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Zoi = cre aa | al L Pal MR i aero imma ae

ee - Vol. 76, No. 1

| Editors : J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole & A. N. D. Nanavati

APRIL 1979 : ex Rs. 35

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS io

Contributors of ane articles are Tequested to assist. the editors by observ- :

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1. Papers which have at the same time edn offered ee ess to ‘other .

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Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East ee Ue Bombay nat.-

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8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s Seo),

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- Hornbill House, | EDITORS,

Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, , _. Journal of the Bombay

Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society.

VOLUME 76 (1) : APRIL 1979

Date of Publication: 12-2-1980

CONTENTS PAGE

BEHAVIOUR OF HoOOoLOcK GIBBON (Hylobates hoolock) DURING DIFFERENT SEASONS

IN ASSAM, INDIA. By Ronald L. Tilson. (With three figures) i 1

A BOTANICAL SURVEY OF Cannabis IN THE HIMALAYAS. By G. K. Sharma ee 17

A COMMENT ON Actinodura nipalensis (AND waldeni). By S. Dillon Ripley ie 21

TYPE MATERIAL IN THE HERBARIUM OF THE BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA AT POONA.

By N. P. Singh and U. R. Deshpande at 24

REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR TAXA IN WYNTER-BLYTH’S BOOK ON THE BUTTERFLIES

OF INDIAN REGION. By R. K. Varshney si 33

BIRDS SEEN ALONG A MOUNTAIN TRAIL IN PAKISTAN. By P. Jones. (With two text-

figures) ae 41

THE GENUS Athyrium ROTH IN NAINITAL HILLS. By K. K. Dhir and K. Rani. (With

ten text-figures) a 49

APPLICATION OF SOME BIOCHEMICAL METHODS IN BANDICOOT TAXONOMY. By M. S.

Pradhan. (With four text-figures) ee ay)

PRELIMINARY CROCODILE SURVEY—SRI LANKA. By R. Whitaker and Z. Whitaker.

(With eight plates) Bie 66

A PROVISIONAL, ANNOTATED CHECK-LIST OF THE FRESHWATER FISHES OF IRAN. By Brian

W. Coad. (With a text-figure) ok 86

BIOECOLOGY AND ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITE GENUS Cryptotermes. By M. L. Thakur.

(With a text-figure) at 106

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BICLOGY OF THE PiGMY HoG (WiTH A FOOTNOTE ON THE

HispspD Hare). PigMy Hoc Survey 1977—Part II. By William L. R. Oliver.

(With two plates and three text-figures) ae 115

REVIEWS:

i. The herons of the World (Salim Ali) ot 143

2. A dictionary of life sciences (A. K. Joshee) us 145

3. The birds of China, Mongolia and Korea: Vol. 1 (R. E. Hawkins) at 145

4. Jim Corbett’s India (David Fernandes) a. 147

5. The sixth sense of Animals (Robert B. Grubh) 2 149

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

MaMMats: 1. On the occurrence of the common otter in Maharashtra (Itiadoh lake--

Bhan lara District) with some notes on its habits. By M. B. Chitampalli (p. P51) 232), Byi-

dence for a tiger eating a panther cub. By A. J. T. Johnsingh (p. 152); 3. Range extension

of crabeating mongoose in Bangladesh. By M. A. Reza Khan (p. 153); 4. An interesting

behaviour of three Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby 1833) kids. By A. J. T. John-

singh (p. 154); 5. A supplementary note on some mammals recently collected in Bhutan.

By Subhendu Sekhar Saha (p. 155).

Birps: 6. Occurrence of ‘chestnutheaded bee-eater (Mvrops leschenaulti) in Bombay.

By P. Kannan and G. Bertrand (p. 157); 7. Beehive predation by wasps (Genus Vespa)

and its possible benefit to honeyguides (Indicatoridae) in Bhutan. By S. A. Hussain and

Salim Ali (p. 157); 8. A note on the predation of jungle myna (Acridetheres fuscus Wagler)

on field mouse. By A. J. T. Johnsingh (p..159); 9. The nesting of tickell’s flycatcher

(Muscicapa tickelliae) in Bombay. By Humayun Abdulali cc 159); 10. New records of

birds from Orissa. By N. Majumdar (p. 161). |

REPTILES: 11. Captive rearing of marine turtles. (With two plates). By Romulus

Whitaker (p. 163); 12. Malformation at birth in the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus

Schneider) in Orissa, India. By S. K. Kar (p. 166); 13: ‘Sexual attracticn of a wild niugger

(Crocodylus palustris Lesson) sowie captive muggers. (With three text-figures). By Lala

A. K. Singh (p. 167); 14. Winter temperature gradient in tunnels of Uromastyx hardwickii

Gray. By R. K. Bhatnagar, R. K. Bhanotar, Y. Mahto and Y. N. Srivastava (p. 172);

15. Identification of snake skins. (With two plates). By K. Viswanathan (p. 173).

AMPHIBIA: 16. Food of Rana hexadactyla Lesson. By M. I. Andrews (p. 175).

FISHES: 17. On the breeding behaviour of Schizothorax niger Heckel in Dal Lake. (With

a text-figure and a photograph). By K. K. Vass, H. S. Raina and Shyam Sunder (p. 179).

INSEcTs: 18. A note on the zoogeography of Indian Meloidae (Coleoptera). By R. K.

Anand and Swaraj Ghai (p. 184); 19. On some insects associated with Lac in India.

By R. S. Gokulpure, B. P. Mehra, P. Sen and Jawahir Lal (p. 185); 20. A flourishing

colony of Copitotermes heimi (Wasm.) (Insecta: Isoptera) in a Naval Boat. By M. L.

Thakur and P. K. Sen-Sarma (P. 188).

CRUSTACEA: 21. On the eulittoral Palaemonid Shrimp (Crustacea, Decapoda) of Visakha-

patnam coast. (With a texi-figure). By K. Ravindranath (p. 189).

OLIGOCHAETA: 22. First record of Lumbricus castaneus (Savigny) from India (Lumbri-

cidae: Oligochaeta). By J. M. Julka (p. 191).

SPONGES: 23. Faunal associations of littoral sponges in and around Balugaon in Chilka

lake (Lagoon). By A. L.. N. Sarma, D. G. Rao and S. Satapathy (p. 192).

BoTANy: 24. The broadcasting of Karvi seed. By D. J. Panday and J. D. Panday (p. 195);

25. The genus Amomum Roxb. (Zingiberaceae) in Andaman and Nicobar islands. (With

two plates). By N. P. Balakrishnan and N. G. Nair (p. 196); 26. Record of Hyptis capitata

Jacq. (Labiatae) from Peninsular India. (With a text-figure). By T. G. Varghese (p. 200);

27. A new distributional record for Distemon indicum Wedd. from Tehri Garhwal. By Shiv

Kumar Dhyani (p. 200); 28. On the occurrence of Gymnema cuspidatum (Thunb.) K.

Schum. (Asclepiadaceae) in Maharashtra. (With six text-figures). By S. K. Malhotra, K.

Madhusudan Rao and B. G. Kulkarni (p. 202); 29. An intersting grass from Maharashtra.

(With twelve text-figures). By U. R. Deshpande and N. P. Singh (p. 204); 30. Some in-

teresting plant records for Rajasthan. By V. Singh (p. 206); 31. Some new plant records

of Nagpur region. By S. A. Paradkar and S. K. Munshi (p. 209); 32. Notes on two interest-

ing sedges from Gujarat State, India. (With a plate). By S. D. Sabnis and J. V. Joshi

(p. 210); 33. New records of plants from Andaman and Nicobar Islands. By Paritosh

Chakraborty (p. 212); 34. Filamentous Myxophyceae of Aurangabad District, Maharashtra.

By P. V. Ashtekar and N. D. Kamat (p. 215).

JOURNAL

Cr Tie

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1979 APRIL

Vol. 76

BEHAVIOUR OF HOOLOCK GIBBON'

(HYLOBATES HOOLOCK) DURING DIFFERENT

SEASONS IN ASSAM, INDIA‘

RONALD L. TILSON?

(With three figures)

A small population of hoolock gibbons (Hylobates hoolock) was observed during 62

days between July 1971 and February 1973 at Hollongapar forest reserve in upper

Assam. Social structure amcng seven groups consisted of a monogamously mated pair

of adulis with 0-3 offspring (mean size = 3.4). These family groups occupy territories

of about 22 ha (range = 18-30 ha) which overlap by 23 per cent the space of adjacent

families. Fruit is a preferred food item, constituting 67 per cent of their diet in winter,

with leaves and insecis contributing 32 and 1 per cent, respectively. On cold winter

mornings gibbons climb into special trees and sunbathe (mean = 92 min) before feed-

ing. They sunbathe less frequently (56 per cent of mornings) and for shorter periods

(mean = 26 min) during the warmer summer. Infants are born during the dry winter

months, perhaps to synchronize early gestation and lactation with the monsoon. Dif-

ferences in behaviour between summer and winter periods are discussed relative to

other gibbon species occupying equatorial forests.

INTRODUCTION

In 1930 McCann (1933) spent two months

collecting and observing hoolock gibbons

(Hylobates hoolock) at Changchang Pani in

the Naga Hills of Assam. He established that

they live in monogamous family groups and

1 Accepted July 1977.

2 Division of Environmental Studies, University

of California, Davis 95616. U.S.A.

that the dichromatism of the species is deter-

mined by sex and age rather than individual

variation. The only food habit study on H.

hoolock reports that certain leaves and fruits

were selected by captive animals as principal

dietary items (Candler 1904). Except for these

brief observations by McCann in the field and

Candler in a zoo, there is no other informa-

tion available on the behaviour and ecology

of hoolock gibbons.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Gibbons are small arboreal apes that range

from the Brahmaputra River in Assam, east

to Indochina and south through Malaya into

the Indonesian archipelago. Of the nine re-

cognized species (Groves 1972), six occur in

equatorial rain forest where forest phenology

can be aperiodic and largely unpredictable

(Richards 1966, McClure 1966, Medway

1972). with few exceptions, the equatorial

species of Malaysia and Indonesia have been

studied extensively and thus form the basis

from which gibbon ecology is extrapolated

(Ellefson 1974, Chivers 1974, Tenaza 1975,

Rodman in press).

in contrast, observations of gibbon species

occupying more northern latitudes by McCann

(1933) in Nagaland and Carpenter (1940) in

Changrai, Thailand, were too brief to reveal

any influence of seasonality. In Assam, India,

the hoolock gibbon lives in evergreen rain

forest between latitudes 22° and 28° north.

Here seasonality is more pronounced, with two

dissimilar seasons, the warm wet summer and

cold dry winter. Behavioural responses of

hoolock gibbons to these different environ-

ments are presented.

HABITAT AND METHODS

Study Area

A small viable population of hoolock gib-

bons was found in Hollongapar Forest Re-

serve 12 km south of Jorhat, Sibsagar Dis-

trict (26°70’N, 94°30’E), upper Assam (Fig.

1). The forest, boundary encompasses 1,900

ha, but selective timbering has reduced the

habitat suitable for gibbons to about 800 ha.

The flat lowland forest (altitude 119 m) is

intersected by numerous streams that flood

during the monsoon but otherwise are dry.

Ground water is available throughout the

year in small isolated pools. A railroad track

runs through the southern section, and two

roads divide the forest into four unequal qua-

drats. The reserve is surrounded by extensive

tea gardens, creating a forest island.

The vegetation is evergreen forest dominat-

ed by Dipterocarpus macrocarpus, Shorea

assamica and Mesua terra (Champion 1936).

Irregular clumps of bamboo (Bambusa and

Dendrocalamus spp.) and cane (Calamus

spp.) are common. The forest structure is

three-storied with a continuous canopy (ex-

cept over the main trails and railway track)

rising to a mean height of 15-22 m.

The seasons in Assam are distinct. Das

(1970) compiled 20-year records from the

Indian Meteorological Memoirs for Assam,

and data from the Hollongapar area are ex-

trapolated and presented here. The summer

from June to September is monsoon, with

high temperatures (mean = 27.4°C) and heavy

rains (mean = 38.9 cm/month). Nearly 63

per cent of the total rainfall in Hollongapar

(annual mean = 249 cm) occurs during the

monsoon. The winter from December to Feb-

ruary is marked by low temperatures (mean=

10.1°C) and little rainfall (mean = 3.2 cm/

month). Winter fogs are common in Assam,

with Hollongapar receiving an average of 44

foggy days annually. Elsewhere in Assam dif-

ferent weather regimes prevail, leading to

plant associations other than evergreen rain

forest (Champion & Griffith 1948).

Three other primate species, two macaques

and one langur, also occur in Hollongapar

forest. One group of about 26 pigtail maca-

ques (Macaca nemestrina) and three groups

of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), aver-

aging about 20 animals each, were encounter-

ed daily. The multimale bisexual groups of

capped langurs (Presbytis pileatus) of 18 and

27 animals and one all-male group of 11 were

counted.

BEHAVIOUR OF HOOLOCK GIBBON

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ate nh oe 0 Pet een% go 880%? 6 ooo s%o,. * ete

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9 997000 88 Bee Oe

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Hylebates hsolock |

@istribution

0 100

Fig. 1. The distribution of hoolock gibbons in Assam. Numerals refer to the seven

natural regions: 1) Upper Assam Plains, 2) Central Assam Plains, 3) North Bank

Plains, 4) Lower Assam Plains, 5) Meghalaya, 6) Barak Plain, 7) Mizo Hills. The

closed circle indicates the locality of Hollongapar Forest and the dotted line indicates

the transition zone between 250-700 m elevation above sea level. The Brahmaputra

River lies between 134 m to 50 m elevation.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Areas Surveyed

I spent six weeks censusing anthropoid pri-

mates in Assam from July to August, 1971,

and November to February, 1972-73. Forest-

ed areas in Meghalaya (Garo Hills, United

Khasi-Jaintia Hills), the Central Assam

Plains (Mikir Hills, North Cachar Hills) and

the Upper Assam Plains were visited. The

Lower Assam and North Bank Plains north

oi the Brahmaputra River were included

(Fig. 1). District Forest Officers in these areas

were interviewed. If gibbons were reported to

occur I attempted to find them. Visual or aural

contact with gibbons were the only criteria

acceptable. Sex and age of all group members

was determined when possible. In many cases

no gibbons could be found at sites where they

apparently once occurred. Their absence is

attributed to extensive timbering that has left

many areas devoid of any real forest.

Methods

Three gibbon families were studied for 62

days in Hollongapar forest. The summer

period was 34 days (2 July—4 August), and

the winter period was 28 days (10-28 Nov-

ember, 4-12 January). This forest has been

protected from human predation since 1924,

and the gibbons lacked the avoidance response

common to most wild species. Within a week

I could approach three families to within 25

m, which facilitated dawn to dusk observa-

tions. When a gibbon group was sighted, its

location and direction of movement were re-

ferenced to the nearest trail-marker, spaced

every 25 m along the main trails. These data

were then transferred to a Forest Department

map of Hollongapar drawn on a 1: 1,000

scale. Song sites and intergroup interactions

were also mapped. I recognized groups from

their location and composition. The onset

time, duration and location of all gibbon

songs were noted on a 24 h basis. Gibbon

song sites beyond my view were determined

by taking a compass reading and estimating

the distance from two separate locations at

least 100 m apart. The two readings were

then triangulated. This method proved to be

accurate to within 25 m at distances of less

than 500 m. Songs were recorded for later

analysis at 19 cm/sec with a Uher 4,400 tape

recorder and an AKG D-160 microphone fit-

ted to a 60 cm parabola. Focal animal obser-

vations were used when the gibbons were

iceding. Each minute the category of food

was noted, and after the group left a sample

was collected and later identified by A. K.

Barbaruh, a silviculturist stationed at Holion-

gapar. Other social interactions were record-

ed briefly or checked on prepared lists which

I transcribed and expanded each evening.

RESULTS

Distribution

H. hoolock once ranged throughout much

of what is now Assam, Burma, Bangladesh

and parts of southern China (Pocock 1941,

Fooden 1969, Groves 1967). Its northernmost

range is known to have been north of the

Sadiya Frontier Tract in Assam (about 28°N,

96°E) between the Lohit and Dibang Rivers

(Parsons 1940, 1941), Goletu. (27°37'N,

97°54’E) in upper Burma (Pocock 1941)

and an unknown distance into western Yun-

nan (Homo-shu-Pass: 25°00’N, 98°45’E) of

China (Anderson 1878, Andrews and And-

rews 1918, Fooden 1969, Groves 1967). Par-

sons (1940, 1941) established that the Brah-

maputra, Lohit and Dibang Rivers in the

Upper Assam Plains are the western limits

to the range of H. hoolock. The eastern limit,

once thought to be the Irrawaddy River in

BEHAVIOUR OF HOOLOCK GIBBON

Burma (Candler 1904), is now put at the

Salween River (Groves 1967), the western

limit of the white-handed gibbon H. lar in

Thailand (Marshall e¢ al. 1973). The south-

em range passes through the Chittagong Hill

Tracts of Bangladesh and south as far as

Gokteik, Shan States (22°921’N, 96°55’E) of

southwest Burma (Anderson 1878, Groves

1967).

The present distribution of H. hoolock has

been reduced considerably. One hundred

years ago gibbons were common in the Chit-

tagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh (Anderson

1878, Mountfort 1969), but a reconnaisance

by R. Tenaza in 1971 found intensive defore-

station has decimated these populations (R.

Tenaza, personal communication). The 1935

Vernay-Hopwood Chindwin expedition to

northern Burma provides the only available

knowledge on H. hoolock in Burma (Carter

1943). Gibbons were observed and collected

along both banks of the Chindwin River from

Homalin to Dalu at altitudes up to 1,280 m

(Carter 1943). Today the greatest concentra-

tions of H. hoolock in India are in the Upper

Assam Plains (Lakhimpur and Tirap) where

major stands of evergreen rain forest still

occur. Elsewhere in the Mikir and North

Cachar Hills, the Garo Hills and the United

Khasi-Jaintia Hills evergreen and mixed ever-

green forest persists in the higher altitudes

(200-750 m), and gibbons occur but only as

isolated and scattered populations (Table 1,

Pig. 1).

TABLE 1

DISTRIBUTION OF TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST AND GIBBON (Hf. hoolock) POPULATION SIZE IN ASSAM, INDIA.

(sq. km)

Upper Assam Plain

(Sibsagar Only) 3,780

Central Assam Plain 920

Lower Assam Plain 3,480

North Bank Plain 1,560

Meghalaya 3,4804

Barak Plain 2,380

Mizo Hills 650

Total 16,2505

1 Forest data from the Statistical Handbook of

Assam, Shillong. 1961-62 (Das 1970).

2These figures, based on values determined in

censuses (1971-72) are an approximate assessment

of gibbons in Assam. Family groups have a mean

size of 3.2 individuals (n=24) with 2.2 groups per

1 km.2 These figures are for complete occupancy

in available space and thus represent the maximum

population size.

’ Gibbons do not occur north of the Brahmaputra

Forest Area!

“ ey SRE om or ret eee

Total area Groups — Individuals?

15:2 8,310 — 26,600

16.4 2,020— 6,400

15.6 03

Wes) 03

O38 7,650 — 24,500

89.1 5,230 — 16,700

aan 1,430— 4,500

a 24,640 78,700

River.

4The United North Cachar and Mikir Hills con-

stitute 80% of this figure, the Garo Hills and Khasi-

Jaintia Hills 5% and 15% respectively.

5 No figures are available for Tripura, Manipur,

Nagaland or NEFA. Reserved forest constitutes

11.7 per cent of the total land in Assam, with

11,200 km2 suitable for gibbons. See Fig. 1 for

locations.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Among the five forest types distinguished

in Assam (Champion & Griffith 1948), only

evergreen and mixed evergreen rain forest

appear suitable for gibbons. Forest types in

Assam are correlated with the prevailing wea-

ther regimes; evergreen forest does not grow

in areas with less than 200 cm of rain per

year (Champion & Griffith 1948). Evergreen

gapar forest and 17 other groups counted else-

where in Assam were comprised of an adult

pair with one to four immature offspring.

Mean size for the 24 groups was 3.2 = 0.8

animals (range = 2-6). The spacing of off-

spring in these family units indicates that in-

fants are born approximately every 2-3 years

(Table 2). The extraordinary reproductive

TABLE 2

COMPOSITION, AGE AND SIZE OF GIBBON FAMILIES IN HOLLONGAPAR FOREST.

EEE

Group ae Wea ae Usuuadult

(8 yrs) (6-8 yrs) (4-6 yrs)

1 M —F — a

2 M—F —~ a

3 M—F — F

4 M —F — —

Sj M—F M —_

6 M—F —

Adolescent

Juvenile

rR aan ae

Infant

(2-4 yrs) (<< v)

M fs 3

am 1 3

aa 1 4

= 1 4

F 1 5

ey ais 3

sts a 2)

io! Ata x n PE 3.

Sex is indicated by the symbols (male) and F (female) and if undetermined a numeral is used. ‘The

approximate age of individual social classes is indicated (Ellefson 1974, and from personal observation).

Mean size for the seven groups is 3.4 = 0.9 individuals.

forest is the dominant forest type in the dis-

tricts of Sibsagar, Lakhimpur, Nagaland and

Manipur, but the last three areas are restrict-

ed and could not be surveyed. The increasing

population pressures, expanded settlements

and continuous jhumming or “‘slash and burn”’

agriculture is reported to have eliminated

much of the tall forest in these areas (Das

1970). Since 1835 the human population of

Assam has swollen from 800,000 to over 16

million (Das 1970). This enormous increase

in human population is incompatible with the

preservation of pristine forest; in turn, the ex-

clusively arboreal Indian ape is rapidly run-

ning out of suitable habitat.

Social Organization

Seven gibbon groups observed in Hollon-

rate of a pair of hoolock gibbons introduced

into the Mahandi Wildlife Sanctuary near

Darjeeling, where four infants have been born

in four years, is unprecedented (Anonymous

1972). McCann (1933) first documented

monogamy in HA. hoolock. Numerous sub-

sequent studies (Carpenter 1940, Brockelman

et al. 1973, Ellefson 1974, Chivers 1974,

Tenaza 1975), including the present one, con-

firm that all gibbon species are monogamous.

Three solitary individuals were encountered.

Two were fully grown males that were not

attached to any known group. Their glossy

pelage, full canines, and solitary status indi-

cate they were excluded from their natal

groups and were not senile remnants of a

mated adult pair. Because they were seen to

travel through 2-3 established territories, did

BEHAVIOUR OF HOOLOCK GIBBON

not sing and avoided other groups, they were

assumed not to be territorial. Such floating

males are characteristic of vertebrate popula-

tions in which all habitat suitable for breeding

is held by territorial animals (Brown 1969).

All of Hollongapar forest was not evaluated

as to gibbon occupancy, but the 200 ha in

which these observations were made was fully

occupied by mated pairs.

A solitary subadult female was seen on

several occasions. Her fur was just beginning

to turn from juvenile black to the buff colour

that characterized adult females (McCann

1933). I followed the subadult female for

three consecutive days. Each night she slept

in a tree that was over 1,000 m from the tree

she slept in the night before, crossing through

3-4 established territories. When a distant

pair of gibbons began to call (morning songs

are audible up to 800 m), she immediately

stopped feeding and began moving in their

direction. If a closer pair joined the chorus

she changed direction and moved towards

them, but contact was never established.

One of the seven gibbon families in Hol-

longapar included a sub-adult male that was

fully grown but dominated by the group’s

adult male. He lingered behind the adults in

group progressions, and his only close phy-

sical contact was with a younger sibling that

he often approached and sat with. Whenever

he attempted to enter a tree the adults were

in, the adult male vigorously shook the branch

he was on or rushed -towards him. “Either

action caused the young male to depart. No

ageression was recorded from the adult

female.

Songs

Candler (1904) and McCann (1933) both

have described phonetically the song of the

hoolock gibbon. The song is an elaborate duet

between the adult pair. Young offspring of

both sexes may also sing with the adults. The

adult male initiates the song with a single

high note given two to three tiimes in suc-

cession. If the female does not respond he

repeats the series. These introductory notes,

audible to about 100 m, are not given by im-

mature offspring. Hoolock gibbon songs do

not have a phase of progressive elaboration.

Instead, the song includes an accelerated pas-

sage of alternating high and low notes re-

miniscent of the siamang (H. syndactylus),

except the base line harmonics gradually

ascend (Marshall & Marshall 1976). The song

is unusual among gibbons in that there is no

clear sexual dimorphism in calis. Marshall &

Marshall (1976), heard a single female at the

Calcutta zoo render the entire song as a solo.

Hoolock gibbon songs last for about 15

min (mean=14.4 += 6.1 min; range = 4-32

min, n = 114). An adult pair usually sings

once daily; sometimes they sing a second time

(12% of total calls). Songs were given on 87

per cent of the days (54 of 62 days). Sum-

mertime songs begin earlier (mean time =

O901 vs. 1004 h in winter) and are less clump-

ed in their distribution than are winter songs

(Fig. 2). Afternoon songs (range 1410-1600

h) were not given in the winter. In summer

75 per cent of gibbon songs occurred between

0800 h and 1100 h, and in winter all songs

(100%) occurred during these hours. The

later start and more restricted distribution of

winter songs may be:a function of the shorter

daylight hours and colder temperatures that

are associated with extensive sun basking be-

fore beginning the day’s activity (see sun-

bathing). |

Once a family group begins to sing, ad-

jacent groups usually do not respond until

the first group is finished. Thus, hoolock gib-

bon songs pass sequentially through the forest,

PORPORTION GF SONGS STARTING PER 30 MIN. UNTERVALS

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

205

Asa

SUMMER

20 «

AS |

ee ae aus Co “4 16 ‘1800 h

LOCAL CLOCK TIME

Fig. 2. Diurnal distribution of gibbon songs (per 30 min. interval) for summer and

winter periods in Hollongapar Forest. Sunrise and sunset for these periods are indi-

cated (from Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, 1971-1972).

BEHAVIOUR OF HOOLOCK GIBBON

one group after another, much like the pat-

tern of H. syndactylus songs (Chivers 1974)

and in contrast to the multigroup choruses of

H. klossi (Yenaza 1976). Although choruses

do develop, 77 per cent of all recorded gib-

bon songs (n = 114) were delivered as solos.

overlap each other at the edges. Overlap zones

vary from 50-75 m wide and amount to about

23 per cent of each family’s space. They are

considered to be territorial boundaries. Hoo-

lock gibbon territories are comparable in size

to those of other gibbon species (Table 3).

TABLE 3

HOOLOCK GIBBON TERRITORY SIZES COMPARED

WITH OTHER GIBBON SPECIES

Species Location

H. hoolock North Assam

H. lar North Thailand

H. lar East Malaya

H. syndactylus Central Malaya

H. klossii Mentawai Islands, Indonesia

H. klossii

Mentawai Islands, Indonesia

Temitary Size

(ha)

Mean Range N Source

22 18-30 7 Tilson, this study

26 12-41 3 Carpenter, 1940

39 20-47 4 Ellefson, 1974

25 15-35 Ms, Chivers, 1974

i 5-8 3) Tenaza, 1975

12 7-13 Tilson, in ee

The mean ee Batata in fd Ke one

group’s singing and the start of another

group’s song (discounting periods with more

than 30 min lapse, n = 12) is 7.7 = 7.8 min

(range = 1-23 min). A single burst of song,

lasting for 1-2 seconds, was heard eight times.

These all occurred early in the morning 42 to

90 min before other groups began to sing.

Territory

Gibbons defend their space through loud

morning songs, confrontations with intruders

upon established boundaries and chasing tress-

passers (Carpenter 1940, Ellefson 1974, Chi-

vers 1974, Tenaza 1975). Singing advertises

the occupation of a specific area of forest by

a mated pair and functions as a distance-

maintaining signal (Marler 1968). Although

no intergroup encounters were observed, gib-

bons did sing on 87 per cent of all days. Each

group sang from within the area circumscrib-

ed by its daily movements. These areas, with

a mean size of 22 ha (range = 18-30 ha, n=7),

eedins eeu

A total of 43 species of food trees utilized

by gibbons were identified. These trees repre-

sent 16 families and include 28 genera (Table

4). The food list is incomplete, but it does

impart an impression of the proportions of

various food items in the gibbon diet. Of these

43 species 53 per cent produce fruits eaten by

gibbons. On the average, hoolock gibbons

spend 67 per cent of their feeding time on

fruit, 32 per cent on leaves and flowers and

1 per cent on insects. These data reflect the

winter diet and may not be comparable to the

summer diet. My impression, however, is that

fruit may be consumed even more frequently

during the summer months, but the data were

too few for valid comparison.

Gibbon daily activity varied seasonally. In

winter (November-February) feeding began

2.4 h after sunrise (mean = 0910 h). Once

started, they fed continuously through the day,

finishing near sundown (1710 h). Except for

the subadult male, family members usually

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

TABLE 4

MAJOR FOOD TREES OF GIBBONS IN HOLLONGAPAR FOREST AND THEIR FRUITING SEASONS

Tree species Bud-flower Fruit Leaf Fruiting season

Anacardiaceae

Mangifera indica as aL ue Aug.

Bombacaceae

Bombax insigne =P + + Aug.

B. malabaricum + ug st Aug.-Sept.

Burseraceae

Canarium bengalense - +. se Oct.-Nov.

C. resiniferum af a. tia Oct.-Nov.

Dilleniaceae

Dillenia indica + + + June

Dipterocarpaceae

Dipterocarpus macrocarpus = + -- Oct.-Nov.

Lagerstoemia flosreginae + = + Oct.-Nov.

L. parviflora + os + Oct.-Nov.

Shorea robusta + oe + Oct.-Nov.

Terminalia_ bellirica al a + Nov.-Feb.

T. citrina + esi ts Nov.-Feb.

T. myriocarpa + = pe Nov.-Feb.

Anthrocephalus cadamba + Ee + July-Aug.

Euphorbiaceae + a July-Aug.

Bridelia retusa = + a Sept.

Endospermum chinense et a me Aug.-Sept.

Guttiferae

Callophyllum polyanthum “= o ue July

Garicinia sp. uns + = Jan.

Lauraceae

Litsea_ citrata + eu + Jan.

Phoebe cooperiana + pas hs Jan.

P. goalparansis ao sai = Jan.

Leguminosae

Albizzia lebbek ab be = Jan.

‘A. procera + pis ob Jan.

A. stipulata “- + Jan.

Parkia roxburghii a oo May-Aug.

Moraceae

Artocarpus chaplasha =

A. integriflora ee + + Aug.-Sept.

A. khasiana at - + Aug.Sept.

A. lakoocha at + - Aug.-Sept.

Ficus glomerata + + + Jan.-July

F. nervosa + + a Aug.-Oct.

BEHAVIOUR OF HOOLOCK GIBBON

Tree species Bud-flower

Myrtaceae

Eugenia jambolana int

Eugenia sp. ll

Sapotaceae

- Palaquium polyanthum uh

Sterculiaceae

Hertiera acuminata a

Mansonia_ dipikae +

Sterculia alata i

S. campanulata we

S. villosa kt

Theaceae

Schima wallichii 2B

Ulmaceae

Celtis australis +

Verbenaceae

Premna_ bengalensis ze

Vitex sp. ma

Fruit Leaf Fruiting season

+ za Mar.-Sept.

ah a Mar.-Sept.

ba dt Mar.-Sept.

ae ie Jan.-Feb.

+ ee Nov.

ae = July

ae ws June-July

ne ae June-July

+ Be Dec.

Be al Sept.

+ 4. Dec.

+ + (Variable)

fed together in the same tree or group of trees.

They moved between feeding trees along di-

rect routes, and little or no feeding occurred

in transit. Average feeding time for a 10-day

period was 322 min (range = 260 to 445 min).

In contrast, summer feeding began earlier (3

h after sunrise, mean = 0810 h), and more time

was spent resting and in social contact with

the family unit. The longer summer days (14

h vs. 10 h) allowed more time for social acti-

vity, and the warmer mornings may preclude

basking in the sun. The average feeding time

for a 10-day period was not significantly diffe-

rent (mean = 295 min; range = 251 to 386

min.)

Reproduction

McCann (1933) observed that many of the

adult females he encountered were carrying

newly born infants and suggested that hoolock

gibbons have a birth peak during the winter.

In Hollongapar forest three of the seven mated

adult females gave birth between mid-Novem-

ber and the end of January. During the same

period four new infants were observed in near-

by forests. These sites are within 50 km of

where McCann made his observations. Young

infants were not seen during other months,

either in Hollongapar or elsewhere. These data,

although few, support McCann’s tentative con-

clusion that hoolock gibbons have a winter

birth season.

Sunbathing

Gibbons in Hollongapar bask in the sun on

cold winter mornings. In each territory there

were 1-3 trees used for basking. These trees

may be favoured by virtue of their central lo-

cation within the territory, their greater height

in relation to the surrounding canopy-and their

lack of leaves. The family usually moves into

one shortly after sunrise. Individuals space out

in the tree, sitting on the higher branches with

their ventral surface oriented towards the sun.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

As the chest is more sparsely coated than the

rest of the body, this posture emphasizes the

role of heat absorption while sunbathing (Ha-

milton 1973). The chest of adult females is

darker than the rest of the body, and in older

females it appears black. In the winter, when

ambient temperatures in the morning (0800

h) are low (mean = 10.1°C), gibbons bask

nearly every day. A group of three gibbons

in Hollongapar sunbathed 11 of 12 days (92

per cent) for an average of 92 min (range =

40-135 min) per day in the winter. In sum-

mer, when temperatures are higher (mean =

27.4°C), this same group sunbathed on only

9 of 16 days (56 per cent) for an average of

26 min (range = 12-45 min) per day.

DISCUSSION

All species of gibbons studied so far share

the same features of social organization. Their

social unit is a monogamous adult pair with

up to four offspring spaced two to three years

apart (Tenaza 1975). Family balance is main-

tained by excluding offspring as they become

sexually mature (Carpenter 1940, Brockelman

et al. 1973, Ellefson 1974, Chivers 1974). This

process has been reported only for males. Sub-

adult males of H. lar, H. syndactylus and H.

Klossi are excluded through threats and aggres-

sion from the adult male (Ellefson 1974,

Aldrich-Blake and Chivers 1974) as are H.

hoolock males. The solitary subadult female

in Hollongapar suggests females also are ex-

cluded from the group and territory. These

observations on H. hoolock support in part the

hypothesis that intrasexual aggression may be

the proximal basis of monogamy in all gib-

bons (Tenaza 1975).

The defense of mutually exclusive territo-

ries is known for three species of gibbons (H.

lar, Ellefson 1968; H. syndactylus, Chivers

1974; H. klossi, Tenaza 1975). Space is de-

fended by loud morning songs and more rare-

ly by aggressive intergroup encounters upon

boundaries (Eliefson 1968, Chivers 1974) and

intrasexual chasing of trespassers (Tenaza

1975). Although no intergroup encounters bet-

ween adjacent families were observed in H.

hoolock, their daily songs and exclusive feed-

ing areas imply that they are territorial. The

22 ha territories reported here for H. hoolock

are 32 per cent larger than those of H. klossi

(Tenaza 1975) and from 12 to 44 per cent

smaller than those of H. lar (Carpenter 1940,

Ellefson 1968) and H. syndactylus (Chivers

1974). These variations in size have little com-

parative value until the relevant measurements

of food resource availability are made in the

various forests. Monogamy and territoriality,

however, are common to all gibbon species,

even though they have been reproductively

isolated for at least 10-15,000 years.

Gibbons are exclusively arboreal except for

rare visits to the ground to retrieve dropped

food (Ellefson 1974), to cross short distances

devoid of forests (Ellefson 1974), or to have

combat (Tenaza 1975). Their suspensory lo-

comotion adapts them to exploit the terminal

branch niche (Ellefson 1974, Grand 1972),

where they feed on a variety of new leaves,

flowers, and especially fruit. H. Jar in Thailand

and Malaya spend from 70 to 80 per cent of

their feeding time consuming fruit (Carpenter

1940, Ellefson 1974), H. hoolock 67 per cent,

and H. syndactylus 30 to 40 per cent (Chivers

1974). Regardless of these different percentages

of fruit in the diets of different gibbon species,

fruit makes up the major part of all gibbon

diets with the exception of the siamang.

Gibbon sexual activity is thought to be sti-

mulated by irregular surges in fruiting seasons

(Chivers 1974, Tenaza 1975). Field observa-

tions on primates other than gibbons support

BEHAVIOUR OF HOOLOCK GIBBON

Fig. 3. An adult male H. hoolock. Note the conspicuous white eyebrows, which are

joined in hoolock gibbons west of the Chindwin River, Burma, but well separated

in those east of the river (Groves 1967).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

this view. In the Indian subcontinent rhesus

macaques (Macaca mulatta) have a distinct

breeding season (Southwick et al. 1965), while

bonnet macaques (M. radiata) (Rahman &

Parthasarathy 1969), grey langurs (Presbytis

entellus) (Sugiyama & Parthasarathy 1969),

Nilgiri langurs (P. johnii) (Poirier 1968, 1970)

and Purple-face langurs (P. senex) (Rudran

1973) show peaks in sexual activity, although

mating occurs throughout the year. These spe-

cies all have a birth peak in the dry season.

Rudran (1973) correlated increased sexual

activity and early gestation in P. senex with

high rainfall, increased food and decreasing

temperature. Rudran (1973) and Rahaman

(1973) suggest such periodicity is to synchro-

nize infant weaning with the monsoon, when

new leaves, buds and flowers are more abun-

dant. Observations on H. hoolock infant births

here and by McCann (1933) show a birth

peak in the dry season as well. With a seven-

month gestation period (Badham 1967, Hill

1967) most mating would occur during the

monsoon. This direct reproductive response to

favourable food resource conditions has been

reported for Malaysian primates as well (Med-

way 1972).

Fooden (1969) first identified the geogra-

phical pattern of the distribution of colour-

phase variation in gibbons. Monomorphic spe-

cies, in which individuals of both sexes are the

same colour, are restricted to the southern or

Indo-Malayan range. Sexually dimorphic spe-

cies, in which adult males are dark and adult

females are light (H. hoolock, H. pileatus, H.

concolor) are restricted to the northern or

Indochinese range. The intermediate asexual-

ly dichromic species straddle the zone bet-

ween these two regions. Fooden (1969) sug-

gests that the dichromatism of H. hoolock

evolved from primitive monomorphism (with

asexual dimorphism as an intermediate step)

during the radiation of gibbons into the north-

ern latitudes. The adaptive significance of this

dichromatism, however, is obscure.

The colour change of H. hoolock was estab-

lished by McCann (1933). At birth the infant

is nearly white. As the infant ages the coat

darkens until it is completely black; only the

conspicuous eyebrows remain white (Fig. 3).

Both sexes pass through this colour change.

In males the dark colouring deepens with age

to a glossy black, while a second colour change

occurs for females at about 6-8 years of age.

Her black coat gradually fades to buff colour

as she attains sexual maturity. With age the

chest of many females darkens until it appears

black. The ail black coat of adult males and

immature offspring of H. hoolock may en-

hance heat absorption and allow for reduced

basking time. The lighter coat of the female

may be counterselected for by being more

cryptic and thus less conspicuous to predators.

The black chests of females in the other two

sexually dichromic gibbons (H. pileatus and

H. concolor), both of which are northern spe-

cies, and the greater frequency of black

morphs (69 per cent; 64 of 93 specimens) in

the asexually dichromic gibbon H. lar in

northern Thailand (Fooden 1969) suggests

that blackness may confer a thermal advantage

and thus could have been selected for during

the adaptive radiation of gibbons into the

northern latitudes. |

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was supported through funds from

the Smithsonian Institution. I am indebted to

Shri P. Barua, Chief Conservator of. Forests,

Assam; Dr. K .N. Sharma, Department of Zoo-

logy, Gauhati; Dr. B. Biswas, Indian Museum,

Calcutta and the many District Forest Officers

I interviewed for their cooperation during my

BEHAVIOUR OF HOOLOCK GIBBON

surveys of Assam and for their useful informa-

tion on gibbons in their areas. I am grateful

for the invaluable assistance of W. Mills in

New Delhi and for the hospitality of the Grey-

stone family, Kotalgoorie T. E., in Assam. Spe-

cial thanks go to Wazir Khan, Moabund T. E.,

for showing me my first wild hoolock gibbons.

I am especially indebted to W. J. Hamilton,

Ill, and R. R. Tenaza for introducing me to

gibbons and for suggesting that I go to Assam.

Their comments on this paper and those of

C. Busse and D. Lindburg are appreciated.

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A BOTANICAL SURVEY OF CANNABIS IN THE

HIMALAYAS’

G. K. SHARMA?

The Himalayas are known for their wild or nearly wild populations of Cannabis.

These mountain ranges also have a folklore for Cannabis. Botanical studies of Can-

nabis populations in their natural habitats in the Himalayas are of great significance

for understanding the ecological, biochemical, and genetic relationships existing in the

taxon. It is suggested that a concerted, thorough investigation of this mysterious pliant

be made in its probable home in the Himalayas. The findings of a preliminary survey

of Cannabis in the Himalayas are discussed.

The purpose of this paper is to report some

botanical characteristics and phenotypic varia-

tions in Cannabis as observed in a wide variety

of microhabitats and macrohabitats in the

northern Himalayas.

The Himalayas are an excellent laboratory

for the study of Cannabis. This enigmatic

taxon occurs in the 2,500 kilometre long Hima-

layan arc stretching from Afghanistan to

Burma and covering the northern highlands

of Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Tibet, Nepal,

Bhutan, and Burma. Cannabis is considered

native to central Asia. The northern Himalayas

have wild or nearly wild populations, mostly

untouched by man. These mountains have

large areas of sparse human habitation, per-

mitting the discovery of pockets of wild popu-

lations in the area. In addition, some of the

ancient scriptures of India mention the medi-

cal, religious, and social significance of Can-

nabis in the area as far back as 5,000 B.C.

The sacred Vedas and Susrita are scriptures

known for their descriptions of this plant, one

of man’s oldest companions in the northern

1 Accepted May 1978.

2Professor of Botany, University of Tennessee

at Martin & Research Fellow, Botanical Museum,

Harvard University, U.S.A.

Himalayas.

Cannabis is five-purpose economic pliant:

the source of fiber, food, medicine, oil, and

narcotic. Accordingly, it is commonly culti-

vated in the Himalayas. It is an extremely

misunderstood plant, especially in the western

countries of the world. There is no agreement

concerning its family assignment. There is

controversy about its taxonomy. It has been

maintained by some (Small 1974; Small and

Cronquist 1976) that there is only one species,

Cannabis sativa; while others (Emboden 1974;

Schultes et al. 1974) believe it to be polytypic.

Ecologically, it presents several baffling pro-

blems. Its plasticity is not completely under-

stood. The factors controlling its weedy ag-

gressiveness and its narcotic potency are still

argued by many. These biological enigmas

have social and legal implications, especially

in Western countries where it is widely used

or misused as an inebriant.

Strangely there is dearth of biological data

on Cannabis in its natural habitat in the north-

ern Himalayas. Preliminary information on

altitudinal variation and embryology is, how-

ever, available (Ram and Nath 1964; Sharma

1975). I travelled extensively in the northern

Himalayas in 1970, 1973, and 1976 making

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

field observations and collecting data on Can-

nabis from a wide variety of habitats and ele-

vations in areas conspicuous for their popula-

tions of Cannabis. Most of the observations

were made in the provinces of Himachal Pra-

desh, Punjab, and Jammu & Kashmir in

northern India. These areas of northern India

are contiguous to the wild, uninhabited

borders of Tibet and Pakistan. Gross morpho-

logical variations in populations and general

features of their habitat were recorded in the

field.

During laboratory studies on Cannabis of

different geographic origins from different

countries of the world, there is a tendency

to label the habitat of these populations cor-

responding to the general climatic conditions

of that country without any real consideration

of the fact that local microhabitat parameters

are extremely crucial to the growth and pheno-

type of Cannabis. It is, moreover, doubtful if

the laboratory or controlled studies without

the basic supplemental data from the native

range and habitat of Cannabis can aid in clari-

fying many of the botanical, ecological, and

biochemical problems. Our knowledge gap is

often the direct result of lack of study of Can-

nabis in its natural habitat. Thus, different

microhabitats representing extremely diverse

conditions within a country can lead to exten-

sive plasticity and variability in Cannabis.

This phenomenen is true especially in the

Himalayas, where Cannabis exhibits especially

high plasticity. Unless it be studied in depth

in its probable home—the Himalayas, it is

doubtful whether we can resolve many of our

uncertainties about the plant.

It is not unusual to find two different popu-

lations of Cannabis exhibiting entirely different

morphological features on the same slope. It

owes this remarkable plasticity to ecological

factors in the microhabitat. It is erroneous,

for example, to say that Cannabis from a cer-

tain slope represents a certain population, since

I have seen the difference of a single factor

producing variation in plant populations on

the same slope.

In the areas surveyed between 250 and 3,050

metres, I found distinct variation in the gross

morphology of Cannabis populations. Plant

habit, size, leaf size and colour, foliar charac-

teristics (colour, growth, and odour) and seed

size were found to be plastic—a plasticity de-

pending upon habitat, elevation, and soil fac-

tors. Plants growing on man-made, nutrient-

rich soils grew to a height of more than four

metres with dark green, strong-smeiling foll-

age—and this regardless of elevation. These

plant populations produced large leaves, thick

stems, and extensive roots. Furthermore, these

plants cannot be called truly wild: they were

either grown by man or indirectly nourished

by man. Cannabis growing in the same gene-

ral area but not on refuse or man-altered,

nutrient-rich soil exhibited growth typical of

the ecological region.

Under wild conditions, however, Cannabis

at higher elevations was larger, laxly branched,

vigorous, and had larger leaves than at lower

elevations. They also had a strong odour and

bright green foliage.

Cannabis is a heliophile: quite evident in

its probable native home in the higher eleva-

tions in the Himalayas. Of all the populations

surveyed in these mountains, I found not even

a single population growing in the shade. In

the plains area or at low elevations, where

summer temperatures were extremely high

(40°C), Cannabis grew both in shade and

in direct sunlight.

At higher elevations, nearly all the Canna-

bis grew on south-facing slopes exclusively

while the north-facing slopes-cooler and mois-

ter-were devoid of Cannabis. At lower eleva-

CANNABIS IN THE HIMALAYAS

tions, however, both the north-facing and

south-facing slopes had populations, because

of the favourable temperatures, an important

feature affecting the botany and ecology of

the plant during its entire life cycle. I found

no Cannabis populations above 3,050 metres

in the northern Himalayas.

In all cases, pistillate Cannabis was found

to be more branched and bushy than the

weaker-looking staminate individuals. This dis-

tinction was one of the best ways to separate

male from female prior to flowering. Further,

pistillate plants were generally bright green,

while staminate individuals were greyish green.

The “bark” of the older females was some-

what thicker than that of the males. A close

look at the lower section of the stems of female

plants showed distinct, horizontal ridges,

whereas the male stems had dots or tiny spot-

like structures, less conspicuous than the rid-

ges of the female. This pattern I observed con-

sistently in all habitats at all elevations.

Cannabis is usually the dominant plant in

an herbaceous plant community—thus support-

ing the suggestion that its aggressiveness or

dominance may be due to allelopathic pro-

perties. Very few weeds were able to grow

among or compete with Cannabis, especially

at lower elevations, where pure colonies of the

plant were abundant. In cultivated fields, there-

fore, Cannabis is considered to be a menace

to other crops and is weeded out as early as

possible.

Generally, at high elevations, the seeds from

the preceding autumn germinate about the end

of March. Blooming occurs in early June, and

the enormous amount of pollen produced by

male plants becomes extremely conspicuous in

the atmosphere. In the plains at lower eleva-

tions, pollen production occurs even earlier in

the growing season, since the seeds produced

in early autumn germinate in December or

January, leading to earlier blooming. At high

elevations, Cannabis produces seeds in late

summer, while ripening takes place in Novem-

ber, the plant then dies. Cold winters at high

elevations provide a dormant period; hence

germination of seeds produced in the preced-

ing season does not take place until March

of the following year.

While it is known that Cannabis has had a

long association with man, there are many

disturbed habitats in the area where Cannabis

has carried on well for years without -any

direct interference by man. Abandoned ter-

races, old farm sites, roadsides, and railroads

are some of the sites where Cannabis coloniz-

ed as a dominant species. Cultivated fields are

also invaded by Cannabis, although it is weed-

ed out early in the growing season simply for

survival of the cultivated crops. When it com-

petes and survives in both wild and man-made

habitats it exhibits its gregariousness—itself an

enigmatic phenomenon, requiring detailed in-

vestigations.

A general count of male and female plants

at low and high elevations indicated a gradual

preponderance of female individuals over the

male with increase in elevation. It might be

interpreted as ensuring fertilization, seed pro-

duction, and hence survival and continuity of

the species in the relatively harsh environ-

ment and short growing season of higher ele-

vations. The reverse was evident in the plains

and at lower elevations, where male individuals

outnumbered female plants. In all cases, male

plants withered away earlier in the season

than the female Cannabis plants.

Field observations in the Himalayas indi-

cate clearly that sandy soils are decidedly poor

for growth of Cannabis, whether in the plains,

low elevations or at high altitudes. The plants

growing in sandy soils were dwarfed or even

prostrate in some cases with thin stems, small

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

leaves, small seeds, and gave the general ap-

pearance of stunted growth. Soils rich in orga-

nic matter, however, are the best for its

growth. This observation in wild populations

in the Himalayas supports the well recognized

fact that Cannabis is a “‘heavy feeder.”

Plants in the plains area were usually smal-

ler than plants under similar habitats at higher

elevations. Seeds produced by populations at

high elevations were larger than those at low

elevations. But, the plants of lower elevations

procuced seeds in greater abundance—perhaps

a sigiificant evolutionary characteristic. It

seems, therefore, safe to suggest that in the

northern Himalayan region, seed size in Can-

nabis is proportional to plant size and to over-

all vigour of growth. Furthermore, I found a

slight colour difference in seeds of different

populations. Seeds of mountain populations

tended to be somewhat light grey, while the

colour in the plains was distinctly dark grey.

I must make special mention of several

populations growing in valleys (elevation 2,500

metres+) surrounded by ice and snow-covered

mountains in the background rising to a height

of 7,000 metres. Cool, dry, crisp mountain

breezes were typical of these areas. Sunny,

clear, bright days characterized the early

autumn, and the nights were bitterly cold.

These are areas renowned for extremely

potent Cannabis. The plants collected from

these areas had a very rank-smelling, dark

green foliage, excellent growth, and large seeds

—suggestive that these characteristics might

possibly be correlated with the narcotic

strength of the plants.

Finally, it seems obvious that Cannabis

shows great phenotypic plasticity and perhaps

corresponding variation in narcotic potency in

different habitats in the northern Himalayas,

although the latter speculation requires long

and critical biochemical analysis. Intensive and

extensive botanizing in the Himalayas will un-

doubtedly produce answers to many of the

questions posed by this bewildering plant. The

legal, bureaucratic, and social implications

at present certainly hinder free flow of infor-

mation and understanding of Cannabis in its

natural habitat in the Himalayas. Cannabis

research does not have the same glamour in

the East as it does in western countries for

very obvious reasons. It is doubtful, therefore,

that scientific skills and/or resources of the

East can be expected to be applied toa

thorough botanical and ecological investigation.

As a result, a major hurdle to understanding

this important plant in its natural habitat in

central Asia needs to be cleared.

REFERENCES

EMBODEN, W. A. (1974): Cannabis—a polytypic

genus. Economic Botany 28: 304-310.

RaM, H. Y. MOHAN AND NATH, R. (1964): The

morphology and embryology of Cannabis sativa L.

Phytomorphology 14: 414-429.

SCHULTES, R., KLEIN, W., PLOWMAN, T., AND

Lockwoop, T. (1974): Cannabis: an example of

taxonomic neglect. Harvard Univ. Bot. Mus. Leafl.

23: 337-367.

SHARMA, G. K. (1975): Altitudinal variation in

leaf epidermal patterns of Cannabis sativa. Bull.

Torrey Botanical Club 102: 199-200.

SMALL, E. (1975): On toadstool soup and legal

species of marihuana. Plant Science Bulletin 21:

35-39.

SMALL, E. AND CRONQUIST, A. (1976): A _ practi-

cal and natural taxonomy for Cannabis. Taxon 25:

405-435.

A COMMENT ON ACTINODURA NIPALENSIS (AND

WALDENI!)*

S. DILLON RIPLEY?

In the Journal of the Bombay Natural His-

tory Society (1961:281), I commented on

some birds from northern Burma and conclud-

ed, as Rothschild had suggested (1926), that

two species in this genus, nipalensis and wal-

deni should be kept separate. Consequently in

my SYNOPSIS (1961), and in the HANDBOOK

(S. Ali and Ripley 1972, 7, p. 86-89) we have

maintained the forms as two separate species.

A brief visit to Arunachal Pradesh in Jan-

uary-February, 1978, has given me the oppor-

tunity of examining freshly collected Actino-

dura which on field observation I assumed to

be A. nipalensis. We found the species at Bom-

dila, Kameng District at an altitude of 8400

feet. On comparing these specimens with re-

cently collected Actinodura nipalensis from

Bhutan and Nepal in the National Museum

of Natural History, as well as old skins in the

American Museum of Natural History from

Sikkim I immediately saw that I was in error

in my past arrangement.

Ticehurst (1935, p. 57) agreed with Baker

in the “FAUNA” (1922, p. 307-309) that these

populations of Actinodura should be kept in

one species, thus disagreeing with Rothschild.

That Ticehurst’s opinion, and Baker’s was

correct I now believe. I should have been alert-

ed by the obvious fact of forty years ago that

agreement among these late authors was un-

common enough to lend extra weight to a

jointly-held opinion.

1 Accepted May 1978.

2 Smithsonian Institution,

20560, U.S.A,

Washington, D.C.

The problem is partly explained by the de-

gree of “‘foxing’’ or change of tone of old

specimens in museum collections. When I

compared freshly-collected Actinodura nipa-

lensis from Bomdila with an ancient skin of

Actinodura waldeni daflaensis from the Miri

Hills (=Lakhimpur District immediately to

the east), I could not at first recognize that the

fresh specimens could possibly represent da-

flaensis, and not an undescribed race of nipa-

lensis, so startling were the apparent differen-

ces in colour tone.

Daflaensis is listed by Salim Ali and myself

(tom. cit.) as a subspecies of waldeni, as I had

placed it in SyNopsis. The older skins in col-

lections have the rufous coloration, and streak-

ing, especially below, associated with waldeni.

However, the fresh skins collected by myself

at Bomdila are markedly different from A.

nipalensis to the west. The only solution is that

they represent daflaensis. How then is daflaen-

sis, Originally described by Godwin-Austen

(1875) to be characterized? Here are the

salient points of the original description;

“As might be expected, its (daflaensis)

nearest ally is A. nipalensis, Hodgs., the

coloration above being very similar on the

back and tail, but with less rufous barring.

The crest, however, is quite different; and in

this respect the species approaches A. waldeni

from the Naga Hills, on the south of the Brah-

maputra valley, only that the crest is far ful-

ler. The general blotchy streakiness of the

throat and breast is also a mark of connection

with, A. waldeni:..... head, ash-brown; fea-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

thers in front spatulate, behind elongated into

a full crest, narrowly pale-edged...... side of

head ash-grey, the ear-coverts with light silky

reflections...... Beneath—the chin and throat

pale dingy white, becoming a dirty ochry ash

on the breast, with a blurry striation particu-

larly on the throat.”

In Baker (tom. cit.) the description of

daflaensis differs in comparing the form to

waldeni by stating; “Similar to “J.” (=Ixops)

n. waldeni but a darker, duller chestnut above

and the chin, throat and breast feathers grey

with reddish-brown central streaks, the whole

effect being grey, not rufous; ear coverts a

rather darker grey.”’

On examination of these specimens I feel

that I was mistaken as well in naming a new

subspecies Actinodura nipalensis vinctura. The

original description (1950), stressed the

“deeper black band on the terminal upper

surface of the tail, and noticeably heavier black

barring on wings and tail.’ While there is a

continuous geographical clinal difference from

west to east in the tendency towards a darker,

more blackish tip to the tail and heavier

barring on wings and tail, I find that there is

a great deal of variation in the streaking on

head and back, width of bars on wings and

tail, colour of ear coverts and tendency to faint

streaking on the throat and upper breast. Thus

the variable appearance of this population

which extends from central Nepal to east

Bhutan is better left as nipalensis nipalensis

with m. vinctura aS a synonym.

For the record then I propose to list the

characteristic appearance of Actinodura nipa-

lensis daflaensis as follows;

freshly collected daflaensis—

differs from nipalensis in the darker, more

uniform, dark grayish brown cap, (of Smithe’s

Color Guide, New York, 1975) extending from

the bill over the crown, the softly rounded

crest projecting over the nape. The paler, buff

shaft streaks are reduced to hair-line size on

the crown feathers. There are also hair-width

edgings of dull buff to these crown feathers,

lacking in nipalensis. The back is unstreaked,

dark “burnt umber’? (of Smithe), or dark

rufous olive-brown, somewhat variable in tone

in individuals. The wings and basal half of the

tail are heavily barred with broad black bars,

the terminal half of the tail uniform black with

dull whitish tips on the central tail feathers.

The cheeks and ear coverts are olive gray with

a glaucus tone, giving a light sheen to the

feathers, darker than the somewhat clay-colour-

ed glaucus olive gray in nipalensis. Compared

to nipalensis the moustachial streak from the

base of the bill running back to the side of

the neck and separating the paler throat

colour, is more indistinct, reduced in its sharp

demarcation between head and throat.

Below, daflaensis has a light neutral gray

throat with pale, olive-gray streaks on the

centers of the feathers. The breast is darker,

a light neutral-gray (Smithe) with poorly de-

fined olive-gray or glaucus central streaks,

somewhat blurred in definition, not sharply

defined. The lower belly and flanks are simi-

lar to nipalensis, shading into tawny olive-

brown. In nipalensis, the throat is much dar-

ker, smoky-gray with only an indication of

streaking, the breast is unstreaked and infused

with a tint of olive-brown in the dirty grayish

tone.

In old skins, daflaensis appears darker more

uniform on the crest, lacking the central shaft

streaks of nipalensis, more rusty-brown on the

back, also unstreaked, and below definitely

streaked on a lighter throat which is smoky-

gray rather than light gray. The breast has

darkened with age in old skins, darker and

dirty olive-gray in tone. The streaking distin-

guishes such specimens from the relatively

A COMMENT ON ACTINODURA NIPALENSIS (AND WALDENT)

clear coloured, dark dirty smoke-gray of nipa-

lensis.

In waldeni the crest feathers are more

pointed, with distinct pale brownish-gray edges

and dark brownish-black, sometimes blackish-

brown centers. The back is uniform unstreak-

ed, dark olive-brown. The cheek feathers are

edged with silvery gray. The moustachial

streak is reduced, the black feathers well edged

with smoke gray, so as to lose their definition

as a moustachial streak. The throat is straw

brown, with hairline brownish central streaks,

shading into cinnamon on the breast edged

with light straw-brown. The cinnamon deep-

ens slightly on the lower breast and belly due

partly to the reduction and eventual disappear-

ance of paler edging.

East and south of this range are two darker,

more maroon or dark-maroon backed sub-

species with darker throats and_ streaked

breasts, poliotis of the Chin Hills, and satu-

ratior of extreme north Burma and adjacent

Yunnan with wardi as a synonym.

REFERENCES

Aut, S. AND RIPLEY, S. DILLON (1972): Hand-

book of the Birds of India and Pakistan, vol. 6.

Bombay: Oxford University Press.

BAKER, E. C. Stuart (1922): The Fauna of

British India, vol. 1. London: Taylor and Francis.

GopDWIN-AUSTEN, H. H. (1875): Description of

a supposed new Actinura from the Dafla Hills. Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist. 16: 339-340.

RipLtey, S. D. (1950): New Birds from Nepal

and the Indian Region. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing-

ton, 63: 101-108.

(1961): Some Bird Records from

Northern Burma with a Description of a New Sub-

species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58(1): 279-283.

ROTHSCHILD, Lord (1926): On the Avifauna of

Yunnan, with critical notes. Novit. Zool., 33: 274.

SMITHE, F. B. (1975): Naturalists’ Color Guide.

New York: American Museum of Natural History.

STANFORD, J. K. AND TICEHURST, C. B. (1935):

Notes on some new or rarely recorded Burmese

birds’ Jbis’’Part. “7: 46; -57:" Part 2°: 271:

TYPE MATERIAL IN THE HERBARIUM OF THE

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA AT POONA’

N. P. SINGH AND U. R. DESHPANDE?

It is clearly specified in the latest Interna-

tional Code of Botanical Nomenclature

(Stafleu, 1972) that all taxonomic groups of

the rank of family and below must be based

on nomenclatural types. A nomenclatural type

is that constituent element of a taxon to which

the name of the taxon is permanently attach-

ed, whether as a correct name or as a synonym.

It is necessary to indicate the nomenclatural

type on the basis of which a taxon is created

with effect from first January, 1958, accord-

ing to the code.

The herbarium of the Botanical Survey of

India, Western Circle, Poona (BS/) includes

nearly 100,000 specimens collected since the

reorganisation of the Circle in 1956 besides

the historical collections of Cooke (over

30,000) and Talbot (over 10,000). A new

genus, 30 species and a variety have been de-

scribed from this Circle after its reorganisa-

tion. The types of these taxa are deposited

in the regional herbarium. However, the holo-

types of the above taxa are deposited in the

CAL. Some types have also been deposited

here by a few workers from outside the depart-

ment. In addition, there are a good number of

type specimens in the Cooke’s & Talbot’s col-

lections. Therefore, it was thought desirable

to prepare a consolidated list of such material

present in the regional herbarium for the bene-

fit of taxonomists, who may wish to refer such

1 Accepted May 1978.

2 Botanical Survey of India,

Poona.

Western Circle,

taxa for monographic as well as floristic stu-

dies.

A total number of 465 type sheets are de-

posited in the herbarium which includes 63 &

80 sheets in Cooke’s & Talbot’s collections res-

pectively, besides 5 type photos. These repre-

sent 91 species and 4 varieties belonging to 66

genera and 32 families, which include 17 taxa

in Cooke’s and 35 in Talbot’s collections. On

a scrutiny of distribution of these taxa it is seen

that as much as 37 belong to Maharashtra &

41 to Karnataka, of which 22 are from Poona

(mostly recent collections) and 33 from North

Kanara (mostly in Talbot’s collections) res-

pectively. Of the remaining 13 taxa, 5 are from

Goa, 3 from Tamil Nadu, 2 from Kerala and

1 each from Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh & Gu-

jarat. Poaceae (27) has the maximum number

of types followed, by Asclepiadaceae (8) &

Rubiaceae (6). The genera Ceropegia & Ma-

nisuris have 6 species each. A total of 19 holo-

types (in Cooke’s & Talbot’s collections), 51

isotypes, 15 syntypes (mostly in Cooke’s &

Talbot’s collections), 96 paratypes (mostly in

recent collections) & 2 neotypes are present in

the herbarium besides 5 type photos and 4 type

sheets which cannot be categorised due to lack

of authentic information about the same. Many

of the sheets have been categorised on the basis

of corraborative evidence including Talbot’s

manuscript notes & protologue containing the

illustrations etc.

In the following enumeration the families are

arranged in Bentham & Hooker’s system of

classification. The genera, species & varieties

TYPE MATERIAL AT THE BOTANICAL SURVEY

are arranged in alphabetical order under each

family. The original citation of cach taxon

along with name change, if any, is provided

for easy location for reference. Under each

taxon is given nature of type sheet with number

within parentheses followed by locality, in-

cluding the actual locality, district & State to

which it belongs and Collector’s name and

number. The specimens belonging to Cooke’s

at the end in parenthesis. Doubts, if any, are

indicated under each taxon individually.

RANUNCULACEAE

Clematis hedysarifolia DC. Syst. 1:148, 1817.

Type photo (1): Dasgown, in rupibus (Ma-

harashtra), A. P. Hove. Herb. Musei Britannici.

CLUSIACEAE

Garcinia talbotii Raiz. ex Sant. Fl. Khandala

(ed. 2) 14, 1960.

G. malabarica Talb. in J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. XI (2): 234, 1897 & (5): t. I, 1898.

Holotype (1) & isotype (1): Garsoppa ghat,

North Kanara (Karnataka), Talbot 3713 (T).

MALVACEAE

Aputilon ranadei Woodrow et Stapf in Kew

Bull. 87: 99, 1894.

Type (1)(?): Ambaghat, Ratnagiri (Maha-

rashtra), without collector’s name & number.

(C).

No number is given in the protologue but

since the specimen cited is from the type loca-

lity, it may be considered a type sheet.

BALSAMINACEAE

Impatiens talbotii Hook. f. in Rec. bot. Surv.

India 4(1): 42 & 47, 1904.

Type (1)(?): Devimoneghat, North Kanara

(Karnataka), Talbot 3732 (T).

No number is given in the protologue but

since the specimen cited is from the type loca-

lity, it may be designated a type sheet.

MELIACEAE

Aglaia talbotii Sundararaghavan in Bull. bot.

Surv. India 11 (1 &2): 183-184, 1969.

A. littoralis Talb. Trees, shrubs & climbers

Bombay Pres. (ed. 2) 76, 1902.

Holotype (1): Co-ompta, North Kanara

(Karnataka), Talbot 2955 (T). Paratype (3):

Co-ompta, North Kanara (Karnataka), Tal-

bot sn. (T): Karwar, North Kanara (Karna-

taka), Talbot 499-2955. (T).

Dysoxylum glandulosum Talb. Trees, shrubs &

climbers Bombay Pres. (ed. 1) 39, 1894.

Syntype (6): Telgiri, North Kanara (Karna-

taka), Talbot 3808 (T).

Though no number is cited in the protologue,

it is given here on the basis of Talbot’s manu-

script notes and of notes given on the sheets

cited here.

OLACACEAE

Strombosia leprosa Talb. in J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. X1(2): 235, 1897 & (5): t. IL, 1898.

Paratype (2): Yellapore, North Kanara

(Karnataka), Talbot s.n. (T); Potolli, North

Kanara (Karnataka), Talbot 1736 (T).

The specimens are not mentioned in the

prctologue but are listed here on the basis of

Talbot’s manuscript notes.

CELASTRACEAE

Gymnosporia konkanensis Talb. in For. FI.

Bombay Pres. Sind 1: 280, 1909.

Holotype (1): Monoli forest, Thana (Maha-

rashtra), Talbot s.n. (T). Paratype (2): Parol

forest, Bassein, Thana (Maharashtra), Ryan

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

1024; Tannah (Thana) (Maharashtra), Talbot

SSS 7CT):

Though no number is cited in the protologue,

the holotype matches well with the illustration

given there.

G. puberula Laws. in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India

b: 61951875.

Type photo (1): Bombay, Law s.n. Kew

Negative No. 6441 (1).

Salacia talbotii Gamble in Kew Bull. 1916:

133, 1916.

Syntype (1): North Kanara, Talbot 1217

(T).

RHAMNACEAE

Ventilago maderaspatana Gaertn. var. fructi-

fida Santapau in Kew Bull. 1949: 340, 1949.

Holotype (1) & Isotype (2): Khandala,

Poona (Maharashtra), Garade 12(C).

LEEACEAE

Leea talbotii King ex Talb. For. Fl. Bombay

Pres. Sind 1: 329, 1909.

Holotype (1): Yellapore, North Kanara

(Karnataka), Talbot s.n. (T). Paratype (3):

Karwar, South Kanara (Karnataka), Talbot

sn. (T.).

Though no number is cited in the protologue,

the holotype mentioned here matches perfectly

with the illustrations.

FABACEAE

Alysicarpus vasavadae Hem. in Indian Forester

97(1): 65-69, 1971.

Isotype (4): Shivneri Fort Hill, Junnar,

Poona (Maharashtra), Hemadri 104350 B-E.

Paratype: Shivneri Fort Hill, Junnar, Poona

(Maharashtra), Rao 83505 (2) & Hemadri

118101 (5); Kukdi river bank, Junnar, Poona

(Maharashtra), Hemadri 104321 (3); Ganesh

Caves, Junnar, Poona (Maharashtra), Henzadri

118132 (3).

Eleiotis trifoliata Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bombay 1:

342, 1902.

Syntype (3): Badami, Bijapur (Karnataka),

Cooke s.n. (C). |

Smithia agharkarii

97): 65-69, 1971:

Isotype (1): Dhak plateau, West of Junnar,

Poona (Maharashtra), Hemadri 107486 B. Pa-

ratype: Hill above Tata Power Station, Khan-

dala, Poona (Maharashtra), Hernadri 85171

A-I (9); Dhobi Falls, Mahableshwar, Satara

(Maharashtra), Mahajan 24749 (1); Panch-

gani Road, Satara (Maharashtra), Cooke s.n.

(1)(C).

Hem. Indian Forester

MYRTACEAE

Eugenia memecylifolia Talb. in J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 11(2): 236, 1897 & (5): t. 5, 1898.

Holotype (1 )& Isotype (3): Kalpa, North

Kanara (Karnataka), Talbot 3127 (T).

K. utilis Talb. ibid. 11(2): 235, 1897 & (5): t.

3, 1898.

Holotype (1) & Isotype (1): Sonda, North

Kanara (Karnataka), Talbot 3644 (T).

Syzygium kanarensis (Talb.) Raiz. in Indian

Forester 74: 336, 1948. Eugenia kanarensis

Talb. in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 11(2):

2305 L897 (5) = 1.2. 1898:

Holotype (1): Mula muka, north Kanara

(Karnataka), Talbot 3552 (T).

APIACEAE

Pimpinella katrajensis Rolla Rao et Hem. In-

dian Forester 102 (4): 232-34, 1976.

Isotype (6): Grown in Botanical Survey of

India, Poona Garden, from the collections from

Katraj Ghat, Poona (Maharashtra), Hemadri

108494 B-D & M-O. Paratype: Katraj Ghat,

Poona (Maharashtra), Hemadri 81976 A-B

(2); Panchgani, Satara (Maharashtra), Ranade

sn. (1)(C); Katraj Ghat, Poona (Maharash-

TYPE MATERIAL AT THE BOTANICAL SURVEY

tra) Cooke s.n. (3) & Bhide 917 (1)(C).

Trachyspermum strictocarpum (C.B.Cl.) Wolff

in Pfreich. 43: 89, 1927. Pimpinella lateriflora

Dalz.; Hemadri in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

67(2) = 359-357; 1970:

Neotype (6): Shivneri Fort, Junnar, Poona

(Maharashtra), Hemadri 104346.

RUBIACEAE

Lasianthus sessilis Tab. Trees, shrubs & climb-

ers Bombay Pres. (ed. 1): 114, 1894.

Holotype (1) & Isotype (1): Artabad, North

Kanara (Karnataka), Talbot 1027 (T). Para-

type (2): North Kanara (Karnataka), Talbot

266 (T). ‘

Oldenlandia prainiana (Talb.) Craib in Kew

Bull. 1910: 278, 1910. Anotis prainiana Talb.

inj. Bombay nat. Hist.,Soc. 11(2): 237,

1897 & (5): t. 6, 1898.

Holotype (1) & Isotype (4): Santaveri,

Kadur, Chickmagalur (Karnataka), Talbot

2995 (T).

Psychotria canarensis Talb. Trees, shrubs &

climbers Bombay Pres. (ed. 1): 113, 1894.

Holotype (1): Garsoppa, North Kanara

(Karnataka), Talbot 257. Paratype (3): Gar-

soppa falls, North Kanara (Karnataka), Tal-

bot 257-337, 337 & s.n. (T).

P. flavida Talb. ibid.: 113, 1894.

Holotype (1): Sonda, North Kanara (Kar-

nataka), Talbot 3661 (T). Paratype (1): Nil-

khurd, North Kanara (Karnataka), Talbot

3536 (T).

P. ectosulcata Talb. in J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 11(2): 237, 1897 & (5): t. VII, 1898.

Holotype (1): Siddapore, North Kanara

(Karnataka), Talbot 3556 (T). Paratype (1):

Without locality, Talbot 3764 (T).

Tarenna agumbensis Sundararaghavan in Bull.

bot. Surv. India 10(3-4): 341-43, 1968.

Isotype (3): Barakana, Agumbe, Shimoga

(Karnataka), Sundara Raghavan 62732 B-D.

ASTERACEAE

Blumea venkataramanii Rolla Rao et Hem.

Curr. Science 42(19): 693-94, 1973.

Isotype (2): Vadgaon on Poona-Bombay

Road, Poona (Maharashtra), Hemadri 118174

B-C. Paratypes: Pavnadam site near Vadgaon,

Poona (Maharashtra), Hemadri 110794 A-

C(3); Vadgaon, Poona (Maharashtra), Hema-

dri 108788 A-B (2); Ralegaon hills near Jun-

nar, Poona (Maharashtra), Hemadri 68582

(1); Vanewade near Junnar, Poona (Maha-

rashtra), Hemadri 68588 A-D (4).

Helichrysum cutchicum (C.B.Cl.) R. Rao et

Desh. Bull. bot. Surv. India 10(2): 225-227,

1968. Anaphalis cutchica C.B.Cl. Comp. In-

dia 111, 1876.

Type photo (1): Kutch (Gujarat), Dr. Sto-

liczka 5396.

Hf. wightii C.B.Cl. in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India

3: 291, 1881.

Type photo (1): Sisparaghat, Nilgherry hills

(Tamil Nadu), Herb. R. Wight Prop. Wight

s.n. Kew negative No. 5368.

Vernonia ornata Talb. in J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 11(4): 691-92, t. XIII, 1898.

Holotype (1) & Isotype (1): Falls of Gar-

soppa, North Kanara (Karnataka), Talbot 2663

(T).

Though no number is cited in the protologue,

the holotype matches well with the illustrations.

SYMPLOCACEAE

Symplocos kanarana Talb. ibid. 11(2): 238,

1897 & (5): t. IX, 1898.

Holotype (1): Ecunbi, North Kanara (Kar-

nataka), Talbot 3673 (T). Paratype (1): Devi-

mone ghat, North Kanara (Karnataka), Talbot

sn. (T).

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Ceropegia huberi’ Ansari in Bull. bot. Surv.

India 10(2): 219-21, 1968.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SCCIETY, Vol. 76

Isotype (1) & Paratype (14): Ambaghat,

Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Ansari 105001 C &

105033 B-C & E-L & Shevade s.n. A-C (C).

C. mahabalei Hemadri et Ansari in Indian

Forester 97: 105, 1971.

Isotype (4) & Paratype (2): Ralegaon, West

of Junnar, Poona (Maharashtra), Hemadri

108070 B-E and 107266 A-B. Paratype (6):

Hills adjoining Bhivade Khurd, Junnar, Poona

(Maharashtra), Hemadri 107573 A-B & 117938

A-D.

C. noorjahaneae Ansari in J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 69(1): 250-53, 1972.

Isotype (3) & Paratype (2): Wai-Panchgani

ghat, Satara (Maharashtra), Ansari 104880

B-D & 105098 A-B.

C. rollae Hem. in Bull. bot. Surv. India 10:

223, 1968.

Isotype (7) & Paratype (10): Dhak Khilla,

West of Junnar, Poona (Maharashtra), Hema-

dri 107471 B-C & I-L and 107547 A-B & E-L.

C. sahyadrica Ansari et Kulk. in Indian Forest-

er 97 (2): 688-90, 1971.

Isotype (2): Ambolighat, Ratnagiri (Maha-

rashtra), Kulkarni 108643 B-C. Paratype (12);

Sinhagadh (“‘Singhar’’), Poona (Maharashtra),

Garade 57 A-C (C); Ambavne-Sakerpathar,

Poona (Maharashtra), Reddi 98655, 98660,

98678, 99165 & 99212A; Ambolighat, Ratna-

giri (Maharashtra), Pataskar 102141 A-B &

Kulkarni 106321 A-B.

C. santapaui Wadhwa et Ansari in Bull. bot.

Surv. India 10: 95, 1968.

Isotype (5) & Paratype (12): Mahabalesh-

war-Mahad ghat road, Satara (Maharashtra),

Wadhwa 109640 D & I-L and Wadhwa et An-

sari 109651 B-D & I-O + one without alphabet.

Marsdenia lanceolata Cooke in FI. Pres. Bom-

aby 2: 166, 1904.

Syntype (3): Lohagaon near Poona (Maha-

rashtra), Bhiva (babajee) s.n. (C).

Seshagiria sahyadrica Ans. et Hem. in Indian

Forester 97: 126, 1971.

Isotype (2): Sinhagad, Poona (Maharash-

tra), Ansari 87750 B-C. Paratype (5): Bhiwade

Khurd, Durga hills, Junnar, Poona (Maharash-

tra), Hemadri 94360 A-B; Gureghar on Panch-

gani-Mahabaleshwar Road, Satara (Maharash-

tra), Ansari 105077 A-C.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Neuropeltis malabarica Van Ooststr. in Blumea

5 (1): 272, 1942.

Paratype (2): Potoli, North Kanara (Karna-

taka), Talbot 2735 (T).

ACANTHACEAE

Nilgirianthus membranaceus (Talb.) Bremek.

op. cit. in Verh. Nederl. Akad. Wet. (II)

40(1): 280, 1944. Strobilanthes membrana-

ceus Talb. Trees, shrubs, & climbers Bom-

bay Pres. (ed. 2): 261, 1902.

Syntype (3): Anmode, North Kanara (Kar-

nataka), Talbot 1616 (T).

Strobilanthes minor Talb. Trees, shrubs &

Climbers Bombay Pres. (ed. 2): 262, 1902.

Holotype (1) Isotype (2): Kala Nuddi,

Supa, North Kanara (Karnataka), Talbot 1338

(T).

LAMIACEAE

Leucas angustissima Sedgwick in J. Indian

Bot. 2(3): 124, 1921.

Syntype (1): Siddapore,

(Karnataka), Talbot 3740 (T).

L. deodikarii Bill. et Hem. in Indian Forester

96: 858, 1970.

Isotype (1): Dhak Khilla, Junnar, Poona

(Maharashtra), Hemadri 117970 B. Paratype:

B.S.I. Experimental Garden, Poona (Maha-

rashtra), Billore 115985 A-C & M-O (6); Foot

of Ras Cha Jungle near Gadad, Khed Taluka,

North Kanara

TYPE MATERIAL AT THE BOTANICAL SURVEY

Poona (Maharashtra), Janardhanan 76249

A-B (2): Ghatghar, Junnar, Poona (Maha-

rashtra), Hemadri 120584 A-B (2); Bhivade

Khurd, Junnar, Poona (Maharashtra), Hemadri

117933 A-B (2); Balighat near Tombe, Jun-

nar, Poona (Maharashtra), Hemadri 117830

A-B (2); Malvand dara, Bhivade Khurd, Jun-

nar, Poona (Maharashtra), Hemadri 107555

A-B (4) & 118025 (1); Ghat top (Vinchu Cha

Nal) near Igatpuri, Thana (Maharashtra), Bil-

lore 110557 A-B (2), 116170 A-E (5) &

116796 A-B (2); Kedarnath Hill slope, Harish-

chandragarh, Thane (Maharashtra), Billore

115621 A-B (2).

Piectranthus parvifolius Talb. in J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 11(2): 238, 1897 & (5): t. 10,

1898.

Paratype (1): Jungles W. Potolli,

Kanara (Karnataka), Talbot 1739 (T).

It is given here on the basis of Talbot’s ma-

nuscript notes.

North

POLYGONACEAE

Polygonum hydropiper Linn. var. glandulosissi-

ma Cage in Rec. Bot. Surv. India 2: 401,

1903.

Isotype (2): Dandeli, North Kanara (Kar-

nataka), Talbot 2682 (T).

LAURACEAE

Cryptocarya procera Talb. in For. Fl. Bombay

Pres. Sind 2: 385, 1911.

Holotype (1): Nilkund, North

(Karnataka), Talbot 2872 (T).

Though no number is cited in the proto-

logue, the specimen is mentioned here on the

basis of Talbot’s manuscript notes.

Kanara

LORANTHACEAE

Dendropthee gibbosa (Talb.) Razi in Lloydia

20: 242, 1957. Loranthus gibbosus Talb. in

Trees, shrubs & climbers Bombay Pres. (ed.

2) 2289, 1902.

Type (1): Yellapore, North Kanara (Kar-

nataka), Talbot s.n. (T).

Since the specimen cited is from the type

locality, it may be a type sheet.

Viscum mysorense Gamble in Kew Bull.

S257 329" 92S)

Type photo (1): Araikere, Hassan (Kar-

nataka), Meebold 8207.

V. trilobatum Talb. in For. Fl. Bombay

Pres. Sind 2: 419—20, 1911.

Holotype (1): Yellapore, North Kanara

_ (Karnataka), Talbot s.n. (T).

Though no number is mentioned in the pro-

tologue, the said specimen matches with the

illustration given there.

BALANOPHORACEAE

Acrobiastum ambavanense Reddi in Will-

denowia 5/3: 389—93, 1969.

Isotype (1): Kate Pani Forest near Amba-

vane Village, Poona (Maharashtra), Reddi

99494 b.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Euphorbia katrajensis Gage in Kew Bull.

1914: 236, 1914.

Syntype (2): Katraj hills, Poona (Maha-

rashtra), Kanetkar sn. (C); Katraj ghats,

Poona (Maharashtra), Shevade s.n. (C).

Phyllanthus talbotii Sedgwick in J. Indian

Bot. 2(3): 124, 1921.

Syntype (1): Falls of Garsoppa,

Kanara (Karnataka), Talbot 828 (T).

North

URTICACEAE

Ficus talbotii King, Sp. Fic. in Ann. Roy.

Bot. Gard. Calcutta 1: 51, t. 63 & 84, Fig.

Q, 1888.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Syntype (2): Sircy & Yenna rocks, North

Kanara (Karnataka), Talbot 655 & 1100 (T).

HYDROCHARITACEAE

Blyxa talbetii Hook. f. in Fi. Brit. India

5: 661, 1888.

Isotype (2):

Talbot 920 (T).

North Kanara (Karnataka),

ORCHIDACEAE

Dendrobium mabelae Gammie in J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 16(4): 567, 1905.

Type (1)(?): Castle rock, North Kanara

(Karnataka), Gammie s.n. (C).

No number is cited in the protologue but

since this is Gammie’s specimen, collected

prior to his publication of this species, it may

be a type sheet.

LILIACEAE

Chlorophytum bharuchae Ans., Raghavan

et Hem. in Indian Forester 96: 304, 1970.

Isotype (5) & Paratype (7): Shivneri fort,

Junnar, Poona (Maharashtra), Ansari 88712

B-F (5), Hemadri 107097 (3) & 94310 (4).

COMMELINACEAE

Cyanotis arcotensis Rolla Rao in Blumea

XIV (2): 345—48, 1966.

Isotype (1): Tippu kadu R.F., North Arcot

Dist. (Tamil Nadu), Joseph 89886B.

C. cerifolia Rolla Rao et Kammathy in J.

Linn. Soc. Bot. 59 (379): 305, 1966.

Isotype (1): Experimental Garden of the

Circle, Poona (Maharashtra), Kammathy

77785 B. Paratype (1): Waverly Estate, Ana-

malis (Kerala), Kammathy 73950 A.

ARACEAE

Arisaema caudatum Engler emend Rolla

Rao & Ahuja in Bull. bot. Surv. India 11

(3-4): 450—52, 1969.

[soneotype (2): Panchgani Plateau, Satara

(Maharashtra), Ansari 105095 B.

_ ERIOCAULACEAE

Ericcaulon horsiey-kundae Fyson in J.

Indian Bot. Soc. 3: 13, 1922.

Isotype (1): Guddapah (Andhra Pradesh),

Gamble 20985 (T).

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus pentabracteatus Govind. et Hem.

in Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 82 (B)(6): 205—210,

1975:

Isotype (1): Durga Khilla plateau, Junnar,

Poona (Maharashtra, Hemadri 107562 B.

Fimbristylis umispicularis Govind. et Hem.

ibid. 205—210, 1975.

Isotype (3): Durga khilla plateau, Junnar,

Poona (Maharashtra), Hemadri 107528 B-D.

KF. woodrowi Clarke in J. Linn. Soc. 34: 68,

1899.

Syntype (2): Khandala,

rashtra), Woodrow s.n. (C).

Poona (Maha-

POACEAE

Arthraxon deccanensis Jain in J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 68: 297—99, 1971.

Paratype (2): Sinhagad, Poona (Maha-

rashtra), Vartak 5884/6; Sitabai Dara, Arvi,

Haveli, Poona (Maharashtra), Ansari 99978.

A. jumnarensis Jain et Hem. ibid. 68: 300

—301, 1971.

Isotype (2): Warsubai, Junnar, Poona

(Maharashtra), Hemadri 106849 B-C. Para-

type (2): Wilson Point Road, Mahabalesh-

war, Satara (Maharashtra), Mahajan 27170

A-B. i

A. lancifolitus (Trin.) Hochst. var. hindus-

TYPE MATERIAL AT THE BOTANICAL SURVEY

tanicus Jain et Desh. in J. Indian bot. Soc.

S12): eeug72:

Isotype (3): Chapora, Kaisuva fort (Par-

vorim), Goa, Cherian 88557 B-D. Paratype

(4): Ganesh Caves, Junnar, Poona (Maha-

rashtra), Hemadri 118151 A-B; Ajoba_ hill

slope, Washala range, Thane (Maharashtra),

Billore 111947 A-B.

A. raizadae Jain, Hem. et Desh. in J. Indian

bot. Soc. 51(2): 103—6, 1972.

Isotype (3): Mahabaleshwar, Satara (Ma-

harashtra), Hemadri 98585 B-D. Paratype:

Mahabaleshwar, Satara (Maharashtra), He-

madri 98546 A-D (4), 98550—A-E (5), Ma-

hajan 24757 (1) (Dhobi Falls), 13048 (2)

(Near Venna Lake), 24725 (1) (Babington

Point), Ansari 67704 (2) (Lingmala Falls

area), 67571 (2) Old Mahabaleshwar Road),

67663 (2) (Along Mahad road ghat), Kano-

dia 87054 & 87059 (4) (Near Gureghar Nur-

sery), & S. R. Rolla 71739 (2) (on way to

Pratapgad).

Bhidea burnsiana Bor in Kew Bull. 1948:

445, 1949.

Isotype (2): Lonavla, Poona (Maharash-

tra), Bhide 20724 (C). |

Bothriochioa jainii Deshp. et Hem. in

Indian Forester 97(10): 593, 1971.

Isotype (2): Durga hills, Junnar, Poona

(Maharashtra), Hemadri 104241B—C. Para-

type: Junnar, Poona (Maharashtra), Hema-

dri 120572 (2) (Ghatghar), 104401(2) (Durga

khilla), 108222 (2) (Dhak Khilla) & Vartak

11944 (1) (Raireshwar); Tiskari Forest out-

skirts, Ambavane, Poona (Maharashira),

Reddi 95800 (6); Top of Masgaon hill, Am-

bavane, Poona (Maharashtra), Reddi 99471

(2); Lingmala Falls, Mahabaleshwar, Satara

(Maharashtra), Mahajan 13075 (6): Tara-

mati Hill slope, Harishchandragad, Thana

(Maharashtra), Billore 115689 (3).

Capillipedium magdaleni Almeida in J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(3) : 813—14, 1975.

Isotype (1): Agumbe, Shimoga (Karna-

taka), Almeida 2941.

Cynodon barberi Rang. & Tad. ibid. 24:

846, 1916.

Syntype (1): Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu),

Rangachari & Tadulingam s.n. (C).

Danthonidium gammiei (Bhide) C. E.

Hubb. in Hook. Ic. Pl. subtab. 3331, 1937.

Danthonia gammiei Bhide in J. et Proc.

Asia. Soc. Bengal n.s. 7: 513, 51, t. 6, 1911

(1912).

Holotype (1) & Isotype (1): Castle rock,

North Kanara (Karnataka), Gammie 15636

(C).

Dimeria santapaui Almeida in J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 510, 1969.

fsotype (1): Mirjan Flats, North Kanara

(Karnataka), Sedgwick & Bell 6875.

D. woodrowii Stapf in Hook. Ic. Pl. subtab.

2312, 1894.

Isotype (4): Marmagoa, Goa, Talbot 2557

(T).

Enteropogon monostachyos (Vahl) _ K.

Schum. ex Engl. in Abh. Preuss. Akad. Wiss.

17, 1894 et in Planzenw. Ost-Afr. C, 110, 1895.

FE). badamicus Bhide in J. et Proc. Asia. Soc.

Bengal, ns. 7: 514, 1911 (1912).

Isotype (14): Badami, Bijapur

taka), Bhide s.n. (C).

Fsachne borii Hemadri in Indian Forester

Oi 223, OTe

Isotype (4): Dhak plateau, Junnar, Poona

(Maharashtra), Hemadri 117968 B-E. Para-

type (3): Plateau above Bushi Lake, Lonavla,

Poona (Maharashtra), Reddi 98672 A-C.

i. mysorensis Sundararaghavan, ibid. 97(6):

304—07, 1971.

Isotype (4): Kandadagudda near Agumbe,

Shimoga (Karnataka), Sundararaghayvan

90008 B-E. i

Ischaemum raizadae Hem. et Bill. ibid. 96:

(Karna-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

318, 1970.

Isotype (11): Sadryaghat near Harish-

chandragarh, Thana (Maharashtra), Billore

115450 C-F & I-O. Paratype: B.S.I. Exp. Gar-

den, Poona (Maharashtra), Billore 115984

A-E & G-Q (15); Ambolighat, Ratnagiri (Ma-

harashtra), Kulkarni 119225 A-F (6); Amba,

Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Bhide 15 A-B (2)

(C); Ambewadi, Nasik (Maharashtra), Pat-

wardhan 1115 (C).

Lasiurus ecaudatus Satya. et Shank. in J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60(3): 763-66, 1963.

Isotype (1): G. R. Farm, Jodhpur (Raja-

sthan), Satyanarayan & Shankarnarayan 719.

Manisuris acuminata (Hack.) O. Ktze. var.

woodrowii Bor in Grass. Burma, Ceylon,

India & Pakistan 191, 1960.

Syntype (4): Wasco-da-Gama, Goa, Bhide

sine (GC):

M. forficulata Fischer emend. Jain in Bull.

bot. Surv. India 12(1-4): 12-14, 1970.

Paratype (2): Ambolighat, Ratnagiri (Ma-

harashtra), Talbot 4305 C/2 (T).

M. goaensis Rolla Rao et Hem. ibid. 10:

106, 1968.

Isotype (2): Near Verna village in Corta-

lim—Madgao Road, Goa, Rolla S. Rao 84474

B-C. Paratype (2): Near Porvorim village,

Goa, Rolla S. Rao 92850 B & D.

M. mysorensis Jain et Hem. ibid. 10: 280-

82, 1968.

Isotype (1): Castle rock, North Kanara

(Karnataka), Gammie 15643 (C). Paratype

(1): Ambolighat, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra),

Talbot 4305 (T).

M. ratnagirica Kulk. et Hem. in Indian

Forester 100: 250, 1974.

Isotype (5): Chakul Road, Ambolighat,

Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Kulkarni 121638

B, D, M, N & O. Paratype (7): Soliya jungle,

Amboli, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Kulkarni

119190 A-D & I-K.

by)

M. santapaui Jain et Deshp. in Bull. bot.

Surv. India 10 (3-4): 277-79, 1968.

Isotype (1): Ratnagiri (Maharashtra),

Saldanha C5/7130 B.

M. talbotit (Hook. f.) Bor, Grass. Burma,

Ceylon, India & Pakistan 192, 1960.

Rottboellia talbotii Hook. f. in Fl. Brit.

India “7: 155, 71396:

Isotype (1): Marmagoa, Goa, Talbot 2572

CE): 7

Oropetium roxburghianum (Steud.) S. M.

Philips. Kew Bull. 30(3): 469, 1975.

Tripogon roxburghianus (Steud.) Bhide in

J. et Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal m.s. 7: 515,

1911 *Cr912).

[sotype (4): Badami Fort, Bijapur (Kar-

nataka), Bhide, s.n. (C).

Oryza malumpuzhaensis Krish. et Chandr.

in Madras Agric. J. 45: 471-72, 1958.

Isotype (1): Palghat, Kerala, Krishnaswamy

& Chandrasekharan s.n.

Pogonachne racemosa Bor in Kew Bull.

1949: 176, 1949.

Isotype (1): Matheran,

rashtra), Woodrow s.n. (C).

Schizachyrium paranjpyeanum (Bhide)

Raiz. et Jain in Proc. Indian Sci. Congr.

abstracts IfI: 130, 1953. Andropogon par-

anjapyeanum Bhide in J. et Proc. Asia. Soc.

Bengal, n.s. 7: 514, 1911 (1912).

Syntype (3): Castle rock, North Kanara

(Karnataka), Bhide s.n. (C).

Colaba (Maha-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr. S. K. Jain, Joint

Director-in-charge, Botanical Survey of India,

Howrah for facilities & to Dr. M. P. Nayar,

Deputy Director, Western Circle, Poona for

encouragement and also for kindly going

through the manuscript.

REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR TAXA IN WYNTER-

BLYTH’S BOOK ON THE BUTTERFLIES OF

INDIAN REGION

R. K. VARSHNEY!

INTRODUCTION

The BUTTERFLIES OF THE INDIAN REGION

by M. A. Wynter-Blyth (1957, Bombay Na-

tural History Society; Ist ed., 523 pp., 27

coloured and 45 black-and-white pls.) is still

the latest book on its subject. On account of

its life-like illustrations, keys, and details of

habits and habitats recorded, this book will

remain a companion to the novice as well as

expert butterfly collector, for a long time to

come.

Unfortunately, the scientific names used in

this book for the butterfly genera and species,

are in many cases old and invalid, according

to the rules of Zoological nomenclature. Al-

though this book was published in 1957, it

appears to me that its text was probably pre-

pared during early forties. Many of the scien-

tific names then valid have later turned out

to be synonyms. Hence, a revision has _ be-

come quite essential. That these changes were

felt necessary even at the stage of printing

of this book itself, is evident from such en-

tries made in three families, Papilionidae,

Pieridae and Hesperiidae: ‘“‘Genus Zetides

(now Graphium)”’ [p. 400], ‘‘Colotis protrac-

tus (Butler), now C. phisadia (Godart)”’ [p.

439], ““Baoris oceia (now B. farri)” [p. 484]

etc. These corrections are obviously inade-

quate and incomplete.

1Gangetic Plains Regional Station, Zoological

Survey of India, Rajendra Nagar, Patna (Bihar).

Present address: Superintending Zoologist, Zoolo-

gical Survey of India, 34 Chittaranjan Avenue, Cal-

cutta-700 012.

Therefore, I have prepared a list of all such

names given in this book, in which either the

genus name, or species name, or the latter’s

author name, requires correction; and along-

with provided the present valid name of that

taxa. If a particular subspecies, other than

nominal subspecies, has been found to com-

pletely cover the geographical distribution

shown by Wynter-Blyth for a species, then

it has been added in the revised nomenclature.

The page numbers of his book are cited on

the left, for ready reference. It may be

stated that all those genera and species, which

do not require any change in their nomen-

clature, have been left out. Besides, no attempt

has been made to show all subspecies under

a species. I have, however, given explanatory

taxonomic notes on some major changes, in

the beginning of each family. In the present

paper, only five families have been covered.

It is hoped that remaining families will be

dealt with in subsequent contributions.

It is hoped that these notes and lists of re-

vised nomenclature for the taxa of butterflies

from India and other neighbouring countries,

would be useful to the workers on

butterflies in general and to those consulting

Wynter-Blyth’s book in particular.

Family DANAIDAE

Three genera are known from the Indian

region. Wynter-Blyth has given their names

as Hestia, Danais and Euploea. Hestia Hubner,

1816, is a synonym of /dea Fabr., 1807 [vide

Talbot, 1941, Trans. R. ent. Soc. Lond. 91

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

(4): 105-117]. Danais Latr., 1807, is a syno-

nym of Danaus Kluk, 1802, as per Opinion

No. 278, of 1954, of the International Com-

mission of Zoological Nomenclature. I have

elsewhere given details of this case and in-

dicated that Kluk published Danaus for the

first time in 1780 and his 1802 work is a sub-

sequent citation [Varshney, 1973, Curr. Sci.

42 (19): 698-699].

The common tiger butterfly of this region

has been referred by two different names in

the literature: Danaus plexippus (Linn.) and

D. genutia (Cramer). Talbot [1947, FAUNA

OF BRITISH INDIA—Butterflies, 2nd ed., 2],

whom I have largely followed for revision of

this family, has chosen the name plexippus

and I differ in this case. It is now well esta-

blished that the type specimens of plexippus

named by Linnaeus came from North Ame-

rica; hence, that American species, the

monarch, has presently D. plexippus as its

valid name. The Indo-Oriental species has

been found to be quite different from that

American species, thus it should be appro-

priately referred as D. genutia, the next oldest

name applied to it. My conclusion is in agree-

ment with the decision of the International

Commission, now widely accepted [vide Edi-

tors, 1960, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (1):

230-231).

The correction of the case-ending -ii to -i

in all patronymic names formed after male

persons has been introduced by me, in accor-

dance with rules. [see Table 1].

TABLE 1

DANAIDAE

For

1. 64 Genus Hestia [Hibner]

14 iy Hestia lynceus Moore & de Niceville

3. 64-70 Genus Danais [Latreille]

4. 65 Danais aglea (Cramer)

Se 66 Danais tytia (Gray)

6. 67 Danais fumata Butler

de % Danais limniace Cramer

8. 68 Danais melissa (Cramer)

9. 69 Danais plexippus (Linnaeus)

10. a Danais melanippus (Cramer)

11 71 Euploea alcathoe (Godart)

12. UZ Euploea crameri Moore

13. 3 Euploea coreta (Godart)

14. Ns Euploea crassa Butler

Hoye 74 Euploea godarti Lucas

16. 3 Euploea corus (Fabricius)

LTE 76 Euploea deione Westwood

18. : Euploea harrisi Felder

19. as Euploea diocletiana (Fabricius)

20. Tht Euploea klugii Moore

Correct

Genus Idea Fabricius

Idea lynceus (Drury)

Genus Danaus Kluk

Danaus aglea (Stoll)

Denaus sita sita (Kollar)

Danaus taprobana (C. & R. Felder)

Danaus limniace leopardus (Butler)

Danaus hamata (McLeay)

Danaus genutia (Cramer)

Danaus melanippus indicus (Frihstorfer)

Euploea doubledayi doubledayi C. & R. Felder

Euploea crameri Lucas

Euploea sylvester coreta (Godart)

Euploea klugi erichsoni C. & R. Felder

Euploea core godarti Lucas

Euploea phaenareta corus (Fabricius)

Euploea algea deione Westwood

Euploea sylvester harrisi C. & R. Felder

Euploea diocletianus (Fabricius)

Euploea klugi klugi Horsfield & Moore

IY Es rs) I asi Ez Te Te N Un cae bhen Ne, RTA may LN A

REVISED NOMENCLATURE OF BUTTERFLIES

Family SATYRIDAE

The nomenclature used by Wynter-Blyth

for the taxa of this family are generally valid.

However, in three genera, Mycalesis, Lethe

and Ypthima, he has not provided the names

of authors of the species included. These may .

be found in Talbot [1947, FAUNA OF BRITISH

INDIA—Butterflies, 2nd ed., 2: 110-344].

Major generic changes in the present list are |

as follows: Eumenis Hiibner, 1819, is a syno-

nym of Hipparchia Fabr., 1807, with its spe-

TABLE 2

SATYRIDAE

1h, 83 Mycalesis francisca (Cramer)

Dr 84 Mycalesis gotama Moore

3). es Mycalesis orseis Hewitson

4, 86 Mycalesis subdita (Moore)

5: 87 Mycalesis mercea Evans

S, - Mycalesis khasia Evans

Ws 90 Mycalesis mamerta

8. 94 Lethe distans race nilgiriensis

9. f Lethe distans race dyrta

10. a Lethe distans race rohria

Es 97 Lethe sinoryx

2 10C Lethe violaceopicta

13: sh Lethe ocellata

14. i Lethe gemina

5 102 Lethe armandii

16. . Lethe badra

7s. 103 Pararge moorei (Butler)

18. 104 Pararge satricus (Doubleday)

1 106 Coenonympha myops Staudinger

20. 106-108 Genus Eumenis [Hubner]

2 Oi, Eumenis mnizechii Herrich-Schaffer

aa 108 Eumenis persephone (Hibner)

Bye ie Genus Karanasa [Moore]

24. 113 Erebia shallada Lang

2y. 15 Ypthima asterope

26. 116 Ypthima hibneri

eg 117 Ypthima avanta

28 121 Coelites nothis (Boisduval)

DOR 122 Neorina patria Leech

30. zs Genus Anadebis [Butler]

31. i Melanitis leda (Drury)

32 123 Melanitis phedima Cramer

33 PA Elymnias singala Moore

34 128 Elymnias nesaea (Hewitson)

S129 Elymnias_ pealii Wood-Mason

36. is

Elymnias

URW

penanga (Westwood)

Elymnias

Correct

Mycalesis francisca (Stoll)

Mycalesis gotama charaka Moore

Mycalesis orseis nautilus Butler

Mycalesis visala subdita (Moore)

Mycalesis igilia mercea Evans

Mycalesis intermedia (Moore)

Mycalesis annamitica Frihstorfer

Lethe rohria neelgheriensis (Guérin)

Lethe rohria rohria (Fabricius)

Lethe sinorix (Hewitson)

Lethe violaceopicta kanjupkula Tytler

Lethe ocellata iyncus de Nicéville

Lethe gemina gafuri (Tytler)

Lethe ermandii khasiana (Moore)

Lethe bhadra (Moore) .

Rhephicera moorei Butler

Rhaphicera satricus (Doubleday)

Coenonympha myops macmahoni

Genus Hipparchia Fabricius

Hipparchia mniszechii (Herrich-Schaffer)

Hipparchia persephone enervata (Staudinger)

Genus Hipparchia Fabricius |

Erebia shallada Marshall & de Nicéville

Ypthima asterope mahratta Moore —

Ypthima ceylonica huebneri Kirby

Ypthima lisandra (Cramer)

Coelites nothis adamsoni Moore

Neorina patria westwoodi Moore |

Genus Ethope Moore

Melanitis leda ismene (Cramer)

Melanitis phedima (Stoll)

Elymnias singhala Moore

Elymnias nesaea (Linnaeus)

Elymnias_ peali Wood-Mason

penanga chelensis de Nicéville

(Swinhoe)

A aN GN IL Si

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

cies falling under Dryas group. Karanasa

Moore, 1893, is also a synonym of Hipparchia

-Fabr., with its species falling under Actaea

group. Genus name Anadebis Butler, 1867,

was proposed as a new name for genus

Theope Moore, 1857, which was preoccupied.

However, a replacement name Ethope Moore,

1866, was published by Moore himself as a

substitute for Theope, before the publication

of Anadebis. Hence, Anadebis is suppressed

in favour of Ethope.

- Although Talbot (loc. cit.) has been gene-

rally followed, however, his attempt to change

Ypthima watsoni to Y. pandocus watsoni is

not adopted here, in view of the study by

Cantlie & Norman [1959, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 56: 66]. The species-group name

Y. hiibneri is corrected by me as huebneri,

under the provisions of Article 32(c)(i) of

nomenclature rules. [see Table 2].

Family AMATHUSIIDAE

Nine genera are included by Wynter-Blyth

in this family. The names used for all of them

are correct and valid, except one genus, ‘Sti-

copthalma’ or ‘Stichopthalma’ (sic). It seems

Wynter-Blyth followed Evans [1932, THE

IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES, 2nd

ed. : 132] who has also erroneously spelt it.

It should be correctly spelt as Stichophthalma

[vide Hemming, 1934, Generic names of Ho-

larctic Butterflies:51}.

Among the species names, some changes in

the present list are as follows: Stichophthalma

sparta is now considered as a subspecies of S.

louisa, but it is recorded from North-Eastern

Burma only; while the subspecies found from

Assam to Burma is S. /. tytleri [Talbot, 1947,

FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA—Butterflies, 2nd ed.,

2: 421-423]. Thauria lathyi is presently con-

sidered as one subspecies of T. aliris, and its

distribution is restricted to Southern Shan

States of Burma. Discophora tullia has been

merged in D. sondaica zal, but since Wynter-

Blyth has shown wide distribution of ftullia,

I am unable to restrict it to that subspecies

only. Faunis arcesilaus has been found as an

invalid name and substituted with canens arce-

silas, following Stichel [1933, LEP. caT.—Ama-

thusiidae, 54: 73]. [See Table 3].

TABLE 3

AMATHUSIIDAE

Page No For

1, 132 Faunis arcesilaus (Fabricius)

72, 133. Genus Sticopthalma

3), a Stichopthalma sparta Tytler

4, 134 Thaumantis diores Westwood

Oe sh Thauria lathyi Frihstorfer

6. a Amathusia phidippus (Johanssen)

ah 135 Discophora tullia (Cramer)

8. 138 Discophora continentalis Moore

Correct

Faunis canens arcesilas Stichel

Genus Stichophthalma Felder (C.) & Felder (R.)

Stichophthalma louisa tytleri Rothschild

Thaumantis diores Doubleday

Thauria aliris (Westwood)

Amathusia phidippus (Linnaeus)

Discophora sondaica Boisduval

Discophora timora timora Westwood

REVISED NOMENCLATURE OF BUTTERFLIES

Family PAPILIONIDAE

The nomenclature of Papilionid butterflies

included in Wynter-Blyth’s book needs to be

revised on large scale. Most of the generic

names of this family used there, are now con-

sidered as invalid, while some groups of spe-

cies need to be transferred en-bloc from one

generic name to another, thus, changed com-

binations for many species will result, as in-

dicated in the list below (Table 4).

by Evans in their books, was replaced with

Polydorus Swainson, by Talbot [1939, FAUNA

OF BRITISH INDIA-Butterflies, 2nd ed., /: 70]

reporting that it is the oldest name among

several synonyms of this genus. However,

Polydorus also proved to be a preoccupied

name. Corbet [1943, Entomol. 76: 206] stated

that it should be substituted by Atrophaneura

Reakirt, with which Talbot [1947, op. cit. 2:

490] agreed. Contrastingly, Eugene Munroe

[1961, Can. Ent. 93 suppl. 17] has replaced

TABLE 4

PAPILIONIDAE

Page No.

1. 373-378 Genus Tros [Kirby] (now

Polydorus)

Dg OMS HT Res Tros alcinous (Klug) now plutonius

(Oberthiir)

3. 379-381 Genus Chilasa [Moore]

4 380 Chilasa paradoxa (Zinken-Sommer)

5. 384 Papilio memnon Linnaeus

6d 7386 Papilio elphenor Doubleday

7 392 Papilio polytes Linnaeus

8. 397-400 Genus Pathysa [Reakirt] (now

Graphium)

9. 400-404 Genus Zetides [Hiibner] (now

Graphium)

10. 402 Zetides evemon (Boisduval)

bbe 403 Zetides euryplus (Linnaeus)

11938 os Zetides bathycles (Zinken-Sommer)

13. 404-405 Genus Paranticopsis [De Nicéville &

Wood-Mason] (now Graphium)

Genus Meandrusa [Moore] (now

Graphium)

IS, * Meandrusa payeni (Boisduval)

16. 407

14. 406

Genus Leptocircus [Swainson] (now

Lamproptera)

17. 408

Genus Armandia [Blanchard]

Changes in the names of genera are as fol-

lows: Armandia Blanchard is preoccupied and

should be substituted by Bhutanitis Atkinson.

Tros Kirby, used by Wynter-Blyth and earlier

Sa PIS ee

Correct

Genus Atrophaneura Reakirt

Atrophaneura plutonius (Oberthiir)

Genus Papilio Linnaeus (Clytia Group)

Papilio paradoxa telearchus Hewitson

Papilio memnon agenor Linnaeus

Papilio elephenor Doubleday

Papilio polytes romulus Cramer

Genus Graphium Scopoli

Graphium evemon albociliatis (Fruhstorfer)

Graphium eurypylus cheronus (Fruhstorfer)

Graphium bathycles chiron (Wallace)

Genus Graphium Scopoli

Graphium payeni evan (Doubleday)

Genus Lamproptera Gray

Genus Bhutanitis Atkinson

Polydorus by another name Pachlioptera Rea-

kirt. On examining the case, I have observed

that (1) Pachlioptera is an incorrect subsequ-

ent spelling of Pachliopta Reakirt; (ii) both

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

- of these replacement names, Atrophaneura

_and Pachliopta, have been published in a

single paper, entitled, ‘Notes upon exotic Lepi-

_doptera, chiefly from the Philippine Islands,

with descriptions of some new species’, by

Reakirt [1865 (1864), Proc. ent. Soc. Phila-

delphia 3: 443-504]; and (iii) being published

in the same work and on the same date, the

relative precedence is to be accorded on the

_-choice made by the first reviser, according

. to the rules of nomenclature. In this case,

Atrophaneura has been chosen’ by Corbet

[1943, loc. cit.] and Hemming [1964, Annot.

Lep. 3: 84]. Hence, Atrophaneura shall have

to be taken as the valid name of this genus.

Four generic names, viz., Pathysa Reakirt,

Zetides Hiibner, Paranticopsis De Nicéville &

Wood-Mason, and Meandrusa Moore, which

have been used in the book by Wynter-Blyth,

have all been merged as synonyms of the

genus Graphium Scopoli [vide, Hemming,

1934, GENERIC NAMES OF HOLARCTIC BUTTER-

FLIES: 151], and indication to this change has

been made in Wynter-Blyth’s book also.

Peile [1937, A GUIDE TO COLLECTING BUTTER-

FLIES IN INDIA: 20-39] has treated Gra-

phium and 5 other genera as merely “groups

of the genus Papilio Linn.’’, but his action

has not been followed by later workers in the

case of Troides, Polydorus (now Atrophane-

ura), and Graphium. Chilasa Moore was also

treated as a separate genus by Talbot [1939,

loc. cit.], but he later on [Talbot, 1947, ibid.

2: 491] relegated it to the position of a “‘spe-

cies group of Papilio’, following Ford [1944,

Trans. R. ent. Soc. London, 94: 206]. Generic

name Leptocircus Swainson has been found

invalid and a junior objective synonym of

-Lamproptera Gray [Hemming, 1934, ibid.:

153].

Among species names, only one case re-

quires comment. Talbot [1947, ibid. 2: 491]

238

has reported that the species name Polydorus

aristolochiae (Fabr.) is strictly preoccupied

by Atrophaneura ascanius (Linn.) and _ that

the Indian subspecies will be diphilus (Esper).

This change has not been followed by me,

because the specific name aristolochiae (Fabr.)

has been upheld by the International Com-

mission of Zoological Nomenclature, in its

Opinion No. 265, in 1954.

The subspecies names in this series have

been given in such cases only, where either

a subspecies, other than nominal, occurs with-

in the whole Indian region, or where the geo-

graphical distribution shown by Wynter-Blyth

for a species, has been found to clearly indi-

cate any particular subspecies. [See Table 4].

Family PIreRIDAE

Jiri Paclt pointed out the philological in-

convenience of this family name Pieridae and

suggested that in accordance with its type

genus Pieris, the grammatically correct and

valid name would be Pierididae. Hemming,

however, did not like this change and as

Secretary to the International Commission on

Zoological Nomenclature, he arranged the use

of Plenary powers to validate the spelling

‘‘Pieridae”’ as against “‘Pierididae’’ [vide, Hem-

ming, 1956, Bull. zool. Nomencl., 12: 291-

306].

Among the generic names of this family

used in the book by Wynter-Blyth, the fol-

lowing changes are indicated here: Huphina

Moore, 1881, is invalid and found to be a

junior synonym of Cepora_ Billberg, 1820.

Belenois Hiibner, 1819, has been merged in

Anaphaeis Hiibner, 1819. I further observe

that Talbot [1939, FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA—

Butterflies, 2nd ed., /] has spelt it as Anapheis

throughout; and given Klotsas author of Bele-

nois, but Hemming [1967, Bull. Br. Mus. nat.

REVISED NOMENCLATURE OF BUTTERFLIES

Hist., Ent. Suppl. 9: 42] shows that the ori-

ginal lettering is Anaphaeis, and the author of

Belenois is Hubner. Generic name Parenonia

was proposed by Bingham [1907, FAUNA OF

BRITISH INDIA—Butterflies, Ist ed., 2: 276]

to replace Valeria Horsfield, 1829, which Bin-

gham thought erroneous due to the tautonymy

in the name of genus and its type species,

valeria Cramer. This being untenable, the

name Valeria Horsfield is restored. Genus

Terias Swainson, 1821, is synonymous with

Eurema Hibner, 1819; vide, Talbot 1939

[op. cit.] which has been largely followed for

revision of this Part.

A confusion exists regarding validity be-

tween the two species names, nerissa Fabri-

cius and coronis Cramer, for the type species

of genus Cepora; both names having been pro-

posed in 1775. Examining this case, I find

that the International Commission of Zoolo-

gical Nomenclature in its Opinion No. 516,

of 1958, has ruled that the work of Fabricius

is to be given priority over that of Cramer.

Hence, it can be concluded that nerissa has

precedence over coronis, on the subjective

taxonomic ground. This derivation, however,

is not in agreement with Peile [1937, A GUIDE

TO COLLECTING BUTTERFLIES IN INDIA], which

shows coronis as valid name.

Similarly, in the case of validity to be ac-

corded to one of the two species names,

calais Cramer and amata Fabricius, for the

type species of genus Colotis, I consider

amata as the prior name, on the basis of same

ground given for nerissa above. In this case,

my derivation is not in agreement with Tal-

bot [1939, op. cit.], and Wynter-Blyth, who

have shown calais as the valid name.

Numerous authors have reported that Cat-

opsilia crocale and C. pomona interbreed in

the nature and are, thus, conspecific [see, Tal-

bot, 1947, op. cit. 2: 493]. However, the spe-

cimens assigned to these names are morpho-

logically well-differentiated and they are

neither sexual forms nor seasonal forms of

each other. Hence, under the circumstances,

[ am of the opinion that instead of treating

them entirely synonymous, they may be re-

tained as two separate subspecies as C. cro-

cale crocale and C. crocale pomona, under

C. crocale (Cramer), which is the prior name

among the two. [See Table 5].

TABLE 5

PIERIDAE

Page No. FOL He

Correct

Apcria leucodice (Eversmann)

Delias acalis (Godart)

Genus Cepora Billberg

Genus Anaphaeis Hibner

Anaphaeis aurota (Fabr.)

Subfamily Pierinae: Whites

Le AUS Aporia leucodyce (Eversmann)

Dv A19 Delias thysbe (Cramer)

3. 421-422 Genus Huphina [Moore] (now

Cepora)

AD AD is Genus Belenois [Hiibner] (now

Anaphaeis)

Se 3 Belenois mesentina (Moore) now

A. aurota (Fabricius)

6 426 Appias lalage (Doubleday)

Appias pandione (Geyer)

Appias albina darada (C. Felder & R. Felder)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Page No. For Correct

8. 431 Appias nero (Fabricius) Appias nero galba (Wallace)

9. 434 Pieris brassicae (Linnaeus) Pieris brassicae nepalensis Doubleday

10... 435 Pieris rapae (Linnaeus) Pieris rapae iranica Le Cerf

rh, ie Pieris (now Pontia) daplidice Pontia daplidice moorei (R6ber)

(Linnaeus)

ib s Pieris (now Pontia) glauconome Pontia glauconome Klug

: (Klug)

13. 436 Euchloe ausonia (Hubner) Euchloe ausonia daphalis (Moore)

14. 438 Colotis amata (Fabricius) now C. Colotis amata (Fabr.)

calais (Cramer)

15. 439 Colotis protractus (Butler) Colctis phisadia protractus (Butler)

now C. phisadia (Godart)

16. 442-444 Genus Parenonia [Bingham] (now Genus Valeria Horsfield

Valeria)

17. 444 Parenonia valeria (Cramer) Valeria valeria anais (Lesson)

Subfamily: Coliadinae: Yellows

18. 446 Catopsilia pomona (Fabricius) Catopsilia crocale pomona (Fabr.) stat. n.

19. 447 Catopsilia florella (Fabricius) Catopsilia pyranthe (Linn.)—Dry season form

florella (Fabr.)

20. 448 Dercas verhueli Moore Dercas verhuelli (Hoeven)

21. 449 Gonepteryx aspasia Ménétries, Gonepteryx mahaguru mahaguru (Gistel)

now mahaguru (Gistel)

22. 450-454 Genus Terias [Swainson] (now Genus Eurema Hibner

Eurema)

23. 450 Terias libythea (Fabr.) now Eurema brigitta rubella (Wallace)

E. brigitta (Cramer)

QA ASS Terias blanda Boisduval Eurema blanda silhetana (Wallace)

25455 Colias croceus (Fourcroy), now Colias electo fieldi Ménétries

electo (Linnaeus)

BIRDS SEEN ALONG A MOUNTAIN TRAIL

IN PAKISTAN:

P. JONES?

(With two text-figures)

As anyone who has ever walked the Hima-

laya knows, this vast and complex chain is

extraordinarily rich in bird life. One of the

true pleasures of the walker or climber is to

keep an eye out for, among other facets of

nature, the interesting species of birds to be

met with as he or she pursues some other

quest up river valleys and across mountain

passes. I had the great good fortune to make

an acquaintance with Himalayan species while

a high school student at Landour, Mussoorie,

U.P., and on treks in the Nag Tibba area and

beyond to Dodi Tal and the ridges above the

Hanuman Chatti. More recently, while living

in Pakistan, I was able to visit the mountains

that surround the northern end of the Hima-

laya: the Kaghan Ranges, the trans-Indus

Kohistan, which incorporates the fabled Val-

ley of Swat, and the upper Bashkar Valley of

the Buni Zom Range in South-eastern Chitral.

As these were usually climbing trips, and

my duties seemingly always entailed hiring

porters, moving equipment, and setting up

camps, it was not possible to do any con-

centrated bird watching. Hence, this list is

not intended to be a comprehensive one, but

rather an example of the variety of birds that

can be seen along an Himalayan trail and the

pleasure they can afford the amateur bird

watcher.

! Accepted September 1976.

2705 South Main St., Wishington, Pa.

U.S.A,

15301,

The specific trail in question here is that

which begins at Matiltan (8,000’), the road-

head, in the Ushu (ooshoo) Valley of Kalam

Tehsil, Swat, from which we departed on June

11, 1975. Our route (see Figure 1), took

us up the Ushu and across the Kachakhant

Pass (c. 15,600) into the Bashkar Gol of Chi-

tral. We then proceeded up the Bashkar Vai-

ley, attempted Ghochhar Sar, and returned

to upper Swat via the Manali Pass (c. 16,100)

and the unmapped Gabral Valley. The list

below describes the birds seen on this trip,

but I have also taken the liberty of adding

some notes from previous trips in Swat, as

well as some from the Kaghan Valley, where

the Chitral group spent a week prior to going

to Matiltan. For those interested, I have also

appended a list of birds seen at Nathiagali

during a three-day stay in April 1975.

It should be noted that wherever possible

observation was made with the aid of field

glasses. Identification was made with refer-

ence to Salim Ali’s INDIAN HILL BIRDS, (Bom-

bay: OUP, 1949), and S. Dillon Ripley’s

A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKI-

STAN, (Bombay: BNHS, 1961). The number

given for each species below refers to the

number of that species in Ripley’s SYNOPSIS.

166 Aquila chrysaetos, Himalayan Golden

Eagle.

On the same day, but at a higher altitude

(12,800), as 213, we watched as one of these

magnificent birds put up a covey of pheasant

(see 305).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

181 Gyps himalayensis, Himalayan Grif-

fon Vulture.

Watched this bird patrolling the Bashkar

Gol around Gareek one evening, and saw

him again the next morning as we walked up

to the lake—June 27 and 28, 1975.

213 Falco subbuteo, Central Asian Hobby.

Observed in June 1974 on the ridges east

above the Mahodand Meadows, at about

Big. t,

Tis Puk

11,500. In March 1975, I saw this species at

about 7,500 near the village of Nakkai Imam

Chatti on the lower slopes of Musa ka Musela

and in June 1975 on the upper ridges of the

same mountain (about 12,000) in the Kaghan

Valley.

236 Alectoris graeca, Chukor Partridge.

Heard and observed in the early morning

at the Willow Camp in an area of meadow

\ shandur &.

a Village

Oo Care

--- Rovte

Ushu

eee =i

R PALOGA

DS MATILTAN

B Bateen

"4 13,000 £

Sketch map of Author’s route to Chitral.

BIRDS OF A MOUNTAIN TRAIL IN PAKISTAN

interspersed with large’ boulders.

305 Pucrasia macrolopha, Koklas Pheas-

ant.

A covey of five birds was put up by a

Golden Eagle at about 12,800’ on the mea-

dows to the east high above Mahodand.

What was memorable about this event was

the opportunity to see how the covey seemed

to send out a decoy when frightened by the

eagle. We were resting on a small alp when

the eagle appeared. The main body of phea-

sant flew low to the ground down the ridge,

while one bird detatched itself, flew out be-

hind our alp and rejoined the covey behind

a screening ridge. The eagle made no pre-

datory move. See diagram below (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2

513 Columba leuconota, Snow Pigeon.

Saw a pair just above the confluence of the

Kharkhari Gol with the Gabral River. Though

familiar with the bird from the excellent colour

plate in Ali’s HILL BIRDS, this was my first

actual sighting of this species. I was surprised

at how large a bird it was. One of the pair

made several slow, wide sallies over the valley

before returning to perch on a large boulder.

The effect of the flight as well as the predo-

minant whiteness of the bird while in flight

almost reminded one of gulls at the seashore.

Identification through glasses was unmistake-

able. Was thrilled to see this species.

515 Columba _ rupestris (turkestanica),

Turkestan Rock Pigeon.

Also a first sighting. This occurred in the

Ishporili Gol, at the terminus of the Ishporili

Glacier moraine (c. 13,800). The birds were

brought to my attention by one of our Chi-

trali porters, who was also a shikari. He had

earlier used the glasses to spot a large herd of

markhor. Without his aid, I would not have

seen these birds, as they were extremely well-

camouflaged against high cliffs.

580 Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan Cuckoo.

We heard this bird almost every evening

while in the Bashkar Gol below the lake,

especially around Mandan and the Willow

Camp, where this species was finally spotted

in a grove of stunted birch—June 26, 1975.

694 Apus melba, Alpine Swift.

As in 913 below. A large swift. The even-

ing swarms above the Bashkar Lake seemed

tireless.

913 Hirundo rupestris, Crag Martin.

Noted all through the Bashkar, Kacha-

khani, Ishporili and Manali Gols, in com-

pany with the Alpine Swifts and House Mar-

tins. The birds were very active over the rivers

and especially over the Bashkar Lake in the

mornings and evenings. At the latter place,

there were hundreds of birds—in clouds it

seemed—dashing all over the sky above the

lake with their incredibly swift and intricate

aerial dynamics. With the swifts and other

martins, they appear to nest in the vast cliffs

above the lake.

916 Hirundo rustica, Common Swallow.

Very common in the lower Swat valley in

the towns both above and below Mingora.

Hundreds swarm in the streets down to a foot

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

or two above the ground amongst crowds

and traffic—incredibly, without colliding with

anything or anyone. A familiar sight in early

July are the long lines of swallows on tele-

phone wires.

931 Delichon urbica, House Martin.

As 913.

1022 Garrulus lanceolatus, Blackthroated

Jay.

Seen at Bela Village (6,300), above Paras,

Kaghan Valley, March 27, 1975.

1029 Pica pica (bactriana),

Whiterumped Magpie.

In and around Sor Laspur and once at

Mandan, I noticed a Magpie-like bird with a

prominent tail, black and white colouring, and

a conspicuous white patch on the wing. He

seemed fond of the Poplar groves around the

fields of Laspur. This was an entirely new

species for me, so I made sketches and later

identified the species with the aid of Mr. J.

Bruce Amstutz.

1045 Pyrrhocorax graculus,

Chough.

We spotted this bird at about 11,000 on

Makra above the FRH at Shongran in the

Kaghan Valley on June 4, 1975. In the

Ushu Valley, the bird first begins to appear

at the place where the Falakser Dhand (tor-

rent) meets the Ushu about 11 miles beyond

Matiltan. From that point (ca. 10,000) we

noted it at least once a day to the Kacha-

khani Pass. It was common in the areas of

Chitral which we visited, especially around

the great cliffs above the Willow Camp

(11,500) where there were numerous nesting

pairs. The species seems most gregarious. One

evening I watched a flock of perhaps sixty

to eighty birds feeding together in open grassy

terrain in the moraine hills above the Willow

Camp. The highest we saw this bird in Chitral

was at about 18,000’ above the Ishporili Gla-

Kashmir or

Yellowbilled

cier—the same height at which I saw a small

flock of this species on Mankial (Swat) in

August 1974. This Chough was also common

in the Manali and Kharkhari Gols. Strangely,

although I looked for but did not see P.

pyrrhocorax.

1053 Corvus monedula, Jackdaw.

Fairly common around the Rest House,

Balakot, Kaghan Valley (Hazara) in March

OTS.

1059 Corvus corax, Raven.

Noted a pair at the Mahodand Meadows

(c. 10,500), Ushu Valley, Swat on June 6

and 7, 1974. They kept to a dense stand of

pines at the north end of the meadows and

at first seemed agitated at our arrival. Their

raucous, duck-like call is unforgettable.

1085 Pericrocotus ethologus, Longtailed

Minivet.

Noted several breeding pairs at Shongran

FRH, Kaghan Valley in early June 1975.

Keeps very much to stands of pine.

1125 Pycnonotus leucogenys, Whitecheek-

ed Bulbul.

At Balakot (3,300) and Paras (4,300), in

the Kaghan Valley, March 27, 1975.

1289 Garrulax variegatum, Variegated

Laughing Thrush.

First met with this species while on a morn-

ing walk up the torrent above Kalam, Swat,

at about 8,000, in an open fir and deciduous

forest with an undergrowth of Redbud and

May Apple. Saw this bird several times and

heard its remarkable song, which seems to be

preceded by a low hum. I came close enough

to one to frighten it from its nest, which,

finally found, was a well-made cup of grass

and pine needles placed about 4 inches off |

the ground in a verdant patch of flowers and

small shrubs. The nest contained no eggs.

This occurred on June 11, 1974. On June 13,

1975 at Divangar (lit. Diwan-ghar) in the

BIRDS OF A MOUNTAIN TRAIL IN PAKISTAN

Ushu Valley, we heard this species several

times. It was observed once in the extensive

undergrowth by the pond at the Willow

Camp in the Ishporili Gol (11,500). We also

heard another thrush, but did not see it:

could it have been the Plain-Backed Moun-

tain Thrush?

1313 Garrulax limeatus, Streaked Laugh-

ing Thrush.

Noted a thrush song around Sor Laspur

(9,700’)—our lowest altitude in Chitral—and

saw several birds there in willow and poplar

thickets. It is a small thrush, gregarious and

most active in flocks on the ground.

1396 WHeterophasia capistrata, Blackhead-

ed Sibia.

Saw one bird in a grove below Madyan

(c. 4,000), middle Swat, July 4, 1975. This

area is somewhat west of Ali’s distribution

range for this species.

1579 Phylloscopus affinis, Tickell’s Leat

Warbler.

Fairly common in early June 1974 at the

Mahodand Meadows (10,500), Ushu Valley.

Swat.

1650 Erithacus brunneus, Blue Chat.

Believe I spotted a pair (M and F) by the

Kunhar River at Balakot (3,300’), Kaghan

Valley, March 30, 1975. Noted, June 3 and

4, 1975, along the meadows at Shongran FRH

and in the thickets along the road from Sarai

(9,000) towards Makra Peak.

1654 Erithacus cyanurus,

Bush Robin.

Found this species to be quite common—

noted at Sor Laspur (9,700), the Kachakhani

Gol (10,200), at Mandan (11,500), in the

Ishporili Gol (up to 14,000), and at and above

the Bashkar Golo Chhat, both male and

female. It seems to enjoy clumps of stunted

birch and willow, though it is also common

along streams with a sparse covering of under-

Orangeflanked

growth over rocky terrain. Its colours are not

so brilliant as those of Plate 26 in Ali’s HILL

BIRDS. We called this the ‘“‘paper-tearing bird,”

because its song is always followed by an ab-

rasive sound, as if paper is being torn.

1675 WPhoenicurus frontalis, Bluefronted

Redstart. :

Noted only once during the trip—on a

small tributary of the Bashkar just below

the Bashkar Golo Chhat (lake) at 11,900’.

1679 WRhyacornis fuliginosus, Plumbeous

Redstart.

As above, common in the Kaghan and Swat

Valleys. We did not see this species in Chitral,

but began to see it again in the Gabral

Valley.

1680 WHodgsonius phoenicuroides, Hodg-

son’s Shortwing.

Commonly seen in the Bashkar Valley of

Chitral, from 10,000 to 14,000 feet. It seem-

ed to be always preseni, especially favouring

rocky ground with patchy ground cover. In

the Ishporili, it was to be found in places

that were still covered with winter snow—

though it was melting rapidly.

1688 Enicurus maculatus,

tail.

Noted at Bahrein (6,000’), middle Swat,

August 23, 1973. This was the only time I

saw this bird in this part of the sub-continent.

It seems to be considerably less common here

than in Tehri-Garhwal, India.

1697 Saxicola torquata,

chat.

Noted at about 7,500 on the road from

Bela Village to the Sharan FRH, Kaghan

Valley. In March 1975, I had noted this spe-

cies at Paras, beside the Kunhar River. It

seems to have moved up some three thousand

feet and is probably nesting in the scrub forest

along Sharan Road and around the terraced

fields.

Spotted Fork-

Collared Bush-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

1700 Saxicola caprata, Pied Bush Chat.

A familiar bird in the sparse growth along

the Kunhar below Balakot. Also, commonly

seen during the cold season north of the Salt

Range.

1705 Saxicola ferrea, Dark Grey Bush-

chat.

Spotted in the Gabral Valley, at about

9,000’, Upper Swat, July 3, 1975.

1716 Chaimarrornis leucocephalus, White-

capped Redstart.

This species is to be seen frequently along

the Kunhar, Swat, Ushu and Gabral Rivers.

It was seen only once in Chitral—at Sor Las-

pur, but here its colouring was rather washed-

out as compared to the bird in upper Swat.

Otherwise, we did not see this bird in Chitral,

quite possibly because we remained at too

high altitudes while in Chitral. However, once

across the Manali An (Pass) and into the

Kharkhari Gol, we began to see it once

again.

1726 Mbonticola sclitarius, Blue Rock

Thrush.

Spotted at Gareek (c. 10,800’). Bashkar

Valley. It remained atop a huge boulder for

some minutes while I observed through glasses.

1729 Myiophoneus_ caeruleus, Himalayan

Whistling Thrush.

A much loved bird—noted several times in

the Ushu Valley, Swat, but never above 10,500

feet. Not seen in Chitral at all, but we did see

it several times again in the Kharkhari Gol,

where the torrent and grass-cevered cliffs

made for an ideal nesting site. In this area it

seems a silent and subdued bird—a little dis-

appointing for one who knows the Mussoorie

area well.

1773 Cinclus cinclus, Kashmir Dipper.

First saw this species in June 1974 along

the sand banks of the Ushu at the Mahodand

Meadows. In June 1975, met this bird twice

in the Upper Ushu—once at Divangar and

once at a point about two miles above Divan-

gar where the river broadens out and flows

quite calmly for several hundred yards. At

the latter place, where the bird was seen at

mid-morning, the Kashmir Dipper was wad-

ing along sand shoals and taking short, rest-

less flights up and down the river. At Divan-

gar, the previous evening, I watched a Dipper

for quite some time, noted its bobbing and

curtseying manner and saw it disappear in-

to very swift water several times in search of

food: a most lively display. Divangar is at an

altitude of about 11,500’.

1775 Cinclus pallasii, Brown Dipper.

Believe I spotted this bird along the Ushu

River about a mile and a half below Divan-

gar, where we had halted for lunch. It seem-

ed to be in a great hurry and was kept under

observation for only a few moments.

1782 Prunella strophiata, Rufousbreasted

Hedgesparrow or Accentor.

Fairly common in the extensive meadows

at Gareek and around Willow Camp. Also

noted in the Ishporili and Bashkar Gols, in

the latter place, especially around the lake.

1792 Parus major, Grey Tit.

At the Nadi FRH (locally known as the

Kund Bungalow), at 7,800 above Balakot,

Kaghan Valley on April 29, 1974. This spe-

cies seems far less common in Hazara and

Swat, as compared to the Mussoorie area in

U.P., India.

1802 Parus melanolophus, Crested Black

Tit.

Also noted at the Mahodand Meadows,

Ushu Valley and in the Gabral Valley, both

in Swat, June 1975.

1804 Parus_ rubidiventris,

Crested Tit.

Common in the evergreen stands around

the Mahodand Meadows in June 1974 and

-Rufousbellied

BIRDS OF A MOUNTAIN TRAIL IN PAKISTAN

1975. The species is most active during the

early mornings and late evenings and has a

most attractive double whistle.

1807 Parus dichrous, Brown Crested Tit.

Sighting uncertain. I thought I saw

this species in the great forest behind

Sharan FRH in the Kaghan Valley at about

9,000’. But, having discussed this possibility

with Mr. Tom Roberts of Karachi, I must

bow to his vast experience and record this

sighting as unlikely.

1855 Anthus trivialis, Tree Pipit.

Found in the groves around Sor Laspur.

1883 Mbotacilla citreola, Yellowheaded

Wagtail.

One of the commoner birds on the trip.

Noticed often in the upper Ushu Valley. Ex-

cept for the Chough, this was the last bird

we saw before ascending the Kachakhani

Pass. It was at the very last portion of open

water on the Ushu (c. 13,900). It was also

present in the Bashkar Gol. A breeding pair

was noted around the large pond at the Wil-

low Camp. The male in breeding plumage

is a brilliant yellow, and this and the antics

of the fellow at Willow Camp on more than

one occasion brought out our party’s tele-

photo lenses.

1886 Mbotacilla alba (personata), Masked

Wagtail.

Was quite surprised at meeting with this

species. Observed at a small pond in the

meadows which cover the moraine hills just

above and between the confluence of the Ish-

porili with the Bashkar Gol.

1887 Motacilla alba, Hodgson’s Pied Wag-

tail.

Observed at

Valley.

1946 Passer rutilans, Cinnamon Tree Spar-

row.

Several nesting pairs around the FRH,

Gareek (10,800), Bashkar

Shongran, Kaghan.

1982 Mycerobas

Yellow Grosbeak.

Noted once in a forested area, Gabral Val-

ley, Swat, at about 8,000.

1989 Carduelis carduelis (caniceps), Hima-

layan Goldfinch.

Noted a small flock of about two miles

above Sor Laspur at about 10,000 feet. This

was at the first stand of poplar and willow

that one comes to upon walking down the

valley.

1990 Carduelis

Greenfinch.

First noted at Bara (8,000) in the Chukail

Valley, Swat in August 1974. On the Chitral

trip, we saw this species at Gareek (10,800),

Bashkar Gol.

2010 Carpodacus erythrinus, Rosefinch.

Enjoyed watching this species very much.

Active and busy—spotted several times at

Mandan (11,500), both male and female, in

pairs or flocks of four or more. Also noted at

the Bashkar Golo Chhat (12,000). The male

is distinctly rose-coloured around the head,

nape and throat, but elsewhere this fades into

a light brown colour, just perceptibly tinged

with pink.

2051 Emberiza cia, Meadow Bunting.

Common in the Ushu, Gabral and Bash-

kar Valleys.

icterioides, Black-and-

spinoides, § Himalayan

Birp LIST, NATHIAGALI, PAKISTAN, APRIL

27-30, 1975.

580 Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan Cuc-

koo.

Nathiagali.

662 Strix aluco, Himalayan Wood Owl.

On Miran Jani at about 9,000.

807 Picus squamatus, Scalybellied Green

Woodpecker.

Common at Nathiagali.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

836 Picoides

Pied Woodpecker.

Nathiagali.

842 Picoides auriceps, Brownfronted Pied

Woodpecker.

Nathiagali.

1042 Nucifraga caryocatactes, Largespot-

ted Nutcracker.

Nathiagali, 8,100.

himalayensis, Himalayan

1148 Wypsipetes madagascariensis, Black

Bulbul.

Nathiagalli.

1181 Pomatorhinus erythrogenys, Rusty-

cheeked Scimitar Babbler.

Nathiagali.

1341 Pteruthius flaviscapis, Redwinged

Shrike-babbler.

Nathiagali.

1342 Pteruthius xanthochloris, Green

Shrike-babbler.

Tentative sighting, Nathiagali.

1396 Heterophasia capistrata, Blackhead-

ed Sibia.

Nathiagali.

1421 Muscicapa superciliaris, | White-

browed Blue Flycatcher.

Common at Nathiagali.

1445 Muscicapa thalassina, Verditer Fly-

catcher.

Nathiagali.

1606 Phyiloscopus occipitalis,

Crowned Willow Warbler.

Nathiagali. :

1705 Saxicola ferrea, Dark-grey Bush

Chat.

Common at Nathiagali,

seen on Miran Jani at 9,100.

1723 Monticola cinclorhynchus, Bluehead-

ed Rock Thrush.

Several times at Nathiagali.

1824 Sitta europaea, Kashmir Nuthatch.

Miran Jani, 9,000.

1832 Sitta leucopsis,

hatch.

Nathiagali.

1845 Certhia himalayana, Himalayan Tree

Creeper.

Nathiagalli.

1946 Passer rutilans, Cinnamon Tree Spar-

row.

Common at Nathiagali.

1982 Mycerobas _icterioides,

Yellow Grosbeak.

Common at Nathiagali.

1983 Mycerobas affinis,

Nathiagali.

Large

also frequently

Whitecheeked Nut-

Black-and-

Allied Grosbeak

THE GENUS ATHYRIUM ROTH IN NAINITAL HILLS*

K. K. DutrR? AND K. RANI

(With ten text-figures)

‘The paper deals with an illustrated taxonomic account of ten species of the genus

Athyrium Roth from Nainital hills (North-Western Himalayas). From the detailed

morphological observations, it is concluded that caudex coupled with indusial and

spere ornamentation are found to be constant and decisive characters to classify the

species. Half the number of species have distinctly perisporiate spores whereas the

other half falls into the category of having non-perisporiate spores.

The Himalayan species of Athyrium Roth,

the type genus of family Athyriaceae, have

been variously treated by earlier workers.

Clarke (1880) and Hope (1899, 1903) consi-

dered Athyrium as a subgenus of Asplenium

Linn. Beddome (1883) kept Athyrium sepa-

rate from Asplenium but he could not pro-

perly analyse the species complexes and their

nomenclature. Bir & Shukla (1966) described

16 members of this rather difficult genus from

Simla hills. Recently Dhir & Datta (1976)

gave an explicit taxonomic account of Athy-

rium Roth from Dharamsala hills. In the pre-

sent paper. which is a part of the project on

“Taxonomic revision of Himalayan Ferns’, 10

members of the genus from Nainital hills are

described and illustrated alongwith the key

for identification in the field. Voucher speci-

mens are deposited in PAN.

Athyrium Roth

Rhizome short, erect or decumbent or elon-

gate-creeping, scaly; Rachis glabrascent or

sparsely scaly, grooved; lamina pinnately de-

compound, sometimes simply pinnate; texture

herbaceous to coriaceous, glabrous except on

the axes; venation anadromous, veins always

free; sori dorsal, typically elongate, sometimes

short and roundish; indusium of the same

shape with entire or lacerate-fimbriate mar-

pins.

A large genus comprised of nearly 200 spe-

cies with world wide distribution. 10 species

occur in the area investigated.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

A. fronds pinnate.

B. Rhizome ascending; fronds caespitose; lamina small to medium sized.

C. Rhizome scales dull-brown in colour.

D. Lamina lanceolate, not attenuated downwards; spores perisporiate.

E. Stipe brown, thin and fragile; sporangium non-giandular; indus-

ium with acutely lobed margin

rays Su A. anisopterum

E. Stipe straw coloured, firm and erect; sporangium stalk with a

gland; indusium with a wavy margin

1 Accepted May 1978.

2Department of Botany,

Chandigarh.

Panjab University,

Neate A. rupicola

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

D. Lamina _linear-lanceolate,

sporiate

attenuated downwards;

spores non-peri-

see ate A. attenuatum

C. Rhizome scales golden or bright brown in colour

D. Lamina linear-lanceolate, narrowed at both ends, hairy; indusium

lacerate

aN cantata A. falcatum

D. Lamina oblong-lanceolate, never attenuated at base, glabrous; indus-

ium small, fugaceous

B. Rhizome wide-creeping; fronds

distant;

Mico ae A. drepanopterum

lamina large, broadly-lanceolate;

rachis and rachilets covered with multicellular uniseriate hairs; indusium with

wavy margin; spores tuberculated

biogenesis A. japonicum

A. Fronds bipinnate to decompoundly-pinnate.

B. Rhizome ascending; fronds approximate, spores non-perisporiate.

C. Costae and costules setiferous; lamina broadly lanceolate, rooting by

vegetative buds

Ree ne A. clarkei

C. Costae and costules not setiferous; lamina lanceolate, acuminate; stipe

dark brown at base

B. Rhizome wide-creeping;

perisporiate

oblong

lanceolate to sub-deltoid lamina;

Ne A. proliferum

spores

C. Fronds bipinnate; stipe dark brown at base; secondary rachis glabrous;

indusium with irregularly lobed margin

at ie A. schimperi

C. Fronds 3-4 pinnate; stipe stramineous, secondary rachis pubescent and

spiny; sori minute; indusium with a wavy margin

A. anisopterum Christ, Bull. Herb. Boiss.

6, 962, 1898.

~ Rhizome 0.5-0.7 cm thick, ascending, thick-

ly covered at the apex with brown, lanceo-

late, 6.5-7 mm long, 0.6-1 mm broad at base

scales; fronds closely tufted; stipes upto 6-7

cm long, fragile, brown, scaly at base, scales

filiform, about 2 mm long and 0.2-0.3 mm

broad at base with almost entire margin;

lamina 10-14 x 1.5-2.5 cm, lanceolate, mem-

branaceous, bipinnatifid; pinnae upto 13-14

jugate, broadly lanceolate, shortly stalked, cut

down 1/3 to 2/3 distance to mid rib into

distinct segments with crenate margin, basal

lobe enlarged forming an auricle on the an-

terior side; texture rather flaccid, pinnatifid;

venation pinnate, each vein 1-2 times forked;

sori curved, generally on superior veinlets, in-

dusiate; indusium stalked, reniform, mem-

branaceous with acutely lobed margin; spor-

angia with 14-15 annulus cells; spores dark

brown, globose, perisporiate (Fig. 1).

It grows on shaded and humus rich rocks

a ees A. pectinatum

in the dense forests near Kilberi and Pangote

(1,500-2,000 m). Very common in the area

investigated.

A. rupicola (Hope) C. Chr., Ind. Fil., 145,

1905.

Rhizome upto 0.3-1 cm thick, ascending,

covered with a tuft of scales; scales 6-7 mm

long, 1-1.5 mm broad at base, dull brown,

linear lanceolate, hair pointed and uniseriate;

fronds tufted, 24-36 cm, dull green; stipes

7-12 cm long, firm, erect, straw coloured,

clothed near the base with similar to rhizome

but deciduous scales; lamina 17-24 x 6-9 cm,

lanceolate, bipinnatifid; pinnae 18-25 jugate

except for the acuminate apex, alternate, sub-

sessile, 3-4.5 cm x 0.8-1.2 cm, narrow, lanceo-

late, acuminate at apex, cut down into 6-14

pairs of 4-5 mm x 1-3 mm pinnules with

crenate or serrate margin, lower 1-2 pair de-

flexed; texture sub-coriaceous; veins pinnate,

generally forked, one veinlet to each tooth,

rachilets wavy; sori median, generally along

the superior veinlets, linear or globose, indu-

THE GENUS ATHYRIUM ROTH IN NAINITAL HILLS

Fig. 1. Athyrium anisopterum. a. Plant. A. Pinna showing venation, x 4.6; B. Rhi-

zome scale, x 21.8; C. Stipe scale, x 21.8; D. Indusium, x 21.8; E. Sporangium, x 97.9;

F. Spores, x 282.8. :

Fig. 2. Athyrium rupicola. a. Plant. A. Pinna showing venation, x 3.8; B. Rhizome

scale, x 8.4; C. Indusium, x 17.8; D. Indusial cells, x 74.2; E. Sporangium, x 74.2;

F. Spores, x 231.7.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

siate; indusium thin, membranaceous, glo-

bose, margin wavy with a few projections;

sporangia with 19 celled annulus, glandular,

glands stalked and attached near the base of

the sporangial stalk; spores perisporiate with

broad folded perisporium (Fig. 2).

It is always found growing in exposed

places. Enroute Cheena Peak (2,600 m).

A. attenuatum (Clarke) Tagawa, Acta Phy-

totax. et Geobot., 16, 177, 1956.

Rhizome 1-1.5 cm _ thick, erect, densely

covered with scales; scales brown, lanceolate,

subulate, 5-6 mm long, about 1 mm broad at

base; fronds 30-35 cm long, closely caespi-

tose; stipes 2-6 cm long, firm, erect, grooved,

scaly below; scales 3-5 mm long, similar to

rhizome scales, lamina 25-32 x 3.5-7.4 cm,

linear-lanceolate, bipinnatifid; pinnae 25-29

pairs, patent or slightly ascending, pinnae

gradually reduced, cut down into small closely

placed segments with serrate margin; texture

herbaceous, greenish-brown; venation simple

or once forked; mid vein wavy; sori small

acroscopic, indusiate; indusium reniform with

irregular projections along the margin; spo-

rangia with 16-17 annulus cells; spores light-

yellow in colour, non-perisporiate, bilateral

with smooth exine (Fig. 3).

Met with near Land’s end as a lithophyte

in rock-crevices.

A. falcatum Bedd., Ferns South India, t.

15], 1863.

Rhizome 2-6 mm thick, short, ascending,

profusely branched, scaly; scales linear-lanceo-

late with long drawn out apical part, wavy

margined, 8-9 mm long and 0.5-0.8 mm broad

at base; fronds rather approximate; stipes

2.5-6 cm long, firm, erect with a well deve-

loped basal part, scaly; scales golden, linear-

lanceolate, hair pointed uniseriate, margin

smooth, 8-9 mm long and 0.5-0.9 mm broad

at base; lamina 10.5-35 x 2.5-5 cm, linear-

lanceolate, narrowed at both ends, bipinnati-

fid, primary rachis covered with similar to

rhizome but smaller scales; pinnae 20-28

jugate, alternate, subsessile, lowest 2-3 pairs

deflexed; pinnae falcate, generally furnished

with a large obtuse auricle at both the supe-

rior and inferior base, cut down into 8-10

pairs of 1-3.2 x 4-8 cm pinnules with crenated

margin and obtuse apex; texture herbaceous,

hairy along the veinlets, hairs 3-4 celled, thin

walled; venation simple or sometimes forked;

sori linear along the veinlets opening to-

wards the mid-rib, indusiate; indusium more

long than broad having finger-like lacerae

along the margin; sporangia with 15-celled

annulus; spores non-perisporiate, tuberculate

(Fig. 4).

Grows on moist, exposed rocks. Commonly

met with near Bhowali (1,500 m) and Sat-tal

(22007 mi):

A. drepancpterum (Kze.) A. Br., Milde,

Fil. Eur. 49, 1867.

Caudex stout, 3-5 cm in diameter, ascend-

ing, clothed with numerous reddish-brown,

linear-lanceolate, hair uniseriate pointed,

smooth margined having clear Juminae with

a few distorted cells, 6.7-10 mm long and —

0.7-1 mm broad at base scales; fronds caes-

pitose; stipe 8-15 cm long, grooved, dull straw-

coloured, scaly at base, scales persistant, simi-

lar to rhizome scales; lamina 18-22 x 2-4 cm,

oblong-lanceolate, 1-2 pinnate; pinnae 28-32

jugate, often falcate, subsessile, alternate, 2-3

cm X 4-6 mm, deeply pinnatifid into 8-11 seg-

ments; pinnules 2-3 x 1-2 mm, ovate-lanceo-

late, auricled with serrate margin; texture co-

riaceous; venation simple, veins pinnated,

almost reaching the margin; sori small, linear

or curved in two rows one on either side of

the mid rib, median, indusiate; indusium often

hippocrepiform, brown, fugacious, membran-

aceous; sporangia with 14-15 celled annulus,

THE GENUS ATHYRIUM ROTH IN NAINITAL HILLS

Fig. 3. Athyrium attenuatum. a. Plant. A. Pinna showing venation, x 2.0; B. Pinna

showing position of sori, x 2.0; C. Rhizome scale, x9.9; D. Stipe scale, x 9.9;

FE, Indusium, x 28.6; F. Sporangium, x 44.7; G. Spores, x 129.2.

Fig. 4. Athyrium falcatum. a. Plant. A. Pinna showing venation, x 2.7; B. Rhizome

scale, x 7.2; C. Stipe scale,x 7.2; D. Rachis scale, 7.2; E. Hairs on pinnae, x. 58.08;

F. Indusium, x 12.9; G. Indusial cells, x 58.0; H. Sporangia, x 58.0; I. Spores, x 167.8.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

NANG:

Yay

i es ae

Fig. 5. Athyrium drepanopterum. a. Plant. A. Pinna showing venation, x 2.6;

B. Rhizome or base of stipe scale,x 7.1; C. Sporangium, x 54.5; D. Spores, x 157.56.

Fig. 6. Athyrium japonicum. a. Plant. A. Pinna showing venation, x 2.2; B. Rhizome

scale, x 10.5; C. Stipe scale, x 10.5; D. Hairs of rachis and rachilets, x 47.6; E. Hairs

on surface, x 47.6; F. Indusium, 10.5; G. Indusial cells, x 47.6; H. Sporangium, x

47.6; I. Spores, x 137.6.

THE GENUS ATHYRIUM ROTH IN NAINITAL HILLS

annular cells with thick transparent walls

having dark brown luminae; spores hyaline,

bilateral with smooth walled exine, non-peri-

sporiate (Fig. 5).

This is a fern of low altitudes (1,200-1,500

m) growing on forest floor along water chan-

nels.

A. japonicum (Thunb.) Copel., Phil. Jour.

Soe: Bot. 3C; 290; 1908:

Rhizome upto 3-4 mm thick, widely-creep-

ing, scaly; scales 4-6 mm long, 1-2 mm wide

at base, pale-brown, thin, lanceolate, hair

pointed, sub-entire margined; fronds quite

apart, long, herbaceous; stipe 10-20 cm long,

scaly, scales similar to rhizome _ scales but

smaller in size; lamina 10-24 x 6-14 cm,

broadly lanceolate, bipinnatifid, rachis and

rachilets more or less woolly with multicel-

lular uniseriate hairs; pinnae alternate, 2-8 x

Q.7-1.5 cm, subsessile, cut down quite to the

mid rib into broad, falcate segments with ob-

tuse apex and crenated margin; texture her-

baceous, bright green in colour; venation pin-

nate, veins rarely forked; sori elongated nearer

the midrib in 2 rows one on each side of

the midrib, indusiate; indusium broad, thin,

elongated, membranaceous with wavy margin,

indusial cells polygonal with regular cell walls:

spores light yellow to brown in colour with

tuberculated exine (Fig. 6).

It prefers moist and shaded forest floor.

Found at 1,950 m altitude around Nainital.

A. clarkei Bedd., Ferns Brit. India, Suppl.,

Tits 360, 1876.

Rhizome 1 mm thick, ascending, scaly at

apex; scales 6-8 mm long, 0.5-1.5 mm _ broad

at base, dark-brown, linear-lanceolate, hair

pointed uniseriate with smooth margin; fronds

caespitose; stipes 11-20 cm long, scaly below,

scales similar to rhizome scales but smaller

in size; lamina 20-50 x 10-20 cm, lanceolate,

bipinnate, rooting from a bud on the upper

part of the rachis; pinnae deltoid-lanceolate,

upto 9 x 2.2 cm; pinnules shortly stalked,

acroscopic, basal one the largest, oblong, lob-

ed up to half the way to the mid rib with

serrated apex, primary rachis stramineous,

secondary winged, setae present on upper sur-

face along costae and constules; texture her-

baceous, green; venation forked 1-2 times,

single veinlet supplying to each tooth; sori

short, oblong, curved, two rows one to each

side of mid rib, indusiate; indusium reniform,

thin, fugaceous with almost, wavy margin,

indusial cells with smooth walls; sporangia

having 14-15 annulus cells; spores light-yel-

lowish-brown, reniform, non-perisporiate with

a smooth exine (Fig. 7).

The species was found growing near Kilberi

(2,000 m) on humus rich, densely shaded, and

moist forest floor.

A. proliferum Moore, Gard. Chr., 778, 1866.

Rhizome 1-1.5 cm thick, ascending, scaly;

scales 2-2.5 mm long, about 1 mm broad at

base, lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, hair

pointed uniseriate, sub-entire margined; fronds

closely tufted; stipe 14-17 cm long, hard,

grooved, straw coloured with a dark-brown

base, scaly, scales 4.5-5 mm long, about 1 mm

broad at base, oblonge-lanceolate, hair point-

ed; lamina 40-44 x 14-16 cm, lanceolate with

pointed acuminate apex, tripinnatifid; pinnae

7-9 x 1.8-2.5 cm, lanceolate, 25-28 jugate,

cut into 10-14 pairs of pinnules; each pinnule

oblong, cut into 4-5 pairs of bifid lobes; tex-

ture coriaceous; venation simple, veins forked,

almost reaching the margin, mid-vein wavy:

sori linear, present along the superior vein-

let, indusiate; indusium oblong with wavy

margin, indusial cells squarish, irregularly

margined with smooth cell walls; sporangia

with 13-14 annulus cells; spores bilateral,

thin-walled, hyaline, non-perisporiate (Fig. 8).

It prefers humus rich shaded forest floor

25)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

= —>

Fig. 7. Athyrium clarkei. a. Plant. A. Pinna showing venation, x 2.5; B. Rhizome or

stipe scale,x 18.0; C. Indusium, x 18.0; D. Indusial cells, x 54.0; E. Sporangium, x

54.0; F. Spores, x 156.0.

Fig. 8. Athyrium proliferum. a. Plant. A. Pinna showing venation, x 4.0; B, C. Rhi-

zome scales,x 19.0; D. Stipe scale,x 11.2; E. Indusium, x 19.0; F. Indusial cells, x

248.0; G. Sporangium, x 85.3; H. Spores, x 248.0.

THE GENUS ATHYRIUM ROTH IN NAINITAL HILLS

fre =

a= ;

=. = ———— -

4 \\

—

z EE .: vi

—

(=rs - -

—S

Fig. 9. Athyrium schimperi. a. Plant. A. Pinna showing venation, x 2.5; B. Rhizome

OF stipe, scale >< 2107. ©: Indusium, x 12.0: D. Indusial cells, x 54.0; E. Sporangium, x

54.0; F. Spores, x 156.

Fig. 10. Athyrium pectinatum. a. Plant. A. Pinna showing venation, x 3.7; B, C.

Rhizome scales, x 18.0; D. Stipe scale, x 18.0; E. Rachis scale,» 18.0; F. Spine on

surface, x 18.0; G. Hairs on both surfaces along veinlets, x 81.0; H. Indusium, x 51.7;

I. Indusial cells, x 81.0; J. Sporangium, x 81.0; K. Spores, x 234.0.

5 /

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

at an altitude of 1,950 m around Nainital.

A. schimperi Moung. ex Fee, Mem. Fouge-

res, 5 (Gen. Fil.), 187, 1850-52.

Rhizome 0.4-0.6 mm thick, widely creep-

ing, covered with dark-brown, linear-lanceo-

late, 3-4 mm long, upto 0.5-0.7 mm broad at

base scales; fronds distant, yellowish to bright-

green; stipes dark-brown at base, firm, erect,

having a few scales near the base which are

similar but smaller to rhizome scales; lamina

variable, 26-30 x 14-18 cm, oblong-lanceolate,

bipinnate; pinnae opposite below, alternate

above, basal ones reduced; each pinna lanceo-

late acuminate, 7-8.5<1.5-2 cm; pinnules al-

ternate, patent, having decurrent base, sessile,

1.5-2 x 0.8-1 cm, cut down half the way to the

costa into 4-6 pairs of segments with serrate

margin; texture herbaceous; venation general-

ly forked; sori j-shaped or reniform at matu-

rity, placed along the superior veinlets nearer

to the costae, indusiate; indusium broad,

firm with an irregularly lobed margin, indu-

sial cells irregular with deeply lobed cell

walls; sporangia with 13-14 celled annulus;

spores dark-brown, perisporiate, perispore

folded giving the appearance of reticulations

(Fig. 9).

One of the commonest species of the area,

growing in damp, shaded, and humus rich

places. Met with near Land’s end, snow-view,

Lariakanta, and around the lake, between

1,800-2,400 m altitude.

A. pectinatum Presl, Tent Pterid., 98, 1836.

Rhizome 0.4-1 cm thick, widely creeping,

branched, covered with yellowish-brown,

thin, lanceolate, hair pointed, upto 2 mm long,

0.5-0.8 mm broad at base scales: fronds, tuft-

ed; stipes 5-17 cm long, straw coloured, fra-

gile, scaly, scales 4.5-6 mm long, 0.5-1 mm

broad at base, lanceolate, hair uniseriate,

pointed; lamina 10-45x4-12 cm, lanceolate to

subdeltoid with acuminate apex, finely dissect-

ed, 3-4 pinnatifid; primary pinnae 15-24 pairs,

subsessile, sub-deltoid, acuminate, 4-7 x 2-4

cm. distantly placed, cut down into 7-10 pairs

of 0.3-0.5 x 1-1.3 cm pinnules; pinnules fur-

ther divided into ultimate segments with de-

ntate margin; rachis greenish and grooved

but rachilets pubescent with 1-3 celled uni-

seriate hairs on both surfaces, secondary rachis

minutely spiny on upper side; texture sub-

coriaceous, firm; venation forked; sori small,

present on superior veinlet, reniform, indus-

iate; indusium thin, membranaceous, more

broad than long with wavy margin, indusial

cells irregular elongated with smooth walls;

sporangia with 13-16 celled annulus; spores

dark brown, perisporiate, perispore loose and

reticulately folded (Fig. 10).

This species inhabits open but rather moist

situations along roadside. It is common

around Bhowali (1,500 m).

REFERENCES

BEDDoME, R. H. (1883): A Handbook to the

Ferns of British India, Ceylon and Malaya Penin-

sula. Thacker Spink & Co. Calcutta.

Bir, S. S. AND SHUKLA, P. (1966): Pteridophytic

Flora of Simla Hills (N. W. Himalayas). Family

Athyriaceae. Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 8; 264-277.

CLARKE, C. B. (1880): A Review of Ferns of

Northern India. Trans. Linn. Soc. London, I, Bot.,

1, 425-611.

Dur, K. K. AND Datra, K. S. (1976): Ferns

of Dharamsala hills-2 (North-Western Himalayas).

Fam. Woodsiaceae, Aspidiaceae and Athyriaceae.

Nova Hedwigia, 27: 393-424.

Hore, C. W. (1899, 1903): Ferns of North

Western India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 527-

Slots iB WISE

APPLICATION OF SOME BIOCHEMICAL METHODS

IN BANDICOOT TAXONOMY’

M. S. PRADHAN?

(With four text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The paucity of information concerning

even the most common forms of Indian

rodents is particularly noteworthy. The full

importance of Indian rodents in India gene-

rally is not realised (Spillett 1968). Rodent

taxonomy suffers seriously from lack of bio-

logical information.

In spite of the fact that field rats directly

affect the human populations the taxonomy

of the genus Bandicota was not clear. Eller-

man (1963) while studying the genus divid-

ed it into two species B. bengalensis and B.

indica ‘and cleared most of the confusions at

generic level. While revising the classification

of subspecies of B. bengalensis, Agrawal and

Chakraborty (1976) reduced the number of

subspecies described by Ellerman (1963)

from seven to three. They have concluded that

there is no difference between B. b. bengalen-

sis, B. b. kok and B. b. gracilis. Bombay

variety of field rat is B. b. kok (lordi) (confir-

mation from Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay). Does it also belong to the same

catagory of B. b. bengalensis or whether it

shows some variations, remained unconfirm-

ed. The present paper deals with this problem

and some modern taxonomical methods which

1 Accepted July 1977.

25. S. & L. S. Patkar College, Biol. Dept., Gore-

gaon West, Bombay-400062. Present address:

Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Sta-

tion, 933/A, Shivajinagar, Pune-411016, (India).

have not been used so far, like the biochemical

techniques, were employed in the present

studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The classification of local stock of Bandi-

cota bengalensis was identified and confirmed

by the authorities from Bombay Natural His-

tory Society, Bombay and it was concluded

that the stock belonged to Bandicota benga-

lensis kok (lordi) (Ellerman 1963). To

avoid errors resulting from the overlapping of

characteristics, sexually mature animals were

selected for the present studies. The total

number of animals studied was 293.

The measurements of the following regions

were recorded :-

External measurements: (1) Complete body,

ic. from tip of the snout to tip of the tail,

(2) Head + body, (3) Tail, (4) Pinnae, (5)

No. of tail rings and (6) Hindfoot.

Cranial measurements: (1) Occipitonasal

length, (2) Nasals and (3) Tooth-row.

The standard deviations from means were

calculated for each characteristics. All mea-

surements were taken in mm.

BIOCHEMICAL STUDIES:

The following blood proteins of bandicoot

rats were studied. The details are given in

author’s (1976) thesis for Ph.D.

Haptoglobin and Transferrin: The proce-

293

TABLE 1

RAGE MEASUREMENTS (IN MM) WITH STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF

B. b. kok (lordi) N

SHOWING AV

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

dure adopted for starch-gel-electrophoreses

was the same as that described by Smithes

é in es (1959). Buffer used was barbiturate buffer

: oe RES with pH 8.6.

= a Haemoglobin: Paper electrophoresis me-

thod described by Pauling et al. (1949) was

3 i" S adopted for the present work.

2 Pa lts

OBSERVATIONS

a 0 + General: Though known by the name field

ame ma a rat, as its habitat is in general agricultural

fo) i. fields in rural areas, B. bengalensis of Bom-

: bay region particularly inhabits human dwel-

2X1 g | lings and leads an epizootic life. They are

es] ss ferocious in nature and when disturbed they

ss 1 So] make grinding noises with their prominant in-

ea Teil cisors. The head is triangular, the tail is short,

Le i naked with a number of rings on it. The tip

Be venys of the tail is mostly white.

m2 a i Fur and its coloration: The animal pos-

iB ea va sesses short hairs. The fur is soft, especially

ae i pe during winter season. The harshness of the

ee A eatiale fur is felt due to some hard hairs intermixed

ae a 2 with some soft hairs. The colour on the dor-

Ss = 06 sal surface varies in all shades from light to

ees a x dark black brown while undersurface is in gray

eae <n) (eee tones. Some 5-10 red coloured varieties were

, Se 2 = = also caught in urban areas.

Bw a External morphological and cranial mea-

cae 2 8 surements: Table 1 shows the average mea-

=3 ys a surements of different characteristics with

ue i standard deviations from the means. The

c= 3 we measurements fally to certain extent with

EF = f§ 4 these mentioned by authorities of Bombay

Lene = Natural History Society for identifying B. 5.

2 re D kok (lordi). The width of the head at ear

4H to ear region is broadest in comparison with

ie that at eye to eye region; besides, the length

a © es of the head is not much elongated like that

Eo m a of B. indica. This gives a peculiar triangular

Om 4 appearance to 8B. bengalensis’s head. The

SOME BIOCHEMICAL METHODS IN BANDICOOT TAXONOMY

a Es ea

“Wan Gb; Bb 8i3 Bla Oh Bye Bye Gg, Ops Bge BE Oho

Fig. 1. Diagramatic representation of Bandicota haptoglobin patterns by starch gel

electrophoresis.

Abbreviations: B.b.= Bandicota bengalensis; B.i.= Bandicota indica; B.g.= Bandicota

gigantea.

PAARKER HUMAN Bh2 Boi Gis Bia Bid a6 B36 S34 co Bye Rit Bb3 Pp

Fig. 2. Diagramatic representation of Bandicota transferrin patterns.

Abbreviations: B.b.=Bandicota bengalensis; B.i.= Bandicota indica; B.g. = Bandicota

gigantea.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

average length of the tail and the number of

tail rings are almost same. The rings are

stout, complete and well expressed.

Table 1 shows the average measurements

of different cranial regions also, B. bengalen-

sis possesses a narrow brain case but the

width at zygomatic region is comparatively

broader. Nasals are short while palatal fora-

mina is long and narrow. The average tooth

row was 7.5 mm. ‘The incisors are always

yellow in colour as against those of B. indica

which when alive possesses white incisors.

BIOCHEMICAL STUDIES :

Haptoglobins: Fig. 1 shows the _photo-

graph of electropherogram showing that all

Fig. 3. Bandicota haemoglobin patterns by paper electrophoresis.

Abbreviations: B.b.=Bandicota bengalensis; B.i.= Bandicota indica; B.g.= Bandicota

gigantea.

SOME BIOCHEMICAL METHODS IN BANDICOOT TAXONOMY

Ge BL,

Fig. 4. Bandicota haemoglobin patterns showing intrasubspecies haemoglobin

polymorphism in B. bengalensis.

Abbreviations: B.b.= Bandicota bengalensis; B.i.= Bandicota indica; B.g. = Bandicota

gigantea.

TABLE 2

SHOWING COMPARATIVE ACCOUNT OF MEASUREMENTS (IN MM) OF DIFFERENT SUBSP. OF B. Bengalensis

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

the species of genus Bandicota possess 1/1

(Normal) type of haptoglobin, comparable to

that of human type. The mobility of all the

haptoglobins was same.

Transferrins: Fig. 2 shows the photograph

of bandicoot transferrins. It was observed

and confirmed that the field rats, like R. rat-

tus, possessed 2/2 types of transferrins in the

region of B-2 globulin zone comparable to

those reported earlier (TfrR and TfN) by

Yoshida et al. (1971). The mobility of all the

types was same. One exceptional type of B.

gigantea showed the possession of an addi-

tional Tf band. This is probably a heterozy-

gous crossbreed of the two different homo-

rygous types of transferrins occurring in the

nature (The second probable type is shown

in dotted line).

Haemoglobin: Fig. 3 shows the photo-

graph of paper electropherogram showing

differences in the mobility of 1/1 type of

Bandicota haemoglobin. Almost all the sam-

ples possessed 1/1 type. B. bengalensis hae-

moglobin has a faster mobility than human

type. It probably belongs to Hbs type (Ano-

nymous 1964). One type of B. bengalensis

was found to possess both the types [Hbs

Hbs] of haemoglobins (Fig. 4). The occurr-

ence of two haemoglobin bands in that pecu-

liar sample was confirmed by repeating the

run.

Tooth row

5.9-8.0

(ily)

6.3-8.0

@25)

Wail

+1.16

Occipitonasal

33.3-45.5

(39.1)

33.8-45.5

(39.0)

35.8-42.0

(39.2)

ANS) 1S)

+2.04

Hind foot

29-39

(33.0)

27.44

(33.5)

28-35

(32)

45.00

+2.08

Tail

99-202

(148)

100-217

(149)

121-170

(140)

188.01

se 5.35)

Head

+ Body

132-237

(139)

128-243

(165)

167-202

(184)

Doles

Be 19) 7

Reference

Agrawal

and

Chakraborty

1976

Pradhan 1976

106

293

DISCUSSION

115

examples

No. of

Arithmatic Mean X

Agrawal and Chakraborty (1976) while

comparing the different subsp. of B. b. ben-

galensis confirmed that all the three varieties

(B. b. bengalensis, B. b. kok, and B. b. gra-

cilis) should be kept in a common group of

B. b. bengalensis. The Bombay variety, which

is predominant in this area, is B. b. kok

(Jordi). If the morphological measurements

B. b. gracilis

B.b. kok (ordi)

Figures in brackets :

Name of the

B. b. kok

B. b. bengalensis

SOME BIOCHEMICAL METHODS

are compared with those mentioned by Agra-

wal and Chakraborty (1976) it would be ob-

served that B. b. kok (lordi) is larger in size

than the above mentioned three subspecies

in most of the respects (Table 2). But the

general pattern and coloration do not seem

to vary much. Certain key characters like

length of hind foot, tooth row etc. show vari-

ations to certain extent. The only point of

difference lies in the occipitonasal length.

All the skulls of mature animals possess the

longer occipitonasal length. But the devia-

tion from the standard length mentioned by

Ellerman (1963), Agrawal and Chakraborty

(1976) does not bring about any change in

the general pattern of skull or even in the

structure of head.

From the above mentioned points it is ap-

parent that the variety B. b. kok (lordi) may

be the larger form of B. b. bengalensis and

it will not be wrong to merge this variety

with B. 6b. bengalensis. This view may also

be supported by biochemical tests of hapto-

globin and transferrins [Tfr and TfNn _ pat-

terns} which do not show any _ differences

even at generic level. Based on morphologi-

cal differences like measurements and colora-

tion B. b. bengalensis and B. b. kok (lordi)

IN BANDICOOT TAXONOMY

have been differentiated as two different sub-

sp. But these characters are insufficient to

separate these types. It has also been sup-

ported by merging some varieties in B. b.

bengalensis by Agrawal and Chakraborty

(1976). But even if this view is accepted, B.

b. kok (lordi) cannot be merged in B. b. ben-

galensis. Because, the genetical differences in

haemoglobin patterns still confirm the exist-

ence of intra-subspecific polymorphism

amongst the subspecies. If other slow moving

Hbs type is located, it will be easier to com-

pare the two types even though there exists

the morphological differentiation between

them.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my deep sense of grati-

tude to Dr. P. J. Deoras, Prof. Emiritus, Pat-

kar College, for his valuable guidance. The

author is thankful to Principal, SS. & LS.

Patkar College, Goregaon West, Bombay-62,

for providing the laboratory facilities; to Dr.

S. N. Naik, Animal House In-charge, Tata

Cancer Research Institute, Bombay, for his

suggestions and also to Dr. B. K. Tikader,

Deputy Director, Zoological Survey of India,

Poona, for his cooperation.

REFERENCES

AGRAWAL, V. C. AND CHAKRABORTY, S. (1976):

Revision of the sub-species of the lesser bandicoot

rat Bandicota bengalensis (Gray) (Rodentia:

Muridae). Rec. Zool. Surv. India, (69): 267-274.

ANONYMOUS (1964): Nomenclature of haemo-

globins. Brit. Med. J., (5419): 1258.

KELLERMAN, J. R. (1963): Fauna of India, Mam-

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Publ. Zool. Surv. India, Calcutta, pp. 884.

PAULING, L., ITANOH, A., SINGER, S. T. AND WELLS,

I. C. (1949): Sickle Cell anaemia, a molecular

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PRADHAN, M. S. (1976): Studies on Bombay

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proteins. Advanc. Protein Chem., 14: 65.

SPILLETT, J. J. (1968): The ecology of the lesser

bandicoot rat in Calcutta. D.Sc. thesis in Zoology,

Cal. University, pp. 224.

YosHIDA, T. H., Kato, HATAo, KIMIYUKI, T. AND

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34(1): 40.

PRELIMINARY CROCODILE SURVEY—SRI LANKA’

R. WHITAKER AND Z. WHITAKER2

(With eight plates)

INTRODCTION

The investigators were invited by the Sri

Lanka Wildlife and Nature Protection Society

to undertake a crocodile survey of the Island.

Due to political tensions the survey was under-

way only by the 20th of September 1977. The

investigators arrived by ferry at Talaimannar

and started on the road by Jawa Motorcycle

from there via Anuradhapura via the coast

and thence south to Hambantota and Yala

north to Uda Walawe, east to Kumune and

Pottuvilp, north to Amparai and Batticaloa,

north and west to Polonnaruwa and Anura-

dhapura and north to Miullaitivu, Elephant

Pass, Mahawilachhiya, and then south to

Colombo on the inland route. Detailed, pro-

forma based data were gathered for 40 re-

presentative tanks during the survey which

lasted till November Ist. In addition, hundreds

of ponds, reservoirs, streams and rivers were

examined, local crocodile censuses taken, local

residents interviewed and general data pertain-

ing to crocodiles was gathered.

(1) The first part of the following report

will give excerpts from writings of early natu-

ralists and explorers which invariably point to

the great abundance of both the species of

crocodiles of Sri Lanka—the freshwater

marsh crocodile or mugger (Crocodylus palu-

stris) and the saltwater or estuarine crocodile

(Crocodylus porosus). These are variably call-

1 Accepted May 1978.

2 Madras Snake Park Trust, Madras-600 022.

ed hale kimbula and gette kimbula in Singha-

lese according to the part of the country. To

help regularize vernacular names we might

adhere to what seems to be in widest common

use is hale kimbula (sluggish) for C. porosus

and gette kimbula (rough-skinned) for C. palu-

stris. In ‘Tamil, C. palustris is often known as

kulathu (tank) muthalay and C. porosus

semmukan (copper noscd) muthalay or kadal

(sea) muthalay.

(2) The second part will be the Island with

relation to its 300,000 acres of estuarine habi-

tats and 100,000 acres of tanks. One outstand-

ing feature is that there are no natural fresh-

water lakes. The over 10,000 man made tanks

were constructed between the 5th century BC

and 14th century AD, providing greatly ex-

panded habitats for C. palustris. C. porosus

probably benefitted by the mugger’s possible

shift from the rivers and lagoons.

(3) The third part of the report traces the

recent history of the crocodile in Sri Lanka,

starting from the 1930’s.

(4) Part Four describes the findings of our

recent 40 day trip (Sept.-Nov., 1977) through

the Island’s main crocodile habitats, including

data from a fortnight’s visit in August 1976.

The appendix includes a list of places actual-

ly visited by the investigators during the sur-

vey with a brief summary of findings at each

location of previous or present crocodilian

importance.

(5) Part Five is the conclusion and out-

lines the value of crocodiles in the wild and

suggests conservation measures.

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE I

Whitaker & Whitaker: Sri Lanka Crocodile Survey

Above: Canal near Negombo draining Muthurajuvela swamp.

Below: Crocodilus porosus hatchling found near Colombo.

J. Bombay NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE II

Whitaker & Whitaker: Sri Lanka Crocodile Survey

Above: Lagenandra, along the Nilwala Ganga; remnants of once dense C. porosus

habitat. Below: Crocodile proof bathing fence on~ the Nitwala Ganga.

PRELIMINARY CROCODILE SURVEY —SRI LANKA

METHODS AND EQUIPMENT

Low budget survey techniques deserve a

more important place in the field of conser-

vation. The need for continual monitoring of

populations of critically endangered and ex-

ploited species and the importance of the ini-

tial investigations into census and status are

obvious. Conservation organizations could

continue to encourage “‘semi-formal’ surveys

toward the eventual goal of having an up to

date/accurate picture of the status of species

threatened by habitat loss or poaching.

Wildlife Departments could open a Survey

Wing with interested field staff and coopera-

tion with the University and all the numerous

government agencies which already have the

means to collect data on most forms of wild-

life in need of surveys and possibly protection/

rehabilitation. Discussion with local residents

is most rewarding but one must gain experi-

ence in judging levels of exaggeration and con-

firm crocodile size and population estimates

by personal observation. It is a universal ten-

deny to over estimate size and numbers of

crocodiles seen.

EARLY WRITINGS ON CROCODILES

1. “Few reptiles are more disgusting than

these brutes; but, nevertheless, their utility

counterbalances their bad qualities, as they

cleanse the water from all impurities. So

numerous are they, that their heads may be

seen in fives and tens together, floating at the

top of the water like rough corks...” Baker,

1855.

2. “Among these (creeping things) the

Crocodile comes before all other, since it is

very great both in number and _ size...”

Heydt, 1744.

3. Chit Aru (near Giants Tank) ‘“‘abounds

in alligators.” Ward, 1859.

4. Insurumuniya Temple—‘“‘Before and be-

hind lie large lotus ponds on whose banks

huge crocodiles may be seen...the monks now

resident have placed it at the disposal of the

crocodiles whom they encourage by providing

them with food.’’ Cave, 1900.

5. “This is the one (C. palustris) so com-

mon in the tanks of the Jaffna peninsula.”

Ferguson, 1877.

6. ‘‘All the (low country) tanks, rivers and

forest pools swarm with them (crocodiles).”’

Clark, 1901.

7. “Among the amphibious creatures, the

Kaiman, or crocodile, call’d Lagarto by the

Portugueses, is very frequent here; some of

which are eighteen feet long. They have four

feet with crooked claws, their skin covered

with scales, which are so hard on the back,

that they are musket proof...In Jafnapatnam

there are many crocodiles in the fens, ponds

and lakes; which if. they happen to dry up in

the summer, they dig holes to live in...” Bal-

daeus, 1671.

8. “*...to the present day the Europeans

apply the term alligator to what are in reality

crocodiles, which literally swarm in the still

waters and tanks throughout the northern pro-

vinces but rarely frequent rapid streams and

have never been found in the marshy eleva-

tions among the hills.”

“The lagoon of Batticaloa, and indeed all

the still waters of this district are remarkable

for the numbers and prodigious size of the

crocodiles which infest them.”

Mullaitivu: ““The fort is surrounded by the

remains of a military ditch of considerable

depth, and, as usual, filled with crocodiles...

Another inlet of the sea which we crossed on

leaving Miullaitivu was also swarming with

these creatures.’’ (Tennent, 1859).

9. “The alligator of Ceylon is never seen

in rivers amongst the mountains or hills: it is

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

confined to the low country, and abounds

most in the lakes and tanks in the northern

and southern parts of the island.” Davy,

lisp lle:

10. “In all probability it was this reptile

(estuarine crocodile) which was so petted by

the Portuguese soldiery at Malwara, Colombo,

Kalutara and other river forts; and Kayman’s

gate in Colombo perpetuates the memory of

their former abundance.” Deraniyagala 1930.

11. “On any bit of bank or rock projecting

out of the water you are certain to see num-

bers of loathsome crocodiles basking open-

mouthed in the sun...” (in the N.C. Province)

Storey, 1907.

12. Nanthi Kadal...” where we saw so

many crocodiles and innumerable birds above

them...”’ Falck, 1767.

FRESHWATER AND ESTUARINE

HABITAT

THE ISLAND:

Sri Lanka lies between the 5th and 10th

parallels and except for the high hills has a

year round tropical climate. The island is

25,332 sq. miles in area and composed of three

well marked plains of erosion termed “pene-

plains.’ Each peneplain has developed a

characteristic fauna whose distribution is

affected by temperature and rainfall. The dry

zone comprises most of the coastal and low

country area, it receives less than 75 in.

of annual rainfall. The wet zone is mainly on

the south west coast and the 2nd and 3rd

peneplain and receives over 75 in. of rain.

Sri Lanka has 34 major river drainages. 7

are in the dry zone, 2 in the dry and wet zones,

25 in the wet zone. The major wet zone rivers

are perennial, the dry zone rivers shrink in

the dry season and may dry in drought.

There are no natural freshwater lakes in

Sri Lanka. Rivers and streams were dammed

irom about the 5th century B.C. and major

tank construction continued till about the 13th

century AD. Most of the Ist peneplain dry

zone was colonized then and in the 11 million

acres of this area over 10,000 tanks were con-

structed with a complex network of channels.

The human population in those days is esti-

mated at 10 million. Invasion and _ drastic

population decline shortly thereafter caused

much of what was once farmland to revert to

forest. The tanks which became jungle tanks,

(some of which lie within the present National

Parks), became the main crocodile habitat.

The term “‘tank” is conveniently applied to

any man made body of freshwater whether

it is a village tank of an acre or the Senana-

yake Samudra Reservoir which is 19,000 acres.

Since these form the main C. palusiris habitats

of Sri Lanka it would be appropriate that a

study of the crocodile’s role in tank biology

be undertaken.

Mugger are also found in many of the main

rivers notably the Mahaweli Ganga and the

Yala stretch of the Menik Ganga. There is

little reference to march crocodiles in rivers

in the old literature and in interviews and we

found that though scattered, small populations

exist, concentrations of mugger only occur in

tanks. Crocodiles have rarely penetrated to

the 2nd peneplain. Deraniyagala and others

report crocodiles in low-land lagoons, salt

pans, river deltas, canals and and swamps, and

in isolated instances on the 2nd _ peneplain.

This year a crocodile was observed for the

first time at Gampola near Kandy, an eleva-

tion of about 450 m. It was possibly an esca-

pee from captivity (da Silva 1977).

There are numerous references in literature.

of crocodiles in the salt pans of the southeast

and the salty wilas of Wilpattu. These are mug-

ger and seem to be able to tolerate concentra-

tions of salt higher than sea water for long

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIsT. Soc. 76 PLATE III

Whitaker & Whitaker: Sri Lanka Crocodile Survey

Above: The water monitor, important predator on crocodile eggs, is common in south-

west Sri Lanka. Below: Small tidal affected stream in southern Sri Lanka. Habitat

of C. palustris.

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE IV

Whitaker & Whitaker: Sri Lanka Crocodile Survey

Above: Palatupana Lagoon near Yala. Saline habitat of C. palustris. Below: The

Wila Oya stream as it flows into Panama Tank. Largest concentration of C. palustris

was observed here.

PRELIMINARY CROCODILE SURVEY —SRI LANKA

periods. During the dry season when the shal-

low salt lakes (occasionally connected to the

sea via a small lagoon) shrink, the salt con-

centration causes a massive fish kill on which

crocodiles, birds and other scavengers feast

(Spittel 1924). Near Palatupana we found a

group of 2 week old hatchling mugger in

lagoon water of 3.38% salinity. It had been

thought that up to a certain age juvenile cro-

codiles cannot tolerate such a concentration.

The edge of the lagoon was strewn with dead

and dying mullet (Mugil sp.)

Other occasional C. palustris habitats include

unlikely places like deep pools in small streams,

old wells and urban and suburban weed-chok-

ed canals. Although big, breeding size mugger

are generally too conspicuous to survive for

long near human habitation, smaller individuals

often do very well if they learn how to stay

out of sight. Deraniyagala mentions that C.

palustris favours the sycamore (Terminalia

arjuna). Tree root systems overhanging river

and pool embankments provide perfect tun-

neling habitat.

The estuarine crocodile (C. porosus) is a

completely different animal and prefers a dif-

ferent habitat. Just inland of the sea on the

western coast beginning at about Puttalam

and going south, is a stretch of intermittent

swampland. Much of this been cleared,

drained and converted to paddy land and even

filled in; but considerable areas remain. The

best areas are centred around the main rivers

draining into the sea on the southwest and

southern coasts. The Maha Oya, Kelani

Ganga, Bentota Ganga, Gin Ganga and the

Nilwala Ganga were once famous for croco-

diles.

The remaining swampland, comprised of

mangrove, cane, flag grass, pandanus and

other thick semi-aquatic vegetation, is an ideal

home for C. porosus and indeed, Sri Lanka’s

main remaining breeding population appears

to exist on this coastal strip. The lagoons of

Potiuvilp, Batticaloa, Trincomalee and Mullai-

tivu may once have harboured considerable

C. porosus populations (see old refs.), but no

more. One well known estuarine crocodile re-

ported to be 5-6 mts in length is seen regu-

larly between Panama and Kumune on the

south east coast and apparently a few are

left in some of the denser mangrove thickets

north of Trinco. This is a more or less solitary

animal as compared to the gregarious mugger.

The female requires a very secluded, undis-

turbed area to build her metre high, conspicu-

ous nest and the available habitat is consider-

ably diminished. The proposed Free Trade

Zone between Negombo and Colombo will

cause further inroads as the Muthurajavela

swamp is cleared and drained. This animal

needs a sanctuary if it is to survive in Sri

Lanka. C. porosus has not been reported far

inland in Sri Lanka. It apparently will not

dwell in the same area as C. palustris and,

as elsewhere in its range, it probably keeps its

own preferred area clean of mugger. Derani-

yagala writes that C. porosus is associated with

mangrove and flag grass (Lagenandra).

There is still much to be discovered as to

the distribution of Sri Lanka’s two crocodiles.

Their habitat preferences tend to generally

separate them but there are obvious overlaps.

Mugger are generally easily observable as they

tend to live and bask in open areas; the estu-

arine crocodile is generally more shy, and

more apt to stay hidden. Even night survey

techniques may be far from accurate in areas

where heavily hunted crocodiles become “‘light

shy”’ and remain only in the least accessible

ceastal and river delta mangroves.

The natural habitat of crocodiles in Sri

Lanka has been further altered by thousands

of miles of man made canals and channels of

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

many proportions and functions. In some

cases these modifications are beneficial to cro-

codiles, offering alternate habitat, hunting

habitat and access to other tanks.

RECENT HISTORY OF SRI LANKA’S CROCODILES

‘“‘No longer do crocodiles bask in the sun

in the tanks of Ceylon. The avariciousness of

man has all but exterminated them. Although

these antediluvian monsters are not beautiful

to look upon, yet they are part of nature’s

scheme and did give a certain charm to the

tanks. Man set up a factory, seeking quick

wealth from the tanning of crocodile skins;

and within ten years, he has to close down

the factory because there were no crocodiles

left to tan’? (Hennessy 1949).

‘The great demand for crocodile skins tends

to thin out considerably the numbers of these

reptiles so much so that in recent years it has

not been unusual to see in tanks affected by

drought hundreds of fishes which would have

fallen prey to the voracious creatures lying

dead on the dried up bed there to putrefy and

cause ill health to the people residing in the

adjoining areas.”’ (Somanader 1941).

Deraniyagala writes similar bleak findings.

He wrote that crocodile hunters take a heavy

toll of mugger in the dry season using large-

meshed ‘kimbul dale’ (crocodile nets) and

harpoons and that “‘the species which was so

common in 1925 is now rarely found in any

numbers and specimens 3 metres long are

very scarce,” (Deraniyagala 1939). Regarding

record size he mentions 2 of about 5.25 mts.

(184 ft.) shot in 1916 in Kantalai Reservoir.

He further states that before hide hunters re-

duced numbers (during the late 1920’s and

early 1930’s) “troops of over 100” C. palu-

stris could be commonly seen _ basking on

“bunds of reservoirs. He maintains that this

species has become scarce along the coast with

the spread of firearms.

Regarding C. porosus, little has been written

of its previous abundance but judging from the

excellent habitat which was available for the

species it must have been plentiful on much

of the coast.

We searched through records in the Cham-

ber of Commerce, Colombo, but apparently

crocodile skins were included in the general

‘‘hides’’ category for there are no statistics. It

is unknown how many skins were contributed

to the world trade (which has fluctuated from

2,000,000 to perhaps 10,000,000 skins per year)

but the fact remains that crocodiles were con-

siderably depleted by the late 1930's.

In 1946 crocodiles were placed on Schedule

IV of the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordin-

ance which means they cannot be shot with-

out a Special License, allowing one crocodile

to be taken. The export of crocodile skins is

totally banned. Combined with adequate habi-

tat protection it would seem that these laws, if

enforced, would ensure the future of Sri

Lanka’s crocodiles. The two factors running

against that supposition are the sale of dry

crocodile meat (without the risk of dealing

in the skins) and the chance of smuggling of

skins to India. In late 1975 the Indian Excise

authorities seized 86 crocodile skins at Dindi-

gul with markings on the crate indicating that

it had come from Sri Lanka via the ferry to

Rameswaram. We examined the skins during

the auction in Madras and they were appar-

ently of the Sri Lanka race of C. palustris.

Since crocodile protection is now being en-

forced in India the rarity of skins has put the

price up considerably and sources from neigh-

bouring countries like Sri Lanka are obvious-

ty being examined by the illicit dealers.

In 1976 four crocodiles were caught in the

Mahaweli Ganga in a trapping operation or-

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE V

Whitaker & Whitaker: Sri Lanka Crocodile Survey

Above: Large tanks of North and North central Sri Lanka used to contain large

numbers of C. palustris. Below: Stumps of thousands of trees protrude from many

of the tanks reclaimed from the jungle in the past 50 years such as here at

Mahakandarawa Wewa.

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE VI

Whitaker & Whitaker: Sri Lanka Crocodile Survey

Above: The larger, perennial tanks, such as Iranamadu (North Sri Lanka) contain

fewer crocodiles than the drought affected smaller tanks of south eastern Sri Lanka.

Below: Crocodiles migrate to permanent water as the annual tanks turn into swampy

grassland in the dry season.

PRELIMINARY CROCODILE SURVEY —SRI LANKA

ganized by a local MP (Loris, June 1976).

We heard several other similar reports of cro-

codiles killed by police after allegedly attack-

ing humans. Large crocodiles occasionally do

attack humans just as may (in India) the rare

man-eating tiger. Crocodile attacks will not

happen when basic precautions are taken.

People have lived in close proximity to good

crccodile habitat well stocked with croco-

diles for centuries. In some places, such as the

Nilwala Ganga, when an occasional oversized

crocodile became a “‘nuisance crocodile’ and

attacked humans or dogs, it was generally

caught or killed. In some bathing areas along

the river wooden fences are built to keep out

water weeds and inquisitive crocodiles. In Vol.

XII No. 3 (1971) of Loris the Editor remarks

“Crocodiles are threatened with extinction all

over the world. In Ceylon this is true of at

least the Estuarine Crocodile (C. porosus).”

CROCODILE SURVEY RESULTS

In August, 1976 the authors spent a fort-

night in the southern part of Sri Lanka visit-

ing crocodile habitats with a _herpetologist

colleague in Ruhunu National Park and ad-

jacent areas and resolved to return for a more

intensive survey in 1977. We approached the

Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of

Ceylon for funds to support the survey and

the Committee approved our grant request

for Rs. 3,500. Together with the Rs. 3,500

sponsored by the Madras Snake Park Trust

for the survey, we were able to spend 40 days

in Sri Lanka, our assistant and ourselves cov-

ering about 4000 Kms. by motor cycle, 1000

Kms. by jeep and car plus boat travel and

foot work. We visited representative tanks,

reservoirs, rivers, lagoons, and backwaters in

every district in which crocodiles occur and

made a detailed coverage of 40 tanks plus

several lagoons. Due to transport and weather

limitations we were unable to make adequate

coverages of the two large national parks and

the wilderness area south and east of Wasgo-

muwa. These brief periods spent in the croco-

dile habitat in Sri Lanka provided an excellent

general picture of the current status and direc-

tion of the two species. The mugger still sur-

vives in small numbers in almost every Dis-

trict with concentrations as of the “‘old days”

in the two main National Parks. The skin in-

dustry already written about brought the popu-

lations down and the current meat industry is

holding them down. The estuarine crocodile

succumbed to the same pressure but shows less

recuperative powers and has lost much of its

habitat. The trip diary and summarized results

appear in the appendix following the Con-

-clusion.

CONCLUSION

There is no doubt that crocodiles are an

essential ingredient in the healthy ecology of

tanks, reservoirs, rivers and lagoons in a tropi-

cal country like Sri Lanka. For reasons both

religious and cultural and due to the efforts

of the W.L. Dept. the two species of crocodiles

of this island have retained a better foot-

hold than throughout the rest of their territory.

The Alligator is being protected in America

for its value in the swamp ecosystem. The

habit of the Nile Crocodile of feeding on pre-

datory fish is earning its rehabilitation in

Africa. In India massive FAO/UNDP techni-

cally aided projects are underway to save the

gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) from extinction

and help recuperate the two species of croco-

diles as valuable renewable resources. In

Papua—New Guinea similar UNDP projects

have been underway for several years.

Many tanks in Sri Lanka have some forest

cover. This is of importance not only in the

vital role of preventing erosion and siltation

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

but also in providing wildlife habitat. The an-

nual tanks of the south-east and north-west

parts of the Island are now the most dynamic

crocodile habitats. The annual drying up of

these tanks provides the crocodiles with seve-

ral months of easy food availability. These

parts of the country are among the least de.-

sely populated and include the two National

Parks, Ruhunu (240 sq. miles) and Wilpattu

(280 sq. miles). These are not only Sri Lanka’s

most dynamic populations, they are also most

vulnerable, to drought.

The mugger would be fairly easy to rehabi-

litate in many parts of the country where the

tanks are remote from disturbance or where

local residents would not discourage a healthy

population (as is still the case at present in

several areas like Panama Tank and in the

Mullaitivu area). Crocodile killers are usually

groups of itinerant fishermen. Since the tanks

are generally under the Irrigation Board there

are rarely any Wildlife Department staff nearby

and no routine checks made.

The estuarine crocodile is a more difficult

animal to provide suitable undisturbed habitat

for and most coastal habitat is becoming well

settled. It would be timely for one or more C.

porosus habitats to be examined for suitability

as preserves for this dwindling species.

In the case of both species several important

measures could help conserve them: (1) Fur-

ther, detailed survey work to map out exact

distribution and status; monitoring and periodic

census checks are especially important in popu-

lations of reptiles like C. palustris. Their vul-

nerability in drought, their cross country mi-

gratory habits due to drought or disturbance,

and the variable success of fishermen in sea-

sonal crocodile killing makes the C. palustris

population of Sri Lanka a rapidly changing

picture. (2) Indexing of available habitat for

suitability as crocodile preserves. (3) Strict en-

a2,

forcement of existing laws protecting croco-

diles by increasing field wildlife protection staff,

publicity and cooperation of police, customs

etc. |

The Colombo Zoo could set up an effective

“rehabilitation and rearing centre’ for the

“orphan”? and nuisance crocodiles that con-

tinue to be brought in as habitat inroads pro-

gress. When suitable crocodile preserves have

been identified and protection guaranteed, stock

being reared in this crocodile “‘bank”’ could be

used for restocking these wild habitats. A squad

of expert crocodile handlers could be trained

to deal with crocodiles guilty of attacks on live

stock or humans which should be caught and

transferred. Officers of the Wildlife Service in

Florida, U.S.A. receive this sort of training.

The association of on going studies of cro-

codile habits would help wildlife staff solve

complex problems such as homing behaviour,

migration, territory, population densities, sur-

vival in drought conditions, and the role of

crocodiles in the tank and estuarine ecosystems.

The concept that the ecological roles of all

wildlife are relevant to our environment is gain-

ing in favour, it remains to document the cro-

codile’s specific value and place in Sri Lanka’s

acquatic and brackish habitats. The past de-

cade has seen a great upsurge in the interest

and growth of Inland Fisheries. Many large

scale fisheries have come to grief in other parts

of the world when the crocodiles were wiped

out (India included). Crocodiles were accused

by fishermen as being competitors for fish and

wrecking nets when accidentally entangled.

Actually, crocodiles may feed more on the

sedentary species of predatory fish such as cat

fish (Bagarius, Wallago) than the fast and

active edible carps (Cott 1961). Crocodiles con-

trol numbers of other fish predators including

otters, water birds, snakes, turtles, and carni-

vorous water beetles. The scavenging role of

J. BomBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE VIi

Whitaker & Whitaker: Sri Lanka Crocodile Survey

Above: It has: beem many years since crocodiles have been seen in and around the

Jafina Lagoon. Below: A C. palustris accidentally run over by a bus near Senanayake

Samudra.

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crocodiles is well documented and appreciated

but there are many more subtle yet important

ways in which crocodiles fulfill an important

function in nature. A scientist studying caiman

on the Amazon determined the nutrient role

of these relatives of the alligator and their im-

portance to the fish productivity of the water-

ways (Fittkau 1970, 1973).

In several cases good crocodile habitat lies

within sanctuaries already formed by the Gov-

ernment. Unfortunately there is little field pro-

tection afforded to these areas (aside from the

major National Parks). Besides further survey

and study the serious job of crocodile pro-

tection must be strengthened by creating posi-

tive public opinion. Crocodiles do not have the

good looks and appeal of the elephant or tiger

on their side but their presence on this earth

for the past 200 million years, their ecological,

touristic and their potential economic value as

a resource can be conveyed to the public

through mass media, the zoo and special publi-

cations. 7

The main current cause for crocodile decline

in Sri Lanka is the depredation by fishermen

for the meat which is dried and sold locally or

sent to the larger fish markets and sold as cro-

codile (where in demand for purported ‘“‘medi-

cinal’”’ value) or as dry shark (which it closely

resembles). Several Karawa fishermen inter-

viewed at somewhat remote tanks like Maha-

wilachchiya openly discussed their crocodile

business. Even without the skins it is profitable

for them; dried Tilapia and other fish sell for

about Rs. 3/- per Ib. whereas crocodile

brings Rs. 4-5 per Ib. It is a fairly simple and

easy to conceal side business for the fishermen

who have the equipment (nets) and who make

regular rounds of even the most remote tanks

during the dry season when fishing (and cro-

dile catching) is easiest. The fishing permits

are issued by the Executive Engineer, Irriga-

tion and neither the Fisheries nor Wildlife De-

partment are informed of these activities.

These people plus a few isolated wealthy

‘sport’? and skin hunters are the main direct

sources of human pressure on crocodiles. Other

killers of crocodiles are a number of specializ-

ed hunters who have learned the poachers’ art-

ful methods such as baited hooks (favourite

baits being pups cr monkey meat), night har-

pooning, noose trapping, removal from burrows

and simple netting. One such hunter is old

‘“‘Muthalay Peter’? of Batticoloa. He was active

back in the days of legalized skin dealing and

at one time had 20 hunters working for him.

Now he only kills the occasional crocodile which

the Government Agent deems a nuisance cro-

codile in an inhabited area. Other important

negative influences are the continued clearance

of forest cover around tanks (which is so de-

vastating to the land and all wildlife), and

other large scale projects of ‘‘development’’.

Having identified the factors responsible for

the decline of crocodiles and having acknow-

ledged their value and usefulness it remains for

these reptiles to be publicized and protected.

Sri Lanka has much natural wealth to be proud

of, not the least of which are its impressive

crocodiles.

Based on observations, interviews and estimated

carrying capacity of the areas surveyed the follow-

ing estimates do not include first year hatchlings,

numbers of which show great fluctuations due to

high mortality

erEs: SS LETTE LY, TEST

Females

C. palustris

Ruhunu National Park

(and periphery) 1000 100

Wilpattu. National Park 800 WS

North and North-Central 500 50

Rest of Country 500 50

Total 2800 275

C. porosus

South-west coast 250 Paps)

Rest of country 125 15

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

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PRELIMINARY CROCODILE SURVEY —SRI LANKA

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Wildlife and Nature

Protection Society, Ceylon and Madras Snake

Park Trust for funding this survey. Several Dis-

trict Representatives of Wildlife and Nature

Protection Society were extremely helpful. The

Wildlife Department was most helpful and co-

operative. Thanks to Mr. and Mrs. Ranil Sena-

nayake for their help and hospitality. We are

also grateful for the help received by Ernest

Wedanda who accompanied us for part of the

survey and carried out independent survey

work for us. Dr. P. H. D. H. de Silva helped

with a bibliography of Crocodile references.

REFERENCES

BAKER, S. W. (1855):

London.

BALDAEUS, P. (1671): A description of the Em-

pire of Ceylon.

Eight years in Ceylon.

Cave, H. W. (1900): Ruined cities of Ceylon.

London.

CLarK, A. (1901): Sport in the low Country of

Ceylon. Colombo.

Cott, H. B. (1961): Scientific results of an in-

quiry into the ecology and economy status of the

Nile Crocodile (Crocodilus nilotica) in Uganda

and Northern Rhodesia. Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond.

DOT NES:

Davy, J. (1821): An account of Ceylon. London.

DERANIYAGALA, P. E. P. (1930): Crocodiles of

Ceylon. Spolia Zevlanica Vol. XVI.

(1939): Tetrapod Reptiles of Cey-

lon. Colombo Museum.

FALCK (1767): Travels in Ceylon.

FERGUSON, W. (1877): Reptile Fauna. Ceylon,

Govt. Printers, Colombo.

FitrKau, E. J. (1970): Role of Caimans in the

Nutrient Regime of mouth-lakes of Amazon Afflu-

ents. Biotropica 2(2).

(1973): Crocodiles and the nutri-

ent metabolism of Amazonian waters. Amazoniana

4 (1): 103-133.

HENNESSY, D. J. G. (1949): Green Aisles. Co-

lombo.

Heypr, J.. W. (1744):

Govt. (reprint 1952).

SOMANADER, S. V.

dile. Loris, Vol. 12.

SPITTEL, R. L. (1924): Wild Ceylon.

STorREY, H. (1907): Hunting and Shooting in

Ceylon. Longmans, London.

TENNENT, J. E. (1859):

London.

Warp, H. (1859): In: R. L. Bothier’s Ancient

Irrigation works in Ceylon. Govt. Press, Ceylon.

Heydt’s Ceylon. Ceylon

(1941): The Swamp Croco-

Ceylon. Longmans,

A PROVISIONAL, ANNOTATED CHECK-LIST OF THE

FRESHWATER FISHES OF IRAN’

BRIAN W. Coab?

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this paper is to provide a

list of Iranian freshwater fishes in order to

facilitate further studies on this fauna by in-

terested students. Its provisional nature is

occasioned by the poor state of present know-

ledge on the systematics of Iranian fishes.

Many species are still known only from their

original, brief descriptions, based on a few

specimens, and published in a_ variety of

journals and books, some of which are not

readily available, particularly. to local ichth-

yologists. There appears to be much synony-

my in these descriptions and wherever pos-

sible the validity of species is commented on.

Several drainages cross the borders of Iran

and have either their headwaters or lower

reaches in Iran. In addition certain rivers

form the border of Iran. Some fishes record-

ed from these drainages are included in the

check-list but this cannot be an exhaustive

listing because distributional data within river

systems is scanty or absent and headwaters

in Iran cannot be assumed to have the same

species as the main river in its lower reaches.

The principal border drainages of Iran are

the lower Araks or Araxes River in north-

1 Accepted. May 1978.

2Department of Biology, Pahlavi University,

Shiraz, Iran. Present address: Ichthyology Section,

National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa,

Ontario, Canada K1A OM8.

west Iran on the border of the Azerbaijan

SSR and the Armenian SSR (but not Lake

Sevan): the upper reaches of the Tigris

River tributaries, principally the Diyala

and Lesser Zab Rivers, on the Iraq

border; the lower Shatt-el-Arab (confluence

of the lower Tigris and Euphrates River form-

ing part of the Iraq-Iran border); the Mash-

kel, Nihing, Nahang and Tahlab Rivers which

cross or form part of the border between

Iranian and Pakistani Baluchistan; the rivers

which flow from Afghanistan into the Seistan

endorheic drainage basin which lies partly in

Iran, principally the Helmand River but also

the Shelagh, Dor, Khash, Khouspas, Farah

and Herat Rivers; the Hari and Tedzhen

Rivers forming part of the north-eastern

borders of Iran with Afghanistan and the

Turkmen SSR (or Turkmenistan); and the

Atrek River forming part of the northern

border of Iran with the Turkmen SSR, east

“of the Caspian Sea.

The Caspian Sea is treated here as fresh-

water although its salinity is about 1.2-1.3%.

(Zenkevitch 1963). Several species are record-

ed by Berg (1949a) from the northern part

of the Caspian Sea and its tributaries but these

are not included here.

Certain marine fishes from the Persian

Gulf and Sea of Oman are known to enter

freshwater in other parts of their range but

the majority of these are not listed here in

the absence of definite records. A check-list

FRESHWATER FISHES OF IRAN

of Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman fishes is in

preparation.

The arrangement of orders and families

follows Nelson (1976), a recent, summary

review of fish classification. Species are listed

alphabetically under each family.

Check-list

CLASS 1. CEPHALASPIDOMORPHI

ORDER 1. Petromyzoniformes

FAMILY 1. PETROMYZONIDAE

1. Caspiomyzon wagneri (Kessler, 1870),

Endemic to the Caspian Sea and its tri-

butaries (Berg 1949a).

CLASS 2. CHONDRICHTHYES

ORDER 2. Lamniformes

FAMILY 2. CARCHARHINIDAE

A shark has been recorded as entering the

Shatt-el-Arab and the Karun River as far as

Ahwaz (Hunt 1951). Its identity has not been

confirmed but Khalaf (1961) and Mahdi (no

date) list Carcharhinus gangeticus (Muller

and Henle, 1841) and C. lamia (Blainville,

1820) from the Tigris River at Baghdad and °

C. menisorrah (Muller and Henle, 1841) from

the Shatt-el-Arab and the Tigris River. The

specific validity of some of these large sharks

is disputed (Kuronuma and Abe 1972). »

CLASS 3. OSTEICHTHYES

ORDER 3. Acipenseriformes

FAMILY 3. AcCIPENSERIDAE

1. Acipenser giildenstidti Brandt, 1833.

South Caspian Sea and tributary rivers

(Berg 1948).

2. Acipenser nudiventris WLovetzky, 1828.

Sefid River and Caspian Sea (Berg 1948).

3. Acipenser persicus Borodin, 1897. South

Caspian Sea and tributary rivers. Re-

garded as a subspecies of a A. giildens-

tddti by some authors (e.g. Berg 1948)

but as a_ distinct species by Borodin

(1926).

Acipenser stellatus Pallas, 1771. Setid

River and South Caspian Sea as A. s.

stellatus natio cyrensis Berg, 1932 (Berg

1948).

Huso huso (Linnaeus, 1758). Sefid River,

Atrek River, Gorgan and Caspian Sea

(Berg 1948). H. h. caspicus Babushkin,

1942 is the subspecies of Caspian drain-

ages (Ladiges 1964).

ORDER 4. Clupeiformes

FAMILY 4. CLUPEIDAE

Alosa -brashnikovi (Borodin, 1904).

South Caspian Sea with eight subspecies

listed by Berg (1948) and Svetovidov

(1945b; 1952) as agrachanica (Mikhay-

lovsky, 1941), autumnalis (Berg, 1915),

brashnikovi (Borodin, 1904), grimmi

(Borodin, 1904), kisselewitschi (Bulga-

kov, 1926). wnirchi (Morosov, 1928),

orientalis (Mikhaylovsky, 1941) and

sarensis (Mikhaylovsky, 1941).

. Alosa caspia (Eichwald, 1838). A. c. cas-

pia (Eichwald, 1838) is found through-

out the Caspran Sea, A. c. knipowitschi

Ijin, 1927) is found in the southwestern

Caspian Sea with natio knipowitschi

(Iljin, 1927) in Iranian waters and natio

saraica (Berg, 1948) near the north-

western border of Iran at Astara, and

A. c. persica (Ijin, 1927) is found in

the southeastern Caspian Sea.

. Alosa curensis (Suvorov, 1904). Caspian

Sea near the mouth of the Kura River,

close to Iranian waters (Berg 1948).

May be a synonym of A. brashnikovi

(Svetovidov 1945b; 1952).

. Alosa kessleri

. Alosa

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

(Grimm, 1887). South

Caspian Sea in winter as A. k. kessleri

(Grimm, 1887) and A. k._ volgensis

(Berg, 1913) (Svetovidov 1952).

saposhnikovii (Grimm, 1887).

South Caspian Sea in cold winters (Berg

1948; Svetovidov 1952).

. Clupeonella delicatula (Nordmann, 1840).

South Caspian Sea (Berg 1948) as C. d.

caspia Svetovidov, 1945 (Svetovidov

1945a; 1952).

Clupeonella engrauliformis (Borodin,

1904). South Caspian Sea (Berg 1948;

Svetovidov 1952).

. Clupeonella grimmi Kessler, 1877. South

Caspian Sea Svetovidov

1952).

Hisla ilisha (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822).

Recorded from the Tigris River at Bagh-

dad, Euphrates River and Shatt-el-Arab

(Khalaf 1961; Mahdi, no date).

(Berg 1948;

ORDER 5. Salmoniformes

FAMILY 5. ESocIDAE

Esox lucius Linnaeus, 1758. Caspian Sea

and tributaries (Berg 1948). This sport

fish is being transplanted outside its na-

tural distribution by the Department of

the Environment.

FAMILY 6. SALMONIDAE

It.

. Salmo trutta Linnaeus, 1758.

Salmo gairdneri Richardson, 1836. Cas-

pian Sea coast and tributaries and other

suitable localities throughout Iran. An in-

troduced sport fish being actively trans-

planted by the Department of the En-

vironment.

Reported

Sea tributaries, Lake

Reza’iyeh basin, Azerbaijan, and _ the

Karadj River in the Darya-e-Nemak

basin. S. t. caspius Kessler, 1877 is the

from Caspian

subspecies from the Sefid River, Mazan-

deran and Azerbaijan rivers (Berg 1948).

S. t. macrostigma (Dumeril, 1858) (in

Berg 1948; 1949b) is found near Tehran

from the Karadj River. A population

differing from the European brown trout

is found in the Lighvanchai River of the

Lake Reza’iyeh basin. Its specific or sub-

specific status is not known.

ORDER 6. Cypriniformes

FAMILY 7. CypriNipar

. Acanthalburnus

. Alburnoides bipunctatus (Bloch,

Abramis brama (Linnaeus, 1758). As

A. hb. orientalis Berg, 1949 from south

Caspian Sea rivers (Berg 1949a).

. Abramis sapa (Pallas, 1811). As A. s.

bergi Belyaev, 1929 from south and cen-

tral Caspian Sea entering all rivers (Berg

1949a).

. Acanthobrama centisquama Heckel, 1843.

~Traq (Mahdi and Georg 1969), not re-

ported from Iran.

Acanthobrama marmid Heckel, 1843.

Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Synonyms

are A. arrhada Heckel, 1843 and A.

cupida Heckel, 1843 (Berg 1949b; Ladi-

ges 1960). Not reported from Iran.

microlepis (Filippi,

1863). Araxes River basin. A. punctula-

tus (Kessler, 1877) is a synonym (Berg

1949a).

1782).

As A. b. eichwaldi (Filippi, 1863) from

south Caspian Sea rivers, Karadj River

and Lake Reza’iyeh basin (Berg 1949b).

Also reported from the Anatolian Euph-

rates River drainage (Kosswig 1955).

. Alburnoides urmianus (Gunther, 1899).

Basin of Lake Reza’iyeh (Gunther

1899).

Alburnoides n. sp.? (Coad, MS). Pulvar

River drainage, Fars.

10.

13.

14.

16.

lie

FRESHWATER FISHES OF IRAN

Alburnus atropatenae Berg, 1925. Lake

Rezaiyeh basin (Berg 1925; Vladykov

1964).

Alburnus caeruleus Heckel, 1843. Sarche-

nar stream, Hor Abou-Nedjin, Iraq. Not

reported from Iran (Misra 1947; Khalaf

1961; Mahdi and Georg 1969).

Alburnus caudimacula Heckel, 1846.

Kara-Agatsch (=Mand) River in Fars

(Ladiges 1960).

. Alburnus charusini WHerzenstein, 1889.

Reported from the Araxes’ River by

Berg (1949a) as A. c. hohenackeri Kess-

ler, 1877 and from the Sefid River as A.

c. h. natio persicus Petrov, 1926. Albur-

nus pseudospirlinus Petrov, 1926 is a

hybrid between the latter and Alburnoi-

des bipunctatus eichwaldi (Filippi) (Berg

1949a).

Alburnus doriae Filippi, 1862. Described

from Shiraz (Berg 1949b).

Alburnus filippi Kessler, 1877. Sefid River

and Lake Reza@iyeh basin (Gunther

1899; Berg 1949a).

Alburnus iblis Heckel, 1846. ‘‘Araxes

River’ or neighbourhood of Persepolis

(Heckel 1846). This is not the Araxes

River on the USSR border but the Kor

River, Fars. May be a synonym of Chal-

calburnus mossulensis (Heckel, 1843)

(Berg 1949b).

Alburnus maculatus Keyserling, 1861.

Neighbourhood of Isfahan (Keyserling

1861). Berg (1949b) considers that it

is possibly identical with Alburnus do-

riae. Alburnus maculatus Kessler, 1859

is a senior homonym, placed in the syno-

nymy of Alburnoides bipunctatus fasci-

atus (Nordmann, 1840) by Berg (1949a).

Alburnus megacephalus Heckel, 1846.

Araxes River (=Kor River in Fars)

(Heckel 1846). May be a synonym of

18.

20.

2h,

22s

INO

24.

25!

26°:

Chalcalburnus mossulensis (Heckel,

1843) (Berg 1949b).

Alburnus orontis Sauvage, 1884. Report-

ed from Iraq (Mahdi and Georg 1969)

and Caspian Sea drainages of Iran (Ar-

mantrout 1969).

Alburnus pallidus Heckel, 1843. Record-

ed from Iraq (Mahdi and Georg 1969).

Not reported from fran.

Alburnus schejtan Heckel, 1846. Araxes

River (=Kor River in Fars) and Tigris

River (Heckel 1846; Misra 1947). May

be a synonym of Chalcalburnus mossu-

lensis (Heckel, 1843) (Misra 1947; Berg

1949b).

Alburnus striatus Petrov, 1926. Kizil-

agach and Astrabad bays, Caspian Sea.

Very close to Alburnus charusini hohena-

ckeri Kessler (Berg 1949a).

Aspidoparia morar (Hamilton-Buchanan,

1822). Eastern Iran, Mashkel River

drainage (Mirza 1975).

. Aspius aspius (Linnaeus, 1758). South

Caspian Sea rivers as_ A. a. taeniatus

Eichwald, 1831 (Berg 1949a; Svetovidov

1945b).

Aspius vorax Heckel, 1843. Tigris and

Euphrates Rivers (Khalaf 1961; Ladiges

1960) and upper reaches of Karkheh

River system in Iran (Armantrout 1969).

Barbus belayewi Menon, 1956. Tigris

River, not reported from Iran (Khalaf

1961).

Barbus brachycephalus Kessler, 1872. As

B. brachycephalus caspius Berg, 1914

from south Caspian Sea rivers (Berg

1949a).

Barbus capito (Giildenstadt, 1773). As

B. c. capito (Gildenstadt, 1773) in south

Caspian Sea rivers, both resident and

anadromous (Berg 1949a), probably also

Tigris-Euphrates system (Karaman 1971).

28.

jas)

3h),

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Synonyms include Cyprinus bulatmai

Hablizl, 1783, Cyprinus chalybatus Pal-

las, 1811, Barbus bilkewitschi Bulgakov,

1923, B. capito serratus Solinskii, 1927,

B. conocephalus Kessler, 1872 and B.

lacertoides Kessler, 1872 (Karaman

1971). The subspecies B. c. pectoralis

Heckel, 1843 has B. kersin Heckel, 1843

aS a synonym (Karaman 1971) and the

latter is recorded from Tigris River tri-

butaries by Khalaf (1961). Berg (1949b)

regards B. kersin as a distinct species.

Barbus esocinus (Heckel, 1843). Tigris

and Euphrates Rivers, mainly upstream in

Iraq (Khalaf 1961) and the Diyala River

(Mahdi, no date). Not reported from

Iran. Labeobarbus euphrati Sauvage,

1882 is a synonym (Karaman 1971).

Barbus mursa (Giuldenstadt, 1773). Ka-

raman (1971) divides this species into

two subspecies, B. m. mursa (Gilden-

stadt, 1773) from the Sefid and Araxes

Rivers (Berg 1949a) and B. m. miliaris

Filippi, 1862 from a Tehran spring and

Karadj River system (Vladykov 1964).

B. mursoides Kessler, 1877, B. miliaris

Filippi, 1862 and B. kessleri Derjavin,

1929 are synonyms. Berg (1949b) syno-

nymises B. kessleri with B. miliaris which

is regarded as a valid species.

Barbus plebejus Bonaparte, 1832. Kara-

man (1971) lists fourteen subspecies in-

cluding B. p. lacerta Heckel, 1843 from

the Araxes River, south Caspian Sea

rivers and Tigris-Euphrates system. Sy-

nonyms include Barbus lacerta Heckel,

1843, B. scincus Heckel, 1843, B. cyri

Filippi, 1865, B. caucasicus Kessler,

1877, B. toporovanicus Kamenskii, 1899,

B. bortschalinicus Kamenskii, 1899, B.

sursunicus Kamenskii, 1899, B. armeni-

cus Kamenskii, 1899, and B. angustatus

Sul.

335

34.

BD):

Kamenskii, 1899. Additional records for

this species based on synonymised spe-

cies include the Karun River, Lake

Reza’iyeh basin and the upper reaches

of the Tigris River on the Iranian border

(Gunther 1899; Berg 1949b; Vladykov |

1964; Armantrout 1969). Berg (1949a;

1949b) considered B. lacerta to be a valid

species, divided into B. 1. cyri Filippi,

1865 with B. caucasicus, B. toporovani-

cus, B. bortschalinicus, B. sursunicus, B.

armenicus, and B. angustatus as synony-

ms, and B. I. lacerta Heckel, 1843 with

B. scincus as a synonym.

Barbus rajanorum Heckel, 1843. Kara-

man (1971) cites two subspecies with B.

‘ r. mystaceus Heckel, 1843 reported from

the Karun River and upper reaches of

the Karkheh River system (Armantrout

1969). Luciobarbus schejch Heckel, 1843

is a synonym (Berg 1949b; Karaman

1971). Barbus barbulus Heckel, 1846 is

synonymised with the type subspecies by

Karaman (1971) but recognised as a dis-

tinct species by Berg (1949b). It is found

in the Kara-Agatsch (=Mand) and Tig-

ris Rivers. Luciobarbus mystaceus Hec-

kel, 1843 is placed in B. rajanorum by

Berg (1949b) but in B. xanthopterus

(Heckel, 1843) by Misra (1947).

Barbus xanthopterus (Heckel, 1843).

Shatt-el-Arab, Tigris, Buphrates, Karun

and Karkheh Rivers (Khalaf 1961; Ka-

raman 1971; Svetovidov 1949).

Barilius mesopotamicus Berg, 1932. Tig-

ris River basin in Iran at 33° 20’N, 46°

20’E and 33° 42’N (Berg 1932; 1949b).

Bertinius longiceps (Valenciennes, 1842).

As B. I. persicus Karaman, 1971 in the

Karun River (Karaman 1971).

Bertinius subquincunciatus (Gunther,

1868). Tigris-Euphrates system and Kar-

36:

38.

39);

FRESHWATER FISHES OF IRAN

kheh River system in Iran (Karaman

IEA):

Blicca bjoerkna (Linnaeus, 1758). As B.

bjoerkna transcaucasica Berg, 1916 in

south Caspian Sea rivers (Berg 1949a).

. Capoeta barroisi (Lortet, 1894). As C. 6.

persica Karaman, 1969 from 120 Km.

west of Sanandaj (Karaman 1969).

Capoeta buhsei Kessler, 1877. Tehran (?

Karadj River system), Lake Reza’iyeh

basin and the Sefid River (Vladykov

1964; Armantrout 1969; Karaman 1969).

Varicorhinus nikolskii Derjavin, 1929 is

a synonym (Karaman 1969).

Capoeta capoeta (Gildenstadt, 1773).

Karaman (1969) describes eleven sub-

species including C. c. aculeatus (Valen-

ciennes, 1844) from Tehran (probably

the Karadj River system) (synonym

Varicorhinus bergi Derjavin, 1929 from

the Karadj River system), C. c. capoeta

(Guldenstadt, 1773) from the Araxes

River, C. c. damascinus (Valenciennes,

1842) from the upper Euphrates River

in Iraq, C. c. gracilis (Keyserling, 1861)

from south Caspian Sea rivers, Lake

Reza’iyeh basin and vicinity of Isfahan

(Gunther 1899; Berg 1949a; 1949b; Sve-

tovidov 1949) (synonym C. gibbosa

Nikolsky, 1897 from eastern Iran and

southeast Khorassan (Berg 1949b; Ar-

mantrout 1969), C. c. heratensis (Key-

serling, 1861) from the Tedzhen River

[synonyms Scaphiodon asmussi Keyserl-

ing, 1861 from the Hari River and C.

steindachneri Kessler, 1872 from N. W.

Afghanistan), C. c. macrolepis (Heckel,

1846) from Shiraz, Persepolis, Isfahan

and upper Karkheh River drainages

(Armantrout 1969) (synonyms Scaphio-

don chebisiensis Keyserling, 1861 from

Kerman and Shiraz (Tortonese 1934)

40.

41.

42.

43.

44,

45.

and Scaphiodon rostratus Keyserling,

1861 from Yazd], and C. c. umbla (Hec-

kel, 1843) from the upper Tigris-Euphra-

tes system [synonyms possibly Scaphio-

don amir Heckel, 1846 from Shiraz and

Kerman (Nikolsky 1899), Scaphiodon

niger Heckel, 1846 from Shiraz, and

Scaphiodon saadii Heckel, 1846 from Per-

sepolis and Shiraz (Heckel 1846) ].

Capoeta fusca Nikolsky, 1897. Kerman,

southern Khorassan. C. nudiventris Ni-

kolsky, 1897 is a synonym (Karaman

1969).

Capoeta trutta (Heckel, 1843). Tigris,

Karun, and Karkheh River systems (Ka-

raman 1969).

Carasobarbus luteus (Heckel, 1843).

Tigris, Euphrates, Diyala, Karun, and

Karkheh River basins, Shiraz, Kara-Aga-

tsch (=Mand) River, Lake Famur (Ka-

raman 1971; personal collections). Synon-

yms include Systomus albus Heckel,

1843, Barynotus luteus Gunther, 1874

and Systomus luteus Heckel, 1843.

Carassius auratus (Linnaeus, 1758). In-

troduced species, found throughout Iran.

Chalcalburnus chalcoides (Giuldenstadt,

1772). As C. chalcoides iranicus Svetovi-

dov, 1945 reported from the Caspian Sea,

entering Iranian’ rivers (Svetovidov

1945a).

Chalcalburnus

1843). Found in

mossulensis (Heckel,

south Caspian Sea

‘rivers(?), the Tigris-Euphrates drainage

including the Kurdistan region of Iran

and the Diyala River, and drainages of

Fars (Berg 1949b; Armantrout 1969; per-

sonal collections). Synonyms are A/bur-

nus capito Heckel, 1843 and Leuciscus

maxillaris Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1844

and possibly Alburnus iblis Heckel, 1846,

A. megacephalus Heckel, 1846 and

46.

47.

48.

49.

30).

Sil

528

3).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

A. schejtan Heckel, 1846 (Berg 1949b).

Chalcalburnus sellal (Heckel, 1843). Re-

ported from the Kura(?) and Euphrates

River drainages (Ladiges 1960). Not re-

corded from Iran. Synonyms are Albur-

nus microlepis Heckel, 1843 and Albur-

nus hebes Heckel, 1843 (Berg 1949b).

Chondrostoma cyri Kessler, 1877. Araxes

River where also recorded as C. cyri lep-

tosoma Berg, 1914 (Berg 1949a).

Chondrostoma nasus (Linnaeus, 1758).

Reported from Irag by Mahdi and Georg

(1969). Not recorded from Iran.

Chondrostoma regium (Heckel, 1843).

Tigris and Euprates Rivers, Diyala River,

upper reaches of Karkheh River in Iran

(Berg 1949b; Mahdi, no date; Arman-

trout 1969).

Crossochilus adiscus (Annandale, 1919).

Described from Seistan (Berg 1949b).

Menon (1964) notes its close resembl-

ance to C. diplochilus (Heckel, 1838)

from Kashmir (see below). Karaman

(1971) considers it to be in the genus

Hemigarra as H. elegans adiscus Annan-

dale, 1919.

Crossochilus iatius diplochilus (Heckel,

1838). Reported from Iranian Baluchistan

and the Mashkel River drainage as well

aS Kashmir (Berg 1949b; Mirza 1972;

1974).

Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes,

1844). Introduced to Pahlavi Mordab,

Iran, survived at least until 1967 but not

reproducing (Armantrout 1969).

Cyprinion macrostomus Heckel, 1843.

Tigris, Diyala and Karun River basins

(Berg 1949b). Karaman (1971) divides

this species into two subspecies C. m. ma-

crostomus Heckel, 1843 from the upper

Tigris River system and C. m. tenuiradius

Heckel, 1846 from the Karun River, Shi-

54.

56).

Oil

raz (Kor and Mand Rivers) and lower

Tigris-Euphrates River systems. Syno-

nyms are Cyprinion cypris Heckel, 1843,

C. kais Heckel, 1843, C. neglectus Hec-

kel, 1846 and C. tenuiradius Heckel, 1846.

Berg (1949b) retains C. tenuiradius as

a distinct species.

Cyprinion watsoni (Day, 1872). Karaman

(1971) includes the following synonyms

from Iranian waters—Scaphiodon irregu-

laris Day, 1872, Barbus milesi Day, 1880,

Scaphiodon microphthalmum Day, 1880,

Cirrhina afghana Gunther, 1889, Barbus

bampurensis Nikolsky, 1899, Cyprinion

kirmanensis Nikolsky, 1899, Scaphiodon

macmahoni Regan, 1906, S. baluchiorum

Jenkins, 1910, S. daukesi Zugmayer, 1912,

S. watsoni var. belensis Zugmayer, 1912,

and Barbus baschakirdi Holly, 1929.

Based on these species distribution in-

cludes Seistan, Iranian Baluchistan, Ker-

man, the Baschakird mountains in south-

ern Iran, the Mashkel and Nihing River

drainages, and the(?) Tedzhen and (?)

Hari River drainages. Berg (1949b) re-

tains Cyprinion irregularis (Day, 1872),

C. microphthalmum (Day, 1880) and C.

milesi (Day, 1880) as distinct species.

Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, 1758. South

Caspian Sea rivers (Berg 1949a).

Garra rossica (Nikolsky, 1900). Iranian

Baluchistan, Seistan, Kerman, and Ted-

zhen River (Berg 1949b; Karaman 1971).

Discognathus phryne Annandale, 1919 is

a synonym (Menon 1964) as is Discog-

nathichthys rossicus (Nikolsky, 1900).

Garra rufa (Heckel, 1843). Menon

(1964) records G. r. obtusa (Heckel,

1843) from the Karun and Karkheh

River drainages, Kurdistan, Tigris and

Diyala Rivers, Mand River in Fars, and

the Bampur River in Baluchistan. Syno-

Ne,

59%

60.

61.

O2:

OS:

64.

FRESHWATER FISHES OF IRAN

nyms include Discognathus obtusus Hec-

kel, 1843, D. crenulatus Heckel, 1843 and

Garra persica Berg, 1913.

Garra variabilis (Heckel, 1843). Tigris-

Euphrates River systems and Karasu

River (?Iran) (Khalaf 1961; Menon

1964; Karaman 1971). Discognathichthys

variabilis (Heckel, 1843) is a synonym.

Gobio gobio (Linnaeus, 1758). G. g. lepi-

dolaemus Kessler, 1872 is reported from

the Tedzhen River and the synonym Bun-

gia nigrescens Keyserling, 1861 from the

Hari River (Berg 1949a; Keyserling

1861).

Gobio persa Gunther, 1899. Lake Reza-

‘tyeh and Araxes River basins (Berg

1949a).

Hemigarra elegans (Gunther, 1868). Ka-

raman (1971) divides this species into

two subspecies, H. e. elegans (Gunther,

1868) from Mesopotamia and ? Euphrates

River drainages and H. e. adiscus Annan-

dale, 1919 from Seistan. Discognathus

adiscus is regarded as a synonym. This

species was originally described as Tylog-

nathus elegans and is found in _ ‘Tigris,

Euphrates and Diyala Rivers (Mahdi, no

date).

Hemigrammocapoeta nanus (Heckel,

1843). As H. n. nanus (Heckel, 1843)

from Iran (Karaman 1971).

Iranocypris typhlops Bruun and Kaiser,

1950. Restricted to a natural well con-

nected with a subterranean water supply

at Kaaje-Ru, near the oasis of Baq-e-

Loveh in the Zagros Mountains (Bruun

and Kaiser 1950; Greenwood 1976).

Labeo dero (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822).

Mashkel River drainage in Pakistani

Baluchistan (Mirza 1972). Not reported

from Iran. Labeo diplostomus (Heckel,

1838) is a synonym (Mirza 1972). Berg

66.

63.

69.

10).

71.

12,

1B.

74.

1D:

. Labeo

(1949b) regards it as a distinct species,

Tylognathus diplostomus.

geodrosicus Zugmayer, 1912.

Mashkel River drainage in Pakistani Ba-

luchistan (Zugmayer 1912; Mirza 1972).

Not reported from Iran. Piaced in the

genus Tylognathus by Berg (1949b).

Labeo macmahoni Zugmayer, 1912.

Dasht River in Pakistani Baluchistan,

close to the Iranian border (Zugmayer

1912; Mirza 1972). Not reported from

Iran.

Leuciscus berak (Heckel, 1843). Iraq

(Mahdi and Georg 1969). Not reported

from Iran.

Leuciscus cephalus (Linnaeus, 1758). L.

c. orientalis Nordmann, 1840 is found in

south Caspian Sea rivers, the Lake Reza-

"iyeh basin, and Karadj River (Berg

1949a). Khaiaf (1961) and Berg (1949b)

report it-from Tigris River tributaries.

Leuciscus gaderanus Gunther, 1899. Lake

Reza’iyeh basin (Gunther 1899).

Leuciscus latus (Keyserling, 1861). Ted-

zhen and Hari Rivers (Berg 1949a; Key-

setling 1861).

Leuciscus lepidus (Heckel, 1843). Tigris

River, Karkheh River drainage and Sefid

River (Berg 1949b; Armantrout 1969).

Leuciscus spurius (Heckel, 1843). Iraq

(Mahdi and Georg 1969). Not reported

from Iran.

Leuciscus ulanus Gunther, 1899. Lake

Reza iyeh basin (Gunther 1899).

Leuciscus zeregi (Heckel, 1843). Iraq

(Mahdi and Georg 1969; Mahdi, no

date). Not reported from Iran.

Mesopotamichthys sharpeyi (Gunther,

1874). Karaman (1971) cites two sub-

species M. s. sharpeyi (Gunther, 1874)

from the upper Tigris River system and

M. s. faoensis (Gunther, 1895) from the

TG:

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85;

86.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

lower Tigris River and probably Euph-

rates River. Not reported from Iran.

Pelecus cultratus (Linnaeus, 1758). Rare

in the Sefid River (Berg 1949a).

Rhodeus sericeus (Pallas, 1776). As R.

s. amarus (Bloch, 1782) reported from

south Caspian Sea rivers by Berg (1949a).

Rutilus fristi (Nordmann, 1840). As R.

f. kutum Kamenskii, 1901 in south Cas-

pian Sea rivers (Berg 1949a).

Rutilus rutilus (Linnaeus, 1758). As R.

r. caspicus Yakovlev, 1870 with natio

kurensis Berg, 1932 in the southwestern

Caspian Sea entering rivers and natio

knipowitschi Pravdin, 1927 in the south-

eastern Caspian Sea entering rivers. R.

r. schelkovnikovi Derjavin, 1926 is re-

ported from Araxes River tributaries in

Armenia (Zangu and Qarasu_ Rivers)

close to Iran (Berg 1949a).

Scardinius erythrophthalmus (Linnaeus,

1758). South Caspian Sea coast (Berg

1949a).

Schizocypris brucei Regan, 1914. Seistan

(Annandale and Hora 1920; Berg 1949b).

Schizopygopsis stoliczkai Steindachner,

1866. Helmand River delta in Seistan

(Regan 1906; Vijayalakshmanan 1950).

Schizothorax anjac (Fowler and Steiniiz,

1956). Seistan (Fowler and Steinitz 1956).

Schizothorax pelzami Kessler, 1870. Ted-

zhen River within Iran and the Shah

River south of Astrabad (Berg 1949a).

Schizothorax raulinsii Gunther, 1889 from

the Hari River is a synonym (Berg

1949b). S. p. iranicus Karaman, 1969 is

a subspecies from a spring in Tehran

(Karaman 1969) (? locality).

Schizothorax schumacheri Fowler and

Steinitz, 1956, Seistan (Fowler and Stei-

nitz 1956).

Schizothorax zarudnyi (Nikolsky, 1897).

87.

88.

OOF

907

. Cobitis

Seistan (Nikolsky 1897; 1899). Synonyms

are Aspiostoma zarudnyi Nikolsky, 1897

and Barbus microlepis Keyserling, 1861

(Berg 1949b).

Tinca tinca (Linnaeus, 1758). South Cas-

pian Sea rivers (Berg 1949a).

Tor canis (Valenciennes, 1842). Reported

from Iraq (Mahdi and Georg 1969). Not

recorded from Iran. Karaman (1971)

places Barbus chantrei (Sauvage, 1882)

in synonymy with Tor canis but Berg

(1949b) regards it as a distinct species.

Tor grypus (Heckel, 1843). Tigris-Euph-

rates system, Karun River (Karaman

1971) and Karkheh River (Svetovidov

1949). Labeobarbus kotschyi Heckel,

1843 is a synonym (Misra 1947; Kara-

man 1971). Berg (1949b) places this and

the previous species in Barbus.

Vimba vimba (Linnaeus, 1758). As V.

v. persa (Pallas, 1811) from the south

Caspian Sea entering rivers (Berg 1949a).

FAMILY 8. COoBITIDAE

linea (Heckel, 1846). Pulvar

River near Persepolis, Fars. Based on a

single much-damaged specimen of doubt-

ful validity.

. Cobitis taenia Linnaeus, 1758. Reported

from Caspian Sea drainages (Berg

1949a; Svetovidov 1949) and Iraq (Mah-

di and Georg 1969). Recorded from the

Kura River near the Iranian border as

C. t. satunini Abdurahmanov, 1962 (Ba-

narescu and Nalbant 1966).

. Noemachilus akhtari Vijayalakshmanan,

1960. Helmand River in Afghanistan at

Farakollum about 10 miles south of Gar-

dan Diwar. Not: recorded from Iran. Pos-

sibly N. griffithi griffithi according to Ba-

narescu and Nalbant (1966).

. Noemachilus

FRESHWATER FISHES OF IRAN

. Noemachilus angorae Steindachner, 1897.

Araxes River and possibly Lake Reza-

iyeh (Berg 1949a) and Iraq (Khalaf

1961). Subspecies N. a. bureschi Dren-

sky, 1928 from Iraq (Mahdi and Georg

1969) and upper Araxes River (Banare-

scu and Naibant 1964) and N. a. bergia-

nus Derjavin, 1934 from the Sefid River

(Banarescu and Nalbant 1966). The latter

subspecies is retained as a distinct species

in Berg (1949a). N. a. lenkoranica Ab-

durahmanov, 1962 is found in Caspian

Sea tributaries of the area south of the

Kura River, close to the Iranian border.

argyrogramma (Heckel,

1846). Reported from Iraq (Mahdi and

Georg 1969) without details of distribu-

tion. Not reported from Iran.

baluchiorum Zugmayer,

1912. Mashkel River drainage, Helmand

drainage in southern Afghanistan, and

Dasht River drainage of Pakistani Balu-

chistan, close to the Iranian border (Zug-

mayer 1912; Banarescu. and Nalbant

1966; Mirza 1972, 1974). Banarescu and

Nalbant (1966) regard it as a valid spe-

cies but Berg (1949b) places it in syno-

nymy with Noemachilus montanus (Mc-

Clelland, 1839).

. Noemachilus bampurensis Nikolsky, 1899.

Bampur River in Iranian Baluchistan

(Nikolsky 1899). Placed by Berg (1949b)

in N. montanus but regarded as a distinct

species by Banarescu and Nalbant (1966).

. Noemachilus brandti Kessler, 1877. Up-

per and middle Araxes River (Berg

1949a), Karadj River and Lake Reza-

*iyeh basin (Vladykov 1964).

boutanensis (McClelland,

1842). Helmand River in Afghanistan.

Not recorded from Iran (Banarescu and

Nalbant 1966).

10.

11.

12.

8):

14.

15:

16.

igi

18.

19%:

Noemachilus cristatus Berg, 1898. Rivers

and springs west of the Tedzhen River

in Turkmenia (Berg 1949a), Atrek River

and Hari River (Banarescu and Nalbant

1966).

Noemachilus farwelli Hora, 1934. Hel-

mand River in Afghanistan, not recorded

from Iran (Banarescu and Nalbant 1966).

Noemachilus frenatus (Heckel, 1843).

River Tigris (Khalaf 1961) as N. f.

afrenatus Battalgil, 1942 in Mahdi and

Georg (1969).

Noemachilus ghazniensis Banarescu and

Nalbant, 1966. Ghazni River tributary,

Helmand River drainage of eastern

Afghanistan. Not reported from Iran

(Banarescu and Nalbant 1966).

Noemachilus — griffithi Gunther, 1868.

Helmand River drainage as N. g. griffithi

Gunther, 1868. Not reported from Iran

(Banarescu and Nalbant 1966).

Noemachilus insignis (Heckel, 1843). As

N. i. euphraticus Banarescu and Nalbant,

1964 reported from Iraq and Anatolia in

the Tigris and Euphrates River basins

(Mahdi and Georg 1969; Banarescu and

Nalbant 1964). Not recorded from Iran.

Noemachilus kermanshahensis Banarescu

and Nalbant, 1966. From Kermanshah in

the drainage of the Karun River (Bana-

rescu and Nalbant 1966).

Noemachilus kessleri Gunther, 1889.

Eastern Iran (Berg, 1949b). the Helmand

River drainage in Afghanistan and the

Mashkel River drainage in Pakistan

(Banarescu. and Nalbant 1966; Mirza

1975).

Noemachilus longicauda (Kessler, 1872).

Tedzhen River drainage (Berg 1949a).

Noemachilus malapterurus (Cuvier and

Valenciennes, 1846). Banarescu and Nal-

bant (1964) cite three subspecies, N. m.

20.

Die

Mae

23%.

24.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

malapterurus (Cuvier and Valenciennes,

1846) from the Tigris-Euphrates basin,

N. m. macmahoni Chaudhuri, 1909 from

the Helmand River delta in Seistan and

Caspian Sea drainages such as the Sefid

and Atrek Rivers, as well as the Lake

Reza’iyeh basin, and N. m. longicauda

(Kessler, 1872) from the Amu-Darya

basin. Specimens from the Tedzhen River

are placed in N. m. longicauda by Berg

(1949a), in N. m. malapterurus by Nikol-

sky (1947) or in N. m. macmahoni by

Banarescu and Nalbant (1964). Bana-

rescu and Nalbant (1966) revise their

earlier synonymy of Noemachilus (or

Adiposia) macmahoni Chaudhuri, 1909

with N. malapierurus and place N. mac-

mahoni in N. rhadineus Regan, 1906 and

N. m. longicauda is listed as a distinct

species.

Noemachilus merga (Krynicki, 1840).

Terek, Sunzina, Sulak, Shura-ozen’ and

Samur River basins (Berg 1949a) north

of Iran on the Caspian Sea west coast.

Armantrout (1969) lists it from Iran.

Noemachilus panthera Heckel, 1843. Re-

corded from the Euphrates River in Iraq

but not reported from iran (Banarescu

and Nalbant 1964; Mahdi and Georg

1969):

Noemachilus persa (Heckel, 1846). Lake

Reza’iych drainage, Kor River drainage

and Araxes River drainage (Banarescu

and Nalbant 1966).

Noemachilus prashari Hora, 1933. Re-

ported from the Mashkel River drainage

as N. p. lindbergi Banarescu and Mirza,

1965 (Mirza 1972, 1975) and from a

tributary of the Farah River in Afghani-

stan which drains into Iranian Seistan

(Banarescu and Mirza 1965).

Noemachilus rhadineus Regan, 1906. At- —

25%

26.

28.

AS)

. Sabanejewia aurata (Filippi, 1865).

rck and Sefid Rivers, Abkhar River in

central Iran, Helmand River delta, Ted-

Zhen River, probably most of Iran (Ba-

narescu and Nalbant 1966).

Noemachilus sargadensis Nikolsky, 1899.

Banarescu and Nalbant (1966) divide this

species into three subspecies, N. s. sarga-

densis Nikolsky, 1899 from the Sargad

River, Kerman, N. s. paludani Banarescu

and Naibant, 1966 from the Kabul River

drainage in Arghanistan (not recorded

from iran), and WN. s. turcmenicus Berg,

1932 from Turkmenistan near the Iranian

border.

Noemachilus smithi Greenwood, 1976.

Restricted to a natural well connected

with a subterranean water supply at

Kaaje-Ru, near the oasis of Baq-e-Loveh

in the Zagros Mountains (Greenwood

1976).

. Noemachilus stoliczkai — (Steindachner,

1866). Reported from the Seistan endor-

heic drainage basin as N. s. tenuis Day,

1876 (Annandale and Hora 1920). Bana-

rescu and Nalbant (1966) regard N. ten-

uis aS a distinct species. N. stenurus Her-

zenstein, 1888 is a synonym (Berg 1949a).

Noemachiius tenuis Day, 1876. Helmand

River drainage in Seistan (Banarescu and

Nalbant 1966).

Noemachilus tigris (Heckel, 1843). N. tf.

tigris (Heckel, 1843) is reported from

the Tigris River basin including the Ka-

run River in Iran (Berg 1949b) but Ba-

narescu and Nalbant (1966) consider

Berg’s figure to be untypical.

S. a. aurata (Filippi, 1865) recorded from

the Sefid and Tedzhen Rivers, the lower

Euphrates River and presumably cvery-

where in western Iran (Banarescu and

Nalbant 1966). Cobitis hohenackeri Kes-

Sle

. Glyptothorax cous

. Glyptothorax armeniacus

FRESHWATER FISHES OF IRAN

sler, 1877 is a synonym (Berg 1949a).

Sabanejewia caspia (Eichwald, 1838).

South Caspian Sea drainage basin in

brackish and fresh water (Berg 1949a;

Banarescu and Nalbant 1966).

ORDER 7. Siluriformes

FAMILY 9. BAGRIDAE

. Mystus pelusius (Solander, 1771). © Re-

ported from the Diyala River which has

headwaters in Iran (Khalaf 1961). My-

stus haleppensis (Cuvier and Valencien-

nes, 1839) and M. colvilli (Gunther, 1874)

are synonyms according to Khalaf (1961)

but Ladiges (1964) lists them as distinct

species. Mahdi (no date) lists Mystus

aleppensis (sic) as a synonym of M. pelu-

sius but M. colvilli is retained as a dis-

tinct species.

FAMILY. 10. SILURIDAE

. Silurus glanis Linnaeus, 1758. Basin of

Lake Reza’iyeh and Caspian Sea rivers

(Berg 1949a).

FAMILY 11. SrisormDAE

(Linnaeus, 1766).

Lesser Zab River which has its head-

waters in Iran (Khalaf 1961). No definite

record for Iran.

Glyptothorax kurdistanicus (Berg, 1931).

Iran-Iraq border in the upper Tigris

River basin at 36°N (Berg 1949b).

(Berg, 1918).

Upper reaches of the Araxes or Euph-

rates River in Turkey, 42 km S.W. of

Erzerum (the headwaters of these rivers

are very close in this area and it is not

certain which drainage the specimens

came from) (Berg 1949a.). Not record-

ed from Iran.

. Arius thalassinus

FAMILY 12. HETEROPNEUSTIDAE

. Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch, 1801). Re-

ported from the Shatt-el-Arab (Khalaf

1961 )and Tigris and Euphrates Rivers

(Mahdi, no date).

FAMILY 13. ARIDAE

(Ruppell, 1835). As-

cends Shatt-el-Arab (Khalaf 1961; Mahdi,

no date).

ORDER 8. Gadiformes

FAMILY 14. GaADIDAE

. Lota lota Linnaeus, 1758. Recorded from

the Sefid River in the Caspian Sea basin

(Berg 1949a) but Armantrout (1969)

states that reports are uncertain.

ORDER 9. Atheriniformes

FAMILY 15. CypriNoDONTIDAE

. Aphanius dispar (Ruppell, 1828). South-

ern Iran, Kerman, Baluchistan, Bampur

River, Mashkel River drainage, and coas-

tal waters of the Persian Gulf (Berg

1949b; Mirza 1975). This distribution

applies to A. d. stoliczkanus (Day, 1872)

while A. d. richardsoni (Boulenger, 1907)

is found in the Shatt-el-Arab (Berg 1949b;

Al-Daham et al. 1977).

. Aphanius ginaonis (Holly, 1929). Res-

tricted to a hot spring at Ginao near Ban-

dar Abbas in southern Iran (Holly 1929a;

Coad 1979),

. Aphanius mento (Heckel, 1843). Shatt-

el-Arab (Al-Daham ef al. 1977). Apha-

nius cypris (Heckel, 1846) is a synonym

(Berg 1949b).

. Aphanius sophiae (Heckel, 1846). Fars

and Isfahan provinces, Shatt-el-Arab (Al-

Daham et al. 1977; personal collections).

Cyprinodon blanfordii Jenkins, 1910,

. Gambusia affinis

. Atherina mochon pontica natio

. Syngnathus

. Perca_ fluviatilis Linnaeus,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

C. persicus Jenkins, 1910, C. pluristriatus

Jenkins, 1910, Lebias crystallodon Hec-

kel, 1846, and L. punctatus Heckel, 1846

are synonyms (Berg 1949b).

FAMILY 16. POECILIIDAE

(Baird and Girard,

1853). Introduced widely throughout Iran

for mosquito control (Tabibzadeh et al.

no date). G. a. holbrooki (Girard, 1859)

is found throughout Iran but G. a. affinis

(Baird and Girard, 1853) is reported

from the Caspian basin only (Armantrout

1969; Kozhin 1957).

FAMILY 17. ATHERINIDAE

caspia

Eichwald, 1831. Caspian Sea shores, in

freshwater at Lenkoran near the Iranian

border (Berg 1949a).

ORDER 10. Syngnathiformes

FAMILY 18. SYNGNATHIDAE

nigrolineatus caspius Eich-

wald, 1831. Caspian Sea, enters streams

and rivers of Iran (Berg 1949a).

ORDER 11. Gasterosteiformes

FAMILY 19. GASTEROSTEIDAE

. Pungitius platygaster (Kessler, 1859). Cas-

pian Sea and mouths of rivers flowing

into it (Berg 1949a).

ORDER 12. Perciformes

FAMILY 20. PERCIDAE

1758. Sefid

River in the Caspian Sea basin (Berg

1949a).

. Stizostedion lucioperca (Linnaeus, 1758).

Caspian Sea basin including Sefid and

Atrek Rivers (Berg 1949a).

. Stizostedion marinum (Cuvier and Val-

enciennes, 1828). Caspian Sea proper,

never entering rivers (Berg 1949a).

FAMILY 21. CICHLIDAE

An undescribed species is found in rivers

of southern Iran draining into the Per-

sian Gulf (personal collections).

FAMILY 22. MUGILIDAE

. Liza auratus (Risso, 1810). Caspian Sea,

introduced from the

1949a).

Black Sea (Berg

. Liza saliens (Risso, 1810). Caspian Sea,

introduced from the Black Sea (Berg

1949a).

. Mugil abu (Heckel, 1843). Tigris River

and tributaries (Khalaf 1961) presum-

ably including Iranian waters. M. a. zaru-

dnyi Berg, 1949 is reported from the

upper Karun River and the Kerche

(?Karkheh) River estuary (Berg 1949b;

Svetovidov 1949). Also found in Lake

Famur, Fars (personal collections).

. Mugil cephalus (Linnaeus, 1758). Cas-

pian Sea, introduced from the Black Sea

(Berg 1949a).

. Mugil dussumieri Cuvier and Valencien-

nes, 1836. Recorded from freshwaters of

Iraq, not reported from Iran (Khalaf

1961).

. Mugil hishni Misra, 1943. Rivers of Iraq

not reported from Iran (Misra 1947).

. Mugil oligolepis Bleeker, 1859. Shatt-el-

Arab (Khalaf 1961).

FAMILY 23. GoBIDAE

. Anatirostrum profundorum (Berg, 1927).

Reported from 37° 58’N, 52° 22’E, close

to Iranian waters (Berg 1949a).

. Asra turcomana Iljin, 1941. South Cas-

pian Sea (Berg 1949a).

. Benthophilus baeri Kessler, 1877. South

Caspian Sea (Berg 1949a).

LO:

11.

14.

16;

. Benthophilus granulosus

. Benthophilus

. Benthophilus stellatus

. Mesogobius

FRESHWATER FISHES OF IRAN

. Benthophilus ctenolepidus Kessler, 1877.

South and central Caspian Sea (Berg

1949a).

Kessler, 1877.

Throughout Caspian Sea (Berg 1949a).

. Benthophilus grimmi Kessler, 1877. Two

subspecies B. g. grimmi Kessler, 1877 and

B. g. kessleri Berg, 1927 both from cen-

tral and south Caspian Sea (Berg 1949a).

. Benthophilus leptocephalus Kessler, 1877.

South Caspian Sea (Berg 1949a).

macrocephalus __ (Pallas,

Caspian Sea including southern

river mouths (Berg

1787).

coast, approaches

1949a).

(Sauvage, 1874).

A distinct subspecies B. s. leobergius Ijin,

1949 throughout freshened parts of Cas-

pian Sea to the southern coast (Berg

1949a).

Boleophthalmus dussumieri Cuvier and

Valenciennes, 1837. Shatt-el-Arab (Khalaf

1961) and Karun River (Berg 1949b).

Hyrcanogobius bergi Ujin, 1939. North

Caspian Sea (Berg 1949a) but Arman-

trout (1969) records it from Iran.

Knipowitschia longicaudata (Kessler,

1877). Brackish parts of Caspian Sea

(Berg 1949a), perhaps Iran (Armantrout

1969).

gymnotrachelus (Kessler,

1857). As the subspecies M. g. macro-

phthalmus (Kessler, 1877) found every-

where in the Caspian Sea (Berg 1949a).

Mesogobius nonultimus (Aljin, 1936).

South-east and north Caspian Sea (Berg

1949a).

Neogobius bathybius (Kessler, 1877).

Caspian Sea opposite Svinoi Island, south

of Baku (Berg 1949a). Not reported

from Iran.

Neogobius caspius (Eichwald, 1831). All

Wie

18.

19.

20.

Paley

Up,

DAE e

24.

of the Caspian Sea (Berg 1949a).

Neogobius cephalarges (Pallas, 1811).

Found in south Caspian Sea rivers (Berg

1949a) as N. c. constructor (Nordmann,

1840). Neogobius_ platyrostris cyrius

Kessler, 1874) is a synonym (Berg

1949a).

Neogobius fluviatilis (Pallas, 1811). As

the subspecies N. f. pallasi (Berg, 1916)

found in the Caspian Sea (Berg 1949a)

including Iranian waters (Armantrout

1969).

Neogobius kessleri (Gunther, 1861). All

coasts of the Caspian Sea (Berg 1949a).

Neogobius melanostomus (Pallas, 1811).

As N. m. affinis (Eichwald, 1831) from

the Caspian Sea including south coast

rivers (Berg 1949a).

Periophthalmus koelreuteri (Pallas, 1770).

Enters rivers of southern Iran (Holly

1929b; Werner 1929).

Pomatoschistus caucasicus Berg, 1916.

Caspian Sea coasts entering freshwaters

(Berg 1949a).

Proteorhinus marmoratus (Pallas, 1811).

Caspian Sea including rivers of the south

(Berg 1949a)

Proteorhinus semipellucidus _ (Kessler,

1877). Mouth of the Karasu River, As-

trabad Bay, Iran. May be a synonym of

P. marmoratus (Berg 1949a).

FAMILY 24. CHANNIDAE

. Ophiocephalus gachua WHamilton-Bucha-

nan, 1822. Baluchistan (Bampur River),

Kerman (Haliri River) (Coad, MS) and

Mashkel River drainage (Zugmayer

1912).

FAMILY 25. MASTACEMBELIDAE

. Mastacembelus mastacembelus (Solander,

1794). Tigris-Euphrates drainage, Dalaki

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

and Mand Rivers and Lake Famur in

Iran (Berg 1949b; personal collections).

M. haleppensis (Bloch and _ Schneider,

1801) and M. simack (Walbaum, 1792)

are synonyms (Berg 1949b; Sufi 1957).

ORDER 13. Pleuronectiformes

FAMILY 26. PLEURONECTIDAE

1. Pleuronectes flesus luscus Pallas, 1811.

ee,

So. ROVER

| /pivara

RIVER

| r |

H aN A y °

| Aanaxes CASPIAN SEA

AZAR BAILAN ATRE

, AR K

| Lane ead, } RIVER

| y

‘... -DARYA-@-NEMAK

Introduced to the Caspian Sea and found

in the southern part near Iranian shores

(Berg 1949a).

DISCUSSION

Table 1 summarises the numbers of genera

and species in each family and gives some

indication of the distribution of families. Only

genera and species definitely recorded from

TURKMEN SSR

. RIVER

}

KHORASSAN

HARI RIVER

HERAT

Le ISPAHAN RIVES ;

TIGRIS Lf (igs im

AVEHDEH Sey Spt

é Givaa Ba NU Ge

®s eos Q i D he

fey scissile ie

evPpynates \ | ~ (ge S} \

Ny, S ULYAR aN

1 an RIVER KEAMAN : a \METMAND

Oo FAR SHELAGH RIVER

fs = WOR RIVER bus RIVER

S2 \\ SHIRAZ

ae Petit

| RIVER

MALIA sista

Ts River - NE

AND ~~ ae

RIVER MASHKEL

ALUCHISTA “RIVER .

J} Jus Ve J A 2. =: ie B AMP U R Be =o .

Tat MURIAN FIVER s

nae PERSIAN Sag Pe

100 Km ‘ . 4 |

1 DALAKI RIVER ) GULF

2 LAKE FAMUR ‘

3 DASHT AIVER %

Q4NI1HING RIVER

S MAHANG RIVER

SEA OF OMAN

Fig. 1. Principal rivers and lakes of Iran including border drainages

(dotted lines indicate seasonal lakes and rivers with intermittent flow).

100

FRESHWATER FISHES OF IRAN

Iran are included here. There are a large

number of endorheic drainages in Iran but

these have not all been well studied ichthyo-

logically and only a selection can be given.

There are several minor endorheic drainages

in Fars, for example, and here two are com-

bined (Shiraz and Kor River) and a third is

treated separately (Lake amur) for con-

venience. The major drainages referred to are

shown in Figure 1.

There are 26 families of fishes reported

from Iran of which 17 are represented by a

single species and of the remainder only

Cyprinidae, Cobitidae and Gobiidae have

more than 10 species. The ichthyofauna is

dominated by the Cyprinidae and Cobitidae,

the only two native families to be found in all

drainages. Most Gobiidae are restricted to the

Caspian Sea proper with some species pene-

trating into rivers. The Cyprinodontidae, com-

prising 4 species, is a widely distributed

family in southern Iran.

Eleven families have a marine origin and

3 consist wholly or in part of introduced spe-

cies. The Poeciliidae is a freshwater Central

and southern North American family introduc-

ed to Iranian waters for control of mosquito

larvae. Cracraft (1974) has given a postulated

geographical origin for freshwater fish fami-

lies. In Iran 6 families are from Laurasia and

8 from Gondwanaland but in terms of num-

ber of genera (and species) the Iranian fresh-

water fish fauna is dominated by the Laura-

sian faunal element (43 Laurasian genera

as opposed to 8 from Gondwanaland).

The Caspian Sea basin and Persian Gulf

drainages have the richest fish fauna in terms

of numbers of families but both these drain-

ages are by far the largest under consideration

here. In addition the Caspian Sea contains

both freshwater and marine elements in its

fauna and such northern families as Esocidae,

Salmonidae, Gasterosteidae and _ Percidae

which are not found in southern Iran. Salmo-

nidae are also reported from endorheic drain-

ages immediately south of the Caspian basin.

Marine families entered the now isolated Cas-

pian basin during the Tertiary when it was

connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Black

Sea (Zenkevitch 1963). Persian Gulf drain-

ages of Iran show clear affinities in their fish

fauna with the Tigris-Euphrates system of

Iraq. Kassler (1973) has pointed out that the

sea level fell by as much as 120 m. during

the Pleistocene and this would have emptied

the shallow Persian Gulf as far south as the

Straits of _Hormuz. Rivers which are now

isolated from the Tigris-Euphrates system

would have then become tributaries of a com-

bined Tigris-Euphrates river emptying directly

into the Sea of Oman. Inland from the present

Gulf the diversity, even at the family level,

decreases with altitude and with distance from

the Tigris-Euphrates system. Inland endorheic

drainages at high altitudes, such as the Zay-

endeh River and the Shiraz and Kor River

drainages, have fewer families represented in

their fish fauna than, for example, the endor-

heic but low altitude Lake Famur and rivers

draining into the Persian Gulf.

In the south-east of Iran, for example the

Jaz Murian basin, Oriental fishes are found

represented at the family level by the Chan-

nidae but probably also reflected in species

of Cyprinidae and Cobitidae which have been

reported from border drainages in Pakistan

but not yet recorded from Iran.

The eastern border regions of Iran with

Afghanistan, for example the Seistan endor-

heic drainage basin, contain species of. wider

distribution within Iran but also elements of

a High Asian fish fauna, such as the cyprinid

tribe Schizothoracini, which entered this low-

lying area via the Helmand River from the

101

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

‘ueI] WOIJ poyioder ueeq jou sey 3nq

Idsey Jo yey WoT ‘(EPRI ‘oxoH) sn8ajsoiy snanjig ‘sawads yueroyip W x

JOATY SIISI], OY} Ul pUNoy sI soSvulvIp YoAT.ezoy oye] pue vag u

st ot

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eeplinils

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sepioosy

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= Jee 1 : -UIvIp -eynqi}

en ee wont: oxen ee ep OES Fitos pues

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[peie yy uvIsIog Uueidsea

ssisads = Bl0UNs

jo jo UIZIIO Ajiwey

JaquinNy Joquinyy

SosvUIvIp d19yIOpU_

‘(oulTeW= YL “UoWe[s [eUNey UeIseIneT= J] ‘peonponul=j “Uewe[s [eUNey puULfeuRMpuODy = 5)

Sa TWA HSIA YHalYVMHSaat NVINVaYy AO NOILNGINLSIGd GNV SHIDddS GNV VYeNaD. dO SaaaWaN

[ ATaVL

102

FRESHWATER FISHES OF IRAN

mountains of Afghanistan.

In summary, the freshwater fish fauna of

Iran belongs to the Palaearctic region and the

principal families are the Cyprinidae and

Cobitidae, and additionally the Gobiidae in

the Caspian Sea basin. However, there is a

relatively high diversity of families because

of marine and Gondwanaland faunal elements

although the fauna is dominately Laurasian.

Much systematic work remains to be done to

elucidate the zoogeography of Iranian fresh-

water fishes at the species level, to eliminate

synonymies and to provide keys and detailed

species descriptions as a basis for other

studies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to Dr. B. Kholdebarin,

Chairman of the Biology Department, Pahlavi

University for his assistance in arranging field

trips and to the drivers and assistants who

helped collect material on which this work

is partly based.

This research was financed by a Pahlavi

University Research Council grant number

35-A5-149-172.

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FRESHWATER FISHES OF IRAN

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105

BIOECOLOGY AND ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITE

GENUS CRYPTOTERMES (ISOPTERA:

KALOTERMITIDAE) IN THE INDIAN REGION’

M. L. THAKUR?

(With a text-figure)

The species of termite genus Cryptotermes belong to one of the most economically

important group of termites under the large and primitive family Kalotermitidae.

Popularly known as “powder post termites’ these termites are capable of tolerating

very low moisture condition for a long time. The small size of the colony which

can be lodged in small wooden articles, make them ideally suited for easy trans-

portation and introduction to new habitats, thus posing a potential danger to

man-made structures and causing quarantine problems. The paper discusses in detail

bioecology and economic significance of species of this group of termites in the

Indian Region, with possible measures to check the introduction and spread of

these termites to new zoogeographical regions.

INTRODUCTION

The species of termite genus Cryptotermes

belong to one of the most economically im-

portant group of drywood termites under the

large and primitive family Kalotermitidae.

They are generally tropicopolitan in distribu-

tion, occurring throughout the tropical and

sub-tropical regions of the world, with ex-

ception of a few species, which have extend-

ed their range of distribution to the warmer

temperate regions. They attack dead and dry

portions of living trees in nature and wood-

work in buildings, household furniture and

other wooden structures. Their presence is

easily detected in infested material by piles

of tiny pellets, thrown out from the nest.

This has given them the popular name

1 Paper presented at the Symposium on Oriental

Entomology—1973 (4-11 Nov., 1973), Calcutta,

organised jointly by the University Grants Com-

mission and the University of Calcutta. Accepted

December 1977.

2 Forest Entomology Branch, Forest

Institute & Colleges, Dehra Dun.

Research

106

““powder post termites’. In many parts of the

world, rising cost of repairs to the damage

done by these termites, has focussed the at-

tention of builders, pest control operators, etc.

on this genus. In view of the fact, that the

species are likely to be transported to different

parts of the world through human agency and

are likely to cause serious damage to wooden

structures in the country of introduction, they

present a serious quarantine problem.

Assmuth (1913) was probably the first to

report the occurrence of the genus Crypto-

termes in India (Bangalore) in ‘‘a dried up

stump and a branch of a live Ficus tree’’.

Following him, Snyder (1934), Roonwal &

Pant (1953), Moszkowski (1955), Roonwal

& Sen-Sarma (1956), Sen-Sarma & Mathur

(1957), Mathur & Thapa (1962), Roonwal

& Chhotani (1962), Chhotani (1963, 1970),

Gay (1967, 1970), Chatterjee & Thakur

(1968), Roonwal & Bose (1970) and Sen-

Sarma & Thakur (1974) have added consi-

derably to our knowledge of the termite genus

Cryptotermes, its distribution and _ biology,

etc. from the Indian Region. In an exhaustive

BIOECOLOGY AND ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITE GENUS CRYPTOTERMES

and well illustrated monograph, Chhotani

(1970) has dealt with taxonomy, zoogeogra-

phy and phylogeny of this genus from the

Oriental Region. He has reported the follow-

ing four species from India, namely Crypto-

termes domesticus, C. dudleyi, C. havilandi

and C. roonwali. Gay (loc. cit.) and many

other workers do not agree with the view of

Moszkowski (1955) and Chhotani (1970), re-

garding the occurrence of the species havil-

andi in India (vide infra). In view of this fact

and also as some additional information on

the distribution and biology of this genus has

been collected from the extensive surveys of

wood-destroying termites in various parts of

the country, it has been thought desirable to

review the whole situation. Information avail-

able in ledger files has also been incorporated.

BIOECOLOGY AND DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES

1. Cryptotermes bengalensis Snyder*

Bioecology:

Cryptotermes bengalensis is a native species,

nesting primarily in dry and dead portions of

living trees, colony hardly extending into the

living parts of the host. Its new records of host

plants are Carapa moluccensis var. gangetica

in Jokhai forest (Assam), Adina cordifolia

in Surhi Village, Lormi Range, Bilaspur

(M.P.), Ficus benghalensis in Kesla Range,

Hoshangabad (M.P.), Mangifera indica in

Gorakhpur and Ramnagar (U.P.) and Jai-

* Moszkowski (1955) synonymised this species

with C. havilandi (Sjostedt). Chhotani (1963, 1970)

also followed her and supported this synonymy.

However, Ahmed (1965), Gay (1967, 1970), Ma-

thur & Thapa (1962, 1965), Roonwal & Chhotani

(1962), Sen-Sarma & Thakur (1974) and Sen-

Sarma et al. (1975), have rejected this arrangement

and consider C. bengalensis as a valid species. I

fully agree with these authorities and have follow-

ed them in this publication.

singhnagar (Sahdol District, M.P.). Earlier,

it was recorded infesting living trees of Heri-

tiera minor in Sunderbans (Snyder 1934) and

Ficus benghalensis at Mandla Fort in Madhya

Pradesh (Chhotani 1963).

This species has also been recorded attack-

ing dry and sound wooden structures, like

posts, doors and window sills and wooden

rafters in buildings in Assam, West Bengal

and Tripura. The infested material exhibits

excavations extending along the direction of

grain and not across the grain of the wood.

There are series of flat chambers, which are

wide in the middle and tapering at both ends.

Each chamber is connected with the adjoining

chamber by narrow passage ways. In soft tim-

ber of uniform texture like Gmelina arborea,

irregular cavities connected with narrow pas-

sageways are formed, which may further be

gnawed to form wider cave-like chambers

with irregular walls. Mostly, the outer cavities

are empty, with faecal pellets being piled up

in some parts, to be ejected out later on the

ground or other substratum. The outer sur-

face of the attacked wood is always left in-

tact, while the remaining outer wall is often

gnawed away to such an extent that only a

very thin outer shell is left with neat small

ericular holes which connect the inner galler-

ies and cavities with the open air as well as

act as outlets for ejection of faecal pellets and

perhaps also for swarming of alates. Some of

these are no more in use. In case of infested

rafters, beams, etc., the faecal matter often

rain down and pile up on tables, beds and

ground. The pellets are small, brown and hex-

agonal in shape. The colour of these pellets,

however, generally corresponds with the natu-

ral shade of the attacked wood.

It is of interest to note that this species

has recently been collected at Belonia Forest

Rest House in Tripura, attacking both the

107

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

wooden structures of the Rest House as well

as the dead branches of living trees of Arto-

carpus heterophyllus and Shorea _ robusta.

This clearly indicates that this species may

invade the “modified environment of man”

in localities in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar

Pradesh, where it now occurs in the wild state,

when natural resources are either exhausted

or not easily available.

Specific data pertaining to the swarming in

nature is not available. However, emergence

from preinfested logs under laboratory con-

ditions at the Forest Research Institute was

recorded from the Ist week of May to 3rd

week of June. Alates have also been collect-

ed in the field in the month of January. Thus

it appears that swarming occurs mostly dur-

ing the first half of the year.

Distribution:

This species was originally collected in

1934 in Sunderbans (21°40’—22°50’ N and

88°10’—89°40’ E). It has been since record-

ed from ASSAM: Digboi (Mathur & Thapa

1965), Jokhai Reserve Forest. MADHYA PRA-

DESH: Mandla Fort and BANGLADESH: Dacca

(Chhotani 1970). The following are the new

records of its distribution: WEST BENGAL:

Jhingakhali forest (Sunderbans). MADHYA

PRADESH: Surhi village, Lormi Range (Bilas-

pur); Kesla Range (Hoshangabad) and Jai-

singhnagar (Sahdol) TrRIPURA: Agartala:

Belonia and Paratia. UTTAR PRADESH: Gora-

khpur and Ramnagar.

2. Cryptotermes domesticus (Haviland)

Bioecology: ;

This species was originally described from

Singapore and Sarawak in 1898 and was re-

ported to be a common house hold pest. The

centre of origin of this species is not known.

The only known reference of its occurrence

in exclusively wild habitat, such as old stumps,

dead trunk, dry portions of living trees is from

108

Botal Tabago Island off the Coast of For-

mosa (Hozawa 1915 and Gay 1970). From

this Gay (1970) has concluded that the centre

of origin of this species is the coastal regions

of associated Islands of South-East Asia.

Household furniture are the main targets of

this species.

In India, this is an introduced species, but

it is not known as to how and when it was

introduced. It has so far been recorded: from

Kerala only where it was found nesting in a

boat, fence posts and a timber godown. Snyder

(1934) also reported this species from India

but did not mention the precise locality.

Emergence of alates and swarming periods

vary with the locality and records in literature

show that swarming in this species occurs

during the greater part of the year from April

to November. Adults have also been collected

in June-July and November in Solomon

Islands; in October in Colombo (Sri Lanka)

and Thursday Islands (north Australia) and

also at night during April in Hakgala (Sri

Lanka).

Distribution:

This species is very widely distributed and

has been recorded from Indo-Malayan, Pa-

puan and Neotropical Regions. From _ the

Indo-Malayan Region, it has been recorded

as follows: SRI LANKA: Hakgala and Perade-

niya. CHINA: Kachak, Hainan Islands, Kwang-

tung and Yunan Provinces. FORMOSA: Botal

Tabago and Taihoku. INDIA: Travancore and

Trivandrum. BORNEO: Sarawak, South-East

Borneo, Karakatao Islands and Sinagang

(Simlur). Java and Sumatra (Deli). JAPAN:

Oshagakijima (Leo-Shoo Isl.) and Ogasawar-

jima (Bonin Isl.). Singapore. THAILAND:

Bangkok. VIETNAM: Saigon and Tonkin.

3. Cryptotermes dudieyi Banks |

Bioecology:

This is also an introduced species in India

BIOECOLOGY AND ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITE GENUS CRYPTOTERMES

and is restricted to coastal regions, where it

is a serious pest damaging and destroying all

types of wooden structure in buildings. A se-

rious infestation by this species was discover-

ed on 11.12.1953 by Choudhry (1955) in

Khuina (Bangladesh). He found a big post of

Heritiera minor (6.6 m long and 0.6 m dia-

meter) seriously attacked by this species in a

shed. In the same shed, many sawn pieces

(10 cm x 10 cm x 12.5 cm) of the same wood

were also found infested at a few places.

Large quantities of pellets were noticed lying

on the ground as well as on the beams. Ac-

cording to him, the introduction of this spe-

cies in the Indian Region was a recent one and

it came from the Indo-Malayan Region, possi-

bly during the World War II or subsequent-

ly, when Khulna became an important port

after the partition of India in 1947.

It attacks wooden poles, pillars, doors, win-

dows and all types of bamboo structures, in-

cluding split bamboos used as rafters. Its in-

tensity of attack is usually of a severe nature

and the wooden structures are completely ex-

cavated and riddled with galleries in a short

time. Fine small holes, resembling the typical

Bostrychid attack are visible on the outer sur-

face which otherwise appears to be quite

sound. The galleries run along the grain of

the timber, widening out at places and with-

out any trace of earth on the inside or out-

side portions. The faecal pellets are usually

blackish in colour and oblong in shape. The

coloration, however, varies according to the

texture of the host. Sen-Sarma and Mathur

(1957) recorded this species as a serious pest

in buildings in Sunderbans. Almost all the

wooden and bamboo constructions near the

creeks and rivers in Sunderbans were found

highly susceptible to attack by this species.

Chatterjee and Thakur (1968) reported this

species from Daman where it was found nest-

ing in a wooden pole of a verandah in the

P.W.D. Rest House.

Some information is available in literature

regarding the swarming and emergence record

of this species. Choudhry (1955) collected the

imagos after splitting open sawn _ pieces

in Khulna on 11-xii-1953; 7th January 1954

in Sunderbans (Sen-Sarma & Mathur 1957);

24th March 1911 in Ross Is. (South Anda-

mans); 16th May 1930 in Peradeniya (Sri

Lanka) from woodwork of a building; 3rd

March 1931, in Kedugannawa (Sri Lanka)

and 14th May 1935, in Canal Zone (Panama)

(Sen-Sarma & Thakur 1974). From this it

appears that this species usually swarms from

November to May.

Distribution:

Commonly known as American powder post

termite, this species has been recorded from

various localities in Australian, Indo-Malayan

and Neotropical Regions of the world. From

the Indo-Malayan Region, it has been record-

ed as follows: Sri Lanka; Java and Philip-

pines (Snyder 1949); Khulna, Bangladesh

(Choudhry 1955); ANDAMAN ISLANDS: Maya

Bunder and Ross Is. (Roonwal & Bose 1970;

Chhotani 1970); Barkuda Island, Chilka

Lake, Orissa (Roonwal & Sen-Sarma 1956);

J. Plot, 50 Km. North-East of Nankhana

Range Headquarters (West Bengal) (Sen-

Sarma & Mathur 1957), Daman (Chatterjee

& Thakur 1968); Begna, Gosaba, Sazanakhali

Forest Station and Tuskhali, Rampura Range

Headquarters (West Bengal).

4. Cryptotermes havilandi (Sjostedt)

Bioecology:

Cryptotermes havilandi has been recorded in

its native habitat from the eastern countries

of Africa and rain forests of the Congo Re-

public, where it is widely distributed in wild

habitat, occurring, in living branches, dead

and dry parts of living trees, stumps and logs,

109

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

but rarely in man-modified environments. The

first record of the invading of human habita-

tions by this species was in Africa in 1872,

where alates were observed emerging from a

dead wood, completely riddled by this species

(Gay 1970). Like other drywood termites, this

species has also enlarged its range of distri-

bution to various zoogeographical regions of

the world through introduction. Moszkowski

(1955) and Chhotani (1963, 1970) have re-

corded this species as widely distributed in In-

dia and Bangladesh, occurring in wild state in

far interior of the country, some hundreds of

kilometres from coastal region. This view has,

however, been rejected by many workers (vide

supra under C. bengalensis). Obviously the

material on which their conclusions were bas-

ed, was collected in wild habitat in Sunder-

bans and Mandia Fort (M.P.) and actually

belonged to the native species C. bengalensis

Snyder. Though exotic species are able to suc-

cessfully invade native habitats (semi-wild si-

tuations) in island communities with an im-

poverished fauna, they always fail to pe-

netrate beyond the regions of offshore islands,

mangrove swamps of continents, probably be-

cause of greater competition from closely re-

lated native species (Gay 1967, 1970). There

are no published records of an introduced spe-

cies having adapted and established itself in

the natural habitat in the far interior of a con-

tinental land mass. Therefore, I fully agree

with the view of Gay and other workers in

this respect.

Roonwal and Bose (1970) and Chhotani

(1970) have reported this species from a dead

log on ground and a dead standing tree in

Andaman Islands. Its absence at the moment

in Nicobar Islands is probably due to inade-

quate collections from these Islands and calls

for more extensive survey of these areas.

110

Distribution:

It is widely distributed species and has been

recorded from Ethiopian, Malagassy, Neotro-

pical and Oriental Regions. From the Indo-

Malayan Region, it has been reported from

the following localities: BANGLADESH: Dacca.

SRI LANKA: Balangoda; Chilaw; Peradeniya;

Paiyagoda near Kalutara; Puttalam and Tlal-

wila. India; ANDAMAN ISLANDS: 2 Km. inside

the forest Laitora, Little Andamans; Taiba-

lowe, 16 Km. east of Ingoe and Otirubera

Korale, 17 Km. west of Ingoe (Little Anda-

mans) (Chhotani 1970 and Roonwal & Bose

1970).

5. Cryptotermes roonwali Chhotani

Bioecology:

This is another native species and like its

sister species, C. bengalensis, nests primarily

in dead and dry portions of living trees in

wild habitat. Its recorded hosts are Ficus re-

ligiosa and Syzygium cumini. The attack

though extending to the living tissues of the

host, does not go deeper. From the collec-

tions made at various places, it has been ob-

served that this species prefers to nest near the

human habitations, which may be in the thick

forests quite far away from the cities. The

fecal pellets are small blackish brown and

oval in shape. This is probably the same spe-

cies which was collected by Assmuth (1913).

Though not recorded so far from man-made

structures, but the possibility of its becoming

a serious domestic pest at a later date, cannot

be ruled out, as has been observed in case of

C. bengalensis Snyder (vide supra).

Distribution:

This species appears to be widely distribut-

ed in south India and has been recorded from

the following localities: KARNATAKA: Anekad

Range; Bangalore; Chickmagalur; Dharwar;

Megalapura near Mysore and Tellagatpur near

Bangalore. KERALA: Malabar.

BIOECOLOGY AND ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITE GENUS CRYPTOTERMES

—{DISTRIBUTION or CRYPTOTERMES

INDIA

| @ AANDLA |

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vt ce : DUDLEY1|

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Fig. 1. Map showing the distribution of species of major wood destroying termite

genus Cryptotermes in India.

(Note: C. havilandi not shown in the map.)

11]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

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112

BIOECOLOGY. AND ZOOGEOGRAPHY

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS... .

» From the foregoing account, it will beseen

‘that the species: of genus. Cryptotermes belong

‘to an economically important group of wood-

destroying termites. There are two categories

‘GL, dry- -wood. termites, namely introduced spe-

cies and native species. It has been observed

-that. introduced species are. strictly restricted

to the coastal areas and cause serious da-

mage . to the wooden ‘structures in buildings,

thus | posing a potential danger to man-made

structures in the. country..of introduction, The

ability of. these termites to tolerate very low

‘moisture conditions for along period and

‘the small size of the colony, which can™ be

lodged in “small wooden articles, make them

ideally suited for easy . transportation and_in-

‘troduction in new habitats (Gay 1967, 1970).

~ Introduction of species of this genus from

one country to another (e.g. domesticus, dud-

leyi and havilandi) OL from one locality to

another in widely separated. areas within a

country (e.g. bengalensis and roonwali), most

probably takes place through transportation of

‘infested materials. These termites therefore,

‘pose serious external and internal quarantine

problems. Quarantine legislations are in vogue

‘in several countries to check the introduction

of these powder post termites. Introduced spe-

‘cies; however, are not able to radiate into the

different. ecological niches in the country of

introduction, probably due to severe biotic

‘barriers of closely related native species. These

‘barriers are strong-in continental areas, but

relatively weak in island communities, where

exotic species are able to successfully invade

the native habitats with an impoverished fauna

OF. TERMITE

GENUS CRYPTOTERMES

s (Gay. 1967, 1970).

The fact that C. bengalensis has successfully

invaded ‘““‘Man-modified environment of

houses’’: in close neighbourhood of its wild

habitats in Assam and Tripura, is a warning

that C. bengalensis in Madhya Pradesh and

Uttar Pradesh and C. roonwali in south In-

dia. may become a domestic pest at a future

date.

~The geographical distribution of species in

India (Fig. 1; Table 1), show a definite pat-

tern. Among the native species C. bengalensis

is. primarily restricted to wild habitats in

“Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Tripura, Uitar Pra-

desh and West Bengal. C. roonwali is a penin-

‘sular species, occurring in Karnataka and Ke-

rala States. The introduced species are res-

‘tricted to the coastal regions only. C. domes-

ticus is found only in man-made structures in

Kerala. C.-dudleyi has a much wider distribu-

tion along the eastern and western coasts of

India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. C. havilandi

-does not eccur anywhere in the main conti-

nental land mass of India. It has, however,

“been reported from dead log and dead stand-

‘ing trees in Andaman Islands. It is however,

not certain as to when and how it was intro-

‘duced in these Islands.

Not withstanding all these contributions

made so far, it must be admitted that our

knowledge of bioecology, habits and distribu-

tion of drywood termites is far from satis-

factory. For example, no information is avail-

able on the time of. swarming and flight range

of winged forms, on which the trapping ope-

rations as a control measure depends. This

calls for more intensive research on these lines

for this group of termites.

113

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

REFERENCES

Aumap, M. (1965): Termites (Isoptera) of Thai-

land. Bull. Am. Mus. nat. Hist. 131: 1-114.

ASSMUTH, J. (1913): Wood-destroying white

ants of the Bombay Presidency. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 22: 372-84.

CHATTERJEE, P. N. AND THAKUR, M. L. (1968):

On a collection of termites from Daman. Indian

For., 94: 562.

CHHOTANI, O. B. (1963): The termite Crypto-

termes havilandi (Sjéstedt) from the interior of In-

dia. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 60: 277-78.

(1970): Taxonomy, Zoogeography

and Phylogeny of genus Cryptotermes (lsoptera:

Kalotermitidae) from the Oriental Region. Mem.

Zool. Surv. India. 15 (1): 1-81.

Cuoupury, G. U. (1955): Notes on a collec-

tion of termites from Pakistan. Pakistan J. For.,

5 (1): 40-43.

Gay, F. (1967): A world review of introduced

species of termites. Bull. Commonwealth Sci. In-

dustr. Res. Organ., Melbourne, 286: 1-88.

(1970): Species introduced by man.

In “Biology of Termites” vol. II: 459-494. Ed.

Krishna & Weesner (Akademic Press, New York).

Hozawa, S. (1915): Revision of Japanese ter-

mites. J. Coll. Sci. Imp. Uni., Tokyo, 35: 1-61.

MaTHur, R. N. AND THAPA, R. S. (1962): A re-

vised catalogue of Isoptera (White Ants) of the

Entomological Collection at Forest Research Insti-

tute, Dehra Dun. Indian For. Leafl., New Delhi,

No. /67 (Ent.): 1-122.

(1965): Termites of Assam, with

description of three new species. Bull. Ent., Madras,

No. 6: 1-14.

MoszkowskI, L. I. (1955): Cryptotermes kirbyi

new species from Madagascar and C. havilandi

(Sjostedt) from Africa and introduced into Mada-

gascar, India and South America (Isoptera: Kalo-

termitidae). Mem. Inst. Sci. Madagascar (E), 6:

15-41.

114

RooNwaL, M. L. AND BosE, G. (1970): Tax-

onomy and Zoogeography of termite fauna of An-

daman and Nicobar Islands, Indian Ocean. Rec.

Zool. Surv. India. 62 (3-4): 109-170.

RooNWAL, M. L. AND CHHOTANI, O. B. (1962):

Termite fauna of Assam. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India,

(B) 28 (4): 281-406, 24 Pls.

RooNwaL, M. L. anp Pant, G. D. (1953): A

systematic catalogue of the main identified collec-

tion at the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun,

Pt. 9 (Isoptera). Indian For. Leafl. (Ent.,). New

Delhi, No. 12] (3): 39-60.

RoonwaL, M. L. AND SEN-SARMA, P. K. (1956):

Systematics of Oriental termites (Isoptera), No.

3. Zoological Survey of India Collection from India

and Burma with new species of the genera Parrhino-

termes, Macrotermes, Hypotermes and Hospitali-

termes. Indian J. agric. Sci. 26: 1-37.

SEN-SARMA, P. K. AND MATHUR, R. N. (1957):

Further records of occurrence of Cryptotermes

dudleyi (Banks) in India (Insecta: Isoptera). Curr.

Sci. 26: 399.

SEN-SARMA, P. K. AND THAKUR, M. L. (1974):

Biology, distribution and economic importance of

some termites attacking buildings. JPIRI J. Ban-

galore 4 (3): 115-25.

(Paper presented at the Symp. Quality, Construc-

tion and Cost aspects of Building Timbers and

Timber structures. l1st-3rd June 1972, Dehra Dun,

organised by N.B.O.).

SEN-SARMA, P. K., THAKUR, M.L., Misra, S. C.

AND GupPrTA, B. K. (1975): Studies on wood-destroy-

ing termites in relation to natural termite resistance

of wood. Final Tech. Rept. PL 480 Project A-7-58

(1968-73), Dehra Dun: 1-187.

SNYDER, T. E. (1934): New termites from India.

Indian For. Rec. 20 (11) (Old series): 4-6.

(1949): Catalogue of termites

: (Isoptera) of the world. Smiths. misc. Coll., Wash-

ington, 112: 490.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE PIGMY

HOG (WITH A FOOTNOTE ON THE HISPID HARE)!

Pigmy Hog Survey, 1977—Part II

WILLIAM L. R. OLIVER?

(With two plates and three text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

This paper represents the second part of a

general report based on a pigmy hog Sus

salvanius field survey that was undertaken in

north-western Assam in the period late March

to mid-June 1977. The study was jointly in-

stigated and financed by the Assam Valley

Wildlife Society and the Wildlife Preservation

Trust and had the full co-operation of the

Assam Forest Department. It had two primary

objectives which were to investigate the bio-

logy of the species in the field and to analyse

population trends and pressures in view of

their evident continuing decline. The second

of these objectives has already been consider-

ed at some length in the first part of the re-

port which deals with their conservation

(Oliver 1978) and this part is therefore, pri-

marily concerned with the biology of the spe-

cies from both the wild and captive popula-

tions.

Whilst this survey was of admittedly short

duration, its timing was determined by the

relative frequency of sightings during this

period which occurs between the burning of

the dry season habitat in late January and

February and the regrowth of vegetation in

May and June following early rains. This did

in fact prove fortuitous for the analysis of

population pressures as outlined in the con-

servation report, and to some extent also faci-

litated field study by isolating remnant popu-

lations in small patches of unburnt habitat.

1 Accepted April 1978.

2Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Les Augres

Manor, Jersey, Channel Islands.

However, the increases in reported sightings

in this period actually relate mainly to ani-

mals escaping from the burning or those dis-

placed by it onto surrounding cultivated land,

e.g. tea estates; and actual ‘in situ’ field sight-

ings remain infrequent. This is hardly surpris-

ing in view of the small size and secretive

nature of the species, and its observationally

unsuitable habitat which is comprised of mix-

ed high scrub and thatching (elephant) grasses.

This habitat is very dense and even though

the vegetation is shortest at this time, it still

averages a height of two or three metres. Even

in the dry season therefore, these factors

renders sustained ethological observations out

of the question and led Ranjitsinh (1972) to

state that “‘satisfactory observation of their

habits is impossible in the wild.”

To a large extent this is true, for the only

direct sightings made were occasional chance

glimpses, despite attempts at sustained obver-

vation in known habitation areas during

known activity periods. This clearly explains

our poor knowledge of the species in the wild

and lends plausibility to the once growing

fears of their possible extinction. It is also re-

flected in the incompleteness of field data that

was collected, though field research does not

rely entirely on direct observation, for much

can be learnt about their ecology and beha-

viour from physical evidence of their activity.

Nevertheless, it has been necessary to rely

heavily on observation of the behaviour of

captive animals and the collection of incident-

al accounts from a wide variety of sources,

including some previously published infor-

115

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

-mation, so that generalisations about biology

can be formulated. Accumulated data thus

becomes quite extensive, though some aspects

remain unknown or poorly understood, and

some assumptions are speculative as there is

clearly a limit to extrapolation from captive

studies as these are to some extent out of

context with behavioural motivation and

adaptive function.

The first report on conservation also consi-

dered the hispid hare Caprolagus hispidus, as

the two species are both rare, sympatric and

closely associated with respect to their recent

history, and much of the information relating

to habitat and conservation is equally appli-

cable to both species. Some information is

also presented here in a footnote on the be-

haviour of the hare, though observations in

this case are essentially incidental to the main

species study. It is also worth noting that

whilst it has proved necessary to treat the two

aspects of conservation and biology separately

for both species, it is clear that they are close-

ly interrelated and there is, therefore, some

inevitable overlap in the data presented in the

two reporis, though attempts have been made

to reiterate information as little as possible.

METHODS AND STUDY SOURCES

Given the predictable difficulties of direct

field observation owing to the nature of the

study species and of its habitat, behavioural

data inevitably stems primarily from captive

stocks. At the time of study in Assam, these

comprised 2¢0o¢ 3292 pigmy hogs at the

Assam State Zoo, Gauhati and 3¢¢ pigmy

hogs at Pertabgur Tea Estate, Darrang.* In

the event, neither of these groups proved to

* These animals have since died (J. G. Oliver,

in litt.)

** Lecturer in Zoology, Cotton College, Gauhati.

116

Vol. 76

be particularly suitable for study purposes,

though observations from these, together with

discussion and appraisal of stock records and

correspondence files, represents a major source

of behavioural material.

Considering firstly the Gauhati Zoo hogs,

these were subject to a 48-hour continual sur-

veillance undertaken jointly with I: K. Bhat-

tacharyya** with a view to determing circadian

activity and general behaviour patterns. Noc-

turnal observations during this period were

facilitated by the timing of the study period

to coincide with full moon and the use of a

torch equipped with a red filter, to which the

animals were relatively. insensitive.. The zoo

authorities were very co- -operative but direct

access to their stock was limited owing to the

extreme nervous disposition of the animals

themselves, rendering close proximity abortive

as it led to disruption of activity through

panic or concealment. Most observations

made actually relate to a sub-adult pair born

in May 1976 as the adult trio were separated

into a small area of the enclosure owing to

the recent introduction of a new adult male

on loan from Pertabgur. These adults were

almost impossible to observe in any detail ex-

cept at close quarters, but this was again cur-

tailed by the extreme nervousness of the

females. Space limitation and the highly un-

satisfactory nature of the separation area any-

way precluded most normal activity. 3

By contrast, the enclosures for the boars

held at Pertabgur were ideally suited to these

animals being of large size and for the most

part comprising a high (guatamala) grass

bari. This heavy cover.also necessitated very

Close proximity for observations though this

purpose was also partly frustrated by the vir-

tual cessation of all other activity on human

approach by the animals extreme tameness

and their continual efforts to solicit grooming.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE [

Oliver: Pigmy Hog and Hispid Hare

Above: Typical unburnt thatch-scrub which is the prime.-habitat of both pigmy hog

and hispid hare. Below: Nest of wild pigmy hog.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE If

Oliver: Pigmy Hog and Hispid Hare

Above: Adult female hispid hare captured in Barnadi Reserve Forest in April 1977.

Below: Demarcation ‘site of wild hisnid hare with characteristic thatch cuttings and

faecal deposits.

PIGMY HOG SURVEY 1977—PART II

This human orientation was of course exacer-

bated by the preclusion of normal social in-

teractions by virtue of the sex ratio and the

necessity for permanent separation, though

all three boars had been previously maintained

at intervals in group situations.

The main field study area was the Barnadi

Reserve Forest in the Rajagarh area of Man-

galdai, Darrang District. This locality was an

obvious choice as it is one of the few areas

where pigmy hog were definitely known to

occur as it had been the source of the origi-

nal, and nearly all subsequent captive stocks

(see Part I for a detailed description of the

area). Preliminary field research — essentially

consisted of random screening for behaviou-

ral indicators for the selection of specific

study areas and to determine habitat prefer-

ence. In. the Barnadi Reserve Forest avail-

able habitat proved to be so restricted that

further selection was unnecessary as all habi-

tation areas could be screened at intervals.

The determination of pigmy hog activity was

primarily by means of the distinctive forage

marks resultant from rooting with their snouts

that is so typical of Suids. These excavations

deteriorated quite quickly so it was easy to

determine activity as being recent or very re-

cent. Nests were also used as indicators and

whilst fresh nests are obvious, old nests de-

teriorate only slowly and so it is quite pos-

sible that some of the nests found were seve-

ral weeks old and are therefore unreliable in-

dicators of current activity. Moreover, nests

were very difficult to find and it would be

necessary to carefully and comprehensively

screen an entire area to conclusively negate

habitation. By contrast, forage marks are easy

to find and generally speaking even superficial

screening will quickly prove or negate recent

activity. Pigmy hogs leave no discernable

trails or footprints, at least during the dry

season, and no obvious faecal deposits or

other demarcation evidence was ever found.

Many attempts were made at stationary ob-

servation at recent or otherwise likely forage

sites during known activity periods particular-

ly shortly after dawn or at dusk. These proved

fruitless for it appeared that choice of forag-

ing areas was randomised and unpredictable

and owing to the nature of the habitat only

small areas could be surveyed and therefore

only very good fortune would yield even short

period chance observation. Attempts were

also made at baiting selected sites, though this

was eventually abandoned as it proved im-

possible to maintain regular baiting owing to

poor weather conditions rendering access roads

impossible. It was clear that baiting for hide

observation would have to be sustained for

some considerable period as even an odd

chance encounter with bait was rendered less

likely by their forage and obvious scarcity

even in prime habitat.

It had become clear early in our conside-

ration of possible methods of approach that

radio-telemetry could have very definite ap-

plication in this situation, particularly for the

determination of home range and circadian

activity. In the event it was only possible to

capture and mark two pigmy hogs owing to

our permit requirements consequent of As-

sam’s recent ratification (in January 1977) of

the 1972 Indian Wild life (Protection) Act.

Owing to the streamlining of the animal’s

body, it was necessary to design a harness

rather than a simple collar. The harness is

described in detail as it contains some inno-

vations which may be of interest. SB2 (Max

range) 2.7V transmitters manufactured by

AVM Instrument Co. operating on 150.721—

150.834 MHz were used with two 1.4V Mal-

lory Duracell batteries type RM601TZ. This

gives a short life/long range combination ide-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

ally suited to the purpose and it was found

that effective field range was approximately

4 miles in this type of habitat using an LA12

Receiver also manufactured by AVM. The

problems of possible endothermic heat dam-

age during encapsulation were overcome by

first embedding the transmitter and batteries

in silicone rubber caulk prior to final encap-

sulation in clear epoxy resin (see Fig. 1). The

sheath

covering

harness

adjustment

Fie,

moulded resin

justment was derived by cutting the strip op-

posing each fixed length (i.e. optimum 20

cm and 30 cm harness/antennae strap). The

adjustable portion of each strap was thus cut

to size in the field, secured with nylon fish-

ing line by means of holes punched in the

feeder cable between wires and cemented with

cynoacrylate contact adhesive (‘Permabond’).

This gave an almost and permanent join that

ri silicone rubber filling

ant.

8” antenna loop

bet tony insulation

1,.4v mercury batteries

transmitter

outer sheath of polythene tubing

Radio-tracking harness design. (Showing cut-away section of transmitter

capsule and completed and fitted harness.)

transmitter capsules were streamlined to mini-

mise impedence through thick vegetation.

The harnesses were constructed of 300 ohm

twin feeder cable providing twin antennae

loops and great tensile strength. Harness ad-

118

was quickly adjusted and fixed. The whole

harness was sheathed in P.V.C. tubing to

minimise abrasion and waterproof the harness,

and render the harness conspicuous in the

event of a chance encounter. The whole har-

PIGMY HOG SURVEY 1977—PART II

ness and transmitter module weighed 140 gm.

equivalent to + 1/50 or 0.05 of total body

weight of marked animal.

The two animals were caught by means of

a drive using beaters to direct the animals in-

to nets arranged along an elephant track. We

were forced to use this method as live trapping

was unlikely to be successful in the absence

of clearly discernable trails. Despite this, con-

siderable difficulties were met with actually

capturing the animals owing to the fact that

they split up when disturbed and moved at

astonishing speed in widely differing direc-

tions. In order to gain as much information

as possible from the drives themselves, addi-

tional men were deployed as observers to

count the number of pigmy hogs disturbed in

each area covered by a drive. Each area driven

was later measured and a crude estimate of

animals per unit area was thereby derived.

Eventually two sub-adult males weighing 7.1

and 7.2 Kg respectively were caught and har-

nessed by this means. It had been considered

that animals might be anaesthetised for har-

ness attachment but this was eventually re-

jected as it was thought that anaesthesia was

probably of greater potential risk than brief

physical retraint. Both specimens were weigh-

ed, harnessed, photographed and _ released

within about ten minutes of capture.

It is interesting to note that when captured

the animals struggled wildly and squealed,

but made little attempt to bite and restraint

was easily accomplished by a single person

holding the scruff of the neck and the hind

limbs to prevent kicking. The species suppos-

ed ferocity (Mallinson 1971 and 1977, op cit.

Hodgson 1847) is loosely based and consi-

derably exaggerated.

For the purposes of actual radio tracking,.

landmarks in the form of three distinctive

trees for each animal, were chosen as com-

pass bearing points for triangulation and

marked with coloured cloth. The live mark-

ed animals were approximately 14 mile apart

so could not be monitored simultaneously.

The animals were tracked from _ elephant

back as it proved physically impossible to

travel on foot quickly between bearing points

in the dense vegetation to take meaningful

readings at frequent intervals. The use of an

elephant also provided additional height thus

affording better reception and reducing human

noise which may bias the animals’ movements.

The animals were monitored in shifts at half

hourly intervals from each bearing point.

Unfortunately, radio tracking was also dis-

appointing and by no means realised its ex-

pected potential. There were several reasons

for this, not least of which was that both spe-

cimens only retained their harnesses for re-

latively short periods. The first animal lost

its harness after only 12 days and on recovery

was undamaged so it must have been fitted

too loosely. The second animal escaped from

its harness after 17 days by breaking at a point

where the aerial loop enters the transmitter

capsule. These faults could not be rectified as

it was not possible to capture further animals

owing to our permit restrictions. Moreover,

the onset of appalling weather conditions

actually prevented the monitoring of these ani-

mals for much of the short period during

which they retained their harnesses, as it be-

came physically impossible to get access to

the Forest Reserve as approach roads and a

river ‘en route’ became impassable. Only a

few hours transmissions were actually moni-

tored for the first animal and a few days for

the second and though some conclusions can

be derived from these, the results are not

nearly as satisfactory as desirable. Some other

problems associated with radio-tracking in

this habitat are also worth mentioning. Clear-

119

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

ly there is no advantage to be gained from

homing in on a marked animal as they re-

mained concealed even at close proximity and

such a move would undoubtedly influence

their movements. Results were therefore plot-

ted on a ground plan of the area, but again

it was not possible to return later to a speci-

fic area in order to ascertain what the mark-

ed animal had been doing at a certain given

time for the bearing points for triangulation

were quickly lost to sight in the forest plan-

tations.

A further source of certain data stems from

two freshly killed males that were offered to

me for sale by local hunters. For obvious

reasons it was not possible or advisable to

purchase these animals though some overt

measurements, tissues, faeces,

deal of new information was also found to be

readily available from local people that stems

from hunting, forestry operations and chance

observations and as much of this first hand

information as possible was collected from

villagers, forest officials, plantation workers

and shikaris. Attempts have been made to ap-

praise and collate this data objectively and it

is worth noting that whilst local opinions

about the species may differ widely from one

another,

consistent.

HABITAT

The former and present known distribution

of this species can be exclusively equated with

the availability of the tall-grass savannah that

typically occurs along the southern edge of the

Himalayan foothills.

is flat, well-drained and thinly forested. In its

natural state it comprises a mixed dense

scrub-jungle that is characterised by the tall

thatch or elephant grasses (Plate 1). To the

120

stomach cont-

ents and ectoparasities were removed. A good

actual observations are remarkably

Essentially this habitat.

north this gives way quite suddenly to the de-'

ciduous and evergreen forest of the hill slopes

but southwards there is a less obvious trans-

formation to the lower lying savannah that is

subject to sustained flooding during the mon-

soon. Recent records of pigmy hog invariably

relate to areas that are not normally subject

to extensive waterlogging. The former distri-

bution of the species is not clear cut for re-

cords are dependant on occasional chance

observation, shikari accounts and hearsay,

though neither species has ever been reliably

recorded from typical lowland’ savannah pos-

sibly indicating poor migratory ability. The

species was formerly widely, but possibly dis-’

continuously, distributed along the foothills

from N.W. Assam, through parts of Bhutan,”

North Bengal and Sikkim to Southern Nepal. |

Unlike the otherwise sympatric hispid here,

the species has never been recorded as far

west as Uttar Pradesh. Ale distribution of

both species is limited eastwards by the dis-

appearance of the thatchlands in the region

of North Lakhimpur with an increasing ‘abun-

dance of evergreen forest and heavier rainfall

(See Part T for distribution map).

The highland and Jowland savannahs have

been increasingly settled and~ converted to.

paddy cultivation so that very little natural

savannah remains. Moreover, most of the

remaining savannah falls under the control of

the State Forest Departments and is further

degraded by commercial species plantations

and thatch harvesting (thatch mahal). The

most important - factors controlling the floral.

and faunal composition of these regions are

dry season burning in both classes of Savan-—

nah and the prolonged inundation during. the

monsoon of the lowland savannah. The pro-

found and ecologically disastrous effects of

dry season burning have already been consi-

dered in some detail (Part I) and apart from’

' PIGMY HOG SURVEY 1977—PART Il

encroachment, this is undoubtedly the single

most important factor affecting the remaining

habitat and future of these animals. The dif-

fering fire resistances of plant species has

favoured the varieties of elephant grasses so

that the naturally rich and diverse scrub jun-

gle has been impoverished and distorted so

that most areas now comprise a relatively uni-

form high grass biotope.

‘elephant grass’ actually included many varie-

ties some of which are strictly reeds and are

unsuitable for thatch purposes. The most im-

ing grasses are Themeda, Saccharum and

Phragmites sp. and various species of these

tend to dominate the remaining available

habitat. Collectively these grasses are known

as ‘kher’ (or ‘khagri’?) in Assam (hence

‘kher bari’ the assamese name for the thatch- —

lands) or ‘ikra’ (or ‘ekra’) by the Rhabha

and Garu tribes (D. K. Lahiri-Choudhury

pers. comm.) and ‘nul’ (or ‘nal’) in Bengali*.

Various other important herbaceous plants

are also typical and have proved resistant to

the fire hazard, notably the perennial ‘arge-

retum’ Lantana camara (very common _ in

Barnadi), the ubiquitous ‘German plant’

Eupatorium odoratum and Lea robusta (com-

mon in Manas). (See Appendix I for a pre-

liminary list of species in the Barnadi Re-

serve Forest). Another species, wild carda-

mom, sometimes associates with thatch in re-

latively moist areas (e.g. in Nandaur Reserve

Forest) and pigmy hogs have several times

been reported from mixed thatch and tara

(=cardamom in Bengali) jungle (K. Hati-

barau pers. comm.).

Much of the highland savannah is lightly

* Hence the Bengali name for pigmy hog ‘nul

gowri’ (grass pig), though in Hindi it is known as

‘chota-suar’ (little pig). :

The blanket terin

forested, though natural secondary forest or

mature light mixed deciduous and evergreen

forest tends to occur in discontinuous patches.:

It is not immediately clear how much savan-

nah forest has been modified by human acti-

vity or how extensive it was formerly. Areas:

left unburnt are quite quickly, but lightly, re-

afforested with fast growing species such as

simul, sishu and khier and it is apparent that

this process. does not preclude the dense

scrub undergrowth as has been argued by ad-

vocates of regular burning. Indeed most’ of”

the thatch mahal areas in Reserve Forests

have been reafforested with fast growing com-

mercial softwood monocultures.

POPULATION DENSITY AND HOME RANGE

The density of pigmy hogs per unit area

of populated habitat that was deduced by

counting the animals disturbed during:~ the

drives, was actually estimated from three

separate drives covering a total area of 47.3

hectares. These disturbed 3, 6 and 0 pigmy

hogs respectively, or an average of one pigmy

hog/5.34 hectares. As these drives are obvi-

ously disruptive. they were to some extent

randomised and widely spaced, though it is

important to note that the general shortage

of habitat ‘and the small size of the remaining

patches of unburnt jungle (with the conse-

quent human disturbance and hunting pres-

sure) must influence population levels. More-_

over ‘the loss of. cover must be critical for al-

though the population is undoubtedly at its

lowest during April (before the late April/

May birth peak) the spacial requirements of

the animals wiil also be relatively high and

proportional to resources being at their lowest

towards the end of the dry season.

The: only -figures available. for. home: range:

stem from the short term monitoring ofthe

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

second radio-marked male. This animal was

not free ranging within the monitored period,

and its movements were restricted to one part

of a relatively large habitat patch of 83.5 hec-

tares. All radio fixings recorded from this ani-

mal from original screening following capture

to the recovery of the broken harness, were

plotted and cover a single continuous area

approximately 26.5 hectares in extent. It is

probable, though by no means certain, that

this animal was part of a family group or

sounder. It is unfortunate that no direct ob-

servations were possible subsequent to cap-

ture, as sociality is obviously of the greatest

APPENDIX 1

PRELIMINARY LIST OF PLANT SPECIES IN THE BARNADI RESERVE FOREST

CLASS SPECIES

Low grasses Cyperus rotundus

Commelina bengalensis

Cynodon dactylon

LOCAL NAMES

motha

konasimolu

duboribon (the tuber of this

grass is eaten by

pigmy hog)

Tall grasses Saccharum munja barenga

Saccharum spontaneum kahibon

Phragmites karka khagori

Shrubs Eupatorium odoratum german plant*

Lantana camara argeretum

Tamarix dioica jhau bon

Calotropis gigantea moder

Undergrowth Alocasia indica mankachu

Abutilon indica japapetari

Abroma augusta bonkopahi

Blumera lacera kukurshuta

Mimosa _ pudica nilaji bon

Solanum ferox bon bengena

Solanum indicum tita bhekuri

Dioscorea alata pani aloo

Ranunculus sp.

Salvia sp.

Tree 4cacia catechu khoir

Casuarina equisetifolia jhau

Acacia arabica torua condom

Ficus glomerata dimaru

Bombax malabarica simul

Dillenia indica auoo tenga

Anthocephalus indicus kadamba

Barringtonia acutangula

rr rE aS

hidal

et ET ~ = SEI

* Introduced species (N.B. Also some exotic Eucalyptus and Teak plantations).

From data compiled by I. K. Bhattacharyya and Cotton College, Gauhati.

122

PIGMY HOG SURVEY 1977—PART II

significance to spatial requirements. However,

if we assume an average sounder composition

of five individuals for this time of year (see

Social Behaviour), this figure actually pro-

duces remarkably similar results i.e. one pig-

my hog/5.255 hectares, to that obtained in-

dependently for estimated population density

of one hog/5.34 hectares. Both methods are

admittedly rather crude and rely on very small

samples and a number of undetermined vari-

ables, but it does give some indication of den-

sity from which it is possible to extrapolate

overall population of a given area simply by

measuring the amount of total populated habi-

tat (for Barnadi see Part I). It also has pro-

found and obvious significance for the future

of the species in respect of the size of areas

required to be left unburnt in order to sustain

viable populations during the dry season.

SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

Whilst discussing density and home range it

is necessary to make the proviso that we can-

not assume territorial behaviour and the mu-

tual exclusion of other sounders from parti-

cular home ranges. The social units are un-

doubtedly cohesive and probably asocial to

other groups and reports of large numbers of

pigmy hogs, or even more than one group as-

sociating together, are extremely uncommon.

However there is an evident lack of territorial

defence or associated behaviour such as de-

marcation and this is typical of the simple

social organisation of the Suidae (Ewer 1968).

Even in adult boars, defaecation and urina-

tion is randomised and includes no ritualised

behaviour or even inspection of deposits.

Pigmy hog social behaviour is in fact fairly

typical in most respects of other Sus sp. as far

as can be ascertained. The focus of social

units is the female (or females) accompanied

by the young of the previous season. Practi-

cally all first-hand observations of sounders

stipulate a group size of four to six animals

of varying sizes. Pairs have been reported only

rarely, though conversely, as many as eight or

even ten, have occasionally been seen together.

The exception to this pattern are the many

reports of single adult males which are pro-

bably solitary except during rut, and old

males at least do not stay with the sounders

permanently as suggested by Mohr (1960).

Mature boars are readily distinguishable by

their larger size, more robust appearance and

well-developed tusks (or ‘tushes’) and are

generally seen by themselves though they may

associated loosely with female/sub-adult

groups at other times of the year.

The differences in the observed size of

social groups are, in part, related to seasonal

reproductive behaviour and it must be borne

in mind that most observations have been

made during the January to April dry season

period which falls between their winter rut

and the onset of the breeding season at the

beginning of the rains in late April and May.

A pattern of reproductive-based changes in

social behaviour is quite apparent both from

captive observations and the incidental reports

from the wild. Adult males join oestrus fe-

males during the winter rut in late December

to early February and are undoubtedly dis-

ruptive to existing group composition by

chasing away other males and_ possibly

bringing together two or more females.

Adult males have on occasion been main-

tained together peacefully in captivity in the

tea estates but have become highly mutually

intolerant and very aggressive during rut in

January. J. G. Oliver (pers. comm.) has des-

cribed the characteristic threat display and

onset of fighting. The threat displays are typi-

cal of pigs and comprise a broadside stance

123

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. 76

with head turning, yawning and curling of

lips to expose tusks, champing of teeth and:

bristling of hair. This is followed by charging

or violent rooting with their snouts to throw

up earth. Fighting ensues if intimidation fails,

but males that have previously been routed in

a’ fight will squeal and run off merely on be-

ing threatened. It would seem likely that the

disruption of sounders caused by the tempor-

ary association of oestrus females with breed-

ing males would lead to the. formation of

bachelor groups,

are no records to confirm this. Contrarily it

may be that the disruption is not permanent

(at least for first year males) and that imma-

ture males rejoin females following rut. Cer-

tainly, observations of (displaced) sounders

on tea estates in March and April following

burning, usually comprised 2. or 3 larger ani-

mals accompanied by 2 or 3 smaller animals

(D. J. Mukherjee pers. comm.) ‘i.e. post-rut.

but pre-parturition. Observations on _ ten-

month old juveniles at Gauhati Zoo demon-

strated close maternal ties despite their phy-

sical separation by a wire fence owing to the

introduction of the new mature boar. These

young animals frequently approached _ their

mothers’ separation area and stood by it grunt-

ing softly. However, it is interesting to note

that this behaviour was invariably initiated by

the young animals (of both sexes) but was

often not reciprocated by the dam. This may

well be significant as these observations were

made early in April when one can reasonably

expect a lessening of sow’s maternal ties in

view of their next expected parturition at the

end of that month. Moreover, this undoubted-

ly corresponds with puberty in young animals

as evinced by the repeated attempts at copu-

lation observed in 11 month old animals at

Gauhati and Zurich Zoos in April. This may

lead to successful (out of season) primiparous

124

though unfortunately there

conceptions, e.g. Zurich (See Table 1).

It is therefore probable that the onset of

farrowing itself is more disruptive to

existing sounder composition (.e. family

groups) than is rut. The social unit of females

with young of the previous season is maintain-

ed at least until this point, though it is un-

clear whether the pre-parturition groups are

reformed after farrowing or even if sows actu-

ally separate to farrow as bapeens in wild

boar S. scrofa. 3

However, these family groups are for oe

most part undoubtedly discrete and cohesive.

‘Contact behaviour’ is pronounced and _ ani-

mals always rest closely together both in and

out of nests. They also forage closely together

even in captivity and grunt softly to each other

whilst rooting. This presumably serves to

maintain group proximity in thick vegetation

where even separation of a few feet will gene-

rally preclude visual contact. It was notice-

able that even in open areas such as the large

main enclosure in Gauhati Zoo, the animals

invariably foraged together and if one animal

moved off whilst the other was occupied the

latter would quickly rejoin the former and

resume rooting in the same vicinity. -Mallin-

son (1971) has described how a group dis-

turbed from a nest in captivity will run wild-

ly but bunched together until alternative cover’

is reached where they pile on top of one ano-

ther. Observations of wild hogs on tea estates

indicate they also move closely together whilst

travelling and usually in a regular order. Thus

a typical sounder comprising (say) two adults

and two or three juveniles always’ travelled

in file with the adults assuming the foremost

and hindmost positions (D. ‘J. Mukherjee

pers. ‘comm.y. 9) 7 ie .

It is apparent that grooming, as well as be-

ing strictly utilitarian, is also socially cohesive.

It is undoubtedly gratifying to the ‘groomee’

-PIGMY HOG SURVEY .1977—PART. II

who may frequently solicit grooming as is

apparent by the behaviour of the tame boars

at Pertabgur Tea Estate. Alternatively, groom-

_ ing may be offered and the adult male at Gau-

hati Zoo was seen to approach a. standing

female and nibble at her rump until she lay

down to be groomed. Grooming sessions oc-

curred quite frequently in that adult trio,

though the preclusion of many other activities

(such as profitable foraging) by the poor

~ quality of the separation area probably influ-

~ enced its frequency. Male to female grooming

sessions were much more frequent than vice-

versa and the male always groomed in a

standing position. The groomee always sits or

-. lies down to be groomed and may even soli-

_.cit grooming simply by lying down in front

of a standing animal (e.g. female to male or

__ male to keeper). The groomee lies on its side,

lifts its legs to facilitate grooming, will roll.

over or even- lie on its back. The longest

grooming session observed at Gauhati Zoo.

~ lasted approximately eight minutes, though the

-. boars at Pertabgur rarely tired of being groom-

~ ed and sessions would usually last until the

‘human groomer terminated them. These boars.

~ would tolerate grooming anywhere but would

try and position themselves to be groomed

under the chin or underbelly, groin and in-

- sides of thighs, ie. they favour parts of the

_ body that cannot be groomed by scratching

~ with hind legs or by rubbing against vertical

or other fixed structures. It was evident that

_ male to female grooming sessions tended to.

_ be terminated by the female squatting on her

. hind-quarters if the boar concentrated unduly

on rump or genitalia.

REPRODUCTION

Most of the information that is available .

~ about pigmy hog reproduction stems from the

“captive breeding efforts of recent years and

some aspects of this have already been com-

prehensively outlined by Mallinson (1977).

Whilst it is therefore unnecessary to reiterate

much of this information, parts of it have

been summarised and reviewed below in the

light of new information obtained.

As Mallinson has shown from births

amongst captive animals between 1971 and

1976, the pigmy hog has a single and well

defined breeding season that occurs in April

and May in Assam. There were no captive

births in Assam in 1977 owing to the loss of

the breeding boar at Gauhati Zoo and the

loss of the sows previously, maintained at

Pertabegur Tea Estate*. The only 1977 birth

was therefore a litter born on Ist May to a

pair-from Pertabgur on loan to the Jersey

Wildlife Preservation Trust and held at Zu-

rich Zoo. Whilst this litter was also conceived

in Switzerland, it still confirms the breeding

season in. Assam by virtue of their recent im-

portation, i.e. in November 1976. This is sig-

nificant as there may be a shift over a few:

years to a later birth peak in Europe, evident

from four births recorded between 1883 and

1886. from animals once kept by the Zoologi-

cal Society of London (see Table 1). Any

comparisons between these births - and the

recent records in N. W. Assam is therefore

of doubtful validity, particularly as the pre-

cise ‘source of origin of the London Z00 stock

is not known (as distribution is clearly impor-

tant with regard to variances in seasonal-fac-

tors influencing. the liming of the Diane

season). : mo

Therefore if. we discounity the earher births

in the nineteenth century, all post- 1971 births

' (with one notable exception—see latter text)

fit neatly into this UN er seasonality.

* The pores and Attareekhat stocks were trans-

ferred to Pertabgur in 1976.

125

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

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PIGMY HOG SURVEY 1977-—PART Il

Moreover, it can be seen from Table 1, that

this breeding season is not only clearly de-

fined, but it actually only encompasses an ap-

proximate four week period. Thus over seven

consecutive years breeding, the earliest and

latest recorded parturitions were 24 April and

18 May respectively. It is unfortunate that not

all tea estates parturitions are precisely dated,

but the emerging pattern is still quite appar-

ent.

The extremely high rate of infant mortality

in captive animals is to be considered later,

but there is one aspect of it that is significant

in this context. As all the pigmy hogs have

been acquired during the dry season, several

of these births were conceived in the wild and

the adults have been acquired in late-term

pregnancy. Abortion or failure to rear full-

term litters is hardly surprising under these

circumstances and this may account for the

exceptional birth on 24th August 1972. Un-

fortunately the history of this particular fe-

male is poorly recorded, though M. P. Singh-

Sidhu (in litt.) noted that a female at Paneery

Tea Estate who failed to rear the litter born

to her on 30th April 1973 was observed to be

mated again shortly afterwards. A subsequent

pregnancy in this latter case was not recorded,

though a post-partum oestrus is indicated if a

litter is immediately lost.

This actually raises some very interesting

questions on their sexual cyclicity about which

there is still very little information available.

Thus a testis collected from the wild adult

male killed in Barnadi on 17th April showed

no sign of spermatogenesis. Assuming that

(post-rut) testis are normally inactive at this

time, a mating in May (to account for the

birth in August) must mean very long sperm

survival in the epididymis, i.e. at least 10-12

weeks. In fact this animal had no _ active

sperm in the epididymis either (D. Spencer

pers. comm.) and even assuming occasional

males could retain active sperm, this is any-

way stretching known sperm survival time to

its limits (V. W. Holt pers. comm.) though

it is more likely than a second burst of sper-

matogenesis. The latter would have to be acti-

vated in March for conception to occur in

May and this was clearly not the case in this

specimen. The most likely explanation is there-

fore spermatogenesis occurring in _ pubertal

males along with the associated behaviour

changes. The Paneery boar was in fact re-

corded as being sub-adult at that time, al-

though the age of the sow is not known.

Moreover, the second out of season pregnancy

that was recorded at Zurich in 1978 was de-

finitely resultant from a pubertal conception

from a sub-adult pair born on May 2nd 1977,

and which had been isolated with their litter

mates since the death of their own dam in

August, 1977. Unfortunately this pregnancy

was unsuccessful and this animal also died

following a caesarian section. However, she

must have conceived in late May or June to

be full-term in mid September, i.e. at appro-

ximately 13 months of age. Persistant copu-

lation attempts were also observed by the 11

month old male at Gauhati Zoo in mid-April,

but these were always eventually thwarted by

the young sow (litter mate) squatting on her

hind quarters or even biting at the males

flanks, and in this case a subsequent preg-

nancy was not recorded. Indeed it seems pro-

bable that sows do not normally reproduce

until their second season; the earliest recorded

(in season) primiparous birth being the 4F?

litter born in Gauhati on 14th May 1976 i.e. a

backcross from the female born on 14th May

1974.

Out of season conceptions are certainly

unusual, though there have been incidental ob-

servations of attempted matings at various times

127

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

of. the. year when boars and sows are kept

together such as those. already mentioned

which were associated with presumed pube-

scence. Such attempts may include penile erec-

tion and even intromission and thrusting, but

are generally terminated by the (anoestrus)

female moving away before this. stage is rea-

ched. J. G. Oliver (pers. comm.) - has

described how he has twice seen the intro-

duction of a new female to an adult boar in

which the female lay down quite still and

was sniffed all. over by the male before the

latter lost interest and walked away. In these

instances however, there may well. be submis-

sive overtones in the encounter as on another

occasion. a young sow was killed by a boar

after being introduced to his enclosure.

Generally speaking however the adult male

to female relationship is peaceful if somewhat

disinterested outside the rutting season. The

duration of rut has not been precisely defined

but undoubtedly starts towards the end oi

December and continues until early or mid-

February. Unfortunately there is still no clear

information on the gestation period of pigmy

hog though it probably approximates that of

112-115. days for wild boar though it may be

somewhat less than this. The earliest recorded

mating occurred on 22nd December 1972 at

Paneery Tea Estate and may have resulted

in one of the two births recorded on 24th and

30th April 1973, ie. a gestation of =121 days.

By. contrast, whilst no precise matings have

been recorded at Gauhati Zoo, the zoo autho-

rities testify to all matings having occurred

early in February which gives a maximum

gestation of only =100 days for all of their

births. Oestrus is apparently indicated by as-

sociated behavioural changes including rest-

lessness, disinterest in food and irritation to-

wards conspecifics. Sows are probably not

capable of reproducing until their second

128

Season,

recorded at that time.

_the youngest. recorded _ primiparous

birth is the 4F? litter born at Gauhati Zoo on

14th May. 1976, i.e. a backcross. from.the

female. born 14th May 1974. |

There is a very clear correlation between

the ensuing brief . breeding season in. late

April—mid May and various seasonal _ bio-

climatic changes which will favour reproduc-

tion. This is undoubtedly the most suitable

period environmentally for parturitions — to

take place as it coincides with the regrowth of

vegetation consequent of early rains towards

the end of the dry season in late March and

April. Infants will thus be. well developed: be-

fore the heaviest sustained monsoon rains in

June, July and August. when conditions are

less favourable, see Fig. 2. :

Litter size varies from 3 to 6 with an aver-

age litter of 4 from 11 litters born since 1971.

The singleton litters supposedly born at Lon-

don Zoo on 16th May 1884 and 23rd June

1886 appear to be atypical but are probably

not realistic as only known live infants were

Thus a post-mortem

examination undertaken on a pregnant sow

“that had been recently acquired by. the soci-

ety’? contained five foetuses (Garson 1883),

though unfortunately there is no record. of

date of death and estimation of foetal age.

There has been only one litter of 6 and this is

presumably: the maximum number in. view of

S. salvanius possessing only 3. pairs of mam-

mae (in contrast to the 6. pairs typical of

other Sus sp.) The incidence of runts seems

quite high in captive animals having occurred

in at least three of these 11 litters, but does

not seem to be clearly related to litter size,

i.e. runts have occurred in-litters of 3 and 4

piglets as well as the litter of 6.

Pre-parturition nestbuilding typical of the

other larger Sus sp. occurs also in pigmy hogs,

though, as nests are: built at all times of the

PIGMY HOG SURVEY 1977—PART Il

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129

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

year in this species (see next section) there is

a new, but not a special nest built for farrow-

ing. Maternal behaviour is apparently typical

of other species in most respects. Infants are

believed to suckle within the first few hours

of birth and sows normally lie down to nurse,

though they have been observed nursing in a

standing position (Gohain-Burau pers. comm.)

Post-natal sows remain with their litters and

only emerge occasionally for short periods to

find food. Piglets do not emerge from the nest

until the fifth or sixth day and then only for

brief periods at first, staying very close and

behind their dams. A. Wrangham (in litt.) has

described some neonate piglets hand-reared by

her from a litter of 300 32 ¢ born at Pa-

neery Tea Estate on 24th April 1973. “At

three days the piglets had their eyes fully open,

a full set of milk teeth and an approximated

average weight of 50 gms. The pelage which

at first was downy and sparse and of a uni-

form pale grey-brown in colour, later develop-

ed very definite tan stripes running horizontal-

ly from neck to rump. These stripes developed

at approximately four weeks of age and re-

mained visible for a few weeks when their

pelage became a darker grey and very coarse.

Play behaviour became quite pronounced and

included jousting nose to nose, running in

bursts and then standing stock still, rooting

in the ground and collecting straw in their

mouths and placing it on the nest. One of the

female piglets was a runt which died at three

or four days old. It was undersized and weak

and did not have its eyes open’. The rest of

the litter was hand-reared, (for details see

Mallinson, 1977) following the death of the

dam from heat exhaustion leading to heart

failure during attempts to recapture her fol-

lowing her escape from her enclosure two

days after parturition.

One of the remaining two handreared fe-

130

males died at 19 weeks, possibly from a snake-

bite, but the other was successfully reared and

subsequently gave birth to her first litter

of three on 18th May 1976. ‘This sow was

later exported in November 1976 to Zurich

Zoo where she gave birth to a second litter

of 4/1 on 2nd May 1977. This was the first

complete litter ever to be reared successfully.

The sow became noticeably pregnant 66 days

before parturition and her mammaries became

noticeably swollen at 31 days pre-parturition.

There is an interesting disparity between the

very small size of neonate piglets previously

recorded at Paneery to those at Zurich which

weighed between 150 gm and 257 gm at four

days (Schmidt et al. 1978). These were also

described as having a greyish-pink colour,

though longitudinal striping developed at only

11 days, at which time they were also observ-

ed eating solids (banana) for the first time.

At 109 days of age their weight had increased

to between 1700 gm and 1930 gm.

Infant mortality is undoubtedly high in

wild populations, with inclement weather, pre-

dators and parasite-born disease all taking

their toll just as in other species, e.g. as esti-

mated 65% of juvenile wild boar are lost in

the first seven months (B. Grzimek op. cit.).

The very small size of neonate piglets must

put them particularly at risk from severe wea-

ther conditions, such as early monsoon rains

and from a wide variety of small predators

including mongoose and leopard cat (both

observed in pigmy hog habitat), raptors and

crows, etc. Indian mongoose Herpestes ed-

wardsii and crows Corvus splendens have both

taken neonate piglets from Gauhati Zoo (Go-

hain-Barau pers. comm.). However the ex-

tremely high rate of infant mortality amongst

captive stocks that is evident from Table 1,

cannot be justified in these terms. Certainly

a small percentage of post-partum deaths can

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

be reasonably expected under any circumst-

ances, and even in domestic swine approxi-

mately 6% of piglets die within a few hours

of birth (Signoret et al. 1962), though this

in no way explains the high percentage loss

in the captive breeding of pigmy hogs. The

large number of neonate piglets eaten or neg-

lected by their dams, for example, is only

partly consequent of the acquisition of late-

term pregnant animals from the wild as seve-

ral litters have been lost from conceptions in

captivity. There is no doubt that the main

criteria has been stress and this has included

failure to separate expectant sows from other

animals, human disturbance by the _ over-

zealous inspection of new litters, failure to

provide sufficient cover or even poorly design-

ed accommodatien (leading to stress from the

outside of enclosures or even the predation of

neonate piglets evident at Gauhati Zoo). Only

approximately a third of the pigmy hogs born

in captivity have been reared to independence

and only a very few of these have reached

breeding age. This cannot be argued away (as

has been attempted) as poor inate maternal

care, but must instead reflect the generally

poor standards of husbandry that have mar-

red the efforts to establish these animals

viably as captive populations.

NEST BUILDING

Whilst nest building is widespread and pro-

bably common to all the Old World pigs,

including wild boars Sus sp., bush pigs

Potamochoerus africanus and even _ babi-

rusa Babyrousa babyrussa (G. Musser, pers.

comm.), nests are generally built only by late-

term sows as a prelude to farrowing for the

protection of neonate infants. The non-season-

al nestbuilding behaviour of pigmy hogs is

therefore unusual and possibly unique among

132

suids. Captive hogs certainly build nests and

use nests at ali times of the year and the re-

mains of some very old nests found in Bar-

nadi Reserve Forest in mid-April indicates

that this activity also occurs in the wild, i.e.

the nests were too old to be associated with

parturition. Moreover, nests are made by

boars and sub-adults as well as sows in capti-

vity, and the retrieval of the discarded radio-

harness from a fresh nest in Barnadi demon-

strates the active use of a nest by that male

(see Plate 1).

The nature and dimensions of these nests are

listed in Table 2 which is based on severai

nests found in the wild and some of those

made by the Pertabgur boars. These are re-

markably consistent except for minor varia-

tions in size and shape and are similar to the

farrowing nests made by wild boars and do-

mestic swine. Nests are constructed by first

digging an oval or circular depression in the

ground by rooting and pushing soil outwards

with their snouts. The accumulated soil thus

forms a rim around the central concavity

which has a approximated average depth of

ten centimetres below ground level (see Fig.

3). This is padded with broken thatch or other

plant material collected by biting it off at the

roots or pulling it out of the ground. All ma-

terial is gathered in the immediate vicinity of

the nest and one of the Pertabgur boars cut

a very obvious swathe through long grass

within a two metre perimeter of his nest site

in this way. Nesting material is carried in the

mouth and some of it is shredded by chaffing

it with their teeth. Dead leaves and other

plant debris is also added, and by rooting and

jerking with their snouts around the nest peri-

meter onsiderable quantities of soil are thrown

over the mound of vegetation. A nest cham-

ber is shaped from within by treading, turn-

ing and chaffing the vegetation. Undisturbed

PIGMY HOG SURVEY 1977—PART II

igs:

nests have a discernable entrance/exit hole

usually at one end of the long diameter of the

generally oval-shaped nest mound.

These nests are seemingly effective con-

structions as the two fresh nests found were

quite dry inside despite moderately heavy rain

the previous night. They are always situated in

very dense vegetation and being primarily con-

structed of thatch grasses, are well concealed

and very difficult to find. It seems likely that

nests are used for some time as even careful

screening reveals only a few nests over a wide

area despite the fact that old nests deterio-

rate slowly and will thus remain recognisable

for a considerable time.

This is particularly true as there is evid-

ence that more than one nest may be in use

at the same time. The two fresh nests dis-

covered at Barnadi were about 80 metres apart

and the second nest site fell well within the

monitored range of movements of the animal

Schematic section of a typical wild pigmy hog nest.

before the recovery of its harness at the first

nest site. It is almost certain from the good

condition of these nests and the engorged ticks

found inside, that both were in current use

though it is not known whether they were used

as alternative sites for one group/individual

or by different groups/individuals.

The maintenance and use of two or more

alternative nests is certainly known in captive

animals. Several new and old nests were found

within the thick vegetation of the enclosures

at Pertabgur, though nest building activity

varied to some extent amongst the three in-

dividual boars. Two of them tended to fav-

our an artificiai hay nest beneath a small

shelter that had been provided in each pen,

whilst the third generally used nests he had

made himself. Moreover, we alternated be-

tween two different nests, both of which were

used for several days in succession. The re-

moval of the artificial nests and the demoli-

133

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

tion of their own nests led to the construction

of new nests by all three boars the same even-

ing. One of these boars built a new nest in

exactly the same location on three successive

nights after the removal of his new nest on

each of these afternoons.

Nests are retired to during inactivity phases

during the night and the hottest part of the

day and also to seek cover when disturbed in

captivity. New nest construction or addition

and repair to existing nests, invariably occurs

towards dusk and may be undertaken by

single individuals, e.g. the Pertabgur boars;

or co-operatively e.g. the young pair (whose

nest activity was intermittent) and the two

adult sows (but not the adult boar during

our observation) at Gauhati Zoo. Social units

obviously share a communal nest (or nests)

and contact behaviour is very pronounced in

this situation with hogs lying piled together

within the nest chamber. Defaecation or uri-

nation apparently never occurs within the

nest.

ACTIVITY RHYTHMS

Pigmy hogs must be regarded as essentially

diurnal, though in fact activity may begin

shortly before dawn and generally continues

well after dusk. There is an expected correla-

tion in activity levels with weather and am-

bient temperatures, with a tendency towards

inactivity during the hottest part of the day

or in heavy rain. Contrarily, they may remain

more or less continuously active during mild

weather.

During a single day’s observation at Gau-

hati Zoo, the young pair of animals became

active approximately ninety minutes after

dawn and remained active until seventy five

minutes after dusk. There was only intermit-

tent spells of inactivity during the whole of

this (= fourteen hour) period and these were

134

of short duration and roughly equated with

increased drizzle on a generally overcast day.

There was complete cessation of activity on

the previous day’s observation during spells

of heavier rain, but activity continued in the

absence of rain later in the afternoon, until

approximately two and a half hours after

dusk.

The absence of cover in the Gauhati Zoo

enclosure is clearly important in the evident

weather-bias in activity and the exceptionally

heavy cover that prevails in the wild situation

undoubtedly affords a good measure of pro-

tection from rain. Indeed it is the nature and

density of this habitat that explains their

otherwise rather surprising diurnal behaviour.

No attempt has been made to quantify the

activity readings from the radio-marked ani-

mals as these are relatively few in number

owing to small localised movements being in-

distinguishable from the subjective errors in

taking directional bearings. Considering only

large scale movements therefore, ie. those

essentially associated with foraging, these

broadly confirm the expected early morning,

afternoon and evening activity. The earliest

recorded definitely detectable movements oc-

curred about twenty minutes after dawn and

continued for up to about four hours, when

activity tended to tail off with the increase in

ambient temperature (+ 33°C). Similarly

activity again became apparent about three

hours before dusk and continued intermittent-

ly until up to two or three hours after dusk.

The latest recorded activity on any occasion

occurred at 21.15 i.e. = two and three-quar-

ter hours after dusk, though it is possible that

there are seasonal changes in nocturnal

activity. In the absence of sweat glands, pigs

must rely on behavioural thermoregulation and

Kurz & Marchinton (1972) noted an increase

in nocturnal activity and corresponding de-

PIGMY HOG SURVEY 1977-—PART II

crease in diurnal activity in feral hogs during

summer months. Wallowing, which is com-

monly associated with thermoregulation in

pigs, has never been recorded for pigmy hogs

and behaviour resultant of increases in ambi-

ent temperature seems to be restricted to in-

activity by resting in the shade or in the nest

though they do in fact seem to lose some

sweat from orbital glands.

FooD AND FEEDING BEHAVIOUR

Searching for food is naturally the primary

occupation of pigmy hog activity and in both

food preference and feeding behaviour they

again seem to be quite typical of the other

larger species. Foraging essentially consists of

active searching with intermittent pauses to

root in the ground with their snouts to dig

and turn over litter and top soil, thereby leav-

ing the small but distinctive forage marks that

denote recent pigmy hog activity. When

rooting they adopt a familiar rooting

stance of standing with legs braced to push

soil over either forwards or to the side. Root-

ing may be specifically directed at searching

for favoured foodstuffs, or be purely rando-

mised i.e. opportunistic rooting. If rooting is

profitable, the food is consumed in situ and

excavation continues; or if not profitable, they

root briefly in two or three other places in the

immediate vicinity before walkng some dist-

ance and repeating the performance. They are

habitual foragers spending in the region of six

to eight hours a day actively searching for

food. This is also true for captive animals,

(even in an ad-lib feeding situation) but only

if foraging can be profitable. Thus despite the

very large quantities of food that were always

given to the animals at Gauhati Zoo because

of food stealing by wild monkeys Macaca,

the young pair of hogs spent up to ten hours

a day foraging in their enclosure.

The overall movements of an individual or

group often seem to be quite random whilst

foraging, though the group itself maintains

cohesion by keeping vocal contact (soft grunt-

ing) with each other. Most foraging is within

the thatch-scrub itself, particularly in small

clearings, elephant tracks or other places

where the tall scrub gives way to mixed ground

vegetation where foraging is more profitable.

There is no evidence that they travel long

distances to find forage, but they frequently

forage in light cover peripheral to their habi-

tation areas, though even this seemed to occur

only at first light or more frequently under the

cover of darkness. It is very doubtful that

they ever voluntarily move far from cover or

travel across open ground, though they will

visit adjacent paddy fields. Pigmy hogs from

a population that formerly occurred in Kha-

lingduar Reserve Forest were observed in the

bordering Nonaipara and Majuli Tea Estates

which they could reach without leaving cover.

In November, 1969 hogs were observed for-

aging for tubers of the herb Oxalis acetosella

in Nonaipara (J. Gilchrist, pers. comm.) and

this is one of the very few reliable reports of

pigmy hogs on tea estates that have occurred

at a time of the year that cannot be associated

with population displacement by dry season

burning.

Being highly omnivorous, pigmy hogs con-

sume a very wide range of foodstuffs includ-

ing roots and tubers, grass, leaves, shoots,

fruits and seeds, insects, earthworms and other

small animals and probably even _ nestling

birds, eggs and carrion. The hogs at Gauhati

Zoo have been known to readily consume

dead birds and take meat from goat ribs in

addition to a large variety of cereals, veget-

ables and seasonal fruits.

Whilst foraging, pigmy hogs naturally con-

sume large quantities of earth. This is shown

135

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

in Table 3 where the inorganic constituents

(ash) from stomach content analysis is basi-

cally soil and represents approximately fifty

per cent of ingested material (dry weight).

TABLE 3

SUMMARY OF NUTRIENT ANALYSIS OF THE STOMACH

CONTENT OF A DRIED SAMPLE TAKEN FROM A WILD

MALE PIGMY HOG Sus salvanius, AND A COMPARA-

TIVE ANALYSIS OF COMMERCIAL OMNIVOROUS PELLET

DIET SUITABLE FOR WILD PIGS

Pigmy Hog Zoo Diet A

stomach (BP Nutrition)

contents for wild pigs etc.

% of Dry Matter 93.9 90 approx.

% of Dry Matter as:

Crude Protein 8.7 26.0

Crude Fat 355 7.8

Ash 50.3 7.0

Total carbohydrate SCT 50.0

Gross energy 1871 Kceals/Kg 3660 Kcals/Kg

(N.B. Apart from the surprising low crude protein

content, the nutrient breakdown is very simi-

lar considering the 50% inorganic content of

the stomach sample).

The gross examination of this sample

(which originated from the male killed in

Barnadi in April) revealed that was comprised

predominately of soil particles, fibrous plant

material and insect exoskeletal material (chie-

fly ant-heads). Gross examination of faeces

removed from the rectum of this specimen also

showed a predominance of soil particles and

exoskeletal matter so it is likely that the re-

markably high level of inorganic material does

actually represent the dry weight percentage

ingested, rather than a simple retention of soil

particles within the stomach. The rather low

crude protein component shown may actually

overestimate the digestable protein content

considering the high level of indigestable exo-

136

skeletal material, which should be classified

with the ‘fibre’ category (G. King, pers.

comm.).

The amount of free water taken by pigmy

hogs probably varies considerably throughout

the year and it is likely that they can survive

for long periods during the dry season by sub-

sisting on dew and the water content of their

diet. Regular visits to two water holes in Bar-

nadi during dry weather never revealed traces

of pigmy hog activity and the animals would

anyway have to travel considerable distances

over Open ground to reach these. Animals

seeking refuge in Budlapara Tea Estate hav-

ing been displaced by dry season burning in

Barnadi, do however visit settling tanks to

drink (D. J. Mukherjee, pers. comm.) though

this may, in part, reflect the poor quality of

forage available to the hogs in these circum-

stances.

PARASITOLOGY

Pigmy hog are host to a number of ecto-

parasites, examples of which were collected

from nests, living and dead animals and dried

skins. These include species of flea (Siphona-

ptera), louse (Phthiraptera) and two species

of tick (Acarina), all of which were subse-

quently identified by the Commonwealth Insti-

tute of Entomology and the Acarology Section,

Zoological Survey of India. Of these only the

fleas Ctenocephalides sp. (family Pulicidae)

are probably of no great interest as they were

found on only two of the captive hogs at Per-

tabgur. The genus is not host specific and these

almost certainly represent merely a small local

infection from contact with domestic livestock

or house pets.

In contrast, the lice being permanent obli-

gatory parasites, are very likely to be host

specific and specimens were found on all ani-

mals examined (they evidently do not leave

PIGMY HOG SURVEY 1977—P ART II

host’s body after death and were also found

on preserved skins of deceased hogs previous-

ly maintained on Paneery and Attareekhat Tea

Estates). They have been identified as belong-

ing to the genus of sucking lice Haematopinus

(Haematopinidae) though the species is new

to science and has now been described as a

AZ. oliveri (Mishra and Singh, 1978). Infesta-

tion was always moderately heavy and well

over a dozen adult specimens were removed

from some animals. They are an active species

that may be found almost anywhere on the

host, but especially on the neck, shoulders,

axillae and groin. Some Haemotopinus sp. are

well known parasites of domestic mammals

and the largest species of the genus H. suis

is the only louse known to infest domestic

swine, G. Lapage (1956).

The spread of lice and the evident ubiquity

of infestation of this species in particular, is

clearly facilitated by the social nesting and

contact behaviour of wild pigs. Nest building

may also facilitate the spread of the tick para-

sitism and both species of tick (Ixodidae) were

recovered from within the fresh nests in Bar-

nadi. These comprised four female (all en-

gorged) Dermacentor sp. (two from each nest)

and seven male Rhipicephalus haemaphysa-

loides (Supino). Only one of the latter was

recovered from a nest, the remainder being

taken from the skin of wild caught animals.

Most records of Dermacentor from India are

of D. auratus though those specimens collect-

ed show some variation from auratus in res-

pect of scutal shape and coxal spurs (S. K.

Gupta pers. comm.). D. auratus is probably

a complex of species and the specimens have

been referred to as “D. auratus Supino group”

or “D. auratus Supino sensu Aurthur, 1960”

(D. Macfarlane pers. comm.). Probably nei-

ther species however is (adult) host specific.

Little is known about endoparasites of pig-

my hogs and no serious infestation has been

recorded. Some roundworms (unspecified)

were taken from the colon of a wild caught

female in 1972, and all captive animals on tea

estates at that time were then treated with

Helmacid citrate, but no ova or cysts have

since been recorded from occasional faecal

testing. Round worms and tapeworms have

been found in Gauhati Zoo stock and these

animals are now routinely dosed for worms

once a month. Faecal samples from the dead

animals in Barnadi and from Gauhati and Per-

tabgur in 1977, all proved negative for para-

sitic ova and cysts (G. King, pers. comm.).

NOTE ON THE HISPID HARE

In contrast to the pigmy hog, very little new

information about the hispid hare has mate-

rialised in recent years apart from the brief

published descriptions by Mallinson (1971)

and Tessier-Yandell (1972). Both these ac-

counts relate to the acquisition of a single

male specimen from Barnadi Reserve Forest

on 22nd April 1971 by Warendra Singh, then

Manager of Attareekhat Tea Estate. This ani-

mal lived for only about three months and

there were no further records until late March

1976, when a female was acquired by Singh

from the same source. This second animal also

survival for only a short time, though three

days after capture it gave birth to a single in-

fant which also died after a few days. Unfor-

tunately almost no information has been re-

corded about this infant or even its date of

birth, though this presumably occurred at the

end of March or beginning of April. Several

other hispid hare has been caught for the

Gauhati Zoo in the Manas Sanctuary during

the dry seasons of 1976 and 1977 (Gohain-

Barau pers. comm.). None of these animals

have reached their destination however, all

137

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

having succumbed within a few days of cap-

ture.

These deaths are undoubtedly attributable

to stress and physical damage from collision

with cage fixtures resultant of their extreme

timidity and flight reaction. The original male

acquired by Singh eventually died from a frac-

tured skull and ‘“‘would try very desperately

to avoid any human interference and as soon

as it heard any kind of noise, would run mad-

ly in its enclosure and dash against the wire

fencing causing bleeding from the nose” (Singh

in litt.). Such a disposition probably coupled

with a disease-susceptibility typical of hares,

renders any further attempts at captive hus-

bandry of doubtful merit without consider-

able expertise and experience of comparable

species.

Unfortunately this also precludes captive re-

search which would otherwise reveal much

about the biology of this species, just as it

has with the pigmy hog. There are certainly

fewer reports of them in the wild than there

are of pigmy hog and this fact, together with

a common failure by many local people to dis-

tinguish between Caprolagus and the much

more common and widely distributed Indian

hare Lepus nigricollis, is reflected in a paucity

of general information about the species.

Lepus was certainly very common and fre-

quently observed in Barnadi, though Capro-

lagus was only seen on two occasions; once

briefly when a specimen was flushed by a dog

and dashed across a jeep track, and secondly

when a female was accidentally caught whilst

driving for pigmy hog for harness attachment,

see Plate II. She was released after being pho-

tographed and _ briefly examined, though this

release was only achieved after a great deal

of argument with the beaters who wanted to

butcher her for later consumption. It is worth

noting, in this context, that, even though these

138

particular people readily distinguished between

the two sorts of ‘rabbit’? and even had sepa-

rate names for them, they entirely failed to

appreciate their differing status or the reasons

for it. This is in marked contrast to pigmy

hog which is known to be protected and

though it is still eaten, it is never hunted

openly.

The capture of this animal occurred on 19th

April 1977 at a time when she was heavily

pregnant, at most only a few days pre-parturi-

tion on the basis of her swollen mammaries.

This date and the parturition in Attareekhat

indicate a birth peak at this time, though there

may well be two litters born annually. A

forest guard and a mahout at Manas Sanc-

tuary both stated that they had seen infants

on a number of occasions, usually in late June

or July, but occasionally in April. Births are

said to take place in clumps of thatch in heavy

cover. and litter size varied from two to five

infants.

There is no evidence for burrowing or nest

building behaviour in this species. The original

male at Attareekhat made no attempt to bur-

row in the soil floor of its enclosure and no

burrows or nests were found in Barnadi. The

only physical evidence for hispid hare activity

is therefore the characteristic thatch-cuttings

and faecal deposits that denote resting and

feeding places, but may also have territorial

significance by acting as demarcation sites

(see Plate II).

Several of these sites were invariably found

in close proximity to one another, though a

group of individual sites is usually widely se-

parated from another group of sites. Sites

always contained both thatch-cuttings, compri-

sing the outer sheaths (< 10 cm in length) of

shoots that had been consumed in situ, and

faeces. The faeces are the typical ellipsoidal

droppings of lagomorphs, but are of two dis-

PIGMY HOG SURVEY 1977—PART II

tinct sizes, ic. approximately 1.0 cm and 1.5

cm diameter. Generally speaking a collection

of sites comprised droppings of only one size

(indicating site use by a single animal) but

occasionally a collection site comprised drop-

pings of two sizes (indicating use by a pair).

Individual sites within a particular site collec-

tion always contained faecal material of only

one size however. As these observations were

made towards the end of April it is not clear

whether size disparity of faeces is related to

sex or mother and young. The species is cer-

tainly asocial, and most records refer to a

single animal, though there have been occa-

sional report of pairs associating together.

From variance in the relative decomposition

of faecal matter in different sites within a parti-

cular area, it is apparent that the animals retire

to feed at slightly different sites within a pre-

ferred locale, though the accumulation of

thatch-cuttings and faeces would indicate that

a particular site is used for some time. Apart

from thatch shoots, which are bitten off at the

base, it is probably that the species also feeds

extensively on roots and Singh has reported

that the male maintained by him would eat

only soaked gram and the roots of ‘dub’ (or

‘dhoob’) grass Cynodon dactylon and not the

grass itself. Caprolagus undoubtedly feeds pri-

marily within the thatch-scrub though it is re-

puted to forage occasionally in adjoining pad-

dy areas. However this was not confirmed by

regular screening with a torch at night, though

Lepus was commonly observed to emerge

from scrub to forage in these circumstances.

It is unlikely that there is much competition

between the two species except possibly in the

dry season, but their ecological relationship

in areas such as Barnadi where they are sym-

patric, would be well worth further investiga-

tion.

SUMMARY

(1) This paper represents the second part

(2)

(3)

of a general report based on a field

survey of pigmy hog Sus salvanius and

hispid hare Caprolagus hispidus that

was undertaken in north-western As-

sam in the period late March to mid

June 1977. The first part, which has

been printed separately, deals with the

conservation of these animals and,

though the two aspects of conservation

and biology are closely interrelated,

efforts have been made to reiterate in-

formation presented as little as possi-

ble. The survey was sponsored by the

Assam Valley Wildlife Society and the

Wildlife Preservation Trust, and had

the full cooperation of the Assam Forest

Department.

Opportunities for field study are some-

what limited as ethological observation

is essentially precluded by their small

size, secretive habits and their dense

and observationally unsuitable habit-

at. Methods of study have therefore

relied heavily on physical evidence of

their activity in the field, the radio-

tracking of two wild male pigmy hogs

and observations of captive animals at

the Assam State Zoo, Gauhati, and at

Pertabgur Tea Estate, Darrang. Data

obtained in this way has been pooled

with various eye-witness accounts, cap-

tive stock records and correspondence

files, in order to formulate generalisa-

tions about their biology.

The former and present distribution of

these species has been considered at

some length in the earlier report, but

can be exclusively equated with the

139

(4)

(5)

140

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

dense thatch-scrub jungle that typical-

ly occurs along the southern edge of

the Himalayan foothills. This upland

savannah is essentially flat, well-drain-

ed and thinly forested, but natural habi-

tat is now in very short supply owing

to progressive human settlement and

encroachment, and the ecological dis-

tortion brought about by the almost

universal practise of dry-season burn-

ing. This has progressively reduced

their former extensive distribution to a

few remaining isolated populations

whose size is directly proportional to

the amount of habitat left unburnt. A

tentative estimated density of one pig-

my hog/5.34 hectares has been derived

at from radio-tracking and random

sampling of numbers disturbed in a

given area.

Their social behaviour appears to be

generally similar to other Sus sp. with

the size of social units being govern-

ed by a pattern of reproductive-based

changes in sociality. The basic unit of a

female/females with young of the pre-

vious season is socially cohesive and

probably asocial to other family

groups. Adult males are _ essentially

solitary except during rut in late De-

cember to mid February when they

temporarily join oestrus females and

become highly intolerant of other

males and undoubtedly cause some dis-

ruption to existing sounders by ousting

sub-adult males. The latter may rejoin

sows after rut, but the size of sound-

ers is probably kept small by sows

separating off to farrow.

There is a well defined birth peak in

late April to mid May which corre-

lates with bio-climatic changes that

(6)

(7)

(8)

favour reproduction. Litter size varies

from 3 to 6 with a litter average of 4

(n=11) from records of captive births

since 1971. Nearly all information on

reproduction is based on captive stocks,

though the high incidence of breeding

in captivity has failed to realise its po-

tential owing to generally poor stand-

ards of husbandry leading to an un-

justifiably high infant mortality.

Nestbuilding behaviour is well deve-

loped and nests are constructed indi-

vidually or co-operatively by all indi-

viduals at all times of the year. This

is in marked contrast to other suids

where nests are usually associated only

with parturition, being built by late-

term sows as a prelude to farrowing

for the protection of neonate infants.

Nests are similiar in construction to the

farrowing nests of other Sus sp. and

may be used for some time, though a

particular individual or group may have

more than one nest site in use.

Pigmy hogs are essentially diurnal,

though there is a tendency towards

crepuscular behaviour with activity

levels being influenced by weather and

ambient temperatures. Most activity

therefore occurs in the period from

dawn to mid-morning and from mid-

afternoon to two or three hours after

dusk and the least activity in heavy

rain or temperatures = 33°C. Nest

building generally occurs towards dusk

and contact behaviour and social

grooming is pronounced in inactivity

phases.

Foraging is naturally the primary oc-

cupation of pigmy hog activity and

rooting may be specifically directed at

searching for favoured foodstuffs such

PIGMY HOG SURVEY 1977—PART II

as roots, tubers or small animal matter,

or it may be randomised and opportu-

nistic. The overall movements of a

group appear to be randomised whilst

foraging within the normal home range

and they probably never travel long

distances or far from cover to find food

or water. Group cohesion is maintained

in dense vegetation by vocalisation

(soft grunting). They are highly om-

nivorous and a very wide variety of

foodstuffs are consumed along with a

surprisingly large quantity of soil (50%

dry weight or ingested material).

Pigmy hog are host to a number of

ectoparasites including lice and_ ticks,

though some fleas Ctenocephalides sp.

from captive animals probably represent

merely a small local infection. Two spe-

cies of tick Dermacentor sp. and Rhi-

picephalus sp. were collected, mainly

from fresh nests, and one species of

louse Haematopinus was found on all

animals examined, including preserved

skins. This louse is probably host spe-

cific and is new to science and has been

named as JH. oliveri. Little is still

known about endoparasitology though

(9)

round worm and tape-worms have been

recorded from captive animals.

A note is included on the hispid hare

Caprolagus hispidus though observa-

tions on this species were essentially

incidental to the main study. Hispid

hare remain generally poorly known

and even most local people do not

readily distinguish between this species

which is restricted to thatch-scrub areas,

and the much commoner and widely

distributed Indian hare Lepus nigricol-

lis which is sympatric with Caprolagus

in areas such as Barnadi Reserve

Forest. The few attempts to maintain

hispid hare in captivity have been un-

successful owing to their extreme ner-

vous disposition and poor understand-

ing of their biology. They are only rare-

ly seen though they leave distinctive

demarcation sites of thatch cuttings, on

which they feed, and faeces, thereby

signifying their habitation. They are

asocial and usually solitary, though pairs

have been reported on occasion. They

probably have two litters annually dur-

ing the wet season in April and late

June/July.

(10)

REFERENCES

Ewer, R. F. (1968): The Ethology of Mammals.

Lagos Press Limited, London.

GARSON, J. G. (1883): Notes on the Anatomy

of Sus salvanius (Porcula salvania, Hodgson). Part

1. External characters and Visceral Anatomy. Proc.

Zoo Soc. XXVIII: 413-418, Z.S.L.

GRZIMEK, B. (1972): Animal Life Encyclopedia,

Vol. 13 (Mammals VI). Van Nostrand Reinhold

Co., London and New York.

Hopscson, B. H. (1847): On a New Form of Hog

Kind or Suidae. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, XVI: 423-

428.

Kurz, J. C. & MARCHINTON, R. L. (1972):

Radiotelemetry studies of feral hogs in South Caro-

lina. Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 36, No.

4, pp. 1240-1248.

LAPAGE, G. (1956): Veterinary Parasitology. Oli-

ver and Boyd, London. pp. 595-579.

MALLINSON, J. J. C. (1971): The Pigmy Hog

Sus salvanius (Hodgson) in Northern Assam.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (2): 424-433.

MALLINSON, J. J. C. (1977): The Breeding of the

Pigmy Hog Sus salvanius (Hodgson) in Northern

Assam. ibid. 74 (2): 288-298.

MisHra, A. C. AND SINGH (1978): Description

of Haematopinus oliveri sp. nov. parasitizing Sus

141

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AHIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

salvanius in India (Haematopinidae: Anoplura).

Bull. Zool. Survv. India, 1(2): 107-109.

Monur, E. (1960): Wilde Schweine. A. Ziesen

Verlay, Hamburg, pp. 67-73.

OLIVER, W. L. R. (1978): The Doubtful Future

of the Pigmy Hog and the Hispid Hare. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist Soc. 75 (2): 341-372.

———_—— Translocation as a Conservation

Technique with special reference to the Pigmy Hog

Project at the Orang Sanctuary; (manuscript in pre-

paration).

RANJITSINH, M. K. (1972): A note on the future

conservation plan for the Pygmy Hog (Sus salva-

nius) and Hispid Hare (Caprolagus hispidus Pear-

son 1939), D. O. No. 682/DSIF 1023/72 New

142

Delhi, India.

SCHMIDT, C. R., MALLINSON, J. J. C. & WEILEN-

MAN, P. (1978): International co-operation for

captive breeding of the Pygmy Hog Sus salvanius.

International Zoo News (in press).

SIGNORET, J. P., BALDWIN, B. A., ERASER, D. &

HaFez, E. S. E. (1962): The Behaviour of Swine.

The Behaviour of Domestic Animals, ed. by Hafez,

E. S. E., Williams and Williams, Baltimore, Chap-

tery i222 pp 295-329:

TESSIER-YANDELL, J. (1971): The Pygmy Hog

(Sus salvanius). The Cheetal, Vol. 14, (3): 23-38.

India.

(1972): The Hispid Hare (Capro-

lagus hispidus). The Cheetal, 15, (1): 34-36. India.

REVIEWS

1. THE HERONS OF THE WORLD. By James Hancock and Hugh Elliott.

pp. 304 (35 x 23 cm), with 61 paintings by Robert Gilmor and

Pater Hayman. London, 1978. Editions Ltd.

This scholarly and definitive contribution

to the natural history of the herons by two

such eminent and widely travelled ornitholo-

gists is particularly timely and welcome. Time-

ly because the increasing devastation of marsh-

land habitats everywhere in the modern craze

for industrialization and other forms of econo-

mic development has highlighted the urgent

need for a closer study of heron ecology and

life history in order to promote effective con-

servation strategies, especially in the case of

the spatially restricted. narrowly adapted

forms. The very variable quality and quantity

of existing information—a ‘feast’ in the case

of about one-third the total species and

‘famine’ for the rest—made it the more neces-

sary to familiarize ornithologists with the pre-

cise status of knowledge in each case and en-

courage them to fill the gaps. To achieve this

the authors consulted close on a thousand re-

ferences; the list of these covers ten closely

printed 3-column pages at the end of the

volume and forms an invaluable bibliography

in itself.

The authors are needlessly apologetic for

‘perhaps’ devoting over-much space to topics

like Distribution, Migration and Habitat. To

the reviewer, and others like him, this indeed

is one of the strong points of the book since

so little is precisely known on these aspects

except for a few comparatively common forms.

The book describes and illustrates 61 species

of 17 genera of herons (including egrets and

bitterns) of which 18 are of special interest

to us as occurring in the Indian subcontinent.

The classification followed is the most recent

one of Payne and Risley (1976) which is

based on morphological, osteological and be-

havioural characters. In the process our long

familiar Egretta alba, the Large White Egret,

gets shunted to the genus Ardea and there are

one or two other casualties of this sort.

The Foreword by Roger Tory Peterson

pays tribute to the Bharatpur Waterbird Sanc-

tuary rightly tor its spectacular, perhaps

unique assemblage of herons, egrets etc. but

wrongly to ‘a Maharaja’s foresight to create

an inviolate sanctuary’. To put the record

straight it may be stated that the conversion

of what was formerly the Maharaja’s private

duck-shooting preserve into this ‘inviolate

sanctuary’ came only after the State was merg-

ed in the Indian Republic.

A variety of interesting topics of heron bio-

logy are discussed in the preliminary chapters,

for example patterns, sequence and timing of

moults in the context of Classification; general

pattern of nuptial display in the family, and

the function of nuptial plumes; feeding techni-

ques of the various groups and _ individual

forms, and so on. Migration patterns of the

herons as so far known, are summarized. The

dramatic range expansion of the Cattle Egret

(Bubulcus ibis) east and west from its putative

centre of radiation in Africa is traced.

The chapter on Conservation is particularly

informative. With the shrinking wetland habi-

tats of the heron tribe throughout the deve-

143

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 76

loping countries of the world due to drainage

and reclamation and the widespread poliution

of waters by industrial wastes and chemical

pesticides, the herons are under heavy attack

on all fronts, and in spite of their astonishing

resiliency some species are becoming increas-

ingly endangered. The enormity of the plumage

trade, mostly affecting the white egrets which

‘may have accounted for 200 million birds a

year’ during its 60 peak years between 1868

and 1922 had, by the turn of the century,

driven several species to near extinction. With

conservation measures initiated in 1889 by a

group of Manchester ladies leading to the for-

mation in England of the Royal Society for

the Protection of Birds in 1904 and then to

the combining of similar societies in Europe

and U.S.A. into the International Committee

(now Council) for Bird Preservation in 1922,

a remarkable recovery in the status of the

white egrets has come about.

The species descriptions that follow cover

Distribution (with a map for each species at

the end of the volume), Migration and Habitat,

General appearance and identification, Be-

haviour (including feeding, breeding, and other

facets of life history and habits), and in some

cases also a useful note on taxonomy.

The explanation mooted for the two morphs

of the Reef Heron—white and grey—-namely

differences in their respective feeding techni-

ques, hunting success, safety from predation,

etc. do not strike one as wholly convincing.

At any rate according to Indian experience

these differences between the white and dark

morphs are not significant, though of course

deeper study is needed to settle the point. Ob-

servers find difficulty in unequivocal distinc-

tion in the field between the white morph of

the Reef Heron (eretta gularis) and the

Little Egret (E. garzetta), especially when the

144

former is unaccompanied by one in the grey

phase. Since in India the dark or melanistic

morph of the Little Egret is unknown as in

Africa, the possibility of confusion does not

arise. It is pointed out that all subspecies of

E. gularis can be recognized by the down-

curved appearance of the longer, heavier and

basally yellow bill contra straight, slender and

almost black in the Little Egret. One of the

very few reliable distinctions with a specimen

in the hand (presumably) is given as the ratio

of the tarsus length to the bill length which

is about 14% greater in the Little Egret.

In regard to the sporadic Indian occurrences

of the Goliath Heron (Ardea goliath) the

authors tend to support Moreau’s belief that

there may exist, somewhere within our ter-

ritory itself. breeding populations whence

these examples originate since there is no evi-

dence at all of migration from Africa, as has

been presumed.

I have nothing but praise for this excellent

publication. The plates are uniformly of the

high standard one has come to expect from

such accomplished bird illustrators as Robert

Gilmor and Peter Hayman. It seems a pity,

though, that no scale of size is indicated on

the plates themselves so that in the case of

unfamiliar exotic species the reader need not

rummage in the text to find out. Another

minor criticism could be the size and weight

of the book which make it less convenient for

use on a usually cluttered work desk. The

large ‘coffee-table’ format admittedly enhances

the attractiveness of the beautiful plates; all

the same the publishers would perhaps con-

sider bringing out a smaller and handier ‘uti-

lity edition’ for day-to-day use by working

ornithologists?

SALIM ALI

REVIEWS

2. A DICTIONARY OF LIFE SCIENCES. Edited by E. A. Martin.

pp. 374 (12.5 x 19.5 cm). London, 1978. Pan Books Ltd.

Price £1.50 in U.K.

In the last two-three decades there has been

enormous addition to the literature in the life

sciences. Character and content of books in

various fields of biology display the integrated

nature of life sciences, which naturally

brought in new terminology in life sciences

literature.

This handy dictionary provides easy refer-

ence, concise and precise descriptions, suitable

illustrations, including a chart giving origin

of metabolic systems and major groups of

organisms. Being a dictionary there is no in-

troduction or preface for the book though on

the outside back cover, the contents, of the

book is enumerated briefly.

The dictionary is not exhaustive nor ex-

clusive, aS a large number of words prefixed

‘Bio’ and suffixed ‘biology’ are not listed

(Biomagnification, Biogas, Radiobiology,

Spacebiology, Aerobiology etc.). Latest termi-

nologies like Molecular cladogram, Thermo-

graphy etc. are also missing.

However in general, the qualities of the book

make it very useful and handy to students,

teachers and to every interested layman. A

useful addition to libraries and it should play

an important role in College Education for

many years.

A. K. JOSHEE

3. THE BIRDS OF CHINA, MONGOLIA AND KOREA: Vol. 1,

Non-Passerines. (Les Oiseaux de Chine, de Mongolie et. de Corée,

non passereaux). By R. D. Etchécopar and (the late) Francois

Hue. pp. 586 (24x 16 cm), with 22 coloured and 2 monochrome

plates by Paul Barruel and Francis Berille. Two end-paper maps

by Patrik Suire, Tahiti, 1978. Les editions du Pacifique.

Price US $113.00.

‘Then felt I like some watcher of the skies

when a new planet swims into his ken’, or

rather a binary star in the ornithological sky.

For some twenty years ago Messrs Etchécopar

and Hiie began the study of the birds in the

great arid, and largely uninhabited, area which

lies south of the Palaearctic Region. BIRDS

OF NORTH AFRICA, from the Canary Islands

over the Sahara to Suez, appeared in 1964;

BIRDS OF THE NEAR AND MIDDLE EAST, presum-

1OISEAUX D’AFRIQUE DU NoRD (Birds of North

Africa) and OISEAUX DU PROCHE ET DU MOYEN

ORIENT (Birds of the Near and Middle East) were

published by Maison Boubée, Paris.

ably covering Syria, Iraq, Iran and Afghani-

stan, was published in 1970, and the present

volume covers the eastward extension of this

area through the Gobi and Tibetan wastes

but also includes the whole of China, Mongolia

and Korea.1 The project is to be completed

with a fourth volume on the Passerines. That

M. Etchécopar has accomplished so much is

the more admirable because his friend and

colleague, Francois Hie, was killed in a motor-

car accident in January 1972. As_ Charles

Vaurie says in his Preface, it was so bold an

undertaking that it seemed impossible. But

although M. Etchécopar was unable to observe

145

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

the birds of China in the field himself, he had

seen many of them in neighbouring countries

and could rely on much published material

and museum specimens. Encouraged by

Messrs Salim Ali, Greenway, Orr, Ripley,

de Schauensee, Webster, Dolgoushine and

above all Vaurie, he soldiered on. Political and

economic difficulties were overcome and we

now have this first volume, rather fat but very

serviceable, typeset, printed and bound in

France but published in Tahiti. The text is in

French, but there is an index of English

names, there are many distribution maps and

first-class illustrations both black-and-white

and coloured, and the arrangement is such

that even someone ignorant of the French lan-

guage should get some sustenance.

Comparison with the INDIAN HANDBOOK is

inevitable. The 564 pages of text in BIRDS OF

CHINA cover the Families described in 1270

pages of HANDBOOK’S vols. 1-4. The pattern is

similar. A description of the Family is fol-

lowed by a summary of the genera and species

in it (races are seldom distinguished) and a

Key. Then follow specific descriptions. The

scientific, French and English names are given,

with references to Plates where appropriate.

Paragraphs on Identification in the museum

and in the field, Behaviour, Nesting, Distribu-

tion in China, and in the rest of the world,

follow. BIRDS OF CHINA however reduces in-

formation about subspecies to four or five

lines each, so that, for examples, genus Anser

occupies 8 pages in each book, but BIRDS OF

CHINA covers 11 species and _ subspecies

against the HANDBOOK’s 5; while genus Mega-

laima in 6 pages covers 14 species and sub-

species against the HANDBOOK’s 16 in 18 pages.

BIRDS OF CHINA also makes more use of line

drawings and maps.

There is no bibliography in this volume

but one is promised in Vol. 2 on the Passeri-

146

‘south for an even greater

forms. It will surely include the INDIAN HAND-

BOOKS, though Etchécopar & Hiie’s books

appeared too late to be utilized by Salim Ali

& Ripley, the only reference to Etchécopar

in their bibliography being to a study of the

birds of Iran written in collaboration with C.

Erard and published in the Memoirs of the

Museum of Natural History, Paris.

After the major handicap of himself being

unable to move freely in China the author’s

greatest problem was how to deal with place-

names and their spelling. Not only have there

been many changes for political and adminis-

strative reasons—sometimes 4 or 5 in the last

century—but also French, English, German,

Russian and Japanese spellings of the same

name differ in roman transliteration, and are

in cyrillic or Japanese characters in Russian

and Japanese atlases. In this connexion M.

Etchécopar quotes T. E. Lawrence’s _ light-

hearted remarks to the proof-reader of THE

SEVEN PILLARS OF WISDOM: “There are some

systems of “‘scientific transliteration”, helpful

to people who know enough Arabic not to

need helping, but a wash-out for the world.

I spell my names anyhow, to show what rot

the systems are.’ Etchécopar is more consistent

but allows himself plenty of discretion. He

spells Pekin rather than Pai-Ping, North Viet-

nam for Tonkin and has compiled a useful

four-page glossary, with references to the two

political and physical end-paper maps.

The area covered in BIRDS OF CHINA is about

three times as extensive as the Indian sub-

continent, extending from 20° to 50°N.—

Hong Kong is just south of the Tropic of

Cancer—and from longitude 80° to 135°E. To

quote Delacour’s Preface: ‘A vast desertic

zone of more than 4000 km stretches in the

north from Turkestan to Manchuria, and the

country unrolls down the coast from north to

distance before

REVIEWS

meeting the Indochinese [sic. Vietnamese]

frontier. The maritime and interior regions are

very varied, passing gradually from a cold,

very continental, climate to tropical monsoon

conditions. Off the coast, which is everywhere

rugged, are many islands, of which some such

as Taiwan and Hainan are very large and con-

tain a rich, fairly distinctive avifauna. ‘The

interior of the country is unique, with its many

mountain chains, the highest and most impres-

sive in the world, running from east to west

and knotting together in the enormous Kara-

koram, the “roof of the world”. .

‘Tibet, with its 2500 km _ breadth, at an

average elevation of more than 5000 m, is also

the largest plateau in the world. Some parts of

it are still unexplored, particularly in the west,

and together with the eastern and south-

eastern mountainous regions, they are some

of the richest evolutionary centres for the dis-

tribution of fauna and flora. This means that

a work like this, by summarizing our know-

ledge, provides an indispensable base for fur-

ther study. It is the more valuable because it

is so well illustrated.’ :

Many species are common to India and

China. Taking the Otididae as an example,

the Great Bustard (Otis tarda), a rare winter

vagrant in India, is both a resident and re-

gular visitor to China; the Little Bustard (O.

tetrax) a fairly regular winter visitor to Balu-

chistan and the NW. frontier, nests in Chinese

Turkestan (incidentally Etchécoper does not

recognize O. t. orientalis as a subspecies); and

the Houbara: (Chlamydotis undulata) breeds

both in the Makran and Mongolia. But the

Indian avifauna is richer here, and has three

species which do not occur in China—Chorio-

tis nigriceps, the Great Indian Bustard, Eupo-

dotis bengalensis, the Bengal Florican, and

Sypheotides indica, the Lesser Florican. In

general, however, the Chinese avifauna seems

somewhat richer than the Indian, 989 non-

passerine species and subspecies being record-

ed by Etchécopar against the HANDBOOK’S

884. The surprising thing is the very small

number of birds which are recorded as re-

gular visitors from China to India. The Wry-

neck (Jynx torquilla chinensis) comes to north-

eastern India and Bangladesh from its breed-

ing grounds in Chinese Turkestan; the Euro-

pean Bee-eater (Merops apiaster) is shown

breeding near the Sino-Mongolian-Russian

frontier and visiting Kashmir; and some Great

Blackheaded Gulls (Larus ichthyaetus) may

come from Mongolia., But it seems that most

Chinese bipeds, feathered or not, remain in-

side the Middle Kingdom.

R. E. HAWKINS

4. JIM CORBETT’S INDIA, Stories selected by R. E. Hawkins.

pp. 250 (24x 15.5 cm). Bombay,

Price Rs.

Only a handful of the Society’s members

may have not read Jim Corbett’s writings.

THE MAN-EATERS OF KUMAON, MY INDIA, THE

MAN-EATING LEOPARD OF RUDRAPRAYAG and

Others have made the jungles of the Kumaon

and the denizens that lived within, come alive,

1978. Oxford University Press.

50/-.

to thousands of people throughout the world.

(His books have been translated into 25 lan-

guages). And just as the man who experienced

and told these tales was about to fade into the

past, Oxford University Press has come out

with a revival.

147

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Jim Corbett’s India is a judicious collection

of short stories, hand-picked from Corbett’s

writing by R. E. Hawkins, a member of long-

standing of the Society. A better selector

would be hard to find. Hawkins, as he writes

in his biographical introduction, received and

published most of Corbett’s books and through

his correspondence came to know Corbett

well, although he met him only twice, briefly.

In fact, the book is enhanced considerably

by Hawkins’ matter of fact but sensitive bio-

graphical sketch of Corbett. The frontispiece

of a part of a large Victorian family, details

of the bric-a-brac of Gurney House (Cor-

bett’s home) as it stands today, Corbett’s de-

dicated career as a railway official, references

from memoirs and letters are all meticulously

used to evoke the nostalgia of the man you

are about to read or re-read. It also includes

some hitherto unknown facts about Jim Cor-

bett. Who ever makes bequests to one’s pub-

lisher? Hawkins’ was privileged to receive a

carpet and Corbett’s 9 volume 2 column

Shakespeare.

There was a time when the jungles of India

abounded in wild-life. When life was more

leisurely and people worked for their masters

and not necessarily for their money. When

the population was a sparse 200 million and

when wild man-eating tigers and leopards

spread terror in our villages. The stories in

JIM CORBETT’S INDIA cover all this and much

more.

It’s all there once again, Jim Corbett—the

story-teller par-excellence—sometimes border-

ing on the poetic, as when he writes about

148

“the red ball in the sky fanned by a wind

from an unseen furnace’. He tells his story

with a thrilling recollection of his real-life

experiences, bringing the leopard of Rudra-

prayag right into our drawing rooms and tak-

ing us out into the jungles of the Kumaon,

tracking a man-eater with the help of “bul-

buls, drongoes, thrushes and scimitar bab-

blers”. To say that the published stories bear

repetition is a gross-understatement. Even read-

ing them for the second time evokes that one

word that seems to tread lightly in the sub-

conscious of the book—nostalgia. For those

who may be reading Corbett for the first time

and who do not belong to that generation that

took pride in the dubious distinction of being

hunters with a gun, you may overlook the

initial references to wanton killing of wild-

life. Hawkins has in the chronological selec-

tion of these stories, apart from fulfilling the

objective of giving one an idea of the course

of Jim Corbett’s life, strikingly brought out

his evolution from hunter to ardent conserva-

tionist. The collection facilitates frog-leaping.

Each story is complete in itself and one loses

nothing by skipping chapters.

And if for no other reason, the book is

worth picking up for that simply marvellous

unpublished piece on Goongi, the alleged

‘wolf-child’. It’s a lucid account of Corbett’s

detection work to get to the bottom of the

mystery of Goongi and his logical deduction

of her being a “‘bear-child’. I picked up the

book for the sheer beauty of its dust-jacket.

DAVID FERNANDES

REVIEWS

5. THE SIXTH SENSE OF ANIMALS. By Maurice Burton.

pp. X+ 182 (22x14 cm), with 16 Black-and-White photographs

by Jane Burton, and 41 illustrations. London, 1973. J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd.

The seven wonders and the five senses have

something in common: During the recent years

man has made many things which could be

added to the list of the wonders of the world.

Yet it has not been done so. Similarly there

are senses which are equally if not more effec-

tive than the commonly known five senses

namely the senses of touch, taste, sight, smell

and hearing. Whenever one of those less fami-

liar senses happen to be dealt with it is pro-

visionally treated as the ‘sixth’ sense. The

conventional five senses are always taken as

a constant and any other form of perception ~

receives a mere temporary title, the ‘sixth

sense’, just for the occasion.

The tendency to conform to the convention-

al in spite of the fresh knowledge acquired,

is a trait of the conservative minded man and

this has often been an impediment for pro-

gress in the field of science.

Maurice Burton, in his book on THE SIXTH

SENSE OF ANIMALS has made a break through

by bringing all these extra senses under one

head and by explaining each item in a simple

language.

While the book includes ready information

for scientists and laymen alike, it is primarily

meant for the common man with some basic

inquisitiveness and interest to learn what is

happening in the living world around him.

This being the purpose of writing this book,

the author has treated these extra senses in

different chapters, first dealing with one of the

conventional senses and then describing one

or more of those extra senses which may be

related at least remotely to this particular

sense. This is primarily to help the reader

understand and assimilate the forthcoming in-

formation better.

The extra senses possessed by many animals

are unique and varied. For instance, the elec-

tric sensory organ used by the African fresh

water fish Gymnarchus niloticus enables it to

distinguish between friend and foe, food and

inedible objects, and even perceive the tex-

ture or inner components of an object from

a distance. This fish in fact is using a sense

that is wholly strange to us in which an elec-

tric field provides information by the distor-

tion of its lines.

The rattle snakes and other pit vipers pos-

ses a pair of ‘pits’ between the eyes and the

nostrils, and with these organs these snakes

can ‘see’ an object in total darkness if it is

warmer or colder than the surrounding tem-

perature, even by 0.1°C. Each of these ‘ther-

mal eyes’ in a rattle snake have five times

as many heat receptors as can be found in

the whole of human body and with this faci-

lity the snake can perceive the characteristics

of an object.

Another fascinating sense is the echo-loca-

tion system of some species of bats, used for

detecting objects in total darkness. Although

the echo receptor is the ear itself, it acts as

an eye for the purpose of recognizing an ob-

ject, its size, shape, texture, position, move-

ment etc. except colour. The only difference

is that in most cases an eye uses the available

light, whereas these bats have to use their own

‘light’-the ultrasonic waves as in the radar.

Many more fascinating senses are dealt

with in this small book, but I would rather

that the readers get it all first hand from the

author himself.

There are also chapters on celestial naviga-

149

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

tion used by bees and birds, sense of equili-

brium as exhibited in different species in dif-

ferent stages of development, and so on; end-

ing with a discussion on the pineal eye as

manifested in the tuatara and many other rep-

tiles. De

In addition to describing these ‘extra’ senses

the author also deals extensively with the

conventional five senses focusing specially upon

their fantastic development in some of fhe

animals. These senses have developed to such

an extent that the sense apparatuses we pos-

ses appear dim, remote, and absolutely pri-

mitive: Sap

An obvious omission in this book is a

list of literature consulted by the author. In

a book like this, such a list would have greatly

130

helped students and other interested readers

who may want to pursue this subject further.

There are some disturbing passages in the

text such as ‘A dog’s nose works a million

times better than ours’ (page-104). A list of

literature consulted would have enabled the

readers to check up for themselves the validity

of such and other statements. bee

Apart from these minor shortcomings which

can be rectified in subsequent editions, this

book is a valuable publication worth being

kept in all school and college libraries in addi-

‘tion to its being useful to general and _ spe-

cialized readers. It is a book one would find

difficult stop reading once having started

ita |

ROBERT B. GRUBH

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE COMMON OTTER IN

MAHARASHTRA (ITIADOH LAKE—BHANDARA DISTRICT)

WITH SOME NOTES ON ITS HABITS

Otters have been reported by local fisher-

man and shikaris in at least four lakes of Bhan-

dara District (in N. E. Maharashtra in India),

Nawegaon Bandh, Gandhari and Palandur con-

structed about 300 years ago and Itiadoh lake

on the Garvi river in 1960. During the past two

and a half years I too sighted them in all these

lakes and recognized the species as the Com-

mon Indian Otter (Lutra lutra). A specimen .

produced to me by a fisherman from the area

enabled confirmation of the species by the

Bombay Natural History Society.

The Common Indian Otter has not been re-

- corded by Prater (1971 BOOK OF INDIAN ANT-

- MALS), as occurring in these parts, or for that

matter anywhere except in Kashmir and south-

ern India. The smooth-coated Indian Otter —

(Lutra perspicillata) too has been recorded

only once in 1826 within the limits of Maha-

rashtra (1974, MAHARASHTRA STATE GAZETTEER

p. 354)..

Food and Breeding Habits:

Some food and breeding habits of the Com-

mon Indian Otter which I have occasion to

observe very frequently is summarized below.

The principal diet as recorded by Prater

(1971) is fish which may occasionally be sub-

stituted by frogs. The animals come out on to

the land near the back waters to feed upon

abundant Vetiveria zizanioides. Common

teal (Anas crecca), Lesser whistling teal (Den-

drocygna javanica), Little cormorant (Phala-

crocorax niger), White breasted waterhen

_ (Amaurornis phoenicurus), Purple Moorhen

(Porphyrio porphyrio), & Water Cock (Gallic-

rex cinerea). Ducks and Cormorant are seized

in water and White breasted waterhen, Purple

moorhen and Water Cock in wild rice (Oriza

sativa).

They gather near fishing lines after sunset,

and when one discovers a fish caught in any

of the hooks, it whistles attracting four or five

other individuals (possibly immediate members

of its family?) and the group gorges on the

fish stopping just below the head to avoid con-

tact with the hook.

Breeding:

The nursery or ‘holt’ is on the bank of Itia-

_doh Lake. Formerly this particular spot on the

bank of the river Garvi was known as Pokhar

Dongari (locally meaning hollow hills) now

partly submerged under the Itiadoh Lake. It

has several entrances, one of them under wa-

ter, a favoured breeding ground for these

animals. Young ones are born blind in

January-February and do not open their

eyes for 2-3 days and remain in the tunnel

for about a month. They can move indepen-

dently after 14 months. The mother feeds them

on fish brought in her mouth. At birth they

are of the sizé of a newly born kitten or an

adult rat. The young were once found plavy-

ing in the hollow of dead-decaying logs lying

in the submerged areas with the mother relax-

ing on the log in the early hours of the morn-

ing. They remain with the parent until they

can hunt and feed independently. The same

tunnels are used earlier (Nov.-Dec.) by Porcu-

Cell

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

pines for breeding.

Bhandara District also known as the lake

district of Maharashtra has several lakes. It

SUB-DIVISIONAL FOREST OFFICER,

NAWEGAON NATIONAL Park,

NAWEGAON' BANDH,

DisT:— BHANDRA, (M.S),

June 20, 1978.

is therefore very likely that there are other

strongholds of this Otter within the District.

This however needs further investigation.

M. B. CHITAMPALLI

2. | EVIDENCE FOR A TIGER EATING A PANTHER CUB

In general predators tend to be intolerant

of each other even to the extent of killing

without provocation—and not just at kills

(Schaller 1972). It has been recorded that ti-

gers are intolerant of leopards (Anderson

1961) and the encounter some times may be

fatal for the leopard (Allen 1960). Leopards

killed may also be eaten by the tiger (Ander-

son 1954). Many of these type of findings in

the Indian Jungle are obviously based on in-

direct evidence as the dense vegetation, the

shy nature of the animals and the element of

danger involved in going close to the animals

seldom allow a field worker to witness the

skirmish from the beginning to the end.

On 12.3.1978 an elephant mahout had seen

a tiger in a bamboo-clad dry stream bed a kilo-

metre from Bandipur Campus. When I was

told about this, suspecting a kill, I combed »

the area in the company of Keechanna my

hovering over that area and while walking

through the dense stand of bamboo I saw a

panther lying on a Terminalia bellerica tree

10-12 metre from me. Cursing myself for not

having brought the camera I slowly and silent-

ly retreated. My withdrawal enabled Keechan-

na to see the panther. Soon he ran to Bandipur

to bring my camera and I climbed a tree 100

152

metres away and waited for 45 minutes watch-

ing the crows mobbing the panther.

Keechanna brought not only my camera but

also Dr. Madhav Gadgil and two of his stu-

dents. From a distance I showed them the

panther and as all wanted to photograph we

stalked through the bamboo but the panther

jumped down and ran away.

Crows were still cawing and I continued my

search for the kill. In one place I smelt the

kill and the buzzing flies led me to the re-

-mains—skull, one lower jaw, one claw and

intestine—of a panther cub approximately 3-4

month old. On the grass we could see the hair

of the tiger and the panther. Impressions on

the grass under a bush also showed the place

where the tiger had been lying while eating.

Twice it had drunk water in the nearby pool.

Earlier twice I had seen panthers on trees

‘and in one instance, when a tiger was involved,

tribal boy the next morning. Jungle crows were ©

the panther did not even jump down when

I climbed a tree 10 metres away. But on the

other occasion I saw a panther from 200 me-

tres and hardly had I advanced 100 metres

across an open area before the panther got

‘down and ran way. However it should also

be mentioned that in both cases where tigers

were involved I had accidentally approached

the panther through dense vegetation.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

RESEARCH SCHOLAR,

BANDIPUR TIGER RESERVE,

Mysore, INDIA,

July 7, 1978.

A. J. T. JOHNSINGH!

REFERENCES

ALLEN, H. (1960): The lonely tiger, London.

ANDERSON, K. (1954): Nine man-eaters and one

rogue. London.

(1961): The call of the man-eater.

1 Present address:

London.

SCHALLER, G. B. (1972): The serengeti Lion—

A study of Predator—Prey Relations. University of

Chicago Press, Chicago.

Ayya Nadar Janaki Ammal

College, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu.

3. RANGE EXTENSION OF CRABEATING MONGOOSE

IN BANGLADESH

Recently (May 1978) three of our postgra-

duate students of wildlife biology, a wildlife

enthusiast and myself were at Bariadhala, near

the coast of Bay of Bengal, in Ramgarh-Sita-

kundu Range of the Chittagong Forest Divi-

sion in the south-eastern part of Bangladesh

We were looking for wild animals along

the edges of a moist deciduous forest

dominated by Artocarpus chaplasha, Diptero-

carpus turbinatus etc., where the edges had

an abundance of Grewia, Sterculia, Wrightia,

Cycas etc. There was a pond (100 m by 30

m), covered almost entirely by Indian Lotus.

On its southern bank there was a thicket (5

m by 30 m) having some plants of the neigh-

bouring forest with an abundance of Cleroden-

drum. A bridle-path-cum-cattle trail separated

‘the pond from the forest edge.

One of the students (Anwarul Islam) who

was searching for a wounded bird which he

shot found a mongoose-like animal closely

watching from inside the thicket. We encircled

the bush and tried to drive the animal out.

After about half an hour of beating the jungle

the animal came to the open area, between

the bush and the pond and again entered the

jungle. By that time I took two shots by my

Fujica ST701 35mm Camera with a 85-205

mm tele-zoom lens. Unfortunately the sky was

overcast and the pictures are not sharp but

they clearly show the distinguishing features

of a Crabeating Mongoose Herpestes urva

(Hodgson). The white patch running from

the mouth to the shoulder on either side, its

massive build and erectile body and tail hairs

are quite conspicuous. The latter feature must

have been a defensive posture or threat dis-

play.

Two species of Mongoose are known to oc-

cur in Bangladesh. They are the Common

Mongoose Herpestes edwardsi (Geoffroy) and

Small Indian Mongoose H. auropunctatus

(Hodgson), both are common. But there ap-

pears to be no record of the Crabeating Mon-

goose occurring in this part of the sub-conti-

nent or of West Bengal. Blanford (1888), Po-

cock (1939-1941), Ellerman and Morrison-

Scott (1951), have not included Bangladesh

(or Bengal) that is erstwhile East Pakistan jn

the distributional range of the Crabeating Mon-

goose. Authors like Mountfort (1968) and

Husain (1971) who have worked the Bangia-

desh fauna also did not include this species

in their record. Prater (1971) states that it oc-

153

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

curs from Nepal to Assam, eastwards to Bur-

ma, south China and the northern part of

Malaya. Therefore this is first record of the

occurrence of Herpestes urva in Bangladesh.

The distributional range of this species can

now be extended from the neighbouring Assam

and Burma to almost the coast of the Bay

of Bengal across Chittagong.

DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF DACCA,

Dacca-2, BANGLADESH,

May 29, 1978.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

I thank the Forest Department officials, Mr.

Shah Ali Imam, DFO, in particular, of Chit-

tagong Forest Division for their various help:

and to Messers Anwarul Islam, Saiful Hoque,

Gazi Syed Asmat and Bablu for their assist-

ance.

M. A. REZA KHAN

REFERENCES

BLANFoRD, W. T. (1888): The fauna of British

India, including Burma and Ceylon: Mammalia.

London, Taylor and Francis.

ELLERMAN, J. R. AND MorrisSon-ScottT, T. (1951):

Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals 1759-

1946. London, British Museum.

Husain, K. Z. (1974): An introduction to the

wildlife of Bangladesh. Dacca, F. Ahamed.

MOUNTFORT, G.

London, Collins.

Pocock, R. I. (1939-1941): The fauna of Bri-

tish India, including Ceylon and Burma: Mamma-

lia, 2 vols. 2nd edn. London, Taylor and Francis.

PRATER, S. H. (1971): The book of Indian Ant-

mals. 3rd rev. edn., India, Bombay Natural History

Society.

(1968): Our vanishing Jungle.

4. AN INTERESTING BEHAVIOUR OF THREE NILGIRI

TAHR (HEMITRAGUS HYLOCRIUS OGILBY 1833) KIDS

On 3rd March 1978 I accompanied Mr. John

Joseph, Wild Life Warden, Mudumalai Wiid

Life Sanctuary and Mr. Radcliffe, Nilgiri Wild

Life Association, to the Nilgiri Tahr country.

Our intention was to look for poachers. The

previous day, Mr. John Joseph had sent a re-

connaissance party and our plan was to meet

them beyond Bangitappal in the intcrior of

the Tahr Country. After our rendezvous with

the advance party we went to Nadgani to see

the precipitous slope leading into the Nilam-

bur valley of Kerala from where poachers,

using a long cane as a rope, frequently came

to steal cane and to. shoot.

On the way to Nadgani we saw 13 adult

RESEARCH SCHOLAR,

BANDIPUR TIGER RESERVE,

KARNATAKA, INDIA,

July 19, 1978.

1 Present address:

154

_Tahr on a slope. Nearly a kilometre after the

sighting, 3 Tahr kids with 4-5 cm long horns,

probably separated from the parental herd,

seeing us walking in a single file, ran towards

us. Seeing them coming towards us we stood

still on the bridle path and one of the three

kids came as close as 6 metres to our Khaki

clad troop. However after some time we start-

ed walking and. the tahr instead. of running

away, occasionally, bleated and followed us.

Many a time the wind blew our scent to the

kids and that also did not frighten them. The

young which came close to us first mostly

maintained a distance of 8-10 metres and fol-

lowed us for well over a kilometre.

A. J. T. JOHNSINGH"

Ayya Nadar Janaki Ammal College, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

5. A SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE ON SOME MAMMALS

RECENTLY COLLECTED IN BHUTAN

During: the last decade, Dr. B. Biswas of the

-Zoological Survey of India, Dr. Salim Ali of

the Bombay Natural History Society, and Dr.

'§S. Dillon Ripley of the U.S. National Museum,

Washington, have conducted faunistic explora-

tions in the montane kingdom of Bhutan dur-

ing several trips.

The mammalian collections made by Dr. B.

Biswas have been reported upon by Chakra-

borty (1975 )and by Saha (1978).

The present paper, however, deals with the

valuable mammalian collections made by Dr.

Salim Ali‘and his party. The collection under

report, comprises of 14 examples belonging to

10 species. Four species, namely Cynopterus

brachyotis angulatus Miller, Rhinolophus pear-

soni pearsoni Horsfield, Hystrix hodgsoni hodg-

soni (Gray) and? Rattus jerdoni (Blyth) were

taken for the first time in Bhutan.

Family PTEROPIDAE

Cynopterus brachyotis angulatus Miller

Cynopterus angulatus Miller, 1898. Proc. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,

316. Type Locality Trang, Lower Siam.

Material: 19; Nr. Phuntsholing, alt. c. 610 m,

W. Bhutan. 7 Oct. 1968.

Measurements: External: Head and body 98.

Forearm 54. Ear 22. Tail 10. Hindfoot 6. Cranial:

Greatest length 30. Rostrum 7.

Remarks: Although Hill and Thonglongya

- (1972) treated Miller’s Cynopterus angulatus

as a subspecies of C. sphinx, I prefer to follow

the general treatment to keep it under C. bra-

chyotis as by most authors.

The present specimen is, however, the first

one taken in Bhutan.

Family RHINOLOPHIDAE

Rhinolophus aflfinis himalayanus Andersen

Rhinolophus affinis himalayanus Andersen,

1905. Proc. zool. Soc. 1905, 2: 103.

Type Locality Mussoorie, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Material: 19; Gedu, alt. c 1830 m, W. Bhutan.

11 Oct. 1968.

Measurements: (From the stuffed skin) TFore-

arm 49.4. Ear 16.9.

Rhinolophus pearsoni pearsoni Horsfield

Rhinolophus pearsoni Horsfield, 1851.

Mamm. Mus. E. Ind. Co. 33.

Type Locality Darjeeling, West Bengal, India.

Material: 124 (skin only); Phuntsholing, alt. c

610 m, W. Bhutan. 7 Oct. 1968.

Measurements: (From the stuffed skin) Forearm

53:6.) Ear) 25:8:

Remarks: Ellerman and Morrison-Scott

(1966) gave Kumaon, Darjeeling, Assam (Dob-

son), Szechuan and Yunnan as its approximate

distribution. The present specimen is the first

one taken in Bhutan.

Cat.

Family VIVERRIDAE

Viverra zibetha zibetha Linnaeus

Viverra zibetha Linnaeus, 1758. Syst. Nat. 10th

ed. 1:44. Type Locality Bengal.

Material: 12 (skin only); Batase, alt. c 1525

m, C. Bhutan. 11 Mar. 1967.

Family CERVIDAE

Muntiacus muntjak vaginalis (Boddaert)

Cervus vaginalis Boddaert, 1785. Elench.

Anim. 1: 136. Type Locality Bengal.

Material: 124; Shamgong, alt. c 1981 m, C.

Bhutan. Apr. 1967. 14 (skin only), 12; no locality,

but from the other data of its collection (Oct. 1968,

when the expedition was carried out in W. Bhu-

tan), it appears to have been collected in W. Bhu-

tan. Oct. 1968.

155

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Family ScrURIDAE

Tamiops macclellandi macclellandi (Horsfield)

Sciurus macclellandi Horsfield, 1839. Proc.

zool. Soc. 152. Type Locality Assam.

Material: 14; Chapcha, alt. c. 2450 m, W. Bhu-

tan. 13 Nov 1968.

Dremomys lokriah bhotia Wroughton

Dremomys lokriah bhotia Wroughton, 1916. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24: 634. Type Locality

Sedenchen, Sikkim, India.

Material: 14, 192; Chimakothi, alt. c. 2440 m,

W. Bhutan. 5 Nov, 8 Nov 1968.

Ratufa bicolor gigantea (McClelland)

Sciurus gigantea McClelland, 1839. Proc. zool.

Soc. 150. Type Locality Assam.

Material: 19; Batase, alt. c 1525 m, C. Bhutan.

11 Mar 1967. 1- (skin only without any other data).

Family HyYSTRICIDAE

Hystrix hodgsoni hodgsoni (Gray)

Acanthion hodgsoni Gray, 1847. Proc. zool.

Soc. 101. Type Locality Nepal.

Material: 12 (skin only); Chapcha, alt. c 2440

m, W. Bhutan. 13 Nov 1968.

Remark: This specimen is the first one taken

in Bhutan.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CALCUTTA,

October 19, 1978.

Family MURIDAE

? Rattus jerdoni (Blyth)

Leggada jerdoni Blyth, 1863. J. Asiat. Soc.

Bengal, 32: 350. Type Locality Sikkim.

Material: 13 (skin only); Shamgong, alt. c 1918

m, C. Bhutan. 17 Apr 1967.

Measurements: (From the stuffed skin) Head and

body 123. Tail 163. Hindfoot 26. Ear 20.

Remarks: The Bicoloured Rat is exceeding-

ly rare and very few specimens have so far

been collected. The taxonomy of this species

is controversial. Detailed discussion on its tax-

onomy is being dealt with separately. Although

the skull of the specimen was not available,

I could not, but, place it under this species.

This specimen is, however, the first one taken

in Bhutan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to Dr. B. Biswas for

his keen interest in this work and for kind-

ly going through the manuscript. Sincere

thanks are due to Dr. Salim Ali and to Shri

J. C. Daniel for lending the collections for my

study.

SUBHENDU SEKHAR SAHA

REFERENCES

BLYTH, E. (1863): A Memoirs of the Rats and

Mice of India. J. Asiat. Soc. Beng., 32: 350.

CHAKRABORTY, S. (1975): On a _ collection of

mammals from Bhutan. Rec. zool. surv. India, 68:

1-20.

ELLERMAN, J. R. AND MorrisSon-ScoTt, T. C. S.

(1966): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mam-

156

mals. Brit. Mus., London.

HILL, J. E. AND THONGLONGYA, K. (1972): Bats

from Thailand and Cambodia. Bull. Brit. nat. Hist.

(zool)., 22 (6): 173-196.

SAHA, S. S. (1978): On some mammals recently

collected in Bhutan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 74

(2): 350-354. ,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

6. OCCURRENCE OF CHESTNUTHEADED BEE-EATER

(MEROPS LESCHENAULTI) IN BOMBAY

On 30th August 1978, while bird watching

in Borivli National Park, we saw two Chest-

nutheaded bee-eaters (Merops leschenaulti)

on overhead electric wire near the Bacon

Factory nalla, on the way to Lion Safari Park.

There were also a few Common green bee-

eaters (M. orientalis) on the same wire but

at c 10 metres from the Chestnutheaded bee-

eaters which facilitated comparison. The Chest-

nutheaded bee-eaters were slightly larger, with

a prominent bright yellow patch covering the

chin and throat and a chocolate coloured cap.

We did not see the back of the specimens.

The absence of long pin feathers of the tail in-

dicated beyond doubt the identity of the birds.

According to Ripley (1961, SyNopsis) the

species occurs “from the plains to 5000 feet,

in well wooded country” and in the stretch

along the west coast of India it has not been

recorded north of Belgaum. Salim Ali and

Ripley (1970; HANDBOOK 4, p. 100) state

CURATOR (WILDLIFE),

BorIvLi NATIONAL PARK,

BoMBAY-400 066.

U. S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE,

WASHINGTON, U.S.A.,

September 28, 1978.

that the species occurs “‘Also in the Western

Ghats complex, from about Goa southward

(including western Mysore, Western Tamil

Nadu and Kerala) and Ceylon’. Humayum

Abdulali (1971; CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF

MAHARASHTRA) has marked the species as

being occasionally sighted “‘either in Ratna-

giri and/or Mahabaleshwar’’ and its migratory

or residential status as undecided. However,

after verifying his notes H.A. (personal com-

munication) has indicated (on the basis of

Hume’s foot note in Stray Feathers, Vol: IX,

p. 49) that the only records of Chestnuthead-

ed bee-eater from Maharashtra are from Ven-

gurla (appreciably south of Ratnagiri) where

a Capt. Bingham found it common in January.

The present sight record of the Chestnut-

headed bee-eater in Borivli National Park,

Bombay is an extension of its known distri-

bution range.

P. KANNAN!’

G. BERTRAND

1 Present address: Asst. Director (Wild Life Pre-

servation), Govt. of India, Wild Life Regional Office,

11 Air Cargo Complex, Sahar, Bombay-400 057.

7. BEEHIVE PREDATION BY WASPS (GENUS VESPA) AND

ITS POSSIBLE BENEFIT TO HONEYGUIDES (INDICATORIDAE)

IN BHUTAN

Cerophagy or wax eating habit of many

species of Honeyguides in Africa and Asia

has been known for quite some time. Some

species of honeyguides in Africa are known

to have developed symbiotic relations with

man and other animals to secure beeswax

from hives inaccessible to the birds themselves.

Several other species of honeyguides are also

157

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

known to take beeswax along with other in-,

sects though how they obtain the wax is not

clear. Since bees would actively defend their

nests the birds perhaps get their wax either

from the combs abandoned by the bees or on

the leavings of other bee hive predators.

Iwata (1976 EVOLUTION OF THE INSTINCT:

COMPARATIVE ETHOLOGY OF HYMENOPTERA)

mentions the behaviour of the Genus Vespa

and states that several species of this family

attack the nests of honey bees and other wasps,

indiscriminately killing their larvae, pupae and

adults. Friedmann (1955 The Honeyguides.

United States National Museum Bulletin 208:

292 pp.; 1972 The Asian Honeyguides. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71: 426-432.) has dis-

cussed the various aspects of beeswax eating

and guiding habits of the Indicatoridae. While

information about Asian honeyguides is mea-

gre, all the data given in Friedmann’s papers

relate to cases where cerophagy by honey-

guides in Africa is from inaccessible bee hives

after their being opened up by other predators.

Many possible bee hive predators are dis-

cussed but there is no mention of predatory

insects. Information is also not available whe-

ther honeyguides feed on exposed (abandoned

bee combs) or of the birds’ occurrence

at such sites in any numbers.

In May-June one of us (SAH), and again

in October-November 1977 we visited central

Bhutan to study the ecology of the Orange-

rumped Honeyguide (Indicator xanthonotus),

sponsored by the Society’s Salim Ali Nature

Conservation Fund. Most of our studies were

carried out around clusters of hives of the

giant Rock bee (Apis dorsata) situated at

‘Honey Rock’ c 5500 ft in Central Bhutan.

During the course of our study in October-

November, we noticed several large wasps

(specimens later identified at the British Mu-

seum as Vespa mandarina magnifica) attack- |

ing active bee hives. Four or five wasps would

158

attack a nest while the bees would actively

defend the same. Occasionally there would be

fierce ‘dog fights’ between the bees and the

wasps resulting in the death of a few wasps

and many bees. On 24 October we observed

a great deal of activity around a particular

bee nest. A large number of wasps had con-

centerated their attack on this nest while the

bees, now seriously disturbed, were swarming

all over the rock face trying to ward off the.

attackers. The battle went on for quite 10

minutes with the bees obviously having the

worse of exchanges. Slowly the yellowish white

wax structure of the upper basal part of the

bee comb became visible as the bees started

vacating the nest. The wasps now concentrat-

ed their attack on this portion of the comb

with greater vigour. After a few minutes the

bees vacated the entire comb and continued

to hover near the rock face. The assembly

slowly drifted away from the rock and disap-

peared en masse down the ravine. The wasps

then settled on the exposed bee comb and

started digging out larvae and pupae. While the .

above activities were in progress the honey-

guides had kept away from the rock face. Once

the comb was exposed several honeyguides

arrived on the scene and perched at various

places on the cliff face. A few birds tried to

approach the exposed comb but were chased

away by the wasps. After the wasps had finish- —

ed feeding and had vacated the comb several

honeyguides' settled on it and commenced

feeding on the wax.

Our studies in Bhutan reveal that Orange-

rumped Honeyguides feed on old bee combs

occurring among active exposed hives of Apis

dorsata on rock cliffs. They also feed on

scraps of pure wax adhering to cliff faces or

on old combs fallen below the cliff. The birds -

generally congregate near traditional bee nest- —

ing sites. E. J. Cronin and P. J. Sherman -

(1976 A resource based mating system—Or-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

angerumped Honeyguide. THE LIVING BIRD)

have also reported on the Wax eating habits

of this species in eastern Nepal.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. C. R. Vardy of Dept. of En-

BomBAY NATURAL HIsTorY SOCIETY,

HorNBILL House,

Bomsay-400 023,

December 26, 1978.

tomology, British Museum for identifying the

wasps and also Dr. S. Dillon Ripley, Secre-

tary, Smithsonian Institution and Dr. Karl

V. Krombein, Dept. of Entomology, National

Museum of Natural History, Washington, for

useful suggestions and for relevant literature.

S. A. HUSSAIN

SALIM ALI

8. A NOTE ON THE PREDATION OF JUNGLE MYNA

(ACRIDOTHERES FUSCUS WAGLER) ON FIELD MOUSE

On the evening of 2nd June 1978 I was

watching for wild dogs and at 1746 hrs. a

jungle myna alighted on the ground 30 metres

away from me and caught an ashy white

animal. When I carfeully observed it with

binoculars I found it to be a field mouse,

probably a young. The myna had caught the

head end of the mouse and battered it re-

peatedly. Occasionally the bird screeched as

if it had got into a trouble by tackling an

unusual prey. By 1749 hrs. the mouse appeared

to be dead and the myna, after having placed

RESEARCH SCHOLAR,

BANDIPUR TIGER RESERVE,

Mysore, INDIA,

July 26, 1978.

it on the ground and (battering) shaking it

throughly, flew off and dropped it in to its

nest hole on an Albizzia odoratissima tree at

a height of 9-10 metres. Later when I moved

from the original place I could see the gaping

mouths of two nestlings but I was uncertain

whether the mouse was swallowed by a chick.

Once I saw a crow-pheasant hopping along

a water edge trying to catch frogs, which I

thought was to be expected. But the ability

of a myna to kill a mouse was something I

never expected.

A. J. T. JOHNSINGH?

(Baby mice have been recorded as an occa-

sional food item in the INDIAN HANDBOOK, 5:

179—Ebs).

1 Present address:

Ayya Nadar Janaki Ammal

College, Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu.

9. THE NESTING OF TICKELL’S FLYCATCHER (MUSCICAPA

TICKELLIAE) IN BOMBAY

Many years ago Betham took eggs of

Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher (Muscicapa tickel-

liae) at Poona in July/August and Davidson

on Kondabhari Ghat, near Dhulia, in July.

In NIDIFICATION (2: 202), Stuart Baker pre-

sumably with additional data, said it bred at

Poona and the Western Ghats from May/June

to August.

159

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

In 1937, in “Birds of Bombay and Salsette’’

(JBNHS 38: 525), Salim Ali and I recorded

the species as common in the better wooded

and forested parts of the island from October

to May, and added that while it was certain

that some at least remained in our area dur-

ing the monsoon, it was evident that the ma-

jority went away to breed. Notes over sub-

sequent years have confirmed these observa-

tions in general, but no definite evidence of

their nesting in the Konkan, west of the Ghats

was available.

It was therefore a pleasant surprise to learn

that my sister Mrs. Sakina Moizuddin had

found a nest in her garden at Chembur, Trom-

bay, Greater Bombay, and the following notes

kept jointly with her may be of interest:

The cup-shaped nest of vegetable fibres was

placed in a niche in a rotten tree stump, 18

inches from the ground, and a few feet away

from the door leading from her house into the

garden. The nest was given away by the bird

rushing off when the door was used, and re-

sulted in the door staying closed for the dura-

tion of the nesting. The nest was visible from

an adjoining window, but too close for focus-

sing my binoculars.

The first egg was seen on 28th July 1977,

two at 8-30 a.m. on 29th and the full clutch

of 3 on 30th.

On 30th July, a bird with bright blue eye-

brows was on the nest at 9 a.m. and also at

9 p.m.

During this period my sister got the im-

pression that the hen(?) was sitting on the

nest the whole day, while the male turned up

at odd intervals and sang among the trees 15

yards away. Both birds were not seen to-

gether.

10th August: Three chicks noted today, 11

days after completion of clutch. The mother

had been sitting exceptionally close over the

160

last day or two, during which time, the male,

who was a brighter chestnut in front and a

brighter blue above, also appeared to stay

longer around the area.

13th August: c. 6-30 p.m.: Three hair-

covered chicks lay flat and motionless in nest.

The female with much paler underparts, fed

the young while the male sat on a branch 15

yards away. At 7-30 p.m., and again at 9-30

p.m., there was no parent on the nest. Nor

was either seen settled on the nest after the

chicks had hatched.

14th August: Both parents carrying food

to nest, perching at about the same place in a

climber c. 5 ft from the nest, for an all-clear

look before actually visiting it. The same perch ©

was often, but not always, used on the return.

Between 2-30 and 3-30 p.m., they visited the

next 10 times, male 4, female 6. On the second

visit the o flew away from the preliminary

perch and failed to come back for half an

hour. The @ visited at intervals of about 10

minutes. Both were at the perch together only

once, Caterpillars appeared to be the most

frequent food.

20th August: I arrived at about 6-30 p.m.,

and was told that all three young had been

seen in the nest half-an-hour back. The ¢

was seen with food but appeared reluctant to

visit the nest, and I thought I would ring the

birds as scheduled and watch them later. The

nest was found to hold only one chick with a

half-grown tail and the brown _pale-spotted

plumage of juvenile flycatchers. A green plastic

ring was placed on its foot but it refused to

stay in the nest and fluttered to the ground

near the closed door. The male flew around,

with food and calling, but did not appear to

be doing anything. After about 10 minutes,

the female appeared for the first time, flew |

to the nest and then the chick, and persuaded

it to hop along the ground for about 15 ft

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

where it squatted on the lawn. The male con-

tinued his earlier behaviour, but finally settled

beside the chick and thrust a small dragon-

fly down its throat. After another 10 minutes

he appeared with a large gryllid(?), settled

near the chick but did not feed it, apparently

trying to entice it further away into some

bushes. The chick finally hopped away, with

the male still holding the mole-cricket.

Almost an hour had passed and as the birds

could no longer be seen, the watch was dis-

continued. It is assumed that the hen was not

very far away, looking after and feeding the

other two chicks.

Throughout the period at the nest the feed-

ing started at sunrise and continued till after

sunset. The do was never seen on the eggs

and was more constantly singing than attend-

ing to the young. Neither parent was actually

seen carrying away any droppings, but this

was no doubt done, for the nest was quite

clean when abandoned.

The chicks were not heard to utter any call

75 ABDUL REHMAN STREET,

Bomsay-400 003,

September 5, 1977.

from the nest, and usually lay limp and motion-

less when touched by hand, though all gaped

eagerly when a parent approached with food.

After leaving the nest, both parents were

now and then seen in the garden for several

days (last on 26th August) with the male

still singing though not as vigorously as before.

Of the young, single birds were seen only

twice, and they all appear to have moved out

of the garden.

During the above period, we found in the

same garden and within a radius of 25 yards,

nests of the Crow-pheasant, White-eye, Pur-

plerumped Sunbird, Red-whiskered Bulbul

and Whitespotted Fantail Flycatcher. Though

several nests of the White-eye have been found

on the adjoining mainland (April to Septem-

ber), this nest (with young on 21st August)

discovered by S. R. Nayak, is the first definite

record from Salsette. This apparent concen-

tration of nesting birds, if real, may be due to

the destruction and disappearance of suitable

habitats in the surrounding areas.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

10. NEW RECORDS OF BIRDS FROM ORISSA

While working out a collection of birds from

the Orissa State made by Shri P. K. Das in

May-June, 1972 and by me in March-April,

1976 and February-March, 1977, I came across

examples of four species of birds, namely,

Otus scops sunia (Hodgson), Jynx torquilla

himalayana Vaurie, Prinia socialis stewarti

Blyth and Arachnothera longirostris longiros-

tris (Latham), which according to the stand-

ard literature on Indian ornithology like Baker

(1924, 1926 and 1927), and Ali and Ripley

(1969, 1970, 1973 and 1974), have not so far

been reported from Orissa.

1. NORTH INDIAN SCOPS OWL Otus_ scops

sunia (Hodgson) (Strigiformes: Strigidae).

Material—1 ¢@, 1 9; Madpad, Koraput dist.;

February 18, 1977. o

Measurements—Wing & @ 137; bill from skull

6172 21; tails 60:2 62: mm:

Distribution—According to Ali & Ripley

(1969) its range includes the lower Himalayas

from the Afghan frontier in West Pakistan

eastward through Chitral, Kashmir, Himachal

161

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Pradesh, Garhwal, Kumaon, Nepal, Sikkim,

Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. It is also

found in the Gangetic plains south to Madhya

Pradesh and eastern Maharashtra (Nagpur)

east to Assam north and south of the Brahma-

putra river, Nagaland, Manipur and Bangla-

desh.

This is the first record of this species from

Orissa.

2. HIMALAYAN WRYNECK Jynx_ torquilla

himalayana Vaurie (Piciformes: Picidae).

Material—1 ¢; Charmal, Sambalpur dist.;

March 27, 1976.

Measurements.—Wing 87; bill from skull 17;

tail 71 mm.; wt. 32 g.

Distribution—According to Ali & Ripley

(1970) it breeds in the North-west Himalayas

from the Kurram Valley to Chitral, Gilgit,

Ladakh, Baltistan, Kashmir and Himachal

Pradesh. The winter ranges have not been

worked out.

The subspecies has not been reported from

Orissa so far, and the present specimen con-

stitutes its first record from this region.

3. NORTHERN ASHY WREN-WARBLER Prinia

socialis stewarti Blyth (Muscicapidae: Sylvi-

inae).

Material—3 @, 2 92; Kotagarh, Phulbani dist.;

February 22 and 24, 1976.

Measurements.—Wing ¢ 48, 49, 52, 2 47, 49;

bill from skull ¢ 14(3), 2 14, 15; tail ¢ 57, 66,

71, 2 58, 62 mm.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM,

CALCUTTA 700 016,

July 4, 1977.

Distribution: According to Ali & Ripley

(1973), this subspecies is known from Pakis-

tan in the plains of the upper Indus river sys-

tem, and northern India from the Himalayan

foothills, south through the Gangetic plains,

northern Madhya Pradesh and eastern Rajas-

than to the Kathiawar peninsular, the Nar-

mada river and southern Bihar. The occur-

rence of the present examples in Kotagarh,

Orissa, extends its range further southward.

4. LITTLE SPIDERHUNTER Arachnothera

longirostris longirostris (Latham) (Passeri-

formes: Nectariniidae). !

Material—1 ¢, 3 2; Kotagarh, Phulbani dist.;

May 24 and June 4, 1972.

Measurements.—Wing ¢ 68, ¢ 60, 62(2); bill

from skull’ 7g 735; 9°" 302). 32 tail a 1435 OW a5.

37, 38 mm.

Distribution—According to Ali & Ripley

(1974), this subspecies is known from the

Sahyadri or Western Ghats complex of south-

western India from North Kanara _ south

through western Karnataka, Kerala and West-

ern Tamil Nadu. It is also reported from the

Eastern Ghats (Vishakhapatnam district) and

from the extreme southeastern Nepal, Darjec-

ling and Jalpaiguri districts of West Bengal,

Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Naga-

land, Manipur, and Bangladesh.

This is the first record of this species from

Orissa.

N. MAJUMDAR

REFERENCES

ALI, S. & RIPLEY, S. D. (1969, 1970, 1973, 1974):

Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan, to-

gether with those of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and

University Press, Bombay.

BAKER, E. C. S. (1924,

British India, Birds. 2 :

1926, 1927): Fauna of

Sets ALS aes 435..

Ceylon. 3 : 262; 4 : 170; 8 : 57; : 10 : 52. Oxford Taylor & Francis, London.

162

_ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

11. CAPTIVE REARING OF MARINE TURTLES

(With two. plates) |

Introduction and Summary: othe Madras

Snake Park Trust began sea turtle studies in

1972 on the Coromandel coast near Madras

where one species, the Pacific (Olive) Ridleys

(Lepidochelys olivacea) nests in fair num-

bers. In 1973 Madras Snake Park Trust start-

ed India’s first hatchery and transferred 11

nests of 1272 eggs from the beach where

human, dog and jackal predation is over

90% (Valliappan & Whitaker 1974). During

the December-March nesting seasons over the

next 4 years, Madras Snake Park Trust col-

lected 197 nests of 21,760 eggs which resulted

in 13,059 hatchlings which were released into

the sea (Whitaker 177). Also about 50 nest-

ing females were tagged with numbered monel

etal inscribed SEND TAG TO MADRAS SNAKE

PARK 600022-INDIA. In April 1977, 15_ L.. olt-

vacea hatchlings were retained for rearing at

the Madras Crocodile Bank ‘Trust premises

near the sea. During 1977, 2 subadult female

green turtles were collected, one from Laksha-

dweep and one from the Coromandel coast;

both were accidentally caught by fishermen in

nets. A hatchling Ridley was collected in

Lakshadweep in November 1977. In late 1977

a hatchling hawksbill turtle was collected in

the Indian Ocean by the Indian Navy and

given to the Trust. | :

~The following notes discuss housing, feed-

ing, management and treatment of sea turtles

of 3 genera in captivity at a site a few metres

adjacent to their natural habitat.

1. Ridley—Eggs were collected from a natu-

ral’ nest laid on 12-2- 71 and incubated in a

simulated nest inside a wire mesh enclosed,

partially shaded beach hatchery. Temperatures

and approixmate humidity were checked re-

gularly.. (Bhaskar 1978) 46 days later the

eggs hatched and 15 of the 80 hatchlings were

retained for rearing. Later, in November

1977, the hatchling Ridley from Lakshadweep

was included in the rearing trial. Plastic wash

basins (50 cm diameter x18 cm deep) were

used initially with 5 turtles per basin. Water

was kept at a depth of 6 cm and care was

taken that the basin remained at least 3/4

shaded throughout the day. An experienced

Madras Crocodile Bank ‘Trust employee,

Miss Mangai was put in charge and_ their

optimum growth rates and relative good

health are largely due to her personal efforts.

The 5 cm hatchlings began feeding on the

3rd and 4th day on small bits of chopped

clams (Donax sp). Later, chopped fish (mix-

ed) and small ghost crabs and mole crabs

were offered and usually eagerly taken.

Though several types of sea grasses, algae,

and various vegetable greens were offered the

turtles rarely took more than a few sample

bites. As the turtles were fed daily the sea

water had to be changed daily after feeding.

Water is brought to the basins by hand from

the sea about 100 metres away. 4 of the

hatchlings died within 3 months and 6 were

released. The remaining 3 are being reared

at this time. |

Coloration: The coloration of the juveniles

has gone through several changes starting at

almost black with a few small white patches

on the plastron .and edges of flippers. The

turtles are now considerably lighter (greenish-

grey). The Lakshadweep specimen is still

very dark with prominent white patches over

each eye. From. about the 6th .month of

growth, the carapace develops sharp edges on

163

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

the marginal and vertebral scutes, which, like

the knife-like dorsal scutes of some juvenile

crocodiles, would serve to deter predators.

Behaviour: The long wing-like flippers of a

marine turtle are apparently very vulnerable

to attack. We have been several nesting

females missing flippers and it is commonly

reported in the literature that it is probably

due to shark attack. The resting posture of a

juvenile Ridley while floating on the surface

is apparently protective. The turtle folds its

hind flippers over its tail and cloaca, the front

flippers are folded back on its carapace, re-

miniscent of a human with his hands behind

his back. The mobility of the front flippers

also allows the turtle to ‘“‘clean’’ its plastron

and carapace. This purposeful and regular

brushing of its flippers over the shell appears

to the a type of grooming to get rid of the

algae, barnacles and other adhering plants and

animals which abound in the sea. We have ob-

served this species of turtle using similar

flipper movements to stir up the sandy bot-

tom of its pond. We had found prawns and

crabs (Doclea sp.) in the crop of trawler-

drowned Ridleys and several times nesting

females came ashore covered in mud, point-

ing to the likelihood that they use their flip-

pers to stir up the bottom to find prey. The

single ‘‘nail’’ on each flipper is well developed

and sharp. While handling yearling Ridleys,

they at first struggle and repeatedly attempt

to scratch the hand that is restraining them

with the flipper “‘nail”. At no time have the

juvenile Ridleys attempted to bite except when

food objects are offered.

Though used to human presence the turtles

are quite timid and are wary but curious at

first contact with almost any object.

Floating: The Ridley has been described as

being the “‘highest’’ floating turtle. All juvenile

sea turtles have a higher specific gravity and

164

are apt to bob on the surface unless actually

diving with forceful flipper thrusts. The spe-

cific gravity gradually decreases and we no-

ticed that at 12-16 months (length 12-18 cm

weight 500-800 gm) the turtle is about neutral

in sea water and can dive, stay at the bottom

or float with equal ease.

Tanks: The plastic basins are still usable for

one 25 cm animal. Even though cramped,

health, activity and growth rates are accept-

able for experimental rearing. Larger asbes-

tos/cement basins (90 cm diam. and 30 cm

depth) have been provided. Rubber based

paint in several coats has been applied in these

basins to prevent abrasion of shell and flip-

pers. These tanks are also manually emptied

and filled. The turtles are placed in plastic ba-

sins with 10 cms of water at feeding time. After

feeding they are rinsed and placed back in

the asbestos/cement basins; this system is use-

ful because the water need only be changed

twice a week.

Problems: Keeping the water clean, regularly

changed and offering the turtles a wide va-

riety of food as possible (including sea weeds,

crabs, shrimp, fish, clams, jelly fish etc.) has

assured a fair growth rate and normal health.

The biggest problem so far encountered

(and which could have an important implica-

tions for turtle farming) is a yellow fungus

(possibly Mucor sp.). When the hatchling

Ridleys were only 7 weeks old the first small

yellow dots of fungus appeared on neck and

flippers. The yellow patches become larger and

are nipped at by other hatchlings. The scabby

area may eventually become necrotic and the

flipper edge or other affected skin sloughs off.

This is especially serious around the eyes and

cloaca and can cause death in days. First

treatment was with methyl violet, iodine etc.

to no avail. Then ““Tinaderm”’ (tolnaftate 1%

solution) was used on a rinsed and dried turtle

J. BomMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE I

Whitaker : Marine Turtles

Above: Recording Ridleys nesting data on Madras beach.

Below: First sea turtle hatchery in India.

‘a[Jin] vas UseIS plo IvaA sdIYT, :14sly ‘sAo[pry BuipjresA pue suiseq Bulieoy :1fa7

Son], ule 2 JoyeUyA

I] div Ig 9Z ‘00S$ “LSIH ‘LVN AvaWog ‘f

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

which was kept dry for 3 hours after appli- the carapace. It did not respond well to treat-

cation. This drug resulted in rapid clearing ment so ‘Jadit’ solution (Auclosamide and

up of the fungus, usually within 7 to 15 days. Salicylic Acid) by Hoechat was tried with

The younger turtles are more susceptible to success after a prolonged healing time of

fungus attack but recently the yearling from about 2 months.

Lakshadweep was affected in the laminae of

CHART I

RIDLEY

Measurements on 1-4-77

C : ! : :

ae (cms) C. width Paes P. width Headwidth Weight (gms)

Maximum 5.0 4.2 4.3 3.7 21 — -

Average 4.9 4.1 4.1 3.6 Dal 20

Minimum 4.8 4.0 4.0 3.5 2.0 —

22-4-77

Maximum 5.9 5.4 4.9 4.5 22 25

Average S)so) 5.1 4.6 4.3 jap 22

Minimum 5.1 4.6 4.3 3.9 jes) 20

9-9-77

Maximum 9.5 8.4 8.0 TA 3.0 175

Average 8.9 8.2 7.6 7.0 29 —

Minimum 8.3 7.6 WES 6.6 2.8 100

20-12-77

Maximum | 14 1 — — SiS) 600

Minimum 11 10.5 — — 2.9 360

30-7-78

Average 18 20 — — — 1000

30-12-78

Maximum 26.5 2 —_ — 525 2700

Minimum 21 22.5 — 7 — 5.0 1500

GREENS

30-7-7 8,

CL CW HW WT

A(Madras) 64 62 — 32kg

B (Lakshadweep) 48.5 46 — 16kg

30-12-78

A 64 62 95 32kg

B 51.5 47.5 8 18kg

165

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

SOCIETY, Vol. 76

_ HAWKSBILL

, Me HCL 29: Caw. HW WT

27-6-78 CEA 10 ~ 1020: a) 125ems

31-1278 QBs ites 22.5

CHART II

4.50)" eo hs O0ems 245

Approximate Feeding Schedule (chopped fish, crabs, clams)

Quantity per day

Hatchling — 6months ( 5cm to 10cm length) 5-10gms

6 months — 12 months (10cm to 16cm length) 10-30gms

12 months — 24 months (l6cm to 28cm length) 30-65gms

MADRAS SNAKE Park TRUST,

GUINDY DEER ParK,

Mapbras-600 022,

February 19, 1979.

ROMULUS WHITAKER

REFERENCES

BHASKAR, S. (1978): Turtle Egg Collection, Tiger

Paper (FAO). Vol.,.V, No. 4.

VALLIAPPAN, S. AND. WHITAKER, R. .. (1974):

Madras Snake Park Trust publication, Madras,

WHITAKER, R. (1977): A note on sea turtles of

Madras. Indian Forester 103, No. 11.

12. MALFORMATION AT BIRTH IN THE SALTWATER

CROCODILE (CROCODYLUS POROSUS SCHNEIDER)

IN ORISSA, INDIA

A clutch of 64 eggs collected, gave rise to

an abnormal hatchling which now lives along

with other normal animals in the hatchling

pool of the Salt water Crocodile Research and

Conservation Project, located at Dangamal.

The abnormality is in both the neck-and the

tail. A similar type of embryonic deformation

occurred in a full term embryo which died

without slitting the eggshell (Bustard and Kar,

in press) On examination it was found to have

a deformed and stunted tail, similar to that

described by Bustard (1969) for Crocodylus

novaeguineae where the cause was thought to

be high temperature egg incubation.

The eggs were collected on 30.5.77 from

166

Forest Block No. VII of Bhittar Kanika

Sanctuary and brought to the project hatchery

site and hatched between 6.8.77 and 10.8.77.

- During this period the eggs occupied a middle

position in the artificially prepared nest mound

inside the hatchery. Egg nest temperature was

taken starting from implantation of eggs upto

the end of hatching time (measured through

a stoppered bamboo pipe permanently insert-

ed in the middle of egg mass) averaged 29.5 —

(range 37 - 34°C) during 66-70 days incuba-

tion period. Fourtyone hatchlings hatched, of

which three hatchlings died after 24 hours.

The deformation occurred in both neck and

.tail portions. The neck is bent to the left at

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

an angle of about 65-70°C and the tail is

twisted. It is possible, though unlikely, that

water deficiency could have caused the defor-

mation as has been described for chelonian

embryo by Lynn and Ullrich (1950). How-

ever, fortyone eggs hatched and _ produced

normal hatchlings. Seven fullgrown embryos

failed to hatch due to some abnormality in

the neck portion’ which was very thin. Sixty

eggs which failed to hatch were apparently

infertile. | |

Preliminary work, carried out by Bustard

indicated that eggs dessicated rapidly when

water was not available in the external me-

dium. Here, rain was allowed to fall over the

nest to keep the nest slight damp by which

RESEARCH SCHOLAR,

SALT WATER CROCODILE RESEARCH

AND CONSERVATION PROJECT,

DANGAMAL-754 220, ORISSA,

October 16, 1978.

the nest can maintain correct temperature by

the decomposition of the nesting material.

Maximum sunshine was allowed to fall on the

nest. The incubation period being in the rainy

season it was hard to maintain equal tempera-

ture all the time. However, Bustard noted that

eggs which had lost approximately 20% of their

weight as result of dessication still produced

normal hatchlings.

The deformation in both the neck and the

tail may be due to high temperatures or may

be due to the fluctuation of the temperature

at the time of incubation. A detailed study of

the water relationship of crocodile eggs of dif-

ferent developmental stages, would reveal the

actual cause of deformation. fi

S. K. KAR

REFERENCES

Bustarp, H. R. (1969): Tail abnormalities re-

sulting from high temperature egg incubation. Brit.

J. Herpetol, 4: 121-23.

(1969): Temperature and water to-

lerances of incubating crocodile eggs. ibid. 4: 198-

200.

LYNN, W. G. & ULLRicu, M. C. (1950): Experi-

mental production of shell abnormalities in_ turtles.

Copeia, Ann Arbor, pp. 253-262.

13. SEXUAL ATTRACTION OF A WILD MUGGER

(CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS LESSON) TOWARD CAPTIVE

MUGGERS

(With three text-figures)

Gharial Research and Conservation Unit

(GRACU) is situated besides the Satkoshia

Gorge of River Mahanadi. The Unit has seve-

ral enclosure-sets of rearing pools for the gha-

rial (Gavialis gangeticus). One such set (RP

in Fig. 1 and 2) has a large pool (4m x 4m x

1m) and two small pools (2m x 2m x 0.3m).

This enclosure (hence forth to be called as

the ‘“Mugger enclosure’’) is situated at the end

of the Project complex; the nearest enclosure,

called the Research Pool, being situated at a

distance of about 35 metres.

During collection of data for this paper the

two smaller pools of the Mugger enclosure

167

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

had one mugger each, and the larger pool had

three muggers, all male and hatched during

the second and third weeks of April, 1975.

The muggers measured 138.0 cm to 188.0 cm

and weighed 19.1 kg to 38.2 kg on 2-2-78.

Usually the pools are thoroughly cleaned once

a week, the washings coming out through un-

derground pipes, enter the river.

Close to the mugger enclosure river Maha-

nadi flows down from south-west. The loca-

tion of the enclosure in relation to the river

(Fig. 3) is shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. The'

photograph in Fig. 3 has been taken by stand-.

ing on the river bank in line with the mugger

enclosure.

Satkoshia Gorge has three individually iden-

tifiable muggers of unknown sex measuring

2.0 to 3.0 m in total length. The Gorge is a

22.4 km stretch of the river, measuring 300-

700 m in width. Although no nest has been

collected during four consecutive years of ob-

servations from 1975 to 1978 breeding seasons,

at least one of these muggers is believed to be

breeding since mugger hatchlings have been

observed during 1976 and 1977. Every year

after the flood at least one of the resident wild

muggers, the largest of all, is known to fre-

quent or inhabit a tunnel in the river bank.

The tunnel used during post-flood season of

1975 had collapsed in 1976; so the mugger

had excavtaed a new tunnel on the opposite

bank. This tunnel was also used during 1977.

The tunnel measured about a metre in height

near its entrance; but the length could not be

Mahanadi. A-B=Line of section shown in Fig. 2, F=forest, G=old gully partly

filled in, GP =Gharial (Research) Pool, H=hill, R=road, RP = Rearing pool (Mug-

ger enclosure), RV=river, S=sand, T=temple (area:

3 mx2 m; height 15 m

above the ground).

168

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

assessed properly since a bamboo measuring

about 6 m was not adequate to reach the rear

end of the excavation. We believe, perhaps

the mugger lays her eggs in this tunnel.

However, there are ten trained guards to

keep records on the movement of these mug-

gers and the gharials in the gorge. The move-

ment of one of these wild muggers, which

measures about 2.8 m in total length, is the

purview of the present paper.

OBSERVATIONS

When the water level in the gorge was +109-

131 cm above the datum, the mugger under

discussion was located once at 12.0 km

(28.9.77) and 5.2* km (29.9.77) (the asterisk

mark shows that the location is on the right

bank when viewed from downstream) from the

foot of the gorge; and when the level was 35

cm above the datum it was again located at

12.0 km on 11.11.77.

During December and January, when the

water level was from +58.0 cm to —2.0 cm

in relation to the datum, the mugger was

located near GRACU on a total of four (20th,

25th, 26th and 30th) and seven (9th, 11th,

21st, 22nd, 23rd, 26th and 27th) days respec-

tively. The precise location of its appearance

is almost in line with the enclosure (RP: Fig.

RP T

6.5 6G 231) oo

1 and 2), about 10 m downstream from the

point where the washings from the enclosure

enter the river. On these days the mugger is

located in shallow water before 2-3 hours of

sunrise. When human activities at the Unit

begin the mugger moves to mid-stream and sur-

faces for some time. After about two hours

of sunrise our fishermen supplying fish to the

Unit return from their overnight fishing and

camp at their regular camping site (Fig. 3)

which exactly corresponds to the site where

the mugger shows up in the early morning.

These fishermen leave their camping site at

about 4.00 in the afternoon, when the mugger

is again seen, on most of the observation-days,

at about 0-100 m downstream from the camp-

ing site.

From 9th February to 11th February, 1978

the mugger was sighted everyday in the morn-

ing and in the evening. On 12.2.78 morning

there was an U-shaped track on the sand upto

3 m on the bank from water. The height of

the bank from the water was sharply 50 cm.

From this date the camping site of the fish-

ermen was shifted to the other bank of the

river. Only at the time of fish-supply they

kept their boat at about 200 m upstream the

previous site. All the bamboo poles used to

keep the nets etc. were removed from the site

we a mes Le =

Fig. 2. Cross section of Fig. 1 along A-B. The numerals indicate distances in metres. X =see text, other

abbreviations=as in Fig. 1.

169

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Fig. 3.

and the bank was restored to its normal.

On 12.2.78 afternoon and 13.2.78 the mug-

ger could not be seen any where. But on

14.2.78 morning tracks were seen at the same

place on the bank, but leading to the point

‘xX’ (Fig. 2) where there was a heap of dried

cut-down Lantana branches. Following this ob-

servation, the bank upto the temple (Figs. 1,

2) was cleaned from all debris.

On 14.2.78 afternoon and 15.2.78 the mug-

ger was again secretive and it could not be

located. On 16.2.78 morning at about 5.30 it

was seen lying on the bank at the usual place

170

Photograph showing the river bank down the Mugger enclosure at GRACU.

This bank was used by the fishermen of GRACU to camp during the day. Washings |

from the Mugger enclosure enter the river approximately near the bamboo pole at

the rear end of the photograph; and the wild mugger (see text) showed up almost

near the first bamboo. pole. : |

‘

of its appearance. Upon noticing our activities

it entered water. When we went to the bank,

we saw the emerging and returning tracks in

single file upto a distance of about 14 m from

water, after which there were numerous Zig-

zag tracks. A track leading up and down the

slope between ‘X’ and the temple was also

marked. No track could be seeen between the

temple and the enclosure. The ground in this

area was hard and thus it was not possible to

know if at all the mugger had moved through

this region. . |

Subsequent to this observation the mugger

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

was never again sighted near GRACU.

GRACU is about 17.2* km up the foot of the

gorge. Later sightings were at 15.0 Km

(22.2.78), 9.0% Km (24.2.78), 6.4 Km (24.3.78)

and 11.2 Km (19.4.78). During February to

April, 1978 the water level was +5.0 to —12.0

cm in, ‘elation to the datum.

DISCUSSION

Dharmakumarsinhji (1947) observed mating

in C. palustris on the 19th March. But David

(1970) records mating in captivity in Decem-

ber- January and nesting in March-April. Achar-

jyo & Mishra (1976) observed in a captive

C. palustris on 11.6.74 but later discovered the

eges to be infertile. Whitaker & Whitaker

(1976) observe that C. palustris mates between

January and March and the eggs are laid after

about two months of mating.

In the foregoing account the behaviour of

the wild mugger, 2.8 m in size, toward male

captives, 1.8 m in size, was recorded at GRACU

during December to mid-February. Constant

showing up of the wild mugger, believed to be

a female, near the shore down the mugger en-

closure of GRACU, and her movement to

close quarters of the enclosure suggest that

she was attempting to reach the male muggers

in captivity. The last attempt was made on the

night of 15.2.78. Probably during this attempt

she became sure that it was not possible to

reach the male captives. This behaviour of the

wild mugger toward the male captives suggest

that she was trying to fulfil her mating urge.

The period during which these observations

were made correspond to the mating season

of the mugger, reported earlier.

GHARIAL RESEARCH AND

CONSERVATION UNIT,

TIKERPADA-759122, ORISSA,

June 22, 1978.

Interestingly, the wild mugger did not at-

tempt to approach any of the other five en-

closures having gharials and muggers of com-

parable age. One of the enclosures had seven

female muggers and a male mugger of similar

age but measuring only 72.0 cm to 139.4 cm

and weighing 1.7 kg to 11.6 kg on 4.2.78. The

washings of this enclosure also enter the river

but at about 200 metres upstream from the

point where the washings from the ‘‘Mugger

enclosure’ enter the river. This suggests that

the wild mugger knew that the “‘Mugger en-

closure” was housing sexually mature males.

This inference draws up another conclusion on

the record growth of captive muggers at

GRACU. The muggers at GRACU under dis-

cussion were only two years and ten months

old in February 1978 but had reached a length

of 1.3 m to 1.8 m. The five muggers housed in

the Mugger enclosure had grown fast among

all-total thirteen muggers reared in captivity

at GRACU.

Probably the cue which might have direct-

ed the wild mugger to know the location of

the captive males were the washings from the

enclosure entering the river, and the night time

activities of the males, which include fights

with loud sounds. It is interesting to note that

the mugger was never sighted upstream of the

point where the washings of the Mugger en-

closure enter the river.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The researcher receives a research fellow-

ship from the Government of Orissa (Forest

Department) through the Crocodile Project.

He is indebted to the staff at GRACU who

helped in collection of the data for this paper.

LALA A. K. SINGH

171

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

REFERENCES

ACHARSYO, L. N. AND Misra, R. (1976): Egg lay-

ing of the mugger (Crocodylus palustris) in capti-

vity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 73(1): 22.

Davip, R. (1970): Breeding the Mugger Croco-

dile and Water Monitor — Crocodylus palustris and

Varanus salvator at Ahmedabad Zoo. International

Zoo Yearbook, 10: 116-117.

DHARMAKUMARSINHJI, K. S. (1947): Mating and

the parental instinct of the Marsh Crocodile (Cro-

codylus palustris Lesson). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

47(1): 174-176.

WHITAKER, R. AND WHITAKER, Z. (1976): Collec-

tion and hatching of Marsh crocodile (C. palustris)

eggs. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 73(2): 403-407.

14. WINTER TEMPERATURE GRADIENT IN TUNNELS OF

UROMASTYX HARDWICKII GRAY

During winter reptiles are said to hibernate

and normal activity is thought to be absent.

Hence it had been presumed that they have no

predatory role to play. However, recent stu-

dies on burrow temperatures in two marked

colonies in Delhi region have revealed an alto-

gether different picture that indicates only par-

tial hibernation in Uromastyx hardwickii spe-

cies during winter as is evident from open bur-

row mouths and burrow temperatures. Tunnel

temperature is near to “activity temperature”’

and ranges from 20.5°C to 25.5°C in plugged

burrows. Whereas, in open burrows it ranges

from 21.5°C to 22.5°C during mid day at

depths ranging 10 to 25 cm within the tunnel

and at surface temperature of 20°C to 23°C in

dry bulb. This tunnel temperature is some-

what close to their “activity temperature’’ re-

corded in summer season from about 28°C

onwards to 35°C above which onset of pant-

ing occurs (Bhatnagar et al. 1973 & in press).

Tunnel temperature at neck region appears to

be independent of the ‘tunnel slope’ & depths

varying before the point tunnel bend commen-

ces, normally ranges from 35-140 cm in Delhi

region and as temperature ranges were nearly

same. Variation in thickness of “clay plug”

172

at burrow mouths ranged from 2.5 to 11.5 cm,

yet, temperature fluctuation was not signifi-

cantly different. Out of 39 burrows, 10 were

found open and 29 were plugged and there is

not much difference in temperature. It perhaps

indicates that there is no total hibernation in

the individuals as is also evident from, the

marks on the soil indicating locomotory acti-

vity of the lizard and by presence of undigest-

ed food in gut of lizards. Individuals on at-

taining the ‘activity temperature’ after bask-

ing resume daily activity around mid day. In

one burrow, presence of ants emerging out of

burrow perhaps indicate death of the lizard

in the burrow at this temperature. Presence

of smaller ‘clay plug’ also indicates resumption

of activity on attaining of required tempera-

ture. It may be mentioned here that this

tunnel temperature during winter is not much

lower than what it ranges during summer, Le.

at surface temperature of 28° - 35°C, it ranges

upto 26.2°C at depth of 12 cm from mouth.

It further indicates that burrow making is a

thermoregulatory adaptation in which tempe-

rature is well maintained and activity depends

upon burrow temperature rather than on sur-

face temperature.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY,

INDIAN AGRICULTURAL

RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

New De vui-110 012,

June 24, 1976.

R. K. BHATNAGAR

R. K. BHANOTAR

Y. MAHTO

Y. N. SRIVASTAVA

REFERENCES

BHATNAGAR, R. K., BHANOoTAR, R. K., & SRI-

vASTAVA, Y. N. (1973): Panting behaviour of Uro-

mastyx hardwickii Gray. Entomologist’s Newsletter,

Delhi, 3(7): 46-47.

15.

BHATNAGAR, R. K., BHANOTAR, R. K. & MAHTO,

Y. (in press): Saurian winter activity in Thar

Desert. Proc. Zool. Bengal; mss. pp. 1-10, 3 tables.

IDENTIFICATION OF SNAKE SKINS

(With two plates)

Madras and Calcutta are the two major cen-

tres where snake skins are tanned and export-

ed. It may be interesting to note that from

Madras a total number of 7,83,100 pieces of

snake skins, valued at Rs. 1,35,99,320 have

been exported between 1.1.76 and 31.12.76.

Similarly during 1977, a total number of

6,38,750 pieces valued at Rs. 90,26,941 have

been exported. For Calcutta the figures are as

follows: during 1976 a record number of

15,23,626 skins valued at Rs. 68,89,565 and for

1977, about 10,99,192 skins valued at Rs.

1,01,97,391 have been exported. Mostly these

skins are purchased by West Germany, U.K.,

Italy and France. It is also worthwhile to note

that it is mainly skins of the Rat snake or

Dhaman (Ptyas mucosus), that is being ex-

ported, while export of others like that of

Cobra, Python, Russel’s viper is almost neg-

ligible.

Identification of snakes, usually is done by

the study of scales in the belly, the head and

the back —- whether it is scaly and uniform

throughout or whether ventral shields extend

the whole width or not and so on. All these

processes are no doubt the best conclusive

proof to know whether a snake is poisonous

or otherwise. Unfortunately in identification of

tanned skins meant for export, it is usually

not possible to make use of these character-

istics. It is for this simple reason that one

cannot know whether the ventral plates extend

the whole width of the belly or not. Also very

rarely can one see all scales and shields on the

head intact and in proper position.

The common snake skins that were being

exported on a large scale belong to the follow-

ing species:

1) Rat Snake or Dhaman.

2) The Indian Python.

3) The Common Cobra.

4) Russell’s Viper.

Skins of the above snakes can be identified

by the following characteristics:

Rat Snake:— Rat snake’s skins are erro-

neously called “Whip-snake skins” by the

trade. The real whip snake, however, is the

common green whip snake (Ahaetulla nasutus),

so called because of its very long, thin, whip-

like body.

Rat snakes grow to a length of about 240

cm or even more and have a girth of about

173

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

10 cm. The tail is about one-fourth of the

total length of the snake and the tail shields

are divided. Skins of this snake are keenly

sought after for their length. A portion of the

skin has the following features that will help

in identification:

1) There is a central band of scales consist-

ing of three rows of costals which are dis-

tinctly different from the rest in that they are

almost squarish.

2) On either side of this central band are

seven rows of costals which are of different

shapes in the top half, but lower down they

are all alike and squarish. Thus all put together

there are 17 rows of scales except near the tail

where it may be one or two less.

3) The last row of costals bordering ventrals

are slightly larger than all other scales.

4) Almost all the scales have black borders

and appear in the form of irregular rings in

the lower half of the body as well as tail.

5) On either end is one half of ventrals

which are about 2 cm long and 7-8 mm wide.

In a complete snake skin there is only one row

of ventrals extending the whole width of the

belly, but then it is slit down the middie of the

belly at the time of skinning, so that in a tan-

ned skin, it appears as if there are two rows of

large scales one at either end.

6) The central band of scales are almost

closely packed that they look like touching

each other. In the flanks the scales are inde-

pendent with lot of interspaces between one

another.

‘Indian Python:— With a full length tanned

skin, this is one of the easiest to identify by

its length and width that are unsurpassed by

any other Indian snake. A portion of the

skin has the following features:

1) The scales are all quite small and are

almost rectangular in shape except those at the

flanks.

174

2) The scales are smallest. at the centre,

gradually becoming bigger towards the flanks.

3) The last row of scales that represents one

half of the ventrals are the largest.

4) The last 8-10 rows almost overlap each

other on the flanks.

5) Compared to the Rat snake, the ventrals

are proportionately small in relation to the

size of the skin. This is due to the fact that

the ventrals do not cover the entire width of

the belly.

6) In all there are about 70 rows of scales.

Common Cobra:— Apart from the Python,

the common Cobra is the easiest to identify

whether dead or alive, of course- if available

with its monocled or spectacled hood. How-

ever, even without it, the following features

will help identify a Cobra skin with ease:

1) There is a central row of narrow dorsals

which are pearshaped and looks almost bead-

ed running over the entire length from head

to tail. : |

2) On either side of this mid dorsal row,

there are usually 11 rows of dorsals Ae Lee

in an expanded ‘V’ shape. |

3) All the scales are absolutely independent

with lot of interspaces and ee) touch each

other.

4) The last row of longitudinal scales are

the real ventrals. Each ventral is two to two

and a half centimetres long in a tanned skin.

Russell’s Viper:—This is the commonest pit-

less viper of India and is a large snake grow-

ing to nearly 165 cm. in length but is more

stoutly built than other vipers. It is a very

handsome snake whose skin has the following

distinctive characteristics:

1) There are three large more or less cir-

cular black bands arranged in three rows

running over the entire length of the skin.

2) The middle row is more Sonal sos than

the others. :

‘urys suoyjAg Jo uoniod vy

‘Ulys Sayeus Jey jo uonsod vy

SUIYS 9YPUS

: UBYICUPMSIA

“IWN XYAWwod °F

‘ULYS SASGIA S,[Jossny JO UuOolZIOG WwW “ULyS

{

Sere

SUIYS oyeUug : UBYeURMSTA

Il aLvig 3 QL ‘00$ “LSIH “LVN AvaWog ‘f

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES —

3) The scales are all more or less uniform,

except the rows bordering the ventrals which

are slightly larger in size. They are prominently

leaflike in appearance with a clear keel,

which becomes less and less conspicuous to-

wards the flanks till it is almost absent in the

last rows bordering the ventrals.

ASSISTANT DIRECTOR,

WILDLIFE REGIONAL OFFICE,

Mapras 600 020,

May 2, 1978.

4) The scales are so closely arranged that

they are almost overlapping one another, with

no interspaces between them.

5) The ventral plates are very large and

forms almost one-third to half the width of

the skin.

K. VISWANATHAN

16. FOOD OF RANA HEXADACTYLA LESSON

A fair amount of literature is available on

the diet of the Indian Bull Frog, Rana tigerina

(Mullan 1912; Ishwar Prakash 1953; Wadekar

1963; Joshee 1968; Isaac and Rege 1975)

but little is known about the food of Rana

hexadactyla. The present study was undertaken

with the object of determining the food of

Rana hexadactyla by the examination of the

stomach contents. | |

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The frogs were collected between February

and September of 1975 from paddy fields, ri-

vers and ponds. They were captured at night,

killed immediately and preserved in 10 per

cent formalin. In the laboratory, the frogs were

weighed, sexed and dissected out to collect

the stomach contents. The weight of stomach

contents of each frog was recorded and the

different food items from individual stomachs

were identified. Out of the 319 frogs dissected

for stomach contents 203 were females and 116

males. Frogs with their stomach contents weigh-

ed between 25 gm and 100 gm.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1, which gives the different food items

of Rana hexadactyla, indicates that insects form

the main diet. From the observations record-

ed in the present study it can be noticed that

insects, crabs, snails, small fishes and young

frogs are the major food items. Arthropods

form the bulk of the diet of R. hexadactyla.

Amongst the arthropods insects appear to be

most favoured food of this frog. Some of these

insects are of great economic importance. A

few centipedes and millipedes and quite a num-

ber of arachnids were also recorded from the

stomachs of this animal.

Crabs were found in large numbers in the

diet of R. hexadactyla. They are often seen in

the paddy fields and cause damage to the

bunds in the fields by boring holes in them.

Crabs are recorded as one of the major pests

of paddy (Kadam et al. 1960) and are known

at some stages of their life to feed on rice

seedlings both before and after transplanting.

The frog is thus very helpful in keeping the

population of crabs harmful to agriculture in

175

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

ANALYSIS OF THE STOMACH CONTENTS OF Rana hexadactyla LESSON

Classified food items Number of

individual

food items

collected

Number of

stomachs

from which

collected

Remarks

nn Tn nn Gn STi a ETT Ect ———— aa ee es

Phyllum ARTHROPODA

Class INSECTA

Order ODONATA

Dragonfly 5

Nymph of Dragon fly 1

Order DERMAPTERA

Family Labiduridae

Labidura riparia 3

Order ORTHOPTERA

Family Gryllotalpidae

Gryllotalpa fosser 6

Family Gryllidae

Gymnogryllus_ sp. 1

Gryllus_ sp. 1

Family Acrididae

Spathosternum calignosum W. 1

Hieroglyphus banian 3

Order HEMIPTERA

Family Belostomatidae

Sphaerodema rusticum 11

FAMILY Gerridae

Gerris sp. 23

Order LEPIDOPTERA

Caterpillar 49

Order DIPTERA

Family Culicidae

Anopheles sp. 1

Family Chironomidae

Chironomus larva 2

Family Muscidae

Musca sp. 1

Order HYMENOPTERA

Family Formicidae

Diacamma vagans Smith

Odontomachus sp. 2)

Order COLEOPTERA

Family Carabidae

Bembidion soborium .. 8

Chlaenius sp. 7

Dioryche sp. 22

N PW

broken into pieces

predaceous in_ habit.

carnivorous, eats

small insects.

pest on paddy.

omnivorous.

very harmful to paddy.

carnivorous water bugs.

water skaters.

great economic

importance.*

transmits malaria.*

household pest.

highly predaceous.

176

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Family Scarabaeidae

Anomala dussumieri 4 1 larva forms damage

roots of paddy &

cereals.

Autoserica insanabilis Brenske 7 22

Anserica sp. 4 2

Mimela sp. Mo 1

Family Hydrophilidae

Sternolophus brachyacanthus Reg. 12

Hydrophilid sp. 1 1 larvae predaceous.

Family Elateridae

Melanotus_ hirticornis 4 3

Family Tenebrionidae

Gonocephalum sp. 2 1

Family Curculionidae

Odioporus sp. 1 1

Class CRUSTACEA common in paddy

Paratelphusa (Oziotelphusa) fields and pest of

bouvieri Rathteum 13 10 crops; some in semi-

Class ARACHNIDA digested condition.

Order ARANIDA

Family Lycosidae

Pardosa songosa Tikader &

Malhotra 1 1

Pardosa_ burasantiensis

Tikader & Malhotra

Lycosa sumatrana Thorell

Lycosa bistriata (Gravely) 1 1

Family Araneida

Araneus sp. 5 2

Family Heteropodidae

Heteropoda sp. 1 1

Family Tetragnathidae

Tetragnatha mandibulata 1 1

Class MYRIAPODA

Order SCOLOPENDROMORPHA

Family Scolopendridae

Otostigmus sp. 3 3

Millipede 2 1 broken into pieces.

Phyllum MOLLUSCA

Class GASTROPODA

Order BASOMMATOPHORA

Family Planorbidae

Indoplanorbis exustus (Deshayes) 10 2 Shells in undigested

Order SYSTELLOMMATOPHORA condition.

Family Veronicellidae .

Laevicaulis sp. 1 1

177

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Class PISCES

Order CYPRINOIDEA

Family Cyprinidae

Puntius sophore (Ham.) 10

Family Naudidae s

Badis badis (Ham.) 6

Anabas_ scondens 1

Class AMPHIBIA

Order ANURA

Family Ranidae_.

Rana sp. 5

Class REPTILIA

Order OPHIDIA

Family Typhlopidae

Typhlop sp. 2

Snake Pe

6 few semidigested.

semidigested.

i semidigested.

5) young frogs and

semidigested; in few

cases bones only.

2 broken into pieces.

pi only tail and skin.

check. Some gastropods were recorded from

the stomachs of a few specimens. The verte-

brate groups such as Pisces, Amphibia and

Reptilia were also represented in the food of

this frog, but there is no reason to believe that

they form regular items of the diet.

Vegetable matter in the form of leaves, grass

blades, algae, etc. and gravel were seen in the

stomachs of a number of frogs. It seems more

likely that the vegetable matter as also the

gravel is taken up by the animal accidentally

along with food. The occurrence of gravel in

the stomachs of frogs is reported by many

workers. |

Mondal (1970) observed that the “‘Northern

race” of R. hexadactyla is phytophagous while

in the “Southern race’’ the animal food was

preferred and preponderates over vegetable

matter. The present study indicates that R.

hexadactyla in this area of Kerala is largely

carnivorous, feeding on animal food only. It

is possible that the vegetable material. found

in the stomachs of a number of frogs was taken

in accidentally along with other food.

The examination of the intestine of tadpoles

of R. hexadactyla shows that the vegetable

178

matter forms their main food. The highly coil-

ed and elongated nature of the alimentary ca-

nal indicated their herbivorous food habit.

Food of juvenile frogs consists largely of in-

sects (Jameson and Rose 1956) and that of

tadpoles mainly the different species of algae

(Kamat 1962).

The present observations indicate that R.

hexadactyla feeds on some important agricul-

tural pests, especially paddy pests. Thus this

species of frog plays a significant role in the

economy of nature by controlling agricultural

pests in the field. :

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The ‘author expresses his sincere thanks to

The Charles McCann Field Work Fund of the

Bombay Natural History Society for financial

assistance. Thanks are due to Mr. Humayun

Abdulali for encouragement and valuable sug-

gestions and also. to Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay, the Forest Research Institute,

Dehra Dun and the Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta for the identification of insects

and other specimens.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Mar THOMA COLLEGE,

TIRUVALLA-689 103,

KERALA,

April 28, 1978.

M. I. ANDREWS

REFERENCES

IsAAc, S. AND REGE, M. S. (1975): Food of Rana.

tigerina (Daud.) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72 (1):

143-157.

JAMESON, D. L. AND Rosg, M. M. (1956): Food

habits in juvenile frogs. Copeia 1956 (4): 261.

JosHEE, A. K. (1968): Food habits of the Bull

Frog (Rana tigerina Daud.). J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc., 65 (2): 498-500.

KapAM, M. V. BHAT AND PaTeEL, G. A. (1960):

‘Crop pests and how to fight them.’ Dir. Pub. Govt.

of Maharashtra, Bombay.

Kamat, N. D. (1962): On the intestinal contents

of tadpoles and algae of small ponds. Curr. Sci., 31:

300-301.

MonpaL, A. K. (1970): On _ the distribution,

occurrence, culture possibilities and food of Rana

hexadactyla Lesson. Scie. and Cult., 36: 138-143.

MuLLAN, J. P. (1912): The food of a Bull-frog

(Rana tigerina). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 21

(4): 1341.

PRAKASH, ISHWAR (1953): Addition to recorded

food items of the Bull Frog (Rana tigerina). J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51 (3): 750.

WADEKAR, U. L. (1963): The diet of the Indian

Bull-frog (Rana tigerina Daud.). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc., 60 (1) 263-268.

17. ON THE BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF SCHIZOTHORAX

NIGER HACKEL IN DAL LAKE?

(With a text-figure and a photograph)

INTRODUCTION

The fishes of sub-family schizothoracinae

of Dal lake are known to perform spawning

migration and lay eggs on the bottom of

snowfed streams (Rampal 1967; Jan and Dass

1971; Sunder et al. 1977 and CIFRI Bull. 1977)

that empty into the lake. During spring of

1977 spawning grounds of Schizothorax niger

were located for the first time in the Dal lake

itself, differing thus in breeding habits from

other members of the sub-family. The eggs

were located in the shallower regions of the

lake around Bhatmazar (behind Engineering

College), Gurtupora, Lathkadal on the south-

east of lake and Sonalank in the Harzatbal-

Saidakadal region (Fig. 1). Eggs were also

collected in the shallow areas of Pishpow nal-

Jah (Shalimar region) on the north-west of

the lake. In Harzatbal-Saidakadal region the

eggs were found attached to the submerged

adventitious roots of willow (Salix spp)

trees, while in the Shalimar region they were

found scattered in clutches along the lake bec

close to springs. The fertilized eggs ranged i1

diameter between 2.6-3.5 mm. The physico-

chemical characteristics of the Harzatbal-Sai.

dakadal and Shalimar-Thaksar regions of the

lake are given below in Table 1.

The percentage of fertilization as determined

by acetic acid method ranged between 75 to

84. Quantitative assessment of eggs attached

to willow roots could not be made while num-

ber of eggs laid on lake bed ranged from 400

to 460 m?, only 50 per cent of eggs were

found viable. The spawning period was ob-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

TABLE 1

SOME RELEVANT PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

OF DAL LAKE

eT eS BS aT TS

Hazratbal- Shalimar-

Parameter Saidakadal Thaksar

region region

Water depth 20-35 cm 26-36 cm

Water temperature 17-20°C SSeS

Turbidity 13-16 cm nil

pH UPS 6.6-6.8

Dissolved oxygen 9.2-9.6 ppm 9.8-12.6 ppm

Free carbon dioxide 1.2-1.8 ppm 6.8-10.4 ppm

26-58 ppm

Total alkalinity 86-95 ppm

seved to last for about two months from Ist

week of March to end of April.

To find out the incubation period, the eggs

collected from the lake were transported to

laboratory and kept in enamel trays under

various treatments. The results of experiments

are given below in Table 2.

prominant nuptial tubercles on the snout and

coupled with it the roughness of body in males.

The roughness of body and tubercles become

evident just before spawning season starts and

disappears shortly after spawning.

On March 20, 1977 an attempt was made to

strip artificially S. niger collected from the

lake. The eggs were stripped into enamel

trays and the milt from male mixed. This ope-

ration was done at the lake site and the ferti-

lized eggs transported to laboratory for rear-

ing purposes (Photo. 1). The brood fish were

in 260-310 g in weight range and 310-409 mm

in length range. Number of eggs per kg of

body weight were in the range of 15,100-17,200

The fertilization in artificially stripped eggs

was 95%. These eggs were kept in enamel

trays for rearing under three different sets of

experiments and the results are given below

in Table 3. The early fry were produced with-

in 10-15 days.

TABLE 2

. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON

INCUBATION PERIOD OF EGGS COLLECTED FROM NATURE

Sm TE ac SS DT IRS ee Sad a Se

Treatment ee)

a) Still water

i. only water 13-17

ii. with sand & pebbles 13-17

iii. with lake mud 13-17

b) Flowing water

9.8-11.5

No. of days

No. of No. of taken rad Percentage

eggs/set hatchlings hatching survival

50 21 5-13 42

50 yy 5-13 44

50 12 4-15 24

50 2 18-22 4

During the breeding season, the sexes can be

easily distinguished by the soft, enlarged and

distended belly in the females and presence of

1The Abstract of the paper was presented at the

65th Session of Indian Science Congress held at

Ahmedabad, January 1978.

180

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

For the first time spawning grounds of

Schizothorax niger have been located in the

lake itself. The study reveals that immediate-

ly after winter when the lake temperature

touches 14-18°C, S. niger breeds in certain

pockets of the lake. The absence of spawning

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

@ SHALAMAR

EGG COLLECTION

CENTRES

Fig. 1. Egg collection centres in the Dal Lake.

18]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

TABLE 3

RESULTS OF REARING EXPERIMENTS OF ARTIFICIALLY STRIPPED EGGS UNDER DIFFERENT TREATMENTS

Hatching K

Absorption Percen- Total

Treatment eet seein pe of CF sac tage sur- He of

larvae in days vival ays

a) Still water

i. inside Lab. 13-16 250 7-9 5-7 85.5 14

ii. outside Lab. 13-23 250 4-5 5-6 85.5 10

b) Flowing water

i. Outside Lab. 9-11 100 29-35 6-11 20 40

TABLE 4

THE SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EGGS COLLECTED FROM THE LAKE AND THOSE ARTIFICIALLY STRIP-

PED. BOTH REARED UNDER LABORATORY CONDITIONS

Eggs stripped from S. niger and reared in

Laboratory

a. Eggs

Fertilized eggs are spherical, translucent, demersal

adhesive. They are creamy-yellow in colour. Eggs

swell within fifteen minutes after extrusion and fer-

tilization. Size ranges between 2.5-3.5 mm. The egg

membrane is tough and smooth on the outside. The

perivitel-line space between the vitelline membrane

and yolk is absent.

b. Newly hatched larvae

The yolk sac of the newly hatched larvae is half of

the body length. The mouth is not apparent. It

possesses a continuous fin-fold along the dorsal

edge running behind the head to around the tail.

Size of larva ranged between 7.0-8.0 mm. Melano-

phores are present on the body. Normally for the

first 10-15 minutes after hatching the larvae just

flick their tail along the bottom of tray. They pro-

gressively get more powerful and start to swim off,

swimming upwards. When swimming ceases they

become motionless and turn upside down with the

head pointing downwards and steadily sink to bot-

tom.

c. Fry

The yolk diminishes completely. The size of swim-

up fry range between 9-10 mm.: Mouth is well de-

veloped. More melanophores have appeared along

the ventral and dorsal surface. But more numer-

ous on the head region of the body. The pectoral

and caudal fins are well developed. The fry of

15-16 mm size has well formed body of fins.

Eggs of S. niger collected from Dal lake and

reared in Laboratory

Fertilized eggs are spherical, translucent, demersal

adhesive and creamy yellow in colour. Size ranges

between 2.5-3.6 mm. The egg membrane is smooth

and tough. The perivitelline space is absent.

tough. The perivitelline space is absent.

The larvae is 7.2-8.0 mm in size. Yolk sac is half

the length of the body. It is devoid of mouth. The

larval fin-fold is continuous and around the caudal

end. Melanophores are present. It swims like the

larvae produced from artificially stripped eggs.

The yolk is completely absorbed. The size of swim-

up fry ranges between 9-10 mm. Pectoral and cau-

dal fins are well developed. Mouth is developed

with distinct alimentary canal. Melanophores are

present and abundant on the head region of the

fry. The fry of 15-16 mm size has well developed

body and morphologically similar to the fry pro-

duced from artificially stripped eggs.

182

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

beds in the Gagribal and Charchinari area of

the lake may be ascribed to topographic un-

suitability especially lack of sheltered shallow

areas. If lake water attains optimum tempera-

ture early due to favourable meterological

conditions the fish may breed early (as in the

year 1977 when fish started breeding in first

week of March); otherwise the breeding may

be delayed by a month or so. The water chemi-

stry of the spawning grounds does not give

any clear indication that the fish prefers any

special chemical spectrum to breed. The water

chemistry of these grounds is similar to the

other parts of the lake.

Photo 1.

“Artificially fertilised eggs of Schizothorax

niger.

To confirm the species, apart from experi-

mental fishing in and around the spawning

grounds, the eggs collected from nature and

those artificially stipped were reared under

laboratory conditions and the developmental

stages noted (Table 4). Similar developmental

features were observed in both the sets.

The hatching experiments with eggs collect-

ed from nature clearly indicate that the sur-

vival was more (42 and 44%) if the eggs are

kept in still water with or without sand and

pebbles, it was 24% in mud and only 4% in

flowing water conditions (Table 2). The most

encouraging aspect of the species is that it can

easily be stripped. It takes about 14 days from

ege to early fry stage at 13-16°C, with in-

crease in temperature (13-23°C) the incuba-

tion period was lowered to 10 days (Table 3).

In flowing water, the incubation period was

observed to. be very long, more than 40 days.

Survival rate in case of artificially stripped

under flowing water was also low (less than

20%) compared to 85% in still water (Table

3). This feature indirectly indicates that lentic

water is more suited for breeding and early

development. The preference of fish for lake

breeding under the circumstances is self evi-

dent. These experiments give adequate indica-

tion that for S. niger running water is not es-

sential for breeding and early development.

The present observations showing that the

spawning habitat of S. niger lies within the Dal

lake, constitutes an important finding and has

immediate relevance in the revival of the de-

clining fishery. The present investigation pro-

vides adequate basis for management mea-

sures like closed season and closed areas. The

studies further indicate that the fish is amen-

able for artificial propagation as reflected by

successful stripping and rearing experiments.

This advantage can be utilized for raising

stocking material to strengthen both the lake

stock as well as for culture purposes.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to Dr. V. G. Jhingran,

Director, Central Inland Fisheries Research

Institute, Barrackpore for his interest in the

work. We are grateful to Dr. A. V. Natarajan,

Head, Riverine and Lacustrine Division for

critically going through the manuscript and

suggesting improvements.

183

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

CoLD WATER FISHERIES

RESEARCH UNIT, C.LF.R.L.,

HARWAN,

KASHMIR,

December 8, 1978.

K. K. VASS

H. S. RAINA

SHYAM SUNDER

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS (1977): Report on Dal lake, Sri-

nagar, Kashmir with suggestions for development

of its fisheries. Bull. Centr. Inl. Fish. Inst. (24)

13 pp. (Mimeo).

JAN, N. A. AND Das, S. M. (1971): Studies on the

food and seasonal variation in fisheries of Kashmir

valley. Kash. Sci. 8 (1 & 2): 102-110.

RAMPAL, CHENDER (1967): Studies on the early

life history of five Kashmir fishes together with the

fecundity and breeding habits. Ph.D. Thesis. Jam-

mu and Kashmir University, 150 p.

SUNDER, SHYAM, BHAGAT, M. J., JosuHi, C. B.

AND RAMAKRISHNA, K. V. (1977): Some aspects on

the fishery and biology of Schizothorax niger Hackel

from Dal lake, Kashmir (MS).

18. A NOTE ON THE ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF INDIAN

MELOIDAE (COLEOPTERA)

The information regarding the Meloidae

(Coleoptera: Heteromera) of India though at

the moment is incomplete in many ways, the

available data does show considerable evid-

ence on the Zoogeographical affinities of the

blister beetles.

Blister beetles are represented at present

by 105 species belonging to 19 genera. Table 1

shows that the meloids exhibit a high degree

of endemism. About 66.6 per cent species are

TABLE 1

ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF MELOIDAE FROM INDIA

(CS a SE Sa SS ED)

Sub-families

Nearctic Wide

Total number Endemic Oriental Palaearctic Ethiopian Australian and Neotro- spread

and tribes genera species species species species species species pical species species

Meloinae

Eleticini 1 4 2 1 = 1 ats ot Loe

Epicautini 3 34 24 10 2 — — — =

Mylabrini 3 21 11 i) 3 2 nul jes nd

Lyttini 5 25 17 7 1 — = = =

Meloini 1 4 2 — 2 ane at aa it

Zonitinae

Zonitini 4 14 14 — — — — — —

Horiinae

Horiini 1 2, — 2 me ae ss A Bids

Cissitini 1 1 — 1 esis Has ane ls Ae

Total 19 105 70 28 8 3 — —

66.66% 26.66% 7.61 2.85%

184

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

endemic to India. The tribe Zonitini is en-

tirely endemic.

As should be expected, a high percentage

c. 27 per cent constitute the Oriental element.

In Palaearctic realm, about 8 per cent of the

species have so far been recorded. The Ethio-

pian element is rather very poorly represented

and constitute about 3 per cent of the total

DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY,

INDIAN AGRICULTURAL

RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

New DE LHI-110 012,

April 6, 1978.

fauna. It is interesting to note the complete

absence of Nearctic, Neotropical and Austra-

lian species in India. Besides, none of the

Species is widespread.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Dr. K. N. Mehrotra for

providing necessary facilities.

R. K. ANAND

SWARAJ GHAI

19. ON SOME INSECTS ASSOCIATED WITH LAC IN INDIA

INTRODUCTION

The lac insect, Kerria lacca (Kerr) (TYachar-

diidae, Homoptera, Hemiptera) thrives on the

sap of numerous host plants, and is, in its

turn, attacked by a number of parasites and

predators. Glover (1934, 1937) recorded 4

encyrtid, 1 eupelmid, 2 apheliniid and 1 eulo-

phid parasites and 2 major predators of the

lac insect. Varshney (1976) has not reported

any of the insects mentioned in this paper.

The parasitic insects listed in this paper

were collected from fresh mature lac caged in

specially fabricated cages dark-lined inside ex-

cept at the holes for fitting glass tubes to

study the insects associated with lac insect. The

collections were made at the Indian Lac Re-

search Institute, Namkum, Ranchi and its Re-

gional Stations at Kundri (District Palamau,

Bihar), Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh) and Da-

moh (Madhya Pradesh) as stated against the

insects.

OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

1. Apanteles angaleti Muesbeck (Hymenop-

tera: Braconidae)

Seven specimens (5 ? ? and 2 3c) were

collected from mature katki* 1968 crop on

palas or flame of the forest [Butea monosper-

ma (Lam.) Taub.] (Leguminosae: Papiliona-

tae) from Rajnagar (located about 10 km from

Damoh in the Forest Compartment No. 107

of the Reserve Forest of Damoh Range, Da-

moh Forest Division), Damoh.

Two species of the genus Apanteles, namely,

A. tachardiae Cam. and A. fakhrulhajiae

Mahd., have long been known as endo-para-

sites on the larvae of Holcocera_ pulverea

Meyr. (Lepidoptera: Blastobasidae), a major

predator of the lac insect (Mahdihassan 1925).

Hence A. angaleti was also presumed to be a

parasite of H. pulverea. In order to confirm

this view, 25 cocoons spun over the dead

larvae of H. pulverea were collected from the

185

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

caged lac and the emergence of 18 specimens

of A. tachardiae, 3 of A. fakhrulhajiae and 4

of A. angaleti were noted. Hence this is the

first record of A. angaleti as an endo-parasite

of H. pulverea.

A. angaleti was first recorded by Narayanan

et al: (1953) from the environs of New Delhi

and subsequently from a number of other

places in India. According to these authors,

it is an internal larval parasite of the pink

bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella Saunders of

cotton and appears to be a very efficient and

potential parasite in the important cotton

growing tracts of India. Charpentier (1956)

reports utilization of this parasite as a biotic

agent in Louisiana for controlling sugarcane

borer. Muesbeck (1956) reports the release of

this parasite in Texas against P. gossypiella

on cotton, and Narayanan et al. (1959) report

shipment of several thousands of A. angaleti

to the United States of America for release

against P. gossypiella.

2. Tyndarichus sp. (Hymenoptera:

dae)

Four specimens were collected from the ma-

ture katki 1968 crop on palas at Mirzapur and

numerous specimens from mature katki 1969

crop on Dbhalia [Moghania macrophylla

(Willd.) O. Ktze.] (Leguminosae: Papiliona-

tae) at Namkum and on palas at Kundri.

According to Subba Rao, species of Tynda-

richus Howard are exclusively hyperparasitic

on eggs or larvae of lepidopterous pests, very

rarely associated with coccids (personal com-

munication). He (1967) has described from

India T. hemiaspidoproctis reared from Hemi-

aspidoproctus cinareus (Greene) (Coccidae).

Thompson (1953) records Porthetria dispar L.

(Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) as a host of

Tyndarichus sp.; Ooencyrtus kuvanae How.

(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) and P. dispar L.

(Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) of T. navae

Encyiti-

186

How.; Cerambyx cerdo L. (Coleoptera: Ce-

rambycidae) of T. rudnevi Newicki and Eupi-

thecia castigata Hb. (Lepidoptera: Geometri-

dae) of T. scaurus Wilk. Eady (1960), while

describing the new species of 7. clavatus sp.

nov. and Pseudolitomastix nacoleiae sp. nov.

(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae); reared T. cla-

vatus sp. nov., a hyperparasite of Nacoleia

octasema Meyr. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidac),

from P. nacikeuae sp. nov. from New Guinea.

De Santis (1967) has reported T. silvicola

from San Pedro (Argentina).

Since the lac insect is attacked by two ma-

jor lepidopterous predators namely., Eubiem-

ma amabilis Moore (Noctuidae) and H. pul-

verea Meyr. (Blastobasidae), it is possible that

Tyndarichus sp. recorded here occurs either

as parasite of the lac insect itself or as a hyper-

parasite of one or both of these predators.

3. Thomsonisca sp. (Hymenoptera: Encyrti-

dae) 3 ?

Six specimens were collected from mature

katki 1969 crop on palas at Kundri.

So far, 7. indica Hayat has been reared from

Aonidiella_ orientalis Newst. (Coccidae) on

Ficus sp. at Aligarh (Hayat 1970). Outside

India, T. typ'ca (Merc.) has been recorded by

Benassy (1961) from Southern France parasi-

tizing Aulacaspis rosae (Beh) (Coccidae) in-

festing raspberry; 7. chionaspidis Heq. by Hof-

fer (1959) from Prague and 7. chinaspis sp.

n. on Chionaspis salicis Hem. (Coccidae) by

Heqvist (1958) from Sweden.

Since Thomsonisca sp. has been recorded

on various coccids as stated above, it is be-

lieved that this species is also parastic on the

lac insect together with other encyrtid parasi-

tes. The actual role of this parasite is not

known. Pe nucerat’

4. Camptoptera sp. (Hymenoptera : Mymari-

dae)

Four specimens were collected from mature

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

katki 1969 crop on palas at Kundri.

So far, C. papaveris Soyka and C. magna

Soyka have been recorded from Holland

(Soyka 1946); C. loretoensis Oglobin, C. mis-

sionica Oglobin, C. reticulata Oglobin and C.

angustipennis Oglobin from Argentina (Oglo-

bin 1947); C. aula Deb. from Belgium (Deb-

auche 1948); C. ellifranzae Str. from Germany

(Strassen 1950); C. lapponica Heq. at Sweden

(Heqvist 1954); C.. strobilicola Heqg. from

Norway (Heqvist 1956), and C. pechlaneri

Soyka, C. cardui Foerst and C. stammeri

Soyka by Annecke and Dout (1961).

The association of Mymaridae with lac is

a new record and its role is yet unknown.

INDIAN Lac RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

NAMKUM,

RANCHI-834 010,

August 22, 1978.

5. Scatopse sp. (Diptera : Scatopsidae)

Two specimens were collected from mature

katki 1968 crop on palas at Mirzapur.

This is the first record of the association

of a Diptera with lac and its role is yet to be

determined.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. T. P. S. Teotia,

Director, Indian Lac Research Institute, Nam-

kum for his keen interest and to Dr. B. R.

Subba Rao and Dr. R. W. Crosskey, Com-

monwealth Institute of Entomology, London,

for determining the insects.

R. S. GOKULPURE

B. P. MEHRA

P. SEN

JAWAHIR LAL

REFERENCES

ANNECKE, D. P. & Dout, R. L. (1961): The

genera of the Mymaridae, Hymenoptera; Chalci-

doidea. Ent. Mem. Dep. Agric. S. Afri. 5: 1-71.

BEeNAsSsSy, C. (1961): Contribution to the study

of the influence of some ecological factors on the

limitation of out breaks of Diaspine coccids (In

French). Ann. Epiphyt. 12: 157.

CHARPENTIER, L. J. (1956): 1954 studies of para-

sites for sugarcane borer control in Louisiana.

J. eco. Ent. 49: 267-68.

DEBAUCHE, H. R. (1948): Etude sur les Myma-

rommidae et les Mymaridae de la Belgique (Hyme-

noptera-Chalcidoidae). Mem. Mus. Hist. nat. Belg.,

Brussels, No. 108; 247 pp.

De SANTIS, L. (1967): Adiciones a’la_ fauna

Argentina de Encyrtidos 1. (Hymenoptera: Chal-

cidoidea). Acta. Zool. Lilloana 23: 67-75.

Eapy, R. D. (1960): A new genus and two new

species of Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea)

from the banana Scab moth, Nacoleia octasema

(Meyr.) Bull. ent. Res. 50: 667-670.

Gover, P. M. (1934): Check list of the Chal-

cidoidea bred at Namkum from the lac insect, Lac-

cifer lacca with some notes as regards their func-

tion, economic importance and control. Bull. Indian

Lac Res. Inst. 20: 14 pp.

(1937): Lac cultivation in India.

Indian Lac Research Institute, Namkum, Ranchi,

147 pp.

HayaT, M. (1970): New species of Encyrtidae

(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) reared from Coccids.

Mushi 44: 55-63.

Heevist, K. J. (1954): Zwei neue Mymariden

(Hym.) aus Schweden. Ent. Tidskr. 75: 272-275.

(1956): A new species of Campto-

Mymaridae).

ptera from Norway (Hymenoptera:

Norsk. ent. Tidskr. 10: 37-39.

— (1958): Notes on Chalcidoidea II.

Chalcids reared from Chionaspis salicis L. Ent.

Pidskr28 7a 55-7

HoFFER, A. (1959): Miscellanea Encyrtidologica

III. (Hym. Chalcidoidea). Acta. ent.. Mus. nat. 33:

5-36.

MAHDIHASSAN, S. (1925):. Some insects associat-

ed with lac and a symbiotic representation of their

inter-relationship, J. Sci. Assoc. Maharaja College,

Vizianagaram. 2: 64-88.

MUESBECK, C. W. F.

(1956): Some _ braconid

187

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

parasites of the Pink Boll worm, Pectinophora gos-

sypiella (Saunders). Boll. Lab. Zool., Portici. 33:

57-58. (fide Rev. appl. Ent. Ser. A. 1957, 45: 378).

NARAYANAN, E. S.; ANGALET, G. W.; SUBBA RAO,

B. R. & D’Souza, G. I. (1953): A technique for

mass breeding of Apanteles n. sp. (Braconidae:

Hymenoptera). Curr. Sci. 22: 21.

NARAYANAN, E. S.; SUBBA RAo, B. R. & GANGRADE,

G. A. (1959): The biology and rate of reproduction

and morphology of the immature stages of Apan-

teles angaleti Muesbeck (Hymenoptera: Braconi-

dae). Beitr. Ent. 6: 296-320 (fide Rev. appl. Ent.

Ser. A., 1959, 47: 73).

OGLOBLIN, A. (1947): Las especies nuevas del

genero Camptoptera de Misiones (Mymaridae,

Hym.). Acta. Zool. Lilloana 4: 493-508.

SoykA, W. (1946): Revision einiger Mymariden-

gattungen. Zbl. Gesamt. Gb. Ent. 1: 33-44.

SuUBBA Rao, B. R. (1967): Description of some

new species of encyrtids from India. Bull. ent. 8:

1-7.

STRASSEN, R. Zur. (1950):

der Gattung Camptoptera.

145-150.

THOMPSON, W. R. (1953): A catalogue of the

parasites and predators of insect pests. Hosts of

the hymenoptera (Galliceratid to Evaniid) Sect. 2

Part 3. The Commonwealth Institute of Biological

Control, Canada: 271.

VARSHNEY, R. K. (1976): A check list of insect

parasites associated with lac. Oriental Insects. 10

(1): 55-78.

Ein never vartreter

Senckenbergiana 31:

20. A FLOURISHING COLONY OF COPTOTERMES HEIMI

(WASM.) (INSECTA : ISOPTERA) IN A NAVAL BOAT

Coptotermes heimi is a serious wood-des-

troying termite of India (Sen-Sarma et al.

1975). It attacks timber structures in build-

ing, wooden poles, posts, timbers used in

wooden bridges and wood lying in the open.

It occurs throughout the Indian subcontinent.

It has also been recorded as an introduced

species in some parts of South-East Asia

(Lever 1952; Gay 1969).

Species of the genus Coptotermes normally

live in subterranean colonies and maintain soil

connection for their sustenance. However, in-

stances are on record where fully established

colonies (without, maintaining soil connec-

tions) of some species of Coptotermes have

been reported (Mathur & Sen-Sarma 1959;

Sen-Sarma eft al. 1975). The present note re-

cords the establishment of a flourishing colony

of Coptotermes heimi in a Naval Boat, Bom-

bay without maintaining soil connection. The

colony comprised of a primary queen, work-

ers, soldiers and nymphs. This seems to be

188

the first record of a colony of Coptotermes

heimi in a naval boat in India which remains

on the high sea most of the time. The pre-

sence of the primary queen leads to the con-

clusion that the colony was established by the

swarming alates presumably during the period

when the boat was docked in a dry dock. As

the alates are weak fliers, successful landing of

alates in the boat in the high sea is ruled out.

Subsequent availibility of food, regular source

of moisture and other factors were conducive

for the establishment of a viable colony. This

discovery is important in many respects. It

indicates that a colony of C. heimi can surt-

vive without maintaining soil connection pro-

vided a source of moisture is available. It also

shows that this species of termites can pose

serious problems in sea vessels and is capable

of being introduced to other geographical re-

gions. The colony was collected by the Naval

Metallurgical Laboratory, Bombay to whom

our thanks are due.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ForREST ENTOMOLOGY BRANCH,

FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE & COLLEGES,

DEHRA DUN,

January 3, 1978.

M. L. THAKUR

P. K. SEN-SARMA

REFERENCES

Gay, F. J. (1969): Species introduced by man.

In—Biology of Termites, Vol. I: 459-494 (Acade-

mic Press, New York).

Lever, R. J. W. (1952): New or recently in-

troduced insect pests in Singapore, absent from the

Federation of Malaya. Malayan Agri. J., 25: 214-

PaO fe

MATHUR, R. N. AND SEN-SARMA, P. K. (1959):

Notes on the habits and biology of Dehra Dun

termites, Pt. I. J.7.D.P.A. India, Dehra Dun, 5(3):

3-9,

SEN-SARMA, P. K., THAKUR, M. L., MisHra, S. C.

AND GupTA, B. K. (1975): Studies on wood des-

troying termites in relation to natural termite re-

sistance of timber. Final Tech. Rept. P.L. 480 Pro-

ject No. A7-FS-58 (1968-73): 1-187.

21. ON THE EULITTORAL. PALAEMONID SHRIMP (CRUSTACEA,

DECAPODA) OF VISAKHAPATNAM COAST

(With a text-figure)

During a visit to the Ramakrishna Beach

of Visakhapatnam, on March 23, 1977, a few

shrimps were observed lurking beneath some

semi-exposed rocks. In all, four shrimps

were collected and after noting the colour,

preserved. Again, on April 20, 1977 the same

species of shrimp was collected from the rock-

pools of Bimilipatnam coast (25 km north of

Visakhapatnam).

The shrimps were identified as Palaemon

(Palaemon) belindae (Kemp, 1925). This

species was originally described by Kemp

(1925) as Leander belindae, based on speci-

mens from Kilakarai (Gulf of Mannar) and

Cape Comorin. Holthuis (1950) defined the

genus Palaemon Fabricius and _ included

Kemp’s belindae under the nominate subgenus

Palaemon. To date, P. (P.) belindae does not

appear to have been recorded beyond the type-

locality. Although Kemp’s original description

is excellent, some supplementary notes and

illustrations are given here.

Of the nine specimens, seven are females

(all five belonging to the April 20, 1977

sample are ovigerous) and two are males.

Measurements of the largest specimen (2? ):

body length 37.0 mm, carapace length 8.0

mm and rostrum length 6.0 mm; correspond-

ca! a

J C

v |

}

Fig. 1. Palaemon (Palaemon) belindae (Kemp,

1925). a. carapace and rostrum; b. mandible;

c. distal part of telson. (Scale=1.0 mm).

189

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

ing measurements of the smallest specimen

(fo): 16.5 mm, 3.0 mm and 2.5 mm respec-

tively. Rostral teeth formula 7-8/2-3; only in

one specimen does the ventral margin bear

three teeth.

The carapace, rostrum, mandible and distal

part of telson are illustrated in Figure 1.

Kemp (1925) made no mention of the bran-

chiostegal suture, which is very distinct as

shown in Figure la. Colour of the present spe-

cimens agrees with the description of Kemp;

However, Kemp did not mention the conspi-

cuous colour pattern of the antennal flagellae,

which bear dark (greenish-maroon) and pale

(pink) alternating bands.

Johnson (1968), writing about prawns of

marine littoral weed beds at Singapore, stated

that bottom-living prawns occur in, or invade

the littoral weed beds. This appears to be the

case with P.(P.) belindae also, because, on

both occasions this species was found among

various seaweeds.

From the coastal waters of mainland India,

five species of the subgenus Palaemon are

known, namely, serrifer (Stimpson), pacificus

(Stimpson) sewelli (Kemp), belindae (Kemp)

and concinnus Dana (Kemp. 1925; Dutt &

Ravindranath, 1974). From the literature it

appears that all these are littoral species, and

mutually exclusive in their distribution except

pacificus and belindae which have been re-

corded from Cape Comorin.

The following key based on Kemp (1925),

Holthuis (1950) and present observations,

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

NAGARJUNA UNIVERSITY,

NAGARJUNANAGAR P.O.,

GUNTUR 522510,

December 23, 1977.

190

may be used to distinguish the five Indian

species of the subgenus Palaemon:

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Palaemon (Palaemon)

1. Branchiostegal suture originates some distance

above the branchiostegal spine; first pleopod of

adult male with a rudimentary appendix interna

est aed: AA hase BRIN SSS ees eat Naat P. (P.) concinnus

— Branchiostegal suture originates very close to

the branchiostegal spine; first pleopod of adult

male without even a rudiment of appendix in-

ETI | PLO a) ee GPa eee se ai ete A 2

2. Branchiostegal spine inserted behind the antero-

lateral margin of carapace; dactylus of pereo-

pods) 3:5 extremely; slendensa.).p) 9. | ae

Sek RAE TA | as tac Oca Ce a ee P. (P.) sewelli

— Branchiostegal spine inserted on the antero-

lateral margin of carapace; dactylus of pereopods

3-5 not slender

3. Dorsal rostral teeth 9-16, usually 11 or 12, most

crowded over the region of the eye..........

el. Se erties ec ese Ses ai tee a Be (PS) isenrifenr

— Dorsal rostral teeth 6-11, usually 7-9, not

crowded) over the ;region! of the eye... 4

4. Propodus of pereopods 3-5 distally dilated and

armed with 4-6 stout spines; ventral _ rostral

teetin WStallliys Gees eee han P. (P.)_ belindae

— Propodus of pereopods 3-5 not dilated distally

and with only 1 or 2 slender spines; ventral

rostral teeth usually 4:...°%-. P. (P.) pacificus

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank Prof. Y. Radhakrishna,

Head of the Department, for facilities and en-

couragement, and Mr. P. Balasundar Reddy

for his assistance in collecting the Bimilipat-

nam sample.

K. RAVINDRANATH

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Dutt, S. AND RAVINDRANATH, K. (1974): A new

record for Palaemon (Palaemon) concinnus Dana

1852 (Decapoda, Palaemonidae), from India. Curr.

Sci., 43(4): 123-124.

HoitHuis, L. B. (1950): The Decapoda of the

Siboga Expedition. Part xX. The Palaemonidae. I.

Subfamily Palaemoninae. Siboga Exped. Monogr.,

39a9: 1-268.

JoHNSON, D. S. (1968): Prawns of marine lit-

toral weed beds at Singapore. Malayan Nat. J., 21

(supplement): XxXi.

Kemp, S. (1925): Notes on Crustacea Decapoda

in the Indian Museum. XVII. On various Caridea.

Rec. Indian Mus., 27(4): 249-343.

22. FIRST RECORD OF LUMBRICUS CASTANEUS (SAVIGNY)

FROM INDIA (LUMBRICIDAE: OLIGOCHAETA)

Lumbricus castaneus (Savigny) is known to

occur at various localities in New Zealand,

North America and Europe (Gates 1972).

This species is being reported here for the first

time from India, collected from Mashobra in

Himachal Pradesh. Two other species, namely

Lumbricus rubellus Hofimeister and Lumobri-

cus terrestris Linnaeus have been previously

reported from India, the former from Nicobar

Island (Stephenson 1923) and the latter from

Simla (Gates 1951). Another species, Bimas-

tos elseni (Levinson) recorded from Naini Tal

(Stephenson 1923), which according to Gates

(1958) is not Bimastos, has now been doubt-

fully referred to belong in Lumbricus (Rey-

nolds et al. 1974).

Lumbricus eastaneus (Savigny)

1826. Enterion castaneum Savigny, Mem.

Acad. Sci. Inst. France 5: 180. (Type locality

-——Paris).

1972. Lumbricus castaneus, Gates, Trans.

Amer. Philo Soc.,;62. (7): 114.

Material examined.—16 ex; Mashobra, Distt.

Simla, Himachal Pradesh; 8.ix.1971; H. P. Agrawal.

Description—Length 20-28 mm. Diameter

2-3 mm. Segments 70-91. Colour reddish-

violet on dorsum and yellowish ventrally. Pro-

stomium tanylobous. First dorsal pore at 6/7-

7/8. Setae closely paired; AB>CD, AA=BC,

DD anteriorly =about 4C (but posteriorly <

IC). Clitellum saddle-shaped, XXVIII-

XXXIII; tubercula puberatis longitudinal

bands, slightly lateral to B, at 4XXVIII,

XXIX-XXXII. Male pores on XV, in BC,

without tumescences. Genital tumescences

around setae A and B on X, XXIX-XXXII.

Quadrithecal; pores in CD, at 9/10-10/11.

Nephropores obvious, behind XV _ irregularly

alternating with asymmetry between levels

just above B and well above D.

Septa thin and delicate. Oesophagus widen-

ed and markedly moniliform in XI-XII; giz-

zard in XVII; typhlosole beginning in region

of XXI-XXII and ending in 66th to 75th seg-

ments, leaving 4, 8 and 13-17 atyphlosolate

segments from posterior end. Calciferous sacs

in X, horizontal, opening into gut posteriorly

and ventrally at the insertion of septum 10/11.

Excretory system holoic, nephridial bladders

J-shaped. Extra-oesophageal vessels joining

dorsal trunk along 9/10; hearts in VII-XI.

Holandric; testis sacs present; seminal vesi-

cles in IX, XI and XII; spermathecal ducts

short, entering the parietes at 9/10 and 10/11.

Distribution—India: Mashobra (Himachal

Pradesh). Extralimital: New Zealand, Canada,

U.S.A., Mexico, Europe.

Remarks.—According to Gates (1958), the

lumbricids in India are domiciled only at hill

191

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

resorts where Europeans have resided in the

past. Further, he states that they have been

transported from Europe to these places along-

with the earth surrounding the roots of exotic

plants. The occurrence of Lumbricus castan-

eus (Savigny) at Mashobra might be due to

this phenomenon like the other Indian lum-

bricid species. The lumbricids are able to with-

stand freezing temperatures for long periods

(Gates 1958).

KEY FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF INDIAN SPECIES

OF Lumbricus.

1. Athecal; clitellum begins in front of XXV;

tubercula puberatis absent.

Bey eee is eRe ek Lumobricus eiseni

Thecal; clitellum begins behind XXV; tubercula

puberatis present

e © © © © © © © © © 8 ew ew ew ele 8

HiGH ALTITUDE ZOOLOGY FIELD STN.,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

SOLAN (H.P.),

April 4, 1977.

2. Clitellum begins behind XXX.

Hea Lumbricus terrestris

Clitellum begins in front of XXX

3. Clitellum XXVI, XXVII-XXX, XXXI,

XXXII; tubercula puberatis on

XXVILEXXXD Me Lumbricus rubellus

Clitelllum XXVIII-XXXIII; tubercula

puberatis on XXIX-XXXII

BCT CEs os Lumbricus castaneus

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. S. K. Khera, Joint

Director-in-charge, Zoological Survey of India

for facilities to carry out this work. Thanks

are also due to Dr. Raj Tilak, Superintending

Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India for his

valuable suggestions.

J. M. JULKA

REFERENCES

GaTES, G. E. (1951): On the earthworms of

Saharanpur, Dehra Dun, and some Himalayan hill

stations. Proc. natl. Acad. Sci. India, (B) 21: 16-22.

(1958): Contributions to a_ revi-

sion of the earthworm family Lumbricidae. II.

Indian species. Breviora, No. 91: 1-16.

(1972) : Burmese earthworms.

Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc., 62 (7): 1-326.

REYNOLDS, J. W., CLEBSCH, E. E. C. AND REy-

NOLDS, W. M. (1974): The earthworms of Tennes-

see (Oligochaeta). 1. Lumbricidae. Bull. Tall Tim-

bers Res. Stn., No. 17: 1-133.

STEPHENSON, J. (1923): Fauna of British India,

Oligochaeta—Taylor and Francis, London: 1-518.

23. FAUNAL ASSOCIATIONS OF LITTORAL SPONGES IN

AND AROUND BALUGAON IN CHILKA LAKE (LAGOON)

The littoral system of Chilka lake, the lar-

gest brackish water lagoon situated on the

east coast of India supports luxuriant growths

of algae and sedentary animal growths on the

boulders and shingle of various islands in the

lake (Annandale & Kemp 1915, 1916; Sewell

& Annandale 1922; Parija & Parija 1946).

The littoral plant and animal growths are of

192

immense ecological importance as they form

favourable habitats for a variety of organisms

which in turn attract higher trophic level or-

ganisms for foraging (Gislen 1929; Dahal

1948; Round ez al., 1961; Perera & Arudpra-

gasam 1966; Sarma & Ganapati 1972; Rao &

Rao 1973). The organisms associated with

these sessile growths at Chilka are little known

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

except for isolated taxonomic accounts of in-

dividual groups (Annandale & Kemp 1915;

Sewell & Annandale 1922). Sarma & Satapa-

thy (1978) recently reported on the phytal-

faunal associations in and around Balugaon

in Chilka lake. In the present paper the re-

sults of a study on the qualitative and quanti-

tative distribution pattern of epibiotic fauna of

two species of sponges of the lake are dealt

with. ,

Samplcs of two species of encrusting spon-

ges, namely Spongilla sp. and Laxosuberites

lacustris Annandale occurring at Kalijugeswar,

Chadheiga and Kalijai islands situated in and

around Balugaon were collected during Jan.-

Sept. 1977 and analysed as outlined by Rao

& Rao (1973).

The qualitative composition and mean den-

sities along with percentage composition bas-

ed on an analysis of samples of diverse faunal

elements inhabiting Spongilla and Laxosube-

rites are presented in Tables I and II respec-

tively.

31 species belonging to seven major taxa

namely Foraminifera (4), Polychaeta (2), Co-

pepoda (11), Amphipoda (9), Isopoda (2),

Tanaidecea (1), Bivalvia (2) have been iden-

tified. Besides, several species of undetermined

identity belonging to Nematoda, Ostracoda and

adult insects and larvae are found to exist

associated with sponges.

On an average Spongilla supported a mean

density of 852 animals/100 cc, of which am-

phipods, nematodes, tanaidaceans and _ fora-

miniferans were dominant. In the January

samples of Spongilla as may as 57000 gem-

mules/100 cc were observed. Laxosuberites

was found to harbour a mean density of 2742

animals/100 cc, consisting of nematodes, am-

Phipods, copepods, tanaidaceans, ostracods as

the dominant forms in the order of their ab-

undance respectively.

The general morphology of the host animal,

the sediment accumulated on it and the phy-

sicochemical parameters of the environment

appear to influence the composition and abun-

dance of the epibiotic organisms (Dahal

1948; Round et al. 1961; Sarma & Ganapati

1972; Rao & Rao 1973). The loosely aggre-

gated Spongilla growths laden with numerous

monaxon spicules and less sediment deposition

offer fewer biospaces for animal inhabitation

and as such it supported few species and low

density of organisms. The compact mat-form-

ing Laxosuberites with well developed cortex

affording more surface area for animal coloni-

sation and sediment settlement supported a

high species diversity and faunal density. How-

ever, foraminiferans were more on Spongilla

than on Laxosuberites as the rough body wall

of the former offers more grip to them than

the smooth surface of the latter.

There are no published census of sponge

associates from the Indian coast to compare

and contrast with the present observations.

The density of lake sponge associates is many

times higher than that reported for the littoral

sponge Halichondria panicea at Oregon (1.15

organisms/cm*) by Long (1968).

From the foregoing account it is clear that

the littoral sessile animal growths serve as an

Oikos for a variety of morphologically and

biologically divergent organisms and as such

play a vital role in the bio-economy of the

littoral system.

Grateful thanks are due to the authorities

of Regional College of Education, Bhubanes-

war (N.C.E.R.T.) for all the facilities provid-

ed for carrying out the present work.

193

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

TABLE I | Cyclops sp. ae +

Mesocyclops sp. Ss +

QUALITATIVE COMPOSITION OF EPIBIOTIC FAUNA OF Saphirella sp. ie #

Spongilla sp. AND L. lacustris ANNANDALE AMPHIPODA:

Species Spongilla sp. L. lacustris Talorchestia martensi

(M. Weber) ae te

FORAMINIFERA: Hyale brevipes Chevereux ae ae

Rotalia sp. + + Orchestia platensis Kroyer at +

Spirillina sp. + — Photis longicaudata

Cibicides sp. + — (Bate & Westew) ab bef

Trochammina sp. + = Photis sp. Be St

NEMATODA: Paracalliope fluviatilis

Undetermined spp. + + (G. M. Thomson) a ate

POLYCHAETA: Maera sp. + ae

Nereis chilkensis Southern + + Niphargus chilkensis Chilton + a

Fabricia spongicola Southern + + TANAIDACEA :

OSTRACODA: Apseudus chilkensis Chilton + dt

Undetermined spp. + + ISOPODA :

COPEPODA: Exosphaeroma parva Chilton + oe

Oithona sp. — + Ligia exotica Roux + oe

Laophonte sp. a + ADULT INSECTS & LARVAE:

Nitocra sp. + + Undetermined sp. + a

Mesochra sp. = + BIVALVIA:

Harpacticus sp. + + Modiola undulata Dunker ae +

Ergasilus sp. es + Modiola striatula Hanley ae a

Cyclopina sp. = ++ LS

Halicyclops sp. = + Present +; Absent —

TABLE II

MEAN NUMERICAL DENSITY DISTRIBUTION AND PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF EPIBIOTIC FAUNA OF Spongilla

sp. and Laxosuberites lacustris ANNANDALE.

Spongilla sp. L. lacustris

Animal groups Nos. /100 cc. “% Composition Nos. /100 cc. “ Composition

Foraminifera 107 1255 10 0.36

Nematoda 250 29.30 1333 48.60

Polychaeta 25 2.93 15 0.54

Ostracoda 3 6 0.70 67 2.45

Copepoda 10 1.20 167 6.10

Amphipoda 273 32.00 1007 36.73

Tanaidacea 116 13.60 93 3.39

Isopoda 47 5.60 17 0.62

Adult Insects & Larvae 3 0.35 — —

Bivalvia 15 1.76 33 1.20

Snr nse >osee mnn eee

Total 852 99.99 2742 99.99

194

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

DEPARTMENT OF LIFE SCIENCES,

REGIONAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, (NCERT),

BHUBANESWAR, (ORISSA).

NAYAGARH COLLEGE,

NAYAGARH, (ORISSA),

August 25, 1978.

A. L. N. SARMA

D. G. RAO

S. SATAPATHY

REFERENCES

ANNANDALE, N. AND Kemp, S. (1915): Fauna of

Chilka Lake; Introduction. Mem. Indian Mus. 5

(1): 1-20.

— (1916): ‘Fauna of the Chilka Lake.

Mollusca, Gastropoda and Lamellibranchiata, with

an account of the anatomy of the common Solon’.

Mem. Indian Mus., 5(4): 327-74.

DaHAL, E. (1948): On the smaller Arthropoda

of marine algae, especially in the polyhaline waters

off the Swedish west coast. Undersokningar over

Orsund., 35: 1-193.

GISLEN, T. (1929): Epibioses of the Gullman

Fjord I. Kristineberg. Zool. Sta. 3: 1-123.

Lonc, R. Epwarp (1968): The associates of 4

species of marine sponges of Oregon and Washing-

tone "Pact Sci: 722.01) 35/7:

PARIJA, P. & PaArRigA, B. (1946): Algal succession

on a rocky island named Chadaiguha, in the Chilka

Lake. Indian Bot. Soc. M.O.P. Iyengar. Commem.

Vol. (Ed. by B. Sahani): 375-379.

PERERA, M. M. & ARUDPRAGASAM, K. D. (1966) :

Animals living in association with Ostrea virginica

at Batticaloa. Ceylon. Jour. Sci. Biol. Sci. 6(1): 20.

Rao & Rao (1973): The epibiotic flora and fauna

of Serpulid band in the littoral region of Mukkam

coast., Rivista Di Idrobiologia. Vol. XII-Fasc. 2/3:

71-95.

ROUND, F. E., SOLANE, J. F., EBLING, F. J. AND

KITCHING, J. A. (1961): The ecology of the Lough

Ine X—The hydroid Sertularia opercularia and its

associated flora & fauna: Effects of transference to

sheltered water. J. Ecol. 49 (3): 617-629.

SARMA, A. L. N. & GANAPATI, P. N. (1972): The

faunal associations of algae in the intertidal region

of Visakhapatnam. Proc. Ind. Nat. Sci. Acad. 38B:

380-396.

SARMA, A. L. N. & S. SATAPATHY (1978): A note

on the phytal fauna in and around Balugaon in

Chilka Lake. Curr. Sci. 47 (7): 242-245.

SEWELL, R. B. S. & ANNANDALE, N. (1922):

Fauna of the Chilka Lake: The hydrography and

invertebrate fauna of Rambha Bay. Mem. Indian.

Mus. 5 (10): 667-710.

24. THE BROADCASTING OF KARVI SEED

On the 26th of May 1977 while out on a

morning walk at Mahableshwar we had the

good fortune to observe the mechanics where-

by Karvi plants (Karvia callosa) shed and

broadcast their seed. No record is found of

the characteristic behaviour in this group of

plants, so we give a detailed account of what

we saw.

The Karvi or Strobilanthes had flowered

en masse during the monsoon of 1976, and

by May the plants were dead and sear with

the capsules containing the seeds (several on

each core), well matured but enclosed and

hidden by the dry bracts forming the cores.

On the afternoons and evenings of the 24th

and 25th of May there had been heavy thun-

der shower which had laid the dry summer

dust and soaked the soil. The morning of the

26th was bright and sunny. About 10 a.m.

we came to the brow of the hill overlooking

an open Karvi covered slope descending into

the valley. J. D. P. was intrigued by continu-

195

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

ously occurring sharp little ticking sounds

from among the Karvi and realized that the

ticking was caused by Karvi capsules sudden-

ly splitting open and catapulting the seeds out-

wards and upwards, sometimes to a distance

of over 4 feet from the parent plant.

We spent some time in the area observing

the busy broadcasting operations. It was notic-

ed that they were actively under way only in

areas which were directly under sunlight. On

contours of the slope still in shade there was

hardly any seed shedding activity, and the

capsules were completely covered by bracts,

whereas in the active areas the bracts had

opened out slightly exposing the capsules to

perform their broadcasting function

hindered.

The capsules are dark brown, flat, shaped

like a broad, symmetric spearhead, pointed

both at the apex and base, c. 188 mm. A

seam runs down the middle of both flat sides

from apex to base. The split occurs along this

seam. The two parts or valves of the split

capsule sometimes remain open, joined at the

base, but quite often drop off with the force

of their own little explosions.

Each capsule normally contains a pair of

4-A, RASHMI,

CARMICHAEL RoOap,

BomMBAY-400 026,

September 19, 1977.

un-

seeds, ovoid, paper thin flakes, off white in

colour, which are buoyant on the wind as

they are flung out from the capsule and so

are spread more or less evenly. Though quite

conspicuous on the wet dark brown earth yet

strangely no birds seemed to be interested.

This and other Karvi patches were visited

on subsequent days in the hope of witnessing

another mass broadcasting but nothing not-

able occurred except for an occasional cap-

sule splitting which would have gone quite

unnoticed if not expectantly watched for.

During the next fortnight the earth remain-

ed continuously damp. The moist seeds dis-

coloured slightly and stuck to the soil with

mildew-like filaments firmly enough not to be

washed down by heavy rain.

By the 14th of June when we left the hill,

most of the Karvi had shed their seed. They

must have done so on different days at dif-

ferent times, unobserved, unappreciated and

unrecorded. It was rare good fortune that in

the first instance we came upon the right place

on the right day, at the right time. How rare

the good fortune was can be appreciated when

one considers that Karvi flowers and seeds

once in eight years.

D. J. PANDAY

J. D. PANDAY

25. THE GENUS AMOMUM ROXB. (ZINGIBERACEAE) IN

ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

(With two plates)

INTRODUCTION

The first species of Amomum to be report-

ed from Andaman and Nicobar Islands was

A. fenzlii which was described with illustra-

196

tions by Kurz in 1876. Subsequently Baker in

1892 reported A. aculeatum Roxb. from S.

Andaman Island based on a collection by

Kurz. Recent intensive botanical explorations

in different islands revealed that in addition

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

to the above, another species A. maximum

Roxb. also occurs in S. Andaman _ Islands.

A. fenzlii is endemic to Nicobar group of

islands where it is common in Car Nicobar,

Katchal and Great Nicobar Islands. This

species is not found in Andaman group of

islands. A. aculeatum Roxb., a species found

in Malaysia & Java has never been collected

from these islands ever since Kurz made his

collection in 1870. Recently this species was

again collected from dense forests in S. Anda-

mans along with another interesting rare spe-

cies A. maximum Roxb. Roxburgh’s original

description of A. maximum Roxb. was based

on specimens brought from ‘Malay Islands’

by Colonel Kyd. It is surprising that subse-

quent authors Ridley (1924) and Holttum

(1950) have never reported this species as

occurring in Malaya. Most probably the ‘Ma-

lay Islands’ cited by Roxburgh refers to Anda-

mans where Col. Kyd made collections in

1791. Backer & Bakh. f. (1968) give A. deal-

batum Roxb. a species occurring in NE. India,

as synonymous to A. maximum Roxb. How-

ever it is doubtful whether they really belong

to same species. The specimens studied by us

from Andamans and also the original des-

cription by Roxburgh differ from A. dealba-

tum in longer peduncles of inflorescences,

elliptic-obovate, entire and not emarginate lip,

shorter filaments and aromatic pungent fruits

and seeds. Moreover recent studies of Assam

plants of A. dealbatum Roxb. by Rao &

Verma (in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 14: 135.

1972) indicate that the leaves are brown pube-

scent beneath whereas the Andaman plants

of A. maximum Roxb. show whitish pube-

scence.

The descriptions and _ illustrations

were drawn up from fresh plants.

given

KEY TO SPECIES

la. Inflorescence dense-flowered with many

closely imbricate bracts; anther not crested;

lip narrow, up to 1.2 cm broad, as long as

corolla lobes, longitudinally folded, inflexed

at tip. 1. A. fenzlii

1b. Inflorescence lax-flowered with fewer loosely

arranged bracts; anther crested; lip broader,

longer than corolla lobes, not folded longi-

tudinally, reflexed at tip.

2a. Petioles very short; lip wedge-shaped, 3-lobed

at apex; anther crest 3-lobed; filaments 1.2—

1.4 cm long. 2. A. aculeatum

2b. Petiole long; lip elliptic-obovate, entire:

anther crest truncate; filaments shorter, 2-3

mm long. 3. A. maximum

1. A. fenzlii Kurz in J. As. Soc. Beng. 45 (3):

154.) t. 22) 18/62) Bakerin’ Hook. fa Fl.

Brit. Ind. 6: 234.1892.

Plants 3-4 m tall, leaves broadly lanceolate

to oblong lanceolate, obtuse to obliquely sub-

attenuate at base, shortly acuminate at apex,

40-85 cm long, 11-15 cm broad, glabrous, dark

green above, pale beneath; petiole 1.5-2.5 cm

long, 4-6 mm thick, glabrous; ligules broadly

ovate, obtuse to subacute at apex, ciliate at

margins, 1.5-2.0 cm long, 1.0-1.5 cm_ broad.

Inflorescences arising from the rhizome, glab-

rous, densely flowered; peduncle 8-18 cm long;

sterile bracts elongate-ovate, 4-6 cm long, 1.2-

1.6 cm broad, reddish brown, ciliate at mar-

gins; floral bracts ovate to linear obovate, 3-5

cm long, 1.0-2.5 cm broad; reddish; bracteoles

tubular at base, bifid at apex, 1.9-2.2 cm long,

pubescent. Calyx 2.0-2.5 cm long, oblique and

2-fid at mouth, pubescent. Corolla-tube 1.5-2.0

cm long; lobes 3, narrowly obovate, 1.8-2.0

cm long, 3-4 mm broad, pubescent outside.

Labellum elongate-rhomboid, attenuate at

base, narrowed towards apex, sometimes ob-

scurely 3-lobed, 1.8-2.0 cm long, 0.8-1.2 cm

NST,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

broad; lobes inflexed, pale red, glabrous.

Anther 5-6 mm long, 2-3 mm broad, inappen-

diculate, ciliate towards base; filaments 4-5

mm long, 2-3 mm broad; staminodes absent.

Ovary 4-5 mm long, 3.0-3.5 mm thick, dense-

ly villous; style 2.2-2.5 cm long, pubescent;

stylodes 2, + 4 mm long, 2-3 mm broad,

pubescent at apex; stigma trigonously capitate,

glabrous. Capsules obovoid, irregularly ridged,

2.0-2.5 cm long, 1.0-1.5 cm broad, pubescent.

CAR NICOBAR ISLAND: Arong, Sea Level, 21

May 1975, N. G. Nair 2631 (PBL); KATCHAL

ISLAND: Mildera, + 30 m, 9 May 1975, P.

Chakraborty 1531 (PBL); GREAT NICOBAR IS-

LAND: Campbell Bay, + 75 m, 19 May 1975,

N. P. Balakrishnan 2690 (PBL); East-West

Road, 33 KM from Campbell Bay, + 165 m.,

22 July 1976; N. P. Balakrishnan 3942 (PBL).

Distribution: Endemic to Nicobar Islands.

Notes: This species is very common in

Great Nicobar Island especially in inland hill

forests wherever there is some sunshine pene-

trating and reaching the forest floor. In a

stray plant (Balakrishnan 3942), the inflores-

cences were found to be arising from the tip

of the pseudostems amidst leaves and also in

the same plant mature fruits were found at the

base of the stem on rhizome! This may be

due to an accidental prolongation of peduncle

through the pseudostem.

In the illustration given by Kurz (Lc., t. 12),

the figures labelled by him as staminodes are

actually stylodes. Study of several flowers from

different localities indicate complete absence

of any staminodes at the base of lip, in con-

strast to the following two species.

2. A. aculeatum Roxb. Asiat. Res. 11: 344,

t. 6. 1810 et. Fl. Ind. 1: 40. 1820; Baker

in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 242. 1892:

Holtt. in Gard. Bull. Sing. 13: 212. 1950:

Backer & Bakh. f. Fl. Java 3 :54. 1968.

A. flavum Rdl. in J. Str. Br. Roy. As. Soc.

198

322071332 1909 ct. Fl Mal: Rem) 742263.

1924. (Plate I).

Plants 2.5-3.5 m high; rhizome branched,

yellowish-brown; stems 2.5-3.5 cm thick, red-

dish at base; leaves appearing with flowers,

distichous, elliptic, lanceolate, cuneate at base,

acuminate at apex, 40-60 cm long, 7-12 cm

broad, glabrous; petiole short; ligule + 1 cm

long, subentire to bifid. Inflorescences many,

arising from rhizome; peduncles 12-22 cm

long, 1.0-1.5 cm thick; sterile bracts many,

spirally arranged, closely sheathing, ovate, cus-

pidate, 4.0-5.5 cm long, 2.5-3.5 cm broad, red;

spikes oblong, 7-15 cm long, 4-7 cm_ thick;

floral bracts ovate, boat-shaped, slightly notch-

ed at apex, 4.5-5.5 cm long, 2.0-2.5 cm wide,

reddish purple; bracteole tubular, 1.2-1.4 cm

long, pinkish purple; oblique and minutely in-

cised at mouth, puberulous on keel; pedicels

2-3 mm long, 4-5 mm thick. Calyx tubular,

2.5-3.0 cm long, 3-keeled towards apex, split

for up to half way, red, puberulous on keels

towards apex; limb 2-lobed, + 5 mm _ long;

lobes ovate. Corolla-tube 1.6-1.8 cm _ long,

white; lobes 3; lateral lobes elliptic-oblong,

obtuse to subacute, 2.5-2.8 cm long, 1.0-1.2

cm broad; median lobe obovate, obtuse, boat-

shaped, 2.5-3.0 cm long, 2.5-3.0 cm_ broad.

Labellum wedgeshaped, undulate-crispate at

margin, 3.5-4.0 cm long, 3.8-4.2 cm _ broad,

white with thick yellow red-striated median

band, trilobed at apex; lateral lobes rounded,

+ 1.5 x 2 cm, hyaline; median lobe triangu-

lar, obtuse, subacute, sometimes bilobed, 6-8

mim long, 8-10 mm wide, hyaline, white with

two thick yellow spots at middle. Staminodes

2, fixed at the base of lip, linear-subulate, 4-5

mm long. Anther oblong, 1.0-1.3 cm long, 5-6

mnt broad, puberulous; crest 5-6 mm _ long,

1.5-1.7 cm broad, 3-lobed, white; lateral lobes

orbicular, 5-7 mm long, 4-5 mm broad; me-

dian lobes truncate, rounded or irregularly cre-

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE I

Balakrishnan & Nair: Genus Amomum

Fig. A. habit; B. rootstock with rhizomes and inflorescence; C. leaves; D. flower with bract; E. bracteole;

F. calyx; G. corolla; H. lip; I. stamen, inner view; J. stamen, outer view; K. ovary with style and stylodes;

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE II

Balakrishnan & Nair: Genus Amomum

Amomum maximum Roxb.

Fig. A. habit; B. leaf; C. rootstock with inflorescence and infrutescence; D. flower with bract; E. flower

spread out, bract removed; F. calyx; G. lip; H. stamen, inner view; I. stamen, outer view; J. ovary with

style and stylodes; K. t.s. of ovary; L. fruit.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

nate at apex, 3-5 mm long, 3-4 mm broad;

filament linear, flat, 1.2-1.4 cm long, 3-4 mm

broad, glabrous. Ovary 4-5 mm long, 3-4 mm

thick, puberulous, pink; ovules numerous;

style filiform, 4.2-4.5 cm long, puberulous;

stigma cup-shaped, dorsoventrally compressed,

+ 1] mm long, + 2 mm broad, puberulous.

Stylodes fleshy, cream-coloured, 2-3 mm long,

many-lobed.

SOUTH ANDAMAN ISLAND: Ferrargunj-Mile-

tilak, + 50 m, 15 May 1976, N. G. Nair

Bye.

Distribution: S. Andamans, Malaysia and

Java.

The present specimens differ from true A.

aculeatum in the smaller midlobe of labellum

and in the white colour of the lip. However

these differences seems to be of minor impor-

tance as they agree with A. aculeatum Roxb.

in most major features.

3. A. maximum Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 41. 1820;

Backer & Bakh. f. Fl. Java 3: 54. 1968.

(Plate II).

Plants 2-3 m high; rhizome branched, yel-

lowish-green; stems 3-5 cm thick at base;

leaves appearing with flowers, distichous,

broadly oblong-elliptic, cuneate at base, acu-

minate at apex, 50-70 cm long, 12-18 cm

broad, dark green above, pale pubescent be-

neath; petioles 5-8 cm long. ligules + 3 cm

long, entire to 2 fid, Inflorescences several,

crowded basally at ground level, arising from

rhizome, appearing with and near base of leafy

stem, ovoid; peduncles 10-15 cm long, 1.0-1.5

cm thick; sterile bracts several, spirally arrang-

ed, closely sheathing, ovate, mucronate, 5-8

em long, 2.5-5.0 cm broad, white, tinged red;

floral bracts becoming slimy and disappearing

before anthesis, white; bracteole absent; pedi-

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR CIRCLE,

PorT BLAIR, ANDAMAN,

Anueust 3h 1977.

cels 4-5 mm long, 2-3 mm thick. Calyx enclos-

ing ovary, 2-3 cm long, thinly hyaline with 3

triangular lobes. Corolla-tube 2.3-2.5 cm long,

white; lobes 3, oblanceolate to obovate, suba-

cute, 2.3-2.8 cm long, 0.8-1.2 cm broad, white.

Labellum elliptic-obovate, 3.0-3.5 cm_ long,

1.6-1.9 cm broad, longer than corolla lobes,

entire, undulate crispate at margin, white, with

thick yellow red-speckled median band; claw

+ 2 mm long, reddish above. Staminodes 2,

subulate, -_ 2 mm long, inserted at base of

lip. Anther 1.3-1.5 cm long, glabrous with

connective prolonged into a crest; crest trun-

cate, broad at apex, split or emarginate at

middle, recurved at margin, 2-3 mm long, 8-10

mm broad, white, nerved; filament flat, 2-3 mm

long, + 2 mm broad, white, scattered glandu-

lar-hairy. Ovary drum-shaped, angular, 5-6

mm long, 4-5 mm thick, 3-celled, glabrous;

ovules numerous; style filiform, white, lying

between anther cells, 3.3-3.5 cm long; stigma

widened at apex, cup-shaped, compressed dor-

soventrally, + 1.5 mm across, ciliolate at

margins. Stylodes 2, free, on both sides of

stylar bases, semicylindrical, obtuse, 7-8 mm

long, yellowish. Fruits in dense heads, ovoid,

2.5-3.0 cm long, 2.0-2.5 cm thick, aromatic,

longitudinally 9-winged; wings imperfectly irre-

gularly toothed.

SOUTH ANDAMAN ISLAND: Ferrargunj-Mile-

tilak, + 50 m, 15 May 1976, N. G. Nair 3751.

Distribution: S. Andamans and Java (7).

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Mr. B. L. Burtt and

Miss R. M. Smith of Edinburgh Herbarium

for studying the descriptions and illustrations

of A. aculeatum Roxb. and A. maximum

Roxb. and for their opinion.

N. P. BALAKRISHNAN

N. G. NAIR

199

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

26. RECORD OF HYPTIS CAPITATA JACQ. (LABIATAE) FROM

PENINSULAR INDIA

(With a text-figure)

Hyptis capitata Jacq. in Coll. i. 102. Ic.

Rav. I. t. 114. 1786; Prain in Bengal Plants

633.1903 (reptd. 1963); Mukerjee in Rec. Bot.

Surv. India 14(1): 63.1940.

The collection of this interesting Labiatae

(Lamraceae) from Kottayam; Kottayam Dis-

trict, Kerala State (Kept at MH) records its

occurrence for the first time from Peninsular

India. Hitherto it has been recorded from

lower Bengal and Andaman Islands. Prain

(1903) and Mukerjee (1940) have dealt with

this plant in detail. As the plant is poorly

known in Peninsular India and is an exotic,

introduced from America, it is thought that

an illustrated (see text-fig. on p. a0) descrip-

tion will be of use.

Herbs, reaching about 3 m iheients branches

quadrangular, pubescent. Leaves 10-15 x 5-8

LECTURER,

C. M. S. COLLEGE,

KOTTAYAM,

KERALA STATE,

November 2, 1977.

cm, broadly ovate-oblong, hairy, apex acute,

base tapering, nerves 6-8 pairs; petioles upto

5 cm long, hairy. Flowers in heads, axillary,

peduncles larger than floral head; bracts ovate-

lanceolate, reflexed. Sepals 5 lobed, lobes subu-

late, densely hairy, shorter than the tube.

Petals white, larger than sepals, lobes sub-

equal. Stamens 4, didynamous; filaments free,

anther cells confluent. Disc present entire.

Ovary 4-partite, bicarpellate. Style shortly

bifid at tip. Nutlets 4, 2 x 1 mm, ovoid, smooth,

not winged, basal scar small.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my sincere thanks to Dr.

J. Joseph, Regional Botanist, Botanical Sur-

very of India, Coimbatore, for help and sug-

gestions.

T. G. VARGHESE

REFERENCES

MUKERJEE, S. K. (1940):

Labiatae of the Indian Empire. Rec. Bot. Surv.

A revision of the

India 14 (1).

PRAIN, D. (1903): Bengal Plants. (reprint 1963).

27. A NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD FOR DISTEMON

INDICUM WEDD. FROM TEHRI GARHWAL

Distemon indicum Wedd. Monogr. Urt. 551,

t. 20. 1856, J. D. Hooker in FI. Brit. Ind. 5:

588, 1888, D. grossum Wedd. in DC. Prodr.

16, 1: 235, 1869.

A slender annual herb. Leaves alternate,

200

petioled; toothed. Stem 60-90 cm. Flowers

monoecious in small bracteate 3-fid, androgy-

nous clusters which form long terminal spikes.

Bracts broadly ovate, acuminate concave.

Male flowers minute tipped with hooked hairs,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

S es

SS SA

Seen

Fig. 1. Hyptis capitata Jacq. (for description see p. 200).

201

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

female strigose. Achene broadly ovoid, beaked.

I recently surveyed the area of Tehri Garh-

wal and observed this species growing as an

undergrowth of Adhatoda zeylanica Medic.

(Date 28.11.76, Dhyani 278). Further the dis-

tribution of the taxon is not widespread and

its migration to the area seems to be recent.

BoTANY DEPARTMENT,

D. A. V. P. V. COLLEGE,

DEHRA DUN,

August 17, 1977.

This species has been collected for the first

time from south Garhwal. The plant was re-

ported by M. B. Raizada in 1939 from Deh-

ra’ Dun (ind. Fer. Reco!) (ns.) Bot: 2) 5;

1939),

I acknowledge my sincere gratidue to Prof.

S. D. Sharma.

SHIV KUMAR DHYANI

28. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF GYMNEMA CUSPIDATUM

(THUNB.) K. SCHUM. (ASCLEPIADACEAE) IN MAHARASHTRA

(With six text-figures)

Though Trimen (1895) noted Gymnema

cuspidatum (Thunb.) K. Schum. as endemic

to Sri Lanka, it has been subsequently collect-

ed by Woodrow (1898) from Dharwar district

and over 60 years later by Santapau (1962)

from Jog falls, both from Karnataka. How-

ever, except for a specimen from Sri Lanka

there are no specimens in any of the Indian

herbaria and apparently it is quite rare. Dur-

ing the recent explorations of Bhandara dis-

trict, Maharashtra State, it has been recollect-

ed from Chorkamal forest.

In view of the rarity and absence of any

published illustrations for the plant, a draw-

ing of the plant (see tex-figures on p. 203)

is given along with a brief description.

Gymnema cuspidatum (Thunb.) K. Schum.

in Pfam. 4(2): 284, 1895, Sant. in Univ. Bom-

bay Bot. Mem. No. 4: 50, 1962. Gymnema

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN CIRCLE,

Poona-411 001,

August 22, 1977.

202

pergylarioides (Thw.) Wt. & Gard. ex Hook.

f. in FBI. 4: 32, 1883, Woodrow in J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 5(12): 167, 1898.

Twining undershrub. Leaves acuminate at

the apex rounded at the base. Cymes um-

bellate, peduncles 1-2 cm. arising from be-

tween the petioles. Calyx lobes glandular

within, lobes 2.5 x 1.5 cm. Corona of 5 double

villous ridges, adnate to the lower half of the

corolla tube. Gymnostegium 3-5 mm. Ovary

glabrous-follicles 5-7 cm., cylindrical, tapering

to a sharp point.

FI. & Frt.: September-October. Loc.: Chor-

kamal forest, Malhotra 144660.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Deputy Director,

and the Regional Botanist, Western Circle,

Botanical Survey of India, Poona for facilities.

S. K. MALHOTRA

K. MADHUSUDAN RAO

B. G. KULKARNI

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

N, \

Figs. 1-6. Gymnema cuspidatum (Thunb.) K. Schum.: 1. Flowering branch; 2. Flower;

3. Calyx; 4. Cross section of corolla; 5. Pollinia; 6. Follicle. (For description see p. 202).

203

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

29. AN INTERESTING GRASS FROM MAHARASHTRA

(With twelve text-figures)

Raizada & Jain (1957) recognised 3 species

of Eremopogon (Hack.) Stapf namely E.

foveolatus (Del.) Stapf, E. strictus (Roxb.)

Camus & E. tuberculatus (Hack.) Camus, all

of which are found in India, the latter two be-

ing endemic. However, Bor (1960) has syno-

nymised EF. strictus (Roxb.) Camus with E.

foveolatus (Del.) Stapf, and recognised only

2 species under the genus. He stated that E.

tuberculatus (Hack.) Camus is endemic in

Madhya Pradesh and that it is a raerly col-

lected.

Recently an interesting grass was collected

from Dhulia district in Maharashtra which on

critical examination and on matching with

Duthie’s specimens 8465 & 10595 mentioned

in Bor’s exsiccata, turned out to be E. tuber-

culatus (Hack.) Camus. So far this species

was considered to be endemic in Madhya Pra-

desh from the adjoining districts of Betul,

Khandawa & Asirgarh (Nimar district) (Hoo-

ker 1896; Bor 1960; Maheshwari 1961) and

therefore, its occurrence in Maharashtra is of

phytogeographical interest, as this extends the

distribution of this endemic grass in Madhya

Pradesh to further south in Maharashtra as

well and suggests the possibility of its occur-

rence in the other neighbouring districts too.

The species can be easily differentiated from

the other species of genus Eremopogon

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN CIRCLE,

7 KOREGAON RoaD,

Poona-411 001,

July 18, 1977:

204

(Hack.) Stapf by its lower glume of sessile

spikelet being tuberculate at keels and nerves

and not pitted.

Eremopogon tuberculatus (Hack.) Camus in

Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon. 68: 207, 1921; Rai-

zada & Jain in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54

(4): 858-865, 1957; Bor, Grasses of Burma,

Ceylon, India & Pakistan 149, 1960; Mahesh-

wari in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58(1): 213,

1961. Andropogon tubercultus Hack. in DC.

Monog. Androp. 6: 404, 1889; Hooker f. FI.

Br. India 7: 168, 1896.

Specimen examined: Laling Kuran, near

Dhulia, District Dhulia, Pataskar 118364

(8-10-1969) deposited in the regional herba-

rium of the Western Circle, Botanical Survey

of India, Poona (BS/).

A general sketch (see p. 205) along with

the dissection drawings is provided for facili-

tating easy identification.

ACK NOWELEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Director, Botanical

Survey of India, Howrah for facilities; to the

Regional Botanist, Western Circle, Botanical

Survey of India, Poona for encouragement;

and to the Forest Botanist, Systematic Botany

Branch, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun

for kindly supplying the two Duthie’s sheets

on loan for the study.

U. R. DESHPANDE

N. P. SINGH

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 1-2. Eremopogon tuberculatus (Hack.) Camus: 1. Upper portion of culm; 2. A pair

of sessile & pedicelled spikelet; 3-7. Sessile spikelet: 3. Lower glume; 4. Lower lemma;

5. Stamens & pistil; 6. Upper lemma; 7. Upper glume; 8-12. Pedicelled spikelet: 8. Pedicel;

9.. Lower glume; 10. Lemma; 11. Stamens; 12. Upper glume. (For description see p. 204).

205

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

30. SOME INTERESTING PLANT RECORDS FOR RAJASTHAN

During botanical exploration of Banswara

district, southern Rajasthan, I coilected 16

species of angiosperms, belonging to 16 genera

and 13 families, which have not been record-

ed from any locality in Rajasthan by earlier

workers (Blatter & Hallberg 1918-21; Puri

et al. 1964; Vyas 1967; Ramdeo 1969; Majum-

dar 1971; Singh 1974). Most of these species

are common in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,

Maharashtra and Gangetic plains. The spe-

cies are enumerated below with their field

numbers, short diagnostic features, affinities

with other related taxa, flowering and fruiting

time, habitat with exact locality of occurrence

and frequency and abundance in the area.

The specimens are deposited in the herba-

rium of Botanical Survey of India, Jodhpur

(BSJO) and Central National Herbarium,

Howrah (CAL).

LEEACEAE

Leea edgeworthii Santapau (2929).

Annual herbs. Leaves unipinnate or lower

ones bipinnate; leaflets with close parallel

veins. Flowers greenish, in dichotomous cymes.

Berries purple when ripe. Fl. & Fr.: August-

October.

Common in shady localities in the forests;

abundant in Puna pathar forest block (Alt.

950 ft.). Mature berries are eaten by the local

people.

PAPILIONACEAE

Clitoria biflora Dalz. (2972).

Erect, annual herbs. Leaves pinnate; leaflets

5. Flowers blue-violet, axillary, solitary or

rarely geminate, deflexed. Pods flat, 3-4.5 cm.

long, deflexed. Fl. & Fr.: August-October.

Common under bushes and shrubs in the

206

forests, particularly in Anand Sagar forest

block (Alt. 575 ft.).

Desmodium spirale (Sw.) DC. (3676).

Erect, annual herbs. Leaves 3-foliolate.

Pods flat, indented very deeply on both the

sutures; segments rhomboid, with strongly in-

volute and revolute margins thus giving the

pods a spirally twisted appearance. Fl. & Fr.:

August-October.

Common in shady localities on the hills,

particularly in Hura Bowji forest block (700

ft.) in association with D,. dichotomum

(Willd.) DC. which it also resembles in vege-

tative stage. Recently, Maheshwari & Sharma

(1969) reported D. neomexicanum A. Gray,

a native of America, from Ajmer and Mt.

Abu. It differs from D. spirale (Sw.) DC. only

in that the margins of pod-segments are sin-

uate, not spirally twisted.

Galactia villosa Wt. & Arn. (2974).

Herbaceous or semi-woody climbers. Leaf-

lets 3, eglandular. Nodes of racemes tumid.

Stamens didynamous (9+1). Style beardless.

Fi. & Fr.: July-September.

Common among bushes and _ shrubs in

Anand Sagar forest block (Alt. c. 180 m). It

is sometimes confused with Teramnus labialis

Spreng.

RUBIACEAE

Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. (2983).

Annual herbs, upto 60 cm. high. Leaves

elliptic to ovate-lanceolate. Stipules bristly,

often connate into a sheath. Flowers violet-

purple, 4-merous, sub-spicate on the branches

of corymbose cymes. Cocci 1-seeded. Fil. &

Fr.: August-October.

Common among grasses in wastelands near

Forest rest house, Danpur (Alt. c. 300 m.).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) Schum. (3082).

Annual climbers. Leaves ovate-cordate.

Flowers white, in axillary cymes. Anthers with

membranous appendages and one pendulous

pollen mass in each cell. Fl. & Fr.: August-

October.

Rare; A climber on trees in Shergarh forest

block (Alt. c. 280 m.). It resembles closely

species of Mardenia R. Br. and Dragea Meyer.

Tylophora hirsuta (Wall.) Wight (2927).

Twiners, with hirsute stem, penduncles,

pedicels and calyx. Leaves ovate or ovate-

lanceolate, almost glabrous. Flowers pale-

green, in distant, few-flowered, umbellate

cymes. Coronal lobes wholly adnate to the

staminal column. Follicles paired, glabrous.

Fl. & Fr.: August-October.

It is a Himalayan element; common on the

hills in Puna Pathar and Hura Bowyji forest

blocks (Alt. c. 300 m.). It is sometimes con-

fused with T. dalzellii Hook. f. or T. mollis-

sima Wight.

LOGANIACEAE

Cynoctonum mitreola (L.) Britt. (3675).

Erect, annual herbs. Leaves ovate, acute.

Stipules broadly deltoid, often connate and

reduced into a transverse ridge. Flowers white,

unilateral in dichotomous cymes. Bracts and

bracteoles linear, persistent. Capsules wedge-

shaped, 2-horned; horns incurved. Seeds ellip-

soid, 3-gonous, with a ventral cavity. Fl. &

Fr.: August-November.

Common in wet and shady localities in

Puna Pathar forest block (Alt. 700 ft.). It

resembles closely species of Ophiorrhiza L.

(Rubiaceae).

GENTIANACEAE

Canscora decussata Roem. & Schult. (3690).

Erect, annual herbs. Leaves 3-nerved. Stem,

pedicels and calyx distinctly winged. Flowers

white. Capsules membranous. FI. & Fr.:

August-October.

Common in wet and shady localities in

Wadita village forest block (Alt. 650 ft.).

ACANTHACEAE

Neuracanthus_ sphaerostachyus

(3010).

Erect, semi-woody herbs. Flowers violet-

purple, in dense, spherical or globular, axil-

(Nees) Dalz.

lary, bracteate spikes. Fl. & Fr.: August-

October.

This species is apparently endemic in

Western Peninsula. Present collections from

shady localities on the steep slopes and foot

of hills in Loharia forest block (Alt. 500 ft.)

extend its distribution further northwards. The

number of viable seeds per plant is few.

Dalzell (1850) and Santapau (1951) have

given contradictory remarks in this regard.

LABIATAE

Leucas zeylanica R. Br. (3067).

Erect, annual, hispid herbs. Leaves linear,

less than 1.5 cm. broad. Calyx-mouth oblique,

produced above, villous within. Nutlets obo-

void-oblong, sharply angular on the inner face.

Fl. & Fr.: August-October.

Common weed of cultivated fields in the

western part of the district, particularly near

Shergarh village (Alt. c. 250 m.).

AMARANTHACEAE

Amaranthus caudatus Linn. (3020).

Annual, glabrous herbs. Leaves obtuse.

Bracts straight, not much exceeding the obo-

vate, mucronate sepals. F/. & Fr.: August-

October.

207

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Occasional; found in humus rich fertile

soils near habitations (Banswara; Alt. c.

300 m.).

ZINGIBERACEAE

Curcuma pseudomontana Grah. (23860).

Tubers elliptic or globose, yellow inside,

borne at the end of root-fibres. Corolla yellow,

covered within greenish bracts tinged with red

or purple. The position of the spike in rela-

tion to the leaves is at first lateral. Later on,

in the rainy season, this lateral spike decays

and gives way to a central one. Most of the

flowers are infested by some insects (see San-

tapau. 1945, 1952; Chavan & Oza 1966).

Fl. & Fr.: July-October.

Common in the forests; abundant on Dagia

Bowji hill near Ghatol (Alt. c. 210 m.).

DIOSCOREACEAE

Dioscorea hispida Dennst. var. daemona

(Roxb.) Prain & Burk. (8083).

Extensive woody climbers, often bearing

bulbils on the nodes. Leaves 3-foliolate. Male

flowers closely packed. Fertile anthers 6. Seeds

winged on one side only. Fl. & Fr.: August-

November.

Rare; found in the dense forests of Shergarh

block (Alt. c. 280 m.). Roxburgh (1832) says

that the tuberous roots are dreadfully nause-

ous, even after being boiled.

ARID ZONE CIRCLE,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

JODHPUR,

November 1, 1977.

208

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus meeboldii Kuk. (3034).

‘An erect sedge, upto 25 cm. high, with a

small pseudo-bulbous base. Spikelets elliptic,

4-6 x 1.5-2.5 mm., condensed in solitary, ter-

minal heads about 1 cm. in diameter, subtend-

ed by 3, unequal, leafy bracts. Glumes boat-

shaped, mucronate, 5-nerved, 2 mm. long.

Anther one. Style slender, without stigmatic

lobes. Achenes 3-gonous, turbinate, about 0.5

mm. long.

Common in open wastelands near Forest

Nursary, Kushalgarh (Alt. c. 280 m.), in as-

sociation with C. triceps (Rottb.) Endl. This

is a peninsular species reported so far from

Badami (Mysore) in India (see Fedde Report.

18: 347. 1922). Hooper and Napper (1972)

also mentioned its occurrence in Peninsular

India. The recent collections also from Kailana

(Moorthy 83 BSJO), Mandor (Tiwari 615b

BSJO) and Sardarpura, Pali (Shetty 1843

BSJO) extend its distribution further north-

wards.

GRAMINEAE

Panicum psilopodium Trin. var. psilopodium

(3086).

Annual,

Spikelets

long, symmetrical,

August-September.

Common near water in Shergarh forest

block (Alt. c. 280 m.). Variety coloratum

Hook. f. occurs on Mt. Abu (Bor, 1960).

V. SINGH

glabrous grass. Panicles effuse.

ovate-oblong to elliptic, 2-3 mm.

not gaping. Fl. & Fr.:

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

BLATTER, E. & HALLBERG, F. (1918-21): The Flora

of the Indian desert. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26-

27: on different pages.

CuHavan, A. R. & Oza, G. M. (1966): The Flora

of Pavagarh (Gujarat). Mahar. Sayajir, Univ.

Boroda (Bot. Mem.). 1: 222-223.

DaLzeLL, N. A. (1850): Contribution to the

Botany of Western India. Kew Jour. Bot. 2: 140.

Hooper, S. S. & NApPER, D. M. (1972): Cypera-

ceae in the Flora of West Tropical Africa. Vol. 3.

London. ;

Mauesuwari, J. K. & SHARMA, V. S. (1969):

Some interesting plants from Upper Gangetic plain.

Bull. bot. Surv. Ind. 11 (3-4): 454-456.

Masumpar, R. B. (1971): Synoptic Flora of

Kota division (S. E. Rajasthan.). Bull. bot. Surv.

Ind. 13 (1-2): 105-145.

Puri, G. S. et al. (1964): Flora of Rajasthan.

Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 19: 1-154.

RAMDEO, K. D., (1969): Contribution to the

Flora of Udaipur. Swadeshi Printer’s, Udaipur.

Bor, N. L. (1960): The grasses of Burma, Cey-

lon, India and Pakistan. London.

ROXBURGH, W. (1832): Flora India.

Serampore.

SANTAPAU, H. (1945): Curcuma pseudomontana

Grah. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 45: 618-624.

(1951): Acanthaceae of Bombay.

Univ. Bombay Bot. Mem. 2: 65-67.

(1952): On a common species of

Curcuma of Bombay and Salsette Islands. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 51(1): 135-139.

SINGH, V. (1974): Floristic studies on south-

eastern plateau of Rajasthan. Ph. D. Thesis, Meerut

Univ., Meerut.

Vyas, L. N. (1967): Contribution to the Flora

of north-east Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

64(2): 191-231.

Vol. 3.

31. SOME NEW PLANT RECORDS OF NAGPUR REGION

The present paper, records four new plants

from Navegaon, about 135 Km., east of Nag-

pur in Bhandara District. These are:

COMBRETACEAE

Combretum ovalifolium, Roxb. Hort. Beng.

1814. Fl. Ind. it 256. C. heyneanum, Wall.

Cat. 4001. C. roxburghii and C. albidum,

G. Don.

A large scandent shrub; leaves opposite

ovate; racemes lateral and terminal; flowers

sessile; fruit pale golden brown with four

papery finely transversely striate wings.

Flowers—Nov.-Dec. Fruiting—Jan.-Feb.

Common plant. Munshi 1.

APOCYNACEAE

Enlertonia rheedii, Wight, Incon. 1850. t.

1295. F.B.I. iii 641.

Climbing glabrous shrub, branches twinn-

ing, slender; leaves opposite, elliptic-oblong,

acuminate, glabrous; flowers in di-or tricho-

tomously branched cymes; bracts small, acute,

persistent; folicles 5-15 cm. long, cylindric,

divaricate, slightly recurved. Flowers—Nov-

Jan. Fruiting—Jan-March.

Common. Munshi 2.

LABIATAE

Dysophyila cruciata, Benth. in Wall. Pi. As.

Rar. Vol. I. 1830. Cat. 1541. D. retraphylia,

Wight Ic. t. 1444. Mentha quadrifolia, Don

Prodr. 113.

Hirsute, stem simple, erect; leaves four in

a whorl, sessile, linear, margins revolute quite

entire; spikes single, dense; flowers pale pur-

ple; calyx villous; corolla tube entire or spar-

ingly glabrous.

209

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Flowers—Dec.-Feb. Common near wet

places.

Munshi 3.

ALISMACEAE

Tenagocharia latifolia, (D. Don). Butchen.

Adh. 1868. Butomus latifolius, D .Don,

INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE,

NAGPUR,

November 2, 1977.

Prodr. 1825. Butomopsis lanceolata, Kunth,

Boum. 1841 FP Blk 6 5625) 1393"

Marsh plant leaves elliptic-lanceolate, acute

at both ends; petioles dilated at the base; }

pedicels long, petals white.

Flowers—Nov.-Jan. Not common. Munshi 4.

S .A. PARADKAR

S. K. MUNSHI

32. NOTES ON TWO INTERESTING SEDGES FROM

GUJARAT STATE, INDIA

(With a plate)

After critically going through all the litera-

ture available to us on the flora of western

India we find that the following two sedges

have not been reported from any locality in

Gujarat and probably Maharashtra State.

Lipocarpha argentea R. Br. in Tuckey, Cong

477, 1818; C. B. Clarke in Fl. Brit. Ind.

6: 667, 1894; Fischer in Fl. Madras (re-

printed ed.) 3:1158, 1957; Haines, Bot.

Bih. & Oris. 3 : 973, 1961 (reprinted ed.);

Prain, Beng. Pl. 2: 871, 1963 (reprinted

ed.).

A glabrous erect herb, 40-60 cm tall; rhi-

zome 0. Stems tufted, obtusely triangular,

smooth. Leaves all basal, upto 25 cm long.

Spikelets 3-8, in a terminal capitate head,

white or straw coloured. Bracts 3, 0.7-8.4 mm

in length. Glumes hyaline dotted and streaked

with red-brown tinge, spirally arranged, obo-

vate, apex obtusely triangular, incurved, 2-2.5

mm long deciduous from the base of persist-

ent rhachilla marked by lozenge-shaped scars.

Squamellae 2, 1.00-1.06 mm long, hyaline with

a purple tinge, elliptic, inner completely im-

210

bricated by outer, each marked by four verti-

very

cal prominent ribs. Stamen 1, anther

small, filament closely appressed to the inner

squamella. Style 0.5 mm long, slender. stigmas

3, as long as the style. Nut small, 0.7-1.0 mm

long, oblong or ovoid, Plano-convex, brown,

usually minutely punctate.

The plants were collected from alluvial

sandy soil on a small island in the bed of river

Tapti near Variav about 9 km northwest of

Surat. The plants were associated with species

of Cyperus and Fimbristylis.

Flowering and Fruiting—August-September.

JVJ 211 herbarium, The M. S. University of |

Baroda (BARO).

Distribution: | Western Himalayas

6000 ft, Assam, Karnataka, Wynaad, Nilgiri

and Palni Hills 3000-7000 ft, Sri Lanka, Sin-

gapore. Tropical and sub-tropical old world.

The Sedge in its general appearance re-

sembles Cyperus triceps (Rottb.) Endl. (Kyl-

linga triceps Rottb.). This fact has also been

emphasized by Fischer (loc. cit.). It is there-

fore, necessary to see all the available her-

upto |

J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE

Sabnis & Joshi: Sedges from Gujarat

THE MAHARAJA SAVAJIRAO UNIVERSITY OF BARODA

BOTANY DEPARTMENT

HERBARIUM

FLoaaor SURAT _

Lipocarpa argentea R. Br.

pete

SR ht Hii

Tiny

ne Cs

hop

Shae

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

barium material of these taxa in order to

clearly delineate their distributional areas.

Rhynchospora glauca Vahl, Enum. 2: 33,

1806; C. B. Clarke in Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 671

& in J. Linn. Soc. 34: 90, 1898; Fischer in

Pie Madras (reprinted ed.)’ 3:71160, 1957:

Parabia in Contrib. Cyp. Guj. State 1: 294-

295 (Plate 50), 1974 (Ph.D. thesis, un-

published).

An annual glabrous herb, 20-30 cm tall.

Stem erect, trigonous. Leaves narrow-linear

from the nodes, 6-14 cm long with distinct

midrib. Bracts linear-narrow, 2-3.5 mm_ long,

shorter than panicle. Spikelets in corymbose

panicles, shortly pedicelled, ellipsoid, choco-

late-brown in colour; lower two glumes empty,

outer first shorter than inner 1.8-2.00 mm

long, ovate-oblong with a single mid nerve,

slightly projecting upwards; second glume

slightly longer than first, 2.5-3.1 mm_ long.

Flowering glume larger, 5.8-6.1 mm _ long,

slightly curved at the base, enclosing the nut,

single central vein slightly projecting upwards

Hypogynous bristles 6 ascendingly hispidu-

lous, 1.8-2.1. mm _ long, linear, all equal,

straight, shorter than nut. Stamens 2, filaments

longer than nut, 3.2-3.5 mm long, projecting

upwards. Style 4 mm long, base dilated, di-

viding from the middle, stigmas 2. Nut 2.8

mm-3.00 mm long, ovoid, oblong, biconvex,

beaked by the persistent elongated style base

which is marked with pinkish dots; nut cho-

colate-brown, marked with brown transversely

wavy lines alternating with faintly transverse-

ly undulate lines.

TAXONOMY LABORATORY,

DEPARTMENT oF BOTANY,

M. S. UNIversity oF Baropa,

Baropa-390 002,

August 31, 1977.

The plants were collected from alluvial sandy

soils on a small island in the bed of river

Tapti near Variav about 9 km, north-west of

Surat. The plants were associated with species

of Scirpus and Cyperus.

Flowering and Fruiting: August-September.

JVJ 210-herbarium, The M.S. University of

Baroda, (BARO).

Distribution: Khasia at 4000-6500 ft, Nilgiri,

Anamalai (Beddome), Palni and High Wavy

(Blatter & Hallberg) Mountains 5500-7500 ft.

Nepal, Sri Lanka, Warm regions of the globe.

Based on the Junior author’s collection, the

plant is included by Parabia (loc. cit). His

description of the plant has been modified in

the light of our observations. Hypogynous

bristles are 6 in all the spikelets dissected by

us and not 4 as reported by Parabia (loc. cit.),

who uses this as a Key character to distin-

guish the two species of Rhynchospora record-

ed from Gujarat. Our observations tally with

those of Clarke (loc. cit.) and Fischer (loc.

cit.) wherein the bristle number is reported

to be 5-6.

The plant is restricted to high altitude re-

gions ranging from 1300 to 2500 m. It’s occur-

rence on the sandy beds of a river near Surat

almost at sea level is interesting.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks are due to Dr. M. H. Parabia, Lec-

turer in Botany, P. T. Sarvajanik College

of Science, Surat for allowing us reference to

his unpublished Ph. D. thesis.

S. D. SABNITS

J. V. JOSHI

211

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

33. NEW RECORDS OF PLANTS FROM ANDAMAN AND

NICOBAR ISLANDS

The vegetation of Katchal Island in Anda-

man and Nicobar Islands has been poorly stu-

died. S. Kurz in his paper on “A sketch of

the vegetation of Nicobar Islands” (J. As.

Soc. Beng. 45 (3): 105-164. 1876) lists seve-

ral species from Katchal island. Apart from

Kurz there is no other published paper on the

flora of Katchal. Since the establishment of

the Regional Circle of the Botanical Survey

of India at Port Blair, intensive survey of Kat-

chal island yielded several species which are

new records for Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

The enumeration list includes 13 species, of

which 6 species are new records for India and

7 species are new records for Andaman and

Nicobar Islands.

MENISPERMACEAE

1. Fibraurea tinctoria Lour. Fl. Cochinch.

2: 709. 1790; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 1: 98.

1872.

Woody liana; bark peeling off in flakes.

Leaves alternate, ovate, entire, 9.5-16 cm long,

8-10.5 cm wide, subcoriaceous, glabrous,

strongly 3-nerved; lateral nerves on midrib

2-3 pairs; petiole 5.5-8.5 cm long, swolien at

base and above, longitudinally grooved. Inflo-

rescence + 24 cm long, usually from the old

stems in paniculate racemes; flowers solitary,

+ 2.5 mm long, + 2.5 mm across, pale yel-

low in colour; pedicel + 2 mm long; bract

minute at the base of pedicel; bracteole mi-

nute at the base of calyx and appearing as

4th sepal; sepals 3, free, unequal, less than

1 mm across; petals 6, valvate, free, oblong,

obtuse, + 2.5 mm long, 1.5 mm wide; sta-

mens 6; anthers sessile, arising from one point

on thalamus, oblong, + 2.5 mm long, + 0.5

mm wide, dehiscing by terminal pore. Fruit ob-

212

long, ellipsoid, + 3 cm long, + 1.8 cm thick;

pericarp fleshy; endocarp woody, grooved on

one side; seed solitary, longitudinally grooved

on one side, + 2.5 cm long, + 1.5 em thick,

yellow.

Katchal Island: Mildera, 29 April

Chakraborty 1231 (PBL).

Distribution: Indo-China, Malaysia, Philip-

pines & Borneo. A new record for India.

1974,

VIOLACEAE

2. Rimorea longiracemosa (Kurz) Craib,

Fl. Siam. 1: 90. 1925; Jacobs & Moore in FI.

Males. I, 7: 189. 1971. Alsodeia longiracemosa

Kurz in J. As. Soc. Beng. 39 (2): 63. 1870.

Tree, + 15 m tall. Leaves elliptic to ob-

long-lanceolate. Racemes_ slender, solitary,

8-13 cm long; flowers small, greenish white.

Capsules and seeds glabrous.

Katchal Island: Kapanga, 15 April

Chakraborty 2548 (PBL).

Distribution: Burma, Indo-China, Thailand,

Malaysia, Sumatra, Java. A new record for

India.

3. Rinorea macrophylla (Decne) O. Ktze.

Rev. Gen. Pl. 1: 42. 1891; Jacobs in Blumea

15. 135. 1967; Jacobs & Moore in FI. Males.

I, 7: 190. 1971. Alsodeia macrophylla Decne,

Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 3: 468, t. 9. 1834.

Rinorea horsfieldii Mig. Fl. Ind. Bat. 1, 2:

117. 1859; Backer & Bakh. f. Fl. Java. 1: 195.

1963.

Shrub, -_ 2 m tall. Leaves obovate, ellip-

soid-oblong, 8-20 cm long, 4-9 cm wide. In-

florescence _ fasciculiform, |= many-flowered;

ovary pubescent. Capsule trigonous-globose.

Katchal Island: Mildera, 12 Nov. 76, Cha-

kraborty 4659 (PBL).

19753

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Distribution: Siam, Malay peninsula, Suma-

tra, Java, Philippines. A new record for India.

BURSERACEAE

4. Dacryedes rugosa (BI.) H. J. Lam. Jard.

Bot. Btzg. 42: 203, t. 11, ff. 64. 1932; Leen-

houts, in Fl. Males. I, 5: 221. 1956. Sanitra

rugosa Bl. Mus. Bot. 1: 212. 1850.

Tree, + 6 m. tall. Leaves compound, pari-

pinnate, chartaecous; leaflets, 3-4 pairs, lower

leaflets smaller, the upper ones larger, oblong-

lanceolate, unequal at base, abruptly acumi-

nate at apex, 8-14 cm long, 3-8 cm_ broad;

acumen + 1.5 cm long, + 0.4 cm broad;

midrib slightly raised above, prominent be-

neath; lateral nerves 13-16 pairs, slightly curv-

ed, glabrous; petiolules thickened at both ends,

1.0-1.5 mm thick. Fruiting peduncle patently

pubescent; fruit an indehiscent drupe, ovoid,

slightly pointed at apex, pink in colour, slight-

ly oblique, + 2.5 cm long, + 2 cm thick;

rugose when dry.

Katchal Island: Mildera, 29 April 1974,

Chakraborty 1219 (PBL).

The specimens collected are in fruit and

has been identified at Leiden herbarium. De-

tailed description of the species is given by

Leenhouts (l.c.).

Distribution: Malaysia, Sumatra, W. Java

and Borneo. A new record for India.

CUCURBITACEAE

5. Cucumis callosus (Rottl.) Cogn. in Eng-

ler, Pflanzenr. 88: 129. 1924. Bryonia callosa

(‘collosa’) Rottl., Neue Schrift. Gen. Nat.

Freunde Zu Berlin 4: 210. 1803. Cucumis trig-

enous: Roxb, El Ind, 2: 722. 1824: Clarke

in Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 2: 619. 1829. (excl.

syn.); Chakraborty in Ind. Journ. Agric. Sc.

16 (1): 51. 1946.

Prostrate trailing herb or climber; stem

slender, angular; not much branched; tendril

simple. Leaves sub-orbicular, 7-lobed, cordate

at base, obtuse at apex, slightly broader than

long, 2-2.8 cm long, 2.5-3.5 cm broad; petiole

slender, 1.2-3.5 cm long, hispid. Flowers uni-

sexual, yellow; male flowers in groups at 2-3,

+ 10 mm long, + 4 mm across; pedicels

slender, + 2.5 mm long; calyx-tube narrow,

campanulate, villous, + 3 mm long; lobes 5,

subulate, + 1.5 mm long; corolla campanu-

late, 5-lobed; lobes oblong-ovate, acute + 6

mm long, + 3 mm across; stamens 3, insert-

ed on the calyx-tube; filament short, free; an-

ther oblong, 5-grooved, + 2 mm long; con-

nective less than 1 mm long; pistillode + 0.5

mm long. Fruit obovoid, puberulous, = 3 cm

long, + 2.5 cm across; secds white, oblong

with acute apex, == 4° mim long, -— 2 mm

broad, less than | mm thick.

Katchal Island: Kapanga, 22 Aug.

Chakraborty 2163 (PBL).

Distribution: N. Africa, Peninsular, Central

and Northern India, West Bengal, Malaya,

Australia, China. A new record for Andaman

and Nicobar Islands.

1974,

RUBIACEAE

6. Randia curvata Valet. in Ic. Bogor. 2:

t. 146. 1903-1906; Back & Bakh. f. Flora of

Java 2: 310 1965.

Liana; leaves ovate, ovate-oblong to elliptic;

thorn deflexed; cymes terminal; fruit globose,

+ 20 mm across.

Katchal Island: Hill towards jetty, E. Bay,

20 Dec. 74, Chakraborty 2221 (PBL).

Distribution: Java. A new record for India.

SYMPLOCCACEAE

7. Symplocos microtricha Hand-Mazz. in

Beih. Bot. Centralbl. 62-B; 17. 1943, Noote-

boom, Rev. Symplocaceae 239. 1975.

213

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Shrub + 2 m. tall; leaves eiliptic to obo-

vate, + 10 cm long, 3.5 cm wide; nerves 8-10

pairs; fruit ovoid, constricted towards the apex,

+ 8 mm long, + 4 mm thick.

Katchal Island: W. Bay, in inland forests,

13 Feb. 77, Chakraborty 5204.

Distribution: Indo-China, China and Malay

peninsula. A new record for India.

OLEACEAE

8. Myxopyrum smilacifolium Bl. Mus. Bot.

1: 320. 1850; Kurz, For. Fl. Burma 2: 160.

1877; Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 3:

618. 1882.

Climber, stem quadrangular; leaves 14-18

cm long, 8-10 cm wide; inflorescence a pani-

cle; fruit globose.

Katchal Island: Mildera, 7 May 1975, Cha-

kraborty 2527 (PBL).

Distribution: Assam, Cachar, Chittagong,

Pegu, Penang, Malaya. A new record for An-

daman and Nicobar Islands.

APOCYNACEAE

9. Hunteria corymbosa Roxb. FI. Ind.

1: 695. Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India, 3: 637. 1882;

Ridley, Fl. Malay Peninsula 2: 335, 1923.

Tree, + 5 m tall; leaves oblanceolate; nerves

fine, 20-25 pairs; corymbs 3-5 cm long; corolla

white; berries globose, beaked, yellow.

Katchal. Island: Kapanga, roadside, 2 Nov.

76, Chakraborty 4602. (PBL).

Distribution: India, Sri Lanka, Sumatra. A

new record for Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

AMARANTHACEAE

10. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex

R. & S. var. tenuissima (Suess.) Backer in FI.

Males, I, 4: 93. 1949. Alternanthera tenuis-

sima Suess. in Bot. Arch. 39: 382. 1939.

214

filiform,

0.5 cm

Leaves from a_ narrowed base,

shortly mucronate, 2-6 cm long, +

wide.

Katchal Island: Kadao village, W. Bay, 1

May 1977, Chakraborty 5547 (PBL).

Distribution: Malaysia and New Guinea. A

new record for India.

ZLINGIBERACEAE

11. Zingiber aromaticum Roxb. FI. Ind.

1: 45, 1824, Backer in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India,

6: 240. 1892.

Spike globose; lip pale yellow; anther crest

large; capsule + 2.5 cm long, oblong, trigo-

nous. |

Katchal Island: Kapanga, coastal, 28 Au-

gust 74, Chakraborty 2108 (PBL).

Distribution: Sikkim, N. Bengal, Meghalaya,

Bangladesh. A new record for Andaman and

Nicobar Islands.

COMMELINACEAE:

12. Pollia sorzogonensis (E. Meyer) Endl.

Gen. Pl. 14: 1029. 1840; Hook. f. FI. Brit.

India 6: 367. 1892. Aclisia sorzogonensis E.

Meyer in Presi “Rer iaenka la ce eee

1827. |

Stem erect, viscid; leaves 15-25 cm _ long,

shortly petioled; peduncle villous with deflex-

ed hairs. |

Katchal Island: Mildera, 10 August 74,

Chakraborty 2023 (PBL).

Distribution: Sikkim, Bhutan, Burma, Ma-

lacca, Sri Lanka. A new record for Andanvan

and Nicobar Islands.

COMMELINACEAE

13. Aneilema vaginatum (L.) R. Br. Prodr.

271. 1810; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 4: 381.

1892. Commelina vaginata L. Mant. 177. 1771.

Maharashtra.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Roots fibrous; stem decumbent, rooting at

nodes; flowers 1-3 pedicelled; stamens 2, fer-

tile; staminodes 2; capsule cuspidate; seeds.

Katchal Island: Delhi village, W.. Bay, 13

June 77, Chakraborty 6028 (PBL).

Distribution: Sri Lanka, Peninsular India,

Bengal, Burma. A new record for Andaman

and Nicobar Islands.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

Port BLAIR, ANDAMANS,

September 12, 1977.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my sincere thanks to Dr. N. P.

Balakrishnan, Regional Botanist, Botanical

Survey of India, Port Blair for his valuable

inspiring guidance rendered to me during stu-

dies on Flora of Katchal Island.

PARITOSH CHAKRABORTY

34. FILAMENTOUS MYXOPHYCEAE OF AURANGABAD

DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA

Between September 1975 and June 1977,

about fifteen hundred vials of algae have been

collected from a number of places in Auran-

gabad district in Marathwada_ division of

Maharashtra state. The rainfall of Auranga-

bad district varies from 50 to 150 cm. The

temperature varies from 9°C in December to

41°C in May. The pH of the water of the

collection spots was determined by using

B.D.H. universal indicator. The pH is men-

tioned in brackets immediately after the col-

lection spots in the habitats. Camera lucida

diagrams of all the algae have been drawn

and preserved.

In this paper forty five taxa belonging to

eleven genera of the filamentous algae have

been recorded. Of these only five taxa have

been earlier recorded from Aurangabad pro-

per by Kamat (1974),1 however, the localities

mentioned by Kamat are different from the

ones recorded here. The remaining forty algae

are additions to the flora of Aurangabad dis-

trict.

1 Kamat, N. D. (1974): Algae of Marathwada,

Phykos 13: 22-32.

Spirulina laxissima West, G.S.

In blue green mucilaginous masses in a tap

water culture (8.5), Institute of Science Labo-

ratory, Aurangabad (28-10-75).

Spirulina major Kuetz. ex Gomont

Blue greenish masses submerged in a stream

(9.5), Aurangabad (6-11-75).

Oscillatoria amnmae van Goor

Greenish brown masses forming thin layers on

moist soils near Harsool talao, Aurangabad

(11-10-75).

Oscillatoria biswasii Kamat

Biuish green mucilaginous masses along with

a thin layer of soil floating and submerged

in a small pool, Aurangabad (11-10-75).

Oscillatoria chalybea (Mertens) Gomont

Abundant in a pool (8.5), Khokadpura, Au-

rangabad (1-10-75). In oxidation pond (9),

near Kanchanwadi (19-10-75).

Trichomes are slightly narrower than those

of the type.

Oscillatoria cortiana Meneghini ex Gomont v.

minor Kamat

Bluish green masses adhering to the Cypera-

ceae members in oxidation pond (10.5) near

Kanchanwadi (10-10-75).

215

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Oscillatoria mougeotii Kuetzing

Greenish brown mass adhering to aquatic

plants submerged in a temporary pool (9),

Aurangabad (6-11-75). Greenish mass form-

ing a layer on submerged rock, Kham river

(9), Aurangabad (1-10-75).

Trichomes are slightly narrower than those

of the type.

Oscillatoria okeni Agardh ex Gomont

Abundant bluish green masses adhering to

submerged rocks in Kham river (8.7), Auran-

gabad (1-10-75).

Trichomes of this alga are slightly narrower

than those of the type.

Osciilatoria princeps Vaucher ex Gomont

Planktonic in a river (8.5) at Farola fata

(2-1-77). Bluish green mass in a stream

(8.5), Aurangabad (6-11-75). Biue green mass

forming a layer on sand in a stream (8.5),

University campus, Aurangabad (7-11-75).

Oscillatoria profunda Kirchner

Blackish green mass adhering to the submerg-

ed grasses in a stream (8.5), Aurangabad

(6-11-75).

Oscillatoria pseudogeminata G. Schmid

Blackish green mass adhering to submerged

stones in a big gutter (8.5), Aurangabad

(6-11-75).

Oscillatoria pseudogeminata G. Schmid f.

longa Kamat

Brownish masses adhering to submerged rocks

in Kham river (8.5), Aurangabad (1-10-75).

Oscillatoria rosea Utermohl

Greenish brown mass forming a thin layer

on moist soil near Harsool talao, Auranga-

bad (11-10-75).

The cells are sometimes much longer.

Oscillatoria subbrevis Schmidle

Adhering to submerged giasses in a big gutter

(8.5); forming a thin layer on the submerged

inner wall of a cistern (8.7), Pawanchakki,

Aurangabad (1-10-75).

216

Oscillatoria tambi Woronich

Greenish brown mass adhering to submerged

stones in a big gutter (8.5), Aurangabad

(6-11-75). |

Piormidium anomala Rao, C.B.

Bluish green mass forming a thin layer adher-

ing to the submerged glass of the tap water cul-

ture (8.5), Institute of Science Laboratory,

Aurangabad (8-11-75).

Trichomes slightly narrower than those of

the type.

Phormidium bigranulatum Gardner

Greenish blue mass forming a mucilaginous

iayer on the submerged stone wali of a kund

(8.5), Aurangabad caves, Aurangabad

(2-10-75).

Phormidium ceylanicum Wille v. minor Kamat

Greenish mucilaginous mass adhering to the

roots of aquatic plants, Kham river (8.5),

Aurangabad (3-10-75).

Phormidium favosum (Bory) Gomont

Greenish mass adhering to submerged stone

slope near a big cistern (8.5), Aurangabad

(1-10-75).

Phormidium henningsii Lemm.

Blackish green mass forming a mucilaginous

layer on moist soil, Aurangabad (18-9-75).

Phormidium jenkelianum Schmid, G.

Brownish green mass adhering to submerged

rock in Kham river (8.7), Aurangabad

(1-10-75).

Phormidium subincrustatum Fritsch et Rich

Greenish brown mucilaginous mass forming

a layer on submerged sand in a big gutter

(8.5), Aurangabad (1-11-75).

Phormidium tenue (Menegh.) Gomont

Dark green mucilaginous mass floating in a

giass beaker (8.5), Institute of Science labora-

tory, Aurangabad (8-11-75).

Phormidium uncinatum (Ag.) Gomont

Blue green mass adhering to submerged rocks

in Kham river (9), Aurangabad (20-10-75).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Cross walls of the alga are never granulated.

Lyngbya dixitii Kamat

Greenish brown mass adhering to submerged

stones in a big gutter (8.7), Aurangabad

(6-11-75).

Lyngbya epiphytica Hieron.

Benthic in the swimming pool (8.5), Auran-

gabad (25-5-76).

Filaments in the Aurangabad form are not

epiphytic as in the type and the sheath is

slightly broader than in the type. However

it agrees in all other respects with the type.

Lyngbya gandhii Kamat

On moist soil and on the submerged soil in a

stream (8.5), Pallod (16-1-77).

Cells of this alga are narrower and shorter

than those of the type.

Lyngbya gardneri (Setchell et Gardner) Geitler

Blue green masses forming a layer on cement

wall of a settling tank (9), Aurangabad

(25-9-75).

Lyngyba maharashtrensis Kamat

Blue green mucilaginous masses floating in a

tap water culture (8.5), Institute of Science

laboratory, Aurangabad (12-3-76).

Lyngbya pusilla (Rabh.) Hansg.

Epiphytic on the filamentous algae attached

to small bricks and small stones submerged

in a big gutter (8.5), Aurangabad (1-11-75).

Lyngbya stagina Kuetzing f. non-granulata

Kamat

Bluish green mass adhering to the submerged

stones in Kham river (8.5), Aurangabad

(3-10-75).

Microcoleus cataractarum Hansg.

Bluish green algae floating and submerged in

Beneck’s medium culture in laboratory, In-

stitute of Science, Aurangabad (12-3-76).

Microcoleus chthonoplastes Thuret ex Gomont

Bluish green planktonic mass in a big fish

nursury tank (8.7), Kelana project (16-1-76).

Microcoleus hospitus Hansg.

Brownish green mucilaginous mass forming a

thick layer on sand near water tank on the

terrace, Govt. College of Arts & Science, Au-

rangabad (19-5-76).

Microcoleus tenerrimus Gomont

Blackish green mass forming a layer on the

stone wall of Aurangabad caves (12-10-75).

Microcoleus vaginatus (Vaucher) Gomont

Greenish brown mass forming a thick layer

on sand near a water tank on the terrace,

Govt. College of Arts and Science, Auranga-

bad (19-5-76).

Nostoc commune Vauch. ex Born. et Flah.

Bluish green, mucilaginous mass along with

other algae in a tap water culture (8.5), In-

stitute of Science laboratory, Aurangabad

(8-11-75).

Nostoc piscimale Kuetz. ex Born. et Flah. .

Along with other algae in a tap water culture

(8.5), Institute of Science laboratory, Auran-

gabad (28-10-75).

Akinetes rarely broader than those of the

type.

Nostoc spongiaeforme Agardh ex Born. et

Flah. v. tenue Rao, C. B. 7

Bluish green mass forming a layer on moist

soils and bricks of oxidation pond, Kanchan-

wadi (10-10-75).

Cylindrospermum sphaerica Prasad f. cylin-

dricum Kamat

Bluish green mass adhering to the submerged

roots of Phoenix sp. on the bank of a stream

(8.5), Farola (2-1-77).

Cylindrospermum vouki Pevalek

Blue green mass forming a layer on sand on

the bank of the river (9) near Shekta

(21-2-76).

Akinetes are slightly broader and shorter

than those of the type.

217°

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Anabaena volzii Lemm.

Planktonic and submerged in oxidation pond

(9.5), Kanchanwadi (10-10-75).

Scytonema myochrous (Dillw.) Ag. ex Born.

et Flah.

Brownish black masses forming a thick layer

on the rocks in hill crevices near caves, Au-

rangabad (2-10-75).

BoTANY DEPARTMENT,

INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE,

AURANGABAD 431 O01,

August 15, 1977.

Petalonema densum (A. Br.) Migula

Brownish green mass forming a thick layer

on the stone walls of the caves, Aurangabad

(2-10-75). |

Dichothrix gypsophila (Kuetz.) Born. et Flah.

Brownish green mass forming a_ thick layer

on the cement wall of a cistern (8.5), Subhe-

dari Guest House, Aurangabad (11-9-76).

P. V. ASHTEKAR

N. D. KAMAT

CORRIGENDA

Volume 75(2): August 1978

Miscellaneous Note 28

Danaid butterflies attracted to Heliotropium indi-

cum (Boraginaceae), an alkaloid containing plant

On page 512, right side column, last word

For hormone

read pheromone

Volume 75(3): December 1978

The changing Wildlife of Kathiawar.

On page 634, right side column, line 10

218

For District Magistrate

read Political Agent

On page 636, right side column, 2nd para, line 5

For Mullet

read Mulley (or freshwater shark Wallago attu)

On page 644, right side column, line 30

For 1975

read June, 1976

On page 644, right side column, line 31

For 1976

read Sth May, 1977.

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CONTENTS =. : ee

BEHAVIOUR OF HooLocK GIBBON (Hylobates hoolock) DURING DIFFERENT SEASONS

IN ASSAM, INDIA. By Ronald L. Tilson . : see cee tie

A BOTANICAL SURVEY OF Cannabis IN THE HIMALAYAS, By G. AS . Sharma

A COMMENT ON Monodara nipalensis (AND Siena. By me Dillon Ripley

TYPE MATERIAL IN THE HERBARIUM OF THE BOTANICAL SuRveY OF InbIA AT: ‘Poona.

By N. P. Singh & U. R. Deshpande

REVISED NOMENCLATURE FOR TAXA IN WYNTER-BLYTH’S BOOK ON THE — J

OF INDIAN REGION. By R. K. Varshney

BIRDS SEEN ALONG A MOUNTAIN TRAIL IN PAKISTAN. By P. Jones ee ok ae

_ THE GENUS Athyrium RoTH IN NAINITAL HILLS. By KEK: Dhir ed K. Rani

APPLICATION OF BIOCHEMICAL METHODS IN BANDICOOT TAXONOMY. By M. S. Pradhan

PRELIMINARY CROCODILE SURVEY—SRI Lanka. By R. ‘Whitaker and Z. Whitaker Die

A. PROVISIONAL, ANNOTATED CHECK-LIST OF THE FRESHWATER FISHES OF ae

By Brian W. Coad

BIOECOLOGY AND ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITE GENUS Cr yptotermes, By M. L. ‘Thakur

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE PicMy Hoc (WITH A FOOTNOTE. ON THE |

Hispio Hare). Picmy Hoc. Survey 1977—Parr II. By William L. R. Oliver

REVIEWS

, «

MISCELLANEOUS: NOTES

115

145

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Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, | 7: Journal of the Bombay

Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society.

ON er 16 No. hie 1979

Date of Publication : 28-4-1980

CONTENTS

OBSERVATIONS ON THE OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR IN Apocrypta bakeri JOSEPH (Tory-

MIDAE: HYMENOPTERA). By U. C. Abdurahiman and K. J. Joseph. (With two

text-figures) A

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF MANIPUR. By U. Shukla and A. K. Baishya

DRY SKIN PREPARATIONS OF FROGS AND TOADS AS AIDS- FOR THEIR TAXONOMY. By S. Y.

_Paranjape and Leela Mulherkar. (With eight. text-figures)

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE VASCULAR FLORA OF VENKATAGIRI. HILLS AND ENVIRONS.

By B. Suryanarayana i

LARVAL HISTORY OF THE SPIDER CRAB, Schizophrys aspera (H. MILNE-EDWARDS)

(BRACHYURA, MAJIDAE) AS OBSERVED IN THE LABORATORY. By V. S. Kakati and

V.N. Naval (With four text-figures)

RECORDS OF NYCTERIBIIDAE AND STREBLIDAE (DIPTERA, PUPIPARA) IN KARNATAKA,

InpIA. By H. R. Bhat, M. A. Sreenivasan and M. A. IlIkal

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF THE RISHI GANGA VALLEY AND THE

~ NANDA DEvi SANCTUARY. By T. M. Reed. (With two text-figures)

URBANIZATION IN NEST BUILDING OF INDIAN House Crows (Corvus splendens

VIEILLOT). By Rudolf Altevogt and T. A. Davis. (With sixteen figures)

BREEDING AND DEVELOPMENT OF Rana cyanophlyctis SCHNEIDER. By P. Mohanty-

Hejmadi and Sushil K. Dutta. (With five text-figures)

SYSTEMATICS OF THE COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT PRAWNS (CRUSTACEA, DECAPODA,

SUBFAMILY PENAEINAE) IN Goa. By M. J. George

OBSERVATIONS ON LIFE-HISTORY OF THE PEDUNCULATE BARNACLE, Ibla cumingi

Darwin. By S. N. Gaonkar and A. A. Karande. (With six text-figures)

PREDATION ON NATURAL NESTS OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE (Crocodylus porosus

SCHNEIDER) ON NORTH ANDAMAN. ISLAND WITH NOTES ON THE CROCODILE POPU-

LATION. By D. C. Choudhury & H. R. Bustard. (With five plates and two text-

figures)

NEw DESCRIPTIONS:

Taxonomic studies on some Indian Eulophid parasites (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea).

By M. Younus Khan and S. Adam Shafee. (With four text-figures)

Indian species. of the genus i richaporus Foerster (Hymenoptera: - Aphelinidae).

By M. Nayyar Azim and S. Adam Shafee. (With eleven text-figures)

Studies on the Scarab beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) of north India-Part II.

Three new species and two new records from India. By S. Biswas. (With four

text-figures)

PAGE

259

268

PATS

324

335

338

Two new species of Balocha Distant (Idioceridae; Homoptera). By P. Kameswara

Rao and Usha Ramakrishnan. (With twenty-three text-figures) ne 342

A new species of Moonia (Homoptera: Ulopidae). By P. Kameswara Rao and

Usha Ramakrishnan. (With ten text-figures) ii 346

A new species of fern from South India. By N. Ravi and J. Joseph. (With five

text-figures) it 348

REVIEWS: |

Pakshikalum Manushyrum. (S. M. Satheesan) a 351

A Bundle of Feathers. (Madhav Gadgil) Ny 352

Flora Malesiana-Series 1-Flowering Plants. (P. V. Bole) Se 353

The Oxford book of Trees. (P. V. Bole) is, 355

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

GENERAL: |. The Surat dangs revisited. By Ernest M. Shull (p. 356).

MAMMALS: 2. A note on the tiger census conducted in Gujarat State from 15th to 21st

April, 1979. By M. A. Rashid (p. 357); 3. Occurrence of civets in the city of Rangoon

(Burma). By Tun Yin (p. 359); 4. An instance of wild dogs scavenging on a tiger’s kill.

By A. J. T. Johnsingh (p. 360).

Birps: 5. On the validity of Francolinus pictus pallidus (J. E. Gray). By Humayun Abdulali

(p. 362); 6. Incubation and incubation period in the Indian little brown dove Streptopelia

senegalensis. By R. V. Nene (p. 362); 7. The voice of the juvenile brown hawk-owl [Ninox

scutulata (Raffles) ]. By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 363); 8. Northward extension of the range

of the South Indian black bulbul Hypsipetes madagascariensis ganeesa Sykes. By Lavkumar

J. Khacher (p. 364); 9. Courtship song and display of the whitethroated ground thrush

Zoothera citrina cyanotus (Jardine & Selby). By Dinsha J. Panday (p. 365); 10. Wagtails

as predators of field bean aphids. By A. K. Chakravarthy & S. Lingappa (p. 367).

REPTILES: 11. Reaction to night spotting in the gharial, Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin).

By Lala A. K. Singh (p. 367).

INSEcTS: 12. Strange practice of a caterpillar. By A. S. Bhaduri (p. 368); 13. The red

pierrot Talicada nyseus Guerin (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in Bombay and the Salsette

Island. By Naresh Chaturvedi (p. 369); 14. Ants (Camponotus sp.) hunting flies. By

Shailesh J. Zaveri, Jyotindra J. Zaveri & Ameet K. Zaveri (p. 370).

BRACHYURA: 15. Colour during life of the crab Atergatis roseus (Ruppell). By B. F. Chhap-

gar (p. 370).

Borany: 16. New records of Euphorbiaceae from Madhya Pradesh. By S. A. Chaghtai &

Aruna Garg (p. 371); 17. Acalypha indica Linn—A new record for Garhwal. By G. S.

Rajwar (p. 372); 18. Occurrence of Myriophyllum spicatum. Linn.-In Rajasthan. By G. P.

Roy & V. Singh (p. 372); 19. Rare or little known plants from South India. By A. N.

Henry & M. S. Swaminathan (p. 373); 20. Notes on the distribution of a few Indian

grasses. By Barin Ghosh & R. N. Banerjee (p. 376).

JOURNAL

Ook 1 HE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1979 AUGUST

Vol. 76

No. 2

OBSERVATIONS ON THE OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR IN

APOCRYPTA BAKERI JOSEPH (TORYMIDAE:

HYMENOPTERA )'

U. C. ABDURAHIMAN AND K. J. JOSEPH?

(With two text-figures)

Apocrypta bakeri Joseph is a cleptoparasite of the agaonid, Ceratosolen marchali

Mayr, breeding in the receptacles of Ficus hispida L. Observaticns on the process of

oviposition and the related behaviour of these torymid wasps are briefly given and

discussed. The presence of the abdominal keel, formed of the telescopically arranged

basal segments is a unique feature and facilitates the penetration of the ovipositor

across the fig wall. The eggs are deposited only in those ovaries of Ficus where the

agaonid, C. marchali has deposited its egg and injected the secretion from its poison

glands. The presence of these ‘internal host factors’ possibly detected by the sensillae

present at the tip of the ovipositor of A. bakeri inform this insect about the suitability

or otherwise of the fig ovary for oviposition and serve as factors determining success-

ful oviposition.

INTRODUCTION

The oviposition behaviour in different ge-

nera of fig-inhabiting torymids has been very

little investigated. Joseph (1953) observed the

process of egg-laying in Sycoscapteridea

(= Neosycoecus) indica Joseph. He gave a de-

tailed account of the process of oviposition

and the factors determining the same in Phi

1 Accepted July 1977.

* Department of Zoology, University of Calicut,

Kerala 673635.

lotrypesis caricae L., cleptoparasite of Blasto-

phaga psenes L. developing in the syconia of

Ficus carica L. (Joseph 1958 & 1959). Ansari

(1966) studied the process of oviposition in

Parakoebelea stratheni (= glomeratus) Joseph.

The present paper embodies the results of our

study of the oviposition behaviour in Apoc-

rypta bakeri Joseph, which develops as a clep-

toparasite of the agaonid, Ceratosolen mar-

chali Mayr, breeding in the receptacles of

Ficus hispida L. It is for the first time that

the oviposition behaviour of a species of the

genus Apocrypta is studied.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Mature gall figs of Ficus hispida were

brought to the laboratory. The females of

Apocrypta bakeri eclosed were reared in the

laboratory, feeding them with diluted honey.

Tender figs of appropriate stage, freshly col-

lected from the tree were provided to these

females for oviposition.

Ovipositing females were observed under the

Stereomicroscope for studying the various sta-

‘ges of oviposition and related behavioural as-

pects. The path taken by the ovipositor in-

side the fig was traced by cutting the ovipo-

sitor at its basal part at the time of oviposi-

tion and then by following its course by dis-

section of the fig wall.

Field observations on the oviposition be-

haviour in A. bakeri were also made to sup-

plement our study in the laboratory.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS

In nature, oviposition is more frequent in

the morning hours, normally between 6 A.M.

and 10 A.M. As many as eight females were

observed in the act of oviposition on the same

fig. The large scale eclosion of the females in

the early morning is one of the probable rea-

sons why a large number of females were ob-

served ovipositing during the morning hours.

Under laboratory conditions, the females readi-

ly showed oviposition behaviour during the

day when suitable tender figs were provided.

The oviposition behaviour in A. bakeri can

be conveniently divided for our study pur-

pose into 3 different stages.

a) Selection of a suitable area for insertion of

the ovipositor:

The females on eclosion remain for a while

on the fig surface. No distinct pre-oviposition

period was observed, and many females ac-

complished oviposition soon after their eclo-

220

sion. On the surface of the tender figs, the

insect wanders in search of a suitable spot to

insert the ovipositor. This search is aided by

the antennae, the tips of which are kept in

contact with the fig surface as the insect moves

along (Fig. la). It would seem therefore, that

certain olfactory cues perceived by the an-

tennae initially inform the insect about the

suitability or otherwise, of the spot to be

selected for insertion of the ovipositor. The

insect now raises the abdomen to the maxi-

mum height possible by straightening the hind

legs. Along with this the abdomen is elevated

from its normal position. Simultaneously, the

seven basal abdominal segments that consti-

tute the ventral abdominal keel are stretched

and this part of the abdomen now further

brought perpendicular to the thorax (Fig. 1b).

The remaining segments of the abdomen along

with the terminal ovipositor are now folded

down and the tip of the ovipositor is brought

in contact with the selected spot, aided by the

hind legs (Fig. Ic). Now the insect under-

takes a detailed examination of the spot where

its Ovipositor has touched the fig surface. This

seems to be done by means of the sensory

setae present at the tip of the ovipositor and

its sheaths. On several occasions the insect was

found to abandon the initially chosen site and

recommence its search for another suitable

site.

b) Penetration of the ovipositor and deposi-

tion of the eggs:

When the suitable spot is finally selected the

hind legs are slowly bent downwards and the

hypopygium is lowered in stages as the ovipo-

sitor pierces and penetrates into the wall of

the fig (Figs. Id & le). The penetration of the

Ovipositor down the fig wall is also aided by

the force exerted by waves of contraction of

the abdomen starting at its base and travelling

rhythmically towards its tip. With the further

OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR IN APOCRYPTA BAKERI

Fig. la-li. Different stages of oviposition. (la-lc: Selection of a suitable spot for

Oviposition on the syconium; Id-le: Penetration of the ovipositor across the fig wall;

lf-lg: egg laying; lh-1i; withdrawal of the ovipositor). Fig. 2. Section of a part of

the fig showing the path taken by the ovipositor into a Ficus ovary.

Abbreviations: abk—abdominal keel; fw—Fig wall; hyp—hypopygium; ov—ovipositor;

ov. sh—ovipositor sheaths; ov. g—ovarian gall; ter—terebra (penetrating stylets of

the ovipositor),.

221

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

penetration of the ovipositor its valves which

till now helped to fix and direct the ovipositor

proper are detached and now they regain their

normal resting position horizontal to the body

(Fig. 1f). The hypophygium is now consider-

ably lowered and in this position the ovipo-

sitor penetrates fully into the fig ovary (Fig.

lg). The egg is deposited in this stage. At

times the ovipositor is seen to be slightly pull-

ed out and inserted again, this act being re-

peated until it has penetrated into the selected

gall flower.

The course taken by the ovipositor could

be easily traced by cutting the ovipositor in

the ovipositing stage and tracing it in situ into

the gall flower by appropriate dissection (Fig.

2). The egg comes to be deposited in the nu-

cellus of the Ficus ovary, normally away from

the region of the style, with the small stalk

of the egg attached to the ovarian wall.

c) Withdrawal of the ovipositor:

After the process of oviposition, the legs

are slowly stretched, the hypophygium is rais-

ed little by little, and the abdomen is elevated

and brought to a perpendicular position with

respect to the thorax (Figs. lh & li) result-

ing in the complete withdrawal of the ovipo-

sitor, which is then cleaned with the help of

the tibial spurs of the hind legs. The ovipositor

is now ensheathed inside its valves and brought

to its normal position of rest. The whole pro-

cess of oviposition is completed within eight

to ten minutes.

Factors determining Oviposition:

The internal factors determining egg depo-

sition in A. bakeri include the presence of the

egg of the host agaonid, Ceratosolen marchali,

thereby assuring the presence of the secretion

of the poison glands of this host insect in the

same ovary. When tender figs free of Cerato-

solen eggs were provided to the females of A.

bakeri, no eggs were laid eventhough the

papape

earlier stages of oviposition behaviour were

observed. In some cases, when such figs were

examined, the fig ovary did not contain the

eggs of A. bakeri. This observation supports

the possibility of Apocrypta laying its eggs

only in those gall flowers in which Ceratosolen

female has already laid its egg and injected

the secretion of its poison glands. The pre-

sence of this secretion may be detected by

means of the sensillae present at the tips of

the ovipositor valves and of the stylets of the

Ovipositor proper.

DISCUSSION

In all the torymid species where oviposition

behaviour has been studied, the eggs are laid

in the fig ovaries by introducing the ovipo-

sitor through the wall of the fig. However,

Closer analysis of the steps involved in ovipo-

sition reveals some important differences. In

Philotrypesis caricae, the ovipositor is bent

with a sharp angle between the elongated

segments (8th and 9th) of the abdomen so

that the ovipositor can be kept vertical to the

fig surface (Joseph 1958). Abdurahiman

(1972) observed a similar pattern of oviposi-

tion in Philotrypesis pilosa, which breeds in

the receptacles of Ficus hispida. In Parakoe-

belea stratheni (Ansari 1966) and Sycoscap-

teridea indica (Joseph 1953) their abdominal

structure does not probably allow such a sharp

bending. In Apocrypta bakeri, the adaptations

for oviposition are entirely different. The well

developed abdominal keel (formed by the tele-

scopic arrangement of the seven basal abdo-

minal segments), can be stretched considerably

to bring the abdominal tip and the ovipositor

sufficiently high so that when the rest of the

abdomen carrying the ovipositor is bent down-

wards, it will permit the ovipositor to pene-

trate the fig wall by the force of rhythmic con-

tractions exerted upwards and downwards

OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR IN APOCRYPTA BAKERI

along the ““q”’ shaped abdomen. This orga-

nisation is a unique feature of the genus Apo-

crypta.

In Sycoscapteridea indica, Joseph (1953)

did not mention about the exact nature of

ovaries of Ficus infectoria where the insect

deposits its eggs. Ansari (1966) claimed that

in Parakoebelea stratheni, the eggs are always

laid in those ovaries of Ficus glomerata which

did not contain any other eggs. In Philotrypesis

caricae, Joseph (1958) showed conclusively

that the egg-laying in a particular ovary of

Ficus carica was dependent on the presence

of the egg and more importantly of the secre-

tion of the poison gland of Blastophaga psenes

in the same ovary. It has been also suggested

by the same author that the presence of the

latter internal host factor is responsible for

stimulating the sensory structures present at

the extremity of the valves and stylets of the

ovipositor, thus “informing” the torymid on

the suitability for oviposition or otherwise of

the particular fig ovary. The present studies

also showed the role of these same factors

(in this case brought about by Ceratosolen

marchali) in determining the successful ovi-

position by Apocrypta bakeri.

REFERENCES

ABDURAHIMAN, U. C. (1972): Biology, Morpho-

logy and Taxonomy of some fig insects (Chalci-

doidea: Hymenoptera) from Kerala. Ph.D. Thesis,

Kerala University (unpublished).

Ansari, M. H. (1966): On a new species of fig

insect (Chalcidoidea: Hymenoptera) from _ India.

Indian J. Ent. 28: 74-83.

JosEepH, K. J. (1953): Contributions to our know-

ledge of fig insects (Chalcidoidea: Hymenoptera)

from India. III. Descriptions of three new genera

and five new species of Sycophagini, with notes on

biology, distribution and evolution. Agra Univ. J.

Res. 2: 67-69.

(1958): Recherches sur les Chalci-

diens Blastophaga psenes (L.) et Philotrypesis cari-

cae (L.) du figuier Ficus carica (L.). Ann. Sci.

nat. Zool. Il Ser. 197-260.

(1959): The Biology of Philotry-

pesis caricae (L.). parasite of Blastophaga psenes

(L.) (Chalcidoidea: parasitic Hymenoptera). Proc.

XV Int. Cong. Zool., London, 1958, Sect. VIII, paper

21, pp. 662-664.

pee)

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF MANIPUR’

U. SHUKLA? AND A. K. BAISHYA?

The paper describes 49 genera and 53 species of flowering plants reported as new

records for the State of Manipur. It also gives a list of 13 Cryptogams recently col-

lected from Manipur. The collection of Platycerium wallichii from forests of Manipur

appears to be the first report of its occurrence within India.

The only noteworthy work on the Botany of

Manipur State is by Deb (1961), who col-

lected intensively in this region and published

a list of 2007 taxa of flowering plants.

The present work is based on authors own

collections in Manipur during April-May,

1975. The grasses have been described else-

where.

Platycerium wallichii commonly called the

‘Stag-horn fern’ which is earlier reported from

Malay Peninsula and Tenasserium has_ been

collected from Moreh, on the border of Burma,

well within Indian territory. It is fairly com-

mon as epiphyte and is being reported here

for the first time from India. Andrographis,

Evolvulus, Grangea, Holarrhena, Mosla, Pon-

gamia, Sonchus, Sparaganium, Sphaeranthus,

Stachytarpheta and Wrightia are new genera

for the State.

In the following enumeration, species are

arranged alphabetically under their respective

families which are also listed alphabetically.

For each species precise locality, date of col-

lection and field number have been given.

Field numbers without collectors name are all

collections of Shukla. Altitude of the locality,

name of plants in Manipuri language and local

uses, when available are provided.

1 Accepted November 1977.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Central Circle, Alla-

habad.

3 Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shil-

long-793 003.

224

PHANEROGAMS

ACANTHACEAE

Andrographis ovata Benth.

Herb, flowers whitish.

Only one plant seen.

Moreh, 8.5.1975, 63678.

AMARANTHACEAE

Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.

Creeping and trailing herb, stem hollow, in-

florescence silvery white.

Very common in water, wasteland and in

marshes in and around Keibul. Apparently

this species is not used locally. In Megha-

laya, however, it is used as a leaf vegetable.

Keibul Lamjao, on floating island (750 m),

26.4.1975, Jain 63320; Keibul (750 m),

28.4.1975, Jain 63389; Near Logtak (750

m), 29.4.1975, Jain 63453.

This species is a native of Brazil and seems

a very recent introduction and now natu-

ralised in various places.

Alternanthera repens (Linn.) O. Ktze.

Trailing herb, inflorescence white.

Growing on marsh and gravelly soil.

Logtak, Tongbram village (750 m),

29.4.1975, Jain 63451.

The species is a native of America but now

naturalised in many parts of India. Its first

report in India was from near a railway

line on Monkey hill plateau in Khandala

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF MANIPUR

ghats. Subsequently collected in eastern In-

dia in 1941 and 1957.

AMARYLLIDACEAE

Crinum amoemum Roxb.

Herb about 50 cm tall, flowers white in

terminal whorl. In large numbers in a shady

place on a hillock. Tipaimukh road, Mission

compound (1350 m), 6.5.1975, 63650.

APOCYNACEAE

Holarrhena antidysenterica (Linn.) Wall. ex

DC.

Small tree upto 2 m high. Flowers white,

scented. |

Moreh, 8.5.1975, 63674.

Wrightia tomentosa (Roxb.) R. et S.

About 7 m tall tree. Flowers pale yellow,

scented.

In roadside ravine.

Moreh, Indo-Burma road, 9.5.1975, 63727.

ASTERACEAE

Erigeron bonariensis Linn.

Herb upto 45 cm tall.

Not common.

Tongbram village, Near Logtak Lake (750

m), 29.4.1975, Jain 63469.

Grangea maderaspatana (Linn.) Poir.

name: ‘Laibongon’.

Herb, inflorescence yellow.

Very common on roadside. Decoction used

for giving bath in case of Eczema and other

skin diseases.

Keibul, on way to floating island (750 m).

26.4.1975, Jain 63314.

Lactuca gracilis DC.

Churachandpur, Tipaimukh road (1250 m).

2.5.1975, 63546; Ngaram village, near Than-

ga (750 m), 29.4.1975, Jain 63458.

Local

Sonchus asper (Linn.) Hill Local name:

‘Khomthopv’.

Herb upto 60 cm tall, ray-florets white.

Keibul, in moist places (750 m), 28.4.1975,

Jain 63441.

Sonchus wightianus DC.

DC.

Small rosette herb with glabrous stem, in-

florescence yellow.

Churachandpur, Tipaimukh road (1250 m),

2519703954.

Sphaeranthus indicus Linn.

Spreading herb. Very common in

lands.

Keibul (750 m), 28.4.1975, Jain 63397.

subsp. wightianus

waste-

BORAGINACEAE

Helictropium ovalifolium Forsk.

Low prostrate herb, flowers white, seeds

black. Common in open fields in damp

patches.

Churachandpur, Tipaimukh road (1250 m),

2.5.1975, 63548.

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina appendiculata C.B. Cl.

Small herb, flowers blue, bracts villous. Not

common.

Churachandpur, behind Beat Office (1260

mm): 2.5. 1975,., 63563.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Evolvulus nummularis Linn.

Creeping herb, flowers white. Very common

on roadside.

Moreh, Indo-Burma road, 9.5.1975, 63722.

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk.

Small sedge. Common near stream.

Seprameina, 12.5.1975, 63785.

229

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Verma (1971) reported it from all regions

in eastern India except Manipur.

Fimbristylis aestivalis (Retz.) Vahl Local

name: ‘Kankhanchabei’.

-A very variable species, 15 - 40 cm tall.

Common in marshy places and floating is-

land.

Keibul (750 m), 26.4.1975, Jain 63311; Kei-

bul Lamjao, 27.4.1975, Jain 63378 & 63379.

Verma (1971) does not report it from Ma-

nipur.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Croton bonplandianum Baill.

Herb upto 75 cm tall, male flowers white.

Common in wasteland and roadside.

Imphal-Dimapur road (795 m), 11.5.1975,

63747.

Euphorbia hirta Linn. Local name: ‘Pakham-

ba-maton’.

Trailing herb, inflorescence pedunculate.

Logtak-Tongbram village (750

29.4.1975, Jain 63490.

m),

LABIATAE

Mosla ocymoides Buch. - Ham. ex Benth.

Small herb, flowers violet. Common in road-

side nala.

Churachandpur, near Churachandpur Col-

lege (1250 m), 1.5.1975, 63536.

LAURACEAE

Beilschmiedia brandisii Hook. f.

Tree upto 7 m tall, fruits dark violet. Not

common.

Koubru Leikha, 12.5.1975, 63794.

LYTHRACEAE

Ammannia multiflora Roxb.

Small herb, entire plant purplish. Common

226

in moist places and dried-up paddy fields.

Churachandpur, Tipaimukh road 2 Km

(1250 m), 2.5.1975, 63556; Seprameina,

12'5:19755 03792:

MIMOSACEAE

Acacia farnesiana Willd. Local name: ‘Chin-

gonglei’.

Inflorescence yellow, fruits 7-10 cm _ long.

Common. Powder of seeds with water used

in Cholera.

Near Logtak Lake (750 m), 29.4.1975, Jain

63449; Imphal-Dimapur road, 1 Km (795

m), 11.5.1975, 63758.

Albizzia odoratissima Benth. Local name:

‘Ulin’.

Tree in buds.

Tongbram village, near Logtak Lake (750

m), 29.4.1975, Jain 63447.

MoRACEAE

Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner

Scandent spiny shrub, 4-5 m tall in the ra-

vines. Rare.

Churachandpur, near Horticultural Sub-Sta-

tion (1250 m), 4.5.1975, 63614.

MYRSINACEAE

Ardisia solanacea (Poir.) Roxb.

Shrub upto 4 m tall, flowers white to light

or dark purple. Common along river bank.

Moreh, 8.5.1975, 63710 & 63711.

MYRTACEAE

Syzygium formosum (Wall.) Masamune

Tree about 10 m tall.

Moreh, 8.5.1975, 63709.

Syzygium griffithii (Duthie) Merr. & Parry.

Tree about 5 m tall. Common in rocky soil.

Fruits edible.

Moreh, 8.5.1975, 63676.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF MANIPUR

ONAGRACEAE

Epilobium angustifolium Lamk.

Small herb, flowers yellow. On road side.

Saikot village (1450 m), 5.5.1975, 63622.

ORCHIDACEAE

Cirrhopetalum guttulatum Wall. ex Hook. f.

Epiphytic on Albizzia sp., flowers purple.

Rare.

Tipaimukh road, 11 km (1350 m), 6.5.1975,

63655.

Coelogyne graminifolia Par. & Reichb. f.

Herb hanging down from rocks, in fruits.

Not common.

Moreh, 8.5.1975, 63687.

Coelogyne suaveolens Hook. f.

Epiphytic herb, flowers white.

Common.

Moreh, 8.5.1975, 63698.

Dendrobium williamsonii Day et Reichb. f.

Epiphytic herb, flowers white. Common.

Moreh, 8.5.1975, 63693.

Eria fragrams Reichb. f.

Epiphytic herb, fruits green, elongated. Com-

mon inside the forest.

Moreh, 8.5.1975, 63701.

Geodorum densiflorum Schlechter

Terrestrial herb, flowers white. Not Com-

mon.

Saikot (1450 m), 5.5.1975, 63646.

Renanthera imschootiana Rolfe

Epiphytic herb, flowers deep red.

Stated to be common in Koubru forest.

Imphal-Dimapur road, 11 km, Orchid nur-

Sseny, (795.m)), -11.5.1975;..63776.

Sarcanthus filiformis Lindl.

Epiphytic herb on Ficus sp., flowers small,

purplish. Not common.

Maullum (1375 m), 3.5.1975, 63590.

PAPILIONACEAE

Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre

Road side tree upto 10 m high, flowers light

purple. Possibly introduced.

Imphal-Dimapur road, 7 km (795 m),

1s. 1975, 63760.

POLYGON ACEAE

Polygonum hydropiper Linn.

Herb upto 50 cm tall, flowers white. Grow-

ing on marshy places.

Logtak-Tongbram village (750 m),

29.4.1975, Jain 63492.

Rumex maritimus Linn. Local name: “Torong-

khonchak’.

Herb, fruiting perianth armed as well as

unarmed.

Common on road side. Leaves applied on

Ring worm infection.

Keibul Lamjao (750 m), 26.4.1975, Jain

63327;

POTAMOGETONACEAE

Potamogeton octandrum Poir.

Aquatic floating herb. Common.

Thanga-Logtak (750 m), 29.4.1975, Jain

63456.

PRIM ULACEAE

Lysimachia javanica BI.

Annual herb, about 75 mm tall,

white. Common in moist places.

Churachandpur-Imphal road, 2 km (1250

m). 4.5.1975, 63601.

flowers

RUBIACEAE

Canthium gracilipes Kurz. Local

‘Heibi’.

name.

O27.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Small tree in young fruits. Not common.

Keibul (750 m), 28.4.1975, Jain 63401.

Wendlandia coriacea DC.

Shrub upto 2.5 m tall, inflorescence dried-

up. Growing on hill slopes.

Saikot (1450 m), 5.5.1975, 63631.

SOLANACEAE

Datura suaveolens Willd. Local name: ‘Sa-

vaidak’.

Herb upto 1.5 m tall, flowers white.

Common in wasteland.

Imphal-Dimapur road, 10 Km. (795 m),

It 5.1975, 163762.

Solanum khasianum_ C.B.C1.

‘Singkhaga’.

Prickly herb, fruits 2.5 cm diameter, yellow.

Fruits were seen being fed to captive bark-

ing deer.

Keibul Lamjao (750 m), 26.4.1975, Jain

63339.

Local name:

‘TILIACEAE

Grewia elastica Royle

Shrub; petals dull white, stamens yellow.

Common on hill slopes.

Saikot (1450 m), 5.5.1975, 63642.

Grewia sapida Roxb.

Low herb, branching from the base. Com-

mon. Ripe fruits edible.

Keibul, behind Forest Office (750 m),

30.4.1975, 63521.

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.

Shrub about 75 cm tall, flowers small, yel-

low. Common in open fields.

Churachandpur, near Horticultural Sub-Sta-

tion (1250 m), 4.5.1975, 63603.

‘TYPHACEAE

Sparaganium simplex Huds.

Tall herb. Not common.

228

Keibul Lamjao (750 m), 26.4.1975, Jain

63324.

VERBENACEAE

Cieredendrum viscosum Vent.

Shrub upto 2 m high, calyx red, fruits black.

Common on road side.

Moreh, 8.5.1975, 63670.

Stachytarpheta indica Vahl

Herb upto 1 m tall, flowers white. Com-

mon on road side.

Seprameina, 12.5.1975, 63781.

ZINGIBERACEAE

Curcuma zedoaria Rosc.

Herb in inflorescence, bracts red, flowers

yellow, anthers tailed. Common.

Churachandpur, behind Beat House (1260

m), 30.4.1975, 63522; Muallum (1375 m),

3.5.1975, 63576.

CRYPTOGAMS

CYCADACEAE

Cycas pectinata Griff.

Woody shrub on hill slope. Rare.

Keibul, behind Forest Beat Office (750 m),

30.4.1975, 63805.

EQUISETACEAE

Equisetum debile Roxb. ex Vancher

Erect rhizomatous herb, 20 cm—1 m tall.

Not common. Occassionally met with in

moist shady places.

Moreh, 8.5.1975, 63712; Imphal-Dimapur

road, 1 Km (795 m), 11.5.1975, 63774.

LYGODIACEAE

Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw.

Herb, growing on hill slopes. Not common.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF MANIPUR

MARSILEACEAE

Marsilea minuta Linn.

Aquatic herb in roadside ditch. Not com-

mon.

Keibul, near Wild Life Office (750 m),

30.4.1975, 63499.

Marsilea minuta Linn. var. indica Gupta

Herb about 5 cm tall in sporocarp .Abun-

dant in dried up road side depression.

Growing in patches forming a continuous

mat.

Imphal-Dimapur road (795 m), 11.5.1975,

63764.

POLYPODIACEAE

Platycerium wallichii Hook. ‘Stag-horn fern’

Epiphytic, fronds dichotomously forked,

hanging downwards, sori at the under-

surface of the fork. Fairly common.

Moreh, 8.5.1975, 63668.

Panigrahi (1961) stated that this taxon is

likely to occur in eastern India. He cited

Beddome (1883) where distribution is

shown as Malay Peninsula, Tenasserium.

The present collection from Moreh, is

therefore, a new record for India.

Pyrrosia nuda (Gies.) Ching

Herb, erect or hanging down from rocks

and trees, sori marginal. Very common.

Moreh, 8.5.1975, 63681.

PTERIDACEAE

Pteridium aquilinum (Linn.) Kuhn

Herb upto 1 m tall on rocky soil. Not

common.

Keibul, behind Beat Office (750 wm),

30.4.1975, 63518.

Pteris cretica Linn.

Herb upto 75 cm tall, sori continuous and

marginal. Not common.

Churachandpur, behind Beat Office (1276

m), 2.5.1975, 63564.

Pteris quadriaurita Retz.

Herb upto 1.5 m tall, sori marginal. Rare.

Muallum (1375 m), 3.4.1975, 63572.

Sphenomeris chinensis (Linn.) Maxon var.

tenuifolia (Sw.) N. C. Nair.

Common on road side hill slopes.

Imphal-Dimapur road (795 m), 11.5.1975,

63757.

SALVINIACEAE

Saivinia nutans Hoffm.

Small floating herb, leaves glandular, small.

Not common. :

Keibul Lamjao (750 m), 2.4.1975, Jain

63373.

SELAGINELLACEAE

Selaginella amblyphyila Alston

Herb. Common on road side hill slopes.

Koubru-Leikha, 12.5.1975, 63798.

Inspite of the work of Deb (1961) and pre-

sent additional records, Manipur must be

considered as an underexplored state. Further

intensive work may bring to light many hither-

to unreported species. Even species new to

science may be expected.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We acknowledge our sincere thanks to Dr.

S. K. Jain, Deputy Director, Botanical Survey

of India, Shillong, for extending the facilities,

encouragement and guidance.

229

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

REFERENCES

BEDDOME, R. H. (1883): Handbook of Ferns of Manipur Territory. ibid. 3(3+4): 253-350.

British India and Ceylon. New Delhi. PANIGRAHI, G. & PATNAIK, S. N. (1961): Pteri-

Des, D. B. (1961): Monocotyledonous Plants of dophytes of Eastern India. Ind. For. 87: 242-247.

Manipur Territory. Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 3(2): VERMA, D. M. (1971): Cyperaceae of Assam and

115-138. neighbouring area. Ph.D. Thesis, Gauhati Univer-

(1961): Dicotyledonous Plants of _ sity.

230

DRY SKIN PREPARATIONS OF FROGS AND TOADS

AS AIDS FOR THEIR TAXONOMY’

The paper describes the modified method of preparation of anuran dry skins. It also

discusses in detail, for the first time, utility of the dry skin preparations as an addi-

tional, important, convenient and very useful means of amphibian taxonomy. For

the purposes of discussion, black and white photographs of dry skin preparation of

one species each of Bufo, Microhyla and Philautus and four species of Rana have

been taken into account. Wherever necessary differences in the male and female of

a species have also been presented.

S. Y. PARANJAPE?

AND LEELA MULHERKAR®

(With eight text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The method developed by Kincaid (1948)

for preserving the colour pattern of the skins

of frogs is very useful (Knudsen 1966). It

appears to have been used by both of them

solely from the point of view of colour preser-

vation.

It is known that, besides the skin colour,

the nature of the skin and its marking pat-

terns, the nature of fingers and toes, the ex-

tent of webbing, separation of metatarsals by

the web and nature of the metatarsal tuber-

cles happen to be some of the characters of

taxonomic importance in the anuran classi-

fication. These characters, being essentially

external ones, are far more valuable than other

internal characters, in visual indentification of

the species during field work (Paranjape and

Multherkar 1979).

From this point of view, the earlier ‘skin

technique’ has been modified to a certain ex-

1 Accepted January 1978.

2Department of Biology,

Pune-411 005.

3 Department of Zoology, University of Poona,

Pune-411 007.

Modern

College,

tent with a view to retaining those—characters

as far as possible. Our observations, discussed

later, indicate that the modified method is

taxonomically quite useful. Besides, such dry

skin preparations are very convenient for de-

monstration, projection, etc. and that the

characters can be studied any time in and out

of the season, irrespective of the availability

of the amphibian under study.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

To prepar an album of dry skins the fol-

lowing procedure is followed:

The frog (or toad) is etherised. It is then

quickly skinned by taking incision mid-ven-

trally along the body and carrying it on to

the limbs. The skin along the jaws and on

the head region is separated from the body,

as it is somewhat firmly attached. Elsewhere,

the skin being loosely attached to the body

presents very little difficulty in its separation.

The incisions along the limbs are continued

upto 4 or # of the palm and the sole regions.

Thereafter, the skin on the digits (i.e. fingers

and tocs) is removed by gently pulling of

the separated skin, in the manner similar to

Mag

232

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Fig. 1. Bufo melanostictus Schneider; Common Indian Toad (Fam. Bufonidae, Genus

Bufo). Fig. 2. Rana tigerina Daud. Indian Bull Frog (Fam. Ranidae, Genus Rana,

Subgenus Rana). Fig. 3a. Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider. Skipper Frog (Fam. Ranidae,

Genus Rana, Subgenus Rana). A male.

Abberviations: bc, black cornifications; cl, cloacal aperture; cr, cranial ridges; e, eye;

fr, fringe; imt, inner-metatarsal tubercle; 11, lower lip; sw, two series of warts;

t, tympanum; tmp, typical marking pattern; ul, upper lip; v, vocal sac; vs, vertebral

streak; w, web,

SKIN PREPARATIONS OF FROGS AND TOADS

the removal of a sock. The entire skin is then

spread by floating it in water. The everted

skin on the digits needs either very careful

turning outside in or extending of the incision

to each digit. With the support of the phal-

anges thus lost, this region presents difficulty

in the spreading. The extension of the web

along the digits, which has taxonomic import-

ance (Boulenger 1920; Daniel 1963), is also

not effectively spread.

In order to overcome these difficulties and

depending upon the size of the animal, meta-

carpals/metatarsals were either partly or wholly

retained together with the phalanges, by ad-

justing the extent of the incisions in the palm/

sole regions. For example in large sized speci-

mens they were partly, proximally cut. In

smail and delicate specimens these bony struc-

tures were entirely retained. It has been ob-

served that retention of the phalanges not only

facilitates proper spreading of the web, but

also preserves the nature of the digit and its

tip. Similarly by retaining the metatarsals the

extent of separation of the outer metatarsals

can be studied. Alongwith these characters

careful retention of the vocal sacs, outer and

inner metatarsal tubercles, when present, aids

further in enhancing the value of the dry skin

preparation from the taxonomic point of view.

Thus Kincaid’s method is modified by us (Pa-

ranjape and Mulherkar 1977).

The rest of the procedure regarding spread-

ing, mounting, preservation of the dry skin pre-

paration etc., was mostly followed as describ-

ed by Knudsen (1966). However, the shape

of the trunk region is particular in certain fa-

milies of frogs. The trunk is rather short, much

broad in the middle and shows a sudden

posterior narrowing in frogs belonging to Mi-

crohylidae and Rhacophoridae. With the usual

mode of spreading (Figs. 1-4 & 6-8) it was

noticed that the typical shape is not clearly

visible. Therefore the mode of spreading was

also modified in the case of a microhylid frog

(Fig. 5). In this preparation the limbs were

so positioned as to simulate their natural ar-

rangement as far as possible. The result was

found to be encouraging and to this extent

also the earlier method has been modified by

us.

The modified method besides retaining the

skin-colour, ensures retention of other external

characters of taxonomic importance as can be

seen from the discussion.

DISCUSSION

Various external characters that are retain-

ed in the modified method enable in classi-

fying anuran amphibia. Some specific-examples

are as follows:

1. Nature of the skin: In this character, whe-

ther the skin is warty, tuberculate, granular or

smooth is taken into account. For example,

the skin is distinctly warty or heavily tubere-

culate in toads (Fig. 1). It is generally smooth

(Fig. 2) or granular in frogs. (Most of the

frogs belonging to the genus Rana dorsally

bear longitudinal skin-folds or ridges. They

are of varying lengths and give a characteris-

tic wrinkled appearance. Due to flattening and

pressing this character cannot be retained in

the dry skin preparations). Further observa-

tion of the skin of toad indicates presence

of a pair of large parotoid glands (Fig. 1)

that are always present in most of the toads

(absent in the genus Ansonia) and absent in

frogs. Further, the presence of two series of

heavy, roundish, black-tipped warts, prominent

cranial ridges, tips of fingers and toes and

tubercles on palm crowned with dark black

cornifications indicate that the toad-skin is of

an adult of Bufo melanostictus (Fig. 1). It can

be noted here that these characteristic black

233

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Fig. 3b. Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider. Skipper Frog. A female. Fig. 4a & 4b. Rana

limnocharis Weign. Indian Cricket Frog or Grass Frog (Fam. Ranidae, Genus Rana,

Subgenus Rana).

Abbreviations: cl, cloacal aperture; e, eye; tmp, typical marking pattern; ul, upper

lip; vs, vertebral streak; w, web.

234

SKIN PREPARATIONS OF FROGS AND TOADS

cornifications are peeled off and thus lost in ,

preserved specimens (Daniel 1963). They are,

however, nicely retained in the preparation

mentioned above.

2. Colour and marking patterns: These are

also of taxonomic importance which are seen

in actual dry skin preparations. However, in

black and white photographic reproduction

provided here, only the marking pattern can

be described here. Frog’s skin is invariably

variously marked with spots, bars, patches on

the dorsal side. They show considerable size’

and pattern variation in the different species.

Ventrally the skin is creamy or yellowish white

and at times mottled or stippled. From the

nature of spots one can readily distinguish

three species of the genus Rana, namely, R.

tigerina (Fig. 2) from R. cyanophlyctis (Fig.

3) or from R. limnocharis (Fig. 4). Further

it can be seen that spots in the form of trans-

verse bands are practically spread across the

hind-limbs in R. tigerina while they are not

band-like and do not reach across the hind-

limbs in R. cyanophlyctis and R. limnocharis.

By colour and marking pattern the male and

female of a species can also be identified. For

example, the male of R. cyanophlyctis (be-

sides its small size and bluish vocal sacs) bears

a white band with dark edges on the back of

the thighs (Fig. 3a). Although white spots are

present in the female of this species a con-

tinuous band is wanting in it. Similarly skin

of the female of R. cyanophlyctis ventrally

shows a dotted appearance (Fig. 3b), especial-

ly so, during the breeding season. The male

lacks such an appearance (Fig. 3a). Some-

times the marking pattern is so typical of a

species that a mere look enables one to visual-

ly identify it reasonably correctly, in the field.

For example, there is a characteristic blackish-

brown mark that begins between the eyes and

touching them. It extends posteriorly, shows

deep emarginations as it broadens and finally

it spreads over the thighs in the form of two

stripes. It is flanked by relatively uniform

greyish coloration. This is characteristic of

Microhyla ornata (Fig. 5). A rhacophorid

frog, Philautus bombayensis, shows consider-

able colour variation but generally shows a

dice-box shaped mark on the dorsal side of

the trunk. It has a faint coloured band-like

mark slightly constricted in middle, broad at

the ends and it is flanked by dark coloration

(Figs. 6, 7). In routine preservation not only

the colour but this marking pattern also ge-

ncrally fades away.

Presence of certain marks also helps in

identification. For example, there is seen in

some forms a V shaped mark extending bet-

ween the eyes. It is narrow, acutely pointed

and more V-like in R. limnocharis (Fig. 4a)

while broad, obtusely pointed in P. bombay-

ensis (Fig. 7). Similarly marking pattern of

lips is also useful. For example, in R. tigerina

(Fig. 2) the upper lips shows a light canthal

streak with blackish elongated spots and the

lower shows large black spots. In R. limno-

charis the lips bear dark bars (Fig. 4a).

The mid-dorsal vertebral streak is yet an-

other marking pattern that aids in identifica-

tion. It may be absent altogether, as is the

case in R. cyanophlyctis (Fig. 3) or may be

present. If present it may be complete, that

is extending from the snout to vent or may

be incomplete, that is reaching the vent but

not the snout. Similarly, it may be narrow

or broad. The streak can also be of different

coloration. For example, in R. tigerina (Fig.

2) the vertebral streak is narrow, complete

and paie yellowish-white in colour. in R. lim-

nocharis (Fig. 4a) it is narrow, generally in-

complete and pale yellowish-white in couour.

In another type of R. limnocharis (Fig. 4b)

it is however, complete, broad and _ pinkish

235

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Fig. 5. Microhyla ornata Dum. & Bibr. Narrow-mouthed frog. (Fam. Microhylidae,

Genus Microhyla). Figs. 7 & 8. Philautus bombayensis Gunth. (Fam. Rhacophoridae).

Abbreviations: cl, cloacai aperture; d, disc; e, eye; tmp, typical marking pattern,

Ww, web; x, area of the disc-boxlike mark.

236

SKIN PREPARATIONS CGF FROGS AND TOADS

brown in colour.

3. Fingers: These are also helpful in identifi-

cation. The tips of the fingers may be with or

without discs. They may be long and slender

or short and thickly set. The relative lengths

of the Ist and 2nd fingers is also a diagnostic

character.

For example the fingers (as also the toes)

bear somewhat oval adhesive discs in R. tem-

poralis (Subgenus: Hylorana, genus: Rana)

(Fig. 8). This is an adaptation for its rocky-

stream dwelling or semi-arboreal habitat. The

fingers (as also the toes) in tree-frogs (Fam.

Rhacophoridae) possess circular adhesive

. S

discs, as can be seen in P. bombayensis (Figs.

©. 6n 7)e

The first finger is nearly as long as or a

little longer than the second in R. temporalis,

R. limnocharis. It is generally longer in A.

tigerina, distinctly so in the Indian burrowing

frog, R. breviceps (Subgenus: Tomopterna).

It is more or less of equal length in R. cya-

nophlyctis and quite short in M. ornata.

4. Toes and webbing pattern: Reference has

already been made (in 3) whether the tips

of the toes are with the discs or not. Other

toc-features of relatively minor importance are

whether they are long and slender or some-

Fig, 8. Rana temporalis Bouln, (Fam. Ranidae, Genus Rana, Subgenus Hylorana).

8a—male, 8b—female,

Abbreviations: ci, cloacal aserttire; d, dise; ef, glandular fold; 8, light streak on lip;

sp, spot at the atgle of jaws; t, tympanum; w, web.

237

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

what stout, whether the tips are somewhat

rounded or not.

The extent of webbing forms a very im-

portant diagnostic character (Daniel 1963).

We feel that in our modified method men-

tioned earlier, this valuable character is beau-

tifully expressed. For example, the webbing is

rudimentary in M. ornata (Fig. 5) and is

rather poor in B. melanostictus (Fig. 1) al-

though the degree of webbing is of 4 or of 3

type. In P. bombayensis (Figs. 6, 7) the disced

toes are not more than 1/3 webbed. In R.

limnocharis (Fig. 4) the toes are generally

half webbed with three phalanges of the 4th

toe free. In R. temporalis (Fig. 8) the toes

are 2 or practically fully webbed and the web

typically extends upto the discs of the 3rd

and 5th while almost two phalanges of the 4th

toe are uncovered by it and hence free. The

toes are practically fully webbed in R. tigerina

(Fig. 2). However, the web does not reach

the tip of the 3rd toe and the Sth toe bears

an outer fringe of web. This is a feature of

forms that are more aquatic in nature. The

degree of webbing is typically of the fullest

type in R. cyanophlyctis (Fig. 3) and_ the

web, as it reaches all the toe-tips shows deep

emarginations when toes are spread out.

5. Other miscellaneous characters: The extent

of attachment or separation of the two ex-

ternal metatarsals (viz., 4th and the Sth) also

aids in identification. For example, the outer

metatarsals are united in the basal 4 or 1/3

region in R. limnocharis (Fig. 4b) or are

bound together in R. breviceps. They are prac-

tically separated upto the base by web in AR.

tigerina (Fig. 2) and in R. temporalis (Fig.

8). Glandular folds, streaks, as also the rela-

tive size difference in the male and the female

238

are also useful in identification. For example,

in R. temporalis there are seen two dorso-la-

teral, glandular folds. Each extending from

above the tympanum to cloaca on that side.

The two folds enclose between themselves a

fairly broad, light-coloured oval patch on the

back (Fig. 8b). In the same frog there runs

along the border of the upper lip a light, dirty-

whitish streak that also posteriorly forms a

similar spot near the angle of the jaws (Fig.

8a).

The nature of inner and outer metatarsal

tubercles is also useful in identification. For

example, the inner metatarsal tubercle is rela-

tively small and obtuse in R. tigerina (Fig. 2)

but is large, crescentic and shovel-shaped in R.

breviceps. Both inner and outer metatarsal

tubercles are present in R. limnocharis and in

M. ornata. However, the nature of the tuber-

cles is not well retained when the skin 1s

subjected to pressure in a herbarium press.

The character, is therefore, not very satisfac-

torily retained, in general, in this method.

In frogs, in general, the male is smaller in

size as compared to the female of the same

species, for example, R. cyanophlyctis (Fig. 3a,

3b). However, the male is large and with

strong fore-limbs, as compared to the female,

for example, R. temporalis (Figs. 8a, 8b).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Mr. J. C. Daniel and

Miss S. Isaac, Bombay Natural History So-

ciety, Bombay for the help they rendered in

identification of the specimens. One of us

(SYP) is also thankful to Principal, Modern

College, Poona for his encouragement and to

Mr. S. M. Katdare, Department of Biology,

Modern College, Poona for his help.

SKIN PREPARATIONS OF FROGS AND TOADS

: REFERENCES

BOULENGER, G. A. (1920): A monograph of the

South Asian, Papuan, and Australian Frogs of the

genus Rana. Rec. Ind. Mus. 20:1-226.

DANIEL, J. C. (1963): Field Guide to the Amphi-

bians of Western India. Part-1. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 60 (2): 415-438.

——_———— (1963): ibid. Part 2. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 60 (3): 690-702.

KiNcAtD, T. (1948): To preserve the colour pat-

tern of the skin in frogs. Turtox News. 26: 50-51.

KNUDSEN, J. W. (1966): Biological Techniques.

Harper & Row & Weatherhill, N.Y., London, Tokyo.

PARANJAPE, S. Y. AND MULHERKAR, L. (1979):

On the survey of the amphibian fauna in and

around Poona J. Univ. Poona Sc. &. Tech. Sec.

52: 423-434.

(1977): A modification to the me-

thod for preparing dried skins of Anurans, British

Journal of Herpetology (Accepted for publication).

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE VASCULAR

FLORA OF VENKATAGIRI HILLS AND ENVIRONS'

B. SURYANARAYANA2

Floristic information on Venkatagiri Hills (in the Eastern Ghats) and environs is

wanting except for rare references in Flora of the Presidency of Madras (Gamble

1957). This report covers plants collected during 1969-1971 in the area, and is the first

report on the flora of the area and lists 320 plants belonging to 90 families. Among

these, 9 are pteridophytes, 247 are dicotyledons and 64 are monocotyledons. Further,

Canscora perfoliata Lamk. is revorted for the first time from the Eastern Ghats of

India. Habenaria digitata Lindl., H. hollandiana Sant. and Sporobolus piliferus ‘Kunth

are new records for Rayalaseema in Andhra Pradesh.

INTRODUCTION

Venkatagiri hills, a part of Veligondla hills

in the Eastern Ghats, are situated 15 km from

Venkatagiri Town in the West 13° 57’N and

79° 37’E. They are 79 km off the sea coast.

The altitude of the hills in the area ranges

between 500 m and 1033 m. The hills can be

approached only on foot, from Venkatagiri and

the journey is strenous. Venkatagiri is a small

town, 130 km north-west of Madras and is con-

nected both by rail and road. The Kaivalya

river traverses the area and is fed by a smail

water-falls at Malleswara Kona in the hills.

Though the area is rich in vegetation, floristic

information is lacking except for stray citations

as “‘Veligondla hills’? and ‘‘Venkatagiri Drug

(Cuddapah)”’ found in FLORA OF THE PRESI-

DENCY OF MADRAS (Gamble 1957). Therefore

botanical excursions were conducted within a

15 km radius of Venkatagiri which include

Ammapalem, Jayampu, Malleswara Kona,

Mogallagunta, Palemkota and Venkatagiri hills

for two years during 1969 to 1971, covering

1 Accepted March 1978.

2 Visvodya College, Venkatagiri, Andhra Pradesh.

240

all the seasons of a year. A number of plants

were collected in different stages of their life

histories and ample field notes were taken.

However this paper lists 320 plants spread

over 90 families. Of these 9 are pteridophytes,

247 are dicotyledons and 64 are monocotyle-

dons. The identifications of most of the plants

were confirmed at the Botanical Survey of In-

dia, Southern Circle, Coimbatore by the au-

thor. The specimens are deposited in the Her-

barium, Visvodaya College, Venkatagiri ‘Town.

But the cyperaceous specimens are stored in

the herbarium of the Presidency College,

Madras.

Climate: On the whole the weather is rather

dry and the temperature reaches even 44°C

during the hot period, from March to early

June.

Monsoon occurs in two phases. The south-

west monsoon, the first phase, occurs between

June to September bringing down the tem-

perature. The north-east monsoon is the se-

cond phase causing heavy showers, during

October-December. The cold weather is bet-

ween January and February. The annual

average rain fall is about 105 cm.

FLORA OF VENKATAGIRI HILLS

GENERAL PATTERN OF VEGETATION

After a few showers of rain by about the

middle of June, the land is covered by a num-

ber of sprouting grasses. Borreria articularis

(L.f.) Will., Bulbostylis barbata (Rottb.) Cl.,

Cleome aspera Koenig, Hybanthus enneasper-

mus (L..) F. Muell., fndigofera linnaei Ali,

Tribulus terestris Linn., are found among

grasses. In the second half of monsoon, grasses

grow fairly tall. Apluda mutica Linn., Chloris

barbata Sw., Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.)

Wats., Eragrostis sp., Heteropogon contortus

(L.) P. Beauv. ex R. & S., Perotis indica (L.)

O. Kuntze etc. are often found in mixed or

pure stands. Among these tall grasses a num-

ber of other plants are noticed namely A gera-

tum conyzoides Linn., Corchorus aestuans

Linn., Croton bonplandianum Baill., Eclipta

alba (L.) Hassk., Euphorbia hirta Linn., Phyl-

lanthus asperulatus Hutch., Sida acuta Burm. f.

etc. By the end of the monsoon or a little

later most of the monsoon vegetation disap-

pears and those characteristic of the cold sea-

son appear. Some of the common ones are

Andrographis echioides (L.) Nees, Anisomelis

malabaricus R.Br., Barleria_ prionitis inn.,

Blumea sp., Elytraria acaulis (£.) Lindau,

Helictropium indicum Winn., Lepidagathis

mitis Dalz., Leucas aspera (Willd.) Sprang.,

Orthosiphon pallidus Royle ex Bth., ete.

The forests are mainly of two types. 1) dry

deciduous on the hills and 2) scrub on the

plains.

Vegetation of dry deciduous forests: The

thick forests in the area are now subjected to

significant disturbance by indiscriminate felling

and fire operations for the sake of fuel. There-

fore there is every danger of these forests be-

ing reduced to scrub jungles in course of time.

Trees do not seem to reach a good height

and are stunted in growth.

The common trees of the forests are: Anog-

eissus latifolia (Roxb.) Wall. ex Bedd., Ery-

throxylon monogynum Roxb., Hardwickia

binata Roxb., Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.)

Merr., Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dub.,

Strychnos nux-vomica Linn., Terminalia che-

bula Retz. etc.

The following are occasional trees: Albizzia

amara Boivin, Dalbergia paniculata Roxb.,

Madhuca logifolia (Koenig) Macbride, Spon-

dias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz., Vitex altissima Lf.

Buchanania angustifolia Roxb., Vitex leuco-

xylon Linn.f. etc., are rare.

The hedges along footpaths in the forests

are commonly represented by Barleria prioni-

tis Linn., Carissa spinarum Linn., Diospyros

chloroxylon Roxb., Maba buxifolia (Roxb.)

Pers., Memecylon edule Roxb., Meytenus

emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou, Tarenna asia-

tica (L.) Alston, Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.)

Keay, Zizyphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd.

The following are a few of the common

climbers on large shrubs: Ampelocissus tomen-

tosa (Heyne ex Roth) Planch., Dioscorea

oppositifolia Linn., D. pentaphylla Linn. var.

linnaei Pr. & Burk, Hemidesmus indicus (L.)

Schultes, Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Blatt. &

McC. and Rivea_ hypocrateriformis (am.)

Choisy. etc.

Derris scandens (Roxb.) Bth., MHugonia

mystax Linn., Pterolobium indicum A. Rich.,

and Ventilago denticulata Willd. are occasiona!

hanas noticed on tall trees.

Vegetation of scrub jungles: Scrub jungles

in the area are commonly represented by Aca-

cia nilotica (L.) Del. subsp. indica (Bth.)

Brenan, Bauhinia racemosa Lamk., Carmona

retusa (Vahl) Masamune, Dodonaea viscosa

(L.) Jacg., Euphorbia trigona Haw., Maba

buxifolia Pers., Meytenus emarginata (Willd.)

Ding Hou, Plectronia parviflora Bedd., Taren-

na asiatica (L.) Alston and Zizyphus xylopy-

241

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

rus (Retz.) Willd. ete.

Riparian and pond flora: Alangium salviifo-

lium (L4£.) Wang., Allophylus cobbe (L.)

Raeusch., Flemingia strobilifera R. Br., Helic-

teres isora Linn., Homonoia riparia Lour., Mal-

lotus philippinensis (Lamk.) Muell.-Arg.,

Pterospermum heyneanum Wall. etc., form

significant components of the vegetation in

valleys along the water courses.

In some ponds and water logged areas of

the river Aponogeton natans (L.) Engler &

Krause, Hydrilla verticillata Royle, Ottelia alis-

moides (.) Pers., Najas minor All. var. spin-

osa Rendle, Vallisneria spiralis Linn., etc., are

found in abundance.

On the moist banks of rivers and along the

wet margins of temporary ponds Bacopa mon-

nieri (L.) Wettstein, Phyla nodiflora (1..)

Greene form brightly coloured dense mats of

vegetation. Along with them several other

common and noteworthy plants also are found

growing. A few of them are Alternanthera

sessilis (L.) DC., Ammannia baccifera Linn.,

A. multiflora Roxb., Bulbostylis barbata

(Rottb.) Cl., Cleome aspera Koenig, Comme-

lina diffusa Burm. f., Cyperus tenuispica

Steud., Eriocaulon quinquangulare Linn., Lud-

wigia perennis Linn., etc. At certain isolated

localities Saccharum spontaneum Linn., forms

a thick hedge along the water course.

In the dry ground of the river-bed and

drying temporary ponds Argemone mexicana

Linn., Glinus totoides Linn., Heliotropium

supinum Linn. and Solanum surattense Burm.

f. etc., form loose or dense patches. Other

common plants are: Aerva lanata (L.) Juss.,

A. monsoniae Mart., Anisomelis malabaricus

R. Br., Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br., Cassia

auriculata Linn., Datura fastuosa Linn., Fim-

bristylis sp., Jatropha gossypifolia \inn.,

Leucas aspera (Willd.) Spreng., Vitex neg-

undo Linn., etc.

242

Vegetation along roadsides: Aegle mar-

melos (L.) Corr. Albizzia lebbek (L.f.)

Bth., Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Derris in-

dica (Lam.) Bennett. Fiscus religiosa Linn.,

Limonia acidissima Linn., Sapindus emargi-

natus Vahl, Syzygium cuminii Skeels., Thespe-

sia populnea Cav., etc., are common along

roadsides either planted or growing wild.

A number of plants together form thick

hedges along roadsides. Among them a few

prominent and common ones being, Carissa

carandas Linn., Diospyros chloroxylon Roxb.,

Euphorbia trigona Haw., Meytenus emarginata

(Willd.) Ding Hou, Securinega virosa (Roxb.

& Willd.) Pax. & Hoffm., Tarenna asiatica

(L.) Alston, Zizyphus oenoplia Mill. etc., Ani-

somelis indica (L.) O.K., Barleria prionitis

Linn., and Cassia auriculata Linn., are a few

other common and attractive plants, by their

brightly coloured flowers, among the roadside

hedges.

On these hedges many twiners and climbers

were noted belonging to the families, Ascle-

piadaceae, Convolvulaceae, Menispermaceae,

Papilionaceae and Vitaceae. Among them the

common ones are Cissus quadrangularis Linn.,

Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels, Gymnema syl-

vestre (Retz.) R. & S., Pergularia daemia

(Forsk.) Chiov., Teramnus labialis Spreng.,

Tylophora indica Merr.

Several herbs are found growing in the

undergrowth. e.g., Aerva lanata (L.) Juss.,

Andrographis echioides (L.) Nees, Asystasia

eangetica T. Anders., Boerhavia diffusa Linn.,

Elytraria acaulis (L.f.) Lindau, Hibiscus ova-

lifolius (Forsk.) Vahl, Justicia diffusa Wild.,

Orthosiphon pallidus Royle ex Bth., Pavonia

zeylanica Cav.

Vegetation in cultivated fields: From the

moist cultivated fields a number of plants were

collected. Some of the common and prostrate

herbs are Borreria articularis (L.f.) F. N.

FLORA OF VENKATAGIRI HILLS

Will., Cleome aspera Koenig, Hybanthus en-

neaspermus (L.) F. Muell., Indigofera cordt-

folia. Heyne ex Roth, Merremia_ tridentata

Hallier, Mollugo nudicaulis Lam., Tribulus ter-

restris Linn., etc. Several other common but,

erect plants also were noticed in these fields.

To mention a few: cyperaceous plants, Fcli-

pta alba (L.) Hassk., Euphorbia hirta Linn.,

Geniosporum tenuiflorum (L.) Merr., Micro-

cocca mercurialis Bth., Phyilanthus asperu-

latus Hutch., P. simplex Retz. etc. After the

harvest, from the drying fields several plants

were collected. A few of the common ones

are: Achyranthes aspera Linn., Cleome_ vis-

cosa Linn., Corchorus aestuans Linn., Croton

bonplandianum Baill, Eclipta alba (L.)

Hassk., Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC., Heliotro-

pium indicum Linn., Leucas aspera (Willd.)

Spreng., Sida acuta Burm. f., Tridax procum-

bens Linn. etc.

Plant parasites in the area: Dendrophthoe

falcata (L.f.) Etting, Viscum — articulatum

Burm. f. are common stem parasites in forests

usually found on Anogeissus latifolius

(Roxb.) Wall. ex Bedd. and Hardwickia

binata Roxb., Cassytha filiformis inn., is

another common twinning stem parasite in

scrub jungles noticed on Carissa spinarum

DC., Striga angustifolia (Don) Saldanha, is a

frequent root parasite on grasses in the area.

ENUMERATION OF PLANTS

The plants are enumerated in accordance

with Bentham and Hooker’s system of classi-

fication with some delimitations of families

according to Hutchinson (1960). The name of

the plant is followed by a note on relative

abundance, flower colour, flowering and

fruiting time (Fls., Frts.) and field numbers.

All the field numbers are of Suryanarayana.

Where no number is stated, name of the col-

lector is given. The nomenclature adopted

here has, as far as possible, been brought upto

date in the light of current literature on the

subject.

PTERIDOPHYTES

PSILOTACEAE

Psilotum triquetrum Sw.

Rare on moist rocks covered by humus,

under shade. December, 1970. 3982.

SELAGINELLACEAE

Selaginella barbata Spring.

Occasional, but forming dense green car-

pets in moist humus soil along with Antho-

ceros himalayensis L. Strobili December, 1970.

B53T:

ISOETACEAE

Ksoetes coromandelina Linn.

Rare among grasses. Sori December, 1969.

3839.

MARSILEACEAE

Marsilea quadrifolia Linn.

Common and abundant in temporary ponds.

August, 1969. 3645.

ADIAN TACEAE

Adiantum caudatum Linn.

Common. Sori December, 1969, 1970. 3665,

3950.

GYM NOGRAM MACEAE

Hemionites arifolia (Burm. f.) Moore

Common. Sori December, 1969. 3664.

PTERIDACEAE

Actinopteris radiata (Sw.) Link

Occasional under the shade of rocks. Sori

243

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

December, 1970. No number, D. V. Subbaiah.

Pteris geranifolia Raddi

Occasional under the shade of moist rocks.

Sori December, 1970. 3660.

DAVALLIACEAE

Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) Presl.

Occasional in forests. Sori December, 1970.

3945.

DICOTYLEDONS

RANU NCULACEAE

Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC.

Rare. A gregarious climber in thick forests.

Frts. December, 1970. 3892.

MENISPERMACEAE

Cissampelos pareira Linn.

Occasional twiners on hedges. Flowers

small green. Fls. December, 1970. 3995.

Cecculus hirsutus (L.) Diels

An occasional twiner. Flowers small, green-

ish. Fls. June, 1969. 3324.

Pachygone zeylanica (Gaertn.) Sant. & Wagh.

Occasional twiners. Flowers small green.

Fls. December, 1970. 3921.

PAPAVERACEAE

Argemone mexicana Linn.

Common in waste dry places. Flowers

yellow. Fis. and Frts. February, 1969. 3558.

BRASSICACEAE

Brassica nigra (L.) Koch.

Common in humus covered waste places.

Flowers yellow. Fils. and Frts. November,

1969. No number, D. V. Subbaiah.

244

CAPPARACEAE

Capparis zeylanica Linn.

Occasional on hedges. Frts.

3225.

Crataeva nurvala Buch.-Ham.

Rare. Frts. May, 1969. 3201.

May, 1969.

CLEOMACEAE

Cleome aspera Koenig

Common. Flowers yellow. Fls. May, 1969.

3287.

C. gymandra Linn.

Occasional in waste places. Flowers white.

Fls. and Frts. November, 1970. 3540.

C. viscosa Linn.

Common. Flowers yellow. Fls. and Frts.

October, 1970. 4133.

VIOLACEAE

Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. Mueil.

Common. Flowers purple. Fils. and Frts.

May, 1969. 3288.

FLACOURTIACEAE

Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr.

Common. Flowers White. Fls. and Frts.

December, 1969, 1970. 3628, 3855.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Polyearpaea corymbosa (L.) Lam.

Common in grasslands. Flowers pink. Fis.

and Frts. May and November, 1969. 3291,

3495.

Por TULACACEAE

Portulaca cleracea Linn.

A common weed in moist fields. Flowers

yellow. Fls. and Frts. October, 1970. 3541.

FLORA OF VENKATAGIRI HILLS

MALVACEAE

Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet

Common and abundant in mixed stands.

Flowers yellow. Fls. and Frts. December,

1970. 3542.

Decaschitia crotonifolia Wt. & Arn.

Common on hill slopes. Flowers large, yel-

low. December, 1969, 1970. 3619, 3951, 4170.

Gossypium herbaceum Linn.

Planted. Flowers yellow.

1970. 4015.

Hibiscus ovalifolius (Forsk.) Vahl

Common in the undergrowth of forests.

Flowers white. Fls. and Frts. December, 1970.

3934.

Pavonia zeylanica Cav.

Fls. February,

Common. Flowers bright rose. Fils. and

Frts. December, 1970. 3860, 3955.

Sida acuta Burm. f.

Common. Flowers vellow. Fls. and Frts.

December, 1970. 4128.

S. cordifolia Linn.

Common. Flowers. yellow Fils. and Frts.

December, 1970. 3899.

Thespesia populnea Cav.

Planted. Flowers yellow with a purple cen-

iter Fis? June.” 1969" 3234°"3393.

STERCULIACEAE

Byettneria herbacea Roxb.

Common on hill slopes among tall grasses.

Fls. and Frts. December, 1970. 4109, 4151.

Helicteres isora Linn.

Common in forests. Flowers red. Fls. Nov-

ember. Frts. December, 1969, 1970. 3625,

3643, 4144, 4160.

Methania incana Heyne ex Wt. & Arn.

Rare in the forests of Jayampu. Fls. and

Frts. December, 1970. 3871.

Melochia corchorifolia Linn.

Occasional. Flowers purple. Fls. and Frts.

December, 1970. 3830.

Pterospermum heyneanum Wall.

Occasional in thick forests. Flowers not

seen. Frts. December, 1969. 3614.

Waltheria indica Linn.

Occasional. Flowers yellow. Fls. and Frts.

December, 1970. 3858. |

TILIACEAE

Corchorus aestuans Linn.

A common weed. Flowers yellow. Fis. and

Frts. December, 1970. 3902.

C. olitortus Linn.

Common on earth bunds of the cultivated

fields. Flowers yellow. Fls. November, 1969.

Frts. December, 1970. 3483, 3998.

Grewia hirsuta Vahl

Occasional. Frts. December, 1970. 3952.

G. rhamnifolia Heyne ex Roth

Occasional. rts. December,

3618, 3881.

Triumfetta pentandra A. Rich.

Common in the undergrowth of forests.

Flowers yellow. Fls. and Frts. December,

1969, 1970. 3613, 3944.

1969, 1970.

LINACEAE

Heagonia mystax Linn.

Occasional in the forests. This specimen

matches with the herbarium sheets of Madras

Herbarium, BSI, Coimbatore. But in the ab-

sence of flowers or fruits the identification is

provisional. December, 1970. 3875.

ERYTHROXYLACEAE

Erythroxylon monogynum Roxb.

A common tree in forests. Fils. and Frts.

November, December, 1969, 1970. 3469, 3941.

245

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Tribulus terrestris Linn.

Common. Flowers yellow. Fils. and Frts.

November, 1969. 3515.

BALSAMINACEAE

Impatiens balsamina Linn.

Rare but abundant in pure stands at Mal-

leswara Kona. Flowers purple. Fils. and Frts.

December, 1970. 3904.

RUTACEAE

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.

Occasional in forests and near villages. Frts.

November, 1969. 3601.

Glycosmis cochinchinensis (Lour.) Pierre ex

Engler.

Common in forests. Fls. (buds), December,

197 O3802:

Limonia acidissima Linn.

Planted. Frts. May, June, 1969. 3267, 3390.

MELIACEAE

Azadirachta indica A. Juss.

Common. Frts. June, 1969. 3391.

CELASTRACEAE

Elaeodendron roxburghit Wt. & Arn.

Common. The plants are very much stunted

when growing in scrub jungles. Flowers and

fruits not noticed but the specimens match

with the herbarium sheets at Madras Herba-

rium, BSI, Coimbatore. Therefore identifica-

tion is tentative. 1970. 3979.

Meytenus emarginata (Willd.) Ding Hou

Common in scrub jungles. Flowers white.

FIs. November, 1970. 3808, 3864. Frts. June,

1969. 3334

246

RHAMNACEAE

Scutia circumcissa (L.f.) Druce

An occasional armed shrub in the scrub

jungles. Flowers small, greenish-white. Fis.

November, 1970. 3385, 3791.

Ventilago denticulata Willd.

Rare, but a gregarious climber. Flowers

pale green. Fls. December, 1970. 3924, 4169.

Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.

Occasional. Flowers pale white. Fls. Nov-

ember, 1969. 3543.

Z. oenoplia Mill.

Common in hedges. Frts. December, 1970.

3876.

Z. xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd.

Common in forests. Frts. December, 1970.

3886, 4148.

VITACEAE

Ampelocissus tomentosa (Heyne ex Roth)

Planch.

Common. Flowers scarlet.

December, 1970. 3938, 3974.

Cissus quadrangularis Linn.

Common in plains, straggling on shrubs.

Flowers red. Fls. and Frts. May, 1969. 3209,

3259)

C. vitiginea Linn.

Occasional on hedges. Flowers small, green-

ish. Fls. and Frts. June, 1969. 3356.

Leea indica (Burm.f.) Merrill.

Rare in ravines. Frts. December, 1970. 3918.

Fls. and Frts.

SAPINDACEAE

Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch.

Common. Flowers small, white. Fls. Nov-

ember, Frts. December, 1969, 1970. 3612,

379593 8855. 3932.

Cardiospermum canescens Wall.

Rare, a gregarious twiner on large shrubs.

FLORA OF VENKATAGIRI HILLS

Flowers white. Fls. and Frts. December, 1970.

3965.

C. halicacabum Linn.

Rare on hedges near _ villages.

white. Fils. May, 1969. 3211, 3297.

Dodonaea viscosa (Linn.) Jacq.

Common in scrub jungles. Flowers purpl-

ish-yellow. Fis. November, Frts. December,

1969. 3279, 3407, 3467.

Sapindus emarginatus Vahl

Occasional in forests, sometimes planted

in villages. Fls. December, Frts. June, 1969,

1970. 3387, 3882.

ANACARDIACEAE

Flowers

Anacardium occidentale Linn.

Planted. Flowers red. Fls. January, 1969.

No number, D. V. Subbaiah.

Buchanania angustifolia Roxb.

Rare. Fiowers not seen. Fris.. December,

1970. 4141.

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr.

Common. Flowers’ greenish-yellow. Fis.

December, 1969, 1970. 3641, 3928.

Mangifera indica Linn.

One tree near the water fall at Malleswara

Kona; planted elsewhere. December, 1970.

SIN

Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz.

Occasional in forest. Vegetative. Decembe;x,

1970; 3915.

PAPILIONACEAE

Abrus precatorius Linn.

Occasional. Frts. December, 1970. 3916.

Aeschynomene indica Linn.

Common. Flowers yellow. Fls. and Frts.

December, 1970. 3846, 4119.

Arachis hypogaea Willd.

Probably an _ escape from _ cultivation.

Flowers yellow. Fls. and Frts. January, 1970.

3999,

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.

Occasional. The trees are very stunted and

do not atiain more than 3 metres heignt.

Flowering not observed in the area, but red-

dish-orange flowers were noticed in the forest

near Kurnool. Fis. February, 1973. 3207.

Canavalia gladiata (Jacq.) DC.

Occasional. Flowers purple but turning

blue with age. Fis. and Frts. December, 1970.

3983)

Crotalaria juncea Linn.

Occasional. Flowers yellow. Fls. and Frts.

January, 1970. 4122.

C. madurensis Wt.

Rare. Flowers yellow. Fls. January, 1970.

4166.

C. medicaginea Lamk.

Common. Flowers yellow. Fils. and Frts.

December, 1970. 3879, 3947, 4147.

C. retusa Linn.

Occasional. Frts. January, 1970. 4120.

C. verrucosa Linn.

Common. Flowers blue. Fls. and Frts. De-

cember, 1970. 3879, 3947, 4147.

Dalbergia paniculata Roxb.

An occasional tree in the forest. Frts. De-

cember, 1970. 3545.

Derris indica (Lam.) Bennett

Common, but usually planted for shade.

Flowers bright purple. Fils. and Frts. June,

1969. 3319, 3388.

D. scandens Bth.

Rare. Frits. November, 1970. 4111.

Desmodium puichellum (L.) Bth.

Common and abundant at the foot of hills.

Flowers white. Fls. and Frts. December, 1969,

1970. 3622, 3912. 41:72,

BD. velutinum (Willd.) DC.

Common at the foot of hills. Flowers pur-

ple. Fls. and Frts. December, 1970. 3907.

D. triflorum (L.) DC.

Common. Flowers purple. Fls. December,

247

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

1970. 3920.

Erythrina variegata Linn. var. orientalis (L.)

Merr.

A favourite hedge plant in _ villages.

Flowers red and showy. Fls. February, 1969.

3546.

Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp.

Planted as a hedge pliant. Flowers bright

rose. Fls. January, 1969. No number, D. V.

Subbaiah.

Heylandia latebrosa DC.

Occasional. Flowers yellow. Fls. and Frts.

December, 1970. 3851, 4161.

Indigofera astragalina DC.

Rare. Frts. December, 1970. 3993.

I. cordifolia Heyne ex Roth

Common. Flowers red.

1970. 3794.

I. linnaei Ali

Common. Flowers Red. Fis. and Frts. June,

1969. 3312.

Ormocarpum sennoides DC.

Rare. Flowers yellow. Fis. and Frts. Nov-

ember, 1969. 3520, 3600.

Pseudarthria viscida Wt. & Arn.

Occasional. Flowers yellow. Fls. and Frts.

December, 1970. 3911.

Rhynchosia sauveolens DC.

Rare. Flowers yellow. Fls. and Frts. De-

cember, 1970. 3986.

Tephresia tinctoria Pers.

Rare. Frts. December; 1970. 3903.

Teramnus labialis Spreng.

A common twiner on bushes. Flowers yel-

low. Fils. and Frts. December, 1970. 3945.

Fls. November,

CAESALPINIACEAE

Bauhinia racemosa Lamk.

Common in scrub jungle. Very much stunt-

ed, some times even adpressed to the ground

when growing in the plains, Flowers yellow.

248

Fls. October-November, Frts. February-June,

1969. 3200, 3412.

Cassia absus Linn.

Occasional during post monsoon. Flowers

vellow. Fis. and Frts. November-December,

1969. 3548.

C. auriculata Linn.

Common and abundant. Flowers yellow.

Fils. January-June, 1969. 3222, 3392, 3462.

C. fistula Linn.

Occasional in forests. Frts. December, 1970.

3812.

C. montana Heyne ex Roth

Occasional in ravines. Flowers yellow. Fis.

and Frts. December, 1970. 3940, 4149.

C. occidentalis Linn.

Common in waste land. Flowers yellow. |

Fils. and Frts. January, 1969. 3549.

C. tora Linn.

Common. Flowers yellow. Fis. and Frts.

December, 1970) 3368:

Hardwickia binata Roxb.

A common tree in forests.

196927 3523:

Pterolobium indicum A. Rich.

Common. An armed straggler. Frits. Nov-

ember, 1969. 3529.

Tamarindus indica Linn.

Common near villages.

Fils. May-June, rts. November, 1969.

number, D. V. Subbaiah.

Fls. November,

Flowers reddish.

MIMOSACEAE

Acasia caesia Willd.

An occasional armed climber. Flowers in

white heads. Fls. November, 1969. 3583.

A. ferruginea DC, |

Common. Frts. December, 1970, 3883.

A. latronum Wiild.

Common in scrub jungles. Fls. December,

1970. 4131.

FLORA OF VENKATAGIRI HILLS

A. nilotica (L.) Del. subsp. indica (Bth.)

Brenan

Common in scrub jungles. Flowers yellow.

Fils. June, 1969. 3217, 3300.

A. torta (Roxb.) Craib.

Common. Flowers small in heads. Fls. and

rrts. December, 1970. 3960.

Albizzia amara Boivin

Occasional in forests. Frts. December, 1969.

3584.

A. lebbek (L.) Bth.

Occasional. It is also planted as avenue

tree. Fls. January, Frts. May, 1969. 3257.

Dichrostachys cinerea Wt. & Arn.

Occasional in scrub jungle. Spikes yellow-

purple. Fls. November, Frts. December, 1969,

LOMO B229 - B527,) 3884)

Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit.

Occasional in villages. Frts. May, 1969.

3248, 3383.

Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce

Common and abundant in waste land

around inhabitations. Fils. December, Frts.

May, 1969. 3230)'3335, 3399.

COMBRETACEAE

Anogeissus latifolius Bedd.

Common. Flowers small greenish-yellow.

Fls. and Frts. December, 1970. 3914, 4165S.

Terminalia beilerica (Gaertn.) Roxb.

An occasional lofty tree in forests. Frts.

December, 1970. 3880.

T. chebula Retz.

Common on hill slopes at Malleswara

Kona. Frits. December, 1969. 3447.

MYRTACEAE

Syzygium cuminii Skeels

Common. Flowers yellowish-white. Fis.

March, Frts. June, 1969, 1970. 3395, 3948.

MELASTOMACEAE

Memecylon edule Roxb.

Common. Flowers attractive blue. Fs.

sparsely flowered in December in the present

area. But elsewhere gregarious flowering is

observed in July (1973). Frts. November,

1970. 3528, 3642.

LYTHRACEAE

Ammannia baccifera Linn.

Common in moist places. Flowers red. Fils.

and Frits. February, 1970. 4010.

A. muitifiora Roxb.

Common in wet fields. Flowers red. Fis.

and Frts. December, 1970. 38235.

Rotala densiflora (Roth) Koehne

Occasional but found in pure or mixed

stands. Flowers red. Fls. and Frts. December,

1970. 3828.

ONAGRACEAE

Ludwigia perennis Linn.

Common in wet fields. Flowers yellow. Fils.

and Frts. December, 1970. 3824.

CUCURBITACEAE

Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Monsf.

An occasional creeper in river bed. Frts.

May, 1969. 3280.

Solena heterophylla Lour.

Occasional. Male flowers

Fls. May, 1969. 3238.

Trichosanthes bracteata (Lam.) Voigt

Occasional. Fris. August, 1969, 1970. 3608,

4132.

creamy-white,

CACTACEAE

Opuntia coccinellifera Mill.

Occasional in scrub jungles. Flowers red

249

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

and attractive. Fls. November, 1969. 3361.

O. elatior Mill.

Common. Flowers yellow. Fils. October,

1970. No number, D. V. Subbaiah.

MOLLUGINACEAE

Glinus lotoides Linn.

Common. Frits. May-June, 1969. 3242. 3310.

G. oppositifolius (L.) A. DC.

Common, flowers white. Fis. June,

September, 1969, 1970. 3311, 4138.

Mollugoe nudicaulis Lam.

Common. Flowers white. Fls. June,

September, 1969, 1970. 3315, 4139.

Frts.

AIZOACEAE

Trianthema portulacastrum Linn.

Common. Flowers bright purple. Fls.

1969. 3363.

June,

ALANGIACEAE

Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang.

Common in the hedges around irrigation

tanks. Flowering was not noticed inspite of

intense search throughout the year in the pre-

sent area. Therefore identification is provi-

sional. 1969, 1970. 3368, 3410, 3931.

RUBIACEAE

Borreria articularis (L.f.) F.N. Will.

Common. Flowers purple. Fls. November,

1969: 3587;

Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) T. & B.

Occasional, flowers white. Fls. November,

1969. 3477.

Gardenia lucida Roxb.

Occasional, flowers large, white but turning

yellow with age. Fls. and Frts. December,

1970. 3956, 4140.

250

Guetarda speciosa Linn.

One tree is found, probably planted.

Flowers white. Fls. January, 1970. 4112.

Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC.

Occasional in the undergrowth. Flowers

white with purplish tinge. December, 1970.

3996.

Morinda tinctoria Roxb.

Planted in private compounds for fragrant

white flowers. Fls. January, 1970. 4158.

Oldeniandia corymbosa Linn.

Common. Flowers white. Fls. and Frts.

More or less throughout the year, 1969, 1970.

3282, 3317 8405.) 3802:

O. affinis (R. & S.) DC.

Occasional flowers white.

December, 1970. 3977.

Plectronia parviflora Bedd.

Common. Flowers white. Fls. May-June,

Frts. November-December, 1969, 1970. 3301,

3332,,3519, 305950

Tarenna asiatica (L.) Alston

Common in forests and scrub jungles.

Flowers white. Fls. December, Frts. May,

1969. 1970: 3210.5 3396) 3863533870.

Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay

Common. Flowers white but turning yellow

with age. Fls. June, Frts. December, 1969,

1970. 3334, 3935.

Fls. and Frets.

ASTERACEAE

Ageratum conyzoides Linn.

Common. Heads white. Fls. and Frts. De-

cember, 1970. 3909.

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff.

Common either in mixed or pure stands.

Heads yellow, November, 1969. No number,

D. V. Subbaiah.

Echinops echinatus Roxb.

Rare. Found a few plants at Jayampu.

Flowers white. Heads September, 1970. 3815.

FLORA OF VENKATAGIRI HILLS

Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk.

A common weed. Heads white, November,

1970. 3552.

Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC.

Common. Heads purple, December,

3869.

Glossocardia bosvallea (L.f.) DC.

Common. Heads yellow, November, 1969.

3463.

Tridax procumbens Linn.

Common and abundant.

May-June, 1969. 3320, 3412.

Vernonia albicans DC.

Common. Heads purple, December, 1970.

) SUI

V. cimerea (L.) Less.

Common. Heads purple, December, 1970.

No number. D. V. Subbaiah.

Vicoa indica (Willd.) DC.

Occasional. Heads yellow, December, 1970.

3816.

1969.

Heads yellow,

PLUMBAGINACEAE

Plumbago zeyianica Linn.

Rare, collected from the roadside bushes

on way to Railway Station. Flowers white.

Fls. and Frts. January, 1969. 3554.

SAPOTACEAE

Madhuca longifolia (Koenig.) Macbride

Occasional. Flowers light-yellow, succulent.

Fils. May, 1969. 3232.

Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dub.

Common. Flowers white, scented. Fls. De-

cember, 1969. 3526, 3638.

EBENACEAE

| Diospyros chloroxylon Roxb.

Common, often found in hedges. Flowers

white. Fls. May-June, 1969, 3220, 3306.

D. melanoxylon Roxb.

Occasional in scrub jungles. Identification

is provisional in the absence of flowers and

fruits. May, 1969. 3205.

Maba buxifolia Pers.

Common. Frits. May-June, 1969.

3381.

3206,

OLEACEAE

Jasminum auriculatum Vahl

Common in bushes. Flowers white. Fis. and

Frts. November-December, 1969, 1970. 3531,

3971.

APOCYNACEAE

Carissa carandas Linn.

Common in hedges.

May, 1969. 3252.

C. spimarum DC.

Common. Flowers white. Fls. June, 1969.

3305.

Catharanthus pusillus (Murr.) G. Don

Rare in cultivated fields as a weed. Flowers

white. Fls. and Frts. May, 1969. 3241.

Wrightia tinctoria R. Br.

Occasional in thick forests. Frts. December,

1970. 3814, 3906.

Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) Merr.

Planted. Flowers yellow. Fls. May, 1969.

3221.

Flowers white. Fls.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br.

Common in wasteland. Flowers

Fls. November, 1969. 3536.

Caralluma adscendens (Roxb.) R. Br.

Common in large bushes. Flowers dark

purple. Fls. January, Frts. July, 1970. 4107,

4124.

bluish.

251

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Ceropegia bulbosa Roxb.

Occasional in the bushes along the Rail-

way Station Road. Flowers greenish-yellow.

Fls. December, 1969. 3555.

Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R. Br. ex Schuit.

Common. Flowers yellowish-green. Fis.

November, 1969. Frts. December, 1970. 3514,

3811.

Hemidesmus indicus (L.) Schult

Common, very variable plant. Flowers

yellowish-green. Fls. and Frts. December,

1970. 3865, 3922, 4264.

Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov.

Common in hedges. Frts. February, 1970.

4013.

Sarcostemma brevistigma Wt. & Arn.

Common, a leafless straggler. Flowers yel-

lowish. Fls. November-December, 1969, 1979.

3487, 3968.

Secamone emetica R. Br.

Rare, a gregarious climber on large shrubs.

Flowers pretty, yellow, Fls. November, 1969.

3461.

Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr.

Common. Flowers yellowish. Fils. May-

June, 1969, 1970. 3270, 3322, 4130.

LOGANIACEAE

Strychnos nux-vomica Linn.

Common in forests. Frts. November, 1969.

3204, 3521.

GENTIANACEAE

Canscora perfoliata Lam.

Rare in moist, cool and shady places.

Flowers white. Fls. and Frts. December, 1970.

3901.

Enicostemma hyssepifolium (Willd.) Verd.

Occasional. Flowers white. Fls. December,

1970. 3831.

252

EHRETIACEAE

Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masamune

Common in scrub jungles. Flowers white.

Fis. June, 1969. 3289, 3400.

Cordia obliqua Willd.

Occasional on tank bunds near villages.

Flowers white. Fls. June, 1969. 3413.

BORAGINACEAE

Heliotropium indicum Linn.

Common. Flowers purplish. Fls. and Frts.

November, 1969. 3603.

H. supinum Linn.

Abundant in dried tanks. Flowers white.

Fis. and Frts. May, 1969. 3246.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Evolvulus alsinoides Linn.

Common in grassiands. Flowers blue. Fils.

and Frts. November, 1969. 3485.

Ipomoea muricata (L.) Jacq.

An occasional climber with large purple

flowers. Fls. December, 1970. 3793.

I. obscura (L.) Ker.-Gawl.

Occasional on hedges. Flowers white. Fls.

December, 1970. 3985.

Merremia tridentata Hallier

Common. Flowers yellow. Fls. and Frts.

June, 1969. 3281.

Rivea hypocraieriformis (Lam.) Choisy.

Common. Flowers white. Fls. and Frts.

November-December, 1969, 1970. 3502, 3531,

3976.

SOLANACEAE

Datura fastuosa Linn.

Occasional. Flowers white. Fis.

November, 1969. 3821.

and Frts.

FLORA OF VENKATAGIRI HILLS

Solanum nigrum Linn.

Common in waste places. Flowers small and

white. Fls. and Frts. December, 1969. 3556.

S. surattense Burm.f.

Occasional in dry places. Flowers violet.

Fls. and Frits. June, 1969. 3403.

SCROP HULARIACEAE

Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettstein

Abundant in pure stands in moist soil.

Flowers bluish-purple or almost white. Fils.

May, 1969. 3234.

Lindernia hyssopoides (L.) Haines

Common. Flowers purple. Fls. and Frts.

December, 1970. 3829.

L. oppositifolia (Don) Mukerjee

Common. Flowers bright purple. Fls. De-

cemben 19 70! 23827,

Limnophila indica (L.) Druce

Common. Flowers turbid white. Fs.

cember, 1970. 3857.

Striga angustifolia (Don) Saldanha

Common, but scattered in pasture lands.

Flowers white. Fils. November-December, 1969,

1970. 3496, 3798, 3849.

S. lutea Lour. var. lutea

Rare, found among grasses on hill slopes.

Flowers yellow. Fls. December, 1970. 4152.

De-

MARTINIACEAE

Martynia annua Linn.

Occasional in the forests near Railway Sta-

tion. Flowers purple. Fls. January, 1970. 3557.

PEDALIACEAE

Sesamum indicum Linn.

Solitary in waste places. Probably an escape

from cultivation. Frts. December, 1970. 4134.

ACANTHACEAE

Adhatoda vasica Nees

Occasional in hedges near villages. Flowers

white. Fls. and Frts. February, 1971. 4002.

Androagraphis echioides (L.) Nees

Common. Flowers purple. Fls. and Frts.

May, 1969. 3266.

A. paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall. ex Nees

Common. Flowers purple. Fls. and Frts.

December, 1970. 3870.

Asystasia gangetica T, And.

Common. Flowers white. Fls. and Frts. Feb-

ruary, 1971. 4106.

Barleria prionitis Linn.

Common among bushes. Flowers yellow.

Fls. November-December, 1969, 1970. 3474,

3873, 3936.

Blepharis boerhaaviaefolia Pers.

Common in the undergrowth. Flowers tur-

bid white. Fls. and Frts. December, 1970.

3962.

Elytraria acaulis (L. f.) Lindau

Common. Flowers white. Fils. May, 1969.

3293.

Justicia diffusa Willd.

Common. Flowers purple.

December, 1970. 4159.

J. prostrata (Roxb. ex C.B.Cl.) Gamble

Occasional. Flowers purple. Fls. and Frts.

May, 1969. 3296.

J. glauca Rottl.

Common. Flowers purple. Fis. and Frts.

December, 1970. 3964, 4105.

Lepidagathis mitis Dalz.

Common in hard soil. Flowers purple. Fis.

and Frts. December, 1969. 3856, 3913.

Fls. and Frts.

VERBENACEAE

Gmelina asiatica Linn.

Common in scrub jungles. Flowers yellow.

Pendulous. Fls. May-June, 1969, 1970. 3226,

4132.

Lantana camara Linn. var. aculeata (L.) Mol-

denke

253

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

Common and abundant. Flowers purple

and white. Fils. and Frts. May and November,

1969. 3290, 3505.

Phyia nodifiora (L.) Greene

Common in large patches in moist soil.

Flowers white with purple streak. Fils. and

Frts. November, 1970. 3799.

Tectona grandis Linn. f.

A few trees at Malleswara Kona in lead. De-

cember, 1970. 3564.

Vitex altissima Linn.

Occasional in forests.

November, 1970. 4144.

VY. leucoxylon Linn. f.

Rare. In the absence of reproductive parts

identification is provisional. December. 1970.

3927:

VY. negundo Linn.

Common. Flowers bluish-mauve. Fls. May,

L969. 32300 3273.

LAMIACEAE

Flowers white. Fls.

Anisochilus carnosus Wall.

Occasional, Flowers light purple. Fls. and

Frts. December, 1970. 3905.

Anisomelis indica (L.) O. Kuntze

Common in hedges. Fls. purple. Fls. and

rts. December, 19609: 1970; 32609) 5621mssa 7:

A. malabaricus R. Br.

Common. Flowers

Frts. December-February, 1969,

3852, 3926, 4167.

Geniosporum tenuiflorum (L.) Merr.

Occasional along earth bunds in cultivated

fields. Flowers small, purple. Fls. and Frts.

February, 1970. 4004.

Leonotis nepetaefolia R. Br.

Occasional. Flowers orange-red. Fis.

Frts. January-March, 1970. 4012, 4104.

Leucas aspera (Willd.) Spreng.

rosy-purple. Fils. and

197025 3262,

Common. Flowers. white. Fls. and Frts. Nov-

ember, 1969. 3504.

254

and

SOCIETY, Vol. 76

L. bifiora R. Br.

Occasional. Flowers white. Fls. and Frts.

November-December, 1969, 1970. 3506, 3949.

L. lavandulifolia Rees.

Common on hill slopes. Flowers white. Fils.

June, 1969. 3342.

Ocimum americanum Linn.

Common. Flowers purplish-white. Fis. and

Frts. February and June, 1969, 1970. 3408,

4009.

Orthosiphen pallidus Royle ex Bth.

Common. Flowers purplish white. Fls. and

Frts. November, 1969. 3500.

NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhaavia diffusa Linn.

Common. Flowers purple. Fis.

June; 1969) 3316

and Frts.

AMARANTACEAE

Achyranthes aspera Linn.

Common. Flowers small, dry-white. Fls. and

Frits. January, 1969. No number. D. V. Sub-

baiah.

Aerva lanata (L.) Juss.

Common. Flowers white in wooly spikes.

Fls. and Frts. December, 1970. 3866.

A. monsoniae Mart.

Common in dry sandy soil. Spikes pale

pink. Fls. and Frts. December, 1970. 3910.

Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC.

Common and abundant in moist margins

of temporary ponds and puddies. Flowers

white. Fls. and Frits. November, 1969. 3559.

Digera alternifolia (L.) Aschers

A common weed. Flowers purple. Fls. and

Frts. February, 1970. 4008.

Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss.

Occasional. Fruiting. Frits. December, 1970.

3969.

FLORA OF VENKATAGIRI HILLS

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE

Aristolochia bracteolata Lam.

Common in the dry soil. Flowers deep pur-

ple. Fls. February, 1970. Frts. May, 1969.

3224, 3259, 4014.

LAURACEAE

Cassytha filiformis, Linn.

Common stem parasite in scrub jungles.

Flowers white. January, 1971. 3224, 3259,

4014.

LORANTHACEAE

Dendrophthoe falcata (L. f.) Etting var. coc-

cinea (Talb.) Sant.

Common. Flowers red. Fls. December, 1970.

BS 18s, 3001.

Viscum articulatum Burm f.

Occasional. Flowers small, green. Fls. and

Frts. December, 1970. 4118, 4155.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Acalypha indica Linn.

Common and abundant in waste places. Fls.

small. Fls. and Frts. November-January, 1970.

3561. |

Bridelia retusa (L.) Spreng.

Rare in forests. Frts. November, 1970. 4154.

Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Bth. & Hook.

Occasional in forests. Frts. February, 1970.

3868, 4126.

Croton bonplandianum Baill.

Common and abundant in waste places.

Male flowers white, females green. Fls. and

Frts. November-January, 1969, 1970. 3659.

Euphorbia hirta Linn.

Common. Flowers minute,

and Fris. May, 1969. 3256.

EK. serpens H.B.K.

Common, Flowers minute, green. Fls, and

greenish. Fils.

Frits. May, 1969. 3245.

E. tirucalli Linn.

Occasional in

196953327.

EK. trigona Haw.

Common and abundant in scrub jungles.

Flowers red. Fls. January, 1970. 3414, 4114.

Hemicyclia sepiaria Wt. & Arn.

Occasional in scrub jungles. Flowers small

white. Fls. and Frts. December, 1970. 3562.

Homonoia riparia Lour.

Common at Malleswara Kona. Flowers red.

Fls. and Frts. December, 1969. 3946, 4156.

Jatropha gossypifolia Linn.

Common in scrub jungles. Flowers red. Fls.

and Frts. May, 1969. 3216, 4136.

Mallotus philippinensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg.

Common at Malleswara Kona. Fruits with

red tomentum. Frts. December, 1969. 3616.

Micrococca mercurialis Bth.

Common in fields. Flowers minute. FIs.

February, 1970. 4113.

Phyllanthus asperulatus Hutch.

Common. Flowers small, greenish. Fls. and

Frts. November-February, 1969, 1970. 3568.

P. debelis Ham.

Common. Flowers small, pale green. Fils.

and Frts. December-February, 1970, 1971.

3997) 4116;

P. maderaspatensis Linn.

Common. Flowers purplish-white. Fils. and

Frts. January, 1971. 4117, 4144.

P. simplex Retz.

Common. Flowers small, greenish-white.

Fls. and Frts. November, 1969. 3466.

Ricinus communis Linn.

Occasional in waste land. Flowers, yellow-

ish-white. Fls. February, 1971. 4018.

Sebastiania chamaelea Muell.-Arg.

An occasional weed in cultivated fields.

Flowers small, white. Fls. and Frts. January,

1970, 3810, |

hedges. Frits. (dried) June,

bdo

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Pax. &

Hoffm.

Common. Fruits fleshy and white. Frts. Nov-

ember, 1969. 3331, 3530:

Tragia involucrata Linn.

Occasional among bushes. Flowers minute,

greenish. Fls. May, 1969. 3260.

Trewia nudiflora Linn.

Rare in hedges. Flowers small, greenish.

Fils. December, 1970. 3834.

MOoRACEAE

Ficus gibbosa Bl. var. parasitica King.

Rare in forests. Fls. and Frts. December,

1969. 3978.

F. hispida Linn. f.

Occasional near villages. Frts. May, 1969.

3208, 3271.

F. racemosa Linn.

Occasional in villages. Vegetative, May,

1969. 3292.

F. religiosa Linn.

Common. Fruits red. March-April, 1969.

3564.

MONOCOTYLEDONS

HYDROCHARITACEAE

Hydrilla verticillata Royle

Abundant in ponds. May, 1969. 3285.

Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers.

Occasional but gregarious in roadside ponds.

Flowers white. Fls. October, 1969. 3447.

Vallisneria spiralis Linn.

Abundant in ponds. Fls. May, 1969. 3276.

ORCHIDACEAE

Eulophia epidendracea (Retz.) Fischer

Rare. Flowers greenish-white with purplish

streak. Fls. December, 1970. 3887.

256

Habenaria hollandiana Sant.

Rare in cool, shady and moist places. Flow-

ers dull white, with greenish tinge. Fls. De-

cember, 1969. 3606A.

H. digitata Lindl.

Occasional. Flowers dull white. Fls. Decem-

ber, 1969, 1970. 3606D, 3966.

H. plantaginea Lindl.

Occasional. Flowers pure white. Fils. De-

cember, 1969. 3606.

H. platyphylla Spr.

Occasional. Flowers white. Fls.

1970. 3806.

Vanda roxburghii R. Br.

Rare. Frts. December, 1970. 4153.

January,

HyYPOXIDACEAE

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.

Common in the undergrowth in forests.

Flowers yellow. Fls. November-December,

1969, 1970. 3482, 3577, 3797.

DIOSCOREACEAE

Dioscorea oppositifolia Linn.

Common. Flowers greenish. Fls. December,

1970. 3891, 4173.

D. pentaphylia L. var. linnaei Pr. & Burk.

Common. Flowers small green. Fls. Novem-

ber-December, 1969, 1970. 3460, 3609, 3957.

LILIACEAE

Aloe barbadens Mill.

Occasional in scrub jungles. Flowers saf-

fron red. Fils. November, 1970. 3801.

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Common in forests. Frts. December, 1969,

1970. 3639, 3958.

Gloriosa superba Linn.

Common. Flowers red with yellow streaks.

Fls. November-December, 1969, 1970. 3524,

3626, 3937.

FLORA OF VENKATAGIRI HILLS

Iphiginea indica (L.) A. Gray

Rare among grasses. Flowers deep purple.

Fls. and Frts. November, 1969. 3512.

Scilla hyacinthiana (Roth.) Macbr.

Common during monsoon in grass lands.

Flowers mauve. Fls. and Frts. October, 1971.

4101, 4125.

HAEMODORACEAE

Sansevieria roxburghiana Schult.

Common in dry places in scrub jungles.

Flowers white. Fls. January, 1971. 3954, 4150.

COMMELINACEAE

Amischocephalus axillaris (L.) Rao & Kama-

thy

Common among grasses. Flowers purple.

Fls. and Frts. December, 1970. 3826.

Commelina benghalensis Linn.

Common in moist places. Flowers blue. Fls.

and Frts. October-November, 1969. 3565.

C. diffusa Burm. f.

Common trailing on the ground. Flowers

purple. Fls. and Frts. October, 1971. 4103.

C. fasciculata (Heyne ex Roth) Schult.

Common among grasses. Flowers blue. Fils.

October, 1970. 4102.

C. tuberosa (Roxb.) Schult.

Common in the undergrowth. Flowers blue.

Fls. November, 1969. 3501.

Murdania spirata (L.) Bruckn.

Common. Flowers purple. Fls. and Frts. De-

cember, 1970. 3861.

PALMACEAE

Borassus flabelliformis Linn.

Common all over the district in the plains.

Frts. May-June, 1969. 3565.

Phoenix humilis Royle var. pedunculata Becc.

Rare in the forests. In the absence of re-

productive organs identification is provisional.

December, 1970. 3939.

P. sylvestris (L.) Roxb.

Common in the plains. Frts. May, 1969.

3247, 3800.

ARACEAE

Arisaema leschenaultii BI.

Rare in the Visvodaya College building con-

struction site. The specimens match with the

herbarium sheets at Madras Herbarium. In

the absence of flowers and fruits identifica-

tion is provisional. November, 1970. 3854.

APONOGETONACEAE

Aponogeton natans (L.) Engl. & Krause

Common in temporary ponds. Flowers

mauve. Fls. November, 1969. 3509.

NAJADACEAE

Najas minor All. var. spinosa Rendle

Abundant in a pond at Kasigardens. Frts.

May, 1969. 3286.

ERIOCAULACEAE

Eriocaulon quinguangulare Linn.

Common and abundant on moist margins

of roadside puddles. Heads grey-white. Heads.

December, 1970. 3844.

CYPERACEAE

Bulbostylis barbata (Rottb.) Cl.

Common. Spikelets November, 1969. 3475.

Cyperus aristatus Rottb.

Common along roadside temporary ponds.

Spikelets December, 1970. 3840.

C. clarkei T. Cooke.

Occasional. Spikelets November, 1969. 3494.

C. compressus Linn.

Common. Spikelets February, 1971. 4100.

C. iria Linn.

Common in rice fields. Spikelets November,

1969, 1970. 3533, 4137.

Zar)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

C. polystachyos var. laxiflorus Bth.

Common. Spikelets December, 1970. 3990.

C. tenuispica Steud.

Common. Spikelets December, 1970. 3989.

C. triceps (Rottb.) Endl.

Common among grasses. Spikelets in white

heads. December, 1970. 3836, 3838.

Eleocharis capitata R. Br.

Common in the crevices of rocks in the

river bed. Spikelets, May, 1969. 3253.

Fimbristylis argentea Vahl

Common. Spikelets June, 1969. 3307.

F. falcata (Vahl) Kunth.

Common in moist places in river bed. Spi-

kelets, November, 1970. 3803.

F. littoralis Gaud.

Common. Spikelets December, 1970. 3835.

F. ovata (Burm. f.) Kern

Occasional. Spikelets November, 1969.

3498.

F. shoenoides Vahl

Occasional. Spikelets December, 1970.

383i,

F. tenera R. & S.

Common. Spikelets November, 1969. 3494.

GRAMINEAE

Apluda mutica Linn.

Common. Spikelets December, 1970. 3975.

Aristida adscencionis Linn.

Common. Spikelets December, 1969. 3288,

3338;

A. depressa Retz.

Common. Spikelets June, 1969, December,

1970. 3337, 3843, 3874.

Centotheca lappacea Desv.

Common. Spikelets December, 1970. 3900.

Chioris barbata Sw.

Common. Spikelets June, 1969. 3358.

Cymbopogon martinni (Roxb.) Wats.

Common on hill slopes. Spikelets Decem-

ber, 1970. 3893.

Eleusine coracana Gaertn.

Cultivated. Spikelets February, 1971. 4021.

258 |

Eragrostis aspera Nees

Common. Spikelets December, 1970, 3859.

K. gangetica (Roxb.) Steud.

Occasional. Spikelets December, 1970. 3842.

KE. tenella R. & S.

Common. Spikelets May, 1969. 3303.

Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv. ex R.

& S.

Common. Spikelets December, 1970. 3841,

3925, 398i.

Melanocenchris jacquemontii Jaub. & Spach.

Occasional. Spikelets November, 1969.

3491.

Oplismenus compoesitus Beauv.

Common. Spikelets December, 1970. 3611.

Panicum psilopodium Trin.

Common. Spikelets December, 1970. 3994.

Pennisetum hohenackeri Hochst.

Cultivated as a fodder plant. Spikelets Feb-

ruary, 1971. 4003.

Perotis indica (L.) O. Kuntze

Common. Spikelets May, 1969. 3262.

Saccharum spontaneum Linn.

Common and_ gregarious along water

courses. Spikelets February, 1971. 4020.

Sporobolus piliferus Kunth.

Rare. Spikelets November, 1969. 3491.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. Cecil J. Saldanha, St.

Joseph’s College, Bangalore, for helpful sug-

gestions; Dr. G. L. Shah, Reader in Botany,

Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar,

for identification of grasses and encourage-

ment; Prof. E. Govindarajulu, Presidency Col-

lege, Madras, for identification of cyperaceous

plants; the Director, Botanical Survey of In-

dia, Calcutta for his permission to work at

the Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore and

to the Vice-Chancellor, S. V. University, Tiru-

pati, for sanction of UGC Travel Grant to visit

BSI, Southern Circle, Coimbatore,

LARVAL HISTORY OF THE SPIDER CRAB,

SCHIZOPHRYS ASPERA (H. MILNE-EDWARDS)

(BRACHYURA, MAJIDAE) AS OBSERVED IN

THE LABORATORY*

V. S. KakatTr? AND V. N. NAyAK?

(With four text-figures)

The present paper deals with the larval history of the spider crab, Schizophrys aspera

(H. Milne-Edwards) as observed in the laboratory. The metamorphosis comprises 2

zoeal and a megalopa stage at sea water temperature ranging from 26°C to 27.5°C

and salinity about 33 ppt. During the experiment the larvae were fed with freshly

hatched Artemia nauplii. All larval stages have been figured and described in detail.

INTRODUCTION

Though larvae of many species of spider

crabs have been known since Rathke’s (1840)

first description of the zoeae of Hyas araneus

(Yang 1968), no work has been done in the

genus Schizophrys but for the description of

the larvae of a species given by Kurata (1969)

as of S. aspera.

Except for the laboratory reared larvae of

3 species of the family Majidae, no other

spider crab has been reared from the Indian

waters. The 3 laboratory reared spider crabs

being, Dehaanius limbatus, (Kakati & San-

kolli 1975b), Acheus lacertosus (Kakati &

Sankolli 1975) and Doclea hybrida (Sankolli

& Shenoy 1975). Therefore, the larvae of

Schizophrys aspera, one of the 3 species of

the genus from Indo-west Pacific region (Se-

1 Accepted May 1977.

2 Present address: Central Marine Fisheries Re-

search Institute, Cochin 682018, India.

* Karnataka University Marine Station, Post-gra-

duate Dept. of Marine Biology, Kodibag, Karwar-

581 303. Present address: Dept. of Zoology, Govt.

Arts & Science College, Karwar-581-301.

rene 1968) were reared in the laboratory. The

other two species of the genus represented in

the region are S. dama (Herbst) and S. hilen-

sis Rathbun.

The present account deals with the 2 zoeac

and a megalopa of S. aspera and compares

the larvae with those of Kurata’s larvae of S.

aspera.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

An ovigerous female of Schizophrys aspera

was collected from Ankola rocky shore, west

coast of India, on 12th December 1973 and

the crab was kept alive in a plastic container

until the larvae hatched on 14th December

1973. The rearing method adapted for the ex-

periment was same as described by Kakati

& Sankolli (1975).

During the course of the experiment the

temperature of the sea water ranged from

26 to 27.5°C and salinity about 33 ppt.

Freshly hatched Artemia nauplii were used as

food for the crab larvae. The shortest period

for complete larval development was 8 days.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Fig. 1. First zoea of Schizophrys aspera (H. Milne-Edwards): a. lateral view of

zoea; b. front view of zoea; c. antennule; d. antenna; e. mandible; f. first maxilla;

g. second maxilla; h. first maxilliped; i. second maxilliped; j. third maxilliped; k,-,.

pereiopods; m. abdomen.

260

LARVAL HISTORY OF THE SPIDER CRAB, SCHIZOPHRYS ASPERA

First ZOEA

(Fig. 1)

Rostral spine: 0.90 mm;

Lateral spine: 0.66 mm;

Dorsal spine: 1.03 mm;

Abdomen length: 1.70 mm.

Duration of the stage: 3-4 days.

Carapace smooth, with all three spines;

dorsal spine slightly curved backwards; lateral

spines more or less straight; the tips of all

spines rounded; 3 setae present along the an-

terolateral border of carapace; prominent me-

diodorsal and medio-frontal tubercles present.

Antennule (Fig. 1,c): Conical, with 3 un-

equal aesthetascs. Antenna (Fig. 1,d): Spinous

process with 2 rows of 10-11 spines; exopod

with 3 unequal spines which in turn have spi-

nules; endopod bud well developed. Mandible

(Fig. 1,e): With strongly developed molar and

incisor processes and without palp. First max-

illa (Fig. 1,f): Coxal and basal endites each

with 7 setae; palp 2-segmented with a single

seta on proximal and 5 setae on distal seg-

ments. Second maxilla (Fig. 1,g): Both bilo-

bed coxal and basal endites with 3 + 4 and

5 + 5 setae on their lobes; palp unsegmented

and with 5 setae terminally, its free margins

with minute hairs; scaphognathite with 14 fine-

ly plumose setae. First maxilliped (Fig. 1,h):

Basipod with 8 setae; endopod 5-segmented

with 3, 2, 1, 2 and 5 setae arranged distal-

wards; exopod 2-segmented with 4 natatory

setae on its distal segment. Second maxilliped

(Fig. 1,1): Basipod with 3 setae; endopod 2-

segmented with 2 and 5 setae on proximal and

distal segments respectively; exopod similar to

that of first maxilliped. Other appendages (Fig.

1,j & k1-5): Third maxilliped and pereiopods

in bud form, the 3rd maxilliped and Ist perei-

opod showing biramous and chelate nature res-

pectively; gill buds well developed. Abdomen

(Fig. 1m): 5-segmented plus telson, lateral

protuberance on 2nd and 3rd segments as illus-

trated; the postero-lateral sides of segments

3-5 produced to form spines with rounded

tips, and they increase in length posteriorly;

a pair of setae present on all segments. Telson

(Fig. 1m): Telson fork wide; cornua smooth;

process formula 3 + 3.

Chromatophores: To the naked eye, larvae

look reddish brown. Eyestalks reddish-yellow

with brownish reticulate chromatophores along

their front margins. Carapace spines devoid of

chromatophores. All abdominal segments ex-

cept for telson are crimson red in colour with

brownish red branched chromatophores. Ba-

sipods of Ist and 2nd maxillipeds reddish in

colour with brown reticulate chromatophores.

Whole front area is yellowish brown in colour.

Other chromatophores are as illustrated and

are brownish red in colour. This pattern re-

mains the same for both the zoeal stages.

SECOND ZOEA

(Fig. 2)

Rostral spine: 1.05 mm;

Lateral spine: 0.75 mm;

Dorsal spine: 1.07 mm;

Abdomen length: 2.12 mm.

Duration of the stage: 3-4 days.

This stage is characterised by: carapace

along its antero-lateral margin carries 5 setae,

eyes stalked, mandible with palp bud, maxilli-

peds with 6 natatory setae, 6th abdominal seg-

ment separated from telson.

Antennule (Fig. 2,c): Now with 7 aesthe-

tascs and a seta, with endopod bud near its

distal end. Antenna (Fig. 2,d): Endopod

much elongated extending to about 2/3 of

the spinous process. Mandible (Fig. 2,e): Now

with palp bud. First maxilla (Fig. 2,f): Coxal

endite with 7 setae and basal with 9; palp 2-

261

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Fig. 2. Second zoea of Schizophrys aspera (H. Milne-Edwards): a. lateral view of

zoea; c. antennule; d. antenna; e. mandible; f. first maxilla; g. second maxilla; h. first

maxilliped; i. second maxilliped; j. third maxilliped; k,-,. pereiopods; m. abdomen.

262

LARVAL HISTORY OF THE SPIDER CRAB, SCHIZOPHRYS ASPERA

segmented with 1 and 6 setae on its proximal

and distal segments. Second maxilla (Fig.

2,2): Both bilobed coxal and basal endites

with 3 + 4 and 5 + 5 setae on their lobes; palp

with 5 setae; scaphognathite fringed with 25

marginal setae. First maxilliped (Fig. 2,h):

Except for the increase in number of natatory

setae to 6 no other change. Second maxilliped

(Fig. 2,1): Exopod as in first maxilliped; no

other change. Other appendages (Fig. 2.,},

k1-5): More elongated than in previous stage.

Abdomen (Fig. 2,m): 6th abdominal segment

separated from telson; no other change; Tel-

son (Fig. 2,m): No change.

MEGALOPA

(Figs. 3 & 4)

Carapace length: 1.26 mm; Carapace breadth:

1.03 mm. Duration of the stage: 5 days (none

moulting to crab instar).

The carapace is quadrangular, length being

slightly more than its breadth, covered with

spines and setae, 2 pairs of spines on each side

of the gastric: region, a central spine in the

gastric region; 2 spines in cardiac and a spine

in intestinal region, hepatic lobes slightly coni-

cal, the rostrum bifid though the centre is

conical, a single seta springs at subterminal

level of rostral horns, eyes with a pair of setae

antero-dorsally.

Antennule (Fig. 3,c): Peduncle 3-segment-

ed, each segment with a single seta, inner

flagellum unsegmented and with 2 terminal

and 2 subterminal setae, dorsal flagellum 3-

segmented, proximal with 1 seta, middle with

6 aesthetascs and distal with 4 aesthetascs ba-

sally and a seta terminally. Antenna (Fig.

3,d): Peduncle 3-segmented, basal segment

with its distal tips forming lobes. The follow-

ing segments with a seta and 3rd segment

with 3 setae, flagellum 4-segmented, proximal

2 segments bare, last two segments distally

each with 3 setae. Mandible (Fig. 3,c): Masti-

catory process rounded, palp 3-segmented with

4 stiff setae on the distal segment. First max-

illa (Fig. 3,f): Coxal endite with 9 setae and

basal with 17; palp unsegmented, with 2 short

terminal setae. Second maxilla (Fig. 3.g): The

lobes of coxal endites each with 4 and basal

each with 6 setae; endopod simple without any

setae; scaphognathite fringed with 35-37

setae. First maxilliped (Fig. 3,h): Coxal endite

with 8 setae and basal with 12; endopod un-

segmented and bare; exopod 2-segmented with

1 and 4 setae terminally on proximal and

distal segments respectively; epipod with 5

setobranch-like setae. Second maxilliped (Fig.

4,1): Endopod 5-segmented and with 0, 0,

1, 3 and 5 setae arranged distalwards; exopod

2-segmented and with 4 apical plumose setae

on the distal segment. Third maxilliped (Fig.

4,j): Endopod 5-segmented and setation be-

ing, 10, 6, 4, 8 and 4 respectively on proximal

to distal segments; exopod 2-segmented and

with 4 setae at its tip; epipod with 8 basal

setae and 8 setobranch-like setae on its rib-

bon-like structure, with an arthrobranch. Pe-

reiopods (Fig. 4,k1-5): Cheliped on its dorsal

side near the base of the palm with a tooth-

like structure; setose exopodites of segments

2-5 with a tooth on inner side and a protu-

berance with a seta on outer side, and 4 stilt

setae on the inner surface of each of the pe-

reiopods 2-5. Abdomen (Figs. 3,a & 4,b): 6-

segmented; 2nd and 3rd segments each with

a-pair of posteriorly directed lateral spines;

setation being 2 on Ist and 4 on 2nd to Sth

segments and 2 on 6th segment. Te/son (Fig.

4.n): Rounded and its margin smooth, but

on ventral side are 2 setae near uropods. Ple-

opods (Fig. 4,1,-4.n): Expods of pleopods

1-4 each with 10 setae while that of 5th

(=uropod) with 5 setae; endopods each with

263

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

» d

Fig. 3. Megalopa of Schizophrys aspera (H. Milne-Edwards): a. dorsal view of

megalopa; c. antennule; d. antenna; e. mandible; f. first maxilla; g. second maxilla;

h. first maxilliped.

264

LARVAL HISTORY OF THE. SPIDER CRAB, SCHIZOPHRYS ASPERA

Fig. 4. Megalopa of Schizophrys aspera (H. Milne-Ewards): b. lateral view of mega-

lopa; i. second maxilliped; j. third maxilliped; k,. first pereiopod (cheliped); k,. second

pereiopod; k,. third pereiopod; k,. fourth pereiopod; k,. fifth pereiopod; 1,. first

pleopod; 1,. third pleopod; n, telson + uropod,

265

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

2 hooks distally.

Chromatophores: General body colour is

light yellowish-green; chromatophores are reti-

culate and are reddish brown in colour. All

pereiopod segments and pleopods with reddish

brown chromatophores.

DISCUSSION

Like most of the other majid zoeae, the

zoea of the present species is far advanced in

development at hatching with well developed

antennal endopod and pleopod buds.

The zoeae of the present species (Karwar

specimen )differ from those of Schizophrys

aspera described by Kurata (1969) in the

following:

The larvae of the Karwar species have the

carapace spines with rounded tips; lateral

spines being comparatively longer than the

other 2 carapace spines; the postero-lateral

projection of the abdominal segments 3-5 in-

crease in length posteriorward and with round

tips; telson cornua devoid of spines; terminal

and proximal segment of endopod of first

maxilliped with 4 and 2 setae _ respectively

whereas in the Kurata’s larvae, carapace spines

are pointed; lateral carapace spines smaller;

abdominal projections decrease posteriorward

and are pointed; telson cornua each with 3

spines; corresponding maxillipedal segments

with 5 and 3 setae.

As far as the megalopa is concerned, in the

Karwar specimen, the rostrum has 3 spines,

the middle one being broadly triangular, late-

ral ones each with a seta; epibranchial pro-

cess of carapace absent; antennal flagellum

apically with 3 setae; dorsal spines of 2nd and

3rd abdominal segments directed away from

the mid-line whereas in the Kurata’s megalopa,

median rostral spine prominent; 2 setae each

on each of the lateral rostral spines; epibran-

chial process present; antennal flagellum api-

cally with 2 setae; dorsal spines of abdominal

segments 2-3 directed towards the mid-line.

The differences in the morphology of the

larvae of Karwar specimen from those des-

cribed by Kurata (1969) as of S$. aspera sug-

gest that either Kurata wrongly identified

his adult material or that the present material

may belong to a hitherto undescribed species.

Taxonomy of this species thus needs to be

carefully studied in detail, especially in the

light of larval evidence, because there is con-

fusion in the identity of S. aspera at present

and there are many synonyms. Moreover, the

revision of the taxonomy of all the 3 species

of the genus based on the laboratory reared

specimens would be most welcome.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are highly indebted to Dr. L. B. Hol-

thuis of Leiden and Dr. Takeda of Japan for

their critical examination of the parent female

and the drawings respectively and confirma-

tion of the identification. Sincere thanks are

also extended to Dr. K. N. Sankolli for his

kind encouragement and guidance. We take

this opportunity to thank the authorities of

the Karnatak University for providing ltabora-

tory facilities, and the C.S.1.R. for the award

of Fellowships. .

REFERENCES

KAKATI, V. S.. AND SANKOLLI, K. N. (1975):

Laboratory culture of the spider crab, Acheus lacer-

tosus Stimpson (Brachyura, Mayjidae). Indian J.

Mar. Sci., 4 (2): 185-188.

266

+*+——_——— (1975a): New record of the spider

crab, Dehaanius limbatus (A. Milne-Edwards)

from India. Indian J. Mar. Sci., 4 (2): 205-206.

(1975b): On the metamorphosis

LARVAL HISTORY OF THE SPIDER CRAB, SCHIZOPHRYS ASPERA

of the spider crab, Dehaanius limbatus (A. Milne-

Edwards) in laboratory (Brachyura, Majidae). J.

Karnatak Univ. Sci., 20: 275-282.

Kurata, H. (1969): Larvae of Decapoda Bra-

chyura of Arasaki Sagami Bay IV. Mayidae. Bull.

loka (Ree. Fish. Res. Lab... 57: 81-127.

SANKOLLI, K. N. AND SHENOY, S. (1975): On a

new record of a Majid crab, Doclea hybrida (Fabr.)

(?) from the Maharashtra waters and its life his-

tory. J. mar. biol. Ass. India, 17 (1): 126-137.

SERENE, R. (1968): The Brachyura of the Indo-

west Pacific region in: Prodromous for a check

list of the non-planktonic marine fauna of South

East Asia. Singapore National Academy Special

Papi be 33-112.

YANG, W. T. (1968): The zoeae, magalopa, and

first crab of Epialtus dilatatus (Brachyura, Maji-

dae) reared in the laboratory. Crustaceana, Suppl.

2: 181-202.

* Kakati and Sankolli 1975a, unfortunately have

overlooked the paper published by B. F. Chhapgar

in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society, volume 58, no. 2, of August 1961, on pages

529-531. Chhapgar recorded the spider, crab Acan-

thonyx limbatus A. Milne-Edwards [-—Dehaanius

limbatus (A. Milne—Edwards) ] from Port Okha

in the above cited reference. Therefore, the priority

of recording, Dehaanius limbatus (A Milne-Ed-

wards) goes to Chhapgar.

267

RECORDS OF NYCTERIBIIDAE AND STREBLIDAE

(DIPTERA, PUPIPARA) IN KARNATAKA, INDIA’

H. R. Boat, M. A. SREENIVASAN AND

M. A. ILKAL?

During a survey of bats and their ectoparasites in the western part of Karnataka

in connection with Kyasanur Forest disease epidemiological studies, 1921 specimens

of Nycteribiid and Streblid files were coilected. These specimens represent !0 genera

and 24 species. They are recorded here with notes on geographic range and host

relationship.

INTRODUCTION

The available information on Indian Nycte-

ribiids and Streblids is scattered and scanty,

except for a small monograph on ectoparasites

of bats from India by Hiregaudar and Bal

(1956), which includes 16 species belonging

to these two families, occurring in southern

India.

The present communication deals with ma-

terial collected during a survey of bats and

their ectoparasites in connection with the sero-

logical studies on Kyasanur Forest disease.

In all 1921 specimens (947 males and 974

females) were collected. They represent 10

genera and 24 species and are recorded with

additional notes on geographic range and host

relationships. Perhaps this is the largest col-

lection of Nycteribiids and Streblids ever

made in India.

The classification and nomenclature here

are based on the system of Maa (1962, 1965,

1966, 1968 and 1969) and Theodor (1955,

1967, 1968a and 1968b). |

The area covered during the survey includes

1 Accepted July 1977.

2 Virus Research Centre, Indian Council of Medi-

cal Research, Poona, India.

268

Belgaum, Bijapur, Chitradurga, Coorg, Dhar-

war, Hassan, Shimoga, South Kanara and

North Kanara districts of Karnataka State.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The bats were collected by trapping them

in mist nets or in sweep nets from their day-

time roost or foraging areas. Whenever it was

necessary they were also collected by shoot-

ing. They were killed with chloroform vapour,

wrapped in white lint cloth and held for four

to six hours to allow any live ectoparasites to

detach. All the detached ectoparasites were

collected and preserved in 70 per cent alco-

hol after identification.

RESULTS—RECORDS AND NOTES ON SPECIES

Family NYCTERIBNDAE Westwood, 1840

Sufamily Nycteribiinae Westwood, 1840

Genus Nycteribia Latreille, 1796

Subgenus Nycteribia Latreille, 1796

1. Nycteribia (Nycteribia) allotopa Speiser,

1901

Material examined: 54 664, 42 29, all from

Miniopterus schreibersi.

BELGAUM: 15 ¢@4, 9 2@, removed from bats;

3 64, 3 22, from roost; Thigadi, respectively

on 18.vi.71 and 5.viii.71. SHimoGA: 2 @ 4, 2 22,

Kotipura, 22 vit t) 14 Oi is SO 0) a

13 Q9@; Kavaledurga, respectively on 18.ii.72 and

SV 2.

RECORDS OF NYCTERIBUDAE AND STREBLIDAE

Notes: Originally described from 1 ¢ and

1 9, ex M. schreibersi collected at Lian Si

Pache, W. Sumatra, subsequently recorded

from India, Ceylon, Burma, Taiwan, Kiangsu,

Moluccas, Philippines, China and Japan from

the same host.

The colonies of M. schreibersi were also in-

habited by other species of bats, but the para-

site was not found on them.

2. Nycteribia (Nycteribia) parvula Speiser,

1901

Material examined: 73 &@, 64 22, ex M.

schreibersi, 1 8, ex Rhinolophus lepidus.

BEEGAUIM. 126 Oy. bs 2, 95: W328 Ses 16 | OO:

Thigadi, respectively on 18.vi.71 and _ 5.viii.71.

SHIMOGA: 29°" 6 ay 125° 2 9. Kotipura. « 22:vu.71.

1396 6,12 22; 666; 8 2G; Kavaledurga, res-

pectively on 18.11.72 and 3.iv.72. 1 3, ex R. lepidus,

Kavaledurga, 3.iv.72.

Notes: Originally described from 2 2°

collected at Lian Si Pache, Sumatra, ex M.

schreibersi. It has a common distribution range

and host specificity with N. allotopa. Occur-

rence on R. lepidus is obviously as straggler, as

it was cohabiting with M. schreibersi.

Genus Stylidia Westwood, 1840

3. Stylidia ceylonica Theodor, 1967

Material examined: 5 64, 5 Q2@, ex Hipposi-

deros lankadiva; 1 92, ex Hipposideros speoris.

NORTH KANARA: 2 6 4, ex AH. lankadiva; 1 9°,

exw. =speorts, Gersoppa, 2xi/ly 1 jo, 4 9°, ex

H. lankadiva, Muroor, 3l1.v.71; 1 @, ex H. lanka-

diva, Nislneer, 22.iv.73. SOUTH KANARA: 2 @4 4,

2 92, ex H. lankadiva, Kamalashile, 10.iv.73.

Notes: So far known only from Sri Lanka

ex H. lankadiva. Occurrence on H. speoris

appears to be a straggler as it was cohabi-

ting with H. lankadiva.

4. Stylidia phillipsi (Scott, 1925)

Material examined: 40 6, 52 22, ex Rhino-

lophus rouxi; 1 8, ex Hipposideros bicolor.

SHIMOGA: 4 ¢@46,7 22; 1 6, 4 92; Harava-

dike, respectively on 20.iii1.68 and 18.vi.68. 1 4,

4 29, Nellikoppa, 20.ii1.68. 3 ¢@6, 3 22, Tho-

ragoduy Iv.G8o3 66; 6 6 6,4.29; 16, 3028:

Gi ano O30 So, 3 2.2) Nasaraguppe, Tes:

pectively on 23rd and 31.v.68, 13, 22 and 26.vi.68.

Baa Oo. Hale Ikker, 3.v.71.°4"6 65 3 2 2,

Gilalgundi, 14.vii.71. 1 92, Byrekoppa, 25.xi.71.

coorG: 3 @@, Gadduge gate, 3l1.vii71. N.

KANARAG I Ol. Kagaal, S.xigfl 5616. in, 2,

Muroor, 29.iii.72. 1 ¢, ex H. bicolor, Muroor,

31.v.72.

Notes: The species has been recorded ear-

lier from Ceylon and India ex R. rouxi. The

record ex H. bicolor appears to be of a strag-

gler, because the species was associated with

R. rouxi.

5. Stylidia sp. 1

Material examined: 1 6, ex R. lepidus.

NORTH KANARA: 1 @, Muroor, 29.1ii.72.

Notes: The species resembles S. szechuana

(Theodor, 1954) closely.

6. Stylidia sp. 2

Material examined: 3 6&4, 17 2@, ex R. lepi-

dus, Kavaledurga, SHIMOGA, 3.iv./2. 2 92, ex R.

lepidus, Kamalashile, SOUTH KANARA, 10.iv.73.

Genus Basilia Miranda Ribeiro, 1903

Subgenus Basilia Miranda Ribeiro, 1903

7. Basilia (Basilia) majuscula (Edwards,

1919)

Material examined: 24 66, 41 29, ex Pipi-

strellus ceylonicus.

BELGAUM: 1 @, Thigadi, 5.viii.71. BIJAPUR: 1 ¢@,

1 @, Badami, 15.ix.71. CHITRADURGA: | 6, 7 2@Q,

Chitradurga, 24.vi.71. DHARWAR: 3 64, 1 @, Kagi-

nel, lovin 6 63,2 6 29, Uppinbetegeri,

4.vili.71; 2 22, Amminbhavi, 4.viii.71; 1 ¢, 1 @,

Nargund, 13.ix.71. HASSAN: 1 6, 4 22, Bana-

vara, 28.vii.71. SHIMOGA: 4 ¢@@4, 1 @Q, _ Ikkeri,

Ovi letieds oOo «all nQng Sagar.» blav.72:

Notes: Earlier recorded from India, Java,

Sumatra and Philippines ex Pipistrellus spp.

The Indian form was originally described as

B. scotti Hiregaudar and Bal, 1956 and was

later synonimised with B. majuscula by Theo-

dor, 1967.

8. Basilia (Basilia) sp.

Material examined: 7 66, 12 292, ex Myotis

peshwa, Vakkund, BELGAUM, 19.vi.71.

269

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

Notes: The species comes close to B. nana

Theodor and Moscana, 1954.

Subgenus Paracyclopodia Scott, 1917

9. Basilia (Paracyclopodia) roylii roylii (West-

wood, 1835)

Material examined:

philus temmincki.

SHIMOGA: 2, 64, 4 29, Sagar town, 11-v.72.

NORTH KANARA: 8 @ 6, 19 92, Nagire near Ger-

soppa, 4.x1.71. ‘

Notes: Recorded from India, Ceylon,

Burma and Malaya. Recorded hosts are

Scotophilus spp., Hesperotenus tickelli, Tylony-

cteris pachypus, Megaderma lyra and Pipistrel-

lus coromandra.

Subgenus Tripselia Scott, 1917

10. Basilia (Tripselia) Dlainvillii

(Speiser, 1907)

Material examined: 1 6, 1 @, ex Taphozous

longimanus, Ikkeri, SHIMOGA, 30.xii.71.

Notes: Earlier records are from _ India,

Burma, Ceylon, Borneo and Sumatra ex Tap-

hozous spp.

Genus Penicillidia Kolenati, 1863

Subgenus Penicillidia Kolenati, 1863

10; 2°65 23 2 os. ex Seoto-

amiculata

11. Penicillidia (Penicillidia) indica Scott,

1925

Material examined: 29 @&@4, 23 @92, ex M.

schreibersi.

BELGAUM :. 2) $6 63448 O090.7 7" Mhigadi 18a:

SHIMOGA: 2 ¢6¢6, 2 2@, Kotipura, 22.vii.71.

2018 $5 OS OE OS 7 OO: KRavaledurgas nes-

pectively on 18.11.72 and _ 3.iv.72.

Notes: Earlier records are from India ex

M. schreibersi and Ceylon ex M. schreibersi

and P. ceylonicus.

12. Penicillidia sp.

Material examined: 1 6, 1

Muroor, N. KANARA, 29,111.72.

On exe (Rh. Lepidus,

Subfamily Cyclopodiinae Theodor, 1967

Genus Eucampsipoda Kolenati, 1857

13. Kucampsipoda fatisterna Schuurmans

Stekhoven, 1938

270

SOCIETY Vols 76

Material examined: 169 4&4, 126 92, ex Rou-

settus leschenaulti and 1 ¢, ex H. lankadiva.

SHIMOGA: 6 @46,7 22; 4 66, 3 29%; Nada-

kalasi, respectively on 7.11.68 and i.vii.71l. 11 6 36,

16 9 2, Horabail, 17.11.68. 6 66,7 292, Mungar-

valli, 2140.68. (1a, 392) *Hegeodu (Sora)?

911.68, 1°45 2 (9 2 Patresaluy, 220682 Ge ore

15 (29) Wikkerig Owe iy 3), 1a ele? AUNun@ige=

sara, Oa. Gye Se Seen Onl Se auOr Bene or

Kangodu respectively, “ont, Oia anda lSaxag ie

TS GE O42 9512. Sa, 72 2 Matocoppay mespec-

tively on) 27:xe71 wand MS x7 ly 4 1a aie om Or oe Bile=

vir TO oxa7 179) 285 1949) Bandagaddes alg ox iilr

BELGAUM: 3 ¢4, 3 2 @, Thigadi, 21.vi.71. NorRTH

KANARA: 34/.4 6. 28: 2 OG whacaals (Saal 2 aa

8 2.9% ses Se 4 ono Muroomenespectively yon

7.iv.72 and 31.v.72. 1 @, ex H. lankadiva, Muroor,

Silvey 2s

Notes: Originally recorded under Eucamp-

sipoda hyrtlii ex R. leschenaulti from Orissa,

Assam and Bombay in India; ex R. seminu-

dus and Tylonycteris pachypus from Sri

Lanka and from a cave in Thailand. The

record from H. lankadiva is apparently of a

straggler.

14. Eucampsipoda sundaica Theodor, 1955

Material examined: 59 6 4, 37 22, ex Eonyc-

teris spelaea and 1 ¢, 1 2, ex habitat of the same

species in association with R. leschenaulti; 1 &,

ex H. speoris from the same habitat.

NORTH: KANARAH OY 24006. Gui SIS On Mi ia

13,2 O12 So 1Ss 682 oO] ANisineen@respectively: on

Sxi, and’ 10x72) and? T0173. be a ie trom

habitat on 8.xi.72. 6 ¢@ 6, 3 22; Muroor, 1.1.73.

bi 9, ex: A speoris, (Nisineer, 3030.73.

Notes: ‘The species has been recorded ex

C. sphinx from Madras, ex Pieropus from

Burma, in a cave from Thailand, ex E. spe-

laea from Malaya and Sumatra ex Rousettus

amplexicaudatus and E. spelaea_ glandifera

from Philippines, Mindanao and Palwan

(Theodor 1955 and 1967; Maa 1962). Re-

cently the species was also recorded ex E.

spelaea from Kumaon hills in the western

Himalayas (Bhat and Kulkarni 1974).

RECORDS OF NYCTERIBHDAE AND STREBLIDAE

Genus Cyclopodia Kolenati, 1863

Subgenus Cyclopodia Kolenati, 1863

15. Cyclopodia (Cyclopedia) sykesii

wood, 1835)

Material examined: 8 @ 4, 12 22, ex Pteropus

giganteus, Kumsi, SHIMOGA, 9.xi.71.

Notes: Recorded from several localities in

India, Sri Lanka and Burma_ ex Pteropus

giganteus. There is a single record from China.

It may be mentioned here that Cyclopodia

kalyania Chaudhari and Mitra, 1965 is a syno-

nym of C. sykesii according to Maa (1968).

(West-

Genus Leptocyclopodia Theodor, 1959

Subgenus Leptocyclopodia Theodor, 1959

16. Leptocyclopodia (Leptocyclopodia) — fer-

rarii ferrarii (Rondani, 1878)

Material examined: 16 @&, 7 22, ex Cynop-

terus sphinx.

SHIMOGA: 2 @ 6, Nadakalasi, 18.11.68. 1 6, 1 9,

Lingadahalli (Chipli), 9.11.68. 2 ¢@ ¢ Horabail, one

each! onl ii 7un68 sand 330.v:68: (lind, 2° 2 9, -Hen-

negere, 5.11.68. 1° 2, Sagar, J:vi.71. 3. ¢ 4, Kan-

PCOdUAl OX Mules CO uGe aa ere aaa 6 is, Os) Haro-

goppa, respectively on 27.x.71 and 18.xi.71.

Notes: Earlier records are ex C. sphinx

from several localities in India and one record

ex Megaderma lyra; ex C. brachyotis and C.

sphinx from Ceylon; ex C. sphinx from Thai-

Jand; ex C. hbrachyotis from Malaya, Sumatra

and Borneo; ex C. horsfieldi from Java; and

also recorded in Vietnam, Cambodia ex un-

det. hosts.

Family StreEBLIDAE Kolenat:. 1863

Subfamily Brachytarsinae Maa, 1965

Genus Megastrebla Maa, 1971

Subgenus Megastrebla Maa, 1971

17. Megastrebla (Megastrebla) parvior par-

vior Maa, 1962

Material examined: 17 @ 4, 17 28, ex R. les-

ehenaultr; 24, 2.3, 16.9 95 ex \E: spelaea; and

1 9, ex H. speoris.

NORMEMIKANARAG 2 Gugujnih Pein be A, od Qos

yoo 829; ex R. leschenaulti,'Muroor, res-

PECtiVely) OniNiSuxii7 1). 31iv.728 and) Sivi.72) 0247) a. 4:

16 92, ex E. spelaea, 1 2, ex H. speoris from

common habitat at Nislneer, 30.x1.73. SHIMOGA:

2 24, ex R. leschenaulti Kangodu, 15.x.71. 1 &,

Harogoppa, 27.x.71.

Notes: The species was originally recorded

under the name Nycteribosca gigantea (syn:

Brachytarsina gigantea) (Jobling, 1934) which

is apparently restricted to the bat genus Dob-

sonia (Maa, 1962) in New Guinea, New Bri-

tain and Solomon Islands. The species is des-

cribed under the present name parvior by Maa

(1962) on the basis of material collected in

Sumba ex R. amplexicaudatus and in Malaya

ex Hipposideros sp. and Batu caves, prob-

ably inhabited by Fonycteris spelaea. Recently

the species was transferred under the present

genus by Maa (1971).

Genus Brachytarsina Macquart, 1851

18. Brachytarsina amboinensis (Rondani,

1878)

Material examined: 50 64, 79 @@, ex M.

schreibersi.

BELGAUM: 7 64,6 293;4 46,5 29; Thigadi,

respectively on 18.vi.71 and 5.viii.71. SHIMOGA:

Oig 20 2.2 : Kotipura,.22.vi.71..18 6 6; 20 2 2;

12 @66, 28 2°; Kavaledurga, respectively on

1Sav7/2 sand: 3.1v.72.

Notes: According to the available records

the species has a geographic range from India

to Ryukyu Island, New Caledonia and New

South Wales. It occurs chiefly on Miniopte-

rus. Occassionally it has also been recorded

from Fonycteris, Rousetius, Rhinolophus and

Hipposideros. The records on these species

are apparently of stragglers due to the coha-

bitation of different bat species in the same

habitat.

19. Brachytarsina cucullata (Jobling, 1934)

Material examined: 3 84, 8 22, ex Taphozous

melanopogon.

BIJAPUR: 2 66, 7 29, Badami, 14.1x.71. HAs-

SAN aa eee a talebid.. Lovilie? 1.

Notes: Originally described upon a male

ex IT. melanopogon from Sri Lanka. It has

29/3

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

been recorded from Mindanao ex T. melano-

pogon and C. brachyotis, and from Malaya

ex I. melanopogon.

20. Brachytarsina modesta (Jobling, 1934)

Material examined: 17 @ &, 31 9 Q, ex R. lepi-

dus: sand: 28) < 4,30) GOs ex. Ro reuns:

NORTH KANARA: ex R. lepidus, 3 26, 5 2°

Muroor, 29.iii.72. Ex R. rouxi: 14 $6, 7 @&,

Muroor, 29.iii.72. 10 68, 5 92, Gokarn, 30.v.72.

SHIMOGA: ex R. lepidus: 1 2, Jog, 5.1.72. 12 66,

21 29, Kavaledurga 3.iv.72. Ex R. rouxi: 1 &,

Haravadike, 18.vi.68. 11 2 ¢@, Ikkeri, 3.v.71. 4 ¢ 4,

6 @@, Gilalagundi, 14.vii.71. SOUTH KANARA:

2 Aa A. DO ON texa IRS vepiaus: Kamalashile,

10.iv.73.

Notes: First described by Jobling ex R.

rouxi from Sri Lanka and subsequently the

species was recorded in India from the same

species of bat (Hiregaudar and Bal 1956).

21. Brachytarsina pygialis (Jobling, 1934)

Material examined: 19 & 6, 40 22, ex H. lan-

kadiva and 2 22 ex H. speoris.

BELGAUM: 1 @, 1 @, Thigadi, 18.vi.71. CHITRA-

DURGA: 1 @, Chandravalli, 25.vi.71. HASSAN:

7 @@, Banavara, 28.vii.71. NORTH KANARA: eX

HH. lankadiva: 3.64. 5 2 os 2 Asal? 3 Ger-

soppa, respectively on 15.iii.71 and 2.x1.71. 10 ¢ 4,

15 2°.) Muroor, 3i.v.72. (Ex, Be. speoris 132), 202),

Gersoppa, 15.iii.71. SOUTH KANARA: 3 6 6, 10 2 @,

ex H. lankadiva, Kamalashile, 10.iv.73.

Notes: Originally described on specimens

collected ex Hl. lankadiva from Sri “Lanka.

From the present record it appears to be as-

sociated with H. lankadiva. Record from H.

speoris is apparently of stragglers due to coh-

abitation of the bats.

Genus Raymondia Frauenfeld, 1856

22. Raymondia joblingi Hiregaudar and Bal,

1956

Material examined: 45 66, 56 2 @, ex R. rouxi

and (2 a6, 202 Cex uk. lepidus:

coorG: 3 424, 3 92, Gadduge Gate, 31.vii.71.

NORTH KANARA: 3 @2@, Kagaal, 5.x1.71. 5 24,

4 9°. Muroor, 29.10: 72.18 36.6. 20, ooo. (Gokarn,

30.vi72. SHIMOGA: 1 @, Haravadike, 20.11.68. 1 9,

Thoragodu, (11v-68: 41 eo er eso OR

ane

1 ¢; Kasaraguppe, respectively on 31.v, 13.vi, 26.vi.

68: 1 Sy eo 109 9. kkert,” 33v- 71 esis een -

Gilalagundi, 14.vii.71. 1 ¢@, 2 92, Byrekoppa,

25.xd. 7h, Ex TR. lepidus: 2 (oo. 2 ome tals.

5.14.72. 1 @, Kavaledurga, 3.iv.72.

Notes: First described from India ex R.

rouxi by Hiregaudar and Bal (1956). Ap-

pears to be associated with R. rouxi. R. lepi-

dus and R. rouxi are commonly found in as-

sociation with each other.

23. Raymondia molossa (Giglioli, 1864)

Material examined: 211 @ 6, 206 2 9, ex Mega-

derma lyra.

SHIMOGA: 14 ¢ 4, 11 22, Gilalagundi, 14.vii.71.

6 2°, Bileyur, 19.xi.71. 42 @ 4, 29 92, Gava-

toor near Ripponpeth, 2.xii.71. 15 ¢@6, 18 2 @,

Kudroor, 9.xii.71. 35 ¢@6, 35 22, Kangodu,

11,72. 54 "6 20056 9:9} Wd 226.712 leone >

28 @2@@, 4xBandalike, 26.v.72. NORTH KANARA:

24 Susy, 123) 19 Oe sBanavasic lw valle

Notes: The species has been recorded from

Sri Lanka and India under the name R. lobu-

lata (Speiser, 1900) by Jobling (1930). Con-

sequently the species is designated as R.

molossa comb. nov. by Maa (1969).

24. Raymondia pagodarum Speiser, 1900

Material examined: 26 66, 19 29, ex AHip-

posideros spp.

DHARWAR: 4 6¢, 4 22, ex H. bicolor, Uppin-

betgeri, 4.viii.71. 1 6, 2 92, ex W. bicolor, Nar-

gund, 13.ix.71. NORTH KANARA: 1 4, 6 @@, ex

Hi... bicolor, Gokarn, 30iv.7/2. 1S @.4,5-5, 2.2, vex

HH; speoris,:.Muroor, 29:12 516 42) 9 OF rex

H. lankadiva, Muroor, 31.v.72.

Notes: The species has been recorded from

Hipposideros spp. and Rhinolophus spp. from

India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Southeast Asia and

Pacific Islands.

DISCUSSION

A total number of 24 species of bats have

been collected during the survey. Sixteen spe-

cies of them had one or more species of pupi-

paran parasites and eight of them did not yield

any pupiparan parasite. The details of host

RECORDS OF NYCTERIBHDAE AND STREBLIDAE

Rousettus leschenaulti

Pteropus giganteus

Cynopterus sphinx

Eonycteris spelaea

Rhinopoma_ hardwickei

Taphozous longimanus

Taphozous melanopogon

Taphozous theobaldi

Taphozous kachhensis

Megaderma spasma

Megaderma lyra

Rhinolophus rouxi

Rhinolephus lepidus

Rhinolophus luctus

Hipposideros speoris

Hipposideres lankadiva

Hipposideros bicolor

Myotis peshwa

Pipistrellus coromandra

Pipistrellus ceylonicus

Tylonycteris pachypus

Scotophilus temmincki

Miniopterus_ schreibersi

Kerivoula picta

HostT-PARASITE LIST

Eucampsipoda latisterna

Megastrebla parvior parvior

Cyclopodia sykesii

Leptocyclopodia ferrarii ferrarii

Eucampsipoda_ sundaica

Megastrebla parvior parvior

Basilia blainvillii amiculata

Brachytarsina cucullata

—

Raymondia molossa

Stylidia phillipsi

Brachytarsina modesta

Raymondia joblingi

Nycteribia parvula (straggler?)

Stylidia sp. 1 (straggler?)

Stylidia sp. 2

Penicillidia sp.

Brachytarsina modesta

Raymondia joblingi

Stylidia ceylonica (straggler?)

Brachytarsina_ pygialis

Raymondia pagodarum

Eucampsipoda sundaica (straggler?)

Megastrebla parvior parvior (straggler?)

Stylidia ceylonica

Eucampsipoda latisterna (straggler?)

Brachytarsina pygialis

Raymondia pagodarum

Stylidia phillipsi (straggler?)

Raymondia pagodarum

Basilia sp.

Basilia majuscula

Basilia roylii roylii

Nycteribia allotopa

Nycteribia parvula

Penicillidia indica

Brachytarsina amboinensis

213

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

and parasite associations are presented in the

accompanying list. Among the species found

negative included a few specimens of Tapho-

zous theobaldi, Rhinolophus luctus, Pipistrel-

lus coromandra, Tylonycteris pachypus and

Kerivoula picta; and more than a dozen spe-

cimens of each of the Rhinopoma hardwickei,

Taphozous kachhensis, Megaderma spasma.

India has a representation of more than a

hundred species of bats. Approximately 40

species have been recorded from the present

study area. The present sample includes 24

common species. Others are apparently rare

Or more cryptic in their habit.

A more intensive survey of bat parastites

is necessary to have a comprehensive list of

Indian bat pupipara.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. N. P. Gupta, Direc-

tor, Virus Research Centre, Poona, for con-

stant encouragement and for extending all the

facilities, and to the staff of Virus Research

Centre, Field Station, Sagar for their assist-

ance during the study.

REFERENCES

BHAT, H. R. AND KULKARNI, S. M. (1974): A

survey of haematophagous arthropods in western

Himalayas, Sikkim and hiil districts of West Ben-

gal—Pupipara. Indian J. Med. Res. 62 (8): 1121-

1133:

HIREGAUDAR, L. S. AND BaL, D. V. (1956): Some

ectoparasites of bats from India. Agra Univ. J.

Res. Sct) 5 (1) =) a-1's4:

JOBLING, B. (1930): A revision of the genus

Raymondia Frauenfeld (Diptera, Pupipara, Strebli-

dae). Parasitology 22: 283-301.

(1934): A revision of the genus

Nycteribosca Speiser (Diptera, Pupipara, Strebli-

dae). Parasitology 26: 64-97.

Maa, T. C. (1962): Records and descriptions of

Nycteribiidae and Streblidae (Diptera). Pacific Ins.

4 (2): 417-436.

(1965): An interim world list of

batflies (Diptera: Nycteribiidae and Streblidae).

J. Med. Ent. 1 (4): 377-386.

(1966): Partial revision of the

Cyclopodiinae (Diptera: Nycteribiidae). Pacific

Ins. 8 (3): 648-685.

274

(1968) :

Nycteribiidae).

Addition to the Cyclopo-

diinae (Diptera: Pacific Ins. 10

Ge ale? 3:

(1969): The identity and type host

of Strebla molossa Giglioli (Diptera: Streblidae).

Pacific Ins. 1] (2): 495-496.

(1971): Review of the Streblidae

(Diptera) parasitic on Megachiropteran bats. Paci-

fic Ins. Monogr. 28: 213-243.

THEOvoR, O. (1955): On the genus Eucampsi-

poda Kol. and Dipseliopoda n.g. (Nycteribiidae,

Diptera). Parasitology 45: 195-229.

(1967): An illustrated catalogue

of the Rothschild collection of Nycteribiidae (Dip-

tera) in the British Museum (Natural History),

with keys and short descriptions for the identifica-

tion of subfamilies, genera, species and subspecies.

Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London. pp. 506; pl: 5.

(1968a): Revision of the Strebli-

dae (Diptera) of the Ethiopian region. Trans R.

Ent. Socs ‘Lond, 120. (16): 313-373:

(1968b): New species and new re-

cords of Nycteribiidae from the Ethiopian, Orien-

tal and Pacific regions. Parasitology 58: 247-276.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE RISHI GANGA VALLEY

AND THE NANDA DEVI SANCTUARY

T. M. REED?

(With two text-figures)

The Nanda Devi Sanctuary, Garhwal Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh was visited by a party

from Cambridge University June-August 1977. Observations were mace of the birds

around Joshimath, on the trek to and from the Sanctuary & within the Sanctuary.

Details are given for the vegetation and birds of the area. 93 species were seen; some

are new records for the area, some are extensions beyond documented altitudinal

ranges.

The Rishi Ganga is a tributary of the Dhauli

Ganga, draining the Nanda Devi sanctuary

area of the Garhwal Himalaya (Fig. 1). The

river, which has cut a gorge several thousand

feet in depth, is rarely visited: the only visit-

ors being international climbing expeditions

which pass through the gorge to reach their

base camps. So far no details have been pub-

lished on either the fauna or flora of the area,

except Lavkumar’s observations around Joshi-

math (Lavkumar 1956).? The present paper

is an attempt to partially remedy this state

of affairs by detailing the birds seen in the

Sanctuary, on the walks in and out, and for

the short period spent in the town of Joshi-

math prior to the visit to the Sanctuary.

The Sanctuary (Fig. 2), a high level, moun-

tain girt, basin at 13,000-14,000 feet is reach-

ed by a nine day trek starting from Lata vil-

1 Accepted February 1978.

2 Dept. of Zoology, Edward Grey Institute of

Field Ornithology, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1

3PS.

* Some more data on the fauna has been procur-

ed by Mr. Lavkumar during his WWE-sponsored

reconnaisance of the Nanda Devi Sanctuary in

May-June 1977.

lage. The trek crosses several small ranges

thereby avoiding the very difficult section of

the lower Gorge. The path eastwards into the

basin passes through a variety of vegetation

types.

Above Lata village oak changes quickly into

a mixture of deodar and blue pine, the only

open areas being clearings fired for grazing.

The path from Belta Karak to Lata Karak

involves a rapid ascent through lichen draped

deodar and pine. From this stage onward

undergrowth is typically sparse or absent,

shrubs only found where soils are either too

shallow or unstable for tree growth. The

forest then changes to a dense rhododendron

forest by 12,000 feet, which itself gives way

to alpine meadows. The meadows are dominat-

ed by the colourful annuals of the Rosacae

family.

The meadows pass quickly into montane

grassland with tufted grasses, lichens and squat

evergreen shrubs. The grasslands are grazed

as far as Dibrugheta by summer flocks from

Lata village. In this high area, with passes at

15,000 feet, there are few birds to be seen

except for an occasional Impeyan pheasant

Lophophorus impejanus, wren Troglodytes

275

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

UPPER GARHWAL © adapted from Lavkumar (1956)

Pandakesunar

? i 4 1°? & 63s

ee ons?

en <(hegee ier

bm es 6 ous aur §

3 Glacier

“~’ mountain range

A peak, height In metres

Sale: 1centimetre = 16 Kilometres

Fig. 1. Nanda Devi sanctuary area of the Garhwal Himalaya.

276

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE RISHI GANGA VALLEY AND NANDA DEVI SANCTUARY

troglodytes or pipit Anthus spp.

A rapid descent from the mountain ridge

passes through a zone of alpine flowers, then

a belt of scrub and birch Betula utilis before

returning to the wet forest surrounding the

camp of Dibrugheta. The forest here is slight-

ly drier than on the other side of the range,

a trend that continues into the Gorge and

Sanctuary. This desiccation is progressive.

since, aS more and more obstacles bar the

way that main monsoon winds are quickly

drained of much of their load. By the time

the monsoon winds reach the Sanctuary the

rain is light and in small amount compared

to the start of the trek.

From Dibrugheta the path to Deodi climbs

back up to the grassland, undulating up and

down before finally returning to the coniferous

forest. It is noticeable that deciduous trees

dominate only the ravines and their immediate

surrounds, conifers dominating all other areas

below the tree line.

The waik to Ramani is through an admix

of rhododendron and birch before returning

to pines which dominate beyond the Trisul

river, only reverting to birch on the outskirts

of the camp area. Beyond Ramani there is

little or no tree cover, what there is mainly

birch in the base of the gorge, along its tri-

butaries or in inaccessible clefts. The dominant

vegetation slowly changes to a sparse cover

of montane grasses and squat Ericacae. Only

towards the margins of the Sanctuary does

scrub juniper Juniper communis appear and

quickly becomes the dominant cover. By the

time the Sanctuary is reached, at the con-

fluence of the Rishi Gangas, the soil is notice-

-ably dry with aromatic herbs present in large

numbers for the first time. The two branches

of the Rishi Ganga are very similar. In each

there is a dominant juniper cover which gives

way altitudinally to grasses, prone mosses and

lichens, and on riverine soils to annual herbs

and dwarf willow Salix spp. Both valleys are

blocked by glaciers. The woody vegetation ex-

tends along the sides beyond the tongue of

the glacier before changing slowly to squat

alpines and finally to lichens.

The observations listed below were made by

members of the Cambridge Garhwal Himalaya

expedition in the period early July to late

August 1977. Due to pressure of time, and

the vagaries of the monsoon, observations on

the walks in and out of the Sanctuary were

rather brief. By far the largest period of ob-

servation was carried out in the Base Camp

valley (North Rishi Ganga) and on the slopes

of the surrounding peaks.

The valley is surprisingly rich in birds; 43

species being identified, with many of these

close to or beyond documented altitudinal li-

mits. The major stronghold is the scrub juni-

per. In the juniper were warblers Phylloscopus

spp., Rubythroats Hrithacus pectoralis, Gros-

beaks Mycerobas spp., Redstarts Phoenicurus

spp., and Rose Finches. The other main ha-

bitats used by birds were scrub willow and

areas of grass and rock debris.

A number of species were observed breed-

ing until the second week of August when

there were great numbers of fledglings about.

The first movements out of the valley were

taking place by the third week of August.

During this period several species, previousiv

absent were observed moving down-valley, be-

ing first observed high up on the mountain

sides and on the glacier margins. Species such

as the hoopoe Upupa epops and warblers had

presumably come over the adjacent divide from

Tibet before descending down the Rishi Ganga

en route to lowland wintering quarters.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

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218

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE RISHI GANGA VALLEY

LIST

Anser spp. Geese. A skein seen flying at about

24,000 feet near a col on Nanda Devi.

Milvus migrans Black Kite. Several seen in the

vicinity of Joshimath. Very infrequent com-

pared to Lavkumar’s notes 1956.

Aquila chrysaetos Golden Eagle. A single aduit

above Lata village. Two further adults seen

in the Sanctuary at Pataikan (15,400 feet).

A single bird observed near the Changbang

base camp. An adult was mobbed by 150

chough Pyrrhocorax spp. on the bluffs above

base camp.

Aquila nipalensis Steppe Eagie. A single bird

circling just above the forest margins at

Joshimath.

Aegypius monachus Black Vulture. A_ pair

circling in the valley between Bhuj Gara

and Ramani.

Gyps himalayensis Himalayan Griffon Vulture.

Common on thermals above Joshimath.

Adults and juveniles seen together below the

town. Several on most days above base

camp, occasionally mobbed by Redbilled

chough Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax.

Gyps bengalensis Whitebacked Vulture. A

single bird above Joshimath.

Neophronm percnopterus Egyptian Vulture.

Four to five adults and juveniles were com-

monly seen flying the length of the Joshi-

math valley.

Gypaetus barbatus Lammergeier or Bearded

Vulture. Up to three seen together in the

Base camp valley, with one occasion of two

adults and a juvenile flying along the bluff-

line. An adult bird was observed ‘bone

dropping’ for a period of fifteen minutes.

The bird carried a pelvic bone aloft, circl-

ed, dropped the bone from a height of 300

feet then swung down to collect the bone

before repeating the performance. The pro-

AND NANDA DEVI SANCTUARY

cess was carried out five times before the

bone was sufficiently fractured. Before each

drop the bird completed an average of two

circles to gain sufficient height.

Faico peregrinus Peregrine Falcon. A single

bird stooping on a finch in the valley below

Lata village.

Faico tinmunculus Kestrel. Up to two in the

Base camp valley. On one occasion a single

bird mobbed by ten chough. Also seen at

Joshimath.

Lerwa jerwa Snow Partridge. A single bird at

15,500 feet in Base Camp valley giving an

alarm call.

Tetraogalius tibetanus Tibetan Snow Cock. An

adult and four fledglings at 16,500 feet.

Lophophorus impejamus [mpeyan pheasant.

Three flew from cliffs near Lata Karak,

calling vociferously as they descended.

Lophura leucomeiana Kalji Pheasant. A pair

in the forest near Belta Karak.

Columba ‘euconota Snow Pigeon. Several

pairs in the Base Camp valley. Birds com-

monly seen in ones or twos. One individual

roosted for most of the day on a river cliff.

Columba rupestris Hill Pigeon. Two seen, one

of which was crossing a mountain ridge at

17,000 feet.

Columba livia Blue Rock Pigeon. Single birds

seen flying in the lower Rishi Gorge. Not

noted beyond Deodi. Absent in the Joshi-

math region.

Coliecalia brevirestris Edible-nest Swiftlet. A

single bird above the forest at Joshimath.

Upupa epops Hoopoe. A single carrying food

at Joshimath. Not noted in the Sanctuary

until the end of August, when numbers were

seen descending the valley, being noted first

high on the mountains above the glacier

line. They had probably crossed the moun-

tain range from Tibet.

219

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Picoides macei Fulvousbreasted Pied Wood-

pecker. Three on a dead tree in mixed forest

above Joshimath.

Delichon urbica House martin. Smail flocks of

up to 20 around cliffs at 15,000 feet on

August 1. Three broods on overhanging clifi

face at Bhuj Gara being fed on August 26.

Lanius schach Rufousbacked shrike. A single

bird on telegraph lines at Joshimath and

one between Lata and Joshimath.

Oriolus oriolus Golden Oriole. A single male

on a wall at 7,000 feet.

Oviolus traillii Maroon Oriole. In forests near

Belia.

Acridotheres tristis Common Myna. Common

in Joshimath but few compared to lower

altitudes. A single bird mobbed a kestrel

at Joshimath.

Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax Redbilled Chough

& P. graculus Yeliowbilled Chough. First

seen in the Rishi Gorge at Ramani. Found

singly or in flocks in the Sanctuary. Flocks

built up from the single numbers of the early

morning into flocks of up to 150 by late

afternoon. ‘Play parties’ were usually mixed

and led by P. pyrrhocorax.

Corvus macrorhynchos Jungle Crow. Many in

and around Joshimath wheeling in thermals.

Also in the fields around Lata.

Cervus corene Carrion Crow. A pair above

the alpine meadow flying towards a cliffline

at Dibrugheta.

Corvus corax Raven.

Joshimath and Lata.

Pericrecotus ethologus Longtailed Minivet.

Several in a mixed flock of minivets in the

forest above Joshimath. Also seen above

Lata and near Deodi.

Pericrocotus solaris Yellowthroated Minivet.

Several in a mixed flock above Joshimath.

Pericrocotus roseus Rosy Minivet. Several in

a mixed flock above Joshimath.

Single bird around

280

Pycnonoius leucegemys Whitecheeked Bulbul.

In open scrub in a clearing in the forest

above Joshimaih and in scrub between Lata

and Joshimath. |

Hypsipetes madagascariensis Gray Bulbul. A

single bird on telegraph lines in Joshimath.

Heterophasia capistrata Blackcapped Sibia. A

single bird followed by a party of Sibias

in the forest above Joshimath.

Muscicapa latirostris Brown Flycatcher. A

single bird was caught during ringing work

in the Base Camp valley.

Muscicapa westermanni Little Pied Flycatcher.

A single male in the forest above Joshimath.

Muscicapa thalassina Verditer Flycatcher. A

pair on the forest margins at Joshimath.

Rhipidura hypoxantha Yellowbellied Fantail

Flycatcher. A pair in pine trees above Di-

brugheta camp. |

Rhipidura albicollis Whitethroated Fantail

Flycatcher. A single bird near Deodi in

pine forest.

Phylioscopus affinis Tickell’s Leaf Warbler.

Present and nesting in good numbers in the

Sanctuary in July and August. Nests pre-

dominantly in scrub juniper, dwarf spiked

shrubs or occasionally in willow. A single

bird was caught and ringed. It raised a

brood of four from a nest in a bush two

feet above the ground. First movements out

of the valley began in the second week of

August when there were large numbers of

juveniles being fed.

Phylioscopus fuligiventer Smoky Leaf Warbler.

Two seen in the Base Camp valley in river

side scrub.

Phylloscopus trochiloides Greenish warbler.

Seen moving down the Sanctuary in mixed

warbler flocks in the third week of August.

Abroscopus superciliaris Yellowbellied warb-

ler. A single bird in the forest above Joshi-

math.

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE RISHI GANGA VALLEY AND NANDA DEVI SANCTUARY

Regulus regulus Goldcrest. In pine and birch

forest between Deodi and Ramani at 12,000

feet.

Erithacus pectoralis Himalayan Rubythroat.

Two pairs in the Base Camp valley. Imma-

ture birds seen being fed in the third week

of August.

Erithacus chrysaeus Golden Bush Robin. Seen

in scrub at Dibrugheta.

Phoenicurus caeruleocephalus Bluefronted

Redstart. Two pairs in the area of burnt

juniper scrub near the expedition base camp,

with a further pair towards the glacier mar-

gins.

Phoenicurus ochruros Black Redstart. Two

pairs seen in the Base Camp valley. One

nest found in a tributary ravine. Also a

pair observed feeding young on the moraine

near the snout of Changabang glacier.

Phoenicurus erythrogaster Giildenstadt’s Red-

start. A male on scree near Changabang

moraine.

Chaimarrornis leucocephalus Whitecapped

Redstart. Common on all running water

above 8,000 feet. Two to three pairs in the

Base Camp valley with distinct territorial

battles. A nest found 18 feet above the

river overhung by grass, and made of dead

grass and sedges. Both parents, attended

the nest, the male being the more regular

of the two.

Rhyacornis fuliginosus Plumbeous Redstart.

A male and female on a moraine by the

North Rishi Glacier.

Enicurus scouleri Little Forktail. A single bird

on boulders in a ravine near Deodi, stand-

ing bobbing its tail.

Enicurus maculatus Spotted Forktail. Single

birds at Belta, Deodi and Dibrugheta.

Sexicota torquata Stone Chat. Several in

scrubby vegetation on the outskirts of Joshi-

math.

Monticola rufiventris Chestnutbellied Rock

Thrush. A pair in oak forest above Joshi-

math.

Monticela solitarius Blue Rock Thrush. Single

birds in a fieid outside Joshimath and in the

Sanctuary at 16,000 feet.

Myiophoneus caeruleus Whistling thrush. On

most streams. Commonly seen from Ra-

mani upwards. Song heard from high above

the river.

Tardaus boulbow! Greywinged Blackbird. A

pair feeding young in a nest in a rock cleft

in scrub on the forest margins above Joshi-

math.

Turdus merula Blackbird. A single male sit-

ting on a bush near Lata.

Troglodytes troglodytes Wren. Common in

scree areas, on cliffs and crags up to 16,000

feet. Much darker than the European form.

Cinclus pallasii Brown Dipper. Seen on the

Trisul and North Rishi Ganga rivers. Also

noted on a braided section of the Changa-

bang outwash river.

Prunella collaris Alpine Accentor. On bare

rocks above the tree line at Dibrugheta.

Also a single bird on scree above the base

camp.

Prunella strophiata Rufousbreasted Accentor.

Two singles seen hopping amongst rocks

and herbs on a damp riverside fan in the

Base Camp valley.

Prunella atrogularis Blackthroated Accentor.

Two in field near Lata.

Prunella immaculata Maroonbacked Accentor.

Single birds in fields near Joshimath.

Parus monticolus Greenbacked Tit. Seen in

Single bird in fields near Joshimath.

Parus ater Coal Tit. In forest above Joshi-

math and in a mixed flock at Lata Karak.

Also one in pines at 13,000 ft in the Gorge.

Parus rufonuchalis Simla Black Tit. In coni-

fers at Dibrugheta.

281

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Parus modestus Yeillowbrowed Tit. In forest

above Joshimath.

Tichodrema muraria Wall Creeper. Several

seen in the Base Camp valley either on

river cliffs or feeding on high turf and scree

fields.

Certhia familiaris Northern Tree Creeper. Sin-

gie birds seen in the oak and pine forest

above Joshimath and at 13,000 feet in the

Gorge.

Certhia himalayana Himalayan Tree Creeper.

A single bird in the forest at 8250 feet.

Anthus hodgsoni Hodgson’s ‘Tree Pipit. In

low vegetation in the Base Camp valley.

Anthus sylvanus Upland Pipit. Several seen at

13-14,000 feet working over morainic vege-

tation.

Anthus roseatus Rosebreasted Pipit. Adult

observed feeding a fledgling near base camp.

Miotacilia alba Pied Wagtail. One or two oc-

casionally seen in the vicinity of the glacier

snout.

Passer domesticus House Sparrow. Common

around buildings in Joshimath.

Mycerobas affinis Ailied Grosbeak. A single

male working through low forest cover in

the forest above Joshimath.

Mycerobas carnipes Whitewinged Grosbeak.

Occasionally seen in the Base Camp valiey.

A pair observed feeding in juniper scrub

at 14,500 feet was joined by a further bird.

Single males and females seen foraging at

lower heights.

Carduelis spimoides Himalayan Goldfinch.

Common in fields and gardens around Joshi-

math.

Acanthis flavirostris Tibetan Twite. Single

birds seen in and around base camp.

Leucosticte memoricola Hodgson’s Mountain

Finch. Single birds seen in a ravine in the

Base camp valley on two separate occa-

sions, flitting from rock to rock and ledge

to ledge, with a further pair in the vicinity

of the Changabang Base Camp.

Carpodacus erythrinus Common Rosefinch.

Pairs seen frequently in the valley.

Ca:pedacus nipaleasis Nepal Rosefinch. Pair

in junipers at 14,000 feet.

Carpodacus rubicilloides Eastern Great Rose-

finch. A male and also a pair seen infre-

quently in the vailey.

Carpedacus puniceus Redbreasted Rosefinch.

Male observed in juniper and on rhubarb

plants.

Propyrrhula subhimachala Juniper Finch.

Two pairs seen near base camp with the

males frequently observed disputing terri-

tory irom juniper or willow song posts.

Emberiza cia Rock Bunting. Several pairs in

the valley. Secretive but approached close

to the camp. Aliso noted at Deodi and Di-

brugheta.

Emberiza fucata Greyheaded Bunting. A male

was seen for a ten minute period in fields

outside Joshimath and flushed several times.

A maie was also observed in a bush on a

field boundary at Lata. :

Melophus lathami Crested Bunting. Several

seen at Deodi.

REFERENCE

LAvVKUMAR, K. S. (1956): A contribution to the

ornithology of Garhwal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

55:4:(3) 315-29,

URBANIZATION IN NEST BUILDING OF INDIAN

HOUSE CROWS (CORVUS SPLENDENS VIEULOT)*

RupoL_F ALTEvoGT? AND T. A. Davis?

(With sixteen figures)

Regarding the normal type of nest (-build-

ing) in the Indian house crow, one finds the

statement by Salim Ali (1972), that the “nest

(consists of) a platform of twigs frequently

intermixed with iron wire, with a cup-like de-

pression lined with tow, coir fibre, etc., 10

feet or more up in a tree, sometimes several

nests in the same tree...The koel commonly

lays its eggs in crows’ nests” (p. 91).

In 1927, E. H. Aitken reported that “in

April and May crows make nests of sticks

and line them with coir, or horsehair abstract-

ed from a mattress, or even with soda-water

wire stolen from the butler’s little hoard. In

these they bring up three or four callow crimi-

nals in their own image” (p. 61).

While this statement by EHA refers to the

fancy city of Dustipore, probably a rural site

in Northern India, the same author relates the

crow situation in Bombay as follows: ‘‘In

Bombay the crow population has multiplied to

such an extent of late years that the compe-

tition for nesting materials has become terrible.

In Marine Lines, as the season advances, the

crows patrol the road or the garden walks,

waiting for sticks to fall, or they get up into

the trees and tug at twigs which are still green

and will not come off. It is not many years

1 Accepted January 1979.

2 Zoological Institute, Miinster University, Bade-

str. 9, D-4400 Miinster, Federal Republic of

Germany.

3 Indian Statistical Institute,

Calcutta 700035, India.

208) Bi Road:

since a pair living in the Fort discovered a

real El Dorado in an optician’s shop. They

worked at that mine so stealthily and cleverly

that before they were discovered they had

succeeded in abstracting about Rs. 400 worth

of spectacle frames which they had worked

up into a very superior nest, combining dur-

ability and lightness like a “‘helical tube”. The

Museum of the Bombay Natural History

Society contains a ponderous nest made en-

tirely of iron wire, taken apparently from the

ruins of railway fences’? (p. 122, 2. edition).

From a statement by Salim Ali, the editor of

the 3-edition in 1947, it can be gathered that

this EHA-statement refers to about 1905 (the

2-edition featuring no year of publication).

In 1947, Salim Ali quotes from “‘The Birds

of Bombay and Salsette’ (by S. Ali and H.

Abdulali) that “‘crows nesting on the over-

head wire carriers of the newly electrified

suburban section of the...railway (in 1922)

held up the trains by the iron wire used as

building material causing short circuit. A new

type of insulated bracket had to be devised

specially to overcome this unforeseen nuis-

ance’.

There are a few further notes on this pecu-

liar habit of wire nesting in Indian crows

(Hume, 1889; Dewar, 1929; Baker, 1932;

Lamba, 1963), Indian doves (Walsh, 1924),

Indian bulbuls (Lamba, 1968), and the latest

report by Lamba (1976) states that “‘dry,

usually thorny sticks are picked up from under

the trees, hedges around the fields and farms,

283

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

and from the firewood-piles of poorer people.

If fallen sticks are not readily available, twigs

are wrenched off the trees. Occasionally metal

strips and wires are also brought in for in-

corporation in the outer framework’’.

In the non-Indian crows, this wire-nidifi-

cation seems to be quite an exception: only

Walford (1931) and De Vries (1953) report

of Corvus c. corone, in two nests of which

apart from rabbit bones (“‘a whole set of ribs

being fixed in on one side”’) mainly steel wire

had been used. One nest weighed 1845 g

(quoted from Melde, 1969). Still, the nest

found by Walford “was heavily lined with

wool”.

Apparently, since these earlier reports the

situation in the big cities of India has changed

as far as Corvus splendens is concerned, and

it is for this reason that the following notes,

observations and preliminary data are report-

ed here. Moreover, apparently no numerical

considerations have been done on the physical

properties of crows’ wire nests. We plan to

extend our studies throughout other regions

of India in the near future.

When visiting Calcutta or Bombay, one is

struck by the fact that hundreds of nests of

Corvus splendens are based on electric posts

in crowded streets (fig. 1). Most of these nests

are built exclusively or partly with metallic

wire and pieces of flat sheet. A variety of nest-

ing sites can be noticed, the street lamp prob-

ably being the most familiar and most often

used. Sign boards on buildings, window sills,

between cornices of residential buildings, on

the posts supporting power lines of electric

trains, on the ceiling of railway station plat-

forms (Howrah!) and waiting halls are some

other colonized sites (fig. 2).

Sometimes many crows compete for one

favourable site: on top of a five-storeyed

building on the side of a busy road (Barrack-

284

pore Trunk Road) an illuminated signboard

attracts four to five pairs of crows every year

fighting for possession of this site. Ultimately,

they compromise, each pair sharing a porticn,

and they make a sort of a community nest

(fig. 3).

In some of the road-crossings in Calcutta,

mercury lights on tall posts (fig. 4) have just

been introduced. The different hands starting

from the terminal of the post slant upwards

providing a safe platform for the crow to

establish a nest between them. On ordinary

lamp posts, nests are built where there are

some joints or projections. In such positions,

it is not possible to establish twigs, but

thin wire, already bent or twisted by the

crow itself (fig. 5), is suitable for founding

a nest. There is, however, no difficulty to esta-

blish a metal nest on trees because of their

branching nature: from one large mango tree

(Mangifera indica) growing in the heart of

Calcutta, adjoining the offices of the Reserve

Police at Baranagar, twentyfour nests were

collected, all built mostly or exclusively with

metal (fig. 6).

Normally in rural areas, the house crow

builds nests with only dry twigs which may

include dry, sharp and branched brambles.

The bird also makes a cup inside the nest

and lines it with fibre of pliable twigs (fig. 7).

Seldom it uses rags and grass blades (see also

the above quotations by earlier authors). The

nesting season of Corvus splendens in the

north-eastern paris of India begins in Febru-

ary and extends upto June, after which the

heavy monsoon starts.

The use of wire and/or other types of metal

depends mostly on the locality and availabi-

lity of such material. Apparently, however,

also a learning process in the sense of handing

over the metal habit from crow to crow is

concerned. Crows in general do not fetch their

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE I

Altevogt & Davis: Nest of House Crow

Above: Fig. 1. Wire-nest of Corvus splendens in a busy street in Calcutta. Below:

Fig. 3. Close-up view of the Indian house crow’s work: wire and wood in a

community nest.

‘991] peop & UO S}soU [RII “9 “BIQ :7Ysly

‘suapuajds snasoD JO sou-dIIM Jo [iejoq ‘Z ‘BI :sfaT

MOI WNOH JO ISON :SIARC ® ISOAII[V

{ ALVIg QZ ‘00S “LSIH “LVN AVEWOg ‘f

URBANIZATION IN NEST BUILDING OF INDIAN HOUSE CROWS

nesting material from long distances (see also

Kuhk 1931, Wittenberg 1963, and Melde

1969). While wire seems to be handled effec-

tively though laboriously, other odd-shaped

metal objects cannot make a firm and uniform-

sized nest. Thicker wires are avoided because

they are too heavy to be carried upwards and

perhaps because the bird cannot give it the

necessary shape. It is surprising, however, that

some crows have a fascination for aluminium

shirt hangers even though their wires are too

thick for the bird to bend. Such hangers were

collected by a friend in South Calcutta from

a nest founded on the roof of his house (fig.

8).

Some metal nests were pulled down in 1974,

but during the 1975 breeding season at most

of those sites new nests of approximately the

same weight were rebuilt. The following mate-

rials were recorded from metal nests:

1) Dry twigs and brambles at varying pro-

portions;

2) Inner cup made of thin shoots and vege-

table fibres (fig. 9);

3) Iron wire, often rusted, pliable and

of a particular thickness (ranging between 1.5

and 2.0 mm). The preferred wire is usually

25-30 cm long, each weighing not more than

30 grams (fig. 10);

4) Thin strips of metal, perforated flat

sheets, grills, expanded metal, springs, coils,

discs, cycle pedals, and even aluminium shirt

hangers.

Table 1 gives some information on ten

nests built entirely with metallic wire. The

nests are arranged in descending order of

weight. The weight of a nest varied from

about 1 kg to more than 6 kg. The number

of wires per nest ranged from 91 to 644. There

was a proportional range in the total length

of wire per nest which was between 43.76 m

and 265.32 m. The wires did not vary much

in thickness (table 1). These ten nests were

collected from a locality covering a distance

of one kilometre.

The data on the number, weight and cumu-

lative length of the wire for the ten nests are

given in fig. 11. Excepting for a deviation in

nests 3 and 4 which had a proportionately

greater number of wires than the others, there

is a good correlation between the number

weight and length of wire in all nests. This

again suggests the homogeneity of the nesting

TABLE 1

NESTS OF Corvus splendens BUILT COMPLETELY OF WIRE

Total

Nest weight (kg) of wires

1 6.145 644

Z 4.894 458

3 4.466 497

4 4.327 569

5) 2.690 296

6 2.689 288

7 Be SMI iS)

8 1.910 213

9 1.618 187

0 1

—

.071

Number

tn toe Sore

Total length Mean thickness

of wire (m) of wire (mm)

265.32 177

218.94 1.81

198.14 1.76

209 . 26 1.80

116.97 175

123.69 1.84

99.69 1.68

85.00 1.83

70.29 1.57

Ili,

43.76

285

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

700

249

140

CUMULATIVE LENGTH OF WIRE (METER)

NO. OF WIRE / WT. OF NEST (DECAGRAM)

200

f 2 oS 4 BR Ol ied: 8 9 f0

WIRE NESTS OF CROW

Fig. 11. Number of wires, their weight and cumu-

length in 10 pure wire-nests of Corvus

splendens.

lative

material used. In fig. 12, the frequency distri-

bution of the wire used in nest number | from

table 1 for their length and weight is shown.

While for the majority of the wire the weight

is about 10 g, the length ranges from 10 cm

to 120 cm with a mode at 30 cm. The longer

wires are usually thinner as the bird seems

to fix up its limit at 30 g as the weight it can

reasonably carry.

Data on four mixed nests gathered from

localities about 5 km away from the first one

are given in table 2.

These four nests were marked by the pre-

sence of twigs and inner fibrous lining. All

these nests also had wire. Where more twigs

are used, proportionately less metal is supple-

mented. Flat metals of various size and shape

286

have been used in only two nests. Incidentally,

these two nests were pulled down in yet ano-

ther locality. There are several small work-

shops in this locality, making small utility

articles and toys out of thin metal sheets. Thus,

instead of wire, only cut pieces of metallic

sheets are available here. Some nests contained

a few animal bones, coir rope and clay tea

cups.

In another 28 nests of Corvus splendens

from Calcutta taken in 1975, the following

constituents were found (table 3).

In nests 5, 8 and 13, the cup was lined with

soft fibre. In nest 7, there was a piece of tyre

about 2 cm X | cm X 5 cm. Nest 21 had a

piece of rope weighing about 10 g.

In some parts of Calcutta and Bombay one

3607 —

520

@-----® — LENGTH OF WIRE

280 : O-~--- 0 — WEIGHT OF WIRE

240

160

NUMBER OF WIRES

10 20 30 40 50 60 76 80 00 #0

LENGTH (em) / WEIGHT (gm)

Fig. 12. Frequency distribution of length and weight

of wire used by Indian house crows (pure wire-

nests).

120.

URBANIZATION IN NEST BUILDING OF INDIAN HOUSE CROWS

TABLE 2

NESTS OF Corvus splendens: WEIGHT OF CONSTITUENTS OF MIXED NESTS (g)

: Inner cup Tron Flat metal Total

De toutes of fibre one wire small large No weight

1 350 185 — 250 — — 210 995

D, 325 190 — 230 — _— — 745

3 90 — 30 450 385 160 — 1115

45 — 65 765 510 675 — 2060

TABLE 3

DETAILS OCF NESTING MATERIALS OF Corvus splendens FROM CALCUTTA (IN @g)

Nest Total Wire Flat iron Flat Springs Wood Flexible

weight strips grills wire

1 8300 8200 80 — — 20 —

2 7900 7700 150 — — 50 —

3 5300 4950 200 — 100 50 —

~ 5100 4550 350 200 -— — —

5) 4600 3950 — 150 300 200 —

6 4500 4280 — 180 — 20 20

7 4500 3950 _— 350 — 150 50

8 3500 3300 — — 180 20 —

9 3500 3000 500 — —_— — —

10 3400 3150 — —- — 250 —

11 3300 3000 250 50 — — —

12 3200 2500 500 200 one long umbrella spoke was used

13 2800 2300 300 — 50 150 —

14 2700 2600 50 — — 50 —

15 2500 2300 — 200 — —— —

16 2200 2000 200 = = = =

17 2000 1850 50 100 — — 10

18 2000 1600 150 — — 250 —

19 1700 1700 — one shirt hanger was used in the nest

20 1600 1350 —- = — 250 —

21 1500 1430 — — 50 — ——

22 1300 800 500 = aa — —

23 1200 1180 — == — — 20

24 1100 990 10 50 — — 20

DS) 1100 930 100 —= = aa 20

26 800 800 —_ incomplete nest — —

DA 800 800 — incomplete nest — —

28 700 700 —

incomplete nest —- —

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

finds crows’ nests almost completely built of

twigs and natural fibres while in others pure

metal nests seem to be the rule. This finding

suggests population differences in nidification

brought about by the gradual spreading of this

habit from individual to individual in the sense

of a “‘tradition’’ (similar to the titmice of Lon-

don opening the caps of the milk bottles or

the habit of food washing in Japanese maca-

ques).

There is also a pseudo-social trait in this

expanding habit of metal nidification: due to

the super-annual stability and durability of

the metal nests, fairly often two nests, quite

apart in the first year, tend to be enlarged the

following year thus “growing” into the close

neighbourhood of each other (fig. 13) until

finally they unite, hence forming a community

nest. In such nests, sometimes proper brood-

ing is hardly or not all possible (figs. 14, 15),

and yet these nests have successful breeding.

A striking example of this type of construc-

tion is presented by the “sharing nest” from

Barrackpore Trunk Road/Calcutta mentioned

above. When pulled down in 1974, the entire

nest, completely metal, weighed 25 kg. Dur-

ing the 1975 season also, a multi-nest of al-

most the original size was made, but could

not be weighed. It was striking that no lining

with organic material for the egg-cup was

provided in any part of the community nest.

In fact, because of the lack of a regular cup

for laying eggs, eggs from two nests were

found to lie side by side.

There are some consequences in the con-

text of the metal nidification habit which de-

serve mentioning:

1) Making a more permanent, super-annual

nest of great stability means reduction of

labour and saving time (which is obviously

used in the urbanized crows for extensive

288

preening and lazying about near the nest).

Wooden nests deteriorate within one monsoon

season and have to be rebuilt;

2) Protecting the eggs and young from over-

heating because the wire-nest is more effici-

ently aerated than the nest made of organic

material. No necessity for the parent birds to

carry cooling water to the nest (as, for inst-

ance in Vanellus malabaricus and other birds);

3) Possibly making use of the solar energy

for partial incubation of the eggs for which

the metal nest is a necessity (and comes in

handy due to its preferred site on human con-

structions like posts, buildings etc., without

much shade);

4) Metal nests have the additional advant-

age of enabling the parents to incubate the

eggs during the warm day time, for at such

a weather most of the Indian birds avoid

brooding over the eggs; |

5) Utilizing more advantageous

niches where the use of wood as

material is impracticable;

6) Placing the wire-nests on or near lamp

posts (fig. 16) means extension of time for

scavenging and collecting food even at night.

Crows pouncing on not properly packed food

and food material carried by lorries and on

bus tops are a common sight in Calcutta, even

after dark.

There is one possible disadvantage for the

crows in that due to the thermal conductivity

of metal, the naked nestlings could be affected

by the hot wires. Another disadvantage con-

cerns man: Due to the nidification ingenuity

of the Indian house crow in urban areas, now

and then a power cut is caused especially in

the rainy season by the crows’ wire-nests

short-circuiting the overhead power lines.

There is evidence that crows at the suburbs of

Calcutta and Bombay are gradually switching

siting

nesting

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE V

Altevogt & Davis: Nest of House Crow

Above: Fig. 8. Wire-nest of Indian house crow featuring an aluminium shirt hanger

(Calcutta). Below: Fig. 13. Neighbouring wire-nests tend to unite in next year’s

nidification period.

jJ. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE VI

Altevogt & Davis: Nest of House Crow

Above: Fig. 9. Mixed nest: wire construction with inner cup of plant material.

Below: Fig. 10. Pure wire-nest.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE VII

Altevogt & Davis: Nest of House Crow

Above: Fig. 14. Eggs of three pairs of crows in a community nest (mixed nest).

Below: Fig. 15. Even in a mixed nest, proper brooding over the eggs is often hardly

possible.

URBANIZATION IN NEST BUILDING OF INDIAN HOUSE CROWS

over to the new technique of utilizing metal

instead of wood in nest building, thus provid-

ing an example of urbanization in birds.

SUMMARY

1. In large cities like Calcutta, Dacca and

Bombay the Indian house crow (Corvus

splendens) is increasingly building its nest

fully or partially with metallic wire, strips and

odds of flat sheets, grills and expanded metal

thus relinquishing the ancient habit of build-

ing nests entirely of plant twigs and brambles.

Compared to the “‘normal” nest, the metallic

construction is stabler and hardly affected by

the monsoon climate, hence being utilized

again the next year(s). Such nests tend to be

enlarged year upon year and confluate to form

community nests for several pairs of crows.

2. The advantages of wire nidification are:

a) Utilization of nesting sites where the

use of wood as nesting material is impractic-

able (lamp posts, sign boards, window sills

etc.).

b) Super-annual nests mean reduction of

labour and saving time which is used for

other activities.

c) Protection of eggs and young from over-

heating by better aeration cf the wire-nest: |

hence no necessity of cooling by the parents.

d) Enabling the parents to incubate the

eggs during the warm day time (in “normal”

nests most Indian birds do not brood over the

eggs during the noon heat).

e) Possibly making use of the solar energy

for partial incubation, the preferred nesting

site often being unshaded.

f) Placing wire-nests on or near lamp posts

means extended time for scavenging even after

dark.

3. From 42 nests ranging from pure metal

to mixed constructions numerical data were

collected. The heaviest metal nest weighed

more than 6 kg, the heaviest mixed construc-

tion more than 8 kg, while one community nest

(inctal) housing 5 pairs of crows weighed 25

kg. The number of wires per nest were be-

tween 644 and 91 with a cumulative length

of 265-91 m per nest, wires of 120-10 cm

were taken with a mode of 30 cm being most

frequently used. The average thickness of the

wire was between 1.5 and 1.8 mm.

Apart from wire, the most conspicuous nest

material were two non-pliable aluminium shirt

hangers.

4. There is evidence that the wire nesting is

spreading in Calcutta, Dacca, and Bombay

which is understood as a process of urbaniza-

tion.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank Mr. S. K. De, Artist, at the Indian

Statistical Institute for preparing the graphs.

REFERENCES

AITKEN, E. H. (1927): The Tribes on my Fron-

tier. Calcutta and Simla.

= (1947): The Common

Bombay. 3. ed., Bombay.

ALI, SALIM (1972): The Book of Indian Birds.

9. ed., Bombay.

ALI, SALIM AND ABDULALI, H. (1937): The Birds

of Bombay and Salsette. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

39: 91-103.

BAKER, C.

Birds of

S. (1932): Nidification of the Birds

of the Indian Empire. London.

Dewar, D. (1929): Indian Birds’ Nests. Bombay,

Calcutta.

DE Vries (1953): Quoted from MELDE.

Hume, A. O. (1889): Nests and Eggs of Indian

Birds, 2. ed. London.

KUHK, R. (1931): Brutbiologische Beobachtun-

gen am Nest der Nebelkrahe. J. Ornithol. 79: 269-

278.

289

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

LAMBA, B. S. (1963): The nidification of some

common Indian birds—part 1. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 60: 121-133.

(1968): Wire nests of redvented

bulbul Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 6); V22:

(1976): The Indian crows. A con-

tribution to their breeding biology, with notes on

brood parasitism on them by the Indian koel. Re-

cords Zool. Survey India 71: 183-300.

290

MELbDE, M. (1969): Raben- und Nebelkrahe

(Corvus corone corone und Corvus corone cornix).

Wittenberg-Lutherstadt.

WaALForD, N. T. (1931): Carrion-crow building

with wire. British Birds (London) 24: 51.

WALSH, W. P. P. (1924): Wire nests. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 29: 1055-1056.

WITTENBERG, J. (1963): Belaubte Zweige als

Nistmaterial der Rabenkrahe. Beitr. Vogelk. 8: 323-

324.

BREEDING AND DEVELOPMENT OF RANA

CYANOPHLYCTIS SCHNEIDER

P. MOHANTY-HEJMADI AND SUSHIL K. DutTTA?

(With five text-figures)

The breeding habits and development of the Skipper frog Rana cyanophlyctis Schnei

der were observed in the populations under natural conditions as well as laboratory

maintained ones. Data collected on the development under natural conditions and the

development of artificially inseminated laboratory raised tadpoles, showed that in both

cases maximum growth in terms of weight and length, occurred during premetamorphic

stage. A dramatic decrease, approximately 32% loss in weight and 67% loss in length,

occured during the “metamorphic climax” when .the tadpole changed into a froglet.

INTRODUCTION

The commonest of Indian Ranidae, the

Skipper frog Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider is

widely distributed over India. They are found

in ponds, water reservoirs, ditches and rain

water puddles. An excellent description of

their habits has been given by Daniel (1975).

This study was undertaken to record the breed-

ing habits and development of the Skipper

frog found in plenty in Bhubaneswar, Orissa,

(Mohanty-Hejmadi 1977 a).

MATERIALS AND METHODS.

Observations on breeding behaviour was

done in the Vani Vihar, Utkal University

Campus area from January till December,

1976. Tadpoles at various stages were collect-

ed from a permanent water reservoir of a

depth of approximately 46 cm (14 feet), as

early as 26th April, 1976 before the monsoons

arrived. Egg masses, tadpoles and juveniles

were collected from temporary and permanent

pools of water during the monsoon — season

1 Accepted March 1978.

? Department of Zoology, Utkal University, Vani

Vihar, Bhubaneswar-751 004 (Orissa).

from June to August. Tadpoles were also col-

lected in early September. Observations were

made at periodic intervals. The larvae were

raised in stock tanks (Group-A). Individual

variation was seen in length and weight of full

siblings at same stage of development. Ran-

domly selected pre-metamorphic tadpoles at

same stage of development were separated

(Group-B) from stock tanks for study of me-

tamorphosis. These tadpoles were raised in

groups of eight in identical finger bowls under

conditions standardized in Laboratory (Mo-

hanty-Hejmadi 1977 b). They were fed daily

with fish food and vegetable greens. The range

of temperature in the laboratory during this

period was from 32°C to 41°C. Tadpoles at

pre-limb stage were designated as Stage I, with

well developed hind limbs as stage-II, upon

reaching four-limbed stage as stage-III and

after completion of metamorphosis as Stage-

IV juveniles. Stage-I, II and III are compar-

able to the pre-metamorphic, pro-metamorphic

and metamorphic climax stages respectively,

described by Witschi (1956) for Rana pipiens.

At stage-III, the tadpoles were transferred into

amphibious environment set up as described

earlier (Mohanty-Hejmadi 1977 c). The length

291

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

and weight of the tadpoles were taken at

periodic intervals. For comparative purpose,

tadpoles at Stage-I, II, III and Stage-IV juve-

niles were also collected from nature. Eggs

either from natural spawning in the laboratory

or from artificial insemination, were raised

through metamorphosis.

OBSERVATIONS

Skipper frogs were seen in both temporary

and permanent water pools around Vani Vihar

campus throughout the study period. During

the winter from November through January,

frogs were seen basking in the sun either by

sitting on the edges of the pool or by perch-

ing on the walls of cemented water tanks. To-

wards the end of March and in April, a mass

migration of frogs occurred during the night

from the drying pools to more permanent bo-

dies of water. In a few cases pairs in amplexus

were seen.

Since the monsoon did not start until May,

tadpoles collected during April, 1976 repre-

sented the progeny of frogs who were early

breeders taking advantage of the sporadic rains

in March, and April. Pre-metamorphic tad-

poles were collected even in September indi-

cating that the breeding period lasts from April

to September. Since egg masses or embryos

were not found in temporary puddles which

resulted from sporadic rainfalls during pre-

monsoon period, it was concluded that early

breeders use permanent water tanks to breed.

When the rainfall became more frequent to-

wards the end of May, mature males and fe-

males gathered in the evening in rain water

puddles, ditches and ponds. They were the

leaders of the “amphibian chorus” which was

heard both during the day and night. The

males and females went into amplexus mostly

at night, the amplexus continued throughout

the day. Frogs maintained in the laboratory

292

also called, went into amplexus when it rain-

ed outside, and even laid eggs spontaneously.

Most of the egg masses laid in the laboratory

did not grow probably because of the fouling

of water resulting from the high concentration

of animals in the tanks. However, it was possi-

ble to raise tadpoles from one such egg mass.

It is interesting to note that, although pairs

in amplexus were seen both during the day

and night, in nature as well as laboratory, the

ovulation took place only at night. The breed-

ing period lasted from April to September,

most of them spawning during the heavy mon-

soons from middle of June to end of July. The

egg masses with 300 to 500 per clutch, were

laid in shallow water. The eggs had grayish

brown animal pole and pale yellow or white

vegetal pole. The diameter of the eggs was

approximately 1.0 mm. A week after fertiliza-

tion, the tadpoles reached a length of 9.25

mm. The characteristic black blotches of the

tail (Annandale & Rao 1918; Daniel 1975)

appeared when the tadpoles reached a length

of about 13.00 mm. Pre-metamorphic tadpoles

were occasionally seen eating away dead tad-

poles. The Stage-II tadpoles had a mouth disc

with one complete row of teeth in the upper

lip, and two rows of teeth on the lower lip,

and a heavy black serrated beak (Fig. 1).

Teeth structure

Fig. 1.

BREEDING AND DEVELOPMENT OF RANA CYANOPHLYCTIS SCHNEIDER

Fig. 2. Pre-metamorphic tadpole. Fig. 3. Pro-metamorphic tadpole.

Fig. 4. Four limbed tadpole at metmorphic climax.

293

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Same teeth structure has been reported by Da-

niel (1975), which differs from McCann’s

(1932) observations. According to the diagram

given by McCann, there are three rows of

teeth in the upper lip and four rows of teeth

in the lower lip. The time period for complie-

tion of life cycle depended on the conditions

under which they were raised. The Group-A

tadpoles raised in “‘Stock tanks”? under crowd-

ed conditions metamorphosed 15 to 60 days

post fertilization. It is interesting to note that

four of the stock remained at Stage-II for a

considerable period of time. Only one of these

four reached. stage III in 90 days and com-

pleted metamorphosis in 94 days after fertili-

zation. The other three died without reaching

Stage-III. In group B tadpoles, the life cycle

was much shorter, and there was 100% meta-

morphosis.

Observations on Group-B Tadpoles:

Towards the end of third week post-fertili-

zation, pre-metamorphic tadpoles (Fig. 2)

reached pro-metamorphic (Fig. 3) stage and

TABLE 1

The other forelimb emerged within three hours

of the emergence of the first. This stage marks

the beginning of “metamorphic climax” when

several drastic changes occur within a very

short period. Stage-III tadpoles took approxi-

mately six days to metamorphose completely.

Thus the average period of development from

egg through metamorphosis was approximately

46 days or six and half weeks in the laboratory.

Between stage-I and stage-il, the larvae de-

veloped more pigmented blotches. During the

stage-III, the head region became demarcated

from the rest of the body. Most of the adult

features such as characteristic pigmented spots

on the dorsal surface and the webbing of feet

developed between stage-HII and stage-[V. The

mouth shifted from ventral side to the snout

and extended upto the sides of the eye. The

tadpoles as expected, stopped eating during

metamorphosis.

Growth of Gfoup-B Tadpoles during

metamorphesis:

Larvae randomly selected at pre-metamor-

(Fig. 5)

CHANGE IN LENGTH AND WEIGHT DURING METAMORPHOSIS

% Change in

Average

Stage length in length from

mm previous stg.

I 35. == 0.42*

II 53 = 0.46* 51

Il 52, 2=:0125 Spd

Wee

(*) Sindee error.

developed hind limbs. It took fourteen days

to complete development of hind limbs. To-

wards the end of this period the tadpoles

reached stage-III (Fig. 4) with the emergence

of fore limbs, the right fore limb emerging first

in more than 50% of the tadpole observed.

294

Average %Change in

weight weight from

in mg prev. stg

500

1,300 + 160

1,100 aA

750 a By

phic stage (Stage-I) ranged from 26 mm to

45 mm with an average of 35 mm in length,

and 330 mg to 550 mg with an average of 500

mg in weight (Table-1, Fig. 5). Pro-metamor-

phic or stage-II larvae ranged from 43 mm

to 62 mm with an average of 53 mm in length

BREEDING AND DEVELOPMENT OF RANA CYANOPHLYCTIS SCHNEIDER

gor 1500

50] Lae ‘ 11250

| i *R \ :

40} fod \\ 11000

En | (eae, \ )

= 40 | \ 750 =

a | z

| /

ini 20] d \ 500 F-

at / \. a

Rea ul

bata =

ior | / WEIGHT 150

ai a7 LENGTH

H/ ,

<a Oe

Figs):

and from 1333 mg to 1541 mg with an average

of 1300 mg in weight. At the beginning cf

metamorphic climax, stage-III], the larvae rang-

ed from 49 mm to 57 mm with an average of

52 mm in length, and from 1125 mg to 1237

mg with an average of 1100 mg in weight.

Newly metamorphosed juveniles ranged from

16 mm to 21 mm with an average of 17 mm

Growth during metamorphosis.

in length and from 675 mg to 850 mg with

an average of 750 mg in weight. Maximum

growth (160%) occurred between stage I and

Stage IT. Maximum loss in length and weight

occurred between stage-III and _ stage-IV

(Table 1). This loss was mainly due to the

loss of tail during metamorphosis.

295

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

DISCUSSION

The breeding behaviour and development

was typically Anuran. Breeding took place

mainly during monsoons as reported by other

workers (Ferguson 1904: McCann 1932). Mc-

Cann has indicated about the possibility of

R. cyanophlyctis breeding at other times under

suitable circumstances. Presence of small tad-

poles before monsoons would support this

view.

There was rapid growth during pre and early

pro-metamorphic stage which levelled off at

the end of the pro-metamorphic stage. The

slight loss during late pro-metamorphosis (Fig.

5) was similar to that reported for other spe-

cies of Amphibians (Weber 1967). The shorter

life cycle in group B in comparison to that

of group A was probably due to the lower

concentrations of tadpoles in the former. The

short time of development, i.e. six half weeks

in comparison to other species like 3 months

for Rana pipiens, or 4 months for Rana cates-

baeana is probably due to the tropical climate.

Stage-I, II and IV larvae collected from

nature were consistantly heavier and longer

than laboratory raised tadpoles at comparable

stages. The difference was probably due to the

difference in density, nutrients and temperature

as all these parameters affect growth (Richards

1958, Rugh 1962).

The eating of dead tadpoles by pre-meta-

morphic tadpoles confirms that they are larvi-

vorous (McCann 1932) and probably eat flesh

of any dead animal where available. However,

true cannibalism was not observed in these tad-

poles.

REFERENCES

ANNANDALE, N. AND Rao, C. R. N. (1918): The

tadpoles of the families Ranidae and Bufonidae

found in the plains of India. Rec. Indian Mus. 15:

25-40.

DANIEL, J. C. (1975): Field Guide to the amphi-

bians of Western India part-3. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 72 (2): 506-522.

FERGUSON, H. S. (1904): A list of Travancore

batrachians. ibid. 75: 409-509.

MOoHANTY-HEJMaDI, P. (1977-a): Amphibians of

Orissa. Prakruti—Utkal Univ. J. Science, 11: 89-97.

(1977-b): Care and management of

amphibian embryos. ibid. //: 81-87.

— (1977-c): Care and management of

Indian frogs. Juveniles and adults. ibid. //: 75-79.

2961)

McCann, C. (1932): Notes on Indian Batrachians.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 152-180.

RicHarps, C. M. (1958): The inhibition of growth

in crowded Rana pipiens tadpoles. Physiological

Zoology, 31 (2): 138-151.

Rucu, R. (1962): Experimental Embryology,

Burgess Publishing Company, Minneapolis 15, Min-

nesota.

WEBER, R. (1967): Biochemistry of Amphibian

metamorphosis. In the biochemistry of animal deve-

lopment II, pp. 227-301, R. Weber edited, Acedemic

Press, New York.

*WiTScHI, E. (1956): Development of Vertebra-

tes, Saunders, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

*Original not consulted.

SYSTEMATICS OF THE COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT

PRAWNS (CRUSTACEA, DECAPODA,

SUBFAMILY PENAEINAE) FROM GOA’

M. J. GEORGE?

The taxonomy of the economically important prawns of the subfamily Penaeinae

occurring in the waters of Goa is described. Species belonging to 5 genera, namely,

Penaeus (4 species), Metapenacopsis (1 species), Metapenaeus (6 species), Trachype-

naeus (1 species) and Parapenaeopsis (5 species) are recorded. 10 out of the 17 species

included are reported for the first time from these waters.

INTRODUCTION

The demands from an export oriented in-

dustry increasing day by day, the estuarine

and marine penaeid prawn fishery of the coun-

try has improved substantially over the past

two decades. As a result, all maritime states are

making efforts to exploit the fishery to the

maximum possible extent. Along with this deve-

lopment, researches indicate depletionary ten-

dencies as a result of over exploitation of a

limited resource in certain areas of the Indian

coast like, for instance, the Kerala coast

(Menon & Abraham 1971). At the same time,

there is increasing exploitation of new prawn

resources along certain areas on the east coast.

It is necessary that research be continued to

find out new prawn resources and to keep

existing fisheries at maximum sustainable levels.

As in other maritime states, along the Goa

coast also, the marine penaeid prawn fishery

is developing very fast. However, apart from

the recent studies on the fishery biology

(Anonymous 1975) and the distribution of their

1 Accepted February 1978.

2National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula-

403004, Goa, India. Present address: Central Marine

Institute, Cochin-682 018.

larvae in the inshore waters and the estuary

(George & Goswami 1976; Achuthankutty et

al. 1976), no published account is available

concerning the systematics of the prawns,

which is a necessary prerequisite to determine

the exploitable resources in a multi-species

fishery. Hence, the opportunity to examine

some of the catches of prawns from both in-

shore, as well as, brackish estuarine waters of

Goa was used to report on their taxonomy.

LIST OF SPECIES

. Penaeus mondon Fabricius

Penaeus semisulcatus de Haan

Penaeus indicus Milne Edwards

Penaeus merguiensis de Man

. Metapenaeopsis mogiensis (Rathbun)

. Metapenaeus brevicornis (Milne-Edwards)

Metapenaeus dobsoni (Miers)

. Metapenaeus monoceros (Fabricius)

. Metapenaeus alcocki George and Rao

. Metapenaeus affinis (Milne-Edwards)

. Metapenaeus burkenroadi Kubo

. Trachypenaeus curvirostris (Stimpson)

. Parapenaeopsis stylifera (Milne-Edwards)

. Parapenaeopsis cornuta (Kishinouye)

. Parapenaeopsis hardwickii (Miers)

. Parapenaeopsis sculptilis (Heller)

. Parapenaeopsis acclivirostris (Alcock)

Sa RS SS eS eS SS HS pa

Family PENAEIDAE Aafinesque, 1815

Sub-family PENAFINAE Rafinesque, 1815

297

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Penaeus monodon Fabricius, 1798

Penaeus monodon Mohamed, 1970a : 1258 (with

synonymy); 1973 : 551; Muthu 1971 : 154; Racek

and Yaldwyn 1971 : 209; Starobogatov 1972 : 387;

Ivanov and Hassan 1976a 246; Kurien and Se-

bastian 1976 100.

Material: Several specimens from the estuary

as well as from inshore and off shore catches.

Remarks: The species utilises, to a limited

extent, the estuary as a nursery ground only.

As a result, the quantity of younger specimens,

found in the catches of the estuary is very

limited. The large adults are obtained in the

mechanised fishery from offshore waters. In

the estuary, the species is found mostly in

April-May.

Penaeus semisulcatus de Haan, 1850

Penaeus semisulcatus George, 1969 23 (with

synonymy); Muthu 1971 : 154; Starobogatov 1972 :

368; Mohamed 1973 551; Ivanov and Hassan

5976a : 246; Kurien and Sebastian 1976 100.

Material: Few specimens from the estuary

and the sea.

Remarks: The species is found along with

the catches of P. monodon, but is rare.

Penaeus indicus H. Milne-Edwards, 1837

Penaeus indicus Mohamed, 1970b 1274 (with

synonymy); 1973 : 551; Muthu 1971 : 154; Staro-

bogatov 1972 : 368; Ivanov and Hassan 1976a

246; Kurien and Sebastian 1976 : 99.

Material: Specimens from the estuary as well

as the sea.

Remarks: All specimens examined show the

typical features of the species described in pre-

vious literature. The adrostral sulci extend upto

the epigastric tooth as described by Alcock

(1906), although Racek & Dall (1965) found

these sulci slightly exceeding the epigastric

tooth. The gastro-orbital carina is well defined.

The length of the 3rd pereopod is quite vari-

able as pointed out by Hall (1956). The spe-

cies occurs in small numbers in both sea and

estuary catches.

298

Penaeus merguiensis deMan, 1888

Penaeus merguiensis George 1969: 24 (with

synonymy); Tirmizi 1969 : 757; Muthu 1971 : 154;

Racek and Yaldwyn 1971 : 210; Starobogatoy 1972 :

368; Mohamed 1973: 551; Kurien and Sebastian

1976" 3100:

Material: Numerous specimens from the

estuarine and marine catches.

Remarks: This is commercially the most

important species of the genus present in these

waters. It forms an important constituent of

the catches from both inside and outside wa-

ters. Dali (1957) and Racek & Dall (1965)

drew attention to the absence of gastro-orbital

carina in the specimens from Australia and

New Guinea while the carina is present in spe-

cimens from Karachi, Malaysia, Indonesia and

the Philippines. The material on hand from

Goa waters also shows the presence of this

carina occupying middle 1/3 portion between

the hepatic spine and area between the hepatic

spine and post orbital margin of carapace. Dis-

tinction of the species from P. indicus, espe-

cially in the juvenile stages is very difficult.

Muthu & Rao (1973) have described some

useful characters for distinguishing the juve-

niles of these two species.

Genus Metapenaeopsis Bouvier, 1905

Metapenaeopsis mogiensis (Rathbun), 1902

Metapenaeopsis mogiensis George, 1969 : 25 (with

synonymy); Muthu 1971 : 149; Starobogatov 1972 :

376; Mohamed 1973 : 551; Kurien and Sebastian

197675596:

Materiai: 3 specimens from the estuary, Ri-

bander area. 42-58 mm total length.

Remarks: Considering the differences bet-

ween Australian and Indian specimens of this

species recorded in previous literature, Racek

& Dall (1965) remarked that M. mogiensis

auctorum might consist of more than one spe-

cies. This has since been proved to be correct

and with the material available from Sri Lanka,

SYSTEMATICS OF THE COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT PRAWNS OF GOA

De Bruin (1965) separated P. hilarulus of de

Man (1911) and Barnard (1950) and M. mo-

giensis of Hall (1962) to include them in Me-

tapenaeopsis hilarulus (de Man), a view ac-

cepted by Muthu (1971) also. Starobogatov

(1972) is of the opinion that the specimens of

Racek & Dall (1965) are closer to M. hila-

rulus. The present material shows that the

specimens belong to M. mogiensis auct.

Genus Metapenaeus Wood Mason and

Alcock, 1891

Metapenaeus brevicornis (H. Milne-Edwards),

1837

Metapenaeus brevicornis George, 1970d 1564

(with synonymy); Muthu 1971 : 154; Starobogatov

1972 : 389; Mohamed 1973 : 551; Kurien and Se-

bastian 1976 : 96.

Material: Few specimens from the Zuari

estuary and from the sea.

Remarks: This is the first time that the

Species is recorded south of Bombay on the

west coast. The ischial spine is present on the

Ist pereopod. Although Kubo (1949) describ-

ed the telson as devoid of lateral spines, Racek

& Dail (1965) observed a pair of clearly per-

ceptible spines near the tip in addition to mi-

nute spinules in 24 out of 29 specimens in their

collection, a condition described by de Man

(1924) and Burkenroad (1934). The speci-

mens in the present collection also show varia-

tion in the character, 2 or 3 specimens devoid

of the pair of lateral spines on telson while

others possessed these spines.

Metapenaeus dobsoni (Miers), 1878

Metapenaeus dobsoni George, 1970a: 1342 (with

synonymy); Muthu 1971 : 154; Racek and Yaldwyn

1971 212; Starobogatov 1972 : 393; Mohamed

1973 : 551; Kurien and Sebastian 1976 : 97.

Material: Innumerable specimens from the

estuary and the sea.

Remarks: This is one of the most important

commercial species of the area with reference

to quantity of landings. The numerous speci-

mens examined agree with the previous de-

scriptions. The free filament of the petasmal

distomedian projection about which attention

was drawn by Racek and Dall (1965) is clear-

ly seen in the adult petasma examined. This

is one of the species belonging to the group

with conjoined white pads on the thelycum

in impregnated females.

Metapenaeus monoceros (Fabricius), 1798

Metapenaeus monoceros George, 1970b 1547

(with synonymy); Muthu 1971: 154; Racek and

Yaldwyn 1971 : 212; Starobogatov 1972 389:

Mohamed 1973 : 551; Kurien and Sebastian 1976 :

97.

Material: Numerous specimens from _ the

estuary and from the sea.

Remarks: One of the common species in

the catches of the estuary, though not very

common in the catches from the inshore wa-

ters, probably because of the adults occurring

in deeper waters than other species as has been

reported from the south west coast of India.

Trawl nets operated in shallower areas, there-

fore fail, to trap them.

Metapenaeus alcocki George and Rao, 1966

Metapenaeus alcocki George and Rao, 1966 : 146;

George 1969 : 31; Mohamed 1973 : 551; Kurien

and Sebastian 1976 : 96.

Material: Few specimens from the estuary.

Remarks: The species is reported for the

first time from outside the type locality, the

Gulf of Kutch. In the length of the 5th pere-

opods and mid-dorsal carination of the abdo-

minal somites, slight differences were noticed

from the type material. Traces of carination

are noticed in the anterior abdominal segments

also and the Sth pereopods reach slightly

beyond the middle of the scaphocerite.

Metapenaeus affinis (H. Milne-Edwards), 1837

Metapenacus affinis George, 1970c: 1366 (with

synonymy); Muthu 1971 : 154; Racek and Yaldwyn

299

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

1971 211; Starobogatov 1972 368; Mohamed

1973: 551; Kurien and Sebastian 1976 : 96.

Material: Several specimens from the in-

shore catches. Only very seldom seen in catches

from the mouth of the estuary.

Remarks: The confusion created by Hall’s

(1962) re-examination of the type material of

the species and his comments has since been

cleared (Ref: Racek & Dull, 1965, p. 54):

Still, there is considerable difference of opinion

on the taxonomic status of this species (Mis-

takidis 1968). Pending a final decision, the two

new species of Hall (1962) Metapenaeus neco-

pinans and M. mutatus are treated as syno-

nyms of M. affinis.

Metapenaeus burkenroadi Kubo, 1954

Metapenaeus burkenroadi George, 1969 : 32 (with

synonymy); Starobogatov 1972 : 393; Muthu and

Manickam 1973 : 214; Mohamed 1973 : 551; Ku-

rien and Sebastian 1976: 96.

Material: Several specimens from the estuary

and rarely from inshore catch.

Remarks: This is the first report of the spe-

cies from the northern half of the west coast

of India, extending its distribution in Indian

waters. The species is represented in the fishery

of the lower reaches of the estuary and plenty

of specimens with mature gonads are seen in

the catches in January, February, indicating

that the species breeds inside the estuary in

these months. Mature specimens of the same

species were reported from Pulicat lake by

Muthu & Manickam (1973).

De Bruin (1965) recorded some variable

features in Sri Lanka specimens. In the pre-

sent material the dorsal pubescence is less in

males than in females as in Sri Lanka speci-

mens. In comparison with De Bruin’s speci-

mens the abdominal somites are more pubes-

cent, especially the anterior somites.

Genus Trachypenaeus Alcock, 1901

Trachypenaeus curvirostris (Stimpson), 1860

309

Trachypenaeus curvirostris George, 1969 : 33

(with synonymy); Muthu 1971 : 154; Starobogatov

1972 : 370; Mohamed 1973 : 551; Kurien and Se-

bastian 1976: 101; Ivanov and Hassan 1976b: 1300.

Material: Few specimens from the sea.

Remarks: In Sri Lanka specimens, De Bruin

(1965) found that the rostrum is straight and

not curved as illustrated by Dall (1957). Large

numbers of specimens examined from the south

west coast of India as well as the present ma-

terial show much variation in this character as

noticed by Hall (1961) also. Based on features

like straight rostrum and other differences in

thelycum and petasma, Ivanov & Hassan

(1976b) described 4 specimens from the west-

ern Indian Ocean as a new species, Trachype-

naeus starobogotovi.

Genus Parapenaeopsis Alcock, 1901

Parapenaeopsis stylifera (H. Milne-Edwards),

1837

Parapenaeopsis stylifera Rao, 1970: 1580; Staro-

bogatov 1972: 393; Mohamed 1973: 551; George

1973: 421 (with synonymy); Kurien and Sebastian

ISVOe Skee

Material: Numerous specimens from the

sea and a few from the mouth of the estuary.

Remarks: Although the species does not

penetrate into the estuary, large numbers are

found in the catches from the region of the

mouth of the estuary. George (1973) has given

the complete synonymy of the species, relegat-

ing as synonyms, the two sub-species, namely,

P. stylifera stylifera and P. stylifera coroman-

delica suggested by Racek & Dall (1965).

Parapenaeopsis cornuta (Kishinouye), 1900

Penaeus cornutus Kishinouye, 1900: 23.

Parapenaeopsis cornuta de Man, 1911: 93; Muthu

1971: 147; Starobogatov 1972: 397; Mohamed

19735. 551:

Parapenacopsis cornutus Kubo, 1949: 374; Dall

1957: 215; Cheung 1960: 67 (key); Kunju 1967:

1384.

Parapencopsis cornuta Racek, 1959: 10; De Bruin

1965: 95.

SYSTEMATICS OF THE COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT PRAWNS. OF GOA

Parapenaeopsis cornuta cornuta Racek and Dall,

1965: 98.

Material: 1 female—48 mm total length

from the inshore catch.

Remarks: This is the first record of the

species along the west coast of India south of

Bombay. Although Hall (1961) suggested that

Alcock’s P. maxillipedo might be considered

as geographical variety of P. cornuta (Kishi-

nouye), De Bruin (1965) felt that the two are

distinct species, based on comparison of the

features in Sri Lanka specimens. Racek &

Dall (1965) considered them as two subspe-

cies, P. cornuta cornuta (Kishinouye) and P.

cornuta maxillipedo (Alcock). A critical exa-

mination of specimens from the south west

coast of India and of the present specimen

shows that De Bruin’s view was correct.

As in De Bruin’s (1965) specimens, the 3rd

pereopod does not possess basial spine. 2 or

3 pairs of minute spines are present on dis-

tolateral margins of the telson. A median tuft

of setae is also not present behind the poste-

rior thelycal plate.

Parapenaeopsis hardwickii (Miers), 1878

Parapenaeopsis hardwickii George, 1969: 36 (with

synonymy); Muthu 1971: 154; Starobogatov 1972:

370; Mohamed 1973: 551; Kurien and Sebastian

1976: 98.

Material: Several specimens from the estu-

ary and from the sea.

Remarks: The species is recorded for the

first time from the west coast south of Bom-

bay. It is also interesting to note that most

of the specimens come from the estuary, con-

tributing to the fishery of the estuary to a cer-

tain extent in some areas.

The first two abdominal segments are with-

out median carination. The telson is armed

with 3 pairs of small lateral spines. The cul-

trate rostrum of the adult males is a feature

shared by both P. hardwickii and P. sculptilis.

Parapenaeopsis scuiptilis (Heller), 1862

Parapenaeopsis sculptilis George, 1969 (with

synonymy); Muthu 1971: 154; Starobogatov 1972:

370; Mohamed 1973: 551; Kurien and Sebastian

1976: 98.

Material: A few specimens from the estuary.

Remarks: This species also is reported for

the first time from the west coast of India

south of Bombay. Occurs in association with

P. hardwickii which is more common. ‘The

specimens of P. sculptilis can be separated by

the presence of dorso medial carinae on Ist

and 2nd abdominal somites, absence of iaieral

spines on telson and the features of thelycum

and petasma as described by earlier authors.

Parapenaeopsis acclivirostris (Alcock), 1905

Parapenaeopsis acclivirostris George, 1969: 37

(with synonymy); Muthu 1971: 154; Starobogatov

1972: 397; Mohamed 1973: 551; Kurien and Sebas-

tian 1976: 97; Ivanov and Hassan 1976b: 1299.

Material: Few specimens from the catches

of the sea.

Remarks: Racek & Dall (1965) suggested

that the vicinity of Palk Strait on the east

coast of India could be considered the zoo-

geographic boundary separating the eastern

species P. tenella from its western congener

P. acclivirostris. Alcock’s (1906) record of

P. acclivirostris from Madras and Visakhapat-

nam on the east coast of India as well as the

recent record of P. tenella from East African

waters by Ivanov & Hassan (1976b) makes it

difficult to accept this suggestion.

KEY FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF PRAWNS OF THE

SUBFAMILY PENAEINAE IN THE WATERS OF GOA

1. Rostrum without ventral teeth

Rostrum with ventral teeth

A distal fixed pair of spines on the telson

and 1-3 pairs of mobile spines; petasma

asymmetrical; 3rd maxilliped with basial

SMS a ARM Cs CR LY ee Metapenacopsis

Stridulating organ absent; hepatic sulcus

absent or not reaching to ventral edge of

branchiostegite; a pair of tooth-like plate-

2(1)

3(2)

4(3)

5(1)

6(5)

7(5)

8(3)

302

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

lets immediately posterior to thelycal plate;

distinct groove present on 3rd abdominal

carina; anterior edge of anterior — sternal

plate between 5th pair of legs in female

with 4 rounded teeth, 2 median cones being

incurved;. distomedian lobule of petasma

granada ee eaceiera ie Metapenacopsis

mogiensis (Rathbun)

Distal fixed pair of spines on the telson

may or may not be present; petasma sym-

metrical; 3rd maxilliped without _ basial

STON Va TSO ue SarerelEN (UNE N/ cHG AAC OHA er RUR lr Ea. 3

No exopod on 5th pereopod; pleurobranch

on 7th= thoracic. SemitepPreSsemitn. wie.

Metapenaeus........ 8

Exopod on Sth pereoped present; pleuro-

branch on 7th thoracic somite absent......

ee © © © © © © © © 8 8 ew ew ee el ell elle lel ell el lel ele

Trachy penaeus

Epipodites present on Ist and 2nd pereo-

pods; anterior plate of thelycum may have

a raised anterior margin but laterally the

margins not raised; an excavation present

etween the anterior plate and the trans-

verse, Sternal Tid@e wis y. re Trachy penaeus

curvirostris (Stimpson)

3rd pereopod without epipodite,.........4.

Parapenacopsis....13

carina present

Hepatic carina absent

Hepatic carina hecrizontally

pereopod -withoul. 7exopodite yin 80. ae

Penaeus monodon Fabricius

Hepatic carina inciined at an angle of 20°

antero ventrally; 5ih pereopod with small

Hepatic

eee © © © © © © ew we ee we ow

° 2© © © © © © © © eB © © © 8 8

straight;

CXOMOCUMCH eho omic. ete aut ce tena Penaeus

semisulcatus de Haan

Gastro-orbital carina occupying the posterior

2/3 distance between hepaiic spine and or-

bital angle; rostral crest may be elevated

but, not. trianemlar im profile ti 6 . nse:

Helse Penaeus indicus H. Milne-Edwards

Gastro-orbital carina absent or not reaching

hepatic spine and cccupying the middle 1/3

distance between hepatic spine and orbital

angle; rostral crest triangular in profile....

ADEs tS ae Penaeus merguiensis de Man

Distomedian petasmal projection with fully

developed or vestigial apical filament; the-

9(8)

10(8)

11(10)

12(10)

13(4)

lycum of impregnated females usually with

white conjoined pads |

Distomedian petasmal projection without api-

cal filament; thelycum of impregnated fe-

males without conjoined. pads: ./..)..... 10

Posterior part of rostrum with distinctly

elevated crest; basial spine on male 3rd

perecpod simple; apical petasmal filaments

siender, slightly converging; thelycum with

a large anterior and smail lateral plates....

Beg ee Metapenaeus brevicornis (H. Milne-

Edwards)

Posterior part of rostrum without distinctly

elevated crest; basial spine on male 3rd

percopod long and barbed; apical petasmal

filaments not readily visible; anterior thely-

cal plate tongue-like

Metapenaeus dobsoni (Miers)

Ischial spine on Ist pereopod distinct :

Aare Se aan Ray Meet aS U2 UNC 11

Ischial spine on Ist pereopod small or

ADSEME velista Tai unger 12

Lateral thelycal plates with salient and

parallel ear-shaped lateral ridges; distome-

dian petasmal projections hood-like.......

AS ELLE Metapenaeus monoceros (Fabricius)

Lateral thelycal plates without lateral raised

ridges; distomedian petasmal projections not

hood-like but overlying lateral projections

and distally trilebed; posterior extention of

the anterior median thelycal plate bound

laterally by an oval flat plate on each side

....Metapenaeus alcocki George and Rao

Branchio cardiac carina distinct, extending

from posterior margin of carapace almost

to hepatic spine; anterior thelycal plate lon-

gitudinally grooved, wider posteriorly than

anteriorly; distomedian petasmal projections

erescent shaped, yeas eg ae Metapenaeus

affinis (Milne-Edwards)

Branchio cardiac carina feeble or ill-defined,

anterior end not exceeding posterior 1/3 of

carapace; distal margin of anterior thelycal

plate convex to indistinctly triangular; petas-

ma with laminose and strongly diverging

distomedian projections

ie nae Metapenaeus burkenroadi Kubo

Epipodites present on Ist and 2nd _ pereo-

pods; rostrum inclined upwards at an angle

to carapace for whole of its length........

@ © © © © © © © © © © 8 8 ew ee

SYSTEMATICS OF THE COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT PRAWNS OF GOA

AR RURW Parapenacopsis acclivirostris (Alcock)

Epipodites absent on Ist and 2nd _ pereo-

OCS ie yee dante: eM rea set oil edn Ch, 14

Telson with a pair of fixed sub apical

spines; at least distal 4 free portion of ros-

toma Unemmied tik: Sa re 1 BEAN EEE

Parapenacopsis stylifera (Muilne-Edwards)

Telson without fixed sub apical spines, with

or without lateral movable spines; 1/3 or

less free portion of rostrum unarmed....15

Petasma with a pair of long slender caliper-

like distolateral projections directed for-

wards; 3rd pereopod of female without

basial® spinie wi Vanier (een OS Parapenaeopsis

cornuta (Kishinouye)

Petasma with a pair of distolateral projec-

tions directed Jaterally or distolaterally,

Short ands: Spoutsikey ie) Maes 16

14(13)

15(14)

16(15) Antennular flagella 0.5-0.6 length of cara-

pace; movable lateral spines absent on tel-

son; thelycum with median tuft of setae on

posterior plate

ee CoWare Parapenaeopsis sculptilis (Heller)

Antennular flagella 0.7 length of carapace or

longer; movable lateral spines present on

telson; thelycum without median tuft of

setae on posterior plate

Parapenacopsis hardwickii (Miers)

ee) ee, @ © (0 Je” 0 eine 0 se: vel © vail ol)'0 8 19 (0 0) 0 6 le

eo 8 © © © 8 eo

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T am thankful to Dr. S. Z. Qasim, Director,

National Institute of Oceanography, for faci-

lities and encouragement. Thanks are also due

to Dr. K. Radhakrishna, for translation of

Russian literature.

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——_———— (1970c): Synopsis of biological

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(1973): Penaeid prawn resources of

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764,

OBSERVATIONS ON LIFE-HISTORY OF THE

PEDUNCULATE BARNACLE,

IBLA CUMINGI DARWIN’

S. N. GAONKAR AND A. A. KARANDE?

(With six text-figures)

Ibla cumingi Darwin, 1851 is an intertidal pedunculate cirripede found at many places

in India. The presence of I. cumingi Darwin in the intertidal waters of Bombay had

been recently noted. It is a well established species in the low intertidal waters of Madh

Island and shares the habitat with another recently discovered barnacle, Tetraclitella

karandei Ross (Ross 1971). Unlike many other cirripedes J. cuniingi is a bisexual spe-

cies. The male, not measuring more than 2 mm, resides in the mantle cavity of the

female. This species continues to produce fresh masses of ova throughout the year.

However, March, April and May are the active breeding phase. Its smallest size

at maturity is 5 mm and individuals measuring between 10-14 mm contribute most

towards the growth of the population.

INTRODUCTION

Barnacles constitute a major fouling com-

munity and hence interest has been generated

in these shell dwelling crustaceans. The nauplii

and cyprids of barnacles are being used as test

Organisms in the assessment of potential anti-

foulants and the adhesive cement material used

by these organisms for settlement has been the

subject of considerable interest.

In this Laboratory the breeding habits of

several barnacle species including observations

on their larvae have been made (Karande &

Thomas 1976). In this paper, the breeding

behaviour, time and duration of the breeding

phase of [bla cumingi are reported so as to fa-

cilitate laboratory rearing of this pedunculate

barnacle which has been observed to be very

convenient for raising larval young, under con-

trolled laboratory conditions.

1 Accepted July 1978.

*Naval Chemical and Metallurgical Laboratory,

Naval Dockyard, Bombay 400 023,

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Specimens of J. cumingi were collected every

month from the rocky shores of Madh Island,

ae January 1976 to January 1977.

The condition of gonads was determined by

microscopic examination and on the basis of

development of ovaries, the following five sta-

ges of ovarian growth were recognised.

Stage — O Ovarian tissue absent.

Stage — | Lamellae with undeveloped

ova.

Stage — II Lamellae with well developed

Ova.

Stage — III Fertilized eggs.

Stage — IV Encased embryos.

Stage — V Free nauplii in mantle space.

The breeding pattern was judged on the basis

of frequency occurrence of the above stages

in freshly collected specimens every month.

For raising the larvae of this species in the

laboratory, a method described by Karande &

Thomas (1971) was adopted.

305

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

OBSERVATIONS

Taxonomy:

A short taxonomic description of J. cumingi

is included for facilitating easy identification.

The number of segments in the anterior and

posterior rami of the cirri in the specimen

examined is as follows: —

I cirrus—13, 17; II cirrus—23, 25; III cirrus—

22, 24; IV cirrus—23, 25; V cirrus—23, 24;

VI cirrus—24, 25.

The second to the sixth pair of cirri are alike

in shape and structure. Each segment has three

pairs of spines on the interior margin and a

pair of slender bristles at the distal tip. The

caudal appendage is sixteen jointed and reaches

above the tip of the pedicel of the sixth cirrus.

The mandible (Fig. 1) has three teeth with

the lower margins of the large upper teeth non-

2:§ Cm.

300 HM

SCALE --

Fig. 1. Ibla cumingi Darwin. Md, Mandible and

Mx, Maxilla I.

pectinated and with the upper margins of the

second and third teeth pectinated. The upper

margin of the second tooth is provided with

nine small spines and that of the third with

three small spines. Maxilla I (Fig. 1) with the

free edge has two depressions. The male is

minute with a body length of 1-2 mm. The

body is vermiform and whitish in colour. There

306

are two pairs of cirri of which the first pair

is four jointed and the shorter three jointed.

The maxilla I is with five small spines and a

single large spine at the apex (Daniel 1954).

Breeding:

Table 1 shows percentage incidence of J.

cumingi in relation to different stages of ova-

rian development over a period of 13 months.

The ovarian lamellae are present all through

the year in various stages of development.

For a major part of the year, the indivi-

duals having mature and maturing ova are of

common occurrence. This species continues to

produce fresh masses of ova throughout the

year. The oogenic activity is continuous

throughout the year as is evident by high in-

cidents of ovarian stages I and II.

In December, January and February, when

the water temperature is low, a rapid proli-

feration of the egg lamellae is evident in about

70% of the population. The fertilization of the

eggs (Stages III and IV) commences some-

where in the middle of February and in April,

a majority of the population, about 68-70%,

bears a large number of larvae ready for the

release. This period is an active breeding phase

in [bla cumingi. During the warmer months

of May, June and july, though 70% to 80%

of the individuals hold well developed eggs,

in the absence of fertilization, the breeding is

more or less at a standstill. The fertilization

commences again by the end of August and

by October a considerable number of indivi-

duals bear broods holding developing larvae

in the mantle space. The breeding activity is

gradually reduced by the middle of November.

I. cumingi individuals measuring between 5

mm and 22 mm were examined every month

with a view to determining its smallest size

at maturity and for deciding productive phase

of life cycle. It will be seen from the data

summarised in Table 2, that this species at-

LIFE-HISTORY OF THE PEDUNCULATE BARNACLE

TABLE 1

FREQUENCY INCIDENCE OF VARIOUS OVARIAN GROWTH STAGES IN [bla cumingi

Stages of ovarian development (Percentages)

Period of

Observation O I II

January 1976 16 64 12

February _,, 0 56 20

March o 12 20 40

April i 8 4 20

May BS 8 16 60

June i 16 48 36

July Me 20 20 48

August My 8 12 48

September ,, 12 24 44

October » ,; 24 40 0

November ,, 8 8 68

December ,, 8 56 36

48 20

January 1977 28

BES LY PALES TE EMEL WET LE SELES EBLE EET SI ET EE OR EO

Total Fertilized

specimens Stages)

III IV V III to V

4 4 0 8 (360)

16 8 0 24 (600)

28 0 0 28 (1225)

64 4 0 68 (635)

8 4 4 16 (270)

0 0 0 0 et

8 4 0 12 (520)

16 12 4 32 (720)

20 0 0 20 (630)

0 36 0 36 (790)

16 0 0 16 (575)

0 0 0 0 as

4 0 0

Figures in parenthesis are highest number of larvae counted from a single individual.

tains maturity when it is about 5 mm in length.

The individuals measuring between 5 mm and

9 mm (size group I), however, contribute very

little towards the growth of the population.

This is also true for the individuals coming

under size 15-19 mm. Individuals after grow-

ing to a body length of 19 mm make no signi-

ficant contribution towards the production of

young larvae.

The individuals coming under size Class II

(10 mm to 14 mm) contribute most towards

the growth of the population. The continuous

development of fresh ovarian lamellae follow-

ed by quick embryogenesis and the develop-

ment of nauplii occur among the individuals

of this size group. The highest incidence of

developing ova (60%), the highest incidence

of fertilized eggs (70%) and also the highest

incidence of larvae (68%) are confined to this

size group of 10 mm to 14 mm and lend sup-

port to this view.

Careful examination of the mantle space of

25 individuals carried out every month revealed

that in almost all individuals measuring bet-

ween 3 mm to 22 mm the male was present.

Only in about 4 to 8% individuals the males

were not traced. However, this could be due

to personal error in locating the males. In

about 10% of the individuals examined, two

males were simultaneously present in_ their

mantle spaces. A majority of the males pos-

TABLE 2

FREQUENCY OCCURRENCE OF VARIOUS GROWTH STAGES

OF OVARY AND LARVAE IN VARIOUS SIZE GROUPS OF

Ibla cumingi

Percentage occurrence

Size-group ee

mm. Early ova Fertilized eggs Larvae

I (5-9) 20 23 12

II (10-14) 60 70 68

HII (15-19) 19 4 16

IV (19-22) 1 3 4

LETT RIANA TI TR I LTS LTTE OT TR I SY I ET SSE

307

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

sess well developed gonadial lobes during most

part of the year.

The breeding pattern of the pedunculate bar-

nacle. /. cumingi compares generally well with

most of the other operculate barnacles, in that

there is intense activity during months of Feb-

am)

ruary, March and April followed by relatively

quiescent phase during monsoon months. A

recurrence of breeding in this species is not

due to lack of ovarian or male gonadial acti-

vity, since well developed eggs and sperms are

generally present throughout the year. It is the

ita,

SGP

tas

*as

RAM

Figs. 2-6. Semidiagrammatic outline drawings of the larvae of I. cumingi (2-6 represent

2nd, 3rd, 4th, Sth, and 6th nauplius stages respectively and the dimensions in pm

respectively are 372, 385, 420, 460 and 500.

Abbreviations:

cds, caudal spine; das, distal abdominal spines; fas, 4th abdominal spines; pas, proxi-

mal abdominal spines; pcs, posterior carapace spine; ram, ramus; tas, 3rd abdominal

spines.

308

LIFE-HISTORY OF THE PEDUNCULATE BARNACLE

absence of fertilization during certain times of

the year that leads to poor breeding activity.

This is observed during the monsoon when

along the coast, the water quality particularly

with reference to salinity is changing.

Larval stages:

The first nauplius is 300 »m long and like

those of other species is pear shaped in ap-

pearance. It is the largest first nauplius so far

examined from the Bombay waters.

The second nauplius is very fast moving anid

strongly phototropic. Measuring about 375 ym,

it is slightly bigger than the 2nd nauplii of

Balanus amphitrite amphitrite, Chthamalus

withersi and Ch. malayensis. Its ill-defined ca-

rapace is 300 pm long (Fig. 2).

The third nauplius is 385 ym long (Fig. 3).

The frontal filaments are now 45 um in length.

The upper surface of the carapce shows a char-

acteristic sculpturing of brick-work like pat-

tern.

The fourth nauplius measuring 420 pm in

length is in many ways different from the pre-

ceeding stages (Fig. 4). The total disappear-

ance of caudal process is the most important

change noticed. The true carapace, whose

frontal and the lateral sides start sloping to-

wards the mid axis of the body, shows a pair

of 40 »m long posterior carapace spines.

The fifth larva measuring 460 »m in total

length appears different from the 4th larva

in many respects (Fig. 5). The 385 pm long

and 335 »m wide carapace shows pronounced

inward slope at its free margin. The 160um

long Jabrum is a massive organ and generally

bears 7-8 teeth and numerous hairs on its free

margin. The abdominal area grows very bulky

and the cirral appendages in the form of ill-

defined papillae are seen under the exoskeleton.

The sixth larva or the metanauplius is 500

um long (Fig. 6). Its carapace is 420 pm long

and 360um wide. The 150 »m long labrum con-

tinues to be a massive structure that retains all

7 or 8 teeth and the hair. The abdomen is very

broad and bulbous and has 6 pairs of segmen-

tal spines. These spine are broad and bulbous

at the bases and acutely pointed at their free

ends.

The cyprid larva emerges at the end of ten

days development. Its boat-shaped carapace is

565 »m long and 250 pm wide. A large number

of oil/fat droplets of about 25 »m diameter

are seen under the carapace. The antennular

adhesive pad is of 30 »m diameter. Each

ramus of cirral appendages has four segments

and about 120 pm long cirri. The cirri of the

first appendages are stouter than those of the

appendages which appear subsequently. The

subterminal segment of each ramus of 6 ap-

pendages bears a short but a distinct hook

like spine.

Remarks:

I. cumingi as compared to other operculate

species encountered along Bombay coast is a

poor breeder. For the whole one year several

individuals were examined and the numbers

of larvae held in their mantle space were indi-

vidually counted in this and five other species.

The highest numbers of larvae counted in a

single brood of B. a. variegatus, B. a. amphi-

trite, T. karandei, Chthamalus withersi, Ch.

malayensis and I. cumingi were 35000, 18700,

5900, 7000, 4300 and 1200 respectively. Des-

pite this limitation of the number of larvae,

it is felt that, 7. cumingi is a handy material

to raise the larvae under controlled laboratory

conditions.

309

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

REFERENCES

Darwin, Cu. (1851): A monograph of the sub-

class Cirripedia, I, Lepadidae, London.

DANIEL, A. (1956): The Cirripedia of the Madras

Coast. Bull. of the Madras Govt. Museum. New

Series Nat. Hist. Section, Vol. VI. No. 2.

KARANDE, A. A. AND THOMAS, M. K. (1971):

Laboratory rearing of Balanus amphitrite communis

D. Curr. Sci. 40 (5): 109-110.

310

& — (1976): The larvae of the

intertidal barnacle Chthamalus malayensis Pilsbry.

Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. Vol. LXXXIII, Sec. ‘B’ No. 5:

210-219.

Ross, A. (1971): Studies on the Tetraclitidae

(Cirripedia: Thoracica): A new tetraclitellan from

India, San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist., Trans. 16 (8):

215-224.

PREDATION ON NATURAL NESTS OF THE SALT-

WATER CROCODILE (CROCODYLUS POROSUS

SCHNEIDER) ON NORTH ANDAMAN ISLAND

WITH NOTES ON THE CROCODILE

POPULATION*

B. C. CHouDHuURY? & H. R. BUSTARD*

(With five plates and two text-figures)

During June/July 1978 a quantitative study of saltwater crocodile nests and nest pre-

dation was carried out in North Andaman. Predation was found to be extremely

higher, twentyeight of thirty nests (93.4%) were destroyed by predators and a further

nest was completely flooded, giving a 3.3% hatching success. Human predation ac-

countd for almost all nest predation (84.6%). Nests occurred predominantly in the

creeping cane/evergreen vegetation zones. Data are presented on the ecology of

nesting and compared with data from elsewhere in the species’ wide geographical

range.

Active nest hunting by settlers, together with killing of adult crocodiles—often the

nest-guarding female—combined with data on the remaining adult population gives

cause for great concern for the future of this population of an endangered species.

INTRODUCTION

Precise scientific data on saltwater crocodile

nests has been lacking until recently (Neill

1971) although the natural history has been

known in outline for a long time Deraniyagala

(1939). The recent paper by Webb ef al.

(1977) is an important contribution. How-

ever, it deals with a typically Northern Aus-

tralian situation which is very different from

the Indian situation. In Northern Australia

flooding is a major nest hazard, but predation,

both human (by aborigines) and by wild life,

is invariably extremely low.

During the latter part of the 1978 egg lay-

ing season approximately four weeks (22nd

! Accepted February, 1979.

2 Research Scholar, Andhra Pradesh Forest De-

partment Crocodile Conservation Project, Nehru

Zeological Park, Hyderabad.

3 FAO Consultant, Government cof India Central

Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Ins-

titute, Lake Dale, Hyderabad 500 264.

June to 16th July) were spent in the crocodile

habitat of North Andaman observing nests.

Data were collected on a total of thirty nests

in which eggs had been laid, as a result of

personal observation, or readily checkable in-

formation, collected on nests from _ reliable

sources. This paper gives an account of nest

predation together with information on the

crocodile population of North Andaman.

North Andaman (Fig. 2), with a total area

of 1376 sq km is one of the five main islands

which form the Andaman group. The Anda-

man Islands (10° 13’—13° 30’N and 92° 15’

—93° 10’E) lie in the Bay of Bengal. The

northernmost major island of the Andaman

group, North Andaman, lies at a distance of

896 km south-east of the mouth of the Hoogly

(Ganges) and at a distance of 192 km south

of Cape Negaris in Burma. The main mass

of North Andaman is roughly hexagonal in

Outline with a maximum length of 77 km from

North to South and maximum width of 29 km

from East to West. North Andaman Island

311

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

is separated from Middle Andaman by a nar-

row sea water creek known as Austin strait.

The study area, together with the rest of

the Andaman-Nicobar Group, comprises one

of the three last remaining saltwater crocodile

habitats in India—the other two being Sundar-

bans in West Bengal and Bhitar Kanika at

the Brahmini-Baitarni deita in Orissa.

STUDY AREA

The coastline of the study area is highly

indented and at many places penetrates deep-

ly into the island landmass to form island bays

and deep creeks. Most of the rivers and

streams empty into these creeks.

In the South of North Andaman, Kalara,

Balmi, and Parangara creeks, in the East,

Kalpang River and its tributaries, and in the

West the streams that empty into the Casurina

and Hudson Bay, were the major areas where

extensive field work was carried out (Fig. 2).

These creeks and streams form the major salt-

water habitat in North Andaman.

All these creeks are fringed by belts of

mangrove swamps (Plate I) which are regu-

larly inundated during the high tide. Over

the years, forests on both banks of the Kat-

pang River have been cleared and settiements

are growing. This river was formerly a good

habitat for saltwater crocodiles.

The creeks along the East coast of North

Andaman are deep, those along the West coast

shallow, about nine and three metres respec-

tively, at mean tide level, the latter crecks

(Plate I) with pebble beds. ‘There are two

tides every twentyfour hours inundating the

banks of the streams. The tide fluctuation in

the creeks is above 2 mts.

In the undulating terrain and thick tropical

forests of North Andaman communication

depends entirely on the open sea and inland

creeks. This results in a certain amount of

disturbance. Other than transport, fishing,

crabbing and cutting of cane, bamboo and

mangrove trees along the creeks, also creates

some disturbance.

Climate:

The study area lies south of the Tropic of

Cancer between 12°50” to pIS2837N) andijex-

periences a tropical climate, warm and moist

throughout the year except for a cool period

during December and January. The location

subjects it to the South-West monsoon from

the beginning of May to the middle of Octo-

ber and the North-East monsoon from the

middle of October to mid-December.

North Andaman receives less rainfall than

Middle and South Andaman. The average an-

nual rainfall recorded at Mayabundar, the

northern most part of Middle Andaman is 216

cm. Because most of the landmass of North

Andaman lies on the lee side of Saddle Peak

(737 mts) it receives less of the South-West

monsoon.

The mean maximum/minimum _ tempera-

tures for North Andaman are 27.7°C/24.3°C

respectively and humidity is relatively high at

80% (Lal 1976).

V egetation:

The vegetation along

creeks can be classified into three distinct

types; zone 1: tidal mangroves (Plate I),

zone 2: standing cane, sometimes associated

with bamboo brakes, (Plate Il), zone 3: low

level evergreen, riverine forests along the

banks of the streams (Plate II). All these

three vegetational types occur within 300 mts

of a high water mark. The stratification from

coastal mangroves (foreground) to the ever-

green forests (background) is clearly illustrat-

ed in Plate III. Settlements have been esta-

blished on the upper reaches of the streams

due to availability of fresh water, and forests

have been cleared to provide cultivated land.

the streams and

J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE I

Choudhury & Bustard: Nests of Saltwater Crocodile

ihe:

Above: Typical mangrove vegetation along the Kalpang River, East coast of North

Andaman. Below: Typical, shallow, West coast, creek with pebble bed providing

excellent habitat for C. porosus.

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE IL

Choudhury & Bustard: Nests of Saltwater Crocodile

Above: Zone Ill. Creeping cane, in this case associated with bamboo brakes, inland

from the main river. Note the firm ground in this vegetational zone not usually liable

to flooding. Below: Zone HI. Creeping cane /evergreen forest complex at the head

of a side creek. It is in this zone that most of the nests occur.

NESTS OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE ON NORTH ANDAMAN ISLAND

Rhizophora mucronata and Rhizophora api-

culata are the major plant species bordering

the creeks with a height of 10 mts or more.

Immediately behind this zone follows Brug-

viera parviflora and B. gymnorrhiza with an

undergrowth of Ceriops tagal (Blasco

1977). This zone is called Khals (Bengali) by

the East Bengal settlers living in North

Andaman.

The transitional zone of the tidal mangroves

and the riverine forests forms a belt of cane

brakes which is most important in the present

context as this is the best nesting habitat for

saltwater crocodiles in North Andaman. Cala-

mus andamanicus and Calamus palustris domi-

nate this belt. Creeping cane, is also present in

this region. In the next zone of semi-evergreen

and evergreen climaxes, dense clumps of bam-

boo Oxylenanthera nigso-ciliata occurs with

scattered trees of Dipterocarpus incanus. Plan-

choria andamanica, Pinsonia exelsa etc. Actu-

ally the cane brakes and semi-evergreen climax

zone is a continuous zone which has been

divided here for convenience.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Nests were located with the help of boats

cr by walking along the river and stream

banks. Local people also assisted in showing

areas where nests had been seen by them in

previous years. Wherever the nests were

located incidence of egg robbing, flooding and

predator damage were noted. Measurements

of nest dimension, its position in relation to

permanent water, physical surroundings, vege-

tation in and around the nest, presence of

wallows around the nest and presence of nest-

ing female near the nest, were also noted irres-

pective of the condition of the nest.

RESULTS

The Nest:

The members of the Order Crocodylia lay

their eggs in one of two nest types. These are,

hole nests and mound nests. In hole nests

eggs are laid in a pit dug in dried mud-banks

or sand. In mound nesting, rather like Mega-

pode birds, the eggs are laid in the middle

of a nest mound prepared with vegetation and

mud. Eggs are deposited in a cavity dug in

the central area of the elevated nest mound.

The saltwater crocodile is a mound nester.

In the study area, the saltwater crocodile

nests observed were made of vegetation and

mud. The nest mound was circular in ap-

pearance with an elevated centre. Since ten,

of fifteen nests personally inspected, had _ al-

ready been opened by humans no _ precise

measurements of these nests could be taken.

Of the remaining five nests, two opened by

wild pigs also had a similar appearance. Only

the two Monitor-predated nests, and one flood-

ed nest, from which eggs were collected, were

measured. Measurements were also taken of

a nest made and abandoned in a wild sugar-

cane fringe. These three nests averaged about

75 cm in height and 2 mts. in diameter at the

base.

The nests were observed to have been made

in three types of vegetation zone. These are,

tidal cane fringes, creeping cane and evergreen

vegetation and cultivated land. In the tidal

cane fringes, where four nests were observed

(Table Ill), the nests were made of standing

canes; Calamus sp. with a higher percentage

of mud in the nest construction. The distance

of the nearest permanent water varied consi-

derably since the areas were inundated by the

high tide. The surface around such nests was

313

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

mostly swampy with a certain depth (about

15 cm) of water present all the time. Since

the nests were made mostly on the clevated

bases of old cane clumps, they were at a

higher level to the surrounding ground.

In the next nesting zone, proceeding further

inland from creek-bank—the creeping cane

and evergreen vegetation zone—ten nests were

observed. The ground in this region was solid

and dry. The vegetation used in nest making

was mostly creeping cane and dry fallen leaves

of evergreen trees. These nests had very liitie

mud in them. The nearest permanent water

(streambed) was as close as five mts. in some

cases. A typical undisturbed nest in this zone

is shown in Plate IV. The nest, opened to show

the eggs, is shown in Plate IV. The presence

of people gives a good idea of the physical

size of the nest. In the third nesting zone of

cultivated land along the freshwater streams

and creeks, only one nest was observed. This

nest was made of grass and miscellaneous

shrubs without mud.

The nests observed were invariably close to

water. Due to the influence of tides, the water

mark on the banks also changed, and as such

it was not possible to correctly measure the

distance of permanent water from the nest.

The distance of permanent water from the

creeping cane/cvergreen vegetation fringes

varied at mean tide level from 5-50 mts.

The nests made in tidal can fringes were in

shade all the time with the canopy of canes

covering the nests. The nests in creeping cane

and evergreen vegetation zone were on the

forest edge thus exposing the nest to light for

some part of the day.

The single nest observed in the cultivated

land and the abandoned nest in the wild

sugarcane fringes were both totaily exposed

with no protection from sun, wind and rain.

The presence of wallows near the nests was

314

also recorded. Except for one nest in the culti-

vated land and one nest in the evergreen forest

region, upsiream from a creek, waliows were

observed in all other nests. From a single

wallow to as many as three were seen near

the nests. The wallows near the tidal cane

fringe nests were not very deep but the wal-

lows in the creeping cane/evergreen forest

fringe nests were deep. Wallows in the two

habitats measured as follows: (a) tidal cane

fringes (four nests observed with nine wallows:

mean length, breadth and depth are foilowed

by range in brackets 161.2 (105—185), 74.9

(63—90), 46.8 (35—65), (b) creeping cane/

evergreen forests complex (nine nests observ-

ed with seventeen wallows) 176.0 (135—223),

81.6 (58—108), 113.2 (65—155). The differ-

ence in depth between the two habitats is sig-

nificantly different.

Before any attempt was made to inspect the

nests closely, the wallows were disturbed with

long poles to note the presence of nesting

females. Of the fifteen nests observed, nesting

females were seen at three of them, one of

which had the eggs intact, one had been pre-

dated by Varanis but the nest shape remained

intact (Plate V) and the third nest had been

destroyed by humans, and at another nest,

also destroyed by humans, an adult was ob-

served in the water of the creek close to the

nest. Additionaliy, tracks, believed to be those

oi the nesting females, were scen at six of the

nests. Though many of them seemed to be

fresh, the last visit of the nesting female to

the nest could net be ascertained with cer-

tainty. Thus nest-guarding was taking place,

or could be inferred, at ten of the fifteen

nests. It is noteworthy that at the nest from

which eggs were collected and the female was

present in the adjacent wallow the mother

crocodile meekly ran into the water after cnce

being poked with a long pole.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 : PLATE III

Choudhury & Bustard: Nests of Saltwater Crocodile

Abcve: A view of the East coast from the open sea. The fringing mangroves are

clearly visible, and behind and towering over them, the darker vegetation of the

evergreen forests. Between these are the transitional tidal cane fringes. Below: Man-

groves, completely felled and cleared, on the West coast, for use as fuel and for

house construction.

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE IV

Choudhury & Bustard: Nests of Saltwater Crocodile

Above: An undisturbed saltwater crocodile nest (the only one encountered during the

study) in creeping cane/evergreen forest, Zone HII, on the West coast. Below: The

same nest opened to expose the eggs. This plate gives a good impression of the size

of the nest, here mostly constructed of creeping cane and dry, fallen, leaves of ever-

green forest trees.

NESTS OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE ON NORTH ANDAMAN ISLAND

NEST PREDATION

Of the thirty nests studied only one gave rise

to hatchlings (Table 1).

TABLE 1

HATCHING OF NATURAL NESTS OF SALTWATER CRO-

CODILE (Crocodylus porosus) AT NoRTH ANDAMAN

ISLAND.

Number Number Number destroyed Number

of nests hatched by predators flooded

30 1 G.3) 28 (93.4) 1 (3.3)

emer PR TD,

(Figures are followed by percentage in brackets).

This results from an high incidence of nest

predation, almost entirely by humans (Table

2).

TABLE 2

INCIDENCE OF NEST PREDATION

nee

Predators

Number

of ee aaa:

nests Humans Monitors Wild Undeter-

Pigs mined

26 22 2 2 2

(84.6) (7.6) (7.6) (7.6)

(Figures are followed by percentage in brackets).

Wherever, humans have taken the eggs clear

evidence of clearing of bushes, canes etc.,

using sharp cutting instruments and complete

destruction of the nest mound was observed.

In case of wild pig predation, the nest mound

was spoiled (Plate V) and hoof marks were

clearly visible on the cleared vegetational area

around the nest. The most clearly ascertained

predation was that by Monitor lizards (Vara-

nus). Fresh tracks as well as the tail marks

with a few scattered egg-shells around a per-

fect nest with neat holes (Plate V) indicated

the presence of Varanus. A Monitor Lizard

was seen close by one of the two nests which

had been predated by Varanus (Table 2).

This nest also had the nesting female crocodile

lying in one of the wallows on one side of the

nest. The Varanus had made a neat hole in

the opposite side and eaten all the eggs (on

Opening the nest no more eggs remained).

Non-human predators may not eat all the

eggs. However, when the egg mass is exposed

by a predator, the micro-environment of the

nest, essential for incubation, is destroyed.

Hatching of any of the remaining eggs is,

therefore, unlikely. The nests observed with

one exception (Table 3) were restricted to

two vegetational complexes. No nests were

observed in the mangroves at the mouths of

the creeks. In these two types of vegetational

complexes, namely tidal cane and creeping

cane/evergreen forests, more than two-thirds

of the total nests occurred (Table 3).

The break-up of nest predation in the nests

personally observed in the various habitats is

given in Table 4. Humans frequent both of the

main nesting habitats, wild pigs are mostly

in the creeping cane/evergreen vegetation and

monitors favour the tidal cane fringes since

they search for small invertebrate and verte-

brate prey in the areas subject to inundation.

Table 5 analyses the human predation on

eggs in the nesting habitats.

CROCODILE POPULATION

Data on the naturally occurring crocodile

population were recorded during the course of

this study. However, no night survey work

was carried out for census determination pur-

poses.

A female observed with her brood of young

315

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

TABLE 3

NEST LOCATION IN RELATION TO WEGETATION COMPLEX

ae A a Ta eer eat Seg? =

Location of nest

Number* ;

of : Creeping Cane Cultivated land

nests Mangroves Tidal Cane and Evergreen along the fresh

Fringes Vegetation water streams

15 = 4 10 : a

(66.6) (6.6)

(26.6)

SP ET TA AT TAY TPE r =

(Figures are followed by percentage in brackets).

* These fifteen nests were all personally inspected.

TABLE 4

PREDATION IN RELATION TO VEGETATION COMPLEX

Predator

Vegetation complex

Humans Monitors Wild Pigs Undetermined Total

Tidal cane fringes 4 2 - - 6

(26.6) (13.3) (40)

Creeping cane and evergreen 4 = 2 2 8

vegetation (26.6) (13.3) (13 3) (53.4)

Cultivation lands along 1 - - - 1

the fresh-water creeks (6.6) (6.6)

2 2 15

ees aa CEREEZ

(Figures are followed by

percentage in brackets).

measured about 2.7 mts. Two nest-guarding

females also measured approximately 2 mts.

A third nest-guarding female measured ap-

proximately 3.5 metres.

TABLE 5

TYPE OF HUMAN HUNTING ACTIVITY

I Coe

Type of human hunting activity

Number of

nests taken Chance encoun-

Deliberate hunt-

ters of crocodile

by humans ing for eggs

nests

22 19 3

(86.3) (13.7)

TI RS ET AT BTL IO SES BE ED

(Figures are followed by percentage in brackets).

316

Four crocodiles were sighted in the open

water. Two measured approximately 3 to 3.75

mts and two were in excess of 4.5 mts, one

of which measured about 6 mts. Apart from

these eight adults, six juvenile crocodiles

measuring not more than 1.2 mts were sighted

in the creek emptying into Casurina Bay on

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S[IPOSOID Jo}eMYCS JO S}ISON :preysng x2 AInypnoyy

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NESTS OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE ON NORTH ANDAMAN ISLAND

the West Coast, and a cluster of approximately

twentyfive recent hatchlings was sighted in the

company of their mother at a creek on the

west coast.

The crocodiles actually sighted are given

according to size/age class group in Table 6.

Adult Losses:

During the nest survey information on

killing of nesting females was also col-

lected. A total of five nesting females were

reported to have been killed during the 1978

nesting season. Of these killings four were re-

TABLE 6

DIFFERENT SIZE / AGE CLASSES OF SALTWATER CROCODILES SEEN IN NorrH ANDAMAN

Adults

Number of

crocodiles seen Nesting Other

females adults

39 4 4 8

ture can also be obtained from an examination

of clutch size data, since clutch size in salt-

water crocodiles increases with increase in

length/age females. Precise data are available

for six nests from this study and cross-checked

reports of clutch size for further five nests

(Table 7 and Figure 1).

TABLE 7

CLUTCH SIZE OF SALTWATER CROCODILE IN

NortH ANDAMAN

Cluth size*

Mean

Confirmed Unconfirmed (all nests)

55 39

60 39

ae 39 46.1

42 69

67 19

Mean 51.3 Mean 41.0

* During 1976 June one nest collected from North

Andaman had 51 eggs, and during the latter part

of June/July 1976 another nest with 72 eggs was

also observed by Whitaker (1978).

Total

Further insight into the population struc-

Hatchlings Yearlings/Second

years

Approx.25 in one group 6

ported from the west coast (Casurina and

Hudson Bay) where encroachment on forest

land along the fresh water streams is very high.

Activities such as bamboo and cane: cutting,

crabbing and fishing are also high. One nest-

ing female was reported to have been killed

on the Kalpang river in an area of cultivated

land (but outside the cultivation season). All

these females were reported to have been of

less than three metres in size.

DISCUSSION

Whitaker and Whitaker (1978) have stated

that North Andaman nests are susceptible to

flooding and predation, especially by the water

monitor (Varanus salvator). These observa-

tions are not borne out by the present quanti-

tative study also in North Andaman. While

it is true that nests of saltwater crocodiles tend

to be susceptible to flooding, the building of

two-thirds of the nests in the cane/creeping

cane, evergreen forest interphase area reduces

this most effectively. Only one nest (3.3%)

was lost from this cause (Table 3).

Flooding was the major cause of the nest

loss in Webb et al.’s (1977) study in which

317

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

twentyfour of thirty nests under study were

flooded. However, data have to be collected

over a number of years. In the Northern Aus-

tralian environment due to marked variations

in the severity of floods Bustard (unpublished

data) arrived at an annual, average, nest loss,

due to flooding, of about 50% for the West

coast of the Cape York peninsula in North

Queensland, Australia, in the vicinity of Ed-

no of nests

Oo 35

ward River. In the present Andaman study

of the fifteen nests personally inspected only

cne was flooded. However, the eggs were taken

by people from most nests before they had a

chance to be flooded. Incidence of flooding

might, therefore, have been much higher in

the absence of this very high level of human

predation. However, even making allowance

for this we do not anticipate a level anywhere

36 45 '46 55 56 65 66 75.

no of eggs/ clutch

Fig. 1. Clutch size variation. Note 36—45 eggs is the most common range of

clutch size.

318

NESTS OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE ON NORTH ANDAMAN ISLAND

approaching the Australian figures quoted by

Webb et al. (80% of nests lost through flood-

ing).

Webb eft al. also record absence of nests

from the tidal mangrove forests. There would

appear to be good reason for this due to the

high probability that nests Jaid in this environ-

ment would be flooded. Webb e¢ al. give the

mean distance of fifty nests from the water

as 7.8 metres but agree with our observation

that this distance is difficult to measure and

somewhat arbitrary due to tidal fluctuations.

The mean dimensions of the three nests

examined in the present study are considerably

larger than those given by Neill (1971) for

the Philippines, several parts of Indonesia and

Papua (height 25-30 inches, diameter 4-5 feet),

and the mean figure given by Webb ef al. al-

though our figures are well within the range

observed by the latter authors.

Surprisingly, Neill (1971) dismisses the pre-

sence of nest wallows thus:

“According to the Ccylonese legend, the

female estuarine crocodile scoops out two

basins near her nest, waits until these basins

are full of water, and then with her tail

splashes this water over the nest. It is easy

to sce how the legend of the two basins

could have developed: the female uproots

and scrapes up vegetation from a small area

in which her nest will be located, and in so

doing might casily leave depressions in

which rainwater or secpage could accumu-

late:

With the exception of two nests, one to three

wallows were always present in the present

study. Bustard has also noted the invariable

presence of wallows elsewhere in India and

in Australia. Webb ef al. also noted the pre-

sence of one to four wallows and raised the

interesting question that these could be of two

origins. While some might have been created

by sweeping up mud and debris for nest con-

struction as suggested by Neill, some, they

state, appeared to have been excavated speci-

fically for the crocodile to lie in. They noted,

and this is the important point, that the nest-

guarding crocodile occupies both types of

wallow, an observation with which we con-

cur. We confirm that the saltwater crocodile

regularly lies in wallows close to the nest,

both in the wild and in captivity (Bustard

and Maharana in preparation).

The function of the wallow deserves dis-

cussion. We consider that they may play a

role in thermoregulation—particularly where

the nest is exposed to direct sunlight for part

of the day. We also feel that wallows may have

an important psychological effect for this very

aquatic crocodilian. In this connection we

would stress the role of the larger wallows—

clearly constructed specifically for the croco-

dile to lie in as suggested by Webb et al.—

since they are frequently many times larger

than the total volume of nest material, so that

Neill’s suggestion that they occur as a_ by-

product of nest construction is untenable (sce

Figure 2 of Webb et al. for a clear illustration

of this). In these latter wallows, the crocodile

can lie completely unscen, giving it a psycho-

logical advantage, and certainly a feeling of

security. Further substantiation of this hypo-

thesis comes from the fact that the wallows

in the creeping cane/evergreen forest zone are

deeper and longer compared to those in the

tidal cane fringes. This increased depth is neces-

sary in this drier zone to ensure a good sup-

ply of water. Incidentally, Deraniyagala

(1939) also refers to the presence of nest

wallows in Sri Lanka.

The mean clutch size observed by Webb

et al. (1977) was fifty eggs (range 40 to 62).

Neill (1971) gives a range of twentyfive to

seventytwo. Our own observations for North

319

320

OOS SS Ee

see a Re ma — =. Se — —— = oe

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Fig. 2. Map of the Andamans showing details of North Andaman. Solid dots re-

present centres of field activity. Scale on small map represents 16 km. Large map

not to scale. Numbers refer to rivers and creeks as detailed below:

1. Kalpang river, 2. Kalara Creek, 3. Parangara Creek, 4. Balmi Creek, 5. Creeks

emptying into Casurina Bay, 6. Creeks South-West of Shyamnagar, 7. Creeks near

Gandhinagar, 8. Creek emptying into Caddle Bay.

NESTS OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE ON NORTH ANDAMAN ISLAND

Andaman give a mean, based on confirmed

nest data, of fiftyone eggs (range 42 to 67),

remarkably similar to the data of Webb et al.

Nest materials in the present study were

fresh leaves of standing canes cight to nine

feet tall, fresh leaves of the much taller creep-

ing cane, and dead evergreen tree leaves. This

agrees with Smith (1931). Neill (1971) found

tall green grass or herbaceous aquatic plants

most commonly used in the Philippines, Indo-

nesia and Papua. Kopstein (1929) noted that

in Java the nests were constructed of man

height grass and small branches. It would ap-

pear that the saltwater crocedile uses the avail-

able material. For instance, in North Anda-

man there is no herbaceous aquatic vegeta-

tion, and the single nest found in cultivated

land was made of grass and miscellaneous

shrubs.

In the present study no emaciated croco-

diles were seen as reported by Deraniyagala.

We believe that the nest-guarding female

leaves the nest periodically for unknown

periods of time. This fits in with frequent

observations of tracks leading from the nests

to the water and absence of female crocodiles

from the wallows near the nest, a view which

agrees with the data of Webb ef al. (1977)

but conflicts with the data of Deraniyagala

(1939). Incidentally, the iatter’s observation

that two nest-guarding individuals which he

shot had empty stomaches is not convincing

data that they do not feed during the incuba-

tion period as very many stomachs of cro-

codiles shot during the course of normal acti-

vities were found to be completely empty of

food (Cott 1961).

Neill (1971) states that the female saltwater

crocodile will guard the nest against man.

We have no personal experience of this in

Andamans, although occasional instances are

known to us from elsewhere. We consider the

trait unusual, nowadays, since such nest-guard-

ing females are usually killed. :

Human predation was found to be eleven

times more serious than that of either the

water monitor lizard or wild pigs (Table 2):

These latter predators could have been ex-

pected to take a larger proportion of eggs in

the absence of a such a high level of human

predation. Human predators, as a result of

deliberate hunting for eggs, get to the nest

shortly after the eggs have been laid, before

other predators chance upon the nest. The in-

tensity of human predation on saltwater cro-

codile nests is in part a result of the belief

in the medicinal properties of the eggs (be-

lieved to be a reliable cure for rheumatism

and bronchitis) combined with the fact that

the nesting season takes place with the onset

of the South-West monsoon at a time when

the villagers are going to the forest to collect

cane and bamboo to fence in their fields

against wild pig (Sus andamanicus) and chee-

tal (Axis axis). Cultivation has not yet started,

and encouraged by the believed medicinal

values of the eggs, they have ample time to

search out the nests.

The very high level of predation, despite

nest-guarding by the female, requires elabo-

ration. Firstly, taking the case of the two

main non-human predators, the female croco-

dile, if present at the nest, will not hesitate

to attack. However, during an incubation

period extending over about two months, it is

not possible for the female to remain alert

at all times. Even when the female is present

at one of the wallows it may be possible for

a predator to approach the nest undetected

from the other side. An instance of this was

observed when visiting a nest, the eggs of

which had been eaten by the water monitor.

The female crocodile was present in one of

the wallows at the time of the visit and it

321

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

could be seen that the nest had been opened

from the opposite side through a neat hole

(Plate V) and the entire clutch consumed.

As mentioned in Results the mother crocodile

does not remain at the nest throughout the

entire incubation period. Should the predator

arrive at the nest during one of the absences

of the female predation is, of course, simple.

The nest guarding behaviour of the female

crocodile is an aspect of the nesting biology

which deserves quantitative study in the field.

Turning to human predation, there has been

active selection against females which will

guard the nest in the face of a human intru-

der. Since, such females are easily killed they

do not survive to pass on this trait to their

offspring (it should be noted that crocodile

hunters elsewhere in the world, who may not

be interested in the eggs, often shoot nest-

guarding female due to the ease with which

they can (could) be shot. Nowadays it is

unusual, therefore, for a female to attack

humans at the nest and it would seem that

the present predation pattern on adults, as

well as eggs, would favour poor mothers who

desert the nest at the first sight of a human

intruder! To this should be added the fact

that hunting pressure has reduced the average

age, and, therefore, average size of nest guard-

ing females. Not only are present-day, nest-

guarding females, smaller and therefore, less

able physically to protect the nest against pre-

dators but they are new or relatively new

nesters and, therefore, inexperienced.

The small size of most of the observed

females reinforces the concern for the future

of this population, since it indicates that they

have only recently recruited to the breeding

population, and that hunting pressure on nest-

ing females is severe.

Exact information about the female breeding

population size can be gathered from precise

322

knowledge of the number of nests. In the

present study thirty nests in which eggs have

been laid were located, and an additional nest

was located which had been constructed by a

female which did not lay eggs in it. This phe-

nomenon is discussed by Webb ef¢ al. This

female might have laid subsequently elsewhere.

The nest survey was carried out exhaustively.

It is unlikely that nests were missed except,

perhaps, in the most remote areas. If it is

assumed that a further five to six nests were

laid and missed, this gives a breeding popu-

lation of thirtysix females for North Andaman,

considered to be the best remaining area in

the Andamans for the saltwater crocodile.

Assuming the expected sex ratio of about 2.5

females per male the breeding male population

would be approximately 15. Due to a prob-

ably higher incidence of killing nesting females

the male population may be somewhat higher.

There is a necd to strengthen the Wild

Life Wing of the Andamans Forest Depart-

ment so that it can offer more effective pro-

tection in the field to such an endangered—

and fully protected—member of the Indian

fauna. A Union Territory such as Andaman

and Nicobars should set an example to other

States. The problem of the conservation of

the saltwater crocodile—on an all India basis

—is taken up in a later paper.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The study was carried out as a part of

Government of India Project on Crocodile

Breeding and Management. We gratefully

acknowledge the support of our respective

organisations, the Forest Department of

Andhra Pradesh and the Food and Agriculture

Organisation of the United Nations. We are

also indebted to Andaman and Nicobar Forest

Department for their co-operation and field

assistance.

NESTS OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE ON NORTH ANDAMAN ISLAND

REFERENCES

BLasco, F. (1977): Outlines of Ecology, Botany

and Forestry of the Mangals of the Indian Sub-

continent. In Chapman, V. J. (1977), (Editor) Eco-

systems of the World. Elsevier Amsterdam.

Cort, H. B. (1961): Scientific Results of an

Enquiry into the Ecology and Economic Status of

the Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) in Uganda

and Northern Rhodesia. Trans. zool. Soc. Lond.

29: 211-337.

DERANIYAGALA, P. E. P. (1939): The Tetrapod

Reptiles of Ceylon Vol. I. Testudinates and Croco-

dilians. Colombo Museum, Ceylon.

LaL, P. (1976): Andaman Islands, a Regional

Geography, Arthropological Survey of India, Gov-

ernment of India. Calcutta.

KOPSTEIN, F. (1929): Herpetolozische notizen II

Onlogische Bcobachtunen am West-Jaranischen Re-

ptilien. Treubia 11: 301-307.

NEILL, W. T. (1971): The Last of the Ruling

Reptiles, Alligators, crocodiles and their Kin. Co-

lumbia University Press, New York.

SmiTH, M. A. (1931): The Fauna of British

India including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia Vol. [.

Loricata, Testudines. Taylor and Francis, London.

Wess, G. J. W., MESSEL, H., AND MAGNUSSON,

W. (1977): The nesting of Crocodylus porosus in

Arnhem Land, Northern Australia. Copeia, 1977

(2): 238-50.

WHITAKER, R. AND WHITAKER, Z. (1978): Preli-

minary Survey of the Saltwater Crocodile (Croco-

dylus porosus) in the Andaman Island. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc., 75 (1): 43-49.

323

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON SOME INDIAN EULOPHID PARASITES

(HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOIDEBA)!

M. YOUNUS KHAN AND S. ADAM SHAFFE2

(With four text-figures)

Additional generic characters of pronotum, subgenital plate and external female geni-

talia are proposed for the genera Euplectrus Westwood, Scotolinx Ashmead and Syn-

tomosphyrum Foerster. One known species of Euplectrus (E. gopimohani Mani),

one known species of Scotolinx (S. quadristriata Subba Rao and Ramamani) and two

new species of Syniomosphyrum (S. udaipurensis sp. nov. and S. anomalococci sp.

nov.) are described in detail. Key to species of Syntomosphyrum is also provided.

Holotypes, paratypes and other material examined by the authors are deposited in

Zoological Museum, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

Genus Eupiectrus Westwood

Euplectrus Westwood, 1832, Phil. Mag. 3:

128.

Type-species: FEuplectrus maculiventris West-

wood = Pteromalus bicolor Swederus (Mono-

basic).

The genus Fuplectrus was proposed by

Westwood (1832) for the species Fuplectrus

maculiventris Westwood. The genera Diplec-

tron Dahlbom and Pachyscapha Howard are

generally considered as synonyms of Fuplec-

trus Westwood by all recent workers. Recently,

Kerrich (1974) synonymized the genus Rek-

abia Cameron with Euplectrus Westwood. The

distinguishing characters of this genus have

been given in detail by Nikol’skaya (1952)

and Peck et al. (1964). Some new generic

characters are suggested namely Pronotum

with anterior margin deeply concave in mid-

1 Accepted July 1977.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

324

dle, antero-lateral arms long and narrow, pos-

terior margin convex (fig. 1 D); first valvifers

triangular with basal and apical angles at dif-

ferent levels (fig. 1 K); third valvulae rudi-

mentary, articulated with second valvifers

(fig. 1 L); outer plates of ovipositor narrow

at base, broadened at apex (fig. 1 M); sub-

genital plate of uniform width, anterior mar-

gin straight, posterior margin with a notch in

middle (fig. 1 N).

Euplectrus gopimohani Mani (Fig. 1 A-N)

Euplectrus gopimohani Mani, 1941, Indian J.

Ent. 33 33.

FEMALE (Redescribed in detail).

Head (fig. 1 A).—Dark with metallic reficc-

tions except clypeal region which is yellowish

brown, triangular in facial view; frontovertex

slightly more than twice as wide as long, width

slightly more than half the total head width;

ocelli white, arranged in obtuse triangle, late-

ral ocelli twice their own diameters from or-

bital margin and less than their own diameters

from occipital margin; eyes dark brown and

smooth; antennae inserted below lower level

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

wey

ty ht

Fig. 1 A-N. Euplectrus gopimohani Mani, 2: (A) Head in dorsal view; (B) Maxil-

lary and labial palpi; (C) Antenna; (D) Pronotum; (E) Propodeum and petiole in

dorsal view; (F) Fore wing; (G) Part of fore wing venation; (H) Part of fore leg;

(1) Part of Middle leg; (J) Part of hind leg; (K) First valvifer; (L) Second valvifer

and third valvula; (M) Outer plate of ovipositor; (N) Subgenital plate.

325

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

of eyes; prominence between antennal sockets

less than one-third the width of frons between

eyes; malar space longer than eye width; malar

sutures distinct; maxillary and labial palpi 2

and 1-segmented respectively (fig. 1 B).

Antennae (fig. 1 C).—Brown except scape

which is yellow, 8-segmented excluding two

ring segments; scape cylindrical, slightly more

than four times as long as wide (0.22:0.05

mm); pedicel slightly less than twice as long

as wide, slightly longer than first funicle seg-

ment; funicle 4-segmented, first shortest and

twice as long as wide; segments 2-4 subequal

in length, gradually widened distad, each more

than one and a half times as long as wide;

club 2-segmented, two and a half times as

long as wide (0.15:0.06 mm), shorter than

preceding two funicle segments together.

Thorax.—-Dark with metallic reflections and

reticulately sculptured; pronotum with anterior

margin deeply concave in middle, antero-lateral

arms long and narrow, posterior margin much

convex bearing 3 pairs of long setae (fig. 1

D); parapsidal furrows weli developed; scu-

tum wider than long; scutellum longer than

wide: scutum, parapside and scutellum with

6, 4 and 4 setae respectively; axillae bare; pro-

podeum with a median carina (fig. 1 E).

Fore wings (fig. 1 F).—Hyaline, slightly

more than twice as long as wide (1.5:0.7 mm);

costal cell shorter than marginal vein and with

5 long and 10 small setae; submarginal and

marginal veins with 3 and 13 setae respective-

ly; stigmal vein less than one-third the length

of marginal vein and one-half the length of

postmarginal vein (fig. 1 G); marginal fringe

short, spaced by a distance equal to one-third

their length.

Hind wings.—Hyaline, five times as long

as wide; marginal fringe short, spaced by a

distance equal to one-half their length.

Legs (fig. 1 H-J).—Honey yellow; tarsi 4-

326

jointed; hind legs with two tibial spurs, longest

tibial spur shorter than the length of basal

two tarsal joints together (fig. 1 J).

Abdomen.—Dark except a broad patch on

mid of dorsum which is yellow; petiole one

and a half times as long as wide; ovipositor

concealed, arising from apical one-third of

abdominal venter; first valvifers triangular with

basal and apical angles at different levels, basal

margin concave (fig. | K); second valvifers of

uniform width, third valvulae rudimentary,

articulated with second valvifers (fig. 1 L);

outer plates of ovipositor narrow at base, wid-

ened at apex (fig. 1 M); subgenital plate of

uniform width, anterior margin straight, pos-

terior margin with a wide notch in middle

(fig. 1 N).

Female length: 1.86 mm.

Material examined—1 @, INDIA: | Uttar

Pradesh, Aligarh, University Campus, ex Lepi-

dopterous Larva, 10.x.1977 (M. Younus

Khan).

Genus Scototimx Ashmead

Scoiolinx Ashmead, 1904, Mein. Carnege.

Mus., 1: 354.

Type-species: Scotolinx gallicola Ashmead.

The genus Scofolinx was proposed by Ash-

mead (1904) for the species Scotolinx galli-

cola Ashmead. The distinguishing characters

of this genus have been given by Ashmead

(1904). We suggest some new generic charac-

ters which are as follows: Pronotum of uni-

form width, anterior margin slightly concave

in middle, posterior margin straight (fig. 2

E); first valvifers semicircular with basal and

apical angles at different levels (fig. 2 H); third

valvulae blunt, movably articulated with

second valvifers (fig. 2 I); outer plates of ovi-

positor long, slightly shorter than second val-

vifers with a mid-longitudinal ridge (fig. 2 J);

subgenital plate with anterior margin straight,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 2 A-P. Scotolinx quadristriata Subba Rao & Ramamani, 2, 6: (A) Mandible,

2; (B) Maxillary and labial palpi, 2; (C) Antenna, 9; (D) Propodeum and part

of thorax in dorsal view, 2; (E) Pronotum, 2; (F) Fore wing, 2; (G) Part of fore

wing venation, 9; (H) First valvifer, 2; (1) Second valvifer and third valvula, 9;

(J) Outer plate of ovipositor, 2; (K) Subgenital plate, 9; (L) Part of fore leg, 2;

(M) Part of middle leg, 9; (N) Part of hind leg, @; (O) Antenna, ¢; (P) Geni-

talia, ¢.

SPAT)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

posterior margin with a semicircular notch in

middle, postero-lateral ridges present (fig. 2

K); male genitalia with gonobase shorter than

aedeagus, digitus with two projections (fig.

2B):

Scotolinx quadristriata Subba Rao and

Ramamani (Fig. 2 A-P)

Scotolinx quadristriata Subba Rao and Rama-

mani, 1965, Indian J. Ent. 27: 412.

FEMALE

Head.—Orange yellow and setose, slightly

wider than long in facial view (0.28:0.23 mm);

frontovertex wider than long, width about one-

half the total head width; ocelli red, arranged

in obtuse triangle, lateral ocelli twice their own

diameters from orbital margin and their own

diameters from occipital margin; eyes red and

smooth; malar sutures distinct; malar space

longer than eye width; antennae inserted at

lower level of eyes; mandibles bidentate with

one acute tooth and a broad truncation having

serrations (fig. 2 A); maxillary and labial

palpi each I-segmented (fig. 2 B).

Antennae (fig. 2 C).—Yellowish brown, 7-

segmented excluding 2 ring segments; scape

flattened, slightly more than three times as long

as wide, about as long as club; pedicel one and

a half times as long as wide, slightly shorter

than first funicle segment; funicle 2-segment-

ed, first funicle segment slightly more than one

and a half times as long as wide, longer than

second; club 3-segmented, two and a half times

as long as wide, slightly shorter than funicle.

Thorax (fig. 2 D).—Orange yellow prono-

tum of uniform width, anterior margin straight,

slightly concave in middle, antero-lateral an-

gles acute, posterior margin straight bearing 4

pairs of setae (fig. 2 E); parapsidal furrows

complete; scutum and scutellum with 6 and

328

4 setae respectively; mesopostphragma well

developed, not reaching beyond the propo-

deum.

Fore wings (fig. 2 F).—Hyaline _ slightly

more than twice as long as wide (1.26:0.58

mm); costal cell as long as marginal vein and

with 11 small setae; submarginal vein with 5

setae; marginal vein with 12 setae; postmarg-

ginal slightly shorter than stigmal and one-

fourth the length of marginal vein (fig. 2 G);

marginal fringe spaced by a distance equal

to one-fourth their length.

Hind wings.—Hyaline, five and a half times

as long as wide; marginal fringe one-third

the wing width, spaced by distance equal to

one-fifth their length.

Legs (fig. 2 L-N).—Yellow; middle tibial

spur longer than basitarsus (fig. 2 M).

Abdomen.—Yellow, except dorsum with

four transverse brown bands, silghtly longer

than thorax; ovipositor slightly exserted, aris-

ing from base of abdominal venter; first val-

vifers semicircular, with basal and apical an-

gles at different levels (fig. 2 H); anterior

margin of basal part of second valvifers much

curved, U-shaped; third valvulae two and a

half times as long as wide, about one-fifth the

length of second valvifers (fig. 2 1); outer

plates of ovipositor long, widened in middle

with mid-longitudinal ridge, shorter than

second valvifers (fig. 2 J); subgenital plate

with anterior margin straight, posterior mar-

gin with a semicircular notch in middle, pos-

tero-lateral ridges present (fig. 2 K).

Female length: 1.38 mm.

MALE

Resembles female except in the following

characters:

Male genitalia with gonobase shorter than

aedeagus, digitus short, each with two pro-

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

jections (fig. 2 P).

Male length: 0.98 mm.

Material examined: 2 2, 1 6, INDIA: Raja-

sthan, Udaipur, ex leaf mining Lepidoptera

on Citrus sp., 1.x.1975 (M. Younus Khan).

Genus Syntomosphyrum Foerster

Syntomosphyrum Foerster, 1878, Verhandl.

Naturhist. Ver. Preuss. Rheinl. u. West-

falens, 35: 60.

Type-species: Syntomosphyrum fulvipes

Foerster (Monobasic).

The genus Syntomosphyrum was proposed

by Foerster (1878) for the species S$. fulvipes

Foerster. Muesebeck et. al. (1951) considered

the genus Jetrastichopsis Girault to be a syn-

onym of Synatomosphyrum Foerster. Recently,

Syntomosphyrum Foerster was synonymized

with Aprostocetus Westwood by Graham

(1961) and with Tetrastichus Haliday by Do-

menichini (1965). However, Waterston (1915

a & b), Ferriére (1933, 1940). Muesebeck

et al. (1951), Kurian (1954), Burks (1952,

1967), Risbec (1957), Peck (1963) and Peck

et al. (1964) recognized Syntomosphyrum as

a valid genus. They separated it from its

closely allied genera by the absence of longi-

tudinal grooves on scutum and scutellum. We

have followed earlier workers in treating Syn-

tomosphyrum as a valid genus. This view gets

support from Kerrich’s (1969) separation of

Platocharis WKerrich and Schizocharis Kerrich

on the basis of the presence or absence of

scutellar grooves. Some new generic charac-

ters are suggested namely Pronotum with an-

terior margin deeply concave, posterior mar-

gin straight or slightly curved (fig. 3 F; fig. 4

D); third valvulae movably articulated with

second valvifers (fig. 3 I; fig. 4 H); posterior

margin of subgenital plate with a notch in

middle (fig. 3 K; fig. 4 J); male genitalia with

gonobase longer than aedeagus, digitus short,

each with single projection (fig. 3 N).

KEY TO SPECIES OF Syntomosphyrum FCERSTER,

BASED ON FEMALES

1. Funicle segments subquadrate or longer than

ede read na Se 2

— Funicle segments transverse; first funicle segment

with two sensoria; bristle to spur of club as

long as or longer than the last club joint......

Ce a)

Big vere ieleeveiictne sigma 8 aig atte al S. indicum Silvestri

2. Pedicel longer than first funicle segment...... 3

— Pedicel as long as or shorter than first funicie

SCSMeENC 3. Sie

3. Abdomen shorter than head and thorax together;

antennae with 2 ring segments; vertex smooth;

body aeneous black...... S. javanicum Fferriere

— Abdomen as long as head and thorax together;

antennae with 3 ring segments; vertex finely

punctate; body orange yellow............0).00..

OS RAE ita: eRe ES AD ae S. obscuriceps Ferriere

4. Pedicel shorter than first funicle segment; first

funicle segment more than one and a half times

as long as wide; thorax brown or yellow, non-

metallic; submarginal vein with 3 or 4 setae...

ec 8\ 10% 04) 0 /4et ee) 6)1@)r e) eo). |, eF @ (0) 'erseh-el | ee) 0) e)iete) “We! 6) 0: ele: 8

— Pedicel as long as first funicle segment; first

funicle segment as long as wide; thorax dark

brown; submarginal vein with 2 setae.........

Ape me Sie, al ei Marty Ore vee caie S. taprobanes Waterston

5. Thorax brown; scutum with 16 longitudinal ridges

anteriorly and with a row of 4 setae near each

parapsidal furrow (fig. 3 E); first funicle seg-

ment less than twice as long as wide, second

and third each slightly longer than wide; club

much longer than preceding two funicle seg-

ments together; submarginal vein with 3 setae;

first valvifers with basal and apical angles at

different levelsi Gig 7-3) ane ie Uae

BOS EEO cy MOY tea ap S. udaipurensis sp. nov.

— Thorax yellow; scutum with 4 or 5 longitudinal

ridges anteriorly and with 8 setae irregularly

arranged near each parapsidal furrow (fig. 4 C);

first funicle segment more than twice as long as

wide, second and third each twice as long as

wide; club as long as preceding two funicle seg-

ments together; submarginal vein with 4 setae;

first valvifers almost semicircular with basal and

329

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

apical angles in one plane (fig. 4 G)..........

se ie UUM GR een SN aie alee S. anomalococci sp. nov.

Syntomosphyrum undaipurensis sp. nov.

(Fig. 3 A-N)

FEMALE

Head (fig. 3 A).—Brown, wider than long

in facial view; frontovertex width more than

one-half the total head width; ocelli yellow-

ish, arranged in obtuse triangle, lateral ocelli

slightly more than their own diameters from

orbital and less than their own diameters

from occipital margins; eyes red and smooth;

malar space longer than eye width; malar

sutures distinct; antennae inserted above

lower level of eyes; prominence between an-

tennal sockets about one-fourth the width of

frons between eyes; mandibles tridentate with

apical tooth long and acute, mesal small and

acute, lower rudimentary (fig. 3 B); maxil-

lary and labial palpi each 1-segmented (fig.

3 D).

Antennae (fig. 3 C).—Brownish, except

scape and apical half of pedicel which are

yellow; 8-segmented excluding 2 ring segments;

scape cylindrical, slightly more than three

times as long as wide (0.10:0.03 mm); pedi-

cel one and a half times as long as wide,

shorter than first funicle segment; funicle 3-

segmented; segments 1-3 gradually decreasing

in length distad; first funicle segment longest,

more than one and a half times as long as

wide, second and third slightly longer than

wide; club 3-segmented, much longer than

preceding two funicle segments together.

Thorax (fig. 3 E).—Brown; pronotum

broad, antero-lateral angles acute, posterior

margin straight, lateral margin of each side

with a small protuberance, posterior submar-

ginal ridge absent (fig. 3 F); scutum slightly

wider than long with 16 longitudinal ridges

anteriorly and a row of 4 setae near each

330

parapsidal furrow; each parapside with single

seta; scutellum wider than long and with two

pairs of setae; scutum and scutellum without

longitudinal grooves; propodeum with a me-

dian carina diverging backwards.

Fore wings (fig. 3 G).—Hyaline, _ slightly

more than twice as long as wide (0.85:0.4

mm); costal cell long and narrow, _ slightly

shorter than marginal vein and with 8 small

setae; submarginal and marginal veins with 3

and 11 setae respectively; postmarginal vein

rudimentary; marginal fringe short, spaced by

a distance equal to one-fourth their length.

Hind wings——Hyaline, four times as long

as wide; marginal fringe spaced by a distance

equal to one-fourth their length.

Legs.—Yellow; tarsi 4-jointed; mid _ tibial

spur shorter than basitarsus.

Abdomen.—Dark brown except base which

is yellow, as long as head and thorax toge-

ther; ovipositor slightly exserted, arising from

near base of abdominal venter: first valvifers

semicircular with basal and apical angles at

different levels (fig. 3 H): third valvulae five

times as long as wide, slightly less than one-

half the length of second valvifers (fig. 3 I);

outer plates of ovipositor long and of uniform

width (fig. 3 J); subgenital plate with anterior

margin slightly concave, posterior margin

semicircular with a notch in middle (fig. 3 K).

Female length: 1.07 mm.

MALE

Resembles female except in the following

characters:

Body yellowish brown; antennae (fig. 3 M)

9-segmented; scape slightly flattened, two and

a half times as long as wide; pedicel slightly

longer than wide, longer than first funicle seg-

ment; funicle 4-segmented, each scgment with

a whorl of long hairs; first funicle segment

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

0-15mm

0-O08mm

Fig. 3 A-N. Syntomosphyrum udaipurensis sp. nov., 2, @: (A) Head in facial view,

2; (B) Mandible, 9; (C) Antenna, 2; (D) Maxillary and labial palpi, 2; (E)

Propodeum and part of thorax in dorsal view, 9; (F) Pronotum, 92; (G) Fore wing,

2; (H) First valvifer, 2; (1) Second valvifer and third valvula, 2; (J) Outer plate

of ovipositor, 9; (K) Subgenital plate, 9; (L) Mandible, @; (M) Antenna, ¢;

(N) Genitalia, ¢.

331

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

slightly wider than long, one-half the length

of second segment, segments 2-4 subequal in

length, each distinctly longer than wide; club

four times as long as wide; male genitalia with

gonobase two and a half times as long as

wide, longer than aedeagus, anterior margin

of basal part much acute, digitus with a small

projection, aedeagal shaft long (fig. 3 N).

Male length: 0.96 mm.

Holotype 2. INDIA: Orissa, Bhubaneswar,

ex eggs of Fulgorid on Ficus sp., 4.1x.1975

(M. Younus Khan).

Paratypes. 4 2, 3 & (same data as holo-

type); 10 @, Rajasthan, Udaipur, ex eggs of

Pyrilla sp. on Saccharum officinarum Luinn.,

10.viti.1977 (M. Younus Khan).

Syntomosphyrum anomalococci sp. nov.

(Fig. 4 A-J)

FEMALE

Head.—Yellowish except ocellar and pos-

toccipital regions which are dark drown, slight-

ly wider than long in facial view; frontover-

tex width slightly less than one-half the total

head width; ocelli white, arranged in equila-

teral triangle; lateral ocelli less than their own

diameters from orbital and occipital margins

separately; eyes red and smooth; antennae in-

serted above lower level of eyes; prominence

between antennal sockets one-third the width

of frons between eyes; malar sutures distinct;

malar space shorter than eye width; mandibles

tridentate with apical tooth long and acute

(fig. 4 A); maxillary and labial palpi each 1-

segmented.

Antennae (fig. 4 B).—Yellowish brown

except scape which is yellow, 8-segmented ex-

cluding 2 ring segments; scape slightly flatten-

ed, slightly more than two and a half times

as long as wide (0.13:0.05 mm); pedicel one

and a half times as long as wide, shorter than

o32

first funicle segment; funicle 3-segmented, seg-

ments 1-3 gradually decreasing in length dis-

tad; first funicle segment slightly more than

twice as long as wide, second and third each

twice as long as_ wide; club 3-segmented,

slightly less than four times as long as wide,

as long as preceding two funicle segments to-

gether.

Thorax (fig. 4 C)—Yeliow; pronotum

broad with an infuscated patch in middle, an-

tero-lateral angles acute, lateral margin of each

side with small protuberance, posterior mar-

gin straight, posterior submarginal ridge absent

(fig. 4 D); scutum slightly longer than wide,

bearing 5 longitudinal ridges anteriorly and 8

irregularly arranged setae near each parapsidal

furrow; each parapside with 7 setae; scutum

and scutellum without longitudinal grooves;

scutellum with 2 pairs of setae; propodeum

with a median carina diverging backwards.

Fore wings (fig. 4 E).—Hyaline, about twice

as long as wide; costal cell shorter than mar-

ginal vein; submarginal and marginal veins

with 4 and 11 setae respectively (fig. 3 F);

marginal fringe short, spaced by distance

equal to one-third their length.

Hind wings——More than four times as long

as wide; marginal fringe spaced by a distance

equal to one-third their length.

Legs.—Yellowish; mid tibial spur shorter

than basitarsus.

Abdomen.—Yecllow except dorsum with

transverse brown bands, longer than thorax;

ovipositor slightly exserted, arising from near

base of abdominal venter; first vaivifers almost

semicircular with basal and apical angles in

one plane (fig. 4 G); third valvulae long, six

times as long as wide, less than one-half the

length of second valvifers (fig. 4 H); outer

plates of ovipositor long and of uniform width

(fig. 4 I); subgenital plate of uniform width,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 4 A-J. Syntomosphyrum anomalococci sp. nov., 2: (A) Mandible; (B) Anten-

na; (C) Propodeum and part of thorax in dorsal view; (D) Pronotum; (E) Basal part

of fore wing; (F) Fore wing venation; (G) First valvifer; (H) Second valvifer and

third valvula; (1) Outer plate of ovipositor; (J) Subgenital plate.

333

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

anterior margin slightly concave, posterior

margin semicircular with a notch in middle

(fig. 4 J).

Female length: 1.4 mm.

Holotype @. INDIA: Tamil Nadu, Vellore,

ex Anomalococcus cremastogasiri Green on

Acacia sp., 41.1976 (M. Younus Khan).

Paratypes 15 @ {same data as holotype).

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are deeply indebted to Prof. S. Mash-

hood Alam, Head, Department of Zoology,

for providing research tacilities. Thanks are

also due to Prof. Nawab H. Khan for encour-

agement.

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chalcid-flies or the superfamily Chalcidoidea, with

descriptions of new species in the Carnegie Museum,

collected in south America by Herbert H. Smith.

Mem. Carneg. Mus. 1: 225-555.

Burks, B. D. (1952): The north American spe-

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(1967): Superfamily Chalcidoidea.

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ptera of America north of Mexico, synoptic catalog.

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DOMENICHINI, G. (1965): I. Tetrastichini (Hy-

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FERRIERE, C. (1933): Chalcidoid and Proctotru-

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(1940): On some parasites and

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FOERSTER, A. (1878): Kleine Monographian

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GRAHAM, M. W. R. DE V. (1961): The genus

Aprostocetus Westwood, sensu. (Hymenoptera:

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KERRICH, G. J. (1969): Systematic studies on

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(1974): Systematic studies on Eu-

lophidae of economic significance (Hymenoptera:

Chalcidoidea). Bull. ent. Res. 63: 629-639.

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chalcid parasites (Parasitic Hymenoptera) from

334

India. Agra Univ. J. Res. (Sci.) 3: 119-134.

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of the USSR (Chalcidoidea). Opred. Faun. Zool.

Inst. Akad. Nauk SSSR 44: 575 pp.

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(Suppl.). 30: 1092 pp.

——————— Bouckk, Z. & HoFFer, A. (1964):

Keys to the Chalcidoidea of Czechoslovakia (In-

secta: Hymenoptera). Mem. ent. Soc. Canad. 34:

120 pp.

RisBec, J. (1957): Contributions a | étude de la

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Torymidae, Perilampidae, Encyrtidae et Eupelmidae.

Annls. Mus. r. Congo belge Sér. 8 vo (Zool.). 58:

148-231.

SUBBA Rao, B. R. & RAMAMANI, S. (1965): Bio-

logy of Cirrospiloideus phyllocnistoides (Naraya-

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sites of Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton. Indian J. Ent.

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(1915a): New species of Chal-

cidoidea from Ceylon. Bull. ent. Res. 5: 325-342.

(1915b): Notes of African Chal-

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WESTwoop, J. O. (1832): Descriptions of several

new British forms amongst the parasitic Hymenop-

terous insects. Lond. Edimb. Dubl. Phil. Mag. 3:

127-129.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

INDIAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS TRICHAPORUS FOERSTER

(HYMENOPTERA: APHELINIDAB)!

M. NAyyAR AZIM AND S. ADAM SHAFEE?

(With eleven text-figures)

The genus Trichaporus Foerster is recorded

for the first time from India. Among the three

species collected two have been described as

new to science and one species T. partenopeus

(Masi) has been reported for the first time. A

key to the three Indian species of Trichapo-

rus Foerster is given. The specimens have been

deposited in the Zoological museum, Aligarh

Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

Genus Trichaporus Foerster

Trichaporus Foerster, 1856, Hym. Stud. 2:84.

Type-species: Encarsia partenopea Masi. De-

signated by Nikol’skaya & Yasnosh, 1966,

Opred. Faune. SSSR. 91:264.

The distinguishing characters of the genus

Trichaporus Foerster have been given by Do-

Zier (1933), Nikol’skaya (1952), Peck er al.

(1964) and Nikol’skaya and Yasnosh (1966).

This is the first report of the genus from India.

KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES OF Trichaporus FOER-

STER, BASED ON FEMALES

1. Thorax completely yellowish brown (Fig. 4);

scape longer than basal two funicle segments

together, first funicle segment shorter than second

GEMS 2G) si ue ea Ui eae 2

— Thorax yellowish brown except one large patch

on scutum and two small patches on scutellum

which are dark (Fig. 10; Nikol’skaya & Yas-

nosh, 1966, Fig. 468); scape as long as basal two

funicle segments together, first funicle segment

as long as second (Fig. 9; Nikol’skaya & Yas-

1 Accepted May 1978.

2Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

nosh, 1966, Fig. 469); funicle segments 1-4 sub-

equal in length; third valvulae short..........

ME ie ite MeL Sd T. partenopeus (Masi)

. Coxae yellow; first funicle segment twice as long

as wide; funicle segments 2-4 gradually increas-

ing in length distad, each more than two and

a half times as long as wide; club five times as

long as wide; scutum with three pairs of setae

HASTE BSL EATES LOO GDS ata GA an ERO NCA T. indicus sp. nov.

— Coxae dark; first funicle segment one and a half

times as long as wide; funicle segments 2-4 sub-

equal, each about twice as long as wide; club

four times as long as wide; scutum with four

Pairs Ob (setae. Sees. T. gunturensis sp. nov.

Trichaporus indicus sp. nov. (Figs. 1-5)

FEMALE: Head (Fig. 1) yellowish, wider

than long in facial view (0.26:0.2 mm); front-

overtex two times wider than long; ocelli red,

arranged in obtuse triangle, basal ocellus sepa-

rated by three times its diameter from eye

rim and less than twice its diameter from occi-

pital margin; prominence between antennal

sockets one-fifth the width of frontovertex

(0.03:0.15 mm); malar space slightly shorter

than longitudinal diameter of eye (0.08:0.11

mm); eyes bare; mandibles tridentate; maxil-

lary palpi 2-segmented, labia! palpi uniseg-

mented. Antennae (Fig. 2) yellowish; scape

cylindrical, five times longer than wide,

longer than basal two funicle segments

together; pedicel twice as long as_ wide,

distinctly longer than first funicle segment; first

funicle segment shortest, about twice as long

as wide; funicle segments 2-4 gradually leng-

thened distad, cach more than 24 times longer

than wide; club 2-segmented, five times longer

than wide, slightly longer than preceding two

funicle segments combined. Thorax yellowish

335

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Figs. 1-5. Trichaporus indicus sp. nov., ¢, (1) Head, in dorsal view; (2) Antenna;

(3) Pronotum; (4) Thorax; (5) Fore wing. Figs. 6-8. T richaporus gunturensis Sp.

nov., (6) Antenna, 2; (7) Fore wing venation, 2; (8) Antenna, @. Figs. 9-11. Tri-

chaporus partenopeus (Masi), @, (9) Antenna; (10) Thorax; (11) Fore wing

venation.

336

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

brown; pronotum (Fig. 3) very narrow in

middle, much expanded on sides, anterior

margin deeply and acutely notched in middle;

mesoscutum and scutellum with 3 and 2 pairs

of setae respectively (Fig. 4); cach parapside

with 2 setae; axillae bare; scutum and scutel-

lum with reticulate sculpture. Fore wings hya-

line, three times longer than wide (0.63:0.21

mm) (Fig. 5); costal cell narrow; marginal

vein slightly longer than submarginal vein

(0.16:0.14 mm), the former with 8 © setae;

postmarginal vein rudimentary; stigmal vein

short; marginal fringe short and are spaced by

a distance equal to one-fourth their length.

Hind wings hyaline, eight times longer than

wide; marginal fringe longer than wing width.

Legs orange yellow. Abdomen orange yellow

except basal two segments which are infus-

cated; about as long as thorax (0.26:0.26

mm); ovipositor concealed.

Female length : 0.69 mm.

Holotype 2, ex Aleyrodid on WNerium,

INDIA, Tamil Nadu, Ootacamund, 24.vi.1968.

Coll. S. Adam Shafee.

Paratypes. 6 @ (Same data as for holotype).

Trichaporus gunturemsis sp. nov. (Figs. 6-8)

FEMALE: Head yellowish, wider than long

in facial view; frontovertex about twice as long

as wide; ocelli red, arranged in obtuse tri-

angle, basal ocellus separated by more

than twice its diameter from eye rim and

twice its diameter from occipital margin; an-

tennae inserted at lower level of eyes; malar

space about as long as eye width; maxillary

palpi 2-segmented, labial palpi unisegmented.

Antennae (Fig. 6) yellowish; scape cylindrical,

five times as long as wide, longer than basal

two iunicle segments together; pedicel twice

as long as wide, distinctly longer than first

funicle segment; funicle 4-segmented; first

funicle segment shortest, one and a half times

as long as wide; funicle segments 2-4 sub-

equal in length, each twice as long as wide;

club 2-segmented, four times as long as wide,

slightly longer than preceding two funicle seg-

ments together. Thorax yellowish brown; me-

soscutum and scutellum reticulately sculptured

and with 4 and 2 pairs of setae respectively.

Fore wings hyaline, three times as long as

wide (0.6:0.2 mm); costal cell long and nar-

row; submarginal vein about as long as mar-

ginal vein; postmarginal vein rudimentary;

stigmal vein short (Fig. 7); marginal fringe

short, spaced by a distance equal to one-

fourth their length. Hind-wings hyaline, about

five times as long as wide; marginal fringe

length more than the greatest wing width.

Legs orange yellow except coxae which are

dark. Abdomen orange yellow except basal

two segments which are slightly infuscated;

Ovipositor concealed.

Female length: 0.72 mm.

Male antenna as shown in figure 8.

Holotype ¢@. ex Aleyrodid on weed plant,

INDIA, Andhra Pradesh, Guntur, Budampadu,

3.111.1967. Coll. S. Adam. Shafee.

Paratypes—4 @, 3 o (Same data as for

holotype).

Trichaporus partenopeus (Masi) (Figs. 9-11)

Trichaporus partenopeus (Masi); Nikol’skaya

& Yasnosh, 1966, Opred. Faune. SSSR.

126%.

FEMALE: Head brownish, wider than long

in facial view; frontovertex two and a half

times wider than long; ocelli white, arranged

in obtuse triangle, basal ocellus separated by

twice its drameter from eye rim and by its

own diameter from occipital margin; malar

space longer than eye width; maxillary palpi

2-segmented, labial palpi unisegmented. An-

tennae (Fig. 9) yellowish; scape cylindrical,

four times longer than wide, as long as basal

337

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

two funicle segments together; pedicel twice

as long as wide, as long as first funicle seg-

ment; funicle segments 1-4 subequal in length,

each slightly more than twice as long as wide;

club 2-segmented, four times as long as wide,

as long as preceding two funicle segments to-

gether. Thorax yellowish brown except one

large patch on scutum and two small patches:

on scutellum which are dark; mesoscutum and

scutellum reticulately sculptured and with 5

and 2 pairs of setae respectively. Fore wings

hyaline, two and a half times as long as wide;

costal cell narrow; submarginal vein shorter

than marginal vein; postmarginal vein absent.

Hind wings hyaline, seven times as long as

wide; marginal fringe long, as long as wing

width. Legs orange yellow. Abdomen orange

yellow except base and lateral margins of

dorsum which are infuscated; ovipositor con-

cealed, arising from the base of abdomen.

Female length: 0.64 mm.

Material examined. 3 2, 2 o&, ex Aleyro-

did, iNpIA, Maharashtra, Nasik, 4.v.1969. Coll.

S. Adam Shafee.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to Prof. S. Mashood

Alam, Head, Department of Zoolgy, Aligarh

Muslim University, Aligarh, for providing re-

search facilities. Thanks are also due to Prof.

Nawab H. Khan for encouragement.

REFERENCES

Dozigr, H. L. (1933): Miscellaneous notes and

descriptions of chalcidoid parasites (Hymenoptera).

Proc. ent. Soc. Wash. 35: 85-100.

NIKOL’SKAYA, M. N. (1952): The Chalcid Fauna

of the U.S.S.R. (Chalcidoidea). Opred. Faune.

SSSR. 44: 575 pp.

& YASNOSH, V. A., (1966): Aphe-

linidae of the European part of the USSR and the

Kavkaza, Opred. Faune. SSSR. 91: 296 pp.

Peck, O., BoucEK, Z. & Horrer, A., (1964):

Keys to the Chalcidoidea of Czechoslovakia (In-

secta: Hymenoptera). Mem. ent. Soc. Canada, 34:

120 pp.

STUDIES ON THE SCARAB BEETLES (COLEOPTERA:

SCARABAEIDAE) OF NORTH INDIA PART I.

THREE NEW SPECIES AND TWO NEW

RECORDS FROM INDIA’

S. BISWAS?

(With four text-figures)

Three new species, Copris (S. str.) siangensis, Onitis assamensis and Drepanocerus

kazirangensis are described. Two species, Drepanocerus runicus Arrow and Drepano-

cerus striatulus Paulian are recorded for the first time from India.

1. Copris (S. str.) siangensis. sp. nov. (Figs.

A; 2)

1 Accepted November 1978.

2Eastern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of

India, Shillong-793 003, Meghalaya. Present address:

Zoological Survey of India, 34, Chittaranjan Ave-

nue, Calcutta-700 012.

338

MALE: Body elongated oval, highly convex,

upper surface black and shining; mouth or-

gans, antennae, legs and scanty hairs beneath

reddish.

Head broad, almost semicircular, with a

long, backwardly directed horn with two tuber-

cles, placed posteriorly about one third dist-

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ance from base; clypeus moderately strongly

punctured, anterior margin reflexed and ex-

cised in the middle. Pronotum highly convex,

strongly but unevenly punctured, anterior de-

clivity fecbly punctured and sides of mid-dor-

sal line almost smooth, upper margin of de-

clivity with three sharp projections, middle

one bifid at extremity; front angle blunt,

truncated, hind angle obsolate, base rounded,

lateral margin straight in front, rounded be-

hind. Elytra strongly striate, striae closely

punctured, interval a little convex, smooth

and shining. Metasternal shield feebly punc-

tured in the middle with a longitudinal groove;

sides of metasternum bare, strongly punctured

anteriorly. Front tibiae with 4 external teeth,

apical spur broad toward apex. Pygidium

strongly and uniformly punctured.

Measurement: Length, 12.0-13.5

breadth 6.0-6.5 mm.

Holotype, 3&, collected from cattledung,

India: Arunachal Pradesh, Siang: Along,

9.11.1973 coll. R. S. Pillai, Regd. No. A1l/4394.

Paratypes 2 § o, same data as for holotype.

Remarks: Copris (S. str.) siangensis, sp.

nov. Comes near to Copris (S. str.) delicatus

Arrow, but differs from the latter in having

closely punctured clypeus and strongly deve-

loped prothoracic processes.

2. Onitis assamensis sp. nov. (Fig. 3)

FEMALE: Body broadly oval, not very con-

vex; upper surface greenish, ventral surface

brown, elytral suture and legs blackish.

Head subtriangular; with a short clypeo-

frontal carina, posterior carina long, curved

and entire, clypeus transversely rugulose, ocu-

lar lobes smooth, vertex deeply excavated,

smooth posteriorly, finely tuberculate behind

frontal tubercle. Pronotum very thinly and

finely punctured anteriorly and laterally, close-

ly and strongly in the middle near base; front

mm;

angles sharp, hind angles obsolate, base round-

ed; lateral margin straight in front, feebly sinu-

ate behind, mid-dorsal groove or line absent,

basal fovae not large and separated from

each other by more than the length of the

fovae. Elytra broadly but shallowly striate,

striae more broader laterally, intervals flat, not

perceptibly punctured. Metasternum smooth,

bare, flat, with a shaliow longitudinal groove,

base with two deep pits, sides of metasternum

closely granular and hairy. Pygidium almost

smooth without hair.

Measurement: Length; 23.0 mm; breadth,

12.0 mm.

Holotype, 2, collected from Rhinoceros-

dung, India: Assam: Kaziranga National Park,

21 xm1972; coll. A. K. Ghosh, Regd. No: Al/

4397.

Remarks: Onitis assamensis comes close to

O. humerosus Pallas, but differs from it in the

(1) pronotum anteriorly being very sparsely

and feebly punctured (ii) absence of hairs on

clypeal disc. The species appears to be very

rare and only one specimen has so far been

collected from the decaying Rhinoceros dung

on upland area of Central path in Kaziranga

National Park.

3. Drepanocerus kazirangensis sp. nov. (Fig.

MALE: Body elongated oval, black; anten-

nae, mouth organs, tibiae, and tarsi brownish,

and covered above and beneath with pale

setae.

Head closely punctured, clypeal margin

deeply impressed in the middle, rounded at

sides, clypeo-ocular junction marked by carin-

ate suture and strongly angulate in front of

eyes. Pronotum without carina, horns and

tubercle, closely covered with large umblicate

punctures, a_ basal depressed pit near base,

three more smaller ones on either side of basal

339

340

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GHIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Figs. 1-2. Copris (S. Str.) siangensis sp. nov.: 1. Dorsal view; 2. Lateral view.

Fig. 3. Onitis assamensis sp. nov.: Dorsal view. Fig. 4. Drepanecerus kazirangensis

: sp. nov.: Dorsal view.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

depression anteriorly basal depression highly

convex and gradually sloping in front, front

angle blunt, hind angle obsolate, base rounded,

lateral margin straight, feebly sinuate behind.

Elytra narrowly striate, striae not very closely

punctured, intervals covered with minute

granules, 3rd interval convex anteriorly, 5th

interval throughout the length with a setose

ridge and 7th with an interrupted one behind

shoulders. Metasternal shield vertical in front,

middorsally convex anteriorly, rugosely punc-

tured, more so behind; sides of metasternum

closely covered with large shallow pits. All

femora rugosely punctured, front tibiae with

four external teeth, apical one directed fore-

word. Pygidium hollowed at base and apex,

with an interrupted transverse ridge a narrow

incomplete carina separating the basal depres-

sion into two halves. Last ventral sternite

emarginate in the middle.

FEMALE: Same as male except with broad

last ventral sternite.

Measurement: Length, 4.5-5.5 mm; breadth

2.5-3.0 mm.

Holotype, &, collected from dung of wild

buffalo. India: Assam: Kaziranga National

Park, 18.11.1972. coll. G. M. Yazdani, Reed.

No. A1/4777. Paratypes, 1 o&, 42 2 data

same as for holotype.

Remarks: Drepanocerus. kazirangensis sp.

nov. differs from D. setosus (Wied.), D. sini-

cus Harold, and D. runicus Arrow in having

pronotum without any horn, carina or tuber-

cle and from D. striatulus Paulian in having

prosternum not being elevated behind front

coxae. The species is peculiar in having single

mid-dorsal depression in both sexes.

4. Drepanocerus runicus Arrow.

Drepanocerus runicus Arrow, 1931. Fauna

Brit. India, Lamell., 3: 384.

Drepanocerus runicus Arrow, Balthasar,

1963. Monogr.

orient; 2:66.

Arrow (1931) described the species from

Burma: Karenhiils: Asciuii Ghecu, Balthasar

(1963) reported this species as being record-

ed also from Vietnam: Tonkin, Hoa Binh,

Luc Nam. This is the first record of the species

from India.

Material examined: INDIA: Assam: Goal-

patar4 6 os372 9%, bial O72ahié 124.1972:

North @achar, 4 oi oh... 3018 2 4 22:x1.1972:

Manipur: Moreh, 3° 6.g,.3 2 9, 211.1976.

Meghalaya: Garo Hills, 9 go, 10 2 Q,

8-15.1v.1973.

Remarks: Balthasar (op. cit.) considered

the species to be rare. During the collection

of Scarab beetles from different states in

Northeast India it has been observed that the

species is not rare but restricted to lower

elevations upto c 1000 m. altitude and gene-

rally is not available in fresh dung. It is most-

ly confined to the dried crust of dung. When

disturbed it withdraws its legs and remains

motionless.

5. Brepanocerus striatulus Paulian

Drepanocerus striatulus Paulian, 1945. Col.

Scarab. de L’ Indochine: 138, 140.

Drepanocerus striatulus Paulian, Balthasar,

1963. Monogr. Scarab. Aphod. palaearkt.

orient., 2: 69.

Paulian described the species from North

Vietnam (Personal. Communication). Baltha-

sar (1963) reported this species as being re-

corded also from China (Kouy Tscheu). This

is the first record of the species from India.

Material examined: India: Assam: Sibsa-

gar,2 3d d,2 2 2. 22.xi.1972. North Cachar,

736,82 @. 22.x1.1972. Lakhimpur, 10 ¢ 6,

bo. 8:xi1972, Manipur: 9.6 iini9-2 2,

23-25 111.1975. Meghalaya: Garo Hills, 8 0,

THOR ONS" LTV 197 3.

Scarab. Aphod. palaearkt.

341

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

Remarks: Balthasar (op. cit.) mentioned

that the species is very rare. In Northeast

India, however, the species may be considered

to be common. His remark that the female

of this species may be confused with those

of D. sinicus Harold does not seem to be

justified, as the species is peculiar in having

much depressed body different types of elytral

striae and prosternum elevated beyond the

fore coxae, none of these characters is shared

by D. sinicus Harold.

SOCIETY, Vol. 76

All types are at present in the collection of

Eastern Regional Station, Zoological Survey

of India, Shillong.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to Dr. H. Khajuria for faci-

lities, Dr. A. K. Ghosh for encouragement.

My thanks are also due to Dr. R. Paulian

Rector, Academy de Bordeux, France for

kindly identifying Drepanocerus _ striatulus

Paulian for me.

REFERENCES

Arrow, G. J. (1931): The Fauna of British

India including Ceylon and Burma. Coleoptera,

Lamellicornia Part IIT (Coprinae), London.

BALTHASAR, V. (1963): Monograpie der Scara-

baeidae and Aphodiidae der palaearktischen und

orientalischen Region (Coleoptera: Lamellicornia).

Band I, UH, Tschechoslo wakische

Wissenschaften Prag.

PAULIAN, R. (1945):

I’ Indochine, Faune

Paris.

Academic der

Coleopteres Scarabeides de

de I Empire’ Francais III.

TWO NEW SPECIES OF BALOCHA DISTANT

(IDIOCERIDAE: HOMOPTERA)',?

P. KAMESWARA RAO*® AND

UsHA RAMAKRISHNAN?

(With twenty-three text-figures)

Distant (1908) erected the genus Balocha

with the type species, Balocha tricolor Dist-

ant from India. The species, Idiocerus astu-

tus, described by Melichar (1903) from Nil-

giri Hills was transferred to Balocha Distant

by Maldanado (1964). Baker (1915) describ-

ed B. melichari and B. nacreatus from Philip-

pines. Further, Maldanado (1961) described

B. lucida from Borneo and B. pallida from

West Pakistan. Other species, subsequently

1 Accepted November 1978.

2Part of the thesis of the senior author for the

award of Ph.D. degree of I.A.R.I., New Delhi

during 1976.

342

added to genus Balocha are, bicolor from

Borneo (Maldanado 1968), maculifrons and

pseudomaculifrons from New Guinea and uni-

lineata from New Britain (Maldanado 1970)

This paper describes two more species of this

genus.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Balocha

L. Face! dark 06 i). fe ee sega aie oe 2.

Face not dark

2. Forked cell in the fore wing with a very short

eiuel etic: leitch eltteriemie einen ev epreielescelesieseq le melnen sine

3 Department of Entomology, A.P. Agril. Univer-

sity, Hyderabad-500 030.

4 Division of Entomology, Indian Agril. Research

Institute, New Delhi.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Be 2 ~

Figs. 1-12. Balocha maldanadoi sp. nov.: 1. face; 2. vertex, pronotum and scutellum;

3. forewing; 4. hind wing; 5. paramere; 6. aedeagus (caudal view); 7. connective;

8. anal tube appendages; 9. aedeagus (lateral view); 10. subgenital plates; 11. abdo-

minal apodemes; 12. pygofer lobe. Figs. 13-23. Balocha anufrievi sp. nov.: 13. face;

14. vertex, pronotum and scutellum; 15. forewing; 16. hind wing; 17. subgenital plate;

18. abdominal apodemes; 19. paramere; 20. aedeagus (caudal view); 21. anal tube

appendages; 22. aedeagus (lateral view); 23. pygofer lobe.

343

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

ee © © © © © © © © © ee ew ew ee 8 8

peduncle B. maculifrons

Forked cell in the fore wing with a very long

peduncle B. pseudomaculifrons

3. Longitudinal veins in the fore wing blacken-

See aie a ar a eee ene dome espera ee 4.

Longitudinal veins in the fore wing not black-

ened 5:

4. Fore wing smoky in colour...... B. melichari

Fore wing not smoky in colour............

B. unilineata

ecececeoeoe oe eee ee oe wre ee ew ew ew ee eee ew eel ee

ee © ©'e © © © © © © © © © 8 ew ew eee ee ele ee ele le 8

5. Fore wings hyaline

Fore wings subhyaline

6. A piceous spot, present in the forked ceil...8.

No piceous spot, present in the forked cell

Dea i ar tice) Nr SEN EMT OU ALE TSE eee LS B. astutus

7. A brown spot present in the forked cell....

ie PAE SRO Aa INRA (GUIs Beat ie al od a B. bicolor

No brown spot present in the forked cell....

SW RAMEE P ET Se VNC NeSLEND LATS aR Sha 9 B. nacreatus

8. Piceous spot in the forked cell extends to the

outer apical cell B. lucida

Piceous spot in the forked cell does not ex-

tend’ to: the: jouter “apical” celle. > ie yee a

9. With an invested yellow arc across face in-

cludine ocellly 4540 46 oe es ee: B. tricolor

Without the yellow arc across face including

OCMC tee eee ices ae Ae aL ce am al ae tenor 10.

10. A very small brown spot present at the base

of the appendix of fore wing....... B. pallida

No brown spot present at the base of the ap-

pendix, of fore Wine (4540050 oe a 11.

11. Abdominal apodemes short and rounded (Fig.

11); paramere chelate in cephalic portion (Fig.

De ens Gedie Rie ere ea ts B. maldanadoi sp. nov.

Abdominal apodemes subrectangular (Fig. 18)

paramere (Fig. 19) nonchelate in the cephalic

portion B. anufrievi sp. nov.

1. Balocha maldanadoi sp. nov. (Figs. 1-12)

This species resembles B. pallida but can be

differentiated by the absence of a brown spot

at the base of the appendix. Internally the

paramere is bifid at the cephalic end of this

species and this distinguishes it from B. pallida.

Fore wing (Fig. 3): Fore wing hyaline and

narrow extending beyond the abdomen; ap-

pendix very broad, extending to the third

apical cell, four apical cells, third apical cell

eee e¢ © © © © © © © © © 8 8

344

petiolate, the peduncle shorter than the cell

itself.

Hind wing (Fig. 4): Wings hyaline with well

developed veins; submarginal vein complete

joining the costal margin; apical cells four in

number.

External male genitalia: Sub-genital plate

(Fig. 10) long, slender, spatulate and upcurv-

ed with long hair in the apical half. Pygofer

(Fig. 12) convex, broad in the middle and

narrowed dorsally and ventrally. Anal tube

appendages (Fig. 8) pointed at the end.

Internal male genitalia: Paramere (Fig. 5)

elongated with its cephalic portion short and

broad, bifid at its apex, the caudal portion

with two arms. Connective (Fig. 7) Y-shaped.

Aedeagus (Figs. 6 and 9) with its shaft cylin-

drical, very thin and long, gonopore apical.

Form: Postclypeus and anteclypeus slightly

swollen (Fig. 1). Abdominal apodemes (Fig.

11) short and rounded.

Coloration: Fresh specimens greenish and

preserved specimens orange yellow to orange

red in colour. Castaneous band on the inner

margins of eye. Interocular area above ocelli,

lateral areas on postclypeus stramineus, scu-

tellum and abdomen dorsally bright orange.

Round piceous spot present on the eye (Fig.

2) and in the petiolate ceil.

Measurements in millimetres of male:

Length: total—4.18; head 1.59; vertex—0.28;

pronotum 0.38; fore wing 3.50; scutellum

0.67; Breadth: Vertex 0.96; Pronotum 1.25.

Holotype 3&, INDIA, Pusa-Bihar, 16-xi-1933,

H. N. Batra (Wings and genitalia on slides

and rest on tag).

Paratypes 2 3o,

‘Jamon’, P.K.R.

2. Balocha anufrievi sp. nov. (Figs. 13-23)

This species comes nearer to B. maldanadoi

sp. nov. but can be differentiated by the shape

INDIA, Delhi 10-i-1975,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

of the abdominal apodemes and in the cep-

halic portion of the paramere being fan-like.

Fore wings (fig. 15) and hind wings (fig.

16) as in B. maldanadoi sp. nov. |

External male genitalia: Sub-genital plate

(fig. 17) and Pygofer (fig. 23) as in B. mal-

danadoi sp. nov. Anal tube appendages (fig.

21) hooked at the distal end.

Internal male genitalia: Paramere (fig. 19)

elongated with its cephalic portion involuted

and ending in a fan-like portion. Connective

Y-shaped. Aedeagus (figs. 20 and 22) having

its shaft narrowed at apex, gonopore apical.

Form: Anteclypeus longer than wide (fig.

13), convex lengthwise showing slight ridging.

Abdominal apodemes (fig. 18) subrectangu-

lar.

Coloration: As in B. maldanadoi sp. nov.

Piceous round spot, present in the peduncu-

late ceil and on the eye.

Measurements in millimetres of male:

Length: total—4.70; head—1.54; vertex—

0.19; Pronotum—0.58; forewing—3.94; scutel-

lum—0.96. Breadth: vertex—1.10; pronotum

—1.40.

Holotype 3, INDIA: Delhi: 10-1-1975;

‘Jamon’, P.K.R. (Wings and genitalia on

slides and rest on tag).

Paratypes 5 3 3& (same data as for holo-

type).

All the figures were drawn with camera

lucida except wings which were drawn with

a microprojector. Lines were drawn to 0.2

mm. for all the parts except in case of wings

which were drawn to 1.0 mm.

All the type specimens were deposited in

the National Pusa Collections, Indian

Agricultural Research Institute, New

Delhi-110 012.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are graieful to Dr. N. C. Pant, formerly

Head of the Division of Entomology, I.A.R.L,

New Delthi for the facilities and encouragement

given.

REFERENCES

BAKER, C. F. (1915): Studies of philippine jas-

soidea, iv: The Idiocerini of the philippines. Phi-

lipp. J. Sci. 10 (6): 317-342.

DISTANT, W. L. (1908): The fauna of British

India. Rhynchota, iv: 184-190.

MALDANADO, C. J. (1961): Studies on Idiocerine

leaf hoppers. 1. Idiocerinus Baker, 1915, Synonym

of Balocha Distant, 1908, and notes on the species

of Balocha. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 63 (4): 300-

308.

———— (1964): Studies on Idiocerinae leaf

hoppers: If The Indian and Philippine species of

Idiocerus and the genus Idioscopus. ibid. 66 (2):

89-100.

(1968): Studies on Idiocerinae leaf

hoppers. iv a new species of Balocha and one of

Pedioscopus, mimics. ibid. 70 (2): 97-100.

(1970): Studies on Idiocerinae leaf

hoppers. vi, New species of Balocha from papuan

subregion (Homoptera: cicadeilidae). Pacific Insects

ID” (2y =" 297-302.

MELICHAR, L.

Ceylon, pp. 148.

(1903): Homopteran-Fauna of

345

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

A NEW SPECIES OF MOONIA (HOMOPTERA: ULOPIDAE)',?

P. KAMESWARA RAo?

AND

USHA RAMAKRISHNAN‘

(With ten text-figures)

Distant (1908 and 1916) described seven

species of Moonia, M. sancita Distant (type-

species) from Mussoorie Hills, U.P., and albi-

maculata, capitata, brunnea, variabilis, diversa

and albivitta from Chikkaballapura, Nilgiri

hills and Kodaikanal in South India. Kames-

wara Rao and Ramakrishnan (1978) added

two more species, M. immaculata and M.

ixora and one subspecies M. sancita pome-

granata from Delhi. One more new species of

Moonia is described in this paper from Dethi.

The type specimens have been deposited in the

National Pusa collections, New Delhi.

Moonia carimata sp. nov. (Figs. 1-10)

This species comes near to Moonia varia-

bilis Distant and in the key given by

Kameswara Rao and Ramakrishnan (1978)

for the species of Moonia but can be

differentiated from variabilis by the presence

of a distinct carina on the postclypeus and

well expanded gena. Internally the pygofer

process of variabilis is more serrated at the

apex than that of carinata.

The head, pronotum and surface of the

fore wings of these hoppers show numerous

pits.

Form: Face (Fig. 1) shows the posiclypeus

with a distinct longitudinal ridge; anteclypeus

oval and distinctly separate from the postcly-

peus by a transverse depression; lora oval,

1 Accepted November 1978.

2Part of the Ph.D. thesis of the author submit-

ted to Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New

Delhi-110012 during 1975.

346

distinctly marked off from adjoining sclerites;

gena broad. Pronotum (Fig. 2) broader than

long, convex and carinate medially.

Fore wing (Fig. 8): Fore wing broad, nar-

rowed at apical portion; coriaceous _ thickly

pitted, pits absent in the apical portion; veins

prominently raised.

Hind wing (Fig. 9): Wings with well deve-

loped veins and three apical cells.

External male genitalia: Ninth sternum

more or less triangular. Subgenital plate (Fig.

4) slender and long. Pygofer (Fig. 5) long

and broad, posterior portion membranous

bearing a spine like projection, mesially each

lobe of the pygofer bears a flattened process

(Fig. 7) which is irregularly toothed at the

apex.

Internal male genitalia: Paramere (Fig. 6)

elongated and arcuate with its cephalic por-

tion short, narrow and rounded at apex, cau-

dal portion long, broad and ending inio a

clubbed rounded apex. Aedeagus (Fig. 10)

articulated to the connective (Fig. 3) by a

short preatrium, atrial apodeme well develop-

ed, broader at the base than at apex, pointed,

aedeagal shaft equal in length to atrial apo-

deme; gonopore subapical, almost at the mid-

length of the shaft.

Coloration: Ochraceous specimens. The de-

pression behind the anterior margin of frons,

3 Department of Entomology, A.P. Agricultural

University, Hyderabad-500 030.

4Division of Entomology, Indian

Research Institute, New Delhi-110012.

Agricultural

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

‘

‘snseapoe

uinjyjeinos pue wmnyjouoid

‘OL ‘3

XO}IOA

UIM PUI °6 ‘SUIMOIOJ *g ‘ssaooid

Joyoshd ‘1 ‘orouiered “9 ‘SulI [eue YyIM JajosAd -¢ ‘ayeld [ewusesqns ‘p faatoeuUod ‘¢

se} *[ :*AoU ‘ds vJpUIIDD DIUOOP;h

OI-[ ‘ssi

347

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

antennal pits, central portion of pronotum on

either side of median dorsal carina, central

portion of scutellum, piceous.

Measurements of male in_ millimetres:

Length 4.32; Fore wing 3.17; Scutellum 0.72.

All the drawings were drawn with a camera

lucida except wings which were drawn with

a microprojector. All the magnification lines

were drawn to 0.2 mm except in case of wings

which were drawn to 1.0 mm.

Holotype 8, INDIA: Pusa-Bihar, “‘Duranta’’,

19-vii-1913, H. N. Batra (Wings and genitalia

on slides and the rest on tag).

Paratype ¢@, INDIA, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi,

ex light, 27-vii-1974, P.K.R.

The type specimens have been deposited in

the National Pusa Collections, New Delhi.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks are due to Dr. N. C. Pant, former

Head of the Division of Entomology. LA.R_I.,

New Delhi for the facilities and encouragement

given in these studies.

REFERENCES

DisTANT, W. L. (1908): Rhynchota-Homoptera.

The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and

Burma, 5 (4): 197-198.

—— (1916): Rhynchota-Homoptera. Appen-

dix. The Fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma 6: 233-236.

KAMESWARA RAO, P. AND RAMAKRISHNAN, USHA

(1978): Studies on Indian Cicadelloidea (Homop-

tera: The genus Moonia. Oriental Insects. 12 (2):

211-214.

A NEW SPECIES OF FERN FROM SOUTH INDIA?

N. Ravi? AND J. JOSEPH?

(With five text-figures)

Illustrated description of a new species of fern-Grammitis pilifera (Grammitidaceae)

from Ponmudi Hills, Trivandrum District, Kerala State is dealt with.

Grammitis medialis (Bak.) Sledge affinis,

tamer differt praesertim fronde, facie dorsali,

hirsuto quam glabro; paleis rhizomatis peltatis

quam basifixis; et sporangiis unisetosis.

Holotypus: Ponmudi Hills Ravi 5711 A

(CAL); Isotypus Ravi 5711 B-E (MH) et

Isotypus 5711 F (RH).

1 Accepted November 1977.

2Sree Narayana College, Sivagiri, Vaskala, S.

India.

3 Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle,

Shillong.

348

Grammitis pilifera sp. nov. is allied to

G. medialis (Bak.) Sledge, but differs main-

ly in the frond being hirsute on the dorsal

side instead of glabrous; scales on the rhizome

peltate instead of basifixed and sporangia uni-

setose.

Ravi 5711 A collected from Ponmudi Hills,

Trivandrum District, Kerala State, on 13th

November, 1975 at 750 m. has been designat-

ed as Holotype and deposited in the Central

National Herbarium, Calcutta (CAL), Ravi

5711 B-E (Isotypes) are deposited in the Re-

gional Herbarium, Coimbatore (MH) and

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

<Ee

TAS

° D p

1.19 el

A 4

ee Se

5 Os i

. .

e .

° =

pss estok Ss

2°44

LALLA

b. Lower

1. Habit; 2. Frond: a. Upper surface;

Grammitis pilifera sp. nov.:

Figs. 1-5.

surface; 3. Scale; 4. Sorus; 5. A single sporangium. (4 & 5 not to scale).

349

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Ravi 5711 F (Isotype) at the Rapinat Herba-

rium (RH), St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchira-

pally.

Grammitis pilifera sp. nov.

Epiphytic or lithophytic; rhizome short,

erect, scaly at base with creeping branches

and with unicellular slender brown hairs;

scales ovate-lanceolate, peltate with sub basal

attachment; the cells in and around the region

of attachment dark coloured with thick walls,

the remaining portions being pale brownish.

Fronds + 30.4 cm., subcoriaceous, oblong

obtuse or subacute at tip, narrowed into a

short stalk at the base; upper surface bristly

hairy throughout; hairs purple brown; under

surface glabrous; veins simple (or sometimes

forked). Sori circular, median, at the tip of

350

the veins without receptacular bristles; sporan-

gia unisetose; setae arising from the junction

between the ultimate and penultimate cells of

the annulus, deciduous.

Grammitis pilifera grows on the branches

of trees and on rocks along with mosses in

shady places.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr. W. A. Sledge, Uni-

versity of Leeds, England for his help in con-

firming the identity of the new find and also

in suggesting an appropriate specific name.

Thanks are due to Rev. Fr. K. M. Matthew

S.J., St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapally for

the Latin diagnosis.

REVIEWS

PAKSHIKALUM MANUSHYRUM: Pakshinirikshanathinu Oru Amukham

(Birds and Men: An introduction to bird-watching). By K. K. Neelakantan,

with a Foreword by Dr. Salim Ali. pp. v + 80 (24x 18.5 cm), with 67 text-

figures. Trivandrum, 1979. The MacMillan Company of India Limited.

Price Rs.

A handy little book, comprehensive, sum-

marised and updated in facts, rather a con-

glomerate of basic information that a young

bird-watcher needs, it meets the need to

arouse love for nature and interest in nature

conservation in the minds of the young.

The book has twelve chapters in all and

covers the role of birds in nature, basics of

bird-watching, naming of birds in English,

description of some common birds of India,

flight, moult, migration, song and behaviour

including mating behaviour and the relation

between birds and men. It ends with a list of

reference books useful for identification of

birds and bird-watching for beginners and

advanced bird-watchers. Eventhough the book

is in Malayalam the English names of the

birds are also given and the author stresses

the importance of studying the scientific names

of birds in English because of its universality

in usage and usefulness in correspondence

with bird-watchers from other states and

countries.

Prof. K. K. Neclakantan, more familiar to

Keralites by his pseudonym ‘Induchudan’, a

retired English professor from Kerala Univer-

sity, is a life member of the Bombay Natural

12.50.

History Society and President of the Trivan-

drum wing of the Kerala Natural History

Society. A book in Malayalam on Birds of

Kerala (Keralathile Pakshikal), numerous

articles in Malayalam Magazines, and a num-

ber of scientific articles and notes published

in this Journal and elsewhere are among the

author’s valuable contributions to the art of

Bird-study.

Nicely got up, well arranged, well printed

and illustrated (unique in that all illustrations

are by the author), this book will prove a

useful guide for beginners in bird-watching.

The author and the publisher deserve to be

commended on the timely publication of the

book in the International year of the child.

An ardent nature lover himself and a com-

petent bird-watcher Prof. Neelakantan meets

his aim of showing students through this book

that bird-watching is an enjoyable and _thril-

ling hobby.

As Dr. Salim Ali puts it in the foreword to

this book, the non-Malayalee readers are de-

prived of the knowledge imparted by it and

an English translation may prove useful.

S. M. SATHEESAN

351

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

A BUNDLE OF FEATHERS: Proferred to Salim Ali on his 75th Birthday

in 1971. Edited by S. Dillon Ripley II. pp. 241 (16x23 cm), with many

illustrations and plates. New Delhi, 1978. Oxford University Press.

Price Rs. 85/-.

We have in this volume a bundle of essays

mainly on feathered bipeds proferred to the

greatest Indian friend of them all—Dr. Salim

Ali by an international group of his friends

and admirers. It is a most enjoyable book

from which you will gleam a variety of

fascinating facts. To mention just a few: while

the north Indian bayas choose to nest on the

babul tree, their south Indian brethren prefer

the coconut tree; the half-a-million swiftlets

from the great cave at Niah in Borneo con-

sume no less than 20 million individuals of

winged ants over the canopy of the rain forest

every single day; the hill mynas imitate some

of the calls of their neighbours of the same

sex, but the call repertoire of the males and

females is kept entirely distinct; the habits of

the Himalayan honey-guides were accurately

recorded by the authors of Chinese Materia

Medica no less than a thousand years ago;

many birds of high Andes and Tibet regu-

larly use burrows of mammals for their nests;

the starlings arrived in the North Americas

with only three out of four lice that infect

them in their original home in Europe; and,

finally that our Indian cattle egret has pros-

pered mightily in the U.S. over the last forty

years. But the book is not a mere collection

of interesting facts about the natural history

of birds, it is a collection of some fifteen

serious scientific papers ranging over the whole

span of avian biology from biochemical

changes in the migratory rosy pastor and the

fauna of Narcondam islands to the migration

of gannet in the Mediterranean and the role

of birds in the natural foci of tick-borne arbo-

viruses. The authors also range over the

three continents of North America, Europe

and Asia and include many leading ornitholo-

gists of the world.

The book is divided into four sections. The

first is biographical and includes a most charm-

ing portrait of Salim Ali by Zafar Futehally.

The second section on life history and field

biology has eight papers; of these I particu-

larly enjoyed two. Tom Harrison’s paper on

the food of swiftlets at the Niah great cave

in Borneo is a model of careful field work

half-a-million swiftlets in this cave spread far

and wide over the forest canopy and specia-

lize on winged ants and termites. Harrison

looks carefully at the composition of the diet

of the two species and provides new insights

into their role in the ecosystem. Yu A Isa-

kov’s paper on the great bustard, Otistarda

is a fascinating account of the historical

changes in the pattern of land use in Central

Asia and Europe and the consequent rise and

fall of the populations of the great bustard.

The section on zoogeography and systema-

fics has seven papers, beginning with an in-

teresting one on the discontinuous distribution

of Muscicapa latirostris. The Stressemann’s

show that the one isolated population on the

island of Sumba has diverged from the pala-

earctic populations, while those nesting in

India, coming under the swamping influence

of the migratory population do not do so.

Theresa Clay in a paper on the distribution

of bird lice brings out how these can be used

to elucidate phylogenetic and distributional

history of their bird hosts.

REVIEWS

The last section deals with migration, bto-

medicine and learning. It contains a scholarly

article by Netsky, Malkov and Bogdanov on

the role of birds, ticks and mosquitoes in the

natural foci of tick-borne arboviruses. Lands-

borough Thomson traces the migration of the

Gannet and shows that the first year birds

are much more apt to disperse, and that the

birds do not migrate to the Balkan Sea the

way they do into the Mediterranean.

All in all very varied and interesting fare.

The articles differ widely in the originality of

new information presented, the care with

which it is analysed, breadth of the subject

under review, the rigour of the argument and

readability of the language. Some, such as the

fauna of Narcondam islands is merely des-

criptive and of limited technical interest. Hor-

ace Alexander’s article on what leads to an

increase in the range of certain birds is a

mere summary of well-known facts with what

appear to me to be completely unjustifiable

hand-waving arguments on the possible chan-

ges in the central part of the range of the

birds. It is nevertheless a very readable article.

Others such as the one on the biology of the

FLORA MALESIANA—Series

olivaceous leaf warbler of the Tian-shan

mountains present a lot of new daia, but are

somewhat difficult to read. Then there is

Thorpe’s masterly review of bird vocaliza-

tion with special emphasis on duetting.

Taken altogether, there is something for

everybody, but no substantial contribution of

a type which would render the book an in-

dispensable item in an ornithological or a

bird-watcher’s library. It may have been a

much more important book if, for example,

a theme had been chosen and a series of

authoritative reviews on that theme brought

together. The theme could have been con-

servation of bird species or bird migration;

areas to which Salim Ali has contributed so

much. Or else it could have been a book in

which professional ornithologists could have

recounted major developments in avian bio-

logy in simple language for the amateur bird-

watcher for whom again Salim Ali has done a

great deal through his bird book. But this

caveat apart, I heartily recommend this bundle

of feathers to all bird lovers the world over.

MADHAV GADGII.

I—FLOWERING PLANTS, Vol. 8.

General editor Dr. C. G. G. J. van Steenis. pp. i-cxv +577 (17x24 cm)

in three parts. The Netherlands, 1974-1978. Sijthoff & Noordhoff

International Publishers.

Part I (1974) contains 2 articles:

A. CYCLOPAEDIA OF COLLECTORS AND COL-

LECTIONS—Supplement II by M. J. Van Stee-

nis-Kruseman. Pp. i-cxv. This second and

final supplement is in continuation of the sup-

plement I (Flora Malesiana I: Pt. 5, 1958,

pp. ccxxxvil-cccxlii). It contains an impres-

sive list of 1049 collectors with their brief

biographia, main contributions and _ photo-

graphs in many entries. It is a highly credit-

able work on the part of the compiler. An

addenda to the 6 chapters of the main work

is also appended. The information given here

is relevant to all the students of tropical plants

including India, where a large number of

353

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

floristic elements commonly occurring in Male-

sia are extant. The whole work is of interest

to students of Indian floristics.

B. Revision of the family HYPERICA-

CEAEA by N. K. B. Robson, pp. 1-29, figs. 20.

This small family is expertly treated by the

author. It gives distribution, ecology, anatomy,

palynology, embryology, cytology and chemo-

_taxonomy. The author feels Hypericaceae does

not deserve the family rank and should be

treated as a sub-family of Guttiferae. The

following genera are treated: Cratoxylum

(6 spp) and Hypericum (15 spp).

Part Il: SYSTEMATIC REVISIONS (1977)

(i) ULMACEAE by E. Soepadmo (pp. 31-76,

Figs. 27) contains generic description and

brief notes on distribution, fossils, ecology,

anatomy, palynology, embryology, cytology,

chemotaxonomy and phylogeny. It treats 6 ge-

nera and 27 species (Ulmus-1, Parasponia-5,

Trema-4, Celtis-9, Aphananthe-2 and Giron-

niera-6).

(ii) IRIDACEAE by D. J. L. Geerinck, pp.

77-84, figs. 6. Contains brief notes on distri-

bution, ecology, morphology and uses. 6

genera are treated: Patersonia (1 sp.), Sisy-

rinchium (2 spp), Belamcanda (1 sp.), Fleu-

therine (1 sp.), Gladiolus (1 sp.) and Tri-

mezia (1 sp.)

(iii) CORNACEAE by K. M. Matthew, pp. 85-

97. Figs. 6. Treats the genus Mastixia with

10 spp. and several subspecies.

(iv) ONAGRACEAE by P. H. Raven, pp. 98-

113, figs. 10. Contains brief notes on distribu-

tion, dispersal, pollination, morphology and

anatomy, chromosomes, hybridization and

chemotaxonomy. Two genera—Ludwigia (8

spp.) and Epilobium (2 spp.) are treated. 2

species of Fuchsia and O0cenothera (1 sp.)

which occur in cultivation are also mentioned.

354

(v) BIGNONIACEAE by C. G. G. J. van

Steenis, pp. 114-186, figs. 39, gives notes on

distribution, flower biology, pollination, dis-

persal, germination, taxonomy, genetics, paly-

nology and chemotaxonomy. 30 species under

15 genera are treated. 27 spp. of cultivated

plants are added.

(vi) CRYPTERONIACEAE by R. J. van Beu-

sekom-Osinga, (Pp. 187-204, figs. 13) gives

notes on distribution, ecology, morphology,

anatomy, taxonomy and uses. 3 genera Cryp-

teronia (4 spp.), Dactylocladus (1 sp.) and

Axinandra (3 spp.) are treated.

(vii) SYMPLOCACEAE by H. P. Nooteboom,

pp. 205-274, figs. 20. Symplocos is treated

under 2 subgenera Symplocos and Hopea, 58

species and several subspecies are treated.

(viii) LENTIBULARIACEAE by P. Taylor,

pp. 275-300, figs. 26. Utricularia with 22 spe-

cies is well treated under distribution, ecology,

pollination, genetics and morphology.

Part III—sySTEMATIC REVISIONS is dedicat-

ed to the memory of F. A. W. Miquel, whose

biography and main works are appended.

pp. 1-16. List of abbreviations and signs are

given on pp. 17-19.

(ix) LapiaTtaE by H. Keng, pp. 301-394,

figs. 32, is treated with notes on distribution,

ecology, dispersal, palynology, phytochemis-

try. Taxonomy and uses have been summariz-

ed. An elaborate key to 32 genera is provided.

In all 87 species and 10 subspecies are treat-

ed. Cultivated plants are also noted.

(x) ANACARDIACEAE by Ding Hou, pp. 395-

548, figs. 69 is treated with notes on Distribu-

tion, morphology, dispersal, galls, germination,

taxonomy, phytochemistry, chromosomes,

uses etc. 22 genera and 151 species are given.

An addenda, Corrigenda et emendanda is

given on pp. 549-552 concerning systematic re-

visions given in Vols. 4, 5, 6 and 7.

REVIEWS

Index to scientific plant names is appended

on pp. 553-577.

On the whole this volume containing revi-

sions of 10 interesting families which are com-

mon in this part of the world contains very

THE OXFORD BOOK OF TREES:

valuable information worked out by well-

known scholars in plant taxonomy and will

prove very useful to the systematic botanists

in India.

P. V. BOLE

By A. R. Clapham. Hlustrated by

B. E. Nicholson. pp. 216 (18 x 24 cm) with many coloured and Black-and-

White illustrations. London, 1975. Oxford University Press. Price £4.95.

One of a series of several publications on

plant and animal life in Britain, this fascicle

is truly fascinating particularly on account of

its illustrations of which more than 500 are

in colour.

The introduction tries to explain differences

between trees and shrubs with reference to the

woody vegetation of Britain. It defines with

the help of suitable illustrations the shapes and

types of trees and their variations.

The main text gives an enumeration of

native British trees with their habit such as

woodlands, wet-places and hedges. It diffe-

rentiates the conifers and has separated the

trees introduced to Britain from other parts

of the world.

Each of the species described is superbly

supported by the fascinating colour portraits

by Barbara Nicholson. A key to identify the

various genera and species of trees is appended

together with a glossary, further reading re-

ferences and general index. Winter aspects of

about 30 species are drawn on the inside

covers of the book.

This book excels in production value, is

moderately priced and can be considered an

essential reference work for any student of

temperate tree flora. All public libraries must

have such an excellent production for refer-

ence.

P. V.- BOLE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. THE SURAT DANGS REVISITED

During the summer of 1976 Mrs. Shull and

I revisited India. It was a real thrill, with

some disappointments, to return to Ahwa,

district headquarters of the Dangs, after an

absence of twelve years. We had lived at Ah-

wa from 1951 to 1964, enjoying the “exotic”

flora and fauna.

Some noteworthy changes were evident. The

improved forest resthouses (with their electric

lights), roads, and buses greatly facilitated

travel throughout the area; but, it was still

the jeep that made travel over washed-out

roads_ possible. The monsoon had arrived

early in June, so our trip to Mahal and other

villages from June 18th to 25th was occasion-

ally hazardous.

In Ahwa, there was a substantial decrease

in the number of teak trees (Tectona grandis)

and in the various species of bamboo. As we

moved throughout the Dangs, it became clear

that the formerly accepted cycle of replanting

the teak was not keeping pace with the ex-

tensive cutting of timber for roundwood. Also

the hill tribes were denuding the trees by

cutting off the branches for firewood, a scarce

fuel in the Dangs and many other parts of

the world. At Mahal, the former tall clumps

of bamboo were nowhere to be found. Other

bamboo varieties were rapidly disappearing

from Mahal and other areas; the hills and

valleys looked bare. The bamboo was being

transported to the paper pulp mills of Gujarat.

As India’s population of people increases, the

need for lumber and paper likewise increases.

Thus two of the finest resources of Gujarat

356

State—teak and bamboo—are not being con-

served for future generations to enjoy or to

use.

Our travel in the Dangs District did not

disclose a leopard, tiger, chital, sambar, wild

boar, or any of the large mammals. In Ame-

rica we read about the plight of the tiger.

With Project Tiger now being supported on

an international level, it is our hope that this

magnificent animal will survive. The situation

in the Dangs is not encouraging.

Habitat destruction, more than hunting,

seems to be destroying, or seriously reducing,

the flora and fauna of the Dangs. Until India’s

population growth subsides, as it has in Sin-

gapore, the destruction of natural habitats and

natural resources will likely continue.

As I assess the situation in the Dangs, the

tiger has become rare, the leopard or panther

survives but reduced in numbers; whereas, the

Axis deer or chital, sambar and wild boar

are fewer than in the 1950’s and 1960’s.

The destruction of the forested areas in the

Dangs has apparently reduced the number

and kinds of birds. Normally the early mon-

soon season is an exciting time to see our

feathered friends, but again our observations

were minimal. Through the rolling hills and

valleys from Gulchond to Saputara we saw ~

only two large Racket-tailed Drongos (Dic-

rurus paradiseus) and a few Black Ibises

(Pseudibis papillosa), formerly not uncom-

mon birds in this area. Flycatchers, cuckoos,

bulbuls, hawks, owls, and the formely ever-

present vultures were either absent or greatly

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

reduced in numbers. Even the once common

kingfishers were absent.

In the 1960’s the mercury vapour lamp on

the compound of the Ahwa ST stand attract-

ed a great variety of moths and other insects,

lizards, frogs, bats and other smail insect-

cating animals. In 1976 this same lamp attract-

ed only a few of these; however, one partial

explanation might be the presence of many

powerful electric lights now in the town. Still

very few species of moths, butterflies, and

skippers were observed throughout the Dangs.

Also the depletion of flowering plants has no

402 N. WAYNE STREET,

NorTH MANCHESTER,

INDIANA, 46962, USA,

February 2, 1978.

doubt contributed to the decreased number of

Lepidoptera.

Nature —even when left undisturbed—

maintains a sensitive balance between the flora

and fauna. Man is the culprit responsible for

upsetting the natural order. The very survival

of Homo sapiens most likely depends on the

balance of nature being preserved. After all,

the future of the earth might be with the in-

sects rather than with man. Can man survive?

That question will be raised more seriously

by the time man enters the twenty-first cen-

tury.

ERNEST M. SHULL

2. A NOTE ON THE TIGER CENSUS CONDUCTED IN GUJARAT

STATE FROM 15TH TO 21ST APRIL, 1979

A census of tigers in the Gujarat State was

carried out from 15th to 21st April, 1979. A

brief account of the same is given below.

Initially, the following potential tiger areas

of the State were proposed to be covered dur-

ing the census: ;

This census area covered a total of 275 beats,

the beat being the territorial unit for the

census.

NAME OF FOREST

DIVISION

NAME OF CIRCLE

Dangs (North)

Dangs (South)

Valsad

Surat earn

Rajpipla (West)

Rajpipla (East)

Gandhinagar Banaskantha

Detailed cyclostyled instructions in the ver-

nacular on the census methodology were sup-

plied to each Beat Guard. The period from

3rd to Sth April was earmarked for collecting

preliminary census information so as to de-

termine the areas where tigers or their signs

were reported during the last 12 months. On

the basis of this information, the final census

was confined to the following areas:

NAME OF RANGE

All Ranges

ad oe

Bansda_ (including the Bansda National Park

areas). Pangarbari and Fatepur

Vajpur Range covering Satkashi forest

Mandvi (North)

Mandvi (South)

Dediapada, Fulsar, Piplod, Rajpipla, Sagbara.

Danta and Ambaji.

357

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Dangs (North) and Dangs (South) Divi-

sions; Bansda Range of Valsad Division; Raj-

pipla Range of Rajpipla (East) Division and

Ambaji Range of Banaskantha Division.

Throughout the census week, each Beat

Guard within the census area did intensive

patroling within his jurisdiction (with the

help of hired trackers where necessary), spe-

cifically for the purpose of detecting signs of

tiger movement in his area (such as actual

sighting, pugmarks, droppings, kills, etc.). Any

positive report received from them were im-

mediately verified on the spot by a responsible

officer (Range Forest Officer, Asst. Conser-

vator of Forests or Dy. Conservator of

Forests). Wherever pugmarks were found,

they were recorded on a tiger tracer indicat-

ing the location and time. A blueprint showing

the actual size samples of tiger pugmarks

(male, female and cub) were supplied to

each Beat Guard for his guidance in the field

and to eliminate the possibility of panther

pugmarks being mistaken for a tiger’s.

In all, 11 cases of direct or indirect tiger

sightings were reported at the end of the

census period from Dangs (North), Dangs

(South) and Rajpipla (East) Divisions, of

which only 7 were finally accepted as enume-

rated below:

Thus, in the final analysis, it can definitely

be recorded that there were 7 tigers in Gujarat

State during the census period from 15th to

21st April, consisting of 4 males and 3 females

distributed over the following divisions:

Dangs (North) : 3 males and 2 females

Dangs (South) 1 female

Rajpipla (East) 1 male

Advantage of this tiger census was also

taken to estimate the population of panthers

in Dangs District, i.e. Dangs (North) & Dangs

(South) Divisions. These observations indicate

that there are approximately 70 panthers in

358

this District, which can be considered to be

a fairly substantial number.

During the last all India Tiger Census con-

ducted in 1972, 8 tigers had been reported

from Gujarat State, all of them from Dangs

District. As against this, the present census

has indicated the existence of 6 tigers in

Dangs District and one in Rajpipla (East).

Division (Bharuch District). It appears quite

obvious that the tiger in Gujarat is struggling

for survival and its population in the State

is on the decline. The main adverse factors

which the tiger has to face may briefly be

enumerated as under:

A steady reduction and constant human

disturbance in its habitat. Among the more

serious causes of disturbance may be men-

tioned the industrial exploitation of bamboos,

intensive management of the forest (particu-

larly in Dangs), the collection of minor forest

produce by the tribals resulting in recurring

forest fires, and the heavy depletion of wild

ungulate population due to persistent poach-

ing by the tribals, particularly during the cri-

tical summer months. With hardly any natu-

ral prey left for the tiger, it is compelled to

turn to domestic cattle. But here also he has

to face severe competition because the

moment a kill is detected, the local tribals

rush in to drive the tiger away from his kill

and to appropriate the meat for their own

consumption. It is virtually impossible for

the tiger to survive under these conditions, al-

though the panther can always manage to

eke out a living even under such unfavourable

conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The following non-officials very kindly as-

sisted in the census as non-official observers,

Mr. Digveerendrasinhji I. Solanki, Jamshedj:

D. Gabba, Dr. Neumann T. Mascati, Mr.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Kasimkhan J. Khan and Madhusudansinhji

of Danta. I would like to place on record my

deep sense of gratitude to all these gentlemen

for having so kindly offered their voluntary

services for the census work, particularly Shri

ADDL. CHIEF CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS,

(WILDLIFE), GUJARAT STATE,

VADODARA,

July 16, 1978.

Digveerendrasinhji and Shri K. J. Khan who

ungrudgingly spared their valuable time and

took a lot of trouble at considerable personal

discomfort to tour the forest areas extensively

for the verification of pugmarks, etc.

M. A. RASHID

3. OCCURRENCE OF CIVETS IN THE CITY OF RANGOON

(BURMA)

During the war period (January 1942—May

1945) as I returned home late one night from

the Orient Club on the Royal Lakes (Kan-

dawgyi), I saw in the beam of my car light

a large Civet which ran across the road in

the Golden Valley area.

Since 1954, I have been residing in the

Inya Myaing area which adjoins the Goiden

Valley area. Inya Myaing is 44 miles from the

General Post Office, Strand Road. Adjoining

my compound on one side is The International

Meditation Centre. The compound is over an

acre in area with a number of large trees. I

planted a number of plum and guava trees

around my cottage. The branches of these

irees drop on the roof of my cottage.

A few years after our arrival, a large Civet

took up its abode under the roof of my cot-

tage. It climbed to its abode by a guava tree.

It came to its abode early in the morning and

left its abode to feed at dusk. I saw the Civet

resting on the roof on one or two occasions

during the day. It had black stripes on the

back, the long tail also being banded with

black and could have been the banded palm

civet (Hemigalus derbyanus Gray).

After the disappearance of this civet and

a break of several years a pair of civets took

up their abode under the roof of my cottage.

They climb to the roof and descend from the

roof by a plum tree. They leave their abode

to feed between 1900 and 2000 hrs. and

return to the abode between 0400 and 0500

hrs. next morning. We know when they ieave

and when they return by the noise they make

when moving about and by the noise caused

by the branches of the plum tree striking the

roof.

They were not much of a nuisance at first.

But in 1977 they bred two young. They are a

nuisance now from the cries of the young and

from their urine. The urine drips through the

ceiling down to the floor all over of my cottage

and is not confined to one place only. Ii has

a very strong odour and the floor has to be

washed immediately before it dries up.

I have sat up at night fail as well as early

in the morning on several occasions but have

not been fortunate to observe any of the civets.

On one occasion during the day I observed

two tails dropping down through an aperture

in the ceiling. The tails are not banded. The

house maid, however, has been fortunate. She

observed through a window in her dormitory

the two adults coming down from the abode

at night fall and returning to the abode early

359

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

next morning on a number of occasions. She

observed also the family frolicking on the lawa

during clear weather on more than one occa-

sion. I showed her plates of civets. She picked

out the plate of the Masked Palm Civet

(Paguma larvata larvata).

The civets can either be the ‘Tenasserim

white whiskered Paim Civet Paguma larvata

janetta Thomas or the Himalayan Palm Civet

Paguma larvata neglecta Pocock.

The caretaker of the International Medi-

25, INYA MyAinG Roap,

UNIVERSITY P.O.,

RANGOON, BURMA,

July 24, 1978.

4. AN INSTANCE OF WILD

TIGER’S

On the morning of 24th July 1978 Keech-

anna, my tribal boy, came across Jungle

crows calling near a forest road two kilo-

metres from Bandipur campus. As he walked

along the road looking at the crows he failed

to see a tiger lying 3 metres from the road.

The tiger was also looking at the crows and

so it did not see Keechanna who had gone

as close as ten metres to it. When he saw

the tiger he silently retreated for 60 metres

climbed a small Butea frondosa tree and ob-

served. Once the crows 15-20 in number

alighted on the kill, a prime adult sambar

stag with 48 cm velvet anilers, which was 8-10

metres from the tiger. The tiger with a whoop

ran to, chased the crows and returned to its

‘bed’. Tigers are intolerant of vultures also

and on occasions they may even kili them

(Schaller 1967).

I had gone to another part of my study

area and when Keechanna informed me of

this around 1000 hrs, in his company I hur-

ried to the spot. When we were 50 metres

360

tation Centre informed me ihat there are two

species of Civets in their Centre. On one

occasion, the two fought and one was killed.

He identified the dead civet as Kyaung-na-ga.

Malayan Palm Civet (Paradoxurus herma-

Phroditus pallasi Gray).

As regards the second species he said the

civets he saw are similar to the Common Palm

Civet or Toddy Cat (Paradoxurus hermaph-

roditus).

TUN YIN

DOGS SCAVENGING ON A

KILL

from the spot, at 10.30, I saw the tiger walk-

ing to the road from the kill. Hurriedly and

silently we moved to the cover of the Butea

tree trunk and watched. The tiger remained

on the road for 3 minutes. Three times it

flexed its tail arching over its back and once

it lay down for a few seconds. At 1033 the

tiger went back to the kill. We were in an

active elephant country close to a much used

pool. Since there was no suitable tree we left

the piace.

In the evening my wild dog pack was seen

500 metres from Bandipur but it eluded us

and went to the kill. We did not hear any

altercation between the tiger and the wild

dog but repeated sambar belling was heard.

Next morning around 1000 hrs we went to

check the kill. This time we were accompani-

ed by S. N. Prasad one of the students of

Dr. Madhav Gadgil. The wild dogs had eaten

a good amount of meat from the kill but on

the wet muddy road there was no sign of

either excited running or of struggle. The

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tiger, most probably before the arrival of the

dogs, while dragging the kill had severed a

portion of the carcass with the head, neck

and anterior part of thoracic region with 3

ribs and had dragged it nearly 80 metres from

the major part of the carcass. While looking

for the missing part I saw a pit with some

water where the sambar had _ been killed.

After killing, the tiger had eviscerated and

removed the rumen contents. Then it had

dragged the kill for 20 metres and left it

under a stand of Kydia calycina.

Meanwhile Keechanna found the drag mark

and while we followed and found it the tiger

from the cover coughed three times. On the

throat of the sambar there were four canine

marks. Here it would be pertinent to record

that the tiger and the lion while killing large

prey prefer to bite on the throat (Schaller

1967, 1972) though Krishnan (1972) has

found an adult Gaur cow with two sets of

two deep punctured wounds, inflicted by the

canines of a tiger on either side of a nape.

After removing the jaw we returned to the

road, and the tiger remained hidden and

growled two times from a distance of 50

metres. Since coughs and growls are the early

warning signals of a tiger which wants to

discourage people disturbing it (Corbett

1957) we went away.

VISITING SCIENTIST,

CENTRE FOR THEORETICAL STUDIES

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE,

BANGALORE-560 012,

October 10, 1978.

In the evening Keechanna was taken by

the local Forest staff to show the kill and

he found that the tiger had eaten most of the

meat from the major part of the carcass. He

did not take them to the other spot. Next

morning we saw the pugmarks on the tracks

of the van and the remains close to the road

were licked clean. As the crows were calling

from trees around the other area we did not

venture to check.

I was not able to deduce the exact cause

which prevented the wild dogs from following

the drag marks of the smaller portion of the

kill. May be they had sufficient meat on the

major part of the kill or were reluctant to

face an irritated tiger in the scrub. When

there was sufficient meai left on a kil! the

wild dogs most often revisited the kill. In

this case, however, the wild dogs did not do

so. The presence of the tiger did not permit

us to weigh the remains so as to calculate

the amount of meat eaten by the tiger and

the wild dog. From the above incident, with

certainty one can infer, that wild dogs can

scavenge on tiger’s kills and a tiger may ami-

cably withdraw in the presence of 15-16 dogs.

This withdrawal may only be temporary and

a tiger can operate in an area frequented by

wild dogs. 3

A. J. T. JOHNSINGH

REFERENCES

CorBeTT, J. (1957): Man-eaters of Kumaon.

London.

KRISHNAN, M. (1972): An ecological survey of

the larger mammals of Peninsular India. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc. 69 (1): 26-54.

SCHALLER, G. B. (1967): The Deer and the

Tiger. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

(1972): The Serengeti Lion. The

University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

361

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

5. ON THE VALIDITY OF FRANCOLINUS PICTUS PALLIDUS

(J. E. GRAY)

When cataloguing the Painted Partridges

(Francolinus pictus) from Indian limits in

the Society’s collection (19609, JBNHS 66:

257-258), I said there was much variation

in the patterns both above and below, but

with the material available (31 specimens

none from near the type locality) it was not

possible to separate any as pallidus (J. E.

Gray, type locality Udaipur) from nominate

pictus (Jardine & Selby, Bangalore).

With the assistance of Mr. Amrendra Singh

of Udaipur, we have now been able to obtain

a male from near Udaipur, the type locality,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,

BomBay-400 003.

August 7, 1978.

dated 1 September 1977 (BNHS Reg. No.

24381), which is distinctly paler than any of

the others. This paleness is most prominent

on the wings and is generally emphasized by

the pale streaks in the form of paler edges

to the dark feathers on the head. The last

character is visible in only one other skin

from Mt. Abu (0? 13746) and which does

show an appreciable tendency towards _palli-

dus. In any case, it would appear that this

form does exist but covers a very restricted

range.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

6. INCUBATION AND INCUBATION PERIOD IN THE INDIAN

LITTLE BROWN DOVE STREPTOPELIA SENEGALENSIS

A pair of Indian Little Brown Dove Strep-

topelia senegalensis managed to construct a

nest in the veranda of my house in Baroda.

Soon after the construction work of their nest

got over, the eggs were laid, one each on suc-

cessive days, namely on 29th and 30th of

January 1977. Both the sexes participated in

incubating the eggs, both of them working

in shifts for a few hours during the day time,

but only one of them would remain at the

nest at night. Since one of them had lost seve-

ral tail feathers it was possible to tell the

otherwise indistinguishable members apart: it

was always the one with the tail feathers in-

tact that would take up the night duty. This

individual, moreover, was also very aggressive

as compared to the other. The feathers on its

head were also conspicuous, in that they were

362

always disturbed and slightly raised and would

give an appearance of a comb. On two occa-

sions when the bird was disturbed at night

(because of my prying), the bird simply left

the place leaving the nest unguarded all

through the night only to return next day

morning (after 11-00 a.m.) to see if the place

was safe and undisturbed. Wallace and Mahan

(1975) have reported that in Mourning Dove

and some other columbids it is the female

which takes on the duty of incubating the eggs

at night, and is relieved by the male during

the daytime. It is possible tha tthe aggressive

individual doing the night shift is probably

a female, and that the aggressive attitude to-

wards suspected invaders develops during the

breeding season rather than only during in-

cubation periods; for, even after the young

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ones had hatched out and had left the nest

the aggressive attitude was maintained.

After continuous incubation of the eggs by

both the parents, both the eggs hatched out

on 13th February 1977, and the young ones

left the nest together on the 27th. About five

days later, a new nest was buit on the top

of the existing one apparently by the same

pair and an egg was laid on 6th March. How-

ever, the adult bird doing the night shift on

the nest had an encounter with a prowling cat.

The birds, subsequently abandoned the nest,

which I ultimately cleared away.

A pair of doves moved in once again on

11th August 1977 and started nest building

at the same site. The building activity was

slow initially but became vigorous by 15th

and continued with the same pace on 16th.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

FACULTY OF SCIENCE,

M. S. UNIVERSITY OF BARODA,

Baropa 390 002,

December 14, 1977.

The first egg was laid on 16th and the second

on 17th. Both the young ones hatched out on

30th August. Soon after the nest-leaving by

young ones on 12th September, the doves built

one more nest on the top of the existing one

and laid two eggs, one on 18th and the other

on 19th of September. Two days later these

were, however, found punctured—probably by

a male House Sparrow which was always seen

hovering near by.

Since the incubation period of the eggs is

defined as the time interval between the laying

of the last egg of the clutch and hatching of

that egg (Welty 1964), the incubation period

hitherto unreported in this species (Sdlim Alli

& Ripley, 1969) could be said to be of 13-14

days.

R. V. NENE

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM & RipLey, S. D. (1969): Handbook

of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 3. Oxford

University Press, Bombay.

WALLACE, G. J. & MAHAN, M. D. (1975): An

introduction to Ornithology, 3rd edition. MacMillan

Pub. Co., New York.

WELTY J. C. (1964): The life of Birds. Constable

and Co. Ltd., London.

7. THE VOICE OF THE JUVENILE BROWN HAWK-OWL

[NINOX SCUTULATA (RAFFLES) ]

In a note on the calls of the Jungle Owlet

(Glaucidium radiatum) (J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 68: 830-2) I pointed out that the juve-

nile has a food-call quite unlike any of the

numerous notes uttered by the adult. The

juvenile Brown Hawk-Owl, too, has a set of

call notes strikingly different from the adult’s

unvarying oo-uk or oo-up call.

Since the 26th of July, 1973, when, at

Parambikulam, I heard the voice of a young

Hawk-Owl for the first time, I have been hear-

ing it in Trivandrum fairly regularly in June

and July. However, it was only in 1977 that,

apparently, our area fell within the territory

of Hawk-Owl family. Between 4-vi-1977 and

27-x-1977 a juvenile and one parent used to

363

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

haunt our backyard. On 62 nights at least

during these 5 months, the birds were in our

arca for periods varying from half an hour

to two hours or more.

The young bird’s favourite perch was the

tip of a truncated, upward-pointing frond of

a 40-foot coconut tree. Generally it used to

sit there, calling from time to time, waiting

for the parent to come and feed it.

The note most often uttered was a loud,

rather querulous, nasal kweng. This would be

repeated 2-6 times in 60-120 seconds, followed

by 5-10 minutes of silence. Occasionally the

young bird would be silent for as long as 30

minutes.

Variations such as a sharp m-ydom, m-

yéon, m-ydong, koom kyoom, kweyoong,

and a very brief méwm were often uttered,

some of them highly suggestive of impatience

and annoyance.

When the adult came, the young one used

to utter a series of sharp, but low, kwey-kwey-

kweys, but this was only in the earlier days.

Later on, the only clue to feeding was the

24/1337, BEHIND G.P.O.,

TRIVANDRUM 695 O01,

April 27, 1978.

ghost-like form of the adult flitting to and

away from the juvenile’s perch. Throughout

the period feeding was an absolutely silent

and quick process. ‘The adult in attendance

never uttered any call-notes except towards

the end of the period (September and Octo-

ber), when it appeared as though the juvenile

was learning to produce the characteristic

adult note. Elsewhere in the city the adult’s

voice could be heard frequently throughout

this 5-month period as during other parts of

the «year.

After the 27th of October, 1977, the juve-

nile’s peculiar call-note was never heard in

our area. But on 1-i-1978 I heard it in another

part of the city. My son, who is also very

familiar with this cail-note, wrote that he had

heard it in December (1977) at Rourkela

(Orissa). Therefore, it may be presumed that

the juveniles of the two races, N.s. lugubris

and N.s. hirsuta utter the same kind of food-

calls.

I have made fairly satisfactory recordings

of these notes on tape. |

K. K. NEELAKANTAN

8. NORTHWARD EXTENSION OF THE RANGE OF THE SOUTH

INDIAN BLACK BULBUL HYPSIPETES MADAGASCARIENSIS

SYKES

On 15th August 1977, Humayun Abdulali,

J. S. Serrao the Society’s Librarian, and the

author, spent a delightful day motoring

through some of the most wonderfully scenic

country in north Thana District, not far from

Bombay. We travelled along the Agra Road

until Ghoti, where we branched off westwards,

passed the Vaitarna Reservoir, and then

through Khodala to Suriamal at the top of

364

the Ghats turning south to Wada to rejoin

the Agra Road at Bhiwandi.

Between Vaitarna and Suriamal, we saw

a party of birds flying to a small mango: by

the road along the cultivated hillside. At first

sight they looked like Blackheaded Blackbirds

(Turdus merula). Through glasses we count-.

ed 11 birds moving about a tree—a flock of

blackbirds!? Perplexed, we walked nearer and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

as the birds flew across the road and settled

again, we got excellent views of their slim

grey bodies, scraggy blackcrested heads,

orange-red bills and legs, and slightly forked

tails—a flock of Black Bulbuls (//ypsipetes

madagascariensis ganeesa Sykes)!

According to the books, the northernmost

record is from Matheran. H.A. tells me that

one was seen by Salim Ali at Bhimashankar

(on the main axis of the Sahyadri Range) on

8th September 1948, when they had _ visited

WorLD WILDLIFE FUND—INDIA,

SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH Roap,

Bompay 400 023,

August 253) 1977.

1 Present address: 14

Gujarat.

Jayant Society,

the place together. He also noted a small

party in a forest beat on the Pen-Khopoli

road (east of Karnala) on 26th December

1965. Nesting records from Khandala by

McCann and Navarro have been published

(1945) (JBNHS 45:241) and it is common

at Mahableshwar.

The present record extends the accepted

range of the species northwards by approxi-

mately 90 km.

LAVKUMAR J. KHACHER!

Rajkot-4,

9. COURTSHIP SONG AND DISPLAY OF THE WHITETHROATED

GROUND THRUSH ZOOTHERA CITRINA CY ANOTUS

(JARDINE & SELBY)

During the non-breeding months the White-

throated Ground Thrush is quite frequently

seen rummaging among the litter of the forest-

floor, not much concerned about the presence

of the birdwatcher. But a distinct change of

mood occurs as the breeding season approa-

ches. A bird may sometimes be seen singing

from a bare high perch, but most often they

become extremely shy and difficult to spot

though the presence of numerous individuals

evident from the rich lovely song which is a

characteristic sound of a morning in April

and May in the evergreen jungles of Maha-

bleshwar, where most of my _ observations

have been made. In high leafy or moss-cover-

ed branches of jambul the bird’s chestnut and

slate-blue coloration camouflages it surprising-

ly well. The voice has a ventriloquial quality

which makes accurate location difficult, and

the cautiously approaching — birdwatcher

usually sees the exasperatingly elusive and

audience-shy songster only when it flies from

its perch for a more private location to re-

sume its serenade.

Singing from such weil-concealed positions

the male sometimes assumes its peculiar

courtship display—-probably the reason why

the display is so seldom observed. I have been

lucky enough to see it on a few occasions,

invariably when the female was somewhere

near. I give a composite description from the

notes sent by me to Dr. Salim Ali on these

occasions.

The normally spruce upright-perching bird

bows forward with wings drooping limply.

The neck is stretched far forward horizontally

365

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

giving the bird a hunch-backed appearance

and the head and beak point vertically down

at right-angles to the horizontally stretched

out neck. Seen from the rear the rufous on

the sides of the bird is visible from behind

the drooping wings as two small but conspi-

cuous patches against the slaty grey back,

slightly above cach axilla. The overall effect

in terms of human mime is a_ ludicrous

abjectly humble shame-faced hanging head

stance. The bird continues to sing during the

display but the drollery is hightened when

occasionally its full throated notes change to

high-pitched scarcely audible pipings as if the

serenader was being choked by overpowering

emotion.

I first saw the display about 25 years ago

one May morning at Matheran on the road

between Coronation and Porcupine points.

The bird was singing in a high crotch of a

large tree—was very much puzzled when the

bird suddenly went into the drooping wing

pose. But when I saw the female fly in a

couple of seconds later and setile near by, I

realized that this was a courtship display by

the male directed at her.

The next observation was made with Dr.

Sélim Ali at Mahableshwar in April 1974.

On a high jambul tree in a nallah between

Jeejee Lodge and Dhun Villa what appeared

4-A, RASHMI,

CARMICHAEL ROAD,

BomBay-400 026,

June 10, 1977.

[Some more details of this bizarre display

will be found on p. 88, Vol. 9, HANDBOOK OF

THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, under the

orange-headed (nominate) subspecies.

366

That |

to be a discoloured leaf was spotted by Dr.

Salim Ali as the male thrush in drooping pose.

On 20.v.1976 I recorded another observation

at Mahableshwar about 200 yards away from

the foregoing location, again on a high jam-

bul at the head of the path leading down to

the nallah. The bird had been singing conti-

nuously for 10 minutes, before being spotted.

The female about 25 ft up on a large hori- ~

zontal branch appeared quite indifferent and

was swallowing something small. The well-

camouflaged displaying male was perched

about 7 ft away and slightly higher in a thin

leafy branch.

During the last observation (May 1977) at

Mahableshwar on Dan to Beersheba path

below Mt. Ferohin, I had an unusually clear

and prolonged view of a singing and occasion-

ally posing bird fairly low on a jambul branch.

The pose varied from a scarcely noticeable

droop to full intensity of contortion. The song

also changed to the high pitched wheezing

described previously, when the display was at

its intensest. Possibly the change in pose and

song varied according to the proximity of the

female which unfortunately I could not spot

in thick foliage till it flew away, the male

first and the female following, when another

thrush started singing about 30 yards away.

DINSHA J. PANDAY

observation, however, was also made in Maha-

bleshwar and should correctly refer to the

Whitethroated Ground Thrush.—Ebs.].

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

10. WAGTAILS AS PREDATORS OF FIELD BEAN APHIDS

Wagtails are essentially insectivorous birds

preying on insects and other smali arthropods.

Toor and Ramzan (1975)! reported Wag-

tails as good predators of mustard aphid,

Lephaphis erysini Kalt from Ludhiana.

We observed flocks of Wagtails feeding on

the field bean aphid (Aphis craccivora Koch.)

when we were screening the field bean germ-

plasm to aphid resistance. The flock consisted

mainly of the yellow Wagtail (Motacilla flava

L.) and the Grey Wagtail (Motacilla caspica

Gmelin). The field bean’ varieties (Lablab

niger L.) were trained on to a pandal in about

1 Toor, H. S. AND RAMZAN, M., (1975): The

Grey Wagtail, Motacilla caspica Gmelin—a good

predator of Mustard aphid, Liphaphis erysini Kalt.

Sci. & Cult., 41 (6): 288.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF AGRIL. SCIENCES,

HEBBAL, BANGALORE-560 024,

April, 29, 1978:

20x15 sq. metre area, and the birds frequ-

ently visited the periphery of the plot. On

detailed examination with 8 x30 field glasses

of the lowermost branches of the plant in-

fested with aphids, it was ascertained that the

birds fed on aphids. The birds also fed on

aphide placed on a white paper kept on the

ground near the plant, thus confirming the

observation. Further, on close examination of

the fed area, it was found that it had only

the immature stages as compared to unfed

areas where the aphid colony consisted of

mature and immature forms, suggesting that

the Wagtails fed mostly on adult and grown-

up nymphs. Thus, it is inferred that the Wag-

tails play an important role in checking aphid

build-up on field bean.

A. K. CHAKRAVARTHY

S. LINGAPPA

Il. REACTION TO NIGHT SPOTTING IN THE GHARIAL,

GAVIALIS GANGETICUS (GMELIN)

Light from a two-celled torch, held at the

level of the eye, were thrown on captive hatch-

ling and yearling gharials on various occasions.

The eyes of all juveniles reflected a bright red

glow when the yearlings were in water, they

moved towards the light.

In line with gharial’s body axis, the mini-

mum distance from which the glow was per-

ceived between 1.00 and 1.50 m for hatchlings

about 50 cm long, and 1.75 and 2.00 m for

yearlings over a metre. The glow could not be

observed when the height of the light source

was not lowered while nearing the animal.

Because of obstructions the glow could not be

seen beyond 6 m in experiments with both

hatchlings and yearlings. However, reflections

from juveniles, released in the wild in the

Satkeshia Gorge of the River Mahanadi, have

been percieved from a distance of about 15 m.

Observations made on captive muggers

(Crocodylus palustris) also showed exactly

similar results.

Abdulali (1951) reported that gharials do

not reflect torch light, which was contradicted

by Ross (1975). Ross (1975) further contra-

dicted Oliver’s (Abdulali 1957) statement that

in gharial the colour of the glow is “much

fainter’.

367

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Ross (1975) reported that “the eyes would

not reflect light from a distance of less than

4 m” and that “this has also been observed

for other species of crocodilians.”’ However,

the present observations on the captive gha-

rials and muggers at the Gharial Research

and Conservation Unit showed that the mini-

mum distance for reflection of light by the

GHARIAL RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION UNIT,

TIKERPADA 759122, ORISSA,

August 18, 1978.

eyes is 1.00 m for hatchlings about 50 cm

long and 1.75 m for a metre long yearlings.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I am in receipt of a Research Fellowship

from the Government of Orissa (Forest De-

partment) through the State Crocodile Pro-

ject. Thanks are due to Sri D. K. Sahoo and

Sri I. C. Sahoo, Research Assistants for help.

LALA A. K. SINGH

REFERENCES

ABDULALI, H. (1957): Reflected glow from the

eyes of the gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54 (3): 769-770.

Ross, C. A. (1975): Reflected glow from the

eyes of the gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin)

in captivity. ibid. 72 (2): 557-558.

12. STRANGE PRACTICE OF A CATERPILLAR

Among the potted plants in the backyard

of our house in Alipore area of Calcutta, I

discovered one day by the middle of August,

a caterpillar hidden within a broad leaf of a

Curcuma zedoaria rosa (Zingiberaceae). The

damaged leaf blade from which extensive

areas had been eaten away drew my attention

to it. I found a part of the broad leaf folded

upon itself. When I pulled apart the leaf blade

which was stuck with whitish silk webbings,

a greenish grey, flat-looking caterpillar, about

two inches long, came into view. The cater-

pillar had folded the leaf blade to make a

chamber and remained snugly within it. It

almost immediately started to fold the leaf

back by secreting a sticky fluid from its mouth.

It touched the leaf blade with its mouth alter-

nately on its left and right side and stretched

up a fine thread over its head. The thread

soon grew thicker and that part of the leaf

368

blade slowly but surely started to be folded

upon itself. At this stage it suddenly started

raining and the Curcuma leaf as well as the

caterpillar got thoroughly drenched. But rain

water did not seem to have any effect on the

stickiness of the fluid or upon the determina-

tion of the caterpillar to continue its work.

While I was watching, I suddenly noticed

slight contortions at the posterior end of the

caterpillar where soon a blackish pellet came

out. As I was closely watching, the caterpillar

suddenly shot the pellet straight at me and hit

me fully and squarely on the face. Perhaps

it is normal for these caterpillars to eject their

pellets of faeces in that way, but for a moment

I had the feeling that the shooting had been

done deliberately. As it was raining hard, and

also as I had no desire to furnish the cater-

pillar with further targets, I withdrew from

the scene rather in a huff.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Later in a cool moment, when I thought of

the incident, it seemed to me that this remark-

able habit of shooting of pellets of faeces by

these caterpillars must have some useful pur-

pose. These caterpillars can easily keep their

chambers of folded leaves clean and unsoiled

by shooting their faeces outside. And this

shooting can also be used with telling effect

upon their enemies which may try to sneak

into the chamber from the rear.

After about twelve or fifteen days one

morning at about 9 o'clock I found a medium

C/o. BaccHt TRANSPORT COMPANY,

44 CHITTARANJAN AVENUB,

CaLtcuTTa 700 012,

September 4, 1978.

big butterfly with white spotted black wings

resting on the wall near that Curcuma plant.

It was resting with its forewings upright and

slightly apart and the hindwings resting flat,

the white spots in the wings thus showing to

advantage. It flew away when I tried to ap-

proach it. From the little that I could glimpse

of the spotted wings and the sitting posture,

I take it to be a Hesperiid. I wonder if this

dapper and brisk butterfly could be the same

dull and wormlike creature that behaved so «

disreputably with me a couple of weeks ago.

A. S. BHADURI

13. THE RED PIERROT TALICADA NYSEUS GUERIN

(LEPIDOPTERA: LYCAENIDAE) IN BOMBAY

AND THE SALSETTE ISLAND

Though ‘Bombay’, presumably the erst-

while Bombay Presidency or Bombay State

prior to bifurcation into Gujarat and Maha-

rashtra in May 1960, is listed under the range

of the Red Pierrot, Talicada nyseus Guerin

(Lycaenidae), there is neither a specific re-

cord of its occurrence in Bombay City and

the Salsette Island in any of the lists publish-

ed on the area in the Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society (Vols. 50: 331-9;

D5 )282-42) 942 215-6; 56: 358-9: 57: 233-4:

74; 190-1), nor any specimen collected in the

area is in the Society’s collection. In_ these

circumstances two specimens of the butterfly

collected in the Bombay area in May 1979:

BoMBAY NaATurAL History Society,

Hornpitt House, Opp. LIon GATE,

SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH Roap,

BomBay 400 023,

June 30, 1979,

one by Mr. P. W. Soman from Dadar, and

the other by Miss Renée Borges from a gar-

den in Colaba are of interest. These two spe-

cimens add to the Lepidopteran fauna of

Bombay and Salsette Islands, and are now

registered in the Society’s collection.

Mr. J. S. Serrao of the Society informs me

that this butterfly is rather common mostly

during the dry season in gardens in Bandra,

Bombay, and that it invariably keeps to pat-

ches of miscellaneous assortments of garden

plants, with Bryophyllum interspersed here

and there. He has also come across this butter-

fly in Mahableshwar in April/May 1978.

NARESH CHATURVEDI

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

14. ANTS (CAMPONOTUS SP.) HUNTING FLIES

On 20th June 1975, we observed an un-

common event. We were staying overnight at

a tourist bungalow at the Borivli National

Park, Bombay and while sitting on the veran-

dah steps in the evening, we saw some black

ants carrying flies. Every few seconds a new

ant would appear with a lifeless fly. On track-

ing the line of ants, we discovered that

the flies carried by the ants were not dead

ones found by chance, but that the ants were

systematically hunting flies. As the ground

was moist and dirty, plenty of flies were hover-

ing around, often landing and remaining on

the ground for some time. The ants wander-

ing about were pouncing on any fly within

striking distance. Although the percentage of

successful strikes was low, the frequency of

strikes and the large number of ants ensured

that every 30 seconds or so, at least one ant

would get its prey. After striking and captur-

ing the fly, the ant would bend into a ‘U’

13/A, AVANTI APARTMENTS,

SION (EAST),

BomBay-400 022,

February 2, 1979.

so as to make its abdomen touch the fly. This

was probably to inject some venom from its

sting. After this the fly would stop struggling

and would be carried off. Sometimes a fly

was seen to escape the clutches of the ant,

even after capture. The ants had their nest

in a hole in the ground beside the wall of the

house. There were two sizes of ants indulging

in this hunting. One ant was observed to hunt

in a different way. It would remain motion-

less in one place, (it was seen on a banana

peel) and let the flies come near. Whenever

a fly came too close, it would jump on it and

try to catch it. This behaviour was observed

on two separate days at the same place. Ants

are known to hunt and kill other insects and

even bigger animals are taken by army ants.

But for an individual ant to hunt so agile a

creature as a fly seemed unusual and uncom-

mon. The flies were certainly in good health

and perfectly capable of flying.

SHAILESH J. ZAVERI

JYOTINDRA J. ZAVERI

AMEET K. ZAVERI

15. COLOUR DURING LIFE OF THE CRAB ATERGATIS

ROSEUS (RUPPELL)

The Xanthid walking crab Atergatis roseus

(Ruppell) had been recorded by me, from

collections made at Port Okha by my collea-

gues in the Department of Fisheries in the

erstwhile Bombay State (Chhapgar, 1957,

JBNHS 54, pages 426, 427). The crabs in that

collection had been received by me preserved

in formalin, and were seen to be of the colour

of rose flowers; the trivial name roseus thus

370

aptly describes the body coloration.

Subsequently I have had the opportunity to

observe freshly collected crabs of this species;

these had a brick-red body coloration quite

similar to that of Atergatis integerrimus (1_am-

arck). However, while the latter has white pits

on the carapace—sparsely distributed all over

the outer hepatic, and the epi-, meso- and

meta-branchial regions, the carapace in A.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

roseus is uniformly brick-red except for an

ivory-white border.

Incidentally, Alcock (1898, Journ. Asiat.

Soc. Bengal 67, page 97), describing the colo-

ration of A. roseus recorded from Madras

E-31, Cusrow BAuc,

CoLABA CAUSEWAY,

BomBay-400 039,

March 15, 1979.

and Karachi, gives it as “Colours in spirit

brownish yellow.”’ On the contrary, he has

described the colours in spirit of A. integer-

rimus as “pinkish ochre.”

B. F. CHHAPGAR

16. NEW RECORDS OF EUPHORBIACEAE

FROM MADHYA PRADESH

Among trees and shrubs enumerated by

Biscoe (1910), 8 genera and 12 species of

Euphorbiaceae were recorded from the erst-

while Indore State; while among weeds, Keno-

yer (1924), reported 4 genera and 9 species

of this family from the former princely state

of Gwalior and adjacent parts. After reorga-

nisation of states the floristic composition of

Madhya Pradesh has been assessed and eva-

Juated by Heweston (1951), Sagreiya and

Singh (1958), Tiwari (1968) and Khan

(1973).

Panigrahi and Prasad (1967) reported 23

genera and 47 species of Euphorbiaceae from

Madhya Pradesh, while 14 genera and 27 spe-

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

SAIFIA COLLEGE,

BHoPAL (M.P.) 462 001,

September 23, 1976.

cies have been described by Kaushik (1969,

1974) from Shivpuri (M.P.). Recently a few

more have been added by Oommachan (1973)

and Javed (1975) from Bhopal, but none of

these authors have included the following

plants in their respective works.

(1) Euphorbia microphylla Heyne, (2) E.

trigona How., (3) Jatropha podagrica Hook.,

(4) Pedilanthus japonica Hook., (5) Phyllan-

thus nivosus Bull and (6) Synadenium grantii

Hook.

Thus these 6 species belonging to 5 diffe-

rent genera collected from Bhopal are new

records from Madhya Pradesh as a whole.

S. A. CHAGHTAI

ARUNA GARG

REFERENCES

Biscoz, W. F. (1910): A List of Trees and

Shrubs of the Indore State, Times Press, Bombay:

71-75.

HEWETSON, C. E. (1951): Preparation of a

Flora for Madhya Pradesh and Central Parts of

Indian Union. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 431-

433.

JAVED, A. (1975):

A Study of the Medicinal

Trees of Bhopal. M.Sc. Thesis. Bhopal University.

(Unpublished).

Kausuik, J. P. (1969): A Contribution to the

Flora of Shivpuri, Madhya Pradesh. Bull. Bot.

Survv. India. Il, (1 & 2): 51-69.

(1974): Some Plants from Shiv-

puri District, Madhya Pradesh. J. Jiwaji Univ. II,

(1): 58-64.

371

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

KENOYER, L. A. (1924): Weed Manual of Gwa-

lior State and Adjacent Parts of India. Baptist Mis-

sion Press, Calcutta: 27-29. ,

Kuan, M. A. W. (1973): Madhya Pradesh Plants.

Regional Press, Rewa (M.P.).

OoMMACHAN, M. (1973): Flora of Bhopal.

Ph.D. Thesis, Vikram University, Ujjain (Unpub-

lished). :

PANIGRAHI, G. & PRASAD, R. (1967): Contribu-

tion to the Botany of Madhya Pradesh, IV (The

family: Euphorbiaceae and Urticaceae). Proc. Nat.

Acad. Sci. India, Sec. B, 37 Pt. 4: 553-564

SAGREITYA, K. P. & SINGH, B. (1958): Botanical

and Standardised Hindi.names of. Important and

Common Forest Plants of Madhya Pradesh. Govt.

Regional Press, Gwalior.

Tiwari, S .D. N. (1968): The Locations of Or-

namental and useful Trees (Wild and Planted) in

Madhya Pradesh. Govt. Regional Press, Rewa

(M.P.): 42-44. :

17. ACALYPHA INDICA LINN.—A NEW RECORD FOR GARHWAL

Many European botanists explored Garh-

wal from the end of eighteenth century to the

beginning of twentieth century and their re-

sults were published by J. F. Duthie in 1906

in the revised Strachey and Winterbottom’s

“Catalogue of the Plants of Kumaon and of

the adjacent portions of Garhwal and Tibet’’.

In recent years Indian Workers who collected

plants in this region make no mention of its

occurrence. »

Acalypha indica Linn. in Sp. Pl. 1003, 1753;

Hook. f. in FI. Brit, Ind. 5:416, 1887; Du-

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

Govt. PosT GRADUATE COLLEGE,

KorpwarA-246 149 (GARHWAL), U.P.,

May 20, 1978.

thie in’ EFL Upp. Gang Pi 3: 108." 1920;

Maheshwari in FI. Delhi 316, 1963 & in

Illustr. Fl. Delhi t. 197, 1966.

An erect annual herb, 30-80 cm. high with

many spreading and ascending branches.

Leaves membranous, 53.5 cm. Flowers

minute, green in lax, erect, axillary spikes.

Capsule glabrous.

G. S. Rajwar: 120 (30-9-1977) Kotdwara

(Distt. Pauri). Common in waste places in

dry situations. Flowering Aug.-May. :

G. S. RAJWAR

18. OCCURRENCE OF MYRIOPHYLLUM SPICATUM LINN.

IN RAJASTHAN

Myriophyllum spicatum Winn. (Haloraga-

ceae), a Himalayan plant, has so far been

reported from Kashmir, northern boundary of

Punjab and Uttar Pradesh between 500-2,000

m. above m.s.1. (Subramanyam, K.: Aquatic

Angios. 17. 1962). During botanical explora-

tion of Bikaner district, the senior author col-

lected M. spicatum L. from stagnant water in

372

‘the Rajasthan Canal near Lunkarnsar (240

m. above m.s.1.), where it grows in association

with Vallisneria spiralis Linn. and Poiamoge-

ton nodosus Poir. or forms pure stands. It is

interesting to note that this taxon has become

fully adopted to adverse conditions. This spe-

cies can be easily distinguished from other

related taxa by its leaves being finely pinnated

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

into filiform segments. Spikes terminal; each

flower in the axil of a large pinnatisect—-ser-

rate bract and two small, lateral, serrate bracts

not exceeding 5 mm in length. Petals in male

flowers only. Stamens 8. Fruits of 3, 1-seeded

cocci which are tubercled on the dorso-lateral

margins and muricated on its flat back. Fur-

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

D-7, SHASTRI NAGAR, JODHPUR,

RAJASTHAN.

November 1, 1977.

rows between the fruiting carpels are very

narrow, hardly noticeable. Flowering and

Fruiting: August-November.

The specimens (Roy 2160, 2424) are depo-

sited in the herbarium of the Botanical Survey

of India, Jodhpur (BSJO) and CNH., How-

rah (CAL.).

G. P. ROY

V. SINGH

19. RARE OR LITTLE KNOWN PLANTS FROM SOUTH INDIA

Five species of Angiosperms, known to be

endemic to Kanyakumari and_ Tirunelveli

Districts of Tamil Nadu and adjoining regions

of Kerala, South India, are reported in this

paper. They were rediscovered recently after

a lapse of 70 to 100 years. All the specimens

examined are present in MH.

Byrsophyllum tetrandrum (Bedd.) Hook. f. ex

Bedd. Fl. Sylv. t. 326. 1873; Hook. f. FI. Brit.

India 3: 107. 1880; Bourd. For. Trees Tra-

vancore 217. 1908; Rao, FI. Pl. Travancore

208. 1914; Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 2: 433.

1957 (repr. ed.). . Gardenia tetrandra Bedd.

Icon. t. 20. 1868-74. [RUBIACEAE].

Glabrous shrubs or small trees, 3-4.5 m_ tall;

branches stout. Leaves 4.5-8 x 1.8-3.4 cm.,

elliptic-oblong to elliptic-obovate, entire cori-

aceous, shining, obtuse at apex, narrowed at

base; petioles up to 2.5 cm long. Flowers up

to 4 cm long, white reddish tinge without, fra-

grant; male in few—flowered terminal cory-

mbs, female solitary or in pairs, terminal.

Berries c. 2 cm across, ovoid or subglobose.

This species was described by Beddome dur

ing 1868-74, based on Captain Davidson’s col-

lection from “Travancore mountains (Athray-

mallay)”. It was subsequently collected by

Bourdillon from Muthukuzhivayal, Kanya-

kumari Dt. (previously S. Travancore, Kerala)

in 1894. Recently we could relocate the plants

in exposed areas at the top of the hill in Mu-

thukuzhivayal area, and also in’ Agastyar-

malai, Tirunelveli Dt., after a lapse of about

70 years.

Specimens examined: TAMIL NADU. Kanya-

kumari Dt.: M. K. Vayal, 4200 ft., 2-10-1894,

Bourdillon 371; way to Muthukuzhivayal,

1000 m, 1-9-1976, Henry 48190. Tirunelveli

Dt.: ““S. Travencore & Tinnevelly”’, 5000 ft.,

Beddome? s.n. (acc. no. 25142); way to Aga-

styarmalai Peak, 1700 m, 1-7-1964, Henry &

Chandrabose 19219.

Distribution: South India (Kanyakumari

and Tirunelveli Dts. of Tamil Nadu, and

adjoining regions of Kerala).

Didymocarpus missionis Wall. [Cat. no. 6396.

1832, nomen] ex R. Br. in Benn. & R. Br.

Pl. Jav. Rar. 119. 1840; DC. Prodr. 9: 266.

1845; Clarke in DC. Mon. Phan. 5:104. 1883

& in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 4:354. 1884:

Rao, Fl. Pl. Travancore 295. 1914; Gamble,

Fl Press). Madtas 27.694, 1957. (repr. ed:).

D. membranacea Bedd. Icon. t. 176. 1868-74.

[GESNERIACEAE].

373

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Scapigerous, somewhat succulent herbs.

Leaves up to 16 x9 cm, ovate to ovate-lanceo-

late, succulent (appearing membranous in

dried specimens), entire, pellucid white-hairy,

acute at apex, cordate and unequal at base;

petioles up to 13 cm long, white-hairy. Flowers

1.2-1.4 cm long, blue, funnel-shaped, in race-

mes on scapes up to 24 cm long. Capsules 3-4

cm long, slender, finely apiculate, glabrous.

Beddome (loc. cit.) who collected this spe-

cies in 1874 remarks: ‘“‘A most delicate spe-

cies apparently very rare, I have only met

with it in one place on the South Travancore

ghats, moist rocks, Pachemallay (2000 feet

elevation)”. Gamble who could study both

the Wallichian and Beddomean collections of

this species at Kew Herbarium in 1922 writes

on Beddome’s sheet (acc. no. 36686, the only

sheet present in MH): ‘Specimens badly

wanted at Kew. The only one at Kew is in

the Wallich collection....”. After a lapse of

over 100 years we could locate the plants on

wet rocks in the ghats of Kanyakumari Dt.,

Tamil Nadu (old South Travancore).

Specimens examined: TAMIL NADU. Kanya-

kumari Dt.: Asamboo hills, Pachymallay,

2000 ft., Beddome s.n. (acc. no. 36686); Kali-

kesam riverside—Balamore, 700 m, 30-8-1976,

Henry 48151; Kilaviarumalai—Balamore, 480

m, 28-7-1977, Henry 49421.

Distribution: South India

Dt. of Tamil Nadu).

Didymocarpus ovalifolia Wight, Icon. t. 1351.

1848: Clarke in DC. Mon. Phan. 5: 104. 1883

& in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 4: 354. 1884;

Rao, Fl. Pl. Travancore 295. 1914; Gamble,

"Fl. Pres. Madras 2: 694. 1957 (repr. ed).

[GES NERIACEAE].

Scapigerous, white—strigose herbs. Leaves

up to 137.5 cm, elliptic—ovate, crenate—

serrate, obtuse at apex, rounded at base;

(Kanyakumari

374

petioles up to 11.5 cm long. Flowers 1.5—2

cm long, bluish-violet, tubular-ventricose, 3-6,

in umbels on scapes up to 19 cm long. Cap-

sules 3-3.5 cm long, slender, cuspidate, pube-

scent.

Wight, who discovered this endemic species

in 1848 (loc. cit.) writes under Explanation of

plates: ‘!‘Courtallam, flowering August and

September. A very beautiful species conspi-

cuous on account of the large size of its

flowers.”’ This species was subsequently col-

lected by Beddome from Tirunelveli Hills in

1867. After a lapse of about 100 years, we

could relocate this species along exposed rocky

slopes at the top of Agastyarmalai Hills in

Tirunelveli Dt. and in Muthukuzhivayal area,

Kanyakumari Dt.

Specimens examined: TAMIL NADU. Kanya-

kumari Dt.: Muthukuzhivayal, 1300 m,

6-8-1977, Henry 49610. Tirunelveli Dt.: ““Tin-

nevelly’’, 1867, Beddome s.n. (acc. no. 36737);

‘“‘Tinnevelly hills’, “‘Courtallam hills” Bed-

dome? s.n. (acc. nos. 36687 & 36690); Ex-

posed slopes-way to Agastyarmalai Peak, 1200

m, 24-8-1963, Henry 17317; Agastyarmalai

Peak, 1600 m, 1-7-1964, Henry & Chandra-

bose 19215.

Distribution: South India (Kanyakumari

and Tirunelveli Dts. of Tamil Nadu).

Elaeocarpus venustus Bedd. FI. Sylv. t. 174.

1872; Bourd. For. Trees Travancore 60. 1908:

Rao, Fl. Pl. Travancore 55. 1914; Gamble,

Fl. Pres. Madras 1: 89. 1957 (repr. ed.). EF.

monocera sensu Masters in Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

India 1: 405. 1874. p.p. (non Cav.). [ELAFo-

CARPACEAE]. .

Trees. 12-15 m tall; branches glabrous.

Leaves 6-12 3-5 cm elliptic or obovate, in-

conspicuously serrate-apiculate, glabrous, acute

at apex, attenuate at base; the axils of pri-

mary nerves beneath with large glands promi-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

nently impressed above; petioles 1-3 cm long.

Flowers 2.5-3 cm across, white, in axillary,

4-8—flowered racemes: pedicels 2-2.5 cm long.

Sepals glabrous without, pubescent within.

Petals fimbriate, silky without and at base

within. Anthers minutely puberulous, mucro-

nate. “‘Drupe ovoid, about 2 in. by | in., hang-

ing on 2-3 in. peduncles from the old wood”

(Bourdillon).

Beddome (loc. cit.) who described this spe-

cies states: ‘“‘A fine large tree only observed

in the Muti-kuli vayal...it is truly beautiful

when covered with its snow white large

flowers, which it produces in great abundance

...” This endemic species was subsequently

reported by Bourdillon (loc. cit.) from “‘Mu-

thu kuli vayal and Chimunji in South Travan-

core at an elevation of 3500—4500 ft.” After

a lapse of over seventy years, we have suc-

ceeded in locating this rare plant again at

the type locality, and making its first repre-

sentation in MH.

Specimens examined: TAMIL NADU. Kanya-

kumari Dt.: Muthukuzhivayal, 1400 m,

10-9-1976, Henry 48327; Oothu to Upper

Kodayar, 1300 m, 8-8-1977, Henry 49662.

Distribution: South India (Kanyakumari

Dt. of Tamil Nadu and adjoining regions of

Kerala).

Eugenia floccosa Bedd. Fl. Sylv. t. 200. 1872;

Duthie in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 2: SOI.

1879; Rao, Fl. Pl. Travancore 170. 1914;

Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 1: 342. 1957 (repr.

ed.). [MYRTACEAE].

Trees, 8-12 m tall, young parts densely

floccose. Leaves 4-14 x 2-7.5 cm, broadly elli-

ptic or obovate, entire, densely floccose on

both sides when young, glabrescent when old,

rounded or obtuse at apex, obtuse at base,

nerves not prominent, arched, midrib impres-

sed below, petioles 1-2 cm long. Flowers 2.3-

2.6 cm across, showy, few in cymes, or soli-

tary; corolla 2 cm long, white, floccose with-

out, glabrous within, larger than calyx. Ber-

ries 3.5-4 cm across, globose, densely floccose,

crowned with large persistent calyx-lobes.

“This is a most beautiful tree’? (Beddome),

scattered along outskirts of shola forests. Bed-

dome, who described the size of the fruit as

that of a Pigeon’s egg, apparently observed

only young fruits. Later workers accepted

Beddome’s description, as they evidently could

not study additional materials. After a lapse

of a century, we have located this plant in

the vicinity of the type locality—‘‘above cal-

cad’’, in both flowers and fruits. The fruit at

maturity is quite large, about 4 cm across.

Merril & Perry (Jorun. Arn. Arb. 18 : 322-

343. 1937 & seq.) opine that majority of the

Old World species of Eugenia should be plac-

ed under Syzygium Gaertn. Their arguments

for separating Syzygium from Eugenia are

based mainly on the structure of seed: Syzy-

gium has the cotyledons separate and distinct

while in Eugenia (sensu stricto) they are fused

together and are mechanically inseparable;

further the testa in Syzygium is adherent to

the pericarp while in true Eugenia it is free

from it and adherent to the cotyledons. Hen-

derson (Garden. Bull. Singapore 12: 1-293.

1949), while revising the genus Eugenia in

Malaya has shown that the seed coat and its

degree of adherence to the cotyledons, and

the pseudomonocotyledonous nature of the

seed, could hardly be used as a basis for gene-

ric distinctions. For the present we treat this

species under Eugenia Linn. (sensu lato)

since a complete monograph on the subject

is not available.

Specimens examined: TAMIL NADU. Kanya-

kumari Dt.: Muthukuzhivayal, 1400 m,

10-9-1976, Henry 45320 & 6-8-1977, Henry

ee,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

49618. Tirunelveli Dt.: Calcad hills, Bed-

dome? s.n. (ace. no. 20811); ‘Tinneveily,

Beddome s.n. (sec. nos. 20812-14 & 85664);

Oothu, 1-9-1963, Henry 17410.

Distribution: South India (Kanyakumari &

Tirunelveli Dts. of Tamil Nadu).

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

SOUTHERN CIRCLE, COIMBATORE,

October 25, 1977.

20.

Hitherto Jndochloa clarkii (Hack.) Bor,

(Panicoideae-Andropogoneae) was considered

to be endemic in the Pareshnath hills, Bihar.

The present paper reports its occurrence on

the plateau of Madhya Pradesh for the first

time. This shows that it is a rare grass but

not with a restricted distribution.

Indochloa clarkii (Hack.) Bor in Kew Bull.

1954: 76, 1954.

(Panicoideae—Andropogoneae, Poaceae)

Hooker (Flora of British India 7: 197.

1897) recorded this taxon under Andropogon

clarkii Hack. and Haines (Bot. Bihar & Orissa

1040. 1924) placed it under Dicanthium clar-

kii (Hack.) Haines. Both the authors report-

ed the species from the top of Pareshnath hill.

This report from Sonmuda, Bilaspur, Madhya

Pradesh, 5-11-1970, G. Panigrahi 13333

(BSA), is an extension of the range of the

species northwards.

As such it appears to extend its range under

favourable environments into the adjoining

hilly regions. The Collector records: ‘“‘rooting

in black mud along Son River stream. A large

number of branches from lower internodes.

Inflorescence with chocolate coloured awns.

Seen only here. Very light grass. Rare.’’ How-

ever, examinations of the available materials

376:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to Dr. N. C. Nair, Deputy

Director, Botanical Survey of India, Southern

Circle, Coimbatore for facilities and en-

couragement. |

A. N. HENRY

M. S. SWAMINATHAN

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF A FEW INDIAN GRASSES

in (CAL) reveal: that the glabrous stems,

leaves glabrous, except the margin, young

leaves, matured pedicels and neuter spikelets,

reddish brown, and fertile ones villose, help

to identify the taxon in the field.

Polypogon monspeliensis (Linn.) Desf.

(Poaideae-Agrostideae)—This. grass has been

known for a long time from North Western

Himalayas, the Upper Gangetic Plains, Bihar

and Madras as a winter annual. The winter

in the Upper Gangetic Plains is very severe.

Grows as a bushy grass in low lying marshy.

lands at different localities of Howrah district

in West Bengal. It appears that this grass

has successfully invaded the Lower Gangetic

Plains of India at its eastern most extension.

Polypogon monspeliensis (Linn.) Desf. FI.

Allant. 1: 64. 1789.—Alopecurus monospe-

liensis Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1, 61. 1753. Tufted

annuals. Panicles spiciform oblong or cylind-

ric; glumes oblong, scaberulous ciliolate, tip

deeply notched; awn from the sinus or be-

neath it, 5-9.8 mm long, 2-3 times the length

of the glumes. |

INDIA: West Bengal, Howrah district. Thana-

makua, A. K. Naskar s.n., collected on

12-8-72 (CAL): Andul Road, West Ben-

gal, Near Damodar Valley Corp., Feb. *72,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Growing on moist situations, R. B. Mazum-

dar e235) (CAL)

Rhynchelytrum villosum (Parl.) Chiov. in

Ann. Ist Bot. Roma 8: 310, 1908, (Panicoi-

deae—Paniceae, Poaceae). This grass is re-

ported here from West Bengal for the first

time. During the identification of earlier col-

lection, we located specimens collected from

the slope facing the river Hooghly, IBG Head

Office Ghat, (Opp. to old herbarium building),

Indian Botanic Graden, Howrah (H. P. Nas-

kar 1 on 15-3-1949,: CAL). It is an erect

herb with scabrid leaf sheaths; pedicels of the

spikelets not hairy. Glume I, linear-oblong,

obtuse, minute. Glume IV thin, 0.8 mm, be-

low the upper, bearded at the base, glabre-

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

HowraH-3.

November 5, 1977.

scent upwards. It occurs on sandy loam soil.

A scrutiny of available literature as well as

herbarium specimens in the Central National

Herbarium, Howrah, (CAL), revealed that

this species has been collected from Padami

also (A. Meebold 11215, Sept. 1910, CAL)

The range of the species extends to Tropical

Africa. Bor (Grasses of India, Burma & Cey-

lon: 355, 1960) reports it from Punjab and

Rajputana. Thus the present report establish-

es the continuity of the distribution from

Northwestern and Peninsular India.

We are indebted to the Director, Botanical

Survey of India, for all facilities and thankful

to Dr. R. B. Majumdar, Regional Botanisi,

Eastern Circle (ASSAM) for his guidance.

BARIN GHOSH

R. N. BANERJEE

377

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DECEMBER 1979

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VOLUME 76(3): DECEMBER 1979

Date of Publication: 18-8-1980

PAGE

CONTENTS

THE SEASONALITY AND OCCURRENCE OF BIROS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF ANDHRA

PRADESH. By Trevor D. Price. (With a plate and thirteen text-figures) ih 379

DISTRIBUTION, STATUS, HABITAT AND FOOD OF THE URIAL (Ovis orientalis punjabiensis)

IN THE PUNJAB. By Z. B. Mirza, M. Aslam Khan, M. Asghar, and Abdul Qadeer

Mehal. (With three text-figures and a inap) Be ne 4 423

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF MAJOR CARPS IN A DRY BUNDH OF UTTAR PRADESH

DURING 1976 MONSOON SEASON, By S. J. Karamchandani, G. N. Mukerji, G. N.

Srivastava and K. Chandra. (With a text-figure) Ma He a 431

THE BEHAVIOUR CF THE BARREDBACK PHEASANT [Syrmaticus humiae (HUME) j. By

G. W. H. Davison. (With two text-figures) Hg a a 439

INDO-PHILIPPINE SPECIES OF Disophrys FOERSTER (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE).

By Shama Bhat. (With seventeen text-figures) Ae Bt ay 447

MOVEMENTS OF Bandicota bengalensis (GRAY 1873) AND Tatera indica (HARDWICKE

1807) AS REVEALED BY RADIO TELEMETRY. By G. W. Fulk, A. C. Smiet and A. R.

Khokhar. (With two text-figures) if Ets wi sii 457

HYDROPHYTIC VEGETATION OF COURTALLUM, SOUTH INDIA. By K. K. N. Nair. (With

two text-figures & a map) ie A ve By iy 463

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON VISION IN INDIAN SNAKES. By Holger Rumpff. (With a

text-figure) ey bi wi MW: Me Ae 475

A CATALOGUE OF THE INDIAN SIGNIPHORIDAE (INSECTA: HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOI-

DEA). By Mohammad Hayat and Mahesh Verma se ip BY 48]

NEw DESCRIPTIONS:

Three new species of the genus Neochrysocharis Kurdyumov (Eulophidae: Entedon-

tinae). By M. “ounus Khan and S. Adam Shafee. (With two plates) an 486

Record of genus Caenocholax Pierce (Myrmecolacidae, Strepsiptera) from India.

By A. K. Cattopadhyay and P. K. Chaudhuri. (With four text-figures) i, 490

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

MAMMALS: 1. The Golden Langur, Presbytis geei Khajuria in Bhutan. By Subhendu Sekhar

Saha (p. 493); 2. Some observations on inter-oestrus interval in captive tigresses [Panthera

tigris (Linnaeus)]. By L. N. Acharyyo and S. Mohapatra (p. 495); 3. Habitats, feeding,

breeding and reaction to man of the desert cat Felis libyca (Gray) in the Indian desert. By

Indra Kumar Sharma (p. 498); 4. Inter-specific relationship in some species of Indian bats

with a note on bat fauna of Bhubaneswar. By M. S. Khaparde (p. 499); 5. Reproductive

activity of four species of field-rats in crop fields at Ludhiana. By G. S. Mann and O. S.

Bindra (p. 501).

Birps: 6. “Birds of Goa’. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 507); 7. Pre-natal vocalization and

imprinting in birds. By Asad Rafi Rahmani (p. 510); 8. Blacknecked Crane, Grus nigri-

collis, seen at Begnas Tal, near Pokhara, Nepal. (With a photograph). By John Rossetti

(p: 513); 9. Unexpected occurrence of the Goldenbacked W -xer Dinopium bengha-

lense (Linnaeus) in Kutch. By M. K. Himmatsinhji (p. 514); vu. Feeding behaviour of the

Whitecapped River Chat Chaimarrornis leucocephala. By Timothy M. Reed (p. 515);

11. Roosting behaviour of flocks of the Crested Black Tit (Parus melanolophus). By A. J.

Gaston (p. 517).

REPTILES: 12. Dhaman (Ptyas mucosus) and parakeets. By Tej Prakash Vyas, Avadesh K.

Pandey and M. S. Parihar (p. 518); 13. A note on nesting behaviour in the Indian Gharial

Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia, Crocodilia). By H. R. Bustard (p. 519); 14. Some

observations on the Common House Gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus) of Southern India.

By Deep Sahi (p. 521); 15. Record of the Rock-lizard, Psammophilus blanfordanus (Sto-

liczka) (Sauria: Agamidae) in Araku Valley, Eastern Ghats (Andhra Pradesh), India.

By T. S. N. Murthy and T. Venkateswarlu (p. 524); 16. A note on the distribution of |

Barkudia insularis Annandale, a rare limbless lizard from Orissa. By S. Biswas and L. N.

Acharjyo (p. 524).

FISHES: 17. Comments on the first record of Botia (Pisces: Cobitidae) from the Western

Ghats by Rao & Yazdani. (With a text-figure). By B. F. Chhapgar and S. R. Sane (p. 525);

18. An interesting method of fishing in Bastar District, Madhya Pradesh. (With a text-figure).

By G. M. Yazdani and D. K. Harshey (p. 528); 19. On a collection of fish from river

Kosi (Bihar). (With a text-figure). By H. A. Khan and M. Yusuf Kamal (p. 530).

INSECTS: 20. Southward migration of Euploea core core Cr. at Khandala, Western Ghats.

By Naresh Chaturvedi and S. M. Satheesan (p. 534); 21. Attraction of Butterflies to

Crotalaria retusa (Papilionaceae) at Khandala, W. Ghats. By Naresh Chaturvedi and S. M.

Satheesan (p. 534); 22. New record of Mymar schwanni Girault from India (Hymenoptera:

Chalcidoidea, Mymaridae). (With two text-figures). By Mahesh Verma (p. 535); 23. Neo-

xanthoencyrtus gen. nov. for Indian species of Scelioencyrtus Girault (Hymenoptera: Encyr-

tidae). (With two text-figures). By Rajendra Kumar Avasthi and Shaikh Adam Shafee

(p. 536); 24. Simplicia caeneusalis Wlk. (Noctuidae) as a pest of dry palm leaves used

in thatched sheds in Tamil Nadu. By M. Swamiappan and M. Balasubramanian (p. 538).

CRUSTACEA: 25. Morphological colour change in the Marine Crab, Portunus pelagicus

(Rathbun). By D. G. Kolwalkar and P. V. Rangnekar (p. 540); 26. Extension of range

of Triops cancriformis (Bosc) (Branchiopoda; Notostraca: Apodidae) to Poonch Valley

(Jammu & Kashmir state). By Surendra Nath (p. 543).

COELENTERATA: 27. Occurrence of Limnocnida indica Annandale, Medusae (Hydrozoa: Lim-

nocnididae) from fresh-water tank of Dhoraji (Dist. Rajkot, Saurashtra). By Y. M. Dalal

and U. M. Rawal (p. 544).

BoraNny: 28. A systematic account of Chlorococcales of Hassan District, Karnataka State,

India. (With three plates). By S. G. Bharati and G. R. Hegde (p. 545); 29. Record of Eria

bractescens Lindl. from Nagaland. (With a text-figure). By T. M. Hynniewta (p. 548);

30. Datura ferox Linn., a new record for India. (With five text-figures). By M. M. Bhandari

and M. R. Mehta (p. 550); 31. Burmannia championii Thw.—an additicn to the flora of

South India. (With a text-figure). By J. Joseph, R. Ansari and C. N. Mohanan (p. 552);

32. A critical note on Rhus javanica L. (Anacardiaceae). By Dali Chandra (p. 554);

33. Notes on Cleome rutidosperma DC. in India. By Barin Ghosh and R. N. Banerjee

(p. 555); 34. Corrections and additions to the Pteridophytic flora of Kodaikanal (South

India). By S. S. Bir and S. M. Vasudeva (p. 556); 35. Primula glabra Klatt—a new record

for Assam. (With a text-figure). By R. B. Ghosh and G. G. Maity (p. 559); 36. Further

notes on the indentification of the genus Tephrosia Pers. (With seven text-figures). By S. S.

Kelkar and C. S. Lattoo (p. 560).

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE

Price: Birds in the Eastern Ghats

Above: A view of secondary growth study area in the foreground, with mature forest

on the hill slope in the background. Below: A closer view of part of the secondary

growth area, with agricultural land in the background.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

1979 DECEMBER

Vol. 76

No. 3

THE SEASONALITY AND OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS

IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF ANDHRA PRADESH’

TREVOR D. PRICE?

(With a plate and thirteen text-figures)

It is well known that seasonal climates have

a marked effect on the annual cycle of birds.

In the tropics, seasonality in rainfall has been

shown to affect birds’ annual cycles in Sara-

wak (Fogden 1972) and Panama (Karr 1976a)

through an effect on the food supply. I spent

one year from August 23rd 1976 until August

2nd 1977 in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra

Pradesh, India, mainly at one locality, (the

village of Lammasinghi) and visited again in

1978 from January Sth to February 10th. The

intention was to document the seasonal occur-

rence of bird species and seasonality in the

resident species, and relate this to the food

supply. This was primarily an over-Winter in-

vestigation and attention was paid to the ap-

pearance and possible impact of Palaearctic

migrants, which is poorly understood (Chip-

ley 1976), particularly in India (Karr 1976b).

1 Accepted February 1979.

2Division of Biological Sciences, Natural Science

Building, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, U.S.A.

Whistler and Kinnear (1932) in the intro-

duction to their pioneering report on the avi-

fauna of the Eastern Ghats of India remarked

that the area was ornithologically the least

known in India. Their report did much to

rectify the situation at that time, but since

then little more information has been added

(for a notable exception see Abdulali 1945,

1953), so that once again the area, particu-

larly the Ghats in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa

is comparatively poorly known.

Besides the intrinsic interest in having com-

plete and detailed species lists for any area,

there are at least two reasons why it is im-

portant to increase our knowledge of bird life

in the Eastern Ghats. The first is that much of

the natural forest is being rapidly removed for

agriculture and monoculture plantations. This

is having a profound effect on species diver-

sity (Ripley. 1979) and needs to be docu-

mented. The second concerns the controversy

over the presence of Himalayan _ species in

peninsular mountain ranges. Hora (1949) sug-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

gested that the Satpuras had provided an im-

portant migration route to the mountains of

south west India, while Abdulali (1949)

thought that the Eastern Ghats route may have

been equally important. Modern island bio-

geography theory (MacArthur and Wilson

1967) hypothesizes that each mountain range

has relict species “‘stranded’” after climatic

amelioration, and makes interesting predictions

about the numbers of species in_ relation to

highland area. India is the ideal place to test

these predictions.

LOCALITY, CLIMATE AND STUDY AREA

Lammasinghi (altitude c. 850 metres) is

situated on a watershed in the south east edge

of the Eastern Ghats (figure 1). To the east

there is a steep drop to the 65 kilometre wide

coastal plain. To the north and south hills rise

a further 300 metres, and to the west stretches

the Chintapalli plateau, much of it deforested

82°E

18°N d lit we ana en ET ATI

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Cd * P

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Bes ee

ferripakala

B 20 Km. 4

PRESS RS SE PES ETT fos SPS USE

for cultivation although mature forest remains

on many of the hillsides rising from the

plateau, and on the ghatface itself. The forest

type at Lammasinghi is tropical moist decidu-

ous (see below). Other habitats in the vici-

nity include moist semi-evergreen forest (not-

ably in the Gudem-Merripakala area); dry

deciduous forest and open grassland on moun-

tain tops; perennially cultivated wetlands at

higher altitudes (for example around Sola-

bum) and the cultivated, moist, coastal plain.

Champion and Seth (1968) describe the forest

types in detail.

The climate is highly seasonal, with three

seasons recognised. 1) A monsoon season from

June to September when most of the rainfalls

and storms may be violent. 2) A winter season

from October to February—temperatures may

fall below 10°C, rain is very rare and thick

fogs persist up to three hours from dawn. 3)

y Solabume (P

Ee gpasanet fBussa lkort

f -<@Chigtapallt 900

CHINTAPALII PLATEAU

Towa Ce ,

asinghi

900. eo

owneru

4 Yael

COASTAL PIAIN 3i¢

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Bye een ;

r) H

”

Fig. 1. Map of the Chintapalli Plateau showing villages mentioned in the text, roads

(dotted), rivers, and contour lines at 300 metre intervals. )

380

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF AP.

A Spring season from March to May—char-

acterised by increasing amounts of rainfall.

especially as convection storms in the after-

noon; it can also be dry and hot with maxi-

mum temperatures (up to 40°C) recorded at

this time of year.

Figure 2 gives available data on total rain-

fall for two extreme years, and figure 3 shows

the number of rainy days per week and mean

800)

RAINFALL (MMS.)

Fig. 2. Monthly rainfall for the years 1960 and i961.

JUN JUL

1976-1977 Winter, while 1977 was exception-

ally wet (due to unusually heavy rainfall in

April, May and November), and the area

much more moist during the 1977-1978

Winter.

Two study areas were set up, about 14

kilometres apart in adjacent habitats. The first,

on a hillside was under mature forest. This

forest is characterised by straight boled tree

\1961(2191)

ne? 2 ane (1305) .

AUG SEP O sail “iOov D Fc

Total rainfall (in mm) for

each year is given in parentheses.

Swe e 6 6 6

CATE Ole) oi e7t i Ug me Ds e a e°

Ad e x og eile A © t i e ee e

= 20 Bo Ve ails os : i Atle. ote 2 © Pili sinane 268

= i 7 ) oy x 2

a oo [o} 5 re) =

w ° 5

: e fo) te) ie) ae

Ww (o) >

- 10 a

Ly | x

SEP 5 OCT - OVE Tage a — SAINI Lee —— re a “A Ber Ty Mavi Ton oN: 1 io a.

Fig. 3. Temperature and rainfall data during the 1976-1977 study period. Dots

represent mean weekly temperature at 1300 hours, open circles mean weekly tempe-

rature at 0500 hours, and the histogram the number of days with rain each week.

weekly temperatures, taken daily at 0500 and _ species and a canopy at 13-23 metres. 114

1300 during the main study period (1976-

1977). Qualitatively 1976 was atypically dry

so that the area was very desiccated during the

trees were enumerated along a transect line.

They grouped into 30 species with Grewia

tiliaefolia, Schleichera oleosa and Pterocarpus

381

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

marsupium dominant. The understory is poor-

ly developed and regularly burnt through to-

wards the end of the dry season (March-

April).

The second (=‘‘main”) study area was in

secondary growth below the hill, which al-

though desiccating considerably during the dry

season remains wetter than the hillside, and

such trees as Ficus tsiela and Mangifera indica

are found. Some trees have been selectively

retained in the square kilometre study area:

114 of 38 species were identified with Syzy-

gium cuminii and Mangifera indica dominant.

Bushes (e.g. Lantana camara), shrubs, and

regenerating trees grow up to seven metres

high, although there are open spaces main-

tained by heavy grazing and firewood collect-

ing. In addition there are fields cultivated

during the monsoon interspersed and some

paddy lands along a small stream. In both

study areas Bombax ceiba occurs and is im-

portant as a nectar source for birds in Feb-

ruary and March (see plate).

METHODS

During the main study period (August

1976 to August 1977) I was away from the

site for more than three days on just two

occasions; from December 2nd to December

9th and June 2nd to June 12th. Unless the

year is included all dates refer to this period.

I also use the results from two bird ringing

camps organised by the Bombay Natural His-

tory Society from March to May in 1971 and

1972. The methods used in these studies were

different from those I employed; many more

mist nets being spread over a much wider area.

Several routine sampling operations were

carried out to assess Arthropod and _ bird

abundance. Arthropods were sampled in a

number of ways. In the mature forest only

a single sampling method was employed—a

382

branch (between six and eight metres long)

of a single tree (a Terminalia tomentosa) was

cut at approximately two month intervals and

all insects remaining after it had fallen to a

ground sheet below were collected. In the

secondary growth area the following methods

were used: (1) A weekly half hour search of

a vegetation stand was conducted, aspirating

all observed Arthropods able to pass down

the four mm. diameter tube. (2) Two white

bowls (‘‘water traps’) containing a detergent-

water mix into which insects fly were left at

standard locations for 48 hours each week. (3)

Two jars were sunk in the ground (pitfall

traps) and emptied every two weeks. (4)

Every three weeks 300 sweeps with a sweep

net were made through another secondary

growth area. All insects were sorted by Order

and into four size classes at the Department

of Zoology, Andhra University, Waltair.

Birds were sampled in two ways—through .

direct observation and mist netting. Each week

mist nets were placed in standard sites from

just above ground level to approximately two

metres high. Ten nets (158 metres total length)

were regularly placed in half of the secondary

growth area and kept open from 1600 hours

on one day until dusk the next. On another

day in the week eight nets (125 metres) were

placed in the other half of the secondary

growth area and kept open from dawn to dusk.

From the middle of March extensive clearing

by nomadic tribes necessitated the amalgama-

tion of these two days into an evening and

one full day (13 nets, 211 metres). Eight nets

(132 metres) were routinely placed under the

forest canopy, in the second study area, al-

though this trapping session was omitted on

about six occasions through the year. Occa-

sionally nets were placed out of the main study

area in order to examine bird movements or

occurrences in different habitats.

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF AP.

All trapped birds were weighed (to the

nearest 0.1 gram if under 30 grams weight,

the nearest 0.5 gram if over this weight).

measured (wing length in mm), examined for

state of moult and breeding, and released.

Many were recaptured up to a maximum of

twelve times.

Observation was conducted concordantly

with the trapping, and confined almost entirely

to the vicinity of the study areas. All birds

recorded were entered in a daily log book.

Although the intensity of coverage varied

from day to day and month to month, it is

felt that the average daily coverage for each

month was approximately constant. A _ five

kilometre walk, spread over three days was

conducted shortly after dawn each week, re-

cording all bird calls heard, when they could

100-

504

Jo OF MAXIMUM

“AUG SEP "OCT "NOV DEC JAN’ FEB "MAR APR

A qualitative impression of leaf cover and leaf growth in the mature forest.

Fig. 4.

be identified. A general impression of diets

was obtained through direct observation and

microscopic examination of faeces collected

during trapping operations.

About eight weekends were spent away from

the study area visiting villages named on the

map (Figure 1), in an attempt to put the oc-

currence of birds at Lammasinghi in a clearer

context. The village of Thajangi, seven kilo-

metres away, at which there is a new reservoir

surrounded by agricultural land, was visited

about nine times during the year.

RESULTS

Arthropod abundance

The deciduous forest undergoes leaf drop

steadily through the dry season. A qualitative

impression of leaf cover changes in the ma-

MAY JUN "JUL.

Dots represent total leaf cover as a percentage of maximum; stars the proportion

of new Jeaf growth in any one month.

383

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

ture forest was obtained through monthly

photography and routine description of cer-

tain trees, and is presented in Figure 4. In

1977 minimal leaf cover was attained in mid

March, although by then several trees had

come into new leaf. Some species (e.g. Ficus

spp., Mangifera indica) are evergreen; othe

species have an extended leafless period (e.g.

Bombax ceiba), while most species (e.g. Syzy-

gium cuminii) overlap loss of leaf with that

of new leaf growth. The extent of the overlap

depends on the tree species, the previous

season’s rainfall, and the site of the tree parti-

cularly with regard to aspect and drainage.

Fluctuations in total leaf cover are consider-

ably less in the secondary growth area and

forest understory than in the mature forest

canopy.

ies 5:

insect abundance in areas with an extended

dry season concurrent with leaf loss, and in

particular with lack of new leaf growth (Fog-

den 1972, Janzen 1973, Karr 1976a). Janzen

(1973), for instance, noted a 90% decrease in

Arthropod biomass through the dry season in

Costa Rica.

In the secondary growth, sweep netting re-

sults (Figure 6) show an early dry season in-

crease. Janzen (1973) noted a similar increase

‘in Costa Rica and attributed it to migration

from the more rapidly drying out forest

canopy. Support for the migration hypothesis

in this study comes from the observation that

a large proportion of the increase was due to

Diptera (Figure 6). The results from other col-

lecting methods are detailed in Figure 7. All

collection methods show’ significant increases

°o >

Fs)

=4)

ax | z

= 50 * te + 1090

w i * ARTHROPODS e

w @ LEAVES °

= >

2 m

ee a

4) zm

20 OCT 22 DEC 9 RAR 5MAY 28 MAY 24 JUN 313UL

Arthropods per metre and leaves per metre on individual branches cut

from a Terminalia tomentosa tree through 1976-1977.

The number of Arthropods on the cut

branch from the Terminalia tomentosa tree

(which is one of the last tree species to lose

and gain leaf in the season) correlates signi-

ficantly with the number of leaves (Figure 5,

r=0.756, CH= 5,330.05)... Other, studies jim

the tropics have demonstrated a decrease in

384

in Arthropod numbers in April-May over the

February-March numbers. There are biases in

all collecting methods (Southwood 1966),

due, among other reasons, to the variable in-

fluence of weather conditions. the inability to

correct for changing leaf density, and patchi-

ness in distribution of insects (pers. dos.). Two

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF A.P.

further caveats suggest that wet season abund-

ances may be relatively greater than the figures

imply. The first is that the sampling is confined

almost entirely to the secondary growth area,

where fluctuations may be dampened with res-

pect to the mature forest, and the observations

confounded by migration. The second applies

to my Own inexperience in aspirating and

sweep netting early in the study.

In summary, Arthropod abundance de-

creases continuously through the dry season,

beginning to increase with late dry season

flower and leaf growth, and in particular with

the tremendous growth of new leaf towards

the end of April, to high levels during the

L———— ty

300

tr Ja

fo}

x 2004

Aa tr

2 +

= nk

SEP " OCT

Fig.- 6.

vegetation in the secondary growth area,

Patel ol os HOLT <I

monsoon season. Some Arthropods [e.g. milli-

pedes (Diplopoda), cicadas (Homoptera) and

large beetles (Coleoptera) (Figure 7: pitfalls)]

disappear during the dry season, whereas the

abundance of some other groups (e.g. some

Hymenoptera) apparently remains relatively

constant through the year.

Bird abundance

“19 “species were trapped im mist “nets

(table 1) and a further 35 observed in the

immediate vicinity (this latter figure falls short

of the true number because many of the larger

non-passerines—especially birds of prey—went

unidentified and are not included). A complete

species list is detailed after the discussion,

Oe”

+ TOTAL

GO COLEOPTERA

* DIPTERA

@ HEMIPTERA

ne vt

Numbers of Arthropeds cecllected in regular 300 sweeps through a stand of

385

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

where scientific names are given.

There were 47 ‘standard’ trapping weeks

and 221 days of observation during the 1976-

1977 study period. The total catch per

week, grouped into three week periods,

is plotted in Figure 8. The catch te-

mains approximately constant _—_ despite

changes in species composition until May,

when it drops as species become more arbo-

real and sedentary (post-breeding—see be-

low). Deterioration in the capture rate may

also be due to birds learning to avoid nets

300

4 WATER TRAPS

O ASPIRATOR COLLECTION

@ PITFALLS

wow

r=)

z= 200

< &

the

fo)

aaa

)

r 4

100 _— ae es

(see, for example, Nisbet and Medway. 1972).

The quality of the observational records in-

creased as I became familiar with the birds

and is difficult to quantify. It took up to four

months to become acquainted with some of

the call notes so, with the exception of the

long tailed nightjar, analysis is restricted to

observation only. The percentage of total days

observation on which at least one individual

of a given species was observed is given in

table 1. There is a good correlation with the

total number of individuals captured in the

—,

Re p> ae t

SEP oct NOV DEC JAN

Fig. 7.

FEB MAR ' APR

MAY © JUN ~° JUL

Results of three Arthropod sampling methods. The pitfall traps were emptied

every two weeks; the plotted point refers to the date of emtying. Because of decom-

pesition problems only Coleoptera are included. Both the vegetation search with an

aspirator and the placing of water traps were conducted weekly. For the purposes

of the figure these were lumped into three week periods, with the plotted point at the

central week. On four occasions through the year no data is available for one or

other method. The collections for the three weekly period were then sealed up from

the other two weeks.

3386

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF AP.

45 ‘standard weeks’ (for the commoner pas-

serines, n=65 r=0.638, p << 0.05). The corre-

lation is expected to be approximate because

observation is biased towards larger, arboreal,

species while mist nets catch the smaller,

undergrowth dwelling, species. Nevertheless

using the two methods in

each other can give reliable within

seasonal comparisons (see below).

conjunction with

species

NO TRAPPED

SEP OcT NOV OEC JAN

FEB

sidered to be resident (see table 1) are plot-

ted separately (Figure 9b).

General description of the annual cycle

Figure 10 gives, for selected species, the

percentage of days observation in a month on

which at least one individual of a given spe-

cies was noted, and shows the seasonality in

occurrence and/or observability of these spe-

cies. The seasonality of species is shown also

MAR APR

MAY

JUN Jut

Fig. 8. Total catch in standard nets, grouped by three week periods, with the central

week as the plotted point. The last point refers to two week’s catch scaled up 13

times. Note that the trapping effort was reduced slightly in mid March, due to

habitat clearance.

Between species comparisons are more dif-

ficult to make. Considering the area and height

sampled by the standard nets as a habitat in

itself, still leaves biases due to differing trap-

ability and mobility between species. The total

number of individuals captured in standard

nets is shown in Figure 9a and corresponds

roughly with the classic species abundance log

normal curve (Preston 1962). A better ap-

proximation is obtained if the 70 species con-

in capture rates through the year (table 2)

and is described verbally in the systematic

list. Song periods for 17 species are given in

Table 3. It should be emphasized that the in-

formation is derived from the 1976-1977 study

period only. During wetter years (e.g. in 1977-

1978) or in wetter areas (e.g. at Gudem) song

begins earlier in the season.

The breeding season can be defined using

moult periods, (Snow 1976, see _ below),

387

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

through direct observation of birds’ behaviour,

the discovery of nests (both summarized in the

systematic list) and the appearance of juve-

niles. For all but a few species (notably the

wren-warblers) September, that is, the time

of commencement of the study is post breed-

ing and birds are moulting (Table 4). Some

juveniles are independent (notably the White-

eye), Many remain associated with adults;

parental care was observed in the Small Mini-

vet and Blackspotted Yellow Tit. Bulbuls are

feeding mainly on fruiting bushes in the

secondary growth area. Many of the more

solitary species are inconspicuous. In the ma-

ture forest large mixed feeding flocks are seen

NO. SPECIES IN, OCTAVE

[ — cand "3 : aC 5 sae r3 = 7 a "8 9

OCTAVE

Fig. 9A

Fig, 9.

Species-abundance curves. Octaves

containing up to 50 White-eyes and often the

Small and Scarlet Minivets, Common Wood

Shrike, Fulvousbreasted Woodpecker, Pied

Flycatcher Shrike, Blacknaped Blue and Grey-

headed Flycatchers and the two nuthatch

species. .

By mid October moult is being completed.

Several species come into Autumn song and

evict juveniles from _ territories, notably the

Shama and Brook’s Flycatcher (see Figure

11). Mixed feeding flocks break up and are

not commonly seen through the Winter. Many

small (10-15 birds) flocks of White-eyes move

into the secondary growth area, and individuals

from them may settle into restricted areas for

20)

AVE

NO. SPECIES IN OCT

OCTAVE

Fig. 9B

i-9 refer to the number of captured

338

individuals in standard nets of any cne svecies, on a logarithmic (base 2) scale,

(see Preston, 1962). Octave 1 contains 0-1 individuals, octave 2, 1-2 individuals,

octave 3, 2-4 individuals, un to octave 9 (256-512 individuals). The number of species

falling in the designated octave class is plotted as ordinate. Fig. 9A: For all species.

Fig. $B: For the 70 resident species only.

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF A.P.

100

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tree =

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= a) yp = f

= =

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é fo} °o

S = fo) wn

”~ = - >

= > 3 = =

= = > 3 > 3

ae ~ = -

= z z o Zz be z S

wn” n wn wn”

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389

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

the Winter. Passage migrants and Winter visi-

tors arrive in numbers through October.

During the Winter months birds are incon-

spicuous and generally quite except around

nectar and fruit sources. Over-wintering be-

haviour is detailed fully in the discussion. The

first substantial rain fell on February 20th

after which some breeding activity was seen.

The silk cotton tree (Bombax ceiba) flowers

from early February to mid March and at-

tracts more than 30 species (Ali 1932), in-

NO. HEARD

SEP ocT NOV DEC

Fig. 11.

cluding large numbers of two Summer visi-

tors, the Jungle and Greyheaded Mynas. Sun-

birds are in breeding plumage by February-

March. Most species, however, are going

through a prenuptial moult (see below) and

coming into song. April is the period of ma-

ximum song, the dawn chorus is particularly

loud, with the Quaker Babbler and _ bulbuls

conspicuous. Passage migrants are present in

early April, and most Winter residents depart

towards the end of the month. Song dies out

through May and June. Many birds still sing,

but each individual does so for shorter periods.

Maximal breeding is between mid April and

390

SAN FEB

mid June. By July most of the breeding is

over, adults become inconspicuous and go into

the postnuptial moult.

Moult and weight data

Because of the scarcity of weight data for

Indian birds, a summary of weights is given

in table 1. No attempt has been made to ana-

lyse the data for seasonal weight changes. A

few individuals were noted which increased

weight abruptly during the breeding season:

these were probably females carrying eggs as

MAR APR MAY

JUN JUL

The number of birds heard singing on the weekly five kilometre post-dawn

walk. Fig. 11A—Shama. Fig. 11B—Brooks’s Flycatcher.

Fogden (1972) concluded, from a study in

Sarawak and are excluded from the weight

summary (table 1).

All species, as far as is known go through

a complete post nuptial moult. Table 4 lists

the proportion of individuals in moult for

selected periods. In some cases it was known

that non moulting individuals had yet to start

their moult. In many species there is a com-

plete post juvenile moult, although this could

definitely be shown only for the Redwhisker-

ed and Redvented Bulbuls and the Redfronted

Babbler at Lammasinghi. Figure 13 plots right

wing primary moult score against data for

NO HEARD

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF A.P.

bed

fo)

oot

r=)

NO. HEARD =

=) a °

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL *° AUG

Fig. 12. The number of birds heard singing on the weekly five kilometre post dawn

walk. Fig. 12A—Yellow Breasted Babbler (the ‘‘chwonk...chwonk” call (Ali and

Ripley, 1971) ). Fig. 12B—Magpie Robin. Fig. 12C—Common [Iora. 391

Vol. 76

SOCIETY,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

selected species. Moult score is taken in the

standard way [0 for an old feather, 1 for a

feather in pin, 5 for a new feather and inter-

mediate values for intermediate lengths, see

Newton (1966)], giving a maximum of 50 points

(or 45 in White-eyes and Munias) for a new

wing. Relatively early moult in sunbirds and

barbets (data not presented) and late moult

in Wren-Warblers is in accordance with rela-

tive shifts in the timing of breeding.

In Spring many. species undergo a partial

moult of body and tail feathers. The Quaker

Babbler and Wren-Warblers undergo a second

complete moult, and the Greenish Warbler

and Brown Shrike a complete premigratory

moult. BL

Sedentariness and Distribution Between

Habitats

The proportion of birds: carrying rings in

any one day’s trapping summed over three

week periods is plotted in Figure 14 (sample

sizes are given in Figure 9). The recapture

rate rises steadily until the end of January,

except during October, when there is increas-

ed dispersal and an influx of migrants. It then

drops until mid April, associated with pre-

breeding dispersal (although some movements

will be due to the felling operations conducted

at this time). During the breeding season birds

are again sedentary. After June, juveniles in

the catch decrease the recapture rate.

Some species move locally more than others.

Captures in late Winter of some species may

be entirely of retraps (table 2). Summing the

total number of recaptures over the ten five-

week “‘standard periods” (table 2) and taking

this as a percentage of total new captures plus

recaptures gives an impression of long term

sedentariness in the study area. The majority

of individuals were recaptured at the same

net site as previously captured, or one close

by. High sedentariness thus implies a territory

398

- notably in

tsiela and Bridelia

or home range. Small babblers had the highest

recapture rate, flocks being repeatedly retrap-

ped. Bulbuls had low recapture rates; it

should be noted that this demonstrates move-

ment in the vertical as well as_ horizontal

dimension.

Some species are confined to mature wood-

land, some to secondary growth, and others

to both (table 1). The large number of spe-

cies in the last category to some extent re-

flects the close proximity of the two habitats.

Elsewhere in the Ghats, in wider expanses of

uniform habitat species diversity is reduced in

any given habitat. Although more species of

Palaearctic migrants are found in the second-

-ary growth they are also found in numbers

in mature forest [c/f observations in Africa,

evergreen forest (Moreau 1972,

Karr 1976b)]. There are seasonal changes in

use of the two habitats. Wren-Warblers and

Whitebrowed Bulbuls, for instance, are occa-

sionally found in forest clearings when it is

most desiccated, during pre-breeding disper-

sal. Redwhiskered and Redvented Bulbuls and

White-eyes are commonest in the forest dur-

ing and immediately after the breeding season.

Magpie Robins only occur in the forest to

breed.

The Occurrence of Summer Visitors

Several species (notably the Hoopoe, Rosy

Minivet, Orangebreasted Green Pigeon, Plain-

tive Cuckoo and the Jungle, Brahminy and

Greyheaded Mynas—see table 1) are Summer

visitors to the area. They all breed and it is

clear (in the non-parasitic species at least)

that they are arriving to exploit seasonally

available food sources (mainly large insects,

and fruit). This is particularly obvious in the

case of the Orangebreasted Green Pigeon

which feeds mainly on such trees as Ficus

tomentosa, which fruit

seasonally. The hypothesis presented is that

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF A.P.

MOULT SCORE

RED WHISKERED BULBUL

SEPTEMBER |

MOULT SCORE

REDVENTED BULBUL

SEPTEMBER OCTOBER “NOVEMBER

MOULT SCORE

iS)

SPOTTED BABBLER

SEPTEMBER OCTOBER

Pigt, 13:

309

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

MOULT SCORE

WYELLOW BREASTED BABBLER

@RED FRONTED BABBLER

OYELLOW EYED BABBLER

NOVEMBER

SEPTEMBER OCTOBER

MOULT SCORE

KK QUAKER BABBLER

@ RUFOUS BELLIED BABBLER

SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER

e we

w a

230 + :

220 + :

Ee a & ASHY WREN WARBLER

. tr ASHY GREY WREN WARBLER

@ + @ JUNGLE WREN WARBLER

OCTOBER NOVEMBER

Fig, 13.

DECEMBER

400

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF A.P.

TAILOR BIRD

MOULT SCORE

SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER»

MOULT SCORE

+ MAGPIE ROBIN

@ SHAMA

SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER

MOULT SCORE

eo]

BLACK SPOTTED YELLOW TIT

SEPTEMBER ~ OCTOBER NOVEMBER

Fig. 13.

401

JOURNAL,

1007

5 *

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& 50

Fig. 13.

BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Moult score in selected species. Lines join points for the same individual.

All individuals trapped are shown except for the bulbuls when only recaptured indi-

viduals are shown.

it is excluded from the occasional fruiting tree

in Winter by more aggressive species (i.e. the

barbets), but is well adapted for migration

(c/f the barbets which appear weak flyers).

The Occurrence of Palaearctic Migrants

In contrast to Summer visitors the appear-

ance of Palaearctic migrants is largely govern-

ed by changing conditions in the north tem-

perate regions (Karr 1976b), although depar-

ture in Spring may be delayed until food levels

rise in the Winter quarters. Some species are

encountered only as passage migrants, others

winter in the area. (table 1). The proportion

of Palaearctic migrants in each five week

period (as a percentage of the total excluding

Summer Visitors) is given in table 5. Karr

(1976b), based on very small sample sizes

concluded that the proportion of Palaearctic

migrants in a forest at Mahableshwar (and

extrapolated to cover much of India) was 50-

402

78%, as opposed to the 20% he found in more

detailed studies in Africa and Panama. My

fuller data shows his conclusion to be prob-

ably incorrect. Personal observations at Kerala

and near Bombay suggest that a similar pro-

portion of migrants occur at these localities to

that at Lammasinghi, and 20% is a more ac-

curate figure for the whole of India.

Longevity

It is now recognized that Passerines in the

tropics have longer life expectancy at adult-

hood than those of temperate regions (Karr

1971, Fogden 1972, Lack 1966). While im-

possible to present quantitative data on this,

mainly because of the wider area over which

ringing teams in 1971 and 1972 worked and

because birds move, it seems worthwhile to

present data on all species recaptured from

those camps, (table 6). The list is impressive

particularly the reappearance of the Greenish

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF A.P.

Warbler, a Palaearctic migrant and the Plain-

tive Cuckoo, a Summer visitor.

DISCUSSION

Overwintering Strategies

Several lines of evidence point to the De-

cember-February period as a time of food

shortage for many species. Firstly, the Arth-

ropod collections, and qualitative observations

on fruit abundance show that food levels are

at their lowest during this period, as would be

predicted from the climate. Fruit is seen rot-

ting under Ficus trees in June, none was found

under a fruiting Ficus benghalensis in January.

Secondly, the birds themselves show no acti-

vity additional to maintenance requirements;

that is, there is no moulting or breeding acti-

vity, and little song. Thirdly, there is an appre-

ciable amount of fighting over fruit and nectar

sources; this was particularly noted at a few

Eucalyptus blossoms in January, intraspeci-

fically among White-eyes and inter-specifically

between the Chloropsis and other visiting spe-

cies. It should be noted that day length is ap-

proximately one and a half hours shorter in

mid Winter as compared with mid Summer,

the nights are cold (Figrue 3), and there are

very thick, condensing, early morning fogs.

Feeding habits change in the Winter. The

change for many species may be summarised

in saying that there is less arboreal foraging

and more time spent close to ,or on the ground.

I distinguish several overwintering strategies for

species that are Winter residents (either. per-

manent residents or Winter visitors).

(1) Individual dispersal. Individuals may

vacate their breeding and/or Autumn loca-

tion. The Ashy Wren-Warbler, for example,

is found in forest clearings, and some

species almost entirely vacate the area, pre-

sumably moving to lower elevations [e.g. the

Blacknaped Blue Flycatcher (Figure 10) and

Bluebearded Bee-eater]. In two species—the

Magpie Robin and Pied Bush Chat, some in-

dividuals migrate while others remain on ter-

ritory throughout the Winter.

(2) Flocking on clumped food sources.

Fruit trees have assemblage of barbets and

bulbuls. Nectar sources are visited mainly by

White-eyes and Lorikeets. The occasional in-

sect outbreak, of caterpillars or flies, is ex-

ploited by bulbuls. Lantana bushes are visited

by Rosefinches. With the exception of the

barbets and some White-eyes all these species

travel in flocks.

(3) Territoriality. Territories may be held

by individuals, or possibly by pairs Most of

the common species showed site fidelity, indi-

viduals being repeatedly recaptured at the

same net site throughout the year. Common

species observed in aggressive territorial be-

haviour in the Autumn included the Greenish

Warbler, the Blackbacked and Brown Shrikes,

the Shama and the Pied Bushchat. Probably

all Palaearctic migrants except the Rosefinch,

the Hodgson’s Tree Pipit and the Crowned

Leaf Warbler are territorial. Individuals of

four migrant species (the Blyth’s Reed War-

bler, the Greenish Warbler and the Ruby-

throat, and one Twobarred Warbler) returned

for the 1977-1978 Winter (table 2) to the

identical territory of the preceding Winter, (a

Hodgson’s Tree Pipit also returned).

Some resident species may hold territories

as pairs. White-eyes were frequently captured

and recaptured in twos. Tailor Bird pairs were

regularly seen feeding, and calling together.

A special study was made of territoriality

in the Greenish Warbler (Price, MS). It has

been shown that territories vary several-fold

in size and amount of available food. The

quality of the individual (that is, its likelihood

of survival) correlates with this. It is probable

that most Winter territoriality is to ensure an

403

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

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404

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF A.P.

TABLE 4

THE PROPORTION OF BIRDS IN PRIMARY MOULT, AT THEIR TIME OF FIRST CAPTURE OVER THE STATED PERIOD.

THE SAMPLE SIZE IS GIVEN IN PARENTHESES

Species % Moulting* Period Covered

Specckled Piculet 100(4) : 30 Aug.-4 Oct.

Blackbacked Shrike 50(2) 33

Common Iora 91(11) 9

Redwhiskered Bulbul 100(57) 99

oh 100(18) 20 Jul-1 Aug.

Redvented Bulbul 100(26) 30 Aug-4 Oct.

“9 58(19) 1 Jun-13 Jul.

Whitebrowed Bulbul 50(2) 30 Aug-4 Oct.

Spotted Babbler 100(11) 9

Redfronted Babbler 90(10) 30 Aug-3 Nov.

Rufousbellied Babbler 88(16) 43

Yellowbreasted Babbler 100(6) .

Yelloweyed Babbler 100(4) 30 Aug-4 Oct.

Quaker Babbler 47(17) 5s

Brooks’s Flycatcher | 73(11) Hi

Tailor Bird 62(21) wi

Blackbird 50(8) 11 Oct-31 Oct.

Blackspotted Yellow Tit 58(12) 30 Aug-4 Oct.

White-eye 90(29) a5

5 63(8) 10 Jul-27 Jul.

TABLE 5

THE NUMBER OF PALAEARCTIC MIGRANTS IN EACH FIVE WEEK PERIOD EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF

MIGRANTS PLUS RESIDENT

30 Aug- 3 Oct- 7 Nov- 12 Dec- 16 Jan- 20 Feb- 27 Mar- 1 May- 12 Jun- 3 Jan ’78-

2 Oct. 6 Nov. 11 Dec. 15 Jan. 19 Feb. 26 Mar. 30 Apr. 4 Jun. 10 Jul. 7 Feb ’78

% Migrants 5.4 23.3 21.8 19.4 15.7 2325 21.8 4.1 15 20.9

Sample Size 330 322 288 Zod 261 289 321 197 135 179

405

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SCCIETY, Vol. 76

TABLE 6

LONGEVITY RECORDS. FIGURES IN PARENTHESES REPRESENT TOTAL) NUMBERS RINGED IN THE STATED YEAR.

1971 BIRDS ARE AT LEAST 64 YEARS OLD, 1972 BIRDS AT LEAST 54 YEARS OLD

Species Number recaptured during 1976-1977 from:—

1971 1972

Plaintive Cuckoo 0(7) 1(5)

Pied Flycatcher Shrike 1(26) 0(12)

Large Wood Shrike 0(2) 2(8)

Common Wood Shrike 1(7) 0(?)

Blackheaded Cuckoo Shrike 1(10) 0(3)

Common Iora 3(48) 2(28)

Redwhiskered Bulbul 5(?) 3(220)

Redvented Bulbul 3(74) 2(83)

Redfronted Babbler 1(?) 0(20)

Rufousbellied Babbler 2(?) 0(16)

Yellowbreasted Babbler 2(21) 0(32)

Quaker Babbler 2(60) 3(80)

Greyheaded Flycatcher 0(15) 1(14)

Blacknaped Blue Flycatcher 1(21) 0(37)

Ashy Grey Wren Warbler 1(?) 0(?)

Tailor Bird 2(97) 1(26)

Greenish Warbler 2(?) 0(?)

Shama 1(33) 1(46)

Whitethroated Ground Thrush 1(19) 2(14)

Blackspotted Yellow Tit 2(77) 0(38)

White-eye 1(121) 0(57)

TABLE 7

THE TOTAL NUMBER OF SPARROWS CAPTURED IN NETTING SESSIONS IN THE VILLAGE OF LAMMASINGHI. THE

NUMBER OF JUVENILES IN THE CATCH IS GIVEN IN PARENTHESES

; Species Sep 12 Oct 31 Oct 3 Nov 19 mee 9 Jan 22 Heb 22 Mar 26 TS 2 Jun 1 Feb 78 Total

House

sparrow 14(4) 12(1) 4(0) 14(3) 8(2) 8(3) Ind) A566)" 6G) 1600) 10G) 7 122

Tree

sparrow 32) mwriverdiL)o creeds (Orono 2601) 1(0) 2.0) 263.60) 6 (0) => CL) ome pean dS

RS I I SD

406

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF A.P.

adequate food supply (Davies 1976, Salomon-

sen and Balda 1976).

(4) Permanent flocking. Some Tits and

Velvetfronted Nuthatches remain in small

flocks (probably family parties) throughout

the Winter. Babblers flock and are repeatedly

caught in a restricted area. Two species, the

Quaker Babbler and the Redfronted Babbler

associate interspecifically. The Large Wood

Shrike associates in flocks which wander over

a large area. Probably all these species have

a restricted home range or territory. Presum-

ably it is kin which flock together, and favour-

ed if the increased benefit gained by juveniles

(in not being excluded from their natal area)

is not offset by too great a loss for adults. The

more omnivorous species appear to adopt this

strategy, and it may be that dominance hier-

archies are more efficient when feeding on fruit

than insects. Flocking may also allow an ex-

tended period of parental care.

Mixed insectivorous flocks were very rarely

seen during the Winter period, although occa-

sionally seen in the wetter 1977-1978 Winter

and in wetter areas, e.g. at Gudem. They are

similar in composition to the large post-breed-

ing flocks, with much reduced numbers of

White-eyes. They probably form facultatively

as birds vacate territories to join them. This

was observed in the case of a pair of Grey-

headed Flycatchers, which flew over 50 metres

from the area they were normally resident

in to forage with a small flock for ten minutes

on the 9th January 1978. It is suggested that

mixed feeding flocks are rare because many

foliage gleaners are unable to maintain an in-

sectivorous diet as Arthropod levels drop (see

below).

The impact of Palaearctic migrants

Apart from the Rosefinch all Palaearctic

migrants are primarily insectivorous and feed

on dispersed food sources. None were seen at

clumped fruit or nectar sources, despite large

assemblages of birds, including resident war-

blers, at the Bombax trees in February. In con-

trast to Karr’s (1976a) statements directed

mainly at the Neotropics, migrants do not in

general exploit superabundant food sources,

which simply do not exist in mid Winter. In

early November large numbers of earthworms

came to the surface, and formed a superabund-

ant food. ‘This was exploited by passage

thrushes—the Orangeheaded and Pied Ground

Thrushes—as well as resident thrushes (the

Whitethroated Ground Thrush and Blackbird),

and the Spotted Babbler.

It appears that many overwintering migrants

should be in direct competition with residents.

However, I postulate that seasonal changes in

climate are far more important than the pre-

sence of migrants in influencing the behaviour

of residents in agreement with most recent

studies (see Chipley 1976, for a review). —

In the case of the Greenish Warbler, the

most abundant Winter visitor, it is suggested

that this species is a “generalist” foliage glea-

ner and thus able to maintain an entirely in-

sectivorous diet. Many of its potential com-

petitors—the lIora, babblers, bulbuls, tits and

White-eyes overlap completely with it in for-

aging height and habitat distribution (Price

1978), but all, with the exception of the Iora

include large amounts of fruit and nectar in

the dict (Ali and Ripley. 1968-1974, and per-

sonal observations of foraging behaviour and

faecal analysis). These are considered to be

“specialist” insectivores, able to find sufficient

numbers of large insects in the wet season to

raise a brood, but supplementing their own

diet at all times with vegetable matter. Resi-

dent warblers (the Tailor Bird and Wren-

Warblers) separate from the Greenish Warbler

by foraging height (they are generally con-

407

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

fined to the first two metres above ground)

and take nectar. It appears possible that the

Greenish Warbler is prevented from breeding

by competition (although difficult to demon-

strate), but unlikely that it has a significant

affect on the overwinter behavior of resident

species.

Final Note

Forest destruction is having a serious im-

pact on bird life in the Eastern Ghats. It is

clear that there is insufficient habitat for the

large numbers of some species of Palaearctic

migrants to over winter successfully (parti-

cularly, in this study, the Greenish Warbler).

Breeding populations of many forest dwelling

species are being reduced, in one case (the

Little Spiderhunter) to near extinction. There

is, however, some influx of species from the

coastal plain, as the habitat comes to resemble

this area. More work is needed even to arrive

at a full species list for the region. Field

studies on the ecology of the tropical forest

are needed so that suitable conservation pro-

jects can be proposed before all is destroyed.

ANNOTATED LIST

All species identified on the study area at

Lammasinghi are listed below, following the

order of Ripley (1961). Whistler and Kinnear

(1932-1939), Abdulali (1945, 1953) and Price

(in press) provide notes on species occurring

elsewhere on the Ghats and on the coastal

plain.1 An appendix lists additional species re-

corded within ten kilometres of Lammasinghi.

Notes are designed to give 1) an idea of

the status of each species; 2) observations that

differ from or are additional to, those given by

Ali and Ripley (1968-1974); 3) Provide any

direct evidence for time of breeding. The list

should be read in conjunction with part I of

408

this paper, particularly with reference to

tables 1 and 2 and Figures 1 and 10.

As noted previously the list is incomplete,

especially with respect to the larger non pas-

serines, to which I paid little attention.

Paddy bird. Ardeola grayii.

Occasionally seen, especially between De-

cember and February on the paddy.

Blacknecked stork. Xenerhynchus asiatieus.

One or two birds occasionally seen in Janu-

ary and February.

Blackwinged kite. Elanus caeruleus.

Resident.

Pariah kite. Milvus migrans.

One or two birds regularly seen over the

village through the year.

Shikra. Accipiter badius.

Noted between January and July.

Crested goshawk. Accipiter trivirgatus.

Resident, noted in display flights in March.

Crested serpent eagle. Spilornis cheela.

Regularly seen and heard.

Black eagle. Ictinaetus malayensis.

Regularly seen.

Kestrel. Falco tinnunculus.

One on the 11th April, also elsewhere, e.g.

at Solabum on the 15th January.

Painted bush quail. Perdicula erythorhyncha.

Resident. Two adults with four juveniles cap-

tured on the 25th January. The juveniles were

going through wing moult.

Red spurfowl. Galloperdix spadicea.

Common. resident.

Red junglefowl. Gallus gallus. Common re-

sident.

Indian peafowl. Pavo cristatus. .

Seen or heard on three occasions at Lamma-

singhi where it has been mostly short out.

Commoner around Merripakala. |

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF A.P.

Button quail. Turnix tanki.

Common bustard quail. Turnix suscitator.

Both Turnix species are common in the area.

See song chart.

Redwattled lapwing. Vanellus indicus.

Occasionally seen in January and February;

breeds further west on the plateau.

Orangebreasted green pigeon. Treron bicin-

cta.

Summer visitor, recorded between the 2nd

February and the 13th July. (Figure 10).

In 1978 a few birds present in January. Flocks

arrive and are common from mid March to

mid April on fruiting trees, after which there

is dispersal for breeding. A captured bird laid

an egg on the 2nd May.

Rufous turtle dove. Streptopelia orientalis.

Up to four individuals recorded at Lamma-

singhi between December and February. More

common elsewhere in the Ghats, eg. at

Gudem, where it probably breeds.

Spotted dove. Streptopelia chinensis.

Resident; courtship, fighting and song most

pronounced between June and September. Up

to fifty birds flocking on stubble in the Winter

months.

Emerald dove. Chalcophaps indica.

Resident, commoner in the wetter forests be-

tween Gudem and Merripakala.

Blossomheaded parakeet. Psittacula cyanoce-

phala.

Parties of up to six birds regularly seen

throughout the year. Larger parties recorded

further west on the more open areas, e.g.

around Chintapalli.

Indian lorikeet. Loriculus vernalis.

Common resident in the area, up to 40 birds

noted at Eucalyptus blossoms during January.

Indian cuckoo. Cuculus micropterus.

Single birds heard calling at dawn on the 19th

April and 4th May.

Cuckoo. Cuculus canorus.

Heard on most days during May. Two birds

were seen being mobbed on the 19th May by

bulbuls and white-eyes. The species must

breed in the area (see also Neavoll 1968).

Small cuckoo. Cuculus poliocephalus.

Recorded on passage four times in October.

One was also captured on the 5th May 1971.

Baybanded cuckoo. Cacomantis sonneratii.

Probably resident, although inconspicuous and

silent between November and January. There

are two distinct calls—a rising crescendo “pi

pi pee...pi pi pee” as described for the Plain-

tive Cuckoo by Ali and Ripley (1969), and the

four noted whistle “wee tee ti tee’. The rising

crescendo, identical to that given by the Plain-

tive Cuckoo is heard from January _ right

through to October, most commonly between

March and May. The “wee tee ti tee” was

first heard on the 7th February, and was given

late into the night in April, having died out

by mid June. See Figure 10.

Plaintive cuckoo. Cacomantis merulinus.

Summer visitor, first record on the 25th Feb-

ruary (Figure 10). The “piteer” call first heard

at the beginning of April, commonly between

April and June. On the 7th July a juvenile

was trapped. The rufous phase is fairly com-

mon. The Plaintive Cuckoo is commoner than

the Baybanded cuckoo during the breeding

season. The relationship between the two spe-

cies, in view of one of their songs being iden-

tical deserves further study. A between-species

chase was noted in early April.

Koel. Eudynamys scolopacea.

A female captured on the 25th October and

heard several times during March and April.

Very common on the coastal plain.

409

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Large greenbilled malkoha. Rhopodytes tris-

tis.

A single bird trapped on the 25th January

1978, although there are several uncon-

firmed sight records for January and February

1977. A range extension for the species.

Crow pheasant. Centropus sinensis.

Regularly heard from January onwards. Re-

sident.

Scops owl. Otus scops.

A single bird trapped on the 24th January,

the only record for Lammasinghi.

Collared scops owl. Otus bakkamoena.

Probably resident.

Indian jungle nightjar. Caprimulgus indicus.

A single bird captured on the 2lst January

1978, the only record. Common on the coastal

plain.

Longtailed nightjar. Caprimulgus macrurus.

Resident, one bird captured in July, recap-

tured the following January. See also Figure

10.

House swift. Apus affinis.

200 passed over the village on the 26th May.

Breeds commonly elsewhere, e.g. at Sileru.

Palm swift. Cypsiurus parvus.

Throughout the Winter season thousands

undertake a daily migration from roosts in

Palm trees on the coastal plain. This mig-

ration noted low over Lammasinghi in the

mornings in September and in the evenings

between January and March. One count on

February Ist totalled 8,500 passing over be-

tween 1615 and 1730 hours. Between April

and June small flocks were occasionally seen

fleeing storms. Several pairs probably bred

in the area.

Crested tree swift. Hemiprocne longipennis.

Resident, a maximum of 34 birds seen circl-

ing overhead in September.

410

Malabar trogon. Harpactes fasciatus.

Resident in the mature forest throughout the

Ghats area.

Whitebreasted kingfisher. Halcyon smyrnensis.

Seen on about ten occasions through the year

above the paddy.

Chestnut-headed _ bee-eater. lesche-

naulti.

Up to eight birds seen from the 12th Janu-

ary through February. Last record on the

23rd March. An extension of the wintering

range: recorded also in January 1978.

Merops

Small green bee-eater. Merops orientalis.

Singles and a small party seen in mid-October,

(when the bird was abundant on the coastal

plain at the foot of the Ghats) and at the end

of March. :

Bluebearded bee-eater. Nyctyornis athertoni.

Conspicuous and noisy between April and

August. Rare in January and February when

birds probably moved to lower elevations.

Hoopoe. Upupa epops.

Mainly a summer visitor, though one noted

on the Ist November. Influx in January, some

song from February onwards, notable during

April. Two nests with young discovered in

the last week of April, and a juvenile captur-

ed on the 9th May. No birds present after mid

June. (Figure 10).

Indian pied hornbill. Anthracoceros malabari-

cus.

A pair heard and see during March-April.

Fairly common in the Gudem—Merripakala

region.

Large green barbet. Megalaima zeylanica.

Common resident.

Coppersmith. Megalaima haemacephala.

Common resident. Individuals of both species

of barbet captured in April with well deve-

loped brood patches. |

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF A.P.

Wryneck. Jynx torquilia.

Recorded between the 7th October and the

7th April. Two birds regularly recaptured

through this period.

Speckled piculet. Picummus innominatus.

Regularly seen; a family party captured on

the 25th April.

Rufous woodpecker.

rus.

Occasionally seen between January and July.

Micropternus brachyu-

Large yellownaped woodpecker. Picus flavi-

nucha.

Not recorded during the study period.

An individual was trapped in March, 1971

and the species has been recorded elsewhere

in the Ghats (Hussain ef al. 1976).

Lesser yellownaped woodpecker.

rolophus.

Occasionally seen between January and July.

regularly heard calling from mid February

onwards.

Fulvousbreasted woodpecker. Picoides macei.

Regularly seen; on the 5th July a juvenile be-

ing fed by a female.

Picus chlo-

Yellowfronted pied woodpecker. Picoides mah-

rattensis.

Seen on about six occasions during the year,

moving into the area notably towards the

end of the dry season. Commoner in open

woodland further west on the plateau.

Pygmy woodpecker. Picoides nanus.

Regularly seen.

Larger goldenbacked woodpecker. Chrysoco-

laptes lucidus.

Two or three pairs regularly seen and heard

through the year. One pair at nesting hole

on the 26th May.

Indian pitta. Pitta brachyura.

Three passage records only: the 2nd and 19th

October and the 25th April.

Redrumped swallow. Hirundo daurica.

Seen in flocks of up to 100 during the Winter,

often associated with the Palm Swift. Imme-

diately after the first rains, on the 26th Feb-

ruary, a pair began nest building, but they

had not bred by mid April. Eight caught on

the 5th February 1978 were all in primary

moult.

Baybacked shrike. Lanius vittatus.

A single bird seen on the 22nd of February.

Common on the coastal plain; not recorded

elsewhere in the Ghats, (but see Whistler and

Kinnear 1933).

Rufousbacked shrike. Lanius schach tricolor.

Resident, singing only noted between Decem-

ber and February. Juveniles first noted in early

July. Two of the individuals trapped had grey

“erythronotus’ feathers admixed in the crown

and back.

Brown shrike. Lanius cristatus.

An adult trapped on the 22nd September.

The main arrival, entirely of juveniles was in

the first two weeks of October, and territories

were established. Conspicuous until the mid-

dle of November when birds virtually disap-

peared. Because of the changed foraging habit

(from, typical shrike like exposed perching to

feeding within undergrowth) it is not clear

how much, if any, of this disappearance was

due to dispersion. A return passage noted in

the last two weeks of April; all birds in fresh-

ly moulted plumage. In January 1978 more

birds were present on the study area than ii

January 1977: Elsewhere on the plateau in

January 1978, two adults were seen.

Golden oriole. Oriolus oriolus.

Two on the 22nd March, the only ones ob-

served. Common on the coastal plain.

Blackheaded oriole. Oriolus xanthornus.

First noted in association with Bombax blos-

soms in mid February. A pair regularly seen

411

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

and heard during the following six months oi

the year. Common resident in the wetter forest

areas, e.g. near Gudem, and observed at Lam-

masinghi in January 1978.

Grey drongo. Dicrurus leucophaeus.

Clearly a resident in the area. Particularly

conspicuous around Bombax trees in February

and March. One pair occupying a large mango

tree in the secondary growth area was seen

chasing Jungle Crows and Crow Pheasants

between the 15th May and the 24th June. On

the 24th May a bird was seen carrying a faecal

sac from the tree, and on the 2nd June a free

flying juvenile noted. One individual captured

on the Ist October was going through wing

moult.

Whitebellied drongo. Dicrurus caerulescens.

Two on the 14th January and one on the 12th

January, 1978. Commoner on the coastal

plain.

Bronzed drongo. Dicrurus aeneus.

Resident in the Ghats, especially common in

the wetter forests, e.g. from Gudem to Mer-

ripakala. Occasionally recorded at Lamma-

singhi.

Ashy swallow shrike. Artamus fuscus.

Recorded on the 27th November and the 22nd

December only. Breeds at Thajangi Lake, and

common on the coastal plain.

Greyheaded myna. Sturnus malabaricus.

First recorded in mid February; subsequenily

flocks of up to 100 birds seen going to roost.

Dispersal for breeding during March. A few

pairs bred in the area between April and May.

Small flocks seen between June and July, by

the end of which birds had disappeared.

(Figure 10).

Brahminy myna. Sturnus pagodarum.

The common Sturnus of the coastal plain. One

or two pairs arrived with the grey headed

412

myna and bred in the area. Noted singing in

April, and with young in the nest on the 3lst

May. (Figure 10).

Pied myna. Sturnus contra.

Seen occasionally in January and February at

Lammasinghi; this species is fairly common

in the dry arable areas of the plateau.

Common myna. Acridotheres tristis.

Rarely seen at Lammasinghi between Janu-

ary and March. Common on the coastal plain

and on drier areas of the plateau to the west.

Jungle myna. Acridotheres fuscus.

Occasionally seen throughout the year. Num-

bers increase from January, and birds were

regularly seen in March and April. Young

in the nest on the 3lst May. Decrease through

July. (Figure 10).

Hill myna. Gracula religiosa.

Regularly seen in the mature forest; com-

moner in the evergreen forest around Mer-

ripakala.

Himalayan tree pie. Dendrocitta formosae.

Resident, particularly conspicuous in Septem-

ber and after July when groups of birds go

noisily to roost.

Jungle crow. Corvus macrorhynchos.

Birds seen going to roost down the ghatface

regularly from September to January (182

maximum recorded on the 14th September).

Only 54 noted in mid January, when some

birds were roosting on the plateau. Birds in

display flight in March; food being carried

to young in the nest on the 5th April. Family

parties seen from May Sth to the end of June,

after which they break up.

Pied flycatcher-shrike. Hemipus picatus.

Resident.

Large wood shrike. Tephrodornis gularis.

Regularly but infrequently seen in parties of

up to seven birds in the Winter months (up to

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF AP.

10 after breeding). It is apparent that these

flocks wander over a large area; one indivi-

dual was captured in nets two kilometres dis-

tant, in separate months.

Common wood shrike. Tephrodornis pondice-

rianus.

Single birds infrequently seen in secondary

growth area, or in the company of mixed

feeding flocks in the deciduous woodland.

Two seen chasing and displaying on the 9th

March.

Large cuckoo-shrike.

diae.

Only seen on three occasions through the

study period. Two individuals trapped in

March, 1972. The species is commoner else-

where, e.g. between Thajangi and Bussalkert.

Coracina novaehollan-

Dark grey cuckoo-shrike. Coracina melaschi-

stos.

An uncommon Winter visitor to the area,

occasionally recorded between December 20th

and March 22nd. In January, 1978 one bird

noted chasing a female Blackheaded cuckoo

shrike.

Blackheaded cuckoo shrike. Coracina mela-

noptera.

Although clearly a resident in the Ghats

(Figure 10), captures at JLammasinghi were

confined to October and November and

March and April. Of the nine birds trapped,

eight were males. No birds seen in May and

June although males were singing near Down-

eru at the foot of the Ghats on the 31st April.

During July two or three males were present

and singing.

Scarlet minivet. Pericrocotus flammeus.

Display flights seen from February to May,

with males chasing each other and females.

One nest was being built at the end of May

by the male alone during 90 minutes of obser-

vation.

Rosy Minivet. Pericrocotus roseus.

Summer visitor. First arrival on the 2nd

March. Fairly common during April to June

and clearly bred in the area (Figure 10). Post

breeding birds are often associated in flocks

with the Small Minivet: One premigratory

flock of over 8 birds seen on the 20th July.

Two males were seen on the 23rd January

1978. See Figure 10.

Small minivet.

Flocks of up to six birds

throughout the year.

cinnamomeus.

seen

Pericrocotus

commonly

Common iora. Aegithina tiphia.

Common, but widely dispersed and incons-

picuous during the mid Winter months. In

the mature forest it remains in the canopy

and was never captured. First bird in full

breeding plumage was noted on the 7th

March. The “see me please” song is first heard

at the end of January (see Figure 12). Many

second year birds did not come into full

breeding plumage: males captured on the 29th

May and 14th June had only the central tail

feathers replaced. It is not known if they bred.

One nest with young on the 2nd June, another

being built on the 29th May.

Goldfronted chloropsis. Chioropsis aurifrons.

Regularly seen, notably vociferous around

nectar sources in the Winter months. The call

note of several individuals in this area is iden-

tical to that of the Grey Drongo. Song noted

in September and between March and July

included imitations of the Scarlet Minivet,

Blacknaped Blue Flycatcher (call note), Red-

whiskered Bulbul and Large Wood Shrike.

On the 6th July a bird was captured with a

well developed brood patch.

Blackheaded yellow bulbul. Pycnonotus mela-

nicterus.

Common throughout the mature forests, par-

ticularly in the wetter areas, e.g. near Gudem.

413

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

One bird captured on the 13th October had

flecks of ruby red on the breast—identical

coloration to the red throat of the subspecies

euiaris of the south Indian hills.

Redwhiskered bulbul. Pycnonotus jocosus.

Abundant, building observed from March to

May, first juveniles noted in early May.

Redvented bulbul. Pycnonotus cafer.

Abundant, eggs noted from mid April to the

end of June. Particularly noisy in the April

dawn chorus.

Whitebrowed bulbul. Pycnonotus luteclus.

Resident in small numbers in secondary

growth, commoner on the plains. Song noted

from at least early January.

Spotted babbler. Pellorneum ruficeps.

Resident, in pairs and small parties. The “he'll

beat you” call of Ali and Ripley common in

April and May, allows contact over at least

200 metres. A trapped bird had a weil deve-

loped brood patch on the 25th April.

Scimitar babbler. Pomatorhinus schisticeps.

Regularly heard through the year. A bird cap-

tured on the 25th March, 1972 laid an egg

in the hand.

Redfronted babbier. Stachyris rufifrons. _

Calling throughout the year particularly dur-

ing April and May. Often associated with

Quaker Babblers.

Rufousbellied babbler. Dumetia hyperythra.

Seen in parties of up to 11 birds from Septem-

ber to March, although inconspicuous from

January—March. On the 20th July two nests

were discovered within 20 metres of each

other, and may have been from pairs splitting

from the same party. At this time post breed-

ing groups were seen elsewhere.

Yellowbreasted babbler. Macronous gularis.

More arboreal than the other small babblers,

seen in small parties or singly. The call note

414

is heard throughout the year, particularly from

April to July (Figure 12). Young fledged from

a nest on the 13th July. The commonest bab-

bler in the thick forest at Merripakala.

Yelloweyed babbler. Chrysomma sinense.

Regularly seen in the secondary growth area;

commoner in Lantana especially elsewhere in

the plateau.

Jungie babbler. Turdoides striatus.

Sisterhoods only seen between the 11th Janu-

ary and the 2nd February. Apparently bred

in the area-individuals were recorded from

February to August, sentinel ‘checking’ noted

in April, and a juvenile seen in May. Com-

moner elsewhere in the plateau.

Quaker babbler. Alcippe poiecephala.

Common in pairs or small flocks often asso-

ciated with Stachyris or Macronous. The song

recorded by Ali and Ripley (loc. cit.): “a qua-

vering trill of four notes” is heard throughout

the year, and is the most prominent song of

the April dawn chorus. In addition there is

an unrecorded song, consisting of similar qua-

lity (but many more) notes uttered in a long

down cadence accompanied by chattering from

the female. Nest building was observed in the

last two weeks of May and also in early July.

In May some birds were still going through

the complete prenuptial moult. Of interest is

the record of two birds trapped on the 11th

April 1971 and recaptured together three times

during the study period.

Brown flycatcher. Muscicapa latirosiris.

A pair seen first on the 3lst March, and seen

on subsequent weeks in April chasing each

other through the tree tops. Individuals cap-

tured on the 20th and 27th of April. Although

not seen after this they may weil have bred

in the area. A single bird noted on the 13th

July.

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF AP.

Rufoustailed flycatcher. Muscicapa ruficauda.

A single passage record of a bird trapped on

the 4th April.

Redbreasted flycatcher. Muscicapa parva.

Widespread Winter visitor in fairly small

numbers. Recorded between the 18th October

and the 16th April. Notable passage in the

last week of March and first two weeks of

April; several males were trapped in full

breeding plumage.

Whitebrowed blue flycatcher. Muscicapa sup-

erciliaris.

Widespread but sparingly distributed Winter

visitor to the whole of the Ghats area.

First noted in the first week of Novem-

ber, last recorded on the 29th March. Males

(both subadult and adult) are more common,

and easily identified by the “whi churr” call

note. The only female noted was one trapped

on the 16th December. Adult males observed,

and one trapped, had no white in the tail, and

a very thin white supercilium, placing them

close to the subspecies aestigma (Whistler and

Kinnear 1933).

Brooks’s_ flycatcher. Muscicapa poliogenys

vernayl. |

A common resident. Whistler and Kinnear

(1933) identified this species as _ polio-

genys (c/s Muscicapa tickelliae) because of the

brown juvenile plumage and dull female, and

measurements support this. However adult

males are very blue, and the song closely re-

sembles that of the Tickell’s Flycatcher heard

in Borivli National Park near Bombay. The

situation needs further investigation. There is

clearly only one species present here, and for

the present the range of Tickell’s Blue Fly-

catcher should be adjusted accordingly. Ter-

ritorial behaviour and song noted in both

early Autumn and in April and May (see

Figure 11B). Both male and female were sing-

ing around recently fledged young as I ap-

proached on the Ist June.

Bluethroated flycatcher. Muscicapa rubecu-

loides.

A passage migrant, recorded between the

14th and 28th October and the 20th March

and 4th April, (see Figure 10).

Verditer flycatcher. Muscicapa thalassina.

Recorded between the 3rd November and 22nd

February. A Winter visitor in small numbers.

Greyheaded flycatcher. Culicicapa ceylonensis.

Resident, one of the commonest species in

the wetter forests elsewhere in the Ghats. Cap-

ture of a recently fledged juvenile on the 13th

July is the first proof of breeding for the spe-

cies in the Ghats.

Whitebrowed fantail

aureola.

Seen on several occasions between September

and November in a deciduous forest area,

and again in February and March and in May

and June when in full song.

flycatcher. Rhipidura

Whitethroated fantail flycatcher. Rhipidura

albicollis.

Resident in secondary growth areas. Nest

building noted on the 10th April.

Blacknaped blue flycatcher. Monarcha azurea.

Common breeding bird but only rarely re-

corded during December and January, al-

though more in evidence during January of

1978, apparently facultatively moving to lower

elevations during the dry season (Figure 10).

A previously unrecorded song “a ringing chew

chew chew’, resembling the Tailor Bird was

heard on the Ist June and on several occa-

sions in the two weeks subsequently. This song

was also heard by Mr. S. A. Hussain of the

Bombay Natural History Society and myself

in Borivli National Park, near Bombay on

the 27th July.

415

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Paradise flycatcher. Terpsiphone paradisi.

Several individuals were captured in March,

1972. Not recorded at Lammasinghi during

the study period, although two pairs, prob-

ably breeding, were located near the foot of

the Ghats near Downeru on the 30th April,

and an immature was seen three kilometres

away on the plateau on July 10th.

Ashy-grey wren-warbler. Prinia hodgsonii.

Inconspicuous, in parties or singly through-

out the dry season. Song prominent from

March onwards, and in January 1978.

Ashy wren-warbler. Prinia socialis.

The commonest wren-warbler. During the dry

season wanders into forest clearings from the

secondary growth. Food being carried to young

in the nest seen in September and in June.

Jungle wren-warbler. Prinia sylvatica.

Common elsewhere, on the drier, more scrub-

by areas of the plateau. One pair was still

breeding in October: and independent juve-

niles noted on the 6th July. In addition to the

“sihoot” song noted by Ali and Ripley (loc.

cit.), (the note repeated once per second in

runs lasting up to thirteen minutes), there is

a second song “‘weeoch” repeated 15-20 times

at a rate of two per second, followed by a

pause and repeats of the sequence. A male

watched for the whole day on the 18th Sep-

tember, at a time when his mate was laying

spent 85 minutes in song; dividing his time

equally between the two song types. Long

runs of song were confined to the morning.

The “sihoot” song more conspicuous during

April and May.

Tailor bird. Orthotomus sutorius.

Common resident, seen individually or in

pairs. On the weekly post-dawn walk appro-

ximately twice as many birds were calling

during the wet season (June) compared with

the dry season (January).

416

Grasshopper warbler. Locustella naevia.

Two records only: on the 3lst January and

on the Sth February, 1978.

Thickbilled warbler. Phragmaticola aedon.

Scarce winter visitor. Recorded only between

27th January and the 28th April. One indi-

vidual was known to have stayed in the area

during this time.

Blyth’s reed warbler. Acrocephalus dumeto-

rum.

First arrivals on the 21st October, with

an influx in the beginning of November, hav-

ing gone through a complete moult further

north in the peninsula (Gaston 1975). At least

half of these birds maintained territories

throughout the Winter. Departure at the end

of April. There was an influx of birds in mid

March (see Figure 10). The last record was

on the 16th May. Some song was noted just

prior to departure.

Tickell’s leaf warbler. Phylloscopus affinis.

An adult and juvenile captured together on

the 14th November are the only records.

Yellowbrowed leaf warbler. Phylloscopus in-

ornatus.

Widespread winter visitor to the whole plateau.

Largebilled leaf warbler. Phylloscopus mag-

nirostris.

Commonly recorded on passage between the

29th September and the 21st October and

the 6th April and the 27th April. Restricted

to the undergrowth of the mature forest, in

contrast to the habitats occupied on its breed-

ing and wintering grounds. (Ali and Ripley,

loc. cit.) |

Greenish warbler. Phylloscopus trochiloides.

The subspecies /udlowi is an abundant Winter

visitor, first recorded on the 30th August. Arri-

val continues until the third week of October.

Departures are over the last two weeks of

April and the first week of May; birds were

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF AP.

recorded as late as the 23rd June. All indi-

viduals are territorial. Song is heard regularly

during territory establishment (from both

sexes )and prior to departure (probably from

males only). Song is also heard occasionally

through the Winter; there is evidence that this

involves an attempt by one bird to expand

its territory at the expense of another as in

Grey Wagtail (see below, Price, 1978). 10 out

of 15 (66%) of the colour ringed birds hold-

ing territories not disturbed by felling opera-

tions returned in 1978. The subspecies viri-

danus was recorded occasionally during pas-

sage months, and a bird closely resembling

the subspecies nitidus trapped on the 8th

November.

Large crowned leaf warbler. Phylloscopus

occipitalis,

Uncommon Winter visitor.

Greyheaded flycatcher warbler. Seicercus

Durkil.

A record on the 25th March 1972 and

one from the 4th November. An uncommon

Winter visitor, apparently at the southern eaee

of its winter range.

Rubythroat. Erithacus calliope.

Widespread winter visitor to the Ghats, re-

corded at Lammasinghi between the 19th

October and the 2nd April (Figure 10). Some

song in early November, also heard in Janu-

diy. LOTS.

Biuethroat. Erithacus svecicus.

A juvenile was trapped on the 16th Decem-

ber. This bird winters at low densities on the

plateau in the wetter open areas.

Bluechat. Erithacus brunneus.

Recorded on passage in the last two weeks

of October, the last week of April and the

first week of May.-A few birds over winter,

there being records for all Winter months

(Figure 10).

Magpie robin. Copsychus saularis.

Resident and summer visitor. Birds come

into song in March, most song is heard in

April, the amount per bird decreasing during

May (Fig. ures 10 and 12). First independent

young seen on the 26th May. Adults in mid

June are inconspicuous, either moulding or

having departed. Wintering birds are confined

to the area of secondary growth, although

some breeding takes place in the moist de-

ciduous forest.

Shama. Copsychus malaharicus.

Resident. See Figure 11A. In June it is the

only conspicuous early morning songster. First

young noted on the 31 May.

Stone chat. Saxicola torquata.

One specimen captured in March 1971. Win-

ters in small numbers on the wetter, more

open areas, higher on the plateau.

Pied bush chat. Saxicola caprata.

Resident and Summer visitor. Pairs and single

females held territories through the Winter.

There was an influx of males and an increase

in song through January and February. First

fledged young noted on Ist May. Independent

young in June when adults are inconspicuous.

The only time song was noted from October

to December was between two males; one

intruding into an established territory.

Indian Robin. Saxicoloides fulicata.

Only two records from Lammasinghi during

this study although it was recorded commonly

in April 1972. More common elsewhere on

the plateau and abundant on the coastal plain.

Blueheaded rock thrush. Monticola cinclor-

hynchus.

Four records from the last week of October,

one from November, two each from January

and February and five from March. All No-

vember to February records are of males.

Noted in 1971, 1972 and 1978 also. This ex-

417

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

tends the Winter range of this species south

east from Madhya Pradesh.

Blue rock thrush. Monticola solitarius.

A single sight record on the 14th October.

This species winters on the rocky peaks above

3,000 feet elsewhere in the Ghats, e.g. near

Solabum.

Pied ground thrush. Zoothera wardii.

A female on the 6th October, and males on

the 27th October and 6th April are the only

records. Passage migrant.

Orangeheaded ground thrush. Zoothera citrina

citrina.

Resident, particularly common in the under-

growth of the moister mature forests. In-

frequent songster. A notable capture was

that of a pair ringed together as adults on the

11th May 1972 and recaptured together on the

27th April 1977.

White’s mountain thrush. Zoothera dauma.

Recorded on the 3lst March, 6th and 13th

April only, extending the wintering range

south from Sambalpur in Orissa.

Tickell’s thrush. Turdus unicolor.

Recorded only on three occasions in the

second two weeks of November. Previously

recorded in the area in February (Whistler

and Kinnear 1932) and two small flocks (c.

15 birds each) noted in January, 1978 may

have been of this species.

Blackbird. Turdus merula.

Resident, particularly common elsewhere in

“shola type” forests in the Ghats. There was

an influx into the area in November to feed

on large numbers of earthworms that came

to the surface.

Blackspotted yellow tit. Parus xanthogenys.

Birds may remain as pairs throughout the

year. Song and display first noted in January,

accompanied by dispersal mainly of females.

418

Maximum song and nest building in May.

Family parties noted in July and September

and a few parties of up to five birds noted

throughout the Winter months.

Chestnutbellied nuthatch. Sitta castanea.

Resident, singly or in pairs outside the breed-

ing season.

Velvetfronted nuthatch. Sitta frontaiis.

Resident, invariably seen in pairs or parties

of up to five birds outside the breeding season.

A previously unrecorded behaviour is that of

vigorous wing flapping, commonly seen on

tree trunk faces, apparently attempting to

flush insects.

Hodgson’s tree pipit. Anthus hodgsoni.

Winter visitor. Noted from the 30th October

to the 19th April, (Figure 10). Particularly

common in January, when loose flocks of up

to 30 birds recorded. Generally confined to

the secondary growth area, occasionally seen

within the forest.

Forest wagtail. Motacilla indica.

Recorded on passage between the 19th Sep-

tember and 24th October when up to four

birds joined the Grey Wagtail roost. Singles

on passage on the Ist and 27th April.

Grey wagtail. Motacilla caspica.

Present at least from the 26th August to the

18th April. During September and October

large flocks, presumably containing many

passage birds were recorded at roost. 150 birds

roosting in a large Ficus on the 14th Septem-

ber increased to 680 on the 19th September. —

A decrease in October was accompanied by

an increase in another Ficus to a maximum of

720 present on the 25th October.

Birds arrived at the roost up to one hour

before entering it, in parties of up to 30 indi-

viduals, and departed in flocks of five to 470,

flying west over the plateau. No feeding flocks

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF A.P.

were ever noted. Over wintering birds are ter-

ritorial during the daytime although roosting

together. About 35 individuals were regularly

recorded at roosts between November and

February. Two birds holding adjacent terri-

tories along a road were colour ringed. These

were seen displaying and singing at each other

on 11th December, after which one bird dis-

appeared. The other then occupied both ter-

ritories until the beginning of April and re-

turned to them over the 1977-1978 Winter.

Thickbilled flowerpecker. Dicaeum agile.

Resident, less common than Tickell’s Flower-

pecker. There is a rambling song of the gene-

ral tone of the Ashy-grey Wren Warbler, con-

taining mainly mixed up call notes; heard on

several occasions through the year.

Tickell’s flowerpecker. Dicaeum erythrorhyn-

chos.

Cammon, the most abundant species in the

dry deciduous forest on the hill tops.

Purplerumped sunbird. Nectarinia zeylonica.

Common, breeding mainly early in the year.

One pair noted with three nesting attempts

(all destroyed) between the 9th March and

27th April.

Purple sunbird. Nectarinia asiatica.

Approximately as common as the Purplerump-

ed Sunbird; far more common elsewhere in

the Ghats in the higher forested areas. Only

a single male seen in breeding plumage during

September-October, main breeding period in

the early months of the year.

Yellowrumped sunbird. Aethopyga siparaja.

A male recorded at Eucalyptus flowers during

the first week of January extending the Win-

ter range south from Orissa. In January 1978

four males (one trapped) were seen between

Gudem and Merripakala. It should be noted

that the yellow rump is completely obscured

in the field during the Winter

growth of green flank feathers.

by an over-

Little spiderhunter. Arachnothera longirostris.

Captured in March 1971 (Raju and Selvin

1971) and in March 1972. Only noted during

this study on 19th September. Elsewhere in the

Ghats noted along watercourses between Gu-

dem and Merripakala on the 14th April and

near Thajangi on the 12th January 1978.

White-eye. Zosterops palpebrosa.

Abundant, resident. Pairs or individuals are

regularly recaptured at the same net site

throughout the year. Large post-breeding

flocks (up to 50 birds) are seen at fruiting trees

and as the nucleus to mixed feeding flocks in

the mature deciduous forest. In November

these flocks break up, and many small flocks

of up to 15 birds influxed into the secondary

growth area. Small flocks were seen through-

out the Winter period at nectar sources. No

flocks seen in April and May. First nest build-

ing observed on 11th March. Several nests

with eggs located at least up to July 3rd.

Family parties begin to appear in mid June.

House sparrow. Passer domesticus.

Present in all villages.

Tree sparrow. Passer montanus.

First noted at Lammasinghi in April 1972

(Raju and Price 1973). An extensive survey

of neighbouring villages was undertaken, in an

attempt to determine the status of the Tree

Sparrow in the Eastern Ghats. Just one indi-

vidual was noted at Solabum, and a breeding

population discovered at Bussalkort. Two nets

were placed in Lammasinghi village for a

morning each month (table 7). The state of

birds in the hand and direct observation shows

that the Tree Sparrow has a restricted April

to June breeding season, while the House

Sparrow breeds throughout the year. Small

post-breeding flocks during July and August

419

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

were noted on the edge of the village. It is

estimated that the population of Tree Spar-

rows at Lammasinghi is less than 200, and

the total population size in the Eastern Ghats

may be less than 500 and decreasing to ex-

tinction. Apparently this is the only place in

the world where two species of Passer breed

side by side in thatched roofs. There is an

unconfirmed sight record of possible hybrid

birds at Bussalkort.

Baya. Pioceus philippinus.

First recorded on the 15th June. Several pairs

nested beside the paddy fields. The species

was abundant at Lammasinghi in March 1972.

Green munia. Estrilda formosa.

Small parties of between four and eight birds

seen on six occasions during May. Larger

flocks noted in January at Gudem and during

March and April near Thajangi.

Whitebacked munia. Lonchura striata.

Seen throughout the year; in September, April

and May in flocks of up to 40 birds.

Jerdon’s munia. Lonchura kelaarti.

Noted particularly through the Winter months

when flocks of 20-30 birds may be seen feed-

ing in litter on the edge of the deciduous

forest. Rarely recorded between April and

July.

Spotted munia. Lonchura punctulata.

Several pairs breeding and commonly seen

between September and November. Only oc-

casionally recorded between January and

May.

Common rosefinch. Carpodacus erythrinus.

Recorded between the 19th November and the

9th April (Figure 10). The influx into the

Eastern Ghats region probably occurs earlier;

two birds were nearing completion of full

moult on the 16th and 23rd December. Flocks

of up to 150 birds seen at Gudem. In March

420

1972, 200 individuals were captured at Lam-

masinghi when large stands of Lantana—a

favourite food source—were present.

SUMMARY

This paper reports on the results of a mist

netting and observational study on the bird-

life at one locality in the Eastern Ghats of

Andhra Pradesh, India. Several range exten-

sions south from the Similipal Hills in Orissa

are recorded. The forested area is more im-

portant than hitherto thought as a Wintering

ground for Palaearctic migrants and in parti-

cular as a stopover for passage migrants.

Corresponding to seasonality in rainfall, food

supplies are at their lowest levels from Decem-

ber to February. This correlates with the an-

nual cycle of resident species, most of which

breed from mid-April to June and moult from

July to October, and the appearance of some

larger insectivores and frugivores to breed in

the Summer months. The various strategies

adopted by different species to promote over-

winter survival, and the possible impact of

Palaearctic migrants on resident species are

discussed.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks to K. S. R. Krishna Raju and my

parents for help and encouragement through-

out the study; H. J. Harvey, R. B. Payne,

J. C. Daniel and S. D. Ripley for assistance

with planning and R. J. Pimento for help

with fieldwork. The study would have been

impossible without all kinds of aid provided

by the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department and

its officers. I especially thank Sri Venkata

Reddy, Conservator, and D. Bhaskara Rao,

Forest Range Officer. This work was sponsor-

ed by the Bombay Natural History Society

and supported by the Leverhulme Trust

BIRDS IN THE EASTERN GHATS OF A.P.

Fund, with additional grants from the British

Ornithologist’s Union and the Smithsonian

Institution.

APPENDIX

The area within ten kilometres of Lamma-

singhi includes at least three habitat types not

encountered in the study area, and several

new bird species. The habitat types are: (1) A

ten year old reservoir at Thajangi, (2) Open,

dry farmland on the plateau, (3) Farmland

on the coastal plain. For the sake of comple-

teness species observed and identified in these

habitats, but never seen on the study area are

detailed below.

Little egret. Egretta garzetta.

Up to 20 regularly at Thajangi reservoir.

Pied harrier. Circus pygargus.

One near Thajangi on January 6th. Pallid

harriers, C. macrourus, and probably Hen

harriers C. cyaneus also occur on the plateau.

Wood sandpiper. Tringa glareola.

One on March 22nd beside the river near

Thajangi. A regular migrant on the plateau.

Painted snipe. Rostratula benghalensis.

Two on January 10th 1978 near Thajangi

associated with other snipe, Gallinago sp. The

Gallinago snipes are regularly seen at Lam-

masinghi in January.

Swallow. Hirundo rustica.

Several at Thajangi reservoir on April Ist. A

-Paddyfield pipit.

large flock at Sileru on April 9th.

Wiretailed swallow Hirundo smithii.

2 at Thajangi reservoir on April Ist.

Black drongo. Dicrurus adsimilis.

Common on the coastal plain, and seen oc-

casionally on the more open parts of the

plateau.

House crow. Goce splendens.

Common on the coastal plain. Never poearded

on the plateau.

Whiteheaded babbler. Turdoides affinis.

Common on the coastal plain.

Streaked fantail warbler. Cisticola juncidis.

One in mid June on the open plateau. Com-

mon at higher, wetter elevations (Price, in

press).

novaeseelandiae.

areas of the

Anthus

Occasionally seen on drier

plateau.

White wagtail. Motacilla alba.

Three at Thajangi on January 11th.

Large pied wagtail. Motacilla maderaspaten-

SIS.

Two regularly seen at Thajangi

Display noted at Sileru on April 9th.

reservoir.

Yellowthroated sparrow. Petronia xanthocol-

lis.

Seen in bamboo clumps downhill from

Lammasinghi on April 30th. Fairly common

on the coastal plain.

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463.

DISTRIBUTION, STATUS, HABITAT AND FOOD OF

THE URIAL (OVIS ORIENTALIS PUNJABIENSIS)

IN THE PUNJAB*’

Z. B. MirzA,? M. ASLAM KHAN,* M. ASGHAR,”

AND ABDUL QADEER MEHAL*®

(With three text-figures and a map)

Punjab Urial occurs in Kala-Chitta and Salt ranges between 32° 25’ & 33° 70’ north

latitude and 71° 50’ & 73° 70’ east longitude in the Punjab Province of Pakistan. On

the western edges of these ranges flows the Indus river which is the physical barrier

between animals which inhabit the hills along both sides of its banks.

It is not

certain whether the animals on the west bank of Indus river are Ovis. o. punjabiensis,

O.o. cycloceros or Ovis o. blanfordi (Schaller & Mirza 1974). This paper gives census

figures, description of habitat and food of O.0. punjabiensis.

CENSUS METHOD

Counting was done twice each day. In the

morning usually half hour before sunrise and

three hours afterwards and later two hours

before sunset till dark. At these times the ani-

mals were most active. They were more mobile

during rut which is in November. The herds

were Classified as male herds and female herds

which consisted of ewes, lambs and yearlings.

Mixed herds comprised rams, ewes, yearlings

and lambs. These were classified as to age and

sex. The age of males were estimated by the

comparative length of the horns. In order to

avoid double counting sketches of males were

drawn showing the front, left and right views.

Any visible marks on the bodies including

sizes and shapes of the horns were marked on

1 Accepted January, 1979.

2 This project was financed partly by a grant from

U.S. Department of Agriculture under PL-480 and

partly by the Punjab Government.

8 Administrator WWFP/Principal

PL-480, Research Project,

Investigator,

37-F, Model Town,

these sketches. The presence of identifiable in-

dividuals within a herd and the herd composi-

tion helped in the identification of the herds.

Males 14 years old were classified as yearlings,

24 years as class I, 34 years class II, 42 years

Class III and full grown as Class [V (Schal-

ler & Mirza 1974). The females were difficult

to classify as to their age groups, even some-

times yearling females could not be distinguish-

ed from adult females. The advanced stage

pregnant ewes could also be distinguished.

DISTRIBUTION & POPULATION

The whole census was undertaken area by

area. The census in Jaba (District Mian-

wali) a private reserve of Maliks of Kalabagh

was conducted during April 1976. There were

Lahore.

4 Assistant Research Officer, now Research Officer

in Forest Department.

5 Assistant Research Officer.

6 Assistant Research Officer, now Assistant Game

Warden.

423°

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

1288 animals concentrated on the hills & nul-

lahs in 16 sq. miles area. However, these did

spread in a bigger area of lower hills and

plateaux in winter or early spring and occupied

more or less 20 sq. miles. Total of 966 females,

38 lambs, 19 male yearlings, 5 males Class I,

36 Class IH, 30 males Class III and 194 males

Class IV were counted (Table 1).

Urials in District Jhelum were counted dur-

ing March, May and June, 1976. There were

588 animals in roughly 456 sq. miles area. Out

of this 284 were females, 105 lambs, 44 male

yearlings, 28 males class I, 46 males Class II,

18 males Class IIIf and 63 males Class IV

(Table 1).

The census in Salt Range in the District of

Sargodha was completed in January, 1977 and

—- 2b

Dist CANSBELLPUR

eg iy i bo,

KALA ; pa

(: CHE FA RANGE

68 animals were sighted in 278 sq. miles area

comprising of 33 females, 3 lambs, 2 male

yearlings, 7 males Class I, 10 males Class II, ~

6 males Class III and 7 males Class IV

(Table 1).

During November and December, 1976

census of Kala Chitta range (District Camp-

bellpur) was carried out. A total of 213 ani-

mals were observed. There were 81 females,

12 lambs, 14 male yearlings, 12 males Class I,

13 males Class II, 21 males Class IH, and 36

males Class IV.

HABITAT

The general orientation of the Salt Range

and Kala Chitta Range is east-west (see map).

MAP Bue ainda

” KALAR-CHITTA RANGE

Scale 1-17 Miles

& Ny 7

FIN Bt Qneg ae — Re 2 cna

ry ~ of t 7A Zt %

¢ DIST. JHecury es a Melba,

aS Tem,

> ist

AREA

UAW ing p.. es

ee,

¢ es ane

Pen

( aN RS

Fe SE

@RIANWAL C708 s

Map of Salt Range and Kala-Chitta Range.

424.

THE URIAL IN THE PUNJAB

1-5

LS es

T°

TM, *

GMM

Ldddddddddddida °

ane =)

SWVYOOTIN NI QSWNSNOD LNNOWV

PLANT. ‘SPEC cles

425

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Each of the component hills is made up of a

number of parallel ridges. But this parallelism

is modified by a marked tendency to a linked

or loop formation. The main ridges bend in

towards one another and mingle in a knotted

mass (Rana 1956). The vegetation of the Salt

and Kala Chitta ranges is dry deciduous scrub

forest mainly Olea cuspidata and Acacia sp.,

found on hilly ground and on shallow dry

soil over marl, limestone and _ sedimentary

rocks and sandstones from 457 to 1524 metres.

The maximum average summer temperature

is 45.55°C (114°F) and minimum average

winter temperature is -6.11°C (21°F). The

annual rainfall which is mainly in summer

is from 51 cm (20”) to 102 cm (40”) (Rip-

ley 1961) Water runs off the slopes after every

downpour eroding the soil and swelling the

streams. Most of top soil of the area has al-

ready been washed away. Erosion has reached

an advanced stage in some parts and bare in-

fertile rocks have been exposed which can

support no vegetation. The plant cover is

poor on sandstone and red marl. The average

annual rainfall decreases from east to west

causing marked scarcity of vegetation in the

west as compared to that on the east. The

density of vegetation on southern aspects is

poor while the northern slopes are compara-

tively better. Olea cuspidata, Acacia modesta,

Dodonea viscosa and Cymbopogon jawaran-

cusa are prominent.

The percentage of plant ground and canopy

cover was estimated in Salt range in districts

of Jhelum, Sargodha and Mianwali and Kala

Chitta range in District Campbellpur, by 345

random sample plots of 0.01 acre roughly 100

metres apart (Table 2). Average plant cover

was estimated to be 43.5% in Salt Range in

summer and winter and 45.2% in Kala Chitta

range in winter.

The comparative abundance of each plant

426

40.

NUMBER OF VISITS

0 3 46 18 6 23 68&i3 1 2 S89 19 25

PLANT SPECIES

Fig. 2. Number of visits for each plant species.

The numbers refer to the names indicated in

Table 2.

species was also determined by laying random

plots on the flats, nullahs, steep and gentle

slopes, counting each and every plant of dif-

ferent species within the plot. The dominant

plant species in Salt and Kala Chitta ranges

were found to be Acacia modesta, Zizyphus

nummularia, Olea cuspidata, Dodonaea visco-

sa and grasses like Cymbopogon jawarancusa,

Eleusine compressa, Heteropogon contortus,

Aristida adscensionis, Bothriochloa pertusa,

THE URIAL IN THE PUNJAB

TABLE 1

CENSUS OF URIAL (Ovis orientalis punjabiensis) IN SALT AND KALA CHITTA RANGES

Male Males Males Males Males

: Female

lit Lambs year- Class Class Class Class Toial

oe Adults fines le eV

Jaba Sanctuary, District April, 1976 966 38 19 3) 36 30 194 1288

Mianwali.

District Jhelum. March, May and June, 284 105 44 28 46 18 63 588

1976

District Sargodha. January, 1977 33 3 M4, a 10 6. 7 68

Kala Chitta Range, Dis- November 81 12 14 12 13 7) | 36 189

trict Campbellpur. ber, 1976

2133

Additional animals which could not be classified 24

according to their age group. TKotalois D157

TABLE 2

PERCENTAGE OF OCCURRENCE OF PLANT SPECIES

Plant Species

SOMIDNAAWNS

—_—

—

a ee

COON AAR WN?

20.

Pharian (Digitaria bicornis)

Chhimber (Eleusine compressa)

Phulai (Acacia modesta)

Bhabbar (Eulaliopsis binata)

Lumb (Aristida adscencionis)

Sand (Lasirus hirsutus)

Kau (Olea cuspidata)

Dhaman (Cenchrus ciliaris)

Khar (Chrysopogon montanus)

Karir (Capparis aphylla)

~ Palwan (Bothriochloa pertusa)

Pataki (Gymnosporia royleana)

Khawi (Cymbopogon jawarancusa)

Bahekar (Adhatoda vasica)

Sanatha (Dodonaea viscosa)

Unidentified species

Khatti Booti (Oxalis corniculata)

Malla (Zizyphus nummularia)

Sariala (Heteropogon contortus)

Bata (Periploca aphylia)

SARGODHA

Nil

2.05

7.05

Nil

5.06

8.40

tr.

7.00

1.90

2.50

Nil

10.50

4.10

11.45

0.65

Nil

3.70

4.25

JHELUM

CAMPBELLPUR

MIANWALI

Average of Salt Range pial Jaba Reserve

50 Samples Average of Average of _Average of

120 Samples 75 Samples 100 Samples

2.91 Nil 1.25

10.08 2.61 17.26

10.87 12.19 3.90

8.83 Nil 3.90

5.83 1.39 4.70

1.91 4.49 3.00

5.54 16.00 Nil

1.04 0.29 6.10

12.50 10.78 6.70

et 1.00 0.90

3.21 2.09 0.95

3.04 Nil 0.25

4.29 15.70 17.70

DOS 2.10 0.10

6.25 13.28 1.20

1.70 0.15 2.30

la Nil tr.

S25) 6.30 1.35

5.28 4.27 0.85

0.92 Nil 0.20

Nil

427

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

SARGODHA

JHELUM

CAMPBELLPUR

MIANWALI

No. Plant Species

21. Maina (Medicago lupulina) 0.49 0.75 tr. 3.15

22. Dab (Desmostachya bipinnata) Nil 0.71 Nil 1.30

23. Khabble (Cynodon dactylon) 6.25 0.67 5.80 3.95

24. Wan, Jaal (Salvadora oleoides) Nil 0.58 Nil 0.95

25. Bui (Aerva javanica) 1.00 0.42 0.75 0.45

26. Kahi (Saccharum spontaneum) Nil 0.40 Nil 1.80

27. Kandiari (Echinops echinatus) Nil 0.37 Nil tn

28. Kana (Saccharum munja) 0.81 0.33 1.58 1.60

29. Sakkar (Eheretia aspera) Nil 0.33 Nil 0.10

30. Dodak (Sonchus asper) Nil 0.25 Nil tr.

31. Giddar Tambakoo (Verbascum thapsus) Nil 0.17 Nil Nil

32. Kikar (Acacia arabica) 1.25 0.17 2.30 (ie,

33. Dhania Booti (Psammogeton biternatum) Nil (ies Nil (se.

34. Khui (Sporobolus pallidus) Nil tr. Nil 0.15

35. Bathu (Chenopodium album) 0.52 tr. tr. tr.

36. Bhakhra (Tribulus alatus) Nil tie, Nil Ut.

37, Harmal (Peganum harmala) 0.72 tr. 0.37 (hie

3g. Waliati Kikar (Acacia farnesiana) Nil tr. Nil 0.15

39, Vina (Rhazya stricta) Nil tr. Ni 2.00

490. Ak (Calotropis procera) 0.67 tr. 0.50 tr.

41. Mako (Solanum nigrum) 0.35 bee 0.10 tr.

42. Ispghol (Plantago ciliata) Nil tr. Nil 1.00

43. Pohli (Solanum xanthocarpum) 0.26 tr. tiie 0.15

44, Kandiara (Cousinia. minuta) Nil tr. Nil 0.06

45. sonchal (Malva parviflora) 0.20 tr. tr. wr,

46. Ganger (Grewia populifolia) 3.29 1.58 5.76 0.80

47, Dhamian (Fagonia cretica) Nil tr. Nil 0.50

4g. Deela (Cyperus pilosus) Nil tr, Nil 0.40

49, Gam (Panicum antidotale) 0.05 (Ge tr. 0.15

50, Jandi (Prosopis spicigera) 1.12 tr. 2.68 0.20

5), Harwan (Tamarix sp.) Nil tr. Nil 1.40

52. Kaner (Nerium odorum) 1.60 tr 0.89 0.80

53, Sshisham (Dalbergia sissoo) 0.90 tie 0.52 0.20

54, Khajour (Phoenix sp.) 0.15 = 0.32 0.10

55 Dab (Typha latifolia) 1.40 — 2A 0.20

56 Equisetum (Equisetum sp.) Nil — Nil 0.10

57. Chag (Crotalaria burhia) 1.78 Nil 1.20 Nil

58. Ber (Zizyphus jujuba) 1.52 Nil 1.13 Nil

59. Mesquit (Prosopis glandulosa) 0.95 Nil 0.60 Nil

60. Loot (Morus alba) 0.85 Nil Nil Nil

61. Aksin (Withania somnifera) 0.76 Nil 0.41 Nil

62. Dhrek (Melia azedarach) 0.60 Nil Nil Nil

63. Jawan (Alhagi maurorum) 0.40 Nil 0.28 Nil

64. Nara (Arundo donax) 0.11 Nil 0.21 Nil

65. Pilchhi (Tamarix dioica) Nil Nil 1.60 Nil

66. Pipal (Ficus religiosa) Nil Nil 0.92 Nil

67. Burh (Ficus bengalensis) Nil Nil 0.76 Nil

68. Mesquit (Prosopis juliflora) Nil Nil 0.29 Nil

CS SAS EG BG EL A SR TE TAS BOIS EA DT aD NA BA ST OR RT I OTE TT aR IN A A RS

tr.= trace.

428

IN SECONDS

TIME

THE URIAL IN THE PUNJAB

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000 : =

ee) eee oe et is 2, 58. 6s

PLANT SPECIES

Fig. 3. Time spent in seconds for each plant species. The numbers refer to the

names indicated in the Table 2.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST,; SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Digitaria bicornis, Eulaiopsis binata, Cynodon

dactylon, Saccharum sp., Sporobolus pallidus,

Cenchrus ciliaris and Chrysopogon montanus

etc.

Food Plants

Plants palatable to Urial were determined

by the method described by Mirza (1973)

as well as by visual observations. Two captive

urial (one male and one female) were given

no food for 12 hours prior to feeding. Then

2 Kilograms piles of each plant species were

placed in a row inside the enclosure. Number

of visits made to each pile, time spent and the

amount consumed were noted (Figs. 1, 2 & 3).

Acacia modesta, was observed to be the fav-

ourite browse. Next in order of preference

were Zizyphus nummularia, and Grewia popu-

lifolia. Among the grazeable vegetation Lasiu-

rus hirsutus was the favourite grass. Next in

order of preference were Cynodon dactylon,

Cenchrus ciliaris, Digitaria bicornis, Cyimbopo-

gon jawarancusa, Eleusine compressa, Aristida

adscencionis and Chrysopogon montanus.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

Poaching, particularly collection of lambs

over the entire Salt and Kala Chitta ranges is

the primary factor for the markedly reduced

population. This is obvious when the status of

population is compared to that of Jaba Re-

serve which is roughly 16 sq. miles and holds

almost half of the total population of Punjab

Urial. Due to severe pressure on food wild

plants by domestic livestock the vegetation

has become over-grazed or over browsed.

Urials confine themselves to comparatively

difficult terrain where competition is less or

they browse and graze before and after the

domestic animals are brought for grazing. In

areas where forage conditions are poor and

reduced in winter and in drought season and

where cultivations are near the hills the Urial

move for forage under the cover of darkness.

In Jaba, because of the abundance of food

and very little food competition with domestic

livestock throughout the year, twin births are

frequent which rarely happens in any other

area Outside this reserve. This was seen by

us during our visits. Jaba reserve has quite a

few domestic goats, sheep and cattle but these

are not allowed to graze in the general area

which is inhabited by Urials.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Dr. Jack Ward Thomas,

United States Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service and Dr. G. B. Schaller, New

York Zoological Society for critically review-

ing the manuscript. Thanks are also due to

Dr. Sultan Ahmed Chaudhry, Rtd. Professor

of Botany, Government College, Lahore, for

identifying plants. We are particularly indebt-

ed to Maliks of Kalabagh for the facilities

provided by them in their Sanctuary at Jaba.

REFERENCES

Mirza, Z. B. (1973): Food availability for Black-

buck (Antilope cervicapra) at Lal Suhanra Sanc-

tuary, Pakistan. Biological Conservation 5(2).

RANA, SAID MUHAMMAD, (1956): The Working

Plan for the Forests of Jhelum, Mianwali and Shah-

pur Forests Divisions, Punjab Government Printing

Press, Lahore. |

RIPLEY, SIDNEY DILLON (1961): A Synopsis of:

430

the Birds of India and Pakistan, Bombay Natural

History Society.

SCHALLER, G., AND Mirza, Z. (1974): On the

behaviour of Punjab Urial (Ovis orientalis punjab-

iensis). The Behaviour of ungulates and its relation

to Management Vol. (1) IUCN, Morges, Switzer-

land. 306-12.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF MAJOR

CARPS IN A DRY BUNDH OF UTTAR PRADESH

- DURING 1976 MONSOON SEASON' |

Spud:

KARAMCHANDANI,

G. N. MUKERII,

G. N. SRIVASTAVA AND K. CHANDRA?

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

For production of fish seed, bundh breeding

has been a popular method in Bengal and Ma-

dhya Pradesh for the last several years. While

in West Bengal it is practised by private fish

farmers, most of the dry bundhs of Madhya

Pradesh are managed and operated by the State

Fisheries Department. Breeding of major carps

is carried out in dry bundhs on a large scale

in the Bankura and Midnapore districts of

West Bengal, giving no particular attention to

details relating to the number of breeders per

unit area of a bundh, the ratio of male and

female breeders, size compatibility or the con-

dition of their gonads (Dubey 1969). In these

bundhs, the breeding of major carps is induced

by artificially flooding them and thereby creat-

ing fluviatile conditions. However, in the Ban-

kura district a few of the brood fishes are

invariably administered pituitary hormone in-

jections, taking no cognizance of the ratio bet-

ween the numbers of injected and uninjected

fishes to generate sympathetic breeding res-

ponse among the rest of them. The bundh

breeding technique adopted in Sonar Tallaiya

(Dist. Chhatarpur) in Madhya Pradesh in the

year 1958, however, makes a departure from

1 Accepted May 1978.

2Central Inland Fisheries Research -Sub-station,

24 Pannalal Road, Allahabad (U-P.)

the usual practice in that it makes no. provi-

sion for outflow of water at the time of breed-

ing (Dubey and Tuli 1961 and Dubey et al.

1968).

In the present communication are given the

results of experiments on the bundh breeding

of major carps which were conducted at the

Ganne dry bundh of Uttar Pradesh near Allah-

abad during the 1976 monsoon season.

Description of Ganne dry bundh:

Ganne dry bundh is located at a distance of

45 km from Allahabad near Ganne village in

-Tahsil Karchna of Allahabad district (25°N,

81°71'E) on Allahabad-Rewa Road (Fig. 1).

It was constructed by the U.P. Fisheries De-

partment in the year 1971 by putting an earthen

dam wall, across the ‘run-off from the catch-

ment area, with masonry structure of waste

wall. The waste weir is provided with a set of

screens made of expanded metal, along its en-

tire length to permit over-flow of water and

prevent the escape of breeders from the bundh

whereas provision is made to guard the sluice

gate by two types of screens, one made of ex-

panded metal for preventing the escape of

breeders, when the sluice gate is opened to

maintain the water current within the bundh

and the other fine meshed one which is fitted

_after breeding for preventing the loss of fer-

tilized eggs.

431°,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

The bed of the bundh is studded with bould-

ers at several places. The bundh has a gra-

dually sloping catchment area of 1.6 square

km which is mostly rocky and with laterite

soil. The entire catchment area is covered with

GANNE ORY BUNOH

WATCHING ToweR Vi!

: OUTLET

alk

Dhak plants and small bushes. A small rivulet

provides an inlet to the bundh on its western

side. The water from waste-weir and sluice

gate flows through an outlet into a nalah on

the eastern side of the bundh.

HHO INLET NALA

KACHA BUNOH

CEMENTED BUNOH

NALA

Fig. 1. Sketch of Ganne dry bundh.

432

BREEDING OF MAJOR CARPS IN A DRY BUNDH OF U.P.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

For conducting breeding experiments in

Ganne dry bundh, in all 39 breeders of Labeo

rohita (Ham.) and Cirrhinus mrigala (Ham.)

with ripe gonads in prime condition were pro-

cured from the Tendua Fish Farm of Uttar

Pradesh Fisheries Department and transported

in Plastic Pools fitted in a Jeep Trailer, cover-

ing a distance of 85 km. When sufficient rain

water draining about one square mile of catch-

ment area was impounded in the dry bundh,

18 breeders of Labeo rohita and 21 of Cirrhi-

nus mrigala were introduced in two batches

on 3rd and 12th August 1976. The breeders

which were experimented with had the follow-

ing length and weight ranges, and sex ratio

(Table 1).

TABLE |

Species Length Weight Sex ratio

range range

(mm) (gm) (by number)

L. rohita 235-420 150-700 1M:1F

C. mrigala 240-440 200-1200 2M:1F

Prior to introducing the breeders into the

bundh, male and female were kept segregated

in Tendua Fish Farm, as has been recom-

mended by several fishery scientists. In the ab-

sence of stocking ponds at bundh site, diffe-

rent sex ratios could not be attempted nor was

it possible to attempt successive breeding ex-

periments.

Proper screening of breeders in respect of

state of gonads was done before introducing

them into the bundh. The males were selected

initially on the basis of roughness of pectoral

fins and operculum and oozing of milt on slight

pressure on the abdomen. For the selection of

ripe gravid females, the characters like bulg-

ing, soft abdomen and swollen vent were taken

into consideration. The extrusion of eggs with

slight pressure on abdomen was taken as sure

test for ripeness of the ovary.

The initial objective of experiments on

bundh breeding was to elucidate meteorologi-

cal, physico-chemical, and biological factors

specific to breeding. With failure of breeders

of first batch introduced in the bundh on 3rd

August 1976 to respond to breeding due to

drought conditions prevailing until 11th August

1976, one set (2M:1F) each of rohu and

mrigal, out of second lot of breeders, was ad-

ministered with pituitary hormone injection

and released along with remaining uninjected

breeders in the bundh on 12th August 1976

with a view to evoking sympathetic breeding

and determining the optimum ratio between in-

jected and uninjected breeders.

With the conclusion of experiments, the

breeders were netted out from the bundh and

were examined externally to ascertain the num-

ber of breeders that had bred.

During the entire period of investigations,

observations with regard to meteorological and

physico-chemical conditions and _ fluctuations

on water level in the bundh were made.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS

After the accumulation of rain water in the

bundh resulting from initial rains in the last

week of June and subsequent erratic rains in

the following month, the first batch of breeders

was released on 3rd August 1976. While negli-

gible rains were experienced during the entire

month of July and early part of the follow-

ing month, a heavy downpour was recorded

in the night between 11th and 12th August

1976, thereby raising the water level consider-

433

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

ably within the bundh. The downpour and the

resultant influx of water into the bundh hardly

evoked any breeding among the breeders

stocked on 3rd August 1976 and moreover the

number of breeders in the bundh had dwindled

as a result of periodical mortality between 3rd

and 11th August 1976 evidently due to rise

in water temperature in the bundh. Due to this

exigency, the second batch of breeders was

procured in the late afternoon of 12th August

1976. Since the normal breeding conditions did

not prevail and the resorption of the gonads

was feared, one set (2M:1F) each of rohu

and mrigal, out of the second batch, was given

pituitary hormone injection prior to their be-

ing released into the bundh along with other

breeders of the lot in order to facilitate sym-

pathetic breeding among the remaining unin-

jected breeders. After a few hours of releasing

the second lot of breeders including a sub-set

of injected ones, a heavy downpour was ex-

perienced and a congregation of fish was no-

ticed in the evening on the north-west bank

of the bundh, about 50 feet from the waste

weir. Within the following few hours, the ac-

cumulated rain water covered a large periphe-

ral area of the bundh, raising the water level

within the bundh considerably. At this stage,

the sluice gate was fully opened to permit out-

flow of excess water. This was mainly done

for two reasons—firstly, to maintain water cur-

rent within the bundh as this factor is said to

be conducive for breeding and secondly, to

obviate breach in the earthen bundh as it was

feared that accumulated water within the bundh

may exert pressure on the bundh resulting in

breach of bundh as was observed to happen

during 1975 monsoon season. The breeders

were seen moving about actively in the shallow

regions where the water depth was less than

one metre. A constant vigil was kept from

the observation tower throughout the night,

when sex play was observed to be in progress,

and the breeding took place sometime in the

early hours of 13th August 1976 and also on

14th August 1976 near the north-west bank

of the bundh where a mild water current was

observed. A fairly strong water current main-

TABLE 2

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CONDITIONS OF BUNDH WATER RELATING TO PRE-, DURING AND POST BREEDING PERIODS

Physico-Chemical Pre-Breed-

Factors ing period

Air Temperature °C 26.0 — 31.0

Water Temperature °C 26.8 — 31.8

Dissolved Oxygen 6.2 — 8.2

(ppm) d.o.

Free CO, (ppm) 1.0— 4.0

pH 7.8 — 8.0

Hardness (ppm) 18.0 — 22.0

Total Alkalinity 36.0 — 50.0

as CaCO, (ppm)

Calcium (ppm) 24.0 — 36.0

Silicate (ppm) 8.0 — 10.0

Phosphate (ppm) 0.01

Organic Carbon (ppm) 8.8 — 10.2

Transparency (cm) 10.6 — 21.0

434

Period Period

26.8 DO “= Xo.

Al 080 DSN= 131.0

56h, IL 6.0, 9 70

2.021210 [:0°=2""6.0

7.6 TG Z—ON8.0

16.0: 220 18.0 — 20.0

2810) 32.0 30.0 — 34.0

24.0 0) = 24,0

8.0 8.0

0.01 0.01

6.8 — 8.0 Ci Ns 1)

NOE ao NAY) 8.0 — 12.0

BREEDING OF MAJOR CARPS IN A DRY BUNDH OF U.P.

tained by outgoing water was, however, ob-

served near the waste weir and fertilized eggs

in lakhs were seen being washed away from

the spawning ground and escaping through

sluice gate along with gushing waters. The at-

tempt at collecting the fertilised eggs with a

piece of mosquito netting cloth by filtering

gushing water at the other side of the sluice

gate was not successful as majority of them

got ruptured in the process of collection in this

manner. The fertilised eggs at the spawning

ground were allowed to remain undisturbed

for about 8 hours, in order to obviate the rup-

ture of egg shells and consequent damage of

developing embryos. The eggs subsequently col-

lected from the spawning ground were hatch-

ed in double walled hatching hapas fixed in

the bundh itself. The hatchlings on rearing were

found to be mostly of mrigal (70%) and few

of them belonged to rohu (30%).

On the breeding day, the air and water tem-

perature were 26.8°C and 27.7°C respectively,

pH (7.6), D.O (5.6-7.6 ppm) and total alka-

linity (28-32 ppm) was relatively low, while

value of free CO, was high (12.0 ppm). The

high values of free CO, reflects the absence

of carbonate content of water. The details of

physico-chemical features relating to pre-, dur-

ing and post breeding periods are shown in

Table 2.

DISCUSSION

The year 1976 was marked by erratic mon-

soons, and drought conditions prevailed until

11th August. Though the first batch of breed-

ers with ripe gonads in prime condition was

stocked in Ganne dry bundh on 3rd August

after the accumulation of sufficient water in it

the breeding among them was not induced upto

llth August due to lack of heavy flooding

of the bundh and other associated conditions.

Khan (1924) and Ganapati and Chacko (1954)

observed that flooding in the early phase of

south-west monsoons is necessary and the fish

do not spawn if the rains are delayed. Khanna

(1958) reported that during the course of his

observations the fish did not breed during the

years when the floods were insufficient and un-

timely. Bhimachar and Tripathi (1967) stated

that the breeding among major carps is induc-

ed by suitable meteorological conditions during

monsoon period. Further they stated that the

breeding season of major carps is short and

the optimum weather conditions are limited to

a few days during this (monsoon) period and

as such the scope of induced breeding is very

much restricted, even when a good stock of

breeders is available.

The heavy monsoon showers in the catch-

ment area of Ganne dry bundh resulting in

heavy flooding of the bundh was experienced

in the night of 11th/12th August, which amply

provided favourable conditions for the breed-

ing of major carps in the bundh. Since the

resorption of the gonads of major carps is

generally believed to commence by mid Au-

gust, it was considered that the breeders were

not in a condition to respond to suitable envi-

ronmental conditions prevailing then, fearing

that their gonads were already on way to re-

sorption. Therefore amongst the second batch

of breeders which were obtained on 12th Au-

gust 1976 for stocking the dry bundh, one set

each of rohu and mrigal (2M: 1F) were

administered pituitary hormone injection in or-

der to induce sympathetic breeding among

the rest including the breeders stocked on 3rd

August 1976. It is significant to record that

the breeding in 18 sets of uninjected breeders

was stimulated by one set of injected breed-

ers of the two species of fish, ratio between

injected and uninjected breeders being 1:9. It

would lead to valuable information if further

435

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

such experiments are conducted to determine

the extent to which optimum ratio between the

two could be increased, as this would help

saving pituitary gland injection when sympa-

thetic breeding may have to be resorted to on

occasions when breeding in dry bundhs does

not normally come off due to drought condi-

tions which may happen during monsoons.

Ranganathan et al. (1967) reported for the

first time successful sympathetic spawning of

major carps in cement cistern. Choudary

(1968) reported on the indirect inducement

of fish breeding in barren bundh-type fishery

by selective induced breeding. Mitra (1974)

has given observations of an experiment con-

ducted for the purpose of inducing breeding

of uninjected breeders kept together with pi-

tuitary injected ones in the same confinement.

In these instances of sympathetic breeding in

cisterns or other confined waters, no account of

environmental conditions including physico-

chemical factors has been given. While dis-

cussing the factors responsible for the breed-

ing of major carps in rivers, reservoirs, ponds

etc., Hora (1945), Hussain (1945), Khan

(1945), Mookerjee (1945), Chaudhuri (1969)

and Ray et al. (1969) have considered fresh

rain water, flood water, water current, shallow

inundated areas and physico-chemical condi-

tions of water, such as turbidity, tempcrature,

pH, dissolved oxygen content, hardness, car-

bonates, bicarbonates, chlorides etc. as impor-

tant ecological inducements for natural spawn-

ing of Indian major carps. Of these, fresh rain

water and flooded condition appear to provide

primary stimuli to spawning and sex play, fi-

nally resulting in spawning (Singh 1969).

During investigations at Ganne dry bundh,

rohu and mrigal breeders were released on 3rd

August 76 in the bundh containing rain water

accumulated during earlier showers in June, but

436

they did not breed evidently because there were

no heavy showers during the period between

3rd and 11th August, 1976 to cause further

accumulation of rain water creating flooded

conditions within the bundh and also lowering

of atmosphere and water temperature—so

essential for providing stimulus for breeding

(Dubey e¢ al. 1968, Chaudhuri 1969, Gupta

1908, Mookerjee et al. 1944, Hora 1945, Ga-

napati ef al. 1947, Bhimachar & Tripathi 1967

and Selvaraj et al. 1971). However, heavy

showers in the vicinity of the bundh and re-

sultant on-rush of water in the bundh were ex-

perienced on the night of 11th/12th August,

1976, and following two days. With the intro-

duction of one set each of injected rohu and

mrigal breeders (26:12) in the evening of

12th August, 1976 in the bundh, the breeding

in the uninjected breeders was induced suc-

cessfully in the early hours of 13th and 14th

August, 1976. This was primarily attributed to

heavy showers adding rain water in sufficient

quantity in the bundh creating flood-like con-

ditions, and providing moderate water at the

spawning ground (De 1910, Khan 1924,

Hora 1945, Kussain 1945, Khanna 1958, and

Anand 1973). The other factors which were

probably conducive to sympathetic breeding in

the present case appear to be lower pH (Gana-

pati and Chacko 1954, Khanna 1958 and Sel-

varaj et al. 1971), lower oxygen content of

water (Khan 1924, Alikunhi 1951 and Khan-

na 1958), lower values of total alkalinity

(Saha et al. 1957 and Selvaraj et al. 1971) and

high free carbon dioxide (Selvaraj et al. 1971).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. V. G. Jhingran,

Director, Central Inland Fisheries Research

BREEDING OF MAJOR CARPS IN A DRY BUNDH OF U.P.

Institute, for his interest in the work,

and to Dr. A. V. Natarajan, Head of the Ri-

verine and Lacustrine Division of the Institute,

for critically going through the manuscript.

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of carp spawning in the River Cauvery at Bha-

vani during June, 1947. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

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— et al. (1964): Observations on the

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dhya Pradesh, during July-August, 1964. Bull. Centr.

Inst. Fish. Educ., Bombay (1): 22 p.

Ananp, J. N. (1973): Experiments on induced

breeding of Indian major carps by pituitary hor-

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Soc. V, pp. 37-45, Dec. 1973.

BHIMACHAR, B. S. AND TRIPATHI, S. D. (1967):

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CHAUDHURI, H. (1969): Methods adopted for in-

ducing breeding of fishes. F.A.O./UNDP Regional

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Calcutta, Cuttack, Bombay. FRI/IBCF /4, July 15

to Aug. 18, 1969: p. 16.

Cuoupary, N. K. (1968): Seminar on Produc-

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of papers, ICAR No. 1 & 2, 1968.

De, K. C. (1910): Report on the Fisheries of

Eastern Bengal and Assam, Shillong.

Dusey, G. P. (1969): Induced breeding of In-

dian Carp in dry bundhs. FAO/UNDP Regional Se-

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cutta, Cuttack, Bombay. FRI/IBCF/21, July 15 to

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Dusey, G. P., ARJUN SINGH AND PANDEY, M. R.

(1968): Fish seed production from Dry-bundhs and

its economics. Seminar on production of quality fish

seed for fish culture. Barrackpore, November 1 &

2, 1968.

Dupsey, G. P. AND TuLt, R. P. (1961): Observa-

tions on the breeding of major carps in Madhya

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GANAPATI, S. V. AND CHACKO, P. I. (1954): Some

observations on the spawning of Indian carps in the

“bundhs” of Bengal. Indian Geogr. J., 27 (3 & 4):

1-17.

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hydrobiology of carp spawning in the Cauvery.

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on carp breeding and culture in confined waters of

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Gupta, K. G. (1908): Report on the results of

enquiry into the fisheries of Bengal and into fishery

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influencing the spawning of Indian carps. Proc.

natn. Inst. Sci. India (B),-11: 303-12.

Hussain, A. (1945): Analysis of experimental

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natn. Inst. Sci. India (B), 11(3) 320-4.

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habits of some fresh-water fishes in the Punjab.

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(1945): Observations on the spawn-

ing behaviour of carp in the Punjab. Proc. natn.

Inst. Sci. India, 11(3): 315-20.

KHANNA, D. V. (1958): Observations on the

spawning of the major carps at a fish farm in the

Punjab. Indian J. Fish. 5(2): 282-90.

Mitra, S. D. (1974): A note on successful sym-

pathetic breeding on Indian Major carps without

injecting fish pituitary. J. Zool. Soc. India 26,

Nowe 1 i& 22 154-155.

MOooKERJEE, H. K., MAzumpar, S. R. AND DAS

GupTA, B. M. (1944): Observations on the breed-

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carps in the Midnapore district, Bengal with sug-

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81-91.

MOooKERJEE, H. K. (1945): Factors influencing

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R. D. (1969): A note on the breeding of Labeo

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bay nat. Hist. Soc. 66(2): 392-394.

RANGANATHAN, V., SREENIVASAN, A., UMMER.

K. AND VASUDEVAN, N. K. (1967): Two interesting

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

cases of spawning of major carps in confined cement

tanks. Curr. Sci. 36(5): 129-131.

SAHA, K. C., SEN, D. P., Roy CHowpHary, A.

K. AND CHAKRAVARTY, S. K. (1957): Studies on the

factors influencing spawning of Indian major carps

in ‘Bundh’ fisheries. Indian J. Fish. 4(2): 284-94.

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438

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III: 129-30.

SINGH, S. B. (1969): ‘Ecological requirements for

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THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE BARREDBACK PHEASANT

ISYRMATICUS HUMIAE (HUME)!

G. W. H. DAVISON?

(With two text-figures)

The Barredback Pheasant. native to north and east Burma, has become common in

captivity since 1962. Observations were made over two years on the behaviour of

captive individuals in Britain. Published notes on behaviour in the wild are sum-

- marized, and followed by notes on comfort movements, agonistic behaviour, sexual

displays, nesting and the calls of captive birds.

INTRODUCTION

The Barredback Pheasant Syrmaticus hu-

miae is found in the wild state through north

and east Burma, and in the adjacent parts of

Manipur, Yunnan and northern § Thailand.

Apart from field observations by Beebe

(1926), records of this species are confined

to short notes mainly in faunistic papers. Some

notes on the behaviour of wild birds were

given by Stuart Baker (1930). Barredback

Pheasants of the western, nominate subspecies

became common in captivity in Europe and

America after 1962 (Wayre 1969), and this

has permitted more detailed observations of

their behaviour. Observations were made dur-

ing 1973 and 1974 on the behaviour of several

birds, kept in pairs or trios in outdoor en-

closures in Britain.

DESCRIPTION

This is a slightly built pheasant, the male

mainly coppery brown with a steel-blue head

1 Accepted June 1979.

2 Dept. of Wildlife and National. Parks, P.O. Box

611, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

and neck, a black and white rump, and a long

grey tail barred with black and chestnut. Two

white bars cross the wing, with a broad patch

of steel-blue between them, and a third white

bar crosses the scapulars. Around the eye is

a scarlet distensible wattle, and above this a

white superciliary line. The female is mottled

with dull brown, sandy brown and black; a

light sandy patch replaces the blue wing-patch

of the male. The outer rectrices and the under

tail-coverts are chestnut with black and white

tips.

BEHAVIOUR IN THE WILD

Although Hume (1881) in his original des-

cription said that they live from 2500 to 5000

feet elevation, the normally reported altitude

limits are higher. The lowest records other

than Hume’s are at 2750 feet in the valley

of the river Toubal in Manipur (Ali and

Ripley 1969) and at 4000 feet at Haka and

in the Chin Hills, Burma; the highest are at

10,000 feet in the Naga Hills (Stuart Baker

1930) and on Mount Victoria, its most south-

erly station (Stresemann and Heinrich 1940).

They are commoner in the lower parts of this

altitudinal range, moving up to the hill tops

439

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

in warm wet weather and lower in cooler dry

weather (Drummond 1923), but nests have

been found as high as 7000 feet (Stuart Baker

1930). Possibly the higher altitude limits re-

ported since Hume’s time reflect human pre-

dation in the more accessible lower part of

its range.

Barredback Pheasants are forest-edge birds.

They are not found in the dense seasonal

subtropical forest of the lower hills but in the

more open forest higher up. There they are

found amongst scrub oak, conifers or mixed

woodland, wherever this is interrupted by

grassland or dense patches of bracken or

dwarf date palm. They frequent rocky hill-

sides with scrub forest lacking big trees, but

are not found in truly open country (Drum-

mond 1923), which suggests that they prefer

edge habitats, including the thick growth along

streams (Hume 1881). On grassy hillsides

broken by rocky outcrops the birds can feed

in the open parts while the rocks provide

cover and escape by flight down the hillside

is easy. They feed during the morning and

evening, and retreat to the taller forest during

the hottest part of the day and to roost at

night.

The degree to which males hold stable terri-

tories in the breeding season is uncertain.

Males are polygynous and the birds live in

small flocks with one adult male and several

females. Flocks of upto ten have been seen,

which may include young birds (Stuart Baker

1930), but parties of three to five are com-

moner (Drummond 1923). Sclitary males have

also been seen, perhaps old birds after all

their mates have dispersed to nest, or young

males which have not yet acquired a group

of females. A crowing call has been mentioned

only by Beebe (1926).

In the wild nests have been found from

March to May; the clutch size varies from six

440

to ten with a mean of 7.6 (five clutches).

The diet includes acorns, wild raspberries,

palm fruits, chestnuts, various unidentified

fruits and seeds, and occasional snails, worms

and other invertebrates (Drummond 1923,

Beebe 1926, Stuart Baker 1930).

BEHAVIOUR IN CAPTIVITY

Comfort movements:

Barredback Pheasants often bathe in dry

dusty soil, lying on one side and scratching

vigorously in the earth with one foot, wriggl-

ing on the belly so that dust is worked between

the ruffled feathers, and turning on to the

other side. They sunbathe lying on one side

with one wing and leg stretched out, and often

with the tail spread on the same side, both

eyes or the eye facing into the sun closed, and

the feathers ruffled.

All the plumage is shaken by a rolling body

shake, so brisk that the bird appears to stag-

ger on its feet (Fig. le).

The most frequent, unilateral stretching mo-

vement involves one leg, lifted from _ the

ground and stretched backwards, and the low-

ering and stretching of the wing on the same

side; the foot of the stretched leg is brushed

by the spread primaries or protrudes through

them. Both sexes sometimes stretch by spread-

ing the tail laterally and symmetrically. They

stretch both wings and the tail by lifting the

two closed wings high over the back, so that

the carpal joints almost touch, and spreading

the tail laterally, a movement which in the

Junglefowl Gallus gallus has been termed ‘bila-

teral stretching’ (Kruijt 1964). Occasionally

this movement is accompanied by defecation.

The three stretching movements are sometimes

performed one after the other in sequence,

unilateral stretching, tail stretching and _ bila-

teral stretching. ee

Females sometimes stand in an erect posture

BEHAVIOUR OF THE BARREDBACK PHEASANT

Fig. 1. Agonistic and comfort behaviour of the Barredback Pheasant: (a) crouch-

ing in response to a predator overhead, (b) an extreme alert posture, (c) forward-

directed threat at a sparrow, (d) alert posture after escaping a predator, with the

head feathers ruffled, (e) shaking all the plumage.

441

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

with the crown, neck and breast feathers rais-

ed, spread the tail laterally, and give two or

three flaps of the wings. No call accompanies

the wing-flapping.

Agonistic behaviour:

When a potential predator flies high over-

head, the bird looks up with one eye by turn-

ing its head on one side. On the closer ap-

proach of a predator, aerial or terrestrial, the

bird may strut about in an alert posture with

all the body and wing feathers sleeked, and

flick the tail wide open every few seconds, to

the accompaniment of a persistent slow cluck-

ing. This exposes the chestnut lateral rectrices

with their striking black-and-white tips.

Both sexes crouch at the very close approach

of an aerial predator, with the feathers sleek-

ed and the head and tail lowered (Fig. la);

crouching is often a preliminary to flight. In

the contrasting alert posture, the head and

neck are stretched up high as the bird looks

about, while the tail remains low. In an ex-

treme alert posture the bird appears to lean

backwards, with the head held high over the

back (Fig. Ib): this is accompanied in the

male by a long shrill whistle, which degene-

rates into a loud clucking and may be repeat-

ed at intervals of five seconds or longer. The

alarm call may be continued for up to 20 mi-

nutes after disappearance of the predator.

If it is attacked, a bird will escape either

by running, with the head and tail lowered,

or with the tail raised but not spread, or by

flying a short distance and then running. (Wild

birds run from men but fly up into the trees

at the approach of a dog. In open areas they

escape by flying downhill if approached from

above, or by running uphill if approached from

below.) After avoiding attack a bird struts

about in an alert posture with the crown

feathers ruffled, flicking the tail open and

clucking loudly (Fig. 1d).

442

Barredback Pheasants threaten birds of

other species, and small mammals, with a for-

ward posture by facing the other animal, low-

ering the head, raising and spreading the tail

and ruffling all the body feathers (Fig. Ic).

In this posture the pheasant may run forwards

and make lunging movements with the head.

Both males and females have a lateral threat

display used against conspecifics, very like the

male’s lateral display to the female during

courtship, and it is used between males or by

a female trying to avoid a courting male. The

wing nearer the other individual is lowered

and the farther wing slightly raised, but nei-

ther the primaries nor the secondaries are

spread. The ruffled rump feathers are exposed,

and the tail is spread and tilted towards the

other bird. The head is held high and, in

males, the wattles are distended. During lateral

threat males do not run past one another, but

stand, walk slowly along or run side by side.

Rival males use lateral and forward threat

postures, face one another bill to bill, then

leap into the air, flapping the wings and strik-

ing with the feet and spurs.

Males advertise their presence to others over

short distances with a Wing Whirring display.

The male stands erect with the head high and

the face wattles distended, the tail lowered and

fanned, and whirrs the wings vigorously

through a narrow arc for one to five seconds.

The upright posture reveals the rich brown

underparts, and the sound of the beating wings

can be heard for over 30 metres. Wing Whir-

ring is usually performed on a mound or slight

rise in the ground, or from a perch on a stump

or fallen log, and particular sites are used re-

peatedly. No loud crow is associated with

Wing Whirring, but at high intensity there is

a very quiet clucking, much quieter than the

sound produced by the wings and hence prob-

ably insignificant as a signal. This advertising

BEHAVIOUR OF THE BARREDBACK PHEASANT

display is most often performed in the spring.

It is often given soon after the male descends

from his rcost in the morning, reaches a peak

within an hour or two, and gradually de-

creases in frequency through the rest of the

day. When two males are in close proximity

they Wing Whirr frequently, facing one another

if they are in view; and the sound of one male

Wing Whirring often induces another male to

do so. Wing Whirring is sometimes given in

response to loud noises such as thunder, and

after disturbance by a potential predator while

still walking round in an alert posture. The

short range over which this is an effective signal

suggests that in the wild state males may not

be strictly territorial but perhaps use the dis-

play when wide-ranging flocks approach one

another.

Sexual displays:

In captivity displays which appear to be

sexually motivated are commonest in March

and April, about the time of egg-iaying. In

courtship feeding or ‘Tidbitting’ (Domm 1927),

the male slightly distends his face wattles and

pecks at a small object, a pebble or a twig or

a bit of food on the ground, repeatedly pick-

ing it up and dropping it while calling with

a gentle high-pitched clucking. The female then

usually runs forward to the male and pecks

at whatever is on the ground.

Lateral and Frontal displays have been de-

scribed by Davison (1975). Lateral display by

a male to a female resembles the lateral threat

used between males, but the head is held lower

(Fig. 2a). The face wattles are distended, ob-

scuring the white eyebrows, the nearer wing

is lowered and the farther wing slightly raised,

exposing the white bars and blue patches on

the wings and the ruffled black and white

feathers on the rump. The tail is spread and

tilted towards the female. In the Lateral pos-

ture the male runs in arcs before the female,

always turning away at the end of each run,

whereas rival males walk or run side by side

and usually, though not always, turn towards

one another when changing direction.

On occasion one captive male during la-

teral display suddenly veered towards the fe-

male, spreading first the primaries of his nearer

wing, then of both wings (Fig. 2b). The tail

was raised and fully spread, and directed for-

wards, not ‘tilted to one side. In this posture

the head was surrounded by the white and blue

wing markings (Fig. 2c). The male faced the

female and made rocking movements, lunging

forwards with the bill and jerking the tail

upwards. This display closely resembled for-

ward-directed threat (cf. Davison 1976). Fron-

tal displays of Elliot's Pheasant Syrmaticus

ellioti and the Mikado Pheasant S. mikado

have been mentioned by Delacour (1951).

When the female crouches, the male ap-

proaches in an erect posture with his face

wattles distended and the nape feathers raised

into a peak. He mounts the female by High-

stepping (Wood-Gush 1971), and sometimes

grasps the female’s nape in his bill during

copulation. No distinct post-copulatory displays

were seen, but one female preened immediate-

ly after copulation.

Nesting:

Captive females nest on the ground, beneath

a shrub or in thick grass if this is available.

The nest is a slight hollow in the ground en-

larged by scraping with the feet, simply lined

with a few twigs or dead leaves, or whatever

materral lies within reach of the incubating

female, who inserts the nest material around

her breast and flanks by Sideways-building

(Harrison 1967). The amount of nest material

thus accumulated continually increases as in-

cubation proceeds. Laying occurs every se-

cond day and, as in the Crestless Fireback

Lophura erythrophthalma (Jarvis and Med-

443

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

way 1969) and the Great Argus Argusianus

argus (pers. obs.), takes place in the early

evening; three eggs were laid by a captive fe-

male at 16:45h, 17:10h and 17:30h on alter-

nate days. There is evidence that young fe-

males lay smaller clutches than older ones,

since a female in her first season laid only three

eggs whereas the normal clutch is six or more.

Until the clutch is complete the female roosts

off the ground. Incubation is by the female

alone.

Captive birds in Britain lay in late March

t ne

ee ACG

Pr ab o-

/ \

(ea) )

Fig. 2. - Sexual displays of the male Barredback Pheasant: (a) Lateral display, seen

from the female’s point of view, (b) Frontal display seen from the side, showing

the spread primaries and raised tail, which from this position is flicked forwards

repeatedly, (c) Frontal display from the female’s point of view, showing the broad

fan of plumage with white wing-bars circling the head.

444

BEHAVIOUR OF THE BARREDBACK : PHEASANT

or in April, and in the wild state nests have

been found from mid March to mid May

(Beebe 1926, Stuart Baker 1930). The eggs

are dull creamy white, the inside of the shell

white, and in size they average 47 x 35.5 mm

(average of five). Wild-laid eggs average 48.7

(51.5-46.0) x 35.3. (37.5-33.2) mm _ (Stuart

Baker 1930). The egg weight is approximately

33g, a full clutch therefore weighing from 198

to 330 g, and the egg volume 30 cm?* (average

of three). : sient

Voice:

which appears to be a contact note, and a loud

clucking buk, buk..., a contact note used bet-

ween members of a group, which is the most

frequently heard call. When birds are frighten-

ed this clucking becomes louder and higher-

pitched, and an insistent clucking is also used

as an aggressive note between males about to

fight. The screeching alarm call has been de-

scribed above, and a similar but shorter

screech was heard from a captive female when

she was attacked by a male. A loud hiss is

given by the male in high intensity lateral dis-

play as he runs past the female and is accom-

panied by an apparent expansion of the body.

Beebe (1926) mentioned a harsh crow, heard

regularly from wild birds morning and even-

ing, but this was not heard from captive males.

DISCUSSION

The behaviour of the Barredback Pheasant

is no more specialized than that of its con-

geners S. ellioti and §. mikado or various other

pheasants of the subtropical zone (Delacour

Males and females have a loud single chuck,

1951): This appears to be a typical polygynous

pheasant living in small groups with a single

adult male and several females, with their at-

tendant young at the appropriate season. Since

the male seems to lack a loud advertising crow,

but has a Wing Whirring. display which has

the same function over a shorter distance, like

various species of Lophura but unlike Pha-

sianus,’ the area used by the flock may be

small, or fluid and not strictly defended against

other groups. Morphologically, however, the

Barredback Pheasant and its congeners close-

ly resemble Phasianus. bee :

- All the comfort movements, and all the re-

actions to predators except the alert posture

with whistle (Fig. 1b), closely resemble those

of other game-birds (cf. Wood-Gush 1971).

As in Anseriformes (Johnsgard 1965) these as-

pects of behaviour give little clue to systema+

tic relationships. The Lateral display resembles

that of its congeners S. ellioti and S. mikado,

as well as that of Phasianus except in small

details. That of Phasianus is slower and the

primaries of the nearer wing are spread (Kruijt

1963). Spreading of the primaries, which was

seen in the male Barredback Pheasant as he

veered towards the female, contrasts with the

displays of most pheasant genera, for example

(those which are morphologically most similar

to Syrmaticus and Phasianus) of Lophura,

Catreus and Chrysolophus. The Frontal display

differs from the Frontal displays of Polyplec-

tron, Argusianus, Pavo and Lophophorus

which have been analysed by Schenkel (1956),

and may be an aberrant behaviour pattern in-

duced by the constrained conditions of capti-

vity.

445

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

REFERENCES

ALI, S. AND RIpLey, S. D. (1969): Handbook of

the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 2. Bombay.

BEEBE, W. (1926): Pheasants, their lives and

homes. London.

Davison, G. W. H. (1975): Frontal display in

the Bar-tailed Pheasant. Pheasant Trust ann. Rep.

1974: 25-26.

(1976): The function of tail and

under tail-covert patterns in pheasants. [bis 118: 123-

126.

DELACOUR, J. (1951): The Pheasants of the World.

London.

DomoM, L. (1927): New experiments on ovario-

tomy and the problem of sex inversion in the fowl.

J. exp. Zool. 48: 31-73.

DRUMMOND, J. G. P. (1923): The Burmese Bar-

red-back Pheasant (Phasianus humiae burmannicus).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 29: 562-563.

HARRISON, C. J. O. (1967): Sideways-throwing

and sideways-building in birds. Ibis 109: 539-551.

HumME, A. O. (1881): Callophasis humiae, Sp.

Nov. Mrs. Hume’s Pheasant. Stray Feathers 9: 461-

467.

446

JARVIS, C. AND MeEpway, Lorp. (1969): Sideways

throwing and associated reproductive behaviour in

the Crestless Fireback Pheasant Lophura erythroph-

thalma. Pheasant Trust ann. Rep. 1968: 13-14.

JOHNSGARD, P. (1965): Handbook of waterfowl

behaviour. London.

KrulJT, J. P. (1963): Notes on wing display in

the courtship of pheasants. Avicult. Mag. 69: 11-20.

(1964): Ontogeny of social be-

haviour in Burmese Red Junglefowl (Gallus galius

spadiceus). Leiden.

SCHENKEL, R. (1956): Zur Deutung der Balzleis-

tungen einiger Phasianiden und Tetraoniden. Erster

Teil. Orn. Beobacht. 53: 182-201.

STRESEMANN, E. AND HEINRICH, G. (1940): Die

Vogel des Mount Victoria. Mitteil. Zool. Mus. Ber-

lin 24: 151-264.

STUART BAKER, E. C. (1930): The Game Birds

of India, Burma and Ceylon. Vol. 3. Bombay.

Wayre, P. (1969): A Guide to the Pheasants of

the World. London.

Woop-cusH, D. G. M. (1971):

of the Domestic Fowl. London.

The Behaviour

INDO-PHILIPPINE SPECIES OF DISOPHRYS FOERSTER

(HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE)*

SHAMA BHAT?

(With seventeen text-figures)

Two new species of Disophrys Foerster viz., D. indica and D. latiabdominalis

are described. A key to the Indo-Philippine species is provided. Three known species

from Philippines and two known species from India are redescribed.

INTRODUCTION

Disophrys Foerster is a large genus, world

wide in distribution. It belongs to the subfami-

ly Agathidinae of the family Braconidae.

Brullé (1846), Cameron (1903, 1904, 1905,

1907, 1908), Szépligeti (1908), Roman (1913),

Enderlein 1918 (1920) and Turner (1922)

have described a large number of species from

the Oriental Region. Baltazar (1963) has

transferred some of the species of this genus

to other genera of Agathidinae. According to

Shenefelt (1970) 23 species have been report-

ed from the Oriental Region but this paper

deals with Indo-Philippine species only. I have

compared the new species described here with

all the Oriental species of this genus. Nine spe-

cies are known from India and Philippines and

TABLE 1

COMPARISON OF Disophrys FOERSTER AND Zelomorpha ASHMEAD

Characters Zelomorpha

Ashmead

1. Fore tibial spur

. Longer middle tibial spur

basitarsus (Fig.

3. Eyes

4. Malar space

5. Interocellar distance

6. Submediellan cell

curved and more

pointed (Fig. 9)

1.0x as long as middle

10)

strongly rounded and weakly

emarginate (Fig.

less, 1.0 the basal

width of mandible

1.0x the ocello-ocular

distance (Fig. 1)

0.33 the mediella

Disophrys

Foerster

less curved and less

pointed (Fig. 11)

0.5-0.6 x as long as middle

basitarsus (Fig. 12)

moderately rounded and not

1) emarginate (Fig. 2)

3-4 the basal width of

mandible

0.3-0.5 x the ocello-ocular

distance (Fig. 2)

0.5x the mediella

SSE TELA TIE NP ON OL IOI Y RED TE I PE DT A ITT SRT PSY)

1 Accepted May 1978.

Department of Zoology, University of Delhi,

Delhi-7.

447

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL

among these Disophrys sissoo Wilkinson has

been transferred to Zelomorpha Ashmead. The

co-type of D. sissoo, matches with Zelomorpha

amplarga Gupta & Bhat, 1972 and Zelomor-

pha amplarga is relegated as a synonym of

Zelomorpha sissoo (Wilkinson). Both the ge-

nera, Disophrys and Zelomorpha are confus-

ing. The distinguishing characters of the two

genera are given ‘in the Table 1.

Genus Disophrys Foerster

Disophrys Foerster, 1862,. Verh. Naturh. ver.

Preuss. Rheinlande, 19:246. Type Ichneumon

inculcator Linnaeus; monobasic and original a

signation.

~. Brachyropalum Kriechbaumer, 1894, Berl. Ent. ‘Z.,

39:312. Type: Brachyropalum pallidum Kriech-

baumer; monobasic. .

Coccygidium Saussure, 1892, In Ginndidier: Hist.

Phys. Nat. Polit. Madagascar, 20: pl. 15, fig. OT.

Type: Coccygidium luteum Saussure; monobasic.

Pseudoagathis Kriechbaumer, 1894, Berl. Ent. Z.,

39:65. Type: Pseudoagathis calabarica Kriech-

baumer; monobasic.

The main distinguishing characters of this

genus are: Face not rostriform; frontal depres-

sion bordered by frontal and marginal cart-

nae; facial tubercles pointed; notauli shallow

or deep; mesopleural furrow distinct and trans- |

versely carinated; propodeum areolated, pro-

podeal spiracle elongated; submediellan cell

0.5 x the mediella; fore tibial spur not curved —

as in Zelomorpha (Figs. 9, 10, 11 & 12); longer

middle tibial spur 0.5-0.7 x as long as middle —

basitarsus; claws of fore and middle legs bifid;

Ovipositor very short or barely exerted.

Type-species: : Tolmeninon

naeus

morpha Ashmead in the following characters:

Presence of frontal and marginal carinae; dis-

tinct notauli; presence of mesopleural furrow;

facial tubercles pointed; areolated propodeum;

448

dq. Head and thorax densely punctate,

inculcator \Lin-

Disophrys shows marked affinity with Zelo-

HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

propodeal spiracle elongate and short ovipo-

-sitor. But it can be separated by the characters

given in the Table 1..

It shares certain characters with FEuagathis

-Szépligeti in the bifid fore and middle claws,

areolated propodeum, elongate propodeal spi-.

racle, notauli and mesopleural furrow distinct

and short ovipositor. But Euagathis can be

separated by the absence of frontal and margi-

nal carinae on frons, weak facial tubercles and

the submediellan cell being 0.33 the me-

diella.

KEY TO THE, INDO-PHILIPPINE SPECIES OF Disophrys

especially

face, meso-and metapleurae; abdomen and hind

leg usually black, if yellow then the entire

body yellowish

Head and thorax shiny, smooth or with sparse

punctures especially on subpleural area and

metapleurum; abdomen and hind leg usually

yellowish (except in indica sp. nov. and rufo-

plagiata, where it is black)

2. Entire body yellowish to yellowish-red; apical

0.5 of fore wing brown and basal 0.5 yellow-

ish-hyaline with a brown stigmal spot reach-

ing hinder end of the fore wing; smaller spe-

cies, 7-8 mm long; notauli deep with a few

carinae; middle lobe of mesoscutum distinctly

raised; ocellar triangle depressed; mesopleural

furrow with short transverse carinae

Vertex, occiput, mesoscutum (except in colas

pis), abdomen and hind leg dark brown to

black; wings either dark brown or basal 0.33

yellowish-hyaline and apical 0.66 dark brown

‘without any stigmal spot; large species, 9-12

mm long; notauli shallow with long transverse

carinae; middle lobe of mesoscutum depressed;

ocelli small, ocellar triangle raised; facial tu-

bercles strongly protruding; mesopleural fur-

row with long transverse carinae

3. Hind tibia black; head covered with brown pube-

scence; wings hyaline with yellowish tinge.

Sri Lanka and India...kandyensis (Cameron)

Apex of hind tibia brown; head covered with

golden yellow pubescence; apical 0.5 of wings

INDO-PHILIPPINE SPECIES OF DISOPHRYS FOERSTER

brown and basal 0.5 yellowish-hyaline with a

brown stigmal spot. India..................

Se AN EM NSS a subfasciata (Brulle)

4. Scutellum with an apical carina, lateral carinae

absent, (Fig. 16); basal 0.33 of wings yellow-

ish-hyaline and apical 0.66 dark brown; frons,

middle of vertex and occiput black; all the

mesoscutal lobes with black spots; propodeum

as in fig. 5. Philippines...... insignis Roman

Scutellum carinated on lateral sides and apex,

with a longitudinal carinae (Fig. 15) dividing

scutellum into two parts; wings dark brown;

frons and vertex yellowish-red (except in phi-

lippinensis Roman); mesoscutum either wholly

black or yellowish-red; propodeum as in figs.

6 & 8

5. Head and thorax yellowish-red; hind coxa long,

2 x as long as wide; mesoscutal lobes smooth;

Propodeum with strong carinae (Fig. 6). Phi-

lippines coelaspis Roman

Vertex, occiput and mesoscutum black; hind

coxa thick, 1.5xas long as wide; mesoscutal

lobes with big punctures; propodeum with

weak carinae (Fig. 8). Philippines...........

of oa eA nected, aan a philippinensis Roman

6. Wings entirely dark brown; abdomen and _ hind

leg dark brown.

Basal 0.33-0.5 of wings yellowish-hyaline and

apical 0.5-0.6 light brown to dark brown.

7. Head, palpi and mesopleurum black; mesopleu-

rum with a reddish spot; coxae, trochanters

and femora thickly covered with white pube-

Scene, Indian 38 7... rufoplagiata (Cameron)

Head, palpi and thorax yellowish-red; coxae,

trochanters and femora. sparsely pubescent.

RDA ee GEN SD indica sp. nov.

8. Fore wing without any brown stigmal spot;

apical few tergites of abdomen dark brown;

vertex and genae brown; propodeum with in-

distinct carinae; abdomen long and narrow.

India dehraensis Turner

Fore wing with a brown stigmal spot; abdomen

yellowish to yellowish-red; vertex yellowish-

red; propodeum with distinct carinae; abdo-

men. Very wide 7CBISs s)he ey is thee 9

9. Second cubital cell not emitting a short vein;

vertex and occiput yellowish; mesopleural fur-

row weakly carinated; hind coxa 2x as long

as wide; first tergite longer than wide at apex;

body length 8 mm. India. .Jaticeps (Cameron)

Second cubital cell emitting a short vein; vertex

and occiput brownish; mesopleural furrow

moderately carinated; hind coxa 1.0 x as long

as wide; first tergite as long as (1.0) wide

at apex (Fig. 13); body length 13-14 mm.

latiabdominalis sp. nov.

1. Disophrys kandyensis (Cameron)

Agathis kandyensis Cameron, 1905, Spolia Zey-

lan. 13: 77. Type & Sri Lanka: Kandy

(London).

Disophrys kandyensis: Dover, 1925, Ent. Mitt.,

14: 40.

Agathis abuensis Cameron, 1907, Z. Syst. Hyme-

nopt. Dipterol., 7: 465. Type 6, India: Abu

(London). Syn. by Dover, 1925.

Agathis oya Cameron, 1905, Spolia Zeylan., 3:

78. Types 232, location unknown. Syn. by

Dover, 1925.

This species resembles subfasciata (Brullé)

but it can be distinguished by a set of charac-

ters given in the key.

2. Disophrys subfasciata (Brullé)

(Figs. 11 & 12)

Agathis subfasciata Brullé, 1846, Hist. Nat. In-

sects Hym., 4: 489. Type @, India (Paris),

Disophrys subfasciata: Dover, 1925, Ent. Mitt.,

14: 40.

This species is characterized by having the

apex of hind tibia black, head with golden

yellow pubescence and apical 0.5 of wings

brown and basal 0.5 yellowish-hyaline with a

brown stigmal spot reaching hinder end of

the fore wing. |

Male and female: Face densely punctate;

facial tubercles promient; face and clypeus

1.0 as long as wide; malar space sparsely

punctate, 2 x the basal width of mandible and

0.5 x the eye height; scape short and stout,

16x as long as wide; vertex and occiput

smooth; ocelli big; interocellar distance 0.35 x

the ocello-ocular distance and 2 x the distance

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

between median and lateral ocelli; mesoscutum

shiny, closely punctate, its middle lobe raised;

notauli deep, very weakly and _ transversely

carinated; prescutellar depression with three

longitudinal carinae; scutellum densely punct-

ate with an apical carina; mesopleurum sparse-

ly punctate; subpleural area densely punctate;

mesopleural furrow deep, moderately carinat-

ed, metapleurum densely punctate with a few

zigzag carinae; submetapleural ridge promi-

nent; propodeum strongly carinated, its apico-

lateral tubercles blunt; first and second inter-

cubiti parallel without emitting any short vein,

nervulus misad of the basal vein; hind tibial

spur 6.0 X as long as hind basitarsus; abdomen

smooth, first tergite 1.4.x as long as its apical

width.

Yellowish-red. Flagellum, band on_ scape,

apex of hind tibia and tarsus brown; apical

0.5 of wings brown and basal 0.5 yellowish

hyaline with a brown stigmal spot reaching

hinder end of the fore wing.

Length: 92, 8-8.2 mm; fore wing 8 mm.

o, 8-8.2 mm; fore wing 8 mm.

Specimens examined: AO (Oo. ti Ni hGy Gu

INDIA: TAMIL NADU: Coimbatore, 192,20 ¢,

vii.1951, P. S. Nathan (Townes). BIHAR:

Ranchi, Namkum, 322, 2¢ 4, iv.1957, V. K.

Gupta Coll., 16, 23.iv.1956, C. Tirky Coll.

(Gupta).

Distribution:

Bihar.

India: Tamil Nadu and

3. Disophrys insignis Roman

(Figs. 2, 5 & 16)

Disophrys insignis Roman, 1913, Ark. Zool., 8

(15): 32. Type 2, Philippines: Butunnan

(Stockholm).

This species can be recognized by the fol-

lowing set of characters: Scutellum with only

apical carina, without any median longitudinal

carina; middle of frons, vertex and occiput

black; mesoscutal lobes with black spots;

450

basal 0.33 of wings yellowish-hyaline and

apical 0.66 dark brown without any brown

stigmal spot.

Female: Face and clypeus densely punc-

tate, 1.0x as long as its maximum _ width;

malar space 2 the basal width of mandible

and 0.5 the eye height; eyes moderately

rounded (Fig. 2); facial tubercles strongly pro-

truding; scape 2x as long as wide; marginal

carina of frons wavy, reaching up to the lateral

ocellus (Fig. 2); ocelli small, ocellar triangle

raised, interocellar distance 0.2 x the ocello-

ocular distance and 1.0xthe distance between

median and lateral ocelli; vertex strongly pun-

ctate; mesoscutum sparsely punctate, punctures

big, its lobes depressed, notauli shallow with

transverse carinae mingling with the middle

lobe of mesoscutum; prescutellar depression

with three longitudinal carinae; scutellum

strongly punctate with an apical carina reach-

ing on lateral corners (Fig. 16); mesopleurum

smooth with a few big punctures; subpleural

area and metapleurum densely punctate; me-

sopleural furrow wide strongly and transverse-

ly carinated; propodeum as in fig. 5; first and

second intercubiti not parallel, second inter-

cubitus roundly curved emitting a short vein,

nervulus misad of basal vein; longer hind tibial

spur 0.5 x as long as hind basitarsus; abdomen

smooth, first tergite 2.3-2.5x as long as its

apical width, second tergite squarish, 2+3

tergites 1.5 <x as long as wide, all tergites with

a row of apical hairs.

Yellowish-red. Frons, middle of vertex, oc-

ciput, antennae, spots on mesoscutal lobes,

mesosternum, hind leg and abdomen dark

brown to black; basal 0.33 of wings yellowish-

hyaline and apical 0.66 dark brown without

any brown stigmal spot.

Male: It resembles the female in all essen-

tial features but differs in having mesoscutum

more strongly punctate; subpleural area and

INDO-PHILIPPINE SPECIES OF DISOPHRYS FOERSTER

Figs. 1-4. Dorsal view of head of: 1. Zelomorpha sp. (Disophrvs sissoo Wilkinson) ;

2. D. insignis Roman; 3. D. latiabdominalis sp. nov.; 4. D. coelaspis Roman. Figs.

5-8. Propodeum of: 5. D. insignis Roman; 6. D. coelaspis Roman; 7. D. latiabdomi-

nalis sp. nov.; 8. D. philippinensis Roman.

451

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

metapleurum more densely punctate, punctures

not big; vertex either yellowish-red or only

ocellar region light brown; mesoscutal lobes

without any black spots; hind coxa and femur

either yellowish-red or light brown.

Length: 9, 13.5 mm; fore wing 12 mm.

o, 13 mm; fore wing 12 mm.

Specimens examined: 49 2, 238. PHI-

LIPPINES : mINporo: Victoria, Alcate, 19°,

11.iv.1954, H. M. & D. Townes (Townes);

MINDANAO: Dapitan, 12, 1¢, C. F. Baker

(Washington); Pollo Island, 12, C. F. Baker

(Washington), MINDANAO: Mati, Davao, 1°,

iv.1927, M. C. Gram (Washington); LUZON,

Id, vi.1909, J. C. Thompson (Washington).

Distribution: Philippines.

4. Disophrys coelaspis Roman

(Figs. 4, 6 & 15)

Disophrys coelaspis Roman, 1913, Ark. Zool., 8

(15): 33. Type 2, Philippines: Manat (Stock-

holm).

This species is similar to philippinensis

Roman but differs by having yellowish-red

head and thorax. The hind coxa is 2x as long

as wide and mesoscutal lobes almost smooth.

Male and female: Face and clypeus shiny,

densely punctate, 1.3 as long as its maxi-

mum width; facial tubercles strongly protrud-

ing; malar space densely punctate, 2x the

basal width of mandible and 0.6 the eye

height; scape long and stout, 2.7 as long as

wide; marginal carina straight (Fig. 4); ocel-

lar triangle raised, interocellar distance 0.6 x

transverse stout carinae; prescutellar depression

between median and lateral ocelli; vertex den-

sely punctate; mesoscutum depressed, with a

few big punctures, notauli shallow with long

transverse stout carinae; prescutellar depres-

sion with three longitudinal carinae; scutellum

smooth with raised lateral and apical carinae

(Fig. 15); mesopleurum smooth; subpleural

area and metapleurum closely punctate; me-

452

sopleural furrow wide with 8-9 long transverse

carinae, anterior carinae longer than the

posterior; propodeum with strong median and

lateral longitudinal carinae (Fig. 6); basal and

apical areas without any transverse carinae;

first and second intercubiti not parallel, second

roundly curved emitting a short vein, nervulus

misad of basal vein; longer hind tibial spur

0.5 x the hind basitarsus; abdomen smooth,

long and narrow, first tergite 2.5 x as long as

its apical width, second tergite longer than

broad, 2+3 tergites 2-2.5x as long as wide.

Yellowish-red. Antennae, abdomen and

hind leg (except hind coxa) dark brown;

wings entirely brown with yellowish tinge at

base.

Length: 2, 10.5-11 mm; fore wing 10 mm.

&, 10.5 mm; fore wing 10.5 mm.

Specimens examined: 12, 283. PHILIP-

PINES: MINDANAO, 192, 2c, (date not

given) C.F. Baker (Washington).

Distribution: Philippines.

5. Disophrys philippinensis Roman

(Figs. 8 & 17)

Disophrys philippinensis Roman, 1913, Ark.

Zool., 8(15): 34. Types 9224, Philippines

(Stockholm).

This species is recognized in having vertex,

occiput and mesoscutum brown to black. The

hind coxa is thick and stout, 1.5 x as long as

wide, mesoscutal lobes with big punctures and

propodeum with weak and indistinct carinae.

Female: Face and clypeus densely punctate,

1.1x as long as wide; facial tubercles raised

and broadly separated; scape 2x as long as

wide; malar space densely punctate, 2.5 x the

basal width of mandible and 0.5 the eye

height; ocelli small, ocellar triangle raised, in-

terocellar distance 0.33 the ocello-ocular

distance and 1.0 x the distance between median

and lateral ocelli; vertex sparsely punctate,

punctures big; mesoscutum sparsely and

INDO-PHILIPPINE SPECIES. OF DISOPHRYS FOERSTER

strongly punctate, notauli shallow with long

transverse carinae; prescutellar depression with

three longitudinal carinae; scutellum sparsely

punctate with lateral and apical carinae, a

median longitudinal carina (Fig. 17) reaching

up to the basal end of scutellum; mesopleu-

rum sparsely punctate; subpleural area closely

punctate; mesopleural furrow wide with 9-10

long transverse carinae; metapleurum densely

punctate; propodeum moderately carinated,

basal and apical areas with a few transverse

carinae (Fig. 8); first and second intercubiti

parallel, emitting a short vein, nervulus misad

of basal vein; longer hind tibial spur 0.45 x

as long as hind basitarsus; abdomen smooth,

long and narrow, first tergite 2.5-2.8x as

_ Jong as wide. :

Yellowish-red and black. Head (except ver-

tex), pronotum, mesopleurum, subpleural area,

fore and middle legs yellowish-red; antennae,

vertex, mesoscutum, propodeum, metapleurum,

abdomen and hind leg brown to black; wings

dark brown, stigma and veins brown, a hya-

line spot at the base of stigma.

Male: It resembles the female in all essen-

tial characters but some of the males differ

in colour e.g. vertex broadly black; anterior

part of pronotum, mesopleurum and subpleural

area brown.

Length: 2 12-12.2 mm; fore wing 10 mm.

3, 11.5-12 mm; fore wing 10 mm.

Specimens examined: 142 9, 11303. PHI-

LIPPINES: MINDoRO: Victoria, Alcate, 49 9,

3h Ss, 7-11.iv.1954, HM. & D. Townes

(Townes); NEGROS: Negros Oriental, Mt.

Canlaon; (1097-28 m; 22 9.) 301v.1953, HM.

& D. Townes; Tagaytay, 62 2, 8-20.ii-xi.1952,

Townes family (Townes); MINDANAO, Davao,

222,230 (date not given), C. F. Baker

(Washington); MANILA, 20°, 28.ii.1953,

Townes family (Townes); Los Banos, 13,

13.xii1.1953, H. & M. Townes (Townes); Leyte,

Utap, 239 3h, 17.xi1.1957 (Townes); MINDANAO,

Zamboanga, I<, (date not given), C. F.

Baker (Washington).

Distribution: Philippines.

6. Disophrys rufoplagiata (Cameron)

Cameron, 1904, Z. Syst.

India:

Agathis rufoplagiata

Hymenopt. Dipterol., 4:5 Type 4,

Sikkim (London).

Disophrys rufoplagiata Dover, 1925, Ent. Mitt.,

14: 40.

This species is very close to D. indica sp.

nov. but can be separated by the characters

given in key.

7. Disophrys indica. sp. nov.

This species is characterized by having head,

palpi and thorax yellowish-red. The coxae,

trochanters and femora of all legs are sparsely

pubescent.

Male and female: Face and clypeus with

very minute punctures and sparsely pubescent,

1.1 x as long as wide; facial tubercles weakly

raised and confluent; malar space 2 x the basal

width of mandible and 0.5 the eye height

scape long, 2.5 x as long as wide; ocelli large,

ocellar triangle depressed, interocellar distance

0.33 x the ocello-ocular distance and 2x the

distance between median and lateral ocelli;

vertex shiny and smooth; mesoscutum smooth

with a few scattered punctures on its lateral

lobes, its middle lobe raised, notauli distinct

with 7-8 strong transverse carinae; prescutellar

depression with one longitudinal carina; scutel-

lum smooth with an apical carina only; meso-

pleurum smooth, subpleural area sparsely

punctate; mesopleural furrow distinct, wide

with 9-10 strong transverse carinae; metapleu-

rum rugosely punctate; propodeum moderately

carinated, basal area incomplete with three

transverse carinae; first and second intercubiti

not parallel, second intercubitus emitting a

short vein, nervulus misad of the basal vein;

453

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

longer hind tibial spur 0.5 x as long as hind

basitarsus; abdomen smooth, long and narrow,

first tergite 2.5 as long as its apical width,

2+3 tergites 2.4 as long as wide.

Yellowish-red and black. Head, thorax and

fore and middle legs yellowish-red; antennae,

propodeum, metapleurum, abdomen and hind

leg dark brown to black; wings dark brown

with a hyaline spot at the base of stigma.

Length: @, 10 mm; fore wing 9.8 mm. o,

10.8 mm; fore wing 10 mm.

Holotype @ INDIA: UTTAR PRADESH:

Dehra Dun, 600 m, 8.vi.1966, D. T. Tikar No.

T 264. Allotype 3, same data as the holotype

(Gupta).

Distribution: India: Uttar Pradesh.

8. Disophrys dehraensis Turner

Disophrys dehraensis Turner, 1922, Ann. Mag.

Nat. Hist; (9) 10: 277. Type: 72 oandias

Dehra Dun (London).

This species is distinguished by the absence

of brown stigmal spot in the fore wing and

apical few abdominal segments dark brown.

The vertex is light brown and propodeum with

two weak incomplete carinae.

Female: Face shiny, very minutely and

sparsely punctate; face and clypeus 1.0 as

long as wide; malar space 1.5 x the basal width

of mandible and 0.4 the eye height; facial

tubercles weak and blunt; scape short, 1.6 x

as long as wide; vertex shiny and smooth;

ocelli big, ocellar triangle depressed; intero-

cellar distance 0.5 x the ocello-ocular distance

and 2x the distance between median and

lateral ocelli; mesoscutum smooth, its middle

lobe long and raised, notauli distinct and

smooth; prescutellar depression with one lon-

gitudinal carina; scutellum smooth, without

any apical and lateral carinae; meso- and me-

tapleurae and subpleural area smooth; meso-

pleural furrow narrow with short transverse

carinae; propodeum with two weak longitu-

454

dinal carinae; first and second intercubiti not

parallel, without emitting any short vein, ner-

vulus misad of basal vein; longer hind tibial

spur 0.5 x as long as hind basitarsus; abdomen

smooth, first tergite wide at apex, 1.0 x as long

as wide at apex, 2+3 tergites 1.0x as long

as wide.

Yellowish-red. Antennae, frons, vertex,

genae and apical few tergites dark brown;

basal 0.5 of wings yellowish-hyaline and api-

cal 0.5 brown without any stigmal spot in the

fore wing, stigma entirely brown, basal veins

yellowish and apical veins brown.

Male: Unknown.

Length: 9, 11.5 mm; fore wing 9.5 mm.

Specimen examined: INDIA: BIHAR: Ran-

chi, 19, 1957, G.W. Angalet (Washington).

Distribution: India: Bihar and Uttar Pra-

desh from literature.

9. Disophrys laticeps Cameron

Disophrys laticeps Cameron, 1907, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc., 17: 585. Type ¢@, India: Abu

(London).

' This species is similar to latiabdominalis

sp. nov. in having wide abdomen and yellow-

ish-red body but it can be separated by the

characters given in key. This species has been

described from the type locality only.

10. Disophrys latiabdomimalis sp. nov.

(Figs. 3, 7 & 13)

This species can be recognized in having

vertex and occiput brown and the second cubi-

tal cell emitting a short vein. The mesopleu-

ral furrow is moderately and transversely cari-

nated and the hind coxa being as long as

broad.

Male: Face minutely and sparsely punctate,

especially on lateral sides; face and clypeus

1.0 x as long as wide; facial tubercles distinct

and separated; malar space 2 x the basal width

of mandible and 0.5 the eye height; scape

2xas long as wide; vertex smooth; ocelli big,

INDO-PHILIPPINE SPECIES OF DISOPHRYS FOERSTER

Figs. 9-12. Legs of: 9. Fore leg of Zelomorpha sp. (Disophrys sissoo Wilk.); 10.

middle leg of Zelomorpha sp. (Disophrys sissoo); 11. fore leg of D. subfasciata

(Brullé); 12. Middle leg of D. subfasciata (Brullé). Figs. 13-14. Abdomen of: 13.

D. latiabdominalis sp. nov.; 14. Zelomorpha sp. (Disophrys sissoo Wilk.). Figs. 15-

17. Scutellum of: 15. D. coelaspis Roman; 16. D. insignis Roman; 17. D. philippinen-

sis Roman.

455

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

ocellar triangle depressed, interocellar distance

0.33 x the ocello-ocular distance and 2x the

distance between median and lateral ocelli;

mesoscutum smooth, its middle lobe broad and

depressed, notauli distinct with 3-5 stout trans-

verse carinae; prescutellar depression with 5

longitudinal carinae; scutellum smooth with

an apical carina and with a small longitudinal

carina reaching mid height of scutellum; me-

sopleurum smooth; subpleural area and meta-

pleurum very sparsely and minutely punctate;

mesopleural furrow wide, transversely carinat-

ed; propodeum strongly carinated (Fig. 7),

basal area pentagonal and apical area longer

than broad, all areas on propodeum smooth;

hind coxa 1.0 as long as wide; first and

second intercubiti not parallel, second inter-

cubitus curved and emitting a short vein, ner-

vulus misad of basal vein; abdomen smooth,

very wide, first tergite 1.0x as long (Fig. 13)

as wide at apex, 2+3 tergites 1.2 as long

as wide.

Yellowish-red. Antennae, vertex, occiput

and hind tarsus brown to dark brown; basal

0.66 of wings yellowish-hyaline and apical 0.33

brown with a brown stigmal spot reaching

hinder end of fore wing, stigma yellowish with

brown tinge, basal veins yellow and _ apical

veins brown.

Female: Unknown.

Length: of, 13.5 mm; fore wing 13 mm.

Holotype 6, INDIA: TAMIL NADU: Coim-

batore. xi.1956, P. S. Nathan (Ottawa).

Distribution: India: Tamil Nadu and Madh-

ya Pradesh. |

The name of species is derived from the

REFERENCES

BALTAzAR, C. R. (1963): New combinations in

some Indo-Australian Agathidinae and description

of a new genus. Acta,Hymenopt., Tokyo, 2: 1-4.

BRULLE, A. (1946): Histoire Naturelle des. In-

sects: Hymenopteres. Paris. Roret, 4: 689.

CAMEKON, P. (1903):: Descriptions of new genera

and species of Hymenoptera taken by Mr. Robert

Shelford at Sarawak, Borneo. J. Straits Brch. Asiatic

Soc., 39: 89-181.

—_—_—_—1+—— (1904): Descriptions of new genera

and species of Hymenoptera from India. Z. Syst.

Hym. Dipt., 4: 5-15.

(1905): A third contribution to the

knowledge of the Hymenoptera of Sarawak. J. Straits

Brch. Asiatic Soc., 44: 93-168.

(1907) : On the parasitic Hymenop; »

tera collected by Major C. G. Nurse in the Bom-

bay Presidency. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 17: 578-

397);

*(1908): Description of new species

456

» Turner, R. E. (1922):

Latin word, /atus=broad, referring to its

broad abdomen.

of Braconidae from Borneo. Dt. Ent. Zs 1908: 687-

694.

ENDERLEIN, G. [(1918) 1920]: Zur Kenntnis au-

Bereuropaischer. Braconiden. Arch. Naturgesch.,

84A (11): 51-224.

Gupta, V. K. AND Bunart, S. (1972): On the Ori-

ental species of Zelomorpha Ashmead (Hymenop-

tera: Braconidae). Oriental Ins., 6(4): 449-457.

RoMAN, A. (1913): Philippinische Schlupfwespen

aus dem Schwedischen Reichsmiseum 1. Ark. Zool.,

8(15): 1-51.

SHENEFELT, R. D. (1970): Hymenopterorum Cata-

logus, (6) 3: 307-428.

SZEPLIGETI, G. V. (1908) : Jacobson’ sche Hymen-

opteren aus Semarang | (Java), Evaniiden, Braconi-

_ den ‘und’ Ichneumoniten. Notes Leyden Mus., 29:

_ 209- 260. \. ; )

New Evanudse and Bra-

conidae in the British Museum. Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist., (9) 10: 270-281.

MOVEMENTS OF BANDICOTA BENGALENSIS

(GRAY 1873) AND TATERA INDICA (HARDWICKE

1807) AS REVEALED BY RADIO TELEMETRY’

G. W. FULK,? A. C. SMIET*t AND

A. R. KHOKHAR?®

(With two text-figures)

Movements of 10 Bandicota bengalensis and one Tatera indica were monitored with >

radio telemetry over a two-month period. The Vatera had a home range 275 metres

long. All the bandicoots had smaller home ranges, confining their movements to part

of a 0.4-hectare field. Two adult females had ranges which enclosed the ranges of

their young but did not overlap with each other. An adult male had a larger home

range overlapping with all other bandicoots. Eventually all bandicoots seemed to

make one-way long-distance movements away from the home field. The distance of

four of these one-way movements were recorded and ranged from 340 to 640 metres.

Increased density in the home field was thought to have stimulated these residents

to move away.

INTRODUCTION

Both Bandicota bengalensis and Tatera in-

dica are known to be pests in several crops

in Pakistan. In lower Sind, Bandicota is an

especially serious pest in rice (Wagle 1927;

Greaves et al. 1977). Although several aspects

of the biology of Bandicota have been studied,

little is known about its movements in agri-

cultural lands. Frantz (1973) studied its move-

ments in an urban environment and found the

maximum range diameter to be 146 metres.

The testing of new radio-telemetry equipment

was used as an opportunity to study the move-

ments of Bandicota and Tatera in an agricul-

tural area in lower Sind, with the emphasis on

Bandicota. |

1 Accepted April 1978.

2C/o. New England College of Optometry, 424

Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. 02115, U.S.A.

2Vertebrate Pest Control Centre, P.O. Box No. 8401,

University Campus, Karachi 32 (Pakistan).

4FAO Associate Expert, P.O. Box 69,' Ambon,

Maluku, Indonesia.

STUDY AREA

A large plot of land (about 400 hectares),

located 5 kilometres south of Gharo village

(24° 44’N, 67° 36’E) in Thatta District, Sind,

supported a high bandicoot population. The

area was divided into fields, about 0.4 hectare

in size, all of which had been left fallow for

at least one year. Herbaceous plant cover was

generally quite dense, but there were occa-

sional bare patches of saline soil. Seeds of

Coix lacrima-jobi provided conspicuous and

abundant food. Other common plants were

Scirpus maritimus, Typha angustifolia, Desmo-

stachya bipinnata, and Cressa cretica. Some

fields contained sprouting rice stubble left from

the 1976 rice season. |

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The telemetry equipment used was manu-

factured by AVM _ Instrument Company

457

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

{50 m

CAPTURE

FIELD 1S me

Fig. 1. A) Radio fixes of one Tatera, B) Radio fixes (ovals) of an adult male Ban-

dicota bengalensis in the capture field and home ranges (dotted lines) of one adult

female with five juveniles and of another adult female with two juveniles.

458

MOVEMENTS OF BANDICOTA BENGALENSIS AND TATERA INDICA

(Champaign, I11. USA) and consisted of a re-

ceiver, hand-held yagi antenna and small trans-

mitters fitted on neck collars. Two different

sized transmitters were used weighing 3 and

9 grams. Theoretical life of the transmitters

was over three months and we were able to

receive signals from a distance of 50 to 250

metres depending on conditions. Locations

(fixes) of transmitter-fitted animals were accu-

rate to the nearest metre. With this antenna

we had to approach the animal to make a fix.

On 20 November 1977, 10 Bandicota benga-

lensis and 1 Tatera indica were trapped from

a single field in the study area. These animals

were brought to the laboratory, anesthetized

with an appropriate dose of 6% Sodium Thio-

pental, and fitted with a radio-collar. After a

recovery period of at least 24 hours, the ani-

mals were released at their capture points. On_

26 November, all animals were back in the

field.

From 22 November until 1 February, 18

trips to the study area were made, at least one

per week. In general, during each trip we tried

to fix animals at least three times with 4-hour

intervals between fixes.

RESULTS

Two types of movements were observed.

Movements that seemed to be part of the ani-

mal’s daily behaviour are here called home

range movements, following the definition of

Burt (1943). One-way movements that result-

ed in a change of home site are called long-

distance movements.

Tatera indica

Only home range movements were observed

in the single 7atera studied (Fig. 1A). This

animal often was not located (Table 1), prob-

ably due to the depth of its burrows which

greatly reduced the strength of the transmit-

ter signal. The longest axis of its home range

was 275 metres. Large distances were some-

times moved in a short time. On 28 November

it moved 70 metres in less than 4 hours and

on 30 November 100 metres in the same time

interval.

Bandicota bengalensis

Most bandicoots were located in the origi-

nal capture field during every search from 22

November to 7 December (Table 1). Home

ranges of the 10 bandicoots fell into three

groups (Fig. 1B). One group, consisting of

one adult female (No. 9) and five juveniles

(Nos. 10 through 14), had overlapping home

ranges near the centre of the field. Another

adult female (No. 7) and two juveniles (Nos.

5 and 6) had overlapping ranges along the

small embankment bordering the field. The

single adult male (No. 2) had a larger home

range covering the home ranges of the other

bandicoots. During the night of 30 November,

the adult male shifted its home range to a field

300 metres away from the capture field (Fig.

2). It remained in the new location until 7

December after which it could not be located.

Between 7 and 9 December, seven of the

remaining nine bandicoots could not be locat-

ed. Intensive live trapping in the capture field

resulted in the capture of the two animals (Nos.

5 and 6) already known to be there and 16

young less than a month old. An intensive

search with the radio receiver of more than

a 10-hectare area around the field failed to

locate any of the animals, suggesting that ani-

mals had moved several hundred metres away.

This suggestion was partly confirmed on 16th

January, when one (No. 12) of the disappear-

ed animals was located at a distance of 640

metres from the capture field (Fig. 2).

Radios on the two animals (Nos. 5 and 6)

taken with live traps were working on 12 De-

cember, the date of recapture. The collars

459

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Op Psi 0 0) |

esuvI WOY Pedlasqo =TYO “WSUsACU sdULISIP SUCT= WT ‘PIPY yiur oq 0} Jou UMOUY [eUUe=— ‘payedo] JOU [eUNTUe=9 ‘poyeoo] yeWTUe=+

SS Sse

ce 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0) 0 0 0 0 0 0 45 + if 4 = SL W vl é

cl = 0 0 0) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) 0 0 + de ft IF = CL J EI €

91 = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ais ale aig als v = 0S 4 IT =

a = 0 0 0 0) 0 0) 0 0) 0 0 0 0 0) a Re 1s ae e 06 | O! =

oT @ 0 0 0 0 0 0 W) 0 0 0 0 0 mF a 1 a q = CLI 4 6 .

Lv = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0) 0 0 qe =e +f + + OSI qo <6

97 097 0 0 0 alg 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ar + ate + 4 + 1F 69 d 9 ee

Sie. Cie = ees SS SP S0e HS At re ce te ee ee et cp t= & g

89 Ove 0) 0 0 0 0 0 0) 0 0 0 0 0 a ae a te ale ale Ove W (4 pueg

e272 = Se we Se eS 2 0 S0R 20 jo ie 0) oS 0 ge 0 SE Cole LIN = eioe

: 20q =

qoj uef uef uef uef uef uef uef s9q 59d 90q 99 99d 99 AON AON AON AON

pee Sos shies at sit Ae te ot oles we loess oe ac:

TaO WAI a | YoIvos jo 9}eq

SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS

IWSIOAA X9g IoqUNN 1ey

AGNLS HLNOW-OML VY ONIYNG UAFAISOTY Oldva HLIM GALVOOT aYaA STIVWINV NAHM SHLVG

[| H1avy

460

MOVEMENTS OF BANDICOTA BENGALENSIS AND TATERA INDICA

capture field

Fig. 2. Radio fixes of five Bandicota bengalensis outside the capture field; numbers

refer to individual animals as in Table 1.

461

JOURNAL, BOMBAY .NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

were enlarged, since the animals had grown,

and animals released in the capture field. Ani-

mal No. 6 disappeared but was finally found

on 16 January 460 metres from; the ‘capture

field (Fig. 2). Animal No. 5 set up residence

in a nearby field where it remained until 14

January when this field was flooded by irriga-

tion water. This animal could not be found

on 14 or 15 January. On 16 January it was

found active in the daytime and was observed

to move 300 metres in two hours. It was cap-

tured by hand 450 metres from the capture

field in the afternoon of 16 January.

DISCUSSION

The Homee range length (275 metres) of the

single Tatera seems to be quite large com-

pared to that of most small mammals (sce

literature reviews in Frantz 1973; and French

et al. 1975). In contrast, during the first week

of the study, the 10 bandicoots had smaller

home ranges, about the size which is often re-

ported for other rodents.

Long distance movements of more than 300

metres away from the home field were re-

corded for’ four bandicoots, two males and

two females. It seemed likely that the disap-

pearance of the other six bandicoots was due

to similar migrations. Of course, the possibi-

Burt, W. M. (1943): Territoriality and home-

range concepts as applied to mammals. J. Mammal.

24: 346-352. |

FRANTz, S. C. (1973) Behavioural ecology .of

the lesser bandicoot rat, Bandicota bengalensis

(Gray), in Calcutta. Ph.D. Dissertation, John Hop-

kins University, Baltimore, 222 pp.

FRENCH, N. R., Stroppart,'D. M. & Boser, B.

(1975): Patterns of demography in small mammal

populations. In; Small Mammals, their Productivity

and Population’ Dynamics, Golley, F. B., Petruse-

462

lity of predation or technical failure of the

transmitters could not be excluded.

It was not known what might have stimu-

lated these animals to leave the home field.

Most disappeared on or near the same date.

There were no apparent changes in the habitat.

Live trapping to recover the missing animals

showed that the bandicoot density was greatly

increasing due to recruitment of young. Per-

haps this increased density stimulated residents

to leave the field. :

The failure to locate six of the 10 bandi-

coots could have been due to dead transmit-

ters or predation. However, we feel it was' more

likely that at least some animals moved out

of the searched area. This would mean _ they

moved one kilometre or further. The ability

of Bandicota bengalensis to move over long

distances in search of a home site is an adap-

tation for survival in crop lands where seasonal

changes are great.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank Tausif Akhtar for his

help with field work and all the staff of the

Vertebrate Pest Control Centre who assisted

us. This project was sponsored by the Food

and Agriculture Organization of the United

Nations and by the Agriculture Research

Council of the Government of Pakistan.

REFERENCES

wicz, K. & Ryszkcwaki, L. (eds.) Cambridge Uni-

versity Press. 451 pp.

GREAVES, J. H., CHOUDHRY,

A. (1977): Pilot rodent control studies in rice

fields in Sind, using five rodenticides. -Agro-Eco-

119-130. Elsevier Scientific Publ.

pany, Amsterdam.

WacLe, P. V. (1927):

Sind and their control. J. Bombay nat.

32: 330-338.

M. A. & KHAN, A.

systems 3: Com-

The rice rats of lower

Hist. Soc.

HYDROPHYTIC VEGETATION OF COURTALLUM,

SOUTH INDIA’

K. K. N. Nair?

(With two text-figures & a map)

This paper attempts to present an outline of the angiospermic aquatic vegetation

of Courtallum,

Tamil Nadu, India. It covers a discussion of the varied habitats

of the plant group in the area, an ecological classification, a table giving the

relative distribution of each species, a study of their phenology and certain field

observations on the vegetation type.

INTRODUCTION

Courtallum (Kuttalam), the well-known

area of botanical interest on the Western Ghats

of Tamil Nadu State lies between 8° 50’ and

9°. 0’ N. and 77° 10’ and 77 20’ E., about

86 kilometres from Tirunelveli town and about

7 kilometres from Tenkasi railway station. It

is a few miles south of Achenkovil and Aryan-

kauv Pass of the Western Ghats, connecting

this portion of the country to Kerala. Courtal-

lum is situated on the eastern side of the West-

ern Ghats facing the Aryankauv Pass and is

bounded by Kulathurpuzha and Papanasam

reserve forests on the west and south sides and

the plains of Tenkasi and Shencottah taluks

on the eastern and northern sides. Courtallum

is dominated by the mountain chains of the

Western Ghats, rising to about 1600 metres

in height. The place is of repute in South In-

dia for its fine water falls, delightful forest

scenary, a temple of antiquity and during cer-

tain months of the year an ee paenae cool

and healthy climate.

1 Accepted May 1978.

2 Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey

of India, Howrah 711 103. Present address: Central

Plantation Crops Research Institute (I.C.A.R.),

Kasargod-670 124. !

The climate of Courtallum is the ‘tropical

montane’ type and in the’climate classification

of Thronthwaites and Hare | (1953) the area

comes under the ‘moist subhumid’ region. As

Courtallum lies opposite to Aryankauv Pass

of the Western Ghats, it receives both south-

west (June to September) and northeast (Nov-

ember to January) monsoons with a short gap

in between. A monthly average rainfall for the

last ten years (1965- 75) shows that it varies

from 1.24 cm in February to 24 cm in July.

Normally a total of 100 to 200 cm of rain

precipitates annually. In the mountainous en-

vironment of Courtallum the hottest months

of the year are April and May when the tem-

perature exceeds 38°C in some of the hot,

sunny, days. During the hot months, the tem-

perature never goes below 19°C. But in the

southwest monsoon period it ranges within

19-34°C. The lowest minimum temperature re-

corded for the area is 17°C for the last ten

years (1965-75). The main soil types of the

area are red soils, laterite, black soils and hu-’'

mid soils and their mixtures in various proper-

tions.

To’ correlate temperature and rainfall data:

and to record the drought period in Courtal-

lun which is significant in the study of hydro-

463

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

phytes, the rainfall and temperature data for

the year 1975 is represented monthwise as an

Ombrothermic diagram (Fig. 1). While plot-

ting, the scales used is double in the case of

teniperature (in °C) when compared to rainfall

(in mm). In the resulting graph wherever the

rainfall curve passes below that of the tem-

perature it indicates the span of the drought

period in that year. |

Hydrophytes at Courtallum are mainly sea-

sonal and are distributed along the banks of

mountain streams, in marshes, ditches, ponds

4 i 400

a £

G —

30 ary Ls

Le r

20 Y

mw,

V —-

JS F M A Mod Sk A S (a) Nv D

MONTHS

Fig. 1. Ombrothermic diagram for the year 1975.

464

and such localities. Weaver and Clements

(1929, 1938) define hydrophytes as “‘plants

that grow in water, in soil covered with water

or in soil that is usually saturated with water’.

Muenscher (1944) considers true hydrophytes

as “‘those species which normally start in wa-

ter and must grow for at least a part of their

life cycle in water, either completely submerg-

ed or emerged” in which he included some

‘borderline species’ and terrestrial plants along

the sides of ponds, lakes and streams which

dries up during summer and thus grow in

water only for a short period which accord-

ing to Muenscher (1944) are not truely aqua-

tic. In this connection the definition given by

Daubenmire (1947, 1956) is somewhat satis-

factory and to him ‘“‘hydrophytes include

aquatics which normally grow in water, and

swamp and bog plants which inhabits soil con-

taining a quantity of water that would prove

supraoptimal for the average plant”. How-

ever, the plasticity shown by the members of

this group to suit to a variety of aquatic con-

ditions as discussed by Saxton (1924) while

elaborating his concept of ‘mixed formations’

makes it practically impossible to define it pre-

cisely and comprehensively. While studying the

hydrophytes of Courtallum, especially during

the changing seasons this became more evident

and several plants survive in a variety of aqua-

tic habitats.

HABITATS

The wet banks of the hill streams Chittar,

Palayakuttalam Aruvi (Old Courtallum river)

and Aindalai Aruvi (Five falls river) (see

map) hold the major part of the hydrophytes

of Courtallum. In addition to this, the two

ponds on the boundary of Courtallum reserve

forests, Thippakkulam near Courtallum town-

ship and Thamarakulam on the way to Five

HYDROPHYTIC VEGETATION OF COURTALLUM

falls about 4 kilometres from the former to-

wards the western side of the area and the

wet gutters, ditches, puddles etc. formed sea-

sonally harbour a few aquatic and semi-aqua-

tic plants. The habitats characteristic of the

plant group in the area are discussed briefly.

Streams and their banks:

Hydrophytes confined to this habitat are

mostly those species growing along the banks

of those mountain streams traversing the area.

Towards the centre of the streams, as there

is a constant water current, practically no hy-

drophyte can flourish except for those free-

floating algae, prostrate bryophytes which are

fixed to the underlying rocks and species like

Polypleurum stylosum (Wt.) J. B. Hill which

has its roots in the underlying or bordering

rock.

In Tekkumalai, along the banks of the river

Chittar few aquatic and semiaquatic plants

grow. This reduction in the hydrophytic flora

is due to the fact that the edge of the streams

here is steep leaving little base for foot-hold

for the plants. Swampy or marshy conditions

do not exist. Rarely sandbanks are formed

here and there but with a poor vegetation,

that too mainly mesophytic. It is in the course

of the stream here that Polypleurum stylosum

(Wt.) J. B. Hill, grows with its thalloid body

attached to the underlying rocks by means of

hairs or ‘heptera’ thus preventing it from be-

ing washed away in the current. The plants

are restricted to the shallow but swift flowing

areas above rocks. Along the sides of the

stream here are species like Commelina ensi-

folia R. Br., C. paludosa Bl., Bergia amma-

noides Heyne ex Roth, few algae and bryo-

phytes. During monsoon, in several of the ca-

nals and marshy spots formed in Tekkumalai,

plants like Oxalis corymbosa DC., Biophytum

intermedium R. Br., Hydrocotyle javanica

Thunb., Eragrostis gangetica (Roxb.) Steud.,

Paspalum conjugatum Berg. etc. which are

otherwise truly mesophytic growing in semi-

hydrophytic conditions.

Along the banks of the river Chittar from

Shembagadevi at about 2 kilometres from the

foot hills to the Main falls in the vicinity of

Courtallum township, a luxuriant growth of

aquatic plants occur, as the stream here is

shallow and slow-flowing and the banks pos-

sess several marshes, puddles and stagnant

areas. During monsoon when the stream is full,

most of the wet-land species disappear, but

as the water level descends, the wet banks and

marshes left behind form the natural abode

for such plants. Some of the species rather con-

fined to this region are Drosera burmanii Vahl,

Xyris pauciflora Willd., Cardamine hirsuta

Linn., Aneilema montanum (Wt.) Clarke,

Murdannia loriformis (Hassk.) Rolla Rao et

Kammathy, Ludwigia perennis Linn., Eriocau-

lon sp., Echinochloa colonum (Linn.) Lamk.,

Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell, Utricularia

graminifolia Vahl, Didymocarpus innominatus

Burtt etc. of which the last mentioned plant

is truly mesophytic in its natural habitat. In

the stagnated pockets of the stream occur

floating plants like Ludwigia perennnis Linn.

with floating roots and Utricularia sp. with

filiform stem and roots and upright scapes bear-

ing rose coloured flowers. Above Main falls,

as the stream slows down, a marsh or puddle

system is formed during the summer, where

species like Canscora heteroclita (Linn.) Gilg,

Hoppea fastigiata (Griseb.) Clarke, Xyris pau-

ciflora Willd., Elatine triandra Schkr., Ami-

schophacelus axillaris (Linn.) Rolla Rao et

Kammathy, Murdannia dimorpha_ (Dalz.)

Bruck., Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Wettst., Lin-

dernia crustacea (Linn.) F. Muell., Torenia

travancorica Gamble, Alternanthera sessilis

(Linn.) R. Br. ex DC. etc. grow. The most

characteristic species of this community is

465

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Canscora heteroclita (Linn.) Gilg, forming

elegant stands with green, winged stems and

pink flowers. Emergent amphibian hydrophy-

tes like Limnophila heterophylla (Roxb.)

Benth. exibiting heterophylly is common here

in the marsh in almost terrestrial conditions.

Several sedges and grasses form the border-

line species to those truly aquatic plants here. —

Below the falls along the sides of the pond

in front of Courtallum temple, grow a few

aquatics like Lindernia pusilla (Willd.) Bold-

ingh, in summer when it is dry. Species like

Hydrolea zeylanica (Linn.) Vahl, Sporobolus

diander (Retz.) P. Beauv., Mariscus compac-

tus (Retz.) Druce, M. panicens (Rottb.) Vahl

-etc. occupy the sides of the stream on wet

ground along with a more characteristic spe-

cies Ipomoea pescaprae (Linn.) R. Br.

During monsoon when the soil between the

rocks above Chittaruvi (a bathing spot and

cascade about 200 metres west of Courtallum

proper) become marshy, Sopubia delphinifolia

(Roxb.) D. Don with its characteristic green

fleshy stem, filiform leaves and prominent rose

coloured flowers become gregarious. Unlike

several other aquatic species, the plants are

erect rooting only basely. Fleshy plants with

spreading branches and rooting lower nodes

like Commelina ensifolia R. Br., Cyanotis cri-

stata (Linn.) D. Don, Bacopa_ monnieri

(Linn.) Wettst., Lindernia antipoda (Linn.)

Alston, Lindernia crustaceae (Linn.) F. Muell.

form a community in this area during rainy

season, but in the remaining part of the year

they are mesophytic. Except for the few species

mentioned, Chittaruvi area is poor in Hydro-

phytes as also is the Tiger falls area about

200 metres east of Courtallum township,

where, in the course of the stream temporary

sand beds are formed bordering few semi-

aquatic plants like Polygonum glabrum Willd.

466

and Utricularia polygonoides Edgew.: along

the banks of the stream. During summer the

- stream dries, leaving practically no trace of the

more hydrophilous plants excepting Polygo-

num glabrum Willd.

At New falls in the interior of the forest

above Tiger falls, the aquatic vegetation is

more characteristic. As the streamlet here, in

the course of its descend, comes down in

several steps on the face of the rock with

pockets of marshy soil deposited here and

there, several aquatic plants like Eriocaulon

quinquangulare Linn. and Utricularia grami-

nifolia Wahl grow. Utricularia striatula Sm.

grow abundantly carpeting the wet faces of the

rock in large patches. Below the falls, in the

stagnant water and marshy soil between rocks

Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven _ subsp.

sessiliflora (Mich.) Raven form large clumps

with a highly spreading root system, all over

the rock covered with soil. Cyperus tenuispica

Steud. is yet another common wet-land species

of the area. The stream is perennial and the

aquatic vegetation here flourish in the post

monsoon period also.

In the stagnant areas below the reserve

forest boundary on the way to Old Courtallum,

species like Polygonum glabrum Willd. grow

in truly aquatic conditions with the vegetative

portions almost completely immersed in water,

that is an anchored submerged hydrophyte,

with the inflorescence emerging above the

water level. In the forests around Old Cour-

tallum with several rivulets of the Palayakut-

talam Aruvi there are plants like Pouzolzia

pentandra (Roxb.) Benn., Bergia ammanoides

Heyne ex Roth, Cyperus pilosus Vahl etc. in

semiaquatic conditions. Aquatic vegetation of

this region is quite scanty when compared to

that found in other parts of Courtallum.

Along the banks of the river Aindalai Aruvi

HY DROPHYTIC VEGETATION

at. Five falls and above it, and especially

around Swamiar falls in Udayathan estate

above, several hydrophytes grow. Even though

the stream here is almost perennial, its flow

is considerably reduced during summer. The

most characteristic growth of this locality is

found at Swamiar falls, where the cascading

water moistens the surrounding area. A very

characteristic species found here is Epithema

carnosum (G. Don) Benth. which grows only

in the ecological niches around mountain

streams when such humid conditions — exist.

The plant is quite curious for its mostly sin-

gular large leaves and bluish inflorescence and

grows along both sides of the mouth of the

falls in the humus soil accumulated in the

crevices of the rocks, moistened by the spray

from the falls. Surrounding the falls, in the

wet soil are plants like Aneilema montanum

(Wt.) Clarke, Commelina benghalensis Linn.,

Murdannia zeylanica (Clarke) Bruck. var.

longicapsa (Clarke) Rolla Rao et Kammathy,

Cyperus castaneus Willd., Cyperus iria Linn.,

Fimbristylis ovata (Burm.f.) Kern, Paspali-

dium flavidum (Retz.) A. Camus, Lindernia

ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell, L. antipoda (Linn.)

Alston, L. crustacea (Linn.) F. Muell. and

Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv. which

grows as a tufted semiaquatic plant at Swa-

miar falls is purely mesophytic in dry habitats

on the way to Tekkumalai. Similar is the case

of Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A. Camus

which is also found here. The rocks bordering

Swamiar falls are carpeted by thalloid bryo-

phytes which grow throughout the course of

the stream on exposed wet rock surfaces. Be-

low Swamiar falls along the sandbanks formed

by the stream here and there, grows /sachne

dispar Trin., Fimbristylis bisumbellata (For-

ssk.) Bubani and Eragrostis gangetica (Roxb.)

Steud. which are adapted to semiaquatic con-

ditions though they are mesophytic in several

other parts of Courtallum.

OF COURTALLUM

Ponds: |

Many ponds in Courtallum are mostly tem-

porary and dry up during summer. The period

for which they hold water varies according to

the month of ceasing of rainfall and the loca-

lity where it is situated.

Thippakkulam, the pond in front of Chi-

trasabhai in the close vicinity of Courtallum

temple has been abandoned at present but was

once well-maintained and considered to be of

religious significance and has a ‘gopuram’ in

its centre surrounded by water. The pond is

being reclaimed by dumping wastes and crum-

pling of side walls and in summer it is almost

dry with a marshy bottom. Pistia stratiotes

Linn. which is a stoloniferous floating herb

when the pond is full, gradually descend to

the bottom as it dries up and grow gregari-

ously in the marshy soil there. Here and there

groups of Polygonum glabrum Willd. plants

are also common in the marshy bottom of the

pond. Other more frequent aquatics here are

Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Wettst., Ammania

baccifera Linn., Boerhavia diffusa Linn. and

the heterophyllous amphibious hydrophyte

Limnophylla heterophylla (Roxb.) Benth.

In the outskirts of the forests on the way

to Five falls is the pond ‘Thamarakulam’

which dries up in summer leaving only a mar-

shy bed. The gently sloping marginal zone of

this pond remains wet in summer bears wet-

land species like Commelina ensifolia R. Br.,

Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forssk.) Bubani,

Pycreus globosus (All.) Reichb., Dactylocte-

nium aegyptium (Linn.) P. Beauv., Eriochloa

procera (Retz.) C.E. Hubb., Dopatrium jun-

ceum (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham., Lindernia anti-

poda (Linn.) Alston and such other weeds.

The shallow middle zone of the pond which

is filled with water during the rainy season

forms the habitat for plants like Nymphaea

pubescens Willd. which are anchored in the

bottom of the pond with floating leaves and

467

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Kerkudi

Chittar

river

7 @ e (SE) O

e Apuvi er:

Kottal malai

1048

\ ASSAM q

‘ EArAN FOREST.

ee Map showing the distribution of hydrophytes in Courtallum.

468

HYDROPHYTIC VEGETATION

long pedicelled flowers slightly raised above

the water level. Floating or rooted aquatics

like Myriophyllum oliganthum (Wt. et Arn.)

F. Muell. with submerged leaves, Hydrilla ver-

ticillata (Linn. f.) Royle with stoloniferous

floating plant body and Aponogeton natans

(Linn.) Engl. et E. Krause with floating leaves

and stoloniferous rootstock become gregarious

when the pond is filled. As the water descends

these plants gradually become exposed in the

marshy soil where species like Aeschynomene

indica Linn., Pycreus globosus (All.) Reichb.

etc. also spread.

Ditches, puddles, canals etc.:

The wet-soil plants growing in several of the

moist habitats in the area are grouped under

this head and it includes most of the amphi-

bian and less characteristic species of the

group. There are a number of shallow bodies

of water distributed mostly towards the west-

ern part of the area along the outskirts of the

forests on the way to Five falls which include

small canals, gutters, damp fields, small ditches

etc. In such habitats herbs like Pedalium

murex Linn., Amischophacelus axillaris

(Linn.) Rolla Rao et Kammathy, Commelina

ensifolia R. Br., Cyperus tenuispica Steud.,

Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forssk.) Bubani,

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Linn.) P. Beauv.,

Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E. Hubb., Setaria

palmifolia (Koen.) Stapf, Dopatrium junceum

(Roxb.) Buch.-Ham., Lindernia ciliata

(Colsm.) Pennell etc. grow. In the wet soil

around the water tank above Courtallum

township [pomoea pescaprae (Linn.) R. Br.

is a rather common species. :

ECOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

Weaver and Clements (1929, 1939) in their

broad classification of hydrophytes divided

them into three groups namely, floating hydro-

OF COURTALLUM

phytes, submerged hydrophytes and amphibi-

ous hydrophytes. Prior to them, Agnes Arber

(1920) fundamentally differentiated the group

into two, i.e. plants rooted in soil and plants

not rooted in soil but unattached in. water.

Based on their contacts with soil, water and

air, Daubenmire (1947, 1956) recognised five

morphoecologic groups within hydrophytes

namely floating hydrophytes, suspended hydro-

_phytes, submerged anchored hydrophytes and

emergent anchored hydrophytes, essentially an

elaboration of the concept of Weaver and

Clements (1929). The group wet-land hydro-

phytes or marsh plants as recognised by Mi-

rashi (1957), Thomas (1962) and Vyas (1964)

is a further segregation of “emergent anchored

hydrophytes’ of Daubenmire (1947, 1956)

which according to them are plants which are

transitional between hydrophytes and meso-

phytes that grow in wet soil where water table

is close to the surface. During these studics

on the hydrophytes of Courtallum, it was

noted that. ‘marsh plants’ as a group is quite

flexible, and plants like Limnophila_hetero-

phylla (Roxb.) Benth. which grow as typical

emergent anchored hydrophytes in Thippa-

kulam when it is full is found in marshy habi-

tats above Main falls during summer. There

is no fundamental character by which the

group can be differentiated from emergent

anchored hydrophytes and hence it is not re-

cognised here as a distinct group. Moreover,

in the field, the circumscription of the diffe-

rent groups are nebulous as members belong-

ing to one group can grow in a different habi-

tat characteristic of another group, thus mak-

ing the concept fallaceous. Some of the more

characteristic species coming under the various

subgroups under hydrophytes are given below.

Floating hydrophytes

a. FREE-FLOATING TYPE :

e.g.: Pistia stratiotes Linn., Myriophyllum

469

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

oliganthum (Wt. et Arn.) F. Muell.

b. ANCHORED HYDROPHYTES WITH FLOATING

LEAVES

e.g.: Nymphaea pubescens Willd., Apono-

geton natans (Linn.) Engl. et E. Krause .

Submerged hydrophytes :

a. SUSPENDED HYDROPHYTES

e.g.: Utricularia polygonoides Edgew.

b. ANCHORED SUBMERGED HYDROPHYTES

e.g.: Nymphaea pubescens Willd., Apono-

ton natans (Linn.) Engl. et E. Krause,

Polypleurum stylosum (Wt.) J. B. Hill.

Amphibious hydrophytes :

Plants belonging to this group are described

under ‘emergent anchored hydrophytes’ by

Daubenmire (1947, 1956) and also as marsh

plants by others. As a group it is not very

characteristic and its members can survive in

mesophytic conditions also. Such plants are

quite common in Courtallum and a few ex-

amples are Polygonum glabrum Willd., Aes-

chynomene indica Linn., Pouzolzia pentandra

(Roxb.) Benn., Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.)

Raven subsp. sessiliflora (Mich.) Raven, Ber-

gia ammanoides Heyne ex Roth, Limnophila

heterophylla (Roxb.) Benth., Pedalium mu-

rex Linn., Alternanthera sessilis (Linn.) R. Br.

ex DC., Ammania baccifera Linn., Asystasia

chelonoides' Nees, Biophytum intermedium

Wt., Boerhavia diffusa Linn., Canscora_ hete-

roclita (Linn.) Gilg, Cardamine hirsuta Linn.,

Chlorophytum laxum R. Br., Didymocarpus

innominatus Burtt, Drosera burmanii Vahl,

Elatine triandra Schkr., Hoppea _ fastigiata

(Griseb.) Clarke, Utricularia graminifolia

Vahl, Polygala javana DC. and several mem-

bers of Scophulariaceae, Commelinaceae, Cy-

peraceae and Gramineae.

RELATIVE DISTRIBUTION

The table that follows gives the relative

range of distribution of various hydrophytes

in the different habitats of Courtallum. Several

species like Polypleurum stylosum (Wt.) J. B.

Hill, Epithema carnosum (G. Don) Benth.,

Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven subsp.

sessiliflora (Mich.) Raven etc. are restricted

to particular ‘ecological niches’ whereas spe-

cies like Bacopa monnieri’ (Linn.) Wettst.,

Commelina benghalensis Linn. and Lindernia

sp. flourish wherever moist situations prevail.

TABLE 1

DISTRIBUTION OF HYDROPHYTES IN THE DIFFERENT

HABITATS OF COURTALLUM

Habitat

Name of the species ———————— S—-

S, Ss, S, S, S. Pe Ee M

ae eR aa OE AE EE A a ig ee Ee Ne

Aeschynomene indica Linn. ue th a il ‘ig be bi ku

Alternanthera sessilis (Linn.) ie us Zh Ht ua fh. 4

R. Br. ex DC.

Amischophacelus axillaris i u. se ii ty sis Be 4

(Linn.) Rolla Rao et Kammathy

Streams and their banks: S,—In Tekkumalai;

From Shembagadevi to Main falls; S,—Chittaruvi,

Tiger falls, Old Courtallum falls; S,—New falls;

470

S;—Five falls to Swamiar falls.

Ponds: P,—Thippakkulam; P,—Thamarakulam.

Puddles, ditches, canals, etc.: M (miscellaneous)

HYDROPHYTIC VEGETATION OF COURTALLUM

Habitat

Name of the species

Ammania baccifera Linn. wh a i cu i a au ute

Aneilema montanum (Wt.) Clarke a ae = aes a ate ue io

Aponogeton natans (Linn.) Engl. et E. Krause a es Ad oy is we is

Asystasia chelonoides Nees a Ae Eh es Be He a a

Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Wettst. zs ae ie i ae ue a a

Bergia ammanoides Heyne ex Roth Me We ate afk we ei a

. Biophytum intermedium Wt. + bas 4 si ae = Sus

Boerhavia diffusa Linn. ES a LS uy me ot ue sa

Canscora heteroclita (Linn.) Gilg Ms a a mt be a fe e

Cardamine hirsuta Linn. i a a 1 2) a ey ie

Chlorophytum laxum R. Br. Ee a ae su Ne fie we ios

Commelina benghalensis Linn. a St a a6 uy, ute ts fe

Commelina ensifolia R. Br. ae aa a id ae oe seu ie

Commelina paludosa Bl. sk mm ae a ue ae ie tay

Cyanotis cristata (Linn.) D. Don cy Ba + fa au alt ul oe

Cyperus castaneus Willd. eh ES at i ae ai, = i!

Cyperus exaltus Retz. a at ee a a ay ue a

Cyperus iria Linn. ay rs ie Mat at se ui be

Cyperus pilosus- Vahl ais os + i a es Ay i

Cyperus tenuispica Steud. ks ist sa =" ue fe Ff 4

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Linn.) ue bi a an 4 a a iy

P. Beauv.

Didymocarpus innominatus Burtt a 4 tbs us ne mo = ath

Dopatrium junceum (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ai x ne Bs aL aa zn cf

Drosera burmanii Vahl a os sey uy ra as as

Echinochloa colonum (Linn.) Link + ae s A = 2 a bis

Elatine triandra Schkr. Sa a is si ae ee i at

Eleocharis capitata (Linn.) R. Br. a a Bie ae de ae a +

Epithema carnosum (G. Don) Benth. ie ad bs ne ae is oy a

Eragrostis gangetica (Roxb.) Steud. + + ue wis ae te gio pes

Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv. a + a Bs ate He is a

Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C. E. Hubb. dh a ee Me aa a) ‘S iby

Eriocaulon truncatum Harm. ex Mart. a arts a fh 2 ae ve an

Eriocaulon quinquangulare Linn. Be aL aus ah ss bs gh zs

Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forssk.) Bubani os + te wh ua i =e

Fimbristylis ovata (Burm. f.) Kern a a ids iia ae Be fe af

Hoppea fastigiata (Griseb.) Clarke zy a Mi za a fe i

Hydrilla verticillata (Linn. f.) Royle me ih a Le a af: 4 an

Hydrolea zeylanica (Linn.) Sweet at de i) i Be se He vs

Ipomoea cairica (Linn.) Sweet af i es Aa Ma ae ab a

Ipomoea pescaprae (Linn.) R. Br. a aL ue ws ui a oe i

Isachne dispar Trin. ps ae wl ue =f oe ut ay

Lindernia antipoda (Linn.) Alston a ae fe hs al ail fs a

Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell 2 at ak ae uh a Les ea

Lindernia crustacea (Linn.) F. Muell. pe a at i ae Sy ni i

Lindernia pusilla (Willd.) Boldingh a ie je He ty eae a ae

Ludwigia octovalvis var. ue Oe os af ou uy pes ts

sessiliflora (Mich.) Raven

Ludwigia perennis Linn. a ae ale es a ae as =n

Mariscus compactus (Retz.) Druce 1 dt ea on ae = ns ile

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Name of the species

Mariscus panicens (Rottb.) Vahl

Mariscus squarrosus (Linn.) Clarke

Murdannia dimorpha (Dalz.) Bruck.

Murdannia loriformis (Hassk.)

Rolla Rao et Kammathy

Murdannia zeylanicum var.

longicapsa (Clarke) Rolla Rao et Cs

Myriophyllum oliganthum (Wt. et Arn.) F. Muell.

Nymphaea pubescens Willd.

Oxalis corymbosa DC.

Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A. Camus

Paspalum conjugatum Berg.

Pedalium murex Linn.

Pistia stratiotes Linn.

Polygala javana DC.

Polygonum glabrum Willd.

Polypleurum stylosum (Wt.) J. B. Hill

Pouzolzia pentandra (Roxb.) Benn.

Pycreus globosus (All.) Reich.

Scirpus supinus Linn.

Setaria palmifolia (Koen.) Stapf

Sopubia delphinifolia (Roxb.) D. Don.

Sporobolus diander (Retz.) P. Beauv.

Utricularia graminifolia Vahl

Utricularia. polygonoides Edgew.

Utricularia striatula Sm.

Xyris pauciflora Willd.

Habitat

S, S, S, S, S, a es M

et ue pat ps Lie ms uae me

on ty aL vt is ci ts en

a ae ms i 25 a ot ise

ue at ut a tas da ie i

ub iw ay a ae a us aan

= - — _ = ar — ah

aby Bs uy us a a + da

a int Es ay es, a oh aly

mi es a, ae =e ns, in se

4. ot ae an eS is pk bul

ae a os ie 2s, ma ha

po as on iw is at es a

iis haa at a ue im a fs

— — ar _ — at — +

ah an kilt is ag iu wt eh

at a fa an ili ae Py

eas ae ps eu, + et ue fh

hh ae ws as oe zal vi a

= = ~ _ ar — — =F

pil es a ee ah as nn a

eb oft Te eas vad sil il ni

a + — =f — = = a]

a a At Sa mis = sik ie

me ee a al a. mt sas Bs:

ee at ae wY an ah ae ve

PHENOLOGY

An observation made during the present

study of the hydrophytes of Courtallum is the

relationship between climatic conditions and

physiological functions like flowering. The re-

lative abundance of different hydrophytic

plants flowering in different months of the

year has been analysed and the results are

represented graphically (Fig. 2). A maximum

number of aquatic plants in Courtallum flower

during the months of September, October,

November and December, i.e. towards the end

or after the South-West monsoon. This agrees

with the observation of Went (1957) that

472

rain has a more profound influence in the

flowering of tropical plants than any other

factor. The increased diurnal temperature

during the months following precipitation also

enhance flowering. Thus a maximum number

of hydrophytes in Courtallum flower in the

month of November and in April it is the

minimum, marking the ‘true summer’ for

hydrophytes as rain ceases by January or

February.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

From the distribution of the various hydro-

phytes at Courtallum, it is evident that certain

HYDROPHYTIC VEGETATION OF COURTALLUM

species grow only in one habitat, i.e. pond,

puddle or stream-bank at a particular place.

This preference of habitat is mainly based on

the ecological group the plant belongs and it

forms the basis of those ‘associations’ recognis-

ed as characteristic of the type of vegetation.

Thus several aquatic and amphibious ‘asso-

ciations’ are recognised within. the group ‘hy-

drophytes’ by different authors and each such

‘association’ is described to possess a charac-

teristic floristic composition and is named

after the dominant species forming it. But as

understood from the studies of the hydrophy-

tes at Courtallum, the concept of grouping

plants into any such association is fallaceous.

For no physiological relationship or similarity

in structure or composition is exhibited by the

members in such habitats and any of them can

survive in a similar situation or ‘ecological

niche’ with entirely different floristic compon-

Nomber of species in flewen

SA Ss eo ND

MONTHS

Fig. 2. Graph showing the number of hydrophytes

flowering in each month of the year.

ents around. This is the reason why some

plants are common to two or more so called

‘associations’ which itself shows the flexibility

of the group.

Although not strictly hydrophytic, the flora

surrounding cascades and waterfalls as includ-

ed in this group deserves special mention. The

name ‘water mountain plants’ is proposed for

the group by van Steenis (1965) and such

plants find their natural habitat near water-

falls which has got a ‘cool micro-climate’

around it. The swiftly drifting flow usually

keeps away from the rock surface for about

0.5 to 2 metres when it reaches the bottom,

and the gap thus formed is peculiarly condi-

tioned to lodge certain plants like Utricularia

striatula Sm., Epithema carnosum (G. Don)

Benth., species of Impatiens etc. some of which

are sappy in nature. Due to the continuous

spray of water from the falls, the rock surface

is always wet and thus the vegetation on its

face is distinctly zoned according to the avail-

ability of water. A maximum development of

microclimate plants of this kind is at Swamiar

falls and New falls. The species which grow

in such habitats, complete their life-cycle

within a month or two after the second mon-

soon, as the climate here gradually becomes

more drier.

The occurrence of the species [pomoea pes-

caprae (Linn.) R. Br. spreading in large areas

along the deltas below the Main falls is signi-

ficant in the vegetation type of Courtallum.

Typically the species is found along sandy

sea-shores and van Steenis (1965) while deal-

ing with the beach formations of Java distin-

guished it as the “‘pescaprae formation’. The

plant is semiaquatic in Courtallum and the

‘pescaprae formation’ here helps to bind sand

from being washed away in torrential mon-

soon flow. A characteristic nature of the plant

is the presence of a spongy tissue inside the

473

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

stem with a hollow in the centre. As the del-

tas below Main falls are submersible in mon-

soon, the plants complete their life cycle by

the onset of rainy season.

Summing up, the total number of hydrophy-

tic plants recorded from Courtallum is about

76 angiosperm taxa as given in the table show-

ing the relative distribution of each. From a

conservation point of view the habitat and

vegetation type of the area is quite significant

for the presence of those characteristic species

like Epithema carnosum (G. Don) Benth,

Polypleurum stylosum (Wt.) J. B. Hill, Lud-

wigia octovalvis Raven’ subsp. _ sessiliflora

(Mich.) Raven, Canscora heteroclita (Linn.)

Gilg, Didymocarpus innominatus Burtt, etc.

Such plants with special habitat requirements

need protection by way of preserving their

‘ecological niche’, which otherwise is likely to

get extinct soon. Those water mountain plants

like Utricularia striatula Sm., U. graminifolia

Vahl, U. polygonoides Edgew., Impatiens sp.,

Epithema carnosum (G. Don) Benth. etc. grow

only in the ‘micro-climate’ around water falls

and are very sensitive to slight changes in the

environment. Courtallum being an important

part of the monsoon land in the Western

Ghats with several water falls and cascades can

serve as an area for the preservation of those

rare aquatics which require special humid

habitats in a mountainous environment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My sincere thanks to Dr. M. P. Nayar,

formerly Keeper, Central National Herbarium,

Botanical Survey of India, Howrah for his

guidance during this study and to the Director,

Botanical Survey of India for all facilities.

REFERENCES

-ARBER, A. (1920): Water Plants. A_ study of

aquatic Angiosperms. Cambridge.

BEADLE, N. C. W. (1952): Ecological classifica-

tion and nomenclature. Proc. Linn. Soc. London

(1.s.) 77:- 61-82.

DAUBENMIRE, R. F. (1947): Plants and Environ-

ment (ed. 2, 1956). New York.

Fassett, N. C. (1940): A Manual of Aquatic

Plants. New York & London.

MiraAsut, M. V. (1957): Studies in the hydro-

phytes of Umred. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 36: 396-407.

MUENSCHER, W.C. (1944): Aquatic Plants of

United States. New York.

SAXTON, W. T. (1924): Phases of vegetation

under monsoon conditions. J. Ecol. 12: 1-38.

STEENIS, C. G. G. J. VAN (1965): In Backer,

C.A. & R.C. Bakhuizen van den Brink, Flora of

Java vol. 2 (Introductory part). Netherlands.

474

SUBRAMANYAM, K. (1962): Aquatic Angiosperms.

Bot. Mon. no. 3. C.S.1.R. New Delhi.

& Nayar, M. P. (1974): Vegetation

and Phytogeography of Western Ghats: in Ecology

and Biogeography in India. (edited by M. S. Mani)

pp. 178-196.

THOMAS, K. J. (1962): A survey of the vegetation

of Veli (Trivandrum) with special reference to eco-

logical factors. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 41: 104-131.

THRONTHWAITES, C. W. & Hare, F. K. (1953):

Climatic classification in forestry. Unasylva 9: 51-59.

Vyas, L. N. (1964): Vegetation of Alwar and |

its neighbourhood with the north-eastern Rajasthan

vegetation. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 43: 322-333.

Weaver, J. E. & CLEMENTS F. E. (1929): Plant

Ecology (ed. 2, 1938). New York & London. -

WENT, F. W. (1957): The experimental Control

of Plant Growth. Waltham Mass.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES ON VISION IN

INDIAN SNAKES’

HoLGER RUMPFF?

(With a text-figure)

In about 300 specimens of 10 species of Indian snakes, the visual acuity was tested

by optomotor reactions. 6 species yielded results ranging from 4'30" (angular degrecs)

in the ratsnake (Ptyas mucosus) to 1°15’ in the dog-faced watersnake (Cerberus rhyn-

chops). An intermediate visual acuity is represented by the saw-scaled viper (Echis

carinatus), with 12 angular minutes reaching the visual acuity of the European lizard

Lacerta agilis. On the contrary, the Cobra (Naja naja) with 530” has a definitely

better vision than the lizard. Surprisingly, the Indian Python did not show any opto-

motor reactions at all.

Vision can be assessed by studying bright-

ness discrimination and colour perception or

by quantifying the visual acuity. The latter is

the most important factor determining the

quality of visual information of an individual.

Moreover, visual acuity is a favourable means

of comparing ‘vision’ in various animal spe-

cies, and, of course, in man.

Visual acuity can be determined by at least

three methods: 1. by histological measurements,

i.e. assessing the angle between the optical

axes of two neighbouring retinal elements;

ii. by using optomotor reactions of the experi-

mental animal in a_ revolving black-white

striped drum; ii. by classical conditioning, i.e.

making the animal respond to one of two

black-white striped visual discriminanda.

The data obtained by method i. are referred

to as morphological visual acuity, while me-

theds ii. and ili. would yield the physiological

visual acuity. These methods will be dealt with

in more detail later on. For a survey of find-

ings on the visual acuity in mammals and

1 Accepted December 1978.

2 Physiology and Ecology Department, Faculty

of Biology, Miinster University, Germany.

birds is presented in the Table 1.

Unfortunately, and in contrast to the list in

Table 1, corresponding studies in reptiles, am-

phibians and fishes are scanty. This can be

seen from Table 2.

It must be mentioned here, that the term

‘minimum separabile’ denotes the narrowest

black-white striped pattern resolved by the

test animal in the optomotor or conditioning

situation.

Visual acuity is limited by various factors,

of which the following are most important:

It is obvious, that vision in its broadest sense

is determined by the structure of the retina,

i.c., the diameter of retinal receptors and their

spatial density (as number per square unit).

Apart from this geometrical aspect, visual

acuity is also affected by the number of re-

ceptors per ganglionic cell. Obviously, this

ratio is at best 1:1, which means, that each

visual receptor has its own separate ganglionic

connection to the brain (Walls 1942).

Such favourable ratios are only found in the

area centralis, and hence, here visual perform-

ance is optimal. Towards the periphery of the

retina this ratio is definitely inferior, here many

475

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GHIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

TABLE 1

VISUAL ACUITY IN MAMMALS AND BIRDS

Visual

Author

Species

acuity

man 20”

chimpanzee 28”

‘Indian elephant 10°20”

dwarfgoat 9'36"

donkey 8'36"

cat 5307

bats 5°—3°

deermice 1°34’—33'

chinchilla 30’

Indian vulture 1334

white scavenger

vulture 1313"

budgerigar 28”

blackbird 120”

robin D 33

yellow bunting

Sree

3/07"

Loevenich 1949

Spence 1934

Altevogt 1955

Backhaus 1959

Smith 1936

Suthers 1966

Rahmann et al. 1968

Thomas 1964

Fischer 1969

Kurze 1976

Donner 1951

TABLE 2

Visual

Species

acuity

as minimum

separabile

minnow 11’

cichlid fish 5/30"

common carp 16’

frog 6 / 5 3 ”

lizard 11'28”

tortoise

5 , 30”

receptor cells are switched to only one gang-

lionic pathway. Not all animal eyes studied

attain the 1:1 ratio.

For geometrical reasons, the quality of the

retinal image is also determined by shape and

size of the lens. Clearly, accommodation

comes about by altering focal length. From geo-

476

Author

Brunner 1935

Baerends and

coworkers 1960 -

Zimmer 1966

Birukow 1938

Ehrenhardt 1937

Dudziak 1956

metrical considerations it becomes clear, that

the retinal image depends also on the size of

the eye, and generally, a larger eye is more

efficient than a smaller one (Von Budden-

brock 1952). This was found in man, where

the average adult visual acuity according to

Spence (1934) amounts to 26” while in

VISION IN INDIAN SNAKES

Infants it averages only 37”.

A similar finding by Baerends and _ co-

workers (1960) refers to adult and juvenile

fishes (Aequidens portalegrensis): 10-11 cm

long adults averaged 5’-30’, youngsters scored

only 44’32”.

From personal experience everybody knows

that visual acuity strongly depends on envi-

ronmental brightness. Apart from this well-

known fact in humans this has been shown

in a number of animals also (see: Brunner

1935, Ehrenhardt 1937, Birukow 1938, Don-

ner 1951, Altevogt 1955, Kurze 1976, and

others).

Corresponding to retinal brightness the size

of receptive retinal areas varies and is smal-

lest at optimal brightness level. Under such

conditions the 1:1 ratio of retinal and gang-

lionic elements is obtained, and visual per-

formance is best (Kuffler 1952, Kuffler and

coworkers 1957, and Granit 1955 and 1957).

As mentioned above, visual acuity can also

be quantified by methods of classical condi-

tioning, i.e. training the test animal to choose

the finer striped pattern versus the coarse

striped one.

Apart from the experimental methods men-

tioned, one can also obtain information on

the visual acuity of an animal by observations

in the field. Thus, one can calculate the visual

acuity from the distance from which a prey of

a certain size (say a mouse) is spotted by an

animal (say a bustard). In this manner Schuyl

and Tinbergen (1936) measured the visual

acuity of the Peregrine falcon (Falco subbu-

teo) as 21” (from Fischer 1969). Similarly,

Ehrenhardt (1937) offered a mealworm at a

distance of 95 cm from a lizard (Lacerta

vivipara) and saw, that the test animal spotted

the prey from this distance guided exclusively

by visual clues. The visual acuity under these

conditions amounted to 14/38”.

The conditioning method mentioned above

can successfully be applied only in animals of

sufficient learning capacity. According to

common belief, snakes do not seem to be gifted

learners, so that classical conditioning seems

unfeasible.

Therefore I turned to using optomotor re-

actions by placing the test animal in the

centre of a revolving drum featuring vertical

aequidistant black-white stripes, the dimen-

sions of which could be varied. The animal

reflectorily tries to keep its visual field con-

stant by following the moving stripes with

eyes, head or body movements. These efforts

result in jerkwise movements in correlation

with rotation speed, and size and number of

black and white stripes. From Ehrenhardt’s

studies (1937) we have the first records of

visual acuity in the European lizard species

Lacerta agilis (Table 2).

From the above remarks and facts mention-

ed, it seems appropriate that for the deter-

mination of visual acuity in snakes the opto-

motor method should be applied. In captivity,

snakes are rather delicate animals, sometimes

refusing food for weeks and months. Opto-

motor reactions, however, remain independent

of rearing conditions. Thus, they yield reliable

data. Thanks to the favourable opportunities

offered by the Madras Snake Park and my

laboratory facilities in the Zoological Insti-

tute in Miinster University I could work on

about 300 Indian snakes belonging to 10

species.

In the Madras Snake Park the animals lived

under nearly natural habitats though under

slightly crowded conditions. They were given

frogs and mice in sufficient numbers. In the

Minster laboratory, the animals were housed

in large terraria at temperatures between 25°

C and 28° C, the relative humidity ranging

from 40 to 70%. Baby mice and frogs were

given as food.

477

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

The optomotor apparatus is shown in fig. 1

from which also the relevant dimensions can

be seen. The revolving drum was first equip-

ped with vertical stripes of 35 cm, equalling

20 angular degrees. If this pattern evoked op-

tomotor reactions in the test animal, I would

reduce the width of the stripes by half, i.e.

to 17.5 cm, equalling 10°. By further reducing

the width I was able to provide visual angles

Of 52225") 1S 7 SS oi? DAsat proved: dith-

cult to precisely cut black paper stripes of

less than 5 mm width, equalling 17’, ! finally

used precisely striped cioth, the dark brown

and white stripes being 1.73 mm wide each,

equalling 5/57”.

Fig. 1. Optomotor apparatus w

(iii) eye movements only.

The number of such eye movements per

time unit was noted down and proved to be

nearly constant in each species under given

conditions.

The revolving speed of the striped patterns

must not exceed a certain angular velocity to

make sure that true optomotor reactions can

occur. Above that critical velocity, single visual

events (i.e. stripes) cannot properly be sepa-

rated and tend to blur resulting in a sort of

flicker-fusion frequency effect. As stated above,

visual acuity is affected by illumination level

also. Brightness in my experiments in Madras

ranged from 300 to 4,800 Lux and from 20

h=60cm

glass cage.

Back home I could obtain black-white paper

stripes of 2 mm (=12’10”), 1 mm (=6’05”),

and 0.5 mm (=3’03”). Intermediate angular

presentations were realised by shifting the

normally central position of the test animals’

glass cage towards the periphery of the re-

volving drum, i.e. closer to the striped pattern.

The reactions of the test animal consisted in:

(i) moving the whole body in the same

direction as the revolving drum,

(11) moving its anterior body portion or its

head only,

478

to 150 Lux in Minster, and there was no

noticeable influence of illumination Jevels in

this range on the visual acuity.

Of the 10 species tested in this manner, 6

yielded quantitative data, a survey of which

is presented in the Table 3.

It may be mentioned that the behaviour of

Amphiesma stolata was especially suited for

the experimental procedure as their reactions

were prompt and easily discernible. On the

other hand, the rat snake (Ptyas mucosus)

proved much less readily adapted to the experi-

VISION IN INDIAN SNAKES

TABLE 3

VISUAL ACUITY OF THE TESTED SPECIES

Ptyas mucosus (Rat. snake) : 430"

Amphiesma_ siolata

(Striped keel-back) : <6’

Xenochrophis piscator

(Checkered keel-back) : 20’—40°

Cerberus rhynchops

(Dog-faced water snake): <A

Naja naja (Cobra): 5'30”

Echis carinatus (Saw-scaled viper): 12’

mental situation. This may also account for the

fact, that occasionally the test animal would

not directly respond to the moving stripes but

only in a delayed reaction. Working with

cobras, though they were rather difficult to

handle, proved a sheer pleasure at the broad

stripes: placed in their central observation glass

house, they would immediately lift their hood

and precisely follow the moving striped pat-

tern. Hence, the recorded data were especially

reliable and easy to interpret. In contrast, the

optomotor reactions of the saw-scaled viper

(Echis carinatus) were difficult to observe.

This was due to their small body size and

minute optomotor eye movements.

Apart from the species listed above, a num-

ber of other Indian snake species did not

show any optomotor reactions at all. Even if

offered very coarse corresponding to 10° and

20°, they did not react. The unsuccessfully

tested species were the following:

Elaphe helena: 4

Dendrelaphis tristis: 8

Ahaetulla nasutus: 8

Python molurus: 1

The results obtained above should be view-

ed in comparison to vision in other animals,

e.g. the saw-scaled viper’s visual acuity equals

that of the European lizard (Lacerta agilis),

both attaining 12’. It is remarkable that this

seminocturnal viper’s visual acuity reaches the

level of the truly diurnal lizard.

Cobras (5.5’) and rat snakes (4.5’) are

endowed with a definitely better vision than

the lizard mentioned, and in this respect they

compare almost with song birds like blackbird

and yellow bunting.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Prof. Dr. R. Altevogt for

suggesting the topic and for guidance. Thanks

are also due to the Akademisches Auslandsamt

of Miinster University (Dr. Wilske) for finan-

cial assistance and to R. Whitaker, Director

of the Madras Snake Park, and his wife for

their ever ready cooperation and warm hos-

pitality.

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its adaptive radiation. Bloomfield Hills.

ZIMMER, H. (1966): Der Lichtsinn der Fische,

mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Sehscharfe.

Staats. Zool. Inst. Minster.

A CATALOGUE OF THE INDIAN SIGNIPHORIDAE

(INSECTA: HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOIDEA )’*

MoHAMMAD HAYAT AND MAHESH VERMA2

INTRODUCTION

Since the publication of the ‘Catalogue of

Indian Insects pt. 23 Chalcidoidea’ by Mani

(1938), the knowledge on the taxonomy of

Indian chalcid flies has increased considerably.

Many genera and several hundred species have

been added to the chalcid fauna of India. Con-

sequently, that catalogue has become very

much out of date, and the need is felt for

more recent catalogues on this superfamily.

The present catalogue to one of the important

families (Signiphoridae) is an attempt in this

direction.

The Signiphoridae is a small family of the

chalcidoid Hymenoptera containing only seven

genera. Members of this family are hyperpara-

sites, ‘attacking other primary parasites of

harmful insects and so are considered harm-

ful.

A detailed review of the family is not given

here. For this Rosanov (1965) and De Santis

(1968) and other papers given under ‘Refer-

ences’ should be consulted. Presently the fol-

lowing genera are recognised in this family:

Chartocerus Motschulsky; Thysanus Walker:

Signiphora Ashmead; Clytina Erdés; Neosigni-

phora Rust (synonym of Thysanus in Rosa-

nov, 1965; but valid in De Santis, 1968): Ker-

richiella Rosanov, and Rozanoviella Subba

Rao. In Chartocerus, Rosanov recognised three

1 Accepted August 1978.

* Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim Uni-

versity, Aligarh, India.

‘mov, and Signiphorina Nikol’skaya.

subgenera: Chartocerus s. str., Xana Kurdju-

Subba

Rao (1974) has shown that Rosanov’s treat-

ment of Matritia as a synonym of Xana was

incorrect since Matritia is the earlier published

name.

Scope: The present catalogue is restricted

to the Indian species of the Signiphoridac.

Nevertheless several extralimital (non-Indian)

records have been included when these give

much needed information on synonymy, distri-

bution, hosts, etc.

Type depositories: Type depositories are

indicated in the catalogue using the abbrevia-

tions explained below:

BMNH British Museum (Natural History),

London.

NPCI National Pusa Collection, Indian

Agricultural Research Institute, New

Delhi.

ZIASL Zoological Institute, Academy of

Sciences, Leningrad.

ZMAMU Zoology Department,

Muslim University, Aligarh.

ZMMS Zoological Museum, Moscow State

University, Moscow.

Aligarh

ZSI National Collections, Zoological Sur-

vey of India, Calcutta.

Abbreviations: The following abbreviations

are used in the catalogue

des. Description, but not original descrip-

tion.

distrib. Distribution.

fig. Figure or figures.

o.d. Original description.

431

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

preocc. Pre-occupied, used after bibliogra-

phic citation to indicate a homonym.

tax. Taxonomy.

SIGNIPHORIDAE

Selected bibliography: Howard, 1894, Insect Life

6: 234 (Signiphorinae); Ashmead, 1900, Proc. U.S.

natn. Mus. 22: 323-24, 409-12 (Signiphorinae, sub-

family of Encyrtidae); Girault, 1913, Proc. U.S.

natn. Mus. 45: 189-233 (Signiphorinae, revision of

nearctic species); Girault, 1915, Mem. Qd. Mus.

4: 67-72 (Signiphorinae, subfamily of Encyrtidae;

Australian spp.); *Mercet, 1916, Boln. r. Soc. esp.

Hist. nat. 16: 519-523 (Signiphorinae, Spanish spp.);

*Silvestri, 1918, Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. agr. Portici

12: 266-271; Nikol’skaya, 1950, Dokl. Akad. nauk.

SSSR 75: 319-321 (Signiphoridae, Key to genera,

taxonomy); Peck in Muesebeck et al., 1951, U.S.D.

A.Ag. mong. 2: 472 (Thysanidae, nearctic cata-

logue); Nikol’skaya, 1952, Opred faune SSSR No.

44: 502-509 (Signiphoridae, key to genera, USSR

species); Ferriére, 1953, Mitt. Schweiz. ent. Ges.

26: 4-5, 39 (Signiphorinae, subfamily of Encyrti-

dae; Key to genera); Kerrich, 1953, Bull. ent. Res.

44: 789-810 (Thysanidae, taxonomy); Peck, 1963,

Can. Ent. Suppl. 30: 324-330 (Signiphoridae, nearc-

tic catalogue); Boucek in Peck, Boucek and Hoffer,

1964, Mem. ent. Soc. Canad. 34: 11, 90-91 (Thysa-

nidae, Key to genera); Erdés, 1964, Fauna Hung.

No. 73: 320-327 (Thysanidae = Signiphoridae, Key

to genera; Hungarian spp.); Rosanov, 1965, Ent.

Obozr. 44: 866-884/English translation: Ent. Rev.

44: 508-516/(Signiphoridae, Key to genera, sub-

genera; taxonomy; synonymy; list of species; dis-

tribution; hosts); De Santis, 1968, Revta fac. Agron.

La Plata 44: 7-16 (Signiphoridae, subfamilies Signi-

phorinae and Thysaninae; key to genera; taxonomy;

synonymy; list of species); Hayat, 1970 Entomo-

phaga, 15: 387-399 (Signiphoridae, key to genera,

Indian species); Subba Rao, 1974, Bull. ent. Res.

64: 525-531 (Signiphoridae, key to genera; taxo-

nomy.)

*Original not seen.

Genus Chartocerus Motschulsky

Chartocerus Motschulsky; 1859, Etude Ent. 8:

171. Type species: Chartocerus musciformis

Motschulsky; monobasic Matritia Mercet, 1916

Boln. r. Soc. esp. Hist. nat. 16: 523-525. Type

482

species: Signiphora (Matritia) conjugalis Mer-

cet; monobasic, original designation.

Xana Kurdjumov, 1917, J. appl. Ent. 1:

Type species:

Xana kurdjumovi Nikol’skaya,

basic, original designation.

Signiphorina Nikol’skaya, 1950, Dokl. Akad.

nauk. SSSR. 75: 319-21. Type species: Neo-

signiphora elongata Girault; original desig-

nation.

Subgenus Chartocerus s. str.

1. C. (C.) musciformis Motschulsky

Chartocerus musciformis Motschulsky, 1859,

Etude, Ent. 8° 171, 23 od) GNura~ Ella, sri

Lanka; type ZMMS), host a; Cotes, 1893, Indian

80-81.

(Xana nigra Kurdjumov) =

1950; mono-

Mus. Notes 2(6): 155; Barlow, 1900, Indian

Mus. Notes. 4(4): 219, host a; Ayyar, 1925,

Spolia Zeylon. 13: 252, catalog; Mani, 1938.

Cat. Indian Ins. pt. 23: 153; Rosanov, 1969, Ent.

Obozr. 48: 340-342, 2, des., type examined, fig.,

host a.

Chartocerus (Chartocerus) musciformis: Rosa-

nov, 1965, Ent. Rev. 44: 511-513, tax. distrib.;

De Santis, 1968, Revta fac. Agron. 44: 12.

Host: Pseudococcidae: (a) Pseudococcus

sp. on Coffee (Coffeae or Adonidum). True

host is probably the encyrtid, Microterys niet-

neri which is found to parasitise this pseudo-

coccid.

Distribution: Sri Lanka, Nura Elha.

[This species is very closely related to C. wal-

keri Hayat, and the latter may prove to be a

synonym of Motschulsky’s species. Pending

comparison of the respective types, walkeri is

treated as valid, and for this reason muscifor-

mis, though not yet recorded from India, is

included in the present catalogue. ]

2. C. (C) walkeri Hayat

Chartocerus (Xana) walkeri Hayat, 1970, Enio-

mophaga 15: 393, 2, o.d., fig., key, (Aligarh, India;

type ZSI, paratypes, ZSI, ZIASL, ZMAMU, Hayat

colln.), also Joginder Nagar, host b.

[This species was erroneously placed in the

subgenus Xana by Hayat (1970) whereas it

belongs to the subgenus Chartocerus as is con-

A CATALOGUE OF THE INDIAN SIGNIPHORIDAE

firmed by the study of males (See below).

Apart from the character pertaining to the

female antennae, the male genitalia are cha-

racterised by the presence of papilliform pro-

cesses on the phallobase distally.]

Further material examined: Nba: Himachal

Pradesh, Joginder Nagar, 27.V1.1967, 5 oo,

ex Rastrococcus iceryoides Green on Zizyphus

sp.; Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh, 25.X11.1968. Io,

ex Diaphorina cardiae Crawford; 26.1X.1970,

1 o', ex Coccid (all M. Hayat). 1 of deposit-

ed in ZIASL.

Hosts: Psyllidae: (a) Diaphorina cardiae

Crafd.; Pseudococcidae: (b) Rastrococcus

iceryoides (Green)

Distribution: NbdIA: Himachal Pradesh,

Uttar Pradesh.

Subgenus Matritia Mercet

3. C. (M.) hyalipennis Hayat

Chartocerus (Xana) hyalipennis Wayat, 1970,

Entomophaga 15: 391-392, 2, 4, o.d., fig., key,

(Shencottah, India; type ZSI, paratypes, ZSI,

ZMAMU; Hayat colln.), also Madurai, Karunaga-

pally, Kalamasseri, Shoranur, Hissar, Duindigul;

hosts a-c.

Hosts: Pseudococcidae: (a) Centrococcus

insolitus (Green); (b) Nipaecoccus sp.; (Cc)

N. viridis (Newstd.).

Distribution: INDIA: Haryana, Kerala, Ta-

mil Nadu.

4. CC. (M.) kerrichi (Agarwal)

Matritia kerrichi Agarwal, 1963, Z. Parasitkde.

22: 390-393 2, o.d., fig., key (Aligarh, India; types

ZMAMU), host, f.

Chartocerus (Xana) kerrichi: Rosanov, 1965,

Ent. Rev. 44: 513; De Santis, 1968, Revta. fac.

Agron. La Plata, 44: 12; Hayat, 1970, Entomophaga

i SOIR 04-395, 62 9 16.- des.. figs. w keys, Aligarh,

Ponnur, Kancheepuram, Ranipet, Avadi, Villupu-

ram, Madurai, Tenkasi, Shoranur, Hubli, Sriran-

gam, Joginder Nagar; hosts, a-e, g, h.

Chartocerus (Matritia) kerrichi: Wayat,

Orient. Ins. 10: 161, 92, @, distrib., hosts,

rangam.

Hosts: Asterolecaniidae: (a) Cerococcus

sp. on Hibiscus rosasinensis; Pseudococcidae:

1976,

Sri-

(b) Centrococcus insolitus (Green), (c) Nipa-

ecoccus sp. on Casuarina equisetifolia, (b) N.

viridis (Newstd.), (e) Rastrococcus sp.; Dac-

tylopiidae: (f) FEriococcus greeni Newstd.;

Miscellaneous coccoids: (g) coccids on Citrus

limonum, (h) coccids on Saccharum officina-

Turi.

Distribution: iNbIA: Andhra Pradesh, Hima-

chal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,

Uttar Pradesh.

5. €. (M.) kardjumovi (Nikol’skaya)

Xana nigra Kurdjumov, 1917, J. appl. Ent. 1:

80-81, 2, 4, od., fig., (Poltova, Crimea, USSR;

Types ZIASL), hosts, Eriococcus greeni Newstd.,

puparia of Leucopis sp.? (preoce. by Signiphora

nigra Ashmead, 1900).

Xana kurdjumovi Nikol’skaya, 1950, Dokl. Akad.

SSSR. 75: 320, fig., key hosts, U.S.S.R. distrib.:

(replacement name for Xana nigra Kurdjumov);

Nikol’skaya, 1952, Opred. faune SSSR. No. 44: 507,

key, hosts, U.S.S.R. distrib.; Erdos, 1958, Folia ent.

Aund. 11: 75, Hungary; Erdés, 1964, Fauna Hung.

No. 73: 325-326, fig., key, Hungary.

Matritia kurdjumovi: Agarwal, 1963, Z. Parasitkde.

22-2389, key:

Chartocerus (Xana) kurdjumovi: Rosanov, 1965,

Ent. Rev. 44: 512-513, fig., tax., distrib., hosts; De

Santis, 1968, Revta fac. Agron La Plata 44: 12;

Hayat, 1970, Entomophaga 15: 391, 394, 9, fig.,

key, Aligarh, Patiala, Salem, Tuticorin; hosts, a, c, d.

Chartocerus (Matritia) kurdjumovi: Hayat, 1976,

Orient. Ins. 10: 162, 2, Indian distrib., hosts, Tuti-

corin; host b.

Hosts: Pseudococcidae: (a) Centrococcus

insolitus (Green), (b) Nipaecoccus viridis

(Newstd.), (c) Nipaecoccus sp. on Acacia sp.

and Hemigraphes sp., (d) Rastrococcus icer-

yoides (Green).

Distribution: INDIA: Punjab, Tamil Nadu,

Uttar Pradesh.

Subgenus Signiphorina Nikol’skaya

6. C. (S.) fimbriae Hayat

Chartocerus (Signiphorina) fimbriae Hayat, 1970,

Entomophaga 15: 396-398, 2, ¢@, o.d. fig., (Ten-

kasi, India; type ZSI, paratypes, ZSI, ZMAMU,

Hayat colln.), also Tuticorin, hosts, a,b.; Hayat,

483

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AHIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

1976, Orient. Ins. 10: 162, fig., distrib., hosts.

Hosts: Coccidae: (a) Ceroplastodes cajani

(Maskell), Pseudococcidae: (b) Nipaecoccus

viridis (Newstd.).

Distribution: INDIA: Tamil Nadu.

7. C. (S.) intermedius Hayat

Chartocerus (Signiphorina) intermedius Hayat,

1976, Orient. Ins. 10: 162-163, 9, 6, od., fig.,

(Bareilly, India; type ZSI, paratypes, ZSI), host, a.

Host: Pseudococcidae: (a) mealybug.

Distribution: INbDIA: Uttar Pradesh.

8. C. (S.) ranae (Subba Rao)

Thysanus ranae Subba Rao, 1957, Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. B. 46: 388-390, 9, ¢, o.d., fig., (New

Delhi, India; types NPCI), host, a.

Matritia ranae: Agarwal, 1963, 7Z. Parasitkde.

22: 389-390, key, tax.

Chartocerus (Xana) ranae Rosanov, 1965, Ent.

Rev. 44: 513; De Santis, 1968, Revta. fac. Agron.

La Plata 44: 12; Hayat; 1970, Entomophaga 15:

387, 391, key.

Host: Pseudococcidae: (a) Saccharicoccus

sacchari Coq. Distribution: INDIA: New Delhi.

[This species was placed in the subgenus

Xana by Rosanov (1965) and Hayat (1970)

but it is best placed in the subgenus Signipho-

rina as the length of the marginal fringe of

fore wings according to the original description

and figure, 1s more than one-half the width

of the wing.]

Genus Thysanus Walker

Thysanus Walker, 1840, Ann. nat. Hist. 4: 234; type

species: Thysanus ater (Haliday) Walker; mono-

basic.

Triphasius Foerster, 1856, Hym. Stud. Heft. 2: 83,

84; Type species: Thysanus ater Walker; autoba-

sic (Proposed as a replacement name for Thysa-

nus Walker, preocc. (!) by Thysanus in Botany.

Plastocharis Foerster, 1856, Hym. Stud. Heft. 2:

145; Type species: Thysanus ater Walker; auto-

basic (Proposed to replace Triphasius preocc.

(!) by Triphasia in Botany).

9. T. ater (Haliday) Walker

[The literature on this species is very extensive,

so only relevant references are cited below.]

484

Thysanus ater Walker, 1840, Ann. nat. Hist. 4:

234, 2, 3, od. fig., (England; Types BMNH);

Walker, 1841, Entomologist, Tab. K. fig. 3 (4);

Walker, 1873, Entomologist 6: 473, fig.; Dalla

Torre, 1898, Cat. Hym. 5: 223, catalog.; Mercet,

1912, Trab. Mus. nac. Cienc. nat. 10: 124, des., fig.;

Nikol’skaya, 1950, Dokl. Akad. nauk. SSSR. 75: 319-

321,. fig.; distrib., host, U:S.S.R.; Kerrich, 1953,

Bull. ent. Res. 44: 806-808, tax.; Erdés, 1958, Folia

ent. hung. 11: 75, Hungary; Szezepanski, 1961, Sy/-

wan, 3: 39-40, hosts, Poland; Erdos, 1964, Fauna

hung. No. 73: 322-323, fig., distrib., Hungary; Rosa-

nov, 1965, Rev. Ent. 44: 510, fig., tax., distrib.; De

Santis, 1968, Revta fac. Agron. La Plata 44: 11,

tax.; Hayat, 1970, Entomophaga 15: 388-390, @,

des., fig., Aligarh, host, a.

Host: Coccidae: (a) Pulvinaria maxima

Green.

Distribution: INDIA: Uttar Pradesh.

Thysanus spp. [All the following records most

probably refer to species of Chartocerus]

(i) Thysanus sp.: Abbasi and Singh, 1966,

Indian J. Ent. 28: 408-410, Delhi, host WN.

viridis.

(ii) Thysanus sp.: Singh and Abbasi, 19066,

Indian J. Ent. 28: 413-414. Delhi, host Cero-

coccus hibisci Green.

(iii) Thysanus sp.: Subba Rao ef al.: 1965,

Indian J. Ent. 27: 109-110, Delhi, host Nipae-

coccus viridis.

(iv) Thysanus sp. near elongatus (Girault):

Usman and Puttarudriah, 1955, Dept. agric.

Mysore State ent. Bull. No. 16: 130, Mandya, ~

host mealybug.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Prof. S. Mashhood Alam,

Head of the Department of Zoology, Aligarh

Muslim University, Aligarh, for providing

pecessary facilities. One of us (Mahesh Ver-

ma) is thankful to the U.G.C. for financial

assistance.

A CATALOGUE OF THE INDIAN SIGNIPHORIDAE

REFERENCES

Only some of the important works on the family

Signiphoridae are listed below. The list is neither

exhaustive nor it is intended to be so.

AGARWAL, M. M. (1963): Matritia kerrichi, n.

sp. (Hymenoptera: Thysanidae) an endoparasite of

Eriococcus greeni Newst, recorded from Aligarh

(India). Z. Parasikkde. 22: 389-393.

ASHMEAD, W. H. (1900): On the genera of the

Chalcid-flies belonging to the sub-family Encyrti-

nae. Proc. U.S. natn. Mus. 22: 324, 409-312.

ASHMEAD, W. H. (1904): Classification of Chal-

cid-flies of the super family Chalcidoidea. Mem.

Carnegie Mus., 1: 311, 497.

De Santis, L. (1968): Nomenclatural classifi-

cation de la familia Signiphoridae (Hymenoptera;

Chalcidoidea). Revista fac. Agron. La Plata 44

7-16.

DOMENICHINI, G. (1955): Variabilita dei Carat:

teri e€ nuova diagnosi de un Tisanide (Hymenop-

tera: Chalcidoidea) con la descrizione di una

nuova specie. Boll. Zool. Agric. Bachic. 21: 2-20.

Erpos, J. (1964): Fauna Hungariae, 12 (Hyme-

noptera 11, Chalcidoidea HII): 320-327.

FERRIERE, Ch. (1953): Encyrtides palearctiques

(Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) Nouvelle table des

generes avec notes et synonymies. Mitt. Schweiz.

ent. Ges., 26: 1-45.

GIRAULT, A. A. (1913): A systematic monograph

of the Chalcidoid Hymenoptera of the subfamily

Signiphorinae. Proc. U.S. nat. Mus., 45: 189-233.

Hayat, M. (1970): Studies on the genera of the

family Signiphoridae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea)

recorded from India. Entomophaga 15: 387-399.

Hayat, M. (1976): Some Indian Species of Char-

tocerus (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Signiphori-

dae), Orient. Insects 10(2): 161-164.

Howarp, L. O. (1894): The Hymenopterous

parasites of the California red scale. Insect Life,

638-2 39%

KerrIcH, G. J. (1953): Report on the Encyrtidae

associated with mealybugs on Cacao in Trinidad

and on some other species related thereto. Bull. ent.

Res., 44: 802-810.

KurpDJUMov, N. V. (1917): New genus and spe-

cies of Aphelininae (Chalcidoidea). J. Appl. Ent.

1: 80-81.

Mercer, R. G. (1916): Signiforinos de Espana

(Himenopteros: Chalcididos). Boln. R. Soc. esp.

Hist. nat. 16: 519-533.

NIKOL’SKAYA, M. N. (1950): Representatives of

the family Signiphoridae (Hymenoptera: Chalci-

doidea) in the fauna of the USSR. Akad. Nauk.

SSSR. 75: 319-321. (In Russian).

Novickys /Novitzky, Novicky, S. (1954): Sino-

nimia e destribuzione geografica di Signiphorina

subaenea Forst. (Hym., Chalc., Thysanidae), iper-

parasita dei Coccidi (Pseudococcus sp.). Boll. Zool.

Agric. Bachic. 20: 203-212.

Peck, O. (1963): A catalogue of the Neartic

Chalcidoidea (Insecta: Hymenoptera). Cand. Ent.

Suppl. No. 30: 234-330.

Peck, O., BouCcEK, Z. AND HorFer, A. (1964):

Keys to Chalcidoidea of Czechoslovakia (Insecta:

Hymenoptera). Mem. entomol. Soc. Can. No. 34;

120 pp.

RosANov, I. V. (1965): Review of genera of

parasitic Hymenoptera of the family Signiphoridae

(Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea). Ent. Obozr. 44: 866-

884 (In Russian). English translation in Ent. Rev.

44: 508-516.

SILVESTRI, F. (1918): Thysanus Walker (Hymeno-

ptera, Chalcididae). Boll. Lab. Zool. gen. Agrar.

Portici. 12: 266-271.

SuBBA RAo, B. R. (1957): Some new species of

Indian Hymenoptera. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., (B)

46: 376-390.

SuBBA Rao, B. R. (1974): The genera of Signi-

phoridae (Hymenoptera) with description of a new

genus. Bull. Ent. Res. 64: 525-531.

485

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

THREE NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS

NEOCHRYSOCHARIS KURDYUMOV

(EULOPHIDAE: ENTEDONTINAE)

FROM INDIA‘

M. YOUNUS KHAN AND S. ADAM SHAFEE?

(With two plates)

Additionai generic characters of pronotum, subgenital plate and external female geni-

talia are suggested for the genus Neochrysocharis Kurdyumov. Key to Indian species

of the genus Neochrysocharis is given. Three new species are described in detail. Types

have been deposited in Zoological Museum, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

Genus Neochrysocharis Kurdyumov

Neochrysocharis Kurdyumov, 1912, Russ. Ent.

ey. 12-235,

Type-species :

Kurdyumov.

The genus Neochrysocharis was proposed

by Kurdyumov (1912) for Neochrysocharis

immaculatus Kurdyumov. Kerrich (1969)

synonymised the genus Proacrias thering with

Neochrysocharis Kurdyumov. Recently, Bou-

cek (1977) revalidated the genus Proacrias

Thering on the basis of having carinae on mid

of propodeum. The specimens under study re-

semble the genus Neochrysocharis Kurdyumov

in keys to genera proposed by Nikol’skaya

(1952) and Peck ef al. (1964). We suggest

some additional generic characters as_ fol-

lows: Pronotum of uniform width, anterior

margin slightly concave, posterior margin

more or less straight (Pl. 1, fig. D; Pl. 2, fig.

B); first valvifers triangular with basa! and

apical angles at different levels (Pl. 1, fig. L;

Neochrysocharis immaculatus

1 Accepted October 1979.

2 Section of Entcmology, Department of Zoology,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

436

Pl. 2, fig. I); third valvulae short, movably

articulated with second valvifers (PI. 1, fig.

M; Pl. 2, fig. J); subgenital plate narrow,

posterior margin with a semicircular notch in

middle (PI. 1, fig. O; Pl. 2, fig. L).

KEY TO INDIAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS Neochryso-

charis KURDYUMOV, BASED ON FEMALES

1. Disc. of fore wings with hyaline setae;

costal cell of fore wings much shorter than

marginal vein; postmarginal vein shorter than

stigmal vein.

— Disc of fore wings with coarse setae; costal cell

of fore wings slightly shorter than marginal

vein; posimarginal vein as long as stigmal vein

(Pl. 2, fig. O & P); submarginal and marginal

veins with 2 and 10 setae respectively; pedicel

twice as long as wide; club three and a half

times as long as wide....N. pubipennis sp. nov.

. First funicle segment shorter than second;

second funicle segment longer than wide (PI.

1, fig. C); scape five times as long as wide;

club four times as long as wide; marginal vein

with 16 setae; axillae without transverse sutures.

hyalinipennis sp. nov.

— Funicle segments first and second subequal in

length; second funicle segment as long as wide

(Pl. 2, fig. A); scape four times as long as

wide; club three times as long as wide; mar-

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ginal vein with 9 setae; axillae with transverse

SUIUUME SPR te te duies re eeononeete cc N. metallicus sp. nov.

Neochrysocharis hyalinipennis sp. nov.

(Plate 1, figs. A-P)

FEMALE

Head.—Dark with metallic bluish reflections

and reticulately sculptured, wider than long

in facial view; frontovertex slightly wider than

long, width one-half the total head width;

ocelli white, arranged in obtuse triangle, late-

rai ocelli less than their own diameters from

orbital and occipital margins separaiely; eyes

red and smooth; malar space one-hali the eye

width; malar sutures absent; antennae insert-

ed above lower level of eyes; prominence be-

tween antennal sockets one-fourth the width

of frons between eyes; scrobes deep and con-

vergent above; frontal fork with arms obtusely

diverging, apices touching the inner orbital

margins; mandibles tridentate with two acute

and one rudimentary teeth (fig. A); maxillary

and labial palpi each 1-segmented (fig. B).

Aniennae (fig. C)—Yellowish brown ex-

cept basal two-third of scape which is white,

7-segmented excluding 2 indistinct ring seg-

ments; scape cylindrical, five and a half times

as long as wide; pedicel one and a half times

as long as wide, slightly longer than first

funicle segment; funicie 2-segmented, first as

long as wide and shorter than second, second

distinctly longer than wide; club 3-segmented,

four times as long as wide (0.17:0.04 mm),

longer than funicle.

Thorax (fig. E).—Dark with metallic bluish

green reflections; dorsum reticulately scuip-

tured; pronotum of uniform width, anterior

margin slightly concave, posterior margin

Straight bearing 3 pairs of setae (fig. D);

parapsidal furrows distinct anteriorly and

faint posteriorly; scutum and scutellum with

4 and 2 setae respectively; mesopostphragma

not reaching beyond the propodeum; propo-

deum without median carina.

Fore wings (fig. G).—Hyaline, slightly less

than twice as long as wide (0.94:0.5 mm),

rounded at apex, disc with hyaline setae; a

line of hairs extending obliquely apex of sub-

marginal vein to the base of outer wing mar-

gin; costal cell narrow, shorter than marginal

vein; submarginal and marginal veins with

2 and 16 setae respectively; postmarginal

vein well developed, shorter than stigmal vein

(fig. H); marginal fringe short, spaced by a

distance equal to one-half their length.

Hind wings ——Hyaline, six times as long

as wide; disc with hyaline setae; marginal

fringe long, one-half the wing width.

“Legs (figs. I-K)—White except coxae

which are dark brown; tarsi 4-segmented;

middle tibial spur shorter than basitarsus (fig.

J).

Abdomen.—Brown with metallic _ reflec-

tions, slightly longer than head and thorax

together, ovipositor slightly exseried, arising

from basal one-third of abdominal venter;

first valvifers triangular with basal and apical

angles at different levels (fig. L); third val-

vulae three and a half times as long as wide,

one-fifth the length of second valvifers (lig.

M); outer plates of ovipositor slightly longer

than second valvifers (fig. N); subgenital

piate narrow, posterior margin with a small

semicircular notch in middle (fig. O).

Length: 1.38 mm.

MALE

Resembles female except in the following

characters:

scape four times as long as wide; funicle

segments first and second subequal, each dis-

tinctly longer than wide; club five and a half

times as long as wide (fig. P); fore wings

487

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

twice as long as wide (0.88:0.44); submargi-

nal vein with 3 setae; postmarginal vein about

as long as stigmal vein (0.05:0.05 mm).

Length: 1.01 mm.

Holotype ¢@, INDIA: Uttar Pradesh, Ali-

garh, University campus, ex unidentified scale

on Carica papaya, 1.v.1977 (M. Younus

Khan).

Paratypes. 3 @, 1 & (same data as holo-

type).

Neochrysocharis metallicus sp. nov.

(Plate 2, figs. A-L)

FEMALE

Head.—Dark with metallic bluish reflections

and reticulately sculptured, wider than long

in facial view; frontovertex as long as wide,

width slightly less than one-half the total

head width; ocelli white, arranged in obtuse

triangle, lateral ocelli by their own diameters

from eye and occipital margins; eyes red and

sparsely setose; antennae inserted above lower

level of eyes; prominence between antennal

sockets one-fourth the width of frons between

eyes; malar space shorter than eye width;

malar sutures absent; mandibles _ tridentate

with two acute and one rudimentary teeth;

maxillary and labial palpi each 1-segmented.

Antennae (fig. A).—Dark except scape

which is yellow, 7-segmented excluding 2 in-

distinct ring segments; scape four times as

long as wide (0.13:0.03 mm); pedicel slightly

longer than wide, slightly longer than first

funicle segment; funicle 2-segmented, seg-

ments first and second subequal, each about

as long as wide; club 3-segmented, slightly

less than three times as long as wide, much

longer than funicle.

Thorax (fig. C).—Dark with metallic bluish

reflections and reticulately sculptured; prono-

tum with anterior margin slightly concave,

488

posterior margin slightly curved bearing 3

pairs of setae (fig. B); parapsidal furrows

indicating anteriorly, reaching up to scutellum

by grooves; scutum wider than long and with

4 setae; each parapside with a _ transverse

suture; scutellum as long as wide and with

a pair of setae; mesopostphragma short, not

reaching beyond the propodeum; propodeum

smooth and without median carina.

Fore wings.—Hyaline, twice as long as |

wide, disc with hyaline setae; a line of hairs

extending obliquely apex of submarginal vein

to the base of outer wing margin; costal cell

shorter than marginal vein; submarginal and

marginal veins with 2 and 9 setae respectively

(fig. D); postmarginal vein well developed,

shorter than stigmal vein (fig. E); marginal

fringe short, spaced by a distance equal to

one-third their length.

Hind wings.—Hyaline, five and a half times

as long as wide, disc with hyaline setae; mar-

ginal fringe long, one-half the wing width.

Legs (figs. F-H)—White except coxae

which are brown; middle tibial spur shorter

than basitarsus (fig. G).

Abdomen.—Brown with metallic bluish re-

flections, about as long as head and thorax

together; ovipositor slightly exserted, arising

from basal one-third of abdominal venter;

first valvifers triangular with basal and apical

angles at different levels (fig. I); third val-

vulae two and a half times as long as wide

and about one-fifth the length of second val-

vifers (fig. J); outer plates of ovipositor slight-

ly shorter than second valvifers (fig. K); sub-

genital plate narrow, anterior margin deeply

concave, posterior margin with a notch in

middle (fig. L).

Length: 1.03 mm.

Holotype @, INDIA: Karnataka, Bangalore,

ex unidentified scale on Mangifera indica

Linn., 30.vi.1975 (M. Younus Khan).

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76

PLATE 1

Khan & Shafee: New sp. of Neochrysocharis

0+ 25.mm

Figs. A-P. Neochrysocharis hyalinipennis sp. nov., 2, ¢: (A) Mandible, @: (B)

Maxillary and labial palpi, 2; (C) Antenna, °: (D) Pronotum, 2; (E) Propodeum

and part of thorax in dorsal view, 9°; (F) Sculpture of scutum, 9; (G) Fore wing,

2; (H) Part of fore wing venation, @; (I) Part of fore leg, 2; (J) Part of middle

leg, 2; (K) Part of hind leg, 9; (L) First valvifer, 2; (M) Second valvifer and third

valvula, 2; (N) Outer plate of ovipositor, 2; (O) Subgenital plate, ¢°;

(P) Antenna, ¢.

J BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE 2

Khan & Shafee: New sp. of Neochrysocharis

Figs. A-L. Neochrysocharis metallicus sp. nov. @: (A) Antenna, (B) Pronotum,

Part of fore wing venation, (F) Part of fore leg, (G) Part of middle leg, (H) Part

of hind leg, (I) First valvifer, (J) Second valvifer and third valvula, (K) Outer

plate of ovipositor, (1) Subgenital plate.

Figs. M-S. Neochrysocharis pubipennis sp. nov., 2: (M) Mandible, (N) Antenna,

(O) Fore wing, (P) Part of fore wing venation, (Q) Part of fore leg, (R) Part of

middle leg, (S) Part of hind leg.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Paratype. 1 @ (same data as holotype).

Neochrysecharis pubipennis sp. nov.

(Plate 2, figs. M-S)

FEMALE

Head.—Dark with metallic bluish reflections

and reticulately sculptured, wider than long

in facial view; frontovertex wider than long,

width more than one-half the total head

width; ocelli reddish, arranged in obtuse tri-

angle, lateral ocelli less than their own dia-

meters from orbital and by their own dia-

meters from occipital margin; eyes red and

sparsely setose; antennae inserted just above

lower level of eyes; prominence between an-

tennal sockets one-third the width of frons

between eyes; malar space shorter than eye

width; malar sutures absent; mandibles tri-

dentate with two acute and one rudimentary

teeth (fig. M); maxillary and labial palpi each

1-segmented.

Antennae (fig. N)—Dark except scape

which is yellow, 7-segmented excluding 2 in-

distinct ring segments; scape cylindrical, four

times as long as wide (0.13:0.03 mm), about

as long as club; pedicel slightly less than

twice as long as wide, longer than first funicle

segment; funicle 2-segmented, segments first

and second subequal in length, each as long

as wide; club 3-segmented, three and a half

times as long as wide, longer than funicle.

Thorax.—Dark with metallic bluish reflec-

tions and reticulately sculptured; parapsidal

and second subequal in length, each as long

as wide and with 2 setae near each parapsidal

furrow; scutellum with a pair of setae; meso-

postphragma not reaching beyond the propo-

deum; propodeum smooth and without me-

dian carina.

Fore wings (fig. O).—Hyaline, slightly less

than twice as long as wide (0.7:0.38 mm),

apex broadly rounded, disc with coarse setae;

a line of hairs extending obliquely apex of

submarginal vein to the base of outer wing

margin; costal cell slightly shorter than mar-

ginal vein; submarginal and marginal veins

with 2 and 10 setae respectively; postmarginal

vein well developed, as long as stigmal vein

(fig. P); marginal fringe short, spaced by a

distance equal to one-third their length.

Hind wings.—Hyaline; disc with coarse

setae; marginal fringe long, one-half the wing

width.

Legs (figs. Q-S).—Yellowish except coxae

which are brown; mid tibial spur shorter than

basitarsus (fig. R).

Abdomen.—Dark with metallic bluish re-

flections, slightly shorter than head and thorax

together; ovipositor slightly exserted, arising

from basal one-third of abdominal venter;

third valvulae short, movably articulated with

second valvifers.

Length: 1.03 mm.

Holotype @, INDIA: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh,

University Agriculture farm, ex Pulvinaria

maxima Green on Azadirachta indica,

10.v.1977 (M. Younus Khan).

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to Prof. S. Mashhood

Alam, Head, Department of Zoology, for

providing research facilities. Thanks are also

due to Prof. Nawab H. Khan for encourage-

ment.

439

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

REFERENCES

Boucek, Z. (1977): Descriptions of two new

species oi Neotropical Eulophidae (Hymenoptera)

of economic interest, with taxonomic notes on re-

lated species and genera. Bull. ent. Res. 67: 1-15.

KeErrRICcH, G. J. (1969): Systematic studies on

Eulophid parasites (Hym., Chalcidcidea), mostly

of coffee leaf-miners in Africa. Bull. ent. Res. 59:

195-228.

KURDYUMovV, N. V. (1912): Hymenopteres-para-

sites nouveaux ou peu connus. Rev. russe. Ent.

12: 223-240.

NIKOL’SKAYA, M. N. (1952): The chalcid fauna

of the USSR (Chalcidoidea). Opred. Faun. Zool.

Inst. Akad. Nauk SSSR 44: 575 pp.

Peck, O.. BouceK, Z. AND Ho6FeErR, A. (1964):

Keys to the Chalcidoidea of Czechoslovakia (In-

secta: Hymenoptera). Mem. ent. Soc. Canada, 34:

120 pp.

RECORD OF GENUS CAENOCHOLAX PIERCE

(MYRMECOLACIDAE, STREPSIPTERA) FROM INDIA‘

A. K. CHATTOPADHYAY AND P. K. CHAUDHURI?

(With four text-figures)

The genus was erected by Pierce (1909) for

a Mexican species, Caenocholax fenysi Pierce

which was designated as the type species. The

genus is characterised by seven segmented an-

tenna with 3rd segment laterally produced in-

to a long flabellum, fourth segment transverse,

fifth, sixth and seventh elongated and flatten-

ed; wing having six primary veins with a short

detached vein below the apex of R, short M

being continued by a long detached vein; ab-

sence of Cu and A,; four segmented tarsi with-

out claw.

Terminologies and mode of species descrip-

tion presented in this paper have been followed

after Bohart (1941, 1951), Chaudhuri ef al.

(1978), Pierce (1909, 1918) and Kinzelbach

C1973).

Caenochoiax pierci sp. nov.

MALE:

Body length 2.26 (n=6) mm.

Wing length: 1.52 (1.50-1.52, n=5) mm.

Head: Dark brown in colour and transverse.

490

Eyes hairy, facets rounded and 18-20 in num-

ber. Maxillary palp with short transverse basal

segment and the terminal segments long and

flattened. Antenna (Fig. 1) brown seven seg-

mented, first two segments cylindrical, third

laterally produced into a long flabellum reach-

ing up to the middle of segment VII being

1.05 mm long, fourth small and_ transverse,

fifth elongated, largest and blunt, sixth and

seventh cylindrical; length ratio of antennal

segments I-VI 5:2:4:3:34:22:30.

Thorax: Dark brown in colour. Pronotum

small and inserted into broad, transverse

mesonotum, scutum notched in the middle

and united for some distance in the middle

behind the prescutum, postscutellum large and

tongue-shaped covering the base of first abdo-

minal segment.

Wing (Fig. 2): Halteres with grey knob and

1 Accepted November 1979.

2 Department of Zoology, University of Burdwan,

Burdwan 713104, India.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

white stem. Hind wing fan-like more or less

transparent with pale margin and conspicu-

ous veins. Six primary veins arise from the

base: C dark brown reaches about half of

the length of the wing; Sc separate and runs

parallel to C ending a little behind C; R arises

from the base and runs upto two-thirds of the

total length of wing; R, and R; appear to be

interrupted continuation of R and are free

veins between R and M; R, bent and forked

at the apex; R,; little curved near the tip of

the wing; M is contiguous with R but soon

diverges extending a little behind the base of

R;;-M, appears as an unattached vein run-

ning parallel to M and ends near the margin;

A, arises below the base of M and diverges

Figs. 1-4. Caenocholax pierci sp. nov.

tenna; 2) wing; 3) hind tarsomeres I-IV and

4) aedeagus.

6; 1) an-

ending at the margin of wing; A, more or

less similar to A, but bent at the middle.

Legs (Fig. 3): Fore and mid coxa trans-

verse, hind coxa shorter, trochanters stout

and larger than femur in fore and mid legs;

hind trochanter short; femur almost as long

as tibia in fore and mid legs, hind femur and

tibia shorter; tarsi four segmented and funnel-

shaped without any claw; tarsomere I of fore

and mid legs larger than those of the hind;

length ratio of tarsomeres from I-IV 16:6:

4:5 in fore 14:6:6:5 in mid and 4:3:3:4 in

hind leg.

Abdomen: Tergite IX backwardly produc-_

ed and encloses the genital cavity. Aedeagus

(Fig. 4) more or less plough shaped with

sharply pointed tip.

Female: Unknown.

Material: Holotype male (Type no. 90,

B.U. Ent.), India, West Bengal, Kantaticar

(Burdwan), 24.4.1979, Coll. Miss S. Sarkar.

Paratypes 8 males, data same as holotype

and will be deposited to the Zoological Sur-

vey of India, Calcutta and U.S.N.M., Washing-

ton D.C.

The species is dedicated to late Dr. W. D.

Pierce for his outstanding contribution to the

study of this peculiar group of insects. It

seems close to Caenocholax fenysi Pierce

(1909, 1918) from Mexico in general morpho-

logy and the male genitalia but its identity

as a distinct and valid species is evident from

the structure of veins, halteres, legs and the

aedeagus of male genitalia.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Prof. D. K. Chaudhuri,

Head of the Department of Zoology for labo-

ratory facilities and to Prof. S. K. Das Gupta,

Head of the Department of Zoology, Presi-

dency College, Calcutta for advice.

49 |

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

REFERENCES

BoHarT, R. M. (1941): A revision of Strepsip-

ters with special reference to the species of North

America. Univ. Calif. Pub. Ent. 7: 91-160.

(1951): The Myrmecolacidae of

the Philippines (Strepsiptera). Wasmann J. Bio. 9:

83-103.

CHAUDHURI, P. K., Das Gupta, S. K. AND CHAT-

TOPADHYAY, A. K. (1978): Description of a new

species of Parastylops (Strepsiptera, Stylopidae)

from Arunachal Pradesh. Oriental Ins. 12 (3):

378-389.

492

KINZELBACH, R. (1973): Die Facherfluger des

Senckenberg—Museum II. Mengenellidae (Insecta,

Strepsiptera). Senkenbergiana biol. 53 (5/6): 403-

413.

Pierce, W. D. (1909): A monographic revision

of the twisted winged insects comprising order

Strepsiptera Kirby. Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus. 66: 1-232.

(1918): The comparative morpho-

logy of the order Strepsiptera together with records

and descriptions of insects. Proc. U.S. Natl. Mus.,

54: 381-501.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. THE GOLDEN LANGUR, PRESBYTIS GEEI KHAJURIA

| IN BHUTAN

The Golden Langur Presbytis geei Kha-

juria, a beautiful species of colobine mon-

key, was discovered only as recently as

1956, and has so far, remained little known.

Most of the relevant researches were confin-

ed to the Himalayan foothills along the Assam-

Bhutan border in Jamduar-Raimona area on

the bank of the Sankosh river, and subsequ-

ently to the Manas Sanctuary on the bank of

the Manas river, Bhutan, the little montane

kingdom in the eastern Himalaya, adjacent

to the known range of the Golden Langur, un-

explored because this country remained large-

ly isolated from the rest of the world until

recently. Zoological explorations in different

regions of that country began since 1966. The

present paper is aimed to record the field

investigations carried out by the Zoological

survey of India Expedition team on the Gol-

den Langur.

Occurrence of the Golden Langur, ascribed

in the earlier reports, was in a very limited

area in Assam, confined to the foothills of

Assam-Bhutan border in Jamduar-Raimona

area in the Raimona Forest Range in the

Goalpara district of Assam (Gee 1956, 1961;

Khajuria 1956, 1962). Wayre (1968) for the

first time observed it in the Bhutan part of

the Manas Sanctuary away from its type loca-

lity, extending its range further eastward to

the bank of the Manas river on the northern

fringe of the Kamrup district of Assam

(which was confirmed by several other

workers). The Bhutan Expeditions of the

Zoological Survey of India, for the first time,

obtained specimens in Bhutan and establish-

ed that the chief centre of abundance of Pres-

bytis geei Khajuria lies in the forests of the

Black Mountain Range of Central Bhu-

tan. The habitat preference of the Golden

Langur, as observed, is in the deep ravines

and gorges along the hill slopes in evergreen

forests of diverse nature. The actual limits

of the range of this species, based on our

observations, are between Sankosh basin in

the west to Manas basin in the east, and from

the Assam-Bhutan border foothills in the

south to the inner Himalayan range in the

north, centering the Black Mountain Range

in the Central Bhutan. Altitudinally, it ranges

from the foothills (c. 150 m) to a height of

c. 3000 m above the sea level. This beautiful

species of colobine monkey has a closer affi-

nity to the Indo-Chinese elements.

Zonal records of troops of the Golden Lan-

gur as observed in Bhutan (from west to east)

are: )

Western Bhutan. In the upper reaches of the

Sankosh river, locally called Puna Chang Chu:

troops were seen below Do Chu La, c. 30 km

west of Wangdiphodrang.

At the foothills, where Sankosh meets the

plains: troops were seen in the Bhutanese

territory adjacent to the Jamduar area.

Central Bhutan. In the Aie Chu valley at

the foothills: troops were seen in the dense

forests between Sarbhang and Gaylegphug.

In the Mangde Chu valley: in the magni-

ficent forests all along the road from Gayleg-

phug to Tongsa, troops of the Golden Langur

493

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

were seen. In these two valleys the following

places in particular are worth mentioning:

Gaylegphug, Tatapani, Samkhara, Batase,

Tama, Mangdechu, Dakpai c. 15 km south of

Shamgong, Wangregongchu c. 15 km north

of Shamgong, Pangjurmane and also along the

Tongsa Chu below Tongsa.

Eastern Bhutan. In the Manas river basin:

troops were seen in the foothills where the

Manas river meets the plains, near Mothan-

guri in the Manas Sanctuary, and in the upper

reaches along the various tributaries of the

Manas river, namely Bumthang Chu, Kuru

Chu and Dangma Chu to the altitude of about

3000 m. And to further east, along the road

from Samdrup Jongkhar to Tashigong, parti-

cularly at Gomchu and Yomphula troops were

seen.

Before dealing on the abundance of the

species in Bhutan, as evidenced by a number

of troops and individuals observed, it will be

worthwhile to mention here the historical re-

port on the observation of apparently the

Golden Langur before this species formally

came to be known to science. The account is

by Pemberton (1839) who in his “Report on

Bootan’”’ on the results of Pemberton’s Mis-

sion in 1838, mentions under the caption

‘Wild Animals and Birds’: “*...some monkeys

...and a very remarkable variety was observ-

ed by Dr. Griffith, in the glen through which

the Mateesam river flows below Tongso, 5,417

feet above the sea; this species he described

as perfectly white, with a long pendant tail,

and would appear to be a new variety’.

Mateesam river is the Mangde Chu of today

and Tongso is Tongsa Dzong. Some 50 km

south of the place of reference by Capt. Pem-

berton lies Pangjurmane where Dr. Biswas

collected his second specimen of the Golden

Langur in Bhutan out of a troop in 1967.

The Bhutan expeditions of the Zoological

494

Survey of India in 1966, 1967, 1969, 1973 and

in 1978 critically investigated the occurrence

and other aspects of the Golden Langur. Al-

though only two specimens were collected,

one from Gaylegphug (alt. c. 150 m) and the

second from Pangjurmane (alt. c. 1525 m) in

1967 (cf. Chakraborty 1975), these are the

first record of specimens taken in Bhutan.

In different trips, approximately 1250 in-

dividuals in 67 troops were actually counted

by us in Bhutan making, an average of about

18.658 (range 12-27 individuals) per troop,

higher than the estimated troop size as 12.5

+ 4.154 (range 12-18 individuals) in a nor-

mal bisexual troop accounted by Mukherjee

and Saha (1974) in Jamduar-Raimona area

in the plains of Assam adjacent to the foot-

hills of Assam-Bhutan border. The break-up

of the troops may be presented as:

In Western Bhutan. 1) In foothill (Jamduar

area): 4 troops 50 individuals; ii) in upper

reaches of the Sankosh basin: 5 troops 90

individuals. ;

In Central Bhutan. 1) In foothills (Aie val-

ley): 20 troops 350 individuals; ii) In upper

reaches (Mangde Chu valley): 25 troops 500

individuals.

In Eastern Bhutan. i) In foothills (Manas

area): 5 troops 60 individuals; ii) In upper

reaches (above 1000 m alt.): 8 troops 150

individuals.

Although the above figures do not give the

total picture of the Golden Langur population

in Bhutan as the count was made only along

roadside forests, they definitely indicate a

larger troop size and more abundance in

Centra! Bhutan than in its peripheral limits

particularly in the adjoining Indian territory

in the foothills in Goalpara district of Assam.

It is also apparent on the basis of observations

available from Assam and Bhutan that, in fact,

the Golden Langur is a Bhutanese _ species

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

whose southern limit happens to be on the

Bhutan-Assam border, so that only a margi-

nal part of its range lies within the Indian

territory. And obviously for its meagre re-

cords from the limited study area in Assam-

Bhutan border, it was, so far, regarded as a

rare species of primates and included in the

list of vanishing and endangered species of

wildlife. To the contrary, the Golden Langur,

non-aggressive, docile and _ forest-dwelling

monkey, a unique discovery of recent times, is

thriving well and has a peaceful home in the

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN MUSEUM,

27 J. L. Newru Roan,

CaLtcuTtra 700 016,

October 11, 1978.

luxuriant forests in the lap of the sacred and

unperturbed grandeur of the Black Mountain

in Central Bhutan, in the little montane king-

dom of Bhutan, the dragonland.

I acknowledge my debt of gratitude to Drs.

K. K. Tiwari and B. Biswas for guiding me

in the preparation of this manuscript and to

the latter in particular, I express my sincere

regards for encouraging me constantly in the

field when I accompanied him in his zoolo-

gical expeditions in Bhutan which enabled me

to carry out the investigations.

SUBHENDU SEKHAR SAHA

REFERENCES

CHAKRABORTY, S. (1975): On a collection of

mammals from Bhutan. Rec. zool. Surv. 68: 1-29.

GEE, E. P. (1956): A new species of langur in

Assam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 252-254.

KHAJuURIA, H. (1956): A new langur (Primates:

Colobidae) from Goalpara district, Assam. Ann.

Mag. nat. Hist. 12 (9): 86-88.

(1961): The distribution and feed-

ing habits of the Golden Langur, Presbytis geei Gee

(Khajuria, 1956). ibid. 58: 1-12.

— (1962): Further observations on

the Gee’s Langur, Presbytis geei Khajuria, 1956,

with remarks on the classification of Indian Colo-

bidae (Mammalia: Primates). Rec. Indian Mus.

58(2): 123-130.

MUKHERJEE, R .P. & Sauna, S. S. (1974): The

Golden Langur (Presbytis geei Khajuria, 1956) of

Assam. Primates 15: 327-340.

PEMBERTON, R. B. (1839): Report on Bootan.

Bengal Military Orphan Press, Calcutta. (Reprint-

ed 1961).

Wayre, P. (1968): Some observations on the

Golden Langur, Presbytis geei (MS. Khajuria) Gee.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (2): 473-477.

2. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON INTER-OESTRUS INTERVAL IN

CAPTIVE TIGRESSES [PANTHERA TIGRIS (LINNAEUS)]

The Felidae appear to be seasonally polyoe-

strus in temperate regions and completely

polyoestrus in tropical regions (Asdell 1964).

About cats in general Prater (1971) states

that no definite knowledge is available about

sexual periodicity and the intervals of time

which elapse between the periods when fe-

males are in condition to breed. The present

communication gives some data on_ the

interoestrus interval of the tigress (Panthera

tigris) observed at Nandankanan Biological

Park, Orissa during the period from Septem-

ber, 1970 to August, 1977.

The tigers of the Park are kept in pairs and

495

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

TABLE

a ef last , Dates of Super des aieeenetara

mating observe ent ing obser- -0€

oe Hee Gears period) taeda ae interval in

without concep- iod) with or with- days

tion out conception

1 2 3 4 5)

1. Tigress “Rani” 3-9-1970 to 22-12-1970 to 107

5-9-1970 25-12-1970

(3 days) (4 days)

2. Bi 22-12-1970 to 2-4-1971 to 97

25-12-1970 6-4-1971

(4 days) (5 days)

3. is 2-4-1971 to 1-6-1971 to 55

6-4-1971 5-6-1971

(5 days) (S days)

4, a 1-6-1971 to 23-7-1971 to 47

5-6-1971 27-7-1971

(5 days) (5 days)

5 iv 4-6-1974 to 2-8-1974 to 51

11-6-1974 6-8-1974

(8 days) (5 days)

6. a 2-8-1974 to 23-9-1974 to 47

6-8-1974 29-9-1974

(S days) (7 days)

qh 3 21-6-1976 to 13-11-1976 to 138

27-6-1976 20-11-1976

(7 days) (8 days)

8. i 13-11-1976 to 3-2-1977 to 74

20-11-1976 10-2-1977

(8 days) (8 days)

9. Tigress “Rekha” 6-12-1975 to 4-1-1976 to Zi)

7-12-1975 6-1-1976

(2 days) (3 days)

10. Bs 4-1-1976 to 1-2-1976 to ZS)

6-1-1976 4-2-1976

(3 days) (4 days)

11. xs 1-2-1976 to 24-3-1976 to 48

4-2-1976 26-3-1976

(4 days) (3 days)

12. ie 24-3-1976 to 7-5-1976 to A]

26-3-1976 10-5-1976

(3 days) (4 days)

13. is 7-5-1976 to 26-6-1976 to - 46

10-5-1976 30-6-1976

(4 days) (5 days)

14. iM 26-6-1976 to 29-8-1976 to 59

30-6-1976 4-9-1976

(5 days) (7 days)

15, zi 29-8-1976 to 9-1-1977 to 126

4-9-1976 14-1-1977

(7 days) (6 days)

496

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the expectant mothers are separated about a

fortnight before the expected date of parturi-

tion till the cubs are about 9 months old. The

observed period of mating is taken as the

period of oestrus.

OBSERVATIONS

The details of our observations are given in

the Table.

DISCUSSION

A study of the table reveals that the inter-

oestrus interval observed in fifteen cases

among two tigresses varies from 25 to 133

days with an average of 65.9 days. The oestrus

period observed in nineteen cases among these

two tigresses varies from 2 to 8 days with an

average of 5.2 days. One or the other tigress

was in oestrus in all the months of the year

except in October.

Schaller (1972) reports that the oestrus in

one tigress at the Basel Zoo was observed 21

times with an average interval of 51.9 days

(range 20-84 days), and in another tigress it

was recorded 18 times with an average inter-

val of 54.2 days (range 27-83 days). Sadleir

(1966) states that the interval between mid-

points of 3 consecutive oestrus periods in one

VETERINARY ASSISTANT SURGEON,

NANDANKANAN BIOLIGICAL PARK,

P.O. BARANG, DIST: CUTTACK.

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION OFFICER,

95 SAHEED NAGAR,

BHUBANESWAR 751 007,

February 28, 1978.

tigress varied from 45 to 55 days and the

average length of receptivity during 14 oestrus

periods was 7.1 days. The tiger breeds all the

year (Asdell, loc. cit.). According to Crandall

(1965) the female of this species is polyoes-

trus, heat recurring at intervals of about 3

weeks and receptivity continues for about 5

days.

SUMMARY

The present communication embodies data

on interoestrus interval of tigress (Panthera

tigris) observed at Nandankanan Biological

Park, Orissa during the period from Septem-

ber, 1970 to August, 1977.

The interoestrus interval observed in fifteen

cases among two tigresses varies from 25 to

138 days with an average of 65.9 days. The

oestrus period observed in nineteen cases

among these two tigresses varies from 2 to

8 days with an average of 5.2 days. The ob-

servations of earlier workers have been cited.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Sri S. Jee, LF.s., Chief

Conservator of Forests, Orissa, Cuttack and to

Sri G M. Das, 1.F.S., Chief Wildlife Warden,

Orissa, Bhubaneswar for their encouragement.

L. N. ACHARJYO

S. MOHAPATRA

REFERENCES

ASDELL, S. A. (1964): Patterns of Mammalian

Reproduction, Second Edition, Cornell University

Press, Ithaca, New York, pp. 425-493.

CRANDALL, LEE S. (1965): The Management of

Wild Mammals in Captivity. The University of Chi-

cago Press, Chicago and London, pp. 359-385.

PRATER, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani-

mals, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,

pp. 63-66.

SADLEIR, R. (1966): Cited by Schaller, G. B.

(1972). |

SCHALLER, G. B. (1972): The Deer and the Tiger.

The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and

London, pp. 231.

497

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

3. HABITATS, FEEDING, BREEDING AND REACTION TO MAN

OF THE DESERT CAT FELIS LIBYCA (GRAY)

IN THE INDIAN DESERT

Prater (THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS, 1971)

states that very little is known about the habits

of this cat except that it lives in desert and

scrub jungle and preys mainly on desert ger-

billes and other small rodents and birds.

Breeding habits are not known. I studied the

habitat preferences, food habits and breeding

biology of the Desert Cat in the Indian desert

in Western Rajasthan from January 1974 to

April 1977.

Habitat. Scrub wasteland is the typical

habitat. In the Indian desert, thickets of May-

tenus emarginatus, Acacia modesta, Salvadora

spp., and those particularly of Capparis deci-

dua provide suitable haunts for the desert cai.

In saline soil areas, the cat was observed in

thickets of Tamarix dioica. It is noteworthy

that Prosopis juliflora is spreading extensively

in various regions of the Indian desert; this

tree provides favourable habitat for the cat.

A number of this cat were seen commonly in

thick scrub close to tanks, probably because

prey species are available there.

Food habits. Prater’s surmise that, the De-

sert Cat largely lives on the desert gerbille

(Meriones hurrianae) was found to be correct,

analysis of droppings showed a very high per-

centage (about 10%) of hairs of the hare

(Lepus sp.). The cat ambushes the gerbilles

close to their burrows. But it was noted that

often gerbilles succeeded in escaping into

their burrows, younger gerbilles which are less

aware and careless, fall easy victims.

The Desert Cat was observed hunting hare,

doves (Streptopelia decaocto and S. senegalen-

sis), grey partridge (Francolinus pondiceria-

nus), sandgrouse (Pterocles exustus), pea-

fowl (Pavo cristatus), bulbuls (Pycnonotus

498

cafer, P. leucogenys) in jungles and the house

sparrow (Passer domesticus), rats (Rattus

spp.) and the blue-rock pigeon (Columba

livia), etc. in agricultural farms. The cat hunts

its prey on trees and also from the tree, it

pounces on the unwary hare, partridge and

peafowl on the ground, under the tree.

It was also observed killing snakes such as

the cobra (Naja naja), the Sawscaled viper

(Echis carinatus) and the Sand boa (Eryx

johnii). First the cat injures the snake at the

hind quarters by striking with its paws; when

the snake becomes exhausted, the neck of the

snake is bitten and the snake killed. Some

portions of the killed snake are eaten by the

cat. Usually the attacked snake succeeds ‘n

escaping into a nearby bush, burrow or pile

of stones after the first or second charge by

the cat.

The cat also kills and eats the gecko (Hemi-

dactylus spp.), scorpions and large beetles. It

also robs clutches and broods of birds parti-

cularly ground birds such as the partridge, the

peafowl and the sandgrouse.

Breeding. The desert cat breeds in the win-

ter, in October and between February to April.

The litter size was observed to be 3 to 5 usu-

ally, 4. The breeding site was often a

den having three openings of about 20x 15

cm, in different directions situated in a hum-

mock with a bush growing over it, preferably

surrounded by colonies of gerbilles. Such

breeding sites seem to be provide enough food

(gerbilles) for the young as well as protection

from enemies, e.g. the stray dog and the

Jungle cat (Felis chaus). In farms, the desert

cat was observed breeding in a hollow in a

fodder stack.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The cat was observed teaching her young

by putting half killed gerbilles before her kit-

tens. The young were seen attempting to hunt

(kill) the injured gerbille. The cat was also

seen bringing beetles and eggs of ground birds

for her young.

Two young of the cat were seen killed by

stray dogs of a nearby village and three young

by male cats of the area.

Enemies. The jackal (Canis aureus), the

wolf (C. lupus) and the stray dog are enemies

of the desert cat. The cat escapes by climbing

up a nearby tree or hiding under a thick bush

when chased. in agonistic behaviour, it

was observed erecting the hairs of its body,

BHAGAWATI BHAVAN,

RATANADA Roap,

JODHPUR 342 020,

May 10, 1978.

particularly of the tail, and if necessary strik-

ing at the mouth and nose of the enemy with

its paws in an effort to escape. The cat was

observed to be fairly successful in avoiding

fatal attacks by dogs by this method. It falls

a victim only when encircled by two or more

dogs.

The desert cat was found to be a notable

factor in controlling the population of the

desert gerbilles in the sandy scrub wasteland.

There is no serious predator of the cat but

its population is restricted by poor breeding

success, because of the young being oftea

killed by males of its own species and stray

dogs of nearby village areas.

INDRA KUMAR SHARMA

4. INTER-SPECIFIC RELATIONSHIP IN SOME SPECIES OF INDIAN

BATS WITH A NOTE ON BAT FAUNA OF BHUBANESWAR

INTRODUCTION

An extensive survey of bats from Bhuba-

neswar and its vicinity was made by me be-

tween 1972 to 1976 for approximately four

years, to study their ecology and reproductive

biology. Bhubaneswar (20° 30’N, 85° 30’E)

is situated near the eastern coast at 45 metres

a.s.l. and there is neither extreme cold nor ex-

treme heat. The rainfall ranges between 100

to 200 cm. and the annual temperature ranges

from 10.6°C. to 43.3°C. The bats were cap-

tured from old temples, caves, old and desert-

1 KHAPARDE, M. S. (1976): Notes on the breed-

ing habits of the Indian sheath-tailed bat, Taphoz-

ous melanopogon (Temminck). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soe. 73 (2) 3 321-324.

ed houses, cowsheds, palm trees, etc.

The present report on inter-specific rela-

tionship in some species of Indian bats is an

outcome of this survey.

Taphozous melanopogon (Emballonuridac)

colonies of a few hundred specimens, were

seen inhabiting most of the temples at Bhu-

baneswar, Orissa.

Monthwise collections of Taphozous mela-

nopogon was made from Mausima, Bhaska-

resvara and Brahmesvara temples for over

three years for studying its ecology and re-

productive biology (Khaparde 1976)1. Fre-

quent collections (several times a month) of

Faphozous melanopogon were made during

the breeding season from the above temples

with a view to obtain closely graded stages

499

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

of development for embryological studies.

In Meghesvara temple, Rousettus leschen-

aulti (Pteropidae) lives in association with

Taphozous melanopogon in November, De-

cember and January but during collections in

February, March, April and May only Tapho-

zous melanopogon were captured. Unfortu-

nately, collections during other months of the

year could not be made, and hence it is not

possible to determine the exact time of mig-

ration of Rousettus leschenaulti of this temple.

In Rajrani temple, Rhinopoma kinneari

(Rhinopomatidae) roosts with Taphozous me-

lanopogon in November, December, and Jan-

uary but is absent in February, March and

April. Collections could not be made during

other months of the year.

Rhinopoma hardwickei hardwickei (Rhino-

pomatidae) roosts with Taphozous melano-

pogon in Mausima (Ramesvara) temple.

Since, Rhinopoma hardwickei hardwickei

roosts in small colonies of 20 to 30 specimens,

only a few specimens of these could be cap-

tured alongwith the specimens of Taphozous

melanopogon in a few of the total number of

captures. But this does not rule out the possi-

bility of the availability of Rhinopoma hard-

wickei hardwickei in association with Tapho-

zous melanopogon in this temple throughout

the year. Taphozous melanopogon is found

in its roosts throughout the year.

In a small temple opposite Mausima tem-

ple, a colony of Rhinopoma hardwickei hard-

wickei consisting of 20 to 30 specimens exists.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

REGIONAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION,

BHUBANESWAR 751007, (ORISSA),

April 22, 1977.

2 Present Address:

A large colony of Rousettus leschenaulti (Pte-

ropidae) was noted in Jambesvara Temple.

Megaderma sp. also occurs in temples and the

Parasuramesvara temple holds a colony of

Megaderma sp. were also captured from holes

in bamboo in houses made of bamboo from a

small village near Bhubaneswar.

Taphozous melanopogon (Emballonuridae);

Rhinopoma h. hardwickei (Rhinopomatidae);

Rhinolophus rouxi (Rhinolophidae); Hipposi-

deros speoris (Hipposideridae) were collected

from Rani Gumpha, Udayagiri Hill near Bhu-

baneswar. Pteropus sp. from a_ colony near

Chandani Chowk, in Cuttack, Orissa. Pipistrel-

lus minus minus (Vespertilionidae) were col-

lected from huts in Bhubaneswar and Cynop-

terus sphinx (Pteropidae) from palm trees.

It was noted that the large sized bats gene-

rally live in colonies of their own _ species,

while the smaller bats live with members of

other species also.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

[ am grateful to Dr. Karl F. Koopman,

American Museum of Natural History, New

York, for identifying the specimens of Rhino-

poma hardwickei hardwickei, and the experts

at the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,

for identifying the specimens of Taphozous

melanopogon and Rousettus leschenaulti.

The author has great pleasure in acknow-

ledging the help of Shri Purna Chandra Beura,

Bhubaneswar, in capturing bats.

M. S. KHAPARDE?

Department of Text books,

NCERT, NIE Campus, New Delhi 110016.

S00

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

5. REPRODUCTIVE ACTIVITY OF FOUR SPECIES OF

FIELD-RATS IN CROP FIELDS AT LUDHIANA

For devising efficient control measures against

any pest, the knowledge of its reproductive

activity is necessary. As the rodents are poly-

oestrous, there is no season to which

breeding is strictly confined. Fertility may be

low at certain times of the year; but if so,

the cause is usually to be some external fac-

tor (Barnett & Ishwar Prakash 1975). The

point of lowest reproductive activity indicates

the break in the reproductive cycle and, thus,

the most appropriate time for mounting con-

trol operations. Studies on the field-rats con-

cerning this aspect were done and the infor-

mation collected on the subject during the

period of December 1970 to November 1972

is presented here.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To obtain information on the reproductive

activity of different species of field-rats, ‘cap-

ture, mark, release and recapture method,’ as

described by Davis (1964) was employed. The

traps were laid during December 1970 to

November 1972 for a 10-day period in the

first fortnight of each month in different crops

at a 100 m distance from one another in a

grid of 53 hectare cultivated area on the Lud-

hiana Farm of the Punjab Agricultural Uni-

versity. The traps were baited with a mixture

of husked rice, pearl-millet and wheat. The

trapped individuals were examined daily for

sex, position of testes (scrotal or abdominal)

in males and of vagina perforated or imper-

forated) in females. When the tests were ab-

dominal, the black loose skin of the scrotum

indicated that they were earlier scrotal. In the

absence of black loose scrotal skin the abdo-

minal condition of the testes indicated that

the specimen was a subadult. In females, the

previous history of the animal indicated whe-

ther it was an adult or subadult. Presence of

clear teats was taken to indicate lactating

condition.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The 1077 animals observed consisted of

841 Rattus meltada (Gray), 161 Tatera indi-

ca (Hardwicke), 33 Golunda ellioti (Gray)

and 42 Bandicota bengalensis (Gray). Their

reproductive activity is discussed below spe-

cieswise.

1. Rattus meltada (Gray). Scrotal males

predominated throughout the year, except

during November to February. Reproduc-

tively active females were present throughout

the year, except during November and De-

cember and the lactating females were present

throughout the year, except during December

and January. Subadults were found during

all the months. The peak lactating period was

observed during July to September (Table 1).

Similarly, Guraya & Gupta (1975) reported

that this species did not breed in winter and

the peak breeding activity was observed dur-

ing July to October. Thus, from the above it

may be concluded that this rat breeds through-

out the year, except during the winter months.

2. Watera indica (Hardwicke). None were

found during December. During the re-

maining months, scrotal males were found

to predominate, except during November. Re-

productively active females were present

throughout the year, except during May, Octo-

ber and November. The lactating females were

present throughout the year, except during

January to April, the peak being reached dur-

ing May to October. Subadults were found

501

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

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505

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

throughout the year except during December,

January, April and June (Table 2).

Singh (1961) found young ones of this spe-

cies in fields with their mothers during March

to May and again during October to Decem-

ber. Similarly, Prem Sagar & Bindra (1970)

reported that the young ones of this rat were

found during March to May and again dur-

ing August to December. The present studics

have revealed that this rat breeds throughout

the year, although the peak breeding occur-

red during January to October. Similarly,

Jain (1970) reported that 7. indica indica

Hardwicke bred throughout the year but the

prevalence of pregnancy reached a peak dur-

ing the monsoon. Male gerbilles also remained

fecund during ali seasons.

3. Golunda ellioti (Gray). Scrotal rats

were present during February-March and

during May to September. Unfortunately, ow-

ing to low population, no G. ellioti was ob-

served during October and December-

April. No female was seen during January,

August and October. Reproductively active

females were predominant during March, July

and September. The lactating females were

present during April, June and September.

Subadults were found during February, May,

September, November and December (Table

3). Owing to small number of individuals

observed, it is difficult to draw any conclusions,

but it appears that the breeding season in this

species extends from March to September.

4. Bandicota bengalensis (Gray). Owing to

a small number of individuals observed, it is

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY,

PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

LUDHIANA, PUNJAR,

January 30, 1978.

506

difficult to arrive at any conclusion (Table 4).

According to Chakraborty (1975) this species

breeds throughout the year.

The reduction in or lack of reproductive

activity during winter has been reported in

other species of rats and mice also (Mann &

Bindra 1977, Sadfeir 1969, Schiller 1956,

Whitaker 1940), and the same has been attri-

buted to short day lengih or low temperature

under which conditions the testes may become

abdominal and the spermatogenesis may stop.

SUMMARY

Studies on the reproductive activity were

carried out during December 1970 to Novem-

ber 1972 in a grid of 53 ha. cultivated area

on the Ludhiana Farm of the Punjab Agricul-

tural University. These revealed that Rattus

meltada (Gray) and Tatera indica (Hard-

wicke) bred throughout the year except dur-

ing very cold months, when the reproductive

activity was either drastically reduced or

absent. In the case of Golunda ellioti (Gray)

and Bandicota bengalensis (Gray), however, it

is difficult to draw any conclusion owing to

small number of animals observed, but it ap-

pears that the breeding season in these species

also extends throughout the year with the ex-

ception of winter months.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta for arranging the

identification of the rats.

G. S. MANN

O. S. BINDRA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

BARNETT, S. A. & ISHWAR PRAKASH (1975):

Rodents of Economic Importance in India. Arnold-

Heinemann. p. 175.

CHAKRABORTY, S. (1975): Field observations on

the biology and ecology of the lesser bandicoot

rat, Bandicota bengalensis (Gray) in West Bengal.

All India Rodent Seminar, Sidhpur Sept. 23 to 26,

1975, pp. 102-109.

Davis, D. E. (1964): Manual for analysis of

rodent population. The Pennsylvania State Univ.,

Pennsylvania, p. 82.

-Guraya, S. S. AND Gupta, S. S. (1975): Obser-

vations on the reproductive biology of the soft

furred field-rat (Millardia meltada). All India

Rodent Seminar, Sidhpur, Sept.. 23 to 26, 1975,

pp. .70-73.

Jain, A. P. (1970): Body weight, sex-ratio, age

structure and some aspects of reproduction in the

Indian gerbil, Tatera indica indica Hardwicke in the

Rajasthan desert, India. Mammalia 34 (3): 415-32.

MANN, G. S. & BrinpRA, O. S. (1977): Repro-

ductive activity: of Mus spp. in crop fields at Lu-

dhiana. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74 (1): 162-67.

PREM SAGAR & BINDRA, O. S. (1970): A note on

the breeding habits of Indian gerbil, Tatera indica

(Hardwicke). Pl,,-Prot. .Bull,. 20 (4): 29-31.

SADLER, R. M. F. S. (1969): The ecology | of

reproduction in wild and domestic mammals. Me-

thuen and Co. Ltd., London, p. 321.

SCHILLER, E. L. (1956): Ecology and health of

Rattus at Nome, Alaska. J. Mammal. 37: 181-88.

SINGH, B. (1961): Studies on the biology, habits

and control. of the field-rat, Tatera indica (Hard-

wicke). M.Sc. Thesis, Punjab Univ.,. Chandigarh

(Unpub.) ne

Wuiraker, W. L. (1940): Some effects of arti-

ficial illumination on reproduction in the white-

footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus noveboracen-

sis. J. e Zool. 83: 28 60.

6. “THE BIRDS OF GOA”

The Journal for April 1976 (73:42-53) con-

tains a paper “Birds of Goa”’ which reports on

a collection of 150 specimens of 100 species.

The total number of species collected and/or

seen amounted to 154, which is probably less

than half of the species occurring in the area,

and there is very little that adds to the in-

formation already available.

The foilowing points call for remarks:

I. In the opening section of the Systematic

List, the subspecific names are said to be given

only for the birds collected and examined,

but in some instances this has been done

though no specimen is listed, e.g. Streptopelia

orientalis erythrocephala. — |

2. There is a general statement to the effect

that the subspecies are not likely to be different

from those of better worked adjoining areas,

but the subspecific name is usually omitted

and the specific name used is followed by that

of the original author, e.g. Milvus migrans

(Boddaert). In polytypic species it is not cus-

tomary to quote the author’s name without

naming the subspecies; this is particularly con-

fusing in a list in which subspecific names are

used. In the instance quoted, the correct name

which is Milvus migrans govinda Sykes could

be well mistaken for the nominate ‘Milvus

migrans migrans (Boddaert) (type locality

France), found in western Pakistan and_ fur-

ther westwards, or suggest that no subspecies

are admitted. |

This irregularity occurs ‘under serial . Nos.

1, 2s) 5. 6. 88 10! 13, 16. 18) 19.°20, etc

3. In the course of cataloguing the Bom-

bay collection, attention has already been

drawn to the difficulty/impossibility of separat-

ing some of the races upheld in INDIAN HAND-

507

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Book. In the present paper, with one or two

additional specimens, the same suggestion is

repeated in a hesitant manner, with no at-

tempt to come to a definite decision one way

or the other.

Among the more specific ambiguities /errors,

I can only draw attention to those species

which I have had occasion to handle and

study in the course of my work.

No. 4 (INDIAN HANDBOOK 130) Pernis ptilor-

rhynchus ruficollis Lesson. The wing of the

male (440 mm) is much larger than indicated

in INDIAN HANDBOOK (382-417 mm), a fact to

which attention has already been drawn

(JBNHS 65:698).

No. 15 (iH 223) Falco tinnunculus inter-

stinctus McClelland. In my Catalogue

(JBNHS 65(3):723), I have admitted my

inability to separate the nominate tinnunculus

and interstinctus. The key in INDIAN HAND-

BooK (Vol. 1 : 365) states that adult inter-

stinctus is separable from ¢innunculus by its

darker upperparts, but in this paper a bird

in subadult plumage is so named as it is

“‘paler’’.

No. 40 (1H 669) Eurostopodus macrotis

(Vigors). This bird has only been found in

the Kottayam, Quilon, and Trivandrum dis-

tricts in Kerala. Another closely related night

bird, the Ceylon Frogmouth (Batrachosto-

mus moniliger Blyth) has been recorded in

the southwest and as far north as N. Kanara

and its call does not appear to have been

recorded. Davison in Burma (/bis 1888, pp.

146-7 quoted by Whistler in JBNHS 38:39)

and Davidson in North Kanara (loc. cit.,

12:50) have respectively described the calls

of the Great Eared Nightjar and the Frog-

mouth as ‘wailing’. In the present state of our

knowledge it would appear unsafe to accept

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,

BoMBAY-400 003,

June 15, 1977.

* Also a female from Karnala, Pen, Kolaba on

508

the call as definite evidence of occurrence of

this species so far away from its known range.

No. 48 (1H 726) Alcedo meninting coltarti/

rufigaster/phillipsi. By distribution they are

said to be coltarti overlooking the fact that

specimens from the southwest are accepted as

phillipsi (Baker, Cocoawatte Estate, Ceylon)

and INDIAN HANDBOOK (4:78) has also sug-

gested that this may be the subspecies extend-

ing northwards along the Western Ghats.

No. 54 (iH 754) Coracias garrulus seme-

nowi. The specimen obtained is in immature

plumage. Goa and Karwar (Mysore/Karna-

taka) are evidently at the southern edge of the

regular wave of migration that passes over

western India from about August (ichandesh)

and Bombay (mid-September to mid-Decem-

ber). I have already (JBNHS 70:153) refer-

red to all the four *specimens available from

Kutch southwards being in immature plum-

age, while Meinertzhagen (/bis 1937, p. 50)

has found the same to be the case with the

birds from Egypt.

No. 73 (1H 924/5) Hirundo daurica rufula/

nipalensis. The subspecies rufula has not been

authentically recorded south of the Himalayan

foothills and the large flocks that visit penin-

sular India are presently accepted under the

name nipalensis. In the absence of any speci-

men, the suggestion that the subspecies be

rufula seems to be unjustified.

No. 74 (1H 947) Lanius schach caniceps

Blyth, Greybacked Shrike. This is referred to

as Rufousbacked.

No. 82 (1H 973) Dicrurus h. hottentottus

(Linnaeus). The bill measurements quoted in

INDIAN HANDBOOK from Vaurie (1949) are

corrected to be ‘from feathers’ and not ‘from

skull’. They are actually ‘from anterior border

of nostril’ (loc. cit., p. 280).

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

7th Oct. ’72, ic. 6 in all.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Dr. Salim Ali comments

I had asked Dr. Grubh, the senior author,

to check carefully in the light of Mr. Abdul-

ali’s comments and see if and what corrections

and alterations were necessary or desirable.

To this Dr. Grubh replied that he had gone

through the comments and found one error

which would be rectified in the next issue of

JBNHS. This, I understand, is being done.

Subsequently I personally went over Mr.

Abdulali’s Notes together with Dr. Grubh and

found that except for the one error and ano-

ther slip pointed out by Mr. A. there was

nothing of sufficient importance to need spe-

cific correcting. The error referred to was in

describing a kestrel as the subspecies Falco

t. interstinctus instead of F. t. tinnunculus. In

cases where Mr. A. has merely expressed

opinions about ‘irregularities’ etc., he must

accept the fact that they are only his opinions

and not necessarily the last word on the sub-

ject!

1. His gratuitous remark that ‘there is very

little that adds to the information already

available’ is redundant since it was a factual

report of the field survey. If it does not add

anything new, as he claims, that is just too

bad!

2. In a case where the subspecific name

was given although no specimen was procur-

ed, e.g. Streptopelia orientalis erythrocephala,

it was after sufficient familiarity with the spe-

cies from the Mysore, Bastar and other sur-

veys that I felt perfectly sure of the subspeci-

fic identity. However, in this (and similar

cases) it would perhaps have been better to

enclose the name erythrocephala and its author

within brackets.

3. Using an author’s name after a species

name (binomial): This is a matter of indi-

vidual choice, and there is no sacrosanct rule

for or against the practice. Except in syste-

matic publications—as the Goa list must be

considered—or where there is fear of ambi-

guity, the author’s name is of course seldom

necessary.

4. Falco tinnunculus interstinctus: This is

an obvious error and is being corrected.

5. Identification of longeared Nightjar by

call notes: The calls were heard by Dr. Grubh

who drew my attention to them. Being fami-

liar with the very distinctive call and the bird’s

typical habitat, I have no doubt about the

species.

6. Subspecific identification of Alcedo

meninting: In the Indian HAND-BOOK. the sub-

species coltarti has been admitted for Goa

though the validity of this subspecies has been

questioned. Mr. A’s insinuation here is not

understood. As he himself admits (JBNHS

64:174) he found it almost impossible to dis-

tinguish the races even in the large series in

the British Museum. What then did he expect

us to decide on a single specimen?

7. Subspecific identification of Hirundo

daurica: We have referred to the birds as

either rufula or nipalensis. While there

is, of course, no reason why even rufula may

not -sometimes be found here in winter, it

would perhaps have been better not mention-

ed considering that it has so far apparently

never been identified from peninsular India.

Our suggestion was based on the whitish rump

and the conspicuously narrowstreaked under-

parts which are among the diagnostic clues.

8. English name for Lanius schach cani-

ceps: In the Goa paper the English name

commonly used for species follows THE BOOK

OF INDIAN BIRDS.

9. Dicrurus hottentottus: Measurement of

509

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

bill quoted’ from’ Vaurie. “A correction from

“From ‘Skull’ to ‘From anterior border of

nostril” is included in the note sent for pub-

27 August 1977; |

Bombay. © |

7. PRE-NATAL VOCALIZATION

» For long time, game breeders have known

that the’ eggs of game birds hatch almost

simultaneously when incubated by the hen.

Game birds like partridge, junglefowl, phea-

sants and ducks, lay five to twenty eggs. As

a rule, only one egg is laid each day and

incubation does not start till the clutch is

complete. However, due to the fact that these

birds breed in summer, preliminary embryo-

nic development of the chick starts by the heat

of the atmosphere. Moreover, in order to pro-

tect the eggs, the cryptically coloured female

starts sitting on the eggs, especially during

night. But the female does not cover the eggs

completely because the brood patch is not

yet fully developed. The brood or incubation

patch is an unfeathered area on the ventral

side of the body with numerous blood ves-

sels. It is developed to facilitate transfer of

body heat to the eggs. By the time all the

eggs are layed, the brood patch is completely

developed and also gradually increases during

brooding. Thus, when actual incubation

starts, the first egg is a little more advanced

in embryonic development than the last, so

that the first egg must normally hatch many

hours or even days before the last egg. How-

over, we find that all the eggs hatch synchr-

onously when incubated by the mother. On the

other hand, if the same clutch is artificially

incubated, the eggs hatch one after the other

over a period of two or three days. Certainly

the explanation of this discrepency lies in the

mother hen.

Through ingenious experiments on mallard

510

lication in the. Journal which, moreover, is

duly acknowledged to Mr. A. according to

his specific stipulation (J/BNHS 74:357).

AND IMPRINTING IN BIRDS

duck (Anas platyrhynchos), Hess (1972)

found that the brooding duck vocalizes regu-

larly during the later part of the incubation

period. It seems probable that the mailard

is answering to the calls produced by the de-

veloping ducklings. However, later it was

found that the female duck sitting on the in-

fertile eggs calls as much as those sitting on

fertile ones. So, the female itself initiates the

vocalization. Moreover, it was also found that

sitting on the eggs for three weeks or more

triggers certain neuro-endocrine mechanisms

as the result of which the female starts vocaliz-

ing (Hess 1972). Experiments showed that

mallards do not respond to the recorded

sounds of pre-hatched ducklings during the

first and second week of brooding. In fact,

during the initial stages of brooding, the res-

ponse to recorded sound of duckling is threat

behaviour. It is only in the third week that

the mother responded to the recorded duckl-

ing calls with clucking. In the fourth week,

all the females experimented with responded

favourably with increase in clucking. There-

fore, sitting on the eggs for a certain period

stimulates the bird — through hormonal action

—to start its clucking calls.

Though, the auditory system in embryonic

birds develop quite early, structural develop-

ment does not imply functional development.

Grier et al. (1967) in chickens found that the

ears start responding to exogenous sounds only

after 18 days of incubation. Developmental

stages of chicken and duckling are very simi-

lar. Any sound produced by the mother be-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

fore the functional development of the audi-

tory faculties would be useless as far as the

eggs are concerned. That is why the mother

mallard does not start vocalizing before the

third week of incubation. Through countless

generations, the vocalizing pattern has become

innate and part of the legacy of inherited be-

haviour. That is why, the duck vocalizes with

the infertile eggs even though she does not

receive any response from the dead eggs.

Normal fertile eggs respond to the clucking

sound of the mother and a sort of ‘conversa-

tion’ starts between the offsprings and the

mother. Gottlieb (1965) has shown that seve-

ral days before hatching, the head of the fetal

chick and of the fetal duckling moves into the

air space at the large end of the egg. The

fetuses of both birds start uttering low-in-

tensity peeps or cheeps. Before and during

hatching, vocalization of both the mother and

offsprings increases dramatically, as comple-

mentary responses.

Synchronous hatching of young ones has

great survival value, especially for precocial

birds, because if the discrepancy of hatching

between the first egg and the last one is long,

say of two to three days, the mother would

be in a dilemma whether to ‘entertain’ the

new arrival or to brood the remaining eggs.

Precoctal juveniles might also start scamper-

ing around and get lost. In order to minimize

the maternal troubles, nature has provided

females with a sort of ‘‘brood whistle’ co-

ordinate the hatching and rearing of the

chicks.

The actual mechanism by which the deve-

lopment of eggs is hastened or delayed, as the

case may be, is not yet clear. It is probable

that the mother utters a particular call—ten-

tatively called here as “hatching call’—for

hatching. Fully developed early chicks per-

haps delay hatching and wait for the ‘“‘hatch-

ing call” to synchronize their birth with the

late developers.

_ The mother could identify the various stages

of embryonic development by the responses

she. receives from every egg. When she finds

that all the eggs are ready for hatching, she

may give the hatching call; in this way, syn-

chrony in hatching may be achieved. This

hypothesis opens interesting problems for

future researches in this field.

Synchronization of the oestrus cycle in man

and in animals is well known. Nurses, young

nuns and girls living in hostels and dormitories

unknowingly synchronize their menstrual

cycles. Female dogs housed together invari-

ably come into heat together. This ‘menstrual

synchrony’ is mediated by pheromones. Syn-

chrony in hatching, however, is not mediated

by pheromones. This is proved by the fact that

when the parent-young vocal responses are

transmitted through microphone-loudspeaker

hook-up between the female mallard’s nest

and the laboratory incubators, eggs in the in-

cubators hatch as synchronously as eggs in

nature (Hess 1972). 3

The mallard duck becomes silent as soon as

the young are hatched. This silence lasts from

16 to 32 hours until it is time to leave the nest

(Hess 1972). Abandoning the nest with the

full armada of duckling is termed as ‘“‘exodus’’.

During the hatching period, which lasts about

an hour, the mother generally vocalizes at

the rate of from zero to four calls per one

minute intervals, except for few bursts when

the maximum calls reach up to 10 per minute.

However, as the exodus begins, the mallard

quickly builds up a crescendo of between 40

to 65 calls per minute.

Pre- and post-natal auditory stimulation

thoroughly imprint the offspring to their

mother’s vocalization (Gottlieb 1965; Grier

et al. 1967). The young ones might not recog-

511

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

nise her by face but her calls remind them of

the comforts of the egg, thus they respond

positively towards her voice. Intense auditory

and tactile interaction occurs after hatching

which greatly helps in cementing the filial

bond. Hess (1972) found that the ducklings

make considerable effort to be near their

parent. And the more difficulty they face in

getting nearer to the parent, the greater the

filial attachment.

By the time exodus begins, ducklings are

deeply imprinted towards their mother’s call.

Moreover, every female vocalizes differently

so every duckling easily recognises its mother.

Some mallards regularly emit a single cluck

at one-second interval, some cluck in triple

or quadruple clusters while others cluck in

clusters of different lengths. The ducklings

remember their maternal call-pattern and

simulate them when they themselves nest. In

this way call-pattern is transmitted from gene-

ration to generation.

One of the interesting findings reported by

Bailey & Ralph (1975) in pheasants (Phasia-

nus colchicus) is that the chicks show greater

affinity for the sound heard during the final

week of embryonic development and response

to a particular call is learned and not inherit-

ed. This is proved by the fact that if tape-

recorded alarm call is played back to the

eggs during the final days of incubation, the

developing chicks associate it with positive

reinforcement of comfort within the eggs, and

after hatching they do not run and hide when

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

ALIGARH MuSsLIM UNIVERSITY,

ALIGARH 202 001.

October 30, 1979.

212

the alarm-call is heard. On the other hand,

they would crouch and hide if the food-gather-

ing call is played to them. Any call which

they have not heard during their pre-natal

days acts as alarm-call for them. Thus, the

call that will be attractive to the chick is de-

termined during pre-hatching days and has

little dependence on innate responsiveness.

Though the brooding hen might make many

sounds the alarm-call is certainly not uttered

while sitting on the eggs, because as soon as

danger threatens, a cryptically-coloured female

of game bird tries to camouflage herself by

remaining silent. If the danger is literally on

her head, she stealthily skulks away from the

nest and when she has gone a considerable

distance, she explodes in a cacophony of cack-

les or quacks to divert the attention of the

predator from the nest. (Some birds, like lap-

wings, killdeer, etc., feign injury and ‘guide’

the predator towards themselves but fly away

at the last moment before being caught.) As

the alarm-call or danger signal is not uttered

by the female on the nest, the developing

young ones are not accustomed to this sound

and when they hear this call in post-natal

days they run and hide.

As the pheasant chicks grow, their attrac-

tion response to a specific call heard during

the pre-natal development starts waning (Bai-

ley & Ralph 1975). This stage occurs between

21 and 28 days of post-hatching and coincides

with the age at which chicks become inde-

pendent from the hen in the wild.

ASAD RAFI RAHMANI

(4oyjnp :0\0Y4d) ‘jedoN ‘seuseg 3 plsyApped Ul suLIQ poyouyorg “[ 0}0Ud

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

BAILEY, E. D. & Racpnu, K. M. (1975): The

effects of embryonic exposure to pheasant vocali-

zations in later call identification of chicks. Can.

J. Zool. 53: 1028-1034.

Gol1TLieB, G. (1965): Parental auditory sensiti-

vity in chickens and ducks. Science 147: 1596-1598.

GRIER, J. B., COUNTER, S. A. & SHEARER, W. H.

(1967): Parental auditory imprinting in chickens.

ibid. 155: 1692-1693.

Hess, E. H. (1972): “Imprinting” in a Natural

Laboratory. Sci. Amer. 227: 24-31.

[Salim Ali (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55: 166-8)

records an instance of post-natal training of a just-

hatched Sarus Crane chick at Bharatpur. The chick

had emerged two hours earlier from one of a clutch

of two eggs. The mother continued to brood the

unhatched egg, with the chick unsteadily shuffling

about the periphery of the nest. On being alarmed

by some movement, the brooding bird hastily got

up and was about to move away, when the chick

commenced to cheep loudly. The parent gave a

subdued kor-r-r call when the chick paid no atten-

tion and continued to shuffle and cheep took a

step back to the nest, repeated the kor-r-r call and

pecked the chick gently. The chick reacted instant-

ly, lay down flat and quiet, as the parent moved

away.— EDs. ]

8. BLACKNECKED CRANE, GRUS NIGRICOLLIS, SEEN AT

BEGNAS TAL, NEAR POKHARA, NEPAL

(With a photograph)

On July 4th this year I was at the Lake

Begnas, near Pokhara, Nepal. In the early

afternoon I watched a large crane which circl-

ed several times over an area of marsh bor-

dering paddyfields at the edge of the lake be-

fore it finally landed. I watched it at a range

of about ? mile though a telescope and was

unable to identify it. About two hours later

I was able to get much closer and it was

clear that the bird was not Sarus, Common

or Demoiselle Crane, the only three given

in ‘Birds of Nepal’ by Fleming e¢ al. I took

a description and later that day identified the

bird as a Blacknecked Crane after referring

to the FIELD GUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF SOUTH-

EAST ASIA by King ef al.

On July 5th I went back to Begnas with a

camera and a borrowed 400 mm. lens. I saw

the crane first in two flights, each of about 4

mile, and presumed that despite its general

tameness it had been disturbed by the plough-

ing and planting taking place in the paddy-

fields. After it landed the second time I was

able to approach it to within 30 yards, photo-

graph it and take a more detailed description.

Later the same morning I saw it again in

flight but this time it flew to the hill behind

the village of Begnas, picked up a thermal

and circled higher and higher until it was lost

from view at least one thousand feet up. It

was not seen again. .

In flight the large size, long neck held

straight forward, long wings and long legs

projecting well beyond tail, together with the

very slow wingbeats identified the bird as a

Crane. On the ground this was confirmed by

the short, straight bill (about as long as the

head) and the drooping black ‘tail’. The only

direct size comparison was with Whitenecked

Stork (Ciconia episcopus), and it seemed to

stand approximately twice as high as these.

513

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

From previous experience of Common Crane

(Grus grus) 1 judged that this bird was con-

siderably larger. It was also more heavily

51, HALSBURY Roab,

WESTBURY: PARK, |

BrisToL, BS6 7ST,

ENGLAND, __

November 4, 1978.

built, larger bodied and with noticeably thick

legs and thighs.

Generally very tame for a bird of its size.

JOHN ROSSETTI

| 9. UNEXPECTED OCCURRENCE OF THE GOLDENBACKED

WOODPECKER DINOPIUM BENGHALENSE (LINNAEUS)

IN KUTCH

On 17th September, 1978 I met with a bird

in Vijaya Vilas Plantation (about 8 km. west

of Mandvi) which I would least expect to

see in Kutch. This was the Goldenbacked

Woodpecker. How this bird reached Vijaya

Vilas is, at least for me, a mystery and an

occurrence which defies any logical explana-

tion. It is a bird that does not migrate, even

locally,. to distant places as it is not capable

of sustained flight over long distances. It can

neither fly over the Gulf of Kutch nor over

the Little Rann of Kutch adjoining Saurash-

tra; I am therefore inclined to rule out the

possibility of its entering Kutch from there.

Within the last century this woodpecker has

not been met with in Kutch, but is listed on

page 171 of the BIRDS OF KUTCH (Ali). Ac-

cording to the BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA (Dhar-

makumarsinhji) the Goldenbacked Wood-

pecker is found in and around the Gir Forest

and Girnar where it is resident. Shri Shivraj-

kumar Khachar informs me that he has seen

it at Hingolgadh (Jasdan). The HANDBOOK

(Ali & Ripley) says that the Sind race—dilu-

tum—occurs in Baluchistan, Sind and the NW

1The Birds of Gujarat, JBNHS 52: 450, 1954.

‘S14

districts of Pakistan; and on this side of the

border, in Mt. Abu and parts of west Rajas-

than. I have seen it in Sirohi (Rajasthan) in

1968, and it has been recorded from Palanpur

and further to the west of it up to Radhanpur

taluka! which touches the Little Rann. It

would be worthwhile if an ornithologist from

Pakistan could throw some light on the ex-

tent of the present distribution of Dinopium

benghalense in Sind.

The Kutch area has sprung a few surprises

by way of unexpected bird occurrences, among

these being the Eastern Whistling Swan, the

Woodcock and the Haircrested Drongo; and

we now have the Goldenbacked Woodpecker!

There are only three ways by which this wood-

pecker could have landed in Kutch: It may

have come flying along in stages from SSW

Sind into NW Kutch (Lakhpat Taluka), or

the other possible route is from the Banas

Kantha District (Radhanpur) of Gujarat into

Rapar ‘Taluka of Kutch. However on this

route too it would have had to cover consi-

derable distances over the arid portions on

both sides of the Rann, plus a narrow strip

of the Rann itself. And the third possibility

could be that the bird got swept across to

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

this side in a cyclonic storm which blew over

JUBILEE GROUND,

BHUJ, KUTCH,

December 12, 1978.

the eastern portions of Kutch from the ENE

direction about three years ago.

M. K. HIMMATSINHSI

10. FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE WHITECAPPED RIVER CHAT

CHAIMARRORNIS LEUCOCEPHALA

This note is based upon observations of a

river chat nest at 13,300 feet in the Nanda

Devi Sanctuary area of the Garhwal Hima-

laya, Uttar Pradesh, India. The nest was ob-

served for a period of five days in early

August 1977, notes being made of parental

behaviour, food items brought, and reactions

to any ‘strangers’ within the territory.

The nest in question was 18 feet above

water level in a river cliff cut by the North

Rishi Ganga river. The pair’s territory extend-

ed for 400 metres above, and for 200 metres

below, the nest site. The site itself was a

ledge, the nest being partially concealed by

a veil of grass. The nest was the typical cup

shape, made mainly of dry grasses. At the

time of observation there were four newly

hatched young in the nest.

The river chat is characteristically a very

demonstrative bird, calling frequently and usu-

ally bobbing and dipping, or ‘pumping’, as it

does so. The pair observed were strongly ter-

ritorial. Territorial disputes between this pair

and another further up the valley took place

most mornings as well as on the main days

of observation. The closely related redstarts

Phoenicurus sp. were usually left well alone.

Only on one occasion was a male Bluefronted

1 Lack, D.

London.

(1965): The Life of the Robin.

Redstart Phoenicurus frontalis chased out of

the territory, despite being 300 metres from

the nest at the time.

The male and female were not readily dis-

tinguishable by plumage, but could be diffe-

rentiated on the basis of their behaviour, as

in the European Robin Erithacus rubecula

(Lack 1965).1 The male was the more voci-

ferous of the two birds, calling and singing

far more frequently than the female. Any

activity in the male was a slow and _ noisy

process, unlike the quicker and less vocal

female. The pair were not caught so that it

was not possible to definitely assert the cor-

rectness of the labelling. Both were distinguish-

ed from the juveniles of the year which had

a light grey, ill-defined, chest in contrast to

the black and sharply defined chest of the

adults. Any juveniles coming into the terri-

tory were quickly chased out.

Day One. Food items: These were mainly

caterpillars or grubs, usually brought one at

a time. There was an average of 7-8 minutes

between visits by each parent.

The male foraged upstream over a wider

area than the female which confined foraging

to the sides of the gorge, with occasional visits

onto the flats above. The male and female

tended to feed synchronously, arriving within

15 seconds of each other. On approach both

called, the male frequently on both arrival

5 Ia)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

and departure, the female on arrival only.

Day Two. Food items. Grubs, caterpillars,

and, on one occasion, a butterfly. Usually a

single item per visit. Both birds were still for-

aging up to 200 metres from the nest. The

male averaged one visit per 8 minutes and

the female one per 9.

On one occasion a juvenile of the year came

onto the river cliff in the absence of both of

the birds. Upon return the juvenile was chas-

ed out of the territory by the male.

The two birds were distinguished by differ-

ing call tones and by different methods of

approaching the nest ledge, differences that

had first been noted on day one. The male

showed a set pattern of nest approach. It flew

to within 10-15 metres of the nest, calling as

it did so. It then hopped and advanced in

increments of 1-2 metres, the call note being

an abbreviated ‘tsip’ version of the full call.

Once within 1-2 metres of the nest the bird

hesitated, pumped its tail and described a

clockwise circle around the ledge. Movements

prior to this had involved either a clockwise

or zigzag approach. Having spent about 30

seconds on this last procedure the bird then

hopped onto the rim of the nest. Here it did

not feed straight away but instead stood on

the rim, pumped its tail for 10-15 seconds,

then fed the young. It then dropped down to

an adjacent ledge, moved slowly away from

the nest, calling and pumping until about 20

metres from the nest when it flew off up-valley.

The female, in contrast, had a much less

elaborate procedure. She approached over the

water, calling as she did so, then flew to

within 5-6 metres of the nest rim. Once there

she fed the young and flew straight away from

the nest, uttering at most only a few notes.

Day Three. Food items. Four occasions with

two grubs at a visit. On three occasions cater-

pillars were offered and on a single occasion

516

a winged insect. The average interval between

visits was 8 minutes.

The male’s approach was the same as that

on day two with the slow noisy approach to

the rim of the nest. In between two visits a

snow pigeon Columba leuconota came to roost

within 20 metres of the nest. The male was

the first back to the cliff and showed distinct

signs of agitation. Initially it approached to

within 15 metres of the nest then turned -

around to slowly circle the pigeon. All the time

it called loudly and pumped its tail strongly.

After about two minutes of this the male ate

the food item it had been carrying and depart-

ed upstream. By contrast, the female, which

arrived three minutes later showed no signs

of alarm, went straight to the nest with the

usual brief pause and departed having fed the

young. On the next and subsequent visits, the

male took no notice of the pigeon and resum-

ed its pattern of nest approach.

On one occasion the male was observed

to go to within 2 metres of the nest, calling

en route as usual. It then did two clockwise

circles of the nest ledge lasting 14 minutes

before going to the nest. After a further 30

seconds on the rim the young were fed. This

done it retreated slowly to 7 metres from the

nest, calling all the time, before it flew off.

No noticeable change had occurred in the

vicinity of the nest between visits.

The female was again quicker and quieter

than the male on approach, with only a few

seconds spent on the rim before it fed the

young and flew off silentiy downstream.

Day Four. Food items. One grub or cater-

pillar at each feeding, with 8-9 minutes in

between visits.

The same basic pattern of nest approach

was repeated as seen on earlier days. In be-

tween visits an adult, carrying food, approach-

ed the nest to be quickly chased away by the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

returning male.

Day Five. Food items. Two occasions with

two grubs, one with a butterfly, but more usu-

ally only one grub.

Again several instances of the male getting

to within 1 or 2 metres of the nest only to do

a clockwise circle or semi-circle before going

to the rim of the nest. On one occasion the

EDWARD GREY INSTITUTE OF FIELD

ORNITHOLOGY,

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

SOUTH PARKS ROAD,

OXForRD, ENGLAND,

March 1, 1978.

male got to within 4 metre of the nest before

retreating 10 metres and repeating its zig-zag

approach with all the usual calls and _ tail

pumping. On no occasion was the female ob-

served to do this.

It is hoped that these short notes may pro-

vide a basis for further studies on the feeding

of the River Chat.

TIMOTHY M. REED

11. ROOSTING BEHAVIOUR OF FLOCKS OF THE CRESTED

BLACK TIT (PARUS MELANOLOPHUS)

Mixed species parties of tits, warblers and

other small, insectivorous birds are a familiar

feature of Himalayan forests outside the

breeding season and similar associations are

found among forest insectivores in temperate

and tropical regions (Moynihan 1962, Morse

1970). MacDonald and MHenderson (1977)

have described the composition of these flocks

in the Kashmir Himalayas in some detail. The

most important species involved in such flocks

at altitudes above 2300 m in the upper Beas

Valley, Himachal Pradesh in November was

the Crested Black Tit, more than 50% of the

birds often belonging to this species.

On 11 November 1977 I succeeded in fol-

lowing one mixed species flock from 1630

hrs until dark and was therefore able to ob-

serve the process of break-up and roosting for

some of the participants, which has not pre-

viously been described in detail. The flock

was feeding among scattered Deodhars (Ced-

rus deodar) at an altitude of 2400 m near the

Solang mountain hut, above Manali. The trees

averaged about 30 m in height, with very nar-

row crowns, and were spaced 10-20 m apart.

It was possible for me to follow the flock

easily because, despite poor light conditions,

the birds were visible in silhouette as they

flew from one tree to the next. At 1630 hrs

the flock comprised an estimated 83 birds; 65

Crested Black Tits, 5 Green-backed Tits (Pa-

rus monticolus), 2 White-cheeked Nuthatch

(Sitta leucopsis), 1 Himalayan Treecreeper

(Certhia himalayana) and 10 Pallas’ Warblers

(Phylloscopus proregulus).

Between 1630-1700 hrs all species except the

Crested Black Tit dropped out of the flock

and moved away, presumably to roost soli-

tarily. I continued to follow the tits. Voca-

lizations increased to a peak at 1700 hrs, most

of the calling consisting of the nasal “‘zee-zee”’

which is often heard while flocks are feeding.

The birds appeared very excited, flitting rapi-

dly from branch to branch, milling about in

the topmost branches of one tree and then

rapidly crossing to the next in follow my-

517

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

leader fashion. At 1705 hrs about 25. birds

flew into one tree and within 2-3 minutes be-

came still and silent, apparently perched to-

gether about 5 m below the top of the tree.

Owing to poor light I could not make out

whether they perched in contact with one ano-

ther, but all must have been within 1 or 2 m.

The remainder of the flock distributed them-

selves in groups of 5-10 in the crowns of

neighbouring trees, within 5 m of the top,

all being settled by 1715 hrs. Official sunset

was at 1710 hrs, but the sun had set well

before that behind nearby mountains.

29 BABAR ROAD,

New DEtuHI 110001,

December 18, 1978.

The first group to settle into their roost was

preceded by one bird which gave a loud call

“‘tea-cher” repeatedly from the roosting tree

for about a minute. A few minutes after the

group had entered the roost one bird left the

tree and gave the “tea-cher” call briefly from

an adjacent tree. One other bird followed it,

but the rest remained where they were. There

is some suggestion from this that certain birds

may play a dominant role in directing the

movements of the flock, at least when going

to roost.

A. J. GASTON

REFERENCES

MaAcDoNnaLb, D. W. & HENDERSON, D. G. (1977):

Aspects of the behaviour and ecology of mixed-

species bird flocks in Kashmir. [bis 119: 481-493.

Morse, D. H. (1970): Ecological aspects of some

mixed-species foraging flocks of birds. Ecol. Monogr.

40: 119-168.

MoyniHAN, M. (1962): The organization and

probable evolution of some mixed-species flocks of

neotropical birds. Smithsonian Misc. Colls. 143:

1-140.

12. DHAMAN (PTYAS MUCOSUS) AND PARAKEETS

In the aviary of this department, 40 para-

keets (Psittacula sp.) were kept for experi-

mental studies. On 14th August 1979 at

11.30 am. when we entered the aviary, we

found a heavily fed Dhaman snake (Ptyas

mucosus) of about 8 feet length. The snake

ENDOCRINOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY UNIT,

SCHOOL OF STUDIES IN ZOOLOGY,

VIKRAM UNIVERSITY,

Ussatn 456010, (M.P.),

November 5, 1979.

518

had entered the aviary after 3 p.m. on 13th

August, probably through the gap between the

doors. The snake had fed so heavily that it was

unable to move easily. It was brought to the

laboratory and dissected and four parakeets

were removed from its stomach.

TEJ PRAKSH VYAS

AVADESH K. PANDEY

M. S. PARIHAR

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

13. A NOTE ON NESTING BEHAVIOUR IN THE INDIAN GHARIAL

GAVIALIS GANGETICUS (GMELIN) (REPTILIA, CROCODILIA)

Virtually nothing has been published about

the natural history of the gharial (Neill 1971).

There are no published data on the nesting

biology as such, however, Malcolm Smith

(1931) stated that the clutch consists of forty

or more eggs (a comment which has been

extensively copied in the literature in the sub-

sequent half century without addition of new

data).

The first eggs of this species known to be

captive hatched were collected by the author

in 1975 and hatched at the Orissa Gharial

Project at Tikerpada in June of that year.

The eggs and hatching process was described

and illustrated in Bustard (1975, 1976).

Bustard (1976) pointed out that nests are

dug in high sand-banks to avoid flooding as

a result of water level fluctuations during in-

cubation resulting from melting snow in the

Himalayan part of their range, and gave the

egg-laying season as April, whereas, Smith

1931, in error, stated that the hatchlings ap-

pear in March and April.

During a detailed study on the nesting eco-

logy of the gharial in Narayani river, Nepal,

the time of egg-laying was noted in six ins-

tances. This occurred at 2200, 2245, 2300

and 2400 (three instances) hours respectively.

In addition, the actual nesting process was

also observed from its initiation by me on

one occasion. Nesting on this occasion how-

ever, did not result in egg-laying. The female

was not disturbed. It is not known if it was

an instance of trial nesting or the female gave

up to try elsewhere, most probably it was

trial nesting. The following are extracts from

field notes recorded at the time on April 13,

1977, at a distance of 90 m across the river

through 6 X20 binoculars :

6.34 pm. female gharial started to emerge on

opposite bank near a track leading to

trial nests; early twilight. (The sand-

bank had a steeply rising portion,

height 2-2.5 m, followed by a flat area

and then another steeply rising bank of

similar height).

moved two meters up the steep (45°

slope) bank and rested.

moved up a further 1 m and again

rested. The female measures about

3) am:

moved up 1 m and reached the start

of the ‘platform’ after the first incline.

moved across platform to foot of next

incline (lower here than where the

trial nests are), distance 3 m. Moved

diagonally towards the other track.

moved diagonally up the second in-

cline about 3..5 m.

47 moved up a further 0.5 m.

48 moved about 2 m.

.49.30 sec. moving further up the second bank.

ov digging commenced as light starting to

fail, night fast closing in. Fore limbs

exclusively used for digging.

left front limb actively throwing sand

backwards. So far only the front limbs

have been used in the excavation, one

at a time.

has not moved, still digging with

(only) the front limbs. Now very hard

to see (to write even).

now very dark, still in same position

but not possible to observe its actions.

6.45

NA NNN

7-10

The above field notes indicate a number of

points:

1. The slow progression up the steep bank,

very reminiscent of the heavier turtles (Che-

lonia mydas, Dermochelys coriacea), hauling

ashore to nest, (Bustard 1972, Bustard &

Singh 1978). These also move _ extremely

slowly up the beach especially where it is

steep. This gharial took 18 minutes to reach

519

JOURNAL, BOMBAY-NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

the chosen nesting site near the top of the

second bank at a height of about four meters

above the water level, and at a distance of

approximately 11 metres (in a direct line)

from the water, a distance of less than four

times its own length. These observations con-

firm the clumsiness of the adult gharial, one

of the most aquatic of crocodilians, and ex-

plains their invariable habit when basking of

staying very close to the water to which they

can return with minimum delay if danger

threatens, (Singh & Bustard 1977). The gha-

rial did not climb up the bank, ‘hauled out’

is the more appropriate term, as with sea

turtles.

2. The time of emergence at onset of

twilight was exactly the time when the first

sea turtles also emerge when the high tide is

suitable, (Bustard 1972). Probably most gha-

rial haul out somewhat later under cover of

nightfall.

3. The time of egg laying (between 2200

and 2400 hours) probably reflects time taken

after nightfall to emerge and prepare the nest.

There may, however, be selection towards

nesting later in the night since this may tend

to reduce predation. Foote (1978) noticed a

similar phenomenon in Podocnemis a_ large

freshwater turtle of the Amazon.

CENTRAL CROCODILE BREEDING AND

MANAGEMENT TRAINING INSTITUTE,

LAKE DALE, HYDERABAD 500 264,

INDIA,

September 12, 1979.

4. All the observed digging was done by

the fore-limbs, and these did not work to-

gether but separately; that is, a number of

excavations were made by one fore-limb, then

after a rest period the other fore-limb carried

out digging activities. However, it is assumed

that the final nest construction is carried out

by the hind limbs, which, as in the case of

turtles, would appear much better suited

(shaped) for handling this task. This proce-

dure is analogous to the process which is fol-

lowed in sea turtles. The preliminary excava-

tion is carried out by the fore-limbs which

clear the area of dry surface sand exposing

the firmer, usually moister, substrate in which

the egg pit is dug exclusively by the rear flip-

pers (Bustard 1972). The digging observed

above is, therefore, assumed to be prelimi-

nary to the main excavation.

It is probable, however, that trial nesting

is carried out using the fore-limbs.

The above observations are recorded since

so little has been reported on nest excavation

in any crocodilian species and because it is

generally stated or assumed that only the rear

limbs are used in nest excavation, see for in-

stance Neill (1971) for the American alli-

gator.

H. R. BUSTARD

REFERENCES

Sea Turtles: Natural

Collins, London and

BustarpD, H. R. (1972):

History and Conservation.

Sydney.

a — (1975): A future for the Gharial.

Cheetal, 17 (2): 3-8.

(1976): Operation Gharial. Chee-

520

tal 17 (3/4): 3-6.

—_____—_— & SincH, LL; A. K: (1978): Studies

on the Indian Gharial Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin)

(Reptilia, Crocodilia). Change in terrestrial Loco-

motory Pattern with Age. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc., 74 (3): 534-536.

MISCELLANEOUS

Foote, R. W. (1978): Nesting of Podocnemis

inifilis (Testudines: Pelomedusidae) in the Colom-

bian Amazon. Herpetologica, 34 (4): 333-339.

NEILL, W. T. (1971): The Last of the Ruling

Reptiles: Alligators, Crocodiles and their Kin.

Columbia University Press, New York and London.

SMITH, MALcoLm, A. (1931): The Fauna of Bri-

tish India including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia

NOTES

and Amphibia. Vol. I. Loricata, Testudines. Taylor

& Francis, London.

SINGH, L. A. K. & BusTarp, H. R. (1977): Stu-

dies on the Indian Gharial Gavialis gangeticus

(Gmelin) (Reptilia, Crocodilia) III: Locomotory

Behaviour during Basking and Spoor Formation.

British J. Herpetol. 5: 673-676.

14. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE COMMON HOUSE GECKO

(HEMIDACTYLUS FRENATUS) OF SOUTHERN INDIA

INTRODUCTION

Studies on the food and feeding habits in

Indian lacertilian species are few and relate

only to Calotes versicolor (Dave 1960, Indur-

kar & Sabnis 1976), Mabuya dissimilis (Dave

1960), Ophiomorus tridactylus (Rathor 1969),

Varanus bengalensis (Minton 1960), Hemi-

doctylus flaviviridis (Parshad 1916), and

Hemidactylus brooki (Laximinarayana et al.

1975). One of the commonest house gecko

in South India is Hemidactylus frenatus. A\I-

though they are very common yet very little

is known about their dietary, reproductive and

social behaviour. Data were collected on food,

feeding habit, home-range and courtship be-

haviour of the South Indian house gecko,

which is being presented.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present report is based on observations

on lizard Hemidactylus frenatus, resident in

some lodges of Bandipur National Park, My-

sore. The lizards were collected in the study

area by hand. They were marked and sexed.

A number was painted on the back of each

lizard with black paint. This was visible at a

good distance but each lizard was recaptured

and repainted after its shedding. The lizards

after their capture were released within 3-5

minutes—in the area where they were caught.

The lizards released after their marking were

found to be nervous for 30-60 minutes before

they resumed their normal activities. The sex-

ing of individuals was done by pressing the

vent region with the thumb. In males, hemi-

penis comes out under mild pressure while

in females a milky liquid oozes out. The total

number of lizards in the study area were 14

(5 ogo. 7 2 and 2 juveniles). The study

period extended from 10th of January, 1978

to 15 of March, 1978, which incidentally coin-

cides with the breeding period of the lizard.

The largest male and female were measured

(see Table) to assess size relation if any, to

sexual dimorphism which was not noted. The

adult’ males and females did not show any

striking colour pattern differences while the

TABLE

Measurements (mm) , “Male : Female

Total body length 127 124

Snout vent length 65 63

Tail length 62 61

juveniles were recorded to have darker dor-

sum than the adults. Moreover, two rows of

interrupted longitudinal bands were quite dis-

tinct dorsally that are not sharp and seem to

fade out with maturity. |

521

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

FEEDING HABITS

These house geckoes are nocturnal in habit

and feed from dusk to midnight, although

occasionally, some were seen feeding during

daytime as well. During daytime, they gene-

rally hide in crevices, behind tube lights or

some other such retreats. The diurnal retreats

are regularly occupied. Around dusk, they be-

gin to move about and were seen to be most

active between 20-24 hrs. Past midnight their

activity declines. At night, they were often

attracted by lights, which provided them in-

cidental feeding grounds. During the morning

hours, they were often found basking on the

outer walls and ledges of the lodges. Twice

(on 17-ii-1978 at 11.30 a.m. and on 2-11-1978

at 2 p.m.), a house gecko was observed to

come out of its hiding to lap up a few drops

of water in a bathroom.

The insects hovering at lamps are approach-

ed and caught directly but in the case of still

insects, the lizards reach to about its flight

distance and stop, bob their heads and flick

the tongue. If the insects move towards the

lizards and are within capturing distance, the

lizards grab them. Large insects are usually

preferred. Should the prey happen to be a large

meal, then after the capture, it is violently

shaken by jerky movements of head and then

hammered against the surface till it is motion-

less and ceases to make any attempt to escape.

During the ground feeding, the insects are

often released and recaptured.

Though the diet was found to be varied,

certain families and orders of insects such as

hemipterans, hymenopterans (except winged

ants )and some coleopteran families (Can-

tharoidae, Hydrophilidae) are left alone. The

dipterans (flies and mosquitoes), orthopterans

(grasshoppers, cockroaches and mantids),

homopterans (leaf hoppers) and lepidopte-

522

rans (moths and butterflies) are preferred.

HOME-RANGE

Tinkle (1967) defined home-range as an

area occupied by an animal and utilized in

its search for food, for mates, and for shelter.

These lizards are also found to preserve their

territorial rights particularly during the breed-

ing season as indicated by the instance of 7th

February when a resident male was found to

chase an intruder male out of its territory.

The resident male at that time was seen to

possess one female. Generally one male and

one female were seen together but occasional-

ly two females were also sighted with one male.

The home-range was found to be determined

by the availability of food and egg laying

sites. In places where the lamps were regularly

lighted and crevices or holes were available

near by, the lizards used to confine them-

selves to restricted areas; on the other hand

where the lamps were not in regular use and

hiding places were far off from the lamps,

they used to wander in much larger areas.

The home-range varies from 2 sq. m to 6.5

sq. m. The calling of the male’s chuck-chuck

can be heard at any time irrespective of any

hour of the day or night. But these calls were

more frequent during the night between 21-25

hrs. These calls were so loud that they could

be heard at a distance of 10-15 metres. Four

marked males caught from distant places were

introduced in the resident male area (2 on

30th January, and 2 on 4th February). These

introduced males were found to take no part

in feeding and remained 1-2 metre apart from

the resident male for 2 to 30 hrs and subsequ-

ently they were not sighted in the area. The

first introduced pair was seen to be driven

away by the resident male within 2 hrs of their

introduction, while the second pair was seen

there up to 30 hrs, after that period they were

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

not traceable, probably driven away from the

area. On 15th March, a juvenile was seen in

the area of resident male, who after sighting

it, started calling chuck-chuck which was res-

ponded to by the intruder by moving away

from the site.

COURTSHIP AND MATING

On 9th February at 21.15 hrs copulation

was noticed in a pair of lizards. The male

after seeing the female, moved slowly towards

it, and stopped at half a metre distance for

40 seconds. The male bobbed his head and

flickered his tongue, and slowly approached

the female. It made three continuous calls

chuck-chuck-chuck. He made half a circle so

as to come to the left side of the female. The

female did not move and male nodded its head

and licked her snout. The male moved and

lay parallel to the female. The female now

responded by raising her tail in an arc. The

male moved towards the right and hinder part

of the female so as to bring the cloaca oppo-

DEPT. OF BIO-SCIENCES,

UNIVERSITY OF JAMMU,

JAMMU-180 OO1,

August 3, 1978.

site to that of the female. The tail of the male

passed under the female’s tail and coiled

around it. The male clasped the female with

both pairs of limbs. The copulation lasted for

84 minutes when female began to slide down

from underneath. Prashad (1916) recorded

copulation time 4 minutes and McCann

(1940), 10 minutes in case of Hemidactylus

flaviviridis. ‘The male was found to lick her

vent after copulation. Both the partners were

rested thereafter. During copulation they are

not disturbed by the presence of the observer

even when about a metre from them.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am extremely grateful to Dr. P. L. Duda

for critically going through the manuscript

and for useful suggestions. Thanks are due to

Prof. Madhav Gadgil and A. J. T. Johnsingh,

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore for sug-

gesting the problem during the training course

in Wildlife Biology conducted at Bandipur

National Park, Mysore.

DEEP SAHI

REFERENCES

Dave, K. C. (1961): Contribution to the syste-

matics and distribution of the reptiles of the desert

of Rajasthan with reference to the ecology of

lizard. Doctoral thesis, University of Rajasthan,

Jaipur, India.

INDURKAR, S. S. & SaBNis, J. H. (1975): Obser-

vations on the dietary components of the garden

lizard, Calotes versicolor (Daud.). Comp. Physiol.

Ecol. Vol. 1, No..1 pp. 9-12.

LAXIMINARAYANA, A. ef al. (1975): Food and

feeding habit of common wall lizard Hemidactylus

brooki Gray. Curr. Res. 1975 (4): 82-83.

McCANN, CHARLES (1940): A reptile and Amp-

hibian miscellany. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41, No.

4, pp. 742-764.

MINTON, S. A. (1966): A contribution to the

herpetology of West Pakistan. Bull. Amer. Mus.

Nat. Hist. 134 (2): 27-184.

PaRSHAD, B. (1916): Some observations on a com-

mon house lizard (Hemidactylus flaviviridis) of

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24: 834-838.

RatHor, M. S (1969): Food and feeding habits

of Indian Sand skink, Ophiomorus _ tridactylus

(Blyth) Boulenger. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66:

186-190.

TINKLE, D. W. (11967): The life and demogra-

phy of side bloched lizard, Uta stanburiana. Mis-

cellaeneous Pub. Mus. of Zool. Ann. Arbor, Michi-

gan, U.S.A.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

15. RECORD OF THE ROCK-LIZARD, PSAMMOPHILUS

BLANFORDANUS (STOLICZKA) (SAURIA: AGAMIDAE)

IN ARAKU VALLEY, EASTERN GHATS (ANDHRA

PRADESH), INDIA

In the course of extensive. faunistic investi-

gations carried out by the junior author from

March through April 1979, two agamid lizards

were picked up from the rocks in Araku forest

situated at an elevation of 1000 m. The time

of capture was 14.00 hr. Of the two specimens

in the series, the larger (89+192 mm) is a

male and the smaller (65+ 135 mm) is female.

The junior author saw several pairs of this

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

100 SANYTHOME HiGuH Roap,

Mapras 600 028, INpi,,

August 8, 1979.

lizard on rocks and bushes in Araku forest

and noted that the head and fore-part of the

males were scarlet-red in colour indicating

that they were breeding males.

We are grateful to the Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta for encouragement

and the Officer-in-Charge, Southern Regional

Station, Madras for necessary facilities.

T. S. N. MURTHY

T. VENKATESWARLU

16. A NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF BARKUDIA INSULARIS

ANNANDALE, A RARE LIMBLESS LIZARD FROM ORISSA

The limbless lizard, Barkudia insularis An-

nandale, was originally reported by Annandale

(1917) on a single specimen dug up by Gra-

vely from loose earth at the root of a banyan

tree at Barkuda [stand in Chilka Lake, Orissa

in July, 1916. Later in the rainy season of

1919 Gravely sighted (Annandale 1927) ano-_

ther specimen in the same locality and aitempt-

ed to catch it but failed due to the rapidity with

which the skink burrowed into the earth among

the roots of a fig-tree, only the tail remaining

in the hands of Dr. Gravely. A third specimen

was obtained from the same locality by O. B.

Chhotani of the Zoological Survey of India.

For a long time the species was believed to be

confined to Barkuda island, till Dr. P. N.

Ganapati, Professor of Zoology, Andhra

University, recorded the species from the

524

Andhra University Campus at Waltair in 1952

(Ganapati & Krishnan 1952). A recent find

of this skink from the Nandankanan Biologi-

cal Park, 15 km. north east of Bhubaneshwar

in Orissa, however, shows that the species may

have much wider distribution than hitherto

known.

In all four specimens were collected from

this locality by one of us (LNA), two on

2-11-1973, one on 15-8-78 and the fourth on

7-9-78. The first two, one of which was col-

lected from below the mud of an almost dry

tank, were examined and measured.

The limbless lizard, like uropeltid snakes,

is a burrowing form and presumably noctur-

nal in habit. This may account for the rare

frequency of its collection. According to Gra-

vely it is a very fast burrower and thus hard

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

to catch. Because of its burrowing habits it

may not be easily seen during dry season when

the individuals may go deeper in the burrow

and not come up frequently. Most of the spe-

cimens of this species were collected (or spot-

ted) near about during the rainy season when

the burrows get frequently inundated compel-

ling the lizards to come up. |

From the records of the species it appears

that this is distributed along the coastal beit

in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.

The type collection on which Annandaie

(1917) based the description of the this genus

seems to have been lost in the Varuna flood

in 1943 when the Zoological Survey of India

was temporarily shifted to Varanasi.

Material examined: 2 examples; Reg. No.

23659; Loc: Nandankanan Biological Park,

SUPERINTENDING ZOOLOGIST,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CALCUTTA-700 016.

VETERINARY SURGEON,

NANDAN KANAN BIOLOGICAL Park,

BaRANG, DIST. CUTTACK, ORISSA,

December 28, 1979.

Barang, Dist. Cuttack, Orissa; Coll.: L. Ni»

Acharjyo; date: 2-11-1973. ;

Measurements: Snout to vent 12.5 mm, Tail -

7.5 mm, Breadth 6.7 mm. and Snout to vent

15 mm, Tail 8.7 mm, Breadth 7.7 mm.

The blunt snout (dorsoventrally flattened)

and tail (rounded at the tip) have earned the

name ““DEEMUNDIA’’ (two-headed). to this

lizard locally in Orissa. It is cream-coloured

with six prominent dorsal, broken up lines,

between the back of head and tip of tail.

Similar, but faint, spotted lines are present on

the flank on both sides. The head and terimi-

nal 30 mm. of the tail tip are brown in one

specimen; in the other only the head is brown

and the six longitudinal spotted lines are ccn-

tinued upto the tip of the tail. Underside in.

both is cream coloured. eae

S. BISWAS

L. N. ACHARJYO

REFERENCES

ANNANDALE, N. (1917): A new genus of lim-

bless skinks from an island in the Chilka Lake. Rec.

Ind. Mus. 13: 17-21.

—_—_——____—. (1921): The Reptiles and Batrachia

of Barkuda. Rec. Ind. Mus. 22: (4): 331-333.

Ganapatl, P. N. (1952): Occurence of limbless

lizard belonging to the genus Barkudia Annandale

in the Andhra University Campus. Current Science

21: 105-106.

(1955): Bionomics and some ana-

tomical peculiarities of the limbless lizard Barkudia

insularis Annandale. Rec. of Ind. Mus. 52: (1 &

DMN EPS Is

17. COMMENTS ON THE FIRST RECORD OF BOTIA (PISCES:

COBITIDAE) FROM THE WESTERN GHATS BY RAO & YAZDANI

(With a text-figure)

The only species of Botia we had come

across in Maharashtra State was the striped

loach, Botia striata kolhapurensis. Botia

striata was first described by Rao (1920)

from the river Thunga, Shimoga town in Kar-

nataka State. Kulkarni (1951) reported the

S25.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

extension of its range to Kolhapur, and Kala-

war & Kelkar (1956) created a new subspe-

cies, B. striata kolhapurensis for the specimens

collected from this region.

From the photograph of the fish, identified

by Rao & Yazdani (1977) as Botia dayi, we

could surmise that in appearance it closely re-

sembled B. striata kolhapurensis. However, in

the absence of an opportunity to examine the

actual specimen collected by them, this could

not be definitely ascertained. In August 1979,

we had the opportunity to examine the speci-

men in detail, while cn loan from the Zoolo-

gical Survey of India to the Curator, Tara-

Fig. 1

A. Botia dario; B. Botia striata kolhapurensis

(adult); C. Botia dayi; D. Botia striata koplhapur-

ensis (juvenile).

526

porevala Aquarium. Our suspicion that it was

B. striata kolhapurensis was at once confirm-

ede

Botia dayi has had a chequered taxonomic

history. Buchanan (1822) described a new

species of loach from northern Bengal and

named it Cobitis geto. Gunther (1868) was

of the opinion that it was a juvenile stage of

Botia dario (H.B.)—a closely allied species.

Day (1872) considered it as a doubtful syno-

nym of B. dario. Hora (1922) considered the

two as different species but subsequently, in

1932, he revised his opinion, considering it to

be a young stage of B. dario. He raised Day’s

(1878) Botia geto from Sind to the siatus of

a new species, naming it Botia dayi. Menon

(1974) considered B. dayi Hora to be a sy-

noym of Botia rostrata Gunther.

Rao & Yazdani (1977) have not describ-

ed the morphological characters of their Bo-

tia dayi, stating only that their specimen

agrees well with the description given by Hora.

While Day (1878) used morphological cha-

racters, such as the number of rays on the

various fins and the numbers of barbels, Hora

considered the taxonomy of Indian species of

Botia to be unsatisfactory and gave a key in

which the prominent distinguishing characters

were morphometric, being based mainly on

the proportions of the various parts of the

body and position of eyes. From his key B.

striata can be distinguished as having its eyes

almost in the posterior half of the head, where-

as B. dayi (B. geto in his 1922 key) does not

have the eyes situated wholly in the posterior

half of the head. The fin-ray counts of the

two species are as follows:—

Botia dayi (as given by Hora): D. 2/9; V.

1/620P. 2 A122

Botia striata (as given by C. R. N. Rao): D.

2/9-10; V. 8; P. 13-14; A. 1/6-7.

Botia striata kolhapurensis (as given by Kala-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

war & Kelkar): ID. 2/9: V. 1/7; 2/9-10; A.

2s |

Kalawar & Kelkar (op. cit.) have separated

the subspecies kolhapurensis from the species

(s.s.) partly because of its different colour

pattern; while the stripes on the body in B.

striata mcet in the mid-ventral line, in the

subspecies kolhapurensis they stop — short

latero-ventrally. It may, however, be stated

here that we, in the course of examination

of hundreds of specimens of B. striata kolha-

purensis, find two colour variations. In some

specimens (mostly those which are lightly

coloured) these stripes fail to meet in the mid-

ventral line, but in other (darker) specimens,

posterior to the anal fin they do meet mid-

ventrally, although in the anterior portion of

the body they stop short on the sides.

Juvenile specimens of B. striata kolhapur-

ensis have a few broad black bands on the

body. As they grow, each broad band splits

up into (usually) three narrow stripes, until

they reach the final body coloration of the

adult with numerous narrow stripes. In the

juvenile stage, therefore, B. striata kolhapur-

ensis may be confused, on a cursory look,

with B. dario, which too has a similar colour

pattern of oblique dark bands. B. dayi, on the

contrary, has a characteristic coloration, the

E-31, Cusrow BAUG,

SHAHID BHAGATSINGH ROAD,

BomBAy-400 039.

SACHETAN,

L/4-5, StraRAM BUILDING,

PALTON Roap,

BomBay-400 001,

August 28, 1979.

body being reticulated with dark bands which

anastomose with one another and enclose

yellowish spots of different sizes.

Rao & Yazdani have apparently overlooked,

the earlier reports of Kulkarni, and of Kalawar

& Kelkar. Even had their specimen been

really B. dayi, it was not the first record of

the occurrence of the cobitid genus Botia in

the Western Ghats, as stated in the opening

sentence of their note. Annandale (1919) as

well as Silas (1953, 1954) did not record any

Botia from Mahableshwar, Wai, and elsewhere

in the Western Ghats, but the records by Kul-

karni, and by Kalawar & Kelkar do not leave

any doubt about the validity of their identi-

fication.

To summarize, the specimen of Botia men-

tioned by Rao & Yazdani (op. cit.) is not

B. dayi but B. striata kolhapurensis. Second-

ly it is not the first record of the genus Botia

from the Western Ghats.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Shri J. N. Pande, Cura-

tor, Taraporevala Aquarium, Bombay for

allowing us to examine Rao & Yazdani’s spe-

cimen while on loan from the Zoological Sur-

vey of India.

B. F. CHHAPGAR

S. R. SANE

527

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

REFERENCES

ANNANDALE, N. (1919): The fauna of certain

small streams in the Bombay Presidency. V. Notes

on freshwater fishes mostly from Satara and Poona

Districts. Rec. Ind. Mus. 16: 125-138.

BUCHANAN, H. (1822): Fish. Ganges: 354, 355.

Day, F. (1872): Monograph of Indian Cyprini-

dae. Part V. Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 41: 177.

—_—— (1878-88): The Fishes of India /:

606; 2: pl. 154.

(1889): The fauna of British India,

including Ceylon and Burma; Fish /: 216.

' GUNTHER (1868): Cat. Fish Brit. Mus. 7:

367.

Hora, S. L. (1922): Notes on fishes in the Indian

366,

Museum. TV. On fishes belonging to the genus

Botia (Cobitidae). Rec. Ind. Mus. 24: 313-321,

1 fig.

——_—_—-——._ (1932): ibid. XIX. On a new loach

‘of genus Botia, with remarks on Botia dario (Ham-

Buch.). ibid. 34: 571-573.

._ . Katawar, A. G. & KELKAR, C. N. (1956): Fishes

of Kolhapur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 669-

679, 3 figs.

KULKARNI, C. V. (1951): Some significant re-

cords of fish from Kolhapur, northern section of

Western Ghats. Curr. Sci. 20: 334, 335.

MENON, A. G. K. (1974): A check-list of fishes

of the Himalayan and the Indo-Gangetic plains.

Inland Fish. Soc. India, Special Bulletin 1: 1-136.

Rao, C. R. NARAYAN (1920): Some new species

of Cyprinoid fish from Mysore. Ann. Mag. nat.

Hist. (9) 6: 45-64, pl. i, figs. 4, 4a, 4b.

Rao, M. Basu & YAZDANI, G. M. (1977): Occur-

rence of cobitid genus Botia Gray in the Western

Ghats of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74 (2):

367, 368, 1 photograph.

Sitas, E. G. (1953): Notes on fishes from Ma-

hableshwar and Wai (Satara District, Bombay

State). ibid. 57: 579-589, 1 pl., 4 figs.

—————— (1954): New fishes from the West-

ern Ghats, with notes on Puntius arulius (Jerdon).

Rec. Ind. Mus. 51: 27-37, 1 pl., 4 figs.

18. AN INTERESTING METHOD OF FISHING IN BASTAR

DISTRICT, MADHYA PRADESH

(With a text-figure)

In the course of a fish survey of

Bastar District in 1978, we came across an

interesting method of fishing in the River

Narangi, a tributary of River Indrawati, near

Kondagaon. The method essentially consists

of a cast net modified to act as an under-

water trap, together with a device for direct-

ing fishes towards the net. In summer the

water level in the river Narangi is very low

and several water pools are formed in its en-

tire course. As the fish population is poor in

these pools, a cast net is not effective. The

local fishermen have, therefore, developed a

system by which they obtain a fairly good

catch is shallow waters, between 2 and 3

4928

metres depth, with the aid of cast net in a

modified form.

The following articles are used in this me-

thod of fishing: one cast net (mesh size 4 cm),

one float [dried shell of gourd (Lagenaria

siceraria) known as ‘tumba’] fixed at the nar-

row end of the net, two cords of coconut fibre,

three bamboo poles about two metres long,

and leaves of ‘‘chhind’” (Phoenix pusilla—

Family Palmae) tied to the cords at intervals

of about 10 cm. The cord with leaves tied to

it is locally called “‘bela’’.

The cast net is stretched under-water in a

conical shape, rather like a bell (Fig. 1). The

open mouth of the net is attached to. two poles

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(Nos. 1 & 2) fixed vertically under water at

a distance of about 11 metres from each other.

The narrow, closed end of the net is tied to

a float which maintains its shape. A third pole

(No. 3) is also fixed at a distance of a metre

from pole No. 2. A bela measuring about |

metre is tied between it and the pole No. 2.

Another long bela is tied to the pole No. |

Fig. 1. The underwater

and drawn underwater by a fisherman towards

the pole No. 3 while encircling a large area

of water. During this operation, fishes are

scared on seeing the moving bela and the light

reflected by the Chhind leaves. As the fixed

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CENTRAL. REGIONAL STATION, JABALPUR,

March 3, 1979.

bela between pole No. 2 and 3 also acts as a

barrier, all the fishes while trying to escape

the supposed danger enter the cast net and

get trapped.

Fishermen lift the net up as soon as the

end of the long bela reaches pole No. 3. The

whole operation takes nearly half an hour and

both pelagic and benthic forms are caught.

trap net in operation.

We are grateful to Dr. K. Reddiah, Deputy

Director and Officer-in-charge of this Station |

for giving us an opportunity to survey the

Bastar Distt. (M.P.)

G. M. YAZDANI »

D. K. HARSHEY

\©O

19. ON A COLLECTION OF FISH FROM RIVER KOSI (BIHAR)

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

The river Kosi system which plays a vital

role in the development of fisheries in Bihar

and constitutes one of the main natural source

of fish seed (spawn), much needed through-

out the country for culture of fast growing

fishes, has not so far been fully exploited.

During the course of investigations in 1965

and 1966, to locate new fish seed sources in

two dhars of river Kosi—the Kosi-khanua and

the khagna, large number of young fishes were

collected to ascertain the natural distribution

of freshwater fishes. This paper deals with

the topography and fish fauna of both the

dhars and a stretch of river Kosi extending

from the confluence of the Kosi-khanua dhar

to the origin of river khagna. |

The river Kosi, one of the main tributaries

of the river Ganga drains the southern slopes

of the Himalayas between 26° N to 30° N

latitude and 85° to 90° E longitude, is formed

by the union of three important rivers—Sun-

kosi, Arun and Tamur, taking their origin

near Kathmandu, Tibet, and the north east

hills of Kanchenjunga respectively. These three

rivers join together at Tribeni to form Saptkosi

which flows through a gorge and debouches

into the plain near Chatra. Lower down

Chatra, the Kosi (as it is called) flows for

: é

GeRoaH Jeg

Oo 1;

WO BHALWA

TT EASTERN Hy EMQANKMENT sa 1

e RAJANPUR THANA a ar KACHOT Rs. o

SEER Khan 2 ee KwANvA |) BAGRHA : 4,

Sel 5 & f ) oa | O/ 4

KoPagia

C0/ HARPYR

Fig. 1.

Babuaghat stretch of Kosi khanua dhar and Koparia stretch of Khagna,

showing sites prospected and centres investigated.

530

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

about 318 km in an alluvial plain to meet the

river Ganga near Kursela. The river Kosi is

well known for its profuse branching into

many dhars and for changing its course. It

may be mentioned that in the early part of

the 18th century the Kosi flowed below the

town of Purnea but it has gradually worked

westwards across 120 km of the country as

is evidenced by its deserted channels (Chhib-

ber 1949).

Reports on fish collection from the Kosi

river system are scanty and none from _ the

Kosi-khanua and the Khagana. Menon (1949)

reported 52 species of fish from the Kosi in

Nepal territory and particularly from regions

above and below the proposed dam site at

Barahkshetra. Further, in 1954 and 1962 he

described the fish fauna from the Kosi drain-

age of the eastern Himalayas and discussed

zoogeographical significance of their distribu-

tion. David (1959) gave an account of fish

seed collection centres from Kosi dhars near

Supaul and suggested dhars as probable breed-

ing grounds of major carps of India. DeWitt

(1960) reported fishes from the Kosi system

of Nepal. Menon (1962) gave a distributional

list of all known species of fishes from the

definite drainage systems in the Himalayas

and recorded 69 species from the Kosi drain-

age. While describing distribution of the genus

Garra, Menon (1964) recorded three species

Garra lamta, Garra gotyla and Garra annan-

dalei from this system.

During spawn prospecting investigations, in

the Kosi-khauna at Babuaghat and the Khagna

at Koparia, considerable number of juveniles

of various species of fish were collected from

spawn collection nets and further collections

were made by operating cast nets. Babuaghat,

which is situated on the eastern bank of Kosi-

khaua dhar at about 3 km upstream of the

confluence with the Kosi, lies in district

Saharsa about 12 km from the town of Simri

Bakhtyarpur. Koparia, another main collection

centre, is located on the eastern bank of the

Khagna about 10 km downstream from Ba-

buaghat (Fig. 1). The river Khagna which has

its origin from main Kosi at Kachot village,

remains a deserted channel for a greater part

of the year and becomes filled with water from

the Kosi only during monsoon.

SYSTEMATIC LIST

108 species of fishes belonging to 26 fami-

lies have been reported from the Kosi drain-

age. Of these, 62 species marked with an as-

terisk (*) are recorded for the first time dur-

ing the present investigation from the middle

reaches of the Kosi system.

Family: CLUPEIDAE

*1. Gadusia chapra (Hamilton)

Family: ENGRAULIDAE

*2. Setipinna phasa (Hamilton)

Family: NOTOPTERIDAE

*3. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas)

Family: CyYPRINIDAE

*4. Chela laubuca (Hamilton)

5. Oxygaster argentea (Day)

*6. Oxygaster bacaila (Hamilton)

*7. Oxygaster gora (Hamilton)

*8. Oxygaster phulo (Hamilton)

*9, Barilius barila (Hamilton)

10. Barilius barna (Hamilton)

11. Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton)

12. Barilius shacra (Hamilton)

13. Barilius vagra (Hamilton)

14. Danio (Danio) aequipinnatus (McClelland)

15. Danio (Danio) dangila (Hamilton)

16. Danio (Danio) devario (Hamilton)

17. Rasbora daniconius (Hamilton)

*18. Amblypharyngodon mola (Hamilton)

19. Aspidoparia jaya (Hamilton)

*20. Aspidoparia morar (Hamilton)

21. Chagunius chagunio (Hamilton)

*22. Puntius chilinoides (McClelland)

23. Puntius chola (Hamlton)

53]

24.

25):

26.

227.

728%

29).

30.

Sil

732,

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* 34.

ABD)

= 36)

37%

38.

397

40.

*4].

*42.

43.

*44 .

4S.

*46,

AT.

*48 .

49.

50.

ayllg

32.

Do).

#54.

£55).

56.

SN,

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

D7)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Puntius clavatus (McClelland)

Puntius conchonius (Hamilton)

Puntius gelius (Hamilton)

Puntius sarana (Hamilton)

Puntius sophore (Hamilton)

Puntius ticto (Hamilton)

Lissocheilus hexagonolepis McClelland.

Tor putitora (Hamilton)

Catla catla (Hamilton)

Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton)

Cirrhinus reba (Hamilton)

Crossocheilus latius latius (Hamilton)

Garra annandalei Hora.

Garra gotyla Gray.

Garra lamta (Hamilton)

Labeo angra (Hamilton)

Labeo boga (Hamilton)

Labeo bata (Hamilton)

Labeo calbasu (Hamilton)

Labeo dero (Hamilton)

Labeo gonius (Hamilton)

Labeo pangusia (Hamilton)

Labeo rohita (Hamilton)

Labeo sindensis Day.

Ostecobrama cotio (Hamilton)

Schizothorax annandalei Regan.

Schizothorax richardsonii (Gray)

Family: PSILORHYNCHIDAE

Psilorhynchus pseudecheneis

Menon and Dutta

Family: HOMALOPTERIDAE

Balitora brucei Gray

Family: CoBITIDAE

Botia dayi Hora.

Botia histrionica Blyth.

Botia lohachata Chaudhuri.

Lepidocephalichthys annandalei Chaudhuri

Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Hamilton)

Noemacheilus botia (Hamilton)

Noemacheilus rupicola (McClelland)

Noemacheilus rupicola inglisi Hora

Noemacheilus savona (Hamilton)

Noemacheilus scaturigina (McClelland)

Acanthophthalmus pangia (Hamilton)

Family: SILURIDAE

Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch)

Wallago attu (Schneider)

233)4

. Clupisoma garua (Hamilton)

. Clupisoma montana Hora.

. Eutroptichthys vacha (Hamilton)

*S7.

*88.

*89.

0),

HOT

Sop

FOS.

94.

HOS),

*O6.

Family: BAGRIDAE

. Mystus aor (Hamilton)

. Mystus

. Mystus seenghala (Sykes)

. Mystus vittatus (Bloch)

. Rita rita (Hamilton)

. Leiocassis rama (Hamilton)

bleekeri (Day)

Family: AMBLYCEPIDAE

. Amblyceps mangois (Hamilton)

Family: SISORIDAE

. Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton)

. Gagata cenia (Hamilton)

. Gagata nangra (Hamilton)

. Gagata viridescens (Hamilton)

. Glyptothorax annandalei Hora

. Glyptothorax cavia (Hamilton)

. Glyptothorax horai Shaw and Shebbeare

. Glyptothorax telchitta (Hamilton)

*81.

. Pseudecheneis sulcatus (McClelland)

Hara jerdoni Day

Family: SCHILBEIDAE

Ailia coila (Hamilton)

Pseudotropius atherinoides (Bloch)

Family: HETEROPNEUSTIDAE

Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)

Family: CLARIIDAE

Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus)

Family: BELONIDAE

Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton)

Family: CyYPRINODONTIDAE

Aplocheilus panchax (Hamilton)

Family: MUGILIDAE

Rhinomugil corsula (Hamilton)

Family: CHANNIDAE

Channa marulius (Hamilton)

Channa orientalis Schneider

Channa punctata (Bloch)

Channa striatus (Bloch)

Family: AMPHIPNOIDAE

Amphipnous cuchia (Hamilton)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Family: AMBASSIDAE

Ambassis nama (Hamilton)

Ambassis ranga (Hamilton)

BOoE

nOoK

Family: NANDIDAE

*100. Nandus nendus (Hamilton)

Family: SCIAENIDAE

*101. Pseudosciaena coitor (Hamilton)

Family: ANABANTIDAE

SIOZ:

103.

Colisa fasciata (Schneider)

Colisa lalia (Hamilton)

Family: GoBIIDAE

*104. Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton)

Family: MASTACEMBELIDAE

Macrognathus aculeatum (Bloch)

Mastacembelus armatus Lacépede

Mastacembelus pancalus (Hamilton)

#1105)

*106.

OL.

Family: TErRODONTIDAE

*108. Tetrodon cutcutia Hamilton.

GENERAL REMARKS

The fishes in the fauna of the Kosi river

in the area investigated are widely distributed

in India. Menon (1949), while discussing the

Zoogeographical significance of the fish fauna

of the Kosi system, stated that the occurrence

of the most highly evolved torrential fishes

like Balitora brucei, Pseudecheneis sulcatus,

Glyptothorax annandalei, G. cavia, G. horai,

several species of Noemacheilus and _ Lisso-

cheilus hexagonolepis in the Kosi, showed the

close affinity with that of Tista and suggested

that some of the earliest tributaries of the

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES

RESEARCH SUB-STATION,

ALLAHABAD, (INDIA),

February 26, 1979.

1 Central

Inland Fisheries

Kosi might have drained the region of the

Darjeeling Himalayas and are now probably

feeder streams of the Tista river. In dhars

such as Kosi-khanua and Khagna, where the

current is not very fast and the river bed is

muddy, the fishes like Gagata, Garra, Noema-

cheilus etc. which are hill stream, forms and

generally inhabit a rocky substratum, have

been collected in good number. This would

suggest that these species can infact adapt

themselves to the conditions obtained in the

rivers of plain. Cultivable species such as

Catla catla, Cirrhinus mrigala, C. reba, Labeo

bata, L. rohita, L. calbasu and L. gonius were

also collected in abundance from the Kosi-

khanua dhar where an intensive collection of

carp spawn is made every monsoon by com-

mercial parties.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. V. G. Jhingran,

Director, Central Inland Fisheries Research

Institute for guidance and Dr. A. V. Nata-

rajan, for critically going through the manus-

cript and suggesting improvements, to Dr. A.

G. K. Menon, Deputy Director, Zoological

Survey of India for offering helpful suggestions

in the preparation of the manuscript. Thanks

are also due to Sri A. G. Prasad, Executive

Engineer, Research Division, Kosi Project,

Birpur for the help rendered, and to the Direc-

tor of Fisheries, Govt. of Bihar for extending

cooperation in the execution of work.

H. A. KHAN:

M. YUSUF KAMAL?

Research _ Institute,

Sahidnagar, Bhubaneshwar-751 007 (Orissa).

2 Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, 16,

Ashok Nagar, P. O. Argora, Ranchi-834 002 (Bihar).

533

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

REFERENCES

CHHIBBER, H. L. (1949): Westward drift of the

rivers in North India. Bull. nat. Geop. Soc. India,

2 MS:

Davip, A. (1959): Observations on some spawn-

ing grounds of the Gangetic major carp with a note

on carp seed resources in India. Indian J. Fish., 6

(2): 327-341.

DeWitt, H. H. (1960): A contribution to the

ichthyology of Nepal. Stanford. Ichth. Bull. 7 (4):

63-88.

MENON, A. G. K. (1949): Notes on fishes in the

Indian museum. XLIV. Fishes of the Kosi Hima-

layas, Nepal. Rec. Indian Mus., 47: 231-235.

(1954): Fish geography of the

Himalayas. Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India, 22: 467-493.

—— (1962): A_ distributional list of

fishes of the Himalayas. J. Zool. Soc. India, 14 (1):

23-32.

— —— (1964): Monograph of the Cypri-

nid fishes of the genus Garra Hamilton. Mem.

Indian Mus., 14 (4): 173-260.

20. SOUTHWARD MIGRATION, OF EFUPLOEA CORE CORE CR.

AT KHANDALA, WESTERN GHATS

During a visit to Khandala, Kolaba District,

Maharashtra on 4th October, 1979 we saw

several Common Indian Crow butterflies in

movement towards the south. They were fly-

ing in groups of 8 to 12 butterflies, at about

a metre above the ground. However a few

were seen at heights of 3 to 4 m, above the

ground. The flight was slow. The weather was

RESEARCH ASSISTANTS,

BomBay NATURAL HIstTory SOCIETY,

BomMBAY 400 023,

October 11, 1979.

cloudy with intermittent sunlight, and the

wind was blowing from west to east. It was

also noted that the butterflies were moving

from lower to higher elevations. From 9.10

a.m. to 11.30 a.m. several hundred butterflies

crossed the area under observation. Other

Danaids like Common Tiger, Blue Tiger and

Plain Tigers were also seen in the area.

NARESH CHATURVEDI

S. M. SATHEESAN

21. ATTRACTION OF BUTTERFLIES TO CROTALARIA RETUSA

(PAPILIONACEAE) AT KHANDALA, W. GHATS

Butterflies belonging to the Family Danai-

dae are known to be attracted to plants con-

taining pyrrolizidine alkaloids (for references

see Amladi 1975).! One such group of plant,

is of the genus Crotalaria. On 4th October

1979 between 9.05 a.m. to 11.50 a.m., we saw

several butterflies sitting on a bush. We col-

lected a branch of this shrub which was later

identified as ‘““Shanarghandika” Crotalaria re-

534

tusa (Pailionaceae) also often referred to as

Glory of Mahabaleshwar. After alighting on

the leaves, the butterflies protruded their pro-

boscis and rubbed it on the surface of the

leaf. They were observed on withering leaves

1AmLApI, S. R. (1975): Danaid Butterflies at-

tracted to Heliotropium indicum (Boraginaceae) an

alkaloid containing Plant. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

G2) 585-80. :

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of the plant. When disturbed they returned

to the plant after flying around for a short

while. On each bush over 60 butterflies were

seen. The danaids were, common Indian crow

(Euploea core core), blue tiger (Danaus

limniace), common tiger (D. genutia), and

plain tiger (D. chrysippus). What seemed

most interesting to us was that four males of

the Great Egg Fly (ypolimnas _ bolina)

BoMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY,

HornNBILL House, Ope. LION GATE,

S. BHAGAT SINGH Roapb,

Bomsay 400 023,

November 8, 1979.

family Nymphalidae

leaves of this plant

fashion.

were also seen on the

behaving in a similar

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to Prof. P. V. Bole of

St. Xavier’s College, Bombay for identification

of the plant.

NARESH CHATURVEDI

S. M. SATHEESAN

22. NEW RECORD OF MYMAR SCHWANNI GIRAULT FROM

INDIA (HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOIDEA, MYMARIDAE)

(With two text-figures)

Mymar schwanni Girault

Mymar schwanni Girault, 1912, Mem. Qd.

Mus \. NG6-168. 9: Annecke,, 1961, ,S.

Afr. J. agric. Sci. 4: 544, 551, 2, key.

The genus Mymar contains five species

(Annecke. 1961). So far one species, M. tap-

robanicum Ward, is known to occur in India

(Hayat 1977). Recently, I collected a single

female specimen from Dehra Dun (Uttar

Pradesh). The specimen resembles M. sch-

wanni Girault according to the key to species

given by Annecke (loc. cit.). For confirma-

tion of the identification pencil sketches of the

antenna and fore and hind wings were sent

to Dr. B. R. Subba Rao, British Museum

(NH), who advised that the diagrams are

reasonably approximate to those of specimens

of M. schwanni from Australia preseni in the

British Museum collections. This appears to

be the first record of M. schwanni from out-

side Australia.

The species resembles M. taprobanicum in

several respects including antennal dimensions,

but differs in having the hind wings abbreviat-

ed beyond the hamuli (figs. 1, 2). It differs

from M. pulchellum Curtis in greater exten-

sion of the infuscation of the fore wings

(slightly more than distal half of wing blade

infuscated) and greater number of marginal

fringe of the fore wings (numbering 41).

Material examined: INDIA: Uttar Pradesh,

Dehra Dun, | @, 8.iv.1978, collected by sweep-

ing over grass (M. Verma).

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Dr. M. Hayat for valuable sugges-

tions and guidance. Thanks are due to Dr.

B. R. Subba Rao, Commonwealth Institute of

535°

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Figs. 1-2. Mymar schwanni Girault, 2: (1) Hind wing, (2) Distal portion of hind

wing, enlarged.

Entomology, London, for help in the identi-

fication of the specimen. I express my thanks

to Prof. S. Mashhood Alam, Head, Depart-

ment of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University,

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY,

ALIGARH-202 001, U.P.,

September 29, 1978.

Aligarh, for providing the necessary facilities,

and to the University Grants Commission,

New Delhi, for financial assistance under the

Faculty Improvement Programme.

MAHESH VERMA

REFERENCES

ANNECKE, D. P. (1961): The genus Mymar

Curtis (Hymenoptera, Mymaridae). S. Afr. J. agric.

Sci. 4: 543-552.

GIRAULT, A. A. (1912): Australian Hymenoptera

Chalcidoidea Il. Mem. Od. Mus. 1: 117-175.

Hayat, M. (1977): Mymar taprobanicum Ward,

a new record for Rajasthan, India (Hym.: Chalci-

doidea, Mymaridae). Newsl. zool. Surv. India. 3

(S) 2. ps 4283:

23. NEOXANTHOENCY RTUS GEN. NOV. FOR INDIAN SPECIES OF

SCELIOENCY RTUS GIRAULT (HYMENOPTERA: ENCYRTIDAE)

(With two text-figures)

Neoxanthoencyrtus gen. nov.

Girault (1915) proposed a new genus Sce-

lioencyrtus for the species S. nigriclavus, S.

tricolor and S. keatsi. He (1916) synonymized

Scelioencyrtus with Xanthoencyrtus Ashmead.

Later, Timberlake (1920), Gahan & Fagan

(1923), Mercet (1928), Peck (1963) accepted

536

Girault (1916) in considering Scelioencyrtus

Girault as synonym of Xanthoencyrtus Ash-

mead. Recently, Compere ef al. (1960) revali-

dated the genus Scelioencyrtus Girault and des-

cribed mymaricoides under it. However, they

said “if no mistake was made by Timberlake

in synonymizing Scelioencyrtus, it may be de-

MISCELLANEOUS

sirable to erect a new genus for mymaricoi-

des’’. Shafee et al. (1973) tentatively accepted

Compere et al. (1960) and described S. indicus

under Scelioencyrtus. The characters proposed

by Girault (1915) for the type species of the

genus Scelioencyrtus i.e. “fore wing densely

and finely setose, marginal fringe longer than

Fig. 1.

NOTES

usual, a fifth the greatest wing width’’ apply

well to the genus Xanthoencyrtus Ashmead

(fig. 1). Therefore, we follow Girault (1916),

Timberlake (1920), Gahan & Fagan (1923),

Mercet (1928) and Peck (1963) in regarding

Scelioencyrtus Girault as synonym of Xan-

thoencyrtus Ahmead and a new genus Neo-

su enl aem Hieeh en

VN V\

Vey

NEY

Xanthoencyrtus qadrii Shafee et al., 2; Fore wing.

Fig. 2. Neoxanthoencyrtus indicus (Shafee et al.), 92; Fore wing.

537

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

xanthoencyrtus is proposed for §. mymari-

coides Compere et al. and S. indicus Shafee

et al.

Type species: Scelioencyrtus mymaricoides

Compere ef al.

Neoxanthoencyrius gen. nov. differs from

Xanthoencyrtus Ashmead in the following key

characters:

1. Marginal fringe of fore wings short, one-fifth

or less the greatest wing width; wings finely

setose; marginal vein longer than wide; fore

wingse with’ a ‘speculuma (figs <1). a

SU ROR eubae Rsceh ger ay calc aie ok Xanthoencyrtus Ashmead

— Marginal fringe of fore wings long, more than

one-half the greatest wing width; wings sparsely

and indistinctly setose; marginal vein punctiform;

fore wings without speculum (fig. 2; Compere.

et al. 1960, fig. 8)...Neoxanthoencyrtus gen. nov.

SECTION OF ENTOMOLOGY,

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY,

ALIGARH, INDIA,

August 22, 1978.

Neoxanthoencyrtus mymaricoides (Compere

et al.) Comb. nov.

Scelioencyritus mymaricoides Compere ef al.,

1960, Proc. natn. Inst. Sci. India, 26 (B): 46.

Neoxanthoencyrtus indicus (Shafee

ef al.) Comb. nov. (Fig. 2)

Scelioencyrtus indicus Shafee et al., 1973, Alig.

Musl!. Univ. Publ. (Zool. Ser.) Indian Ins.

Diy p. VOia83)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are indebted to Prof. S. Mashhood

Alam, Head, Department of Zoology, Aligarh

Muslim University, Aligarh for providing re-

search facilities.

RAJENDRA KUMAR AVASTHI

SHAIKH ADAM SHAFEE

REFERENCES

ComMPERE, H., SuBBA RAo, B. R. & Kaur, R. B.

(1960): Two species of Encyrtidae parasitic in the

pink mealy bug of sugar cane in India—(Hymenop-

tera). Proc. natn. Inst. Sci. India. 26 (B): 45-50.

GAHAN, A. B. & FAGAN, M. M. (1923): The type

species of the genera of Chalcidoidea or Chalcid

flies. Bull. U.S. natn. Mus., 124: 173 pp.

GIRAULT, A. A. (1915): Australian Hymenoptera

Chalcidoidea VI. Mem. Queensl. Mus., 4: 1-184.

——— (1916): New’ Encyrtidae from

North America. Psyche, 23: 41-50.

MercetT, R. G. (1928): Nota sobre algunos En-

cyridos americanos (Hym., Chalc.). Eos., Madrid,

4: 6-12.

Peck, O. (1963): A catalogue of the Nearctic

Chalcidoidea (Insecta: Hymenoptera). Canad. Ent.

(suppl.) 30: 1092 pp.

SHAFEE, S. A., ALAM, S. M. AND AGARWAL, M. M.

(1973): ‘Taxonomic survey of Encyrtid Parasites

(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in India. Alig. Mus.

Univ. Publ. (Zool. Ser.) Indian Ins. Typ., 10:

1-125.

TIMBERLAKE, P. H. (1920): Description of new

genera and species of Hawaiian Encyrtidae (Hym.).

Proc. Hawaii ent. Soc., 4: 409-437.

24. SIMPLICIA CAENEUSALIS WLK. (NOCTUIDAE) AS A PEST OF

DRY PALM LEAVES USED IN THATCHED SHEDS IN TAMIL NADU

tham (Tamil Nadu). About 50 huts located

in the river bank were severely attacked. The

incidence was noticed from November 1976

Recently a peculiar situation of pest inci-

dence was noticed on thatched sheds made of

dry coconut and palmyra leaves at Gudiya-

538

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

to January 1977. The pest was identified as

Simplicia caeneusalis Wlk. (Noct.: Lepidop.).

This is the first record of this pest on thatched

coconut and palmyra roofs.

Earlier Simplicia robustalis Guen. was found

to feed on dried cumbu stalks, dry fodder of

ragi, Cholam and dry grass in Tamil Nadu

and Andhra Pradesh by different workers

between the years 1908 and 1941 (Fletcher

1914, Ayyar 1940). Further, this insect has

also been noted on the dried groundnut,

Thevitia, Dalbergia leaves and decaying cotton

leaves (Agricultural College & Research Insti-

tute, Coimbatore, Insect collection). Simplicia

extinctalis (Zell.) was observed to feed on

sugarcane trash (Carnegie and Dick 1972).

There was only one record of S. robustalis

which was found to feed on thatched shed

made up of coconut leaves (Fletcher 1914).

The larvae feed on both dried palmyra and

‘coconut leaves used for thatching the huts.

Palmyra leaves are preferred to coconut

leaves. In between the layers of thatched

leaves various stages of the larvae could be

seen feeding from the edges of the dried

leaves. They are more active during night

time. The dry leaves are completely stripped

off into sticks resulting in total destruction.

Dept. oF AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY,

TAMILNADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

COIMBATORE 641 003,

August 22, 1978.

Irregular feeding from the edges except the

midrib is also seen. The faecal pellets are seen

in large quantities in between the layers of

thatchings, and in and around the huts. Dur-

ing day time, the caterpillars fall on the house-

hold articles, people and their food materials

and cause great annoyance. |

The adults are small moths with brown

wings and wavy lines on the wings. Which lay

eggs on the dry leaflets. The eggs hatch in

about 4 days. The caterpillars at early stage

are very slender and stick-like. The final in-

star larvae are dark brownish, soft bodied

with transparent skin. Head is brownish with

a slight constricted neck. The larval period

is about 75 days.

The final stage larvae produce very thin

silken strands in the feeding area and trans-

form to reddish brown pupae attached to these

strands. The pupal period ranges from 8 to

13. days.

The pupae are parasitised by Brachymeria

sp. (Chalcidae: Hymenoptera) to an extent

of 36.36 per cent.

Thanks are due to the British Museum

(Natural History), London for having identi-

fied the insect. 3

M. SWAMIAPPAN

M. BALASUBRAMANIAN

REFERENCES

~Ayyar, T. V. R. (1940): Hand book of Econo-

mic Entomology for South India, Govt. Press,

p. 375. :

CARNEGIE, A. J. M. & Dick, J. (1972): Notes on

sugarcane caterpillars (Noctuidae) and _ effects of

Defoliation on the crop. Proc. South African Sugar

Tech. Assn. 46: 160-67.

FLETCHER, T. B. (1914):

Insects. p. 395.

Some South Indian

539

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

25. MORPHOLOGICAL COLOUR CHANGE IN THE MARINE

CRAB, PORTUNUS PELAGICUS (RATHBUN)

Colour change may be morphological or

physiological. In morphological colour change,

the amounts of pigments which are kept con-

stantly dispersed upon a given background

increase simultaneously, whereas the amounts

of pigments which are kept constantly con-

centrated on the same background decrease

(Keeble & Gamble 1904, Babak 1913, Odior-

ne 1933).

According to Bowman (1942), in the cray-

fish, Cambarus clarkii after 52 days on a black

background the number of white chromato-

phores decreased as compared to the original

number, while red chromatophores increased.

On a white background the converse was true.

In total darkness a slight increase in chroma-

‘ttophore number was noted over that of nor-

mal kept in stock aquaria with brown pebble

‘background. The prawn, Metapenaeus mono-

ceros (Madhyastha & Rangnekar, 1971) when

subjected to prolonged sojourn on illuminated

white and black backgrounds showed a de-

crease and increase in the number of chroma-

tophores respectively. Under intermittent illu-

mination, the prawns kept on a black back-

ground showed a slight increase in the number

of chromatophores, while animals on a white

background did not show any change. An

increase in the chromatophore number was

noticed in animals kept in total darkness.

Similar experiments were carried out.in the

marine crab, Portunus pelagicus.

MATERIAI, AND METHODS

Animals of both sexes ranging 8-10 cm in

carapace width were selected from the stock

for study. Chromatophores from the terminal

part of the last periopod were counted from

540

an approximate area measuring 1 mm square

under a compound microscope (magnification

450 X). These chromatophores were predomi-

nently dichromatic, containing black and red,

black and yellow or yellow and red pigments

with a few monochromatic red, black and

yellow ones. Animals were placed under the

following five regimens.

A — White background and constant

illumination

B— Black background and constant

illumination

C— White background and intermittent

illumination

D— Black background and _ intermittent

illumination

E — Black background and total darkness

Five animals were kept on each background

in sea water which was changed after feeding

the animals with crab meat on alternate days.

For constant illumination “‘day light’’ floure-

scent tube (20 watts) was used. Animals

(group E) maintained in total darkness were

kept in a dark room and were exposed to

light only during the time necessary for count-

ing their chromatophores. For intermittent

illumination the animals were subjected to a

day-night cycle. From all the groups, the chro-

matophores were counted, 7, 14, and 21 days

after the commencement of experiment.

Maximal dispersion of the pigments within

the chromatophores was found in the animals

kept on a black background. In order to faci-

litate counting of those chromatophores with

dispersed pigments, the experimental animals

during counting the chromatophores were kept

on an illuminated white background for 2

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

hours only which resulted in a slight concen-

tration in the chromatophores.

OBSERVATIONS

From the Table, it is evident that the num-

ber of chromatophores shows a significant in-

crease progressively in all the animals kept

on black background under different regimens.

It is also noticed that the difference be-

tween the initial reading and the final reading

in the animals kept under constant illumina-

tion and black background is greater than

the difference observed in animals kept under

intermittent illumination and black back-

ground.

After 21 days, on a black background, the

maximum increase in the number of chromato-

phores was observed in the animals subjected

to total darkness and a minimal increase notic-

ed in the animals under intermittent illumi-

nation, those subjected to constant illumination

on a black background occupying an inter-

mediate position. Under these experimental

conditions the animals in the three groups

showed progressive increase in the number of

chromatophores.

Moreover, after 21 days the chromorhiza

of the chromatophores of the animals on a

black background subjected to total darkness

showed increased arborization and the pro-

cesses of the adjoming expanded chromato-

phores intermingled, thereby temporarily los-

ing their identity. This change was less pro-

nounced in animals kept on a black background

under intermittent and constant illumination.

A progressive decrease in the number of chro-

matophores was discernible on a white back-

ground, both under constant and intermittent

illumination. Moreover, taking into considera-

tion the difference in the initial and final read-

ings, the reduction in the chromatophore

number on a white background with either

TABLE

THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT REGIMENS OF LIGHT AND BACKGROUNDS ON

THE NUMBER OF CHROMATOPHORES

IN THE MARINE CRAR, Portunus pelagicus

CONSTANT ILLUMINATION

INTERMITTENT ILLUMINATION TOTAL

Days

White Black DARKNESS

background background White Black Black

background background background

0 69.6* 5228 62.4 58.4 56.8

-+ 4.99 + 3.91 + 3.62 + 0.98 + 2.04

7 43.6 64.8 40.00 SD 77.6

+ 1.53 + 2.33 + 2.28 + 2.24 + 1.60

14 42.4 69.6 32.8 71.6 84.00

| + 2.40 + 1.86 + 2.91 + 2.31 + 1.94

21 37.6 80.0 Zh2 83.2 90.00

+ 0.97 + 2.19 + 0.55 + 1.74 + 2.16

* Each figure represents the average number of the chromatophores in an area of 1 mm square, of five

animals.

541

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SCCIETY, Vol. 76

constant or intermittent illumination is almost

similar.

DISCUSSION

In the crab, Portunus pelagicus when kept,

on a white background, with either constant

or intermittent illumination, the reduction in

the chromatophore number is almost similar.

The observation that the most striking reduc-

tion in the number of chromatophores occurs

under constant illumination on a white back-

ground (Bowman 1942, Green 1964, Vasan-

tha 1968 and Madhyastha & Rangnekar 1971)

is, however, not upheld in the species under

investigation. The average number of chroma-

tophores generally increases on a black back-

ground. A relatively greater increase was evi-

dent under constant illumination than under

intermittent illumination. This however, is not

in agreement with the findings made on the

red chromatophores of the prawn, Caridina

weberii by Vasantha (1968) and the crayfish,

C. clarkii by Bowman (1942) and on the black

chromatophores of the crab, Ocypode cerato-

phthalma by Green (1964). In the present

study, in total darkness and on a black back-

ground this increase is greater than under

the other two regimens. However, in the prawn

M. monoceros Madhyastha & Rangnekar

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE,

BomBay 400 032,

March 14, 1978.

(1971) found that, on a black background,

the highest and the lowest number of chroma-

tophores were recorded under constant and

intermittent illuminations respectively, the

number for total darkness occupying an inter-

mediate position. Similar observations were

also made on the red chromatophores of C.

weberii by Vasantha (1968) and C. clarkii by

Bowman (1942). In O. ceratophthalma the

finding was entirely at variance as no signifi-

cant variation occurred despite a treatment of

14 days. The observation that P. pelagicus

kept under intermittent illumination on a black

background has the lowest increase in chro-

matophore number agrees with finding made

in the prawn, M. monoceros by Madhyastha

& Rangnekar (1971).

SUMMARY

Portunus pelagicus subjected to prolonged

sojourn on illuminated white and black back-

grounds shows a decrease and increase in the

number of chromatophores respectively. A

slightly greater increase in the number of chro-

matophores is observed on a black background

under constant illumination than under inter-

mittent illumination. But in total darkness, on

a black background the increase in the num-

ber of chromatophores is maximum.

D. G. KOLWALKAR

P. V. RANGNEKAR

REFERENCES

BaBAK, E. (1913): Relationship of morphological

to physiological colour change in vertebrates. Arch.

ges. Physiol. 149: 462-470.

BOWMAN, T. E. (1942): Morphological colour

change in the crayfish. Amer. Nat. 76: 332-336.

GREEN, J. P. (1964): Morphological colour

542

change in the Hawaiian ghost crab, Ocypode cerato-

phthalma. Biol. Bull. Wood’s Hole. 126: 407-413.

KEEBLE, F. & GAMBLE, F. W. (1904): The colour

physiology of higher Crustacea. JI. Phil. Trans. B,

196: 295-388.

MapuyastTua, M. N. & RANGNEKAR, P. V. (1971):

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Morphological colour change in the prawn, Meta-

penaeus monoceros (Fabricius). J. Univ. Bombay

Vol. XL. No. 67: 54-59.

OpicRNE, J. M. (1933): . Morphological colour

change, fishes. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 19: 329-332.

VASANTHA, N. (1968): Some aspects of endo-

crinology of the freshwater prawn, Caridina weberii.

Ph.D. Thesis submitted to the Marathwada Univer-

sity (unpublished).

26. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF TRIOPS CANCRIFORMIS (BOSC)

(BRANCHIOPODA; NOTOSTRACA: APODIDAE) TO POONCH

VALLEY (JAMMU & KASHMIR STATE)

The Tadpole shrimp—Triops cancriformis

(Bosc) is a palaearctic branchtopod, which

shows an erratic distribution, being found in

several widely-separated localities such —as

India, England, Lombardy, Munich, Prag,

Padua, Breslau, Sweden, and Bingol Dagh

(Armenia). In India previous records of

Triops cancriformis (Bosc) are from Buland-

shahar, Nuriwalla, Sargodha District (Punjab),

and Kashmir. The present report of Triops

cancriformis (Bosc) from Poonch Valley (J.

& K. State) is, therefore, an extension of

range, Triops is a fairly serious pest of rice

plant feeding actively on young rice plants

however it does not do further harm to the

plant once (the rice plant is 30 cm high) and

is said to be beneficial to the plant, as it works

the soil around the roots.

A large number of specimens of Triops

cancriformis (Bosc) were collected by me

from rice-fields in Poonch Valley and com-

pared with specimens obtained from the rice-

fields of Sopore and Handwara (Kashmir

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

ISLAMIA COLLEGE OF SCIENCE & COMMERCE,

SRINAGAR (KASHMIR), INDIA,

November 7, 1979.

Valley) as well as from Dal Lake. Detailed

examinations of all these specimens have re-

vealed that the Poonch specimens as well as

those from Kashmir Valley are conspecific.

As elucidated elsewhere (Tiwari 1972,

Nath 1975) the differences between the speci-

mens of Triops cancriformis (Bosc) obtained

from Kashmir Valley and those from _ the

plains of India are of non-taxonomic value

and are probably due to the differences in

the biological conditions correlated with high

altitude. Therefore, Apus kashmiriensis Das

and Triops cancriformis (Bosc) are consi-

dered to be conspecific.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. G. A. Boxshali of the

British Museum of Natural History, London,

for confirming the identification of the present

collection, as well as to Dr. K. K. Tiwari of

the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for

his valuable opinion.

SURENDRA NATH

543 }

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

REFERENCES

NATH, SURENDRA (1975): Studies on the fresh-

water Crustacea of Jammu & Kashmir state (India)

Part If: On Triops cancriformis (Bosc) (Branchio-

poda, Notostraca, Apodidae) from Kashmir Valley

and adjacent areas, with remarks on the taxonomic

status of Apus Kashmiriensis Das. Proc. IlIrd_ All-

India Congress of Zoology.

Trwart, K. K. (1972): Taxonomic status of two

recently described Branchiopoda from Kashmir,

India. Crustaceana 23 (3): 311-314.

27. OCCURRENCE OF LIMNOCNIDA INDICA ANNANDALE

MEDUSAE (HYDROZOA: LIMNOCNIDIDAE) FROM FRESH-

WATER TANK OF DHORASI (DIST. RAJKOT, SAURASHTRA)

Freshwater medusae have so far been col-

lected from the valleys of Kistna, Yenna and

Koyna rivers (Rao 1932). It has also been

recorded from Periyar lake of Kerala (Dar-

ling 1935), Krishnarajasagar of Cauvery

(Krishnamurthy 1951) and Thunga river of

Karnataka (Iyengar & Venkatesh 1955).

There is no report of its occurrence in Guja-

rat State. It is therefore of interest to record

the occurrence in rainy season of 1978, of

Limnocnida indica from stagnant freshwater

tank of a mosque near Hazrat Khawaja Moka-

muddin Sarani Sahab Dargah and from Naga-

nishah Takiya mosque at Dhoraji (22° 11’

BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT,

BAHAUDDIN COLLEGE,

JUNAGADH.

UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF SCIENCES,

GUJARAT UNIVERSITY,

AHMEDABAD-380 009,

April 6, 1979.

10” N, 70° 34’ 30” S), 135 metres

situated 39 km away from Junagadh.

This tank is an artificial one, square in

shape (3 mx3 m) and its depth is about 1.4

m. The water in the tank is used by the local

people. There is no stream flowing into it and

water comes from Bhadar Dam (near Jetpur)

by pipes.

MSL,

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Dr. T. D. Soota, Super-

intending Zoologist, Zoological Survey of

India, for confirming the identification of the

medusae.

Y. M. DALAL

U. M. RAWAL

REFERENCES

DarLinG, P. S. (1935): Occurrence of Limnoc-

nida in the Periyar Lake, Travancore. Nature. 135:

151.

IyeENGAR, H. D. R. AND VENKATESH, K. (1955):

Occurrence of the freshwater medusae Limnocnida

indica, Annandale in Thunga river near Shimoga

town. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53:, 151,

544

KRISHNAMURTHY, D. R. (1951): On the occur-

rence of the fresh water medusae in the Krishna-

rajasagar of the Cauvery. ibid. 50: 955.

Rao, H. S. (1932): Further observation on the

freshwater medusa, Limnocnida indica, Annandale.

ibid. 36: 210.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

28. A SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF CHLOROCOCCALES OF

HASSAN DISTRICT, KARNATAKA STATE, INDIA

(With three plates)

In an extensive systematic study on the

freshwater algae of Karnataka State it was

observed that waters of Hassan District sup-

ported a large number of Chlorococcales be-

longing to the families, Hydrodictyaceae,

Oocystaceae, Dictyosphaeriaceae, Selenastra-

ceae, Coelastraceae and Scenedesmaceae. All

the 32 species are reported for the first time

from this area.

Hassan District is situated in the west of

Karnataka State lying between 12° 32’-13° 33’

N and 75° 23’—76° 38’ E, with an area of

5855 sq. km. Average rainfall varies from

38 cm to 610 cm and Koalin, Felspar, Quartz,

Kanker, and MHaemetite are the main

soil types. Collections were made from Arsi-

kere, Sakleshpur, Belur, Arkalgood and Has-

san proper so as to cover the entire district,

during the month of June, 1976.

The length (L), Breadth (B) and the dia-

meter (D) are given in microns (,). Col. H—

1 to 8 refers to the numbers given to the col-

lections made in Hassan District.

HyYDRODICTYACEAE

Sub-Family: Hydrodictyoideae

Genus: Pediastrum Meyen, 1829, p. 772.

P. angulosum (Ehr.) Menegh. (PI. I, Fig. 1)

Philipose 1967; p. 119, Fig. 39.

Cells 11.0-12.8 » in D, colony 120-122 u in D.

(col. H-5).

P. duplex Meyen. var. clathratum (A. Br.)

Lagerh. (PI. I, Fig. 2) Philipose 1967; p. 122,

Fig. 43 e.

Cells 15-16.25 » in D and Colonies 111.18-

114.25 » in D. (col. H-4).

P. tetras (Ehr.) Ralfs. var. tetraodon (Corda)

Family:

Rabenh. (PI. I, Fig. 3) Philipose 1967; p.130,

Fig. 45 ¢€

Cells 13. 15- 16.25 » in D. and Colonies 52.0-

55.0 » in D. (col. H-1).

P. tetras (Ehr.) Ralfs. var. apiculatum Fritsch.

(Pl. I, Fig. 4) Philipose 1967; p. 130, Fig.

45 h.

Cells 7.2-8.75 » in D. colonies 14.0-16.25. p

in D. (col. H-3).

Genus Sorastrum Kietzing, 1845, p. 144.

S. spinulosum Naegeli (PI. I, Fig. 5) Philipose

1967; p: 133.7 Fig.0c47.

Colony of 8 cells. Cells 6.8-8.0 » in L, 9.25-

10.0 » in B and spine 3.75 » in L. (col. H-1).

Sub-Family: Tetraedronoideae

Genus: Tetraedron Kitetzing, 1845, p. 129.

T. regulare Kietz. (Pl. I, Fig. 6) Philipose

1967; p. 147, Fig. 60 a-d & f.

Cells 24.20-26.25 » in D. and Spines 5 p in

L. (col. H-1).

Genus Closteridium Reinsch 1888, p. 510.

C. siamensis (W. et G. S. West) G. M. Smith

(PI. I, Fig. 7) Philipose 1967; p. 163, Fig. 76.

Cells 6.25-8 » in B, 15.0-17.0 » in L and

spines 6 » in L. (col. H-1).

The form is much smaller than the type.

Family OoCYSTACEAE

Sub-Family Oocystoideae

Genus Gleotaenium Hansgirg, 1890, p. 10.

G. loitlesbergerianum Hansg. (Pl. I, Fig. 8)

Philipose 1967; p. 179, Fig. 88.

Colony 40-41. 25 » in D, 28.25-29.0 p in thick-

ness and Cells 11.75-12.5 » in D. (col. H-3).

Genus Nephrocytium Naegeli, 1849, p. 79.

N. obesum W. et. G. S. West. ie II, Fig. 1)

Philipose 1967; p. 190, Fig. 106.

545

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Cells 39.2-40.0 » in L and 20.25-21.56 » in

B. Colony 83.16-84 » long and 70.84-72.0 p

in B. (col. H-3).

Family DICTYOSPHAERIACEAE

Genus Dimorphococcus A. Braun

p. 44.

D. lunatus A. Braun (PI. II, Fig. 2) Philipose

1967p. 205, hie) ll:

Cells 24.64-25.14 » in L and 8.75-10.25 ,» in

B. (col. H-1).

1855,

Family SELENASTRACEAE

Genus Ankistrodesmus Corda, 1838, p. 196.

A. falcatus (Corda) Ralfs; (Pl. II, Fig. 3)

Philipose 1967; p. 212, Fig. 121.

Cells 2.00-2.15 » in B and 45.0-47 » in L.

(col. H-1).

A. convolutus Corda. (PI. II, Fig. 7) Philipose

1967; -p. 212, Fig. 122.

Cells 2.5-3.75 » in B. and 29.75-31.25 mw in

L. (col. H-1).

Genus Selenastrum Reinsch, 1867, p. 64.

S. gracile Reinsch (PI. II, Fig. 4) Philipose

1967; p. 220, Fig. 128.

Cells 3.75-4.75 » in B. in and 13.0-25.0 » in

L. (col. H-4).

Genus Kirchneriella Schmidle, 1893, p. 16

(83)

K. lunaris (Kirchner) Moebius. (Pl. II, Fig.

5). Philipose 1967; p. 223, Fig. 131.

Cells 6.0-8.0 » in B. and 8.75-12.50 yw L.

(col. H-1).

Family COELASTRACEAE

Genus Coelastrum Naegeli, 1849, p. 97.

C. cambricum Archer var. intermedium (Boh-

lin) G. S. West (PI. II, Fig. 8) Philipose 1967;

p. 230, Fig. 138 b. Cells 7.5-8.25 » in D and

Colony 32.0-50.0 » in D. (col. H-3).

546

Family SCENEDESMACEAE

Sub-Family Crucigenioideae

Genus Crucigenia Morren 1830, p. 404.

C. irregularis Wille. (Pl. Ul, Fig. 6) G. W.

Prescott: 1951:),0) 790, 7Pl. 65, Eig. co:

Cells 8.75-9 » in L and 3.75-4.24 w in B.

(col. H-2).

Sub-Family Scenedesmoideae —

Genus Scenedesmus Meyen, 1829, p. 774.

S. dimorphus (Turp.) Kuetz; f. tortus G. M.

Smith, (Pl. HI, Fig. 1) Philipose 1967, p. 250,

Fig. 160 d. :

Cells 2.0-2.30 » in B. and 16.25-17.50 ,» in L.

(col. H-7). 3

S. bijugatus (Turp.) Kuietz., (Pl. HI, Fig. 2)

Philipose 1967; p. 255, Fig. 164 f.

Cells 10-11.75 » in L and 3.25-3.75 p» in B.

(col. H-8).

S. bijugatus (Turp.) Kuetz. var. graevenitzii

(Bernard) Comb. Nov., (Pl. HI, Fig. 3) Phi-

lipose 1967; p. 255, Fig. 164 a. b.

Cells 3.75-4.7 » in B and 13.0-13.75 p in L.

(col. H-4).

S. bijugatus (Turp.) Kiuetz. f. irregularis

Wille (PI. Ill, Fig. 6) Philipose 1967; p. 255,

Fig. 164 i, m.

Cells 6.25-7.50 » in B. and 15.0-15.75 » in L.

(col. H-3).

S. bijugatus (Turp.) Kuetz. var. flexuosus

Lemm. (PI. III, Fig. 4) Philipose 1967; p. 255,

Fig. 164 1.

Cells 4-4.75 » in B and 7.75-8.25 » in L.

(col. H-3).

S. arcuatus (Lemm) Lemm. (PI. HI, Fig. 7)

Philipose 1967; p. 258, Fig. 166 a-c.

Cells 6.0-6.25 » in B and 14.25-15 p in L.

(col. H-1).

S. arcuatus (Lemm) Lemm. var. platydisca

(Pl. Il, Fig. 5) G. W. Prescott Wak p. 213,

pl. 62. Figs. 10-12.

J. BomBAY NAT. HIsT. Soc. 76 PLATE I

Bharati & Hegde: Chlorococcales

25p

Figs. 1-8. 1. Pediastrum angulosum (Ehr.) Menegh.; 2. P. duplex Meyn. Var. clath-

ratum (A. Br.) Lagerh.; 3. P. tetras (Ehr.) Ralfs. var. tetraodon (Corda) Rabenh.;

4. P. tetras (Ehr.) Ralfs. var. apiculatum Fritsch.; 5. Sorastrum spinulosum Naegeli.;

6. Tetraedron regulare Kiietz.; 7. Closteridium siamensis (W. et G. S. West); 8. Glcgo-

taenium loitlesbergerianum Hansg.

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE II

Bharati & Hegde: Chlorococcales

Figs. 1-8. 1. Nephrocytium obesum W. et. G. S. West.; 2. Dimorphococcus lunatus

A. Braun.; 3. Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs.; 4. Selenastrum gracile Reinsch.;

5. Kirchneriella lunaris (Kirchner) Moeb.; 6. Crucigenia irregularis Wille.,; 7. Anki-

strodesmus convolutus Corda.; 8. Coelastrum cambricum Archer. var. intermedium

(Bohlin) G. S. West.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 76 PLATE III

Bharati & Hegde: Chlorococcales

i2 x 100

en,

2syp

Figs. 1-15. 1. Scenedesmus dimorphus (Turp.) Kietz f. totus G. W. Smith.; 2. S.

bijugatus (Turp.) Kietz.; 3. S. bijugatus (Turp.) Kietz. var. graevenitzii (Bernad)

Comb. Nov.; 4. S. bijugatus (Turp.) Kiietz. var. flexuosus. Lemm.; 5. S. arcuatus

(Lemm.) Lemm. var. platydisca.; 6. S. bijugatus (Turp.) Kiietz. var. irregularis Wille.;

7. S. arcuatus (Lemm.) Lemm.; 8. S. arcuatus (Lemm.) Lemm. var. capitatus G. M.

Smith.; 9. §. acutiformis Schroeder.; 10. S. brasiliensis Bohlin.; 11. S. armatus (Cho-

dat) G. M. Smith.; 12. §. armatus (Chodat) G. M. Smith var. bicaudatus (Gug

liemetti) Chodat.; 13. §. denticulatus (Lagerh) var. lunatus W. et G. S. West.; 14. S.

denticulatus (Lagerh); 15. S. quadricauda (Turp.) Breb.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES —

Cells 4.0-4.5 » in B and 14.25-15 » in L.

(col. H-6).

S. arcuatus (Lemm) Lemm. var. capitatus

G. M. Smith (Pl. III, Fig. 8) Philipose 1967;

p28: Fig. Teor.

Cells 4.25-5 » in B and 13.00-13.75 4p in’ L.

(col. H-1). |

S. acutiformis Schroeder (PI. LL, Fig. 9) Phi-

lipose 1967: p. 240, Fig. 169 a. i

Cells .5.25-6 » in B and 21.25-22.5 p in L.

(col. H-1).

S. brasiliensis Bohlin. (Pl. III, Fig. ee Phi-

hipose 1967; p. 260; Figs 170ca.

Cells 5.25-6.25 y. in B and 22.25-22.75 » in L.

(col. H-1).

S. armatus (Chodat) G. M. Smith, (Pl. TLL,

Fig. 11) Philipose 1967; p. 260, Fig. 17 a.

Cells 5.25-6.25 pu in B and 21.75- aoe lt in L.

(col. H-1). ie

S. armatus (Chodat) G. M. Smith, (Pl. IT,

Fig. 11).

Phitlisbse 1967; p> 263; Fig. 171 a.

Cells 5.75-6.25 » B and 15.0-15.75 yw in L.

(col. H-1)..

S. armatus (Chodat) G. M. Smith var. bicau-

DEPT. OF BOTANY,

KARNATAK UNIVERSITY,

DHARWAR 580 003,

November 8, 1977.

datus (Guglielmetti) Chodat, (PI: II, Fig. 12)

Philipose 1967; p. 163, Fig. 171 d. Cells 2.5 u

‘in B. and 10.0-11.25 » in L, spines 5-6 p in

L. (col. H-1).

S. denticulatus Lagerh. var. linearis Hansgirg.,

(Pl. III Fig. 13) Philipose 1967; p. 269, Fig.

Mote) °°?

Cells 2.5 » —3.0 ti in B and 8.75-9.0 » in: ila

(col. H-1).

S. denticulatus Legern. (Pl. Ill, Fig. 14) ‘G.

W. Prescott 1951; p. 276, Pl. 61, Fig. 10, 11.

Cells 4.25-5.0 p in B. and 13.75- 14.25 p in .

(col. H-5).

S. quadricauda (Turp) Breb. (PI. IL, Fig. -

Philipose 1967; p. 283, Fig. 187 a.

Cells 3.75-4.0 » in B and 12.5-13. 25 p. long.

Spines 9.0- 9.5 p in (col, HE5).

Ack NOWLEDGEMENTS |

Cur sincere thanks are due to the CS.LR.

for the financial assistance to one of us. (G.

R. Hegde). Thanks are also due to Prof. 'M.

S. Channaveeraiah, Head of the Department

of Botany, Karnatak ,University, for the faci-

ities afiordeds

S. G. BHARATI

G. R. HEGDE!

PHILIPOSE, M. T. (1967):

New Delhi, Publication.

Prescotr, G. W. (1951):

Chlorococcales. ICAR.

Algae of the Western

Great Lakes Area Exclusive of Desmids and [ia-

toms.

1C. S. I. R. Research Scholar.

547

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

29. RECORD OF ERIA BRACTESCENS LINDL. FROM NAGALAND

(With a text-figure)

During a botanical exploration trip to the

state of Nagaland in 1973, an interesting spe-

cies of Eria Lindl. (Orchidaceae) was collect-

ed, which is identified as Eria bractescens

Lindl., a species hitherto reported from Sik-

kim (Hooker 1890, King & Pantling 1898,

Mitra 1958) and Andaman islands (Seidn. &

Smitnd. 1960). This note reports the occur-

rence of this taxon in Nagaland. Since the

characters of the plant are represented by illus-

trations (Fig. 1, A-G), a brief description only

is given here.

Epiphytic on Quercus sp., pseudobulbs

yellowish brown, wrinkled, base with purplish

sheaths; leaves pale green, subcoriaceous;

peduncle pale yellow, suberect; raceme lax,

slender; flowers pale pinkish yellow; floral

bract pale yellow, reflexed; dorsal sepal nar-

rowly elliptic, apex curved backwards; lateral

BOTANICAL SURVAY OF INDIA,

EASTERN CIRCLE,

SHILLONG-793 003,

May 20, 1978.

sepals ovate, falcate with yellowish, conical

mentum; petals linear oblong, apex revolute;

labellum ovate, 3-lobed; side lobes deep

pink, round, erect; mid lobe creamy, quadrate

with 3 red lamellae; column pinkish yellow;

anther 2-celled; pollinia 8, in fours, pale

yellow.

Specimens examined: Pulebadze, c. 2375 m.

Hynniewta 56298.

Flowering: April.

Distribution: Sikkim & Andaman _ islands

(India), Bangladesh, Burma, Sumatra and

Malaya to the Philippines, Laos, Cambodia,

Thailand, Java.

But for its inflorescence, the plant resembles

the glabrous herb Evia confusa Hook. f., but

the differently coloured smaller flowers, reflex-

ed floral bract and erect side lobes of labellum

separate it from the later.

T. M. HYNNIEWTA

REFERENCES

Hooker, J. D. (1890): Fl. Brit. India 5: 796.

Kinc, G. & PANTLING, R. (1898): Ann. Roy.

Bot. Gard. Calcutta 8 (1): 120, t. 166.

548

Mitra, J. N. (1958): Fl. Pl. East. India 1: 320.

SEIDENFADEN, G. & SMITINAND, T. (1960): Orch.

Thailand 2 (2): 305.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Eria bractescens Lindl.: A-habit. B-flower. C-floral bract. D-perianths with

labellum spread out. E-column. F-pollinia, G-anther.

549

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

30: DATURA FEROX LINN., A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

(With five text-figures)

The genus Datura Linn. (Solanaceae) with

nearly 10 annual species is represented in

India by only 3 species. Recently a species of

Datura was collected which could neither be

matched with any known species in India and

nor could it be matched with any of the col-

lections found in Indian Herbaria. It has,

however, been identified to be Datura ferox

Linn,, which is a native of the warmer regions

of China, but is believed to have been intro-

duced at an early date in Spain and Sicily

(Safford 1921). Very recently, however, it is

reported to have spread widely throughout

the warm regions of the world. It is now be-

ing recorded for the first time from India

where it seems to be a recent migrant.

To facilitate the identification and study of

the plant, a detailed description with drawings,

is provided.

Datura ferox Linn. Amoen.

1756; Haegi, Aust. J. Bot.

(Figs. 1-5).

A 0.5—1 ‘m tall, annual herb; branches

stout, hairy, green or purplish towards the

base. Leaves 10-15 x 7—12 cm, broadly ovate

to rounded—triangular, margins coarsely

double lobed, irregular; base oblique, often

shortly decurrent on the petiole, obtuse to

truncate, apex acute or acuminate; petiole

2.5—8 cm long, sparsely hairy. Flowers white,

Acad. 1337403)

24: 415-35. 1976.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT,

JopHpuR UNIVERSITY, JODHPUR,

RAJASTHAN, | |

November 8, 1977.“

550.

solitary; peduncle 0.5—1.5 cm long. Calyx

2.5—3 cm long, angular, narrowed towards

the summit with 5 prominent longitudinal

ribs; lobes 5, 4-7 mm long, tomentose inside.

Corolla 4.5—6 cm long, white, throat and limb

often slightly plicate; lobes 5, very short,

broadly triangular; acumens 0.1—0.2 cm long.

Stamens 5, adnate to the corolla, 1.5 cm from

the base; anthers 3-4 mm long, white. Style

3 cm long; stigma 1-2 mm across. Capsule

erect, ellipsoid to broadly ellipsoid, rarely sub-

globose, 2-4 cm long, 2-3 cm broad, beset

with 40-60 stout, sharp, conical spines; spines

longer near the capsule summit, 15-25 mm

long, minutely tomentose; dehiscence through

4 entire valves when ripe; peduncle stout.

Persistent calyx base 0.4-0.8 cm long, more

or less cylindrical, margin crenate to dentate.

Seeds D-shaped, 0.4-0.5 cm long, thickened

and rounded towards the upper outer margin,

black, finely reticulate—foveate; hilum trian-

gular. |

A weed of cultivation or waste places along

roads.

Fls. & Frs.: September-December.

Herbarium specimens: Bhandari 2219; Jodh-

pur, on way to Sardarsamand, October 1976.

Distribution: A native of the warmer regions

of China, now distributed widely throughout

the warm regions of the world.

M. M. BHANDARI

M. R. MEHTA

_ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

= :

ey 4 ed Z y

a J NIA

Nae ’ \ Pye res

pS DY, cee | [EO

UIE a. aga fs \ \ \

Pia Self oe eta) AANA A Z s

% 2 abe Ne : ‘ Ne \ \ V A at

Z ENON co: NF Y \ LA ( al ih

A SP GSes SIN |. A \ tte y s. SS yay \ (Neal

Z| ; Ve i a dy < ~N :

<Zf ee ONS

y A ~

Figs. 1-5. Datura ferox Linn. 1. Branch with flowers and fruit; 2. Flower; 3. Corolla

3 from above; 4. Fruit; 5. Seed.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

31. BURMANNIA CHAMPIONIT THW.—AN ADDITION TO THE

FLORA OF SOUTH INDIA

(With a text-figure)

During a recent plant exploration visit to

the forests of Silent Valley, Palghat Dist.,

Kerala, marked for clearance for dam cons-

truction, a small, slender, more or less flexu-

ous, unbranched, white, saprophytic plant was

found growing in the decaying leafmould of the

forest floor. On critical study, it has been iden-

tified as Burmannia championii Thw. This is

the first report of its occurrence in India; the

previous reports being from Sri Lanka, south-

em parts of China, Japan and Malaysia. A

detailed description and illustration is furnished

below incorporating the intraspecific variations

observed, to facilitate locating this rare plant

from other forest areas, as well.

Burmannia championii Thw. Enum. Pl. Zeyl.

325. 1864; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 5: 666.

1888.

Herbs, 4-13 cm, stem simple, grooved, 1-1.5

mm diam. Scales 4-15, spirally arranged, ap-

pressed, erect, lanceolate, acute, 5x2.5 mm,

glabrous, 1-nerved. Inflorescence a bifid cincin-

nus cyme. Flowers 2-7, trimerous, white, erect,

subsessile, with 3 prominent primary ridges

alternating with secondary ones. Bracts trian-

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

COIMBATORE, TAMIL NADu,

December 28, 1977.

1 Present address:

Eastern Circle, Shillong.

252

gular—lanceolate, acute, 4x2 mm, (apical

ones shorter and narrower) glabrous, 1-nerv-

ed. Perianth tube trigonous, 6 <1 mm, glabr-

ous; outer perianth lobes lanceolate, acumi-

nate, 2.5x 1.5 mm, thick, with involute papil-

lose flap at the margin; inner lobes ligulate,

acute, 1.50.25 mm, reflexed at margins,

papillose. Stamens 3, opposite to the inner

perianth lobes, attached a little below the

lobes, with very short filament; anther dumb-

bell shaped; connective broad with a median

inflexed mucro and two lateral teeth. Ovary

inferior, trigonous, ellipsoid—obovoid, 4.5 x

1.5 mm, glabrous, unilocular with three parie-

tal placentae; ovules many. Style with stigma

6 mm long; style filiform, 3-branched at the

tip bearing terminal stigmas; stigma funnel

shaped, with a broad rotund undulate mem-

braneous appendage.

It is interesting to note that the perianth

persists and shows slight elongation after an-

thesis.

Flowering: September-October.

Specimens examined: Kerala, Panthanthode,

900 m, 21-9-1977, J. Joseph 51427 (MH).

J. JOSEPH"

R. ANSARI

C. N. MOHANAN

Botanical Survey of India,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1. Burmannia championii Thw.: A. Habit; B. Inflorescence; C. Flower—

Perianth tube split open; D. Stamen; E. Stigma; (D and E, not to scale) F. Cross

section of ovary.

353

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

32. A CRITICAL NOTE ON RHUS JAVANICA L.

(ANACARDIACEAE)

The taxon under reference was erected by:

on Osbeck’s collection from Java. But. its”

locality was further rectified as China in his

Linnaeus in his “Spay Blak:

380. 1762 (ed. 2). The recent flora

1965) does

Spek!

of Java (Backer and Bakhuizen

not include’ the taxon from,

was previously stated by Linnaeus. De-

candolle (1825) recognised two varieties

under R. semialata Murr. (1) var. osheckii

DC. (with broadly winged petiole) based on

Osbeck’s specimen from China and Thun-

berg’s specimens from Japan and (2) var.

roxburghiti DC. (with narrowly winged or

wingless petiole) based on Roxburgh’s speci-

men from N. E. Himalaya. Engler (1883)

also ‘supported the view expressed by De

Candolle in regard to the two varietal taxa

under R. semialata Murr. Engler further stres-

sed on the extensive distribution of R. semia-

lata Murr.' var. roxburghii DC. from N. W.

Himalaya to N. E. Himalaya and upto China

and consequently reduced another species R.

chinensis Miller as one of its synonyms:

Hooker (1876) did not recognise any variety —

under R. semialata Murr. Rehder (1940) and

Kitamura (1953) have established R. chinen-

sis Miller as a separate species. Recently Hara

(1954) has reduced R,. chinensis Miller as a

synonym of R. javanica Ly which is. the legiti-

mate name of the plant having broadly wine

ed petiole.' | i

The nomenclature, “synonymy “pr disyiten.

tion of the two taxa- (1) with broadly winged

petiole and (2) with narrowly winged or wing-

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

INDIAN BOTANIC GARDEN,

HowraH-711 103,

May 16, 1978.

354

Hiroo Kanai in Hara’s Fl. East. Himal.:

Java as.

1953. R. semialata Mutr.,

less petiole | are given below:

(1) Rhus javanica L., Sp. Pl. 1: 380. 1762

(ed. 2); Hara Enum. Sperm. Jap, 3: 65. 1954;

186.

1866 & 76. 1975. R. chinensis Miller, Gard.

Dict. no. 7. 1768 (ed. 8); Rehder Man. Cult.

Trees & Shrub: 543. 1940; Kitamura in Ki-

hara’s Fauna and flora Nep. Himal.: 173.

in Comm. Soc. Sci.

Goett. 6: 27. t, 3. 1784. R. semialata Murr. var.

osbeckii DC., Prodr. 2268. 1825: Engl. in DE

Mon. Plan. 4: 378. 1883.

Distribution: ‘China, Japan.

(2) R. javanica L. var. roxburghii, (DC.) D.

Chandra, comb. nov. R. semialata Murr. var.

roxburghii DC., Prodr. 2: 68. 1825. pp.; Engl.

in DC. Mon. Phan. 4: 378. 1883. pp. 'R. buc-

kiamela Roxb. (Hort. Beng.: 22. 1814 & Icon.

mn.” 1223) nom. nud)), sly Ind 2i7299: 1832.

pp. R. amela D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. OD 248.

(1825. pp. R. chinensis Miller, Engl. in DC.

~Mon. Phan. 4: 378. °

chinensis Miller var, roxburghii (DC.) Reh-

1883 (as syn.) pp. .R.

der, Man. Cult. Tyee & Shrub: 543. 1940.

Dieuion India and China. | |

| i

\ \ 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. ee

I am grateful to the Director, * Botanical

Survey > of India, Deputy Director, Central

National Herbarium, Botanical Survey, of

India, for facilities and also thankful to ‘Dr.

R. B. Ghosh, Systematic Botanist, Central:

National Herbarium, for valuable instructions

‘and encouragement.

DALI CHANDRA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

33. NOTES ON CLEOME RUTIDOSPERMA DC. IN INDIA

This paper reports the occurrence of Cleome

rutidosperma DC. (Capparaceae) an African

weed, in Assam and West Bengal, with addi-

tional notes on taxonomic characters and pos-

sible modes of distribution.

The species now grows wild in different

parts of Lower Gangetic Plains and Brahma-

putra valley. It is a decumbent diffuse annual

having trifoliate leaves and pink flowers with

bluish anthers, flowering at the beginning of

the monsoon. The taxon has been identified

as Cleome rutidosperma DC. (Capparidaceae).

It has been described and illustrated by M.

Jacobs in FLORA MALESIANA Ser. 1, 6(1): 104-

105, Dec. 1960 and P. K. Mukherjee in Ind.

For. 95(4): 237, 1969. Some characters of

taxonomic importance which have not been

included in these descriptions are noted here

to facilitate the identification of the plant in

the field.

The taxon has been reported already by .

Mukherjee (1969) from the Lady Brabourne

College Compound, Calcutta and on Waste-

lands, Calcutta University Campus, Bally-

gunge Circular Road, Calcutta, apparently as

an escape from cultivation. The exsiccatae at

CAL herbarium and also fresh collection from

the vicinity of Calcutta, however, leaves no

doubt that it is now naturalized in eastern

India. The paucity of report of its occurrence

may be due to difficulty in identification. Its

report from Burma and Malaya possibly sug-

gests its introduction there by human agency

at an earlier date and subsequent migration

through Assam into eastern India. It may also

be looked for in Tamil Nadu area which is

on the trade route from Africa to Malaysia.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

HowraH-711 103,

February 28, 1978.

Cleome rutidesperma DC. Prodr. 1: 241,

1824; Jacobs in Fl. Males. Ser. 1, 6(1): 104-

105, figs. 30 et 33, Dec. 1960; Iltis in Brittonia

12: 290-294, 1960.

Annuai diffuse herb pinkish on young nodes.

Petioles up to 5 cm. long, grooved adaxially.

Flowers in the axils of leaves of three leaflets

(not in the axils of reduced leaves as reported

in Malaysian and American plants). Sepals

awl-shaped, fleshy (when fresh), green pinkish

at tips. Petals pinkish (no yellow transverse

band, in fresh specimens as recorded in Ame-

rican plants). Anthers bluish, filaments faint

blue. Fruits slightly flat, bilaterally ribbed,

straight, long-beaked. Seeds many, arranged

in 4-rows on 1-2 mm. green (fresh) placentae.

Specimens examined: |

INDIA: West Bengal: flowering and fruiting

10-7-75 on open amphibic waste lands of the

district of 24-Parganas (South Barasat, Sonat-

pur) and Kasba, at the outskirts of Calcutta,

R. B. Majumdar 7502 (CAL); 24-Parganas,

Bansdroni, near Tallygunge. 31-5-1965 rare in

Waste places, flowers pinkish white R. L.

Mitra 147 (CAL), Dakshmin Barasat,

10-7-1975, common in open waste land, flowers

pinkish filaments faint blue. R. N. Banerjee

& Barin Ghosh s.n. (CAL); Indian Botanic

Gardens, 18th Aug. 1975, Procumbent annual

herbs, flowers pinkish, not common, O. P.

Misra sn. (CAL); Assam: Gauhati, a flower-

ing and fruiting specimen, 1969, A. C. Datta

85 (CAL).

Distribution: Trop. Africa, United States and

S. America, Malaysia, Singapore and Burma,

Eastern India-—Bengal and Assam.

BARIN GHOSH

R. N. BANERJEE

DP)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 76

34. CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS TO THE PTERIDOPHYTIC

FLORA OF KODAIKANAL (SOUTH INDIA)

Some years ago we (Bir & Vasudeva 1971)

published a taxonomic account of ferns and

fern-allies of Kodaikanal situated on the Paini

Hills in Madurai district of the state of Tamil

Nadu, South India. Further collections made

in 1975 and re-examination of the material

earlier collected, have revealed several new

points about the specific determinations. Also

information is given about the latest valid

name or about the original publication of the

specific names which were earlier given either

incompletely or wrongly. The chief points as

brought out in the the present studies are as

follows:

1. Botrychium lanuginosum Wall. ex Hook.

& Grev. (Ic tilly lt 79 1830.

2. Two specimens (PAN* 4781, 4782) cited

under Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw.

(Bir & Vasudeva 1971, p. 176) really

belong to L. japonicum (Thunb.) Sw.

and are possibly of cultivated origin.

3. Adiantum lunulatum Burm. (= A. philip-

pense L.) Specimen PAN 4828 Coil. Bir

(Motor road, 600 m. on shaded moist

rocks) may be an escape from cultivation

since it was not collected again from the

area.

4. Cheilanthes bullosa Kunze, Linnaea 24:

274.1851; Bedd. Ferns S. India t. 192.

1864; Nayar, Bull. nat. Gdns. Lucknow

66: 271962:

Specimens: PAN 4518, 4519 Coll. Bir

and PAN 5765, 5766 Coll. Vasudeva 55.

Earlier (Bir & Vasudeva 1971, p. 177) re-

corded as C. chrysophylla Hook. Omit refer-

ence to Mehra & Bir (1964, p. 109).

5. Mecodium javanicum

(Hymenophyllum javanicum Spreng).

Specimen: PAN 4788 Coll. Bir (Shemba-

556

(Spreng) Copel.

ganur, 1800 m. on shaded rock). May be

an escape from cultivation because it was

not found again in 1966 and 1975 ex-

cursions.

6. Doryopteris concolor (Langsd. & Fish)

Kuhn in V. Decken Reissen Ostafr. 3/3:

OP LST9

Earlier recorded as Pellaea geraniaefolia

(Raddi) Fée by Bir and Vasudeva (1971).

7. Lindsaya odorata Roxb., Calc. J. Nat.

Hist. 4: 511.1846; Kramer, Blumea /5:

567. 1968; Gdns. Bull. Singapore 26:

40.1972.

Specimens: PAN 4501, 4502 Coll. Bir

and PAN 5782, 5783 Coll. Vasudeva 74.

Earlier recorded as L. cultrata (Willd.)

Swartz. in Bir & Vasudeva (1971). Omit re-

ference to Mehra & Bir (1964, p. 118). The

Kodaikanal specimens belong to var. odorata

and are quite variable in size, from 10-50 cm

depending upon the habitat.

8. South Indian (from Kodaikanal) speci-

mens of Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.)

Underwood belong to var.

Panigrahi & Dixit (1971).

9. Pseudophegopteris pyrrhorhachis (Kunze)

Ching, Acta Phytotax. Sinica 8: 315.

1963. Polypodium paludosum Bedd.,

Ferns S. India t. 168.1864 (non Blume).

Earlier recorded as Thelypteris brunnea

Ching (Bir & Vasudeva 1971, p. 187).

10. Stegnogramma pozoi (Lagasca) Iwatsuki,

Acta Phytotax Geobot. 19: 124.1963;

Holtt., Jour. South Afr. Bot. 40: 149.

1974.

Earlier recorded as Leptogramma totta J.

sebastiana

1 Abbreviation for Herbarium, Punjab University,

Chandigarh, India.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Smith (Bir & Vasudeva 1971, p. 188).

11. Christella parasitica (L.) Lév., Fl. Kouy-

tchéou: 475.1915: Holtt., Kew Bull. 37:

309.1976. Nephrodium procurrens (Mett.)

Bak.. Syn. Fil. 290.1867; Bedd., Handb.

Supp!. 67.1892 (pro parte). Nephrodium

molle var. didymosorum (Parish ex

Bedd.) Bedd., Handb. 279.1883.

Earlier recorded as Cyclosorus parasiticus

(L.) Farwell (Bir & Vasudeva 1971, p. 188).

12. Christella dentata (Forsk.) Brownsey &

Veimay, (Brit. em ‘Gazi 102)/338.) 1973:

Holtt., Jour. S. Afri. Bot. 40: 143.1974;

Kew Bull. 37: 314.1976. Cyclosorus sub-

pubescens sensu Holtt., Rev. Fl. Malaya

22713. t24 7 tantoy.1955) \(non: Blume):

Earlier recorded as Cyclosorus dentatus

(Forsk.) Ching (Bir & Vasudeva 1971, p.

188).

13. Cyclosorus interruptus (Willd.) H.I. to,

Bot. Mag. Tokyo 5/: 714.1937. Nephro-

dium unitumi quod. Bedd., Handb. 268.

1883.

Earlier recorded as C. gongilodes (Schkuhr)

Link (Bir & Vasudeva 1971, p. 188).

14. Sphaerostephanos — arbuscula (Willd. )

Holtt., Jour. S. Afr. Bot. 40: 164. 1974.

Earlier recorded as Cyclosorus arbusculus

(Willd.) Ching (Bir & Vasudeva 1971,

p. 188).

15. Pseudocyclosorus tylodes (Kunze) Ching,

Acta Phytotax. Sinica 8: 324.1963 (xylo-

des as an error). Nephrodium octhodes

var. xylodes Bedd., Handb. 240.1883.

Nephrodium xylodes (Kunze) Hope, J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 1/4: 724.1903.

Earlier recorded as Thelypteris xylodes

(Kunze) Ching (Bir & Vasudeva 1971, p.

187).

16. Pseudocyclosorus ochthodes (Kunze)

Holttum in Nayar & Kaur Companion to

Bedd. Handb, 204.1974. Thelypteris och-

thodes (Kze.) Ching. Bull. Fan Mem. Inst.

Biol. Bot. 6: 300.1936.

Specimens: PAN 4491, 4494 Coll. Bir;

PAN 5838, 5839 Coll. Vasudeva 108. Det.

R. E. Holttum.

Earlier recorded as Thelypteris repens

(Hope) Ching and 7. erubescens (Wall. ex

Hook.) Ching by Bir & Vasudeva (1971, p.

187). Omit reference to Mehra & Bir (1964).

16A. Thelypteris sp.

Specimen: PAN 4709 (Observatory hill

road, 2100 m.) is not T. beddomei (Bak.)

Ching as reported earlier (Bir & Vasu-

deva 1971, p. 187) and might be a hybrid.

17. Phanerophlebia caryotidea (Wall. ex.

Hook. & Grev.) Copel. Gen. Fil. 111.1947.

Cyrtomium falcatum var. caryotideum

(Wall.) Bedd., Ferns S. India t. 119.1864.

Earlier recorded as Cyrtomium caryotideum

Pres] (Bir & Vasudeva 1971, p. 183).

18. Dryopteris approximata Sledge, Bull. Brit.

Mus. nat. Hist. Bot. 5: 11.1973. ;

Specimens: PAN 5855, 5856 Coll. Vasu-

deva, 96.

Earlier recorded as Dryopteris ramosa

(Hope), C. Chr. by Bir & Vasudeva (1971,

p. 184). Exclude synonym Nephrodium ramo-

sum Hope.

19. Arachniodes conifolia (Moore)

Acta Bot. Sinica 50: 153. 1960.

Specimens: PAN 5844, 5845 Coll. Vasu-

deva 68.

Not A. speciosa (Don) Ching as earlier re-

corded by Bir & Vasudeva (1971, p. 183).

Omit reference to Mehra & Bir (1964).

20. Elaphoglossum stelligerum (Wall. ex

Bak.) Moore ex Alston & Bonner, Can-

dollea 75: 216.1956; Sledge, Bull. Brit.

Mus. Nat. Hist. Bot. 4: 92.1967.

Specimens: PAN 4814, 4815 Coll. Bir;

PAN 5842, 5843 Coll. Vasudeva 141.

Earlier recorded as_ FE. petiolatum (Sw.)

Ching,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Urban and E. conforme (Sw.) Schott. (Bir &

Vasudeva 1971, p. 184). Omit FE. viscosum

Schott as Synonym.

21. E. angulatum (BIl.) Moore Index Fil.

5.1857; Sledge, Bull. Brit. Mus. nat. Hist.

Bot. 2: 83.1967.

Specimens: PAN 5840, 5841 Coll. Vasu-

deva 147.

Earlier recorded as E. laurifolim (Thouars)

Moore (Bir & Vasudeva 1971, p. 183). Out

reference to Mehra & Bir (1964).

22. Dryoathyrium boryanum (Willd.) Ching,

Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. Bot. //: 81.

1941; Sledge, Bull Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist.

Bot-’2: 282..Ph 30:t.11962,

Grows in a shola below Palni ghat road,

1400 m. altitude. Few individuals were seen

only in this locality. Based on collections

made. in February, 1975 (PUN? 2073-2076

Coll. Vasudeva 1185).

23. Athyrium pectinatum (Wall.) Presl

Specimen: PAN 4790 Coll. Bir (Lake,

2, 100 m.) is a North Indian (Himalayan)

species and must be an escape from cul-

tivation.

24. Asplenium formosum

Willd. in Linn.

DEPT. OF BOTANY,

PUNJABI UNIVERSITY,

PATIALA- 147 002,

May 16, 1978.

Spec. Plant ed. 4, 5: 329. 1810; Sledge,

Bull. Brit. Mus. nat. Hist. Bot. 3: 243.

1965.

Abundant on humus covered mountain

slopes only in the forest near Bear Shola, 2150

m. Collected in January, 1975 (PUN 2130-

2133 Coll. Vasudeva 1149).

25. Pyrrosia stictica (Kunze) Holttum, Novit.

Bot. Inst. Bot. Univ. Carol. Prague 31.

1968. Polypodium porosum Wall., Cat.

no. 266.1828 (nom. nud.).

Specimens: PAN 4820, 4821 Coll. Bir:

PAN 5869, 5870 Coll. Vasudeva 75.

Earlier reported as Pyrrosia mollis (Kze.)

Ching (Bir & Vasudeva 1971, p. 192).

In this species ventral hairs are with

crisped arms unlike P. mollis in which hairs

are uniform with straight arms.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are extremely thankful to Dr. Frances

M. Jarret and Prof. R. E. Holttum (Kew)

for expert advice on identifications and taxo-

nomic matters.

S. S. BIR

S. M. VASUDEVA

REFERENCES

Bir, S. S. & VasupEva, S. M. (1971): Pterido-

phytic flora of Kodaikanal. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 68: 169-195.

Meura, P. N. & Bir, S. S. (1964): Pteridophytic

flora of Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas. Res.

Bull. Panjab Univ. Sci. (H.S.) 15: 69-182.

PANIGRAHI, G. & Dixit, R. D. (1971): Two new

varieties of Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.) Underw.

from India. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 13: 162-163.

2 Abbreviation for Herbarium, Punjabi University,

Patiala-147 002, India as included “Index Herbario-

rum”, 1974 ed.

558

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

35. PRIMULA GLABRA KLATT—A NEW RECORD FOR ASSAM

(With a text-figure)

During the study and critical scrutiny of

the materials of Primula L. of the Eastern

Himalaya with special reference to Assam

Himalaya, we came across some specimens

of an interesting taxon which have been iden-

tified as Primula glabra Klatt, and confirmed

by comparision with the type material depo-

sited in Herb. (CAL). A perusal through

earlier and recent literature (Hooker, 1882;

Pax 1889; Pax and Kunth 1905; Smith and

Fletcher 1944) reveals that the species in dis-

tributed over Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal and ad-

joining parts of Tibet. The present finding

appears to be a new record for Assam. As the

Flora of Assam (Kanjilal et al. 1930)* lacks

information, it has been felt necessary to

give an illustrated account of the taxon.

Primula glabra Klatt in Linnaea. 37: 500.

1872; Watt in Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot. 20: 7. t.

4B. 1882; Hook. f. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 3: 487.

1882; Pax in Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 10: 193. 1889;

Pax & Kunth in Engl. Pflangenr. Primulaceae

42: 92. 1905; Watt in Journ. Roy Hort. Soc.

29: 298, 302, 306, 1904; Craib, ibid. 39: 187.

19132 Watt.) ibid. 39; 199,204; 206, fig. 93.

1913; W.W. Sm. and Forrest, ibid. 54; 14,

31, 33. 1929 and in Notes Roy Bot. Gard.

Edin. 16: 24. 1928; W. W. Sm. and Fletcher

in Tran. Roy. Soc. Edin. 61: Pt. 1 (1): 47-48.

1944.

Primula glabra Klatt

(Fig. 1)

A small plant of 7-12 cm long and with

stout rhizome, leaves compact, rosette, 1-3

1KANJILAL, U. C. et al. (1930): Flora of Assam.

Vol. III. Prabasi Press, Calcutta.

cm. x 4-10 mm., spathulate to oblong spathu-

late, rounded or obtuse apex, serrate to den-

ticulate, glabrous, efarinose, base narrowed

into a broad or slender petiole; scape 2-11

cm long, efarinose, apex carrying an umbel

of usually 7-10 flowers; bracts 1-2 mm. long,

glabrous; Pedices usually 2-3 mm. long, glabr-

ous; Calyx 3-4 mm. long, campanulate, minu-

tely glandular pubescent, 1/3 to 1/2 free.

lobes oblong, rounded apex; corolla pinkish,

tube slightly exceeds to calyx tube; limb 5-6

mm. diam., annulate, lobe obovate, deeply

emarginate; stamens reaching almost the an-

nulus, anthers 1 mm. long, oblong; style 2.5

long, stigma capitate;

mm-3.5 mm. capsule

sy PRimMuLA

A. Habit of the

Fig. 1.

plant; B. Calyx split open; C. An open flower in

part showing stamens and a pistil; D. Corolla split

open showing lobes of petals; E. Stamen; F. A

carpel.

Primula glabra Klatt:

559

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

nearly as calyx oblong, included, seeds round-

ed to oval-angular.

Distribution: Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Tibet.

Materials examined: SIKKIM. Reg. Alp. alt.

13-1400 ft Hooker 10 (ISOTYPE-CAL); Kapoor,

alt. 13.000 ft. Dt. 12-7-1910. W. W. Sm 3405;

Pey keiong La, June 1887. Dr. King’s Col-

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,

CALCUTTA.

INDIAN BOTANIC GARDEN,

CALCUTTA.

May 20, 1978.

lector. sn. Acc. No. 272329 (CAL): Jongti,

alt. 12-14,000 ft. dt. 1881. G. Watt 5414:

NEFA. Kameng Dist. alt. 10,000. dt. 28-5-57.

R. S. Rao 7894 (B.S.1. Shillong); Se La alt.

4300 dt. ist. September, 1964, J. Joseph 40201

(B.S.I. Shillong).

R. B. GHOSH

G. G. MAITY

36. FURTHER NOTES ON THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE

GENUS TEPHROSIA PERS.

(With seven text-figures)

In an earlier volume of the journal, Mukher-

jee and Gupta (1970) have described an easy

way of distinguishing species of Tephrosia

from those of other genera, like Indigofera in

the field, when not in flowering stage. By pull-

ing apart the leaflets, after holding, them at

their bases and tips, the leaflets of Tephrosia

species always show a V-shaped cut (Fig. 6A),

while Indigofera leaflets when similarly pulled

show a more or less straight cut (Fig. 7A).

With a view to find the reasons for such a

differentiating feature, we studied the leaves

of several species of Tephrosia and Indigofera.

The leaflets of both species were decolour-

ized by keeping in a weak solution of KOH

for some days and later stained with alcoholic

saffranin, dehydrated and mounted in D.P.X.

All the slides thus prepared, showed the type

of venation characteristic of leaflets of both

the genera.

Tephrosia leaflets have a strong mid-rib and

from it secondary branches, almost in pairs,

560

are given out to the wings of the lamina at an

acute angle (Figs. 1 to 5). In some cases,

when they near the margin they show

a fork. One of the arms of the fork when it

reaches near the margin curves towards the

apex, is thicker than the other which becomes

slender and later disappears in the thin meso-

phyll parenchyma (Figs. 2, 3 & 4). The suc-

cessive pairs of these secondary veins enclose

very little strips of thin walled tissue. When

these leaflets were pulled apart as said in the

beginning, the thin walled tissues in between

he lateral veins give way, leaving these veins

as they are. This results in the formation of

a V-shaped cut (Fig. 6A). On the other hand,

the leaflets of Indigofera have a uniform pat-

tern of secondary veins, in that the secondary

veins depart from the mid-rib more or less at

right angles while entering the wings of the

lamina. Moreover, these are comparatively

thinner. This thinner pattern of venation might

be the cause of the straight cut seen when the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 1—5. Show cleared leaflets of Tephrosia. 1. Tephrosia pauciflora Wall.; 2. T.

purpurea Pers.; 3. T. apollina Link.; 4. T. coccinea Wall.; 5. T. tenuis Wall.

561

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

Fig. 6 and 6A. Show leaflet of Tephrosia Pers.

entire and torn respectively.

Fig. 7 and 7A. Show leaflet of Indigofera Linn.

entire and torn respectively.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE,

BomBay 400 032,

August 28, 1978.

562

leaflets were pulled apart (Fig. 7A).

In this connection, it is interesting to men-

tion what has been written in ancient Sans-

krit Scriptures on Indian System of Medicine.

(Ayurveda). Since Tephrosia has a great me-

dicinal value in the Indian System of Medicine

(Acharya & Kudatarkar Shastri) they describe

a simple clue to separate Tephrosia leaves

from other similar leaves in the fields.

It states “‘When the leaves of Tephrosia

are pulled apart, the torn region gives

an appearance of a tail of an arrow”

(Sharapunkhi). After carrying out this simple

test on leaves to confirm Tephrosia, it should

be collected and then processed and used

against worms etc. (Antihelmin). A similar

reference is also given by Acharya in his

works. Both these mention the plants’ use

against liver troubles and Kirtikar & Basu

(1935) emphasise its cathartic properties. It

is well known that both the plants can be

used as cover crops and also as green manure.

In conclusion, it may be stated, that the old

Ayurvedic System knew the field identifica-

tion of Tephrosia. The anatomical observa-

tions stated above, clearly show that the vena-

tion pattern itself is the cause for the peculiar

tearing of the leaflets of the genus Tephrosia.

We wish to thank the Director, Institute of

Science, Bombay, for facilities, Shri A. M.

Siddiqui for photographic work. We are also

grateful to the Director, M.A.C.S. Poona and

the Regional Botanist, Botanical Survey of

India (Western Circle, Poona) for sparing

some material for this work.

S. S. KELKAR

C. S. LATTOO

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

ACHARYA, Y. T.: Dravyaguna Vidyanum. pp. 174, tra with Bhavaprakasha Nighantu, pp. 408, No. 242.

No. 113. MUKHERJEE, P. K. AND GupTA, RITA (1970):

KIRTIKAR AND Basu (1935): Indian Medicinal Field Identification of Tephrosia Pers. J. Bombay

Plants. J: 723. nat. Hist. Soc. 67 (1): 135.

KUDATARKAR SHASTRI, M. N.: Dravyaguna Shas-

563

ADDENDA

Vol. 75: Supplement

Nectar-feeding adaptations of Flowerbirds

Insert on p. 1047 at the end,

REFERENCES

AI, SALIM A. (1931): The role of the sunbirds

and the flowerpeckers in the propagation and dis-

tribution of the tree-parasite, Loranthus longiflorus

Dest., in the Konkan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

35: 144.

(1932): Flower-birds and_ Bird-

flowers in India. ibid. 35: 574.

BEDDARD, F. E. (1891): Notes on the structure of

the tongue in the family Zosteropidae. Ibis: 510-

BEECHER, WILLIAM J. (1953): Phylogeny of Os-

cines. Auk 70: 270-333.

Gapow, Hans (1883): On the Suctorial Appa-

ratus of the Tenuirostres. Proc. Zool. Soc. London

1883: 62-69.

GARDNER, LEON L. (1927): On the Tongue in

Birds. [bis (XII series), Vol. iii, pp. 185-196.

Lucas, F. A. (1897): The tongue of Birds. Rept.

of U.S. National Museum for 1895: 1003-1020.

MoLLer, W. (1930): Uber die Schnabel and Zen-

genmechanic blutenbesuchender Vogel I Ein Beitrag

Zur Biologie des Blumen Vogels. Biol. Generalis

Widen 6: 651-726.

(1931): Uber die Schnabel and

Zungenmechanic bluntenbesuchender Vogel II. ibid.

7: 99-154.

SCHARNKE, H. (1930): Ueber den Bau der Koli-

brizunge. Orn. Monatsb. Berlin 38: 150-151.

(1931): Die Nectarauf nahme mit

der Kolibrizunge. ibid. 39: 79.

(1932): Ueber den Bau der Zunge

der Nectariniidae, Promeropidae and Drepanididae

nebst Bemerkunge zur systamatik der blutenbe-

suchender Passers. J. Orn. Berlin 80: 114-123.

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