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}

jombay | Natural History

— Society — i

Vol. 74, No. 1

Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A N. D. Nanavati

APRIL 1977 : Rs 35

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

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Hornbill House, — | EDITORS,

Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, | Journal of the Bombay

Bombay 400023. Uae Natural History Society.

PML TOES, OS MRT TE Tr eee

Si hae al

VOLUME 74 No. 1—APRIL 1977

Date of Publication: 12-8-1977

CONTENTS

\ PAGE

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS. PAarT I—Rouset-

tus leschenaulti (DESMAREST)—MEGACHIROPTERA. By A. Gopalakrishna and

P. N. Choudhari. (With a plate and two text-figures) oie si se 1

FISHES OF KHASI HILLS, MEGHALAYA (INDIA), WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THEIR DISTRI-

BUTIONAL PATTERN. By G. M. Yazdani a i Si at 17

ADDITIONS TO THE LIST OF APHIDS (HOMOPTERA: APHIDIDAE) FROM INDIA AND ADJACENT

COUNTRIES. By A. K. Ghosh ca ae a. fe ae 29

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF RAJASTHAN. By Vijendra Singh .. ae ites 45

FURTHER STUDIES ON THE IDENTIFICATION OF HAIRS OF SOME INDIAN MAMMALS.

By B. R. Koppiker and J. H. Sabnis. (With thirteen text-figures) .. a 50

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA (Cervus duvauceli branderi) IN KANHA

NATIONAL ParRK (INDIA). By Claude Martin. (With twenty-four figures) Be 60

NEw DESCRIPTIONS:

A new species of Skink of the genus Dasia Gray 1889 (Reptilia: Scincidae) from Car

Nicobar Islands, India. By S. Biswas and D. P. Sanyal. (With three text-figures) 133

Two new species of frogs (Ranidae) from Khasi Hills, India. By R. S. Pillai and

S. K. Chanda. (With three text-figures) a ca : aoe La

A new species of Scorpion of the Genus Scorpiops Peter (Family Vejovidae) from

India. By B. K. Tikader and D. B. Bastawde. (With eleven text-figures) .. 140

Description of two new species of Wolf-Spider (Family Lycosidae) from Ladakh,

India. By B. K. Tikader. (With six text-figures) sit 144

A new species of Rove Beetle from India (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae). By T. R. on

and Swaraj Ghai. (With a text-figure) ahs ee ‘ 5 8 hi Aad

REVIEWS:

1. Fiddler Crabs of the World: Ocypodidae: Genus Uca. (R. Altevogt) .. 149

2. Birds of Nepal. (Lavkumar Khacher) of Hh : : 150

3. Proceedings from the Symposia of the fifth Congress of the International

Primatological Society. (L. S. Ramaswami) a i an oi doh

4. Wild cats of the World. (R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji) o 5 A i)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

MAMMALS: 1. Taxonomic status of Megaderma spasma majus Andersen (Chiroptera:

Megadermatidae). By Y. P. Sinha (p. 156); 2. Some observations on the breeding habits

and growth of Jungle Cat (Felis chaus) in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo and S. Mohapatra

(p. 158); 3. Wild Ass in the little Rann of Kutch. By Yuvraj Digvijay Sinh (p. 159); 4. The

Indian Rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) in captivity. By E. M. Lang (p. 160); 5. Takin (Bud-

orcas taxicolor) in captivity. By Tun Yin (p. 160); 6. Lepus arabicus Ehrenberg from

Jammu and Kashmir: An addition to the Mammalian Fauna of India. By S. Chakraborty

(p. 161); 7. New record of Indian Gerbille, Tatera indica (Hardwicke) as a predator on

the alate forms of the termites at Ludhiana (Punjab). By G. S. Mann (p. 162); 8. Repro-

ductive activity of Mus spp. in crop fields at Ludhiana. By G. S. Mann and O. S. Bindra

(p. 162); 9. Sex ratio at birth in some captive mammals. By L. N. Acharjyo and S. Moha-

patra (p. 167).

Birps: 10. Discovery of a Pelicanry in Karnataka. By S. G. Neginhal (p. 169); 11. White-

winged Wood Duck in Burma. (With a map). By Tun Yin (p. 171); 12. The Goliath Heron

(Ardea goliath) in Sind, Pakistan. By M. Naser-ud-Deen Khan (p. 172); 13. The southern

limits of the Himalayan Cuckoo Cuculus saturatus saturatus (Blyth). By Humayun Abdul-

ali (p. 172); 14. Period of incubation in Brahminy Myna, Sturnus pagodarum (Gmelin).

By B. S. Lamba and A. K. Tyagi (p. 173); 15. Occurrence of Brown Shrike, Lanius cris-

tatus cristatus Linnaeus, near Dehra Dun (U.P.). By B. S. Lamba and M. L. Narang

(p. 174); 16. Studies on the feeding habits of House Sparrow Passer domesticus (L.) and

its nestling in Punjab. By G: S. Simwat (p. 175); 17. Ortolan Bunting (Emberiza UNE

Linn.) in Kutch, Gujarat. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 179).

AMPHIBIA: 18. Extension of range of the frog Rana crassa Jerdon, to Western Himalayas,

U.P. By R. N. Chopra and K. Kumar (p. 180).

REPTILES: 19. Echis in trees. By Lavkumar J. Khacher (p. 180); 20. Observations on the

structure of the Hemipenis in some Indian Snakes. (With four text-figures). By J. H. Sabnis

and S. S. Indurkar (p. 181); 21. New locality record with remarks on the Tucktoo Lizard,

Gekko gecko (Linnaeus) [Sauria: Gekkonidae] from Tripura. By S. K. Talukdar (p. 184).

FISHES: 22. Distributional range of Waitea buchanani Visweswara Rao (Pisces: Gobiidae)

in Indian waters. By Kaza V. Rama Rao and T. Venkateswarlu (p. 185); 23. A note on the

systematic position of Ctenotrypauchen microcephalus (Bleeker) (Fam. Taenioididae).

(With two text-figures). By A. G. K. Menon and T. K. Chatterjee (p. 186); 24. Mahseer in

Ramganga River, U.P. By C. E. McGready (p. 188).

ARACHNIDA: 25. Lycosid spiders feeding on juveniles of the Skipper Frog Rana cyanophlyctis

Schneider. By B. D. Sharma and Tej Sharma (p. 189).

Insects: 26. Additions and alterations to the list of Butterflies of Nagalapuram Hills pub-

lished in Vol. 52 Nos. 2 & 3—Aug.-Dec. 1954. By A. E. G. Best (p. 189); 27. Additions and

alterations to my list of the Butterflies of Bombay and Salsette—Vol. 50 No. 2—Dec. 1951.

By A. E. G. Best (p. 190); 28. On the specific identity of termite Reticulitermes assamensis

Gardner (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae: Heterotermitinae) from Assam, India. (With a text-

figure). By M. L. Thakur (p. 191); 29. Sex reversal and hexagonal Lac cell formation. By

S. Mahdihassan (p. 195); 30. The black ant, Camponotus sp. feeding on urea. By S. Mahdi-

hassan (p. 197); 31. On the larva of Tramea virginia (Rambur, 1842) from India, with notes

en the larvae of Indian representatives of genus Tramea Hagen, 1861 (Libellulidae: Odo-

nata). (With ten text-figures). By Arun Kumar and Mahabir Prasad (p. 199); 32. Colour

aberrance in Coccinella septempunctata L. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). (With ten text-

figures). By J. P. Singh and J. S. Mann (p. 202).

OTHER INVERTEBRATES: 33. The predatory Centipede Scolapendra sp. By Lavkumar Khacher

(p. 204); 34. Occurrence of Bipalium kewense Moseley (Turbellaria: Tricladida) in India.

By B. D. Sharma and Tej Sharma (p. 205).

BoTANY: 35. Eria pudica Ridl. (Orchidaceae)—A new find from Khasi and Jaintia Hills.

(With a text-figure). By N. C. Deori and C. L. Malhotra (p. 205); 36. A note on Lolium

duthiei (Hack. ex he f.) Baruna Bhattacharya. (With a text-figure). By Baruna Bhatta-

charya (p. 207); Galium palustre L. and Eleocharis acicularis (L.) Roem et Schult.

—Two new plant ean for India. (With two text-figures). By A. Majeed Kak and G. N.

Javeid (p. 208); 38. On the identity of. Adiantum lyratum Blanco. By N. C. Nair and S. R.

Ghosh (p. 210); 39. Ipomoea leari Paxt. es: naturalised plant of India. By Debika Mitra

and Bhabesh Roy (p. 211).

JOURNAL :

OFT bo

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

err APRIL Vol. 74

Breeding habits and associated phenomena

}

in some Indian bats

Part I—Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest)—Megachiroptera'*

A. GOPALAKRISHNA AND P. N. CHOUDHARI

Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Nagpur

(With a plate and two text-figures)

The following report is based on the examination of 1367 specimens of the Indian fruit

bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmarest) collected at frequent intervals at and near Auran-

gabad, Maharashtra during a period of about two years and a half. There is no segre-

gation of the specimens on the basis of sex, age or season. The uterine cornua open inde-

pendently through separate cervical canals into the vagina. Each female experiences two

pregnancies in quick succession in the year. The first pregnancy starts in the second week

of November and terminates in the middle of March. The second pregnancy starts soon

after parturition and goes until the last week of July. Gestation lasts for about 125 days.

The early part of the second pregnancy overlaps the lactation period of the first preg-

nancy cycle. The animals are sexually quiescent from August to November. While most

of the females in the colony become pregnant in November, a few become pregnant in the

third week of December and deliver their young during the last week of April or early

in May. After December all the females inthe colony are pregnant. During each preg-

nancy only one uterine cornu bears a single embryo, and the two uterine cornua function

alternately in successive cycles in bearing pregnancy. Whereas the females reach sexual

maturity within five months of age, the males do not attain sexual maturity until they are

at least 15 months old. There is a balanced sex ratio at birth, but in the adult stage the

females out-number the males.

INTRODUCTION

‘Most of the early record on the reproduction

f Megachiroptera are in the nature of casual

2ferences to the occurrence of pregnant speci-

| 1 Accepted September 1975.

mens during certain seasons of the year while

reporting on some other aspect of the biology

of bats. An excellent review of the previous

work on the reproduction of fruit bats was

given by Baker & Baker (1936), and more

recently by Asdell (1964), who compiled a

valuable bibliography of the earlier work on

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

the reproduction of fruit bats. From these re-

views it is evident that most of the fruit bats,

both in northern and southern hemispheres,

tend to copulate in the respective “Autumn”

aid give birth to the young in the following

*“Spring’’.

Baker & Baker (1936), who were the first

to make a detailed study of the breeding habits

of fruit bats, Pteropus geddiei and Pteropus

eotinus from Hog Harbour, New Hebrides

(15° 15” S), noted that these species have a

sharply defined breeding season aithough liv-

ing in an almost unvarying tropical climate,

and that they copulate in February-March

(Southern Autumn) and deliver the young

during August-September (Southern Spring)

bringing forth a single young each time.

Marshall (1947) reported that Pteropus

2g ganteus from Sri Lanka has a sharply defined

annual breeding season desnite the climatic

stability of its habitat. According to the author,

this species conceives from early December

until early January, and the young ones are

delivered late in May or early in June. Preg-

nancy lasts for about six months and a single

young is born to each female. Ramakrishna

(1947) noticed that Cynopterus sphinx sphinx

at Bangalore (South India) experiences post-

partum oestrus and that at least two preg-

nancies occur in quick succession in the year.

He also noted that gestation lasts for about

five months in this bat.

Moghe (1951) noted that Pteropus giganteus

in Central India copulates late in August or

early in September and that a single young

is delivered by each female towards the end

of January or February, the gestation being

of 140 to 150 days. Moghe’s (1951) obser-

vations differ from the observations of Mar-

shall (1947) on the same species, but in Sri

Lanka, thereby indicating that this species dif-

fers in its reproductive habits in different re-

gions with different climatic conditions. Brosset

(1962a), while studying the ecology of Rou-

settus leschenaulti, mentioned, “‘from the data

available, this species appears to have two

periods of parturition every year, the first in

March and the second in August, the latter

concerning a small number’’. Each time a single

young is born. With respect to Pteropus gig-

anteus he reported that “‘the periodicity of the

reproductive cycle is very regular, and that

only a single parturition takes place every

year at least in Western India’. In a preli-

minary note Gopalakrishna (1964) reported

that Rousettus leschenaulti breeds more than

once in the year, that the females undergo

copulation within a short time after the young

are delivered in April, and that a single young

is born each time. Pregnancy alternates bet-

ween the two uterine cornua in successive

cycles.

Mutere (1965 & 1967) noted the occur-

rence of delayed implantation in the tropical

African fruit bat, Fidolon helvum, which has |

a strict periodicity of reproduction although

inhabiting a region almost squarely on the

equator (latitude 0° 20’ N). Copulation in

this species is immediately followed by ferti-

lization during April-June, but the implanta-,

tion of the embryo does not take place until |

about October. Unimplanted embryos were |

present in the uterus between June and Octo-,

ber. Progressively advanced stages of the em-|

bryo were noticed from October to February

and deliveries occurred during February and)

March. Although the uterus is bicornuate and |

perfectly symmetrical, ovulation and _ preg-

nancy occur only on one side, either right or

left, with about equal frequency, but never on |

both sides at the same time.

The foregoing review of earlier literature |

reveals that not only is there no detailed study |

of the breeding habits of any Indian fruit bat, |

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS—I

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(piu0D) 1 ATaVL

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS—I

but the little information which is available,

indicates that there are considerable differences

in the breeding habits of the different species.

Hence, it was felt that a detailed study of the

reproductive biology of the Indian fruit bat,

Rousettus leschenaulti would be of interest

and value.

- MATERIAL AND METHODS

The specimens of Rousettus leschenaulti

were collected at random at frequent intervals

from an underground tunnel near Bibika-

Mukbara at Aurangabad, Maharashtra State.

A few collections were also made from the

dungeons of a dilapidated fort near Kandar

about 200 air kilometres from Aurangabad.

No segregation of the specimens on the basis

of sex, age or season was noticed in either of

the localities.

Collection of specimens was started on 11th

January 1964 and continued until 7th May

1966 in such a manner that every calendar

month of the year is represented by one col-

lection or more. A collection diary mention-

TABLE 2

MONTHWISE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS

on) 2e

Jan 1S 95 168

Feb 62 70 132

Mar 68 77 145

' Apr 109 162 271

May 46 44 90

June 38 55 93

ing the details of the description of each spe-

cimen was maintained. Table 1 gives the sum-

mary Of the collection diary, and table 2 gives

the month-wise distribution of the collections.

The specimens were killed by chloroform

and, after recording their body weights, they

were dissected and the reproductive organs

and the accessory reproductive structures were

removed and fixed in various fixatives. The

tissues were sectioned at 8 to 10 # thickness

after following the usual procedure of dehy-

dration by passing through graded series of

ethanol and embedding in paraffin. The sec-

tions were stained in Ehrlich’s haematoxylin

and counterstained with eosin and mounted

in DPX after clearing in xylol. :

Altogether 1367 specimens were studied for

the present work. The group of specimens

collected on a given date exhibited almost the

same characteristics during the three years the

observations were made. Hence, in the follow-

ing descriptions only the date and the month

are mentioned where pertinent except where

the mentioning of the year has a special sig-

nificance.

OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

1. Morphology of the female reproductive

organs

As in most other species of bats so far des-

cribed, excepting the members of the family

Phyllostomatidae, the uterus is bicornuate and

the uterine cornua are morphologically sym-

metrical. The ovaries, which are ellipsoidal in

shape, are slightly flattened dorsoventrally.

The ovarian bursa has an oblique slit-like

opening on its median side so that the peri-

ovarial space is in communication with the

peritonial cavity. The Fallopian tube on each

side arises on the mesial aspect of the ovarian

bursa adjacent to the slit in the bursa, curves

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

towards the lateral sides after passing across

the ventral aspect of the ovary, and opens near

the cranial. end of the uterus. Although the

two uterine cornua meet externally their lum-

ina remain separate, and open into the vagina

through independent cervical canals. The cra-

nial half of the vaginal canal is broad, and

the cervix protrudes as a hemispherical bulb

into this cavity. The lumen of the vagina is

narrow in the caudal half. A distinct, but flat-

tened, clitoris is present abutting against the

ventral surface of the vaginal wall near the

vaginal orifice.

A pair of mammary glands are present, one

on each of the ventrolateral sides of the tho-

rax, and the nipples, which are prominent in

the parous forms, are directed laterally.

2. Breeding habits

The examination of table 1 reveals some

interesting features. Pregnant females occur

in all the months of the year except August

to October. Secondly, two deliveries occur in

the year, once during March-April, and a

second time during July. Thirdly, within a short

period after delivering the young in March-

April, every female becomes pregnant again,

but after the second delivery in July, the next

pregnancy does not commence until the follow-

ing year. Thus, the period from August-No-

vember may be considered as the period of

sexual quiescence for this species.

The females collected on 2nd November

had not copulated, but all the parous and the

mature non-parous females collected on 6th

November had undergone copulation as evi-

denced by the fact that the vaginal canal was

full of secretion from the seminal vesicle of

the male and the uterine lumen contained

sperms. Evidently all mature females copulate

in a very sharply defined period in the first

week of November. Ovulation takes place

after copulation in this species as revealed by

the fact that the ovary had not released the

ovum in most of the females collected on 6th

November, although the females had under-

gone copulation. Tubal ova and early free

blastocysts were present in females collected

on 9th and 17th November respectively. Un-

mistakable early pregnancy as indicated by

the swelling of one of the uterine cornua was

noticed in several females collected on 20th

November (PI. I—fig. A).

Table 1 and Pl. I fig. A reveal that not all

the females become pregnant in November,

and during the period from 9th November to

19th December there were many pregnant and

a few non-pregnant females in each collection.

Whereas all the parous females collected dur-

ing this period were pregnant, among the non-

parous females only some were pregnant. The

parous females can be distinguished from the

non-parous ones on the basis of the nature

of the mammary nipples, which are large in

the former and insignificant in the latter. The

stage of pregnancy was more or less the same

in all pregnant females collected on a given

date during this period (Pl. I—Fig. A). This

indicates that pregnancy must have started at

about the same time in all these females.

Every female collected between 22nd De-

cember and 13th of the following March was

pregnant. The absence of non-pregnant fema-

les in the collections during this period cannot

be an accident because several collections were

made during these months. Moreover, mention

has already been made that there is no segre-

gation of the specimens on the basis of sex,

age or season. Hence, the data lead to the

inevitable conclusion that all females are preg-—

nant during the period from 22nd December

to the middle of the following March. Evid-

ently, the few non-parous females, which do-

not copulate until 19th December, undergo

copulation about this time and become preg-

‘nant. Thus, in each collection during the

months from January to the middle of March

'the females could be recognized into two dis-

tinct categories on the basis of the size of the

gravid uterine cornu. Some were distinctly in

more advanced stages of pregnancy than the

others, pregnancy having commenced in the

beginning of November in the former and in

the third week of December in the latter (PI. I

_—Figs. B & C). The young ones were deliver-

ed also in two batches—the first during the

middle of March and the second during the

last week of April or early in May.

A very early stage of the development of

the embryo (cleaving egg) was noticed in a

female collected on 9th November, and a fe-

male with an young at the breast was captured

on the 13th of the following March. This must

have delivered the young just a few hours be-

fore capture as borne out by the facts that the

umbilical cord was still having a blood clot,

the eyes of the young one were not yet open

and there was a large clot of blood in the

vagina of the mother. Therefore, one can con-

clude that the gestation period is about 125

days allowing a margin of a couple of days

on either side from the date of which the

cleaving egg was noticed (9th November) to

the date of parturition (13th March).

Within a short time after the young are

delivered in March-May, the females undergo

copulation, and a second pregnancy commen-

ces within a few days after parturition. Every

adult female experiences post-partum preg-

nancy during this period. This is revealed by

the fact that every female in lactation collect-

ed during March, April and May was also

pregnant. In each of these cases the second

pregnancy was borne in the uterine cornu con-

tralateral to the one in which the previous

pregnancy was carried. -Hence, the adult fe-

males collected during March, April and early

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS—I

May are either in advanced stages of preg-

nancy or they have delivered the young and

have again become pregnant (PI. I—Fig. D).

Since parturitions of the first cycle occur in

two batches, the pregnancies of the second

cycle also commence in two batches. The first

batch of pregnancies of the second cycle be-

gins about the third weck of March and the

second batch about the end of April or the

beginning of May.

A few young ones, free from their mothers,

were collected on 19th April. Assuming that

these were delivered in the first batch (about

13th March), it is evident that the lactation

period lasts for about 35-40 days. During this

time the females carry an young each at the

breast and an embryo in one of the uterine

cornua. Thus, the lactation period of the first

cycle overlaps the gestation period of the

second.

Although every adult female becomes preg-

nant after parturition in March-May, it ap-

pears as if the second pregnancy does not go

to completion in all the females. From about

the beginning of June progressively more and

more females appear to lose their embryos as

revealed by the fact that, amongst the adult

females collected during June and early part

of July, there were some which were non-

pregant. (The exact manner in which the em-

bryos are lost is not known). Consequently,

the number of females, which deliver the

young in the second cycle, is much less than

the number that becomes pregnant in March-

May. Females in very advanced stages of

pregnancy were collected on 10th July 1965.

Many females, each carrying an young one at

the breast, were collected on 24th July 1965.

From the size of the attached young ones,

whose body weights ranged from 14 to 15 gm,

one can conclude that these might have been

delivered 2 to 4 days before. Since the gesta-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

tion period has been shown to be of about 125

days, it is evident that such of the females

which deliver the young around the 20th July

must have conceived some time in the third

week of March.

No female was found to be pregnant after

the 24th of July. This suggests that all the

females, which experience post-partum preg-

nancy late in April must have lost their em-

bryos, because, if these females had carried

the conceptus to full term, they should have

delivered the young some time during the end

of August or the beginning of September,

since the gestation period is about 125 days.

Obviously, these must have been the few fe-

males, which had not copulated until the 19th

December in the previous year, but underwent

copulation and became pregnant about this

time in the previous year.

There is perhaps a considerable loss of the

new born young during July and the following

weeks, as revealed by the fact that during July

and August, although several females in full

lactation were collected, many of these were

not carrying the young at the breast. |

The pregnancy cycles of Rousettus leschen-

aulii can ‘be summarised as follows:

First Cycle: From November to the

end of the following April. This includes two

waves of pregnancy as follows—(1) Copula-

tion during the early part of November and

parturition about the middle of the follow-

ing March. This refers to all the parous fe-

males and to a few non-parous females. (2)

Copulation about the third week of December

and parturition at about the end of the follow-

ing April or early in May. This applies to the

few non-parous females, which had not copul-

ated in November.

Second Cycle: Post-partum preg-

nancy from March-May to about the third

week of July. In this are included two waves

of pregnancy as follows—

(1) Copulation in about the third week a

March followed by pregnancy.

This refers to all the females which deliver

the young ones during about the middle of

March. It is not certain if all these females

carry the pregnancy to full term and deliver

the young. There may be some loss of embryos.

Those females, which do carry the foetuses

to full term, deliver the young by the end of

the third week of July.

(2) Copulation during the last week of

April or early in May.

These invariably lose their embryos and

hence they never carry the pregnancy to full

term.

From the foregoing account of the breed-

ing habits of Rousettus leschenaulti it is evid-

ent that this species, with two quick pregnan-

cies in a year, incorporates both the Autumn

breeding pattern as in most other Pteropidae

so far described (Baker & Baker 1936; Mar-

shall 1947) and Megaderma lyra lyra (Gopala-

krishna 1950; Ramakrishna 1951; Ramaswamy

1962) and Hipposideros fulvus fulvus (Patil

1968) among the Microchiroptera, and the

spring breeding pattern as in several tropical

and sub-tropical Microchiroptera (Baker &

Bird 1936; Gopalakrishna 1947, 1958; Brosset

1962a,b,c, 1963; Anand Kumar 1965). In ex-

periencing a quick post-partum oestrus, Rou-

settus leschenaulti resembles Cynopterus

sphinx sphinx (Ramakrishna 1947) amongst

Megachiroptera and WNycteris luteola (Mat-

thews 1942), Desmodus rotundus (Wimsatt

& Trapido 1952) and Taphozous longimanus

(Gopalakrishna 1954, 1955) amongst the

Microchiroptera.

3. Number of young and the symmetry of

the female genitalia.

In each pregnancy Rousettus leschenaulti

bears a single young, either in the right or in

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS—I

the left cornu of the uterus. Evidently, there

is no physiological dominance of one side of

the genitalia over the other. Further, preg-

nancy alternates between the two sides of the

genitalia in successive cycles (Gopalakrishna

1964, 1969). Thus, after delivery in March-

April, the next pregnancy (which follows

within a few days after delivery) is carried

in the cornu contralateral to the one in which

the earlier pregnancy was borne. This is evi-

denced by the following facts. In most of the

females, in which early pregnancy was noticed

in the second cycle, the contralateral uterine

cornu had not come back to normality. The

corpus luteum of the previous pregnancy

could be detected in the ovary of the con-

tralateral side for quite some time after the

second pregnancy had started. This was con-

clusively demonstrated for this animal by

Gopalakrishna (1964). In those females, which

carry the pregnancy to parturition in July in

the second cycle, the corpus -luteum of this

pregnancy remains until even after the next

pregnancy commences in the following No-

vember, so that, in these animals, the preg-

fancy in the second year occurs in the cornu

opposite to the one in which pregnancy oc-

curred during the previous summer. Apparent-

ly, the protracted persistence of the corpus

luteum until about mid-pregnancy of the next

_ cycle is an important factor which brings about

a regular alternation in ovulation between the

two ovaries. It is not possible to state as to

whether this would be the case with regard

| to those females from which the embryos were

lost during the summer pregnancy. There does

not appear to be any physiological dominance

of one side over the other in the females ex-

periencing their first pregnancy. |

_ Except some members of the family Ves-

_pertilionidae (Lyon 1903; Ramaswami 1933:

| Gopalakrishna 1947; Uchida 1950; Madhavan

-Trapido

1971), which normally bear more than one

young in each litter, most other bats, which

have been so far studied, carry a single young

in each litter. In such monotocous bats there

is a tendency for the physiological dominance

of the right side over the left side (Robin

1881: Jones 1917; Matthews 1937, 1942) ex-

cept in Megaderma lyra lyra (Gopalakrishna

1950; Ramakrishna 1951; Ramaswamy 1962)

and Hipposideros fulvus fulvus (Patil 1968)

where the left side shows dominance. In

Rhinolophus hipposideros minutus (Matthews

1937) the left ovary does not even produce

mature ova. Pregnancy alternates between the

two sides of the genitalia in successive cycles

in Desmodus rotundus (Wimsatt & Trapido

1952) and Taphozous longimanus (Gopala-

krishna 1954, 1955), where a single young

one is brought forth each time. The condition

in Rousettus leschenaulti is, therefore, similar

to that in Desmodus rotundus (Wimsatt &

1952) and Taphozous logimanus

(Gopalakrishna 1954, 1955).

4. Growth and maturity.

There seems to be a considerable difference

between the males and the females with res-

pect to the age at which sexual maturity is

attained in Rousettus leschenaulti. Table 1 re-

veals that during the breeding season, whereas

all the females become pregnant, many males

have immature gonads. This indicates that the

females attain sexual maturity in the very first

breeding season after their birth, but the males

do not attain sexual maturity until at least the

second breeding season. Further, the lowest

body weight of the female showing unmistak-

ably pregnancy is 55 gm, but in the case of

the males their gonads are immature until they

reach a body weight of 73 gm. Hence, the

weight at which the sexual maturity is reached

is about 55 gm in the females and about 73

gm in males.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

(a) Female

The new born young weighs about 12 gm

as is evidenced by the fact that the lowest

body weight of the young one attached to the

breast of the mother was 12 gm, and the

highest weight of the foetus at full term was

also 12 gm. The first wave of delivery per-

taining to the first cycle occurred in the middle

of March, and the first batch of young ones

free from the mothers’ breasts were collected

on 19th April. The lowest body weight of the

free young one was 37 gm. Evidently, the

mothers carry their young for about 35 to 40

days during which period the young grow

very rapidly and increase by nearly three

times in their weight before they are weaned.

The second batch of young ones are delivered

during about the last week of April so that

young ones of two distinct sizes are noticed

from May onwards, and these correspond to

the two batches of young ones delivered in

the two waves of the first cycle, the first batch

about the middle of March, and the second by

the last week of April. One could, therefore,

easily identify the young ones delivered in

the first wave because they have significantly

higher body weights than those delivered in

the second week. It is, therefore, possible to

trace separately, up to a certain stage, the

growth of the animals born in the two waves.

If it is assumed that in each collection after

the pregnancy cycle the highest body weight

recorded amongst the young ones relates to

the young born in the first wave of delivery,

then the females born on the 13th of March

would reach a body weight of 37 gm on the

19th of April, 44 gm on 13th May, 50 gm on

27th June and 52 gm on 10th July. These are

the highest body weights of young ones collect-

ed on the respective dates. These young should

reach a body weight of 55 gm (weight at ma-

turity) by the middle of August. The pattern

of growth of the young ones, as indicated by

their body weights, is given in text-fig. 1, which

is a scatter diagram of the body weight of the

females collected during the different months

of the year. The curves indicate the pattern

of increase in the body weight of the young

during growth. The female born in the second

wave of delivery, that is, during the latter part

of April, have a similar pattern of growth,

and these should attain 55 gm of body weight

by about the end of September. Thus, by the

beginning of November, that is, at the onset

of the breeding season, the young ones born

in the middle of March as well as those born

during the latter part of April would be sexu-

ally mature. Further, since on the 6th No-

vember every female with a body weight of

over 55 gm had copulated, it clearly shows that

the females born during March-April copu-

late in the beginning of November, that is, at

the age of about 7 to 8 months.

According to the pattern of growth as men-

tioned above, the females born during the

third week of July in the second cycle should

be reaching a body weight of 55 gm only by

the third week of December, and hence they

could not copulate in November. These are

evidently the few non-parous non-pregnant

females occurring in the collections between

6th November and 22nd December. After

these animals reach the weight of 55 gm (by —

the third week of December) they also under- —

go copulation so that every female is preg-

nant after the 22nd of December. Therefore, —

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From the foregoing it is evident that in the

month of November the females can be assign- —

ed to one of the following categories— |

(1) Parous females which are at last 16

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SJIWN 326 LHOISA

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS—I

July of the previous calendar year. All these

copulate early in November.

(2) Non-parous females which were born

either in March or in April of the year. These

are 7 to 8 months old. These also copulate

early in November.

(3) Non-parous females which were born

in July of the year. These do not copulate in

November, but copulate sometime during the

third week of December when they are about

5 months old.

(b) Male

The pattern of growth of the young males

is similar to that of the females except that

the males do not reach sexual maturity until

they attain a body weight of at least 73 gm,

this being the lowest body weight of a male

showing spermatogenesis in the testis. Text-

figure 2 is a scatter diagram of the body

weights of the males collected during the dif-

ferent months of the year, and the curves in-

dicate the pattern of growth of the young

males. From the growth pattern indicated by

the graph it is evident that the males take

about 14 months to attain a body weight of

73 gm. Hence, the males born in March-April

would be reaching this weight by May-June

of the following year. Since the breeding

‘season does not set in until the following No-

vember these males can participate in success-

ful copulation only when they are about 19

to 20 months of age. The males born in July

‘would also be reaching a body weight of 73

gm by the end of October of the following

year, and hence they should also be able to

copulate in November of the following year

when they would be about 15 to 16 months

of age. Males born in March-April as well

as those born in July can take part in their

first copulation only in November of the fol-

lowing calendar year earliest. Thus, they

should be at least 16 months old before taking

}

part in copulation in the case of those born

in July, and 20 months old in the case of those

born in March.

The work on other species of bats has re-

vealed that the age at which sexual maturity

is attained varies in different species. Baker

& Baker (1936) working on Pteropus geddiei

and Baker & Bird (1936) working on Miniop-

terus australis have nct made a specific men-

tion about the growth and maturity of the

respective species which they studied, but from

Table 2 on page 128 (Baker & Baker 1936)

and Tabie 1 on page 153 (Baker & Bird

1936) it is apparent that during the breeding

season many non-pregnant females were also

coliected along with the pregnant ones. Ap-

parently, in these species the females do not

experience their first oestrus in the year of

their birth, and are, therefore, over 16 months

of age, when they experience their first oestrus.

Matthews (1937) working on two species of

British horseshoe bats, has shown that in these

species the females do not reach the first oes-

trus until their second Autumn when they are

at least 15 months old. Miller (1939) states

that “young males of Myotis lucifugus luci-

fugus and Myotis greisescens do not enter in-

to reproductive activity until their second

spring’. Working on Megaderma lyra lyra

Ramaswamy (1962) mentioned that the ani-

mals in this species “‘do not reach sexual ma-

turity within the year of their birth, and very

likely not until at least the Autumn of the

next year. Since the males seem to be a little

ahead of the females in the onset of sexual

activity, the males probably do not become

mature until they are at least 15 months old,

and the females at least 18 months old’.

Anand Kumar - (1965), remarked that in

Rhinopoma kinneari, “both the young male

and female bats do not reach sexual maturity

at least until their second year”. Patil (1968)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

recorded that Hipposideros fulvus fulvus does

not reach sexual maturity in the first breed-

ing season and the specimens should be at least

18 months of age when they attain sexual

maturity.

Whereas the literature cited above shows

that many species of bats do not attain sexual —

maturity until at least the second year of their

birth, there are a few species which attain

puberty within the year of their birth. Go-

palakrishna (1947, 1948) has shown that ia

Scotophilus wroughtoni sexual maturity is

reached in both the sexes before the speci-

mens are one year old. Pearson et al. (1952)

showed that in Corynorhinus rafinesquei “‘the

young females only four months old mate as

early as do the adults’, but young males do

not copulate in their first year. In Myotis luci-

fugus lucifugus, whereas the females born ia

June undergo copulation in the following

September (Wimsatt & Kallen 1957), the

males do not attain sexual maturity until their

second Spring (Miller 1939).

Rousettus leschenaulti is a fairly large bat

with the males reaching a maximum weight

of 115. gm and the females 101 gm. It is in-

teresting that such a large bat reaches sexual

maturity within a few months whereas many

bats much smalier in size take a longer time.

As an example one can cite the case of Hip-

posideros fulvus fulvus (Patil 1968), whose

adult maximum body weight (about 10 gm)

is less than the weight of the full term foetus

of Rousettus leschenaulti, but which reaches

puberty in its second season, that is, at the age

of about 18 months. Apart from the genetic

factors, which determine the growth and ma-

turity, perhaps the very rapid growth of the

young during the sucking stage and during

the following few weeks, coupled with the

fact that there are two cycles of pregnancy

occurring in quick succession, may help in

accelerating maturity in Rousettus leschen-

aulti.

Since every female becomes pregnant twice

in the year,’ each female should theoretically

produce two young in a year. If all the young

survive the number of young at the start of

the breeding season should be more than the

number of the adult specimens because the -

adult females out-number the males in the

total population, and, further, it is normally

expected that a certain number of very old

adults should die due to natural old age. But

in actuality, at the beginning of the breeding

season the number of the first year young ani-

mals (including the non-parous females which

are only a few months old) is much smaller

than the number of adults. Out of 118 females

there were only 34 young ones, and out of 104

males there were only 35 immature ones dur-

ing the beginning of the first cycle of the

breeding season, that is, between 6th Novem-

ber and 22nd December. This small number

of immature ones can only be due to the loss

of the embryos and/or the delivered young

ones. It has already been stated that many

pregnant females lose their embryos in the

second cycle, and that there is a considerable

loss of the new born young delivered in July as

indicated by the fact that during July and Aug.

many females in full lactation were collected

but without the attached young. The period —

when there appears to be the greatest loss of ©

the young is when the young are between 20 |

to 35 gm in weight, that is when they are bet- —

ween 15 to 30 days of age. The small young —

whose weight is less than 20 gm adhere very —

fast to the nipples of the mothers. The sharp ©

teeth of these young appear to be sunk deep ©

into the skin of the nipples, and the young —

can be removed from the mothers’ nipples |

Up to |

only by applying considerable force.

BREEDING HABITS IN

this age, therefore, there does not appear to be

much loss of the young. But the young ones

over the weight of about 20 gm get easily de-

tached from the mothers, and in fact they were

often found to have crawled away from their

mothers in cages in which they had been kept

overnight. Thus, either due to adventurism on

the part of the young or due to accidents they

get detached from their mothers, and once

detached, the mothers do not try to bring the

young back to their breasts. Since these young

are very helpless and are not big enough to

lead an independent life, they are lost.

5. Sex ratio

Among the 1367 specimens collected 759

SOME INDIAN BATS—I

(55.26%) were females and 608 (44.74%)

were males. Since the collections were made

at random, and since there is no segregation

of the two sexes on the basis of age or re-

productive activity, the sex ratio as is evident

from the collection can safely be taken as the

natural sex ratio in this species. Amongst the

young ones collected from the breasts of the

mothers the number of males and females was

nearly the same (49 and 51 respectively).

Evidently, the males and the females are born

in equal numbers, but during the growth period

there appears to be a higher mortality among

the males. Hence, in the total population the

females outnumber the males.

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123-141.

Baker, J. R. & Birp, T. F. (1936): do

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BrosseT, A. (1962a): The bats of central and

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| 59: 1-57. ,

and

(1962b): —do— Part II. ibid. 59:

| 584-624.

| (1962c) :

_59:707-746.

—do— Part III. ibid.

: (1963): —do— Part IV. ibid. 60:

| 338-355.

| GOPALAKRISHNA, A. (1947): Studies on the em-

bryology of Microchiroptera. Part I. Reproduction

_and breeding seasons in the South Indian vesperti-

lionid bat—Scotophilus wroughtoni (Thomas). Proc.

Ind. Acad. Sci. 26:219-232.

(1948) : —do— Part II. Reproduc-

in the male vespertilionid bat, Scotophilus

tion

wroughtoni (Thomas). ibid. 27:137-151.

———_—— (1950): —do— Part VI—Structure

of the placenta in the Indian vampire bat, Lyro-

derma lyra lyra (Geoffroy). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sct.

India 16:93-98.

— (1954): Breeding habits of the In-

dian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hard-

wicke). Curr. Sci. 23:60-61.

(1955): Observations on the breed-

ing habits and ovarian cycle in the Indian sheath-

tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke).

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 21:29-41.

(1958): Foetal membranes in some

Indian Microchiroptera. J. Morph. 102:157-198.

(1964): Post-partum pregnancy in

the Indian fruit bat, Rousettus leschenaulti (Des-

marest). Curr. Sci. 33:558-559.

(1969): Unusual persistance of the

corpus luteum in the Indian fruit bat, Rousettus

leschenaulti (Desmarest). ibid. 38:388-389.

JONES, F. W. (1917): The genitalia of the Chiro-

ptera. Jour. Anat. 51:36-60.

Lyon, M. W. (sR) (1903): Observations on the

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Nat. Mus. 26:425-426.

MADHAVAN, A. (1971): Breeding habits of sex-

cycle in the vespertilionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus

chrysothrix (Wroughton). Ph.D. Thesis, Nagpur

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University.

MarsHALL, A. J. (1947): The breeding cycle in

the Equatorial bat (Pteropus giganteus of Ceylon).

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MatTHEws, L. H. (1937): The female sexual

cycle in the British horse-shoe bats, Rhinolophus

ferrum-equinum insulanus Barret-Hamilton and R.

hipposideros minutus Montague. Trans. Zool. Soc.

London 23:224-266.

(1942): Notes on the genitalia and

reproduction in some South African Bats. Proc.

Zool. Soc. London 111:289-346.

MiLter, R. E. (1939): The reproductive cycle

in male bats of the species Myotis lucifugus luci-

fugus and M. greisescens. J. Morph. 64:267-295.

MocuHe, M. A. (1951): Development and placen-

tation in the Indian fruit-bat, Pteropus giganteus

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121:703-721.

MutTere, F. A. (1965): Delayed implantation

in an Equatorial fruit-bat. Nature, London 207:780.

(1967): The breeding biology of

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bat, Eidolon helvum, at latitude 0°20’ N. J. Zool.

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PaTiL, D. R. (1968):

dian leaf-nosed bat, Hipposideros

Ph.D. thesis, Nagpur University.

PEARSON, O. P., Kororp, M. R. & PEARSON, A. K.

(1952): Reproduction of the lump-nosed bat

(Corynorhinus rafinesquei) in California. J. Mam-

mal, 33:273-320.

Reproduction in the In-

fulvus fulvus.

-RAMAKRISHNA, P. A. (1947): Post-partum oest-

rus in the short-nosed fruit-bat, Cynopterus sphinx

sphinx. Curr. Sci. 16:186.

(1951): Studies on the reproduction

in bats I—Some aspects of the reproduction in the

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107-118.

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placentation in Vesperugo leisleri (Kuhl). J. Mys.

Univ. 7:1-41.

RAMASWAMY, K. R. (1962): Studies on the sex-

cycle of the Indian vampire bat, Megaderma lyra

lyra (Geoffroy). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 27:287-

307:

RoBIN, H. A. (1881):

sur les mammiferes de lordre

Ann. Sci. Natur. Zool. 12:1-180.

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tion and the number of litter. Sci. Bull. Fac. Agr.

Kuyushu Univ. 12:11-14.

Wimsatt, W. A. & Trapipo, H. (1952): Repro-

duction and the female reproductive cycle in the

tropical Americal vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus

murinus. Amer. J. Anat. 91:415-446.

WIMSATT, W. A. & KALLEN, F. C. (1957): The

unique maturation response of the Graafian follicle

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Recherches anatomiques

des Chiropteres.

Fishes of Khasi Hills, Meghalaya (India),

with observations on their distributional

patiern

G. M. YAZDANI

Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, Poona 411005

INTRODUCTION

The fish-fauna of Khasi Hills is very poorly

known. Perusal of literature shows that alto-

gether 15 species are on record from these hills

(see McClelland 1842; Day 1889; Sehegal

1959, Yazdani & Chanda 1971 and Yazdani

1972). Menon (1962) reported 161 species

from Brahmaputra drainage which also in-

clude the drainages of the Khasi Hills. This

indicates that the species known so far from

Khasi Hills constitute a very small percentage

of its fish-fauna.

Khasi Hills is one of the three districts

namely, Khasi, Jaintia and Garo Hills of the

newly formed state of Meghalaya of the In-

dian Union. The greater part of this hill dis-

trict is like a plateau which consists of blocks

of flat or gently undulating land separated

by narrow ravines and deep valleys. This

plateau is remarkably abrupt on its southern

face but on its northern edge it gradually slo-

pes towards the Brahmaputra valley. Its height

varies from around 3,000 ft (914 metres)

to 6,000 ft (1828 metres). The vegetation of

this hill is luxuriant due to heavy rainfall,

bamboo and pine forests covering a large tract.

The upper and more level parts of the hill are

| 1Accepted April 1975.

however thickly carpeted with grass. The beds

of streams and rivers are generally rocky and

full of gravel. The water current is swift and

after a heavy rainfall most of the streams be-

come torrential.

The material on which this paper is based

had accumulated at the Eastern Regional Sta-

tion, Zoological Survey of India, Shillong. dur-

ing the past twelve years (1960 to 1971). It

had been brought by field parties in all seasons

of the year as a result of routine faunistic sur-

veys of streams, tanks and lakes in the Khasi

Hills. For collecting this material, bag nets

were used for smali fishes and cast nets for

larger forms.

The material contained 29 species which

are dealt with in this paper. Only 8 species,

out of 15 species reported earlier from Khasi

Hills, have not been found. They are: Puntius

ticto (Ham.), Puntius sophore (Ham.) (Cy-

prinidae), Balitora brucei Gray (Homalopter-

idae), Botia almorhae Day, Somileptes gongta

(Ham.) (Cobitidae), Pseudoecheneis sulcatus

(McClelland) (Sisoridae), Olyra longicauda

McClelland, Olyra_ laticeps (McClelland)

(Olyridae).

Some observations on the distributional pat-

tern of fishes in the Khasi Hills have also been

given in the paper. An attempt is made to ex-

plain differences in the fish-fauna between dif-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ferent streams and lakes on the basis of dif-

ferences in the habitats and habits of species.

The term habitat refers to only field observa-

tions like topography, flow of water and nature

of bottom of the streams and lake.

Collection Localities

A total of 35 collecting localitics are listed

below. They have been arranged according to

their altitude in two groups namely, group |

representing localities between altitudes 3,000

and 4,000 ft and group II covering localities

between altitudes 4,500 and 5,500 ft. This

grouping is based on the fact that the number

of species in the Khasi Hills shows a marked

decline at elevations over 4,000 it.

Group T:

1. Umshing stream. 2. Sumer stream. 3.

Umiuh stream. 4. Umran stream. 5. Umtham

stream. 6. Umsning stream. 7. Nongpoh stream.

8. Lailad stream. 9. Barapani lake. 10. Mawroh

stream. 11. Decam stream. 12. Weiloi stream.

13. Sohiong stream. 14. Synrangmowrah stream.

15. Mairang stream. 16. Cherrapunjee stream.

17. Mawblang stream. 18. Mawsomai stream.

Group IT:

19. Mawlai stream. 20. Pologround stream.

21. Mawpat stream. 22. Botanical garden

stream. 23. Golf ling stream. 24. Lawsohtun

stream. 25. Bishnupur stream. 26. Fruit-garden

stream. 27. Motinagar stream. 28. Satifalls

stream. 29. Lalchand basti stream. 30. Upper

Shillong stream. 31. Lady Hyderi Park tank.

32. Mylliem stream. 33. Lailynkut stream. 34.

Mawphlang stream. 35. Umtyngar stream.

SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT

A systematic account of 29 species from

Khasi Hills is given below. The numbers for

localities referred under each species corres-

pond to those of the ‘collecting localities’. The

relevant information about the identity and

geograpiical distribution of species have been

obtained from published literature namely, Day

(1889), Shaw & Shebbeare (1938), Misra

(1962) and Menon (1964) and that of habits

is based solely on my own observations in the

field. The general classification adopted here

is that of Greenwood, Rosen, Weitzman &

Myers (1966).

Order Cypriniformes

Family CyYPRINIDAE

1. Acecrossocheilus hexagonolepis (McClelland)

1839. Barbus hexagonolepis McClelland, Asiat.

Ress 19) pp? 270; pla 4ileo he a3:

Material: 218 examples, 15 to 120 mm in

total length, from two different localities

namely, nos. 2 and 9 were examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills: first record. Else-

where: India: Assam, W. Bengal and Eastern

Himalayas; Nepal, Bangladesh, Malaya,

Malay Archipelago, Burma and Thailand.

Habits: A. hexagonolepis is more common

in the lake than in streams. It takes bait and }

is commonly caught by angling.

Remarks: Only juveniles of this species are

present in the collection.

2. Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus

1758. Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. |

105% Vol. i.

Material: | example, 125 mm in total length, —

from one locality (no. 3) was examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills: first record. In-

troduced in ponds in India. Original home is |

China and Japan.

Remarks: This species is being cultured in

artificial ponds in Shillong by the Fisheries

Dept., Govt. of Meghalaya.

3. Danio (Danio) aequipinnatus (McClelland)

1839. Perilampus aequipinnatus McClelland, Asiat.

Res., 19, p. 393, pl. 60, fig. 1.

Material: 87 examples, 15 to 77 mm in total | |

_ FISHES

length, from six different localities (nos. 4, 5,

6, 8, 16 and 17) were examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills: first record.

Elsewhere: India; Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand

and Bangladesh.

Habits: Compared to other species of Danio,

D. aequipinnatus is rather uncommon in the

Khasi Hills. Generally, it occurs with D. dan-

gila and lives near the edges of streams. It does

not occur at altitudes over 3,500 ft.

Remarks: In the Khasi Hills, the specimens

of D. aequipinnatus show a marked tendency

towards reduction in number of dorsal and

anal rays and decrease in proportion of body

depth. The dorsal rays vary from 12-13 (vs

12-16) and anal 13-15 (vs 14-18). The body

depth in total length varies from 44 to 5 (vs

32 to 44). The longest specimen recorded in

this hill is 77 mm against 152 mm the maxi-

mum length known for this species (see Misra

1962).

4. Danio (Danio) dangila (Hamilton)

1822. Cyprinus dangila Hamilton, Fish Ganges,

ep» 321, 390.

Material: 630 examples, 13 to 82 mm in

total length, from eighteen localities (nos. 1,

Peon 10-1 1593;°20, 21), 23526, 27,29, 31.

32, 34 and 35) were examined. :

Distribution: Khasi Hills, and Shillong

(Sehegal 1959). Elsewhere: India: Manipur,

Nagaland, Assam, West Bengal and Bihar;

Burma.

Habits: D. dangila is the most common spe-

cies in the streams and lake of Khasi Hills

and unlike D. aequipinnatus it occurs upto

5,000 ft (1524 metres) altitude. It is more

commonly found with D. rerio (Ham.) than

with D. aequipinnatus and prefers to live near

\the edges of streams. Its members swim in

‘shoals near the surface of water.

_ Remarks: The specimens of D. dangila

‘from the Khasi Hills show a tendency towards

OF KHASI HILLS

reduction of total size of the fish and in the

number of dorsal and anal rays and in over-

all decrease in the proportion of body depth.

The dorsal rays vary from 10-12 (vs 11-13),

anal 12-14 (vs 17-18) and the body depth in

the total length 44 to 5 (vs 34 to 4). The

longest specimen found is 82 mm against 152

mm the maximum length known for this spe-

cies (see Day 1889).

5. Danio (Brachydanio) rerio (Hamilton)

1822. Cyprinus rerio Hamilton,

pp. 323, 390.

Material: 2,506 examples, 10 to 41 mm in

total length, from fourteen different localitites

(Gios:215 4 De OF 7/795 10,20; Di, 23; 26; 27,29

and 32) were examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills: first record. Else-

Where: India: throughout, Sikkim; Burma.

Habits: D. rerio is rather uncommon in the

Khasi Hills but it occurs upto an altitude of

5,000 ft. It is generally found with D. dangila.

Remarks: The specimens of D. rerio also

exhibit certain variations in the Khasi Hills.

The number of dorsal rays is 8-9 (vs 9) and

anal 12-15 (vs 15-16).

6. Garra lamta (Hamilton)

1822. Cyprinus (Garra) lamta Hamilton (in part).

Fish Ganges, Edingburgh, pp. 344, 393.

Material: 1 example, 27 mm. in total length,

from one locality namely, no. 8 was examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills: first record.

Elsewhere: India: Darjeeling and Kumaon

Himalayas and Sikkim; Eastern Nepal.

Habits: A typical hill-stream fish found ad-

hering to rocky bottom of the river.

7. Garra Hssorhynmchus (McClelland)

1842. Platycara lissorhynchus McClelland, Calcutta

Jour. Nat. Hist. 2, pp. 587, pl. 16 fig. 2.

Material: 17 examples, 25 to 90 mm in total

length from two different localities namely,

nos. 9 and 14 were examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills. Elsewhere: India:

Fish Ganges.,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Brahmaputra system, Assam Himalayas.

Habits: A typical hill-stream fish commonly

found adhering to rocks under water.

8. Garra naganensis Hora

1921. Garra naganensis Hora, Rec. Indian Mus.,

Calcutta, 22; p.. 6o74epls 25. ees. 2, 2a.

Material: 7 examples, 29 to 105 mm in total

length, from two different localities namely,

nos. 4 and 9 were examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills;

Where: India: Nagaland.

Habits: A typical hill-stream fish commonly

found adhering to rocks undcr water, both in

streams and the lake.

Remarks: The occurrence of G. naganensis

in Khasi Hills extends the range of distribu-

tion of this species considerably westward.

9. Puntius chola (Hamilton)

1822. Cyprinus chola Hamilton, Fish Ganges,

Dp. a h25) 589:

Material: 5 examples, 21 to 64 mm in total

length, from one locality (no. 4) were examin-

ed.

first record. Else-

Distribution: Khasi Hills; first record.

Elsewhere: India: throughout; Bangladesh

and Pakistan.

Remarks: P. chola is rare in the Khasi

Hills. It is known to grow to 5 inches (128.0

mm) in length (Day 1889) but the longest

specimen collected is only 64 mm.

10. Puntius shalynius Yazdani & Taiukdar

1975. Puntius shalynius Yazdani & ‘Talukdar,

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(1) :218-221.

Material: 1,739 examples, 9 to 62 mm in

total length, from twenty localities (nos. 1, 4,

5,6, 95,10; Pies 13: S. 202 22523) 26, 27,

29, 30, 32 and 35) were examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills (Meghalaya).

11. Tor putitora (Hamilton)

1822. Cyprinus putitora Hamilton, Fish Ganges,

pp. 303, 388.

Material: 107 examples, 13 to 135 mm in

total length, from three localities (nos. 8, 9 and

33) were examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills; first record. Else-

where: India: Punjab, U.P., Western Hima-

layas, W. Bengal, Assam, Eastern Himalayas;

Pakistan and Bangladesh.

Habits: The habits of 7. putitora are like

those of Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis.

12. Tor tor (Hamilton)

1822. Cyprinus tor Hamilton, Fish Ganges,

pp. 305, 388.

Material: 2 examples, 100 to 150 mm in

total length, from locality no. 9 were examin-

ed.

Distribution: Khasi Hills; first record. Else-

where: India: Garo Hills (Meghalaya), Kash-

mir, throughout the Himalayas, Assam and

Sikkim.

Habits: The habits of T. putitora resemble

those of 7. tor.

Family PsSm@orHYNCHIDAE

13. Psilorhynchus balitora (Hamilton)

1822. Cyprinus balitora Hamilton, Fish Ganges,

pp. 348, 394. |

Material: 1 example, 31 mm in total length, |

from one locality (no. 9) was examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills; first record. Else- |

where: India: Bengal (N.E.) and Assam (Day |

1889) and Burma (Shaw & Shebbeare 1938). |

Remarks: This is a rare species in the Khasi _

Hills. !

14. Psilorhynchus homaloptera Hora &

Mukerji :

1935. Psilorhynchus homaloptera Hora & Muk- |

erji, Rec. Indians Mus., Calcutta, 37, pp. 391, pl. al |

fig. 1-6. \

Material: 11 examples, 23 to 40 mm in to-

tal length, from one locality (no. 9) were ex- 4

amined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills; first record. Else-

where: India: Nagaland and Assam.

Family CoBITIDAE

15. Lepidocephalus berdmorie (Blyth)

| 1860. Acanthopsis berdmorie Blyth, J.. Asiat. Soc.

| Beng., 29, pp. 168.

Material: 1 example, 59 mm in total length,

from one locality namely, no. 21 was examin-

ed.

Distribution: Khasi Hillis, and Shillong (Se-

hegal 1959). Elsewhere: Moulmein in Burma.

Remarks: This species is extremely rare in

the Khasi Hills.

16. Lepidocephalus guntea (Hamilton)

1822. Cobitis guntea Hamilton, Fish Ganges,

pp. 353, 394.

Material: 222 examples, 13 to 64 mm in

total length, from twelve different localities

merely, mos: 1, 9> 11, 13, 20, 21,°23, 26, 28,

29, 32 and 35 were examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills; first record. Else-

where: throughout northern India, Bangladesh

and Pakistan.

Habits: Lepidocephalus guntea is found in

gravelly or muddy streams and lives on the

bottom.

Remarks: This species is one of the com-

monest loach in the Khasi Hills.

17. Noemacheilus dayi Hora

1878. Nemachilus savona Day, nec Hamilton Fish.

India pp. 619, pl. CLV, fig. 8.

1937. Nemachilus dayi, Hora, Rec. Indian Mus.,

37, p. 57.

Materia]: 10 examples, 24 to 58 mm in to-

tal length, from one locality (no. 9) were ex-

amined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills; first record. Else-

where: India: Day (1889) gives ‘“‘Bengal and

N.W. Province’’. Subsequently this species has

been recorded from Madhya Pradesh and

Western ghats (Hora 1938) and from Bihar

(Das 1939).

FISHES OF KHASI HILLS

Remarks: N. dayi is a rare species in the

Khasi Hills and its occurrence here extends

the range of distribution further eastward.

18. Noemacheilus multifasciatus Day

1878. Nemacheilus mutltifasciatus Day, Fish In-

dia, pp. 617.

Material: 26 examples, 15 to 115 mm in

total length, from one locality namely, no. 9

were examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills; first record. Else-

where: India: Assam and W. Bengal.

19. Noemacheilus rupecola inglisi Hora

1935. Nemachilus rupecola var. inglisi Hora,

Ree vindian Mus 37: pp. 58. pl. 3, fig. 9, 10:

Material: 56 examples, 19 to 52 mm in total

length from seven different localities (nos. 1,

2, 4, 8, 9, 14 and 16) were examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills; first record. Else-

where: India: Assam, West Bengal, Bihar &

U.P. (near Himalayan foot-hills).

Habits: This species is a typical hill-stream

loach which adheres to rocks submerged un-

der water in rapid streams.

Remarks: This is one of the commonest

loach of the genus Noemacheilus in the Khasi

Hills. The largest specimen found in this hill

is 52 mm long but that recorded elsewhere is

about 76 mm.

20. Noemacheilus sikmaiensis Hora

1921. Nemachilus sikmaiensis Hora, Rec. Indian

Mus., 22, pp. 201-202.

Material: 12 examples, 20 to 50 mm in to-

tal length, from two different localities (nos. 4

& 9) were: examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills; first record. Else-

Where: India: Manipur; Burma.

Remarks: The occurrence of N. sikmaien-

sis in the Khasi Hills extends the known range

of distribution of this species considerably

westward.

ie)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Order Siluriformes

Family SILURIDAE

21. Ompok bimaculatus (Bioch)

1797. Silurus bimaculatus Bloch, Syst. Ichth., 11,

pp. 17, pl. 369.

Material: 1 example, 16 mm in total length,

from only one locality (no. 6) was examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills; first record. Else-

where: India: throughout; Sri Lanka, Pakis-

tan, Burma, Malaya, Malay Archipelago,

Thailand, Chusan and Yunan.

Family SISORIDAE

22. Glyptothorax striatus (McClelland)

1842. Glyptosternon striatus McClelland, Cal.

Jour. Nat. Hist., 2, pp. 587, pl. vi, fig. 1, 2.

Material: 1 example, 145 mm in _ total

length, from one locality (no. 9) was examin-

edi

Distribution: Khasi Hills, and Cherrapunjee

(Menon 1954). Elsewhere: Sikkim.

Family HETEROPNEUSTIDAE

23. Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)

1794. Silurus fossilis Bloch, Naturg Ausland,

Fische, 8, pp. 46, pl. 370, fig. 2.

Material: 75 examples, 34 to 160 mm in-

total length, from four different localities (nos.

4, 6, 9 & 20) were examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills; first record. Else-

where: throughout India; Bangladesh, Burma,

Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Indo-China.

Remarks: The largest specimen of this spe-

cies is known to be of 304 mm (a foot) in

length or more (Misra 1962). In the Khasi

Hills, however, the longest specimen collect-

ed was only 160 mm.

Family CLARIIDAE

24. Clarias batrachus (Lin.)

1758. Silurus batrachus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 1,

ed. 10, pp. 305.

1889. Clarias magur Day, Fauna Brit. India, Fish.,

1, pp. 115, figs. 48 and 49.

Material: 3 examples, 25 to 45 mm in to-

tal length, from one locality (no. 20) were

examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills; first record. Else-

where: Fresh and brackish waters of the

plains of India; Bangladesh, Pakistan, Bur-

ma; Sri Lanka, Malaya, Malay Archipelago,

Thailand, Indo-China, Philippines, Hong Kong

and China.

Order Channiformes

Family CHANNIDAE

25. Channa orientalis (Bl. & Schn.)

1801. Channa orientalis Bloch & Schneider, Syst. |

Ichth., pp. 496.

1889. Ophiocephalus gachua

India, Fish., pp. 304.

Material: 295 examples, 18 to 115 mm in

Day,

Fauna Brit. |

total length, from twenty-one different locali-

ties (mos. 1, 2; 4, 5; 9; 10;:13, 16.17, 20-21e

234 D405. 26; 275 28: 29) 317322 & 385) were

examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills. Elsewhere: India: |

Pakis-

Lanka,

Malaya,

throughout; Bangladesh, Sri

tan, Burma, Afghanistan, Malay

Archipelago, Thailand, Indo-China and China. |

is one of the com- |

monest species of fish in Khasi hill-streams. |

It co-exists with C. stewartii (Playfair) and |

Habits: C. orientalis

lives along the edges of streams having over-

hanging vegetation.

Remarks: C. orientalis is known to grow |

to 203 mm (8 inches) in length (Misra 1962)

but the longest specimen collected in the Khasi

hill is only 115 mm.

26. Channa punctata (Bloch)

1793. Ophiocephalus punctatus Bloch,

Ausland, Fische, 7, pp. 139, pl. 358.

Material: 2 examples, 84 to 123 mm in|

Naturg. |

| total length, from one locality (no. 6) were

examimed, —

| Distribution: Khasi Hills; first record. Else-

where: throughout India; Bangladesh, Pakis-

| tan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Malaya, China, Tahiti,

| Polynesia.

Habits: This species resembles C. orientalis

in habit but unlike the latter it has been found

| only in one stream which had a muddy bot-

| tom.

' 27. Channa s‘ewartii (Playfair)

| 1867. Ophiocephalus stewartii Playfair, Proc. Zool.

Soc. Lond., pp. 14.

Material: 152 examples, 13 to 111 mm in

total length, from twenty-cne different locali-

Bes(nos. 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12; 13, 15, 16, 17,

mops) 2122, 26; 27, 30, 34 and 35) were

examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills. Elsewhere: Bihar,

W. Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya (Jaintia Hills).

Habits: C. stewartii is one of the most com-

mon species of fish in Khasi hill-streams. In

habits it very much resembles C. orientalis.

Remarks: C. stewartii is known to grow

upto 10 inches (Day 1889) and 18 inches

(Shaw & Shebbeare 1938) in length but the

longest specimen found in Khasi Hills is only

111 mm (44 inches).

Order Perciformes

Family NANDIDAE

28. Badis badis (Hamilton)

1822. Labrus badis Hamilton, Fish Ganges, pp. 70,

368.

Material: 10 examples, 14 to 27 mm in to-

tal length, from three different localities (nos.

5, 8 & 32) were examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills; first record. Else-

where: Assam, Nagaland, W. Bengal, Bihar,

U.P.; Burma.

Remarks:

B. badis is rather uncommon

FISHES OF KHASI HILLS

species in the Khasi Hills. It lives near the

edges of sireams and hides under vegetation.

Suborder Mastacembeloidei

Family PILLAIIDAE

29. Pillata indica Yazdani

1972. Piilaia indica Yazdani, J. Bombay nat. Hist.

69(1), pp. 134-135.

Material: 5 examples, 30 to 60 mm in total

length from three different localities namely

nos. 2, 5 and 6 were examined.

Distribution: Khasi Hills (Meghalaya).

Habits: The habits of this newly discovered

eel of India have been observed both in its

natural habitat as well as in an aquarium

Where three specimens were kept alive for

about a month. It is very inactive and mostly

spends its time lying on the bottom either

buried in mud or clinging to submerged vege-

tation. While entangling itself to any branch

of aquatic plants, it keeps itself suspended

under water with its head facing downward. Its

swimming and crawling movements resemble

those of the anguilliform fishes.

Sioce

DISTRIBUTIONAL PATTERN

The distributional pattern of fishes in the

Khasi Hills is given in Table 1. Groups I and

II localities correspond to locality groupings

mentioned earlier under ‘collecting localities’.

Selected localities correspond to streams and

lake where field observations are recorded.

The distributional pattern of the fish

fauna of Khasi Hills shows that it is

influenced by differences in altitude as well

as in habitat. The effect of altitude on distri-

bution of species is shown in column Ii of the

table. It shows that species follow some pat-

tern with regard to their occurrence and their

number suddenly falls to nearly 1/3rd at else-

vations over 4,000 ft. Out of 29 species, 18

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FISHES

Inamely, nos. 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 17,

118, 19, 20, 21, 22, 26 and 29 are restricted in

‘distribution to group I localities and two nos.

‘15 and 24 to group II localities. Altogether

| 11 species occur in group II localities; of these

Womspecies (nos. 4, 5, 10, 11 16, 23, 25, 27 &

/28) are also found equally commonly in group

\I localities. Species nos. 15 and 24 which also

| occur fairly commonly in the plains indicate

lthe possibility of discontinuous altitudinal dis-

‘tribution. Some ecological factors such as

‘temperature, pressure, oxygen and food may

‘be effective in controlling the altitudinal dis-

tribution of species. Investigation of these

factors is not attempted, for, it is beyond the

‘scope of the present study.

_ The effect of habitat on distribution of spe-

‘cies in certain localities is shown in column

‘Til of the Table. It shows that number and

‘composition of species differs considerably

between streams and lake. We shall examine

below how these differences are correlated

with habitats and habits of species.

Umsning stream:

The stream at Umsning is nearly 2 metres

wide and about 1 metre deep. It has submerged

weeds at various places and overhanging vege-

tation along the edges. The bottor: is mostly

muddy and the current is slow.

mine species, nos. 3, 4, 5, 10, 21, 23, 26, 27

and 29, are found in this stream.

This stream provides quite a suitable habitat

for species living on the bottom or living near

the edges of stream. H. fossilis, O. bimaculatus

and P. indica which by habit prefer a muddy

bottom are well suited for this type of habitat.

Danio spp. and Puntius shalynius prefer to

live near the surface along the edges amongst

Overhanging vegetation and Channa _ spp.

spend most of the time near the edges of

stream under dense vegetation. |

OF KHASI HILLS

Umran stream:

The stream at Umran is about 6 metres wide

and 2-3 metres deep with overhanging vege-

tation along the edges. The bottom is mostly

rocky but at various places the bed is sandy/

muddy with big boulders scattered all over.

The water is clear and fast running.

Eleven. species, nos,3,,4..5., 8, 9, 10s 19. 20:

23, 25 and 27, are found in this stream.

The composition of species here differs from

that of Umsning stream mainly by the occur-

rence of species of Garra and Noemacheilus.

This is expected because in Umran stream

the current is fast and the bottom is largely

rocky. Species of Garra and Noemacheilus

which possess organs of adhesion to rocks are

very well adapted to life in such a habitat.

Umiham stream:

A tributary of Umtru river, hardly half a

metre deep with sandy bottom with pebbles

scattered all over. Tall trees present on its

banks cast shadows over the stream. The water

is Clear and slow running. In some paris of

the stream, fallen leaves from trees decay in

the water.

Sim species nos. 3, 5. 10 25, 28, and: 29° are

found in this stream.

A very shallow stream it offers limited

scope and the number of species is rather

poor. Species of Channa and Pillaia which by

habit hide under vegetation or mud occur and

other species which have a rather wide range

of habitat preference manage to live near the

water surface along the edges.

Sumer stream:

Sumer stream is about 5 metres wide and

1-2 metres deep, the water clear and running,

and bottom sandy/muddy near the edges and

sandy and gravelly elsewhere. It has over-

hanging vegetation along the edges.

25)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Six species (nos. 1, 4, 19, 25, 27 and 29)

occur in this stream.

Although the number of species here is the

same as that in Umtham stream, the composi-

tion of species is different. The shallowness

of this stream and limited scope for life ac-

counts for its poor fish-fauna, other factors

such as running water and sandy and gravelly

bottom provide suitable habitat to species of

Noemacheilus and the young ones of Accros-

socheilus. Near the edges, muddy bottom and

overhanging vegetation provide fairly suitable

habitat to species of Channa and Pillaia as

well as to Danio dangila which lives near the

water surface.

Barapani_ lake:

The Barapani lake is one of the largest

perennial water reservoirs in the Khasi Hills,

situated at 3,500 ft altitude with an area of

c. 5 sq km. It is connected with Umiam river

and various other streams. Near the junctions

of streams and lake there are strong currents

and the bottom is mostly gravelly. In other

parts of the lake water is still and the bottom

is generally sandy. The maximum depth of

the lake is about 20 metres.

Nineteen species; nos. 1,°45°52 758: 10, il,

P2513) 140 16, 17 1s, 19s 20222 23 Svan:

27, have been found in the lake. Of these

only six, nos. 12; 13) 14:)175 18 and 22° are

restricted to the lake and have not been found

in any of the streams.

Unlike the streams which show a great deal

of seasonal variation in respect of ecological

conditions, the lake provides a more or less

constant environment and this factor and

variety of habitats accounts for a fairly rich

and diversified fish fauna.

Umshing stream:

There is a dam across this stream at Umsh-

ing. The section of the stream before the dam

is 3-4 metres deep, with muddy bottom and

more or less still water. The part after the

dam is hardly 1 metre deep with gravelly bed

having boulders scattered all over and fast

running water. Overhanging vegetation is

present along the edges in both parts.

Seven species, nos. 4, 5, 10, 16, 19, 25 and

27, are found in this stream, which provides

habitat suitable for species living on muddy

bottom (e.g. Lepidocephalus guntea), on gra-

velly bottom in running stream (N. rupicola

inglisi), and along the edges of the stream

with overhanging vegetation (c.g. Danio spp.,

Puntius shalynius and Channa spp.).

Mawpat stream:

The stream is hardly 2 metres wide and half

a metre deep with clear and running water. —

Its bottom is muddy with pebbles scattered all

over. Dense overhanging vegetation is present

along the edges.

Seven species, nos. 4, 5, 10, 15, 16, 25 and |

stream which belongs to >

27 occur in this

group If localities.

Except for

and explains why excepting the

Myiliem stream:

The Mylliem stream is about 5 metres -

wide and nearly 14 metres deep with dirty

and slow running water. Its bottom is gener- |

ally muddy with decaying organic matter. In

some parts of this stream the bed is gravelly

and water clear. Overhanging vegetation is

present along the edges.

Six

the lack of rocky bottom or |

rock boulders in its bed, the stream provides |

habitat more or less similar to that of Umshing |

species of |

Noemacheilus which is restricted to group I

localities in the Khasi Hills, the fish-fauna here |

resembles so much that of Umshing stream.

species, nos. 4, 5, 10, 16, 25, 28, arem

found in this stream of group II localities. |

Amongst these three was an abundant popul-

ation of Lepidocephalus guntea.

| Except for the presence of Badis badis and

absence of Lepidocephalus berdmorei, the

composition of fish-fauna here is similar to

that of Mawpat stream, which also has a

rather similar habitat. However, the presence

of B. badis and absence of L. berdmorei can-

not be explained. An unusual abundance of

L. guntea appears to be related to presence

of decaying organic matter which forms the

food of this species. |

CONCLUSION

Altogether 37 species belonging to 12 dif-

ferent families are hitherto known from Khasi

Hills. Of these, 8 species reported earlier from

this hill have not been found in any of the 35

localities surveyed. Out of 29 species dealt

vith in this paper, 21 spp. are first distribu-

tional records for Khasi Hills. Nearly one third

of the fish-fauna of this hill comprises of

Cyprinidae and one fifth of Cobitidae.

The drainages of the Khasi Hills form a

part of the Brahmaputra drainage system of

the Himalayas. Out of 37 spp., 33 spp. are

commonly found in the Brahmaputra drain-

age. Of the remaining 4 spp., 2 spp., namely,

Pillaia indica and Puntius shalynius are ende-

mic and one species, Cyprinus carpio is in-

troduced. The fourth species namely, Botia

almorhae, which is reported to occur in this

hill, is found in the drainages of Western

Himalayas.

The fishes of Khasi Hills show a pattern of

distribution related to the altitude and

habitat of the species. Out of 29 species

that have been found to occur in 35 different

localities, only 11 species occur at elevations

over 4,000 ft. The absence of remaining 18

Species at altitudes over 4,000 ft may be due

to some bio-physical factors which act as a

barrier.

FISHES OF KHASI HILLS

The streams in Khasi Hills provide a fairly

good range of habitat preferred by various

species. The differences in the composition

of species between streams above and below

4,000 ft altitude appear largely correlated with

differences in habitat and habits of species.

However, differences in distributional pattern

of some species appear to be correlated with

factors other than habitat which is beyond the

scope of the present study.

Species with wide range of habitat prefer-

ence have wider distribution and those with

strict choice of habitat are restricted to a few

localities only. The bottom-living species of

Garra, Psilorhynchus, Lepidoecphalus, Noe-

macheilus, Glyptothorax, Ompok and Pillaia

are much affected by the condition of the bed

of the stream in comparison with species

which mostly live near the water surface e.g.

species of Danio, Puntius or species which

live partly near the water surface and partly

on the bottom amongst dense vegetation e.g.

species of Channa and Badis. This observa-

tion is supported by the fact that most com-

mon and widely distributed species in the

Khasi Hills are Danio dangila and Puntius

shalynius, Channa orientalis and Channa ste-

wartii; other species which may be called fair-

ly common are Danio rerio and Lepidocephalus

guntea.

It is observed that in the Khasi Hills some

species such as Danio aequipinnatus, D. dan-

gila, D. rerio, Lepidocephalus guntea, Noema-

cheilus rupicola inglisi, Heteropneustes fossi-

lis, Channa orientalis and C. stewartii do not

grow to their usual size. The longest mature

specimens of most of these species have been

found to be much shorter than those normal-

ly seen in the plains. This factor appears to

be of some adaptive value, for, the large size

would be a handicap in hills-streams which

are generally very shallow.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, former

Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

for providing the opportunity to study the fish-

fauna of Khasi Hill and to Dr. R. S. Pillai,

Superintending Zoologist, Zoological Survey

of India, Eastern Regional Station, Shillong

for extending necessary facilities during the

course of this study. I am also grateful to Dr.

B. K. Tikader, Deputy Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Western Regional Station,

Poona, for encouragement and facilities during

the course of writing up of the final results.

REFERENCES

Das, K. N. (1939): On a collection of fish from

the Hazaribagh District, Bihar. Rec. Indian Mus.

41:437-450.

Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India,

including Ceylon and Burma. Fishes, Vol. I, xviii +

548 pp., 164 figs. London (Taylor and Francis).

GREENWooD, P. H., ROSEN, D. E., WEiTZMAN,

S. H. & Myers, G. S. (1966): Phyletic studies of

teleostean fishes, with a provisional classification of

living forms. Bull. Am. Mus. nat. Hist. 131:339-

456.

Hora, S. L. (1938): Notes on fishes in the In-

dian Museum, xxxvii. On a collection of fish from

the Bailadila range, Bastar State, Central Provinces.

Rec. Indian Mus. 40:237-241.

McCLELLAND, J. (1842): On the fresh water fishes

collected by William Griffith, Esq., F.L.S., Medical

Service during his travels under the order of the

Supreme Government of India, from 1833 to 1842.

Calcutta J. nat. Hist., Calcutta, 2:560-589.

MENON, M. A. S. (1954): Notes on fishes of the

genus Glyptothorax Blyth. Rec. Indian Mus., 52(1):

27-54.

Menon, A. G. K. (1962): A distributional list of

fishes of the Himalayas. J. Zool. Soc. India, Calcutta,

14(1 & 2) :23-32.

(1964): Monograph of the cypri-

nid fishes of the genus Garra Hamilton. Mem. In-

dian Mus. 14(4) :173-260.

Misra, K. S. (1962): An aid to the identifica-

tion of the common commercial fishes of India and

Pakistan. Rec. Indian Mus. 57(1-4) :1-320.

SEHEGAL, K. L. (1959):

from Assam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56:147-149.

SHAW, G. E. & SHEBBEARE, E. O. (1938): The

fishes of Northern Bengal. J. Roy. Asiat. Soc. Beng.

Sci., Calcutta, 3:1-317.

YAZDANI, G. M. & CHANDA, S. K. (1971): Iden-

tity of Channa stewartii (Playfair) with some ob-

servations on abnormal specimens (Channiformes:

Channidae). Sci. & Cult., Calcutta, 37:580-581.

YAZDANI, G. M. (1972): A new genus and spe-

cies of fish from India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

69(1) :134-135.

Two new fish records-

‘Additions to the list of aphids (Homoptera:

Aphididae) from India and adjacent

countries

A. K. GHOSH

Eastern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of

India, Shillong 793 003, Meghalaya

This paper presents an additional list of 311 species under 123 genera of aphids known

from India and adjacent countries namely Pakistan, Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan and pro-

vides notes on their host plants, first reference, and distribution in the region. The genera

(22) and species (208) of aphids originally described from the region are also indicated.

Relevant references are provided. Total number of genera and species so far known from

the area now stand at 198 and 653 respectively.

INTRODUCTION

Ghosh (1974c) recorded 344 species under

142 genera of aphids, known till 1968, from

Indian subcontinent. Since then 311 more spe-

cies have either been described or recorded

from the region under 123 genera, of which

57 genera were already known. Considering

two synonyms from the earlier list (79 & 312)

the total number of species so far known,

comes to 653 under 198 genera. In the pre-

sent list, no species has been recorded from

_ Sri Lanka. However a number of species have

been recorded from Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan

and Pakistan and a list for each of these be-

ing given below. Out of these, some are known

only from one of the above areas and are de-

noted by abbreviations namely Bh—Bhutan,

N—Nepal, P—Pakistan, S—Sikkim; the ones

which are known in one or more adjacent

countries in addition to India are denoted by

1 Accepted July 1975.

the same abbreviations prefixed by (+); if

there is no such abbreviation, the species is

then known only from India. References in

the parentheses relate to the first record. The

genera (22) and the species (208) described

as new from this geographical area have been

marked (**) and (*) respectively.

Taxonomic status of some of the species

recorded earlier (Ghosh, op cit.) have now

been changed. Following the serial numbers

of the first list, these are:

No. 16. Aphidura sp., now’ described as

_ Aphidura bharatia, David, Sekhon, Bindra.

No. 57. Betacallis odaiensis Takahashi,

should be Betacallis querciphaga Basu, Ghosh

Raychaudhuri.

No. 79. Capitophorus vernoniae Ghosh is

now considered as a synonym of Subovatomy-

zus leucosceptri Basu (No. 324).

No. 114. Cinara sp. near schimitscheki Bor-

ner, has now been described as Cinara atro-

tibialis David and Rajasingh.

No. 247. Myzocallis bambusifoliae Takah-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ashi, is now considered as a synonym of Ya-

kecallis arundinariae Essig.

No. 276. Pemphigus lichtensteni Tull. is now

considered as a synonym of P. immunis Buck-

ton.

No. 312. Schoutedenia bougaivillae (Theo.)

is now considered as a synonym of S. lutea

(v.d. Goot) (No. 313).

No. 326. Tetraneura heterohirsuta Carver &

Basu is now considered as a Sao of T.

radicicola Strand.

No. 336. Tricaudatas polygoni tuberculatus

H.R.L. & Basu is now considered as a syn-

onym of Tricaudatas polygoni Nariz.

No. 341. Unipterus sp. has now been des-

cribed as Unipterus (Paoliella) nirmalae

David.

Further records from Nepal:

Since publication of last list (Ghosh 1974),

Sharma (1968), Chakrabarti & Raychaudhuri

(1971) and Ghosh, Basu & Raychaudhuri

(1973) recorded 52 species from Nepal, of

which 47 are also known from India; follow-

ing the serial nos. of the earlier list and also

the present list these are:

3, 19, 223/24. 30331, 34. 36.953; 58,635.90!

120, 124, 141, 149, 150, 161, 169, 171, 191,

194; 2015 204; 213) 220; 222-9223; 2282 231,

255;''256, 206, 279, 238i; 299 3015 303. 307;

313, 316, 328, 333, 335, 389, 468, 506, and

the rest denoted by serial nos. 369, 375, 395,

571, 618, are known only from Nepal.

Further records from Sikkim:

Since publication of last list (Ghosh, op.

cit.), Ghosh M. R., Ghosh A. K., Raychaud-

huri (1971, 1971a), Ghosh, Banerjee, Ray-

chaudhuhi (1971), Raychaudhuri & Chatterjee

(1974) recorded 65 species from Sikkim of

which 56 species are also known from India

and or other areas; following the serial num-

bers of the earlier list and the present list,

these are:

D102, 135, Sele

203, 2105 220230:

292, 300, di Qi 328

376, 377. Oy os A0o:

436, 467, 471, 475, 476, 480, 481, 488, 506,

507, 546, 577, 580, 593, 617, 636, 648, 651

and the rest denoted by serial numbers 361,

385, 388, 479, 481,

known only from Sikkim.

Records of aphid-species from Bhutan:

In the earlier list, which covers the period

upto 1968, (Ghosh, op. cit.) no aphid species

was listed from Bhutan. Since then Ghosh ef

al. (1971) and Ghosh, L. K. (1972) recorded

24 species from the region, of which 15 are

known from other regions of the subcontinent;

following the serial numbers of the earlier

and the present lists these are:

2,933 98, 74119, 19152200) 201 ain 2278

247, 256, 333, 529, 643, and the rest denoted

by serial numbers 346, 361, 400, 511, 517,

570, 603, 615, 652 are known only from Bhu-

tan.

Further records from Pakistan:

Three species namely 594, 604, 619 have

141,

240,

336,

430,

OS i 27 810s

1 LOOL ie ey,

Don Oa oom ook

354, 366, 367, 374,

been listed in the present list from Pakistan |

of which two namely 594, 604 are known only

from Pakistan.

Part III

(The serial numbers of the present list has

been continued from earlier list; since 79, 312

have now been synonymised with nos. 324,

& 313, the present list starts from 343 instead

of 345).

343** Acutosiphon obliquoris Basu, Ghosh,

Raychaudhuri, Carex spp., (Basu ef al.

1970).

344 = Acyrthosiphon gossypii Mordv., Sop- |

hora tomentosa (Verma & Singh 1975).

345. A. kondoi Shinji & Kondo, Medicago

sativa (David & Ghorpade 1974).

i a iia i Ee ee

547, 584, 589, 616 are

346

347

348

349+

356*

Bp *

ADDITIONS TO INDIAN APHIDS

A. pelargonii (Kitb.), Host plant un-

identified (Ghosh et al. 1971b).

A. phaseoli Chakrabarti, Ghosh, Ray-

chaudhuri, Phaseolus sp. (Chakrabarti

et al. 197la).

A. soldatovi? Mordv., Host plant un-

identified (David et al. 1969).

A. spiraeae canescentis Chakrabarti &

Raychaudhuri, Sipraea canescens

(Ghosh et al. 1969a, as A. spiraeae N.

sp.. Chakrabarti & Raychaudhuri

1974).

A. (Metopolophium) chandrani David

& Narayanan, Bromus uniloides, Poa

annua (David & Narayanan 1968).

A. (Metopolophium) — darjeelingensis

L. K. Ghosh, Hypericum sp., (Ghosh,

L. K. 1970b).

A. (Metopolophium) euryae (Takaha-

shi), Eurya japonica (Ghosh 1974a).

A. (Metopolophium) simaensis Chak-

rabarti & Raychaudhuri, Host plant

unidentified (Chakrabarti et al. 1974).

A. (Micropophium) — rubiformosanus

(Takahashi), Rubus ellipticus, Rubus

rosaefolia (Ghosh et al. 1971d).

Aiceona longisetosa Ghosh & Raych-

audhuri, Host Plant unidentified (Ghosh

M. R. & Raychaudhuri 1973).

A. pallida Ghosh & Raychoudhuri,

Host plant unidentified (Ghosh & Ray-

chaudhuri 1972a).

A. paraosugii Ghosh, Ghosh, Raychaud-

huri, Host plant unidentified (Ghosh

et al. 1971d).

A. pseudosugii David, Sekhon, Bindra,

Machilus odoratissima (David et. al.

1970c).

A. retipennis David, Narayanan, Raja-

singh, Host plant unidentified (David

et al. 1970).

A. robustisetosa Ghosh & Raychaud-

361*

362*

3037

364*

365%

366

367%

368

369

370*

371

ai) De

373

374*

huri, Litsaea polyantha (Ghosh M. R.

& Raychaudhuri 1973).

Akkaia bhutanica L. K. Ghosh, Host

plant unidentified, (L. K. Ghosh 1972b).

A. neopolygoni Ghosh, Ghosh, Ray-

chaudhuri, Polygonum sp. (Ghosh,

M. R. et al. 1970).

Allotrichosiphum assamense Raychaud-

huri, Ghosh, Banerjee, Ghosh, Quer-

cus dealbata (Ghosh et al. 1971 as A.

kashicola; Raychaudhuri et al. 1973).

Amphicercidus tuberculatus David,

Narayanan, Rajasingh, Host plant un-

identified (David et al. 1970).

Anocaudus taxus Ghosh, Chakrabarti,

Chowdhuri, Raychaudhuri, Taxus bac-

cata (Ghosh et al. 1969a).

Anomalosiphum indigoferae | Ghosh,

Ghosh, Raychaudhuri, /ndigofera sp.,

(Ghosh M. R. eft al. 1970 as A. pithe-

colobi Ghosh et al. 197la).

Anthracosiphoniella maculatum Basu,

Asplenium esculantum, Dryopteris

mollis, Athyrium sp., (Basu 1969a).

Aphis affinis del Guercio, Mentha viri-

dis, Mentha slyvestris (David & Ghor-

pade 1974).

A. euphorbiae

hercta (Chakrabarti

O72):

A. leptorhynchus David, Sekhon, Bin-

dra, Cyathula tomentosa (David et al.

1970a).

A. polygonaceae Matsumura, Rumex

acetosella (Chowdhuri et al. 1969).

Thomas, Euphorbia

& Raychaudhuri

A. rhamniphila David, Narayanan,

Rajasingh, Urtica sp. (David et al.

1971a).

A. rhoicola Hille Ris Lambers, Rumex

sp., (David et al. 1971).

A. ruborum longisetosus Basu, Rubus

ellipticus, Rubus lineatus (Basu 1969).

375

376"

377.

378

319"

380

381*

Soya

383

384*

385

386

387*

388*

389

390

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Astegopteryx sp., Bambusa sp., (Shar-

ma 1968). N

Aulacorthum dasi Ghosh, Basu, Ray-

chaudhuri, plant of compositae (Ghosh

et al. 1970). +§

A. magnoliae (Essig & Kuwana), Cucur-

bita moschata, cucurbita pepo, Luffa

acutangula (Basu 1969). FS)

A. nipponicum (Essig & Kuwana),

Paederia foetida (Basu 1969).

A. rhamni Ghosh, Ghosh, Raychaud-

huri, Callistemon linearis, Eurya sp.,

Rhamnus_ nepalensis (Ghosh, M. R.

et al. 1970) +§$

A. scripi v.d. Goot., Scleria cochinensis,

Scleria alata, (David et al. 1969).

A. sensoriatus David, Narayanan, Raja-

singh, Host plant unidentified creeper

(David et al. 1970).

A. (Anaulacorthum) fagopyri Ghosh &

Raychaudhuri, Fagopyram cymosum

(Ghosh & Raychaudhuri 1972a).

A. (Neomyzus) anthraxoni (Takaha-

shi), unidentified grass (Basu 1969).

A. (Neomyzus) dendrobii Basu, Den-

drobium sp., (Basu 1969a).

A. (Neomyzus) primulum Ghosh,

Banerjee, Raychaudhuri, Primula sp.,

(Ghosh et al. 197la). S

A. (Perillaphis) perillae (Shinji), Peri-

lla frutescens, Perilla oscimoides (Basu

1969).

Betcallis prunicola Basu, Ghosh, Ray-

chaudhuri, Prunus cerasus (Basu et al.,

In press).

B. sikkimensis Basu, Ghosh, Raychaud-

huri, Quercus sp., (Basu et al. 1974) S

Brachycaudus_ persicicola (Bois.), Ag-

eratum conyzoides, Crataeja_religiosa

and unidentified host. (Sharma 1968).

B. (Thuleaphis)? amygdalis (Schou-

391F*

BOD s

393

394

8955

396

3oT.

3985

399*

400*

401*

402*

403

404*

405*

tedon), Fagopyrum cymosum (Chakra-_

barti et al. 1972).

Brevitrichosiphon mukerjii Raychaud-

huri, Ghosh, Banerjee, Ghosh, Host

plant unidentified (Raychaudhuri et al.

W733 )

Calaphis hetulaphoides Quednau, Betula

sp., (S. Chakrabarti, in litt.)

Calaphis sp., Alnus nepalensis (Basu —

1969).

C. juglandis (Goetze). Juglans regia

(Chakrabarti et al. 1972). |

C. nepalensis Quednau, Juglans regia |

(Quednau 1973). N|

Capitophorus archangelskii | Nevsky, |

Artemisia vulgaris (Ghosh et al.

1970d). |

C. himalayensis Ghosh, Ghosh, Ray- |

chaudhuri, Host plant unidentified |

(Ghosh et al. 1971d).

C. indicus Ghosh, Ghosh, Raychaud-

huri, Litsaea sp., (Ghosh ef al. 1970d).

C. polygoni Ghosh, Ghosh, Raychaud- |

huri, Polygonum sp., (Ghosh et al. |

1971d). |

Casimira bhutanensis Ghosh, Basu, |

Raychaudhuri, Host plant unidentified —

(Ghosh et al. 1971d). Bh |

Cavariella biswasi Ghosh, Basu, Ray- |

chaudhuri, Salix sp., (Ghosh et al. |

1969). |

C. simlaensis Chaudhuri, Basu, Ray- |

chaudhuri, Sanicula europea (Chowd- |

huri et al. 1969a).

Cerataphis orchidearum (Westwood), |

Aerides feildeingii (Basu 1969).

Ceratoglyphina bambusae bengalensis |

L. K. Ghosh, Bambusa sp. (L. Ki

Ghosh 1972c). |

Ceratovacuna indica Ghosh, Pal, Ray- |

chaudhuri, Bambusa sp., (Ghosh, M. R.

et al., In press). |

406

-407*

408*

409%

410

41i

412*

413*

414*

415

416

ADDITIONS TO INDIAN APHIDS

C. graminum v.d. Goot., Grass (Ghosh

et al. 1970 as Ceratovacuna sp. B.).

C. perglandulosa Basu, Ghosh, Ray-

chaudhuri Gressum prothama, Saccha-

rum officinarium (Basu et al. in press).

C. silvestrii (Takahashi), Bambusa sp.,

(Hille Ris Lambers & Basu 1966 as

Oregma subglandulosa sp., Ghosh

1973). a)

C. spinulosa Ghosh & Raychaudhuri,

Ischemum albens (Ghosh & Raychaud-

huri 1972a).

Cervaphis cambodiensis Takahashi,

Amoora sp., Mixacos — penniculata,

Pterospermum sp., (Ghosh, Banerjee,

Raychaudhuri 1971).

C. quercus Takahashi, Quercus grif-

fithi (Raychaudhuri PL. 480 Tech.

Rept. 1974).

Chaetosiphon chaetosiphon indica

Chakrabarti & Ghosh, Rosa sp., (Cha-

krabarti & Ghosh 1970; David et al.

1970 recorded the nominate species

Chaetosiphon chaetosiphon but perhaps

that record would refer to the present

subspecies).

C. glaber David, Rajasingh, Narayanan,

Rosa macrophylla (David et al.

1970a).

C. gracilicornis David, Rajasingh, Na-

rayanan, Rosa macrophylla (David et

al. 1970a).

C. tetrahoda (Walker), Rosa sp., (Da-

vid et al. 1970a).

C. (Pentatrichopus) heterotrichus, Cha-

krabarti, Ghosh, Raychaudhuri, Salvia

sp., (Chakrabarti et al. 197la).

Chaitophorus dorocola Mats., Populus

sp., (Chakrabarti, S., in litt.).

C.? populialbae (Bayer), vagrant on

Solanum sp., (David et al. 1971).

C. popyleti Panzer, Populus alba (Ver-

420*

421*

422

423

424*

425%

426*

427*

428*

429

430*

431*

432*

433*

434*

ma 1969).

C. simlaensis Chakrabarti, Host plant

unidentified, (Chakrabarti, S., in litt.).

Chromaphis hirsutustibis ‘Kumar &

Lavinge, Juglans regia (Kumar & Lav-

inge 1970; Sharma 1968 as Chromaphis

sp., from Nepal). +N

Chuansicallis chengtuensis Tao, Phyl-

lanthus sp., (A. K. Ghosh Coll.).

Cinara sp., Picea morinda (Chowdhuri

et al. 1969).

C. abieticola tenuipes Chakrabarti &

Ghosh, ? Abies sp., (Chakrabarti er al.

1974).

C. (Lachniella) atroalbipes David, Na-

rayan, Rajasingh, Pinus sp., (David et

al. \990)::

Clethrobius dryobius Chakrabarti &

Raychaudhuri, Prunus cerasus, (Ghosh,

Basu, Raychaudhuri 1970 as comes;

Chakrabarti, S., in lit.).

Cranaphis indica Chakrabarti & Ray-

chaudhuri, Arundinaria sp., (Chakra-

barti, S., in litt.).

Cryptaphis rostrata Chakrabarti &

Ghosh, plant of Labiatae (Chakrabarti

et al. 1974).

Cryptomyzus taoi indica Ghosh & Ray-

chaudhuri, Leoneuras sibricus, Leucas

aspera (Ghosh & Raychaudhuri 1972).

Cryptosiphum artemisae, Buckton, Ar-

temisia vulgaris (Basu 1969) +§

Dactynotus brachysiphon Verma, Pre-

nanthes sp., (Verma 1969).

D. fagopyri Chowdhuri, Basu, Chakra-

barti, Raychaudhuri, Fagopyrum cymo-

sum (Chowdhuri et al. 1969).

D. formosanus crepidis Ghosh, Ghosh,

Raychaudhuri, Crepis japonica (Ghosh

et al. 1971b).

D. kumaoni Banerjee,

chaudhuri, Cnicus argyracanthus,

Ghosh, Ray-

Tri-

435*

436*

437

438*

439

440*

441**

442*

443

444

445%

AAG*

447*

448*

449*

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

cholepis furcata (Banerjee et al. 1969).

D. simlaensis Chakrabarti, Ghosh, Ray-

chaudhuri, Erigeron sp., (Chakrabarti

et al. 1974d).

D. tanaceti indica L. K. Ghosh, plant

of compositae. (L. K. Ghosh 1971,

earlier Ghosh et al. 1970, recorded as

D. tanceti). aE)

Doraphis? populi Maskell, Populus sp.,

(David et al. 1971).

Dysaphis atinus Ghosh, Basu, Ray-

chaudhuri, Cnicus wailichi (Ghosh et

ALINI69)::

D. longipilosa? (Mordy.), Host plant

unidentified (David et al. 1969).

D. multisetosa Basu, Pyrus communis

(Basu 1969a).

FEoessigia indica David, Rajasingh, Na-

rayanan, Host plant unidentified (Da-

vid et al. 1972).

Eomyzus levipes Basu & Raychaudhuri,

Eupatorium odoratum (Basu & Ray-

chaudhuri 1974).

Eulachnus cembrae Borner, Pinus sp..,

(L. K. Ghosh 1970a).

E..? rielyi (Williams), Pinus sp., (David

& Rajasingh 1969).

Eumyzus darjeelingensis Basu & Ray-

chaudhuri, Hydrangea paniculata (Basu

& Raychaudhuri 1974).

Euthoracaphis heterohirsuta Ghosh &

Raychaudhuri, Host plant unidentified

(Ghosh & Raychaudhuri 1973).

E. longisetosa Ghosh & Raychaudhuri,

Senecio sp., (Ghosh & Raychaudhuri

1973).

Eutrichosiphum

Ghosh, Raychaudhuri,

(Basu et al. 1972b).

E. assamense Ghosh, Basu, Raychaud-

huri Quercus fenestrata (Ghosh et al.

1969).

Basu,

Sp.,

arunachalii

Quercus

450

451*

452

453*

454*

455

456

457*

459°

460

461

462*

463

E. lithocarpi Maki, Quercus moniana,

Quercus coccinea, Quercus serrata

(David 1956).

E. makii Raychaudhuri & Chatterjee,

Glochidion sp., (Raychaudhuri & Chat-

terjee 1974).

FE. - pseudopasaniae Szel. Ficus sp.,

Glochidion sp., Quercus dealbata,

Quercus sp., (Ghosh, Banerjee, Ray-

chaudhuri 1971).

FE. pyri Chakrabarti, Ghosh, Raychaud-

huri, Pyrus communis (Chakrabarti et

Gil WED).

FE. pasaniae sankarii Raychaudhuri,

Ghosh, Banerjee, Ghosh, Host plant

unidentified (Raychaudhuri ef _ al.

1973).

FE. quercifoliae Raychaudhuri, Ghosh,

Banerjee, Ghosh, Quercus sp., (Ray-

chaudhuri et al. 1973).

FE. sinense Raychaudhuri, Pterosper-

mum sp., Randia sp., (Raychaudhuri,

PL 480 Tech. Rept., 1974).

E. takahashii Basu, Ghosh, Raychaud- |

huri, Glochidion sp., (Basu et al., in

press).

Eutrichosiphum (Neotrichosiphum) sp.,

A. Glochidion

Chatterjee 1974).

E. (Neotrichosiphum) subinoyi Ray-

chaudhuri, Ghosh, Banerjee, Ghosh,

Pterospermum sp., (Raychaudhuri et

al. 1973 as under Eutrichosiphum;

Raychaudhuri & Chatterjee 1974).

Geoica sp., Grass (Raychaudhuri, PL

480 Tech. Rept., 1974).

Glyphina onigurumi (Shinji), Atriplex

sp., (Raychaudhuri PL 480 Tech. Rept.,

1974).

Greenidea aborensis Ghosh, Plant of |

Meliaceae (Ghosh 1974a).

G. decaspermi Takahashi,

sp. (Raychaudhuri & |

Psidium —

464

466*

467*

468*

469*

470

47\*

a72**

ADDITIONS TO INDIAN APHIDS

guajava (David et al. 1969).

G. euginae Takahashi, Eugenia tetrago

(Ghosh et al. 1970).

G. himansui Raychaudhuri, Ghosh,

dhuri, Host plant unidentified (Ghosh

et al. 1970d).

G. humansui

Banerjee, Ghosh, Randia

chaudhuri et al. 1973).

G. longicornis Ghosh, Ghosh, Raychau-

dhuri, Engelhardtia sp., Senecio scan-

dens (Ghosh M. R. et al. 1970). +58

G. longirostris Basu, Schima _ wallichi,

Quercus sp., (Basu 1969). +N

G. photiniphaga Raychaudhuri, Ghosh,

Banerjee, Ghosh, Photinia sp., (Ray-

chaudhuri et al. 1973).

G. sinensis Raychaudhuri, Litchi sinen-

sis (Raychaudhuri, PL 480 Tech. Rept.,

1974).

G. symplocosis Ghosh, Basu, Raychaud-

huri, Symplocos lauriana (Ghosh ez al.

1969).

G. (Neogreenidea) ayyari Raychaud-

huri, Ghosh, Banerjee, Ghosh, Host

plant unidentified (Raychaudhuri ef al.

193):

G. (Neogreenidea) longisetosa Ray-

chaudhuri, Ghosh, Banerjee, Ghosh,

Host plant unidentified (Raychaudhuri

et al. 1973).

G. (Neogreenidea)

Raychaudhuri, Ghosh,

sp., (Ray-

querciphaga Ray-

chaudhuri, Ghosh, Banerjee, Ghosh,

Quercus sp., (Raychaudhuri ef al.

1973):

G. (Trichosiphum) bucktonis, Ghosh,

Basu, Raychaudhuri, Duabanga_ son-

narotoides, Villebrunia __ integrifolia,

(Ghosh ef al. 1970) +§

G. (Trichosiphum) | formosana_ heeri

Raychaudhuri, Ghosh, Banerjee, Ghosh,

Duabanga_ sonnarotoides, Engelhardtia

477*

478*

479*

480*

4381*

482*

483

484 **

4g5**

486*

437*

438*

jambolina, Engelhardtia spicata (Ray-

chaudhuri et al. 1973 as G.(T.) heeri).

G. (Trichosiphum) gigantea Ghosh &

Raychaudhuri, Host plant unidentified

(Ghosh & Raychaudhuri 1972a).

G. (Trichosiphum) manii Ghosh, Basu,

Raychaudhuri, Host plant unidentified

(Ghosh et al. 1970).

G. (Trichosiphum) prunicola Ghosh,

Banerjee, Raychaudhuri, Prunus sp.,

(Ghosh et al. 197la). S

G. (Trichosiphum) schoutedeni Ray-

chaudhuri, Ghosh, Banerjee, Ghosh,

Duabanga sonnarotoides (Raychaud-

huri et al. 1973). +§

G. (Trichosiphum) sikkimensis Ray-

chaudhuri, Ghosh, Banerjee, Ghosh,

Quercus sp., (Raychaudhuri ef al.

1973). S

Greenideoida (Paragreenideoida) cey-

loniae bhalukpongensis Ghosh, Baner-

jec, Raychaudhuri, Uvaria sp., (Ghosh

et al. 1971).

G. noonadanae Heie, Premora_ sp.,

(Raychaudhuri PL 480 Tech. Rept.,

1974).

Hemipodaphis monstrata David, Nara-

yanan, Rajasingh, ? Plant of Liliaceae

(David et al. 197la).

Himalayaphis anemones Ghosh & Ver-

ma, Anemone sp., (Ghosh & Verma

1973).

Holotrichosiphon russellae Ghosh,

Ghosh, Raychaudhuri, Quercus dealbata,

Quercus sp., (Ghosh et al. 197Ic).

Hoplocallis microsetosus Quednau &

Chakrabarti, Quercus incana (Chakra-

barti, S., in litt.).

Hyalomyzus raoi Hille Ris Lambers,

Rubus sp., (Basu 1969 as Hyalomyzus

sp., Hille Ris Lambers 1973). 2S)

439%

490

491

492

493%

494"

495%*

496**

497 **

49g *

499

500*

501s

502%

503

504*

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

H. scrabipes David & Narayanan, plant

of compositae (David & Narayanan

1969).

H. sensoriatus (Masen), Host plant un-

identified (Ghosh et al. 1971d).

Impatientinum 2 asiaticum Nevsku,

Host plant unidentified (David et al.

1971).

I. impatiensae dalhousiensis Verma,

Smilax parviflora (Verma 1969a).

Indiaphis crassicornis Basu, Rhododen-

dron sp., (Basu 1969a).

!. rostrata Ghosh & Raychaudhuri,

Rhododendron sp., (Ghosh & Ray-

chaudhuri 1972a).

Indocinara hottesis Ghosh, Basu, Ray-

chaudhuri, Plectranthus coetsa (Ghosh

et al. 1969).

Indoidiopterus _geranii | (Chowdhuri,

Basu, Chakrabarti, Raychaudhuri),

Geranium sp., (Chowdhuri et al. 1969a

as Capitophorus geranii; Chakrabarti

et al. 1972).

Indomyzus sensoriatus Ghosh, Ghosh,

Raychaudhuri, Host plant unidentified

(Ghosh ef al. 197id).

Indonipponaphis tuberculata Ghosh &

Raychaudhuri, Quercus dealbata (Ghosn

& Raychaudhuri 1973).

Jacksonia papillata Theobald,

(L. K. Ghosh 1972).

Kaburagia ailanthi Chowdhuri, Basu,

Chakrabarti, Raychaudhuri, Ailanthus

sp., (Chowdhuri et al. 1969).

Lachnus acutihirsutus Kumar & Burk-

hardt, Quercus incana (Kumar & Burk-

hardt 1970).

Longirostris raji Kumar & Burkhardt,

Salvia sp., (Kumar & Burkhardt 1970).

Machilaphis machili Takahashi, Mach-

ilus odoratissima (Ghosh et al. 1970).

Macromyzus indicus David & Naraya-

Grass

S075

05,

SUNY

SIO

Sila

S38

514*

516*

517

nan, unidentified weed (David & Na-

rayanan 1969).

M. polypodicola (Yakahashi), Aspleni-

um esculantum (Ghosh et al. 1970d).

M. woodwardiae (Takahashi), Aspleni-

um esculentuin, Athyrium sp., (Ghosa

et al. 1970d). +S +N

Macrosiphoniella hikosanensis matsu-

murana Ghosh, Basu, Raychaudhuri,

Artemisia vulgaris (Ghosh et al. 1970

as M. matsumurana). + Si

M. lambersi Verma, Ariemisia scoparia —

(Verma 1969). |

M. spinipes rhododendri, Ghosh, Basu, |

Raychaudhuri, Rhododendron arboreun

(Ghosh et al. 1969).

M. sudhakaris Banerjee, Ghosh, Ray-

chaudhuri, Achellia millefolium (Ban-

erjee et al. 1969).

Macrosiphoniella sp., Host plant un- |

identified, (Ghosh, L. K. 1972b). Bh.

Macrosiphum aulacorthoides David, |

Narayanan, Rajasingh, Host plant un- |

identified (David et al. 1970). |

M. fagopyri Ghosh & Raychaudhuri, |

Fagopyrum sp., (Ghosh & Raychaud-

huri 1972). |

M. pseudogeranii (Chowdhuri, Basu,

Chakrabarti, Raychaudhuri), Geranium |

lucidum (Chowdhuri et al. 1969 as M.

geranil).

M. smilacifoliae Takashashi, Smilax

ferox, Photinia sp., (Basu et al. 1974)...

M. spinotibium Ghosh, Ghosh, Ray-,

chaudhuri, Host plant unidentified |

(Ghosh M. R. eft al. 1970).

Macrosiphum sp., Host plant unidenti-

fied (Ghosh, L. K. 1972b). Bh

Macrosiphum (Sitobion) microspinula- |

tum David, Rajasingh, Narayanan,

Arthraxon lancifolius (David et al.)

1972).

p19*

52()*

52 1*

p22*

523

524*

25 *

ao3*

ADDITIONS TO INDIAN APHIDS

M. (Sitobion) plectranthi Ghosh, Ray-

chaudhuri, Plectranthus coetsa (Ghosh,

M. R. et al. 1970).

M. (Sitobion) pseudoluteum Ghosh,

Mandenvillia sp., Cymbidium eburnum

(Ghosh 1969).

M. (Sitobion) scrabipes L. K. Ghosh,

Triticum sp., (Ghosh, L. K. 1972a).

Maculolachnus rubi Ghosh & Raychau-

dhuri, Rubus sp., (Ghosh & Raychaud-

huri 1972a).

Maculolachnus submaculata (Walker),

Rosa sp., (David et al. 1969).

M. (Neomasonaphis) inulae Ghosh &

Raychaudhuri, Inula cappa, Rhododen-

dron sp., (Ghosh & Raychaudhuri

972). |

Matsumuraja indica Ghosh, Ghosh,

Raychaudhuri, Rubus sp., (Ghosh et al.

1971c).

M. nuditerga Hille Ris Lambers, Host

plant unidentified (Ghosh & Raychaud-

huri 1972a).

M. rubifoliae TYakashashi, Host plant

unidentified (Ghosh ef al. 1971c).

M. urticae Ghosh, Ghosh, Raychaud-

huri, plant of urticaceae (Ghosh et al.

1971Ic).

Megoura cajanae Ghosh, Ghosh, Ray-

chaudhuri, Cajanas cajan (Ghosh M. R.

et al. 1970, Syn. M. abnormis L. K.

Ghosh 1970). + Bh

M. pallipes Basu. Indigofera teysmanni

(Basu 1969).

Megouroparsus dooarsis Ghosh & Ray-

chaudhuri, plant of leguminosae (Ghosh

& Raychaudhuri 1969a).

Melanaphis arundinariae (TYakahashi),

Bamboo (Ghosh e¢ al. 1970).

M. meghalayensis Raychaudhuri &

Banerjee, Bamboo (Raychaudhuri &

Banerjee 1974).

534*

535%

544*

545

546*

547*

548*

549+

M. meghalayensis bengalensis Raychau-

dhuri & Banerjee, Grass (Raychaud-

huri & Banerjee 1974).

M. vandergooti Raychaudhuri & Ban-

erjee, Oryza sativa (Raychaudhuri &

Banerjee 1974).

Mesocallis alnicola Ghosh, Alnus nepal-

ensis (Ghosh 1974b).

M. obtusirostris Ghosh,

lensis (Ghosh 1974b).

Metanipponaphis assamensis Ghosh &

Raychaudhuri, Castanopsis tribuloides

(Ghosh & Raychaudhuri, 1973; Ghosh

et al. 1970 as Metanipponaphis sp.)

M. echinata Ghosh, Castanopsis histrix

(Ghosh 1974).

M. silvestrii (Takahashi), Lindera sp.,

(Ghosh 1974b).

Micromyzus granotiae

Raychaudhuri, Granotia sp.,

en szal. (970d).

M. mawphlongensis Ghosh, Polypodium

sp., (Ghosh 1974a).

M. montanus (Yakahashi), Astilbe rivul-

aris David et al. 1969 as Taiwanomy-

zus, (Ghosh M. R. eft al. 1970).

Micromyzodium — strobilanthi L. K.

Ghosh, Strobilanthus dalhousiensis

(L. K. Ghosh 1970).

Mindarus abietinus Koch, Abies _ sp.,

(Ghosh 1974b).

Mollitrichosiphum — (Metatrichosiphon)

alni Ghosh, Ghosh, Raychaudhuri,

Alnus nepalensis (Ghosh et al. 1970d).

M. (Metatrichosiphon) buddleiae

Ghosh, Banerjee, Raychaudhuri, Bud-

dleia sp., (Ghosh et al. 197la).

M. (Metatrichosiphon) Kazirangi

Ghosh, Host plant unidentified (Ghosh

1974a).

M. (Metatrichosiphon)

Rhus sp., (Ghosh 1974a).

Alnus nepa-

Ghosh, Ghosh,

(Ghosh

rhusae Ghosh,

DOs

55)|

525

35)8

554*

559

550"

Dore

Spee

560*

SOU

566*

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

M. (Metrichosiphon) shinjiti Raychaud-

huri, Ghosh, Banerjee, Ghosh, Quercus

sp., (Raychaudhuri et al. 1973).

M. (Metatrichosiphon) taiwanus (VYak.),

Rhus sp., (Raychaudhuri, PL 480 Tech.

Rept. 1974).

Myzaphis avriliosa David, Rajasingh,

Narayanan, Rosa macrophylla (David

et al. 1970a).

M. turanica Nevskii; Rosa sp., (L. K.

Ghosh 1969).

Myzocallis (Dryomyzus) polychaetus

David, Quercus semicarpifolia (David

1969).

Myzocallis sp., Prunus sp., (Sharma

1968, may be Tinocalloides montanus

Basu). N

Myzus brevisiphon Basu, Polygonum

capitatum (Basu 1969a).

M. corylopsis n. sp., Corylopsis sp.,

(Raychaudhuri PL 480 Tech. Rept.

1974).

M. filicis Basu, Fern (Basu 1969a).

M. indicus Basu & Raychaudhuri,

Boehmeria sp., (Basu & Raychaudhuri

1976).

M. lefroyi Basu & Raychaudhuri, Fern

(Basu & Raychaudhuri 1976).

M. leptotrichus David, Narayanan,

Rajasingh, Polygonum runcinatum (Da-

vid et al. 1972).

M. maculocorpus Basu & Raychaudhuri,

Grass (Basu & Raychaudhuri 1976).

M. manoji Basu & Raychaudhuri, Host

plant unidentified (Basu & Raychaud-

huri 1976). )

M. meghalayensis Basu & Raychaud-

huri, Host plant unidentified (Basu &

Raychaudhuri 1976).

M. mumecola (Mats). Prunus cornuta

(Chakrabarti et al. 1970).

M. obtusirostris David, Narayanan, Ra-

567

568

HOY)

570

57H

572*

503%

574*

d/5

5/0

S77

Doe

See

DOU

jasingh, Grass, Bamboo,

(David et al. 197l1a).

M. ranunculinus (Walker), Host plant

unidentified (Ghosh e¢ al. 1971c).

M. sigesbeckicola Strand, Sigesbeckia

orientalis, Eupatorium odoratum, Mon-

tana bippinnefifida, Perilla sp., (Raycha-

udhuri, PL 480 Tech. Rept., 1974).

M. umefoliae (Shinji) Galium aparine,

Lindera sp.,

Rubia cordifolia (Raychaudhuri, PL 480 |

Tech. Rept., 1974).

Myzus sp., Host

(Ghosh et al. 1971d).

Myzus sp., Malus sp., (Ghosh

S73). N

Nasonovia (Kakimia) rostrata David &

plant unidentified

Nasonovia (Kakimia) rostrata David & |

Hameed 1974).

Neoacyrthosiphon rhododendri Ghosh, |

Rhododendron

Ghosh, Raychaudhuri,

arboreum (Ghosh, M. R. et al. 1970).

N. setosum Hille Ris Lambers & Basu, |

Pentapgeryum sp., (H. R. L. & Basu

1966 as Ericolophium).

N. taiheisanum (Takahashi), Rhododen- |

dron sp., (David & Rajasingh 1969 as |

Ericolophium taiheisanum).

N. taihensanum ovalifolii Ghosh, Ghosh, |

Raychaudhuri, Pieris ovalifolia (Ghosh, |

M. R. et al. 1970).

N. (Pseudoacyrthosiphon) holstii (Tak-—

ahashi), Rhododendron

(Ghosh & Raychaudhuri 1969).

N. (Pseudoacyrthosiphon)

dron sp., (Ghosh et al. 1973).

N. (Pseudoacyrthosiphon)

Ghosh, Anemone rivularis, Rhododen- |

dron sp., (Ghosh 1969). |

Neobetulaphis trichosiphon Quednau, |

Alnus sp., Betula sp., (Chakrabarti, S., |

in litt.). +§ |

Bh >

et al, |

arboreum |

nepalensis, |

Ghosh, Basu, Raychaudhuri, Rhododen- |

a ——

takahashii |

—

581*

ao2*

9o3**

584*

585

ADDITIONS TO INDIAN APHIDS

Nipponaphis holboelliae Ghosh & Ray-

chaudhuri, Holboellia latifolia (Ghosh

& Raychaudhuri 1973; Ghosh ef al.

1971b as Nipponaphis sp.)

N. manoji, Ghosh & Raychaudhuri,

Litsaea corymbosa, Litsaea polyanthi

(Ghosh & Raychaudhuri 1973; Ghosh

et al. 1971b as N. machilicola YVak.).

N. (Pseudonipponaphis) himalayensis

Ghosh & Raychaudhuri, Litsaea poly-

natha, Machilus sp., (Ghosh & Ray-

chaudhuri 1973; Ghosh, Banerjee, Ray-

chaudhuri 1971 as machiliphaga).

N. (Pseudonipponaphis) querciphaga

Ghosh & Raychaudhuri, Quercus sp.,

(Ghosh & Raychaudhuri 1973; Ghosh,

Banerjee & Raychaudhuri 1973 as

Nipponaphis sp.). S

Ovatus minutus (v.d. Goot) Leoneu-

rus sibricus (Ghosh & Raychaudhuri

586*

587

588*

#59*

220

591

592

593%

1972).

Paczoskia budhium Banerjee, Ghosh,

Raychaudhuri, Echinops cornigerus,

Inula cappa, Anaphilis sp., Blumea sp.,

(Banerjee et al. 1969).

Paratrichosiphum javanicum Raychaud-

huri, Alnus nepalensis (Basu 1969).

P. sensoriatum Ghosh, Host plant un-

identified (Ghosh 1974a).

P. sikkimensis Raychaudhuri, Ghosh,

Banerjee, Ghosh, Duabanga sonnaro-

toides (Raychaudhuri et al. 1973).

Paratrichosiphum sp., Lindera sp., (Da-

vid & Rajasingh 1969).

Paratrichosiphum sp., Styrax sp., (Ray-

chaudhuri, PL 480 Tech. Rept. 1974).

Paratrichosiphun — (Neoparatrichosiph-

um) flavum (Yakahashi), Ficus sp..

Glochidion sp., Quercus dealbata,

Quercus sp., (Raychaudhuri, PL 480

Tech. Rept., 1974).

P. (Neoparatrichosiphum) — raychaud-

594*

S95 °e

596%

609*

610

hurii Ghosh, Alnus nepalensis, Buddleia

sp., Quercus sp., (Ghosh 1969).

Pemphigus siphunculatus Hille Ris

Lambers, Populus ciliata (H.R.L.

1973), P

Pentatrichosiphum luteum Basu, Lit-

saea poiyantha, Buddleia sp., Lindera

sp., Quercus sp., (Basu 1969a).

Periphyllus bengalensis Ghosh & Ray-

chaudhuri, Acer sp., (Ghosh & Ray-

chaudhuri 1972a).

P. californiensis darjeelingensis David,

Host plant unidentified (Hille Ris Lam-

bers, in litt.).

P. himalayensis Chakrabarti, Acer sp.,

(Chakrabarti, S., in litt.).

P. pusillus Quednau & Chakrabarti,

Acer villosus (Chakrabarti, in litt.).

P. testudinacea (Fernie), Acer oblon-

gum (David et al. 1971).

P. viridis (Matsumura), Acer villosus

(Chakrabarti, S., in litt.).

Periphylius sp., Host plant unidentified

(Ghosh et al. 1971b).

Pleotrichophorus glandulosus (Kalt.),

Artemisia sp., (Ghosh ef al. 1971b). Bh

Prociphilus (Neoparacietus) — ghanii

H.R.L., Salix wallichiana (Hille Ris

Lambers 1973). P

Prociphilus sp., A. Fraxinus floribunda

Ghosh et al. 1970).

Prociphilus sp., B. Photinia notoniana

(Ghosh ef al. 1970).

Prociphilus sp., Host plant unidenti-

fied (Chowdhuri et al. 1969).

Pseudaphis abyssinica Hille Ris Lam-

bers, Carex filicina (Ghosh ef al.

19716):

Pseudoastegopteryx himalayensis Ghosh,

Pal, Raychaudhuri, Bamboo (Ghosh,

M.R. et al., in press).

Pseudoregma alexandri (Takahashi),

30)

611

612

O13F

620

621

622**

623*

624*

625**

626*

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Bamboo (Basu 1969).

Pseudotinocallis nigropunctata (Tao),

Phyllanthus sp., (A. K. Ghosh Coll.).

Pterocomma? populifoliae _ (Fitch),

Populus’ sp., (Ghosh M. R. et al.

1970).

Pyrolachnus imbricatus David, Nara-

yanan, Rajasingh, Prunus cornuta (Da-

vid et al. 197la).

Rhopalosiphonius longisetosus Chakra-

barti & Ghosh, Host plant unidentified

(Chakrabarti et al. 1974).

Rhopalosiphonicus sp., Host plant un-

identified (L. K. Ghosh 1972b). Bh

Rhopalosiphum yoksumi Ghosh, Ban-

erjee, Raychaudhuri, Poa sp., (Ghosh

et al. 197la). S

Schizaphis hypersiphonata Basu, Cype-

rus exhaltatus, Poa sp., (Baus 1969). +S

Schizaphis sp., Pyrus communis (Shar-

ma 1968). N

Schizoneurella indica Hille Ris Lam-

bers, Ulmus villosa, Ulmus sp., (Hille

Ris Lambers 1973). ae 1P

Semiaphis heraclei (Yakahashi), plant

of Umbelliferae (Raychaudhuri, PL

480 Tech. Rept., 1974).

Semiaphis sp., Host plant unidentified

(Chowdhuri et al. 1969).

Seratocallis takahashi Quednau &

Chakrabarti, Quercus sp., (Chakrabarti,

Si) im litt):

Shivaphis bambusicola (David, Raja-

singh, Narayanan), Bambusa sp., (Da-

vid et al. 1970b, as Cranaphis bambu-

sicola).

Sinomegoura photinae Takahashi, Pho-

tinia integrifolia (Basu 1969).

Subtakecallis brevisetosus Raychaud-

hurl & Pal, Bamboo (Raychaudhuri &

Pal 1974).

S. pilosa (David,

Narayanan, Raja-

627 *

628**

629%

630

631

OS 2%

633*

634*

635*

636**

O37,

638*

639*

singh), Bamboo (David, et al. 1970b,

as Cranaphis pilosa; Raychaudhuri &

Pal 1974).

Taiwanaphis randiae Ghosh, Banerjee,

Raychaudhuri, Randia sp., (Ghosh et

Ale TOMA

Taoia indica (Ghosh & Raychaudhur!),

Alnus nepalensis, Betula alnoides

(Ghosh & Raychaudhuri 1972; David

& Rajasingh 1969 as Eucraphis chuan-

sinensis).

Tetraneura (Tetraneurella) basui Hille ©

Ris Lambers, Grass (Hille Ris Lam- —

bers 1968-69).

Thecabius sp., Host plant unidentified |

(David et al. 1971).

Thoracaphis sp., Quercus

(Ghosh & Raychaudhuri 1973).

Tinocallis distincta Ghosh, Ghosh, Ray-

chaudhuri, Duabanga sp., (Ghosh, M.R. |

et al. 1970).

Tinocallis himalayensis Ghosh, Ghosh,

of Leguminosae |

Raychaudhuri, plant

(Ghosh eft al. 1971c).

T. indica

(Chakrabarti, S., in litt.).

T. magnoliae Ghosh & Raychaudhuri, |

Magnolia sp., (Ghosh & Raychaudhuri

1972).

Tinocalloides montanus Basu,

sp.).

phylla, Ficus sp., (Basu et al. 1974).

Tricaudatus indicus Ghosh, Basu, Ray- |

chaudhuri, Prinsepia utilis (Ghosh et al. |

1969).

Trichosiphonaphis gerberae Ghosh & |

Raychaudhuri, Gerbera macrophylla,

Gerbera sp., (Ghosh & Raychaudhuri —

dealbata |

Chakrabarti, ? Ulmus sp.,_

Prunus

cerasus, Prunus persica, Prunus puddum —

(Basu 1969; Kumar & Lavigne 1970

as Tuberdefectus eastopi nov. gen. et. |

+S)

Toxoptera schlingeri Tao, Ficus hetero- |

ADDITIONS TO INDIAN APHIDS

ID).

640 T. lonicerae (Uye), Hedyotis scandens,

Lonicera macrantha (Basu et al.

1974).

641 7. polygoniformosanus (Takahashi),

Polygonum _ perfoliatum, Polygonum

sp., (Basu 1969).

642* Tuberaphis indica Ghosh, Ghosh, Ray-

chaudhuri, Host plant unidentified

(Ghosh M. R., et al. 1970 as coreanus;

Ghosh et al. 1971b).

643 Tubercephalus sasaki (Matsumara),

Artemisia sp., [Basu 1969, as Trichosi-

phoniella sasaki (Mats)]. + Bh

644* Tuberculatus indicus L. K. Ghosh,

Quercus sp., (L. K. Ghosh 1972c).

645* T. nervatus Chakrabarti & Raychaud-

huri, Quercus sp., (Chakrabarti, S., in

litt.).

646 TT. paiki Hille Ris Lambers., Quercus

sp., (Chakrabarti, S., in litt.).

647** Tuberolachnus (Tuberolachinella) scle-

rata Hille Ris Lambers & Basu, Frio-

botrya petiolata (Hille Ris Lambers &

Basu 1966).

648* Vesiculaphis kuwani Ghosh, Basu, Ray-

chaudhuri, Lyonia ovalifolia (Ghosh et

al. 1970). +§

649* V. polygonicola (Basu), Polygonum

runciatum (Basu 1969a, as Myzakkia

polygonicola).

650* V. rhododendri Ghosh & Raychaudhuri,

Rhododendron sp., (Ghosh & Raycha-

udhuri 1972).

V. verbasci Chowdhuri, Basu, Chakra-

barti, Raychaudhuri; Polygonum ala-

tum; Polygonum chinense, Polygonum

runcinatum, Polygonum _ serrulatum,

Verbascum thapsus (Chowdhuri et al.

1969; Basu 1969 as Myzakkia himala-

yensis N. sp.) +§

Wahlereniella neoempetri Ghosh, Basu,

Raychaudhurit Host plant unidentified

(Ghosh et al. 1971b). Bh

Yamatocallis obscura (Ghosh, Ghosh,

Raychaudhuri), Host plant unidentified

(Ghosh et al. 1970b as Megalophylla-

phis obscura).

(a)

6527

653*

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to Dr. D. N. Raychaudhuri

Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta

and to Dr. S. Chakrabarti, Department of

Zoology, University of Kalyani for kindly sup-

plying information on their unpublished ma-

terial and to Dr. S. Khera, Deputy Director-

in-Charge for providing facilities to undertake

the present work. Thanks are also due to

numerous aphidologists in India and abroad

who have continued to mail their reprints and

render valuable assistance in supplying mate-

rial and information.

REFERENCES

BANERJEE, H., GHOSH, A. K. & RAYCHAUDHURI,

D. N. (1969): On a collection of aphids (Homop-

tera) from Kuti valley, West Himalaya. Oriental Ins.

— 3(3) :255-264.

new species

_ Bengal, India. ibid. 3(2) :169-186.

Basu, A. N. (1969): Further records of new

; and little known aphids (Homoptera) from West

Bengal, India. ibid. 3(4) :355-371.

(1969a): Four new genera and nine

of aphids (Homoptera) from West

Basu, R. C., & RAyYCHAUDHURI, D. N. (1974):

Two new species of aphids (Homoptera: Aphidi-

dae) from Eastern India. ibid. 8(4) :489-493.

(1976): Studies on the “Aphids

(Homoptera: Aphididae) from India XXV. The

genus Myzus with five new species from eastern

India. ibid. /0(1) :93-112.

Basu, R. C., GHosH, A. K. & RAYCHAUDHURI,

D. N. (1970): Studies on the aphids (Homoptera:

Aphididae) from Eastern India 4. A new genus and

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records of some sexual forms from Assam. Proc.

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Sr (1972): A new

species of Eutrichosiphum and notes on other new

records of aphids (Insecta: Homoptera) from NEFA

(Arunachal). Sci. & Cult. 38:494-495.

== (1974): Studies

on the aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) from Eas-

tern India VIII. New records of aphids from Assam.

ibid. 40:41-43.

Basu, R. C., GHosH, M. R. & RAYCHAUDHURI,

D. N. (1974a): <A study of the genus’ Betacallis

Matsumura with special reference to the species

from Northeast India XX. Oriental Ins. 8(2) :233-

238.

CHAKRABARTI, S. & GHOoSH, A. K. (1970): On

the rose infesting aphids (Insecta: Homoptera) in

India. Ind. J. Hort. 27(3 & 4) :226-232.

CHAKRABARTI, S. & RAYCHAUDHURI, D. N. (1972):

New records of aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae)

from Nepal. Curr. Sci. 41:858-859.

(1974): A new — subspecies and

some synonymies of aphid species (Homoptera:

Aphididae) from India. Oriental Ins. 8(3) :303-305.

CHAKRABARTI, S., GHOSH, A. K. & RAYCHAUDHURI,

D. N. (1970): Aphids (Homoptera) of Himachal

Pradesh, India III. ibid. 4(4) :447-452.

(1971): New records of aphids

(Insecta: Homoptera) from Uttar Pradesh, India.

Sei. & Cult. 37:247-248.

@li9/ia) 3 hinees news speciessvor

aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) from Northwest

Himalaya, India. Kontyu, 39(4) :368-372.

(1972): A new genus, a new spe-

cies and further records of aphids (Homoptera:

Aphididae) from the Kumaon Hills (North West

Himalaya), India. Oriental Ins. 6(3) :387-400.

(1974): Some new aphids (Homo-

ptera: Aphididae) from Himachal Pradesh, India.

ibid. 8(4) :521-530.

CHOWDHURI, A. N., Basu, R. C., CHAKRABARTI,

S. & RAYCHAUDHURI, D. N. (1969): Aphids (Homo-

ptera) of Simla (Himachal Pradesh), India. ibid.

3(1) :83-92.

CHOWDHURI, A. N., Basu, R. C. & RAYCHAUD-

HuRI, D. N. (1969a): A new species of Cavariella

del Guercio and. other newly recorded aphids

(Homoptera: Aphididae) from Simla, Himachal

Pradesh. Sci. & Cult. 35:334.

Davip, S. KANAKARAJ (1956): Additions to the

aphid fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

53 :479-482.

(Homoptera) from India. Oriental Ins. 3(1) :79-82.

Davip, S. KANAKARAJ & HAMEED, S. F. (1974):

Second species of Nascnovia kakimia complex

(Homoptera:

dia. ibid. 8(4) :503-504.

———— & GHORPADE,

species of aphids

Kumar D. (1974):

Two (Homoptera: Aphididae)

new to India and four others new to southern [n- |

dia. ibid. 8(2) :195-198.

——— & NARAYANAN, K. (1968):

Three

new species of aphids from South Western Hima-

layas in India Bull. Ent. 9(2) :99-103.

species of Cinara Curtis (Homoptera: Aphidoidea)

from Eastern India. Oriental Ins. 2(1):103-105.

= (lal).

(Insecta: Homoptera) from Assam, India,

zool. Soc., Calcutta, 22:151-157.

Davip, S. KANAKARAJ,

moptera: Aphididae) in India. Bull. Ent. 10(2):

158-159.

4(4) :413-426,

regions in India. Madras agric. J. 58(5) :372-374.

Oriental Ins. 5(4) :557-570.

Davip, S. KANAKARAJ, RAJASINGH, S. G. & NARA- |

(Homop- |

tera) of India with descriptions of three new spe- |

YANAN, K. (1970a): The Myzaphidines

cies. ibid. 4(4) : 395-406.

407-412.

(1972): New genus,

dia. ibid. 6(1) :35-44.

Davip, S. KANAKARAJ, SEKHON, S. S. & BINDRA,

O. S. (1970c): New aphids from North West In-

dia (Homoptera: Aphididae). Bull. Ent. 11(2):

150-155.

GuHosH, A. K. (1969): New aphids (Insecta:

Homoptera) from North Bengal, India. Proc. zool. |

Calcutta 22:121-127.

— (1973):

Soc.,

Taxonomical

(1969): Two new species of aphids ©

Aphididae) from Northwestern In- |

———— & RAJASINGH, S. G. (1968): A new |

New records of Aphids |

Proc.)

NARAYANAN, K. & RAJA- :

SINGH, S. G. (1969): New records of aphids (Ho- |

—_ (1970)= Five new species iof aphics |

(Homoptera) from Northeastern India. Oriental Ins. |

— (1971): Records of aphids in New |

(197ia) A new genus and four

new species of aphids (Homoptera) from India. |

—— (1970b): New aphids (Homoptera) |

from Darjeeling in Northeastern India. ibid. 4(4): |

new species |

and new morphs of aphids (Homoptera) from In- |

notes on |

some species of Indian aphids (Homoptera: Aphi- |

ADDITIONS TO INDIAN. APHIDS

didae). Oriental Ins. 7(3) : 347-350.

— (1974): Fern infesting aphids (In-

secta: Homoptera) in India. Ind. J. Hort. 31(1):

104-109.

—— (1974a):

records of aphids (Homoptera:

Northeast India. Oriental Ins. 8(2):161-175.

(1974b): Some new and little

known species of aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae)

from India. ibid. 8(4) :425-432.

(1974c): A list of Aphids (Hom-

optera: Aphididae) from India and adjacent coun-

tries J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71(2) :201-225.

GuHosH, A. K. & RAYCHAUDHURI, D. N. (1969):

A note on Chaetomyzus, Ericolophium and Neoacyr-

thosiphon including a new subgenus Pseudoacyrtho-

siphon (Homoptera) from India. ibid. 3(1) :245-

254.

New species and new

Aphididae) from

, (1972): Studies on the aphids

(Homoptera: Aphididae) from Eastern India XIII.

New species and further new records from Assam.

ibid. 6(3) :371-386.

(1972a): Studies on the aphids

(Homoptera: Aphididae) from Eastern India XVI.

A new subgenus Anaulacorthum, seven new species

and notes on two little known species. Proc. zool.

Sci., Calcutta, 25:93-107.

(1973): Studies on the aphids

(Homoptera: Aphididae) from Eastern India XV.

A_ study of Nipponaphis Pergande and related ge-

Mera with descriptions of a new genus and eight

new species from Eastern India. Kontyu 41(2):

148-165; 47(4) :477-496.

GHosH, A. K., & VERMA, K. D. (1973): A new

genus and a new species of aphid (Homoptera:

_Aphididae) from North West India. Oriental Ins.

—7(2) :271-274.

GuHosH, A. K., BANERJEE, H. & RAYCHAUDHURI,

'D. N. (1971): Studies on the aphids (Homoptera:

' Aphididae) from Eastern India V. New _ species,

' mew subspecies, new records and sexual forms of

some species of aphid from NEFA and Assam.

ibid. 5(1) 103-110.

| (Homoptera:

_ New species and new records from Sikkim. Proc.

| zool. Soc. Calcutta, 24(2) :99-111.

(1971a): Studies on the aphids

Aphididae) from Eastern India X.

GuHosH, A. K., Basu, R. C. & RAYCHAUDHURI,

D. N. (1969): A new genus and seven new spe-

_cies of aphids (Homoptera) from India. Oriental

Ins. 3(3) :245-254.

(1970): Studies on the aphids

(Homoptera: Aphididae) from Eastern India. New

species and new records from Assam. ibid. 4(1):

65-76.

——— (1971b): On a collection of aphids

(Homoptera: Aphididae) from Bhutan with des-

criptions of two new species. Kontyu 39(2) :120-

(1973): A new species of Neoa-

cyrthosiphon Tao, and records of five genera and

seven other species of aphids (Homoptera: Aphi-

didae) from Nepal. Sci. & Cult. 39:193-201.

GHOSH, A. K., CHAKRABARTI, S., CHOWDHURI,

A. N. & RAYCHAUDHURI, D. N. (1969a): Aphids

(Homoptera) of Himachal Pradesh, India. Oriental

Ins. 3(4) :327-339.

GHOSH, A. K., GHosH, M. R. & RAYCHAUDHURY,

D. N. (1971c): Studies on the aphids (Homoptera:

Aphididae) from Eastern India VII. New species

and new records from West Bengal. ibid. 5(2) :209-

222:

(1971d): Studies on aphids (Ho-

moptera: Aphidae) from Eastern India IX. One

new genus, five new species, a new subspecies and

further new records from Darjeeling district, West

Bengal. ibid. 5(3) :523-536.

GuHosH, L. K. (1969): Notes on two new re-

cords of aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) from In-

dia. Bull. Ent. 10(2) :107-109. .

(1970): Description of a new spe-

cies of Micromyzodium David (Homoptera) from

Western Himalaya. Oriental Ins. 4(4) :435-439.

(1970a): Aphids of. NEFA, India.

Sci & Cult. 36:562-563.

— (1970b): Metopolophium (Meto-

polophium) darjeelingensis sp. nov. (Homoptera:

Aphididae) from West Bengal, India. Bull. Ent.

711(2) :116-117.

—aee (L971) New records and a new

subspecies of aphids (Homoptera) from India.

Oriental Ins. 5(1) :129-133.

(1972): On a collection of aphids

from Himachal Pradesh, India. ibid. 6(2) :164-170.

(1972a): Descriptions of a new

species of Sitobion Mordwilko (Homoptera: Aphi-

didae) from North India. Kontyu, 40:187-188.

(1972b): Notes on a_ collection

cof aphids from Bhutan with description of a new

species. ibid. 40:72-76.

a (1972c): A new species and a sub-

species of aphid (Homoptera: Aphididae) from

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

India. Oriental Ins. 6(3) :299-304.

GuosH, M. R. & RAYCHAUDHURI, D. N. (1973):

A study of the genus Aiceona Takahashi (Homop-

tera: Aphididae) with descriptions of two new spe-

cies and hitherto unknown Oviparous morph of

Aiceona litseae Basu & Hille Ris Lambers, from

Eastern India. Oriental Ins. 7(4) :547-555.

GHOoSH, M. R., GHOSH, A. K. & RAYCHAUDHURI,

D. N. (1970): Studies on the aphids (Homoptera:

Aphididae) from Eastern India III. New genus, new

species and new records from North Bengal and

Sikkim. Oriental. Ins. 4(4) :377-393.

(1971): Studies on the aphids

(Homoptera: Aphididae) from Eastern India VI.

New records of aphids from Sikkim. Proc. Zool.

Soc., Calcutta, 24:47-51.

(1971a): Studies on the aphids

(Homoptera: Aphididae) from Eastern India XII.

New records and undescribed sexual forms of two

species from Sikkim. ibid. 24:163-168.

GuHosH, M. R., PAL, P. K. & RAYCHAUDHURI,

D. N. (In Press): A study of the genus Astegopteryx

Karsch and related genera with descriptions of three

new genera and two new species from Eastern India

XXI. ibid.

HILLE Ris LAMBERS, D. (1973): Notes on some

oriental aphids with description of a new genus and

four new species (Homoptera: Aphididae) Oriental

Ins. 7:239-258.

& Basu, A. N. (1966): Some new

on little known genera, subgenera, species and sub-

species of Aphididae from India. (Homoptera:

Aphididae) Ent. Ber. 26:12-20, 27-36.

Kumar, R., & BURKHARDT, C. C. (1970): A new

genus Longirostris, a new species and a new sub-

species of aphids from India (Homoptera: Aphidi-

dae). J. Kansas Ent. Soc. 43(4) :458-464.

KUMAR, R. & LAvIGNE, R. (1970): A new genus

and new species of Callipterinae from India (Ho-

moptera: Aphididae). Pan Pacif. Ent. 46(2) :120-

124.

QUEDNAU, F. W. (1973): Taxonomic notes on

aphids from Nepal and India with descriptions of

a new genus and two new _ species (Homoptera:

Aphididae). Can. Ent. 105:217-230.

RAYCHAUDHURI, D. N. (1974): Taxonomy of the

aphids of Eastern Himalayas, U.S. PL 480 Project,

Technical Report (Aug. 1, 1968 Dec. 31, 1973).

University of Calcutta. 107 pp.

———— & CHATTERJEE, M. (1974): A study

of the genus Melanaphis (Homoptera: Aphididae)

with descriptions of new taxa from India. Oriental

Ins. 8(3) :365-389.

—— & CHATTERJEE, M. (1974): A study

of the aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) from Eas-

tern India XIX. Two species of the genus Eutrichosi- —

phum including one new from Assam, and hitherto —

unknown alate morph. of Paratrichosiphum (Neo-

paratrichosiphum) raychaudhuri, Ghosh 1969, from —

Sikkim. Kontyu 42(2) :122-126.

& PAUL, P. K. (1974): Studies on

the aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) from Eastern

India XXIII. Descriptions of a new genus Subtake- ©

callis and a new species Subtakecallis brevisetosus.

Oriental Ins. 8(1) :95-98.

——§—., GHOoSH, M. R., BANERJEE, M. &

GHosH, A. K. (1973): Studies on the aphids (Ho- —

moptera: Aphididae) from Eastern India XIV. One |

new genus, two new subgenera

species of Greenideini. Kontyu 41(1) :53-73.

SHARMA, K. C. (1968): Biological notes on the |

aphids of Nepal. Nepalese J. agric. 3:105-132.

VERMA, K. D. (1969): A new genus, some spe-

cies, a subspecies, and some new records of aphids

from North west India. Sci. & Cult. 35:28-29.

(1969a): A new subspecies of Im-

patientinum impatiensae (Shinji) and the male of

Protrama penecacea Stroyan from Northwest India

and fifteen new |

(Homoptera: Aphididae)., Bull. Ent. 10(1):102-103. |

VERMA, N. D. & SINGH, H. V. (1975): Sophora |

tementosa—A new host for Macrosiphum (Acyr- |

Aphidi- |

thosiphon) gossypii Mordyv. (Homoptera:

dae). Curr. Sci. 44(10) :368.

corded for the second time from India.

_A perusal of up-to-date literature on the vege-

| tation of Rajasthan reveals that the north-

east, north-west and western parts of the state

have been intensively investigated so far. Re-

cently, Jain & Kotwal (1960), Vyas & Ramdeo

(1964-65), Ramdeo (1965, 66), Gupta (1965a

& b, 66), Vyas (1965a & b, 67) and Singh

(1970) have added to our knowledge of the

flora of eastern part of Rajasthan.

| During botanical exploration of south-east-

ern plateau of Rajasthan (Kotah, Bundi and

_Jhalawarh districts), I noted that about 64

| species have not been recorded from any lo-

_cality in Rajasthan. These species are enumer-

ated below and each specific name is accom-

panied by its field numbers, frequency and

_abundance in the area, habitat with exact lo-

_cality of occurrence and flowering and fruiting

_ times.

The herbarium specimens are deposited in

the Herbarium of National Botanic Gardens,

Lucknow.

CRUCIFERAE

Cardamine impatiens Linn. (74007): Rare;

found in moist and shady localities near

Kotah Dam. FI. & Fr.: October-December.

| 1 Accepted September 1973.

| 2Present address: Botanist, Arid Zone Circle,

Botanical Survey of India, Jodhpur (Rajasthan).

Additions to the flora of Rajasthan,

VIJENDRA SINGH?

Department of Botany, J. V. College, Baraut (Meerut)

In this paper 64 species belonging to 49 genera and 25 families are recorded for the first

time from Rajasthan. About 12 species new records for “Upper Gangetic Plain” have also

been mentioned for the first time from this area and Ipomoea triloba Linn. has been re-

MALVACEAE

Althaea ludwigitt Linn. (91023): Rare; found

in dry sandy sotis near Atru. Fl. & Fr.:

December-April.

PAPILIONACEAE

Crotalaria hirta Willd. (90396, 83677): Com-

mon; found in waste rocky grounds near

Atru and as a weed of cultivation near Bha-

wanimandi. F/. & Fr.: August-October.

C. prostrata Rottl. ex Willd. (83904): Occa-

sional; found in waste rocky lands near

Jhalawarh. Fl. & Fr.: August-November.

Trigonella incisa Benth. (90927): Common

weed of cultivated fields and wastelands near

Kotah. Fl. & Fr.: January-March.

Trifolium resupinatum Linn. (91062): Rare;

found as a weed of winter season crops near

Kelwara. Fl. & Fr.: January-March.

‘CAESALPINIACEAE

Phanera integrifolia (Roxb.) Benth. (83711):

Rare; found in the forests near Jhalawarh.

FI. & Fr.: March-June.

MIMOSACEAE

Neptunia triquetra (Vahl) Benth. (90577):

Rare; found in marshlands near Kotah. Fil.

& Fr.: August-October.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

CUCURBITACEAE

Trichosanthes bracteata (Lamk.) Voigt

(74679, 74808, 91064): Common in waste-

lands; collected from Bundi, Darah and

Kelwara. F/I. & Fr.: June-October.

UMBELLIFERAE

Seseli diffusum (Roxb. ex Sm.) Sant. & Wagh

(91024): Rare; found in drying ponds near

Atru. Fl. & Fr.: April-May.

RUBIACEAE

Hedyotis hispida Retz. (74801): Common;

found in rocky grounds and on the hills

near Darah. Fi. & Fr.: August-October.

Neanotis montholoni (Hook. f.) Lewis

(83675): Rare; weed of cultivation in the

vicinity of Bhawanimandi. Fl. & Fr.: Au-

gust-October.

Ixora arborea Roxb. ex Sm. (91066): Rare;

abundant near streams in the evergreen

forest of Sitabari (Kelwara). Fl. & Fr.:

January-April.

COMPOSITAE

Lactuca polycephala Benth. (74750): Rare;

weed of cultivated fields near Kelwara. FI.

& Fr.: February-May.

Elephantopus scaber Linn. (90842): Occasion-

al; found in shady localities in the forests

near Kelwara. FI. & Fr.: August-November.

Adenostemma _ lavenia (Linn.) Kuntze

(90835): Rare; found near Kelwara in still

or slow running streams. F/. & Fr.: August-

November.

Spilanthes paniculatus Wall. ex DC. (83823):

Rare; found in marshy habitats near Jhal-

arapatan. FI. & Fr.: December-April.

Erigeron multicaulis Wall. ex DC. (90695):

Rare; found in wastelands near Shahabad.

Fl. & Fr.: August-October.

CAMPANULACEAE

Wahlenbergia marginata (Thunb.) DC.

(91027): Occasional; found in grasslands

near Atru. Fl. & Fr.: February-April.

PRIMULACEAE

Androsace umbellata (Lour.) Merr. (90958):

Occasional found in wet and shady places

in the forests near Atru. F/. & Fr.: Decem-

ber-March.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Ipomoea triloba Linn. (74692): Rare; found

in garden hedges at Bundi. Fl. & Fr.: Au-

gust-November.

fl. sepiaria var. stipulacea Cl. (83775): Rare;

found in wastelands among bushes near

Atru. Fl. & Fr.: August-October.

f. violacea Linn. (83699): Rare; found among

bushes near Eklera. Fl. & Fr.: October-

January.

FEvolvulus nummularius Linn. (74021): Oc-

casional; found in dry, undisturbed grounds

near Bundi and Jhalawarh. F/. & Fr.: Janu-

ary-April.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Bacopa floribunda (R. Br.) Wettst. (83707a) :

Rare; found in open wetlands near Attu.

Fl. & Fr.: September-December.

B. hamiltoniana (Benth.) Wettst. (83707b):

Rare; found in moist places near Atru vil-

lage in association with B. floribunda. The

species can be distinguished from the latter

by its sessile flowers. Fl. & Fr.: September-

December.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF RAJASTHAN

Lindernia multiflora (Roxb.) Mukerji (74774,

83726): Occasional; found on the marshy

banks of streams and in the rice-fields near

Bhonra and Jhalawarh. F/. & Fr.: August-

October.

L. verbenaefolia (Coism.) Pennell (74477):

Rare: found in wet localities near Bundi.

FI. & Fr.: December-March.

ie anagallis (Burm. f.) Pennell (83742):

Rare; found in open wet-lands near Atru.

FI. & Fr.: August-November.

GESNERIACEAE

‘Didymocarpus pygmaea Cl. (74719): Rare;

collected from Kotah Dam, growing on ex-

| posed rocks and in the crevices of rocks.

Fl. & Fr.: February-April.

| ACANTHACEAE

Nelsonia canescens (Lamk.) Spreng. (90846):

| Rare; found in wet shady places in the

forests near Kelwara. F/. & Fr.: November-

March.

\Eranthemum purpurascens Wt. ex Nees

(83935): Rare; forming an undergrowth in

the forests near Darah, Kelwara and Sha-

habad. F/I. & Fr.: January-June.

| Hygrophila serpyllum var. hookeriana Cl.

(90305): Rare; forming dense patches on

the sides of Parbati river near Atru. Fl. &

Fr.: September-December.

POLYGONACEAE

-Rumex nepalensis Spreng. (74870): Rare;

found along railway-lines near Darah. FI.

& Fr.: March-June.

Polygonum limbatum Meissn. (74775): Oc-

casional; found on the marshy banks of

rivers; collected from Kotah Dam. FI. & Fr.:

May-October.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Tragia cannabina Linn. f. (90806): Occasional;

found in wastelands near Chhipabaraut. FI.

& Fr.: May-October.

Phyllanthus deblis Klein ex Willd. (90147):

Rare; found in cultivated fields and waste-

lands near Kotah Dam. FI. & Fr.: Septem-

ber-December.

ORCHIDACEAE

Vanda tessallata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G. Don

(90840): Rare; found on mango trees in

evergreen forests of Sitabari (Kelwara). Fl.

& Fr.: March-October.

HYPOXIDACEAE

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (83717): Com-

mon; found in deciduous forests, especially

near Jhalawarh. Fl. & Fr.: August-October.

LILIACEAE

Chlorophytum laxum R. Br. (74871): Occa-

sional; found in the crevices of rocks on the

hills near Darah. Fl. & Fr.: May-August.

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina kurzii Cl. (74601, 90425): Abund-

ant throughout the area on lateritic soils

rich in humus. Fi. & Fr.: August-October.

C. attenuata Koen. & Vahl (74844): Rare;

found on the hill-slopes near Darah. Fl. &

Fr.: October-November.

C. suffruticosa Bl. (74848): Common on

sandy-loam soils throughout the area; abund-

ant near Darah. F/. & Fr.: August-Novem-

ber.

NAJADACEAE

Najas marina Linn. (74497): Rare: found in

Telera river near Talera village. FJ. & Fr.:

September-December.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus platystylis R. Br. (90843): Rare;

found in marshy or aquatic habitats near

Kelwara. Fl. & Fr.: April-December.

C. diaphanus Schrad. ex R. & S. (83764): Res-

tricted to the sandy beds of Kali Sindh river

near Jhalarapatan. Fl. & Fr.: August-No-

vember.

C. compactus Retz. (90612): Occasional;

found in the rice-fields near Kotah. Fl. &

Fr.: August-November.

Furiena ciliaris (Linn.) Roxb. (83672,

90964): Common; found in aquatic habitats

and in the rice-fields; abundant near Atru

and Jhalawarh. FI. & Fr.: October-Febru-

ary.

Eleocharis capitata (Linn.) R. Br. (83642):

Rare; found in temporary ponds along the

roads near Bundi. Fi. & Fr.: August-De-

cember.

E. palustris (Linn.) R. Br. (74785): Occa-

sional; found in marshy habitats near Atru.

Fl. & Fr.: December-April.

Fimbristylis falcata (Vahl) Kunth (74764):

Rare; found in marshy or aquatic habitats

near Kelwara. Fl. & Fr.: July-September.

F. ovata (Burm.) Kern (83930): Common in

marshlands. Fi. & Fr.: August-October.

F. tetragona R. Br. (83706): Frequently found

in wet sandy places near Atru. F/. & Fr.:

September-January.

Carex cruciata Wahlenb. (74091): Occasional;

found in marshy habitats near Hindoli. FI.

& Fr.: September-January.

C. heterostachya Bunge (91075): Occasional;

found along the banks of ponds near Sita-

bari (Kelwara). Fl. & Fr.: October-April.

GRAMINEAE

Brachiaria decumbens Stapf (74035):

Fl. & Fr.: August-May.

Rare; —

found in moist sandy localities near Bundi.

B. villosa (Lamk.) A. Camus (74831): Occa-

sional; found in wastelands from plains to

the hills; abundant near Darah. F/. & Fr.: |

August-November.

Digitaria cruciata (Nees ex Steud.) A. Camus —

(90700): Occasional; found in the shady

habitats in the gardens and forests

Kelwara. Fl. & Fr.: December-April.

Oryza rufipogon Griff. (83724): Rare; found

in a pond near Forest Nursery, Jhalawarh. —

Fi. & Fr.: August-November.

Elyirophorus spicatus (Wiild.) A. Camus

(83772): Frequently found in sandy, wet

soils; abundant near Atru. FI. & Fr.: Octo- ©

ber-January.

Panicum paludosum Roxb. (83606):

Kelwara. FI. & Fr.: October-May.

Oryzopsis aequiglumis Duthie (90520): Rare;

found in the ponds and ditches near Kotah. |

Fl. & Fr.: October-February.

Bothriochloa | kuntzeana _(Hack.)

near -

Occa- |

sional; found in the ponds near Hindoli and |

Henr. |

(74671): Rare; found in sandy soils in the

campus of Soil Conservation Demonstration, |

Research and Training Centre, Kotah. Fl.

& Fr.: August-December.

Duthie (1903-29) included the present area)

in his ‘Flora of Upper Gangetic Plain’, but

has not recorded the occurrence of plants from |

these districts. A perusal of literature on the

vegetation of Gangetic Plain reveals that follow- |

ing 11 species have not been previously add-

ed to the Flora of Upper Gangetic Plain from.

floribunda,

this locality; these are: Bacopa

Hygrophila serphyllum var. hookeriana, Phyl-

lanthus deblis, Chlorophytum laxum, Bothrio-

chloa kuntzeana, Oryzopsis aequiglumis,

Cyperus platystylis, C. diaphanus, _Neanotis

montholoni, [Ipomoea sepiaria var. stipulacea

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF RAJASTHAN

and Plantago pumila Willd.

Further, Ipomoea triloba has been record-

ed for the second time from India. Earlier it

was collected from Borivli, Bombay by Fer-

nandes et al. (see JBNHS 52:661, 1954).

REFERENCES

BLATTER, E. & HALLBeRG, F. (1918-1921): The

Flora of Indian Desert (Jodhpur and Jaisalmer).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26:218-246, 525-551, 811-

818, 968-987; 27:40-47, 270-279, 506-519.

| "Gurra, R. S. (1965a): A contribution to the

Flora of Rajasthan. Ind. For. 91:428-439.

| (1965b): Vegetation of Kotah and

‘Neighbourhood. Trop. Eco. 6:63-71.

(1966): A study of Hydrophytes

Ladd Marshland Plants of Kota and Environs (In-

dia). Trop. Eco. 7:153-163.

_ Jain, S. K. & KorwaL, N. N. (1970): On the

Vegetation of Shahabad in Rajasthan. Ind. For.

86 :602-608.

_ Ramopgo, K. D. (1965): Additions to the Flora

‘of Rajasthan. Ind. For. 91:123-135.

(1966): Some Aspects of the Eco-

logy of the Vegetation of Udaipur, S. E. Rajasthan.

Ph.D. Thesis. Univ. Rajasthan.

SINGH, V. (1970): Occurrence of Ceratopteris

thalictroides (Linn.) Brongn. in Rajasthan. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 67(2) :354-355.

Vyas, L. N. (1965a): Vegetation of Hills around

Alwar, Northeast Rajasthan—Phytosociological stu-

dies. J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 34(3) :305-313.

(1965b): Contribution to the Flora

of North-east Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

64:191-231.

& RAMDEO, K. D. (1964): Vegeta-

tion of Kumbhalgarh. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 34:353-

360.

(1965): Contribution to the Flora

of Rajasthan from Udaipur. Ind. For. 91:672-675.

Further studies on the identification of

hairs of some Indian Mammals’

B. R. KOPPIKER

Project Tiger, Melghat, Paratwada

AND

J. H. SABNIS

Department of Zoology, Vidarbha

Mahavidyalaya, Amravati

(With thirteen text-figures)

Observations on structural hair characteristics of some mammals

are undertaken in this

paper. A series of camera lucida diagrams depicting the structure of hairs of 13 species

of mammals is presented.

INTRODUCTION

The Project Tiger in Maharashtra was initiated

in the Melghat Tiger Reserve on 22nd Febru-

ary, 1974, with the main object of giving pro-

tection and conserving the tiger. The present

observations are undertaken under Project

Tiger with the main aim of studying food and

feeding habits on the basis of faeces mainly

of the carnivores. McMurtrie (1886) was pro-

bably the first to study structural patterns of

hairs.

The practical applications of hair identifica-

tion in the biological and forensic sciences

have been enumerated by several workers

(Mathik 1938, Williams 1938, Mayer 1952)

and Adorjan and Kolenosky (1969). How-

ever, except for studies reported by Koppiker

& Sabnis (1976) on structural identification

of hairs of some mammals of Maha-

rashtra, no detailed investigations have been

1 Accepted July 1976.

reported on patterns of hair structure in In-

dian Mammals in general and that of Maha-

rashtra in particular. The present paper em-

bodies further information on hair structure

of some remaining mammals of Maharashtra.

The hair studies undertaken so far under Pro- |

ject Tiger cover in all 34 mammalian species. |

MATERIAL AND METHODS

All hair specimens were directly washed in

hot water. They were air dried thoroughly and

passed through ether and xylol. Hair slides)

were prepared in Canada-balsam. The camera!

lucida drawings were prepared of each hair

showing cuticular, and medullar pattern. The)

three basic regions of each hair fibre namely,

proximal, medial and distal were studied. The

diagrams on the left hand side in the figures

show the structure of hairs of the proximal end —

(except in Figure 9 which shows the structure)

of entire hair when seen visually), in the middle

the medial and on the right the distal end.

IDENTIFICATION OF HAIRS

In cases where the structure of proximal and OBSERVATIONS

medial portions of hair was identical, only

_one diagram has been drawn _ representing The structural parts of a hair are the cuticle,

both. The measurements given are averages. cortex, medulla, pigment and hair cells. In the

| Magnification of the figures is x 740. system of hair identification to be outlined

Fig. 1. Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica)

Fig. 2. Flying Squirrel (Petaurista petaurista)

Syl

i Vol: 74

SOCIETY

BAY NATURAL HIST.

Fig. 4. Wild Dog (Cuon alpinus)

are half yellow and half black. They measure

60 » in diameter in the proximal region.

| Microscopic Appearance:

' Scales coronal with serrate edges in proxi-

_mal region. In the medial region border ap-

IDENTIFICATION OF HAIRS

pears serrate, while it is coronal with serrate

margins at the distal end. In the proximal re-

gion medulla is discoidal type, in the medial

fragmented with criss-cross arrangements. In

the distal region the medulla is continuous.

Fig. 5. Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus)

Fig. 6. Leopard Cat (Felis bengalensis)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Petaurista petaurista

Fig. 2

Gross Appearance:

Length 1.8 cm. The colour of the hair in the

proximal region is black, in the medial re-

gion brownish yellow while in the distal re-

gion it is black, giving it a banded appearance.

The hair measures 51 » in diameter in the

proximal region.

FLYING SQUIRREL

Fig. 7. Rusty-spotted Cat (Felis rubiginosa)

Microscopic Appearance:

The scales are coronal with serrate edges

in the proximal and medial region. The border

of the distal region appears spiny and the tip

of the hair also has spiny appearance. In the

proximal and medial region medulla appears

fragmented with arrangement like that of lattice -

work. In the distal region the medulla is of

continuous type.

Fig. 8. Desert Cat (Felis libyca)

—S—

IDENTIFICATION OF HAIRS

INDIAN PORCUPINE Hystrix indica and are very stiff. The hair measures 102 »

| Fig. 3 in diameter. The hair is narrow at the proxi-

Gross Appearance: mal end, becoming broader in the medial re-

Length 2.1 to 3.5 cm. The hairs appear spiny gion and tapers in the distal region. They are

entire hair Proximal

Fig. 9. Indian Wild Boar (Sus scrofa)

Fig. 10. Gaur or Indian Bison (Bos gaurus)

ay)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

grayish in colour with black tip.

Microscopic Appearance:

The scales are coronal with serrate edges

in the proximal region which gradually be-

come imbricate with serrate edges in the me-

dial region. In the distal region the border

appears plain with pointed tip. The medulla

is continuous throughout the length of the

hair.

WILD DOG Cuon alpinus

Fig. 4 |

Gross Appearance:

Length 3 to 5 cm. They measure 48 » in -

the proximal region. The colour of the hair

in the proximal region is white, in the middle ©

yellow white, in the distal half it is brown end-

ing with a black tip.

Fig. 12. Indian Chevrotain or Mouse Deer (Tragulus meminna)

IDENTIFICATION OF HAIRS

_ Microscopic Appearance:

Though scales are imbricate with crenate

| edges in the proximal and medial region, the

border of the scales give out spines intermit-

tently. In the distal region the border of the

| hair appears spiny -with imbricate flattened

scales. The medulla is fragmented in the proxi-

mal and distal end while in the medial region

it is discoidal having an appearance similar to

| that of capital H.

Fig. 13. Indian Gazelle or

Chinkara (Gazella gazella)

SLOTH BEAR Melursus ursinus

Fig. 5

Gross Appearance:

Length 17.4 to 19.5 cm. The hairs are black

in colour. They measure 96 » in diameter in

_ the proximal region.

_ Microscopic Appearance:

Scales are coronal with dentate edges in the

_ proximal region. In the medial region the bor-

_ der of the hair has spines with dentate mar-

_ gins, while the distal region has spiny border.

_ The medulla is continuous in the proximal and

| medial region. In the distal region medulla is

_ not visible.

LEOPARD CAT Felis bengalensis

Fig. 6

Gross Appearance:

Length 2.2 to 2.8 cm. The hair has banded

appearance. The basal region is greyish in

colour, medial region black while distal half

is yellow gradually turning black in the 1/3

portion of the distal region of the hair. They

measure 39 u in diameter in the proximal re-

gion.

Microscopic Appearance:

In the proximal region the scales are im-

bricate with serrate edges giving it a spiny

appearance. In the medial region border ap-

pears dentate while in the distal region it ap-

pears plain. In the proximal region medulla

appears fragmented but in the medial region

it is fragmented giving lattice appearance. In

the distal region medulla is not visible.

RUSTY SPOTTED CAT Felis rubiginosa

Fig. 7

Gross Appearance:

Length 2.3 cm. The colour of the hair is

grayish in the proximal region, black in the

middle and brown in the distal region. In some

hairs the proximal region is grayish followed

by white band and distal third region is black.

They measure 30 » in the proximal region.

Microscopic Appearance:

Scales are coronal with serrate edges in the

proximal region. In the medial region the

scales appear imbricate with serrate borders

while in the distal region the borders appear

plain. The medulla is discoidal in proximal

and distal region and continuous in the medial

region.

DESERT CAT Felis libyca

Fig. 8

Gross Appearance:

Length 1.6 cm. Hair stems are soft. The

diameter at proximal region is 18 ». The colour

of the hair is white and black in proximal re-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

gion, gradually becoming yellowish brown in

the medial region, and in the distal region it

is black.

Microscopic Appearance:

~ Scales are coronal with serrate margin in

the proximal and distal region of the hair.

They are coronal dentate in the medial region.

Medulla is discoidal in the proximal region,

in the medial region fragmented and arranged

in two rows. Medulla is not visible in the dis-

tal region.

INDIAN WILD BOAR Sus scrofa

Fig. 9

Gross Appearance:

Length 7.5 to 9 cm. The colour of the

hair is black, with grayish tip which is frayed.

Hair stems are harsh and rigid with a diameter

of 144 » at the proximal region.

Microscopic Appearance:

Scales are imbricate with crenate margin

with intermittent spines in the proximal re-

gion gradually becoming flattened compressed

type in the medial and distal region. The me-

dulla is continuous all throughout.

GAUR Bos gaurus

Fig. 10

Gross Appearance:

Length 5 to 6.3 cm. Hair stems are slightly

curved measuring 93 » in diameter in the pro-

ximal region. The colour of the hair is brown

except for the terminal 1/3 portion which is

black.

Microscopic Appearance:

Scales are imbricate with serrate edges in

the proximal region, in the medial region im-

bricate dentate with intermittent spines and

coronal serrate in the distal region. The me-

dulla is continuous throughout.

FOUR HORNED ANTELOPE

Tetracerus quadricornis

ig. [tit

Gross Appearance:

Length 1,2 to 2.5 cm. Narrow in the proxi-

mal region beacoming broader in the medial —

and tapering off in the distal region. They —

measure 72 » in diameter in the proximal —

region. The colour of the hair is white upto —

the proximal region, gradually changing to

light brown in the apical region.

Microscopic Appearance:

Scales imbricate with plain borders in the

proximal region. In the medial region scales are

imbricate with serrate edges. The tip of the

distal region appears spiny. Medulla is conti-

nuous in the proximal and medial region and

is fragmented in the distal region.

INDIAN CHEVROTAIN Tragulus meminna

Fig. 12

Gross Appearance:

Length 3 to 4 cm. Hair stems are slightly

wavy. The diameter at proximal region is

45 uw. The colour of the hair is white in the |

proximal region, brown in the medial region |

and the distal tip is black, with a short 1 mm

white band preceding it.

Microscopic Appearance:

Scales are coronal with serrate edges through- |

out. Medulla appears continuous in the pro-

ximal and medial region and is fragmented

in the distal region.

INDIAN GAZELLE or CHINKARA Gazella gazella

rig. 13

Gross Appearance:

Length 0.8 to 1.2 cm. The hairs look slightly |

curved and are more or less equal in diameter

throughout except for the gradual taper at the

mammals of southern Michigan. J.

IDENTIFICATION OF HAIRS

apex. The diameter at the proximal region

'measures 60 u. The colour of the hair is white

in the lower half region and brown in the up-

per half.

Microscopic Appearance:

Scales are imbricate and flattened ovate type

in the proximal and medial region. In the

distal region the scales are coronal serrate

type. Medulla is continuous all throughout. |

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We express our thanks; to Shri S. S. Buit,

Chief Conservator of Forests, Maharashtra

State, Poona, for his keen interest shown dur-

ing the progress of this investigation; to Mr.

J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural History

Society for providing hair specimens for the

present study. We are also grateful to Dr. V. R.

Murthy for providing necessary facilities in

the laboratory.

REFERENCES

ADORJAN, A. S. & KOoLENoSKy, G. B. (1969):

A manual for the identification of hairs of selected

ontario mammals Department of lands and Forest

Research—Report 90.

,KoprPiker, B. R. & SABNIS, J. H. (1976): Identi-

cation of hairs of some Indian mammals. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 73(1) :5-20.

MaruiAk, H. A. (1938): A key to hairs of the

Wild Memt.

2(4) :251-268.

Mayer, W. V. (1952): The hair of california

mammals with key to the dorsal guard hairs of

california) mammals—Report. Am. Mid. & Nat.

28(2) :480-512.

McMurtrig, W. (1886): Report on an examina-

tion of wools and other mammalian fibres. U.S. De-

partment of Agriculture, Washington—F—613.

WILLIAMS, C. S. (1938): Aids to the identifica-

tion of Mole and shrew hairs with general com-

ments on hair structure and Hair determination.

J. Wild. Mgmt. 2(4) :239-250.

Status and ecology of the Barasingha

(Cervus duvauceli brandert)

in Kanha National Park (India)

Ill

CLAUDE MARTIN

(With twenty-four text-figures)

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION 61

1. Aims

2. The Species

a) Past and Present Distribution

b) Description

3. The Habitat

a) Location and History

b) Tectonics and Geology

c) Vegetation

d) Desiccation and Water Conditions

e) Climate

f) Human Interference

g) Wildlife

h) Decline of the Barasingha Population

FIELD METHODS 71

RANGE OF THE POPULATION 73

1. The Composite Home Range

a) Dispersal

2. The Cool- and Dry Season Range

a) Activity during the Cool-and Dry Season

b) Factors influencing Utilization Pattern

3. The Growing Season Range

a) Importance of the Sonph Meadow

b) Activity during the Growing Season

c) Distribution of Bedding Sites

4. Migration between Ranges

5. Traditions -

HABITAT UTILIZATION 85

1. Seasonal Food Habits

2. Interspecific Competition

a) Deer Pellet Count

b) Correlation of Species Pellet Frequencies

3. Evolutionary Aspect

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

V GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

PAGE

1. Seasonal Grouping Pattern

2. Grouping in Relation to Vegetational Type

3. Group Constancy

1. Population Size

a) Method of Count

b) Census Results

2. Sex Ratio

POPULATION STRUCTURE AND REGULATION

Age Distribution and Antler Development

a) Changes of Age Structure in the Male Class

4. Reproduction

a) The Breeding Period

b) Gestation Period and Fawning

c) Reproductive Success

d) Breeding Potential

e) Rates of Population Increase

5. Predation

a) Influence of Tiger Baiting

b) Relative Availability of Prey Species

VII

Plot Method

. Grassland Structure

Burning

DNA P WN =

. Hypothesis

VIII DISCUSSION

HABITAT STRUCTURE AND ALTERATION

105

Grazing Impact during the Growing Season

Tree Density and Succession

119

1. Adaptations to the Central Indian Environment

2. Relevance to the Decline

3. Response to Present Conditions

IX SUMMARY

Acknowledgements

Appendix

References

I INTRODUCTION

Despite the recent increase in literature it seems

that the Asian deer species have been practi-

cally neglected. This is unfortunate, as many

of these species are on the verge of extinction

and a detailed knowledge of their ecology is

required for long term conservation measures.

Descriptions on the barasingha (Cervus

duvauceli Cuvier 1823) have appeared spora-

122

dically in hunting literature of the last century.

Blanford (1888-91) was however the first to

give an account of the distribution of the spe-

cies. Brander (1923) presented more informa-

tion on the barasingha and made a distinction

between the barasingha in northern India and

those in Central India. Ellermann & Morrison-

Scott (1951) subsequently distinguished two

subspecies: Cervus duvauceli duvauceli Cuvier

1823 (Range: northern and northeastern In-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

dia) and Cervus duvauceli branderi Pocock,

1943 (Range: Central India). The barasingha

populations dwindled rapidly under heavy

hunting pressure and the continuous habitat

destruction effected by the increasing human

population.

THE DEER AND THE TIGER by George B.

Schaller (1967) based on a 14 month’s pilot

study on the tiger and its main prey species

at Kanha gives the first systematic account of

the barasingha’s way of life. Schaller’s study do-

cumented the precarious state of the barasingha

in Central India, which incidentally led to con-

siderations of this problem at the International

Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

conference in Delhi in 1969. The Central In-

dian barasingha was practically confined to

the Kanha National Park at that time. Yet

Schaller’s data had suggested that even this

isolated population was threatened. Consider-

ably less than 100 animals were left in 1964-

65, and a mere 7 per cent fawns was obviously

not sufficient to even maintain the population

level. This and several other facts ultimately

led to the formulation of this study. The essen-

tial goal was the determination of factors in-

fluencing the population size with subsequent

reference to the ecological data collected by

Schaller (1967).

Owing to the critical state of the population

it was quite evident that no data from culled

animals were to be obtained and considering

possible disturbance or losses I could not mark

the deer. These limitations were no doubt

hindrances but on the other hand the bara-

singha of Kanha N.P. were an isolated popul-

1 Scientific names of mammals occurring in ‘the

park will from this point on be omitted. They are

listed in, Appendix . III.

~e “Barasingha” is a Hindi-expression that names

the species according to the general antler pattern

a Aims

ation. It could thus be assumed that the popu-

lation was a discrete unit, which facilitated |

the work. The study lasted from April 1971 |

until April 1973.

An important question that was left unans-

wered by Schaller (1967) was the range of,

the population during the second half of the

year. One objective of the study was therefore

to determine the annual range of the bara-—

singha. A second objective was to record acti-

vity patterns and relate those patterns to habi- |

tat structure and use in different seasons. A

third objective was to identify factors limiting —

the population. |

In order to pursue these objectives the popu- |

lation size and structure had to be determined. |

Owing to the drastic increase of the chital |

(Axis axis)! population in the past decade, |

the possibility of interspecific competition had |

to be tested. A habitat analysis was designed —

to indicate possible habitat alterations affect-

ing the range conditions.

2. The Species"

SE OO ES a

a) Past and Preséht Distribution

The barasingha? is indigenous to India. There.

is reason to believe that since historical times |

its distribution was confined to the northern

part of the Indian subcontinent. Blanford |

(1888-91), Forsyth (1889) and Lydekker |

(1915) reported that the distribution during

the last century extended along the foot of |

the Himalayas from upper Assam to Baha- |

walpur and Rohri on the Indus and parts’ of |

of the stags: “twelve-pointer’ Gis = Uo -twelvep |

singha = points). English: Swamp deer. In northern

India the species is locally called. “Gond” or |

“Gonda’”. The Kashmir stag or Hangul Cervus ela- |

phus hanglu is also occasionally called “Kashmir |

barasingha” and may be confused with the species.

‘the area between the Ganges and the Goda-

| vari River, as far east as Mandla and as well

| as into the Sunderbans. The species could be

found in marshy areas all over the Brahma-

_putra—Ganges—and Indus Basin, but not in

the Himalayan valleys. However, it occupied

the highlands of Central India. The southern

most places that the barasingha was to be

‘found were in the Bastar District in the State

of Madhya Pradesh about 18°N. Essentially

Narmada- Rs

eee Oe

fecords of barasingha -

A ofior to 1960

% 1960-65 (from SCHALLER. 1967)

@ 072

sooce limit of sal forest climax

“(ftom MOONEY, 1947)

Fig. 1.

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

the barasingha inhabited moist deciduous,

semi-evergreen and wet-evergreen forests and

the swampy planes of northern and Central

India. It did not occupy drier areas (Fig. 1).

By the beginning of this century, the bara-.

singha had completely disappeared from the

western part of its range, i.e. the plains of the

Indus River. Yet, no precise information on

its distribution was obtained until 1967. Ac-

cording to the information collected by Schal-

fo f

- ~~ es >

Bhutan)

“ a YS (a 7

Uy *

yi (Bes Kaziranga

or: ALT 0 es-R

5 Mehens

Past and present distribution of barasingha. Shaded area: Distribution at the end

of the 19th century. Numbers: Occurrences mentioned in Table 1.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ler (1967) in 1964-65, the range of distribu-

tion had dwindled down to a few limited places

in Nepal, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam

and Madhya Pradesh. Schaller estimated that

approximately 3-4000 animals of C. d. duvau-

celi survived in 1965, plus 150 or more of

C. d. branderi in Central India. Table 1 shows

an account of the present situation.

barasingha herds were living in Uttar Pradesh |

only in the four divisions of Pilibhit, North |

Kheri, South Kheri and Bahraich.

The present situation of the barasingha in |

Nepal is not clear and needs further investi- |

gation. Schaller (1967) reported that about

400-1200 survive in 4 divisions of southwestern —

Nepal. At present it is said, that a larger herd —

TABLE 1

PRESENT STATUS OF THE BARASINGHA

Place

Uttar Pradesh:

— Pilibhit Div.

— North Kheri Div.

— South Kheri Div.

— Bahraich Div.

Bihar:

— Champaran Div.

Assam:

— Manas Sanctuary

— Kaziranga Sanctuary

Northern subspecies

(C.d. duvauceli)

Nepal:

— 3 Divisions in south-

western Nepal (incl.

Sukla Phanta Sanctuary)

Southern subspecies Madhya Pradesh:

(C.d. branderi) — Kanha National Park

(1) Status of the North Indian barasingha:

Of the eleven localities mentioned by Schal-

ler (1967) where barasingha were known or

believed to survive in Uttar Pradesh, Holloway

(1973) says, that eight of them ‘need to be

struck for all practical purposes’. The relati-

vely small areas which contained suitable

barasingha habitat only seven years ago, had

either been turned into Eucalyptus spp. plan-

tations or were lost to cultivation. In 1972

Location

in Fig. 1 Approx. Numbers

2 1800-2000

3 (Holloway 1973)

5) perhaps a few

6 a few (1974)

dl approx. 520

(Forest Dep. census

1972)

8 400-1200 (Schaller

1967)

recent status not

available |

130-140 (1973, this study) |

9 a

(about 1000 animals) is in the Sukla Phanta

Reserve of southwestern Nepal. The number |

of survivors in West Bengal is not known. —

However, the small population of the Kazi-

ranga Sanctuary in Assam was increasing in

1959, due to better protection (Burnett 1959). —

(2) Status of the Central Indian barasingha:

Brander (1923) reported the presence of

C.d. branderi in the Chindwara-, Mandla-,

Raipur-, Balaghat-, Bilaspur- and Bastar Dis-

tricts of Madhya Pradesh and in the Chanda

| District of Maharashtra. But the distribution

of the subspecies must also have extended in-

bo the States of Bihar and Orissa.

| As far as one can tell from past records,

‘its distribution was confined to the sal forests

(Shorea robusta). Forsyth (1889) and Lyd-

ekker (1915) reported about the coincident

occurrence of sal forest and the three species

_barasingha, wild buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)

and red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus). A clear

example of this is the former presence of both

the barasingha and the red jungle fowl in an

isolated patch of sal forest in the Denwa Val-

ley near Pachmarhi (Fig. 1). Barasingha sur-

vived there until 1920, being isolated 250 kilo-

metres from the western limit of sal, which

runs through the Mandla District. Forsyth

(1889) reported seeing “‘countless herds” near

Mandla. Particularly the Banjar Valley had

large numbers of barasingha. The beginning

of the century then brought a crucial turning

point in the distribution pattern of the bara-

singha in Central India. The wide valleys of

the Narmada-, Mahanadi- and Godavari

River and their tributaries were being culti-

vated. Herds were separated. Under the conti-

nuous pressure of hunters and local Gond-

and Baiga-tribes isolated populations disap-

peared rapidly.

Records of the southern subspecies are

scarce for the period between Brander (1923)

and Schaller (1967). Although the latter ob-

tained a piece of information saying that

about 100 barasingha were surviving at the

Madhya Pradesh-Orissa border between 1960

and 1965, it is doubtful whether by 1965 any

3 When searching for records one may often get

confusing information about the presence of bara-

singha, which usually turn out to be either sam-

bar or chital. Local people often consider all deer

with antlers as barasingha.

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

larger herd existed outside the Kanha National

Park.* Since then no barasingha were recorded

in Central India except in Kanha National

Park (Panwar 1973). However, Krishnan

(1973) found a barasingha antler in Bastar

District in 1970. Yet today it is very unlikely,

that barasingha survive outside the Kanha

N.P. in Central India. If they do they have

very little chances of survival.

The distribution pattern of the species was

very similar to that of the wild buffalo (Buba-

lus bubalis) in India. Daniel & Grubh (1966)

state that both species depend on the same

habitat. Both species suffered due to deforest-

ation, but particularly due to cultivation of

grassland and marshes.

b) Description

Schaller (1967) gave a fair description of

the appearance of the species in different

seasons and localities. As I later refer to the

development of the antlers, I shall here restrict

the description to the general pattern of the

antlers and the seasonality of shedding.

The typical barasingha antler has a crown

with 5 tines about halfway up the beam. To-

gether with the brow tines, which often branch

at almost a right angle, a total of 12 tines is

achieved.* Fig. 15 shows characteristic stages

of antler development at different ages.

Record antler length was reported by Ward

(1972) which measured 104 cm round the

curve. Burke (1928) writes that a total of

three record heads were obtained in Central

India, all with 104 cm. In 1970 a pair of royal

antlers was collected near Kanha. Its length

round the curve was 92 cm. It numbered 17

tines plus 5 smaller buds, and the weight of

4 Pocock (1933) was of the opinion that the pat-

tern of tines among the antlers of different deer

species is homologous. This was based on the theory

of dichotomous branching: first of the base, which

separates the brow tine from the beam and second

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

both antlers was 5.65 kg (Fig. 2).

The first stags which shed their antlers were

recorded on May 17, 1971 and May 13, 1972.

By the beginning of June, roughly half a month

after shedding had started, about half of all

stags seen in the Kanha Meadow area had

shed. But it took another month for all adult

stags to shed ie. by the beginning of July.

Stags with heavy antlers generally shed earlier

than those with lighter antlers. The yearling

stags were the last to shed their spikes. Some

of them still had their spikes on as late as

July 11. In the meanwhile, the heaviest stags

had already grown antlers in velvet up to ap-

proximately 40 cm in length (Fig. 9). Occa-

sionally, yearling stags were observed that still

had their antlers in velvet in January and Feb-

ruary. One case of a yearling stag was record-

ed that was in velvet until mid-May (ie. at

the assumptive age of 20 months).

The period of antler growth coincides al-

most exactly with the monsoon season that

starts around mid-June. Both antler growth

and monsoon cease in September. Thus, the

period of antler growth falls into the period

that is from the point of view of nutritive value

of fodder plants, the most eutrophic. The vel-

vet is rubbed off the antlers at the end of Octo-

ber and November.

3. The Habitat

a) Location and History

The Kanha National Park is situated be-

of the beam. This sequence of dichotomous branch-

ing, which according to Pocock, follows the same

law in different species, then results in antler pat-

terns with detectable homologue elements. Accord-

ing to him, the brow antlered deer (Cervus eldi),

Schomburgk’s deer (Cervus schomburgki) and the

barasingha have a more specialized type of antler

than the chital and sambar by an additional rami-

fication of the beam, but are “clearly derivable from

it.’ Those of the barasingha are more generalized

tween latitude 22°08’ and 22°24’ N and longi-

tude 80°32’ and 80°45’ E in the Central In- ©

dian highlands which stretch from west to east

through the State of Madhya Pradesh. It lies

in the western spurs of the Maikal Hills which

form the eastern branch of the Satpura Range.

The present park area falls into the southern

part of the Mandla District and the north-

eastern part of the Balaghat District at alti-

tudes between 502 and 802 metres. The park —

area drains into the Banjar River and its tri-

butaries. The Banjar flows into the Narmada

near the district town Mandla, 40 kilometres _

northwest of the park’s centre.

The Maikal Hill Range was inhabited by —

two tribes, the Gonds and the Baigas. The ©

practice of shifting-cultivation was widely

used by them until it was prohibited in 1868.

Many of the clearings in the park were caused —

by this. They served more or less permanent-

ly as sites for villages until the famine of 1874,

when many of them were abandoned.

SS ae ee

In. 1935, 232 square kilometres were declar- —

ed as an absolute sanctuary (excluding wild —

boar and birds), but in 1943 the western part

of the sanctuary was again declared an offi- —

cers shooting block, since it was feared that

the pressure of browsing ungulates

hinder the regeneration of sal trees. In the re-

maining eastern part of the sanctuary (134

sq kilometres), the government permitted

(1945) the destruction of 250 chital per year

on the average, but subject to greater variation

(Pocock). Beninde (1937), on the other hand, sup- |

posed separate growth- and ramification potentials

of the front and back part of the antler pole, which

if unequal, may lead to a dominance of front direct- _

ed tines, as in the red deer (Cervus elaphus) or

backward directed tines, as in the barasingha. Ac- —

cording to him, tines in different species would thus

only be convergent structures.

would |

Fig. 2. (a) Royal barasingha antlers collected in Kanha in 1970. Number of

tines 22. Weight of both antlers: 5.65 kg. Length round the curve: 92 cm.

(b) Rutting barasingha stags on a misty January morning in the Kanha Meadow.

Note: Common Mynas (Acridotheres tristis) on back.

Fig. 9. (a) Stag group in the Sonph Meadow in July. Note: Summer coat and

antlers in velvet. (b) Bedded barasingha hind in a swampy: depression of a

rivulet. September 1972.

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

‘to help sal regeneration. Between 1947 and

1951 the Maharajkumar of Vijayanagaram

‘was permitted to shoot in and outside of the

sanctuary. During that period he shot 30 tigers

within a part of the present park area. In

1952 the sanctuary was again enlarged to 252

sq kilometres and shooting of any type was

‘prohibited. In 1955 this area was declared a

‘national park. In 1964 more land was added

‘to the park enlarging it to 318 sq kilometres.

‘In 1970 the part of the Balaghat District north

‘of the Banjar River was joined to the south-

‘ern part of the park, bringing it to the present

size of 446.6 sq kilometres.

-b) Tectonics and Geology

The principal formation is archaean which

is also found in the rest of the peninsula.

Gneisses, granites and schists (mainly mica-

schists) and alluvial loamy soil, derived from

‘decomposition of these rocks, form the un-

‘dulating terrain on either side of the Mandla-

‘Balaghat District border. This is the char-

acteristic terrain of the wide valleys favour-

ing sal forest. The most important meadows in

the park, which retain most of the perennial

watering places, are situated along these val-

‘leys. An underlying basalt formation, the dec-

can trap, however, appears along the inter-

district boundary of Mandla-Balaghat and en-

circles the park’s centre i.e. the Kanha Mea-

dow, with a ridge on three sides reaching alti-

tudes up to 890 metres. It is frequently cap-

ped by the typical red laterite, forming flat

ridge tops, locally called ‘dadars’. These dadars

-are often free of tree-growth. As a result of

weathering on the basalt, black cotton soil

Collects in pockets on both sides of the ridge.

¢) Vegetation

The park falls into the distribution zones

of the moist deciduous forest type. Rainfall is

usually between 125-200 cm/year and there

is a distinct dry season in contrast to the wet

evergreen forest type. Sal forest is considered

to be the climatic climax for the main areas

within the moist deciduous type (Champion

1948). Two principal forms may be found in

the park:

(1) Sal forest:

Distinguished by the predominance of the

sal tree Shorea robusta. It occurs on the un-

dulating terrain, valleys and the lower slopes,

principally on all low-lying alluvial soils of

the park up to an altitude of 610 m. Sal was

in great demand for the production of rail-

way sleepers. The exploitation of sal trees in

this area began in 1860 and it intermittently

continued until 1959. A drought in 1942

caused the death of many sal trees and the

sal borer Hoplocerambyx spinicornis also

caused great damage. Champion (1938) classi-

fied the sal in Kanha as “peninsular moist low

level sal.”

(2). Mixed forest:

It covers the higher levels and slopes of the

trap formations above 610 metres elevation.

It is composed of about 50, mainly deciduous

tree species. According to Champion’s (1938)

classification, the mixed forest in Kanha Na-

tional Park belongs to the type: ‘Southern

tropical moist deciduous mixed forest.”

About 15-20% of the park’s area are

open meadows. Part of these are situated on

the flat top of the ridge. A few smaller mea-

dows occur on the hill slopes’ terraces. The

largest meadows however lie within the sal

forest area. These are the meadows which were

caused by the shifting cultivation of the Baiga

tribe prior to 1868, as mentioned above. They

lie in basins of the undulating terrain. The

Kanha Meadow with its 6 sq kilometres, is the

largest among them. A detailed description of

the vegetation is given under intensive study

in Chapter VII.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

d) Desiccation and Water Conditions

After all the grasses go to seed in

November, the grass cover in open areas dries

fast. It remains partly green in shady locations

and along rivulets. Fires occur in the winter

months and induce early sprouts in the re-

maining tufts of perennial grasses. But even

in unburnt areas green sprouts start growing

slowly in the months of February and March.

In early March the sal trees bloom. They shed

their leaves which are simultaneously replaced

by new ones. The other deciduous trees have

also shed their leaves by then, but do not grow

new ones immediately. Thus whereas the sal

forest in the hills is bare. The great amount

of water required to grow new Sal leaves causes

a sudden drop of the water table in sal areas

and hence all the streams cease to flow. From

March onwards water becomes gradually scar-

cer. Two types of pools that persist into the

dry season may be distinguished:

(1) Shallow tubs in the rocky or sandy bed

of the larger streams (Sulcum-R., Sur-

wahi-R., Desi-Nala), from where the

water could not run off. Most of these

pools dry up during the hot season. In

the Surwahi-River e.g. there remains

then only about one small pool per

500 m stream bed. Tribals used to catch

fish by poisoning these pools with the

bark of Ougeinia cojeniensis. They

moreover become badly polluted by

leaf litter and dead fish.

(2) Pools that persist in small rivulets that

transect the open areas. As the mea-

dows often lie in flat basin that are sur-

rounded by wooded hillocks, seepage

water collects here even in the dry sea-

son. These pools contain clear water

and rich aquatic flora and fauna, which

indicate their perennial existence. On

the slopes and banks of these rivulets

green grass grows throughout the year.

The Kanha Meadow harbours, apart —

from others, around 65 pools of this

type ranging in size from 3 to over 100 |

square metres. The majority of them is

found in two rivulets, the Churi-Nala |

and the Menar-Nala. Sectionwise see- |

page water keeps running through these |

rivulets. Within the intensive study area

such pools are found apart from the

Kanha Meadow only in Sonph, where >

they are, however, few in number. These —

rivulets are of major

all kinds of wildlife during the dry sea-

importance as

watering places and grazing ground for .

son. In Chapter III-2 I shall describe.

the barasingha’s movement pattern to_

these localities.

The water conditions have further been im- |

proved by damming up the Desi-Nala at the

north western edge of the Kanha Meadow and |

a dam in Sonph. Further dams were construct- |

ed at the Menar-Nala as well as at the north- |

ern edge of the Kanha Meadow during the

period of this study. A small perennial pond

called ‘“Shrawantal” is located to the east of |

the Kanha Meadow.

e) Climate

The park has the typical Central Indian mon-

soon climate with an average annual rainfall .

of about 1600 mm. A Forest Department re-.

cord for Kanha reported 1602 mm in 1964.)

Mean monthly precipitation records for 1951-

64 are available for Supkhar west of the park’

and Baihar south of the park (Fig. 3). About|

95% of the total annual precipitation falls |

from mid-June to mid-October. The first mon- |

soon rains in Kanha are expected around June.

18. Pre-monsoon rains may occur irregularly

in the first or second week of June. The

heaviest precipitation falls in the months of

July and August, and ceases in the month of

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

September. Winter showers occur sporadically

and scantily from December through March.

In 1971 heavy pre-monsoon showers fell which

_ were followed by heavy monsoon showers. In

1972, however, the monsoon was late: There

were no pre-monsoon showers whatsoever and

until August 10, relatively little rain fell. In

_ Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and in part in

other Indian states, the irregular monsoon of

1972 caused a heavy crop loss.

The minimum and maximum weekly tempe-

'ratures were recorded in the centre of the

Weekly minimum and maximum temperatures on Kanha Meadow 1972/73

| JAN | FEB | MAR | APR | may | JUN | wu | auc | ser | oct | wov | o€c |

Mean monthly precipitation 1951 - 1964

mT) re ———- BAIHAR

amma }——— _ —=—_ SUPKHAR

Jaan [rep [mar | apr | mar | wun | sue | auc | sep | oct | nov | nec |

Fig. 3. Weather data, Kanha National Park. Tem-

| peratures were recorded 1.5 metres above ground in

_ total shade. For the precipitation records I am in-

debted to the Forest Department.

Kanha Meadow (Fig. 3). Minimum tempera-

tures measured in the forest were 1-3°C

higher than those in the open during the cool

season. From November through February,

mist may accumulate during the night in the

meadows. Heavy dew lies on the meadows in

the morning regularly during this season (Fig.

2). In December and January night tempera-

tures in the open occasionally drop to 0°C

or even a few degrees below and ground frost

may occur. Maximum day temperatures, how-

ever, remain above 25°C.

The hottest period of the year is from the

end of April until the beginning of June, when

the pre-monsoon showers arrive. Temperatures

may reach 41°C and night temperatures often

do not drop below 23°C. Due to late mon-

soon arrival, an unusually high temperature

of 43°C was recorded in the third week of

June 1972.

There are three distinct seasons in Kanha:

The cool season (winter) from November to

March; the hot season from April to June and

the monsoon or rainy season from June to

October.

{) Human Interference

Today only four of the clearings in the

northern part of the park, ic. in the Mandla

District, are still occupied by forest villages:

Kisli, Ronda, Silpura and Kanha. One village,

Bahmnidadar, is located on the basaltic ridge.

All of them are situated near the park boun-

dary, except Kanha which occupies only a

small part of the Kanha Meadow. In the re-

cently added southern part of the park, Le.

in the Balaghat District, all of the clearings

are at present still occupied by forest villages:

Bishanpura, Sondhar, Aurai, Ghorela, Mukki

and two small settlements.

Each of the clearings with a village con-

tains grazing land for cattle and rice fields,

from which one crop is harvested in Novem-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ber. Until 1915 grazing was unrestricted in the

forests and other clearings. During the dry

season, villagers from outside the park area

also used to bring their cattle to these areas.

Today grazing is allowed on a limited area

around the villages and no foreign cattle are

allowed to graze within the park area. In

1969 the forest village Sonph was relocated

outside the park. The Sonph Meadow and the

meadows east and south of Sonph, ie. Orna-

khera, Parsatola etc., where cattle used to

graze during the period of Schaller’s study in

1964/65, are now left entirely undisturbed by

either human or cattle activities. Today it is

under consideration to remove three additional

villages from the northern part of the National

Park together with 5 villages situated in the

southern part. Due to a relatively dense road

net in the Kanha Meadow, the disturbance by

tourists and villagers in that area has increas-

ed substantially over the last years.

(1) Poaching:

Occasionally tribesmen, mainly belonging to

the Baiga tribe, enter the park from the south

and roam about in the forests collecting fruit,

mushrooms and roots, fishing and collecting

fresh tiger kills and shed deer antlers. Active

poaching, however is very rare. The effect of

these tribal activities is insignificant as far as

the direct influence on the wildlife is concern-

ed. However, they often cause uncontrolled

fires which may spread over large areas. Al-

though during the study period special atten-

tion was paid to possible poaching with fire-

arms, neither the Forest Department nor I

could detect any activities within the park,

however, there were some cases of poaching

5 The census is taken in mid-June. About 50

forest guards with aids are distributed in delineated

sections of the park, where they have to count the

wildlife between fixed hours on two consecutive

days. The mean of the two counts is taken as the

and trapping outside. Within the last years, the

Forest Department Staff has gained a very —

firm control over illegal grazing and poaching;

whereas in the nineteen sixties, poaching must

still have been an important factor.

(2) Burning:

Probably since the beginning of this century ©

at least the Kanha Meadow was subject to >

annual burning during the cool season. Exten-

sive—and annual firing of grasslands was prac- |

ticed by the Forest Department until these me-—

thods were revised in 1972. Burning will again

be considered in chapter VII.

g) Wildlife

The fauna of the park is representative of

the

Central Indian Highlands of previous

centuries. However, elephants (Elephas maxi-

mus) and wild buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)

were last seen in the area at the beginning of |

this century. The Indian gazelle (Gazella ga-

zella) was also seen near the park in the past |

(Brander 1923). A list of the larger mammals |

occurring in the park is given in Appendix III. |

For mice and bats see Claude, 1973: birds:

Guntert, 1973; and drosophilidae: Bachli, 1973.

Since 1953 the Forest Department carries

out an annual wild-life census.°> Since I later |

refer to the interspecific relationship between

chital and barasingha, the past development of

the park’s chital population shall be regarded

here:

In 1935

about 2800 chital were tallied :

in the area. As mentioned earlier, chital |

were culled between 1945 and 1952. The

reduced population remained more or less.

constant throughout the 1950’s and until

about 1965. Schaller (1967) found two.

population for each species. In general, we may

assume, that the Forest Department’s census gives |

a fair idea of the population size of the large gre-

garious herbivores.

—- = SE

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

concentrations of chital in the park; one

near Kanha, the other in Kisli. All to-

gether there were about 1000 chital in

the park. Since 1965, the population has

increased rapidly, and spread into the

younger parts of the park. In 1972 there

were 6-7000 chital which, most probably

by now, have further increased. At pre-

sent the chital is thus by far the most

abundant ungulate in the park.

h) Decline of the Barasingha Population

The country-wide decrease of barasingha

did not come to a halt at the boundaries of

the park. In 1938 a Forest Department census

yielded 3023 animals for the area of the pre-

sent park. Since then the population has de-

creased steadily. The census of 1953 recorded

551 barasingha, and in 1970 there were merely

66 left. In 1964 Schaller (1967) counted 82

barasingha, and 55 in 1965. Even if consider-

able counting errors are taken into considera-

tion, the low number of yearlings and fawns®

found by Schaller point to a population that

was below 100.

In previous years poaching must have been

intensive. The antlers—apart from their trophy

value for sportsmen—were wanted by tribes-

men for their supposed curative effect. Bara-

singha antlers were ground into powder and

mixed with the extract of a Euphorbia-species.

This mixture is said to have healing power

against rheumatism, asthma, as well as other

diseases (Panwar 1973).

In 1925/26 the park was beset by rinder-

pest. However, Brander (1923) writes that “‘the

barasinghas are far more immune and suffer

less casualties from rinderpest and foot and

mouth disease than do sambar or bison.”

Schaller (1967) suggested that brucellosis might

6 Yearling and fawn classes may be estimated

relatively easily (see chapter VI—1).

have an effect on the population dynamics of

the barasingha. Brucellosis causes early abor-

tion of the foetus and would thus give a pos-

sible explanation for the low fawn rates found

by him.

Il FIELD METHODS

The primary techniques used throughout the

study, that lasted 24 months, was direct ob-

servation. Barasingha were observed from a

jeep which allowed approaching the deer to

within less than 50 metres. Impassable areas

were reached by foot. Due to the bias caused

by the observer, I usually abstained from longi-

tudinal observation. Records of dispersion,

group composition and activity were made in

time intervals of at least 4 hours along stan-

dardized routes through the Sulcum Valley.

Other areas were regularly checked for bara-

singha also, and local people occasionally re-

ported sightings. When possible, all observed

barasingha were recorded as to sex and age,

exact location, and activity, along with the

time of observation.

Five sex—and age classes were distinguish-

ed: Adult males and females, yearling males

and females, and fawns. Due to a limited

fawning period, age classes were temporally

separate by one year’s periods, the above age

classes hence being easiest to distinguish. Ac-

cording to the peak of the fawning period age

classes were considered changing into the next

older class on 15th September. Since groups

were incoherent in time and space, the term

“group” here refers to any temporary aggrega-

tion of individuals which at the time of ob-

servation were together and spatially separate

from other barasingha. Regular census were

carried out for the Kanha Meadow and the

Sonph Meadow in intervals of 10 days through-

out the year 1972. During and after the mon-

soon rains part of the areas had to be scan-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

intensive study area

meas vcncesenveHtHNQQ0QU0RUINORETTUINIIUULT

Tall

1 Forest

[__] Meadow

Rutting area

== Compasite home

range boundary

| VU Wallow

F Newborn fawn found

Fig. 4. Intensive study area with seasonal home range aspects of the barasingha

population 1971-73.

i ned on foot due to poor visibility and impas-

sable roads. Annual total census were carried

Jout with the help of the Forest Department

\Staff. They are described in Chapter VI-1.

Information on forage preferences was re-

‘ceived by examination of feeding sites (Knowl-

'ton 1960). After a barasingha or a group of

‘barasingha was observed feeding, I went to the

‘feeding site and recorded instances of recent

| use. Each plant grazed upon was considered

/a single instance of use.

A rectangular area of 82 square kilometres

that embraced the annual range of the popula-

tion was chosen as the “intensive study area”

(Fig. 4). Within this area the vegetation of

the meadows was sampled using a grid system

_ of sample plots. To test the hypothesis of com-

| mon utilization of grassland habitat by diffe-

rent deer species, I used a modified pellet

count technique which followed the principles

stated by Neff (1968). To space out sample

‘plots, distances were measured along compass

lines in steps (Mean investigator’s step = 0.816

' metres).

Prior to the study, a 28 hectare-enclosure

with carnivore safe wire mesh had been con-

structed in the western corner of the Kanha

Meadow. It was designed for breeding bara-

singha in captivity, and was occasionally used

for comparative observations in this study.

To describes seasonal aspects, the year was

subdivided into 4 periods:

— cool season (December 15—March 14)

— dry season (March 15—May 31)

— early monsoon season (June 1—July

31) 7

— growing season (August 1—December

14).

All indications of time refer to the local

time at Kanha (80°30’ E). As base for the

indication of locations maps on a scale of 4

inch = 1 mile were kindly provided by the

! STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

Forest Department. They were supplemented

by own ground-surveys of the vegetational co-

ver. The technical equipment consisted of 10

x 50 binoculars, a 15 to 60 x telescope and

35 mm cameras with a 200 mm_ telescopic

lens.

More information on the techniques used

are given in the respective chapters.

II] RANGE OF THE POPULATION

1. The Composite Home Range

Initially it was planned to define the home

ranges or seasonal ranges of individual bara-

singha. But the sparse sightings of individually

known deer and the difficulty of their residence

identification over longer periods excluded this.

The efforts were then confined to locating the

entire population’s range:

Schaller (1967) recorded the barasingha in

and around the park centre’s Kanha Meadow

during the rut and the following dry season.

Their movement, however, remained unclear

for the period from the beginning of the mon-

soon up until December. It was unknown even

whether the barasingha remained within the

park boundary during these seasons or not.

Though for years the barasingha of the Kanha

National Park were known to be the last in

Central India.

I hypothesized that all of them belonged to

the same herd and that this herd utilized a

well defined area determined by environment

and all biological requirements of the deer.

This area will subsequently be referred to as

“composite home range’, or in the case of

seasonal dispersion as “‘composite seasonal

range’. These terms were utilized also by

Craighead et al. (1973) for elk (Cervus cana-

densis) groups in Yellowstone National Park.

The composite home range which encloses

the points of all 689 sightings of groups and

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

solitary individuals recorded between April

1971 and March 1973 is shown in Fig. 4. The

range boundaries were secured by joining the

outermost points of locations (Mohr 1947).

All other locations fell into meadows near the

surrounding hills. There were no indications

that barasingha enter deep into higher forest

areas. It seems thus justified to connect these

outermost points of locations with straight

lines. According to the seasonal dispersion

of the majority of the population, the com-

posite home range was subdivided into a nor-

thern and a southern part of nearly equal area.

Each of the two parts delimits a composite

seasonal range. The composite home range

embraces approximately 47 square kilometres

and contains the major part of the parks’

Sulcum River Basin. This range is practically

coincident with the distribution of sal forest

in the centre of the park (see Fig. 20). All

of the larger meadows on the northern side

of the basaltic ridge lie within the composite

home range boundaries.

The peninsular distribution of the bara-

singha, as shown earlier, was largely confined

to the moist deciduous forest climax. It ap-

pears that the predilection for a forest type

persists even on the level of group dispersion:

The mixed forest type occurring in the park

above 610 metres elevation seems to lack the

qualifications for utilization by barasingha in

any one season. The same is true for continu-

ous sal forest areas, as they are found in other

parts of the park. Even in the past, unbroken

sal forest areas were less frequented by bara-

singha than the park centre’s sal area with its

meadows. Thus there is reason to believe that

it is not the forest type per se, that delimits

the dispersal. Rather it is the rich type of

meadow that may occur in sal forest areas.

This indicates that the distribution of meadows

within the sal area of the Sulcum River Basin

defines the composite home range of the pre- |

sent population.

a) Dispersal

Barasingha that obviously had left the com-

posite home range were: one adult female re-

ported from Bahmni Dadar (13 kilometres |

from Kanha village) in October 1972 and

January 8, 1973; one adult male reported near

Ronda (10 kilometres from Kanha village) ©

on October 11, 1972; and one adult male re-

ported near Mukki (16 kilometres from Kanha —

village) on March 15, 1973. The latter had

crossed the park boundary, the two others had —

moved to within one or two kilometres of the

boundary. Although these were rare reports,

they suggest that emigrations from the com-

posite home range occur in the period of mon-

soon movements (chapter III-4). Stragglers

may leave the park and not return for the

rutting period.

2. The Cool- and Dry Season Range

During the cool- and dry seasons (15th De- |

cember to 31st May) the barasingha popula- —

tion congregated in the southern part of the

composite home range. The range occupied |

included the Kanha Meadow and the neigh- |

bouring forest tracts north of the Kanha Mea- |

dow along the Sulcum River and the Desinala.

From the 346 sighting points of groups and |

solitary individuals recorded during these sea-

sons, merely 3 fell into the northern part.

The first congregations observed in the com- |

posite cool- and dry season range in Decem- |

ber seemed to be related to the rut. Rutting |

behaviour was restricted to the cool season |

and occurred in well-defined areas of the cool-

and dry season range in both the second half

of the rutting period: on 28th January 1972, |

70 animals; on 4th February 1972, 54 animals; |

and on 4th February 1973, 63 animals. Herds —

of this size contained approximately half the

total population (see Table 8).

}

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

Breeding herd consolidations of the Kahha

| Meadow broke up into smaller units after the

| rut in March and April. Smaller groups and

_ single barasingha dispersed from the Kanha

| Meadow and were occasionally observed in

the forest tracts along the river courses, 1-3

_ kilometres north of this meadow. Individually

_ known animals indicated that the barasingha

moved about the southern range throughout

the dry season. They occasionally appeared

on the Kanha Meadow for varying amounts

of time and left again for smaller clearings in

the forest north of the Kanha Meadow. The

occurrence of different sex-and age classes in

two vegetational types during the cool- and

dry season shall be shown in chapter V-2.

~The occupation by barasingha of the largest

No| of animals

sé

Fig. 5. Numbers of barasingha recorded on Kanha Meadow and Sonph Meadow in intervals ©

of 10 days throughout 1972. s @ resp. s @:

"1972

~ Kanha - meadow ay \

meadow in each of the two seasonal ranges was

checked upon by regular censuses carried out

in 1972. This, firstly, gave an idea of the se-

asonal utilization of the two meadows, and

secondly, the census figures were a fair indi-

cator for the seasonal occupation of. the two

parts of the composite home range. Censuses

were taken in intervals of 10 days in the Kanha

Meadow of the southern range and the Sonph

Meadow of the northern range. Census were

carried out in standardized tours through these

open areas in the morning and evening of each

census day. The maximum number of bara-

singha recorded on each day and in the two

meadows is shown in Fig. 5.

Census figures point to peak aggregation of

barasingha in the Kanha Meadow during rut

Sonph—meadow

e-N

First occurrence of males resp. females in the

Sonph Meadow. r —+ onset of monsoon rains.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

in January and February. Utilization of this

meadow tends to decrease after the rut. It in-

creases again with progressing drought until

the onset of monsoon rains in June, when

barasingha start moving to their growing se-

ason range in the north. This is indicated in

Fig. 5 by decreasing numbers of barasingha

occurring in the Kanha Meadow in July.

a) Activity during the Cool- and Dry Season

The most obvious factors governing activity

patterns in deer are determined by the environ-

ment. Responses to environmental factors,

however, depend upon the level of percepti-

bility or tolerance of the species towards these

factors. However, constant environment is

more likely to promote individual variability

in activity patterns, whereas fluctuating environ-

mental factors should produce more uniform

activity peaks. Temperate climates were found

to cause widely individual activity patterns in

deer. For example, Craighead et al. (1973)

found that elk (Cervus canadensis) in Yellow-

stone National Park are individualistic in such

basic activities as feeding, bedding and mov-

ing.

Here, the patterns of these three activities

shall be shown for the barasingha in its cool-

and dry season range:

The conditions of observation did not

often allow longitudinal recording of the acti-

vity of single animals. Another sampling

method was thus used, recording in time in-

tervals the activity of all animals visible on

standardized tours through the Kanha Me-

adow and its vicinity. Activity records, thus,

stem from observations of a number of un-

identified animals seen during the cool- and

dry seasons 1971-73. The total number of

individual activity records for these seasons

was 2862.

Fig. 6 shows the diurnal activity pattern

into one hour periods. Pronounced peaks are

discernible for all three activities.

The main feeding activity peaks

around sunrise and sunset. Already before

sunrise barasingha start moving towards the

‘% feeding

r+}

Br Beas

(rs)

es)

cA)

tr-}

tr]

SSS

eae es [ea

SSS

Bea]

iy aa

= ASS

i | | 4 ]

wy i?

(4)

Cr)

& yj

i. -)

c-}

Fig. 6. Diurnal activity profiles of barasingha during

the cool- and dry season (December 15 to May 31).

Pooled classifications 1971-73 of three main acti-

vities. Sunrise between 0516 and 0643 hr local time

at Kanha. Sunset between 1720 and 1840 hr local

time at Kanha.

forest edges, or to feeding grounds along the

rivulets of the open area, until movements

come to an end around 10 a.m. Feeding acti-

vity is at minimum between 8 a.m. and 12

a.m., when most of the barasingha rest in the

occur |

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

shade of forest edges. Other animals stay in

the meadow, where they bed in the shade of

single trees of tree groves, often crowded

together on the limited patches of shade. Occa-

sional grazing activity starts again around noon,

mostly in the shady resting areas. Other bara-

singha may move to the forest at this time.

After resting in the hot hour between 2 p.m.

and 3 p.m. feeding activity increases in the

late afternoon. Between 4 p.m. and 6 p.m.

groups enter the Kanha Meadow again from

the forest and move to grazing grounds and

watering places. The daily feeding maximum

occurs then around sunset. Barasingha subse-

quently move to other grazing areas within the

meadow. Sporadic observations and indica-

tions from Schaller (1967) suggest that the

barasingha are sedentary around the major

grazing areas within the meadow during night.

Feeding activity may be continued from sun-

Fig. 7. Daily movement pattern of barasingha in

the Kanha Meadow area, during the cool- and dry

seasons 1971-73. Dots: Main day resting areas.

Arrows: morning routes. Dashed arrows: evening

routes.

set until about 10 p.m. and fade to resting

with intermittent grazing until morning.

On their movements between forest and

meadow, the barasingha were found to cross

the same areas daily, although they did not

follow trails. Generally, barasingha moved to-

wards the forest north of the Kanha Meadow

in the morning and entered the meadow by the

same areas again in the evening (Fig. 7).

As cloudy days during the cool- and dry

season are few, the diurnal activity presented

here may reflect the general pattern for clear

days with hot hours around midday. The time

when barasingha stopped, respectively started

grazing in the open seemed to be determined

by the heat or direct sunlight, whereas the

time spent moving was largely given by the

distance between suitable grazing grounds or

watering places, and shady resting locations.

The view, that climatic factors influence the

timing of diurnal activity in these seasons, was

supported by observations on the cloudy and

rainy days, when activity peaks were less dis-

tinct and movements at minimum, due to bed-

ding in open areas. The influence of the tem-

perature regime on the timing of the daily

feeding activity of deer was suspected even in

temperate climates by Cowan (1945), Leopold

et al. (1951), Swank (1958), Taber & Dasmann

(1958) and Loveless (1957). Linsdale & To-

mich (1953) stated also that deer may make

adjustments in form of short distance move-

ments within their principal habitat to meet

with requirements for shade.

b) Factors influencing Utilization Pattern

Many habitat types may occur within a home

range, yet, an animal may utilize only a few

of these. Preferences for certain types of habitat

can be due to food preferences, cover, or other

factors. Berg & Phillips (1973) found such

“habitat preferences” in moose (Alces alces)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

of northwestern Minnesota.

The regularity with which the barasingha

moved to feeding areas of the Kanha Meadow

during the cool- and dry season intimated such

preferences for certain types of habitat. A

possible reason for this could have been the

widely different grassland structure in different

parts of the Kanha Meadow. It will later be

demonstrated that high ungulate grazing pres-

sure is correlated with the occurrence of cer-

tain grassland communities during the growing

season.

However, in May 1971 it appeared that

water and burning were such powerful factors

that preference for certain types of grassland

during the cool- and dry season were eliminat-

ed. Grazing activity in the Kanha Meadow

seemed to be largely restricted to rivulet zones

and patches of unburnt grassland. Thus, in the

cool- and dry season of 1972 an attempt was

made to check upon the influence of rivulet

zones and unburnt patches on the selection

of grazing areas.

The data used for this investigation was

based on interval records of unidentified

animals seen on standardized tours through

the Kanha Meadow. Records originate from

the period between January 22, 1972 (one

week after burning) and June 21, 1972 (first

monsoon rains).

A grid system (400 x 400 steps) was

superimposed on the map of the Kanha

Meadow prior to the investigations. It divid-

ed the area into 61 squares. It was noted

whether each square contained perennial

water or unburnt grassland or both, Sub-

sequently the frequency of grazing bara-

singha groups seen in each square was re-

corded. While recording groups instead of

individual barasingha, bias caused by group

size was avoided. Group size could at least

partly be stipulated by social factors. Graz-

ing groups were marked by grazing activity

of all group members and hence absence

of movements. The total number of such

records for the period concerned was 102.

TABLE 2

eee

MEAN FREQUENCIES OF GRAZING BARASINGHA GROUPS |

IN 4 TYPES OF SQUARES OF A GRID SYSTEM 400 x 400 |

STEPS SUPERIMPOSED TO THE KANHA MEADOW. ONE

WEEK AFTER BURNING UP UNTIL ONSET OF MON- |

SOON 1972

Kruskal-Wallis Test:

H = 19.71 > 1627 =x2 3; 0.001 (@ </0.001)

Squares containing:

Number Number Mean

Perennial Unburnt of of per

water grassland squares groups square

ie 2 34 13 0.38

+ os Dap 37 1.68

= + 19 37 1.95

+ ++ 6 15 2.50

Table 2 shows that the mean number of ©

grazing groups per square is lowest for those |

squares that contained neither perennial water _

nor unburnt grassland. It is medium for those »

squares that had one out of the two qualities —

had both ©

and highest for the squares that

qualities. A Kruskal-Wallis-Test proved signi- —

ficant differences among the

four samples. —

Thus, during the cool-and dry season, grazing —

activity centres in the Kanha Meadow are pri- —

marily distinguished by these gross physio- ©

graphic features of the grassland. They con- —

sequently influence the direction of the daily |

movements. Whereas the principal movement

pattern is out of the meadow in the morning —

and into it in the evening, the movement with- |

in the meadow is determined by the location

of perennial water and unburnt grass zones. —

The preference for areas that harbour peren- |

nial water does not necessarily mean, that the |

site is selected for grazing due to the possi- —

bility for drinking. There may still be a pre-

ference for certain forage species, which occur

mear perennial water. This is undoubtedly the

‘case with Saccharum spontaneum, a preferred

forage species during the cool-and dry season.

i forms dense stands along rivulets and pro-

duces green sprouts continuously in these loca-

‘tions even in the driest period of the year.

| Extensive burns may cause starvation among

‘barasingha. Green sprouts that occur after

‘burning wither soon or are grazed upon by

‘the large herds of chital, and cause only a

‘shortlived attraction to barasingha.

Acute food shortage became evident when

‘an accidental fire swept the grass cover and

‘sal forest undergrowth of the entire 28 hec-

‘tare-enclosure on March 25, 1972:

To lessen the critical situation to the en-

‘closed deer, cut grass was deposited in the

‘enclosure and trees were lopped. Young sal

\leaves that were killed off by the heat of the

‘ground fire and subsequently fell from the

‘trees supplied further forage. The enclosed

chital turned to browsing from loppings and

‘withered sal leaves readily and seemed not to

be affected by the food shortage. Yet the bara-

‘singha made no attempt to seek forage. Most

of the time they simply stood in a serried group

or moved up and down along the enclosure

fence. One week after the fire all 7 barasingha

enclosed at that time, showed severe signs of

‘malnutrition.

3. The Growing Season Range

Schaller (1967) stated that the barasingha

disperse from the Kanha Meadow during mon-

soon and remain concealed until the beginning

of the rut in December. Fig. 5 shows that the

numbers of barasingha that were counted in

the Kanha Meadow in 1972 decreased after

the onset of the first monsoon rains. Through-

out August and until mid December (growing

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

season) the numbers of barasingha staying

in the Kanha Meadow never exceeded 21 ani-

mals, whereas higher numbers were record-

ed in Sonph, which is the largest meadow of

the northern part of the composite home range.

This suggested (1) that a majority of the bara-

singha leave their cool-and dry season range

in the south during the early monsoon season

and (2) that not the entire population con-

fines its activities to the same part of the com-

posite home range. However, in spite of the

wider dispersion during the second half of

the year, distinct concentrations occurred in the

northern part. A mere 22 per cent of all 229

locations of groups recorded during the grow-

ing seasons 1971 and 1972 fell into the south-

ern part. Fig. 8 shows the distribution of

groups during those periods of the population’s

most distinctive polarization in one of the

two parts of the composite home range. They

are coincident with the peak of the rut in

January and the late fawning period in Octo-

ber.

a) Importance of the Sonph Meadow

The Sonph Meadow (Fig. 9) had been oc-

cupied by a forest village, its rice fields and

grazing grounds for cattle until the village was

relocated outside the park in 1969. ‘Today

merely the collapsed dikes of former rice fields

and local predominance of Ischaemum indi- '

cum—a grass species indicative of heavy use

by cattle—still point to the former presence

of a village. In its present condition the Sonph

Meadow had a more heterogenous grass cover

than other meadows in the park (Fig. 20). It

is distinguished by a patchy distribution of

grass species and grassland ‘‘facies”, induced

by the patterns of former rice fields.

Sonph was referred to as being one of the

best areas to see barasingha at the beginning

of this century (Nath, not dated). However

in 1964-65 Schaller (1967) recorded no bara-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

singha in Sonph and the Forest Department relocation of the village in 1969.

had not recorded them in this area for many

years (Panwar 1973). This was prior to the

tOrnakhera =

eal

Parsatola

== Forest

Bea Meadow

axa Composite home

range boundary

Locations of groups:

BB sonuory > 10 Indiv.

® January < 10 Indiv.

cy October = 10 Indiv.

@ October < 10 Indiv.

Fig. 8. Sighting points of barasingha groups during the periods of the utmost

polarization within the composite seasonal ranges. From pooled classifications

January 1972 plus 73, and October 1971 plus 72.

Yet during my study period barasingha were

sedentary in the Sonph Meadow throughout

| the second half of the year. The largest groups

‘ever observed in the northern part of the com-

| posite home range, were recorded in this me-

| adow. It has been suggested that the grassland

| structure that evolved in Sonph after human

| influence was banned, probably meets in ideal

"ways with the requirements of the barasingha

during the growing season (Martin 1973).

Sonph was moreover the major fawning

| area. Six out of eight newborn fawns found

_ during the study period were found in this

_meadow (Fig. 4).

}

b) Activity during the Growing Season

With the onset of monsoon rains and the

subsequent appearance of new sprouts, the

daily activity pattern of the barasingha chang-

ed markedly. Cloudy days, abundance of green

forage and water permitted them to be more

sedentary within open areas. This became even

more evident during the growing season, after

the majority of the barasingha had travelled

to the northern part of the composite home

range. Although the population had attained

a wide dispersion, the activity of groups and

solitary individuals seemed to be restricted to

tivulet zones within the various meadows

throughout the growing season. Periodic daily

movements, as they were observed during the

first half of the year, did not occur and bara-

singha very rarely entered the forests. Feeding-

and bedding areas coincided along the tall

grass of rivulets. Diurnal ‘activity was restricted

to short bouts of grazing. Most of the day was

spent lying down in tall grass areas and graz-

ing occurred in the direct vicinity of the bed-

ding site. On cloudy days grazing intervals of

up to 10 minutes length occurred throughout

the day with a slight peak of grazing activity

around sunset. The sunny days following the

™The flight distance of bedded barasingha was

unusually short during the growing season. It was

not uncommon, that barasingha were approached

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

end of the monsoon rains then caused a pol-

arization of several grazing intervals around

the period of sunrise and sunset.

The tendency to remain in tall grass zones

seemed related to (1) the need for shelter, and

(2) the abundance of highly palatable food

and water in the direct vicinity of the bedding

sites. All sex- and age classes were found to

behave in the same way. Thus sedentariness

was not merely related to separation for par-

turition.

c) Distribution of Bedding Sites

Bedding sites of barasingha were found to

have a typical appearance: The grass cover,

while in its growing stage, was crushed into

the soft ground by the bedding animal. This

hindered the grass coming up again, which

was also augmented by the repeated use of

the same beds. The sites where barasingha

had bedded ultimately were distinguishable

from other species’ beds by an oval patch of

more or less bare to muddy ground which

always had hoof impressions. Most of these

beds persisted into the cool season.” As bedding

and feeding areas were coincident, locations

of such beds helped to check upon the prin-

cipal habitat of growing season activity cen-

tres (Fig. 9). The 28 hectare enclosure was

used to this purpose, as it contained all ma-

jor components of the barasingha habitat, Le.

sal forest, open grassland, loose stands of tree

and rivulet zones. Seven barasingha were liv-

ing in the enclosure in 1972. The number and

distribution of their growing season beds was

recorded on November 10, 1972 (Fig. 10).

The total number of beds was 112. 95 per cent

of them were within 35 metres of the rivulet,

and 21 per cent of all beds were less than 5

metres away, or on banks within the rivulet.

to within less than 10 metres before the animal

rushed out of the grass and bedded again some dis-

tance away.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

closest distance

No. of beds open

30 Ea : to fence

Vj), tree shade oo ne

closest distance

to forest

Zu m7

Distance to rivulet

(meters) |

|o-5 e fs 15 |15- 70|0- a Re 355 -£0|40- -4s|us- 50 |

Fig. 10. Distribution of barasingha beds in relation to rivulet of the enclosure.

Records from growing

season 1972. The representation assumes equal distribution of shade giving trees with the distance from _

the rivulet (see text).

More distant ones were predominantly located

under trees, but practically no beds were situat-

ed outside the rivulet zone. The distribution of

shady bedding sites in Fig. 10 is of course de-

pendant also upon the availability of shade

giving trees. The distribution is therefore not

merely a variable of the distance to the rivulet.

Trees also occur in zones more distant from

the rivulet where no or few bedding sites were

found. The tree density was hence assumed

to remain equal with the distance from the

rivulet.

Some beds may have occurred also in the

forest. Due to the absence of a continuous

grass cover, beds could not always be distin-

guished here. However, direct observations in

the enclosure showed that barasingha avoided

forest tracts during the growing season. The

low number of beds caused by 7 barasingha

during a period of approximately 3 months

further indicates the repeated use of single

beds. Some of them must have been frequented

30 or more times.

4. Migration between Ranges

Barasingha were relatively sedentary within

their seasonal ranges. Movements rarely ex-—

ceeded 1-2 kilometres in a 24 hour period. A |

different type of movement, however, occurred

between the two composite seasonal ranges: ©

barasingha moved to their growing season |

range after the onset of the monsoon in June |

and July and returned to the cool- and dry |

season range in November and December. |

Adult stages were the first to leave their seas- |

onal ranges. Their movements away from the |

southern part coincided with the onset of the —

first monsoon rains. In 1972 two individually —

known adult stags were last seen at the nor- —

thern edge of the Kanha Meadow on June 22,

2 days after the onset of heavy monsoon rains.

On June 24 they were recorded in the Sonph

Meadow, 7 airline kilometres north of that

location. More stags followed before the first

females were recorded in Sonph on July 23.

A relatively coherent female-young group of

33 individuals even remained around the

Kanha Meadow until July 27. The month of

July was thus marked by a discrete dispersion

of sexes among the two ranges. In this transi-

tional stage, up to 16 adult males temporarily

aggregated in one group in the northern part,

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

= es

ral — | SS et

) rte 2 a

\ yOrnakhera =

)

ill

eTUUsddutdtt

Aff

ea Meadow SaaS = t Ee \" - eS Sa a

a= Compesite hone ==}

range boundary SSS

= Migratory routes SSS ‘

(Oerrtiri L

LINC

N ie)

]

Locations :

@ Adult male

O Adult female

& Yearling male

Yearling female

Fawn

Fig. 11. Discrete dispersion of sexes in the composite home range during the period

of monsoon migrations. From classifications July 1972. Travelling routes inferred

from direct observations and tracks.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

whereas the majority of the females and young

animals were still in the southern part of the

composite home range (Figs. 5 and 11). Fe-

males and young animals then left the southern

part at the end of July, roughly one month

after the first males were recorded in the nor-

thern part. Adult males were again the first

appearing on the rutting grounds of the Kanha

Meadow in early December.

Fig. 11 shows migrational routes between

ranges inferred from direct observations and

tracks. They indicate that barasingha head

directly towards meadows of the other season-

al range. River courses connecting the mea-

dows from preferred travelling routes. Bara-

singha moving between ranges appeared to be

merely in small groups or solitary.

Migrations between seasonal ranges in deer

were suspected to be adaptations to satisfy

nutritional requirements. Such movement are

well documented for elk (Cervus canadensis)

(Schwarz & Mitchell 1945; Altman 1952;

Picton 1960; Dalke 1965; Knight 1970; and

Craighead et al., 1973) and moose (Alces alces)

(Edwards & Ritcey 1956; Phillips et al., 1973;

and others). These species often have distinctly

different ranges during summer and winter.

Decreased snow depths permit them to leave

their spatially limited winter ranges in spring.

Wanderings can be understood as adaptation

to seasonally different food conditions in dif-

ferent areas.

The adaptations of the barasingha in Central

India may altogether be paralleled with the

above findings:

Whereas it is snow depth that effects spatial

limitation during winter in colder climates, it

is the scarcity of water that effects it in bara-

singha during the cool—and dry season in

Central India. However, water also has a di-

rect influence on the structure of the grass

flora, in so far as the grass cover is more eutro-

phic where water conditions are good. The

influence of water and food on the seasonal

migrations, therefore, remain indistinguishable,

Though adaptation to seasonally different |

water—and food conditions may sufficiently

explain migrations, another question remains: —

What is the mechanism that permits the bara-

singha to head for distant meadows by direct.

movements? This question shall be dealt with

in the next section. |

5. Traditions

Deer are known to have a strong tendency |

to return to their seasonal ranges over the

years, as has been shown by Dasman & Taber |

(1956), Robinette (1966), Geist (1966),

Knight (1970), Craighead et al. (1972) and

Verme (1973). Ueckermann (1968) mention- |

ed that in old fallow deer areas, the same rut-

ting grounds were frequented over 50 and

more years.

A comparison with Schaller’s (1967) obser-

vations indicates that the composite cool—and

dry season range of the barasingha in Kanha

remained located in the same area around the

Kanha Meadow. Previous reports had men-

tioned the importance of this meadow with

respect to the barasingha during the dry sea-

son (Brander 1923). The recurring use of the

same area alone, however, does not necessarily

imply traditions.

Yet the following observations undoubtedly

point to homing tendency. In both the rutting

periods that were witnessed during this study,

barasingha were found to restrict their rutting

activity to the same limited areas of the Kanha

Meadow (Fig. 4). No obvious ecological factors

appeared to be responsible for the delineation

of these areas. Even more conspicuous was

the use of the same wallows in both the years,

in spite of the abundance of muddy places

in—and around the rutting ground. Barasingha

were already shown to be loyal to their wallows

‘by Schaller (1967). Although the number of

wallows had increased from 4 in 1964/65 to

9 in 1972, it was quite striking to see that at

‘least one of the wallows of 1964/65 was still

‘frequented during the rut of 1972 and 1973

| (compare plate 11 in Schaller, 1967). This

‘suggests an existence of traditional bonds at

least to the rutting ground. The loyalty of the

_barasingha to its rutting ground in the Kanha

| Meadow may have evolved as a consequence

of the localized abundance of water and green

forage in this area during the cool—and dry

season. The barasingha moreover were under

legal protection in this area, ever since pro-

tection measures were introduced in 1935.

Since there are traditional bonds to the rut-

ting ground, the movements to these areas may

also be directed by tradition.

There is little information about the loyalty

of the population to its growing season range.

In chapter III-3 I mentioned, that barasingha

started repopulating the Sonph Meadow only

after its village was translocated in 1969. Schal-

ler (1967) showed that even prior to this the

majority of the barasingha used to move away

from the vicinity of the Kanha Meadow during

monsoon. As the barasingha’s activity is large-

ly confined to the open grassland of the sal

area during the growing season,’ it may be

assumed that the northern meadows were al-

ways frequented. Yet, due to man—and cattle

activities until 1969, barasingha were prob-

ably forced to disperse into marginal land. The

dispersion of the population during the grow-

ing season, therefore, was probably wider be-

fore 1969 than during the period of this study.

Congregations in the northern part of the com-

posite home range, as they were found in 1972,

obviously did not occur. It is likely, however,

that this had negative influences on the co-

herence and the population dynamics of the

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

herd, even more so, because the fawning pe-

riod comes in that season.

IV HABITAT UTILIZATION

We have come to the conclusion that the

barasingha’s activity is largely confined to open

grassland throughout the seasons. Grazing

grounds during the cool—and dry seasons are

distinguished by the presence of water and

unburnt grassland. In the growing season range

concentrated around open rivulet zones. This

prompts the question as to what the food

habits of the barasingha are.

The following section is an attempt to answer

this question. Then the utilization patterns of

possible competitors among the herbivores of

the park will be considered. On the basis of

habitat preference and food habits I shall then

make a few remarks on the evolution of the

barasingha.

1. Seasonal Food Habits

I suspected that almost every grass species

would be eaten by barasingha on certain occa-

sions. However, the dominance of a species and

its distribution pattern in a certain locality

has a great deal to do with its preference rat-

ing. The quantity fed from a certain species

may therefore have only local application.

Standardized observations in a heterogeneous

grassland habitat are almost impossible. Smith

(1952) has reported on this central problem

of food habit studies. Therefore I will only

describe more qualitative differences of bara-

singha-forage in different seasons:

Table 3 shows an appraisal of those 26 grass

species which were found to be the most com-

mon in the Kanha Meadow (see chapter VII).

Indications are based on a large number of

unsystematic observations. Identifications of

grazed plants were made on the spot, imme-

diately after the grazing animal(s) had been

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

TABLE

SEASONAL BARASINGHA DIET OF COMMON GRASSES IN KANHA N.P.

cool- and dry season

early monsoon and

growing season

Species

P 15.12.-31.5. L6c1410)

Apluda mutica + oar

Arthraxon quartinianus ss + 2

Bothriochloa odorata 444 aS F

Chionachne koenigii ee) 2

Diandrochloa japonica + ar

Digitaria stricta + +

Dimeria connivens + a

Eragrostiella bifaria oo we

Eragrostis unioloides es +

Eulalia trispicata 4+ ++

Heteropogon contortus aa sles

Ischaemum indicum — AP

Ischaemum rugosum = a

Iseilema prostratum Ba ata

Mnesithea laevis peut aig

Narenga porphyrocoma qe (3) ay

Panicum austroasiaticum — a

Phragmites karka + (g) ae

Pseudopogonatherum contortum aly or

Saccharum spontaneum clatales +

Schizachyrium brevifolium a (3) ?

Setaria glauca + ar

Sorghum halepense + (g) ar

Themeda quadrivalvis + (g) altel

Themeda triandra aap (3) aman

Vetiveria zizanioides ++ Ar

intake: high +++ medium ++

very low or none —

(ye

watched through binoculars. Identification of

grasses was critical during their growing pe-

riod. Grazed specimens were thus marked with

aluminium tags and identified later on, when

flowering. When dry, however, all 26 grass

species concerned may be identified.

(1) Cool-and dry season (15th December—

31st May):

Most conspicuous forage was Saccha-

rum spontaneum. Monotypic, dense

stands along water courses were regu-

larly and extensively grazed upon

fed upon only when green

low +

underlined signs: fed upon regularly

throughout these seasons. Riverine Sac-

charum spontaneum was by far the most

important barasingha forage also in

forest tracts (Fig. 12). Bothriochloa

odorata formed the bulk of the bara-

singha’s diet in dry open- and dry shady

locations, but green leaves of Themeda

triandra were also heavily grazed upon.

Except for the coarsest, which were

only fed when green, grasses were eaten

whether green or dry. Where available,

however, green plants or parts of them

were favoured.

Fig. 12. (a) Group of barasingha stags feeding upon stands of Saccharum

spontaneum in a stream bed north of the Kanha Meadow. June 1972 before the

onset of monsoon rains. (b) Barasingha and chital collecting on riverine

Saccharum spontaneum in the Kanha Meadow during the dry season.

Fig. 18. Pole used to measure grass height. The lowest figure visible on the

board from a horizontal distance of 10 m was taken as grass height. Note:

Difference of grass height in Bothriochloa odorata association at boundary

where the fire was put out 11 months ago. Photo taken in November.

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

(2) Early monsoon-and growing seasons

(1st June—14th December):

A large variety of new sprouts was fed

upon during the early monsoon season.

Preferences for certain species seemed

less conspicuous then during the cool-

and dry seasons. Though, barasingha

subsisted often on locally limited ‘“‘fa-

cies’? of Themeda triandra and T. qua-

drivalvis. Bothriochloa odorata was still

important food. Saccharum spontaneum,

much in contrast to the dry season,

was scarcely eaten. During the flower-

ing time in October and November,

leafy perennials like Sorghum halepense

and Phragmites karka were heavily

grazed upon. Inflorescences of The-

meda triandra, Sorghum nitidum, Both-

riochloa odorata and others supplied

further forage.

The diet included the coarsest of species

such as Narenga porphyrocoma. Even barbed

species such as Chionachne koenigii were fed

upon occasionally. Meagre annuals like Di-

meria connivens were regularly taken, even

when dry. But intensive grazing activity was

generally confined to stout perennials.

Schaller (1967) has already reported an al-

most exclusive grass diet. He recorded merely

six woody plant species fed upon by bara-

singha. Throughout this study much attention

was paid to forage plant identification. The

observations of barasingha eating browse were

so few that they may be mentioned here se-

parately. Of the six woody plants listed by

Schaller, barasingha were seen feeding during

this study upon: Ziziphus jujuba and Mogha-

nia congesta at one instance each, by one ani-

mal, and Embelia tseriamcottam® twice, by one

8’ Embelia tseriamcottam is a relatively rare shrub,

which is heavily browsed upon by all ungulates in

animal at each instance. The other three spe-

cies were not recorded as barasingha forage

during this study, in spite of their abundance.

In one instance, however, two barasingha were

found eating the fruit of Cordia myxa. Even

in forested areas, where browse was in lavish

supply, barasingha concentrated on the grasses

of the undergrowth and of small openings; but

particularly on the stands of coarse grasses

bordering river courses. Bamboos (Dendroca-

lamus strictus), although gramineous and local-

ly abundant, were chiefly avoided. Cyperacea

species were occasionally taken, but did not

make up a conspicuous part of the diet at

anyone season. On several occasions during

the dry season, however, barasingha were seen

submerged in the water of perennial rivulets

and pools. Standing in water up to their belly,

they fed from water weeds (Najas sp., Vallis-

neria sp., and others) below the surface. Much

in contrast to the other ungulates of the park,

natural and artificial saltlicks were practically

disregarded. These observations demonstrate

an almost complete avoidance of browse at

anyone season. Barasingha are thus rather

unique in their diet. They subsist on grasses

to such an extent, that it is difficult to com-

pare these findings with the food habits of any

other of the deer species.

2. Interspecific Competition

Apart from the barasingha the meadows of

the intensive study area are regularly frequent-

ed by the herbivores chital, sambar and black-

buck, of which the latter however is restricted

to the dry open ground of the Kanha Meadow.

Gaur come down from the hills to the sal area

only during the dry season, yet here their

activity is largely confined to the forest and

the park, including the graminivorous black buck

(Antilope cervicapra).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

riverbeds. Muntjac and fourhorned antelope

hardly ever leave the forests of these areas.

Nilgai are rare and occur only sporadically in

the northern part of the intensive study area.

As in the rest of the park, the chital is by far

the most numerous ungulate. Approximately

4000 chital lived in the intensive study area

in 1972.

Particularly during the cool- and dry season

barasingha and chital were often found to form

mixed herds when grazing. The grass species

fed upon by barasingha were, however, favour-

ed also by chital. This was particularly true

fer Bothriochloa odorata, Themeda_triandra

and Saccharum spontaneum. During the dry

season mixed barasingha-chital herds concen-

trated regularly on monotypic stands of river-

ine Saccharum spontaneum. These species, but

particularly Saccharum spontaneum, subse-

quently showed severe signs of grazing impact

at the end of the dry season. Heavy grazing

impact was, however, largely confined to the

area of the Kanha Meadow. This implied that

competitive exploitation may occur between

barasingha and chital.

In order to collect information on the utili-

zation patterns of the major grassland users in

the intensive study area, the distribution pat-

terns of chital-, barasingha- and sambar fecal

pellets were checked. A comparison of utili-

zation patterns by recording pellet frequencies

was preferred to direct observation of deer,

because results remain unaffected by different

9 Many attempts have been made to estimate the

relative and actual number of deer of their days

of use in a given area by counting fecal pellet-

groups. Neff (1968) gives a review of the various

methods used and their suitability under different

conditions. Practically all methods use some stratifi-

ed random distribution of sample plots. Among all

the problems that arise if an estimation of the

actual number of deer is to be computed, the figur-

time-space patterns of different species.

a) Deer Pellet Count

A pellet count was originally designed to |

give information on the seasonal dispersion of |

chital, barasingha and sambar among the in- |

tensive study area meadows.® Yet, the sampling ©

intensity required to obtain a representative _

sample of a given area depends upon the |

density and distribution of pellet groups. Grieb ©

(1958) gives a formula to determine the re-

quired sampling intensity. A preliminary

survey, however revealed that high variance

among samples would have required a very

large number of plots to show seasonal and

regional differences.

A modified pellet count technique was thus

used to answer a Slightly different kind of

question: Is the amount of barasingha pellets

in a certain locality correlated with the num-

ber of chital and/or sambar pellets? In other

words: If we do not distinguish between areas,

are those plots with relatively high, respective-

ly low rates of barasingha pellets, the same as

those that have high, respectively low rates

of pellets of other species, or not?

We may interpret the areas with high pellet

frequencies to be those of heavy use. Thus,

correlation of pellet frequencies from different

species will give indications on common and/

or discrete utilization patterns of these sym-

patric species. Seasonal aspects enable distin-

guishing between pellets that accumulate during

the dry season and during the rest of one year.

ing of daily defecation rates is one of the most

difficult. Defecation rates are subject to seasonal

and regional changes. Sampling accuracy may be

influenced by different deterioration rates under va-

rious cover conditions, e.g. forest vis-a-vis meadow.

Rainfall can also cause the disappearance of pellet

groups (Wallmo et al. 1962). Interpretational diffi-.

culties as in the case of peripheral or scattered

groups in the sample plots may cause further bias.

| (1) Sampling:

A total of 84 plots were distributed in the

‘intensive study area meadows. Plot sites were

located according to a stratified random design

and permanently marked with wooden pegs.

Plots were 50 sq metres and circular. High

pellet densities impeded the identification of

pellet groups. Therefore single pellets were

counted in divergence to other methods de-

scribed. This way the problem of interpreta-

tion of peripheral or scattered groups was ex-

cluded.

The first count was carried out from March

12-16, 1972. Consecutive counts were carri-

ed out on July 5-12, 1972 and March 8 - 13,

1973. Each time pellets were classified, count-

ed and removed from the plot. Due to exten-

sive fires that destroyed the grass cover in

most of the meadows before the first count,

the pellets could be collected easily. The se-

cond count, which took place before the next

growing period, also went smoothly. For the

last count the grass on the plots had to be

cut prior to the count.

— Thus, the first count comprised all pellets

from before the count period, the second count

those of the four months of the past dry sea-

son, and the third count those pellets that

accumulated from July to the following Feb-

ruary.

(2) Durability of pellets:

Whereas pellets in the forest may be lost by

concealment in litter as well as other reasons

within less than one year’s time, pellets in

the meadows lasted for at least a year. The

total amount of pellets from the two count

periods (1 year) is comparable to the total

amount from the initial count (Tab. 4). Con-

sidering the general increase of deer and ac-

cordingly, pellet frequencies, we may assume

that the pellets collected in the initial count

date back from a period of a little more than

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

TABLE 4

MEAN FECAL PELLET FREQUENCIES PER 50 SQUARE-

METRE PLOT; FROM 84 PLOTS IN THE INTENSIVE

STUDY AREA MEADOWS

Maren 14

EL Ie

Pecoocicom Tata ere ee

type count toJuly 8 1 year (1 year)

Chital 709.4 133.9 573.4 107-3

Barasingha 74.0 18.0 87.5 105.5

Sambar 46.9 6.7 23.5 30.2

Total 830.3 158.6 684.4 843.0

one year. Generally pellets dry up quickly and

remain unaffected until the next monsoon.

However, they did not weather the second

monsoon. Those pellets dropped during a pe-

riod of heavy rain may get lost within the

same monsoon season. Occasionally pellets

were lost due to termite attack. Nevertheless,

neither type of loss seems to affect the results

of semiannual or annual counts seriously.

G)wSpecressdentificatiron

Giipiedd ex s:

The year before the first count was carried

out, pellets of observed animals of the three

species were collected and compared. The

diameter of chital pellets vary from 6.5 - 9.0

mm, whereas barasingha- and sambar pellets

are always wider. Barasingha pellets are cylin- |

drical in contrast to the pileate and wider

sambar pellets. Chital- and sambar pellets are

usually dark brown to black when dry, where-

as barasingha pellets are light brown. The

shape of pellets were fairly constant, except

during the monsoon when deformed pellets

also occured. Soil-containing pellets occur in

chital and sambar only, as barasingha do not

frequent natural or established salt licks. Be-

cause of the barasingha’s exclusive grass diet,

fragments of browse in pellets point to either

chital or sambar. Occasionally pellets had to

be disregarded due to the difficulties involved

in identifying them.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

b) Correlation of Species Pellet Frequencies

Spearman Rank Correlation tests revealed

that barasingha and chital pellets commonly

occur together. Rank correlation co-efficients

(Tab. 5) show a significant positive correla-

TABLE 5

CORRELATION OF BARASINGHA PELLET FREQUENCIES

WITH PELLET FREQUENCIES OF CHITAL AND SAMBAR;

FROM 84 PLOTS IN THE INTENSIVE STUDY AREA

MEADOWS

SPEARMAN Rank Correlation Tests

Coethicients |. | 02151 (2a =. 0105: —=)84)

are senipcany | una on 0. (p < eee

oneal a

barasingha pellet

frequencies with

pellet frequencies

Dry season’ All other seasons

of:

Chital T,= 0.4690 ty = 0.2323

= -0. ree tis = 0. Hele

Sambar

tion Wetec ie occurrence a See dehe aha

chital pellets for the dry season, but even the

positive coefficient for the remaining period

of the year has statistical significance. Yet,

there is a significant negative correlation be-

tween the occurrence of barasingha and sam-

bar pellets for the dry season. The occurrence

of pellets of these two species during the rest

of the year is positively correlated, though not

significantly. The fact that the occurrence of

barasingha and chital pellets are correlated

suggests two things:

(1) The dispersion of barisinelia and chital

among the intensive study area meadows

tends to be proportional.

(2) Within meadows the same areas are

subject to heavy use by both species.

Sambar though appear to use the meadows

of the intensive study area scenen to a diffe-

rent pattern.

These findings are supported by direct ob-

servations of deer. The dispersal of chital

as well as barasingha seems to be governed >

by the availability of water during the dry

season. Hence they congregate around the

Kanha Meadow. As expecied, barasingha pel-

lets occurred only in the southern part of the

intensive study area during the dry season.

Chital pellets occurred in all the meadows,

though they were in highest density in the

south. During the rest of the year barasingha

pellets occured also in the northern part of

the intensive study area, and chital pellets were

in about equal density in both the parts.

On the other hand, sambar pellets were al-

ways more frequent in the northern meadows.

This species seems not to be affected by water

scarcity in these areas during the dry season.

As shown in Tab. 4, the number of samber

pellets was low compared to the other species’

pellets, particularly chital pellets. This points

to insignificant use of the meadows. The park’s

sambar are predominantly browsers and enter

the meadow only during the night. As men-

tioned before, sampling intensity was insuffi-

cient to give regional differences of statistical

significance.

Common utilization of grassland by chital

and barasingha does not mean a priori that the

chital has the same utilization pattern as the

barasingha. The chital has a wider range of

food preferences; also browse plays an im-

portant role in the ecology of this species

(Schaller 1967). But wherever chital pass over

to meadows, the same grounds are also favour-

ed by the barasingha. The overlap of the utili-

zation patterns of these two species is promot-

ed by the lack of interspecific avoidance (mix-

ed herds). Various authors have reported an

overlap in food habits of sympatric deer spe-

cies. Kramer (1973) suspected competitive ex-

ploitation to be the only mechanism of com-

petition in sympatric whitetailed deer (Odo-

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

coileus virginianus) and mule deer (Odocoileus

hemionus) populations with densities below the

maximum. Martinka (1968) and Kamps

(1969) expected competition to occur between

these species in the case of scarcity of certain

forage plants in winter, when other forage is

short.

This situation, however, is comparable to

the food shortage in the Kanha Meadow aiter

extensive burns have taken place (Chapter

VII-4). The assumption, that competitive ex-

ploitation of certain grass species by chital and

barasingha arises here during the cool- and

dry season appears therefore to be consistent.

3. Evolutionary Aspect

The outstanding importance of eutrophic

moist grasslands for the barasingha suggests

that it is one of the most stenoecious among

the deer. This is even more conspicuous in

northern and north-eastern India, where the

barasingha hardly ever enter the forest due to

extensive grasslands and marshes which seem

to cover all their requirements. Habitat selec-

tion to cover nutritional requirements may,

however, be considered a phylogenetic adapta-

tion that evolved in the corresponding habitat.

Hence the question arises as to which was the

area of differentiation of the species:

Except perhaps the more arid parts of the

Thar desert, the natural vegetation of the In-

dian Subcontinent was essentially arboreal.

_ Tropical grassland and marshes occurred only

in riparian flats inundated by flood water of

the Brahmaputra River and in the alluvial

flood areas of the middle and lower Gangetic

Plain. From the point of view of habitat pre-

ference, it seems therefore reasonable to as-

10 Although little is known on the ecology of

C. eldi, in Manipur it is an inhabitant of floating

swamps with tall reeds (Ranjitsinh, personal comm.)

sume that the differentiation of the species

took place in its present northern and north-

eastern range, and was dominated by the allu-

vial flood plains deposited after the tertiary

uplift of the Himalaya. The colonization of the

archaean and densely forested peninsula would

consequently have occurred during a later pe-

riod.

Indeed, Mani (1974) in his comprehensive

biogeography of India pointed out that the

present-day mammalian fauna of the penin-

sula is largely constituted by intrusive elements

of the tertiary humid tropical Indo-Chinese and

Malayan subregions. The fauna that differen-

tiated in these eastern “‘amphitheatres” is un-

like the Peninsular faunas composed of phy-

logenetically much younger groups, such as

the cervids. They are characterized by a high

degree of plasticity, and often diversified to

local subspecies after the inflow into the Pe-

ninsula in the Pleistocene times. This may also

be valid for the diversification into subspecies

of the barasingha. Kurup (1974) showed that

the mammalian faunal flow in the Post Ter-

tiaries from the Indo-Chinese sub-region en-

tered India through Assam and bifurcated, one

branch spreading to the Peninsular India and

the other across the Sub-Himalayan belt fur-

ther west. The barasingha’s distribution last

century had similar pattern (see Fig. 1).

This would mean, that the differentiation of

the barasingha occurred in Assam or even

further in the east of the Indo-Chinese sub-

region. A remnant of speciation, the closely

related brow antlered deer (C. eldi)!®, was in

present times still being found in these areas.

Yet the details of the evolutionary processes

that happened here are unknown; all the more,

which may suggest similar habitat requirements as

in barasingha.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

there is a lack of paleontological evidence on

the species level. Still there is little doubt that

the peninsular occurrence of barasingha dates

back to a relatively recent, i.e. post tertiary,

colonization.

V GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Deer were generally assumed to have reach-

ed firm group sociality. This idea apparently

originated from the descriptions given by Darl-

ing (1937) for red deer in Scotland. More re-

cent studies however revealed, that grouping

is largely dependant upon environment and

changes in physiological functions.

Schaller (1967) stated that barasingha

groups tend to break up and reassemble in

different groups. It was observed at the begin-

ning of this study, that barasingha groups occa-

sionally changed their composition several

times a day. Individuals of a group often scat-

tered while grazing, which incidentally led to

the breakup of the group. Single animals or

small parties later met with different animals

on grazing grounds or shady resting locations

to form again larger groups.

Frequent changes of group compositions

were particularly conspicuous during the dry

season. This was the period, when the daily

movement pattern was lively and _ strongly

influenced by the avialability of food, water

and shade (chapter III-2).

The size and composition of barasingha

groups were analyzed for seasonal changes.

An analysis for changes of vegetational type

was done for the cool- and dry seasons, when

barasingha were relatively mobile and also fre-

quented sal forest areas.

Characteristics of barasingha groups were

based on 689 records of groups totalling 5200

observations of individual barasingha. 613

groups were classified as to sex and age. Three

types of groups were distinguished:

All male groups, female- young groups and

mixed groups. Single animals were considered

as groups consisting of one animal. The above

terms were defined as follows:

— All male group: Any combination of

TABLE 6

MONTHLY SIZE OF BARASINGHA GROUP TYPES. POOLED CLASSIFICATIONS 1971-73

Total sample All groups

No. groups No. baras. Mean Range

Jan 50 468 9.4 1-70

Feb 62 628 10.1 1-63

Mar 103 1047 10.2 1-61

Apr 8 2, 9.0 1-27

May 85 666 7.8 1-28

Jun 83 i225 8.7 1-36

Jul 31 405 13.1 1-33

Aug 40 147 Bai 1-21

Sep 80 370 4.6 1-19

Oct 48 218 4.5 1-19

Nov 36 180 5.0 1-15

Dec 63

274 4.3

Whole year 689

1-32

5200 Ae

70 oe

All male sroups ‘Female-young Mixed eroups

groups

Mean Range Mean Range Mean Range

123 1- 3 3.1 1- 6 12.0 3-70

1.9 1- 5 3.4 1- 9 18.0 2-63

359 1- 8 6.0 1-28 37 2-61

4.3 1- 8 6.0 1-15 10.1 3-23

2.7 1-10 6.2 1-21 IRS) 4-38

Sea) 3- 4 55) 1-11 170 10238

2.4 “1-7 2.4 1-11 1.8. | Sao

1.4 1- 3 1.6 1- 3 6.3 2-19

1.0 1- 0 1.8 1- 4 6.2 2-19

1.5 1- 2 748) 1- 5 6.3 2-11

12 1- 3 2.8 1- 7 6.9 2-30

110, 4 GAP eel (03) 4. oa

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

males older than one year.

— Female-young group: Any combination

of females, yearlings and fawns, except

all yearling male groups. Solitary females

with fawns at foot were classed as single

females.

— Mixed group: Any combination of adult

males with animals from other classes,

except yearling males.

1. Seasonal Grouping Pattern

The mean group size for the whole study

period was 7.5 animals/group. This is in ac-

cordance with the mean of the mean monthly

group sizes of 7.5 animals/group.

Tab. 6 shows the monthly size of the three

group types, and Fig. 13 the segregation of

sexes. The April sample was too small to give

representative values on the group type level.

All male groups were constantly smaller

than female-young groups. Highest mean group

sizes were attained by mixed groups. The peak

of rutting activity in January was marked by

a maximum of animals conforming to mixed

breeding herds. Temporally limited peak aggre-

gations of up to 70 animals occurred on the

Kanha Meadow during the late rut consolida-

tion of breeding herds, stag groups and female-

young groups. The months thereafter,

February onwards, brought a progressive se-

gregation of barasingha into groups of their

Own sex, accordingly with an increase of the

mean size of the all male and the female-

young groups. Segregation between sexes

reached a peak during the driest period of the

year in May. The maximum for the year, of

females living in female-young groups was

reached in this period. After the onset of the

monsoon, barasingha gathered on large mea-

dows new sprouts of which brought about the

highest mean group size (without regard to

composition) of 13.1 animals. The situation

from.

Males 8 SINGLE

YIN ALL MALE GROUPS > 2

[—]

‘/o OF MALES OLDER 1 YEAR OBSERVED

10 At

ae YA &-

| JAN | FEB a

| Hh

ak RG Z

SEP | oct | nov | vec |

# Lets

“APR | ay [un Ju ast

Females

SINGLE OR

SINGLE WITH FAWN

IN FEMALE - YOUNG

GROUPS > 2

SQ994

SSS

SOOSSAS

DMO

“/ OF FEMALES OLDER 1YEAR OBSERVED

Sunes

MM QAAN

Linn if

ue | ave | sep | oct | nov | ec |

cal

= |

> &f

E-)

Fig. 13. Monthly segregation of barasingha into

monosexual groups. From classifications 1971-73.

drastically changed by the beginning of the

fawning period in August. Early monsoon

ageregations had split into small groups and

a high percentage of singles. Segregation of

sexes reached the second peak of the year.

Single females were at maximum, indicating

separation for parturition. In the months there-

after, mean group sizes and segreration of

sexes were at maximum. This situation remain

relatively stable until November. The onset of

rutting behaviour in December’ was again

marked by segregation of sexes and the highest

percentage for the year of single males.

‘/o ANIMALS

SEEN SINGLE

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Single individuals were observed throughout

the year. The relationship between the per-

centage of single animals and the mean group

sizes, Without regard to composition, was used

to analyse grouping mechanisms (Fig. 14): In-

ONSET OF BREEDING

’

\ 7 Hero CONSOLIDATION

SEPARATION OF SINGLES

A FROM BREEDING HERDS

Nee

MAXIMUM AGGREGATIONS

COLLECTING ON NEW SPROUTS

4 LARGE OPENINGS

5 se 6

Sait fay season—|

MEAN

GROUP SIZE

|— COOL SEASON

Fearwy monsoon season—]

Fig. 14. Seasonal relationship between mean group

size and percentage of singles. From classifications

1971-73. Note: Solitary females with fawn were

classed as single animais. Numbers along the curve

indicate months. Dotted line: hypothetical run for

grouping during the rut.

creasing mean group size effects an exponential

decrease of the probability to see single ani-

mals. Such a curve was to be expected. Yet,

the positions within the coordinates and the

flexure of the curve must be considered to be

typical for this particular population. A sharp-

ly bent curve could signify that with increas-

ing mean group size, single animals get readily

absorbed in groups; a more linear curve would

imply many animals remaining single or even

actively avoiding association with other indi-

viduals. Deviation from the general relation-

ship, finally, may be interpreted as being caus-

ed by factors different from those responsible

for the general relationship. The dotted line in

Fig. 14 indicates a more linear run of the curve

based on the deviation of the January value.

It shows the hypothetical development of

grouping during the rut: December is char-

acterized by a low mean group size of 4.3 and

the highest percentage for the year of single

animals. This marks the beginning of breeding

herd formations. 77% of the singles are adult

stags appearing on the rutting ground. By Ja-

nuary breeding herds account for a_ higher

mean group size of 9.4 animals/group. The

percentage of animals seen single has decreas-

ed accordingly, yet remains relatively high. The

deviation of the January value is caused to

equal degrees by solitary low ranking stags

not being tolerated in breeding herds, and soli-

tary hinds with fawn avoiding association with

rutting stags.

These singles however join the post rut

aggregations in February and March. The va-

lues for these months subsequently fit again

into the general relationship.

We may presume thus, that during the rut

grouping is determined by different factors.

The deviation may be attributed to social in-

teractions, or more precisely—separation or ex-

clusion of certain animal classes from the rut-

ting procedure during the peak of the rut. I

will later show that lactating females avoid

association with rutting stags.

The fitting into the curve of the other month-

ly values, on the other hand, points to absence

of this social mechanism. The conjecture is

prompted that grouping is determined by en-

vironmental factors during the rest of the year.

2. Grouping in Relation to Vegetational Type

Changes of group size and composition coin-

cided with changes in vegetational type during

the cool- and dry season. The occasions where

}

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

barasingha were observed within the forest

areas were relatively rare. This could partially

_be ascribed to better visibility on open ground.

Yet it appeared also that forest tracts were

merely crossed to reach feeding grounds and

watering places in other openings, which con-

tributed further to the low chance of observ-

ing barasingha within the forest. Those few

cases, however, where barasingha groups were

located in the interior of the forest suggested,

that these groups had a composition that dif-

fered as to sex and age from the usual pattern.

Tab. 7 shows that groups in the forest had a

higher proportion of adult males and adult

nonlactating hinds, whereas hinds with fawns

and yearlings were less represented. A lower

percentage of female-young groups was observ-

ed in the forest, whereas the other group types

were represented with higher values.

This indicates that the preference for one

of the two vegetational types is not simply

related to sex, but rather to age. Both sexes

may leave the open areas. Females with fawns

at foot and yearlings, however, tend to con-

form to groups remaining on open ground.

Absence of cover on open ground lowers the

risk of predation by tiger. It is likely that this

yields the motive for avoidance of timbered

areas by female-young groups.

The mean group size was comparatively

higher at 7.8 animals/group in the open type

than the mean group size of 5.8 animals/group

observed in the forest. The sample of bara-

singha seen in the forest was however too small

to give this difference statistical significance.

Knight (1970) found maximum group sizes

of elk (Cervus canadensis) cow-calf groups on

Open grass types, suggesting similar mechan-

isms. According to Halder (1973) the social

organisation of a species represents a phylo-

genetic adaptation to various factors of the

habitat in which the respective species custo-

marily lives.

TABLE 7

SEX AND AGE DISTRIBUTION AND GROUP TYPES OF BARASINGHA IN TWO VEGETATIONAL TYPES

(Pooled classifications cool- plus dry season 1971-73). The distributions of sex and age classes differ

significantly between open areas resp. forested areas (x? =

14.00; df. = 3; p < 0.01)

Observed Adult Adult Lactat. Yearling ,“nimals All male Feamale Mixed Groups

; in sample Groups young groups in sample

in males females females Gao 2TOUps

1788 280

Open

areas 31.8% 21.7% 22.6% 23.9% 100% 20.4% 35.7% 43.9% 100%

146 30

Forest

areas 38.3% 30.1% 18.5% 13.0% 100% 30.0% 20.0% 50.0% 100%

Difference

of % in — 419.6% -15.7% 4+6.1% —_

forest +6.5% +8.4%

al on O97

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

3. Group Constancy

The frequent changes oi group size and com-

position and the adaptation to different habitat

types lead me to conclude, that barasingha

groups have no real constancy in the social

sense. This was further supported by the re-.

peated observation of individually known bara-

singha in groups of different composition or

as single individuals. Although a number of

stags were recorded throughout the cool- and

dry seasons, none was seen twice within a

group of the same composition. Even breeding

groups were subject to constant exchange of

individuals.

The highest degree of stability in this respect

was noted during monsoon when food was

abundant and daily movements at minimum;

33 females and young animals that remained

in the Kanha Meadow during the early mon-

soon season 1972 were repeatedly seen in one

group but also in various sub-groups over a

period of 16 days. Congregation in one group,

however, appeared to be accidental and caused

by coincident grazing ground, rather than by

social factors. Two adult stags were known to

have moved together to the northern range be-

tween June 22 and 24, 1972, where they were

seen associated over a period of 28 days. Yet

no larger group was known to have-remained

intact over such a period of time. The only

stable relationship between two animals seem-

ed to occur between a hind and her fawn,

until the latter was approximately 1 year old.

Related deer species of the temperate and

cold climates were found to have analogous

grouping patterns: Lowe (1966) reported, that

marked red deer (Cervus elaphus) on Rhum

in Scotiand may sometimes be found with one

group, sometimes with another. Schloeth

(1961) doubted, that red deer in the Swiss Na-

tional Park would form lasting associations of

any size. American elk (Cervus canadensis) |

were found to form no strong or enduring asso- |

(1973), Moran |

(1973), Knight (1970) and others. The latter |

proposed, that groups which tend to break up.

and reassemble with different combinations

99 |

ciation by Craighead ef al.

snould more properly be called “‘aggregations.

He further stated,

owe their existence to environmental factors

rather than social responses

hierarchy.”

According to this, grouping in barasingha

is most probably a function of environment,

except perhaps for the deviation in grouping

habits that was found during the rutting pe-

riod.

VI POPULATION STRUCTURE AND REGULATION

1. Population Size

that: “such aggregations .

which how-

ever does not preclude the existence of a wide |

range of social responses including dominance |

A population living in a habitat with dense |

cover and undulating terrain may not be ac-

curately censused to the last individual by any —

known method. Whereas the visibility in the

Kanha Meadow is sufficient to give very accu- |

rate census results of the animals staying in |

the meadow at the time of censusing, forest

areas cannot be scanned completely. Methods |

of estimation such as the “Lincoln Index” have

been found to give unsatisfactory results due

to different probability of observation among —

sex and age classes in different habitat types

(Kramer 1967). Andersen (1961, 1962) check-

ed many of the traditional methods and con-

cluded that they normally resulted in under-

rather than over estimates of the real popula-

tion. The census figures presented here must

therefore be taken as minimum, where there

was no mean for adjustments.

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

| a) Method of Count

Total census were carried out on June 10,

1971; June 27, 1972 and March 26, 1973. The

selection of dates for the censuses coincided

with periods when a maximum number of

barasingha congregated on the Kanha Meadow,

either due to grazing from green grass shoots

that sprouted after the first monsoon rains in

June, or due to the forming of large herds at

the end of the rutting period in March. In

other seasons the population is more dispers-

ed and less visible.

Censuses were carried out from a vehicle

between 0600 and 0800 hours and repeated

at 1600 to 1800 hours on two consecutive days.

The Kanha Meadow was covered first, leaving

more isolated herds for later. A separate

census was done by the Forest Department in

1971. The censuses of 1972 and 1973 were

carried out in cooperation with the Forest De-

partment Staff. In order to avoid double count-

ing and to receive reliable information on the

sex and age structure, all counting and classi-

fying was done by the same team consisting

of myself and the Divisional Forest Officer.

Patrolling Forest Staff were sent out before

the counting period to search all the areas in

the basin of the Sulcum River. Sightings by

the Forest Staff were confirmed after covering

the Kanha Meadow.

The number of barasingha staying in the en-

closure each year, namely 5 in June 1971, 7

in June 1972 and 8 in March 1973 were in-

cluded in the census figures.

b) Census Results (Tab. 8).

The repetition of counts on each occasion

showed that the method gave consistent results

as to the number of females, yearlings and

fawns.

The number of yearlings probably has the

highest accuracy. Yearling classes are the most

easy to locate and count due to their tendency

to stay in the open areas (Tab. 7). The num-

ber of yearlings was moreover confirmed by

separate counts. These were in accordance

with the census results, except for the yearling

male class in 1973. 11 yearling males were

counted on January 27, 1973 in one herd and

on February 4, 1973 in two herds instead of

the 8 yearling males tallied during the census.

Although I cannot exclude that the 3 missing

yearling males had died between February 4,

1973 and the census of March 26, 1973, it is

more likely that they were not included in the

census.

From the known number of yearlings, how-

ever, conclusions can be made on the minimum

number of fawns that must have been living

during the census of the previous year: 12

yearlings in 1972 and 21 in 1973, indicate that

in 1971 at least 12 fawns and in 1972 at least

21 fawns were present.

A similar conclusion can be made for the

determination of the adult females and males:

Due to mortality, the number of adults, in one

sex should be less than the sum of adults and

yearlings of the same sex in the previous year.

If the census yields a greater number, we may

conclude that the number of adults had been

underestimated in the previous year. This,

however, assumes that the number of yearlings

was accurate. In this way, 51 counted adult

females in 1973 and the known number of 6

yearling females in 1972 suggest that at least

45 adult females were present at the time of

census in 1972. An analogous conclusion can

be made for the minimum number of 40 adult

females in 1971. Thus, even though repetitions

of censuses gave consistent results for female,

yearling and fawn classes, the reconstructions

suggest that in all repetitions of the counts in

1971 and 1972 a part of the female and fawn

classes was missed entirely.

Further adjustments had to be made for the

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

TABLE 8

CENSUS RESULTS AND ESTIMATION OF REAL POPULATIONS 1971-73

ai.

Meu.

Yearl. ae

Males Males Females Females Fawns Total

1971 Census June 10 20 6 29 5) 11 71

Concl. from 12 yearl. 1972 +1

Concl. from 45 ad. fem. 1972 +11

Minimum pop. June 1971 20 6 40 5 12 83

Forest Dept. Census 6/1971 88

Assumptive real pop. 6 9/1971 30 6 40 5 12 93

1972, Case June 27 22 6 36 6 13 83

Reports June 27 (+ 13)

Observed July 2 +3

Concl. from 21 yearl. 1973 Lag

Concl. from 51 ad. fem. 1973 +9

Minimum pop. June 1972 DSS 6 45 6 21 103

Assumptive real Pop. 6 6/1972 34 6 45 6 21 112

1973 Census March 26 27 8 51 10 22 118

Observed February 4 +3

Minimum pop. March 1973 27 11 51 10 2D 121

ee real Pop. oe 1973 39 11 51 10 22 133

soar male class. Adult ice often roam soli-

tarily in forest areas, making this class the

most difficult to comprehend from a census.

Repetition of counts yielded fluctuating num-

bers of stags. Even maximum census figures

were known not to include individually known

stags that were seen again only after the cen-

sus. The assumptive number of stags was thus

computed from the census figures of adult

sex ratio determined in Chapter VI-2. This

yields the assumptive real population size and

structure for the years 1971-73 shown in Table

2. Sex Ratio

All of the censuses indicate a sex ratio of

1:1 among yearling classes, which points to

parity among sexes at birth. 1:1 distribution

among yearling sex classes is also indicated in

classifications of larger groups throughout the

year.

The determination of sex ratio among adults

is more difficult. Substantial parts of the adult

population were known to have been missed

in the censuses.

The monthly totals of classifications in the

southern range resulted in a fluctuating sex

ratio, indicating unequal probability of obser-

vation of adults in different seasons.

Considering only the months of February

and March, when large herd forming occurs

at the end of the rut and the entire popula-

tion congregates in the immediate vicinity of

the Kanha Meadow, a sex ratio of 75.4 adult

males to 100 adult females, results which give

the approximate real sex ratio. No major

change of the sex ratios in young animals and

| adults has thus occurred since 1964/65.

i 3. Age distribution and Antler development

_ Under the conditions in question an attempt

| of aging the adult class could only be made

| by judging the antler development of males.

| The first indications of antlers appear in

Je5

-Assumptive age in. years

Fig. 15. Development of the barasingha antler. a—

length of skull used to estimate antler length. Secon-

dary tines dashed.

the fawn of 7 to 10 months, in the form of

small bumps. Yearling stags carry spikes

between approximately 7 and 20 cm length.

The first set of adult antlers is acquired at

the age of 2 years. Very old stags may carry

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

set back antlers with as few as 7 tines.

The age of stags older than 3 years is diffi-

cult to judge by antler development. The obser-

vation of both free and a few enclosed stags

of known age permitted following the general

development of antler stages. Data from red

deer (Raesfeld 1964) supplied further infor-

mation on the indication of the age (Fig. 15).

It is common knowledge that antler deve-

lopment is an unsatisfactory criterion for aging.

Results using this criterion should thus be in-

terpreted with care:

To class free ranging stags older than three

years, I used the estimated length of the antler.

This may give a somewhat more reliable indi-

cation of age than the number of antler tines.

The distance from the pedicel to the most

distant tip of the antler was compared with

the distance between muzzle and pedicel to

estimate the length of the antler (Fig. 15).

This rate is indicated in Tab. 9 and allied with

the assumptive age of stags.

The age structure in the male population

was determined by observing and classifying

stags at times during which all age classes were

equally present in and around the Kanha

Meadow, i.e. during and at the end of the

TABLE 9

ANTLER DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF AGE CLASSES IN THE MALE POPULATION OF BARASINGHA, 1973

Age 3 ere coe as eey ee BBS Q BU TREES (?) = 8 Number

in sample

Estimated length

of antler in

muzzle-pedicel ~ (spike) (brow tine 1-14 14-2 Sy)

lengths short)

Usual number of tines = (spike) 6-8 8-10 11-12 12

Adult males classified

Jan. - March 1973 75 97 47 261

Distribution according

to assumptive real

population 1973 18.0% 18.0% 10.3% 18.4% 23.856 Dawe 100%

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

rutting period.

Tab. 9 gives the proportion of adult male

classes derived from classifications of groups

made from January till March 1973. It has

been adapted according to the structure of the

assumptive real population of 1973 shown in

Tab. 8 to give the age distribution in the total

male class. Since we may presume that the sex

distribution among fawns is equal 1:1, the

rate of fawns recorded was halved to obtain

the rate of male fawns.

The distribution is marked by a high number

of young animals. 36% of all males were less

than 2 years old and 46.3% were less than 3

years of age. Only 11.5% were older than

approximately 8 years. The high rate of yearl-

ing stags (18.0%) points to a massive increase

in the reproductive success over the year 1971.

The 1973 male population was remarkably

young and characteristic of an increasing popu-

lation.

a) Changes of Age Structure in the Male Class

A comparison with the conditions in 1964/

65 is informative: Schaller (1967) determined

the percentage of adult stags with antlers hav-

ing 6-9, 10-11, 12 and 13-15 tines from 42

adult stags tallied in the standing population

of barasingha in Kanha in 1964/65. Consider-

ing the mean from 1964 and 1965 of the rates

of fawns and then yearling stags, a distribu-

tion of male classes was constructed. This is

compared with the distribution among the same

male classes of the 1973-population, determin-

ed from 90 adult stags tallied between January

and March 1973 and the assumptive real popu-

lation in 1973 (Fig. 16). Even though these

antler classes may not be placed in year classes,

the number of antler tines is correlated with

age. The 1973 population of males shows a

distinctive shift towards stag classes with fewer

tines i.e. younger males. The majority of males

had antlers numbering 6-9 tines. The male po-

100

*/, MALES

1973

1964/65

ACE

MALE

FAWNS

YEARLING 6-9

STAGS ANTLER

10-11 12 >i2

TINES — ( ADULT STAGS }

Fig. 16. Distribution of male classes in the bara- |

singha populations of 1964-65 (adapted from

Schaller 1967) and 1973 (the present study).

pulation of 1964/65 on the other hand was |

marked by a majority of stags having antlers |

with 10-11 tines and an extremely low rate of

fawns. This low rate of fawns was due to a

very low reproductive success in the year 1963 —

and 1964 and a decrease of the population

from 82 animals in 1964 to 55 animals in 1965

where, however, all fawns recorded by Schaller

in 1964 became yearlings in 1965. Thus, the

yearling rate of the 1964/65 population be-

came higher than the rate of fawns. The dis-

tribution of male classes in 1964/65 was char-

acteristic of a decreasing population, whereas

the 1973 population was younger and increas-

ing.

4. Reproduction

a) The Breeding Period

Rutting activity occurred between mid De-

cember and mid March. Earliest bugling by

stags was heard on November 29, latest on

March 29. Bugling reached highest frequencies

in the second half of January, coinciding with

the peak of rutting activity. Although bara-

singha groups were roaming over larger areas

and bugling was heard all over the Kanha

Meadow and its vicinity, rutting activity in

| groups was confined to limited areas within

| the Kanha Meadow in both the seasons 1971/

Wa2 and 1972/73 (see Fig. 4). A few large

' stags dominated the rutting area at the north-

ern edge of the Kanha Meadow up until Jan-

uary 15, 1972, February 3, 1973 respectively.

With the fading rutting activity of the largest

stags, lower ranking stags appeared and rutting

activity continued in large aggregations. Rut-

ting of these stags continued until end of Feb-

ruary around the Menar-Nala in the centre of

the Kanha Meadow, and subsequently faded.

Schaller (1967) has already commented on

the differences in the time of onset of the rut

in different areas in northern India, compared

to the park’s population. The daily peaks of

rutting activity occurred in the cool morning

hours from 0630 to 0900 and between 1630

and 1830, coinciding with the peaks of grazing

activity (see Fig. 6). During these hours, stags

were repeatedly observed using the same 9

wallows within the rutting areas. Several co-

pulations were witnessed in these areas between

December 29 and January 29. Rutting stags

seemed not to retain constant harems but con-

fined their activity to estrus hinds. It was com-

mon to have several other stags within a breed-

ing herd who challenged rutting stags around

the periphery of the area.

Observations of rutting behaviour are in ac-

cordance with those described by _ Schaller

(1967). Bugling, wallowing and foreplay ap-

peared also to be in close accordance with that

described for Cervus canadensis by Harper

et al. (1967).

The time of peak rutting as well as the

locality of the rutting areas obviously remain-

ed the same since 1964. However, ‘the period

during which rutting activity was recorded

started earlier by 17 days and lasted more

than a month longer. The duration of rutting

activity thus seems to be related to the size

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

of the population as suggested by Schaller

(1967). Indications from Forsyth (1889) who

found a longer rutting period at times when

barasingha were common in Central India,

support this view.

The fact that the whole population’s rutting

activity was confined to the same area is not

consistent with Schaller’s (1967) suggestion

that the maximum size of a coherent breeding

herd could be around 60. However, Panwar

(personal comm.) noted that some rutting acti-

vity occurred in the northern meadows during

the rut of 1974/75, when the population reach-

ed approximately 150 individuals.

b) Gestation Period and Fawning

Asdell (1964) and Kenneth (1953) reported

the barasingha to be a monoestrous deer with

a gestation period of 240-250 days. The peak

of rutting activity in the second half of Jan-

uary would thus suggest that the majority of

fawns would be born in the second half of

September.

A total of 8 new fawns were found during

the study period. The earliest of them was re-

corded on August 6, suggesting conception in

early December, and the latest on November

4, suggesting conception in early March. A

pregnant hind that lived in the enclosure in

1971 delivered shortly before September 19,

when the fawn was found. All of these new

fawns hid in tall grass areas and were distinctly

separated from other barasingha.

There was no evidence of twins during the

study period. Indications that occasionally

yearlings became pregnant were lacking; this

possibility may not be excluded with certainty.

c) Reproductive Success

One characteristic of the barasingha popu-

lation described by Schaller (1967) for the

years 1964/65 was the extremely low repro-

ductive success of the population, i.e. 15 fawns/

100 hinds (adult + yearling) in 1964, and 16

101

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

fawns/100 hinds in 1965 respectively. This re-

sulted in a rate of 7% fawns of the total popu-

lation for both the years 1964 and 1965.

From the censuses carried out during this

study, the fawning success was calculated as

26.7 fawns/100 hinds for 1971 respectively

41.2 for 1972 and 36.1 for 1973, concerning

fawns that were born the year preceeding the

respective census. The census thus included the

fawns that had outlasted early fawn mortality.

The data suggest a great increase in repro-

ductive success since 1965. The fawning period

of 1971 appears to have been particularly pro-

ductive. Similar fawn crop was indicated by

Schaller (1967) for the barasingha populations

of West Kheri Forest and Kaziranga, i.e.

15-19% of the total population.

Considering other monoestrous deer, these

rates suggest normal production (Knight, 1970;

Craighead et al., 1973; and others).

d) Breeding Potential

During the rut it was noticed that hinds with

fawn at heel tended to stay away from breed-

ing herds, and no conceptions of lactating

hinds were recorded. In one case it was observ-

ed that a fawn intervened when a rutting stag

attempted to check the hind quarters of its

mother.

Non lactating hinds were found to be more

frequently associated with stags than lactating

hinds during the rutting period. However, this

tendency was noticeable also in other seasons.

Tab. 10 shows the proportion of lactating and

non lactating hinds in two types of groups

during the rutting period. One group type was

marked by intensive rutting behaviour of at

least one stag and following of estrous hinds

by those. The other group type had no rutting

activity. Hinds with fawn at foot were signifi-

cantly less frequent in groups with rutting acti-

vity. This indicates that in general only non

lactating hinds conceive. Hinds with fawn at

102

TABLE 10

FREQUENCY OF LACTATING AND NONLACTATING FEMALE |

BARASINGHA IN TWO TYPES OF GROUPS, DURING THE

RUTTING PERIOD (DECEMBER 15 To Marcu 14)

1971-73

Contingency table, x? = 5.12; p < 0.05

Classified in groups

With Without

rutting rutting Total |

activity activity

Hinds with fawn 24 198 222

Hinds without fawn 41 182 223

foot join the breeding groups at hours when

rutting has ceased and leave them again with

the onset of rutting behaviour. They may then |

roam along the edges of the rutting areas or

join other female-young groups. This accounts —

for the higher proportion of .adult stags in ©

groups with rutting activity (40.6%) compar-

ed to groups without rutting activity (28.7%).

Trainer (1969) found the same phenomenon

for Roosevelt elk (Cervus canadensis roose-

velti) on poor range in Oregon. Phillips er al.

(1973) noticed the use of heavy cover by

moose cows with calves throughout the rut, in-

dicating avoidance of bulls. Mitchell and Brown

(1973) reported that the possession of a calf

at foot at least reduced the probability of

breeding in Scottish red deer living on poor

quality hill land. Generally lower proportions

of breeding with lactating hinds was also found

for red deer on Rhum in Scotland by Lowe

(1969).

Whether biennial conception in female bara-

singha is merely related to poor range condi-

tions, as suggested for the above mentioned

deer, could not be determined. Fecundity in

monoestrous tropical deer may be lower in gen-

eral, and still result in a similar fawn crop

due to the absence of winter losses and gene-

rally low early fawn mortality, effected by

| more favourable environmental conditions.

| e) Rates of Population Increase

As mentioned in the previous section, we

must presume that only non-lactating hinds

conceive. Thus, approximately half of the hinds

‘breed each year. Under this assumption and

the unlikely case that all yearling hinds would

conceive, the theoretical maximum rates of in-

crease for 1971-73 would range between

25.4% - 26.9%. Although these rates of in-

crease estimated from sex and age data are

rough calculations, they may give an estimate

of increase potential as of the time the field

data were collected (Kelker 1947). However,

they do not account for mortality.

The actual rates of population increase cal-

culated from Tab. 8 were: 20.4% (1971-72)

and 18.8% (1972-73). The proximity of these

rates to the theoretical maximum rates indi-

cate generally low mortality during the study

period. Rates of increase on this order have

been obtained in the initial growth phase for

Cervus canadensis (Murie 1951).

5. Predation

The barasingha population in Kanha is be-

ing regulated in number entirely by natural

mortality. Other than for predation, no other

causes of death were evident during the study

period. Hence, the question arises to what ex-

tent predation may influence the abundance of

the barasingha population.

Errington (1946) indicated that under cer-

tain conditions predators may cause an effec-

tive decimation of ungulate populations; and

Lack (1966) suspected that cervids in parti-

cular may be reduced by predators to a level

that is below the maximum density allowed,

11 The fact that the number of tigers in the area

remained constant in spite of the massive increase

of chital since 1964, suggests that the tiger has reach-

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

considering nutritional factors. In general,

canids have been found to be effective pre-

dators of ungulates. It was stated by Pimlott

et al. (1969) that the wolf may be determina-

tive for the abundance of ungulate populations.

The wolves on Isle Royal, Michigan were also

found to limit the population of moose (Alces

alces) to a level of about 600, which is below

the carrying capacity determined by the vege-

tation on this island (Mech 1966). Little in-

formation on predator-prey relationships is

available where cats may limit ungulate popu-

lations. Authors generally agree that the maxi-

mum density of cats is determined by intra-

specific mechanisms, such as_ territoriality,

rather than by the abundance of prey species

(Lion: Schaller 1969; Mountain lion: Horn-

ocker 1970; Cheetah: Eaton 1970).

In Kanha National Park the tiger is by far

the most important cause of mortality in bara-

singha. There were no indications of preda-

tion by other carnivores or man during the

study period. Schaller (1967) reported a mas-

sive loss of barasingha due to predation by

tiger: In the year 1964 at least 16, out of the

total population of 82 barasingha, were killed

in the area of the Kanha Meadow alone. Such

a rate of predation contrasts strongly with my

observations: Not a single barasingha was

killed in this area during my two-year study,

in spite of the larger barasingha population that

lived here. It must be concluded from Forest

Department records and statements made by

H. S. Panwar that the park’s tiger population

remained constant in numbers since 1964.14

What then could be the cause for a lower rate

of predation on barasingha in the centre of the

park?

ed its maximum density, which according to the

above mentioned authors, is determined by intra-

specific mechanisms.

103

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

a) Influence of Tiger Baiting

Between 1964 and 1969 tigers were lured

by buffalo bait in the Kanha Meadow, which

is the centre of the barasingha’s cool- and dry

season range. Intensive baiting caused temporal

aggregations of 5 and more tigers, though,

tigers are normally solitary. It was quite com-

mon that a tigress with cubs remained seden-

tary near the baiting site over weeks. These

tigers, however, frequently preyed upon free

ranging animals including barasingha, which

no doubt contributed to the high predation

rate in the Kanha Meadow. During the period

of this study, tigers lured by buffalo bait killed

3 barasingha, although the baiting site was re-

located in a forest area about 1 kilometre dis-

tant from the Kanha Meadow after 1969. All

the three kills were made in the direct vicinity

of the baiting site.

This indicates that artificially caused aggre-

gation or sedentariness of predators within the

activity centre of a prey population may effect

an increased rate of predation. From the ex-

ample of 1964 it is plausible that such influ-

ences not only cause a decimation, but on the

long run, eventually lead to the extermination

of a strongly localized prey population.

b) Relative availability of prey Species

In the case of the barasingha population a

decrease of the rate of predation since 1964

is, however, not totally explained by the relo-

cation of the tiger baiting site outside the bara-

singha’s activity centre. In chapter 1-3 I have

commented on the massive increase of the

park’s chital population between 1964 and

1973. It must be expected that the proportion

of chital kills increased accordingly, which pos-

sibly had an effect on the rate of predation

on barasingha: Tab. 11 shows the proportion

of kills of different ungulate species collected’

in the park area falling into Mandla District

by Schaller in 1964/65 and myself in 1971-

104

TABLE 11

NUMBER AND SPECIES OF PREDATOR KILLS COLLECTED

IN THE PART OF KANHA NATIONAL PARK FALLING

INTO MANDLA DISsTT.; IN 1964-65 (FROM SCHALLER,

1967) AND 1971-73 (THIS STUDY)

Species killed Period

1964-65 1971-73

No. % No. %

Chital 98 43.0 133 81.6

Barasingha 39 17.1 1 4.3

Sambar 56 24.6 9 DES)

Barking deer 1 0.4 _ 0

Gaur 14 6.1 6 3.7

Black buck 2 0.9 — 0

Fourhorned antelope — 0 2 G2

Wild boar 10 4.4 3 1.8

Langur 6 2.6 3 1.8

Porcupine Z 0.9 - 0

Total 228 100.0 163 100.0

73. In most cases it was unknown when these

kills were made. They may have also partly

been caused by other predators than the tiger.

The kills found in the two study periods were >

moreover not likely to be strict random samples —

of the total park area.

Nevertheless they may be used to indicate

the general trend of a change in the prey ratio |

since 1964. Two tentative conclusions are sug-

gested:

1) The proportion of chital kills increased,

which reflects the increase of the chital

population from approximately 1000 ani-

mals in 1964 (Schaller 1967) to more

than 5000 in the same area in 1972.

The decrease of the proportion of bara-

singha kills is paralleled with the de-

crease of other species kills, particularly

sambar. This suggests that the decrease

of predation on barasingha is mainly due

to the increased availability of chital,

hence not pronouncedly due to the re-

location of the tiger baiting place outside

the activity centre of the barasingha.

{

Somewhat more reliable data on the propor-

tion of tiger- prey and its change since 1964

is found in the analysis of tiger feces collect-

ed in the central part of the Kanha Park by

Schaller (1967) in 1964 and myself in 1972:

Tigers on their nightly prowl often go along

roads where their feces may frequently be

found. In 1972, a total of 307 tiger feces were

collected on the roads of the intensive study

area. Tiger feces may be distinguished from

other predator feces by their large bore. The

only other species which possibly could cause

confusion is leopard, which were rare in this

area. Practically all tiger feces had a major

content of hair, apart from remains of soil,

plant material, bones etc. The feces generally

contained hair originating from only one prey

species. Joslin (1972) elaborated a key for the

identification of hair originating from a large

number of domestic and wild prey animals

living in Gir Forest (Gujarat). It was based

on the external appearance and the cross-sec-

tion of hair. This key and a reference collec-

tion of hair from different body parts of kill-

ed animals was used to distinguish between

the hair of the main prey species of tiger in

Kanha.

Tab. 12 lists species that may even be iden-

tified from external appearance of their hair.

Unfortunately, I found no way to tell sambar-

and barasingha hair from each other with cer-

tainty, although Schaller (1967) made the dis-

tinction. Both species have hair of the same

length and oval outline with complete but

varying dull brown to reddish brown pigmen-

tation; cross-sections are much alike. Thus,

sambar and barasingha had to be classed to-

gether. Schaller’s data were adapted accord-

ingly. Tab. 12 shows a significant difference

of the frequency of occurrence of different hair

between the data from 1964 and those from

1972. It is marked by an increase of feces

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

TABLE 12

NUMBER OF TIGER FECES CONTAINING HAIR OF DIF-

FERENT PREY SPECIES COLLECTED IN THE INTENSIVE

STUDY AREA OF KANHA NATIONAL PARK IN 1964

(FROM SCHALLER 1967) AND 1972 (THIS STUDY).

The distributions in the two samples are significantly

different.

(6250420; dite = 47 91.< 0001)

Hair type |

1964 1972

No. % No. %o

Chital aS S22 241 78.5

Barasingha/Sambar 64 19.1 22: 2

Langur 21 6.3 10 33

Wild boar 3 0.9 6 2.0

Other content AZ Dies 28 vail

Total number

crease of feces containing other species’ hair.

These results support the above conclusions

made on the basis of kills found.

Since the number of tigers in the area is

likely to have remained constant, it may be

concluded that the fast growing chital popu-

lation has effected a reduction of the absolute

number of barasingha kills. The rates of pre-

dation found in 1972 also suggest that the

tiger, when naturally dispersed, preys upon the

three species, chital, sambar and barasingha

according to their relative abundance. Under

these circumstances the tiger seems not likely

to be determinative for the abundance of any

one of these deer species.

VII HABITAT STRUCTURE AND ALTERATION

Although all the meadows of the intensive

study area lie within the sal forest area below

610 metres a.s.l., there is an obvious difference

between the grassland structures of the diffe-

105

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

rent meadows. All of the meadows are dis-

tinguished by a closed ground vegetation com-

posed of grass species. A low grass cover com-

posed mainly of short annual species abounds

in the Kanha Meadow, whereas the meadows

in the northern part are covered mainly with

tall grass thickets interspersed with loose stands

of trees and shrubs.

Some Cyperaceae species occur in moist de-

pressions. Forbs are infrequent. As the annual

precipitation of the Central Indian monsoon

climate is practically confined to the months

of June to September, there is a distinct grow-

ing period of all grass-like plants starting with

the first heavy rains. The first species start

flowering in August and by the month of Octo-

ber virtually all grasses are either in flower

or seed. In this month identification of species

poses no major problem. During the cool sea-

son and the following dry season the grasses

increasingly dry up, first those in the open

plain, later the more shade resistent species.

Dried up grasses can not always be properly

identified.

During the flowering periods of 1971 and

1972, specimens of all grass- and grass-like

plant species occurring in the sal area were

collected and identified.12 Excepting some of

the rarer species, a total of 81 grass- and grass-

like plant species were found in the intensive

study area (Appendix [).

In the intensive study area five principal

kinds of grassland could be distinguished. They

differed considerably in appearance, i.e. height

and composition of species. Each of them was

marked by the predominance of one or more

characteristic species. These kinds of grassland

will subsequently be referred to as “‘associa-

12 Tdentification of the specimens was made by

the Indian Forest Research Institute in Dehra Dun

U.P. A preliminary survey of the grassland struc-

106

tions” and be labelled by their main character

species: :

Association 1 — Dimeria connivens

2 — Bothriochloa odorata

3 — Themeda triandra

4 — Ischaemum indicum

5 — Vetiveria zizanioides

I am aware that this is a quite arbitrary |

subdivision, although practically every spot in —

the intensive study area meadows could easily

be assigned to one of these associations. I will

thus first describe the appearance, identity and

distribution of the five associations.

It was suspected that the difference of the

vegetation structure between different parts of —

the intensive study area was largely determin-

ed by the impact of grazing and burning |

(Schaller 1967; Martin 1973). Rapid altera-

tion of the grass cover, mainly in the Kanha

Meadow, was believed to influence the food

potential for herbivores. In a second step I

shall therefore define the impact of grazing

during the growing season, and the pattern of

burning. An analysis of the distribution and

diversity of trees gives some further informa-

tion. This leads finally to a discussion of the

habitat factors that influence the barasingha’s

range conditions.

1. Plot Method

In October 1972, a plot method was used

to sample the larger meadows within the in-

tensive study area. Plots were 10 square metres

and circular. The plot centres were marked by

pacing off compass lines in north-south and

east-west direction at intervals of 200 steps

(Fig. 17). The plot sites received were usually

within 20 steps of the location received by

ture in the intensive study area has earlier been

described (Martin & Huber 1973).

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

Ie FS | |

= sonwahis FARSAT

eo @ ef

" x = ———

birbserg si}

vcauitstulll

MUU

Sac ||

Fig. 17. Intensive study area showing distribution of sample plots

for the habitat analysis.

107

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74 |

control-pacing off from other directions. The

sampling was extended into the surrounding

forests by one plot on every north-south res-

pectively east-west line. If the latter was less

than 50 steps within the forest, a further plot

on the line was recorded. The total number

of plots was 791, of which 456 fell into mea-

dows and 335 into forest. The number of

plots that could be surveyed per hour with

two helpers varied from 5 to 10, depending

upon the accessibility of the terrain.

For all the plots, the plot centre was con-

sidered the centre of four quarters, with

orientation given by the compass line of

traverse. The species of the closest woody

plant species (taller than 2 metres) to the

plot centre in each of the four quarters

around the centre was recorded, as well as

its diameter in 5 cm intervals and its dis-

tance to the plot centre (Quarter method,

see Cottam & Curtis 1956).

In the plots falling into meadow the follow-

ing items were recorded:

(1) The five predominant grass- or grass-

like plant species (if five present) and

the degree of their abundance (rank

order).

The grassland association determined

according to the occurrence of Key spe-

cies.

The principal grassland bictope, distin-

guished by the presence or absence of

shade, respectively by “high”? or “low”

ground moisture:

— Dry-open—(open grassland plains)

— Moist-open—(depressions, ravines)

— Dry-shady—(forest edges, beneath

loose tree stands)

— Stream-bed—(often sandy, or with

(2)

(3)

13 Program BMD 02 D of the Health Science

Computing Facility, UCLA.

108

rocky outcrops)

Locations were valued as “‘muist”’

ground still had swampy character in!

if tne |

October i.e. roughly one month after.

the end of the monsoon rains, later even’

these may dry out. Locations were con-

sidered ‘“‘shady”’ if the plot was found

to have more than 50% shade at noon.

The grass height was measured with a

pole that was segmented every 5 cm.

The board was put in the plot centre

and read from a distance of 10 metres |

(Fig. 18).

Grazing incidence:

low — none or one plant grazed

medium — two to ten plants grazed

high — more than 10 to all plants

grazed

(4)

(5)

For plots falling in the forest, the type of under- |

growth (species) was recorded.

The data collected in the 228 plots of the |

Kanha Meadow were used to compute a cor- |

relation matrix’® with 35 variables. It included —

the correlation among the occurrence of the 24

grass species with the highest mean abundance

in the Kanha Meadow; the five grassland asso-

ciations; the four biotope types; the grass

height and the grazing incidence. Partly, these

variables were a priori interdependent. Not all

correlations will thus be referred to.

2. Grassland Structure

The correlations among the occurrence of

grass species helped to check and specify the

distinction of the five grassland associations.

Significant negative correlation (p < 0.05) bet-

ween two species indicated that they were dis-

cretely dispersed, whereas significant positive

correlation indicated that they commonly

occur together. Agnew (1961) used analogous

methods to show species constellation in which

Juncus effusus ocurred in North Wales.

FYPICAL say.

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

ASSOCIATION 2

BOTHRIOCHLOA ODORATA

EULALIA TRISPICATA

f+—

{

7 Z

3 LS BS

ea yaw nn aS TEN A

3 a PeX

" y,

ht Oe

$s2i,49%

Ss. = | eis 2

SH SS) | nee a

PREDOMINANCE S15 =| ee =, % PREDOMINANCE

OF PERENNIALS Se 2.5.) a8 $ OF ANNUALS

GRASS COVER TALL os cA GRASS COVER SHORT

Q =

ASSOCIATED SPECIES

Fig. 19. Species constellation showing positive and negative correlation between the occur-

rence of the most common Gramineae species in the Kanha Meadow. Double line: pos.

correlation (p < 0.05). Dashed line: neg. correlation (p < 0.05). Underlined species: Main

character species of associations. Asterisk (*): Species not included in correlation matrix.

The correlation matrix largely confirmed the most common grass species.

discreteness of the five associations that were The adaptability of different species towards

distinguished initially by more subjective cri- different environmental conditions varies

teria. Fig. 19 shows the significant positive and_ greatly. Practically every species favours one

negative correlations of the occurrence of the out of the four biotope types: Dry-open, moist-

109

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST,. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

open, dry-shady and stream-bed. The number

of species, however, that are confined exclu-

sively to one of them are few. The associa-

tions, marked by the occurrence of character

species, have themselves different forms of

adaptability to the biotope types. Yet, no

association is so adaptable as to occur in all

the biotope types (Tab. 13).

TABLE 13

OCCURRENCE OF GRASSLAND ASSOCIATIONS IN _ DIF-

FERENT BIOTOPE TYPES OF THE GRASSLAND IN THE

INTENSIVE STUDY AREA

x = main occurrence: (X) = secondary occurrence

iat RR aS Sposa Wan ST SE

Association Biotope types

Dry Moist Dry Stream

open open shady bed

1 Dimeria connivens X (x)

2 Bothriochloa odorata (x) (x) x

3 Themeda triandra x (x) x

4 Ischaemum indicum x

5 Vetiveria zizanioides X

Figs. 20 and 21 show the distribution and

appearance of the grassland associations.

Association 1 (Dimeria connivens):

It is most common in the Kanha Meadow

where it occurs in the dry-open and moist-

open biotope types. It is rarely found in other

meadows. Dimeria connivens is a short, annual

species that forms typical lawns. Its wide dis-

tribution in the Kanha Meadow gives this

meadow the appearance of an English park.

A very typical associate is Pseudopogonathe-

rum contortum, a slightly taller annual often

mixed to equal abundance with Dimeria con-

nivens. Both species wither relatively soon after

flowering by the end of December. The terrain

belonging to this association appears very bare

after burning, as these annuals completely burn

up. Associated species are Digitaria stricta,

110

Iseilema_ prostratum, and on moist ground

Fimbristylis spp.

Association 2 (Bothriochloa odorata):

It is common in the Kanha Meadow where -

it predominates in the dry-shady and more

rarely in the open biotope types. The character |

species is often associated with Eulalia trispi-

cata, Diandrochloa japonica and numerous —

other species. The association is very variable —

in its height and composition. No significant —

positive correlation between the occurrence of |

the character species and associated species

was detected. However, most of the more ty- |

pical associated species are perennials that |

reach heights of 1.5 metres or more, which |

clearly demark this association from associa-

tion 1. Locally the character species is lacking |

and the association shows a transition to asso-

ciation 3.

Association 3 (Themeda triandra):

This association is infrequent in the Kanha

Meadow but extremely common in other mea-

dows, particularly Ornakhera and Parsatola,

where it occurs mainly in the dry-open and

dry-shady biotope type. Themeda_triandra

locally forms almost single species stands. The

grass cover reaches heights of up to 2 metres.

Some common associated species are Apluda

mutica, Heteropogon contortus, and Sorghum

nitidum. Particularly in Sonph Themeda trian-

dra is replaced locally on open ground by the

shorter Themeda quadrivalvis.

Association 4 (Ischaemum indicum):

This association favours the moist open bio-

tope type. It appears in terrain heavily utiliz-

ed by cattle, or scattered on former rice culti-

vations as they are found in the Sonph Mea-

dow. The association is poor. Further char-

acter species are Eragrostis unioloides and

Ischaemum rugosum. In the former ricefields

of Sonph, Manisuris clarkei is _ character-

Fig. 21. Appearance of grassland in the sal forest area of Kanha N.P. (a) Short

Dimeria connivens association in the Kanha Meadow. (b) Heavily grazed

perennials in burnt area of the ‘Kanha Meadow in May. (c) Tall Themeda

triandra association in the Konari Meadow. (d) Themeda triandra persisting

on a root-stock in the Kanha Meadow, where it remains unaffected by fire and

grazing. (e) Stands of Saccharum spontaneum in a sandy stream bed belonging

to the Vetiveria zizanioides association. The appearance of Bothriochloa odorata

grassland is shown in Fig. 18.

Fig.

23. (a) Moghania congesta undergrowth in a loose patch of sal forest.

(b) Mixed forest area with bamboos (Dendrocalamus strictus).

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

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11]

’

means

ioides. X

2—Bothriochloa odorata

lveria ZIzanlo:

imeria connivens

5—Vet

grass height of respective meadows with 95% confidence intervals for the mean.

cum

1—D

4— [schaemum ind

,’

in the sample plots

ciations

Fig. 20. Vegetation of the intensive study area. Numbers indicate grassland asso-

3—Themeda triandra

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

istically found in the association. It is possibly

derived from other associations, as it is com-

posed of species that are otherwise not very

common but resistent to heavy grazing. The

association shows transition to association I.

Association 5 (Vetiveria zizanioides):

This association is characteristic for the ter-

rain along sandy and rocky river beds (Bio-

tope type: stream-bed). It forms a belt from

5 to 15 metres wide along rivers, the width

depending upon the slopes of the bed. It can,

however, occur with more extensive, extremely

tall grass thickets in locations that are partly

flooded during monsoon. Sorghum halepense

and Phragmites karka two very tall species,

as well as Bothriochloa kuntzeana are char-

acteristic. Saccharum spontaneum forms dense

thickets, which remains green even in the dry

season. Phragmites karka and Sorghum hale-

pense, the tallest species, have in the past years

disappeared from the Kanha Meadow, where

the association remains recognisable by the

dense stands of Saccharum spontaneum.

The fidelity of different character species to

the respective association can vary greatly.

Whereas the character species belonging to

association 5 have a very strict fidelity, that

is, they are confined exclusively to that parti-

cular association, the character species of the

association 1 and 2 have a lower fidelity to

their association.

Some species are very tolerant, such as Sac-

charum spontaneum. This species may occur

in every association or biotope type. Yet, it

abounds only along stream beds, where it forms

monotypic stands. Other species are confined

to one of the biotope types rather than to any

particular association: Cyperaceae species

occur only on moist ground. Mnesithea laevis

occurs practically everywhere in the dry open

biotope type of the Kanha Meadow. This spe-

112

cies is often the only medium sized perennial

species that grows in the short Dimeria conni-

vens association.

Narenga prophyrocoma, a very tall species,

was considered to be indicative for sal-forest —

ground by Bor (1958).

Grass height:

The unequal distribution of the grassland |

associations among the meadows of the inten- —

sive study area cause drastic differences in the |

mean grass cover height of these meadows —

(Fig. 20). The predominance of the short Di-

in the Kanha

Meadow is reproduced in the low mean grass —

meria connivens association

height of 37.3 = 3.1 cm.’* In Sonph, where |

this association is practically absent, the grass —

reaches a mean height of 71.0 = 5.9 cm, where-

as in Ornakhera the mean height is 108.9 =

11.0 cm. This is caused by the predominance

of the tall Themeda triandra association.

3. Grazing Impact during the Growing Season

Grazing incidence is clearly recognizable as

long as the grasses or parts of them are green.

The plot method gave information on the pat-

tern of utilization by herbivores during the

growing season.

Due to grazing incidence that arose during

the sampling period (October 5 to Novem-

ber 7), the grazing impact on the plots

checked first is only to a limited extent com-

parable to that in the plots checked last.

However, the main intention was to com-

pare the grazing impact on the Kanha Mea-

dow with the remaining areas. Parts of the

Kanha Meadow were therefore sampled alter-

nating with other areas.

Fig. 22 shows the distribution of grazing

incidence in the intensive study area. It is

14.95% confidence intervals for the mean through-

out. Intervals are given by X + t in

;ata=5%

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

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113

in the

Medium dot

11—all plants of 10m?—plot grazed.

ing season

the grow

ing

O—1 plant of 10m?—plot grazed

dur

ising

dence ar

Large dot

’

Incl

fey

intensive study area. Small dot

2—10 plants of 10m2—plot grazed

Fig. 22. Distribution of graz

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

concentrated on the Kanha Meadow. Of the

228 plots in this meadow 38.2% had distinct

signs of grazing (2-10 plants grazed), and

10.1% of the plots were heavily grazed (more

than 10 to all plants grazed) by the end of

the growing season. The grazing impact on all

other meadows was relatively low and the in-

frequent occurrence of grazed plots did not

allow correlation of grazing incidence with

features of the grass cover.

In the Kanha Meadow, on the other hand,

two species, Bothriochloa odorata and The-

meda triandra seemed to be subject to con-

stantly heavier grazing than other species. The

correlation between grazing incidence and the

occurrence of single species revealed that the

pattern of grazing and avoidance is widely

determined by the presence of certain species.

The selective grazing pressure on Bothriochloa

odorata was confirmed by a highly significant

positive correlation coefficient (Tab. 14). Posi-

tive, but lower than subjectively expected

correlation between grazing and the occur-

rence of Themeda spp. Yet the sampling

intensity of the Themeda triandra association

in the Kanha Meadow was low (only 14 plots).

The correlation for these species might have

resulted in higher coefficients if sampled more

intensely. Significant positive correlation was

however found for Setaria glauca. This annual

occurs in various associations, often forming

small ‘‘facies’’. Its positive correlation with

grazing incidence did not correspond with the

investigator's subjective impression, it may

hence be an artefact. A significant negative cor-

relation, which means avoidance, could be

shown for Pseudopogonatherum contortum and

Schizachyrium brevifolium. Both species, but

particularly the former are common in the Di-

meria connivens association. The species Di-

meria connivens itself is negatively correlated,

however, with a non-significant coefficient.

114

TABLE 14 ;

CORRELATION OF GRAZING INCIDENCE WITH THE

OCCURRENCE OF GRASS SPECIES. GRAZING INCIDENCE

CAUSED BY UNIDENTIFIED HERBIVORES DURING THE |

GROWING SEASON |

Coefficients |r| >> 0.130 are Steniticantly different

from 0. ac < 0.05; df. |

= 226)

Apluda mutica 0.0422

Arthraxon quartinianus 0.0734

Bothriochloa odorata 0.3241

Chionachne koenigii 0.0273

Diandrochloa japonica —0.0489

Digitaria stricta 0.0398

Dimervia connivens —0.1141 |

Eragrostiella bifaria —0.0489

Eragrostis unioloides 0.0791

Rulalia trispicata —0.0527

Heteropogon contortus 0.0482

Ischaemum indicum 0.0882

Ischaemum rugosum —0.1143

Iseilema prostratum —0.0515

Mnesithea laevis 0.0757

Narenga prophyrocoma —0.1055 |

Panicum austroasiaticum 0.0096

Pseudepogonatherum contortum —0.3026

Saccharum spontaneum 0.0253

Schizachyrium brevifolium —0.2280

Setaria glauca 0.1611

Themeda quadrivalvis 0.0995

Themeda triandra 0.0774

Vetiveria zizanioides

Asocation are ae after sthele species.

The correlation of associations with grazing

incidence is thus a prior dependant upon the

grazing incidence on single species. Hence the |

Bothriochloa odorata association showed signi- |

ficant positive correlation, whereas the Dimeria |

connivens association showed significant nega-

tive correlation.

4. Burning

As in other tropical grasslands, fires must

have occurred in the park’s meadows since

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

their existence. According to Walter (1964)

it is beyond all doubt that even in unpopul-

ated tropical areas lightning can set withered

vegetation afire. Natural fires, however, occur

sporadically and do not necessarily frequent

the same areas annually.

Brander (1923) mentioned that he had

burnt the Kanha Meadow in the cool season

of 1902-03 for the first time. Since then the

Kanha Meadow has probably been subject to

annual burning. The Forest Department used

to set patches of the meadow afire from Dec-

ember to January until practically the entire

meadow was burnt. Fires sweep the dry grass

cover quickly but do not enter the forest as

the vegetation in shady locations is still green

in the cool season. Later during dry season

occasional fires caused by villagers may also

sweep the undergrowth of wide forest tracts.

Living trees, however, are not affected, even

when fires occur in the driest period of the

year.

Fires destroy annual grasses completely,

perennials survive with blackened stubble.

Extensive burning practices were justified with

the argument that the new sprouts, which

come up sooner in the burnt areas than in

unburnt ones, are for the benefit of the graz-

ing ungulates. This shall be given considera-

tion below.

(1) Burnt areas:

In the cool season of 1971-72 parts of

the Kanha Meadow were burnt on the 19th

and 23rd December, 1971. The remaining

areas of the Kanha Meadow were then set

afire on the 15th January 1972. Thereafter,

Only a few patches totalling not more than

one tenth of the meadow remained unburnt.

Sprouts shot up in the remaining stocks of

perennials, benefitted by the short winter

Showers of February 2nd and 23rd. Masses of

chital came to graze on the sprouts during

that period. A survey made on 7th March

1972, 50 days after burning, revealed that

from 145 perennial grass stocks selected at

random, 40% had been grazed upon. In May

grazing incidence in the stocks could not be

identified anymore. Most of the sprouts had

been grazed down completely, the others had

again dried up (Fig. 21).

(2) Unburnt areas:

In unburnt areas green sprouts started

growing later than in burnt areas. Yet, being

less exposed to grazing due to the availability

of dry material, they reached heights up to

40 cm by the end of May.

In 10 plots of 5 sq metres selected at

random in unburnt areas of the Kanha

Meadow the grass was cut 5 cm above the

ground and collected on May 27, 1972. In

every sample the green sprouts were separated

from the dry material. Both parts of the sam-

ples were dryweighed (air dried). The mean

total dryweight per sq metres surface amount-

ed to 129.5 g (55-240 g), of which 9% (3.9-

21.5%) were recently grown sprouts. Although

new sprouts were inferior in number they gave

the unburnt zones a flush of green even during

the driest period of the year.

Thus, whereas in burnt areas the green

Sprouts have a short life, due either to graz-

ing or their drying up, unburnt areas not only

Keep a permanent stock of dry fodder, but

produce an increasing amount of green mate-

rial. The situation in burnt zones turns worse

during the course of the hot season until prac-

tically no fodder may be found.

A difference in the grass height between

burnt and unburnt areas remains visible in the

Kanha Meadow even after the growing season

following the fires. Fig. 18 shows a distinctly

higher grass cover on the unburnt side of a

boundary where the fire was put out eleven

months ago. Such differences remain visible

115

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

mainly in those grassland associations that are

_ predominantly composed of taller perennial

species: namely the Bothriochloa odorata and

Themeda triandra association. In the Dimeria

connivens association, where small annuals

reach high abundance, differences between

burnt and unburnt areas are indistinct after

the next growing season. In homogeneous

areas, however, difference could be detected

by the lower density of inflorescences of peren-

nials in previously burnt areas.

In other meadows of the intensive study

area the difference between burnt and unburnt

areas did not persist over the next growing

season. This could be ascribed to the lower

grazing pressure in these areas. Perennials

after burning suffer less damage from grazing,

hence recover better.

5. Tree density and succession

In the intensive study area 60 woody plant

species were recorded. Appendix II lists their

frequency in different habitat types. A relative-

ly small number of tree species is found regu-

larly in the meadows, where they occur singly

or in loose stands. The most important species

on open ground are Butea monosperma and

Ziziphus jujuba, two small trees. Bauhinia

racemosa, Cordia mixa, Cassia fistula, Dios-

pyros melanoxylon, Bombax malabaricum and

Ficus spp. occur scattered in all the meadows.

Along sal forest edges abound Lagerstroemia

parviflora: tall specimens of Shorea robusta

(sal) and Terminalia tomentosa. They are

typical forest species and are scattered, thus

point to the former occupation of these

meadows by woodland.

The “Quarter method”’ applied in sampling

the meadows allowed the comparison of the

density of tree stands in different meadows

(Tab. 15). The Kanha Meadow is distinguish-

ed by a low tree density. Trees are mostly

116

TABLE 15

ESTIMATION OF TREE DENSITY IN MEADOWS OF THE

INTENSIVE STUDY AREA (AFTER COTTAM & CuRrTIS

1956). TREES AND SHRUBS TALLER 2 METRES

SY iO I SS t

Meadow

Individuals Percentage Percentage

per ha of trees of typical

with less forest

than 15 trees

cm stem (Shorea

diameter robusta

and

Terminalia

tomentosa)

Kanha Meadow 17 44 5

Konari 36 28 12

Sonph 42 78 16

Ornakhera 70) 69 30

Parsatola 76 7S 3

more than 15 cm in stem diameter and are

not typical forest species. The more northerly

meadows have higher tree densities. However,

the majority of trees are small or young. Typi-

cal forest species are more abundant than in

the Kanha Meadow.

The forest tracts adjacent to the meadows

were Classed into sal forest or mixed forest

according to the occurrence of the Shorea

robusta (sal). The transition between the two

types is generally abrupt.

(1) In sal forest areas, the sal tree makes

up 52-55% of all trees above 2 metres in

height. Sal trees grow about 30 metres high

and up to 1 metre in trunk diameter. The

main associates of the sal tree are Termi-

nalia tomentosa, Syzygium cumini, Mallotus

philippinensis and Ougeinia cojeniensis. The

predominant undergrowth is formed by a

shrub- Moghania congesta. Bamboo (Den-

drocalamus strictus) occurs in pockets or on

slopes (Fig. 23). Around the Kanha Mea-

dow and Konari, in the southern part of the

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

intensive study area, the sal forest is older

than in the northern part. There appears to

be no widespread regeneration. This ac-

counts for the lower density of 181 trees

above 2 metres height per ha in the southern

part, compared to the surrounding areas of

Parsatola (255 trees per ha), Sonph (524)

and Ornakhera (613).

(2) Mixed forest occurs at the edges of

the Sulcum Basin above 610 metres altitude

and on hillocks in the basin. The main tree

species are Terminalia tomentosa, two other

Terminalia spp., Anogeissus latifolia and

Bauhinia spp. The tree species occurring in

mixed forest areas are largely the same as

in sal areas, there is, however, no distinct

predominance of one species. Bamboo (Den-

drocalamus strictus) is found in great abun-

dance and forms thickets up to seven metres

high (Fig. 23). As in sal forest areas, the

mixed forest in the southern part of the in-

tensive study area is less dense (251 trees

taller 2 meters per ha) compared to the sur-

rounding areas of Parsatola (273), Sonph

(613) and Ornakhera (524).

6. Hypothesis

In this chapter I have tried to discover fac-

tors that influence the range conditions in the

barasingha habitat. The habitat analysis dis-

closed that the northern part of the intensive

study area, which was subject to lower impact

by herbivores and less rigid burning practices

than the southern part, has morse sal regenera-

tion, taller grass cover, younger and denser

tree stands in the meadows including more

typical forest trees. Some clearings at the edges

of the sal area in the north, i.e. Jamuntola or

Ornakhera have been so densely overgrown

with trees that locally it is difficult to draw a

line between forest and meadow. There are

signs of reoccupation of meadows by forest.

The Kanha Meadow, being the exponent of

the southern intensive study area, is different

from the other open areas by a remarkably

lower grass cover, brought about by the pre-

dominance of the meagre Dimeria connivens

association. Yet the Kanha Meadow harbours

more and better perennial watering places than

any other area.

It has been conjectured that the exceptional

shape of this meadow is a stage of a rapid

alteration of the vegetation. The influence of

herbivores over the structure of vegetation was

suspected earlier: In 1943 a part of the then

sanctuary had been opened to shooting again,

as it was feared that the heavy browsing pres-

sure could hinder the sal regeneration. Puri

(1960) states that even if sal seedlings are

present, their establishment is problematic.

According to him the establishment period

takes 10 to 30 years. The sal seedling is evi-

dently more threatened in a densely popu-

lated wildlife area, where there are heavy brow-

sers. The fact that most clearings within the

intensive study area have not been overrun by

the sal forest again was, however, also attri-

buted to frosts and fires. Panwar (1973)

states: “‘Without the shelterwood, the frost

plays an inhibitive role and has stopped sal

from restocking these areas (the meadows).

Also the late fires are responsible for main-

taining the grassy condition of the meadows

because they destroy seedlings of pioneer spe-

cies like Terminalia tomentosa which could

otherwise grow to provide low shade, causing

decimation of grass and thereby improving

conditions for sal to come up.”

Bor (1958) wrote that the number of grass

species which withstand annual burning is

surprisingly low. Schaller (1967) supposed

that Themeda triandra had largely been re-

placed by annuals or other perennials in the

Kanha Meadow. And according to statements

117

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

from local people the grass cover grew con-

sistantly taller on the Kanha Meadow some

ten or twenty years ago. Themeda triandra was

common, and the rivulets were bordered by

tall species such as Sorghum halepense and

Phragmites karka, whereas today these species

are extremely rare in the Kanha Meadow.

Thus it seems realistic to suppose a firm

relationship between the present habitat struc-

ture and the impact of grazing and or burning,

which are known to be effective mechanisms

that alter the vegetation.

The following considerations may shed light

upon the character of grassland changes and

their consequences. I am aware, however, that

long term exclosure experiments under control-

led conditions could reveal more exact infor-

mation.

Burning reduces the food availability during

the dry season. Yet, the Kanha Meadow which

has been burnt annually since the beginning

of this century, attracts ungulates during this

season, due to better water conditions. Thus,

apart from the influence on the grass cover

caused by burning alone, the grazing pressure

on the Kanha Meadow in the period after

burning remains high. Yet, in an area that has

a reduced quantity of food, the impact of graz-

ing and trampling by a given number of un-

gulates is disproportionately more severe, than

it would be in an area with large quantities

of food. After burning it is the remains of

perennial species that are exposed to heavy

grazing. Particularly the protein rich sprouts

that are induced in perennial grass tufts by

burning attract the ungulates. During the grow-

ing season the main grazing pressure is still

put on a few perennial species which are im-

portant constituents of the mainly perennial

associations, whereas the mainly annual asso-

ciations are avoided.

Consequently many taller perennials such

118

as Bothriochloa odorata, Themeda _triandra,

Sorghum nitidum, Eulalia trispicata often do

not reach the flowering stage in the Kanha

Meadow. Supressed perennials are characteris-

tic for this meadow. It may thus be postulated

that the combined effect of burning and heavy

grazing is the mechanism responsible for the

disappearance of these taller and more leafy

perennials. Consequently, small annuals such

as Dimeria connivens, Pseudopogonatherum

contortum and Schizachyrium brevifolium and

more resistant perennials, like Mnesithea laevis

have gained ground. Supressed tall perennials

and the predominance of the Dimeria conni-

vens association affect the low mean grass

height of this meadow. Themeda spp., which

predominate in all other meadows, occur to-*

day in the Kanha Meadow merely along forest

edges that are not affected by early burning,

or in other places that are not subject to re-

gular burning and heavy grazing (Fig. 21).

Ultimately we may consider the effects of

burning and grazing discussed here, when join-

ed into a model where ungulate density, food

and water initially keep in a state of equili-

brium (Fig. 24). Applied to the Kanha

Meadow, the ungulate density is kept high due

to water availability during the dry season or

even promoted by the attraction caused by

green sprouts after burning. In the long run

the availability of the food decreases and may

lead to severe overgrazing. Symptoms of over-

grazing are in fact obvious in the Kanha

Meadow during the dry season. However, they

are mainly confined to perennials.

Spence & Angus (1971), who made a de-

tailed study of two grassland communities in |

Murchison Falls National Park, distinguished

precisely between the effects of burning and

grazing. They have also come to the conclu-

sion that these two factors have a combined

influence on the grass cover. Pienaar (1966)

| Ungulate Impoverishment

| 2) oe of grass flora

jo @ ro)

(

| Annual @ _ Grazing

i ———————— .

| burning impact

Desiccation

of soil

fe)

Food &

| Fig. 24. A model showing the influences of annual

| burning on herbivore food availability.

described rotational burning practices in Kru-

ger National Park and commented on the

danger of overgrazing in the case of annual

burns, particularly in the vicinity of watering

places. Walter (1964) listed among disadvant-

ages of annual burning in tropical zones:

— Loss of organic material to soils, already

poor in humus.

— Unprotected surface against erosion at the

beginning of the rainy season and run-off

of waters with consecutive promotion of

desiccation.

— Washing away of the minerals contained

in the ashes.

Annual and extensive burning in densely

populated grassland areas that harbour perma-

nent watering places seems thus not to be

justified. It must be replaced by rotational

burning of blocks and effective protection of

unburnt areas by means of fire breaks. Whether

triennial rotational burning or longer intervals

are the adequate measure has yet to be clari-

fied. In the Kruger National Park areas around

permanent water supplies are permanently

protected from fire (Pienaar 1968). In Kanha

National Park Fire protection measures were

introduced in 1972. A further consequence of

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

annual burning might be the considerably lower

density of small rodents found by Claude

(1973) in the Kanha Meadow, compared with

the open areas of the northern intensive study

area.

The Kanha Meadow is the centre of the

barasingha’s cool and dry season range. There

is no interspecific avoidance between the major

users—chital, and barasingha (mixed herds):

on the contrary it was found that the same

areas within meadows are subject to heavy

exploitation by both species. Overgrazing must

therefore affect also the barasingha’s living

conditions. All the more, so, because the bara-

singha live almost exclusively from grasses.

VIIL DISCUSSION

The original aim of this study was to collect

data for an ecological understanding of the

factors that determine the living conditions of

the barasingha in Kanha—its dispersion and

abundance.

Perhaps the most striking fact in the ecology

of this species is the practically exclusive grass

diet throughout the seasons. The barasingha

subsist from grasses to such an extent, that it

must be rated a rare event if a barasingha is

observed feeding from other resources. It

appeared that the barasingha’s peninsular dis-

tribution was largely restricted to moist deci-

duous—or more precisely—to sal forests. The

fact that the graminivorous barasingha was at

all able to colonize these forests must be at-

tributed to the rich grass flora typical for the

undergrowth, and open space in level ground

sal forests. Shifting cultivation practiced by

local tribes opened up the forest, which bene-

fitted the barasingha. The Kanha population

is an example of this. The barasingha’s exist-

ence in this park is based on grassy open areas

formerly caused by the shifting cultivation of

119

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Gond and Baiga tribes.

1. Adaptations to the Central Indian environ-

ment

The archaean physiographic features of

the Central Indian Highlands imply a grass-

land type that is quite different from those in

the alluvial plains of northern and northeast-

ern India. The peninsular rivers are entirely

fed by monsoon rains and are, therefore, more

or less dry during the dry season. Rivers in

Central India moreover eroded vertically and

are characterized. by the absence of riparian

flats and marshes, so typical for the geologi-

cally younger Ganges—Brahmaputra river sys-

tem. Other than in these northern habitats,

where flood land supplies lush green grass

throughout the seasons, the grassland in Cen-

tral India is characterized by a more distinct

seasonality and a long dry period.

Seasonality is subsequently much more pro-

nounced in the way of life of the typical grass

feeder. The barasingha has to adapt to season-

ally different food—and water conditions by

wandering. It should not be surprising then

that the Central Indian population shows

a strictly seasonal migration pattern, where-

as such elements are absent in the north-

ern populations. In Kaziranga, Assam, the

barasingha remain so sedentary around peren-

nial pools (locally: bheels) throughout the

year, that Ullrich (1972) was misled to speak

of “‘territoriality’. Brander (1923) reported

migratory habits of the wild buffalo in Central

India, which suggests that adaptation to sea-

sonally different food and water conditions by

wandering occurred also in this species. Wid

buffalo essentially require the same habitat as

barasingha. It is also remarkable that the bara-

singha in Kanha were most sedentary during

the growing period of the grass flora, when

the food conditions resembled those at the foot

120

of the Himalaya the most.

It was found that grouping habits are largely

a function of environment. Low group stabi-

lity reflects adaptation of individuals to locally |

different food and water conditions. Whereas _

the patchy distribution and local scarcity of

resources causes very frequent break-ups of —

groups in Central India particularly during the

dry season, barasingha in the more homogen:- |

eous, nutritious grasslands and marshes of

northern and northeastern India would be ex- ‘

pected to form more lasting associations. Al- |

though so far there have been no detailed

studies on grouping in the northern popula- |

tions, observation of barasingha in Kaziranga,

Assam strongly support this view.

Thus, it may be concluded that the baie | |

singha’s post-tertiary colonization of. Central

India with its changed environmental condi- |

tions had fundamental consequences on the

way of life of the species. If the disappearance

of the barasingha in Central India is consi-

dered, this should be done also in view of

these environmental consequences! |

ee eee FP

2. Relevance to the decline

Retrogressive trends in mammalian distri-

bution patterns are of geologically recent origin, |

they indeed date back to historical times (Mani |

1974). Even the present-day discontinuity in

mammalian distribution between the Sub-Hima- |

layan plains and the Peninsula is no more than |

a relict of a former continuous distribution |

(Kurup 1974). Destruction of habitat, cultiva-—

tion and predation by man were the chief

causes for these retrogressive trends. It also.

stands to reason that, where forests remained

at all, the grassland species were far more.

exposed to the pressure of man, than the forest

inhabitants. Apart from the barasingha, the

Indian gazelle (Gazella gazella), the blackbuck

(Antilope cervicapra), the wild buffalo (Buba-

}

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

lus bubalis) and the great Indian rhinoceros

(Rhinoceros unicornis) are all more or less

endangered or have reached the verge of ex-

tinction. The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) dis-

appeared from India in 1951 (Talbot 1960).

However, none of the detrimental, man-in-

duced influences would have effected the dras-

tic decline of the barasingha in the area of the

present Kanha National Park. If it would not

have been in combination with the migratory

habit that was generated by the Central Indian

environmental conditions.

Before the 1964—enlargement of the park,

the barasingha’s annual range must have reach-

ed far beyond the northern park boundaries

into ordinary shooting blocks. Villagers from

settlements near the park reported barasingha

raiding their crops. Even earlier, between 1943

and 1952 the area lying to the west of the

Kanha-Sihora Road also had the status of a

shooting block. It comprised the lower part of

the Sulcum Valley which embraces the major

part of the populations present home range.

Until 1969, moreover, the meadows in the

northern part of the home range were seri-

ously affected by the settlement in Sonph and

the accompanying activities of men and cattle.

_ This means in other words, that until this very

late date, the 6-square-kilometre Kanha Mea-

dow was all that existed of suitable, unen-

croached habitat for the barasingha. Its disper-

sion, however, was never restricted solely to

that area. The lack of group stability was likely

to have promoted the dispersal of individuals

from the population’s home range, which inci-

dentally led to casualties in more distant areas.

It remains unknown where the pregnant hinds

gave birth during these times. Fawning sites

in disturbed or very distant areas might have

caused high early fawn mortality, which would

give an alternative explanation for the low

fawn rate found by Schaller (1967), who postu-

lated that brucellosis might be the cause.

Losses caused by all sort of human preda-

tion, emigration effected by men and cattle

activities or deteriorated habitat, absence of

suitable fawning areas, and perhaps detrimen-

tal habitat influences on the natality of the

population, therefore were the ultimate reasons

for the steady decline of the standing popula-

tion in Kanha until the nineteen sixties. The

species, by now, would possibly be totally ab-

sent from Central India, had the Kanha Mea-

dow not have been under rigid protection since

1935. Diseases on the other hand were most

probably insignificant. Qne would expect oscil-

lation of the population numbers if disease was

to play an important role in the history of the

decline. Brander (1923), moreover, found the

barasingha to be resistent towards cattle dis-

eases. Even if the earlier population was taken

with brucellosis, as Schaller (1967) suspected,

this could not have contributed relevantly to

the more or less steady decrease that has conti-

nued over dozens of years.

Concisely, the barasingha of Kanha National

Park until recently were by no means free

from those detrimental factors that were known

to have led to the extinction of all other bara-

singha populations in Central India, namely

habitat destruction and predation by man. Also,

the habitat requirements of the species and its

adaptations to the Central Indian habitat con-

ditions in general promoted the decline.

3. Respense to present conditions

During the period of this study the popula-

tion was increasing. Censuses carried out by

the Forest Department in 1973-75 document-

ed a continuation of the increasing trend after

the Field phase of this study was completed

(Panwar, personal comm.). The reproductive

success of the population was found to be well

within the limits of a normal production in

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

monoestrous deer with 26.7-41.2 fawns/100

females, tallied more than half a year after

the fawning season. The population in 1973

was remarkably young with 36.0% of the

males being less than 2 years, and 46.3% being

less than 3 years old.

In fact the population increase seems main-

ly to be based on an increase of the repro-

duction success since the nineteen sixties and

low mortality in the fawn class. Both these fac-

tors may be interpreted as a response to more

favourable environmental conditions. Those

were brought about by the increase in suitable

habitat after the enlargement of the park in

1964 and the ban of human and cattle activi-

ties from the northern part of the populations’

composite home range in 1969. Subsequent

fire management, anti-poaching control, and

improvement of water conditions added to the

suitability of the available grassland habitat. A

somewhat lower rate of predation by tiger since

the outbreak of the chital population, which

acted as a “buffer”? prey, may have stimulated

the increase. Although, tiger predation under

normal conditions seems not likely to be de-

terminative for the abundance of the deer spe-

cies in Kanha.

We may thus conclude, that the population

is best secured if management tends towards

incorporation into the park and improvement

of grassland habitat in level ground sal forest

areas. This is all the more so, since habitat

alterations and competitive exploitation caused

by the former rigorous burning practices and

the fast growing chital population impend over

the park centre’s Kanha Meadow.

IX SUMMARY

The barasingha of Kanha National Park are

the last in Central India. A drastic decrease of

the population since the beginning of this cen-

122

tury has led to this study. At the beginning of

the study period (April 1971 through April

1973) the population numbered less than 100

animals.

The population’s range during the study

period included 47 square kilometres of the

sal forest area below 610 metres elevation in

the Sulcum River Basin. Within this area the

dispersion was found to be largely restricted

to grassy meadows throughout the year. The

population congregated in the southern part

of its annual home range around the Kanha

Meadow during the cool- and dry season

(December 15 to May 31). This area was

found to have the best water conditions. Dur-

ing the monsoon rains the population dis-

persed along the course of the Sulcum River

into the meadows of the northern part (grow-

ing season range). The Sonph Meadow was

entirely undisturbed by human activities since

1969. In contrast to earlier times it was found

to constitute the main activity centre during

the growing season.

During the cool- and dry season the bara-

singha showed synchronized diurnal activity

patterns. Feeding activity occurred in bouts

around sunrise and sunset and travelling was

more pronounced then during the rest of the

year. This was ascribed to relative scarcity of

food and water during this period of the year,

and the search for shady resting sites.

The utilization pattern during the cool- and

dry season was found to be governed by the

availability of open rivulet zones and unburnt

patches of grassland. During the growing sea-

son the barasingha were practically confined to

tall grass areas along rivulets.

The barasingha was found to be exclusively

graminivorous. The cool- and dry season food

included mainly green perennial grasses e.g.

Saccharum spontaneum, Bothriochloa odorata

and Themeda triandra. During the growing

————E—E—EEEeEeEeEeEeEee

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

season a broader variety of species was eaten.

A modified pellet count technique revealed a

| correlation of barasingha- and chital (Axis

' axis) pellet frequencies which suggested com-

' mon utilization of open grassland. This was

further supported by the frequent observation

| of mixed barasingha - chital herds. The sambar

(Cervus unicolor) on the other hand seemed

to utilize the meadows differently.

Mean monthly group sizes varied between

3.7 and 13.1 animals/group. In February and

March, at the end of the rutting season, the

largest aggregations were observed. Except

during the rut grouping seemed to be largely

determined by environmental factors. Females

with fawn at the foot and yearlings tended to

remain in open areas more than other classes.

Except for the association of the hind with

her fawn in its first year the barasingha form-

ed no lasting associations.

During the study period the population in-

creased from an estimated 93 animals in 1971

to an estimated 133 animals in 1973.-A com-

parison with data collected by Schaller (1967)

showed, that sex ratios remained more or less

constant since 1964-65. In the fawn and year-

ling classes it was 1:1, whereas it was about 75

males to 100 females among adults. However,

the population as a whole was considerably

younger during this study period compared to

1964/65. In 1973 36% of the males were less

than 2 years old and 46.3% were less than 3

years old. This was due to a higher fawn pro-

duction, which ranged between 26.7-41.2

fawns|100 females, and generally low mortal-

ity in the younger age classes. The rate of tiger

predation on barasingha decreased since

1964|65 according to an increase of the avail-

ability of chital and the relocation of the tiger

baiting site outside the barasingha’s activity

centre.

A vegetational analysis determined influ-

ences of grazing and burning on the appear-

ance of the grassland in the sal forest area.

The present appearance of the Kanha Meadow

was widely derived from the influence of these

two factors. Future management suggestions

are given.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Dr. Fred Kurt who initiated

and supervised the study. A special thanks

is due to the Director of the Zoological Mu-

seum at the University of Zurich, Professor

Dr. H. Burla for his criticism. I am most thank-

ful also to Prof. Dr. C. D. K. Cook who re-

vised the botanical part of the paper, and Mr.

W. Stahel who gave statistical advice. Mr.

M. K. Ranjitsinh, Ministry of Agriculture,

Delhi, who has a profound knowledge of

Kanha National Park provided me with many

useful suggestions. Dr. A. Raddi, Department

of Tourism, Delhi, helped in organizing the

study. I am very grateful for the support of

the Bombay Natural History Society, especial-

ly Mr. Z. Futehally and Mr. J. C. Daniel. World

Wildlife India made a jeep available to me

which is most gratefully acknowledged. I am

thankful also to the Indian Forest Research

Institute in Dehra Dun, particularly Dr. Sahni

who identified a large number of plant speci-

mens. Mr. K. S. Sankhala gave me an intro-

duction to forest botany. I am most grateful

for the medical care of the Katra Hospital,

Mandla while I was suffering from a hepatitis

attack in August 1971.

The Forest Department of Madhya Pradesh

offered free accommodation at Kanha. I am

especially indebted to the Chief Conservator

of Forests, Mr. K. Mishra. The study would

virtually have been impossible without the

friendly help and support of the Divisional

123

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Forest Officer of Kanha National Park, Mr.

H. S. Panwar. Quite a considerable part of

the Forest Department Staff temporarily assist-

ed me in the field. Special thanks are due to

Mr. V. Shukla, Divisional Forest Officer, South

Mandla, the Range Officers, Hardjitsingh Ude-

bansingh, and Chacko, and many a forest guard.

Ron Mulligan helped tremendously during the

transects of October-November 1972. Jamsingh

Kushram who worked for me through most

of the study knew much about the forest and

was of invaluable help. Jumman Khan jf the

“old knowledgeable man of Kanha’’ furnish-

ed me with much useful information on the

forests.

The manuscript was read by Dr. D. C.

Turner and H. U. Miller. Elona Krapf im-

proved the English expression. My brothers

Roger and Robert prepared the figures and

graphs and typed the manuscript. The help

and assistance of all these persons is grate-

fully acknowledged.

This study was financed by the World Wild-

life Fund (WWE/IUCN project No. 702). I

am particularly grateful to Drs. F. Vollmar

and H. Jungius of the WWF, and Dr. C. Hollo-

way and Prof. Dr. R. Dasmann of the IUCN

for technical as well as scientific advice.

APPENDIX I

GRASS-LIKE PLANT SPECIES OF THE SULCUM RIVER BASIN’ IN

KANHA NATIONAL PARK

Frequency

Species Occurrence Kanha Other

Meadow meadows

GRAMINEAE:

Alloteropsis cimicina — —

Andropogon adsariotis + a

Apluda mutica p Ds (Do, Mo, Ws) aa ASF

Apocopis vaginata a Do 5 tak a

Aristida adscenscionis a,p Ds + +

Arthraxon quartinianus Mo (Do, Ds) ++ ++

Arundinella bengalensis — —

Bothriochloa glabra p <r ar

Bothriochloa kuntzeana p Ws + --

Bothriochloa odorata p Do, Ds (Mo) shake atmataaty

Bothriochloa pertusa Do ses ar

Brachiaria ramosa + ai

Capillipedium parviflorum a aR

Chionachne_ koenigii p Mo (Do, Ds) tae ++

Chloris dolichostachya p Ds et +

Chrysopogon fulvus

Lay

124

(Ds) +t

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

Frequency

Species Occurrence Kanha Other

Meadow meadows

Cleistachne sorghoides p a a

Coix lacryma-jobi a,p Mo + et

Cynodon dactylon p Do 23 sen

Cymbopogon martinii is i

Dendrocalamus strictus Ds ee a

Diandrochloa japonica Do Solas aes,

Diectomis fastigiata Do +++ zy

Digitaria adscendens igs eh

Digitaria stricta Do (Mo, Ds) atte ++

Dimeria connivens a Do (Mo) +++ ++

Echinochloa colonum : oe ot

Eleusine indica a ban at

Eragrostiella bifaria p Do s+ +4

Eragrostis gangetica a Mo (Do) =) ++

Eragrostis tenuifolia p Do Beate ef

Eragrostis unioloides a Mo (Do, Ds) ae +

Eragrostis viscosa 1a me

Eulalia trispicata p Do (Mo, Ds) ++ Soe

Hackelochloa granularis Hs a

Hemarthria compressa p Mo as ay

Heteropogon contortus p Do ((Mo, Ds) a arar +++

Imperata cylindrica p Ds ss ibe

Isachne_ globosa p = th

Ischaemum indicum Mo (Do, Ds) ++ ++

Ischaemum rugosum a Mo see 44

Iseilema prostratum Mo (Do) 4+ +

Manisuris clarkei a Mo zs Ta

Mnesithea laevis p Do (Mo, Ds) +++ ++H-

Narenga porphyrocoma p Mo (Do, Ds) ++ af

Oplismenus burmannii Ds + eet

Oryza minuta “= =

Panicum austroasiaticum Ds (Do) +++ ++

Panicum montanum p a ie

Paspalidium flavidum bi te

Paspalum longifolium Mo za isl

Pennisetum hohenackeri Se a

Pennisetum setosum a i ee

Phragmites karka p Ws (Mo) ae oats

Pseudopogonatherum contortum a Mo Do + +

Pseudosorghum fasciculare Ds as Be

Rottboelia exaltata a as ue

Saccharum spontaneum p Do, Ws (Mo, Ds) +4-+- HH

Sacciolepis indica Mo (Do, Ds) ++ sh

Sacciolepis myosuroides Mo ++ —

Schizachyrium brevifolium a Do (Mo, Ds) tate stctale

Sehima nervosum

lie)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Frequency

Species Occurrence Kanha Other

Meadow meadows

Setaria glauca a Do (Mo, Ds) =F Sat:

Setaria tomentosa = =

Sorghum halepense p Ws — ++

Sorghum nitidum Mo (Do, Ds) ape S a

Sporobolus diander p Do ++ ++

Themeda arundinaceae Pp Mo = ne

Themeda quadrivalvis p Do (Ds) Sie Ee

Themeda triandra p Mo, Ds (Do) <= +44

Vetiveria zizanioides p Ws (Do, Mo) FE shar

CYPERACEAE:

Cyperus compactus Mo — —

Cyperus exaltatus Ws (Mo) + ita

Cyperus iria Mo SIF +

Cyperus paniceus Mo + +

Cyperus pilosus Mo ++ +

Cyperus pumilus Mo + oF

Fimbristylis dichotoma Mo — =

Fimbristylis quinquangularis Mo +++ + |

Fimbristylis schoenoides Mo ++ +

Fimbristylis tetragona Mo ara +

Scleria levis Mo + see

ERIGCAULACEAE:

Eriocaulon oryzetorum xi ae

a = annual; p = perennial; Do = dry open; Mo = moist open; Ds = dry shady; Ws = wet, sandy riverbed; |

secondary occurrence in brackets. |

Frequency 4+ in > 10% of all 10m? plots |

= in 1 — 10% of all 10m? plots |

+ : in 0,1 -— 1% of all 10m? plots |

= os in < 0,1%

of all 10m? plots

126

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

APPENDIX II

NON GRASS-LIKE PLANT SPECIES OF THE SULCUM RIVER BASIN IN KANHA

NATIONAL PARK

Frequency in

Species Meadows Sal forest Mixed forest

TREES:

Acacia catechu

Adina cordifolia

Anogeissus latifolia

Azadirachta indica

Bauhinia malabarica

Bauhinia racemosa

Bauhinia retusa

Bombax malabaricum

Bridelia retusa

Butea monosperma

Buchanania latifolia

Careya arborea

Cassia fistula

Cordia myxa

Dalbergia paniculata

Diospyros melanoxylon

Syzygium cumini

Emblica officinalis

Ficus bengalensis

Ficus glaberrima

Ficus glomerata

Ficus religiosa

Gmelina arborea

Grewia sp.

Gardenia latifolia

Holarrhena antidysenterica

Kydia calycina

Lagerstroemia parviflora

Lannea coromandelica

Mallotus philippinensis

Madhuca indica

Mitragyna parviflora

Nyctanthes arbor tristis

Ougeinia cojeniensis

Pterocarpus marsupium

Randia sp.

Saccopetalum tomentosum

Shorea robusta

Schleichera oleosa

Stereospermum suaveolens

Sterculia urens

et ee ee ee

Te ee

Pee be i et ee | ee ee se

iret tr tii 2 el

127

128

a 0

— aS a

ERE YE DEN EO OR TIE

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Species

Terminalia arjuna

Terminalia belerica

Terminalia chebula

Terminalia tomentosa

Zizyphus jujuba

Zizyphus glaberrima

SHRUBS:

Carissa spinarum

Embelia_ tseriamcottam. -

Moghania congesta

Phoenix humilis

Sterculia foetida

Wrightia tinctoria

Zizyphus xylopyra

Zizyphus nimmularia

CLIMBERS:

Asparagus racemosus

Bauhinia vahlii

Butea superba

Millettia auriculata

Smilax zeylanica

Frequency

++ : > 10% of all woody plant

+ : 1- 10% of all woody plant

of all woody plant

ae SS

ee) en

Meadows

individuals taller

Frequency

Sal forest

than 2 m

Mixed

forest

LLB SAS EM AL AT SFB oe LR STE ee ae

STATUS AND ECOLOGY OF THE BARASINGHA

APPENDIX III

LisT OF MAMMALS IN KANHA NATIONAL PARK (EXCLUDING MICE AND BATS)

SSE I ONT 5 eT

English name Scientific name Status

Common Langur Presbytis entellus common

Tiger Panthera tigris approx. 36 (Panwar 1972)

Leopard Panthera pardus rare

Jungle cat Felis chaus common

Common Mongoose Herpestes edwardsi common ?

Jackal Canis aureus common

Dhole (Indian Wild dog) Cuon alpinus occas. in packs up to 18

Striped Hyena Hyaena hyaena rare

Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus a few

Ratel Mellivora capensis rare

Threestriped Palm Squirrel Funambulus palmarum common

Indian Tree Shrew Anathana ellioti rare

Indian Hare Lepus_ nigricollis common

Indian Porcupine Hystrix leucura rare

Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus prob. less than 30

Fourhorned Antelope Tetracerus quadricornis common ?

Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra 90° im) 1972

Sambar Cervus unicolor 600 in 1972

Barasingha Cervus duvauceli branderi 130-140 in 1972-73

Chital Axis axis approx. 6,000-7,000 in 1972

Indian Chevrotain (Mouse Deer) Tragulus meminna present

Muntjac (Barking Deer) Muntiacus muntjak 200 ?

Indian Wild boar Sus scrofa 1,000 ?

Gaur (Indian Bison) Bos gaurus approx. 530 in 1972

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New Descriptions

A NEW SPECIES OF SKINK OF THE GENUS DASIA GRAY: 1889

[REPTILIA: SCINCIDAE] FROM CAR NICOBAR ISLANDS, INDIA*

S. Biswas AND D. P. SANYAL

Zoological Survey of India, 27 Chowringhee Road, Calcutta 700 016

(With three

INTRODUCTION

This description is based on two specimens

collected by the Zoological Survey of India

from the Car Nicobar Island. The specimens

belong to the genus Dasia Gray 1839, but do

not agree with any of the known species of

the genus and are described as a new species.

Dasia micobarensis sp. nov.

Description: Body and _ head narrower;

snout obtusely pointed, distance between the

end of the snout and the fore limb more than

one and less than one and a half the distance

between axilla and groin; lower eyelid scaly;

supranasals entire, narrow behind but not tri-

angular and not in contact with one another,

frontal considerably longer than fronto-pari-

etal (nearly twice) and almost equal to the

fronto-parietal and interparietal taken together;

interparietal just separates parietal; prefrontal

separate, its length slightly more than its

breadth; fronto-nasal about as long as broad;

two enlarged temporals; four large supra-

1 Accepted November 1976.

text-figures)

oculars, second the largest, first in contact with

frontal and prefrontal, second in contact with

frontal, prefrontal and anterior corner of the

frontoparictal, 3rd touching frontal and fronto-

parietal, 4th frontoparietal and parietal; 8

supraciliaries, Ist longer and higher than

others.

Ear opening very small, slightly larger than

the nostril with one projecting lobule in the

anterior border; anterior and posterior loreals

both longer than high and almost equal in

length; 7 supralabials, fifth longest and below

the eye; 7 infralabials, 4th longest; 2 pairs of

enlarged postmentals; body scales subequal,

dorsal scales comparatively broader than long

in relation to that of D. olivacea and with 3

(rarely five) prominent keels; 26 scales round

the body and 38 longitudinal scales on the

back (from below head shield to just above

the hip joint), tail tapering to a point, slightly

longer than body and head; middle row of

ventral caudal scales with 9 small scales after

the vent, followed by transversely enlarged

scales that gradually become narrower pos-

teriorly; the leg reaches nearly beyond the

elbow. 18 lamellae beneath the fourth toe.

133

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Dorsal colour in preserved specimen uniform-

ly dark brown with a pale stripe along the

hind part of the flank and base of the tail.

Pale bluish-white below, ventral scales almost

white in centre with bluish tinge along the

borders.

Measurements (in mm) and count:

Reg. Nos. 2311

Distance between nostrils 4

Nostril to end of snout 7

Head length between snout to ear 21

Head breadth at maximum 13

Inner canthus to nostril aT,

Palpabal fissure 6

Snout to Axilla 37

Axilla to groin 43

Snout to vent 91

Length of forelimb 29

Length of hindlimb 30

Vent to tip of the tail 122

Scales round the body 28

Scales down middle of back 12425

Lamellae under fourth toe 18

Material examined: Holotype: 1 example;

217 mm; ZSI. Reg. No. 23211; 1 example;

Sta. No. 19, Coconut grove, about 2 km. S.W.

of Teetop Guest House, Car Nicobar, Dr.

A. G. K. Menon and Party; 8-iii-1972.

Paratype: Reg. No. 23212; 1 example; Sta.

No. 6, Circuit House, Malacea, Car Nicobar,

Dr. B. K. Tikader, 3-11-1970.

Remarks: Some abnormalities are there in

these two type specimens such as one side of

the head of holotype the two loreals are sepa-

rated by the downward extension of the pre-

frontal. In the paratype the tail is shorter, al-

most equal to the body and enlarged ventral

caudal scale also begins after the 14th scale

row.

Nevertheless,

placing these

there was no difficulty in

two specimens in the genus

134

Dasia Gray as the genus is distinguished from

Lygosoma Hardwicke and Gray by the pre-

sence of supranasal and from Riopa Gray in

having well developed limbs. There are supra-

nasal and well developed limbs in the two

skinks from the Car Nicobar. A key to the

D. olivacea D. nicobarensis

Nicobar Andaman !

2312 12549 13224 Paratype Holotype —

4 AS 4 3.5 3.5.

2 3 3 25 2.5

21 2D 25 19 20

15 15 18 13.5 1225

6 6.5 a 6 5

5 5 6.5 4 6

36 Al AT 38 37

56 55 58 49 45

103 110 124 98 96

32 33 38 29 31

35 40 46 36 37

x x xX 102 121

30 28 29 26 26

13426 13425 WAIDS 7. ise D5 12426

18 18

species of the genus Dasia is given below for |

identification of the present species.

The new species comes in between D. grisea

(Gray) and D. olivacea Gray. It agrees with

D. grisea (scale round the body 26 to 28) in

the scale count round the body which is 26

in both the specimens, but markedly differs

from it in having well separated supranasals,

in the distance between inner canthus and nos-

tril being more than the length of palpable

fissure, in anterior loreal being longer than |

high and almost equal to posterior and also |

in having colour differences. The present spe-

cies is so similar in coloration and head shield

characters to D. olivacea that there is a chance |

of confusing it with the latter, if scale count —

markedly |

differs from olivacea in its scale count round ©

is not done. Dasia nicobarensis

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

the body (26), in the shape of the head which

is comparatively narrower, in the transversely

enlarged scales below the tail beginning 9th

to 14th scale row below vent (vice, starts just

down below vent), loreal being almost equal

(vice. anterior smaller than posterior) and

also in dorsal scale keels numbering 3 to 5

(vice. 3-7). Dorsal coloration of D. nicobar-

ensis is deep brown with a few scattered black-

ish dots and whitish broad pale stripe along

the hind part of the flank and base of the

tail but in olivacea though the coloration is

Fig. 1. Dasia nicobarensis sp. nov.

Lateral view of head (enlarged).

Dorsal view of head (enlarged).

‘ ay

~~ 9 féaneess 5

CEE rapes:

Ventral view, a portion of posterior region of Holo-

type showing one leg and a part of tail (enlarged).

variable, the general body colour is uniformly

greenish-brown above or with black spots

arranged in transverse series. Many of these

spots bearing central spots of white may also

disappear and sometimes there is only a broad

pale stripe along the hind part of the flank.

In this respect the new species has got some

colour similarity. On the other hand in D.

grisea the general body colour is pale grayish.

The back of the head is with rounded spots

or markings and dark streaks on the back and

sides with an indistinct interrupted pale stripe

on each side.

Distribution: The distribution of D. grisea,

is Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, Philippines,

but D. olivacea is more extensive as it includes

Thailand and Indonesia, Peninsula south of

Lat. 15° N; Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

135

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Dasia GRAY

A,. Back uniformly coloured or 26-30

scales round the body.

Supranasal in contact with each other, 26-

28 scales round the body. D. grisea (Gray)

B,. Supranasal not in contact with each other.

C,. Preanals enlarged.

D. subcaerulea (Boulenger)

C,. Preanals not enlarged.

D,. Postanal ventral caudal scales enlarged

transversely after 9th to 14th scale rows;

26 scales round the body.

D. nicobarensis n. sp.

spotted;

1°

SOCIETY, Vol. 74

D,. Ventral caudal enlarged just after the

postanal scales; 28-30 scales round the

body. D. olivacea Gray

»- Back

scales round the body.

D. haliana (Halay & Nevill)

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta for facilities to study

the material and to Dr. K. K. Tiwari for his

helpful suggestions.

TWO NEW SPECIES OF FROGS (RANIDAE) FROM KHASI HILLS,

INDIA?*

R. S. PImLLar? AND S. K. CHANDA

Zoological Survey of India, Shillong 3

(With three text-figures)

During the study of the large collection of Am-

phibia at the Eastern Regional Station, Shil-

long, we came across two new species of Ranid

frogs which are described here.

Rana danieli sp. nov.

(Fig. 1 and Table 1)

Two specimens of frogs collected from Maw-

phlang and one specimen from Nongkrem are

being described as Rana danieli sp. nov. in

honour of J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay

Natural History Society who has made guiding

contributions to the Amphibian fauna of In-

dia.

Colour: (In spirit) Dorsally varying from

light brown to dark brown, sometimes with

1976.

Zoological Survey of India,

1 Accepted November,

2 Present

Madras 4.

address:

136

dark irregular patches; two dorsolateral stripes

from eye to hind end, the inner edge of which

is whitish to grey; lateral side darker forming

a dark band which is continued forwards as a

preorbital stripe upto the tip of snout through

the nostril. Limbs with dark cross bars, ven-

tral side white, throat and breast sometimes

mottled.

In life the specimens had

colour with a reddish tinge.

Head: Rather strongly depressed, as long as

broad; snout rounded, projecting little beyond

lower jaw by about diameter of tympanum;

canthus rostralis obtuse; loreal region concave;

nostril a little nearer to tip of snout than to

eye, distance between them about one and a

half times the interorbital width. Pupil ellip-

tically horizontal, diameter of eye a little more

than interorbital width; tympanum distinct,

slightly depressed, smooth, about half diameter

a rich brown

with broad, black, transverse bars; 24

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

of eye, separated from it by a space about

equal to its own diameter. Tongue moderately

large, longer than broad, bifid; vomerines in

oblique groups between choanae, equidistant

from each other and choanae.

Forelimbs: Fairly long, about half the length

from snout to vent; fingers a little swollen at

tip, without intercalary bone, first longer than

second, third longest, as long as snout. Sub-

articular tubercles prominent.

29 mm

[reser cr ses

Fig. 1. Rana danieli sp. nov., Dorsal view.

Hindlimbs:Robust, long, 2/3 to 3/4 longer

than length of head and body, tibiotarsal arti-

culation reaching tip of snout or a little in

front; heels overlapping when limbs are fold-

ed at right angles to the body; tibia 34 times

as long as broad, half long as body length and

about as long as forelimb or foot. Toes long,

slightly swollen with small discs at tip, fully

webbed, webbing on two distal digits of fourth

toe narrow but connecting tip. Outer meta-

tarsal completely separated, subarticular tuber-

cles prominent; inner metatarsal tubercle oval,

projecting; outer tubercle not as large as inner;

no tarsal fold.

Skin faintly granulated above, warts and

tubercles absent, a glandular dorsolateral fold

from behind eye to near vent, the maximum

width between them being 1/5 to 1/4th length

from tip of snout to vent; another glandular

fold (more prominent in the smallest specimen)

from below eye to shoulder ending in a glan-

dule. Lower parts smooth.

Skeleton: Upper jaw toothed, diapophyses

cylindrical, not dilated; clavicles strong, hori-

zontal, directed slightly forwards; omosternum

with a bony style, forked at base; distal phal-

anx acute.

Measurements: See Table 1.

TABLE 1

BobY MEASUREMENTS IN MM OF THE THREE SPECI-

MENS OF Rana danieli sp. nov. FROM MAWPHLANG

(Nos. 1 & 2) AND NONGKREM (No. 3)

1 Z 3

From snout to vent 60 40 61

Head 20 15 20

Width of head 2 20 15 19.5

Snout 10 8 10

Eye 1 6 7

Interorbital width 5 4 5

Tympanum 4 3 4

Forelimb 32 Vp 31

First finger 10 5 10

Second finger 8 4.5 is)

Third finger il T/3) 10

Fourth finger 8 6.5 9

Hind limb 98 ie, 96

Tibia 31 Zi 31

Foot 29 21 Ii

Third toe 20 14 18

Fourth toe 28 21 DT

Fifth toe 20 15 WW)

187,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Holotype: An adult frog, Reg. No. V/ERS.

804 in spirit, loc. Mawphlang forest (Alt.

1535 m), Khasi Hills, coll. S. Biswas, 1-xii-69.

Paratypes: Two adult frogs, Reg. No. V/ERS.

805 in spirit, loc. Nongkrem (Alt. 1520 m),

Shillong, Khasi Hills, coll. B. Datta, 20-1-1969;

and Reg. No. V/ERS. 818 in spirit, loc. Maw-

phlang forest, Khasi Hills, coll. S. Biswas,

1-xii- 1969.

Affinities: Presence of forked omosternal style,

dorsolateral glandular fold continuous with the

supratympanic fold and a distinct and well

developed outer metatarsal tubercle consti-

tute a combination of key characters which is

found only in Rana malabarica Tschudi

(Boulenger 1920; Daniel 1975). The outer

metatarsal tubercle which is generally absent

in the subgenus Rana is indistinct or small

when present in the Asian and Australian

species. Rana malabarica and the present spe-

cies form exceptions to this. In other charac-

ters mentioned above also R. danieli occupies

a position close to R. malabarica.

However, the points of differences are as

tabulated below:

Rana malabarica

—

. Tympanum 2/3 to once diameter of eye.

2. Forelimbs longer, about 2/3 head-body length.

3. Hindlimbs shorter, usually less than 1.5 times

head-body length, rarely 1.6.

4. Tibiotarsal articulation reaching tympanum or

eye only.

5. Toes 1/3 to 1/2 webbed.

6. Outer metatarsal separated only in the distal half.

Rana danieli

1. Tympanum 1/2 diameter of eye.

2. Forelimbs shorter, 1/2 head-body length.

3. Hindlimbs longer, 1.6 to 1.8 times head-body

length.

4. Tibiotarsal articulation reaching tip of snout or

beyond.

5. Toes almost fully webbed.

6. Outer metatarsal separated fully.

138

A perusal of the points of difference enu-

merated above, particularly with reference to

hind limbs, shows that Rana danieli although

allied to R. malabarica is specifically distinct

from it justifying the erection of a new species.

R. malabarica is confined to peninsular India

(Western Ghats, Orissa) while R. danieli is an

inhabitant of Khasi Hills living at elevations

around 1500 metres.

Rana mawphilangensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 2 & 3 and Table 2)

A single example of an adult female frog

collected from Mawphlang on 13-vii-1973 is

being described here as Rana mawphlangensis

Sp. nov.

Colour: (Fresh) Dorsally deep slate or bluish

black with no spots, ventrally white or yellow-

ish. Lower jaw, sides of belly and lower sides

of limbs spotted or marbled with dark. Inner

two toes whitish.

Head: Moderately depressed, as long as

broad; snout pointed, a little longer than eye,

projecting beyond lower jaw by a distance

equal to tympanum; canthus rostralis obtuse;

loreal region slightly concave. Nostril equi-

distant from eye and tip of snout; distance

between nostrils more than 14 times inter-

orbital distance. Tympanum quite distinct,

more than half diameter of eye, separated from

it by about 2/3rd of its own diameter. Eyes

with horizontal pupil. Vomerines in fairly

oblique oval groups, behind level of choanae.

Lower jaw without bony protuberences in

front; tongue large, filling almost the entire

buccal cavity, free and bifid behind.

Forelimbs: Fairly stout; fingers long, not web-

bed, without intercalary ossicles, tips swollen

into small oval discs. First finger a little longer

than second, third longer than snout; subarti-

cular tubercles well developed. An elongated

pad present on the inner aspect of thumb.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Hindlimbs: Long, robust; tibiotarsal articula-

tion reaching tip of snout; heels overlapping

when limbs are folded at right angles to the

body; tibia 4 times as long as broad, slightly

less than 2 times in length from tip of snout

to vent, a little shorter than forelimb and lon-

ger than foot. Toes long, tips dilated into dis-

tinct discs not smaller than that of fingers,

Figs. 2 & 3. Rana mawphlangensis sp. nov.

2. Dorsal view; 3. Buccal cavity.

nearly fully webbed, last two phalanges of

fourth toe free, subarticular tubercles well de-

veloped, a feeble fold on fifth toe; inner meta-

tarsal tubercle moderately prominent; no outer

tubercle.

Skin of anterior dorsal part smooth upto

sacral region, without folds. Hind part and

sides granulate and with large glands. Fold

above tympanum very indistinct. Lower parts

smooth.

Skeleton: As in Rana danieli sp. nov. except

that omosternum is not forked at base.

Measurements: See Table 2.

TABLE 2

BODY MEASUREMENTS IN MM OF Rana mawphlan-

gensis Sp. nov. FROM MAWPHLANG (HOLOTYPE)

ET I ame) Sry er

From snout to vent

Head

Width of head We)

Snout 14.5

Eye 10.5

Interorbital width 6

Tympanum 6

Forelimb 56

First finger 15

Second finger 14

Third finger 18

Fourth finger 14

Hindlimb 139.5

Tibia 51

Foot 45

Third toe 30

Fourth toe 43

Fifth toe 32

Saat.

Holotype: An adult female frog, Reg. No.V/

ERS. 803 in spirit, loc. stream at Mawphlang.

(Alt. 1535 m), Khasi Hills, coll. R. S. Pillai,

13-vii-1973.

The single specimen was collected from a

rivulet with steep banks and overhanging vege-

tation. The water was clear and flowed over a

gravelly bottom strewn with boulders.

Affinities: The shape of the clavicles, absence

of horizontal grooves on digital discs, distinct

tympanum and the separated outer metatarsals

indicate that we are dealing with a member of

the subgenus Rana. -

139

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Using the key to the species of the subgenus

occurring in South Asian, Papuan, Melanesian

and Australian regions by Boulenger (1920)

one can place it very near to Rana doriae

Boulenger. A comparison of characters shows

that the present species is closely allied to R.

doriae which is distributed in Tenasserim,

Siam, Malay Peninsula and according to An-

nandale (1917) Andamans. However, there is

little doubt about the specific distinctness of

the two. In contrast to R. doriae the snout

in the present species is about one and half

times longer than eye and projects beyond the

lower jaw. The distance between nostrils is

more than 14 times the interorbital width which

is greater than that of upper eyelid. The fold

across the head behind upper eyelid that is

distinct in R. doriae is absent in R. mawphl-

angensis. So is the case with the supratympanic

fold which is hardly distinguishable in the

latter. Our specimen measures almost double

the head-body length of R. doriae, the largest

of Boulenger’s material being a female of

REFERENCES

ANNANDALE, N. (1917): Zoological results of a

tour in the Far East. Mem. Asiatic Soc. Bengal.

VI: 119-155.

BOULENGER, G. A. (1920): A monograph of the

South Asian, Papuan, Melanesian and Australian

50 mm. The colour pattern of the two are

also quite different. Had the differences been

restricted to size and colour we would have

unhesitatingly assigned the present example as

a race of doriae. But the overall differences are

sufficient to justify the erection of a new

species.

Rana modesta from Celebes is allied to the

present species. But the short first finger, smal-

ler tympanum, shorter hind limbs and glandu-

lar folds distinguish it clearly from R. maw-

phlangensis. The other species which show

kinship are R. grunniens, R. macrodon and

R. magna. But in all these the first finger is

much longer than second and glandular folds

are present.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta and to J. C. Daniel,

Curator, Bombay Natural History Society for

helpful criticism and suggestions.

frogs of the genus Rana. Rec. Indian Mus. 20:1-

226. :

DANIEL, J. C. (1975): Field Guide to the Am-

phibians of Western India, Part 3. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 7Z(2)izd07-522:

A NEW SPECIES OF SCORPION OF THE GENUS SCORPIOPS PETER

(FAMILY VEJOVIDAE) FROM INDIA’

B. K. TIKADER AND D. B. BASTAWDE

Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, Poona, 411 005

(With eleven text-figures)

Since Pocock’s classical work on Indian Scor-

pions (1900) no serious attention has been

given to study the scorpion fauna of this

1 Accepted October 1976.

140

country. Recently Mani (1959) and Basu

(1964) have described few new species from

the Indian sub-continent.

While examining the scorpion collection

from various parts of India for the prepara-

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

tion of the Fauna of India volume on the

group we came across several new species ol

scorpions. The present paper contains descrip-

tion of a new species of scorpion of the genus

Scorpiops. The type specimens will in due

course be deposited in the National collections

of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Scorpiops deccanensis sp. Nov.

General: Large scorpion with big elongated

chela and the patella of pedipalp bearing SiX-

teen to seventeen setal pores on ventral side

as in text-figure 5. General coloration of entire

scorpion dark-brown to black; but the carapace

and first two tergites variegated with yellowish

tint. Lateral ocular region dark. Pedipalp uni-

form brown but carinae and fingers dark. Tips

of the legs pale. Caudal region dark; telson

yellow and the aculeus brown. Ventral side

pale yellowish brown to dark.

Measurements: Total length 55 mm. Cara-

pace 8 mm long; Pre-abdomen 22.50 mm long;

Post-abdomen (Cauda + Telson) 24.50 mm

long.

Carapace: Entire surface smooth, no keels

except slightly raised lateral ocular tubercles.

Median ocular tubercles smooth; armed with

a pair of short setae on posterior side of me-

dian eyes and provided with two yellowish

bands, which extend upto the notch of anterior

margin. Anterior margin armed with six setae.

Three pairs of contiguous lateral eyes, pos-

terior eyes small. Lateral margins slightly cre-

nulated on anterior part and armed with single

seta. Posterior margin smooth and nearly

straight. Median eyes situated anteriorly in the

ratio 1:2 as in text figure 2. Chelicera with

dorsal surface of basal segment smooth with

black reticulations and more dark on anterior

end. Ventral side pale yellow, smooth and

covered with tuft of thin short silky hairs.

Fingers more dark and brownish at the tips.

Immovable fingers much shorter than movable

finger and armed with a double and a single

teeth. Movable finger armed with three trian-

gular sharp teeth on dorsal arm and ventral

arm provided with six small triangular sharp

teeth, grouped in 3, 2, 1 as in text-figure 4.

Femora of pedipalp slightly longer than cara-

pace, dorso-ventrally flat; intercarinal space

granular; inner surface with five large tuber-

cles on crenular carina. Patella shorter than

femora but longer than carapace with dorsal

posterior carinae smooth and anterior carina

granular; carinae on exterior or outer surface

smooth, inner surface armed with two strong

and two weak triangular tubercles. Carinae on

ventral surface slightly crenulate on inner side

than on outer side and outer carina provided

with a row of sixteen to seventeen setal pores

and from each pore a long thin seta arises.

Hand of pedipalp large, elongated and longer

than patella or femora. Fingers short, nearly

half the length of hand. Dentation on fingers

scalloped, double dentate; scallops near the

base not much deep. Nine teeth on fixed finger

and eight teeth on movable finger as in text-

fig. 8. Trichobothrial patterns as shown in text-

figures 9, 10 and 11. Legs brownish, carinae

on femora and patella crenulated on inner

side and carinae on tibia crenulated on outer

side. A row of five stout sharp spinules on

ventral side of tarsus. Pectenes well develop-

ed and medium size, twice as long as wide.

Middle lamellae separated into 6 sub-circular

segments or digits as in text-figure 3. Triangu-

Jar fulcra well distinguished between the adja-

cent teeth. Teeth long and seven in number.

Basal piece simple. Lamellae and basal piece

sparsely clothed with microscopic red setae.

Genital operculum completely divided and a

pair of conspicuous genital papillae protrud-

ing from the posterior edge of sclerites.

Pre-abdomen: All tergites smooth with a pair

141

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Fig. 1. Dorsal view of Male; Fig. 2. Carapace, dorsal view; Fig. 3. Sternum, Genital oper-

culum and Pectenes; Fig. 4. Movable finger of right chelicera; Fig. 5. Ventral view of patella,

showing number of setal pores; Fig. 6. Side view of telson showing number and arrange-

ment of setae; Fig. 7. Ventral view of telson; Fig. 8. Lateral view of chela of pedipalp.

142

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

of yellow elliptical spots on middle portion ex-

cept on VII tergite as in text-figure 1. Single

median keel, smooth and poorly developed;

no lateral keels but a pair of setae on the pos-

terior margin of each tergite. Tergite VII with

a pair of smooth lateral keels. Sternites I-IV

smooth, pale but dark on lateral and posterior

margins and armed with black setae. Stigmata

of book lungs slit-like. Sternite V more black

than rest of the sternites, smooth and with-

out keel.

oO.

4.90

ed on If and III than the IV segments. Fifth

segment as long as width of underhand; dorsal

keels serrated; lateral keels weakly crenulated

posteriorly; inferior lateral keels and_ single

inferior median keel more serrated. Anal rim

of this segment provided with crenulate serrat-

ed tubercles. Inter-carinal space provided with

fine granules. Telson smooth and without an-

nular ring at the base of aculeus, vesicle con-

spicuous yellow in colour and as long as fifth

caudal segment. Setation sparse and a pair of

(a)

‘o

Fig. 9. Trichobothrial patterns of male pedipalp: Internal; dorsal, external and ventral view

of femora; Fig. 10. Trichobothrial patterns of male pedipalp: Internal, dorsal, external, and

ventral view of patella; Fig. 11. Trichobothrial patterns of male pedipalp: Internal, dorsal,

external and ventral views of manus, finger and tarsus.

Post-abdomen: Cauda twice as long as cara-

pace. Basal segment as wide as long. Segments

I-[V provided with dorsal keels slightly serrat-

ed but more spiniform on IV segment. Dor-

solateral keels smooth and visible upto half

of the anterior portion of IV segment. Lateral

keels smooth. Inferior laterals and inferior

keels weakly crenulated on I, noticeably serrat-

setae on aculeus as in text-figures 6 and 7.

Aculeus less curved and its length almost half

of the telson.

Type-specimens: Holotype male, paratypes

two immature males, allotypes three immature

females in spirit.

Type-locality: Sinhgarh, 16 kms South-West

of Poona City, Maharashtra, India. Coll. U. A.

143

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Gajbe, 25-v-1976. Paratypes and _ aillotypes

(22 2) collected from the above locality by

D. B. Bastawde, 19-vi-1976. Other locality:

1¢ (immature) collected from Karla Caves,

North of Poona, Maharashtra, India. Coll.

M. B. Rao, 18-ix-1976.

Discussion: ‘This species closely resembles

Scorpiops montanus Karsch but can be separat-

ed from it as follows: (i) Dorsal keels on

caudal segments not much spiniform posterior-

ly but in S. montanus dorsal keels of caudal

segments much _ spiniform posteriorly. (ii)

Number of setal pores on posterior ventral

side of patella sixteen to seventeen in number

but in S. montanus the number of setal pores

fourteen to fifteen in number. (iii) Last pre-

abdominal sternum smooth and without keels

but in S. montanus the last pre-abdominal

sternum with well developed median keels.

REFERENCES

Pocock, R. I. (1900): Fauna of British India,

Arachnida: 5.99.

Mani, M. S. (1959): On the collection of high

altitude Scorpions, Pseudoscorpions (Arachnida)

from North-West Himalayas. Agra Univ. J. Rec.

Sei. 8:11-16.

Basu, B. D. (1964): Observations on two new

species of Lychas, J. Bengal nat. Hist. Soc. 32:99-103.

DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF WOLF-SPIDER (FAMILY:

LYCOSIDAE) FROM LADAKH, INDIA?

B. K. TIKADER

Zoological Survey of India,

Western Regional Station,

Poona

(With six

During an expedition led by Dr. Salim Ali to

Ladakh sponsored jointly by the Bombay

Natural History Society and the World Wild

Life Fund during June-August 1976, for status

survey of some rare birds and mammals, Dr

Biswamoy Biswas, Deputy Director, Zoolo-

gical Survey of India and a member of the

expedition collected a few specimens of spiders

from Ladakh, Western Himalaya, which he

kindly sent to me for study.

Among these specimens I came across two

new species of spider belonging to the genus

1 Accepted November 1976.

144

411 005

text-figures)

Pardosa, which are described here.

The type specimens will in due course be

deposited in the National Zoological Collec-

tion, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Pardosa ladakhensis sp. nov.

General: Cephalothorax and legs pale brown

with dark brown patches; abdomen greenish

brown. Total length 8.50 mm. Carapace 3.70

mm long, 2.80 mm wide; abdomen 4.90 mm

long, 3.40 mm wide.

Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, pointed

anteriorly, clothed with hairs and pubescence.

Centre of thoracic region provided with a con-

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

spicuous fovea. Ocular area dark brown and

provided with some spine like hairs. Anterior

row of eyes straight shorter than the 2nd row,

medians slightly larger than the laterals. Ocu-

lar quad wider behind and narrowing in front.

Eyes of the second row larger than the others.

Posterior eyes (second and third row) placed

* at the extremities of cephalic region and pos-

terior quadrangle much wider behind than in

front as in text-figure 1. Two conspicuous dark

brown patches present surrounded by a pale

area just behind the third row of eyes as in

text-figure 1. Sub-marginal area of thoracic

region provided with irregular pale patches

as in text-figure 1. Sternum black, heart-shaped,

pointed behind and clothed with pubescence

and some spine like hairs. Labium dark brown

and wider than long. Distal end of maxillae

wider and provided with scopulae. Chelicerae

moderately strong, inner margin of the fang

furrow provided with three unequal teeth.

Legs long, clothed with spines and hairs and

coxae, femora, patella and tibiae provided

with conspicuous irregular greenish brown

patches. Metatarsi IV longer than the tibia and

patella together.

Abdomen: Longer than wide, widest be-

hind the middle, clothed with pubescence and

hairs. Anterio-mid-dorsally provided with a

longitudinal pale lens shaped marking as in

text-figure 1, and rest of the abdomen provid-

ed with some pale patches and spots as in

text-figure 1. Ventral side with irregular red-

dish brown patches. Epigyne and _ internal

genitalia as in text-figures 2 and 3.

Holotype female, Paratype one female in

spirit.

Type-locality: Pulu (c. 4633 m high), Fuchu

valley, Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, India.

Coll. Dr. Biswamoy Biswas, 30-vii-1976.

Discussion: This species closely resembles

with Pardosa tatensis (Tikader) but can be

separated from it as follows: (i) Sternum black

but in Pardosa tatensis sternum dark brown.

(ii) Ventral side of abdomen provided with

reddish brown patches

irregular but in P.

Figs. 1-3. Pardosa ladakhensis sp. nov.

1. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted; 2. Epigyne;

3. Internal genitalia.

tatensis ventral side pale except few sub-lateral

brown irregular patches. (iii) Epigyne and

internal also structurally different.

Pardosa alii sp. nov.’

General: Cephalothorax, legs and abdomen

brown. Total length 7.10 mm. Carapace 3.60

mm long, 2.70 mm wide; abdomen 3.60 mm

long, 2.80 mm wide.

2 It is with much pleasure that I name this species

after the eminent Ornithologist, Dr. Salim Ali.

145

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, convex,

narrowing in front, clothed with fine grey and

black hairs; cephalic region slightly high. Cly-

peus vertical. Anterior row of eyes slightly

procurved and shorter than the second row of

eyes; anterior medians larger than the anterior

laterals. Eyes of the second row larger than

the others. Posterior quadrangle wider than

long and narrower in front than behind as in

text-figure 4, and black in colour. Middle of

cephalothorax provided with a sharp fovea.

Dark brown broad two longitudinal bands ex-

tending from bases of third row of eyes to the

Figs. 4-6. Pardosa alii sp. nov.

4. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted; 5. Epigyne;

6. Internal genitalia.

146

base of cephalothorax. Lateral edges of ceph-

alothorax provided with longitudinal inner

pale and outer dark brown bands as in text-

figure 4. Sternum nearly heart-shaped, point-

ed behind, uniform dark brown and clothed

with black pubescence. Labium wider than

long. Distal end of maxillae wider and provid-

ed with scopulae. Chelicerae moderately strong

and inner margin of chelicera provided with

three teeth. Legs long, moderately strong,

clothed with hairs and spines. Dorsal side of

femora of all legs provided with two longitu-

dinal brown bands. Metatarsi IV nearly as

long as or slightly longer than the tibia and

patella together.

Abdomen: Slightly longer than wide, nearly

same width both in front and behind. Antero-

mid-dorsally provided with a lens-shaped pale

marking; clothed with black hairs and pale

dots. Ventral side pale. Epigyne and internal

genitalia as in text-figures 5 and 6.

Holotype female, paratype one female, in

spirit. 7

Type-locality: Chusul (c. 4328 m_ high)

Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Coll.

Dr. Biswamoy Biswas, 2-vii-1976.

This species resembles Pardosa ladakhensis

sp. nov. but differs from it as follows: (4)

Anterior row of eyes slightly procurved but

in P. ladakhensis anterior row of eyes straight.

(ii) Dorsal side of femora of all legs provided

with two longitndinal brown bands but in P.

ladakhensis femora of all legs provided with

irregular greenish brown patches. (iii) Epigyne

and internal genitalia also structurally dif-

ferent.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to Dr Biswamoy Biswas,

Deputy Director, Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta, for supplying the spiders for study.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF ROVE BEETLE FROM INDIA

(COLEOPTERA: STAPHYLINIDAE)?,?

T. R. KEM? AND SwarAj GHAI‘

(With a text-figure)

The genus Deinopsis Matth. is found through-

out the world near marshes and streams. Only

one species Deinopsis cinnamomea_ Kr. is

known so far from Andamans (India). In this

paper a species collected in Delhi is described

as new to science. This species differs from

D. cinnamomea in size, antennae and thoracic

punctations.

Deimopsis pumciuratus sp. nov.

Fig. 1

Female:

A small, shiny cinnamon-brown insect, very

densely punctate and _ finely pubescent

throughout, antennae and legs yellow. Length

1.5 mm. Head transverse. Eyes large but not

prominent. Antennae slender, slightly genicul-

ate, basal segment quite long, even longer than

second and third segments together, segments

fourth to tenth broader than long and eleventh

longer and clavate. Thorax nearly one and half

as broad as long, the side rounded, nearly

1 Accepted February 1977.

2Forms part of the dissertation of the senior

author submitted to IARI for award of M.Sc.

degree.

3 Documentation

Entomologist, Directorate of

retracted in front, the posterior angles rectan-

gular, prominent. Elytra as long as broad.

Wings with normal type of venation and pos-

terior border fringed with long hairs. Inter-

segmental membrane with small square shaped

chitinous portions in longitudinal rows.

Material studied:

Holotype: ¢ slide mounted, collected by

Tilak Ram at light at I.A.R.I., New Delhi on

10th August, 1969.

Paratypes: @ No. tag mounted, @ No. on

slide, 32 @ in tube collected from pulse field

by Tilak Ram at I.A.R.I., New Delhi on 10th

August, 1969. Types in National Pusa Collec-

tion, L.A.R.I., New Delhi.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to (Late) Dr. S. Pradhan,

the then Head of the Division of Entomology,

I.A.R.I., New Delhi for having provided neces-

sary facilities for the research.

Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage, Farida-

bad.

4 Systematic Entomologist, Indian Agricultural

Research Institute, New Delhi 100012.

147

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

(

‘then.

O25 jiu Mv ;

Ob BY TY

b,e,c2.@

O.5 mite

$f ht, jKob

Fig. 1. Deinopsis puncturatus sp. nov.

a. antenna; b. labrum; c. mandible; d. maxillary palp; e. labial palp; f. foreleg; g. hind leg;

h. pronotum; i. meso-metathorax; j. portion of abdomen; k. elytra; 1. hind wing.

148

Reviews

1. FIDDLER CRABS OF THE WORLD: OCYPODIDAE: GENUS UCA.

By Jocelyn Crane. pp. xxiv + 737 (28.5 x 22.5 cm). With 50 plates, 101 text-

figures and 21 maps (4 in colour). Princeton, New Jersy, 1975. Princeton

University Press. Price US $ 75.00.

This is the Magnum Opus of La Grande

Dame of ucology, for if there is anybody de-

serving to be coined a ucologist and to be

credited with having founded the science ot

Uca, it is Mrs. J. Crane-Griffin.

The actual origin of this book dates back

to more than 30 years when William Beebe

“hooked his assistant on fiddler crabs”. Quite

obviously, this hook proved strong enough to

support the author and—in the long run—a

reasonable armada of scientific, technical and

artistic co-workers through time and tide, mud

and museum around the globe. The result is

truly impressive from a number of viewpoints:

1. It is the first full and thorough taxono-

mic review of the entire genus since 1880—

and since old, hordes of systematists have

pounced upon major and minor collections

of Uca sometimes creating a veritable chaos

of nomenclature; here it boils down to 62

species of Uca neatly grouped into 9 subgen-

era bearing signifying names.

2. A vast amount of morphological details

has been arranged in extensive series with re-

gard to their possible (or proven) function

in feeding and fighting, combat and copulation,

thus giving rise to.

3. A superb survey of the phyletic posi-

tion of the taxa, depicted in dendrograms.

4. From the 21 maps showing the geogra-

phic distribution of the Uca-world one gets a

unique panorama of the where and—in a good

number of cases—why of the species and sub-

species. This means:

5. An intricate combination of ecology

and behaviour, and it can convincingly be said

that the author achieves an ideal synthesis of

morphology and ethology.

Crane’s “‘new systematics” of the true fid-

dlers mentioning 7 new subgenera (out of 9)

may well cause some headache to the Uca-

novice, and an old hand will also have to re-

name some old acquaintances of his (e.g. U.

insignis from the tropical eastern Pacific now

to be called the subspecies U. maracoani in-

signis, U.m. formerly signifying Atlantic ori-

gin). Whether subgeneric names like Boboruca

(from Greek borbor = mud), the muddy

fiddlers, and Celuca (from Latin celer =

swift), the “‘fast-moving fiddlers’? will be long

lived remains to be seen. In some cases this

lumping does not seem to hold very well as

far as names are concerned: the “‘swift fiddler’

Uca (Celuca) triangularis ‘‘can only be called

lethargic” (p. 286), and certainly U. insignis

(now: U. maracoani insignis) is a “muddy

fiddler’’, but must be grouped under the sub-

genus Uca proper. “Amphiuca’ would sug-

gest an especially amphibious type of living

but is meant to denote ‘‘on both sides’ of

their equivocal position between the less ad-

vanced subgenera of the Indo-Pacific and the

more highly developed centering in the Ame-

ricas.

149

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Be this as it may, Crane’s opus will prove

a must to the Uca-addict, a true bible which

will remain a challenge as a source of refer-

ence, critical checking, meticulous planning

and even sometimes pleasant reading: In case

the interested reader happens to get into Uca-

land wearing a white tennis hat which would

disturb the fiddlers’ social behaviour, “‘tennis

hats can be tinted in coffee or tea’? (p. 670).

For those zoologists not venturing as far as

that, Crane’s monumental volume will be a

Classical example of evolutionary biology bas-

ed on a lifelong study of an especially enc-

hanting and rewarding type of animal.

R. ALTEVOGT (Munster)

2. BIRDS OF NEPAL. By Robert L. Fleming, Sr., Robert L. Fleming, Jr.

and Lain Singh Bangdel. pp. 349 (19 x 12 cm), with 150 colour plates depict-

ing 741 species, many for the first time. Bombay, 1976. Vakil & Sons.

Price Rs. 125.00.

It is indeed a pity I did not have this book

in the pocket of my rucksack when I trekked

from Khatmandu to Thyangboche in _ the

summer of 1967. To have between the covers

of one book all the birds, with the majority

illustrated, of a large stretch of the Himalayas

like Nepal—including a few birds of Kashmir

on the one hand and of Sikkim on the other

not recorded in Nepal—is a great asset for

any traveller in these wonderful mountains,

particularly when the result still maintains a

handy size easily slipped into a side pocket

without adding appreciably to the weight on

tired shoulders!

The magic of compressing so much into so

small a volume is a result of very brief factual

notes on each species, facing the illustrations

in the handy Field Guide format now univer-

sal for popular bird books of Europe and

America. True, the delightful prose of a

Salim Ali is missed but then one cannot have

everything.

The intensive field study done in Nepal over

a period of two and a half decades by father

and son and augmented by information from

150

other ornithologists who have been visiting

Nepal in increasing numbers after its opening

up in the Forties provides updated, authentic

ornithological information for an area which

still remains a naturalist’s paradise. A signi-

ficant fact is that the Flemings share the

production of the book with Nepalese both in

the preparation of the text and the illustrations. ©

The publication of this book is a landmark

in the history of ornithology in the sub-con-

tinent. |

The illustrations by comparison with those

of popular European Field Guides are dis-

appointing but it-is certainly not fair to com-

pare them with work done by a Singer or a

Peterson. Even so, the ducks and the waders

are poorly drawn, though the rest are of uni-

formly high standard. While the warblers,

larks and pipits are difficult to illustrate faith-

fully requiring us they do an artist’s brush

and a printer’s expertise of the very highest

order, the birds of prey shown in overhead

flight can be hardly improved upon.

The price, though high for an average In-

dian to pay for an object to decorate his book-

| REVIEWS

shelf, is affordable when budgeting for a Him-

alayan holiday. While not adding appreciably

to the overall costs, or the weight in ones

rucksack, its handy presence certainly will

guarantee to augment the pleasures of any

Himalayan vacation.

LAVKUMAR KHACHER

3. PROCEEDINGS FROM THE SYMPOSIA OF THE FIFTH CONGRESS

OF THE INTERNATIONAL PRIMATOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Edited by

-S. Kondo, M. Kawai, A. Ehara & S: Kawamura. pp. x + 592 (26 x 19 cm), with

Black-and-White plates and many illustrations. Tokyo, 1975. Japan Science

Press. Price US $ 60.00.

{t is exhilirating to note that in a small country

like Japan (when compared to India) there

are at least 10 Primate Centres of research

in addition to Anthropological Institutes where

research on monkeys is also carried on. No

wonder they called an International Congress.

The fifth Primatological Congress had orga-

nized under its auspices five symposia and a

special seminar and action programme.

Symposium 1 was devoted to social struc-

ture of primates and there were nine papers.:

The second was on determinants of behaviour:

al variation in Primates and there were five

papers. The third was titled locomotor be-

haviour and hominization; there were nine

papers. Symposium four was on_ perinatal

physiology and there were five papers. Neuro-

physiology and neuropsychology of Primate

prefrontal Cortex was the theme of fifth sym-

posium and there were five papers.

Crook, in his conspectas 1974, has brought

out clearly how the two orientations of Japa-

nese and Western workers could be brought

together. Japanese work has always been done

with an anthropological bias with stress on

longitudinal diacluonic studies of selected

species or populations while western workers

study primate social behaviour from sociolo-

gical and socioecological view points. Crook

also pointed out that the papers of Hinde and

Kummer brought out a distinction between

two perspectives, namely, social process and

temporal patterning of social positioning of

known individuals. Hanby in describing the

primate social structures uses the phrase so-

cial nexus which is intended to connote the

complex web of relationships produced by

individuals that know and interact with one

another overtime. She takes examples from

the “‘one-male’” groups—the gelada baboon

and the hamadryas baboon. If the hamadryas

(papio) male is removed, the females scatter

while the gelada females all stay together un-

der the same circumstances. In the patas

(Erythrocebus), which is also a single male

society, he does not knit them together and

may even be threatened by the females!

Norikoshi and Koyama describe the for-

mation of all male groups in the Japanese

monkeys. The groups seem to function as a

pressure valve in regulating the centrifugal

force behind peripherilization. These males

after some time become peripheral males.

Males over five years never stayed in the

troop in which their mothers and close rela-

tives were present; this avoided incest and

therefore Japanese monkey troops could not

be considered as closed; to prevent genetic

and evolutionary deterioration of a species,

inbreeding should be avoided. The migration

151

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

of male would naturally lead to gene flow

from troop to troop.

Stephenson has evolved a simple test which

is called a ‘peanut test’? for determining the

social rank of the monkey during the non-

mating season. Of the two monkeys whose

social rank you are wanting to determine, hold

a peanut and see which gets it by outwitting

the other when you wave it between them.

The females enter the mating pool when they

are about 3.5 years old and the males become

effective by entering the pool between 4 to 8.5

years of age in the Japanese monkeys. The

males may go up to 38 years and beyond 25,

they are senile. It is also noticed in these

monkeys that high ranking females preferred

high ranking males and low ranking females

mated with low ranking males. In addition

to this stratification, a female can control

which males can successfully mate with them

by refusing to raise their hips, during copul-

ation. at

Hausfater’s studies on the baboon (Papio

cyanocephalus) brought out the sex-skin-ova-

rian cycle relationship with a standard devi-

ation 5.3. Within two weeks after the start of

menstruation, maximum turgescence of peri-

neal sex-skin is reached. This is maintained

for 7-10 days and then rapid deturgence takes

place. Thirteen days after this, the next men-

strural cycle starts. If the animal has conceived

due to successful mating, her paracallosal skin

depigments and changes from gray-black to

red in colour.

Kummer discusses in his paper on rules of

Dyad and group formation among captive

gelada baboons, one interesting facet and that

is loyalty. There is only one female in a group

and her relationship with her male was intense

and in the loyalty test, she rejected every ad-

vance by another male and she never present-

ed or groomed.

sy?

In the wild chimpanzees studied by Kawa-

naka and Nishida they brought out that there

were frequent exchange of females from K-to

the M-groups. This is largely because their

home ranges overlapped.

In the 2nd Symposium, Sackett, Holm,

Davis and Fahrenbruch tackle the problem

of incidence, prediction and effect on infant

development in the pigtail macaques (M.

nemestrina). The period of pregnancy was

167 days and the lowest birth weights was

for males. The ratio of males to females was

55.4 to 44.6. Breeders carrying male fetuses

are less likely to require medical treatment

for than female ones! This appears to have

a hormonal basis. At approximately 100 gest-

ation days in the rhesus monkey, the male

fetus secretes testosterone which passes through

the placenta into maternal circulation. The

group seem to notice the change in breeders

carrying male by their smell, look or behaviour

and abstain from attacking her and cause in-

jury.

Rumbaugh and Gill lead us into the realm

of the language of apes. The apes have failed

to establish competence for speech because

the apes vocal tract does not provide for the

production of the phonemes used in human

speech. By the way Washoe the young female

chimpanzee was able to use the American

sign language and it is possible these apes

may master a set of rules for structuring sen-

tences, ic. syntax. At the Yerks Regional

Primate Centre, there is a computer system;

the language is a visual one; the ape faces

a key board on which are embosed 75 word-

keys each a distinctive geometric configuration.

Using these keys, the ape can frame sentences

to cause attention to its needs.

The Chairman of the third symposium

Preuschoft summarised by saying that they

must continue to collect data on locomotion

REVIEWS

in recent primates so that the ways and reason

of hominization process may understood.

Ankel-Simmons reinstated that the fossil

Australopithecus showed specializations indi-

cative of bipedalism.

Oxnard discussing locomotor functions in

primates stated that almost all primates can

move bipedally and all can also swing by their

arms. With regard to function of the forelimb,

it is a broad spectrum; the patas and baboons

where the forelimb is used in a cranio-caudal

two dimensional arc within a lower quadrant

to gibbons and spider monkeys at the other

where the forelimb is used in a three dimen-

sional highly mobile cone within a raised

quadrant. While young gorillas can brachiate

deftly, old male gorillas are exclusively terres-

trial.

His studies brought out that austrabo-

pithecines are more different from modern

man and these may even be said issues in re-

lation to man.

Ishida, Kimura and Okada discuss the

acquisition of orthograde bipedal posture and

locomotion in Anthropoid primates. With the

aid of EMG (electromyography) of a leg

muscle and other observations, 4 patterns are

arrived at namely, the human, the chimpanzee

the macaque and the gibbon patterns. Accord-

ing to them, the locomotor complex of the

chimpanzee and spider monkey may have

particular reference to bipedality in man.

Tuttle and Basmajian are approaching the

problem of hominization by studying the EMG

of Pan. Their main aim is to elucidate the

mechanisms of knuckle-walking, suspensory

behaviour and facultative bipedalism in gor-

illa, chimpanzee and orangutan and to com-

pare these positional behaviours with hominid

bipedalism. There is biochemical evidence for

the close relationship of African apes and

man. Some authorities feel that large-bodied

““brachiators” may have led to the hominid

type. Knuckle-walking terrestrial locomotion

was considered a stage between brachiation

and hominid bipedalism. The above two

authors feel that a hylobatian model of homi-

nid evolution may be nearer the truth than

a large-bodied brachiator or a knuckle-walk-

ing one.

In discussing the ecology and paleoecology

of ape locomotion, Kortlandt has some inter-

esting inferences to make. For some 30 mil-

lion years, the Dryopithecine and African ape

evolution has tended towards an adaptation

to more open habitats and to more increasing-

ly terrestrial life. According to him the Dryo-

pithecine skeleton was perfectly adopted to-

wards this. The hind limbs enabled them to

flee like an antelope and their slim build made

them dash across the densest grass like ligh-

tening and their foraging habits were so ver-

satile and eurytopic paralleled by the present

day langurs. In the African apes, the long

arms enabled them to embrace solitary tree

trunks and climb and also to reach fruits on

far off slender branches. These are considered

secondary specializations.

Perinatal physiology was the title of the

4th symposium. Myers discusses perinatal as-

phyxia. High infant morbidity and mortality

due to perinatal asphyxia. He has studied the

cardiac and brain asphyxiations.

Panigel discusses the use of non-human pri-

mates as a model for the study of human

placenta. In the rhesus, the patas (Erythroce-

bus) and the Crab-eating macaques, the pla-

centa is bidiscoidal, the primary disc having

the umbilical connections. The secondary pla-

centa can be conveniently detached from the

uterine wall so that it has only fetal circulation

or this fetal circulation may be cut off when

only there is a maternal circulation. Such

permutations have shed a lot of light on pla-

153

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

cental physiology. The uteroplacental circul-

ation has been imaged in the rhesus monkey

using labelled radioactive microspheres. Scan-

ning with a special camera “‘hot spots” at the

points of entry on the placenta of the mater-

nal spiral arteries, it has been shown that the

circulation of maternal blood is heterogenous

in the intervillous spaces of the rhesus mon-

key.

Symposium 5 was devoted to Neurophy-

siology.

Desiragu has a paper on the afferents of

the prefrontal cortex. This cortex is related

to the temporal lobe in 3 ways at least: amyg-

dala—medialis dorsalis—cortex; hippocampus

— septum — hypothalamus — thalamus —

congulate — cortex; temporal cortex — _ pre-

frontal cortex. Fuster has studied the pre-

frontal cortex by locally cooling certain parts.

For this gold plated copper probes were used.

Cooling to a temperature 20 to 25C the he-

haviour of the animal is not affected.

In the special seminar, primate conservation

formed the staple of discussion. Papers by

Shidei and Kawamura (Japan), Ieng-ee

(Thailand) and Gartlan (W. Africa), Ber-

hanu (Ethiopia), Eiten and Thorington (S.

America) and Chivers (U.K.) were present-

ed. Gartlan brought out that Congolese forest

had disintegrated in its margins. Mature forests

have been replaced by secondary growth and

has led to reduction of primate species. But

this has also helped the evolution and radi-

ation of certain species. Miopithecus talapoin,

Pan trogldytes, Gorilla gorilla, Colobus abys-

sinicus and Cercopithecus mona have actually

increased: this is the brighter side.

Eiten and Thorington discuss the South

American forests and the primate population.

154

One important conclusion is that in South

America if large parks could be established

in the 17 areas designated as refuges in Van-

zolinis map, most of the neotropical species

could be conserved.

Denudation of the rainforests should not

be encouraged as these happen to be centres

of breeding and radiation of non-human pri-

mates. If this is strictly enforced in develop-

ing countries, it may be possible to conserve

the fast dwindling primate fauna.

The last paper is by McGreal and Eudey

on the International primate protection league.

Here are some _ figures of export form his

paper.

Thailand: 1962-1971 — 74000 macaques

(arctoides and nemestrina).

74 motherless infants of arctoides were no-

ticed by an IPPL representative with an ani-

mal dealer. Gibbons are exported from Thai-

land and the IPPL opposes the use of gibbons

in biomedical research and thus conserving

the species. Many countries where primates

are endemic have now stopped completely or

partially the export of monkeys. This angurs

well for the conservation of non-human pri-

mates.

There are a number of printers devils

which irritate a reader. These could have been

easily avoided. The book is not only useful

for postgraduate students who want to em-

bark on primate studies but also to advanced

primatologists. Recommendation of the book

to all primatoligists becomes a bit difficult as

the price is not marked but in the libraries of

institutions doing reproductive biology or pri-

mate biomedical work, it is a must.

L. S. RAMASWAMI

REVIEWS

4. WILD CATS OF THE WORLD. By C. A. W. Guggisberg. pp. 328 (inclu-

sive of Bibliography and Index) (23 x 15.5 cm), with 29 Black-and-White

illustrations. Newton Abbot/London, 1975. David & Charles (Publishers) Ltd.

Price £5.50 net.

The author has taken considerable pains to

cover Wild Cats of the world from their origin

and evolution to present day status. He has

quoted various authors who have had personal

experience with wild cats and it is obvious

that he has limited personal experience of

wild cats of the world; his chapters on the

African Lion, Cheetah and Serval clearly re-

veal his focus on the African scene of which

there is only a small portion compared to his

excellent work “SIMBA” (Life of Lion)

1961. It is a pity that very little is mentioned

of the Asiatic lion and while quoting authors

connected with this race he has over-looked

articles in this Journal, by M. A. Wynter

Blyth and K. §. Dharmakumarsinhji and L. L.

Fenton in ‘RIFLE IN INDIA’. On Indian wild

cats much is quoted from works by E. P. Gee,

George Schaller, R. C. Morris, F. W. Cham-

pion, S. H. Prater, etc. with no reference to

modern Indian conservationists even in the

Tiger chapter. It appears that the author

knows little outside his African sphere of

large cats and has to quote abundantly from

the experience by other writers, thus in the

smaller cats sometimes only a few lines are

mentioned under habits, and yet, under most

of the cats he has given long descriptive notes

and of measurements which convey little to

the reader in identifying them in the field. The

book, however, is full of selected anecdotes by

numerous authors which makes _ interesting

reading. It is a pity that just a handful of

mediocre monochrome photographs of some

of the cats are shown and those of Golden

cat, Caracal and young Jaguarandi are of little

help in identifying the species. A book of this

nature with coloured pictures as given by S. H.

Prater in the Book of Indian Animals, 1965

would have added much to its value.

R. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI

Miscellaneous Notes

1. TAXONOMIC STATUS OF MEGADERMA SPASMA MAJUS

ANDERSEN (CHIROPTERA: MEGADERMATIDAE)

While studying the collections of Megaderma

spasma present in the Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta, I came across some specimens

of M. spasma horsfieldi Blyth and M. spasma

majus Andersen which were found to be very

difficult to separate. An attempt has here been

made to settle the taxonomic status of Mega-

derma spasma majus Andersen.

Material examined: INDIA: Karnataka,

5300. 429; Andhra Pradesh, 12; Maha-

rashtra, 10, 29 9; Tamil Nadu, 12; Goa,

322; Andaman Island, 12; Meghalaya, 16,

22 92; BURMA: Pegu, 5 (unsexed); Lower

Chindwin, 12; Tenasserim, 16, 22°.

Andersen (1918) separated M. s. majus

from M. s. horsfieldi only on the length of

forearm, 62-63 mm vs. 54-58.5 mm. Ellerman

& Morrison Scott (1951) accepted them as

separate subspecies. However, as may be seen

from the measurements given by Andersen and

those of my specimens (Table), there is com-

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

DESERT REGIONAL STATION,

PaoTta B RoabD, JODHPUR,

RAJASTHAN,

May 11, 1976.

plete overlap in the length of the forearm of

the two subspecies. The Table also shows that

there is no difference in the measurements of

other external and skull characters of the two

sub-species. Megaderma spasma majus Ander-

sen (1918) should, therefore, be considered

a synonym of M. s. horsfieldi Blyth 1863.

Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) gave the

range of distribution of M. s. horsfieldi as

Peninsula of India and that of M. s. majus

as lower Chindwin, Burma. Kurup (1968) re-

corded the species from Kamrup, Meghalaya.

The present range of distribution of M. s.

horsfieldi on the basis of above mentioned

specimens is Peninsular India, Assam, Anda-

mans and Burma.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to the former Director Dr.

A. P. Kapur, Zoological Survey of India, for

facilities for this work.

Yo Pe SINHA

REFERENCES

ANDERSEN, K. (1918): Diagnosis of new bats

of the families Rhinolophidae and Megadermatidae.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) 11:374-384.

ELLERMAN, J. R. & Morrison-Scort, T. C. S.

(1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mam-

156

mals. British Museum (Nat. Hist.) London.

Kurup, G. U. (1968): Mammals of Assam and

adjoining areas. A distributional list. Proc. zool.

Soc. Calcutta, 21:79-99.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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157

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

2. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING HABITS AND

GROWTH OF JUNGLE CAT (FELIS CHAUS) IN CAPTIVITY

The present communication dealing with the

breeding habits and growth upto the age of

six months of the Jungle Cat (Felis chaus) is

based on the observations made at Nandan-

kanan Biological Park, Orissa.

So far eight births were recorded in this

Park as follows: January, 2; March, i; April,

2; August, 1; and November, 2. Three kittens

per litter were born on five occasions, four on

two occasions and five on one occasion with

an average of 3.5 kittens per litter. There were

eight females and twenty males, the sex ratio

of females to males being 1:2.5. The weight

and size at birth of 24 kittens born during the

period from 12-iv-1973 to 7-xi-1975 were as

follows: weight—from 83’ to 125 gm with an

average of 106.21 gm; length from nose tip

to tail tip—from 22 to 26 cm with an average

of 23.17 cm including the tail lengths of 5.5

to 6.55 cm with an average of 6.08 cm.

The eyes of the kittens were closed at birth

and 11 kittens under observation opened their

eyes on Ilth day (3 kittens), 12th day (3

kittens), 13th day (2 kittens), 13th and 14th

day (2 kittens—one eye on each day) and

15th day (1 kitten). The inter-parturition

interval varied from 75 to 272 days mostly

depending on the period of survival of the

young after birth. One female could give birth

to four litters in one year in 1973 as all the

kittens were killed by the mother or died with-

in 2 to 16 days after birth.

Weekly growth records of three kittens born

in one litter on 7-xi-1975 were maintained up-

to the age of six months and an abstract of

the same is given in the table.

The mother after giving birth to these three

158

SEES aaa

aE x

Age in weeks Weight in Kg.

) )

7-x1-1975 Birth 0.115 0.125 0.107

21-x1-1975 2 0.283 0.281 0.268

5-x1i- 1975 4 0.445 0.430 0.417

19-xii-1975 6 0.615 0.648 0.645

2-1-1976 8 0.775 0.878 0.840

16-1-1976 10 0.935 1.200 1.180

30-i-1976 12 1.005 1.475 1.450

13-11-1976 14 1.085 1.685 1.635

27-11-1976 16 1.185 1.900 1.825

12-i11-1976 18 died on 2.160 2.010

10-i11-1976

26-111- 1976 20 = 2.260 2.085

9-iv-1976 japh = 2.170 2.020

23-iv-1976 24 = 27330 1.980

7-v-1976 26 (64 months) — 22332 2.030

kittens weighed 4.575 kg. The kittens were

brown in colour and helpless at birth. The

mother used to carry the kittens in the usual

manner of cats.

Little definite is known about the breed-

ing habits of this cat (Prater 1971).

Asdell (1964) states that this cat has two

litters a year in India, usually 3 to 4 young.

He further states that the young are born in

May and November in South India.

The eyes of new-born jungle cat kittens were

closed at birth and two kittens under obser-

vation opened their eyes on the eleventh day

(Acharjyyo & Misra 1973). The four kittens

born in one litter weighed from 103 to 126

gm with an average of 111.25 gm and measur-

ed from 22 to 24 cm with an average of 22.5

cm from nose tip to tail tip including 6 cm

to 7 cm long tail at birth (Acharjyo & Misra

1974). |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Sri S. Jee, LFS. Chief

Conservator of Forests, Orissa, Cuttack and

VETERINARY ASSISTANT SURGEON,

NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK,

P. O. BaRANG, DISTT. CUTTACK.

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION OFFICER, ORISSA,

Pror No. 95, SAHEED NAGAR,

BHUBANESWAR 751 007,

June 28, 1976.

to Shri G. M. Das, LE.S., Chief Wildlife War- |

den, Orissa, Bhubaneswar for the facilities

provided.

L. N. ACHARJYO

S. MOHAPATRA

REFERENCES

ACHARJYO, L. N. & MisrA, R. (1973): Cheetal—

Journal of Wildlife Preservation Society of India.

Vol. 15(4) :49-55.

pee 1 (1974). Weight, and. size at) birth

of two species of Wild mammals in captivity. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 71(1) :137-138.

ASDELL, S. A. (1964): Patterns of Mammalian

Reproduction, Second Edition, Cornell University

Press, ithaca, New York, pp. 490.

PRATER, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani-

mals, Third (Revised) Edition, Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay, pp. 75-76.

3. WILD ASS IN THE LITTLE RANN OF KUTCH

I camped at Dhrangadhra on the 14th, 15th

and 16th April for the census of wild life

conducted by the Government of Gujarat,

Department of Forest, as one of the observers.

On 16th April, the day of the count, we

enumerated 720 wild asses. On the 15th at

sunrise I spotted a herd of nine wild asses

near the village of Kuda which is at the edge

of the Little Rann of Kutch and about 6 miles

from the city of Dhrangadhra. This herd was

led by a female wild ass and it was interesting

to note that other animals followed her im-

plicitly.

On close observation, I noticed that the

RANJIT VILAS PALACE,

WANKANER,

GUJARAT,

June 7, 1976.

leader had stripes on both her shoulders of

about 10 inch length. The colour of these

two stripes was the same as the colour of the

dorsal stripe which all wild asses have. The

size as well as the general colour of this ani-

mal was the same as of the other wild asses

in the herd. Even the size of the ears was

the same as that of other animals. Actually,

apart from these 2 stripes, the animal looked

identical with the others.

I am given to understand that this animal

may have been a crossbreed and not a genetic

freak.

YUVRAJ DIGVIJAY SINH

159

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

4. THE INDIAN RHINO (RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS) IN CAPTIVITY

Endangered in the wild, this imposing mammal

is modestly represented in zoological gardens.

At the end of 1975 the International Rhino-

ceros unicornis Studbook kept by the Basle

Zoo registered 32 males and 26 females, a

total of 58 animals. This figure exceeds 10%

of the wild population living mainly in Kazi-

ranga and Nepal which is estimated at some

450 animals. The relatively high number in

zoos may be attributed largely to the fact that

the Indian Rhino adapts well and breeds suc-

cessfully under captive conditions. Of the 58

animals mentioned above, 27 were actually

zoo-born (46.6%). Births have even been

recorded in the second zoo generation.

The first captive-bred Indian Rhino to sur-

vive was born in Basle in 1956, 20 years ago.

Basle Zoo thereupon became established as

a breeding centre for this threatened species.

Up to the time of writing (February 1976)

there have been altogether 14 calves. As it is

hardly possible for one zoo to keep more than

a certain number of Indian Rhinos at a time

most of them have been sent to other places,

ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN,

BASEL,

SWITZERLAND,

February 18, 1976.

but always either in pairs or so as to enhance

the breeding potential. Since 1960 Indian

Rhinos have been born every year in capti-

vity, 1971 being a record year with 7 births.

Today the captive stock points to having be-

come self-supporting. There is justification for

the hope that the zoo progeny may, in time,

be released into well guarded reserves or na-

tional parks.

Reproductive behaviour in the Indian Rhino

has meanwhile been carefully studied. The

mean gestation period is 478 days. On an

average calves weigh about 70 kg at birth and

grow rapidly, gaining 2-3 kg daily. During

the first year of life they increase their birth

weight tenfold. Females attain sexual maturity

at about 4 years of age, males when 7 years

old.

Indian Rhinos, particularly the females, be-

come very tame. Our cow, Joymothi, can be

easily handled and even allows herself to be

milked. It is indeed surprising that this mam-

mal has for so long been spared from domes-

tication.

E. M. LANG

5. TAKIN (BUDORCAS TAXICOLOR) IN CAPTIVITY

When the Bronx Zoo acquired a female Takin

from the Putato district, Kachin State the

Editors recorded a note in Volume 56 No.

1:128 of this Journal.

In a letter dated June 8, 1976, Mr. J. G.

Doherlig, Curator of Mammals. Bronx Zoo,

intimated me that “‘She died on September 4,

1975 when she was approximately 17 years

160

old. In autopsying this takin it was found that

she had quite an extensive cancer of the uterus

that had spread into lymph nodes in other

parts of her body.”

In 1966, the Bronx Zoo paid $ 16,000 for

a young male takin approximately eight to

nine months old to an animal dealer from New

York. The animal dealer received the young

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

male Takin from the Rangoon Zoo in ex-

change for two giraffes and four zebras from

Africa.

The takins were identified as Budorcas t.

taxicolor.

25 INYA MYAING RoaD,

UNIVERSITY P.O.,

RANGOON, BURMA,

July 8, 1976.

The locality where the young male takin

was captured is not known. The female takin

was captured on the Burma-India border by

a team from Sankaung Village, Putato district.

TUN YIN

6. LEPUS ARABICUS EHRENBERG FROM JAMMU AND KASHMIR:

AN ADDITION TO THE MAMMALIAN FAUNA OF INDIA

During the faunistic survey of Jammu and

Kashmir in 1974 a specimen of the Arabian

Hare, Lepus arabicus Ehrenberg was collect-

ed from Udhampur, southeastern Jammu and

Kashmir, which according to Ellerman &

Morrison-Scott (1951) has not been hitherto re-

corded from India. Since a detailed report

on the collection will take some time to pre-

pare, it was thought desirable to record this

addition to the mammalian fauna of India.

Lepus arabicus Ehrenberg

1833. Lepus arabicus Ehrenberg, Symb.

Phys. Mamm., 2: Sig. r. (Qunfidha, Arabia).

Material:

1g: Jhajjar Kotli, Udhampur, Jammu and

Kashmir; 13 Nov. 1975; coll. S. Chakraborty.

Measurements:

External: Head and body 352 mm; Tail

112 mm; Hindfoot 91 mm; Ear 123 mm.

Cranial: Occipitonasal 69 mm; Nasal 29.6

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

8, LINDSAY STREET,

CALCUTTA 700 016, .

July 31, 1976.

mm; Bullae 12 mm; Upper tooth row 11.3

mm; Frontal 15.7 mm; Mesopterygoid space

6.2 mm.

Distribution:

According to Ellerman & Morrison-Scott

(1951) Lepus arabicus is known to occur in

Baluchistan, Middle East and Libya. There-

fore, the present material not only constitutes

its first record from India, but also extends its

range further eastward.

Remarks:

The specimen from Jammu and Kashmir

agrees well with the description of Lepus cras-

pedotis Blanford (currently known as Lepus

arabicus craspedotis) given by Kloss (1918),

but the black bands of hair at the posterior

half of the back are much conspicuous and

broader than those of the holotype of craspe-

dotis and two more August specimens from

Baluchistan present in the Zoological Survey

of India, collection.

S. CHAKRABORTY

REFERENCES

ELLERMAN, J. R. & Morrison-Scorr, T. C. S.

(1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mam-

mals Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London.

Koss, C. B. (1918): Notes on some hares in

the Indian Museum with description of two new

forms. Rec. Ind. Mus. 15:89-96.

161

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

7. NEW RECORD OF INDIAN GERBILLE, TATERA INDICA

(HARDWICKE) AS A PREDATOR ON THE ALATE FORMS

OF THE TERMITES AT

During July 1973, the Indian gerbille, Tatera

indica (Hardwicke) was seen preying on

winged termites at 9.00 p.m. under a tube

light on the main road of the Punjab Agri-

cultural University, at Ludhiana. Most of the

time the whole insect was taken but in a few

cases the wings were rejected. Very rarely

the fore paws were used to catch the prey.

The gerbille was so preoccupied that even

a collision with the observer did not distract

it and only stampings of the foot on the road,

made it sense the presence of the observer and

DEPT. OF ENTOMOLOGY,

PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

LUDHIANA, (PB.),

February 17, 1976.

LUDHIANA (PUNJAB)

it ran away into the bushes. During the period

of observation of about 10 minutes, the rat

continuously caught the insects. When the

observer again came to the same site after

30 minutes, the rat was again preying on the

insects. It was however more alert and quick-

ly ran away.

I am thankful to the Professor and Head,

Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricul-

tural University, Ludhiana for providing the

facilities in the preparation of this manuscript.

G. S. MANN

8. REPRODUCTIVE ACTIVITY OF MUS SPP. IN CROP FIELDS AT

LUDHIANA’

The knowledge of the reproductive activity

of a pest is necessary for devising efficient con-

trol measures. The reproductive activity of

the field-mice has not been studied in detail

in India so far. The information collected on

the subject during the years 1968-1972, is

presented here.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In 1968-69, individuals of Mus musculus

bactrianus Blyth were observed near stacked

harvested crops and in burrows for the pre-

sence of young and field collected females were

reared or dissected to determine pregnancies.

1 Based on M.Sc. and Ph.D. thesis of the senior

author, presently Research Assistant.

162

Traps were laid from December 1970 to No-

vember 1972 for 10-day periods in the first fort-

night of each month in different crops at a

100-m distance from one another in a 53-ha

cultivated area on the Ludhiana Farm of the

Punjab Agricultural University. The trapped

individuals were examined for sex, position

of testes (scrotal or abdominal) in males and

of vagina (perforate or imperforate) in fe-

males. When the testes were abdominal, the

black-loose skin of the scrotum indicated that

they were earlier scrotal. In the absence of

black loose scrotal skin the abdominal con-

dition of the testes indicated that the speci-

men was sub-adult and as evidenced by the

senior author’s study on the post-natal develop-

ment of this species (Mann 1969) the scro-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tal condition of the adult is attained in 3-4

weeks and thus the sub-adults were approxi-

mately one month or less in age. In Females,

the previous history of the animal which was

known from their early trappings indicated

whether it was an adult (which were previous-

ly with perforated vagina/lactating) or sub-

adult (of comparatively small size and with

imperforated vagina). Presence of clear teats

was taken to indicate lactating condition.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

During the trapping of the Mus spp., which

was carried out in the period of December

1970 to November 1972, 1085 animals were

observed with a species-wise break up of 750

in Mus musculus bactrianus Blyth, 229 in

Mus booduga (Gray) and 106 in Mus platy-

thrix Bennett (Tables 1-3). The data regard-

ing the observations on reproductive activity

of these animals is discussed below species-

wise.

Mus musculus bractrianus Blyth. The sub-

adults of this species were found throughout

the year under the heaps of the harvested

crops namely wheat, groundnut, paddy, pearl-

millet, Guara, maize and sorghum or in the

traps which were placed in these crops. Ex-

amination of burrows in the field on 30-v,

22-vi, 27-vi, 2-xii, 5-xii and 28-xii-68 revealed

the presence of 2-7 young along with 1-2

adults in each used burrow of this field-mouse.

Field collected adults gave birth to 1-7 young

in the laboratory in January, February, March

June, July and October. Two females collect-

ed on 5-ii-69 and 11-iii-69 were dissected and

these contained 6 and 8 embryos respectively.

Scrotal males were predominant throughout

the year except during November to Febru-

ary when the majority of the males had ab-

dominal testes. Reproductively active females

(lactating and/or with perforate vagina) were

found throughout the year, except during De-

cember. The peak population occurred during

April and during June to October, Sub-adults

were found throughout the year, except dur-

ing January-March and during May and July

in case of males (Table 1).

From the above observations, it is conclud-

ed that this mouse was reproductively active

throughout the year except during very cool

months.

Mus booduga (Gray). Scrotal males were

found to predominate throughout the year,

except during November to February. Repro-

ductively active females were present during

June to September. The lactating females were

observed in March and during May to No-

vember, the peak reaching during May to

October. During April no female was obser-

ved. Sub-adults were found throughout the

year except during April and June (Table 2).

From the above observations, it may be

concluded that this species was also reproduc-

tively active throughout the year, except dur-

ing very cold months. However, in Madras,

the young of this species were found in Sep-

tember, October, and February in the fields

(Anonymous 1965). This variation may be

due to different climatic conditions.

Mus platythrix Bennett. Scrotal males pre-

dominated throughout the year, except during

November to February, whereas in December

and April this species was conspicuous by its

absence. Reproductively active/lactating fe-

males were present throughout the year ex-

cept during November and December and no

animal was observed during April. Sub-adults

were seen during August and then during

October to February (Table 3).

From the results, it is clear that this mouse

was reproductively active throughout the year,

except during November and December. The

163

Vol. 74

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

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164

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

peak breeding season was in May to Septem-

ber. |

The reduction in or lack of reproductive

activity during winter in Mus spp. has been

reported in other species of rats and mice

also (Sadleir 1969; Schiller 1956; Whitaker

1940), and the same has been attributed to

short day light or low temperature under which

DEPT. OF ENTOMOLOGY,

PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

LUDHIANA, (PB.).

HEAD OF THE DEPT. OF ENTOMOLOGY,

PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

LUDHIANA, (PB.),

June 5, 1976.

conditions the testes may become abdominal

and spermatogenesis may stop.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to the Director, Zoologi-

cal Survey of India, Calcutta for arranging the

identification of the rodents.

G. S. MANN

O. S. BINDRA

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS (1965): Annual Report of All In-

dia Co-ordinated Scheme for Research (ICAR) on

the study of field-rats at Adudhurai, Madras State

for the year 1964-65 (Unpub.).

MANN, G. S. (1969): Studies on the biology and

control of field-mice and analysis of rodent popula-

tion around Ludhiana. M.Sc. Thesis, Punjab Agric.

Univ. Ludhiana (Unpub.).

SADLEIR, R. M. F. S. (1969): The ecology of

reproduction in wild and domestic mammals. Met-

huen and Co. Ltd. London, p. 321.

SCHILLER, E. L. (1956): Ecology and health of

Rattus at Nome, Alaska. J. Mammal. 37:181-188.

WHITAKER, W. L. (1940): Some effects of arti-

ficial illumination on reproduction in the white-

footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus neveboracensis.

J. Exp. Zool. 83:33-60.

9. SEX RATIO AT BIRTH IN SOME CAPTIVE WILD MAMMALS

The determination of accurate sex ratio at

birth of wild mammals is only possible from

the birth records in captivity. From the avail-

able literature, it appears that the information

available on this subject is limited. This paper

presents the data pertaining to sex ratio at

birth of 17 species of wild mammals observed

at Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa dur-

ing the past 15 years (from 29-12-1960 to 31-

12-1975). The details of our observations are

given in the table below.

A study of this table reveals that there is a

remarkable uneven sex ratio at birth with the

females outnumbering the males in five species,

Tiger, Golden Cat, Hog-Deer, Indian Sambar

and Mouse-Deer; whereas the males outnum-

ber the females in eight species, African Lion,

Leopard, Common Palm Civet, Common Mon-

goose, Nilgai, Spotted Deer, Barking Deer and

Blackbuck. The number of observations made

on four species, Jackal, Rhesus Macaque,

Bonnet Macaque and Slow Loris are inade-

167

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

TABLE

Species of Mammals

Tiger (Panthera tigris)

African Lion (Panthera leo leo)

Leopard (Panthera pardus)

Golden Cat (Felis temmincki)

Jackal (Canis aureus)

Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hemndebroding

Common Mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi)

Rhesus Macaque (Macaca mulatta)

Bonnet Macaque (Macaca radiata)

Slow Loris (Nycticebus coucang)

Spotted Deer (Axis axis)

Hog-deer (Axis porcinus)

Indian Sambar (Cervus unicolor niger)

Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntjak)

Mouse-Deer (Tragulus meminna)

Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus)

Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra)

Sex ratio (No.

Total Males Females of males to 100

females)

18 6 12 50:100

21 12 9 133.3:100

38 DD 16 137.5:100

8 3 5 60: 100

3 1 DD 50: 100

30 21 9 233.3:100

6 5 1 500: 100

3 2; 1 200: 100

3 1 D 50: 100

py, 1 1 100: 100

143 73 70 104.3:100

9 3 6 50:100

73 31 42 73.8:100

62 33 29 113.8:100

6 1 5 20: 100

14 10 4 250: 100

39 2, | 18 116.7:100

quate to come to any conclusion. However it

is felt that much more observations are neces-

sary to confirm these findings.

DISCUSSION

Thirty-two tiger (Panthera tigris) cubs were

born in eleven litters to one tigress from 1948

to 1959 at New York Zoological Park, the

divisions of sexes being nineteen males and

thirteen females (Crandall 1965). According

to Schaller (1972) the sex ratio of 196 tiger

cubs at birth in various Zoological Gardens

-was 100 males to 100 females. He further states

that on 121 occasions adult tigers were en-

countered in the wild and of these 102 were

females and 19 were males, a ratio of about

Seb,

Schaller (loc. cit.) states there were 10

males and 13 females among 25 newborn

spotted deer (Axis axis) fawns in the Cal-

cutta Zoological Garden, but figures from

such a small sample have little relevance. He

168

further states that the disproportion of adult

spotted Deer in the wild may be due either

to an unequal sex ratio at birth, a higher

mortality of male fawns, or both. About Hog-

Deer (Axis porcinus) Schaller (loc. cit.) states

that the sex ratio of adults was about equal

or favoured the does only slightly, in contrast

to the Spotted Deer which has a disproportion-

ate sex ratio favouring females.

From his study at Kanha National Park,

Schaller (loc. cit.) states that Sambar (Cer-

vus unicolor) hinds outnumbered the stags

by a ratio of about 3:1 and the reason for

this great disproportion of the sexes is un-

known, but it may be due to selective preda-

tion on the males, both as fawns and as adults

and perhaps also to an unequal sex ratio at

birth.

The ratio of bucks to 100 does among

Blackbucks of Kanha National Park on July

1, 1964 was 71:100 whereas in the same Park

the sex ratio on June 3, 1965 was 45 bucks:

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

100 does (Schaller, loc. cit.). He further states

that at Sikandra the captive herd showed a

higher proportion of bucks (84:100) than the

free-living population.

The sex ratio of 36 births of Rhesus Ma-

caque (Macaca mulatta) as given by Asdell

(1964) was exactly even.

Information on sex ratio of other species

VETERINARY ASST. SURGEON,

NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK,

P.O. BARANG, Dist. CUTTACK.

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION OFFICER,

OLD SECRETARIATE BUILDINGS,

CuTTACK 753 001, ORISSA,

January 29, 1976.

mentioned in the table was not available to

us from literature.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Shri S. Jee, I.F.S., Chief

Conservator of Forests, Orissa and Shri S. N.

Das, I.F.S., Conservator of Forests, Develop-

ment Circle, Cuttack for providing the facili-

ties for the study.

L. N. ACHARJYO

S. MOHAPATRA

REFERENCES

_ASDELL, S. A. (1964): Patterns of Mammalian

reproduction. (Second Edition), Cornell University

Press, Ithaca, New York.

CRANDALL, LEE S. (1965): The Management of

Wild Mammals in captivity. The University of

Chicago Press, Chicago and London.

SCHALLER, GEORGE B. (1972): The Deer and the

Tiger. A study of wildlife in India. The Univer-

sity of Chicago Press, Chicago and London.

10. DISCOVERY OF A PELICANRY IN KARNATAKA

Recently (first week of April 1976) I noticed

a breeding Pelicanry of Spottedbilled or Grey

Pelicans (Pelecanus philippensis) at Bellur

and Bannalli villages of Mandya District of

Karnataka State.

The Spottedbilled Pelicans were breeding

alongwith hundreds of Painted Storks (Jbis

leucocephalus). The nests of the Pelicans

and Painted Storks were close to each other

on the same trees. There are about ten nest-

ing trees at Bellur and three nesting trees at

Bannalli, standing in dry agricultural fields

(non-irrigated) and in village backyards, very

close to human residence.

The following are the details of the trees

on which the Pelicans and Painted Storks nest

at these villages.

169

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Bellur Village:

Trees

Acacia arabica (small tree)

Acacia arbica (small tree)

Tamarindus indicus (medium sized tree)

Avenue trees with yellow flowers. (small trees)

Ficus bengalensis (medium sized)

Ficus religiosa (medium sized)

Number Nesting species

1 Painted Stork

1 Painted Stork and a few Pelicans

1 Painted Stork

2 Painted Storks

1 Painted Stork

2 Painted Storks with some Pelicans

1 Painted Stork

Note: In addition to the above two to four nestsof Painted Storks were seen on 2-3 more very small

trees in the surrounding area.

Bannalli Village:

This village is about'a mile away from Bellur. The trees are few in number and Pelicans

are in the majority.

Trees

Ficus bengalensis (big tree)

Number Nesting species

1 Pelican and a few Painted Stork

nestlings.

1 Painted Stork and Pelicans.

Note: In addition to above, there are some more nesting trees but with a few nests only.

Some Pelicans were seen incubating and

some had nestlings. The Painted Storks had

mostly nestlings. Pelicans were seen flying

with nesting material in their bill.

The local villagers protect the breeding birds

and poachers are heavily fined. The villagers

collect the birds’ excreta which they claim is

a rich manure. Some sell the manure at

Rs. 400/- per tree and some use it for their

fields.

The Painted Storks were seen feeding in

the nearby tanks and irrigated paddy fields.

The Pelicans fish in the larger tanks. I count-

ed over fifty Pelicans co-operatively fishing

(in two groups) in the Tailur tank, about 10

ASST. CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS,

WILDLIFE PRESERVATION SUB-DIv.,

OLD STATUS SQUARE,

Mysore Il,

April 14, 1976.

170

km from Bellur. Villagers told me that these

birds also go to the nearby Simsa river for

food.

I estimated that over one hundred Grey

Pelicans to be breeding at the Bellur and Ban-

nalli Villages. The villagers’ say that the popul-

ations of breeding Painted Storks and Grey

Pelicans are increasing year by year. I expect

them to spread to nearby villages in the com-

ing years, if similar protection to breeding

birds is extended by other villagers.

This pelicanry is perhaps the first record for

Karnataka State and the fourth or fifth breed-

ing record for the country.

S. G. NEGINHAL

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

11. WHITEWINGED WOOD DUCK IN BURMA

(With a map)

In June 1959 Messrs O. Milton and E. D.

Estes of the Burma Wild Life Survey observ-

ed a female and six ducklings of this rare bird

at Changnam Waterhole. Burma Wildlife Sur-

vey Report on the Pidaung Wild Life Sanctu-

ary by Messrs Oliver Milton, D. Estes and

H. Z. Kimlai. The Burmese Forester Vol.

XIII No. 2 December 1963, p. 58.

Whether this rare duck now breeds in Pidaung

cannot be ascertained owing to the presence

of KIA (Kachin Independent Army) rebels

in the area. 3

U Htang Wa, Deputy Secretary, Kachin

State Government informed the writer in De-

cember 1970 that this rare duck breeds in

the Mansi tract, Bhamo district, Kachin State.

In April 1974, U Sein Chit a local big game

hunter, flushed one example of this rare duck

from a pond near Webaung Village, close to

Shwe-U-daung Wild Life Sanctuary. In De-

cember 1974, he saw altogether six of the birds

in Katha Forest Division. On 29 December

1974 he shot one of the two birds seen in Yin

Kha Forest Reserve near Sagagon village at

the mouth of the Wai Chaung, a tributary of

the Irrawaddy, Katha District. This is all the

information available at present, and it is pos-

sible that this rare duck still breeds in Pidaung,

Myitkyina Forest Division.

25, INYA MYAING Roap, TUN YIN

UNIVERSITY P.O.

RANGOON,

BURMA,

July 24, 1976.

i ; S lar,

Us Hes Myingys

‘ v

20 0 20 4060 80 100

SSS

et Railways

———__ Highweys

Map. Distribution of the Whitewinged Wood-duck

Cairina scutulata in the Socialist Republic of the

Union of Burma.

171

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

12. THE GOLIATH HERON (ARDEA GOLIATH) IN SIND, PAKISTAN

You may be interested to know that I had

the opportunity of seeing the Goliath Heron

(Ardea goliath) at Haleji (Sind) on 2lst

January. The bird was identified by myself

and two other naturalists, Dr & Mrs Graefe,

GENERAL MANAGER,

PAKISTAN BURMAH SHELL,

Post Box 4712,

KARACHI 2,

January 27, 1976.

of the Osterreichische Akademia Der Wissen-

schaften Institut Fur Vergleichende Verhal-

tensforschung, Austria who have had much

to do with herons and who were with me on

this visit.

M. NASER-UD-DEEN KHAN

13. THE SOUTHERN LIMITS OF THE HIMALAYAN CUCKOO

CUCULUS SATURATUS SATURATUS (BLYTH)

The Himalayan Cuckoo Cuculus saturatus

saturatus (Blyth, type locality Nepal) has been

accepted in Indian ornithological literature as

a Himalayan species with some movements in-

to the plains of northern India (Uttar Pradesh,

Rajasthan, Bihar and Assam).

In Sharpe’s CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN BRITISH

MUSEUM (1891), Vol. 19, p. 254, Shelly list-

ed a specimen obtained by J: Scully at Sula-

pur. Dr. D. R. Wells in a note in this Journal

(1972 69:179-182) has changed the place to

Sholapur in Maharashtra, thus extending the

accepted range of the species to south of

latitude 18°N.

I would not accept this alteration for the

following reasons: -

(1) Scully’s ornithological collections were

made in Yarkand, Nepal, Gilgit, and the Him-

alayan regions. There is no evidence of his

having collected in peninsular India. The en-

try in the CATALOGUE bears the date 18th May,

but in 1973 it was not possible to trace the

specimen at British Museum (Natural Hist-

ory) to determine the year of collection and

then ascertain the area by comparison with

other specimens collected on nearby dates.

(2) Blanford (1895, Fauna 3:208, footnote)

mentions Davison’s statement (Stray Feathers

10, p. 359) that he heard it in the Wynaad

in South India, and refers to an earlier note

(P.Z.S. 1893, p. 317-18) by him (Blanford)

in which he has gone into the matter in de-

tail and decided that there is no evidence of

the Himalayan Cuckoo being found in India

south of latitude 26°N.

(3) The specimens in Sharpe’s CATALOGUE

are not arranged in the order of accession but

mostly geographically, commencing in the

north-west extending along the Himalayas and

then southwards into peninsular India, Cey-

lon, Burma and Malaya. The Sulapur speci-

men is the second in the list being preceded

by one from Jodhpur, Rajasthan, and follow-

ed by others from Kashmir, Kotegarh, Simla,

Naini Tal, U.P., and Nepal. This does suggest

a northern bird.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(4) I have gone through 22 volumes of

Sharpe’s CATALOGUE (Vol. 1 is not available)

and have been unable to find any specimen

obtained by Scully except in the above-men-

tioned places, nor does the place named “‘Sul-

apur” occur anywhere again. Indian place

names as pronounced and written in English

show wide diversity and have often undergone

startling changes. The similarity between Sul-

apur and Sholapur (recently changed by Go-

vernment to Solapur) unsupported by any

other evidence is insufficient to accept the ex-

tension of the range of a species over 8 de-

grees of latitude. The former may well be

another version of Sitapur or Sultanpur,

both in U.P.

A list of Indian Post and Telegraph offices

(c 1940) refers to 20 Sultanpurs scattered

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,

BomBay 400 003,

July 7, 1976.

over India, the southernmost being as far south

as Berar. Against another it is also said—

“old name for Kulu’.

I had drawn Dr. Wells’s attention to these

difficulties and he suggested that I should make

the correction myself. A draft note was pre-

pared but the briefcase containing it was sto-

len from my car and I have shirked going

over the work again. However, as this exten-

sion of range is quoted without reservation by

Desfayes (JBNHS 71:146), I am prompted

to try and stem the acceptance of the addi-

tional range of the species until further evid-

ence is available.

Mr. J. S. Serrao, Librarian at Bombay Na-

tural History Society, helped me with the re-

ferences.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

14. PERIOD OF INCUBATION IN BRAHMINY MYNA, STURNUS

PAGODARUM (GMELIN)

So far as known to us the incubation period

of this species is not recorded in the existing

ornithological literature. Recently we had an

Opportunity to observe five nests of Brahminy

Myna, constructed in artificial nest boxes. The

wooden, letter-box shaped nest boxes of the

size 15 x 15 x 22 cm, with entrance holes of

4 cm, were nailed on trees at an approximate

height of 10 m, in the compound of the Nor-

thern Regional Station of the ZSI. Out of a

TABLE

Nest | No. i Ege No. eo 7 fini on

I 1 20-v-76

2 21-v-76

3 22-v-76

4 23-v-76

II 1 22-v-76

D 23-v-76

3 24-v-76

4 25-v-76

INCUBATION PERIOD IN Sturnus

26-v-76

pagodarum (GMELIN)

Time taken in days

did not hatch ae

2-vi-76 12

3-vi-76 12

4-vi-76 [2

5-vi-76 14

5-vi-76 13

5-vi-76 12

6-vi-76 12

7-vi-76 12

CS RET ED DET SESS ST EE

173

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

total of six nest boxes five were occupied by

this species and one by the Magpie Robin.

Observations to determine the period of in-

cubation were made only in two of the nest

boxes. The nests were examined every day

between 3 p.m. and 4 p.m., by opening the

hinged side of the nest box. Each egg was

marked for identification with indelible ink

NorTHERN REGIONAL STATION, -

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

13, SUBHAS RoaD,

DEHRA-DUN 248 001,

Urrar PRADESH (INDIA),

June 28, 1976.

on the day it was laid. The observations are

recorded in the table.

As will be evident from the table the eggs

were laid at the rate of one a day. The period

of incubation, counted from laying of the last

egg to the hatching of the same comes to 12

days.

B. S. LAMBA

A. K. TYAGI

15. OCCURRENCE OF BROWN SHRIKE, LANIUS CRISTATUS

CRISTATUS LINNAEUS, NEAR DEHRA DUN (U.P.)

Brown Shrike, Lanius cristatus cristatus Lin-

naeus, is a common winter visitor to India.

Salim Ali and Ripley (1972: 98), describe

its status and distribution as ‘“Winter visitor.

All India including NEFA, Assam, Nagaland

and Manipur together with Nepal, Sikkim,

Bhutan and E. Pakistan, roughly south and

east of a line from Ahmednagar through the

Surat Dangs (Gujarat), Mhow (Madhya Pra-

desh), Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh) and Nepal.”

While studying the bird collection of the

NorRTHERN REGIONAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

13, SuBHAS Roap,

DEHRA Dun (U.P.),

July 16, 1976.

Northern Regional Station, Dehra Dun we

came across a single specimen of this species

collected from Sulphur Spring (30° 22’ N., 78°

8° E., Alt. 650 m), a picnic spot about 12 km

North-east of Dehra Dun. The specimen

(Regd. No. V 1171), unsexed was collected

by Shri P. K. Bose on 10th December, 1965.

The measurements are as follows:-

Wing 94; Bill 18; Tarsus 30; Tail 93 mm.

This record extends the northern range of

this species to Dehra Dun.

B. S. LAMBA

M. L. NARANG

1 AI, S. & RipLtey, S. D. (1972): Handbook of

the birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 5, Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

174

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16. STUDIES ON THE FEEDING HABITS OF HOUSE SPARROW

PASSER DOMESTICUS (L.) AND ITS NESTLING IN PUNJAB

The house sparrow, Passer domesticus (L.)

is omnivorous and its food consists of wheat,

pearl millet, maize, sorghum, groundnut, in-

sects, moth beans, newly sown seeds of Egy-

ptian clover and sweet clover, seedlings of

chillies and paddy, young lettuce, chrysan-

themum, polyanthus, nectaries, buds of cur-

rants, gooseberry and mulberry, leaves of pri-

mose, polyanthus and spinach, fruits of grapes,

peach, pear, apple, plum, and kitchen scraps

(Ali 1972; Hussain & Bhalla 1937; Samuel

1951: Sekhon 1966; Srivastava 1964; Theo-

dorewood 1925 and Wright 1959), but its

sources of food throughout the year have never

been studied in detail.

During the present study, feeding habits of

house sparrow and its nestlings were studied.

The study was conducted by direct observa-

tions in the field as well as by examining the

gut contents of 779 (388 males, 391 females)

birds collected at weekly intervals from dit-

ferent localities both qualitatively and quanti-

tatively. Similarly, the guts of 64 nestlings of

different ages were examined. For qualitative

analysis, the different food items from crop/

gizzard were just sorted out. But for quanti-

tative analysis, the different food items were

assigned numerical values i.e. points depend-

ing upon the individual mass by eye estima-

tion. Points of each food were totalled and

its per cent proportion with respect to total

points of all the foods in a month was work-

ed out.

A variety of food material namely, wheat

(Triticum aestivum L.), pearl millet [Penni-

setum typhoides (Burm. f.) Stapf and C. E.

Hubb], rice (Oryza sativa L.), maize (Zea

mays L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor Mo-

ench.); groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.),

weeds, pulses (green gram, moth beans,

Bengal gram) from shops and kitchen scraps

and insects depending upon the season formed

the diet of the bird, wheat, pearl millet, rice,-

weeds and insects being the major part of the

diet. Wheat in February to August, pearl

millet in September to October, rice in Octo-

ber to November, weeds in December to

January topped in their proportion. The birds

took the maximum insect food during March,

May, June and July. In case of maize, sor-

ghum and pulses, groundnut and green leaves,

their maximum consumption was observed in

March, November and January, respectively.

The insect food taken by the house spar-

rows in the field and that which was found

in the guts of the adults and nestlings (fed

by adults) comprised caterpillars, flies, beetles,

ants, bugs, grasshoppers and spiders. The

following species were identified: Caterpillars,

and moths of army worm (Mythemna_ sepa-

rata), caterpillars of cabbage semilooper

(Plusia sp.), gram caterpillar (Heliothis

armigera), lucerne caterpillar (Spodoptera

exigua), tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera lit-

toralis), taken from Egyptian clover, cotton

pink boll worm (Pectinophora gossypiella)

taken from cotton ginning factory in January,

adults of house fly (Musca domestica L.),

carpenter ants (Camponotus compressus),

mustard aphid (Hyadaphis erysimi) from in-

florescence of radish in March, spotted aphid

(Theoaphis maculata), larvae and pupae of

diamond back moth (Plutella_ xyllostella)

from cauliflower, surface grasshoppers (Oxya

nitidula Walker, Acrida sp.), honey bee (Apis

sp.), striped lady beetle (Brumus suturalis),

syrphid flies (Metasyrphis sp.), cereal earhead

bug (Dolichorus indicus), grey weevil (Myl-

{75

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

locerus sp.), til leaf folder (Antigastra cata-

lunalis), larvae of rotten flies, brown wire

worm, spotted wire worm and spider (Oxy-

opes pandae). About fifteen species of insects

belonging to lepidoptera, orthoptera, hymen-

optera, diptera and one species of spider re-

mained unidentified.

House sparrows fed on the green leaves of

fumatory (Fumaria parviflora Lam.), bird-

seed grass (Phalaris minor Retz.), lamb’s

quarter (Chenopodium album L.) Egyptian

clover (Trifolium alexandrinum Juslen), clus-

ter bean [Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.)], peas

(Pisum sativum L.), fenugreek (Trigonella

foenum-graecum L.), toothed bur _ clover

(Medicago denticulata Willd.), cauliflower

(Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis L.),

spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) and forked

catch fly (Silene conidea). The inflorescence

of thatch grass (Saccharum spontaneum L.),

in January, maize in August and nectar of

pangara (Erythrina indica Lamk. var. parcel-

lri Hort.) in April and peacock flower [Delo-

nix regia (Boj.) Raf.] in July were also taken

Besides, seeds of a number of weeds such as

crow-foot grass (Eleusine aegyptiaca Desf.),

bird-seed grass, lamb’s quarter, white cock’s

comb (Celosia argentea L.), and forked catch

fly and six unidentified species were taken.

The crow-foot grass in December and Janu-

ary (next being lamb’s quarter), bird-seed

grass in March, April and June topped in

consumption. The maximum consumption of

lamb’s quarter, crow-foot grass and bird-seed

grass was observed in December, January and

April, respectively. In total, the per cent pro-

portion of crow-foot grass was the highest

(30.9), followed by bird-seed grass (27.0),

lamb’s quarter (16.3) and rest of the weeds.

With regard to the food of nestlings which

has been worked in detail for the first time,

84 per cent of the total food comprised of

176

insects, the rest being weeds, wheat and rice.

Among the insect species, caterpillars formed

the majer portion (37.7%) followed by beetles

(20.8%), flies (11.5%), grasshoppers (7.2%)

and maggots and pupae (5.2%), spiders

(1.3%) and ants (1.1%) (Table 2).

Considering the total food during the year

of the house sparrow (adults), the per cent

proportion of wheat was the highest i.e. 30.8,

followed by weeds (16.2), pearlmillet (12.0),

rice (11.1), insects (8.1) and rest of the food

material (2.6 to 0.9) (Table 1). Sekhon

(1966) studied the guts of 71 birds from

September to April (for 8 months in 1965-

66). He calculated the quantity of individual

food item in terms of volume (CC) of water

displaced by it in a measuring cylinder and

reported that the per cent proportion of wheat

as also observed in the present studies was

highest, 34.0 followed by pearlmillet (31.0),

groundnut (19.0), sorghum (13.0) and moth

beans (1.0). He also mentioned that traces

of black ants and larvae were observed in

the guts of the birds during April and Octo-

ber. Hussain & Bhalla (1937) also reported

that the birds feed on the caterpillars of cotton

leaf roller (Sylepta derogata Fab.) from

Bhindi plants.

The new food items recorded and identified

for the first time in Punjab are as follows:

green gram, Bengal gram, caterpillars and

moths or armyworm, caterpillars of cabbage

semilooper, gram caterpillar, lucerne cater-

pillar, tobacco caterpillar, til leaf folder,

brown wire worm, spotted wire worm, cotton

pink boll worm, adults of house fly, carpenter

ants, mustard aphid, larvae and pupae of

diamond back moth and spider (Oxyopes

pandae), surface grasshoppers, honey bee,

striped lady beetle, syrphid flies, cereal ear-

head bug, grey weevil; green leaves of peas,

fumatory, bird-seed grass, lamb’s quarter,.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

TABLE 1

RELATIVE PROPORTION (%) OF FOODS CONSUMED BY HOUSE SPARROWS IN DIFFERENT MONTHS

(AucusT 1973-JuLy 1974)

SBE PE ES z ST EE TTL PL

Number

Month of birds Wheat Bajra Rice Maize Sorghum Oates Groundnut Weeds Insects Pulses Gree?

studied . leaves

Aug. 27 34.0 6.0 OF 16 10:05 hs 00 0.0 0.0 16.6 Sal 8.2 0.5

Sept. 44 14 44.0 S50 i030) ye 0 0.0 0.0 15.0 5.0 0.0 0.0

Oct. 1528.0 30.0 BOO 0.05 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.3 0.0 0.0

Nov. 68 16.3 OKO E24 Sra 00s 9. 0.0 1.3 39 1.6 4.0 1.0

Dec. 62 IG 7 20.0 (at OOP 0:0 0.0 3h) 29.2 4.7 0.0 1.0

Jan. 67 4.0 6.0 SOON TOR 13053 0.0 13.8 34.7 aI 0.6 8.2

Feb. 44 ~—20.0 0.0 18.6 3.6 12 0.0 3.0 4.0 0.2 3.6 6.0

March 94 45.0 3.6 4 Ops 1405) 0:0 0.0 0.0 6.2 PLS 0.0 0.4

April 153 46.8 oi LO 2.0) 5.0.3 0.0 0.0 11.2 2.0 0.0 0.1

May a2, 459.3 0.0 2c O00 00 0.0 0.0 12.0 15.1 1k) 2.6

June 107 46.9 0.0 3,0 OO) | 00 0.0 0.0 8.2 19.6 0.0 6.4

July 46 37.0 0.0 0,02 40.01 17 0:0 14.3 0.0 31.8 11.0 0.0 OFS

Total C1 S508r lai. 2126.5 ¢)30:5, 113 14.3 21.6 174.8 82.2 To 26.7

Overall

Gage a 30.8 12.0 11.1 2.6 0.9 15 1.9 16.2 8.1 1.5 2

Note: Grits accounted for 10.4% of total food.

TABLE 2

RELATIVE PROPORTION (POINTS) OF DIFFERENT FOOD ITEMS OF THE NESTLINGS OF HOUSE SPARROW

Secrcaes SN aS bag —

TS PE EE RT RE EE I TET LSP OT EE RET OE I ES ERTS

Food items

Age of No. of House

nestlings nestlings Cater fjjes/hover Beetles Spiders Ants Pupae/ Grass Weeds Wheat Rice

(days) observed pillars flies/others Maggots hoppers

1 8 26 23 3 2 5 0 0 0 0 0

2 7 18 32 3 2 0 7 0 2 0 0

3 8 30 12 18 1 0 0 9 14 3 0

4 3 10 10 16 3 5 0 il 3 0 0

5 14 120 17 68 0 0 35 20 8 12 1

6 2 40 6 28 4 0 3 15 11 1 Z

7 4 28 0 9 0 0 0 6 19 12 0

8 4 0 0 24 0 0 0 5 1 7 0

10 6 46 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Z 0

12-14 7 10 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 5) 0

Total 65 328 100 179 12 10 45 62 58 42 3

Gage of

G. total Sal Pl 20.8 les) 1.

pO’

7 ~

on)

Note: Grits accounted for 1.5% of nestlings food.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Egyptian clover, cluster bean, fenugreek,

toothed bur clover and cauliflower; nectar of

pangara and peacock flower and seeds of

crow-foot grass, bird-seed grass, lamb’s quar-

ter and white cock’s comb.

The study reveals that house sparrow is

a pest, mainly of wheat, pearlmillet and rice

in the field. But it also feeds on a number of

weeds, during December to January and April

and on insects (mostly harmful) during its

breeding season during March to July except

approximately in the second half of April

when along with taking insects and other foods

they damage the wheat at milk stage espe-

cially in those fields which are near villages,

trees or hedges. This fifteen days period of

damage is practically of short duration. As

soon as the bird is actively engaged in breed-

ing, it shifts more or less to insect food

which is essential especially for nestling, and

by that time, wheat passes the milk stage and

becomes ready for harvest. Though wheat for-

med the major portion of diet from Feb. to

Aug., it is not obtained from the standing

wheat, but from the harvested fields, threshing

yards, houses etc. I feel the real danger of

house sparrow as a pest is to pearl millet and

rice during August to November. During Sep-

ASSTT. ORNITHOLOGIST,

DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY,

PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

LUDHIANA,

November 29, 1974.

tember to October however, there is a breed-

ing season but it is a minor one in which one

brood is raised that too not by all the breeding

pairs. During the present study, out of 81

nests observed with eggs during March to

July, only 4 per cent contained eggs in Sep-

tember to October. Semaskho (1963) also re-

ported that only 25-30 per cent of sparrows

breed twice a year. The insect focd require-

ment of the birds during September-October, |

is naturally less and therefore less useful acti-

vity of house sparrows during the period.

Control measures against house sparrow could

be directed during August-November also to

minimise crop losses.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -

I am thankful to Dr. S. S. Guaya, Profes-

sor and Head Department of Zoology, Pun-

jab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, for

providing necessary facilities, and to Dr. H. S.

Toor, Associate Professor of Zoology for his

suggestions in the present study. Thanks are

also due to Dr. G. S. Sandhu, Entomologist

(Research), Department of Entomology for

identifying many insect species. Field assist-

ance provided by Mr. Kabul Singh and Mr.

Amrik Singh is duly acknowledged. -

G. S. SIMWAT

REFERENCES

Atl, S. (1972): House sparrow, Passer domesti-

cus (L.). The Book of Indian Birds, p. 129. Bom-

bay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Hussain, M. A. & Buatia, H. R. (1937): The

bird enemies of the cotton leaf roller (Sylepta

derogata Fb.) at Khanewal, Multan (Punjab).

Indian J. agric. Sci. 7(5) :785-792.

178

SAMUEL, C. K. (1951): The Indian house spar-

row, Passer domesticus L. var. indicus Jard. Selby,

as a serious orchard and wheat pest in Baluchistan.

Indian J. Ent. 11:219-220.

SEKHON, S. S. (1966): Studies on the nidification,

behaviour and damage by the sparrows and _ par-

rots in the Punjab. M.Sc. Thesis, Punjab Agricul-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tural University, Ludhiana (unpublished).

SEMASKHO, L. L. (1963): Notes on the ecology

of the house sparrow in Southern Turkmensten.

Zhur Biol. No. 241170.

SrivasTAvA, A. S. (1964): Non-insect pests. A

chapter in Entomology in India. Ent. Soc. India,

pp. 419-434.

THEDOREWOOoD, R. C. (1925): Birds one should

know. Beneficial and Mischievous. pp. 65-68.

WricHT, E. N. (1959): Bird damage to horti-

cultural crops. J. Roy. Hort. Soc. 84(9) :426-434.

17. ORTOLAN BUNTING (EMBERIZA HORTULANA LINN.) IN

KUTCH, GUJARAT

The sighting of the Ortolan Bunting was most

unexpected during the recent Indian Wild Ass

Census. The Chief Wildlife Warden, Gujarat

State, Shri K. K. Acharya, IFS, his son, and

forest staff and I were in the middle of the

Little Rann of Kutch on a dry island known

as Waswa Bet on 16th April, 1976. Sitting

and having our breakfast close to a small well

and shrine amidst a curtain of Prosopis juli-

flora, I watched birds coming to drink at a

small puddle which had formed by spillage

of water drawn from the well. In this muddy

patch were frogs. Among many birds that

came to drink, I recognised small groups of

Greynecked Buntings (Emberiza buchanani)

which were in bright plumage. As I was look-

ing at each and every bunting through my

Trinovid 10 x 40 magnification, my eyes fell

upon one that looked quite different and I

was reminded of an article in the JBNHS

_ 69(3):654-55, 1970 by Peter Jackson & A. J.

Gaston who had seen the Ortolan- Bunting

near Delhi on 18 and 19 April. I took

down notes of the bird I had seen and a near

description of it I found in BIRDS OF ARABIA

BHAVNAGAR,

GUJARAT STATE,

July 17, 1976.

by R. Meinertzhagen, 1954, p. 112. The bird

had a dull grey-green (olive) crown, pale

yellow eye-ring, dark brown streaks on mantle;

tail brown with outer tail feathers whitish;

throat sulphur-yellow merging into dull olive

on upper breast; lower breast and abdomen

pale yellowish chestnut. Moustachial stripes

yellowish and clear, with faint streaks on

crown. Bill scarlet-pink, legs fleshy. These

features were distinct. The bird was at the

water-hole for sometime at a distance of

about 35 feet and it flew away with the Grey-

necks. In comparison with them it may have

been a shade smaller. It was no doubt a male

and in excellent plumage. I found a good

colour illustration of this species, on page

279, Plate 64, of a FIELD GUIDE TO THE BIRDS

OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE by Peterson ef al.

1954 and even the description on page 285

taliies well with what I had noted. Once pro-

perly seen recognition of it is unmistakable

specially through binoculars. The species must

be fairly rare in India since there are very few

records of it, and yet some birds could easily

have been overlooked.

K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHSI

179

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

18.

EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE FROG, RANA CRASSA

JERDON, TO WESTERN HIMALAYAS, U.P.

During a recent survey of the Corbett National

Park, we collected three specimens of Rana

crassa Jerdon, two from Dhela, District Naini-

tal and one from Dhikala, District Pauri. All

three examples agree fully with the published

description of the species, Rana crassa Ser-

don.

The known distribution of this species is

Sri Lanka, and southern Peninsular India to

Varanasi and Agra (Lat. c 27°10’ N) in the

north (Boulenger 1920; Bhaduri 1944). Their

occurrence at Corbett National Park (Lat.

NORTHERN REGIONAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

DEHRA DUN,

June 19, 1976.

c 29°35’ N) extends the Northern range to

Western Himalayas, U.P. It is quite possible

that this species is evenly distributed through-

out the foothills of Himalayas, U.P.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to Dr. B. S. Lamba, De-

puty Director, Northern Regional Station,

Zoological Survey of India, Dehra Dun for

facilities and J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay for confirm-

ing the identification.

R. N. CHOPRA

K. KUMAR

REFERENCES

BOULENGER, G. A. (1920): Monograph of the

South Asian, Papuan, Melanesian and Australian

frogs of the genus Rana. Rec. Ind. Mus. 20:20-21.

19. ECHIS

Tt was interesting to read Whitaker’s note on

Echis carinatus in the Journal 72:563 in which

he makes special reference to the fact that

this essentially ground living snake climbs into

trees during the rains.

In Saurashtra, this is possibly one of the

commonest snakes and we have quite often

seen it in the branches of Mimosa _ senegal

which forms the scrub jungle around Hingol-

gadh Fort. I, myself, while descending a steep

hill slope reached out to hold a branch ahead

of me, fortunately to note—in time—a coiled

Echis resting in a fork close to where I was

180

BuHaApurl, J. L. (1944): A note on Rana crassa

Jerdon, with extension of its range. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 44(3) :481-484.

IN TREES

about to place my hand. The snake had ob-

viously dozed off after a substantial meal,

judging from its bulging appearance. I left it

resting and went my way. Incidentally, though

without proof, I suspect a large number of

young birds in nests are taken by this snake.

In our area, some of the victims are White-

bellied Minivet, Pericrocotus erythropygius. |

Small Minivet. P. peregrinus, Marshal’s lora

Aegithina nigrolutea and Redvented Bulbul, |

Pycnonotus cafer. All of them nest in the

mimosa trees. On several occasions while |

photographing these birds, I applied motor —

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

grease to the branch below the nest to dis-

courage snakes climbing up and was reward-

ed in each case by seeing the young leave

their nests!

Echis is active during the rains and it is then

that it will readily climb up trees. Reading

Whitaker’s note I gained the impression that

the snake goes into trees, possibly to evade

water-logging. This would certainly not be

the case in the hilly ground where I have

come to know this viper. Of course, I am no

expert but an interest in, and some know-

ledge of, this snake has been a bonus from

my interest in birds.

My attention has been drawn by the So-

ciety’s Librarian, Mr. J. S. Serrao, to an arti-

cle entitled ‘““The Wild Plantain (Musa superba

Roxb.), by G. M. Ryan (J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. Vol. 15: 589, 1904), where the

C/o. WILDLIFE FUND-INDIA,

GREAT WESTERN BLDG.,

S. B. SincH Roap,

BomMBAY 400023,

May 18, 1976.

author writes: ‘It perhaps may be interesting

to mention here parenthetically that near the

end of the rainy season the Foorsa (Echis

carinaia) finds a resting place between the

leaf-stalks cf the wild plantain leaves in the

erstwhile Bombay area. An editorial footnote

appended to this sentence reads: “‘He is also

fond of inhabiting the branches of the ‘apta’

(Bauhinia racemosa)’’.

Commenting on my note Romulus Whitaker

to whom it was sent for an opinion, says

“terrestrial snakes are tolerant of water and

wet ground to some extent but even the larger

ones like the cobra and rat snake become more

arboreal in habit during the rains. Soaking

for too long and extra long contact with sub-

stratum below normal, optimum temperature

(i.e. from wetness) may lead to respiratory

ailments and digestion problems in snakes.”

LAVKUMAR J. KHACHER

20. OBSERVATIONS ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE HEMIPENIS IN

SOME INDIAN SNAKES

(With four text-figures)

A detailed study of the systematic character-

istics of the hemipenis of four Indian snakes

Eryx conicus, Lycodon striatus, Naja naja,

and Echis carinatus was undertaken. In the

snakes studied their active reproductive phase

facilitated quicker eversion of the hemipenis

than that of inactive condition.

INTRODUCTION

The external genital structures of snakes,

called hemipenis, vary with species in mor-

phological details. Cope (1898) was the first

to draw attention to the possibility of taxono-

mic classification of species based upon the

structure of the hemipenis. The paper on

basic structure of the snake hemipenis by

Dowling and Savage (1960) has been parti-

cularly important.

The anatomy of the hemipenis of the In-

dian snakes has received little attention ex-

cept for the observations of Smith (1943),

McCann (1946) and Sabnis (1969). The

observations of Smith (1943) were based on

‘*.... poorly preserved material mostly in

situ;’’ whereas McCann (1946) has describ-

ed the external genitalia of some reptiles in

131

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

everted condition. Sabnis (1969) has described

the gross anatomy and histology of the hemi-

penis of Xenochrophis picator piscator. The

present study was undertaken in order to

contribute further information to the struc-

ture of the hemipenis in some Indian snakes

in the light of new method of description sug-

gested by Dowling and Savage (1960).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This study is based on the examination of

ten specimens each of the following species:

Ophidia: Family—

BomaAE: Eryx conicus

COLUBRIDAE: Lycodon striatus

ELAPIDAE: Naja naja

VIPERIDAE: Echis carinatus

The specimens were collected in the vicinity

of Amravati. In all cases everted external

genitalia preparations were made from freshly

killed specimens after cutting retractor penis

magnus and injecting fluid into blood sinus.

The fully everted external genitalia were me-

asured against the scales beneath the tail.

They were fixed in alcoholic Bouin’s fluid and

preserved in 70 per cent alcohol.

OBSERVATIONS

The hemipenis of Eryx conicus is bilobed

and extends up to the sixth sub-caudal. The

pedicel is short. In a snake measuring 32.5

cms in length, the hemipenis measures 8 mm

in length and 4 mm in breadth. The hemipenis

is of the flounced type having transverse scal-

loped flounces (Fig. 1). The basal region of

the pedicel is nude. The margins of the sul-

cus are clearly marked by fleshy lips. It is

bifurcate. The sulcus forks at the level of the

fourth sub-caudal and the branches run onto

the lobes.

In Lycodon striatus the bilobed hemipenis

182

which extends up to the 10th sub-caudal, is

blunt and each lobe ends in a spherical head.

The pedicel is long. In a snake measuring

60.5 cms, the hemipenis measures 21 mm in

length and 6 mm in breadth. The distal one-

third part of the head is calyculate-spinulate

with four spines on the margin of each calyx.

The remainder of the organ has longitudinal

folds which are beset with distinct spines.

Starting from the calyculate region and ex-

tending about half way down the pedicel are

prominent folds composed of short fleshy

papillae (Fig. 4). The sulcus has a shallow

groove which bifurcates at the 6th sub-caudal.

In Naja naja the bilobed hemipenis extends

up to the 12th sub-caudal in fully everted

condition and is forked against 8th sub-caudal.

The pedicel is 35 mm long in a snake measur-

ing 135 cms. The head is distinctly divided

into three regions which are fairly defined

from one another: an apical with minute

spines, a middle with large bulbus area con-

taining 44 large spines on either side of the ©

sulcus, and next to this is an area of small

spines (Fig. 3). The apical area between the

minute spines is smooth. The sulcus is shal-

low, forked at the bulbus area of the head

and bifurcates against the 7th sub-caudal.

The hemipenis of Echis carinatus in fully

everted condition is bilobed. In. snake measur-

ing 64.5 cms, the organ measures 16 mm in

length and 9 mm in breadth. It extends up to

10th sub-caudal. It is proximally spinose and

distally calyculate. The spinose area extends

up to the proximal two-third part of the hemi-

peneal pedicel and remaining distal one-third

bilobed part is calyculate-spinulate with four

to five uniform spines on the margin of each

calyx (Fig. 2). The pedicel is nude at the

base. The sulcus spermaticus is forked and

it forks on the shaft with a branch onto each

lobe.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The hemipenis everted easily on application

of slight pressure to the caudal region in

snakes with active testis (Naja and Eryx),

while considerable effort was required to evert

penis in snakes with inactive testis (Lycodon

aA ‘

an PA (44s,

WF = ay 2 le

Bo Say dye Poke ta =F,

Ags UNTO, x 6 qe

Sr} yale 2 R

Fig. 1. Diagrammatic representation of the everted

aspect of the hemipenis of Eryx conicus, showing

scalloped flounces. Fig. 2. The bilobed hemipenis

of Echis carinatus with spinulate calyces having 4

to 5 spines. Figs. 3 & 4. The everted aspect of hemi-

penis of Naja naja and Lycodon Striatus.

and Echis). This leads to the conclusion that

active reproductive state helps in easy ever-

sion of the organ.

DISCUSSION

The gross anatomical relationship of the

hemipenis in Ophidia seems fairly constant

although they show taxonomic variations in

their structure. As in Epicrates angulifer

(Dowling & Savage 1960), Xenochrophis pisca-

tor (Sabnis 1969) and Python molurus (Mc-

Cann 1946) the hemipenis is bilobed in Eryx

conicus, Lycondon striatus, Naja naja and

Echis carinatus, although Smith (1943) des-

cribed the hemipenis of Eryx conicus as not

forked. A distinct bilobed condition occurs in

everted hemipenis of Echis carinatus though

earlier it has been described as bifurcate type

by Smith (1943) who described the organ in

situ.

The ornamentation of hemipenis in Eryx

conicus is scalloped flounced type but Smith

(1943) has described the flounces as joining

distally to form large cups. The hemipenis

of Python molurus (McCann 1946) is caly-

culate as in Loxocemus bicolor, Masticophis

flagellum, and Opheodrys aestivus (Dowling

& Savage 1960), but it is flounced in Epicra-

tes angulifer (Dowling & Savage 1960). In

Lycodon striatus and Echis carinatus it is

spinose calyculate type but Smith (1943) and

Vad (1959) described it as spinose in the

latter species. Dowling & Savage (1960)

observed spinulate calyces in Spalerosophis

diadema. In Xenochrophis piscator piscator the

apical region of the hemipenis is spinose

(Smith 1943, McCann 1946 and Sabnis 1969)

but it is without ornamentation or nude in

Natrix sipedon (Dowling & Savage 1960).

The sulcus spermaticus in Eryx conicus,

Lycodon striatus and Echis carinatus is bifur-

cate as in Boids and Viperids.

As no detailed information on the structure

of hemipenis of many common Indian snakes

is available, the above observations and dia-

grammatic representations will certainly aid in

future taxonomic study of Indian snakes

based on hemipenis structure.

183

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Prof. S. A. R. Quadri

and Dr. K. V. R. Murthy, Department of

DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY,

VIDARBHA MAHAVIDYALAYA,

AMRAVATI 444 604,

February 16, 1977.

Zoology, V. M. V. Amravati for giving us

encouragement and help for the work.

J. H. SABNIS

S. S. INDURKAR

REFERENCES

Cope, E. D. (1900):

and Snakes of North America. Ann. Rept.

Nat. Mus., 1898:153-1294.

DowLinc, H. G. & SavaGce, J. M. (1960): A

guide to snake hemipenis: a survey of the basic

structure and -systematic characteristics. Zoologica,

4517-28.

McCann, C. (1946): The hemipenis in Reptiles.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 46(2) :348-373.

The crocodilians, Lizards

U.S.

Zile

SABNIS, J. H. (1969): Anatomy and _ histology

of the hemipenis and associated structures in Am-

phiesma piscator piscator (Schneider). Brit. J. Her-

petol. 4(3):51-54.

SMITH, M. A. (1943): The fauna of British In-

dia, Reptiles and Amphibia; Vol. 2; Serpentes. Tay-

lor and Francis, London.

Vap, N. E. (1959): Studies on Indian poisonous

snakes; M.Sc. Dissertation; Haffkine Institute, Bom-

bay.

NEW LOCALITY RECORD WITH REMARKS ON THE TUCKTOO

LIZARD, GEKKO GECKO (LINNAEUS) [SAURIA: GEKKONIDAE]

FROM TRIPURA

Ten species of the genus Gekko Laurenti,

1768, have so far been described, out of which

only two species namely, Gekko gecko (Lin-

naeus) and Gekko smithi Gray, are known

within the Indian limits. According to Smith

(1935) the former is distributed through the

whole of Indo-Chinese subregion, North-Eas-

tern India (Bengal, Bihar), Burma, Thailand,

Taiwan, Andaman Islands and the East-In-

dian Archipelago; and the latter is found in

the Andaman Islands, Java, Malay Peninsula

and the Malay Archipelago. Annandale (1907)

attributed the occurrence of G. gecko in West

Bengal, to accidental introduction and such

is likely the case in the state of Bihar also.

Very recently, Pillai & Talukdar (1973)

184

recorded the occurrence of this species from _

the Assam Region which fits well with the

Indo-Chinese and Malayasian zoogeographi-

cal distribution.

While studying the reptile collection brought

from Tripura during the year 1972-73 by Dr

V. C. Agrawal, I came across a gekkonid liz-

ard which proved to be Gekko gecko (Lin-

naeus). The occurrence in Tripura, bridges

the distribution gap between Burma-Malaya

and India.

A detailed examination of all the speci-

mens of this species present in the Zoological

Survey of India collection reveals that the

species occurs in Dacca and Chittagong Hill

tracts of Bangladesh and also in Kohphai Is-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

lands near the gulf of Thailand. A specimen,

however, found from Ajmer (Rajasthan), is

either an accidental introduction or it might

have been wrongly labelled.

The Tripura specimen was found on the

wall of a lavatory of the Chailingata Forest

Bunglow, Tripura, at about 10.30 p.m. on

December 18, 1972, and defended itself by ad-

apting a threatening pose with widely gaping

mouth. The specimen, on dissection, proved

to be a female. It measured 336 mm in total

length, 168 mm in body length, 47 mm in head

length and 39 mm in its maximum width of

head. There are 21 lamellae under the fourth

toe and 13 supra and 11 infralabials.

It is blue slaty above, profusely spotted with

brick-red and whitish blue spots. The tail has

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

27, CHOWRINGHEE ROAD,

CALcuTTA 13,

Huy S, 1976.

broad, bluish and whitish bands, the latter

being narrower than the former. Lower surface

ashy-white, variegated with grey.

Gut-contents of the specimen were heads

and appendages of hymenopterous and _lepi-

dopterous insects; elytra and wings of beetles,

moths and wasps and cuticular parts of ara-

chnids.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta for providing labo-

ratory facilities for work. I am indebted to

Dr B. Biswas for kindly going through the

manuscript and for valuable suggestions and

to Shri S. Biswas, Zoologist, for his kind co-

operation and advice.

S. K. TALUKDAR

REFERENCES

ANNANDALE, N. (1907):

Tuktoo lizard, (Gecko verticillatus)

Rec. Ind. Mus. 1(2):171.

PILLAI, R. S. & TALUKDAR, S. K. (1973): First

The occurrence of the

in Calcutta.

record with notes on the Tucktoo, Gekko gecko’

22. DISTRIBUTIONAL RANGE OF WAITEA BUCHANANI

(Linnaeus) from the Assam Region. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc., 69(3) :656-658.

SmiTH, M. A. (1935): The fauna of British In-

dia including Ceylon and Burma, Reptilia & Am-

phibia. Ii—(Sauria). Taylor and Francis, London.

VISWES-

WARA RAO (PISCES: GOBIIDAE) IN INDIAN WATERS

W. buchanani Visweswara Rao is known from

Godavary estuary by a single specimen me-

asuring 72 mm in total length (Visweswara

Rao 1972).1 One of us (K.V.R.R.) had the

1 VISWESWARA RAO, V. (1972): A new fish of

the family Gobiidae from Godavary estuary. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69(1):130-133.

opportunity to collect this species off Ennore

(Madras) during a routine cruise of R.V.

“Chota Investigator’. This is the first record

of it away from its type locality.

MATERIAL: One specimen 74 mm in total

length (58 mm in standard length), off En-

nore, Madras, 15-20 metres, sandy muddy

bottom, R.V. ‘Chota Investigator’, Otter

185

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

trawl collections, 12-ii-1975, K. V. Rama Rao

Coll.

Description: D, 6; Dz 1+10; A 1+9; P 17;

V 833 Colas Llores tes 14)

Measurements (in mm): Total length 74,

Standard length 58, Head length 21, Snout

length 7, Eye diameter 4, Inter-orbital space

2, Post orbital length 12, Snout to: Ist dorsal

fin 22, 2nd dorsal fin 33, anal fin 36, Pectoral

fin 21, Pelvic fin 21; Height of the body 16,

Width of the body 11, Length of the: base

of ist dorsal fin 13, 2nd dorsal fin 15, Anal

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

69, SANTHOME HiGH Roap,

Mapras. 600 028,

July 30, 1976.

fin 13, Pectoral fin 18, Pelvic fin 16.

Remarks: ‘This specimen agrees with the

original description and the fiigure in all as-

pects. The specimen has been deposited in the

collections of Zoological Survey of India,

Madras.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Drs S. Khera, A. G. K.

Menon, A. Daniel, and K. C. Jayaramakri-

shnan of Zoological Survey of India for pro-

viding facilities and for encouragement.

KAZA V. RAMA RAO

T. VENKATESWARLU

23. A NOTE ON THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF

CTENOTRYPAUCHEN MICROCEPHALUS (BLEEKER)

(FAM. TAENIOIDIDAE)

(With two text-figures)

Hora (1924) discussed the systematic status

of Bleeker’s Trypauchen microcephalus and

assigned it to Ctenotrypauchen Steindachner.

However, there has been considerable con-

fusion regarding its systematic status. The

causes for the confusion and the up-to-date

systematic position of the species are briefly

discussed in this note.

Two subfamilies are recognised in the fam-

ily Taenioididae, the Taenioininae and the

Trypaucheninae. The separation of these sub-

families is largely based on the possession by

the Trypaucheninae of a pouch-like cavity

over each opercle, lacking in the Taenioininae.

Ctenotrypauchen Steindachner is referable to

the subfamily Trypaucheninae and the other

genera recognised in the subfamily being Try-

186

pauchen Cuvier and Valenciennes, Amblyotry-

pauchen Hora, Caragobius Smith and Seale

and Trypauchenichthys Bleeker. The members

of the subfamily are all characterised by long

dorsal and anal fins fully united to or closely

continuous to the caudal fin, minute eyes,

absent or more or less rudimentary scales, and

very oblique mouth (Fig. 1).

The members of the subfamily are very

difficult to distinguish based on any of the

Fig. 1. Lateral view of Ctenotrypauchen microcepha-

lus (Bleeker).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

external morphological characters except the

nature of the pelvic fins which are either com-

pletely united to form a funnel shaped disc

(Trypauchen and Caragobius) or wholly

(Trypauchenichthys) or partly separated (Am-

blyotrypauchen). In the case of Ctenotry-

pauchen the pelvic fins are more or less unit-

ed like Trypauchen but they do not form a

complete funnel shaped disc, the disc being

slightly emarginate at the posterior end (Fig.

Fig. 2. A. Pelvic fin of Ctenotrypauchen; B. Pelvic

fin of Trypauchenichthys; C. Pelvic fin of Trypau-

chen, and D. Pelvic fin of Amblyotrypauchen

(Modified after Hora 1924).

The pelvic fins of Ctenotrypauchen are lia-

ble to be easily torn apart while collecting or

handling the specimen thereby creating con-

fusion in its identity. Koumans (1931:144)

evidently had a specimen of Ctenotrypauchen

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

69, SANTHOME HiGH Roap,

MADRAS,

May 6, 1976.

in which the pelvic fins were separated to the

base resembling the pelvic fin of Trypauchen-

ichthys. In his later work Koumans (1941)

had rectified his mistake and transferred the

species to Ctenotrypauchen. The emarginate

nature of the pelvic disc is a very character-

istic feature of Ctenotrypauchen which is often

overlooked by workers and the fish wrongly

placed under Trypauchen or vice-versa (Smith

1953).

SYNONYMS

Ctenotrypauchen microcephalus (Bleeker)

Trypauchen microcephalus Bleeker, Act. Soc.

Sci. Indo-Neerl. 8:62 (type locality: Borneo).

1860.

1924. Ctenotrypauchen microcephalus Hora, Rec.

Indian Mus. 26:160.

1931. Trypauchen microce phalus Hardenberg,

Treubia 13:417, fig. 6.

1936. Trypauchen vagina microcephalus Tomiya-

ma, Jap. J.. Zool... 7: 103.

1941. Ctenotrypauchen microcephalus Koumans,

Mem. Indian Mus. 13(3) :307.

1953. Trypauchen microcephalus Smith, Sea Fish.

South. Afr.: 338, pl. 69, fig. 937.

1953. Ctenotrypauchen microcephalus Koumans,

Fish. Indo-Austr. archip. 10:282, fig. 71.

1974. Centrotrypauchen microcephalus Orsi, Publ.

Seto Mar. Biol. Lab. 21(3-4):

for Ctenotrypauchen).

A. G. K. MENON

T. K. CHATTERJEE

174 (misspelt

REFERENCES

Hora, S. L. (1924): Notes on fishes in the In-

dian Museum VI. On a new genus of Gobioid fishes

(Subfamily Trypaucheninae) with notes on relat-

ed forms. Rec. Indian Mus., 26:155-163.

KOUMANS, F. P. (1931):

Prel. Rev. Gen. Go-

bioid Fish.,

Lisse.

174 pp.—Drukkerij Imperator N.V.—

— (1941): Gobioid fishes of India.

Mem. Indian Mus. 13(3) :205-329.

SMITH, J. L. B. (1953): Sea Fish. South Africa,

580 pp.—Central News Agencies, Cape Town.

187

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

24.

In March 1973 I joined my good friend JRS

from Mussoorie on a fishing expedition to

what I have always believed one of the finest

little fishing rivers in the world—the Western

Ramganga in Corbett Park, Uttar Pradesh.

We fished for the putitor mahseer |Bar-

bus (Tor) putitora—Ham.] and had, perhaps,

our best fishing trip ever, both from the size

of the ‘bag’, scenery enjoyed and wildlife seen.

Most of the larger fish taken we released

including mahsser of 28, 26 and 24 pounds,

the 26 pounder having something I have never

seen before. This was two very distinct holes

just behind the dorsal fin, each being about

5 mm in diameter and about 4 cm apart. The

wounds were not of recent origin, being par-

tially healed. It was clear to us that this fish

had been attacked by an otter—which abound

in the Ramganga—but had managed to break

loose.

Even more unique, however, was our ex-

perience in sighting two distinctly copper

coloured fish!! These two fish were part of

a school of normally coloured putitor mah-

seer, ranging in weight from about 4 to 12

[In all probability the fish was a copper Mahseer

—Eds. ]

4303 MARKHAM RoaD,

SAN ANTONIO,

TEXAS 78230, USA,

April 9, 1976.

188

MAHSEER IN RAMGANGA RIVER, U.P.

pounds. The two copper coloured fish were

around 4 and 6 pounds in weight respectively

and there was no question in our minds that

they were mahseer. They were seen at very

close hand—perhaps 10 feet, in the crystal

clear water in the gorge above Gairal. In fact

we took a 5 pound putitor mahseer from this

very school. There was no mistaking these

fish with the black mahseer; I have Seen

enough of the melanistic variety in the Ram-

ganga to know that.

Is it within the realm of possibility that

there are to be found in the Ramganga a new

species of mahseer? Or could this have been

the ‘copper mahseer’ [Barbus (Tor) mosul—

Ham.], hitherto found only in Assam?

Oddly enough, on thinking back, I can re- ~

call that, on my very first expedition to the

Ramganga, in 1952 if memory holds good,

I landed a smali (3 pound) copper coloured

mahseer just above the Forest bungalow at

Gairal. Unfortunately, in those days, I had not

read the late Dr. Sunder Lal Hora’s series of

articles on the mahseer in the Journal nor

Thomas’s ROD IN INDIA. or MacDonald’s

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER—both classics

of their kind—and did not pay enough atten-

tion to my catch, other than at the dining

table. |

C. E. McGREADY

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

25. LYCOSID SPIDERS FEEDING ON JUVENILES OF THE SKIPPER

FROG RANA CY ANOPHLYCTIS SCHNEIDER

The genus Lycosa is represented in Poonch

valley by three species namely, Lycosa_ bar-

manica Thorell, Lycosa fletcheri Gravely and

Lycosa rothaka ‘Tikader. Lycosa barmanica

is a fairly common species and lives in the

crevices in stones, rocky-ledges near rivers,

ponds, and road-side poois.

While collecting of amphibians near Poonch

town (33°46' N, 74°5' E) Poonch valley four

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

GOVERNMENT DEGREE COLLEGE,

PooncH (J & K),

uly 8, 1976.

1 Present address:

Department of

large adults of the spider (Lycosa barmanica)

were seen attacking two juveniles of the com-

mon Skipper Frog, Rana cyanophlyctis. The

spiders attacked the ventral side of the frog

juveniles and fed on them voraciously.

We are thankful to Dr. B. K. Tikader,

Zoological Survey of India, Poona for help

in the identification of the spider species.

B. D. SHARMA?

TEJ SHARMA

Zoology,

Th. D.S.B. University College, Kumaun University,

Nainital,

(U.P.).

26. ADDITIONS AND ALTERATIONS TO THE LIST OF BUTTERFLIES

OF NAGALAPURAM HILLS PUBLISHED IN VOL. 52 NOS. 2 & 3—

AUGUST-DECEMBER

Ypthima asterope mahratta M. 2 only at side

of stream in October 1951.

Ypthima chenui Guer. 1 only at 1000 ft up

the hill.

Ypthima ceylonica Hew. These were quite

common, but they do not have the conspi-

cious white hind wings as the Ceylon speci- -

mens do. None of these three were positively

identified until 1960 which is the reason for

their not appearing in my original list.

Celastrina puspa gisca Fruh. Note the new

genus for Lycaenopsis.

Celastrina akasa mavisa Fruh. 1 only in

May 1950. Checked by Cantlie. This is one

of the three unidentified lycaenids referred to

in my original list.

Jamides alecto alosina Swinhoe. 1 only at

1954

about 2000 ft. This is another of my three

unidentified lycaenids.

Logania massalia Doh. The third of my

unidentified lycaenids. This is quite an excit-

ing find. When I caught it at Thantipandal

I had no idea what it was and sent it to Evans

in the B.M. in London. He replied that I must

have made a mistake in the locality as L. mas-

salia only occurred in Burma! In the same

packet were several other butterflies he had

identified for me (all Hesperids) and it was

not until I was going through my papered

hesperids that I came across L. massalia again

last year. Since then it has been separately

identified both by Col Eliot, and by Howarth

as true L. massalia (not a sub-species) so

this is a new record for S. India. There were

189

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

several flying rather high in a species of fig

including a whitish female, but I was only

able to catch the one. Although I went to the

same place many times thereafter I never saw

another.

The two Hesperids I could not previously

identify turned out to be:-

Caltoris kumara kumara M. Not rare—

I have three.

Pelopidas —conjuncta

1, APPLEWooD CLOVE,

ST. LEMARDS IN SEA,

SuSsSEX, U.K.,

July 15, 1976.

conjuncta Herrich

Schaffer. I have two. Both these were identi-

fied at the B.M.

BURMA

Shortly after leaving Rangoon in 1957, a

friend of mine sent me a very worn specimen

of Yoma sabina vasuki Doh. caught in his

garden in Rangoon. You may like to add this

to the list of Rangoon butterflies.

Ay ES G: BEST

27. ADDITIONS AND ALTERATIONS TO MY LIST OF THE BUTTER-

FLIES OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE—VOL. 50 NO. 2—DEC. 1951

Valeria valeria hippia F. I have 22 2 form

Philomena, taken on the path between Vihar

and Tulsi Lake in August 1949.

Mycalesis visala visala M. D.S.F. I found

one which I had misidentified as ‘‘Mineus’’.

This was caught at Vihar Lake in December

1949. I cannot say whether or not it is com-

mon in the area as it so closely resembles

both ‘‘Mineus” and “Perseus” flight and I

may well have overlooked it. The only notice-

able difference is the long band.

Spindasis ictis ictis Hew. I have two taken

on Malabar Hill in February 1956.

Euchrysops conejus. One at Malad, one at

Tulsi and two at Kanheri Caves in April and

May 1953. These were wrongly labelled ‘‘C.

strabo’’, of which later species I have several

specimens.

Zizeeria maha ossa Swinhoe. I have many

of these—all had been wrongly labelled.

Nacaduba kurava canarica. 1 have one from

Powai dated May 1949. This was checked

for me by Sir Kieth Cantlie.

190

Nacaduba nora nora Fd. I have several all

from Kanheri in April 1956.

HESPERUDAE. I had several about which I

was doubtful of the correct identifications, but

these have now been thoroughly checked, if

necessary by dissection of genitalia, mostly by

Cantlie and some by Evans.

Bibasis sena sena. One at light about 8.30

p.m. at my flat at Hill Park, Malabar Hill in

February 1956.

Hasora chromus ganapata Fruhl at Vihar

Lake 15-vii-52.

Tapena thwaitesi thwaitesi M. 1 Tulsi 15-

111-56.

Coladenia dan dan F. at Powai Lake 8-vii-

54. 3

Taratrocera maevius maevius Fab. One at

Trombay March 1956. There were several but

I only took the one.

Potanthus pseudomaesa pseudomaesa M.

One only at Kanheri Caves March 1956. Geni-

talia checked by Cantlie.

Telicota colon colon Fab. One at Trombay,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

2 at Vihar Lake. Genitalia checked by Cantlie.

Telicota ancilla bambusae M. This is now

the correct name for what I listed as “‘Asty-

cus pythias bambusae’’. My specimens were

dissected and checked by Evans himself.

Borbo cinnara Wallace. This is the correct

name for the one I listed as “‘Baoris zelleri

cinnara’’. It seems rare in Bombay.

Borbo bevani M. This is quite common. I

have 4 males all from Vihar Lake in April

1956.

1, APPLEWOOD CLOVE,

St. LEMARDS IN SEA,

Sussex, U.K.,

Oeily) 155 1976.

28.

Pelopidas agna agna M. I only have one

male taken at Malad in May 1956. Checked

by Evans. It is probably quite common.

Pelopidas mathias mathias Fab. This is also

probably quite common. Both my specimens

were checked by Evans.

Caltoris kumara kumara M. One at Malad

September 1949. I did not include this in my

previous list as it was not identified by Cantlie

until 1958. It must be rather rare in Bombay

as I never came across another.

AE. G. BEST

ON THE SPECIFIC IDENTITY OF TERMITE RETICULITERMES

ASSAMENSIS GARDNER (ISOPTERA: RHINOTERMITIDAE:

HETEROTERMITINAE) FROM ASSAM, INDIA

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

Gardner (1944) described a new species Reti-

culitermes assamensis from Sadiya, Assam,

which was incidently the first record of the

genus from India. Snyder (1949) in his cata-

logue of termites, placed it under R. chinensis

Snyder as a synonym. As there was no other

published record of this synonymy I inquired

from Snyder the basis for the synonymy and

was informed that the synonymy was based

on information from Prof. Emerson’s card

catalogue and it was not based on the exami-

nation of actual material.

Following Snyder, other workers Roonwal

& Pant (1953), Ahmad (1958), and Roonwal

& Chhotani (1962) treated this species as

synonym of R. chinensis. I have examined

and compared the cotypes of R. assamensis

with paratype material of R. chinensis, and

found that the soldiers of the former differed

from that of the latter species in one essential

respect, namely the frontal region being

strongly swollen, phragmatic and steeply slop-

ing in front. Hence I feel that R. assamensis

deserves a distinct specific status. Since Gard-

ner did not select any holotype. I have select-

ed one of the cotype soldiers as lectotype and

redesignated the rest of the material. The

key to Indian species based on soldier caste

has been included.

Reticulitermes assamensis Gardner

1944. Reticulitermes assamensis Gardner,

191

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 74

J. C. M. Indian J. Ent. 6:105-106,

Type-locality: India, Assam (Sadiya).

Reticulitermes chinensis Snyder; Snyder,

T. E. Smiths. Misc. Coll. 112:71. (Ma-

terial from India only).

Reticulitermes chinensis Snyder; Roon-

1949.

1953).

wal, M. L. and G. D. Pant, Indian

For. Leaffl. (Ent.), No. 121: pt. 9:54.

Reticulitermes assamensis Gardner;

Rattan Lal and R. D. Menon, Catal.

Indian Insects. Part 27 (soptera): 31.

Reticulitermes chinensis Snyder; Ah-

mad, M. Biologia. 4(1):71-72.

Reticulitermes chinensis Snyder; Roon-

wal, M. L. and O. B. Chhotani, Proc.

Nat. Inst. Sci. India, (B) 28(4):301-

302. |

Reticulitermes chinensis Snyder; Ma-

thur, R. N. and R. S. Thapa, Indian

For. Teafl. (Ent.), No. 167:27.

MATERIAL

(A) Type-specimens

(1) Three soldiers (2 in spirit and one on

card) and several workers (all cotypes) from

Sadiya, Assam, India, (No. J.C.M.G. 1750),

14-xii-1933. Det. J.C.M. Gardner.

(11) Three cotype workers from the cotype

lot and with the same data as in “‘Material

No. 1’. (From Prof. Emerson) Det. as R.

chinensis.

(B) Other material

(IIL) Seven soldiers and several workers

from Samsing, Bengal, coll. Balwant Singh,

II. 1934. Ex. Unknown wood. Det. J. C. M.

Gardner.

1953,

1958.

19G2:

1962.

Description

1. Imago:

Unknown.

2. Soldier: (Fig. 1:. Wablem)y

GENERAL: Head-capsule pale yellow to yel-

lowish brown, except for the ridged frontal

portion; mandibles deep reddish brown, paler

192

basally; antennae, labrum, thorax, abdomen

and legs paler than head-capsule. Head-cap-

sule moderately, thorax and abdomen rather

densely hairy. Total body length c 5.25-6,20

min.

HEAD: Head-capsule subrectangular, much

longer than broad; sides subparallel, widest

near the posterior third, very slightly incurved

anteriorly near the base of antennae; postero-

lateral corners rounded; posterior margin

straight; frontal region strongly phragmatic,

swollen and steeply sloping in front. Fonta-

nelle: Minute, placed at the base of swollen

part of frons. Antennae: With 15-16 segments;

pilose; in 15-segmented antennae, segment 2

cylindrical, about one and a half times as long

as 3; 3 ring like, shortest; 4 subequal to 5;

in 16-segmented condition, 2 slightly longer

than 3; 3 almost twice as long as 4; 4 shortest,

ring like; 5 shorter than 6; rest progressively

increasing in length; last ovate. Clypeus:

Postclypeus indistinctly separated from frons,

subrectangular. Anteclypeus hyaline; anterior

margin straight. Labrum: Tongue shaped; as

long as or slightly longer than broad; broadest

near the base; sides convex, gradually con-

verging anteriorly into a blunt tip; apex with

two long hairs. Mandibles: Sabre shaped,

short and stout, narrowing anteriorly into a

weakly incurved apices; length almost half or

slightly more than half the head-length. Left

mandible with inner margin smooth and with

3-4 basal crenulations. Right mandible with

smooth and straight inner margin; with a

rudimentary tooth like projection near the

base. Postmentum: Club shaped; broadest

near the apical fourth; more than twice as

wide anteriorly as the long narrowed posterior

part; anterior margin substraight; posterior

margin concave.

THORAX: Pronotum: Flat; trapezoid; dis-

tinctly narrower than head-width (pronotum-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

head with index 0.69-0.80); widest anteriorly;

sides converging posteriorly; anterior margin

with a prominent median notch; posterior

margin weakly to distinctly emarginate me-

dially. Mesonotum: Narrower than pronotum,

“Hal GO

Fig. 1. Caste-Soldier: a. Head capsule, dorsal view;

b. Head-capsule in side view; c. Antenna; d. Post-

mentum; e. Pronotum, in dorsal view. acl. ante-

clypeus; ant. antenna; ft. fontanelle; Ir. labrum;

md. mandibles; pcl. postclypeus; pmt. postmentum.

posterior margin substraight to weakly emar-

ginate. Metanotum: Narrower than pronotum

but broader than mesonotum; posterior mar-

gin weakly convex. Legs: Long, slender and

pilose; tibial spurs 3:2:2; tarsi 4-segmented.

ABDOMEN: Elongate;

densely hairy. Cerci

2-segmented; c 0.10-0.12 mm long. Styli one

jointed; length c 0.08 mm.

TABLE 1

BODY-MEASUREMENTS (IN MM)

AND

INDICES OF

SEVEN SOLDIERS OF Reticulitermes assamensis

GARDNER.

Body-parts

I—General

Total body-length c

Ii—Head

Head-length with mandibles

Head-length to lateral base of

mandibles

Maximum width of head-capsule

Height of head-capsule

Head-index—I (width /length)

Head-index—II_ (height / width)

Head-index—III (height /length)

Length of labrum

Maximum width of labrum

Maximum length of mandibles

(1) left mandible

(2) right mandible

Head-mandibular index—I (left

mandible length /head-length)

Head-mandibular index—lIlI (left

mandible length/head width)

Min. (median) length of post-

mentum

Maximum width of postmentum

Minimum width of postmentum

Postmentum index—I

(min. width/max. width)

WI—Thorax

Length of pronotum

Maximum width of pronotum

Head-pronotum index

(pronotum width-head width)

Pronotum index (length /width)

5.25-6.20

PTD Bh,

1.80-2.15

1.08-1.25

0.88-1.05

0.56-0.64

0.78-0.91

0.43-0.55

0.34-0.40

0.33-0.38

0.95-1.08

0.50-0.56

0.86-0.92

1.25-1.45

0.40-0.53

0.15-0.18

0.31-0.40

0.53-0.58

0.80-0.95

0.69-0.80

0.61-0.72

Mean

5.60

295

1.94

1.17

0.96

0.60

0.84

0.49

0.37

0.34

1.02

0.53

0.88

1.34

0.47

0.17

0.36

0.55

0.85

0.75

0.65

3. Workers: (Table 2).

GENERAL: Head-capsule pale yellow to deep

straw yellow; antennae, labrum and legs paler

than _head-capsule;

abdomen

translucent.

Head-capsule fairly, body rather densely pilose

£93

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Total body-length c 3.50-4.50 mm.

HEAD: Head-capsule subsquarish, almost as

long as broad; lateral sides weakly convex,

converging posteriorly to rounded posterior

margin. Fontanelle: Indistinct. Antennae: 16-

segmented; segment 2 cylindrical, distinctly

longer than 3; 4 ring like, shortest; 5 shorter

than 6; rest progressively increasing in length;

last ovate, slightly longer than penultimate.

Clypeus: Postclypeus weakly swollen, pilose;

length less than half its width. Anteclypeus

apilose, flat; anterior margin substraight. Lab-

rum: Subsquarish, slightly wider than long;

broadest in the middle; sides-arched:; anterior

margin convex. Mandibles: As in the genus.

THORAX: Pronotum: Subtrapezoid, fiat;

broadest at the anterior margin; anterior mar-

gin with a distinct median notch; posterior

margin weakly to deeply emarginate medially.

Mesonotum: Narrower than pronotum; pos-

terior margin substraight to weakly emargi-

nate. Metanotum: Broader than pronotum;

posterior margin weakly convex. Legs: Long,

slender and pilose; tibial spurs 3:2:2; tarsi

4-segmented.

TABLE 2

BODY MEASUREMENTS (IN MM) OF 5 WORKERS OF

Reticulitermes assamensis GARDNER

Body-parts Range Mean

I—General

Total body-length 3.50-4.50 3.95

II—Head

Head-length with mandibles 1.30-1.45 1235)

Head-length to lateral base of

mandibles 1.00-1.08 1.05

Maximum width of head 1.03-1.10 1.06

Height of head 0.55-0.70 0.60

WI—Thorax

Length of pronotum _ 0.35-0.40 0.37

Maximum width of pronotum 0.60-0.70 0.64

aE SEIN ga

ABDOMEN: Oblong and hairy. Cerci 2-seg-

mented; length c 0.10 mm. Styli one jointed:

length c 0.08 mm.

Type-specimens

Lectotype: Since no holotype was designat-

ed by Gardner one of the cotype soldiers in

spirit has been designated as lectotype and

deposited in the Entomological Collection of

the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Lectomorphotype: One worker from the

cotype lot and with the same data as in lecto-

type.

Para-lectotypes and Para-lectomorphotypes:.

Two soldiers (one in spirit and one on card)

and several workers.

Type-locality:

INDIA: Assam: Sadiya.

Geographical Distribution:

Recorded from the following localities.

INDIA: Assam: Sadiya (type-locality). West

Bengal: Samsing. Meghalaya: Shillong.

Comparison:

The soldiers of R. assamensis Gardner are

close to R. chinensis Snyder and R. saraswati

Roonwal & Chhotani but differs as follows:-

From R. chinensis Snyder.

The frontal region in the head-capsule of

R. assamensis Gardner is strongly swollen,

phragmatic and steeply sloping in front.

From R. saraswati Roonwal & Chhotani.

(i) Pronotum-head width index higher (0.69-

0.80 vs. 0.67 in R. saraswati).

(11) Larger species.

Key to Indian species:

Soldier Caste:

1(2) Pronotum—head width index higher

(0.69-0.80): larger species (total body-length

5.25-6.20 mm; head-length without mandibles

1.80-2.15 mm; head-width 1.08-1.23 mm)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ee R. assamensis Gardner

2(1) Pronotum—head width index low

(0.67); smaller species (total body-length

4.00 mm; head-length without mandibles 1.53

mm; head-width 1.00 mm)

R. saraswati Roonwal & Chhotani

0, er 50m, .0); 56) er ai yeh ele ie \e).70.

ee © 08 © © © © © © © © © © ©

BRANCH OF FOREST ENTOMOLOGY,

ForEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE & COLLEGES,

DeHRA Dun, U.P.,

Hiv 29, 1976.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

I express my deep sense of gratitude to

Dr. P. K. Sen-sarma for the keen interest

evinced in the work and for the many useful

suggestions offered.

M. L. THAKUR

REFERENCES

Aumap, M. (1958): Key to Indo-Malayan ter-

mites (Part I. Il). Biologia. Lahore, 4(1-2): 33-

198 + xii index.

GARDNER, J. C. M. (1944): New Termitidae from

India and Burma (Isoptera). Indian J. Ent., 6(1-2):

103-110.

RoonwaL, M. L. & CHHOTANI, B. (1962): Ter-

mite fauna of Assam, Eastern India. Proc. Nat.

Inst. Sci. India, (B) 28(4) :281-406.

RoonwaL, M. L. & PANT, G. D. (1953): A sys-

tematic catalogue of the Main Identified Entomolo-

gical Collection at the Forest Research Institute,

Dehra Dun, Past 9-Order Isoptera. Indian For.

leafl: No. 121(3) :40-60.

SYNDER, T. E. (1949): Catalogue of the termites

(Isoptera) of the World. Smiths. Misc. Coll. 112:

490 pp.

29. SEX REVERSAL AND HEXAGONAL LAC CELL FORMATION

Dr. R. K. Varshney had the kindness of fav-

ouring me with a reprint of his joint communi-

cation with Dr. Gauri Ganguly entitled, Hexa-

gonal cell of lac insect, published in this

Journal (Ganguli & Varshney 1974). Such a

cell was first reported by me (Mahdihassan

1923), but mistaken as revealing parthenogen-

sis. Later on it was found that a generation

may contain such a majority of winged males

that, it becomes a problem for the species to

continue in the absence of enough females.

However the larva of winged male, when iso-

lated, was able to show sex reversal which

permitted the species to continue. Such a cell

acquired a hexagonal or crown shaped form

as illustrated by Mahdihassan (1930). Now

different species of lac insects show vari-

ations in their sex-ratios. The primary factor

tested with the insect species, and next

came humidity, while the nature of host plant

proved to be third in importance. Since the

insect factor became most important, lac in-

sects were recognized as divisible into at least

SiX species.

1. Kerria communis Madh., found in Tra-

vancore (Kerala), Madras (Tamil Nadu),

Cocanada, Hyderabad, (A.P.), Maharashtra

and Goa. It has several host plants.

2. K. mysorensis Madh., growing mainly

on Shorea talura in Karnataka.

3. K. nagoliensis Madh., growing chiefly

on Schliechera trijuga; in Central India.

4. K. chinensis Madh., on several host

plants, in Assam, South China, Burma, Thai-

land and Vietnam.

5. K. sindica Madh., cultivated on A.

arabica in Sind; found occasionally on Albiz-

zia_ lebbek, Zizyphus jujuba and Anona

195

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

squamosa, but not on any Ficus sp.

6. K. ficii Green, cultivated in Jammu on

A. catechu, found also in Rajasthan, reported

both from Monghyr (Bihar) and Delhi on F.

religiosa. This insect shows two physiological

forms, red and yellow, which seem to be inter-

changeable. The first five species were grown

on a common host plant, Acacia farnesiana,

and proved to be different from one another.

Particularly after five years on this host, K.

nagoliensis produced its characteristic thick

encrustation. Such an experiment was not

reported before, nor has been tried subse-

quently, so that contrary attempts, to class

all lac insects as one species, challenges even

systematists who, at least as far as K. ficii is

concerned, have admitted it as a distinct spe-

cies. The species which grows in northern

India, on Butea frondosa and Zizyphus jujuba,

was not studied by me. I designated it as K.

indica, almost recording it to be an unknown

species. Thus there was for me some seven

species, six for certain. Now the greatest vari-

ation in sex-ratio was found in K. communis.

It is the one species of lac which never repays

the trouble of artificial cultivation any where,

because of its regularly producing males in

such preponderance that no female is left to

offer a crop of lac. The winged male, in the

first larval stage, reverses its sex so that, al-

ready in the second larval stage, it appears

abnormal, as has also been illustrated (Mahdi-

hassan 1930).

Since 1954 I have been studying the lac in-

sect of Sind. Next to K. communis the Sind

insect shows preponderance of male and is a

poor species for cultivating lac. Here again

crown-shaped cells are common. At Sohag-

pur I was able to collect a fully formed crown

shaped cell of K. nagoliensis, growing on

S. trijuga. Chamberlin (1923-25) created a new

species, K. rangoonensis, examining material

196

belonging to K. chinensis from Burma. This

was the crown shaped cell of K. chinensis and

not a new species. Thus Chamberlin has un-

wittingly recognized a crown shaped cell, about

1923, mistaking it for a new species. Strange-

ly enough, he himself, nor any subsequent

entomologist, has recognized K. chinensis as

a new species. | am unaware of any work by

modern Chinese entomologists which pro-

bably does exist. During eight years of work

on K. mysorensis 1 could collect only three

crown shaped cells of this species and, as be-

fore, only as single cells. On the contrary K.

communis could deliver innumerable crown

shaped cells but again all as isolated speci-

mens. Thus K. ficii Green, was left as the

only species where the crown shaped cell was

not observed, explained by the relatively poor

material handled by me. If search be made

even this species would reveal crown shaped

cells. I have collected both yellow and red

wingless male insects. The crown shaped cell

belongs to the larva of winged male, which

I could not observe. It is this which changes

its sex as larva. It would be easier to establish

that among its winged males the yellow form

predominates, and correspondingly crown

shaped cells would be coloured yellow more

often than red. Now all workers on lac ignore

not only the species I have differentiated but

even K. ficii which was recognized by E. E.

Green and confirmed by Chamberlin, both

as systematists.

To discover crown shaped cells merely on

new hosts plants would easily enable me to

produce a previous list of 60 trees (Mahdi-

hassan 1936) whereas biologically speaking

these belong to K. communis. In this light ob-

servations by Chauhan and others do not as-

sign proper biological origin; host plant is

certainly not important from the fact that the

crown shaped cell belongs to the generation

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of winged male insects, and here some species

are prone to produce more than others. When

the season is rainy or humid, at the time of

fertilization, the generation issuing would con-

tain winged males in the majority and some

of these larvae will transform later into crown

shaped cells. Thus the crown shaped cell was

recognized by me in 1923, and unwittingly by

Chamberlin (Mahdihssan 1923) independent-

ly about the same time. In an article, appear-

ing in this Journal (Mahdihassan 1948) to

which Ganguly and Varshney also refer, I

offered evidence to show the same was un-

wittingly illustrated in the earliest illustration

of lac, dated 1567, for which credit goes to

C. Clusius. I have traced the history of this

illustration. Garcia sent no illustration nor

any specimen of lac to Clusius. The latter had

CONSULTANT CHEMIST,

S.D. 34, BLock A,

NortH NAZIMABAD,

KARACHI 33, (PAKISTAN),

November 11, 1975.

some collected from the market in Europe and

illustrated as three samples. At any rate the

additional photographs of encrustations I

have offered (Mahdihassan 1948) do support

the presence precisely at the end of an en-

crustation of a crown shaped cell seen in the

wood-cut of 1567.

Every species of lac produces winged

males. Some species produce such males in

excess. Their larvae, when isolated, tend to

reverse their sex and produce single hexa-

gonal and crown shaped cells. It was first

recorded in 1923, fully illustrated in 1930, and

an old illustration of 1567 was interpreted,

in 1948, as showing the same. The crown shap-

ed cell is to be traced to an insect species and

not to any host plant.

S. MAHDIHASSAN

REFERENCES

GANGULY, GAURI & VARSHNEY, R. K. (1974):

Hexagonal Cell of Lac insect. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 70:405-406.

MAHDIHASSAN, S. (1923): Classification of lac

insects from a physiological stand point. J. Sc. Asso.

Maharaja’s Col. Vizianagram 1:47-99.

(1930): The probable occurrence

of sex reversal among lac insects. Z. f. ang. Ent.

16:527-545; 24 figs.

(1936): Host selection and differ-

entiation of lac and other parasites. Arch. f. Natur-

gesh. 5:1-22.

— (1948): An abnormal form of lac

cell and its earliest illustration. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 48:161-163.

CHAMBERLIN, J. C.

Vol 14, Pt..2.- €1923);

pp. 31-41 (1925).

(1923-25): Btn.

Btn. Ent. Res.;

Ent. Res.;

Vol. 16,

30. THE BLACK ANT, CAMPONOTUS SP. FEEDING ON UREA

_In a new suburb of Karachi which was barren

_land some ten years ago, there is now a well

established plant

thorny trees, Spicigera juliflora, a New World

plant, now domiciled, and Acacia arabica.

nursery, hedged by two

Both are about fifteen feet high and their

lower branches are heavily infested with colo-

nies of the membracid, Oxyrhachis taranda, in

turn visited by the black ant, Camponotus

compressus. The excreta of the membracid

197

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

is “honey dew’’, on which the ant feeds. Along

the adjoining roads Dipterocarpus sisoo are

planted as avenue trees, many of which have,

at their base, a nest of the above ant. The

tree is attacked by another membracid identi-

fied as, Gargara mixta, whose honey dew also

attracts the ant. In this case however the

membracid has to be searched for, as they

are few in contrast to the heavy population

of O. taranda. In a garden, just opposite the

nursery, there is an Anona squamosa tree,

bearing encrustations of the lac insect, Kerria

sindica. Its excreta, or “honey dew’, also

feeds the ant. However there is a marked dif-

ference in the appearance of host plants on

which lac was growing and those which sup-

ported the membracid, Oxyrhachis taranda. In

Karachi both these insects can thrive well on

Acacia arabica so the nature of the host plant

would remain the same. The foliage of trees

bearing lac appeared sooty. This was traced

to drops of “honey dew’’ of lac insects falling

on the branches below. Enough honey-dew

could be collected and analysis showed the

presence of glucose and fructose. These sugars

having fallen on leaves produced the growth

of the saprophytic black fungus, Aspergillus

niger. The trees bearing thick colonies of O.

ternata membracid, on the other hand, show-

ed normal clean foliage. Its honey dew couid

not be collected enough for analytical purpose.

The absence of any such growth of Aspergillus

indirectly suggested the absence of sugars in

the liquid excreta of the membracid.

In the above city suburb there was an open

ground where some nomads had pitched tents

and were using open-air latrines. The Cam-

ponotus ant was found feeding on human

urine. It was further established that the ant

was a regular visitor to urinals in the neigh-

bouring houses. This suggested that the ant

must be feeding on urea and further that urea

198

must be a constituent of the “honey dew” of

the membracid. Ammonia is the degradation

product of animal protein metabolism but

there is proper provision for ammonia to be

synthesized into harmless urea which, in the

case of man, is undertaken by the liver. In

the case of insects Malpiglian tubes seem to

play this role. At any rate the fact first to be

established was whether Camponotus does

feed on urea.

Some urea powder was dropped near a nest

of Camponotus ants but the reaction was not

very decisive. Finally a solution of carboxy

methyl cellulose, in water, was spread over

a spot and urea dropped at one end so that,

by the time it dissolved to reach the boundary

of that spot, different degrees of urea concen-

tration would occur. The ant was at once

atiracted to such urea solution. Thus there

was no doubt leit that Camponotus compres-

sus feeds on urea, and accordingly behaves

like a scavenger as far as urine is concerned.

Very probably the honey dew of membracid

is also rich in urea.

Extending the above observations I tried to

feed the ant on cane sugar which again attract-

ed the insect. It also took to “‘liquid glucose’’

but would not touch Glaxo’s preparation

‘““Glaxose D’”’, which is glucose powder forti-

fied with calcium glycerophosphate. The ant

was attracted by sorbitol, speciallly 60 per cent

liquid sorbitol, manufactured by Merck,

Darmstadt. Surprisingly lactose,

either as |

powder or as solution, was refused. Soft cheese —

but not milk, gave a positive reaction. None |

of the following aminoacids were acceptable, —

glycine which is sweet, lysine, and methionine, |

others were not tried. Thinking that some thing |

sweet would appeal, soluble saccharine was

offered but the response was negative. Where-

as urea was welcomed, uric acid was com- |

pletely ignored.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Urea, a degradation product, to become

food of an insect does require an explanation.

Incidentally Schmidt-Nielsen of Duke Univer-

sity, U.S.A., found that “whereas most ani-

mals with lower urine output cannot urinate

enough to expel waste urea the camel can re-

cycle much of his urea through the liver to

make new protein thereby keeping achead on

both food and water.’ However it is gener-

ally the practice that if urea is added to cattle

fodder it results in improving nutrition. The

intestinal bacterial flora of cattle can synthe-

CONSULTANT CHEMIST,

S. D. 34, BLock A,

NortH NAZIMABAD,

KARACHI 33, (PAKISTAN),

February 20, 1976.

size urea into proteins and probably the same

is the case with the camel. Coming to the

oriental species of the genus Camponotus they

all contain intercellular symbiotic bacteria in

the intestine so that it is most likely that these

can effectively synthesize urea into protein.

This would at once explain how Camponotus

species alone attend upon the colonies of the

two membracids mentioned while other ants

do not. Work on the isolation of the symbiotic

bacteria and their role in the metabolism of

the ant will be reported on later.

S. MAHDIHASSAN

31. ON THE LARVA OF TRAMEA VIRGINIA (RAMBUR, 1842) FROM

INDIA, WITH NOTES ON THE LARVAE OF INDIAN REPRESENTA-

TIVES OF GENUS TRAMEA HAGEN, 1861 (LIBELLULIDAE:

ODONATA)

(With ten text-figures)

Larva of Tramea virginia Rambur is describ-

ed and illustrated on the basis of material

from Dehra Dun Valley, India. Notes on the

larvae of Indian representatives of the genus

is appended (including basilaris burmeisteri

Kirby and similata Rambur).

INTRODUCTION

Genus Tramea Hagen, 1861, is widely

spread in circumtropical region. It comprises

a number of closely allied species with mig-

ratory tendencies and having almost identi-

cal type of larval habitats like lakes, peren-

nial monsoon ponds and marshes.

Fraser (1936) recorded two representatives

of the genus Tramea_ within Indian limits,

namely, T. basilaris burmeisteri Kirby and

T. limbata (Desjardins); T. virginia was re-

corded by him (loc. cit.) from Burma,

throughout Indo-China, China and Formosa.

However, recently 7. virginia has been re-

corded from various Indian localities namely,

Kangra, Himachal Pradesh (Prasad 1976) and

Dehra Dun Valley, Uttar Pradesh (Singh &

Prasad 1976). Lieftinck (1962) has discarded

the specific status of T. limbata from E. Asia

199

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

and Pacific and has designated Indian repre-

sentative of 7. limbata as T. similata Ram-

bur (per. com.).

Fraser (1919) has briefly described larva

of T. similata (sub. limbata) from Pune

(Poona), India; Kumar (1973) has given

detailed description and illustration of larva

of T. basilaris burmeisteri Kirby from the

Dehra Dun Valley, India. In the present paper

the larva of T. virginia is being described for

the first time from an Indian locality, Need-

ham (1930) had earlier given a brief descrip-

tion of it from Soochow in China. An attempt

has also been made to provide taxonomic

characters for the differentiation of these

closely resembling larvae of Indian represen-

tative of the genus.

Tramea virginia (Rambur) Figs. 1-10

Material: Larvae 13, 12 (both emerged

in the laboratory), perennial pond, Gorakhpur

Dehra Dun, India, 26-11-1976. A. Kumar

Coll.; 4 preserved in spirit, same data as

above.

Description: Length 26.8 mm _ (26.0-28.2

mm); width 9.1 mm maximum across 6th

abdominal segment. Colour: Yellowish green

with grey markings.

Head: Widest over the vertex across the

eyes. Length 5.4 mm, width 7.8 mm. Eyes:

grey; vertex-sienna; Antenna (Fig. 2) long,

filiform. The measurement (in mm) of seg-

ments being 0.43, 0.47, 0.93, 0.63, 0.83, 1.30,

and 0.90; total length 5.49 mm. Labium (Figs.

3 & 4) premental setae 14 + 14, 4 median

premental setae of either side shorter than

half of size of marginal setae, spiniform setae

present in mid-anterior region of prementum.

Distal margin of prementum strongly convex,

bears a row of claviform setae. Palpal setae

11 & 11; distal margin of palpus formed into

12 crenations, each of which, except a few

posterior ones, bear 3 very short and 2-3 long

200

claviform setae (Figs. 4 & 5). A number of

spiniform setae present at the base and lateral

margins of palpus. Movable hook long and

slender. Mandible and Maxilla as shown in

figure (Figs. 6 & 7).

Tibial comb: (Fig. 8) comprises a number

of compactly arranged furcate setae; tarsi

(Fig. 9) beset with furcate and a few simple

setae on their outer side. Abdomen oval, yel-

lowish with grey spots; spines on segments 8

& 9. Lateral spine of segment 9 extends almost

up to the distal end of anal appendages (Fig.

10) these spines thickly beset with simple

spinules on their outer side and long thin

setae on the inner side.

Anal appendages: (Fig. 10) a little darker

than abdomen; epiproct distinctly shorter than

paraprocts. Epiproct length 2.2 mm, width

1.4 mm (at base); Paraprocts length 3.1 mm.

Epiproct and paraprocts beset with spinate

setae. Biology: Larvae have been collected

from the perennial muddy ponds at the vil-

lages Gorakhpur and Badripur, Dehra Dun,

India. Larvae are active swimmers and dwell

amidst the weeds. Emergence occurs for a

short period in early spring, i.e., end March

to beginning of April.

Solitary adults, flying low over the water

area, were observed on these ponds through-

out April. Coitus was observed on 27-iv-76,

when a pair was copulating, perching on a

bush about 3 metres above the ground near

the pond. Earlier the same pair was seen fly-

ing in tandem about 15 m above that bush.

Oviposition occurs in tandem, a few pairs were

seen flying in this position over the pond.

Diognosis: Larvae of closely allied Indian

species of genus Tramea appear quite alike.

With the present description of 7. virginia,

now the larvae of this and T. basilaris burme-

isteri are fairly well known. However, Fraser’s

(1919) description of JT. similata (sub. lim-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ay,

5 mm

Quy Een)

Figs. 1-10. Last Instar larva Tramea virginia (Rambur): 1. Larva (D.V.) Male; 2. Antenna; 3. Labium

(left half); 4. Enlarged view distal margin palpus; 5. Enlarged view one crenation palpus; 6. Mandible;

7. Maxilla; 8. Tibial comb; 9. Setae tarsi; 10. Anal appendages (male).

201

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

bata) is not adequate. Since he has not taken

into consideration taxonomically important

characters like number of premental and pal-

pal setae, etc. However, with our present

knowledge the larvae of T. virginia could be

differentiated from that of TJ. basilaris bur-

meisteri on the basis of body size (larva of the

latter being smaller 22.0-22.4 mm); number

of premental and palpal setae (their number

in case of T. basilaris burmeisteri being 13-

13; 10 & 10) and larval habitat; 7. basilaris

burmeisteri typically breeds in Ephemeral

monsoon ponds, ovipositing in June-July

while its emergence occurs from these ponds

in September-October.

Though the description of the larva of

T. similata is not adequately known, with the

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

NORTHERN REGIONAL STATION,

DEHRA Dun 248 O01,

August 25, 1976.

known characters, larva of T. virginia can

be differentiated from it on the basis of num-

ber of crenations ai the distal margin of pal-

pus; these are 18 in case of JT. similata while

only 12 in 7. virginia.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our grateful thanks are due to the Direc-

tor, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for

permitting us to undertake the present study,

and to Dr B. S. Lamba, Deputy Director,

Northern Regional Station, Zoological Survey

of India, Dehra Dun, for providing the labo-

ratory and field facilities. One of us (A. K.)

is also thankful to Dr M. A. Lieftinck, Net-

herlands, for his advice on Indian species of

Tramea.

ARUN KUMAR

MAHABIR PRASAD

REFERENCES

FRASER, F. C. (1919): Descriptions of new In-

dian Odonate Larvae and Exuviae. Rec. Ind. Mus.

26 :459-467; 6 plates.

————— (1936): Fauna of British

Odonate-3. Taylor & Francis Ltd., London.

— (1976): Odonata of district Kan-

gra (H.P.). Rec. Zool. Surv. India (in press).

KUMAR, A. (1973): Description of the last in-

star larvae of Odonata from the Dehra Dun Val-

India.

ley (India), with notes on Biology II (Suborder

Anisoptera). Orient. Ins. 7(2) :291-331.

LigrTinck, M. A. (1962): Insects of Micronesia

Odonata. Insect. Micronesia. 5(1) :1-95.

— (1976): Personal Communication.

NEEDHAM, J. G. (1930): A manual of dragon-

flies of China. Zool. Sinica (A), 11:185.

SINGH, A. & PRASAD, M. (1976): Odonata of

Doon Valley I. Anisoptera. Rec. Zool. Surv. India.

(in press).

32. COLOUR ABERRANCE IN COCCINELLA SEPTEMPUNCTATA L.

(COLEOPTERA: COCCINELLIDAE) i

(With ten text-figures)

The individuals of the above species depict a

variety of colour patterns. The fact has been

established by making constant observations

on colour aberrance in a huge population of

202

Coccinella septempunctata L. throughout the

semi-desert areas of Punjab namely, Bhatinda,

Abohar and Fazilka during insect collection

surveys in 1974-75 on the lines as reported

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

by Balduf (1942) in Diabrotica 12-punctata

and Edona & Soans (1973) in Henosepil-

achna sparsa Herbst. On comparing the ab-

normal specimens with the usual normal col-

our type, an interesting phenomenon of mark-

ed colour aberrance and coalescence in the

‘usual 7-spotted, C. septempunctata L. can be

explained not only in the design of elytra but

in the head capsule too. |

The coalescence was’ much less in the dis-

tantly placed two lateral spots No. 3 & 4

(Figs. 8, 7) in comparison to the medially

placed spot No. 2 with others (Figs. 6, 4, 5). |f

The scutellar spot No. 1 also showed coales-

cence through rarely with the median spot

No. 2 (Figs. 4 & 5). Besides elytral pigment-

ation and coalescence, colour pigmentation in

the head-capsule too presented variations

(Figs. 2 & 3). The nonpigmented spots, as

suggested by Edona & Soans (1973) were

also observed in a few cases (Fig. 1).

Kapur (1959) while describing the geogra-

phical variations in the colour patterns of

some Indian lady bird beetles attributes the

geographic isolation as a factor for the dis-

tinction of a new species on the basis of

colour patterns.

In compliance with Edona & Soans (1973)

during the present investigations it is suggest-

ed that the colour aberrance and pigmentation

distribution is simply due to the severe hot

climatic effects ic. heat and less of humidity

in deserts which certainly affect the physiology

of different developmental stages and concur-

rently an unequal flow of pigmentation fol-

lows which in turn brings about coalescence

(Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 & 8) and scarcity (Fig. 9)

in spotting pigmentation. It is a point of in-

terest to note that this phenomenon of colour

aberrance and coalescence, so far has been

found only in females of C. septempunctata

L. and not in males.

FIG. 9 FIG 10

Figs. 1-10. Coccinella septempunctata L.

203

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are most grateful to Dr S. S. Dhillon,

Professor and Head, Zoology Department,

ZOOLOGY DEPT.,

PUNJABI UNIVERSITY,

PATIALA, (PB.),

February 26, 1976.

Punjabi University, Patiala, for constant en-

couragement and facilities to work. Our thanks

are also due to C.S.I.R. for financial support.

J. P. SINGH

J. S. MANN

REFERENCES

BALDUF, W. V. (1942): Colour aberrance in

Diabrotica 12-punctata Fab. (Col. Chrysomelidae).

Entomological News, Vol. L_ III.

Epona, V. I. & SoaNs, A. B. (1973): Seasonal

changes in the populations of Epilachna beetle

Henosepilachna sparsa Herbst. (Col. Coccinellidae).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70(1) :218-220.

Kapur, A. P. (}959): Geographical variations

in the colour patterns of some Indian lady bird

beetles (Coccinellidae: Coleoptera)—Part I. Cocci-

nella septempunctata, C. transvenalis, and Coleo-

phora bisellata. Proc. 1st All India Congress, Zoo-

logy, Part 2: 479-492.

33. THE PREDATORY CENTIPEDE SCOLAPENDRA SP.

The large yellow and black-banded centipede

of the genus Scolapendra is an active and

voracious predator of small animals and

ground nesting birds during the monsoon in

Saurashtra. Nestlings of such birds as larks are

in particular danger. I still vividly remember

a medium sized toad grasped by the hind-

quarters by a large Scolopendra which had

C/o. WorLD WILDLIFE FUND,

GREAT WESTERN BLDG.,

S. B. SINGH Roab,

BomBay 400 023,

September 1, 1976.

204

half its four-inch body firmly attached in a

crevasse. The toad was held by several pairs

of pincer like legs and was being eaten alive

—a large wound had already been opened in

the victim’s left flank by the feeding centipede

when I came across the scene! Unfortunately,

it was dusk and though I had a camera, I had

no flash apparatus to photograph the event.

LAVKUMAR KHACHER

)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

34. OCCURRENCE OF BIPALIUM KEWENSE MOSELEY

(TURBELLARIA: TRICLADIDA) IN INDIA

Bipalium kewense Moseley, a cosmopolitan

species has been recorded from Malaya, Indo-

nesia, and in green houses throughout the

United States. It is being reported in the pre-

sent paper for the first time from Jammu and

Kashmir State. It has, however, been collected

by us from different localities of Jammu Pro-

vince only, where it appears to be endemic.

Material: 24 exs Poonch (986.1 m) 10 exs

Krishnaghati (1645 m) 4 exs Mendar (930

m).

Several individuals were collected on Poonch

valley in humid areas where it remains hidden

under logs, leaves, and grass etc. Some speci-

mens were also collected from the gutters and

DEPTT. OF ZOOLOGY,

G. G. M. SCIENCE COLLEGE,

JAMMU & KASHMIR, (J & K),

June, 28, 1976.

drains in urban areas. The species is seen

mainly during the monsoon months and is

active in the less intensity of light.

In the available literature on the planarians

of India there is no reference to the occurrence

of any land planarians from the Jammu and

Kashmir region. We are therefore, recording,

the occurrence of this species in India in

general and J & K State in particular.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Our thanks due to Dr R. H. Parker, Asst.

Director, British Museum (Natural History)

for help in the identification of the species of

planarian and comments on it.

B. D. SHARMAt

T. J. SHARMA

1 Present address: Department of Zoology, Th.

D.S.B. University

Nainital, (U.P.).

College,

Kumaun University,

35. ERIA PUDICA RIDL. (ORCHIDACEAE)—A NEW FIND FROM

KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS

(With a text-figure)

An unidentified sheet at the National Her-

barium collected by Prain’s collector (No.

318) in June 1899, from Omtey, Jaintia Hill,

Meghalaya has been identified after a critical

study and examination to be Eria pudica Ridl.

Further, the specimen was compared with

and found to be identical in characters to the

live plant of FE: pudica received from the

Director, Singapore Botanical Garden, in

1965, and now growing in National Orchi-

darium, Botanical Survey of India, Shillong.

The discovery of this orchid in Meghalaya,

outside its type locality, that is Singapore, is

highly significant from the phytogeographical

point of view. On account of its rarity and to

facilitate further search for this species in our

country, a detailed description with illustra-

tion is furnished.

Eria pudica Ridl., Journ. Linn. Soc. 32:

294. 1896; FI. Mal. Penins. 4:85. 1924; Holt-

tum, Rev. Fl. Malaya /:391. 1957.

Epiphytes. Pseudobulbs 4 cm long, crowded,

cylindrical with several nodes covered by

papery sheaths, unifoliate. Leaves 7-13 x 1.5-

205

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

2 cm, oblong-lanceolate, bifid at apex, coria-

ceous, petiole 4 cm long. Inflorescence erect,

arising from the node; scape and raceme 6

cm long, pubescent; floral bracts ovate-acu-

minate, pubescent equalling or little shorter

Fig. 1. Eria pudica Ridley. 1. Plant, x ¢ 1/2; 2.

Flower, front view; 3. Perigone with lip.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

SHILLONG,

August 22, 1974.

206

than the pedicellate ovary. Flowers many,

small, white, somewhat noded; sepal white

woolly tomentose outside, glabrous inside;

dorsal shorter and smaller than laterals, 4 x

2.5 mm, apiculate, gland dotted, obscurely 5-

nerved, laterals 5 X 3 mm broad, ovate, api-

culate, adnate to the base of the lip forming

a mentum, gland-dotted, 5-nerved; petals 4 x

2 mm, elliptic-oblong, falcate, shallowly bilob-

ed at apex, 3-nerved glabrous (nerves raised

and purple); Jip 3.5 x 3 mm, white flushed

with purple, adnate to the base of the column

by a short claw, 3-nerved; sidelobes obscure,

midlobe reflexed, fleshy, ovate, obtuse; column

erect, very short; anther depressed; stigma

broad; pollinia 8, unequal, barely cohering by

sticky masses at their bases; pedicel 3 mm

long, woolly tomentose;

Flowers. June-July.

Distribution. Singapore and India.

Specimens examined. Prain 318 (CAL),

Omtey, Jaintia Hill, Meghalaya, June 1899.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr S. K. Jain, Deputy

Director, Botanical Survey of India, Eastern

Circle, Shillong, for the facilities and to the

Deputy Director, Central National Herbarium

for the material for study.

N. C. DEORI

C. L. MALHOTRA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

36. A NOTE ON LOLIUM DUTHIEI (HACK. EX HOOK. F.) BARUNA

BHATTACHARYA

(With a text-figure)

During a study of the genus Lolium Linn.

occurring in India I came across 2 sheets bear-

ing the field number 10846 collected by Duthie

from Kashmir. They have been identified as

Lolium duthiei (Hack. ex Hook. f.) Baruna

Bhattacharya. J. D. Hooker had validated

Hackel’s epithet by giving a short description,

treating it as a variety of the species Lolium

rigidum Gaud. But after critical examination

of sheets on which the variety was based, it

has become clear that it differs from L. rigi-

dum proper in a number of characters and

therefore deserves a specific status.

The differentiating characters between the

two taxa are given below:

Bor (1960, p. 546) has commented on this

taxon thus: “The specimen called ‘var. duthiet

by Hook. f. in THE FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA

7, 364 (1896) is, I think, L. persicum’. But

L. rigidum var. duthiei is easily separable from

L. persicum by its smaller size, strict, erect

spikes, closely appressed spikelets and fewer

number of flowers in a spikelet.

Turrell (1968) in his observation has re-

marked that L. rigidum Gaud. var. duthiei

Hack. ex Hook. f. has affinities with L. temu-

L. rigidum Gaud.

D E i

oF NF we SF NM nw a ow

Fig. 1. Lolium duthiei (Hack. ex Hook. f.) Baruna

Bhattacharya.

lentum var. gracile Regel. He further suggested

that the characters of L. rigidum var. duthiei

are intermediate between L. rigidum Gaud.

L. rigidum var. duthiei Hack. ex Hook. f.

Glumes Shorter than spikelets, oblong

Lemmas Awnless, obovate

Anthers 2.5-3.5 mm long

Caryopsis = 4 mm long, elliptic to oblong

Spikelets 5-10 flowered, awnless, longer than

inter-nodes

Spikes 12-22 cm long, 20-30 spikelets in a

spike

Rachis Curved, rigid, shallowly hollowed

Ligules

Well developed, 2.2-2.3 mm long

Equal or longer than spikelets, subulate

Awned, oblong, awns weak, 9 mm long

1.5-2 mm long

3-3.5 mm long, oblong

3-4 (-5)-flowered, awned, shorter or equal to the

length of the internodes

6-18 cm long, 13-19 spikelets in a spike

Straight, slender, terete, strict, deeply hollowed

Obsolete, 0.4 mm long

207

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

proper and L. temulentum var. gracile Regel.

From the present study it appears to be nearer

to L. rigidum Gaud. in habit than that of L.

temulentum var. gracile Regel from which

it differs in many characiers.

The differentiating characters are as follows:

The following nomenclature is proposed:

Lolium duthiei (Hack. ex Hook. f.) B.

Bhattacharya, STAT et COMB Nov. L. rigidum

Gaud. var. duthiei Hack. ex Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

Ind. 7:363. 1896.

5 SASS, ae

L. temulentum var. gracile Regel

Culms Compressed, geniculate

Blades 7.5-16 cm, much larger

Spikes Up to 16.5 cm, slender

Rachis Compressed, not strict

Spikelets Longer than the inter-nodes, up to 2 cm

long, 7-9 or more flowered, not closely

appressed to the rachis

Glumes Shorter than or equal to spikelets, 1.5

cm long, linear lanceolate, herbaceous,

nerves visible on both surfaces

SSS SET ES

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,

SIBPUR, HowraAH 711 103,

February 13, 1976.

Specimens examined. Kashmir, Srinagar,

Alt. 5-6000 ft, 8-v-1892, J. F. Duthie 10846

(CAL); Kashmir, Srinagar, Alt. 5-6000 ft,

8-v-1892, J. F. Duthie 10846 (DD).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to the Director, Botanical

Survey of India, for facilities extended, and to

Dr R. B. Majumdar and Mr J. L. Ellis for

going through the manuscript and for giving

suggestions.

L. rigidum var. duthiei Hack. ex Hook. f. |

Terete, strict, straight

4.5-8.7 cm, much shorter

Up to 13.5 cm, straight, rigid

Terete, strict

Shorter than the inter-nodes, up to = 1 cm, 3-4,

rarely 5-flowered, closely appressed to the rachis

Longer than spikelets, 1.05-1.25 cm long, subulate,

hard, chartaceous, nerves visible only on the dorsal

surface

BARUNA BHATTACHARYA

REFERENCES

Bor, N. L. (1960): The Grasses of Burma, Cey-

long, India and Pakistan (excluding Bambuseae).

Pergamon Press, London: 546.

Hooker, J. D. (1896): The Flora of British In-

dia. 7:364.

TURRELL, E. (1968): A taxonomic revision of

the genus Lolium. Tech. Bull. 1392:37.

37. GALIUM PALUSTRE LL. AND ELEOCHARIS ACICULARIS (L.)

ROEM ET SCHULT.—TWO NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR INDIA

(With two text-figures)

While studying the aquatic and wetland vege-

tation of Kashmir we collected a number of

specimens, which on critical scrutiny were

identified as Galium palustre L. and Eleo-

charis acicularis (L.) Roem & Schult., distri-

208

buted in Europe, SW. Asia and Africa, but

not recorded hitherto from the Indian sub-

continent. Both species were collected in paddy

fields at various places in Kashmir, indicat-

ing that they are well established in the valley

MISCELLANEOUS

and probably have been introduced with the

seeds of the rice plants commonly grown in

the valley.

Galium palustre L. Sp. pL. 105 (1753):

Clapham ef al. Brit. Isles. 782 (1962).

Ascending or diffusely spreading perennial

‘a |

[We

Fig. 1. Galium palustre L.

A. Branch; B. Portion of stem and leaves; C. Flo-

wer; D. Calyx tube; E. Stamen; F. Carpel; G. Fruit.

NOTES

herb supported by neighbouring vegetation.

Roots 6-18 cm long, creeping, with adventi-

tious roots arising from the nodes. Stems weak

28-79 cm long, 1.5 mm broad, quadrangular,

glabrous, angles retroserrately scabrellate,

nodes thick, internodes 3-4 cm long, upper

ones shorter. Leaves 4 on each node, much

variable in shape oblanceolate—narrowly ellip-

tical, oblong 1.2-2.5 cm long 2-8 mm broad

obtuse, margins retroserrately scabreilate, in-

curved sometimes recurved with a single cen-

tral vein prominent from below, scabrous.

Flowers 3-4 mm diam., in spreading axillary

or terminal cymes, branches 3 flowered;

peduncles cylindrical 3-7 mm long. thickly

scabrous; calyx tubular 0.5 mm long, smooth;

petals 4 fused at the base, lobes spreading,

thick, broadly ovate, white; stamens 4, epi-

petalous 0.5-0.8 mm long, filaments hyaline,

anthers inserted, introrse, dorsifixed, greenish

yellow. Fruit glabular commonly twin, separat-

ing when ripe into two seed-like indehiscent

one seeded schizocarp, 2-4 mm dia., smooth,

black when dry.

Flowers and fruits. July-August.

Specimens examined. Ugjan Dialgam (Kash-

mir) AMK 1123; Verinag (Kashmir) AMK

1165; in rice field channels.

Eleocharis acicularis (L.) Roem & Schult.,

Syst. 2:154 (1817); Clapham ef al. Fl. Brit.

Isles. 1062 (1962).

A small tufted perennial herb, with much

branched rhizomes, stoloniferous. Stems erect

as well as deflexed, setaceous, terete, angular

or mostly sulcate, unbranched 3-6 cm high

arising directly from the rhizomes ending in

a spike. Basal sheaths 1-2 hyaline, brown, loose

at the apex, truncate, oblique. Leaves filiform,

tufted 3-5 cm long, glabrous acute or blunt,

green. Spikes 2-4 mm long, 1-2 mm _ broad

singly on the culms, much variable in shape

narrowly ovoid-elliptical, dirty green or brow-

209

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 74

nish with 3-13 flowers all fertile. Glumes 2 mm

long 1.5 mm broad, ovate or broadly lanceo-

late, navicular, dark brown with central green

portion, acute margins membranous. Stamens

3, filaments hyaline elongating later on, anthers

exserted 1-1.1 mm long, acute, basifixed, de-

hiscing longitudinally, yellow. Ovary linearly

obovoid 0.5-0.8 mm long, style double the

size of ovary with swollen base; stigma trifid,

branches linear, exserted. Bristles 2 rarely 3-4,

shorter or equalling ovary, minutely retroser-

rate. Nut 0.7-0.9 mm long obovoid nearly

terete, rarely trigonous, whitish with a num-

ber of longitudinal ribs and minutely pitted.

Flowers and fruits. July-August.

Common on the margins of rice fields, rare-

ly on muddy banks and wet places.

Specimens examined. Verinag (Kashmir) rice

fields AMK 710, Ugjan Dialgam (Kash-

mir) AMK 1157.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

UNIVERSITY OF KASHMIR,

SRINAGAR, 190 006,

September 4, 1975.

Fig. 2.

A. Plant; B. Spike; C. Glume; D. Stem with basal

sheath; E. Stamen; F. Flower; G. Nut; H. Carpel

with two bristles.

Eleocharis acicularis (L.) Roem et Schult.

A. MAJEED KAK

G. N. JAVEID

38. ON THE IDENTITY OF ADIANTUM LYRATUM BLANCO

The East Asiatic Adiantum lyratum was des-

cribed by Blanco (FI. Filip., 1837) based on

specimens from Mandaloyon, near Manila.

Christensen (Ind. Fil. 1:665; 1906) expressed

the opinion that A. lyratum Blanco and A.

caudatum Linn. are conspecific and this opini-

on seems to have been prevailing all along. In

Central National Herbarium, Sibpur, Howrah,

India (CAL) there is a topotype sheet of A.

lyratum Blanco collected by Merrill (Species

Blancoanae No. 284). Merrill also considere

A. lyratum Blanco and A. caudatum Linn. to

210

be conspecific. This is clearly evident from

the annotation on the printed label on the

sheet which reads: ““There is no doubt what-

ever as to the identity of Blanco’s species with

Adiantum caudatum Linn., which is very

common in the country about Manila.” The

question arises as to whether the above two.

names are conspecific or not. On a critical ex-

amination of the specimens of Adiantum

housed in CAL we have concluded that A.

lyratum Blanco and A. caudatum Linn. are

distinct species. The two species can be easily

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

separated on the basis of the following key.

Pinnae strongly laciniate, lower surface provided

only with long, pluricellular ferruginous hairs

Raia Pree a Meanie eel SN ap ahah F iicpan als A. lyratum

Pinnae not strongly laciniate, lower surface pro-

vided with hamate and pluricellular ferruginous

hairs A. caudatum

As the description given by Blanco is very

brief a full description of the taxon is provided

below.

Adiantum lyratum Blanco, FI. Filip. 832,

HSSde (ede2), S75, 90845") (ed) 3) 3: 250;

LST ae

Rhizome short, erect, scaly; scale brown,

lanceolate, margin of the scale entire and hya-

line; stipe hirsute throughout, 4-6 cm _ long,

dark brown, cylindrical. Frond simply pinnate,

oblong linear, apex proliferous. Rachis hirsute

throughout with ferruginous, pluricellular

hairs, 12-25 cm in length, brown to deep

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,

INDIAN BOTANIC GARDEN,

SIBPUR, HowraH, 3.

September 23, 1975.

39)

Ipomoea leari Paxt. is known as a beautiful

introduced garden climber in India. The spe-

cies was named after J. G. Lear who in 1839

sent the seeds of the plant from Sri Lanka to

Knight’s Nursery in England. It is not how-

ever a Sri Lanka species, but probably a native

of Buenos Aires, S. America.

Recently we got an opportunity to observe

this plant in a naturalised condition in Dar-

jeeling on the open roadside towards Kur-

seong, while exploring that area in May, 1966.

Our colleague Dr N. C. Mazumder had also

collected the species from a_ wild area of

Sikkim in 1968. We have come across some

old herbarium material of the species in the

brown, glossy. Pinnae largest towards the

middle, 0.4 to 0.5 cm broad and 1.4 to 1.5 cm

long, subsessile, deeply laciniate, close, strong-

ly striate, trapeziform, apex rounded, lower

margin straight, 4-5 times lobed, sinus deep,

each lobe again lobed slightly; both the sur-

faces provided with long, ferruginous, pluri-

cellular hairs. either scattered or densely, the

fertile reflexed tips hairy; venation strictly

dichotomous, veins keeled on the lower sur-

face. Sori on each secondary lobe. Spores deep

brown, tetrahedral.

Specimens examined. Mandaloyan (Man-

ila), Rizalprovince Luzon, Philippense, Mer-

rill species Blancoaneae 284 (Acc. No. 6218),

August 1910, (CAL); Luzon Central, Manila,

Philippense, A. Loher 1226 (Acc. No. 6219),

August 1910, (CAL).

N. C. NAIR

S. R. GHOSH

IPOMOEA LEARI PAXT.—A NATURALISED PLANT OF INDIA

Central National Herbarium (CAL) which

gives new light on its distributional record.

On the basis of the collection data available

so far in India, the species seems widely dis-

tributed in Darjeeling (W. Bengal), Gauhati

(Assam), Monghyr (Bihar), Patiala (Punjab),

Singtam (Sikkim) India and Singapore.

Regional floras of India list 7. leari Paxt.

as a tropical American plant often cultivated

in this country. For its correct identity a short

description is given below.

Tpomoea leari Paxt. Mag. Bot. 6:267. 1839;

Trimen, Hand Book. Fl. Ceylon 3:213. 1895;

Prain, Bengal Pls. 2:734. 1903; Haines, Bot.

Bihar & Orissa 4:594. 1922; Ridley, Fl. Malay

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Penin. 2:462. 1923; Cowan, Fl. Trees & Shrubs

in India 124. 1950; Oostroom, in Fl. Malesiana

ser. 1:4:466, 1953.

Pharbitis learii Lindley, in Edward Bot. Reg.

t. 56, 1841; Curtis, Bot. Mag. 15:t. 3928.

1842.

Ipomoea leari Paxt.

1) Young parts covered with

white straight hairs

and

I. congesta R. Brown I.

Young parts slightly pubescent

capitate.

This species is closely allied to the Aus-

tralian 7. congesta R. Br. and the Mexican

I. rubro-coerulea Hook. For the sake of cor-

rect identity the characters differentiating these

species are shown below: }

rubro-coerulea Hook.

(a1) tricolors:€ay,)

Plant smooth

2) Leaves usually 3-lobed

whitish pubescent beneath

3) Pedicels are of nearly equal

length

4) Sepals 2 cm long hirsute,

longer than pedicel

Leaves entire, pilose hairy beneath

Pedicels unequal

Sepals 1.4-2.2 cm, with few hairs

at the base and longer than pedi-

cels

Australia

Leaves entire, glabrous

Pedicels unequal

Sepals 1.5-1.8 (2.5) cm, smooth,

shorter than pedicel

5) Indigenous to Buenos Aires, Indigenous to

S. America, (Am. Trop)

Twining shrub, young parts hairy. Leaves

6-11 x 5-10 cm, alternate, ovate to 3-lobed,

cordate at the base, apex acute to acuminate,

upper surface deep green, whitish pubescent

beneath; petiole 5-11 cm, pubescent. Flowers

in congested cyme at the extremities of lateral

shoots, peduncle 8-15 cm; pedicels 0.5-1 cm,

2 lateral pubescent bracts present at the base.

Sepals 5-partite, unequal, 2 <x 0.3 cm, hirsute.

Petals 5, connate in campanulate corolla, 5-

9 cm long, deep bluish purple with 5 bands

of light colour. Stamens 5, inserted in the

corolla tube, filaments = 1 cm, unequal, finely

fringed at the base; anthers filiform. Carpel

solitary, ovary ovate; style = 2 cm; stigma

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,

INDIAN BOTANICAL GARDEN,

Howral 3,

September 23, 1975.

212

Indigenous to Mexico (C. Ame-

rica)

Distribution: BENGAL: Darjeeling, Kurseong,

23-v-1966—D. Das 168 A-C (CAL); PUNJAB:

Patiala, 10-vi-1916—N. B. Dutt 98 (CAL);

BIHAR: Monghyr, 5-ix-1919—G. C. Banerjee

4 (CAL); assam: Gauhati, March 1902—

A. C. Chatterjee sn. (CAL); Sikkim: Singh-

tum, 20-ix-1968—N. C. Mazumder 542 (CAL)

South India: Rev.. Aug. Sanlire (Acc. No.

311384) (CAL).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Dr S. K. Jain, Deputy

Director, Central National Herbarium, Howrah

for encouragement.

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BHABESH ROY

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BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS. Part I—Rouset- 4

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VOLUME 74(2): AUGUST 1977

Date of Publication: 14-3-1978

CONTENTS

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS. PART II—Rhino-

lophus rouxi (TEMMINCK)—RHINOLOPHIDAE. By A. Gopalakrishna and

K.7V.. B.. Rao

LIST OF TYPE SPECIMENS OF SOME SPECIES, VARIETIES, AND FORMAS DEPOSITED IN

BLATTER HERBARIUM, BOMBAY. By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida ..

MOULT IN THE BAYA WEAVER Ploceus philippinus LINNAEUS. By D. N. Mathew.

(With three text-figures)

SPECIES IDENTIFICATION AND AGE CLASSIFICATION OF THE JAWS OF SOME COMMON

INDIAN UNGULATES NEAR MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY. By J. A. Cohen.

(With two plates containing four figures)

NEW ADDITIONS TO THE PTERIDOPHYTIC FLORA OF INDIA FROM GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND.

By K. Thothathri, S. P. Banerjee, P. K. Hajra and G. D. Pal. (With seven text-

figures) ae a : : :

NOTES ON SOUTH INDIAN HEPATICAE—2. THE GENUS Herberta Gray. By Ram Udar

and S. C. Srivastava. (With twenty-nine text-figures)

ECTOPARASITES FROM NEPAL BIRDS. By Richard M. Mitchell and James A. Dick

EFFECTS OCF CROWDING ON TEMPLE RHESUS MONKEYS OF IMPHAL, MANIPUR.

By R. P. Mukherjee. (With a text-figure and a photograph)

NEW RECORDS OF BATHYPELAGIC FISHES FROM THE ARABIAN SEA WITH DESCRIPTION

OF A NEW SPECIES. By Verghese P. Oommen. (With seven text-figures)

BREEDING OF THE PIGMY HOG Sus salvanius (HODGSON) IN NORTHERN ASSAM.

By Jeremy J. C. Mallinson. (With two plates and a text-figure)

ON THE LARVAE OF Bruchidius SCHILSKY (BRUCHIDAE: COLEOPTERA). By L. K. Vats.

(With thirty text-figures)

New DESCRIPTIONS:

Studies on some Mygalomorph spiders of the families Ctenizidae and Theraphosidae

from India. By B. K. Tikader. (With thirty-eight text-figures)

Four new species of Pteridophytes from Bombay Presidency. By P. V. Bole and

M. R. Almeida. (With four text-figures)

A new species of Diospyros (Ebenaceae) from Western India.

By A. J. G. H. Kostermans. (With a plate)

PAGE

220

233

246

249

255

264

21d

282

288

299

306

320

326

A new species of spider of the family Oxyopidae from Gujarat, India, with notes on

other species of the family. By B. H. Patel. (With a text-figure) .. CONS Da),

A new variety of Glycine wightii subsp. wightii Verdcourt from south India.

By Ajita Sen. (With a text-figure) .. of 7 in ers Ow

A new species of spider of the genus Platythomisus Simon (Family: Thomisidae)

from Coorg, Karnataka, India. By A. T. Biswas. (With three text-figures) Sa ee D

A new subspecies of Bay Owl [Phodilus badius (Horsfield)] from peninsular India. -

By S. A. Hussain and M. A. Reza Khan. (With a plate) .. a i S334

OBITUARY:

N. Kesava Panikkar (1913-1977) ie ae: Me a Bs oo

REVIEWS:

1. Flora of Hassan District, Karnataka, India. (P. V. Bole) .. Wi se 339

2. Psocoptera of the Oriental Region. (B. P. Mehra) es ts pa 640

3. Taxonomy of the Bruchidae (Coleoptera) of northwest India. Part I.

(B. P. Mehra) oa rh a a a are 340

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

MAMMALS: 1. Taxonomic studies on the Greater Horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus ferrumequi-

num (Schreber) [Chiroptera: Rhinolophidae]. By S. Chakraborty (p. 341); 2. Occurrence

of the Large-eared Horseshoe Bat, Rhinolophus macrotis macrotis Blyth [Mammalia: Chiro-

ptera: Rhinolophidae] in Cherrapunji, Meghalaya. By J. P. Lal (p. 343); 3. Notes on stump-

tailed macaque [Macaca speciosa F. Cuvier] and Pigtailed macaque [Macaca nemestrina

(Linn.)] from Meghalaya. By S. Biswas and H. Diengdoh (p. 344): 4. Lepus arabicus Ehren-

berg from Jammu and Kashmir: Addition to the Mammalian fauna of India. By S. Chakra-

borty (p. 345); 5. A melanistic example of Woolly Flying Squirrel, Eupetaurus cinereus

Thomas (Rodentia: Sciuridae). By S. Chakraborty and V. C. Agrawal (p. 346); 6. Ecologi-

cal study of habitats, feeding and survival of the Indian Gazelle Gazeila gazella (Pallas).

By Indra Kumar Sharma (p. 347); 7. On some mammals recently collected in Bhutan. By

Subhendu Sekhar Saha (p. 350).

Birps: 8. Three bird species seen for the first time in Sri Lanka. By J. C. Sinclair (p. 354);

9. Spotbill Duck (Anas p. poecilorhyncha) Forster nesting in a tree. (With a plate). By R. S.

Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 354); 10. Migrating harriers. By Lavkumar Khacher (p. 355); 11.

A note on Hume’s Ground Chough Podoces humilis Hume. By Lavkumar Khacher (p. 356);

12. Blackthroated Weaver bird Ploceus benghalensis (Linnaeus) breeding near Bhavnagar

(Saurashtra). By R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 357); 13. The Birds of Goa: A correction.

By Robert B. Grubh and Salim Ali (p. 357).

REPTILES: 14. The distribution of Cantor’s polyodont snake, Sibynophis sagittarius (Ser-

pentes: Colubridae). By T. S. N. Murthy and B. D. Charma (p. 358); 15. Note on natural

history of Crocodylus palustris. (With a plate). By R. Whitaker and Z. Whitaker (p. 358);

16. Nesting behaviour of estuarine Crocodile, C. porosus Schneider. By S. Biswas (p. 361);

17. Locomotor responses of Calotes to water (Agamidae: Sauria). By Carl Gans (p. 361);

18. Behaviour, coloration, lepidosis and pre-ano-femoral pores in Juveniles of Uromastix

hardwickii Gray. By R. K. Bhatnagar and R. K. Bhanotar (p. 364).

FISHES: 19. Extension of distribution of Thrissina boelama (Forskal) (Pisces: Clupeiformes:

Engraulidae) with remarks on its taxonomic characters. By M. Babu Rao (p. 365); 20. Oc-

currence of Cobitid genus Botia Gray in the Western Ghats of India. (With a text-figure).

By M. Babu Rao and G. M. Yazdani (p. 367); 21. Hermaphroditism in the Murrel, Channa

punctata (Bloch 1793). By S. Dutt and P. Balasundar Reddy (p. 368).

INSEcTS: 22. The life-history of a Cavernicolous Orthoptera Kempiola shankari Sinha &

Agarwal (Orthoptera: Phalangopsidae). (With two text-figures). By K. M. Sinha (p. 369);

23. Cerococcus hibisci Green (Homoptera: Asterolecaniidae) and its chalcid parasites. (With

fifteen figures). By Rajendra Kumar Avasthi and Shaikh Adam Shafee (p. 374); 24. First

record of Anomalicornia Mercet (Hym.: Chalcidoidea, Encyrtidae) in India. (With five text-

figures). By Mohammad Hayat (p. 377); 25. Role of Palas [Butea monosperma (Lam.)

Taub.] leafstalks in Baisakhi sticklac production. By R. C. Mishra and C. P. Malhotra

(p. 379).

ECHINODERMA: 26. Occurrence of the Aspidochirote Holothurian, Holothuria (Semperothuria)

cinerascens (Brandt 1835) along the coast of Kanyakumari (S. India). (With a photograph

and two text-figures). By M. Mary Bai and M. Bharathi Ramanathan (p. 380).

BoraNny: 27. On the nomenclature of some Indian and Burmese species of Dysophylla Blume

(Lamiaceae). By N. C. Majumdar (p. 384); 28. Sesbania sesban (Linn.) Merrill var. picta

comb. nov. By Tenjarla C. S. Sastry and P. S. Gupta (p. 387); 29. An addition to Indian

Polygonums from northern Himalayas. (With a text-figure). By A. M. Munshi (p. 388);

30. Occurrence of Peplidium maritimum Wettest. in Rajasthan. By Vijendra Singh (p. 390);

31. Occurrence of Ipomoea sindica Stapf in S. India. (With a text-figure). By Rekha Datar

and V. D. Vartak (p. 390); 32. Occurrence of water fern Marsilea near Digha sea beach

in West Bengal (India). By T. N. Bhardwaja and S. K. Sen (p. 392); 33. Two new plant

records for India. By A. R. Naqshi and G. N. Javeid (p. 393); 34. Occurrence of alter-

native vernation in spathe of Zantedeschia aethiopica and other Araceae. (With six photo-

graphs). By N. Pratap Reddy and Bir Bahadur (p. 295).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1977 AUGUST

Vol. 74

No. 2

Breeding habits and associated phenomena

in some Indian bats

Part Il—Rhinolophus rouxi (Temminck)—Rhinolophidae’

A. GOPALAKRISHNA AND K. V. B. RAo

Department of Zoology, Institute of Science,

Nagpur

Rhinolophus rouxi in Western Ghats near Khandala, Maharashtra State, has a sharply

defined breeding season. The females in the colony undergo copulation some time during

the last week of December and the early development of the egg is slow. There is a

delayed implantation of the blastocyst. Each female carries a single conceptus invariably in

the right uterine cornu. After a gestation period of about 150 to 160 days delivery takes place

during the last week of May or early in June. This species does not attain sexual maturity

in the year of birth. There is an uneven sex ratio with the females outnumbering the males

in the adult, while during the juvenile stage the males outnumber the females.

INTRODUCTION

Detailed reviews of the earlier work on the

breeding habits of microchiropteran bats have

been given by several authors (Baker & Bird

1936; Wimsatt 1942; Gopalakrishna 1947,

1955; Madhavan 1971). From these reviews

and from a perusal of the earlier literature

on the subject it is evident that there are wide

1 Accepted October 1975.

variations in the breeding pattern of the mic-

rochiropteran bats and that different species

inhabiting the same locality differ in their

breeding habits.

The family Rhinolophidae has a wide geo-

graphic distribution and is represented in

Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia. All rhi-

nolophids so far studied appear to have a

strict breeding periodicity, but there are fun-

damental differences between those living in

cold climates and those in warmer regions.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

In the European rhinolophids (Fries 1879;

Rollinat & Trouessart 1897; Courrier 1924;

Matthews 1937) after copulation, which takes

place in autumn, the inseminated sperms are

stored in a ventrally located pocket of the

vagina during winter, when the animals go

into hibernation, and effectively fertilise the

ova which are released in the following spring —

when the animals wake from _ hibernation.

After copulation the vaginal canal is blocked

by a plug which prevents further copulation.

The scanty information which is available

regarding the reproductive processes of Indian

thinolophids indicates that, while the perio-

dicity of breeding is strict, there is nothing

comparable to the protracted storage of in-

seminated sperms as noted in the European

species (Ramakrishna Iyer 1951; Brosset

1962; Srinivasan et al. 1973). Further, there

does not seem to be agreement among the

authors regarding several aspects of breeding

biology of Indian rhinolophids. Rhinolophus

rouxi, collected from a restricted mountain-

ous region of western ghats, has been chosen

for detailed study not only because there is

no work on this species from this locality, and

this species appears to exhibit different breed-

ing behaviour in different regions (Rama-

krishna Iyer 1951; Brosset 1962; Srinivasan

et al. 1973), and also because it exhibits cer-

tain extraordinary features which have not

been observed in any Indian bat so far.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The specimens of Rhinolophus rouxi were

collected at random from three railway tun-

nels (Nos. 11, 12 and 13) near Khandala in

western ghats, Maharashtra State, India. This

region receives a heavy rain fall during June-

September and has luxurient vegetation. The

specimens were collected at intervals of three

to four weeks commencing from 7th October

214

1970 to 25th December 1972 such that every

calendar month is represented by one collec-

tion or more. During the breeding season the

specimens were collected at more frequent in-

tervals with a view to obtaining closely grad-

ed development stages. Altogether 406 speci-

mens were examined for the present. work.

The specimens were killed by chloroform

soon atter capture and their body weight re-

corded. The characters of the external geni-

talia, the conditions of the mammary and the

pubic teats in the females, and the position

of the testis and the condition of the penis in

the males were aiso recorded. The genital

organs and the accessory reproductive struc-

tures were dissected out and fixed in various

fixatives such as Bouin’s fluid, neutral fotma-

lin and Rossman’s fluid. After dehydrating

them by passing through graded series of

ethanol and clearing them in xylol, the gonads

and the accessory organs were embedded in

paraffin and sectioned at a thickness of 8 #.

The sections were stained with Ehrlich’s

haematoxylin, counterstained with eosin and

mounted in DPX mountant.

The genital organs presented almost the

same condition on a given calender date in

the two years when the collections were made.

Hence, in the following descriptions, only the

date and the month are mentioned, where

pertinent, except where the mention. of the

year has a special significance. ee

A detailed collection diary incorporating

the description of each specimen was main-

tained. Table 1 gives the summary of the col-

lection diary and table 2 gives the month-

wise collection of the specimens. +

OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

1. General remarks on Rhinolophus rouxi

The specimens live inside excavations in

the walls of the railway tunnels in small

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS—PART II

TABLE 1

SUMMARY OF COLLECTION DIARY

Immature Adult Immature Adult total

Attached Total Attached Pregnant Total

Date to Free of to Free Non- Right Left Lactating of

mother males mother pregnant porn horn females

7-i-71 =

— 5

2 7 — — _ -- ~ 3 0

9-i-71 — 2 -- 2 — 2 — — — _ 2 4

11-i-71 _ 2 a 2 _ J — ae — — 1 3

14-i-71 — 4 3 7 — — — 1 -- ~ 1 8

18-i-71 — 1 — 1 -- 1 — — _ _ 1 2

21-i-71 aa 1 2 3 — — — — = — -- 3

23-i-71 — _ 1 1 _ — — 1 = - 1 2

26-i-71 _ i - 1 — a — — — — _ 1

1-ii-71 _ — 1 1 _- —_ _ 9 - a 9 10

4-ii-71 — — 2 2 _ 1 _ 11 — _ 12 14

11-ii-71 _ _ 1 1 ~ 1 — — ~ 1 2

12-ii-71 = 1 — 1 ~~ 2 _ 1 — _ 3 4

19-ii-71 _ 3 2 5 — a _ _ aoa _ — 5

23-ii-71 _ 2 3 5 os — — 2 ~ _ 2 7

26-ii-71 -- — 16 16 — 2 _ 1 ~~ _ 3 19

16-iii-71 = — 2 4 6 _ 2 — 15 _ aa 17 23

23-iii-71 = — — 8 8 _ 1 — 11 — _ 12 20

29-iii-72 — — 2 2 a 2. — 1 _ _ 3 5

31-iii-72. — 1 1 2 _ 1 -- 4 — — 5 7

1-iv-71 9 — - 4 4 _- — _ 9 — _ 9 13

21-iv-71 2 — 2 1 3 _ — _ 2 _ — 2 5

26-iv-72 — 1 7 8 _ _ _ 10 — — 10 18

21-v-71 — _ 3 3 _ — — 7 — o 7 10

26-v-72 a — 2 2 _ — -- _ - — _ 2

28-v-72 _ — 7 7 — — — — - — _ 7

1-vi-72 — -- 13 13 ~- — — — — — — 13

14-vi-71 — 2 5 7 _ — — — _ 4 4 11

14-vii-71 — 1 4 5 _ 1 _ _ = 23 24 29

29-vii-72 — 1 16 17 — — — oa — 7 7 24

1-viii-71 9 — 1 1 — 1 — = _ 8 9 10

22-viii-71. — _ o - _ 1 — — _ ~ 1 1

27-viii-72 — _ 3 3 — 2 17 _ -- _ 19 22

W7-ix-72, 9 — — 3 3 _ — 2 — _ _ 2 5

20-ix-71 = — 2 5 7 _ 1 4 a — 5 12

7X70 2 — _ 1 1 aa — 27 ~- - o 27 28

22-x-71 — 1 2 3 _ o 1 — = 1 4

11-xi-70 — 2 4 6 — 1 16 ~ _ _ 17 23

24-xi-71 1 2 3 _ = 1 — - _ 1 4

13-xii-70 — 3 7 10 = 3 — — — 6 16

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

TABLE 2

MONTHWISE COLLECTION OF SPECIMENS

Month

Jan 24 9 33

Feb. 31 30 61

Mar 18 37 35

Apr iks) 21 36

May 12 a 19

June 20 4 24

July 22 31 53

Aug 4 29 33

Sep. 10 7 17

Oct. 4 28 32

Nov. 9 18 27

Dec. 10 6 16

Grand total 179 pepe) 406

groups of 10 to 50 specimens. There may be

several such groups within the same tunnel.

During the non-breeding season there is a

certain degree of segregation so that the adult

males and females live in separate groups

within the same tunnel, while during the

breeding season they live together. Immature

ones of both the sexes, however, occur in all

the groups in all the seasons.

The fur on the body of Rhinolophus rouxi

is usually black but a few specimens had

brown coloured fur. Andersen (1917) noted

that the change of the fur colour is normal

for Rhinolophus rouxi and that it is related

to moulting, which this species undergoes

twice a year, once in spring (about May) and

a second time in autumn (about October).

Although the tunnels from which these bats

were collected were very busy railway tunnels,

the specimens do not appear to be disturbed by

the constant movement of trains, but any un-

usual sound or the approach of human beings

near the groups appears to excite the speci-

mens which flutter around and even fly out

of the roost.

216

There were very few specimens in their

normal roosts during the period from the

middle of December to the first week of

January when copulation takes place. Appar-

ently, they appear to migrate elsewhere and

return soon after the commencement of

pregnancy.

This species does not undergo true hiber-

nation as the European rhinolophids do, but

they experience a slight degree of torpidity

during July and August when there is inces-

sant rain. Brosset (1962), however, mention-

ed that there is a definite hibernation in

August in this species.

The adult females leave their normal roosts

and migrate elsewhere just before delivering

their young and return to their roosts only

after the young are weaned. Hence, during

this period the tunnels contained mostly

males and immature females.

2. The female reproductive organs

The general construction of the female

genitalia of Rhinolophus rouxi resembles that

of most of the bats possessing bicornuate

uterus. However, in the adult specimens the

right uterine cornu is longer and_ noticeably

thicker than the left. Each uterine cornu is

about 1 cm long and the uterine cornua are

symmetrically placed across the rectum and

meet medially. The lumina of the uterine

cornua become confluent, and a short cervi-

cal canal opens into the vaginal lumen. The

vagina measures about 1 to 1.5 mm in length.

Although the female genitalia are morpholo-

gically bilaterally symmetrical, only the right

ovary releases a single ovum during each re-

productive cycle and the conceptus is invari-

ably carried in the right uterine cornu. Nor-

mally the follicles in the left ovary do not

develop beyond the multilaminar stage, but

in rare cases they may reach an early vesi-

cular stage.

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS—PART II

The mammary glands are on the ventro-

lateral sides of the thorax and their nipples

are distinctly visible only in the parous ani-

mals. Pubic teats without mammary glands

are present on each side near the groin. They

are very small in immature animals, but get

enlarged during the first pregnancy and re-

main as such throughout the rest of their life.

3. Breeding habits

Examination of the collection diary and

table 1 reveals that pregnant specimens occur-

red only from about the first week of Janu-

ary to about the last week of May. This in-

dicates that this species breeds once a year

in a sharply defined season. Examination of

the ovaries of the adult female specimens

collected on 13th December revealed the pre-

sence of one large vesicular follicle in addi-

tion to numerous smaller follicles in the right

ovary, and follicles at various stages of de-

velopment up to the multilaminar condition

in the left ovary. The uterine glands contain-

ed copious amount of secretion and the ute-

rine lumen had some amount of cell debris.

The vagina contained desquamated cornified

cells. Evidently the animals were approaching

oestrus. Neither copulation nor ovulation had

occurred in these specimens. A late uterine mo-

rula was present in the right uterine cornu of

adult females collected on the 7th January

1971, 14th January 1971 and 23rd January

1971. The morula in all these specimens was at

nearly the same stage of development. The

other females collected on these dates were

immature. Each of the adult specimens col-

lected between Ist February 1971 and 12th

February 1971 contained an unimplanted

blastocyst in the right uterine cornu. The

adult females collected on 23rd February

1971 had each an early implanted blastocyst.

Progressively advanced stages of pregnancy

were noticed in the females collected during

the following weeks until 21st May 1971.

Pregnant females each carrying a full term

foetus, and which would have probably de-

livered within a week more, were collected

on 21st May 1971. Further, every adult

female in the colony was pregnant between

7th January 1971 and 21st May 1971, and

the stage of development of the embryo was

nearly the same in all the females collected

on any given date. These facts lead to cer-

tain interesting conclusions: —

Since the adult specimens collected on

13th December had neither copulated nor did

they have preovulatory follicles, and since all

the adult females collected on 7th January

had an uterine morula it is evident that ferti-

lization must have occurred latest about 4 to

5 days before 7th January, 1971 in these ani-

mals. Secondly, there is a retarded develop-

ment of the embryo during the early stages

and a delayed implantation of the blastocyst,

which remains free in the uterine lumen for

a considerable time.

Between 2Ist May 1971 and 14th June

1971 neither pregnant females nor females in

lactation were present in the railway tunnels

which contained only males and immature

females during this period. Many females in

lactation were collected between the 14th of

June and Ist of August, but there was no

young at their breasts. These facts indicate

that the females migrate elsewhere prior to

parturition and that all the females in the

colony deliver the young within the short span

of two weeks. After parturition the females

return to the roosts. The facts that the

mothers do not carry the young ones at their

breasts incessantly, and that the females were

in full lactation until the Ist of August, indi-

cate that the females give suck to the young

ones in the roosts and do not normally carry

the young ones at breast in flight as many

217

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

other bats do. The first free weaned young

of the year was collected on the Ist of August.

From the foregoing account of the breed-

ing habits of Rhinolophus rouxi the annual

life of the females of this species can be re-

cognized into the following periods:—

(1) The period of sexual quiescence from

August to about the beginning of December.

(2) Copulation in a sharply defined period

during the last week of December or the first

week of January latest.

(3) Pregnancy involving retarded _ early

development and delayed implantation from

about the first week of January until about

the last week of May.

(4) Parturition during the last week of

May or early in June.

(5) Lactation from the last week of May

or early in June to about the first week of

August.

Since Rhinolophus rouxi has a sharply de-

fined breeding season, it is relatively easy to

determine the gestation period from the preg-

nancy record. From the stages of development

of the morula in the three females collected

on 7th January one could deduce that fertili-

zation could have occurred about a week

earlier. The last date on which the pregnant

females were collected was 21st May when the

females had each a full term foetus with pig-

mented skin and well developed patagia. The

rhinarium and the median ridge above the

nostrils of the foetuses had attained their full

development. From these characters of the

foetuses one could deduce that the young

would have been delivered within another

week. On the basis of these facts the duration

of pregnancy in Rhinolophus rouxi should be

about 150 to 160 days. This confirms the ob-

servation of Ramakrishna Iyer (1951), but it

is at variance with those of Brosset (1962) and

Srinivasan et al. (1973), who mention a gesta-

218

tion period of 60 to 70 days and three months

respectively for this species.

4. Age at maturity

As already mentioned, the young ones of

Rhinolophus rouxi are delivered in a sharply

restricted period between about the last week

of May and the first week of June. The young

animals grow rapidly during early life and

reach a weight nearly equal to the weight of

the adult when they are three to four months

of age. After this age the young ones cannot

be distinguished from the adults on the basis

of the weight or the size of the body. However,

sexual maturity or otherwise in the females

can be determined on the basis of the size and

nature of mammary nipples and pubic teats

taken along with the pregnancy record. The

mammary nipples and pubic teats are very

insignificant in the non-parous females. After

the first lactation they enlarge in size and re-

main as such throughout life. Hence, in all

parous females they are prominent and large.

Sexual maturity in males can be determined

on the basis of the histology of the testis. The

presence of a few immature females and males

during the breeding season indicates that sex-

ual maturity is not attained by either sex in

the year of their birth in this bat. Since fe-

males are shown to become pregnant in Janu-

ary it is evident that they should be af least

19 months of age before attaining sexual ma-

turity. Examination of the testes reveal that

spermatogenesis commences late in September.

Hence, the males take at least 16 months to

reach sexual maturity. At least three catego-

ries of specimens of each sex can be recogniz-

ed at the beginning of the breeding season—

(a) animals which have bred at least once be-

fore, (b) animals which are in their first breed-

ing season, and (c) animals which are sexually

immature. | ;

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS—PART II

5. Sex ratio

In a total of 406 specimens of Rhinolophus

rouxi collected at random over a period of

two years, there were 227 females including

26 immature ones and 179 males including

38 immature ones. The fact that there is a

certain degree of segregation of the two sexes

may not warrant a definite conclusion regard-

ing the sex ratio in this species. However, the

random collections made during two years

shows an uneven sex ratio with the females

outnumbering the males in the adult stage. In

the juvenile stage, however, the males out-

number the females. It is likely that there is

a greater mortality of the males than the fe-

males during juvenile life resulting in the un-

REFERENCES

ANDERSEN, K. (1917): On the so called colour

phases of the horse-shoe bat of India. (Rhinolo-

phus .rouxi Temm). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 25:

260-273. i

Baker, J. R. & Birp, T. F. (1936): The seasons

in a tropical rain-forest (New Hebrides), part IV.

Insectivorous bats (Vespertilionidae and Rhinolo-

phidae). J. Linn. Soc. London. 40:143-161.

.: BRosseT, A. (1962): The bats of Central and

Western India. Part I—J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

59:1-57. aint

CourRIER, R. (1924): Le cycle sexual chez la

femelle des Mammiferes. Etude de la phase folli-

culaire. Arch. de Biol. 34:369-477.

_ Frigs, S. (1879): Uber die Fortpflanzung der ein-

heimischen chiropteren. Zool. Anz. 2:355-357.

- GOPALAKRISHNA, A. (1947): Studies on the em-

bryology of Microchiroptera. Part I—Reproduction

and breeding seasons in the South Indian vesperti-

lionid bat, Scotophilus wroughtoni (Thomas). Proc.

Ind. Acad. Sci. 26:219-132.

(1955): Observations on the breed-

ing habits and ovarian cycle in the Indian sheath-

16 : 360-362.

even female-predominant sex ratio in the

adults.

tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke).

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 21:29-41.

MaADHAVAN, A. (1971): Breeding habits in the

Indian vespertilionid bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus

chrysothrix (Wroughton). Mammalia 35:283-306.

MatTTHEWS, L. H. (1937): The female sexual

cycle in the British horse-shoe bats, Rhinolophus

ferrum-equinum insulanus (Barrett-Hamilton) and

R. hipposideros minutus (Montague). Trans. Zool.

Soc. London. 23:224-266.

RAMAKRISHNA Iyer, P. A. (1951): Studies on

the reproduction in bats. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India

ROLLINAT, R.-& TROUESSART, E. (1897): Sur la

reproduction des Chauve-souris. Les Rhinolophes.

Mem. Soc. Zool. France 10:114-138.

SREENIVASAN, M. A., BHAT, H. R. & GEEVAR-

GHESE, G. (1973): Breeding cycle of Rhinolophus

rouxi Temminck, 1835 (Chiroptera: Rhinolophidae),

in India. . Mammal. 54:1013-1017.

Wimsatt, W. A. (1942): Survival of spermatozoa

in the female reproductive tract of the bat. Anat.

Rec. 83:299-307.

219

List of type specimens of some species,

varieties, and formas deposited in

Blatter herbarium, Bombay**

P. V. BoLE AND M. R. ALMEIDA®

Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier's College, Bombay 400 001

The “International Code of Botanical

Nomenclature” as we know it today is de-

rived mainly from the ‘Laws of Botanical

Nomenclature’ proposed by Alphonse de

Candolle and adopted at the International

Botanical Congress of Paris, August, 1887.

The present day code (Ed. 1972) is main-

ly divided into two divisions, namely I—

Principles and II]—Rules and Recommenda-

tions. The Principles form the basis of the

system of Botanical Nomenclature while rules

set out in Articles and Recommendations are

formulated with a view to upholding the

Principles.

One of the Fundamental Principles of this

code (Principle—II) is “The application of

names of taxonomic groups is determined by

means of types.”

This “‘type’? concept in the application of

names is derived from the so-called ‘Ameri-

can Code’ formulated by American Botanists.

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau (Science & Culture, 31:

456-467, 1955) has given a complete history

of the development of the type concept in the

International Code of Botanical Nomencla-

ture from the time of its entry in the form of

1 Accepted August 1975.

2Part I.

220

a recommendation adopted at Brussels Con-

gress (1910) to the current code which vali-

dates the publications of new taxa only when

the nomenclatural types are clearly indicated.

The Blatter Herbarium, which was renamed

in 1941 after its founder Rev. Fr. E. Blatter,

houses some important collections which form

the basis of some of our Indian floristic

works. A very good account of this herbar-

ium is given by Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, in the

Centenary Souvenir of Madras State Herbar-

ium (pp. 38-47, August, 1974). However

after this publication several new collections

have been added to Blatter Herbarium; of

which three need special mention here:

1. Collections from Bombay Natural His-

tory society (Woodrow, Bhide, Patwar-

dhan & Cooke)

2. Collections of Mr. Charles McCann, and

3. Dr. M. L. Banerji’s collections from

East Nepal. :

All these collections as well as collections

mentioned by H. Santapau contain some im-

portant type specimens. Some of these types

were already located and kept separately by

H. Santapau and co-workers but many have

3 Present address: CIBA-GEIGY Research Centre,

Bombay 400 063.

TYPE SPECIES IN BLATTER HERBARIUM

been located later or have been acquired

through the kind donation of the herbarium

of Mr. Charles McCann, presently in New

Zealand.

The following few pages give the list of

some of the types separated from Blatter Her-

barium and from McCann’s collections. The

list is made in accordance with rules of the

latest code (Ed. 1972).

ACANTHACEAE

1. Barleria gibsonioides Blatter, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32(4): 733, 1928.

Lectotype: E. Blatter — Panchgani-1!

(Oct., 1927).

Syntypes: E. Blatter — Panchgani-2-7

(Oct., 1927).

Blatter in the original publication men-

tioned specimens Nos. 1, 2, 3, 5 & 7 as

types and specimens Nos. 4 & 6 as co-

types as this species. All these speci-

mens have been collected at Panchgani

during a single gathering. Specimen No.

1 is quite good and it is selected herein

as the lectotype of the species and re-

maining specimens have been designated

as syntypes.

2. Barleria pratensis Santapau, in Kew Bull.

1948: 487, 1949.

Holotype: H. Santapau—Khandala-1228

(25.x.1942),

Isotype: H. Santapau—Khandala-1228B

(25.x.1942),

Paratypes: H. Santapau—Khandala-7435-

6 (2.x.1945).

3. Dicliptera abuensis Blatter, in Journ. &

Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal (N.S.) 26(1):

347, 1930.

Holotype: Hallberg—Mount Abu-22856

(Nov., 1916).

4. Dicliptera ghatica Santapau, in Bot. Mem.

Univ. Bombay 2:80, 1952.

Holotype: H. Santapau—Khandala-1915

(20.iv.1943).

. Strobilanthes hallbergii Blatter, in Journ.

& Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, (N.S.) 26(1):

345-6, 1930.

Holotype: Hallberg & Blatter—Mount

Abu-22675 (27.x.1916).

AMARANTHACEAE

. Achyranthes coynei Santapau, in Kew

Bull. 1948: 488, 1949.

Holotype: H. Santapau—Khandala-8074

(26.xi.1945),

Isotypes: H. Santapau—Khandala-8069-

73 (26.x1.1945),

Paratypes: H. Santapau—Khandala-5945-

47 (29.1.1945).

Paratypes: H. Santapau—Khandala-8649

(16.11.1936).

Paratypes: H. Santapau — Khandala-

27554-5 (Oct., 1918).

. Aerva pseudo-tomentosa Blatter et Hall-

berg, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26

G)2 817, 1909:

Lectotype: E. Blatter & Hallberg—Jai-

salmer-5962 (Nov., 1917). (see Santapau,

1959 B).

AMARYLLIDACEAE

. Crinum eleonarae Blatter et McCann, in

Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32(4): 733-

4, 1929.

Lectotype: C. McCann-Mahabaleshwar-7

(June, 1927),

Syntypes: C. McCann—Mahabaleshwar-8-

10 (June, 1927).

In the original publication on_ this

species four specimens (Nos. 7, 8, 9 &

221

10) are mentioned as types.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

INOWE 7. 71S

selected herein as the lectoype of the spe-

cies. There is one more specimen of this

species in Blatter herbarium (No. 6),

which bears the identification mark of

this species in Blatter’s handwriting. Al-

. Pancratium donaldi Blatter, in

though this specimen is not included in

original publication and does not form

the type material, it is the only specimen

containing leaves, the rest of the speci-

mens being portions of an inflorescence.

Journ.

Asiat. Soc. Bengal (N.S.) 26(1): 360-361,

1930.

Lectotype:

Donald —Elkin—Panchgani-

» » 758 (10.v1.1928),

Syntypes: Donald Elkin—Panchgani-759-

60. (10.vi.1928).

In the original publication on this spe-

cies the. author mentions three specimens

(nos. 758, 759 & 760). No. 758 is the only

complete specimen with bulb and_ flow-

ers and it is selected herein as the lecto-

type of the species. The other two syn-

types bear only flowering pseudostems.

10.

APOCYNACEAE

Carissa congesta var. albida Santapau, in

Kew Bull. 1948: 490, 1949.

Holotype: H. Santapau-Khandala-8890

(11.v.1946),

Paratype: H. Santapau—Khandala-8985

~ (19.v.1946).

It.

ARACEAE

Arisaema longecaudata Blatter, in Journ.

-&. Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, (N.S.) 26(1):

362-4, 1930.

Holotype: E. Blatter—Mahabaleshwar-P-

222

10’ (June, 1925),

15,

iL.

Syntypes: E. Blatter—Mahabaleshwar-P-

10a-e (June, 1925).

There were a number of specimens ‘of

this species in one single folder under

P-10. One good specimen out of the

whole lot has been selected as the lecto-

type and the remaining specimens are

mounted separately under nos. P-10a-e

and designated syntypes of this species.

Cryptocoryrne cognotoides Blatter & Mc-

Cann, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

SSO) No sde

Holotype: _T. R D. Bell—N. Kanara-

3091) (Oct. 197):

Isotype: T. R. D. Bell-N. Kanara- 309 1a-

b (Oct... 1917).

Cryptocoryne tortuosa Blatter et McCann,

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 320

16, 1931.

Isotypes: C. icGhunhinen ee Maha-

baleshwar-3335, 3336, 3340 (24.ix.1930).

: Typhonium incurvatum Blatter et Mc-

Cann, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

350)2 22. Looe

Isotypes: C. McCann—Sion _ hill-999,

1001 (25.viii.1929). |

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Ccvopegia evansi McCann, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 45: 209, 1945.

Isotypes: H. SE neta etna -137.

22A-C (1.viii.1941).

Paratypes: H. Seutapal ee

920B, 921C, 922D (13.ix.1942).

Paratypes: H. Santapau-—Khandala-2261

2 (24.vii.1943).

-Ceropegia evansi var. media Huber, in

Mem. Soc. Broter 12: 67, 1957.

Holotype: N. .A. [rani-Bhimashankar-

1194 (19.ix.1955).

~- Tsotypes:

< TYPE SPECIES IN. BLATTER HERBARIUM ~~

N. A. Irani—Bhimashankar-

-< 1194A, 1196A-C (19.ix.1955).

Ceropegia huberi Ansari, in Bull. Bot.

Surv. India 10(2): 219-221, 1968.

Isotype: M. Y. Ansari—Amba ghat-

- 105001 (29.vili.1967).

' 3 Ceropegia oculata var. sub nS6e Huber,

“in Mem. Soc. Broter, 12: 65, 1957.

Holotype: K. V. Shenoy—Mumbra-4057

(12.vili.1954).

= Isotypes: K. V. Shenoy—Mumbra- 4054-6,

19.

-< in Journ. Bombay

iis baleshwar- 3490 -(Sepe. 27,

20.

4059- 60. (12.viii.1954).

Ceropegia polyantha Blatter et McCann,

nat. Hist. Soc. 24: 936,

OSH:

Paratype: C. NeCani_Lingnialay Maha-

1930).

Ceropegia rollae K. Hemadri, in Bull.

_ .Bot. Surv.. India, 10(2):

_ Isotype:

(29.ix.1965).

123-5, 1968.

K. Hemadri—Junnar-107472H

Ceropegia sahyadrica Ansari et Kulkarni,

in Indian Forester, 97(12): 688, 1971.

Paratypes: B. V.

Reddi—A mbavane-

Sakharpathar-99212.

~~. Paratypes: E. Blatter, Hall. & McCann—

dis

Khandala-27424 (July, 1919).

Ceropegia santapaui Wadhwa et Ansari,

in Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 10(1): 95-97,

C1683 50711) |

Isotype: B. M. Wadhwa—Mahabalesh-

“> war-109640E (19.viii.1966).

Paratype: B. M. Wadhwa & M. Y. An-

-. » sati—Mahabaleshwar-109651H

Vina

(13.1x.1966).

Gymnema khandalensis Santapau, in

~~. Kew Bull. 1948: 486, 1949.

~ Holotype: H. Santapau—Khandala-5434

(1.xi.1944). a!

Isotypes: H. See ee meals 36-7

(1.xi.1944).

” Paratypes:

H. Santapau—Khandala-5796,

5798-9 (20.1.1945).

In the original publication on this spe-

cies the author has mentioned two holo-

types (Nos. 5434 & 5797). One consisting

of the flowering material and the other

fruiting. The. International Code of Bota-

24.

nical Nomenclature (Ed. 1972, p. 20)

_ Article No. 9 gives. the following rule in

this regard: ‘The. nomenclatural type

(holotype, lectotype or neotype) of a spe-

cies or other taxon below the rank of a

“species is a single specimen or other ele-

ment except in the following case: for

small herbaceous plants. and for most

non-vascular plants, the type may. con-

sist of more than one individual, which

ought to be conserved permanently and

assembled on the herbarium sheet or

preparation. _

As per direction of the code only one

specimen No. 5434 is retained herein as

the holotype and other designated as the

isotype of the species.

BALSAMINACEAE-

Impatiens balsamina var. corymbosa San-

‘tapau, in Kew Bull. 1948: 489, 1949.

Holotype: H. Santapau—Khandala-5459

(2.x1.1944),

Impatiens kleimiformis Sedgwick, in Rec.

Bot. Surv. India, 6: 35, 1919.

‘Weetotype:"L: J. Sedgwick—Castle Rock-

2841 (Aug., 1917).

Syntypes: L. J. Sedgwick—Castle Rock-

2841 A-D (Aug., 1917).

-.. There are five herbarium specimens of

this. species under No. 2841.. Code (Ed.

1972, Article 9) permits only one. herbar-

223

26.

27).

28.

igh

30.

224

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ium specimen as the holotype. Therefore

one herbarium sheet out of the five is

selected herein (under No. 2841) as the

lectotype and remaining four marked

2841A-D and designated as syntypes.

BEGONIACEAE

Begonia prixophylla Blatter et McCann,

in Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 10(1): 27-28,

1931.

Isotypes: CC. McCann—Mahabaleshwar-

2916, 2918-9, 2923 (22.vilii.1930).

Begonia tribenensis Rao, in Journ. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 65(3): 724-5, 1969.

Holotype: C. R. Rao—Kumkum Potti-

342A (6.vii.1963).

Isotype: C. R. Rao—Kumkum Potti-342

(6.vii.1963).

Paratypes: C. R. Rao—Tribeni-832, 832B

(30.vii.1967).

CLEOMACEAE

Cleome asperima Blatter, in Journ. &

Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal (N.S.) 26(1):

340, 1930.

Holotype: H. Hedberg — Dhulia-7670

Nov., 1928).

Cleome hotsonii Blatter et Hallberg, in

Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 1: 5, 1919.

Lectotype: Ispikan—90 (7.1x.1918).

In the original publication the authors

have mentioned two specimens (No. 90

& 90A). Only No. 90 is available in Blat-

ter Herbarium and is selected herein as

lectotype of the species.

COMBRETACEAE

Anogeissus rotundifolia Blatter et Hall-

berg, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

26(2): 525, 1919.

31.

32).

335

34.

35.

Lectotype: Blatter & Hallberg—Jodhpur-

6594 (Oct., 1917). (See Santapau, 1959

B).

COMMELINACEAE

Aneilema rigidum Blatter, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33(1): 73-4, 1928.

Holotype: E. Blatter—Panchgani-P-75

(20.viii.1925).

Aneilema_ siennea Blatter, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33(1): 75, 1928.

Lectotype: E. Blatter—Panchgani-P-74

(Aug., 1925).

Syntypes: E. Blatter — Panchgani-P-74

A-F (Aug., 1925).

There were a number of specimens of

this species in one folder kept unmount-

ed under No. P-74. These have been

mounted now and one specimen is re-

tained under P-74 and selected herein as

a lectotype and the remaining numbered

P-74 A-F and designated as syntypes.

Cyanotis cerifolia Rao et Kamathy, J.

Linn. Soc. London (Bot.) 59(379): 305-8,

1966.

Paratype: R. V. Kamathy — Poona-

77786F (10.ix.1962).

Cyanotis epiphytica Blatter, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33(1): 76, 1928.

Paratypes: Hallberg — Girsappa-35004

(Oct., 1919).

Paratypes:

(Oct., 1919).

Paratypes: Sedgwick & Bell—Malemane,

N. Kanara-7193 (Oct., 1919).

Cyanotis sahyadrica Blatter, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33(1): 77, 1928.

Lectotype: | Frenchman—Panchgani-P-38

(19.vii.1925),

Hallberg — Girsappa-35047

36.

oye

38.

39.

TYPE SPECIES IN BLATTER HERBARIUM

Syntype: | Frenchman—Panchgani-P-38A

(19.vii.1925).

There were two unmounted specimens

of this species in one folder bearing No.

P-38. Out of these two, only one has

flowers and has been selected herein as

lectotype. The other is marked as P-38A

and designated as syntype.

COMPOSITAE

Cyathocline purpurea var. alba Santa-

pau, in Kew Bull. 1948; 490, 1949.

Paratype: H. Santapau—Khandala-8883

(11.v.1946).

In the original publication the author

has mentioned that “the holotype of the

species is deposited in Blatter Herbarium

and Paratype is at Kew.” However the

paratype is in the Blatter Herbarium and

the Holotype may be at Kew.

Cyathocline purpurea var. bicolor Santa-

pau, in Kew Bull. 1948: 490, 1949.

Holotype: H. Santapau—Khandala-3421

(24.x11.1943),

Isotypes: H. Santapau—Khandala-3422-3

(24.x1i.1943).

Glossocardia setosa Blatter et Hallberg,

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26(2):

536, 1919.

Lectotype: Blatter & Hallberg—Jodhpur-

10083 (Oct., 1917) (See Santapau, 1959

B).

Pulicaria rajputanae Blatter et Hallberg,

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26(2):

95,1919.

Lectotype: Blatter

pur-10039 (Oct.,

1959 B).

& Hallberg—Jodh-

1917) (see, Santapau,

40.

41.

42.

43.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Argyreia boseana Santapau et Patel, in

Trans. Bose Res. Inst. Calcutta 22: 35-6,

1958.

Holotype: Z. J. Kapadia—Mahabalesh-

war-2083 (15.vii.1956).

Isotype: Z. J. Kapadia—Mahabaleshwar-

2082 (15.vii.1956).

Paratypes: H. Santapau—Mahabalesh-

war-13139 (17.viii.1951).

Paratypes: H. Santapau—Mahabalesh-

war-13220 (19.viii.1951).

Paratypes: V. M. Patel—Mahabaleshwar-

1144 (22.x11.1954).

Convolvulus densiflorus Blatter et Hall-

berg, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

26(2): 545, 1919.

Lectotype: Blatter & Hallberg—Jaisal-

mer-3515 (Nov., 1917) (see Santapau,

1959 B).

Ipomoea salsettensis Santapau et Patel,

in Trans. Bose Res. Inst. Calcutta, 22:

34-5, 1958.

Holotype: V. M. _ Patel—Borivali-1509

(2541x1955);

Isotype: V. M._ Patel — Borivali-1510

(25.1x.1955).

Paratypes: V. M. Patel—Mumbra-823

(7.x.1954).

Paratypes: V. M. Patel—Bhandup-1524

(8.x.1955).

Paratypes: V. M. _ Patel—Borivali-921,

923 (30.x.1954).

Operculina tansaensis Santapau et Patel,

in Trans. Bose Res. Inst. Calcutta 22:

33-4, 1958.

Holotype: V. M. Patel—Tansa Lake-1619

(18.xii.1955).

Isotypes: V. M. Patel—Tansa Lake-1613-

5, 1618, 1620 (18.xii.1955).

225

44.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

CRUCIFERAE’

Goldbachia hispida Blatter et Hallberg,

-in Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 1: °3,° 1919.

Holotype: J. E. B. Houston—Kalarbahar-

247A. (27.iv.1918).

45.

46.

~ Journ. Linn. Soc. London, 34:

Tsotype:

47.

. Paratype:

CYPERACEAE

Mariscus blatteri McCann, any Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37(3):, 532-3,

1934.

Holotype: Nana. (Sedgwick’s esligoin

Mahabaleshwar-7627 (Oct., 1920). |

Isotype: Nana—Mahabaleshwar-7627A

(Oct, 1920): |

Paratype: |

(Oct., 1920).

Pycrius malabaricus C. B. Clarke, in

12, 1898.

Woodrow — Lonavala-28B

le Baie s 7646

(16.i1x.1894).

Woodrow—Lanoli-s.n. (Sept.,

1895). .

DENSTADTIACEAE

Microlepia hallbergii d’Almeida, Journ.

Indian Bot. Soc. 5(1): 19, 1926.

Lectotype: Blatter, Hallberg & d’Almeida-

Madura Dt.-B-11 (248a) (May, 1917).

Syntype: Blatter, Hall. & d’Almeida-B-10

(248b) (May, 1917).

In the original publication both, speci-

mens are mentioned as types. Therefore

No. B-11 (248a) is selected herein as the

lectotype and the other designated as the

43.

226:

syntype of the species.

ERIOCAULACEAE

Eriocaulon indicum Moldenke. in _Phyto-

logia 3: 162, 1949. |

Isotype: Ht Santa —Khandalaa90

(4.x.1943).

ev. Pie ae: Seniesa in “Hlou of

Khandala ((1960)- mentions “The type of

this very distinct species was collected by

~H. Santapau (No. 2924) at Khandala, on

the Kune plateau, Bombay, ‘India, on

~-October 4; 1943, and is deposited in the

49.

50),

Sue.

_ Isotype:

gaum-2979 (Sept.

(Fyson-3839 & L. J.

Britton Herbarium at the New York

Botanical Garden”. But actually the

specimen with. No. 2924 is available in

Blatter Herbarium. It is presumed here

that our No. 2924 here is a part of the

material’ sent to Britton Herbarium, New

York and the specimen is des signated as

the Isotype of the species: ~ *

Eriocaulon humile Moldenke,

logia 3: 162, 1949.

Blatter, Hall.

Khandala-28009: bis (Oct., 1918).

According to Rev. Fr.. H. Santapau

the Holotype of this species with the

above number is deposited in Britton

Herbarium. Therefore it is presumed

here that our specimen is duplicate of

the holotype and designated herein as the

Isotype of the species.

in Phyto-

& McCann—

Ericcaulon ianceolatum var. pilosum

Moldenke, in Phytologia 3: 164, 1949.

Holotype:

H. Santapau—Khandala-218.2

(5.ix.1941). :

Eriocaulon margaretae Fyson, in Journ.

Indian Mot, 2 S& 3: 52; 1923.

Lectotype: L. J. Sedgwick—Bidi,

1917)... |

In the original publication Fyson men-

tioned two specimens for this species

- Sedgwick-2979).

Bel-

L.-J. Sedgwick-2979 is available in Blat-

ter Herbarium and is selected herein as

fae hOlO gia, 3:

> Isotype:

54.

~~~ berg, in Journ. Indian Bot. 2: 48-9, 1921.

56.

9228 (Oct.,

‘TYPE SPECIES IN. BLATTER HERBARIUM

a lectotype of the species. The specimen

has been identified by Fyson himself.

Fyson’s specimen No. 3839 may be avail-

able in Madras Herbarium and it should

be. recognised as the syntype.

_Ericcaulon santapaui Moldenke, in Phy-

(166, 1949. °

H. Santapau—Khandala-1290(2)

(7.xi1.1942),

Eriocaulon vanheurckii forma minima

Moldenke, in Phytologia 5(3): 84, 1955.

Holotype: H. Santapau—Khandala-15849

_ (22.viii.1953).

EUPHORBIACEAE

Euphorbia jodhpurensis Blatter et Hall-

berg, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

9020 (3): :97.1;~-1919.

Blatter & Hallberg—Jodhpur-

1917).

Holotype:

Euphorbia khandalensis Blatter et Hall-

Holotype: C. McCann — Khandala-s.n.

(Apr., 1918).

Euphorbia panchganensis Blatter et Mc-

Cann, Journ. & Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal

(New Series) 26(1): 353, 1930.

Holotype: Blatter et McCann—Panch-

gani-102 (16.iv.1926). 3

; _ Isotypes: Blatter et Mefaneobanehgant-

57.

~. (13.iv.1927).

Isotype: J.

103-4 (16.iv.1926).

Euphorbia pauciradiata Blatter, in Journ.

_ Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(2): 483-4,

P1933 7 )

Holotype: J. Fernandes—Miranshah-981

Fernandes—Miranshah-98la

(13.iv.1927).

Boze

60.

62.

Phyllanthes talboti Sedgwick, in Journ.

Indian Bot. 2: 124, 1921.

Lectotype: Sedgwick & Bell—North

KKanara-7073 (Nov., 1919). |

Syntype: Sedgwick & Bell—Norith Kana-

ra-7073A (Nov., 1919).

Syntype: L. J. Sedgwick—N. Kanara-

4869 (Nov., 1918).

In original publication Sedgwick has

mentioned Sedgwick & Bell No. 7073 as

one of the typical specimen of this spe-

cies. However in Blatter Herbarium there

are two sheets under this number. One

of them is herein selected as the lecto-

type of the species and other sheet is

marked 7073A and designated as syn-

type of this species.

AIZOACEAE

Trianthema pentandra var. rubra Blat-

ter et Hallberg, in Journ. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. .26(2). 530, 1919.

Lectotype: Blatter & Hallberg—Jaisal-

mer-6772 (Oct., 1917) (See Santapau,

1959 A).

GENTIANACEAE

Canscora khandalensis Santapau, in Kew

Bull. 1948: 485, 1949.

Paratypes: H. Santapau—Khandala-2663

(171943), 042156 .«(30,ix,1943), ...2779

~~ (1.x.1943) & 5073 (3.x.1944).

61.

Gentiana lowndesii Blatter, in’ Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35(4): 841, 1932.

‘Holotype: D. G. Lowndes—Waziristan-

2430 (Oct.,. 1931). 3

GERANIACEAE

Erodium adenophorum Blatter, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(2): -477-8,

1933. ety!

22h

63.

64.

65.

66.

228

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Holotype: E. Blatter & J. Fernandes—

Waziristan-368 (26.11.1930).

Erodium heterocephalum Blatter, in

Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(2):

478, 1933.

Holotype: E. Blatter & J. Fernandes—

Waziristan-201 (23.11.1930).

Erodium nanum Blatter, in Journ. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(2): 477, 1933.

Holotype: E. Blatter & J. Fernandes—

Waziristan-613. (13.111.1930).

OXALIDACEAE

Oxalis corniculata var. hispida Blatter,

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34(4):

898, 1931.

Lectotype: H. McCann—Panchgani-4370

(30.viii.1930).

Syntype: HH. McCann—Panchgani-4371

(30.viii.1930).

In the original publication the author

mentions the type, as collected by J.

Fernandes, from Panchgani-Western

Ghats. In Blatter Herbarium there are

two specimens identified by Blatter him-

self which are from Panchgani collected

on 30th August, 1930. These sheets are

afterwards numbered in ink as H. Mc-

Cann-4370 and H. McCann-4371. These

are probably the specimens collected by

J. Fernandez, but at present there is no

evidence to prove it. Since these speci-

mens from Panchgani have been annot-

ed by Blatter himself they have been

selected herein as lectotype and syntype

of this species, respectively.

Oxalis foliosa Blatter, in Journ. Indian

Bot. Soc. 9(4): 203, 1930.

Holotype: J. Fernandez—Saraghora-173

(20.v.1927),

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

Isotypes: J. Fernandez—Saraghora-170,

144 (20.v.1927).

Paratypes: J. Fernandez — Waziristan-

2717 (29.iv.1927),

Paratypes: J. Fernandez—Razamak-1636

(8.v.1927).

Paratypes: J. Fernandez—Rajimi-2943,

2915, 2940 & 4455 (19.iv.1927), 2599

(25.1v.1927).

GRAMINAE

Andropogon concanensis Hook, f., in

Flora of Brit. India, 7: 174, 1897.

Isotype: L. J. Sedgwick—Mahabaleshwar-

4652 (Nov., 1918).

Andropogon paranjpeanum Bhide, in

Journ. & Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal (New

Series) 7: 514, t. 5, 1911.

Syntypes: R. K. Bhide—Castle Rock-

9404(3) (21.x.1909),

Syntypes: R. K. Bhide—Castle Rock-

9675 (Oct., 1909).

Andropogon woodrowii Hook. f., Flora

British India 7: 173, 1896.

Isotype: | Woodrow—Maval-27

1894).

Hooker mentions this specimen as the

type of this species. However Dr. N. L.

Bor (1960) states that the holotype of

this species is at Kew. The specimen in

Blatter Herbarium is presumably dupli-

cate of the holotype and is designated

herein as the Isotype of the species.

(Dec.,

Arihraxon santapaui Bor, in Kew Bull.

1951: 446, 1952.

Isotype: H. Santapau—Purandhar-11450

bis (10.x.1950).

Arthraxon satarensis Almeida, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66(3): 515-7,

1970.

Ws.

74.

f.S,.

76.

TYPE SPECIES IN BLATTER HERBARIUM

Holotype

turda (no date).

Bhidea burnsiana_ Bor,

1948: 445, 1949.

Isotype: Hallberg & McCann—Mirjan,

North Kanara-s.n. (Oct., 1919).

, Satara-8, Keshya-

in Kew Bull.

Chloris quinquesetica Bhide, in Journ.

& Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal (New Series)

Se oie 1912.

Lectotype: R. K. Bhide—Papadi, Bas-

sein-A (30.viii.1911),

Syntype: R. K. Bhide—Papadi, Bassein-

B (30.viii.1911).

These two specimens were collected by

R. K. Bhide from Papadi, Bassein and

identified in his own handwriting. These

sheets do not have any numbers and are

now marked with A & B and specimen A

is selected herein as the lectotype and B

designated as syntype.

Coelachne minuta Bor, in Journ. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 58: 317-8, 1961.

Isotype: H. Santapau—Mahabaleshwar-

22731 (14.1x.1958).

Danthonia gammiei Bhide, in Journ. &

Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal (New Series)

Wes 13..9t..6371912.

Isotype: G. A. Gammie—Castle Rock-A-

48 (Oct., 1902).

In the original publication the author

has not mentioned the number of the type

sheet. Dr. N. L. Bor (1960) mentions that

the type of this species is at Kew (A-48).

The label of the herbarium sheet in Blat-

ter Herbarium records “Part of the type

specimen”. Therefore it is called herein

as Isotype of the species.

Dichanthium mecannii Blatter, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32(2): 357-8,

1927.

78.

80.

81.

SZ.

83.

84.

Holotype:

(Oct., 1925).

C. McCann—Panchgani-s.n.

Dichanthium panchganensis Blatter et

McCann, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 32(2): 357-8, 1927. |:

Holotype: C. McCann-—Panchgani-s.n.

(Nov., 1925).

Dimeria blatteri Bor, in Kew Bull. 1949:

70, 1949.

Holotype: Blatter, Hallberg & McCann-

Khandala-9918(17) (Oct., 1918).

Dimeria santapaui Almeida, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66(3): 510-13,

1970.

Holotype: Sedgwick & Bell: Mirjan flats,

N. Kanara-6875 (Oct., 1919).

Isotype: Sedgwick & Bell: 6876 (Oct.,

1919).

Dimeria woodrowii Stapf, in Hook. Ic.

Pl. sub. tab. 2312, 1894.

Isotype: W. A. Talbot—Marmagoa-2557

(14.x.1891).

Enteropogon badamicum’ Bhide, in

Journ. & Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal (New

Series) 7: 517, 1911.

Isotype: R. K. Bhide — Badami-s.n.

(8.1x.1911).

Hubbardia heptaneuron Bor,

Bull. 1950: 385, 1951.

Isotype: L. J. Sedgwick—N. Kanara-

7089 (Oct., 1919).

in Kew

Isachne borii Hemadri, in Indian Forester

97(4): 223-5, 1971.

Paratype: G. M. Woodrow—Jeur, Shola-

pur-s.n. (Dec., 1897).

Ischaemum bolei Almeida, in Indian

Forester 98(4): 236-8, 1972.

229

I5\¢

86.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Holotype: M. R. Almeida—Savantwadi-

1535 (18.xi.1970).

Ischaemum bombaiensis Bor, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49(2): 165-166,

1950.

Isotype: C. McCann — Khandala-9904

(Oct., 1919).

Ischaemum borit Almeida, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66(3): 513-5,

n loro:

Sis

Isotype: M. R. Almeida—Amboli-895A

(24.x11.1968).

~ Paratype: C. B. Patawardhan—Ambe-

wadi-1115 (12.x.1907).

Ischaemum diplopogon Hook. f., in

Hooker’s flora of Brit. India, 7: 129,

1 SOT Ge |

Isotype: , Mahabaleshwar-

88.

89.

90.

91.

230

_leshwar.

No. 4, (Dec., 1896).

Ischaemum raizadae Hemadri et Billore,

‘. “inc Indian ‘Forester, 96(4): 318, 1970.

Paratype: G. B. Patawardhan—Amber-

wadi-1115 (12.x.1907).

Ischaemum santapaui Bor, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49(2): 167, 1950.

Holotype: H. Santapau — Karjat-9665

(11.11.1948).

Paratype: H. Santapau—Karyjat-10535-7,

10539-42, 10544-5, 10547 (10.x1.1949).

Manisuris acuminata var. woodrowii Bor,

in Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and

Pakistan, 191, 1960.

Isotype: W. A. Talbot—

Manisuris forficulata Fisher, in Kew Bull.

19332 355, 1933:

Lectotype: J. C. Lisboa (?)—Mahaba-

This specimen was received from the

OD):

OBE

94.

95.

96.

OF:

collections donated by Bombay Natural

History Society. Dr. S. K. Jain had sepa-

rated this specimen as type material after

some discussions with Rev. Fr. Santapau.

Manisuris mysorensis J ain et Hemadri, in

Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 10 (3&4): 280-282,

- 1968. | |

Isotype: G. A. Gammie—Castle Rock-

15643D (25.x.1902). Aepeas

In the original publication the authors

have marked Gammie’s three herbarium

specimens 15643A, 15643B and 15643C.

Therefore the duplicate in Blatter Her-

barium is marked 15643D.

Manisuris santapaui Jain et Deshpande,

in Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 10 (3 & 4):

277-9, 1968.

Isotype: C. Saldanha—Ratnagiri-7132A

(15.ix.1961).

Ochlandra talboti Brandis, Indian Trees,

784, 1911. ,

Lectotype: W. A. Talbot—Girsoppa falls,

N. Kanara-3628 (7.1.1896).

Brandis in his original work does not

indicate any type specimen. But he gives

credit of separating this species as a dis-

tinct one to Talbot. Therefore Talbot’s

specimen No. 3628 is selected herein as

the lectotype of this species.

Ophiurus bombaiensis Bor, in Kew Bull.

LOSI L674 19 Sle

Paratype, L023.

7018 (Oct., 1919).

Sedgwick—Siddhapur-

Panicum obscurans Woodrow, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13: 434, 1901.

Isotype: G. M. Woodrow—Jeur, Shola-

pur-s.n. (Dec. 1897). i

‘Paspalum compactum var. fimbriatum

Bor, in Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India

98.

oor

100.

102.

103.

104.

TYPE SPECIES IN’ BLATTER HERBARIUM —

and Pakistan, 1960.

Isotypes: P. V. Bole—Mahabaleshwar-

304-305 (19.x.1951).

Pogonachne racemosa Bor, in Kew Bull.

1949: 176, 1949.

Paratypes: C. McCann—Khandala-9924-

6 (Oct., 1918).

Rottboellia talbottii Hk. f., Flora Brit.

india 7: 155, 1896.

Isotype: W. A. Talbot—Marmagoa-2572

(15.x.1892).

Sporobolus sindicus Stapf ex Cooke,

Flora Bombay Pres. 2: 1018, 1908.

Isotype: _Woodrow—Karachi-s.n.

1883).

(Aug.,

LABIATAE

Leucus angustissima Sedgwick, in Journ.

Indian Bot. 2: 123, 1921.

Holotype: Sedgwick & Bell—Jog,

Kanara-7234 (Oct., 1919).

Paratypes: Sedgwick & Bell—Siddhapur,

ING KC 7225 (Oct... 19/19):

Paratypes: Hall. & McCann—Jog, N.K.,

34988, 35101, 35103 (Oct., 1919).

LENTIBULARIACEAE

Utricularia equiseticaulis Blatter et Mc-

Cann, in Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 10: 122,

1931.

Holotype: C. McCann & J. Fernandez—

Panchgani-3508 (3.x.1930).

Paratypes: C. McCann & J. Fernandez—

Bhilar-7860-7861 (Dec., 1927).

Utricularia ogmosperma Blatter et Mc-

Cann, in Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 10: 123,

193i

Holotype: E. Blatter—Panchgani-P-70

(Beg. of Aug., 1925).

105.

106.

107.

108.

109.

Isotypes: E. Blatter—Panchgani-P-70 A-

C (Beg. of Aug., 1925).

In the original publication No. P-7 is

mentioned as a type of this species. In

Blatter Herbarium there are four herba-

rium sheets (P-70, P-70A, P-70B & P-

70C), on which Blatter has mentioned

“Types”. P-7 is probably a typographical

error for P-70. ---

Utricularia reticulata var. parviflora San-

tapau, in Kew Bull. 1948: 491, 1949.

Holotype: H. Santapau—Khandala-5422

(31.x.1944).

LILIACEAE

Asparagus deltae Blatter, in Journ.

Indian Bot. Soc. 6: 30-31, 1929.

Holotype: E. Blatter—Indus delta-715

(Oct., 1922),

Isotypes: E. Blatter—Indus delta-716-720

(Oct., 1922).

Asparagus gharoensis Blatter, in Journ.

Indian Bot. Soc. 6: 30, 1929.

Holotype: E. Blatter — Gharo,

delta-699 (4.x.1922),

Isotypes: E. Blatter

700-8, 714 (4.x.1922).

Indus

Gharo, Indus delta-

Chlorophytum borivlianum Santapau et

Fernandes, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 52(4): 898-900, 1955.

Holotype: R. R. Fernandes—Borivali-

1810 (14.vi.1954).

Isotypes: R. R. Fernandes — Borivali-

1804, 1807 (14.vi.1954),

Paratype: R. R. Fernandes — Borivali-

1822 (22.vi.1954).

Chlorophytum glaucoides Blatter, in

Journ. & Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal (New

Series) 26(1): 361-2, 1930.

231

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Lectotype: E. Blatter—Panchgani-P-73 and remaining marked with A-E and de-

(Aug., 1925). signated as syntypes.

: mee i-P- -E

Syntypes: E Blader, hanetigantst >). 110. Dipcadi ursulae Blatter, in Journ. Bom-

(Aug., 1925).

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 32(4): 735, 1928.

: ted

RE ONCLONS B a Holotype: E. Blatter—Panchgani-P-74

specimens of this species in newspapers

with a common No. P-73. One of them (Aug., 1925).

has been selected and retained under P-

73 and selected herewith as a lectotype (to be continued)

232

Moult in the Baya Weaver Ploceus

philippinus Linnaeus’

D. N. MATHEW

Dept. of Zoology, Calicut University, Calicut, Kerala

(With three text-figures)

In an earlier article in the Journal [73 (2):

249-260] I had described my studies on the

ecology of the Baya in Cuddapah district. In

the course of the same study I had opportunity

to cxamine about 2000 Baya Weavers (Ploceus

philippinus Linnaeus) in different seasons.

The plumages and moult of feathers in dif-

ferent stages of life-history of this species were

studied in order to work out a basis for judg-

ing the age of the birds from external charac-

ters.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Birds were netted from different villages

near Nandalur, Reddipalli, Anantharajupet and

Kodur of Rajampet Taluk. In this study 460

nestlings and 1085 older (juvenile adult)

birds were ringed out of which 13 nestlings

and 58 adult birds were recaptured. Besides

these, 513 birds dissected in 1968-69 were also

examined. The peculiarities of plumage of each

bird were noted at each examination.

MOULTS

The Baya undergoes two moults of its body

feathers (of the capital, spinal, humeral, fem-

oral, crural and ventral tracts) and tail-coverts

in a twelve month period, first before breed-

1 Accepted August 1975.

ing (prenuptial moult) and the second after

breeding (postnuptial moult). The rectrices

and remiges are renewed only once in 12

months. The span of the flight feather moult

overlaps that of the body plumage and the

two are treated separately.

1. Postjuvenal moult

At the time of nest-leaving the fledgling

Baya appears fully feathered.. Before the

young bird is a year old its juvenal plumage

is renewed completely. This moult takes place

when the bird is 4-6 months old (Table 1).

At the population level this moult takes place

from November to the end of April.

In the study area the Baya breeds from mid-

April to mid- November and therefore the

juveniles hatched in the earlier broods wear

their plumage longer than those of the later

broods. Both body and flight feathers are

changed in the postjuvenal moult (Table 1).

Sequence of the postjuvenal moult is the same

as those of the corresponding tracts of the

adults at this time.

2. First Prenuptial mouli

From the very fresh feathers of recaptured

(ringed) birds it is presumed that the female

Baya undergoes its first prenuptial moult at

about 12 months of age. At Rajampet the

female Baya breeds for the first time when

233

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

it is about one year old and the male Baya

has breeding potential when it is about 15

months old. In the young males raised early

in the previous season (Table 1) the first pre-

nuptial moult may take place at 12-15 months

of age. The young birds raised in the later

broods of the previous season may in very

rare cases breed even before assuming the

nuptial plumage (Table 1). The pattern of

feather replacement during the first prenuptial

moult is the same as that during the subse-

quent prenuptial moults. In 1968-69 Bayas

were dissected throughout the year. Immature

males in stages of prenuptial moult were ob-

served as late as July. |

3. The second and subsequent prenuptial

moults

Both male and female Bayas undergo the

prenuptial moult which involves only body

plumage, the female without undergoing any

change of colours. At the population level the

prenuptial moult starts in March and ends in

June.

TABLE 1

RECAPTURES OF BAYAS RINGED AS NESTLINGS

Ring No. Dates

Sex of ringing of recapture

Prefix 42051 19-9-1970 16-10-1970

A 102187 25-8-1970 10-11-1970

AB 19967 8-9-1970 6-1-1971

Prefix 42142 17-10-1970 12-2-1971

A 102077 23-7-1970 4-1-1971

A 95895 25-5-1970 10-11-1970

AB 19821 27-9-1969 27-4-1970

A 84284 19-9-1969 25-4-1970

A 102122 15-6-1970 1-2-1971

Date of leav-

ing nest:

A 99853 (male) 27-5-1970 23-8-1971

AB 19972 (male) 26-9-1970 23-8-1971

29-9-1970

A 102154 (female) 17-8-1970 23-8-1971

A 102150 (female) -do- 25-8-1971

A 102172 28-8-1970 23-8-1971

(female) to

30-8-1970

= ystorm oy Pa

SE ree nt REESE Vee

The Prefix was Hongkong.

234

Stage of moult of feathers at the time of

recapture

Juvenal plumage, not moulting

Plumage faded as in adult females at this time, spinal

tract and H i-iv moulting

Plumage faded and worn, all tracts of feathers in-

cluding rectrices and H 1-11 moulting

Body feathers and H vi-vili and A i and ix moulting

A i-ii and vii-ix moulting, A iii-vi old, rest of the

plumage new

Faded and worn, H i-iv moulting

Feathers of all tracts moulting, A iv-vi old

Body secondaries and rectrices moulting

All tracts mouiting, A iv-vi old

Netted in a breeding colony and breeding plumage

and black bill

Female type of plumage and lead coloured bill. A

section of the testis of this bird showed sperma-

tocytes

Ovary in breeding condition, appearance same as of

older females

ey ee

TS dG

_ MOULT IN THE BAYA

4. First and subsequent postnuptial moults

All adult Bayas change their body feathers

after the breeding season. At the population

level the postnuptial moult starts in October-

November and ends in March.

5. Mouit of flight feathers in Bayas of all age

eroups

Between November and May all Bayas

moult their primaries, secondaries and coverts

of primaries and secondaries, and rectrices.

The juveniles moult their flight feathers for

aries (A4-5)

by Stresemann & Stresemann (1966) the pri-

maries are referred. to by the symbol H

(Handwing) and Secondary by the symbol A

(Armwing). The primaries moult from H1 (in-

nermost) to H10. (outermost) systematically

in the descendant order, and H10 is the last to

drop. The secondary moult starts with Al

(outermost); later on another descendant

moult may start from A6. A7 to A9 (tertials)

moult differently with A8 moulting first in

many cases. In rare cases the central second-

remain unmoulted, and these

feathers are retained (Table 7).

TABLE 2

MOULT OF THE PRIMARIES IN THE BAYA

Total number of

Months

birds examined H1-2

October 28 5

November 18) 10

December 39) eS)

January 35. a

February A6 ae

March 32 ; aa

Stages of moult of primaries

H3 H4 HS H6 °H7 H8 H9 Hio*

Se te Oe ee Se

Be eer Gr eu to

Sh eee BO 8 2

2 ca Oe cee eae ee

ee ee) Se BIS 886

* Moult of H10 was not consistently recorded as in many cases it was missing.

the first time when 4-6 months old (Table 1).

In the adults this moult occurs once in a 12-

month period. The moult starts at the end of .

the breeding period, almost at the same time

when the postnuptial moult also starts, and

ends only afier the start of the prenuptial

moult. At the population level, the primaries

are moulted between December and March,

and secondaries between December and May.

The majority of rectrices are moulted between

December and April.

(a) The Wing. The Baya has 9 functional

primaries and 9 secondaries. The tenth pri-

mary is vestigial and the ninth secondary smal-

ler than the others. Following the system used

Each upper greater primary-covert is shed

with the corresponding primary. The greater

secondary coverts are shed more or less simul-

taneously and all of them are usualiy renew-

ed by the time the primary mouit reaches

H5-6. The upper lesser wing-coverts moult

at the same time as the upper greater coverts,

but the upper median wing-coverts are the

last to be renewed. The alula quills usually

moult with H7-10 so that the alula is renew-

ed by the time primary moult is completed.

The timing of primary moult

The primaries begin to moult in some birds

as early as October but only from November-

December in any significant numbers. By

235

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236

MOULT IN THE BAYA

G CAPITALTRACT

CJ] SPINALTRAECT

3 FEMORALTRACT

| PRIMARIES

PERCENTAGE OF BIRDS MOULTING

a RECTRICES

MONTHS S OFF N ODO YJ Pop oMney Ai oie Oo. eed A wwe ee ee FEMALES

Fig. 1. Showing the progress of moult in the Baya at Rajampet (adult). consolidated

data from the year 1968-71.

237

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

March-April their moult is completed. The —

data -are summarised: in- Table 2. In the hori-

zontal columns the number of Bayas in dif-

ferent stages of primary moult is given.

Each bird has been put in the group of its

most distal moulting primary irrespective of

the length of that quill, e.g. it may be in any

stage from small pin to nearly full-grown. The

same procedure is followed in judging moult

of the primaries in Table 3.

Table 2 shows the birds undergoing heavy

moult of the primaries between December and

February. Tables 2 and 3 do not include juve-

niles. A male bird in full breeding plumage

and a female with a brood patch were taken

as adults. There was considerable. variation

in the timing and tempo of moult bet-

ween the individual Bayas of the same area.

Moult of primaries proceeded in a systematic

manner without a gap of old quills between

any two growing quills and with rare excep-

tions moult of primaries of both sides pro-

ceeded symmetrically.

The secondary moult

The secondaries moulted under the cover

of new secondary greater coverts from two

or more foci. At the population level second-

aries moulted between December and May

and with rare exceptions moult in the two

wings was symmetrical. The example given

below taken from an adult female collected on

23 January 1969 is typical of the wing moult

of the Baya at this time ot the year. Moult

pattern was symmetrical. Dorsal aspect: Lesser

coverts moulting; Median coverts old; Greater

primary coverts—covering H 1-6 new, H 7-

10 old; Greater secondary coverts—all new

or growing; primaries H 1-6 full-grown or

growing, H 7-10 old; Secondaries: Al, 7, 8

and 9 new or growing, 2-6 old; Alula old; Ven-

tral aspect: under greater coverts new; under

lesser coverts moulting.

256

(b) The tail

Most of the birds moult rectrices between

December and May. Partial replacement of

tail feathers were observed in the other months

also. 38

The tail feathers usually moult from the

central pair outwards once in a 12 month

period, but the tail-coverts are renewed twice

in this, period. |” ,

Moult of the body feathers in relation to

primary moult

The span of remex moult overlaps the spans.

of both postnuptial and prenuptial moult

(Figure 1). In some specimens the postnuptial

moult started before the primary moult (Table

3).

But the body tracts moult significantly only

after the primary moult has reached stage H3.

The moults of the dorsal and ventral tracts

occupy most of the time of primary moult.

The secondaries and rectrices start moulting

at stage HS. In figures 1-2 the progress in

moult of various feather tracts are plotted on

graphs.

Moult of rectrices in relation to primary moult

The birds were arranged according to the

stages of primary moult and the average scores

of primaries and rectrices were calculated. -

Each feather was given a score in the follow-

ing system:

Old feather

Feather missing or in small pin stage

Feather in large pin or brush -stage -

Feather brush to half grown

Feather half to three-quarters grown

Feather three quarters to full-grown

The average figures plotted on a graph

(figure 2) show how the tai! moult starts signi-

ficantly when moult of primaries has progres-

sed about half way. There were exceptional

cases of partial replacement of lost feathers -

in the tail recorded before the start of primary

moult.

Wek WNFEO

MOULT IN THE BAYA

TAIL SCORE

0 10 20 30 40

Xe)

60 70 80

PRIMARY SCORE

90 100

Fig. 2. Tail score with respect to primary score in the Baya.

Moult and the gonadal cycle

The average volume of the left testis in adult

Bayas was calculated for each month from

March 1968 to February 1969. About 10-15

adult males were measured each month. The

monthly averages of volumes of testes obtain-

ed from March 1968 to February 1969 are

plotted (Figure 3) along with the monthly

percentages of adult males in prenuptial and

postnuptial moult. Thus in October-Novem-

ber when the postnuptial moult starts the

gonads are regressing and in March when the

prenuptial moult starts the gonads are enlarg-

ing. During a major part of June to October,

the period of full gonadal potency the moult

is reduced or excluded.

DISCUSSION

Breeding and moult are two physiological

events which involve much metabolic strain,

in the life of birds. Of the two, breeding is

the more important activity and breeding at

the most favourable part of the year could

be ultimate factor which influences the timing

and tempo of moult. King & Farner (1961)

tentatively estimated a mean increase in energy

intake of 7.6 per cent in the House Sparrow

during the postnuptial moult assuming no

change in other energy demanding functions.

It is reasonable to expect that the Bayas of

Rajampet will complete a major part of their

moult in the months from November to Feb-

739

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

PERCENTAGE MOULTING OF MALE BAYA adults.

C4 CAPITALTRACT

€1 SPINALTRACT

JI sOTAIL COVERTS

(J VENTRALTRACT

€J HWUMERALTRACT

160

i140 <I FEMORALTRACT

120

PRIMARIES

}

100

60 1 SECONDARIES

TESTES VOLUME mm”

20 GJ CAUDALTRACT

Fig. 3. Gonadal cycle and moult in the male Baya.

ruary when availability of paddy, their prin-

cipal food, is good. The adult and juvenile

Bayas of the study area completed a major

part of their moult at this time.

The timing of moult varied in different in-

dividuals of the population. But there were

many unmated male Bayas in this area and

breeding activity did not stop synchronously.

Those birds which had less or no parental

duties could start moulting earlier.

240

By October-November the plumage of the

adults and older juveniles was considerably

worn, brittle, and had many gaps. A total

renewal of feathers at this time ensures ade-

quate insulation during the colder months of

January and February. A prenuptial moult of

the body feathers in March-June reinforces

the plumage for the rigours of a long breed-

ing season. The bright plumage of male ac-

quired during the moult, makes the male con-

MOULT IN THE BAYA

spicuous and prepares it for the breeding

activities. The primaries and the secondary

greater coverts are renewed earlier than the

secondaries. Moult of secondaries is less syste-

matic and sometimes incomplete. The orderly

renewal of primaries and the slow renewal of

all remiges help in keeping the impairment

of flight at a minimum. The secondaries are

protected at their time of moult by a new set

of greater coverts. Stresemann & Stresemann

(1966) observed how the secondaries seldom

moulted from a single proximal or distal

focus. These authors preferred to designate

A 9-7 as guard feathers with the function of

shielding the folded wing from the sun and

rain, in certain groups of birds. These proxi-

mal secondaries the Stresemanns observed,

were renewed before the exchange of the

outer (distal) secondaries started with AI.

The pattern of moulting of the proximal se-

condaries in the Baya is different from that

of the rest of the secondaries thus agreeing

generally with the above observations.

The temporal separation of the moult and

breeding (Figure 2) in the Baya avoids com-

petition between these functions for energy.

To sum up, moult in the Baya at Rajampet

is so regulated as to ensure minimum impair-

ment of flight, better insulation in the colder

months, exploitation of a period of plenty in

its major food item, and conservation of en- |

ergy. As advised by Prof. Stresemann the de-

tails of ringing and recapture of Bayas used

in this study are appended.

The first three birds retained breeding

plumage for at least 5 months after ringing

and A 84241 remained in breeding plumage

till 18th November. These illustrate the long

period over which breeding plumage is re-

tained by the male Baya at Rajampet.

SUMMARY

This paper covers the results of examination

of plumage of about 2000 Bayas of different

age classes in Rajampet, 1968-71.

The adult Bayas moult feathers of the

body before breeding (March to June), and

the entire body and flight feathers after breed-

TABLE 4

MALE BAYAS RINGED AND RETRAPPED IN BREEDING PLUMAGE

pune, No We Ceaptet Stage of moult of feathers

A 80112 1 12-4-1968 In full breeding plumage, not moulting

A 80112 2 4-10-1968 In full breeding plumage, not moulting

A 80114 1 12-4-1968 In full breeding plumage, not moulting

A 80114 2, 3-10-1968 In full breeding plumage, not moulting

A 80115 1 12-4-1968 In full breeding plumage, not moulting

A 80115 2 1-10-1968 In full breeding plumage, not moulting

A 84198 1 12-4-1969 Completed moult in all tracts (non-flight) of

feathers. A 4 not cornified

A 84198 2) 30-6-1970 Full breeding plumage not moulting

AB 19936 1 3-7-1970 Full breeding plumage not moulting

AB 19936 2 2-8-1970 Full breeding plumage not moulting

A 84241 1 10-7-1969 Full breeding plumage not moulting

A 84241 2 18-11-1969 Full breeding plumage not moulting

241

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

TABLE 5

BAYAS RINGED IN BREEDING PLUMAGE AND RETRAPPED IN STAGES OF FLIGHT FEATHER MOULT

Ring No. Dates (1 of ringing

Sel Dy Ab deena Stages of moult of feathers

A 80140 M 1 10-10-1968 Full breeding plumage

A 80140 M 2 9-12-1968 H i-ii moulting

A 80151 M 1 10-10-1968 Full breeding plumage

A 80151 M 2 6-1-1969 Remiges, H vi and A ix moulting

A 80170 M 1 5-11-1968 Full breeding plumage

A 80170 M 2 6-12-1968 Capital and spinal tracts, H i-ili moulting

A. 80060 M 1 9-12-1968 Full breeding plumage

A. 80060 M D 15-4-1969 A v not cornified, ii-iv old, rest new.

A 84239 M 1 12-7-1969 Full breeding plumage

A 84239 M DD 4-1-1971 All feather tracts H v-vi A i, viii and ix moulting

A 84253 M 1 20-8-1969 Full breeding plumage

A 84253 M 2 6-1-1971 Off plumage

AB 19801 M 1 22-9-1969 Breeding plumage

AB 19801 M 2, 4-1-1971 H i-v moulting

A. 80119 1 25-4-1968 Not moulting

2 (a) 3-12-1969 H -iv moulting

2 (b) 14-4-1970 Moult complete on all tracts

ing from November to May. The major part

of the moults is completed before the com-

mencement of breeding activity. The female

moults without any change in the colour of its

feathers. The sequence and timings of moult

are the same in both sexes of the adults.

The juvenile Baya moults its entire feather

coat at the time of the adults’ postnuptial

moult. The post-juvenal and postnuptial moult

are identical in detail. Body moult starts on

the head. The primaries which are the first

242

flight features to moult do so, systematically

from the proximal to the distal end. The se-

condaries moult from several foci. The rec-

trices moulted from the centre outwards.

Moults reach a peak in December-January

when paddy is most available. The slow tempo

of moult of remiges causes minimum impair-

ment of flight. The postnuptial moult gives

the birds a better insulation for the cold

months to come. Notes about the recaptures

of ringed birds are appended.

MOULT IN THE BAYA

TABLE 6

BAYAS WITH. FEATHERS IN MOULT AT TIMES OF RINGING AND RECAPTURE -

Case No. Ring No. Dates (1 of finding Grines OF moult of feathers)

Sex 2 of recapture) ae

2 | ~~ A 80070 M | 1-1-1969 j H i-vi and proximal secondaries moulting |

-do- 2 5-4-1969 A iv-vi moulting

2 A 80084 O 1 6-1-1969 All the flight feathers old

-do- p 22-1-1969 H_ i-v moulting

8) A 95125 FE 1 22-1-1970 H i-iv A i and ix moulting

. -do- D, 29-3-1970 Flight feathers other than central secondaries new

4 A 84114 F 1 9-3-1969 Only A iv-v old rest new

-do- 2 (a) 12-4-1969 A iv moulting rest new

-do- 2 (b) 30-6-1970 Only one rectrix moulting

5 A 84115 F | 9-3-1969 A iii-vii old rest new

-do- Pi 12-4-1969 A iv-vi old rest new

6 A 84112 F 1 9-3-1969 Only A iv old

-do- 2, 16-1-1970 H x moulting, A iv-vi old

i A 84161 O 1 2-4-1969 A ii-v old

-do- 2. 15-4-1969 - A moulting: still. continuing

8 A 80014 M I 13-11-1968 Only one rectrix moulting

-do- ps 2-4-1969 A iv-vi old rest new

9 A 80008 M 1. 13-11-1968 One rectrix moulting

ee -do- 2 9-3-1969 A ili-vii, six rectrices old

10 A 80072 F 1 15-11-1968 Flight feathers not. moulting

-do- 2 1-2-1969 H i-v and one A ix moulting

pet AP OS04T OF a 1-12-1969 Flight feathers not moulting =~ —

-do- 2 4-1-1971 H i-iv and A i, viii and ix new or growing

1 A 88039 M . 1 -12-1969 H i-ili new or growing

-do- Ms, 7-1-1971 H i-vii and A i, vili and ix new or growing

13 A 95094 M 1 13-1-1970 H i-iii and A i-ii and vil-1x new or growing

-do- 2, 2-5-1970 Rectrices moulting A iv-vi old

14 Jess SEAMEN i 19-2-1970 H viui-x and A i-vii old, rest of the plumage new

24-4-1970 A v-vi old

Cases 1, 4, 5 and 14 show the slow progress of secondary moult; in 3 primary moult was fast.

The time required for completing the postnuptial moult calculated from cases 8, 9 and 13 is about 4

months.

243

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

TABLE 7

BAYAS IN OFF PLUMAGE ON FIRST AND IN BREEDING PLUMAGE ON SECOND EXAMINATION

Ring No. of came 2 Stages of moult of feathers

A 80080 M 1 6-1-1969 Spinal tract upper tail coverts, H i-vi and A ix

moulting

-do- 4 11-10-1969 Breeding plumage

A 95094 M 1 13-1-1970 All tracts of feathers moulting H i-viii new A

(only) iii-vi old

-do- 2 2-5-1970 Capital and ventral tracts moulting into breeding

plumage outer 4 rectrices not cornified, A iv-vi old

A 80106 M 1 10-4-1968 Off plumage not moulting

-do- 2 8-10-1969 In breeding plumage not moulting

AB 19932 M 1 30-6-1970 All non-flight feathers moulting A v old

-do- pe 9-9-1970 Only A v old (colour different from rest)

A 95116 F 1 21-1-1970 Body (all tracts) and H i-v moulting

-do- 2 2-8-1970 Netted at a breeding colony not moulting

A 84203 M 1 15-4-1969 Capital spinal ventral and caudal tracts and A iv

moulting

-do- 2 20-8-1969 In breeding plumage not moulting

TABLE 8

THE NOTES ON MOULT IN THE REST OF THE RETRAPPED BAYAS

Ripe Ne PE Os TS Stages of moult of feathers

Sex 2 of recapture)

A 80087 F 1 6-1-1969 Two rectrices and H i-iii moulting

-do- 2, 18-11-1969 H i-ii moulting

A 95140 F 1 12-2-1970 A iv-v old, rest of the feathers new

-do- 2 21-10-1970 Not moulting found dead in a nest with chicks

A 84121 F 1 9-3-1969 Moult recently completed

-do- Ba 17-2-1970 Secondaries moulting. A v-vi old

A 19927 1 30-6-1970 Not moulting, netted in a breeding colony

-do- 7 9-9-1970 Not moulting, retrapped in the same colony

A 84243 F i 7-8-1969 Not moulting, first year bird

-do- m4 31-7-1970 Not moulting found dead in nest with chicks

A 84296 1 20-9-1969 Not moulting. Breeding

-do- 2 27-9-1969 Not moulting. Retrapped from a roost

A 80125 1 10-10-1968 Not moulting

-do- Z 18-2-1970 A ili-vi moulting

A 80190 1 1-11-1968 Not moulting

-do- 2 11-11-1970 Not moulting

88020 1 15-11-1969 Not moulting

-do- 2 20-3-1970 All feather tracts other than capital moulting

244

MOULT IN THE BAYA

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My sincere thanks are due to Dr Salim Ali

for his guidance of this work, and to Dr R. M.

Naik of Baroda for advice and cooperation

in many ways in the preparation of this paper.

I have benefited much from the criticism and

helpful suggestions of the late Prof Dr E.

Stresemann. I wish to thank Shri J C Daniel,

Curator of the Bombay Natural History So-

ciety for his help and encouragement of this

work. The staff artists of the University of

Calicut, Shri T. John and Shri M. K. Govin-

dan helped me in the preparation of tables

and figures for my papers on the Baya, I am

grateful to them. I record my thanks to the

Bombay Natural History Society and the

Heads of the Departments of Zoology of the

Madras Christian College and the University

of Calicut for the facilities given to me for

research and preparation of papers.

REFERENCES

KinG J. R. & FARNER, D. S. (1961): Energy

Metabolism Thermoregulation and Body Temper-

ature In “Biology and Comparative Physiology of

Birds’, (A J Marshall Ed.), Vol. 2, p. 248. Aca-

demic Press, New York.

STRESEMANN, E. & STRESEMANN, V. (1966): Die

Mauser der Vogel. J. Ornithol. Sonderheft. [English

translation of the General section (pages 1-53)

prepared by Susan Kalma.]

245

Species identification and ave Classification

of the jaws of some common Indian

ungulates near Mudumalai

Wildlife Sanctuary’

J. A. COHEN

Institute for the Study of Animal Problems, Humane Society of the United States,

Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

(With two plates containing four figures)

On any journey into the Mudumalai Wildlife

Sanctuary or surrounding jungle areas of

Tamil Nadu, one is likely to find a number

of jawbones from ungulate species, the hooved

mammals. Many will undoubtedly be those

of domestic cattle (Bos taurus) and buffalo

(Bubalus bubalis), while others commonly

found will be of Chital (Axis axis) or Sam-

bar (Cervus unicolor). It behooves both the

casual nature-lover and professional field-zoo-

logist alike to be able to distinguish these jaws

at a glance. Information obtained in this way

may be of value in the study of carnivore food

habits and terrestrial ecology (Cohen et al.

1977). As adult domestic ungulates are typi-

cally larger than wild species, size of the jaw

is, of course, a primary consideration. How-

ever, it may be more difficult, for example, to

distinguish between the jaws of a domestic

calf and a yearling sambar, or between sam-

bar and chital fawns.

The material presented here is intended to

help clarify and make easier such species and,

to a limited extent, age determinations in the

1Accepted June 1977.

246

hope of stimulating further

these lines.

BASIC DENTITION

Most mammals of the families Cervidae

(e.g. Chital, Sambar) and Bovidae (e.g. Caitle,

Buffalo) have 32 teeth, twelve of which are

on the upper jaw (6 per side) and twenty

of which are on the lower jaw (10 per side).

Figure 1 indicates the positions of the in-

cisors, canines, premolars, and molars in a

research along

generalized ungulate. Note that most ungul-

ates have no upper incisors but instead have

a hard pad on the roof of the mouth against

which the lower incisors grind. In addition, —

upper canines are usually lacking while lower —

canines are usually not specialized and essen-

tially function as incisors. Three premolars

and three molars occur on each side of both |

upper and lower jaws. It is customary to re- |

fer to these teeth sequentially as: P,, Ps, Ps, |

M,, M,, and M;, and to term them collectively,

the molariform teeth.

The fawns and calves of ungulates are born

with deciduous (‘“milk” or “‘baby’’) teeth

J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 74

Cohen: Jaws of Indian Ungulates

PLATE |

Above: Fig. 1. Dentition of a generalized ungulate. Below: Fig. 2. Comparison of

various ungulate jaws. From top to bottom: Sambar fawn, Chital fawn,

adult, Domestic cattle adult.

Chital

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 74 PLATE I

Cchen: Jaws of Indian Ungulates

less than

1.5 yrs

pyice |

yrs

3-5

yrs -

more than

5 yrs

Above: Fig. 3. Relative sizes of P, in (A) Sambar fawn, (B) Chital fawn, and (C)

Chital adult. (Not drawn to scale). Below: Fig. 4. General tooth wear pattern for

molariform teeth.

SPECIES IDENTIFICATION OF iNDIAN UNGULATES

which are gradually replaced by a permanent

set as the animal matures.

CLASSIFICATION

The following species and age discrimin-

ations require the lower jaw only and, as there

is usually bilateral symmetry in tooth growth

and wear, only one side of the jaw need be

obtained. Only the molariform teeth require

study.

Species Identification

The first and easiest identification to be

made of a jaw in the hand is whether it is

from a wild or domestic ungulate. The jaws

of wild species may be distinguished by a very

prominent bulge at the angle of the jaw which

often protrudes beyond the main jawline, for-

mineya | heel7\ (see: Fig. 1).

The jaws of domestic cattle and buffalo,

however, have a much less promient “‘heel’’

which rarely extends below the jawline (Fig.

Dy.

In addition, the domestic jaw is much thic-

ker and has much more surface area (pro-

portionately) below the Msg, giving it a heavier

‘feel’? than the wild ungulate jaw.

These points will facilitate the discrimina-

tion of, for example, Sambar and Buffalo jaws

which might otherwise be confused on a size

basis alone.

The jaw of an adult Chital may be easily

distinguished from that of an adult Sambar

on the basis of size alone, but what about

Chital and Sambar fawns? The key here is

the P, which in the Sambar fawn is nearly

three times as large as in the Chital fawn and,

indeed, twice as large as that of an adult

Chital (see Fig. 3).

Age Estimation

A precise age determination requires that

the jaws of animals of known ages be first

studied. These may then serve as “known

samples” against which jaws of unknown ages

may be compared. This, to my knowledge,

has not yet been done for the Indian ungul-

ates and therefore only an approximate age

classification may be attempted at the present

time. Estimations are loosely based on known

age-wear patterns of the American Whitetailed

Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) as reported by

Severinghaus 1949, and personal observations

made by me in south India.

A key feature for consideration is the third

premolar (P;). In fawns, calves, and yearlings

this deciduous tooth will be tri-cusped, appear-

ing to have three distinct sections, whereas in

animals older than about 1.5 years, it is re-

placed by a permanent bi-cusped P;. Thus, if

the P; is tri-cusped, one knows at a glance

that the jaw is from a young individual. This

may be easily confirmed in some cases by the

lack of wear on the molariform teeth. Care

must be taken, however, for in certain cases

(e.g. some yearlings) the deciduous teeth may

show considerable wear and one may be led

to believe that the jaw is from an aged adult.

The number of cusps on the P, however, will

settle the issue.

Age estimation after about 1.5 years is more

difficult as more refined judgement and inter-

pretation are called for. Such estimations are

based on the relative degrees of wear on the

molariform teeth. In general, as the animal

matures, the higher ridges of the teeth become

worn away and the chewing surfaces become

smooth and concave. Certain teeth wear down

earlier than others, however, and this fact en-

247

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ables one to better estimate the age of the jaw.

The M, and the Ms; typically begin to show

signs of heavy wear before the other teeth.

At about 3 years of age the ridges of M,

appear somewhat worn and the posterior cusp

of M; is worn to a point well below the first

two cusps. If a jaw does not show these signs,

it is most likely from an animal of less than

three years.

By approximately 5 years of age, the P,

and P, may show heavy wear and smooth con-

cavities appear on the M, and posterior cusp

of M;. Heavier wear than this indicates jaws

from animals of more than 5 years.

With this information, one may now classify

jaws into four approximate age classes:

(a) Birth to 1.5 years

(b) 1.5-3 years

(d) More than 5 years

Figure 4 illustrates the general tooth wear

pattern for each of the molariform teeth. This

figure is derived principally from the study of

Chital jaws, but is roughly applicable to Sam-

bar and domestic ungulates as well.

It is, of course, important to realize that

a jaw which at first appears old and decayed

is not necessarily from an old animal but may

simply be from one which died a long time

ago.

Finer analysis and more precise age classi-

fications must await the study of jaw speci-

mens of known-age from zoos or free-roaming

animals.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The aid of M. W. Fox, A. J. T. Johnsingh,

and B. D. Barnett in the collection of jaw

samples and of L. Zicari for figures 1 and 3

is greatly appreciated. This work was_ sup-

ported in part by grant R75/14 from the

Fauna Preservation Society.

REFERENCES

COHEN, J. A., Fox, M. W., JOHNSINGH, A. J. T.,

& BARNETT, B. D. (1977): Food habits of the dhole

(Cuon alpinus) in south India. (Submitted manu-

script).

248

SEVERINGHAUS, C. W. (1949): Tooth develop-

ment and wear as criteria of age in white-tailed

deer. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 13:195-216.

New additions to the Pteridophytic flora

of India from Great Nicobar Island’

K. THOTHATHRI, S. P. BANERJEE, P. K. HARA AND G. D. PAL

(With seven text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

A botanical survey of Great Nicobar Island

was undertaken in 1966 under the Joint Scien-

tific Expedition, organised by the Government

of India, with a view to explore the plant

wealth of this remote island in the Bay of

Bengal. Great Nicobar is the largest of the

southernmost group of Nicobars, lying bet-

ween longitudes 93°37’ and 93°56’ E. and

latitudes 6°45’ and 7°15’ N. It is roughly

55 km long and 30 km wide with an area of

865 sq km. Two principal ranges of moun-

tains run more or less north to south and the

highest point is Mount Thulier. Five perennial

rivers (Galathea, Alexandra, Dogmar, Amrit

Kaur, Jubilee) take their origin from these hill

ranges. The climate is tropical with a heavy

rainfall (300 cm per year). The vegetation

is divisible into: (1) Mangrove forests; (2)

Beach forests; (3) Low evergreen forests; (4)

High wet evergreen forests; and (5) Riverine

vegetation. The forests are very dense with trees,

climbers and shrubs with little herbaceous

undergrowth on the forest floor.

The climate, soil, rainfall and the resultant

vegetation afford rich and luxurient growth of

ferns and fern allies which are both terrestrial

_ and epiphytic. A number of ferns were collect-

ed during the above expedition and a careful

Accepted July 1972.

and critical study of them proved to be not

only interesting but many have turned out

to be new records for Indian territory. Such

new records are treated here with brief diag-

nostic characters and with illustrations wher-

ever possible. All the specimens are preserved

in the Central National Herbarium; Howrah

(CAL).

1. Acrostichum speciosum Willd. Sp. Pl. 5:117,

S10. (Bigg 19).

A terrestrial fern, found in mangrove creeks.

Stipe and frond 1 m tall; fronds simply pinnate,

lower pinnae sterile while upper ones fertile. Sterile

pinnae 25 <x 4 cm, shortly stalked, base unequal

and cuneate, apex narrowly acuminate, blade coria-

ceous, midrib raised on lower surface; stalk of the

pinnae 0.5 cm long. Fertile pinnac similar to sterile

ones but smaller; sori superficial covering the en-

tire lower surface.

Distribution. Tropical

and Australia.

Specimens examined. Campbell Bay, Great Nico-

bar, Apr. 1966—Thothathri and Banerjee 11659

(CAT).

2. Colysis macrophylla (BI.) Presl. Epim. Bot.

147, 1849. Grammitis macrophylla Bl. Enum. PI.

Java 119, 1828. (Fig. 2).

An epiphytic fern, common on branches of trees

and shrubs. Rhizome creeping and clasping by

means of roots; scales brown, lanceolate; stipe 3-7

cm long, naked. Frond simple, lanceolate, 25-35 x

5-7 cm, gradually narrowed at both ends, entire,

thin; veins indistinct, slender and zigzag with

copious, uniform, subquadrangular areolae with free

veinlets enclosed within. Sori in single continuous

row between the main veins.

Asia, Malayan Peninsula

249

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

PAPE —_

ERNE

ROR

aa .”

SITY ITT a eee PMLA oe EY,

yy RBA aie HEED

PUMA Mee

Mey

‘Ay

LL EIN A y

LNA ea

AMeLis

NN ‘i

LOE

Vittaria ensiformis Sw.

. Acrostichum speciosum Willd. Fig.

Fig.

250

ADDITIONS TO PTERIDOPHYTIC FLORA

Distribution. Malayan Peninsula, Philippines and

New Guinea.

Specimens examined. Rosen point, Campbell Bay,

Great Nicobar Island, Mar. 1966—Thothathri and

Banerjee 11381 (CAL).

3. Colysis selliguea (Mett.) Ching in Sunyat-

senia 5: 261, 1940. Polypodium selliguea Mett. Pol.

Men) 21401857: (Fis. 6).

Epiphytic on branches of small trees; rhizome

creeping, + 3 mm thick, scaly; scales black with

a tuft of hairs at its base, + 5 x 1 mm, narrowed

above, minutely serrate at margin. Fronds 15-30 x

2-3.5 cm, stipe = 2 cm long, lower part of the

blade gradually narrowed, papyracea-herbaceous;

primary veins distinct connected by transverse veir.-

lets. Sori superficial, 2-4 in a line in between the

main veins.

Distribution. Malayan Peninsula and Philippines.

Specimens examined. From Galathea Bay to Pulo-

baha Bay, Great Nicobar Island, Mar. 1966—

Thothathri and Banerjee 11535 (CAL).

4. Cyclosorus polycarpus (BI.) MHoltt. in FI.

Malaya 2: 283, 1954. Aspidium polycarpum BI.

Enum. Pl. Java 156, 1828. (Fig. 3).

A terrestrial fern on river banks growing under

shade. Frond stout, about 1.5 m-.tall with closely

placed sessile as well as reduced pinnae along the

stipe; lower pinnae spreading while upper ones

gradually reduced merging with the lobed, trian-

eular apex of the frond. Pinnae — 30. 1.5 em,

base subtruncate with basal segments slightly pro-

duced; segments acuminate, margin cut about or

beyond halfway to the costa into slightly oblique,

entire, blunt lobes; lobes = 4 mm long; upper sur-

face of lamina mostly glabrous with numerous,

round, yellow glands in between veinlets, lower

surface and costae covered with short, spreading

hairs and yellow glands; veins in each lobe 12 pairs,

oblique, lowest anastomosing. Sori median on veins,

twice as long as broad, occupying most of the

lower surface.

Distribution. Malayan Peninsula and Siam.

Specimens examined. Dogmar river, Casuarina

Bay, Great Nicobar Island, Apr. 1966—Thothathri

and Banerjee 11600 (CAL).

5. Humata heterophylla (Sm.) Desv. Prodr. 323,

1825. Davallia heterophylla Sm. Mem. Ac. Turin.

me 4d, 1793. (Fig. 4).

Epiphytic on branches of Barringtonia asiatica

Kurz. Rhizome slender, wide-creeping, = 2 mm

thick, densely scaly; scales dark brown, subulate,

attenuate, + 6 x 1 mm, finely toothed. Fronds

dimorphous, 1.5-4.5 cm apart; stipes 1-1.25 cm long,

slightly winged, densely scaly at base; sterile fronds

ovate-lanceolate, 1.5-2.5 cm long, cuneate at base,

shortly acuminate at apex, entire to undulate, irre-

gularly lobed at times, coriaceous, lateral veins

prominent, once, twice or more forked. Fertile

fronds irregularly lobed or deeply sinuate-pinnati-

fid, 4-8 x 3 cm, lobes oblong, rounded at apex; sori

terminal on each veinlet, 3-8 on each lobe, indusia

~ 1» 1.5 mm, thin, attached by its broad base.

Distribution. Malayan Peninsula, Sumatra _ to

Pacific.

Specimens examined. Campbell Bay, Great Nico-

bar Island, Apr. 1966—Thothathri and Banerjee

11637 (CAL). :

6. Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott. Gen. Fil.

t. 3, 1834. Aspidium biserratum Sw. Schrad. Journ.

Bots) 1800@)'2 32, 1801. (Fig. 5).

An epiphytic fern on trunks of large trees. Fronds

1.5 cm long, simply pinnate, pinnae about 80 pairs;

stipe up to 60 cm long; pinna 18 x 2 cm, basal

one gradually shorter and more widely placed,

truncate at base, faintly crenate at margin, shortly

acuminate at apex, veins faint, once or twice fork-

ed. Sori globose, superficial, one to each crenature

and terminating the unforked vein; indusia circular

with a narrow sinus.

Distribution. Pantropical especially

Peninsula.

Specimens examined. Forests in Campbell Bay,

Great Nicobar Island, Mar. 1966—Thothathri and

Banerjee 11390 (CAL).

7. Trichomanes motleyi

Arch. 5: 145, 1861.

Epiphytic, growing adpressed to barks of tree

trunks. Rhizome slender. Fronds simple or lobed,

stalked, 4-6 mm long, not hairy at edges; sterile

fronds slightly elongated, rounded at base, = 4 mm

long; fertile fronds cuneate at base, bilobed at apex.

Sorus single, free and situated in the notch of the

frond; industum tubular, mouth dialated, recept-

acle sometimes protruding.

Distribution. Malayan Peninsula and Borneo.

Specimens examined. Way to Pulokunio, Casu-

arina Bay, Great Nicobar Island, Apr. 1966—Tho-

thathri and Banerjee 11571 (CAL).

8. Vittaria ensiformis Sw. Ges. Nat. Fr.

NeusiSchri2 (34iits dl 7990) (big: 7):

in Malayan

Bosch. Ned. Kruidk.

Berl.

pisd|

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Fig. 3. Cycloserus polycarpus (Bl\.) Holtt. Fig. 4. Humata heterophylla (Sm.) Desv.

Fig. 6. Colysis selliguea (Mett.) Ching.

252

ADDITIONS TO PTERIDOPHYTIC FLORA

VE 2

a ee rae .

: A AN Ary :

‘ Ke ag Aa X NE A

vil A

AT) i

Fig. 2. Colysis macrophylla (Bl.) Presl. Fig. 5. Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott.

253

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Epiphytic on trees. Rhizome short bearing close-

ly arranged fronds. Fronds sessile, = 20 « 4-6 cm,

subcoriaceous, gradually narrowed at base, acumin-

ate at apex, midrib indistinct on the lower surface.

Sori in marginal grooves, covered by the reflexed

margin of the frond.

Distribution. Malayan Peninsula,

lands.

Specimens examined.

Mascarene Is-

Galathea Bay, Great Nico-

bar Island, Mar. 1966—Thothathri

11478 (CAL).

and Banerjee

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our sincere thanks to the Di-

rector, Botanical Survey of India for facili-

ties.

REFERENCES

ALDERWERELT, C. R. W. K. & ROSENBURGH

(1908): Malayan Ferns. Batavia.

BEDDOME, R. H. (1883): Handbook to the Ferns

of British India, Ceylon and Malayan Peninsula.

Calcutta.

CHRISTENSEN, C. (1906): Index Filicum. Copen-

hagen.

COPELAND, E. B. (1947): Genera Filicum. Wal-

tham, Mass. U.S.A.

HoL_truM, R. E. (1954): A revised Flora of

Malaya. II. The ferns of Malaya. Singapore.

Hooker, W. J. & BAKER, J. C. (1874): Synopsis

Filicum. London.

Kurz, S. (1870): Report on the vegetation of the

Andaman Islands. Calcutta.

(1975): Descriptions of new plants

Journ. Bot. Lond. 321-

from the Nicobar Islands.

333.

——_—_——— (1876): A sketch on the vegetation

of the Nicobar Islands. Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 45:

105-164.

MenurRA, P. N. & Bir, S. S. (1964): Pteridophytic

flora of Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas. Res. Bull.

Punjab Univ. 15:69-182.

Nayar, B. K. & SrivArsava, G. S. (1962): A

preliminary report of the Fern flora of the Great

Andamans. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59:329-333.

PRAIN, D. (1891): On a botanical visit to Little

254

Andaman and the Nicobars. Proc. Asiat. Soc. Beng.:

156-175.

—— (1891): The vegetation of the Coco

group. Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 60:283-406.

(1893): On the flora of Narcondam

and Barren Islands. ibid. 62:39-86.

SAHN!, K. C. (1953): Botanical exploration in

the Great Nicobar. Indian For. 79:3-7.

SRINIVASAN, K. S. (1960): On the fore-shore

vegetation of Malacca coast of the Car Nicobar

Island. Bull. bot. Surv. India 2:15-25.

THOTHATHRI, K. (1960): Botanical exploration in

Car Nicobar and Nancoury Islands. ibid. 2:341-346.

(1960): Studies on the flora of

Andaman Islands. ibid. 2:357-373.

(1961): New records

from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 58:310-317.

(1962): Contributions to the flora

of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Bull. bot.

Surv. India 4:281-296.

et jal. | (A970) 3 7 New secords)) of

and Lycopodium WL. from Great

Nicobar Island. Sci. & Cult. 36:330-331.

—__-—§——— et al. (1971): Ophioglossum pen-

dulum Linn.—A rare and interesting plant from

Great Nicobar Island. Bull. bot. Surv. India 11:347-

349,

of plants

J. Bom-

Selaginella Spr.

Notes on south Indian Hepaticae—2”

The genus Herberta Gray

RAM UDAR AND S. C. SRIVASTAVA

Department of Botany, University of Lucknow, Lucknow (India)

(With twenty-nine text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 72(2): 406]

INTRODUCTION

The genus Herberta is represented in the

Hepatic flora of South India by four species,

namely H. pinnata, H. capense, H. nilgerriensis

and H. sanguinea. Illustrated taxonomic ac-

count and critical distinguishing features of

the first three species have been given. The

observations recorded are entirely based on

a collection of plants made by Rev. P. Pflei-

derer from south Indian territory as well as

on the type specimens obtained from Step-

hani Herbarium, Geneva.

Our first paper of this series deals with the

description of one species each of Trichocolea

and Notoscyphus (Udar & Srivastava 1975).

In the present paper detailed and critical taxo-

nomic description of three South Indian spe-

cies of the genus Herberta has been given.

The genus Herberta is considered to be one

of the important and most isolated member

of the leafy liverworts. Previously it was

treated under the family Ptilidiaceae (sub-

family Ptilidioideae)—a group generally re-

garded to be primitive. Miller (1948, 1954:

1 Accepted August 1973.

* Contribution from the Department of Botany,

Bryophyta (New series) No. 76, University of

Lucknow, Lucknow (India).

emend Fulford & Hatcher 1958) segregated

this genus into a distinct family Herberiaceae.

Significant features of this genus are the

presence of isophylly, deeply bifid leaves, ab-

sence of scattered rhizoids on the stem, in-

tercalary branching, thick-walled cells in the

multilayered cortex, peculiar position of an-

theridia in the axil of bracteoles, multistratose

capsule wall and absence of any specialized

body of any kind for asexual reproduction.

According to Evans (1917) the rhizoids,

although very rare, in this taxon, originate

normally from the cells at the base of the

underleaves. Apart from underleaves, rhizoids

have also been known to occur on the lateral

leaves as well. In most of the cases where

rhizoids are known, they originate from the

abaxial face of the leaf lobes (Schuster 1957).

Schuster remarked: “ Such a position for the

rhizoids is extremely rare in Hepaticae, re-

curring chiefly in taxa with potentially cadu-

cous leaves.’ However, at times rhizoids

have also been shown to originate from the

adaxial face of the leaves.

The intercalary branching with thick-walled

cells in the multilayered cortex is considered

to be primitive. The position of antheridia in

the axil of bracteoles is rare in any other liver-

wort genus except Mastigophora, a member

of the same family Ptilidiaceae (Schuster

255

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

1957). Although there is no specialized bodies

of any type for asexual reproduction, isolated

regenerants or propagulae have been found on

the adaxial faces of the leaf lobes. The asexual

reproduction has been described in some spe-

cies by fragmentation (as in H. tenuis: Schu-

ster 1957) as well as by regenerants produced

from the leaves (as in AH. remotiusculifolia:

Horikawa 1934).

The genus Herberta is represented in India

by 16 species (Montagne 1842; Stephani

1909, 1922: Herzog 1939; Pande & Udar

1950 and Miller 1965).

Herzog (1939) merely named three new

species (all nomen nudum) of the genus from

Sikkim Himalayas without giving their diag-

noses. These are: ‘Herberta lonchobasis

Herz. et Nich. n. sp. in Herb-Tsomgo Lake,

leg. Troll., Herberta nicholsonii Herz. n. sp.

in Herb-Tsomgo Lake, leg. Troll., Herberta

mastigophoroides Herz. et Nich. in Herb-Dar-

jeeling, leg. Kerston ”’.

Recently Miller (1965), in a monograph on

the genus, has published the diagnoses of the

above species under the name HH. lonchobasis

Miller and H. mastigophoroides Miller from

the original collection of Herzog (1939) and

treated H. nicholsonii as a synonym of H.

lonchobasis. He has also given a new name

H. darjeelingensis Miller for H. gracile St.

The Eastern Himalayas predominate in

number of species while the Western Hima-

layas has only one species (H. kurzii) of this

genus (Stephani 1909). Four species, namely

H. pinnata, H. capense, H. nilgerriensis and

H. sanguinea have been known to occur in

south India (Montagne 1842; Stephani 1909;

Pande & Udar 1950).

In his revision of the genus from Tropical

Pacific and Asia, Miller (1965) has included

almost all the species originally reported from

various localities in India except HW. capense.

256

Of these only three south Indian species (H.

pinnata, H. nilgerriensis and H. sanguinea)

have been described. These, except H. sangui-

nea, have been considerably amplified with

relevant illustrations in the present paper and

the diagnostic features have been critically

discussed. An account of H. capense not in-

cluded by Miller has also been given.

Miller (1965) recognized five sections

under the genus Herberta on the basis of the

primitive and advanced characters of the

plants. According to him “‘... a little differen-

tiated vitta is relatively primitive... and a long

and sharply defined one is advanced......

a shallow sinus is less advanced than a deep

one; straight leaves are less advanced than

curved; an expanded basal disc composed

mainly of isodiametric cells is advanced over

a basal disc about equally composed of iso-

diametric and vitta cells; a reduced basal disc

composed almost entirely of vitta is also ad-

vanced; and elongate cylindrical tip cells

apparently derived from vitta initials are ad-

vanced over short cylindrical tip cells derived

from laminal initial cells.”

His five sections of the genus Herberta are

as follows (species listed under each section

are those represented in Indian flora):

1. Fissiherberta: ‘Leaves bifid 1/2 or less,

vitta indistinct, leaf insertion nearly transverse’,

e.g. H. darjeelingensis (H. gracile): Eastern

Himalayas.

2. Herberta: “Leaves bifid 3/5 or more, leaf

segments straight to curved with segments

subequal or the antical reduced, leaf tips

acute or attenuate by means of short cylindri-

cal cells derived from the lamina’, eg. H.

nilgerriensis, H. pinnata and H. sanguinea:

South India; H. lonchobasis, H. dicrana H.

longifissa, H. sikkimensis, H. fleischeri and

H. fragilis: Eastern Himalayas.

3. Cirriherberta: ‘Leaves bifid 3/5 or more,

SOUTH INDIAN HEPATICAE

leaf segments slender, circinate, with the pos-

tical segment reduced.’ None of the Indian

species described so far comes under this

category.

4. Dilatiherberta: ‘Leaves bifid 1/2 or less,

vitta distinct, leaf insertion oblique’, e.g. H.

himalayana: Eastern Himalayas, H. kurzit:

Western Himalayas. The discovery of H. him-

alayana from North America (Miller 1968)

makes it a ‘North American Himalayan

disjunct which parallels the distribution of

Takakia in part, adds more evidence for a

common flora, or at least a well-established

migration track, between the mountains of

Asia and those of North America.”

5. Piloherberta: ‘Leaves bifid 3/5 or more,

leaf segments straight to curved with segments

subequal or the antical reduced, leaf tips at-

tenuate by means of elongate cylindrical

cells derived from the vitta’, e.g. H. mastigo-

phoroides and H. wichurae: Eastern Hima-

layas.

According to him (Miller 1965, p. 301):

‘....sect. Fissiherberta, or something like

it, was the ancient progenitor of the genus as

we know it and that sect. Herberta deve-

loped more recently under conditions highly

conducive to retention of genetic aberrations

in unsaturated biomes.”

He further remarked that “‘ Section Her-

berta was ancestral stock for Cirriherberta,

Dilatiherberta, and Piloherberta, and inter-

grades into each to the extent that some spe-

cies could be justifiably placed in either

section.”

The materials, on which the present investi-

gation is based, were collected by Rev. P.

Pfleiderer of Esslingen (Germany) from

Western Ghats (South India) and preserved

dry in packets. The type specimens of dH.

pinnata, H. nilgirriensis and H. capense ob-

tained from Stephani Herbarium, Conserva-

toire et Jardin Botanique, Geneve, have also

been investigated. Only sterile plants were

represented in the collections.

TAXONOMIC DESCRIPTION

Herberta Gray

Herberta S.F. Gray., Nat. Arr. Brit. Pl. lp 705

(1821). Schisma Dum. Common Bot., p. 114 (1822).

Mastigophora Sect. Schisma Nees, Naturgesch. eur.

Leb. 3p. 573 (1838). Sendtnera Nees, in Gottsche,

Lindenberg u. Nees, Syn. Hep., p. 238 (1844).

Gametophyte generally large and _ robust,

reddish brown, consisting of prostrate rhizo-

matous base which gives off generally inter-

calary aerial branches. Rhizome distinguished

from stem only by the presence of small and

distant leaves which may be sometimes ab-

sent. Stem stiff, straight and branched, inter-

nally differentiated into an outer cortical and

inner medullary zone, cortical zone 2-3 cell

layers thick, cells with considerably thickened

walls having small lumen, trigones distinct,

middle or medullary zone composed of com-

paratively larger cells with larger lumen and

less thickened walls. Leaves single, bifid, ar-

ranged in three rows, identical in shape and

size, transversely or obliquely inserted on the

stem, larger on the main stem, smaller on

branches, apices acute to acuminate, curved or

straight with divisions equal or unequal in

size, unistratose, composed of isodiametric

cells, smaller towards margin, gradually be-

coming larger and elongated towards centre

(vitta), walls considerably thickened with

bulging trigones; lateral leaves similar to those

of the underleaves except in size; underleaves

-usually smaller than the lateral leaves; vitta

undivided at the base, forking somewhere be-

low the bifurcations of the leaves, each divi-

sion of the vitta extends up to or a little be-

low the apices of the bifurcated leaves; vitta

257

258

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

(a Lfo—

3-7 03mm.

_', Imm.

2 :

8—10 005mm.

071mm.

Figs. 1-10. Herberta pinnata (St.) Miller.

Fig. 1. A portion of stem with 3 rows of leaves. Fig. 2. Cross section of stem. Figs. 3-

5. Leaves. Figs. 6, 7. Underleaves. Fig. 8. Marginal cells of leaf with slime papillae.

Fig. 9. Vitta cells. Fig. 10. Cells towards apex of the leaf.

SOUTH INDIAN HEPATICAE

cells more elongated at the base, shortened to-

wards the apex.

KEY TO THE SOUTH INDIAN SPECIES

1. Plants robust and large in size, leaves 2-2.75 xX

0.5-1.0 mm, divisions of the leaves divergent,

may or may not be curved

2. Leaves 1/3 or more bifid, divisions about

1.4 x 0.5 mm, slightly curved, ending in 2-4

superimposed cells; at the distance of about

0.3 mm from the apex the divisions are 5-6

cells wide, slime papillae stalked and easily

met with in majority of leaves .. H. pinnata

. Leaves 2/5-1/2 bifid, divisions 1.5 x 0.38 mm,

highly curved, ending in 4-10 superimposed

cells; at the distance of about 0.3 mm from

the apex the divisions are 4-5 cells wide,

slime papillae sessile and rarely present in

Some EAVES iy Wa tay el Nigurn NRE H. capense

1. Plants medium in size, leaves 0.75-1.9 x 0.5-0.8

mm, divisions of the leaves slightly convergent,

curved or almost straight

3. Leaves bifid 1/3-1/2, leaves and underleaves

more or less of the same size, about 0.75-1.0

KAOES MITA WN Gwin Ne Ge ae H.. nilgerriensis

3. Leaves bifid about 3/5, leaves and under-

leaves usually not of the same size, under-

leaves 1.4-1.7 x 0.6-0.7 mm .. H. sanguinea

Herberta pinnata (St.) Miller

Herberta pinnata (St.) Miller, J. Hattori bot.

Lab. 28:299, 1965. Schisma — pinnata St., Spec.

Hepaticarum 6:361, 1922.

(Figs. 1-10)

Plants dark brown, robust; stem 54-74 mm

long, erect, profusely pinnately branched, 0.3

mm in diameter, cortical cells 2-3 layered with

thickened walls, middle cells comparatively

large with less thickened walls; branching

closely pinnate, branches up to 30 mm long.

Leaves in 3 rows, lateral leaves 2-2.75 x 0.5-

0.9 mm on the main axis, 0.7 x 0.21 mm on

branches, bifid approximately 1/3, divisions

lanceolate up to 1.4 x 0.52 mm, usually straight,

sometimes slightly curved and _ divergent,

acute to acuminate, ending with 2-4 super-

imposed cells; leaf divisions 5-6 cells wide at

the distance of about 0.3 mm below the apex;

slime papillae stalked, present at the margins

of the undivided portion of the leaf. Under-

leaves slightly smaller than the leaves, about

2-2.5 x 0.9-1.0 mm, divisions long and straight;

marginal cells towards the base more or less

isodiametric, c. 9-14.4 » in diam., cells in be-

tween the vitta and the margin c. 19.2-38.4 x

9.6-12.0 uw, cells towards apex c. 38.4 x 9.6 wu.

Undivided vitta at the base nearly 326.4 x

316.8 w, bifid 1/3 or 1/2 of the basal undivid-

ed part of the leaf; cells of the vitta c. 57.6 x

14.4 » at the base. Fertile specimens not avail-

able.

Locality. Dodabetta (c. 8000 ft), Nilgirries

(South India). Legit: Rev. P. Pfleiderer.

Specimens examined.

1. G 012125: Fondation Stephani; Herba-

rium E. Levier Original; 6140 Schisma

pinnatum, Montis Nilgiri India S.W.,

Dodabetta 8765p-2670 M 12 Sep.

1907: legit Rev. B. Luthi.

. Lucknow University Hepatic Herbar-

ium: Legit: Pfleiderer. Loc. Dodabetta

(South [ndia).

Herberta pinnata can be easily distinguish-

ed by the presence of closely pinnate branch-

ing and the large and robust size of the plant.

Leaves are symmetrical with well developed

and clearly defined vitta (Figs. 3-7). Majority

of the leaves show slime papiilae which are

stalked (Fig. 8). They are usually present at

the margins of the undivided basal portion

of the leaf. Miller (1965) has however report-

ed the presence of subsessile slime papillae

in this species.

Herberta capense (St.) Sim.

Herberta capense (St.) Sim., Trans. Royal Soc.

S. Afr. XV: 75, 1926. Schisma capense St., Spec.

259

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Nast P| ui

voy

14—18. G: 3imry :

\ Jefe iS eet.

| \ 3 rit,

i9—2] O'05mim,

uhtees

ee ee

1.0mm.

Figs. 11-21. Herberta capense (St.) Sim.

Fig. 11. A portion of stem with 3 rows of leaves. Fig. 12. Cross section of stem. Fig.

13. Magnified sketch of the same. Figs. 14-16. Leaves of the main stem. Fig. 17. Branch

leaf. Fig. 18. Underleaf. Fig. 19 Marginal cells of the leaf. Fig. 20. Cells towards apex

of the leaf. Fig. 21. Vitta cells.

260

SOUTH INDIAN HEPATICAE

Hepaticarum 4:6, 1909. Chalubinskia africana

Lehm., according to Sim.

(Figs. 11-21)

Plants dark brown, 30-50 mm long, about

0.27 mm in diameter, scarcely branched,

branches about 11 mm or so long. Leaves in

3 rows, lateral leaves 2/5-1/2 bifid, 2-2.5 x

0.75-1.0 mm, divisions lanceolate and unequal,

1.5 x 0.38 mm, mostly curved with acute to

acuminate apices ending in 4-10 superimposed

cells; leaf divisions 4-5 cells wide at the distance

of about 0.3 mm below the apex. Slime papil-

lae sessile. Underleaves similar to those of the

leaves, c. 1.5 -2.5 x 0.5-0.75 mm. Marginal

cells of both leaves and underleaves c. 9.6-

19.2 » in diameter, cells between the margin

and the vitta c. 18.8 x 9.6 u», cells towards the

apex c. 38.4 x 9.6 #. Vitta 1/3 bifid of the

basal undivided part of the leaf, undivided

vitta at the base 163.2-172 x 249.6-297.6 4»,

cells of the vitta at the base c. 57.6-86.4 x 9.6-

14.6 uw. Fertile specimens not available.

Locality. Kudremukh (South India). Legit:

Rev. P. Pfleiderer.

Specimens examined.

1. G 012123: Herbier Stephani: Schisma

capense, Von Lehman.

2. Lucknow University Hepatic Herbarium,

Schisma capense. Legit. Pfleiderer. Loc.

Kudremukh (South India).

The present species H. capense resembles H.

pinnata in the colour and texture of the plant,

stem anatomy, attachment of leaves and also in

the marginal cells of the leaf except for a little

difference in their size in both the species. Be-

sides these similarities there are fairly large

number of distinguishing characters which are

significant in delimiting the two taxa. For ex-

ample, the characteristic profuse branching of

the stem in H. pinnata is absent in H. capense,

the leaves of H. capense are broader than the

leaves in H. pinnata, the divisions of the leaves

in H. capense are greatly curved, longer and

less broader in contrast to H. pinnata. In ad-

dition the number of superimposed apical cells

is more in number in the former and less in

the latter. At the same distance from the api-

ces of the leaf, H. capense is 5-6 cells wide

while H. pinnata is 4-5 cells wide. The slime

papillae are present in both the species but

they are stalked and easily met in the leaves

of H. pinnata, while in H. capense they are

rare and sessile. The marginal cells of the leaf

in the two species are nearly of the same size,

but, the cells in between the vitta and the

margins are larger in size in H. pinnata than

in H. capense. Similarly the cells of the vitta

also differ in size in the two species.

Herberta nilgerriensis (St.) Miller

Herberta nigerriensis (St.) Miller, J. Hattori bot.

Lab. 28:299, 1965. Schisma nilgerriensis St., Spec.

Hepaticarum 4:28, 1909.

(Figs. 22-29)

Plants yellowish brown, c. 57 mm long and

0.29 mm in diameter, branches few up to

6 mm long. Leaves in 3 rows, lateral leaves

1/2 bifid 0.75-1.0 x 0.5 mm, divisions converg-

ent, c. 0.6 X 0.25 mm, unequal, straight or

slightly curved, apices acute ending in 1-3

superimposed cells; leaf divisions 7-9 cells

wide at the distance of about 0.3 mm below

the apex. Sometimes one or two sessile slime

papillae occur at the margins of the undivided

part of the leaf. Underleaves similar in shape

and about of the same size as the leaves, divi-

sions short unequal and converging. Margi-

nal cells of the leaf c. 9.6-16.8 » in diameter,

cells in between the margin and the vitta c.

19.2-23.2 x 9.6 u», cells towards the apices c.

9.6-12 » in diameter. Undivided vitta at the

base c. 96.0-115.0 x 144-153.6 » about 1/2

bifid of the basal undivided part of the leaf;

261

262

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Figs. 22-29. Herberta nilgerriensis (St.) Miller.

Fig. 22. A portion of stem with 3 rows of leaves. Figs. 23, 24. Leaves. Figs. 25, 26.

Underleaves. Fig. 27. Marginal cells of the leaf. Fig. 28. Cells towards apex of the

leaf. Fig. 29. Vitta cells.

SOUTH INDIAN HEPATICAE

basal cells of the vitta c. 48.0-57.6 x 16.8 u.

Fertile specimens not available.

Locality. Nilgerries. Legit. Perottot.

Specimen examined.

1. G 012124: Herb. J. Cardot: No. 89:

Schisma_nilgherriensis St., Hindoustan

Nilgherries. Leg. Perottot.

The present investigation is based entirely

on the specimens obtained from Stephani

Herbarium. Herberta nilgerriensis differs ap-

parently from H. pinnata and H. capense in

the overall size of the plant as well as in the

size and shape of the leaves. This species is

smaller in size than the other two species. In

addition the divisions of the leaf in H. nilgerri-

ensis are almost straight and convergent where-

as in H. capense and H. pinnata the divisions

of the leaves are apparently divergent and

more or less curved. Greatly curved leaves as

commonly found in H. capense are almost ab-

sent or very rarely present in H. pinnata and

1. nilgerriensis. Leaf divisions are unequal in

H. capense and H. nilgerriensis while in H.

pinnata this feature is not very stable and

therefore in some leaves of the latter the

divisions may be uniform and in others they

may be unequal. Leaf divisions in H. nilger-

riensis are comparatively smaller and narro-

wer than in the other two species, but, at the

same distance from the apex the leaf divisions

are usually 7-9 cells wide in H. nilgerriensis

and 4-5 and 5-6 cells wide in H. capense and

H. pinnata respectively. Similarly the superim-

posed apical cells in leaf divisions also differ

in the south Indian species. These are 2-3 in

H. nilgerriensis and 2-4 and 4-10 in H. pin-

nata and H. capense respectively. The slime

papillae occur in all the three south Indian

species but they are very rare in H. capense

and rather common in H. pinnata. The vitta

is distinct and well defined in all the three

species.

REFERENCES

ARNELL, S. (1963): Hepaticae of South Africa.

Stockholm.

Evans, A. W. (1917): Notes on the genus Her-

berta, with a revision of the species known from

Europe, Canada, and the United States. Bull. Torr.

Bot. Club. 44:191-222.

FULFoRD, M. & HATCHER, R. E. (1958): Triand-

rophyllum, a new genus of leafy Hepaticae. The

Bryologist. 61:276-285.

HeErzoc, TH. (1939): Zwei Bryophytensammlun-

gen aus dem Sikkim Himalaya. Ann. Bryol. 12:71-

Di:

* HorIKAWA, Y. (1934): Monographia Hepati-

carum Australia-Japonicarum. Jour. Sci. Hiroshima

Univ., Ser. B. Div. 2, 2(2) :101-325.

MILLER, H. A. (1965): A review of Herberta in

| the Tropical Pacific and Asia. J. Hattori bot. Lab.

_ 28:299-412.

(1968): Herberta Notes. ibid. 31:

247-250.

MONTAGNE, J. C. (1842): Cryptogammae Nil-

gerienses plantarum cellularium in montibus penin-

culae indicae...

20.

* MULLER, K. (1948): Der Systematische Wert

von Sporophytenmerkmaten bei den Beblatterten

Lebermoosen. Svensk Bot. Tidskr. 42(1) :1-16.

(1954): Die Lebermoose Europas.

In Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen Flora VI. Aufl. 3.

Lief. 4:481-640, Leipzig.

PANDE, S. K. & Ubar, R. (1950): South Indian

Hepatics, II. Proc. 37th Ind. Sci. Congress Part III

(Abstracts): 40.

SCHUSTER, R. M. (1957): Notes on Nearctic

Hepaticae XV. Herberta. Rev. Bryol. et Lichenol.

26 :123-145.

STEPHANI, F. (1909):

Geneve.

Hepaticae. Ann. Sci. Nat. 17:15-

Species Hepaticarum, 4.

(1922): ibid. 6. Geneve.

Upar, R. & Srivastava, S. C. (1975): Notes on

South Indian Hepaticae—I. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 72(2) :401-406.

* Not seen in original.

263

Ketoparasites from Nepal birds’

RICHARD M. MITCHELL? AND JAMES A. DICK?

INTRODUCTION

Ectoparasite occurrence in Nepal birds has

received little attention. Worth and Shah

(1969) provided a list of 17 birds collected

in Nepal, but identified ectoparasites only as

lice, fleas, Ascodipteron Diptera, Trombiculid,

Laelapid and Listrophorid mites, and _ ticks.

Detailed descriptions of several ticks from

birds collected in Nepal also include infor-

mation on ecology of the parasite and parasite

distribution. Hoogstraal et al. (1973) describ-

ed the tick Ixodes ovatus collected from the

Kalij Pheasant (Lophura leucomelana) in

Nepal, and Kohls et al. (1970) reported on

Ixodes mitchelli that parasitizes the Monal

Pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus) and the

Snow Partridge (Lerwa lerwa). Hoogstraal

and Mitchell (1971) described the tick Haem-

aphysalis aponommoides found on numerous

domestic and wild mammals and the Monal

Pheasant.

Distribution of ectoparasites, other than the

ticks mentioned above, among Nepal birds is

not available. As field chief of the Nepal Ecto-

parasite Programme, the senior author collect-

ed 152 species of birds of which 78 were in-

fested with ectoparasites. This paper provides

1From Research Project N00014-68-A-0101-0001,

Office of Naval Research, Navy Department, Wash-

ington, DC 20360 to Iowa State University, Ames,

Iowa. The opinions and assertions contained herein

are the private ones of the authors and are not to

be construed as official or reflecting the views of

264

a list (Table 1) of all ectoparasites from birds

collected in Nepal from 1966 to 1972.

Most birds examined during the Nepal Ecto-

parasite Survey were captured in Japanese mist

nets. Galliformes were obtained by shooting.

Birds were collected throughout the 75 districts

of the Kingdom of Nepal (see Karan 1960,

paid)a

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the following people for

their assistance in host and ectoparasite identi-

fications: Drs Robert L. Fleming Sr. and Jr.,

Shanti Bhawan, Kathmandu, Nepal-Birds;

Dr K. C. Emerson, U.S.N.M., Washington,

D.C.—Lice; Dr Harry Hoogstraal, NAMRU-

3, Cairo, Egypt—Ticks; Dr. R. E. Lewis

Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa—Fleas;

T. C. Maa, B. P. Bishop Museum, Hono-

lulu, Hawaii—Parasitic flies; and Dr. R. W.

Strandtmann, B. P. Bishop Museum, Hono-

lulu, Hawaii—Mites. Our special thanks to

Dr N. K. Shah, Deputy Director, Epidemio-

logy, Directorate of Health of the Royal Nepal

Government who facilitated the collection of

scientific specimens.

the Department of the Navy or the naval service

at large.

2 Department of Mammalogy, Royal Ontario

Museum, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

3 Department of Ornithology, Royal Ontario

Museum, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

4 Accepted July 1975.

ECTOPARASITES FROM NEPAL BIRDS

TABLE 1

HOST-PARASITE RELATIONSHIPS FROM NEPAL

NUMBER OF BIRDS NUMBER OF PARASITES

COLLECTED COLLECTED

Host-PARASITES

Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) Dy

Mallophaga: Anaticola crassicornis 1

Common Merganser (Mergus merganser) 1

Mallophaga: Anaticola crassicornis 1

Blackwinged Kite (Elanus caeruleus) 1

Acarina: Ornithonyssus bursa 1

Pariah Kite (Milvus migrans) 2

Mallophaga:

Craspedorrhynchus spathulatus 1

Degeeriella regalis 1

Laemobothrion maximum 1

Sparrow-hawk (Accipiter nisus) 1

Mallophaga: Craspedorrhynchus nisi 1

Redbreasted Falconet (Microhierax caerulescens) 3

Mallophaga: Falcolius jordani 2

Diptera: Phthona leptoptera 2

Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) 1

Mallophaga

Degeeriella rufarufa 1

Laemobothrion tinnunculi

Snow Partridge (Lerwa lerwa) 16

Mallophaga

Chelopistes lervicola

Colinicola meinertzhageni

Lagopoecus meinertzhageni

Menacanthus sp.

Acarina

Argas himalayensis 1

Ixodes mitchelli 3

KK eS ~ 00

Chukor Partridge (Alectoris chukar) 4

Mallophaga

Cuculogaster obscurior 1

Goniocotes alatus 1

Gonoides dispar

Black Partridge (Francolinus francolinus) 14

Mallophaga

Cuculogaster theresae

Goniocotes sp.

Lipeurus sp.

Menacanthus_ kalatitar

hBRNW

265

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

NUMBER OF BIRDS NUMBER OF PARASITES

COLLECTED COLLECTED

Cn a a ee

HostT-PARASITES

Menacanthus sp. 1

Menopon interpositum 1

Anoplura: Hoplopleura maniculata 1

Siphonaptera: Ctenocephalides felis orientis 1

Acarina

Haemaphysalis bispinosa 6

Haemaphysalis sp.

Grey Partridge (Francolinus pondicerianus) 5

Mallophaga

Goniocotes sp. 2

Menacanthus sp. 2

Siphonaptera: Ctenocephalides felis orientis 1

Acarina

Haemaphysalis bispinosa 1

Haemaphysalis montgomeryi 1

Haemaphysalis sp. 1

Rufousthroated Hill Partridge 1

(Arborophila rufogularis)

Mallophaga

Amyrsidea eibeli 1

Menacanthus sp. 1

Oxylipeurus formosanus 1

Blood Pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus) 13

Mallophaga

Amyrsidea sp.

Goniocotes sp.

Gonoides ithaginis

Lagopoecus sp.

Oxylipeurus baileyi

Diptera: Ornithomya avicularia

=a nan p =

Satyr Tragopan (Tragopan satyra) 4

Mallophaga

Goniocotes haplogonus

Goniocotes diplogonus

Gonoides eurygaster

Gonoides spinicornis

Lagopoecus sp.

Oxylipeurus baileyi

Oxylipeurus himalayensis

We = We NS

Monal Pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus) 26

Mallophaga

Amyrsidea sp.

Goniocotes haplogonus 18

Gonoides eurygaster 23

Gonoides ithaginis 1

266

ECTOPARASITES FROM NEPAL BIRDS

NUMBER OF BIRDS NUMBER OF PARASITES

Host-PARASITES

COLLECTED COLLECTED

Gonoides megaceros )

Lagopoecus heterotypus 13

Lagopoecus sp. 1

Menacanthus sp. 1

Oxylipeurus baileyi 1

Oxylipeurus himalayensis 22

Acarina

Haemaphysalis aponommoides 1

Haemaphysalis warburtoni

Ixodes mitchelli 7

Kalij Pheasant (Lophura leucomelana) 10

Mallophaga

Goniocotes creber 1

Gonoides dentatus Z

Gonoides sp. 2

Lipeurus introductus 1

Acarina

Haemaphysalis bispinosa 2

Haemaphysalis nepalensis 1

Haemaphysalis wellingtoni 1

Haemaphysalis sp. 1

Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus) 13

Mallophaga

Gonoides dissimilis 5

Lipeurus caponis 6

Menopon gallinae 9

Anoplura

Linognathus vituli 1

Polyplax asiatica

Diptera: [costa maquilingensis

Acarina

Argas hermanni

Haemaphysalis anomala

Haemaphysalis bispinosa

Haemaphysalis canestrinii

Haemaphysalis indica

Haemaphysalis minuta

Haemaphysalis montgomeryi

Haemaphysalis spinigera

Haemaphysalis wellingtoni

Haemaphysalis sp.

Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides

WO —_

Ee Ne, eo)

Common Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) 11

Mallophaga

Amyrsidea minuta 4

267

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AHIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

NUMBER OF BIRDS NUMBER OF PARASITES

COLLECTED COLLECTED

SSS SS Pea oe LOUNGES PST TE rear NN ARE A AN rire ed

Amyrsidea phaeostoma 2

Colpocephalum tausi 4

Goniocotes rectangularis 1

Goniocotes sp. 2

Host-PARASITES

Gonoides meinertzhageni

Gonoides pavonis

Lipeurus payvo

Diptera: Ornithoica bistativa

Acarina

Haemaphysalis bispinosa 6

Haemaphysalis doenitzi 1

Haemaphysalis howletti 1

Haemaphysalis minuta D)

Haemaphysalis spinigera 3

Haemaphysalis wellingtoni 1

Haemaphysalis sp. 2,

Common Bustard-Quail (Turnix suscitator) 5)

Mallophaga: Turnicola anguistissimus 3

Redwattled Lapwing (Vanellus indicus) 4

Mallophaga

Actornithophilus hoplopteri

Quadraceps hoplopteri

Quadraceps dasi

Saemundssonia africana

Acarina: Haemaphysalis sp.

ee ee ee a)

Spurwinged Lapwing (Vanellus spinosus) 4

Mallophaga

Actornithophilus hoplopteri 3

Quadraceps hoplopteri . 5

Austromenopon sp. 1

Acarina

Dermacentor sp. 1

Haemaphysalis bispinosa 1

Haemaphysalis spinigera

Little Ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius) 1

Mallophaga: Quadraceps bicuspis 1

River Tern (Sterna aurantia) 1

Mallophaga: Quadraceps insignis 1

Snow Pigeon (Columba leuconota) 9

Mallophaga

Colocerus sp.

Columbicola tschulyschman

Campanulotes heteroceros 2

AL TT II RS TT SEP RTT ESPN HE IT EO TE RS IE a a a TD

268

N Ww

ECTOPARASITES FROM NEPAL BIRDS

LTT BT PR EE ES IL TS TR

HostT-PARASITES

Siphonaptera: Callopsylla geminus

Rock Dove (Columba livia)

Mallophaga

Colocerus sp.

Columbicola columbae bacillus

Diptera: Pseudolynchia canariensis

Ashy Wood Pigeon (Columba pulchricollis)

Mallophaga: Columbicola columbae_ bacillus

Acarina: Laelaps algericus

Rufous Turtle Dove (Streptopelia orientalis)

Mallophaga

Colocerus sp.

Columbicola orientalis

Diptera: Pseudolynchia_ canariensis

Acarina: Falculifer restratus

Collared Turtle Dove (Streptopelia decaocto)

Mallophaga: Columbicola columbae_ bacillus

Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica)

Mallophaga

Colocerus sp.

Columbicola guimaraesi

Blossomheaded Parakeet (Psittacula cyanocephala)

Mallophaga: Menacanthus sp.

Slatyheaded Parakeet (Psittacula himalayana)

Mallophaga: Echionophilopterus sp.

Sirkeer Cuckoo (Taccocua leschenaultii)

Mallophaga: Cuculicola sp.

Acarina

Haemaphysalis bispinosa

Haemaphysalis howletti

Haemaphysalis indica

Haemaphysalis sp.

Laelaps algericus

Coucal (Centropus sinensis)

Mallophaga: Cuculiphilus snodgrassi

Acarina

Haemaphysalis_ bispinosa

Haemaphysalis doenitzi

Haemaphysalis minuta

Haemaphysalis spinigera

Brown Fish Owl (Ketupa zeylonensis)

Mallophaga

Colpocephalum turbinatus

NUMBER OF BIRDS

COLLECTED

NUMBER OF PARASITES

COLLECTED

= = GQ =

269

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Host-PARASITES

Strigiphilus bramae

Acarina: Haemaphysalis sp.

Barred Owlet (Glaucidium cuculoides)

Mallophaga: Kurodaia deignani

Acarina: Haemaphysalis doenitzi

Brown Wood Owl (Strix leptogrammica)

Mallophaga: Strigiphilus ketupae

Acarina: Haemaphysalis bispinosa

Indian Jungle Nightjar (Caprimuleus indicus)

Mallophaga: Mulcticola sp.

Acarina: Hyalomma sp.

Crested Swift (Hemiprocne longipennis)

Anoplura: Hoplopleura pacifica

Common Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis)

Mallophaga: Alcedoffula alcedinis

Whitebreasted Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis)

Mallophaga: Alcedoecus annularis

Anoplura: Hoplopleura pacifica

Little Green Bee-eater (Merops orientalis)

Mallophaga

Bruelia sp.

Meropoecus caprai

Meromenopon sp.

Green Barbet (Megalaima zeylanica)

Mallophaga: Penenirmus zeylanicus

Bluethroated Barbet (Megalaima asiatica)

Mallophaga

Colpocephalum fregili

Myrsidea insolita

Philopterus sp.

Striated Swallow (Cecropis daurica)

Acarina: Pellonyssus viator

Blackheaded Oriole (Oriolus xanthornus)

Acarina: Ornithonyssus sylviarum

Black Drongo (Dicrurus adsimilis)

Mallophaga: Bruelia sp.

Yellowbilled Blue Magpie (Urocissa flavirostris)

Mallophaga

Menacanthus kalatitar

Philopterus extraneus

Acarina

Pterodectes leioplax

Proctophyllodes sp.

Ys < Ua

NUMBER OF BIRDS

COLLECTED

EES SY RRL SB SS ST SY HS SE TE SS SLE ES ES ETN I FET TRE

NUMBER OF PARASITES

COLLECTED

ECTOPARASITES FROM NEPAL BIRDS

NUMBER OF BIRDS NUMBER OF PARASITES

HostT-PARASITES COLLECTED COLLECTED

Redbilled Blue Magpie (Urocissa erythrorhyncha) 3

Mallophaga

Myrsidea sp.

Philopterus sp. 9}

Acarina: Haemaphysalis sp. 1

—

Indian Tree Pie (Dendrocitta vagabunda) 4

Mallophaga

Bruelia meinertzhageni

Bruelia sp.

Philopterus sp.

Diptera: Ornithophila metallica

= NO — =

Nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes) 1

Mallophaga

Menacanthus merisuoi 1

Myrsidea brunea 1

Redbilled Chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) 3

Mallophaga

Bruelia biguttata

Menacanthus sp.

Myrsidea sp.

Philopterus sp.

Philopterus thryptocerphalus

a ee ee

House Crow (Corvus splendens) 1

Mallophaga

Bruelia saliemi 1

Colpocephalum fregili 1

Myrsidea insolita 1

Jungle Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) 2

Mallophaga

Bruelia saliemi

Myrsidea_ shirakii

Philopterus extraveus

Philopterus sp.

ee es

Raven (Corvus corax) 3

Mallophaga: Myrsidea anaspila 1

Whitecheeked Bulbul (Pycnonotus leucogenys) 1

Mallophaga: Bruelia sp. 1

_ Jungle Babbler (Turdoides striatus) 10

| Mallophaga

| Bruelia mahrastan

Bruelia sp.

| Myrsidea satbhai

Myrsidea sp.

271

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Host-PARASITES

NUMBER OF BIRDS

NUMBER OF PARASITES

COLLECTED COLLECTED

Acarina

Haemaphysalis_ bispinosa 9)

Haemaphysalis_ sp. 6

Whitethroated Laughing Thrush 4

(Garrulax albogularis)

Mallophaga

Bruelia sp. 1

Myrsidea_ satbhai 1

Myrsidea sp. 1

Streaked Laughing Thrush (Garrulax lineatus) 16

Mallophaga: Bruelia sehri — 4

Acarina

Laelaps algericus 1

Ornithonyssus_ bursa 1

Proterothrix sp. 2

Plaincoloured Laughing Thrush 1

(Garrulax subunicolor)

Mallophaga: Myrsidea sp. 1

Acarina: Ixodes acutitarsus 1

Blackfaced Laughing Thrush (Garrulax affinis) 10

Acarina: Argas sp. 1

Redheaded Laughing Thrush 1

(Garrulax erythrocephalus)

Mallophaga: Menacanthus sp. 1

Acarina: Ixodes acutitarsus 1

Hoary Barwing (Actinodura nipalensis)

Siphonaptera: Macrostylophora lupata 1

Redbreasted Flycatcher (Ficedula parva) 1

Acarina: Proctophyllodes sp. 1

Orangebarred Leaf Warbler (Phylloscopus pulcher) 1

Siphonaptera: Ceratophyllus gallinae 1

Magpie-Robin (Copsychus_ saularis) 1

Acarina: Haemaphysalis sp. 1

Bluefronted Redstart (Phoenicurus frontalis) 4

Siphonaptera: Ceratophyllus enefdei 1

Blue Whistling Thrush (Myophoneus caeruleus) 2

Mallophaga

Menacanthus sp. 1

Myrsidea satbhai 1

Philopterus thryptocerphalus 1

Acarina: Haemaphysalis anomala 1

Golden Mountain Thrush (Zoothera dauma) 11

pc ccs sn Se A SS SS SS a

272

ECTOPARASITES FROM NEPAL BIRDS

NUMBER OF BIRDS NUMBER OF PARASITES

COLLECTED COLLECTED

Host-PARASITES

Mallophaga

Bruelia daumae 1

Menacanthus sp. 1

Philopterus sp. 1

Saemundssonia africana 1

Siphonaptera: Callopsylla fusca

Acarina

Haemaphysalis bispinosa 3

Haemaphysalis indica 1

Haemaphysalis minuta 1

Haemaphysalis spinigera 2

Haemaphysalis sp. 3

Ixodes sp. 2

Whitecollared Blackbird (Turdus albocinctus) 2

Mallophaga: Philopterus sp. 1

Redthroated Thursh (Turdus ruficollis) 1

Mallophaga: Philopterus sp. 1

Acarina

Haemaphysalis bispinosa 1

Haemaphysalis minuta 1

Wren (Troglodytes troglodytes) 2

Mallophaga

Penenirmus Zzeylanicus 1

Penenirmus sp. 1

Brown Dipper (Cinclus pallasii) 1 1

Mallophaga: Myrsidea sp. 1

Rufousbellied Crested Tit (Parus rubidiventris)

Siphonaptera: Ceratopsyllus gallinae 1

Hodgson’s Tree Pipit (Anthus hodgsoni) 10

Mallophaga: Menacanthus sp. 1

Acarina

Haemaphysalis bispinosa 1

Haemaphysalis nepalensis 1

Haemaphysalis spinigera 1

Large Pied Wagtail (Motacilla maderaspatensis) Z

Mallophaga

Bruelia sp.

Myrsidea sp.

Acarina: Hyalomma sp.

Yellowthroated Sparrow (Petronia xanthocollis) 4

Mallophaga: Bruelia sp.

Acarina: Proctophyllodes sp.

a ee

Common Rosefinch (Carpodacus erythrinus) 14

273

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

HostT-PARASITES

Mallophaga

Bruelia sp.

Philopterus sp.

Siphonaptera

Callopsylla fusca

Ceratophyllus enefdei

Acarina

Ixodes mitchelli

Dermanyssus_ sp.

Nepal Rosefinch (Carpodacus nipalensis)

Mallophaga: Philopferus sp.

Acarina:

Ixodes _ berlesei

NUMBER OF PARASITES

COLLECTED

NUMBER OF BIRDS

COLLECTED

REFERENCES

HOOGSTRAAL, H., CLIFFORD, C. M., Saito, Y. &

KEIRANS, J. E. (1973): Ixodes (Partipalpiger) ova-

tus Neumann, Subgen. Nov.: Identity, hosts, eco-

logy, and distribution (Ixodoidea: Ixodidae). J.

Med. Entomol. 10(2) :157-164.

HoocstTraaL, H. & MITCHELL, R. M. (1971):

Haemaphysalis (Alloceraea) aponommoides Warbur-

ton (Ixodoidea: Ixodidae), description of immature

stages, hosts, distribution, and ecology in India,

Nepal, Sikkim, and China. J. Parasit. 57(3) :635-645.

KaRAN, P. P. (1960): Nepal: A physical and

274

cultural geography. University of Kentucky Press,

Lexington.

KOoHLS, G. M., CLiFFoRD, C. M. & HooscsTRAAL, H.

(1970): Ixodes (Scaphixodes) mitchelli n._ sp.

(Acarina: Ixodidae), a tick parasitizing pheasants

and partridges in high mountains of Nepal. J. Med.

Entomol. 7(3) :348-352.

WorTH, R. M. & SHAH, N. K. (1969): Nepal

Health Survey, 1965-1966. University of Hawaii

Press, Honolulu.

Effects of crowding on Temple Rhesus

monkeys of Imphal, Manipur’

R. P. MUKHERJEE

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

(With a text-figure and a photograph)

INTRODUCTION

The rhesus monkeys are common in_ the

cities, villages, forests and temples of north-

ern India and have been intensively studied

in this country. Little is known about the

effects of overcrowding on the free ranging

rhesus monkeys and their interactions with

man when their home ranges overlap with

human habitations. Southwick, Beg & Siddiqi

(1961, 1965) have studied the social interac-

tions of temple rhesus monkeys in northern

India. Southwick (1967), and Alexander &

Roth (1971) have studied the effects of

crowding on the behaviour of rhesus and

Japanese macaques respectively under captive

conditions. Martin & Hilary Waterhouse

(1971) reported the effects of population den-

sity in zoo monkeys. Oppenheimer (1973) re-

ported the effects of environmental factors,

specially high human density and intensive

cultivation around home ranges, on the acti-

_vity of village langurs in West Bengal.

| A group of rhesus monkeys Macaca mulatta

_ (Zimmermann) living in Mahabali temple of

Imphal, the state capital of Manipur, consist-

ing of a larger number of individuals present-

ed an opportunity to the author to study the

_ effects of overcrowding and interactions be-

}

1 Accepted August 1976.

tween man and monkeys and the observation

and inferences are presented here.

ECOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA

Manipur is one of the eastern siates of India,

extending from 23°47’ and 25°41’ north lati-

tudes and 93°60’ and 94°48’ east longitudes.

It is bounded on the north by Nagaland, on

the east by Burma and the west by Assam

and on the south by Burma and Mizo Hills.

The area of the state is 22,372 sq. km., out of

which 1942 sq. km form the central valley of

Manipur. The elevation of Imphal town is

762 m above the mean sea-level. The forests,

mainly of sub-tropical type, are all scattered

around the Imphal Valley and the majority

of them are located in the hills. The valley

consists of alluvial soil with drainage from

north to south and enjoys a good climate. The

period from November to February is charac-

terised by low temperature and heavy dew

at night. Frost is common on winter nights.

In April and May temperature rises rapidly

but the increasing heat is often moderated by

the thunderstorms and light showers. The

period from June to September is characteris-

ed by heavy rainfalls. The average rainfall is

about 131 cm in the valley of which the maxi-

mum precipitation occurs in the months of

July and August. Winter rainfall is sometimes

heavy, often continuing for two to three days.

275

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

The range of temperature. is generally from

35°F to 94°F with mean daily humidity of

81% in August and 49% in March at Imphal.

The prevailing winds blow from the southwest

with moderate velocity.

The Manipur Valley is inhabited by Mani-

puris who are orthodox Hindus by religion

and the hills are occupied by various tribes.

The population of Imphal, the study area, is

about 300,000 with a density of 788 per sq.

km. The Hindus form about 61.68% of the

population of Imphal.

Palace Ground

Fig. 1. Home range and core area of temple rhesus.

The dotted area represents the total home range.

The denser portion in the middle represents the

core area. The temple is marked with solid black

and other buildings with open squares. The two

tanks are represented by the letter —T.

A big group of rhesus monkeys consisting

of 128 individuals was located in the Maha-

bali temple at Imphal. This temple is situated

on the south side of the city, in a well-populat-

ed area, at the eastern bank of Imphal river

(Fig. 1). This river flows through the Chin

Hills and the Kale Valley and discharges its

water into the Chindwin river of Burma. Be-

sides the temple, there are six other small to

moderate-sized buildings, each consisting of

one or two rooms. The buildings and the

276

courtyard cover an area of about 28 sq. m.

Two medium-sized tanks are located on the

north and south sides of the temple court-

yard (Fig. 1). The river runs north-south and

there is a non-metalled road which runs along

the bank, forming an embankment. Another

non-metailed road runs almost parallel to this

road and passing within a few feet of the tem-

ple gate. Tall trees mostly mangoes (Mangi-

fera indica) and pipal (Ficus religiosa) are

abundant on the north, south and west sides

of the temple and the ground is covered with

shrubs. There is also a_ big open area on the

north. To the east of the temple is the resi-

dential area with permanent buildings and

courtyards. Some devotees live in the temple

area. There is constant human activity in

the area particularly during the day time and

there is a great rush of visitors to the temple

on every Tuesday. The habitat can be classi-

fied as human habitation type. The areas of

greatest activities of the monkeys are general-

ly in the north, south and west of the temple

covering an extent of about 8 hectares.

METHODS

This group was studied for a few days in

the months of May-June 1974 but the mon-

keys were observed from dawn to dusk in

the month of February 1975. A total of about

70 hours was spent with this group. Group

size, composition, intraspecific interactions,

relation to man and dogs were recorded. It

was possible to keep the group under const-

ant observation from vantage points within |

the temple campus itself and to watch their

daily routine and behaviour.

No attempt was made to interfere with the

activities of the monkeys, nor was feeding

resorted to except on one occasion. The young |

which were less than one year of age, usually |

EFFECTS OF CROWDING ON RHESUS MONKEYS

carried by their mothers and not yet weaned,

were classified as infants. The juveniles were

identified as young that were independent,

weaned and about one or more than one year

of age. The monkeys were neither marked nor

trapped, individual identification was -possi-

ble in most cases after a little familiarity and

noting particular features, specially body-

marking and other features. All the interac-

tions between man and monkeys were record-

ed during the period of observations.

Notice the clustering of the monkeys at

RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS

Group size and composition The composi-

tion of this group in February 1975 was 18

adult males, 38 adult females, 42 juveniles and

30 infants, consisting a total of 128 monkeys.

The ratio of adult males to adult females is

1 : 2.11, whereas the ratio of the infants to

adult females is 1 : 1.27. Some of the mem-

bers of the group are shown in the photograph.

No change was observed in the composition

artificial feeding time.

277

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

of the group during the period of study. The

main centre of activities of the group was

generally confined within the temple premises

during the day time, and though occasionally

some members moved, into the residential area

on the eastern side, they were soon pushed

back into the temple area by dogs and people.

They were never observed to move out into

the city and were always found in the temple

area. Local people also confirmed these find-

ings. The group maintained territorial bound-

aries and their home range covered an area

of about 8 hectares with about 5 hectares as

core area. Members used trees and roofs of

the temple and other buildings inside the

temple premises for sleeping during the night.

About 60% of the area of the home range

and about 50% of the core area were covered

with trees. Though good portions of the core

area and home ranges were covered with

trees, yet the monkeys spent most of their

daylight hours on the ground. They even spent

less time on the roof of the houses or temple.

Daily activity and diet The monkeys were

active throughout the day and were mainly

engaged in feeding or moving from place to

place in search of food, or indulging in in-

tragroup agonistic behaviour. Play and resting,

common among juveniles and adults of rhesus

monkeys, were not much in evidence in this

group. Occasionally the adult males were

groomed for short period by adult females.

The general activity of these monkeys tended

to increase with the arrival of visitors in the

temple when the monkeys cluster round the

visitors and even search their belongings for

food. A large number of monkeys moved

together while searching for food and _ the

members did not scatter over a wide area

during the day. The natural food of these

monkeys included leaves shoots and fruits of

various plants. The visitors to the temple and

278

devotees resident therein, however, contribut-

ed bulk of the food material which included

fried grams, peanuts, and seasonal fruits. They

also consumed grass blades and were also

observed looking for food in the water of the

tanks. ‘The monkeys drank water two to three

times a day, when they made individual or

group movements to the two tanks.

Intragroup interactions It is generally held

that inter- and intragroup agonistic behaviour

are more common in baboons and rhesus than

in other monkeys. Southwick (1962) reported

on the intergroup agonistic behaviour of the

temple macaques of Aligarh. Martin & Hilary

Waterhouse (1971) observed a great amount

of tension in rhesus monkeys at Bristol Zoo.

Frequent agonistic encounters between mem-

bers of the monkeys of Mahabali temple at

Imphal were observed. These encounters con-

sisted of hot chases, attacks, fights and bites;

threats were less common than physical at-

tacks. Even the sick and infants were not

spared from these attacks. There was less ago-

nistic behaviour between the males. The males

generally attacked females, juveniles and even

infants. These fights were quite severe, some-

times resulting in deep injuries to the victims.

Most of the animals, even the infants, carried

scars and deep wounds in various parts of the

body. A female whose hind quarters were

paralysed and thus rendered unable to move

was subjected to repeated attacks by the

males. These encounters occurred for food

and when an animal approached too close to

others. The males mostly initiated these en-

counters. When the visitors offered food the

monkeys rushed to grab it, generally leading

to severe encounters among the indiviudals.

Tension in these monkeys was so high that

individuals attacked others unprovoked. Most

of the encounters were severe and _ usually

started with two animals, but soon more ani-

‘

EFFECTS OF CROWDING ON RHESUS MONKEYS

mals joined in the frays and the interactions

erupted into severe fights. In case of an at-

tack by a male on a female, some time one

or two females joined together and formed

an alliance, and chased away the attacking

male.

An average of 21.13 encounters were fe-

corded per hour in these monkeys. The per-

centage of intragroup encounters are given

in the Table below. The male-female encoun-

ter was more, whereas male-male encounter

was less.

TABLE SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF INTRAGROUP

ENCOUNTERS

2APUBey EAS SED SIESTA

Infants

Catezories aa Males Females Ju

Males 3.70 24.70 11.11 4.94

Females 11.11 9.89 9.89 6.12

Juveniles — 1.23 9.89 7.42

Infants —- am _ a

It is apparent from the table that even the

infants were not spared from the attacks of

males, females and juveniles. In such attacks

the infants depended for protection on their

respective mothers.

Interactions with other species Interactions

of these monkeys with humans and dogs were

also investigated. In human-monkey encoun-

ters rocks were thrown at the monkeys, cata-

pults were used, noises were made and sticks

‘RITUAL:

were waved in the air. The main idea of these

encounters was to scare away the monkeys

from the visitors and from food articles and,

of play in the case of children just for fun.

These encounters generally lasted for one to

five minutes, but a few lasted as long as ele-

ven to fifteen minutes. On an average 15 en-

counters per hour were observed. In these en-

counters 73.44% boys and 26.56% adults

_ were involved. Usually two to three boys

joined together, whereas the men were usually

alone in the harassment of these monkeys. In

such harassments the monkeys either climbed

up the trees or on roofs, or ignored the threat

and continued their normal activity.

Occasionally the dogs belonging to the local

people chased and barked at the monkeys and

these harassments continued from five to

twenty minutes. In such encounters two or

three dogs joined in chasing the monkeys.

DISCUSSION

Field studies of free-ranging rhesus mon-

keys show that intergroup interactions are fre-

quent, but little is known about the intragroup

interactions of rhesus monkeys in an over-

crowded situation such as in a temple habitat

and their encounters with human beings when

their home ranges and core areas overlap with

human habitation. The rhesus group of Maha-

bali temple at Imphal, Manipur, consisted of

128 individuals whereas Southwick, Beg &

Siddiqi (1965) counted a maximum number

of 78 monkeys at Jagvedi Akhara Temple at

Chitrakut with 17 males and 35 females. They

gave the average group size of temple rhesus

monkeys to be 41.9. They also found that the

temple group on an average consisted of 7.9

adult males and 15.2 adult females. The pre-

sent group consists of 18 adult males and 38

adult females. Unlike other temple monkeys

they never move out in the other parts of the

city. Very little is known about the rhesus

population and their distribution in Manipur.

Manipuris reported that in the past there were

number of rhesus groups at Imphal, and other

parts of Manipur but now owing to the ex-

pansion of city and the exploitation of their

habitats, there are only a few left. It is likely

that the existing Mahabali temple group is the

remnants of the large population of rhesus

monkeys of Imphal that used to exist in the

279

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

past before the destruction of their normal

habitats. The food source and home range of

this group is limited, there is no further chance

to expand its home range owing to the resi-

dential area on the east, Imphal river on the

west and the expansion of the city to the north

and south. Further the group contained a large

number of individuals resulting in over crowd-

ing and the number of adult males is much

more than normal. All these factors build up

high tension in the animals which leads to

frequent and violent intragroup interactions.

The intragroup encounters in this group are

much more than what were reported by Martin

& Hilary Waterhouse (1971) in zoo monkeys.

Southwick, Beg & Siddiqi (1965) reported

that adult males attacked other members of

a group including the infants at the feeding

time, whereas males of the Mahabali temple

attacked group members during feeding and

non-feeding times, and even unprovoked.

Southwick (1967), and Alexander & Roth

(1971) also observed that the aggressiveness

in the captive groups of rhesus and Japanese

macaques respectively increased under crowd-

ing conditions. Alexander & Roth further ob-

served increase in aggressive interactions be-

tween the males under such conditions. The

present field observations support the findings

of Southwick, and Alexander & Roth, but in

the Mahabali temple group the male-female

encounters were much more than male-male

bouts. Martin & Hilary Waterhouse (1971)

reported great tolerance by the adult males to-

wards the infants in the zoo monkeys. In this

respect the present observation is at variance

with that of Martin & Hilary Waterhouse.

Harassments by the adult humans to mon-

keys were caused for protection of food and

property, whereas attacks by the boys were

mainly for play. In man-monkey encounters

boys were involved more than adults. This

agrees with the findings of Oppenheimer

(1973) who has reported that the langur

groups in his study area were more harassed

by dogs and children, than by adult humans.

SUMMARY

The paper deals with the effects of over-

crowding, intragroup interactions and human-

monkey encounters of a group of rhesus mon-

keys Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann) inhabit-

ing the Mahabali temple of Imphal, Manipur.

The group comprised of 18 adult males, 38

adult females, 42 juveniles and 30 infants, a

total of 128 animals. This large number of

animals in a limited area leads to overcrowd-

ing which resulting in great tension in the

animals with high degrees of intragroup in-

teractions. In man-monkey encounters, boys

figured more than adults.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My thanks are due to the Director, Zoolo-

gical Survey of India, Calcutta for the facili-

ties of work. My thanks are also due to Dr. K.

K. Tiwari for his encouragement and for going

through the manuscript.

REFERENCES

ALEXANDER, B. K. & RotH, E. M. (1971): The

effects of acute crowding on aggressive behaviour

of Japanese monkeys. Behaviour 39:73-90.

MarTIN & HILARY WATERHOUSE (1971): Popul-

ation density and stress in Zoo monkeys. Ecologist

1:19-21.

280

OPPENHEIMER, J. R. (1973): Effects of environ-

mental factors on the activity of village dwelling

langurs (Primates) in West Bengal. Proc. Sixtieth

Sess. Indian Sci. Cong. IV: 157.

SOUTHWICK, C. H. (1962): Patterns of inter-

group social behaviour in primates, with special re-

EFFECTS OF CROWDING ON RHESUS MONKEYS

ference to rhesus and howling monkeys. Ann. New

York Acad. Sci. 102:436-454.

— (1967): An experimental study of

intragroup agonistic behaviour in rhesus monkeys

(Macaca mulatta). Behaviour 28:182-209.

SouTHWIcK, C. H., Bec, M. A. & Sippiqi, M. R.

(1961): A population survey of rhesus monkeys

in villages, towns and temples of northern India.

Ecology 42(3) :538-547.

(1965): Rhesus monkeys in North

India. Primate Behaviour: Field Studies of Mon-

keys and Apes. (Irven DeVore Ed.) Holt, Rine-

hart and Winston, New York. pp. 111-159.

281

New records of bathypelagic fishes from

the Arabian sea with description of a

new species’

VARGHESE P. OOMMEN

Integrated Fisheries Project, Cochin 16 —

(With seven text-figures)

The Research Vessel Varuna and Fishing

Vessel Velameen of the Integrated Fisheries

Project (formerly Indo-Norwegian Project)

during their exploratory cruises for assessment

of Deep Sea Resources along the West Coast

of India within the depth range of 100 to 225

fathom collected a number of interesting spe-

cies of fishes. Among these, Halimochirurgus

triacanthus Fowler (1934), Parasphenenthias

weberi Gilchrist (1922), Sibogapistus pleuros-

tigma Weber (1913), Acanthocepola cuneata

Smith (1936), Ariosoma balearica (da la

Roche 1923) and Caecula lumbricoides (Blee-

ker 1864) are new to West Coast of India,

while one Heterosomate fish belonging to the

genus Zebrias appears to be a new species.

The gear used was a small trawl net of 6 m,

operated with 54 x 34 cm otter boards, weigh-

ing 58 kilograms each.

The specimens described in this paper are

lodged in the museum of the Marine Research

Laboratory of the Integrated Fisheries Project.

Family TRIACANTHODIDAE

Halimochirurgus triacanthus Fowler (Fig. 1)

Halimochirurgus triacanthus Fowler, 1934, Proc.

Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 86; Berg, 1947, Classification

of fishes both recent and fossil

1 Accepted May 1974.

282

D. 111, 12, A. 10, P. 7, V. 1 (Spine only)

Head 2.2 in total length and 1.9 in standard

length. Depth of body 5.5 in total length and

4.7 in standard length. Eye 6.3 in head and

0.8 in inter orbital space. Fish laterally com-

pressed, snout generally extended, tube like,

mouth on the dorsal side of the tube at its

terminal part. General body surface rough and

with small spiny scales, operculum vertical slit

like opening, edge soft. First dorsal with three

spines, the first being with locking mechan-

ism. All the three spines fit in a groove over

the dorsal side. Ventral with a single long

spine with locking mechanism. Encircling the

eye a reddish stripe extends to the snout end.

Orange above, silvery below, fins with reddish

margin.

Fig. 1. Halimochirurgus triacanthus Fowler, 99 mm.

OCCURRENCE: One specimen (99 mm) off

Calicut at Station No. 72, 11°26 N, 74°47’

E, 160 fathom, 3-vii-1969.

NEW RECORDS OF BATHYPELAGIC FISH

DISTRIBUTION: China Sea off Southern

Luzon. Berg (1947) included this species

under the family Triacanthidae, but, expressed

a doubt as to its true systematic position. He

feels that this species perhaps may represent

a distinct family. The species shows characters

of both Syngnathid and Triacanthid.

Family OWSTONIIDAE

Parasphenenthias weberi (Gilchrist) (Fig. 2)

Owstonia weberi Gilchrist, 1922, Fish Mar. Surv.

Spec. Rep. 3; Barnard, 1925, Annals S. Afr.

Mus. 21; Parasphenenthias microlepis Fowler, 1934,

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 86; Parasphenenthias

weberi Smith, 1949, The Sea Fishes of Southern

Africa

Dy ale 235 Ana los Bylo sy tnd

Head 5.9 in total length and 3.5 in standard

length. Depth of body 6.7 in total length and

4.0 in standard length. Eye 3.1 in head and

0.7 in inter orbital space. Drop shaped body

with large cycloid scales. Oblique mouth,

bearing a single row of conical teeth on the

jaws. Teeth at symphysis of the lower jaw

Fig. 2. Parasphenenthias weberi (Gilchrist), 413 mm.

fit into a depression in the upper jaw. Eyes

large. Angle and lower margin of the preoper-

cle not serrated, no spines on the pre-opercle.

Dorsal with three and anal with one weak

spines. Ventral spine strong. Caudal lanceo-

late, rays branched, middle being with two

very long branches. Ventral with five rays

first being very long. Lateral lines run along

the dorsal base, the lines of both sides unite

in front of the dorsal and end below the last

dorsal ray. Colour crimson-red.

OCCURRENCE: Two specimens [413 mm

(Fig. 2) and 247 mm] off Calicut at Station

No. 77, 11°24 N, 74°49' E, 140 fathom,

4-vii-1969.

DISTRIBUTION: Natal to Zanzibar down to

200 fathom, related forms in Japan. Original

record from South Africa.

Family SCORPAENIDAE

Sibogapistus pleurostigma Weber (Fig. 3)

Paracentropogon pleurostigma Weber 1913, Siboga

Exp. Fische. 57; Sibogapistus pleurostigma Weber

& Beaufort, 1962, Fish Indo-Aust. Archip. //

DD Mde D2 Aveld ly oieP. 123 Vint, 5

Head 5.1 in total length and 7.0 in standard

length. Depth of body 3.4 in total length and

2.6 in standard length. Eye 3.9 in head and

1.3 in inter orbital space. Body laterally com-

pressed and covered with rudimentary scales.

Head naked, anterior profile blunt with a dis-

tinct concavity. Inter orbital space with three

longitudinal grooves. Maxillary extends to be-

low the hind margin of eye. Preorbital with

two spines, a short anterior and a long pos-

terior. Pre-opercle with a spine at the hind

margin, four rudimentary ones below, no

opercular spines. Dorsal arise above the an-

terior margin of the pupil. First spine small-

est and the third longest. Rays of all fins feeb-

ly forked. Twenty two tubes discernible in the

Fig. 3. Sibogapistus pleurostigma Weber, 157 mm.

283

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

lateral line. Caudal rounded. Brownish with

irregular spots. A dark brown blotch on the

body behind the operculam.

OCCURRENCE: One specimen (157 mm) off

Calicut at Station No. 72, 11°26’ N, 74°47’ E,

160 fathom, 3-vii-1969.

DISTRIBUTION: Between Sala Unatti and

Misol. S. pleurostigma has been reported only

from the type locality (Weber 1962). Weber’s

specimen measured only 50 mm. The present

specimen measuring 157 mm agrees with

Weber’s description but for the presence of

three longitudinal grooves on the inter-orbital

space and the feebly branched rays of the

fins.

Family CEPOLIDAE

Acanthocepola cuneata Smith (Fig. 4)

Acanthocepola cuneata Smith, 1936, Records Al-

bany Mus. 5; Smith, 1949, The Sea Fishes of

Southern Africa

D. 72-75, A. 81-85

Head 7.5 to 7.7 in total length and 6.9 to

7.0 in standard length. Depth of body 9.2 to

9.4 in total length and 8.4 to 8.6 in standard

length. Eye 3.2 to 3.5 in head and 0.7 to 0.8

in inter-orbital space. Body elongated, late-

rally compressed with minute scales. Cleft of

mouth oblique with a single row of fine teeth.

Eyes large and lateral. A long dorsal and anal

fin continuous with the caudal. Lateral line

runs along the base of the dorsal. Ventral

thoracic. Gill openings wide, the membrane

scarcely united under the throat. A black spot

between 8th and 12th rays of the dorsal. The

Tf SRR

aw eK AUK RACARON KS

Fig. 4. Acanthocepola cuneata Smith, 302 mm.

284

outer edge of the dorsal and anal black.

Colour red.

OCCURRENCE: Three specimens [302 mm

(Fig. 4), 296 mm and 298 mm] off Cannanore

at Station No. 145. 12°28’ N, 74°14’ E, 150

fathom, 17-xii-1969.

DISTRIBUTION: Natal. Related species down

to Pacific and to China.

Family CONGRIDAE

Ariosoma balearica (da la Roche) (Fig. 5)

Congermuraena balearica Barnard, 1923, Annals S.

Afr. Mus. /3; C. australis Barnard, 1925, Annals

S. Afr. Mus. 2/7, pt 1; Ariosoma balearica Fowler,

1936, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 70.

Head 7.0, depth of body 17.0, both in total

length. Eye 8.3 in head. Body robust with

loose skin, scales absent. Dorsal and anal con-

fluent with caudal. Mouth fairly large, not ex-

tending beyond eye. Teeth small. Dorsal start

above pectorals. Colour plain brownish, slight-

ly lighter below. Posterior edge of dorsal and

anal fins white.

Fig. 5. Ariosoma balearica (de la Roche), 99 mm.

OCCURRENCE: One specimen (99 mm) off

Alleppey at Station No. 35, 09°35’ N, 75°45’

E, 200 fathom, 4-ix-1969.

DISTRIBUTION: Mediterranean and _ tropical

Atlantic, mostly in deep water.

Family OPHICHTHIDAE

Caecula lumbricoides (Bleeker) (Fig. 6)

Ophichthys lumbricoides Bleeker, 1864, Atlas Ichth.

Ind. Neerl. 4; Caecula lumbricoides Munro, 1955,

The Marine and Fresh Water Fishes of Ceylon

NEW RECORDS OF BATHYPELAGIC FISH

Head 14.0, depth of body 56.0, both in total

length. Elongated slender cylindrical naked

body. Eyes small. Tongue present. Pectorals

absent. Mouth cleft reaching far behind eye.

Teeth small pointed. Gill openings small ob-

lique slits. Tail pointed without fins at end.

Dorsal and anal not traceable. Colour brown-

ish.

225 mm.

Fig. 6. Caecula lumbricoides (Bleeker),

OCCURRENCE: One specimen (225 mm) off

Calicut at Station No. 164, 11°22’ N, 74°31’

E, 200 fathom, 9-1-1970.

DISTRIBUTION: Mostly in tropical waters.

Related species from East Africa and Mada-

gascar.

Family SOLEIDAE

Zebrias maculosus sp. nov. (Fig. 7)

MATERIAL: Three specimens were obtained

from the Arabian sea—two off Alleppey, St.

No. 256, 09°30’ N, 75°50 E; 150 fathom,

18-11-1972, and one at St. No. 380, 09°35’ N,

75°50’ E, 150 fathom, 25-11-1973.

HOLOTYPE: No. INP-F. 55a. Total length

134-mm. Standard length 128 mm. Depth of

body 3.5 in total length and 3.4 in standard

length. Mouth 2.7 in head. Eye 6.0 in head

and 0.6 in inter-orbital space. Nasal tube 15.0

in head.

PARATYPES: No. INP-F. 55b. Total length

120 mm. Standard length 110 mm. Depth of

body 3.2 in total length and 2.8 in standard

_ length. Head 4.3 in total length and 3.8 in

_ standard length. Mouth 2.8 in head. Eye 5.6

in head and 0.6 in inter-orbital space. Nasal

tube 14.0 in head.

b) No. INP-F. 55c. Total length 130 mm.

Standard length 122 mm. Depth of body 3.2

in total length and 2.8 in standard length.

Head 4.2 in total length and 3.7 in standard

length. Mouth 2.6 in head. Eye 5.1 in head

and 0.7 in inter-orbital space. Nasal tube 15.5

in head.

DIAGNOSIS: Scales moderately ctenoid with

one series of spinules. Eyes in a straight line

one below the other and without tentacles.

Dorsal with 58 to 66 rays. Anal with 50 to

54 rays. 120 to 135 scales in a longitudinal

series. Posterior rays of dorsal and anal com-

pletely joined to caudal.

DESCRIPTION: Eyes on right side nearly

contiguous, in a straight line, the lower one is

slightly larger than the upper one. Anterior

nostril of coloured side at the end of a short

tube. Nostril of blind side more or less hid-

den by a membraneous flap. Mouth curved

reaching one-third of lower eye. Lips on blind

side fringed. Anterior part of head on blind

side covered by fleshy filaments. Snout pro-

duced into a tapering point overhanging the

mouth. Lower jaw not prominent. Preopercle

edge covered by skin. A row of fringes_along

the preopercular border of blind side. Lateral

line straight on both sides. Dorsal beginning

above and somewhat before eyes. Anterior

rays not enlarged and shorter than others.

Dorsal and anal continuous with caudal with

scarcely distinct and rounded posteriorly.

Pectorals very small with broad base and con-

nected by a fold with upperpart of branchios-

tegal membrane. Pelvic short, free from each

other and from anal. Right one connected

with genital papilla. Scales ctenoid on both

sides. Inter-orbital space scaly. Scales on head

and neck of same size as others. Rays of ver-

tical fins scaly. Colour of the fresh specimen

285

brownish with dark patches and spots. Pat-

ches and spots arranged as shown in figure 7.

Fig. 7. Zebrias maculosus sp. nov.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

)

Ag Vhs:

HOLOTYPE AND PARATYPES: Integrated Fish-

eries Project Marine Research Laboratory.

TYPE LOCALITY: 09°30’ N, 75°50’ E, 150

Fathom.

DISTRIBUTION: Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean.

REMARKS: Major works on flatfishes from

Indian waters are of Day (1878), Norman

(1927 & 1928), Weber & Beaufort (1929) and

Munro (1955). Abraham (1963) has given a

comparatively good account on the flatfishes

collected by the Research Vessel Conch of

Kerala University. Three species of Zebrias

TABLE

COMPARATIVE ACCOUNT OF CHARACTERS OF THE SPECIES OF Zebrias ALREADY RECORDED FROM THE INDIAN

WATERS AND OF THE NEW SPECIES

Characters

Mouth

Eyes

Dorsal fin rays

Anal fin rays

Scales

No. of scales ina

longitudinal series

Colour

Z. synapturoides

extending to below

middle of eye or

not quite as far.

without tentacles,

nearly contiguous,

the upper a little in

advance of the

lower.

69 — 74

59 -— 63

strongly ctenoid,

single series of st-

rong spinules on

the posterior edge-

66 - 71

Greyish, witha

number of dark

brown cross bands.

Z. quagga

extending to below

anterior part of

eye.

with tentacles, ne-

arly contiguous,

the upper a little

in advance of the

lower:

67 - 75

56 - 61

moderately ctenoid,

with several series

of spinules posteri-

orly.

Q2 -— 99

Pale brownish or

greyish with a nu-

mber of dark

brown cross bands.

Z. altipinnis

extending to below

middle or anterior

part of eye.

without tentacles,

nearly contiguous,

the upper a little in

advance of the

lower.

79 — 83

65 = 71

moderately ctenoid,

with one or two

series of spinules

posteriorly.

105 - 112.

Pale brownish or

greyish with a nu-

mber of dark

brown cross bands.

Z. maculosus

extending to below

one third of lower

eye:

without tentacles,

nearly contiguous,

both in a straight

line, the lower one

slightly larger than

the upper one.

58 — 66

50 - 54

moderately ctenoid, —

with one series of

spinules poste-

riorly.

120 -— 135

Brownish with a

number of dark

patches and spots.

286

NEW RECORDS OF BATHYPELAGIC FISH

were described from the Indian Coasts by

Norman (1928), ie. Z. synapturoides, Z.

quagea and Z. altipinnis. Table 1 gives a com-

parative account of the characters of the spe-

cies of Zebrias already recorded from the

Indian waters and of the new species. The new

species shows distinct characters of difference

from other species of Zebrias described ear-

lier. The characters like form and arrange-

ment of spots and patches, the number of

scales in a longitudinal series, the number of

rays for dorsal and anal fins, the number and

arrangement of spinules on the scales and the

position and size of eyes and absence of ten-

tacular structures are worth mentioning. The

new species is characterised particularly by its

blotches and spots by which I name this spe-

cies maculosus.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to extend my sincere thanks to Mr.

M. Devidas Menon, Director, Integrated

Fisheries Project, Cochin for his valuable help

in the preparation of this paper. I am also

thankful to the captains and crew of R/V

Varuna and F/V Velameen for all their help

on board the vessels.

REFERENCES

ABRAHAM, S. D. (1963): Bottom fishes collected

by the Research Vessel CONCH off the Kerala

coast during 1958-63—Heterosomata. Bull. Dept.

Mar. Biol. Oceanogr. Univ. Kerala. I, p. 57.

BARNARD, K. H. (1923): Diagnoses of new spe-

cies of marine fishes from South African waters.

Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 13, p. 439.

(1925): A monograph of the fishes

of South Africa. ibid. 2/7, p. 1.

Berc, L. S. (1947): Classification of Fishes Both

Recent and Fossil. J. W. Edwards—Ann Arbor,

Michigan.

BLEEKER, P. (1864): Atlas Ichth. Ind. Neerl. 4.

Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India. William

Dawson & Sons Ltd., London.

Fow.er, H. W. (1934): Fishes obtained by Mr.

H. W. Bell-Marley Chiefly in Natal and Zululand

im 1929 to 1932. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 86,

op. 405.

—— —— (1936): The Marine Fishes of West

Africa based on the collection of the American

Museum Congo Expedition 1909-1915. Bull. Amer.

Mus. Nat. Hist. 70, p. 1.

GILCHRIST, J. D. F. (1922): Deep sea fishes pro-

cured by the S. S. Pickle. Annual Report 2. Fish.

Mar. Surv. Spec. Rep. 3, p. 41.

Munro, I. S. R. (1955): The Marine and Fresh

Water Fishes of Ceylon. Canberra, Department of

External Affairs.

NorMAN, J. R. (1927 & 1928): The flat fishes

(Heterosomata) of India, with a list of the speci-

mens in the Indian Museum. Rec. Indian Mus. 29,

Pp. 7 xands SO) pir li3:

SMITH, J. L. B. (1936): New and little known

fish from South Africa. Records Alzany Mus. 5,

p. 169.

—— (1949): The Sea Fishes of South-

ern Africa. South Africa, Central News Agency.

WeeER, M. (1913): Die Fische der Siboga Ex-

pedition. Siboga Exped. 57, p. 1.

WEBER, M. & BEAUFORT, L. F. DE. (1929 & 1962):

The Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago. 5,

ps -9Sand. J, ps 87.

287

Breeding of the

pigmy hog Sus salvanius

(Hodgson) in northern Assam’

JEREMY J. C. MALLINSON

Zoological Director, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust,

Jersey, Channel Islands

(With two plates and a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

The ‘re-discovery’ of the pigmy hog Sus sal-

vanius in the Himalayan foothills of Assam

during March, 1971 put paid to various gather-

ing reports, including E. P. Gee’s (1964), that

this interesting and unusual member of the

pig family was feared to be extinct. The cir-

cumstances leading up to the re-appearance

of the pigmy hog was referred to in a pre-

vious paper (Mallinson 1971), as well as in

reports by the ‘Oryx’ magazine (1971), by

Tessier-Yandell (1971 a & b) and by Ranjit-

sinh (1972).

The purpose of this paper is to record the

data that has accumulated between the time

of two visits to Assam, during the period May,

1971 and November, 1976. The information,

when correlated, presents a much clearer pic-

ture as to the reproductive biology of the pig-

my hog, as well as establishing some behavi-

oural characteristics that have not previously

come to light.

CAPTIVE STOCK

In May, 1971 I obtained some _ valuable

quantitative data on the pigmy hogs kept in

three separate locations in the Mangaldai sub-

division, of Darrang Division, in Northern

1 Accepted March 1977.

288

CHECKLIST OF Sus salvanius REARED IN CAPTIVITY

Total

Assam. Tables 1-3 provide checklists of speci-

mens that have been taken from the wild

state, have been reared in captivity, as well

as providing data on the total captive popu-

lations on five different occasions in 1971,

1972, 1974, 1975 and 1976 respectively.

TABLE 1

CHECKLIST OF Sus salvanius TAKEN FROM

WILD STATE

Date Sub-Adults

of of

April 71 3 12 0 1 16

1972-73 2, 1 0 0 3

1974 1 2 1 D 6

3 2 1 0 6

1975

TABLE 2

IN ASSAM

9 Total Location

Date ot

24.Apr.73 Bal 4 Paneery Tea Estate

18.May 76 1 1 2 Attareekhat Tea Estate

May 76) 2 2 4 Gauhati Zoo

It can be seen from Tables 1-3 that in a five

year period 1971-1975 inclusive, 31 pigmy /

BREEDING OF THE PIGMY HOG

hogs were taken from the wild state. In addi-

tion to the 10 specimens that were reared in

captivity, if all of the wild caught specimens

had survived, a total population of 41 pigmy

hogs (17 dd. 24 2 2) could have been ex-

pected. However, from the checklist of speci-

mens taken on five occasions over the five and

a half year period, it is evident that 24 out

of the 31 taken into captivity have since died;

and that in November, 1976 only 7 (4 dc.

3 @¢) of the wild caught specimens remain-

ed.

45.7-50.8 cm. The shoulder height ranges in

adult males 22.9-30.5 cm, and in adult females

20.3-21.6 cm. It is interesting to note that the

330 day old male that had been hand-reared

at Paneery, was 0.400 kg heavier than an

adult female.

BREEDING

Gestation Period

So far, no information has been recorded

to provide an accurate gestation period for the

pigmy hog. The period of gestation for the

TABLE 3

CHECKLIST OF Sus salvanius IN CAPTIVITY IN ASSAM

Adults Sub-Adults &

Date Juveniles

ot Q ot Q

25. April 71 3 11 1 3

8. April 72 2 3 0 0

June 74 3 4 3 1

June 75 7 a 1 2

6 4 4 3

Nov. 76

MEASUREMENTS

In a_ previous paper (Mallinson 1971),

Table 1 presented two references to the mea-

surements of Sus salvanius that had already

been quoted in literature; and Tables 2 & 3

recorded measurement of the 2 specimens that

were examined at the Attareekhat and Pane-

ery Tea Estates, in Northern Assam. In this

paper, Table 4 presents further references to

published data, as well as providing some new

recordings of both measurements and weights.

It can be seen in Table 4 that the muzzle

(tip of nose) to base of tail range of measure-

ments for adult males is 66-71 cm, for adult

females 55.2-62.2 cm, and for sub-adult males

Total Reference

18 Mallinson (1971)

Tessier-Yandell (1971)

5 Ranjitsinh (1972)

11 Wrangham (1974)

17 Oliver (1975)

Mallinson

more common South American collared pec-

cary Tayassu tajacu was for a long time con-

sidered to be similar to that of the domestic

pig 112-116 days; but recently, more exact

data has been recorded by Mohr (1960),

Schmidt (1976), Sowls (1961, 1966), and by

the Jersey Zoo (Mallinson 1974), which pre-

sents a gestation range for this species of a

period between 142-149 days. However, it is

considered that in all probability the gesta-

tion period for the pigmy hog is likely to be

less than that of a peccary, with an approxi-

mate range of 110-120 days.

Breeding Season and Littter Size

Hodgson (1847) stated that the grown male

perhaps pairs off for a short period in the

289

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

TABLE 4

MEASUREMENTS OF Sus salvanius

Age of Sex Muzzle to Base

Shoulder

Weight Reference or

Specimen of Tail (cm) Height (cm) (Kg) Source

Adult of 66 27.9 -- Burke (1937:152)

40 of 66 30.5 a Lydekker (1900:267)

i of 71 22.9 — Mallinson (1971:427)

a oe os — 9.700 Schmidt (1977-in verbis)

99 2 54.8 — an Garson (1883:413)

, 6 2Q S92) = 02.2 20.3 — 21 6 — Mallinson (1971:427)

(range) (range)

a Q — — 6.600 Schmidt (1977-in verbis)

Sub-Adult of 45.7 — 50.8 20.3 — 25.4 3.200- 4.500 Hodgson (1847 :423)

of 49.5 21.6 3.700 Mailinson (1971 :427)

Q 49.5 20.3 3.400 Mallinson (1971 :427)

Infant development

Approx. Av. 3 oo

&2 99

3 days ae a 0.050 Wrangham (1974-in lit.)

99 99 99

breeding season, of which there are said to be

two in a year, and the litter to consist usually

of but 3 or 4 young ones.

A male and three females were purchased

(for £125) by the Zoological Society of Lon-

don, on Ist May 1882 and 9 young were born

in the years 1883-1886 all between the dates

16th May—23rd June (Flower 1929). Zucker-

man (1953) only records 8 young in three

litters but an examination of the daily occur-

rences of the Society reveals that there were

four litters, the fourth being easily overlooked

because it had not been entered as clearly as

the others. None of those young lived long

as is shown in Table 5.

As has been found to be the case with the

records of litter sizes of some other species

at the London Zoo, in the 19th Century only

live births were recorded; therefore, after

taking into consideration the data provided in

Table 6 it seems unlikely that the two litters

of singletons referred to in Table 5 represent

290

the actual number born to the respective litters.

The only other previously published record

as to litter size, was that of the four young,

which were conceived in the wild, and born

at the Attareekhat Tea Estate in Northern

TABLE 5

CHECKLIST OF Sus salvanius BORN AT ZOOLOGICAL

SOCIETY OF LONDON

Number Comment

born

23 May 1883 4 1 eaten by dam same day

1 dead next day

1 died day after that

16 May 1884 1 died 2 days later

11 June 1885 3 all died two dayslater

23 June 1886 1 eaten by dam 12th July

Assam, 1971 (Mallinson 1971). Since that

time, eight further births have been recorded

all of which were conceived in a captive en-

vironment in Assam, and took place within a

thirty-seven month period, April 1973—May,

1976.

BREEDING OF THE PIGMY HOG

TABLE 6

TIME OF YEAR AND LITTER SIZE OF Sus salvanius BORN IN CAPTIVITY IN ASSAM DURING PERIOD APRIL,

1971- May, 1976

Date

May 76

Total

It can be seen from Table 6 that during the

five year one month period April, 1971 to

May, 1976 inclusive, 10 gd, 10 2 @, and 15

unsexed pigmy hogs were born in three diffe-

rent locations in Assam. The litter size varied

from 3-6; with five litters of 3 two of 4 and

two litters of 6 recorded. The pigmy hog only

has three pairs of mammae which is consi-

derably less than those possessed by the majo-

rity of other members of the pig family. Sowls

(1966) reports that the collared peccary has

two pairs of functional and two pairs of non-

functional mammae, and that in observations

taken from 29 litters, 79% of the instances

the litter size was two. With the collared pec-

cary, only the posterior two pairs of mammae

are completely functional; whereas, all of the

pigmy hog’s mammae are functional (Joti

1976). The latter factor will obviously facili-

tate the successful rearing of the slightly lar-

ger litters concerned.

Contrary to the previous belief that the

pigmy hog probably breeds twice in one year

(Hodgson 1847) Fig. 1 shows that all of the

birth dates so far recorded in captivity in

Assam have occurred within the two months

Total

Litter ed Q Unsexed Location

Oo. Reared

1. 28. April 71 1 3 0 4 Attareekhat 0 0

2. 24. April 73 3 3 0 6 Paneery 3 1

3. 30. April 73 2, 1 1 4 Paneery 0 0

4. May 74 3 3 Gauhati Zoo 0 0

5. April 75 3 3 Paneery 0 0

6. April 75 3 3 Attareekhat 0 0

ie May 75 3 3 Geuhati Zoo 0 0

8. 18. May 76 2 1 0 3 Attareekhat 1 1

oy. 2 2 2 6 2 2

Gauhati Zoo

10 reared

35 born

April and May. The four births recorded at

the London Zoo in the 1880’s occurred with-

in the two months May and June; however,

it is considered that the discrepancy of the

April/May birth peak recorded in Assam re-

presents a function of the photo-period shift

to a more northern hemisphere schedule.

Therefore, it is apparent from the data gather-

ed, that the pigmy hog adheres to a definite

breeding season which only takes place once

a year between the months of April-May.

Assuming an approximate gestation period of

110-120 days, from the birth dates shown in

Table 6 conception in the wild state probably

takes place during the months of December-

January; and parturitions, as has been shown

with captive specimens in Assam, during the

months of April and May.

Climatic Conditions:

Gogoi (1976), states that the rainy season

commences in Assam from the month of

April and continues up to the middle of Octo-

ber; the intervening period from November

to March is almost dry except for occasional

showers. The pre-monsoon showers, or as

known locally as “the little rains’? occur pre-

291

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

NO. OF

LITTERS

5 4

3 ASSAM

ANI IEER MARL MARR

JUN

ZS.L

Za slee

JUL AUG VSEeR IOC aNGUMLDES

Fig. 1. Frequency distribution of months of birth for 12 litters of Sus salvanius born

in captivity in Assam and at Z.S.L., London. —

dominantly in April; these rains have the

effect of resusitating the flora, when leafless

deciduous trees become green with new leaves

and the grasslands start to re-shoot. The

month of May is normally drier prior to the

commencement of the main monsoons during

the following month. The months of Decem-

ber and January are the coldest part of the

year with minimum temperatures varying from

7°C. to 11°C., the higher ranges of the hill

districts are colder than the plain areas. The

maximum temperatures range from 30°C. to

Su Or

292

As with many animals, parturitions will

take place when environmental conditions are

the most favourable. Sowls (1966), confirms

that the peccary definitely has a peak of par-

turition at that time of the year when food is

most abundant. The jungle and thatchlands of

the Himalayan foothill habitat of the pigmy

hog are frequently waterlogged during the

main monsoons; which would undoubtedly

be unsuitable for the successful rearing of this

diminutive species. It therefore only seems

natural, that both conception and parturition

should take place in the dry season. Also, it

BREEDING OF THE PIGMY HOG

appears that parturition in the wild state has

been arranged to coincide with ‘‘the little

rains’, so that the newly born piglets may

benefit from the additional nutritional food-

stuffs that have sprung to life after these rains

in April; as well as the hogs benefitting from

the drier and warmer weather of the follow-

ing month, prior to the onset of the monsoon

in’ June: 2

Rearing:

Out of the ten piglets successfully reared,

as shown in Table 6 the four young from

litter No. 2 had to be hand-reared due to the

loss of the sow at Paneery three days post-

partum. The piglets that were reared from

litter No. 8 at Attareekhat, and litter No. 9

at Gauhati Zoo, were reared by their respec-

tive mothers. However, in both of the latter

cases, the sow had been separated from the

male or the other adults in the group prior to

parturition taking place. They were also kept

apart from other adults throughout the period

Of fearing.)

Joti (1976), stated that the sow that gave

birth at Attareekhat in May, 1976, confined

herself to the nest for the first three to four

days, only coming out to feed when nobody

was around at night. The piglets did not ven-

ture out of the nest until the 5th or 6th day;

but when doing so always kept close to, and

‘to the rear of the dam.

The four piglets hand-reared by A. Wran-

gham at Paneery were initially bottle fed every

two hours day and night on un-diluted cow’s

milk, and ‘they took approximately 12 cc each

per feed: The multi-vitamin preparation

Abidec was added to each feed. When one

_ week old, they were given the baby food pre-

_ paration Farex mixed

with cows” milk,

_ which was in addition to the bottle feed. At

- three

weeks, the piglets were eating the

_ Farex on their own, and by nine weeks

they were fed four times a day on a variety

of food which included minced meat, sweet

potatoes mashed in milk, unpolished rice

boiled in milk, fish boiled in milk, fruit and

vegetable matter, i.e. papaya, pineapple, man-

go, lichie, peach, banana, strawberry. A cal-

cium syrup supplementation was also added

to the diet.

During the period of rearing, the amount

of natural hazards that the piglets may be

subjected to is well illustrated by the experi-

ences of Gauhati Zoo during May, 1976. Two

out of the six piglets that were born were taken

from an un-roofed enclosure at the zoo; one

specimen by an Indian Mongoose Herpestes

edwardsi, and the other by either a Crow

Corvus splendens or an Eagle Gwl, Bubo sp.

Due to this predation, the sow and the re-

maining four piglets were removed to a cover-

ed-in area provided with plenty of privacy,

where they were subsequently reared success-

fully.

BEHAVIOUR

In previous literature, Hodgson (1847)

makes reference to the fact that the pigmy hog

seems to have the disposition of the peccary

as well as the resemblance. The males will

fearlessly attack intruders, charging and cut-

ting the naked legs of their human or other

attackers with a speed that baffles the eye-

sight, and a spirit which their straight sharp

laniaries renders really perplexing if not dan-

gerous. Hamilton (1921), refers to the pigmy

hog moving through the grass with such rapi-

dity that the eye is unable to follow them and

that the little creatures have tusks as sharp

as razors.

During May, 1971, I observed how surpris-

ingly non-aggressive the ten specimens were

that I handled after they had been in capti-

vity for a number of weeks; as well as the

293

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

fact that they moved like lightning, keep-

ing close together, before reaching the security

of a pile of thatch where they would pile on

top of each other. It was also observed, that

prior to giving birth, the female made a nest

within the thatch. Since this observation, fur-

ther interesting information as to the pigmy

hog’s ability as a nest maker has been ob-

tained.

As far as the ones held in captivity are

concerned, nests are constructed throughout

the year, and they are made by both male and

female specimens. While making the nest, the

hogs will pick the thatch up in their mouths,

carry it to the new nest sight, ‘chaffing’ at the

material as they go. Once the nest is complet-

ed, the thatch is piled over a slightly raised

dais of earth which the hogs have routed in-

to position with their snouts. The surface of

the mound is concave, which enables the hogs

to lie and rest at slightly above ground level

so that when it does rain they are able to

dry, from being insulated underneath and

protected above by the thatch canopy. Due

to the nature of the nest, it is often diff-

cult to determine as to which way the hogs

have entered into it, for the thatch seems to

fall back into place very easily; subsequently,

the camouflage of these resting areas is excel-

lent.

References have already been made to the

pigmy hogs speed, as well as to how easily

they will take flight. However, it is possible

to walk almost right up to the nest before

mals with an extreme tendency to flight, once

they have established a safe zone within a

known territory; providing this zone is not

encroached upon, they will become surpris-

ingly tame. Recently, this was well illustrated

by the pair of pigmy hogs that I brought back

to Europe in November, 1976; for whilst

undergoing the necessary period of quarantine

in Zurich, Switzerland, it was not long be-

fore these hitherto nervous specimens, allow-

ed their custodian. Markus Borner, “‘to even

handle them a little bit without any excitment

at all’? (Schmidt—in lit.).

Also Magor (1976) makes reference to how

tame the young will become and how they

appear to welcome and enjoy human com-

pany, coming out of cover to greet people

who they know, often relishing a back scratch.

Wrangham (1974) refers to how the young

will play together ‘jousting’ nose to nose.

The ability of the pigmy hog to swim well

has been described by J. G. Oliver (1976-in

verbis); for during the height of the mon-

soons the specimens kept by him on behalf

of the Assam Valley Wildlife Society at Per-

tabghur were frequently observed swimming ©

across a wide gully in their enclosure.

DISTRIBUTION AND RECENT SIGHTINGS

The distribution of the pigmy hog along the |

Himalayan foothills,

habitat in which it is to be found has already |

been dealt with (Mallinson 1971). Therefore, —

and the nature of the |

this paper confines its references to sightings —

and the subsequent locations of the pigmy hog i

that have taken place in Assam since its ‘re- |

discovery’ in 1971.

It is considered that all of the chirteonell i

Or so specimens that have been taken into ©

captivity, originated from the Bornadi Forest |

Reserve which covers an approximate area of |

they will break cover, and due to the absence

of any obvious exit, it is unlikely that one

will know as to which direction they will come

out of it. When a potential danger presents

itself, it is interesting to note the way that they

will approach it in ‘fits and starts’, trotting

a few steps, stopping, and then trotting a few

more. However, like so many timorous ani-

294

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J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 74

Mallinson: Sus salvanius

Two photographs of an adult Pigmy Hog.

(Photos: D. Joti)

PLATE II

BREEDING OF THE PIGMY HOG

45 square miles in Northern Assam. The Deo-

dosunga River makes up the northern border

of the reserve which is situated on the Assam-

Bhutan International boundary. Within this

reserve area, sightings of the hog have been

made between the Bagamati camp in the

west, the Malapara camp in the north-east

and the Rajagarh camp in the south. In Octo-

ber, 1976 it was reported that a sounder of

seven hogs were observed in close proximity

to the Rajagarh range office; and that soun-

ders of up to ten had been seen further to

the north of this area.

A pigmy hog was photographed in 1971,

in the Manas sanctuary, which is 130 miles

to the west of the Bornadi range (Oryx 1971).

It has also been recorded by Ranjitsinh

(1972) to have been reported in six different

areas of the Manas sanctuary: Latajhar Forest

near Matharguri, north-east of Bhuyapara rest

house, west of Bhatgali Beat, north of Bans-

bari Range H.Q. on both sides of the Mathar-

guri Road, and in the Uchila area; it is also

considered to occur in other suitable areas in

Manas.

To the east of the Bornadi Reserve: Tes-

sier-Yandell (1971) makes reference to a

sighting by Gilchrist in February, 1971 at

Nonaipara Tea Estate, situated approximately

five miles away; a reported kill on the Majuli

Tea Estate in September, 1970 situated ap-

proximately 7 miles away; and Ranjitsinh

(1972) refers to reports of the pigmy hog in

the Nonoi Forest Reserve twenty miles to the

east of Bornadi. There have been some rather

vague reports that the hogs have been seen

in the Orang Sanctuary which is approximate-

ly 45-50 miles to the east of Bornadi, as well

as claims that they have been observed ap-

proximately 100 miles further to the east on

the Dufflaghar Tea Estate, just to the east of

the Boroi river (Simpson—in verbis). From

the data so far gathered, it appears that the

pigmy hog’s distribution in Assam _ extends

from the valley of the Manas river, extending

eastwards along the foothills bordering Bhu-

tan and Arunachal Pradesh (Synom. N.E.F.

A.) up to Lakhimpur district in the north-east

border of Assam. The width of this foothill

belt being approximately 5-15 miles,

CONSERVATION

The pigmy hog was afforded total protec-

tion in India under the Wildlife (Protection)

Act 1972. Ranjitsinh (1972) advocated that

the Bornadi Forest Reserve immediately to the

north of Rajagarh village, and the unclassified

State forest to the west of the Reserve should

be declared a reserve for the pigmy hog. Also,

that the Nonoi reserve forest to the east of

Bornadi should be considered a_ sanctuary.

Suggestions were also made by Ranjitsinh,

that a suitable area of habitat should be fenc-

ed off, possibly in the Bornadi Forest Reserve

or in the Uchila central area of the Manas

sanctuary, so that the pigmy hog could be

protected, studied, and a controlled breeding

programme initiated.

During 1975, the Assam Valley Wildlife

Society in collaboration with the Assam Forest

Department, erected a chain-link fence round

a five hectare enclosure in the Orang Wild-

life Sanctuary. In May 1976, a pair of pigmy

hogs were released by Mr. J. G. Oliver, Chair-

man of the Assam Valley Wildlife Society, in-

to a small area within the enclosure; however,

some two months later, these were reported to

have escaped into the larger fenced in area,

and no further sightings of them have so far

been reported.

Previously (1971), I suggested that suffici-

ent animals should be caught up in order to

strengthen the viability of the existing captive

295

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

population within the species’ range; as well

as advocating that some should be translocated

to a scientifically managed site. Thanks to the

co-operation of the Assam Government, the

Chief Conservator of Forests Mr. M. Islam,

the Indian Government and the Assam Valley

Wildlife Society. The Jersey Wildlife Preser-

vation Trust was granted permission to export

up to four specimens of this endangered spe-

cies to a scientifically managed site in Europe.

During 27th/28th November, 1976 I accom-

panied a proven breeding pair of pigmy hog

from Attareekhat tea estate in Northern

Assam, by road to Gauhati, and then by air

to Calcutta ‘en route’ to Europe. Owing to

quarantine legislation, especially those restrict-

ing the movement of members of the pig

family; the pigmy hogs were taken to Zurich,

Switzerland, were they had to undergo a

period of quarantine at the Zurich Zoo. It is

now hoped, that with the co-operation of the

authorities at Zurich Zoo, that a_ breeding

nuclei of this endangered species will soon be

established.

SUMMARY

During my two missions to Assam in May,

1971 and November, 1976 respectively, valu-

able quantitative data was gathered about

this, once considered to be possibly extinct

species. The majority of the knowledge that

we now have about pigmy hogs, has derived

as a consequence of the hogs ‘re-discovery’

in March, 1971 and goes to augment the pre-

vious only fragmentary data, the majority of

which stemmed from nineteenth century ob-

servations.

Contrary to previously published data, the

pigmy hog adheres to, a single breeding season

which occurs in Assam during the months

April/May. Both male and female specimens

construct nests made out of ‘thatch’ and these

296

are utilised both for resting as well’ as for ~

rearing young. The pigmy hogs: are’ chiefly

diurnal; and the young almost entirely lack

the longitudinal markings to- be found on the

back and sides of many other wild pig spe-

cies. Additional data has also been-establish-

ed as to their measurements, weights, litter

sizes, aS well as numerous behavioural and

husbandry criteriors.

Although the mortality of the ones flat

have been kept in captivity has been unaccept-

ably high, and the infant survival rate minima!;

from the experiences gained, it is now evident

that providing the species is kept under: favour-

able conditions, and certain guidelines dis-

cussed in this paper adheres to, pigmy hogs

can be kept easily and will breed and repro-

duce readily. However, in interpreting data

on the breeding in wild and captive animals,

the question always arises as to whether the

conclusions drawn from data on captive ani-

mals are representative of wild populations.

Since my first mission to Assam, and as

advocated previously (Mallinson 1971) pre-

liminary evaluation of the habitat and a plan

for the future conservation of the pigmy hog

has been carried out by Ranjitsinh (1972).

Some further specimens have been caught to

strengthen the viability of the captive popu-

lations within the species range, (Table 1).

And one pair of pigmy hog has been taken

to a scientifically managed site in Europe

under the custodianship of the Jersey Wild-

life Preservation Trust (JWPT). These two

animals have been loaned by the Assam autho-

rities so that a captive breeding programme

can be initiated and all scientific data record-

ed from this nuclei is to be sent to the Chief

Conservator of Forests in Assam. |

However, due to the forever increasing in-

tensity of human encroachment into the pig-

my hog’s remaining habitat, it is now essen-

BREEDING OF THE PIGMY HOG

tial that a more comprehensive field survey

should be carried out of at least three months

duration, so that as much information as pos-

sible. is obtained about distribution, habitat

and population. It is taken for granted that

the best possible safeguard against continuing

decline is to preserve known habitat from

further decline. But should this prove not to

be possible, more secure captive breeding

groups must be established now that the

‘breeding in captivity’ guidelines have been

satisfactorily realised and intensive captive re-

search be therefore possible.

. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am deeply grateful for the co-operation

of both the Assam and Indian Governments

as well as for the co-operation of the many

government officials, International conserva-

tionists,; businessmen and private individuals

whose combined efforts have greatly.aided the

conservation of this endangered species both

in the wild state and in captivity. India: Mrs.

Indira Gandhi, Mr. S. Haidar, Mr. N. D.

Jayal, Mr. M. K. Appayya, Mr. M. Ranjit-

sinh, Mr. M. A. Islam, Shri Arun Kumar, Mr.

S. R. Chhaunkar, Dr. Salim Ali, Shri Zafar

Futehally, Dr. Robin Banerjee, Mrs. D. S.

Variava, Mr. G. Choudhury, Mr. B. M. Khai-

tan, Mr. Pierson Surita, Mr. John Oliver.

Europe: Mr. Gerald Durrell, Sir Peter Scott,

The Rt. Hon. Lord Craigton, Mr. Richard

Magor, Mr. Richard Fitter, Mrs. J. R. Wrang-

ham, Dr. Peter Weilenmann, Dr. Christian

Schmidt, Prof. Dr. Ernst Lang, Dr. Peter Dol-

linger, Dr. F. Vollmar, Dr. M. Brambell.

U.S.A.: Dr. Dillon Ripley, Dr, T. E. Lovejoy.

Whilst in Assam, special thanks are due

to Mr. M. A. Islam, Chief Conservator of

Forests, Mr. John G. Oliver, Chairman of the

Assam Valley Wildlife Society, Mr. and Mrs.

Gordon Simpson, Mr. D. Joti, Dr. J. C. Misra

and to Mr. Syed Sayeedulla, who all helped

me in so many ways.

Finally to Macneill and Magor Ltd., agents

to the Attareekhat Tea Co. Ltd., for their

co-operation and to Mr. Richard Magor,

Director of the aforementioned companies for

sponsoring my return journey from Calcutta

to Assam, for providing the travelling crates

and other facilities which enabled the pigmy

hogs to arrive safely at Gauhati airport, and

the company being my hosts throughout my

stay in Assam. Thanks are also due to the

Fauna Preservation Society, London, and the

Wildlife Preservation Trust International Inc.

Philadelphia, who together financed my jour-

ney Jersey-Calcutta, Calcutta-Zurich-Jersey;

as well as covering the freight charges for the

pigmy hogs from India to Europe.

My thanks to Dr. M. R. Brambell and to

Dr. C. R. Schmidt for reading the manuscript

and for making valuable comments on the

text.

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Flower, S. S. (1929): List of the vertebrate

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Garson, J. G. (1883): Notes on the anatomy of

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GEE, E. P. (1954): Wildlife of India. pp.

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Goco1, P. C. (1976): Our forests and forest re-

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— (1974): Establishing mammal gest-

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‘Oryx’ (1971): Pygmy hog and_ hispid hare.

Journal of the Fauna Preservation Society. Vol. XI

Nos. 2-3: 103-107, London.

RANJITSINH, M. K. (1972): A note on the future

298

conservation plan for the pygmy hog (Sus salvanius)

and hispid hare (Caprolagus hispidus Pearson,

1939). D.O. No. 682/DSIF 1023/72, New Delhi,

India.

SCHMIDT, C. R. (1976): Verhalten einer zoog-

ruppe von halsband-pekaris (Tayassu tajacu). Juris

Druch, Verlog, Zurich.

(1976): (— in verbis Nov.-Dec.).

SowLs, L. K. (1961): Gestation period of the

collared peccary. Mammology, 42(3) :425-426.

(1966): Reproduction in the collar-

ed peccary (Tayassu tajacu), pp. 155-172. In

Comparative Biology of Reproduction in Mammals.

Edited by I. W. Rowlands, Zool. Soc. Lond.—

Academic Press.

TESSIER-YANDELL, J. (197la): The pygmy hog

(Sus salvanius). Publ. in Cheetal, Vol. 14 No. 3,

India.

———_——\— (1971b): Rediscovery of the pygmy

hog. pp. 956-958 In Animals Vol. 13, No. 20, Lon-

don.

WRANGHAM, A. (1974): (— in lit. Mar.).

ZUCKERMAN, S. (1953): The breeding seasons of

mammals in captivity. Proc. Zool. Soc. 122:827-950,

London.

On the larvae of Bruchidius Schilsky

(Bruchidae

; Coleoptera)

LK. VATS

Department of Zoology, Kurukshetra University,

Kurukshetra (India)

(With thirty-three text-figures)

The present investigations are based on the studies of the last instar larvae of ten specics

of Bruchidius collected from

Northwest India. Their comparative morphology has been

studied with a view to determining the characters of classification significance. The im-

portant characters of each larva along with its host plants and dimensions have been given.

The species studied are: Bruchidius mimosiae Arora, B. maculipygus (Champ.), B.

SaUN-

dersi (Jek.), B. albizziae Arora, B. lineolatus Arora, B. aureus Arora, B. urbanus (Sharp),

B. angustifrons Schils., B. cassiae Arora, and B. tephrosiae Arora.

INTRODUCTION

The genus Bruchidius includes field forms at-

tacking the wild- and the ornamental legumin-

ous planis. The eggs are laid on the pods of

these plants. The first instar larva hatches out

and enters the secd where it grows at its ex-

pense resulting in complete destruction of the

seed.

Steffan (1946), Genduso (1958), and Par-

nell (1964) described the larvae of Bruchidius

fasciatus Ol., B. perparvulus Boh., and B. ater

(Marsh) respectively. Boving (1927) is per-

haps the only worker who gave taxonomic

account of eleven species belonging to the

various genera of Bruchidae.

The present investigations, based on the

studies of external characters of the last instar

larvae of ten species, include the distinctive

characters and the host plants of each species.

1 Accepted January 1974.

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS

Bruchidius mimosiae Arora

Frons with three pairs of setae, but without

sensory pits; labrum with three submarginal

sctae; terminal seta of antenna twice as along

as apical papilla; mala with four malar pro-

cesses; premental sclerite rounded posteriorly;

ligular spines absent.

Dimensions: Length 2.88-3.40 mm, Breadth

1.20-1.68 mm.

Host Plant: Mimosa rubicaulis Lamk.

Bruchidius maculipygus (Champ.)

Frons with three pairs of setae, but without

sensory pits; labrum with three submarginal

setae; terminal seta of antenna two and a half

times as long as apical papilla; mala with four

malar processes; premental sclerite truncated

posteriorly; ligular spines present.

Dimensions: Length 2.64-3.60 mm, Breadth

1.53-2.01 mm. |

Host Plant: Acacia pennata (Willd.).

299)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 74

@ “y,

“Fae

oan

Figs. 1-4. Lateral view of the Larva: 1. B. mimosiae; 2. B. maculipygus;

3. B. saundersi; 4. B. albizziae.

Bruchidius saundersi (Jek.)

Frons with three pairs of setae and a pair

of sensory pits; labrum with three submarginal

setae; terminal seta of antenna reaching the

tip of apical papilla; mala with five malar

processes; premental sclerite rounded posteri-

orly and carries a short median process in

between the two anterior prongs; ligular spines

absent.

Dimensions: Length 6.04-6.28 mm, Breadth

2.55-2.97 mm.

Host Plants: Albizzia lebbek Benth., Albiz-

zla sp.

Bruchidius albizziae Arora

Frons with three pairs of setae and a pair

300

of pits; labrum with three submarginal setae.

and a pair of sensory pits; terminal seta of

antenna twice as long as apical papilla; mala

with five malar. processes; premental sclerite,

Jigular

with a truncated posterior margin;

spines absent.

Dimensions:

1.43-1.82 mm. 3

Host Plants: Albizzia lebbek ,Benth., A.

procera (Roxb.) Benth., Acacia modesta Wall.,

Acacia catechu Willd.

Bruchidius lineolatus Arora

Frons with three pairs of setae, but without

sensory pits; labrum with three submarginal

setae; terminal seta of antenna twice as long

Length 2.97.3.69.mm, Breadth

LARVAE OF BRUCHIDIUS

" oaanm

oo.

0-44. mm

Figs.5-10. Lateral view of the Larva: 5..B. lineolatus; 6. B. aureus; 7. B. urbanus;

8. B. angustifrons; 9. B. cassiae; 10. B. tephrosiae.

301

JUURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

aa l2 a 13

Figs. 12-21. Labrum, Clypeus and Antennae: 12. B. mimosiae; 13. B. maculipygus;

14. B. saundersi; 15. B. albizziae; 16. B. lineolatus; 17. B. aureus; 18. B. urbanus;

19. B. angustifrons; 20. B. cassiae; 21. B. tephrosiae.

Abbreviations: ANT—Antenna, ACL—Anterior Clypeus, PCL—Posterior Clypeus,

_LB—Labrum.

302

LARVAE OF BRUCHIDIUS

as apical papilla; mala with five malar pro-

cesses; premental sclerite with a wavy pos-

terior margin; ligular spines present.

Dimensions: Length 2.97-3.24 mm, Breadth

1.58-1.68 mm.

0-3 mm

Fig. 11.

Abbreviations:

Dorsal view of the head of B. ablizziae.

ANT—Antenna, FR—Frons, MD—

Mandible, PR—Parietal.

(NM

=! b

ah oe Sia

ed) ? phe |

A 4

og bys

J dé

Host Plant:

Benth.

Bruchidius aureus Arora

Frons with three pairs of setae and a pair

of sensory pits; labrum with three submarginal

setae but without sensory pits; terminal seta

of antenna one and a half times as long as

apical papilla; mala with five malar processes;

premental sclerite rounded posteriorly; ligu-

lar spines present.

Dimensions: Length 5.95-6.38 mm, Breadth

2.64-3.12 mm.

Host Plant: Albizzia lebbek Benth.

Bruchidius urbanus (Sharp)

Frons with three pairs of setae and a pair

of pits; labrum with three submarginal setae,

but without sensory pits; terminal seta of an-

tenna twice as long as apical papilla; mala

with five malar processes; premental sclerite

rounded posteriorly; ligular spines present.

Dimensions: Length 3.40-3.98 mm, Breadth

1.49-2.11 mm.

Host Plant: Albizzia procera (Roxb.)

Benth.

Bruchidius angustifrons Schils.

Frons with two pairs of setae and a pair of

sensory pits; labrum bearing two pairs of sub-

Albizzia procera (Roxb.)

Cit Vy a

an Yt Nut Iie

iy bh Ad Waa,

ee mt:

Wy i )

_0.03mm 23

Figs. 22-23. Epipharyngeal surface of labrum: 22. B. angustifrons; 23. B. mimosiae.

303

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

8-J mm 30 a Sl

Figs. 24-33. Maxillae and Labium: 24. B. mimosiae; 25. B. maculipygus; 26. B. saun-

dersi; 27. B. albizziae; 28. B. lineolatus; 29. B. aureus; 30. B. urbanus; 31. B. angusti-

frons; 32. B. cassiae; 33. B. tephrosiae.

Abbreviations: CD—Cardo, LG—Ligula, MA—Mala, PM—Postmentum, PRM—

Prementum, PRMS—Premental sclerite, ST—Stipes.

304

LARVAE OF BRUCHIDIUS

marginal setae; terminal seta of antenna slight-

ly longer than apical papilla; mala with five

malar processes; premental sclerite conical

posteriorly; ligular spines absent.

Dimensions: Length 2.40-2.54 mm, Breadth

1.44-1.55 mm.

Host Plant: Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr.

var. bicolor (W.A.) P.W. Ander.

Bruchidius cassiae Arora

Frons with a pair of setae and a pair of

pits; labrum with two pairs of submarginal

setae; terminal seta of antenna slightly longer

than apical papilla; mala with five malar pro-

cesses; premental sclerite rounded posteriorly;

ligular spines absent. |

Dimensions: Length 2.16-2.40 mm, Breadth

0.96-1.20 mm. :

Host Plant: Cassia tora L.

Bruchidius tephrosiae Arora

Frons with three pairs of setae, but with-

out sensory pits; labrum oval with two pairs

of submarginal setae; terminal seta of antenna

as long as apical papilla; mala with five ma-

lar processes; premental sclerite rounded pos-

teriorly; ligular spines present.

Dimensions: Length 2.64 mm, Breadth

1.58 mm.

Host Plant: Tephrosia purpurea (Linn.)

Pers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to Professor G. L. Arora for

his guidance and to Dr. H. R. Pajni for his

help. The facilities provided by Prof. G. P.

Sharma, Head of Zoology Department, Pan-

jab University, are gratefully acknowledged. ©

)

REFERENCES

Bovinc, A. G. (1927): On the classification of

Mylabridae larvae (Coleoptera, Mylabridae). Proc.

Ent.. Soc. Washington 29(6) :133-143.

GENDUSO, P. (1958): Osservazioni sul tonchio

del trifoglio (Bruchidius perparvulus Boh.). Bull.

Ist. Ent. Agri. Palermo 2:41-55.

PARNELL, J. R. (1964): The external morphology

of the larvae and notes on the pupae of Bruchi-

dius ater (Marsh) (Col. Bruchidae) and Apion

fusciroster F. (Col. Curculionidae). Ent. Mon:

Mag. 25(4) :83-87.

‘STEFFAN, J. R. (1946):

Bruchidius fasciatus Ol. et ses rapportes avec quel-

La larve primarie de

que larvae neonate de Bruchides. Bull. Soc. Ent.

Fr. Paris 51:12-16.

New Descriptions

STUDIES ON SOME MYGALOMORPH SPIDERS OF THE FAMILIES |

CTENIZIDAE AND THERAPHOSIDAE FROM INDIA!

B. K. TIKADER

Zoological Survey of India,

Western Regional Station,

Poona 411 005

(With thirty-eight text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

Mygalomorphae are primitive, mostly ground

dwelling spiders, living in burrows and _ fre-

quently closing the tube aperture with a mov-

able lid. In these, the chelicerae are paraxial,

ie. the plane of articulation is vertical and

respiratory organs are represented by four

operculate pulmonary sacs or book lungs. The

mygalomorphs popularly called Tarantulas, are

the largest spiders found in India.

Pocock (1892, 1895 & 1900) was the first

worker, who described a considerable number

of these spiders from India, Ceylon and Bur-

ma. Subsequently Hirst (1909), Gravely (1915,

1918) and Tikader (1968) made some at-

tempts to work out this neglected group of

spiders.

Examination of the spider collections re-

ceived from Darjeeling, West Bengal; Shillong,

Meghalaya; Bangalore, Karnataka; Madras,

Tamil Nadu and Bombay, Maharashtra, re-

vealed many interesting Mygalomorphae spid-

ers, which are being described in this paper.

The type specimens will in due course be

1 Accepted November 1976.

306

deposited in the National Zoological Collec-

tions, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Family CTENIZIDAE

1. Acanthodon garoensis sp. nov.

General: Cephalothorax and legs greenish-

red, abdomen brown. Total length 10.10 mm.

Carapace 5.00 mm long, 4.10 mm wide; abdo-

men 5.00 mm long, 3.00 mm wide.

Cephalothorax: Conspicuously wider in

front than behind, flat and provided with small

round and circular dots, middle of cephalotho-

rax provided with deep transverse fovea like

depression. Eyes eight, nearly pale in colour;

anterior lateral eyes situated in the middle of

the anterior border of the carapace; the re-

maining eyes form a group far behind the

anterior edge of the carapace. Mandibles

strong and powerful; rostellum consisting of

stout spines borne upon a distinct prominence.

Sternum wider behind than in front, clothed

with spines, two pairs of anterior sigilla pre-

sent but posterior two pairs absent. Legs long

and strong, I pair very long, legs formula

1432; tarsi without ungual tufts, with three

claws and claws armed with one large basal

NEW DESCRIPTICNS

Figs. 1-5, Acanthodon garoensis sp. nov. 1. Dorsal view of male, legs omitted; 2. Ma-

xillae and labium; 3. Anterior portion of tibia of I leg; 4. Male palp; 5. Right chelicera.

307

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

tooth. Anterior tibia of I legs provided with

a pointed bent spine. Male palp as in text-

fig. 4. Lower portion of tibia of palp bulging

and anterior portion provided with a depres-

sion and edge provided with conspicuous row

of spines as in text-fig. 3.

Abdomen: Longer than wide, narrowing in

front, clothed with fine hairs. Spinnerets four;

posterior spinnerets long and anterior spin-

nerets short. Ventral side pale in colour and

clothed with hairs.

Type-specimen: Holotype male in spirit.

Type-locality: Degrangiri, Garo Hills, Me-

ghalaya, India. Coll. Shyamrup Biswas,

10.x1.1973. id

This species is related to Acanthodon fossor

Pocock but it is distinguished from it as fol-

lows: (i) Cephalothorax provided with small

round and circular dots but in A. fossor ce-

phalothorax smooth. (ii) Male palp also

structurally different. |

2. Acanthodon madrasensis sp. nov.

General: Cephalothorax and legs dark cho-

colate brown and abdomen black. Total length

18.50 mm. Carapace 8.00 mm long, 7.50 mm

wide; abdomen 10.50 mm long, 7.50 mm wide.

Cephalothorax: Wider in front than behind;

cephalic region high. Posterior region of ce-

phalothorax low and flat and provided with a

deep transverse fovea curved in front. Eyes

eight, black in colour, anterior lateral eyes si-

tuated at middle and near the anterior margin

of the carapace. The remaining eyes form a

group far behind the anterior edge of the cara-

pace. Mandibles strong and powerful, rostel-

lum consisting of stout spines borne upon a

distinct prominence. Labium and maxillae as

in text-fig. 7. Sternum wider behind than in

front, clothed with spines, two pairs of ante-

rior sigilla present but posterior two pairs

absent. Legs long and strong. IV pair longer

and stouter than others, legs formula 4123;

308:

tarsi without ungual tufts, with three claws and

claws armed with one basal tooth.

Abdomen: Longer than wide, wider behind

the middle, clothed with fine grey hairs. Spin-

nerets four and posterior spinnerets slightly

longer and anterior spinnerets very short.

Ventral side black and legs hairy. Epigyne

simple as in text-fig. 9. Internal genitalia as

in text-fig. 10.

Type-specimen: Holotype female in spirit.

Type-locality: Kulasekeram, K. K., Dist.,

Madras, Tamil Nadu, India. Coll. B. V. Balaji

& R. B. Grubh, 1960.

This species resembles Acanthodon crassus

Simon but can be distinguished from it as

follows: (1) Cephalothorax uniform dark cho-

colate brown but -in A. crassus sides of the

cephalothorax provided with black markings.

(ii) Epigyne and internal genitalia also struc-

turally different. “

Family THERAPHOSIDAE

3. Ornithoctonus gadgili sp. nov.

General: Cephalothorax, legs and abdomen

pale brown, Total length 42.00 mm. Carapace

24.00 mm long, 18.00 mm wide; abdomen 20.00

mm long, 15.00 mm wide.

Cephalothorax: WLonger than wide, clothed

with fine. wool brown and pale hairs. Ante-

rior side nearly as wide as posterior and not

high, only cephalic region slightly high. Eyes

situated in a group on a slightly elevated

tubercle. Ocular tubercle some distance behind

the edge of clypeus. Anterior row of eyes

strongly procurved; posterior row nearly

straight, posterior medians close to adjacent

laterals as in text-fig. 12. Middle of cephalo-

thorax provided with a. transverse fovea and

with a longitudinal pale band as in text-fig. 11.

Chelicerae strong, clothed with velvety hairs

and some spine-like hairs and rostellum absent.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

AS VA Cott

maa

’

itted

legs om

il gen a

f female

1e¢w O

Dorsal v

icera

nov.

Figs. 6-10. Acanthodon madrasensis sp

tal

9. Epigyne; 10. Interne

ht cheli

ium; 8. Rig

7. Maxiilae and lab

309

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

sey ON Ne heoece gs

“AB

0d bo

Figs. 11-15. Ornithoctonus gadgili sp. nov. 11. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted;

12. Showing eyes position; 13. Maxillae and labium; 14. Epigyne; 15. Internal genitalia.

310

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Inner surface of maxillae sparsely hairy with

prominent scopulae and base provided with

small black tooth-like tubercles. Labium near-

ly rectangular, clothed with dense hairs and

with some black tooth-like tubercles. Sternum

narrower in front than behind, clothed with

dense hairs, sternal sigilla small and nearly

marginal. Legs very stout and comparatively

short, the IV pair being as thick as the l,

clothed with thick hairs, and provided with

transverse pale bands. Metatarsi and tarsi of

all legs provided with conspicuous ventral

scopulae.

Abdomen: Longer than wide, narrowing be-

hind, clothed with dense velvety hairs and some

spine-like hairs; mid-dorsally provided with a

conspicuous longitudinal white band as in text-

fig. 11. Ventral side metalic black and clothed

with velvety black hairs. A conspicuous white

transverse band present just below the epigas-

tric fold. Two pairs of spinnerets, anterior pair

small and posterior pair long with three seg-

ments, posterior segment slightly longer than

others and tapering at the end. Epigyne as in

text-fig. 14. Internal genitalia as in text-fig. 15.

Type-specimen: Holotype female in spirit.

Type-locality: Bandipur Forest, Karnataka,

India. Coll. Madhav Gadgil, 8.v.1975.

This species is related to Ornithoctonus

andersoni Pocock but it is distinguished as

follows: (i) Abdomen dorsally provided with

conspicuous longitudinal white band but in O.

_andersoni abdomen uniform dark. (ii) Total

length is 42.00 mm but in O. andersoni total

length is 52.00 mm. (iii) Internal genitalia also

_ structurally different.

4. Ischnocolus decoratus sp. nov.

General: Cephalothorax, legs and abdomen

| reddish-brown. Total length 24.00 mm. Cara-

| pace 11.00 mm long, 8.20 mm wide; abdomen

13.30 mm long, 8.10 mm wide.

Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, broader

in front, low and clothed with fine hairs. Post-

erior middle of cephalothorax provided with a

deep, short, nearly straight transverse fovea as

in text-fig. 16. Eyes eight, pale in colour, situa-

ted in a group on a slightly elevated tubercle.

Ocular tubercle situated near the edge of cly-

peus. Anterior row of eyes slightly procurved

and lateral eyes much larger than medians and

nearly equally spaced. Posterior row of eyes

recurved, irregular in shape, laterals slightly

larger than medians, posterior medians close to

adjacent laterals as in text-fig. 17. Ocular area

black and provided with conspicuous spines or

spine-like hairs. Chelicerae strong, clothed with

thick hairs and rostellum absent. Inner margin

of maxillae provided with thick scopulae and

base provided with small black tooth-like tuber-

cles. Labium nearly rectangular and slightly

wider than long, clothed with thick hairs and

anterior portion provided with black tooth-

like tubercles. Sternum nearly as wide in front

as it is behind, clothed with dense hairs, ster-

nal sigilla not large and remote from the mar-

gin. Legs long and moderately strong, I and

IV pairs longer than others. Metatarsi and

tarsi of all legs provided with ventral scopulae.

Abdomen: Longer than wide, clothed with

dense short and long hairs. Dorsal side of

abdomen provided with six transverse, nearly

‘V’ shaped black bands extending from front

to behind. Ventral side uniform brown colour-

ed, clothed with hairs. Two pairs of spinnerets,

anterior pair small and posterior pair long, with

three segments, basal segment longer than

others. Epigyne as in text-fig. 19. Internal geni-

talia as in text-fig. 20.

Type-specimen: Holotype female, paratypes

two females in spirit.

Type-locality: Borivli National Park, Bom-

bay, Maharashtra, India. Coll. J. S. Serrao,

August 1975. Paratype Medtedi, near Maha-

baleshwar, Dist. Satara, Maharashtra, India.

311

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

legs omitted

Internal genital

ratus sp. nov. 16. Dorsal view of female

18. Maxillae and labium; 19. Ep

. 16-20. Ischnocolus deco

Figs

la.

igyne; 20.

17. Showing eyes position

312

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 21-25. Ischnocolus khasiensis sp. nov. 21. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted;

22. Showing eyes position; 23. Maxillae and labium; 24. Epigyne; 25. Internal genitalia.

313

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Coll. B. K. Tikader, 29-v.1976 and Borivli

National Park, Bombay, Maharashtra, India,

Coll. S. R. Nayak, August 1976.

This species is related to Ischnocolus ornatus

Thorell but it is separated as follows: (1) Dor- .

sal side of abdomen provided with six trans-

verse, nearly “V’ shaped black bands extend-

ing from front to behind but in J. ornatus ab-

domen ornamented above with small, sub-

oblique pale spots, arranged in two _ longitu-

dinal rows. (ii) Total length 23.00 mm but

in I. ornatus total length 12.00 mm. (iii) In-

ternal genitalia also structurally different.

5. Ischnocolus khasiensis sp. nov.

General: Cephalothorax and legs reddish-

brown, abdomen brown. Total length 21.50

mm. Carapace 9.50 mm long, 8.00 mm wide;

abdomen 12.00 mm long, 7.00 mm wide.

Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, slightly

broader in front, low and clothed with fine

hairs. Middle of cephalothorax provided with

a deep, short, straight, transverse fovea as in

text-fig. 21. Eyes eight, pale in colour, situated

in a group on a slightly elevated tubercle.

Ocular tubercle situated near to the edge of

clypeus. Anterior row of eyes slightly procurv-

ed and lateral eyes larger than the medians

and nearly equally spaced. Posterior row of

eyes recurved, irregular in shape, medians

close to adjacent laterals as in text-fig. 22.

Ocular area black. Chelicerae strong, clothed

with thick hairs and rostellum absent. Inner

margin of maxillae provided with thick pale

scopulae and base provided with small black

tooth-like tubercles. Labium nearly rectangu-

lar and depressed on the middle of anterior

end, clothed with hairs, slightly wider than

long and anterior portion provided with black

tooth-like tubercles. Sternum nearly oval,

clothed with spine-like hairs, sternal sigilla of

medium size and remote from the margin.

Legs long and moderately strong, I and IV

314

pairs longer than others. Metatarsi and tarsi

of all legs provided with ventral scopulae.

Abdomen: Longer than wide, clothed with

grey long hairs. Ventral side uniform light

brown, clothed with hairs. Two pairs of spin-

nerets, anterior pair small and posterior pair

long with three segments, anterior segment

longer than others. Epigyne as in text-fig. 24.

Internal genitalia as in text-fig. 25.

Type-specimen: Holotype female in spirit.

Type-locality: Umshining, Khasi and Jain-

tia Hills, Meghalaya, India. Coll. B. Dutta,

24.vii.1969.

This species is closely related to /schnocolus

decoratus sp. nov. but it is separated as fol-

lows: (i) Dorsal side of abdomen without any

band but in J. decoratus dorsal side of abdo-

men provided with transverse black bands.

(ii) Anterior segment of posterior spinnerets

longer than other segments but in J. decoratus

basal segment of posterior spinnerets longer

than others.

6. Plesiophrictus meghalayaensis sp. nov.

General: Cephalothorax black, legs and ab-

domen deep brown. Total length 8.80 mm.

Carapace 4.30 mm long, 3.50 mm wide; abdo-

men 4.50 mm long, 2.50 mm wide.

Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, low and

nearly elliptical in shape, clothed with fine

hairs. Middle of cephalothorax provided with

a deep, short, straight, transverse fovea as in

text-fig. 26. Eyes eight, pale in colour, situated

in a group on a slightly elevated tubercle. Ocu-

lar tubercle near to the edge of clypeus. An-

terior row of eyes slightly procurved and late-

ral eyes larger than the medians and medians

slightly closer to the adjacent laterals; posterior

row nearly straight or slightly recurved, irre-

gular in shape, medians very close to adjacent

laterals as in text-fig. 30. Chelicera strong,

clothed with thick hairs and rostellum absent.

Inner margin of maxillae provided with thick,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 26-30. Plesiophrictus meghalayaensis sp. nov. 26. Dorsal view of male, legs omit-

ted; 27. Maxillae and labium; 28. Male palp; 29. Right chelicera; 30. Showing eyes

position.

315

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Figs. 31-35. Plesiophrictus mahabaleshwari sp. nov. 31. Dorsal view of female, legs

omitted; 32. Maxillae and labium; 33. Epigyne; 34. Internal genitalia; 35. Showing

eyes position.

316

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

pale scopulae and base provided with small

black tooth-like tubercles. Labium nearly rect-

angular, slightly wider than long, and anterior

portion provided with black tooth-like tuber-

cles. Sternum nearly round, clothed with spine-

like hairs, sternal sigilla marginal. Legs long

and moderately strong, I and IV pair longer

than others. Metatarsi and tarsi of all legs

provided with ventral scopulae. Male palp as

in text-fig. 28.

Abdomen: Longer than wide, clothed with

fine hairs. Dorsal side of abdomen provided

with five pairs of inconspicuous !ongitudinal

pale patches. Ventral side uniform pale colour-

ed, clothed with hairs. Two pairs of spinnerets,

anterior pair small and posterior pair long

with three segments, basal segment longer than

others.

Type-specimen: Holotype male, paratype

one male, allotype two females in spirit.

Type-locality: Fruit garden, Nongrim Hills,

Shillong, Meghalaya, India. Coll. M. S. Tyrwa,

13.11.1974.

This species resembles Plesiophrictus seri-

ceus Pocock but. it is separated as follows:

(i) The total length is 8.80 mm but in P. seri-

ceus the total length is 22.00 mm. (ii) Abdo-

men dorsally provided with two rows of longi-

tudinal pale patches but in P. sericeus abdo-

men dorsally uniform coloured, without

patches.

7. Plesiophrictus mahabaleshwari sp. nov.

General: Cephalothorax and legs light red-

dish-brown, abdomen deep brown. Total

length 22.00 mm. Carapace 11.00 mm long,

9.00 mm wide; abdomen 12.00 mm long, 6.00

mm wide.

Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, slightly

high, both end nearly of same width, clothed

with thick hairs. Middle of cephalothorax pro-

vided with a deep, short, straight, transverse

fovea as in text-fig. 31. Eyes eight, pale in

colour, situated in a group on a slightly ele-

vated tubercle. Ocular tubercle situated near

the edge of clypeus. Anterior row of eyes pro-

curved, lateral eyes larger than the medians

and nearly equally spaced. Posterior row of

eyes recurved, medians close to adjacent late-

rals as in text-fig. 35. Chelicerae strong, cloth-

ed with thick hairs and rostellum absent. Inner

margin of maxillae provided with thick pale

scopulae and base provided with small black

tooth-like tubercles. Labium nearly rectangu-

lar, slightly wider than long, anterior margin

procurved, clothed with thick hairs and tooth-

like black tubercles. Sternum nearly round,

clothed with spine-like hairs, sternal sigilla mar-

ginal. Legs long and strong, I and IV, longer

than others. Metatarsi and tarsi provided with

ventral scopulae and with prominent claw-

tufts.

Abdomen: Longer than wide, clothed with

mouse hairs. Ventral side uniform deep brown

or black. Two pairs of spinnerets, anterior pair

small and posterior pair long with three seg-

ments, basal segment longer than others. Epi-

gyne simple as in text-fig. 33. Internal geni-

talia as in text-fig. 34.

Type-specimen: Holotype female in spirit.

Type-locality: Mahabaleshwar, Dist. Satara,

Maharashtra, India. Coll. B. K. Tikader,

BV AGTO.

This species is closely related to Plesiophric-

tus meghalayaensis sp. nov. but it is separated

as follows: (1) Dorsal side of abdomen with-

out any band but in P. meghalayaensis dorsal

side of abdomen provided with five pairs of

inconspicuous longitudinal pale patches. (ii)

Internal genitalia also structurally different.

8. Phlogiodes himalayensis sp. nov.

General: Cephalothorax, legs and abdomen

dark-brown. Total length 33.00 mm. Carapace

18.00 mm long, 15.00 mm wide; abdomen

16.00 mm long, 12.00 mm wide.

30h.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 74

md, ‘s

tted;

rs)

iD)

—=

—

Chad

Spe

2 4

Gb)

(q°}

iO 5

Ee 4,

a, 2

Aas.

2 O

iS)

fae)

Figs. 36-38. Phlogiodes himalay

318

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Cephalothorax: Slightly longer than wide,

clothed with coating of silky grey hairs, ante-

rior portion broad, but slightly narrow than

the posterior end. Thoracic region moderately

high and convex but cephalic region slightly

high. Middle of cephalothorax provided with a

transverse deep procurved fovea. Eyes situated

in a group on a slightly elevated tubercle. Ocu-

lar tubercle situated near the edge of clypeus.

Anterior row of eyes slightly procurved,

posterior row nearly straight; posterior me-

dians close to adjacent laterals as in text-fig.

37. Chelicerae strong, clothed with silky-grey

hairs and rostellum absent. Inner margin of

maxillae provided with thick scopulae and

base provided with small black tooth-like

tubercles. Labium nearly rectangular and wider

than long, clothed with thick hairs and ante-

rior portion provided with black tooth-like

tubercles. Sternum slightly narrow in front,

clothed with dense hairs, posterior sternal

sigilla large and remote from the margin. Legs

very long and stout, the IV pair being as long

and stout as the I; clothed with thick hairs.

Male palp as in text-fig. 38.

Abdomen: Longer than wide, narrowing be-

hind, clothed with thick long hairs. Ventral

side slightly darker than dorsal and clothed

with thick hairs. Two pairs of spinnerets, ante-

rior pair small and posterior pair long with

three segments, posterior segment longer than

others.

Type-specimen: Holotype male in spirit.

Type-specimen: Birch Hill, Darjeeling,

Eastern Himalayas, West Bengal, India. Coll.

Bijan Biswas, 22.1v.1974.

This species is related to Phlogiodes validus

Pocock but it is separated as follows: (i) Ante-

rior portion of cephalothorax broad but in

P. validus anterior portion of cephalothorax

narrow. (11) Male palp also structurally diffe-

rent.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to Dr. Madhav Gadgil, Indian

Institute of Science, Bangalore; Mr. J. C. Da-

niel, Curator, Bombay Natural History Socie-

ty, Bombay; Dr. A. K. Ghosh, Zoologist,

Eastern Regional Station, Shillong and Shri

Bijan Biswas, Zoological Survey of India, Cal-

cutta, for supplying the mygalomorph spiders

for my study. I am also indebted to Shri S.

K. Chanda and Shri P. W. Garde, Artists, of

this Station.

REFERENCES

Pocock, R. I. (1892): Supplementary notes on the

Arachnida and Myriapoda of the Mergui Archi-

pelago with descriptions of the new species from

Siam and Malaysia. J. Linn. Soc. London, 24:

316-326.

(1895): On a new and natural group-

ing of Mygalomorphae with descriptions of new

genera and species. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 15(6):

165-184.

(1900): Fauna of British India, Arach-

nida, London: 153-205.

Hirst, A. S. (1909): On some new or little-known

Mygalomorph spiders from the Oriental Region

and Australia. Rec. Indian Mus., 3:383-390.

GRAVELY, F. H. (1915): Notes on Indian Mygalo-

morph spiders. Rec. Indian Mus., 11(3): 257-287.

(1918): The Evolution and Distribu-

tion of Oriental Spiders belonging to the sub-fa-

mily Aviculariinae. J. Asia. Soc. Bengal, (1914),

10:411-420.

TIKADER, B. K. (1968): Studies on spider fauna of

Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Assam, India. J. Assam.

Sci. Soc., Gauhati, 1/:154-163.

319

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 74

FOUR NEW SPECIES

OF PTERIDOPHYTES FROM BOMBAY

PRESIDENCY?!

P. V. BoLE? AND M. R. ALMEIDA?

(With four text-figures)

During our studies on Pteridophytes of Bom-

bay Presidency, we have come across some

taxonomically interesting taxa. Four of them,

the new species, are described in the following

pages.

Selaginella blatteri sp. nov.

Similis est S. ciliari (Retz.) Spring, sed dif-

fert ab eo sporophyllis lateralibus laxe dispo-

situs.

Holotypus: Z. J. Kapadia-333 (bis), lectus

ex Castle Rock (North Kanara), 16-12-1953

et positus in BLAT.

Selaginella blatteri sp. nov.

Stem prostrate, = 10 cm long, frequently

giving out rhizophores all along the length,

with branches on the dorsal side only. Lateral

leaves well spaced on the main stem as well

as on the branches, ovate-lanceolate, acute at

the apex, equal-sided, membranaceous. Median

leaves inconspicuous. Spike + 1 cm long and

5 mm broad. Sporophylls of the lateral plane

lanceolate, acute, = 2.5 mm long and 1 mm

broad. Sporophylls of the median plane less

than 1 mm long, restricted to one side only

(Fig. 1).

Holotype of this species (Z. J. Kapadia:

Castle Rock-333-(bis), collected on 16th De-

cember, 1953) was collected along with Sela-

ginella delicatula Alston, from shady situations,

near railway lines. The species is named after

Rev. Fr. Ethelbert Blatter, for his pioneer

1 Accepted February 1977.

2Department of Botany, St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay 400 001.

3 Present address: CIBA-GEIGY Research Cen-

tre, Goregaon (E), Bombay 400 063.

320

work on the systematic studies on this group.

Pteris almeidiama sp. nov.

Similis est Pteris heteromorphae Hook.

frondibus abnormale bipinnatifidis sed differt ab

eo lobo basali longiore basalis paris pinnorum

oppositorum.

~ Holotypus: M. R. Almeida—1272 lectus ex

Savantwadi 8-7-1970 et positus in BLAT. Para-

typus: M. R. Almeida—1550 lectus ex An-

mode (North Kanara), 14-11-1970 et positus

in BLAT.

Pteris almeidiana sp. nov.

Caudex short, erect, with 6-7 fronds spirally

arranged, young shoot-apex clothed with scales;

scales linear-acuminate, 3-4 mm long, dorsal

side, scaly, slightly quadrangular and brown

near the basal region, almost rounded, yellow-

ish upwards on drying. Fronds = 25 cm long,

+= 20 cm broad, with 5 pairs of primary lateral

pinnae and two much-lobed terminal pinnae;

lower 2-3 pairs of pinnae again pinnate or

deeply lobed, upper pairs of pinnae entire;

the lowest pair of pinnae with a large, = 9 cm

long and 1-1.5 cm broad lobes. Terminal pinna

with 5-6 lobes on either side and a long ter-

minal lobe. Fertile fronds little smaller in size

than the sterile ones. Sori linear along the

entire margin, covered by a reflexed margin

(Fig. 2).

Holotype: M. R. Almeida:

1272 (8th July, 1970).

Paratype: M. R. Almeida:

(14th Nov., 1970).

This fern is found in dense shade at Savant-

wadi and at Anmode, N. Kanara. Dr. (Miss)

F. M. Jarrett of Kew Herbarium informed us

Savantwadi-

Anmode-1550

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

=©

SS) =

Se,

IS \: i*

SF, (ks % SE

Sites fj SS ;

4 \

Cs My SE ws

“) a f ; SS ne

Pa) ~ ' 8 Oy

: NY . | Si <

Mes S| /

Fig. 1. Selaginella blatteri sp. nov.

1.Habit; 2. Portion of the strobilus; 3. Lateral leaf; 4. Median leaf; 5. Sporophyll; 6. Spore.

ow)

—

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HAHIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Fig. 2. Pteris almeidiana sp. nov.

2. Pinnae showing marginal indusiate sori.

1. Frond;

a22

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

NEY

> aaa

(

324

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Pais

ws HVyte

v =e

Fig. 4. Schizolegnia savantwadiensis sp. nov.

1. Habit; 2. Ramentum; 3. Pinnae showing venations; 4. Portion of pinnae showing sorus.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

that there are 2-3 unnamed specimens of this

species in Kew Herbarium collected from Bas-

tar District in Madhya Pradesh. She is of the

opinion that this fern is probably a cross bet-

ween Pteris quadriaurita Retz. and Pteris pel-

lucida Presl. This species is named aiter Pro-

fessor J. F. R. d’Almeida, to commemorate

his pioneering work on ‘Ferns of Bombay’.

Schizolegnia indica sp. nov.

Similis est S. heterophyllae (Dry.) Alston,

frondibus bipinnatis cum pinnis lobatis, sed

differt eo, venis libris et formis pinnarum irre-

gularibus.

Holotypus: M. R. Almeida-926, lectus ex

Castle Rock (North Kanara) 27-12-1970 et

positus in BLAT.

Schizolegnia indica sp. nov.

Rhizome short, creeping, bearing fronds very

close together, scaly at the base; scales about

1 mm long, dark-brown. Stipes quadrangular

and grooved, = 5 cm long. Fronds = 5 cm

long and 5 cm broad, simply pinnate; pinnae

+ 3 cm long and 2 cm broad, acute or oblique

at the base and gradually increasing in breadth

towards the apex. The lower pinnae suboppo-

site and slightly spaced, upper one almost con-

tiguous. All pinnae much lobed and of irre-

gular shape and size. Texture thin, herbaceous.

Veins prominent, branching, free. Sori indusi-

ate, running parallel to the margin; indusium

thin and crisped, not reaching the edge of the

lamina in mature sorus (Fig. 3).

Holotype: M. R. Almeida: Castle Rock-926

(27th December, 1970).

The only specimen of this species was col-

lected from Castle Rock, North Kanara, by

the side of a small stream, about 100 metres

away from Castle Rock Station, towards the

Londa side. It was growing in association

with Schizolegnia encifolia Alston and Lygo-

dium microphyllum R. Br. on white loamy soil.

Schizolegnia savantwadiensis sp. nov.

Similis est S. encifoliae (Sw.) Alston, frondi-

bus simplicibus pinnatis, sed differt pinnis

triangularibus vel clavatis. S. encifolia habet

lineares vel lanceolatas.

Holotypus: M. R. Almeida-389 lectus ex

Savantwadi 10-6-1966, et positus in BLAT.

Schizolegnia savantwadiensis sp. nov.

Rhizome short, creeping, scaly, with 3-10

fronds arising from the dorsal surface and

thin, wiry roots on the ventral surface; scales

linear-acuminate, 1-2 mm long and = 5 mm

broad. Stipes quadrangular, scaly at the base,

up to 15 cm long, grooved. Fronds simply pin-

nate, rarely one or two pinnae producing a

short lobe near the base, 10-20 cm long and

8-12 cm broad, with about 7 pairs of suboppo-

site or alternate pinnae. Pinnae shortly petio-

late, 5-9 cm long and 2.5 cm broad, lower

triangular, upper ovate or lanceolate, some-

times irregularly lobed, acute or acuminate at

the apex, obliquely cut at the base, entire along

the margins. Texture thin, membranaceous,

sometimes herbaceous. Midrib prominent, giv-

ing out lateral parallel veinlets which anasto-

mose with each other forming elongated are-

oles. Sori indusiate, linear along the margins;

indusium thin, membranaceous, flap-like, open-

ing from the marginal side towards the midrib

(Fig. 4).

Holotype: M. R. Almeida: Savantwadi-389

(10th June, 1966).

Paratypes: M. R. Almeida: Savantwadi-587

(25th May, 1968). M. R. Almeida: Savant-

wadi-1271 (4th August, 1970).

This species grows in abundance only at one

place near St. Francis Xavier’s chapel, Chara-

tha, Savantwadi. Like other Schizolegnia spp.

this species also grows on white loamy soil.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to record our sincere thanks to

Rev. Fr. J. Misquitta, Principal, St. Xavier’s

College, Bombay-1, for the facilities and en-

couragement for this work and to Rev. Fr.

Conrad Mascarenhas for Latin diagnosis.

B25

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

A NEW SPECIES OF DIOSPY ROS (EBENACEAE) FROM WESTERN

INDIA?

A. J. G. H. KOSTERMANS

Krukoff Botanist, Rijksherbarium, Leiden,

Netherlands

(With a plate)

During a visit to Bangalore, I had the op-

portunity of studying specimens of Dio-

spyros from Hassan District of Karnataka

State. Further studies on some of these speci-

mens were made at the Rijksherbarium, Lei-

den. As a result a new species of Diospyros

is being described.

Diospyros saldanhae sp. nov.

Arbor, ramulis hornotinis perdense toment-

osis, pilis diversis, foliis alternantibus, tenuiter

coriaceis, subovate ellipticis, breve obtuseque

acuminatis, basi subcordatis, utrinque tenuiter

prominule minute reticulatis, supra nervo me-

diano excepto glabris; nervus medianus parte

basali prominens, caeteris impressus, subtus

sparse tomentellus; nervi laterales graciles,

erecto-patentes, prominuli; petioli brevissimi.

Fructus solitarius, breve pedicellatus, dense to-

mentellus, lobis perianthii oblongis, obtusis,

seminibus tribus, endospermio equabili.

Holotypus HFP 62 ab Nicolson, Saldanha

& Ramamoorthy lectus in herbario Collegii Sti

Josephi (JCB) positus est. Paratypus Saldanha

13709.

Diospyros saldanhae sp. nov.

Tree, 8-10 m high. Branchlets very densely

tomentose, the indumentum consisting mainly

of slender, stiff hairs, c. 1 mm long, interspac-

ed with 2 mm long hairs. Leaves spirally ar-

ranged, thinly coriaceous, subovate-elliptic,

3 x 6 — 6 X 14 cm, shortly, broadly acuminate

1 Accepted June 1977.

326

with obtuse tip, base sub-cordate, both sur-

faces finely, prominulously reticulate; glabrous

above except on midrib, which is prominent in

its basal part and impressed in its upper part;

lateral nerves very slender, hardly prominulous;

lower surface of leaf tomentellous (denser on

the main nerves), midrib prominent, the slen-

der c. 10 pairs of erect-patent lateral nerves

prominulous. Petiole very short, thick, 3 mm,

‘densely tomentellous. The solitary subovoid-_

globose, densely tomentellous fruit of 2.5 cm_

diam. on a 2 mm long, pilose pedicel; pe-

rianth lobes 4, oblong-ovate, obtuse, 5 mm_

long. Seeds 3, narrowly pear-shaped, slightly

pointed, smooth, 15 mm _ long,

equable.

endosperm.

Note: Related to D. pruriens Dalz., from.

which it differs by its larger, broader leaves

with sub-cordate base, the much shorter hairs”

of two kinds and the shortly pedunculate,

larger fruit with ovate-oblong, obtuse, short

perianth lobes. ;

The species is named in honour of Father

C. Saldanha, S.J. of St. Joseph’s College, Ban-

galore, co-author of the Flora of Hassan Dis-

trict, Karnataka (Mysore).

Holotype HFP 62 collected along a stream

between Devalkere and Devarunde in Hassan

District of Karnataka, S. India by Nicolson,

Saldanha & Ramamoorthy in May 1970. Para-

type Saldanha 13709 collected in the same lo-

cality in May 1969. Both specimens in fruit. |

‘suatinid *q WO} saioads sty) oyeredas Apieo[d WnjUsUINpUL dy} YUM J9Y}080} JinIZ pue jadipod ‘soAvgy

ay, ‘Aou ‘ds apyuppjps soskdsoig JO 9sdAjO[OH :1Ysly ‘ynIJ pue [adipad ‘saavo] SATSUTJSIP YM “Z[eq Sualinid sosddsoiq :1f{aT

Soe

BeAr RA

Bee PRET BH t

Sa OID EOE ORIEN

solkdsoig :SUBUIID}SO

PZ (00S “LSIH{[ “LYN AvaWog ‘[

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF SPIDER OF THE FAMILY OXYOPIDAE

FROM GUJARAT, INDIA, WITH NOTES ON OTHER SPECIES

OF THE FAMILY’

B. H. PATEL '

Department of Zoology, (Saurashtra University),

Sir P. P. Institute of Science,

Bhavnagar-364 002, Gujarat

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

Spiders of the family Oxyopidae have re-

ceived scant attention in India. Pocock (1900)

described four species of the genus Oxyopes

Latr. Stoliczka (1869) described a new spe-

cies of genus Peucetia from India. Sherriffs

(1951) redescribed and figured Pocock’s spe-

cies of Oxyopes from Oriental Region. Dyal

(1935) described a new species of Oxyopes

from Lahore. Recently Tikader (1965, 1969

and 1970) described twelve new species of

the genus Oxyopes and two of the genus

Peucetia from India. Very recently Biswas

(1975) described P. harishankarensis as a

new species from Orissa, India.

While examining my collection made from

different districts of Gujarat State during the

period from i967 to 1975, I came across

three species of Oxyopes and two species of

Peucetia, among which one is described here

as a new species. The other four species are

first records from Gujarat.

Type specimens will be deposited in due

course in the National Collections of Zoolo-

gical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Peucetia akwadaensis sp. nov.

(Fig. 1, a-f)

General: Abdomen brightly green in colour,

cephalothorax and legs light green in colour.

1 Accepted August 1977.

Totai length 11.14 mm. Carapace 4.57 mm

long, 3.52 mm wide; abdomen 6.57 mm long,

2.78 mm wide.

Cephalothorax: Longer than wide, modera-

tely high, clothed with fine hairs and few spines.

Cephalic region high and broad, separated by

a distinct cervical groove; clypeus high with

brown discontinuous stripes in front and pro-

vided with two black hairs. Centre of the

thorax provided with a fovea. Eyes of anterior

row strongly recurved so as to form two dis-

tinct rows of two eyes each; as in Fig. 1, b;

anterior medians smallest. Posterior row slight-

ly procurved, posterior laterals are slightly

smaller than the posterior medians, base of all

eyes encircled by black. Ocular quad longer

than broad, narrowing posteriorly. Sternum

heart-shaped, pointed behind, projected in bet-

ween the coxae IV, clothed with fine hairs and

black spines. Maxillae elongate, scopulate at

the anterior ends. Sternum, labium and maxil-

lae as in fig. 1, d. Chelicerae long, vertical

with two long spines nearer to the base, fange

groove unarmed with a short curved fang. Legs

long, brownish green, covered with hairs and

many long spines, bases of all spines with a

dark spot, the legs provided with two pectinate

and one small median tarsal claws. Legs 1, 2,

3, 4. Tibiae I and IL with three pairs and IIT

and IV with two pairs of ventral spines; meta-

tarsi of all legs provided with three pairs and

one median apical ventral spines. Femora of

327

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

all legs with three, patella with two, tibia with

one dorsal spines and metatarsi are provided

with three pairs of dorsal spines. Leg length

of the female is as under: measurements are

in mm.:

I II Ill IV

ieomue E57 MiGs isan ese

Patella 1.37 0.94 1.00 0.84

Tibia 3.78 5.84 3.68 4.10

Metatarsus 6.94 5.89 4.57 3.94

Tarsus 3.78 2.89 1.89 1.73

Total DORAAT eel 16.14 15.50

Abdomen: Longer than wide, narrowing be-

hind, bright green in colour with white patches,

clothed with fine hairs. Dorsal side with a mid-

dorsal dark coloured broad band, out side of

which on both the sides a white stripe extends

upto the posterior end of abdomen. In between

these white stripes symmetrically arranged

white patches are present as in Fig. 1, a. Ven-

tral side is lighter in colour with dark white

bands. Epigyne as seen in Fig. 1, c.

Male is similar in colour but little smaller

than the female (total length 9.50 mm). Male

palpal structure as in fig. 1, e and f.

Holotype female, Paratypes two females,

Allotype one male in spirit.

Type-locality: Akwada, Dist. Bhavnagar, c.

4 kilometres south of Bhavnagar, 25.ix-1973.

Coll. B. H. Patel. Also collected from Vallabh

Vidyanagar, Dist. Kheda, 15.vii.1975. Coll. B.

H. Patel.

This species resembles Peucetia choprai Ti-

kader but is separated as follows: (1) Cepha-

lic region distinctly separated by a cervical

groove, but in P. choprai a distinct groove is

absent. (ii) Clypeus with discontinuous stripes,

but in P. choprai two brown lines extend from

anterior median eyes to nearer the base of fang

of chelicerae. (iii) Arrangement of white and

328

dark stripes and bands on the abdomen is

markedly different. (iv) Structure of female

epigyne as weli as male palp also differ.

Oxyopes wroughtoni Pocock

Oxyopes wroughtoni Pocock, 1901.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 13:483.

SPECIMENS EXAMINED: 3 @ and 3 @, Vallabh

Vidyanagar, District Kheda, 15.1x.1967. 4 2 and

1 ¢, Anand, Dist. Kheda, 23.1x.1967. 22 Agas, Dist.

Kheda, 4.x.1968. 6 2 and 2 @ Ahwa, Dist. Dangs,

2.xi1.1968. 3 @ Baroda, Dist. Baroda, 9.vii.1970.

2 @ and 2 ¢ Ambaji, Dist. Banaskantha, 21.viii.1970.

1 & Ahmedabad, Dist. Ahmedabad, 22.viii.1970.

2 @ Napad, Dist. Kheda, 21.ix.1970. Coll. B. H.

Patel.

Distribution: India: Lahore; Bulsar, Kheda,

Ahwa, Ahmedabad, Baroda, and Banaskantha

Districts in Gujarat.

Oxyopes sitae Tikader

Oxyopes sitae Tikader, 1970.

Rec. Zool. Surv. India, 44:75.

SPECIMENS EXAMINED: 2 @2 and 2 ¢ Ahwa,

Dist. Dangs, 17.viii.1970. Coll. B. H. Patel.

Distribution: India: Rohtak, West Sikkim;

Ahwa Dist. in Gujarat.

Oxyopes chittrae Tikader

Oxyopes chittrae Tikader, 1965. Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci., Sec. B, 62:140.

SPECIMENS EXAMINED: 4 @ Ahwa, Dist. Dangs,

30.vi.1969. 2 @ Napad, Dist. Kheda, 2.viii.1970.

Coll. "B. H. Patel.

Distribution: India: Poona, Maharashtra;

Ahwa and Dangs Districts in Gujarat.

Peucetia latikae Tikader

Peucetia latikae Tikader, 1970.

Rec. Zool. Surv. India, 64:80.

SPECIMENS EXAMINED: 4 @ Ahwa, Dist. Dangs,

25.x11.1967. Coll. B. H. Patel.

Distribution: India: Manjithar, West Sik-

kim; Ahwa District in Gujarat.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to Dr B. K. Tikader, Deputy

Director, Western Regional Station, Zoological

Survey of India, Poona, for confirmation of the

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

specimens and valuable suggestions. I am grate- also due to Principal Dr. L. D. Dave and Prof.

ful to the authorities of the Saurashtra Univer- Dr H. B. Gohil, Sir P. P. Institute of Science,

sity, Rajkot for the sanction of grants (3147/ Bhavnagar for their help and keen interest in

21199 dated 7.3.74). My sincere thanks are my work.

Fig. 1. (a-f). Peucetia akwadaensis sp. nov.

a. Dorsal view of female (legs omitted); b. Head—front view; c. Epigyne; d. Sternum,

labium and maxillae; e. Male palp—ventral view; f. Male palp—dorsal view.

329

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 74

REFERENCES

Biswas, A. T. (1975): A new species of spider of

the genus Peucetia Thorell (Family: Oxyopidae)

from Orissa, India. Curr. Sci., 44(10) :350-351.

DyaL, S. (1935): Spiders of Lahore. Bull. Zool.

Punjab Univ., 1:149-152.

Pocock, R. I. (1900): Fauna of British India,

Arachnida, London,: 254-256.

(1901): Description of some new spe-

cies of spiders from British India. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc., 13 :482-484.

SHERRIFFS, W. R. (1951): Some Oriental spiders

of the genus Oxyopes. Proc. Zool. Soc. London.

120:631-677.

STOLICZKA, F. (1869): Contribution towards the

knowledge of Indian Arachnidae. J. Asiatic Soc.,

Bengal, 38(4) :220-224.

TIKADER, B. K. (1965): On some new species of

spiders of the family Oxyopidae from India. Proc.

Indian Acad. Sci., Sec. B, 62(3) :140-144.

(1969): Studies on some spiders of

the family Oxyopidae from India. Oriental In-

sects, 3(1) :33-36.

(1970): Spider fauna of Sikkim. Rec.

Zool. Surv. India, 64(1-4) :70-81.

A NEW VARIETY OF GLYCINE WIGATII SUBSP. WIGATII

VERDCOURT FROM SOUTH INDIA?

AJITA SEN

Central National Herbarium, Indian Botanic Garden,

Howrah-3

(With a text-figure)

East Asian species described by different

authors as Glycine javanica is quite different

from Linnaeus’s species of that name which

as proved by Verdcourt (Taxon, Vol. xv (i),

‘pp. 34-36; 1966) is Pueraria montana (Lout.)

Merrill. The east Asiatic species known as Gly-

cine javanica auct. mult. non. Linn. has now

been named as Glycine wightii (R. Grah. ex

Wight & Arn.) Verdcourt enumerates 3 subsp.

of, G. wightii as:— (1) wightii, (2) petitiana

and (3) pseudojavanica.

G. wightii subsp. wightii again 2 varie-

ties namely, var. wightii and var. longicaudata,

the former being found in India. While exa-

mining the sheets of the above named taxon

it was noticed that all collections do not repre-

sent identical variety. Some specimens collected

from S. India differ in being Jess hairy, having

1 Accepted August 1977.

330

more elongated raceme and flowers more lax

on the axis, not so much overlapping as in the

typical variety. These specimens therefore are

considered to represent a new variety under

subsp. wightii.

This is described below: —

Glycine wightii Verdcourt subsp. wight

Verdcourt var. coimbatorensis var. nov.

Haec varietas a typo sparse pubescentis,

racemes laxis, elongatis recedit.

Plants suberect, stem slender, solid, inter-

nodes long, 7-12 cm, glabrous, except a few

scattered hairs. Leaves tri-foliolate; leaflets

5.9-6.6 cm long, 4.6-5.9 cm broad, entire,

ovate, acute, with a few adpressed hairs on

both surfaces, petiole glabrous, almost hair-

less, 3-5 cm long, petiolules 15 mm_ long,

a pair of 7 mm long stipules at the base of

leaves, a pair of 2.5 mm-30 mm long stipels

at the base of each leaflet. Inflorescence race-

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

scm

Fig. 1. Glycine wightii Verdcou

Tw >

rt subsp. wightii Verdcourt var. combatorensis var. nov.

—A twig of the plant.

331

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

me at the axil of the leaves, with a 17-30 cm

long peduncle, flowers arranged interspersely

on the rachis, the non-flowering part of the

peduncle is 3-6.5 cm long; flower bearing part

is much longer. Flowers bracteate, bracts 3

mm long, with a few hairs, leaf like, ovate.

Calyx 5, united, cuplike 4 mm long, the poste-

rior pair of teeth united very near to apex,

other teeth as long as the tube or cup, sparse-

ly hairy, standard petal elliptic, about 6 mm

long, 5 mm broad, wings about 4 mm long,

1 mm broad, keel petals united at the apex,

4 mm long, 2.5 mm broad. Stamens 9 + 1, un-

equal, free stamen longer, anthers basifixed.

Ovary stalked, superior, with a few ovules on

marginal placenta, style short, stigma notched.

Fruit a pod, sparsely hairy, 2-4 seeded, spongi-

ly septate between the seeds; 1.5 -2.3 cm long,

5 mm broad.

Type locality: Wet lands—Coimbatore,

Holotype: India, Tamilnadu, Coimbatore, 2-

xi-65, M. Chandra Bose 28823. Deposited

in Herb., S. Circle, B.S.I. (MH).

Paratypes: India, Kerala, Kottayam dt., Ku-

mily to Thekkadi, 21.11.67, K. Vivekanan-

than 29373 (MH); Salem dt., Pennagaram

river forest, 4.12.1964, E. Vajravelu 22433 —

(MH); Coimbatore dt., Poonachi- Anama- —

lais, 24.10.1961, J. Joseph 13253 (MH); on

the road to Shiruvani, K. Subramanyam

1415 (MH); Aliyar submergible area,

24.11.62, K. M. Sebastine 15344 (MH); Bo-

lampatti, South fuel working circle, 7.12.1909,

C.E.C. Fischer 1508 (CAL); Kamalapores |

Sept., 1910, A. Meebold 11285 (CAL).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Grateful thanks are due to Dr S. K. Mu-

Kerjee, ex-keeper, Central

National Herba- |

rium (B.S.I.), Shibpore for his kind help and —

suggestion in preparing this manuscript. Thanks —

are also due to Director and Keeper of Central —

National Herbarium (B.S.I.) for their encour-

agement.

A NEW SPECIES OF SPIDER OF THE GENUS PLATYTHOMISUS

SIMON (FAMILY: THOMISIDAE) FRCM COORG, KARNATAKA,

INDIA’

A. T. BISWAS

Zoological Survey of India,

34, Chittaranjan Avenue,

Calcutta 12

(With three text-figures)

While examining the spider collection from

Coorg, I came across a new species of the

genus Platythomisus Simon, which is describ-

ed here. Though a considerable work has been

done by Tikader (1960-1971) on Indian Tho-

misidae, only one species of this genus was

1 Accepted July 1977.

332

described by Tikader (1970). It is the second |

species of the genus Platythomisus.

The type specimen is deposited in the Na-_

tional Zoological Collection, Zoological Sur- —

vey of India, Calcutta.

Platythomisus sudeepi sp. nov.

General:

Cephalothorax and legs brown, |

abdomen yellow with black transverse bars.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-3. Platythomisus sudeepi sp. nov. 1. Dorsal

view of female, legs omitted; 2. Epigyne; 3. Internal

epigyne.

Total length 9.31 mm. Carapace 4.00 mm long,

3.75 mm wide; abdomen 5.31 mm long, 4.50

mm wide.

Cephalothorax: High and rounded, a little

longer than wide, dorsolateral side abruptly

depressed and anterior portion conical, pro-

vided with four rounded black spots, and the

eyes situated within the anterior black spots,

posterior pair of spots larger. Both rows of

eyes recurved, anterior laterals larger, posterior

medians smaller and anterior medians pearly

white. Sternum brown, longer than wide and

triangular in shape. Legs I and II brown;

longer and subequal. Femora III and IV light

yellow in colour. Legs without spines and me-

tatarsi of legs dorsolaterally yellowish-white,

except apical portion.

Abdomen: Longer than wide, broad and

conical behind, provided with three transverse

black bars. First one provided with a light

brown round spot on the middle, second with

two round brown spots on the sides and the

last bar is very broad and provided with two

longitudinal brown lines on the sides. Ventral

side black bordered with yellow colour, spin-

nerets brown at the base, encircled with yel-

low, Epigyne as in text-figure 2 & 3.

Holotype one female, paratype one female

in spirit.

Type-locality: Pollibetta, Coorg, Karnataka,

India. Coll. T. B. Fletcher, 27-x-1915.

This species is closely related to Platytho-

misus octomaculatus Koch. However, P.

sudeepi differs from P. octomaculatus in the

structure of female epigyne. Abdomen dor-

sally provided with three transverse black

bands but in P. octomaculatus abdomen dor-

sally provided with seven black patches.

333

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankfui to Dr T. N. Ananthakrishnan,

Director, and Shri U. A. Gajbe, Officer-in-

Charge, Arachnida Section, Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta, for necessary facilities and

greatly indebted to Dr B. K. Tikader, Deputy

Director, Western Regional Station, Zoologi-

cal Survey of India, Poona, for the confirma-

tion of the identification and valuable sugges-

tions.

REFERENCES

SIMON, E. (1892): Histoire Naturelle des Araig-

nes: (Panis: = 1017.

TIKADER, B. K. (1970): Spider fauna of Sikkim.

Rec. Zool. Surv., 64(1-4) :1-84.

———— (1971): Revision of Indian Crab-

spiders (Araneae: Thomisidae). Mem. Zool. Surv.,

15(3) :1-90.

A NEW SUBSPECIES OF BAY OWL [PHODILUS BADIUS

(HORSFIELD)] FROM PENINSULAR INDIA

S. A. HUSSAIN AND M. A. REZA KHAN!

(With a_ plate)

Two races of Bay owl (Phodilus badius) occur

in the Indian sub-continent. The Sikkim Bay

Owl (P. b. saturatus) ranges in the northeast-

ern Himalayas from Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan,

Assam, Nagaland, Manipur and then on to

Burma and Malaya, intergrading with the no-

minate race. The second race, Ceylon Bay Owl

(P. b. assimilis) is confined to Sri Lanka. Both

subspecies are considered to be rare in their

respective habitats and so far as the available

literature is concerned (Hume _ 1873, 1875,

1876, 1877; Fairbank 1877; White 1877; Fer-

guson & Bourdillon 1903-04; Kinloch 1920-

1923; Baker 1929; Ali 1935-37; Ripley 1961;

Ali & Ripley 1969 and Henry 1971) this owl

has not been recorded from peninsular India.

1 Present address: Lecturer in Zoology, Univer-

sity of Dacca, Dacca, Bangla Desh.

334

Recently one of us (M.A.R.K.) along with

Dr V. S. Vijayan (presently Head of the Wild-

life Division, Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Trichur, Kerala), while on a survey of the

Parambikulam sanctuary environs in the West-

ern Ghats, obtained a specimen of a Bay Owl

which, apart from being a new record for the

region, appears to be distinct from the Hima-

layan and Sri Lanka birds. The specimen was

sent to Dr S. Dillon Ripley at the Smithsonian

Institution, Washington, U.S.A., who very

kindly compared it with specimens of satur-

atus and assimilis obtained by him from the

American Museum of Natural History, New

York, and the British Museum, London, and

has confirmed our diagnosis. Considering the

morphological differences and the ecological

isolation of this bird from the other races, we

hereby name it as

J. BompBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 74 PLATE

Hussain and Reza Khan: Bay Owl

Above: Forests of Nelliampathy, habitat of the owl. Below: Southern Bay Owl,

Phodilus badius ripleyi subsp. nov.

(Photos: Reza Khan)

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Phoedilus badius ripleyi? subsp. nov.

Type: @ collected by M. A. Reza Khan and

V. S. Vijayan at Periasolai Coffee Estate, Nel-

fiampathy Hills (c. 10°36-"N; 76°40 EB),

Palghat Dist. Kerala, S. India, on 30 April

1976 and now in the Bombay Natural History

Society’s collection bearing Reg. No. 24232.

Taxonomical notes: The specimen, in general

appearance, is dark brown to chocolate brown

dorsally. Upper breast to abdomen and back

from head to rump has dark brownish to

blackish spots. Crown, back and wings deep

chocolate. Bastard wing and outermost five

primaries barred with black, gradually fading

on the fourth and fifth. Secondaries barred

with black bands, darker and complete on the

inner webs and lighter and incomplete on the

outer webs. Seven distinct black bars on the

rectrices, fading gradually towards the tip.

The main differentiating character is the

spotting on breast. Dr Ripley, after examining

a series of specimens of saturatus and assi-

milis, comments (in litt.) as follows: “‘... The

single south India bird is darker above than

the single male from Ceylon with much finer

spotting, the white spots very much reduced

ali over as well as in size, reduced about one

half the width of those of the single specimen

of assimilis (AMNH coll.). The crown is dark

chocolate-brown with only occasional black

“ots, lacking the black and white droplets

nd in assimilis. The pale buffy lilac feathers

the centre of crown exist but they too have

.y black spot in the centre of each feather

only 2 mm in width rather than the larger

spots in the Ceylon bird which are 4 mm in

width. Below tne bird is darker, richer lilac,

with similarly reduced spotting on the breast

feathers, 1.5 mm in width rather than 3 mm

in width. The outline of these droplets show

a single droplet rather than double droplet...”

The Himalayan subspecies is much larger

and paler than south Indian and Sri Lanka

birds. There is, however, no difference in size

between assimilis and ripleyi.

Ecological notes: The Periasolai area repre-

sents the southern section of the Nelliampathy

hills, south of Palghat and contains the typical

wet evergreen forest, a biotope similar to the

heavy evergreen submontane hill tracts of the

eastern Himalayas. The presence of the Bay

Owl here may strengthen the recent theories

put forward by Hora (1950), Mani (1974),

Ripley (1977) and others that the patchy dis-

tribution of certain Indo-Malayan and east

Himalayan species of the flora and fauna in

equivalent biotopes of the southern peninsula

are relicts of a once continuous distribution

between these areas which was disrupted by

geotectonic action marooning disjunct popul-

ations in isolated pockets of appropriate coun-

try.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We gratefully acknowledge the help and

encouragement given by Dr. Ripley and Mr.

J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural History

Society.

Measurements (in mm):

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

(from feathers)

saturatus QQ 214-237 30-32 47-48 92-97

cassimilis @Q0 197-203 c.39 c.47 81-89

| (from skull)

_ripleyi Q 208 33 51 81

2The bird is named as a tribute to Dr. S. Dillon

‘Ripley, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution, in re-

cognition of his contributions to the ornithology of

the Indian subcontinent.

335

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM (1935-37): The ornithology of Tra-

vancore and Cochin. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 8

parts, Vols. 37-39.

——— & Rpiey, S. D. (1969): Hand-

book of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 3.

Oxford University Press. Bombay.

BAKER, E. C. S. (1929): Fauna of British India,

2nd edition. Vol. 4. Francis and Taylor, London.

FAIRBANK, S. B. (1877): A list of the birds col-

lected and observed on the Palni hills. Stray Feat-

hers 5:387-410.

FERGUSON, H. S. & BOURDILLON, T. S. (1903-04) :

The birds of Travancore with notes on their nidi-

fication. 4 pts. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Vols. 15-

16.

Henry, G. M. (1971): A Guide to the Birds of

Ceylon. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press.

Hora, S. L. (1950): Hora’s Satpura Hypothesis:

An aspect of Indian Biogeography. Current Science

19: 364-370.

HuME, A. O. (1873): Notes on some Ceylonese

birds. Stray Feathers 1:429-441.

336

— (1875): A first list of the birds ol

Pegu. ibid. 3:1-194.

(1876): Editorial comment. ibid.

4:244.

aa (1877): Editorial comment. ibid.

FASS:

KINLOCH, A. P. (1921): Rough notes on the avi-

fauna of Nelliampathy hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 27:939-944.

(1923): Further notes on _ birds

of Nelliampathy hills. ibid. 29:564-565.

* Mani, M. S. (1974): Ecology and Biogeo-

graphy in India. Dr. W. Junk, The Hague.

RIpLey, S. D. (1961): A synopsis of the birds of

India and Pakistan, Bombay Natural History So-

ciety.

(MSS): Avian relicts of Sri Lanka.

Submitted for the Centenary celebrations of the

Colombo National Museum 1977.

WuiteE, A. W. (1877): Letter to the editor. Stray

Feathers 5:353-354.

* Not seen in original.

Obituary

N. KESAVA PANIKKAR (1913-1977)

Our country has produced a number of scien-

tists who have been responsible for moulding

the scientific outlook of the country, in keep-

ing with the needs and aspirations of a deve-

loping economy. It is in this context that the

late Dr N. Kesava Panikkar would be remem-

bered by posterity. Dr Panikkar has, for nearly

three decades, dominated in the sphere of

fisheries research and development in the In-

dian subcontinent.

Born on May 17, 1913 in Kottayam, Kerala,

he had his early education in the local schools.

Since then, during his graduate studies he

came under the influence of one of the able

Professors of the time, Prof. C. Lakshminara-

yanan of the Madras Christian College, Tam-

baram, from where he took his M.A. in Zoo-

logy in 1933. Besides being a good student,

he was always keen on making direct obser-

vations of living organisms in their natural

habitat and was a firm believer in the Louis

Agassiz dictum—study nature and not books

alone. It was thus during his field trips as part

of the College curriculum that he developed

an intensive fascination for the study of the

process of physiological adaptation of aquatic

organisms to the dynamic environment of the

brackish waters. He actively pursued this pro-

blem throughout his research career, initiated

and fostered under Professor R. Gopala Aiyar

in the Zoological Research Laboratory of the

Madras University. His work on the breeding

of brackishwater animals of the Adyar estu-

ary in the middle 30s has been an original ap-

proach to the problem of environmental ad-

aptation. His thesis’on this and allied subjects

fetched him the Doctor of Science Degree of

the Madras University in 1938.

His academic records brought him the award

of the prestigeous 1851 Empire Exhibition

Scholarship in 1938 and he worked in London,

Plymouth and Cambridge for 5 years.

It was during his stay in the United King-

dom that he came in contact with some of the

eminent biologists of the time, like Prof. E. J.

Allen, Prof. A. V. Hill, Dr A. Krogh and

others. Their work and broad approach to re-

search problems have had a distinct influence

on Dr Panikkar as has been clearly demon-

strated in his own later publications. The clas-

sic work of Dr Panikkar on the osmotic re-

gulation of some crustaceans, which he pub-

lished from Plymouth, is a brilliant exposition

and clearly reveals the skill and wide perspec-

tive of the individual in handling research

material.

In 1943, Dr Panikkar was called upon to

head the Department of Zoology of the Uni-

versity College, Trivandrum which post he

held for nearly two academic sessions, until

he was appointed as the Director of the Zoo-

logical Laboratory of Madras University. It

was in 1946 that Dr Panikkar was chosen to

organise the fisheries research and develop-

ment activities of our country and he was ap-

pointed as the Officer on Special Duty to help

in drawing up a Memorandum to the Govern-

ment of India. After successfully completing

this assignment, Dr Panikkar was absorbed

into the newly created Central Marine Fish-

337

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

eries Research Institute. In his capacity as the

Physiologist he had brought to play his bril-

liant academic background in _ successfully

blending it with actual fisheries development

programme. Thus, his approach on the physi-

ological adaptation of organisms had given

way to a number of basic studies relating to

fish and prawn culture. Eventually, Dr Panik-

kar took over as the Director of this Institute

in 1950 and later in 1957 he was appointed

as the Fisheries Developmenet Adviser to the

Government of India. In this capacity he has

been responsible for establishing separate or-

ganisations to deal with the technological as-

pects in fisheries, which have special bearing

on fishery industry, education and manage-

ment.

Gradually Dr Panikkar’s horizon widened

to encompass the larger field of marine scien-

ces. During 1962-65 as the Director of the

Indian Programme of the International Indian

Ocean Expedition he was responsible for or-

ganising and co-ordinating the national ocean-

ographic research programmes. At the success-

ful culmination of this programme, which was

the fore-runner of the establishment of the

National Institute of Oceanography, Dr Panik-

kar was appointed as the Director of the In-

stitute. When the National Commission on

Agriculture was set up by the Government of

India Dr Panikkar was the natural choice to

be the Member for making suitable recom-

mendations on the various aspects relating to

338

fisheries research, development, education and

training. During the close of his tenure as the

Member of the National Commission on Agri-

culture Dr Panikkar was appointed as the

Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cochin.

He was also the Chairman of the State Com-

mittee on Science and Technology and later

a member of Kerala State Planning Board.

Dr Panikkar has represented India in many

International Conferences and has _ presided

over several of the sessions.

Honours had came to Dr Panikkar from

several quarters ever since he started his

career. Apart from the Fellowship conferred

on him by many Scientific Academies and the

award of the Chandrakala Hora Memorial

Medal, the most notable commendation was

the National award of Padmashri for his valu-

able contributions to the cause of marine

sciences and fisheries. His immense scientific

and administrative capability, deep understand-

ing of problems and, above all, his extreme

humane considerations have endeared him to

a large number of colleagues whom he has left

behind. It is noteworthy that Dr Panikkar was

an active worker until the last day of his life

devoting himself to the cause which was dear

to him. In the sudden passing away of Dr

Panikkar at Trivandrum on the night of June

24, 1977, the scientific community has lost a

very valuable and devoted friend.

R. RAGHU PRASAD

Reviews

1. FLORA OF HASSAN DISTRICT, KARNATAKA, INDIA. By Cecil J.

Saldanha & Dan H. Nicolson. With contributions by T. P. Ramamoorthy,

K. N. Gandhi, S. S. Hooper, W. D. Stevens and others. pp. viii + 915 (15 x

24 cm), with 1 map, figs. 132 + 20 colour plates. New Delhi, 1976. Amerind

Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. Price Rs. 75.00.

This is a report of one of the few floristic

research schemes under PL 480 grants in

India.

This Floristic survey of one of the dis-

tricts in India is presented in a scholarly and

meticulous manner. The book gives an in-

troduction containing general geographical

features of the district, a few interesting hist-

orical features and the botanical history. It

also includes a note on methods adopted for

the study, and a concise description of the

vegetation including a very brief account of

plants in cultivation. The book follows clas-

sification of angiospermic families as given by

Dr. A. Cronquist (No particular advantage)

giving a brief note on families as given in

Gamble’s Flora of Madras Presidency 1919.

(Reprinted 1957).

It contains key to the families (158) of seed

plants. The book describes over 1700 spp. of

vascular plants i.e. 75 per cent of the total

vascular plants of Karnataka State in South

India. Characters of families are given in ma-

jority of cases genera are all described. Generic

and specific keys are given wherever necessary.

Each species is treated with all the necessary

nomenclatural references, brief description, its

habitat in the district and distribution in India

and elsewhere. Collections made in the district

are indicated under each species.

The figures are the most original contribu-

tion of this work and are drawn to the scale.

The artists deserve compliment for their excel-

lent work. An alphabetical index to names

of families, genera and species mentioned in

the work is appended.

There is no doubt that this is the best of

the district floristic surveys carried out and

published so far in India. It will certainly form

a basis for the state flora and set a good ex-

ample for similar district floristic survey where-

ver such a survey is necessary.

It is certainly a work of wide distribution

in India.

P. V. BOLE

339

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

2. PSOCOPTERA

OF THE ORIENTAL REGION, Oriental Insects

Supplement No. 6. By T. R. New. pp. 83 (17.5 x 24.5 cm), with 155 figures.

Delhi, 1977. The Association for the study of oriental insects, C/o Depart-

ment of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi 110 007. Price Rs. 30.00 (India),

U.S. $5.00 or equivalent (Abroad).

This work summarises the published taxono-

mic information on Psocoptera from Oriental

Region and nearby Palaearctic areas with briet

zoogeographical comments. Methods for ex-

amination of psocids are outlined, and major

taxonomic characters discussed. Keys are given

to families and genera of Psocopters recorded

until 1975, and outline diagrams of features

of a representative range of taxa are provided.

An annotated taxonomic bibliography is also

given.

This group of insects, which forms an im-

portant component of forest litter is very

poorly: known in the Orient and more so in

India. The present review which includes com-

prehensive keys to the genera and higher taxa

will be of great help to any one who intends

to study this group of interesting insects.

B. P. MEHRA

3. TAXONOMY OF THE BRUCHIDAE (COLEOPTERA) OF NORTH-

WEST INDIA. Part I. Adults. Oriental Insects Supplement No. 7. By G. L.

Arora. pp. 132 (17.5 x 24 cm), with 48 black-and-white plates (including

338 figures), and 48 photos. Delhi, 1977. The Association for the study of

oriental insects, C/o Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi

110 007. Price Rs. 60.00 (India), U.S. $ 10.00 or equivalent (Abroad).

The supplement deals with the taxonomy of

the adults of the Bruchidae (Coleoptera) from

the Northwest India. These insects are of

great economic importance because of the

damage they do to the seeds of the leguminous

plants and seeds, flowers and leaves of some

340

other families as well. This work will be fol-

lowed up with a similar supplement on the

taxonomy of the larvae of Bruchidae.

. MEHRA

Miscellaneous Notes

1. TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE GREATER HORSESHOE BAT,

RHINOLOPHUS FERRUMEQUINUM (SCHREBER) [CHIROPTERA:

RHINOLOPHIDAE]

During the faunistic survey of the Jammu and

Kashmir State in 1974, two specimens of the

Greater Horseshoe Bat, Rhinolophus ferru-

mequinum (Schreber), were collected from

Islamabad district by me. From a study of

these specimens I am unable to concur fully

with the revision of the genus Rhinolophus

Lacépéde by Sinha (1973), particularly in

respect of this species. It was, therefore, felt

necessary to restudy the species in the light of

the existing literature and the specimens pre-

sent in the collections of the Zoological Sur-

vey of India and the Bombay Natural History

Society. |

Andersen (1905) named the Mussoorie,

Kumaon, population as R. f. regulus separat-

ing it from R. f. tragatus Hodgson on the basis

of the smaller noseleaf (length 14-15.7 mm as

against 16-18 mm, and width 8.2-8.8 mm as

against 8.8-9.7 mm). Based on one adult fe-

male and eight immature specimens, Chees-

man (1921) described R. f. irani from Shiraz,

Iran, and stated that it was different from

tragatus in being paler and having longer fore-

arm. Mirza (1965) extended the range of

irani to Pakistan. Ellerman and Morrison-Scott

(1951) recognized four subspecies of R. fer-

rumequinum, namely R. f. tragatus, R. f. re-

gulus, R. f. irani, and R. f. proximus Ander-

sen within the limits of the Indian subcontinent.

Sinha (1973) studied six specimens of R. fer-

rumequinum from the range of regulus and

found that their measurements overlap those

of both regulus and tragatus, and he rightly

synonymized the former with the latter. He

also separated ftragatus from proximus and

irani on the basis of larger ear (more than

22 mm as against less than 22 mm). But from

the measurements of different subspecies of

R. ferrumequinum given by him, it is found

that in regulus which is a synonym of traga-

tus, the ear is only 20 mm while in proximus

and irani it goes up to 21 and 23 mm respect-

ively. From the analysis of the measurements

of different subspecies given by Andersen

(1905), Sinha (1973) and those examined by

me it appears that ear length in ¢ragatus varies

from 20 to 25 mm, in proximus 19.5 to 23

mm and in irani 22 to 25 mm (Table 1).

Therefore, separation of irani and proximus

from tragatus on the basis of ear length is

not convincing. However, on the analysis of

the cranial measurements (Table 1) it is ob-

vious that the skull of tragatus is larger than

that of irani and proximus specially in respect

of condylobasal length, maxillary width (m‘*-

m*), upper tooth row (c-m*) and mandibular

length. Accordingly, irani and proximus should

be kept separate from tragatus.

Sinha (1973) distinguished irani from proxi-

mus on the basis of longer forearm (more than

58 mm against less than 58 mm). But the

table of measurements given by Sinha (op.

cit., p. 609) indicates that neither of these two

subspecies have forearm more than 58 mm

and in proximus it ranges from 53 to 56 mm,

341

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

while in irani it varies from 55 to 57.8 mm.

The length of forearm of two specimens re-

cently collected from Islamabad, Kashmir, by

me are 58 and 59 mm and they fit in all other

respect with the topotypes of proximus present

in the Zoological Survey of India. As regards

other measurements no distinct difference bet-

ween proximus and irani could be detected

(Table 1). However, the topotypic specimens

of irani are slightly paler than specimens of

proximus, but no credence should be given to

the colour of these specimens as in six speci-

mens of proximus at my disposal the colour

of dorsum varies from fawn to Mars brown.

Thus, I am inclined to believe that irani is

nothing but a synonym of proximus in which

length of forearm ranges from 53 to 59 mm,

colour of dorsum varies from pale fawn to

Mars brown and which has a wide distribu-

tion from Kashmir to Iran through Pakistan.

A revised key for the identification of the

subspecies of R. ferrumequinum occurring in

the Indian subcontinent is given below:

1(2). Skull larger in average; condylobasal length,

maxillary width, upper tooth row, mandibular length

more than 20, 9, 9, and 16 mm respectively.

Refs LEAS AUUES,

2(1). Skull smaller in average; condylobasal

length, maxillary width, upper tooth row, mandi-

bular length less than 20, 9, 9 and 15 mm respect-

ively. R. f. proximus

MATERIAL EXAMINED:

R. f. proximus: 28, 22 (in spirit); Gilgit,

Kashmir; 1¢', 1@ (in spirit); Shar and Shi-

kargarh, Islamabad district, Kashmir. R. f.

tragatus: 13°, 79; Manali, Himachal Pradesh;

1¢ (in spirit); Chamba, Himachal Pradesh;

1g; Naga Hills, Nagaland. R. f. irani: 36,

19; Shiraz, Iran.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

My thanks are due to the Joint-Director-in-

Charge, Zoological Survey of India, for faci-

lities given for this work, and to Dr. B. Bis-

342

TABLE 1

irani.*

COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS Rhinolophus ferrumequinum tragatus, R. f. proximus AND R. f.

irani

Ne fo

R. f. proximus

tragatus

Rafe

External

V3, DA Lo 25

Wd. O55 als 20s Ally ZU;

20, 21.8, 22, 22.8, 24 (in seven),

245-2) (Cine thee)

Ear

So) (in Were) SG, DIS. DO, 59

Dey SskDy On DOG OKO SS, SS

Ona) DOs Dos oleh Oeods O95 CO

(in three)

Forearm

Width of horseshoe

6.5),

20,

Si, (holy (ony Weis S57

Cranial

Total length

21.1

20.8,

«Ley

MM UD),

Zale

235 DB lee DB ee DAs DAD el

20.3+,

Sao Ike, I),

18.1,

18.8, 18.8, 19

21.6

Condylobasal length

Cranial width

m2?-m?2

cl-cl

OME O02

Galt

02 a0)

Sal Bale O9

5.5, 6.16. 631

8, 8.8,

WOO, te

OD tl

NO NO,

oA S916

G65, 7.

12.1,

9.4,

89, 8.7, 8:8

6.1, 6.1

1027, 10.85.11. 3;

52);

11.5

[al 221

8, 8.3, 8.6, 8.8

Wai, lS)

1333

13,

evils S23), 8s OS

12.8,

Ws),

Zygomatic width

c-m?3

8.3, 8.4

14.1, 14.5,

8.1,

4.7

16, 16,116.55 516. 75-17-8118

“Measurements given by Andersen (1905), Mirza (1965) and Sinha (1973) are also incorporated.

Length of mandible

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

was, Deputy Director and Dr. A. K. Mukher-

jee, Superintending Zoologist of this depart-

ment for valuable suggestions and reviewing

the manuscript. Further, I am thankful to Shri

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

8, LINDSAY STREET,

CaLcuTTA 700 016,

September 16, 1976.

J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural Hist-

ory Society, for allowing me to study the ma-

terial at his disposal and co-operation in vari-

ous ways.

S. CHAKRABORTY

REFERENCES

ANDERSEN, K. (1905): On some bats of the

genus Rhinolophus, with remarks on their mutual

affinities, and description of twenty-six new forms.

Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1905(2) :75-145.

CHEESMAN, R. E. (1921): Report on a collection

of mammals made by Col. J. E. B. Hotson in Shiraz,

Persia. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 27:573-581.

ELLERMAN, J. R. & Morrison-Scotr, T. C. S.

(1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mam-

mals. Brit. Mus. (nat. Hist.), London.

Mirza, Z. B. (1965): Four new mammal record

from West Pakistan. Mammalia, 29:205-210.

SINHA, Y. P. (1973): Taxonomic studies on the

Indian Horseshoe bats of the genus Rhinolophus

Lacépede. Mammalia, 37 :603-630.

2. OCCURRENCE OF THE LARGE-EARED HORSESHOE BAT,

RHINOLOPHUS MACROTIS

MACROTIS BLYTH [MAMMALIA:

CHIROPTERA: RHINOLOPHIDAE] IN CHERRAPUNSJI,

MEGHALAYA

While studying some specimens of the genus

Rhinolophus present in the collection of the

Zoological Survey of India, a male specimen

(Reg. No. 10921), collected from Cherrapunji,

Meghalaya, on 3 October 1926, was identi-

fied as Rhinolophus macrotis macrotis Blyth.

According to authoritative literature (Dob-

son 1876; Blanford 1891; Ellerman & Morri-

son-Scott 1951 and Sinha 1973) this bat is

known only from northern Uttar Pradesh and

Nepal. The present finding, thus, extends its

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

8, LINDSAY STREET,

CALCUTTA 16,

December 8, 1976.

range of distribution further east to Megha-

laya.

The measurements (in mm) taken from

alcohol preserved specimen are as follows:

EXTERNAL: Ear 21; noseleaf 10.8; horse-

shoe 7.7; forearm 39; tail 21; tibia 15.4; foot

and claw 8.7.

CRANIAL: Total length 17.3; condylobasal

15.4; inter orbital width 7.4; zygomatic width

8.0; upper tooth row 6.2; width across third

molars 5.8; width across canines 3.8; bulla

3.7; lower tooth row 6.3; mandibular length

11.

JP LAL

343

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

REFERENCES

BLANFoRD, W. T. (1891): The fauna of British

India, Mammalia, Taylor and Francis, London.

Dogson, G. E. (1876): Monograph of the Asia-

tic Chiroptera and Catalogue of the species of bat

in the collection of the Indian Museum, Calcutta,

Indian Museum, Calcutta.

ELLERMAN, J. R. & Morrison-Scotr, T. C. S.

(1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mam-

mals. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London.

SINHA, Y. P. (1973): Taxonomic studies on the

Indian Horseshoe Bats of the genus Rhinolophus

Lacépede. Mammalia, 37(4) :603-630.

3. NOTES ON STUMPTAILED MACAQUE [MACACA SPECIOSA F.

CUVIER] AND PIGTAILED MACAQUE [MACACA NEMESTRINA

(LINN.)] FROM MEGHALAYA

The Forest Department of Meghalaya main-

tains a small zoo in the Lady Hydari Park,

Shillong. Most of the animals under captivity

are reported to be collected from different

areas of the state with the help of local people.

Very recently some macaque monkeys have

been brought and kept in the zoo. One of us

(S. Biswas) identified these as the Stumptailed

macaque (M. speciosa F. Cuvier) and Pig- -

tailed macaque [M. nemestrina (Linn.)]. These

macaques are reported to have been caught

in the Mawsynram area of Khasi Hills, Megh-

alaya and as such provide some interesting

evidence about distribution of these monkeys,

whose distributional records are rather poor

or vague.

Stumptailed macaque: In their checklist,

Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951) mention

“Assam, Upper Burma, southern China, Ton-

kin and Annam” as the distributional range

of the races of Stumptailed macaque. Prater

(1965) stated that this species “inhabits the

Assam hill forests’ Kurup (1968) provided

a more detailed account and showed ‘Lakhim-

pur, Sadiya in Assam and Changchangpani,

Diku river, Merangkong in Nagaland as de-

finite areas of distribution. However he has

344

quoted the then Superintendent of Calcutta

Zoological Garden stating that it also occurs

in Nongstoin, area of Khasi Hill district. But

no positive evidence has so far been found by

us about its distribution in the Khasi Hills and —

as such the present group of 2 monkeys (one |

@ and one young) provide the first confir- |

mation of Kurup’s (op. cit) report. |

Pigtailed macaque: The distribution of the |

Pigtailed macaque, appears more confusing. |

Pocock (1931) while providing a detailed ac-

count of this monkey mentioned that the dis-

tribution is unknown but ‘probably some dis- |

trict of British India east of Ganges? Naga hills |

in Assam’. Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (op. |

cit.) stated that the ‘‘locality unknown, des-_

cribed from a single captive specimen’. Pra- |

ter (op. cit.) perhaps following earlier authors, —

simply mentioned about this animal as ‘the

pigtailed macaque of the Naga hills”, while

Kurup (op. cit.) did not include this animal |

at all in his paper on mammals of Assam and |

adjoining areas. The present specimens (1d |

and 2° 2) collected at Lawbah, about 14 km.

away from Mawsynram thus provide conclu- |

sive evidence about its occurrence in Megha- |

laya, northeastern India. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

We are thankful to Dr A. K. Ghosh, East-

India, for his encouragement and for kindly

em Regional Station, Zoological Survey of going through the manuscript.

EASTERN REGIONAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

SHILLONG 793 003.

ForREST DEPARTMENT,

GOVERNMENT OF MEGHALAYA,

SHILLONG 793 001,

January 4, 1977.

S. BISWAS

H. DIENGDOH

REFERENCES

ELLERMAN, J. R. & Morrison-Scotr, T. C. S.

(1951): A Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mam-

mals. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London.

Kurup, G. U. (1968): Mammals of Assam and

adjoining areas. 2. A distributional list. Proc. Zool.

Soc., Calcutta, 21:79-99.

Pocock, R. I. (1931): The Pigtailed macaques

(Macaca nemestrina). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

35:297-311.

PRATER, S. H. (1965): The book of Indian Ani-

mals. 323 pp. Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

4. LEPUS ARABICUS EHRENBERG FROM JAMMU AND KASH-

MIR: ADDITION TO THE MAMMALIAN FAUNA OF INDIA

During the faunistic survey of Jammu and

Kashmir in 1974 a specimen of the Arabian

Hare, Lepus arabicus Ehrenberg was collect-

ed from Udhampur, southeastern Jammu and

Kashmir, which according to Ellerman & Mor-

rison-Scott (1951) has not heretofore been

recorded from India. Since a detailed report

on the collection will take some time to come

out, it is thought desirable to record this addi-

tion to the mammalian fauna of India.

Lepus arabicus Ehrenberg

1833. Lepus arabicus Ehrenberg, Symb.

Phys. Mamm., 2: Sig. r. (Qunfidha, Arabia)

Material:

lo: Jhajjar Koth, Udhampur, Jammu and

Kashmir; 13 Nov. 1975: coll. S. Chakraborty.

Measurements:

External: Head and body 352 mm; Tail

112 mm, Hindfoot, 91 mm; Ear 123 mm.

Cranial: Occipitonasal 69 mm; Nasal 29.6

mm; Bullae 12 mm; Upper tooth row 11.3 mm;

Frontal 15.7 mm: Mesopterygoid space 6.2

mm.

Distribution:

According to Ellerman & Morrison-Scott

(1951) Lepus arabicus is known to occur in

Saudi Arabia, Palestine, Libya and Baluchis-

tan. Therefore, the present material not only

constitutes its first record from India, but also

extends its range further eastward.

Remarks:

The specimen from Jammu and Kashmir

agrees with the description of Lepus craspe-

dotis Blanford (currently known as’ Lepus

arabicus craspedotis) given by Kloss (1918),

but the black bands of hair at the posterior

345

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

half of the back are much conspicuous and

broader than that of the holotype of craspe-

dotis and two more August specimens from

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

8, LINDSAY STREET,

CaLcuTTA 700 016,

January 4, 1977.

Baluchistan present in the Zoological Survey

of India collection.

S. CHAKRABORTY

REFERENCES

ELLERMAN, J. R. & Morrison-Scott, T. C. S.

(1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mam-

mals. Brit. Mus., London.

Kross, C. B. (1918): Notes on some hares in

the Indian Museum with descriptions of two new

forms. Rec. Ind. Mus. 15:89-96.

5. A MELANISTIC EXAMPLE OF WOOLLY FLYING SQUIRREL,

EUPETAURUS CINEREUS THOMAS (RODENTIA: SCIURIDAE)

Literature on the interesting Woolly Flying

Squirrel, Eupetaurus cinereus Thomas, 1s

scanty and our knowledge about its coloration

is due to Thomas (1888), Blanford (1891),

Ellerman (1963) and Agrawal & Chakraborty

(1970). While going through the collection of

squirrels present in the Bombay Natural Hist-

ory Society, we came across four specimens

of this species, three similar to the Syntype

present in the Zoological Survey of India, the

fourth very different from the rest in colour,

a fact still unrecorded and therefore, reported

here:

The specimen (BNHS Reg. No. 7109, with-

out date and sex) was collected by Mr. H. J.

Fulton from Chitral, Pakistan. Its entire body

including the tail, is covered with thick, long,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

8, LINDSAY STREET,

CALCUTTA 16,

January 4, 1977.

346

woolly fur, seal Brown (of Ridgway 1886) in

colour. A few hairs on the chin are white tip-

ped. Body is devoid of any grizzling either of |

gray, ashy or brown. This appears to be a case ©

of partial melanism which is not very uncom- |

mon in squirrels. Anderson (1879) reported a |

large flying squirrel from Kashmir, kept in the

Leyden Museum, as ‘‘almost jet black on all |

the upper parts but slightly brownish on the

upper surface of forelimbs and flying mem-

brane. The cheeks, chin, throat, chest and

belly are brownish with gray line along the

middle of the belly.” Anderson (op. cit.) re-

garded it as a melanoid example of Petaurista

petaurista albiventer (Gray) but Thomas (op.

cit.) based on the description, attributed it to

F. cinereus.

S. CHAKRABORTY >

V. C. AGRAWAL |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

AGRAWAL, V. C. & CHAKRABORTY, S. (1970):

Occurrence of the Woolly Flying Squirrel, Eupet-

aurus cinereus Thomas (Mammalia: Rodentia:

Sciuridae) in North Sikkim. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 66:615-616.

ANDERSON, J. (1879): Anatomical and Zoological

researches: Comprising an account of the zoological

results of the two expeditions to western Yunnan

in 1868 and 1875. Vol. 1. Burnard Quaritch, Lon-

don.

BLANFORD, W. T. (1891): The fauna of British

India, Mammalia. Taylor and Francis, London.

ELLERMAN, J. R. (1963): The fauna of India

(including Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon). Mammalia

3 [Rodentia]. Government of India, Delhi.

RipGway, R. (1886): Nomenclature of colors.

Little Brown, Boston.

THOMAS, O. (1888): On Eupetaurus, a new form

of flying squirrel from Kashmir. J. Asiat. Soc. Beng.

57 : 256-260.

6. ECOLOGICAL STUDY OF HABITATS, FEEDING AND SURVIVAL

OF THE INDIAN GAZELLE GAZELLA GAZELLA (PALLAS)

The Indian Gazelle Gazella gazella now sur-

vives in pockets where it enjoys protection

particularly close to localities where live the

Bishnoi community of people, who consider

it a sacred animal and give it complete pro-

tection.

I studied the Gazelle between 1973 and

1975 in the Jodhpur region in various select-

ed habitats, particularly at the Gura-Bishnoi

area where the gazelle and the Blackbuck

(Antilope cervicapra) are common.

The Gura-Bishnoi (Jodhpur) is a largely

semi-arid area about 15 km from Jodhpur city.

It is mainly sand and scrub wasteland with

a fair number of cultivated fields. Cultivation

is seasonal (June to October). The average

rainfall is 370 mm. Maximum temperature is

in summer in June c. 45°C and minimum in

winter in January c. —2°C. Major flora are

trees and shrubs:- Prosopis cineraria, Coccu-

lus cebatha, Maytenus emarginata, Capparis

decidua, Lycium barbarum, Zizyphus nummu-

laria, Balanites aegyptiaca and Prosopis juli-

flora (exotic) perennial herbs—Crotalaria

burhia, Tephrosia purpurea, Fagonia cretica;

perennial grasses—Cynodon dactylon, Dacty-

loctenium aegyptium, D. scindicum, Eragrostis

ciliaris, Eleusine compressa, Cenchrus spp.,

Cyperus spp. and Desmostachya_ bipinnata.

The gazelle occurs close to “Dhanies’, the

small villages of a few huts of the Bishnoies

in the desert area. The Bishnoies protect all

animals and birds following the 29 command-

ments of their prophet ‘Jabaji’ to protect all

trees and animals. The gazelle which formerly

occurred throughout the desert region of Jodh-

pur has been poached severely and none sur-

vive except those living close to “Dhanies’ of

Bishnoies because the Bishnoies deal so seve-

rely with poachers that none dare to poach

the gazelle or blackbuck or other animals

close to the ‘Dhanies’ of Bishnoies.

Scrub land having shrubs of Zizyphus num-

mularia, Prosopis cineraria and Capparis de-

cidua and abundant Crotalaria burhia herbs

and some perennial grasses such as Dacty-

loctenium spp., Eragrostis ciliaris, Eleusine

compressa, Cenchrus spp. and Cyperus spp.

etc.—is a favoured habitat of the gazelle as

it provides food and shelter. Seasonal agricul-

tural fields provide supplementary easily avail-

able food to the gazelle. Tanks in low areas

347

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

locally called ‘Nadi’, where rain water accu-

mulates stimulates growth of perennial grasses

and provide enough green fodder throughout

the year and forms the most favoured habitat

of the gazelle (see Table 1). Perennial agricul-

to a perennial tank or perennially cultivated

farms. The gazelle was found less in number

or absent where the blackbuck occurs in large

numbers. The gazelle thrives better in drier

habitat than the blackbuck and avoids com-

TABLE 1

HABITAT PREFERENCES OF THE GAZELLE AT GURA-BISHNOI (JODHPUR) OCTOBER 1974

Habitats Number of

herds seen

Sadritanka, a semi arid area 1

with Dhanies

and seasonal farms 3

Thana Ram Dhani, scrub 1

wasteland with some 2

rainy season farms 3

with Dhanies 4

Gura-piao, wasteland scrub 1

surrounded by a few perennial pe

farms, many seasonal 3

farms, a perennial 4

tank and Dhanies

Gazelle fopula-

Ce a nsity per Remarks

10 sq km

») Perennial grasses

8 4.8 scanty

8 7.4 More shrubs and

11 farms

3) Much more perennial

1 farms and a perennial tank

7 16.0 with perennial

2D grasses

tural farms provide regular supplementary

food and the gazelle population is high close

to agricultural farms, situated near a tank,

ravine or canal. Table 1 shows successive high

population density of the gazelle from scrub

wasteland with few seasonal agricultural farms

to more seasonal farms and high population

(or highest preference) density at a scrub area

close to large tank surrounded by farms hav-

ing plenty of food (perennial grasses or crops

and green shrubs) supply almost throughout

the year.

It is noteworthy that the gazelle occurs at

all major localities, areas of Bishnoies, but

the Blackbuck occurs at comparative greener

belts only having more perennial grass close

348

petition with the more robust and larger black-

buck.

The gazelle lives in herds of 5, 8 or 11 ani- |

mals and even upto 25. The herd size increases —

with rut and is also influenced by climatic

conditions. In the rutting season and in sum-

mer the large herds break into smaller herds —

and the fragmented herds unite again into ©

large one seasonally. The leaves of Zizyphus, |

Prosopis shrubs and Cynodon, Dactyloctenium —

spp., Cyperus spp., and Eleucine etc. were —

found preferred by the gazelle. Crotalaria

burhia is the most abundant vegetation in its

habitats and forms the largest constituent of —

food taken during the major part of the year |

as it is easily and abundantly available through-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

out the year. The gazelle takes it more during

summer season, April to June, when other

vegetation is scarce. In summer leaves and

sprouts of Capparis decidua, Lycium barba-

rum, Maytenus emarginata, Fagonia cretica,

Tephrosia purpurea and other vegetation are

also taken. In spring Tecomella undulata

flowers profusely and the fallen flowers are

highly relished by the gazelle. The gazelle

grazes, at any time of the day or night, but

mainly early in the morning and late in the

Wheat Triticum sp. Bishnoi farmers chase the

invading gazelles by throwing stones at them

but otherwise do not harm them.

The gazelle becomes a serious pest at isolat-

ed farms growing winter (Rabi) crops—lar-

gely Wheat, Chana and Sarson. The cultivators

erect fences of cut off branches of Zizyphus

to prevent the gazelle getting to the crops but

the gazelles often jump over fences upto 1.5

metres high. Farmers also keep watch-dogs,

these check invasion of gazelle and blackbuck.

TABLE 2

ANALYSIS OF DROPPINGS OF GAZELLE, PERCENTAGE OF CONSTITUENTS OF FLORA FOUND IN DROPPINGS

Poste

Leaves of

Seasons

Grasses or crops parts

Shoots & Gialana G

or other bushes shrubs

1% 12%

34% 51%

65% 23%

after-noon till after dusk. They invade crops

of farms late in the morning and late in the

night to avoid the crop watchers.

The gazelle is destructive to agricultural

crops. As already stated its population is high

in wastelands close to agricultural farms from

where they invade near by farms to feed on

the growing crops. As local farms are largely

seasonal spreading over large areas, the gaz-

elle does not have a serious impact. The far-

mers also, being largely Bishnoies, who pro-

tect the animals do not prevent the gazelles

entering their farms. The gazelle causes little

harm to bajra Pennisetum typhoideum crops,

the major crop of the Jodhpur desert region,

it also causes little harm to Sesamum indicum

crops but causes serious damage to crops of

Mung Phaseolus aureus, Moth P. aconitifolius,

Guar Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, Chana Cicer

arietinum, Sarson Brassica campestris and

81% Rainy season

15% Winter

12% Summer

Table 2 shows the percentage of various food

constituents and changes with the seasons Cro-

talaria and other herbs support it during sum-

mer. It prefers grasses and crops but these

are available only during the rainy season in

the desert region of Jodhpur.

Predation: Jodhpur desert region is largely

free of large predators, the domestic dog, the

Jackal C. aureus, the Fox Vulpes and the

Jungle cat Felis libyca are the major preda-

tors in this region, and except the dog these

are not serious predators on adult gazelle.

Dogs are confined to the “Dhanies’ and the

Bishnoies prevent dogs from hunting the gaz-

elle. Rarely dogs succeed in hunting a young

or old indisposed or injured (accidentally or

in fights) gazelle but the villagers notice and

rescue the gazelle. During August-September

at some habitats occasionally a few Wolves

(Canis lupus) migrate from ravines or nearby

349

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

hills—these occasionally succeed in hunting

a few gazelles. New born fawn cannot flee

fast enough to escape for the first two days,

during that vulnerable period about 20 to 40

per cent of the fawns were observed falling

prey to stray dogs and jackais. On the whole

predation of the gazelle is not serious in this

region.

Poaching: As already mentioned the gazelle

occurs (survives) only at localities (Dhanies)

of Bishnoies, who give complete protection

to the gazelle.

Some times a few gazelles stray out of the

limits of the Bishnoi area, these occasionally

fall victim to poachers—largely Sanshi or

Bhils who hunt animals in the wilderness be-

yond the boundaries of the Bishnoi areas.

Bishnoies complain that some military person-

nel poach during night with jeeps and search

lights close to their “‘Dhanies’ on gazelles and

blackbucks which stray out of the boundaries

of their areas.

SURVIVAL

The Indian Gazelle is doing well enough

BHAGVATI BHAVAN,

RATANADA RoabD,

JODHPUR 342 620,

February 3, 1976.

near ‘“Dhanies’. The Bishnoies even provide

water in pots close to their huts in the sum-

mer season. As the Jodhpur region is devoid

of large predators the gazelle thrives well near

the ‘Dhanies’ of Bishnoies and there is no

danger of its extinction as long as the Bish-

noies give it protection. Suitable Bishnoi areas

should be declared reserves for the gazelle

and the Blackbuck that may prove the simplest

and most practical and reliable way of pre-

serving these species. Declaration of such re-

serves may encourage and facilitate the protec-

tion task of Bishnoies who have been practi-

cing conservation for centuries.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I acknowledge my gratefulness to M/s Saga

Ram Hariram, and Bhepa Ram and many

other Bishnoies who gave me all possible faci-

lities and rendered assistance in their areas

for my work. I am also grateful to Dr Ishwar

Prakash and Mr S. C. Sakshena for identifi-

cation of some local flora.

INDRA KUMAR SHARMA

7. ON SOME MAMMALS RECENTLY COLLECTED IN BHUTAN

Since 1966 the Zoological Survey of India

has sponsored and sent teams of zoologists

headed by Dr. B. Biswas on four occasions

for faunistic surveys in different regions of

Bhutan.

Chakraborty (1976) dealt with the mammal

collections made during the first three sur-

veys conducted in 1966, 1967, and 1969. The

350

present paper is on the basis of studies of the

mammals collected during the Fourth Bhutan

Survey conducted during October-December,

LOWS:

Although the size of the collection is small

(29 examples), yet the collection is of great

taxonomic interest. The region of investigation

of this trip covered the rugged high altitude

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

areas of north-central and north-eastern Bhu-

tan, ranging between 2000 to 3800 metres

above sea level, in the upper reaches of the

various tributaries of the Manas river. A few

specimens were also collected in the foothills

region of central Bhutan.

While the detailed and complete report on

the mammals of Bhutan cannot be prepared

till the faunal survey of that country is com-

pleted, opportunity is hereby taken to make

available the valuable data of the present col-

lection.

My sincere thanks are due to Dr B. Biswas

of the Zoological Survey of India, for his con-

stant encouragement and for kindly going

through the manuscript. I am also indebted

to him for letting me share with him the thril-

ling experiences in the rugged terrain of Bhu-

tan.

All measurements are in millimetres unless

otherwise stated. The external measurements

and field notes were taken in the field. The

following abbreviations have been used in the

text:

B: Bullae

Bl: Basal length

CB: Condylobasal length

D: Diastema

EB: Ear

FA: Forearm

FL: Frontal length

GL: Greatest length

H & B: Head and Body

HF: Hindfoot

IOW: Interorbital width

MW: Maxillary width

N: Nasal

O: Orbit

ON: Occipitonasal

P: Palate

PF: Palatal foramen

PM: Premolar

POW: Postorbital width

T: Tail

TR: Toothrow

ZW: Zygomatic width

LIST OF COLLECTING LOCALITIES

Gaylegphug (alt. c. 245 m), Aie Valley,

south-central Bhutan.

Donga Pemi (alt. c. 3200 m), Donga Range

(Kuru Chu Valley), north-eastern Bhutan.

Tashi Yang-tsi (alt. c. 2000 m), Kulong

Chu Valley, eastern Bhutan.

Chakademi (alt. c. 2166 m), Kulong Chu

Valley, eastern Bhutan.

Bulfai (alt. c. 2476 m), Manas Valley,

eastern Bhutan.

Gomchu (alt. c. 2286 m), Gom Chu Valley,

eastern Bhutan.

LIST OF SPECIES

Family SorICIDAE

Soriculus nigrescens nigrescens

Gray’s Large-clawed Shrew.

Corsira nigrescens Gray, 1842, Ann. Mag. nat.

(Gray).

Hist., 10:261. (Darjeeling, West Bengal, India).

Material: 1 subad ?@; Chakademi; 8 Dec.

1973.

Measurements: H & B 76, T 50, HF 11.5,

E 6:

Remarks: The specimen was found lying

dead on the mule track, apparently trodden

on accidentally.

Anourosorex squamipes schmidi Petter.

Himalayan Burrowing Shrew.

Anourosorex squamipes schmidi Petter, 1963,

Mammalia, 27:444-445. (Bomdila, Kameng District,

Arunachal Pradesh, India).

Material: 1380; Gomchu; 25 Dec. 1973.

Measurements: H & B 116, T 14, HF 17,

E97) Cranial: Gl 31,. BL 29, P 14,,ZWal5:

Weight 35 g.

Remarks: This subspecies has been known

only from its type-locality in Arunachal. The

present specimen is the first one of this form

taken in Bhutan, and it thus extends its range

further west.

gall

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

Family PTEROPIDAE

Sphaerias blanfordi (Thomas). Blanford’s

Fruit Bat.

Cynopterus blanfordi Thomas, 1891, Ann. Mus.

Stor. nat. Genova, 2, 10:884, 921-922, pl xi, figs 1-

2. (Leito, Cheba, Karin (= Karen?) Hills, 1000 m,

Burma).

Material: 338, 19: Tashi Yang-tsi; 6 Dec.

1973.

Measurements: H & B @ 74-82, 92 84;

EMC Gis 5025257 9 562) Bag

Weight oi 26-29 g, 2 30 g.

Remarks: This species was also taken ear-

lier by us from the western part of the coun-

try and has been reported by Chakraborty

(1976). The present finding confirms its wide-

spread distribution in Bhutan.

155-175 CAT.

Family MUSTELIDAE

Martes flavigula flaviguia (Boddaert).

Yellow-throated Marten.

Mustela flavigula Boddaert, 1785, Elench. Ani-

mal, 88. (Type-locality unknown, ‘but traditionally

fixed as Nepal’, Pocock, 1941, p. 331).

Material: 138; Gomchu; 25 Dec. 1973; 19;

Donga Pemi; 29 Nov. 1973.

Measurements: H & B @ 522, ¢? 505; T

or 413.) 98) 399 MI 66.) 105s. 2. Bae VE co: 14a.

@ O13), 9. 51.4: POW 23.3)9 23.6; TOW

Gy i238. 95-2 DOs INI O) 200 2s 6.) Pvt

47g 10, 2 8.

Remarks: The occurrence of the Yellow-

throated Marten in Bhutan is recorded for the

first time. It was diurnal and was moving

in pairs at Donga Pemi, while it was nocturnal

and was moving in a family party of three in

the early hours of the evening at Gomchu.

The Donga Pemi specimen had its stomach

filled mostly (about 70%) with larvae of in-

sects and the rest with figs, berries and seeds

of oak.

352

SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Family ScIURIDAE

Petaurista nobilis singhei Saha. Bhutan

Flying Squirrel.

Petaurista nobilis singhei Saha, Proc. zool. Soc.,

Calcutta, 28(1) :27-29. (Gomchu, Gom Chu Valley,

eastern Bhutan).

Material (part of the type series): 4 9;

Gomchu; 25-27 Dec. 1973.

Measurements: H & B 422-461; T 500-590;

HF 82-85; E 45-51. Cranial: ON 76.4-79.8:

P °38.5-42.7; TR: 17.5-18.5:" N° 23.3-24.32 (FE

29-31; O 19.6-20.1; B 12.7-13.2.

Remarks: This is the only species of flying

squirrel known from Bhutan. Chakraborty

(1976) reported this form under Petaurista

magnificus (Hodgson). The taxonomic status

of Petaurista magnificus (Hodgson) and Pet-

aurista nobilis (Gray) has been the subject of

controversy over the years. Blanford (1891)

treated Gray’s nobilis as a synonym of Hodg-

son’s magnificus, and Ellerman (1961) fol-

lowed the same treatment. Recent studies re-

veal that these two forms belong to two dis-

tinct species. The well-defined saddle patch

isolates P. nobilis from the rest of the flying

squirrels. Detailed discussion has been given

in a separate paper (1977). However, the

Bhutanese form was found to represent a

hitherto undescribed subspecies of Petaurista

nobilis (Gray), and was so described by Saha

(1977):

Widespread in moist deciduous forests bet-

ween 1000 m to 2500 m altitude.

Callosciurus erythraeus bhutanensis (Bon-

hote). Bhutan Squirrel.

Sciurus erythraeus bhutanensis Bonhote,

Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., 7:161. (Bhutan).

Material: 13; Gaylegphug; 28 Oct. 1973.

Measurements: H & B 222; T 148; HF 48;

E 18.5. Weight 402 g.

Remarks: Found to be fairly common in

the tropical mixed forests from the foothills

1901,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

to the height of about 2000 m.

Callosciurus macclellandi macclellandi

(Horsfield). Himalayan Striped Squirrel.

Sciurus macclellandi Horsfield, 1839, Proc. zool.

Soc. Lond., 152. (Assam, India).

Material: 18, 192: Bulfai; 18 Dec. 1973:

12: Tashi Yang-tsi; 4 Dec. 1973.

Measurements: H & B o& 118, @ 116-124;

ies) 99, 2) 90-91: HE o 28, 9 24-28; E

fis. o Ii-=14. Weight ¢g 45 =, 2 49-57 g.

Remarks: Widespread throughout Bhutan

in different types of forests from the foothills

to about 3000 m altitude.

Dremomys lokriah bhotia Wroughton.

Bhotia Ground Squirrel.

~Dremomys lokriah bhotia Wroughton, 1916, J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 24:639. (Sedonchen, Sikkim,

India).

Material: 138 Donga Pemi; 24 Nov. 1973:

i; Tashi Yang-tsi; 3. Dec. 1973: 10. 49;

Bulfai; 13-19 Dec. 1973: 19 Gomchu; 24-

Pa. Dec:; 1973.

Measurements: H & B & 151-191, @ 175-

187: T o& 120-140, ¢@ 130-140; HF ¢ 42-

Ag. “© 41-44: E 3 19-22, 9. 20-22. Weight

& 165-205 g, 2 140-205 g.

Remarks: Widespread in damp forests from

the foothills to about 3200 m_ altitude.

Ratufa bicolor gigamtea (M’Clelland). Ma-

layan Giant Squirrel.

Sciurus giganteus M’Clelland, 1839, Proc.

Soc. Lond., 150. (Assam, India). .

Material: 19; Gaylegphug; 30 Oct. 1973.

zool.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CaLcuTtTa 700 016,

February 6, 1976.

Measurements: H & B 352, T 456, HF 86,

E) 34.

Remarks: Widespread in mixed forests

from the foothills to about 2500 m altitude.

Family MURIDAE

Rattus rattus tistae Hinton. Sikkim House

Rat.

Rattus rattus tistae Hinton, 1918, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc., 26:68. (Pashok, Sikkim, India).

Material: 10, 19; Bulfai; 14-15 Dec. 1973.

Measurements: TA’ & Beis’) 152,29. 136; «1,

Op 7O. O50. AE. oS 3th, 42) Si 4B 6 421.5,

Only Cranial: o32.ON:36.5, P17, D.9,.N

12.5, TR 6.5, PF 6. (Skull of the female speci-

men broken). Weight o 92 9,.? 66 g.

Remarks: This species of commensal House

Rat was found to be spreading very rapidly.

Vehicular traffic must have played a significant

role in their dispersal.

Rattus nitidus nitidus (Hodgson). Himala-

yan Rat.

Mus nitidus Hodgson, 1845, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist.,

15:267. (Nepal).

Material: 19; Bulfai; 19 Dec. 1973.

Measurements: H & B 180, T 180, HF 36,

E22. Cranial: ON 41.8, P 19, D105, ER

7, N 16.3, PF 7. Weight 145 g. Mammae: 3+

1 + 1 = 6 pairs, lactating.

Remarks: The Himalayan Rat was found

to be common in and around the villages.

SUBHENDU SEKHAR SAHA

REFERENCES

BLANFORD, W. T. (1891): The Fauna of British

India, Mammalia, pt. 2. Taylor & Francis. London.

CHAKRABORTY, S. (1976): On a_ collection of

mammals from Bhutan. Rec. Zool. Surv. India

68: 1-20.

ELLERMAN, J. R. & Morrison-Scott, T. C. S.

(1951): Checklist of palaearctic and Indian Mam-

mals. Brit. Mus., London.

ELLERMAN, J. R. (1961): The Fauna of India

including Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon. Mammalia

353

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

3 (Rodentia), 1. Government of India, Delhi.

PETTER, F. (1963): Un nouvel insectivore de

Nord de’ Assam: Anourosorex squamipes schmidi

nov. subsp. Mammalia, 27:444-445.

Pocock, R. I. (1941): The Fauna- of British

India, including Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia, 1.

Taylor & Francis. London.

SAHA, S. S. (1977): A new subspecies of the Fly-

ing Squirrel, Petaurista nobilis (Gray), from Bhu-

tan. Proc. zool. Soc. Calcutta, 28(1) :27-29.

8. THREE BIRD SPECIES SEEN FOR THE FIRST TIME IN

SRI LANKA

A short visit (31 October to 11 November

1974) was made to Sri Lanka to see the many

endemic birds that occur mostly in the forest-

ed areas. Several days of this trip were pro-

ductively spent on the east coast in the Trin-

comalee district as far north as Pigeon Island.

The observer carried out four early morn-

ing sea watches and an interesting list of sea

birds was noted which included the following

three species previously unrecorded in Sri

Lanka, species well known to him in parts of

the world where they are of regular occur-

nemce:

SOOTY SHEARWATER Puffinus griseus. Small

dark coloured shearwaters were seen on most

mornings of which the majority were too far

120, MADELINE RoapD,

MorNINGSIDE,

DurBAN, 40001,

S. AFRICA,

January 13, 1976.

out at sea for accurate identification. A total

of 15 birds came close inshore when the size,

colour, mode of flight and silvery wing linings

allowed positive identification.

BLACKHEADED GULLS Larus ridibundus. Two

birds were seen together on 7th November in

a flock of 23 Brownheaded Gulls L. brunni-

cephalus.

ARCTIC SKUA Stercorarius parasiticus. Three

dark phase birds were seen hunting together

on 9 November. Their size in comparison with

the Common Terns Sterna hirundo which they

were harrying ruled out confusion with the

larger Pomarine Skua S$. pomarinus and the

Great Skua S. skua.

J. C. SINCLAIR

9. SPOTBILL DUCK (ANAS P. POECILORHYNCHA) FORSTER

NESTING IN A TREE

(With a plate)

In a reedless pond of the Victoria Park, Bhav-

nagar, stands a solitary stunted Babul (Acacia

nilotica), a relict of the past, half dead and

much of the tree covered by a parasitic clim-

ber (Cassytha filiformis) forming a thick mesh

354

over it. The tree was about ten feet high and

in its middle, about 4 feet above the water,

was placed the nest of the Spotbill. This

is the first nest I have seen of this species

in a tree. The extraordinary part of this dis-

J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 74

Dharmakumarsinhji: Spotbill Duck

PLATE

Above: Nesting tree is in the centre of the photograph. Below: Spotbill

(Photos: author)

Duck in the nest.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

covery was that it was while watching a pair

of Lesser Whistling Teal (Dendrocygna java-

nica) nesting directly above that of the spot-

bill in the same tree. Both nest entrances in

the creeper faced a road which passed some

70 feet from the tree and were almost at eye

level when seated in my car. The lower nest

had a larger entrance. On 21st August, 1976,

when watching the Whistler’s nest, I saw the

head and neck of the spotbill appear just be-

low. On further investigation I found both

nests contained eggs. As the slim branches of

the Babul gave little support to the nests, it

appeared that both may have been built earlier

by herons with a tangle of climber stems sup-

porting the nests. The one of the Whistler ap-

peared to be sagging and in some danger of

crashing on to that of the spotbill which had

a slightly stronger base. From the behaviour

of the Whistler duck, its nesting seemed more

recent. However, to have seen two different

ducks nesting so close together (within a foot

Dit. BAHAR,

BHAVNAGAR 2,

August 26, 1976.

of each other, above and below) is unique,

specially when the excellent rains have creat-

ed ideal nesting cover and habitat for most

waterfowl here. Even a Nukta duck was seen

with a brood. On the further side of the nest-

ing tree, a pair of Whitethroated Munia were

building their ball-nest and a pair of Common

Mynas had commenced to build also. Thus

this one site was a choice of four different

bird species.

The only record of a Spotbill Duck’s nest

on a tree branch I could find was that by

Hume which I quote:

“placed on a drooping branch of a tree which

hung down from the canal bank into a thick

clump of rushes growing in a jheel that near

the bridge fringes the canal. The nest was

about 9 inches above the surface of the water

and was firmly based on a horizontal bifur-

cation of the bough.’ Baker, 1935 NIDIFICA-

TION OF BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE Vol.

TV: p. 509.

R. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHII

10. MIGRATING HARRIERS

On 29th October Mrs. D. Panday, Jamshed

Panday and I had motored to the Gangawada

Reservoir on the Godavari above Nasik in-

tending to have a picnic tea on the dam. A

forbidding board kept us off and we went on

along the Waghai road towards Girnara vil-

lage hoping the road would further up skirt

the edge of the lake where we could picnic.

It was not to be so and so we sat on a hillock

in the scraggy shade of the only tree we could

find to eat the sandwiches and drink some

excellent vanila-scented coffee. With still a

couple of hours of daylight left we decided

to walk down to the water’s edge.

It was a glorious evening with the sun’s orb

reflected in the water and the blue hills be-

yond. At about 5.30 p.m. we retraced our steps

to be on the road before it became too dark.

While having tea we had seen a fine male

Pale Harrier flying low over the land from

the direction of the gap in the Ghats and go

on down the Godavari valley, and very short-

ly a female followed in the same direction. It

was while we were beside the water at 5.15

p.m. that the birds began to appear all flying

in the same direction first a solo female, then

35)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

three females at a considerable height, follow-

ed by a magnificent male Montagu’s Harrier

gliding low past, turning and alighting on a

raised earthern bank and then again flying

off down the valley. Seeing more birds coming

up, I started counting and within the 45 mi-

nutes till 6 p.m. and a little after sundown I

counted fifty birds mostly Pale Harriers—the

females and juveniles could have been either

Pale or Montagu’s—and one female Marsh

Harrier.

There was a wind blowing from the west

down which the birds came. Fifteen days later

Jamshed took his mother and sister to the

same place and again close to sundown they

counted over forty Harriers, this time several

Marsh Harriers among predominantly identi-

fiable Pale Harriers flying over from the west

onto the plateau and on along the Godavari.

Looking at the map suggests to me that we

may have here a major migration route along

W. W. FUND-INDIA,

C/o. B.N.HLS.,

HorRNBILL HOUSE,

S. BHAGATSINGH Roab,

BomBay 400 023,

November 29, 1976.

the Godavari. The birds from over Saurashtra

and Gujarat seem to cross onto the plateau

north of the Trimbakeshwar Hills and then

along the Godavari on towards the peninsula.

Interestingly too, on both occasions there was

a tail wind from the west. This is explained

by the fact that in October and November the

land and sea breezes again start blowing in

the interim period before the N.E. monsoon

becomes prevalent. The birds make use of

the evening sea wind which brings them over

the escarpment onto the plateau.

An interesting comment by Jamshed sug-

gests this to be a narrow passage. The Harriers

are not seen over his farm a little to the south-

west of Nasik. The birds therefore apparently

pass along the drier, more open undulating

country north of the Godavari. It would be

interesting to monitor the passage next Octo-

ber.

LAVKUMAR KHACHER

11. A NOTE ON HUME’S GROUND CHOUGH PODOCES HUMILIS

HUME

The Hume’s Ground Chough is a rather jolly

little bird found on the high bleak plateaux

of Tibet. It is an extremely confiding bird

walking briskly around, searching for food.

During our visit to Mansarovar and Kailas in

Western Tibet, Mr. Gurdial Singh and myself

were continually charmed by the little bird’s

perky demeanour. In July, the month we were

there, the choughs were busy raising noisy

356

families tucked away in crevices of small rock

outcrops and even down burrows of high alti-

tude rodents.

The HANDBOOK only gives the upper parts

of the Tista in Sikkim as where this bird occurs

in our limits. I found a bird with young at

Bara Hoti Plain across the Chor Hoti Pass in

Garhwal and one would expect to find it in

the west in Spiti and Ladakh. I was therefore

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

surprised to learn that the BNHS/WWE ex-

pedition to Ladakh in the summer of 1976 did

W.W. Funp-Inpi,,

C/o. B.N.H.S.,

HorNBILL HOUSE,

SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH Roap,

BomBay 400 023,

October 13, 1976.

not record this bird in spite of a special look

out for it.

LAVKUMAR KHACHER

12. BLACKTHROATED WEAVER BIRD [PLOCEUS BENGHALENSIS

(LINNAEUS)] BREEDING NEAR BHAVNAGAR (SAURASHTRA)

I found Ploceus benghalensis breeding in a

stagnant pond few miles south of Bhavnagar in

a group of Typha latifolia Linne. on 7th Octo-

ber, 1976. There were in all four nests, one

without a tubular entrance and not in use. The

three occupied had tube entrances measuring

as follows: 15, 11, and 84 cm, the first and

last placed close to each other. There was

only one cock bird with three hens. Two nests

had young, the bird probably young or eggs.

I found the species rather shy. The nests are

Dit BAHAR,

BHAVNAGAR 2,

October 8; 1976.

slightly smaller than the common baya and

the material used finer. This is the first time

I have seen this species nesting in Saurashtra.

Referring to HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA

AND PAKISTAN by Salim Ali & Ripley, Vol.

10, p. 97, I find that in distribution for Gujarat

(Deesa, Baroda and Kaira Districts) only are

mentioned and as a vagrant in Kutch. I hope

therefore, this record will add to its distri-

bution.

R. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHSII

13. THE BIRDS OF GOA: A CORRECTION

In our paper on “The Birds of Goa’’ publish-

ed in the Journal of Bombay Natural History

Society (1976) Vol. 73(1), pp. 42-53, we had

marked the race of Falco tinnunculus (serial

No. 15) as interstinctus McClelland. It should

BoMBAY NATURAL HIstTorY SOCIETY,

HorNnBiLL House,

SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH ROAD,

BomsBay 400 023,

June 18, 1977.

read tinnmunculus Linnaeus. Also under serial

No. 82, “from feathers’ should read ‘from an-

terior border of nostril’.

These errors were pointed out by Mr Hum-

ayun Abdulali, whose interest is appreciated.

ROBERT B. GRUBH

SALIM ALI

357

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vel. 74

14. THE DISTRIBUTION OF CANTOR’S POLYODONT SNAKE,

SIBYNOPHIS SAGITTARIUS (SERPENTES: COLUBRIDAE)

Recently a single specimen of a polyodont

snake (330 mm) was picked up by one of us

(B.D.S.) from under-stones in the outskirts

of Poonch, Jammu and Kashmir which was

later identified as Sibynophis sagittarius (Can-

tor).

Boulenger (1890:303) gives its distribution

as “Northern India, Bengal and the Nicobar

Islands’. Wall (1923: J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 29:599-600) recorded it from Western

Himalayas, Gangetic Basin and lower Bengal

and justifiably questioned its occurrence in

Nicobar as attributed to F. A. de Roepstroff.

However, a specimen bearing this locality is

contained in the collections of the Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta (Reg. No. 8896).

Probably Boulenger (op. cit.) has included

the Nicobars in the range of this species based

on this disputable record. Smith (1943:

FBI, 3:280) gives the range of this species

as ‘North-eastern India from the Central and

United Provinces to Eastern Bengal’ and adds

‘Wall records it from the Western Himala-

yas’’. A check up of the available collections

SOUTHERN REGIONAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

MADRAS.

TH. D.S.B. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE,

KUMAUN UNIversiITy, NAINITAL, (U.P.),

June 21, 1976.

of this species in the ZSI and Bombay Na-

tural History Society has, however, revealed

the fact that it has since been recorded from

Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Orissa and south-

ward in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The present

record from Poonch extends considerably the

northernmost range of this species.

The great gap in distribution as found in

the literature on this snake has thus been

bridged over and it may be, therefore, con-

cluded that it is not as rare as hitherto be-

lieved. Further investigations in the remaining

unexplored areas may yet testify the wide

spread occurrence of this interesting snake in

India whose habits are little known.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Principal, Govern-

ment Degree College, Poonch (J & K) and

Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Dy. Director, Zoologi-—

cal Survey of India, Madras for facilities and

encouragement. Grateful thanks are also due

to Shri J. C. Daniel, Curator, BNHS., for con-

firming the identity of the specimen.

T. S. N. MURTHY

B. D. SHARMA

15. NOTE ON NATURAL HISTORY OF CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS

(With a plate)

KEDARHALLA - 1975

Description: The Kedarhalla stream is a mi-

nor tributary of the Moyar River which flows

from the Kotagiri hills down through narrow

358

chasms in a series of waterfalls. Down near

Masipatti where the Nilgiri foothills start to

level out, the stream is slower and forms fairly ©

sakes

Ney

hs Pi] ;

A sanineath thy

eee

J. Bombay NAT. Hist. Soc. 74 PLATE

Whitaker & Whitaker: Crocodylus palustris

CAE RS ae : ee al

Above: Pool No. 1 on Kedarhalla Stream. Note rock overhang on left and sandbank,

visible through trees on right. Below: Juvenile C. palustris, age: 24 hours.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

large pools at bends and below falls. It is bor-

dered by thin, heavily worked scrub jungle

and scattered deciduous trees along the stream.

Kedarhalla is fairly remote; there being no

road, the only regular human visitors to the

area are cow herders and Irula tribals who

seasonally camp in the various “‘pattis’’ scat-

tered in the foothills. 1975 was a drought year

here and as we found it, the stream was not

flowing but was just a chain of stagnant pools.

The stream is about 350 metres above sea

level.

Kedarhalla appears to be just an ordinary

hill stream such as you are likely to see by

the thousands in the forests of the Western

Ghats. The surprising difference was that there

was evidence of a breeding population of cro-

codiles along the stream. In the 4 km stretch

which we have visited for two years for obser-

vation and egg collection we observed four

crocodiles and we believe that there are a to-

tal of 8 breeding size crocodiles here.

From our survey of crocodiles in Tamil

Nadu this appears to be one of the last popul-

ations of crocodiles still existing in natural

habitat. With the damming, channelling, em-

banking and other drastic alterations of most

of the former crocodilian habitat, crocodiles

are forced to live in the usually barren ex-

panses of reservoir which offer little or no

protection or shelter, especially for hatchling

and young crocodiles which normally spend

a great deal of their time out of water in

bushes and grass.

The streams leading into the dam catch-

ment areas like Moyar and Kedarhalla, if un-

disturbed and the bushes and trees unfelled,

_ provide the alternative habitat needed for the

young crocodiles to hide and feed in. This is

usually not the case however and as a result

| _ the survival rate of hatchlings is near zero in

‘most of the dam areas. Crossing the Moyar at

Manglapatti in late April, 1975 we were

shown the Kedarhalia Stream by Armugan, the

watchman formerly in charge of the TNEB

Power House at Manglapatii.

Pool No. 1, about 5 kms from Manglapatti

is about 50 metres by 15 metres with a half

metre thick mud bottom. The maximum

depth is 14 metres and average one metre.

Two crocodiles appear to be resident here.

One about seven feet in length was observed

basking on a rock shelf at 9.30 a.m. when the

sun gets down into the Kedarhalla Ravine.

When frightened by our approach the croco-

dile slid straight into the water and across to

its tunnel under the opposite embankment.

By probing we ascertained that the tunnel was

6 metres and curved in under the base of a

large Eugenia jumbolana tree. The tunnel was

inclined slightly above water level, the inner-

most part was muddy with leaves. The tunnel

continued to curve in and we think it would

eventually be dug to a horse-shoe shape as

we observed in Pool No. 2.

We located an already hatched nest on the

south bank of the pond, a sand bank. The nest

was about 30 ft from the water line and 6 ft

above water level. The sand was damp at 4}

metre below the surface. No shade nearby,

the nest site receives sun from about 9.30 a.m.

to 4.30 p.m. A few fresh shells were seen at

the nest site but no young. We camped at that

site and later in the day found one hatchling,

2 or 3 days old, in grass at the pond edge op-

posite the sand embankment. Here there was

also a large rock overhang (see plate) form-

ing a shelter a foot above the water. Here we

saw the small bobbing heads of fifteen hatch-

lings all in a group. These were easily caught

by slowly approaching them in the water and

scooping them up a lunghi. When caught, the

young grunted and uttered their high-pitched

distress cries. That night we caught the re-

359

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

mainder of that batch of hatchlings (total:

seventeen); the grunting of the hand-held

specimens attracted the uncaught ones, which

were evidently trying to re-group. From the

evidence at hand the parent carried hatched

and semi-hatched young ones from the open

nest site across the pond to where the over-

hanging boulder was, with its grass and mud

tunnels affording shelter and hiding places. A

few shells lay under the boulder and two

freshly dead baby crocodiles. They had no

marks on them but casualities at hatching time

are normal. There was a small unused tunnel

in the black mud under the overhang which

could have been made by a sub-adult croco-

dile. One of the hatchlings retreated into this

hole and we observed the tracks of hatchlings

in smaller holes like unused crab holes. Some

of the hatchlings had swollen stomachs (un-

absorbed yolk) and three had curled tail tips

apparently due to overheating in the nest.

Two of them had raw umblical scars.

Pool No. 2: One km upstream from Pool I.

Pool 2 is about 40 metres by 10 metres with

a maximum depth of 2.5 metres, and an aver-

age of 14 metres. There is a thick mud bot-

tom and a large number of fish were dead and

dying from clogged gills due to recent rain

stirring up the mud. (carp, catfish and eels).

At 11 a.m. a 14 metre crocodile was seen slid-

ing into the water and straight across to its

tunnel in the opposite embankment. There

were tracks of a larger crocodile at the pool

edge; later we saw this 2 metre animal. About

15 metres from the pool edge we discovered

a slight mound in the bushes, smooth on top

from the passage of a crocodile. Tapping on

MADRAS SNAKE PARK TRUST,

GUINDY DEER ParK,

GUINDY, Mapras 600 022,

December 25, 1976.

360

the mound we heard the slight croaking grunis

of baby crocodiles about a hatch. We waited

till the cool of the evening and carefully dug

the covering of 25 cms of earth to the layer

of eggs. A hatchling crocodile head was visible

and digging further we uncovered a whole nest

of 18 eggs 11 of which hatched during the

next 12 hours. We were very lucky to have

discovered this nest on the point of hatching.

Pool No. 3: About 3 kms above Pool 2 we

came to a round pool about 50 metres in dia-

metre of 4 metres depth surrounded by high

rocky cliff embankments with a wateriall down

to a bare trickle. Two crocodiles of about two

metres plopped into the still pond when we

were approaching from 100 metres down-

stream. There were three basking areas and

crocodile droppings at several locations. On

a night visit we saw two crocodiles. We locat-

ed two nest sites about 10 metres from the

pond which consisted merely of the silt/sand

deposits in the dry streambed down-stream.

Scattered egg shells showed that the eggs were

already hatched or were perhaps dug up by

predators. Checking upstream we found one —

more crocodile; a follow up trip will be made. |

It is recommended that the Moyar River and —

its tributaries from Mudumalai Sanctuary to ©

Bhavani Sagar be declared a Crocodile Pre-

serve as one of the last remaining original ha- |

bitats of the Marsh Crocodile in S. India. The

Kedarhalla stream has already been surveyed ©

by TNEB to construct a dam and power sta-

tion.

This would of course very efficiently |

finish off this particularly interesting and valu- —

able crocodile habitat; perhaps an alternative ©

site can be considered?

R. WHITAKER |

Z. WHITAKER |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

16. NESTING BEHAVIOUR OF ESTUARINE CROCODILE,

C. POROSUS

During my faunistic survey tour of 1975 in

the Bhitarkanika, a delta of Brahamani—Bai-

tarani estuary, Orissa, the collector-of estuary

Crocodiles for the hatchery of the Forest De-

partment, Government of Orissa at Dangmal,

stated that he saw while fishing in the river

Kalibhanja Dia near Talichua a Crocodile

coming up from the river and moving towards

the mangrove jungles. When he followed the

Crocodile she turned and chased him. He

escaped by climbing up a nearby tree. After

this incident she proceeded a further 300 ft

into the jungle and after about half an hour

the crocodile returned to the river. He came

down and inspected the mound nest built up

by the crocodile with vegetable matter and

mud and collected 46 eggs from inside it.

Deraniyagala’s (1939)1 observation that out

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

27, CHOWRINGHEE Roab,

MALCUTTA 700016,

June 28, 1976.

SCHNEIDER

of the 4 nests of C. porosus, two nests had

females guarding in a nearby wallow or a

trench and in the other two though the wallows

were there the guards were absent. In this res-

pect he noted that the crocodile spends a con-

siderable part of its watch basking on top of

the nest. He suggested that this action of the

crocodile was of some help for the incubation

or protection of eggs from the mid-day Sun.

Moreover he explained the absence of guar-

dians in other two nests as due to human dis-

turbance.

The above mentioned fact in case of beha-

viour of the Bhitarkanika crocodile indicates

that for guarding the nest or incubation of

laid eggs the presence of the female is not

necessary or always associated with the breed-

ing behaviour of Estuarine crocodile in nature.

S. BISWAS

1 DERANIYAGALA, P. (1939): Tetrapod Reptiles of

Ceylon; Dulan (& Co, Ltd., pp. x +412.

17. LOCOMOTOR RESPONSES OF CALOTES TO WATER

(AGAMIDAE:

The lizards of the genus Calotes are superii-

cially quite similar to such iguanids as juveniie

Iguana, Basiliscus, and Enyalius. Furthermore,

they share similar habitats, bushes and trees,

often along water courses. All are slender

bodied lizards with stout heads, long tails, en-

larged hind legs and greatly enlarged toes.

Most iguanids are capable of swimming and

SAURIA)

a few can even dash across the surface of

water without sinking by special modifications

of the hind toes (Laerm 1973). However, even

species lacking such structural complexity,

such as Iguana, and Amblyrhynchus of the

Galapagos, will dive into the water and swim

with lateral undulations of the body. Some

incidental observation and preliminary ex-

361

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

periments suggest that some other agamids

lack the ability to utilize the aquatic habitat.

On 5 May 1974 I observed a large male

Calotes versicolor in mating pigmentation on

the trunk of a large tree besides an oxbow

pool on the Bibile road near Mahiyangana, Sri

Lanka. Avoiding attempts to noose it, the

lizard started to ascend the tree and an assist-

ant used a bamboo rod to flip the lizard into

the water. I expected it to dive and swim ra-

pidly to a protected site. To my surprise the

lizard remained at the surface and swam slow-

ly to a projecting log. When disturbed it start-

ed out again but appeared to tire, soon show-

ing evident signs of distress, so that it was

easy to catch while swimming. By this time

the red colour had faded completely.

Later that month (14 May) I had the op-

portunity of testing whether we had observed

an isolated instance or a general phenomenon.

For several days we stayed at the Bandarapola

guest house, the garden of which contained an

8 x 4 metre cement and tile swimming pool.

‘Variously sized specimens of Calotes versi-

color and Calotes calotes were dropped onto

the water some 20 cm from the edge or chas-

ed onto the surface. The result was the same

regardless of the species, the size, or the me-

thod of immersion.

As soon as they entered the water, the ani-

mals started to swim effectively by adpressing

the limbs, swinging the body into lateral un-

dulations, and generally keeping the head

above water. However, after a variable dis-

tance, never greater than about ten body

lengths, they became disoriented, stopped un-

dulating, and started moving ineffectively by

alternating limb movements. Aiter 20 to 30

stroke sequences, the lizards would float with

the head above water and could be seen to

breathe. The lizards might continue the “‘walk-

ing’ pattern for a number of additional cycles;

362

however, within the first five minutes each

animal would have attempted to breathe with-

out raising its snout above the water. Its re-

lative buoyancy then changed and the lizard

would sink to the bottom of the pool where

it would walk about aimlessly and presum-

ably would have drowned. When lizards were

removed from the water and placed on the

grass fringing the pool, they soon recovered

and within fifteen minutes were able to escape

capture by climbing the hedges. All of the

lizards survived the exposure to water.

Water temperature above 30°C was appro-

ximately equivalent to the preferred temper-

ature ranges reported for other agamids

(Brattstrom 1965). However, the Calotes prov-

ed to be quite active in rooms that were air

conditioned to 20°C; consequently the beha-

viour was unlikely to be a temperature effect.

These observations suggest some very in-

teresting corollaries. Calotes is able to swim

effectively by undulatory movements. Slow

undulation could presumably be continued for

some time whatever the metabolic state of the

species. Furthermore, its normal centre of

gravity is sufficiently high so that the animal

need not expend effort in maintaining its head

above the surface. Consequently, Calotes

should be able to stay afloat almost indefinitely

at the water surface. However, the animals

seem unable to recognize when they can in-

hale. The slight change in attitude between

extending the anterior portion of the head

above the surface, and lowering it so that the

nostrils (but often not the eyes) are immers-

ed, makes the difference between sinking and

swimming. This attitudinal position of the

head is neither energetic nor temperature re-

lated. Nevertheless, these lizards not only seem

quickly to abandon the effective locomotor

method for a less effective and more costly

one, but they also appear to lack any mecha-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

nism that tells them whether the nostrils are

above water or immersed.

The interesting thing about the difficulty

encountered by these animals is that it is the

Jack of a behavioural rather than a morpho-

logical or physiological adaptation that poses

the problem. These results do of course paral-

lel the observations of Pettus (1958) who not-

ed that when Natrix sipedon manages success-

fully to invade salt marshes, the only record-

ed specialization is that the marsh populations

recognizes the difference between fresh and

salt water and avoids drinking the latter. In

both cases there is a major increase in the ad-

aptive zone, in this case the habitats, that can

successfully be exploited as the result of a re-

latively minor change in behaviour. Further

structural changes would presumably arise

only after the adaptive zone had been occu-

pied; they might then represent further adap-

tations within it.

The observations permit some cautions and

also suggest some additional experimentation.

The interpretation of an animal’s survival

capacity should not be based only upon struc-

tural and physiological parameters. The basic

DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES,

THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN,

ANN ARBOR,

MICHIGAN 48109, U.S.A.,

September 16, 1976.

structural pattern here seen is clearly an arbo-

real one and the aquatic adaptations are se-

condary. It is plausible to suggest that the

lack of response capacity of these lizards re-

flects a condition pecular to Sri Lanka, an

island which lacked standing water until his-

toric times when the environment became per-

manently altered due to extensive tank con-

struction associated with paddy cultivation.

However, this hypothesis requires parallel ex-

periments with species and populations of

agamid lizards, from areas with only limited

standing waters and with great environmental

diversity. All in all, these notes suggest that

observation of the behavioural responses of

common animals can still result in interesting

and possibly significant results.

Supported by NSF BMS 71 01380. Dr. Karl

Krombein and the Smithsonian Entomological

Field Project allowed the use of their vehicle.

I thank Mr. B. Prasanna Fernando and Mr.

W. A. Richard for friendly collaboration in the

field, the staff of the Bandarapola lodge for

assistance, and H. Mendelssohn, S. Moody

and G. Zug for comments.

CARL GANS

REFERENCES

BRATTSTROM, B. H. (1965): Body temperatures

of reptiles. Amer. Midl. Naturalist 73(2) :376-422.

LAERM, J. (1973): Aquatic bipedalism in the

basilisk lizard: the analysis of an adaptive strategy.

Amer. Midl. Naturalist 89(2) :314-333.

Petrus, D. (1958): Water relationships in Nat-

rix sipedon. Copeia, 1958(3) :207-211.

363

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

18. BEHAVIOUR, COLORATION, LEPIDOSIS AND PRE-ANO-

FEMORAL PORES IN JUVENILES OF UROMASTIX

HARDWICKIT GRAY

The behaviour of juveniles is scarcely known

in Indian agamids. Bhanotar & Bhatnagar (in

press)? observed the presence of a brood

chamber in some tunnels which may start as

a separate diverticule close to the burrow

mouth. Outside movements of juveniles are

restricted to the vicinity and around neigh-

bouring bushes within a range of 20-40 ft of

the tunnels. Juveniles from other burrows too

join and do not show territorial instinct un-

like adults. However, juveniles show consider-

able homing instinct. But if alarmed suddenly

seek safety in the nearest available burrow or

crevice. Juveniles up to 29-40 days old do not

dig a burrow and continue to inhabit the

parent burrow. This perhaps indicates some

tolerance by the parent. Though active and

swift, the juveniles can still be caught easily.

In nature and in captivity juveniles eat small

insects and wild seeds (?). This dietary habit,

it appears, continues up to the adult stage.

In captivity (in uncontrolled cage) they re-

mained active up to two months. But some

survived till subadult stage.

Coloration: Though the general coloration

pattern is the same in juveniles and adults,

yet, it is varied in the former by the presence of

a lateral dark stripe on trunk preceded by a

pale buff line and dark broken blotches num-

bering 7-8 with pale buff all around. These

blotches are seen in 25-30 days old individuals

and are anteriorly joined. They are not pre-

sent in subadults. A continuous dark stripe

is present dorso-laterally on tail. The black

1 BHANOTAR, R. K. & BHATNAGAR, R. K. (Cin

press): Bio-ecological studies on spiny-tailed lizards

Uromastix hardwickii Gray. Pt. I. Habits, habitats,

364

blotch on hind limb is dorso-anteriorly present

as in adults, but covers only 4-7 scale length.

Individuals are ventrally pale coloured from

genial to last 4th caudal scale whorl.

Anteriorly, the facial markings from supra-

labial to supra-ocular region differ from that

im adults by the presence of 5-7 dark lines

with a dark line from post-ocular to occipital

region. Gular fold and gular pouch are absent

but pre-gular fold is present and the whole

gular region is pale buff.

Lepidosis: There is a vertical abdominal

suture mark, the umbilical scar which appears

from where yolk sac is attached and is bor-

dered by distinct 15-19 horizontal scales on

each side. Caudal whorls start from anal point

where one smali dorso-lateral spine is present.

Total complete whorls numbered 30-37 and

last 2-5 are incomplete. Latero-caudal spines

are continuous from 3rd whorl upto 2nd or

to 5th. Larger spines are on lateral side and —

are preceded by 3-4 small ones. Similarly on —

ventral side smooth scales are present from —

3-5th caudal whorl in preceding order (of |

size) from lateral margin to tail tip. Larger

caudal spines are present on 4 to 5th row. |

Spines on hind limbs numbered 3-5 located |

not antero-lateral as in adults.

Lateral fringe on 3rd to 4th toe not at all

pronounced. Scales around pineal eye num- |

bered six with eye in the middle scale. How- —

ever, in some 8 scales are present around it.

Rostrai is succeeded by 6-8 scales upwards

to frontal region. Genials 13 with a upper dif- |

distribution patterns and behaviour. Cheetal. (J.

Wildlife Preservation Society of India), pp. 1-23,

1 fig.

eee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ferentiable layer of scales and 7-8 scales as

counted across from gular end to mid-genial.

Other lepidosis counts are not different in

juveniles from adults.

Pre-ano-femoral pores: Location of these

pores in juveniles is same as in adults. But

both types of pores (preanal anterior to anal

opening and femoral on thighs) are in one

continuous line. However, preanal-pores are

on an angular vedge (inverted ‘v’) anterior to

the anal opening and number 4-5 on each arm.

The femoral pores commence from femoral

point to the vedge of the anai-pores and num-

ber 7-14 on each side of the arm. However,

both types of pores are bordered by 4-6 dif-

ferentiable scales around each pore. In some

ENTOMOLOGY DIVISION,

INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

New DELHI,

January 17, 1977.

cases, the number on each side varies and

in One case two femoral pores are joined. In

live juveniles it was also observed that by

pressing a coverslip on these pores no secre-

tion was exuded; also, such individuals did

not show development of gonads. This appears

to indicate that presence of these pores is not

a morphological character age differentiation

and sexual maturity and is not a sexual dimor-

phic character as has been shown in Gekko-

nids.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank Dr. N. C. Pant, Head, Division

of Entomology, I.A.R.I., New Delhi for pro-

viding facilities for this work.

R. K. BHATNAGAR

R. K. BHANOTAR

19. EXTENSION OF DISTRIBUTION OF THRISSINA BOELAMA

(FORSKAL) (PISCES:

CLUPEIFORMES:

ENGRAULIDAE) WITH

REMARKS ON ITS TAXONOMIC CHARACTERS

Though the anchovy species Thrissina boelama

was described as early as 1775 (Forskal 1775),

it was rarely recorded from Indian Coast in-

dicating that it is a very rare specics.

Recently while studying the Clupeoid fishes

of southeast coast of India, I came across one

specimen of Thrissina boelama, whose des-

cription is given below briefly.

Material: One example from Amalinagar

Fishing Village 45 km south of Tuticorin,

Tamilnadu, K. V. Rama Rao, 30-1-1973.

Description: Body somewhat full (compar-

ed to Thryssa), elongated. Head enlongated

with somewhat prominent snout. Eye in the

anterior half of the head. Belly not sharply

keeled. Two scutes before pectoral origin re-

maining scutes before and after ventral fin

base. Maxilla extending upto the margin of

preopercle but not quite reaching it. Two pre-

maxillae on the maxilla. Maxilla flattened to-

wards the end before becoming pointed at the

tip. Lower edge of maxilla is finely toothed

all along the length. Mandible is also similarly

toothed along the upper edge. Pectorals do

not reach upto ventral fin origin. Elongated

axillary scale present at pectoral origin. Ven-

trals originate slightly before dorsal. Anal

origin just behind Dorsal. Caudal deeply fork-

ed. Scales fairly large and intact even in pre-

servation. Dorsal side dark in colour becom-

365

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ing silvery laterally. Fins translucent.

Measurements (in mm): Total length 123,

standard length 103-5, head length 27.5, body

depth 23.0, eye diameter 6.7, snout 5.5, in-

terorbital distance 6.5, prepectoral distance

28.0, pectoral fin length 15.5, preventral dis-

tance 45.2, ventral fin length 12.5, predorsal

distance 48.5, dorsal base 23.5, maxilla length

230

Pectoral f. r. 13 ventral f. r. 7, Dorsal f. r.

1+ i + 12, Anal fr ui 25, Caudal fi. 154;

19 +, Prepectoral scutes 2, Prepelvic Scutes 7,

Post pelvic Scutes 8, Gillrakers upper arm 17,

lower arm 23, Lateral line Scales 36.

Remarks: The specimens recorded by

Whitehead (1967) from Arabian Sea do not

possess scutes before pectoral origin, resem-

bling those from Red Sea, Gulf of Aden,

Mauritius and Cocos Keeling Is. (Whitehead

et al. 1966). However, records (Fowler 1941,

p. 686) are these from Indo-Pacific region with

scutes before pectoral origin. The presence of

scutes before pectoral origin in the present

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN REGIONAL STATION,

1182/2, F.C. Roap,

Poona 5,

October 13, 1976.

specimen indicates its nearness to Indo-Pacific

population rather than to Arabian and Red

Sea populations. Geographically also it stands

to reason. Further the present specimen agrees

more with Bleeker’s original description of

Engraulis encrasicholoides (Whitehead et al.

1966, p. 118) in the presence of prepectoral

scutes and lateral line scale counts. However,

as pointed out by Whitehead et al. (op. cit.)

more specimens need to be studied before

any conclusions can be drawn regarding the

taxonomic reassignment with reference to the

presence or absence of prepectoral scutes. For

the present it is obvious that the absence of

prepectoral scutes forms neither a generic nor

a specific character.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks are due to Dr. B. K. Tikader, De-

puty Director, Zoological Survey of India,

Western Regional Station, Poona for facilities

and encouragement.

M. BABU RAO

REFERENCES

ForSKAL, P. (1775): Descriptions Animalium:

1-164.

Fow_er, A. W. (1941): Contributions to the

biology of the Philippine Archipelago and adjacent

regions. Bull. U.S. nat. Mus., 100:1-879.

WHITEHEAD, P. J. P. (1967): Indian Ocean an-

366

chovies collected by the Antom Bruun and Te Vega

1963-64. J. Mar. biol. Ass. India. 9(1) :13-37.

—_—— BorsEMAN, M. & WHEELER, A. C.

(1966): The types of Bleeker’s Indo-Pacific elopoid

and clupeoid fishes. Zool. Verhandl. No. 84:1-159.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

20. OCCURRENCE OF COBITID GENUS BOTIA GRAY IN THE

WESTERN GHATS OF INDIA

(With a text-figure)

Hitherto the genus Botia Gray (Pisces: Cobi-

tidae) has not been recorded from the Western

Ghats. During our survey of the River Koyna

and connected streams, we came across a CO-

bitid species Botia dayi Hora (Fig. 1) ina

stream at Ambenalli village about 20 km. West

of Mahabaleshwar, Satara District. The speci-

men measures 48.5 mm and agrees well with

the description given by Hora (1932) for this

Species.

Fig. 1. Botia dayi Hora.

Botia dayi is so far reported only from the

Himalayan drainage (from Sind, through the

Punjab, Himalayas, Valley of the Ganges,

Jumna, Sone River and Assam) (Day 1878).

Its occurrence in Western Ghats leads to cer-

tain interesting discussions regarding its migra-

tion. Though it is well distributed along the

Himalayan drainage, its occurrence in the

Western Ghats can only be explained by the

connection of Himalayan region with Western

Ghats during the geological past. The connec-

tion of Eastern Himalayas with the Western

Ghats through the Garo Hills and Satpura-

Vindhya-Rajmahal ranges by the elevation of

Garo-Rajmahal gap due to the sudden fall of

sea level during the glacial period (Pleistocene)

has been emphasized by Hora (1944, 1949)

and subsequently elaborated by Menon (1951)

and in the light of this the present day occur-

rence of the Malayan fauna in the Western

Ghats and Peninsular India has been explain-

ed. The occurrence of B. dayi in Himalayan

drainage and again only in Western Ghats can

also be explained similarly. The occurrence of

only B. dayi in Western Ghats indicates that

this species is relatively hardy and also ancient

amongst the species of the genus Botia.

With the occurrence of the genus Botia in

the Western Ghats, the present day distribu-

tion of the eight genera (Menon 1973) of the

family Cobitidae in India is as follows: the

genera Noemacheilus Van Hasselt and Lepi-

docephalus Bleecker occur throughout the

country, the genus Somileptes Swainson occurs

almost throughout the Himalayan drainage,

the genera Aborichthys Chaudhuri and Acan-

thopthalmus Van Hasselt are restricted to

Eastern Himalayas, the genus Botia Gray

occurs predominantly in Himalayan drainage

and rarely in Western Ghats and the genus

Neemachilichthys Day is restricted to Deccan

while the genus Jerdonia Day is restricted to

Madras in South India.

We are thankful to Dr B. K. Tikader, De-

367

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

puty Director, Zoological Survey of India,

Western Regional Station, Poona, for giving

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN REGIONAL STATION,

1182/2, F.C. Roap,

POONA 5,

January 14, 1977.

us an Opportunity to survey the Mahabalesh-

war region of Western Ghats.

M. BABU RAO

G. M. YAZDANI

REFERENCES

Day, F. (1878): Fishes of India, Burma and

Ceylon. William Dawson & Sons, London: 607.

Hora, S. L. (1932): Notes on fishes in the Indian

Museum XIX. On a new loach of the genus Botia,

with remarks on B. dario (Ham.-Buch.). Rec. In-

dian Mus, Calcutta 34:571-573.

— (1944): On the Malayan affinities

of the Freshwater Fish-fauna of peninsular India,

and its bearing on the probable age of the Garo-

Rajmahal gap. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 10:423-

439,

——_— __— — (1949) = *Satoura “hypothesis. of sta

distribution of the Malayan Fauna and Flora to

Peninsular India. ibid. /5:309-314.

MergnNoNn, A. G. K. (1951): Further studies regard-

ing Hora’s Satpura hypothesis I. The role of the

eastern Ghats in the distribution of the Malayan

fauna and filora to peninsular India. ibid. 17:475-

A497.

(1973): Origin of the freshwater

fish fauna of India. Curr. Sci. 42:553-556.

21. HERMAPHRODITISM IN THE MURREL, CHANNA PUNCTATA

(BLOCH

Hermaphroditism has been reported in several

teleostean fishes (Dawson 1964, 1966, 1971).

In addition to the several examples of herma-

phroditism in Indian marine fishes (published

in different issues of the Journal of the Marine

Biological Association of India), mention may

also be made of the following freshwater fishes

exhibiting hermaphroditism—/Macrones vittatus

(Singh & Sathyanesan 1961), Puntius stigma

(Sathyanesan 1958), Cirrhina reba (Sathya-

nesan & Rangarajah 1953), and Hilsa ilisha

(an anadromous fish) (Chacko & Krishna-

murthi 1949)—but in chronological sequence.

However, this is the first report on hermaph-

roditism in the family Channidae.

During our studies on Channa punctata

(Bloch 1793) from Guntur, South India, we

368

1793)

came across a 202 mm long (TL) herma-

phredite. Though Dehadrai et al. (1973) re-

ported some colour difference between males |

and females of this species, we do not find it —

to be a reliable secondary sexual character in

the large number of specimens (2400) ex-

amined from Guntur. On dissection, it is easy

to identify the sex of even juveniles measur-

ing 70 mm TL, because both ovaries extend

behind the vent, whereas the testes do not. In

the present hermaphrodite, the gonad looks

like a testis externally and does not extend

behind vent. However, when examined micro-

scopically, both gonads are observed to be |

ovotestes. The ovarian and testicular tissues

are mixed, without any particular position for

each. All the ova are immature; yolk deposi- —

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tion has started in a few of the larger ova. ‘The

diameter of the ova ranges from 0.023 mm

to 0.23 mm. The spermatocytes are clear only

under high magnification (X 1000).

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

NAGARJ UNA UNIVERSITY,

NAGARJ UNANAGAR 522 510,

September 1, 1976.

The junior author (PBSR) gratefully ack-

nowledges the award of a Junior Research

Fellowship by CSIR, New Delhi.

S. DUTT?

P. BALASUNDAR REDDY

REFERENCES

Dawson, C. E., (1964): A bibliography of ano-

malies of fishes. Gulf Research Reports, 1(6) :308-

399.

ose (1966): A _ bibliography of ano-

malies of fishes, Supplement 1. ibid. 2(2) :169-176.

(1971): A _ bibliography of ano-

malies of fishes, Supplement 2. ibid. 3(2) :215-239.

CuHacko, P. I. & KRISHNAMURTHI, B. (1949): A

preliminary note on the Hilsa fishery investigations

in South India. Proc. of the 35th Indian Sci. Cong.:

20S (Abstract).

DEHADRAI, P. V., BANERJI, S. R., THAKUR, N. K.

& Das, N. K. (1973): Sexuai dimorphism in cer-

tain air breathing fishes. J. Inland Fish. Sec. India

Se<7 7:

SATHYANESAN, A. G. & RANGARAJAH, K. (1953):

Hermaphroditism in Cirrhina reba. Proc. of the

40th Indian Sci. Cong.: 208 (Abstract).

SATHYANESAN, A. G. (1958): Occurrence of

oocyte in adult testis of the fish Barbus stigma

(Cuvee & Nal.) Ser. &) Cult. 23: 203:

SINGH, T. P. & SATHYANESAN, A. G.

An instance of hermaphroditism in

Mystus vittatus (Bloch). Curr. Sci.

(1961):

the catfish

30: 302-303.

1 Present address: Department of Marine Science,

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 530 003.

22. THE LIFE-HISTORY OF A CAVERNICOLOUS ORTHOPTERA

KEMPIOLA SHANKARI SINHA & AGARWAL (ORTHOPTERA:

PHALANGOPSIDAE)

(With two text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The Cavernicolous Orthoptera Kempiola

shankari Sinha & Agarwal was collected from

a subterranean cave at Kotumsar, about 35

miles south of Jagdalpur (Bastar district).

The shaft leading to the interior is vertical and

about 17 metres deep. The interior has numer-

ous stalagmites and stalactite formations and

has several small pools fed by seepage water.

The temperature in the interior varies between

-24° and 29°C.

POPULATION ANALYSIS

The population of K. shankari was studied

during March, April, May, November and

December 1970 and December 1971 (Table

1). During June to October the cave was not

accessible due to heavy rains. The population,

during the period of study was divided into

three morphological types, (a) nymphs with-

out wing bud, (b) nymphs with wing bud and

The data indicate that in December the adults

369

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

are relatively more. In general nymphs form-

ed bulk of the population.

K. shankari does not have a seasonal life-

cycle; it continues to breed and mature

throughout the year. Thus all instars can al-

ways be seen in the cave. This makes the as-

sessment of lengths of nymphal and adult life

very difficult.

Sex-ratio: A record of the total number of

adults collected during the study period (Table

1) indicates that normally females are more

than males (Table 2). In November 1970,

however, more males were found.

Number of instars and growth rate: The

number of instars in K. shankari could not

actually be determined. However, on the basis

of observations of specimens collected from

time to time, the number of instars appears to

be 8 to 10. They could not be reared beyond

a month under laboratory conditions simulat-

TABLE 1

POPULATION ANALYSIS CF K. shankari FROM MArcH 1970 To DECEMBER 1971

Date of visits Time

7th March 1970 2 p.m

20th March 1970 2 p.m

10th April 1970 2 p.m

6th May 1970 2 p.m

6th November 1970 2 p.m

20th December 1970 2 p.m

26th December 1971 2 p.m

== Sas nN ON ESS SSS ee PETS

(a)

Te Ae,

shows that the population stage did not occur in the collection.

Nymphs —

Nymphs

of insects Adulis with without

collected wing bud wing bud

50 Vl il 32

40 7 4 29

40 6 y) 32

31 D a 29

50 16 1 33

70 33 1 36

60 14 1

TABLE 2

SEX RATIO OF K.

Date of visits

Nymphs without

wing bud

7th March 1970 64

20th March 1970 Wd

10th April 1970 80

6th May 1970 93.5

6th November 1970 66

20th December 1970 51.4

26th December 1971 75

Nymphs as % of total population

shankari

Saaxa ss ee SS

Adults as % of total

pupulations

Nymphs with

wing bud of °

22 2 |

10 05) 10

5 Dyn 8) 2S)

— — 6.5

2 22 10

1.4 ZDAS 24.2

1.6 6.6 16.6

(—) shows that the population stage did not occur in the collection.

370

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

TABLE 3

CONFORMITY TO DyaAr’s LAW ON THE BASIS OF INSTAR MEASUREMENTS OF K. shankari

FEMALE

Instars Observed length Calculated Observed Calculated

in mm length* length in mm length*

1 6 6.2 6 7.8

2 i 8.1 9 9.5

3 10 10.9 12 11.1

4 Be 11.8 14 12.8

5 15 13.95 15 14.4

6 16 15.5 16 16.04

7 17 173 17 17.6

8 18 18.2 20 19.3

9 20 Zed.

j= te

* from regression line.

F- FEMUR

T-TIBIA

8 9

® : T- tarsus

« 5

w 4

3 3

a 2

ts INSTAR 4

F 1 As F T T F T Te >

el (Lal aman oe ne EP Qa

G) HIND eID FORE 0

Fig. 1. The rate of growth of different body parts from instar to instar of male Kempiola shankari.

onl

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

GS 0071 0'S7 O'eE OOS 0'001 WU | = IOJISODIAQ

8°9 Se O3))) 06 001 OST eee Wu Q'9 Apog

UIT Vt 99 OSC 06 CLE EEE WU Q'¢ snsie} o107

0°6 00T GS cs ara VS CLE WU O'P eIqi 910.75

06 00! ut 8s C9 0°09 0'SZ Ww OQ’ INUsy 910,J

Sl Cvl Vie sl OO! OSL EEE WU Q’¢ snsiv} ply

06 8°91 ie (ih 9 O59 70S TCP WIUI ¢"€ equ Ppl

Gal) Sol Lal c9 Gil 00 OST WU 0'P INWey ply .

gs STI (A OL €'8 OIGL EEE ww Q'¢ snsie] pulpy

Lest Ly (s7S|I bee OCI 8°8E 0'87¢ wut (QL eIql} pully

OST G2 99 VL 99) EEE 00S wu Q°9 INUId} puUr_y

SIe1SU]

MDpyuUdYsS “SM AO SHIVWHA NI YVLISNI HOVA NI HLONAT NI HLMOUD AO ASVAYONI AOVLINEOW |

¢ ATVI,

Apog

CLC CCC CCl 2S) TL 959 0-0¢ OSC GEE uu ¢ Ss ey or

CEC O'S¢ 06 00! ro! 8°8C 00v Tl CCl wu 7 BIqty 3104

CCE 291 06 OO! Vil 8°8C 0'0V VT Cl wu 7 INWoy S10 ¥

LLG 8°S c9 cv OE €°8 Ce 6°8C 991 wul ¢ snsiv} ply

OE? CLC 00! (ES gs vCl 0°09 Vl S'cl uu 7 eIqy =PlIA

Lst V8t OO! (5S gs 8°87 0-07 1 S (a)! wu 7 nutes PA

CCC 8S c9 9°9 VL 9°99 0°07 OSC Cee ulul ¢ snsie} pulyy

(S715! OST cs gs CCL cv GLE SLE (Gaal uu / eiqiy pul

0'0¢ Ul 8S (Gy) 9°9 eSl 0'0¢ 8°CV 9:91 wu 9 TWO} pee

SIe1SU]

1MDYUDYS “YY AO SHIVW NI UVLSNI HOVA NI HLONAT NI HLMOUD AO ASVAYONI AOVLNAOUd |

p ATAVL

S74

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

w 7

we? Ps

“ 5

EF 4

w 3

= 2

_28 INS TARI

ij s

220

LENGTH

F T we Li T

HIND miD

RE MALE

Te F é T rae Tt:

Ove.

BODY

Fig. 2. The rate of growth of different body parts from instar to instar of female Kempiola shankari.

ing cave conditions. By comparing the measure-

ments of hind femora and ovipositor it was

_made out that nine pre-adult instars are pass-

ed by males and seven by the females (Figs.

1 & 2). These results agree with the conclusions

reached in Pachyrhamma_ facifer (Richard

1961) and in Ceuthopilus (Hubbell 1936).

That no instars have been overlooked, was

checked by Dyar’s law (1890) Table 3.

The rate of growth of different body parts

from instar to instar has been shown in figs.

1 & 2. The percentage of growth-rates from

instar to instar are tabulated in Tables 4 &

_ 5. From these tables it is concluded that the

_ greatest amount of growth occurs at the third

pil

and the final ecdysis in male and second and

final ecdysis in female. Hind femora undergo

the greatest increase at each ecdysis. Oviposi-

tor appearing in the second instar, become al-

most equal to body length at final ecdysis.

The rate of growth in antennae and cerci

was not included in graphs or tables, because

they are often broken while collecting.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr.

S. M. Agarwal, Professor and Head, Depart-

ment of Zoology, Science College, Raipur for

373

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

criticism and guidance; thanks are also due

to Principal and Dr. S. B. Shrivastava, Head

LECTURER,

DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY,

Govr. P. G. COLLEGE,

P. O. AMBIKAPUR,

M.P., 497 O01,

July 17, 1976.

REFERENCES

Dyar, H. C. (1890): The number of Moults of

Lepidopterous Larvae. Psyche 5:420-422.

HUBBELL, T. H. (1936): A Monographic Revision

of the Genus Ceuthopilus. Univ. Cl. Florida pub.

23. CEROCOCCUS HIBISCI GREEN (HOMOPTERA: ASTEROLE-

CANIIDAE) AND ITS CHALCID PARASITES

(With fifteen figures)

Cerococcus hibisci Green

(Figs. A—O)

Cerococcus hibisci Green, 1908, Mem. Dep. Agric.

India (Ent.) Pusa, 2: 19.

Cerococcus hibisci Green;

EntecRes:, 8: \A27.

Cerococcus hibisci Green; Ayyar,

Agric. Res. Pusa, 197: 53.

Cerococcus hibisci Green; Ah,

sects I: 29-30.

The species Cerococcus hibisci Green is

widely distributed throughout India infesting

a number of plants. This note gives a detailed

re-description of Cerococcus hibisci Green

together with a complete list of parasites so

far recorded from India.

Adult Female (Fig. A)

Mounted material circular in outline, pos-

teriorly with a triangular protrusion in middle,

2.7 mm long and 2.3 mm wide. Dorsal sur-

face membranous, covered with sparsely dis-

Newstead, 1917, Bull.

1929, Imp. Inst.

1957, Oriental In-

374

of the Department of Zoology, Government

College, Ambikapur for facilities provided.

K. M. SINHA ©

Vol. Hy Noel Sat:

RIcHARD, A. M. (1961): The Life History of |

some species of Rhaphidophoridae (Orthoptera).

Trans Roy. | Soe. Ni. Zo Zools ple Wl lane

tributed small 8-shaped pores (fig. L); dorsal |

and marginal setae absent; lateral margins of |

each side of the body with 4 groups of small |

pores (fig. K); 6 cribriform-like pores lie an- |

terior to anal opercula (fig. J); anal opercula |

as shown in fig. H.

Ventral surface membranous with numer-

ous large 8-shaped pores and tubular glands |

(figs. M, N); labium 1-segmented, slightly |

wider than long. Legs rudimentary, 0.03 mm

long; claws triangular and without denticle

(figs. C, D, E). Antennae rudimentary, in- |

distinctly 7-segmented, 0.06 mm long basal

segment slightly longer than wide, remaining

segments transverse, apical segment with six

long setae (fig. B). Spiracles well separated |

from the lateral margins of the body (fig. F). |

Anal ring beaded, with 8 long setae (fig. G).

“WZ

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. A-O. Cerococcus hibisci Green, adult female: (A) body, dorsal and ventral view;

(B) antenna; (C) fore leg; (D) middle leg; (E) hind leg; (F) posterior spiracle;

(G) anal opening; (H) anal opercula; (I) large 8-shaped pores; (J) cribriform pores;

(K) simple pores; (L,M) small and large T-shaped pores; (N) tubular ducts;

(O) paired rectangular pores.

375

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Material examined: 1592, INDIA: Uttar Pra-

desh, Aligarh, on Hibiscus rosasinensis Linn.,

8-iv-1976 (R. K. Avasthi). Material deposit-

ed in Zoological Museum, Aligarh Muslim

University, Aligarh, India.

Hayat (1970, 1972, 1974), Hayat ef al.

(1972) and Shafee et al. (1973) recorded nine

species of chalcids as parasitising the insect.

We bred Physcus reticulatus Compere and

Annecke, Promuscidea unfaciativentris Girault

and Scutellista cyanea Motschulsky from Cero-

coccus hibisci Green. This brings the total

number of parasites to twelve species belong-

ing to the families Aphelinidae, Encyrtidae,

Pteromalidae and Thysanidae, a list of which

is given below:

(1) Chartocerus kerrichi (Agarwal), (2)

DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY,

ENTOMOLOGY SECTION,

ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY,

ALIGARH, (U.P.),

October, 135.1975.

Cheiloneurus fusiscapus Agarwal, (3) Eria-

phytis orientalis Hayat, (4) Euaphycus cero-

cocci Shafee et al., (5) Homalotylus ferrierei

Hayat et al., (6) Marietta javensis (Howard),

(7) Microterys. kerrichi Shafee et al., (8)

Physcus_ reticulatus Compere and Annecke,

(9) Promuscidea unfaciativentris Girault, (10)

Pseudmicroterys angustifrons Shafee et ai.,

(11) Pseudmicroterys cerococci Shafee et al.,

(12) Scutellista cyanea Motschulsky.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are deeply indebted to Prof. S. Mash-

hood Alam, Head, Department of Zoology,

for providing research facilities and are also

thankful to Prof. Nawab H. Khan for en-

couragement.

RAJENDRA KUMAR AVASTHLI |

SHAIKH ADAM SHAFEE—

REFERENCES

Aut, S. M. (1967): Description of a new and

records of some known Coccids (Homoptera) from

Bihar, India. Oriental Insects 1:29-43.

Ayyar, T. V. R. (1929): A contribution to our

knowledge of South Indian Coccidae (Scales and

Mealy bugs). Imp. Inst. Agric. Res. Pusa 197:1-73.

Hayat, M. (1970): Studies on the genera of the

family Signiphoridae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea)

recorded from India. Entomophaga 15:387-399.

————— (1972): A new Aphelinid genus

Eriaphytis (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) reared

from Cerococcus spp. Pol. Pismo Ent. 42:151-156. -

(1974): On some Indian species

of Aphelinidae with a description of new Cocco-

phagus (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). J. nat. Hist.

London, 8&:179-186.

ALAM, S. M. & AGARWAL, M. M.

(1972): Taxonomic survey of Encyrtid Parasites

(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in India. Alig. Mus.

Univ. Publ. (Zool. Ser.) Ind. Ins. Typ. 9:1-112.

SHAFEE, S. A., ALAM, S. M. & AGARWAL, M. M.

(1973): Taxonomic survey of Encyrtid Parasites

(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in India. Alig. Mus.

Univ. Publ. (Zool. Ser.) Ind. Ins. Typ. 10:1-125.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

24. FIRST RECORD OF ANOMALICORNIA MERCET (HYM.::

CHALCIDOIDEA, ENCYRTIDAE) IN INDIA

(With five text-figures)

Genus Anomalicornia Mercet

Anomalicornia Mercet, 1921, Trab. Mus. nac. Cienc.

nat. Madr., 1921: 86; Type-species: Anomalicor-

nia tenuicornis Mercet; monotypic.

The genus Anomalicornia is well- inown and

can be distinguished from other encyrtid

genera by the characteristic antennae (fig. 1)

(Antennae as long as body, funicle 7-segment-

ed, club 2-segmented, pedicel about one-half

the length of F 1); bidentate mandibles; gas-

ter with the tenth tergum occupying most of

the dorsum; paratergites long and narrow; and

the subgenital plate extending to apex of gas-

ter.

Anomalicorma tenuicornis Mercet (Figs. 1-5)

Anomalicornia tenuicornis Mercet, 1921, Trab. Mus.

nac. Cienc. nat. Madr., 1921: 86-87, &, macro-

pterous (Type in Madrid Museum).—Ferriere,

1955, Boll. Lab. zool. Gen. agr. Portici, 33: 352,

2, brachypterous and macropterous forms.—

Erdés, 1957, Acta zool. Acad. Sci. hung. 3: 13,

2, brachypterous.

1 Anomalicornia ruschkai Mercet, 1922, Boln. R.

Soc. espan. Hist. nat. Madr. 22: 294-296, 4,

brachypterous (Type in Madrid Museum).

Material examined: INDIA: Rajasthan, Lal-

garh near Bikaner, 26-x-1975, (19, macrop-

terous, D.R.S. Reg. No. A/798, partly dis-

sected and mounted on a glass slide), coll. M.

Hayat and party by sweeping over grasses.

A detailed description of the species was

given by Ferriére (1.c.). The following addi-

tional characters are noted in the specimen

under report:

1A. ruschkai was described from a brachypterous

male collected in Austria. Hoffer (1964) considers

it as a brachypterous form of A. tenuicornis, and

Female——tLength, 0.85 mm. Body colour more

or less brownish with the frontovertex dusky

yellow; axillae, sides of scutellum and meso-

pleura dark. Antennal scape and pedicel dusky

yellow, funicle and club brownish. Fore wings

hyaline in basal fourth (save a small dusky

patch at base), distal three-fourths faintly

infumate. Legs almost wholly dusky yellow.

Frontovertex about a fourth wider than

long; ocelli arranged in obtuse triangle, lateral

ocelli removed from eye margins by a distance

equal to interocellar distance; eyes small,

their dorsal length one-half width of fronto-

vertex. Fore wings about three times as long

as wide; venation ending far mesad of middle

of anterior margin; marginal vein slightly

longer than wide; post-marginal short; stigmal

vein with a short neck and expanded apex;

speculum closed behind by two rows of discal

setae (Fig. 2); marginal fringe short. Gaster as

long as head and throax combined; external

genitalia very short, extending from about

middle of penultimate ventral segment, their

total length less than half of middle tibia

(Figs. 3, 4a). Genitalia Anagyrine-type: third

valvulae absent and second valvifers broad;

outer plates rectangular with a ridge along

dorsal margin. Subgenital plate as in fig. 5.

Host: Rhizococcus albidus Goux [In Ba-

viere (Bavaria) ].

Distribution: PALAEARCTIC: Spain, Hungary,

CSSR, Austria, FRG, oRIENTAL: India (new

record). | é

Trjapitzin (1971) states that only one species is

known from the palaearctic region.

sH7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Figs. 1-5. Anomalicornia tenuicornis Mercet, 2: (1) Antenna; (2) Fore wing, basal

part showing venation and discal setation; (3) Middle tibia and tarsus; (4) Genitalia,

left half; (4a) the same, drawn at same scale as fig. 3; (5) Subgenital plate.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS T. G. Vazirani, Superintending Zoologist-in-

Charge, Desert Regional Station, Z.S.I., Jodh-

I am thankful to the Director, Zoological pur, for his encouragement and for useful

Survey of India, Calcutta, for providing all comments on the paper.

the necessary facilities; thanks are due to Dr.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, MOHAMMAD HAYAT

DESERT REGIONAL STATION,

JODHPUR,

October 19, 1976.

378

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Erpoés, J. (1957): Series Encyrtidarum novarum

hungaricarum. Acta zool. Acad. Sci. hung. 3:5-87.

FERRIERE, C. H. (1955): Encyrtides parasites de

Cochenilles sur Graminees. Boll. Lab. zool. Gen.

ager. Portici 33:350-364.

Horrer, A. in PECK, O., BoucEK, Z. & HOFFER,

A. (1964): Keys to the Chalcidoidea of Czecho-

slovakia (Insecta: Hymenoptera). Mem. ent. Soc.

Canada, No. 34:1-120.

MeErcET, R. G. (1921): Fauna Iberica Himen-

opteras. Fam. Encirtidos. Trab. Mus. nac. Cienc.

nat. Madr. 1921: XI + 732 pp.

(1922): Encirtidos de Europa Cen-

tral nuevos o poco conocidos. Boln. R. Soc. espan.

Hist. nat. Madr. 22:294-299.

TRJAPITZIN, V. A. (1971): Review of genera

of Palaearctic encyrtids (Hymenoptera, Encyrtidae).

Trud. vsez. Ent. Obsch. 54:68-155 (In Russian).

25. ROLE OF PALAS [BUTEA MONOSPERMA (LAM.) TAUB.]

LEAFSTALKS IN BAISAKHI STICKLAC PRODUCTION

Palas (Flame of the forest) is one of the com-

monest trees in the plains of India and is ex-

tensively utilised for lac cultivation. Being a

deciduous species it sheds its leaves by March-

April and, therefore, Glover (1937) consider-

ed its leafstalks of only negative value in lac

production, since in his view the lac insects

which settle on them during baisakhi (ran-

geeni-summer) crop also fall along with them.

Closer observations by us on heavily ino-

culated lac bearing trees, however, revealed

that although the leaflets of the trifoliate pin-

nate compound leaves are shed by the end

of March-April, the lac bearing leafstalks con-

sisting of petiole and rachis, remain attached

to the shoot till the end of May. These can

profitably be harvested ari (immature) during

April-May as advocated by Malhotra &

Krishnaswami (1962). Average length and

number per shoot was recorded to be 19.3 cm

TABLE 1

BAISAKHI ARI STICKLAC YIELD* FROM SHOOTS AND LEAFSTALKS

Average per tree yield (g)

Percent con-

502 60

Broodlac

Used per we .

tree maw STICKS

i apes ae Total

600 1470 130 1600

ee 1534 232 1766

1000 1580 274 1854

1200 2116 370 7486

1400 DISS 392 2647

1600 2383 400 aa

1800 2466 403 7869

Av erage 1972 =e

rh = : a

LF a nN I a nN

* Average of 4 Replications.

SCRAPED LAC bb aeee RY

leafstalks

Shoots ae Total

562 10.7

539 8i 620 13.1

541 114 655 17.5

655 182 837 21.8

18 197 975 20.2

855 164 1019 16.1

965 157 1122 14.0

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

and 11.7 cm respectively (average of 100

shoots).

In order to assess the precise quantitative

contribution of leafstalks, an experiment was

laid out under a randomized block design on

a total of 280 trees, with seven brood rates

ranging from 600 to 1800 g/tree, replicated

four times with 10 trees per plot, at Kundri

lac area, Palamau, Bihar. Inoculations were

done in October 1973 and ari harvesting dur-

ing the first week of May 1974. Yield record

has been summarised in table 1.

It is apparent from the above table that on

the average 16.5 per cent sticklac (scraped

lac) has been contributed by the leafstalks

(variation 10.7 to 21.8 per cent). This con-

tribution is lost when the baisakhi is cropped

INDIAN LAc RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

NAMKUM, RANCHI, BIHAR,

October 13, 1976.

at the time of maturity during June-July and

becomes available when cropped ari during

April-May. Malhotra & Krishnaswami (1962)

recorded 41 per cent average post-April re-

duction in sticklac yield and thus advocated

ari harvesting. They, however, could not satis-

factorily explain the causes of this extraordi-

nary discrepancy. The present work endeav-

ours to point out a major source of crop loss —

and supports the view of cropping of lac as

ari for the sake of sticklac production in areas

of hot climate.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to Dr T. P. S. Teotia,

Director for encouragement.

R. C. MISHRA

C. P. MALHOTRA |

REFERENCES

GLover, P. M. (1937): Lac Cultivation in India.

Indian Lac Research Institute, Namkum, Ranchi.

Ma.uHoTrA, C. P. & KRISHNASWAMI, S. (1962):

sticklac. Indian J. Ent. 24:53-57.

26. OCCURRENCE OF THE ASPIDOCHIROTE HOLOTHURIAN,

HOLOTHURIA (SEMPEROTHURIA) CINERASCENS (BRANDT

1835) ALONG THE COAST OF KANYAKUMARI (S. INDIA)

(With a photograph and two _ text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

During an ecological and faunistic survey of

the east coast of India we had an opportunity

to collect specimens of an Aspidochirote holo-

thurian from rocky shores along the coast of

Kanyakumari at Vattakotai, Leepuram, Chin-

namuttom, Kovalam, Kadiapattinam, Muttom

380

and Colachel. Detailed examination of these

Proper time of harvesting for maximising yield of ©

specimens revealed that they are Holothuria —

cinerascens (Brandt).

Diagnosis: Body cylindrical (Photo. 1), 12 to

28 cm long. Tentacles 20, peltate. Pedicels in

three rows ventrally, papillae scattered dor-

sally. Radials twice larger than inter-radials.

Polian vesicle single, bulbous.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Internal anatomy of adult, dissected from the dorsal side.

Abbreviations: a.n.—Anus; a.s.i—mAscending small intestine; c.l.—Cloaca; c.r—Cal-

careous ring; c.v.—Collecting vessel; d.h.s—Dorsal haemal sinus; d.s.1—Descending

small intestine; g—Gonad; 1.1.—Large intestine; 1.m.b.—Longitudinal muscle band;

lr.—kLeft respiratory tree; p.—Polian vesicle; r.r.—Right respiratory tree; r.m.—Rete

mirabile; s.—Stomach; s.c.—Stone canal; t.—Tentacle; v.h.s.—Ventral haemal sinus.

381

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

; 0.4mm

Fig. 2. Calcareous deposits.

382

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The haemal system is well developed with

rete mirabile (Fig. 1). Respiratory tree with

main trunks which carry numerous small side

branches, the left one lie in association with

the rete mirabile. Gonad is single with irre-

gularly branching vesicular Caeca.

Photo. 1.

Holothuria cinerascens (Brandt), dorsal

view.

Colour in life yellowish green, changing to

brown on preservation.

Calcareous deposits:

Body wall deposits consisting of tables, rods

and rounded plates; tables .04 mm long with-

out disc. Fig. 2 (a) spire moderately high,

terminating in a few spines forming a maltese

cross in dorsal view; rods (b) simple, smaller

MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

69, SANTHOME HIGH RoapD,

Mapras. 600 028,

_ October 20, 1976.

than in tentacles, some with three arms. The

rounded plates (c) have an average diameter

of 0.11 mm with numerous holes.

Tentacle rods (d) straight or curved, 0.13

mm long, with short, blunt projections and

perforations.

Tubefeet deposits in the form of rounded

end plates of .11 mm diameter.

Distribution: This species is a common Indo-

Pacific form (Clark & Rowe 1971). In India

it has been recorded from Mandapam (Gulf

of Mannar, Vizingam (Arabian sea), Minicoy

(Laccadives), Rangat Bay (Andamans) (D. B.

James 1969). The new localities recorded here

enlarge the distribution of this species. As the

species is a rock dwelling form, it is likely to

have a wider distribution along the rocky

coasts of South India.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We acknowledge the help in collecting the

material by M. Ramalingam, Junior Zoolo-

gical Assistant, Marine Biological Station, ZSI

and Dr. Pawson, for confirmation of identi-

fication of the species. Our thanks are due

to Dr. A. Daniel, Deputy Director, Marine

Biological Station, Zoological Survey of India,

for his encouragement.

M. MARY BAI

M. BHARATHI RAMANATHAN

REFERENCES

CLARK, A. M. & Rowe, F. W. E. (1971): Mono-

graph of shallow water Indo-West Pacific Echino-

derms. Trustees of the British Museum (Natural

History) London.

JAMES, D. B. (1969): Catalogue of echinoderms

in the reference collections of the Central Marine

Fisheries Research Institute. Bull. Cent. Mar. Fish.

Res. Inst. 7:51-62.

383

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

27. ON THE NOMENCLATURE OF SOME INDIAN AND BURMESE

SPECIES OF DYSOPHYLLA BLUME (LAMIACEAE)

Basing on the character of opposite leaves in

the genus Pogostemon Desf. and verticillate or

whorled leaves in Dysophylla Blume, together

with differences in shape of corolia and some

anatomical characters, two groups of species

were recognised by El-Gazzar & Watson

(1967). Four species of Dysophylla constitut-

ing Bentham’s (1868) section ‘“‘Oppositifoliae”’

as elaborated by J. D. Hooker (1885) were re-

moved by them to Pogostemon Desf. as these

had opposite leaves. These four species include

the type species of Dysophylla Bl.: Dyso-

phylla_ auricularia (L.) Blume. Dysophylla

Blume therefore became a generic synonym

of Pogostemon Desf., and a large number of

species of Dysophylla were left without a

generic name. To avoid many name changes,

H. K. Airy-Shaw (1967) very reasonably sug-

gested retaining the name Dysophylia for these

species by establishing and conserving the

genus Dysophylla El-Gazzar & Watson (La-

biatae) against Dysophylla Bl. (Labiatae),

with a corresponding new type.

Airy Shaw has given the amended diagnosis

as follows: ““Dysophylla El-Gazzar & Watson,

gen. nov. et nom. gen. cons. prop. Folia verti-

cillata, 3-10 pro verticillo, linearia, sessilia,

plerumque glabra. Calyx tubularis, 5-dentatus.

Corolla subaequaliter quadrifida. Stamina 4,

aequalia, exserta. Filamenta barbata. Antherae

terminales, uniloculares, tranverse dehiscen-

tes.-Herbae helophyticae—species c. 30. Spe-

cies typica: Dysophylla quadrifolia Benth.”

As no alternative name was available and

the name Dysophylla was universally used

for the 30 species included in the group, Airy

Shaw preferred to retain the name by conser-

ving the same, with the above amended dia-

gnosis.

384

Keng (1969) in his revision of Malaysian

Labiatae, expressed the opinion that if Airy

Shaw’s proposal is accepted and Dysophylla

El-Gazzar et Watson is conserved, the type

species should be Dysophylla stellata (Lour.)

Benth. rather than Dysophylla quadrifolia

Benth. as proposed.

On the other hand, Bakhuizen van den

Brink and Van Steenis (1968) pointed out

that Dysophylla El-Gazzar & Watson ex Airy

Shaw became a clear homonym of the earlier

name Dysophyila Blume. They further pointed

out the existence of a synonym of Dysophylla

sens. auct. namely Eusteralis Refinesque, FI.

Teliur. 2:95. 1836, based on Eusteralis pum-

ila (Grah.) Rafin. (Basionym: Mentha pum-

ila Grah. 1828), which could be used as the

generic name for these species of Dysophylla.

From their statement it appears that they were

in favour of retaining the name Dysophylla,

but they did not clarify why they did not ac-

cept the arrangement of Airy Shaw, who had

already amended the diagnosis of Dysophylla

and named as type for the same an early

species of the genus. They were of the opinion

that Pogostemon Desf. (1815) should also be

conserved against an older name Alopecuro-

Veronica L. (1759). There was another pro-

posal to conserve Dysophylla Blume (1826)

against Alopecuro-Veronica L. (1759).

Cie)

The Nomenclature Committee of LA.P.T. |

(International Association of Plant Taxono- —

my) regarded conservation of Dysophylla and —

Pogostemon against

unnecessary (Taxon 23:

Alopecuro-Veronica as —

819-820, November —

1974). Dr. F. A. Stafleu, of the Association ©

at Netherlands, advised, in reply to a per-

sonal enquiry,

that “‘proposals to conserve —

Dysophylla, in one way or another, were re- _

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

jected.”’ So the attempts to stabilize botanical

nomenclature,

known generic name

by conservation of the well-

Dysophylla, were not

successful in this case. In the present circum-

stances, the only alternative is to adopt the

generic name Eusteralis Rafin. for all the

verticillate leaved species of Dysophylla, re-

sulting in a series of nomenclatural transfers,

some of which are proposed below:

Be.

Eusteralis linearis

Comb. nov.

Dysophylla linearis Benth. in DC.

Prodr. 12:157. 1848: Hook. f. in FI. Brit.

India 4:639. 1885.

Khasi hills, 4000-6000 ft.

(Benth.) Majumdar

Eusteralis stellata (Lour.) Majumdar

comb. nov.

Mentha stellata Lour. Fl. Cochinch. 2:

Sol, 1790.

Mentha verticillata Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3:5.

1832.

Dysophylla verticillata (Roxb.) Benth.

in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 1:30. 1830; Hook

f. Fl. Brit. India 4:639. 1885.

Bengal, Sylhet, Rangoon, Burma, Mal-

aya, China, Australia. ;

Eusteralis quadrifolia (Roxb.) Majumdar

comb. nov.

Dysophylla quadrifolia (Roxb.) Benth:

in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 1:30. 1830; Hook.

f. Fl. Brit. India 4:639. 1885.

Mentha quadrifolia Roxb. Pl. Ind. 3:30.

1832:

Khasi hills, Chittagong,

Kanara, Konkan, Mysore.

Eusteralis cruciata (Benth.) Majumdar

comb. nov.

Dysophylla cruciata Benth. in Wall. PI.

Tenasserim,

As. Rar. 1:30. 1830. Hook. f. Fl. Brit:

India 4:639. 1885.

Dysophylla_tetraphylla Wight Ic. t.

1444.

. Eusteralis helferi

Dysophylla quadrifolia D. Don, Prodr.

113." 1825.

Himalaya: Kumaon to Nepal; Khasi

hills; Nilgiri hills. .

. Eusteralis crassicaulis (Benth.) Majumdar

comb. nov. var. crassicaulis

Dysophylla crassicaulis Benth. in Wall.

Pl. As. Rar. 1:30. 1830. Hook. f. FI. Brit.

India 4:640. 1885.

Himalaya: Kashmir to Chamba, Sik-

kim; Bengal; Assam: Sylhet, Khasi hills.

. Eusteralis crassicaulis (Benth.) Majumdar

var. pumila (Grah.) Majumdar comb.

nov.

D. crassicaulis Benth. var. pumila Hook.

f. Fl. Brit. India 4:640. 1885.

D.- pumila Benth. l.c.; Wall. Cat. 1546.

Mentha pumila Grah. in Edinb. New

Phil. Journ. 393. 1828.

Bengal; Assam: Khasi and Garo hills.

(Hook. f.) Majumdar

comb. nov.

Dysophylla_ helferi Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

India 4:640. 1885.

Tenasserim: East Pagoda.

. Eusteralis malabarica (Heyne ex Hook.

f.) Majumdar comb. nov.

Dysophylla stellata Benth. in Wall. Pl.

As. Rar. 1:30. 1830; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. -

India 4:640. 1885; Wall. Cat. 1542; Bot.

Rep: 1845.24. 23.

Mentha stellata Ham. in Roxb. FI. Ind.

BED. 1O32.

Mentha malabarica Herb. Heyne (1777-

1819 in Wallich’s list 1542) ex Hook. f.

I.c. ut syn.

South India: Belgaum southwards.

. Eusteralis tomentosa (Dalz.) Majumdar

comb. nov.

Dysophylla tomentosa Dalz. in Hook.

Kew Journ. 2:337. 1850. Hook. f. FI.

Brit. India 4:641. 1885.

385

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL

South India: Malabar, South Konkan.

10. Eusteralis gracilis (Dalz.) Majumdar

comb. nov.

Dysophylla gracilis Dalz. in Hook. Kew

Journ. 2:337. 1850; Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

India 4:641. 1885.

Peninsular India: Sahyadri hills.

11. Eus‘eralis erecta (Dalz.) Majumdar comb.

nov.

Dysophylla erecta Dalz. in Hook. Kew

Journ. 2:337. 1850; Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

India 4:641. 1885.

South India: Malabar, South Konkan.

12. Eusteralis pentagoma (Clarke ex Hook. f.)

Majumdar comb. nov.

Dysophylla pentagona Clarke ex Hook.

f. Fl. Brit. India 4:641. 1885.

Bihar: Singhbhum district, 2000 ft.

13. Eusteralis griffithii (Hook. f.) Majumdar

comb. nov.

Dysophylla_ griffithii Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

India 4:641. 1885.

14. Eusteralis stocksii (Hook. f.) Majumdar

comb. nov.

Dysophylla_ stocksii Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

India 4:642. 1885.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

Howrau 3,

November 1, 1975.

HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

South India: The Konkan.

15. Eusteralis andersonit (Prain) Majumdar

comb. nov.

Dysophylla andersonii Prain in Journ.

As. Soc. Bengal 59(2):298. 1891.

Sikkim terai.

16. Eusteralis kachinensis (Mukerjee) Maj-

umdar comb. nov.

Dysophylla kachinensis Mukherjee in

Notes Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 19:304.

1938.

Upper Burma: Kachin.

17. Eusteralis peguana (Prain)

comb. nov.

Dysophylla peguana Prain in Journ.

As. Soc. Bengal 59(2):299. 1891.

Burma: Pegu, Moulmein.

Majumdar |

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

[ am grateful to Dr. M. P. Nayar, Keeper,

Central National Herbarium, Botanical Sur-

vey of India, for kindly going through the

manuscript and for suggestions for its improve-

ment.

N. C. MAJUMDAR

REFERENCES

AirY SHAW, H. K. (1967): The genus Dysophylla

Blume—A nomenclatural note. Taxon 16(3):189-

190.

BAKHUIZEN VAN DEN BRINK, R. C. & VAN STEENIS,

C. G. G. J. (1968): A note on Pogostemon Desf. and

Dysophylla Bl. Taxon 17:235-236.

BENTHAM, G. (1848): Labiatae in De Candolle’s

Prodromus Systematis naturalis regni vegetabilis

12:156-158. Paris.

386

EL-GazzaR, A. & WATSON, L. (1967): Conse-

quences of an escape from floral minutiae and

floristics in certain Labiatae. Taxon 16:186-189.

Hooker, J. D. (1885): Flora of British India

4:638. London.

KENG, H. (1969): Flora Malesianae Precursores

48. A Revision of Malesian Labiatae. Gard. Bull.

24: 13-180.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

28. SESBANIA SESBAN (LINN.)

MERRILL VAR. PICTA

COMB. NOV.

While describing, and systematically rearrang-

ing the new species and the species not men-

tioned by J. G. Baker in the FLORA OF THE

BRITISH INDIA, under the genus Sesbania

Adans. corr. Scop. Prain (1897) had made

certain varietal combinations under Sesbania

aegyptiaca Poir. corr. Pers. Besides var. typica,

the following varieties have been mentioned

by Prain on the basis of the colour of the

flowers:

1. var. picta Prain; and 2. var. bicolor Wight

& Arn. :

Merrill (1912) studied the taxonomic status

of the Sesbania spp. found in Manila, and

treated S. aegyptiaca Poir. corr. Pers. as a

synonym of S. sesban (Linn.) Merrill.

Andrews (1952), while reviewing the species

of Sesbania recorded from Sudan, found that

the var. bicolor Wight & Arn. was not men-

tioned under S. sesban (Linn.) Merrill, and

made a new combination S. sesban (Linn.)

PUBLICATIONS & INFORMATION DIRECTORATE,

CSIR, Hitisiwe Roan,

New Dern 110012,

October 30, 1975.

ANDREWS, F. W. (1952): The Flowering Plants

cf the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Published for the

Sudan Government by T. Buncle & Co. Ltd., Scot-

land: Il, 232.

MERRILL, E. D. (1912): Nomenclature and syste-

Merrill var. bicolor (Wight & Arn.) Andr.

The new variety ‘picta’ created by Prain,

mentioned as, ‘apparently not native to India

though widely cultivated there’, has not been

combined under Sesbania sesban (Linn.)

Merrill, which necessitates a new combination.

Therefore, the following new combination is

proposed:

Sesbania sesban (Linn.) Merrill var. picta

(Prain) Tenjarla & P. S. Gupta

S. aegyptiaca Poir. corr. Pers. var. picta

Prain, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng., 66, pt. II(2),

367 (1897); S. picta Poir. corr. Pers., Synop.

Plan., Il, 316 (1807); Aeschynomene picta

Cav. 1 evive 733113 14)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to Mr K. Kashyapa, Sci-

entist, Publications and Information Direct-

orate (CSIR), for his valuable suggestions.

TENJARLA C. S. SASTRY

P. S. GUPTA

matic notes on the Flora of, Manila. Philipp. J. Sci.

Bot., 7C:227-252.

PRAIN, D. (1897): Noviciae Indicae: XV. Some

Additional Leguminosae. J. Asiat. Soc. Beng., 66,

pt. II (2): 347-513.

387

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

29. AN ADDITION TO INDIAN POLYGONUMS FROM NORTHERN

HIMALAYAS

(With a text-figure)

While studying the Polygonaceae of Northern

Himalayas, I came across some interesting

specimens of Polygonum at an altitude of

about 4000 m. On critical examination of the

specimens I concluded that the specimens be-

long to section Bistorta sensu. Hook. f.

Hooker in FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA has kept

Polygonum bistorta L. as a doubtful and im-

perfect species due to the mixture of speci-

mens of different species. My specimens turn-

ed out to be of P. pacificum V. petr. as des-

cribed in Flora USSR. Since the taxon has

not been reported earlier from India it is re-

corded here. The voucher specimens are de-

posited in Herbarium, Department of Botany,

University of Kashmir, Srinagar.

Polygonum pacificum V. petr. in herbario

Petrop. (1917) nomen; Kom in Not. Syst. ex

Herb. H.B. p. VI (1926) 2, diagnosis; Kom.

in. Fl. USSR. 4: 682. 1936. (Fig. 1).

Perennial herb, ascending to erect with tuft-

ed and creeping branched root stock, 50-80

cm high. Flowering stem slender; internodes

glabrous, hollow, grooved. Leaves simple, al-

ternate, coriaceous, hairy; basal leaves petio-

DEPT. OF BOTANY,

UNIVERSITY OF KASHMIR,

SRINAGAR,

October 23, 1975.

388.

late, oblong to lanceolate with cordate base,

acute to acuminate, crenulate, ciliate, 20-30

cm iong, 4-10 cm broad; upper leaves ampl-

exi-caule or sub-sessile, lanceolate, cordate acu-

minate, crenulate, ciliate, 8-20 cm long, 2-6

cm broad; veins forming 30-45° with mid

vein. Ochrea brown, 4-7 cm long, tip free,

nerves prominent, hairy on nerves. Flowers

in stout = curved, dense, 3-10 cm long race-

mes. Flowers 1-2 mm across, bracteate, pedi-

cellate; bracts membranous, imbricate, attach-

ed and covering the lower half of the pedicels,

lanceolate, acuminate, 2-3 mm long; perianth

5, in two whorls, elliptic to ovate, equal or un-

equal, 2-3 x 1-1.7 mm, pinkish green; stamens

8, in two whorls, filaments long, exserted.

Ovary trigonous, 0.7-1 mm; style 3, exserted,

stigma small, deciduous. Pedicels 3-7 mm

long. Not 3-5 x 2-3 mm, trigonous, brown,

shining.

Flowers: July-October.

Locality: Kashmir: Mahadev Range: AHM

1690, AHM 1791, AHM 1795. Bobjan: AHM

1930, AHM 1963, 1967.

A. M. MUNSHI

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Vid

AY Wy

HOP,

Ki ,5 9,

Fig. 1. Polygonum pacificum V. Petr.

A. A branch; B. Basal leaf; C. Flower; D. V.S. of Flower; E. Nut.

389

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

30. OCCURRENCE OF PEPLIDIUM MARITIMUM WETTYTEST. IN

RAJASTHAN

The genus Peplidium Delile (Scrophulariaceae)

is represented by two species, an endemic

Australian species and P. maritimum Wettest.,

distributed in Kurdistan, Egypt, Australia,

Sri Lanka and W. peninsular India. Recently,

the species has also been reported from the

Gangetic plains (see Checklist of the Flora

of the Upper Gangetic Plains. M. A. Rao,

1969). P. maritimum has not been reported

earlier from any locality in Rajasthan, hence,

its occurrence at Darah in Kotah district and

Luni river near Jodhpur are new locality re-

cords for the species.

The species is found in fresh, still water

of ponds and rivers forming a pure com-

munity. It closely

muscosa Br., but can be distinguished by the

following characters:

ARID ZONE CIRCLE, B.S.L,

D-7, SHASTRI NAGAR,

JODHPUR, (RA).),

October 30, 1975.

31. OCCURRENCE OF JPOMOEA SINDICA STAPF IN S. INDIA

resembles Microcarpaea.

Submerged or free-float-

ing herbs; stem 15-30 cm or more long, flex-

uose, much branched, interlaced; leaves op-

posite, not exceeding 2 x 1.5 cm, exstipulate, |

obovate or oblong, fleshy, entire; petioles —

sheathing and two of a node are connected

by a membrane; flowers white or pinkish

white, 1-3 in the axils of the leaves, shortly

pedicelled; calyx-teeth 5, obtuse; corolla 2/3; |

stamens 2, ineluded; anthers 1-celled; stigma

one, spathulate, curved towards 2-celled ovary; —

capsule ovate or oblong, enclosed in the en- |

larged calyx, papery, bursting irregularly; |

seeds many, small, oblong.

The specimens are deposited in the herba- |

rium of Department of Botany, J. V. College, _

Baraut (Meerut) Singh 110013 and Arid Zone |

Circle, BSI., Jodhpur (Tiwari 651).

VIJENDRA SINGH |

(With a text-figure)

During routine plant collection visits to Law

College Hills near Poona, an unusual plant

of Ipomoea type was noticed. Morphological

features of the collected plant were quite dif-

ferent and we could not match it with any

local species of the Convolvulaceae occurring

in Western Maharashtra. The plant is herba-

ceous, slender, prostrate annual with wiry

hispid stem and hastate deltoid leaves. It

grows luxuriently among grass and low

shrubs. In open exposed areas and in coarse

390

soil, it is sub-erect and dwarf. However in

clayey, loamy or black soil, it usually twines |

around itself and spreads on neighbonal |

tall grass and shrubs. Flowers are white show- |

ing striking similarity with Ipomoea criccanaa |

R. Br. The deceptive resemblance to the above.

species may be perhaps the reason why its

occurrence was ignored till now.

The species is very closely related to Ipeal

moea eriocarpa R. Br. from which it is dis-

tinguished by (1) small size of the plant, (2)i |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

7™mm

Fig. 1. Ipomoea sindica Stapf

1. Plant; (Erect form); 2. Flower; 3. V.S. of flower; 4. Bracts; 5. Carpal; 6. T.S. of

ovary; 7. Capsule; 8. Seed.

391

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

more hispid nature of the leaves and other

parts of the plant, (3) pure white colour of

the flower, (4) glabrous capsule and (5) black

grey velvety seeds.

Otto Stapf (1894) had recorded Ipomoea

sindica from Sindh for the first time. Its

geographical distribution was supposed to be

limited to the arid zone of Sindh, Baluchistan

and Afghanistan. Maheshwari (1963) report-

ed its occurrence from Delhi area and it was

also reported near Pavagad in Gujarat State

by Chavan & Oza (1966).

The present note records this species from

Poona probably for the first time. The dis-

tribution of the species now extends to Poona

District which forms the southern-most limit

of its record in the Indian sub-continent.

Vartak (1957, 1959, 1962) reported the pos-

sible migratory path of some xeric and ephe-

meral species from North Africa, Arabia,

MAHARASHTRA ASSOCIATION FOR THE

CULTIVATION OF SCIENCE,

Law COLLEGE Roap,

PUNE 411 004,

October 1, 1975.

REFERENCES

CHAVAN, A. R. & Oza, G. M. (1966): The Flora

of Pavagadh (Gujarat State), India. M.S. University

Baroda Publication.

CookE, T. (1901-1908): The flora of Presidency

of Bombay. 2:313.

MAHESHwWarRI, J. K. (1965): The flora of Delhi.

C.S.LR. Publ. Delhi.

VarRTAK, V. D. (1957): Some imperfectly known

32. OCCURRENCE OF WATER FERN MARSILEA NEAR DIGHA

Baluchistan and North West India to Deccan

Plateau. He has also quoted occurrence of

Middle East species like Monsonia_senegal-

ensis Guill., Senebiera pinnatifida DC., Noth-

osaerua brachiata Wight., Indigofera ana-

baptista Steud., Taveriniera nummularia DC.,

Elyonurus royleanus Nees, in Central Maha-

rashtra. He suggests the same possible mig-

ratory route of this species via Gujarat plains.

Flowers: August-October.

Fruits: September-November.

Voucher Specimens: Poona Law College

Hills——Very common. (H: M.A.CS. 201253)

20138). | |

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to acknowledge our indebtedness

to Dr. G. B. Deodikar and Dr. T. S. Maha-—

bale, M. A. C. S. Poona, for guidance and |

encouragement. |

REKHA DATAR

V. D. VARTAK |

plants from Poona and Satara Districts. I. Jour.

Poona Univ. Sc. 10:5-12.

— (1959): Some unrecorded grasses

from Poona District, Bombay State. Journ. Agr. |

Coll. Mag. 50(3) :139-145.

——_—_——— (1962): Some imperfectly known |

plants from Poona and Satara Districts. H. Jour.)

Poona Univ. Sc. 18:77-98. |

SEA BEACH IN WEST BENGAL (INDIA)

The Water fern Marsilea is known to be a about 100 km from Calcutta. The fern was.

fresh water fern. It was surprising therefore seen growing luxuriantly in a short nullah|

to locate this fern near Digha sea beach adjacent (about 100 metres) to the sea.

392

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

beach. It was obvious that this part of the

nullah is regularly inundated during high

tide though in the month of June, 1973 when

we visited this particular locality was not

flooded by sea water. In any case the location

of this fern just adjacent to a sea coast is

quite unusual and not reported so far. That

this particular Marsilea has become used to

salinity was obvious when some live plants:

brought by us from this locality refused to

grow in the Botanic Garden of Government

College, Ajmer. Generally Marsilea is a fern

PTERIDOPHYTE BroLocy LAB.,

BoTANY DEPARTMENT,

Govt. CoLLEGE, AJMER,

@ciober 2, 1975.

which can be easily cultivated in the garden.

As there were no sperocarps we could not

identify the species but since only M. minuta

is found in West Bengal, one may assume

with a fair degree of certainty that this Mar-

silea growing near Digha sea beach is M.

minuta. Tolerance and adaptability to saline

conditions adds another dimension to the

wide ecological amplitude of this plastic genus.

Further records of this genus around sea

beaches would be gratefully received by us.

T. N. BHARDWAJA

| S. K. SEN

33. TWO NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR INDIA

Subsequent to the publication of Hooker’s

FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA (1872-96) several wor-

kers, including Duthie (1893-94), Meebold

(1909), Coventry (1923-30), Blatter (1927-

29), Rao (1960-61), Dutt, et al. (1965) have

contributed materially towards the enumer-

ation of flowering plants of Kashmir valley.

Recently Stewart (1972) who collected plants

from Jammu and Kashmir State from 1916-

1966 published a catalogue of plants occurring

in the area. A perusal of the above and other

available literature reveals that the following

‘two taxa of. the family Brassicaceae (Cruci-

ferae) have not been reported so far from

India, so the authors put it on records.

Lepidium virgmicum Linn., Sp. Pi. 645,

753.

Annual herb, 6-68 cm tall, branched or un-

branched, erect (rarely procumbent) with

long curved, appressed, simple hairs. Basal

\ lobed with =

leaves upto 8 cm long, lyrate or pinnately

rounded terminal lobes,

ae rough; middle and upper leaves simple,

sharply toothed, with hairy margins; upper-

most linear, 10 mm long, c. 1 mm broad.

Racemes 8.5 cm long in fruit, 100-flowered.

Flowers 1.5 mm across. Sepals elliptic-ovate,

1-1.3 mm long, lateral saccate. Petals white,

1.5-2 mm long. Stamens 2 or 4. Pedicels

spreading, filiform, 3-4 mm _ long. Siliculae

glabrous, suborbicular, 3(-4) mm long,

3(-3.5) mm broad, winged above, shining and

reticulately veined. Style short and stigma in-

cluded within notch. Seeds brown, narrowly

winged, 2 mm long, | mm_ broad; radicle

accumbent.

Type: Described from Virginia, Jamaica.

Specimens examined (Herbarium, University

of Kashmir). A. R. Nagshi, Lagama (Uri)

4970 & 4971; Cheshmashahi (Srinagar) 3112;

Sonervani 3720; Verinagh 3208. B. A. Wafai,

Baderwah (Doda Distt.) 435 under L. ruderale

L. Kashmir University Herbarium No. 4580,

4581 & 4579 under L. ruderale L.

395

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

The plant occupies an intermediate position

between L. ruderale L. and L. densiflorum

Schrad. and has been misidentified as L. rud-

erale L. in our area. The taxon can easily

be distinguished from the above mentioned

taxa by accumbent radicle as against incum-

bent in the other taxa. Two very commonly

occurring species in our area (L. capitatum

Hook. f. & Thoms., L. apetalum Willd.) are

very closely allied to the taxon in a number

of characters, but can easily be isolated from

newly reported plant by having petals shorter

than sepals, when present; siliculae ovate-

oblong; radicle incumbent.

Jafri (1973) in his Brassicaceae of West

Pakistan does not seem to have recognised.

its occurrence in the area, but has included

in his book referring Kitamura’s (1964) re-

port from W. Pakistan. Similar is the case

with R. R. Stewart (1972), who totally re-

futes its occurrence either in Pakistan or in

Kashmir, and gives it a dubius place in his

catalogue of Vascular Plants of W. Pakistan

and Kashmir.

Malcolmia taraxacifolia Balbis ex Vass., in

Kom., Fl. U.R.S.S. 8:283, 1939; Ball, in FI.

Europ. 1:277, 1964; Rech. f., Fl. Iran. 57:

260, 1968.

Cheiranthus taraxacifolia Balbis, Syn. Pl.

Bot. Taur. app. 7:10, 1814; M. africana var.

intermedia C. A. Mey., Verz. Pfl. Cauc. 186,

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

UNIVERSITY OF KASHMIR,

SRINAGAR 190 006,

September 9, 1975.

394

1831; Jafri, lc. 220; Fedschenkoa_ taraxaci-

folia (Balbis ex Vass.) Dvorak, in Fedde,

Report. 81(6-7): 403, 1970; Strigosella in-

termedia (C.A.M.) Botsch., J. Bot. U.R.S:S.

7(9):1083, 1972.

Annual herb, 10-20 cm tall, erect to sub-

erect, lower portion densely hairy with simple

to branched hairs. Basal leaves long stalked,

rosulate, oblong-lanceolate, entire to sinuate-

dentate, upto 6 cm long; cauline leaves sinu-

ate-dentate, stalked, smaller above. Racemes

5-10 flowered, lax in fruit. Flowers 4-5 mm

across. Sepals slightly saccate at base, 2.5-

3 mm long. Petals pinkish, 4-5(-—8) mm long.

Stamens 6; filaments 2:3 mm long. Pedicels

horizontal-erect, as thick as fruit, 1-1.5 mm |

long. Siliquae quadriangular, glabrous, linear- :

oblong, 35-60 mm long, 1 mm broad; valves —

1-3 veined. Style c. 1 mm long. Seeds uniseri-

ate, upto 35 in each locule, oblong, brown, |

= compressed.

Specimens examined (Herbarium, Univer- |

sity of Kashmir).

A. R. Nagqshi, Fort Hariparbat

3132 & 3966.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

(Srinagar)

Thanks are due to Prof. P. Kachroo, Head |

of the Department for his kind help and en- |

couragement during the investigations.

A. R. NAQSHI -

G. N. JAVEID >

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

34. OCCURRENCE OF ALTERNATIVE VERNATION IN SPATHE

OF ZANTEDESCHIA AETHIOPICA AND OTHER ARACEAE

(With six photographs)

INTRODUCTION

In an earlier paper we have described four

types of cyathia in Euphorbia milii (Euphor-

biaceae) with regard to the vernation of bracts

in clockwise, counter clockwise and neutral

manner (Bahadur & Reddy 1975). In con-

tinuation of our studies on handedness in In-

dian plants, we propose to describe in this

communication hitherto unknown observations

on alternative vernation of spathe in four

genera of Araceae namely Zantedeschia

aethiopica, Typhonium trilobatum, Caladium

bicolor and Xanthosoma species.

bicolor Vent., Xanthosoma violaceum Schott.,

and X. sagittifolium Schott., plants growing

in the Botanic Garden, Post Graduate Centre,

Warangal, provided the data. The spathes

show convolution to the left (clockwise twist-

ing) or to the right (counter clockwise twist-

ing) which in bud condition remains tightly

coiled around the spadix but as the bud un-

folds the convolution of the spathe becomes

more clear. Such left and right handed spathes

were sampled for all the species for over 3

years except Z. aethiopica which was sampled

once during September, 1972.

TABLE 1

FREQUENCY OF LEFT AND RIGHT HANDED SPATHES IN

Population 7 Left a oe

Number spathes spathes

1 156 133

2 98 104

3 53 36

4 44 40

5) 29 20

Zantedeschia aethiopica

x2 ae

Lok L-R 1:1 Pivalncie

289 “93 1.484 50-20

202 LAG 0.178 80-50

89 7 3.247 20-5

84 a4 0.190 80-50

49 —9 1.653 20-5

50-20

Populations 1 to 4 around the Lake at Ootacamund

Populations 5 & 6 near Railway bridge, Ootacamund

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data on Zantedeschia aethiopica Spreng.

was collected while the authors were on a field

trip to Ootacamund, Tamil Nadu. But on

Typhonium trilobatum Schott., Caladium

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS

Zantedeschia aethiopica: This species grows

in marshy habitats at higher altitudes and

forms dense strands around the lake at Oota-

camund. The species has an under ground

395

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Photos. 1 & 2. Left and right handed spathes of Zantedeschia aethiopica. Photos. 3 & |

4. Left and right handed spathes of Typhonium trilobatum.

396 |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

‘tuber which gives off large, simple, radical,

cordate leaves on rather long petioles. The

spathe is white, twisted to the left or right in

any given spadix, Photos. 1 & 2 forming a con-

stricted mouth with an inflated basal region,

expanded above into a spotless white limb.

The spadix is white, silky, and bears numerous

minute unisexual flowers. Data on left and

right handed spathes on individual plants was

difficult as it was impossible to locate the un-

der ground tuber as belonging to a given

plant. Hence numerical data on the frequency

of left and right handed spathes was collect-

ed on plants forming well defined populations

(clones!) and the results are summarised in

Table 1. Out of 742 spathes sampled, 392

were left handed, 350 were right handed with

no neutrals.

Of the two populations showing excess of

right handers, population 2 is not different

from equality but population 6 shows devi-

ation, the X? and p value is not significant.

Rest of the populations show excess of left

‘-handers including on the total (52.9%). The

“X? values on populations 3 and on the total

are significant.

Typhonium trilobatum: This species is a

tuberous herb with radical, trilobed lamina

-on a long petiole. The spadix is 15 to 20 cm

‘long and 6 to 8 cm wide tapering into a point-

ed limb which may be either straight or twist-

‘ed. The spathe at the base clearly shows twist-

ing either to the left or right in a given spadix

on one and the same plant, Photos. 3 & 4

forming a constricted mouth enclosing numer-

ous unisexual flowers in its inflated bulb. The

‘spathe is reddish purple within and purplish

green outside while the appendix of the spa-

‘dix is bright red, tapering, hollow and sterile.

‘It flowers locally during summer and opens

‘during night emitting foul smell. In all 52

‘spathes were sampled on 13 plants out of

which 30 were left and 22 were right handed

without neutrals. The X? for deviation from

equality for 1 d.f. is 1.23 which is not signi-

ficant (p = 50-20%).

Caladium bicolor: This highly decorative

tuberous species occurs locally in three var-

ieties. Since the flowering in these is not pro-

fuse combined data for the three varieties is

given. The leaves in all are saggitate and the

lamina differently pigmented with spots or

streaks of red and white. The species flowers

during high summer. The spathe measures

8 to 12 cm and is boat shaped, whitish green

inside and purplish to whitish green outside

depending on the variety. while the spadix is

Photos. 5.& 6. Right and left handed spathes of

Caladium bicolor. (A strip of black paper has been

introduced in spathe to facilitate clarity in convo-

lution). oi

397

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 74

white silky and is devoid of appendix. In all

25 spathes were sampled out of which 15

were left handed and 10 right handed, Photos.

5 & 6. The X? for deviation from equality

for 1 df. is 1.00 (p = 50-20%) which is not

significant.

Xanthosoma violaceum: This species has a

caudex stem which gives off sagittate leaves

of purplish violet colour. The spathe is faint-

ly purplish violet and shows twisting either

to the left or right. In all 14 spathes were

sampled out of which 10 were left and 4 were

right handed with no neutrals. The X? for

deviation from equality is 1.71 (p = 20-5%)

which is significant.

Xanthosoma sagittifolium: This giant species

has a rather thick trunk and very large sagit-

tate leaves. The spathes are rather large and

are clearly twisted to the left or right. In all

13 spathes were sampled out of which 8 were

left and 5 were right handed. If the data on

both the Xanthosoma species are combined,

there are 18 lefts and 9 rights. There is a great

excess of left handers which gives a X? value

of 3.00 for deviation from equality with 1 df.

is significant (p = 20-5%).

DISCUSSION

Clockwise and counter clockwise convolu-

tion of spathe in the family Araceae is so far

unknown in the literature. A survey of the

Indian floras, however, revealed that the con-

volute character of the spathe has been record-

ed for many genera namely Lasia, Anaphyl-

lum, Plesmonium, Amorphophallus, Arisae-

ma, Colocasia, Alocasia, Remusatia and

Theriophorum (Gamble 1957; Cooke 1958;

Haines 1961). Since in the taxonomic studies

few species are generally examined, it is no

wonder that the character under study escap-

ed the notice of many botanists. It is likely

398

that the above mentioned authors might have

examined either left or right handed spathe

and not both. oe

Remarkably, this character escaped notice

of even the modern botanists. Jindal (1968)

on p. 27 of his book ORNAMENTAL BULBOUS ~

PLANTS, gives a photograph of two spathes

of Arisaema griffithii, which on close exami- —

nation was found to contain both the left and |

right handed spathes.

Similarly, Proctor & —

Yeo (1973) provide a photograph on page —

290 of Arum maculatum which also shows

2 right handed and one left handed spathe.

Thus, these two genera clearly show alterna-

tive vernation of spathe as described for four

Araceae.

Recently, Gupta (1968) has separated the ©

genus Arum from Sauromatum on the basis |

of convolute character of spathe in the for- |

mer and a cylindric spathe in the latter, thus —

emphasising the convolute character to be of —

taxonomic importance.

The only work on ‘asymmetry’ in Araceae

is that of Davis (1970) and Davis & Rama- |

nujacharyulu (1971) on Scindapsus officinalis. —

The authors sampled 627 leaves for ptyxis of —

lamina and the petiolar sheath with regard

to handedness. They further showed that left

convolution of leaf is followed by right and

this they opine as due to the distichous con-

dition in the species. Unfortunately in the

present work it was not possible to maintain —

regular record of spathes produced by the

species under study since the time lag bet-

ween the first and the successive spathes was |

considerable.

on Typhonium _ trilobatum

Nevertheless, few observations |

and Caladium |

bicolor show a left handed spathe is follow- —

ed by a left and very rarely by a right. Oc- |

casionally, however, only a single spathe was |

observed. In Xanthosoma violaceum a pair

of left handed spathe was often observed and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

this perhaps accounts for the excess of left

handers in the species. These observations are

new and are comparable to that of Davis &

Ghosh (1969) on Cordyline rubra (Agava-

ceae) which shows a slight excess of right

handed shoots. These authors further show-

ed a correlation between the direction of

foliar spiral and the convolution of the lam-

ina, both of which show handedness.

Recently, Bahadur & Venkateshwarlu (1976

a & b) have studied contortion of corolla in

Jatropha spp. and Carica papaya and _ pro-

posed the term isomerism to the left/right

handed (Levo/Dextro) aestivation of corolla.

It may be remarked that Meyen (1974) earlier

introduced the term bioisomerism to plant

organs showing mirror image forms and fur-

ther showed that this is accompanied by ma-

thematical isomorphism.

Since isomerism of levo and dextro forms

is common in plants, being. shown by whole

plant and variety of plant organs, it has been

of great interest and speculation as to its

causes (Meyen 1973; Bahadur 1974). Ac-

cording to Davis (1962) handedness in co-

conut palms is not genetical but could be gene

regulated (Bahadur 1974); since according

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

Post GRADUATE CENTRE,

COsSMANIA UNIVERSITY,

WARANGAL 506009, A.P.,

September 24, 1974.

to Dormer (1965) the self regulation as dis-

played by morphogenetic phenomena of geo-

metric nature represented by solid patterns

like the one under study includes among

others the stereoisometric configurations of

genic nature. Clearly the one described for

several Araceae involving mirror image pat-

terns represents the same about the functional

aspects of which presently nothing is known.

Recently, Bahadur & Reddy (1975) and

Bahadur & Venkateshwarlu (1976 a & b) have

proposed that stereoisomerism of hormone

molecule or the optical activity of some che-

micals in the plant determines mirror image

patterns through the morphogenetic move-

ments.

It would be interesting if isomerism of

spathe in Araceae particularly those monoe-

cious (e.g. Arisaema) in their natural habitat

be examined to possibly find out if a corre-

lation between the convolution of spathe and

its pollinators.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank Prof. Jafar Nizam for his interest

and for encouragement.

N. PRATAP REDDY

BIR BAHADUR

REFERENCES

Bir BAHADUR, (1974): Bioisomerism. In Seminar

on Research and Teaching of Biophysics in Indian

Universities, Hyderabad, p. 4.

————— & Reppy, Prarap N. (1975):

Types of vernation in the cyathia of Euphorbia

| milii des Moulins. New Phytol. 75:131-134.

& VENKATESHWARLU, T. (1976a):

Isomerism in flowers of four species of Jatropha

L. J. Indian. Bot. Soc. 55:30-37.

& (1976b): Isomer-

ism in flowers of Carica papaya L. ibid. 55:89-94.

CooKkE, T. (1958): The Flora of Presidency of

Bombay. Vol. 3. Second reprinted edition, Botani-

cal Survey of India, Calcutta.

399

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Davis, T. A. (1962): The non-inheritance of

asymmetry in Cocos nucifera. J. Genet. 58:42-50.

(1970): Prefoliation in Scindapsus

officinalis Schott. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 67:

250-258.

& GuHOSH, S. S. (1969): Foliar

spiral and ptyxis in Cordyline rubra Wuef. ex

Kunth. Proc. Natl. Inst. Sci. India 35:267-272.

& RAMANUJACHARYULU, C. (1971):

Statistical analysis of bilateral symmetry in plant

organs. Sankhya. 33:259-290.

DorM_ER, K. J. (1965): Self regulatory pheno-

mena in plant development. In: Encyclopaedia of

plant Physiology. Ed. W. Ruhland. Vol. XV/1:479-

491. Springer Verlag, Berlin.

GAMBLE, J. S. (1957): The Flora of Presidency

of Madras. Vol. 13. Reprinted edition, Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta.

Gupta, R. Kk. (1968): Flora Nainitalensis. Nava-

yug Traders, New Delhi.

Haines, H. H. (1961): The Botany of Bihar

and Orissa. Vol. 3. Reprinted edition, Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta.

JINDALA SL UGl96S) ic

Plants. ICAR, New Delhi.

MEYEN, S. V. (1973): Plant Morphology in its

nomothetical aspects. Bot. Rev. 39:205-260.

Procror, M. & Yeo, PP, (1973): The Polli-

nation of Flowers. Collins, London.

Ornamental Bulbous

ERRATUM

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The lizard Sitana ponticeriana in captivity ;

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CONTENTS

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS. Part I II—Rhino-

lophus rouxi (TEMMINCK)—RHINOLOPHIDAE. By A. _ Gopalakrishna and

K. V. B. Rao

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VOLUME 74 (3): DECEMBER 1977

Date of Publication : 27-11-1978

CONTENTS

| PAGE

AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF THE PROPOSED JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK. By S. Sathis

Chandran Nair, P. Vijayakumaran Nair, H. C. Sharatchandra and Madhav Gadgil. (With |

five plates & four text-figures) .. Li ee i Be a is 401

REVISED CLASSIFICATION OF THE FAMILY APHELINIDAE (HYMENOPTERA : CHALCIDOIDEA). By M.

Younus Khan and S. Adam Shafee. (With forty-nine text-figures) Ae a Ae 436

PHYTOGEOGRAPHICAL REASSESSMENT ON THE FLORA OF RAJASTHAN. By Vijendra Singh. (With ;

three text-figures) e. ae ae i a8 a nhs ne 444

BIONOMICS OF Micronecta scutellaris StTAL. By Mukhtar Ahmad and Nawab H. Khan. (With

three text-figures) we Be os ss ut wi oi 453

FERNS OF DHARAMSALA HILLs. Ophioglossaceous, Schizaeceous and Hymenophyllaceous series:

By K. K. Dhir and K.S. Datta. (With twenty-one text-figures) AG BY ae 459

BIOLOGY AND HOST-RANGE OF Trabala vishnu LEFEVERE. By Y.S. Rathore and J. K. Verma.

(With a text-figure) ae a Be He sy mn Si rere al

A REPORT ON THE BIRDS OF ADDU ATOLL (MALDIVE ISLANDS). By M. J. Strickland and J. C.

Jenner 487

ON THE FISHES COLLECTED BY THE LADAKH EXPEDITION, 1976. By P. K. Talwar. (With two text-

figures) iss a ie ae: us oe ae as sy 501

FIELD NOTES ON THE ODONATA AROUND A FRESH WATER LAKE IN WESTERN HIMALAYAS. By Arun

Kumar. (With a text-figure) H & a i ae iat 506

BREEDING HABITS AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA IN SOME INDIAN BATS. Part IIl—Hipposideros

ater ater (TEMPLETON)—-HIPPOSIDERIDAE. By. A. Gopalakrishna and A. Madhavan be. Sit

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

MaAmMALs: 1. Langurs living at high altitudes. By Naomi H. Bishop (p. 518); 2. Migratory

behaviour of Mus platythrix at Ludhiana (Punjab). By G.S. Mann (p. 520); 3. The composition

and. fluctuation of population of sympatric murids in PAU fields. (With two text-figures). By M. L.

Sood and D. S. Dilber (p. 521) ; 4. Habits of mouse deer. By (Mrs.) J. A. Lawrence (p. 525); 5. The

Coot Fulica atra Linnaeus nesting near Nasik, Maharashtra. By Lavkumar Khacher (p. 525); 6.An

additional record of the white tailed sea eagle Haliaeetus albicilla (Linnaeus) in North-Western India.

By R. E. Salter (p. 526); 7. Occurrence of grey junglefowl and red junglefow] together. By M. B.

Chitampalli (p. 527); 8. Occurrence of and some observations on the purple wood pigeon in Maha-

rashtra (Bhandara district). By M. B. Chitampalli(p. 527); 9. Dead Nilgiri house swallow in a nest.

By Mohammad Ali Reza Khan (p. 528); 10. Malabar jungle babbler, Turdoides striatus malabaricus

(Jerdon) and whiteheaded babbler Turdoides affinis affinis (Jerdon) jointly caring for the chicks of the

latter. By V.J. Zacharias and D. N. Mathew (p. 529); 11. Purplerumped sunbirds as foster parents.

By S. Ingalhallikar and Sanjay Kothari(p. 530) ; 12. Assisted migration of birds by ships. By Ashoke

Kumar (p. 531) ; 13. Note on the baya weaver bird Ploceus philippinus (Linn.) By Lavkumar Khacher

(p. 533).

REPTILES : 14. Studies on the Indian Gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia, Crocodilia) change

in terrestrial locomotory pattern with age. (With two text-figures), By H.R. Bustard and Lala

A. K. Singh (p. 534) ; 15. A note on the protuberance or knob on the snout of male Gharial [ Gavialis

gangeticus(Gmelin)]. By S. Biswas, L. N. Acharjyo and 8. Mohapatra (p. 536) ; 16. First record of the

skink Mabuya beddomii (Jerdon) (Sauria : Scincidae) from Orissa, India. By S. K. Talukdar, N. C.

Gayen and D. P. Sanyal (p. 538) ; 17. Collection of a rare snake in the Nilgiris. By R. Whitaker and

Z. Whitaker (p. 539) ; 18. Observation on the feeding habit of the tree snake, common Indian. Bronze-

back, Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin). By S. Biswas, L. N. Acharjyo and S. Mohapatra. (p. 539).

FisHEs: 19. The leather jacket, Alutera scripta (Osbeck) feeding on the Portuguese man-of-war

Physalia utriculus (La Martiniere). (With a text-figure). By B. F. Chhapgar (p. 541).

ARACHNADA : 20. Sexual dimorphism in the jumping spider Phidippus pateli Tikader. (Family : Salti-

cide) (With three text-figures). By B. K. Tikader and M. S. Malhotra (p. 543). ; if

Tesecra. 21. Butterfly migrations in the Nilgiri hills of South India (Lepidoptera : Roca By

Torben B. Larsen (p. 546); 22. On the occurrence of diminutive Poekilocerus pictus (Fabr.) adults in

nature. (With two text-figures). By Mohammad Raziuddin, Tauquirur Rahman Khan and Shyam

Bihari Singh (p. 549) ; 23. Mixed infection of lac. By S. Mahdihassan (p. 551); 24. Occurrence of

Leptocorisa acuta Fabr. (Coreidae, Hemiptera).as a pest of EES trees. By C. C. Abraham and

K.S. Rema Mony (p. 553). Ue | 2

Mo .usca.: 25. Occurrence of pearl oysters in Ratnagiri district. By M. R. Ranade. (p. 553) ;

Occurrence of pearls in the Indian backwater oyster Crassostrea madrasensis (Preston). By M. Mohan

Joseph (p. 554).

CRUSTACEA : 27. First report of Mesocyclops (Thermocyclops) maheensis Lindberg (Copepoda-Cyclopidae)

from Himachal Pradesh. By R. C. Subbaraju (p. 556).

EcToprocrA: 28. Occurrence of Lophopodella carteri carteri (Hyatt) (Lophopodidae : Ectoprocta) in

lakes in Western Himalaya. (With three text-figures). By Raj Tilak and J. M. Julka (p. 557).

Borany : 29. Hodgsonia heteroclita—an oil-rich cucurbit. (With two text-figures). By R.K. Arora and

M. W. Hardas (p. 559) ; 30. Datura innoxia—a perennial herb. (With a text-figure). By P. N. Pandita,

B. K. Bhat, A. K. Dhar and S. D. Sharma (p. 561) ; 31. The host range of the genus Cistanche Hoffm.

and Link in India. By Vijendra Singh (p. 563) ; 32. Two little known or rare plants from Eastern

India. By R. B. Ghosh, Barin Ghosh, (Miss) Sibani Datta (p. 564) ; 33. Nomenclatural notes on some

Bombay plants—V. By G. L. Shah, R. G. Bhat, M. H. Parabia and D. Vazifdar (p. 565) ; 34. Occur-

rence of strophiolate seeds in Cajanus. (With a text-figure). By R. K. Arora (p. 568) ; 35. Some new

records of tropical plants from the temperate Kashmir valley. By G. N. Javeid (p. 569) ; 36. An unusual

red-flowered variant of Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm. By C.S. Venkatesh and V. K. Sharma (p. 570) ;,37.

A preliminary observation on the ferns of the Garo hills in Assam. By R. B. Ghosh and M. C, Biswas

(p. 571) ; 38. Two new records of fungi-imperfecti from India. (With two text-figures). By A. W.

Subhedar and V. G. Rao (p. 575) ; 39. Desmids of Nagpur, Maharashtra. By N. D. Kamat and S. R.

Tiwari (p. 577).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

cm —

1977 DECEMBER Vol. 74 No. 3

An ecological reconnaissance of the

proposed Jawahar National Park’

S. SATHIS CHANDRAN NAIR?

P. VIJAYAKUMARAN NAIR?

H. C. SHARATCHANDRA®?®

AND

MADHAV GADGIL?®

(With five plates & four text-figures)

The proposed Jawahar National Park embracing an area of 2000 sq. kms will comprise of the Bandipur and

Nagarhole national parks (Karnataka) and Mudumalai (Tamilnadu) and Wynad (Kerala) wild life sanctua-

ries. It is one of the most extensive contiguous forested areas in Peninsular India, and probably harbours the

largest population of the elephant in India. The undulating terrain lies at the trijunction of the Western

Ghats, the Nilgiri hills and the Deccan plateau. Its natural vegetation is primarily of the moist deciduous

and dry deciduous types, with patches of evergreen forest and scrub. This has been replaced in many parts

by degraded scrub forest and by plantations and cultivation. The mammalian fauna includes the Indian

elephant, gaur, sambar, chital, wild boar, mouse deer, black-naped hare, sloth bear, dhole, grey or hanuman

langur and giant squirrel, occurring in good numbers, at least locally. Rarer species include the four-

horned antelope, barking deer, panther, tiger, jackal and the striped hyena. In addition, the Nilgiri

tahr, Nilgiri langur and liontailed macaque occurred in areas very close to this sanctuary complex until

very recently. Ifthe Brahmagirisanctuary of Coorg were to be included within the Jawahar National Park,

these species could be reintroduced there. Blackbuck could thrive in Masingudi area of Mudumalai. With

these introductions, this sanctuary complex could harbour all the major South Indian mammals. It hasa

good population of peafowl locally, and crocodiles exist on Kuruwa islands close to the sanctuary, and in the

river Nugu.

1 Accepted April 1977.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Kerala, Trivandrum-695 581.

> Centre for Theoretical Studies, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-560 012.

401

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

This entire area was surveyed on foot by our team over three months during monsoon 1975. Our party

mapped the areas of wild life concentration, and studied the various environmental factors affecting the wild

life. The Kabini reservoir, along with the encroachments in the vested forest of Pulpally have drastically

reduced the area of wild life habitat and have almost completely split the habitat into two, severing many

traditional migration routes of the elephants. Plantations, and other disturbances have also sharply reduced

the summer range of elephants in the forest in the Wynad areas. Most of the forest is subject to serious

overgrazing by domestic cattle and forest fires in the dry months. The cattle also bring in diseases like the

rinderpest which almost wiped out the gaur population of this regicn in 1968. The forest depariment is

inadequately equipped to control poaching, and poaching of all animals ranging from tiger and elephant

down to regular trapping of blacknaped hare and mouse deer is reported. We urge strong action on many

fronts to conserve this finest of elephant forests in India.

CONTENTS

PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION da ie ee of ay + ue .. 403

Ii. LocaLiry AND METHODS ie a ud cae int a, on 405

Ill. PHYSICAL FEATURES : fe Fe nie es if Ha .. 407

(1) Coorg Wynad a ge se a a ee .. 407

(2) Kerala Wynad ie * bd ™ oy o .. 408

(3) Nilgiri Wynad * se i a wa ie .. 408

(4) Sigur plateau es oe ae ‘ie a i .. 408

(5) Mysore plateau Dee ae a A 5 Be .. 409

(6) Special features =e Be 0 - xe i .. 409

IV. CLIMATE oe ‘Ee a te - Se - .. 409

V. WEGETATION Me Aes ee = the a ee .. 410

(1) Moist Deciduous a Ae LY Y i) ee .. 410

(2) Dry Deciduous ea ie oe AL a ch eae

(3) Scrub id “ih i: Li A. a a .. 413

(4) Plantations a a x2 Ks ae a 413;

VI. ELEPHANT o oo i, me Ne a” ie cine 414

VII.. OTHER WILDLIFE... ae re ate bie ef, a ENA] 7

VIII. CONSERVATION His Ad ne ae Ss ay ve Me 929)

(1) Maintenance of habitat integrity .. ce a hi ur Wet yy)

(2) Buffer Zones mu - an : ah ns Ee sic: 92

(3) Forestry Operations .. o a ae Ay: si ie wA26

(4) Water resource development ae a be By te py Ee

(5) Cultivation nt a see Ne es We .. 428

(6) Cattle ae a, af es he hs ae meee: Po)

(7) Fire ai te ay te oF Be oe soil

(8) Protection .. Se Se ior Se i ue = enue

IX. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS bbs £3 Vn ae $y oe MPG 32

"REFERENCES Lae aN ne if as me dehiahians iain iauy.(2)>)

APPENDIX—| Me iat ai ae va Ke ie .. 433

APPENDIX—II Bee A a is ne a an oa 435

JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

Look NRO DUC. ELON

ELEPHANT, the largest and the most venerated

of our wild animals, still survives in sizeable

numbers along the Western Ghats in Penin-

sular India, in Orissa, Bihar, West Bengal,

Assam and Uttar Pradesh. It is likely that the

elephant has suffered the least among our larger

wild life in terms of actual decline in numbers

over the past half-a-century. Elephant meat is

not consumed in India, and the only item of

value to the hunter or poacher is the tusks.

The tuskless females are therefore, relatively

immune from hunting pressure, and so is the

tuskless makhna males. Religious sentiment

has also been in favour of not killing this

magnificent animal which gave Lord Ganesha

his head. The hunting and poaching pressure

on the elephants has therefore, been relatively

light. Capture for domestication has been more

significant, and must to an extent have affected

the wild populations. But elephant takes

domestication well, and tame elephants at

forest camps continue to mingle and mate with

wild animals; so this capture too does not

withdraw too many animals from their forest

habitat.

Elephants survive for more than sixty years,

and are tolerant of a wide variety of habitat

conditions ranging from dry scrub to moist

deciduous forest. They also feed widely on

crops like ragi, paddy and sugarcane. Spared

of heavy mortality at the hand of man, the fate

of all other wild animals in India, this long-lived

and versatile beast has survived in good numbers

to this date. There is, however, no cause for

complacency. Although an animal may main-

tain populations far in excess of the carrying

capacity of the environment for the period of

one or two generations, it cannot continue to

do so indefinitely. The numbers that the

elephants are maintaining today are those more

appropriate for an environmental carrying

capacity of half-a-century ago. The elephant

habitat has drastically deteriorated in the recent

decades, and it is a matter of but a short time

before the elephant numbers also crash in

keeping with the very much diminished carrying

capacity of their habitat. In the process they

may inflict considerable damage on the rest of

the forest ecosystem.

Elephant has been intimately associated with

the culture and people of India for the past two

thousand years or more, and there is a vast

lore on elephants in India. Little scientific

information is however, as yet available, the

only scientific accounts being those of Singh

(1969) and Krishnan (1972) for India and

McKay (1973) for Sri Lanka. These accounts

suggest that the elephant populations of the

northern and eastern parts of the country are

not very substantial, and that the Western Ghat

population is by far the largest. This population

has never been properly surveyed, but it was

possible for us to obtain estimates of it from

experienced foresters. We have put together

a tentative picture of the distribution of ele-

phants on the Western Ghats on the basis of

such information (fig. 1). It must be stressed

that these are all merely educated guesses, and

likely to be correct only to the very rough order

of magnitude. It nevertheless provides a broad

picture of the elephant distribution on the

Western Ghats.

It will be evident from this figure that the

best elephant habitat is the area proposed to be

constituted as the Jawahar National Park,

embracing the present-day national parks of

Bandipur and Nagarhole in Karnataka, and the

wild life sanctuaries of Mudumalai in Tamilnadu

and Wynad in Kerala. We therefore, chose

this area for an exploratory study of the

elephants on the Western Ghats. We have

been engaged in ecological studies in one part

of this sanctuary complex, namely, Bandipur,

since May 1974 and this work furnished the

background for the present study (Sharat-

chandra & Gadgil 1976). The present survey

403

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Dandell

The

Karwa nil Hangai

Honava elt

Siddapur :

Shimoga

‘eal Tarikare

agithves fi Ihe eadur

“nf [ficrikmogaiur

il Mudigere Tiptur

\ me Madras

Mangalore}, Hassan © Bangalore

nit

se ine

[ice gichsane

Hh Fo! TT

f [ Whad Hit ol

[fi poo hj & Band ipur e

val causa Salem

° tedaldes

Calicut le Cotacamund

@ Coimbatore

Aly Pollachi

ee LE

a0 pied 20,

Ernakulam’

Alleppy 0G;

ee IP eas

S46

li I, 6 i

Trivandrum, Mit

Nagercoil”

Fig. 1. Distribution of the Asian elephant population in South India. Population estimates are

only approximate and are based on information supplied by the forest departments.

404

JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

itself was carried out over a period of three

months from July to October, 1975, during

which time almost all of the total area of 2,000

square kilometres of the proposed Jawahar

National Park was visited by one or more of

us on foot.

Although primarily directed towards develop-

ing the methodology for estimation of elephant

populations, the survey yielded considerable

information on the vegetation, other wild life

and the environmental factors affecting this

ecosystem. In view of the great significance of

the survey area for conservation of wild life in

Peninsular India, we felt that it would be useful

to present this information, albeit rather in-

complete, in a systematic fashion, and we do

so in the account that follows.

II. LOCALITY AND METHODS

The area surveyed is the complex of national

_ parks and wild life sanctuaries of Bandipur and

Nagarhole in Karnataka, Mudumalai in Tamil-

nadu and Wynad in Kerala, which is proposed

to be united into the Jawahar National Park. In

addition, we visited parts of Brahmagiri

sanctuary in southern Coorg of Karnataka,

Padri (North) and Kuruva reserve forests in

Wynad in Kerala and Kalmalai reserve forest

near Mudumalai in Tamilnadu. This area

forms an arc like tract lying within latitudes

11° 13’ N to 12°15’ N and longitudes 76° 5’ E

to 76°55’E (fig. 2). The terrain is hilly, the

altitude ranging from 700 m to 1000 min the

plateau areas with a number of peaks rising up

to 1500 m. This area forms the largest conti-

- nuous tract of good elephant forest in

_ Peninsular India, and includes the famous old

| Khedda capture area of Kakankotte and the pit

capture areas of Tittimati and Mudumalai—

Muthanga forests. This locality includes most

of the principal vegetation types and larger

mammals of Peninsular India. The only

major vegetation type which is poorly re-

presented is the montane evergreen forest,

and the two major mammalian species lacking

are the Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius)

and the liontailed macaque (Macaca silenus).

Even these were probably wiped out only in

recent times. The locality is also subject to the

whole gamut of anthropogenic factors affecting

the elephants including plantations, cultivations,

forest fire, cattle grazing, submersion due to

reservoirs, elephant capture and poaching. It

therefore, makes for an interesting study, not

only of nature in the wild, but also of all the

human influences on it.

The locality was well-suited for an extensive

survey of this type, because although it includes

steep hills and riverine tracts, it is mostly an

easily negotiable plain with moist deciduous

forest. It has well-developed lines of communi-

cation and other facilities making for easy

access everywhere. The forest departments of

all the three states had most kindly put these

facilities at our disposal.

The initial survey lasted from 15th July

to 10th October, 1975. This particular season,

the peak rainy months of south-west monsoon,

was selected because—

(a) Elephants from heavier rainfall, more

inaccessible terrains such as the Nilgiri escarp-

ments, Coorg western ghats and Wynad western

edge congregate in the survey area. Although

this might give an exaggerated population count

for the survey area, some information on the

status of the entire population could then be

gathered.

(b) The lusher, plentiful forage and ade-

quate water during the rainy months prevent

the animals from ranging too widely hence

reducing chances of duplication of counts.

reduces visibility, it helps undetected close

approach by investigators.

(d) The more humid cool rainy months

permit greater physical exertion, i.e., greater

coverage of area per day, than is possible in

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JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

summer months when even drinking water

becomes hard to get. Because of this it was

possible to survey the entire area in the short

time available.

(e) Vegetational data could be gathered

only during the lush period before the plants

shed their leaves or dry up and get burned in

annual summer fires.

(f) During the rainy season the forests

and the wild life are least disturbed by cattle

graziers, minor forest produce collectors,

forestry operations etc.

The survey was conducted by a party of 4

biologists who covered the terrain on foot

The survey area was divided into approxi-

mately 10 sq. kilometre compartments with

the aid of maps and each of the compartments

surveyed by one investigator with the help of

a guide—a local forest tribal or an experienced

forest guard. Walking in a zigzag route the

entire terrain, especially, areas favoured by

elephants such as swamps, stream banks,

bamboo thickets etc., were traversed. When-

ever herds were encountered they were

approached under cover and observed through

binoculars and data on the number, age classi-

fication, identifiable body marks and activity

engaged in were recorded. Based on elephant

tracks and dung, approximate number of

animals in the group, direction of passage, time

since passing, activity engaged in (i.e. walking

along, feeding, resting etc.) were noted. When-

ever possible, circumference of clear imprints

of right foreleg was measured as a possible

individual identifying feature. Distribution

and degree of abundance of other wildlife,

based on sightings as well as spoor marks were

also recorded besides information relating to

vegetation and soil.

The help of Kurubas especially those who

have worked in various elephant camps was

invaluable for carrying out the elephant track-

ing. Although it was attempted to cover as

much area as possible within the sanctuary

complex, due to various unavoidable circum-

stances certain areas were surveyed only

fleetingly. The north-west part of Benne (com-

partments 29 and 38), Gopalaswamy betta area

of Bandipur, Balijadihalla—Kallalla area north

of Mulehole, Gulibetta, Chelvarayana Katte,

Alangikatte area of Gundre and Kadatalkatte,

Vanakegundihalla area of Nisna Begur as well

as some areas near Chowdahalli could not be

exhaustively surveyed.

Il]. PHysICcAL FEATURES

The survey area lies at the junction of the

Western Ghats to the north-west, the Nilgiris

to the south-west, and the Mysore plateau to the

east. The western tracts are wetter, and are

characterized by swamps (or wyals) in the low

lying areas. This terrain is therefore, known as

wynad or the land of swamps.

The wynad region is subdivided into the

Coorg Wynad in north, the Nilgiri Wynad in

south, with the more extensive Kerala Wynad

in between. This Wynad passes over into the

drier Mysore plateau to the east, with the very

dry Sigur plateau lying at the southeastern

end.

(1) Coorg Wynad :

This plateau is indistinguishable from Kerala

Wynad stretching north-east from Kabini

along a main northern axis up to Brahmagiri

range (Maximum elevation 1736 m) in north-

west and Mysore plateau in the east. All of

Brahmagiri sanctuary and part of Nagarhole

National Park fall in this sub-division.

(Photograph 1). This is a heavy rainfall area

which is more undulating and is drained by

Kabini, Nagarhole and Lakshmantirtha, the

last two flowing east and joining the Cauvery.

There are many gadde or hadlu (marshes)

present, many of which are under cultivation -

AQ7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

(2) Kerala Wynad :

This gently undulating plateau is an eastern

extension of the main western ghats with a

general elevation of 700-900 metres. Its major

peaks include Kalimale betta and Brahmadevar

Vattom. It is gently sloping to the east and

north and merges with the Mysore plateau.

This area receives the heaviest rainfall and

consequently is drained by a large number of

perennial streams all eventually joining Kabini.

The major streams are :

(1) Streams draining Kuruva (which is an

island in the river Kabini) reserve ;

(2) Kadumanthodu§ and WNaratipuzha

draining eastern and western portions

of Padri reserve and joining Mannan-

toddy puzha ;

(3) Murmavuthodu and its tributaries

Kurichiyat puzha, Doddapallam and

Waterfall streams draining Kurichiyat

resefve ;

(4) Nulpuzha draining Nulpuzha, Mavan-

halla and Rampur reserves ;

(5) Mavanhalla stream draining certain

portions of Mavanhalla reserve and

Rampur reserve and joining Nulpuzha

forming Nuguhole ;

(6) Ammanvayal thodu—this drains

Kurichiyat reserve and joins Nuguhole ;

(7) Manjathodu drains part of Kurichiyat,

Kuppadi and Rampur reserve and joins

Nulpuzha ;

(8) Kattihalla joins

Rampur reserves ;

(9) Ammankuli thodu draining Mavan-

halla and joins Nulpuzha ;

(10) Kallur thodu drains Kallur and Alathur

reserves and joins Nulpuzha ;

(11) Bavelihole drains Begur, Alathur and

Kudrakote reserves and joins Mannan-

toddy puzha which empties into Kabini.

Nuguhole draining

(3) Nilgiri Wynad :

This extensive plateau has an average ele-

vation of 1000 metres. Beginning from the

northwestern edge of Nilgiris it stretches north-

west merging imperceptibily with Mysore

plateau and with Kerala Wynad to the west. It

is gently undulating and slowly rises to the

north to a low range of hills running east-west

which includes Jainberi betta and Narathi betta

(1236 m). This range forms the watershed

between the dry Doddakatti area and wetter

Mudumalai reserve. The Nilgiri Wynad forest

includes Benne and Mudumalai reserves and a

part of it formerly belonging to Nilambur

Kovilakam is under cultivation now.

Mudumalai reserve is drained to the west by

Bennehole which joins Nulpuzha, a tributary

of Nuguhole, the latter joins Kabini. Southern

part of the forest is drained by Bedarhalla and

Kekkanhalla both flowing into Moyar.

There are a large number of extensive swamps

(vayals) in this tract some of which are culti-

vated and some still intact.

(4) Sigur Plateau :

This is the narrow belt of land from the foot

of the very steep northern edge of Nilgiris to

Moyar river with an average elevation of 900 m.

It is gently undulating near Masingudi and the

steep Morganbetta can be considered its bound-

ary with Nilgiri Wynad to the west. This

plateau continues east beyond Masingudi to

Anaikatti area outside the sanctuary. The

Sigur plateau gently slopes north towards Moyar

gorge and on its eastern edge merges with the

Coimbatore plains. Receiving the least amount

of rainfall in the entire survey area, it is dry and

differs from Nilgiri Wynad forming the rest of

Mudumalai sanctuary.

Sigur plateau is drained by Kadarhalla,

Averahalla and Moyar.

408

Moyar river on the |

northern edge has here formed the deep gorge !

JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

(up to 260 m) known as Moyar gorge or Mysore

ditch. This steep sided canyon extends from

the junction of Kekkanhalla with Moyar to

where Sikattihalla meets with Moyar outside

the sanctuary. It is almost impossible to cross

the gorge except along a few regular animal

paths. The Kalmalai, Averahalla and Moyar

reserves fall within this Sigur plateau.

(5) Mysore plateau :

The major portion of the survey area falls

within this topographical sub-division. This is

part of the Deccan plateau with an average

elevation of 1000 m. It is also gently undula-

ting dotted by isolated hills, which include

Masal betta, Jainbari betta and Shige betta,

the highest of the hills being Gopalaswamy betta

(1454 m). The Mysore plateau slopes gently

east. Its southwestern extremity is marked by

Moyar gorge. The entire area receives little

rainfall. Parts of Nagarhole National Park

and all of Bandipur National Park fall within

this sub-division. It merges to the west with

Kerala Wynad and to the northwest with Coorg

Wynad. The Kabini reservoir is situated in the

trijunction.

The southeastern portion of Bandipur sanc-

tuary is drained by Moyar through its tribu-

taries Kekkanhalla, Sikattihalla, Hebballa’

Waranchietc. The western portion of Bandipur

is drained by Mulehole (Nugu), northwestern

portion by Nugu and northern part by Kabini.

Moyar joins Bhavani near Peerkadavu on

Coimbatore plains and Bhavani joins Cauvery.

Nugu and Lakshmanatirtha also join Kabini

which drains into Cauvery.

In addition to the streams, the Mysore

plateau area contains about 40 tanks many of

which are perennial. They appear to be

man-made.

(6) Special features :

Marshes (vayals, gaddes or hadlus) are ‘a

common feature of Wynad plateau. They are

swampy areas in between rounded hills with

a meandering stream along the middle or

draining the waterlogged area from one end.

Their common characteristics include a deep

black clayey soil that is waterlogged with

30 to 50 cm of standing water during the rainy

season, a very lush grass growth in the slush

and bamboo growth along the fringes. It is

usually open, but is at times dotted by isolated

trees or bushes. (a) the gentle undulating

terrain with no definite direction of drainage ;

(b) the low hills with gentle slopes resulting in

slow surface run off and little percolation and

an impeded but not totally arrested drainage ;

hills retaining and letting water drain slowly in

an area where rainfall is high, and (d) the

continuous washing down of clay colloids

further slowing drainage are the various

reasons pointed out as causing the formation of

vayals.

IV. CLIMATE

The survey area being entirely within the

plateau with an average elevation of 1000

metres, climatic extremes are not met with.

Reliable climatological data from no location

within the survey area is available. Temper-

atures range between 17°C-30°C with a mean

value of 24°C. The tract receives rainfall from

both southwest monsoon and northeast mon-

soon, with preponderance of each depending

on the specific locality. Masingudi and adja-

cent areas receive two-third of the annual rain

from northeast monsoon whereas Kerala and

Coorg Wynad receive only one-third or less.

Generally the entire tract receives a few heavy

pre-monsoon thunder showers during April-May

but southwest monsoon sets in by middle of

June and lasts till August-September. Later,

October-November are northeast monsoon

months. The driest month is February and

wettest July. In many localities mostly to the

409

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

eastern edge of the tract, there is a second peak

of rainfall in October.

The annual rainfall for some locations in

and adjacent to the survey area are given below

based on older data.

Kerala Wynad .. 1524 mm—2540 mm

Mudumalai 1448 mm

Benne 1753 mm

Kargudi 1448 mm

Masingudi 916 mm

Gundlupet 686 mm

Bandipur 916 mm

Kalkere 1270 mm

H. DD: Kote 1092 mm

There is a very perceptible gradient of increase

in total annual rainfall! from east to west and

north to south. The heaviest rainfall is in

southwest and western portions.

V. VEGETATION

The dominant natural climax vegetation of

this locality is the southern tropical moist

deciduous forest in the wetter tracts of the

Wynad and the southern tropical dry deciduous

forest in the drier tracts of Mysore plateau,

and scrub on the very dry Sigur plateau. In

addition, there are pockets of semievergreen and

evergreen vegetation.

The natural climax forest vegetation has been

considerably modified either historically or

recently over most of the terrain and much of

the vegetation is in various stages of secondary

succession. Much of the Mysore plateau was

probably under cultivation at one time, as

witness the numerous man-made tanks scattered

throughout the forest in this area. There is

historical evidence that this region was depopu-

lated during the regimes of Hyder and Tippu

Sultans in the eighteenth century and the forest

cover must have come back over the past two

centuries. The Wynad tracts, on the other

hand, were probably always very thinly popu-

lated because of the high incidence of malaria,

and the only form of cultivation historically

practised must have been the shifting cultivation

by tribals.

Modern forestry operations and plantations

began in parts of this region over a century

ago, and have been gathering pace ever since.

They have become particularly intensified over

the past quarter of a century. Selection

fellings have opened up the forest canopy,

generally followed by the invasion of Lantana

and Eupatorium. Areas brought under plan-

tation are also susceptible to invasion by these

weeds, and by weedy tree species such as Kydia

calycina. Extraction of wood, grazing and fire

have changed considerably the character of

many forest areas, rendering them drier and

more scrubby. Extensive areas in this tract are

also being put under cultivation. Many marshy

areas in the Wynad are put under paddy, even

inside the Reserved Forests. Large tracts of

Reserved Forests were released for cultivation

for settling of landless people, particularly the

refugees whose lands were submerged under the

Kabini reservoir. Revenue Forests have been

mostly released for cultivation. Finally large

tracts of vested forest in Kerala have been

encroached upon by cultivators, the 25,000 acre

tract of Pulpally being a particularly striking

example.

All of these changes have resulted in the

vegetation assuming a _ highly complex

chequered pattern which makes it difficult for

us to provide a reserve by reserve description.

(1) (a) Moist Deciduous :

This type of vegetation is characteristic of

Nilgiri Wynad (Benne, Mudumalai and Kum-

barkolli Reserves), whole of Kerala Wynad ex-

cluding the northern edge of Rampur and

Mavanhalla reserves and the whole of Coorg

Wynad (Begur, Kakankote Reserves and whole

of Nagarhole sanctuary except the degraded

portions). Economically this is the best forest

410

JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

type and wildlife is rich. Moist deciduous

forests occur where rainfall is between 1150 mm

and 1900 mm; where rainfall increases still

further, evergreen species predominate and

where rainfall is less, dry deciduous forest takes

over. Typically the floral composition of this

type of forest is :—

TREES

Tectona grandis

Lagerstroemia lanceolata

Dalbergia latifolia

Phyllanthus emblica

Buchanania latifolia

Ficus infectoria

Stereospermum chelonoides

Stereospermum xylocarpum

Terminalia bellerica

Grewia tiliaefolia

Terminalia tomentosa

Pterocarpus marsupium

Anogeissus latifolia

Shorea talura

Adina cordifolia

Ongeinia dalbergioides

Bombax malabaricum

Albizzia odoratissima

Schleichera trijuga

The lower canopy is composed of :—

Emblica officinalis

Grewia tiliaefolia

Cassia fistula

Kydia calycina

Gmelina arborea

Bauhinia racemosa

Butea monosperma

Bridelia retusa

Xeromphis spinosa

Zizyphus sp.

Cordia myxa

The shrub growth is composed of :—

Kydia calycina (young)

Helicteres isora

Hemidesmus indicus

Lantana camara

Desmodium sp.

Grewia hirsuta

Solanum ferox

Solanum indicum

Holarrhena antidysentrica

Eupatorium glandulosum

Vernonia sp.

Climbers are :—

Acacia concinna

Acacia caesia

Entada scandens

Calycopteris floribunda

Smilax sp.

Asparagus racemosus

Clematis sp.

Jasminum sp.

Ventilago sp.

Vitis sp.

Common grass species include :—

Cymbopogon flexuosus

Cymbopogon citratus

Imperata arundinacea

Andropogon contortus

Themeda cymbaria

Themeda imberbis

Spatholobus roxburghii

(1) (6) Sub-types :

C. R. Ranganathan in his working plan for

Nilgiri Division classified this type of forest in

Mudumalai into two sub-types namely: (1)

a belt of non-teak forest along the southern

boundary of Mudumalai range and south

western portions of Benne (areas of heavy rain-

fall), and (2) where rainfall is less, with teak

always present. Though the original floristic

difference is still discernible, it has been greatly

altered due to forestry operations, extraction of

teak etc. These two types are discernible in

the adjoining Kerala Wynad forests too.

Where teak is prominent, the forest is

upto 20 metres in height, canopy is more

or less closed’ soil is reddish and’ deep,

ground vegetation is thin and _ herbaceous,

typically wild arrowroot and occasional patches

of wild turmeric. Few Helicteres, Solanum,

Flemingia, Desmodium etc., occur and where

forest is disturbed, Ezpatorium and Lantana

grow in profusion. In summer, the herbaceous

411

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

cover dies off completely leaving the soil bare.

Sapling density (i.e., regeneration rate) is very

low. Patches of this type of forest occur on

fire protected, well drained hill slopes. They

are heavily worked at present and altered in

Mudumalai and elsewhere. Opening of canopy

results in profuse Eupatorium and tall grass—

Andropogon and Imperata—growth. Similar

patches occur in Nulpuzha, Mavanhalla, Ram-

pur, Kurichiyat, Begur and Kudrakote reserves

of Kerala and Chowdahalli—Bannurgadde areas

of Bandipur and most of Nagarhole sanctuary

core area where vegetation has not been unduly

altered and along Kabini in Kakankote

forests.

On steeper slopes where soil is shallow and

on the crests of hills, trees are well spaced and

less (10-12 m) in height. Density and height

increases down the slopes, and in the valley

floor there is a sudden transition to deep

marshes with swamp grass and thick bamboo

clumps (Bambusa arundinacea) along the

fringes. In area this type of forest is more

extensive in the moist deciduous belt.

Benne reserve and Morgan betta area of

Theppakkadu in Mudumalai sanctuary, Kudra-

kote, Padri, Kurichiyat (Narathi betta, Kali-

mala areas) and Nulpuzha reserves contain

patches of evergreen or semi-evergreen forests.

Bambusa arundinacea is profuse. Hydnocarpus

wightiana, Palaquium ellipticum, Artocarpus

hirsuta etc., are common.

Gregarious patches of evergreen Shorea

talura occur in Theppakkadu, Doddakatti in

Mudumalai, Chamanhalla area, parts of

Beerambadi, Ainurmarigudi and Begur forests

of Bandipur and Rampur and Mavanhalla

reserves of Kerala.

In the more open forest there is a great

preponderance of teak of a wide range of girth

classes but TYerminalia tomentosa is the key

species. Soil is of great diversity and there is

a lush undergrowth of grass, the height of which

ture. It is up to 3 metres in open forest,

consisting of Cymbopogon sp., Themeda sp. and

Imperata. Where canopy is dense, instead of

grass there is a mat of Spatholobus roxburghii.

Eupatorium is prolific and Dendrocalamus is

also common.

Where fire annually sweeps over the forest

or where the soil is very shallow and the rainfall

less, a retrograded type of the above forest type

is met with where the canopy is very open, trees

only sapling sized, 3-5 metres tall, and stunted.

Mishappen gnarled teak and Anogeissus are

profuse. There is a thick undergrowth of tall

grass and Phoenix humilis.

The marshes or vayals are dotted with Randia

uliginosa, Butea monosperma, stunted Termi-

nalia tomentosa, Careya arborea, Zizyphus

xylopyrus etc.

(2) Dry Deciduous :

The greater part of Bandipur core area is

of this type. The rainfall is low and soil rocky.

Canopy is open and 6-12 m high. Tree species

include

Anogeissus latifolia

Terminalia tomentosa

Terminalia bellerica

Terminalia chebula

Terminalia paniculata

Gmelina arborea

Albizzia odoratissima

Schleichera trijuga

Stereospermum chelonides

Tectona grandis

Pterocarpus marsupium

Dalbergia latifolia

Grewia tiliaefolia

Salmalia malabarica

Dalbergia paniculata

Careya arborea

Odina wodier

Butea monosperma

Stereospermum xylocarpum

Lagerstroemia parviflora

Phyllanthus emblica

depends on closeness of canopy and soil mois- Gardenia sp.

412

JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

The second storey consists of :—

Vangueria spinosa

Wrightia tinctoria

Zizyphus jujuba

Zizyphus xylocarpus

Bridelia retusa

Cassia fistula

Xeromphis spinosa

XAeromphis uliginosa

Santalum album

Kydia calycina

Shorea talura

The undergrowth consists of grasses, Lantana,

Eupatorium, Phoenix humilis, Helicteres isora,

Desmodium sp., Curcuma etc. (Photograph 2).

(3) Scrub :

This is typical of Sigur plateau (Moyar

Reserve forest of Mudumalai sanctuary and

Moyar state forest of Bandipur sanctuary).

The rainfall is very low, soil rocky and is poor

in humus. The vegetation is open deciduous

scrub or even thorn forest of scattered bushes of

no economic value. Sandal occurs sporadically.

There are few gregarious patches of evergreen

Hardwickia binata near Moyar.

TREES

Anogeissus latifolia

Albizzia amara

Derris glabra

Canthium didvmum

Elaeodendron glaucum

Atlanta monophylla

Ficus sp.

Cassia fistula

Chloroxylon swietenia

Cordia sp.

Acacia leucophloea

Stereospermum chelonoides

Acacia sundra

Erythroxylon monogynum

Bridelia retusa

Dalbergia paniculata

Santalum album

Zizyphus jujuba

Diospyros montana

Zizyphus xylopyrus

Bauhinia racemosa

Azadirachta indica

Acacia catechu

Shorea talura

The undergrowth consists of :—

Opuntia dillenii

Sentia indica

Toddalia aculeata

Pterolobium indicum

Webera corymbosa

Cipadessa fruticosa

Solanum sp.

Grewia asiatica

Gymnosporia montana

Cassia tora

Cassia auriculata

Argyreia cuneata

Wendlandia notoniana

Clausena wildenovii

Desmodium sp.

Dendrocalamus (sporadic)

This area is subject to very heavy grazing and

fire effect.

(4) Plantations :

Extensive plantations of teak and species of

Eucalyptus occur over the entire tract. Plan-

tations are relatively insignificant in the Mudu-

malai and Bandipur proper area, but occur

over large areas of Begur, Kudrakote, Kuppadi,

Kurichiyat, Mavanhalla and Rampur Reserve

Forests in Wynad in Kerala, of Kalkere and

Begur Reserve Forests in Bandipur National

Park and Nagarhole Reserve Forest in Nagar-

hole National Park in Karnataka. Areas of

Bandipur and Nagarhole also have thakkal

plantations, which are sites of slash and burn

cultivation planted with teak in the second half

of last century and the first quarter of this

century. The thakkal plantations are often

indistinguishable from the surrounding indi-

genous forest, but the larger plantations are

not. They are often susceptible to invasion by

Lantana and Eupatorium, and if unsuccessful by

weedy tree species such as Kydia calycina. The

413

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

plantation areas tend to be sterile from the view

point of wildlife.

VI. ELEPHANT

The major focus of the present survey was

on the elephant, and every attempt was made to

gauge the population density and the distri-

bution of this animal. This attempt is fraught

with many difficulties, and the methodology

described above probably failed to surmount

the various problems completely. Table 1

shows the details of the elephant tracks and

actual sightings encountered during the course

of this survey. We have undoubtedly missed

some herds and doubly counted others. This

TABLE 1

THE LOCATION AND NUMBERS OF ELEPHANTS SEEN AT VARIOUS LOCALITIES DURING THE SURVEY

AND THE DATA FROM THE ELEPHANT TRACKS OBSERVED

Tracks and numbers

Area and date (approximate)

Bandipur core area Two group tracks (M)*

15-7-75 to 25-7-75

Two group tracks (L)*

One lone tusker track

Benne

28-7-75 to 29-7-75

Two group tracks (L)

one group track (M)

Mudumalai

30-7-75 to 2-8-75

Two lone tusker tracks

one group track (L)

Kargudi

3-8-75 to 4-8-75

One group track (L)

one group track (S)*

Theppakkadu

5-8-75 to 6-8-75

Masingudi

7-8-75 to 8-8-75

Chamanhalla

16-8-75 to 17-8-75

Maddur

18-8-75 to 19-8-75

Group track (M)

3 lone tusker tracks

Lone tusker track

Group track (M)

Lone tusker track

Group track (M)

two group tracks (S)

two group tracks (L)

One lone tusker track

two herd tracks (M)

Mulehole

20-8-75 to 21-8-75

Sightings

3 aggregation totalling 22, 19

and 28 animals each

One group of 4

Group of 8

Group of about 24

lone tusker

two lone tuskers

Makhna

Group of 8

Group of 6

Group of 5

Pair of elephants

two lone tuskers

A pair of elephants

Group of 10

414

| JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

Tracks and numbers

Area and date (approximate) Sightings

Rampur two group tracks (S) Group of 18

22-8-75 to 25-8-75 two group tracks (L) Group of 16

four group tracks (M) Group of 11

Group of 20

Group of 30

~ 1 lone tusker

Chickbargy 3 lone tusker tracks 1 group of 9

26-8-75 to 28-8-75 2 group tracks (L) group of 22

4 group tracks (M) group of 5

1 group track (S)

3 group tracks (M)

4 lone tusker tracks

Moleyur 3 lone tusker tracks 2 lone tuskers

29-8-75 to 30-8-75 1 group track (M) group of 11

2 group tracks (L) group of 5

2 group tracks (S)

Kalkere 2 Group tracks (M) Group of 6

31-8-75 to 4-9-75 2 group tracks (S) Group of 5

Group of about 15

Group of 18

Group of 13

Chowdahalli 4 group tracks (M) Group of 9

5-9-75 lone tusker

Bannurgadde 1 Group track (M) Group of 16

6-9-75 5 lone tusker tracks

2 group tracks (L)

Gundre Group track (L) Group of 6

7-9-75 3 lone tusker tracks Group of 3

Group of 7

- Byrankuppe 8 lone tusker tracks One lone tusker

9-9-75 to 10-9-75 Group track (M) pair of elephants

Group of 8

Group of 10

Kaimara 2 Group tracks (S) Group of 4

11-9-75 to 12-9-75 4 group tracks (L) Group of 6

Group of about 16

Sunkadkatte 3 Jone tusker tracks Group of 18

13-9-75 to 15-9-75 4 group tracks (M) Group of 19

1 group track (L) Group of 15

1 group track (S) Group of 25

bf Group track (S)—Small, about 5 animals.

Lone tusker

Group track (M)—Medium, 5 to 20 animals.

Group track (L)—Large, more than 20 animals.

415

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Area and date

Mettukuppe

15-9-75 to 16-9-75

Murkal

17-9-75 to 19-9-75

Nagarhole

20-9-75 and 22-9-75

Tittimathi

21-9-75

Tholpetti

27-9-75

Chedleth

30-9-75 to 2-10-75

Muthanga

3-10-75 to 9-10-75

Tracks and numbers

(approximate)

Group track (M)

3 lone tusker tracks

8 lone tusker tracks

3 group tracks (M)

1 group track (L)

Sightings

2 lone tuskers

pair of elephants

Group of 9

Group of 6

3 lone tuskers

Group of 4

Group of 11

Track of a pair of elephants

2 Group tracks (M)

1 Group track (L)

5 Group tracks (S)

3 lone tusker tracks

1 Group track (M)

3 lone tusker tracks

1 group track (M)

4 lone tusker tracks

Group track (M)

Group track (S)

Group track (L)

2 group tracks (M)

3 group tracks (S)

3 Jone tusker tracks

data however does seem to indicate that the

number of elephants in the area is not insub-

stantial, and may be somewhere in the vicinity

of 1,500 animals, though this is just an educated

guess.

Several interesting features emerge from the

data presentedin Table 1. The greatest concen-

trations of elephants were met within the

Bandipur core area, Rampur, Kalkere, Sunkad-

katte, Gundre and Begur (along Kabini) and

Nagarhole core area. Smaller concentrations

occurred in Theppakkadu area of Mudumalai

and in Benne reserve. The entire Kerala

Wynad was almost devoid of elephants (see

figure 3).

The very noticeable disparity in distribution,

with few animals recorded from the heavy

Group of 8

Lone tusker

rainfall Coorg and Wynad areas, and with

a heavy concentration in the dry deciduous

forests of Bandipur and along Kabini suggest

local seasonal migrations. (Photographs 3 and

4.) Observations reported by the local fores-

ters and tribals suggest that the elephant tends

to move out of the wetter parts of the sanctuary

complex during the monsoon season into the

drier forests of the Mysore plateau. The heavy

rainfall, rank vegetation, tall’ grass, slushy

ground, the abundance of blood sucking insects

and leeches as well as the normal reproductive

cycle of the animal may have a role to play in

favouring the animals leaving the wetter Wynad

forests during the monsoon season. The move-

ment also appears to be correlated with the

Tipening of crops in the drier parts. The

416

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. 74 PLATE I

Nair et al.: Jawahar national park.

ee teem Erte eta: Ne ce Ae aie et tie

Photo 1. View of Brahmagiris in the Coorg Wynad.

(Photo: Sharatchandra)

Photo 2. Dry deciduous forest of Bandipur, a typical elephant habitat.

(Photo: Sharatchandra)

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. 74

Nair et al.: Jawahar national park.

(Photo: Sharatchandra)

Photo 4. A solitary tusker.

(Photo: Sharatchandra)

PLATE II

A herd of elephants leaving the Nanjanapura Pond at Bandipur national park.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 74 PLATE III

Nair ef al.: Jawahar national park.

Photo 5. A mouse deer.

(Photo: Sharatchandra)

Photo 6. A cowelephant shot while raiding crops.

(Photo: Sharatchandra)

J. BoMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. 74

Nair et al.: Jawahar national park.

STE

Photo 7. A chital killed by a fast moving vehicle on the Mysore-Ooty highway.

(Photo: Sharatchandra)

Photo 8. A sambar stag. ;

Be peter ue Re bale a) eo ee aioe Ch ar at Chanana)

ree Rj EN ANLDH

Nair et al.: Jawahar national park. 2) PLATE

Photo 9. A herd of village cattle deep inside the sanctuary

(Photo: Sharatchandra)

Photo 10. Kadukuruba tribals digging out Dioscorea tubers

(Photo : Sharatchandra)

iy . Rees

cen

JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

elephants were in fact congregated on the

boundaries of the cultivation in many localities,

particularlynear Rampur—Kalkereand Chowda-

halli. The fact that in these very same areas

the buffer zones between the reserve forests

and farm land provided by revenue forests are

being removed is notable.

Migrations of elephants were probably much

more extensive in the past than they are now.

During the course of the survey, we came across

a number of places where the traditional routes

of the elephants are now in the process of being

Severed. stor example, at Chick Barei in

Bandipur National Park, part of a migration

route lying between two hills passes through

a low lying area which has recently been put

under cultivation. Elephants continue to move

through these fields in their passage. Many

other migration routes must have been cut off,

and the elephants totally prevented access to

them.

During the course of these movements,

elephants presumably spend the drier months in

the wetter forests of Coorg, Kerala and Nilgiri

Wynads, this part of their range having a much

better supply of fodder and water during the

dry months. This summer range of elephants

has been much disturbed particularly in the

Kerala Wynad region, by the raising of plan-

tations, and encroachment for cultivation. The

Coorg Wynad is also subject, though to a lesser

degree, to these activities. This must have

resulted in a serious depletion of fodder in the

summer range, and is likely to result in the

degradation of the habitat by the consequent

overgrazing by these animals.

The near total lack of elephants in Kerala

Wynad is particularly striking. It is no doubt

partly due to emigration from this area during

the monsoons. However it must also to some

extent be due to the tremendous scale of dis-

turbance in those forests. In particular the

destruction of the 25,000 acre of tract of Pulpally

forest must be the reason for the very high

densities of elephants in the Gundre-Begur area

of Bandipur National! Park.

Finally, though our inexperienced team

blundered into unsuspecting herds of elephants

scores of times, often at very close quarters,

there was no instance of an elephant chasing

us intruders. It was always the discrete with-

drawal or precipitous flight on the part of the

pachyderms. This no doubt goes a long way

in identifying those guilty for the elephant’s

present sad plight.

VII. OTHER WILDLIFE

Though the primary purpose of the survey

was to obtain data on the spatial distribution

pattern of the Indian Elephant, data on flora

and fauna was also collected to have a super-

ficial picture of the plant and animal com-

munities of the sanctuary complex. Though

no attempt was made to estimate the population

of the major animals other than the elephant,

locations of concentration of species based on

frequency of sightings and spoor evidence was

collected. Since the survey party traversed

the terrain following no fixed route covering

a compact area as intensively as possible, it is

expected that a rough indication of the distri-

bution of the reported animals was obtained for

the particular time of the year. For a picture

of the wildlife concentration points in the

survey area see fig. 4.

(1) Gaur (Bos gaurus) :

In the survey area this large herbivorous

species ranges from scrub forest to semi-ever-~

green forest but seems to prefer undulating -hilly ©

terrain with moist deciduous vegetation and —

moderate undergrowth. Till the 1968 popu-

lation crash due to rinderpest this species’ was —

very common over most of this tract but now

the largest remaining aggregation is in the ©

417

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Nagarhole sanctuary core area. A good popu-

lation also exists in the Kalkere area of Bandipur

National Park. Very small populations occur

in Mudumalai, mostly in the Morganbetta

area near Theppakkadu and few stragglers in

Masingudi, Kekkanhalla and Benne areas of

Mudumalai sanctuary. Begur forest of Kerala

Wynad also has a small population and strag-

glers are present in southeast part of Bandipur

core area. In addition to the considerable

number of gaur in Nagarhole core, Sunkad-

katte-Bisalwadikere area of Nagarhole sanctuary

also has a good population.

Predation must be restricted mostly to calves.

But poaching, though slight because of the

restricted distribution at present, does exist.

Since the flesh of a full grown animal would

fetch a considerable sum, poachers from Kerala

Wynad are reporied to kill animalsin Nagarhole

sanctuary and Kalkere area.

Once the population builds up, the threat of

communicable diseases like rinderpest would

be greater. Though innoculation and checking

of cattle exists along most of the interstate

routes, preventive measures in local villages

and forest settlements are inadequate. The

recent gaur deaths in Periyar sanctuary point to

the need for constant alertness.

(2) Sambar (Cervus unicolor) :

Sambar normally prefers broken terrain with

thick undergrowth. But they were repeatedly

encountered even in the very open scrub of

Moyar forest of Mudumalai. The population

in the sanctuary complex is subject to predation

by most of the larger carnivores and poaching

also takes a heavy toll. Though compared

with spotted deer they were infrequently en-

countered, they are distributed over the entire

survey area and considerable numbers exist in

the Nagarhole core area, Kalkere area of

Bandipur and also along the northeastern

portions Begur, Kurichiyat, Rampur and

Mavanhalla reserves. (Photograph 8.)

(3) Chital or spotted deer (Axis axis) :

This is the most significant prey animal in

this tract. It favours plains with rather open

vegetation and has the tendency to congregate

around human habitations. Very large congre-

gations of this species occur in the Masingudi

area of Mudumalai, Bandipur park headquarters

area and Nagarhole core area.

forests by man for plantation activity is helpful

to this animal. Their considerable number,

gregarious habit and tendency to favour open

forest result in heavy poaching. In Bandipur

park headquarters area domestic dogs have

developed the habit of killing the fawn and

immature animals. The largest single aggre-

gation seen during day time numbered over 150

animals in Moyar forest of Mudumalai.

(Photograph 7).

(4) Wildboar (Sus scrofa) :

Together with Chital, wild pig forms the

most plentiful prey animal. It is extremely

adaptive and occurs in every type of terrain and

survives the very heavy poaching pressure in

parts of Wynad. The impenetrable thickets

that smother cleared land afford shelter and

hence the intrusion of Eupatorium and Lantana

should have favoured this animal. They are

most numerous in the marshlands with soft

soil and succulent vegetation. Due to their

frequent occurrence in degraded forests around

cultivations from where they regularly raid the

crops, conflict with man is frequent and poaching

of this species 1s perhaps heaviest. A single

party of 18 animals with 9 piglets from two

litters numbering 5 and 4 was encountered in

the Nagarhole sanctuary at Hasihindalkadalu

near Mettukuppe.

(5) Four horned antelope (Jetracerus quadri-

cornis) :

This animal is very rare and in the entire

sanctuary complex reliable reports suggest its

418

Opening up of ©

JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

occurrence only in the Sunkadkatte-Bisalwadi-

kere area and the only animal actually seen was

near Bisalwadikere, a very open savannah type

of habitat. Obviously this interesting animal

needs careful watching over to prevent any

further reduction of the population.

(6) Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak) :

This beautiful, elusive animal is possibly far

more numerous than is apparent from sightings

and track data since it frequents thick under-

growth, is solitary and is extremely wary.

Because of these very same reasons poaching

of it might not be heavy. This animal forms

another important prey animal for the larger

carnivores.

(7) Mouse deer (Tragulus meminna) :

Like the barking deer the Indian chevrotain

or mouse deer also occurs over the entire tract

in considerable numbers as was evident from

the track data. It prefers very thick under-

growth hence is commonest in overgrown

plantations. Trapping of this animal, especially

by crush traps must be heavy along the periphery

of the forest, for example, in the Beerambadi-

Maddur area. (Photograph 5).

(8) Blacknaped hare (Lepus nigricollis nigri-

collis) :

Grasslands and open forests, even glades

in the thicker forests constitute the habitat of

this common animal. They survive in very

degraded forests along the edges of cultivation

and hence get heavily trapped or otherwise

poached. It must also form a major food item

for most carnivorous mammals and birds.

(9) Tiger (Panthera tigris) :

Based on track evidence, tiger seems to occur

widely in the sanctuary complex with no specific

preference for particular habitat type. They

seem to frequent the following areas : Dodda-

katti, Kargudi, Kekkanhalla, Bandipur core

area, Kalkere, Rampur, Bannurgadde, Kaimara,

Bisalwadikere-Sunkadkatte, Nagarhole core

area and Dasankatte area of Kerala Begur.

In Nagarhole sanctuary near Mettukuppe

between Madamahalli cart track and Mathana-

hallikkadu on Nagarhole stream, extremely

frequent movement of more than one tiger

and also of leopards was noted. Conflict with

cattle graziers (who might then attempt to

poison tigers) could adversely affect this totally

protected species. Bandipur National Park

being a project tiger area, is primarily conceived

as a tiger reserve and the official estimate of

the tigers within this reserve is about 19 animals.

The only animal encountered during the survey

was in the Begur forest of Kerala Wynad.

(10) Leopard or Panther (Panthera pardus) :

This perfectly camouflaged, highly adaptive

carnivore occurs not very rarely over most of

the survey area but seems to occur most com-

monly in the overgrazed degraded forests.

‘Most of the cattle lost to carnivores could be

attributed to it. Leopard is the sole predator

of the larger arboreal mammals in this area.

The pug marks were most frequent in the Moyar

reserve of Mudumalai and in Nagarhole core

area and also Sunkadkatte area. In addition,

Morganbetta area and Kekkanhalla area of

Mudumalai, Rampur-Kalkere area of Bandipur

and adjacent parts of Kerala Wynad along the

boundary (Rampur and Kurichiyat reserves)

and also Begur reserve along Karnataka

boundary appear to be their favoured haunts.

(11) Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus) :

Sloth bears are widely distributed over most

of the survey area especially in the more open

drier forests. Their numbers apparently are

highest in the Doddakatti area, Mudumalai

camp area and around Masingudi in Mudumalai

419

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

sanctuary, Bandipur core area, the interstate

border areas of Rampur, Mavanhalla reserves

of Kerala Wynad and also Sunkadkatte-Mettu-

kuppe areas of Nagarhole. Of the six occasions

the animals were encountered, thrice it was in

Rampur-Mavanhalla reserves of Wynad (once

a pair), once in the Begur reserve, once in

Kurichiyat and once in Nagarhole sanctuary

core.

(12) Dhole or Wild Dog (Cuon alpinus) :

Over most of the sanctuary complex wild

dog appears to be plentiful which may perhaps

be an exaggerated impression due to their high

mobility. This pack hunter was most frequently

encountered in Mudumalai camp area, Masin-

gudi and Theppakkadu of Mudumalai sanc-

tuary, Kaimara area of Bandipur, over most of

the Nagarhole sanctuary especially Sunkadkatie

area and Begur forest of Kerala near Karnataka

boundary. They were not at all seen in the

remaining portions of Kerala Wynad.

In the characteristic human way, this carnivore

is branded a ‘vermin’ and is killed indis-

criminately, especially since it has no trophy

value either.

(13) Jackal (Canis aureus) :

Jackals prefer open scrub and degraded

forests near human habitations and are

apparently infrequent in most of the sanctuary

area. The only animals encountered were

a pair near Masingudi in Mudumalai. They

are not infrequent in parts of Kerala Wynad.

One member of the survey party and a forest

departmental staff saw an animal in Kattikulam

reserve forest which could be the Indian fox

(Vulpes bengalensis).

(14) Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena) :

Hyena is reported to occur in the scrub

forests around Masingudi though none were

seen.

(15) Hanuman langur (Presbytis entellus) :

Hanuman langur occurs in fairly tall, canopied

but rather open forest in most of the surveyed

tract but the distribution is highly sporadic.

They were most commonly seen over most of

the Mudumalai sanctuary except Benne forest

but occur in Moyar forest along the stream

banks. They are fairly numerous in Bandipur

sanctuary but very sporadic in most of the other

areas. Along with one troop of Hanuman

langur in Morganbetta area a black coloured

animal—most probably a Nilgiri langur—was

seen on two occasions and the same animal had

been reported by local officials also. The animals

were extremely shy in most of the areas outside

Mudumalai.

(16) Bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata) :

Bonnet macaques are not very common

within the sanctuary complex and occur mostly

along the periphery, near human habitations.

They were seen at Kargudi, Theppakkadu,

Benne and Kekkanhalla area of Mudumalai,

Bandipur, Maddur and Mulehole areas of

Bandipur national park and Muthanga area of

Wynad, everywhere near settlements. Troops

were also seen deep inside the forest in Kaimara-

Rampur areas and in Mavanhalla reserve.

(17) Giant squirrel (Ratufa indica) :

This occurs throughout moist deciduous and

semievergreen habitat in the survey area but in

more open forest is very rare or absent. The

largest numbers were encountered in Mudumalai

sanctuary excepting Moyar reserve. Nagarhole

sanctuary and undisturbed forests of Kerala

Wynad also have fairly good populations.

Poaching pressure on this animal is not very

heavy.

(18) Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) :

Peafowl occurs over most of the surveyed

area but heavy poaching and trapping has

420

JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

reduced the population considerably in most of

the area. It apparently prefers scrub and

deciduous forest. Concentrations of peafowl

within the sanctuary complex are in Masingudi

area, Theppakkadu, Bandipur core area,

Chickbargi, Sunkadkatte, Nagarhole sanctuary

core area and border areas of Kerala Wynad

in Begur, Kurichiyat and Rampur reserves.

(19) Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) :

Together with the carnivores, this reptile

has been persecuted by man heavily and has

been almost wiped out in most of its previous

haunts. Any uncisturbed stream with deep

pools and adequate prey is potential crocodile

habitat. It might have existed all along Kabini,

Nugu, Lakshmantirtha, Panamaram_ puzha,

Nulpuzha, Mannantoddy puzha and Moyar

but it was encountered within the survey area

only in the Kuruva Island reserve in North

Wynad. This reserve does not actually come

within the sanctuary limits. Reliable infor-

mation 1s available on the existence of crocodiles

in Nugu. Two animals were seen in Kuruva.

Though this highly endangered species is given

total protection by wildlife act, actually it is

receiving little protection. Poaching does

take place in Kabini. Since the small popu-

lation of crocodiles existing within the sanctuary

complex is distributed along the river down-

stream from Kuruva amidst the large number of

small islands, with encroached Pulpalli lands on

one side and cultivated revenue lands on the

other at least in part of the area, poaching is hard

to control. At least one instance of crocodile

meat openly put for sale from a poached animal

occurred in 1974.

(20) Species introduction :

Introduction of animals by man into a habitat

where they never occurred previously, is

generally harmful to the concerned ecosystems

and is not a recommendable step. But

reintroduction of species into habitat where-

from they were wiped out should be an essen-

tial conservational measure. The reintroduc-

tion of thtee species of threatened animals into

this sanctuary complex should be contemplated.

(i) Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) :

This plains dwelling herbivore, the only

Indian antelope, was widely distributed over the

entire Deccan plateau including part of the

present-day sanctuary complex but 1s so greatly

reduced that the only large population in south

India is in the Point Calimere sanctuary, Tamil

Nadu. The habitat of this animal is com-

parable to that of Masingudi area—Moyar,

Averahalla and parts of Kalmalai Reserve.

If the cattle grazing is restricted in this area it

could form an ideal Blackbuck habitat enrich-

ing the fauna of the sanctuary and providing an

alternate breeding nucleus of Blackbuck.

(ii) Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius) :

The ‘ mountain goat’ of the Western Ghats is

another threatened species of herbivore that

could be reintroduced into its former haunts.

The Brahmagiri range was tahr habitat till

recent times and records of tahr sightings in the

Periyar reserve of Kerala, not far removed, date

as recent as the early 1960’s. The Brahmagiri

sanctuary and its western Kerala slopes should

form a composite protected area connected

with this complex and tahr could be reintro-

duced here. Tahr at present survives in

adequate numbers only in the Nilgiri escarp-

ments and the Eravikulam area of Kerala

High ranges.

(iii) Primates :

This sanctuary could also become a haven for

the Nilgiri langur (Presbytis johni) and perhaps

the liontailed macaque (Macaca silenus). As

no detailed survey of the Brahmagiri sanctuary

nor the western slopes in Kerala were

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

conducted, first hand information on the

distribution of these species is not available but

local information suggests the total wiping out

of these two animals there.

VIII. CONSERVATION

(1) Maintenance of habitat integrity :

No part of a self-perpetuating natural eco-

system could be preserved for any length of

time in isolation. It has to be conserved as a

natural unit irrespective of administrative or

political boundaries. Wild elephants cannot be

preserved independently of their habitat. To

maintain a genetically viable population of a

large, highly mobile, gregarious, herbivorous

species like the elephant in an area where the

availability of forage and water are prone to

drastic seasonal fluctuations, a_ significantly

large undisturbed area must be left aside.

More than direct poaching, the most serious

threat to this population of elephants is the

alarmingly rapid and continuing fragmentation

of its habitat due to a variety of reasons ranging

from deforestation, extension of plantations,

agriculture, dams and other construction

activity (see fig. 3).

~ NAGARHOLE, BANDIPUR, MUDUMALAI AND WYNAD

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——-—= INTER STATE BOUNDARY

——-—— SANCTUARY BOUNDARY

“= RIVERS AND STREAMS

ELEPHANT CONGREGATIONS

(IN MONSOON 1975)

WA HABITAT DISCONTINUITIES

THREATENING ELEPHANTS

Fig. 3.

SANCTUARY COMPEEX

Elephant concentrations and habitat discontinuities in the proposed Jawahar National Park.

JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

In this sanctuary complex, the carrying

capacity of the habitat is low in summer except

in the Nagarhole core area, along Kabini

(Kakankote and Begur Reserve Forests), along

Moyar in Mudumalai forest and in Benne

Reserve Forest as well as the whole of Kerala

Wynad where plantations have not extended

destroying cover and forage. From the food

and water availability in Kerala Wynad this area

seems vital for the elephants in the survey area

in summer. Forest officials and local infor-

mation confirms the annual summer influx of

elephants into Wynad but unfortunately

poaching and habitat destruction are severest

here. In-the entire Wynad wildlife sanctuary

of Kerala, the only sufficiently large areas with

natural forests that can support elephants are

in the Northeastern portions of Begur,

Kurichiyat, Mavanhalla and Rampur Reserve

Forests. All the remaining areas are pock-

marked by plantations and _ cultivations.

Further reduction of forests here would certainly

adversely affect this elephant population south

of Kabini.

For the continuity of this elephant habitat

and for the integrity of the population of

elephants, the most serious and immediate

threat is the Kabini project, the impounded

waters of which meeting with the Pulpally

encroachments in Kerala, threaten to cut this

population into two distinct halves. On the

south bank of Kabini in Kerala, opposite the

Kakankote forest of Karnataka, the Pulpally

forests along the river for a length of 8-13

kilometres, encompassing an area of about

25,000 acres have been encroached upon and

clear felled during the last one decade. Further

north along Kabini, the reservoir waters would

be too wide for the elephants to cross from one

bank to the other.

Near Baveli, in Karnataka along the Kerala

State Border, forests are being clear felled for

plantations which will further hinder movement

of elephants from one state to the other. Those

that do move into the Begur Reserve Forest of

Kerala from Karnataka forests will not be able

to move into any other forest to the south in

Kerala, since beyond Padiri Reserve Forest

(which is outside the sanctuary), the Pulpally

encroached lands rule out the movement of all

animals. To the west from Begur Reserve

Forest the Kudrakote Reserve Forest is so

greatly altered that elephants will not find it

easy to pass on to the north—the Thirunelli

area.

In Karnataka along Kabini on the eastern

side, in the Gundre-Begur area, elephants

congregate in summer from adjacent drier

Mysore Plateau forests. These forests are the

prime haunts of elephants but besides the large

tract submerged by the Kabini reservoir,

vast areas are being cleared for resettling people

evacuated from the cultivated lands submerged

due to the project. Forests around the once

famous Kharapur have given place to hard

baked fields, the same ‘ development ’ is taking

place in Begur and Gundre.

The Tittimathi forests and Kachuvanchalli

forests, north of Lakshmantirtha river is yet

another area famous in the olden days for wild

elephants where they now face severe pressure.

The Hadlu cultivators (encroachers cultivating

the wetlands in these forests) denying the use

of the marshy areas to the animals and the

disturbances caused by these people have

rendered these areas almost devoid of wild-

life. Poaching even of elephants is also

reported.

In Bandipur national park, an area of severe

pressure on the elephants and its habitat is

along the Gundlupet—Sultan’s Battery road,

from Beerambadi—Maddur to Mulehole. The

revenue forests along the reserve boundary in

this area, which had acted as a buffer for so

long, are all being cleared. Unless habitat

degradation is arrested in this area immediately,

this would become a bottleneck restricting free

movement of the animals across,

423

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

The position in Kerala Wynad is by far the

most alarming. Already the sanctuary part is in

two isolated halves with cultivation in between.

In_the northern half, the Kudrakote Reserve

Forest (west of Mannantoddy—Mercara road)

originally of rich moist deciduous vegetation

with plenty of available water has been exten-

sively clear felled for plantations rendering it

practically non-usable by elephants. Further

south, the small Edakode Reserve Forest and

Kattikulam Reserve Forest, south of the

Kattikulam-Baveli Road are ringed in by

cultivations.

In the southern half, the Kuppadi Reserve

Forest is practically cut off from all other

forests to the west by cultivations. There are

two slender links between Kuppadi Reserve

and Kurichiyat Reserve, one through Malappadi

west of Chedleth Rest house and another

between 3rd and 5th miles along S. Battery—

Chedleth Road, which might permit elephants

toenter. Thereserve is heavily grazed, disturbed

and elephant poaching cases in recent years are

many. Kallur Reserve, Alathur Reserve and

Edathori Reserve are small reserves with culti-

vation all around.

Mavanhalla, Rampur and Kurichiyat reserves

are large in extent but even here extensive

plantation activity is going on. Even the

narrow belt of natural vegetation along the

interstate boundary is heavily grazed except in

a few localities and poaching appears to be very

common. The entire western boundary of

Kurichiyat Reserve is subject to heavy human

disturbances from the encroachers in the

Pulpally area from which the reserve is separated

only by a stream—the Kannegalhole or

Kannaram puzha. The Neminad Reserve

south of S. Battery—Gudalur Road is also

isolated and reportedly plans are afoot for

clear felling and planting the entire reserve.

In Mudumalai sanctuary, the southern edge

of the Kumbarkolli Reserve where it faces

Nilambur Kovilakam patta lands and also the

extreme eastern portion near Moyar, Singara

and Mavanhalla villages face very heavy graz-

ing pressure. Poaching in the forest to the

east outside the sanctuary to the Anaikatti

area impede movement of elephants from

Nilgiri escarpments to Masingudi area.

Though this sanctuary complex by Indian

standards covers a large area of forest extensions

are suggested to include adjacent habitat types

harbouring endangered species not seen in the

existing sanctuary area but where they had been

exterminated recently and where they could be

reintroduced successfully. Bringing under the

protection of sanctuaries those corridors that

provide links with other extensive forest tracts

is essential to retain avenues for free movement

of wildlife.

The present sanctuary complex does not have

any west coast tropical evergreen forest within

its confines. Brahmagiri sanctuary in Coorg

has the evergreen shola-grassy down habitat

so typical of Kerala high ranges and Nilgiris.

Including this sanctuary and linking it up with

the Nagarhole-Bandipur complex would enrich

the variety of scenary and biota of the complex.

While the Brahmagiri sanctuary is situated on

the eastern slopes of the Brahmagiri range, the

Thirunelli, Kambanmalai, Thrissileri, Kottiyoor

forests cover the western slopes. These rich

evergreen forests in Kerala should also be given

protection by declaring them as a sanctuary

especially so since they contain a small relict

population of Nilgiri langur and harboured

Nilgiri tahr till very recent times. On reintro-

duction, if protected, these species would thrive

in the rolling grassy hillocks of the Brahmagiri

range.

In the Kerala Wynad between the ravaged

Kudrakote Reserve Forest and Coorg border,

the Alathur Reserve (of Begur range) con-

taining very rich bamboo forest should also be

included in the sanctuary as it supports a good

population of elephants. Ideally the entire

424

JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

belt of forest along the Coorg Kerala border

should become a protected area.

Kuruva Island reserve is another forest area

highly recommended for inclusion within the

sanctuary complex. This reserve besides being

ecologically and floristically notable, harbours

crocodiles too. The belt of forest including

Kalmalai reserve linking the Mudumalai sanc-

tuary with the Nilgiri escarpment forests should

also be brought within the sanctuary to safe-

guard this corridor enabling unhindered move-

ment for wildlife from Nilgiris right across the

plateau to the western ghats.

(2) Buffer Zones :

The degradation and consequent destruction

of forests by human activity is an insidious

process most apparent along the forest edges

where the intact biotope can be seen being

nibbled away. Any forest ecosystem that is

to be kept intact should have a peripheral buffer

zone for absorbing the unavoidable human

interference. But unfortunately, instead of

creating buffer zones all around the outer

perimeter of existing sanctuaries and reserves,

the trend is to remove all existing buffer zones.

This actually points to the lack of a co-ordinated

national policy of land management and an

integrated agency for directing and implement-

ing it. The consequences are an irreversible

deterioration of land, both forested and

cultivated.

Conservation of any forest ecosystem depends

vitally on the existence of a buffer zone around

it to absorb the unavoidable human interference-

Revenue forests, lying between the reserve

forests and villages, everywhere used to serve

this purpose. Release of these revenue forests

for cultivation in many areas is bound to have

a deleterious influence on the sanctuary.

In Bandipur National Park, along the western

margin of Beerambadi forest, for example near

Maddur, there was a belt of revenue forest,

ecologically indistinguishable from the reserve

forest. This entire belt of forest is being or has

already been clear felled and handed over for

cultivation. These forested areas formed a

buffer zone between the village lands along the

Gundlupet S. Battery road and the reserve

forest, shielding the latter from the human

exploitational pressure. In the process the

revenue forests were overgrazed and overfelled.

The same fate will befall the reserve forest

now that the protective buffers are lost. The

uncontrolled denudation of revenue lands in

this particular tract will have far reaching

detrimental ecological consequences. The

reserve forests clothe the rocky, steep slopes of

the Gopalswamibetta and its spur hills whereas

the revenue forests are on the foothills and on

the edge of the plains. Destroying the vege-

tation cover along the many rocky streams

where they debouch from the steep hillsides

will lead to destructive erosion and alter the

hydrology of the farm lands in the plains. This

is taking place in Moleyur area too.

In Kerala Wynad, the former private forests

now vested with the Government, often lie

adjoining the sanctuary and the reserve forests.

The management of these vested forests is at

present in no way compatible with the concept

of protecting the adjoining sanctuary. The

Kakkodan vested forest is an ideal but not an

isolated example.

The tragic consequences of the lack of buffer

zones on the adjoining reserve forests are very

apparent in the Mudumalai sanctuary towards

Thorapalli in compartments 20 and 6 facing the

utterly devastated Nilambur Kovilakam patta

lands. The forests are heavily overgrazed,

lopped and poaching is heavy. The Pulpally

encroachments, just a decade back sylvan

forests, now stand as charred stumps and

countless hutments. The spill-over ecological

effects and inroads made by the expanding

population here will have irreparable and

costly effects on the reserves of Kuppadi,

425

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Kurichiyat and Padiri and will affect the entire

Wynad plateau. |

(3) Forestry operations :

Interests of nature conservation and forest

management for exploitation are not necessarily

incompatible. It should certainly be possible

to organize forestry operations in such a way

that the wildlife interests are safeguarded

without drastically reducing the sustained yield

from the forest.

Certain core areas should be designated as

sanctum sanctorum areas, and left totally un-

touched. These should be chosen so as to

represent all the rich diversity of vegetation

present in this sanctuary, and this diversity

should be maintained intact. These sanctum

areas will serve as the stores of genetic

variability wherefrom the future generations

can find or develop useful or even essential

requisites. As far as possible, this indigenous

vegetation should form a continuous belt of

forest, as it is well known that a continuous

piece of habitat is much more valuable for the

maintenance of biotic diversity, than the same

area fragmented into a number of habitat

islands. As of today, all the Bandipur Nationa]

Park is set aside for conservation without any

forestry operations being allowed. Neverthe-

less, heavy human disturbances do affect many

parts of that National Park also. The sanctum

sanctorum area of Nagarhole is not free of

forestry operations, and should be made so.

There are no such sanctum areas in Mudumala

or Wynad.

Selection felling could continue outside the

sanctum sanctorum areas. Selection felling,

on the whole does not disturb the habitat as

much as clear felling, and is preferable to the

latter practice within the sanctuary areas. Even

here, provision should be made to leave a few of

the large sized, overmature trees standing, as

these furnish many important requisites for the

wildlife, such as nest holes.

Plantation activity should be kept at a mini-

mum within this sanctuary complex. The

plantations of single species of trees are very

sterile from the point of view of the biological

community as a whole. They are also subject

to invasion by Lantana and Eupatorium. The

thick growth of these weeds is of little forestry

or wildlife value. They choke out all tree

saplings and other plants, and cause severe

fires. Eupatorium is not touched by any birds

or mammals—elephants avoid it like plague.

The plantation areas are leased out for the so-

called taungya cultivation for two to three years

in Kerala and other places. These cultivators

often cause great disturbance to the wildlife.

There should be strict supervision to ensure that

they are taking proper care of the plantation,

checking fires in the plantation area, and not

indulging in poaching.

Bamboo forms an important component of

the vegetation throughout this sanctuary com-

plex. Its shoots are relished by elephants and

other wild animals. It also serves the function

of holding soil on stream banks. Bamboo

flowers gregariously, and the whole crop dies

on flowering. Such gregarious flowering and

mass death of bamboo clumps has occurred

over much of the sanctuary complex during the

past twelve years. It is a matter of grave con-

cern that the bamboo crop has totally failed

to re-establish itself over many areas following

the last gregarious flowering, thus wiping out an

important forest produce and source of nourish-

ment for wildlife. Excessive exploitation, fires

and overgrazing are the three major causes of

this. Serious consideration should be given to

checking all of these over the sanctuary complex

in future.

Development is often equated with the

construction of roads. But if the roads are

through forests, it is often the beginning of the

end for the forests. Roads accelerate degra-

dation of forests directly and _ indirectly,

Besides fragmenting the habitat, they provide

426

JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

with equal impartiality access for woodcutters

and poachers, cattle graziers and smugglers.

The opened up canopy encourages the strangle

growth of Lantana and Eupatorium.

The entire survey area has a lengthy net-

work of forest departmental and public roads;

in addition there is an extensive coup and

bamboo extraction road network. These

coup roads are always left intact honey-combing

the entire forest, allowing the jeep and flashlight

poachers and illegal woodcutters in bullock

carts easy access. These roads should be ren-

dered unserviceable as soon as the original

purpose is served by cutting deep trenches across

where they join the permanent roads.

Another ill conceived development of the

last few years is the construction of unnecessary

panchayat roads etc., cutting through forests.

Many such roads were opened as part of drought

relief programme often through forests just

because land was free. The Moyar-Mavanhalla

panchayat road and Nagampalli-Muthukuli

road in Mudumalai, the H. D. Kote-Murkal

new road through Hotgot forest in Nagarhole

and Mettukuppe-Murkal road are some

examples.

Private individuals are issued passes for the

collection of dead firewood from many forest

areas within the sanctuary complex. They are

a source of great disturbance, and have a

tendency to create dead wood by cutt.. > down

living trees. Jt would therefore be desirable

if issuance of such passes is altogether can-

celled, and the dead wood collected under

departmental supervision and issued from the

depots, just as the issue of licences for col-

lecting bamboos for basket-weavers has been

stopped.

(4) Water Resource Development :

A number of reservoirs have been con-

structed, or are under construction, or are pro-

posed to be constructed throughout this sanc-

tuary complex. There are in addition to the

gigantic Kabini project in the heart of the area,

the Nugu dam and Moyar power house along

the periphery in Karnataka and Tamilnadu

respectively. Though of a much smaller size,

the Maruvakkandi dam in the Masingudi area

of Mudumalai and the Taraka dam under

construction near Mettukuppe in Nagarhole

sacntuary have submerged and altered a con-

siderable area of the habitat. A small dam is

being built at Moolapura in Bandipur.

Though now shelved, there was a proposal to

construct a dam across Moyar in Theppakkadu

area of Mudumalai sanctuary which would have

completely destroyed the best part of Mudu-

malai forest. There are some projects under

investigation in Wynad part of Kerala too.

The devastation brought about by the dam

during construction activity and by the subse-

quent backing up waters is irreparable and

extensive. The Kabini project alone has sub-

merged or otherwise resulted in the destruction

of the best part of Kakankote and Gundre-

Bagur forests. The best part of the elephant

habitat in the entire survey area is being

destroyed by this project. In addition to the

vast area inundated (5000 acres) still more

extensive areas of forest has been deforested

(10,000 acres) for resettlement of displaced

people. Nisna Bagur spreads raw and barren

over the hills, till so recently verdent woods.

In this state with a comparatively low popu-

lation density, other equally suitable lands could

have been located for resettlement. 3,000 more

acres are set aside for clearing in future. More-

over the resettlement done unscientifically will

damage the project itself by accelerating silting

up. For the elephants completion of the

Kabini project, beside depriving them of the

best part of their range, has also resulted in

severing the population into two isolated halves.

Because of this, the optimal density of elephants

this tract can support will get reduced con-

siderably especially in summer.

427

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

On the other hand effectively protected and

developed along properly planned lines, these

water bodies can enhance the recreational value

of the habitat, create more variety of niches and

by being the congregation points for wildlife in

summer become focal points for tourists.

(5) Cultivation :

Enclaves of cultivated land in the otherwise

extensive reserves are nothing exceptional in

India but in this particular tract this kind of

cultivation is most extensive. The entire

Wynad plateau is dotted by marshlands most of

which are occupied by cultivators. These

lush moist nuclei of wildlife also control the

stream flow over the entire tract. These

marshes are usually interconnected, girding the

gentle hills and most of the extensively used

wildlife trails meander along their edges. Even

those under cultivation but where poaching is

not heavy remain foci of wildlife congregation

(for example ‘Kurichiyat vayal’). The list

of major wildlife areas in the survey area given

elsewhere attest to their importance. The more

grassy open terrain dotted by thickets providing

cover and plentiful water round the year must

be the attractive features. In Kerala Wynad

very few vayals remain uncultivated. Most of

the accessible ones are cultivated mostly by

encroachers and those deep within the forest

are occupied by Chetties on lease who do not

disturb the surrounding forest or wildlife unduly.

But their huge unproductive cattle population

cause a great deal of destruction, grazing and

trampling and directly competing with wildlife

to the latter’s exclusion.

In Mudumalai sanctuary too many of the

vayals are under cultivation in the Mudumalai

reserve. The Tittimathi forests of Nagarhole

are almost devoid of wildlife due to the very

wide-spread Hadlu cultivations.

The best growth of the large bamboo

(Bambusa arundinacea) is found along the

edges of the marshes and elephants invariably

congregate here. The soft soil and abundance

of tubers and bulbs attract wild boar and most

other herbivores. The preservation of marshes

is most essential since they are the richest

part of the ecosystem supporting a variety of

wildlife, are the favoured haunts of elephants

and also key-holders of the perennial stream

flow. As a part of the ecosystem restricted

to this locality and about which so little is —

known, for future studies at least some of these

undisturbed marshes should be totally protected.

Scenically they are a most attractive feature

of the sanctuary. The gently sloping hills with

dark, rank vegetation and huge feathery

bamboo clumps giving way abruptly to tall -

waving grass with small isolated thickets of

trees and the streams along the centre with huge

wild mangotrees (Mangifera indica) and screw

pine thickets are very beautiful.

Most of the fertile land along streams, river

banks and most of the marshes are cultivated

in Kerala Wynad either leased out by the forest

department or from the revenue department.

Since wildlife too prefers this type of habitat, |

conflict is unavoidable, predictably always to |

Their very nature,

encircling and isolating the forested hillocks> |

leads to the total fragmentation of the habitat

the detriment of the latter.

once these marshlands are under cultivation.

The remnants of the wildlife will have to run the |

gauntlet of guarded paddy fields or other culti- |

vation to cross from one patch of higher ground

to another where alone they can shelter from |

Hence the often voiced justi-

persecution.

fication of ‘crop protection’ gun and the

menance from ‘crop raiding wild animals’.

Specifically, the Ombatta Vayal and the

Cheenakolli Vayals in Mudumalai should be)

the culti-

vators from the Kurichiyat Vayal and Golur |

Vayal in Kerala Wynad should be relocated,.

and these vayals be left as permanent resources |

completely protected. Similarly,

428

JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

for wildlife. The hadlus in Nagarhole sanctuary

should also be maintained intact.

In addition to these pockets of cultivation

within the sanctuary, cultivation is encroaching

on the wildlife habitat all along the periphery

of the sanctuary. As mentioned above, most

of the revenue forests are being released for

cultivation. Cultivators have also encroached

on many parts of former private and presently

vested—forests in Kerala, the 25,000 acre

Pulpally forest being the most striking example.

Grant of further land within or on periphery

of the forest for cultivation needs to be carefully

watched.

(6) Cattle :

Together with large scale plantation activity

and man-made fires, cattle constitute one of the

foremost habitat degradating factors. In the

survey area perhaps due to its plateau nature

and accessibility from the human settlements

all around and within, grazing forms a very

severe threat to the forests. At present cattle

grazing has been controlled to some extent only

in the Bandipur Project Tiger area. (Photo-

graph 9).

Controlling the grazing should involve

differential approach to the cattle maintained

by the cultivators, mostly chetties, within the

forest and from the peripheral villages or

settlements. For the former there is no option

but to graze them in the forest all around,

For the latter the revenue forests, maintained

as Gomalas in Karnataka had also provided

fodder but now that the revenue forests are

vanishing ever so rapidly, the pressure on the

reserve forests is increasing. The cattle,

especially those kept by chetties are of very

little productivity being mostly maintained for

dung. For them a cheap system of converting

vegetation to fertilizer, it is destructive for the

habitat. Regeneration of vast areas of the

forest is greatly curtailed or altogether stopped.

The cattle churn up the mat of vegetation in

the marshlands and trample down the soil

elsewhere. The continuous trodding of hooves

on slopping ground cause heavy erosional soil

loss. The forest tracks are rendered impassable

in wet as well as in the dry season by them.

The cattle compete with wildlife for forage,

scare away wildlife especially with the noisy

wooden bells used in Wynad. They also very

successfully transmit diseases to wildlife (the

rinderpest outbreak that wiped out Gaur in

Mudumalai-Bandipur area in 1968-69 was

carried by cattle).

The graziers indulge in vandalism such as

cutting down saplings, setting forest fires

sweeping over this area, collecting forest pro-

ducts illegally etc. Bamboo shoots removed

by these people affect bamboo regeneration to

a hitherto unrecognised degree. In Kerala

Wynad at least they are known to chase ele-

phants out of the locality. It can be categori-

cally stated that absolutely no area in the present

Kerala Wynad sanctuary is free from grazing.

The magnitude of destruction caused by cattle

to Moyar-Masingudi area of Mudumalai sanc-

tuary could be visualized by the fact that over

20,000 cattle are permitted to graze in this area

for a very small grazing fee for which the

mangy beasts are allowed to destroy the vege-

tation in this dry scrub area where regeneration

is naturally slow. The following locations in

the sanctuary complex appear to be alarmingly

degraded due to cattle grazing though most

of the land is overgrazed (see fig. 4).

Mudumalai

sanctuary

Wynad wildlife

sanctuary

Kavamad (In Kudra-

kote) Chambalam

vayal (Begur).

Kunivayal and Thava-

navayal in Benne

Vellarankolli vayal

area along Benne-

Mudumalai road.

429

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Mudumalai

sanctuary

Wynad wildlife

sanctuary

Kattikulam—all along Muthukuli-church

the river banks road area.

Begur vayal.

Cheeyambam thodu, Keelekolli-Nambik-

Kolachi old elephant kunnu area of Com-

entry area. partment 20.

Odopallam. Ombatta vayal near

Kargudi.

Manjathodi area. Moyar valley road

area.

Athirthithodu and Maruvakkandi dam

Sickthadi vayal area area.

near Mulehole.

Ambuthivayal, Vat- Bhoothanattam,

tambra vayal in Basaveswara temple

Mavanhalla reserve. area in Moyar

Reserve.

Kurichithod vayal and

Kumbalakkallu vayal

in Nulpuzha reserve.

‘NAGARHOLE , BANDIPUR, MUDUMALAI AND WYNAD

—— INTER STATE BOUNDARY

———- SANCTUARY BOUNDARY

~~ RIVERS AND STREAMS

ROADS

TIM SUBMERSION AREA

SANCTUARY COMPLEX

AREA

TAMIL NADU (MUDUMALAI) 320-86km

KARNATAKA: BANDIPUR 689-52 »

+ +

NAGARHOLE 572-90 2

KERALA ‘{WYNAD) 344-97 »

See

Fig. 4. Wild life concentrations and disturbances in the proposed Jawahar National Park.

Nore: The correct area of Kerala (Wynad) is 473'72 sq.km and not 344°47 sq. km as shown in figure 4.

JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

Bandipur National Park

Borgare pinchi, Tekadu mara Kolachi and

Gapalpura area near Chamanhalla.

Marikkatte, Bankegowdana kattehalla area.

Beerambadi, Maddur area.

Rampur to Kerala boundary.

Moleyur—Seegotikere.

Kalkere area adjoining state border.

Bannurgadde state border area.

Bannurgadde—Gundre game road after Ganga-

nekollihalla.

Around Byrankuppe.

Kamalegedde thodu—Kuthirasatta halla.

Sunkadkatte—Mettukuppe area.

Around Murkal township.

Anaichowkur and Uduvepura path, Gunasoor

area of Tittimathi.

Controlling grazing is a most essential but

perhaps the most difficult step in effectively

conserving this habitat with far reaching socio-

economic and cultural implications. Only a

long duration programme involving inter-

departmental effort (for, e.g., involving Animal

Husbandry, Tribal Welfare Department etc.)

could succeed. Population of cattle allowed

in the forest should be greatly curtailed. A

strictly maintained rotation system of forests

closed to grazing (in addition to the core area

where grazing is prohibited at all times) should

be enforced. The carrying capacity of each of

the forest ranges based on availability of running

water, annual rainfall, type of terrain, density

of wildlife etc. should be determined using the

value for the driest month of the year as the

base value and a ceiling number for grazing

in each determined. The present system of

blanket permits is very harmful.

All efforts to improve the genetic stock of

cattle especially of the chetties cattle within

the forest should be made so that enforced

reduction of permitted cattle need not cause

any human hardship.

Constant vigil and regular inoculation of

every head of cattle in or near the forest against

infectious diseases should be enforced in all the

three states.

(7) Fire :

Man-made fires sweep over this entire

sanctuary complex during the months of

January, February and March. They destroy

the seedlings and saplings and thereby prevent

forest regeneration. They also slowly kill the

weaker trees. They destroy the humus on the

ground, and thereby damage the soil ecosystem.

This coupled with reduced ground cover leads

to more rapid soil erosion. The fires also

adversely affect many insects, amphibians,

reptiles and ground nesting birds and mammals.

They greatly reduce the forage available to the

grazing herbivores and acentuate the pinch

period.

Fires are often set by cattle graziers to

promote the growth of tender grass shoots

during the early pre-monsoon showers. They

are also set by minor forest produce collectors

and poachers. (Photograph 10). The increasing

plantation activity favours wide-spread fires

even in the wetter forests of Kerala and Coorg

which are not naturally fire prone. Extensive

plantations of Eucalyptus with their thick

undergrowth of Eupatorium suffer heavy damage

from uncontrolled fires.

It is imperative that serious measures be

introduced to control forest fires throughout

this area. A well trained staff of fire watchers

who maintain fire lines and fire breaks and carry

out systematic operations of early controlled

burning should be maintained throughout the

sanctuary complex. In addition, local people

everywhere should be educated, and perhaps

forced to keep fires under check by being held

responsible for any fires set around their camps,

431

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

(8) Protection :

Poaching, by organized gangs going for big

money items such as ivory and tiger pelt, as

well by locals for meat is prevalent in many parts

of the sanctuary complex. The forest depart-

mental staff are very poorly equipped to cope

with either of these, because of the lack of

weapons, and transport and because of the

tortuous legal procedures. The staff should

also be given adequate rewards to encourage

them to take action under the difficult circum-

stances they face.

IX. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is a great pleasure to acknowledge the

generous co-operation of the forest departments

of the three southern states of Karnataka,

Kerala and Tamilnadu. The Chief Conser-

vators of all the three states gave their full

support to this project, and this was translated

into very concrete assistance in the field by the

concerned Conservators, Divisional Forest

Officers, Rangers, Foresters and Forest Guards.

To all of them we are most grateful ; this work

could not even have been contemplated, let

alone executed without this support. Autho-

rities of the Indian Institute of Science supported

this work in many ways, particularly through

their visiting scientist programme. We are

also grateful to the members of the Southern

Indian Regional Committee of the World

Wildlife Fund for their manifold encourage-

ment.

REFERENCES

An ecological Survey of the

J. Bombay nat.

KRISHNAN, M. (1972):

arger mammals of peninsular India.

list. Soc. 69 (2) : 297-350.

McKay, G. M. (1973): Behaviour and Ecology of the

Asiatic Elephant in Southeastern Ceylon. Smithsonian

Contributions to Zoology No. 125, pp. 113.

SHARATCHANDRA, H.C. AND GADGIL, M. (1976): A year

of Bandipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72 (3) : 623-647.

SINGH, V. B. (1969): The Elephant (Elephas maximus

Linn.) in Uttar Pradesh, India. ibid. 66 : 239-250.

432

Location of Reserve

KARNATAKA STATE

Bandipur Sanctuary ;

Mysore District

_ Nagarhole Sanctuary ;

Coorg District

Mysore District

TAMILNADU

Mudumalai Sanctuary ;

Nilgiri District

JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

APPENDIX I

State Forest

Moyar RF ax aus

Kaniyanapura SF Block I

-do- Block II and III

Bandipur SF

Beerambadi SF ..

Ainurmarigudi SF

Begur RF

Total

Arakeri RF

Hotgot

Nalkari

Mettukuppe SF

Kakankote SF .

Veerannahosahalli SF

Kachuvanahalli SF

Total

Mudumalai

Kumbarkolli i

Benne

Benne addition i

Averahalla

Moyar '

Moyar \

Moyar addition

Total

433

Area in

Sq. Km

60.86

6.20

26.44

85.96

265.47

128.46

116.13

689.52

72.35

109.85

103.09

141.06

70.07

48.33

28.15

572.90

193.61

46.12

26.00

54.95

320.68

JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST.-SOCIETY, Vol. 74

APPENDIX I-(contd.)

Location of Reserve State Forest Area in

Sq. Km

KERALA STATE

Wynad Wildlife Sanctuary :

(1) Cannanore District .. Kudrakote wy oa Pel y Ae

Begur Se Pe ee 61.92

Kattikulam si is ae 75.00

Edakode re ius ui, 71.53:

(2) Calicut District .. .. Kurichiyat se Nh a: 74.42

Kuppadi wis as - 32.04

Alathur ae he cha 4.77

Edathori at 7 8 Devil

Kallur ae ee a 8.41

Mavanhalla sie ee ae 52.42

Rampur Be a Me 72.84

Neminad au A sis 3.73

Motalyy ayer. 473.72

TOTAL AREA :

Tamilnadu... ie .- 320.68 Sq. Kms.

Karnataka .. on .. 1262.42 Sq. Kms.

Kerala Ae ae .- 473,72 Sq. Kms.

434

JAWAHAR NATIONAL PARK

- Brahmagiri sanctuary :

Only a brief visit was paid to this beautiful sanctuary

in the Coorg District of Karnataka. This sanctuary

_ is situated on the eastern slopes of the Brahmagiri range>

-a spur hill of Coorg Western Ghats. The forest is

| restricted to the slopes of the hills and are of west coast

| tropical evergreen and typical shola vegetation inter-

| spersed with large grassy downs. The adjacent western

|slopes form the Thirunelli reserve forests of Kerala.

| Though very rich in avifauna, the vegetation is heavily

| grazed, down to bare rock in some parts and wildlife

| signs are sporadic. This habitat once must have contain-

-ed the Nilgiri tahr and Liontailed Macaque.

| Padri Reserve and Kuruva island reserve :

There is a large intrusion of cultivated land into the

‘area of the sanctuary complex that cuts into two the

| Kerala Wynad plateau constituting the Wynad sanctuary,

This is Pulpally encroachments. Isolated between the

‘Kabini and this cultivated tract, separated from the

“southern Kurichiyat reserve of Calicut Division by the

‘encroached lands, is the Padri reserve (of 5262.94

APPENDIX II

hectares) not included in the sanctuary. The southern

half of the Padri reserve is a long narrow strip very much

fragmented by Patta lands and old encroachments.

Though rich in bamboo, it is very heavily disturbed.

The northern section of padiri reserve stretching along

Kabini is rich semi-evergreen forest and in spite of a great

deal of human disturbances contains some wildlife.

Its northern edge bordering the river is mostly patta

lands.

Kuruva island reserve is a large island, 146.01 hectares

in area, in the Kabini river immediately after the con-

fluence of the Panamaram puzha and Mannantoddy

puzha. Itis uninhabitated, perfectly flat and is covered by

natural forest. It harbours crocodiles, water monitors

and large fresh-water tortoises in the two fresh water

ponds in the centre of the island in addition to a remnant

mammalian fauna. Ideal for scientific field studies,

this island reserve is gradually getting denuded by human

activity. It is not included in the sanctuary. There

are a large number of islands of varying sizes dotted

along the river down stream from Kuruva but the com-

pletion of Kabini dam will result in the submergence of

many of the islands and perhaps even of Kuruva.

435

Revised classification of the family

Aphelinidae

(Hymenoptera :

Chalcidoidea)’

M. YOUNUS KHAN ?

AND

S. ADAM SHAFEE

(With forty-nine text-figures)

A brief historical review of the family Aphelinidae is given.

The new generic characters of pronotum, sub-

genital plate and female external genitalia have been studied in thirteen genera of the family Aphelinidae.

These characters together with the generic characters proposed by earlier workers have made the

identification of genera more clear and perfect.

is also given.

INTRODUCTION

Thomson (1876) proposed the tribe Aphelinina

for the genus Aphelinus Dalman. Howard

(1881) raised the tribe Aphelinina to subfamily

rank Aphelininae of the family Chalcididae and

placed the genera Aphelinus Dalman and Cocco-

phagus Westwood in it. Ashmead (1904)

considered Aphelininae as subfamily of

Eulophidae and divided it into two tribes,

Aphelinini and Pteroptericini, mainly based on

number of tarsal segments. Later, this system

of classifying the Aphelinids into tribes was

followed by Howard (1907) and Mercet (1912).

Girault (1915) considered Aphelininae as a

subfamily of Encyrtidae. Viereck (1916) raised

the subfamily Aphelininae to family. rank,

1 Accepted February 1976.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology:

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

436

A revised key to Indian genera of the family Aphelinidae

Aphelinidae. Mercet (1930) added the sub-

family Calesinae, thereby placing three sub-

families (Aphelininae, Pteroptericinae and

Calesinae) within the family Aphelinidae.

the number of tarsal segments and presence or

absence of speculum. Further, he dropped the

subfamily Pteroptericinae from the family,

Aphelinidae.

De.

Santis (1948) divided the family Aphelinidae

into three subfamilies, Aphelininae, Cocco-

phaginae and Calesinae, principally based on

Ghesquiere (1955) proposed a new subfamily,

Eriaporinae in the family Aphelinidae for the

genus Eriaporus Waterston. Later, Subba Rao

(1969) synonymised Eriaporus Waterston with

Promuscidea Girault and shifted it to the family

Pteromalidae. Alam (1956) emphasized for the

first time the generic importance of the

characters of pronotum, subgenital plate and)

genitalia. |

These characters later have been

upheld by Agarwal (1966), Hayat (1971) and

CLASSIFICATION OF THE FAMILY APHELINIDAE

Shafee (1973). In this respect his work may be

taken as a basis for future researches.

Erdoés (1964) divided the family Aphelinidae

into three subfamilies, Aphelininae, Ptero-

ptericinae and Eriaporinae. Ferri¢re (1965)

added Coccophaginae as the fourth subfamily

to Aphelinidae. Nikol’skaya and Yasnosh

(1966) divided the family Aphelinidae into five

subfamilies, Aphelininae, Calesinae, Cocco?

phaginae, Prospaltellinae and Azotinae.

Further, they dropped the subfamily Pterop-

tericinae from Aphelinidae and distributed its

genera among other families. They exclude

the subfamily Eriaporinae from Aphelinidae.

A key to Indian genera of the family

Aphelinidae is proposed, mainly based on

pronotum, subgenital plate, first valvifers,

second valvifers and outer plates. Further,

the already existing characters as far as possible,

have been used as supporting characters for the

genera.

REVISED KEY TO THE INDIAN GENERA

OF THE FAMILY APHELINIDAE

famed

Tarsi 4-jointed

Tarsi 5-jointed

Antennae 5-segmented ; club long, entire ; prono-

tum formed of two separate sclerotic pieces (fig. 1 :

Hayat, 19725, fig. 7) ; first valvifers triangular with

basal and apical angles at different levels (fig. 38) ;

second valvifers of uniform width (fig. 26) ; third

valvulae of moderate length and movably arti-

culated with second valvifers (fig. 26) ; posterior

mirgin of subgenital plate semi-circular with a

notch in middle (fiz. 14)... Eretmocerus Haldeman

Antennae 7-segmented ; club short, 3-segmented :

pronotum formed of one continuous sclerotic

plate, narrow in middle (Alam 1956, fig. 37);

first valvifers triangular with base slightly curved

(Alam 1956); third valvulae immovably arti-

culated with second valvifers (Alam 1956)......

Casca Howard

Ore wines) with speculum: 64.020 00000 0). a

Fore wings without speculum................ 10

Antennae, 5) to 7-seemented. 4.%.5.... 2. 5

Antennae 4-segmented ; funicle and club each

l-segmented ; pronotum formed of two separate

ORONO 8) 0) Oe el) 8 eh ee: 0) 10, /e\/8\ ve\e ie: 0) elie tedene lerene

laa sel ar

——7

437

sclerotic pieces (Hayat 1974b); marginal vein

longer than submarginal vein ; post-marginal vein

ADSCMIC Nee. ak Marlattiella Howard

AMennae O.On /-=sezmentedin. os sess coos: 6

Antennae 5-segmented ; fore wings hyaline with an

obscure patch below stigmal vein anda group of

conspicuous setae on middle of mesal margin of

speculum ; mesonotum with 4 longitudinal black

bands ; abdominal dorsum with 5 black transverse

bands. Syediella Shafee

Antennae 6-segmented; club entire; marginal

vein well-developed ; stigmal vein short........ 7

Antennae 7-segmented; club 2-segmented ;

pronotum formed of one sclerotic plate, anterior

margin deeply concave, posterior margin straight

(fig. 6; Hayat 1972c, fig. 2); marginal vein dis-

tinctly shorter than submarginal vein; stigmal

vein well-developed; _ first valvifers almost

triangular (fig. 42; Hayat 1972c, fig. 4) ; second

valvifers of uniform width with dorsal marginal

ridge ; third valvulae movably articulated with

second valvifers (fig. 30; Hayat 1972c, fig. 4);

subgenital plate with anterior margin straight,

posterior margin with semi-circular notch in middle

(fig. 18 ; Hayat 1972c, fig. 3)...Eriaphytis Hayat

Pronotum formed of two separate sclerotic pieces

(figs. 2, 3, 5; Nikol’skaya & Yasnosh 1966,

figs. 151, 172; Hayat 1972a, fig. 9; Hayat 1973,

fig. 3) ; fore wings generally without hyaline spots

or bands of transparent setae and body without

pronounced white spots or maculations........ 8

Pronotum formed of one continuous sclerotic plate

(fig. 4; Nikol’skaya & Yasnosh 1966, fig. 164 ;

Agarwal 1964b, fig. 28) ; fore wings with hyaline

spots or bands of transparent setae, or body with

pronounced white spots or maculations, most

frequently with both ; first valvifers almost semi-

circular (fig. 41; Agarwal 1964b, fig. 30); sub-

genital plate with a mid-longitudinal groove (fig.

17) Marietta Motschulsky

Last sternite (subgenital plate) reaches to middle

of abdomen ; ovipositor uncovered and straight ;

general body colour yellow ; subgenital plate with

broadly truncated posterior margin and without

anterolateral apodems (fig. 16) ; parasites of eggs

and Coccids

Last sternite (subgenital plate) reaches to apex of

abdomen covering the ovipositor except apex

which is curved upward; general body colour

black; subgenital plate V-shaped with greatly

reduced posterior margin, anterolateral apodemes

distinct (fig. 15) ; first valvifers triangular (fig. 39) ;

parasites. Of aphids..:)...... Aphelinus Dalman

eeeseev ee eee ee © © 8 © 8 oo

eoseest eo eo eee eee ee 8 Oo

dilaleniefe ce) te) ehieiie je eels jerie) jeljelre e .ey eile) ie @pe.je!e) @) 6

10.

JQURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Body generally elongate ; wings narrow ; legs long

and slender; ovipositor generally more or less

prominent; parasites’ Of eggs.

DONOR DS tian crnroy On una asseuie sch AN Centrodora Foerster

Body short; wings broad ; ovipositor not or little

prominent ; parasites of Coccids..............

DPI SEN lelepe re lene eere eae ene Aphytis Howard

Pronotum formed of one continuous sclerotic

plate (figs. 7-11 ; Alam 1956, figs. 10, 31 ; Agarwal

—-1964b, fig. 17 ; Hayat 1971, fig. 8; Hayat 1974b,

fig. 12); first valvifers of varying shapes (figs.

43-47 ; Alam 1956, figs. 12a, 35a ; Agarwal 1964b,

HOw 21) eee vee circ ree ce eG 11

Pronotum formed of two separate sclerotic pieces

- (figs. 12, 13 ; Alam 1956, fig. 2; Agarwal 1964a,

fig. 25 ; Nikol’skaya & Yasnosh 1966, fig. 456;

- Hayat 1974a, fig. 2); first valvifers triangula

12.

with basal and apical angles at different levels (figs

48, 49; Alam 1956, fig. 6b; Agarwal 1964a

1G 4/2) acta a El ae ee al er ai a enesl ED 9d sia cy sia di | 15

Antennae 8-segmented ; club 3-segmented ; pos-

terior margin of pronotum straight with sub-

marginal ridge (figs. 7, 8; Alam 1956, fig. 10;

Hayat 1971, fig. 8) ; first valvifers triangular with

basal and apical angles at different levels (figs

43, 44; Alam 1956, fig. 12a; Zinna 1961, Pl. 7

fig. 2; Nikol’skaya & Yasnosh 1966, fig. 20) .

second valvifers of uniform width, third valvulae,

short (figs. 31, 32 ; Zinna 1961, Pl. 7, fig. 2, Nikol’s

kaya & Yasnosh 1966, fig. 20);

plate narrow, anterior margin connected with

posterior margin by a mid longitudinal groove,

central notch of posterior margin without laterally

directed ridges Giese 19% 20)).47 5... 1 ae. 12

Antennae 7-segmented ; club 1 or 2-segmented ;

posterior margin of pronotum concave and with-

out submarginal ridge (figs. 9-11; Alam 1956,

fig. 31; Agarwal 1964b, fig. 17; Hayat 1974b>

fig. 12) ; first valvifers quadrate or semi-circular ;

second valvifers and third valvulae usually long

and narrow (figs. 33-35) ; subgenital plate modera-

tely broad, central notch of posterior margin

with laterally directed ridges (figs. 21-23)...... 13

Funicle segments cylindrical ; postmarginal vein

usually well-developed... .Coccophagus Westwood

Funicle segments flattened ; post marginal! vein

usually absent ; base of mid tibiae with rows of

Dristles. ye St eee eco Aneristus Howard

subgenita ©

13.

14.

16.

17.

438

Funicle 4-segmented ; club entire ; pronotum with

a submarginal ridge along each lateral margin

(figs. 10, 11 ; Alam 1956, fig. 31 ; Agarwal 1964b,

fig. 17; Hayat 1974b, fig. 12); first valvifers

semi-circular, with basal and apical angles in one

plane (figs. 46, 47; Alam 1956, fig. 35a; Zinna

1962, Pl. 35, fig. 3); second valvifers and third

valvulae long and narrow (figs. 34, 35; Zinna

1962, Pl. 35, fig. 2; Agarwal 1964b, fig. 22);

subgenital plate broad, anterior margin connected

with posterior margin by a _ midlongitudinal

groove. (figs. 22.23) eo ek ee oe 14

Funicle 3-segmented ; club 2-segmented ; prono-

tum without submarginal ridge along each lateral

margin (fig. 9) ; first valvifers quadrate with basal

and apical angles at different levels (fig. 45) ;

second valvifers uniformly broad with mid longi-

tudinal ridge; third valvulae short (fig. 33);

subgenital plate transverse and without mid longi-

tudinal groove ‘fig. 21) Physcus Howard

Fore wings with group of long black setae ; stigmal |

vein swollen; subgenital plate without antero-

lateral apodemes (fig. 22; Agarwal 1964b, fig. |

19) Azotus Howard |

Fore wings not so patterned ; stigmal vein long, |

slender; subgenital plate with anterolateral |

apodemes (fig. 23 ; Hayat 1974b, fig. 15) ......

SOR ee ae oe Ablerus Howard |

Fore wings broad with usually short marginal |

fringe, with setae at radius) 5. 44. one ee 16 |

Fore wings narrow with long marginal fringe, bare |

at radius; outer plates of ovipositor narrow in |

proximal region, gradually broadening distally |

with distal end narrowly rounded, dorsal margin —

followed by a long narrow submarginal ridge |

(Alam 1956, fig. 6a)...... Aspidiotiphagus Howard |

Funicle and club each 3-segmented.......... 17'|

Funicle and club 4-and 2-segmented respectively ; |

posterior margin of subgenital plate with a notch |

in middle (figs 25) wae. Trichaporus Foerster |

Antennal club not distinctly separated from)

funicle ; club conical at apex; marginal vein)

shorter than submarginal vein (Hayat 1974a, |

Coccophagoides Girault |

Antennal club distinctly separated from funicle;

club blunt at apex ; marginal vein longer than —

submarginal vein Prospaltella Ashmead |

)

Ce a

eer cee ee

' CLASSIFICATION OF THE FAMILY APHELINIDAE

WW £10

Figs ai 13. Female pronotum : (1) Eretmocerus haldemani Howard ; (2) Aphelinus mali (Haldeman) ; (3) Aphytis

__alami Agarwal; (4) Marietta orientalis (Howard); (5) Centrodora azizi Hayat; (6) Eriaphytis orientalis

Hayat ; (7) Coccophagus shafeei Hayat ; (8) Aneristus ceroplastae Howard ; (9) Physcus albipodus Agarwal ;

(10) Azotus gadrii Agarwal ; (11) Ablerus aonidiellae Hayat ; (12) Prospaltella flava Shafee ; (13) Trichaporus

| partenopeus (Masi).

439

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

0-22 mm

0-15 mm 22

25 I

Figs. 14-25. Female subzenital plate: (14) Eretmocerus haldemani Howard ; (15) Aphelinus mali (Haldeman) ;

(16) Aphytis alami Agarwal ; (17) Marietta orientalis (Howard) ; (18) Eriaphytis orientalis Hayat ; (19) Cocco-

phagus shafeei Hayat ; (20) Aneristus ceroplatae Howard ; (21) Physcus albipodus Agarwal ; (22) Azotus qadrit

Agarwal ; (23) Ablerus aonidiellae Hayat ; (24) Prospaltella flava Shafee ; (25) Trichaporus partenopeus (Masi).

440

CLASSIFICATION OF THE FAMILY APHELINIDAE

0:07 mm

Figs. 26-37. Part of female external genitalia: (26) Eretmocerus haldemani Howard; (27) Aphelinus malj

(Haldeman) ; (28) Aphytis alami Agarwal; (29) Marietta orientalis (Howard) ; (30) Eriaphytis orientalis

Hayat ; (31) Coccophagus shafeei Hayat ; (32) Aneristus ceroplastae Howard ; (33) Physcus albipodus Agarwal ;

(34) Azotus qadrii Agarwal ; (35) Ablerus aonidiellae Hayat ; (36) Prospaltella flava Shafee ; (37) Trichaporus

partenopeus (Masi).

441

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Figs. 38-49. First valvifer : (38) Eretmocerus haldemani Howard ; (39) Aphelinus mali (Haldeman) ; (40) Aphytis

alami Agarwal ; (41) Marietta orientalis (Howard) ; (42) Eriaphytis orientalis Hayat ; (43) Coccophagus shafeei

Hayat ; (44) Aneristus ceroplastae Howard ; (45) Physcus albipodus Agarwal; (46) Azotus qadrii Agarwal ;

(47) Ablerus aonidiellae Hayat ; (48) Prospaltella flava Shafee ; (49) Trichaporus partenopeus (Masi).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .

We are indebted to prof. S. Mashhood Alam, facilities. Thanks are also due to Prof. N

Head, Department of ‘Zoology, Aligarh Muslim H. Khan, for encouragement. :

University, Aligarh, for providing research

442

awab

CLASSIFICATION OF THE FAMILY APHELINIDAE

REFERENCES

AGARWAL, M. M. (1964a): Studies of forms of .

Aphelinidae (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea) collected at

Aligarh (India)-I. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 59: 2)

286.

(1964b) : Studies of forms of Aphelinidae

(Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) collected at Aligarh

(India)-II. ibid., 59: 315-335.

(1966): Three undescribed genera and

species of Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea)

parasitic on coccids. ibid., 63 : 67-79.

ALAM, S. M. (1956): The taxonomy of some British

Aphelinid parasites (Hymenoptera) of scale insects

(Coccoidea). Trans. R. Ent. Soc. London 108 : 357-384:

ASHMEAD, W. H. (1904): Classification of chalcid-

flies of the superfamily Chalcidoidea. Mem. Carneg

Mus. 1(4) : 225-555.

CoMPERE, H. (1936): Note on the classification of

Aphelinidae. Univ. Calif. Publ. 6: 277-322.

De SANTIs, L. (1948): Estudio monograpfico de los

Afelinidos de la republica Argentina. (Hymenoptera

Chalcidoidea). Rev. Mus. La. Plata (N.S.) 5 (Zool)*

23-280.

Erpbos, J. (1964): 12 Kolet (Hymenoptera II) 4

fuzete : Chalcidoidea III. Fauna Hung. 73: 372pp.

GHESQUIERE, J. (1955): Contribution a |’ etude du

genre Eriaporus Waterston, et genres affinis (A phelinidae)

Mem. Soc. Ent. Belg. 27 : 217-238.

GIRAULT, A. A. (1915): Australian Hymenoptera

Chalcidoidea. VII. Mem. Queensl. Mus. 4: 1-184.

HAyaT, M. (1971): The species of Coccophagus

Westwood, 1833 (Hym., Aphelinidae) from India.

Entomophaga 16 : 421-432.

(1972a) : The species of Aphelinus Dalman,

1820 (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) from India. ibid.

17 : 49-58.

(1972b): The species of Eretmocerus

Haldeman, 1850 (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) from

India. ibid., 17: 99-106.

(1972c) : A new Aphelinid genus Eriaphytis

(Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea) reared from Cerococcus

spp. Pol. Pismo Ent. 42 : 151-156.

(1973) : Two new Indian species of Centro-

dora Foerster, 1878 (Hymenoptera : Aphelinidae) parasi-

tic in the eggs of Membracids (Homoptera : Membra-

cidae). Entomophaga. 18 : 41-46,

(1974a) : On some Indian species of Aphelini-

dae, with a description of a new Coccophagus (Hymenop-

tera ;: Chalcidoidea). J. nat. Hist. 8: 179-186.

(1974b) : Three new species of Aphelinidae

(Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) parasitic on Aonidiella

orientalis (Newst.) from India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 71 : 64-71. |

Howarp, L. O. (1881) : Report on the parasites of the

Coccidae in the collection of the U.S. Department of

Agriculture-Part III. Rep. U.S. Dept. Agr. (Ent.) 1881 :

350-372.

——— (1907) : New genera and species of Apheli-

nidae with a revised table of genera. Tech. Ser. U.S.

Bur. Ent. 12 : 69-88.

MercET, R. G. (1912) : Los Afelininos.

nac. Clenc. nat. Madr. 1912 (10) : 1-306.

(1930): Los Afelinidos de Espana.

Biol. for. Limnol. (B). 2: 29-106.

NIKOL’SKAYA, M. N. & YASNOSH, V. A. (1966):

Aphelinidae of the European part of U.S.S.R. and

Kavkaza. Acad. Sci. USSR. 91: 1-269.

SHAFEE, S. A. (1970): New genus of Aphelinidae

recorded from Qotacamund (India) (Hymenoptera).

Mushi 43 : 143-147.

(1973) : Indian species of the genus Pros-

paltella Ashmead (Hym.: Aphelinidae). Entomophaga

18 : 251-258.

SUBBA RAO, B. R. (1969) : Eriaporus Waterston, 1917,

a synonym of Promuscidea Girault, 1917. (Hym.,

Pteromalidae). Entomologist’s mon. Mag. 105: 170-

17; :

THOMSON, C. G. (1876): Hymez2noptera Scandinaviae.

4. London. .

VIERECK, H. L. (1916): Chalcidoidea. Connecticut.

St. Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 22: 443-528.

ZINNA, G. (1961): II. Specializzazione entomoparas-

sitica negli Aphelinidae : Studio morfologico, etologico

efisiologico del Coccophagus bivittatus Compere, nuovo

parassita del Coccus hesperidum L. per 1 Italia. Boll.

Lab. Ent. Agr. Portici. 19 : 301-358.

(1962): III. Specilizzazione- entomoparas-

sitica negli Aphelinidae : Interdipendenze biocenotiche

tra due specie associate. Studio morfologico, etologico

e fisiologico de! Coccophagoides similis (Masi) e Azotus

matritensis Mercet, Boll. Lab. Ent. Agr. Portici. 20:

73-184.

Trab. Mus.

Rey.

443

Phytogeographical reassessment

on the flora of Rajasthan”

VIJENDRA SINGH?

(With three text-figures)

A re-evaluation of the phytogeographical status of Rajasthan has been made. The Perso-Arabian element

predominates the Indo-Malayan element almost throughout the State. Drude’s (1890, 1913) line of demar-

cation between Western and Eastern elements has been brought more towards east beyond the limits

- of Rajasthan. The possible route and means of migration have been mentioned with a map. An attempt

has bzen made to relate the floristic elements to their ecological conditions for determining the possible route

of migration of species. Evidences are given in favour of decreasing barrier effect of Aravallis, regular

migration of Western element and increasing desert conditions towards east. A list of twenty-eight taxa

endemic to Rajasthan has been given with a map showing their distribution and exact locality of occurrence.

INTRODUCTION

Since the publication of Drude’s * Handbuch

der Pflanzengeographie (1890)’ and ‘Die

Oekologie der Pflanzen (1913) ’, several workers

conducted phytogeographical studies on the

flora of Rajasthan (Biswas & Rao 1953;

Blatter & Hallberg 1918-21; Blatter & Sabnis

1929 ; Chatterji 1939, 60; Jain 1967, 68, 70;

Legris & Meher-Homji 1967, 68 ; Maheshwari

1968; Meher Homji 1962, 1970a, 1970b;

Mulay 1960; Nair & Kanodia 1959; Nair &

Nathawat 1957; Puri & Jain 1960; Puri 1960 ;

Puri e¢ al. 1960; Ramdeo 1969; Ratnam 1951;

Saxton & Sedgwick 1918; Sharma 1965;

Singh 1974 ; Vyas 1967 and Wadhwa 1960 etc.).

Some workers like Biswas & Rao 1953;

Blatter & Hallberg 1918-21 ; Blatter & Sabnis

1 Accepted January 1977.

2 For economy of space taxonomic literature on the

vegetation of Rajasthan has not been mentioned.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Arid Zone Circle,

Jodhpur (Rajasthan).

1929 and Meher-Homyji 1962, 70, have confirmed

Drude’s (1890, 1913) line of demarcation bet-

ween Perso-Arabian (Western) and Indo-

Malayan (Eastern) elements starting from the

Gulf of Cambay northwards along the Aravallis,

while studying the phytogeographical aspects

of Western Rajasthan.

On the other hand, Mulay (1960), Nair &

Kanodia (1959), Nair & Nathawat (1957),

Ramdeo (1969) and Vyas (1967), based on their

studies on the vegetation of Aravallis and

eastern Rajasthan, have concluded that the

demarcation line between the elements of

western and eastern origin should be shifted

further eastwards beyond the limits of

Rajasthan. A perusal of literature on the vege-

tation of Rajasthan and surrounding regions

thus reveals that the phytogeographical status

of Rajasthan is debatable.

The present study was undertaken since

1968 to re-evaluate the findings of earlier

workers in the light of available literature and

herbarium specimens.

Add

PHYTOGEOGRAPHY OF FLORA OF RAJASTHAN

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The vegetation of Rajasthan is interesting

phytogeographically, since it consists of four

distinct elements namely, (i) Perso-Arabian

(Western) which includes the species coming

from Africa, Mediterranean region, Mada-

gascar, North African-Indian desert belt,

Western Asia, Arabia, Persia, Turkey, Indus

plain, Saharo-Sindh or Sudano-Rajasthan eic. ;

(ii) Indo-Malayan (Eastern) which includes the

species coming from Malaysian peninsula,

China, Burma, Thailand, Indonesia, Indo-

China, Central, Eastern and South-east Asia

etc. ; (iii) Indian which includes the species of

(iv) General element consisting of pantropical,

pleuriregional species, species of warm coun-

tries and exotics introduced from various parts

of the World.

The above analysis (Table 1) reveals that the

Indian element dominates other adventive taxa

in Bharatpur, Churu, Jaipur, Sikar, Jnunjhunu,

Tonk and Udaipur districts. It forms 36.6%

of the flora in Churu district—the highest in

Rajasthan. Remaining eleven districts are dom-

inated by Perso-Arabian element and in three

districts namely Kotah, Bundi and Jhalawarh

the General element dominates the vegetation

and it forms 41.8% of the flora. In Alwar

district the Indian element represents 25.4%

widespread occurrence in the subcontinent and of the flora—the lowest in Rajasthan. The

TABLE 1

TOTAL NUMBER OF SPECIES STUDIED, PERCENTAGE OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS AND

RATIO OF EASTERN AND WESTERN ELEMENTS IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE STATE

Total Indian General Indo- Perso- Ratio of

number element element Malayan Arabian Eastern &

Locality of Yee Ya element element Western

species Va Ya elements

studied

Ajit Sagar Bundh 380 35.2 33.6 8.9 22.3 2205

Ajmer 360 31.9 23:5 11.3 33.3 $23

Alwar 440 25.4 18.7 18.8 37.1 1:1.9

Banswara ie ms it baie ine die

Bundi, Kotah and Jhalawarh 1107 29.2 41.8 10.4 18.6 beh

Bharatpur 286 32.6 19.5 17.5 30.4 Lied

Bhilwara Bi oY Be Bd a Be

Chirawa 2712. 33.0 24.5 14.2 28.3 12

Chitorgarh ao sk as el ae ae

Churu 246 36.6 19.2 8.5 BT) 1:4.4

Dungarpur a an A bh Hf La

Ganganagar 344 31.6 17.0 8.7 43.7 Jes)

Harshnath hills 224 33.0 28.6 12.6 25.8 oD

Jaipur & Sikar 328 32.7 26.9 10.3 30.4 133

Jhunjhunu & Mendrela 358 30.9 28.6 11.2 29:3 1°)2.6

Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Jalour,

Nagour, Barmer, Pali, Bikaner,

Sirohi ot 1280 31.4 19.5 7.0 42.1 1:6

Khetri town 380 3535 213 14.4 28.8 jaa

Lohargal 347 37.5 18.5 11.5 32) 132.8

Pilani 457 31.0 20.0 14.0 35.0 2.5

Sawaimadhopur wie as ie ce Wie We

Tonk 375 32.8 21.3 15.3 30.6 2

Udaipur 514 32.1 18.2 17.5 32.1 1:1.8

Mt. Abu 467 33.7 34.8 17.6 13.9 1 : 0.78

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Indian element mainly consists of the species

coming from Kutch, Sindh, Saurashtra, Gujarat

and neighbouring Gangetic plains. A com-

parative study of the vegetation of Rajasthan

with neighbouring regions mentioned above in-

dicates that the six families namely Leguminosae,

Gramineae, Compositae, Malvaceae, Convol-

vulaceae and Euphorbiaceae form the dominant

constituent of the flora of these regions. The

Himalayan and N-E Indian species are poorly

represented and most of them are reported from

Mt. Abu and eastern Rajasthan ; some of these

species are: Ipomoea muricata (L.) Jacq.,

Tsachne disper Trin., I. globosa(Thunb.) O. Ktze.,

Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC.,

Crotalaria albida Heyne ex Roth, Caesaria

elliptica Willd., Moghania strobilifera (L.) Hill.

ex Jacks, Arenaria serpyllifolia Linn., Didymo-

carpus pygmaea Cl. and Oryzopsis aequiglumis

Duthie etc. This indicates the close affinity

between the flora of Mt. Abu and eastern

Rajasthan. The vegetation of eastern

Rajasthan also resembles considerably that of

western Rajasthan. About 50% plants are

common to eastern and western zones of the

State and these are mostly the species of wide

distribution which occur from sea level to

1000 m. e.g. Argemone mexicana Linn., Polygala

erioptera DC., Cassia auriculata Linn., Ageratum

conyzoides Linn., Echinops echinatus Roxb.,

Cleome viscosa Linn., Tridax procumbens Linn.,

Calotropis procera R. Br., Zizyphus nummularia

(Burm. f.) Wt. & Arn., Oxalis corniculata Linn.,

Tamarix sp. etc. Further, the first four posi-

tions among the ten dominant families in both

the regions are occupied by Leguminosae,

Gramineae, Compositae and Cyperaceae. The

taxa like Guttiferales, Multiovulatae-terrestre,

Multiovulatae Aquaticae, Ericales, Olacales

and Micrembryae etc. are either poorly repre-

sented or absent in the floras of eastern and

western Rajasthan.

The vegetation of southern regions of

Aravallis (Mt. Abu) is more complex than that

of the north (Harshnath hills). A comparative

study shows that the subtropical evergreen

forests of Mt. Abu are characterized by the

presence of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels.,

Mangifera indica Linn., Crateva magna (Lour.)

DC., Bauhinia purpurea Linn., Jasminum

humile Linn., Rosa moschata Mill. ex Herr.,

R. involucrata Roxb., Carvia callosa (Nees)

Brem. and Aerides crispum Lindl. etc., which

are usually found in northeast India.

Harshnath, on the other hand, supports a thick

growth of species of Bambusa, Anogeissus,

Holoptelea, Salvadora, Acacia, Prosopis, Zizy-

phus, Capparis etc. and the common species

between these two hills are only those which are

either marginal or have a wide range of distri-

bution.

Out of 134 dicot genera, listed by Chatterji

(1939) as endemic to India, only few like

Ougenia, Butea, Caesulia, Glossocardia, Petali-

dium, Bremekampia and Goniocaulon occur in

Rajasthan. Further, taxa like 1. Cleome

gynandra var. nana (Bl. & Hall.) Bhandari,

2. Convolvulus blatteri Bhandari, 3. Farsetia

macrantha Bl. & Hall., 4. Cleome brachycarpa

var. glauca Bl. & Hall., 5. Abutilon fruticosum

var. chrysocarpa Bl. & Hall., 6. A. indicum var.

major Bl. & Hall., 7. Pavonia arabica vat.

glutinosa Bl. & Hall., 8. Melhania magnifolia

Bl. & Hall., 9. M. futteyporensis var. major

(Bl. & Hall.) Santapau, 10. Zizyphus truncata

Bl. & Hall., 11. Psoralea odorata Bl. & Hall.,

12. Lasiurus caudatus Saty. & Shank., 13. Stro-

bilanthus hallbergii Bl., 14. Hydrilla polysperma

BI., 15. Justicia heterocarpoides Bl., 16. Oldan-

landia clausa Bl., 17. Euphorbia jodhpurensis

Bl. & Hall., 18. Tephrosia multiflora Bl. &

Hall., 19. 7. incana Grah. var. horizontalis

Bl. & Hall., 20. Alysicarpus monilifer var.

venosa Bl. & Hall., 21. Anticharis glandulosa

Aschers. var. caerulea BI. & Hall. ex Santapau,

22. Barleria prionitis Linn. var. dicantha Bl. &

Hall., 23. Convolvulus gracilis Bl. & Hall., 24.

Tribulus rajasthanensis Bhandari, 25. Pulicaria

446

--PHYTQGEOGRAPHY .OF FLORA. OF RAJASTHAN

26. Ipomoea cairica

& Hall.) Bhandari,

rajputanae Bl. & Hall.,

var. semine-glabro (BI.

27. Dicliptera abuensis Bl. and 28. Cenchrus »

minutiburensis Kanodia & Nanda are endemic

to Rajasthan, particularly to the western desertic

zones of the State. The serial numbers of the

above species correspond to the numbers given

in the map (Fig. 1).

Next comes the Perso-Arabian We ict)

element which predominates the vegetation of

eleven districts and the Indo-Malayan element

throughout the State, except Mt. Abu. The

percentage of Indo-Malayan element increases

gradually as one proceeds from west to east.

In the west of Aravallis, the ratio of Eastern to

Western element varies from 1:4.4 to 1:6.

The maximum percentage of Eastern element is

8.7 and the maximum percentage of Western

element is 43.7 in Ganganagar district. In

eastern Rajasthan it ranges between | : 1.7 to

1:3. The minimum percentage of Eastern

element is 10.4 in Kotah division and the

maximum percentage of Western element is

37.1 in Alwar district. If Drude’s conclusions

regarding the line of demarcation between the

Perso-Arabian and Indo-Malayan flora as

starting from Gulf of Cambay northwards

along the Aravallis are correct, one should get

in Eastern Rajasthan the Indo-Malayan element

in higher percentage than Perso-Arabian. On

the contrary, the vegetation of eastern

Rajasthan has a larger proportion of the Perso-

Arabic element ; hence, the line of demarcation

between these two elements should be shifted

more towards east, beyond the limits of

Rajasthan.

The percentage of Western element decreases

from 43.7% in western Rajasthan to 37.1 in

Alwar, 33.3 in Ajmer, 18.6 in Kotah division to

8% in Madhya Pradesh in the eastern direction,

and to 19% in north Gujarat, 13 in southern

Gujarat to 2.5% in South India, particularly

the western coasts (Legris & Meher-Homji

1968). The possible explanation for the

gradual decrease of Western element towards

the eastern and southern regions of the State

may be due to the vegetation of western

Rajasthan being destroyed comparatively on a

large scale than in the eastern Rajasthan caus-

ing denudation of vegetation cover and

exposure of soiland sand. The original natural

flora of this area is being gradually elemi-

nated and xerophytic vegetation characteristic ©

of Perso-Arabian and African regions become

pioneer to land in this modified plant climate

resembling the climate of Libyan desert and

Cyrenaica (Das & Sarup 1951). Further, on

the western boundary of India, there is no

remarkable barrier to check the migration of

xerophytic elements of Afro-Arabian origin

to the Indian desert.

In Rajasthan, the Aravallis, extending from

Champaner in Gujarat in the South-west to

near Delhi in North-east, separate three-fifth

western desertic part from two-fifth fertile tract

of eastern Rajasthan and act as an imperfect

barrier in the migration of Perso-Arabian ele-

ment towards east. The low altitude of

Aravallis towards North-east (Mt. Abu—

5650 ft., Harshnath—3000 ft. above mzs.1.)

and the gap in this range near Sirohi are,

probably, the routes of eastward migration of

xerophytic elements. Recently, several plants

of Afro-Arabian origin like Dipterygium

glaucum Decne, Astragalus prolixus Sieb.,

Heliotropium calcareum Stocks, Premna resinosa

Schau., Asparagus dumosus Baker, Juncus

maritimus Lamk., Dignanthia hirtella Stapf,

Tripogon roxburghiana Bhide, Crypsis_ schoe-

noides Lamk., Chrysopogon aucheria Stapf,

Trigonella hamosa Linn., Taverniera cuneifolia

Arn., Indigofera astragalina DC., Pavonia

petans (Andr.) Chiov. etc. have invaded the

western desert. Of the recent introductions,

about 15% have been recorded in eastern

Rajasthan. This shows that the adventive

taxa of western origin first establish on desert

soils and then migrate towards east. It is likely

447

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

PUNJAB 75°

be £

ram pagar Nok h eo cy” oe

Jaisalmey « ,Amay Sagar 4

1,2,3,4-5.6.%,

injoyal ah

1,511.19 e Osian ;

eKailana =.

7, 8,25 ears!

& -"

6.4 JoDHPUR

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3.49.19

ee,

Sinadarj

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1,78

rate ee a Ode eey:

GUJARAT |

S, PAKISTAN

Banswara

Fig. 1. Map showing the distribution of endemic species in Rajasthan.

(The numbers given in the map represent the endemic species described in the text).

448

PHYTOGEOGRAPHY OF FLORA OF RAJASTHAN

that in the near future the Western element

would be recorded in higher percentage from

eastern Rajasthan than today and also a higher

proportion of taxa of western origin will pro-

bably invade the Indian desert tract. Then, it

would be one more evidence to show the

decreasing effect of Aravallis as a barrier ;

regular migration of Western element and the

increasing desertic conditions towards east. It is

suggested that adequate means should be

adopted to save the original natural flora from

further devastation.

Further, the study of climatic data (Fig. 2),

reveals that as there is a decrease in the tem-

perature and increase in the rainfall from west

to east and south-east direction, there are simul-

taneous changes in the percentage of Perso-

Arabian and Indo-Malayan elements. The

Perso-Arabian element occurs in its highest

percentage in the western Rajasthan where the

mean maximum annual temperature is 46°C

and mean maximum annual rainfall is less than

400 mm. The highest annual evaporation in

this desert tract ranges between 424 to 485

cm. As there is a gradual fall in temperature

(32°C) and evaporation (305 cm) and

increase in mean annual maximum rainfall

(882 mm) towards east, there is a notable

decrease in the percentage of Western element

and an increase in Indo-Malayan element,

This shows that Western element is a denizen

of dry habitats and Eastern element of humid

climate. This view finds further support from

the phytogeographical analaysis of the vegeta-

tion of Mt. Abu where mean maximum tempera.

ture is 30°C and mean annual rainfall is 1560 mm

and the percentage of Eastern and Western

elements is 17.6 and 13.9 respectively.

The most possible means of migration of

Afro-Arabian element are the high velocity

winds from south-west and west towards north-

east and eastern direction, birds, animals and

transport agencies, particularly in respect of

the plants colonised in the coasts. The fruits

and seeds of most species of western origin are

well equipped for dissemination by these

agencies. The possible routes of migration

have been shown in the map (Fig. 3).

The Indo-Malayan element dominates the

vegetation of N-E India (24-33%); southern

India, particularly the Western coast, is the

second zone of its concentration (23-31%).

Some plants like ODipterocarpus_ turbinatus

Gaertn. f., Hopea wightiana Wall., Polyalthia

fragrans Benth. & Hook. f., Myristica attenuata

Wall. etc. of eastern origin occur mainly in

north-east India and the western and eastern

Ghats of South India. The percentage of

Eastern element further decreases from 22%

in Central India to 18.8 in eastern Rajasthan

(Alwar) and 8.7% in western Rajasthan

(Ganganagar). The most suitable explanation

for this seems the presence of a land connection

and the resemblance of plant climate between

Eastern India and Malaysian peninsula. The

absence of any marked barrier in the west of

eastern India facilitates its migration in further

westwards direction. The rising temperature

and evaporation and decreasing rainfall towards

western parts of the country, however, con-

siderably check the invasion and ecesis of this

element, as a result of which the percentage of

eastern element decreases gradually towards

western India. In eastern Rajasthan, this

element has locally migrated from Punjab,

Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh and Madhya

Pradesh mainly by the agencies of bird,

animal transportation and rarely by wind.

The Aravallis, extending from south to north-

east direction in Rajasthan, further, con-

siderably check the westward movement of this

element and so that the percentage of Eastern

element falls to 7% in Jodhpur, Jaisalmer and

Barmer area. It is interesting to note the low

percentage of Central and East Asian taxa in

the flora of Rajasthan; it is perhaps due to

the recent rise in Himalayas with Siwaliks.

449

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

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450

PHYTOGEOGRAPHY OF FLORA OF RAJASTHAN —

| SUDANe -zAMGEZAL

REGION

Fig. 3. Map showing possible route of migration of western (*~+——») and eastern («———- ) element from

neighbouring countries.

1960).

The general element occupies the third posi-

tion in the flora of Rajasthan. It includes a

large number of cosmopolitan plants and

exotics introduced variously from different

parts of the World chiefly from Europe, Mexico,

West Indies, East Indies, America, Australia,

Java, China, Japan, Philippines, Panama,

Cuba, New Granada, Chile, France, Argentina

and Braziletc. It forms 17% flora—the lowest,

In Ganganagar district and 41.82°%—the

highest, in Kotah division, where it dominates

all the other elements. Among the wild intro-

duced elements only those which are generally

very aggressive have established in the soils of

The dotted portion in the map represents the location of Rajasthan (after Chatterji, D.

Rajasthan. The Australian element is very

poorly represented in this State and India as a

whole.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to the Director, National

Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, Director, Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta and Regional Botanist,

Arid Zone Circle, Jodhpur for facilities and

to the Council of Scientific and Industrial

Research, New Delhi, for providing financial

assistance during the years 1968-71.

451

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

REFERENCES

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Biswas, K. & Rao, R. S. (1953): Rajputana desert

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BLATTER, E. & HALLBERG, F. (1918-21): The Flora

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——_—— (1960): Floristic pattern of Indian vegeta-

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stu lies of the se.ni-arid regions of India.

Bombay University.

(1965) : Ecological status of the Montane

: Phytogeographical

Ph. D. Thesis.

plateau of Rajasthan, India. Ph. D. Thesis.

grasslands of South Indian hills: A phytogeographic

reassessment. Ind. For. 91(4): 210-215.

(1970a) : Some phytogeographic aspects of

Rajasthan, India. Veget. Acta Geobot. 21: 299-320.

(1970b) : Notes on some peculiar cases of

phytogeographic distributions. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 67 : 81-86. |

Mu ay, B. N. (1960): Patterns of Plant distribution

in Rajasthan. Memoir. Ind. Bot. Soc. 3: 9-11.

Nair, N. C. & KANopiA, K. C. (1959): A study of

the vegetation of Ajitsagar Bundh, Rajasthan. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56: 524-557.

Nair, N. C. & NATHAWAT, G. S. (1957) : Vegetation

of Harshnath hills. ibid., 54: 281-301.

Puri, G.S. & JAIN, S. K. (1960) : Distribution pat-

terns of some plants of the Deccan Trap. Mem. Ind.

Bot. Soc. 3: 17-21.

(1960) : Indian Forest Ecology. 1: 14-27.

et al. (1960) : Some aspects of the distri-

bution patterns of plantsin Kutch flora. ibid. 3 : 22-25.

‘RampEo, K. D. (1969) : Contribution to the flora of

Udaipur (S. E. Rajasthan). Udaipur.

RATNAM, B. V. (1951): The ‘vegetation of Hohatgat

Proc. Raj. Acad.. Sci..2: 26-36.

SAXTON, W. T. & SeDGwick L. J. (1918) : Plants

of Northern Gujarat. Rec. Bot. Sury. Ind. 6.

Calcutta.

SEHEGAL, K. K. (1971): Rajasthan District Gazet-

teers (Bharatpur), Govt. Raj., Jaipur.

SHARMA, S. (1965): Some facts: about the phyto-

geography of Rajasthan. Univ. Raj. Studies Bot., 1-8.

SincH, V. (1974): Floristic studies on south-eastern

Meerut

Univ., Meerut.

Vyas, L. N. (1967): Contribution to the Flora of

north-east Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

64 (2) :.191-231.

WADHWA, B. M. (1960): Distribution Patterns of some

plants of Central India. Mem. Ind. Bot. Soc. 3: 13-26,

452

Bionomics of Micronecta scutellaris Stal.

- MUKHTAR AHMAD? AND NAWAB H. KHAN?

(With three text-figures)

Micronecta scutellaris Stal., is commonly found in stagnant water of ponds, lakes and streams in India

and can be commercially used as cage bird and poultry feed. During the present studies bicnomics of M.

scutellaris was studied at different temperatures and the effects of various food materials on the oviposition

of the species have also been investigated.

INTRODUCTION

Members of the family Corixidae comprising

over two hundred species of waterboatmen are

voracious feeders on a wide variety of plankton

and can injest detritus from the bottom ooze.

They are world wide in distribution and are

commonly found in ponds, lakes, streams and

rivers and even in some brackish waters (Butler,

E.A. 1923). They occur from below sea-level

to an elevation of about 15,000 feet in the

Himalayas (Usinger 1956) and are equally

adapted to cold waters of the sub arctic and

the warm waters of the tropics.

A species commonly found in stagnant waters

in India is Micronecta scutellaris. It can be

used as cage bird and poultry feed and therefore

an attempt has been made to study its bionomics

and to find out if it can be bred for commercial

purposes.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Adults of M. scutellaris were collected from

Nilichhattri and Jamalpur ponds located in

_ the vicinity of the University campus. The

bugs were kept in batches of fifty to hundred in

1 Accepted October 1975.

2 Research Scholar, Dept.

Aligarh.

> Professor, Dept, of Zoology, A.M.U., Aligarh.

of Zoology, A.M.U.,

glass trough, 33 cm in diameter x 13 cm in.

height and having a 2°5 cm thick layer of sand

at the bottom. The troughs were filled with

pond water upto a lheight of 4 to 6 cm and

aquatic plants such as Hydrilla sp. and also

bottom ooze froml{a natural pond and decaying

organic matter from a drain were added to the

container. Water and the decaying organic

matter were changed after every 24 hours in

order to provide the insects with fresh nourish-

ment. Oviposition readily occurred on the

stems and leaves of the submerged plants and

parts of the plants bearing the eggs were trans-

ferred to glass beakers containing water for the

hatching of the eggs.

Oviposition

The eggs of M. scutellaris are usually laid on

the roots, stems and leaves of Hydrilla sp.,

Marselia sp. and other aquatic plants.

If however no suitable host plant is available,

the eggs may be deposited on pieces of wood or

stones in the vicinity of water. They are

deposited singly or linearly arranged in groups

without any definite structural pattern. While

depositing an egg the female grasps a leaflet or

a portion of the plant selected for oviposition

with its fore and middle pairs of legs, and then

with a longitudinal motion of the abdomen,

the tip resting on the spot, deposits an egg and

453.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

swims away. We were successful in obtaining

eggs on filter papers which were placed along

the edges of the glass troughs. The temperature

of the water was kept at 21 + 1°C.

Nothing is known concerning the duration

of the preoviposition and oviposition periods

in this insect and hence single pairs of freshly

emerged adults of M. scutellaris were kept in

small 250 cc beakers at 21 + 1°C. The preovi-

position period varied from 3.0 to 11.0 days,

while the oviposition period lasted from 7 to

12 days, a single female laying a total of 69 to

163 eggs. More than 60 per cent of the total

number of eggs were deposited during the first

five days of the oviposition period.

Eggs

The oval whitish eggs measure from 0.45 to

0.49 mm in length and 0.11 to 0.19 mm in

width and bear short tubular projections on

their dorsal surfaces (Figure 2A).

Effect of temperature on the hatching of the eggs

Batches of fifty freshly laid eggs were placed

in three different beakers of 250.0 ml capacity

each and filled with water. The temperature

of the water was maintained in each at 18.2°,

24.0° and 31.0°C respectively and the eggs

were examined at twelve hour intervals to deter-

mine the rate of their hatching. These obser-

vations proved that the temperature does affect

2 &@ 6 8 W 12 M GB BW 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 3% 38 4042 44 46 46 50

TEMPERATURE “c

Fig. 1.

Effect of temperature on the development of eggs.

454

BIONOMICS OF MICRONECTA SCUTELLARIS STAL.

the hatching of the eggs. At 18.2°C only 5.2

per cent eggs hatched and at 31.0°C, 58.1 percent

as compared to 78.0 per cent hatching observed

at 24.0°C. This shows that temperatures below

20.0°C and above 30.0°C are unfavourable for

the hatching of the eggs of M. scutellaris.

Temperature of about 24.0°C seem to be more

favourable for hatching as at this temperature

the hatching of the eggs was found to be the

maximum. That the duration of the egg stage

is also affected by the temperature is clear as

seen in figure 1. It was 14.2, 8.7 and 5.9 days

at 18.2°, 24.0° and 31.0°C respectively, showing

thereby that the incubation period decreases

_ with an increase in temperature. The threshold

temperature for the development of the eggs as

established by figure 1 lies at 9.4°C, the value

of K as determined by the following formula

(after Chapmen, 1931) being :

Y (X—a) =K

where Y = incubation period in days at tem-

perature X

a = threshold temperature

X = Temperature at which K is to be

determined.

K = constant

The values at different temperatures were

182°C. — 127.60

24.0; © — 1127.07

SILO; — 127'44

The values of K at the three temperatures are

almost similar, so that the theoretical threshold

temperature as determined above seems to be

correct.

Nymphs

Fernando & Leong (1963) successfully reared

the nymphs of Micronecta quadristrigata in

open glass troughs filled with water and con-

taining some bottom ooze from the ponds.

_ During the present studies the nymphs of M.

_scutellaris were reared individually as well as

collectively on decaying organic matter. Eggs

were collected from the leaves and stems of the

Hydrilla plant and were allowed to hatch. The

first instar nymphs were kept singly in glass

beakers of 250 ml capacity and filled with pond

water upto a height of about four centimetres.

Water was changed after every 24 hours. The

nymphs were also reared collectively in glass

troughs as described in methods above.

There were five nymphal instars, the existence

of which was checked by applying the formula of

Dyar (1890). The ratio of increase in each

instar was obtained by dividing each observed

width of the head with that of the preceding

Fig. 2. Egg and developmental stages, of M. scutellaris.

A. Egg; B. First instar; C. Second instar: D. Third

instar; E. Fourthinstar; F. Fifthinstar, _

455°

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

instar. The average of such ratios came to

1.31. By using this ratio as a factor, the width

of the head of the various instars was calculated

and found to be:

ee ee ne ene

Observed width

Instar. Calculated width

First 0.42 mm 0.42 mm

Second 0.69 mm 0.55 mm |

Third 0.88 mm 0.72 mm

Fourth 1.07 mm 1.00 mm

Fifth 1.19 mm 1.31 mm

Se a

The calculated widths do not depart con-

siderably from the measured ones showing there-

by that no-ecdysis had been overlooked.

Effect of temperature and food on the a of

the nymphal period

This effect was studied by rearing lots of —

50 nymphs each at 18.0°, 24.0° and 32.0°C.

They were fed on yeast powder, Spirogyra

filaments or decaying organic matter from the

drains.

The first instar nymphs when kept at 18. oc

failed to develop any further and died within -

eight hours of hatching. The nymphs reared

at 24.0° and 32.0°C however completed their

development when fed on decaying organic

matter from the drains. Those reared on yeast

powder and Spirogyra filaments survived only

~ Fhe

upto the second and the fourth instars.

development per day of the various instars

accelerated with a rise in temperature (Table 1).

TABLE 1

. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND FOOD ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NYMPHS OF ™. scutellaris

I Instar II Instar III Instar IV Instar ViInstar

Temperature Fed on 6 cima § (a acs iS Nee aa 3 iS Ce Fe

(°C) s £8 xe BE) NES a8 xES Es RES £8 x & 2 duration

Bo \2 \A~ = ovGr to Sores tetas ilar ene

18.0 Yeast powder 100.0

Spirogyra filaments 100.0

Decaying organic

matters 100.0

24.0 Yeast powder 8.0 80.0 20.0

Spirogyra filaments 7.5 60.0 8.0 20.0 65 10.0 10.0

Decaying reanie

matters 75 ~ 20:0 7 6:0) 15:0) 776107) 15 0) 6.57 100s 6:0 a al0 Ore 32.0

32.0 Yeast powder 7.0... 90:0 10.0

Spirogyra filaments 7.0 50.0 6.0 300 6.5 10.0 10.0.

Decaying organic . ae iit eee

matters 70+ -30:0)" 5:55. 20:0°° "5.0" 100°" 6:07" 10:0 3:0) 10:0); 28.5 ,

456

BIONOMICS OF MICRONECTA SCUTELLARIS STAL. —

‘The different nymphal instars may be identi- :

fied with the help of the following key :

1. Wingpads absent (Fig. 2-B & 2-C); antennae

indistinct ; hind tibiae with few short hairs; middle

legs. without setae ; body length less than

“2 TORLIOU OL SaNiolls bye C20, 6 Doe EOL IO G0 FOR eIC OI De:

distinct (Figure 3-B,. E); find tibiae with

numerous long hairs ; middle legs with setae ;

body length more than 2 mm

ecseeceee ee ee ee @ 2

. Abdominal segments not Clearly demarcated ;

dorsal abdominal gland openings indistinct ; body

length less than 1 mm (Fig. 2-B)...... Ist instar

Abdominal segments clearly demarcated ; dorsal

abdominal gland openings clearly distinct ; body

length more than 1 mm (Fig. 2-C)...

Wingpads well developed (Figures 2-E, F ; 3-A);

antennae two segmented ; basal segment distinct ;

apical segment much broad or club like (Figures

3-C, E) ; body length more than 2.5mm........

Wingpads rudimentary (Figure. 2-D) ; antennae

unsegmented ; long and finger like ; body length

less than 2.5 mm 3rd instar

coerce eee ee ee ee oe 8

Wingpads extending beyond posterior margin of

thorax (Figures 2-F, 3-A); antennae with basal

segment well developed (Figures 3-D, E) ...... 5

Wingpads not extending beyond posterior margin

of thorax (Figure 2-E) ; antennae with basal seg-

ment very narrow and contiguous with the broad

apical segment (Figure 3-C) 4th instar

oeee ee eee eo eo

Wingpads not extending beyond mid of abdomen

(Figure 2-F) antennae with basal segment trans-

verse and contiguous with broad apical segment

Sth instar

Wings well developed extending upto apex of

abdomen (Figure 3-A) ; antennae with basal seg-

ment as long as wide and clearly separated from

club shaped apical segment (Figure 3-E)

eeeseece eee eee ee we © oe ww oO

cececee ee o

eoeecereeoe ese eee oe we ee ew eo ew wwe wo wee ee ow

| SUMMARY

| Micronecta scutellaris is generally found in

| stagnant waters of ponds, pools and the lakes

and deposits its eggs on the roots, stems and

| leaves of Hydrilla sp., Marselia sp. and other

-aquatic plants. The preoviposition period

. Wingpads present (Fig. 2-D, F ; 3-A); antennae |

.2nd instar.

B. Antenna of

Fig. 3.

third instar ;

of fifth instar ;

A. M. scutellaris—Adult ;

C. Antenna of fourth instar; D. Antenna

E. Antenna of adult.

69 to 163 eggs over a period of 7.0 to 12.0 days.

The incubation period is greatly affected by

temperature conditions and the threshold tem-

perature for the development of the eggs lies

at 9.4°C. A temperature of 24.0°C seems to

457

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

be most suitable for the hatching of the eggs.

The nymphs reared at 24.0° and 32.0°C com-

pleted their development when fed on decaying

organic matter. Those reared on yeast powder

and Spirogyra filaments survived only upto the

second and the fourth instar respectively. There

are five nymphal instars. Only 30.0% and

20.0°%% nymphs could reach the adult stage

when reared on decaying organic matter at 24°

and 32.0°C respectively. This suggests that

the species can be reared successfully on the

decaying organic matter at temperatures vary-

ing between 24.0° and 32.0°C.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are deeply indebted to Prof. S. M. Alam,

Head of the Zoology Department for providing

necessary facilities. Thanks are due to

Dr. R. G. Fennah, Director, Commonwealth

Institute of Entomology, British Museum

(Natural History), London for kindly identifying

the insect.

REFERENCES

BuT_er, E. A. (1923): Biology of British Hemiptera-

Heteroptera. H.F.and G. Witherby 326 High Holborn,

W.C. London, 557-602.

CHAPMAN, R. N. (1931) : Animal ecology. McGraw-.

Hill Book Company Inc. New York and London.

Dyar, H. G. (1890): The number of moults of

Lepidopterous larvae. Psyche 5 : 420-422.

FERNANDO, C. H. AND LEONG, C. Y. (1963): Misce-

Ilaneous notes on the biology of Malayan Corixidae

(Hemiptera-Heteroptera) and a study of the life histories

of two species: Micronecta quadristrigata Bredd. and

Agraptocorixa hyalinipennis (F.). Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist. 6.

UsinGer, R. L. (1956) : Aquatic insects of California

University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles

7: 182-199.

458

Ferns of Dharamsala Hills’

Ophioglossaceous, Schizaeceous and Hymenophyllaceous series

K. K. Duir? AND K. S. DATTA

(With twenty-one text-figures)

- This study deals with 21 species of ferns of Dharamsala hills.

All important morphological characters cn

which the classification is based namely type of rhizome, dermal appendages on rhizome, stipe, rachis,

rachilets or costules (when present), lamina, venation, soral position, industrial architecture (if present) and

sporangial organisation are described and illustrated.

Beddome (1863, 1883 & 1892), Clarke (1880)

and Hope (1899-1904) presented good taxo-

nomic accounts of Indian ferns. Regional

catalogues of ferns pertaining to particular

places in the North Western Himalayas have

been given by Hope (vide Collett, 1921),

Blanford (1888) and Bir (1963) from Simla

hills ; Marten (1909), Mehra (1939) and Stewart

(1942) from Mussoorie hills ; Stewart (1945, 51)

from Kashmir and Pahlgam ; Loyal & Verma

(1960) from Nainital; Mehra & Dhir (1968)

‘from Dalhousie hills and Dhir & Sheera (in

press) from Dharamsala hills. Recently, good

‘taxonomic accounts of a few families namely

Athyriaceae, Aspleniaceae, Blechnaceae, Loxo-

Besmaceac and Polypodiaceae of Simla ferns

‘were given by Bir & Shukla (1966, 1968 & 1971).

Bir & Trikha (1968, 1969 & 1974) have revised

‘the taxonomy of a few Polypodiaceous taxa

like Microsorium, Polypodium lineare complex

and Lepisorus excavatus group. But none of

the authors since Hope (l.c.) have attempted

a taxonomic revision of all the ferns of one

area. An area-wise key to the plants is a general

necessity for easy recognition of different fern

‘genera and species.

1 Accepted September 1975.

2 Department of Botany,

| Punjab University,

WGhandigarth,

Keys to genera and species have been prepared.

This study was carried out on 21 species of

ferns belonging to 11 genera and 10 families.

Every aspect of external morphology has been

studied in great detail and keys to the genera

and species are given. Voucher specimens are

deposited in the Panjab University herbarium

(PAN). Mehra (1961) has been followed for

the arrangement of families and genera.

OPHIOGLOSSACEOUS SERIES

Family OPHIOGLOSSACEAE

Terrestrial herbs ; rhizome short, fleshy, not

scaly ; fronds solitary or few, straight (not

circinate) in venation ; sporangia embedded

in or seated upon a stalked spike, sporangial

walls more than one cell in thickness and

annulus absent.

Ophioglossum Linn.

Sterile blade simple, entire ; veins anasto-

mosing ; spike arises from the centre of the

barren segment bearing two rows of sporangia

which are joined together almost completely,

each opening by a transverse slit.

The genus is world wide in distribution.

Clausen (1938) has recognised only 38 species

459

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

whereas some authors split it into 56 species.

One species is recorded here.

O. vulgatum Linn., Sp. Pl, 2, 1062, 1753;

Clarke Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. II, Bot., 1,

586, 1880.

Rhizome short more or less elongated,

naked ; fronds usually solitary or few, straight

in vernation, 2.5-12.5 cm long, but sterile part

usually 2.5-6 cm long; stipe 1-4 cm long,

terete, elongated; lamina or blade simple,

1-2.7 x 0.6-1.5 cm, ovate to ovate-oblong,

margin entire, midrib usually indistinct ; texture

herbaceous, green ; venation reticulate with few

free-veinlets at the margin ; fertile spike simple,

0.5-1.8 cm long, borne on a 0.5-8.5 cm long

peduncle arising from the base of the blade,

apex having a sterile projection or elongation

of the axis ; sporangia borne in two alternate

rows, fused together on the spike, each opening

by a transverse slit; spores globose, non-

perisporiate, tetrahedral, exine thin and smooth

(Fig. 1).

A low altitude species found growing among

grass in exposed and rather dry conditions near

Chetru at an altitude of 850 m.

SCHIZAECEOUS SERIES

Family SCHIZAEACEAE

Terrestrial; rhizome creeping ; venation

circinate ; sporangia regarded as marginal in

origin, but often apparently dorsal, each with

a complete distal annulus, dehiscence longi-

tudinal.

Lygodium Swartz

Rhizome hairy (without scales); fronds

scandant by twining rachises ; pinnae conjugate-

palmate lobed ; sterile leaflets entire or toothed

or regularly lobed ; veins free, forked, often

uniting at their tips with a thickened margin ;

Fig. 1. Ophioglossum yulgatum; A. A plant, Xx 4.7

(reduced); B. Leaf blade, showing venation, x 4.7;

C. A fertile spike, x 4.7; D. Spores, x 291.

Fig. 2. Lygodium flexuosum; A. A part of: plant, x

3.7 (reduced); B. A sterile pinnule, x 3.7; C. A fertile’

pinnule, x 3.7; D. A fertile spike, x 8.7; E. A sporan-,

gium, X 80; F. Spores, x 292; G. Hair on the pinnules,

x 80. |

fertile leaflets narrower than sterile, fringed |

with narrow lobes along the edges ; each lobe -

bearing two rows of sporangia, each covered |

with small indusium, dehiscing by a vertical slit;

spores tetrahedral. ‘il

Pantropic in distribution with about 40 |

species. The genus is represented by only one

species in the area. i oe

460

FERNS OF DHARAMSALA HILLS

L. flexuosum (L.) Sw. in Schrad, Jour., 18002,

106 (pt.) 1801; Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc.

Lond., II, Bot., 1, 584, 1880.

Rhizome creeping, long, hairy; hairs uni-

cellular; fronds stipitate-pinnate ; climbing

rachis up to | mm thick; secondary pinnae

bearing alternately arranged pinnules, usually

3-5 on each side with a forked terminal pinnule,

the whole being 4-15 cm long ; largest secondary

pinna 6.5 x 3.5cm ; stalk 1-5 mm long, broadly

rounded to cordate at the base to sub-palmate

or variously lobed, narrowing gradually at the

apex, edges of the sterile segments finely toothed

or serrated, hairy (hair unicellular) ; texture

thin but firm, green ; veins forked 1-3 times,

very oblique at their origin from the midrib ;

fertile segments with lamina a little narrower

than sterile; fertile lobes 1-4 mm long;

sporangia in two alternate rows covered by a

small indusium, pear shaped with an annular

ting round the narrow end ; spores tetrahedral

non-perisporiate, exine thick and smooth

(Fig. 2).

A rare fern found near Sidhpur at an ele-

vation of 800 m growing along the forest

margin twining around the bushes.

Family MARSILEACEAE

Typically sub-aquatic, heterosporus ferns,

growing on mud; rhizome creeping, hairy ;

fronds simple and linear, circinate when young,

without leaflets or with 2 or 4 opposite leaflets;

veins forked, anastomosing ; sori in hard struc-

tures called sporocarps at the base of stipes,

consisting of mega and microsporangia, mega-

Spores. solitary, microspores numerous.

Marsilea Linn.

Fronds cruciform with two contiguous pairs

of opposite leaflets, sori numerous attached

_to the inner wall of the sporocarp.

The genus has 70 species distributed all over

the world. Only one species is found in the

area under study.

M. minuta Linn., Mant., 308, 1771 (excluding

8), Mehra & Dhir, Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 10,

303, 1968.

Rhizome slender, submerged, creeping,

hairy ; hairs pleuri-cellular and_ uniseriate ;

fronds cruciform, erect, well spaced along with

close groups of fronds on short branches of the

rhizome and rooting at the base; roots often

long and wiry ; petiole glabrous, terete, 4-14 cm

long ; leaflets 4, arranged symmetrically cross-

wise at the apex of the stipe, obovate, 1.5 cm

both sides, with an entire, rounded apex and

cuneate base ; texture thin herbaceous, green ;

veins fine, dichotomously branched, anasto-

mosing to form narrow radiating areoles ;

sporangia borne in a distinctly stalked sporocarp

present at the base of the stipe; sporocarp

ovoid in shape with two spines just close to the

union of the stalk with the sporocarp ; anterior

spine often larger than the posterior one;

spores of two kinds, mega and microspores ;

microspores globose, mnon-perisporiate with

smooth exine (Fig. 3).

A common hydrophyte growing in the rice

fields near Dari at an altitude of 850 m.

Family ADIANTACEAE

Terrestrial ; rhizome creeping ; fronds simple

to pinnate, usually firm-herbaceous or coria-

ceous ; veins free usually forked ; sori marginal,

globose to linear, usually numerous and distinct,

sometimes confluent and continuous ; indusium

of the same shape as the sorus, formed of the

reflexed margin of the fronds, bearing the

capsules on its underside ; spores tetrahedral.

Adiantum Linn.

Rhizome creeping or short-erect, scaly ;

scales brown to black and narrow ; stipe dark-

polished ; lamina pinnately-decompound with

461

si JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ews

Fig. 3. Marsilea minuta; A. A plant, x c3.6 (reduced) ; B. Hairs on the rhizome,

x c17.2;C.Asporocarp, X c3.6; D.A leaf-let showing venation, <x c 3.6; E. Spores,

PZ 22s

dimidiate or flabellate pinnules, sometimes

simply pinnate ; veins free, extending into the

reflexed margin; sori terminal on the veins,

covered with reflexed margin of the frond ;

spores tetrahedral and smooth.

The genus is represented by more than 200

species in the world. Five species are reported

from the area under investigation. |

KEY TO THE SPECIES

Fronds pinnate, rooting at the apex ; pinnae entire

or shallowly lobed.

B. Stipe and rachis variously hirsute.

C. Lamina hirsute ; pinnae dimidiate shortly-

stalked, lobed

Be ae rca es A. incisum

C. Lamina glabrous; pinnae triangular,

dimidiate, sessile with an almost straight

upper margin

Ce ane, A. edgeworthii

B. Stipe and rachis glabrous ; pinnae Junulate to

sub-dimidiate, glabrous

OR Hrs Os & A. lunulatum

A. Fronds decompound, not rooting at the apex.

B. Ultimate pinnules small, flabellate to obdel-

toid, cuneate, aristately-serrate ; indusia round- |

reniform attached to a notch

Se aa A. venustum

B. Ultimate pinnules larger, dimidiate, lobed with |

oblique flabellate base ; indusia transversely |

oblong or round-reniform

RAY ae A. capillus-veneris

A. incisum Forssk., Fl. Aeg. Ar. 187, 17753.

Mehra & Bir, Res. Bull. Panjab Univ. (N.S), _

15, 105, 1964.

Rhizome short, erect, densely scaly ; scales |

brown, linear, hair pointed, 3-6 mm long;

fronds fasciculated together, elongated and |

rooting at the apex; stipes terete, pubescent,

5-7 cm long, scaly, scales similar but smaller

462

FERNS OF DHARAMSALA HILLS

than those of rhizome scales ; lamina linear-

lanceolate, 20-37 < 1-2.5 cm; pinnae 10-35

jugate, basal ones somewhat smaller, deflexed

and upper ones gradually diminished towards

the apex ; rachis hirsute throughout with long

ferruginous hairs, distinctly scaly, scales linear,

hair pointed ; pinnules hairy, shortly stalked,

anterior inner base truncate, margin deeply

incised into 3-5 lobes, generally 1 <x 0.5 cm;

texture herbaceous green; veins fine, flabel-

lately forked ; sori 3-5 on each pinnae, present

at the margin of each lobe ; indusium laterally

oblong or sub-reniform, brown, glabrous ;

sporangia with 15-celled annulus; _ spores

tetrahedral, trilete, non-perisporiate, exine

smooth (Fig. 4).

A very common low altitude fern found near

_ Chari at 850 m, growing on shaded walls along

the road.

l H

A. edgeworthii Hook., Sp. Fil., ii, 14, t. 81B,

1851; Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit. India, Suppl.,

17, 1892.

Rhizome short, erect, wiry, sparsely scaly at

the apex; scales brown, lanceolate, subulate,

rigid ; fronds fasciculated, several together ;

stipes terete, glossy, castaneous, 4-10 cm long,

wiry but firm, glabrous with a scaly base; scales

linear, hair pointed and uniseriate ; lamina

linear-lanceolate, 8-14 cm long, 1.5-2.3 cm

broad ; pinnae 8-28 jugate, patent, basal ones

somewhat smaller, deflexed, upper ones

gradually diminished towards the apex, sessile,

dimidiate, 1-1.2 x 0.5-0.6 cm, apex rounded,

anterior inner base truncate, margin more orless

lobato-incised, sterile pinnae cut nearly half

way down into 3-5 oblong, roundish or bifid

segments ; primary rachis scaly ; scales linear,

hair pointed and uniseriate; texture herbaceous ;

G F

«~Fig. 4. Adiantum incisum ; a. A plant ; A. A pinna showing venation, x c4: B, C. Rhizome scales, x ¢ 11.2;

D. E. Stipe scales, xc 18.6; F, G. Hairsonthe rachis, x c 85.2; H, IT. Hairs on the pinnae, x c 85.2; J.

sporangium, X c 85.2; K. Spores, x 248.

463

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

——

i AM

CV,

Wat

d Ay .

Fig. 5. Adiantum edgeworthii ; a. A plant ; A. A pinna showing venation, x c4; B.A rhizome scale, x c 18.6; |

C. A stipe scale, x c 18.6; D, E. Scales of the rachis, x c 85.2; F. A sporangium, x c 85.2; G. Spores, xX 248.

Fig. 6. Adiantum lunulatum ;a.A plant; A. A pinna showing venation, x c4.4; B. Rhizome scale, x c 12.4;

C, D. Stipe scales, x c 21.2; E. A sporangium, < c 96; F. Spores, x 277.2.

464

-..FERNS OF DHARAMSALA HILLS

veins fine, flabellately forked; sori 2-7 to

each pinna; indusium laterally oblong or

sub-reniform, brown, glabrous ; sporangia with

13-celled annulus ; spores with characteristic

tri-radiate markings, tetrahedral, non-peris-

poriate, exine smooth (Fig. 5).

A rare fern of the area found along the road

side in moist and shady places near Dari at 850m.

A. lunulatum Burm. FI. Ind. 235, 1768 ; Clarke,

Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., II, Bot., 1, 452, 1880.

Rhizome short, erect, wiry, densely scaly at

the apex; scales dark-brown, ovate-lanceolate,

subulate, hair-pointed, 1-3 mm long; fronds

caespitose, elongated and rooting at the apex ;

stipes dark chestnut brown, terete, glossy or

castaneous, scaly below, glabrous above,

2-21 cm long; lamina _linear-lanceolate,

9-33 cm xX 2-8 cm, unipinnate; pinnae 2-15

jugate, sub-dimidiate, the basal ones larger and

uppermost ones gradually diminished in size

towards the apex, provided with long, shining

0.2-2.5 cm long stalk, nearly in line or oblique

to the rachis, alternate, half-moonshaped, inner

basal part truncate, margin more or less lobato-

incised or entire ; veins fine, flabellately forked ;

indusium laterally-oblong, glabrous, curved ;

sporangia with 14-16 celled annulus ; spores

tetrahedral, tri-radiate, non-perisporiate with

thick smooth exine (Fig. 6).

A common low altitude species growing

luxuriously on humus rich shaded walls along

the roads. Seen near Dharamsala and Chetru

between 800-1350 m.

A. venustum D. Don, Prod. FI. Nepal, 17, 1825 ;

Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., II, Bot., 1,

453, 1880.

Rhizome wiry, widely-creeping, growing point

densely clothed with scales ; scales nitide, light-

brown, ovate-lanceolate, hair pointed, entire ;

fronds caespitose ; stipe castaneous slender,

firm, terete, glossy, 11-25 cm long, glabrous

above the scaly base; lamina deltoid-ovate,

shorter than stipe, tripinnate ; pinnae 2-5 jugate

under elongate pinnatified apex, petiolate,

basal ones the largest, deltoid-lanceolate,

4-13 cm long, 3.5-6 cm broad ; pinnae of second

order oblong, petiolulate, obtuse, with 1-4 pairs

of ultimate close pinnules which are of flabellate

shape with rounded, dentate aristately serrate

outer margin, distinctly petiolulate, 2-6 mm

each way ; rachis, rachilets, costa and petiolules

shining or castaneous; texture herbaceous,

glabrous above, glaucous beneath, fertile lobes

with 1-3 notches, each with a sorus at the

bottom ; indusium light brown, thick rotundo-

reniform, 1-1.5 mm long with sterile margin

on both sides, aristately-serrate ; sporangia

with 14-16 celled annulus, spores trilete,

non-perisporiate, smooth (Fig. 7).

This is a fern of shaded and humus rich

habitats. Frequently observed near Mcleod-

ganj and Khanjjar Mahadev Temple at 1300 m.

A. capillus-veneris Linn., Sp. Pl. 2, 1096, 1753 ;

Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., II, Bot., 1,

453, 1880.

Rhizome short, creeping, densely clothed at

apex with dark-brown, linear, entire, scales ;

fronds caespitose ; stipes 3-18 cm long, glossy,

ebeneous, naked ; lamina deltoid-ovate, 8-18 cm

long, 3-6 cm broad, usually bipinnate ; pinnae

1-5 jugate, alternate, with zigzag rachis,

petiolate, basal ones much the largest, oblong-

ovate, 1-5 cm long, 1-2.5 cm broad ; pinnules

5-7 jugate, petiolate, alternate, the lower ones

pinnate, upper ones 2-3 foliolulate, the upper-

most ones simple, rachilets also strongly

flexuose ; penultimate pinnules 1-1.5 cm each

way, flabellate with sinuate outer margin, petio-

lulate ; lobes entire with deeply incurvate outer

edge ; texture membranaceous, green; veins

fine, flabellately forked ; sori one to each lobe,

2 mm each way’; indusium more or less curved,

brown, persistent ; sporangia with usually 15-

celled annulus ; spores trilete, non-perisporiate

with smooth exine (Fig. 8).

465

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Fig. 7. Adiantum venustum, a. A piant; A. A pinnule showing vein pattern, x c5; B.A rhizome scale, |

x ¢5; C. Scale at base of stipe, x c 24.2; D. A sporangium, <X c 109; E. Spores, 315.

Fig. 8. Adiantum capillus-veneris; a. A plant; A. A pinnule showing venation, x c 4.4; B, C. Rhizome

scales, X c 12.4; D. A’sporangium; x ¢ 96; E.; Spores, <°277.2:

466

FERNS OF DHARAMSALA HILLS

It generally prefers moist and humus rich

places along water channels. Occasionally

found near Dharamsala, Chetru and Kangra

between 800-1350 m.

Family CRYPTOGRAMMACEAE

Terrestrial; rhizome creeping, solenostelic,

short or compact, scaly ; fronds decompoundly

pinnate, sometimes dimorphic, ultimate pin-

nules small and narrow, glabrous, herbaceous or

sub-coriaceous ; veins free, forked ; sori con-

tinuous along both margins, covered with

scarious introrse marginal or sub-marginal

indusium, so broad that the two on each pinnule

meet on the costa, without paraphyses ; spores

tetrahedral, hyaline, ribbed or tuberculate

epispore.

Onychium Kaulf.

Sori placed upon a continuous linear

receptacle, which connects the apices of several

veins ; indusium parallel with the margin of the

segments, linear, pressed down over the sori,

the edge nearly or quite reaching the midrib.

The genus has about 10 species distributed in

the Indo-Japanese region. One species is

recorded presently.

O. contiguum Hope, Jour. Bomb. nat. Hist.

Soc., 13, 444, 1901 ; Mehra & Bir, Res. Bull.

Panjab Univ. (N.S.), 15, 108, 1964.

Rhizome 0.8-1.5 cm thick, short, procumbent,

densely scaly, apex clothed with lanceolate,

light-brown, castaneous scales ; fronds caespi-

tose ; stipes 15-27 cm long, black at the base,

pale-straminous above; lamina _ glabrous

25-40 x 15-26 cm, broadly-ovate, acuminate,

very finely 5-pinnate ; pinnae 8-12 jugate, the

basal pair much the largest, triangular, acumi-

nate, petiolate, oblique ; pinnules of 2nd and

3rd order petiolate, united ; ultimate segments

linear-lanceolate, apiculate, entire, 3-5 mm

long ; texture herbaceous, pale-green, naked on

both sides ; veins fine, one to each segment,

fall short of the acute apex, clavate; sori

linear, short ; indusia large, broad, membra-

naceous, pale-grey, entire, persistent, reaching

the costule from both sides, rather overlapping ;

sporangia with 20-21 celled annulus ; spores

tuberculate with ridge-like projections giving

rugose appearance, reticulations sparse (Fig. 9).

It is an elegant fern of humus rich forest

floors near Dharmkot at an elevation of 1950 m.

Occasionally it covers large areas and borders

the forest.

Family SINOPTERIDACEAE

Terrestrial ; rhizome short-creeping or erect

bearing tufts of fronds, scaly; fronds small

pinnate to decompound, narrow to broadly-

deltoid ; veins free ; sori marginal on the tips

of the veins ; indusium formed by the reflexed

margin, discrete but often more or less

confluent ; spores globose to tetrahedral with-

out perispore.

Cheilanthes Swartz

Fronds sub-coriaceous, 3-4 pinnatified ;

veins free, forked ; sori on the tips of veins

along the laminar edge, more or less protected

by reflexed marginal flaps ; spores tetrahedral,

granulose to tuberculate.

The genus has about 200 species, distributed

in tropical and warm temperate regions,

characteristically inhabiting dry but cool places.

It is represented by 4 species in Dharamsala

Hills.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

A. Scales bicoloured ; lamina lanceolate to deltoid.

B. Scales present on rachises and costae;

indusium margin lacerated or having finger-

like projections

MUA RE AOR C. albomarginata

B. Scales present upto principal rachis and do

not extend beyond to rachilets and pinnules ;

467

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

—Ss ==. ae

SS oA

‘8; N

EOS

KARA

cI 1 }

ay at \

\ ith} hl XY,

\ NaN! it My

AG eS

eat Se) ei

Fig.9. Onychiuin contiguum ; a. A plant ; A. Uitimate pinnules showing venaticn and position of sori, X c 1.7; |

B. A rhizome scale, X c 11.6; C. A sporangium, x c 88.8 ; D. Spores, x 256.6.

Fig. 10. Chzilanthzs albomarginata ; a. A plant; A. A part of the pinna showing the vein pattern and position |

of sori, X c 3.4; B. A rhizome scale, X c 5.8; C. A stipe scale, x c9.4; D. A scale on the rachis, X c 12; E, Fe |

Scales on the rachilets, * c 12; G. Sporangium, < c 73.2; H. Spores, x 210; 1. Indusium, x c 12.

468 |

FERNS OF DHARAMSALA HILLS

lamina lanceolate and farinose ; indusium sub-

entire

sua en aie C. anceps

B. Scales present only at the base of the stipe ;

indusium margin with numerous glandular

cells

eras Giese C. farinosa

A. Scales concolorous, lamina deltoid-lanceolate to

deltoid.

B. Scales large, membranaceous, thin papery ;

lamina never farinose ; indusium with toothed

margin }

Rann, Oi. C. dalhousiae

B. Scales at the stipe sometimes concolorous but

not membranaceous

eee ae C. farinosa

C. albomarginata Clarke in Trans. Linn. Soc.

Lond., II, Bot., 1, 456, t. 52, 1880; Bedd.,

Handb. Ferns Brit. India, 94, 1883.

Rhizome short, ascending to _ sub-erect,

broader upwards, narrow below, densely scaly ;

scales 3-6 x 0.5-1 mm, deltoid to deltoid-

lanceolate, hair uniseriate and pointed, bi-

coloured, margin smooth sometimes with peg-

like projections near the base, central region

dark-brown with hyaline peripheral cells ;

fronds closely tufted, paleaceous, deltoid or

deltoid-lanceolate ; stipes hard, deep-brown.

cylindrical, 4-18 cm long, without groove

scaly althrough ; scales like those of rhizome

except for smaller in size; lamina deltoid-

lanceolate, 6-24 x 3.5-10 cm, unipinnate above,

bipinnate below with extreme apex pinnatifid,

sub-basal pinnae the largest, rachis and rachilets

prominent, scaly; scales on the rachis bicoloured

but on the rachilets concolorous or bicolorous :

lamina densely farinose underneath; farina

either white, cream-yellow or even yellow ;

sori mixed, occur superficially on the under-

surface at the dilated vein ends; veins finely

forked ; sori covered by a broad, membrana-

ceous, lacerated indusium ; sporangia conspi-

cuously large, pyriform to globose, with 18-20

celled annulus, stalked; spores dark-brown,

globose tetrahedral, exine densely verrucose

(Fig. 10).

A common fern of moist and humus rich walls

in exposed situations near Forsytheganj,

Mcleodganj and Khanjjar Mahan Dev Temple

between 1600-1800 m.

C. anceps Blanford in Simla nat. Hist. Soc.

Leaflet, 25th June, 1886; Mehra & Bir, Res.

Bull. Panjab Univ. (N.S.), 15,109, 1964.

Rhizome short, ascending, broader upwards,

narrow below, densely scaly; scales 3-4 x

upto 0.5 mm, linear-lanceolate, hair uniseriate,

pointed, bicoloured, margin smooth; fronds

fasciculate or caespitose, lanceolate, under

surface thickly coated with white powder ;

stipes hard, cylindrical, deep chestnut coloured,

3-15 cm long, scaly ; scales like the rhizome

scales except for the size; lamina deltoid-

lanceolate, 8-18 <x 3-9 cm, unipinnate above,

bipinnate below with extreme apex pinnatifid ;

basal pinnae the largest; rachis and rachilets

prominent, scales on the principle rachis and

not beyond that ; scales usually concolorous ;

sori contiguous, occur superficially on the under

surface at the vein ends ; veins finely forked ;

indusium more or less continuous, with a broadly

lobed margin ; sporangia large, globose with

20-22 celled annulus; spores dark-brown,

globose, tetrahedral, narrow flap-like ridges on

the exine (Fig. 11).

Frequent on exposed rocks along the roads

near Dharamsala, Chetru, Dari and Chari

between 800-1400 m.

C. farinosa sensu Blanford in Asiat. Soc. Bengal,

57 7 301, 1888.

Rhizome short, ascending, densely scaly ;

scales linear-lanceolate, hair uniseriate and

pointed, usually 4-6 mm <0.5-1 mm, bicoloured,

margin smooth; fronds caespitose, sub-

coriaceous, deltoid-lanceolate or lanceolate,

glabrous, white powdery beneath ; stipe more

or less elongated 15-25 cm long, ebeneous, chest-

nut coloured, hard, deciduously scaly ; scales

concolorous rarely bicoloured, linear-lanceolates

469

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

AWN Np

NA \\ |

Wy aib py’,

Yy Hl ff

"VoirG Gs LF:

Oda, 7,

wale

EB ed

Rigs ti Chelianthes anceps;a. A plant; A. A part of the pinna showing venation, and position of sori,

* ¢4.4. B. A rhizome scale, x c 12.4; C. A stipe scale, x c 21.2 ; D. Scale on the rachis, x c 21.2; E. Sporangium,

* ¢ 61.2; F. Spore, x 277.2; G. Indusium x c 21.2.

Fig. 12. Cheilanthes farinosa; a. A plant; A. A part of the Pinna showing venation, X c 1.6; B. Rhizome

scale, X c11.6; C. Stipescale, x ¢11.6;D. Sporangium x c 88.8; E. Spore, x 256.6; F. Indusium, X c 18.6.

470

FERNS OF DHARAMSALA HILLS

3-4 x upto 0.5 mm, hair pointed ; lamina

farinose, deltoid to deltoid-lanceolate, 10-18 x

6-12 cm, unipinnate above, bipinnate below,

sub-basal pinnae the largest; rachis and

rachilets naked, glossy, castaneous; texture

sub-coriaceous, green ; sori contiguous, occur

superficially on the under surface at the vein

ends; veins finely forked ; indusium brown,

globose, sometimes confluent, with glandular

margin; sporangia large, globose with 20-24

celled annulus ; spores globose to tetrahedral

with flap-like ridges on the exine (corrugated)

(Fig. 12).

It is a fern of rock crevices and grows under

shade. Commonly found near Chamundey

Temple at 1200 m.

C. dalhousiae Hook., Sp. Fil., 2,80, t. 75B>

1852; Mehra and Bir, Res. Bull. Panjab

Univ., (N.S.), 15, 109, 1964.

Rhizome short, ascending to sub-erect, densely

scaly, scales 3-8 x 1-3 mm, ovate-lanceolate

concolorous, membranaceous, yellowish-

brown ; fronds caespitose, deltoid-lanceolate

thin in texture; stipes 10-13 cm long, firm

ebeneous, glossy, deciduously scaly at the base

scales large ovate-lanceolate, concolorous with

smooth margin; lamina deltoid-lanceolate to

lanceolate, glabrous on both sides 10-16 x

4-8 cm, never farinose ; sori at the vein ends,

protected by involucres ; indusium close but

distinct, sometimes confluent, with a toothed

or lacerate margin ; sporangia large, globos:

with 18-22 celled annulus ; spores dark-brown,

globose-tetrahedral with scanty ridges or flaps

on the exine (Fig. 13).

Occasionally found growing in moist and

shaded localities near Dharmkot at an elevation

of 1950 m.

Family GYMNOGRAMMACEAE

Terrestrial ; rhizome short-creeping or rudi-

mentary, paleate ; fronds small to fairly large,

pinnate to tripinnate with few and large, entire

‘toincised leaflets, herbaceous or more firm ;

veins free, forked, ending in hydathodes ; sori

elongate along the veins except near the margin,

exindusiate ; spores bilateral or tetrahedral,

smooth or faintly ribbed.

Coniogramme Fee

Rhizome scales rather narrow; stipe

grooved ; texture herbaceous ; veins free, dis-

tinct, forked near the base; spores yellow,

tetrahedral, non-perisporiate.

A small genus of about 20 species with a

limited distribution in Sino-Japanese region,

Africa and Mexico. Only one species is

reported from the present area.

C. intermedia Hieron., Hedwigia, 57, 301, 1916 ;

Ching, Ic. Fil. sinica., Pl. 143, 1935 (descrip-

tion only) ; Mehra & Dhir, Bull. Bot. Surv.

India, 10, 304, 1968.

Rhizome 0.8-1 cm thick, wide-creeping, den-

sely scaly; scales. brown, ovate-lanceolate,

acuminate with sub-entire margin; fronds

distant ; stipes 20-25 cm long, glabrous above

the scaly base (scales _ linear-lanceolate,

acuminate), pale-straminous, terete below,

grooved above ; lamina ovate-deltoid, 30-45 x

15-35 cm, bipinnate at the base, simple pinnate

above, lateral pinnae 3-6 jugate, alternate, the

basal ones much the largest, more or less oppo-

site and petiolate, 4-15 cm long, tripinnate but

rarely pmnate also, the upper ones simple but

sometimes the second pinnae further divided,

petiolate but rarely the uppermost ones adnate,

5-8 x 1-1.5 cm, broadly-lanceolate with atte-

nuate apex, base rounded or rotundo-cuneate,

margin sharply serrate; texture herbaceous,

light-green, glabrous; rachis naked, glossy,

pale-straminous ; veins free, distinct, oblique,

generally forked near the base, veinlets fine,

parallel, extending till the base of teeth with a

clavate apex; sori pale-brown, exindusiate,

following the veiniets, till a short distance from

the margin ; sporangia with 15-celled annulus ;

spores tetrahedral, trilete, non-perisporiate,

exine thick and smooth (Fig. 14).

471

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

N mit

Fig. 13. Cheilanthes dalhousiae ; a. A plant; A. A part of the pinna, showing venation, < c 1.6; B. Rhizome

scale, X c 11.6; C. Stipe scale, x c 11.6; D. Sporangium, x c 88.8; E. Spores, x 256.6; F. Indusium, x c 18.6.

Fig. 14. Coniogramme intermedia ; a. A plant; A. Part of the Pinnule showing venation and position of sori,

x ¢4.4; B. Rhizome scale, X c12.4; C. Scale on the base of stipe, x ¢21.2; D. Sporangium, x c61.2;

E. Spores, * 277.2.

472

FERNS OF DHARAMSALA HILLS

The present taxon conforms to the var.

glabra Ching.

It is a high altitude fern growing on humus

rich forest floor in exposed situations, some-

times covering large areas. Seen near Triund

at 2700 m.

Family PTERIDACEAE

Rhizome erect or creeping, scabrous ; veins

free or anastomosing ; sori marginal, linear,

continuous, borne on a marginal connecting

commissure ; indusium the same shape as the

sorus, usually membranaceous ; spores tetra-

hedral, surface usually papillose or reticulate.

Pteris Linn.

Rhizome erect or creeping, bearing tufts of

2-3 pinnate fronds, scaly ; veins free except in

the sori; sorus continuous along the margin,

protected by the reflexed margin, paraphysate;

spores tetrahedral sculptured.

A genus of more than 280 species with a

tropical distribution extending to New Zealand,

Africa, Japan and United States. Presently it

is represented by 3-species.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

A. Pinnae all simple, entire, sessile, lower

gradually reduced

ones

Sb ae ol SO P. vittata

A. Pinnae deeply lobed or the lowest pair branched.

B. Lamina oblong with basal pinnae divided into

2-4 linear-pinnules ; sterile pinnae stalked with

serrate margin; spores smooth

Sadia P. cretica

B. Lamina bipinnatifid with lower pinnae

bipartite or even bipinnate ; pinnae stalked

with sub-entire segments

LA Aa aoe ESE P. quadriaurita

P. vittata Linn., Sp. Pl., 1074, 1753, Mehra and

Dhir, Bull. Bot. Surv. India 8, 304, 1968.

Rhizome 1-1.5 cm thick, short, sub-erect,

densely covered with pale-brown, shining

scales ; scales 0.4-0.8 cm long, linear-lanceolate,

hair pointed, concolorous, entire ; fronds sub-

caespitose, oblong-lanceolate, pinnate with a

terminal pinna like the lateral ones ; stipes

5-20 cm or more in length, rigid, pale, scaly

almost throughout, but the stipe, rachis and

rachilets are thickly pubescent in the smaller

forms; pinnae 30-40 pairs, 1-5 cm apart,

pubescent, basal ones gradually reduced and

often very short, upper ones slightly reduced but

much shorter than the terminal pinna except in

large fronds, all pinnae sessile and oblique ;

largest pinnae 6-12 x 0.4-0.7 cm, base broadly

cuneate to cordate, apex acuminate; rachis

distinct and scaly; texture sub-coriaceous ;

veins fine distinct on both surfaces, nearly at

right angle to the costa, usually forked, not

anastomosing ; sori continuous from near the

base to near the apex of each pinna ; indusium

membranaceous and yellowish brown; sporangia

with 22-celled annulus, intermixed with pleuri-

cellular hairs; spores non-perisporiate, reticulate

(Fig. 15).

This species is locally abundant along the

streamlets where sufficient humus has accu-

mulated. Met with near Dari, Chari and Chetru

between 800-900 m.

P. cretica Linn., Mant., 130, 1767, Bedd.,

Handb. Ferns Brit. India, 106, 1883.

Rhizome 0.5-1.5 cm thick, short, suberect,

sparsely scaly ; scales pale-brown, linear-lanceo-

late, 4-6 mm long, hair uniseriate and pointed,

dentate; fronds caespitose ; stipes 20-40 cm long,

erect, wiry, naked, straw-coloured and shining;

lamina 20-25 x 10-15 cm, oblong, with distinct

purplish rachis, pinnate ; basal pinnae further

divided with secondary pinnae having adnate

decurrent bases; pinnae 7-15 x 1-1.5 cm,

terminal pinnae longer than the rest of the

pinnae below, sterile pinnae broader with

spinulose-serrate margin; texture coriaceous,

green ; veins usually once forked near the costa

only, 40-60 veins, ending just within the margin,

costa raised and grooved above ; fertile pinnae

473

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Fig. 15. Pteris vittata; a. A plant; A. Part of the pinna showing venation and position of sori, x c 1.6;

B. Rhizome scale, x c 11.6; C. Stipe scale, x c 11.6; D. Scale of the rachis, x c 19.6; E. Hair on the rachis,

rachilets and among sori, X c 34.4; F. Sporangium, x c 88.8; G. Spores, x 256.6.

Fig. 16. Pteris cretica; a. A plant; A. Part of fertile frond showing venation and position of sori, x ¢ 4;

B. Part of the apex of the pinnule showing vein pattern, x c4; C. Rhizome scale, x c 10.9; D. Sporangium,

x c 85.2: E. Spores, x 248.

474

FERNS OF DHARAMSALA HILLS

usually soriferous all along the edges except "

for a short distance from the apex where the

edges are undulate and hardly toothed ; sori:

rather broad when mature; indusium pale mem-

branaceous; sporangia with 16-17-celled annulus;

spores trilete, tetrahedral, perisporiate (Fig. 16).

Grows along the road side in moist and humus

rich soil conditions. Frequently met with near

Khanjjar Mahan Dev Temple and Dharamkot

between 1700-2000 m.

P. quadriaurita Retz. in obs. Bot., 6, 38, 179

(sensu lato): Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brita

India, 110, 1883.

Rhizome short, oblique, densely scaly ; scales

dark-brown, lanceolate, rigid, appressed; fronds

caespitose; stipes 15-40 cm long, rufo-

straminous near the base, light-coloured up-

wards, scales at the base similar but smaller to

rhizome scales ; lamina broadly ovate-lanceo-

late, 30-40 x 15-26 cm; pinnae 7-11 jugate

under a single apical pinna ; the basal pinnae

the largest, deltoid with 1-2 additional pinnules

on the lower side of the costa, all subsessile

with shortly decurrent base ; the middle ones

13-15 cm long, 2.5-3 cm broad, pinnatifid nearly

down to costa into 20-30 pairs of linear, sub-

falcate, obtuse segments under the caudate,

entire apex; segments 0.5-1.5 x 0.4-0.6 cm;

veins 6-14 forked pairs of which posterior basal

one 2-4 times forked ; veinlets almost reach

the margin with a clavate apex and meet the

marginal commissure ; texture sub-coriaceous,

green, glabrous; rachis pale-colored, terete

below, furrowed on the dorsal side with a spine

at the base of each pinna ; sori continuous from

near the sinus reaching upto the apex of the

segment; indusium membranaceous, grey,

entire ; sporangium with 17-21 celled annulus ;

spores trilete, perisporiate ; perispore folded

| (Fig. 17).

It grows luxuriously on shaded and humus

tich walls along the road near Khanjjar Mahan

| Dev Temple at an elevation of 1700 m.

HYMENOPHYLLACEOUS SERIES

Family HYPOLEPIDACEAE

Terrestrial, rhizome creeping, more or less

densely covered with hairs ; vascular system a

solenostele ; fronds large, pinnately compound,

coriaceous ; veins free or joined at the margin

with a commissure, forked ; sori apical on the

veins or nearly so or close to the margin and

protected by a small thin reflexed margin (outer

or false indusium), the inner (true) one deve-

loped or obsolescent; spores _ tetrahedral-

oblong, papillose, tuberculate or rarely smooth.

KEY TO THE GENERA

A. Sorielongate along the margin, rachis and rachilets

pubescent

edges a ad Pteridium

A. Sori not elongate along the margin, rachis and

rachilets glabrous

Pin ti a Hypolepis

Pteridium Scopoli

Rhizome long-creeping, hypogaeous, solenos-

telic, clothed with hairs; fronds pinnately-

compound, coriaceous, more or less densely

hairy, veins free except for a marginal strand ;

sorus continuous along the margin, borne on

the connecting vein, indusium double, the outer

(false) one formed by the reflexed margin, the

inner (true) one developed or obsolescent,

paraphyses none, sporangium slender-stalked ;

spores tetrahedral or globose tetrahedral,

smooth.

A monotypic genus distributed in the tropical

and temperate regions of the world.

P. aquilinum (L.) Kuhn ex Decken, Reisen in

Ost. Afrika, 3, 11, 1879 ; Mehra & Bir, Res.

Bull. Panjab Univ. (N.S.), 15, 118, 1964.

Rhizome stout, creeping, hypogeal, clothed

with pale-brown, generally long, unicellular

hairs ; fronds rather distant ; stipes 15-30 cm

475

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vei. 74

work

Fig. 17. Pteris quadriaurita; a. A plant; A. Part of the pinnule, showing venation, x c 4.2; B. Rhizome

scale, x c 20.4; C. Scale at the base of stipe, x c 20.4; D. Sporangium x c 58.8; E. Spores, x 266.

Fig. 18. Prteridium aquilinum ; a. A plant ; A. Part of the pinnule showing venation and position of sori, xc 1.6 ;

B, D. Rhizome hairs, x c 11.6; C. Hair on pinnules, x c 11.6; E. Sporangium, x c 88.8 ; F. Spores, x 256.6,

476

FERNS OF DHARAMSALA HILLS

long, strong, erect, grooved, naked; lamina

20-35 x 40-60 cm, deltoid, tripinnate ; pinnae

10-35 x 5-20 cm, often long, distinctly stalked,

opposite to sub-opposite, basal one is the

longest, gradually reduced upward ending in an

acuminate apex; pinnae at the apex simple,

lanceolate; pinnae finely dissected into 10-20

lanceolate-acuminate, alternate, 6-12 x 0.8-2 cm

pinnules ; pinnules further dissected finely into

10-25, 0.7-1.5 x 0.3-0.5 cm segments; seg-

ments contiguous, more or less falcate, pubes-

cent, narrowed more or less evenly from the

dilated base to the rounded apex, cut almost or

quite to the costa ; rachis and rachilets distinct,

yellowish-brown, sparsely hairy ; hairs long,

with cells placed end to end in a single row ;

texture coriaceous, yellowish-green in colour ;

venation indistinct, usually 6-12 veins on either

side of costule; forked 1-3 times with a marginal

commissure joining the apices of the veins ;

sori sub-marginal, linear, indusiate ; indusium

double, outer consisting of thin reflexed, edge

of the pinnule, the inner thin attached just below

the receptacle; sporangia with 18-20 celled

annulus, globose, stalked ; spores tetrahedral,

pale-brown, minutely papillose, with a charac-

teristic trilete marking, non-perisporiate

(Fig. 18).

This species colonizes recently cleared places

along streamlets. It is available near Dharam-

sala at an altitude of 1350 m.

Hypolepis Bernh.

Rhizome creeping, solenostelic, clothed with

usually reddish hairs ; fronds mediocre to large,

bipinnate or more compound, hairy or glabrous,

herbaceous ; veins free ; sorus typically almost

marginal and protected by a reflexed tooth,

rarely inframarginal and naked, terminal on its

vein ; spores oblong, spinulose or tuberculate,

rarely smooth. ;

- Pantropic with more than 45 species, re-

presented in the area by a single species.

H. punctata (Thunb.) Mett., Kuhn, Fil. Afr.,120,

1869 ; Bedd., Handb. Ferns Brit. India,

Supply 195 1892,

Rhizome slender, creeping, short-hairy, with-

out scales ; fronds distant, erect, pale-green,

100-126 cm long; stipes hairy upto 30-65 cm

long ; rachises and costa bearing short crisp

hairs on both surfaces ; lamina deltoid, deeply

quadripinnatifid, the large lower pinnae

opposite, the smaller upper pinnae alternate ;

largest pinnae 20-30 cm or more long, oblique

to the main rachis, broadly deltoid, upper

pinnae gradually more narrowly deltoid ; basal

pinnule of lowest pinnae 10-20 x 1-2.5 cm;

oblique to pinna-rachis ; largest leaflets of third

order 1-1.5 x 0.3-0.6 cm, pinnate to a narrowly

winged costa almost to the bluntly pointed

apex; leaflets of fourth order lobed, apex

rounded, usually with a sorus on the acroscopic

margin of a lobe near the base of the sinus ;

sori terminal on a vein, usually covered or

partly covered with a pale reflexed marginal

flap, but sometimes quite exposed ; sporangium

with 16 celled annulus ; spores oblong with

minute projections on its surface (spinulose)

(Fig. 19).

Very common near Khanjjar Mahan Dev

Temple at 1700 m in exposed places.

Family DAVALLIACEAE

Epiphytes ; rhizome wide-creeping, fleshy ;

covered with peltate scales ; fronds membrana-

ceous and flaccid, simple to decompoundly

pinnate ; stipes smooth, jointed to the rhizome,

each with several vascular strands (except

Leucostegia), veins free, forked ; sori intra or

sub-marginal or dorsal on the frond, usually

indusiate ; spores bilateral.

Araiostegia Copeland

Fronds large, pinnately-decompound and

finely dissected, thin in texture, mostly lanceo-

late ; sori sub-marginal, solitary at the ends of

477

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Fig. 19. Hypolepis punctata;a. A plant; A. A part of pinna showing venation and position of sori, x c 3.6; |

B. Rhizome hair with brownish contents, x c 17.6; C, D. Rhizome hairs, x c 17.6; E. Sporangium, x c 80; |

F. spores, X 231.

Fig. 20. Araiostegia pseudocystopteris; a. A plant; A. Part of the Pinna showing venation and position of |

sori, X c3.6; B. Rhizome scale, x c 10.4; C. Stipe scale, x ¢ 17.6; D. Indusium, X ¢c17.6; E. Sporangium, |

x c80; F. Spores, x 231. |

478 |

FERNS OF DHARAMSALA HILLS

single veins in a cup-like indusium attached on

the side remote from the margin ; spores bila-

teral, oblong, granulated.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

A. Lamina deltoid-oblong, 4-pinnate ; indusium more

or less globose, margin wavy ; stipe scales ovate

«i RRC EE A. pseudocystopteris

A. Lamina deltoid, 5-6 pinnate ; indusium broader

than long with entire margin ; stipe scales deciduous

SA ee .».-A. delavayi

A. pseudocystopteris (Kze.) Copel., Phil. Jour.

Sci., 34, 241, 1927 ; Mehra & Bir, Res. Bull.

Panjab Univ. (N.S.), 15, 119, 1964.

Rhizome 3-6 mm thick, woody, wide-

creeping, epigaeous, densely scaly; scales

3-6 x 2.5-3 mm, golden-brown, ovate, persis-

Fig. 21.

B. Rhizome scale, x ¢ 12.4; C. Indusium, x ¢ 21.2; D. Sporangium, x c 61.2 ; E. Spores, x 277.2.

tent ; fronds rather approximate ; stipe 6-10 cm

long, sparsely scaly ; scales ovate, golden-brown

like those of rhizome scales ; lamina deltoid-

oblong, 7-28 cm long, 4.5-15 cm broad, 4-

pinnate ; pinnae 3-12 jugate, patent, sessile,

2.5-9 x 2.5-4 cm ; ultimate pinnules pinnatifid

with 2-4 small ligulate acute, uninerved seg-

ments, 1-2 mm long, 0.5 mm broad ; texture

thin herbaceous, pale-green, glabrous; sori

small, situated at the forking of ultimate lobes ;

indusium small, membranaceous, grey, persis-

tent, more or less globose, sporangia with 13-

celled annulus ; spores bilateral, granulated with

thick exine (Fig. 20).

This species grows both as an epiphyte and

on moist and humus rich rocks. Met with near

Mcleodganj at 1200 m covering the branches

of Quercus incana (oak).

seh

Be oh ut i

eu Minglll

TH ting TAT We

ey tn

WML) g UF) HARI

a ULE, hi SAME AAINANt

sven Aa th c \\

] () } \\

é \

EE AINA

i i WRIA IIASA

4“ Hf iA LH Uh Ui HNN a

Bi: HH TORN | Ay hi

Ua EIS

Nh hl an Mail Mi NG Wet i

Sea ET MT

Ge i cata i a Mt

UK N ie ih

Araiostegia delavayi; a. A plant; A. Part of lamina showing venation and position of sori, x c 4.4;

479

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

A. delavayi (Bedd. ex Clarke et Bak.) Ching in

Chien et Chun, Fl. Reipubl. Pop Sin., 2,

289, 1959.

Rhizome 2-5 mm thick, woody, wide-

creeping, epigaeous, densely scaly; scales

dense, golden-brown, ovate, persistent ; fronds

rather approximate; stipes 4.5-6 cm long,

sparsely covered with ovate, deciduous scales ;

lamina 33 x 25 cm, deltoid, 5-6 pinnate ;

pinnae stalked, basal pinnae largest, ultimate

pinnules linear and pointed ; rachis naked ;

veins forked, slightly swollen at the tips ; sori

triangular (nearly cordate) present at the fork-

ing point of ultimate veinlets ; texture herba-

ceous, pale-green, glabrous ; indusium small,

membranaceous, grey persistent, broader than

long with entire margin ; sporangia with 12-13

celled annulus; spores globose, granulated,

exine thick (Fig. 21).

A common epiphyte near Mcleodganj and

Dharmkot between 1700-2000 m.

REFERENCES

Beppome, R. H. (1863-1864, 1865): The Ferns of

Southern India. Gantz. Brothers, Madras.

(1883): A Handbook to the Ferns of

British India, Ceylon and Malaya Peninsula. Thaker

Spink & Co., Calcutta.

(1892) : A Handbook to the Ferns of British

India, Ceylon and Malaya Peninsula, with supplement.

Thaker Spink & Co., Calcutta.

Bir, S. S. (1962) : Taxonomy of the Indian members

of family Aspleniaceae. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 4: 1-16.

(1963) : Observations on the Pteridophytic

Flora of Simla Hills (N.W. Himalayas). Bull. Bot.

Sury. India 5: 151-161.

(1964): Taxonomic notes on some

Himalayan Ferns. Jour. Ind. Bot. Soc. 43 : 556-569.

& PREM SHUKLA (1966): Pteridophytic

Flora of Simla Hills (N.W. Himalayas). Family

Athyriaceae. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 8 : 264-277.

(1966-67) : Role of spore morphology in the

Taxonomy of family Aspleniaceae. Palynological Bull.,

W& Il: 3-11.

(1968) : Pteridophytic Flora of Simla Hills

(N.W. Himalayas). Fam. Aspleniaceae & Blechnaceae.

Nova Hedwigia 16: 469-482.

— (1971) : Pteridophytic flora of Simla Hills

(north western Himalayas)—Families Loxogrammaceae

and Polypodiaceae. ibid. 21: 193-224.

& TrIKHA, C. K. (1968): Taxonomic

revision of the Polypodiaceous genera of India-I, Micro-

sorium Link. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 10 : 133-140.

— (1969): Taxonomic revision of the Polypo

480

diaceous genera of India. IV. Polypodium lineare

complex. ibid. 11: 260-276. |

———— (1974) : Taxonomic revision of tbe Polypo-

diaceous genera of India—VI. Lepisorus excavatus

group. Amer. Fern Jour. 64: 49-63.

CHING, R. C. (1935) : Icones Filicum Sinicarum, Fasc

3. The Fan Mem. Inst. Biol., Peiping, China.

CLARKE, C. B. (1880): A Review of Ferns of Nor-

thern India. Trans. Linn. Soc. London, WI, Bot. 1:

425-611.

COPELAND, E. B. (1947) : Genera Filicum. Chronica

Botanic Co., Waltham, Mass., U.S.A.

Duir, K. K. AND SHEERA, P. S. (1975) : Ecological &

Phytogeographical observations on the Pteridophytes of

Dharamsala hills. Nova Hedwigia 26 : 353-371.

Ho.Lttum, R. E. (1954): Flora of Malaya. II.

Ferns. Singapore (Govt. Printing Press). |

Hope, C. W. (1899-1904) : The Ferns of North Western |

India, including Afghanistan, the Trans-Indus Protected |

The —

States and Kashmir. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.: 12,13, |

14, 15.

MEHRA, P.N. (1939): Ferns of Mussoorie. Lahore |

(Panjab Univ. Publ.). |

(1961): Cytological evolution of ferns with |

particular reference to Himalayan ferns (Presidential |

address). Proc. Ind. Sci. Cong. Assoc. 48th (Roorkee) }

Session. Part IL: 130-153.

AND Dhuir, K. K. (1968): Ferns and Fern |

allies of Dalhousie hills. Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 10: |

296-308. i"

VERMA, S. C. (1962) : Taxonomic status of Adiantum)

lunulatam Burm. Nova Hedwigia, III (4) 4: 63-468. i

Biology and host-range of Trabala yishnu

Letevere’’

Y. S. RATHORE®? AND J. K. VERMA

(With a text-figure)

Biology of Trabala vishnu Lefevere was studied in a BOD incubator at 27+ 1°C and 60-65 % relative humidity.

Eggs were creamy-white and were covered with brown hairs.

Incubation period was 8 to 10 days. Larvae

of three different colours, namely yellow, grey and pinkish grey hatched out from the eggs of a single female.

There were 5 larval instars.

ascertain the growth and the larval instars.

Total larval duration was 29 to 33 days in female and 24 to 29 days in male.

Pupal period was 11 to 12 days in female and 12 to 14 days in male.

Application of Dyar’s law was tested to

Out of 55 plant-species tested, 5 were accepted by the larvae.

Tecoma stans (L.) H.B. & K. was preferred over castor, (Ricinus communis L.); Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels

was equally preferred ; Eucalyptus botryoides S., Rosa sp. and Shorea robusta Gaertn. f. were preferred less

than castor.

The castor hairy caterpillar, Trabala vishnu

Lefevere (Lepidoptera : Lasiocampidae), is a

sporadic polyphagous pest that occurs through-

out India, Burma (Fletcher 1919 and Beeson

1941), Sri Lanka (Light 1929), East Indies (Van

Hall 1919) and Indo-China (Ngayen-Cong-

Tien 1939). Sevastopulo (1939) and Beeson

(1941) have given a general account of its biology

and listed the plant species on which it feeds.

Most of the hosts reported were forest trees.

Since large scale deforestation has taken place

in tarai region, it was thought pertinent to study

the biology and host-range of this insect to

explore the possibility of its being a pest of

cultivated and fruit crops in the absence of wild

flora on which it feeds.

1 Accepted June 1976.

4 Publication under Journal Series 1009, Experiment

Station, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and

Technology, Pantnagar, Distt. Naini Tal (U.P.), India.

8 Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture

-and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttar Pradesh.

The host range of Trabala vishnu is restricted to woody plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The eggs were obtained from the stock culture

maintained in the laboratory on castor. The

first instar larvae (0-14-hr old) were reared indi-

vidually on castor leaves in plastic petri-dishes

at 27 + 1°C and 60-65% relative humidity in a

BOD incubator. The observations on the bio-

logy of the insect were recorded daily and the

head capsules collected at each ecdysis were

stored. To determine oviposition potential,

1 male and 1 female were kept in a plastic con-

tainer (12 x 10 cm). Adults were fed on 10%

sucrose solution.

To test Dyar’s law, head capsules of the larvae

of first-second instar were measured across

the greatest width of the head at the base of the

mandibles with a stereomicroscope fitted with

an ocular micrometer. However, in later

instars the head capsule width was measured

with a microscope in which scale was directly

fitted. For each instar 50 head capsules were

measured.

48]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Three days after pupation, sex in pupae was

determined on the basis of morphological

characters in the external genitalia.

Host-range was studied in the laboratory by

disc method following the procedure of Kogan &

Goeden (1970). Three discs of each host

measuring 1 cm? were cut and fixed alternately

and equidistantly (i.e. standard vs. test plant)

near the perimeter of the petri-dish with an

entomological pin No. 20. Discs were held

3-4 mm above the surface. For proper fixing

of pins 1 cm thick layer of plaster of paris was

placed in petri-dishes whose top was lined with

moist blotting paper. Tests on each plant

species were replicated thrice. The fourth

instar larvae, used as test insects, were isolated

and starved for 24 hr. One larva in each petri-

dish containing discs was allowed to feed for

90 min. The amount of feeding was measured

by graph paper. The following formula of

Kogan & Goeden (1970) was used to calculate

the preference index :

C=2A/(M + A)

where C =comparative analysis jof plants

tested (preference index), A = feeding on test

plant, and M= feeding on standard plant.

The index measures the relative amount of

feeding on 2 species of plants present in the

arena in a 0 to +2 scale. A C-value of 1

indicates that feeding on test plant was

equivalent to the feeding on the standard.

A C-value > 1 indicates a preference for test

plant; and a C-value <1 indicates a less

acceptance to the test plant.

Fifty-five plant species belonging to 30

families were tested for host-range study.

The arrangement of plant families is made

following the system of Hutchinson (1973)

who divided Dicotyledons into two main

divisions, ‘Lignosae’ (woody plants) and

‘ Herbaceae’ (herbaceous plants). The follow-

ing plant species were tested :—

1. Pteridophyta — CYATHEACEAE — fern

(Cyathea dealbata Swartz).

482

2. Spermatophyta—

A. Gymnospermae — PINACEAE —

pine (Pinus decidua Wall).

B. Angiospermae—(Dicotyledones)

Division—Lignosae.

ANACARDIACEAE—mango (Mangifera indica

L.) ; BIGNONIACEAE—Yellow bells [Tecoma

stans (L.) H.B. & K.]; BrassicacEAE—leaf

mustard, rai [Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. &

Coss. var. cuneifolia Roxb.], cabbage (B.

oleracea L. var. capitata L.), water cress (Nastur-

tium officinale R. Br.), radish (Raphanus sativus

L.) ; CAESALPINIACEAE—red cedar (Acrocarpus

fraxinifolius Wight & Arn.), Kachnar (Bauhinia

variegata L.), Amaltas (Cassia fistula L.),

Gulmohur [Delonix regia (Boj.) Raf.], Ashoka

tree (Saraca indica L.), tamarind (Tamarindus

indica L.) ; CARICACEAE—papaya (Carica papaya

L.) ; CHENOPODIACEAE—Sugarbeet (Beta vul-

garis L.) ; COMPOSITAE—corn flower (Centaurea

ccyanus L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.),

cone flower (Rudbeckia bicolor Nutt.); CUCURBI-

TACEAE—Parwal (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.) ;

DIPTEROCARPACEAE—Sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.

f.) ; EUPHORBIACEAE—chenille plant (Acalypha

hispida Burm.), safed arond (Jatropha curcas

L.) ; FABACEAE—bean (Dolichos lablab L.),

soybean [ Glycine max (L.) Merr.], Locust

tree (Robinia pseud-acacia L.) ; LYTHRACEAE—

Crapemyrtle (Lagerstroemia indica L.) ; MAGNO- —

LIACEAE—Champa (Magnolia globosa Hk.);

MALVACEAE—hollyhock

Cav.], tree cotton (Gossypium arboreum L.), |

okra [Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench] ; |

MELIACEAE—Mahogani tree [Swietenia maha- |

goni (L.) Jacq.|; MoRACEAE—banyan (Ficus

benghalensis L.), peepul (F. religiosa L.); |

MyYRTACEAE—gum tree (Eucalyptus botryoides |

S.), guava (Psidium guajava L.), jamun [Syzy- |

gium cumini (L.) Skeels], turpentine tree (Tris-

tania conferta R. Br.); NYCTAGINACEAE— |

bougainvillea (Bougainvillea glabra Chois.); |

PUNICACEAE—pomegranate (Punica granatum

[Althaea rosea (L.) |

BIOLOGY OF TRABALA VISHNU

L.) ; ROSACEAE—Rose (Rosa sp.) ; RUBIACEAE—

Kadam (Anthocephalus indicus A. Rich.), cape—

jasmine (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis); Ruta-

CEAE—lemon [Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.],

Kamini [Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack]; SALrI-

CACEAE—white poplar (Populus alba L.);

SOLANACEAE—night jessamine (Cestrum noctur-

num L.), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum

Mill.), petunia (Petunia hybrida Vilm.), brinjal

(Solanum melongena L.) ; VERBENACEAE—teak

(Tectona grandis L.).

-Angiosperme—(Monocotyledones).

ARACEAE—Arum [Colocasia esculenta (L.)

Schott] ; LiLIACEAE—lily (Lilium sp.); POACEAE—

sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.), maize

(Zea mays L.).

RESULTS AND. DISCUSSION

LIFE-HISTORY

Egg: Laid in straight double rows, occa-

sionally also in 3 or 4 small rows. Oval,

creamy white and covered with brown hairs.

Measure 1.53 mm x 1.34 mm after the removal

of hairs. Incubation period ranged from 8 to

10 days.

Larva: Freshly hatched larvae feed from

the margin of the leaves gregariously. This

habit persists up to second instar or early

third instar. First instar 3.75 mm long. Body

yellow with blue-black crossbands. Hairs

grow prominently with the growth of larvae,

giving them the characteristic appearance of

hairy caterpillars. Grown up larvae are

defoliators. Tender plants are attacked

seriously while bigger plants may withstand

their attack. There are 5 instars, except in 1

case where they were 6. Three different

colours namely yellow, grey and pinkish-grey

were observed in full grown larvae reared from

eggs of a single female. From field collected

eggs sometime grey larvae were obtained but

larvae of all the three colours were found fre-

quently. Sevastopulo (1939) has _ reported

yellow, brownish grey, olive brown or pinkish

brown and blackish forms of larvae but not

from the eggs of the same female. We did not

observe black larvae but we consider that grey

and yellow forms might exist in nature.

Pinkish-grey larvae could be from the cross

of yellow and grey. All the three types. of

colour in larvae from single female suggests

the existence of heterozygous condition of the

population in nature. Sevastopulo (1939)

and Beeson (1941) reported 6 larval instars,

which are not in accordance with the present

investigation. The full grown larva measures

on an average 5.06 cm in length. They have

fine network of vertical and horizontal lines.

Pencil-like dark brown hairs arise from the

first somite in allinstars. Average larval period

for both the sexes was 28.3 days (Table 1).

Pupa: Pupae were reddish-brown. Pupa-

tion took place inside the cocoon on the surface

of the glass-jar and on the paper. In nature

cocoons were found on leaves or on the stem

of leaves. The colour of cocoon was same as

that of the larvae. Each cocoon has 2 humps

on dorsal side and 2 openings, one on each end.

From the one opening final moult occurs

and from the other the adult emerges.

Male cocoons were smaller in size than female

cocoons ; male pupae were also smaller in size

than female pupae, their size varied from 1.76 to

2.26 cm and from 2.26 to 3.02 cm respectively.

An attempt was also made to sex pupae on

the basis of morphological characters in the

external genitalia. In the female pupae bursa

copulatrix (BC) is present on the eighth sternite,

whereas the oviporus (O) on the ninth sternite

(Fig. 1). The eighth and ninth segments on

ventral side are divided completely. In male

pupae the ninth sternite has 2 small, oblong

pads on each side of the mid-ventral line.

The prepupal and pupal periods were longer 1 in

males than in females (Table 1).

483

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAFURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

TABLE 1

DURATION. (DAYS) OF VARIOUS STAGES OF Jrabala vishnu

Stage

Range

Larval period 29-33

First instar 5-6

Second instar 4-5

Third instar a 4-5

Fourth instar a bi 5-8

Fifth instar 2s 7-10

Prepupal period oe x 1-2

Pupal period “ie 11-12

Adult longevity ie + 3-8

Preoviposition period i Lf 1-2

Oviposition period af e. 1-5

Postoviposition period ae igs 0-1

Fecundity a 22-297

Female Male

Mean Range ' Mean

31.4 24-29 26.1

Dh, 5-6 a2

4.2 4-5 4.4

4.8 3-5 41

6.9 4-7 355)

9.3 6-8 6.8

1.6 D; 2.0

11.5 12-14 13.0

4.4 4-10 6.6

1.0

0.3

187.5

‘Fig. {

Fig. 1. Ventral side of the female and male pupae of

Trabala vishnu.

(BC = bursa copulatrix, O = oviporus,

P = pad)

Adult : The male moths are green, with an

average wing expanse of 4.79 cm, whereas,

females are thick, sluggish and greenish yellow

or yellow, with big anal tufts. They measure

6.20 cm across the wings. Bipectinate antennae

were present in both sexes but bristles were quite

large in males. Female lived shorter than

males. A peculiar habit of the adults was that

484

costal edge of the hind wings was projected in

front of the forewing while at rest.

Oviposition: A female after a successful

copulation laid on an average 187 eggs (with a

range of 22 to 297 eggs) within five days.

Females also lay eggs parthenogenetically ; the

number in such cases varied from 40 to 289

eggs/female. Parthenogenetically laid eggs

did not hatch even up to 2 months. Preovi-

position and oviposition periods were 1-2 days

and 0-1 day respectively.

Dyar’s law

Application of Dyar’s law (Dyar 1890)

was tested in the present investigation. It was —

found that there was no overlapping between —

the head-capsule widths in all the instars |

(Table 2). Growth ratios. calculated for |

different instars did not show much variation |

except for the second and third instars where a

little deviation was observed. When log values

of average head-capsule width were plotted |

BIOLOGY OF TRABALA VISHNU

TABLE 2

RELATION OF HEAD-CAPSULE WIDTH AND DIFFERENT INSTARS OF TJrabala vishnu

_ Observed head-capsule width (mm)

Instar

Range

I 0.863-0.984

II 1.292-1.468

III _ 2.038-2.480

IV 3.000-3.800

Vv 4.200-7.300

Growth

ratio

Average *

0.917 (-0.038)

1.374 (0.138) 1.503

2.244 (0.351) 1.633

3.376 (0.528) 1.504

5.208 ( 0.717) 1.542

* Data mentioned in the parentheses indicate log values.

against the instars a clear straight line relation-

ship was observed, indicating that growth in

successive instars was in regular geometrical

progression and follows Dyar’s law. This also

indicates that no instar was omitted during the

investigation.

Host-range

Out of the 55 plant species tested, 5 were

acceptable to the larvae of 7. vishnu. when

castor (Ricinus communis L.) was used as a

standard host. Their relative preference is

given below :—

SS SS FEELS

Type of preference Test plant Preference

index

More preferred Tecoma stans 1.55

Equally preferred Syzygium cumini 1.03

Less preferred Rosa sp. 0.50

Eucalyptus botryoides 0.17

Shorea robusta 0.17

Larvae did not feed on Pteridophytes and on

Gymnosperms in Spermatophytes. Among

Angiosperms only Dicotyledonous plants were

selected as its food and among Dicotyledons

only those belonging to Lignosae. Tecoma

stans was preferred to castor and is being re-

corded as its new host. Beeson (1941) reported

that its larvae feed on guava but our studies

did not support it, perhaps because of varietal

difference. Jamun was equally preferred to

the standard host ; sal and gum tree were accep-

table to larvae but were much less preferred

to castor. Rose was better preferred than sal

and gum tree. No field, fruit or vegetable

crops were accepted by the larvae in our investi-

gation.

To confirm whether the host-plant range of

T. vishnu is restricted only to Dicotyledons, the

plant species reported in literature (Lefroy 1909,

1971; ‘Fletcher 1917, 1919; Anstead 1918;

Beeson 1919, 1941 ; Van Hall 1919 ; Light 1929 ;

Pruthi 1936; Ngayen-Cong-Tien 1939 and

Sevastopulo 1939) were also taken into con-

sideration. From the combined information

it was observed that the preference of this insect

was restricted only to Dicotyledons. However,

3 plant species, namely Berberis asiatica DC.,

Pelargonium sp. and Verbascum thapsus L.

were found as its host in Herbaceae group of

Dicotyledons. In Myrtales (Myrtaceae,

Lythraceae, Combertaceae) there were 13 host

species belonging to 8 genera. From Euphor-

biaceae family 3 plant species, including castor,

were reported as its hosts. Thus it was con-

cluded that the preference of T. vishnu is restric-

ted to woody plants.

485

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. Maharaj Singh, Director,

Experiment Station and Dr. R: L. Paliwal,

Dean, College of Agriculture for providing

necessary facilities.

REFERENCES |

ANSTEAD, R. D. (1918): Castor oil plant and tea.

Plrs’ Chron. 13 (5G): 799. (fide Rev. appl. Ent. 7: 135 ;

1919).

BEESON, C. F. C. (1919): Forest insect condition in

Gorakhpur Division, U.P. Indian Forester 24 (1):

10-15. (fide Rev. appl: Ent. 7: 190°; 1919).

(1941): Lepidoptera. The Ecology and

Control of Forest Insects of India and Neighbouring

Countries. Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun,

pp. 479-480.

Dyar, H. G. (1890): The number of moults of

lepidopterous larvae. Psyche 5: 420-22.

FLETCHER, T. B. (1917): Castor. Proc. second ent.

Soc. Meet., pp. 86-7, 246.

(1919) : Castor. Proc. third ent. Soc. Meet.,

p. 103.

HUTCHINSON, J. (1973): The Families of Flowering

Plants. Oxford University Press,

968 pp.

KoGan, M. & Goepbsn, R. B. (1970): The host plant

range of Lema trilineata daturaphila. Ann. ent. Soc.

Am. 63 (4) : 1175-80.

London. 3rd ed.,

Indian Insect

Thacker, Spink & Co., London, p. 498.

(1971) : Pests of miscellaneous field crops.

Indian Insect Pests. Superintendent of Government

Printing India (Reprint edition, Today and Tomotrow’s

Lerroy, H. M. (1909) : Lepidoptera.

Life.

~--Printers -& Publishers, Delhi), p. 158. First edition

published in 1906.

LicuT, S. S. (1929): Report of the Entomologist.

Bull. Tea Res. Inst. Ceylon. 3: 37-8. (fide Rev. appl.

Ent. 17: 415 ; 1929).

NGAYEN-CONG-TIEN, L. (1939): Eugenia operculata

Roxb. Proc. sixth Pacif. Sci. Congr. 4: 719-25. (fide

Rey. appl. Ent. 31: 294; 1943).

PRUTHI, H. S. (1936) : Report of the Imperial Ente:

mologist. Sci. Rep. Inst. agric. Res. Pusa 1934-35,

pp. 141-52. (fide Rev. appl. Ent. 25 : 350 ; 1937).

SEVASTOPULO, D. G. (1939): The early stages of

Indian Lepidoptera IV. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

41 : 311-20.

VAN HALL, C. J. J. (1919): Diseases and Pests of

cultivated plants in the Dutch East Indies in 1918.

Meded. Laboratorium voor Plantenziekun Buitenzorg

36:49. (fide Rev. appl. Ent. 7: 388 ; 1919).

486

A report on the birds of Addu

Atoll (Maldive Islands)

M. J. STRICKLAND? AND J. C. JENNER

INTRODUCTION

In December 1963, the Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society published a paper by

W. W. A. Phillips, entitled, ‘The Birds of the

Maldive Islands, Indian Ocean ’.

The paper opened with a review of the orni-

thological record to date, and some notes

on the ecology and climate of the Maldive

Islands. This was followed by a detailed

account of the breeding seasons of resident

species, and a discussion on migration. The

occurrence of casual visitors was tabulated, and

in the following systematic list the status of

species was indicated where possible.

Addu Atoll was by far the best documented

part of the whole archipelago, with records

mainly from two sources—namely, Phillips

own notes made during 1958-59, and the

observations of J. J. Latham covering the

period 1960-62.

From 1962 until the closure of the Royal Air

Force base at Gan, early in 1976, further records

were kept by several observers resident on Addu

Atoll. The object of the present paper is to

update the atoll list by incorporating this addi-

tional information. These notes are therefore

best considered as a local supplement to Phillips

original paper.

It is hoped that the reader will have access

to ‘The Birds of the Maldive Islands, Indian

1 Accepted March 1977.

4 The Collage, Crown,

Cornwell, U.K. —

Nr. Praze, Camborne,

487

Ocean ’—still the only comprehensive account

of the ornithology of these islands, that has so

far been published.

ADDU ATOLL

Addu Atoll, which is situated just half a

degree south of the Equator at a longitude of

approximately 73 degrees East, is the most

southerly group of the Maldive Archipelago.

A necklace of low lying islands and sand-

bars, enclose a shallow lagoon of some 30 square

miles extent. Five of the islands are per-

manently inhabited, and here the natural vege-

tation has been largely replaced by cultivated

gardens and coconut groves. There are exten-

sive mud flats between the shoreline and the

boundary reef, on the oceanic side of some

islands, whilst inland are to be found a number

of brackish pools with associated areas of

marsh.

Gan—the southernmost island of the atoll—

differs from the others in two main respects.

Firstly, most of the marshy areas have been

successfully drained, and these have been re-

placed by grassland. Secondly, in some parts

that are undisturbed, there has been con-

siderable regeneration of the natural scrubland—

a habitat none too common on this densely

populated atoll.

The Addu Atoll climate is moist, oceanic, and

rather humid. Annual rainfall averages 100

inches, and although there are no well-defined

wet or dry seasons, the period October-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

December is generally the wettest time of year,

with January-March correspondingly dry.

The daily temperature range is small, usually

around 24-30°C, and readings above 32°C,

or below 21°C are rarely recorded. Apart

from early in the year when NE’ly winds pre-

dominate, and for a few weeks around June-

August when SE is a common direction, pre-

vailing winds are between SW and NW, usually

in the range 5-15 knots. The atoll lies outside

the latitudes that are affected by tropical storms,

however localised disturbances of surprising

intensity—if of short duration—occur from

time to time.

BIRDLIFE

The systematic list that follows deals with

120 or so species, including several that are

additions since the publication of Phillips paper.

Many of these are also new records for the

Maldive Islands.

Breeding species are poorly represented at

Addu Atoll, and there are only half a dozen

that can be claimed as regular nesting birds.

These are the Grey, Little Green, and Pond

Heron, White-breasted Waterhen, and two

species of tern—the Black-naped and the White

Tern. A further four species have nested

sporadically, including the Cattle Egret, which

as an irregular visitor, has on one occasion stayed

behind to nest. The large Pratincole attempted

to breed at Gan during 1960—possibly quite

accidentally. Two other species, the White-

tailed Tropicbird, and the Brown Noddy, have

bred on the atoll, but so far there have only

been single records for each of these birds.

Seabirds are represented by six species of

shearwater, one of which is known to breed

elsewhere in the Maldive Islands, two boobies,

two frigate species and a tropicbird. One of the

frigate species and the tropicbird are probably

both widespread residents elsewhere in the

archipelago.

Shorebirds account for over 30 species,

almost all of them winter visitors or passage

birds from the Palaearctic region. Several are

quite common including Turnstone, Whimbrel

and Curlew Sandpiper, but others such as the

Ruff and Terek Sandpiper are less frequently

recorded. A number of species are regular

non-breeding ‘loiterers’ throughout the summer

period.

Skuas, gulls and terns account for another

fifteen species, and although at present most

can only be considered as visitors to the atoll,

further tern species may eventually prove to be

breeding residents.

Of eleven raptors on the list, a few such as

the harriers, Honey Buzzard and Kestrel are

regular winter visitors, whilst others like the

Osprey and Peregrine are much less frequently

noted. Near-passerine birds include several

swifts and cuckoos, including the Koel that

breeds elsewhere throughout the Maldive Is-

lands. Less regular are the Hoopoe and

European Bee-eater.

Songbirds only account for sixteen species,

all winter visitors or passage migrants. Among

the most regular are Swallow, Sandmartin and

Isabelline Wheatear. A handful of birds are

of Indian rather than Palaearctic origin, and

these include Cotton Teal, Plaintive Cuckoo

and Paradise Flycatcher.

Migration :

Phillips noted that not only do large numbers

of birds (mainly waders), spend the winter

months at Addu Atoll, but that others pass

onward to Chagos Archipelago, some 250 miles

further south. He also noted the regular

occurrence of some passerine birds, and evidence

of a return migration through Addu Atoll

early in the spring. )

It would seem likely that the majority of

birds reach Addu Atoll by moving southward

from island to island, through the Maldivian

chain. Since Sri Lanka is also a wintering

488

BIRDS OF ADDU ATOLL

ground for large numbers of Palaearctic species,

there may also be a passage of birds from a

NE’ly direction, direct to the southern atolls.

That birds pass onward to Chagos, there can

now be no doubt, however it is not yet possible

to say whether others pass through the atoll,

en-route to Seychelles, and thence to wintering

grounds in Africa.

Some birds such as the Large Pratincole may

represent examples of more local movements,

just involving the Laccadive, Maldive and

Chagos groups. _ ;

SYSTEMATIC. LIST

Where there is nothing significant to add

to the information already published by

Phillips, a species is briefly dealt with. How

ever, birds not previously recorded from the

atoll, and others for which new information is

available, are more fully documentated.

Order of species follows that used by Phillips,

and where there has since been a change in the

generic name, the original is placed in brackets.

With a few exceptions, sub-species are not dealt

with in this paper, and the reader is referred to

Phillips for information on specimens collected

at Addu Atoll. There have been a number of

necessary changes in common names, and an

asterisk placed after the specific name indicates

that the bird is an addition to the atoll list.

The abbreviated status (to the right of the

common name), is derived from examination

of all the notes to hand. Further records—

especially over a period of time—would doubt-

less lead to a number of amendments.

Abbreviated Status :

R/r. Resident Species regulariy breeds on the

atoll.

ee Passage Species occurs on passage.

W/w. Winter Occurs during the northern winter

period.

S/s. Summer Occurs during the northern

summer period.

Breeds on other Maldive atolls

wanders to Addu.

Considered to be a vagrant to the

atoll.

Local

V. Vagrant

ui, Doubtful Insufficient data to establish status.

(p). — Passage through the atoll is

assumed to occur.

(b). _ Irregular breeding records (success-

ful or not).

Use of a capital letter indicates the principal status of

the species, with small letters showing lesser status

(where applicable).

*** Species occurs annually in some numbers.

** Species either occurs annually, but only in small

numbers, or has been recorded a number of

times, during several different years.

* Species rarely recorded, or records during only a

few years.

— Species is of uncertain occurrence—lack of

sufficient data.

PROCELLARIIDAE AND HYDROBATIDAE

Oceanites oceanicus *

WILSON’S STORM PETREL S—

An antarctic species that disperses widely

outside the breeding season. One _ record,

a sick bird ashore 17 Sept. 1975.

Pelagodroma marina *

WHITE-FACED STORM PETREL P—

A passage species. One record, a dead bird

ashore 21 July 1974.

Bulweria bulwerii

BULWER’S PETREL w—

A winter visitor from the North Pacific. One

record 22 Aug. 1958.

Puffinus (Procellaria) lherminieri

AUDUBON’S SHEARWATER L—

Breeds elsewhere in the Maldive Islands,

but not at Addu Atoll. Recorded in small

numbers, near the atoll, during 1958.

489

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Puffinus (Procellaria) pacificus

WEDGETAILED SHEARWATER Ss—

A southern hemisphere species, that disperses

widely outside the breeding season. Noted in

small numbers, close to the atoll, March-June

1958.

Puffinus (Procellaria) carneipes

PINKFOOTED SHEARWATER p—

Probably mainly a passage species. Noted

March-May 1958, and again 16-20 Oct. 1975,

when hundreds of birds passed close inshore.

PHAETHONTIDAE

Phaethon lepturus

WHITETAILED TROPIC-BIRD br

Nesting recorded July 1958. Principaliy a

wanderer from nearby atolls, where it is known

to breed, being mainly recorded from October

till January. Not common, only six records

during 1975.

SULIDAE

Sula leucogaster

BROWN BOOBY Ws**

A fairly common visitor to the lagoon, most

frequently seen between December and

February, occasionally in small parties.

Sula dactylatra

MASKED BOOBY sau

A single record 28 Nov. 1962. So far there

have been no records of another booby, namely,

S. sula—the Redfooted Booby. This last

species may be reasonably assumed to occur

around the Maldive atolls.

FREGATIDAE

Several observers have reported ‘Frigates’

without noting the species. The Lesser Frigate

Bird, has been recorded as a Maldivian breeding

resident, although not at Addu Atoll. In

general Frigate Birds are most commonly seen

between September and December, occasionally

in small parties. During late 1975 sightings

were quite frequent. Abbreviated Status is

tentative.

Fregata minor

LARGER FRIGATE BIRD SWw—

Noted during 1958, and May-June 1961.

Fregata ariel ;

LESSER FRIGATE BIRD

Highest count, 36 birds on 8 June 1958.

L KE

ARDEIDAE

Ardea cinerea

GREY HERON R ***

A common resident with breeding recorded

throughout the year, except during March,

April and October. There are normally two

broods a year, most commonly June-August

and December-February. Only one or two

chicks are usually raised on each occasion.

At Addu Atoll nesting sites are often in the

tops of Pandanus trees, with the smaller Pond

Heron, sharing the same tree, and nesting at

a lower level. The species does not seem to

form true nesting colonies, as are to be found

in some other parts of its range.

Ardea purpurea

PURPLE HERON W **

An irregular visitor with records between

July and January, but most commonly from

October till December. Nine pre-1963 records,

since when single birds noted, Oct. and Dec.

1967, and Dec. 1970.

Butorides striatus

LITTLE GREEN HERON R1 ***

Least common of the three resident herons,

and numbers seen to be decreasing. Breeds

490

BIRDS OF ADDU ATOLL

throughout the year, most commonly during

the period October till February. On 17 Sept.

1975, pale birds of the race didii were seen—

evidence of inter-atoll movements. The local

race at Addu Atoll is albidulus.

Kgretta garzetta

LITTLE EGRET W *

Irregular winter visitor, with only two

records. One at the beginning of the century

(perhaps suspect), the other during 1957.

Egretta alba

LARGE EGRET

Occasional winter visitor.

20 Dec. 1958 and 31 Jan. 1959.

W *

Two records,

Bubulcus ibis

CATTLE EGRET W (b) **

Irregular visitor—common some years, un-

recorded others. Breeding strongly suspected

Sept. 1960, and perhaps also during 1967-68.

when up to ten birds were present between

October and May. Two to four birds noted

October till January 1970-71.

Ardeola grayii

POND HERON Rotts

A very common resident, breeding throughout

the year, but mainly during the period September

till April. A survey carried out covering the

period June-December 1975, at Gan, showed

a steady 15% of the birds to be in full breeding

plumage. A normal brood size seems to be

3-4 chicks.

Ixobrychus sinensis

LITTLE YELLOW BITTERN w*

Irregular winter visitor, with only two records,

both during 1958.

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

CHESTNUT BITTERN SW*

Uncommon visitor. Four records, all during

1961.

Dupetor flavicollis

BLACK BITTERN SW *

Uncommon visitor. Three birds June 1958,

one bird 10 March 1961.

Botaurus stellaris

COMMON BITTERN W *

Uncommon visitor. Three records, all

during period Oct.-Dec. 1961.

PLATALEIDAE

Plegadis falcinellus

GLOSSY IBIS W *

A rare visitor.

and October 1961.

Two records, January 1959

ANATIDAE

Anas crecca *

COMMON TEAL Ww *

Irregular visitor. Noted among a mixed

flock of wildfowl, during October 1965.

Anas querquedula

GARGANEY W **

Winter visitor, probably quite regular. Oct.-

Jan. 1958-59, flocks up to 25, Sep.-Oct. 1964

up to 18. Others noted October 1965, and

October 1975.

Anas acuta

PINTAIL W *

Irregular visitor. Several noted October-

December 1958.

Anas (Spatula) clypeata

SHOVELLER Ww *

Irregular visitor. Only recorded November

January 1958-59, in small parties. :

Aythya fyroca

FERRUGINOUS DUCK V—

Probably a vagrant. A single record of a

female 5 Nov. 1958.

491

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Nettapus coromandelianus

COTTON TEAL W *

Irregular winter visitor. Noted Dec. 1958,

and several during October 1965.

ACCIPITRIDAE

Buteo sp.

BUZZARDS W **

Buteo species have been recorded from Octo-

ber till January. Usually solitary, but two birds

present during December 1975. Other records

during 1959, 1967 and 1970.

Perhis apivorus

HONEY BUZZARD W **

Regular winter visitor, most common from

November till January, although some birds

linger well into the summer. Usually solitary,

although a party of five were recorded flying

southwards from Gan, on 9 January 1971.

Circus aeruginosus

MARSH HARRIER W **

Irregular winter visitor, mainly recorded

from October till February. Noted during

1961, 1964, 1967-68, and 1970—occasionally

in pairs.

Circus macrourus and C. pygargus

MONTAGU’S/PALLID HARRIER W **

Regular winter visitors from October till

April. Since birds seen are in immature

plumage, these species cannot be safely

separated. That both occur has been estab-

lished by Phillips, who collected specimens.

Pandion haliaetus

OSPREY WS *

An irregular visitor. July

1960 and December 1975.

Two records,

FALCONIDAE

Falco peregrinus

PEREGRINE FALCON W **

An irregular visitor recorded between Sep-

tember and December. Three pre-1963 sight-

ings, since then, one on 27th Sept. 1970, and

two exhausted birds seen in December 1972.

Falco vespertinus

REDFOOTED FALCON W **

A regular winter visitor recorded between

‘November and March. Rather scarce some

years, but six birds were present during the

period Nov.-Jan. 1964-65.

Falco subbuteo *

HOBBY Ww **

No pre-1963 reports, but since recorded

regularly between November and May. Recog-

nised from the previous species by the following

features. Male has boldly streaked underparts,

distinct white throat and cheeks, with a clear

moustachial stripe. Females are also well

marked below, and both sexes have yellow

legs.

Falco haumanni

LESSER KESTREL W **

A regular winter visitor between October and

February. Usually 1-3 birds together, but

five were seen on 12 Jan. 1975.

Falco tinnunculus

KESTREL Wiss

A regular winter visitor from October till

May. Usually solitary, but four together at

times during the period 1964-65 (perhaps a case

of misidentification with the previous species).

492

BIRDS OF ADDU ATOLL

RALLIDAE

Amaurornis phoenicurus

WHITE-BREASTED WATERHEN R ***

A common resident. Breeds throughout

the year, but especially during the period May-

January. The nesting season seems to be

influenced by rainfall, since the driest months

are those with the least breeding activity. Brood

size probably 4-6 chicks. Skulking and rather

crepuscular in habits.

Gallicrex cinerea

WATERCOCK Ip *

Does not breed at Addu Atoll, so the single

record during 1957 must have been a wanderer

from another atoll, where breeding has been

recorded.

CHARADRIIDAE

Chettusia gregaria *

SOCIABLE PLOVER ip ja

Status uncertain. A single record of one

bird 24-25 Sept. 1975. Phillips treated reports

of this species in the Maldive islands with

caution, suggesting that they might have been

misidentified. The authenticity of this single

Addu Atoll record is however beyond doubt.

Charadrius hiaticula

RINGED PLOVER W (p) **

Regular winter visitor in small numbers,

recorded mainly between October and March.

Charadrius dubius

LITTLE RINGED PLOVER W (p) *

Irregular winter visitor, not seen every year.

Records between November and February,

solitary or in parties of 2-3 birds.

Charadrius alexandrinus

KENTISH PLOVER W (p) **

Irregular winter visitor, occasionally in small

parties. Recorded between October and

February.

Charadrius mongolus

LESSER SAND PLOVER WP ***

A regular winter visitor and passage migrant

in moderate numbers. Records between August

and April, with counts of upto 50 birds.

Charadrius leschenaultii

LARGE SAND PLOVER Ws (p) %%

A regular winter visitor in rather small

numbers, with a few records of summer non-

breeders. Recorded mainly between August

and April, parties to 15.

Charadrius asiaticus

CASPIAN PLOVER W. *

One record of two birds November 1958.

Despite no further reports, the bird is probably

better considered as a rare winter visitor, than

as a vagrant.

Pluvialis squatarola

GREY PLOVER Ws (p) ***

A regular winter visitor in moderate num-

bers, a few summer non-breeders. Mainly

recorded from August till April. Highest

counts, 30 birds.

Pluvialis dominica

ASIATIC GOLDEN PLOVER W (p) ***

A regular visitor in large numbers. Records

August till May, with flocks of around 50 birds

regular October-March. 115 birds Dec. 1975.

Arenaria interpres

TURNSTONE WPs ***

Abundant passage migrant.and winter visitor,

with a few birds remaining all summer.

493

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Maximum flocks of 200-500 during the passage

months of October, November and February.

SCOLOPACIDAE

Capella sp.

SNIPE W **

Three species of snipe have been recorded,

and these are best dealt with collectively.

They are regular winter visitors recorded from

September till April, in small but variable

numbers. In many instances observers have

not specified actual species, but the following

records were all concerned with a particular

bird :—

C. stenura

PINTAIL SNIPE

Several 1958-59, also two birds 26 Sept. 1975.

C. megala

SWINHOE’S SNIPE

A single record—December 1958.

C. gallinago

COMMON SNIPE

Several 1958-59, and a few Oct.-Nov. 1975.

Most records of ‘snipe’ probably refer to

this species.

Numenhius arquata

CURLEW Ws (p) **

A scarce but regular winter visitor, mainly

recorded between October and April. Irregular

records of summer non-breeders. Sometimes

to be found among flocks of Whimbrel.

Numenius phaeopus

WHIMBREL Ws (p) ***

A regular winter visitor in large numbers,

with non-breeders all summer. Mainly re-

corded between August and March, in flocks

of up to 30-40—occasionally 60.

Limosa lapponica

BARTAILED GODWIT W **

An irregular winter visitor in small numbers,

recorded from June till January. Usually

solitary, but a party of four 12 Nov. 1970.

Reports of the rather similar L. limosa. The

Blacktailed Godwit probably refer to this

species.

Tringa glareola

WOOD SANDPIPER W **

A fairly regular winter visitor in small

numbers, recorded from August till February.

Usually solitary, but a party of six were seen

18 Feb. 1961.

Tringa hypoleucos

COMMON SANDPIPER W **%

A regular winter visitor in moderate numbers,

recorded from August till April. Solitary in

habit, but as many as 15 have been seen in a

single day at Gan (23 Oct. 1975).

Tringa stagnatilis *

MARSH SANDPIPER W **

An irregular winter visitor in small numbers,

only recorded during September and October.

Usually solitary, but a party of seven on 25

Sept. 1975.

‘Tringa totanus

REDSHANK Ws

An irregular winter visitor in surprisingly

small numbers, recorded between September and

March. Several pre-1963 reports, otherwise

one on 3 Oct. 1970, and two on 22 Sept. 1975.

Tringa nebularia

GREENSHANK Ws (p) ***

A regular winter visitor in moderate numbers,

mainly recorded from October till March.

Non-breeders remain throughout the summer.

Often seen in small parties of up to a dozen

birds.

494

BIRDS OF ADDU ATOLL

Xenus cinereus

TEREK SANDPIPER W *

An irregular winter visitor. Records between

September and December, usually of single

birds. Noted during 1958, 1968 (pair) and 1975.

Calidris sp.

STINTS W (p) **

Three species have been recorded, although

many observers do not attempt to separate

them. Best treated collectively, when they can

be referred to as regular winter visitors in rather

small numbers, mainly recorded from October

till February. Often solitary, but a party of

15 were seen on 1 Oct. 1970. Selected records

include :—

C. minutus

LITTLE STINT

Several pre-1963, also noted 1967, 1970 and

1975.

C. temminckii

TEMMINCK’S STINT

Some 1958 (one during May), one bird Oct.

“1970.

C. subminutus

LONGTOED STINT

Several pre-1963 records. Single birds October

and November 1975.

Calidris alpina

DUNLIN W (p) *

An irregular winter visitor in small numbers.

Several Nov.-Feb. 1958-59, others noted Oct.-

Dec. 1972.

Calidris testaceus

CURLEW SANDPIPER WPsg ***

A regular winter visitor and passage migrant

in large numbers, with some non-breeders

throughout the summer. Most common from

September till April, in flocks of up to 100.

Maximum count 500 birds on 9 Nov. 1967.

Calidris alba

SANDERLING W (p) **

An irregular winter visitor in small numbers.

Records between October and March are

usually of single birds, but four noted 14 Oct.

1975.

Philomachus pughax

RUFF We

An irregular winter visitor recorded during

October and November. Two during 1958,

and a single bird 23 November 1975.

RECURVIROSTRIDAE, GLAREOLIDAE,

DROMADIDAE

Himantopus himantopus

BLACKWINGED STILT V—

Probably a vagrant. Two records, 5 Nov.

1961 and 1-3 Oct. 1970.

Glareola pratincola

LARGE (COLLARED) PRATINCOLE LK)

Mainly a winter visitor during the period

October till January. Pre-1963 records include

flocks of over 25 birds, but since then only

noted in small parties of up to five birds.

There is a record of attempted nesting at

Addu Atoll during 1961, but the status of the

species as a regular breeding bird of the Maldive

Islands, has yet to be confirmed.

Dromas ardeola

CRAB PLOVER ?—

Status uncertain. The only records are of

two birds on 8 June 1958, and a party of

five (including one juvenile) at Gan 12-26

October 1975. May be resident elsewhere in

the Maldive Islands, but this cannot yet be

confirmed.

495

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

STERCORARIIDAE

Stercorarius skua

GREAT SKUA

A single record during 1961—presumably of

the Antarctic race.

LARIDAE

Larus ridibundus

BLACKHEADED GULL Vi

Probably a vagrant. One record December

1961. So far there have been no reports of

L. brunnicephalus, the Brown-headed Gull, a

bird common around Sri Lanka during the

winter months.

Larus fuscus/argentatus *

LESSER BLACKBACK/HERRING GULL

A single immature fuscus or argentatus bird

was seen at Gan 29 Sept. 1970.

eas

Chlidonias leucoptera

WHITEWINGED BLACK TERN Ww **

A fairly regular winter visitor in small

numbers, recorded from November till February,

Usually 2 or 3 together, but a flock of six were

seen near the atoll on 6 Feb. 1975.

Gelochelidon nilotica

GULLBILLED TERN W **

A winter visitor in small numbers, recorded

from September till March. All reports are of

single birds.

Hydroprogne tschegrava (caspia)

CASPIAN TERN Wt

An irregular winter visitor. The only records

are of nine birds during 1961, and two on

5 January 1965.

Sterna hirundo

COMMON TERN Wises

An irregular winter visitor, recorded from

October till February. Two 1959 records (race

tibetana), other records during 1967, and 26

Oct. 1975. The species has probably been

overlooked, since in winter dress it bears a

strong resemblance to the locally common

Blacknaped Tern.

Sterna sumatrana

BLACKNAPED TERN R ***

A common resident that nests on sandbars

and islets. Breeding at Addu Atoll has been

noted during June and July. Large numbers

can often be seen resting on sandbanks, or at

the edge of the reef.

Sterna fuscata

SOOTY TERN Lp e*

A common visitor—no confirmed breeding

records for the atoll, but considered to be a

widespread resident elsewhere in the Maldive

Islands.

Sterna anaethetus

BRIDLED TERN ?—

Status uncertain, but may breed elsewhere in

the Maldive Islands. One record of a single

bird 15 June 1959.

Sterna albifrons

LITTLE/SAUNDER’S TERN Lw ***

Best treated as two separate species :—

S. a. albifrons

A rare winter visitor, one record 15 November

1958.

S. a. saundersi

Believed to breed in some numbers else-

where in the Maldive Islands, but no Addu

Recognised by its dark _

Atoll records as yet.

primaries, large numbers have been recorded

throughout the year.

496

BIRDS OF ADDU ATOLL

Sterna (Thalasseus) bergii

LARGE CRESTED TERN L*

__ An uncommon visitor, no breeding records.

Assumed to be a resident elsewhere in the

Maldive Islands. Pre-1963 records, also seen

during 1975, when three birds on 26 Oct., and

another two on 10 Nov.

Sterna (Thalasseus) bengalensis

LESSER CRESTED TERN - LL, 2A

-. Much commoner than the previous species,

but the same breeding remarks apply. Records

between October and May, noted by most

observers. 32 were counted on 7 Feb. 1975, and

large numbers seen 7 Oct. and 11 Dec. of the

same year. 3

Anous stolidus

BROWN (COMMON) NODDY Er *

_A single Addu Atoll breeding record April

1959. Birds seen are assumed to be mainly

visitors from elsewhere in the Maldive Islands

Quite common with 40 on 12 Sept. 1968, and

large numbers at roost late 1975.

_Gygis alba |

WHITE TERN R ###

~ Very common throughout the atoll. Breeds

all year, but especially during the periods Jan.-

Feb. and May-June. Nests mainly in Coconut

‘Palms, often around villages, where the birds

are quite undisturbed by the local population.

Very aggressive towards other species, espe-

cially larger raptors. The absence of the House

Crow, Corvus splendens, on the atoll may be

due to the presence of White Terns. As yet the

species is confined to Addu Atoll, and does not

breed elsewhere in the Maldive Islands.

COLUMBIDAE

Streptopelia orientalis *

-RUFOUS TURTLE DOVE Ww *

_- An irregular winter visitor, so far only recor-

ded during September and October. No pre-

1963 reports, but since when, 6 birds on 29

Sept. 1970, and two immatures present 28

Sept-24 Oct. 1975.

CUCULIDAE

Cuculus canorus

COMMON CUCKOO W **

A regular winter visitor, recorded from

September till January. One or two birds are

recorded almost annually.

Cacomantis merulinus

INDIAN PLAINTIVE CUCKOO WwW *

An irregular visitor with two records only.

January 1959 and November 1961.

Penthoceryx sonneratii *

BAY BANDED CUCKOO ?—

A bird fitting the description of this species,

was seen and photographed one autumn dur-

ing the late 1960’s. Little detail available, so

perhaps the record is best treated with caution.

Eudynamys scolopacea

KOEL I, **

A regular non-breeding visitor, most comm-

only recorded between November and January.

The species breeds throughout the Maldive

Islands, except for Addu Atoll, where it is

excluded by the absence of its host, the House

Crow.

STRIGIDAE

Asio flammeus

SHORT EARED OWL 7—

A single old record made around 1900. No

further reports.

~ APODIDAE

Collocalia brevirostris

EDIBLE-NEST SWIFT WwW *

An irregular visitor, two pre-1963 records,

and one bird on 13 Nov. 1970.

497

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Apus affinis :

WHITE RUMPED HOUSE SWIFT Wear

An irregular visitor, with half a dozen

records, mainly of solitary birds, during the

winter months. However, 7 were noted 16

Dec. 1961, and two birds during May 1975.

Apus apus

COMMON SWIFT

W (p) **

A regular winter visitor, with records bet-

ween September and November. Often soli-

tary, but up to five birds Lovee: during

September 1975.

Apis pallidus*

PALLID SWIFT Ww *

_ An uncommon winter visitor, twice recorded,

3 Oct. 1970, and 20 Sept. 1975. The latter bird

“was examined in the hand. It was of distinctly

pale appearance, with no ‘ sooty ’ aspect to the

plumage. The forehead was almost white in

colour.

Hirundapus caudacutus *

NEEDLE-TAILED SWIFT ?—

Uncertain status. One record 22 October

1970.

MEROPIDAE

Merops apiaster

EUROPEAN BEE-EATER Die

_ Uncertain status.

three January-March 1959.

CORACIIDAE

Coracias benghalensis *

INDIAN ROLLER W.*

An irregular winter visitor. Two records,

16-23 Nov. 1964 and 11 Nov. 1970. :

One record, a party of |

-. Status

- October 1970. °

UPUPIDAE

‘Upupa epops *

J. ae

One bird at Gan, for

HOOPOE

Status uncertain.

several days during the autumn of 1972.

HIRUNDINIDAE

Hirundo rustica

WP ***

A regular winter visitor and passage migrant.

Records between 14 September and 17 January,

Usually in small parties of up to 6 birds, but a

flock of 20-++ has been recorded.

SWALLOW

Delichona urbica

HOUSE MARTIN

W (p) 2B

An irregular winter visitor, with records from

3 October till late December. Usually solitary

(sometimes among Swallows), but a party of

four were recorded in Dec. 1972.

Riparia riparia

SAND MARTIN WP **

A regular winter visitor and passage migrant,

with records between 25 September and 11

November, except for a single bird on 5 May

1968. Usually in ones and twos, but a party of

ten were seen during 1970.

Riparia paludicola *

PLAIN SAND MARTIN

Status uncertain. A

November 1967.

single record 30 |

TURDIDAE

Oenanthe oenanthe *

COMMON WHEATEAR ? a

uncertain. A single record 1-3

498

| REDTHROATED PIPIT

September till December.

- BIRDS OF ADDU ATOLL

Oenantthe isabellina

ISABELLINE WHEATEAR

W (p) **

A fairly regular visitor in small numbers.

Eight sightings, between 19 October and 8

December. All singles except fora pair on 19

Oct. 1975.

Oenanthe pleschanka (leucomela)

PIED WHEATEAR

W (p) *

Irregular winter visitor in small numbers.

Six sightings, between 24 October and 16

December—all singles.

Saxicoloides fulicata *

INDIAN ROBIN ?—

Status uncertain. A single female/immature

22 November 1967.

MUSCICAPIDAE

Tchitrea paradisi

PARADISE. FLYCATCHER ?—

Status uncertain. Two records, 27 October

1961 and 12 November 1967.

MOTACILLIDAE

Motacilla cinerea

GREY WAGTAIL W *

A rare winter visitor. Two records, 17 Dec.

1958 and 14 Nov. 1968.

Motacilla flava

YELLOW WAGTAIL W (p) is

A winter visitor in small numbers. About

a dozen records, during the period September

till November. Usually solitary, but five on 27

Oct. 1961.

_ Anthus cervinus

Ww)

An irregular winter visitor with records from

Several pre-1963

reports, otherwise just a single bird 7-9 Nov.

1975.

LANIIDAE

Lanius collurio (cristatus)

BROWN SHRIKE wt

A winter visitor in small numbers, with some

half a dozen reports—all of single birds between

3 November and 12 January. Birds seen during

1975 were of the race phoenicuroides, the Rufous

Shrike.

SYLVIIDAE

Phylloscopus sp. *

WARBLERS

A single bird seen 10 October 1974. Come

dered by the observer to be P. trochilis, the

Willow Warbler.

Prats

STURNIDAE

Sturnus vulgaris *

COMMON STARLING v—

A single bird was seen among a flock of

Turnstones on 22 October 1975. Close exami-

nation (from about 20 feet), left no doubt as to

identity. Must be considered as a vagrant—

perhaps shipborne ?

ORIOLIDAE

Oriolus oriolus *

GOLDEN ORIOLE W (p) *

Probably an irregular winter visitor or

passage migrant. Two records, both females,

10 October 1970 and 22 October 1975.

LIsT OF CONTRIBUTORS

The following people provided the personal

notes that were used in this paper. For pre-

1963 contributors see Phillips original paper.

499

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

D. Bodley : B. Cooper: J. Duncan: R. F.

File: R. George: I. Hurston: J. P. Jenner:

F. Kime: T. D. Rogers: A. Spillar: M. J.

Strickland.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To W. W. A. Phillips, whose paper ‘ The

Birds of the Maldive Islands, Indian Ocean’,

was a constant source of reference both in the

field, and throughout the preparation of these

notes. To J. J. Latham who so kindly allowed

us to see his original records, and to Dr. W.R.P.

Bourne for his interest. and constructive advice

throughout the preparation of this paper. To

the Royal Air Force Ornithological Society for

helping the authors to trace many of the

records used, and to all those people without

whose contributions this paper could not have

been produced. Finally to the Bombay Natural

History Society, for accepting this article for

publication in their Journal.

REFERENCES

For a more complete guide to relevant literature, the

reader is referred back to Phillips original paper on the

Maldive Islands.

ALEXANDER, W. B. (1963): Birds of the ocean.

Putnam, London.

Bourne, W. R. P. (1971): The birds of the Chagos

group, Indian Ocean. Afoll Research Bulletin 149:

175-207.

HEINZEL, FITTER AND PARSLOW (1972) : The Birds of

500

Britain and Europe, with North Africa and the Middle

East. Collins.

Henry, G. M.(1971) : A Guide to the Birds of Ceylon.

Oxford University Press.

Puituies, W. W. A. (1963): The Birds of the Maldive

Islands, Indian Ocean. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60

ee 546-584.

WHISTLER, H. (1941): Popular Handbook of ete

Birds. Gurney and Jackson.

On the fishes collected by the Ladakh

Expedition, 1976’

P. K. TALWAR?

(With two text-figures)

The paper reports on the fish collection of the Ladakh Expedition, 1976. The collection though small, is of

interest as it contains an undescribed species of the Palaearctic cyprinoid genus Gymnocypris Glinther, 1866,

a specialised Schizothoracine genus reported here for the first time from the faunal limits of India. An

annotated list of the fish fauna of Ladakh district of Jammu & Kashmir State, is presented.

INTRODUCTION

The Ladakh Expedition, 1976 was sponsored

jointly by the World Wildlife Fund and the

Bombay Natural History Society to determine

the present status of the blacknecked (or Tibe-

tan) crane, Grus_ nigricollis Przevalski, the

barheaded goose, Anser indicus (Latham) and

other so-called game birds and mammals. The

present communication reports on the fish

collections made in the cold and inaccessible

regions traversed by the Expedition which was

led by Dr. Salim Ali and included in its team

Dr. Biswamoy Biswas of the Zoological Survey.

The collection though small, is of interest for

the purpose of ascertaining what are the chief

characteristics of the fish fauna and what

relationship it bears with those of the contiguous

Asiatic regions.

The fish fauna of Kashmir has attracted

considerable attention ever since Heckel (1838)

published ‘ Fische aus Cashmir’, the majority

of the contributions, however, pertain mainly

to the Kashmir Valley (Silas 1960 ; Das & Subla

1966 ; Das et al. 1964 ; Das 1965; Das & Nath

1965; Saxena 1968) and the fishes occurring in

the Ladakh region beyond the limits of the

1 Accepted July 1977.

* Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum New

Building, Calcutta-700016.

501

Kashmir Valley are not included. Studies

have rather rarely been undertaken in the

Ladakh region of Jammu & Kashmir State and

most of our knowledge of the fishes of this

region is due to the labours of the Second

Yarkand Mission (Day 1876, 1878) and the Yale

North Indian Expedition in 1932 (Hora 1936 ;

Mukerji 1936). The present collection consists

of three species belonging to the family Cobi-

tidae, and two cyprinoid species of the sub-

family Schizothoracinae of which one is new to

science. Opportunity is taken here to present

an annotated list of the fish species reported

from the Ladakh district of Jammu & Kashmir

State with the hope it will serve as a base for

future ichthyological and general fisheries

research in this region.

SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT

Order Cypriniformes

Family CyPRINIDAE

Subfamily Schizothoracinae

Gymnocypris biswasi sp. nov.

Material :

(i) HoLorype (Text-fig. 1), a fish 117 mm in

standard length, Chushul (Ladakh), c 4358 m,

1. vii. 1976, coll. B. Biswas ; Zoological Survey

of India Regd. no. FF 1064.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

(ii) PARATYPE, a fish 129 mm in standard

length, same data as for the holotype; ZSI

Regd. no. FF 1065.

(i11) 9 juveniles, 6-31 mm SL., Chushul, c 4358

m, 1. vii. 1976, coll. B. Biswas, ZSI Regd. no.

FF 1066.

Fig. 1.

Measurements (in mm) (those of the paratype

given in parenthesis) : Total length 140 (155),

standard length 117 (129), depth of body 17.5

(20), length of head 28 (30), eye diameter 7.5

(8.0), interorbital width 7.5 (8.0), length of

upper jaw 7.5 (8.5), length of lower jaw 10(10.5),

length of pectoral fin 20 (21.5) and length of

pelvic fin 16.5 (17.5).

Description : Based on the holotype and the

paratype.

Brst iii; DIIT8; AIL6;Pi19;Vil0; C19.

Gillrakers on first arch 1-+-12, short and stout

(paratype examined only).

Body elongate, slightly compressed, abdomen

rounded. Head moderate, conical, snout tip

distinctly above the level of the lower margin

of eye. Eyes large, rounded. Mouth terminal,

transverse, without peculiarities, margin of

lower jaw rounded and its inner edge with a

horny covering ; maxillary extending to below

vertical from anterior border of eye. No

barbels. Gill openings moderate, gill membrane

attached to isthmus opposite to preopercular

angle. Vent near origin of anal fin, surrounded

by a spongy pad. i

502

Holotype of Gymnocypris biswasi sp. nov.

Pharyngeal teeth in two rows, 2, 3/3, 2.

Body naked except 3 to 5 rows of scales above

the pectoral fin axil and on the commencement

of the lateral line, and a scaly sheath of 17 to

20 enlarged tiled scales behind the base of

ventral fin to along the base of anal fin. Pelvic

fin with an axillary scale. Lateral line at first

descends gently and then reascending attains —

the middle of the body opposite the posterior ©

extremity of the dorsal fin.

Dorsal fin short, its origin slightly nearer to

tip of snout than to base of caudal fin ; first

dorsal spine minute and embedded in the skin |

(hence not shown in fig. 1), third dorsal spine |

rather coarsely serrated posteriorly in its basal

two-thirds. Pectoral fin low, considerably

shorter than head length. Pelvic fin origin |

below vertical from 3rd to 4th soft dorsal ray.

Anal fin short, reaching the base of the caudal

fin when laid flat. Caudal fin forked.

Colour : In alcohol, back grayish black, sides

lighter, with no distinctive markings. Peritoneum |

dusky.

The new species is named in honour of Dr. |

Biswamoy Biswas, Deputy Director, Zoological |

}

FISHES COLLECTED BY THE LADAKH EXPEDITION

Survey of India, Calcutta, the collector of the

species. h

Remarks: The genus Gymnocypris was estab-

lished by Giinther (1868) for the reception of

a new species, G. dobula based on a specimen

from the Haslar Collection from an unknown

locality. This genus is closely allied to the

genus Schizopygopsis Steindachner, 1866, from

which it differs in having a terminal mouth and

the presence on the lower lip of a horny layer

on the inner side (versus anterior margin) and

absence of a sharp horny covering to the lower

lip which is characteristic of the latter genus

(see fig. 2). Gymnocypris is one of the specia-

lised Schizothoracine genera (Hora 1953) and

Fig. 2. Showing the difference of the horny structure

of the lower jaw between the genera Gymno-

cypris and Schizopygopsis (after Tchang, Yuch

& Hwang, 1964).

1. horny layer on the inner side of the lower jaw

in the genus Gymnocypris. 2. horny layer cover-

ing the anterior margin of the lower jaw in

genus Schizopygopsis.

the record of this genus from the faunal limits

of India for the first time, is of significance.

Jayaram (1974) in a discussion of the distri-

butional patterns of the primary freshwater

fishes of India, listed only the following four

genera which are restricted to the Palaearctic of

India: Schizopygopsis, Schizothorax, Ptycho-

barbus and Cyprinion.

Among the species of Gymnocypris de¥eribed

by Herzenstein (1888), Regan (1905), Stewart

(1911) and Tchang ef al. (1964), Gymnocypris

biswasi is most closely allied to G. waddellii

503

Regan, 1905. It differs from the latter species

by the absence of ‘humping’ in front of the

dorsal fin and by the smaller number of phar-

yngeal teeth (2, 3/3, 2 vs. 4, 3/3, 4). Further,

there are no spots on the back of the body.

Das et al. (1964) in a paper not seen by me,

discussed the Palaearctic elements in the fish

fauna of Kashmir. Gymnocypris biswasi repre-

sents another Palaearctic element in the ichth-

yofauna of Kashmir. Silas (1960) and Saxena

(1968) were of the opinion that the bulk of the

indigenous fish fauna of Kashmir Valley is

composed of the Palaearctic elements (of Central

Asiatic origin).

Schizopygopsis stoliczkae Steindachner

Schizopygopsis stoliczkae Steindachner, 1866,

Verh. zool. bot. Ges. Wien.,, 16: 786, pl. 16,

fig 23 Day. Isic: Fishes of, India,. S3l,. pl.

124, fig. 2.

Material: | ex., 88 mmSL., Chushul, c 4358 m,

6. vii. 1976, coll. B. Biswas; ZSI Regd. no.

FF 1067. |

Distribution : Endemic in the North-west Hima-

laya (Jayaram 1974); Ladakh, the Kashmir

Valley and headwaters of the R. Indus.

Remarks: Das & Subla (1966) reported this

species from the Kashmir Valley. Jayaram

(1974) was of the opinion that it occurs at lower

elevations only very rarely and the few isolated

reports represent no doubt stray specimens that

have been washed down to the lakes in the plains

by sporadic flash floods, to which most of the

Himalayan rivers are subject.

Family CoBITIDAE

Noemacheilus deterrai Hora

Nemachilus deterrai Hora, 1936, Mem. Conn.

Acad. Arts Sci., 10 : 311, fig. 4 (type loc. : Man

Lagoon, Ladakh).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Material: 1 ex., 56 mm SL., Chushul, c 4358m,

6. vii. 1976, coll. B. Biswas; ZSI Regd. no.

FF 1069.

Distribution : Ladakh.

Remarks : This species was hitherto known only

from its type-specimens and the present collec-

tion is hence of interest.

Noemacheilus ladacensis Giinther

Nemachilus. ladacensis Giinther, 1868, Cat.

_ Fishes Br. Mus.,- 7: 356 (type loc. :

Ladakh) ; Hora, 1922, Rec. Indian Mus.,

24 (1): 78.

Material ; 5 ex., 43-56 mm SL., Chushul.

c 4358 m, 6. vii. 1976, coll. B. Biswas; ZSI Regd.

no. FF 1068.

Distribution : Ladakh.

Remarks : Hora (1922) has shown that Day’s

Nemachilus ladacensis differs from Giinther’s

original account of the species and probably

represents a different species. Only a few

specimens of this species are known so far and,

in consequence, its specific limits have not yet

been precisely defined (Hora 1936). The

present collection of five topotypes is, therefore,

of importance.

Noemacheilus panguri Hora

Nemachilus panguri Hora, 1936, Mem. Conn.

Acad. Arts Sci., 10 : 318, fig. 8 (type loc. : Pangur

Tso, c 14,203’ and Tzo Nyak, Ladakh).

Material: 1 ex., 59 mm SL., Chushul, c 4358m,

6. vii. 1976, coll. B. Biswas; ZSI Regd. no.

FF 1070.

Distribution : Ladakh.

Remarks: This species was earlier known only

from its type-specimens and the present record

is hence of interest.

The species at present known from the

Ladakh District of Jammu & Kashmir State

may be classified as follows :

Order Siluriformes

Family SISORIDAE —

Glyptosternon reticulatum McClelland.

Glyptosternon stoliczkae (Day)

~ Order Cypriniformes

Family CYPRINIDAE ~

Subfamily Schizothoracinae =O

Diptychus maculatus Steindachner

Gymnocypris biswasi Talwar __

Oreinus richardsonii (Gray)

Ptychobarbus conirostris Steindachner

Schizopygopsis stoliczkae Steindachner

Schizothorax curvifrons Heckel

Schizothorax esocinus Heckel

Schizothorax hugelii Heckel

Schizothorax labiatus (McClelland)

Schizothorax longipinnis Heckel

Schizothorax micropogon Heckel

Schizothorax nasus Heckel

Schizothorax niger Heckel

Schizothorax planifrons Heckel

Schizothorax progastus (McClelland)

Family CoBITIDAE

Noemacheilus deterrai Hora

Noemacheilus gracilis Day

Noemacheilus hutchinsoni Hora

Noemacheilus ladacensis Giinther

Noemacheilus microps (Steindachner)

Noemacheilus panguri Hora ere,

Noemacheilus stoliczkae (Steindachner)

Noemacheilus tenuicauda (Steindachner)

Noemacheilus yarkendensis Day

504

FISHES COLLECTED BY THE LADAKH EXPEDITION

Recent workers (Misra 1962: Saxena 1968 ;

Menon 1971, 1974; Tilak & Sinha 1975)

treated the species of Schizothorax listed above

under the genus Schizothoraichthys Misra,

1962, and considered Oreinus richardsonii (Gray)

under the genus Schizothorax Heckel, 1838.

I have shown (Talwar, MS) that the genus

Schizothoraichthys Misra is a junior synonym

of the genus Schizothorax Heckel and further

that the genus Oreinus McClelland is a valid

genus in accordance with Article 69 of the

International

clature.

Code of Zoological Nomen-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. S. Khera,

Joint Director for his encouragement and to

Dr. Biswamoy Biswas, Deputy Director, Zoo-

logical Survey of India, for kindly reading the

manuscript. My thanks are also due to the

Bombay Natural History Society for allowing

me to work out this collection.

REFERENCES

Das, S.M. AND Supra, B. A. (1966) : The ichthyo-

fauna of Kashmir. Part II. The speciation of Kashmir

fishes with two new records of species. Ichthyologica,

3 (1/2): 57-62.

AND NAartH, S. (1965) : The ichthyofauna of

Poonch Valley (Jammu and Kashmir State). Kashmir

Sci., 2: 147-155 (not referred in original).

et al. (1964): The Palaearctic elements in

the fauna of Kashmir region. Kashmir Sci., 1: 100-111.

Das, S.M.(1965): A revision of the fish species, inhabit-

ating Kashmir Province. Kashmir Sci., 2: 13-19.

Day, F. (1876): On the fishes of Yarkand. Proc.

zool. Soc. Lond : 781-807.

(1878) : Scientific results of the Second

Yarkand Mission ; based upon the collections and notes

of the late Ferdinand Stoliczka, Ph.D. Ichthyology.

Calcutta. 25 pp. with 5 pls.

GUNTHER, A. (1868): Catalogue of Fishes of the

British Museum. London, 7, xx + 512 pp.

HECKEL, J. J. (1838): Fische aus Cashmir, x + 112

pp. Wien (Gedruckt Bei Den P. P. Mechitaristen).

HERZENSTEIN, S. (1888) : Fishe in : Wissenschaftliche

Resultate der von N. M. Przewalski nach Central Asien

unternommenen Reisen. Zool. Theil, 3 (2) : 234-263.

Hora, S. L. (1922): Notes on fishes in the Indian

Museum. III. On fishes belonging to the family

Cobitidae from high altitudes of Central Asia. Rec.

Indian Mus., 24: 63-83.

(1936): Yale North Indian Expedition.

Article XVII—Report on Fishes. Part I: Cobitidae.

Mem. Conn. Acad. Arts Sci., 10 : 299-321.

: (1953) : Fish distribution and central Asian

orography. Curr. Sci., 22 (4): 93-97.

JAYARAM, K. C. (1974) : Ecology and distribution of

fresh-water Fishes, Amphibia and Reptiles in : [Ecology

and Biogeography in India] (ed. M. S. Mani)

Dr. W. Junk, b.v. Publishers, The Hague : 517-584.

MENON, A. G. K. (1971) : Taxonomy of fishes of the

genus Schizothorax Heckel with the description of a new

species from Kumaon Himalayas. Rec. zool. Surv.

India, 63 (1/4): 195-208.

(1974): A check-list of the fishes of the

Himalayan and Indo-Gangetic Plains. Spec. Publ. 1.

Inland Fisheries Society of India, Barrackpore. 136 pp.

Misra, K. S. (1962) : An aid to the identification of

the common commercial fishes of India and Pakistan.

Rec. Indian Mus., 57 (1/4): 1-320.

MukerJl, D. D. (1936): Yale North Indian Expedi-

tion. Article XVIII. Report on Fishes. Part II:

Sisoridae and Cyprinidae. Mem. Conn. Acad. Arts

Sci., 10 : 299-321.

REGAN, C. T. (1905): Descriptions of two new

Cyprinid fishes from Tibet. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., 15 (7) :

300-301.

SAXENA, D. B. (1968):

Jammu & Kashmir State. Part II. Systematic Account

of the fishes of the State. Jchthyologica, 7: 48-65.

Swas, E. G. (1960) : Fishes from the Kashmir Valley.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 57 : 66-77.

STEwarRT, F. H. (1911): Notes on Cyprinidae from

Tibet and Chumbi Valley, with a description of a new

species of Gymmnocypris. Rec. Indian Mus., 6 : 73-91.

TCHANG, T., YUEH, T. AND Hwanea, H. (1964):

Notes on fishes of the genus Gymnocypris of southern

Tibet, China, with description of four new species and a

new subspecies. Acta zool. Sinica, 16 (1) : 139-154.

Trak, R. & Sinn, N. K. (1975): A study of the

fishes of the subfamily Schizothoracinae (Pisces :

Cyprinidae). 1. On the generic status of Schizothorax

Heckel, 1838. Ann. Zoologici, 32 (13) : 289-297.

Fish and Fisheries of

305

Field notes on the Odonata around

a fresh water lake in Western Himalayas’

ARUN KUMAR?

(With a text-figure)

Distribution of Odonata around a fresh water lake, namely, Renuka Lake, Parush Ram Tal (Perennial

pond) and two small streams have been studied in the field. Notes have been made on the behaviour of the

dragonflies present around these habitats.

INTRODUCTION

It is well known that the shape and size

of a body of water are important in habitat

selection of Odonata—and normally the

distribution of dragonflies is affected by the

nature of aquatic habitat available, Corbet

(1962). Kumar (1972) discussed parochialism

in certain species in the tropics which confine

themselves to the larval habitat available in

the form of streams, permanent standing water

bodies or temporary monsoon ponds.

The Renuka Lake (Dist. Sirmaur, H.P.)

is a fresh water lake at an altitude of c 650 m,

and is situated in the Renuka Wild Life Sanc-

tuary. The lake is about 1 Km in length and

approximately 300 m in width and has an

irregular shore line. The lake is fed by a small

stream on its south-west side. The stream

originates from a perennial pond, the Parush

Ram Tal, about 100 m in diameter which in

turn is fed by a hill stream at its south-eastern

side (fig. 1).

The lake provides an excellent breeding

ground for dragonflies. The Odonata fauna

1 Accepted April 1976.

2 High Altitude Zoology Fid. Stn., Zoological Survey

of India, Solan-173212, India. Present Address:

Northern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India,

Dehra Dun-248 001, India.

of the lake and its vicinity comprise about

31 species (Kumar & Juneja 1976). Field

observations on the distributional pattern of

the dragonflies around Renuka Lake have been

recorded in the present study. The distribution

can be broadly classified into three groups

(hig. al).

Odonata species :

(1) along the stream,

(2) at the perennial pond with open banks,

(3) and around the irregular lake shore.

1. Species near the Stream :

(i) Both banks with vegetation ;

(Fig. 1, Stretch A & C).

Only a few species were observed in stretch

A of the hill stream which was about 1.5 mt.

in width and approximately 50 cm. in depth

and had a sand and pebble bed shaded by

bushes on either side. The most common

species was Neurobasis chinensis chinensis

(Linn.) which was seen perching on overhanging

vegetation or fluttering over the stream. The

other species observed and collected were

Bayadera indica (Selys), Nepogomphus modestus

(Selys) and Trithemis festiva (Ramb.).

The stretch C of the stream (the link stream

between Parush Ram Tal and Renuka Lake)

506

FIELD NOTES ON ODONATA

is also almost like stretch A of the stream

except that it is a deep channel with scarce

vegetation. The common species at stretch C

are N. chinensis chinensis, and Rhinocypha

quadrimaculata Selys. At the place where this

stream merges with the Renuka Lake Pseud-

agrian decorum (Rambur) and Coenagrian

dyeri Fraser were most frequent, flying about

10 cm above the water surface. T. festiva was

also actively flying nearby.

(ii) with open beds (Fig. 1, Stretch B) :

This stretch of the feeder stream to Parush

Ram Tal has a number of R. quadrimaculata

adults resting on boulders on the bank. P.

decorum and C. dyeri were flying in abundance

low over the water surface, where the stream

merges into the Pond. A few T. festiva were

also flying in the short stretch.

2. Species around the Perennial pond (Fig. 1) :

Parush Ram Tal has an open and shallow

bank line and in post monsoon period it extends

almost upto the surrounding Road. The

western side of the pond has a little deep shore

line and the species frequent there are Ceri-

agrion coromandelianum Fabr., Pseudagrion

rubriceps (Selys), Orthetrum pruinosum neglectum

(Ramb.), Orthetrum triangulare triangulare

(Selys), Brachythemis contaminata (Fab.),

Crocothemis s. servilia (Drury) and Trithemis

aurora (Burm.). A few Ictinogomphus rapax

(Rambur) were also seen.

C. coromandelianum, P. rubriceps, P. decorum,

Ischnura delicata (Hagen), Ischnura forcipata

Morton, J. rapax, Orthetrum sabina (Drury)

and T. festiva were common on the wing towards

the shallow eastern part of the pond. P.

decorum and O. sabina were frequent over the

open surface of water while the other species

were flying low or perching amidst the partially

submerged vegetation on the bank. A few

B. contaminata were seen on the road around

the pond. Often the adults of O. sabina were

observed clashing and chasing each other over

the open water surface of the pond.

3. Species around the irregular Lake Shore

(Fig. 1):

(i) Among the Reeds (marshy area) :

The most common species are Neurothemis

tullia tullia Drury and B. contaminata. A

large number of emerging adults of N. tullia

tullia were collected in the month of April.

The other species flying among the reeds are

C. coromandelianum, Ceriagrion cerinorubellum

Fab. (very rare), O. pruinosum neglectum,

C. servilia servilia, T. aurora, Diplacodes

nebulosa (Fab.) and Acisoma_ panorpoides

panorpoides (Ramb.) (Rare). All these species

were observed either perching on the partially

submerged vegetation or flying and sometimes

Ovipositing in the shallow water. B. contami-

nata and T. aurora were seen perched in large

numbers in the dense vegetation on the eastern

side of the lake which generally remains dry.

(ii) Along the Deep Shore Line :

Species hovering and patrolling along the

shore line of the lake are P. rubriceps, Libellago

lineata lineata (Burm.), O. pruinosum neglectum,

B. contaminata, C. servilia servilia, Orthetrum

brunneum brunneum (Fons.) and T. aurora.

Among these L. lineata lineata and P. rubriceps

were observed flying lazily at a low level above

the surface of the Lake but would not go

beyond a few metres from the shore line. A

large number of P. rubriceps were observed in

tandem and in process of ovipositing in the

submerged shore vegetation. The adults of

larger Anisoptera would venture further away

from the shore and B. contaminata and T. aurora

were frequently observed on the open water

surface towards the middle of the Lake. Some

adults were seen chasing each other violently

over the lake surface and they would often do

aerobatics over the water surface. However,

507

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

SWADED WITH VEGETATION = —> STREAM

SHALLOW BANK

CHR KD WA WITH REEDS

K ° i San »

e '

\ _RENU KA ‘LAKE. OM

oe ee?

; 719 "Wt

, >

Led

(se

8 3In yr 8,

9 OZR 4S MARSHY WITH REEDS

conta a\4 \Pshavy TREES UPTO WATER LINE

Karman Varma,

Fig. 1.

1. Copera annulata (Selys) ; 2. Copera marginipes (Ramb.) ; 3. C. vittata (Selys) ; 4. Ceriagrian coromandelianum

Fabr.; 5. C. cerinorubellum (Brauer) ; 6. Pseudagrion rubriceps Selys ; 7. P. decorum (Ramb.) ; 8. Coenagrion dyeri

Fraser ; 9. Ischnura delicata (Hagen) ; 10. I. forcipata Morton ; 11. I. senegalensis (Ramb.) ; 12. Agriocnemis pygmeae

(Ramb.) ; 13. Bayadera indica (Selys) ; 14. Rhinocypha quadrimaculata (Selys); 15. Libellago lineata lineata (Burm.);

16. Neurobasis chinensis chinensis (Linn.); 17. Ictinogomphus rapax (Ramb.); 18. Nepogomphus modestus (Selys) ;

19. Orthetrum b. brunneum (Fons.) ; 20. O. pruinosum neglectum (Ramb.) ; 21. O.s. sabina (Drury) ; 22. QO. t. trian-

gulare (Selys) ; 23. Brachythemis contaminata (Fabr.) ; 24. Crocothemis s. servilia Drury ; 25. Diplacodes nebulosa

(Fabr.); 26. Neurothemis fulvia (Drury); 27. N. t. tullia Drury. ; 28. Trithemis aurora (Burm. ); 29. T. festiva

ve y3°"303 fr. pallidinervis (Kirby) ; 31. Acisoma panorpoides panorpoides (Ramb.).

508

FIELD NOTES ON. ODONATA

Oviposition was not observed at the ones sur- )

tricted in their activities to the streams while

face of the lake.

| (iii) Away from the water among the shady

vegetation :

_ The western part of the Renuka Lake has

a dense growth of trees with dense vegetation

underneath. A large number of smaller

Zygopteran species were observed flying lazily

among the shaded vegetation. Common

species are opera annulata (Selys), C.

marginipes (Ramb.), C. vittata (Selys), I. delicata,

I. forcipata, Ischnura senegalensis (Ramb.),

Agriocnemis pygmeae (Ramb.) and C. servilia

servilia. The adults are most active on wing

in the fore-noon. Perching adults of C. vittata

were also observed frequently on the hedge

of the Forest Rest house and among the vegeta-

tion on the surrounding hill, which were approxi-

mately 20-25 m away from the water site.

(iv) On the Road and Boulders around the

Lake :

A large number of adults of B. contaminata,

T. aurora and C. servilia servilia were observed

flying a few centimetres above the road surface

or perching on large boulders with spread wings

especially so if they were exposed to the sun-

shine. It was observed that in case of B.

contaminata the adults along the road were

predominantly females while the males were

generally patrolling along the lake shore.

However, in case of 7. aurora males were con-

spicuous, perching on the boulders. A few

T. festiva were also observed.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The distribution of 31 species of Odonata

at and around Renuka Lake has generally

demonstrated that the species restrict themselves

either to the flowing water or stable water

bodies. B. indica, N. chinensis chinensis,

R. quadrimaculata and N. modestus were tres-

T. festiva was irregularly distributed. The

composition of species among smaller, shallow

and open bordered Parush Ram Tal and the

larger Renuka Lake also differs. The species

composition of Parush Ram Tal is poorer than

the Renuka Lake. J. rapax was restricted only

to the Parush Ram Tal while species of genus

Copera, C. cerinorubellum, L. lineata lineata,

O. brunneum brunneum, N. tullia tullia and A.

_panarpoides panarpoides were confined to the

Lake. The distribution of the

species overlapped.

It is evident from the above sokereuell

that the adults of those species which have their

larvae in hill streams, namely N. chinensis

chinensis, R. quadrimaculata. and B. indica

(Kumar 1972), restrict themselves to the

streams ; while some of the riverine species like

O. brunneum brunneum, L. lineata lineata,

P. rubriceps, etc., have generally restricted

themselves to the straight deep shore line of the

Renuka Lake. Similar behaviour of the adults

of other riverine species has been discussed by

Corbet (1962). The typical, standing water

breeding species like C. marginipes, C. coro-

mandelianum, I. delicata, A. pygmeae, I. rapax,

O. sabina sabina, B. contaminata and A. panar-

poides panarpoides etc., (Kumar 1972, 1973a,

1973b) seem to confine themselves to the reeds

and marshy vegetation at the Renuka Lake

and Parush Ram Fal.

In addition to the site selection and larval

habitat preference, which have been discussed

here, other factors responsible for the habitat

selection and oviposition in_ dragonflies

have been dealt in detail by Corbet (1962).

Presence or absence of a particular type of shore

vegetation may also be an important factor in

such habitat preference especially in those

species which oviposit endophytically or

have their larvae living amidst the upright

vegetation.

remaining

509

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My grateful thanks are due to Dr. S. Khera, Zoological Survey of India, Dehradun, for

Deputy Director-in-Charge, Zoological Survey encouragement and facilities. I also acknow-

of India, Calcutta, for permitting me to under- ledge with thanks the assistance of Mr. D. P.

take this study and to Dr. B. S. Lamba, Deputy Juneja, Zoological Survey of India, Solan,

Director-in-Charge, Northern Regional Station, H.P., in the field.

REFERENCES

Corset, P. S. (1962): A Biology of Dragonflies. ———— (1973b): Description of the last instar

Witherby Ltd., London. larvae of Odonata from the Dehradun Yalley (India),

Kumar, A. (1972): The Phenology of Dragonflies with notes on Biology II. Suborder Anisoptera.

in the Dehradun Valley (India). Odonatologica 1(4): Oriental Ins., 7 (2): 291-331.

199-207. & JuneA, D. P. (1976): The Odonata of

Renuka Lake (Western Himalaya : Himachal Pradesh).

Newsl. Zool. Surv. India 2 (3): 95-96.

(1973a): Description of the last instar larvae

of Odonata from the Dehradun Valley (India), with

notes on Biology I. Suborder Zygoptera. Oriental

Ins. 7 (1) : 83-118.

510

Breeding habits and associated

phenomena in some Indian bats

Part II|—Hipposideros ater ater (Templeton)—Hipposideridae’

A. GOPALAKRISHNA2 AND A. MADHAVAN

The study is based on the examination of 419 specimens of Hipposideros ater ater (Templeton) collected at

frequent intervals from deep wells in Marathwada region, Maharashtra, India, for a period of two years from

February 1965 to the end of February 1967 so that every calendar month is represented by one collection or

more. A colony consists of 200 to 300 individuals. There is a sharply defined breeding season. All females

in the colony become pregnant between mid-November and mid-December, and the young are delivered,

one by each female, during the last week of May and end June after a gestation of 190 to 200 days. The

young are carried by the mothers for about 25 days after which they become free, but visit the mother for

sucking fora few more days. The growth is rapid during the suckling period and the young reach nearly the

adult size. Sexual maturity is attained by the females within the year of birth. There is an abnormal sex

ratio in the total population with the females outnumbering the males, although the sex ratio is even at birth.

The uterus is bicornuate, but the left side is physiologically dominant over the right in bearing pregnancy.

INTRODUCTION

There is no detailed work so far on the

breeding biology of any member of the family

Hipposideridae, and the little information,

which is available, is in the nature of casual

references to the occurrence of pregnant speci-

mens in one or a few random collections made

by workers while they were studying some other

aspect of the life of these animals (Blanford

1891 ; Matthews 1941; Gopalakrishna 1958 ;

Gopalakrishna & Moghe 1960 ; Brosset 1962 ;

Asdell 1964). Recently Menzies (1973) noted

that Hipposideros caffer from north-west Nigeria

undergoes copulation in November and delivers

the young at the end of the following April

or early May after a gestation period of about

5» months. He also noted that the females

breed within the year of their birth.

1 Accepted November 1975.

2 Department of Zoology,

Nagpur.

Institute of . Science,

The paucity of information on the repro-

duction of the hipposiderid bats encouraged

us to undertake detailed investigations on the

breeding biology of members of this family.

This paper embodies observations on the female

reproductive cycle of Hipposideros ater ater.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The specimens of Hipposideros ater ater were

collected from Dongerkheda, Barad and Shirol

in Marathwada region, Maharashtra. The

collection work was started on 10th February

1965 and continued until 25th February 1967

in such a manner that every calendar month is

represented by one collection or more. AI-

together 419 specimens were collected and

examined for the present report.

Hipposideros ater ater is usually found within

the dark hollows in the walls of wells. The

presence of these bats in the well can be detected

by the characteristic odour emanating from the

S11

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

well. These bats are active and can be often

seen flutterring about in the well even during

the day time. They come out into the open

late in the evening. Taey are very delicate,

and a highly humid atmosphere is very essential

for their survival. Each well, from which these

specimens were obtained, contained two to

three hundred specimens, and there was no

segregation of the specimens on the basis of

age, sex Or season.

This is a comparatively small bat ath an

average body weight of 5 to 6 gm, fore-arm

length of 34 to 38 mm and the wing span of

about 230 mm. The fur is dark grey on

the dorsal side and greyish-white on the

ventral side. The specimens were captured

with the help of butterfly nets, and killed with

chloroform. Their body weights were recorded

immediately. The condition of the external

genitalia and accessory structures were noted,

and a complete collection diary was maintained.

The reproductive organs and accessory repro-

ductive structures were dissected out and fixed

in. Bouin’s fluid for 24 hours and preserved in

70% ethanol. The tissues were dehydrated by

passing through graded ethanol, embedded in

paraffin and sectioned at 10 thickness. Most

of the sections were stained with Ehrlich’s

haematoxylin and counterstained with eosin

and mounted in Canada balsam after clearing

in xylol.

The specimens collected on a given calendar

date presented almost the same condition during

the two years when the collections were made.

Table I gives the summary of the collection

diary, and table II gives the monthwise distri-

bution of the specimens collected.

OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

1. General remarks

Although this species has a bicornuate uterus

like most bats, only one cornu bears a single

conceptus during each pregnancy. The un-

weaned young normally cling to the mothers

in the head-to-tail position holding one of the

pubic dugs of the mother by its teeth and hook-

ing the claws of the toes to the fur or the neck

of the mother. The young reverses itself

while sucking milk. The free flying young

remain in the colony and continue to suck milk

from their mothers. Apparently there is

community suckling of the young for some time

after the young become independent. |

The mammary glands are pectoral in position

and are present on the ventro-lateral aspect of

the thorax, one on each side. The mammary

nipples are directed laterally. There is a pair

of pubic dugs without mammary glands, one

on each side in the inguinal region. The

mammary nipples and pubic dugs are insigni-

ficant in size during juvenile life, but become

enlarged during the first pregnancy and lac-

tation and remain as such during the rest e the

life of the animal.

2. Breeding habits

Hipposideros ater ater has an annual repro-

ductive cycle and breeds in a sharply restricted

season. These conclusions are based on the

following facts. Examination of the collection

diary and table I reveals that pregnancy, as

evidenced by the occurrence of a bulbous

uterine cornu, is noticed only from about the

last week of November to about the last week

of June. Two females, each carrying a young

at the breast, were collected on 24th May. The

mothers’ uteri were still in the post-partum

stage, and the young ones at their breast had

each a fresh umbilical stub and closed eye lids.

Each of them weighed 1.5 gm, which is also

the weight of the full term foetus. These facts

indicate that the young ones had been delivered

a few hours earlier. During the following

weeks there were progressively more females

in the colony which had delivered their young.

Two pregnant females collected on 24th June

had full term foetuses, which, gauging from their

512

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS

TABLE [|

SUMMARY OF COLLECTION DIARY

(

Female

Male

yo} ae

as |

ZO |

() ~

iS)

bo |

| SUNUISE

o |

s |e

Yad |

| 06

queusold-uoN

alae 4

Ss | ——

£ | poyseny

g |

ZU -

al io

2 Hy

so} ee |

E peyorny

iss)

Ort ee hee fen

. ° . . Cet

; I~ 0O\OM =

aj . ae) .

MANA

MANN -

\O rm Or ©

Pe ae

Sate eet

1 1 1 ul t

; W OV CO

= ean

>; coomttest

Cpe ae eee OS et)

de threw ame elle

SSO Ol sO

mon st

mm -

mm:

ANON

ANFNON

=aONM

= OQ

Oo | © coco.

CO | SF co\OmM

oO! T= Nc:

Kam

“Na

— \O “N~—-

25-10-65

23-11-65

28-11-66

22-12-65

94-12-65

25-12-65

95-12-66

. VEN |S D849)

oF 0 OA

S13

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

TABLE II

MoNTHWISE DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIMENS

Month Male Female Total

hee 11 31 42

Feb vi 23 56 79 :

Mar 24 Dy) 81

Apr. i 8 9

May y) 31 40

Jun. re 16 42 58

Jul 2) 8 13

Aug 6 8 14

Sep 2 4 ia 6

Oct 9 9 18

Nov 9 19 28

poe id 21 31

Total 2S) 294 419

514 |

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS

size, weight and the stage of development,

would have been delivered in a day or two.

No pregnant female was collected after this

date. Evidently, this species has a long ges-

tation period of about 190 to 200 days—calcu-

lating from about a week prior to the date when

the first sign of pregnancy was noticed (23rd

November) to the date on which the first

delivered young were collected (24th May),

and allowing a margin of a couple of days on

either side.

The suckling young are constantly carried

by their mothers at the breast. The first group

of young ones, which had become free from

their mothers, was collected on 18th June.

Assuming that these were the young delivered

in the first batch (that is, around 24th May),

it is evident that the young are carried by their

mothers for about 25 days. However, suckling

of the young continues for some time after the

young leave their mothers as indicated by the

fact that the mammary glands of the mothers

continued to be in full lactation until August

and curdled milk was present in the stomach of

several free flying young.

From the foregoing account of the breeding

habits of the females of Hipposideros ater ater

the annual life of the adult female of this species

can be recognized into the following periods :—

(1) period of sexual quiescence from about

the middle of August to about the

second week of November.

(2) Copulation in about the second week

of November.

(3) Pregnancy from about the middle of

November until the last week of June.

(4) Parturition during the last week of

May to the end of June.

(5) Lactation from about the last week of

May until about the middle of August.

(6) Neither the commencement of preg-

nancy nor parturition take place

synchronously in all the females in the

colony. There is a span of about 30

days (between 15th November and 15th

December), whenall the females become

pregnant, and there is similarly a span

of 30 days (between 24th May and 24th

June) when all deliveries occur.

(3) Number of young and symmetry of genitalia

Out of the 208 pregnant specimens collected,

144 had the pregnancy in the left cornu and 64

in the right. Microscopic examination of the

ovaries of the pregnant females revealed that

the corpus luteum was present invariably on the

same side in which the uterine cornu carried the

conceptus. It is not possible to determine if

there is any alternation of the pregnancies

between the two sides of the genitalia in succes-

sive cycles in this species. On the other hand

itis very unlikely that there is such an alternation

of the two sides of the genitalia in successive

cycles as borne out by the following facts :—

Pregnancies occurred on the left side more than

on the right side during all the three successive

breeding seasons when the collections were

made. For example in 1965, 67 females had

pregnancy in the left side and 34 in the right ;

in 1966, 62 had pregnancy in the left side and

22 in the right ; in 1967 (collections made only

during January and February), 15 had preg-

nancies in the left side and 8 in the right side.

If physiological alternation occurs between

the two sides of the genitalia, then the propor-

tion of the pregnancies on the two sides should

also alternate between the two sides in successive

years. Evidently, there is a natural dominance

of the left side of the genitalia in Hipposideros

ater ater. The factors responsible for this

are not known.

(4) Growth and maturity

Mention has already been made that the

young ones are all delivered between the last

S15

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

TABLE III

DISTRIBUTION OF FEMALES DURING THE BREEDING SEASON

Date Pregnant Non-pregnant

with mammary without mammary with mammary without mammary

nipples and nipples and nipples and nipples and

pubic teats pubic teats pubic teats pubic teats

a ee

1 Z 3 4 3)

5-i-66 8

6-1-67 a 3

15-i-66 2 6

19-i-67 aft 6

28-i-66 1

10-i1-65 iy. 2)

12-11-66 Ne 1]

16-11-65 m, 7

- 8

23-11-66 D

28-11-67 oe 2 Hes 5 3

2-i11-65 6

7-i11-65 6

1 2-i11-65 i I 3

15-i1i-66 Me 3 I

17-11-65 A 8 3

17-i11-66 4 1

2.4-i1i-66 4 1

7-iv-65 ue 8

_ os = == ——— — —_—_—_— —__ ——- - —— —___ -—__~

9-v-65 se 14

24-v-66 bees 4

29-v-65 be 4

29-v-66 3

1 1-vi-65 ptt Me

18-vi-65 rs ]

24-vi-66 be 2

15-vii-65 a ae ae 2

15-viti-65 Le ie i 1 l

27-1x-65 si wh ot 4

25-x-65 BS aH a 5 4

23-xi-65 9 1 Ng

28-xi-66 7 | 1

22-x1i-65 ‘] 1 ;

24-x1i-65 2 : :

25-x11-65 l ae

25-xii-66 7 i 1 1

Total sa 175 33 17 11

516

BREEDING HABITS IN SOME INDIAN BATS

week of May and the last week of June. The

new-born young weighs about 1.5 gm (the

highest weight of the foetus is also about 1.5

gm). Immediately after birth the young one

attaches itself to the breast of the mother, and

is carried by the mother until it attains a body

weight of about 3.5 gm, after which it leaves

the mother, although it may continue to suck

for a few more days. The first batch of inde-

pendent young weighing 3.5 gm was collected

on 18th June. It has already been mentioned

that the young one is carried constantly by the

mother for about 25 days. During this period

the young one increases rapidly in weight

from 1.5 gm to 3.5 gm. It is hardly possible

to distinguish the weaned young from the adults

on the basis of body size.

Table III shows the distribution of pregnant

and non-pregnant females during the different

months of the breeding season. Out of 220

females collected from November to June only

12 specimens were non-pregnant, and among

the pregnant females 175 specimens had well-

developed mammary nipples and pubic dugs

and 33 had insignificant mammary nipples and

pubic dugs. Among the 12 non-pregnant

females 5 had well-developed mammary nipples,

indicating that these are parous animals and

the rest had insignificant mammary nipples

and pubic dugs. The occurrence of very few

non-pregnant females (some unquestionably

parous) during the breeding season must be

accidental either due to missed copulation or

due to abortion. From the foregoing it is

evident that the females reach sexual maturity

within the year of their birth when they attain

an age of about 6 months.

(5) Sex ratio

Out of a total of 419 specimens collected at

random during a period of two years there

were 294 (70%) females and 125 (30%) males.

21 young ones collected from the breasts of

the mothers included 11 males and 10 females,

and 19 free young ones included 9 males and

10 females. Evidently, there is a balanced

sex ratio at birth and during early life, but there

appears to be a preferential mortality of the

males during the growth period resulting in

an uneven female-dominant sex ratio in the

adult stage.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The present work was partly subsidized by

a research grant from the University Granis

Commission, Delhi to one of the authors

(A. Madhavan). This is gratefully acknow-

ledged.

REFERENCES

ASDELL, S. A. (1964): Patterns of mammalian re-

production. Second edition. Cornell University Press,

Ithaca, New York.

BLANFORD, W. T. (1891): Fauna of British India—

Mammalia, vol. II : Chiroptera, London.

BrosseT, A. (1962): Bats of Central and Western

India. PartIl. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 : 583-624.

GOPALAKRISHNA, A. (1958): Foetal membranes in

some Indian Microchiroptera. Jour. Morph., 102:

157-198.

& MocGue, M. A. (1960): Observations on

the ovaries of some Indian bats. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci.

India, 26 (B) (Suppl.): 11-19.

Matruews, L. H. (1941) : Notes on the genitalia and

reproduction of some African bats. Proc. Zool. Soc.

London, Ser B, 111: 289-345.

Menzies, J. I. (1973): A study of leaf-nosed bats

(Hipposideros caffer and Rhinolophus landeri) in a cave

in Northern Nigeria. Jour. Mammal., 54: 930-945.

Shy

Miuscellaneous Notes

1. LANGURS LIVING AT HIGH ALTITUDES

While carrying out a one year study of the

social behaviour of a troop of langur monkeys

(Presbytis entellus) living between 2440 and

3050 metres at Melemchigaon, in north-central

Nepal, I observed a group of langurs at 4050

metres. Although this species has long been

known to live at altitudes as high as 3660 metres

in the Himalaya (Pocock 1939), this sighting

is the highest published to date. The obser-

vations were made on August 18, 1972 at

Routang, a high altitude pasture north of the

village of Tarke Ghyang, Helambu valley,

Nepal (28° 03’N, 85° 33’E). On the previous

day, others observed this same group along

the higher ridge at an altitude of 4250 metres.

Routang is a high pasture used during the

summer monsoon by dhzum, a cow-yak hybrid

commonly herded in the 2500-3700 metre

altitude band in central Nepal. Two families

occupied this pasture continually from mid

June until mid August ; the langur troop was

there throughout this time. During these

months, there is daily rain, continual cloud

cover except for brief periods in the morning,

and by August 18, cold weather forced the

herds to descend to lower pastures. The

tree line here is at approximately 3500 metres,

and above this there are only dwarf rhododen-

drons, wild rhubarb and a few alpine shrubs.

Local hunters report that there are no longer

any leopard in this area and the only large

mammal regularly found there 1s musk deer

(Moschus moschiferus).

Observations

The group of langurs was observed moving

up a steep gully from their sleeping place at

1200 hours. Observation was possible for

only a five minute period when the clouds

lifted and we found ourselves facing each

other at a distance of 30 metres. During this

time, I counted 30 animals, including several

large adult males and at least two infants

(approximately six months old) being carried

by their mothers. This is a minimal count—

all three observers estimated a group size of

at least 50 individuals. The animals barked

at us and appeared nervous, as they hurried

up the gorge and over the top of the ridge.

The steepness and slipperiness of the rocks

made it impossible to follow them.

Local herdsmen said this group sleeps under

an overhanging rock at 3780 metres, and they

move up the slopes from this rock every morn-

ing to forage. The sleeping rock itself is in-

accessible to humans, so we were not able to

look inside ourselves but were able to get an

accurate altitude measurement. This group

had been at Routang for at least the previous

two months, foraging at altitudes as high as

4270 metres, but avoiding the dhzum herds.

It is locally believed that the langurs descend

to a potato field at 2900 metres, near Routang

to spend the winter.

Discussion

This is the highest published sighting of

Presbytis entellus ; the previous record height

is Presbytis entellus ajax at 3960 metres im

Kashmir (cited in Napier 1972). Further-

more, it places Presbytis entellus among the

highest living nonhuman primates, along with

the mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringei),

the gelada baboon (Theropithecus gelada) and

518

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the barbary macaque (Macaca sylvana) of the

Atlas mountains.

Altitude is meaningful only in relation to

latitude, rainfall and the morphology of the

mountains. In this case, the recorded altitude

places these monkeys well above the tree line

in the alpine zone for at least part of the year.

The common langur of India, Sri Lanka and

Nepal is a member of the Colobidae—the

group of arboreal, leaf eating monkeys who

are primarily adapted to life in the trees. The

common langur is the most terrestrial of this

family and in some areas spends a significant

proportion of its time on the ground, but

always near the safety of trees. In fact, langurs

may be the most adaptable Asian primate,

surpassing that more famous opportunist, the

rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta). At

Routang, langurs sleep on cliffs and live with-

out trees for safety.

Though possible, it is doubtful that these

langurs stay year round at Routang, especially

when food and shelter are available at lower

altitudes. In fact these extremely high popu-

lations may be the only ones who actually

do make seasonal migrations to different

elevations. Long term observations of a

different troop living at lower altitudes (2500-

3100 metres) showed no migratory pattern ;

the home range remained the same year round

and within the range, there was no seasonal

preference for higher or lower portions. This

is in direct contradiction to local reports in

both the Helambu and Trisuli vallyes. Local

beliefs have become incorporated into the

literature on this species (Hingston 1920;

Pocock 1939; Vogel 1971) and may stem

from the migratory patterns of local residents

who move up to higher pastures in the summer.

There they find groups which always live at

that altitude but assume instead that the

monkeys migrated with them. Evidence from

Melemchigaon further indicates that snow

itself is not a deterrant to langurs. It was

observed that they will move along the ground

in snow, even whenit is possible to move through

trees. The intensity of winter sun appears to

compensate for the cold temperatures at night

and langurs in the Himalaya are able to with-

stand night temperatures of —2°C with no

observed ill effect. Food is no doubt the

limiting factor here, and it is doubtful whether

food sufficient to sustain a large langur troop

is available as high as Routang in the winter.

The observations at Routang have impli-

cations for the consideration of mountain

barriers to gene flow in the Himalaya. The

langurs at Routang were observed to descend

from that 4270 metre ridge in all four direc-

tions. These high and northern groups of

langurs cannot be considered isolated from each

other by mountain ridges and north-south

flowing rivers. We observed langurs near

Melemchigaon crossing rivers on _ bridges

constructed for human traffic. And the group

at Routang crossed with little apparent effort

over the ridge at 4270 metres into the next

valley to the east. The lower ranges of the

Himalaya may not provide msurmountable

barriers to east-west gene flow, especially for

such an adaptable nonhuman primate as the

langur monkey.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank His Majesty’s Govern-

ment for permitting me to live and work in

Nepal. Thanks also are due to Tribhuvan Uni-

versity and Vice-Chancellor Dr. T. N. Upraiti

for extending me the courtesy of visiting

scholar. These observations were made in the

course of a one year study of the ecology and

behaviour of langur monkeys carried out in

Melemchigaon, Nepal between September

1971 and September 1972. This research

was funded in part by a grant from the National

Institutes of Health Training Grant, No. 1224.

S19

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Observations in Routang were made by Naomi

H. Bishop, principal investigator, John M.

Bishop and Mingma Tenzing Sherpa.

SYNOPSIS

A group of langurs (Presbytis entellus) was

observed at 4270 metres in north-central

DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS

AT BOSTON,

BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS 02125,

U:S.A.,

February 7, 1977.

Nepal in August 1972. This is the highest

recorded sighting for this species and suggests

that the lower ranges of the Himalaya do not

provide insurmountable barriers to the ex-

change of genes between Himalayan groups of

this species.

NAOMI H. BISHOP

REFERENCES

HINGSTON, R.W.G., M.C., M.B. (1920): A naturalist

in Himalaya. London.

Bigfoot.

(939)

New York.

Fauna of British India.

NAPIER, J. (1972) :

Pocock, Ri 1.

Mammalia Vol. I (Primates and Carnivora), second

edition. London.

VoGEL, C. (1971): Behavioral differences of Pres-

bytis entellus in two different habitats. Amer. J.

phys., Anthrop. 38: 469-479.

2. MIGRATORY BEHAVIOUR OF MUS PILATYTHRIX AT LUDHIANA (PUNJAB)

Little information is available on the migra-

tory behaviour of Indian rodents. A study

was undertaken from December, 1970 to

November, 1972 at Ludhiana to know the

movements of the Field Mouse, Mus platythrix

(Bennett). Wonder traps were laid at

100 metres interval in a 53 ha cultivated area

at the Ludhiana Farm of the Punjab Agricultural

University. Mice were captured, marked and

released at the point of capture. A mixture

of husked rice, pearl mullet and wheat was

used as bait.

It appears that the mean range of migration

of the field mouse within the crop fields, 1r-

respective of sexes was significantly (P = 0.01)

less than that from one crop to another (Table).

Although there was no significant difference

in range of movement of male and female

mice in both the crop categories but the mean

distance travelled by female Mus platythrix

from crop to crop was significantly more

(P = 0.01) than the mean distance covered

by females within a crop.

With this limited data it is not possible to

correlate the distance of movements of Mus

platythrix with their preference of crop types

or to explain the reason for greater ranges of

movements from one crop to another.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta, for arranging identi-

520

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

TABLE

DISTANCE TRAVELLED BY Mus platythrix UNDER VARIOUS CROP TYPES

Crop type Sex No. of Distance travelled “t’ between

observa- (metres) mean +

tions

Within crop Male a 4 87.54 12.54 a & b = 0.81 NS

Female og 5 72.4+13.$> d wie—1.98

Between crops Male ae 8 109.5+29.34 a & d=0.69 NS

Female xp 10 IOS, 5c SZ ec by eer 3 1" *

Total sy 18 15%]. 395.98, 21

** Significant at | per cent level.

fication of the rodents and to Dr. O. S. Bindra,

Professor and Head, Department of Ento-

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY,

PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

LUDHIANA,

Huby 25, 1977.

mology, for suggestions and for providing

facilities.

G. S. MANN

3. THE COMPOSITION AND FLUCTUATION OF POPULATION OF

SYMPATRIC MURIDS IN PAU FIELDS

(With two text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

In Punjab, several species of rats and mice

namely Rattus meltada (Gray), Mus musculus

bactrianus (Blyth), Mus booduga (Gray), Mus

platythrix Bennett, Bandicota bengalensis (Gray),

Tatera indica (Hardwicke), Golunda ellioti (Gray)

and Nesokia indica (Gray) have been reported

to occur in the fields (Singh 1961 ; Anony-

mous 1970; Mann 1973; Bindra & Sagar

1975 ; Soody& Ubi1975 and Sood) et al, 1977).

Ia the present paper an attempt has been made

to determine the composition and fluctuation

of these murids occurring in the fields of Punjab

Agricultural University, Ludhiana, during the

period of 1969-1974.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The population analysis of sympatric murids

occurring Im an agro-ecosystem of PAU

Sy |

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Ludhiana reveals the co-existence of Rattus

meltada (Gray), Mus musculus bactrianus

(Blyth), Mus booduga (Gray), Mus platythrix

Bennett, Bandicota bengalensis (Gray), Tatera

indica (Hardwicke), Golunda ellioti (Gray) and

Nesokia indica (Gray). The relative per-

centage occurrence of R. meltada, M.m. bac-

trianus, M. booduga, M. platythrix, B. benga-

1.8 hectare was 38.36, 24.71, 15.33, 0.11, 9.76,

8.75 and 2.97 respectively (Sood & Ubi 1975).

Out of the total number of 2016 rats and mice

trapped from January, 1974 to December,

1974, the population density fluctuated within

wide limits of 49.50 in January to 317.00 in

October (Fig. 1). In the year 1970-71, Sagar

(1972) reported 361 rats and mice from an

NUMBER OF ANIMALS

lensis, T. indica and G. ellioti in all the crops

available during the year 1974 in an area of

area of 2 hectare and population density varied

from 0 in January to 60 in May. Percentage

146 s ———O R. MELTADA : .

e—— M M BACTRIANUS

400 | O---- -0 T. INDICA

o-----@ BBENGALENSIS-NINDCA | ,

+G ELLIOTI

Crd dtet limo 1 PLATYTHRIX

DEC. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR MAY. JUN. JUL. AUG. SER OCT. NOV. OEC. JAN. FEB. MAR.APR. MAY. JUN. JUL AUG. SEP OCT. Ne

jeu ee e707) 1972

Fluctuation in population of Field Rats and Field Mice in 53 ha cultivated area of P.A.U. farms, Ludhiana

(after Mann, 1973).

Fig. 1.

occurrence of R. meltada, M.m. bactrianus

and M. booduga was 46, 38 and 12 respectively

of the total population while other species

accounted only 4% of the total population.

In 1969, Mann observed 229 rats and mice

from 2 hectare area of fields while in 1970-

71 and 1971-72, he observed total murid popu-

lation of 1342 and 1183 per 53 hectare respec-

522

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tively. In 1969 composition of R. meltada,

T. indica, B. bengalensis, G. ellioti and Mus

spp. was 47, 30, 11, 1 and 21% respectively

(Mann 1969) while in 1970-71 and 1971-72

percentage occurrence was R. meltada>T.

indica> B. bengalensis>M. m. bactrianus> M.

booduga (Mann 1973). Thus the population

of these murids was much higher in 1974 as

compared to those of earlier studies. The

evident difference may be attributed to the

pattern of arrangement of cages. Mann (1969,

1973) placed cages at a distance of 100 feet

while Sood & Ubi (1975) placed them 15 metres

apart.

Mus spp. (except M. platythrix) and R.

meltada were predominant in all the crops

available, while B. bengalensis and T. indica

were mostly trapped in sugarcane and wheat

fields. The trappability of these murids was

140

—

(ot)

(eo)

120

110

100

POPULATION DENSITY/18 ha OF VARIOUS MURIDS

(70)

(S)

JAN. FEB. MAR, APR. MAY. JUN.

— MONTHS ———>

Fig. 2. Monthwise population fluctuation of sympatric murids in Agro-Ecosystem at P.A.U., Ludhiana (from Sood

and Ubi, 1975).

M. musculus>R. meltada>B. bengalensis>

T. indica>M. booduga>G. ellioti> M. Platy-

thrix (Sood & Ubi 1975). These authors

also noticed that most of the population was:

concentrated from July to October. The

males were dominant in months of January,

February and November to December while

in other months males and females were almost

in equal proportions. But, Sagar (1972)

reported higher density during May-November

than during December-April and Mann (1973)

noted maximum population during July-

September in 1970-72. In 1970-71, R. meltada

and Mus spp. were predominant (Sagar 1972),

while in 1970-71 population of R. meltada

was more, this being followed by T. indica>

B. bengalensis> M. m. bactrianus>M. booduga

(Mann 1973) (Fig. 2). Higher density ,during

July-September in the year 1971-72 while

JUL, AUG. SEP QCT. NOV. OEC.

523

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

low density in December, January and April

(Sagar 1972; Mann 1973) may be associated

with shortage of food and shelter in wake of

harvesting of crops. It may also be due to

the reduced breeding on account of lower

temperature and shorter days (Pearson 1963 ;

Schillar 1956 and Whitaker 1940).

The monthwise percentage density of murids

fluctuated between 49.50 in January and

317.00 in October in 1974 (Sood & Ubi 1975).

The probable reasons of the oscillating popu-

lation may be due to biotic (food and shelter

in form of crop and crop stages, predators,

inter and intraspecific competition) and abiotic

(atmospheric temperature, soil temperature

and humidity) factors which have marked

influence on the relative abundance of these

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

LUDHIANA,

June 8, 1977.

REFER

AnonyMous (1970): Final techni al report of

All India Co-ordinated scheme for search on the study

ofhabits and methods of control of field rats at Lud-

hiana (Punjab) from 1958-1968.

Binpr1, O. S. & SaGcar, P. (1975): A _ review of

studies on the ecology, biology, damage and control

of field rats and field mice in the Punjab. All! India

Rodent Seminar, Rodent Control Project (Sidhpur).

Sep. 23-26, pp. 82-88.

Mann, G.S. (1969): Studies on the biology and

control of field mice and analysis of rodent population

around Ludhiana. M.Sc. thesis. Punjab Agricultural

University, Ludhiana (Unpub.).

(1973): Analysis of field rats and

field mice population at Ludhiana with their intraspecific

and interspecific relationships. Ph.D. Dissertation,

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (Unpub.).

PEARSON, O. P. (1963): History of two local out-breaks

of feral house mice. Ecology 44: 540-49.

SAGAR P51(972)\:

Studies on the biology of the

murids (Sood & Ubi 1975 and Sood et al.

1977). The correlation coefficient between

abundance of murids and environmental

temperature and soil temperature is statisti-

cally significant while it is statistically insigni-

ficant between atmospheric humidity and

murid population (Sood et al. 1977). Simi-

larly population density in the crops shows

that maximum number of murids occurred at

maturity stage of crops. This population was

18.5/2.2 acres in sugarcane, 42.00/0.55 acres in

groundnut, 83.22 acre in wheat and 29.00/0.5

acres in maize (Sood & Ubi 1975).

It is thus concluded that both biotic and

abiotic factors have integrated multifarious

suspected key influence on the fluctuating

mechanism of the murid population in an agro-

ecosystem.

M. L. SOOD

D. S. DILBER

ENCES

lesser bandicoot rat, Bandicota bengalensis (Gray) in the

Punjab. Ph. D. Dissertation. Punjab Agricultural

University, Ludhiana (Unpub.).

ScHILLAR, E. L. (1956): Ecoogy and health of

Rattus at Home, Alaska, J. Mamin. 37: 181-88.

SINGH, B. (1961): Studies on the biology, habits

and control of field rats (Tatera indica). M.Sc. Thesis.

Punjab University, Chandigarh (Unpub.).

Soop, M. L. & Us, B. S. (1975): Population

fluctuation of sympatric murids occurring in the fields

of PAU, Ludhiana. I. Effects of biotic factors. All

Indian Rodent Seminar, Rodent Control Project (Sid4-

pu’) Sep. 23-26. pp. 76-86.

—-—__—__—__—-—_———— & Diper, D. 8S. (1977):

Population fluctuation of sympatric murids occurring

in the fields of PAU Ludhiana. II. Effects of abiotic

factors (Communication).

WHITAKER, W. L. (1940): Some effects of artificial

illumination reproduction in the white-footed mouse

Peromyscus leucop:s noveboracensi;. J. Exp. Zool. 83:

33-60.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4. HABITS OF MOUSE DEER

My son and I were out swimming ia the river

in the jungle only ten minutes walk from our

bungalow. Wehad gottoocoldso were stand-

ing on a rock ledg> warming ourselves in the

sun and throwing sticks for our dog into the

pool below. A little earlier my son had seen

some small animal which he was not able to

identify, swimming to escape the attentions of

a group of jungle tribesmen, Panniars, and

which had taken to the undergrowth by the

river. As we threw a stick for our dog to

retrieve to our horror it landed right beside

SENTINEL ROCK ESTATE,

VELLARMALA-673 578,

S. WYNAAD,

KERALA,

March 22, 1977.

the same small animal which I identified as a

Mouse Deer, which was swimming to recross

the river, this then dived and swam under-

water. In fact, it remained submerged for so

long that we thought it had drowned, until we

spotted it as it emerged beside a rock in the

pool. There it waited until the coast was

clear then drifted down with the ripples in the

cascade, looking like a bit of rotten wood

until it was able to reach the other side and

land in the undergrowth and make good its

escape.

(Mres.) J. A. LAWRENCE

5. THE COOT FULICA ATRA LINNAEUS NESTING NEAR

NASIK, MAHARASHTRA

While spending a long weekend at Nasik,

I and my host Mr. J. D. Panday visited the

small Khambhala village jheel a few mules

out of Nasik on the Trimbak road. The

embankment was totally hidden by rank mon-

soon vegetation and castor shrubs. On the

water we saw several Coots and Littie Grebes.

In the middle of the jhee! among the floating

aquatic vegetation we noted several mounds

which we presumed were floating nests of

grebes until on one mound we saw three full-

grown coots but with very ligat underparts

and an adult feverishly swimming to and fro

adding more material to the mound. To the

left of this nest I noticed a pair of coots with

three small reddish chicks perhaps hatched

BomBay NATURAL History SOCIETY,

HorNBILL HOUSE,

SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH ROAD,

BomBay-400 023,

January 6, 1977.

shortly before. They could have, at a casual

glance, been passed over as Little Grebes.

A third pair with young in tow was noticed

further away. The light was favourable from

behind us and we also were able to compare

the very young chicks with the grebes nearby

and the fully fledged young with their lighter

underparts contrasting with the black of the

adults.

Though very. common during the winter

months througnout the subcontinent it 1s not

and its exact distribution as a regular nesting

bird needs to be determined over much of the

country.

LAVKUMAR KHACHER

525

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

6. AN ADDITIONAL RECORD OF THE WHITETAILED SEA EAGLE, -

HALIAEETUS ALBICILLA (LINNAEUS) IN NORTH-WESTERN INDIA

In their HANDBOOK Ali and Ripley (1968)

listed the Whitetailed Sea Eagle (Haliaeetus

albicilla) as a rare casual winter visitor to

West Pakistan (Baluchistan, Sind, Northwest

Frontier Province) with only one reliable record

for India, this being from Punjab. Several

records reported subsequent to this publi-

cation have served to further outline the range

of this species within the Indian Region.

Roberts & Savage (1969) reported sightings

involving 10 birds in West Pakistan during the

period 1966-1969, and Himmatsinhji (1970)

submitted a previously unpublished record

from Kutch made during 1949-50. Fleming

et al. (1976) listed a single sight record from

Nepal (1971, Pokhara) and recently Dukes

et al. (1975) recorded the presence of two adult

birds at Bharatpur, Rajasthan, during

December, 1973. In light of this accumulating

information an additional sighting made while

I was travelling in northern India seems worth

reporting.

On December 12, 1974, a single adult White-

tailed Sea Eagle was observed at Sultanpur

Bird Sanctuary, less than 25 km from Delhi.

This sanctuary is centred around a small

jheel which also provided habitat for a variety

of waterbirds at the time of the sighting. The

eagle was closely examined in good light for

over an hour as it perched motionless on the

edge of a mound in the centre of the lake,

approximately 100 m from my observation

post on shore. The dark brown coloration of

the body, the lighter coloured head and the

short, pure white tail were all noted as the bird

was at rest ; the characteristic wedge shape of

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE,

UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA,

EDMONTON, ALBERTA,

CANADA,

January 27, 1977.

the tail and the broad wings were further

noted when it eventually left its perch and

slowly flew out of sight over the water. Identi-

fication was confirmed the same day from the

HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN

(Ali & Ripley 1968). According to descrip-

tions in Brown and Amadon (1968) no other

eagle has the same combination of characteris-

tics, and the shape and colour of the tail are

considered diagnostic (Ali & Ripley 1968).

Although a total of four days were spent at

Sultanpur this is my sole observation, leading

me to believe that the bird was only a tem-

porary visitor. This species breeds locally

throughout much of the Palaearctic Region

(from Greenland to Japan, and between 28°

and 75° N latitude; Brown and Amadon

(1968), and occurs only casually south of the

breeding range during winter. Outside of this

range birds associate primarily with coastal areas

but are also known to wander to jheels and

inundations inland (Ali & Ripley 1968). It

is noteworthy that both the Bharatpur and

Sultanpur observations occurred in association

with interior wetlands, each approximately

800 km from the nearest seacoast. These

two recent observations, the previous record

from Punjab, and the proximity of all three to

other records in West Pakistan suggest that

the Whitetailed Sea Eagle may be a somewhat

more common winter visitor to lakes in north-

western India than was previously thought.

This is all the more likely when it is considered

that adults, or groups of birds containing

adults, are more liable to be noticed and identi-

fied than are birds in immature plumage.

RE SALTER

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(A pair of adults was again sighted at the Keoladeo The species would thus appear to be a regular winter

Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Bharatpur, by Dr. Salim Ali

and Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava on 11th January 1977.

visitor to this wetland,

until once definitely identified.—Eds.)

possibly overlooked earlier

REFERENCES

Aut, S. & Rey, S. D. (1968): Handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol.1. Oxford University

Press, Bombay.

Brown, L. & AMADON, D. (1968): Eagles, Hawks

and Falcons of the World. Vol.I. Country Life Books.

Dukes, P. A., MADGE, S. C., RoBINSON, M. C. &

_ Westwoop, C.W. (1975): Whitetailed Eagles [Halia-

eetus albicilla (Linn.)] at Bharatpur, Rajasthan. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc.72(1) : 199.

FLEMING, R. L. Sr., FLEMING, R. L. Jr. & BANGDEL,

L.S. (1976): Birds of Nepal. Robert L. Fleming, Sr.,

and Jr., Kathmandu.

HIMMATSINHJI, M. K. (1970): Interesting Eagles

in Western India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,67(2):

330-331.

Roserts, T. J. & SAVAGE, C. D. W. (1969): On the

eccurrence of Haliaeetus albicilla (Linnaeus) in West

Pakistan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66 (3): 619-622.

7. OCCURRENCE OF GREY JUNGLEFOWL

AND RED JUNGLEFOWL TOGETHER

In the Nawegaon National Park (Bhandara

District) of E. Maharashtra State, both Grey

Junglefowl (Gallus sonneratii) and Red Jungle-

fowl (G. gallus) occur together. The natural

vegetation in this area primarily conforms to

the ‘Southern tropical dry deciduous’ mixed

type, and the flora is fairly rich and diverse.

SUB-DIVISIONAL FOREST OFFICER,

NAWEGAON BANDH,

Dist. BHANDARA,

MAHARASTHRA STATE,

January 6, 1977.

The species commonly met with are Terminalia

tomentosa, Pterocarpus marsupium, Anogeissus

latifolia, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Butea mono-

sperma, Diospyros melanoxylon, Bombax ceiba,

Ougeinia oojeinensis, Cassia fistula and Adina

cordifolia. Teak occurs scattered among these

species. Bamboo forms a dense undergrowth.

M. B. CHITAMPALLI

8. OCCURRENCE OF AND SOME OBSERVATIONS

ON THE PURPLE WOOD PIGEON IN MAHARASTHRA (BHANDARA DISTRICT)

During the survey of salt-licks surrounding

Itiadoh Lake of Bhandara_ district (N. E.

Maharashtra), I found three Purple Wood

Pigeons (Columba punicea) descending to the

ground to pick up earth pellets at a salt-lick

at the time of sunrise. Later I saw them

descending to a salt-lick late in the afternoon

also. I enquired with the local fishermen and

two shikaris who reported that the Purple

Wood Pigeon (iocally known as Kharmat) visits

this salt-lick regularly in the morming and

late afternoon during winter. Although the

527

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

above habit has been recorded in the case of

green pigeons, no such observation has been

made about the Purple Wood Pigeon.

I found these birds gorging on berries of

Litsaea monopetala which is distributed in the

forest.

SUB-DIVISIONAL FOREST OFFICER,

NAWEGAON BANDH,

BHANDARA DISTRICT,

MAHARASHTRA STATE,

January 6, 1977.

Since this species has not been included in

the chapter on Fauna in the MAHARASHTRA

STATE GAZETTEER, 1974, it represents an addi-

tion to the birds of Maharashtra.

M. B. CHITAMPALLI

9. DEAD NILGIRI HOUSE SWALLOW IN A NEST

My friend and I went to Hotel Hampton,

Coonoor (11° 21’N., 76° 49’E., 1750 metres

above mean sea level) in South India, to ring

nestlings of Dusky Crag Martin Hirundo con-

color concolor (Sykes), on 10th September,

1976. Within 10 m of Crag Martin’s nests

there was another, similar, nest from which

the tail of a bird was projecting out. It

seemed that the bird was incubating (although

at the time of incubation swallows, usually,

face outward). We tried to photograph the

bird from close by and the bird remained im-

mobile which made me doubt whether it was

alive. My doubts grew stronger when

Mrs. Adige, the owner of the hotel, told me

that she had seen the bird sitting in almost the

same position a couple of days earlier. We

managed to reach the bird with the help of a

ladder and found it dead. It was a Nilgiri

House Swallow WHirundo tahitica domicola

Jerdon. The bird was absolutely dried up

and as I held it the feathers started slipping.

There was no sign of physical injury or

deformity in the body of the dead swallow.

Only its dried up tongue was projecting out of

the bill. The claws of one leg were slightly

entangled with the nest materials, perhaps as

a result of contraction at the time of death.

The nest was attached to a ceiling beam and

wall of a passage between two sections of the

hotel, and was about 4 m from the ground.

The nest seemed to be old and might have

been used as a roosting place by the bird.

As far as available literature is concerned

there is no mention of such death in swallows

which build saucer-like nest with open top.

But Dr. Salim Ali found two Redrumped

Swallow Hirundo daurica erythropygia (Sykes)

dead in a tubular nest (Himmatsinhji 1959).

Himmatsinhji says, ‘it appears that the birds.

had completed the nest, and one of them was

incubating the eggs while the other one must

have been busy putting the finishing touches to

the structure. The only plausible explanation

for this rather unusual mishap seems to be

that one of the birds must have taken the last

few pellets of mud late in the evening, and

therefore on entering the nest to roost it must

have tried to complete the days work. The

result of this last-minute constructional altera-

tion was that the entrance hole became too

_ narrow and the birds thus unwittingly entrapped

themselves,

death’. |

Above explanation of swallows’ death can-

not be applied to the present case because the.

Where they finally starved to

528

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

nest was not a tubular one and death occurred

in non-breeding season (breeding season in

South India chiefly March to May according to

Ali & Ripley 1972). I have discussed this

matter with Dr. Salim Ali and others. The

cause of death in this case could not be ascer-

tained. The probable explanation seems to

be that there was some sort of non-functioning

RESEARCH FELLOW,

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

BomBAY-400 023, INDIA,

January 6, 1977.

of internl organs of this particular swallow

which may have resulted from exhaustion or

food poisoning.

It may be noted that there was no change in

weather factors like relative humidity, rainfall

and temperature during September, 1976 in

relation to previous ten years record obtained

from Coonoor.

MOHAMMAD ALI REZA KHAN?!

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM & RipLey, S.D. (1972): Handbook of

the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 5. Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

HIMMATSINHJI, M. K. (1959): Two dead swallows

inanest. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56 (3) : 631-32.

‘Lecturer in Zoology, University of Dacca, Bangladesh.

10. MALABAR JUNGLE BABBLER, TURDOIDES STRIATUS MALABARICUS

(JERDON) AND WHITEHEADED BABBLER TURDOIDES AFFINIS AFFINIS

(JERDON) JOINTLY CARING FOR THE CHICKS OF THE LATTER

In the course of a comparative study of the

biology of the above-mentioned two species

which co-exist in the Calicut University campus

@lO=-12°N., J5°-772 E.) we came across the

following incident. In our campus the two

species live together without much conflict

even though their home rang?s and food overlap

considerably. On the 3lst March 1976

V. J. Zacharias found a nest of the White-

headed Babbler with three nestlings situated

at a spot where the home ranges of a flock of

the Jungle Babbler with ten birds and one of

the Whiteheaded Babbler with four members

overlapped. This nest was built on a woody

creeper Calicopteris floribunda at a height of

8m from the ground. Six Jungle and three

Whiteheaded Babblers fed the nestlings and

at night one Jungle Babbler stayed with the

nestlings. The rest of the birds of both species

roosted separately within distances of 36 to

40 m from the nest. The food given to the

nestlings by both species consisted of orthop-

terans like Gryllus sp. Very often the two

species moved together peacefully and would

sit on adjacent branches to preen. In about

14 hours of observation spread over two weeks

6 clashes were observed between the two species

and every time the Jungle Babblers managed

to drive away the Whiteheaded Babblers but

the latter never deserted the chicks totally.

The dominant Jungle Babblers defended the

nestlings more often. The fledglings followed

the Jungle Babblers but the Whiteheaded

Babblers also fed and defended them whenever

they got the opportunity. In spite of vigorous

defensive displays by both species a Rat snake

(Ptyas mucosus) took one fledgling on the 3rd

April. By the 4th one more fledgling and by

529

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

the 16th April the last of them disappeared.

To the last both species of babblers attended

to the young.

The exact reason for this behaviour of the

babblers is not known. The two species

differ in size, colour and vocalizations. The

Whiteheaded Babbler is more often seen in

open areas with little or no cover of trees and

shrubs, but both species often forage together

and we have observed a Whiteheaded Babbler

foraging with a flock of Jungle Babbler conti.

nuously for six months. In our study area

both species of birds are constantly disturbed

by the construction of new buildings and by

firewood gatherers, and the home ranges of

both species of babblers change from time to

time.

In the present case we could not spot the

nest at the time of building. It is possible

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT,

CALICUT UNIVERSITY P.O.,

KERALA-673 635, INDIA,

January 6, 1977.

that the Jungle Babblers also had built a nest

at about the same time as the other species

and at a spot close by and lost it. They may

then have forced the Whiteheaded Babblers

out of their nest and taken possession. Both

species build similar nests and their eggs have

the same colour. Both are parasitised by

cuckoos and thus conditioned to accept alien

chicks. In the coming months we hope to shift

eggs from one species of babbler to the other

to study their response.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

V. J. Zacharias is supported by the Salim

Ali-Loke Wan Tho Ornithological research

fund of the Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

V. J. ZACHARIAS

D. N. MATHEW

11. PURPLERUMPED SUNBIRDS AS FOSTER PARENTS

In the second week of August 1976, in an open

plot in Vithalwadi, about 3 km from the centre

of Poona City, a nest of a Purplerumped Sun-

bird was seen hanging from a twig of a

Caesalpinia sepiaria bush. The nest was at a

height of about 5 ft from the ground.

When the nest was first located, it contained

two eggs. The eggs were white speckled with

brown and in size equivalent to Redvented

Bulbul’s eggs. The female sunbird was seen

incubating the eggs.

A chick was first seen inside the nest on 26th

August. It was dark brown in colour and

appeared rather big for a sunbird’s chick.

The shape of its beak was also different. How

the other egg was disposed off was not known ;

neither did we find the shell of the hatched egg.

The possibility of brood parasitism had not

occurred to us then.

On 16th September it was observed that the

entrance hole was enlarged and the chick was

not inside the nest. On an adjacent acacia

(babul) tree the female sunbird was seen feed-

ing the chick which was now of the size of a

redvented bulbul minus tail. Its colour was

dark grey with brown spots on the chest. The

530

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

gape was rich scarlet red. Wings were short

and tail feathers undeveloped. It was weakly

calling chee, chee, the call becoming harsher

on the arrival of the foster parents. Almost

every five minutes it was being fed by the female

sunbird. The female was seen picking up

something from near the acacia blossom.

Evidently it could not be nectar for there 1s

none in babul flowers. She was, however,

observed to be bringing in nectar from the

loranthus flowers. The female would sit by

the side of the chick and feed it by inserting its

beak into the open mandibles of the chick.

The chick would quiver its wings and tail dur-

ing feeding. The chick was seen flying from

one tree to another within a radius of 10 to 15

feet from the nest. As the chick and the parents

were not coming back tothenest, it was removed

by us.

In the last week of September both the

parents were seen feeding the chick; the fre-

quency of feeding had increased to about every

two minutes. Again, the sunbirds were seen

pecking at tender twigs of babul. The tail

of the young bird had become long and. its

colour lighter. The chest had become cross-

barred with dark brown. The tail was also

lightly barred with white and brown. It had

184, SHANIWAR PETH,

PUNE-411 030,

MAHARASHTRA STATE,

January 6, 1977.

become more active and could fly over a greater

distance. |

The chick was last seen on 30th September.

In size it was bigger than a redvented bulbul.

In colour it was grey with a lighter chest cross-

barred with dark brown. Tail feathers were

long and barred with white and dark grey. Its

flight was like a large grey babbler’s quick

wing beats followed by a glide. It was low and

silent. The sunbirds were still engaged in feed-

ing it. The chick could not be located again

in the same area after 30th September.

Other birds seen nesting in the same open

plot were: Ashy Wren Warbler, Tailor Bird,

Whitethroated Munia, Baya Weaver Bird, and

Redvented Bulbul. |

The following parasitic cuckoos were seen

in the vicinity of the nest: Koel (quite com-

mon), Pied Crested Cuckoo, Hawk-cuckoo

(uncommon) and Plaintive Cuckoo. The last

was seen perching on the bush bearing the sun-

birds’ nest, only once, i.e. on 23rd September.

In the second week of October a member of

the Nature Club in National Defence Academy,

Khadakwasla, also recorded a sunbird feeding

a large bird. The NDA is situated across the

river at a distance of six to seven miles from

Vithalwadi.

S. INGALHALLIKAR

SANJAY KOTHARI

12. ASSISTED MIGRATION OF BIRDS BY SHIPS

On 18th September 1975, I sailed for England

from Cochin as a passenger on board an Indian

cargo ship. Two days out at sea from Cochin,

I noticed two pairs and a single Little Brown

Dove (Streptopelia senegalensis) on the mast of

the ship. At times, the birds flew away from the

ship apparently in search of land, but returned

back always. Thinking that the birds will

thirst and starve to death, I put out grain and

water but was told by the sailors that there

was no need to do so. There were enough

pickings on the aft deck outside the kitchen

yal

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 74

where I saw the birds occasionally, and they

could get fresh water from rain and dew collected

in various depressions on the deck. Seven

days later, when we reached Aden, the birds

were still very much there.. As we sighted

land at dawn they flew to it but perhaps they

found the treeless landscape too bleak because

when we sailed from Aden the same afternoon,

at least three of them were back on board.

After crossing the Suez canal, the ship picked

up a number of other local birds with which

I was not familiar. The doves were also there

but I could not get a correct tally of their

number as they had numerous hide-outs on

the ship: on the masts, in the crates of cargo

and the machinery on the forward and aft

decks. After Gibralter it turned cold and |

was not out on deck much. Even so, I noticed

another addition to our floating aviary—the

Robin redbreasts, but I cannot say if the doves

were still on board. |

At that time, I had not taken serious notice

of the passage of these birds as I was told by

sailors that ships often carried birds from one

continent to another in this manner. At times,

these birds were blown off by storms, but in

good. weather they travelled quite well. After

reading the question raised by Mr. Horace

Alexander in his note “ What leads to increases

4, NATIONAL TOWER,

13, LOUDON STREET,

CALcuTTA- 700 017,

January 1, 1977

[ fnere are a number of instances of assisted

passage of different species recorded in litera-

ture. Hugh Whistler noted the House Crow

(Corvus splendens) travelling by ss. City of

Exter on 26 April i926 from Bombay, and

leaving the ship after passing Perim on 2nd May

(J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32 : 598).

recorded four or five of the Little Brown Dove

in range of certain birds’ [J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 71 (3)] I suspect there is every possibility

that birds carried in this manner can find a

niche in a distant land and build up a local

population. Before Suez reopened, Indian

cargo. vessels used to go from Indian ports

direct to U.K. with just two refuelling stops of

a few hours each, and some of these ships

could have carried Collared doves mentioned

by Mr. Alexander. This could equally explain

the sudden appearance of the Blackthroated

thrush in Norfolk reported in the June 1976

issue of the Newsletter for birdwatchers pub-

lished from Bangalore.

On 26th May 1976, | revisited the exact port

area in Cochin from where I had sailed the

previous year. Despite a thorough scanning

of the trees and gardens in the port area, I failed

to see doves of any kind though numerous

Rock pigeons had congregated over a grain

godown. Later, a resident of Fort Cochin

which is across the harbour told me of occa-

sionally seeing Streptopelia senegalensis in her

garden.

A sailor friend who is a keen bird-watcher

has agreed to keep a log of passage of birds on

board his ship, and I hope some more data will

become available of migration of birds in this

manner.

ASHOKE KUMAR

coming aboard his ship quite exhausted on March

25th, 1918, when the ship was about 10 miles

off Karachi, and remaining until she reached

harbour. He: suggested that they may have

becn oversea migrants of the race ermanni.

The recoveries of birds of the species ringed

during the Society’s banding programme !ends

support to this view—a little Brown Dove

(Ring B-1062) ringed on 15.ii1.1961 near Bhuj

(Kutch, c. 23° 10’N., 69° 50’E.) was recovered

332

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

‘on 27 ii.1964 near Hyderabad (Pakistan, c.

25° 20’N., 68° 25’E.), c. 200 km north of the

ringing place.

Derek Goodwin in the Pigeons and Doves

of the World (Brit. Mus. 1967) gives the distri-

bution of Streptopelia senegalensis as ‘ Africa,

Arabia, India, Afghanistan and Turkestan.

Also locally in Palestine, Syria, the Lebanon,

Turkey and Malta, in all these places prebably

as a result of human introduction as in parts

of Western Australia where it is now well

established ’. In addition to actual ‘ human

introduction ’ it appears that the Little Brown

Dove has transported itself to many of these

regions and has ‘ become adapted to a man-

altered environment ’.—Eds.]

13. NOTE ON THE BAYA WEAVER BIRD PLOCEUS PHILIPPINUS (LINN.)

Quite frequently we tend to take many of the

goings on of birds and animals around us as

common place and requiring no comments, and

it is only years later that we find a note in a

scientific journal that what we took for granted

is something which ought to have been recorded !

And it is precisely this sort of reporting which

has made the earlier journals such mines of

information and so interesting to read.

While ruminating over Vol. 71 No. 3 of the

Journal 1 read T. Anthony Davis’s account on

Selection of Nesting Trees, etc., by this common

and notoriously polygamous little bird.

Quite naturally I know this ubiquitous bird

best in the Saurashtra region. My impression

has been that the Baya prefers to site its nest

in a tree above tall grass or rushes. The trees

invariably are babools Acacia nilotica or wild

Date Palms Phoenix sp. However Prosopis

spicigera is also used. Other favoured loca-

tions are cliffs over river pools or wells with

over-hanging Neem Azadirachta indica or any

of the other common trees found growing from

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

HORNBILL HOUSE,

S. BHAGAT SINGH ROAD,

BomBay-400 023,

January 6, 1977.

crevices down the side of wells. Electricity

lines passing over stands of sugarcane are

also used and a line of pendent nests along

these makes a remarkable sight. With the

clearing of trees and consequent reduction in

potential breeding sites a very interesting

development appears to have taken place, at

least around Rajkot. In June, flocks of Bayas,

still in plain and sparrow-like plumage, invade

the city. They draw attention as the yellow

starts becoming more prominent, for these

urban flocks are all males. Very soon, they

begin to construct nests on trees and shrubs

along compound walls. Decorative palms in

the vicinity soon have their fronds torn to

shreds as the exuberant architects start collect-

ing material.

These attempts at developing bastis do not

seem to be approved by the hens and, as yet

not a single urban colony has progressed beyond

the ‘helmet’ stage. By the middleof July,

the birds leave the city and are not seen again

with the sparrows feeding in the courtyards

till the following May.

LAVKUMAR KHACHER

58)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

14. STUDIES ON THE INDIAN GHARIAL GAVIALIS GANGETICUS (GMELIN)

(REPTILIA, CROCODILIA) CHANGE IN TERRESTRIAL

LOCOMOTORY PATTERN WITH AGE

(With two text-figures)

Quadrupedal locomotion is common with

gharial juveniles measuring less than 75 cmlong

and weighing about 1.5 kg. Larger juveniles

perform a locomotion by synchronous pushing

of all four limbs.

For ten month old gharias (Gavialis gan-

geticus) Singh & Bustard (in press) have

reported high walk in relation to suspicious

circumstances and belly run and gallop as a

response to sudden fright. The high walk

and gallop for the gharial are difficult loco-

motions due to their weak limbs, inefficient to

carry the body on land.

The most common method of normal loco-

motion in hatchling gharials is the quadrupedal

pattern (Bourliere 1955 and Romer 1955).

Two diagonally opposite limbs are synchro-

nously moved forward and when these two

touch the ground the other two (diagonally

opposite) limbs move forward. Between these

two movements the body makes an undulatory

pushing to front (Fig. 1).

During gharial’s quadrupedal movement the

head is held upward at an angle and the limbs

are held almost in a sprawling posture, whose

positions mark the limit through which the

push of body undulations may be exerted on

the ground. The hind limbs fall almost close

to or over the print of the fore limbs. When

a gharial performs this type of locomotion, it is

often not possible to see a good print of the

fore limbs.

Large gharials seldom move far from the

water’s edge (Singh & Bustard, in press).

Typically, after haul-out and completion of

basking they perform a short ‘U’-turn so as

to face the water. During haul-out and return

to the water, when undisturbed, the gharial

moves forward by simultaneous pushing move-

ment of all four limbs, progressing by a series

of jerks. The limb positions are shown in

Fig. 2. This limb action is similar to that

shown by green turtle Chelonia mydas on land

(Bustard 1972).

Unlike quadrupedal locomotion, here the

head is held almost parallel and touching to the

ground and the limbs give more support to the

body and they actually aid in pushing the body

forward.

During forward movement of the limbs,

the tip of the toes always touch the ground and

draw outwardly directed lines subsequently

bending inward to the body axis. To minimise

expenditure of energy during muscular effort in

helping the body pushed forward, the limbs

always come closer before the body-push com-

mences.

The adult pattern of simultaneous pushing

movement is more common after the hatch-

lings attain a weight of about 1.5 kg when

they measure approximately 75 cm_ in total

length. This size can be attained at an age

of about eight to nine months. This change

in locomotory pattern provides a further

parallel to green turtle hatchlings which like-

wise use normal quardupedal gait. Further-

more, C. mydas change to the adult pattern at

similar age and weight as the gharial.

Hendrickson (1958) noted that whereas C.

mydas and Dermochelys coriacea show this —

form of locomotory pattern, Caretta caretta

continues to use normal quadrupedal gait —

throughout life. He postulated that increasing —

weight might have resulted in a changed loco-

motory pattern in the foregoing genera. |

The locomotory pattern adopted by the |

gharial is here described for the first time for

any crocodilian. Many other crocodilians, |

534

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 Quadrupedal locomotion in gharial. A, resting

position. Position B during locomotion is followed by

an undulatory forward pushing of the body which is then

followed by position C.

including Crocodylus porosus and _ probably

Crocodylus palustris in India, attain similar adult

weights to the gharial but this form of locomo-

tion has not been described. Specifically, it was

absent from yearling Crocodylus palustris used

in studies of locomotory pattern (Bustard and

Choudhury, in preparation).

The synchronous locomotory pattern of the

gharial greatly restrict terrestrial locomotion in

this species, since, as in those sea turtles where

it is observed, it is a markedly inefficient loco-

motory methed as compared to the norm.

The habits and habitats of the gharial may

have contributed to this locomotory pattern.

Gharials inhabit deep, flowing rivers which

never dry up. They have little reason to leave

GHARIAL RESEARCH AND

CONSERVATION UNIT,

TIKERPADA 759 122,

ORISSA,

- March 19, 1977.

535

Fig. 2. Synchronous locomotion in gharial. A, resting

position. B, hind limbs are brought forward. C, fore

limbs are brought forward followed by a synchronous

pressing of the limbs to the ground and simultaneous

pushing of the body to front.

the water except for basking and nesting.

Evolutionary implications should also be taken

into consideration. The gharial belongs to

the oldest living crocodilian family. It could

be that this locomotory pattern is primitive.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

H. R. Bustard is Chief Technical Adviser,

FAO/UNDP Project in India, ‘ Crocodile

breeding’. Lala A. K. Singh is a Ph.D. Re-

search Scholar of the State Government of

Orissa (Forest Department). Both of us

acknowledge with thanks assistance from our

respective organizations and from Government

of India.

H. R. BUSTARD

LALA A. K. SINGH

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

REFERENCES

BOURLIERE, FRANCOIS (1955): The Natural History

of Mammals. (Translated from the French by H.M.

Parshley). London, George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd.

BUSTARD, H. R. (1972): Sea Turtles: Natural

History and Conservation. Collins, London and

Sydney.

HENDRICKSON, T. (1958): The Green Sea Turtle,

Chelonia mydas (Linn),in Malaya and Sarawak. Proc.

Zool. Soc., London, 130: 455-535.

15.

Romer, A. S. (1955): The Vertebrate Body. W. B:

' Saunders Company, Philadelphia and London.

SINGH, L. A. K. & BusTARD, H.R. (in press) : Studies

on the Indian Gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin)

(Reptilia, Crocodilia) III: Locomotory behaviour

during basking and spoor formation. British J. Her-

petol.

A NOTE ON THE PROTUBERANCE OR KNOB ON THE SNOUT OF

MALE GHARIAL [GAVIALIS GANGETICUS (GMELIN)]

The protuberance or the knob at the end of

snout of adult male gharial is so prominent

that it is popularly named as ‘ gharial’ from its

resemblance of a ‘ghara’ a word of north

Indian origin, meaning an earthen pot. An

adult male is easily distinguished by _ this

character from a female but young male and

female gharials are not distinguishable. Though

the gharial young are now (April 1977) more

than one year old at the Gharial Research and

Conservation Unit at Tikerpada, Orissa the

sex differentiation by the knob is not yet pos-

sible. One male gharial was received at Nan-

dankanan Biological Park, Orissa on 22.11.1963

Date of measurement Length of

male

22nd March 1963 .. 135 cm

January 1973 2.5 metres

January 1974 2.56 metres

February 1976 2.70 metres

February 1977 2.70 metres

Age Size of the knob

20 months taking. Nil

July, 1961 as the

probable hatch-

ing month.

11 years 6 months visible

Slightly more deve-

12 years 6 months

loped. Now the

male could be

distinguished from

the female.

14 years 7 months Well developed

a rte

Very well develop-

ed; 5x6, (4) x3.5

cm.

15 years 7 months

536

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

when it measured 135 cm without any visible

sign of the protuberance at the end of its

snout. The estimated age on that date of it

was 20 months taking July 1961 as the probable

month of its hatching by comparison with

Singh’s (1976) record of average length 274 mm

and weight 97 gm of a gharial young soon after

hatching. The first visible knob appeared

in the beginning of 1973 at the age about eleven

and half years when its length was about 2.5

metres. When one of us visited the Park in

January 1974 it measured 2.56 metres long

(Acharjyo, Biswas & Misra 1975) and the knob

was a little developed and the male was dis-

tinguishable. In February, 1976 this male

measured 2.70 metres (Mohapatra, Acharjyyo &

Misra 1976) and during this time the knob

was well developed. The knob was measured

on 3.ii.1977 as: Length 5 cm, anterior width

4 cm, posterior width 6 cm, thickness from

the upper base to the top of the knob 3.5 cm.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

34, A & B, SASHIBHUSAN Dey STREET,

CALCUTTA-12.

NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK,

P.O. BARANG

CUTTACK.

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION OFFICER,

95—-SHAHEED NAGAR,

BHUBANESWAR-/7,

June 4, 1977.

In our earlier note (loc. cit.) we have already

recorded the sex play of the male when it was

approximately 12 years 6 months old and 2.56

metres long with a developed nose knob and

when the first author visited the Nandankanan

in 1975 he observed the further development

of nose knob in the same male gharial. There-

fore it can be presumed that 13 or 14 years old

gharial with nose knob developed is an almost

mature male. The reproductive activity in

captivity can be presumed to be the same in

nature.

The knob or the ‘ Ghara’ develops from the

upper base of the nostril and grows over it in

such a way that the nostrils come to le ulti-

mately underneath the knob. Therefore, when

the male comes out of water usually a hissing

sound is heard (Acharjyo, Biswas & Misra

1975) which is produced due to obstruction of

the exhalation within the knob.

S. BISWAS

L. N. ACHARJYO

S. MOHAPATRA

REFERENCES

ACHARJYO, L. N., Biswas, S. & Misra, R. (1975):

Some notes on Gharial [Ga ialis gangeticus (Gmelin)|

in captivity. J. Bombay rat. Hist. Soc. 72 (2): 558-

560.

Mowapatra, S., AcHARIYo, L. N. & Misra, R.

(1976) :

(Gavialis gangeticus).

Catching and transferring adult Gharial

Ind. For. 102 (9): 636-637.

SINGH, LALA A. K. (1976): Newsletter of Madras

Snake Park Trust, Madras. 1&2;4 &5.

537

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

16. FIRST RECORD OF THE SKINK MABUYA BEDDOMII (JERDON)

[SAURIA : SCINCIDAE] FROM ORISSA, INDIA

During the course of studies on some unnamed

reptiles brought from Orissa Survey, 1975-76

by Shri D. P. Sanyal and party, we came across

a well-preserved specimen of the Skink, Mabuya

beddomii (Jerdon), in the collections of the

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Accord-

ing to authoritative literature it has not been

earlier recorded from Orissa. Smith (1935)!

recorded the occurrence of the species from

Berar, Salem, Tirunelvelly, Malabar, Mysore,

Sivagiri and the Annamalai Hills within the

Indian limits. Elsewhere it is known from

Punduloya, Sri Lanka. The present finding,

is significant extension of its zoogeographical

distribution to north-east of the peninsula.

Mabuya beddomii (Jerdon)

1870 Euprepes beddomii Jerdon, Proc. Asiat. Soc.

Bengal. March, 1870, p. 73 [iype loc. Mysore ; B.M.

(N.H.), London].

MATERIAL : | ex., 6‘, INDIA: Orissa, Keonjhor

District, Ghatgaon, December 22, 1975, coll.

D. P. Sanyal (Z.S.I. Regd. No. 23265).

Measurements: Standard length 55 mm,

total length 154 mm, and tail 99 mm.

1 SMITH, M. A. (1935): Fauna Brit. India including

Ceylon and Burma, Amphibia and Reptilia, Taylor

& Francis (London), 2 (S.uria), i-xii —1-440.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

27, CHOWRINGHEE ROAD,

CALCUTTA-700 016,

May 5, 1977:

Pholidosis & diagnosis: Head compara-

tively small ; snout obtusely pointed, a pair of

nuchals, post nasal absent. Lower eye-lid

scaly ; temporal scale smooth. Ear opening

sub-circular, about as large as lateral scale,

with 4 pointed lobules anteriorly. Dorsal

and lateral scale sub-equal, dorsal with 3 feebly

keeled scales. 32 scales round the body.

Digits moderately long, 15 strongly keeled

lamellae beneath fourth toe. Hind-limb not

reaching the wrist.

Colour, in alcohol: A broad _ brownish

band present along either side of head and

upper part of flanks ; it is edged above and

below with a white streak, the lower part of

which starts from upper lip and passes through

the ear ; in its turn it is edged below by brown;

top of head with small longitudinal markings ;

whitish below.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. S. Khera, Jt. Director-

in-Charge, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,

for providing laboratory facilities. We are

indebted to Dr. B. Biswas, Deputy Director

of this Department for critical reading of the

manuscript and necessary corrections. We

are also grateful to Dr. R. C. Sharma, Zoologist,

for his encouragement and useful suggestions.

S. K. TALUKDAR

N. C. GAYEN

D. P. SANYAL

538

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

17.

While driving on the ghat road between

Coonoor and Ooty (c. 6000 ft) on December

15th 1975 at 5 p.m. when it was cold and rainy,

we found a DOR (dead on road) specimen

of a small dark snake, (apparently a burrower)

which was later identified by Prof. Carl Gans

as Xylophis perroteti. It was evidently active

just after dark and we were surprised that a

snake would be abroad in the cold rain.

A few days later on the Woodlands Estate

(5-4000 ft) we found another adult DOR speci-

men of this species. Searching under rocks

in a small shola between the tea and coffee

COLLECTION OF A RARE SNAKE IN THE NILGIRIS

fields we found 2 juvenile Xylophis. These

were quite active and coiled around one’s

fingers while being handled. This is a genus

rarely collected, perhaps because of its fond-

ness for colder temperatures at which the

average herpetologist would not consider

collection worthwhile. It was interesting to

note that Uropeltids of the genus Plectrurus

were at this time plentiful in the same area

under leaf debris at the edge of tea gardens.

The optimum temperature requisites of these

burrowers evidently determine their elevational

distribution and periods of activity.

Serial No. cale Ventrals Sub-audals | Anal Length Diameter | Sex

Rows |

MSP-N-1I 13 | 137 24 divided | Single 58 cm 13 mm female

MSP-N-2 13 139 34 divided | Single ) 55 cm 15 mm male

MSP-N-3 13 147 21 divided | Single 19 cm 7mm female

MSP-N-4 13 142 36 divided Single 17 cm 5mm male

M. A. Smith 13) G97, |. Male 27-08 Single | 55cm

Female 16-20 | |

MADRAS SNAKE PARK,

MADRAS-600 022,

May 26, 1977.

18.

COMMON INDIAN BRONZE-BACK,

The following observations, were made on

the feeding habits of a Bronze-back snake at

Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa in the

natural condition. The snake was seen on

5.11.77 on a tree at a height of about 2.5 metres

from the ground. It came down to about

1.5 metres above the ground on seeing a garden

R. WHITAKER

Z. WHITAKER

OBSERVATION ON TFHE FEEDING HABIT OF THE TREE SNAKE,

DENDRELAPHIS TRISTIS (DAUDIN)

lizard Calotes versicolor (Daudin) on a bush

of about 0.75 m height near the tree. The

snake jumped over accurately from the tree

on to the lizard covering a distance of 0.75 m

and caught hold of the middle of the lizard

and climbed back onto the tree. There it

gradually slipped its mouth hold towards

539

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

the head of the lizard and started swallowing

it head first. The process of swallowing is the

same as described in the feeding habit of King

Cobra by Biswas, Acharjyo & Misra (1976).

The snake took about 10 minutes for catching

and swallowing the lizard.

This observation explains two facts in case

of the tree snake, that they have good eye sight

so that the prey, a garden lizard of body length

60 mm, could be detected from a distance of

more than 2 metres. The second fact is ability

to jump in case of tree snakes which use a

gliding movement from a great height to a

lower height as has been pointed out by

Shebbeare (1939-40) in respect of two species

Chrysopelia ornata (Shaw) and Dendrophis pictus

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

34 A & B, SASHIBHUSAN DEY STREET,

CALCUTTA-12.

VETERINARY ASST. SURGEON,

NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK,

P.O. BARANG, DIST. CUTTACK.

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION OFFICER,

95—-SHAHEED NAGAR,

BHUBANESWAR-/,

June 4, 1977.

(Gmelin) [Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin)]

though Smith (1943) has doubted this ability

in the present genus, “That they can fly or

plane as can Chryopelea ornata, has not yet

been definitely established’ and Wall (1910),

‘So far as tristis is concerned, however, the

evidence, though suggestive is not well authenti-

cated’. It is generally accepted that the tree

snakes which possess hinge type of ventrals

are able to glide.

This snake is also known to feed in captivity

(Wall 1910) on lizards and frogs but Shaw as

mentioned by Shebbeare (loc. cit.) found it

difficult to get them to feed in captivity and in

another case Caldwell had to set free one

because it refused to feed.

S. BISWAS

L. N. ACHARJYO

S. MOHAPATRA

REFERENCES

Biswas, S. ACHARJYO, L. N. & Misra, R. (1976):

On the feeding habits of the King Cobra Ophiophagus,

hannah (Cantor) at Nandankanan Biological Park,

Orissa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73 (1): 225-226.

SHEBBEARE (1939): Flying snakes and tree Shrews

and Mimicry. J. Bengal nat. Hist. Soc. 14: 60-67.

SmirH, M. A. (1943): Fauna of British India-

Taylor & Francis, London.

WALL, F. (1910): A popular treatise on the

Common Indian snakes. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19:

(4) 775-787.

540

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

19. THE LEATHER JACKET, ALUTERA SCRIPTA (OSBECK)

FEEDING ON THE PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR PHYSALIA UTRICULUS

(LA MARTINIERE)

(With a text-figure)

The onset of monsoon in the eastern Arabian

Sea 1s heralded by strong onshore winds in

May-June. At Bombay, these winds result

in the occurrence of swarms of the siphono-

phores Porpita, Velella (popularly known as

‘by-the-wind sailor’), and Physalia. These

animals are then invariably found drifting

on the sea surface or washed ashore.

Two species ofleather jackets or file fishes

are occasionally collected in the intertidal

regions of Bombay in this season. They are

the scribbled leather jacket, Alutera scripta

(Osbeck) and the yellow-finned leather jacket,

Alutera monoceros (Linneeus). Although the

colour pattern on their bodies suggests a life

among seaweeds, the fishes are caught in open

waters. They are quite uncommon, only an

occasional specimen or two turning up in fish

catches. They are slow, inefficient swimmers,

and one might wonder how they are able

to catch their prey or escape being eaten by

predators.

These fishes have occasionally been displayed

at the Taraporevala Aquarium, Bombay, but

have not lived long in captivity. They are

_very choosy in their feeding; their small mouth

can take in only small particles of food, with

the consequence that they soon become ema-

ciated and die.

It was, therefore, a fortuitous circumstance

that enabled us to learn about their natural

food. Some leather jackets were released

In an aquarium tank containing Physalia.

Normally, with any other fish, this would have

meant immediate death for the fishes, as a

chance brush with the Portuguese man-of-war’s

deadly tentacles would have paralysed the

fishes. It was surprising, therefore, to see

that the fishes immediately went for the ten-

tacles and nibbled them off. Ia a few minutes,

a fish had eaten off all the tentacles of a dozen

Physalia, until only the floats (paeumato-

phores) remained uneaten.

Both the Atlantic species of Physalia, P.

physalis Linnaeus, and the Indo-Pacific species,

P. utriculus (La Martiniére) are known for

their virulent venom. Among the casualties

known to have been caused by Portuguese

man-of-war i Indian seas are several cases,

including one fatality, reported by Scott (1921).

Surprisingly though, a few fishes, such as the

man-of-war fish, Nomeus gronovii, and juvenile

yellow jack, Caranx bartholomaei, associate

with it, swimming among its tentacles.

Although Panikkar & Prasad (1952) have

described the association between the young of

Caranx kalla Cuvier & Valenciennes and the

medusa Rhopilema hispidum Maas, and Jones

(1960) observed this fish under the ‘ umbrella’

of the medusa Mastigias papua L. Agassiz,

association of any fish with the Portuguese

man-of-war in Indian waters has not been

observed.

Quite a few anrmmals make use of the

Portuguese man-of-war’s mnematocysts (sting-

ing cells). Thus the beautiful and delicate

nudibranch, Glaucus marinas (Dupont) feeds

on the nematocysts of Physalia and incorporates

them into its cerata, to be utilized as a defence

mechanism against its enemies. Jones (1963)

found that the young of the octopus Tremocto-

pus violaceus Delle Chiaje picks up broken

fragments of the tentacles of Physalia and holds

them ia its arms to be used against its enemies.

The ocean sunfish, Mola mola, and the logger

head turtle, Caretta caretta, have been reported

541.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

to feed on Physalia (Halstead 1965, p. 312).

Although the orange filefish, Alutera schoepfi,

is known to feed on another dangerous jelly-

fish, the sea nettle (Chrysaora quinquecirrha),

it is not known to feed on the Portuguese man-

of-war.

The occurrence of outbreaks of Ciguatera

poisoning in man is now well known. It is

caused by eating marine fishes which are

normally non-poisonous, but which some-

times, due to their having consumed obnoxious

animals or plants, become temporarily poiso-

nous, the poison being known as ciguatoxin.

In addition, many fishes belonging to the

Order Tetraodoniformes (or plectognathi),

such as the puffer fishes are also poisonous.

In this case, however, the poison—tetrodotoxin,

is different. The flesh can be safely eaten, but

the gut, liver, gonads and skin are deadly.

There is confusion regarding the toxicity

of the two leather jackets. Thus Day (1958,

page 693) quotes Osbeck that Monacanthus

monoceros ‘ looks like a flounder at a distance

and has almost the same taste, but is not so

fat’. Munro (1955, page 275) has nothing to

relate about these fishes except that Alutera

scripta attains forty inches. Smith (1953,

pp. 405, 406) states that Alutera monoceros

‘is said to be excellent eating when skinned’

(italics by the present author). Regarding

Osbeckia scripta, Smith refers to its habit of

standing on its head among weeds to escape

detection, adding ‘stated not to be edible’.

But Halstead & Schall (1956), during their

screening of fishes of the Cocos Islands for

ciguatoxin, found A/luteres monoceros to be

also toxic. Hashimoto et al. (1969) refer to a

saying among the fishermen of Saipan that the

viscera of Alutera scripta, when fed to pigs,

might kill them, although the flesh is entirely

non-toxic. Hashimoto et al. (1969a) have

attributed the toxicity of this fish to its feeding

on the zoantharian Palythoa tuberculosa, and

call the toxin ‘aluterin’.

The rarity of occurrence of leather jackets

precludes the probability of the leather jackets

being extensively used for human consumption,

but present finding of their diet including an

Fig. 1. Leather Jacket feeding on Portuguese Man-of-war.

542

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

extremely venomous animal may be connected

to its flesh acquiring this toxicity, and due care

should be taken in their consumption.

HEALTH PHYSICS DIVISION,

BHABHA ATOMIC RESEARCH CENTRE,

TROMBAY, BOMBAY-400 085,

February 16, 1977.

I am grateful to Shri A. M. Andhare,

Assistant Curator, Taraporevala Aquarium,

for his whole-hearted assistance.

B. F. CHHAPGAR

REFERENCES

Day, F. (1958): The fishes of India: pp. 778.

HALSTEAD, B. W. & ScHaLt, D. W. (1956): A

report on the poisonous fishes captured during the

Woodrow G. Krieger Expedition to Cocos Islands.

Pacific Sci. 10: 103-109.

HALSTEAD, B. W. (1965): Poisonous and venomous

marine animals of the world. Vol. I Invertebrates:

pp. 994.

(1967): ibid. Vol. 2. Vertebrates :

pp. 1070.

HASHIMOTO, Y., Konosu, S., YASUMOTO, T. & KAMIYA.

H. (1969): Ciguatera in the Ryukyu and Amami

Islands. Bull. Jap. Soc. Scient. Fish. 35 (3): 316-326:

HASHIMOTO, Y., FUSETAMI, N. & KIMURA,S. (1969a) :

Aluterin : a toxin of filefish, Alutera scripta, probably

originating from a zoantharian, Palythoa tuberculosa.

ibid. 35 (11): 1086-1093.

JONES, S. (1960): Notes on animal associations—2.

J. mar. biol. Ass. India 2 (1) : 51-52.

violaceus

139:

(1963): Tremoctopus

uses Physalia tentacles as weapons. Science

764-766.

MAHADEVAN, S. & NAGAPPAN Nayar, K. (1965):

Note on the habitat and distribution of the file-fish

along the Tuticorin coast. ibid. 7 (2) : 476, 477.

Monro, IAN S. R. (1955): The marine and fresh-

water fishes of Ceylon: pp. 351.

PANIKKAR, N. K. & PRASAD, R. R. (1952) :. On an

interesting association of ophiuroids, fish and crab with

jellyfish, Rhopilema hispidum. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

51 (1) : 295-296.

Scott, H. H. (1921): Vegetal and fish poisoning

in the tropics : 790-798. 5 figs., 2 pls. Jn: W. Byam &

R. G. Archibald. The practice of medicine in the

tropics. Vol. I. Henry Frowde and Hodder &

Stoughton, London.

Situ, J. L. B. (1953) :

Africa: pp. 564.

The sea fishes of Southern

20. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN THE JUMPING SPIDER PHIDIPPUS

PATELI TIKADER (FAMILY : SALTICIDAE)

(With three text-figures)

Though sexual dimorphism is very common

among spiders of the family Araneidae, it is not

SO among salticid spiders. In some spiders

of the genus Araneus sometimes the male is

four to six times smaller than the female and

very differently coloured. There are also

many cases in thomisid spiders where males

are much smaller and have different colour

patterns than the female.

The salticid spider Phidippus pateli was

described by Tikader (1974) on the basis of

female specimen received from Gujarat. At

that time the male was unknown. Subse-

quently females of this species were collected

in good numbers from Poona also. But un-

fortunately none ofthe males. At the same

time we collected many male jumping spiders

whose females were not known. Recently

543

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

PoP aay t gee

AF 3

Figs.1—3. Phidippus pateli Tikader

1. Dorsal view of male, legs omitted.

2. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted.

3. Left male palp, ventral view.

544

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

when we were collecting spiders in the Bund

Garden, Poona, we came across many P. pateli

females. In the vicinity of these females,

the above-mentioned male jumping spiders were

in abundance. This aroused our suspicion

that these may be the males of P. pateli though

their colour pattern was very much different.

So we collected live female specimens of

P. pateli and the particular males for further

studies. In the laboratory we kept one mature

female and one mature male in a jar and ob-

served their behaviour. After sometime the

male started showing courtship behaviour

followed by copulation. Later on the male

was devoured by the female. We reared this

female and after some days it deposited eggs.

These observations confirmed that the males

were of P. pateli. We have illustrated female

and male specimens and the male palp. The

marked degree of dimorphism is discussed

below.

DIMORPHISM

Though there is very little difference in

the size of male and female, but they are totally

different as regards the colour patterns of

abdomen and cephalothorax, colour and

stoutness of legs. The cephalothorax of the

female is pale except the orange brown and

black patches at the base of eyes and a round

patch at the centre of ocular area as in Fig. 2.

Whereas in the case of males the eyes are sur-

rounded by a continuous reddish brown thick

patch which extends posteriorly to the middle

of cephalothorax and subsequently narrows

posteriorly upto the base of cephalothorax

and then extends upwards laterally to the

margins of carapace upto the clypeus as in

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN REGIONAL STATION,

1182/2 F.C. ROAD, |

Poona-110 005,

April 15, 1977.

Fig. |. Contrary to the female at the centre

of ocular area a round patch clothed with white

pubescence 1s present in male. Posterior lateral

region of carapace of male is also provided

with broad elongated patches clothed with

thick white pubescence. The first legs in the

female are pale, weak and provided with short

spines but those of the male are reddish brown,

long, strong, and provided with long thick

spines. Femora of first legs with long, thin,

white spine like hairs and tibiae provided

with thick brushes of black hairs on the dorsal,

and ventral side of male. Other legs in male

also reddish brown, hairy, longer and stronger

than that of female and provided with longer

and thicker spines than that of female.

Sternum of female pale but in males sternum

brown except the marginal pale patches.

Labium of female pale but in males reddish

brown except the distal pale margin. Maxillae

in female pale except the blackish inner distal

margin where as the maxillae of male reddish

brown except the pale inner distal margins.

Chelicerae pale in females and reddish brown

in male.

Abdomen oval and narrowing behind in

female and dorsally provided with a mid-

longitudinal ‘V’ shaped dark brown band

which is clothed with fine orange coloured

pubescence as in Fig. 2. Whereas in male

the mid-longitudinal dorsal area of abdomen

is pale, clothed with white pubescence and on

each side of it reddish brown longitudinal

bands extend the whole length. Posterior

dorsal half provided with long white spine-like

hairs as in Fig. 1. Ventral side in female is

uniform pale except three small black patches

near the base of spinnerets but in male ventral

side uniformly black and hairy.

B. K. TIKADER

M.S. MALHOTRA

545

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

REFERENCES

PECKHAM, G. W. AND PECKHAM, E. G. (1889):

Observations on sexual selection in Spiders of the family

Attidae. Occ. Pap. Nat. Hist. Soc. Wisc., 1: 1-60.

(1890): Additional observations

on sexual selection in spiders of the family Attidae,

with some remarks on Mr. Wallace’s Theory of Sexuaj

Ornamentation. Occ. Pap. Nat. Hist. Soe. Wisc.,

21 @G)e 117-151.

REISKHIND, J. (1965): The taxonomic problem of

sexual dimorphism in spiders and synonymy in Myrme-

cotypus (Araneae, Clubionidae).. Psyche. 72 (4):

279-281.

TIKADER, B. K. (1974): Studies on some jumping

spiders of the genus Phidippus from India (Family:

Salticidae). Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 79 B (3) : 120-126.

21. BUTTERFLY MIGRATIONS IN THE NILGIRI HILLS OF SOUTH INDIA

(LEPIDOPTERA : RHOPALOCERA) |

From 1954 to 1958 I lived in Kotagiri at

6500 feet in the Nilgiri Mountains (11°21’ N,

76°54'E) of Tamil Nadu State, then Madras

State, attending boarding school and leaving

at the age of 14. The remarkable seasonal

migrations of many species of butterflies fasci-

nated me so much that for the last two years I

kept a notebook on my observations which has

unfortunately been long since lost. However,

the memories remained vividly etched in my

mind. As far too little has been published

on this interesting phenomenon in India,

especially by observers resident for several

years in the same spot, the well-known

authority on imsect migration, Dr. C. B.

Williams, suggested that I publish as much as I

could. piece together. Aided by notes in the

margin of my copy of Wynter-Blyth (1957)

transferred from my notebook before it was

lost, by specimens remaining in collections

made by me and schoolmates at the time, and

by the kind assistance of my former head-

master, Mr. Ejnar Jensen as well as the con-

tents of a stream of letters which he goaded

me into sending to my parents at the time,

the total picture emerged much more precisely

than I had dared hope for. The data may be of

assistance in unravelling one of the most

interesting natural phenomena among the

546

Indian butterflies. However, it must be bore

in mind that the observations were made by a

boy between the age of 10 and 14 and that

twenty years have since elapsed, so _ that

although the total picture 1s valid enough the

details must be treated with due caution.

Williams (1930) lists numerous recorded

migrations from Sri Lanka while there are

very much fewer from South India though the

phenomenon should be equally important here.

The most detailed observations are those made

by Evershed at Kodaikanal in the Palni Hills

(10°15’ N, 77°31’E) and his material will be

used for comparison (Williams 1927). All

known migrations in India were summarised

in 1938 by Williams since when major studies

in this field do not appear to have been pub-

lished. However, as this is not intended to

be a review article no careful literature search

has been made.

The school was situated in the deciduous

woodland zone of the South Indian mountains

where a number of Palaearctic relict species

survive separated from the closest neighbour-

ing populations 3000 km to the north in the

Himalayas. Typical representatives were Pieris

canidia, Colias erate, Vanessa indica and

Argynnis hyperbius. Many species of Oriental

origin did not normally penetrate to this height

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

and lower down on the Mettupalayam Ghat

many species occurred which we never saw at

Kotagiri.

Every year, probably in May, a prolonged

migration lasting a month or more passed

from the north towards south. The main

components were the five Pierids Appias albina,

A. libythea, Catopsilia pomona, C. pyranthe

and. C. crocale crocale as well as the Nymphalid

Phalanta phalanta. These six must have

accounted for three quarters of the total.

Hebomoia glaucippe was a regular, but un-

common, member of the migrant stream. In

addition at least the following species joined the

main flight in smaller numbers : Papilio crino,

P. demoleus, Graphium nomius (only 2 in 1957),

Euploea core, E. coreta, Euthalia nais (very

occasional), E. lubentina (occasional), Ergolis

ariadne, Cupha erymanthis, Cirrochroa_ thais

and Precis almana. Finally both the species

of libythea, lepita and myrrha. On the whole

the migrants behaved in the classical fashion,

flying rather low, in a direct line, surmounting

rather than avoiding obstacles, and rarely if

ever settling to feed during the flight. Some

of the Catopsilia and all the Hebomoia flew

high. The direction of the spring flight was

always the same. We used to collect in the

school breaks on every sunny day and I re-

member never having been surprised on this

count. It is perfectly clear that the direction

of the flight cannot have been much modified

by wind direction, though strong cross wind

would lead to a considerable drift. Ona good

day one to four specimens would cross a 15

metre front every minute and although this is

mot an impressive density the migration was

noticeable to the layman. How broad the

total front was cannot be guessed at ; judging

from walks to Sunday school and church or to

other collecting grounds the belt certainly

stretched at least three kilometres to either side

of the school. While there were variations

from day to day and from year to year in the

density and composition of the flights the

general impression was one of great regularity.

Once, almost certainly in October of 1957,

there was a phenomenal migration of red-

bodied swallowtails. Masses of Atrophaneura

hector and Pachlioptera aristolochiae were

flying south at a slightly different angle to

that of the normal flight. The latter was

slightly less abundant. The altitude of the

migrants appeared to be 20-40 metres where

they proceeded at a slow pace with hardly any

movement of the wings. The visual effect was

rather like that of bomber squadrons droning

overhead on newsreels from the Second World

War. The majestic procession stretched as far

as the eye could see and lasted for at least five

hours. Hundreds must have passed a hundred

metre front every minute, and millions must

have been involved. We were very keen to

get some specimens, especially of hector, but

not a single specimen descended from cruising

altitude.

On the very same day there was a small

migration of the Lycaenid Jamides bochus

travelling towards the northeast. Though

thin, the migratory movement was obvious

since it was a butterfly which we rarely saw.

On the same day there was a tremendous

migration of dragonflies (Odonata, Anisoptera)

travelling due south at a slight angle to that

of the two swallowtails. Although dragonfly

migrations were not very rare it is possible

that the massive migratory movements of

that day were prompted by some form of extra-

ordinary metereological conditions.

Most of the species so far cited as migrants

had no regular breeding populations at this

height and some never bred at all. In this

sense they resemble migrants crossing the sea

as they traverse long stretches of land unsuitable

for breeding. We had breeding populations of

a number of species which although prone to

migration elsewhere we never encountered in

the main flights, e.g. Eurema hecabe, Danaus

547.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

limniace, Hypolimnas misippus, Vanessa cardui,

Telchinia violae, Lampides boeticus and others.

Most of the Precis species have some migratory

instincts, but apart from some P. almana I do

not recollect them being associated with the

flights.

I have little clear recollection of any autumn

return flight. This does not necessarily mean

it did not take place as we were attuned to

the high density of the spring flights. The

topography also would have made observations

more difficult. However, I do remember

collecting on a grassy slope from a stream of

butterflies travelling towards the north or

northeast on a few occasions and my notes say

that there was a return movement of some

Appias and Catopsilia. I have noted four

species as having been encountered travelling

in three or more directions at various times.

They are Euploea core, Euploea coreta, Jamides

bochus and Cirrochroa thais but the exact

circumstances have been forgotten.

Compared to Evershed’s observations on the

Palni Hills the following points may be noted.

Virtually all the species listed here were also

encountered in the Palnis at the same time of

the year, though Precis and Danaus species

must have been under represented in the

Nilgiris ; certainly they never migrated in large

numbers. The direction of the flights was not

identical in the two areas and in the Palnis the

September and October movements were

stronger than those in spring. Taking also

Sri Lanka data into account (Williams 1930) we

find that all the species listed have been known

as migrants elsewhere with the exception of

Euthalia lubentina. Although we only saw

it rarely it was a bona fide migrant. Together

with E. nais, a known migrant, /ubentina has

the largest distribution area of the E£uthalia

and it is natural to link this with its migratory

capacity.

_ How far the species fly, from where they

originate, to where they go, and what triggers

548

such behaviour cannot be answered for the

Nilgiris. It may be a movement from one

flank of the mountains to the otherto take

advantage of seasonal rainfall but it is clear that

a complex and substantial problem awaits a

solution.

It may be appropriate to mention a few other

unpublished migration records from other

parts of India. Correspondence with a boy-

hood friend shows that he captured two female

Pieris brassicae in Lodi Gardens in Delhi on

15 & 26.iv.1961. He caught a male Argynnis

hyperbius in late March 1961 and I caught a

few females in July, also in Lodi Gardens.

Both species do not normally breed in Delhi

but are restricted to the Himalayas where

the breed above 3000 feet or so. They migrate

towards the plains for hibernation. P.

brassicae may breed on the plains, but A.

hyperbius is most unlikely to find a suitable

food plant as it appears restricted to violets.

The presence of the latter in July in Delhi is

doubly puzzling. Delhi is quite far south for

both species to be found.

In April or May of 1958 on the plain just

south of Mysore I encountered an enormous

migration of Euploea (core and/or coreta) with

a density high enough to make driving difficult.

The direction of the flight was not determined.

No other species were involved. Similar

large migrations of Euploea have been recorded

on other occasions on the plains.

SUMMARY

In this paper I have attempted to sketch the

pattern of butterfly migration as observed

during four years in South India. The general

picture is fairly correct, but as twenty years

have passed since the observations were made

details may be wrong. It is even possible that

the timing of the two seasons is reversed.

However, I hope the data are interesting enough

being

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

to stimulate more research into the fascinating

problem of butterfly migration by long term

Even for Sri Lanka,

residents in a given area.

COLE PE,

18-20, LOWER REGENT ST.,

LONDON SWIY 4PW,

U.K.,

January \7T, 1977.

where so much more information is on hand,

the huge, annual flights remain for all practical

purposes a mystery.

TORBEN B. LARSEN

REFERENCES

WILuiaMs, C.B. (1927): A study of butterfly mig-

ration in South India and Ceylon, based largely on

records by Messrs J. Evershed, E.E. Green, J.C.F.

Fryer and W. Ormiston. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 75

1-33.

Edinburgh.

- (1930): Migration of Butterflies.

(1938): The migration of butter-

fliesin India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 439-457.

WYNTER-BLYTH, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the

Indian region. Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

22. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF DIMINUTIVE POEKILOCERUS PICTUS

(FABR.) ADULTS IN NATURE

(With two text-figures)

Poekilocerus pictus (Fabr.) commonly known

as painted or AK-grasshopper, occurs abun-

dantly on Calotropis ¢ AK’ or Akwan) plants

in the bed and banks of river Fulgu (Gaya

variations in the adults of this grasshopper

have been frequently observed interestingly

enough during field collection as well as in

laboratory rearings a few adults of both the

sexes attracted our attention by virtue of their

of abnormally smaller size. They

were hitherto referred as ‘diminutive’ adults.

Among 235 adult specimens collected from

the above localities in the month of June 1975,

four diminutive adults were encountered. The

sex ratio of these specimens was three males

and one female. They had imaginal colora-

tion but out of four only two (males) possessed

fully formed fore and hind pairs of wings and

the remaining two individuals (one male and

one female) had rudimentary wings which

more or less resembled the nymphal wing pads

(Fig. 1). They were approximately of the

size of a 5th instar nymph. The size of the

body of these individuals (3, 26.00-28.30 mm,

2, 32.5 mm) compared well with those of the

5th instar nymphs (see Pruthi & Nigam 1939).

In the following year (1976) 250 adults were

raised in the laboratory from a stock of 280

nymphs of 3rd to 5th instars collected in the

month of June from the same localities. Seven

diminutive adult males and one such female

549

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

appeared among the normal sized adults.

Interestingly enough one diminutive adult

male and one female were of extremely small

_ Fig. 1.. Photograph showing the relative body size

of a female 5th instar nymph (A), diminutive adults—

male (B), and female (C). Note the rudimentary wings

of the adults.

size ever observed by us (Fig. 2). The size of

these two individuals (g, 22.10 mm, 9, 27.25 mm)

were equal to the 4th instar nymphs (Pruthi &

Nigam 1939). They had rudimentary wings.

However, out of seven males six possessed

Fig. 2. Photograph showing the relative body size

of a normal male (A), normal female (B), 4th instar

female nymph (C), diminutive adults—female (D) and

male (E). Note the rudimentary wings of the dimi-

nutive adults. ae ean

_ fully formed fore and hind pairs of wings and

were comparable in size with the 5th instar

nymphs.

Thus taking into account the numbers of

individuals collected from the field and those

reared im the laboratory we noted that in a

total of 485 adult individuals, 12 were diminu-

tive adults (approx. 2.5%).

The diminutive adult males with fully formed

wings were the normal males in every respect

but the adult males of the same category with

rudimentary wings appeared to be imperfect

or immature adults. The former displayed

sexual behaviour and mated with the sexually

mature females while the later neither exhibited

sexual behaviour nor mated with females

when kept under observation with females for

twenty days. The normal adults of P. pictus

become sexually mature and undergo mating

within a week after fledging (Singh ef al. 1975 ;

Raziuddin et al. 1976). The diminutive

adult females also did not undergo mating.

The various timely events occurring during

the development of insects are regulated by a

gradual change in the balance of the moulting

hormone (ecdysone) secreted by prothoracic

gland and juvenile hormone produced by

corpora allata. If this hormonal balance is

disturbed by various extrinsic and intrinsic

factors abnormalities occur in metamorphosis.

Temperature and food are the main factors

which produce different effects on the produc-

tion of hormones and consequently cause up-

sets in the hormonal balance. Low tempera-

ture causes ‘metathetly’ (juvenile changes)

and high temperature ‘prothetly’ (adult

characters) in the larvae of the bug Rhodnius

(Wigglesworth 1951). In Leucophaea (Scharrer

1946) and Dixippus (Pflugfelder 1937) alletec-

tomy in earlier instars leads to partial meta-

morphosis and the production of ‘preadul-

toids’ but in Rhodnius alletectomy of even

first stage larvae led them to metamorphose

into miniature adults having well developed

550.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

adult characters. It is known that grass-

hoppers will not infrequently miss out a larval

stage to produce small sized adults (Wiggles-

worth, personal communication) but P. pictus

appear to omit one or more than one nymphal

stages and undergo precocious metamorphosis

during summer to produce diminutive adults.

In fact the case of precocious metamorphosis

in P. pictus reported in the present communi-

cation is very interesting as they were not

produced by alletectomy in the laboratory but

appear in nature on their own under the climatic

conditions of hot summer months. The

appearance of similar diminutive adults in

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

MAGADH UNIVERSITY,

BoODH-GAYA, BIHAR,

April 18, 1977.

laboratory reared stock is clearly a recurrence

of the same phenomenon namely of precocious

metamorphosis first observed in the field

population. A _ thorough investigation of

climatic and nutritional conditions in the field

supported by experimental studies in the labora-

tory are needed to explain under what set or

sets of climatic and nutritional conditions,

precocious metamorphosis occurs in the popu-

lation of P. pictus in nature. :

One of the authors (M.R.) is thankful to the

University Grants Commission, New Delhi,

India for providing him financial support in the

form of Junior Research Fellowship.

MOHAMMAD RAZIUDDIN

TAUQUIRUR RAHMAN KHAN

SHYAM BIHARI SINGH

REFERENCES

PFLUGFELDER, O. (1937): Entwicklung und Funk-

tion der Corpora allata und Corpora cardiaca Von

Dixippus morosus. Br. Z. Wiss. Zool. (A), 149:

477-512.

- Prutut, H. S. & Nicam, L. N. (1939): The bio-

nomics, Life-history and control of the grasshopper,

Poecilocerus pictus (Fabr.)—A new pest of cultivated

crops in North India. Indian J. Agr. Sci.9: 629-641.

RAZIUDDIN, MD., KHAN, T.R. & SINGH, S. B. (1976)

Observations on the sexual behaviour and oviposition

in the grasshopper, Poekilocerus pictus (Fabr.) (Acti

doidea : Pyrgomorphidae). Zool. Anz. Jena, 197 (3/4-

(in press).

SCHARRER, B. (1946): The role of corpora allata

in the development of Leucophaea maderae (Orthoptera :

Blatteria). Endocrinology, 38: 35-45.

SINGH, S.B., KHAN, T.R. & RAZIUDDIN, Mp. (1975) :

Preliminary observations on the mating behaviour of

AK grasshopper, Poecilocerus pictus (Fabricius) (Acri-

doidea : Pyrgomorphidae). Zool. Soc. India, Dr. B. S.

Chauhan Comm. Vol., pp. 317-323.

_ WIGGLESworTH, V. B. (1951): Hormones and

metamorphosis with special reference to hemimeta-

bolic insects. Trans. 9th. Int. Congr.2: 51-57.

23. MIXED INFECTION OF LAC

The one problem for any living creature is

that of food and in the case of parasites of

plants, like the scale-insects, it means host-

selection. But until we can rear the insects

apart from the tree we shall never be able to

know exactly what they feed upon. In view of

the many technical difficulties enabling us

551

to grow lac insects, so to say, in vitro, it was

imagined that the symbiotic, yeast-like germ,

that lives within the lac insect, would indirectly

enable us to know what the insect really gets

from the plant. In an article on lac culti-

vation (1919) I had suggested, supported by

several preceding authorities, that probably

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

gum constitutes the main source of food.

I had, with my friend, Mr. Sreenivasaya (1928)

grown the symbiotic germ on different culture

media with the result that, as source of carbo-

hydrate, gum-arabic gave the best result,

and as that of nitrogen, uric acid. Uric acid

is an excretory substance so that when the

germ utilizes it there is a great economy in

insect metabolism. Thus indirect evidence

fully confirmed that lac insects feed on plant

gums.

Now other scale-insects were also seen on the

favourite host plants of lac insects. For

instance, the lac insect, Kerria communis, was

frequently found on the Champac tree, Miche-

lia champaca, which also proved to be a host

of the wax insect, Ceroplastes cerriferus. But

it is possible that physiological conditions in

two different plants of the same species may

radically differ. Nothing would be better

than to find a _ lac-insect and a wax

insect growing close together so that, in

this case, the foodstuff must necessarily be

the same. There were two species of wax

insects, in Bangalore, where the above obser-

vations were carried out. The other grew

best on Dodonaea viscosa (1936). A new

species named Ceroplastes vayssierii Madh.,

it was never found on M. champaca.

The species K. communis is found in Kerala,

Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Goa,

and Maharashtra, but nowhere is it exploited

for cultivation. It tends to produce such a

S. D. 34, BLock A,

NORTH NAZIMABAD,

KARACHI 33, PAKISTAN,

January 6, 1976.

preponderance of males that it does not pay

to cultivate it. On the contrary, in Karnataka,

the species K. mysorensis is the lac insect culti-

vated on Shorea talura. Since this tree permits

cultivation it was studied by preference. Yet

few scale insects were found on it. The most

common was a species of Lecanium which

was propagated by the ant Oecophyla smarag-

dina, which is well known. But besides the

symbiotic occurrence of that Lecanium species

and, the ant the same scale insect was not

conspicuous otherwise. However a species

of Monophlebius was found occupying forked

branches of S. talura. This insect I believe

is not identical with M. stebbingii and probably

is a new species.

Occasionally a species of Cypticera scale

insect was found on the leaves of S. talura.

I am grateful to the Commonwealth Bureau

of Entomology for the probable identification

of the coccid. In Sind the lac species K. sin-

dica is cultivated on Acacia arabica. It has

been found besides on Albizzia lebbek, Zizy-

phus jujuba and Anona squamosa. The same

species of Crypticera was seen profusely grow-

ing all round a vertical stem of A. squamosa

while a neighbouring stem supported K. Sin-

dica. Previous observations have shown that

the predacious caterpillars of Eublemma scitula

attacked other Coccids as also lac insects.

No other parasite, chalcid or otherwise, have

been found sharing as hosts, lac and other

scale insects.

S. MAHDIHASSAN

REFERENCES

MADHIHASSAN, S. (1919): The cultivation of lac

from a physiological stand point. Q./. Mysore For.

Asso. 2: 197-220.

(1936): Range of host—selection

oflacand other parasites. Arch. f. Naturgesch. 5: 1-22.

SREENIVASAYA, M. & MAHDIHASSAN, S. (1928):

Symbiotic fungus from the Mysore Lac insect, J. Ind.

Inst. Sci. 12A : 69-72.

S32

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

24. OCCURRENCE OF LEPTOCORISA ACUTA FABR. (COREIDAE,

HEMIPTERA) AS A PEST OF NUTMEG TREES

Large swarms of the rice earhead bug Lepto-

corisa acuta Fabr. adults were recorded on

the nutmeg trees (Vyristica fragrans Houtt.)

in mixed plantations around newly transplan-

ted rice fields in parts of Kalady in the Erna-

kulam District of the State of Kerala, during

September-October, 1976. The population

consisted exclusively of adults and the concent-

tration per leaf ranged from 15-40. The

maximum concentration was found on tender

foliage. In the absence of paddy crop in the

susceptible stage, the nutmeg trees were very

much preferred for adult congregation, possibly

due to the dense leaf canopy of nutmeg trees

which provide good shelter and due to the

favourable micro climate in the irrigated plan-

tations characterised by relatively high humi-

dity.

COLLEGE OF HORTICULTURE,

MANNUTHY 680 651,

TRICHUR, KERALA,

December 1, 1976.

The bugs which were comparatively in-

active, fed on tender foliage causing minute

slightly diffused yellowish-brown spots around

the feeding punctures. This is the first record

of L. acuta as a pest of nutmeg trees.

Foliar symptoms were reproduced when the

bugs were confined in cages containing excised

shoots. The mature leaves and fruits of

varying degrees of development were not

preferred for feeding. Though the bugs were

present in large populations, the damage

inflicted to the trees was found to be negli-

gible.

L. acuta has been recorded on non-gramina-

ceous alternate host crops such as mango

(Sen 1961), Guava (Puttarudriah 1961), rubber

(Green 1914 and Puttarudriah 1961) and tea

(Corbett 1933).

C. C. ABRAHAM

K.S. REMA MONY

REFERENCES

CorBetIT, G. H. (1933): Annual report for the

year 1932; Division of Entomology, Dept. Agr. S.S.

and F.M.S.; Gen. Ser. 14: 39-52.

GREEN, E. E. (1914):

Hevea rubber trees. Trop. Agr. 43 (3): 184-186.

PUTTARUDRIAH, M. (1961): The rice bugs. Proc.

Rice Res. Work. Conf., Cuttack, pp. 283-287.

SEN, A. C. (1961): Incidence of the gundhi bug.

On some animal pests of Proc. Rice Res. Work. Conf., Cuttack, pp. 291-294.

25. OCCURRENCE OF PEARL OYSTERS IN RATNAGIRI DISTRICT

In the Indian region pearl oysters exist in

the Gulf of Mannar and in the Gulf of

kutch. The following six species of pearl

oysters have been reported (Rao 1970, Rao

and Rao 1974).

1. Pinctada fucata (Gould), 2. Pinctada margaritifera

(Linnaeus), 3. Pinctada chemnitzii (Philippi), 4. Pinctada

sugillata (Reeve), 5. Pinctada anomioides (Reeve) and 6.

Pinctada atropurpurea (Dunker).

Of these, Pinctada fucata is commercially

most important species supporting a lucrative

fishery in both the regions producing the

‘Oriental pearls’ or ‘ Lingah pearls’.

553

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

In the month of August, 1976 immediately

after a storm, a number of pearl oysters were

washed ashore on the Malvan beach. It

was reported that at least over a thousand

oysters were washed ashore which were subse-

quently picked up by local people for eating.

A subsequent visit to the place yielded 27

shells of pearl oysters belonging to the species

Pinctada chemnitzii (Philippi).

Pinctada chemnitzii was described by Phi-

lippi (1849) from the China sea and Prashad

& Bhaduri (1933) first recorded its occurrence

MARINE BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH STATION,

KONKAN KRISHI VIDYAPEETH, RATNAGIRI,

March 18, 1977.

on the Indian coast. Along the Indian coast,

the species is known to occur (Rao 1970)

in Tranquebar, Madras Harbour, Tuticorin

pearl beds in the Gulf of Mannar, in Palk

Bay and off Balasore coast (Orissa). The

Malvan Collection is the first record of this

species from West Coast of India. Besides

India, it has been recorded from Ceylon,

Aden, Mergui Archipelago, Penang, Indo-

nesian group of islands, Australia, Hong Kong,

Philippines, China sea and Japan.

Iam thankfulto Dr. Alagarswami for kindly

confirming the identity of the species.

M. R. RANADE

REFERENCES

RAo, K. VIRABHADRA (1970): Pearl oysters of the

Indian region. Proc. Symp. Mollusca. Mar. Biol. Ass.

India Part III, pp. 1017-1028.

RAo, K. ViRABHADRA & RAO, K. S. (1974): Pearl

oysters. In the Commercial Molluscs of India. Bull.

No. 25 C.M.F.R.I.. pp. 84-105.

PHiuipP!,R.A. (1849): Centuria feria testacesorum

uovorum Sp. 75-100. Zeit Malakozool, pp. 17-26.

PRASHAD, B. & BHADURI, J. L. (1933): The pearl

oysters of the Indian waters. Rec. Indian Mus. 35:

167-174.

26. OCCURRENCE OF PEARLS IN THE INDIAN BACKWATER OYSTER

CRASSOSTREA MADRASENSIS (PRESTON)

Although 22 species of marine bivalves are

known to produce pearls (Bolman 1941;

Alexander 1951; Cooke 1959; Alagarswamy

1965), formation of pearls in edible oysters

appears to be rare. About 40 species of edible

oysters occur in different parts of the world,

but the only instance of pearl formation repor-

ted so far is in the European oyster Ostrea

edulis (Bolman, loc. cit). This note reports

the occurrence of pearls in the Indian _ back-

water oyster, Crassostrea madrasensis (Pres-

ton).

During the course of an investigation on the

biology of C. madrasensis from the Mulki

estuary, South Kanara, three specimens of

oysters were observed to have tiny pearls

lodged in pearl sacs formed in the mantle. —

In the first specimen, 99 mm shell height, —

collected on 20-1-1976, a black pearl, 1 mm —

in diameter, was found in the pearl sac situated |

at the ventral edge of the right lobe of the mant- |

le. The pearl sac was completely closed. |

The pearl was more or less spherical and non- —

lustrous. A second specimen, 150 mm shell |

554

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

height, collected on 19.vii.1976, revealed a

cream coloured pearl, 1.1 mm in diameter,

lodged in the completely closed pearl sac situa-

ted in the mantle at the umbo region. The

pearl was almost spherical, non-lustrous and

porcellanous. A third specimen, 142 mm

shell height, collected on 11.i1.1977, had three

fully closed pearl sacs, two at the umbo region

and one in the right lobe of the mantle imme-

diately above the digestive gland. Each

pearl) sac \contained oné pearl: The first

two pearls, 2.2 mm and 2.3 mm in diameter

respectively, were white, while the third, 2.6

mm in diameter, was cream coloured and with

a black marking on the side facing the right

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES,

COLLEGE OF FISHERIES,

MANGALORE-575 002,

April 4, 1977.

valve of the shell. All the three pearls were

almost spherical and porcellanous.

From the seas around India, species of

Pinctada, Placuna (Hornell 1909; Prashad &

Bhaduri 1933), Mytilus (Jones 1950), Gafra-

rium and Donax (Alagarswamy 1965) were

reported to produce pearls. Formation of

pearls has been reported in the freshwater

mussel Lamellidens (Hornell 1909) and the

sacred chank Xancus pyrum (Hornell 1916).

It is interesting to note that the formation of

pearls in C. madrasensis is not very uncommon,

as three speimens out of a total of 1,800 exa-

mined revealed the presence of pearls.

E am) grateful to Dr. P. S..B. R., James for

critical comments.

M. MOHAN JOSEPH

REFERENCES

ALAGARSWAMY, K. (1965): On pearl formation

in the venerid bivalve Gafrarium tumidum Roding.

J. Mar. biol. Ass., India, 7(2) : 345-347.

ALEXANDER, A. E. (1951): Pearls and the pearl

industry. Jn: Marine Products of Commerce, by

Donald K. Tressler and James Mc W Lemon. Reinhold

Pubiishing Corporation, New York. pp. 107-123.

BOLMAN, J. (1941): The Mystery of the Pearl. Jnter-

nationales Archiv fur Ethnographie, Suppl. Ed. 39. E. J.

Brill, Leiden, pp. 1-170.

Cooke, A. H. (1959): Molluscs. In: Molluscs

and Brachiopods. The Cambridge Natural History,

Eds. S. F. Harmer and A. E. Shipley, Reprint Edition.

pe tol.

HornNeELL, J. (1909): Report of the Government of

Baroda on the prospects of establishing a pearl fishery

and other marine industries on the coast of Okhamandal

In: Report to the Government of Baroda on the Marine

Zoology of Okhamandalin Kattiawar. Part I. Williams

and Norgate. pp. 43-98.

(1916): The Indian Conch (Tur-

binella pyrum Linn.) and its relation to Hindu life and

religion. In: Report to the Government of Baroda on

the Marine Zoology of Okhamandal in Kattiawar.

Part II, pp.1-77.

Jones, S. (1950): Observations on the bionomics

and fishery of the brown mussel (Mytilus sp.) of the

cape region of Peninsular India. J. Bombay nat. Hist,

Soc. 49: 519-528.

Je 1) (1933) 2 The pearl

Rec. Indian Mus. 35: 167-

PRASHAD, B. & BHADURI,

oysters of Indian waters.

174.

555

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

27. FIRST REPORT OF MESOCYCLOPS (THERMOCYCLOPS) MAHEENSIS

LINDBERG (COPEPODA-CYCLOPIDAE) FROM HIMACHAL PRADESH

Mesocyclops maheensis was described by

Lindberg (1941) from Mahe in South India.

Since then the species has not been recorded

anywhere else. The present report from Hima-

chal Pradesh is of great interest since it extends

the distribution to the north.

Mesocyclops (Thermocyclops) maheensis

Lindberg.

1941 Mesocyclops (Thermocyclops) maheensis

Lindberg. Rec. Indian. Mus. 43:259.

Material: 1000ex.; Cement tank, c. 1.75

m deep, Poanta Sahib, Sirmaur Distt.; alt.

400 m; 14. vu. 75. coll. R. C. Subbaraju’

10 ex.; Cement Tank, 2.3m _ deep, Saproon,

Solan Distt; alt. 1500 ms 14. vin “75: coll

R. C. Subbaraju, 12 ex.; Rain-water pool,

0.6 m deep; Saproon, Solan Distt.; alt. 1500 m;

4, ix. 75; coll. R. C. Subbaraju.

Remarks: The specimens from Himachal

Pradesh agree well with the description of the

species as given by Lindberg (1941) such as the

elongated dorsal seta on the furca, connecting

plate of 4th leg with small protruberences,

elongated genital segment and the structure

of the receptaculum seminis. However, it

differs in some minor characters. The furca

HIGH ALTITUDE ZOOLOGY FIELD STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

SOUAN, “(ACP»);

January 3 Von:

in the males is 3.01 times longer than broad

(a mean of 12 examples) as against 3.78 (based

on one example). In a collection from saproon,

the females show a thick single spine at the

distal end of second endopodite segment of

4th leg instead of 4 or 5 small setules in the

specimens from Mahe.

Recently, Sewell (1957) while reviewing the

various taxonomic characters of the subgenus

Thermocyclops sugg2sts that ratio of length to

breadth of the genital segment might serve

as a better basis for differentiating the species

and species groups in the Cyclopoid taxonomy.

Based on this feature, the present forms with

an average of 1.4008 1 (length: breadth)

are closer to M. iwoyiensis Onabamiro (1952)

which have a value of 1.4: 1.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India for providing facilities to

carry out these investigations. I am also

thankful to Dr. Raj Tilak, Superintending

Zoologist for encouragement. I thank Mr.

J. R. Dhanze for help in collecting the material

from Paonta Sahib.

R. C. SUBBARAJU

REFERENCES

LINDBERG, K. (1941): Cyclopoides nouveaux du

continent Indo-Iranien, Rec. Indian Mus.43 : 259-264.

(1952):

ONABAMIRO, S. D. Four new species of

Cyclops senu Lat (Crustacea : Copepoda). Proc. Zool-

Soc. London, 122 : 253-266.

SEWELL, R. B. S. (1957): Review of the subgenus

Thermocyclops. Rec. Ind. Mus. 55: 69-117.

556

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

28. OCCURRENCE OF LOPHOPODELLA CARTERI CARTERI (HYATT)

(LOPHOPODIDAE :

ECTOPROCTA) IN LAKES IN WESTERN HIMALAYA

(With three text-figures)

During the recent faunistic surveys, colonies

of a phylactolaematous bryozoan, namely Lopho-

podella carteri carteri (Hyatt) wete collected

from the Renuka Lake (about 30 km from

Nahan, Distt. Sirmaur, Himachal Pradesh)

and Mansar Lake (about 60 km from Jammu

on Sambha-Udhampur road). Both the lakes

are natural ones located at low altitude (650-

720 m) and mainly rain-fed. The pHof the

water is 7. The water is clear with submerged

vegetation in the littoral region.

Lophopodella carteri (Hyatt) is known to

occur in India, Java, Japan, China, Formosa,

U.S.S.R., Africa, S. Australia and U.S.A.

Rogick (1934) recognizes three varieties

of this species, namely carteri (Hyatt),

himalayana (Annandale) and davenporti (Oka)

on the basis of form and number of processes

on each end of the statoblast. These processes

are about 3-9 of indefinite form or absent

in himalayana, 6-17 with recurved hooks in

carteri and 18-20 recurved hooks in daven-

porti. Of the three varieties, only himalayana

and carteri are found in India, the former in

the Kumaon Hills at Malwa Tal, Bhim Tal,

Sat Tal and Naini Tal (Annandale 1911, 1912)

and the latter at Bombay, Madras (Annandale

1911) and Ambala City (Vasisht & Sofet,

in press). The statoblasts found in the speci-

mens from Renuka and Mansar Lakes agree

well with those of the variety carteri. The

present discovery of Lophopodella carteri car-

teri extends its geographic range to the nor-

thernmost parts of the country.

Lophopodella carteri carteri (Hyatt)

1859. Lophopus sp. Carter, Ann. Nat. Hist., (3) 3:

335. (Bombay).

1866. Pectinatella carteri

Inst., 4: 203.

1911. Lophopodella carteri, Annandale, Fauna Brit.

India, Freshwater sponges, hydroids and Polyzoa : 232.

Hyatt, Comm. Essex

1934. Lophopodella carteri var.

Trans. Amer. microsc. Soc., 53: 417.

typica, Rogick,

Material examined :

(1) One colony; Renuka Lake, H.P.; alt.

6s00 an; Wi” vin. 76; Ray Tilak. “@i)* Several

colonies; Mansar Lake, Jammu & Kashmir;

alt. 720 m; 4-10. i1. 77; Raj Tilak. (iti) Several

colonies; Renuka Lake, H.P.; alt. 650 m, 20,

22. ili. 77; J.M. Julka (from submerged roots

and stems of reeds).

DESCRIPTION

Colony: Colony is a lobulate gelatinous

mass of yellowish colour and attached to the

substratum by a hyaline substance. The zooids

arise from a common stalk (Fig. 1).

FIG. |

Fig. 1. A part of the colony of Lophopodella carteri

carteri (Hyatt).

Sou

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Zooid: | Lophophore horseshoe-shaped,

fringed with a row of 76-82 tentacles; the two

arms of the lophophore project freely. Tentacles

connected basally by a thin and transparent

intertentacular membrane, fully retractile into

zooecial tube. Mouth overhung by a pro-

jecting epistome. Anus outside tentacular

crown. Digestive tract brownish, somewhat

V-shaped; stomach attached to the body wall

by a strong funiculus.

Statoblast: (Figs. 2, 3): Length 0.89-0.95

mm. Width 0.62-0.67 mm. Each statoblast

deeply brownish in colour, broadly ellipsoidal

HOOKED

SPINE ~-

ANNULUS~--77

CAPSULE~~

FIG. 2

Fig. 2. Statoblast of Lophopodella carteri carteri

(Hyatt).

with extremities subtruncate; capsule some-

what circular to elliptical and darker in colour;

annulus with air-filled cells which decrease in

size towards the capsule; length of capsule

0.43-0.47 mm, width of capsule 0.4-0.42 mm.

558

Fd HOOKED (WP

SPINE @&

FIG. 3

Fig. 3. An enlarged view of a portion of the Stato-

blast.

Each extremity of statoblast with 8-10 spines;

central spines longer than the lateral ones.

Spines furnished with 4-17 recurved hooks.

Remarks: The presence of Lophopodella

carteri carteri in Renuka and Mansar Lakes

of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir

respectively can be attributed to the successful

transportation of its statoblasts to these lakes,

their germination and eventual colonisation.

The freshwater bryozoans have a tendency to

spread to various parts of the world by trans-

portation of their statoblasts, which in dry

state, could be blown to long distances or

carried away along with plants and verte-

brates. Brown (1933) found some statoblasts

still viable and capable of germination after

passing through the digestive tracts of amphi-

bians, turtles and ducks. Hymen (1959) states

that the statoblasts of Lophopodella carteri

can germinate after being kept dry at room:

temperature for about 44 years. According

to Rogick (1959), the colonies of Lophopodella

carteri, when crushed, are toxic to fish.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. S. Khera, Joint

Director-in-charge, Zoological Survey of India

HIGH ALTITUDE ZOOLOGY STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

SOLAN, (H.P.),

Apri 1977.

for providing necessary facilities to carry out

these investigations.

RAJ TILAK

J. M. JULKA

REFERENCES

ANNANDALE, N. (1911): Fauna of British India,

Freshwater sponges, hydroids and Polyzoa—Tayior

and Francis, London: 1-251.

-_ (1912): Observations on _ the

invertebrate fauna of Kumaon lakes with special

reference to sponges and Polyzoa. Rec. Indian Mus.

7: 129-146.

Brown, C. J. D. (1933): A limnological study of

certain freshwater Polyzoa with special reference to

their statoblasts. ZJrans. Amer. microsc. Soc. 52:

271-316.

HymeEn, L. H. (1959): The Invertebrates: Smaller

coelomate groups. McGraw-Hill Book Company,

New York, London, Tronto : 1-783.

Rocick, M. (1934): The occurrence of Lopho-

podella carteriin North America. Trans. Amer. microsc.

Soc. 53: 416-424,

(1959): Bryozoa. In: Ward &

Whipple : Freshwater Biology : 495-507.

VASISHT, H. S. & Soret, B. B. (in press): Reporting

the occurrence of the bryozoan Lophopodella carteri

(Hyatt) from the Municipal Park Tank in Ambala

City. Res. Bull. Panjab Univ.

29. HODGSONIA HETEROCLITA—AN OIL-RICH CUCURBIT

(With two text-figures)

The Cucurbitaceous plants are known for

their oil-rich seeds, and there are reports on

the possibilities. of using seeds of perennial

cucurbits as sources of vegetable fats and pro-

teins (Curtis 1946). The small genus Hodg-

Sonia of Asia assumes importance in this con-

text (Burkill 1935; Hu 1964; Uphof 1968).

Of its two species, only H. heteroclita Hook.

f. & Thoms. occurs in India (Anonymous

1959; Chakravarti 1959) chiefly in the sub-

tropical north-eastern hills with its extension

towards cold sub-temperate-temperate east

Himalayan region. During plant explora-

tions to Manipur and Mizoram some

information on the uses of this woody

climber was collected, along with a

collection of fruit/seed material (locally

called Khaum) from Kolasib tract (Mizo-

ram). This note deals with the fruit/

seed characteristics of this plant and the

native uses of the kernel which cons-

titutes the edible part, besides presenting data

on the oil-content/composition of the seed.

The fruit—a pomiform gourd (Fig. 1) does

not exhibit much variation. It has brownish/

yellowish colour, is pulpy inside holding 6 to

8 large mature seeds, each upto 10x62 cm.

Each seed or often a pair of seeds is wrapped

in a hard covering and inside this is the seed

proper (Fig. 2) with a thin, brittle tests, pithy,

thick (2-4 mm) integument and the large

cotyledons—the kernel comprising the oil-

rich commercially exploitable part of the plant.

It has been: reported that the kernel which 1s

559

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 74

approximately 33% of the whole seed has an

oil content to the extent of 70-80% by weight

(Hu 1964). The kernel is eaten after roasting

In roasted

and only occasionally taken raw.

Fig. 1. Mature fruit (pomiform gourd) of Hodgsonia

heteroclita.

Fig 2.

(A) The fruit of Hodgsonia split into two

halves :

B&C. Tne seeds with (B) and without (C) the

hard bony coverin3z.

form, it is very much favoured by the natives

as a nutritious food. Its flavour is more like

lard, comparable to that of a pork scrap

(Hu 1964). The mature seeds are collected

560

from the wild and brought to the village mar-

kets for’sale. It is a much esteemed product.

To know the composition of the oil etc.,

the kernel was analysed through the Depart-

ment of Chemical Technology, University of

Bombay. The results are as follows:

I Oil content on dry kernel basis : 5357 oe

Protein content ss i 31.0%

Carbohydrates s mn NZS SZ

Fibres A 3%

II Fatty acid composition (by Gas-liquid Chroma-

tography)

Palmitic 29.0

Stearic oT ih

Oleic 16.6

Linoleic .. 46.7

III Acid value of the o11: 7253)

Iodine value of the oil : DS ohh

1.V. of mixed fatty acids derived from

oil: esi

In north-eastern region the natives normally

do not extract oil, but whenever this is done,

it is used for cooking food and even for light-

ing purposes.

Efforts to study the potentialities of Hodgso-

nia aS an economic plant were made in early

part of this century and trials were conducted

to grow it on an experimental basis (Hu 1964).

This plant possesses desirable traits such as:

good fruit bearing (40-100/plant) extended

over a prolonged period, commencement of

fruiting after 2 to 3 years’ growth and a wide

climatic adaptability. Its undesirable features

are: difficulty of establishing a controlled popu- |

lation of male and female plants in the field,

poor number of mature seeds per fruit, and |

large size of the hard shell or wrapping as |

compared to kernel size in seed, which have

decidedly held up its coming into prominence. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES |

Asexual propagation is possible in Hodgsonia

and cutting and layering have been successfully

tried (Hu 1964). A more meaningful effort

to screen the existing populations to select

fine quality strains of seeds to bring about higher

yields is obviously necessary. In this context,

it would be worthwhile to lay emphasis on the

plants being grown by the natives in their

courtyards, as some of these conscious domes-

ticates may have desirable traits.

The oil content of seeds of Hodgsonia is

quite high, and the percentage of unsaturated

essential fatty acids in its composition is also

very high. From the point of view of edibility,

the undesirable component in the fatty acid

composition of the oil is stearic acid which

can be removed by refrigeration method.

Although seeds are consumed by the local

tribes in north-eastern India, it is essential to

DIVISION OF PLANT INTRODUCTION,

INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

New. DELHI-110 012,

June 1, 1976.

ascertain whether they contain any minute

concentration of substances toxic to mammals

by conducting feeding trials. The Jodine

value also shows the degree of unsaturation

which approximates the lodine value of ground-

nut which is 106-115. Thus, there is possi-

bility of locating better agrotypes of this plant

in north-eastern region, as source of an oil

which when processed with respect to elimi-

nation of stearic acid and toxic component,

if any, will be comparable to groundnut oil

in quality. :

We are thankful to Dr. D. Rebello, Depart-

ment of Chemical Technology, University of

Bombay for help in the Chemical analysis of

the seed material, and to Dr. K.C. Sikka,

Division of Biochemistry, I.A.R.I., for the

interpretation of this analysis.

R. K. ARORA

M. W. HARDAS

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS (1959) :

materials. 5 (HK).

BurkiLe. to HH. (1935):

nomic Products of Malay Peninsula, London.

CHAKRAVARTY, M. L. (1959):

Indian Cucurbitaceae. Records Bot. Surv., India, 17.

@urwis, ly. C. (946):

The Wealth of India, Raw

A Dictionary of the Eco-

Monograph on

The possibilities of using

species of perennial Cucurbits as sources of vegetable

fats and protein. Chemurgic Digest, 5: 221.

Hu, SuHiu-Yinc (1964): The Economic Botany

of Hodgsonia. Econ. Bot. 18: 167-179.

Upuor, J. C. TH. (1958): The Dictionary of Eco-

nomic Products, Stechert-Hafner Service Agency,

Inc., New York.

30. DATURA INNOXIA—A PERENNIAL HERB

(With a text-figure)

Datura innoxia Mill is an important medicinal

plant of great pharmaceutical utility. Its seeds

and young leaves contain the alkaloids, hyos-

cine, hyoscyamine and atropine, but commer-

cially only scopolamine /hyoscine is extracted.

The plant, a native of Mexico (Dastur 1962),

is reported as a coarse bushy annual of 1 to

1.25 m height. It now grows wild in the Wes-

tern Himalayas, in the Western hills of Deccan

peninsula and in other parts of the country

361

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

by the sides of railway tracks, waste lands and

near old dwellings. It has, however, not been

reported from anywhere within the valley of

Kashmir.

_ Anumber of years back Chopra et al. (1962)

introduced this plant in Srinagar but there is

no record of its having become naturalised to

this region (Javed 1970; Kaul 1975). The

plant was reintroduced by us during the year

1972 from Jammu, Bhubneshwar, Bangalore

and other places of the country. During the

course of its domestication at Srinagar three

types of plants were observed on the basis of

floral morphology the pin, the thrum, and the

homostylous types. While the thrum and

homostylous types proved to be annuals, a few

of the pin types showed. perennial behaviour.

Avery et al. (1959) record the occasional peren-

nial behaviour for the Bernhardi group of

Datura, (in which Datura innoxia is also inclu-

ded) but no mention is made in particular

about the behaviour of perennation in Datura

innoxia. The present paper reports the beha-

viour of these perennial plants for the first

time.

The seeds were washed with water to get

rid of the inhibitor on the seed coat. After

washing, these were sown on 7-3-1972 and

6-5-1972 in nursery beds of 0.50 m x 1.25 m

size and seedlings were transplanted in the

field on 16-6-72. The distances between plant-

to-plant and row-to-row were kept as 0.75 and

100 m._ respectively. Observations were

recorded on all the three types of plants on

October 5, 1972, but for sake of comparison

the data for pin flowered plants only is reported

in Table 1. The perennial plants which inclu-

ded only the pin types, totalling 36, were

again studied in the fourth year of growth and

the data were recorded on Ist October, 1975

(Table 1).

From the Table 1 and Fig. 1, it will be ob-

served that the perennial plants are in no way

different from the annual ones. Whatever

little difference is noted in 1975, it is attributed

_ ‘TABLE 1

AVERAGE PERFORMANCE OF PIN-EYED D. innoxia

DURING IST AND 4TH YEAR OF GROWTH

Plant character Year

1972 1975

Plant height (cm) WDC) 1) 25)

No. of capsules per plant 34.65 29.40 |

Fresh seed weight per plant(g) .. 200.00 170.60

% alkaloid in seed 0.29 0.23

Suits

i peseest

Fig. 1. Pin-eyed Datura innoxia during fourth year

of growth.

to the lack of same field conditions as were

prevailing in 1972. It may be pointed out

that the root stock of these plants has been

able to withstand severe winter conditions of

Kashmir when the temperature drops down

to 10 to —12°C. There is frost. and snow

right from late December to early March. In

April-May fresh growth starts from the crown

of these perennial root stocks. The herbarium

in India.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

specimen of these plants is deposited in Her-

barium Section of RRL (Br.), Srinagar (Vou-

cher No. 16443). Detailed investigation on

the genetic make up of these plants is in

progress.

REGIONAL RESEARCH LABORATORY (BRANCH),

SANAT NAGAR,

SRINAGAR 190 005.

May 25, 1976.

Thanks are due to Dr. C. K. Atal, Director,

Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu/Srinagar

for suggestions and encouragement.

P. N. PANDITA

B. K. BHAT

A. K. DHAR

S. D. SHARMA

REFERENCES

Avery, A. G., SATINA, S. & RIETSEMA, J. (1959):

Blakeslee: The genus Datura. The Ronald Press

Company, New York. pp. 3-30.

CuHopra, I. C., Sopti, S. N. & HANDA, K.L. (1962):

Cultivation of Medicinal Plants in Jammu and Kashmir.

ICAR Research Series No. 13, New Delhi. pp. 34-36.

Dastur, J. F. (1962): Medicinal Plants of India

and Pakistan. (D.B. Taraporevala Sons & Co.

Ltd., Bombay). p. 73.

JAVED, G.N. (1970): Phytogeographical and taxo-

nomical study of flowering plants of Srinagar. Ph. D.

Thesis, Kashmir University.

KAuL, M. K. (1975): Studies on the weeds of

cultivated fields of Srinagar and its environs. Ph.D.

Thesis, University of Bombay.

Pvt.

31. THE HOST RANGE OF THE GENUS CISTANCHE HOFFM. & LINK IN INDIA

The genus Cistanche Hoffm. & Link, consis-

ting about twenty-eight species, is represented

by a single species C. tubulosa (Schenk) Wight

in India (local name—Bhumiphor). It is found

in Punjab, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajas-

than in India and further extends westwards

upto mediterranean region through Pakistan,

Afghanistan, Persia and Arabia etc. The

Plants are leafless, obligate root-parasites,

bearing yellow flowers in dense, 15-20 cm

long spikes and they, considerably, show a

Specificity in the selection of their hosts. They

usually grow on the roots of deep-rooted.

woody xerophytic plants of physically dry

sandy soils. So far, Calotropis procera R. Br.

and Salvadora persica Linn. are the most

commonly known host species of this parasite

I have, during my studies on the

Orobanchoid parasites of India, noted that

the number of its hosts has markedly increased

in recent years. The common hosts of C.

tubulosa (Schenk) Wight in India are: Bala-

nites roxburghii Planch., Calligonum polygo-

noides Linn., Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Spreng.,

Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br., C. gigantea

(Linn.) R. Br., Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forsk.)

Decne, Lycium barbarum Linn., Salvadora

persica Linn., S. oleoides Decne, Acacia

leucophloea Willd. and Nopalia sp. (see Bole

in JBNHS, 61 (2): 472-473; 1964).

Further, it is interesting to note that most

of the host species bear xerophytic characters

like—fleshy leaves, leaves covered with cottony

pubescence or modified into spines or all toge-

ther absent and well developed chlorophyll

in different tissues of the stem like—included

phloem, chlorenchyma, pallisade etc. In

Arabian region, besides the above-mentioned

563

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

hosts, it 1s also reported on the roots of Tama-

rix species. Such association has not so far

been reported from any part of India. C. tubu-

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

ARID ZONE CIRCLE,

D-7, SHASTRI NAGAR, JODHPUR,

(RAJASTHAN),

March 30, 1976.

losa (Schenk) Wight is much used in increasing

lactation in Buffaloes and as a cure for scorpion

sting and snake-bite in Rajasthan and Gujarat.

VIJENDRA SINGH

32. TWO LITTLE KNOWN OR RARE PLANTS FROM EASTERN INDIA

During identification and scrutiny of some

collections of plants from Eastern Himalayas,

Wwe came across some specimens of two inte-

resting members of Asclepiadaceae and Lilia-

ceae respectively. The former species was

identified as Dittoceras andersonii Hk. f.

(Asclepiadaceae) a species uncommonly recor-

ded from Sikkim and Upper Burma (Hooker

1883) and hitherto unrecorded from Bengal

and W. Bengal too. Hence it appears to be

a new record for W. Bengal as well as

previously undivided Bengal. The latter species

has been identified as Tofieldia yunnanensis

Franch. (Liliaceae), a chinese species hitherto

unrecorded in Indian region and as_ such it

is a new record for the Indian Subcontinent.

Dittoceras andersonii :

Pl. t. 1422.

A stout pubescent twining shrub with

opposite long-petioled, elliptic leaves. Flowers

dark-purple with rotate corolla, corona-5-

lobed large lying flat on the corolla; column

depressed; stigma-pentagonal. Fruit Sub-

cylindric follicles.

Specimens examined: Sikkim; Rongbi,

3-6-1909-Lepcha collector Reh (CAL): Mong-

poo. 9-5-1884-G. King s.n. (CAL). UPPER

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

HOwRAH,

March 12, 1976.

Hk. f. in Hook. Ic

BURMA: Phyet. Jan. 1912-Capt. S. M. Top-

pin R.A. 6254 (CAL). W. BENGAL: Jalpai-

guri, Buxa. 20-2-34. Biswas. K. P. 1536 (CAL).

Distribution: Sikkim Himalayas, Upper

Burma, Buxa (West Bengal).

Tofieldia yunndnensis: Franch., in Journ.

De. Bot. 12 (15-16) : 225-230, 1898.

Roots fibrous, rusty hairy, weak stem 60-120

mm leaves 20-40 long, 1.5-2 mm wide, 3-5

nerved margins scabrous. Racemes ovate

10-25 mm before anthesis, lax flowered spe-

cially below. Pedicels spreading or erect, equal

to flowers, bracts at base of pedicel, obliquel

truncate, scaly, membranous, epicalyx 1-2 mm,

hyaline, glabrous, turbinate, obliquely & deli-

cately trilobed ; perianth 4-5 mm long, open,

campanulate. Segments 2-3 mm wide, 5 mm

long, glabrous, hyaline, broadly oblong, obtuse.

Stamens longer than perianth, anthers ovate,

violet, versatile. Ovary oblong a little or

scarcely, shorter than style. Follicle beaked,

beak 2-3 mm long.

Specimens examined: F. Ludlow, G. She-

rriff & J. H. Hicks 14302, Deyang La, Kongbo, —

Bhutan, alt. 4408 m dt. 10.8.1947, ‘Spikes —

pale straw colour. Habitat Midst grass &

stones in alpine zone’ (CAL). 2

Distribution: China (Yunnan), Bhutan.

R. B. GHOSH

BARIN GHOSH

(Miss) SIBANI DATTA

564

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

33. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME BOMBAY PLANTS—V

(Continued from Vol. 69:449)

During the course of the study on the flora of

Gujarat State, we came across changes in the

names of some of the plants in Hooker’s

FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA (FBI 1872-1897) and

Cooke’s FLORA OF THE PRESIDENCY OF BOMBAY

(C. 1958 reprinted). The name changes are

consistent with the rules of International Code

of Botanical Nomenclature (1972). Since

this nomenclature is not published in Indian

Works including those of Santapau & Janar-

dhanan in Bull. bot. Surv. of India 8 (Suppl. 1)

: 7-58, 1967 (S & J) and Rau ibid. 10

(Suppl. 2) : 7-87. 1969, the mformation is

compiled here.

ELATINACEAE

Bergia suffruticosa (Del.) Fenzl, Denskschr,

Bot. Ges. 3:183. 1841; Verdcourt in Milne-

Redhead & Polhill, Fl. Trop. East Afr. 3 00.1968

Lancreta suffruticosa Del. Fl. Egypte 69

(213). t. 25/1. 1813. Bergia odorata Edgew.

Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 7:765. 1838; FBI 1:

mo Ci 1:777 So & J 10.

CELASTRACEAE

_ Cassine glauca (Rottb.) O. Ktze. Rev. Gen.

Pl. 1:114. 1891; D. Hou, Fl. Males, 6 (2):

(286. 1962. Mangifera glauca Rottb. Nye

‘Sammi. Vid. Selsk. Skrift. .2:534. t. 4. f. 1.

1805.

_ Elaeodendron glaucum (Rottb.) Pers. Syn.

(F241. 1805; FBI 1:623; C 1:248; Wealth of

fendia 3:141. f. 88: 1952.

_ Elaeodendron roxburghii Wt. & Arn. Prodr.

152. 1834; Santapau in Rec. bot. Surv. India

M16 (1) (ed. 3): 41. 1967.

There has been some disagreement about the

status of Cassine L. and Elaeodendron Jacq.

Loesner (1892) reduced Elaeodendron to Cas-

sine and distinguished the two taxa as two

different sections of Cassine, subgenus Elaeo-

dendron, section Elaeodendron with scalariform,

rarely simple perforations and section Cassine

with simple, round or elliptic, perforations.

Davison (Bothalia 2:289. 1927) merged Elaeo-

dendron Jacq. on the grounds that there are no

generic differences between them. Metcalfe

and Chalk (ANATOMY OF DICOTYLEDONS 1:393,

1950) also concluded that in absence of any

anatomical distinctions of vessels to keep the

two genera apart, the recognition of only one

genus Cassine seems, therefore, to be final.

This view is also accepted by Blacklock (Kew

Bull. 1956:556. 1956) and Ding Hou ([FI.

Males. 6 (2): 284-285. 1962]. Airy Shaw (A

DICTIONARY OF FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS

223, 1973) considered Elaeodendron Jacq. f. as

conspecific with Cassine Loes. [See Engler &

Prantl. Pflanzenfam. (ed. 2) 206:110. 1942]

accepting the later name as distinct from Cas-

sine L. Even if it is assumed that Cassine L.

and Cassine Loes. are distinct, the later name 1s

illegitimate being a later homonym (Art. 64 of

the Code). The only correct name is, then,

Cassine L. (Sp. Pl. 268. 1753) as adopted by

Ding Hou (1962) and others.

FABACEAE (PAPILIONACEAE)

Some of the species names appearing under

the genera Dolichos L. and Phaseolus L. in

the Indian floras have been changed by Verd-

court (Kew Bull. 24: 1-70, 235-307, 380-447,

507-569. 1970 & 25 : 65-169. 1971). According

to him, the genera Dolichos L. and Lablab

565

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Adans. differ in

pollen.

morphology of style and

Style conspicuously laterally flattened and blade-

like throughout its length forming an angle of just

less than 90° with the ovary; style with a line of

pollen grains tricolporate with very fine structure.....

Labla.

Style not conspicuously flattened, hairy or glabrous

but stigma penicellate ; pollen grains tricolporate or

triporate, very finely to strongly reticulate.....

Dolichos.

Further he has merged the old world species

of Phaseolus L. into Vigna L. on the grounds

that the spirally twisted keel in Phaseolus is

not a diagnostic character to separate it from

Vigna as done in most of our Indian floras,

because in certain species of Vigna also beaks

of the keels are twisted. The Palynological and

cytological data also do not offer any diagnostic

information to retain them as separate genera.

In WEALTH OF INDIA (8:3. 1969), it is also

remarked, ‘Recent studies of the seeds and

seedling species of Phaseolus and Vigna appear

to confirm that the Asiatic species of Phaseolus

are quite distinct from the American species and

their assignment to Vigna, seems more logical ’.

Again Phaseolus mungo L. (Udad;_ black

gram) and Phaseolus radiatus L. (Mung ;

green gram) have been variously taxonomically

treated by different taxonomists. Santapau

[Rec. bot. sury. India 16 (1) (ed. 3): 69. 1967]

considers the Indian species unidentical with the

Linnaean species, and that they are conspecific

with Phaseolus angularis (Willd.) W.F. Wight,

accepting the later name. However, Verd-

court (1970), under Vigna, treats P. angularis

W.F. Wight, P. mungo L. and P. radiatus L. as

distinct.

Dolichos trilobus L. Sp. Pl. 726. 1753 ; Verd-

court in Taxon 17:170. 1968 & Kew Bull.

24 : 422. 1970. Dolichos falcatus Klein ex Willd.

Sp. Pl. 3 : 1047. 1802 ; FBI 2:211;S&J 18.

566

Lablab purpureus (L.) Sw. Hort. Brit. (ed.

1), 481. 1827 ; Verdcourt in Kew Bull. 24 : 410.

1970: Dolichos jablab i.) Sp. Ph 25, lisse

FBI 2:209; C 1:406. Dolichos purpureus

L. Sp. Pl. 1021. 1763. Lablab niger Medik. in

Vorles Charpf. Thys. Ges. 2 : 354. 1787. Lablab

vulgaris Savi, Diss. 19. 1821 & Obs. Phas.

& Dol. 19. 1822. (Bean).

Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Marechal in Bull.

Jard. Bot. Nat. Belge 39: 160. 1969; Verd-

court in Kew Bull. 23 : 469. 1969 & 24: 557.

1970. Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacq. Obs. Bot.

3 32.,f: 52. 1768. FBI 22027 @ Fe 0em

S & J 19. (Math).

Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper in Kew Bull.

11 : 128. 1956 ; Verdcourt in Kew Bull. 24 : 558.

1970. Phaseolus mungo L. Mant. 1: 101.

1767 ; FBI 2: 203 p.p.; C1: 403 ; Phaseolus

angularis Sensu Santapau in Rec. bot. Surv.

Ind. 16(1) (ed. 3): 69. 1967. (Udad; Black

Gram).

Vigna dalzelliana (O. Ktze.) Verdcourt in

Kew Bull. 24: 558. 1970. Phaseolus pauciflorus

Dalz. in Hook. Journ. Bot. 3 : 209. 1851 (non

G. Don 1832, nec Bth. 1837); FBI 2: 20%

Phaseolus dalzellianus O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. PI.

1:202. 1891; Phaseolus dalzellii Cooke, FI.

Pres. Bombay 1:376. 1902 & 1:401. 1956)

(reprinted); S & J 19. |

Vigna khandalensis (Santapau) Bole &

Shah, Comb. nov. Phaseolus khandalensis

Santapau in Kew Bull. 1948 ; 276. 1948 & Rec.

bot. Surv. Ind. 16 (1) (ed. 3) : 68. 1967. Phase-

olus grandis Dalzell & Gibson, Bombay Fl. 72.

1861 ; FBI 2: 202; Cooke 1: 400 (Omne non

Wall. Cat., 5602 & Benth. in Mog. Pl. Jungh. |

239. 1852 in nota) Vigna grandis Dalzell &

Gibson) Verdcourt in Kew Bull. 23 : 464. 1969.

& 24 : 558. 1970.

Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek var. radiata 1

Verdcourt in Kew Bull. 24: 559. 1970. Phase-|

olus radiatus VL. Sp. Pl 725.1753; C1: 40mm

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Phaseolus aureus Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 297. 1832.

Phaseolus mungo L. var. radiatus (L.) Baker in

Hk. f. FBI 2 : 203. 1876. (Mung).

Vigna radiata L. var. sublobata (Roxb.)

Verdcourt in Kew Bull. 24: 559. 1970. Phase-

olus sublobatus Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3 : 288. 1832;

C 1:402. Phaseolus trinervius Wt. & Arn:

Prodr: i: 245:

fogiaiusa Act. mult. non 1.) 1753 (S. S.).:

Santapau in Rec. bot. Surv. India 16 (1) (ed-

3): 69. 1967; S & J 19. (Jangli Mung).

Vigna trilobata (L.) Verdcourt in Taxon

17: 172. 1968 & Kew Bull. 24:560. 1970.

Dolichos trilobatus L. Mant. 1:101. 1767:

Phaseolus trilobus auct. non Dolichos trilobus

L.; sensu Ait. Hort. Kew. 3:30. 1789; FBI

Deal Cw 4Oti: S & Ji 19.

Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. subsp. cyli-

ndrica (L.) van Eseltine in Hendrick, Vegetables

of New York 1 (2): 11. 1931. Verdcourt in

Kew Bull. 24 : 544. 1970. Phaseolus cylindricus

L. Herb. Amb. 23. 1754 & Amoen. Acad. 4 : 132.

1759. Dolichos catjang Burm. f. Fl. Ind. 161-

1768. Vigna catjang (Burm. f.) Walp. in Lin-

Med S35. 1039 > EBL) 2: 205: €-1 : 405.

Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. Rep. 1 : 779. 1842;

Santapau in Rec. bot. Surv. India 16 (1) (ed.

3): 70. 1967 (Omne p.p.). (Cholli).

Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. subsp. ungui-

culata Verdc. in Kew Bull. 24: 543. 1970.

Dolichos wuneurculatus Wk. Sp. Pl. 725. 1753.

Dolichos biflorus L. Sp. Pl. 727. 1753. FBI

CONVOLVULACEAE

Merremia turpethum (L.) Shah & Bhatt,

comb. nov. Convolvulus turpethum L. Sp. Pl.

155. 1753. Ipomoea turpethum R. Br. Prodr.

485. 1810; FBI 4: 212. Operculina turpethum

(L.) Silva-Manso, Enum. Subst. Bras. 16 & 49.

1836; C 2: 309; Ooststroom in Fl. Males.

1834: FBI 2: 203. Phaseolu®

456. f. 32 a-b. 1954; Wealth of India 7 : 96.

f, 41; 1966; S, & J 35.: |

The genus Merremia Dennst. ex Endl. is con-

served over Operculina Silva-Manso bythe Inter-

national Code of Botanical Nomenclature (1972

De oH):

SOLANACEAE

Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L.) Karst. ex

Farwell, Annual Report Commissioners Parks

Boulevards Detroit 11:83. 1900; S & J 35.

Solanum lycopersicum L. Sp. Pl. 185. 1753.

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Gard. Dict. ed.

Ss No: Qo lies; FBI 45237); Co 2.2345)

(Tomato).

Airy Shaw (Willis, Dict. Fl. Pl. 194. 1973,

revised) attributes the authority of the combi-

nation Lycopersicon lycopersicum to Karsten

but Lycopersicum lycopersicum (L.) Karsten,

Deuts. FI. 966. 1882 is invalid being a taut-

onym. Santapau, therefore, published the

correct nomenclatural combination (See S & J

1967); but from the rule of priority Farwell

has the credit for it (See Taxon 24: 171-177.

1975).

NYCTAGINACEAE

Pisonia mitis L. Sp. Pl. 1026. 1753; Burm.

f. Fl. Ind. 224. 1768 (excl. cit. Rheede). Pisonia

grandis R. Br. Prodr. 422. 1810; Wealth of

India 8:119. 1969. Pisonia morindifolia R.

Br. in Wall. Cat. no. 7130. 1828 (nomen); C

27 506" 5 SS) & 9242) Pisonia’ alba’ Span2an

Pinnaea 25: 342.1841); BBE 4: (711.

Stemmeric [F/. Males. 6 (4): 464. ff. 11,

13. 1964] considered Pisonia alba Span., Pisonia

morindifolia R. Br. and Pisonia grandis R. Br,

conspecific, accepting the last name. However:

Hooker in FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA (4:711. 1885)

cites Pisonia mitis L. as an unambiguous

synonym of Pisonia alba Span. Therefore

Pisonia mitis Linn. has priority.

567

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

AMARANTHACEAR

Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. ex J. A.

Schultes, Syst. Veg. (¢d.° 135) 5-565. 1819);

FBI 4: 727; C 2:577; Townsand in Nasar

& Ali, Fl. West Pakistan no. 71:26. 1974.

Celosia lanata L. Sp. Pl. 205. 1753 [non Aerva

lanata (L.) Juss. ex J. A. Schultes 1819]. Iresine

javanica Burm. f. Fl. Ind. 212. 1768. Iresine

persica Burm. f. Fl. Ind. 212. 1768. Illecebrum

javanica (Burm. f. ) Murr. Syst. Veg. (ed. 13)

206. 1774. Aerva tomentosa Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.-

Arab. Cxxii & 170. 1775 ; S & J 42. Achyranthes

javanica (Burm. f. ) Pers. Syn. 1: 259. 1805.

Aeryva persica (Burm. f.) Merrill in Philip.

Journ. Sci. 19: 348. 1921; Santapau in Rec:

Bot. Surv. Ind. 16 (1) (ed. 3): 223. 1967.

This species is variously named in our Indian

floras and some even consider Aerva tomentosa

Forsk. and A. javanica Juss. taxonomically

distinct. However, Jackson (Index Kewensis

1 : 49. 1895) cites the species under consideration

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

SARDAR PATEL UNIVERSITY,

VALLABH VIDYANAGAR,

(GUJARAT),

May 25, 1976.

conspecific and Townsand (1974) has adopted

a similar taxonomic treatment.

CYPERACEAE

Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl var. pluris-

triata (Cl.) Napper in Kew Bull. 25 (3) : 437.

1971. Fimbristylis podocarpa Nees in Wt.

Contrib. India 98. 1834; FBI 6: 638. Fimbri-

stylis diphylla Retz. var. podocarpa (Nees)

Kuekenth. Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 69: 257. 1838.

Fimbristylis diphylla Retz. var. pluristriata

Cl. in Hk. f. FBI 6: 637. 1893. Fimbristylis

dichotoma (L.) Vahl subsp. podocarpa (Nees)

Koyama in Micronesia 1 : 89. 1964.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are deeply grateful to University Grants

Commission, New Delhi for financial assistance

to the Senior author to write the Flora of Gujarat

State. Thanks are also due to Prof. P. V. Bole

for critically going through the paper and making

useful suggestions.

G. L. SHAH

R. G. BHAT

M. H. PARABIA

D. VAZIFDAR

34. OCCURRENCE OF STROPHIOLATE SEEDS IN CAJANUS

(With a text-figure)

The strophiolate character relates to the occur-

rence of an appendage on the hilum of some

seeds. The presence or absence of this—

strophiolate vs estrophilate seed, has been

used as a key character by taxonomist in de-

limiting different species (Rhynchosia) and genera

(Atylosia and Cajanus) particularly in the

Papilionaceous taxa. Both Atylosia and Caja-

nus belong to Phaseoleae and are botanically

much related : leaves gland-dotted underneath,

pods with depressed lines between the seeds,

ovules 3 or more ; the presence of strophiolate

seed type in Atylosia distinguishing this genus

from the estrophiolate type characterising

Cajanus.

During plant exploration to Mizoram, about

20 collections of Cajanus cajan were made and

interestingly some of these local types possessed

strophiolate seeds of dull whitish colour (Fig. 1).

One of the collections even possessed brown

568

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

testa with specks of black. Further screening

of Cajanus germplasm being maintained by

Fig. 1.

Strophiolate seeds of Cajanus cajan.

the Division of Plant Introduction at Amravati

pointed out that such raised-hilum types are

DIVISION OF PLANT INTRODUCTION,

I.A.R.I., NEw DELHI-110012,

February 20, 1976.

represented in collections made earlier from

Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Bihar and Madhya

Pradesh ; the tribal pockets having more of this

material.

In the light of the above, the presence of

such strophiolate seed types in Cajanus should

assume importance and will obviously have

a bearing on the origin/relationship between

these two genera ; in fact between the cultivated

forms of Cajanus and their wild progenitor

Atylosia lineata.

[ am thankful to Shri M. W. Hardas, Head,

Division of Plant Introduction, I.A.R.I., New

Delhi for going through this note. My thanks

are also due to Shri Bhagmal, Jr. Botanist,

Plant Introduction Station, Amravati (Maha-

rashtra) for screening the Cajanus seed

material.

R. K. ARORA

35. SOME NEW RECORDS OF TROPICAL PLANTS

FROM THE TEMPERATE KASHMIR VALLEY

The Valley of Kashmir forms a_ transitional

region of diverse physical features between

the weak monsoon zone of the Punjab and

cold dry belt of Tibet, but shows little affinity

with the climatic types prevalent in these ad-

joining areas. The Valley itself has a tem-

perate-cum-Mediterranean climate of the

continental type and therefore the vegetation

is mostly temperate. However, there has been

invasion of tropical and subtropical weeds

from the adjoining areas by way of human

agency. These elements have acclimatized and

formed a part of the local vegetation. In the

present communication some of these new

elements are reported for record. The voucher

specimens have been deposited in the Kashmir

University Herbarium.

AMARANTHACEAE

Amaranthus spinosus L., Sp. Pl. 991 (1753).

Common in waste lands ; University Campus,

GNJ 1051.

Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC., Cat. Hort.

Monsp. 77 (1813).

A common weed of warm countries ; Sri-

nagar : along drains, GNJ 1563.

569

11a

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

-LYFHRACEAE ~ |

Rotala indica (Willd. Koehnie

Bot. Jahrb. 4: 172 (1888)...

A weed of rice fields ; Chandmari (Srinagar),

“GNJ 601. dig

R, leptopetala Keres in Enel Bot. Jahrb.

4; 388 (1883) et Pfll-reich Heft-17: 35 array

rice fields, GNJ 822.

Both species are weeds of rice fields and it

appears that they have been introduced with the

ae seeds from warm countries.

(an Engl.

. Harwan ;

EUPHORBIACEAE

_ Chrozophora obliqua A. Juss. Tent. Euph.

28 (1824).

‘POSTGRADUATE DEPT.

OF BOTANY,

UNIVERSITY OF KASHMIR,

‘SRINAGAR,

February 2, 1976.

A weed of waste. land ; Jawahir Nagar*:

GNI 909.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Evolvulus alsinoides L., Sp. Pl. ed. 2, 392

(1762).

University Campus: waste land, GNJ

1040.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Limnophila indica (L.) Druce in Rep. Bot.

Exch. Cl. Brit. Isles 3: 420 (1914). JL. grati-

oloides R..Br., Prodr. 442 (1810).

Weed of rice fields, Shaliamar: GNJ 1036.

G. N. JAVEID

36. AN UNUSUAL RED-FLOWERED VARIANT OF

EUCALYPTUS TERETICORNIS SM.

In the course of selective breeds and

hybridization of eucalypts at this Institute for

‘increased wood yields, we have come across an

unusually red-flowered tree. of Eucalyptus

tereticornis ; an exotic species of Australian

origin which is now well acclimatized and

widely planted in-India. The tree under dis-

cussion is one of a pair of even-aged 11 year

old trees of the species planted near a hedge on

the New Forest estate. One of these has con-

sistently borne red flowers whereas in the other,

the flowers are cream-coloured as is usual for

this species. Further, although of the same

age and growing only a metre of each other,

the red-flowered tree is suppressed in height

growth but has longer internodes, a more

pronounced drooping habit, larger and thicker

leaves with wavy margin. It appears therefore

to be a deviant of the species and deserves

further study. A herbarium specimen of this

tree was sent to the Director, Royal Botanic

Gardens, Sydney, Australia, for expert

opinion. While confirming its botanical

identity as £E. ftereticornis Sm. he observes

that pink flowering forms of this species are

known to occur as rare natural variants in

Australia.

As is well known, a unique feature of the

eucalypt flower is the lid or operculum which

seals it and is cast off during the process of

570

\.. MISCELLANEOUS: NOTES.

opening. Having no petals thereafter, the

flower colour of this genus depends largely on

the colour of the numerous stamen filaments.

Comparatively few species of this very large

Australian genus have pink, red, scarlet or

yellow stamen filaments the vast majority

have white or cream filaments which is generally

also the case with E. tereticornis. However,

in the exceptional tree of the species reported

here, only newly opened flowers are of a cream

colour. But as they get duly exposed to sun-

light, their stamen filaments and styles turn

permanently carmine red in colour, somewhat

recalling in this respect those of the Bottle

Brush tree (Callistemon), another ornamental

of our gardens which, incidentally, is also a

native of Australia and belongs to the same

botanical family as Eucalyptus.

within the 5-7 flowered cluster, the odd terminal

flower is generally the first to open, it is also

usually the first to thus change colour. Other

flowers of the cluster follow suit in quick succes-

sion. Consequently, in early stages of bloom-

ing, both cream and red flowers can be seen

within the same cluster. Such double colora-

tion serves to enhance the beauty of the tree

FOREST GENETICS BRANCH,

FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

New Forest, DEHRA Dun-248 006,

March 25, 1976.

Further, since

rendering it highly. ornamental... The _ tree

blooms during September-October which is the

usual time of flowering of the species in Dehra

uM a 89 Ol)

- For some reason. the variant red-flowered

tree described above does not set seed unlike its

normal neighbour, even in spite of hand polli-

nation of its flowers with a pollen mixture.

Controlled crossings using it as the pollen

parent also failed to give any viable seed.

While the exact cause of this sterility is under

investigation, attempts are also being made

simultaneously to propagate this tree vegeta-

tively because of its potential horticultural

value.

In conclusion, the photo-sensitive reddening,

only upon exposure to light, of the stamen fila-

ments of this unusual eucalypt is reminiscent

of a similar development of the ‘sun red’

pigmentation on the anthers, glumes and husks

of certain varieties of corn (Srb & Owen

1958).4 It can serve as a simple and straight

forward example for demonstrating to students

the impact of environment on the expression of

hereditary traits.

C. S. VENKATESH

V. K. SHARMA

1 Srb, A.M. & Owen, R. D. (1958): General Genetics.

W.H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco, U.S.A.

A PRELIMINARY OBSERVATION ON THE FERNS OF

THE GARO HILLS IN ASSAM

INTRODUCTION

There are few publications on the pteridophytic

flora of the Eastern region of the Himalayas.

Clarke (1880) reported only 269 species from

* Himalaya East of Nepal’ and 258 from Assam

to Chittagong. Recently Kachroo (1953) made.

a ‘list. of Ferns of Assam’ and Panigrahi

(1960) enumerated the pteridophytes of Eastern

India (Orissa, Bihar, Assam and. N.E.F.A.).

The present observations are based on the

Collection of ferns made by J. Marten and

T. D. Srinivasan who visited Garo Hills.

S71

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

The Garo Hills are bounded on the north

and west by the district of Goalpara, on the

south by the Bangladesh district of Mymensingh

and on the east by the district of the Khasi

and Jaintia Hills. It lies between 25°2’ and

26°1’N and 89°49’ and 91°2’E and covers an

area of 3140 square miles. Tura, the main

range runs through the district from North-

west to south-east.

The station of Tura is situated on a spur of

the main range, and as it is only about 1300 feet

above the level of the sea, the temperature at

certain seasons of the year is fairly high. March

and April are usually warm. November to

February are the cold months in the year.

Rainfall in Tura usually varies from 300-

3125 cm.

ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES

The list of the pteridophytes given in the

following pages is based on the collection of

J. Marten and T. D. Srinivasan during the

year 1903 and 1929, 1933-1935. The arrange-

ment of the families of ferns is according to the

phylogenetic scheme proposed by Mehra

(1961). In the enumeration of each species,

citation of references, basinym and synonym

and place of collection are given followed by

herbarium collection number, if any, of the

previous authors. The species cited are all

deposited in Herb (CAL).

Family : CRYPTOGRAMMACEAE

Genus: Onychium Kaulf.

Onychium siliculosum (Desv.) C. Chr. Index Fil. 469.

1906 Garo Hills, June 1903, J. Marten.

Basinym: Pteris siliculosum Desv. in Ges. Freunde.

Berlin. Mag. 5: 324. 1811.

Synonym: Onychium auratum Kaulf. Enum.

1824 Garo Hills, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

144,

Family : PTERIDACRAE

Genus: Prteris Linn.

Pteris ensigormis Burm. F1. Ind. 230. 1768.

Synonym: Pteris crenata Seo. Schard. Journ. 1800/2:

5. 1801 Garo Hills, June 1903. J. Marten.

Pieris quadriaurita Retz. in Obs. Bot. 6: 38. 1791

(sensu lato): Clarke in Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. II.

Bot. 1: 465. 1880 (Pro parte).

Garo Hills, Assam, T. D. Srinivasan 131.

Family : DENNSTAEDTIACEAE

Genus: Microlepia Presl.

Microlepia strigosa (Thbg.) Presl. Epim. Bot. 95. 1849.

Basinym: Trichomanes strigosum Thbg. Fl. Jap.

339. 1784.

Synonym: Davallia strigosa Sw. Adnot. 69. 1829.

D. polypodicides Don var. strigosa Clarke in Trans.

Linn. Soc. Lond. II. Bot. 1 : 448. 1880.

Garo Hills, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Microlepia trapeziformis (Roxb.) Kuhn,

347. 1882.

Chaetopt.

Basinym: Davallia trapeziformis Roxb. Calc. Journ.

4:516. 1844.

Synonym: Davallia rhomboidea Wall. cat. (nom.

nud.) Kze, Bot. Zeit. 8 : 158, 1850.

Microlepia rhomboidea Pres]. Tent. Pterid. 125. 1836.

M. polypodioides Bedd. Ferns. S. Ind. t. 15. 1865.

Garo Hills, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Microlepia speluncae (L.) Moore, Index. Fil. xciii.

1857.

Basinym :

1093, 1753.

Garo Hills, June 1903, J. Marten.

Microlepia hirta (KIf.) Pr. Tent. 125. 1836.

Davallia hirta Kif. Enum. 223. 1824.

D. villosa Don, Prod. Fl. Nepal 10. 1825.

Polypodium speluncae Linn. spec. Pl. 2:

Basinym :

Synonym :

Micr olepia speluncae L. var. hirta Bedd. Ferns Brit.

Ind. & Ceylon. 68. 1969 (Reprint. Ed.)

Garo Hills, Assam, T. D. Srinivasan 172.

Microlepia marginata (Hoult.) C. Chr. Index Fil 212.

1905.

Basinym: Polypodium marginatum Hoult. Pfl. S,yst

13. 199. 1786.

572

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Synonym :

452, 1868.

Garo Hills, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Family : LINDSAYACEAE

Genus: Lindsaya Dryander

Lindsaya stricta (Sw.) Dry. Tr. Linn. Soc. 3 : 42. 1797.

Basinym : Adiantum strictum Sw. Prod. 135. 1788.

Synonym: Lundsaya lucida Bl. Enum. PI. Jav. 216.

1828. L. gracilis Kl. Linn. 18: 549. 1844.

Garo Hills, Assam, T. D. Srinivasan, 264.

Genus: Sphenomeris Maxon

Sphenomeris chusana (L.) Copel. Bishop. Mus. Publ.

59 : 69. 1929 var. tenuifolia (Sw.) C. Chr. Pterid. Madag.

AS VPls27. 1932.

Synonyms: Davallia tenuifolia Sw. Schrad. Journ.

1800/2 : 88. 1801.

Stenoloma tenuifolia Fee. Gen. Fil. 330. 1850-52.

Garo Hills, June 1903. J. Marten, s.n.

Family : DAVALLINACEAE

Genus: Davallia J. Smith

Davallia trichomanoides Bl. Enum. Pl. Jav. 238.

1828.

Synonym: D. bullata Wall. cat. No. 258 (nom.

nud.) Hook. Spec. Fil. 1 : 169. t. 506. 1846.

Garo Hills, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Family : GLEICHENIACEAE

Genus: Dicranopteris Bernh.

Dicranopieris linearis (Burm.) Underwood in Bull.

Torrey Bot. d. 34: 250. 1907.

Basinym: Polypodium lineare Burm. FI. Ind. 235. t.

67. 1768.

Synonym :

Linn. Soc. Lond. II. Bot. 1: 428, 1880.

G. dichotoma Hk. spec. Fil. 1: 12. 1844.

Garo Hills, Assam, J. D. Srinivasan, 105.

Family : CYATHEACEAR

Genus: Cyathea Smith

Cyathea andersoni Copel. Phil. Jour. Sci. 4c: 56,

1909.

Davallia marginata Bak. Synop. Fil

Gleichenia linearis (Burm.) Clarke Trans.

Synonym: Alsophila andersoni J. Scott. in Bedd.

Ferns. Brit. Ind. t. 310, 1869.

Garo Hills, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Family : ATHYRIACEAE

Genus: Diplazium Swartz

Diplazium spectabile (Wall. ex Mett.) Bir. Res. Bull.

Punjab Univ. (N.S.) 12: 130, 1961.

Basinym: Asplenium spectabile Wall. ex Méett.

Abhandh. Senck. Naturf. Gesell. 3 : 240. 1860.

Synonyms: Diplazium umbrosum var. multiicau-

datum Bedd.,Handb. Ferns. Brit. Ind. 190, 1883.

Asplenium multicaudatum Wall. List. no. 229, 1828.

Clarke in Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. II Bot. 1: 502, 1880.

Garo Hills, Assam, T. D. Srinivasan: s.n.

Diplaziopsis javanica (Bl.) C. Chr. Index Fil. 227.

1905.

Basinym: Asplenium javanicum Bl. Enum. PI. Jav.

175, 1828.

Synonym: Allantodia javanica Trevis, Nu. Giarn.

Bot. Jt. 159. 1875.

Garo Hills, Assam, T. D. Srinivasan, 1773.

Family : THELYPTERIDACEAE

Genus: Thelypteris Schmilel

Thelypteris decipiens (Clarke) Ching, Bull. Fan.

Mem. Just. Biol. Bot. 6 : 325. 1936.

Basinym: Nephrodium gracilescens var. decipiens

Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. II Bot. 1: 514, 1880.

Synonym: Lastraea gracilescens var. decipiens Bedd.

Handb. Ferns, Brit. Ind. Suppl. 51. 1892.

Garo Hills, Assam, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Thelypteris semisagittata (Roxb.) Morton, Contrib.

U.S. Nat. Herb. 38 (7) : 360. 1974.

Basinym: Polypodium semisagittatum Roxb. Cal

Journ. Nat. Hist. 4: 491, 1844.

Garo Hills, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Genus: Cyclosorus Link

Cyclosorus crinipes (Hook.) Ching, Bull. Fan. Mem.

Inst. Biol. 8: 199, 1938.

Basinym : Nephrodium crinipes Hk. Spec. Fil. 4: 71,

1862.

Synonym: Dryopteris crinipes (Hk.) O. Ktze, Rev.

Gen. PI. 2 : 812, 1891.

573

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

- Garo Hills, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Cyclosorus dentatus (Forsk.) Ching, in Bull. Fan.

Mem. Inst. Biol. 8: 206, 1938.

Basinym: Polypodium dentatum Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.

Soy iivioe

Synonym: Nephrodium molle Bedd. Ferns. Brit.

Ind. 277, 1883.

Garo Hills, Assam, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Cyclosorus parasiticus (L.) Farwell in Amer. Midl.

Naturalist 12 : 259, 1931.

Basinym: Polypodium parasiticum Linn. Spec. Plant.

2 1090; A753:

Synonym: Nephrodium parasiticum Clarke in Trans*

Linn. Soc. Lond. II. Bot. 1 : 533, 1880.

N. molle R. Br. Prodr. Fl. N. Holl. 149, 1810.

Dryopteris parasitica (L.) O. Ktze. Rev. Gen. Plant:

Dy Olle ASO le

Garo Hills, Assam, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Cyclosorus latipinna (Hk.) Jardin—Blot. Not. Syst. 7:

13. M938):

Basinym: Nephrodium latipinna Hk. Syn. Fil. 292,

1867.

Synonym: Dryopteris latipinna O. Ktze, Rev. Gen.

Pl 2:813., 1891:

Garo Hills, Assam, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Family : ASPLENIACEAE

Genus: Asplenium Linn.

Asplenium unilaterale Lamk. Encyc. 2 : 305, 1786.

Synonym: Asplenium resectum J. Sm. Jc. Pl. 3 =

t. 72, 1791 ; Bedd., Ferns. South Ind. t. 132, 1863.

Garo Hills, Assam, T. D. Srinivasan, 171.

Asplenium nidus Linn. Spec. Pl. 2: 1079, 1753.

Synonym: Thamanopteris nidus Presl. Epim. Bot.

68. 1849.

Garo Hills, Assam, T. D. Srinivasan, 256.

Asplenium simonsianum Hk. Jc. Pl. t. 925, 1854.

Synonym :

ee esd.

Garo Hills, Assam, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Thamanopteris simonsiana Moore, Ind.

POLYPODIACEAE

Pyrrosia Mirbd.

Family :

Genus:

Pyrrosia adnascens (Forst.) Ching, Bull. Chin. Bot.

Soc. 1 : 45,1935.

Basinym: Polypodium adnascens Forst. Prodr. 81.

1786.

Synonym: Cyclophorus adnascens Desv. Berl. Mag.

5: 300, 1811.

Garo Hills, Assam, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Pyrrosia nummuiarifolia (Sw.) Ching, Bull. Chin.

Bot. Soc. 1: 47, 1935.

Basinym: Acrostichum nummularifolium Sw. Syn.

Fil. 191,419, 1806.

Synonym: Niphobolus numnularifolius J. Sm. JOB.

3: 396, 1841.

Cyclophorus nummularifolius (Sw.) C. Chr. Ind. Fil.

200. 1905.

Garo Hills, Assam, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Pyrrosia stigmosa (Sw.) Ching, Bull. Chin. Bot. Soc.

1,675,935).

Basinym: Polypodium stigmosum Sw. Schrod.

Journ. 1800, 2: 21, 1801.

Synonym: WNiphobolus stigmosus Moore, in Bedd.

Handb. Ferns. Brit. Ind. 328, 1883.

Garo Hills, Assam, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Genus: Pseudodrynaria C. Chr.

Pseudodrynaria ccronaus (Wall.) Ching, Sunyatsenia

5: 357, 1940 and 6: 10, 1941, and Ic. Fil. Sinica 5:

Pi. 201, 1958.

Basinym: Polypodium coronans Wall., List No. 288,

1828 (nom. nud.)

Synonym: Drynaria coronans J. Smith, Jour. Bot.

4:61, 1841.

Garo Hills, Assam, June 1903, J. Marten, s.n.

Genus: Leptochilus Kaulfuss.

Leptochilus scalpturatus (Fee) C. Chr. Ind. Fil. 17:

1905.

Basinym: Heteroneuron scalpturatum Fee Acrost. 95 t.

56. 1845.

Synonym: Gymnopteris costata Bedd. Ferns. Brit,

Ind. Suppl. 27. 1876.

Garo Hills, Assam, June 1903. J. Marten, s.n.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. J. K. Maheshwari,

Director-in-charge, Botanical Survey of India

for encouragment in the work and Dr. R. S.

574

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Rao, Deputy Director, Central National

Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India for

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

SIBPORE, HowRAH,

March 19, 1976.

guidance and providing necessary facilities

during this investigation.

R. B. GHOSH

M. C. BISWAS

REFERENCES

CLARKE, C. B. (1880): A Review of the Ferns of

Northern India. Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. Vl. Ser.

Vol. 1, Bot. 425.

Kacuroo, P. (1953): List of Ferns of Assam.

Jour. Asia. Soc.29: 161.

MeEHRA, P. N. (1961): Cytological evolution of

38:

ferns with particular reference to Himalayan forms.

Proc. Ind. Sci. Cong. (48th session) Roorkee: 1-24.

PANIGRAHI, G. (1960): Pteridophytes of Eastern

India. I. Enumeration of the species collected and

their nomenclature. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 2 (3 & 4):

309-314.

TWO NEW RECORDS OF FUNGI-IMPERFECTI FROM INDIAt

(With two text-figures)

During our investigations on the ecology of

forest fungi, two rare forms were collected

from the forests of Varandha Ghat and

Raireshwar (Maharashtra) recently, which were

identified as belonging to the form-genera :

Spilodochium Syd. (Ellis 1971) and Tetranacrium

Hds. & Sutton (Hudson and Sutton 1964). The

present paper briefly describes these two fungi :

Spilodochium indicum sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

Coloniae effusae, fusce-brunnea, pseudo-

parenchymatibus, pallide-brunnea, mycelio

immersa ; Conidiophora stromatibus ; Conidia

orientalis ex cellulis stromatis; Conidia

(blastosporae) productae terminaliter vel latera-

liter ex cellula blastosporae apicali, ovoidia vel

ellipsoidia, magnit 4-8 x 4-6 jw: blastospora

cellulae apicem fertilis, arida, acropleurogena,

simplicia, ellipsoidia vel ovoidia, brunnea,

*Contribution No. 573 from the Dept. of Mycology

& Plant Pathology.

levia, uni-septata vel raro bi-septata 8-10 x

4-8 pb.

Fig. 1. Spilodochium indicum sp. nov.

A. Sporodochium.

B. Conidia.

Matrix: On living leaves of Machilus

macrantha Nees, (Fam. Sapindaceae) Leg.

5/9) )

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

A.W.S. (4-12-1974) ad Varandha Ghat (Maha-

rashtra State) No. AMH 2743 (Holotypus).

The genus Spilodochium Syd. is monotypic

with S. vernoniae Syd. (Ellis 1971) as type.

On comparison with the type species, the

writer’s collection differed significantly in

respect of dimensions of pseudostroma and

conidia and hence the same has been accom-

modated here as a new species.

This genus—Spilodochium—constitutes a new

addition to the fungi of India (Mukerji &

Juneja 1975).

Tetranacrium eugeniae sp. nov. (Fig. 2)

Pycnidia brunnea, immersa, hysteriformia,

magnit 128-305 x 226-370 “; Conidiophora

erecta 3-5 » longa, non-ramosa, aseptata, hylina

excellulis interiorbus prarietis pycnidiorum

composita ; Conidia singula, acrogena, pallide-

brunnea, ramosa, composita ex quarter ramis

equalibus vel fere aequalibus, divergentibus

ex medio primordio globoro orientibus, 3-5

septatis, plerumque quarter, apicem versus

attenuatis basefortiter constrictis ramo princi-

pali elongato ramis secundariis elongatis,

triverticillatis ex primordio globoro orientibus,

magnit 20-60 x 2-3.5 wp.

Matrix: On stems of Eugenia jambolana

Lamk. (Fam: Myrtaceae) Leg. A.W.S. (20-1-

1976) ad Raireshwar (near Poona) No. AMH

2868 (Holotypus).

T. eugeniae is distinct from the type species,

T. graminum Huds. & Sutton (Hudson &

Sutton 1964) in possessing smaller pycnidia

M.A.C.S. RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

PUNE 4, (INDIA),

May 25, 1976.

Fig. 2. Tetranacrium eugentae sp. nov.

A. Pycnidium in V. S.

B. Conidiophores with conidia.

C. Conidia.

and larger conidia. The form-genus Yetrana-

crium has not been reported so far in the lists of

Indian fungi (Mukerji & Juneja 1975).

We are thankful to Prof. M. N. Kamat for

his valuable advice, to the Director for the

laboratory facilities and to the Ministry of

Education, Govt. of India for the award of

Research Scholarship to the Senior Author.

A. W. SUBHEDAR

Vv. G. RAO

REFERENCES

Evuis, M. B. (1971):

C.M.1I., Surrey, England, pp. 620.

. Hupson, M. J. & Sutton, B. C. (1964):

Dematious Hyphomycetes, Fungi-Imperfecti.

Tri-

Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 47 (2):

197-203.

MuKeru1, K. G. & Jungya, R. C.

(1975): Fungi

sulcosporium and Tetranacrium, two new Genera of of India, Emkay Publi., Delhi, pp. 224.

576

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES

39. DESMIDS OF NAGPUR, MAHARASHTRA

So far only one desmid Cosmarium reinschii

Arch. has been recorded from the cultures of

the paddy field soils of Nagpur by Kamat

& Patel (1973). Here forty-four desmids

belonging to eight genera of Mesotaeniaceae

and, Desmidiaceae are recorded for the first time.

These have been collected from a few places

during July 1973 to May 1974. The pH of

the water of the collection spots was deter-

mined by using B.D.H. Universal indicator

and was found to range between 7.5 to 8.7.

Nagpur, a centrally situated city in India,

is 307 metres above m.s.l. The average rain-

fall is 110 cm. The average minimum and

the maximum temperatures are 7°C in January

and 46°C in May respectively.

The desmids commonly occur in waters ha-

ving pH between 5 and 6. However Croasdale

(1955) and Kamat (1965) found them common

even in waters with pH 7.6 to 8.5. The newly

constructed cisterns in Nagpur usually contain

Cosmarium spp. in large numbers. It is also

worth recording that the desmids and in parti-

cular Closterias were abundant in the big

earthen pots specially maintained for the algal

cultures in the Botany garden of the Institute

of Science, Nagpur. At other collection spots

they were rather rare.

MESOTAENIACEAE

Mesotaenium mirificum Arch.

In a puddle, Seminary hills (27-7-73).

Gonatozygon montaenium De Bary

In a small pond, Amraoti road (28-7-73).

G. pilosum Wolle

In a pool, Dharampeth (28-8-73).

Cylindrocystis brebissonii Menegh.

In a puddle, Dharampeth (24-7-73).

C. brebissonii Menegh. v. minor W. et G. S.

West

In a pool, Ravinagar (29-7-73).

C. pyramidatum W. et G. S. West

In a puddle, Hingana road (4-8-73).

The present alga is longer (up to 39 yu long)

than the type.

Roya cambrica W. et. G.S. West

In a puddle, Seminary hills (25-7-73).

The alga (6-9 » broad and 90-96 uw long) is

slightly smaller than the type.

DESMIDIACEAE

Closterium dianae Ehrenberg

Common in puddles, earthen pots (July to

May).

C. gracile Breb.

In a puddle, Kamathi road (12-8-73).

C. kolhapurense Kamat forma

In a puddle, Seminary hill (30-7-73). In

earthen pots (August-May).

The alga is slightly smaller than the type.

C. lanceolatum Kuetzing

Common in puddles, earthen pots (August-

September).

C. leibleinii Kuetzing

Floating mucilaginous masses in earthen

pots (August-February).

C. littorale Gay

Along with other desmids in earthen pots

(August-May).

C. moniliferum Menegh. v. concavum Klebs

Floating along with other desmids in earthen

pots (October-May). a;

aie |

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

C. strigosum Breb. |

In a puddle, Sitabuldi (28-9-73).

C. venus Kuetzing

In a pond, Ramnagar (13-7-73).

C. venus Kuetzing v. incurvum (Breb.) Krieger

In a puddle, Dharampeth (24-7-73).

A form, 81-90 » long was found in earthen

pot (May).

Cosmarium angulosum Breb.

In puddles, Seminary hills (24-7-73).

C. binodulum Reinsch

In a puddle, Ravinagar (23-8-73).

C. botrytis Menegh.

In a puddle, Dharampeth (23-7-73).

C. clepsydra Nordst.

In an earthen pot (August).

C. cucurbitinum (Biss.) Luetkem. v. minor

(West) Luetkem.

In a puddle, Seminary hills (27-7-73).

The alga is smaller (22-24 uw broad, 44-46 uw

long) than the type.

C. curtum Breb.

In a puddle, Ravinagar (12-8-73).

C. lundellii Delp. v. ellipticum West

Floating along with other algae in earthen

pots (August-May).

C. minutum W. et G.S. West v. rotundatum

Messik.

In earthen pots (August-September).

C. moniliformae (Trub.) Ralfs forma

Rare. In a puddle, Ravinagar (27-8-73).

The present alga is much bigger (56-58 yu

broad, 99-105 uw long) than the type.

C. nitidulum De Not v. subundatum Schmidle

Planktonic in an earthen pot (August-

February).

C. pandreforme Turner

In a puddle, Sitabuldi (12-8-73).

C. pseudopyramidatum Lund

Rare. Ina puddle, Ravinagar (27-9-73).

C. pseudopyramidatum Lund v. corniolicum

Luetkem.

In an earthen pot (August-January).

C. quandrum Lund

In a puddle, Amraoti road (21-8-73).

C. raciborskii Lagerheim

In a rainwater pool, Dharampeth (24-7-73).

In an earthern pot (20-8-73).

C. retusum (Perty) Rabenh. v. angustatum W. et

G.S. West

In a puddle, Dharampeth (24-8-73).

C. sexangulare Lund v. minima Nordst.

Floating along with other algae in earthen

pots (August-October).

C. sikhimense Turner

Along with other algae in an earthen pot

(September).

C. subcostatum Nordst.

In a pool, Sitabuldi (17-7-73).

C. subtumidum Nordst. v. klebsii W. et G. S.

West

In a puddle, Seminary hills (29-9-73).

C. undulatum Corda

Common in puddles (August-September).

578

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

C. wittrockii Lund

Floating along with other algae in earthen

pots (August-October).

Euastrum spinulosum Delp.

In puddles, pools, ponds (July-September).

Staurastrum lapponicum (Schmidle) Gronbald

Along with other algae in earthen pots

(August-May).

BOTANY DEPARTMENT,

INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE,

AURANGABAD.

SINDHU VIDNYAN MAHAVIDYALAYA,

_ NAGPUR,

January 7, 1976.

S. muticum Breb.

In a puddle, Ravinagar (23-8-73).

S. polymorphum Breb.

Along with other algae in earthen pots

(August-February).

S. punctutatum Breb.

In a puddle, Amraoti road (21-9-73).

N. D. KAMAT

S. R. TIWARI

REFERENCES

CROASDALE, H. (1955): Freshwater algae

Alaska. I. Some desmids from the interior.

4 (4) : 513-565.

of algae of Kojhapur.

Farlowia

Jour. Biol. Sci. 8 (2) : 47-54.

M. Z. (1973): Soil

Botanique 4 (2):

————_—————_ & PATEL,

algae of a rice field at different depths.

KAMAT, N. D. (1965): Ecological notes on the 101-106.

579

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VOLUME 74 SUPPLEMENT

Date of Publication: 27-3-1979

CONTENTS

PAGE

HyDROZOA FROM THE COASTAL WATERS OF MAHARASHTRA. Part I. Hydromedusae. By Jacob

Thomas and B. F. Chhapgar. (With three plates) ae 581

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF KOLHAPUR District. By A.R. Kulkarniand A. N. Thite LA Oe

LIST OF TYPE SPECIMENS OF THE SPECIES, VARIETIES, AND FORMA DEPOSITED IN BLATTER HERBARIUM,

BomBay. ByP.V.Bolzand M.R.Alme2ida. (continued from vol. 74 (2); 232) .. vi -OLO

BIO-SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF LADAKH VEGETATION. By B.L.Sapruand P. Kachroo. (With a text-

figure) zs si u a ae a a Ms sel O21

CONTRIBUTION TO THE BOTANY OF LAHAUL. By B.K. Kapahiand Y.K. Sarin. (With two text-

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FERNS OF KEDARNATH, MADHYAMAHESHWAR AND TUNGNATH. By Prakash Chandra. (With

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A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF BARI-BARELI RANGE (RAISEN District), M.P. By V. B. Gupta. 657

SoME PLANTS NEW TO THE FLORA OF PUNJAB PLAINS. By M. Sharma as a a OOS

INTRODUCED WEEDS IN THE VEGETATION OF Mysore District. By R. R. Rao and K. Surya-

narayana Bs Fis on ae aie we ae a .. 688

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY. .NATURAL: His TOR Y

Vol.

SOC Healey

SUPPLEMENTARY ISSUE

Hydrozoa from the coastal waters of

Maharashtra

art, 1:

Hydromedusae’*

JACOB THOMAS*

AND

B. F. CHHAPGAR?

(With three plates)

Nineteen species of hydromedusae were collected from inshore waters of Maharashtra, but mainly from

Bombay. Earlier authors have recorded only six species of these hydromedusae from Bombay.

One medusa, Aglauropsis vannuccii, was found to be new to science.

Four species—Aequorea australis,

Eutonina indicans, Phialidium malayense and Podocoryne ocellata, are recorded for the first time frcm India.

Eight other medusae are recorded for the first time from Maharashtra.

Marine hydroids and hydromedusae, though

of common occurrence in the coastal waters of

Maharashtra, have not been given the attention

they deserve. They are considered to be of

relatively little importance, since they do not

comprise an item of human diet or otherwise

contribute to economic value. Previous studies

on hydromedusae from Indian coasts have

mainly been restricted to the south. Thus,

21 Accepted December 1975.

2 Taripo-evala Murine Biological Research Station,

(Depar:ment of Fisheries), Bombay-400002. Present

Address : Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute,

Cochin-18, Kerala.

® Health Physics Division, Bhabha Atomic Research

Centre, Bombay-85.

M. A. S. Menon (1945), Nair (1951), George

(1953), and Vannucci and Santhakumari (1969)

have studied these animals from Kerala. Taxo-

nomic accounts of these forms from Madras

are by K.S. Menon (1931) and M. G. K. Menon

(1932). The only other work on the east coast

is that of Ganapati & Nagabhushanam (1958)

from Visakhapatnam. The collection of hydro-

medusae in the Indian Museum (from the

Nicobar Islands, Visakhapatnam, Orissa, Mergui

Archipelago, and Burma) was studied by

Kramp (1958).

Browne (1916) pioneered the study of hydro-

medusae from western Indian coast, with his

description of two forms, namely, Amphogona

581

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOI. 74

Gpsteini and Solmundella bitentaculata together

with the siphonophore (Dichyopsis chamissonis

and the scyphomedusa Cassiopea andromeda

var. maldivensis) from Okhamandal, Gujarat

State. The only other study, albeit sparse, of

medusae from western Indian coasts is by Lele &

Gae (1935) who recorded six species from

Bombay harbour. Bal & Pradhan (1952) could

not add any more species to Lele and Gae’s

list.

During taxonomic study of the hydromedusae

collected from the coastal waters of Maha-

rashtra, 19 species, belonging to 16 genera and

five Orders, were identified. One of these

turned out to be new to science, and has been

described in detail earlier (Thomas & Chhapgar

1975). Four species are new records for Inaia,

while eight species have been collected for the

first time from Maharashtra. All the 19 species

recorded from Maharashtra were found at

Bombay.

The hydromedusae, obtained by horizontal

hauls with a plankton net, were preserved by

adding 12.5 ml formaldehyde (40%) to about

100 ml of sea water containing the animals.

Places other than Bombay could not be visited

frequently, but collections in the Bombay

harbour were made once every fortnight. It

was found that the hydromedusae were appa-

rently absent in the harbour during monsoon

(June-September). The largest numbers of

medusae were collected during the pre-monsoon

period, but in post-monsoon period their

number was considerably reduced. This is

because the coastal waters, especially in semi-

enclosed places like the Bombay harbour, are

subjected to heavy monsoon rains which results in

dilution from a normal salinity of 36°/,, to as

low as 13°/,,. Bhattacharya (1971), in laboratory

studies on the salinity tolerance of hydro-

medusae from Bombay, concluded that these

animals are intolerant of such dilutions. Even

in a 40% dilution of sea water, no species of

hydromedusae could survive for 48 hours.

Order ANTHOMEDUSAE

Family TUBULARIIDAE

Genus Euphysa Forbes

Kuphysa aurata Forbes

Plate I (a)

Euphysa aurata Forbes, Monogr. Brit. naked-eyed

medusae : 71 (1848) ; Kramp, J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K.

40: 36 (1961) ; Vannucci & Santhakumari, J. Mar.

biol. Ass. India 11 : 40 (1969).

Steenstrupia aurata Mayer, Medusae of the world: 35

(1910).

Corymorpha aurata Ostenfeld, Publ. circ. cons. Explor,

Mer. 70: 42 (1916).

Steenstrupia virgulata Bigelow, Pap. Boston Soc. nat

Hist. 7:5 (1914).

Umbrella bell-shaped with rounded apex,

without apical canal. Tentacle moniliform

with nematocyst rings and devoid of a large

terminal knob. Three non-tentacular, per-

radial marginal bulbs present. Stomach large,

tubular, extending up to the velar opening,

with a circular, simple mouth. Lips and oral

tentacles absent. Four narrow radial canals

join the ring canal at the margin. Gonads

simple and encircle almost the whole of the

stomach, leaving only the upper end of the

stomach and mouth free. Excretory papilla

ocelli and sense organs absent. ’

The species can be distinguished by the

presence of one tentacle and three non-tenta-

cular perradial marginal bulbs, rounded apex,

and absence of apical canal. The tentacle is

moniliform and devoid of a large terminal

knob. Nematocyst rings are present on the

tentacle.

28 specimens, including 11 young, were

collected. The adults measure up to 4 mm in

height and a little less in width. |

This species was first recorded in the Indian

Ocean by Vannucci & Santhakumari (1969)

from Kerala. This is the first record from the

coasts of Maharashtra. |

582.

HYDROZOA FROM MAHARASHTRA

* It has been recorded from the coastal waters

of Chile, China, Philippines, and the east coast

of Malacca in the Pacific Ocean. It also

occurs along both the coasts of the Atlantic

Ocean as well as in the = and

Adriatic Seas.

Genus Euphysora Maas

Euphysora bigelowi Maas

Plate I (b)

Euphysora bigelowi Maas, Siboga Exped. Monogr. 10:

71 (1905); Nair, Bull. Cent. Res. Inst., Univ. of

Travancore 2: 50 (1951); Ganapati & WNaga-

bhushanam, Mem. Oceanogr. Andhra Univ. 2: 92

(1958); Kramp. Rec. Ind. Mus. 53: 340 (1958) ;

Kramp, J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 49 : 39 (1961).

Steenstrupia bigelowi Mayer, Medusae of the world:

39 (1910) ; Lele & Gae, J. Univ. Bombay 3 : 91 (1935) ;

- Bal & Pradhan, ibid. 20: 76 (1952).

This species can be distinguished by the

presence of single long tentacle with adaxial

nematocyst knobs, and three short tentacles

without nematocyst knobs. Apex pointed but

without apical canal. The gonad encircles the

peduncle.

It is a strictly neritic, epipelagic medusa.

33 specimens, of which 8 are young, are in the

present collection. A typical medusa measures

13 mm in height and 5 mm in width.

This species has been previously recorded

from Bombay waters by Lele & Gae (1935)

and by Bal & Pradhan (1952) as Steenstrupia

bigelowi. It is quite common in the Indo-

Malayan region, coasts of Africa, southern

Japan, China, and off north-eastern Australia.

Family PANDEIDAE

Genus Merga Hartlaub

Merga tergestina (Neppi & Stiasny)

Plate I (c)

Tiara tergestina Neppi & Stiasny, Zool. Anz. Leipzig

39 : 556 (1912).

Merga tergestina Kramp, J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 40:

107 (1961) ; Vannucci & Santhakumari, J. Mar. biol.

Ass. India 11 : 40 (1969).

non Kramp, Atlantide Rep. 3: 250 (1955).

Maharashtra.

Top of the umbrella pointed and without an

apical canal. Manubrium about two-thirds

as high as the bell cavity, with faintly crenulated

lips, without nematocyst knobs. The 4 to 8

tentacles have large conical basal bulbs, each of

them having ocelli, but there are a few very

small rudimentary bulbs without ocelli.

Gonads adradial, mesenteries short.

Three specimens were collected, about 7mm

high and 4 mm wide.

This is the first record of this species from

Vannucci & Santhakumari

(1969) have previously recorded it from Cochin

waters. It also occurs in the Gulf of Guinea,

at Trieste and Naples and in Adriatic Sea.

Family HYDRACTINIDAE

Genus Podocoryne Sars

Podocoryne ocellata (Agassiz & Mayer)

Plate P(e)

Lymnorea ocellata Agassiz & Mayer, Mem. Mus. comp.

zool. Harv. 26: 144 (1902); Mayer, Medusae of the

world : 153 (1910).

Podocoryne ocellata Kramp, J. Mar. biol. Ass. U. K. 40::

70 (1961).

Medusa with deep, bell-shaped umbrella

with flat top and thin walls. Manubrium half

as long as the bell cavity, with four branched

oral tentacles. Four, narrow, straight, un-

branched radial canals with four interradial

gonads.

There are 30-40 short, solid, stiff marginal

tentacles with quite prominent basal bulbs, each

with a prominent adaxial ocellus.

Marginal and lateral cirri and sense organs

absent.

This species can be distinguished by the

manubrium being half as long as the bell cavity,

the oral arms divided four times, presence of

four interradial gonads, and about 40 short,

stiff tentacles, each with a prominent adaxial

ocellus.

Nine specimens were collected, measuring

_ 2-3 mm in height as well as width.

583 -

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

This is the first record of this species from

Indian seas. It has earlier been recorded from

Paumotus, in the South Pacific Ocean.

Order LEPTOMEDUSAE

Family AEBQUOREIDAE

Genus Aeguorea Peron & Lesueur

Aequorea conica Browne

Plate I (d)

Aequorea conica Browne, Rep. Pearl Oyst. Fish. Mannar

27: 145 (1905); Nair, Bull. Cent. Res. Inst. Univ.

Travancore 2: 68 (1951); Ganapati & Naga-

bhushanam, Mem. Oceanogr. Andhra Univ. 2: 92

(1958); Kramp, Rec. Ind. Mus. 53: 360. (1958) ;

Kramp, J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 40 : 206 (196i).

Gelatinous substance in the high, conical

umbrella very thick in the central part, the ridge

being thin with a narrow velum. Subumbrellar

side convex. Gastric peduncle absente

Stomach broad, flat—half as wide as the

umbrella diameter, with 16 crenulated, longs

slender lips. These latter have a furrow con-

tinuing along the inside of the stomach to the

16 simple (undivided) narrow radial canals.

The 16 laterally compressed, smooth gonads

are situated on the proximal half of the radial

canals. | 3

From 26 to 30 hollow, small tentacles, with

conical basal bulbs and excretory pores:

Statocysts twice as many as tentacles, each

with two concretions between the marginal

bulbs and the tentacles. Cordyli, marginal

or lateral cirri, ocelli and excretory papillae

absent. |

This species can be distinguished by its high.

conical umbrella, with gonads at the proximal

half of the 16 radial canals, a mouth with long

and slender lips, and about 30 tentacles (twice

the number of radial canals).

29 specimens were collected. Average height

is 12 mm and width 9 mm.

This is the first record of the species from

Maharashtra. .: The species is quite common in

the coastal waters of India.

Nair (1951)

recorded it from Trivandrum, Ganapati &

Nagabhushanam (1958) from Visakhapatnam

and Kramp (1958) from the Mergui Archipelago.

Outside India, it is common in the Malayan

Archipelago, Mozambique Channel, China

and in north Australian coastal waters.

Aequorea australis Uchida

Plate I (g)

Aequorea australis Uchida, J. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido Univ.

9: 307 (1947); Kramp, J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 40:

205 (1961).

Aequorea forskalea Vanhcfite, Zoologica Stuttgatr 67:

24 (1913).

Distinguished from A. conica by its low

umbrella, up to 35 mm in diameter, concave

sub-umbrella. Lips present but very small and

highly frilled. Tentacles as many as radial

canals. Basal bulbs with excretory papillae.

Gonads more than half as long as the radial

canals and situated nearer the margin than the

stomach.

11 specimens are in the present collection,

with the umbrella measuring 10-20 mm in

diameter.

This is the first record of this species from the

coasts of India. It occurs in the coastal waters

of the Indo-west Pacific region, from East Africa

to Tahiti, northwards to China and southwards

to north-eastern Australia.

Family EIRENIDAE

Genus Eirene Eschscholtz

Eirene ceylonensis (Browne)

Plate I (f)

Irene ceylonensis Browne, Rep. Pearl Oyst. Fish. Gulf of |

Mannar 27 : 140 (1905).

Eirene ceylonensis Bigelow, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. |

Harvard 37: 160 (1909) ; Nair, Bull. Cont. Res. Inst.,

Univ. Travancore 2: 64 (1951); Kramp, Ree. Ind. |

Mus. 53 : 352 (1958); Ganapati & Nagabhushanam, |

Mem. Oceanogr. Andhra Univ. 2:92 (1958); Kramp, |

J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 40: 187 (1961).

Phortis ceylonensis Lele & Gae. J. Univ. Bombay 3: 92

(1935) ; Bal & Pradhan, ibid. 20: 76 (1952).

584

J. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. 74 eS CO

Thomas & Chhapgar: Hydromedusae Set (eS => onmaed 4

2 Medusaé of (a) Euphysa aurata, (b) Euphysora bigelowi, (c) Merga tergestina, (d) Aequorea’ »

§; BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 74 7 Pare ID

Thomas & Chhapgar: Hydromedusae > LOY sea

Medusae of (a): Eirene menoni, (b) Eirene hexanemalis, (c) Eutonina indicans, (d) Eutima, orientalis,

(e) Phialucium carolinae, (f) Octophialucium indicum, (g) Phialidium malayense.

respectively.

HYDROZOA FROM MAHARASHTRA

Umbrella flat, with a thin wall. Four

straight, narrow, unbranched radial canals.

The four, very much folded, gonads are res-

tricted to the sub-umbrellar portion of the

radial canals. Over 100 short, slender, hollow,

tapering marginal tentacles present.

The medusa is 15 to 25 mm wide.

The species, already recorded from Indian

waters including Bombay, occurs in the coastal

waters of the Indo-west Pacific, from East Africa

to New Zealand and China.

Eirene menoni Kramp

Plate II (a)

Eirene meznoni Kramp, Sci. Rep. Great Barrier Reef

Exped. 6: 286 (1953); Kramp, Rec. Ind. Mus. 53:

353 (1958) ; Kramp, J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 40: 189

(1961).

Irene ceylonensis Annandale, J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 3:

79 (1907).

Eirene ceylonensis Nair, Bull. Cent. Res. Inst., Univ.

Travancore 2 : 64 (1951).

Phortis sp. Menon, Rec. Ind. Mus. 33: 503 (1931) 3

Menon, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. 1: 18 (1932).

Umbrella evenly rounded. Four linear

gonads, highly variable in length, and restricted

to the umbrellar portion of the radial canal,

There are 46 hollow marginal tentacles. Bet-

ween each pair of tentacles are two rudimentary

bulbs. Tentacles are all of nearly the same

length but distance between them variable.

The umbrella of a typical specimen in the

present collection is 12 mm wide and 5 mm high.

Annandale (1907) and Nair (1951) had

recorded this species under the trivial name

ceylonensis from Bengal and _ Trivandrum

K. S. Menon (1931) and M. G. K.

Menon (1932) had recorded it as Phortis sp.

This is the first record of this species from

Maharashtra. It occurs in the Indo-west

Pacific region, from East Africa to Polynesia:

_ Kirene hexanemalis (Goette)

Plate II (b)

Irenopsis hexanemalis Goette, S. B. Preuss. Aked. wiss.

7: 832 (1886).

Irene hexanemalis Menon, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. 3:

19 (1932).

Eirene hexanemalis Kramp, Vidensk. Medd. dansk.

naturh. foren. Kbh. 99 : 248 (1936) ; Nair, Bull. Cent.

Res. Inst., Univ. Travancore 2: 63 (1951) ; Ganapati &

Nagabhushanam, Mem. Oceanogr. Andhra Univ. 2:

92 (1958) ; Kramp. Rec. Ind. Mus. 53: 354 (1958) ;

Kramp, J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 40 : 188 (1961).

Radial canals six. Stomach small and mounted

on a wide peduncle. Mouth with six long, thin

lips, with folded margins. From 30 to 50

tentacles present with a large basal bulb. Bet-

ween each pair of tentacles three rudimentary

bulbs and four marginal vesicles are present.

There is an excretory pore at the base of each

tentacle bulb and rudimentary bulb.

The gonads are confined to the distal portions

of the radial canals, and are less than half as

long as the radial canals.

10 specimens are in the present collection,

measuring from 10-15 mm in diameter and

slightly less in height.

This is the first record of this species from

Maharashtra. It occurs in the coastal waters

of the Indo-west Pacific region, from South-

East Africa to Australia and Melanesia, and

off southern China and Japan.

Family EUTIMIDAE

Genus Eutonina Hartlaub

Eutonina indicans (Romanes)

Plate II (c)

Tiaropsis indicans Romanes, J. Linn. Soc. (Zool.) 12:

525 (1876).

Eutimalphes indicans Haeckel, Erster. Theil. einer Monogr.

der medusen : 195 (1879).

Eutimium socialis Mayer, Medusae of the world: 306

(1910).

Eutonina socialis Hartlaub, Wiss, Meeres. Abt. Helgo-

land : 506 (1897).

585

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Eutonina indicans Bigelow, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus, 44:

34 (1913); Kramp, J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 40: 200

(1961).

Bell walls thick at the middle and thin at the -

margin. Stomach short, with the conical

peduncle extending up to the level of the velar

opening. Mouth with four folded, broad

lips. There are eight marginal vesicles, with 12

concretions.

The four linear gonads, sinuous along nearly

the whole length of the subumbrellar portion

of the four radial canals, extend from the base of

the peduncle almost to the ring canal. There

are about 100 short tentacles, with conical]

bases, without ocelli and excretory pores.

_Cirri and marginal warts absent.

Only. two specimens represent the present

collection. The larger one is 22 mm in diameter,

with slightly more height.

This is the first record of this species from

Indian waters. It is common in the Atlantic

Ocean and also occurs off Japan and in the

North Pacific.

Genus Eutima McCrady

Eutima orientalis (Browne)

Plate II (d)

Octorchis orientalis Browne, Rep. Pearl Oyst. Fish. Gulf

of Mannar 27 : 139 (1905).

Oztorchis gegenbauri Russel, Medusae of the British

Isles : 367 (1953).

Eutima mira Vanhoffen, Zoologica Stuttgart 67: 23

(1913); Menon, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. 1: 18 (1932) ;

Nair, Bull. Cent. Res. Inst., Univ. Travancore 2: 63

(1951); Ganapati & Nagabhushanam, Mem.

Oceanogr. Andhra Univ. 2 : 92 (1958).

Eutima orientalis Mayer, Medusae of the world 1: 299

(1910); Menon, Rec. Ind. Mus. 33: 503 (1931):

Kramp, ibid. 53 : 357 (1958); Kramp, J. Mar. biol: .

Ass. U.K. 40: 198 (1961).

An easily identifiable species because of its

characteristic hemispheric shape and eight

gonads, four on the subumbrella and four on

‘the peduncle. It has a very long, narrow, pris-

Peduncle absent.

matic peduncle with a broad, dome-like base,

extending far beyond the umbrellar margin.

The gonads, borne on the four radial canals,

extend from the base of the peduncle almost to

the ring canal and are much folded. Four

perradial tentacles with lateral cirri and 60-80

marginal warts with lateral cirri. Eight closed

marginal vesicles present. Excretory pores and

cordyli absent.

Four specimens were obtained, measuring

5-6 mm in diameter and slightly more in height.

This is the first record of this species from

Maharashtra. It has been recorded from the

coasts of India, Ceylon, Nicobar Islands,

Vietnam, China, Amboina, New Zealand,

Philippines and Madagascar.

Family PHIALUCIIDAE

Genus Phialucium Maas

Phialucium carolinae (Mayer)

Plate II (e)

Oceania carolinae Mayer, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv.

37 : 7 (1900).

3 Phialucium carolinae Nair, Bull. Cent. Res. Inst., Univ.

Travancore 2: 62 (1951); Kramp, Rec. Ind. Mus.

53 : 346 (1958); Kramp, J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K..40:

185 (1961). )

Phialucium virens Lele & Gae, J. Univ. Bombay 3: 94

(1935) ; Bal & Pradhan, ibid. 20: 76 (1952).

- Octocanna polynema Kramp, Atlantide Rep. 3: 260

(1955).

Pseudoclytia longleyi Burkenroad, Biol. Bull. Woods

Hole 61: 118 (1931).

Phialidium heptactis Vanhoffen, Wiss. Ergebn. ‘ Valdivia’

19 : 225 (1911).

Phialidium phosphoricum Vanhoffen, Disch. supol Exped.

13:19 (1912).

Phialucium mbenga Bigelow, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 1:

293 (1919).

| Umbrella watch-glass

shaped. Mouth with four simple, folded lips.

Usually four radial canals present, but up to

eight radial canals may be seen in ‘some speci-

-mens. Gonads, af\the distal half of the radial

386

HYDROZOA FROM MAHARASHTRA

canals, hang down vertically from these canals.

About 30 tentacles are present; between

successive tentacles there are usually three

rudimentary bulbs. The rudimentary marginal

bulbs are knob-like and the median one between

each pair of tentacles, is larger than the other

two and is provided with an excretory papilla.

The portions of the margin between adjacent

tentacles are not equal. Ocelli absent.

More than 60 specimens are in the present

collection. It was found in large numbers in

some pre-monsoon plankton hauls.

This species has been previously recorded

from Bombay as Phialucium virens. Itis widely

distributed from the Straits of Malacca and the

Gulf of Thailand, Philippines, Australia, China

and Africa. It was originally described from

North Carolina and Florida on the east coast

of America.

Genus Octophialucium Kramp |

Octophialucium indicum Kramp

Plate II (f)~

Octophialucium indicum Kramp, Rec.

347 (1958) ; Kramp, J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 40:

(1961).

Octocanna polynema Menon, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus.3:

Ind. Mus. 53:

184

23 (1932); Nair, Bull. Cent. Res. Inst., Univ. Travancore _

2: 63 (1951); George, J. Zool. Soc. India 5: 82

(1953); Ganapati & Nagabhushanam, Mem.

Oceanogr. Andhra Univ. 2: 92 (1958).

Umbrella disc-like and of very thick gelati-

nous consistency; frequently lenticular. Pedun-

cle absent and stomach about one-sixth the

diameter of the umbrella. There are eight

pointed lips with crenulated margins. Usually

eight radial canals present but some specimens

have 6to 11. Radial canals continued inwards,

almost up to the centre of the stomach.

Gonads about one-fifth as long as the radial

canals, and situated very near the bell margin

along the radial canals. There are about 20

to 28 tentacles without marginal or lateral cirri.

Tentacles spirally coiled and slightly. flattened

' papillae. -

each tentacle bulb.

: Phialiduum malayense yl J. Mar. biol, Ass.

with broad, conical basal bulbs with excretory

Between two successive tentacles

there are 3-5 (usually four) rudimentary

marginal bulbs with an excretory papilla on

A closed marginal statocyst

between each successive pair of marginal bulbs

irrespective of whether they carry a tentacle or

not.

The species can be distinguished by the

number of tentacles, 3 to 5 rudimentary bulbs

between successive tentacles, and marginal

vesicles in the same number as tentacles plus

rudimentary bulbs.

17 specimens of this species are in the present

collection. The largest measures 15 mm in

diameter.

This is the first record of this species from

Maharashtra. Distribution Indo-west Pacific

tropical waters from Madagascar to Tahiti. -

Family COMPANULARIIDAE

Genus Phialidium Leuckart

Phialidium malayense Kramp |

Plate II (g)

U.K.

40 : 170 (1961).

Phialidium pacificum Mayer, Medusae of the world i:

273 (1910).

Bell hemispherical. Stomach large and

globular, without a peduncle. Mouth with

four prominent, pointed, much folded lips.

Four gonads, borne on the middle one-third

of the four narrow, straight radial canals, are

ovalin shape. The 32 or more tentacles equally

spaced on the umbrellar margin. Basal bulbs

large but devoid of ocelli or brown pigment ;

rudimentary bulbs absent. Two statocysts

present between each successive pair of tentacles.

This species can be distinguished by its large,

globular stomach with four prominent lips,

hollow tentacles without brown pigment spot,

narrow velum, numerous vesicles, and lack. of

irridescence of the subumbrella. :

587

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74 hl

15 specimens are in the present collection.

An average specimen measures 6 mm in

diameter.

This is the first record of this species from

Indian waters. It occurs in the waters of North

Australia, Amboina, Vietnam and China.

Order LIMNOMEDUSAE

Family OLINDIADIDAE

Genus Aglauropsis Fr. Muller

Aglauropsis vannuccii Thomas & Chhapgar

Plate III (a)

Aglauropsis vannuccii Thomas & Chhapgar, J. Bombay

nat. Hist.Soc. 72 (3): 809 (1975).

This species was described in 1970 (Thomas &

Chhapgar 1975). It can be distinguished by

the presence of 28 tentacles with nematocyst

rings, small stomach, mouth with four small

folded lips, radial canals of average width,

smooth sac-like gonads extending nearly three-

fourths of the radial canal and with pendant

distal ends, and numerous statocysts (one

between every two tentacles). Rudimentary

tentacles are lacking.

Nine specimens are in the present collection ;

the largest measures 8 mm in diameter and 6 mm

in height.

This species was first collected from Bombay:

Subsequently, it has also been found to occur off

Goa.

Order TRACHYMEDUSAE

Family GERYONIIDAE

Genus Liriope Lesson

Liriope tetraphylla (Chamisso & Eysenhardt)

Plate III (b)

Geryonia tetraphylla Chamisso & Eysenhardt, Nova

Acta Phys. Medd. Acad. Leopold Carol. 10: 357

(1821).

Liriope tetraphylla Gegenbaur, Z. Wiss. Zool. 8: 257

(1856); Menon, Rec. Ind. Mus. 33: 503 (1931);

Menon, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. 3: 28) C932)

Lele & Gae, J. Univ. Bombay 3: 97 (1935) ; Menon,

Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 22: 41 (1945) ; Nair, Bull. Cent.

588

‘Ocean down to 40°S.

Res. Inst., Univ. Travancore 2: 70 (1951); Bal & .

Pradhan, J. Univ. Bombay 20: 76 (1952); Kramp,

Rec. Ind. Mus. 53: 368 (1958); Ganapati & Naga-

bhushanam, Mem. Oceanogr. Andhra Univ. 2: 93

(1958); Kramp, J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 40: 238

(1961).

This species is easily distinguished by its four |

leaf-shaped gonads situated on the four radial

canals. Centripetal canals are present. |

This is the only species of the genus and the

most abundant and widely distributed oceanic

medusa: it is a valuable indicator of sea

currents. 82 mature specimens and 20 young,

measuring from 10 to 30 mm, are in the present

collection.

It occurs in the warm parts of all the oceans

and Mediterranean Sea. In the Pacific, it |

occurs between 40°S and 40°N, in the Indian.

In the Atlantic it like-

wise occurs between these degrees of latitude,

but in eastern parts it penetrates somewhat

further north, into the English Channel. |

Family RHOPALONEMATIDAE

Genus Amphogona Browne

Amphogona apsteini (Vanhoffen)

Plate III (d)

Pantachogon apsteini Vanhoften, Wiss. Ergebn. Valdivia’

3: 65 (1902). |

Amphogona apsteini Browne, Fauna Geog. Maldive\

Laccad. Archipel. 11: 740 (1905); Browne, Rep.)

mar. Zool. Okhamandal 2: 152 (1916); Kramp,

J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 40: 252 (1961). |

Umbrella almost hemispherical, without

apical projection, lateral walls thin. Velum

very broad. Stomach small, on a small gelati-

nous peduncle as long as one-third of the height

of the umbrella cavity. Four short pointed

lips, eight radial canals and eight oval gonads

present. Gonads are of unequal size, being

alternately very small and somewhat larger.

Numerous (almost 60) small tentacles (8 per

octant). Statocysts 16 to 24, club-shaped.

Lateral or marginal cirri absent. |

J. BomMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 74 PLATE III

Thomas & Chhapgar: Hydromedusae

3 MM.

1O MM.

3 MM.

2 MM.

Medusae of (a) Aglauropsis vannuccii, (b) Liriope tetraphylla, (c) Aglaura hemistoma, (d) Amphogona

apsteini, (e) Solmundella bitentaculata.

HYDROZOA FROM MAHARASHTRA

This species can be distinguished by its small

stomach, ellipsoidal gonads of unequal size,

and 16-24 statocysts. The tentacles, numbering

from 50 to 70, are all alike and are not densely

crowded.

About 60 specimens are in the present collec-

tion. Of these, 43 are with mature gonad and

the rest immature. They measure up to 6 mm

in diameter and 5 mm in height.

This species has been previously recorded,

in India, from Okha in Gujarat State. It is an

epipelagic medusa found in the tropical parts

of the eastern and western Pacific oceans, in

the Malayan Archipelago, in the Indian Ocean,

N.E. Australia, Palao Islands, Japan, Vietnam,

Sumatra, the Maldive Islands and north of

Madagascar. It has also been recorded from

the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic coast of

Africa and from the Galapagos Islands.

Genus Aglaura Peron & Lesueur

Aglaura hemistoma Peron & Lesueur

Aglaura hemistoma Peron & Lesueur, Ann. Mus. Hist.

nat. 14: 351 (1809) ; Lele & Gae. J. Univ. Bombay

3: 95 (1935); Nair, Bull. Cent. Res. Inst., Univ.

Travancore 2: 69 (1951); Ba: & Pradhan, J. Univ.

Bombay 20 : 76 (1952) ; Ganapati & Nagebhushanam,

Mem. Oceanogr. Andhra Univ. 2: 93 (1958) ; Kramp,

J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 40: 251 (1961).

Aglaura elongata Vanhoffen, Zool. Jahrb. 11: 428 (1913).

Aglantha globuligera Ranson, Bull. Inst. Oceanogr.

Monaco 593: 1 (1932).

Peduncle shorter than bell cavity. Stomach

small, mouth with four small, simple lips.

From 45 to 85 solid, stiff tentacles present,

with free, club-shaped, marginal (eight) stato-

cysts. Eight, narrow, straight, unbranched

radial canals present.

Eight sausage-shaped, long, pendant gonads

situated on the peduncle at the juncture of the

eight radial canals with the stomach.

68 specimens are in the present collection ;

however, these animals are difficult to preserve,

and 18 specimens turned inside out after preser-

vation. Very few young were seen in the

plantkon hauls. The average size is 5 mm

high and 4 mm wide.

This species has already been recorded from

Bombay ; it was quite common in the collec-

tions throughout the year. It is widely distri-

buted in the warm and temperate parts of all

oceans.

Order NARCOMEDUSAE

Family AEGINIDAE

Genus Solmundella Haeckel

Solmurdella bitentaculata (Quoy & Gaimard)

Plate III (e)

Charybdea bitentaculata Quoy & Gaimard, Zoologica 4:

295 (1833).

Solmundella bitentaculata Mayer, Medusae of the world

1: 455 (1910) ; Browne, Rep. mar. Zool. Okhamandal

2: 152 (1916); Menon, Rec. Ind. Mus. 33: 503

(1931); Mencn, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. 3: 28

(1932); Lele & Gae, J. Univ. Bombay 3: 99 (1935) ;

Menon, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 22: 41 (1945) ; Nair,

Bull. Cent. Res. Inst., Univ. Travancore 2: 70 (1951) ;

Bal & Pradhan, J. Univ. Bombay 20: 76 (1952);

George, J. Zool. Soc. India 5 : 82 (1953) ; Ganapati &

Nagabhushanam, Mem. Oceanogr. Andhra Univ.

62 : 93 (1958); Kramp, J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 40:

270 (1961).

The gelatinous substance of this conical]

medusa is thick at the aboral surface and bell

cavity, but becomes thin at the margin of the

bell. Stomach flat, very broad, lenticular, with

eight inter-radial, divided stomach pouches.

There are four peronia, but only two primary,

perradial, opposite tentacles. Bell keeled

along the axis leading to the tentacles. The

two tentacular peronia are in deep grooves.

From 8 to 16, but sometimes as many as 32,

statocysts, are present. There areno peri-

pheral canals, octoporpae or secondary tentacles.

This species has been previously recorded

from Bombay. It is very widely distributed

in the Pacific, extending from Japan to southern

589

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

California ; in the Atlantic it is common every-

‘where south of 20°N, while there are only a

few scattered records from the North Atlantic

further north, as far as 40°N. It is very

common in the Mediterranean Sea, and is

circumpolar in Antarctic seas.

KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE

HyYDROMEDUSAE OF BOMBAY 4

| Sense organs exclusively ectodermal.......... 2

Sense organs (statocysts and tentaculocysts) with

am endodermal axise. 0.000 auc hae Sy

Medusae tall, bell-like, with ocelli but without

2(1)

4 statocysts, gonads borne on the manubrium or

stomach (Acanthomedusae)

Medusae flatter, bowl or saucer shaped, usually

with statocysts (or cordyli or marginal vesicles),

gonads borne on the radial canals (Lepto-

medusae)

Mouth simple and tubular (Tubulariidae)...... mI

Mouth with four lips.) ooceseueee ce eee 5

Three short or rudimentary tentacles and one long

tentacle differing from the others in structure...

RIC BN tichu/enemae on seperdiene ae tsar as Euphysora bigelowi

One to four unequally developed tentacles but of

uniform structure .............. Euphysa aurata

Lips with clusters of nematocysts (Hydractiniidae)

Podocoryne_ ocellata

Lips without clusters of nematocysts (Pandeidae)

Merga_ tergestina

3(2)

4(3)

5(3)

»>eeceoevoreeoeve cee oer ee ee 8 & oe

eoewvoeeevroee eo eee eceseee see eee eo &

6(2) Medusae with a distinct gastric peduncle..... na

: Medusae without a distinct gastric peduncle... .11

Numerous marginal vesicles, gonads restricted to

umbrellar portion of radial canals, tentacle bulbs

> usually with excretory pores (Eirenidae: Eirene)

4 The Order Limnomedusae cannot be fitted in this

key. as it is comprised of predominantly freshwater

medusae intermediate between the Trachymedusae and

Narcomedusae, in which gonads may be borne either

on the stomach wall, with or without perradial lobes

extending along the radial canals, or only on the radial

canals. Tentacles are hollow, Statocysts are sometimes

present, and are internal, being in the form of enclosed

sensory clubs. Aglauropsis vannuccii Thomas &

Chhapgar, falling in the ous Olindiadidae, Delon

to this Order. - )

8(7) Peduncle

Marginal vesicles usually eight; if more, the

gonads extend from the bell margin down along

the peduncle almost to the stomach ; no excretory

pores, (Entimnidae) vehi) 25 clover -poe) endo e tale aia 10

WIGS ty esis cana Eirene hexanemalis

Peduncle,, SlEMm€ers oo cccie cece sone tonoee ues a fete enone dacake eunsG

9(8) Medusa with distinct excretory papillae........

CT aR ee MRO GSR nl Eirene ceylonensis

Medusae without excretory papillae..........

Eirene menoni

10(7) Medusa without marginal warts and cirri (Eutonina)

Eutonina indicans

Medusa with lateral cirri on marginal warts,

usually also at the base of tentacles (Eutima)..

Eutima orientalis —

eceocetreeveer eee eee eee eee e ee oo

eseoeceevevee trees ve eee eee ee oo

11(6) Stomach very broad with many radial canals,

tentacle bulbs with excretory bores (Aequoreidae :

Re PA CHUONCG) ioc ge che Ge cli seu AES OG eR aR ee 12

Stomach narrow with (normally) four to eight —

“radial Canal ac su cee es mines 6 i ge allen Reis 13

12(11) About 16 radial-canals and twice as many tenta- _

cles ; umbrella high, conical, 9 mm wide, gonads |

in proximal half/of radial canals!!'y......... |

Aequorea: conica |

16 to 32 radial canals and as many tentacles, |

umbrella low, up to 45 mm wide, gonads in distal |

half of radial canals........ Aequorea australis |

13(11) Tentacle bulbs with excretory pores, four to eight

radial canals (Phialuendae)s.; we onense a. . se: 14

Tentacle bulbs without excretory pores, four |

radial canals (Companulariidae : Phialidium).... |

whoo se sebiters foie Cas (he etapa? ....-Phialidium malayense |

14(13) Medusa with normally four radial canals |

(Phialucitim ing Aereche eves Phialucium carolinae |

Medusa with normally eight (6 to 11) radial |

canals (Octophialucium).. 3. whece cee |

Octophialucium indicum |

15(1) Umbrella margin smooth ; tentacles solid, spring- |

ing from umbrella margin, or solid and hollow; |

radial and ring canals invariably present ; gonads |

borne on radial canals; sensory clubs -free or |

enclosed (Trachymedusae)

Umbrella. margin scalloped by tentacle bases}

tentacles solid, springing from exumbrella, some |

distance above umbrella margin (sometimes small |

secondary tentacles on margin) ; no radial canals, |

with or without peripheral canal system ; gonads

_on stomach walls; sense organs free (Narco- |

medusae : ‘Acginidae ¢ - Solmundella).......... |

Solmundella~ bitentaculata

ssc ee eae e ee see sees ed

590

HYDROZOA FROM MAHARASHTRA

16(15) Medusa with centripetal canals (Geryoniidae :

EIFLOPE) ea ae a i ateitsiol Goole, seis Liriope tetraphylla

Medusa without centripetal canals (Rhopalone-

TINAETOACR ES te Hs NE PE Pe chao Moline ie: v:0i6 17

17(16) Medusa with short, conical gastric peduncle, with

eight globular or oval gonads (Amphogona)

ANE NCC TR En ON Amphogona apsteini

Medusa with long, slender gastric peduncles;

gonads sausage-shaped, pendant, attached to

peduncle (Aglaura).......... Aglaura hemistoma

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We take this opportunity to express our

grateful thanksto Dr. (Mrs.) Martha Vannucci,

former UNESCO Curator, Indian Ocean

Biological Centre, Cochin, for confirmation of

identification of specimens. We are also thank-

ful to Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, former Senior

Scientific Officer, Taraporevala Marine Bio-

logical Research Station, Bombay for his

constant encouragement.

REFERENCES

Bat, D. V. & PRADHAN, L. B. (1952): Records of

zooplankton in Bombay waters during 1944-47. J.

Univ. Bombay (n.s.) 20B : 75-80.

BHATTACHARYA, S. S. (1971): Salinity and thermal

tolerance of marine zooplankton of Bombay waters.

Ph.D. thesis, University of Bombay, 266 pp.

Browne, E. T. (1905): Report on the medusae col-

lected by Professor Herdman at Ceylon in 1902. Rep.

Pearl Oyst. Fish. Mannar 4 (27): 131-166, pls. 1-4.

(1905a) : Hydromedusae, with a revision of

the Williadae and Petasidae. Fauna Geog. Maldive

Laccad. Archipel. 2(3) : 742-749, pls. 54-57.

(1916): Notes on some jelly-fishes from

Okhamandal in Kattiawar, collected by Mr. James

Hornell in 1904-5. Rep. Govt. Baroda mar. Zool.

Okhamandal, pt. 2: 151-155.

GANAPATI, P. N. & NAGABHUSHANAM, R. (1958):

Seasonal distribution of the hydromedusae off the

Visakhapatnam coast. Mem. Oceanogr. Andhra Univ.

(62) 2 : 91-99.

GeorGE, P. C. (1953): The marine plankton of the

coastal waters of Calicut with observations on the hydro-

logical conditions. J. Zool. Soc. India 5 (1): 76-107,

text-figs. 4.

Kramp, P. L. (1958): Hydromedusae in the Indian

Museum. Rec. Ind. Mus. 53: 339-376, figs. 1-5.

(1961): Synopsis of the medusae of the

world. J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 40: 1-469.

(1965): The hydromedusae of the Pacific

and Indian Oceans. Dana Rep. 63: 1-162, figs. 1-13.

(1968) :

1-200, figs. 1-367.

Lee, S. H. & Gag, P. B. (1935): Some common

hydromedusae of the Bombay harbour. J. Univ. Bombay

3 (5): 90-101, 3 pls., 1 text-fig.

Mayer, A. G. (1910): Medusae of the world.

Hydromedusae 1 & 2: 1-498, pls. 1-55.

Menon, K. S. (1931): A preliminary account of the

Madras plankton. Rec. Ind. Mus. 33: 489-516.

Menon, M. A. S. (1945): Observations on the seasonal

distribution of the plankton of the Trivandrum coast.

Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 22B(2) : 31-62.

MENON, M. G. K. (1932): The hydromedusae of

Madras. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. (n.s.), Nat. Hist.

Sec. 3(2): 1-32, 3 pls.

Nalr, K. K. (1951): Medusae of the Trivandrum

coast. Part I. Systematics. Bull. Cent. Res. Inst.

Univ. Travancore, Nat. Sci. (C) 2.1) : 46-77, pl. 1.

SANTHAKUMARL, V. & VANNUCCI, M.(1969) : Monsoonal

fluctuations in the distribution of the hydromedusae in

Cochin backwaters 1968-1969. Abst. 1st All India~

Symp. Estuar. Biol: 18, 19. :

Tuomas, JAcop & CHHApGaAR, B. F. (1975): A new.

medusa (Coelenterata: Hydrozoa) belonging to the

genus Aglauropsis from Bombay seas. J. Bombay nat. .

Hist. Soc. 72(3) : 809-812, 2 pls. Bae

Vannuccl, M. & SANTHAKUMARI, V. (1969): New.

records of hydromedusae from the shelf area off the

Kerala coast. J. mar. Biol. Ass. India 11 (1 & -2):

40-43. PAURCOTOR Gee

ibid. Sections I] & III. ibid. 72:

Additions to the flora of Kolhapur District’

A. R. KULKARNE

The luxuriant vegetation of Kolhapur district

has not received much attention. Mahajan &

Divan (1968) and Mahajan & Vaidya (1969)

have dealt with the forest resources of Radha-

nagari and the vegetation of grasslands around

Kolhapur respectively. Kulkarni & Mudgal

(1971) and Kulkarni & Desai (1972) have

revised the family Commelinaceae and Erio-

caulaceae respectively of this area. Kulkarni

(1971) has reported the occurrence of Sesamum

mulayanum Nair in this region. Eriocaulon

tuberiferum Kulkarni et Desai (1972) has been

described from Panhala—a fort near Kolhapur.

On the basis of data available in the herbarium

of the Botanical Survery of India, Western

circle, Poona, Singh, Malhotra & Mudaliar

(1972) have published an account of the flora

of Kolhapur district in which they have enu-

merated 301 species including Pteridophytes.

The aim of the present note is to add to

this list whatever information we have gather-

ed on the Angiosperm flora during our

six years botanical explorations in different

parts of this district. The plants already

recorded from this region are excluded from the

present list except those where more infor-

mation is added on the distribution in the

district. Cultigens have also been excluded:

The account on Cyperaceae will be published

at a later date. Necessary changes in the

nomenclature of identified taxa have been made.

The herbarium specimens are deposited in the

+ Accepted August 1973.

2 Botany Department, Shivaji University, Kolhapur.

Present Address: Biology Department, Ramnarain Ruia

College, Matunga, Bombay-400 019.

592

AND A. N. THITE

herbarium of Shivaji University, Botany Depart-

ment, Kolhapur.

MENISPERMACEAE

Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers. A common

climber, Kolhapur, Panhala ; often cultivated

(122, 125).

Cocculus hirsutus (Linn.) Diels. In open

grassland. Kolhapur, Panhala (135-37).

Cissampelos pereira Linn. A climber in forests

or forest edges. Katyayani, Panhala, Gagan-

bavada (139-43).

NYMPHAEACEAE

Nymphaea stellata Willd. Both red and white -

flowered forms. Rankala and Shiruli talaeo,

Kolhapur (149).

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Laxmi talaeo, |

Kolhapur. ie,

PAPAVERACEAE |

Argemone mexicana Linn. A weed in waste

land and in disturbed soils. Kolhapur, |

Panhala (171-73).

BRASSICACEAE |

Cardamine trichocarpa Hochst. ex Rich. In|

moist places, often on walls. Panhala (176).

Coronopus didymus (Linn.)Sm. A garden weed;

rare. University campus, Kolhapur (191).

CAPPARACEAE

Cleome simplicifolia Hook. f. and Thoms.:

Pretty common in open grassland. Kolha-

pur, Panhala (205, 210).

FLORA OF KOLHAPUR DISTRICT?

C. viscosa Linn. In waste land. Kolhapur

(215).

C. chelidonii Linn. In puddles and along

streams during mid monsoon. Kolhapur,

Katyayani (222-226).

Crataeva religiosa Forst. Only one tree near

‘Kokhale College hostel, Kolhapur (235).

Cadaba indica Lam. Along bunds of sugarcane

field opposite Rankala talao, Kolhapur (246).

FLACOURTIACEAE

Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merrill. In open

‘forests. Katyayani, Panhala (285-292).

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala chinensis Linn. In pasture lands.

- Kolhapur, Panhala (305-307).

P. persicariaefolia DC. In moist shady places.

Katyayani, Panhala (314-317).

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

\ Saponaria vaccaria Linn. Escape from culti-

- yation, University campus, Kolhapur (326).

Polycarpon prostratum (Forsk.) Aschers and

| Schweins.

Forms carpet in wet land zones

of Rankala talao, Kolhapur (335).

PORTULACACEAE

| Portulaca oleracea Linn. Quite common along

road sides and other open places. Kolhapur,

-Panhala (344-347).

Portulaca grandiflora Linn. Grows as escape

along margins of Rankala talao, Kolhapur

(354).

ee ==

ELATINACEAE

Bergia ammannioides Heyne ex Roth. Common

_ hygrophyte of a number of tanks at Kolhapur

(373-376).

MALVACEAE

Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet. In grasslands

and waste land. Kolhapur, Panhala (420-

423).

Malachra capitata Linn.

sity campus, Kolhapur.

Rare weed ; Univer-

Sida spinosa Linn. In grasslands. Kolhapur

(413).

BOMBACACEAE

Bombax ceiba Linn. Inopenforests. Panhala,

Kolhapur.

STERCULIACEAE

Helicteres isora Linn.

forest clearings.

(479-482).

Eriolaena quinquelocularis Wight. Katyayani

and Radhanagari forests (490-493).

Forest margins and

Panhala, Gaganbavada

TILIACEAE

Corchorus olitorius Linn. In land.

Kolhapur (535).

Triumfetta bartramia Linn. Forest edges and

in open places. Panhala (526).

waste

MALPIGHIACEAE

Hiptage benghalensis (Linn.) Kurz. Climber

with beautiful flowers. Katyayani; Near

Amberkhana, Panhala (546, 548).

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Tribulus terrestris Linn. In open dry land ;

not common, Kolhapur (553).

OXALIDACEAE

Oxalis corniculata Linn. In moist land ; a weed

-in gardens. Kolhapur, Panhala (561-64).

Biophytum sensitivum DC. In moist land.

Kolhapur (569).

593

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

BALSAMINACEAE

Impatiens balsamina Linn. .Gregarious. and

“most conspicuous middle monsoon herb in

grassland. Kolhapur, Katyayani, Panhala

(596-598). , |

I. inconspicua Benth. In pasture lands during

monsoon. Radhanagari, Gaganbavada

(586-589).

I. pulcherrima Dalz. In shades; worthy of

cultivation. Panhala (610), Ambaghats.

RUTACEAE

Atalantia racemosa Wight and Arn. In forests

of Panhala, Ambaghats (644-648).

Aegle marmelos (Linn.) Correa. Often planted

near temples. Kolhapur, Katyayani (653).

Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) Correa. In

forests. Panhala, near Gaganbavada,

Ambaghats (629-632).

Murraya koenigii (Linn.) Spreng. Very com-

mon in forest shades. Panhala, Ambaghats

(634-636).

MELIACEAE

Cipadessa baccifera (Roth.) Mig. Along

forest edges near Gaganbavada (701).

Heynea trijuga Roxb. Forests of Ambaghats,

often in cleared forests near Gaganbavada

(719, 722).

Fie: } SIMARUBIACEAE

Balanites roxburghii Planch. Drier parts of

Kolhapur district-; along Miraj road (674).

OPILIACEAE

Cansjera_ rheedii Gmel. Open forests

Katyayani ; along forest Boe Ambaghats

(735-737). | :

Nothopodytes foetida (Wight) Sleumer. Com-

mon in open forests. Panhala, Ambaghats

(745, 748).

Sarcostigma kleinii Wight and» Am. A

climber: in forests between Amba ‘and

Visha’ ghar. ae

CELASTRACEAE

Celastrus paniculata Willd. A common strag-

gler along forest margins and open areas.

Katyayani, Panhala (771-776).

Gymnosporia montana Benth. In

Katyayani, Panhala (778-782).

scrubs.

HIPPOCRATEACEAE

Pristimera grahamii (Wight) A. C. Smith.

Along fort slopes near Baji Prabhu point,

Panhala (788).

RHAMNACEAE

Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. Several trees are |

seen on the outskirts of Kolhapur, Katyayani |

and Panhala but not in actual forest areas

(799).

Z. rugosa Lamk. A common climber in the |

forests of Katyayani, Panhala, Gaganbavada

and Ambaghats (809-816).

Z. oenoplia Mili.

(805).

‘VITACEAE

Cayratia elongata (Roxb.) Suessery. Very com-

mon climber in forests of Panhala and.

-Gaganbavada (825-830).

Cissus pallida Planch. In rocky areas ER |

the base of Panhala fort (843).

Leea macrophylla Roxb. ex Horneum. Quite |

common in cleared forests of Katyayaui |

($48).

L. indica (Burm.) Merrill.

866).

594

In grasslands of Kolhapur

Very common shrub |

in forests and forest margins, Panhala, Gagan-

bavada, Radhanagari and Ampaphats (860- |

FLORA OF KOLHAPUR DISTRICT

SAPINDACEAE

Allophyllus serratus (Roxb.) Radlk. Scandent

shrub in forest shade. Panhala, Gagan-

bavada (887-869).

Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn. In grass-

land. Kolhapur, Katyayani and Panhala

(882, 883).

Schleichera oleosa (Laur.) Oken. In forests of

Katyayani, not common (890),

Sapindus laurifolius Vahl. Very few trees

specially near human dwellings (895).

ANACARDIACEAE

Mangifera indica Linn. Abundant in Panhala

and Amba (907-915).

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merrill. Small

tree. Katyayani, basement of Panhala fort

(922).

Semicarpus anacardium Linn. A few trees near

Katyayani temple (927).

Holigarna grahmi (Wight) Hook. f.

of Ambaghats (934, 936).

Nothopegia colebrookiana Blume. In forests

of Ambaghats and Radhanagari (940).

In forests

FABACEAE

Goniogyna hirta (Willd.) Ali. Very common in

pasture lands of Kolhapur and Panhala ;

June-April (963-968).

Crotalaria filipes Benth. var. trichocarpa (Benth.

ex Baker) Cooke. Pasture lands of Kolhapur,

Panhala (975, 978).

C. juncea Linn. Escape from cultivation.

University campus, Kolhapur (1030).

C. lutescens Dalz. Grasslands. University

campus, Kolhapur (1015).

C. nana Burm. Grasslands, University campus,

Kolhapur, Panhala (996).

C. orixensis Willd.

Kolhapur (1046).

C. prostrata Roxb. Amongst grasses. Panhala

(1050).

C. spectabilis Roth. Grass lands.

(1019-1022).

C. vestita Baker. Along forest margins and

grassland. Panhala (982).

Indigofera cordifolia Heyne ex Roth.

land ; June-April, Kolhapur (1085).

I, dalzellii Cooke.

Panhala (1089).

Ali. ;, In

University campus,

Katyayani

In grass

In moist rocky places.

I. linnaei grasslands.

(1096).

I. hendecaphylla Linn.

and grass lands.

Talao, Kolhapur.

I. linifolia Retz.

(1079).

I, pulchella Roxb. A shrub in grasslands.

-Panhala, Katyayani (1143-1146).

l. tinctoria Linn. In waste land. Kolhapur,

Panhala. Rare (1132-1135).

Kolhapur

In moist open places

Along margins of Rankala

Panhala (1108).

In pasture lands, Kolhapur

I. trita Linn. Grassy places. Kolhapur,

Katyayani, Panhala (1113-1116).

Tephrosia coccinea Wall. A shrub in open land.

Radhanagari (1154).

T. pumila Pers. Grasslands of Kolhapur, rare

(1165).

T. purpurea Pers. A shrub of grasslands.

Kolhapur, Panhala (1158).

T. strigosa (Dalz.) Santapau.

Kolhapur (1150).

Geissaspis cristata Wight and Arn.

lands, Panhala (1185).

Zornia diphylla Pers. Common amongst grass

land. University campus, Kolhapur, Panhala

(1190). i :

Smithia bigemina Dalz. Very common and

attractive middle monsoon herb in grasses.

Ambaghat, Panhala (1217, 1220.)

In grassland,

Grass-

39)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

S.. blenda var. racemosa Baker.

Panhala (1225, 1227).

S. co. ferta Sm. University campus, Kolhapur

and Panhala (1199).

Smithia setulosa Dalz.

Kolhapur (1209-1212).

Aeschynomene indica Linn. Middle monsoon

herb in moist places. Kolhapur (1235).

A. aspera Linn. Along marshes of Vadanige

lake near Kolhapur.

All species of Alysicarpus noted below are found

in grasslands.

Kolhapur,

Grassy places.

Alysicarpus belgaumensis Wight. Radhanagari

(1275).

A. bupleurifolius DC. Kolhapur (1256).

A. purescens Law. Very conspicuous because

of pubescence and elegant inflorescences.

Kolhapur (1270).

A. rugosus DC. Kolhapur (1261-1263).

A. rugosus DE:

Kolhapur (1265).

A. tetragonolobus EQ Kolhapur, Panhala

(1268).

A. vaginalis DC. Kolhapur, Panhala (1250-

1254). |

Desmodium diffusum DC. Amongst grass.

Kolhapur (1297).

D. gangeticum (Linn.) DC. A shrub in open

places and forest clearings. Panhala, Gagan-

bavada, Radhanagari (1317-1322).

D. latifolium DC. An undershrub’ with

spreading branches. Panhala (1325).

D. laxiflorum DC. Undershrub.

Panhala (1286).

D. polycarpum DC. Often in shades of forest

trees. Gaganbavada, Radhanagari (1290,

1293)... |

De papaidifouuen ee

grasses. Katyayani, Panhala (1330).

var. heyneanus Baker,

Kolhapur-

Spreading herb in

D. triflorum (Linn.) DC. Very common in

rocky areas.

1309).

D. triqueirum DC. Panhala (1312).

A climber in forests

Gaganbavada,

Panhala, Radhanagari (1305-

Abrus precatorius Linn.

or along forest margins.

Radhanagari (1338).

Teramnus labialis Spreng. A twiner along

forest edges (1348-1351).

Mucuna prurita Hook. Forest edges.

bavada. 23

Erythrina variegata Linn. var.. orientalis (Linn.)

Merr. Some trees are seen at Panhala

(1359).

Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Saplings

of this tree are seen all over the rocky areas

around Kolhapur. In forests of Katyayani.

Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi.

Kolhapur (1368).

Clitoria ternata Linn. In hedges ; often culti-

vated. Kolhapur, Panhala (1387-1389).

Atylosia scarabaeoides Benth. Twiner in forests —

of Radhanagari (1400).

Moghania strobilifera (Linn.) St. Hil. ex Jacks.

In forests and edges of forests. Panhala, —

Radhanagari (1425-1430). |

Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. A few trees are seen —

at basement of Panhala fort with heavy infec- —

tion of Viscum angulatum (1439). |

Dalbergia sympathetica Nimmo ex Grah. |

- Hooked climber; very common in forests of |

Panhala, Radhanagari and Ambaghats —

(1448-1451). |

Derris indica (Lamk.) Bennet. [Pongamia —

pinnata (Linn.) Pierre.} Common in forests _

of Panhala ; around Kolhapur (1465). |

_ Gagan-

Amongst grass.

CAESALPINACEAE

Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb. Along bunds. of |

Sugarcane fields. Kolhapur-Panhala road ; |

Panhala fort near Tabak bag (1493). :

596

FLORA OF KOLHAPUR DISTRICT

Wagatea spicata Daiz. In forests of Panhala,

Ambaghats (1505-1510).

Cassia fistula Linn. Panhala, Radhanagari

(1512). :

C. sophera Linn. In waste land. Katyayani ;

near Phule wadi, Kolhapur (1516).

C. toraLinn. In wasteland. Kolhapur (1522).

C. auriculata Linn. Along’ road _ sides.

Katyayani (1528).

C. absus Linn. Among. grass.

Kolhapur (1538).

Cassia pumila Lamk. In pasture

Kolhapur, Katyayani (1545-1548).

Katyayani,

lands.

MIMOSACEAE

Entada scandens Benth. In dense forests of

Radhanagari and Ambaghats.

Dichrostachys cinera Wight and Arn. In rocky

open areas. Kolhapur (1589).

Mimosa pudica Linn. Weed in moist places and

in gardens. Kolhapur (1592).

M. hamata Willd. In rocky open areas. Uni-

versity campus, Kolhapur (1598).

Acacia concinna DC. Common. Panhala

(1605).

CRASSULACEAE

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lamk.) Oken. In

moist places. Panhala, Ambaghats (1651).

DROCERACEAE

Drocera burmanni Vahi. Along margins of

temporary ponds near Amba village (1673).

D. indica Linn. In moist places. Near

Nimajgah, Panhala; amongst grasses,

Kolhapur (1679).

RHIZOPHORACEAE

Carallia brachiata (Laur.) Merrill. In dense

forests of Radhanagari and Ambaghats

(1689).

COMBRETACEAE

Terminalia bell-rica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Panhalia

(1762).

T. chebula Retz. Very common in Ambaghats :

also in Panhala and Gaganbavada forests

(1768-1772).

T. crenulata Roth.

(1775).

Panhala and Radhanagari

MYRTACEAE

Syzygium cuminii (Linn.) Skeels. Abundant in

Panhala (1791).

LECYTHIDACEAE

Careya arborea Roxb. Common in Panhala,

Radhanagari and forests near Gaganbavada

(1805).

MELASTOMACEAE

Osbeckia truncata D. Don.

rice fields.

(1815).

In grasslands and

Moist situations. Gaganbavada

LYTHRACEAE

Rotala densiflora (Roth.) Koehne. In moist

places along margins of ponds and puddles.

Around Nimajgah, Panhala (1845).

Ammania baccifera Linn. In marshes.

Kolhapur (1855).

Woodfordia fruticosa (Linn.) Kur. In forest

clearings Radhanagari, Gaganbavada, some-

times on old fort walls, Panhala (1864-1869).

ONAGRACEAE

Ludwigia pcrennis Linn. In marshy places.

Kolhapur (1881). !

CUCURBITACEAE

Trichosanthes bracteata (Lamk.) Voigt. Very

common climber of Panhala ; Gaganbavada >

(1899).

597

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

T. cucumerina Linn. Rare twiner. Panhala

(1905).

Bryonopsis laciniosa Naud. Often on hedges ;

Katyayani (1922).

Melothria maderaspatna Cogniaux. Very com-

mon in grassy places in Kolhapur (1932).

BEGONIACEAE

Begonia crenata Dryand. Pretty common in

moist places. Panhala, Gaganbavada,

Ambaghats, Radhanagari (1943-1949).

In dense jungles in shades

Gaganbavada (1961).

B. trichocarpa Dalz.

of forest trees.

CACTACEAE

Opuntia dillenii Haw. In dry localities, often

as weed. Kolhapur, Panhala.

MOLLUGINACEAE

Glinus lotoides O. Kze. In moist clayey soils

(1976).

Mollugo pentaphylla Linn. Common in moist

places along gutters and margins of Talaeos.

Kolhapur, Panhala (1980-1982).

M. pentaphylla var. rupestris Cooke. In moist

rocky places around Nimajgah, Panhala

(1984-1986).

AIZOACEAE

Trianthema portulacastrum Linn. Along road

sides. University campus, Kolhapur (1972).

APIACEAE

Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban. Along

margins of Talaeos in Kolhapur (1992).

Pimpinella adscendens Dalz. In grass lands.

Panhala, Gaganbavada (1998-2001).

P. lateriflora Dalz. and Gibs. In forest clear-

ings on way to Gaganbavada (2015).

Peuced num dhana Ham. In grasslands of

Kolhapur (2022).

598

RUBIACEAE

Anotis foetida (Dalz.) Benth. and Hook. Herb

in rocky moist areas. Gaganbavada fort

(2096).

A. lancifolia (Dalz.) Hook. f. Very abundant

and conspicuous monsoon herb in grasses.

Jotiba, Panhala (2108-2112).

A. montholoni Hook. f. Amongst grasses.

University campus, Kolhapur (2123).

A. rheedei Benth. and Hook. Jotiba, Panhala

(2115-2117).

Borreria hispida (Linn.) Schum. Rocky places,

University campus, Kolhapur (2226).

Canthium parviflorum Lamk. Not common.

Near Rankala, Kolhapur; Panhala (2172).

C. dicoccum (Gaertn.) Merrill.

Ambaghats (2176).

Dentella repens (Linn.) Forst. Mat forming

hygrophyte. Kagal lake; Rajaram Tank,

Kolhapur (2070).

Hamiltonia suaveolens Roxb. Amongst stone

crevices of Sadoba tank, Panhala (2223).

Hymenodictyon obovatum Wall. Along slopes

towards fort, Gaganbavada ; along Rajdindi —

Vishalghar, —

Forests of

road, Panhala; towards |

Ambaghats. Nowhere very common (2056- |

2058).

forests of Panhala (2198).

I. elongata Heyne. Behind Katyayani temple, |

Katyayani (2195). |

Meyna_ laxiflora Robyns.

lands. Kolhapur.

Oldenlandia crystallina Roxb.

places. Panhala (2089).

O. corymbosa Linn.

(2082).

O. herbacea (Linn.) Roxb. Panhala (2086).

Pavetta indica Linn. Edges of forests and along |

cleared areas. Panhala, Gaganbavada, |

Radhanagari (2205-2209).

In rocky grass-

In moist rocky |

Pasture lands. Panhala |

FLORA OF KOLHAPUR DISTRICT

Randia_ uliginosa’ DC. Behind Katyayani

temple, a few trees.

Rubia manjith Roxb. ex Flem. Panhala in

Tabak Udyan area (2231).

Wendlandia thyrsvidea Steud. Along forest

edges and clearings. Panhala (2064-2066).

-Xeromphis spinosa (Thumb.) Keay. Very

common on Panhala fort plateau (2145).

ASTERACEAE

‘Acanthospermum — hispidum DC. Weed.

Kolhapur (2410).

Artemisia vulgaris Linn. Along edges of Tabak

Udyan, Panhala (2338).

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. and Sherff.

Weed. Gopaltirth, Panhala. Kolhapur

(2329).

Blumea malcolmii Hook. f. Densely hairy herb

in open areas; post-harvest weed in rice -

fields. Kolhapur, Panhala (2278).

B. membranacea DC. In dry areas amongst

grasses. Panhala (2270).

Caesulia axillaris Roxb. Common in marshy

places. Kolhapur (2312).

Cyathocline purpurea (D. Don) O. Ktzee

Weed in rice fields (2254).

Elephantopus scaber Linn. In shades of forest

trees. Sometimes in forest clearings.

Panhala, Ambaghats (2252).

Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn. Common in

grasses, along road sides, Kolhapur (2320).

Echinops echinatus Roxb. Dry rocky places.

Kagal (2360).

Flaveria contrayerba Pers.

places, Kolhapur (2396).

Gynura angulosa DC. Edges of Ghat slopes.

Ambhaghats (2347).

Gnaphalium indicum Linn. Moist and marshy

places. Rajaram Tank, Kolhapur (2295).

Lactuca runcinata DC. Weed in cultivated

fields. Katyayani (2360).

Weed in waste

L. nicotianaefolia Heyne.

Lagasca mollis Cav. Quite common and gre-

garious in waste places, on road sides.

Kolhapur (2315).

Parthenium hysterophorus Linn. A _ rapidly

spreading weed, Kolhapur (2415).

Pulicari1 wightiana C. B. Clarke. In open areas

amongst grasses. Panhala (2305).

Senecio grahami Hook. f. Often on old walls,

Panhala (2352).

Sphaeranthus africanus Linn.

Panhala (2290).

Tridax procumbens Linn. In rocky dry places,

along road sides. Kolhapur, Panhala (2335).

Forest edges,

LOBELIACEAE

Lobelia alsinoides Lamk. In pasture lands.

Panhala, Gaganbavada (2420-2425).

L. heyneana Roem. and Sch. Pasture lands.

Amba village (2430).

In dense forests and

forest edges. Panhala, Ambaghats (2435,

2438).

PLUMBAGINACEAE

Plumbago zeylanica Linn. In dry open areas.

Kolhapur (2447).

PRIMULACEAE

Anagallis arvensis Linn. Along road _ sides.

Kolhapur (2449).

A. pumila Swart. Monsoon herb in pasture

lands. Basement of Panhala fort (2452,

2456).

MYRSINACEAE

Maesa indica Wall. Along forest edges.

Panhala rare ; Radhanagari, common (2460,

2462).

Embelia tsjariam-cottam A. DC. Rare:

Katyayani (2469).

599

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

SAPOTACEAE

Xantolis tomentosa (Roxb.) Raf. Common in

Panhala on way to Tin Darwaja from Sadoba

darga (2474). |

Mimusops elengi Linn. Very common on

Panhala plateau (2483).

EBENACEAE

Diospyros montana Roxb. Generally in asso-

ciation with Xantolis tomentosa. Panhala

(2505).

OLEACEAE

Jasminum malabaricum Wight. Katyayani,

Panhala, Gaganbavada, Ambaghats. Very

common at all places (2510).

Schrebera swietenioides Roxb. This was col.

lected only once (26/9/1968) near Gagan-

bavada village on way to fort.

APOCYNACEAE

Carrisa congesta Wight. Very common often

gregarious. Panhala, Katyayani (2535, 2538)-

Rauwolfia canescens Linn. A rare weed in

waste places of Kolhapur (2543).

Catharanthus pusillus (Murr.). G. Don. A

weed in gardens. Kolhapur (2548).

Alstonia scholaris (Linn.) R. Br. Near Amba

village towards tannin factory.

Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. Common in

forests of Katyayani, Panhala and Gagan-

bavada (2556). 3

Tabernaemontana heyneana Wall. Along road

sides between Amba village and rest Tree

(2560).

Vallaris solanacea (Roth.) Kuntze. On way to

Pusati point along fort wall, Panhala (2562).

Calotropis gigantea R. Br.

.Gymnema sylvestre (Ret.) R. Br.

PERIPLOCACEAE

Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. Common in forests

and forest clearings. Panhala, Gaganbavada

(2581). | |

Cryptolepis buchanani Rosny and Schult.

Common. Kolhapur, Katyayani, Panhala

(2585-2587).

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Asclepias curasavica Linn. Around temporary

pond near Phule wadi, Kolhapur (2714).

Along road sides

and in waste places. Kolhapur, Panhala

(2591, 2593).

Ceropegia attenuata Hook.

Katyayani (2693).

C. tuberosa Roxb. In forests of Panhala.

C. huberi Ansari. Along fort slopes in Gagan-

bavada and slopes of Ambaghats (2698).

Dregea volubilis Benth. ex Hook. Near Rajaram

Tank, Kolhapur, Ambarkhana border,

Panhala (2678).

In grasslands.

Near Baji

Prabhu point, Panhala (2667).

Hoya pendula Wight and Arn.

Ambaghats (2686).

Leptadenia reticulata Wight and Arn. Forest

edges. Panhala, Gaganbavada (2689).

Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Blatt. and McC.

Often in hedges. Kolhapur; on way to

Gaganbavada (2660).

Tylophora dalzellii Wook. f. Common in

Panhala above Sadoba darga and in Ambar-

khana (2670, 2674).

In forests of

LOGANIACEAE

Sitrychnos colubriana Linh. Forests near + Gagan-

bavada (2720). .

600

~ FLORA OF KOLHAPUR DISTRICT .-

MENYANTHACEAE —

indicum (Linn.) O. Kuntze.

Kolhapur, Kagal lake,

Nymphoides

‘Rankala Talaeo,

-Kagal (2727). |

N. cristatum (Roxb.) O. Kuntze. Rankala

Talaeo, Kolhapur ; Kagal lake, Kagal (2730).

GENTIANACEAE

In moist places often

Gaganbavada,

Canscora diffusa R. Br.

along slopes. Katyayani,

Ambaghats (2750).

Centaurium roxburghii (G. Don) Druce. In

moist places ; University campus, Kolhapur

(2745).

Exacum bicolor Roxb. On way to Katyayani

along nala ; pasture lands, Panhala (2734).

E. lawii Clarke. In pasture lands. Kolhapur

Panhala, Gaganbavada (2740).

_ petiolare Griseb. In _ pasture lands

Kolhapur, Panhala, Gaganbavada (2737).

EHRETIACEAE

Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. Common. Panhala,

Katyayani (2761, 2763).

BORAGINACEAE

Adelocaryum coelesti1um (Lindl.) Brand. Along

slopes of Ambaghats (2805).

Coldenia procumbens Linn. Gregarious. Rajaram

Tank, Kolhapur (2778). _

Cynoglossum meeboldii Brand. Forest edges.

Panhala, Radhanagari (2797, 2800).

Heliotropium ovalifolium Forsk.

places. Kolhapur (2787).

Trichodesma amplexicaule Roth. A weed in

fields ; often in waste places and grasslands.

Kolhapur (2793). .

In grassy

CUSCUTACEAE

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Common specially on

hedge plants—Clerodendrum, Duranta, Vitex ;

Kolhapur, Panhala (2813).

CONVOLVULACEAE

Argyreia hookeri Clarke. Common in forests

of Panhala, Ambaghats (2884, 2888).

A. elliptica Choisy. Panhala, behind Moro-

plant library (2894).

Convolvulus arvensis Linn. Weed of cultivated

fields. Kolhapur (2835).

Erycibe wightiana Graham. Forests of Amba-

ghats (2817).

Evolyvulus alsinoides Linn. In grass lands.

Kolhapur, Panhala (2823, 2825).

Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. Common in. all

Talaeos of Kolhapur, Vadanige and Kagal

near Kolhapur (2857, 2859).

I. cairica (Linn.) Sweet. Extensively culti-

vated ; often runs wild (2845, 2846). |

I. longiflora R. Br. Along hedges. Stem with

prominent subspinous’ tubercles. Near

Rankala, Kolhapur (2872). |

I. obscura Ker.-Gawl. Ambaghats (2863).

Merremia hastata Hallier. In dry rocky areas

of Kolhapur (2841).

SOLANACEAE

Datura metal Linn. Common weed of waste

places. Kolhapur, Panhala (2958).

Nicandra physaloides (Linn.) Gaertn.

Panhala (2975).

Physalis minima Linn. Weed. Not common.

Kolhapur, Panhala (2950).

Solanum nigrum Linn.

Panhala (2905, 2910).

S. surattense Burm. F.. In dry rocky areas and.

along road sides, Kolhapur. (2922).

Weed:

Weed. Kolhapur,

601,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

S. indicum Linn. Very common throughout

Panhala Plateau and also in Katyayani

(2930).

S. torvum Swart. Opposite Rankala along

bunds of sugarcane fields; probably escape

(2940).

S. seaforthianum Andr. Escape from culti-

vation. Opposite Rankala, Kolhapur; Near

Mayur Udyan, Panhala (2945).

Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal.

waste places. Kolhapur (2954).

Weed in

SCHROPHULARIACEAE

Artanema longifolia (Linn.) Merrill. In grass-

lands of Gaganbavada, Radhanagari and

Amba (3032).

Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Pennell.

damp places and ditches.

nagari (2998).

Dopatorium junceum (Roxb.) Buch.—Ham.

Marshy places. Kolhapur, Katyayani (3024).

Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janchen. In cre-

vices of fort walls and other old buildings.

Kolhapur, Panhala, Gaganbavada (2990,

2992).

Limnophila sessiliflora Blume. Very common

in many Talaeo’s around Kolhapur (3017,

3020).

Lindernia anagallis (Burm.) Pennell. Moist

and marshy places; a weed in rice fields.

Kolhapur (3088).

L. ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell. Monsoon herb in

moist places. Gaganbavada, Amba (3088).

L. crustacea (Linn.) F. Mueller. Moist places,

often along road sides. Panhala, Malkapur

(3035).

L. parviflora (Roxb.) Haines. Herb in marshes.

Kolhapur, Katyayani, Kadamwadi, Gagan-

bavada (3039).

Mimulus strictus Benth. Kolhapur, Katya-

yani, Gaganbavada (3102, 3105, 3107).

Common in

Kolhapur, Radha- .

Pelpidium maritimum (Linn.) Wettst. Marshes

of Vadanige lake near Kolhapur.

Rhamphicarpa longiflora (Arn.) Benth. Moist

places, Pasture lands. Gaganbavada.

Radhanagari.

Sopubia delphinifolia (Roxb.) G. Don. Grass-

lands. Panhala (3071, 3073).

Stemodia viscosa Roxb. In hygrophytic places.

Kolhapur, Radhanagari (3010, 3029).

Striga densiflora Benth. Weed in jawar and

sugarcane fields. Kolhapur, Tandulwadi,

Gaganbavada (3056, 3057).

S. euphrasioides (Vahl) Benth. Grasslands.

Kolhapur (3058).

S. gesneroides (Willd.) Vatke.

Ambaghats (3050, 3055).

S. sulphurea Dalz. and Gibs. Amongst grasses.

Kolhapur, Gaganbavada (3062).

Verbascum chinense Santapau. Along road

sides. Kolhapur, Malkapur, Radhanagari

(2980, 2985).

Panhala and

OROBANCHACEAE

Aeginetia indica Linn. Total root parasite in

dense forests. Gaganbavada, Ambaghats

(3091, 3094).

Wight. Parasitic on

On way to fort top,

Christisonia calcarata

roots of Carvia ccllosa.

Gaganbavada (3099).

GESNERIACEAE

Klugia notoniana (Wall.) A. DC. In moist

places ; in wall crevices. Panhala, Gagan-

bavada (3118, 3120).

Rhynchoglossum obliquum Blume var. parviflora

Clarke. On forest slopes ; in cleared areas,

gregarious. Gaganbavada (3122, 3125).

602

- FLORA OF KOLHAPUR DISTRICT

BIGNONIACEAE

Heterophragma quadriloculare (Roxb.) K.

Schum. Common on Panhala plateau and

Katyayani (3142, 3145).

Tecoma stans (Linn.) H.B.K. In dry places

around Kolhapur; Basement of Panhala

fort. Not very common (3138).

PEDALIACEAE

Sesamum laciniatum Klein ex Willd. Common

around Kolhapur and near Kagal in dry

rocky soils amongst grasses (3179, 3185).

MARTYNIACEAE

Martynia annua Linn. In waste places.

Kolhapur, on way to Panhala, Kagal (3215).

ACANTHACEAE

Adhatoda vasica Nees. Gregarious in open

places. Panhala, Gaganbavada (3392, 3394).

Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ex

Nees. Along forest edges, rarely in open

areas. Jotiba, Panhala (3282).

Asteracantha longifolia (Linn.) Nees. Along

sewage canals. Kolhapur (3240, 3242).

Asystasi2a dalzelliana Santapau. Near Tin

Darwaja, and Tabak Udyan, Panhala (3326, -

3328).

A. lawiana Dalz.

Katyayani (3332).

Barleria cristata Linn. In hedges, sometimes

cultivated. Panhala, Katyayani (3303, 3305).

B. gibsoni Dalz. Grasslands. Katyayani (3320).

B. prionitis Linn. Common in _ hedges.

Panhala, Kolhapur (3293, 3295).

_Blepharis asperrima Nees. In shade of forest

trees. Panhala, Ambaghats (3229, 3235).

—Carvia callosa (Wall.) Brem. Thickets along

| slopes on way to Gaganbavada (3275).

Behind Katyayani temple,

Eranthemum roseum R. Br. In shade.

Panhala, Gaganbavada (3257, 3260).

Haplanthus verticillatus (Roxb.) Nees. Along

forest edges in shade. Panhala (3286).

Justicia betonica Linn. Tabak Udyan, Panhala

(3376). }

Lepidagathis cristata Willd. On rocky ground

amongst grasses. Kolhapur, Kagal, Panhala

(3337).

Peristrophe_ bicalyculata (Ret.) Nees.

Tin Darwaja, Panhala, Jotiba.

(3398).

Rostellularia crinita Nees.

Kolhapur (3388).

Rungia elegans Dalz. and Gibs. Along road

sides, in grasses. Kolhapur (3367).

R. pectinata (Linn.) Nees. Amongst grasses.

Panhala (3358).

Near

Not common

Along road sides.

VERBENACEAE

Calicarpa tomentosum (Linn.) Murray. Forest

edges. Panhala, Ambaghats (3428).

Clerodendrum fragrans (Vent.) R. Br. Mostly

cultivated but grows as escape in Panhala

(3463).

C. viscosum Vent. Very common in forest

clearings. Panhala, Gaganbavada, Radha-

nagari (3450-3455).

C. serratum (Linn.) Moon. In grass lands;

specially in forest clearings. Katyayani,

Panhala, Radhanagari, Gaganbavada (3457-

3459).

Duranta repens Linn. Extensively cultivated

as hedge in Panhala, often grows as escape

(3480, 3482).

Lantana camera Linn. var. aculeata (Linn.)

Moldenke. Very common in _ Panhala,

gregarious (3411). |

Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Green. Very common

in moist places. Kolhapur, Panhala (3415).

603

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (Linn.) Vahl. Rare.

Near Tabak Udyan & Tin oan Panhala

(3423).

Vitex negundo Linn. Very common. Usually

around — dwellings. Kolhapur, Panhala,

Katyayani, Gaganbavada (3440-3443).

LAMIACEAE

Anisochilus carnosus Wall. Very common in

rainy season specially on tile roofse

Kolhapur, Panhala, Gaganbavada (3507-

3509).

Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. Gregarious in

cleared forests. Panhala, Radhanagari,

Ambaghats (3540-3543).

Dysophylla stellata Benth. Around the puddles

and marshes. Kolhapur, Panhala, Gagan-

bavada (3532, 3535). |

Hyptis suaveolens (Linn.) Poit. Gregarious in

waste places. Kolhapur (3604).

Lavandula burmanni Benth. Amongst grasses.

Kolhapur, Panhala (3524, 3526).

Leonurus sidirius Linn. Behind Jotiba temple

in waste places. Jotiba (3549).

Leucas aspera Spreng. Amongst _ grass.

Kolhapur (3458).

L. biflora R. Br. Amongst grass. Kolhapur

(357.7).

L. ciliata Benth. In grass lands and forest

clearings. Panhala, Gaganbavada (3582-

3584).

L. stelligera Wall. ex Benth.

forest clearings. Panhala,

(3586, 3587).

Lo vurticifolia.. Row Br

~~ Kolhapur (3554-3556).

Plectranthus incanus Link. Katyayani ;

ment of Panhala fort (3498).

Pogostemon plectranthoides Desf. Gregarious

in Panhala ; in forest CleariDaS: Radhanagari

. (3524- 3526). ih

In grasslands and

Gaganbavada

Kadamwadi near

base-

PLANTAGINACEAE

.Plantago major Linn. | Along Panchaganga

river beds, soicane gage

NYCTAGINACEAE ~

Boerhaavia diffusa Linn. Pretty ‘common in

Kolhapur. Plants are better developed in

shade than in sunny areas (3619, 3625).

AMARANTHACEAE

Achyranthes aspera Linn. Amongst grasses.

Kolhapur, Panhala (3676-3677).

Aerva sanguinolenta (Linn.) Blume.

edges. Panhala (3668).

Forest

Alternanthera pungens H.B. & K. In dry rocky

places; sometimes along road side. Kolhapur, —

Panhala (3693).

A. sessilis (Linn.) DC. Weed in damp and

waste land. The species shows remarkable.

variation in vegetative characters (3688).

Amaranthus spinosus Linn. In waste places. |

Kolhapur, Panhala (3647-3649).

Celosia argentea Linn. Weed in fields.

Kolhapur (3637-3639). |

Digera alternifolia (Linn.) Aschers. In grasses |

and road sides; rare.

Kolhapur.

Gompherena celosioides Matt.

and along road sides. Kolhapur, Panhala

(3696). ,

G. globosa Linn. Often found.as escape from

cultivation in waste land. University cam-

pus, Kolhapur (3698).

-CHENOPODIACEAE

Chenopodium ambrosioides - Linn.

gardens. - Kolhapur (3704).

604

d }

University campus, |

In waste places |

so Seth in

FLORA OF KOLHAPUR DISTRICT —

POLYGONACEAE

Antigonon leptopus Hook. and Arn. Cultivated

but runs wild in Panhala (3759).

Polygonum chinense Linn. Very common in

Panhala, Gaganbavada (3749-3751).

P. glabrum Willd. Marshes of Kolhapur,

Shiroli talaeo, Vadanige talaeo near Kolhapur

(3732-3735).

P. plebejum R. Br. Very common in all marshes

and damp localities. Kolhapur, Panhala

Radhanagari (3727-3729).

PODOSTEMACEAE

Terniola zeylanica (Gardn.) Tul.

Ambaghat and Radhanagari.

Griffithella hookeriana (Tul.) Warming. Near

Gaganbavada in stream.

In streams of

PIPERACEAE

Piper hookeri Mig. In forests of Ambaghats

(3782).

P. longum Linn. In shady places along the

bunds of sugarcane fields near Rankala

(3785).

LAURACEAE

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume. Gohlna area

of Radhanagari forests (3805-3806).

Alseodaphne semicarpifolia Nees. Ambaghats

(3813).

THYMELAEACEAE

Lasiosiphon eriocephalus Deine. Very common

along forest margins and forest clearings.

Panhala, Radhanagari, Gaganbavada,

Katyayani and Ambaghats (3827-3835).

ELAEAGNACEAE

Elaeagnus conferta Roxb. Ambaghats on way

to Pratapnagar (3840). |

Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn. f.) Ettings.

| Santalum album Linn.

E. neriifolia Linn. On rocky slopes.

LORANTHACEAE

Very

common on Mangifera indica and Melilotus

Philippiensis at Panhala (3856, 3859).

D. falcata Ettings var. coccinea (Talb.) Santapau.

Radhanagari on Terminalia crenulata.

VISCACEAE

Viscum angulatum Heyne ex DC. On Dalbergia

latifolia, Panhala; on Terminalia chebula,

Radhanagari (3879, 3880).

SANTALACEAE

Osyris wightiana Wall. ex Wight. In forests.

Katyayani, Panhala (3893-3897).

Panhala,

Possibly cultivated (3886-3888).

‘Kolhapur.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Acalypha ciliata Forsk. Often grows in wall

crevices. Kolhapur (4204).

Bridelia squamosa (Lamk.) Gehrm. Com-

mon at Panhala, Katyayani and Gagan-

bavada (4007-4069).

Chrozophora rottleri (Geis.) Juss. ex Spr. Weed

in cultivated fields and puddles. Kolhapur

(4193).

Croton bonplandianum Baill.

land. Kolhapur (4179).

Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Radhanagari forests

(4112).

Euphorbia geniculata Orteg. In waste places.

Kolhapur, Panhala (4053-4058).

E. hirta Linn. Throughout plains of ee

- and Panhala (4034, 4036). .

Weed of waste

Amba-

ghats. Gaganbavada.

E.rothiana Spreng. Amongst grasses in forest

clearings. Gaganbavada (4009).

‘605

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

E. thymifolia Linn. Very common throughout

plains of Kolhapur and Panhala (4043).

Glochidion hohenackeri Bedd. Panhala, Radha-

nagari (4087).

G. malabaricum Bedd. Katyayani, Panhala

(3879).

Jatropha curcas Linn. Near

Kolhapur, Panhala (4148, 4153).

J. gossypifolia Linn. In waste land in Raja-

rampuri, Kolhapur (4158).

Kirganelia reticulata (Poir.) Baill.

places. Kolhapur, Panhala (4108).

Macaranga_ peltata (Roxb.) Muell.-Arg.

Radhanagari, Ambaghats (4238).

Melanthesa turbinata (Koen. ex Roxb.) Wight.

In forests and along forest edges. Panhala,

Gaganbavada (4102).

M lilotus philippiensis (Lamk.) Muell.-Arg.

Very common. Panhala, Katyayani, Gagan-

bavada, Ambaghats (4222).

Phyllanthus asperulatus Hutch. In grassland,

- Kolhapur, Panhala (4117-4119).

Linn. Grass land.

habitation.

In open

P. urinaria Kolhapur

(4123).

Sapium insigne Trimen. Forest margins and

clearings. Rajdindi road, Panhala ; forests

near Gaganbavada; Along streams near

Amba tannin factory, Amba (4255).

Securinega leucopyrus (Willd.) Muell.-Arg.

Common in open areas. Kolhapur,

Katyayani, Panhala (4098).

Tragia muelleriana var. unicolor (Muell.-Arg.)

Pax and Hoffm. Under shades of forest

trees. Panhala, Gaganbavada (4248).

ULMACEAE

Celtis cinnamomea Lindl. Very common in

Panhala but not in other areas of Kolhapur

district. Panhala (4272).

Trema orientalis (Linn.) Blume.

Panhala, Kolhapur (4276, 4280).

Common.

606

Salix tetrasperma Roxb. Along river beds.

MORACEAE

Ficus asperrima Roxb. Quite common shrub

of Panhala Plateau.

F. glomerata Roxb. Kolhapur,

Radhanagari ; often cultivated.

Panhala,

F. rumphii Blume. Common along fort walls,

Panhala.

F. tsiela Roxb. All over Panhala Plateau.

Possibly cultivated.

URTICACEAE

Boehmeria scabrella (Roxb.) Gaud. Stinging

herb in shades. Panhala Gaganbavada

(4304-4306).

Flurya interrupta (Linn.) Gaud. Common on

old walls. Kolhapur, Panhala, Gaganbavada

(4285-4288).

Girardinia zeylanica Decne. In waste land

during rainy season. Panhala, Gaganbavada

(4292).

Lecanthus peduncularis (Wall.) Wedd. Succu-

lent in moist localities and in wall crevices.

Panhala, Gaganbavada (4298). |

Pilea microphylla (Linn.) Liebm. Naturalized ;

in damp places. Kolhapur, Panhala (4322). |

Pouzolzia zeylanica (Linn.) Benn. In rocky

moist areas on Gaganbavada fort (4311).

P. pentandra Benn.

Along streams. Kolha- |

pur (4314). |

SALICACEAE |

and streams. Kolhapur, Malkapur (4330).

CERATOPHYLLACEAE

Ceratophyllum demersum Linn. Common in

all lakes and ponds of Kolhapur (4336).

FLORA OF KOLHAPUR DISTRICT

HyYDROCHARITACEAE

Blyxa octandra (Roxb.) Planch. ex Thw. Sub-

merged herb with purplish tufted leaves.

Kagal lake, Kagal. |

Hydrilla verticillata (Linn. f.) Royle. All lakes,

ponds and puddles of Kolhapur, Kagal lake

(4661-4664).

Vallisneria spiralis Linn.

water spreads (4668).

Common in all

BURMANNIACEAE

Burmannia pusilla (Wall. ex Miers.) Thew. In

pasture lands during September-October.

Gaganbavada (4681-4684).

ORCHIDACEAE

Dendrobium barbatulum Lindl. Common in

forests of Panhala, Radhanagari and Amba-

ghats (4714-4716).

D. microbulbon A. Rich. Near Gohlna, Radha-

nagari (4706).

Eria dalzellii Lindl.

ghats. (4758-4761).

Eulophia pratensis Lindl.

lake (4776).

E. nuda Lindl. In shades of forest trees.

Ambaghats (4779).

Habenaria commelinifolia Wall. ex Lindl. Grass-

lands. Radhanagari (4892).

H. grandiflora Lindl. In grasslands ; earliest

Habenaria to flower in monsoon. Very

Radhanagari, Amba-

Marshes of Kagal

common. Kolhapur, Katyayani, Kagal,

Panhala, Gaganbavada, Radhanagari,

Ambaghats. Throughout the district (4852-

4857). .

_H. longecalcarata A. Rich. Grasslands. An

attractive species because of its long spur.

Kolhapur (4859).

_H. marginata Coleb. In rice fields.

| Panhala (4901-4906).

Kolhapur,

Oberonia recurva Lindl. Panhala, Gagan«

bavada, Radhanagari and Ambaghats (4693-

4696).

Vanda parviflora Lindl.

(4852-4857).

Panhala, Radhanagari

ZINGIBERACEAE

Curcuma inodora Grah. Very common along

forest edges and in forest clearings. Panhala,

Gaganbavada, Radhanagari (4936).

Curcuma sp. Under growth in dense forests

and along forest edges. Panhala, Radha-

nagari.

Hedychium coronarium Koen. Only one patch

of it was seen along margin of temporary

pond behind Shalini palace, Kolhapur

(4929).

Zingiber cernuum Dalz. Under growth in

dense forests. Near Gaganbavada (4959).

COSTACEAE

Costus speciosus (Koenig.) Smith. Common

along forest edges. Panhala, Gaganbavada,

Radhanagari, Ambaghats (4971-4973).

CANNACEAE

Canna indica Linn. Escape. Along stream

near Rankala, Kolhapur; behind Tin

Darwaja, Panhala.

MUSACEAE

Ensete superbum (Roxb.) Cheesman. Along

Ghat slopes. Ambaghats, Gaganbavada.

HYPOXYDACEAE

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. In open grass-

lands and forest clearings. Kolhapur,

Gaganbavada, Radhanagari (5041-5C46).

Hypoxis aurca Laur. Common in pasture

lands. Kolhapur, Panhala (5032-5038).

607

JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

-.° AMARYLLIDACEAE

Crinum latifolium Linn. Along _ streams.

Kolhapur; on way to Katyayani.

AGAVEACEAE

Agave vera-cruz Mill. Escape. Panhala.

DIOSCORIACEAE

Dioscoria bulbifera Linn. Common. Katya-

yani, Panhala, Gaganbavada, Radhanagari

(5132-5136).

D, pentaphylla Linn. In all forests. (5122-5128).

LILIACEAE

Asparagus racemosus Willd. var. javanica

Baker. Katyayani, Panhala, Gaganbavada,

Ambaghats. Forest margins and clearings

(5142).

Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. Weed in cultivated

fields. Kolhapur (5238).

Chlorophytum glaucum Dalz.

Radhanagari. Rare.

C. laxum R. Br. Pasture lands of Kolhapur,

Panhala (5238).

Gloriosa superba Linn. In forest clearings,

Katyayani, Panhala, Ambaghats (5175-5178).

Iphigenia indica (Linn.) A. Grey. In grass

lands, Panhala, Radhanagari; Plants with

4-5 perianth segments and 4-5 stamens are

not rare in fields (5181-5186).

I. pallida Baker. Common in pasture lands,

Kolhapur (5188).

Ledebouria hyacinthiana Roth. In _ pasture

lands. Kolhapur, Radhanagari (5198-5208).

There are two populations of this species :

Population collected from Radhanagari has

larger lanceolate-oblanceolate nonblotched

leaves which regularly end in bulbils at tips :

The flowering in this population is rare and

Gaganbavada,

flowers wither away without: forming fruits.

The main reproduction is by bulbils. The

other population commonly seen in the

plains of Kolhapur has smaller lanceolate

blotched or faintly blotched leaves rarely

terminating in bulbils. The main reproduc-

tion is by seeds which germinate as soon as

they are ripe. The roots in this population

are often tuberous. Both the populations.

have remained distinct under uniform condi-

tions of cultivation at Kolhapur.

Smilax zeylanica Linn. Common. Katyayani,

Panhala, Gaganbavada (5161-5165).

Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth. Common in

pasture lands of Kolhapur, Kagal (5212-5215).

PONTEDERIACEAE

Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl. ex Kunth.

Along marshes of Vadanige lake near

Kolhapur. Rare (5269).

Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms. Common

along Panchaganga river, Rankala Talaeo,

puddles at Kolhapur (5272-5278).

ARECACEAE

Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. Along nalas at —

Kolhapur.

Caryota urens Linn. In forests of Panhala, —

Gaganbavada and Ambaghats. 4]

PANDANACEAE _

Pandanus odoratissimum Linn. f. Kagal stream |

near Kolhapur, Katyayani ; Radhanagari, —

along streams. !

- TYPHACEAE

Typha angustata Bory and Chaub. Common

in marshes. Kolhapur, Kagal, Shiruli i

(5491-5498). |

608

FLORA OF KOLHAPUR DISTRICT

ARACEAE

Ariopsis peltata Nimmo. Generally epiphytic,

sometimes in rock crevices; abundant at

Panhala and Radhanagari (5541-5546).

Arisaema murrayi Hook. Katyayani, Panhala,

Gaganbavada (5541-5546).

Colocasia esculenta (Linn.) Schott. Escape.

In ponds and ditches. Kolhapur (5776).

Pothos scandens Linn. Gohlna forests

Radhanagari (4561).

LEMNACEAE

Lemna paucicostata Hegalmaier. In stagnant

waters and ponds. Kolhapur.

Spirodella _ polyrrhiza (Linn.) — Schleid.

Kolhapur.

POTAMOJETONACEAE

Potamojeton nodosus Poir. In all talaeos ot

Kolhapur, Shiruli, Vadanige and Kagal

(5796-5799).

P. pectinatus Linn. Kagal lake, Kagal (5815).

NAJADACEAE

Najas graminea Del. Common in ponds and

lakes. Kolhapur, Kagal (5825).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the authorities of Shivaji

University, Kolhapur for financing the excur-

sions and to the Head of the Botany Department

for constant encouragement.

REFERENCES

KULKARNI, A. R. (1971): Distribution of Sesamum

mulayanum Nair in Maharasthra. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 68 : 495-496.

& MupGAL, P. V. (1971) : Family Commeli-

naceae in Kolhapur and its environs. ibid. 67 : 616-618.

er & Desat, M. H. (1972): Family Eriocaul-

aceae in Kolhapur and its environs. ibid. 69 : 231-235.

& Desa, M. H. (1972): Eriocaulon

tuberiferum Kulkarni et Desai—A new species from

Maharashtra. ibid. (in press).

~ Manasan, S. D. & Divan, V. V. (1968) : Contribution

to the flora of Kolhapur district. Vegetation and

forest resources of Radhanagari area. J. Shivaji

University 1 : 69-76.

& Vaipya, M. B. (1969-70) :; The vegetation

of grass lands around Kolhapur. Part-I. ibid. 2 & 3:

85-88.

SincH, N. P., MALHOTRA, S. K. & MUDALIAR, Y. K.

(1972): M.V.M. Patrika. 7: 25-43.

609

List of type specimens of the species,

varieties, and forma deposited in Blatter

herbarium,

Bombay’

P. V. BoLe? AND M. R. ALMEIDA}

(Continued from vol. 74 (2) : 232)

LILIACEAE

111. Iphigenia stellata Blatter, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32 (4): 734,

1928.

Lectotype: EE. Blatter—Panchgani-P-1

(June, 1927),

Syntypes: E. Blatter—Panchgani P-1 A-C

(June, 1927).

There were a number sa unmounted speci-

mens in newspapers with a common number

P-1. They are now mounted on four herbarium

sheets and one of them is retained with no. P-I

and is herein selected as the lectotype and

remaining three are marked with P-1A, P-1B

and P-1C and designated as syntypes.

112. Scilla viridis Blatter, in Journ. Indian Bot,

232-5, 1921.

Holotype: C. McCann—Khandala-14500

(Sept., 1918).

113. Urginia polyantha Blatter, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32(4): 735,

1928.

1 Accepted December 1975.

2 Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier's College,

Bombay-400 001

3 Presently at

Bombay-400 063.

CIBA-GEIGY Research Centre,

610

Lectotype: E. Blatter & McCann—

Panchgani-101 (Apr., 1926),

Syntypes: E. Blatter & McCann—

Panchgani-101 A-G (Apr., 1926).

The lectotype no. 101 is one of the unmounted

specimens found in a common folder in

McCann’s herbarium. The remaining dupli-

cates have been marked 101A, 101B, 101C,

101D, 101E, 101F and 101G and designated as

syntypes.

LINACEAE

114. Hugonia bellii Sedgwick, in

Forester, 10(6) : 424, 1920.

Lectotype :

(Feb., 1919),

Syntypes :

(Feb., 1919),

(May, 1918).

In the original publication the author has

given no. 5457 as the type of this species. There |

are however two herbarium sheets under this

number in Blatter Herbarium. One of them is |

selected herein as the lectotype under the same |

number and the other specimen is designated as _

syntype of the species.

Indian |

T. R. D. Bell—Coorg-5457_

T. R. D. Belli—Coorg-5457A

T. R. D. Bell—Coorg-3916i

}

;

TYPE SPECIES IN BLATTER HERBARIUM

LYTHRACEAE

115. Ammania senegalensis forma _ indica

Blatter et Ha lberg, in Journ. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 26(1) : 214, 1918.

Lectotype: Blatter & Hallberg—Poona-

19866 (Aug., 1895),

Syntypes: Blatter & Hal:berg—Poona-

3392 (Dec... 1917),

Blatter & Ha'lberg—Khandala-

3350 (Nov., 1916).

In the original publication authors have men-

tioned three specimens as types. No. 19866 is

herein selected as the lectotype of the species

and other two are kept as syntypes.

MALVACEAE

116. Abutilon fruticosum var. chrysocarpa

Blatter et Hallberg, in Journ. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 26(1): 227, 1918.

Holotype: Blatter & Ha'lberg—Jaisalmer-

5660 (Nov., 1917).

117. Abutilon indicum var. major Blatter et

Hallberg, in Jour. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 260) 3 226, 719138:

Holotype: Blatter &

Jaisalmer-5644 (Nov., 1917).

Hallberg—

118. Althiea villosa Blatter, in Journ. Indian

Bot. Soc. 9(4): 201, 1930.

Holotype: J. Fernandez—Miranshah-804

(16-4-1927).

119. Althaea villosoides Blatter et Hallberg,

in Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 9(4) : 202,

1930.

Holotype: J. Fernandez—Miranshah-805

(16-4-1927), |

Paratype: J. Fernandez—Miranshah-

1622 (16-4-1927).

120. Malva waziristanensis Blatter, in Journ.

Indian Bot. Soc. 9(4) : 202, 1930.

Holotype : J. Fernandez—Miranshah-

493 (12-4-1927).

121. Pavonia arabica var. glutinosa Blatter et

Hallberg, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 26(1) : 227, 1918.

Lectotype: Blatter & Hallberg—Jodhpur-

5669 (Oct., 1917).

(See Santapau, 1959 B).

ORCHIDACEAE

122. Dendrobium mabalae Gammie, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16 : 567, 1905.

Holotype: G. A. Gammie—Castle Rock-

15782 (29-10-1902).

123. Eria minima Blatter et McCann, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 274, f. 2,

1931.

Holotype: L. J. Sedgwick—Anmode, N.

Kanara-3260 (December _),

Paratypes: L. J. Sedgwick-Jog-7170 (Oct.,

1918),

T. R. D. Bell—Anmode-4443

(Oct., 1918),

M. Ezekiel—Mahabaleshwar-

2670 (17-2-1917).

124. KEria rupestris Blatter et McCann, in

Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35(2) :

270, 1931.

Isotypes: May Langham—Panchgani-

228-9 (June, 1925).

125. Habenaria cerea Blatter, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(2): 21,

t. 6, 1932.

Holotype : E.

(August, 1925),

Blatter—Panchgani-73

611

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 74

- Isotype: = E. Bilatter—Panchgani-P-76

’ (August, 1925),

_ Paratypes: L. J. Sedgwick—Panchgani- -

7568 (Oct., 1920),

L. J. Sedgwick—Panchgani-

7907 (Aug., 1921).

126. Habenaria grandifloriformis Blatter et

McCann, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 36 : 17, 1932.

Paratypes :

7900 (Feb., 1921),

Led: SOA CoS VI

2601 (July, 1917).

_ 127. Habenaria multicaudata Sedgwick, in

Rec. Bot. Surv. India, 6 : 352, 1919.

Holotype: T. R. D. Bell—Gudehalli-3045

(Sept., 1917).

128. Habenaria spencei Blatter et McCann, in

Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 17,

t.:3, 1932:

Isotype: C. McCann—Mahabaleshwar-

3027 (28-8-1930).

(29. WHabenaria variabilis Blatter, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 19-20,

tt. 4-5, 1932.

Paratypes : E. Blatter—Panchgani-201,

204-6 (July, 1925),

E. Blatter & M.

i Isaacs—

Panchgani-26494 (July, 1925),

ee L. J. Sedgwick—Panchgani- |

7908 bis (Aug., 1921). -

ae 30.- ate flavo-viridis Blatter et McCann,

— ° in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist.

35(2) : 2, 1931.

Paratype Mr.

(20-8- 1905).

~ po s

L. J. Sedgwick—Panchgani- .

134. Oberonia lingmalensis Blatter et McCann.

135. _Oberonia sedgwickii Blatter et Mecantl ial

Soc. —

_ Spooner—Londa- S.n.

131. Luisia macrantha Blatter et McCann, in

Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35:

492, t. 10, 1932.

Lectotype: TF. R. D. Bell—N. Kanara-

5400 (1907),

Syntypes: T. R. D. Bell—N. Kanara-

5397A, 5414 (1907),

L. J. Sedgwick—Anmode, N.

Kanara-3224 (Dec., 1917).

132. Luisia pseudotenuifolia Blatter et McCann,

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soe.

35°, 492, tt. I 1932:

Isotype: T. R. D. Bell—N. Kanara-S411

(1907).

133. Nervillea monantha Bell et Blatter, in

Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35:

724, 1932. |

Holotype: T. R. D. Bell—Yellapur, N.

Kanara-5428 (1907),

Isotype: T. R. D. Bell—Yellapur, N.

Kanara-5429 (1907),

Paratypes: T. R. D. Bell—Yellapur, N.

Kanara-2522-4 (May, 1917), : |

L. J. Sedgwick—Karwar-4071

(June, 1900),

Lene Sedeniction eam

2635 (July, 1917). |

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

35(2) 255, 193m, |

sigue 8 Sedgwick—Mahabal-

Paratypes :

eshwar-7755 (1920),

i T. RigdD: Bell—Thanas3973

. (Feb., 1918). . |

~ Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 35(2) ¢

Doe 1931. . |

Paratype: L. J. ‘Sedgwick—Castle Rock:

5540 (March, 1919). - p yee |

TYPE SPECIES IN BLATTER HERBARIUM

-136. Peristylis xanthochlorus Blatter et Mc-

Cann, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 35: 733, 1932.

Paratypes: E. Blatter—Panchgani P-81

(Oct., 1925),

L. J. Sedgwick—Panchgani-

7566 (Dec., 1920),

L. J. Sedgwick—Panchgani-

7596 bis (Dec., 1920),

L. J. Sedgwick—Mahabal-

eshwar-7622 bis (Dec., 1920),

L. J. Sedgwick—Mahabal-

eshwar-7642 (Dec., 1920).

137. Sacrochilus fiabelliferum Blatter et Mc-

Cann, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 35(4) : 722, 1932.

Holotype: L. J. Sedgwick & T. R. D.

Bell—Devimane, N. Kanara-6951 (Oct.,

1919),

Paratypes: L. J. Sedgwick—Sirsi, N.

Kanara-7078 (Oct., 1919),

T. R. D. Bell—N. Kanara-

5413 (1907).

138. Tropidia bellii Blatter, in Journ. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 35(4) : 730, 1932.

Holotype: T. R. D. Bell—Gudehalli-

2992 (Sept., 1917).

OROBANCHACEAE

139. Aeginetia indica var. alba Santapau, in

Kew Bull. 1948 : 491-2, 1949.

Holotype: H. Santapau—Khandala-2412

(21-8-1943),

Paratype: H.

4812 (8-9-1944).

Santapau—Khandala-

“140. Christisonia flamea Sedgwick, in Journ.

Indian Bot. 2: 123, 1921. —

Lectotype: Hallberg & McCann-Gersoppa

falls-34663 (Oct., 1919).

not specify the type specimen.

In the original. publication, Sedgwick does

According to

him the type material was collected by Sedgwick,

Bell, Hallberg and McCann, in Nov., 1919.

The date of type collection does not agree with

the material available in Blatter Herbarium.

Since no. 34663 is the only specimen available,

which also happens to be collected earlier than

the type mentioned, it is selected herein as the

lectotype of this species.

PAPILIONACEAE

141. Alysicarpus monilifer var. venosa Blatter

et Hall., in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 26(1} : 240, 1918.

Lectotype: E. Blatter—Jaisalmer-7226

(Nov., 1917).

142. Argyrolobium mucilagineum Blatter, in

Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(2) :

481, 1933.

Holotype: E. Blatter & J. Fernandez—

Waziristan-870 (5-4-1930),

Paratype: E. Blatter & J. Fernandez—

Waziristan-657 (5-4-1930).

143. Argyrolobium purpurascens Blatter, in

Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(2) :

480, 1933.

Holotype: E. Blatter & J. Fernandez—

Waziristan-1642 (19-4-1930).

144. Aegyrolobium strigosum Blatter, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 39(4): 205,

1936.

Holotype: J. Fernandez—Saragorha-163

(20-5-1927),

“. Paratypes: J. Fernandez—Waziristan-359

(4-4-1927), |

J. | Fernandez—Waziristan-

- 4046 (21-6-1927), | ret i

J. Fernandez—Miranshah-363

(14-4-1927).

613

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

i45. Astragalus fernandezianus Blatter, in

Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(2) :

482, 1933.

Holotype: J. Fernandez—Razmak-3278

(5-5-1927),

Isotypes: J. Fernandez—Razmak-3113,

3174, 3179 (5-5-1927),

Paratypes: E. Blatter & J. Fernandez—

Waziristan-1261 (14-4-1930).

146. Astragalus lasius Blatter, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(2): 480,

1933)

Holotype: E. Blatter & J. Fernandez—

Waziristan-754 (2-4-1930),

Paratype: E. Blatter & J. Fernandez—

Waziristan-261 (23-4-1930).

147. Caragona spinosissima Blatter, in Journ.

Indian Bot. Soc. 9(4): 205-6, 1930.

Holotype: E. Blatter—Boya-910

(27-3-1927),

Isotype : E. Blatter-Boya 907 (27-3-1927).

148. Calophaca tomentosa Blatter et Hallberg,

in Journ. Indian Bot. 1 : 19, 1919.

Holotype: J. E. B. Houston—Paharechi-

322 (18-9-1917).

149. Dorychnium vilosum Blatter et Hallberg,

in Journ. Indian Bot. 1 : 18, 1919.

Lectotype: J. E. B. Houston—Ispikan-

M-89 (7-3-1918),

Syntype: J. E. B. Houston—Ispikan-

M-89A (7-3-1918).

In original publication authors have men-

tioned both specimens as types. M-89 is herein

selected as the lectotype of the species.

150. Indigofera acanthinocarpa Blatter, in

Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(2):

482, 1933.

614

Holotype: J. Fernandez—Durgai post-4066

(22-6-1927), |

Isotype: J. Fernandez—Du-gai post-4075

(22-6-1927),

Paratype: J. Fernandez—Tenai-4030 :

(21-6-1927). :

151. Indigofera articulata var. monosperma

Santapau, in Proc. Nat. Inst.

Sci. |

India, 24B (3) : 135-7, 1958. |

Holotype: H. Santapau—Dwarka-16771 ,

(16-10-1953), |

Isotype: H. Santapau—Dwarka-16784 |

(16-10-1953), |

Paratypes : H. Santapau—Dwarka-4625-6 |

(20-8-1952). |

152. Indigofera oreophila Santap:.u et Panthaki, |

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. |

54(1) : 221-3, 1956. |

Holotype: D. P. Panthaki—Waghai-2350

(23-10-1955),

Paratypes: D. P. Panthaki—Pimpri-2415

(26-10-1955), |

H. Santapau—Waghai-19995_

(22-10-1955), ,

H. Santapau—Waghai-20081 |

(22-10-1955). |

153. Indigofera paucifolioides Blatter et.

McCann, in Journ. Indian Bot. 1: 19,

1919. |

Holotype: J. E. B. Houston—Wad-226B |

(2-10-1917). . |

154. Medicago monantha Blatter, in Journ

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26 : 969, 1933. |

Holotype: E. Blatter & J. Fernandez—

Waziristan-839 (14-1-1930),

Paratype: E. Blatter & J. Fernandez— |

Waziristan-660 (14-1-1930).

TYPE SPECIES IN BLATTER HERBARIUM

155. Moghania gracilis Mukherjee, in Bull.

| Bot. Soc. Bengal, 6(1): 22-4, 1953.

Isotype: T.R.D. Bell—Castle Rock-4343

(Sept., 1918),

Paratype: H. Santapau—Khandala-949

(14-9-1930).

156. Moghania praecox var. robusta Mukherjee,

in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal, 6(1) : 19-20,

1953.

Paratype: T. R. D. Bell—Thana-3634

(Feb., 1918).

157. Psoralea odorata Blatter et Hallberg, in

Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26(1) :

238, 1918.

Lectotype: Blatter & Hallberg—Jodhpur-

70.)5 (Nov., 1917).

(See Santapau, 1959 A).

158. Rhynchosia arenaria Blatter et Hallberg,

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

26(1) : 243, 1918.

Lectotype : Blatter & Hallberg—Jaisalmer-

6942 (Nov., 1917).

(See Santapau, 1959 A).

159. Rhynchosia rhombifolia Blatter et

Hallberg, in Journ. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 26(1) : 242, 1918.

Lectotype: Blatter & Hallberg—Jaisal-

mer-6948 (Nov., 1917).

(See Santapau, 1959 A).

160. Tephrosia incana var. horizonta‘is Blatter

et Ha'lberg, in Journ. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 26(1) : 239, 1918.

Lectotype: E. Blatter—Jodhpur-6977 (Oct.,

1917).

(See Santapau, 1959 A).

161. Tephrosia jamnagarens's Santapau, in

Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 24 B (3):

133-5, 1958.

Holotype: H. Santapau-—Jamnagar-7522

(16-10-1945).

162. Tephrosia multiflora Blatter et Hallberg,

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26(1):

239, 1918:

Lectotype :

(Oct., 1917).

(See Santapau, 1959 A).

E. Blatter—Jaisalmer-6974

163. Tephrosia petrosa Blatter et Hallberg, in

Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26(1) :

239, 1918.

Lectotype: Blatter & Haliberg—Jai-

salmer-6969 (Nov., 1917).

(See Santapau, 1959 A).

164. Trigonella dimorpha Blatter, in Journ.

Bot. Soc. 9(4) : 204, 1930.

Holotype: J. Fernandez—Razmak-3306

(5-5-1927).

165. Trigonella laesia Blatter, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(2): 479,

1933.

Holotype: J. Fernandez—Razmak-1883

(6-5-1927),

Isotypes: J. Fernandez—Razmak,1841,

1853 (6-5-1927),

Paratype: J. Fernandez—Razmak-2320

(7-5-1927).

166. Trigonella longepedunculata Blatter, in

Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 9(4): 204-5,

1930.

Holotype: J. Fernandez—Razmak-2376

(2-5-1927),

Isotypes: J. Fernandez—Razmak-2439,

3023, 3025, 3041, 3044 (2-5-1927),

Paratypes: J. Fernandez—Razimi-2165

(23-4-1927).

615

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

167.. Trigonella psylorhynchos Blatter, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(2): 479,

1933.

Holotype: E. Blatter & J. Fernandez—

Razmak-1721 (24-4-1930).

PRIMULACEAE

168. Amndrosace croftii var. scaposa Santapau

et Banerji, in Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci,

India, 24B(3) : 137, 1958.

Holotype: M. L. Banerji—E. Nepal-686

(8-5-1952).

RANUNCULACEAE

169. Ranunculus echinatissimus Blatter, in

Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 9(4) : 200, 1930.

Holotype: J. Fernandez—Razimi-2912

(19-4-1927).

170. Ranunculus fernandezii Blatter, in Journ.

Indian Bot. Soc. 9(4) : 199, 1930.

Holotype: J. Fernandez—Saragorha-21

(18-5-1927),

Isotype : J. Fernandez—Saragorha-33

(18-5-1927).

171. Ranunculus hirtellus var. minor Santapau

et Banerji, in Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci.

India 24B (3) : 138, 1958.

Holotype: M. L. Banerji—E. Nepal-798

(28-5-1953).

172. Ranunculus nanus Blatter, in Journ.

Indian Bot. Soc. 9(4) : 199, 1930.

Holotype : J. Fernandez—Waziristan-

2934 (19-4-1927).

173. Ranunculus pseudomuricatus Blatter et

Hallberg, in J. Ind. Bot. Soc.

1:54, 1919.

-.-Holotype :

SE +B, acre i wean

S4A. (7-4-1918). A

616

174. Thalictrum obovatum Blatter, Journ. &

Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal (New Series)

26(1) : 339-340, 1930. |

Lectotype: Ankadi, Mahabaleshwar-P-26

(12-7-1925),

Syntype: Ankadi, Mahabaleshwar-P-26A

(12-7-1925).

There were two unmounted specimens in @

folder under no. P-26. One of them is selected

herein as a lectotype and other is designated a

syntype under P-26A. |

RHAMNACEAE

175. Ventilago madraspatana var. fructifida

Santapau, in Kew Bull. 1949: 340,

1949. :

Isotype: L. D. Garade—Khandala-s.n.

(22-3-1905).

ROSACEAE

176. Prunus leucophylla Blatter, in Journ.

Indian Bot. Soc. 9(4):: 206, 1930.

Holotype: E. Blatter—Boya-425 (8-4-1927),

Isotype : E. Blatter—Boya-424 (8-4-1927),

Paratype: E. Blatter—Raz.mi-2751

(19-4-1927).

177. Pyrus parvifolia Blatter, in Journ. Indian

Bot. Soc. 9(4) : 207, 1930.

Holotype: E. Blatter—Razimi-2158

(23-4-1927), :

Paratype : E. Blatter—Razmak-3344 |

(5-5-1927). |

RUBIACEAE

178. Gailonia macrantha Blatter et Hallbersll

in Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 1: 27, 1919.

~ Holotype :————,, eet as n.- (Aug,|

1918). |

TYPE SPECIES IN. BLATTER HERBARIUM

179. .Oldenlandia. maheshwarii Santapau et

Merchant, in Journ. Indian Bot. Soc.

be Ee 42A 7 213-5, 1963.

Holotype : Y. A. Merchant—Maha-

baleshwar-1267 (20-9-1952),

Paratype :

14963 (20-9-1952).

180. Oldenlandia sedgwickii Blatter, in

~ Journ. & Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal

(New Series) 26(1) : 344, 1930.

Holotype: L. J. Sedgwick—Karwar-6653

(Oct., 1919).

_ SCROPHULARIACEAE

Anticharia glandulosa var. caerulea

Blatter et Hallberg, in Journ. Bombay

~ nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 549, 1919 (nom.

nud.), ex Santapau, in Journ. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 56(2) : 280, 1959.

Lectotype : Blatter & Hallberg—Jaisalmer-

10284 (Nov., 1917).

(See Santapau, 1959 A).

181.

182. Bonnaya bracteoides Blatter et Hallberg,

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

25(3) : 416, 1918.

Lectotype :

Abu-1514 (Oct., 1916).

In the original publication, the authors have

mentioned three specimens (nos. 1514, 1515 &

1516) as types of this spzcies. Only one speci-

men out of the three is located in Blatter

Herbarium and is herein selected as the lecto-

type of this species..

Bonnaya micrantha Blatter et Hallberg,

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

25(3) : 417, 1918.

Lectotype: Blatter & Hallberg—Ieatputi

1735 (Sept., 1917). - |

183.

H. Santapau—Mahabaleshwar- -

Blatter & Hallberg—Mount

In. the original paper, the authors have men-

tioned four specimens (nos. 1734, 1735, 1736 &

1765) as types. _ Out of these four only no. 1735

is located in the Blatter Herbarium and is

selected herein as the lectotype of the species.

Blatter et.

Indian Bot.

184. Bonnayodes limnophyloides

Hallberg, in Journ.

2: 46-7, 1921.

Holotype: Blatter & ei Deke, Landa

9450 (Oct., 1918).

185. Dopatrium junceum var. multiloba Blatter

et Hallberg, in Journ. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 25(3) : 426, 1918.

Holotype: Blatter & Hallberg—Igatpuri-

1597 (Jan., 1917).

186. Limnophila polystachyoides Blatter, in

Journ. & Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal

(New Series) 26(1) : 352, 1930. :

Lectotype : Marole, Salsette-2 (1840)

(Dec., 1916).

Syntype: Marole, Salsette-2 (1837) (Dec.,

1916).

The original publication mentions ‘ Locality:

Bombay Presidency, Salsette, near Marole

(McCann & Blatter no. 12345, type)—flowered

and fruited in December, 1916’.

In the Blatter Herbarium, there are two her-

barium sheets with nos. 1837 and 1840, collected

from Marole, Salsette Island, during December,

1916. Herbarium label of specimen no. 1840

gives, ‘ Limnophila sp. nov. no. 2, type species ’.

It is presumed here that no. 1840 is the corres-

ponding no. 2 specimen from nos. 1, 2, 3,4 & 5

which are misprinted in the original paper as

no. 12345. Therefore no. 2 (1840) is selected

herein as me lectotype of the species.

187. Mazus mecannii Blatter et Hallberg, in

Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. ae

423-4, 1918.

617

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Lectotype: C. McCann—lIgatpuri-1720

(Sept., 1917),

Syntype : C. McCann—Igatpuri-1721

(Sept., 1917).

Out of the six specimens mentioned under types

for this species only two are available in Blatter

Herbarium. Specimen no. 1720 is selected

herein as the lectotype of the species and speci-

men no. 1721 is designated as syntype.

188. Striga gesneroides var. minor Santapau,

in Kew Bull. 1948: 491, 1949.

Holotype : H. Santapau—Khandala-

3072 (6-11-1943),

Isotype: H. Santapau—Khandala-3073

(6-11-1943),

Paratypes : H. Santapau—Khandala-3417

(24-12-1943),

H. Santapau—Khandala-345]

(27-12-1943),

H. Santapau—K handala-3438

(26-12-1943),

H. Santapau—K handala-5262

(2-11-1944). .

189. Torenia indica C. Saldanha, in Bull. Bot.

Surv. India 8(2) : 126-8, 1966.

Holotype: C. Saldanha—Waghai, Dangs-

6733 (26-8-1961),

Isotypes: C. Saldanha—Waghai, Dangs-

6730, 6732, 6735 (26-8-1961),

Paratypes : H. Santapau—Waghai, Dangs-

19166 (3-9-1954),

H. Santapau—Pimpri, Dangs-

19332 (7-9-1954).

190. Torenia lindern‘oides C. Saldanha, in Bull.

Bot. Surv. India 8(2) : 129-30, 1966.

Holotype: L. J. Sedgwick—Kali

Dandeli-2511 (May, 1917),

_Paratypes: L. J. Sedgwick—Yellapur-

2433 (May, 1917),

nadi-

H. Santapau—Londa-10828

(21-4-1950),

C. Saldanha—Wynad-7509-

10 (11-10-1961).

191. Veronica anagallis var. bracteata Blatter

et Hallberg, in Journ. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 25(3) : 427, 1918.

Holotype: Blatter & Hallberg—Mount

Abu-1633 (Oct., 1933).

SOLANACEAE

192. Solanum mecannii Santapau, in Journ.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 47 : 654, 1948.

Lectotype: H. Santapau—Khandala-2972

(18-10-1943),

Syntype: H. Santapau—Khandala-2973

(18-10-1943).

In the. original publication both the above

mentioned specimens are given as types.

No. 2972 is herein selected as the lectotype of

the species.

STERCULIACEAE

193. Melhania magnifolia Blatter et Hallberg,

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26(1):

228, 1918.

Lectotype :

(Oct., 1917).

(See Santapau, 1959 A).

E. Blatter—Jodhpur-7285

194. Melhania tomentosa var. major Blatter —

_ et Hallberg, in Journ. Bombay nat. —

Hist. Soc. 26(1) : 228, 1918.

Lectotype: Blatter & Hallberg—Barmer-

7286 (Nov., 1917).

(See Santapau, 1959 A).

618

TYPE SPECIES IN BLATTER HERBARIUM

TAMARICACEAE

195. Reumuria punjeurica Blatter et Hallberg,

in Journ. Indian Bot. 1 9, 1919.

Holotype: J. E. B. Houston—Pun;gur-M-

321 (12-5-1918).

196. Tamarix longepedunculata Blatter et

Hallberg, in Journ. Indian Bot. 1:9,

1919. . :

Holotype :————, Kalat-228 (2-9-1917).

UMBELLIFERAE

197. Pimpinella clarkeana Watt. ex Banerji,

in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

50(1) : 88, 1951.

Paratype: M. L. Banerji—E. Nepal-446

(21-5-1948).

198. Pimpinella multiradiata Santapau, in

Kew Bull. 1948 : 485, 1949.

Holotype: H. Santapau—Khandala-8054

(25-11-1945),

Isotype: H. Santapau—Khandala-8053

(25-11-1945).

VERBENACEAE

199. Clerodendrum serratum var. pubescens

Moldenke, in Phytologia 6(6): 324,

1958.

Holotype : S. K. Wagh—Vizag. Dt.-

2592 (11-5-1956).

200. Clerodendrum villosum var. macrocalyx

Moldenke, in Phytologia 6(6): 325,

1958.

Holotype : P. V. Bole—Dandeli, N.

Kanara-1457 (25-12-1955).

VIOLACEAE

201. Viola oblonga Blatter, in Journ. Indian

Bot. Soc. 9(4): 200-201, 1930.

Holotype: J. Fernandez—Razmak-2017

(30-4-1927).

Paratypes: J. Fernandez—Razmak-1550

(10-5-1927),

J. Fernandez—Razmak-2332

(7-5-1927).

ZINGIBERACEAE

202. Curcuma inodora Blatter, in Journ. &

Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal (New Series)

26 : 357-8, 1930.

Holotype : Hallberg—Moolgaon-12724

(June, 1917).

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

203. Fagonia spinosissima Blatter et Hallberg,

in Journ. Indian Bot. 1:12, 1919.

Holotype: J. E. B. Houston—Punjgur-

M-8E (23-5-1918). |

204. Zygophyllum trialatum Blatter et

Hallberg, in Journ. Indian Bot. 1 : 90,

1919.

Lectotype: ——-——, Baluchistan-s.n.

(Aug., 1917).

According to the authors, the type specimen

of this species was collected from Quetta in

July, 1918. There is no specimen in the Blatter

Herbarium, identified by E. Blatter, which is

collected from Baluchistan in August, 1917.

Since the specimen from Quetta is not located,

the specimen from Baluchistan is selected herein

as the lectotype of the species.

619

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY; Vol. 74

oR ER ERE NGS

SanTAPAU; -H.- (1952): Records of the Botanical +5. + (1959B): Journ: Indian Bor. Soc. 38 : : 301-4,

Survey of India, vol. 16,no.1.0 | 1959. 945

———— (1957) : Madras State Herbarium Centenary 2 ae (0965) : Proc. Indian ‘Seience Congress

Souvenir, pp. 38- 47, 1954.

(1965B): Science & Culture 31: 456-67.

(1959) : Lectotypes of the species ‘and Bor, N. L. (1960): International Series of Mono- -

varieties described by Blatter and Hallberg in their graphs on Pure and Applied Biology, vol. 1.

‘EFiora of the Indian Desert.’. . J. Bombay nat. Hist. Lanjouw, J. et al. (1972): International Code of

Soc. 56(2) : 276-281. AVEO T2025) Botanical Nomenclature. Netherlands.

620 °

Bio-spectral analysis of Ladakh vegetation’

B. L. Sapru? AND P. KACHROO

( With a text-figure)

The paper includes brief information on the climate and vegetation of Ladakh region. The life-forms reveal

a geo-chamaephytic phytoclimate with a high proportion of therophytes.

The spectrum is in good agree-

ment with the prevailing climate and therefore with Raunkiaer’s system. Therophytes reflect the aridity of

the region whereas geophytes- -chamaephytes the cold winter. pe

INTRODUCTION

Ladakh, a constituent part of Jammu and

Kashmir State is designated as the ‘ cold desert

of India’. It has a distinct climate, geological

history and topography which is hardly akin to

any other part of the state and this distinction

is very well reflected in its vegetation. Much

work has been done regarding the floristic

(Stewart 1917 and Sapru e¢ al. 1975) and phyto-

sociological studies (Durani et a/., 1974) in the

area. As a part of the study completed

recently by us in various districts of Ladakh,

it was thought worthwhile to analyse the vegeta-

tion according to the classification proposed by

Raunkiaer 1934, in order to assess the percentage

distribution of the various life-forms and to

work out its validity in determining the phyto-

climate of the region.

SapeRkae AND CLIMATE

- Ladakh, with a geographical area of 97, 782

sq. km. which is more than the combined area

of Jammu and Kashmir provinces, is repre-

sented by mountain chains upto 6,600 m high

enveloping rugged terrain and sandy valleys

drained by the Tiver Indus. It eS a marine

a Accepted J inte? 1976,

* Botany Department, Kashmir University, ‘Srinagar.

origin, because of its having been under a sea

in the past (Burrand & Heydon 1907) which

piled up huge sedimentary deposits until late

Tertiary period.

The most remarkable point about the climate

of Ladakh is that the dryness is of two kinds,

one is physical due to the paucity of precipita-

tion during the summer and autumn, and the

second is physiological caused by the tem-

perature below 0°C inhibiting absorption of

water by the roots, in the winter and early spring

when precipitation occurs. The ombrothermic

diagram of Leh (Fig. 1a) reveals a cold desertic

(eremic) bioclimate according to the classifi-

cation of Bagnouls & Gaussen (1957).

November to March is the period with negative

mean temperatures, the mean of minimum

being as low as—14°C. April to October is the

physically dry period when the mean monthly

rainfall is less than twice the mean, temperature,

although the latter is above 0°C. Thus the

total of the cold months and dry months comes

to 12. However, April and probably even May,

may be excluded from the category of dry

months considering the fact that the snow

accumulated during the cold season would

melt in these months with the rising tempera-

tures. Thus the short spring and the summer

when there are occasional ‘showers: is the only

time favourable to the plants: S aoe e 10 Gea

ani

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

At Kargil (Fig. 1b), conditions are little

better than at Leh. The cold period extends

from November to March but April is not

physically dry ; precipitation is less than twice

the mean temperature from May to October

but the melting of snow would compensate

dryness of May and probably Junetoo. The

bioclimate may be considered as cold sub-

desertic (hemi-eremic).

(a) LeX

Rainfall

Mean Temperature

e® oe e 0 @

Fig. 1.

VEGETATION

Ladakh supports scanty vegetation due to the.

various odd factors operating in the region. |

From forestry point of view the entire area

from Zojila to Chushul has rightly been classi-

fied under * Alpine scrub zone’ (Champion &

Seth 1965) because trees are few in number and

these grow only in some specific pockets

covering roughly an area of about 2.75 sq. km.

The herbaceous element comprising some

annual and few perennial weeds are commonly

met with in places that have escaped erosion or

are located within crevices and pockets that

retain some amount of moisture. Areas near

banks of lakes and nallah beds are amongst the

Drass (Fig. Ic) in spite of a relatively high

rainfall of 650 mm has a climate more or less

similar to Leh and Kargil with 11 months

either physically or physiologically dry.

The soils are mainly sandy or sandy-loam

with appreciable quantities of clay at some

places. The pH ranges between 7-11 (Bhat

1965).

Ombrothermic Diagrams for Ladakh.

sites conducive for the growth of forbes, and or

rare shrubs. The plants are able to grow up to

an elevation of 4,800 m above sea level wherever

some moisture is available.

The alpine, desert and oasis elements are the

representative features of Ladakh vegetation.

The alpine element is mostly confined to narrow

belts which receive part of the melted snow

water and the upper beds of mountain streams.

The desert flora which is very prominent in the

upper reaches and the valleys is most closely

related to the Tibetan and Turkish floristic

elements. The oasis element comprises of a

variety of exotics intermixed with some indi-

.genous plants.

622

ANALYSIS OF LADAKH VEGETATION

Across Zojila, which acts as a barrier between

Ladakh and Kashmir transition in vegetation

is prominent upto Suru valley. On way to

Drass after a gradual descent from Zojila, one

comes across barren and eroded mountain

slopes with some green patches in shaded moist

places. Along the transition zone almost an:

plant of Kashmir that can survive above 3,300 m

may be found growing, wherever a small

quantity of moisture is readily available. Most

such plants are alpine mesophytes as for instan e

the species of Delphinium, Potentilla, Leonto-

podium, Taraxacum, Aster etc., along with the

representatives of typical Kashmir element like

Podophyllum emodi, Lavatera kashmiriana,

Impatiens glandulifera, Lotus corniculatus,

Astragalus rhizanthus, Indigofera sp., Rosa

moschata, Verbasacum thapsus etc. Along the

river courses and in depressions, stunted Salix

daphnoides and Morus alba trees are found

growing with Myricaria elegans scrub. Along

the sandy banks of the Drass river and its side

streams there is a rich growth of Phragmites

karka thriving in close association with Equisetum

sp. and Sonchus oleraceus. At Minamarg and

Gumri where the mountain tops are under

perpetual snow, the slopes are covered with

plants like Polygonum affine, Potentilla bifurca

Pedicularis siphonantha, Parnassia_ palustri s

Geranium pratense, Bupleurum longicaute,

Stachys sericea, Origanum vulgare, Gentiana

decumbens, Anaphalis nubigena, Swertia thom-

soni, Agrostis canina etc. Eastward of Rupshu,

plant life is scanty because of high altitude and

little rainfall. Only some hardy species like

Carex nivalis, Oxyria digyna, Polygonum

corydalis, Draba lasiophylla, Sedum ewersii,

Saxifraga sibirica, Allardia tomentosa, Dianthus

anatolicus etc. thrive. In Rupshu area the

predominent floristic element is represented by

those Tibetan species which can thrive up to a

height of 5,000 m. In this area the common

species are Oxytropis lapponica, Potentilla

multifida, Nepeta tibetica, Plantago minima,

Delphinium brunonianum, Lychnis macrorhiza,

Atriplex crassifolia, Polygonum _ sibiricum,

Sedum tibeticum, Arabis tibetica, Brava alpina

ste

At Nubra and Leh, Acantholimon lyco-

podioides, Myricaria elegans, Lindelofia anchu-

soides, Scopolia prealta, Tanacetum arteme-

sioides, Nepeta floccosa, Arnebia_ tibetiana,

Potentilla nivea, Euphorbia tibetica, Lancea

tibetica, Iris ensata, Carum carvi, Lepidium

apetalum, Elaeaganus angustifolia, Potentilla

anserina, Astragalus ciliolatus, Draba fladnit-

zensis, etc. grow along with the tree species

like Salix alba, S. daphnoides, Populus deltoides,

Juglans regia. The trees are a recent introduc-

tion in the area while the herbaceous cover is

an admixture of Tibetan, alpine mesophytes

and desertic elements.

LIFE-FORMS |

During the investigation, 662 plant species

were recorded from the various ecological

nitches inthe area. These are scattered through

51 families with maximum representation of

species in the families Compositae, Cruciferae,

Labiatae, Polygonaceae, Papilionaceae and

Graminae. Following the system proposed by

Raunkiaer (1934), the species were grouped into

the following life-forms : Phanerophytes (Ph)

Nanophanerophytes (N), Chaemephytes (Ch),

Hemicry ptophytes (H), Geophytes (G), Hydro-

phytes (HH), Therophytes (Th), Lianas (L),

Epiphytes (E) and Parasites (P).

The number of species from each of the fifty-

one families that fit into the various life form

classes are indicated in Table 1. From the

tabulated values it is evident that maximum

number of species (219) are therophytes that

mainly reproduce through seeds, followed in

descending order by chaemephytes (178) and

geophytes (141). There are no lianas and

epiphytes.

623

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

AS TABEE aw

~ LIFE-FORM DISTRIBUTION FOR LADAKH REGION, FAMILY-WISE

No. of species in each life-form class

Family : Ph IN: Ch H. GU OR THY ORAS

@ Hs

Ranunculaceae

Berberidaceae

Papaveraceae

Fumariaceae

Brassicaceae

Caryopu.ayliaceae

Geraniaceae

Papilionaceae

- Rosaceae

10. Saxifragaceae

11. Crassulaceae

12. Huloragaceae

13.. Onagraceae

14. Umbelliferae

15. Caprifoliaceae’

16. Rubiaceae

17. Va lerianaceae

18. Dipsacaceae

19. Compositae

20. Campanulaceae

21. Plumbaginaceae

22. Primulaceae

23. Androsaceae

24. Apocynaceae

25. Gentianaceae

26. Boraginaceae .

27. Cuscutaceae

28. Solanaceae

29.. Scrophulariaceae

30. Orobanchaceae

31. Lentibulariaceae

_ 32. Selaginaceae

- 33. Lamiaceae ia ie

1194 siChenopadiaceac iy 34. Gs APC:

. 35. Euphorbiaceae

_ 36. “ Polygonaceae

'.37, Urticaceae

_. 38... Moraceae ae Ps

, oo: Ulmaceac | cae OGG Je

. 40. Juglandaceae,

41. Betulaceae

42. Salicaceaé

. 43. - Guetaceae

44 2Rinaceae

-- 45. - Orchidaceae -

. 46. Iridacede

47.. Liliaceae

- 48. Capparidaceae

*, 49.. Juncaceae

_» 90. Graminae _ mune eG aa

:-+ §4}- Cy peraceae HG fy bios Sel a

mot famed

me ot OH ee

ae «MK NY

— *

OOD UB ust =

hm WN

mx > ON Om MO WD

mA Were BK KK PNR KH NK NK OO

Spe id OK LO N d U RO NOO eNe KN

NH RIN Od OO NH KOK KH KH DOH UW

ee a are eee | .

OEP OE OR PDE OK PK Pd NO bed tek ek Ft dE Dd Od DS Dd ad PS PS OK PS OOK OOO OK OK OK OO OOK RO KO OK OO OOM

Dh DE Dd Od Od Dd bE DE DE DEE DE DE DE DE DE DE Dd DE DE Od NOK De Sa Dt OO DO dO OO OO OO

Hert

AA AWK MW BR MO KO OO KK NK KKK KN KK MK KN

eee

"pd God Sd Dd Dd Oe Oe De

conse,

Df Dd Dh Dd DE-DE D4 DE DE Dd DE Dd DE DE DE DAD DE PE Dd DE A De Od DE DE PE DE DE DE DE Dd Dd DE De be bd be dE DE Le oe DED

—"*

Pi et ae : 5 ea :

Pk oh Oe IDR OS OR OF Od Ot OM OM ION KON HW w KON

eer z ge f ee ee : r ; ;

1 ORE Ik Od DO EK NOWAK KK Km

Total in each class. . on a . 18 ek : ie 7 04) Ki 140. ~% 220 es ;

ss - cman SSR SS ars ee a net errs Rae

meeps:

“ANALYSIS OF LADAKH VEGETATION <~

-2~ The biological spectrum worked out forthe

-- region on a percentage basis is enumerated in’

Table 2, along with the normal spectrum

(Raunkiaer 1934).

The phytoclimate of a region, according to

Raunkiaer, is characterised by the life-form

(or forms) which in the biological spectrum of

that region exceeds the percentage of the same

life-form in the normal spectrum. He further

divided the phytoclimate of the world into four

‘distinct classes, i.e. (i) Phanerophytic climate in

' the tropics,

(ii) Therophytic climate in the

deserts, (iii) Hemicryptophytic climate in the

greater part of cold temperate region and

(iv) Chaemephytic with a fair proportion of

geophytes in cool climates.

It will be noted from Table 2 that phanero-

-are quite negligible in the Ladakh spéctrum

compared to the normal spectrum ; hemicrypto-

phytes fare better with 9.6°%% but are yet almost

three times lesser than the. normal. The life-

forms whose percentages exceed the normal

values are (1) geophytes, more than five times

higher than in the normal spectrum (2) chamae-

phytes, almost three times higher, (3) thero-

phytes nearly two and a_ half times higher,

(4) parasites only about 1% more.

From these observations, the phytoclimate

of the Ladakh region may be designated as geo-

chamaephytic with a high proportion of thero-

phytes. This is quite in agreement with the

climate prevailing in the region. Whereas the

therophytes reflect the desertic to sub-desertic

conditions, the dominance of geophytes and

chamaephytes corresponds to the low tempera-

tures of the winter-spring months.

TABLE 2

BIOLOGICAL SPECTRUM FOR LADAKH REGION

phytes, nanophanerophytes and hydrophytes

’ Region

PH N | Ch H

Normal spectrum... 28 15. 9 (26

Per cent number/Life-form class

9°61: -

G Hees seat Eee gE P

D113 Oe OI6d! M438 Oo Oo! 0.0.9

A ee 13 ia 0

DISCUSSION

The validity of the vegetational criterion for

assessing the aridity or humidity of a region has

been broadly elucidated by Meher-Homyji

(1964). Although different systems were

proposed by several ecologists (Humboldt 1805,

Warming 1909, Drude 1913, Pound et al. 1898

and Raunkiaer 1934) for the classification of

vegetation in different regions, only Raunkiaer’s

has a universal applicability mainly because

his system is based on properly designated life-

forms classified on the basis of perennating

organs, reflecting two important parameters of

the climate, namely, precipitation and

temperature.

Ladakh region is mainly arid with cold

winters, the annual average precipitation varying

between 80 mm (Leh) and 650 mm (Drass).

As already stated, most of the precipitation

received in the region is in the form of snow

during winter and early spring and is not readily

available to the plants in view of the low tem-

1.625

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

peratures. Most of the plants complete their

life-cycles during the short spring when the snow

melts and during the summer when there are

sporadic showers. For the rest of year, the

soil remains dry and almost devoid of vegetation

imparting an arid landscape.

The biological spectrum of the region is quite

in conformity with the local geophysical condi-

tions which have favoured therophytic popu-

lations. If the trend of cultivation of suitable

trees under the aforestation programme is

implemented in full vigour, the increase in the

phanerophytic element would result in a change

not only in the spectral composition but prog |

bably also in the amelioration of the local eco- |

climatic conditions. |

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Shri G. Naquashband,

Chief Conservatcr J & K Forests, for his keen |

interest and the financial assistance provided |

We owe our sincere thanks |

to Dr. V. M. Meher-Homji, Institute Francais,

Pondicherry for going through the manuscript |

by his Department.

and for his valuable suggestions.

REFERENCES

BAGNOULS, F. & GAUSSEN, H. (1957): Les climates

biologiques et leurs classification Am. Geogr. 355:

193-220.

BuaTt, G. M. (1965): The soils of Kashmir.

Agri. Deptt., J. & K Govt.

BURRAND, S. G. & HEYDON, H. H. (1907): A sketch

of the geography and geology of Himalayan mountains

and Tibet. Calcutta.

CHAMPION, G. M. & SETH, S. K. (1968) : Forest types

of India. Delhi.

Drupbg, O. (1897): Manual de geographic botanique.

Paris.

DurRANI, P. K., SINGH, G. & KACcHROO, P. (1975) :

Phytosociological studies on the vegetation of Ladakh

desert. Ann. Arid Zone 14(2) : 75-86.

Bull.

HumBoLpT, A. (1805): Essai sur la geographie des |

plantes. Paris.

MEHER-Homjl, V. M. (1964): Life-forms and bio-

logical spectra as epharmonic criteria of aridity and |

humidity in tropics. J. Indian bot. Soc. 43(3) : 424-430.

Pounb, R. & CLEMENTS, F. E. (1898): The phyto- |

geography of Nebraska, Lincoln.

RAUNKIAER, C. (1934): The life-forms of plants and |

statistical plant geography. Lendon.

SAPau, B. L., KACHROO, P. & DHaAR, U.:

of Ladakh. (In press).

The flora

STEWART, R. R. (1917): Flora of W. Tibet and

Ladakh. Bull. Tor. Bot. Club. 43: 57-91.

WaplA, D. N. (1940): The geology of India.

London.

WARMING, E. (1909) : Oecology of plants, Oxford.

626

Contribution to the botany of Lahaul’

| | B. K. KAPAHI? AND Y. K. SARIN

(With two text-figures)

Lahaul comprises an area of 2820 sq. km lying the north, Kulu and Bara Bhangal in the

between lat. 30° 8’ and 32° 59’N and 76° 49’E south, Spiti sub-division on the east and

in the district of Lahaul and Spiti in Himachal Chamba district on the west (Fig. 1). The area

Pradesh. The adjoining areas are Ladakh in has peculiar climatic and physical features and

AHAUL sus. piv

Scale f Inch te 4 Miles

Fig. 1. Map

! Accepted August 1976. * Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu—Tawi.

627

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

is of great botanical interest. The area was

earlier explored by Aitchison (1868) and Watt

(1881) who published short accounts of the

botany of the western parts. Jn recent years,

Joshi (1952), Rau (1960) and Nair (1964) pub-

lished tour notes on various parts of the valley.

As a part of a planned programme of study of

the vegetation, particularly economic plants of

the area it was surveyed during 1964, 1970 and

1973. This paper presents the results of these

explorations.

Physical aspects: The tract has a highly

rugged terrain. It is bounded by the main

Himalayan axis in the north, the middle

Himalayan ranges in the south and connecting

links in the east and west. The elevation of

these mountains range between 4187 m and

7000 m above mean sea level. The area is

drained by the river Chenab and its two tribu-

taries Chandra and Bhaga. The tributaries

originate at Baralacha pass at about 5050 m

(a.s.l.) and flow in a south-westerly direction

enclosing a triangular mass of lofty mountains.

The main axis of the central mass lies from

north to south with a branch going west. These

two lines are fringed with lateral spurs, the

intervening valleys having glaciers. The major

part of the area is barren with highly precipi-

tous mountain slopes and glaciers. Culti-

vation is restricted to the lower parts of river

valleys having an altitude of 3100 m to 3800 m

(a.s.I1.).

Climate : The maximum temperature record-

ed at Kelong (alt. 3600 m) is 23.1°C in August

and the minimum—10.3°C in February. The

enormous mountain ranges act as a barrier to

monsoon currents and consequently the average

summer rainfall hardly exceeds 15 cm. On

the other hand there is heavier precipitation

averaging 294 cm per year during winter months

(Fig. 2).

Vegetation: A low rainfall during summer,

a long period of gelation, precipitous physio-

“July

Fig. 2. Total precipitation pattern of Lahaul.

gnomy, shallow soil cover and high intensity |

of lopping and grazing have resulted in poor |

vegetation cover. The tree element is repre- |

sented by Betula utilis and Juniperus macropoda, |

a high altitude conifer. A few trees of Quercus —

semi-carpifolia and Pinus wallichiana are some- —

times encountered in sheltered localities in —

Chandrabhaga Valley.

The shrubby element consists of a number of —

semi-zerophytic species. Hippophe rhamonides,

an armed straggling shrub, along with Berberis

vulgaris, Ribes grossularia, Rosa webbiana and

species of Rubus, Cotoneaster and Crataegus

form isolated thickets in the valley of Chandra

and Bhaga and upto Jalma Kothi in Patten

Valley. Juniperus recurva, J. wallichiana and

Rhododendron anthopogon are the main shrubs

on higher slopes. Ephedra gerardiana grows

gregariously on southern aspects between Jispa

and Baralacha pass on both the banks of Bhaga

river and beyond Chatru in Chandra Valley.

The ground vegetation is greatly influenced

by the soil conditions. The habitat ranges from

628

CONTRIBUTION TO THE BOTANY OF LAHAUL

typical dry sandy or rocky on high precipitous

slopes to water logged depressions. The major

constituents under varying habitat conditions

are as follows :

1. DRY SLOPES WITH LOOSE SANDY SOIL: The

main herbs are Artemisia maritima, A.

dracunculus, A. vestita, Phlomis bracteosa,

Cicer soongaricum, Lotus corniculatus,

Lychnis fimbriata, and species of Astragalus,

Verbascum, Origanum, Lotus and Cnicus.

2. MOIST SLOPES WITH WATER SEEPING FROM

ABOVE: ZJris kumaonensis, Lagotis glauca,

Picrorhiza kurrooa, Anemone obtusiloba,

Geum elatum, Adonis chrysocyathus, Primula

sibirica, Polygonum chinensis, Anaphalis

nubigena, A. cinnamomoea and Ranunculus

spp.

3. °DANGS’ (FALLOW LAND NEAR CULTIVAT-

ED FIELDS): Chaerophym_ villosum, C.

reflexum, Eremurus himalaicus, Aconitum

heterophyllum, Bunium — bulbocastanum,

Heracleum candicans, Phlomis bracteosa,

Thlaspi arvense, Capsella bursa-pastoris,

Verbascum thapsus, Bupleurum falcatum

and species of Ranunculus, Arabis, Artemisia

and Caltha species.

4. ORGANIC DUMPS NEAR ROAD SIDES AND

VILLAGES: Datura stramonium, Physo-

chalaina praealta, Hyoscyamus _ niger,

Physalis minima, Verbena officinalis and

species of Papavar, Ranunculus, Lychnis,

Amaranthus and. Chenopodium.

5. CREVICES OF MOIST ROCKS: Onosma

echiodes. Rheum palmatum, Bergenia ligulata

and a number of Sedum species.

The majority of plants flower during May to

August and fruits mature by the month of

October and dormancy sets in most of the

species by first or second week of November.

Cereal and cash crops : The vegetative season

being limited to about seven months between

April and October only one crop per year

is harvested. ‘Grisham’ or naked barley

(Hordeum vulgare) is the only cereal grown in

the area, though cultivation of rice has been

taken up recently in some low lying areas of

Chandrabhaga Valley. Potato, Tobacco,

Lentils, Buckwheat and Kuth (Saussurea lappa)

are the main cash crops. Very large quantities

of seed potato are produced in the area and

exported to all parts of India. Lahaul has a

monopoly in Kuth roots, large quantities of

which are exported from India every year.

Cultivation of hops (Humulus lupulus) has also

been taken up recently.

Ethnobotanical observations: The local in-

habitants, cutoff from the world during six

months in a year and faced with the vagaries of

climate depend on wild plants for many of

their daily needs. During the survey, the

following observations were made regarding

the use of wild plants for various purposes by

the local people.

1. Plants used as substitutes for flour: The

chief food of Lahaul is potato and buckwheat.

These are occasionally supplemented by the indi-

genously produced naked barley. Among

the wild plants used for similar purposes are the

tap roots of Codonopsis ovata (Ludut) and

Chaerophyllum villosum (Meetha patis). These

are dried, ground into flour and mixed with

flour of buckwheat, barley or wheat.

2. Wild plants used as pot herb and vegetable :

Allium victorialis Linn. (Linchi)

Young leaves, bulbs & young roots.

Bunium cylindricum Grossheim (Shingo)

Flowering tops.

Cicer soongaricum Steph.

Seeds & herb.

Codonopsis ovata Bentha. (Ludut)

Roots & leaves.

Eremurus himalaicus Baker (Boe)

Young leaves.

629

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Morchella sp. (Mpksha)

Fructification.

Polygonum polystachyum Watt. (Mushutzi) -

Flowering spikes.

Rheum palmatum Linn. (Ravandchini)

Young stems.

Sedum rhodiola DC. (Shrolo)

Tender shoots.

Sedum tibeticum Hook. f. (Kindut)

Young roots.

Taraxacum officinalis Wigg. (Ganiathal)

Whole herb.

Tragopogon major Jacq. (Dudhi)

Whole herb.

(Local name is given in parantheses.)

3. Fruits: Cultivated fruit trees are few.

Apple, Pear and Walnut have been introduced

recently in Chandrabhaga Valley. The fruits

of the following wild plants are commonly used

by the local people.

Cotoneaster disticha Lange

Fragaria vesca Linn. (Paljoo)

Hippophae rhamonides Linn. (Starboo)

Pyrus buccata Linn. (Litsee)

Pyrus malus Linn. (Kushoo) local apple.

Ribes grossularia Linn. (Kuchshoo)

4. Plants used in local medicines :

Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. (Bonga)

The roots are used as febrifuge and are given

in decoction or boiled with tea.

Bergenia ligulata Wall. Rhizomes are made

into a paste and applied over ulcers and bruises.

Chaerophyllum villosum Wall. (Meetha patis).

The dried roots are used as carminative.

Gentiana tenella Rottb. Whole herb used as

febrifuge in decoction.

Hippophae_ rhamonides_ Linn. ee.

Jelly made from the fruit is used in lung com-

plaints.

Myricaria germanica Desv.

swollen joints and bruises.

Pedicularis hookeriana Wall.

used in powder form for gastric troubles.

Rheum palmatum Linn. (Lacchu). Fresh herb

juice used as purgative.

5. Miscellaneous products :

In gompas and temples a great amount of |

The major item used for this —

The roots |

of Delphinium brunonianum and Morena brevi- !

folia (Boi) and fruits of Juniperus macropoda

incense is burnt.

purpose is roots of Saussurea lappa.

are also employed for this purpose. Roots of

Polygonatum cirrifolium and. Saponaria spp.

are used for washing woollen clothes.

cylindricum and flowering tops

stracheyi.

For fodder all sort of herbs, shrubs and trees

are used. Chief among these being Chaero-

phyllum_ villosum (herb),

(herb), Indigofera sp. (leaves), Phlomis bracteosa

(herb), Salix sp. (bark and leaves), Populus sp.

leaves and a large number of alpine grasses.

Enumeration of the flowering plants :

275 species belonging to 152 genera and 46

families of Angiosperms and Gymnosperms

have been collected from the area during a

series of field exploration trips. The plants

collected are enumerated in the following list.

The specimens are kept in the Herbarium of the

Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu—Tawi.

RANUNCULACEAE

Aconitum heterophyllum Wall.

Koksar, YKS; 8972.

Anemone obtusiloba D. Don

Rhotang Road, YKS; 8721. BKK ;

A. polyanthes D. Don

Rhotang jot, BKK ;

12611.

12612.

630.

The leaves. are”

used as emollient applications to snes

Roots - are:

Spices |

obtained from wild plants are, seeds of Bunium —

of Allium |

Cicer soongaricum |

CONTRIBUTION TO THE BOTANY OF LAHAUL

A. rupicola Camb. i | C. ramosa Wall. }

Gondla, YKS ; 8963. Keylong, YKS; 8792. Keylong; BKK;

Aquilegia vulgaris Linn, 12646.

Jisparoad, YKS; 8857... Tandi, BKK; C.ramosa Wall. var. vaginans

12680. Keylong, YKS ; 8871.

Caltha palustris Linn. C. tibetica Hook. f. & Thoms.

Rhotang, YKS; 8717. Sissue, BKK; 12671. | Sisso, YKS ; WN.

Tsopyrum thalictroides Linn. ( Meconopsis acul-ata Royle

Keylong (Biling area), YKS ; 8794. Rhotang, BKK ; 12726.

Delphinium cashmerianum Royle

BKK ; 12728, Rhotang.

D. vestitum Wall.

BKK; 12727; Billing Nallah. Arabis alpine Titi

Ranunculus affinis R.Br. Keylong—Jaloma, YKS ; 8873.

Rhotang, BKK ; 12743.

CRUCIFERAE

A. amplexicaulis Edgew.

R. hirtellus Royle Tandi Village, YKS ; 8881.

Tandi-Shansha, YKS ; 8887. AoircuiiG Wank

R. laetus Wall. Jalma, BKK ; 127240.

Sissue, BKK ; 12669. A. tibetica Hook. f. & Thoms.

R. lobatus Jacq. : Jalma, BKK ; 12738.

Rhotang, YKS ; 8981. Capsella bursa-pastoris Moench

R. munroanus J. R. Drum : Kardang. R.F., YKS ; 8812.

Tandi-Shansha, YKS ; 8887. : Koksar, BKK ; 12632.

R. muricatus Linn. Cardamine hirsuta Linn. var.

Sansha village and throughout BKK ; 12729 sylvatica Link.

Thalictrum cultratum Wall. : Tandi Village, YKS ; 8882.

Morung (Ka 34a), BKK ; 12816. C. impatiens Linn.

7 foliolosum DC. Rhotang Pass, BKK ; 8750.

Gramphoo, Shansha ; 127230. Descurainia sophia (Linn.) Webb.

T. minus Linn. (= Sisymbrium sophia Linn.)

Kaza, BKK; 12751. Keylong, BKK ; 12653.

Trollius acaulis Lindl. Draba lanceolata Royle

Rhotang top, YKS ; 874]. Rhotang top, YKS ; 8743.

Lepidium latifolium Linn.

Keylong, BKK ; 127132.

PAPAVERACEAE L. ruderale Linn.

| Keylong, BKK ; 12733.

Corydalis cachemiriana Royle Megacarpaea polyandra Benth.

Rhotang jot, BKK ; 12613. — Mari, BKK ; 12380.

C. govaniana Wall. - Thalaspi arvense Linn.

Rhotang-Mari, YKS ; 8738. - Keylong, BKK ; 12654,

631

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Arenaria kashmirica Edgew.

Gondla. BKK ; 12690.

A. orbiculata Royle

Koksar, YKS ; 8762. —

Keylong, BKK ; 12619.

A. serpylifolia Linn.

Koksar, BKK ; 12734.

Cerastium trigynum Villars.

Koksar-Keylong, YKS ; 8770.

Gypsophila cerastoides D. Don

Koksar, BKK ; 12618.

Sagina saginoides (Linn.) Karsten

(= S. procumbens Linn.)

Rhotang, YKS ; 8733.

Silence venosa (Gibb.) Aschers.

(= S. inflata Smith.)

Keylong, BKK ; 12742.

TAMARICACEAE

Myricaria germanica Desv.

Gondla village, BKK ; 12676.

M. elegans Royle

Near Chandra river, BKK ; 12741.

MALVACEAE

Malva rotundifolia Linn.

Tandi village, YKS ; 8906

Koksar, BKK ; 12624.

M. verticillata Linn.

Gondla, BKK ; 12737.

GERANIACEAE

Geranium nepalense Sweet.

Sissue, YKS ; 8777.

G. wallichianum D. Don

Grampho (Koksar), BKK ; 12617.

Impatiens amphorata Edgew.

Gondla-Sissue, BKK ; 12698.

If, amphorata Edgew. var. umbrosa Edgew.

Keylong, YKS ; 8950.

SAPINDACEAE

Acer caesium Wall. ex Brand.

Rhotang (South aspect), YKS ; 8712.

LEGUMINOSAE

Astragalus adesmiaefolium Benth. ex Bunge

bs Kaza, BKK ; 12750.

A. cicerifolius Royle ex Bunge

(= A. oplites Benth. ex Baker.)

Kaza, BKK ; 12760.

A. chlorostachya Lindl.

Keylong, BKK ; 12662.

A. himalayanus Klotz.

Kunzum, BKK ; 12759.

Cicer arietinum Linn.

Keylong, BKK ; 12951. |

Indigofera pulchella Roxb.

Rhotang top, BKK ; 8970.

Lotus corniculatus Linn. |

Koksar, BKK ; 12628.

Medicago sativa Linn.

Sissue, YKS ; 8775. Keylong, BKK ; 12655.

Melilotus parviflora Desf.

Pattan valley, YKS ; 8940.

Oxytropis thomsoni Benth.

Koksar-Keylong, YKS ; 8767.

Pisum sativum Linn.

Keylong, BKK ; 12663.

Thermopsis barbata Benth.

Mari, BKK ; 12382.

Trifolium repens Linn.

Koksar, BKK ; 12639.

632

CONTRIBUTION TO THE BOTANY OF LAHAUL

ROSACEAE

Cotoneaster microphylla Wall. ex Lindl.

Rhotang pass, YKS ; 8736.

Cotoneaster racemiflora Koech & May

(= C. nummularia Fisch.)

Keylong. Jisparoad, YKS ; 8930.

Fragaria vesca Linn.

Mari, BKK ; 12754.

Geum elatum Wall.

Rhotang top, YKS ; 8995.

BKK ; 12610.

G. urbanum Linn.

Rahla, YKS ; 8706.

Malus sylvestris Mill.

(= Pyrus malus Linn.)

Pattan valley, YKS ; 8942.

Potentilla ambigua Camb.

Tandi-Shansha, YKS ; 8885.

P. argyrophylla Wall. var. argyrophylla Proper.

Rhotang, BKK ; 12389.

P. argyrophylla Wall. var. atrosanguinea Lodd.

Mari, YKS ; 8992. Rhotang, BKK ; 12700.

P. bifurca Linn.

Tandi village, YKS ; 8889.

P. gelida C. A. Mey

Chotadara, BKK ; 12752.

P. multifida Linn.

Kunzum, BKK ; 12753.

Potentilla nivea Linn.

Rhotang, YKS;

8839.

Potentilla sibbaldi Hall. f.

Billing nallha, YKS ; 8827.

Rhotang, BKK ; 8980.

Prunus armeniaca Linn.

Pattan Valley, BKK ; 12761.

P. padus Linn.

(= P. cornuta Wall.)

Keylong, YKS ; 8782.

Pyrus foliolosa Wall.

Billing nallha, YKS ; 8856.

8973. Keylong, BKK;

Rosa webbiana Wall.

Jispa, YKS; 8927; Koksar. Keylong, BKK ;

12645.

Spiraea canescens D. Don

Kothi, BKK ; 12379.

S. vestita Wall. ex G. Don

Pattan Valley, YKS ; 8941.

SAXIFRAGACEAE

Bergenia ligulata (Wall.) Engl.

(= Saxifraga ligulata Wall.)

Mari, BKK ; 12758.

Ribes grossularia Linn.

Gondla. Keylong, YKS ; 8799.

Jispa, BKK ; 12801.

R. rubrum Linn. Tinu bridge, BKK ; 8860.

Saxifraga diversifolia Wall.

Koksar, BKK ; 12755.

S. flagellaris Willd. ex Sternb.

Batal, BKK ; 12755.

S. imbricata Royle

Keylong, YKS ; 8781.

CRASSULACEAE

Sedum adenotrichum Wall.

Randi nallha, YKS ; 8984.

S. crenulatum Hk. f. & T.

Rhotang near Rani nallha, BKK ; 8739.

S. ewersli Ledeb.

Mari, YKS ; 8988.

S. quadrifidum Pall.

Rhotang top, YKS ; 8748.

S. rhodiola DC.

Koksar, Keylong, YKS ; 8769.

S. tibeticum Hk. f. & Thoms.

Rhotang Jot, BKK ; 12608.

Koksar, BKK ; 12621.

UMBELLIFERAE

Bupleurum falcatum Linn.

Tandi. Shansha, YKS ; 8888.

633

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

B. falcatum Linn. var. marginata Wall.

Gondla village, BKK ; 12678.

B. jucundum Koch.

Thlong, BKK ; 12656.

B. longicaule Wall.

Keylong, YKS ; 8953.

B. longicaule Wall. var. himalensis. Klotz.

Kardang R.F., YKS ; 8810.

B. maddeni C. B. Clarke

Koksar, BKK ; 12636.

Carum bulbocastanum Koch.

Gondla, BKK ; 12675.

C. carvi Linn.

Chaerophyllum acuminatum Lindl.

Gondla, YKS ; 8965.

C. villosum Wall.

Sissue, YKS; 8774. Rhotang Jot, BKK ;

12605.

Ferula jaeschkaeana Vatke

Keylong, YKS ; 8948.

Heracleum candicans Wall.

Keylong, BKK ; 12652.

HT. thomsoni C. B. Clarke

Tandi, BKK ; 12684.

Selinum tenuifolium Wall.

Mari, BKK ; 12778.

S. vaginatum C. B. Clarke —

Rhotang, YKS ; 8715.

Vicatia coniifolia DC. |

Shashoor R.F., YKS ; 8854.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE

Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardw.

Keylong, BKK ; 12810.

Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don.

Pattan village, BKK. ; 12777.

RUBIACEAE

Galium aparine Linn.

Koksar, BKK ; 12631.

G. boreale Linn.

Tinu-Keylong, YKS ; 8863.

Glabotop, BKK ; 12383.

G. verum Linn.

Tandi, BKK ; 12683.

VALERIANACEAE

Valeriana hardwickii Wall.

Keylong, YKS ; 8807.

V. wallichii DC.

Rhotang, YKS ; 8710.

DIPSACACEAE

Morina coulteriana Royle

Sissue-tandi, BKK ; 12682.

Scabiosa speciosa Royle

Koksar & Chatruo, BKK ; W.N.

COMPOSITAE

Achillea millifolium Linn.

Gondla, YKS ; 8798. Keylong, BKK ; 14821.

Anaphalis contorta Hook. f.

Koksar, YKS ; W.N.

A. nubigena DC.

Rhotang, YKS; 8998. Koksar,

12634.

A. virgata Thoms.

Chhatruo, BKK; 12819.

Arctium lappa Linn.

Sissue, BKK ; 12670.

Artemisia dracunculus Linn.

Koksar-Keylong, YKS ; 8761, Jispa, BKK :

12644.

A. falconeri C. B. Clarke

Kazya, BKK ; 12811.

A. laciniata Willd.

Kaza, BKK ; 12756.

A. maritima Linn.

Jalma-Pattan, YKS ; 3935.

Sissue-Keylong, BKK: 12642.

634

CONTRIBUTION TO THE BOTANY OF LAHAUL

A. moorcroftiana Wall.

Kaza, BKK ; 12770.

A. sacrorum Ledeb.

Between Chhatru & Chotodara, BKK;

12769.

A. scoparia Waldst. & Kit.

Throat (Udaipur Valley), BKK ; 12659.

A. siversiana Ehrh. ex Willd.

Jispa, BKK ; 12749.

A. vestita Wall.

Keylong-Throat, BKK ; 12666.

Carduus nutans Linn.

Pattan Valley, YKS ; 8920.

Carpesium abrotanoides Linn.

Tandi, BKK ; 12809.

_ Cirsium arvense (Linn.) Scop.

(= Cnicus arvensis Hoftm.)

Keylong, BKK ; 12658.

Cnicus wallichii DC.

Billing Pingpa, YKS ; 8832.

Cousinia thomsoni C. B. Clarke

Koksar, YKS ; 8759.

Echinops cornigerus DC.

Koksar, BKK ; 12748.

Erigeron alpinus Linn.

Tandi, BKK ; 12805.

E. multiradiatus Benth. & Hook f.

Rhotang, YKS; 8709. Gondla,

12685. :

Inula racemosa Hook. f.

Jalma, BKK ; 12768.

IT, royleana DC.

Pattan Valley, YKS ; 8919.

Koelpinia linearis Pall. —

Kardang R.F., YKS ; 8803.

Lactuca dissecta D. Don

Pattan Valley, YKS ; 8945.

L. tatarica C. A. Meyer :

Chokhung (Throat), BKK ; 12764.

Leontopodium alpinum Cass.

Pattan Valley, YKS ; 8894.

Myriactis nepalensis Less.

Mari, YKS ; 9132.

Saussurea lappa C. B. Clarke <x

Keylong, YKS ; 3368, Thlong, BKK :; 12657.

S. jacea C. B. Clarke Me

Rhotang, YKS ; W.N.

S. sorocephala Hook. f. & Thoms. ex C. B.

Clarke

Morung ; BKK ; 12763.

S. taraxacifolia Wall.

Jispa Kothi ; BKK ; 12767.

Senecio chrysanthemoides DC.

Keylong, BKK ; 12667.

S. pedunculatus Edgew.

Tandi, YKS ; 8905.

Sonchus arvensis Linn.

Tandi-Keylong, YKS; 8787.

Koksar, BKK ; 12627.

Sonchus oleraceus Linn.

Keylong, BKK ; 12649.

Tenacetum gracile Hook. f. & Thoms. ex

Hook. f.

Tandi, YKS ; W.N.

Taraxacum officinale Wigg.

Koksar, YKS ; W.N.

Tragopogon gracilis D. Don

Sissue, BKK ; 12692.

BKE ;

CAMPANULACEAE

Codonopsis ovata Benth.

Tandi-Gondla, BKK ; 12689.

ERICACEAE

Cassiope fastigiata D. Don

Rhotang top, YKS ; 8746.

Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don.

Rhotang, YKS ; 8138.

R. hypanthum Hook. f.

Rhotang top, YKS; 8996.

635

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

PRIMULACEAE

Androsace rotundifolia Hardw.

Keylong, YKS ; 8788.

A. sarmentosa Wall.

Mari-Rahla ; BKK ; 8989.

A. sarmentosa Wall. var.

primuloides D. Don

Rhotang South slopes, YKS; 8718.

A. sempervivoides Jacq. ex Duby.

Rhotang, YKS ; 9000. BKK ; 12609.

Primula denticulata Smith

Rhotang top, YKS ; 8740.

P. involucrata Wall.

Koksar-Keylong, YKS ; 8764.

P. macrophylla D. Don

Mari-Rhotang ; YKS; 8708.

P. minutissima Jacq.

Rhotang, YKS ; 8744.

P. nivalis Pall.

(= P. stuartii Wall.).

Rhotang, BKK ; 12606.

P. sibirica Jacq.

Rhotang Jot, BKK ; 12615.

OLEACEAE

Fraxinus xanthoxyloides Wall.

Jisparoad—Baralacchapass, YKS ; 8922.

GENTIANACEAE

Gentiana kurroo Royle

Rhotang, BKK ; 12776.

G. moorcroftiana Wall.

Chokhung, BKK ; 12775.

G. tenella Rottb.

Chhatru, BKK ; 12774.

Swertia chirata Wall.

Mari, YKS ; 8553.

S. purpurascens Wall.

Rhotang top, YKS; 12735.

BORAGINACEAE

Cynoglossum denticulatum A. DC.

Tandi, BKK ; 12806.

C. micranthum Desf.

Throat, BKK ; 12731.

Eritrichium strictum Decne.

Tandi-Gondla, BKK ; 12691.

Lindelofia angustifolia A. Brand.

Tandi, YKS ; 8911.

L. spectabilis Lehm. var. falconeri

Keylong, YKS ; 8780.

Myosotis sylvatica Hoffm.

Tandi-Gondla, BKK ; 12385.

M. stricta Link

Kardang Reserve forest, YKS ; 8814.

Tandi, BKK ; 12687.

Onosma echioides Linn.

Koksar, YKS ; 8750.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Convolvulus arvensis Linn.

Keylong, YKS; 8913. Istingri, BKK ;

12648.

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

Koksar, BKK ; 12762.

SOLANACEAE

Hyoscyamus niger Linn.

Koksar, YKS; 8771. Keylong, BKK;

12620.

Solanum tuberosum Linn.

Keylong throughout, BKK ; 12664.

Physochlaina praealta Miers

Tandi, BKK ; 12829.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Digitalis lanata Ehrh.

Cultivated, BKK ; W.N.

D. purpurea Linn.

Glaboo ; BKK ; 10595.

636

CONTRIBUTION TO THE BOTANY OF LAHAUL

Euphrasia officinalis Linn. LABIATAE

Pattan Valley, YKS ; 8900, Gondla, BKK :

12674.

Lancea tibetica Hook. f. & Thoms.

Koksar, BKK ; 12747. Elsholizia cristata Willd.

Pedicularis pectinata Wall. Throat, BKK ; 12802.

Billong longpa, YKS ; 3838. Thiong, BKK; /@”iwm album Linn.

Mari-Glabolop, BKK ; 12388.

Calamintha clinopodium Benth.

Gondla, BKK ; 12673.

12660.

P. pectinata Wall. var. pyramidata Mentha longifolia Huds.

Pattan Valley, YKS ; 3944. ( =M. sylvestris Linn.)

Sissue, BKK ; 12693.

Nepeta discolor Royle ex Benth.

Keylong, YKS ; 12253.

Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth.

Rhotang, YKS ; 8723.

Scrophularia calycina Benth.

Koksar, BKK ; 12765. N. eriostachys Benth.

S. lucida Linn. Keylong, YKS ; 8869.

(= S. decomposita Royle ex Benth.) Gonels, BKK ; 12672.

Koksar, BKK ; 12625. N. spicata Benth.

Verbascum thapsus Linn. Keylong, YKS ; 8912. BKK ; 12681.

Koksar-Keylong, BKK ; 12641. Origanum vulgare Linn.

Veronica anagallis Linn. Tandi-Gondla, BKK ; 12681.

Koksar, BKK ; 12780. Phlomis bracteosa Royle ex Benth.

V. biloba Linn Rhotang, BKK ; 12614.

Kardang R.F., YKS ; 8816. Prunella vulgaris Linn.

Pattan Valley, BKK ; 8899. (= Brunella vulgaris Linn.)

Wulfenia amherstiana Benth. Gondla. Sissue, Bee ; 12697.

Rhotang, BKK; 12779. Thymus serpyllum Linn.

Koksar, BKK ; 12626.

OROBANCHACEAE

PLANTAGINACEAE

Orobanche epithymum DC.

Keylong, YKS ; 8913. Plantago brachyphylla Edgew. ex Decne

Rhotang (South slopes), YKS ; 8714.

P. major Linn.

SELAGINACEAE Sissue, BKK ; 12694.

P. tibetica Hook. f. & Thoms. ex Hook. f,

Lagotis glauca Gaertn. var. cashmeriana Royle.

ee ae | Wording RE. VKS 5 8818.

Rhotang, BKK ; 12607.

L. glauca Gaertn. var. kunawarensis

Rhotang, YKS ; 8742. GLONGEODIA CHAE

Gymnandra stolonifera Koch.

(= Lagotis stolonifera Koch.) Chenopodium album Linn.

Rhotang, YKS ; 8982. Keylong, BKK ; 12643.

637

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

C. botrys Linn.

Keylong, YKS ; 8947.

Pattan, BKK ; 8898.

C. foliosum (Moench.) Aschers.

Koksar, BKK ; 12629.

C. murale Linn.

Keylong, YKS ; 8843.

Corispermum hyssopifolium Linn.

Kunzum ; BKK ; W.N.

Salsola kali Linn.

Morung ; BKK; W.N.

POLYGONACEAE

Fagopyrum cymosum Meissn.

Kothi-Mari, YKS ; 9129.

F. tataricum (Linn.) Gaertn.

Pattan Valley, BKK ; 12736.

Rhotang, YKS; 8716. Koksar, BKK; 12635.

Polygonum affine D. Don.

Billing nallha, YKS; 8844, Koksar, BKK ;

12633.

P. alpinum All.

Keylong, YKS ; 8797. Sissue, YKS ; 8776.

P. paronychioides C. A. Mey

Tandi, YKS ; 8883. Koksar, BKK ;

P. polystachyum Wall.

Chhatruo, BKK ; 12817.

P. vacciniifolium Wall.

Chhatruo, BKK ; W.N.

P. viviparum Linn.

Keylong, YKS ; 8952.

Rheum emodi Wall.

Keylong, YKS ; 8789.

R. palmatum Linn. —

Rhotang top, YKS ; 8732.

Rumex nepalensis Spreng. ~

Koksar, BKK ; 12630.

12622.

ELAEAGNACEAE

Hippophe rhamnoides Linn.

Keylong-Jispa, YKS ; 8931.

H. salicifolia D. Don

Kardang R. F., YKS ; 8811.

BKK : 12647.

URTICACEAE

Cannabis sativa Linn.

Keylong, YKS ; 8929. |

Urtica dioica Linn.

Keylong, BKK ; 12650.

JUGLANDACEAE

Juglans regia Linn.

Pattan Valley, YKS; 8925.

CUPULIFERAE

Betula utilis D. Don

Billing Nallha area, YKS ; 8828.

Quercus semicarpifolia Smith

Rhotang (South slopes), YKS ; 8713.

SALICACEAR

Salix elegans Wail.

Gondla-Sissue ; YKS ; 8958.

S. flabellaris Anderss.

Rhotang, YKS; 12745.

S. fruiticulosa Anderss.

Billing langpa, YKS ; 8822. —

Rhotang, BKK ; 8745.

S. wallichiana Anderss.

Gondla-Sissue, YKS ; 8962.

S. lindleyana Wall. ~ "

Rani nallha, YKS ; 8985.

638

CONTRIBUTION TO THE BOTANY OF LAHAUL

GNETACEAE 4

Ephedra bsreilia Schrenk. & C. is ‘Mey

Tandi, BKK ; 12746.

E. vulgaris Rich.

(= E. gerardiana Wall.)

Tinue bridge, YKS ; 8867.

12693.

CONIFERAE

Juniperus communis Linn.

Shashoor R. F. (Keylong), YKS ; 8850.

J. macropoda Boiss.

Kardang R. F., YKS;

Lehroad, BKK ; 12651.

J. recurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don

Kardang R. F., YKS; 8851.

8848. Keylong

IRIDACEAE

tris hookeriana Foster

Rhotang road, YKS ; 8722.

I. kaumaonensis Wall.

Mari-Rhotang, BKK ; 12603.

DIOSCORIACEAE

Dioscorea deltoidea Wall.

Glaboo-Kothi, YKS ; 9152.

LILIACEAE

Allium sikkimense Baker

Tandi-Gondla, BKK ; 12688.

A> stracheyi Baker, >) ry ree

~~ Tinu-Keylong, YKS ; 8865. hae

Paris polyphylla Smith

- Rhotang, YKS ; W.N.

_ Smilax parviflora Wall.

Sissue, BKK;

Trillium govanianum Wail.

~Mandi-Kothi, YKS ; 9111.

Koksar, YKS ; 8753.

JUNCACEAE

Juncus bufonius Linn.

Koksar, BKK ; 12766.

J. himalensis Klotz.

Kothi-Mari, YKS ; 5785.

J. membranaceus Royle ex D. Don

Tinue bridge, YKS; 8861.

CYPERACEAE

Carex atrata Linn.

Morung, YKS ;

Abbreviations :

12773. rik

W.N. = Without Number.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr. C. K. Atal, Director,

Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu for his

great interest in the work, Thanks are also due

to Shri D. R. Sharma and Shri J. P. Singh for .

help during the course of this investigations.

REFERENCES

ALTCHISON, J. E. T. (1868): Lahaul, its filora and

vegetable products. J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 10: 69-101.

CoLLeTT, H. (1971): Flora simlensis.

Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897): Flora of British India.

London.

Josut, A. C. (1952): Aquatic yes auion of Lahaul.

Paleobotanist. 1 : 277-280.

Natr, N. C. (1964): On botanical tour to Lahaul

and Spiti (Punjab Himalayan). Bull. Bot. Survey India. .

6 : 2-4 : 219-235,

Rau, M. A. (1960): On a collection of plant from

Lahaul. ibid. 2 (1-2): 45-56.

SARIN, Y. K. (1967) : Survey of vegetable raw material

resources of Lahaul. Indian forester 93 (7): 489.

Watt, G. (1881) : Note on the vegetation of Chamba.

State and British Lahaul. J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 18: 368-..

382.

639

Ferns of Kedarnath,

Madhyamaheshwar

and ‘Tungnath’

PRAKASH CHANDRA”

(With a map)

The paper describes the Fern flora of Madhyamaheshwar and Tungnath hills, regions hitherto not

botanically surveyed. This is the first record of Ferns trom these areas. The paper also includes

the Ferns of Mindakini valley and a survey of ecological distribution of Ferns in the altitudinal range

of 1200-4200 m.

INTRODUCTION

Fern flora of Western Himalayas has been

studied by a number of botanists through many

botanical excursions during the past one

hundred years (Clarke 1880; Blanford 1888 ;

Beddome 1892; Hope 1899-1904; Mehra

1939 ; Stewart 1942, 1945 ; Rau 1961 ; and Bir

1963). However, Madhyamaheshwar and

Tungnath hills have not been botanised yet

and there is no record of Fern flora of these

areas. Though a few ferns have been reported

from Kedarnath (Rau 1961), there is no

comprehensive information about ferns of

Mandakini valley. During August-September

1974 and September-October 1975, I led two

joint botanical expeditions comprising a team of

research workers from four C.S.I.R. labora-

tories namely R. R. L. Jammu, R. R. L. Jorhat,

CIMPO and National Botanic Gardens,

Lucknow to the above localities and made an

extensive collection of ferns and plants of other

groups. The present communication deals

with the ferns of these localities and their eco-

logy, distribution and altitudinal range.

During the first expedition, collection was

made from Mandakini valley starting from

Guptakashi to Kedarnath via Sonprayag,

Gaurikund and Garunchatti. At Kedarnath a

general survey was made upto an altitude of

1 Accepted May 1976.

* National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow-226 001.

4250 m. After covering this valley, the collec-

tion was made from Madhyamaheshwar region.

During the second expedition, in addition to the

resurvey of Madhyamaheshwar valley, a survey

was also made from Budha Madhyamaheshwar

which is about one kilometre away from

Madhyamaheshwar and situated at an altitude

of 3500 m. In the second phase of this expedi-

tion, the Tungnath hills and adjoining areas

were covered.

PHYSIOGRAPHY

Madhyamaheshwar is an alpine meadow

situated at an altitude of 3100 m, surrounded

by lofty snow clad mountains on three sides.

About 35 Km long, the green and fertile valley

extending from Guptakashi to Gaundar is

situated between Mandakini valley on the one

hand and the valley of flowers on the other.

The route for Madhyamaheshwar bifurcates

from Nalachatti, a village about 4 Km beyond

Guptakashi on Kedarnath route and passes

through Kalimath, Raolank, Ransi and

Gaundar. The 9 Km climb, starting from

Gaundar the last village en route, is very steep

and exhausting and the non-availability of drink-

ing water througout the route up to Madhya-

maheshwar, makes the climb more difficult and

tiresome. However, for the encouragement of

exhausted and discouraged visitors, a board

about midway reads ‘ Do not get disappointed

640

FERNS QF KEDARNATH AND TUNGNATH

VALLEY OF FLOWERS

i f£ |

HEMKUND COKPAL

® eo

OGhangans

Buy,

a ® | BADRINATH |

KEDARNATH ee : STR

Madhyamaheshwer \%

V¥o8 @ Pandukeshwar

Triyuginarain Sh fe

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Map of the Collection area

641

JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 74

by the exhausting climb as a panorama abound-

ing in natural beauty awaits you at Madhya-

maheshwar’. At Madhyamaheshwar, there is

a majestic old temple of Lord Shiva to which is

attached the same religious importance as that

of Kedarnath but due to difficult terrain and

lack of facilities en route, hardly 200 to 250

pilgrims visit this shrine in a year. Tillman,

the famous mountaineer in his book THE ASCENT

OF NANDA DEVI has written ‘I have in mind

which is not often accomplished to visit

Madhyamaheshwar which lies up a valley that

few plains men would care to penetrate ’.

Like Kedarnath and Madhyamaheshwar,

Tungnath is one of the *Panch Kedars’ and

attaches much religious importance. There is

an all weather metalled road which bifurcates

from * Kund’ about 4 Km before Guptakashi

and passes via Ookhimath, Mastura, Duggal-

bitta and Chopta, from where Tungnath is

hardly two and half kilometres away. How-

ever, due to irregular and uncertain Bus service

on this route, the entire distance of 45 Km

from Ookhimath to Tungnath was covered on

foot. Tungnath is situated at an altitude of

3400 m and there is an old temple of Lord

Shiva which is architecturally more or less

similar to that of Madhyamaheshwar temple,

About one kilometre away from Tungnath is a

place called °*Chandra Shila’ which is the

highest point (3750 m) on Tungnath hills.

From Chandra Shila one gets an excellent

panoramic view of the snows of the Himalayas.

GENERAL VEGETATION

The forests of Madhyamaheshwar and

Tungnath are dominated by four species of

Quercus. At lower altitude (600 m) Q. glauca

and Q. incana were encountered whereas bet-

ween the range of 600 m-3600 m, Q. dilata and

Q. semicarpifolia were the dominant species.

Duggalbitta forest (between 2400-2700 mm),

one of the richest encountered en route to

-Tungnath, comprised of Populus ciliata, Acer |

species, J/iex odorata, Rhododendron arboreum, |

R. companulatum and Buxus sempervirens, in

addition to 3-4 species of Oaks. Pinus rox-

burghii occupied the open grassland on forest |

slopes along the river and its stream. Pinus —

wallichiana (Blue Pine) was conspicuous by its

absence in the Madhyamaheshwar

Fungnath forests, though this is recorded from

Kedarnath hills.

and |

herbarium of National Botanic

in the list) refer to the collection number.

genera here are arranged according to Copeland

(1947) system of classification and all the species —

under each genus are arranged alphabetically —

with their latest nomenclature.

ENUMERATION OF SPECIES

OPHIOGLOSSACEAE

BOTRYCHIUM Swartz.

B. lanuginosum (Wall. ex Hook. et Grev.)

Nishida, Journ. Jap. Bot., 27: 276, 1952.

Quite common, occurring at Gaurikund,

Ransi and Mastura to Pothibasa, (104447).

OSMUNDACEAE

OSMUNDA Linn.

O. claytoniana L., Spec. Pl., 2: 1066, 1753.

Panigrahi et Dixit, J. Indian bot. Soc., 48:

98, 1969.

Very common, high altitude (upto 3500 m)

species, growing densely between Ghanauria-

pani to Kedarnath, Madhyamaheshwar to

Budha Madhyamaheshwar and Tungnath to

Chandra Shila, (106030).

642

Gardens, —

Lucknow and the number in brackets (as given |

The |

SCHIZAEACEAE

| LYGODIUM Swartz.

| L. flexuosum (L.) Sw., Schrad. Journ. Bot.

1800/2: 106, 1801.

Common at lower altitudes (1200 m). Grow-

ing abundantly at Guptakashi, Kalimath,

Ookhimath and Mastura, (104936).

PTERIDACEAR

PTERIDIUM Scopoli

P. aquilinum (L.) Kuhn, v. Decken Reise ostafr.,

3/3: 11, 1879.

Very common at exposed, dry places between

Guptakashi to Gaurikund, Kalimath to

Gaundar and Ookhimath to Duggalbitta,

(104442, 106034).

PTERIS Linn.

P. aspericaulis (Wall.) J. G. Agardh, Recens.

spec. Gen. Pteridis, 22, 1839.

Sparsely occurring in the forests of Guptakashi,

Gaurikund, between Raolank to Gaundar and

in Duggalbitta forest, (104442, 106034).

P, cretica L., Mantissa Pi. Alt., 130, 1767.

A very common species growing between

1200-2700 m, forming large, dense patches at

somewhat exposed places. The species is

very distinct in possessing narrow fertile fronds

and broad sterile ones, (104422).

P, pellucida Presl., Rel. Halnk., 1: 55, 1825.

Not common, met in the forest of Gaurikund,

between Gaundar to Madhyamaheshwar and

in Duggalbitta forest, (104416).

P. quadriaurita Retz., Obs. Bot., 6: 38, 1791.

Quite common species growing at moist and

shady places between 1200-2400 m, (104416).

FERNS. OF KEDARNATH AND TUNGNATH

P. vittata Linn., Spec. Pl. , 2: 1074, 1753;

Hieron, Hedwigia 54: 290, 1914.

A very common lower altitude species

occurring between 600-1500 m, at Guptakashi,

Gaurikund, Kalimath and Ookhimath to

Mastura. The plants of this species occur in

small patches at comparatively exposed places,

(104415).

P. wallichiana J. G. Agardh, Recens. Spec.,

Gen. Pteridis 69, 1839.

This is a very distinct species having three

partite fronds and condensed tuberous rhizome.

Commonly occurring in small colonies through-

out the Mandakini valley, Madhyamaheshwar

valley and on the Tungnath route upto 2400 m,

(104421).

CRYPTOGRAMMA R. Br.

C. crispa (L.) R. Br. ex Hook., Gen. Fil., +.

115 B, 1842.

Not common, occurring between 2400-3300m.

Growing in small protected crevices near

Garunchatti and Kedarnath, Madhya-

maheshwar and between Chopta to Tungnath,

(104116).

CHEILANTHES SWartz.

C. albomarginata Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc.

Ser. 2 Bot., 1 : 456, t 52, 1880.

A very common species growing in rock

crevices throughout the Mandakini and

Madhyamaheshwar valleys and from Ookhimath

to Tungnath, (104415).

C. belangeri (Bory) C. Chr., Index Fil., 172,

1905.

Quite a common species growing at extremely

shady and moist places between Sonprayag

to Gaurikund, Bantoli (foothill of Madhya-

maheshwar) to Madhyamaheshwar, (104110,

104440).

643

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

C. bullosa Kunze, Linnaea, 24 : 274, 1851

Nayar, Bull. Bot. Gard. No. 68: 27, 1962.

Not common, occurring in Gaurikund and

Duggalbitta forests, (104493).

C. dubia Hope, in Journ. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 12 : 528, t 2, 1899.

A rare species occurring between Sonprayag

and Gaurikund (2400 m) at extremely moist and

shady places, (104472).

C. rufa D. Don., Prodr. Fl. Nepal. 16, 1825.

Very common, growing at comparatively

shady places in rock crevices. The species is

conspicuous by the extremely hairy nature of

the fronds.

CONIOGRAMME Fee

C. fraxinea (Don) Diels, Nat. Pflanzen, 1/4:

262, 1899.

A very distinct species commonly occurring

upto an altitude of 2400 m, growing densely

between Ghanauriapani to Garunchatti, from

Kalimath to foothill of Madhyamaheshwar and

between Mastura to Duggalbitta, (104114).

ADIANTUM L.

A. caudatum L., Mantissa Pl. Alt., 308, 1771 ;

‘Nayar, Bull. Natl. Bot. Gdns. No. 52, 1961.

A very common species growing throughout

the valleys at lower altitudes, (104409).

A. capillus-veneris L., Spec. Pl., 2: 1096, 1753;

Nayar, Bull. Natl. Bot. Gdns. No. 52: 25,

1961.

Quite common fern growing at marshy and

shady places, sometimes forming extensive

patches by the side of streams. Occurring

profusely between Sonprayag to Ghanauriac

pani, Guptakashi to Bantoli and all along the

route from Ookhimath to Chopta, (104444),

; A. philippense L., Spec. -Pl.-2:

1094, 1753 ;

Nayar, Bull. Natl. Bot. Gdns. No. 52): 537

1961. a |

This species is very common between Gupta-.

kashi to Kalimath and Mastura to Pothibasa, |

(104408).

A. yenustum Bon., Prodr. Fl. Nepal, 17, 1825 .

Nayar, Bull. Natl. Bot. Gdns., No. 52: 16, |

1961. |

A very common-species growing usually in —

rock crevices throughout the Mandakini and —

Madhyamaheshwar valleys, Pothibasa_ to —

Chopta upto an altitude of 3100 m, cigaaet ‘|

106048). 4

GYMNOPTERIS Bernhardi

G. vestita (Wall.) Und., Bull. Torrey Bot’

Club, 29: 627, 1902.

A rare Species occurring between 2400-3300 m,

usually growing in exposed rock crevices. This

species was met between Gaurikund to Kedar-

nath, Raolank to Madhyamaheshwar and

Duggalbitta to Tungnath, (104439).

ONYCHIUM Kaulfuss.

O. contiguum (Wall.) Hope, Journ. Bombay

» nat. Hist. Soc. 13: 444, 1901.

Common species, occurring profusely a

Gaurikund forest, between Kalimath to Gaundar

and Mastura to Chopta, (104476).

O. Bilecufecuin (Desv.) C. Chr., ‘Index Fil, 20,

- 1905 ; 469, 1906.

This is a very common species growing in

patches at semiexposed places. Quite common

between. Guptakashi to Ghanauriapani,

Kalimath to Gaundar and Ookhimath to

Chopta, (106084). —

644

FERNS OF KEDARNATH AND TUNGNATH

O. japonicum (Thbg.) Kze., Bot. Zeit., 6 : 507,

1848.

‘Quite common at Gaurikund, between

Gaundar to Bantoli and Pothibasa to Chopta,

(104453, 106046).

NOTHOLAENA R. Br.

N. marantae (L.) R. Br., Prodr. Fl. Nov. Holl.,

146, 1810, Desv ; Journ. de Bot. appl., 1:

92, 1813.

A very rare species of fern occurring at

Ghanauriapani and Garunchatti; usually

growing between 2100-4500 m. This species

was not collected from Madhyamaheshwar

valley and Tungnath hills, !(104107).

MICROLEPIA Presl.

M. strigosa (Thbg.) Pr., Epim. Bot., 95, 1849 ;

Nayar et Kaur, Bull. Natl. Bot. Gdns. Noe

79: 16, 1963.

A very distinct species, forming dense patches

at shady and moist places between Sonprayag

to Gaurikund, Kalimath to Gaundar and Pothi-

basa to Duggalbitta, (104464). —

DAVALLIACEAE

LEUCOSTEGIA Pres.

L. immersa (Wall.) Pr., Tent Pterid.. 95, t 4, f

11, 1836.

A very common epiphyte on tree trunks,

growing profusely between Sonprayag to Gauri-—

kund, Kalimath to foothill of Madhya-

maheshwar and between Mastura to Duggal-

bitta, (104473).

L. pulchra J. Sm., oe Journ. ‘Bot., F:

426, 1842. AG e

The most common bnistnyte on tree ree

and wooden logs at Sonprayag, Gaurikund,

Lakarmandi, between Gaundar to Madhya-

maheshwar and Pothibasa to Chopta, (104470).

L. delavayi (Bedd. ex Clarke et Bak.) Ching,

in C. Chr., Index fil., Suppl. 3: 120, 1934...

A rare species, growing sparsely on tree

trunks between Gaurikund, Ghanauriapani, and

at Madhyamaheshwar. This species was not

collected from Tungnath area, (104127).

ASPIDIACEAE

POLYSTICHUM Roth.

P. bakerianum (Atkins.) Diels, Nat. Pflanzen.,

14: 191, 1899.

_ A high altitude species occurring at 3000 m,

very common at Kedarnath and Madhya-

maheshwar, (104113).

P. discretum (Don) Diels, Nat. Pflanzen, 1/4,

199, 1899.

Not common, a very dite Species charac-

terised by densely hairy nature of the fronds.

Occurring in Duggalbitta forest on Duggalbitta-

Pothibasa short cut route, (106056).

P. lentum (D. Don) Moore, Index Fil., 86, 1858. -

A very common species growing at some- |

what exposed places throughout the valleys

upto 2400 m, (104429).

P. nepalense (Speencel) C. Chr., Index Fil., 84,

1905. |

A large species, growing between 2400 to

3000 m at comparatively shady places. Quite

common at Duggalbitta on Duggalbitta-

Pothibasa short cut route, (106079).

P. nepalense var. subbipinnatum C. Chr. in

Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. 20: 284, 1931.

Not a common fern, growing on Pothibasa- —

Duggalbitta short cut route, (106050). Not

collected from other localities.

645

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAE HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

P. neolobatum Nakai, Fl. Himal. 480, 1966.

Not a common species, occurring at moist and

shady places at Madhyamaheshwar, (106078).

P. prescottianum (Wall.

Index Fil., 101, 1858.

_ Very common at high altitude (between 2400-

3600 m), growing profusely at Gaurikund,

Kedarnath, Madhyamaheshwar, and Tungnath

hills, (104117).

ex Mett.) Moore,

P. setiferum (Forsk.) Moore ex Woynar, Mitt.

Naturw. ver. Steiermark, 49: 181, 1913.

Common fern, growing between Gaurikund

to Kedarnath, Kalimath to Madhyamaheshwar

and Mastura to Chopta, (104102).

P. squarrosum (D. Don) Fee, Gen. Fil.,

1852.

A very common fern occurring throughout

both the valleys and Ookhimath to Chopta:

(104443, 106049).

278,

P. stimulans Pr., Tent. Pterid., 83, 1836.

Quite common fern growing at shady places

in rock crevices between Gaurikund to Kedar-

nath, Ransi to Madhyamaheshwar and Duggal-

bitta to Chopta, (104478).

P. thomsoni (Hook. f) Bedd., Ferns Brit. India,

1:5 126, 1866.

“A rare species occurring at extremely shady,

humid and marshy places in rock crevices bet-

ween 2100-3000 m. This species was collected

between Gaurikund to Rambara and at Chopta,

(104104).

HYPODEMATIUM Kunze

H. crenatum (Forsk.) Kuhn, v. Decken Reise

Ostafr., 3/3 : 37, 1879.

A common ornamental species growing at

lower altitudes throughout the Mandakini

valley, Madhyamaheshwar valley and Ookhi-

math to Duggalbitta, (104404).

THELYPTERIS Schmidel’

T. auriculata (J. Sm.) K. Iwat., Acta. Phytota

Geobot. 19: 11, 1961.

Quite common at Guptakashi, Gale

Ransi to Gaundar and Mastura to Pothibasa,

(104466).

T. ochthodes (Kunze) Ching, Bull. Fan. Mem.

Inst., Biol. Bot., 6: 300, 1936. ”

A tall distinct species, quite common bet-

ween Guptakashi, to Sonprayag, Kalimath to

Gaundar and Mastura to Duggalbitta, (10441 I).

T. repens Gone) Ching in Bull. Fan. Mem,

Inst. Biol. 6: 304, 1936. |

moist places between 1200-1500 m, (104449).

GLAPHYROPTERIDOPSIS Ching

G. erubescens (Wall. ex Hook.) Ching, Acta.

> Phytotax. Sin. 8: 319, 320, 1963.

Very common in shady and moist clefts at

Gaurikund, Raolank to Gaundar and Mastura

to Duggalbitta. It is a tall growing species

characterised by the presence of distinct aero--

phore at each base of costae underneath and

naked sori, (104459).

PSEUDOPHEGOPTERIS Ching

P. levingei (Clarke) Ching, Acta. Phytotax.

Sinica 8: 314, 1963.

A tall, exindusiate species, growing at ex=

tremely shady and moist places at Gaurikund,

foothill of .Madhyamaheshwar and between

Pothibasa to Duggalbitta, reneres

DRYOPTERIS Adachi

D. barbigera (Hook.) O. Ktze., Rev. Gen. Pl.

2: S12 1891. pf

Quite common at uGuenakeshi, Soubabiaate to

Gaurikund, Kalimath to Gaundar and Mastura

to Duggalbitta, (106081). » Inge

646 |

_FERNS OF KEDARNATH AND TUNGNATH

D. cochleata (Don) V. Chr., Index Fil., 258,

1905.

Quite common growing at dry and eiolieed

places between Guptakashi to Sonprayag,

Kalimath to foothill of Madhyamaheshwar and

Mastura-to Pothibasa, (104445).

D. deparioides O. Ktze.,

1891.

- Not common, occurring sparsely at Gauri-

kund and Raolank to Gaundar, (104461).

Rev. Gen. Pl., 2: 812,

ATHYRIUM Roth.

A. duthiei (Bedd.) Bedd., Handb. Suppl, 34,

Teo2:

- Quite common species occurring at shady and

moist places throughout the valleys between

1500-2000 m, (104413).

A. pectinatum (Wall.) Pr., Tent Pterid. 98, 1836.

A rather low altitude fern, growing com-

monly between 600-1300 m. Quite common at

Guptakashi, Kalimath to Raolank and Ookhi-

math to Pothibasa, (106082).

DIPLAZIUM Swartz.

D. bellum (Clarke) Bir., J. Indian bot. Soc. 43:

571, 1964.

Not a common species, collected from

Gaurikund, Bantoli, and Pothibasa to Duggal-

bitta, (106083).

D. esculentum (Retz.) Sw. ex Schrad. in Journ.

Bot. 1, 1801/2 : 312, 1803.

This is one of the commonest species through-

out the valleys and Ookhimath to Chopta,

(104424).

D. polypodioides Bl., Enum. Pl. Jav., 194, 1828.

Not common, growing sparsely between

Gaurikund to Garunchatti, 5000 m, (104475).

WOODSIA R. Br.

W. alpina (Dalton) Gray, Nat. arr. br. ple, 2:

17, 1821.

Very common, growing in moist and ad)

places between Guptakashi to Rambara,

Gaundar to Madhyamaheshwar and Pothibasa

to Chopta, (104427). |

CYSTOPTERIS Benth.

C. fragilis (L.) Bernh., Schard. Neu. Journ.

1/2 : 26, 52, f 9, 1806.

Quite common fern, growing in shady places

from Sonprayag to Ghanauriapani, throughout

the Madhyamaheshwar valley and Pothibasa

to Chopta, (104413).

TECTARIA Cay..

T. cicutaria (L.) Copel.,

2C : 410, 1907.

A very common species at Guptakashi,

Kalimath and Ookhimath, (104417).

Philip. Jour. Sci.,

LEPTOGRAMMA J. Sm.

L. totta (Schlecht.) J. Sm., Hook. Journ. Bot.,

4:52, 1841.

Not common, occurring in Duggalbitta forest

in shady and moist places, (106062).

BLECHNACEAE

WOODWARDIA Smith

W. radicans (L.) Smith, Mem. Acad. Turin, 5:

412, 1793.

Quite common at Gaurikund, Gaundar and

between Pothibasa to Duggalbitta, Wea

106063).

647

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ASPLENIACEAE

_ASPLENIUM L.

A. dalhonéiae Hook., Icones Pl., t 105, 1837.

’ A very common species occurring throughout

the valley upto 2700 m, (104495).

‘Cat. no. 200, 1828 (nom.

Let 7,

A. ensiforme Wall.,

nud.) ; Hook. et Grev., Icones Fil.,

1829. |

Not common, an epiphytic species growing

on tree trunks at Gaurikund ane Dusealbitte,

(104482).

A. exiguum Bedd., F.S. India, t 146, 1863.

A rare fern, occurring in damp moist caves

between Lakarmandi and LTE OE 2 near

Kedarnath, (104126).

A. laciniatum D. Don, Prodr. Fl. Nepal, 8, 1825.

Sparsely occurring in the forest of Guptakash!

and Raolank and between Pothibasa to Duggal!

bitta, (104410).

A. trichomanes Linn., Spec. Pl., 2: 1080, 1753.

A very common species growing at extremely

moist and shady places between Gaurikund to

Rambara, foothill of .Madhyamaheshwar and

pega to ene Cee

POLYPODIACEAE —

PHYMATODES Presl.

A. stracheyi Ching in Contr. Inst. Bot. nat.

Acad. Peiping 2: 83, 1933.

Quite common at “Dugealbitta (2400 m)

and on the way. to. Chopta, (106068).

__CRYPSINUS Presl.

C. sheath (Hook.) Copel.

A very common. species growing on moist

rocks and in rock crevices at Chopta, 3000 m,

(106066).

C. hastatus (Thunb.). Copel. Gen. Fil.,

1947.

- One of the commonest species at Capea:

206,

Gaurikund and ee to Gaundar, (104423).

C. malacodon (Hook) Copel. Gen. * 206 :

= OAT. iG

A high altitude species (upto 3500 m) com-

monly growing at Kedarnath and Madhya-

maheshwar, (104124).

LEPIOSORUS J. Sm.

L. excavatus (Bory) Ching, Bull. Fan. Mem.

Inst. Bot., 4: 68, 1933.

Very common species at Guptakashi,

Sonprayag to Rambara, Kalimath to Gaundar

and on Tungnath route, (104481).

L. kashyapii (Mehra) Mehra in Bir, Res. Bull.

Punjab Univ. (n.s.) 13: 23, 1962.

~~. Quite common epiphyte on tree trunks at

Madhyamaheshwar and Chopta (2700-3000 m),

(106069).

L. pseudonudus Ching. o Bull. Fan. Mem. Inst.

Biol. 4: 83, 1933. ie

Quite common at Duggalbitta and Chop,

(A06070).

‘ty Prerente ‘(Kaulf. ) Ching, Bull. Fan.

Mem. Inst. Biol., Bot. 4: 88, 1933. .

One of the commonest epiphyte throughout

ee valleys, Uris

L. ussuriensis (Regal and hee, Ching 1 in Bull.

Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. 4: 91, 1933.’ |

A quite common ‘high altitude (3000 m)

apo. growing on m logsaé and tree. punks at

Chopta, (106077). . » ot be ‘

648

FERNS OF KEDARNATH AND TUNGNATH. .

ARTHROMERIS (Moore) J. Sm.

~ A.. wallichiana (Spr.) Ching, Contr. Inst. Bot.

Nat. Acad. Peiping, 2: 92; 1933. . .

Very common species at Guptakashi, Kali-

math, and Pothibasa to Duggalbitta, (104431, —

106047, 106065).

LOXOGRAMMA (BI.) Presl.

L. involuta (D. Don) Presl., Tent. Pterid., 215,

1836. ) ;

Not common, sparsely occurring at Kalimath,

Gaurikund and Duggalbitta, (104432).

.. POLYPODIUM L.

P. amoenum Wall., Cal. no. 290, 1828 (nom.

nud.) ; Mett., Polypodium, 80 n. 131, 1857.

A very common epiphyte throughout the

valleys, occurring densely at Gaurikund, foothill

of Madhyamaheshwar and Mastura to Chopta,

(106067).

P. argutum Wall., Cat. no. 308, 1828 (nom.

nud.) ; Hook., Spec. Fil., 5 : 32, 1863.

Common throughout the Mandakini valley

upto Ghanauriapani, Kalimath to Gaundar and

Mastura to Chopta, (106072).

P. lachnopus Wall., Cat. no. 310, 1828 (nom.

nud.), Hook., Icones. Pl., t 952, 1854.

A very common fern at Gaurikund, Gaundar

to Madhyamaheshwar and between Duggalbitta

to Chopta, 2400-3000 m, (106074). |

MICROSORIUM Link

M. membranaceum (D. Don) Ching, Bull.

Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol, Bot. 4: 309, 1933;

Nayar, Bull. Natl. Bot. Gdns. no. 58: 17,

1961.

A very common species growing at moist and

shady places, forming dense patches throughout

the valley from Rampur to Ghanauriapani,

Nalachatti to Gaundar and Pothibasa to

-Chopta, (104403).

DRYNARIA (Bory) J. Sm.

D. propinqua (Wall. ex Mett.) J. Sm., Hook.

Journ. Bot., 4: 61, 1842 ; Nayar, Bull. Natl.

Bot. Gdns., no. 56: 9, 1961.

One of the commonest epiphyte covering

entire trees and logs at Gaurikund, foothill of

Madhyamaheshwar, and Duggalbitta to Chopta,

(106075).

PLEOPELTIS (H. & B.)

-P. macrocarpa (Bory ex Willd.) KIif., Berlin.

Jahrb. Pharm., 21 : 41, 1820; Pichi. Sermoli,

20 : Webbia, 353, 1965.

Not common, sparsely occurring at Gauri-

kund, (104481).

PYRROSIA Mirbel.

P. adnascens (Sw.) Ching, Bull. Chin. Bot.

Soc., 1: 45, 1945; Nayar et Chandra, Bull.

Natl. Bot. Gdns., no. 117: 48, 1965.

A rare epiphyte in this area. One specimen

was collected near Sonprayag on way to

Kedarnath, (104120).

VITTARIACEAE

VITTARIA Smith

V. flexuosa Fee, Mem. Fam. Foug., 3: 16,

1851-52.

Not common, collected only from Chopta

on way to Tungnath, 3100 m, (106053). No

specimen was collected from Madhyamahesh-

war valley.

649

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to Dr. T.N. Khoshoo, Director,

National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, for the

keen interest evinced by him in organising the

two expeditions.

REFERENCES

BEDDOME, R. H. (1892): A handbook to the ferns

of British India, Ceylon and Malay Peninsula with

supplement.

Bir, S.S. (1963): Observations on the Pteridophytic

flora of Simla Hills (N.W. Himalayas). Bull. Bot.

Surv. India 5 : 151-161.

BLANFoRD, H. F. (1888): A list of ferns of Simla in

the N.W. Himalayas, between levels of 4500—and

10,500 ft. J. Asiat. Soc., Bengal 57: 294-315.

CLARKE, C.B. (1889): A review of ferns of Northern

India. Trans. Linn. Soc. London. Bot. V1. 1: 425-611.

COPELAND, E. B. (1947): Genera Filicum, Waltham

Massachusetts.

Hope, C. W. (1899-1904): The ferns of North-West

India including Afghanistan the trans-Indus protected

state and Kashmir. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12:

527-538, 621-633 ; 13 : 25-26, 236-251, 243-261, 657-671 ;

14: 119-127, 252-266, 458-480, 720-749; 15: 67-111,

415-429.

MeurRaA, P. N. (1939): Ferns of Mussoorie, Lahore.

Rau, M.A. (1961): Flowering plants and Ferns of

N. Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh (Based on collection made

ae 1957-59). Bull. Bot. Surv. India 3 (3 & 4): 215-

STEWART, R. R. (1942): The ferns of Mussoorie

and Dehradun, 150th Anniversary Vol. Roy. Bot.

Gard. Calcutta Part II: 159-172.

———— (1945): Ferns of Kashmir. Bull. Torrey

bot. Cl. 72 : 399-426.

650

Grasses of Bhubaneswar and

neighbourhood '

B. N. Benera, C. B. S. R. SHARMA AND S. K. DAsH?®

(With a text figure)

INTRODUCTION

Owing to the meagreness of floristic reports on

Orissa State after the works of Haines (1924);

Mooney (1950) and Gamble and Fischer (1928)

the necessity of plant exploration has been felt.

Since hardly an area exists without graminaceous

populations, a preliminary survey of grasses in

and around the capital city of Bhubaneswar

has been taken up.

Bhubaneswar is situated at 20° 3’N and 85°

8’E the ground sloping towards east. The

western part of the city is therefore higher with

hard soil and the eastern part is alluvial and

low suitable for agriculture. Average annual

rainfall is 152 cm, heaviest being in July.

Annual mean maximum temperature is about

32°C with relative humidity around 70%.

Grasses are generally found in open areas.

damp fields and edges of paddy fields. Some

are found in sandy soils and even in hard rocky

substratums. The kind of species and their

distribution therefore differs regionally and

seasonally, the rainy season supporting maxi-

mum.

The areas surveyed are given in Fig. 1.

Collections were made all the year round by the

senior author and were identified with aid of

Bor’s treatise (Bor 1960) and confirmed by the

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. The voucher

specimens are handed over to the Botany

Department, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar.

* Accepted August 1976.

3 Cytogenetics and Floristics Laboratory, Deptt. of

Botany, Berhampur University, Berhampur-7, Orissa,

India.

The salient features of the recorded species

are given in the text arranged according to

Bor’s system (Bor 1960) of classification. The

chromosome reports are the findings of the

authors (Sharma et al. 1976).

The following is the enumeration of the

species collected in the present survey with

collection number, short notes on previous

reports, morphology, and cytology.

GROUP: PANICOIDEAE

TRIBE : ANDROPOGONEAE

{. Arthraxon sikkimensis Bor, BNB 444.

A new report for Orissa. Spikelets

laterally compressed and pedicelled, 2-nate,

one sessile and another pedicelled, similar,

on the articulate fragile rachis, glumes

equal, lemma awned, 9 bivalents at meiosis

(2n = 18).

2. Bothriochloa intermedia (R.Br.) A. Camus,

BNB 415. |

Syn. Amphilophis glabra (Roxb.) Stapf.

Reported from Sijimali and Indragiri of

Kalahandi district (Mooney — 1950).

Occurs in the rice fields opposite to the

Regional Research Laboratory, Panicles

with short primary axis.

3. B. pertusa (Willd.) A. Camus, BNB 448.

Syn. Andropogon pertusus (Linn.) Willd. A

new report from Orissa. Occurs in the

Rice fields. Water loving _ perennial

651

20.4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

BHUBANESWAR

AND

NEIGHBOURHOOD

epi

BY)

e 1 Old

ge Old Bhubaneswar}, |

Fig. 1.

herbs. Stems tufted and creeping all

around. Leaves aggregated at the base

of the stem and the flowering branches

ascend from a geniculate base. Inflore-

scence consists of digitate spikes. An

aneuploid (2n =4 X = 36) deficient

by 2 chromosomes at haploid level, a

variation from earlier reports.

Chrysopogon aciculatus Trin., BNB 424.

A new report from Orissa. Collected

from the waste lands around the Utkal

University and as weeds from rice fields.

‘Perennials characterized by the spike-

Jets. being arranged in groups of three

‘652

€

Lakhmisagar °

Baragarh

e .

Fort

Sisupal

To Pus 3°

Ne Thee eer A prawarase

* Rasulgad

Gobindprasad

Sharpada

Syn. P. saccharoideum P. Beauv.,

report from Orissa.

To Cuttack a

Railway

National Highway

Utkal University va

. Regional Research

paperesoty

. Regional College .

of Education

OUAT. Orissa University of- ;

Nel of Bhubaneswar and its neighbourhood ee the Sivered Areas.

at the ends of the branches of the panicle.

Each group consists of one sessile and

awned and two pedicelled but unawned

spikelets.

Poronatherin a (Lamk.) Hack,

BNB 464.

New

‘Slender grasses with

suberect narrow leaves and very slender

peduncles with solitary terminal spikes.

Vetiveria zizanoides Nash., BNB 462. .

Reported from Puri, Anugul and Sambalpur

(Haines 1924). Densely tufted perennials

Agriculture & Technology

i].

. ciliate and

GRASSES OF BHUBANESWAR AND NEIGHBOURHOOD

with erect and rigid leaves. Inflores-

cence is an erect conical panicle with

reddish brown spikelets covered with

thick based spines.

TRIBE : PANICEAE

Alloteropsis cimicina (Linn.) Stapf, BNB

431. |

Reported from Sambalpur, Puri,

Gunupur (Mooney 1950, Gamble & Fischer

1928). This species is characterised by

2-flowered spikelets in digitate spikes.

Spikelets awned. A natural tetraploid

with 18 (2x) bivalents.

Brachiaria eruciformis (J.E.S.) Griseb.,

BNB 459.

Reported from Champua of Keonjhar

(Mooney 1950). It has one-sided

racemose inflorescence and the position

of the spikelet is adaxial. A natural

tetraploid with 18 (2x) bivalents.

B. kurzii (Hook. f.) A.Camus, BNB 463.

A new report from Orissa. Stems weak and

slender, leaves lanceolate and acuminate,

cordate base. One-sided

racemose inflorescence with adaxial

spikelets. An aneuploid (2n = 4x = 32)

deficient by 2 chromosomes at haploid

level which is a new report.

B. ramosa comb. nov. (Linn.) Stapf, BNB

422.

Syn. Panicum ramosum Linn. A new

report for Orissa. Stems branched, nodes

pubescent, leaves lanceolate. Inflorescence

a panicle with erect spikes, spikelets

pubescent.

Digitaria adscendens (H.B.K.) Henr., BNB

450.

‘New report for Orissa. Possess binate

awnless spikelets jointed on the pedicels in

12.

A3:

15.

653

digitate spikes. New octoploid report.

Aneuploid (2n = 8x = 68) with 2 chromo:

somes deficient at haploid level.

Echinochloa colonum (Linn.) Link., BNB

451,

Reported from Orissa (Gamble & Fischer

1928). Culms erect with spikelets secund

on dense racemes with triquetrous rachis,

nodes glabrous, leaf sheath up to 15 cm

long, spikes 8-15, 1.3 to 2.5 cm long,

spikelets yellowish white and 2 to

2.5 mm long.

Hymenachne pseudointerrupta C. Muell.,

BNB 461.

Reported from Kasipur and Kalahandi

(Mooney 1950). Aquatic stout grasses

with linear leaves. Panicles with lanceo-

late acuminate spikelets which articulate

on their minute pedicels. 18 bivalents

(2x) at meiosis which is a new report.

Panicum austroasiaticum Ohwi., BNB 416.

New report from Orissa. Spikelets sym-

metrical, pedicellate, pedicel much divided,

new spikelets are continuously growing

on the axis, herbaceous and membraneous

glumes, grains pale, and tightly enclosed

by hardened glumes.

P. miliare Lamk., BNB 423.

A new report from Orissa. Cultivated

species for its edible grain, leaves linear

gradually tapered to the apex, glabrous,

compound panicles suddenly acute, glumes

amplexicaul.

. P. paludosum Roxb., BNB 414.

Syn. P. proliferum Hook. f. non Lamk.

Reported from Ganjam District (Gamble

& Fischer 1928).

P. psilopodium Trin., BNB 465.

Reported from Ranpur of Puri District

and Junagar of Kalahandi - District

18.

19.

20.

21.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 74

(Mooney 1950). A tufted grass, leaves

linear, acuminate, sheaths with spreading

hairs, panicles spreading, spikelets

narrowly elliptic, glumes amplexicaul,

spikelets are very commonly inhabited by

an insect larva and then they became

hypertrophied. A natural tetraploid with

18 bivalents.

P. repens Linn. BNB 443.

Reported from the sandy tracts of Pur;

(Haines 1924). Stems creeping and

stoleniferous, leaves glabrous, linear to

lanceolate, spikelets mostly paired and

unequally pedicelled, glumes hyaline,

amplexicaul and membraneous.

Paspalidium flavidum (Stapf) A. Camus,

BNB 409.

Syn. Panicum flavidum Retz. Reported

from Khurda of Puri Dist. (Haines 1924),

Stems ascending, leaf sheaths inflated and

compressed, leaves linear, spikelets ovoid,

single terminal spike in case of small

specimens, spikelets awnless, pale and

glabrous.

Paspalum scorbiculatum Linn., BNB 454.

Reported from Kalahandi, Khariar

(Mooney 1950) at 2700 ft. Annuals

with erect tufted culms, leafy from the

base to upwards. Inflorescence panicle,

consisting of two false spikes with elliptic

spikelets, in two rows On the under surface

of the glabrous rachis. An aneuploid

(2n = 4x = 42) with 1 extra chromosome

at haploid level.

Setaria, pallidefusca (Schumach.) Stapf et

Hubb., BNB 656.

A new report from Orissa. Terminal

panicles often cylindrical with solitary

spikelets seated on stunted branches

which are more or less produced into

bristles.

GROUP: POOIDEAE

.. TRIBE.: ARISTIDEAE

22. Aristida depressa Retz., BNB 460.

Syn. A. adscencionnis Linn. Reported |

from Sambalpur (Mooney 1950). Com- |

-mon weed on sandy ground, leaves filli- —

form and glabrous, inflorescence a panicle —

consisting of slender awnless spikelets.

TRIBE : CHLORIDEAE

23. Chloris barbata Sw., BNB 417.

Reported from Puri (Haines 1924).

Inflorescence of digitate spikes seated at

the top of the peduncle, spikelets awned

and secund.

24. Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers., BNB 447.

Syn. Chloris cynodon Trin. Cosmopolitan.

Distribution in Orissa; wide spread.

Creepers, some are ascending, leaves subu-

late, glabrous, spreading and _ linear.

Inflorescence constitutes a group of spikes.

Plant grows mostly on damp soil of drier

parts.

TRIBE ‘ ERAGROSTEAE |

25. Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Linn.) Beauv.,

BNB 453. .

Syn. Eleusine aegyptiaca Desf. Reported

from Parlakimedi of Ganjam_ District

(Srinivasan & Subbarao 1961). Annual

with culms glabrous. Inflorescence of

digitate spikes, radiating from the top of

the culm. The rachis of the spike is

‘sharply pointed. Spikelets many at

right angles to rachis. An aneuploid

(2n = 4x = 52) with 2 extra chromosomes

at the haploid level. . |

654

26.

" GRASSES-OF BHUBANESWAR AND NEIGHBOURHOOD

Eleusine coracana inn.) | ppeceta in

Cultivated.

-E. indica (Linn,) Gaertn., BNB 455.

Reported from Puri - (Haines 1924)

Spikelets awned, 2-3 seriate, on digitate

-. capitate spikes, compressed with their sides

28.

29,

30.

31.

32.

to the rachis, flowering glumes several,

unawned and greyish green.

Eragrostis ciliaris Link., BNB 407.

A new report from Orissa. Slender herbs

with many ascending portions originate

from a horizontal root stock. Leaves

flat ascending.

EK. interrupta Beauv. var. diplachnoides

Stapf, BNB. 435.

Reported from Puri (Haines. 1924). Stes

stout and branched, panicles long.

E. maderaspatana Bor, BNB 449.

A new record from Orissa.

spikes constitute the panicle.

consists of 4 to 5 spikelets. Each spikelet

with 5/6 florets. The glumes are mid-

veined and serrate margined. The lemma

is three veined with veins ascending in

obtuse awns, palea and stigma both fea-

thery. A natural hexaploid (2n = 6x=

60) which is a new report.

Group of

Each spike

E. tenella (Linn.) Roem. & Sch., BNB

457. Reported from Puri (Haines 1924),

Parlakimedi of Ganjam Dist. (Sri-

nivasan & Subbarao 1961). Slender

grass with leaves convolute and accu-

minate, spikelets not very spongy, com-

pressed, grains long ovoid and polished.

E. unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. BNB

442.

Cosmopolitan in distribution (Gamble &

Fischer 1927), Parlakimedi (Srinivasan &

- Subbarao 1961). Spikelets ovate. much

compressed, branches spreading, lemma

and palea fallen from the bees to the ake

wards, eras ellipsoid.

TRIBE : ORYZEAB

33. Oryza sativa Linn.

_ Cultivated.

TRIBE : PEROTIDEAE

34. Perotis indica (Linn.) O. Ktze., BNB 418.

Reported from Nayagarh, Keonjhar and

Sambalpur (Mooney 1950). Slender

annuals occurring in waste lands, leaves

short, spikes feathery, spikelets narrow,

awned and glumes unequal.

TRIBE ? SPOROBOLEAE

35. Sporobolus indicus auctt. non (Linn.) R.Br.,

BNB 458.

New report for Orissa. Leaves flat, small

and minute, spikelets in effuse spiciform

panicles.

TRIBE : TRITICEAE

36. Triticum aestivium Linn.

Cultivated.

DISCUSSION

Haines (1924) reported 214 species of grasses

belonging to 90 genera and Mooney (1950)

added 42 species more. Only a fraction of the 385

species reported by Gamble and Fischer (1928)

from Madras Presidency have been collected

from Ganjam District of Orissa. Out of the 36

species reported currently including the three

Cultivated grasses, belonging to 24 genera, 13

are new reports to Orissa state as they have not

655

_- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

been reported by earlier workers (Haines 1924 ;

Mooney 1950; Gamble and Fischer 1928:

Srinivasan & Subbarao 1961). The tribe

Paniceae is dominant with 15 species followed

by Eragrosteae with 8 species. Among the

genera, however, both Panicum and Eragrostis

are represented by 5 species each. It is

interesting to note that a considerable number of

the investigated species exhibit cytotypic

differentiation (Sharma, Behera & Dash 1976).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS _

The senior author is thankful to Dr. S. N.

Patnaik, Department of Botany, Utkal Uni-

versity, in whose laboratory the major work was

carried out and to the authorities of the

Berhampur University for facilities for carrying

out the remainder of the work.

REFERENCES

Bor, N. L. (1960): Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India

and Pakistan. Pergamon Press, London. pp. 767.

HaInes, H. H. (1924): Botany of Bihar and Orissa.

Bot. Surv. Ind. (reprint 1961), Vol. III : 825-1372.

-GamBLE, J. S. & FIscHer, C. E. C. (1928): Flora of

the Presidency of Madras. Bot. Surv. Ind. (reprint 1967),

Vol. III :; 943-1389.

Mooney, H. (1950) : Supplement to Botany of Bihar

and Orissa. Catholic Press, Ranchi. pp. 294.

SHARMA, C. B., S. R., BEHERA, B. N. & Dasu, S. K

(1976) : Chromosome numbers of some grasses from

coastal Orissa, India. Chromosome Information Service

(Japan) 21 : 8-10.

SRINIVASAN, K. S. & SUBBARAO, G. V. (1961): The

Flora of Parlakimedi and its immediate neighbourhood,

Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 : 407-419.

656

A contribution to the flora of Bari-Bareli

~range (Raisen District), M.P.’

V. B GUPTA?

INTRODUCTION

Bari-Bareli range lies. in the Raisen Distfict

east of Hoshangabad, between the longitude

77° 15’-79° east and latitude 22° 46’-23° 45’

north at a distance of 19 Km from Bareli town.

The forest land covers an area of 1849.67 Sq.

Km. The study of the area was all the more

important since a dam is proposed to be built

(which has recently been inaugurated in the

month of October 1975) at Bari on Barna river

in which considerable area of the forest is

going to be submerged.

Physiography and Geology :

The tract is covered by southern tropical dry

deciduous forest and at places by dry oats

scrub forest (Champion 1936).

The tract varies in configuration at different

places. The whole area is situated on the Malwa

plateau. The area is bounded by Vindhyan

sand-stones and the Deccan traps. The alti-

tude of the hills vary from 319.2-608.3. m

above m.s.l..

The area is traversed by 1 numerous rales.

streams and a few rivers, of them the Barna is

the only perennial river. It is a tributary of

Narbada. aa it near Samarighat. —

3Climate :

The average rainfall. iS 1196. 6 mm. The

average maximum temperature is in the

~.4 Accepted August 1976.

®L cturer in Botany,

Indore, M.P.

3 The climatic data have been obtained on tehsil

office Bareli and Barna Dam Office, Bari and pertains

for the. period 1956-65,

Holkar — Science College,

month of May (35.2°C) and average minimum

temperature in the month of January (19.8°C).

Relative humidity is maximum in the month of

September (92°) and minimum in the month

of May (19%). Average velocity of wind is

minimum in the month of December (1.80 Km

per hour) and maximum in the month of July

(12.95 Km per hour).

Previous Work :

On the whole very scanty work has been done

on the flora of Madhya Pradesh State. And no

work is available for Bari-Bareli range. Those

who have contributed to the study of Madhya

Pradesh flora are—-Bhattacharya (1955), Biscoe

(1910), Brandis (1874), Maheshwari (1958,

1961), Sebastine and Bala Krishnan (1963),

Tiwari and Maheshwari (1965).

The collection is located in Botany Depart-

ment, Holkar Science College, Indore... The

various species collected during the present

work are listed - below.

(i) Pteridophyta —

Actinopteris australis (L. fil.) Link. es

Common on walls, rock crevices and in forest

during 9-12. V.B.G. 738.

Adiantum incisum Forst

Common in the ground flora and on the hills

during 7-9. V.B.G. 741.

Adiantum lunulatum Burm. f.

In the ground flora and lower slopes of the

hills during 7-9. V.B.G. 737, 739.

657

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Aleuritopteris farinosa (Forsk.) Fee.

Found common on damp soil along river

stream in the forest area in the month of

September. V.B.G. 742.

Ampelopteris prolifera (Retz.) Copel.

Found along the river banks, spore forma-

tion during 2-4. V.B.G. 740.

Azolla pinnate R. Br.

Commonly floating in ditches during 9-11.

V.B.G. 1605.

Ceratopteris thalictroides (Linn.) Brongn.

Common in tanks, ditches, swampy places,

even on dry grounds during rains. V.B.G.

1181.

Cheilanthes tenuifolia (Burm.) Sw.

In rock crevices and in ground flora during

September. V.B.G. 743.

Equisetum diffusum Don.

Found in thickets along banks of Barna

river. Cone formation during October-

November. V.B.G. 1604.

Marsilea minuta Linn.

Found along the ditches and other water

formations during rainy season. Remains

alive till ditches dry up. V.B.G. 1603.

Selaginella ciliaris (Retz.) spr.

Found on damp shady places during the

month of September. V.B.G. 1601.

(ii) Angiospermae

ANNONACEAE

Annona squamosa Linn.

Common in forest, also cultivated. Fl. 4-8.

Fr. 10-11. ‘ViB.Gs 233, 915.

MILIUSEAE

Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) Sinclair

In river ravines, not common. FI. 4. Fr.7.

V.B.G. 162.

MENISPERMACEAE

Cissampelos pareira Linn.

Not common, found on the hill slopes.

Fl, & Fr. 8-12. V.B.G. 294, 436, 1039-1041.

Cocculus hirustus (Linn.) Diels.

Abundant in the fields, along river side, on

the hedges and trees. Fl. & Fr. 2-3. V.B.G

4,29, 1036-1038.

Tinospora cordifolia (Wilid.) Miers.

Common in hedges and on trees.

NYMPHAEACEAE

Nymphaea stellata Willd.

Abundant in the ditches in the forest area.

Fl. & Fr. 9. V.B.G. 381.

PAPAVERACEAE

Argemone mexicana Linn.

It is found in fields, waste lands, recently

disturbed and eroded soil. Fl. 1-12.

CRUCIFERAE

Brassica juncea (Linn.) Czern. & Coss.

Found growing in the courtyards.

& Fr. 10-1. V.B.G. 965.

Cardamine hirusta Linn.

Found in ground flora and as weed in the

fields.. Fl. & Fr. 11-2. V.B.G. 1183.

Fl.

Rorippa indica (Linn.) Hiren.

It is common along the river banks in damp

moist places. Fl. & Fr. 10-2. V.B.G. 964.

658

FLORA OF BARI-BARELI RANGE

CAPPARIDACEAE

Capparis zeylanica Linn. non Hook. f. & Th.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 12-4.

V.B.G. 966.

Cleome viscosa Linn.

Found as weed in cultivated fields, also on

hill slopes and in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 7-10,

V.B.G. 210, 211, 872, 967.

Gynandropsis gynandra (Linn.) Briq.

Common as weed in cultivated fields, also in

the ground flora and along river banks. FI.

66 Br i-th, HV.B.G. 571, 873.

VIOLACEAE

Hybanthus enneaspermus (Linn.) F. V. Muell.

Common in ground flora and on hill slopes.

Fl. & Fr. 8-10. V.B.G. 232, 264, 747, 1043,

1044.

BIXACEAE

Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston.

Found on hill slopes and tops, not common.

Fl. & Fr. 2-4. V.B.G. 158, 184 A.

FLACOURTIACEAE

Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr.

Found on hill slopes and in river ravines

Fl. & Fr. 3-6.

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala chinensis Linn.

Common in ground flora and in grass fields.

Fl. & Fr. 7-10. V.B.G. 284, 949, 950.

Polygala elongata Klein ex Willd.

Found as undergrowth in the forest area.

Fl. & Fr. 8-11. V.B.G. 363.

Polygala_ erioptera DC.

Common in ground flora and fields. FI.

& Fr. 8-10. V.B.G. 947, 948.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Polycarpaea corymbosa Linn.

Not common, found on hill tops and slopes.

Fl. & Fr. G.

Polycarpon prostratum (Forsk.) Asch. & Sch.

Common in forest, fields, and along ditches.

Fl. & Fr. 5-10. V.B.G. 1185.

PORTULACACEAE

Portulaca oleracea Linn.

Common as weed in the cultivated fields, and

near the kitchens. Also cultivated as pot herb.

Fl. & Fr. G. V.B.G. 69.

Portulaca quadrifida Linn.

Weed in the fields, common in courtyards

and near Kitchens. Fl. & Fr. G.

TAMARICACEAE

Tamarix dioica Roxb. Not common, found

on the sandy banks of the river and low lying

moist ground. Fl. & Fr. 5-9. V.B.G. 746.

MALVACEAE

Abelmoschus monihot (Linn.) Medik.

Found in grassfields and in ground flora,

not common. Fl. & Fr. 8-9. V.B.G. 1186.

Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet.

Common as weed in cultivated fields, waste

grounds, grass fields, fallowlands and ground

flora. Fl. & Fr. G. V.B.G. 569, 1031.

659

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74 i

Azanza lampas (Cav.) Alef.

Found on the hill slopes and in ground

flora Fl. & Fr. 9-1. .V.B.G. 351.

Hibiscus gibsoni Stocks ex Harv. & Sond.

Found in ground flora and in fields.

Fl. 8-9. V.B.G. 1167.

Hibiscus lobatus (Murr.) Kuntze

On hill slopes, ground flora, in the fields.

Fl. & Fr. 9-11. V.B.G. 1033.

Hibiscus mutabilis Linn.

In the ground flora and hill slopes. Fl. 1.

V.B.G. 351, 1024.

Hibiscus panduraeformis Burm. f.

Common in grass fields and ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 11-2. V.B.G. 3, 8, 1020, 1032.

Kydia calycina Roxb.

In ground flora, on foot and slopes of the

hills, (Bl OSes 12-5." VoB:G. 472, 11023

1030.

Malvastrum coromandelianum (Linn.) Garcke

As common weed in _ cultivated fields.

Fl. & Fr. G. V.B.G. 234.

Sida acuta Burm. f.

Common along nalas in the fields and forest.

Fl. & Fr. 10-11. V.B.G. 537.

Sida spinosa Linn.

Common in grassfields, cultivated fields and,

in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 10-3. V.B.G.

35,100, 546, 1025, 1026.

Sida rhombifolia Linn. var. retusa Linn.

Common in waste lands, fields, along the

river banks. Fl. & Fr. 9-10. V.B.G. 261.

Sida veronicaefolia Lamk.

Common in fields and forest. Fl. & Fr. 9-1.

V.B.G. 1017, 1019, 1021, 1022.

Urena labata Linn.

Common in ground flora, waste places, fields

ete. Fl. & Fru6-1l: ) V.B.Gs 519) 553.0 TOs,

1027-28.

BOMBACACEAE

Bombax ceiba Linn.

Common in ground flora and lower hill

slopes. El. 1-3, Fr: 3-5,

STERCULIACEAE

Helicteres isora Linn.

Common on hill slopes as undergrowth.

Fl. 4-12. Fr. 10-1. V.B.G. 279, 723.

Melhania futteyporensis Munro ex Mast.

In ground flora and fields. Fl. 12-1. V.B.G.

1187.

Sterculia urens Roxb.

Found on the hill slopes associated with

Boswellia serrata. Fl. & Fr. 1-3. V.B.G.

SY:

Waltheria indica Linn.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 8-11. V.B.G. 284, 394, 494, 1006-

1008.

TILIACEAE

Corchorus aestuans Linn.

Common in waste lands, grass fields and,

in ground flora. Fl...& Fr. 8-10. V.B.G.

338, 505%

Corchorus capsularis Linn.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 8-10.

V.B.G. 1001, 1002.

660

FLORA OF BARI-BARELI RANGE

Corchorus trilocularis Linn.

Common in fields. Fl. & Fr. 8-12. V.B.G.

997, 998.

Grewia asiatica Linn.

Common in ground flora and foot of the hills,

Fl. 5-7. Fr. 9-11. V.B.G. 169, 193, 1005.

Grewia flavescens Juss.

Found on hill slopes and in ground flora

as undergrowth. Fl. & Fr. 8-10. V.B.G,

1189, 1207.

Grewia hirusta Linn.

Common on hill slopes and ground flora as

undergrowth. Fl. & Fr. 7-10. V.B.G. 434,

1003.

Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl

Common throughout the forest.

Fr. 9-10. V.B.G. 198.

Fl. 5-89

Triumfetta pentandra Guill. & Perr.

Common in ground flora, hill slopes, grass

fields and waste lands. Fl. & Fr. 7-10. V.B.G.

403, 999, 1000.

Triumfetta rotundifolia Lamk.

Found in ground flora and fields.

7-12. V.B.G. 1004.

Fl. & Fr.

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Tribulus terrestris Linn.

Rare, in the foot of the hills and in ground

flora. FRM s Frl' 7-8. YWiBiGi\078:

OXALIDACEAE

Biophytum sensitivum DC.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 8-10.

V.B.G. 330, 1045-1047.

Oxalis corniculata Linn.

Found on damp moist soils as weed in the

fields and gardens. Fl. & Fr. G. V.B.G.

694.

BALSAMINACEAE

Impatiens balsamina Linn.

As an escape in ground flora and on hill

slopes. Fl. & Fr. 7-9.

RUTACEAE

Aegle marmelos (Linn.) Correa

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl. 3-5. Fr. 1 year.

Feronia limonia (Linn.) Swingle

Common in ground flora and fields. FI. 2-4.

Fr. 10. V.B.G. 714.

SIMAROUBACEAE

Ailanthus ex celsa Roxb.

Along roads, not common. FI. & Fr. 1-3.

V.B.G. 1010.

Balanites roxburghii Planch.

Common in river ravines and deforested soil,

rarely, on hills. Fl. & Fr. 4-5. V.B.G. 20,

1009.

BURSERACEAE

Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 1-6. V.B.G. 183, 953.

MELIACEAE

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

Common in habitation areas and to some

extent wild. Fl. 3-5. Fr. 7-8.

Chloroxylon swietenia DC.

Common in ground flora and on hill slopes.

FI. 3-4. Fr. 5-8.

Melia azedarach Lion.

Planted along the roads.

V.B.G. 1036.

Blo3s205 bral 2.

661

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

CELASTRACEAE

Celastrus paniculata Willd.

Common in river ravines and ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 4-6. V.B.G. 189, 982, 983.

Maytenus senegalensis (Lamk.) Exell.

Found common in ground flora, on deforested

soil, small hillocks and, outskirts of the forest.

Fl. & Fr. 11-1. V.B.G. 578, 984.

RHAMNACEAE

Ventilago calyculata Tulsane

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 2-4

V.B.G. 74, 584, 717, 722.

Zizyphus glaberrima Sant.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora

as undergrowth. Fl. & Fr. 7-8. V.B.G. 205,

220, 353.

Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.

Common in ground flora and also cultivated:

Fl. 4-10. Fr: 10-3. V.B.G. 157, 715, Te.

Zizyphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wt. & Arn.

Common in waste land, river ravines, grass.

fields; Fl. 3-6. Fr. 12. V.BIG. 719.

Zizyphus oenoplia Mill.

Common all over the forest area.

Fr. 6-9. V.B.G. 475, 524, 718, 721.

Fl. 4-5

Zizyphus xylopyrus Willd.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl, 2-4. Fr..812-144 V.B.G. 795.

AMPELIDACEAE

Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.

Common on the hill slopes. Fl. & Fr. 4-7,

V.B.G. 188, 427, 876.

» Common in hedges and. bushes.

Ampelocissus tomentosa Pianch.

Found on hillslopes. Fl. & Fr. 3-4. V.B.G.

295, 877.

Leea edgeworthii Santapau

Rare, on hillslopes. Fl. & Fr. 8-11. V.B.G.

297.

VITACEAE

Cayratia carnosa Gagnep.

Found climbing on trees, shrubs, on hill

slopes and in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 8-9.

V.B.G. 1190.

SAPINDACEAE

Cardiospermum helicacabum Linn.

Fl. & Fr.

8-10. V.B.G. 371, 1014.

Sapindus laurifolius Vahl

Common in ground flora. Fl. 12-2. Fr. 2-4.

V.B.G. 1015, 1016.

Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken.

Common in the forest. Fl. 2-3. Fr. 6-8.

ANACARDIACEAE

Buchanania lanzan Spreng.

Abundant on hills and in ground flora.

Fl. 1-3. Fr. 4-5. V.B.G. 22, 99, 885.

Lannea coromandelica (Hoult.) Merr.

Usually on lower slopes of the hills and in

ground flora. Fl. 3-4. Fr. 5-7. V.B.G. 93,

103, 692, 693.

Mangifera indica Linn.

As an escape in the forest area. Under culti-

vation and along the roads. FI. 3-4. Fr. 5-6.

Rhus paniculata Wall.

Common in the ground flora. Fl. 2-3.

Fr. 3-4. V.B.G. 1191.

662

FLORA OF BARI-BARELI RANGE

MOoRINGACEAE

Moringa oleifera Lamk.

Cultivated, along the hedges. Fl. 1-4.

Fr, 5-6.

PAPILIONACEAE

Abrus precatorius Linn.

Common climber in ground flora. Fl. & Fre

8-10. V.B.G. 649.

Aeschynomene indica Linn.

Found along water ditches, FI. & Fr. 8-10.

V.B.G. 314, 390, 454, 651, 652.

Alysicarpus bupleurifolius DC.

Abundant in grass fields, Fl. & Fr. 8-10,

V.B.G. 643.

Alysicarpus glumacens (Vahl) DC, var. styraci-

folius DC.

Common in moist places and in _ fields,

Fl & Fr. 9-11. V.B.G. 648.

Alysicarpus monilifer DC.

Common in grass fields. Fl. & Fr. 8-10.

V.B.G. 640.

Alysicarpus rugosus DC.

Common in _ fields and _— grass

Fl. & Fr. 8-9. V.B.G. 641, 664.

Alysicarpus vaginalis DC.

fields,

Common in grass fields. Fl. & Fr. 8-10,

V.B.G. 407, 441, 645, 646.

Atylosia scarabaeoides Benth.

on hedges and small trees.

V.B.G. 642, 644.

Common

Blee) Ei 8.,

Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.

Common on hills, in ground flora, on de-

forested soil. Fl. 2-3. Fr. 3-4. V.B.G. 653.

Butea superba Roxb.

Found on the hills and in ground flora.

Fl, 3-4,

Clitoria ternatea Linn.

Not common, on hedges. Fl. & Fr. 10-11.

V.B.G. 486, 654, 655.

Crotalaria albida Heyne.

Common in grass fields. Fl. & Fr. 8-9,

V.B.G. 657, 658.

Crotalaria hirta Willd.

Found wild in the fields and along the river

banks. Fl. & Fr. 10-12. V.B.G. 5, 663, 665.

Crotalaria orixensis Willd.

in fields

10-11.

Common

Fl. & Fr.

and ground flora.

V.B.G. 544.

Crotalaria prostrata Roxb.

Found common in fields and forest flora.

Fl. & Fr. 9-11. V.B.G. 523, 1109.

Crotalaria sericea Retz.

Not common, in ground flora. Fl. & Fr.

11-1. V.B.G. 659, 660, 661.

Cyamopsis tetragnoloba Linn.

Wild in grassy fields as an_ escape.

Fl. & Fr. 8-10. V.B.G. 662.

Dalbergia lanceolaria Linn .f.

Common in the forest in ground flora and

on hills. Fl. 5-6. V.B.G. 1, 72, 90, 671.

Dalbergia paniculata Roxb.

Common in ground flora and lower slopes

of the hills. FI. 4-5.

Desmodium cephalotes Wall.

Rare, at the foot of the hills.

9-10. V.B.G. 473.

Desmodium diffusum DC.

Found in the ground flora and foot of the

hills.* Fl. & Fr. 9.. V.B.G. 543.

Fl. & Fr.

Desmodium gangeticum DC.

Common in ground flora.

V.B.G. 393, 448, 673.

FI. & Fr. 8-10.

663

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Desmodium latifolium DC.

Common in ground flora, and on hill slopes. -

Fl. & Fr. 7-9. V.B.G. 139.

Desmodium triflorum (Linn.) DC.

Found in the courtyards where the soil is

moist and under shade, and in fields. Very

common. Fl. & Fr. 9-10. V.B.G. 388, 669,

670.

Eleiotis sororia DC.

Found in fallow lands, grass fields and in

ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 8-9. V.B.G. 364.

Erythrina suberosa Roxb.

Common on hills and in ground flora.

FI. 3-4. V.B.G. 154.

Heylandia latebrosa DC.

Common in fields and ground flora. Fl. &

Fr. 11-12. V.B.G. 501, 705.

Indigofera astragalina DC.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 9-11. V.B.G. 362, 446, 529, 667.

Indigofera cassioides Rottl. ex DC.

Not very common in ground flora and forest

valley. Fl. & Fr. 10-12. V.B.G. 16, 665.

Indigofera glandulosa Willd.

Common on deforested soil and also hill

slopes. Fl. & Fr. 9-10. V.B.G. 398, 449,

Indigofera linifolia Retz.

Common in fields. FI. & Fr. 10-11. V.B.G.

487, 668.

Indigofera linifolia Retz. var. campbelii Wight.

Not very common, in fields. Fl. & Fr. 9-11.

V.B.G. 548.

Indigofera tinctoria Linn.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 10-12.

V.B.G. 506, 666.

Indigofera trita Linn. f.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 8-9.

V BiG: 315.

Melilotus alba Dest.

Wild in fields and in damp places even during

March-April. Fl. & Fr. 12-3. V.B.G. 145.

Melilotus indica All.

A common weed in the fields. Fl. & Fr.

11-1. V.B.G. 1192.

Mucuna prurita Hook.

In ground flora and hill slopes, not common.

Fl. 2-3. V.B.G. 505, 704.

Ougeinia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Hoch.

Found common on deforested soil and on hill

slopes. FI. & Fr. 3-4. V.BIG. 139) 1196,

Phaseolus adenanthus Meyer.

Common throughout the forest.

9-11. V.B.G. 581.

Fl. & Fr.

Phaseolus aureus Roxb.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 9-11. V.B.G. 530.

Phaseolus trilobus Ait.

Common along river banks, in grassfields

and in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 9-10. V.B.G.

410, 674, 675.

Psoralea corylifolia Linn.

Found on waste lands and along the river

banks. Fl. & Fr. 9-2. V.B.G. 483, 677, 678.

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl. 10. Fr. 12-1. V.B.G. 11, 588.

Rhyncosia minima (Linn.) DC.

Found growing wild in grass fields and turn-

ing over the hedges. FI. & Fr. 2-10. V.B.G.

679, 680, 681.

664

FLORA OF BARI-BARELI RANGE

Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) Fawcett & Rendle

Abundant in waste and crop fields and also

in swampy places. Fl. & Fr. 8-10. V.B.G.

699.

Sesbania sesban (Linn.) Merr.

Common on moist soil and along the ditches.

Fl. & Fr. 8-10. V.B.G. 480, 698, 701.

Smithia conferata Sm.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 10-12.

V.B.G. 581.

Tephrosia pumila Pers.

Common on hills, along river banks, and in

grassfields in wet places. Fl. & Fr. 7-9.

V.B.G. 60.

Tephrosia purpurea (Linn.) Pers.

Common in fields, river, ravines and ground

flora. Fl. & Fr. 9-1. V.B.G. 373, 392.

Tephrosia strigosa (Dalz.) Sant. & Mahesh.

As weed in crop fields. Fl. & Fr.

V.B.G. 686.

2-5.

Teramnus labialis (Linn. f.) Spreng.

All over the forest and hedges. FI. & Fr. 9-12.

V.B.G. 435, 474.

Uraria lagopoides Wall.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 10-1.

V.B.G. 346.

Uraria picta Desy.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 10-1.

V.B.G. 704.

Vicia hirsuta (Linn.) S. F. Gray

Abundant as weed in wheat fields.

12-3. V.B.G. 444.

Fl. & Fr.

Vicia sativa Linn.

Common in moist places along the river

banks, and as weed in wheat, sarson, fields.

Fl; & Fr. 2-3, V.B.G. 53, 702;0703.

Zornia gibbosa Span.

Common in waste lands and grass fields.

El. oe Fn 8-9, V. BiG. 625, 705,

CAESALPINACEAE

Bauhinia malabarica Roxb.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

FI. 9-11, Fr. 1-3. V.B.G. 638.

Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb.

Not common, on hedges of crop fields.

Fk 9-2, (Fr, 3-4. V.B.G: 1235434) Ves7-

Cassia absus Linn.

Common on deforested soil. Fl. & Fr. 9-11.

V.B.G. 447, 521.

Cassia fistula Linn.

Common throughout the forest. Fl. 3-6.

V.B.G. 633, 634.

Cassia marginata Roxb.

Not very common, in ground flora. FI.

& Fr. 7-10. V.B.G. 192.

Cassia occidentalis Linn.

Common on deforested area and along the

river banks. Fl. & Fr. 7-10. V.B.G. 573,

635, 636.

Cassia pumila Lamk.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 8-10. V.B.G. 639.

Cassia tora Linn.

Common weed on waste land. Fl. & Fr. 8-10.

V.B.G. 384.

Poinciana pulcherrima Linn.

Planted for ornamental use, also in ground

flora. Fl. & Fr. 4-12. V.B.G. 656.

Tamarindus indica Linn.

Not common, in ground flora, FI.

Fr. 4-6. V.B.G.

T-9.

665

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

MIMOSACEAE

Acacia catechu Willd.

Common throughout forest on hills and in

ground flora. Fl. 3-4. Fr. 11-1. V.B.G.

172, 583, 631.

Acacia farnesiana (Linn.) Willd.

Rare, along the road. Fl. 1-3. Fr. 3-5.

V.B.G. 94.

Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd.

Common in ground flora and along roads.

V.B.G. 401, 589, 627.

Acacia nilotica (Linn.) Del. Found common

in forest, along the roads, and on deforested

soils. Fl. 7-10. Fr. 1-6. V.B.G. 269, 630.

Acacia pennata Willd.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 6-9.

V.B.G. 477, 585.

Albizzia lebbek (Linn.) Benth.

Common in ground flora. Fl. 4-5. Fr. 1.

V.B.G. 632.

Albizzia odoratissima (Linn. f.) Benth.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl. 5-6. Fr. 1. V.B.G. 528, 629.

Albizzia procera (Roxb.) Benth.

Found in ground flora, not common.

Fl. 8-9. Fr. 1-5. V.B.G. 81, 552, 626.

Mimosa hamata Willd.

Common in river ravines and ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 8-10. V.B.G. 344, 628.

Pithecolobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.

Cultivated }in hedges. “Pl, 2-72) jer.

V.B.G. 625.

Prosopis juliflora (SW.) DC.

6-8.

Planted in government building compounds.

Bh 2-95 Ba 10,

ROSACEAE

Potentilla supina Linn.

Not common, on the moist river banks.

Fl. & Fr. 3. V.B.G. 1193.

COMBRETACEAE

Anogeissus latifolia Wall.

Abundantly found throughout the forest.

Fl. 4-6.

Anogeissus pendula Edgew.

Not common, in ground flora.

Combretum ovalifolium Roxb.

Common in ground flora. V.B.G. 1268.

Terminalia arjuna Bedd.

Common along river banks. Fi. 5-7.

Fr. 3-4. V.B.G. 596, 970 ,996.

Terminalia bellerica (Gaertn.) Roxb.

Common on hills and in ground flora.

Fl. 3-5. (Fr. 152.2 V.B:G,) 152)\994) (995:

Terminalia chebula Retz.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl. 4-5. ‘Fr. 10-2. V.BiG# 2744275) 299:

Terminalia tomentosa Wt. & Arn.

Abundant in fforest. FI.

V.B.G. 202, 993.

6. GEE, 12-3;

MYRTACEAE

Eugenia he yneana Duthie

Common along the river banks in the forest.

FI. 3-5. V.B.G. 191, 1167.

Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels.

Planted in the villages, not common in forest.

Fl. 3-4. Fr. 6-7.

666

FLORA OF BARI-BARELI RANGE

LYTHRACEAE

Ammannia baccifera Linn.

Common along water ditches and other moist

habitats. Fl. & Fr.G. V.B.G. 112, 617, 618.

Ammannia multiflora Roxb.

Found common on damp and moist

soil along the river banks. FI. & Fr. 11-12.

V.B.G. 559, 616.

Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.

Abundant in forest area. Fl. 4-5. V.B.G.

209.

Rotala indica (Willd.) Kochne.

Common in fields and other moist places.

Fl; (‘& Fr. 10-1. V.B.Gi 1195,

Rotala t-nuis (Wight) Kochne.

Found wild in isolated patches along the

river banks. Fl. & Fr. 2-3. V.B.G. 85, 621.

Woodfordia fruticosa (Linn.) Kurz.

Common along the river banks and in the

river ravines. Fl. & Fr. 1-4. V.B.G. 615.

ONAGRACEAE

Jussiaea perennis (Linn.) Brenan

On moist places and around the ditches.

Bl. 8.) V.B.G. 397,728.

TRAPACEAE

Trapa bispinosa Roxb.

Cultivated in temporary ponds and ditches.

FI.9. Fr. 9-12.

(CUCURBITACEAE

Cucumis melo Linn.

Cultivated along river banks. In wild speci-

mens the plant and fruit sizes are greatly

986.

Diplocyclos palmatus (Linn.) C. Jeffrey

Found on the hedges, fences and trees in

forest area. FI. & Fr. 9-12. V.B.G. 989.

Lagenaria vulgaris Ser.

Not common, on hill slopes and in ground

flora. Fl. & Fr. 8-10. V.B.G. 987.

Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb.

Not common, found on hedges and, in

ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 8-10. V.B.G. 503.

Momordica charantia Linn.

On the hedges, and in ground flora, not

common. FI. & Fr. 10-1. V.B.G. 542, 988,

Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd.

Not common, on hill slopes and in ground

flora. Fl. & Fr. 8-10. V.B.G. 340, 467.

Mukia scabrella Arn.

Common in grass fields and river ravines.

FI. & Fr. 8-10. V.B.G. 1197.

Trichosanthes cucumerina Linn.

Found in ground flora, not common. FI.

& Fr. 8-1. V.B.G. 28.

Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.

Not common, in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 9-12.

V.B.G. 400.

CACTACEAE

Opuntia dillenii Haw.

Found on the hill slopes, ground flora and

fields. Fl. & Fr. 3-5. V.B.G. 1145.

MOLLUGINACEAE

Glinus lotoides Linn.

Common along the river side and in fields.

FI. & Fr. 10-12. V.B.G. 749, 750.

Mollugo pentaphylla Linn.

In fields and forest. Fl. & Fr. 7-9. V.B.G. 748.

667

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

CORNACEAE

Alangium salvifolium (Linn. f.) Wang.

Common in forest on deforested soil. FI.

& Fr. 2-4. V.B.G. 1198.

RUBIACEAE

f. ex Brandis.

6-7,

Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook.

Common throughout the forest. FI.

Fr. 2-5. V.B.G. 83.

Borreria articularis (Linn. f.) Will.

Found in fields and ground flora, and at

foot of the hills. Fl. & Fr. 8-9. V.B.G. 48,

734, 735.

Borreria stricta (Linn. f.) K. Schum.

On hill slopes in rock crevices. Fl. & Fr.

10-12. V.B.G. 334.

Gardenia latifolia Ait.

Common on hills. Fl. 4-5. Fr. 12-6.

V.B.G. 97, 184.

Hyme nodictyon exce lsum Wall.

Not common, on hill slopes and in ground

flora. Fl. 6-8. V.B.G. 298.

Hymenodictyon obovatum wall.

Found on the hill slopes.

1256.

BL 7-9.) VeBiG.

Ixora parviflora Vahl

Common on hills and in ground flora.

Fl. 7-9 & 3-5. Fr. 5-6. V.B.G. 126, 258, 735,

737.

Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Korth.

Common in the ground flora. Fi.

Fr. 12-1. V.B.G. 207, 736.

5-7.

Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 10-12. V.B.G. 734, 735.

Oldenlandia umbellata Linn.

Found in forest. Fl. & Fr. 8-12. V.B.G.

1200.

Pentas lanceolata (Forsk.) K. Schum.

Found in ground flora. Fl. 7-10. V.B.G. 425.

Vangueria spinosa Roxb.

Found common in ground flora. FI. 4-6.

Fr 12-1) WB Ge227,

COMPCSITAE

Acanthospermum hispidium DC.

Found in the fields and in ground flora.

Fl. 3-12, V.B.G. 1201. ;

Ageratum conyzoides Linn.

Abundant along the river banks. Fl. & Fr. 1-2.

V.B.G. 1202.

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 7-8. V.B.G. 866.

Blainvillea acmella (Linn. f.) Phil.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 8-9.

V.B.G. 865, 866.

Blumea mollis (D. Don) Merr.

Common in fields and in ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 2-5. V.B.G. 1203.

Blumea oxyodonta DC.

Common in fields and ground flora. FI.

& Fr. 3-5. V.B.G. 1204.

Blumeopsis falcata (D. Don) Merr.

Found in fields and ground flora. Fl. & Fr.

1-4. V.B.G. 1205.

Caesulia axillaris Roxb.

Common in marshy fields. Fl. & Fr. 9-1,

V.B.G. 491, 862, 863.

668

FLORA OF BARI-BARELI RANGE

Chrysanthemum indicum DC.

_ Abundant in wet sandy ground. FI. 9-2.

V.B.G. 1206.

Cyathocline purpurea (Don) Kuntze

In moist habitats and along streams.

Fl. & Fr. 11-3. V.B.G. 865.

Echinops echinatus Roxb.

Common throughout the area but more

frequently in the fields. Fl. & Fr. 2-4.

Eclipta prostrata Linn.

Common in fields, ground flora, and along

ditches. Fl. & Fr.G. V.B.G. 245.

Elephantopus scaber Linn.

Found in ground flora under the shade of the

trees, common. Fl. & Fr. ll. V.B.G. 1207.

Eupatorium coeletinum Linn.

In the fields. Fl. & Fr. 2-3. V.B.G. 1163.

1164, 1208.

Emilia sonchifolia DC.

Abundant in fields and ground flora. FI.

& Fr.G. V.B.G. 429.

Glossogyne bidens (Retz.) Alston.

On hill slopes, not common. FI. & Fr. 9-10.

V.B.G. 859.

Gnaphalium indicum Linn.

Common along river banks.

V.B.G. 854-857.

Fl. & Fr. 11-2.

Gnaphalium luteo-album Linn.

Common along river banks. Fl. & Fr. 11-2.

V.B.G. 851.

Gnaphalium pulvinatum Delile

Common along the river banks.

11-2, V.B:G. 852, 853, 858:

FI. & Fr.

Lagasca mollis Cav.

Common in_- ground flora. FI.

V.B.G. 479, 551, 848.

I-12,

Launaea nudicaulis Hook. f.

Abundant throughout the area. Fl. & Fr. 10-1.

V.B.G. 828.

Sonchus cleraceus Linn.

Common in fields and ground flora. Fl. &

Fr. 1-4. V.B.G. 1209.

Sphaer. nthus indicus Linn.

Common on damp moist ground and along

river banks. Fl. & Fr. 11-1. V.B.G. 847.

Tridax procumbens Linn.

Common in ground flora, fields, roadside

grassy places, old walls. Fl. & Fr. G. G.V.B.

849, 850.

Veronica cinerea Linn.

All over the area. Fl. & Fr. 11-1. V.B.G.

830.

Vicoa indica DC.

Common in fields, waste lands, grass fields

and ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 11-2. V.B.G. 845,

846.

Volutarella ramosa (Roxb.) Santapau

Found common in fields, ground flora, waste

lands. Fl. & Fr. 11-4. V.B.G. 844.

Xanthium strumarium Linn.

In ground flora, cultivated and fallow lands.

Fl. & Fr. 9-4.

CAMPANULACEAE

Campanula canescens Wall. ex DC.

Found along river banks. Fl. & Fr. 2-3.

V.B.G. 1209, 1210.

PLUMBAGINACEAE

Plumbago zeylanica Linn.

Common in river ravines of forest area.

Fl. & Fr. 11-12. V.B.G. 567.

669

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

PRIMULACEAE

Anagalis arvensis Linn.

Common throughout the area as weed of

cultivation and also in forest. Fl. & Fr. 10-1.

V.B.G. 70, 938.

MYRSINACEAE

Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (Roem. & Schult.) DC.

Found in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 8-ll.

V.B.G. 534.

SAPOTACEAE

Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) MacBride var.

latifolia (Roxb.) Chevaliar

Common in ground flora and foot of the

hills. Fl. 3-4. Fr. 6-7. V.B.G. 133.

Mimusops hexandra Roxb.

Found in the ground flora. Fl. 11-12.

Fr. 1-3. V.B.G. 13.

EBENACEAE

Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.

Abundant in forest area. FI. 3-4. Fr. 6.

V.B.G. 167, 194, 951.

APOCYNACEAE

Carissa spinarum Linn.

Common at the foot of the hills and in ground

flora. Fl. 3-4. Fr. 12-1. V.B.G. 131, 155.

Catharanthus pusillus (Murr.) G. Don

Found in the fields, ground flora and hills.

Fl. & Fr. 7-9. V.B.G. 221, 272.

Holarrhena antidysentrica (Linn.) Wall.

Found in ground flora. Fl. 5-6. Fr. 1-2.

[chnocarpus frutescens (Linn.) Ait. & Ait.

Common in ground flora and river ravines.

Fl. 8-12. Fr. 4. V.B.G. 499, 888.

Wrightia tinctoria R. Br.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl. 3-4. Fr. 12. V.B.G. 175, 886,

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br.

Common on waste land and deforested soils.

FI. 3-5. Fr. 1-2. V.B.G. 881.

Cryptolepis buchanani Roem. & Schult.

Common in ground flora. Fl. 6-7. V.B.G.

197.

Dregea volubilis Benth. ex Hook. f.

Common on hedges and in ground flora.

Fl. 4-7. Fr. 7-12. V.B.G. 224.

Dregea volubilis Benth. var. lacuna Hook. f.

Common in ground flora and fields. Fl. 7-8.

V.B.G. 170.

Gymnema sylvestre R. Br.

Rare, in ground flora. Fl. 9-11. V.B.G.

395, 883.

Hemidesmus indicus (Linn.) Schult.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. G.

\ 5B.G. 532, 882.

Marsdenia tenacissima Wight. & Arn.

On hill slopes, not common. Fl. & Fr.

7-12. V.B.G. 293.

Oxystelma secamone (Linn.) K. Schum.

Found twining on trees and herbs in ihe

fields and forest. Not common. FI. & Fr. 9-12.

V.B.G. 480.

Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Blatt. & McC.

Common on trees and shrubs on hill slopes

and ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 8-1. V.B.G. 512,

884.

Telosma pallida (Roxb.) Craib.

Near the base of the hills not common.

Fl. 5-8. Fr. 9-3. V.B.G. 230.

670

FLORA OF BARI-BARELI RANGE

LOGANIACEAE

Mitreola oldeniandioides Wall.

At the foot of the hills.

V.B.G. 440.

Fl. & Fr. 7-9.

GENTINIACEAE

Canscora decussata Roem. & Sch.

Common on hills and in ground flora. Fl. &

Fr. 8-9. V.B.G. 1049.

Canscora diffusa R. Br.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 10-12.

V.B.G. 587, 1047.

Centaurium roxburghii (Don) Druce.

Found common in forest fields. Fl. & Fr.

2-4, V.B.G. 1011.

Enicostema verticillatum (Linn.) Engl.

Common in ground flora on damp soil.

Fl. & Fr. 7-10. V.B.G. 248, 1050.

Exacum pedunculare Arn.

Common along the river banks. Fl. & Fr.

1-3. V.B.G. 88, 1051.

Nymphoides cristatum (Roxb.) Kuntze

Abundant in temporary ditches during rainy

season. Fl. & Fr. 7-10. V.B.G. 396.

HYDROPHYLLACEAE

Hydrolea zeylanica (Linn.) Vahl.

On drying mud and along the ditches. Fl. &

Fr. 10-12. V.B.G. 525.

BORAGINACEAE

Heliotropium ovalifolium Forsk.

Along river banks and ditches. Fl. & Fr.

7-10. V.B.G. 214, 954.

Heliotropium strigosum Willd.

Common in variety of habitats ranging from

hill slopes to river banks. Fl. & Fr. 711.

V.B.G. 1212.

Heliotropium supinum Linn.

A weed of cultivation, ground flora, on drying

ditches on the river side. Fl. & Fr. 11-3.

V.B.G. 959, 960.

Trichodesma amplexicaule Roth.

Common by road side and in ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 8-1. V.B.G. 270, 956, 957.

Trichodesma zeylanicum R. Br.

Common in fileds and ground flora.

Fr. 12-3. V.B.G. 955.

Fl. &

EHRETIACEAE

Cordia dichotoma Forst. f.

Common in forest area.

V.B.G. 1213.

Cordia macleodii Hook. f. and Thoms.

In ground flora, not common. FI.

V.BLG, 151, 958.

Fl. 3-4. Fr. 5-6.

3-4.

Rotala aquatica Lour.

Abundant along the river banks. Fl. &

Fr. 10-2. V.B.G. 25.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Aregyreia kleiniana (Roem. & Sch.) Raizada

Common on hill slopes and

flora. Fl. & Fr. 9-12. V.B.G. 974.

Argyreia setosa (Roth) Sant. & Patel

FI]. 9-12. V.B.G.

in ground

Found in ground flora.

104.

Convolyulus arvensis Linn.

Common in cultivated fields. Fl. & Fr.

11-1. V.B.G. 422, 976.

671

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Convolvulus microphyllus Sieb.

Wild in the fields. Fl. & Fr.

973, 978.

Evolyulus alsinoides Linn.

Very common in fields and forest ground

flora and by river sides. Fl. & Fr. G. V.B.G.

277, 978.

Ipomoea angulata Lamk.

Found on the fences around houses and twin-

ing around the trees in the forest area.

Fl. & Fri? 10-2:° V.B.G. 1214, .1217.

Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br.

Common in grass fields and hill slopes.

Fl. & Fr. 7-10. V.B.G. 416.

Ipomoea fistulosa Mart. ex Chois.

Used for hedging the fields and houses.

Fl. & Fr. 1-12. V.B.G. 1215.

Ipomoea muricata (Linn.) Jacq.

In ground flora and in habitation.

Fr. 9-11. V.B.G. 1216.

Fl. &

Ipomoea nil (Linn.) Roth.

Common on the hedges of forest villages.

Fl. & Fr. 9-12. V.B.G. 71, 971.

Ipomoea pes-tigridis Linn.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 8-9. V.B.G. 981.

Ipomoea reptans (Linn.) Poir.

Common along and floating on the ditches

and ponds. Fl. & Fr. 9-12. V.B.G. 464, 594.

[Ipomoea sinensis (Desr.) Choisy.

Twines around the shrubs and trees.

Fr. 10. V.B.G. 511.

Fl. &

Merremia aegyptica (Linn.) Urban.

Occurs in ground flora and foot of the hills.

Fl. & Fr. 9-10. V.B.G. 489.

G. V.B.G. .

Merremia emarginata (Burm. f.) Hallier. f.

Found wild in the fields. Fl. & Fr.

V.B.G. 975.

9-10.

Merremia tridentata Hallier. f.

Not common, on hill tops.

10-12. V.B.G. 496.

Plo. & | Fr.

Operculia turpethum (Linn.) Silva-Monso

Common in fields. FI. & Fr. 9-1. V.B.G.

1081, 1082.

Porana paniculata Roxb.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 10-1

V°B.G: 977.

Rivea hypocrateriformis Chois.

Common in forest area. FI. & Fr. 8-10.

V.B.G. 1217.

CUSCUTACEAE

Cuscuta hyalina Roth.

Common in fields and along road side on a

number of undershrubs, shrubs and trees.

Fl. & Fr. 8-1. V.B.G. 9, 385.

SOLANACEAE

Datura innoxia Mill.

Common in forest and fields. Fl. & Fr.

11-2. V.B.G. 1218.

Nicotiana tabacum Linn.

In the river ravines.. Fl. & Fr. 1-2. V.B.G.

1013.

Physalis minima Linn.

Occurs in the fields and waste grounds, not

common. Fl. & Fr. 8-10. V.B.G. 295, 676.

Solanum incanum Linn.

Found in fields, not common. Fl. & Fr.

1-5.) 'V.B:Gy'575;

672

FLORA OF BARI-BARELI RANGE

Solanum indicum Linn.

Common in grass fields. Fl. & Fr. 2-3.

V.B.G. 59.

Solanum nigrum Linn.

Found wild in the fields. Fl. & Fr. 12-4.

V.B.G. 129, 1011.

Solanum surattense Burm. f.

Common in fields, waste lands and, recently

eroded places. FI. 1-12.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Dopatrium junceum (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex

Benth.

Common along the ditches in the forest area.

Fl. & Fr. 7-9. V.B.G. 1219.

Limnophila heterophylla Benth.

Common in ditches. Fl. & Fr. 7-9. V.B.G.

592.

Limnophila indica (Linn.) Druce.

Common along the river banks.

V.B.G. 1220.

Lindenbergia indica (Linn.) Kuntze

Common in the crevices of walls and river

banks. Fl. & Fr. 1-4. V.B.G. 727.

Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell

Found on damp and moist places near the

river banks, ponds, ditches etc. Fl. & Fr.

9-11. V.B.G. 343, 730.

FI. 11-1.

Lindernia crustacea (Linn.) F. V. Muell.

Common in grassy fields and on moist places.

Fl. & Fr. 8. V.B.G. 731.

Lindernia multiflora (Roxb.) Mukherjee

In ground flora, not common. Fl. & Fr.

10-12. V.B.G. 1221.

Sopubia delphinifolia G. Don

On hill slopes and in ground flora. Fl. &

Fev dons | V-B;G. 352,929.

Striga densiflora Benth.

Common on hills and in ground flora. Fl. &

Fr. 7-8. V.B.G. 405.

Striga euphrasioides (Vahl) Benth.

Common in ground flora and on hill slopes.

Fl. & Fr. 8-2. V.B.G. 80, 319.

Striga gesneroides (Willd.) Vatke. ex Engel.

On hill slopes, not common. Fl. & Fr.

8-9. V.B.G. 358.

Sutera dissecta Walp.

Common along the river banks.

12 NOB SG. 577, 732.

FI. & Fr.

Verbascum chinense (Linn.) Santapau

Found along the river banks, common.

Fl. & Fr. 12-4. V.B.G. 36, 37.

Veronica anagalis Linn.

Common along river banks. FI.

11-1. V.B.G. 940.

& Fr.

LENTIBULARIACEAE

Utricularia exoleta R. Br.

Common in ditches and rivers.

V.B.G. 590.

Fl. & Fr. 2.

PEDALIACEAE

Sesamum indicum Linn.

Common on hill slopes. Fl. & Fr. 8-10.

V.B.G. 339.

MARTYNIACEAE

Martynia annua Linn.

Common along road side, waste places,

hills, ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 8-10. V.B.G.

1222.

673

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ACANTHACEAE

Adhatoda vasica Nees

Common on waste lands, base of the hills

and deforested area. Fl. & Fr. 11-1. V.B.G.

899.

Andrographis echioides (Linn.) Nees

Common in river ravines and ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 8-12. V.B.G. 379, 890.

Barleria cristata Linn.

Common along river side and in ground

flora. Fl. & Fr. 11-1. V.B.G. 576, 906.

Barleria gibsoni Dalz.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 11-1.

V.B.G. 905.

Barleria prionitis Linn. |

Common in deforested soil. Fl. & Fr. 10-1.

V.B.G. 566.

Blepharis maderaspatensis (Linn.)

Heyne. ex Roth.

Common in ground flora and on hill slopes.

Fl. & Fr. 8-1. V.B.G. 596, 907.

Daedalacanthus purpurascens T. Anders.

Found in ground flora, not common. Fl. &

Fr. 11-1. V.B.G. 900-902.

Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees

Common in ground flora and fields. Fl. &

Fr. 6-9. V.B.G. 537.

Elytraria acaulis (Linn. f.) Lindan.

Common in ground flora and hill slopes.

Fl. & Fr. 12-6. V.B.G. 186, 981.

Haplanthus verticillaris Nees

Common on hill slopes. Fl. & Fr. 12-1.

V.B.G. 1098.

Hemigraphis latebrosa Nees var. heyneana

Braun.

Found in ground flora, hill slopes, fields, and

along road side. Fl. & Fr. 11-1. V.B.G. 907.

Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine.

Common along the ditches and in the fields.

Fl. & Fr. 9-2. V.B.G. 893-895.

Lepidagathis trinervis Nees

Common on hills. Fl. & Fr. 10-1. V.B.G.

896.

Justicia prostrata Gamble

Found in forest and fields. Fl. & Fr. 9-11.

V.B.G. 24, 897, 898.

Justicia simplex D. Don

Common in ground flora, in fields, along

road side. Fl. & Fr. 11-2. V.B.G. 904.

Justicia tranquebariensis Linn. f.

Found in ground flora and on hills. Fl. &

Fr. 9-11. V.B.G. 204.

Petalidium barleroides Nees

In fields. FI. & Fr. 2-4. V.B.G. 121.

Peristrophe bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees

Common along river side and in ground

flora. Fl. & Fr. 10-12. V.B.G. 30, 563.

Ruellia tuberosa Linn.

Common on forest. Fl. & Fr. 8-9. V.B.G.

903:

Rungia pectinata (Linn.) Nees

In ground flora, field and along road side.

Fl. & Fr. 11-1. V.B.G. 908-913.

Rungia repens (Linn.) Nees

Common in grass fields and forest area.

Fl. & Fr. 9-12. V.B.G. 516, 912, 914.

VERBENACEAE

Clerodendrum indicum (Linn.) Kuntze

Common in open grassy places. FI. & Fr.

11-12. ¥ ViBiG, 712, +703:

674

FLORA OF BARIBARELI RANGE

Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn .f.

Common in the ground flora.

V.B.G. 711.

Fl. & Fr. G,

Lantana camara Linn. var. aculeata (Linn.)

Moldenke

Common as undergrowth in ground floor.

El; 6-9. | Fr. 12-2, V.B.G. 708.

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn.

Abundant as undergrowth on hill slopes and

in ground flora. Fl. 8-10. Fr. 12-1. V.B.G.

370, 539.

Tectona grandis Linn. f.

Abundant all over the forest area. Fl. &

Fr, 6-8. V.B.G. 1223.

Vitex negundo Linn.

Common in ground flora.

V.B.G. 33, 223.

Fl. & Fr. 3-4.

LABIATAE

Anisochilus carnosus Wall.

Found common on hill slopes and in ground

flora. Fl. & Fr. 9-10. V.B.G. 1224.

Anisomeles indica (Linn.) Kuntze.

Common in fields. Fl. & Fr. 11-1.

612.

V.B.G.

Hyptis suaveolens (Poir.) Jacq.

Found in ground flora. Fl. 10-11.

614.

V.B.G.

Leucas aspera Spreng.

Found in fields and forest.

V.B.G. 1225.

Fil. & Fr. 7-4.

Leucas cephalotes Spreng.

Found common in fields.

V.B.G. 1226.

Fl. & Fr. 8-10.

Leucas mollissima Wall.

Grows on the eroded margins of the river and

also in fields. Fl. & Fr. 11-12. V.B.G. 18,

610.

Leucas nutans Spreng.

Found on hills, forest, river, ravines and

fields. FI. & Fr. 8-9. V.B.G. 262.

Leonitis nepetaefolia R. Br.

In dried, nallas. Fl. & Fr.

1227.

9-2. V.B.G.

Nepeta hindostana (Roth.) Haines

Found along river banks. Fl. & Fr. 2.

V.B.G. 82, 89, 613.

Ocimum americanum Linn.

Found common in fields, grassy fields and

at foot of the hills. Fl. & Fr. 9-1. V.B.G.

601, 604.

Ocimum basilicum Linn.

Wild in fields and on deforested soil.

Fr. 10-12. V.B.G. 602.

Fl. &

Orthosiphon pallidus Royle ex Benth.

Common in fields. Fl. & Fr. 6-8. V.B.G

196, 609.

Pogostemon benghalensis (Burn. f.) Ktze.

Rare, in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 1-2.

V.B:G. 20,33, 76.

Salvia plebeia R. Br.

Common as weed in the fields. Fl. 8644.

V.B.G. 1228.

NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhaavia diffusa Linn.

Common in fields and ground flora. FI. &

Fr. G. V.B.G;¢291) 507; 935.

675

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

AMARANTHACEAE

Achyranthes aspera Linn.

As weed on waste grounds, grassfields, culti-

vable land and forest. Fl. & Fr. 8-12.

V.B.G. 452, 557, 916.

Aerva lanata (Linn.) Juss.

Common in fields, waste land, ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 10-2. V.B.G. 58, 558, 919.

Aerva sanguinolenta (Linn.) Bl.

Found in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 1.

1229.

Alternanth.ra paronychoides St. Hil.

V.B.G

Not common, in the fields and along the river

banks. Fl. & Fr. 9-1. V.B.G. 1230.

Alternanthera sessilis R. Br.

Common along river banks, a weed in crop

fields and on deforested soil. Fl. & Fr. G.

V.B.G. 247, 923, 929.

Amaranthus gracilis Desf.

Common as weed in cultivated fields, grass

fields and in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 7-1.

V.B.G.927, 982:

Amaranthus hybridus Linn. sub. sp. cruentus

Thell. var. paniculatus Thell.

Along the river banks. FI.

V.B.G. 56, 922.

Amaranthus spinosus Linn.

& Fr. 10-1.

Common in grass fields, waste places, and in

round flora. Fl. & Fr. 9-10. V.B.G. 430,

924. Sat kala :

Celosia argentea Linn.

Common in grassfields, hill slopes and in

ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 8-11. V.B.G. 329,

921, 922. :

Digera muricat2 (Linn.) Mart.

- Common: in fields and along river side.

Fl. & Fr. 7-11. -V.B.G. 303, 928.

Gomphrena celosioides Matt.

Common in fields and in ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 7-9. V.B.G. 235.

Nothosaerva brachiata (Linn.) Wt.

Common in forest and fields.

11-12. V.B.G. 1231.

Fl. & Fr.

Pupalia lappacea (Linn.) Mog.

Common in ground flora and along the river

banks. Fl. & Fr. 9-11. V.B.G. 443.

CHENOPODIACEAE

Chenopodium album Linn.

A common weed throughout the area in culti-

vated fields and waste places. Fl. & Fr. 12-4.

V.B.G. 968.

POLYGONACEAE

Polygonum barbatum Linn.

Abundant along the river banks.

10-3. V.B.G. 568.

FI. & Fr.

Polygonum plebeium R. Br.

Common on recently exposed soil by digging

in fields, along river banks. FI. & Fr. 11-3.

V.B.G. 940-946.

Rumex dentatus Linn.

Along river banks.

Fl. & Fr. 11-3. V.B.G.

944, 945. :

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE

_ Aristolochia indica Linn.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl & Fr 8-11. » V.B-G.1232:

LORANTHACEAE

Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn. f.) Ettings.

Not common, grows on Buchanania lanzan

and Madhuca longifolia var. oa etc. FI

1-3. V.B.G. 624.

676

FLORA OF BARI-BARELI RANGE

Viscum nepalense Spreng.

Found growing on a number of hosts like

Buchanania lanzan, Schleichera oleosa and

Terminalia arjuna, etc., scattered all over the

forest. Fl. 7-11. V.B.G. 138.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Acalypha indica Linn.

Common in grassfields, ground flora and

waste land. Fl. & Fr.G. V.B.G. 404, 424.

Baliospermum montanum Muell.

Common in ground flora and fields. Fl. &

Br f-122° VV BG. 1060; 1070.

Bridelia sgqamosa Gehrm.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 5-10.

V.B.G. 78, 476.

Chrozophora prostrata Dalz.

Common in ground flora and waste fields.

Fl. & Fr. 11-2. V.B.G. 574, 1059.

Emblica officinalis Gaertn.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Bl 8-5) br 2-1. VB.G,y 159.

Euphorbia bombaiensis Santapau

Common all over the area. FI. & Fr. 1-12.

V.B.G. 1065.

Euphorbia elegans Spreng.

Found in river, ravines and fields, not

common. FI. & Fr. 1-3. V.B.G. 143.

Euphorbia geniculata Orteg.

As a weed in gardens, in fields. Fi. & Fr.

10-2. V.B.G. 1055, 1066.

Euphorbia hypericifolia Linn. ue

Common all over the area. FI. & Fr. 1-12.

V.B.G. 283, 1058.

Euphorbia neriifolia Linn.

Found in ground flora and at the foot of the

hills. Fl. 3-5. V.B.G. 146.

Euphorbia parbracteata Gage.

As weed in cultivated fields, near and along

the river banks. Fl. & Fr. 1-3. V.B.G. 1063.

Euphorbia parviflora Roxb.

Abundant all over the area. Fl. & Fr. 1-12.

V.B.G. 1054, 1057, 1068.

Euphorbia thymifolia Linn.

Very common in the area in all habitats.

Fl. & Fr. 1-12. V.B.G. 1064.

Euphorbia tirucalli Linn.

In ground flora, in the fences of cultivated

fields, not common. V.B.G. 140.

Jatropha curcas Linn.

Found. in semi-wild condition in vicinity of

villages and also planted in hedges. FI. & Fr.

9-1. V.B.G. 1062.

Mallotus philippinensis (Lamk.) Muell.

Common along river banks. Fl. & Fr. 11-1.

V.B.G. 1056, 1069.

Phyllanthus debilis Ham.

Found in ground flora.

V.B.G. 278.

Flo & Fr. 7-9.

Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn.

Common in fields. Fl. & Fr. 1-12. V.B.G.

415.

Phyllanthus simplex Retz. |

Found in ground flora and fields. Fl. 8-11,

V.B.G. 263.

ULMACEAE

Holoptelea integrifolia Planch.

Common on hills and in ground flora.

FI.

324k (Er 4-oN) WiBiG. 868: A

677

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Trema orientalis Blume.

Found common along river and river ravines

during its course in the forest. FI. G. V.B.G.

72, 514, 869.

MORACEAE

Ficus benghalensis Linn.

Occurs as planted tree near habitation.

Receptacles 3-4.

Ficus gibbosa Blume.

Common in ground flora. Receptacles

3-515) VIB. GU 9301233.

Ficus glomerata Roxb.

Common along river banks. Receptacles

7-9. V.B.G. 867.

Ficus hispida Linn. f.

In ground flora and along river banks.

Receptacles 7-6. V.B.G. 870, 871.

Ficus lacor Benth-Ham.

Rare, around Bari village.

Ficus religiosa Linn.

Rare. in forest, planted in local habitation.

Receptacles 4-5.

Ficus tomentosa Roxb. ex Willd.

Not common on the hills and in ground

flora. Receptacles 7-7. V.B.G. 203.

| HyYDROCHARITACEAE

Blyxa auberti Rich.

In Barna river, common. Fl. & Fr. 9-11.

V.B.G. 600.

Hydrilla verticillata (Linn. f.) Royle

Abundant in river Barna. Fl. & Fr. 11-12.

V.B.G. 591.

Vallisneria spiralis Linn.

Common in Barna river. FI. & Fr. 1-4.

V.B.G. 1042.

ORCHIDACEAE

Habenaria plantaginea Lindl.

Found in ground flora on damp shady

places. Fl. & Fr. 3-4. V.B.G. 1235.

Vanda tesselata Hook. ex G. Don.

Found common on number of plants like

Mangifera indica, Buchanania lanzan etc.

Fl. & Fr. 4-7. V.B.G. 187, 933.

Zeuxine strateumatica (Linn.) Schit.

Rare, along small streamlets which join

Barna River. Fl. & Fr. 2-3. V.B.G. 113,

934.

MUSACEAE

Globba orixensis Roxb.

Not common, in ground flora. Fl. & Fr.

7-9.

AMARYLLIDACEAE

Crinum defixum Ker.-Gawl.

Amphibious, along river banks. Fl. & Fr.

8-11. V.B.G. 562, 878.

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.

Common on lower hill slopes and in ground

flora. Fl. & Fr. 7-10. V.B.G. 201, 879.

TACCACEAE

Tacca leontopetaloides (Linn.) Kuntze

Rare, in the ground flora. FI. & Fr. 8-9.

V.B.G. 345.

AGAVACEAE

Agave mexicana Dr. & Prain

Planted as hedges of the cultivable fields and

gardens. Fl. 1-6. V.B.G. 1140. ,

678

FLORA OF BARI-BARELI RANGE

DIOSCOREACEAE

Dioscorea bulbifera Linn.

. In ground flora and on hills.

8-10. V.B.G. 1246.

Dioscorea hispida Dennst.

On shrubs and trees in ground flora.

Fr. 8-11. V.B.G. 206.

Dioscorea pentaphylla Linn.

Found on hills. Fi.

1104.

Fl. & Fr.

Fl. &

9-10. V.B.G. 536,

LILIACEAE

. Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Common in ground flora.

V.B.G. 1236.

Chlorophytum arundinaceum Baker

Common on hills. Fl. & Fr. 7-8. V.B.G.

199.

_ Gloriosa superba Linn.

Fl. & Fr. 8-11.

Found on hills and in ground flora. Fl. &

Fr. 6-10. V.B.G. 622.

. Scilla hyacinthina (Roth.) Macbr.

On hilltops, rare. Fl. & Fr.7. V.B.G. 180.

Urginea indica Kunth.

On hills, rare. Fl. & Fr. 4. V.B.G. 156.

SMILACEAE

Smilax zeylanica Linn.

Found in ground flora, not common. FI. &

Fr. 8-9. V.B.G. 300, 623.

PONTEDERIACEAE

Monocharia vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl. ex Kunth.

Common in and along the ditches. Fl. & Fr.

8-10. V.B.G. 317.

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina attenuata Koen. ex Vahl.

Found on lower slopes and in ground flora.

FI. & Fr. 8. V.B.G. 1237.

Commelina benghalensis Linn.

Abundant in fields and in ground flora.

FI. & Fr. 7-10. V.B.G. 372, 941.

Commelina hasskarlii Clarke

Common at foot of the hills and in ground

flora. Fl. & Fr. 10-11. V.B.G. 522.

Commelina paludosa Blume.

Common on the hill slopes and in ground

flora. Fl. & Fr. 7-8. V.B.G. 218.

Cyanotis cucullata Kunth.

Common in the ground flora and foot hills.

Fl. & Fr. 7-10. V.B.G. 1238.

Cyanotis fasciculata Schult. f.

Common on hill slopes and in ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 8-9. V.B.G. 310.

Murdannia malabarica (Linn.) Brueckner

Common on lower slopes and in ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 9. V.B.G. 1239.

Murdannia spiratum (Linn.) Brueckner

— Found in fields on hills and in ground flora.

FI. & Fr. 7-9. V.B.G. 386.

Zygomenes axillaris (Linn.) Salis.

Common in ground flora. Fl. & Fr. 7-8.

V.B.G. 392.

Zygomenes cucullata (Roth.) R. et Kam.

On the hill slopes and in ground flora. Fl. &

Fr. 8-9. V.B.G. 992.

PALMAE

Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.

Common throughout the area in and outside

the forest on moist ground along banks and

beds of the streams. FI. 1-2.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

TYPHACEAE

Typha angustata Bory. & Chaub.

Common along the river banks and in the

shallow waters of the river. FI. 8.

ARACEAE

Amarphophallus purpurascens Kurz.

Found in the ground flora. Fl. 4-5. V.B.G.

1115.

Arisaema decipiens Schott.

Found in ground flora. Fl. 7-9. V.B.G.

471, 540.

Cryptocoryne retrospiralis Kunth.

Along the river banks and in the water stream.

Fl. 8. V.B.G. 1039.

Plesmonium margaritiferum Schott.

Not common, at the base of the hills. Fl. &

Fr. 9. V.B.G. 182.

LEMNACEAE

Lemna paucicostala Hege.

Common on ponds and in shallow sluggish

streams. FI. 10.

ALISMATACEAE

Sagittaria sagittifolia Linn.

Common along river banks and in the river

bed also. Fl. & Fr. 1-4. V.B.G. 880.

NAIDACEAER

Naias graminea Del.

Found in ponds and river beds. FI. 8-9.

V.B.G. 1240.

Naias minor All.

Found in ditches and river ponds.’ Fl. 9.

V.B.G. 593.

POTAMOGETONACEAE

Potamogeton nodosus Poir.

Found submerged in the river.

3. V.B.G. 1242.

Fl. & Fr,

ERIOCAULACEAE

Eriocaulon sexangulare Linn.

Found in ground flora on damp deforested

soil where grasses have come up. Fl. & Fr.

7-9. V.B.G. 1052.

Eriocaulon turncatum Buch.-Ham.

Found on moist shady places in ground flora.

Fl. & Fr. 8-9. V.B.G. 442.

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus brevifolius (Rottl.) Endl.

Commonin ditches. Fl. & Fr.8-10. V.B.G.

1106.

Cyperus compressus Linn.

A common weed in fields and along river

banks. Fl. & Fr. 7-9. V.B.G. 870.

Cyperus cyperoides (Linn.) Kuntze

Found along the ditches and on moist places.

Fl. & Fr. 7-8. V.B.G. 246, 882.

Cyperus difformis Linn.

Abundant in the mud, in and along the

ditches. Fl. & Fr. 9-10. V.B.G. 459, 875.

Cyperus exaltatus Retz.

Common on damp soil and in the ditches.

Fl. & Fr.9. V.B.G. 450.

Cyperus iria Linn.

Common on damp soil, in and along water

ditches. Fl. & Fr. 9-10. V.B.G. 273, 880,

881.

680

FLORA OF BARFIBARELI RANGE

Cyperus maritimus Linn.

Common, in the river bed and along the

banks. Fl. & Fr. 2. V.B.G. 37.

Cyperus niveus Retz.

Found in fields, along river banks and in

ground flora. Fl. 11. V.B.G. 1137.

Cyperus pangorei Rottlb.

Common along the banks and in the river.

Fl. & Fr. 2. V.B.G. 38, 877, 888.

Cyperus pumilus Linn.

Found in ground flora and along the ditches.

FI. 9. V.B.G. 1243.

Cyperus rotundus Linn.

In ditches, on damp soil, in ground flora,

in and along river banks. Fl. & Fr. 1-12.

V.B.G, 216, 238, 872.

Cyperus triceps (Rottb.) Endl.

Common in fields, ground flora, along river

banks. Fl. & Fr. 8-11. V.B.G. 39, 215.

Eleocharis palustris R. Br.

Common in the river stream and in ditches.

Fl. & Fr. 8-4. V.B.G. 63, 268, 871.

Fimbristylis dichotoma Vahl

Common on moist soils, along river banks.

Fl. & Fr. 10-4. V.B.G. 1244.

Fimbristylis dichotoma Vahl var. paucispiculata

Linn.

Common along the river banks, ditches.

Fl. & Fr. 11-4. V.B.G. 1245.

Fimbristylis diphylla Vahl

Common in streams and along the river

banks. Fl. & Fr. 10-3. V.B.G. 873, 874.

fimbristylis miliacea Vahl

Common on damp soil in ground flora and

along river banks. Fl. & Fr. 8-11. V.B.G.

458.

Scirpus lacustris Linn.

Found in and along the margins of the

ditches. Fl. & Fr. 7-8. V.B.G. 242.

Scirpus littoralis Schrad.

Common in the ditches. Fl. & Fr. 9-11.

V.B.G. 1074.

CONCLUSIONS

The pteridophytes are represented by 11

species covered by 10 genera. Whereas the

dicotyledons are represented by 401 species

covered by 270 genera and 79 families. Mono-

cotyledons are represented by 21 families com-

prising of 87 genera and 139 species, of which

gramineae is represented by 49 genera and 73

species (papers on grasses is already under sub-

mission to Bulletin Botanical Survey of India).

Thus in all 551 species have been found in the

area.

Abbreviations :

Numbers from 1-12 have respectively been

used to denote the months from January-

December. ‘G’ denotes greater part of the

year.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My thanks are dve to Dr. G. Panigrahi

of Botanical Survey of India who encouraged

and helped throughout the work.

681

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

REFERENCES

BHATTACHARYA, S. (1955): A list of the leguminous

plants of Saugor and their distribution within the area.

Bull. Bot. Soc. Univ. Saugor., 7: 45-54.

Biscog, W. F. (1910) : A list of trees and shrubs of the

‘Indore State, Bombay.

BRANDIS, D. (1874): The forest flora of North-West

and Central India, London.

CHAMPION, H. G. (1936): A preliminary survey of the

forest types of India and Burma. Ind. For. Rec., New

Series 1(i) : 1-286.

MAHESHWARI, J. K. (1958): The woody plants of

Khandwa (Madhya Pradesh). Bull. Bot. Soc. Uni.

Saugor, 10 : 27-50.

682

(1961): A contribution to the flora of

Kanha National Park, Madhya Pradesh. Bull. Bot.

Surv. Ind.5 : 117-140.

(1961): Weeds and alien plants of

Asirgarh, M.P. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 : 202-215.

SEBASTINE, K. M. & BALKRISHNAN, N. P. (1963): A

contribution to the flora of North Eastern Madhya

Pradesh. Ind. For. 89: 612-621.

Tiwari, S. D. N. & MAHEsHWARI, J. K. (1965): The

commelinaceae of Madhya Pradesh. Ind. For. 91:

580-590.

Some plants new to the Flora of

Punjab Plains’

M. SHARMA2

During the last thirteen years, I have been

‘collecting plants from Punjab Plains. A

critical and comparative perusal of the

literature dealing with the plants of Punjab

and the contiguous areas (Stewart 1869,

Hooker et al. 1872-97, Collett 1902, Bamber

1916, Parker 1918, Sabnis 1940-41, Stewart

1945, Duthie 1960, Nair & Nair 1963-66, Rau

1968, Singh 1971, Bor 1973) has revealed that the

75 species belonging to 67 genera and 37 families

enumerated below have not been reported pre-

viously from Punjab plains. The voucher

herbarium specimens have been deposited in

the herbaria of Panjab University Chandigarh

(collected during July 1963 to April¥ 1966 and

indicated by a single asterisk), Punjab Agri-

cultural University, Ludhiana (collected during

May 1966 to September 1968 and indicated by

double asterisks) and Punjabi University.

Patiala (collected ever since October 1968,

devoid of any asterisk mark). But for the

minor modifications, the arrangement of the

families adopted here is the same as in Hookee

et al. (1872-97).

CRUCIFERAE

Brassica campestris L. var. sarson Prain. In

waste places and fields. FI. & Fr. Nov.-

Mar. M. Sharma 458**, 750, 4514.

B. juncea Czern. & Coss. Rare in waste places

and fields. Fl. & Fr. Dec.-May. M.

Sharma 441**, 4526, 4550.

t Accepted September 1976.

2 Department of Botany,

Patiala-147 002.

Punjabi University,

Descurainia sophia Prantl Common weed in

waste places at Kapurthala. Fl. & Fr. Feb.-

Apr. O. P. Sharma 4214.

VIOLACEAE

Hybanthus enneaspermus F. Muell. Among

grasses, rare to common. Fl. & Fr. June-

Oct. M. Sharma 2052, 2843, 3979, 4284.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Cerastium glomeratum Thuill. Rare. Fl. &

Fr. Feb.-Mar. M. Sharma 2554.

MALVACEAE

Abutilon grandifolium Sweet. Rare. Fl. &

Fr. Jan.-May. M. Sharma 3795, 3796,

Pavonia zeylanica Cav. Rare. FI. & Fr. Aug.-

Oct. M. Sharma 1495, 2944.

STERCULIACEAE

Melochia corchorifolia L. Common in moist

waste places. Fl. & Fr. July-Oct. M.

Sharma 1577, 2158, 3577, 4039.

TILIACEAE

Triumfetta pentandra A. Rich. Very common

in waste places. Fl. & Fr. Aug.-Oct. M.

Sharma 211**, 528, 1626, 2166, 4042, 4330.

GERANIACEAE

Geranium rotundifolium L. Very common

near Pathankot. Fl. & Fr. Feb.-Apr.

M. Sharma 3854.

683

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

VITACEAE

Ampelocissus latifolia Planch.

FI. & Fr. July-Nov. M. Sharma 1463, 2936.

PAPILIONACEAE

Lotus corniculatus L. Fairly common in

Ludhiana. Fl. &. Fr. Mar.-May. M.

Sharma 638**.

Rhynchosia rothii Aitchis. Rare. Fl. & Fr.

M. Sharma 2959, 4037, 4371.

Trigonella incisa Benth. Very common weed.

Fl. & Fr. Dec.-Apr. M. Sharma 2387%*,

446**, 225, 2017, 3876, 3904.

Aug.-Nov.

MIMOSACEAE

Mimosa himalayana Gamble. Rare. Fl. &

Fr. July-Oct. M. Sharma 2222, 2264, 3568.

ONAGRACEAE

Epilobium hirsutum L. Rare. FJ. & Fr. Aug.-

Oct. M. Sharma 3792, 4036.

Hartmannia rosea G. Don. Rare. FI. & Fr.

Mar.-May. M. Sharma 3497, 4224.

CUCURBITACEAE

Blastania fimbristipula Kotschy & Peyr. Very

rare. FI. Sept. M. Sharma 4364.

UMBELLIFERAE

Apium graveolens L. Common near Budha

Nala, Ludhiana. FI. & Fr. Mar.-May.

M. Sharma 641**, 1898, 2682.

Torilis japonica DC. Common at Manimajra,

Chandigarh. Fl. & Fr. Feb.-Apr. M.

Sharma 1679*.

RUBIACEAE

Oldenlandia brachiata Hook. f. Common

among grasses. Fl. & Fr. Aug.-Oct. M.

Sharma 2792*, 776**, 589, 1465, 1518, 1544.

Occasional. »

COMPOSITAE

Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Rare to

common and gregarious. Fl. & Fr. Aug.-

Oct. M. Sharma 1662, 2516, 3557, 4306.

Ageratum houstonianum Mill. Common. FI. &

Fr. Sept.-Apr. M. Sharma 941**, 1743,

3457.

Cirsium wallichii DC. var. fasciculata (Hook. f.)

M. Sharma Comb. nov. Cnicus wallichii

Hook. f. var. fasciculata Hook. f. in Fl. Brit.

India 3 : 364, 1881.

Fairly common in Bir Chhatt, Patiala. Fl. &

Fr. Mar.-May. M. Sharma 3520.

Galinsoga parviflora Cav. Very rare. FI. &

Fr. Jan.-Feb. M. Sharma 2418.

Lactuca dissceta D. Don. Common weed in

waste places and orchards. Fl. & Fr. Feb.-

Apr. M. Sharma 1684*, 569**, 1783, 2014,

2555, 2698, 3233, 3445, 3937.

L. serriola L. Fairly common in shady waste

places. FI. & Fr. Apr.-June. M. Sharma

39**, 2042, 3964. »

Lagascea mollis Cav. Very rare. Fl. & Fr.

Sept.-Dec. M. Sharma 2500*.

Launaea resedifolia Druce. On sand dunes.

Fl. & Fr. Apr.-June. M. Sharma 4542.

Parthenium hysterophorusL. Rare to abundant.

Fl. & Fr. Apr.-Oct. M. Sharma 2701, 2724

3106, 3216, 3977.

OLEACEAE

Jasminum auriculatum Vahl. Rare in hedges.

Fl. & Fr. July-Sept. M. Sharma 2683*,

2072, 2122.

APOCYNACEAE

Catharanthus pusillus G. Don. Fairly common

in fields and waste places. Fl. & Fr. Augs-

Oct. M. Sharma 2246*, 332**, 540, 2113.

3550, 3748.

684

FLORA OF PUNJAB PLAINS

EHRETIACEAE

Ehretia aspera Roxb. Common in waste place

and hedges. Fl. & Fr. Mar.-Nov.

M. Sharma 2458*, 86**, 1785, 1713, 1851,

3925.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Ipomoea cairica Sweet var. indica Hall. f.

Naturalized among hedges and forests.

Fl. & Fr. Almost throughout the year.

M. Sharma 2077*, 232**, 2046, 4239, 4275.

I. fistulosa Choisy. Naturalized in watery

places. Fl. & Fr. Mar.-Dec. M. Sharma

2353*, 31**, 960, 1470, 3467, 4345.

I. pes-tigridis L. var. capitellata Cl. Fairly

common weed. Fl. & Fr. Aug.-Oct. M.

Sharma 2783*, 354**, 506, 1354, 1612.

Merremia dissecta Hall. f. Among hedges.

Fl. & Fr. Apr.-Nov. M. Sharma 339**,

1674, 2292, 2806, 3791.

SOLANACEAE

Datura stramonium L. Rare. Fl. & Fr. Aug.-

Oct. M. Sharma 2498* , 1348, 2523.

Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv. Widespread

weed. FI. & Fr. Feb.-July. M. Sharma

1690*, 633**, 921, 2079, 2679, 3262.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Lindernia verbenifolia Pennell. Rare. Fl. &

Fr. Aug.-Sept. M. Sharma 2710.

Verbascum thapsus L. Rare but scattered.

Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Nov. also Mar.-May. M.

Sharma 778**, 2524, 2704, 3527.

PEDALIACEAE

Pedalium murex L. Rare.

Sept. M. Sharma 1369.

Fl. & Fr. July-

ACANTHACEAE

Blepharis maderaspatensis Roth. Rare. Fl. &

Fr. Mar.-May. M. Sharma 2215*, 2803,

3472.

Dicliptera verticillata Christens.

Mar.-Apr. M. Sharma 1799.

Hemigraphis hirta T. Anders. Common in

Patiala district. Fl. & Fr. Mar.-June.

M. Sharma 1803, 1845, 2010, 2628.

Lepidagathis cuspidata Nees. Rare. Fl. & Fr.

Mar.-Apr. M. Sharma 2444*, 4240.

Rare. FI.

VERBENACEAE

ex Schau. Common

M. Sharma 4308.

Premna barbata Wall.

in Bir Chhatt, Patiala.

LABIATAE

Ocimum canum Sims. Rare. Fl. & Fr. July-

Oct. M. Sharma 2226*, 768*, 1410, 3565.

PLANTAGINACEAE

Plantago pumila Willd. Rare. Fl. & Fr.

Feb.-Apr. M. Sharma 855, 3281.

AMARANTHACEAE

Achyranthes aspera L. var. porphyristachya

Hook f. Fairly common in Patiala district.

Fl. & Fr. July-Nov. M. Sharma 1637, 2989,

3081, 3757.

Alternanthera ficoidea Griseb. Rare to abun-

dant. FI. & Fr. Almost all the year round.

M. Sharma 3107, 3222, 3230, 4248.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Croton bonplandianum Baill. Very common in

waste places. Fl. & Fr. Mar.-Nov.

M. Sharma 2198*, 118**, 142, 1397, 3505,

3959.

685

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

Euphorbia serpens H.B. & K. Common in

Punjabi. University Campus. Fl. & Fr.

Mar.-Nov. M. Sharma 3540, 3556, 3785,

4279.

Kirganelia reticulata Poir. Rare. Fi.

Mar.-May. M. Sharma 4206, 4237.

& Fr.

URTICACEAE

Pouzolzia pentandra Benn. Rare to very com-

mon. FI. & Fr. July-Nov. M. Sharma

2051*, 760**, 962, 1338, 2890, 3989.

ORCHIDACEAE

Eulophia hormusjii Duthie. Rare to common.

FI. Mar.-Apr. M. Sharma 1691*, 562**,

3487, 3872.

DIOSCOREACEAE

- Dioscorea bulbifera Linn. Common in Bir

Chhatt, Patiala. Fl. & Fr. July-Nov. M.

Sharma 3763, 4299.

PONTEDERIACEAE

Eichhornia crassipes Solms. Very common in

ponds. Fl. Aug.-Nov. also Apr.-May.

M. Sharma 389**, 2114, 2651, 4379.

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina forskalaei Vahl. Rare.

July-Sept. M. Sharma 2103.

C. undulata R. Br. Fairly common. FI. & Fr.

Fl." & Fr.

July-Oct. M. Sharma 1472, 2151, 2270,

2996, 3079.

ALISMATACEAE

_Alisma plantago LL. Rare. Fil. Mar.

M. Sharma 3866.

POTAMOGETONACEAE

Potamogeton perfoliatus L. Fairly common.

Fl. & Fr. Jan.-Apr. M. Sharma 2538, 2550,

3280.

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus alulatus Kern. Very common weed.

Fl. & Fr. Aug.-Oct. M. Sharma 2277*,

278**, 343, 941, 3732, 4013, 4334.

C. atkinsonii Cl. Rare. Fl. & Fr. July-Oct.

M. Sharma 2992, 3073, 3102.

Eleocharis acutangula Schult. Rare. Fl. &

Fr. Aug.-Oct. M. Sharma 3548, 3775.

GRAMINEAE

Chloris montana Roxb. Rare to common.

Fl. & Fr. July-Oct.

1493.

M. Sharma 359, 1365,

C. virgata Sw. Common in Patiala district.

Fl. & Fr. July-Oct. M. Sharma 995, 1572,

2534, 3086.

Chrysopogon fulvus Chiov. Rare. Fl.. & Fr.

Aug.-Oct. M. Sharma 2302*, 3765, 4305.

Cymbopogon parkeri Stapf. Very rare. Fl. &

Fr. July-Sept. M. Sharma 2513.

Digitaria longiflora Pers. Rare. Fl. & Fr.

Aug.-Oct. M. Sharma 2721, 3213.

D. stricta Roem. & Schult. Common. Fl. &

Fr. July-Oct. M. Sharma 2748*, 1429, 1481,

2297, 3087, 4380.

Dinebra retroflexa Panz.

Patiala district. FI.

M. Sharma 2705, 3208.

Eriochloa nubica Thell. Common. Fl. & Fr.

July-Oct. M. Sharma 2081, 2115, 2706,

2726, 2951, 3108, 3206, 3582.

Fairly common in

& Fr. Aug.-Oct.

= ee

FLORA OF PUNJAB PLAINS

M. Sharma 4543.

Lasiurus sindicus Henr.

Fl. & Fr. Apr.-June.

Leersia hexandra Sw. Rare.

2893, 3452.

Panicum maximum Jacq. Common in Bir

Mehas, Patiala. Fl. & Fr. Aug.-Nov.

M. Sharma 1372, 2288, 4356.

sand dunes.

Fl. & Fr. Aug.-

Nov. also Apr.-May. M. Sharma 393**,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to the Heads of Botany depart-

ments of Panjab, Punjabi and Punjab Agri-

cultural universities for assistance, to the

authorities of Forest Research Institute, Dehra

Dun, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow and

Central National Herbarium, Howrah for her-

barium and library facilities and to the Director,

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew for getting some

of the plants identified.

REFERENCES

Bamper, C. J. (1916) : Plants of the Punjab. Lahore.

Bor, N. L. (1973): The Grasses of Burma, Ceylon,

India and Pakistan (excluding Bambuseae). Reprinted

with Addenda and Corrigenda. Koenigstein.

CoLieTT, H. (1902): Flora Simlensis. Calcutta and

Simla.

DutuiE, J. F. (1960): Flora of the Upper Gangetic

Plain and of the adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan

Tracts. Repr. ed. Vols. 1-2. Calcutta.

Hooker, J. D. et al. (1872-97) : The Flora of British

India. Vols. 1-7. London.

Nair, N. C. & Nair, V. J. (1963-66) : Some Plant

Records for the Punjab Plain. Bull. bot. Surv. India

5 - 219-222 ; 6: 69-71 ; 299-300 ; 8 : 351-352.

PARKER, R. N. (1918) : A Forest Flora for the Punjab

with Hazara and Delhi. Lahore.

Rau, M. A. (1968): Flora of the Upper Gangetic

Plain and of the adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan

Tracts. Check List. Bull. bot. Surv. India 10 (Supple-

ment No. 2) : 1-87.

SaBNis, T. S. (1940-41): A Contribution to the

Flora of the Punjab Plains and the Associated Hill

Regions. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42 : 124-149 ; 342-

379 ; 533-586.

SINGH, V. (1971) : Additions to Duthie’s Flora of the -

Upper Gangetic Plain. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68:

339-346.

STEWART, J. L. (1869): Punjab Plants. Lahore.

STEWART, R. R. (1945): The Grasses of Northwest

India. Brittonia 5 : 404-468.

687

Introduced weeds in the Vegetation of

Mysore

District’

R. R. Rao’

AND

K. SURYANARAYANA®?

INTRODUCTION

Karnataka has no flora of its own, though parts

of the state are covered by the floras of Madras

(Gamble 1915-36), Bombay (Cooke 1901-1908),

Bangalore (Ramaswamy & Razi 1973) and

Hassan (Saldanha 1976). Flora of Mysore

district (Rao 1973) is one more step towards

the ultimate achievement of the flora of the

state of Karnataka.

During the course of preparation of a flora

of Mysore district, a large number of ‘ weedy

species’ which have not been mentioned or

mentioned only as a casual reference in many

of the South Indian floras were encountered ;

and some of these are of recent introductions—

(Ramaswamy et al. 1972-73).

The flora of Mysore district is now fairly

well-known mainly through the works of

Barnes (1944), Naithani (1966), Kammathy

et al. (1967), Razi & Rao (1971), Rao (1971-72,

1973), Rao & Razi (1973-74), Bhaskar & Razi

(1973). But a systematic study on introduced

elements has not been made hitherto, though

Ramaswamy ef al. (1972-73) have published

a small note on the adventive species in the

district. Elsewhere, in the country similar

studies have been carried out and have received

! Accepted October 1976.

* Department of Botany, School of Life Sciences,

North-Eastern Hill University, Sh l:onz-793 003.

’ Department of Botany, Yuvaraja’s College,

University of Mysore, Mysore-570 005.

much attention (Prain 1890; Brihl 1908;

Kashyap 1924; Biswas 1934; Raizada 1935,

1936; Mooney 1950; Srivastava 1954, 1964;

Maheshwari 1960, 1962). The present study

from Mysore district is to fill such a lacuna

and is hoped that this will induce others also

towards such studies in other parts of the

country.

Exotic weeds have been established in our

country eversince the time of Portuguese settle-

ment in India (15th century). They introduced

economically important plants brought from

Brazil, Mexico, parts of Africa and other places

on their commercial route. Later, many British

Officers and travellers interested in gardening

also introduced many ornamental as well as

medicinal plants from other countries to

India ; along with these useful plants, seeds of

many of the obnoxious weeds also got intro-

duced by some way or other and thus got

established on the new soil.

Calcutta, eversince the establishment of the

Royal Botanic Garden (now Indian Botanic

Garden) in 1787 has been the active centre for

introduction and acclamatisation of many

useful plants ; and thus is also a source for

spread of many foreign weeds from this garden.

India being a vast country has a varied type

of climate, topography, soil types and other

factors, which are suitable for the growth of

plants from practically all regions of the world.

Though, this is beneficial in a way to introduce

688

WEEDS IN THE VEGETATION OF MYSORE DISTRICT

any economically important plants, at the

same time provides a congenial habitat for the

growth of ‘ nature selected weeds’.

Thus, these foreign weeds once introduced

have acclamatised on the new soil and

naturalised themselves in such a way that

they now seem to be part of the native

flora. These weeds after their introduction

have spread to all parts by various factors,

man being the only major biotic factor. Some

of the important factors responsible for the

spread of these weeds are shifting cultivation,

deforestation, faulty pasturage methods,

methods of harvesting, sale and introduction of

impure seeds, sowing impure seeds on culti-

vated and uncultivated lands, construction of

roads and railway lines, etc. (Maheshwari 1962).

While weeds like Croion bonplandianum, Acan-

thospermum hispidum, Alternanthera sp. are

accidental introductions; Eupatorium odoratum,

Lantana camara, Eichhornia crassipes, Datura

metel and others are species introduced as

ornamentals or for their medicinal value.

Mysore district is the southernmost portion

of the state of Karnataka, and lies between 11°

36'-12° 42' N lat. and 76° 55’-77° 45’ E long.

The vegetation of the district is interesting with

a variety of forest types (Rao & Razi 1973-74).

In Mysore district majority of the weeds thus

established are from Tropical America or

Africa and a few from Europe and Australia

(Table 2).

There are 184 introduced species in the

present vegetation of Mysore district spread

over 49 families and 128 genera; and this

approximately constitutes 11.5% of the intro-

duced flora as against 40% recorded for India

(Maheshwari 1962).

Asteraceae tops the list of introduced species

both in the number of species as well as in their

abundance in the district. Another noteworthy

observation is that this is one of the families to

establish very quickly, thereby becoming adven-

tive in nature. There are many reasons for the

quick establishment and spread of these Astera-

ceae species. The main features being the pro-

duction of enormous amount of seeds and

secondly their effective mode of dispersal.

Eupatorium odoratum for example was intro-

duced to India when the FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA

(Hooker 1872-1897) was being written. It is said

that this plant was somehow got introduced in

to Kerala state from Assam region by the labou-

rers returning from the Assam front about 15

years ago. By 1973 when Flora of Mysore (Rao

1973) was explored this was the most dominant

weed all round Karapura, Kakanakote and

Heggadadevanakote forests replacing all other

weedy species, including Lantana camara.

This is indicative of the adventive nature of the

species. Another species of the family having

a similar history is Parthenium hysterophcrus.

This species was recorded for the first time in

India in 1951 from Poona (Rao 1956). In

Mysore district this was recorded for the first

time on 23-11-1971, when only two individual

plants were seen (Ramaswamy ef¢ al. 1972-73).

Though these plants were uprooted and burnt,

today however this has become a dominant

weed in many parts of the district. Within a

short span of 25 years this weed has established

itself to such an extent all over the state of

Karnataka, that it is the only dominant weed

now.

Papilionaceae, Poaceae, Amaranthaceae,

Euphorbiaceae, Solanaceae, Cyperaceae,

Malvaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Convol-

vulaceae are some other families with a large

number of introduced weeds in the district

(Table 1).

Maheshwari (1962) has discussed in detail

about the route in which these weeds have

migrated with reference to India; and

Srivastava (1964) has discussed the way in

which some of these weeds probably might have

been introduced. In the present account an

689

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

TABLE |

FAMILIES SHOWING THE NUMBER OF INTRODUCED

GENERA AND SPECIES

Family Number of Number of

genera Species

Asteraceae fo 24 27

Papilionaceae Be 11 18

Poaceae os 13 17

Amaranthaceae 8 12

Euphorbiaceae 6 12

Solanaceae 5 9

Cyperaceae 2 8

Malvaceae 4 Gi

Tiliaceae I 6

Caesalpiniaceae 2 5

Convolvulaceae D 5

Scrophulariceae 4 4

Cactaceae 1 3

Caryophyllaceae 3 3

Lamiaceae 3 3

Polygonaceae 2 3

Rubiaceae D 3

Verbenaceae 2 3

Acanthaceae 2 2

Boraginaceae 1 2

Chenopodiaceae 1 2

Cleomaceae 1 2

Hydrocharitaceae 2 2

Rest 26 families with one genus and one species in

each.

enumeration of all the introduced weed species .

of Mysore district with their probable native

countries is given in tabular form (Table 2).

However, no effort is made to give their years

of introduction and establishment, since many

of them have been repeatedly brought and

introduced in different parts at different times.

All the specimens enumerated are deposited

in the Herbarium,: Manasagangotri, University

of Mysore, Mysore (MGM). 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr. B. A. Razi,

Professor and Head of the Department of

Botany, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri,

Mysore for constant guidance and facilities and

to Dr. P. S. Ramakrishnan, Professor and Head

of the Department of Botany, School of life

Sciences, NEHU, Shillong for encouragement.

One of us (R. R. Rao) is also thankful to the

University Grants Commission for the award

of a fellowship during the tenure of which the

present work was carried out.

TABLE 2

ENUMERATION OF INTRODUCED WEEDS OF Mysore District

1. Abelmoschus moschatus Medic. Malvaceae

(Hibiscus abelmoschus 1.)

2. Abrus precatorius L. Papilionaceae

3. Acalypha ciliata Forsk. Euphorbiaceae

4. Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Asteraceae

5. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae

6. Adathoda vasica Nees Acanthaceae

7. Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Ktz. Asteraceae

(A. viscosum Forst.)

8. Aeschenomene americana L. Caesalpiniaceae

9. Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae

10. Allamanda cathartica Apocynaceae

Remarks

Native Country

Region

Paleotropical Rare ; often cultivated.

Pantropical Common all over the district ;

not abundant.

Paleotropical Common in shady moist places.

Brazil Common all over on fallow

fields.

Trop. America Common in plains.

Trop. Asia Cultivated for its medicinal

uses ; but fairly run wild also.

South America Frequent.

Trop. America Common.

South America

Trop. America

Escape, very abundant all over.

mostly cultivated.

Escape ;

690

No.

WEEDS IN THE VEGETATION OF MYSORE DISTRICT

Species

Alternanthera ficoidea (i) R. Br.

A. pungens H. B. & K.

(A. echinata Sm.)

A. sessilis (L.) R. Br.

(A. paronychioides St. Hil.)

Amaranthus gracilis Desf.

(A. viridis Hk. f. non L.)

A, spinosus L.

Anagallis arvensis L.

Antigonon leptopus Hk. & Arn.

Argemone mexicana L.

Asclepias curassavica L.

Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn.

Barleria cristata L.

Biophytum sensitivum DC.

Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson

(B. latifolia DC.)

Boerhaavia diffusa L.

Borreria articularis (L.f.) F.N.

Will. (B. hispida Schum.)

B. stricta (L.f.) Schum.

Brachiaria mutica (L.) Stapf

Brugumontia suaveolens Bracht. &

Presl.

(Datura suaveolens H.B.K.)

Calceolaria mexicana Benth.

Canscora diffusa R. Br.

Cardiospermum halicacabum L.

Cassia occidentalis L.

C. pumila Lamk.

C. sophera L.

C. tora L.

Celosia argentea L.

Ceratophyllum demersum L.

Chenopodium album L.

C. ambrasioides L.

Chloris barbata Sw.

Cleome gynandra L.

(Gynandropsis pentaphylla

{L.) DC.

C. monophylla L.

Clitoria ternatea L.

Convolvulus arvensis L.

‘Family

Amaranthaceae

35 93

Primulaceae

Polygonaceae

Papaveraceae

Asclepiadaceae

Scrophulariaceae

Acanthaceae

Geraniaceae

Asteraceae

Nyctaginaceae

Rubiaceae

Poaceae

Solanaceae

Scrophulariaceae

Gentianaceae

Sapindaceae

Caesalpiniaceae

Amaranthaceae

Ceratophyllaceae

Chenopodiaceae

Poaceae

Cleomaceae

Papilionaceae

Convolvulaceae

Native Country

Region

Trop. America

29>

Pantropical

Europe

South America

Cent. America

South America

Cosmop-Trop.

Paleotropical

Pantropical

Paleotropical

Europe

Mexican

Mexico

Paleotropical

Pantropical

South America

Pantropical

South America

9°

Pantropical

Trop. America

Paleotropical

Mexico

Trop. America

Pantropical

Afro-asian

Paleotropical

European

Remarks

Common in ponds and ditches.

Common in open grassy soils.

Frequently associate with other

Amaranthaceae members.

Common weed in _ vegetable

gardens.

Common near human habita-

tions.

Rare, in B.R. Hills.

Cultivated but runs wild in

some places.

Common and abundant in

some fallows.

Rare, near water margins.

Common all over in marshy

places.

Frequent, not abundant.

Common in shades.

Common.

Very common all over the waste

lands.

Common in agricultural fields.

Occasional.

Common in Higher elevations of

B. R. Hills.

Recent; abundant only in

coffee estates.

Common in marshy places.

Isolated in bushes and plains.

(waste lands).

Common all over the district.

Rare ; common in B.R. Hills.

Common.

Weed of sorghum and maize

fields.

Not common. |

Weed of vegetable gardens.

Common all over the district.

Frequent.

Common.

Common climber.

691

45.

46.

47.

48.

49,

50.

Sie

52t

53!

54.

56.

Shs

584

69.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vok 74

ENUMERATION OF INTRODUCED WEEDS OF Mysore DIstTRIct

Species

Corchorus aestuans L.

C. capsularis L.

Corchorus fascicularis Lamk.

C. olitorius L.

C. tridens L.

C. trilocularis L.

Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm.

(Senebiera pinnatifida DC.)

Crossocephalum crepidioides

(Benth.) S. Moore

Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk.

Croton bonplandianum Baill.

(C. sparsiflorus Morong.)

Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.)

Wats.

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb.

C. flabelliformis Rottb.

C.iria We:

C. pumilus L.

C. pygmaeus Rottb.

C. rotundus L.

C. triceps (Rottb.) Endl.

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.)

Beauv.

D. metel L.

Datura stramonium L.

Desmodium parviflorum DC.

D. triflorum (L.) DC.

Digera muricata (L.) Matt.

TABLE 2—(Contd.)

Tiliaceae

Brassicaceae

Asteraceae

Papilionaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Poaceae

Cyperaceae

Poaceae

Solanaceae

Papilionaceae

Amaranthaceae

Digitaria adscendens (H.B. & K.) Poaceae

R. &S.

Native Country

Region

Trop. America

Paleotropical

Pantropical

Paleotropical

Trop. America

Trop. Africa

Austro-asian

South America

Afro-asian

Trop. America

Paleotropical

Trop. Africa

Paleotropical

Pantropical

Pantropical -

Paleotropical

Pantropical

Trop. America

Paleotropical

Austro-Asian

Pantropical

Afro-asian

Trop. America

692

Remarks

Weed of waste lands and culti-

vated fields, common all

over the plains.

Weed of waste lands and culti-

vated fields, common all

over the plains.

Weed of open places and culti-

vated lands; common

throughout the district.

Weed of open places and culti-

vated lands; Common

throughout the district.

Weed of open places and culti-

throughout the district.

Weed of open places and culti-

vated lands; Common

throughout the district.

Common in marshy

places.

Common in fallow fields and

near marshy places.

Common.

Dominant weed in the district.

shady

Common in higher elevations,

Common.

Frequent in marshy and muddy

soils; common all over the

district.

Frequent in marshy and muddy

soils; common all over the

district.

= do —

—— do ==

— do —

A pn

Weed in rice fields and open

marshy places.

On fallow fields.

Not common.

Common on

soils.

Weed of cultivated fields.

Common.

moist gravelly

WEEDS IN THE VEGETATION OF MYSORE DISTRICT

Species

Family

Native Country

Region

Remarks

100.

101.

102.

103.

104.

Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd.

ex Roem.

Eclipta prostrata L.f.

Eichhornia crassipes (Matt.)

Solms.

Elephantopus scaber L.

Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC.

Eragrostis cilianensis (All.)

Vignolo-Lutari

E. plumosa P. Beauv.

Erigeron asteroides Roxb.

E. canadensis L.

E. mucronatus DC.

Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng.

(E. glandulosum H.B. & K.)

E. odoratum L.

Euphorbia geniculata Ort.

E. hirta L.

E. prostrata Att.

E. pulcherrima Willd.

Fimbristylis littoralis Gaud.

(F. miliacea (L.) Vahl)

Flaveria australasiaca Hook.

Galinsoga ciliata (Rafn.)

Blake

G. parviflora Cav.

Glinus oppositifolius (L.) DC.

Gomphrena celosioides Matt.

(G. decumbens Sack.)

Hackelochloa granularis (L.)

O. Ktz.

Heliotropium indicum

H. ovalifolium Forsk.

Hibiscus panduraeformis Burm f.

H vitifolius L.

Hypericum japonicum Thunb.

Hyptis sauveolens (L.) Poir.

Indigofera astragalina DC.

T.cordifolia Heyne ex Roth.

I. linifolia Retz.

I. linnaei Ali

I. prostrata Willd.

Caryophyllaceae

Asteraceae

Pontederiaceae

Asteraceae

Poaceae

Asteraceae

Euphorbiaceae

Cyperaceae

Asteraceae

Aizoaceae

Amaranthaceae

Poaceae

Boraginaceae

Malvaceae

Hypericaceae

Lamiaceae

Papilionaceae

Paleotropical

Pantropical

Brazil

Pantropical

Afro-asian

Trop. America

South America

Mexico

Trop. America

Pantropical

West Africa

Mexico

Pantropical

Australian

South America

Paleotropical

South America

Pantropical

South America

Pantropical!

Paleotropical

South America

Paleotropical

Paleotropica!

Austro-asian

Common weed in coffee plan-

tation in Biligirirangan

hills.

Common in marshy places.

Dominant free floating water

weed in tanks.

Rare.

Frequent.

Common.

Common in higher elevations.

Dominant in higher elevations.

Common all over at higher

elevations.

Common at higher elevations.

Abundant near Karapura,

Heggadevana kote and

Kakanakote.

Weed in open fields.

Weed in open fields, Common.

Weed in open soils ; Commonly

seen with other species.

Recent; under cultivation ;

rarely escape.

Common in marshy places.

Common.

Common all over, but confused

with the next species.

Abundant weed along

sides.

Common.

Weed in plains.

road

Common in higher elevations.

Weed in open fields.

Common in dry open soils.

Common weed in gardens and

hedges.

Common weed in gardens and

hedges.

Rare in higher elevations.

Weed in waste lands.

Ls hie

— do —

—do—

=== dO) ——

— do —

693

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 74

ENUMERATION OF INTRODUCED WEEDS OF Mysore District

Species

Family

TABLE 2—(Contd.)

Native Country

Region

Remarks

l. trita L.f.

Ipomoea fistulosa Mart.

(7. carnea Jacq.)

I. eriocarpa R. Br.

I. pestigridis L.

I. reptans (L.) Poir.

(J. aquatica Forsk.)

Iseilema laxum Hack.

Jatropha cureas L.

J. glandulifera L.

J. gossypifolia L.

Kalanchoe pinnata (Lamk.) Pers.

Laggera aurita (Willd.) Sch.-Bip.

Papilionaceae

Convolvulaceae

Poaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Crassulaceae

Asteraceae

Lantana camara L..var. aculeata(L.) Verbenaceae

Moldenke

I..indica Roxb.

Legascea mollis Cav.

Leucas lavendulaefolia Rees.

(L. linifolia Spreng)

Malvastrum coromandelianum

(L.) Garcke

Martynia annua L.

Mecardonia dianthera (Sw.) Penn.

(Herpestris chamaedryoides

H.B. & K.)

Mikania micrantha H. B. & K.

Mimosa pudica L.

Mucuna prurita HK.

Murdannia dimorpha (Dalz.)

Bruck.

Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv.

Nothosaerva brachiata (L.) Wt.

Ocimum canum Sims.

(O. americanum L.)

Oenothera rosea (Soland.) Ait.

Oldenlandia corymbosa L.

Opuntia coccinellifera Mill.

O. dillenii Haw.

O. elatior Mill.

Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers.

Verbenaceae

Asteraceae

Lamiaceae

Malvaceae

Martyniaceae

Scrophulariaceae

Asteraceae

Mimosaceae

Papilionaceae

Comme}linaceae

Solanaceae

Amaranthaceae

Lamiaceae

Oenotheraceae

Rubiaceae

Cactaceae

Hydrocharitaceae

694

Austro-asian

South America

Paleotropical

Trop. America

Afro-asian

Trop. America

_ Trop. America

Afro-asian

Cent. America

South America

Mexico

West Asia

South America

Mexico

Trop. America

Brazil

Pantropical

Mexico

Trop. Africa

Afro-asian

Pantropical

Mexican

South America

Austro-asian

Weed in waste lands.

Common near _ Villages ;

Occasionally cultivated.

Common in plains.

Common in plains and in culti-

vated fields.

Common along the water

margins and muddy soils.

Rare. |

In hedges.

In waste lands.

Weed of waste lands.

Common along river bank in

paschimavahini and often

cultivated.

Aromatic weed in open waste

lands.

Common all over.

Common at higher elevations.

Common in plains.

Common; _ often

with L. aspera.

Abundant in waste lands.

associated

Common in waste lands.

Common from plains to higher

elevations.

Very abundant along the

cauvery river bank.

Frequent.

Rare.

Occasional.

Recent, occasional in betel leaf

garden.

In marshy places soon after

rains.

Weeds in fallow fields.

Rare, only in higher elevations.

Occasionalin marshy places.

Occasional near villages.

Common in tanks and. ponds.

WEEDS IN THE VEGETATION OF MYSORE DISTRICT

No,

136.

137.

138.

139.

140.

141.

142.

143.

144.

145.

146.

147.

148.

149.

150.

151.

152:

153.

154.

155.

156.

157.

158.

159.

160.

161.

162.

163.

164.

165.

166.

167.

168.

169,

170.

171.

lee

173.

Species

Oxalis latifolia H.B. & K.

Parthenium hysterophorus L. |

Passiflora foetida L.

Pennisetum purpureum Schum.

Peperomia pellucida H.B. & K.

Phyllanthus asperulatus Hutch.

Physalis minima L.

P. peruviana L.

Plumbago zeylanica L.

Polycarpaea corymbosa Lamk.

Polygonum barbatum L.

P. hydropiper L.

Portulaca oleracea L.

Potamogeton nodosus poir.

Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss.

Rhynchosia minima DC.

Rivina humilis L.

Saccharum spontaneum L.

Scoparia dulcis L.

Sebastiania chamalea (L.)

Muell.-Arg.

Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.)

Faw. & Rendle (S. aculeata

Pers.)

‘Setaria glauca P. Beauv.

S. verticillata (L.) P. Beauv.

Sida alba L. (S. spinosa L.)

S. cordifolia L.

S. veronicaefolia Lamk.

Solanum elaegnifolium Cav.

S. seaforthianum Andr.

S. surattense Burm. f.

(S. xanthocarpum Schrad &

Wendl.)

Sonchus oleraceus L.

S, wightianus DC. subsp.

wightianus Boulos

(S. arvensis L.)

Sphaeranthus indicum L.

Sporobolus diander (Retz.)

Beauv.

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.)

Vahl (S. indica Vahl)

Stellaria media Cyr.

Synadenium grantii Hk. f.

Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn.

Tephrosia purpurea Pers.

Family

Oxalidaceae

Asteraceae

Passifloraceae

Poaceae

Piperaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Solanaceae

Plumbaginaceae

Caryophyllaceae

Polygonaceae

Portulacaceae

Potamogetonaceae

Amaranthaceae

Papilionaceae

Phytolacaceae

Poaceae

Scrophulariaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Papilionaceae

Poaceae

Malvaceae

Solanaceae

Asteraceae

Poaceae

Verbenaceae

Caryophyllaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Asteraceae .

Papilionaceae

695

Native Country

Region

Mexico

Trop. America

South America

Trop. Africa

Cent. America

Trop. America

Paleotropical

Trop. Africa

Geront Trop.

Pantropical

Paleotropical

Temperate

Paleotropical

Temperate

Afro-asian

Pantropical

South America

Paleotropical

South America

Paleotropical

Pantropical

Eurasian

Austro-asian

Pantropical

Trop. America

Mexico

Trop. America

Paleotropical

European

Africa

Austro-asian

Paleotropical

European

Trop. Africa

Trop. America

Pantropical

Remarks

Common.

One of the recent adventives to

the district.

Rare climber.

Occasional in gardens.

Weed in gardens specially in

shady green houses.

Common weed in gardens.

Common on open fields.

In hedges, occasional in plains.

In open grassy fields.

In marshy places.

Common all over the district.

Rare in tanks.

Rare in the district.

Common in open fallow fields.

Rare weed in betel gardens.

Occasional

Common.

Weed in gardens occasionally

cultivated.

Occasional in plains.

Common.

Rare.

Occasional in hedges.

Frequent.

Common

district.

Common.

throughout the

Common in marshy places.

Common.

Common in _fallows.

Rare.

Plants all over the district.

Frequent.

Common all over. on waste

lands. oS eee

eee

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 74

TABLE 2—(Contd.)

Family

Species

174. Teramnus labialis Spr. Papilionaceae

175. Tithonia diversifolia A. Gray Asteraceae

176. Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae

177. Tridax procumbens L. Asteraceae

178. Urochloa panicoides P. Beauv. Poaceae

179. Vallisneria spiralis L. Hydrocharitaceae

180. Vernonia cinera (L.) Juss. Asteraceae

181. Vigna trilobata (L.) Verdc. Papilionaceae

(Phaseolus trilobus L.)

182. Wedelia calendulacea less. Asteraceae

183. Xanthium strumarium L. Asteraceae

184. Zornia diphylla Pers. Papilionaceae

(Z. gibbosa Span.)

Remarks

Native Country

Region

Pantropical Not a common plant in the

district.

Mexican Rare.

Pantropical Prostrate weed on open fields.

Mexico Common in open places among

grasses.

Common in open places.

Common in streams.

Common.

Occasional in open soils.

Geront Trop.

Pantropical

Afro-asian

Rare, in marshy places.

Common all over in fallow

fields.

Common in plains on open

grassy soils.

Austro-asian

South America

Pantropical

Ne cr a EE AE EL SE TA TCT ee LET aERITINEERCERGNR eT eT

REFERENCES

BARNES, E. (1944) : Notes on the Flowering Plants of

Biligirirangan hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44(3) :

436-459.

Buasxkar, V. & RaAzi, B. A. (1973) : The Hydrophytes

and Marsh Plants of Mysore city and its neighbouring

areas. University Mysore Mem. No. 1.

Biswas, K. (1934): Some foreign weeds and their

distribution in India and Burma. Indian For. 60 : 861-

865. |

BRUHL, P. (1908 ): Recent plant immigrants. J.

- Asiatic Soc. Bengal. Il. 4: 603-656.

Cooke, T. (1901-1908) : The Flora of the Presidency

of Bombay. 2 Vol. London (Rep. in 3 vols. 1958,

Calcutta).

Gamer, J. S. (1915-1936): Flora of Presidency of

Madras. London. II Parts. (Parts 8-11 by C. E. C.

Fischer). ° Rep. 1967, (Calcutta).

Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897): The Flora of British

India. 7 vols. London.

KAMMATHY, R. V., RAo, A. S. & RAo, R. S. (1967) :

‘ A contribution towards a Flora of Biligirirangan hills,

Mysore State. Bull. bot. Surv. India 9 : 206-234.

KASHYAP, S. R. (1924): Notes on the some foreign

plants which have recently established themselves about

Lahore. J. Indian bot. Soc. 3: 68-71.

MAHEsHwarI, J. K. (1960): The origin and distri-

bution of the naturalised plants of Khandwa Plateau,

Madhya Pradesh. J. biol. Sci. 3: 9-19.

_ (1962) : Studies on the naturalised flora of

India. Proc. Summer School of Botany (ed. P.

Maheshwari et al. 1960), New Delhi.

Mooney, H. F. (1950) : Supplement to the Botany of

Bihar and Orissa. Ranchi.

NAITHANI, B. D. (1960): Studies on the Flora of

Bandipur Reserve Forest, Mysore State. Bull. bot.

Surv. India 8 : 252-263.

PRAIN, D. (1890) : The non-indigenous species of the

Andaman Flora. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal Vf. 59: 235-

261.

RaizADA, M. B. (1935): Recently introduced or

otherwise imperfectly known plants from the Upper

Gangetic Plain. J. Indian bot. Soc. 14: 339-348.

(1936) : Recently introduced or otherwise

imperfectly known plants from the Upper Gangetic

plain. J. Indian bot. Soc. 15: 149-167.

696

WEEDS IN THE VEGETATION OF MYSORE DISTRICT

RAMASWaMmy, S. V., RAo, R. R. & BHASKAR, V. (1972-

73): Contributions from the Herbarium, Manasagan-

gotri, Mysore VI. Notes on some adventive plants of

Bangalore and Mysore districts. J. Mysore Univ.

25(1-2) : 40-44.

& Razi, B. A. (1973): Flora of Bangalore

District, Mysore.

Rao, R. R. (1971-72) : Contributions from the Her-

barium, Manasagangotri, Mysore YV. Annotated

list of flowering plants around ‘ Aloka ’, Yelwal (Mysore

district). J. Mysore Univ. 24: 62-80.

(1973) : Studies on the Flowering Plants of

Mysore District. 2 vols. Ph.D., Thesis, Mysore Uni-

versity. i

———— & Raz, B. A. (1973) : Flowering Plants of

Mysore University Campus. Mysore Univ. Bot. Mem.

No. 2.

————- (1973-74) : Notes on the flowering plants

of Chamundi Hills (Mysore District). J. Mysore

Univ. 26 : 70-117.

(1973-74) : Vegetation of Mysore District.

J. Mysore Univ. 26: 191-200.

Razr, B. A. & Rao, R. R. (1971): An artificial key

to the Pteridophytes of Mysore city and its neighbour-

hood. Botanique 2(1) : 21-33.

SALDANHA, C. J. & NICOLSON, DAN, H. (1976) : Flora

of Hassan District, Karnataka, India. Amerind Publish-

ing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

SRIVASTAVA, J. G. (1954) : Some recently introduced.

or newly recorded plants from Patna District and its

neighbourhood. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 659-560.

———— (1964): Some tropical American and

African weeds that have invaded the state of Bihar. J.

Indian bot. Soc. 43(1) : 102-112.

697

MOZIIOI

Dee here al

OE veges ok

TO TROT a

ASW Ay MY

ries, NR NS %)

Th)

Veuartey

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CONTENTS

PAGE z

HyDROZOA FROM THE COASTAL WATERS OF MAHARASHTRA. Part I. Somes By Jacob

Thomas and B. F. Chhapgar. (With three plates) .. an ie se 4a SOL

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF KOLHAPUR District. By A.R. Kulkarniand A. N. Thite B : 592

LIST OF TYPE SPECIMENS OF THE SPECIES, VARIETIES, AND FORMA DEPOSITED IN BLATTER HERBARIUM,

Bomspay. By P.V.Boleand M.R. Almeida. (continued from vol. 74 (2):232) .. .- 610

BIO-SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF LADAKH VEGETATION. By B. L. peepEu and P. Kachroo. (With a text-

_ figure) Be ibs a a5 Ae a8 a ae «5 621

CONTRIBUTION TO THE BOTANY OF LAHAUL. By B. K. Kapahi and Y. K. Sarin. (With two text-

figures) a ve 40 oe oe se aa a OT

FERNS OF KEDARNATH, MADHYAMAHESHWAR AND TUNGNATH. By Prakash Chandra. (With

a map) ie ne ae By AN Ne ee i .. 640

GRASSES OF BHUBANESWAR AND NEIGHBOURHOOD. By B. N. Behera, C.B.S.R. Sharma and S. K.

Dash. (With a text-figure) 53 ae Ke oe ae oo ee OSE

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF BARI-BARELI RANGE (RAISEN DISTRICT), M.P. By V.B. Gupta. 657

SOME PLANTS NEW TO THE FLORA OF PUNJAB PLAINS. By M. Sharma a es one O83

INTRODUCED WEEDS IN THE VEGETATION OF Mysore District. By R. R. Rao and K. Surya-

narayana a a ae 2 Ae oy Ly Korat 688

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY T. DURAI AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,

10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS. C509.

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