 1931, and wrote of

freshly caught specimens in my field note book: ‘like TJ. europaea (i.e.

dark iron-grey) but with a white tail constricted next to the body’. Of

nine skins of Jeucura in the British Museum none are ‘ uniformly

brown’ : eight collected between 1908 and 1940 have a slight rusty

tinge on the tips of the hairs; in the ninth, collected in 1937 and

badly preserved, the brown is a little more obvious. The degree of

browning of the first eight is very slight and I think it is quite possible

that with only the recollection of the colour of T. europaea in my mind

I would have described the animals I caught as being ‘ like europaea’

if they had been the same colour when freshly caught as the dried skins

are in 1962. All look black in the museum drawer at first sight, as

opposed to the brown skins of micrura.

Though the colour of the dried skins of these SE. Asian moles is

not a reliable diagnostic feature, T. klossi and malayana can be separat-

ed by a factor other than coat colour. Stein (1960) discussing the

Asiatic moles with dentition 14 (44), showed how the tail of malayana

is both absolutely and proportionately shorter than that of klossi, 5% of

the head and body length as opposed to 8%. He separated both from

micrura with ‘ an extremely short tail, hidden in the fur ’, 4% of the head

and body length, paraphrasing Blanford (1888) : ‘tail exremely short,

nearly naked and completely concealed by the fur,’ and Hodgson (1841):

‘velvety black. . . The tail very small, rudimentary.” Thomas (1929)

in his description of klossi said: ‘club-shaped tail, about as in

Parascaptor leucurus. I have only seen dried skins of klossi but I

have both Jeucura and malayana in the flesh. The tails of both are

club-shaped but that of Jeucura is obvious at first sight, projecting

well beyond the fur on the rump. The collectors’ measurements of

the tails of the type of klossi and of three specimens from Tonkin

are 11, 11, 15, 16 mm. and of 7 specimens of Jeucura 10, 12, 12, 14,

14, 15, 15 mm. respectively. The tail of malayana is shorter, only

the extreme tip being visible in the fur on the rump. The collectors’

measurements of the tails of the type malayana, of one other caught

at the same time, and of the four obtained in the Cameron Highlands

in 1962 are 6, 7, 5,6, 7, 7 mm. respectively.

Though measurements made by different collectors can only be

compared with reservations, micrura and malayana are much the same

size, klossi rather smaller. Average and extremes of the head and

body lengths of 9 specimens of micrura obtained by the same collec-

tors are 128 (106-142) mm., of 6 specimens of malayana (2 collectors)

121 (112-132) mm., and of 4 specimens of klossi (2 collectors) 110

(100-116) mm. .

The status of klossi cannot be determined with any certainty until

more and fresh material is available from Thailand and Tonkin.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 945

Malayana however is clearly distinct and is very close to micrura in

size, tail length, coat colour, and tendency to fade. Possibly the

two forms are synonymous, but until more material is available from the

intermediate areas it is better to regard malayana as a subspecies of

micrura : Talpa micrura malayana Chasen.

GREAT GLEMHAM HOUSE,

SAXMUNDHAM, ENGLAND,

September 4, 1962.

THE EARL OF CRANBROOK

REFERENCES

Blanford, W. T. (1888) : Fauna of

British India. Mammalia : 225-227.

London.

Blyth, E. (1850) : Description of a

new species of Mole

Blyth). J. As. Soc. Bengal 19 : 215.

~ Chasen, F. N. (1940) : A handlist of

Malaysian Mammals. Bull. Raffles Mus.

15: 13-14.

-Cranbrook, Earl of & Medway, Lord

(1962): The Malayan Mole. J. Malay.

Nat. Soc. (in press).

-Ellerman, J. R. & .Morrison-Scott,

T.C.S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic

and Indian Mammals : 35-41. London.

(Talpa_ leucura

Catalogue of the Mammals of Nepal,

Calcutta J. Nat. Hist. 2 : 212-221.

Schwarz, E. (1948): Revision of the

Old World Moles of the Genus Talpa

Linnaeus. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 118:

36-48.

Stein, G. H. W. (1960) : Schadelallo-

metrien and Systematik bei altweltlichen

Maulwirfen (Talpinae). Mitt. Zool. Mus.

Berl, 36: 1-48.

Stroganov, S. U. (1948) : (Systematics

of moles. Talpidae). Trud. Zool. Inst.

Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R. 8 (2) : 1-239.

Thomas, O. (1929) : A new mole from

Western Siam. Ann. ‘Mag. Nat. Hist.

Hodgson, B. H. (1841): Classified (10) 3: 206.

3. GESTATION PERIOD OF THE FOURHORNED ANTELOPE

TETRACERUS QUADRICORNIS (BLAINVILLE)

In March 1958 I reported the gestation period of the Fourhorned

Antelope Tetracerus quadricornis (Blainville) as ‘slightly over eight

months, a rather long period for such a small animal’ (J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 55 : 339). ,

As the Editors suggested that ‘it would be wise to wait for con-

firmation of the period by further observation’ the writer has again

checked the gestation period. The female Fourhorned Antelope mated

on 24 March 1962 in its small compound at Ahwa, Dangs District,

Gujarat State. At no time were the male and female together after

mating. It delivered a male fawn on 12 November 1962, a period

only twelve days less than eight months. This datum proves that

the former period was correct as reported. The first doe had a

gestation period of 243 days and the second doe a period of 228

days, a difference of only fifteen days. Such differences are not

uncommon among mammals of the same species.

The mother of the present fawn was the antelope which was born

946 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

on 13 March 1958 and reported in the Journal. Thus it was slightly

over four years old before mating. It would appear that these

antelopes mature rather slowly and that the gestation period is a long

one for an animal measuring between twenty-two and twenty- SIX

inches at the shoulder. : si Me

The Indian Muntjac or Barking Deer Muntiacus muntjak, an

animal twenty inches high at the shoulder or occasionally slightly

higher, has a gestation period of about six months. The Swamp Deer

Cervus duvauceli and the Chital or Axis deer Cervus axis also have

gestation periods of about six months. It should be kept in mind,

however, that the Fourhorned Antelope is not a deer nor is it a true

antelope. It belongs to the subfamily Tragelaphinae, a group of

animals more African than Indian. India is indeed fortunate to have

the only antelope in the world with two pairs of horns.

The female antelope was restless from early morning, and had

obvious contractions for three hours prior to delivery. The delivery

commenced at 6.30 p.m. with the mother lying on the ground. The

head of the fawn with the front hooves pressed tightly against the

chin came first. The mother then stood up and the fawn dropped to

the ground. She started licking the fawn during its delivery and kept

up the process until the fawn was strong enough to stand. }

At birth the fawn weighed two pounds and fourteen ounces. It

weighed ten ounces more than the fawn which was born on 13 March,

1958. Its height at the shoulder of ten inches and its length from

nose to tip of tail of fifteen inches are the same measurements as of

the first young. The mother antelope is twenty-two inches high at

the shoulder; thus young antelopes have nearly half of their mature

height at birth. :

Just thirty-five minutes after birth the young antelope was stand-

ing up on its wobbly legs. In another ten minutes it was walking

about in its cage. After another half hour the fawn was nursing.

The male Fourhorned Antelope in an adjoining cage was as

pugnacious as ever during the birth of the fawn. He kept butting his

horns through the wire netting at the female and seemed to be quite

unhappy about the whole affair. The male is a year younger than

the female. Male Fourhorned Antelopes make dangerous pets. The

writer uses a rake while cleaning, watering, and feeding the male.

Even then it is a risky process. Nevertheless, raising Fourhorned

Antelopes has been very interesting. |

From these two observations the gestation period of Tetracerus

quadricornis would seem to be approximately 74 to 8 months. This

fact too makes the Fourhorned Antelope an unusual animal, though

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 947

Prater (THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS, p. 250) indicates a gestation

period of 8 months for the Hog Deer [Axis porcinus (Zimmermann)].

DANGS RURAL BOARDING SCHOOL,

CHURCH OF THE BRETHREN MISSION,

AWHA, VIA BILLIMORA, E. M. SHULL

Dancs DisT., GUJARAT STATE,

November 15, 1962. ;

4. NOCTURNAL ‘PREDATOR’ OF YELLOW OLEANDER

(THEVETIA NERIIFOLIA)

With reference to D. E. Reuben’s note in the December number

of. the Journal [58 (3) : 808] on ‘Nocturnal “Predator” of Fruit of

Yellow Oleander (Thevetia neriifoliay the following information.

may be interesting to your readers.

In my office compound there are a few plants of Yellow Oleander.

A rat used to bring mature fruits of this plant inside the drawer of my

table-to which, as I later discovered, it had a secret approach. The

soft parts of the fruits were found eaten and the stones left absolutely

clean. As the poisonous properties of the plant are well known I

expected the rat to die and not return to his ‘dining drawer’. But no.

On at least five subsequent occasions I found stones of oleander fruit

inside the drawer eaten in the same manner, their number varying

from 2 to 6. Along with these seeds were also found partly eaten

seeds of the Persian Lilac (Melia azedarach), areca nuts, sugar cane

bits, etc. The nocturnal visits continued for about 20 days after I

first noticed the fruits inside the drawer. Then the visits came

abruptly to an end with the shifting of the table. Though not un-

likely, I doubt if the rat died of the toxic effect of the oleander seeds;

if it did, it should be concluded that the effect of the poison is fairly

slow. Some books on pharmacology give 8 to 10 seeds or 250 grains

of root as the lethal dose.

Seeds thus carried away from the site of the parent plant are an

effective means of dispersal of seeds. In this particular case I may

mention that the oleander plants are situated 30 to 60 feet away from

the place where the seeds were found eaten. The ground beneath

them was searched for eaten seeds but none was found in the immediate

. Vicinity.

SADIYA FOREST DIVISION,

TrEzu (N.E.F.A.), S. K. CHATTERJEE,

June 25, 1962. Assistant Conservator of Forests

948 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

5. THE SMALL INDIAN SWALLOW PLOVER, GLAREOLA

LACTEA TEMMINCK, NEAR BOMBAY

The Small Indian Swallow Plover, or Pratincole (Glareola lactea

Temminck), though generally said to occur all over India has not been

recorded from near Bombay. On 27 October 1962, a small party

of 5 or 6 birds was seen on the banks of a nulla flowing through rice

fields into the mudflats at Panvel, Kolaba District, Maharashtra. My

notes also show that I saw a few and obtained specimens at Nandur-

Madhmeshwar, Nasik District, on 2 January 1954 and 1 March 1958.

This bird is omitted in Salim Ali’s ‘The Birds of Gujarat’ (J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54 : 374-458), and Dharmakumarsinhji’s

BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA, though Littledale (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

1: 200) has recorded it as breeding on the Mahi River above Sihora

in Rewa Kantha State.

BomMBay Natura History SOcIgTy,

91 WALKESHWAR RoaD, : HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BoMBAY 6, 4

December 5, 1962.

6. PECULIAR BEHAVIOUR OF WHISKERED TERN

CHLIDONIAS HYBRIDA (PALLAS)

While watching marsh birds about the mudflats and salt pans at

Point Calimere (Madras State) earlier this month, I noticed 2

Whiskered Terns [Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas)] violently chasing a

third who dodged hither and thither, and up and down, to evade

them. Suddenly the pursued bird seemed to collapse in mid-air and

dropped vertically down on limply fluttering wings including a

couple of somersaults, as if shot. It flopped helplessly on to the

water below, wings spread-eagled, head thrown back, and feebly bobbed

from time to time as if in the last throes of disintegration. I watched

its plight from a distance through binoculars for a minute or so and

then started walking up to it to investigate. The bird, which had

seemed far too gone to struggle any niore, made one desperate effort

when I was quite close to it and just managed to get air-

borne. After some unsteady wobbling it started flying strongly up-

ward on quick-beating wings in narrowing circles whirling . around

like a.dancing dervish chased by the devil! It rose higher and higher

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 949

thus till difficult to see with the naked eye. I was wondering how

' it was all going to end and whether the exhausted bird would again

collapse and drop to earth. as seemed imminent. After a couple ot

minutes during which the spiralling bird was being blown about in

the wind high above, I lost sight of it behind some treetops and was

unfortunately unable to follow it further. It seems difficult to explain

this extraordinary episode. The bird seemed quite demented. Could

it be that it lost an eye in the recent encounter with its pursuers, and

this was the natural. reaction?

33 Pau Hut, |

Bompay 50, | | | SALIM ALI

November .25, 1962.

7. EGGS OF THE CROW-BILLED DRONGO, DICRURUS

3 ANNECTANS (HODGSON), FROM BURMA

Two clutches of eggs collected by H. C. Smith in the plains of the

Shweli drainage, Prome District. would appear to constitute the first,

breeding record for the Crow-billed Drongo, Dicrurus annectans

(Hodgson), in Burma, if they prove to belong to this species (Smythies

1953). These clutches are now in the collection of the British

Museum (Natura! History) (B. M. nos. 1953-3-197; 1953-3-198), and

have been critically compared with clutches of eggs of D. annectans

and of other drongos. Smith’s (1943) own notes on them were:

*. . . I collected several clutches of drongo’s eggs all of the same

type—white characteristically streaked with purple. I believe these

are the eggs of this bird, they all differed markedly from the eggs of

other drongos.’

It was possible to examine a large series of clutches of the eggs of

the Dicruridae. Those of D. annectans appeared to stand apart by

reason of their predominantly streaked patterns. The eggs of most

species showed spots or blotches on buff or brown eggs. A careful

examination of the eggs of species other than D. annectans revealed

only two clutches in which the markings tended to be streaks rather

than spots. These were clutches of D. hottentottus, one from Fohkien,

China, and the other from Maymyo, Burma. Both clutches were of

white eggs with a light pattern of very pale grey and purplish mark-

ings, mostly spots, but the larger tending to form elongated streaks.

Apart from the fact that streaks were present they did not bear a

950 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

very close resemblance to the clutches of D. annectans that were

examined. Out of twenty clutches of D. annectans in the Museum

collection sixteen showed a predominantly streaked pattern, the re-

maining four clutches being more spotted and having a closer

resemblance to the eggs of other Dicrurus species. Of these sixteen,

eight clutches showed mainly purplish streaking on a white ground,

two showed purplish streaking on a buff ground, four had shorter

and more red streaking on a buff ground, and two showed heavy

elongated red and purple streaks on a buff ground producing a pattern

that was strikingly similar to that of the eggs of the Paradisaeidae.

Baker (1933) comments: ‘nine out of ten clutches (of D. annectans)

can be recognized at a glance by the longitudinal character of the

markings, a feature found in the eggs of no other member of the

Dicruridae’.

Although some eggs of D. .hottentottus may resemble those of

D. annectans in pattern there is a difference in size. Baker (op. cit.)

gives the averages of two hundred eggs of the former species, and one

hundred of the latter:

average maxima minima

D. hottentottus 29.2 x 21.2 34.5> x 22.0, 25.0 x 20.5,

31.0 x 22.8 27.5 x 19.8 mm.

D. annectans 26.3 x 19.4 29.5 x 20.0, 24.1 x 18.4,

26.5 x 20.2 27.0 x 18.3 mm.

The two clutches of two eggs collected by Smith measure: 25.4 19.2,

24.3X19.1; 25.5X18.4, 25.7X18 mm. These agree with the eggs

of D. annectans in size.

The eggs of Smith’s first clutch are white and marked with a fine

pattern of purple and purplish grey streaks, running longitudinally, and

generally distributed but with a tendency to have a denser zone of mark-

ings radiating outwards at the larger end. The second clutch also has a

white ground colour but the markings are larger and sparser. They

are longitudinal streaks of reddish purple, violet, and grey, with many

heavy markings 3-5 mm. long and about 1 mm. in width. There are

some smaller and finer markings but these are fewer than in the other

clutch. There is again a tendency for a concentration of markings at

the larger end. These eggs are virtually indistinguishable from some

of the eggs of D. annectans taken in Assam by Baker. From the

evidence of size, colour, and pattern, it would appear that the eggs

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ; 951

collected by Smith in the Prome District of Burma are those of D.

annectans and constitute a record of its breeding in that area.

BRITISH MUSEUM (Nat. Hist.), ,

CROMWELL RoaD, J. O. HARRISON

LONDON, SW. 7, wei

October 1, 1962.

REFERENCES

Baker, E, C. S. (1933) : Nidification of Smith, H. C. (1943): Notes on the

. . . Birdsof Burma. Simla.

the Birds of the Indian Empire. Vol. 2. Smythies, B. E. (1953): The Birds of

London. . - Burma. Edinburgh.

8. TAXONOMIC NOTES ON SOME HIMALAYAN PARIDAE

During the course of the Harvard-Yale Expedition Glo 7- 59) to

East and West Pakistan, India, and Nepal, sixteen forms of Paridae

were collected. The following brief notes are based on a study of this

collection. : .

Parus melanolophus

Parus melanolophus, ranging from extreme western Nepal to

eastern Afghanistan, seems to be fairly constant in size throughout its

distribution, with the exception of the population at the western

terminus of its range. Vaurie’s (1950) comparisons of worn adults.

from Afghanistan with similar birds from Himachal Pradesh and

Uttar Pradesh suggest that the western birds may have longer witgs

and tails. Our series of late autumn specimens from West Pakistan,

also seem to indicate this. The flattened wings of 18 males from

Kalam in Swat and from the Kaghan Valley in Hazara District range

between 60.0 and 65.5 mm., with a mean and standard error of

63.91.37 mm.; the tails of these ‘same birds range from 41.0 to

46.5 mm., with a mean of 44.50-+.36 mm. The wings of two males

from the Safed Koh Mountains, on the Pakistan- Afghanistan border.

a few miles north of Parachinar, Kurram Agency, are 66.0 and

68.0 mm.; the tails of both specimens measure 48. Omm. Ten females

from Kalam and the Kaghan Valley have wings averaging 61.20-+.53

mm. and ranging between 58.0 and 63.5 mm., and tails from 40.C

to 46.5 mm., with a mean of 42.85-+.60 mm. A single female from

near Parachinar has a wing of 66.0 mm, and a tail of 46.0 mm;:

952. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Therefore, except for the tail of the females, there is no overlap in

the two characters measured.

Our three specimens from the Kurram Mee are slightly darker

on the dorsum than a series of 34 birds collected during the same

season in Hazara District and Swat. |

Although it is almost certain that the westernmost population is

morphologically distinct, it seems prudent to defer giving it a name

until there is available more fresh material from the Safed Koh and

Afghanistan.

Parus major

Two specimens of Parus major were obtained at Parachinar,

Kurram Agency. Here one would expect to find P. m. decolorans,

the race described from Jalalabad, Afghanistan, a locality on the other

side of the Safed Koh from Parachinar, or P. m. ziaratensis, the form

of northern Baluchistan! and southern Afghanistan. However, both

specimens may be placed with P. m. caschmirensis. One is indis-

tinguishable from a long series, collected in the same season and year,

from Swat and Hazara District; the other is somewhat paler and may

be approaching P. m. ziaratensis. I can find no support for including

P. m. decolorans with the avifauna of Pakistan (contra Ripley, 1961).

Parus spilonotus and Parus xanthogenys

In recent years Parus spilonotus and P. xanthogenys have been con-

sidered to be conspecific (e.g. Vaurie, 1950; Biswas, 1953; Ripley,

1961), probably because they are somewhat similar morphologically,

because they replace one another geographically, and also because their

zone of contact is poorly known.

P. xanthogenys, the smaller form, with an unstreaked back and

black head and forehead, ranges through higher elevations in

peninsular India and in the Himalayas from Murree to eastern Nepal.

The easternmost point at which it has been collected (Rand &

Fleming, 1957) seems to be Manebhanjan (alt. 5000 ft.), a village

lying a short distance north of Sun Kosi River and a few miles south

of Okhaldhunga. Presumably it ranges even farther east since Ripley

(1950) implies that he saw the species east of Arun Kosi River in

Dhankutta District. The inclusion of Sikkim within the range of

P. xanthogenys (e.g. Baker, 1922) is apparently an error, as has been

pointed out by Whistler & Kinnear (1932). |

* Ripley (1961, p. 546) erroneously stated the Khagan Valley to be in Baluchistan,

Khagan Valley birds are Clearly P. m, caschmirensis.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Ew ‘953

P. spilonotus, a much larger bird with black streaks on the dorsum,

‘a black head, and a yellow forehead, is distributed from extreme

eastern Nepal through the eastern Himalayas and south-east Asia to

Formosa. It has been collected (Stevens, 1923) in Nepal as far west

as the Mai (‘Khola’) Valley (alt. 7000-8000 ft.), which is near the

Indian border and less than 10C miles east of Manebhanjan and .even

closer to the Arun Kosi River. :

While there is still no evidence of sympatry, the two forms occur

only a short distance from one another. It appears — that future

collecting will almost certainly reveal that the populations slightly

overlap, or at least abut. Perhaps the reason they have not yet been

found sympatrically is the rarity of P. spilonotus at the western

limits of its range. Stevens (1923) noted that the species is local and

sparingly distributed in the Sikkim Himalayas, and during over two

-months spent collecting at altitudes from 1000 to 12,000 feet in the

vicinity of Darjeeling, I observed only two individuals. One, a breed-

ing male, was taken in late June at an altitude of 7200 feet and the

other, a male with ee testes, was collected in late July at

5400: feet. eg

The probability that P. spilonotus and P. xanthogenys are apes

albeit in a narrow belt, is doubtless reason enough for considering

them different species. However, support for this belief may be found

-in two other areas of evidence: first, the fact that the taxa are

-morphologically very distinct, both in size and colour pattern; second,

the failure of collectors to obtain any specimens that even suggest

intergradation between the forms, which one would expect if these

were allopatric subspecies. —

Until there is evidence to. the contrary, I believe one must treat P.

Sie nae and P, xanthogenys as full species.

Parus monticolus

Three races of Parus monticolus have been described from the

western part of the species, viz. nominate P. monticolus, with the

type locality in the Simla-Almora region; P. m. lepcharum from

Gangtok, Sikkim; and P. m. yunnanensis, with Milati, seutie eastern

-Yunnan, as type locality.

The species shows a cline of increasing pigmentation fram west to

east; the races are distinguished only by this character. The‘ cline is

less steep in the eastern half of the range resulting in considerable

difference in opinion as to whether P. m. lepcharum, the last named of

{he three western forms, is worthy of recognition. Stanford &

954 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Ticehurst (1935) merged it with P. m. monticolus, as did Ludlow &

Kinnear (1937); Vaurie (1950) at first treated it as distinct and later

(1957; 1959) combined it with monticolus; Rand & Fleming (1957)

maintained it separately, but with some doubt; Fleming & Traylor

(1961) merged it with the nominate form, as did Ripley (1961).

I have examined a series of 50 newly-taken specimens from the

western range of the species, including 13 winter birds from West

Pakistan (as far west as Swat, which seems to be the limit of tha

species), 14 birds collected in December near Pokhara in central. Nepal,

and 23 moulting summer specimens from Darjeeling District. In

addition I have seen 25 older specimens from India and. Tibet and 23

skins from Yunnan, including the two syntypes of P. m. yunnanensis. .

The west to east cline in coloration is distinct but slight, with the

amount of pigmentation changing most rapidly in the western part of

the cline. A series of fresh skins from West Pakistan can be separated

quite readily from new material from central Nepal, although birds

from western India are not so easily distinguished from Nepal

specimens. The few specimens in good plumage I have seen from

Darjeeling District, hence nearly topotypes of P. m. lepcharum, are

very slightly darker on the dorsum than the central Nepal series and

the yellow is somewhat less saturated than topotypic material of P. m.

yunnanensis. With fresh specimens and long series there is no doubt

that one might distinguish three races between West Pakistan. and

Yunnan. However, there seems no merit in naming the centre of a

poorly marked cline. It appears to me, as it has. to most recent

students, that P. m. lepcharum should not be recognized. However,

rather than merge it with nominate P. monticolus, as has been done

consistently, I believe it better placed with P. m. yunnanensis, which

it so closely resembles. Specimens from central Nepal also seem to

fit better within P. m. yunnanensis. Thus, the distribution of P. m.

monticolus should be defined as extending from Swat east to Nepal,

where it merges with P. m. yunnanensis.

WEIGHTS OF SOME PARIDAE

Knowledge of the weights of birds is becoming increasingly im-

portant in taxonomic as well as biological studies. The following

table places on record weight data for 16 forms of Asiatic Paridae:

ee. eS ee eee

Deen a a a aT

P. rubidiventris

rufonuchalis

P. rubidiventris

beavani

P. melanolophus

P., ater aemodius

P. d. dichrous

P. major nipalensis

P. major caschmirensis

P. monticolus

yunnanensis

P.m. monticolus

P.x. xanthogenys

P. spilonotus

Melanochlora s.

sultanea

Sylviparus m.

modestus

Aegithalos

leucogenys

Aegithalos concinnus

iredalei

Aegithalos concinnus

rubricapillus

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 955

TABLE

‘Weights of some adult Titmice from the Indian sub-continent

No. | Mean Sx Range | Locality

13 13.14 hs) 12.3-14.7 ;

8 11.93 e123 11.4-12.4 Hazara Dist. ; Swat

9 12.21 16 11.6-13.0 wae tk 5

5 | 11.38 | .34 | 10.5-12.3 | Datieeling Dist.

18 | 9.20 | 09 | 8.39.8

10 8.85 |43 8.0-9.5 Hazara Dist. ; Swat

5 8.16 19 7.7-8.6

3 7.56 23 7,2-8.0 Darjeeling Dist.

3 12.90 32 12-13.5 :

AS41210" F350 11.2-13.5 | Darjeeling Dist.

5093.04 18") |.) 13.4-14'5 7

2) il 1270 i 12.6-12.8 | vic. Pokhara, Nepal

17 15.60 17 14.1-17.1 i

16 14.33 20 13.2-16.2 Hazara Dist. ; Swat

12 | 14.53 .16 13.5-16.8 | Darjeeling Dist. + vic

10 13,57 30 12.4-15.3 Pokhara, Nepal Bp

8 | 13,68 | 2 0-15.2

3 12.53 ‘4 Ear Hazara Dist. ; Swat

P ie Pe Wop es vic. Pokhara, Nepal

2 | 18.35 18.3-19.4 | Darjeeling Dist.

1 36.3 Darjeeling Dist. -

6 TSQkk 35 6.1-8.5 Darjeeling Dist. ; vic.

5) 7.04 i275 6.2-7.8 Pokhara, Nepal

4 6.88 : Jr. :

3 | 6.70 30 eiT0 Hazara Dist.

DZ 8.75 eg 8.5-9.0 .

By 720 og 1) 67ers

5 6.54 15 6.0-6.9 Darjeeling Dist. ; vic.

5 6.44 29 5.6-7.1 Pokhara, Nepal

400, 40% 40% 4O% 10 A FOU HOA FOL 40% 40% FO% 0% 40% 40% 40%

956

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Government of Nepal and

the Zoological Surveys of Pakistan and India were most generous in

granting us permission to collect.

I am indebted to Dr. A. R. Ranjha,

Officer-in-Charge of the Zoological Survey of Pakistan, for loaning

several specimens in his care.

Mrs. Zeddie P. Bowen, Secretary to the Bird Department, assisted ve

with the statistical calculations.

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY,

HARVARD UNIVERSITY,

‘CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS,

August 8, 1962.

RAYMOND A PAYNTER, 3r.

REFERENCES

Baker, E. C. Stuart (1922): Fauna of

British India. Birds, I, xxiii+-479 pp.

~ Biswas, Biswamoy (1953): A Check-

list of Genera of Indian Birds. Rec.

Indian Mus. 50: 1-62.

Fleming, Robert L., & Traylor, Mel-

vin A. (1961): Notes on Nepal Birds.

Fieldiana, Zoology, 35 : 443-487.

Ludlow, F., & Kinnear, N. B. (1937) :

The Birds of Bhutan and adjacent Tibet.

Ibis: 1-46.

Rand, Austin L., & Fleming, Robert L.

(1957) : Birds from Nepal. Fieldiana,

Zoology, 41: 218.

Ripley, S. Dillon (1950) : Birds from

Nepal, 1947-1949. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 49: 355-417.

————— (1961) : A Synopsis of the

- Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay.

Stanford, J. K., & Ticehurst,; C. B.

recorded Burmese Birds, Part I: Abis :

38-65. .

Stevens, Herbert (1923): Notes on

the Birds of the Sikkim Himalayas, Part

Ht ed: Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 29: 723-.

Vaurie, Charles (1950): Notes on Some

Asiatic Titmice. Amer. Mus. WNovit.

1459 : 35 pp. t

———— (1957) : Systematic notes on

Palearctic Birds. No. 27. Paridae: The

Genera Parus and Sylviparus. Amer. Mus.

Novit. 1852 : 35 pp. .

———— (1959): The Birds of the

Palearctic Fauna. Passeriformes. London. .

Whistler, H., & Kinnear, N.B. (1932):

The Vernay Scientific Survey of the

Eastern Ghats (Ornithological Section). |

fe Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 505-

(1935): Notes on some new or rarely 524.

9. OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITECAPPED BUNTING

[EMBERIZA STEWARTI (BLYTH)] IN GUJARAT

During the field camp of the BNHS/WHO Bird Migration Study

Project at Hingolgadh (Jasdan, Saurashtra) a single specimen of the

Whitecapped Bunting, Emberiza stewarti (Blyth), was captured in a

mist net. This bird has not so far been recorded from Gujarat, and

seems to be a rare straggler from the western Himalayas and

Baluchistan.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 957

Many species which are not normally seen or recorded turn up

quite frequently in our mist nets. For instance the Grasshopper

Warbler [Locustella naevia (Boddaert)] was not recorded from

Saurashtra till one was caught in a mist net in September 1960 at

Hingolgadh.

THE PALACE, 3

JASDAN, YUVRAJ SHIVRAJKUMAR

SAURASHTRA,

November 7, 1962.

10. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE DISTRICTS OF WEST

~ GODAVARI, KRISHNA, AND NORTH ARCOT

Whistler & Kinnear in their report on The Vernay Scientific Survey

of the Eastern Ghats published in our Journal in the middle ’30s

referred to the paucity of information regarding some of the commoner

species from. the eastern part of peninsular India. From time to time

various notes have appeared in the Journal adding to the information

therein recorded and we were fortunate to have had the opportunity

of looking over a collection of about 110 specimens obtained by

Mr. B. S. Lamba in 1956/57 working for the Virus Research Centre,

Poona, in the districts of West Godavari, Krishna, and North Arcot

in Andhra State. The following adds to the information already

recorded :

Hydroprogne caspia (Pallas) : The Caspian Tern.

o', Maginpudi, Krishna District, 5 January 1957.

Metopidius indicus (Latham) : The Bronzewinged Jacana.

2 oo’ (wings 154 and 157 mm.) and 1 & (wing 187 mm.) were

collected at Alapada and Palevada in Krishna District.

Chlidonias hybrida indica (Pallas) : The Whiskered Tern.

Machlipatam, Krishna District, on 29 November 1956 (wings 231

and 223 mm.).

Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica (Gmelin): The Gullbilled Tern.

Machlipatam, Krishna District, 2 on 29 November 1956 (wing

319 mm.); Tallapaliam, Krishna District, g on 15 November 1956

(wing 326 mm.).

Tringa terek (Latham) : The Terek Sandpiper.

Tallapaliam, Krishna District, 28 January 1957.

Rev. A. G. Krebs informed us that he saw it at Cuddalore on

26 September 1948.

958 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Tringa glareola Linn. : The Wood Sandpiper.

Bhujabalapatanam, Krishna District, 2 92 on 7 November and dS

on 17 Dec. 1956.

Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus) : The Greenshank.

Tallapaliam, Krishna District, 4 specimens in January 1957.

Tringa totanus (Linn.) : The Common Redshank.

2 Soh on 25 and 28 January 1957, Tallapaliam, Krishna District

(wings 158 and 166 mm.).

Charadrius mongolus atrifrons Wagler : The Lesser Sandplover.

Tallapaliam, Krishna District, on 5 January 1957.

Cuculus micropterus micropterus Gould : The Indian Cuckoo.

A full-fledged young was obtained at Puttocku, North Arcot, on

26 July 1956.

Accipter badius dussumieri (Temminck) : The Shikra.

3 Jd, wings 171, 175, and 180 mm..

H.A. saw one at Chingleput, Madras, on 9 February 1961.

Circus pygargus (Linn.) : Montagu’s Harrier.

Colaire, Krishna District, on 11 January 1957.

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR RoaD, | HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BoMBAY 6, DANIEL MATHEW

November 30, 1962.

ll. NOTES ON THE RANGE OF CERTAIN BIRDS AS GIVEN

IN S. D. RIPLEY II (1961): 4 SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS

OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN

The following notes, based on a collection of a little over 5000

specimens made in the Punjab, with some from Baluchistan and Ladakh,

during the years 1926 to 1947 and presented to the British Museum in

1949, add to the range of certain birds as given in Dr. Ripley’s A SyNoP-

SIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN (1961).

All those taken up to 1943 were identified, and kindly kept for me

in his private museum, by my friend and mentor Hugh Whistler, whose

untimely death in July of that year was such a grievous loss to Indian

ornithology. All the records given below are supported by specimens

in this collection except in the case of Anas angustirostris and Oxyura

leucocephala.

The numbers and pages refer to those in the SYNOPSIS.

No. 71, p. 23 : Plegadis falcinellus (Linnaeus)

Taken in West Pakistan in Jhelum and Gujrat.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 959

No. 92, p. 30: Anas angustirostris Ménétriés .

In India twice taken in Ferozepore (1923, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

28: 807).

No. 123, p. 41 : Oxyura leucocephala (Scopoli)

A regular winter visitor to the Punjab Salt Range, Mianwali district

and former Bahawalpur State of West Pakistan. Also occurs on the

Khushdil Khan Lake in the Quetta-Pishin district of Baluchistan.

No. 130, p. 42 : Pernis ptilorhyncus ruficollis Lesson

_ A summer visitor to the Rawalpindi and Jhelum districts of West

Pakistan. Both Whistler and I found it nesting in the former.

No. 138, p. 45 : Accipiter badius dussumieri (Temminck)

Breeds in nearly all of the Punjab districts of West Pakistan.

No. 168, p. 53 : Aquila rapax vindhiana Franklin

Common in all of the Punjab and Sind districts of West Pakistan.

No. 183, p. 57: Gyps indicus jonesi Whistler

It is not correct that it breeds chiefly i in trees. I am acquainted with

nesting colonies in the Jhelum portion of the Punjab Salt Range and -

the Margala Hills in Rawalpindi, where the nest is always in a cliff.

The same is the case in the Kala Chitta Hills in Attock (Jones, A. E.,

1921, J.Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 27 : 800). Compare Whistler, 1930, Ibis :

262.

No. 185, p. 58 : Gyps bengalensis (Gmelin)

Common in all of the Punjab and Sind districts of West Pakistan.

No. 188, p. 59 : Gypaetus barbatus aureus (Hablizl)

In West Pakistan its range includes the Punjab Salt Range and the

Khirthar and Sulaiman ranges bordering Baluchistan.

No. 237, p. 73 : Francolinus francolinus henrici Bonaparte

Its range in West Pakistan includes the Punjab districts of Dera

Ghazi Khan, Muzaffargarh, and Mianwali.

No. 337, p. 101 : Porzana pusilla pusilla (Pallas)

Winters also in West Pakistan, where I have taken it in the Punjab

districts of Rawalpindi, Jhelum, Gujrat, and Muzaffargarh.

No. 373, p. 113 : Pluvialis dominica fulva (Gmelin)

Taken once in September in Gujrat District of West Pakistan.

No. 404, p. 123 : Capella solitaria solitaria (Hodgson)

Taken at Dras in Ladakh in October. Winters in small numbers in

Kangra District (Whistler, 1926, [bis : 779).

No. 503, p. 156: Treron phoenicoptera phoenicoptera (Latham)

Taken in Gujrat District of West Pakistan.

960. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

No. 519, p. 161 : Columba palumbus casiotis (Bonaparte)

Found breeding in West Pakistan in both the Jhelum and powers

portions of the Punjab Salt Range.

No. 573, p. 176 : Cuculus varius varius Vahl

In West Pakistan occurs in the Punjab districts of Rawalpindi and

Jhelum (in both of which I have taken specimens), Lahore, and Shahpur.

No. 614, p. 187 : Otus brucei (Hume)

Taken in both the Jhelum and Shahpur portions of the Punjab Salt

Range.

No. 615, p. 188 : Otus scops palchellue (Pallas) :

Several observed and three taken in March in Loralai District of

Baluchistan.

No. 616, p. 188: Otus scops sunia (Hodgson)

Four, including one from a nest, taken in May at 6000 ft. in the

Murree Hills of Rawalpindi District. Compare Whistler, 1930, Jbis :

260.

No. 620, p. 189 : Otus bakkamoena deserticolor Ticehurst

Taken in the Punjab districts of Muzaffargarh and Shahpur.

No. 650, p. 196 : Athene brama indica (Franklin)

Common in all the Punjab Districts of West Pakistan.

No. 663, p. 199 : Asio otus otus (Linnaeus) |

Once taken in Shahpur District of West Pakistan.

No. 674, p. 203: Caprimulgus mahrattensis Sykes

Breeds at the Punjab Salt Range in the ‘Jhelum and Shahpur

districts.

No. 682, p. 205 : Caprimulgus affinis monticolus Franklin

In West Pakistan breeds in the Jhelum portion of the Punjab Salt

Range. 7

No. 702, p. 210: Apus affinis galilejensis (Antinori)

Breeds commonly in the West Punjab districts of Jhelum and

Shahpur.

No. 749, p. 223: Merops orientalis beludschicus Neumann

Its range includes all the Punjab districts of West Pakistan.

No. 763, p. 227 : Upupa epops epops Linnaeus

Breeds in many of the Punjab districts of West Pakistan.

No. 777, p. 232 : Megalaima virens marshallorum Swinhoe

Breeds in the Jhelum portion of the Punjab Salt Range.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 961

No. 792, p. 236: Megalaima haemacephala indica (Latham)

In West Pakistan Whistler found it breeding in Gujranwala (1916,

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24: 700), and I in Lahore, and I have obser-

ved it in Jhelum and Rawalpindi. In India I found it not uncommon

in Ferozepore, Jullandar, Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana, and Ambala.

No. 807, p. 240: Picus Squamatus squamatus Vigors

Resident at Sakesar, c. 4500 ft. in the Shahpur portion of the Punjab

Salt. Range, where I have twice found nests with young.

No. 875, p. 260 : Mirafra erythroptera sindiana Ticehurst

Its range in West Pakistan includes the Jhelum and Rawalpindi

districts. Three specimens were taken in Rawalpindi District (J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 458).

No. 882, p. 262 : Ammomanes phoenicurus phoenicurus (Franklin)

Taken in July, August, and September in the West Pakistan districts

of Jhelum and Shahpur.

No. 914, p. 272 : Hirundo concolor concolor Sykes

Taken in the Ludhiana and Ambala districts of East Punjab.

No. 921, p. 274 : Hirundo smithii filifera Stephens

In West Pakistan found breedirig in the Punjab districts of Rawal-

pindi, Jhelum, Shahpur; and Jhang. |

No. 999, p. 299 : Sturnus vulgaris porphyronotus Sharpe

Taken in the Attock, Rawalpindi, and Jhelum districts of the

Punjab.

No. 1233, p. 368 : Chrysomma altirostre scindicum (Harington)

The statement that this is known only from the type needs correction.

In 1932 I collected two near Jampur in Dera Ghazi Khan District

(J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 748). In 1937 I took six more in the

same locality and one near Khanwah in Muzaffargarh. To these were

added three taken near Bhamb in Mianwali in 1943. All are now in the

British Museum.

No. 1407, p. 421: Muscicapa latirostris Raffles

Ludhiana i is in India and not West Pakistan.

No. 1431, p. 429 : Muscicapa sundara fastuosa (Lesson)

Taken in winter at 2000 ft. in Rawalpindi, Hoshiarpur, and entala

districts. ,

| No. 1451, p. 435: Rhipidura aureola aureola Lesson

Taken in the Shahpur, Mianwali, Muzaffargarh, and Dera Ghazi

Khan districts of West Pakistan. cs

962 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

No. 1460, p. 437 : Terpsiphone paradisi leucogaster (Swainson)

In West Pakistan breeds commonly in the Punjab Salt Range. -

No. 1515, p. 454 : Prinia socialis stewarti Blyth

Taken in the Gujrat and Jhang districts of West Pakistan.

No. 1524, p. 456: Prinia flaviventris sindiana Ticehurst

Taken in Mianwali District of West Pakistan.

No. 1565, p. 469 : Sylvia hortensis jerdoni (Blyth)

In India taken in the Punjab districts of Jullandar, Ambala, and

Hissar. |

No. 1575, p. 473 : Phylloscopus collybita tristis Blyth

Taken in Rawalpindi, Jhelum, Gujrat, Shahpur, Mianwali, Muzaf-

fargarh, and Dera Ghazi Khan in West Pakistan and Jullandar, Ludhiana

and Rohtak in India.

No. 1712, p. 518 : Oenanthe picata (Blyth)

Found breeding in the Sulaiman Hills on the Punjab-Baluchistan

border. 3

No. 1716, p. 520 : Chaimarrornis leucocephalus (Vigors)

Occasionally found in winter in the Punjab Salt Range.

No. 1723, p. 522 : Monticola cinclorhynchus (Vigors)

Occurs on autumn passage in the Shahpur portion of the Punjab

Salt Range.

No. 1725, p. 523 : Monticola solitarius longirostris (Blyth)

Once taken in January in Jhelum District of West Pakistan.

No. 1750, p. 532: Turdus boulboul (Latham)

Taken in the plains in winter in the Punjab districts of Rawalpindi,

Ludhiana, and Ambala. A winter visitor in small numbers to Jhelum

(Whistler, 1916, Ibis : 65).

No. 1752, p. 533 : Turdus merula maximus (Seebohm)

A pair taken in June in the Sutlej Valley at Chini in the former

Bashahr State.

INo2 1763) -p..530= Turdus ruficollis atrogularis Jarocki

In West Pakistan winters commonly in the Attock, Rawalpindi,

Jhelum, Shahpur, and Jhang districts and in India in Jullandar,

Ludhiana, and Ambala.

No. 1770, p. 538 : Troglodytes troglodytes neglectus Brooks

Its range in West Pakistan includes Baluchistan (Christison, A.F.P.,

& Ticehurst, C.B., 1942, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43 : 481). |

No. 1799, p. 548 : Parus monticolus monticolus Vigors

Once taken in the Jhelum portion of the Punjab Salt Range.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 963

No. 1865, p. 571 : Anthus pelopus J. E. Gray

- Taken in the Jhelum portion of the Punjab Salt Range.

No. 1879, p. 575 : Motacilla flava leucocephala (Przevalski)

To Whistler’s May 1913 Jhelum record I added one from Attock in

April 1938 (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40 : 561). In April and May 1939

and April 1940 my Indian collector obtained 23 (15 #0’, 2 29, and 6

" unsexed) in Rawalpindi District. All are now in the British Museum (cf.

Whistler, 1940, Ibis : 335-337).

No. 1981, p. 608 : Coccothraustes coccothraustes humei Sharpe

Taken in winter in the Jhelum portion of the Punjab Salt Range.

No. 2017, p. 620 : Carpodacus rhodochrous (Vigors)

In three consecutive winters I found it in appreciable numbers

between 2000 ft. and 3000 ft. near Rawalpindi.

No. 2058, p. 635 : Emberiza schoeniclus pallidior Hartert

Taken in the Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana, and Ferozepore districts.

KALABAGH,

MIANWALI DISTRICT, H. W. WAITE

WEST PAKISTAN,

October 10, 1962.

12. RECOVERIES OF RINGED MIGRATORY BIRDS

AT HINGOLGADH, JASDAN, SAURASHTRA

During the last field camp of the BNHS/WHO at Hingolgadh in

September 1962 the following migratory birds ringed previously in 1960

and 1961 at Hingolgadh were recaptured at the same place:

=a. 2 ETO OS OTOH

Ringed on Recaptured on Remarks

Sylvia

hortensis 27-9-60 18-9-62 This bird was previously

(Ring No.A-3065) recaptured at the same

place on 21-9-61.

Sylvia

hortensis

(Ring No. A-2790) 19-9-60 24-9-62

Sylvia

curruca - 24-9-61 26-9-62

Ring No. 6322

THE PALACE,

JASDAN, SAURASHTRA, | YUVRAJ SHIVRAJKUMAR

November 7, 1962.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

964

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES : 965

14. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE SKINK-:

RIOPA GUENTHERI (GRAY)

Rev. E. M. Shull of Ahwa, Surat Dangs, Gujarat State, recently

sent us a collection of reptiles from the Dangs, which included two

specimens of the skink, Riopa guentheri (Gray), known to range from

Matheran (Western Ghats, Maharashtra State) southwards to Travan-

core.

The present specimens extend the known range considerably north-

wards.

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, J. C. DANIEL

BomBay 6, Curator

December 12, 1962.

153 SEX RATIO AND SIZE OF THE GARDEN LIZARD

(CALOTES VERSICOLOR DAUD.) A

Over the last two years 757 adults of the Bloodsucker Lizard

Calotes versicolor Daud. were collected at Varanasi, U.P., and some

of them are still kept alive for the study of their growth rates. The

lizards were trapped locally by professionals using lassa (a mixture. of

latex and oil) at the end of a long rod, with no discrimination regard-

ing size or sex. The following observations may be of interest:

(a) 239 were females and 498 males, indicating a sex ratio of

approximately 2.08 males for every female.

(b) No female with a snout to vent length of more than 100 mm.

was handled, and we may presume that this is the maximum

size to which a female of this species can grow at Varanasi.

- Males, however, grew to 110 mm., three individuals exceed-

ing this size, 112 mm. (2) and 113 mm. The Varanasi

population thus appears to be intermediate, as may be

anticipated, between the small Indo-Chinese form (95 mm.

-maximum body length in males) and the larger peninsular

Indian form 120 to 140 mm. (1935, Smith, M. A.: FAUNA

OF BRITISH INDIA, II, Sauria, p. 189.)

“not males alone that assume crimson colour and black

patches; females and castrates of both sexes also assume

966 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

this colour, even when they are not excited. In our opinion,

this colour character does not belong to the sex complex and

should not be treated as a sex character of the males.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY, G. S. SINGH

VARANASI 5, J. P. THAPLIYAL

August 27, 1962.

16. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF OLIVACEOUS SMOOTH

SNAKE [RHABDOPS OLIV ACEUS (BEDDOME)]

On 1 September 1962, I collected an Olivaceous Smooth Snake,

Rhabdops olivaceus (Beddome), under a stone on the flat bare

top of a hill, c. 1300 m. above m.s.l., west of Koyna Dam, Satara

District, Maharashtra State, surrounded by thick forest.

The records in literature are restricted to the Wynaad, but a

specimen in the Society’s collection was collected by Dr. Edward Taylor

at Kottegehar in Kadur, Mysore State, in 1961. The present

specimen, a male, has 227 ventrals against 206-215 mentioned in

Smith’s FAUNA (1943), p. 328, and constitutes the northernmost record

of this species.

BomMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR ROAD, P. W. SOMAN

BomsBayY 6, :

December 6, 1962.

17. EXTENSION OF THE KNOWN RANGE OF THE

CATSNAKE, BOIGA FORSTENI (DUM. & BIBR.)

A small collection of snakes recently received from Mr. E. M.

Shull, Ahwa, Surat Dangs, Gujarat, includes one specimen of

Boiga forsteni (Dum. & Bibr.). The distribution as recorded in Smith’s

FAUNA is ‘Ceylon and Peninsular India; Western Ghats (Matheran to

Travancore); Ganges Valley (Orcha, Fyzabad, Gorakhpur, Balrampur,

Purnea, Manbhum); Orissa (Behrampore); Bengal (Sijna); Eastern

Himalayas (Darjeeling district, fide Wall). It inhabits both the

plains and the hills.” The present record appears to extend its

known distribution appreciably northwards, though in the Society’s

copy of Smith’s FAUNA there is a pencil entry against the paragraph

apis puljq WoIs UsWIOads 9)eINO[OSIQUIe JO MOTA,

(Aaplsuyos 2 YOolg) syojuaiso snalyovoig

N RG. GK MK GW

AW“N ACAXKY “r

\ A \S \ \

\ WN \

"O08 “LSIH “LVN AVaWog ‘Nuno¢

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 967

of the range of this species reading ‘Mt. Abw’ and _initialled by

Charles McCann then Assistant Curator of the Society. This does not

appear to have been published and the specimen is not available

in our collection.

BomMBay NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

91, WALKESHWAR RoaD, J. Cc. DANIEL

BomsayY 6, Curator

December. 18, 1962.

18. AN INSTANCE OF PARTIAL AMBICOLOURATION IN

THE ORIENTAL SOLE, BRACHIRUS ORIENTALIS

(BLOCH & SCHNEIDER)

(With a plate)

Pigmentation on the blind side of flatfishes has been recorded as an

abnormality. Cunningham & MacMunn (1893) termed such abnormal

specimens as ‘ambicolourate’ and the phenomenon has since then been

called ‘ambicolouration’. Amongst Indian flatfishes, ambicolouration

was first recorded in the ‘Pan’ sole, Brachirus pan (Hamilton), by

Jones & Menon (1950), discussing its ontogenic significance.

Norman (1934) classified the pigmentation on the blind side into

three categories as staining, spotting, and true ambicolouration.

True ambicolouration is very rare and may be: partial pigmentation,

trunk pigmentation, nearly complete ambicolouration, and complete

ambicolouration. |

On 8 June 1960, during a visit to the Crawford Market at Bombay,

the authors came across an ambicolourate specimen of Brachirus

orientalis (Bloch & Schneider) (see plate) along with a few other

normal specimens of the same species. This record may be of

interest as it is the first of its kind from this area. _

The ambicolourate specimen measured 162 mm. in total length.

The uncoloured anterior portion on the blind side is almost heart-

shaped and the pigmentation commences from the 33rd dorsal and

9th anal rays. The pigmentation along the anterior region and the

fins is darker than the central portion.

The pectoral fin on the blind side was smaller as is normal in the

species. Jones & Menon (1950 have referred to a case of nearly

968 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

complete ambicolouration in Brachirus pan in. which both- patos

fins were of the same size.

TARAPOREVALA MARINE BIOLOGICAL HIOW1

RESEARCH STATION, R. M. PRADHAN

BOMBAY 2, perth wane dM Jy sPRADELAMS

November 16, 1962.

REFERENCES

*Cunningham, J. T., & MacMunn, inthe ‘Pan’ Sole, Bree pan (Hamil-

C. A. (1893) : Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 184: ton). Ree. Ind. Mus. 48 (3) : 67-70.

801-802. Norman, J. R. a (1934) : A Systematic

Jones, S., & Menon, P. M. G. (1950) : Monograph of the Flatfishes Gels ia

An interesting case of ambicolouration mata), I, pp. 22-27. London. ;

* Not consulted in original.

19. MIGRATION OF ELVERS IN THE WEST HIGHLANDS

OF SCOTLAND

(With two plates)

With reference to Mr. K. H. Ibrahim’s Miscellaneous Note. at

pages 810 to 812 of Volume 58 of the Journal, D. E. Reuben has.

drawn our attention to the following passage in Gavin Maxwell’s

(1960) RING OF BRIGHT WATER, describing the migration of elvers in

the west highlands of Scotland:

‘Early in May comes the recurrent miracle of the. elvers’ migration

from the sea. ... When the elvers reach the Camusfearna burn—no.

more than a uniform three inches long nor thicker than a meat-

skewer, steel-blue when seen from above, but against the light

transparent except for a red blob at the gills—they have been journey-

ing in larval form for two whole years from their breeding grounds.

south-west of Bermuda, through two thousand miles. of ocean and

enemies. During that long, blind voyage of instinct their numbers

must have been reduced not to a millionth but a billionth of those.

who set forth, yet it is difficult to imagine that there can have been

vaster hordes than reach the Camusfearna burn; still more difficult

1 The extract and the photographs are reproduced by kind permission of the

author from RING OF BRIGHT WATER, by Gavin Maxwell, published by Messrs |

Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd., London, : 12

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 969

to realize that these are but a tiny fraction of the hosts that

are simultaneously ascending a myriad other burns.

‘Where the burn flows calm through the level ground their armies

undulate slowly and purposefully forward towards the seemingly

insurmountable barrier of the falls; on, above the bridge, into the

stretch where the water rushes and stumbles over uneven. stones;

round the rock-twist to the foot of the falls. Here, temporarily

daunted or resting before their assault upon the vertical, spray-wet

rock-face, they congregate almost motionless in the rock pools, form-

ing a steel-blue carpet inches deep; dip a bucket here, and it comes

up with a greater volume of elvers than of water. Some mistake the

true course of the burn, and follow steep trickles leading to cul-de-

sac pools of spray water; to and from these (for the miraculous

powers of their multitudes do not appear to include communication or

deduction), there are simultaneous streams of ascending and descending

elvers, while the spray-pool itself is filled to the brim with an

aimlessly writhing swarm. .

‘It is here, during the wait at the foot of the falls, that the last

heavy toll is taken of their numbers; for a week or two the rocks

below the waterfall are splashed white with the droppings of herons

who stand there scooping them up by the bill-full, decimating yet

again, on the verge of) their destination, the remnants of the great

concourse that has been travelling thus perilously for two years.

‘. ... it is in the elvers’ final ascent of the falls that the colossal

driving power of their instinct becomes most apparent to the onlooker.

At first, where at the edges of the falls the water splashes into

shallow stone troughs among the horizontal ledges, the way is easy—a

few inches of horizontal climb and the elver has reached the next

trough. But after a foot or two of this ladder-like progression they

are faced either with the battering fall of white water at their left or

with a smooth black stretch of rock wall in front, hit every few seconds

by heavy splashes of spray. For a few feet at the bottom of this wall

grows a close slimy fur of waterweed, and among its infinitesimal

tendrils the elvers twine themselves and begin, very slowly, to squirm

their way upwards, forming a vertical, close-packed queue perhaps

two feet wide. Sometimes a big gob of spray lands right amid their

ranks and knocks a hundred of them back into the trough below, but

slowly, patiently, they climb back again. I have never marked an

elver so that it is recognizable, and for all I know this may happen to

the same elver many, many times in a day or even in an hour. .

‘Once above the water-draggled weed there is no further incidental

support for the climbing elvers; there is just sheer wet rock, with

970 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

whatever microscopic roughness their transparent bellies may appre-

hend. They hang there, apparently without gravity, with -an

occasional convulsive movement that seems born of despair. They

climb perhaps six inches in an hour, sometimes slithering backward

the same distance in a second, and there are a further twelve feet of

rock above them.

‘It is not possible for more than a moment or two to identify

oneself with any single one of this mass, but there is a sense of

relief, of emotional satisfaction, in looking upward to the lip of the

falls where they spill over from the hidden pool above, and seeing

the broad band of glistening elvers that have accomplished the

apparently impossible and are within an inch of safety.

‘Perhaps a few million out of billions top the Camusfearna falls;

some, certainly, surmount the second and third falls too, and I have

seen elvers of that size more than two thousand feet up the peak

where the burn has its source. In perspective, the survival rate must

be high when compared with that of spermatozoa.’

BOMBAY NATURAL HIstTory SOcIETY,

’ 91, WALKESHWAR RoapD, EDITORS

Bomsay 6,

May 18, 1962.

20. FISH MORTALITY AT SHAHDRA FISH FARM, DELHI

Sudden and large scale mortality of fishes in inland waters

is a common occurrence in India, particularly during the summer

months. Since the total quantity of fish destroyed in this way is

very high, it is imperative to analyse the causes of such fish wastage.

A number of investigations carried out (Hornell & Naidu 1923, Sewell

1926, Chopra 1926, Aiyar 1936, Ganapati & Alikunhi 1948, Prescott

1948-49, Ganapati 1949, Alikunhi, Chaudhuri, & Ramachandran 1955,

and George 1961) in this direction have revealed that the causative

factors may be either biological or physico-chemical. The former

includes scarcity of food and parasitic, fungal, or bacterial infections.

The physico-chemical factors are temperature, turbidity, pH, dissolved

oxygen, obnoxious gases produced by organic debris at the bottom of

the pond, and chemical effluents. The extent of damage depends on

the severity of these factors. ;

Topography of the pond. The Shahdra Fish Farm is situated

about two miles from Delhi between the Howrah-Delhi railway line

and the Grand Trunk Road. It is a rectangular pond having an

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 7 971

average water area of five acres. The average depth of the water

column during the monsoon is nine feet and in summer five and a

half feet. The main source of water is from the monsoon rains,

though the tank is also fed once from Jumna River during the months

of May or June. It enjoys full sunshine owing to the absence of

trees on the three sides of the bank. The shore line is steep on the

western side and is sloping on the eastern side. The tank supports a

dense growth of Potamageton pectinatus Linnaeus throughout the year.

Carp fingerlings are stocked regularly in this tank.

Mortality. Severe fish mortality occurred in the tank on

1 August 1961. The fishes were found dying from the early hours of

the morning. Many were swimming with their mouths out of the

water and gasping for breath. All the fishes in the tank numbering

about two hundred died, the size range being 24-360 mm. The fish

population consisted of Labeo rohita (Ham.), L. calbasu (Ham.), and

L. bata (Ham.), Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.) and C. reba (Ham.), Catla

catla (Ham.), Amblypharyngodon mola (Ham.), Chela bacaila (Ham.),

and Botia lohachata (Chaudhuri).

Chemical Conditions. The results of chemical analysis of the water,

carried out from 1 to 8 August 1961, are presented in Table below.

For comparison, the results of the analysis of two normal samples

collected on 30 August and 28 September 1961 respectively are

included in the Table. The data obtained show nothing abnormal

except the high values of alkalinity.

Biological Conditions. The biological estimate on the qualitative

and quantitative nature of plankton showed nothing abnormal. The

phytoplankton population was mostly composed of Chlamydomonas,

Tetraspora, Pediastrum, Dictyosphaerium, Oocystis, Crucigenia,

Scenedesmus, Euglena, Trachelomonas, Fragilaria, Navicula, Merismo-

pedia, and Oscillatoria. The zooplankton was dominated by Filinia,

Asplanchna, Brachionus, Hexarthra, Diaptomus, Cyclops, and

crustacean larvae.

Discussion. The guts of the dead fishes on examination were

found gorged, indicating that they were feeding normally. As these

fishes appeared normal and healthy, the cause of mortality cannot

be attributed to possible fungal, bacterial, or parasitic infection.

Free CO, was never detected at any time during the course of the

investigation. The value of dissolved oxygen was comparatively low

(3.2 p.p.m.). But the results obtained by Basu (1949) indicate that

under experimental conditions fishes can survive over 24 hours in

water with 1 p.p.m. of dissolved oxygen. George (1961) has pointed

out that Labeo rohita and Cirrhina mrigala can survive for about 7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

972

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 973

minutes in. waters containing 0.1 p.p.m. of dissolved oxygen, so that

it may be inferred that the mortality was not due to lack. of oxygen.

The rains supply a large amount of drainage water to catchment

areas from where it ultimately reaches the tanks. It profoundly

alters the physico-chemical nature of pond water as it washes down

large quantities of nutrients and mineral during its transit. The

annual rainfall recorded in Delhi territory during 1961 is 1115.4 mm.

The first major shower of the monsoon of 88.8 mm. was recorded on

31 July 1961 which was the day prior to the mortality. The high

values of alkalinity noted on 1 August 1961 might be due to the wash-

ing down of large quantities of the salts of calcium and magnesium

from the catchment areas. According to Alikunhi’ (1957) total

alkalinity over 500 p.p.m. is lethal to fish life. Thus the fish mortality

in the Shahdra Fish Farm in the absence of any other adverse factor is

attributed to the highly alkaline condition of water ciate exceeds

the tolerance limit of the major carps of India.

Acknowledgements. Y am grateful to Dr. M. Chandy, Reader. in

Zoology, University of Delhi, for critically reading the manuscript.

Thanks are due to Mr. K. L. Dixit of Meteorological Department,

Delhi, for. providing the data on rainfall.

EXTENSION OFFICER, FISHERIES,

KHYBER Pass,

DELHI,

March 25, 1962.

R. N. CHATURVEDI

REFERENCES }

stream bed at Mettur Dam with special

_Aiyar, Gopala (1936): Mortality of

fish of the Madras coast. Curr. Sci.5: reference to certain abnormal surface

488.

Alikunhi, K. H. (1957): Fish Culture

in India. Indian Council of Agricultural

Research Farm Bulletin, 20.

— — — Chaudhuri, H., & Ramachan-

dran, V. (1955): On the mortality of

carp “fry i in nursery ponds and the role

of plankton in their survival and growth.

Indian J. Fish. 2 : 257-313.

- Basu, S. P. (1949) : Some experimental

data regarding the oxygen requirements

of the Indian Fishes, Catla catla, Labeo

rohita, Labeo bata and Cirrhina mrigala.

Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 15 : 283-286.

Chopra, B. N. (1926): A note on fish

mortality in the Indaw River in Upper

Burma. Journ. & Proc. Asiatic Soc.

Bengal 22 : 203-210.

Ganapati, S. V. (1949): The hydro-

logy of three summer pools in the rocky

gal 22: 177-201.

congregation of fishes. J. zool. Soc. Inida

1: 44-48. .

Ganapati, S. V. & Alikunhi, K. H.

(1948) : On an interesting case of morta-

lity of larvicides in the Public Health’

Fish Nurseries at Ennur, Madras. Proc.

Ind. Sci. Cong. 35 : 208. S

George, M. G. (1961) : Diurnal varia-~

tions in two shallow’ ponds in Delhi,

India. Hydrobiologia 18 ; 265-273. ;

* Hornell, J.,. & Naidu, Ramaswami

(1923) : Madras Fish Bull. 17. ve

Prescott, G. W. (1948-49) : Objection-

able algae with reference to the killing

of fish and other animals 1: 1-13.

Sewell, R. B. S. (1926) : Investigations

regarding an epidemic of fish mortality

in the tank in the Indian Museum com-

pound. Journ. & Proc. Asiatic Soc. Ben-

—

* Not referred to in original.

974. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

21. MARINE BIVALVE MOLLUSC SOLENOMYA

MEDITERRANEA LAMARCK FROM COCHIN,

SOUTH INDIA: A NEW RECORD

(With one plate)

In April 1961, I received a specimen of a bivalve mollusc (without

the soft parts, but with both valves of the shell intact) for identification

from Mr. P. Dinamani, Research Officer, Oceanographic Laboratory,

University of Kerala, Cochin, collected from near Cochin, on the

west coast.

On careful examination, I found that the specimen belonged to

a species of bivalve, Solenomya mediterranea Lamarck, which has

not hitherto been recorded from the coasts of India. One charac-

teristic feature of the genus Solenomya is that the shell possesses a

strong, shiny brown periostracum which extends beyond the edges of

the valves and this feature was very well marked in the specimen I

examined. |

The shell is transversely elongated, somewhat rectangular, with

more or less obtusely rounded front and hind margins, but the posterior

side is rather narrowed and obliquely truncated. The hinge is with-

out teeth, and the ligament partly internal. The cardinal callus is

narrow, curved, and obliquely triangular, and the ligamentary area

behind the callus is also triangular and linearly produced below. The

shell is covered with a fairly thick, glossy, dark brown, horny

periostracum extending beyond the margins of the valves. The surface

of the shell bears distinct radial striations.

The specific name mediterranea indicates that the original

specimens on which this species was based were recorded from the

Mediterranean (which is the type locality mentioned by Reeve for this

species, in his CONCHOLOGIA ICONICA, Vol. XX, Species 2), but this

does not imply that specimens of this species are not likely to be

found in other localities.

This is an interesting and unique record, for, as far as I know,

this species has not been recorded from Indian waters earlier. If

any of our readers happens to collect any further specimens of this

species on Indian shores, we shall be glad to have a few for the

Madras Museum collection in which it is not at present represented.

MADRAS GOVERNMENT MUSEUM,

MADRAS, S. T. SATYAMURTI

August 30, 1962, Superintendent > ;

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. 7

Solenomya mediterranea Lamarck

Above : Inner view of shell (x 14); Below ; Outer view of shell (x 14)

ere eee en a tee eet

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 975

22. TERMITE ‘ODONTOTERMES OBESUS (RAMBUR)Y’:

ROYAL CHAMBER WITH FOUR QUEENS AND TWO KINGS

(With two plates)

The occurrence of more than one king and one queen in the royal

chamber in mounds of species of Odontotermes has occasionally been

reported. Thus, two queens were reported in O. obesus (Ramb.) by

Holmgren (1912) and by Roonwal & Gupta (1952), three queens

in O. wallonensis Wasm. by Mathur & Chhotani (1960), and as many

as six queens in O. bangalorensis Holmg. by Holmgren (1913).

Recently we came across several mounds of ‘Odontotermes obesus

(Rambur)* on the roadside in the Balukhand Forest Range near

Puri (Orissa), which were of the type described by Holmgren (1912,

Ply A; Fig.’ t): :

The mounds were relatively small (c. 70-120 cm. high, with a

slightly larger diameter), somewhat dome-shaped (PI. I, Fig. a) and

with several short (c. 10-20 cm. high), blind turrets arising all over

the mound-surface. The fungus-combs (Pls. I and II) lie in small

vaults distributed throughout the mound. The royal chamber (r.c.),

lies near ground-level (in Pl. 1, Fig. b it seems to be situated

higher up, but this is because this mound is on sloping ground, and

hence the impression in the photograph), and is difficult to separate

from the earthen mound-material. The royal cell is rather large,

‘more or less spindle-shaped in cross-section, and has smooth inside

walls.

In one of these mounds (Pl. I), the royal cell (maximum

dimensions: length 25, width 15, and height 4 cm.) contained four

large physogastric queens (de-alated females) and two kings (de-alated

males) (Pl. II, Fig. a) and several soldiers and workers. The queens

were lying in pairs—one pair lying north-south and the other pair

west-southeast, with the heads of the pairs facing in opposite directions.

: fs = — a

1 The mounds of this species seem to be variable, but soldiers from different

kinds of mounds are indistinguishable. Thus, in the north (Uttar Pradesh and Bihar)

the mounds are of high, fluted type with buttresses (see Roonwal, 1962, for a detailed

description and discussion), and elsewhere somewhat dome-shaped and low as

_ described in the present account. Pending a suitable revision, termites from both

these types of mounds may be regarded as belonging to ‘ Odontotermes obesus

(Rambur)’.

976°

JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

All the queens were large, with long, swollen abdomens, while the

kings were, as usual, smaller.

1. Total length (excluding antennae)

2. Length of abdomen

3. Max. width of abdomen

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

34, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE,

CALCUTTA- 12,

September 20, 1962.

The dimensions were:

Queens (4) Kings (2) -

mm. mm,

52.2-62.8 11.3-11.5

50.5-58.0 5.7-6.0

13.2-17.2 3.5-4.0

M. L. ROONWAL

O. B. CHHOTANI

REFERENCES

‘HOLMGREN, N. (1912): Termites from

British India (Bombay) collected by

Dr. J. Assmuth,s.s. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 21 (3) : 774-793, 4 pls. Bombay.

————— (1913): Termites from

British India (near Bombay, in Gujerat,

and Bangalore), collected by Dr. J.

serra SJ. bids. 22 (hc 210i 7.

3 Pls

Matwur, R.N., & CaHHoran, O. B.

(1960): . Three queens -in mounds of

Odontotermes_ wallonensis (Wasmann)

(Termitidae, Isoptera). Jndian For. 86

(L0) :. 623-624.

Roonwa, M. L. (1962) : Biology and

ecology of Oriental Termites. No. 5.

Mound-structure, nest and moisture-

content of fungus-combs in Odontoter-

mes obesus, with a discussion on the

association of fungi with termites. Rec.

horn Mus. 38 (3 & 4) : 131-150, 4 pls.

1960.

———-— & Gupta, S. D. (1952): An

unusual royal chamber with two kings

and two queens in the Indian mound

building termite Odontotermes obesus

(Rambur) (Isoptera : Family Termitidae).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51 (1): 293-

294, 1 pl.

23. OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLORA OF AGRA DISTRICT |

: WITH SOME NEW RECORDS

INTRODUCTION

. The district of Agra lies between 26° 44’

—27° 25’. N. and 77° 26'—

Gee Spa a and is situated at an altitude ranging from 160 m. to 180 m..

It is the border district between the States of Rajasthan and Uttar

Pradesh. The area is semi-arid with an average annual rainfall of

67.4 -em.-(26.53 in.).

Many times the district has received an annual

rainfall below 40 cm. As regards temperature the- district of Agra

may probably claim to be the warmest district of Uttar Pradesh, with

the temperature many times going above 47° C.

in summer. ‘The

effect of ‘loo? Is also disastrous for green growth during the s summer

months.

JOURN. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

A mound of ‘ Odontotermes obesus (Rambur)’

Balukhand Forest Range, Puri (Orissa)

(a) The mound. Note the numerous turrets; (5) Same, in vertical

section. /. c. fungus-comb ; r. c. royal cell

Journ. Bompay Nat, Hist. Soc. PLATE II

| eee ee

* Odontotermes obesus (Rambur)’

Royal pairs and fungus-comb from mound in Plate I

(a) Four queens (below) and two kings (above) from the royal cell ;

(b) a fungus-comb

MISCELLANEOUS: NOTES (05 206 20. FP

The study of the vegetation of Agra District is important from. the

point of view of checking the advance. of the Rajputana desert

into the fertile plains of Uttar Pradesh and has, therefore, received

much attention recently, particularly in respect of afforestation schemes

to rehabilitate forests.

In the past Munro (1844), Duthie (1903- 29), and Pahival (1935)

have made valuable contributions on the flora of Agra District. The

comparatively recent work of Watts (1953) and Bharadwaja ef al.

(1956) has further enhanced our knowledge in this regard. Ga

In January 1956 a party of botanical workers, including. the

author, led by Prof. K. N. Kaul, Director, National Botanic Gardens,

Lucknow, visited Agra for botanizing in the interesting localities of

Kitham and Kailash. Common weeds were also collected from the

important parks and gardens of Agra city. The collection was

subsequently examined by the author leading to the discovery of as

many as 18 species which are new to N. A. Watts’s FLORA.

DISTRIBUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE FLORA

As indicated by the climatic conditions, the flora of the Agra

District is characteristically that of a tropical region, the tropical

element comprising over 70% of the whole flora.

The element which is cosmopolitan in the tropics is represented

in the Agra flora by Boerhavia diffusa Linn., Caesalpinia bonduc

(Linn.) Roxb., Cassia absus Linn., C. obtusifolia Linn., C. occidentalis

Linn., C. pumila Lamk., Cassytha filiformis Linn., Celosia argentea

Linn., Corchorus aestuans Linn., C. tridens Linn., Cressa cretica Linn.,

Crotalaria retusa Linn., Cyperus compressus Linn., Dactyloctenium

aegyptium (Desf.) Beauv., Desmedium trifiorum DC., Eclipta prostrata

Linn., Eleusine indica Gaertn., Galactia villosa W. & A., Gynandropsis

gynandra Briq., Lindernia crustacea (Linn.) F. v. Mueller, Malvastrum

coromandelianum Garcke, Melochia corchorifolia Linn., Rhynchosia

minima DC., Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) Wight, Sphenoclea zeylanica

Gaertn., Spilanthes acmella Linn., Teramnus labialis Spr., Urena

lobata L., Waltheria indica Linn. and Zornia diphylla Pers. .

Other tropical species are Abrus precatorius Linn., Ageratum

conyzoides Linn., Alysicarpus rugosus DC., Amaranthus spinosus

Linn., Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn., -Cissampelos pareira ’ ‘Linn.,

Heteropogon contortus (Linn.) Beauv. ex R. & S., Hydrolea zeylanica

Vahl, Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn., Paspalidium -geminatum (Forsk.)

Stapf, Paspalum distichum Linn., Phyllanthus niruri Auct., ‘Sida. pores:

folia Linn., Triumfetta bartramia Linn.; etc.

978. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

Acacia leucophloea Willd., Coccinia cordifolia (Linn.) Cogn.,

Crotalaria prostrata Roxb. Lepidagathis incurva Don, Mollugo

pentaphylla Linn., Panicum paludosum Roxb. etc., restricted to the

Asian tropics, are also found at Agra. |

The flora of Agra shows affinity with the tropical African flora in

having Alysicarpus monilifer DC., Cocculus hirsutus (Linn.) Diels,

Crotalaria orixensis Rottl., Cymbopogon schoenanthus (Linn.) Spreng.,

Dicoma tomentosa Cass., Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees,

Hibiscus micranthus Linn., Lindernia parviflora (Roxb.) Haines, Luffa

echinata Roxb., Oldenlandia aspera DC., etc., occurring here com-

monly.

Some species of the Australian tropics also occur at Agra, e.g.

Brachiaria distachya (L.) Stapf, Cayratia carnosa Gagnep., Dentella

repens Forst., Helicteres isora Linn. Hibiscus ficulneus Linn.,

Indigofera enneaphylla Linn., I. glandulosa Willd., I. trita Linn.,

Ottelia alismoides Pers., Pavetta indica Linn., Pouzolzia indica Linn..,

Sporobolus diander Beauv., Trichosanthes cucumerina Linn., and

Zizyphus oenoplia Mill.

Species of the American tropics that have become naturalized within

the area are Alternanthera echinata Sm., Ejichhornia crassipes Solms.,

Ipomoea alba Linn., Sida veronicaefolia Lamk., Trianthema portula-

castrum Linn., Tridax procumbens Linn., etc.

A few Brazilian species like Acanthospermum hispidum DC.,

Croton bonplandianum Baill., and Gomphrena celosioides Mart. have

also become well established. |

Over 16% of the Agra flora is truly Indian. The Indian element

is represented by Acacia jacquemontii Benth., Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.,

Alysicarpus vaginalis DC., Andrographis paniculata Nees, Anisochilus

carnosus Wall., Aristolochia bracteata Retz., Azadirachta indica Juss.,

Blepharis molluginifolia Pers., Cassia auriculata Linn., Ceropegia

bulbosa Roxb., Cleome simplicifolia Hk. f. & T., Cochlearia flava

Ham., Cyperus niveus Retz., Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf,

Echinops echinatus Roxb., Erythrina suberosa Roxb., Euphorbia

elegans Spr., Glossocardia bosvallia (Linn. f.) DC., Holoptelea integri-

folia Planch., Iseilema laxum Hack., Kochia indica Wt., Lepidagathis

hamiltoniana Wall., Leucas cephalotes Spr., Maerua arenaria Hk. f. &

T.1, Melanocenchris jacquemontii Jaub. & Spach., Mimosa hamata

Willd., M. rubicaulis Lamk., Panicum trypheron Schult., Phoenix

sylvestris Roxb., Sehima sulcatum (Hack.) A. Camus, Sopubia delphini-

folia G. Don, Tetrapogon tenellus (Roxb.) Chiov., etc.

? Duthie mentions M. arenaria var. scabra Hk. f. & T. also as occurring ‘ in

the neighbourhood of Agra’, though it has not been included in Watts’s FLORA.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 979

Affinity with the Malayan flora is shown by species like Anisomeles

indica (Linn.) O. Ktze., Capparis sepiaria Linn., Commelina obliqua

Buch.-Ham., Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr., Hibiscus hirtus Linn.,

Leucas aspera Spr., Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell, Oldenlandia

diffusa Roxb., Polygonum flaccidum Meissn., and Zizyphus mauritiana

Lamk.

Arnebia hispidissima DC., Eragrostis ciliaris Link., Nerium indicum

Mill., Prosopis spicigera Linn., Psammogeton biternatum Edgew.,

Pulicaria crispa Sch.-Bip., Sporobolus marginatus Hochst. ex A. Rich.,

Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst., Trichodesma indicum R. Br., Viola

cinerea Boiss., and Zizyphus nummularia (Burm. f.) W. & A.,

occurring at Agra, are distributed widely in Arabia or/and Persia.

Orobanche aegyptiaca Pers., Trigonella hamosa Linn. and T.

occulta Delile, occurring at Agra, are the Egyptian representatives.

A few European representatives, which have been long established

in Indian tropics, occur at Agra also, e.g. Lathyrus aphaca Linn.,

L. sphaericus Retz., Silene conoidea Linn., Spergula arvensis Linn.,

Trigonella corniculata Linn., Vicia hirsuta Gray.

An analysis of the whole flora reveals that the families represented

by more than ten species are in order of dominance: Gramineae,

Leguminosae, Compositae, Acanthaceae and Malvaceae (both having

the same number of _ species), Cyperaceae, Scrophulariaceae,

Convolvulaceae and Euphorbiaceae (with equal number of ic

Amaranthaceae, and Labiatae.

Appendix 1 gives the distribution pattern of the flora of Agra

District. Appendix 2 gives a quantitative analysis of the various taxa

of angiosperms met with in the district.

NEW RECORDS

CRUCIFERAE

Sisymbrium irio Linn.

In gardens, R. C. Bharadwaja, 1950 and 1952; Hewett Park, G. S.

Srivastava, N.B.G. 24827, 8.1.1956. Europe ; As. and N. Afr.

MALVACEAE

Pavonia zeylanica Cav.

Kailash, R. C. Bharadwaja, 1953 ; Kailash, Kaul, and party, N.B.G.

24640, 4.1.1956. Ind. ; trop. Afr.

980 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

TILIACEAE

Grewia tenax (Forsk.) Fiori

Kailash, Kaul, and party, N.B.G. 24671, 4, l. 1956. Ind; Trop. Afr.

LEGUMINOSAE

_ Abrus precatorius Linn.

Kailash, Kaul, and party, N.B.G. 24669, 4.1.1956. Tropics.

Alysicarpus longifolius W. & A.

Keetham, Kaul, and party, N.B.G. 24738, 4.1.1956. India.

Indigofera tinctoria Linn.

Kailash, Kaul, and party, N.B.G. 24645, 4.1.1956. Cult. in Tropics.

UMBELLIFERAE

Coriandrum sativum Linn.

Hewett Park, G. S. Srivastava, N.B.G. 24829, 8.1.1956. S. Europe ;

the East.

GENTIANACEAE

Enicostemma verticillatum (Linn.) Engl.

Keetham, R.C. Bharadwaja; Kailash, Kaul, and party, N.B.G.

24664, 4.1.1956. Tropics.

PEDALIACEAE

Martynia annua Linn.

Keetham, Kaul, and party, N.B.G. 24701, 4.1.1956. N. America.

AMARANTHACEAE

Alternanthera echinata Sm.

Taj Gardens, G. S. Srivastava, N.B.G. 24783, 5.1.1956. Trop. Am.

A. paronychioides St. Hill.

Keetham, Kaul, and party, N.B.G. 24750, 4.1.1956. S. Am.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Kirganelia reticulata (Poir.) Baill.

Keetham, Kaul, and party, N.B.G. 24745, 4.1.1956. Trop. of Old

World.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 981

| LILIACEAE

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Kailash, Kaul, and patty, N.B.G. 24646, 4.1.1956. Ind. ; trop. Afr. ;

Austral. |

TYPHACEAE

Typha elephantina Roxb. , |

Keetham, Kaul, and party, N.B.G. 24703, 4.1.1956. Mediterr. ; Ind.

NAIADACEAE

Zannichellia palustris Linn.

Agra, R. C. Bharadwaja, 1950. Europe ; N. Am.

Cy PERACEAE

Cyperus niveus Retz.

Keetham, Kaul, and party, N.B.G. 24761, 4.1.1956. Ind.

Fimbristylis diphylla Vahl

Keetham, Kaul, and party, N.B.G. 24746, 4.1.1956. Tropics and

temp. regions. F

F. ferruginea Vahl

Keetham, Kaul, and party, N.B.G. 24771, 4.1.1956. dO

SUMMARY

Observations have been made on the distributional pattern of the

flora of Agra District. The flora is characteristically that of a tropical

region, the tropical element comprising over 70% of the whole flora.

Over 16 % of the flora is truly Indian.

2. 18 species of angiosperms have been recorded asnew to N, A.

Watts’s FLORA OF AGRA DISTRICT.

3. A quantitative analysis of the various taxa of angiosperms met

with in the district has been given.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author is grateful to Prof. K. N. Kaul, F.us., Director,

National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, for facilities of work.

NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS,

LUCKNOW, S. L. KAPOOR

May 29, 1961.

982

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

REFERENCES

Anon. (1895-1959) : Index Kewensis.

‘Bharadwaja, R.C., Basu, K. C., &

Sinha, S. (1956) : The Grasses of Agra

District. Agra Univ. J. of Res. (Science)

5 (2) : 285-320.

Duthie, J. F. (1903-29): Flora of

the Upper Gangetic Plain and of the

Adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan

Tracts.

Hooker, J. D. (1872-97): Flora of

British India. ;

Munro, W. (1844) : Hortus Agrensis,

Nevill, H.R. (1921): District Gazet-

teers of the United Provinces 8. Agra.

Paliwal, B. P. (1935) : A Contribution

to the Flora of Agra. M.Sc. Thesis,

Agra University (unpublished).

_ Raizada, M.B. (1958) : Name Changes

in Common Indian Plants. Indian

For. 84: 467-538.

— — — (1959) : Name Changes in

Common Indian Grasses. Indian For.

85 : 473-509.

or a catalogue of all plants in the Watts, N.A. (1953) : Flora of Agra

neighbourhood of Agra. . . Agra. District.

APPENDIX 1

S. No. Native distribution

i: India

Ph Tropics of the Old World

Bip Tropical Regions

4. Cosmopolitan in tropics

a Tropical Asia and Africa :

6. Round the tropics of the world. .

ee India ; tropical Africa

8. Tropical Asia and Australia

9, India ; Malaya

10. Cosmopolitan

11. Tropical Asia

12. Tropical Asia ; Australia

13. Tropical America

14. Hot regions

15; India ; China

16. India ; Burma

17. India ; Afghanistan

: Percentage

Number of species

: of the whole

occurring at Agra ries

99 16.5

64 10.7

34 Syl

30 5.0

26 4.3

24 4.0

20 3.3

17 2.8

16 2

13 nee,

11 1.8

9 1.5

8° 1.3

8 1.3

7 1.1

6 1.0

NoTe.—Native distributions constituting less than 1% of the whole flora have

been omitted.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 983

APPENDIX 2

) oie | eee yas se | 88

S. No. Family ae) os S.No. Family ere 62

7.9 | ao Z% | 2e

f. Ranunculaceae 1 2 41. Gentianaceae 3 4

2 Menispermaceae 2 2 42. Hydrophyllaceae 1 1

3. Nymphaeaceae 2 3 43. Boraginaceae 5 9

4. Papaveraceae 1 1 44. Convolvulaceae 8 16

5. Fumariaceae 1 1 45. Solanaceae 5 8

6. Cruciferae 6 7 46. Scrophulariaceae 13: |= 18

ds Capparidaceae 4 7 47. Orobanchaceae 1 )

8. Resedaceae 1 1 48. Lentibulariaceae 1 1

9. Violaceae 2 Z 49. Pedaliaceae 1 1

10. Flacourtiaceae 1 l 50. Bignoniaceae 1 1

tL. Polygalaceae 1 3 SI: Acanthaceae 13 23

1s Caryophyllaceae 6 7/ 52% Verbenaceae 4 4

13. Portulacaceae 1 2 53. Labiatae 8 13

14. Tamaricaceae 1 4 54, Piantaginaceae 1 1

15. Elatinaceae 1 3 55: Nyctaginaceae 1 )

16. Malvaceae 9 23 56. Amaranthaceae g 14

17: Sterculiaceae 5 a Sie Chenopodiaceae 4 6

18. Tiliaceae 3 9 58. Polygonaceae 0) 7

19. Zygophyllaceae 2 2 59. Aristolochiaceae 1 1

20. Oxalidaceae 3 4 60. Piperaceae 1 1

21. Simarubaceae 2 2 61. Lauraceae 1 1

ibe Meliaceae 2 2 62. Loranthaceae 1 1

23. Rhamnaceae 1 3 63. Euphorbiaceae v/ 16

24. Vitaceae 1 2 64. | Urticaceae 4 7

5 Sapindaceae 1 1 65. Salicaceae 1 1

26: Leguminosae 37 84 66. Ceratophyllaceae 1 1

Dil Rosaceae 1 1 67. Hydrocharitaceae 4 4

28. Lythraceae 1 4 68. Lilliaceae : 3 3

29. Onagraceae 3 4 69. Pontederiaceae Z 3

30. Cucurbitaceae 1 9 70. Commelinaceae 3 1

31. Aizoaceae 3 9 71. Juncaceae 1 1

32. Umbelliferae 4 4 We Palmae 1 1

33. Rubiaceae 4 8 TEN Typhaceae 1 2

34. Compositae 39 50 74. Araceae 9) 2

3)5) Campanulaceae 3 3 tise Lemnaceae D 3

36. Plumbaginaceae 1 1 76. Alismaceae 1 1

37. Primulaceae 1 1 TT. Naiadaceae 3 7

38. Salvadoraceae 1 2 78. Eriocaulaceae 1 1

39. Apocynaceae 5 5 79. Cyperaceae 6 22

40. Asclepiadaceae 6 ) 80. Gramineae 53 89

Total number of genera—356

Total number of species—599

Notes and News

At the XIII world conference of the International Council for

Bird Preservation held in New York in June 1962 at which India was

represented along with some 30 other national sections, together with

representatives of several international organisations and observers, a

number of important resolutions were passed for submission to the

various governments. The following are of special interest to India.

1. Having noted that pesticides will often: (a) have a lethal effect

on birds and other animals, though this may only become apparent

after one or more years, (3) kill insect predators of the pest so that,

in spite of an initial satisfactory control, soon after application an

exceptionally heavy infestation may follow,

RECOMMENDS. that Governments adopt legislation by which all

- pesticides must only be applied at minimum effective concentration

since the cumulative effects are largely unknown;

RECOMMENDS that continuing research be prosecuted on the

longterm effects of pesticides with the object of elaborating control

methods, both biological and chemical, which are harmless to birds

and other vertebrates and to beneficial insects.

2. Having noted the critical decrease in the number of various

species of birds of prey in many countries,

RECOMMENDS to Governments that they combat siege educa-

tional measures the widespread but erroneous opinion that all these

birds are harmful, in order to diminish or stop their persecution.

3. RECOMMENDS that Governments restrict, by all means at their

disposal, the importation of wild birds to those birds whose exporta-

tion fully complies with the laws of their country of origin.

4. Having noted that the system of paying bounties for the destruc-

tion of birds has been demonstrated to be expensive, indiscriminate,

and ineffective method of population control, that it tends to have

extremely harmful side effects, particularly in leading to the un-

authorized killing of protected species of birds of prey, that it has

a lamentable psychological effect, and that its abolition will be an

important step towards the adoption of a more objective attitude

towards bird life and towards more rational methods of game

management,

NOTES AND NEWS 985

RECOMMENDS that the system of paying bounties for destruction

of birds be totally abolished.

It is to be hoped that the Indian Board for Wild Life and the State

Wild Life Boards will take note of these recommendations and

implement them in the appropriate manner.

* * * *

The XVI International Congress of Zoology will be held at

Washington on 20-27 August 1963.

The tentative programme covers six plenary sessions which will

refer to: (i) genetic continuity; (ii) cell biology; (iii) development;

(iv) evolution; (v) behaviour; (vi) three or four problems of general

biology.

The Congress Secretariat is cated at 2101 Constitution Avenue,

Washington 25, D.C., U.S.A.

* * * *

M. Andre Brosset, the author of the series of papers.on “The Bats

of Central and Western India’, has resigned from the French Foreign

Service and is now Director of the Charles Darwin Research Station,

Isla Santa Cruz, Galapagos. This is maintained by the Charles Darwin

Foundation for the Galapagos Islands, founded under the auspices of

the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

(UNESCO) and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature

and Natural Resources (IUCN).

In a letter to the Society he describes ‘sport’ in ithe Galapagos

Islands as follows:

‘For the sportsmen shooting is no problem.- The “game” can be

taken with the hand. Only the goats, cows, and pigs are wild and

-also the dogs and chickens, They are often very shy and rifles are

sometimes required. When you ask the sportsman “What is the bag

today?”, he usually replies, “Two cows and a chicken”, or “5 goats

and a donkey”’.’

Ca ok * %

With this issie Mr. Humayun Abdulali, who has resigned from

the Honorary Secretaryship of the Society, ceases to be an Editor of

the Journal.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1961-62

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

SHRI SRI PRAKASA, Governor, State of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1I.M.s. (Retd.)

Rey. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Dr. Salim Ali ex officio

(

Hon. Secretary

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Hon. Treasurer

Mr. Surendr Lall

Members

Dr. D. V. Bal, M.sc., Ph.D.

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.C.s.

R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji

Mr. Z. Futehally

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.sc., Ph.p.

Mr. D. N. Marshall

Mr. D. J. Panday

Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s, (Retd.)

Dr. H. Trapido, M.D.

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya, F.R.E.S. aN .- Ahmedabad

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E. os .. New Delhi

Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., 1.c.s. (Retd.).. New Delhi

Rev. Fr. J. B. Freeman, M.A., L.T., Ph.D., D.D. .. Mysore

Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S. oo .. Shillong

Dr. Baini Prashad, D.Sc., F.N.1. =e .. Dehra Dun

Mr. P. D. Stracey, I.F.s. (Retd.) ws .. Shillong

Dr. M. L. Roonwal, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.N.I., F.Z.S.I. .. Calcutta

Lt.-Gen. Sir H. Williams, C.B., C.B.E.. M.I.C.E., M.I.E. Roorkee

Y.S. Shivrajkumar of Jasdan = .. Jasdan

PROCEEDINGS 1961-62, AND ACCOUNTS 1961 987

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1961-62

... At the last Annual General Meeting of the Society, I presented a

report for the year ending 3lst August 1961. The present report

covers the period of 12 months thereafter.

THE SOCIETY’S JOURNAL

Three numbers of the Journal have been published during the year

completing Vol. 58 and commencing Vol. 59. The 868 pages include

three papers on national parks and sanctuaries, 10 botanical, 8 on

birds, 3 on reptiles and amphibians, 7 on insects, 2 on Annelids,

3 on fish and fisheries, and one each on mammals, Crustaceans, and

Molluscs. 83 Miscellaneous Notes covered many subjects and,

together with the papers, included descriptions of several new species

and races: of different forms of animals and plants.

It is gratifying to note that the collections of the Society and the

field activities with which the Society’s staff is directly associated are

again finding a place in the notes and papers published in the Journal.

Attempts are being made to increase the number of pictures and

illustrations to make the Journal of greater interest to naturalists, and

it is hoped that a request to the Ministry of Scientific Research and

Cultural Affairs for a more substantial grant for the Journal will

assist us in this direction.

GENERAL

I am glad to report that the Ministry of Scientific Research and

Cultural Affairs have agreed to pay Rs. 1,50,000 towards the cost of

construction of a building to house the Society in the Museum com-

pound. The plans have been approved by the Bombay Municipality

and the Government of Maharashtra and it is hoped to commence

work during October.

A detailed report on the working of Dr. Sadlim Ali’s Bird Banding

Project appeared in the April number. Since December 1961 the

effort has been directed to migrant forms and 8942 birds were ringed

up to April 1962, bringing the total to 19,262 (61.65% migrants).

Birds are now netted at their roosts and large numbers of swallows,

wagtails, and other Passerine migrants were ringed in Bombay City,

Kerala, and Bharatpur. Six recoveries have been recorded so. far;

all from the U.S.S.R., and include 2 garganey teal out of 78 duck

ringed at Bharatpur.

18A

988 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

This year saw the award of the first M.Sc. Degree in Field

Ornithology in India by the Bombay University to a student of the

Society. The subject of the thesis was “The Breeding Biology of the

Weaver Bird, Ploceus philippinus’.

Members of the Society’s staff made short flies to the Shevaear

Hills, Salem District, Madras State, and the Koyna Dam, Satara

District, Maharashtra, to collect reptiles and amphibians. Several

interesting specimens were obtained, including topotypes of the lizard

(Hemiphyllodactylus typus aurantiacus) from the Shevaroy Hills, and

a Geckonid lizard from Ratnagiri District, and a Bufonid from Koyna,

Satara District, Maharashtra, which it has not yet been possible to

name and which may be undescribed forms. Short visits were also

made to the Nal Bird Sanctuary in Gujarat and the Pirotan Swamp

in the Gulf of Kutch mainly for waterbirds. Three members of the

staff were deputed for a week each to the Japanese Primate Research

Centre at Dharwar, to enable them to familiarise themselves. with

current methods of such field studies.

During the year, some 576 additions were ade to our vertebrate

collections—9 mammals, 222 birds, 178 reptiles, and 167 amphibians.

Interesting additions among reptiles and amphibians include Dinodon

gammie, D. septentrionalis, Hemiphyllodactylus typus aurantiacus,

Mabuya bibroni, M. beddomii, and Philautus beddomii.

During the year 39 books were added to the library, some of which

Were presented and for which we thank the donors. 50 journals have

been bound. We obtain 10 journals and/or magazines by subscrip-

tion and 54 by exchange.

PUBLICATIONS

I am glad to report that arrangements have been made with the

Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, whereby they have paid

Rs. 25,000 towards the cost of the publication of a 2nd edition of THE

BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS by S. H. Prater. 2000 copies will be

marked as published by the Museum and handed over to them for

sale. This long awaited book should be available next year.

At the instance of U Tun Yin, a member in Burma, the New York

Zoological Society bore the cost of a pamphlet with a coloured picture

of the Pinkheaded Duck and, for comparison with it, the Redcrested

Pochard. This was distributed among forest personnel and other

interested persons in north-east India and Burma in an attempt to

obtain information regarding this curious duck known only from

India, never very numerous and last definitely recorded in 1935. More

PROCEEDINGS 1961-62, AND ACCOUNTS 1961 989

than one person has written reporting sight records in recent years,

but evidence more definite than a recollection several years old must

be available to permit any hope of its continued existence.

NATURE EDUCATION

- The Nature Education Scheme for children, financed by the

Government of Maharashtra, is now in its 14th year. Tours of the

Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum and special

talks on natural history subjects with the aid of exhibits and other

specimens, films, and sometimes living animals were continued. Talks

on ‘Plant Life’ illustrated with a number of plants specially planted

in the Museum Garden were started this year. Over 8000 children

took advantage of these activities.

Seven field trips to different places in the island of Salsette were

‘arranged for members of nature study clubs. The trips were followed

by meetings at schools to help children to learn to collect and

and preserve specimens and to discuss items and topics experienced

afield.

About 150 children from 8 to 10 schools joined the field trip on

each occasion.

English and Marathi editions of the 5th booklet OUR WILD ANIMALS

are available, and Gujarati and Hindi editions are in the press.

MEMBERSHIP

The total membership on our books at the end of 1961 was 1164

including 237 life and 4 honorary members. Subscriptions were

received from 749 members up to the end of July this year, leaving

174 who had either not informed us of their desire to resign or could

not be traced. This compares favourably with 596 subscriptions

received in 1957, when the number of life members was almost the

same (231). During the 12 months 80 ordinary members and 5 life

members were enrolled as against 13 resigned and 3 ordinary

members, 4 life members, and 2 honorary members who died during

the year.

REVENUE ACCOUNT

During the year under review, the income of the Society, excluding

the special grant received from the Government of Maharashtra for

the maintenance of the reference collections, was Rs. 42,701.84 as

against Rs. 45,409.06 in the previous year.

990 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

The operations of the Society during 1961 showed a deficit of

Rs. 19,955.45 as against Rs. 8,966.43 in 1960. This was polity

due to larger and appropriate depreciations being provided.

STAFF

The Committee wishes to record its appreciation of the willing

co-operation of the entire staff in the activities of the Society.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. J. L. Bernard who con-

tinues to look after the Society’s interests in the United Kingdom.

991

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PROCEEDINGS 1961-62, AND ACCOUNTS 1961 999

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD IN THE

B.E.S.T. CONFERENCE HALL, ORMISTON ROAD,

COLABA, BOMBAY 5,.0N THURSDAY, 11TH OCTOBER 1952

AT 6 P.M., WITH MR. R. E. HAWKINS IN THE CHAIR

1. The Honorary Secretary’s report for the year ending 31st August

1962 having been previously circulated to members was taken as read

and adopted. |

2. The Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts presented by

the Honorary Treasurer were approved.

3. The following were elected as members of the Executive and

Advisory Committee for the year 1962:

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Dr. P, SUBBAROYAN, Governor, State of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s. (Retd.)

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Dr. Salim Ali ex officio

| Hon. Secretary

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Fon. Treasurer

Mr. J. D. Kapadia, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Members

Dr. D. V. Bal, M.sc., Ph.D.

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s.

R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji

Mr. Z. Futehally

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.sc., ph.p.

Mr. D. N. Marshall

Mr. D. J. Panday

Mr. D. E. Reuben, 1.C.s. (Retd.)

Dr, H. Trapido, M.p,

1000 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 (3)

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya, F.R.E.S. .. Fat ... Ahmedabad

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E. .. New. Delhi

Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., I.C.S. (Res. New Delhi

Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, M.A., L.T., Ph.D., D.D. .. Mysore

Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S. frog cee ne Se eR OL Orne ee

Dr. Baini Prashad, D.Sc., F.N.1. rc .. Dehra Dun

Mr. P. D. Stracey, I.F.s. (Retd.) poe .. Shillong

Dr. M. L. Roonwal, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.N.I., F.Z.S.I. .. Calcutta

Lt.-Gen. Sir H. Williams, C.B., C.B.E., M.I.C.E., M.I.E. Roorkee

Y. S. Shivrajkumar of Jasdan ~ Ae .. Jasdan

4. The film OUR FEATHERED FRIENDS loaned by Films Division,

Government of India, and kodachrome transparencies of the flowers of

the Western Ghats by Mr. R. R. Bharadwaja were exhibited and

greatly appreciated.

5. The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to the Films

Division, Government of India, for the loan of the film, to Mr. R. R.

Bharadwaja for the transparencies shown, and to the Chairman of

the meeting.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS—25-3-1963. C8623

EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU & HUMAYUN ABDULALI

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Mammals

Tke2 Book of Indian Animals, by S.H. Prater. With many coloured and monochrome

plates. 2nd (revised) edition. (/n preparation)

Birds

Game Birds of India, by E.C. Stuart Baker. Vol. III. Pheasants, Ist Edition. Rs. 20

(Price to Members Rs. 15)

The Book of Indian Birds, by Sdlim Ali. With 64 coloured and many monochrome

plates, 6th edition, revised and enlarged. Rs, 25

(Price to Members Rs. 20)

A < RE of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-date

checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal, Sikkim,

Bhutan, and age te Rs, 25

(Price to Members Rs. 20) ,

Snakes

Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wali chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi.

Rs. 10

(Price to Members Rs. 8) |

Miscellaneous

Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatterand Millard. With many coloured and

monochrome plates. 2nd edition. Revised by W. T. Stearn. Rs. 20

(Price to Members Rs. 16)

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With many coloured

and monochrome plates. Rs. 22

(Price to Members Rs. 17.50)

Butterflies of the Indian Region, by M. A. Wynter-Blyth. With 27 coloured and 45

-monochrome plates. Rs. 28

(Price to Members Rs. 22. 50)

‘Indian Molluscs, by James Hornell. With 2 coloured and many monochrome plates,

and text-figures.

(Price to Members Rs. 4.50)

Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :

1. Our BIRDS I (with 8 coloured plates) i in | English, Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi.

Rs, 0.80

Kannada Rs. 0.62

2. Our Birps II (with 8 paloted plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi.

Rs. 0.62

3. OuR BEAUTIFUL TREES (with 8 coloured plates) i in English, Gujarati, Hindi, and

~» Marathi. Rs. 0.62

4. Our MONSOON PLANTS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi,

~- and Marathi. — ‘Rs. 0.80

5. Our ANIMALS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi.

~ Rs. 1,28

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.

” Correspond with: ‘ Keo

The Honorary Secretary,

Bombay Natural History Society,

91, Walkeshwar Road, Bombay 6-WB.

Agents in England :

Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley Ltd.,

Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Nr. Hitchin,

Herts., England.

The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, particularly

numbers prior to Vol. 45, from members who may not wish to preserve them.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and a life membership fee of Rs. 500. :

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and an annual subscription of Rs. 30.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers.

the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA

The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members should

pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the

subscription, plus postal registration (Rs. 2.50) if required—in all Rs. 32.50—to

the Society in Bombay on the Ist January in each year. If this cannot be done,

then the sum of £2-10-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—

The National & Grindlays Bank Ltd., 26 Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. 2.

CONTENTS

THE BATS OF CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA. Part III. By A. Brosset oe OT

(

CHAPTERS ON THE History OF BOTANY IN INDIA. V. The undertaking of two

great enterprises, The Flora of the Higher Plants and The Forest Service.

By I. H. Burkill .. Rs of ae “fe .. 747

EARLY STAGES OF OLD WoRLD LEPIDOPTERA—XII. By E. P. Wiltshire .. 778

ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN DESERT GERBILLE, MERIONES

HURRIANAE (JERDON). I. Feeding behaviour, energy requirements, and

selection of bait. By Ishwar Prakash and C.G. Kumbkarni .. .. 800

THe BirDS OF NEPAL. Part 8. By Biswamoy Biswas .. am e807

ODONTOTERMES PARALATIGULA, & NEW SPECIES OF TERMITE FROM BURMA.

(ISOPTERA : TERMITIDAE : MACROTERMITINAE). By P. N. Chatterjee and

P.K. Sen-Sarma ae st Bi s 2. 822

CRITICAL NOTES ON THE ORCHIDACEAE OF BOMBAY STATE. X. Some of the

smaller Genera (Continued). By H. Santapau,s.J.and Z. Kapadia ee P|

ENTOMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF HIMALAYA. Part XXVI. A Contribution to our

Knowledge of the Geography of the High Altitude Insects of the Nival

Zones from the North-West Himalaya. Part 5. By M. S. Mani and

Santokh Singh .. ate ae eS eta ae .. 843

ON THE BOTANY OF LUCKNOW District. By S.L. Kapoor jin Me A REGS.

STUDIES ON THE FRESHWATER OLIGOCHAETA OF SouTH INDIA. I. Aeolosomatidae

and Naididae. Part4. By K. Vanamala Naidu .. as i

THe BNHS/WHO Birp MicraTION StuDyY PrRogyect—2. Activities from

15-12-61 to 15-10-62. By Salim Ali .. Bie see 922

REVIEWS .. Be aces 2 Senior “i, os Bs .. 930

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Ss ‘a ce i: .. 938

NOTES AND NEws a ae - a a .. 984

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HIsTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR

1961-1962 = “ie ye ee oe .. 986

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY .. 991

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING ie .. 30 999

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