JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY

NATURAL

HISTORY

SOCIETY

VOL 92, No. 1,

April 1995

\

BOARD OF EDITORS

Executive Editor

J.C. DANIEL

M.R. ALMEIDA

P.V. BOLE

M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN

B.F. CHHAPGAR

B.V. DAVID

R. GADAGKAR

ANIL GORE

Assistant Editor

K.P. SHIRODKAR

V /

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1. Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere

should not be submitted.

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copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette ( 3.5" or 5.25" ), using Word Star.

Word Perfect, MS Word or in MS DOS.

3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been

authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at

least 9x12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps

should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board.

5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically

arranged under author's name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in

italics and titles of books or papers in roman type.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200

words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of

important species discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of

new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free copy

of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member's

contribution earlier than a non-member's.

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH

AJITH KUMAR

A.R. RAHMANI

J.S. SAMANT

E.G. SILAS

J.S. SINGH

R. WHITAKER

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Matured History Society

VOLUME 92 (1) : APRIL 1995

Date of Publication : 24-04-1995

CONTENTS

HOME RANGE OF ELEPHANTS IN FRAGMENTED HABITATS OF CENTRAL INDIA (With four text-figures)

By Llemant S. Datye and A.M. Bhagwat 1

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF BIRD PESTS AND THEIR DIURNAL RHYTHM IN RIPENING SORGHUM

( With a text figure)

By B.M. Parasharya, K.L. Mathew and D.N. Yadav 1 1

STATUS, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSERVATION OF THE TRAVANCORE TORTOISE, 1NDOTESTUDO

FORSTEN11 IN WESTERN GHATS (With two plates and a text-figure)

By S Bhupathy and B.C. Choudhury 16

ON THE MORPHOLOGY, ADVERTISING CALL AND HABITAT OF THE BUSH FROG PHILAIJTUS

LE U C O RUIN US (LICHTENSTEIN AND MARTENS, 1856) ( With a text-figure)

By Aloysius G. Sekar 22

MATING BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN GREY MONGOOSE HERPESTES EDWARDS II EDWARDSII

GEOFFROY ( With a text- figure )

By Jagathpala Shetty, Gunapala Shetty and S.R. Kanakaraj 26

COMPOSITION, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUATION OF FISH IN BANGANGA-GAMBHIR RIVER

SYSTEM AND SOURCE OF FISH TO THE KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR (With two

text-figures)

By C.R.Ajith Kumar, N.K. Ramachandran and Arun Asthana 30

KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES OF THE GENERA ORTHR1US GORHAM AND XENORTHR1US GORHAM

(COLEOPTERA: CLERIDAE: CLERINAE)

By Jonathan R. Mawdsiey 40

TAXONOMIC STUDIES OF THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHUR1A (LINNAEUS, 1767) FROM THE SEAS

AROUND INDIA (With a plate and two text-figures)

By D.B. James 43

ECOLOGY OF POLLINATION IN TWO CAT-MINT SPECIES

By Raju J.S. Aluri and C. Subba Reddi 63

A STUDY OF ABNORMAL NESTS OF BAYA WEAVER BIRD PLOCEUS PHILIPPINES (LINN.) IN

RAJASTHAN (With six text-figures)

By Satish Kumar Sharma 67

AGE DETERMINATION OF DOLPHINS ENTANGLED IN GILLNETS ALONG THE KERALA COAST (With

two plates)

By R.S. Lai Mohan 77

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

TWO NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS APANTELES FOERSTER (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM

INDIA (With two text-figures)

By T V. Sathe and D.M. Ingawale 81

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS D1CLADOCERUS (HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE) FROM

NORTHERN INDIA (With forty text-figures)

By M.A. Khan 85

A NEW GENUS OF PTEROMALIDAE (HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOIDEA) FROM COORG, KARNATAKA

(With seven text-figures)

By P.M. Sureshan and T.C. Narendran 96

A NEW GENUS OF TINGINAE (HETEROPTERA) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA {With a text-figure )

By David Livingstone and S. Jayanthibai 99

A REVISION OF GENUS UNGUL1A MALAISE (HYMENQPTERA, SYMPHYTA, TENTHREDINIDAE:

ALT ANTINAE) (With forty four text figures)

By Malkiat S. Saini and V. Vasu 101

MAMMALS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . Claw marking on trees by tiger Panthera

tigris (Linn.) in Kanha National Park

By P.C. Kotwal and G.P. Mishra Ill

2. Aggressive behaviour of a thirsty leopard,

Panthera pardus (Linn.)

By Raza Tehsin 112

3. Cannibalism in south Indian palm squirrel

Funambulus palm arum (Linn.)

By S. Sadakathufla and

A. Abdul Kareem 113

4. An approach-blocking display by a Five-

striped palm squirrel Funambulus pennanti

(Wroughton) to a house crow Corvus

splendens

By Tiziano Londei 114

5. Occurrence of bharal Pseudois nayaur

(Hodgson) in Thingbu circle of Tawang

district of Arunachal Pradesh

By Pratap Singh 115

6. A new report on pigmy hog Sus salvanius

(Hodgson) from West Bengal

By P. Sanyal 116

7. Feeding behaviour of kmgtailed tree mouse

Vandeleuria oleracea (Bennett) and Indian

desert gerbil Meriones hurrianae on

syncarps of Xanthium indicum Koenig

By Satish Kumar Sharma 116

8. Interaction between blackbuck Antelope

cervicapra (Linn.) and Indian fox Vulpus

bengalensis (Shaw)

By Ashok Kumar Sharma 118

BIRDS

9. Probable occurrence of Whitefronted goose

Anser albifrons (Scopoli) in Andhra

Pradesh

By Ranjit Manakadan 118

10. Hare in the diet of white-eyed buzzard

eagle Butastur teesa (Franklin)

By Salim Javed 119

11. Unusual nesting season of bronzewinged

jacana Metopidius indicus (Latham)

By Rakesh Vyas 119

12. The crab plover, Dromas ardeola Paykull

- an enigma

By Lavkumar Khacher. 120

13. Roseringed parakeets Psittacula krameri

(Scopoli) feeding on seeds of Karvi Carvia

callosa (Nees) Bremek.

By Naresh Chaturvedi and

M..R. Almeida 121

14. Crab-eating by whitebreasted kingfisher

Halcyon smyrnensis (Linn.)

By Raza Tehsin 121

15. Little green bee-eater, Merops orientalis

Latham

feeding on crabs

By Lavkumar Khacher. 121

16. Unusual escape behaviour in goldenbacked

woodpecker Dinopium benghalense (Linn.)

By Manoj V. Nair 122

17. The greythroated or plain sand martin

Riparia paludicola Vieillot - a new bird

for southern India

By V. Santharam 122

18. Lanius cristatus Linn, in Kutch, Gujarat -

a westward extension

By Himmatsinhji 123

19. Food storing behaviour of the jungle crow

Corvus macro rhynchos Wagler

By Satish Kumar Sharma 123

20. Yellowthroated bulbul Pycnonotus

xantholaemus (Jerdon) at Biligirirangan

hills, Karnataka

By S. Karthikeyan, J.N. Prasad

and T.S. Srinivasa 123

21. A note on baya, Place us phil ipp inus nesting

on Krishnacfauda ( Delonix regia) tree

By K.K. Gupta 124

22. The mystery of “mass suicides” by birds

By Humayun Abduiali 125

REPTILES

23. Colour change of tongue by fat-tailed gecko

Eublepharis macular ius

By Sattish Kumar Sharma 126

24. Presence of common green whip snake

Ahaetulla nasutus at “Phulwari Ki Nal”

Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Sharma 127

INSECTS

25. A new altitudinal and range record for the

copper flash butterfly Rapala pheretimus

Hewitson (Lycaenidae)

By Peter Smetacek 127

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

26 . New record of a Concho stracan (Crustacea:

Branchiopoda) from Maharashtra State

By H.V. Ghate and S.G. Patil 128

27. On Sida crystallina (O.F. Muller, 1776)

and Aero perns harpae (Baird, 1834)

(Crustacea: Cladocera) from Tripura State

By K. Venkataraman and S.R. Das 128

28. Redescription of Phrynichus phipsoni

Pocock (Family Phrynichidae:

Arachnid a) collected after 100 years from

new locations in Maharashtra, Western

India

By D.B. Bastawade 132

BOTANY

29. Siphonodon celastrineus Griff.

(Siphonodontaceae) - a rare Tree from

Orissa

By M. Brahmam and H.O. Saxena 135

30. Eryngium foetidum Linn. (Apiaceae) - a

new record for Bihar

By S.K. Varma and N.N. Das 135

3 1 . Pascalia Orteg. (Asteraceae) - a new genus

for India

By Aloke Bhattacharya, M.C. Biswas

and H.S. Debnath 136

32. On the identity of Paraboa nagalandiana

Deb & Dutta

By D.B. Deb and Ratna Dutta 137

33. Teucrium viscidum Bl. (Lamiaceae) - an

interesting distributional record from

Orissa

By H.O. Saxena, M. Brahmam

and N.C. Rout 140

34. First record of the alligator weed,

Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.)

Gris eh. from Pune, Maharashtra

By G. K. Wagh, H. V. Ghate and

Vinaya S. Ghate 141

35. A report on the occurrence of Antidesma

thwaitesianum Muell. Arg.

(Euphorbiaceae) from South Andamans

By Sam P. Mathew and Susan Abraham . 143

36. A report on the threatened orchids of

Manipur

By V. Ramakantha 144

37. Woodsia l arias a Hook. (Woods iaceae) from

Garhwal Himalaya -rediscovered

By P.C. Pande and Kusum Bhandari. 145

38. Eragrostis aspera (Jacq.) Nees : An

addition to the grasses of Orissa

By R.R. Jha 145

39. Studies on the spore morphology of

Oleandra undulata (Wild.) Ching and O.

wallichii (Hook.) Pie si.

By Preeti PainuH and R.D. Gaur 147

40. Occurrence of Battarea stevenii (Lib.) Fr.

(Tulos tomataceae) in Mysore - a new record

from south India

By G.R. Shivamurthy, H.G. Vijay Gopal

Raj Urs and K.B. Sadanand 149

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

April 1995 Vol. 92 No. 1

HOME RANGE OF ELEPHANTS IN FRAGMENTED HABITATS

OF CENTRAL INDIA1

Hemant S. Datye2 and A.M. Bhagwat3

( With four text -figures)

Key words: home range, range fidelity, habitat, degradation, fragmentation, central India.

Home range of three adult bulls and one adult female (and her clan which included her family unit

and associated family units) living in Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar were studied from 1989-1992.

All animals were identified visually and their locations were digitized and analyzed using Spacial

Ecology Analysis Program (SEAS). One bull represented the resident population of 16 elephants,

whereas the remaining two and the female represented migratory population of 50 elephants.

Analysis of home range pattern showed that considerable part of home range of all the individuals

of the whole population lie outside the sanctuary limits. The home ranges expanded to the maximum

in winter and shrunk to minimum in summer. The expansion was always along the long axis of home

range The resident population expanded the heme range towards west and to a lesser extent towards

north and the migratory population to the east. Existing traditional routes might be one of the factors

influencing such directional expansions. Knowledge of home ranges of elephants, especially in

fragmented areas, could be a key to solve many problems associated with elephant management.

shape and spatial distribution. The fidelity to the

home range was studied by Wyatt and

Eltringham (1974). Leuthold (1977b), and

Viljocn (1989).

In Asia, home ranges were studied by Khan

1967. Olivier 1978, Sukumar 1985, 1989a,

1989b; Easa 1988, and Desai 1991. Olivier

(1978) studied home ranges of elephants in

Malaysian primary and secondary rain forests.

Easa (1988) carried out similar studies in forests

of Kerala state. Sukumar (1985, 1989a, 1989b)

estimated home ranges of clans and bulls in the

eastern ghat area, using Minimum Convex

Polygon method. Management issues like

identification and maintenance of corridors that

INTRODUCTION

The ranging behaviour of elephants has

been studied in different parts of Africa and

Asia. The African studies were started by

Douglas-Hamilton 1973, 1975, Leuthold and

Sale 1973, Leuthold 1977b, Merz 1986a.

Dunham 1986, Hall-Martin 1987, Viljoen 1989.

and mainly described the size of the home range

in relation to environmental factors, vegetation.

'Accepted March 1995.

2C-5 Samant Blocks. Ghantali. Naupada. Thane 400 602.

3Vice-Prineipal, Ramniranjan Jhunjhunwala College,

Ghatkopar. Bombay 400 086.

2

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

link sub-populations were studied by Desai

(1991).

A review of the literature on the ranging

pattern of elephants reveals that information on

home ranges of elephants in fragmented areas,

where the habitat was/is rapidly lost to urban

development and was/is continuously degraded,

is not available. In India, there is no protected

area for elephants as small as Dalma Wildlife

Sanctuary (193 sq. km), having heavy biotic

pressure. The Chandka Wildlife Sanctuary in

Orissa is also as small but with negligible biotic

pressure at the present. The ranging of elephants

in such a habitat as Dalma has an additional

component of seasonal migration of 75 % of the

population to the plains of West Bengal for 5 to

6 months of the year. Therefore, it was

important to study home ranges and of elephants

in the fragmented areas for better management

planning.

The objectives were:

1. To find the size and extent of home ranges

of some identified elephants of the

Sanctuary.

2. To determine the fidelity of the individual

animals to their home ranges.

3. To ascertain the factors influencing the size

of the home ranges.

4. To estimate the overlaps of the individual

home range and the Sanctuary, i.e. to find

how much of the home range lies outside

the Sanctuary7, in agricultural land, and

inside the Sanctuary.

Study area

The study was undertaken in Dalma

Wildlife Sanctuary and surrounding elephant

areas of the Chhotanagpur Plateau in the state of

Bihar and in the migration range of elephants of

the Singhbhum district into the plains of West

Bengal. The major elephant ranges in Bihar

other than the Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary are

Palamau National Park, Porahat, Kolhan,

Saranda, Roam and Mosabani reserved/protected

forests, most of which are fragmented and

severely degraded. The Dalma Wildlife

Sanctuary is spread between 22° 5.30' N to 22°

57' N and 86° 7' E to 86° 20' E on the

Chhotanagpur plateau in south Bihar and it is

adjacent to the tri -junction of borders of the

states of Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal (Fig. 1).

The range of elephants of Dalma Sanctuary

extends into plains of West Bengal covering

parts of Purulia, Midnapur, Bankura, and to a

lesser extent Bardhaman and Hoogli districts. In

Bengal the natural forests exist only in small

patches of few hectares mainly in the western

part adjoining Bihar. Most other forest patches

consist of sal monoculture that are in a state of

severe degradation, though in some places there

are signs of recovery due to protection provided

by local villagers. The essential feature in the

physical aspect of the elephants' habitats in

Bihar, is the prevalence of plateaux and hills,

often rising into mountains which rarely exceed

1000 metres in elevation. The forest of Dalma

belongs to a unique Shorea-Cleistcmthus-Croton

series (Gadgil & Meher-Homji 1986). The

Champion-Seth classification shows the forest as

consisting of dry peninsular hill sal, and northern

mixed dry deciduous type. The forests of the

Chhotanagpur plateau exhibit a variety of habitat

types ranging from dry deciduous to evergreen

though the study area constituted only dry

deciduous type of forest. The whole study area

being a tribal belt is inhabited by7 several

different tribes, each having a distinctive

tradition, language and culture. The area is

extremely backward in spite of being the most

mineral rich area of India, producing copper,

uranium, iron ore, coal, gold and many other

important minerals. In fact this area generates a

fourth of the total mineral produce of the

HOME RANGE OF ELEPHANTS IN FRAGMENTED HABITATS

3

Fig. 1 . Location of the study area and general directions of movement of Dalma Sanctuary elephants.

country. However, it lacks in basic amenities

like medical facilities, education, potable water

supply, electricity, transport and education in

most places. The rapid industrialization due to

the presence of vast deposits of a variety of

minerals has resulted in economic disparity

between the urban 'outsiders' and the tribals.

Since 1914, the tribals of the plateau have been

demanding an independent tribal state called

'Jharkhand' and the agitation has/had taken

violent turns in the last and the present decade.

The anger against the ruling government was

often redirected towards the state owned forests,

by felling the trees indiscriminately. The forests

of the area which were rich in flora and fauna

are giving way to mining activities in many

places and almost all the forests are under

various degrees of biotic pressure. This has

resulted in shrinking and degradation of the

elephant habitat, forcing elephants to move out

of the traditional habitat, to raid crops to meet

their energy requirements and to seek better

habitat elsewhere.

Methodology

The ranging behaviour of elephants has

been studied through different methods. In

4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Africa, visual resightings of identified

individuals was used to determine home ranges

(Douglas-Hamilton 1975, Viljoen 1989). In Asia,

particularly in India, a similar method was used

by Sukumar (1985, 1989a, 1989b); Easa (1988),

Daniel et al. (1987); and Desai (1991). Coloured

collars (Daniel et al ., 1987), coloured and

notched radio-collars (Dunham 1986), body

painting ( Jones 1975, Rodgers and Elder 1977)

were also used in the study home ranges. The

most successful method, according to several

studies, is radio-telemetry. In Africa, this method

was used by Leuthold and Sale (1973), Leuthold

( 1 977), Douglas-Hamilton and Douglas-Hamilton

(1975) and Dunham (1986). In Asia, this has

been used by Olivier (1978) in Malaysia and by

Desai (1991) in India.

The present study: The data on home

range of elephants for this study was gathered

between 1989 to 1992. Radio-telemetry, though

a better method, was not employed in this study

because of the unfavourable cost/benefit ratio.

The elephants of the study area, due to their

constant interaction with people, had good

chances of getting killed, especially in the

migration range in the state of West Bengal.

This would have defeated the purpose of

collaring. Another important point was, in

fragmented areas it was not difficult to locate the

elephants, once they were out of the forests.

Therefore the home range values calculated

using radio-telemetry data and visual resighting

data would not show a significant difference in

fragmented areas as it does in areas having vast

stretches of forest. However, sightings within the

Sanctuary had limitations because of the

visibility and the home range size could be

underestimated in such situations, for seasonal

ranges. A considerable amount of time is used in

locating the herds, due to the terrain and

undergrowth and the inherent problem of

identifying the herd and then the required

individual. This can be definitely avoided in

radio telemetry.

For the present study, four identified

elephants were selected for the home range

estimation, of which 3 were adult males and one

adult female. The female was named as Long

Cut Ear (LCE), after the deep cut in her longish

ear. The three males had human names : Arjun,

Ganesh and Gabbar and were identified by their

individualistic body characters. The elephants

were tracked on foot, and a record of

resightings, within the DWS and beyond in the

migration and raiding ranges, was maintained.

The sightings were maximum during the summer

months followed by rains and Winter. The

female (LCE) had her accompanying clan whose

number varied from season to season, according

to the number of family units joining or

breaking away. [A clan is considered as a group

of elephants having a coordinated movement and

is believed to be related (Moss 1988).]

All the elephant resighting locations were

digitized along with the map of the study area

with the help of a digitizer pad attached to a

computer. The locations were then analyzed and

the home range sizes and the overlaps were

calculated with the help of a software SEAS

(Spatial Ecology Analysis System) developed by

John Carey, Wisconsin University, U.S.A. All

the home ranges were calculated using the

Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) .method.

Other methods- 95 % Ellipse and Harmonic

Mean Transformation were also experimentally

tried and compared. The choice of MCP over the

other two is discussed in the results.

Home range size: Several techniques have

been developed to analyze the home range of

animals. All these techniques are divided into,

based on statistical considerations, parametric

estimators and non-parametric estimators. The

best and the most extensively and popularly used

non-parametric method, the Minimum Convex

HOME RANGE OF ELEPHANTS IN FRAGMENTED HABITATS

5

Polygon (MCP) (Mohr 4947) is used here to

estimate the size of individual home ranges and

their overlaps, where the 'Convex* is defined as

a figure having no inner angle greater than 180

degrees.

Fidelity to home range: The general

pattern of home ranges was established by the

end of the first year. The following years of

observations were used to check the fidelity of

the known individuals to the over all home range

and the seasonal home range. The crop raiding

areas were visited every year, around the DWS

and the migration range in the state of West

Bengal, to locate the identified individuals.

Results and discussion

Home range size: The home ranges were

estimated using the Minimum Convex Polygon

(MCP) Method (Mohr 1947). The other two

methods, 95 % Ellipse (Jennch and Turner

1969) and Harmonic Mean Estimator (Dixon and

Chapman 1980), were also tried but the

calculated home range projections included areas

like Jamshedpur town and other known

non-elephant areas within their limits.

Comparatively, the MCP method gave very

logical results and the general axis of all the

home ranges was close to what was permitted by

the physical limits of elephant movement. The

home range of the 4 individuals [3 males and 1

of individual years were not plotted as the

number of sightings were inadequate. As such,

all the migratory elephants, including three of

the study individuals, have been expanding their

home range on the eastern side, every year since

1987 till the end of the study in 1992. Therefore,

the observation time-area curve could not reach

an asymptotic value and did not flatten out.

However, the summer ranges did not

increase significantly as the elephants stayed

within the Sanctuary throughout the summer. In

an area like DWS where elephants are moving

out in search of a better habitat, possibly for

colonization, the curve is not expected to

stabilize till the elephants reach a suitable habitat

or can not move further in any direction due to

real physical barriers. The tremendous difference

in the home ranges of the first and the last 3

animals (Table 1) is because the latter (Gabbar,

Table 1

HOME RANGE SIZES OF THE STUDY ANIMALS

Ganesh and LCE) migrated every year to West

Bengal during late rainy season, unlike Arjun

who stayed back in Bihar, and raided crops

Table 2

CALCULATED AND MAXIMUM SUMMER RANGES OF THE STUDY ANIMALS

female (clan)] were defined only for the study locally, in and around the western part of

period of three and half years. The home ranges Dalma Sanctuary. Arjun's home range size falls

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

within the home range sizes exhibited by study

elephants at Mudumalai Sanctuary (Desai 1991)

and by adult bulls in deciduous forests of eastern

ghats (Sukumar 1989). The large overall home

range sizes exhibited by the other three study

animals are similar to those shown by elephants

of Northern Namib Desert region of Kaokoveld

(Viljoen 1989). Home range size normally varies

with the habitat type. However, habitat condition

and environmental factors may influence the

home ranges to a considerable extent especially

Fig. 2. Home range of elephants of Dalma Sanctuary

(Ganesh, Gabbar, LCE, 1989-92).

in fragmented habitats.

Although the migratory elephants (Gabbar,

Ganesh, LCE) did not show significant variation

in the home range 'size, -they utilized the area

within the home range differently in different

years. Fig. 2 shows the overall home range of

these 3 individuals. On the left edge of the map

is the Dalma Sanctuary. None of these 3

elephants ever used the western part of the

Sanctuary (west buffer) or fraided crops in the

area to the west of DWS. On the contrary, Arjun

utilized the western part (west buffer) and the

core area of the Sanctuary extensively and raided

crops only in the area surrounding the west

buffer zone and the area southwest of the

Sanctuary (Fig. 3). The 'Core area' of elephant

usage was not estimated in this study. Similar

studies in south India showed the 'Core area' to

be 21.3% to 36.7% of the total home range, for

the studied individuals (Daniel et al. 1992). In

case of the migratory elephants this might be

more than 75% of the total estimated home

range. The LCE group and other family units

migrating to West Bengal, all totalling about 45

Fig. 3. Home range of elephant of Dalma Sanctuary

(Arjun, 1989-92).

individuals, also showed similar home range

patterns. One group of 12 individuals (two

family units), that stayed back in Bihar

throughout the winter and never migrated to the

east, to Midnapur in West Bengal, but instead

shuttled between the Sanctuary and the Ajodhya

hill in Purulia district of West Bengal.

Factors influencing home range size: All

the individuals studied showed seasonal variation

in ranges. The summer ranges were the smallest

(Table 2) for all the four individuals (Fig. 4).

HOME RANGE OF ELEPHANTS IN FRAGMENTED HABITATS

7

This was because the Chhotaiiagpur Plateau has

extremes of temperature and almost all

waterholes in the buffer zones dry up. The high

ambient temperatures force the elephants to take

refuge in the Sanctuary core which is 55 sq. km

in area. Of this 55 sq. km. only the northern

slopes, which have an area of approximately 35

sq. km, are used on sunny days (most days of

summer) as they are comparatively cooler than

the southern slopes (Table 3) and hold most of

the big waterholes. So effectively elephants were

contained in an area of approximately 35 sq. km

throughout summer.

Table 3

AVERAGE TEMPERATURE AT NOON ON THE

DALMA SLOPES IN SUMMER

They visited the southern slopes of the hill

during night only sporadically when there was

no forest fire, as the exposed rocks on the

southern side gave out heat during the night, and

forest fires only added to the ambient

temperature. So the maximum area of the

summer range could be 55 sq. km, if one

includes the southern slopes where the elephants

made forays only during the summer showers or

overcast conditions with cool winds blowing.

Moreover, there were more number of water

holes on the northern slopes than the southern

slopes. Due to the low tree density on the

southern slopes, there was generation of gaps'

in the forest canopy, which reduced the total

available shade. The bigger the gap the greater

the solar radiation on the forest floor and the

greater the changes in the other facets of

microclimate above and below the ground, from

conditions beneath the closed canopy. Wien

(1985) recorded the microclimatic (temperature)

difference and its influence on the birds and

mammals that showed a marked preference of

study animals to low direct radiation areas in the

extreme climate. The daily variation in the

Fig. 4. Summer range of elephants of Dalma Sanctuary

(Arjun,, Gabbar, Ganesh, LCE, 1989-1992).

ground temperature is much higher in denuded

areas compared to the land under forest. Studies

in Singapore revealed higher temperatures at all

*

depths from 3 to 50 cm in the bare soil, slightly

less under grassland and lowest and the least

variable under forests (Meher-Homji 1991). The

forest fires were more common on the southern

than the northern slopes due to low humidity on

the former as a result of low tree cover and

relatively high grass cover adding to overall

surface temperature.

The summer ranges of Arjun, Gabbar and

LCE did not differ significantly, however,

summer range of Ganesh differed significantly

from the other three. The small summer range of

Ganesh could be because of the territoriality of

8

JOUliNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 92 (1995)

the Big Bulls Arjun and Gabbar (both 35+ age

class), who came into musth during the summer

months. Ganesh being of a younger age class

(18-20) was probably keeping away from the big

bulls in the small core area.

A study in the Mudumalai Sanctuary7

showed that the musth range of the adult bull

overlapped most of the area of its total home

range (Daniel et al. 1992). The musth ranges of

the adult bulls studied during the present

investigation also overlapped and were very

small. However, this was not a problem because

all the adult females in oestrous were present in

the same area.

This small area of 35-55 sq. km was the

only place that offered food to the elephants

during the entire summer. The forest area was

exploited by the elephants to the fullest as there

was little in the agricultural lands around the

sanctuary to supplement their forest diet. At the

end of summer the elephants were in run-down

condition possibly due to low availability of

quality food due to over exploitation of forest

resources. At the onset of the rainy season, the

temperature on the southern slopes dropped due

to the cloud cover, and elephants immediately7

moved to the southern slopes to exploit whatever

grass that was available and also other food tree

species. The bulls moved down to the edges of

the forest as the monsoon progressed and

started raiding paddy. At this point the home

ranges started expanding. The rainy season

ranges were not calculated due to lack of

sufficient sighting locations but could be roughly

estimated to be around 150-200 sq. km. Arjun

moved westward of the Dalma Sanctuary after

the initial foray s on the southern fringe of the

sanctuary : whereas Gabbar, Ganesh and LCE

expanded their ranges on the east, from July

onwards.

Fidelity to home range. The three study

animals (Gabbar, Ganesh, LCE) were located in

the same areas of the western part of their home

range in the succeeding years (summer and rain

range in Bihar). The winter ranges were

expanding throughout the study period and

between the years the locations in the migration

range (winter range) though lying in the same

area changed localities. The reason for this, in

case of the three migratory animals was that

probably the herds and the bulls were chased

randomly by the people and the officials of the

forest department and hence could not reach the

same locality every year in West bengal,

although the general area of visit was same.

Arjun and a family group visiting Ajodhya hills,

maintained absolute fidelity to their home range

in the western- part of the Sanctuary. In Bihar,

the elephants were not chased as they were in

West Bengal and this was one of the reasons for

their fidelity to the home range. Gabbar, Ganesh

and LCE never visited the western part of the

sanctuary that includes western buffer of Dalma

Sanctuary. In fact other family units associated

with LCE also never moved to the western

buffer throughout the study period. Similarly

Arjun and a family group that stayed back in

Bihar (not included in this home range study)

never visited eastern part of Dalma Sanctuary .

Thus even in the face of extreme degradation

and fragmentation (Datye 1993) these study

animals maintained fidelity to their home ranges.

It will be interesting to see what happens to

home ranges of such animals when the sanctuary

is totally unable to support them in future due to

loss of vegetation cover and food species.

Axis of the home range and linear

expansion: The home range of all the elephants

migrating to West Bengal showed aNW-SE axis

to their home range. Arjun showed NE-SW axis

and the Ajodhya group showed a N-S axis. The

linear expansion in home ranges is shown in

Table 4. The linear expansion difference was

statistically insignificant between the years 1988

HOME RANGE OF ELEPHANTS IN FRAGMENTED HABITATS

9

and 1989 but the differences in linear expansion but also point to the fact that the present area of

between 1988 and the years 1990, 1991 were the sanctuary may be a fragment of what was

Table 4

LINEAR EXPANSION IN KM OF HOME RANGES OF THE STUDY ANIMALS

* Past record of the Forest Department.

** Ajodhya hill family group not included in the home range estimation due to lack of sufficient observations. However,

Linear expansion is based on the report from the northern most point of their visit.

statistically very significant.

The expansion of the home range on the

west and north side is insignificant probably

because elephants went to these areas only for

crop raiding and not for exploration of a suitable

habitat. On the other hand, the elephants

expanded their home ranges considerably on the

east, for exploration and search for a better

habitat in the face of rapid degradation of the

DWS, as an extension of their traditional

seasonal range to east of the Sanctuary, in the

west Midnapur area. Such a traditional seasonal

range apparently did not exist in the west of

DWS. The migrant population obviously had a

different strategy than the resident Bihar

population

Home range overlaps with Sanctuary: All

the study individuals showed that a very

significant part of their home ranges lies outside

the DWS. Arjun had 77.29%, Gabbar had

96.95%. Ganesh had 97.47% and LCE 96.45%,

overlap on the agricultural areas outside the

Sanctuary. Even if the agricultural overlap,

calculated using MCP method, is considered to

be much more than the actual area of usage, the

area of the Sanctuary overlap would be -less than

that of the agriculture. These overlaps indicate

not only poor carrying capacity of the sanctuary

once the original habitat of Dalma elephants that

has come under human encroachment.

The knowledge of home range of elephants

in fragmented areas thus throws light on the real

utility of such 'fragments', termed as sanctuaries

in many places, to the elephants and could be

used in knowing the preferred areas of elephants,

for better management.

Acknowledgements

We thank U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service

and Ministry of Environment. Government of

India for funding and sponsoring a five year

study (1988-92) on the Ecology of Elephants of

Dalma Sanctuary and of Central India in general,

under Elephant Ecology Project of BNHS. This

paper is a part of the research work done under

the project of BNHS. We appreciate the help of

A jay Desai in training the first author, in

digitizing maps and in the use of SEAS

program. We also thank the state forest

departments of Bihar, Orissa, and West Bengal

for every help during the study period. We thank

J.C. Daniel, Principal Investigator of the project,

for guidance throughout the period of the project

and for scrutinising the manuscript of this paper.

10

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 92 (1995)

References

Daniel, J. C„ A. A. Desal N. Sivaganesan, & S.

RAMESHKUMAR ( 1 987): The study of some endangered

species of wildlife and their habitats- The Asian

Elephant. Report October 1985 to September 1987.

Bombay Natural History Society.

Daniel, J. C., A. A. Desai, N. Sivaganesan. S. Ramesh

Kumar, & H. S. Datye (1992): Ecology of Indian

elephant. Executive Summary Report. Bombay Natural

History Society.

DATYE, H.S. (1993): Ecology of Asian Elephant (Elephas

maxim us ) in Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar.

Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bombay.

DESAI. A. A. (1991): The home range of elephants and its

implications for the management of the Mudumalai

Wildlife Sanctuary. Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist

Soc. 88(2): 145-156.

Dixon. K. R. & J. A. Chapman (1980): Harmonic mean

measure of animal activity areas. Ecology. 61:

1040-1044.

Douglas-Hamilton. I. (1973): On the ecology and

behaviour of the lake Manvara elephants. E. Afr.

Wild! J. 11: 401- 403.

Douglas-Hamilton. I. & O. Douglas-Hamilton (1975):

Among the elephants. Collins and Harvill Press,

London.

DUNHAM, K. M. (1986): Movements of elephant cows in the

unflooded Middle Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe. Afr. J.

Ecol. 24: 287-291.

Easa. P. S. (1988): Movement pattern of Asiatic elephant

{Elephas maximus ) in Perambikulam Wildlife

Sanctuary. Kerala. Kerala Forest Research Institute.

Research report 54.

Gadgil, Madhav, & V. M. Meher-Homji (1986):

Localities of great Indian significance. Acad

Sci. (Anim. Sci/ plant Sci.) suppl: 165-180.

Hall-Martin, A. J. (1987): Role of musth in the

reproductive strategy of the African elephant

(. Loxodonta africana). S. Afri. J. Sci. 83: 616-620.

JENRICH. R. I. & F. B. TURNER (1969): Measurement of non-

circular home range. J. Theor. Biol. 22: 227-237 .

JONES, D. M. (1975): Elephant rescue in Sri Lanka . Oryx:

185- 190.

Khan, Mohd. Khan bin Momin (1967): Movements of

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patterns of habitat utilization of elephants in Tsavo

National Park. Kenya. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 11: 369-384.

Leuthold. W. (1977a): Spatial organization and strategy

of habitat utilization of elephants in Tsavo National

Park, Kenya. Z. Saugetierkune. 42: 350-379.

Leuthold. W. (1977b): Changes in tree populations of

Tsavo East National Park. Kenya. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 15:

61-69.

MEHER-HOMJI. V. M. (1991 ): The forest link. In: The Hindu

survey of the Environment 1991.

MERZ. G. (1986a): Counting elephants {Loxodonta africana

cyclotis) in tropical rain forests with particular

reference to the Tai National Park, Ivory Coast. Afr. J.

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north American small mammals. Am. midi. Nat. 37:

223-249.

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Chicago Press, Chicago.

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Cambridge.

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elephants in the Luangwa valley, Zambia. J. Wildl.

Manage. 41(1): 56-62.

SUKUMAR. R. (1985): Ecology of the Asian elephant

( Elephas maximus) and its interaction with man in

south India. Ph. D. thesis. Indian Institute of science.

Vol. I and II.

SUKUMAR. R. (1989a): Ecology of the Asian elephant in

southern India, I. Movement and habitat utilisation

patterns. J. Trop. Eco. 5: 1-18.

SUKUMAR, R. (1989b): The Asian elephant : Ecology and

Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

VlLJOEN, P. J. (1989): Spatial distribution and movements of

elephants (Loxodonta africana ) in the northern Namib

Desert region of Kaokoveld, South West

Africa/Namibia. J. Zool. Lond. 219: 1-19.

WlEN, J. A. (1985): Vertebrate responses to environmental

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Wyatt, J. R. & S. K. Eltringham (1974): The daily

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Park, Uganda. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 12: 273-289.

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF BIRD PESTS AND THEIR DIURNAL RHYTHM IN

RIPENING SORGHUM1

B.M. Parasharya, K.L. Mathew and D.N. Yadav2

( With a text-figure)

Key words: bird pest, community, damage, diurnal rhythm, sorghum, species diversity

The species of birds and the maximum number that fed on isolated fields of standing sorghum. Sorghum

vulgare were recorded from 0700 to 1800 hr and their community characters were determined. A total 12

species of birds fed on standing sorghum. The Baya Ploceus philippinus. Rose Finch Carpodacus erythrinus

and Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata constituted 75.22% of the total bird species. The feeding pattern

was bimodal with morning and evening peaks. The density of birds, species richness, their diversity and

evenness were greater during the morning peak as compared to that of the evening. The bird density and

the species richness were extremely low during the noon hours. Therefore it is suggested that morning is

the best time to study the bird community and morning as well as the evening foraging periods are the times

a ripening field requires maximum protection. The estimated percent damage inflicted by birds ranged from

38.54 to 73.93.

Introduction

Sorghum Sorghum vulgare and pearl millet

Pennisetum typhoides are the two important

cereals heavily depredated by birds. Seeds of

these crops are exposed and so attract several

bird species during the entire period of seed

setting to harvesting stage and so suffer heavy

losses.

Bird pests of sorghum have been identified

and the extent of damage to this crop has been

reported in India (Rao and Rao 1953, Perumal et

al. 1971, Mehrotra and Bhatnagar 1979,

Santhaiah et al. 1983, Dhindsa et al. 1984,

Dodia et al. 1989) and elsewhere (Manikowski

and Da Camara-Smeets 1979, Brugger 1980).

Dhindsa et al. (1984) reported on the bird

community structure of sorghum and pearl millet

at Ludhiana and estimated the damage inflicted

by them. However, there exists no information

Accepted September 1992.

All India Coordinated Research Project on Agricultural

Ornithology, Gujarat Agricultural University,

Anand 388 110. Gujarat.

on the diurnal rhythm of the feeding activity of

pest birds on any of the crops. This paper deals

with the diurnal feeding rhythm of pest birds on

sorghum grown in isolation and the extent of

damage caused by the pests. It is necessary to

know the diurnal rhythm of bird communities

associated with cereal crops at their ripening

stage since it would be useful in evolving and

employing different control strategies and

methods. Such knowledge on the timing of bird

activities in crop fields would be helpful in

designing studies on the population dynamics of

birds in ripening cereal fields too.

Materials and Methods

This study of the diurnal rhythm on the

feeding activity of birds damaging sorghum

Sorghum vulgare was carried out at the college

farms of Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand

(22° 32’ N, 73° 00’ E) from 20 November to 10

December 1984. The observations were recorded

from 1330 to 1800 hr on a day and were

followed up on the next day from 0700 to 1330

hr to complete one day cycle. During the study

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 92 (1995)

period, sunrise was at 0705 hr and 0720 hr on

20 November and 10 December whereas sunset

was at 1800 hr and 1802 hr respectively. The

maximum temperature ranged between 29.5 and

33.6° C and minimum temperature ranged

between 8.5 and 17.5 C. The maximum

UJ

o

z

UJ

a 10

8 of-

C_

O

r

Blossomheaded Parakeet

/

Fig. 1. Diurnal rhythm in the feeding activity of

granivorous birds in sorghum fields.

number of birds feeding on grains were recorded

during even 30 minutes block. The results are

based on seven days observations recorded on 3

different fields (0.10-0.55 ha area). The birds

were identified and counted using 7 x 30

binoculars from at least 2.0 m height above

ground. The species diversity (H') and evenness

of the species (J) were determined using Zar's

(1974) method. Sorghum was the only cereal

crop grown, mainly as fodder. During the study

period, other cultivated crops were Tobacco

Nicotiana tabacum , Sugarcane Saccharum

offtcinarum , Pigeon-pea Cajanus cajan and

Cotton Gossypium hirsutum.

The damage caused by birds was estimated

by moving across the field from one end to the

other in a zigzag fashion. After an equal distance

of walking, the earheads touching the 1 m stick

raised at breast height were considered for

estimating the damage. All the earheads were cut

and brought to the laboratory. Besides working

out the percentage of earheads damaged, overall

damage was also calculated by counting the total

number of seeds present and those missing in the

earheads damaged by the birds. Parakeets cut the

earheads, the number of seeds missing were

extrapolated from the average number of seeds

per earhead.

Results and Discussion

A total of 12 species of birds were1

identified feeding on sorghum grains during the

study. Only 7 species occurred in fairly large

numbers and showed definite feeding pattern

(Fig. 1 and Table 1), whereas the remaining

Table 1

RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF BIRDS FEEDING ON

SORGHUM AND THEIR COMMUNITY

CHARACTERISTICS

species were only few in number. The three

major species, the Baya Ploceus philippinus ,

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF BIRD PESTS

13

Rose Finch Carpodacus erythrinus and Spotted

Munia Lonchura punctulata constituted 75.22%

of the total birds counted. Species diversity (H')

of the birds encountered in the field and its

evenness (J) were 0.791 and 0.739 respectively.

All the birds started feeding soon after sunrise

and stopped completely after sunset.

The Baya fed mainly from 0700-0900 hr

and from 1630-1800 hr. There was absolutely no

activity between 1300 and 1530 hr. They roosted

in nearby sugarcane field and a few individuals

intermittently fed between 0900 and 1300 hr.

The feeding activity of the Rose Finch was

recorded throughout the day but the peak activity

was from 0700-1030 hr and 1630-1700 hr. The

Spotted Munia and Blackheaded Bunting

Emberiza melanocephala also showed a similar

pattern of foraging as that of the Rose Finch.

The finches and buntings took shelter in the

adjoining Pigeon pea field during hours of the

day and from there, a few birds visited the field

occasionally. Feeding hours of the Roseringed

Parakeet Psittacula krameri and Blossomheaded

Parakeet P. cyanocephala were restricted in the

morning between 0700 and 0930 or 1000 hr; it

was much shorter in the evening. The Redvented

Bulbul Pvcnonotus cafer also showed bimodal

feeding pattern.

The results incorporated in Table 2 show

that the feeding pattern of birds associated with

the sorghum field is bimodal with high activities

during the morning and evening hours. However,

when the species richness, diversity (H') and

evenness (J) were compared, it was maximum

between 0700 and 1000 hr (morning peak) as

compared to that of 1600 to 1800 hr (evening

peak). When the species richness was considered

it was poor between 1030 to 1530 hr. But as the

species richness, diversity and evenness were

taken into account, it is obvious that the avian

activities in the field were at a minimum from

1230 to 1430 hr. Since the highest number of

species was 5 and the evenness of species was

nearer to 1 during the noon hours, it was

concluded that only a few species were present

in the field during that time of the day and their

numbers were almost even. But the bird density

was the least (Fig.l). Therefore the field did not

require much protection against birds at this time

and also this was not the right time to study and

conduct bird census. On the contrary, the

number of species observed was the maximum

during the morning peak with greater values of

diversity and evenness even to that of the

evening peak. Thus it could be considered that

the morning hours between 0700 to 1000 hr as

the best time to study the bird community in a

ripening sorghum field. Moreover, this is the

period of the day together with the evening peak

period during which a field requires maximum

protection against bird pests to make the scaring

more effective and economical.

Peak feeding hours of the birds may change

with the season and changing day length period.

The birds are seasonal breeders and hence higher

food requirement during such periods may

influence their feeding rhythm. Therefore, it is

essential that the diurnal feeding pattern of birds

is determined in all the seasons so -that right

scaring time could be determined. Several

behavioural and physiological functions follow

circadian rhythms. Consequently the feeding

activity of many of the birds exhibits a bimodal

pattern with peaks in the morning and evening.

The morning peak may be for making up the

deficiencies built up during the previous night of

starvation whereas the evening peak for enabling

the bird to store energy in surplus for the

coming night (Gwinner 1975).

Among the 12 species recorded damaging

sorghum in the present study, a few have already

been reported from other parts of the country

(Bhatnagar et al. 1982, Santhaiah et al. 1983,

Dhindsa et al. 1984) the Redvented Bulbul and

14

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Table 2

DIURNAL VARIATIONS IN THE COMMUNITY CHARACTERS OF BIRDS FEEDING ON SORGHUM

three species of babblers namely Large Grey

Babbler Turdoides malcolmi , Jungle Babbler T.

stricitus and Common Babbler T. caudatus are

being reported for the first time. Earlier Toor

and Saini (1986) had analysed the gut of Large

Grey Babbler at Ludhiana and reported grams of

wheat Triticmn aestivum and paddy Oryza

sativa , however, the grams of sorghum were not

recovered from the gut and its status as a pest of

standing crop was not established. As in the

present study, the Whitethroated Munia

Lonchura malcibarica has already been observed

damaging sorghum from Andhra Pradesh

(Perumal et al. 1971, Santhaiah et al 1983) and

Punjab (Dhindsa et al. 1984). The Rose Finch

and Blackheaded Bunting as well as Redheaded

i

Bunting Emberiza brunniceps are winter

migrants whereas the remaining species are

residents.

The present report of damage estimation

was only on crops grown under isolated

condition. Though the extent of damage varied

from 38.54% to 73.93% with variation in the

extent of damage depending on certain

environmental factors (Mathew et al. 1991).

Such high degree of damage was mainly

attributed either to the isolated condition or

leaving the fields unwatched. The identification

of bird pests and the extent of damage due to

them to sorghum have been done in other parts

of the country (Rao and Rao 1953, Perumal et

al. 1971, Santhaiah et al. 1983, Dhmdsa et al

1984, Mehrotra and Bhatnagar 1979, Dodia et

al. 1989). Most of these studies including the

present one deal with the estimation of damage

in a small area under isolated condition if not

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF BIRD PESTS

15

mentioned otherwise, and hence do not represent Acknowledgement

the nature or extent of damage caused by birds We are grateful to the ICAR for financial

to sorghum in general. assistance.

References

Bhatnagar, R.K.. K.P. Srivastava, N.P. Agnihotri,

M.Ci. Jotwani & V.T. CiAJBfflYA (1982): Efficiency of

some bird repellent in sorghum at maturity stage of

crop. pp. 224-226. In: Management of Problem Birds

in Aviation and Agriculture. R.A. Agarwal & R.K.

Bhatnagar (eds.), Indian Agricultural Research

Institute, New Delhi.

BRUGGER, R.L. (1980): The situation of grain-eating birds

in Somalia. Proc. Vertebrate Pest Conference 9: 5-16.

Fresno, California.

Dhindsa, M.S., H.S. Toor & P.S. Sandhu (1984):

Community structure of birds damaging pearl millet

and sorghum and estimation of grain loss. Indian J.

Ecol. 11(1): 154-159.

Dodia, J.F., B.M. Parasharya & D.N. Yadav (1989):

Black Drongo feeding on sorghum grain. Pavo 27: 75.

GwiNNER, E. (1975): Circadian and circannual rhythms in

birds. In: Avian Biology Vol. 5. D.S. Farner and J.R.

King (eds.). Academic Press, New York.

Manikowski, S. & Da Camara- Smeets (1979): Estimating

bird damage to sorghum and millet in Chad. J. Wildl.

Manage. 43(2): 540-544.

Mathew, K.L., B.M. Parasharya, J.F. Dodia & D.N.

YADAV (1991): Environmental factors augmenting

bird damage to cereals. Communicated to Wildlife

Society Bulletin.

Mehrotra, K.N. & R.K. Bhatnagar (1979): Status of

Economic Ornithology in India. ICAR, New Delhi.

Perumal, R.S., T.R. Subramaniam& P.L. David (1971 ):

Studies on the birds visiting CSH - I. Sorghum and

the extent of bird damage. Andhra Agric. J. 18: 205-

207.

RAO, S.B.P. & D.V.N. Rao (1953): Bird damage in jo war.

Madras Agric. J. 40: 466-467.

Santhaiah, N., N. Shivanarayan & T.G. Manmohan

SlNGH (1983): Bird pests of sorghum and losses

associated with their damage. Indian J. Plant Prot. 11:

115-117.

Toor, H.S. & M.S. Saini (1986): Feeding ecology of the

large grey babbler T urdoides malcolmi. Proceedings of

Indian Acad. Sci. (Anim. Sci.) 95(4): 429-436.

Zar, J.H. (1974): Biostatistical Analysis. Prentice Hall,

Engelwood Cliffs, New Jersey.

STATUS, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSERVATION OF THE TRAVANCORE

TORTOISE, INDOTESTUDO FORSTENII IN WESTERN GHATS1

S. Bhupathy2 and B.C. Choudhury1

(With two plates and a text-figure)

Key words: Indotestudo forstenii, Travancore tortoise. Western Ghats, endemic species, conservation

This paper reports the status and distribution of the Travancore tortoise. Indotestudo forstenii based on

a field survey conducted in the Western Ghats of Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu between 21 October

and 30 December 1991 . The survey identified strongholds of the Travancore tortoise and the several causes

for its decline. The paper also describes tortoise habitat, morphometry, utilization by tribalsand conservation

problems.

Introduction

Indotestudo forstenii , commonly known as

the Travancore tortoise is distributed in the

semievergreen and evergreen forests of the

Western Ghats. India. Two populations of this

species have been established, one in Western

Ghats and the other in Sulawesi Islands,

Indonesia (Moll 1989). However, the latter

population is considered to have been introduced

from India and hence, this species should be

considered as endemic to India. Groombndge

(1982) classified this chelonian as 'insufficiently

known' in the Red Data Book (1982) of the

International Union for Conservation of Nature

and natural resources (IUCN). It is included in

the second category of the Action plan rating of

IUCN which implies that this species is little

known and has restricted distribution (Stubbs

1989). Published information on Travancore

tortoise's natural history is scanty and cover only

a few aspects such as: distribution, general

biology (Smith 1931, Daniel 1983, Moll 1989)

’Accepted June 1993.

Salim All Centre tor Ornithology and Natural History,

Kalampalayam. Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 010.

3Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box No. 18, Chandrabani,

Dehra Dun 248 001. U.P.

and taxonomy (Hoogmoed and Crumly 1984).

This paper deals with the distribution, status,

habitat, exploitation by tribals and conservation

problems of Travancore tortoise.

Methods

Study area: The study was carried out in

the Western Ghats in the states of Karnataka,

Tamil Nadu and Kerala from 21 October to 30

December 1991. Altogether, 11 protected areas

were surveyed, namely three in Karnataka, four

in Tamil Nadu and four in Kerala (Fig. 1). They

are Nena Estate, Sharavati and Mookambika

wildlife sanctuaries, in Karnataka; Mudumalai

and Indira Gandhi (formerly Anaimalai) wildlife

sanctuaries, Mundanthurai-Kalakad Tiger

Reserve and Kothaiyar reserve forest in Tamil

Nadu and Nevyar, Peppara Peechi-Vazhani and

Parambikulam wildlife sanctuaries in Kerala.

Survey methods included searching in

probable habitats and inquiring in tribal

settlements and forest camps. The following

measurements were taken using a dial vernier

calipers: straight line carapace length (SCL),

carapace width (CW), plastron length (PL) and

shell height (SH). Live specimens were weighed

(M) to the nearest gram using a spring balance.

Also, information on forest type, micro habitat

)

THE TRAVANCORE TORTOISE, INDOTESTUDO FORSTENII

17

Fig. 1. Distribution of Travancore tortoise in the Western Ghats.

and elevation were noted.

Results and Discussion

Identity: The overall coloration of the

Travancore tortoise is yellow with one black

blotch on each scute of the carapace (Plate la)

and plastron. Hatchlings and juveniles are brown

and devoid of black markings. Skin around the

eyes and nostril become pink during breeding

season (Auffenburg 1964). The closest relative

of the Travancore tortoise is the Elongated

tortoise, Indotestudo elongata which is

distributed in the sal (Shorea rokusta) forests of

the north and northeast India. The Travancore

tortoise differs from Elongated tortoise in

lacking the cervical (nuchal) shield and length of

the interpectoral seam. The length of the

interpectoral seam is shorter than the

interhumeral seam in Travancore tortoise (Smith

1931). However, the lack of cervical shield is

not always true as one individual was recorded

with cervical shield during the present

survey. This tortoise grows up to 33.1 cm

18

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Table 1

KNOWN LOCALITY RECORDS OF TRAVANCORE TORTOISE IN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

(Das 1991).

Distribution: Shells or live specimens of

Travancore tortoise were recorded in six out of

11 localities surveyed (Fig. 1). They were,

Neyyar, Peppara, Peechi-Vazhani and

Parambikulam wildlife sanctuaries in Kerala and,

Indira Gandhi wildlife sanctuary and Kothaiyar

teserve forest in Tamil Nadu. Also, during the

survey specimens collected from Neria forest,

Sharavati and Mookambika wildlife sanctuaries

in Karnataka by B.K. Sharath were examined.

The known distribution of this species is

Travancore hills of Kerala and Coorg of

Karnataka (Smith 1931, Daniel 1983, Moll 1989,

Das 1991). Even though the distribution of this

species is known as Travancore hills and Coorg,

precise locality records are scanty. Additional

records of this species are Kothaiyar reserve

forest, Peppara, Neyyar and Peechi wildlife

sanctuaries. Updated and precise information on

the distribution of the Travancore tortoise are

given in Table 1.

Status: In all, 32 Travancore tortoises were

recorded during the present survey of which

seven were seen live in the wild and, .17 live

tortoises and eight shells were found in various

tribal settlements and forest villages (Table 2).

Approximately 17 to 31 hours were spent in

actual searching for tortoises in wild and in

tribal settlements in each locality surveyed. A

maximum of 12 tortoises were recorded in

Kothaiyar reserve forests and more than one

tortoise in all localities except Indira Gandhi

wildlife sanctuary. The number of live tortoises

or shells obtained per man hour work during

field surveys were 0.04 in Kothaiyar reserve

forest and Peechi-Vazhani wildlife sanctuary and

0.07 in Parambikulam wildlife sanctuary (Table

2). Even though, no wild tortoises were recorded

in Peppara and Neyyar wildlife sanctuaries, the

number of specimens obtained in tribal

settlements were high (7 and 4 tortoises

respectively). Travancore tortoises are assumed

to be uncommon in these areas. Moll (1989)

found this tortoise to be common to Chalakudi

forests, adjacent to Parambikulam wildlife

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92 Plate 1

Bhupathy & Choudhury: Status of Travancore tortoise

a. Travancore tortoise, Indotestudo forstenii. b. Moist deciduous forests of the southern Western Ghats.

These forests still hold Fairly good populations of the Travancore tortoise.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92

Bhupathy & Choudhury: Status of Travancore tortoise

Plate 2

a. A close view of the diurnal retreat of Travancore tortoise, b. Tortoises kept

by the Kani tribals of the Western Ghats for future utilization.

THE TRAVANCORE TORTOISE, INDOTESTUDO FORSTENII

19

Table 2

STATUS OF TRAVANCORE TORTOISE IN SOME PROTECTED AREAS OF THE WESTERN GHATS

Note: I. Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary; II. Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary; III. Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary;

IV. Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary; V. Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary; VI. Kothaiyar Wildlife Sanctuary.

sanctuary (0.175 tortoise/ man hour work).

The Travancore tortoise has been recorded

in ten sanctuaries, one Tiger Reserve and five

reserve forests. The occurrence of the

Travancore tortoise in many other protected

areas of western ridges of the Western Ghats is

not ruled out. The Protected Areas (i.e.

sanctuary, national park and tiger reserve) in

which the Travancore tortoises have been

Protected Areas would certainly help in the

survival of this species.

Habitat: The Travancore tortoise was

recorded in a variety of forest types such as,

moist deciduous (Plate lb), semievergreen and

rubber plantations at elevations 100-800 m above

sea level. The tortoise utilized rock crevices

(burrows) at ground level, cavities in fallen trees

(Plate 2a), leaf litter and bushes as diurnal

i 3

HABITAT DESCRIPTION OF TRAVANCORE TORTOISE BASED ON WILD CAUGHT TORTOISES

recorded cover a total area of about 3900 sq. km

in addition to six reserve forests. The ecological

habitat of tortoise (i.e. habitat with actual

distribution of the tortoise) such as evergreen or

semievergreen and moist deciduous forests is

very small. Hence, improved protection in

retreats (Table 3). The tortoises recorded during

the present survey were mostly near water, i.e. 5

- 200 m (Table 3).

Morphometry: Seven tortoises were

recorded in the wild and, 17 live tortoises and 8

shells in tribal settlements during the survey.

20

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

The largest specimen recorded was a female with

SCL 270 mm and mass (M) 2600 gm (Table 4).

It is a general belief that the number of rings on

the carapace or plastral scutes of a turtle or

tortoise are correlated with its age. SCL (size)

and number of annular rings on the

pi astral/carapace scutes did not show a

significant relationship (r=0.365, p>0.05, n=23).

Hence, it appears that this belief is fallacious or

it may be true for young tortoise up to

approximately 10 years.

Malayanmar in Peechi-Vazhani wildlife

sanctuary and 3. Kadars in Parambikulam and

Indira Gandhi wildlife sanctuaries. All used

tortoises as pets, food, and medicine. Kanis call

this tortoise 'vengala ama' (=brass turtle) or 'kal

ama' (=stone turtle), whereas Malayanmar and

Kadars used the name 'chural ama' (=cane

turtle). Among the tribals of the surveyed

Western Ghats, the Kanis utilised the Travancore

tortoise most extensively. They keep them

as pets by drilling a hole in one of the

Table 4

MORPHOMETRY OF WILD-CAUGHT TRAVANCORE TORTOISES. MASS (M) IN GRAM (GM) AND OTHER

MORPHOMETRY MEASUREMENTS IN MM

Sex ratio: Over all, the population of the

tortoise had a sex ratio of 1:5 (male: female,

n=19). Of 32 shells and live tortoises recorded

during the survey, 7 had an SCL less than 100

mm and were considered as juvenile and in

another 6, only the carapace was obtained and

hence sex was not ascertained. Available studies

in western countries show that most tortoises

have a sex ratio of 1 : 1 (Auffenburg and Iverson

1979). Information of the sex ratio is not

available for Indian species. From this limited

data, it may be stated that the sex ratio is

skewed towards females in the Travancore

tortoise.

Utilisation: Three major tribal communities

were examined during the present survey: 1.

Kanis or Kanikaran in Kothaiyar reserve forest,

Neyyar and Pep para wildlife sanctuaries, 2.

posterior marginals, at times tying three or more

tortoises together on with a string (Plate 2b).

They also use powder of the charred shell mixed

with oil as a cure for external injuries and

rashes. The tribals believe that the blood and

meat of the tortoise cure stomach ailments,

ulcers and piles. The consumption of tortoises as

food by Kadar and Hill Pandaram tribals of the

Western Ghats has already been reported (Moll

1989).

Conservation: Habitat destruction by timber

operations, cane collection and exploitation by

tribals are some of the factors causing the

present rarity and sparse distribution of this

species. In almost all Travancore tortoise areas,

hydroelectric projects or reservoirs were

recorded causing habitat alteration and

fragmentation.

THE TRAVANCORE TORTOISE , INDOTESTUDO FORSTENII

21

The Travancore tortoise is listed as

'vulnerable' in IUCN Red Data Book, whereas it

is included only in the Schedule IV of the Indian

Wildlife Protection Act 1972. Even though

Travancore tortoises are common in some areas,

considering the fast disappearing evergreen and

semievergreen forests and anthropogenic

pressure, and being an endemic to the Western

Ghats, additional legal protection is

recommended.

The capture of tortoises by tribals should be

controlled. Legal and illegal operations such as

timber cutting, cane and honey collection should

be checked in tortoise habitat. The loss of

evergreen and semievergreen forests from

developmental projects within the Travancore

tortoise's distribution range should be reviewed.

Studies on various aspects of ecology of this

turtle is urgently needed. This would help not

only in scientific management of the Protected

Areas, but will also help in the continued

survival of this species.

Acknowledgements

This study is a part of the collaborative

project of the Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra

Refer

Auffenburg, W.. (1964): A first record of breeding colour

change in a tortoise. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61(1):

191-192.

Auffenburg, W. & J.B. Iverson (1979): Demography of

terrestrial turtles. In: Turtles Perspectives and Research.

(M. Harless and H. Morlock, eds.), John Willey & Sons,

New York, pp. 541-569.

Daniel, J.C. (1983): The book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay, pp. 141.

Das, I. (1991): Colour guide to the turtles and tortoises of the

Indian subcontinent. R & A Publishing Limited, Avon,

England, pp. 133.

Groombridge, B. (1982): The IUCN Amphibia-Reptilia Red

Data Book. Part I. Testudines, Crocodilia,

Rhyncocephalia. IUCN, Gland, pp. 426.

Hoogmoed, M.S. & C.R. Crumly (1984): Land tortoise types

in the Rijksmuseum van Natuurliike Historie with

Dun, and US Fish & Wildlife Service, on

freshwater turtle and land tortoises sponsored by

the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt,

of India. We express our sincere thanks to the

Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife) of the

States of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka for

necessary permission. The field officers of the

survey areas in these states were very

cooperative and helpful. Mr. K.S. Appukuttan,

Research Assistant, Kerala Forest Department

arranged logistics to conduct the survey in

Parambikulam wildlife sanctuary. Thanks are

due to Nitin D. Rai and Mr. Hebbar for offering

hospitality when the survey team was in

Bangalore and Neria respectively conducting

surveys in the Western Ghats of Karnataka. Mr.

B.K. Sharath of Mangalore kindly allowed us to

examine his tortoise collections from

Mookambika, Sharavati wildlife sanctuaries and

Neria reserve forest. We are grateful to Mr. J.C.

Daniel, Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay and Dr. Edward Moll, advisor to the

WII-USFWS Turtle and Tortoise Conservation

Project, Dehra Dun for going through earlier

drafts of this paper and comments. Mr. Justus

Joshua, Senior Research Fellow, WII helped in

the preparation of the map.

ENCES

comments on Nomenclature and systematics (Reptilia:

Testudines: Testudinidae). Zool. Meded. Leiden 58(15):

241-259.

Moll, E.O. (1989): Indotestudo forstenii, Travancore tortoise.

In: The conservation biology of tortoises. (I.R. Swingland

& M.W. Klemens, eds.) occ. paper, IUCN/SSC No. 5:

119-120.

Sharath, B.K. (1990): On the occurrence of the forest cane

turtle ( Geoemyda sylvatica ) in Western Ghats of

Karnataka, South India. Hamadryad 15(1): 34.

Smith, M.A. (1931): The Fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. I

Loricata, Testudines. Taylor and Francis, London, pp.

185.

Stubbs, D. (1989): Tortoises and freshwater turtles: An action

plan for their conservation. IUCN, Gland, pp. 48.

ON THE MORPHOLOGY, ADVERTISING CALL AND HABITAT OF THE BUSH

FRO G PHILAUTUS LEUCORHINUS (LICHTENSTEIN AND MARTENS, 1856)1

Aloysius G. Sekar2

( With a text-figure)

Key words: Philautus leucorhimis , morphometry, call sequence, habitat

The information on the morphometry and ecology of the Bush frog Philautus leucorhinus (Lichtenstein

and Martens. 1856) is meagre. The species was studied for their mating call and the habitat, in Goa during

the monsoon in 1989. A total of 24 individuals were collected to study morphometry. Statistical relationship

between different morphometric parameters was analysed. There was significant positive correlation between

Snout-Vent length and Tibia length. The time taken for call sequence was also analysed. The individuals

of the Bush frog used various microhabitats of shrubs while making their mating call.

Introduction

The genus Philautus (Family

Rhacophoridae: Amphibia) comprises of small

robust frogs which are usually 2-3 cm in snout-

vent length. Species of this genus live in shrubs

and low vegetation in tropical rain forest,

sometimes quite far from water (Liem 1970).

They appear only in the monsoon season. Due to

their elusiveness information on their

morphometry and ecology is meagre. Some

Indian species of this genus have been described

by Boulenger (1890) and Inger et al. (1984)

with very little morphometric details. McCann

(1932) provided some details on the call and

habitat of species Philautus bombayensis.

However, the literature on this group is

negligible. In 1989 about 24 adult males of

Philautus leucorhinus were collected from Goa

forests (Volpoi-15, Molem-6 and Canacona-3)

during the monsoon. This species has been

recorded in India from Goa, Karnataka and

Kerala states along the Western Ghats (Sekar

1991). This paper describes the morphology.

'Accepted September 1993.

2Bombay Natural History Society. Hornbill House.

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk. Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg.

Bombay 400 023.

statistical relationship between the morphometric

parameters, advertising call and habitat of the

bush frog Philautus leucorhinus.

Materials and Methods

The frogs were collected from shrubs when

they were making advertising call at night. They

were preserved in 10% formalin. About 24 adult

males were preserved. The call was recorded

with the help of a micro cassette recorder. To

measure the morphometric characters a dial

vernier (least count 0.05 mm) was used. Some

of the morphometric variables were compared

with each other. Statistical analysis such as

correlation coefficient (r) and regression

equation (Y=mX + C) were done.

Results

Morphology: (a) Diagnosis: Small sized

frog; adult male measured up to 29.45 mm in

snout to vent length, average 26.96 mm (Table

1). Snout pointed projecting beyond the mouth.

Nostrils nearer to tip of the snout than the eye.

Tympanum distinct, almost half the diameter of

the eye. Interorbital space broader than the width

of upper eyelid. First finger shorter than second;

fingers with a slight rudiment of web. Toes 2/3

HABITAT OF THE BUSH FROG PHILAUTUS LEUCORHINUS

23

Table 1

THE MEASUREMENTS (IN MM) OF 24 ADULT MALES OF Philautus leucorhinus COLLECTED FROM GOA

webbed. Tips of fingers and toes dilated into

disc; the disc with circum -marginal groove.

Tibio-tarsal articulation reaches tympanum or

posterior border of the eye. Heels touch each

prominent.

Skin smooth above; a raised median line

from the tip of the snout to the vent; belly,

under side of thigh and around vent granular; a

Fig. 1. Dorsal side of Philautus leucorhinus with different markings.

other when legs are folded at right angles to the

body. Sub-articular tubercles of fingers and toes

moderate. Inner metatarsal tubercle small and

fold from the eye to the shoulder.

(b) Colour: The upper surface was light

brown. A dark band below the canthus rostralis

24

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 92 (1995)

and on the temporal region. The upper eyelids

and the interorbital width darker than the body.

An arch, one on each side of the back, joined at

Some of them were located inside curled dry

leaves and also small cavities in the stems.

Males have a single vocal sac which was like a

Table 2

STATISTICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIFFERENT MORPHOMETRIC PARAMETERS IN

Philautus leucorhinus (N=24, df=2)

* Not significant

interorbital width varies in the pattern (Fig. 1).

T^ms in forelimbs, femur and thighs in

hindlimbs are barred. Throat dotted with brown.

(c) Morphometric relationship:

Morphometric measurements such as snout-vent

length (SV length), tibia length, head length,

foot length, diameter of eye, diameter of

tympanum, head width and interorbital space

were taken and the relationships between these

parameters were analysed statistically. Results of

analysis (Table 2) indicated that there was

significant positive correlation between SV

length and Tibia length (r=0.8, P<0.001), Tibia

length and foot length (r=0.728, P<0.001) and

diameter of eye and diameter of tympanum

(r=0.59, PO.Ol) whereas the positive correlation

between head length and foot length, and SV

length and head length are not significant at

P<0.1 level.

Advertising call: The advertising or

breeding call of this species was recorded and

studied. The frogs occupied different parts of the

shrubs from which they relayed their call. They

sat on the stems, branches and leaves in various

positions, including the snout towards land and

sticking upside down on the back of the leaves.

bubble when it was fully inflated. Though the

call is usually heard in chorus, the call of

individuals was also recorded.

The call can be syllabilized as

'trek.... trek.... trek... trekkkktak tak tak\ This

makes one call sequence. To find out the

average time taken for a call sequence, 10

sequences were observed. The time ranged from

8.64 to 43.74 seconds. On an average, each call

sequence lasts for 21.41 seconds (Table 3). The

duration of the sequence was dependent on

Table 3

DATA ON THE TIME (IN SECONDS) TAKEN FOR A

CALL SEQUENCE (N=10) AND TIME INTERVAL

BETWEEN TWO 'TREK IN A SEQUENCE (N=25)

number of 'trek' made by the frog during the

call. The frog remained silent after it vocalised

each 'tretf. The time interval between the two

'trek' calls was calculated from 25

HABITAT OF THE BUSH FROG PHILAUTUS LEUCORHINUS

25

observations. The frog remained silent for 3.62

seconds on an average after each 'trek' in the

sequence. They were very wary of intruders.

They stop calling even at the slightest movement

or disturbance.

Habitat: All the frogs were collected from

shrubs of 2-3 m height in the moist deciduous

forests and also in non-forested areas with

shrubs. They were seen sitting on stem, branches

on and under the leaves. No specimen was seen

on the ground. They were collected far from the

water. All frogs were caught guided by their

call, so there was no female in the collection.

Discussion

The adult male frogs averaged 26.96 mm in

snout-vent length. Boulenger (1890) recorded the

length as 33 mm (1.3 inches) and Kirtisinghe

(1957) has recorded it as 31 mm from specimens

collected in Sri Lanka. But none of them

mentioned the sex of the frog. The female may

be a little larger in size than the male. Inger et

al. (1984) have recorded the females as bigger

than the males in all Philantus species collected

by them at Ponmudi. The relationship between

the different morphological measurements of

Philautus leucorhinus was found to be positive

especially the SV length and tibia length. Tibia

length and foot length shows a high positive

correlation.

The pattern of the call is totally different

from that of its related species Philautus

bombayensis which can be syllabilised a 'tik tik

tik'. The observation on the frogs calling sitting

in face down position is supported by McCann's

(1932) observation on Philautus bombayensis.

He described that being a tree frog this species

generally rests on the bark of trees and bush in

facing down position. In this position the large

vocal sac is inflated to its maximum. All frogs

were picked up from shrubs and none from the

ground. Inger et al (1984) have described the

habitat of some related species P. charius , P.

femoralis , P. signatus and P. temporalis. Among

these species only P. femoralis was collected

only from shrubs, the specimens of other species

were collected from various microhabitats such

as shrubs, on the surface of dead leaves on the

ground, beneath logs, on the bare soil surface

and on rocks. Though the frogs were seen

calling, their breeding behaviour and egg laying

behaviour are yet to be studied.

Acknowledgements

I thank Mr. J.C. Daniel, former Director of

BNHS, for encouragement during the study and

reading the manuscript. I thank Vithoba Hegde

who accompanied me during the field trip. I also

thank Forest Department of Goa for their kind

cooperation during the field trip.

References

BOULENGER, (LA. (1890): The fauna of British India

including Ceylon and Burma. Taylor and Francis.

London xvi+541 pp.

Inger, R.F., H.B. Shaffer, M. Koshy & R. Bakde (1984):

A report on a collection of amphibians and reptiles

from the Ponmudi, Kerala. South India. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 81: 551-570.

Kirtisinghe, P. (1957): The Amphibia of Ceylon. William

Clowes and Sons limited.’ London and Beccles.

xii+1 12 pp.

LlEM, S.S. (1970): The morphology, systematics &

evolution of the old world tree frogs (Rhacophoridae

and Hyperoliidae). Fieldiana Zoology 57: vii+145 pp.

McCann, C. (1932): Notes on Indian Batrachians. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 152-180.

SEKAR, A.G. (1991): Distribution of the amphibian fauna of

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88: 125-127.

MATING BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN GREY MONGOOSE HERPESTES

EDWARDSII EDWARDSII GEOFFROY1

Jagathpala Shetty, Gunapala Shetty and S.R. Kanakaraj2

( With a text-figure )

Key words: Mongoose, mating behaviour

A study of copulatory behaviour of the grey mongoose Herpestes edwardsii edwardsii, was made

in captivity on 5 adult mongooses consisting of 2 males and 3 females. Both true and false mountings

were recorded, in which the mountings occurred between the members of same sex or opposite sex.

In the latter case, mounting between a dominant male and a dominant female usually resulted in true

mounting and it lasted from 50 to 150 sec. The maximum frequency of mounting between a dominant

male and a dominant female coincided with the oestrus of the female. The general pattern of

mounting observed is compared with other species of mongooses. The role of heterosexual mounting

in sexual orientation in their social behaviour is discussed.

Introduction

The courtship and mating behaviour has a

close correlation with the social habit of animals

and their social integration. In carnivores,

generally pairing is not a temporary affair, in

which sexually motivated individuals meet,

copulate and part. In some cases it is a prelude

to a partnership in which the male as well as the

female will have parental responsibilities lasting

till the young become self-supporting. Among

viverrids the reproductive behaviour has been

described in a relatively few species, which

show that there is considerable diversity within

the family (Ewer 1973). The members of

herpestinae, a subfamily under Viverridae,

comprising exclusively of mongooses, have

received moderate attention with respect to their

reproductive behaviour and parental care and the

investigations are restricted to observations in

captivity (Ducker 4960, Zannier 1965, Neal

1970, Ewer 1973, Rasa 1973a, b, 1977; Rood

1980, Jacobsen 1982). However there is no

’Accepted June 1994.

2Department of Studies in Zoology, University of Mysore.

Manasagangotri. Mysore 570 006, Karnataka.

scientific data available on the mating behaviour

of Indian Grey mongoose Herpestes edwardsii

edwardsii. In this paper we have made a

comprehensive study on the reproductive

behaviour of grey mongoose in captivity.

Materials and Methods

The grey mongooses used in the study

consisted of 5 adult individuals: 2 males and 3

females captured in semiurban surroundings

around the city of Mysore. The animals were

housed in 4 cages with movable partition each

measuring 90 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm which were

serially connected with a free passage in

between. The food provided once a day in the

morning included beef liver, chicken heads, rats

and mice often supplemented with chieken eggs

taking care to see that each animal received

sumptuous amount of food approximately Va of

its body weight. Water was provided ad libitum.

The individuals were kept together for about

3 months before the commencement of

observation for mating behaviour during which

time a social hierarchy became established. The

observations were for an average duration of 3

hours per day for about 50 days. Most of the

MATING BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN GREY MONGOOSE

27

observations were made from behind a black

curtain with peep holes in front of the cages.

Simultaneously the reproductive status of the

females was also determined everyday by the

examination of the vaginal smear collected by

restraining the animal using movable partition of

the cage.

Table la

FREQUENCY OF MOUNTING OBSERVED IN A

GROUP OF 5 MONGOOSES

Table lb

MEASURES OF COPULATORY BEHAVIOUR

OBSERVED IN A PAIR OF DOMINANT ADULT

MONGOOSES

The frequency with which each individual

of the group mounted one another is given in

Table la, in the form of a matrix. Table lb

gives the measurements of copulatory behaviour

recorded for a pair of dominant mongooses. The

licking of genitals by both partners following the

break of copulation was taken as a criterion for

a true and complete copulation (Rasa 1977).

Observations and Discussions

Two categories of mounting were

distinguished: (a) 'False mounting' was observed

to occur between the members of the same sex

or opposite sex. It was characterised by the non-

occurrence of premounting rituals; (b) Mounting

between a dominant male and a dominant female

usually resulted in true mounting. The

occurrence of mounting was more ritualistic and

far more frequent between a dominant male and

a dominant female compared to the mountings

occurring between subordinate individuals. The

maximum frequency of the mounting between a

pair of dominant individuals coincided with the

oestrus of the female (Fig. 1A). A pronounced

friendly interaction was also noticed between the

partners during this period. They remained in

contact, slept together and groomed each other

more frequently.

The oestrus female which was maximally

receptive responded to an investigating male by

not moving away. The preliminary investigatory

activity by the male included sniffing and

smelling of the snout and anogenital region of

the female. When the male mounted from the

posterior side by clasping the sides of the female

with its forelimbs the female attained a receptive

posture by arching its back slightly and moving

her tail aside (Fig. IB, i). The male clasped the

28

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

• • •

HI

Fig. IB. Postures adopted by a pair of mongooses during

different stages of mounting.

(i) Preliminary stage of mounting by a male with a

reciprocating female, (ii) Intermediate stage of mounting

with the male holding the female and beginning the

intromissions, (iii) Final stage of intromission.

Note the position of chin of the male and the hind-legs

which are raised from the floor.

flank of the female and intromission followed

(Fig. IB, ii). Towards the end of the process the

male flexed one or both the hind limbs and

lifted them off the floor and placed its chin

pressed against the side and neck of the female

(Fig. IB, iii). Soon after the copulation the

partners parted company, sat on their hind limbs

and licked their genitals. This behaviour was

however not observed at the end of all

mountings. A true mounting beginning with the

rapid thrusts and ending with the ejaculatory

thrusts lasted from 50-150 secs. The male was

found not to be successful in mounting in all its

attempts. This was more evident in case of

mounting involving the subordinate male. In

such instances the female moved away in the

midst of the process which sometimes dislodged

the male.

Of the total mountings occurring between

the members of highest rank 8.98% of the

mountings resulted in ejaculation. The dominant

male always preferred to mount the dominant

female. Among false mountings 76.68% were

heterosexual and 23.31% were homosexual. The

Mann-Whitney 'U' -test showed that in a group

the tendency for heterosexual mounting is more

compared to homosexual mounting (P < 0.1).

The general pattern of mounting observed in

captive grey mongoose is similar to what has

been reported in other mongooses like Herpestes

ichneumon (Ducker 1960), Helogale parvula

(Zannier 1965, Rasa 1973, Rood 1980), Mungos

mungo (Neal 1970), Herpestes sanguineus

(Jacobsen 1982) and Helogale undulata rufula

(Rasa 1977). In all these mongooses there is

more or less uniform short preliminary

premounting sessions. The increased marking

behaviour during the oestrus of the „ female

reported in Crossarchus (Ewer 1973) and

Helogale undulata rufida (Rasa 1977) was not

observed in the present study. Flowever the

oestrus of the female was marked by a high

frequency of mounting as reported in dwarf

mongooses (Rasa 1977). The grey mongooses

also differ from meerkats (Ewer 1973) in not

showing the typical 'neck -gripping' - a means of

inducing passivity in a recalcitrant female.

Lacking a neck grip and the manner in which

the male thrusts its head against the female's

MATING BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN GREY MONGOOSE

29

neck as observed in the grey mongoose have

also been reported in Herpestes and Mungos

(Ewer 1973).

The short premounting rituals among the

captive group may be attributed to a high social

organisation. Due to prior familiarity between

the partners in a captive social group, there

appears to be no need for prolonged

preliminaries leading to establishment of contact.

The act of mounting does not seem to inflict any

rivalry between individuals. Neal (1970) has

made a similar observation in Mungos mungo. In

the present case it may be due to the fact that

the observations are confined to a socially

stabilised group where definite hierarchy had

been established. Less frequent occurrence of

mating between subordinate individuals may also

be due to the same reason. Occurrence of

homosexual mountings has also been reported in

Helogale undulata rufula (Rasa 1973a, 1976)

and Helogale parvula (Rasa 1973b). In the grey

mongooses though both homo- and heterosexual

mountings have been recorded, the higher

frequency of the heterosexual mounting suggests

that mounting is sexually oriented.

Acknowledgements

JS and GS are grateful to CSIR and UGC

for financial assistance during the tenure of this

work.

References

DUCKER, G. (1960): Beobachtungen uber das paarungs

Verhalten des ichneumons ( Herpestes ichneumon L.).

Z. Saugetierk. 25: 47-51.

Ewer, R.F. (1973): The Carnivores (Ed. by R. Carrington).

Widenfeld and Nicolson, London.

JACOBSEN, N.H.G. (1982): Observations on the behaviour of

slender mongoose, Herpestes sanguineus in captivity.

Saugetierkd Mitt. 30: 168-183.

Neal, E. (1970): The banded mongoose, a little known

carnivore. Animals, 13: 29-31.

RASA, O.A.E. (1973a): Marking behaviour and its social

significance in the African dwarf mongoose, Helogale

undulata rufula. Z. Tierpsychol. 32: 293-318.

Rasa, O.A.E. (1973b): Intrafamilial sexual repression in the

dwarf mongoose, Helogale parvula.

Naturwissenschaften, 60: 303.

Rasa, O.A.E. (1976): Invalid care in the dwarf mongoose

(Helogale undulata rufula). Z. Tierpsychol. 42: 337-

342.

Rasa, O.A.E. (1977): The ethology and sociology of the

dwarf mongoose, Helogale undulata rufula. Z.

Tierpsychol. 43: 337-406.

Rood, J.P. (1980): Mating relationships and breeding

suppression in the dwarf mongoose (Helogale

parvula). Anim. Behav. 28: 143-150.

ZANNIER, F. (1965): Verhaltensuntersuchungen an der

Zwergmanguste Helogale undulata rufula in

Zoologischen Garten Frankfurt am Main. Z.

Tierpsychol. 22: 672-695.

COMPOSITION, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF FISH IN BANGANGA-

GAMBHIR RIVER SYSTEM AND SOURCE OF FISH TO THE KEOLADEO

NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR1

C.R Ajith Kumar2 N.K. Ramachandran3 and Arun Asthana4

( With two text-figures)

Key words: Banganga-Gambhir river, Notoptems chitala , Labeo dyochilus , Lepidocephalichthys

guntea. Danio devario. Aplocheilus panchax , Labeo boggut , geomorphology

The Keoladeo National Park. Bharatpur is situated at the confluenee of two non-perennial rivers

' Gambhir and Banganga. A detailed survey of the ichthyofauna was carried out in the river course and in

the tributaries of these rivers to know the composition, abundance and distribution of fish. Every year

Keoladeo National Park gets water as well as millions of fry from these rivers and the piscivorous birds

mainly depend upon this fry input. The study showed that even though both the rivers are non-perennial,

Gambhir has a number of perennial pools in the river course and also in the tributaries. Conservation of

these perennial pools is very essential to get sufficient fish fry to the Park. In spite of that, several bunds

are constructed and they are extensively used for reservoir fisheries. The perennial pools and the reservoirs

are the main source of fry to the Park.

During the survey, samples were collected from 27 sites from Banganga-Gambhir river system and

another three from Chambal. A total of 46 species were recorded, out of which 41 species were recorded

from Banganga-Gambhir river system. Compared to Banganga, more species were recorded from Gambhir.

It may be due to the direct connection of this river with Yamuna. Further analysis of the data from Gambhir

showed that half of the species were uniformly distributed and the other half were site specific, which

include the rare species also. The rarest species were Notoptems chitala , Labeo dyochilus .

Lepidoceplu i/ichthysguntea , P seudeutropis athennoides , Danio devario , etc . Aplocheilus panchax <md Labeo

boggut were only recorded from Banganga. Air-breathing fishes were also recorded during the collection;

however, their number was very less.

INTRODUCTION

Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur supports

more than 40 species of piscivorous birds which

are recorded in thousands during the peak

season. Apart from the birds, terrapins, otters

and fishing cats also consume a portion of the

fish. To support these high trophic level species,

a large quantity of fish is required every year.

’Accepted June 1994.

Bombay Natural History Society. Hornbill House,

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk. Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg,

Bombay 400 023.

3Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,

Kalampalayam P.O.. Coimbatore 641 010.

department of Zoology, D.A.V. College, Kanpur.

Yearly, millions of fry (as many as 65 million in

1985, Vijayan 1986) and adults of small size

fish or larval fish (e.g. Oxygaster clupeoides ,

Chanda nama and Puntius sophore) enter the

park along with the inflowing water. The

recruitment of fry showed that all the non-

airbreathers enter the Park from outside: this

constitutes a major portion of the total fish

population in the Park (Kumar 1991). Therefore,

the outside source of fish is vital for the proper

functioning of the park ecosystem. The breeding

of all the fish-eating birds depends on the timely

arrival of fish from outside. An examination of

he source of fish was therefore undertaken.

The Park receives water from Ajan bund, a

temporary reservoir situated 500 m from the

Park's border. And the Ajan bund in turn

DISTRIBUTION OF FISH IN BAN GANG A -GAMBH1R RIVER SYSTEM

31

receives water mainly from the two non-

perennial rivers Gambhir and Banganga. As

these rivers dry up every year, the following

questions arise:

1 . Where does the fish stock remain when

the rivers dry up? or where do fish

breed to provide fry to the park during

monsoon?

2. What is the nature of distribution of

fishes along the river course?

3. Is there any similarity between the fish

fauna of the river and that of the Park?

To tackle these questions, an exhaustive

survey was carried out during May- June 1989.

Both the rivers were covered from their origin to

the termination point.

Methodology

Samples were collected from the water

bodies in the river course as well as their

tributaries including the dams and bunds.

Collections were carried out using cast net of

smallest mesh size (15 mm) and seine of

mosquito net of 40 metre length and 1.5 metre

height with floats and sinkers. Fish samples were

also collected from commercial catch in the

reservoirs done under the control of Fisheries

Department.

A uniform catch effort was maintained to

minimise bias The various collection points are

shown in Fig. 1.

Results and Discussion

Gambhir river: This non-perennial river

originates from Karauli hills of Sawai Madhopur

district and after flowing 280 km in Rajasthan,

ultimately joins river Yamuna in U P. The river

bed is clayey, alluvial and deep. There are deep

ravines, especially upstream near Hindon and

also where it joins Yamuna near Fathehabad.

The largest dam right across the river is

Panchna near Karauli, where five small rivers

unite to form Gambhir. A number of small and

medium-sized dams have been constructed across

the tributaries of Gambhir such as Urmila Sagar

bund, Bund Bareta, Parvati dam, Bhandua and

Jagar. These bunds are extensively used for

reservoir fisheries by the State Fisheries

Department. Every year the department

introduces major carp seed and auctions them in

summer.

On its course, Gambhir often takes zig-zag

turns so that deep pools are formed where fishes

can survive in summer. One of the tributaries of

Gambhir, Parvati, has a very long perennial

water stretch up to the river Gambhir. According

to the villagers, this water stretch does not dry

up even in severe drought years. During the

survey, we recorded deep water bodies, both

lentic and lotic, in the river.

At Sevala Bareta, an obstruction has been

constructed with sluice gates to block the water

and direct it to Ajan bund through Pichuna

canal. During heavy flood, water overflows the

dam towards Yamuna.

The first series of collections were carried

out along the course of river Gambhir.

Banganga: This is also a non-perennial

river originating from Manoharpur near Ramgarh

of Aravalli range in Jaipur district. This river is

much wider, very sandy and without any ravines.

In some places it is just a sandy depression and

one can hardly make out the river course. After

flowing 241 km in Jaipur and Bharatpur

districts, it terminates at Maghpur head and from

there canals supply water to the nearby areas,

and one of them, Uchain canal, joins Ajan bund.

The biggest dam across this river is Jamwa

Ramgarh near Jaipur and the smaller dams on

the tributaries are Kalako, Bhandari and Senthal.

Aravalli, one of the oldest mountain ranges

of the subcontinent and once the highest range.

32

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Fig. 1. Map showing the various sampling stations in the Banganga and Gambhir river system.

at earlier times would have blocked the monsoon

clouds much more effectively than it does today

to make the Banganga, a mighty river and it

might have been connected either with Y amuna

or Gambhir in geological time. The Gangetic

plain rivers often change their courses and due

to this, the river might have passed through the

depression of the Keoladeo National Park.

Geomorphological study with the help of

landsat imagery and aerial photographs of

Gambhir river basin reveals the fluvial changes

that have occurred during the quaternary period.

The river Gambhir was once a major right bank

tributary of the river Banganga which in turn

was a major right bank tributary of Yamuna

(Sharma 1986). Further detailed investigations

by Sharma (1986) along the middle and lower

course of river Banganga and Gambhir show that

in the recent past Banganga was a continuous

stream flowing up to the Yamuna. But because

of neotectonic activity around Bharatpur, the

flow of Banganga river has been obstructed and

now it is neither directly connected with

Yamuna nor with Gambhir. Banganga is a

mountain torrent with a bed of sand mixed with

gravel in a semi-arid climatic condition. It,

therefore, brings tremendous quantity of

sediments from headwaters to the plains. In due

course it got choked and became braided with a

number of distributaries in this part of the land

area. The neotectonic activity was re-activated

on one hand and tremendous quantity of

DISTRIBUTION OF FISH IN BANGANGA-GAMBH1R RIVER SYSTEM

33

sediments was deposited on the other hand,

causing a saucer-shaped depression in Bharatpur

region (Sharma 1986), and, this depression in

Bharatpur is inadequate to allow a free flow of

the river Banganga to join the river Yamuna. So

during the period of high rainfall the area gets

flooded. To control the flood and also to make

use of water for agriculture, a skillful network of

bunds was constructed several decades ago. The

water thus contained by the dykes is gradually

drained off and the land is used for raising the

khanf crop. This system of irrigation is known

as inundation irrigation (Anon. 1979). Ajan bund

is considered to be the oldest such bund

constructed somewhere between 1726-1763

(Gasquin 1927, Panday 1970). In early times,

the water management was under the control of

local rulers. Nowadays the Irrigation Department

governs the distribution of water and supplies it

to the park from Ajan bund.

The flat sandy nature of the river bed, the

anthropogenic interferences as well as

degradation of Aravalli might have contributed

in many ways to erase the actual river course.

Survey discussion

During the survey, a total of 46 species of

fish were recorded of which four species were

from Chambal and one from a dam connected

with the Chambal. They are Barilius bold,

Chagunius chagunius, Labeo boga and Puntius

dorsalis from Chambal and Garra gotyla from

Needad dam. Puntius dorsalis , collected during

the survey from Chambal was the first recorded

by Datta Gupta el al. (1961) from Khetry, Jaipur

or Udaipur. The exact place of the catch was not

mentioned. It is included in the list of Datta and

Majumdar (1970) and the subsequent faunal

studies in Rajasthan (Dhawan 1969, Mathur and

Yazdani 1970, 1973; Mahajan 1980, Sharma and

Kulshreshtha 1981, Johal and Dhillon 1981,

Sharma and Johal 1982, Johal and sharma 1986,

Gupta et al. 1988) did not mention this species.

According to Jayaram (1981), it is a peninsular

species.

Another important species recorded during

the survey was N. chitala from Gambhir, just

before its confluence with Yamuna in Uttar

Pradesh. The only earlier record of this species

was from Ajan bund near Bharatpur by Moona

(1963). It is considered to be an endangered

species (Menon 1987).

New addition to the fish fauna of

Rajasthan: Aplocheilus panchax recorded from

Banganga during the survey was a new addition

to the fish fauna of Rajasthan. Even though this

fish has a wide distribution in South Asia

(Jayaram 1981), there was no record of this

species from Rajasthan (Kumar and Asthana

1993). During this survey it was very frequently

seen in Ramgarh area, upstream as well as

downstream. A. blochii was recorded from

Jodhpur by Mathur and Yazdani (1969).

Species richness and distribution of fishes

in the rivers: Out of the total 46 species

collected during the survey, 38 were recorded

from Gambhir and 28 from Banganga (Tables 1

and 2). Connection of Gambhir with Yamuna

may be one of the reasons for the higher

richness of species in Gambhir than in

Banganga. However, three species, namely

Aplocheilus panchax , Labeo boggut , and

Channa striatus were not observed in Gambhir.

Gambhir: Further analysis of the catch

from the river Gambhir was carried out using

SYSTAT software and a dendrogram was

prepared (Fig. 2). An arbitrary line was drawn in

the middle. The result shows that half of the

species were distributed uniformly and these

species were recorded in large numbers (Table 1

- e.g. Cirrhinus reha, Labeo rohita , Puntius

sophore, Osteobrama cotio, Salmostoma bacailci ,

etc.). The other half were comparatively rare and

site specific. Some of them were recorded

mostly upstream, such as Danio devario , Labeo

Table 1

COLLECTION SITES AND SPECIES RECORDED IN GAMBHIR RIVER AND ITS TRIBUTARIES

34

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

DISTRIBUTION OF FISH IN BANGANGA-GAMBHIR RIVER SYSTEM

35

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36

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Single Linkage Method (Nearest Neighbour) Tree Diagram

Distances Metric is Euclidean distance.

0.000

Cirrhinus reba

Puntius sophore

Labeo rohita

Carrhinus mrigala

Mastacembelus armatus

Puntius sarana

Labeo gonius

Labeo bata

Wallago attu

Glossogobius giuris

Channa marulius

Xenentodon cancila

Heteropneustes fossilis

Mystus seenghala

Lepidocephalichthys guntea

Gudusia chapra

Labeo dyocheilus

Danio devario

Esotnus danricus

Notopterus chitala

Catla catla

Labeo pangusia

Chanda nama

Pseudeutrpius atherinoldes

Amblypharyngodon mola

Chela cachius

Noemacheilus botia

Chanda ranga

Labeo calbasu

Mystus vattatus

Channa punctaus

Puntius tic to

Salmostoma phulo

Salmostoma bacaila

Osteobrama cotio

Mystus cavasius

Notopterus notopterus

Ompok bimaculatus

a

-4

1.000

0.488

0.577

0.535

0.436

0.378

0.309

0.218

0.309

0.218

0.309

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0.488

0.309

0.488

Fig. 2. Dendrogram showing the two main groups of species in Gambhir river.

uniformly distributed rare and site specific species uniformly distributed species

species

DISTRIBUTION OF FISH IN BANGANGA-GAMBH1R RIVER SYSTEM

37

Table 2

COLLECTION SITES AND SPECIES RECORDED IN BANGANGA RIVER AND ITS TRIBUTARIES

- = absent 1 = rare 2 = common 3 = dominant * = dam

Site 1 : Bhandari bund; Site 2 : Senthal bund; Site 3: Kalako bund; Site 4: Downstream of Banganga; Site 5: Jamva Ramgarh;

Site 6: Upstream of Ramgarh

pangusia, Chela cachius, Catla catla and

Esomus danricus. Some other species such as N.

chitala , Guducia chapra, Xenentodon concilia ,

Channa marulius , etc. were downstream specific.

The most dominant recruiting species to the

Park, such as Puntius sophore, Cirrhinus reba,

Salmostoma bacaila (Oxygaster bacaila) and

Osteobrama cotio recorded during the survey

had a wide distribution in the river course.

Major carps such as Cirrhinus mrigala and

Labeo rohita also had a wide distribution

because of their introduction to reservoirs for

commercial purpose. These widely distributed

species enter the Park in large numbers when

38

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

water is drawn from these sources. Chanda , one

of the major species that enters the Park, was

confined to Panchna and Angai dams. It can,

therefore, be concluded that the origin of most

of the non-airbreathing species inside the Park is

these dams and the pools in the river course,

because of large quantity of water present in

reservoirs, more species were recorded in them

particularly in Angai, Panchna and Mam chari,

but in some reservoirs water depth was very7 low

and so was the number of species.

Banganga: The river Banganga is not

directly connected with Yamuna which may be

one of the reasons for the fewer number of

species in this river (Table 1). Yet another

reason may be its possible sandy nature. During

the flood period, indirect connection is possible

through the flood water and also through the

Ajan bund which is connected with both the

rivers- Banganga and Gambhir. There was no

perennial water body in the river course except

a small stretch near Ramgarh and a pool

upstream of Ramgarh. So the recruitment of fry

from this river is only from the reservoirs.

Aplocheilus panchax , which was a new

addition to the fish fauna of Rajasthan was

restricted only to Ramgarh area. Among Labeo

species Labeo boggut was recorded only from

Ramgarh area and not from Gambhir. The

species such as Gudusia chapra, Notopterus sp..

Chela cachius, Labeo dyocheilus, Labeo gonins,

Labeo pungusia, Noemacheilus botia,

Lepidocephalichthys guntea , Pseudeutropius

atherinoides .Heteropneustes fossilis , Xenentodon

cancila , and Chanda spp. were not recorded

from river Banganga.

Fish stock: A large number of small and

large dams have been constructed across the

tributaries of both Banganga and Gambhir for

irrigation as well as for drinking water. Almost

all these dams are used for reservoir fisheries by

the State Fisheries Department. Major carps are

being introduced in these reservoirs every year

by the Department.

In addition to the perennial reservoirs, a

number of deep pools and small stretches of

water are present on the course of river Gambhir

and the river bed is more alluvial. Important

among them (upstream to Bharatpur) are near

Sevla Bareta, Supa bridge, Samover bridge and

at Katkar. Downstream to Bharatpur are

collection site 6 and 8 in Parvati and 9, 2 and 1

m the river course of Gambhir. These pools

provide habitat for the fish stock to survive the

summer and breed during the monsoon. Almost

all fishes, mainly the small ones, captured in

these pools were in breeding stage. Conservation

of these perennial pools is very essential to get

sufficient fish fry to the Park.

In the reservoirs, small as well as large

commercial species were abundant. In some

reservoirs autostocking is also reported. When

water is released from these reservoirs the fishes

get into the river and disperse. Hence these pools

and reservoirs are the main source of fish to the

Ajan bund and thereby to the Park. Another

possible source is that when Gambhir joins

Yamuna during high discharge, there is a chance

of upstream movement of fishes to Gambhir

because of the tendency of fish to move against

the current.

Several species which were not reported

from the Park were collected during the survey

such as Labeo pungucia, L. dyocheilus, L.

boggut, Notopterus notopterus and Aplocheilus

panchax (Kumar and Vijayan 1988), although

their number was very low. Such rarity may be

one of the reasons for the non-availability of

these fishes and their fry in the Park.

Even though there are air-breathing fishes in

some of the reservoirs such as Angai dam, Talab

sahi, Urmila sagar, and Manda-ka-bund, they are

very rare in the river course. Air breathers are

not riverine species.

DISTRIBUTION OF FISH IN BANGANGA-GAMBHIR RIVER SYSTEM

39

Acknowledgements

This study was an offshoot of the Keoladeo

National Park Ecology Project taken up by

Bombay Natural History Society, sponsored by

US Fish & Wildlife Service through the Ministry

of Environment and Forests, Government of

India. We are grateful to Dr. V.S. Vijayan,

Project Scientist, for his guidance and

suggestions during the study, to Dr. A.G.K.

Menon, Zoological Survey of India for

confirmation of species, and to Rajasthan State

Fisheries Department officials for giving

permission and assistance to make collections.

Discussions with Dr. Neil Armen trout, US Fish

& Wildlife Service, Dr. U K. Gopalan, National

Institute of Oceanography, Cochin are

acknowledged. We express our gratitude to Dr.

P.A. Azeez, Mr. N.R. Nadarajan and K.N.

Mohanan for their help in various ways and are

also thankful to Mr. Rajpal and the other local

assistants for their help during the survey.

References

Anon. (1979): Master plan for flood control works in

Bharatpur District. First draft. Report No. 1. Irrigation

Dept., Bharatpur.

Datta, A.K. & N. Majumdar (1970): Fauna of Rajasthan,

India. Part 7. Fishes. Rec. Zool. Suw. India. 62 (1-2):

63-100.

Datta Gupta, A.K., P.K.B. Menon, C.K.G. Nair & C.R.

Das (1961): An annotated list of fishes of Rajasthan.

Proc : Rajasthan Acad. Sci. Pilani. 8(1 & 2): 129-134.

Dhawan, S. (1969): Fish Fauna of Udaipur Lake. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 190-194.

GASQUIN, H.S. (1927): Record of Irrigation by bunds and

canals in the Bharatpur State - during the year 189,6-97

to 1925-26. Irrigation Dept., Bharatpur.

Gupta, S.N., V.S. Durve, S.D. Kulshreshtha & N.K.

SHARMA(1988): Limnology, fisheries and conservation

needs of tank Khandia, Jhalawar. Pro. Nat. Sym.

Present and Future of Bhopal Lake. 91-96.

JAYARAM, K.C. (1981): The fresh water fishes of India,

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka.

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Johal, M.S. & K.S. Dhillon (1981): Ichthyofauna of

Ganganagar district (Rajasthan), India. Res. Bull.

Punjab Uni. 32: 105-107.

JOHAL, M.S. & K.P. Sharma (1986): Fish fauna of Sawai

Madhopur district. Rajasthan State, India. Vest. cs.

spolec. zool. 50: 112-119.

KUMAR, C.R. A. (1991): Habitat segregation of fishes in

Keoladeo National Park. Bharatpur, Rajasthan. Ph D.

Thesis. Kanpur University, Kanpur.

Kumar. C.R. A. & A. Asthana (1993): The fish fauna of

Rajasthan. Indian Rev. Life Sci. 13: 133-148.

Kumar, C.R. A. & V.S. Vijayan (1988): On the fish fauna

of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(1): 44-49.

MAHAJAN, C.L. (1980): Effect of human activities on the

structure and functioning of fresh water ecosystem of

Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Bharatpur and Ramgarh Lake,

Jaipur, Rajasthan. A preliminary report on the Man and

Biosphere Project (1976-77). Department of Science

and Technology. Govt, of India. •

Mathur, D.S. & G.M. Yazdani (1969): Occurrence of

Aplocheilus blochii (Arnold) in Rajasthan. Lab. dev. J.

Sci. and Tech. B, 7(1): 77.

Mathur, D.S. & G.M. Yazdani (1970): Noemacheilus

rajasthaniens , a new species of roach from Rajasthan

(India). J. Zool. Soc. India 22: 79-100.

Mathur, D.S. & G.M. Yazdani (1973): Additional records

of fishes from Jodhpur with a list of species occur in

the district. Sci. & Cul. 39(2): 87-89.

MENON, A.G.K. (1987): Rare and endangered Indian

freshwater fishes. In abstract: Symposium on the

impact of current land use pattern and water resources

development on riverine fisheries. C.I.C.F.R.I.

Barrackpore.

MOONA, J.C. (1963): Notes on fishes from Bharatpur district,

Rajasthan. Rec. Indian Mus. Delhi 58(2): 56-66.

PANDAY, R. (1970): Bharatpur up to 1826 (A special and

political history of Jat). Rama Publishing House,

Jaipur.

Sharma, K.P. & M.S. Johal (1982): On the fish and

fisheries of Jaisamand Lake. Rajasthan, India. Vest. cs.

spolec. zool. 64: 56-69.

Sharma, K.P. & S.D. Kulshreshtha (1981): Fishes and

fisheries of Kota district, Rajasthan. J. Zool. Soc. India

33(1 & 3): 63-70.

SHARMA, M.L. ( 1 986): Geomorphology of a semi-arid region

- A case study of Gambhir river basin, Rajasthan -

India. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.

Vijayan, V.S. (1986): Keoladeo National Park ecology

study. Summary report 1980-1985. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES OF THE GENERA ORTHRIUS GORHAM AND

XENORTHRIUS GORHAM (COLEOPTERA: CLERIDAE: CLERINAE)1

Jonathan R. Mawdsley2

Key words: Coleoptera, Cleridae, Orthrius, Xenorthrius

Dichotomous keys are provided for the identification of the 17 species of the genus Orthrius Gorham

and the 5 species of the genus Xenorthrius Gorham known from India. Orthrius stevensi Corporaal is

synonymised with Orthrius binotatus (Fisher), New synonymy.

Introduction

The genera Orthrius Gorham and

Xenorthrius Gorham presently contain 58 and 14

species, respectively, and are generally

distributed throughout the Indo-Australian

region. Both Orthrius and Xenorthrius belong to

a large group of genera in the subfamily

Clerinae of the family Cleridae in which the

eyes are coarsely granulate (facet diameter 0.30

mm or greater). At present, 22 genera are

included in this group (Corporaal 1950: 97-127).

However, the limits of these genera are poorly-

defined, and further research will probably

reduce the number of genera recognised in this

group through synonymy. At the present time, I

do not think that the single character given

above is sufficient justification for erecting a

tribe for the species of this group, as this

character is strongly correlated with nocturnal

habits and hence is probably highly convergent.

Orthrius and Xenorthrius both belong to a

section of this generic group in which the elytra

are more or less robust and the elytral punctures

are relatively small. Separation of genera in this

group is particularly problematic, and it seems

probable that the African genera Gyponyx

Gorham and Aphelochroa Quedenfeldt will

'Accepted October 1993.

department of Entomology, Museum of Comparative

Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

eventually have to be placed in synonymy with

Orthrius.

The only other genus of this group which is

found in India is Opilo Latreille, which is

presently under review by other workers. Species

of Orthrius and Xenorthrius may be separated

from species of Opilo by examination of the

tenninal segment of the maxillary palpi, which

is triangular in Opilo but cylindrical in Orthrius

and Xenorthrius. Species of Orthrius and

Xenorthrius may be separated by means of the

key given below. Complete bibliographic

information for all species may be found in

Corporaal (1950: 123-126).

Materials and Methods

I have examined specimens of the species of

these genera from the collections of the

following institutions: The Natural History

Museum, London, Hope Department of

Entomology, Oxford University; Institut Royal

des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique; Museo

Civico di Storia Naturale, Genova; Museum of

Comparative Zoology, Harvard University;

Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. In

all cases, I have based my identifications of

species on personal examination of original type

specimens. Distributions of species of these

genera are poorly known at present, and it is

hoped that the present paper stimulates interest

in this neglected field of clerid research.

KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES OF THE GENERA ORTHRIUS AND XENORTHRIUS

41

KEY FOR SEPARATION of Orthrius AND Xenorthrius

1. Pronotum deeply and rugulosely punctate laterally,

almost strigose; elytral punctures separated by small

tubercles Genus Xenorthrius Gorham

Pronotum finely and sparsely punctate laterally,

smooth, shining; elytral punctures not as above . . .

Genus Orthrius Gorham

Orthrius Gorham (1876: 74; 1892: 737); Schenkling

(1903: 29, 45); Chapin (1924: 208, 211); Corporaal (1950:

123-126).

Type-species Orthrius cylindricus Gorham (by orginal

designation).

Key to Indian species of Orthrius Gorham

1 . Elytra distinctly striatopunctate, at least at base . 2

Elytra finely punctate at base, shining 12

2. Pronotum with two or three distinct tubercles . . 3

Pronotum lacking such tubercles 4

3. Pronotum bituberculate; elytra uniformly reddish-

brown Orthrius tuberculicollis Schenkling

Pronotum tritubercualte; elytra with two yellow

maculae Orthrius dorsalis Schenkling

4. Elytra uniformly reddish-brown, in one species with' a

single pair of black median maculae 5

Elytra yellowish-brown or black 8

5. Legs entirely reddish-brown

Orthrius rufotestaceus Schenkling

Legs at least in part black 6

6. Legs and abdomen entirely black

Orthrius tarsalis Gorham

Legs and abdomen in part reddish-brown 7

7. Elytral punctures becoming irregular by apical third

Orthrius striatopunctatus Schenkling

Elytral punctures in rows from base to apices ....

Orthrius brachialis Gorham

8. Elytra robust wider than pronotum 9

Elytra elongate, as wide as pronotum 10

9. Elytra black with three yellowish- white maculae which

attain suture Orthrius subsimilis White

Elytra black with two yellowish-white maculae which

do not attain suture Orthrius abdominalis (Germar)

10. Each elytron yellowish-brown with three black

maculae Orthrius sexplagiatus Schenkling

Each elytron yellowish-brown with two black

maculae 11

11. Pronotum very dark brownish-black

Orthrius sufasciatus (Westwood)

Pronotum yellowish-brown

. Orthrius bengalus (Westwood)

12. Elytra yellow with brown maculae 13

Elytra reddish-brown with white maculae 15

13. Each elytron largely yellow, with a single black apical

macula Orthrius posticalis (Westwood)

Elytra not as above . . 14

14. Elytra laterally brownish-black, yellow along the

suture Orthrius elongatus Corporaal

Elytra predominantly brownish-black with two

transverse yellow maculae

Orthrius binotatus (Fisher)

15. Elytra bimaculate . . . Orthrius madurensis Gorham

Elytra trimaculate 16

16. Ground colour of elytra distinctly paler in colour than

that of pronotum Orthrius grandjeani Pic

Ground colour of elytra and pronotum concolorous. .

Orthrius feae Gorham

Genus Xenorthrius Gorham

Xenorthrius Gorham (1892: 733; 1893: 575);

Schenkling (1903: 29, 46); Corporaal (1950: 126).

Type-speciesAeworZ/zraAsmow/ioriGorham (by original

designation).

Key to Indian species of Xenorthrius Gorham

1 . Elytral apices rounded • . . . . 2

- . Elytral apices truncate, bidentate

Xenorthrius truncatus Gorham

2. Elytra brown with yellowish-white maculae ... 3

Elytra uniformly reddish-brown 4

3. Elytra with two transverse white maculae narrowly

joined along the suture; apices black

Xenorthrius mouhoti Gorham

Elytra with two transverse white maculae not joined

along suture; apices white

Xenorthrius ephippiatus Gorham

4. Length/width ratio of elytra greater than 3. 0:1.0 . .

Xenorthrius robustus Corporaal

Length/width ratio of elytra equal to or less than

3. 0:1.0 Xenorthrius geniculatus G orham

Discussion of new synonymy

I have examined a large number of

42

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

specimens of Orthrius binotatus (Fisher)

collected throughout the range of this species

(India east to China and south to New Guinea).

In general, the coloration of this species is very

variable, but the surface sculpturing is not. The

specimens from India described as Orthrius

stevensi by Corporaal (1926: 180-181) and

preserved in the Natural History Museum,

London, fall within the range of both colour and

sculptural variation of Orthrius binotatus, and on

the basis of this evidence I have no difficulties

in synonym ising Orthrius stevensi Corporaal

with the previously-described species Orthrius

binotatus (Fisher), New synonymy.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the following curators

for their assistance during my visits to their

collections to examine type specimens: P.M.

Hammond, N.E. Stork (The Natural History

Museum, London); G. McGavin (Hope

Entomological Collection, Oxford University);

K. Desender, M. Cludts (Institut Royal des

Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Brussels); R.

Poggi (Museo Civico di Storia Naturale,

Genova); J.J. Menier (Museum National;

d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris).

References

Chapin. E.A. (1924): Classification of the Philippine

Components of the Coleopterous Family Cleridae.

Phil. Jonm. Sc. 25: 159-286 + 5 plates.

CORPORAAL, J.B. (1926): Some New Species of Oriental

Cleridae and Remarks on Known Species. Encycl. Ent.

B. Col 1(4): 175-188 + 2 plates.

Corporaal. J.B. (1950): Coleopterorum Catalogus

Supplementa, Pars 23 Editio Secunda, Cleridae. W.

Junk, The Hague. 373 pp.

CjORHAM, H.S. (1876): Notes on the Coleopterous Family

Cleridae. Cist. Ent. 2: 57-106.

Gorham, H.S. (1892): Cleridae di Viaggio di Leonardo Fea

in Birmania e Regioni Vicine. Ann. Mus. Genova 32:

3-31.

Gorham, H.S. (1893): A list of Coleoptera, of the Family

Cleridae, collected by Mr. Doherty in Burmah and

Northern India, with Descriptions of New Species, and

of some species from Borneo, Perak and etc. from the

collection of Alexander Fry, Esq. Proc. Zool Soc.

London 1893: 566-581.

SCHENKLING, S. (1903): Malacodermata: Cleridae. Gen.

Insect. (Wytsman) 13: 1-124 + 5 plates.

TAXONOMIC STUDIES OF THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA (LINNAEUS, 1 767)

FROM THE SEAS AROUND INDIA1

Part 1

D.B. James2

( With a plate and tw>o text-figures)

Key words: Holothuria , taxonomy, habits, habitats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands,

Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Lakskadweep

In this paper earlier attempts made to revise the genus Holothuria Linnaeus, 1767 are given in detail.

Of the 26 species known under the genus Holothuria from Indian seas, 18 species have been collected by

me. These have been described in detail with full synonymy, notes on habits and remarks with figures and

photographs. Keys have been provided for all the species known from Indian seas.

Introduction

The genus Holothuria Linnaeus, 1767 has

been subject for revision since the early part of

this century. A large number of holothurians

have been assigned to this genus and it became

very unwieldy to handle and arrange the species

correctly. In order to sort out this problem,

various attempts have been made in the past to

revise the genus. Rowe (1969) considered that

the number of valid species under the genus

was about 114.

Review of earlier classifications

Pearson (1913-1914) attempted to revise the

genus Holothuria , based on material from the

Indian Ocean. He divided the genus Holothuria

into five subgenera, namely Bohadschia Jaeger,

Actinopyga Bronn, and included three new

subgenera Argwdia, Halodeima and

77 lymiosycia. He was of the opinion that by the

elaboration of the simple branched rods and

rosettes of the species Actinopyga and

'Accepted October 1992.

Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi 682 03 1 .

Present Address: Tuticorin Research Centre of CMFRI, 90

North Beach Road. Tuticorin 628 001.

Bohadschia , perforated plates, and later, buttons

and tables could have developed. He considered

that the calcareous ring of Actinopyga and

Bohadschia are primitive since they lack the

anterior and posterior projections and have deep

ampullar notches. In the genera Argiodia ,

Halodeima and Thymiosycia , the radial and

interradial plates of the calcareous ring show

marked projections. The radial plates are also

markedly longer than the interradial plates. He

did not give much taxonomic importance to the

presence or absence of anal 'teeth' or papillae.

He was of the view that the arrangement of the

tubefeet in Actinopyga and Bohadschia also

showed that they are more primitive than his

three new genera. Pearson (1913, 1914a, b) dealt

only with a few species from the Indian Ocean,

so his revision was incomplete.

Panning (1929-35) did an admirable job by

bringing all the information on the genus

Holothuria together, but, according to

Deichmann (1958), this magnificent work

suffered from his dependence in too many cases

on the accounts of earlier workers; hence many

errors have been perpetuated and related forms

have been placed far apart. In his revision of

Holothuria , he treated Actinopyga , Bohadschia

and Microthele as subgenera. Later, Panning

(1939) revised his treatment of Holothuria. He

44

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

was not sure of the relationship between

Actinopyga and Bohadschia since he did not

consider the presence or absence of anal papillae

to be of great importance, but he concluded that

there could be no relationship between

Actinopyga and Microthele , the possession of

anal papillae in both being the result of

convergence.

Deichmann (1958) felt that the name

Holothuria Linnaeus (i.e. sensu 1758) should be

discarded and the species previously included in

it divided into a number of genera. She proposed

13 generic names, of which 11 were new to

science. According to Rowe (1969), by erecting

new genera she disregarded a number of

appropriate prior genus group-names of Brandt

(1835), Jaeger (1833), Haacke (1880) and

Pearson (1914) on the grounds of poor

definition; most of these names are available

under the rules, being associated with recognised

species, those of Jaeger and Brandt needing only

designation of type-species in order to qualify

for recognition under the rules. Deichmann

(1958) stated that there was nothing new about

her classification, since this type of arrangement

of the species on the basis of ecological

divisions has been foreshadowed in the key of

Fisher (1907) for the Hawaiian holothunans. She

based her classification mainly on ecological

division. She was of the view that within each

habitat are groups in different stages of

development, which can be separated by means

of their spicules. She was also of the view that

the most primitive ones are those with regular

tables and rosettes. This is exactly opposite to

the view of Pearson. She based her revision

predominantly on the species from the East

Pacific and left unconsidered a number of others

from different parts of the world, so that her

revision was necessarily incomplete.

Rowe (1969) reviewed the Family

Holothuriidae and proposed a new classification.

He had two great advantages. He had access to

the vast collections of the British Museum and

also the benefit of advice of Miss A.M. Clark,

the foremost echinodermologist in the world

today. He considered the balance of those

species not taken into consideration by

Deichmann and brought her system into line

with the rules of nomenclature. During the last

20 years, most of the specialists like Liao (1975,

1978), Price (1981, 1982, 1983), A.M. Clark

(1980, 1984), Price and Reid (1985), Marsh

(1986), James (1986a, 1989a) and Cherbonnier

(1988) followed his classification without any

comment. The classification proposed by Rowe

is technically sound and is in conformity with

the rules of nomenclature. It is hoped that other

species under the genus will be assigned to the

various subgenera in due course.

During the last thirty years, I made

extensive collections from various places along

the mainland of India and collected large

samples from the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay.

I also collected material from the Lakshadweep

and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. From the

literature, it is seen that 26 species are known

from the seas around India. In this paper 18

species collected by me are described with notes

on synonymy, habits and, in some cases,

remarks. Holothuria rugosa is already referred to

the genus Labidodemas and is placed under a

new family Labidodematidae by James (1981b).

Special care is taken to see that all the species of

Holothuria mentioned in earlier papers are

correctly assigned as far as possible. Some of the

corrections have already been notified by James

(1983). The diagnosis and keys to various

subgenera are taken from Rowe (1969).

Genus Holothuria Linnaeus, 1767

Diagnosis: Tentacles 17-30, usually 20,

papillae and pedicels arranged variously on the

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA

45

dorsal and ventral sides respectively; anal

papillae variously developed or absent; body

wall 2-20 mm in thickness; body form variously

developed, vermiform, cylindrical or with the

ventral side distinctly flattened and 'sole'-like,

dorsally arched; size ranging from small to large

even up to 600 mm in length; calcareous ring

more or less well developed, usually with radial

plates two or three times as long as mterradial

plates, anterior margin of the ring rarely

scalloped, posterior margin undulating (except in

the subgenus Theelothuria where the radial

plates bifurcate posteriorly); spicules very

diverse and variously developed, tables present

or absent, rosettes and small branched rods

sometimes present.

Type species: H. tremula Linnaeus, 1767

(non H. tremula Gunnerus, 1767= H. tubulosa

Gmelin, 1890: Validated, Opinion 80, 1924: 17-

18).

26 species of Holothuria belonging to 12

subgenera are reported from the seas around

India. Of these, 18 species belonging to all the

12 subgenera have been collected and described

in detail in this work. Keys to all the species

known from the sea around India are given. The

following key to the various subgenera is

modified from Rowe (1969).

Key to the subgenera of the genus

1. Spicules: perforated or thorny rods or plates; tables

and buttons absent

H. (Selenkothuria) Deichmann, 1958

1'. Spicules: tables always present, usually well

developed, alone or in combination with buttons.

pseudobuttons, rods or rosettes 2

2. Spicules: tables always present in combination with

rods or rosettes, never with buttons or

pseudobuttons 3

2'. Spicules: tables always present in combination with

buttons or pseudobuttons, no rosettes or rods . . 5

3. Spicules: tables present in combination with rosettes;

no rods in body wall 4

3' Spicules: tables present in combination with rods in

the body wall, tables usually with reduced disc and

spire of moderate height, either rounded at the tip or

terminate in a few spines which form a single or

double Maltese cross when viewed from above; no

rosettes

H. (Semperothuria) Deichmann, 1958

4. Spicules: tables usually with reduced disc and

moderately high or high spire, ending in a few spines

forming a Maltese cross when viewed from above .

H. (Halodeima) Pearson, 1914

4'. Spicules: tables large and clumsy with spinose well-

developed disc, its rim is often turned up to give a

'cup and saucer' appearance to the table in lateral view,

spire low to moderate height

H. (Acanthotrapeza) Rowe, 1969

5. Spicules: tables variously developed, never modified

into hollow fenestrated spheres; buttons smooth,

regularly or irregularly developed, often twisted. . . .6

5'. Spicules: tables always strongly developed, sometimes

modified into hollow fenestrated spheres; buttons

always knobbed or rugose or modified to form hollow

fenestrated ellipsoids 9

6. Spicules: tables usually well developed, the rim of the

disc not spinose; buttons not twisted, sometimes flat

and thin, with or without an apparent median

longitudinal ridge, outlines regular or irregular 7

6'. Spicules: tables more or less well developed, disc

usually spinose; buttons irregular or twisted, never

flattened, lacking any appearance of a median

longitudinal ridge 8

7. Spicules: tables well developed, disc smooth and

round, usually with ten or more peripheral holes,

spines of moderate height, ending in several small

spines; buttons oval, thin, flat, very rarely with a few

knobs, an apparent median longitudinal ridge present,

three to six pairs of relatively small holes, buttons

regular or irregular in outline

H. (P latyperona) Rowe, 1969

7'. Spicules: tables fairly stout, disc smooth, squarish in

outline, usually with eight regular peripheral holes,

spire of moderate height ending in a cluster of small

spines; buttons not thin or flat and lacking any

appearance of longitudinal ridge usually with three

pairs of comparatively large holes and regular in

outline H. (Thymioscycia) Pearson, 1914

8. Spicules: tables not strongly developed, rim of disc

usually spinose, spire low, ending usually in a ring of

spines or cluster of spines, tables occasionally

degenerate or incomplete; buttons irregular though not

twisted, usually with three pairs of holes, or else

46

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

incomplete, forming small lobed rosette-like bars

H. (Mertensiothuria) Deichmann, 1958

8'. Spicules: tables always well developed rim of disc

spinose and turned up to give a 'cup and saucer' aspect

to the table in lateral view, spire low to moderate in

height, usually terminating in a ring or a cluster of

small spines; pseudobuttons abundant, smooth, usually

irregular and often reduced to single row of three or

four holes, occasionally buttons quite regular with

three pairs of holes

H. (Lessonothuria) Deichmann, 1958

9. Spicules: tables with disc usually knobbed, spire low,

bearing many short spines which are sometimes so

numerous and closely crowded that they may almost

either obscure the disc or become connected to the

knobs of the margin of the disc, thus forming a

fenestrated sphere; buttons usually simple, with large

regularly or irregularly arranged knobs, generally three

to four or more pairs of relatively small holes which

may become somewhat obscured by the size of the

large knobs H. (Cystipus) Haacke, 1880

9'. Spicules: tables stout, well developed spire moderate

or high, never modified into hollow fenestrated

ellipsoids 10

10. Spicules: tables well developed, disc smooth or

spinose, spires either moderate or high, usually

terminating on a cluster of small spines, tables with

spires perfectly smooth and tapering to a point, giving

the whole table a tack-like appearance usually also

present: buttons either simple with irregular, moderate

sized knobs, or modified into hollow fenestrated

ellipsoids, calcareous ring with radial plates usually

possessing more or less well developed posterior

bifurcate prolongations

H. (Theelothnria) Deichmann, 1958

10'. Spicules: tables well developed, disc smooth, often

squarish in outline, spire of moderate height or high,

terminating in small spines, never pointed and tack-

like, buttons simple with moderate sized knobs or

modified into hollow fenestrated ellipsoids, calcareous

ring never with any indication of posterior bifurcate

prolongations on the radial plates 11

1 1 . Spicules: tables well developed with smooth disc,

spire of moderate height or high, terminating in

several small spines; buttons simple, with moderate

sized, irregularly arranged knobs and three to six pairs

of relatively large holes, buttons never modified into

hollow fenestrated ellipsoids

H. (Metriatyla) Rowe, 1969

1 1'. Spicules: tables as per 11, buttons hollow fenestrated

ellipsoids though a few simple knobbed buttons may

be present H. (Microthele) Brandt, 1835

Subgenus Selenkothuria Deichmann, 1958

Diagnosis: Tentacles 20; pedicels crowded

but more or less distinctly arranged in three rows

on the ventral 'sole', papillae small, numerous,

scattered dorsally; body wall soft, not very thick,

about 1-3 mm; body with flattened ventral 'sole'

and arched dorsally; size moderate up to 150

mm long; calcareous ring with radial plates up to

three times as long as the interradial plates, the

latter usually with the outer surface slightly

concave; spicules consisting of perforated or

rugose plates or rods, tables rare or more often

totally absent.

Type species: Holothuria lubrica Selenka,

1867 (Designated by Deichmann, 1958: 314).

Two species are known under this subgenus

from the Indian seas. Both the species have been

collected and described in the present work.

Key to the species of the subgenus

Spinose rods present, colour brown

H. (Selenkothuria) moebii Ludwig, 1833

'Flattened plates and rods present; colour brownish-black..

H. erinaceus Semper, 1868

Holothuria (Selenkothuria) moebii Ludwig

(Fig. 1, A)

Holothuria moebii Ludwig, 1833, p. 171; James, 1969,

p. 61: Gulf of Mannar & Arabian Sea; James, 1982, p.5;

James, 1988b, p. 404: Gulf of Mannar.

Holothuria lubrica Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 10:

Andaman Islands, Sri Lanka. (Non H. lubrica, Selenka,

1867); Gravely, 1927, p. 163: Gulf of Mannar; Satyamurti,

1976, P. 45: Shingle & Krusadai Islands.

Holothuria (Selenkothuria) moebii Mary Bai, 1980, p.

11; James, 1986a, p. 585: Sri Lanka, Gulf of Mannar-Palk

Bay.

Material: Mandapam Camp (Gulf of

Mannar), 1 specimen; Vizhinjam (Arabian Sea),

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA

47

4 specimens; Ratnagiri (Arabian Sea), 2

specimens, all collected from the intertidal

region attached to stones.

Description: Length ranges from 137 mm

to 146 mm. Body spindle-shaped, with a bulge

at the middle when alive. Ventral side clearly

demarcated into a 'sole' which has four distinct

rows of pedicels. Dorsally, the papillae are

sparsely arranged. In one specimen dissected

there were 19 small stone canals and a single

polian vesicle.

Calcareous ring large and massive. Radials

much larger than the interradials and circular in

outline with a cleft at the top. Interradials like

small stumps.

Spicules (Fig. LA) consist of spmose rods

with finely spinulated surface. Mostly simple

with a hole at each end. Some of the rods have

three or four rays. The length of the rods varies

from 0.052 to 0.189 mm and the breadth from

0.010 to 0.049 mm Pedicels have large end

plates and curved rods.

The colour in the living condition is dark

brown on the dorsal side and light brown on the

ventral side.

Notes on habits: This species is collected

near the low water mark under stones. They

were found to be firmly attached to rocks by the

pedicels. During low tide the holothurians

contract and become bulged at the centre and

remain in the same condition until the tide rises.

H.L. Clark (1938) has stated that the normal

habitat of the species is well below the lower

water mark in the face of the reef.

Distribution: It is known from Mauritius,

Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, East Indies, North

Australia, Philippines, China & Southern Japan

and the South Pacific Islands. It was recorded

for the first time from the Arabian Sea by James

(1969).

Holothuria (Selenkothuria) erinaceus Semper

(PI. 1, A & B and Fig. 1, B & C)

Holothuria erinaceus Semper, 1968, P. 91: North

Australia, Philippines, South Pacific Islands.

Holothuria andersoni Bell, 1886, p. 28: Mergui

Archipelago.

Holothuria marenzelleri Ludwig, 1887, p. 1229:

Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Theel, 1886, p. 207: Nicobar.

Holothuria lubricc var. glaberrima Panning, 1934, p.

47.

Holothuria (Selenkothuria) erinaceus Mary Bai. 1 980,

p. 11; Soota, Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 512:

Interview Island, Port Blair, Nancowry; James, 1986a. p.

585. Sri Lanka, Andaman-Nicobar Islands.

Holothuria ( Selenkothuria ) glaberrima Soota et a!.,

1983, p. 519: Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Material: Port Blair (Andamans), several

specimens, collected from mud-flats in the

intertidal region.

Description: Ranges in size from 60 to 160

mm in length. This species does not grow to a

large size. Body spindle-shaped with a very soft

body wall. Posterior end narrow with the anus

surrounded by fine papillae. One of the

specimens collected had two posterior ends (PI.

1, B). Tentacles small. Dorsally a few scattered

papillae. Ventrally the pedicels are arranged in

three bands. In the central band, the pedicels are

arranged in two rows, and in the other two

bands they are arranged in a single row.

A single polian vesicle, very few cuvierian

tubules present, radials rectangular with a

distinct notch at the anterior end and a concavity

at the posterior end (Fig. 1, C). Interradials half

the size of the radials and have a distinct stump

at the anterior end.

Spicules (Fig. 1, B) mostly short, flat,

dumb-bell shaped rods with a few lateral or

terminal holes, there are also a few oval plates

with several holes at the margin. The length of

the rods varies from 0.052-0.082 mm and

breadth from 0.019 mm to 0.032 mm.

In the living condition the colour is light

48

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

brown to brownish-black. Small specimens are

light pink in colour.

Notes on habits: The species is distributed

in the supra-littoral zone. It is usually found

under stones. At low tide, on lifting stones the

anterior end of the body is seen as a brown

round patch free from sand and in a shallow

depression. The posterior end is also kept near

the surface of sand since, on disturbing the

animal, a jet of water is released. In the Marina

area near Port Blair where there is a lot of mud

3-5 specimens were distributed per square metre.

On walking over the mud, due to the pressure

caused on the surrounding area, a jet of water is

ejected by nearby specimens. Though common,

it is overlooked unless one makes a careful

search for it in the supralittoral zone. In some

places it is truly gregarious. As many as 30

specimens were distributed in a one square metre

area at some places. When the tide recedes, they

come out of the sand or mud and keep a small

portion of the anterior end (about 30 mm in

length) outside with the tentacles spread out.

Distribution: It is known from Sri Lanka,

Bay of Bengal, East Indies, North Australia,

Philippines and South Pacific Islands.

Subgenus Semperothuria Deichmann, 1958

Diagnosis: Tentacles 20; pedicels more or

less distinctly arranged in three rows on the

ventral side, papillae scattered dorsally; body-

wall soft, not very thick (1-4 mm); body slender

and cylindrical; size moderate up to 150 mm

long; calcareous ring quite well developed, radial

plates up to three times as long as the

interradials; spicules consisting of tables in

combination with rods, the former with disc

reduced or absent, spire high and terminating in

a few spines which form a single or double

Maltese cross when viewed from above, rosettes

totally absent.

Type species: Holothuria languens Selenka,

1867; designated by Deichmann, 1958: 303.

Two species are known under this subgenus

from the seas around India.

Key to the species of the subgenus

Only tables with flattened base in the body wall

H. (Semperothuria) imitans Ludwig, 1875

Tables and finely spinose rods in the body wall

H. (Semperothuria) cinerascens (Brandt, 1835)

Holothuria (Semperothuria) cinerascens

(Brandt)

Stichopus (Gymonochirota) cinerascens Brandt, 1835,

p. 51.

Holothuria cinerascens Bell, 1867b, p. 654: Ceylon

(Sri Lanka); Pearson, 1913, p. 64: Maldives, Seychelles,

Ceylon (Sri Lanka); James 1969, p. 61: Mandapam (Gulf of

Mannar), Vizhinjam (Arabian Sea),Minicoy (Lakshadweep),

Rangat Bay (Andamans); Daniel and Haidar, 1974, p. 428:

Lakshadweep and Maldives.

Halodeima cinerascens Clark and Davies, 1965, p.

600: Maldives.

Holothuria (Semperothuria) cinerascens Mary Bai &

Ramnathan, 1977, p. 380: Coast of Kanyakumari (Cape

Comorin); Mary Bai, 1980, p. 1 1; A.M. Clark, 1984, p. 99:

Seychelles; Sirvoiker & Parulekar, 1986, p. 279: Goa;

Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 302: Lakshadweep;

James, 1983, p. 93; Soota, Mukhopadhyay & Samanta,

1983, p. 513: Rutland Island (Andamans); James, 1986a, p.

585: Lakshadweep-Maldives, Sri Lanka; Mukhopadhyay,

1988, p. 1988, p. 4: Krusadai Island; James 1989b, p. 124:

Chetlat, Bitra, Kiltan, Amini, Androth, Kavaratti, Minicoy

(Lakshadweep).

Material: Mandapam (Gulf of Mannar), 1

specimen; Ratnagiri (Arabian Sea), 2 specimens;

Vizhinjam (Arabian Sea), several specimens;

Chetlat, 2 specimens; Bitra, 2 specimens; Kiltan,

several specimens; Kadmat, 3 specimens; Amini,

several specimens; Androth, one specimen;

Kavaratti, 3 specimens; Minicoy, several

specimens; all specimens collected under coral

stones.

Description: Ranges in length from 30 mm

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OE HOLOTHURIA

49

to 200 mm. Robust, sub-cylindrical with dorsal

and ventral sides sharply differentiated. Dorsal

surface covered with uniformly distributed

numerous papillae. Ventrally beset with crowded

robust pedicels. Tentacles 20 in number, large

and sub-globose when fully expanded. Mouth

ventral. Posterior end of the body blunt. Anus

surrounded by papillae. Body wall thick and

fairly smooth to touch. Pedicels more or less

arranged in three rows. Papillae of dissimilar

sizes. In the living condition the tentacles,

though peltate, appear to be slightly arborescent.

The collar surrounding the tentacles is

inconspicuous.

The calcareous ring is of the usual type.

There were four polian vesicles of dissimilar size

in one specimen dissected. On the right side of

the mesentery there is a single stone canal.

Cuvierian tubules are well developed.

Longitudinal muscle bands are thin.

Spicules (Fig. 1, D) are of two types,

namely tables and rods. Rods simple and finely

granulated, a characteristic of the species. They

are either straight or curved with the extremities

often branched or with coarser tubercles.

Occasionally, triradiate and tetraradiate rods

occur with three or four ends considerably

branched. The length of the rods varies from

0.10 mm to 0.30 mm. Tables simple with the

annular disc varying in size from 0.042 mm to

0.060 mm. Four large holes at the centre and

four large holes near the margin in each disc of

the table. The crowns of the tables are

subquadrate, being 0.045 mm in diameter.

Colour in living condition is reddish-brown

with some of the papillae and pedicels yellowish

in colour.

Notes on habits: This species is

characteristic of rocky shores. Both small and

large forms (30-200 mm in length) were found

at the same locality in large numbers.

Individuals were often found attached firmly at

the rock edges by the three rows of pedicels on

the ventral side. The tips of the peltate tentacles

are branched, and during high tide the tentacles

were observed to move gently, probably to

procure planktonic food. It is provided with

profuse cuvierian tubules which are discharged

when the animal is disturbed. It is a surf-loving

form extending up to the supralittoral zone.

During low tide, individuals are exposed for a

long time but they remain in the splash zone.

Distribution: It is known from islands of

the Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands,

East Africa, Red Sea, South East Arabia,

Maldives, Sri Lanka, East Indies, North

Australia, Philippines, Japan, South Pacific

Islands and Hawaiian Islands. James (1969)

recorded this species for the first time from the

Arabian Sea.

Subgenus Halodeimci Pearson, 1914

Diagnosis: Tentacles 20; pedicels in three

distinct but crowded rows on the more or less

distinctly 'sole'-like ventral side, papillae small

and irregularly arranged on the dorsal surface;

body wall soft, quite thick, usually 2-3 mm;

body almost cylindrical; size moderate to large,

up to even 600 mm long; calcareous ring quite

stout, radial plates up to three times the length

of the interradials; spicules consist of tables

usually with reduced disc, spire moderate or

high, ending in a few spines forming a Maltese

cross when viewed from above, no large

flattened or spinose rods present in the body

wall.

Type species: Holothuria edulis Lesson,

1830; designated by H.L. Clark, 1921, p. 184.

Remarks: The genus Ludwigothuria

Deichmann, 1958 is a synonym of this subgenus.

Two species are known under this subgenus

from the Indian Seas. Both the species have been

collected and described in this work.

50

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

O-IMm

Fig. 1. Spicules of A. Holothuria (Selenkothuria) moebii, B. Holothuria (Selenkothuria) erinaceus; C. Radial and

interradial plates of Holothuria (S.) erinaceus ; D. Holothuria (Semperothuria) cinerascens; E. Holothuria (Halodeima)

atra\ F. Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis; G. Radial and interradial plates of Holothuria edulis.

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA

51

Key to the species of the subgenus

Spicules: rosettes present, discs of tables small; colour

uniformly dark brown or black

H. (Halodeima) atra Jaeger, 1833

Spicules: rosettes absent, discs of tables reduced to ring;

dorsal side black and ventral side pink

II. (Halodeima) edulis Lesson, 1830

Holothuria (Halodeima) atra Jaeger

Holothuria atra Jaeger, 1833, p. 22; Bell, 1887a, p.

140: Andaman Islands; Bell, 1887b, p. 654: Ceylon (Sri

Lanka); Ludwig, 1887, p. 1217: Ceylon; Bell, 1888, p. 389:

Tuticorin; Thurston, 1894, p. 115: Pamban; Pearson, 1903,

p. 202: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Herdman & Herdman, 1904, p.

447: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 5:

Andaman Islands, Galle (Sri Lanka), Flat Island, coast of

Arakan; Pearson, 1913, p. 67: Sri Lanka; Gravely, 1927, p.

164: Gulf of Mannar; Patil, 1953, p. 430: Karwar; James,

1969, p. 62: Gulf of Mannar & Palk Bay; Jones & James,

1970, p. 799: Vedalai, Shingle Island, Mandapam; James,

1973, p. 708: Southeast coast of India: Daniel & Haidar,

1974, p. 428: Lakshadweep & Maldives; Satyamurti, 1976,

p. 42: Rameswaram, Krusadai Island; Nagabhushapam &

Rao, 1979, p. 290: Minicoy Atoll (Lakshadweep); James,

1982, p. 5; James, 1983, p. 98; Rao et al. 1985, p. 11: Gulf

of Mannar; Tikader & Das, 1985, p. 99: Andaman &

Nicobar Islands; Tikader et al. 1986, p. 117: Andaman &

Nicobar Islands; James, 1986b, p. 4: James, 1986c, p. 1340:

Andamans & Mandapam; James, 1988, p. 44: Gulf of

Mannar.

Holothuria (Halodeima) atra Soota et al. 1983, p.

510: Campbell Bay. Port Blair, Car Nicobar, Long Island,

Little Andaman, Interview Island; Mary Bai, 1980, p. 12:

Price & Reid, 1985, p. 3: Chetlat (Lakshadweep), Galle &

Kalpitiya (Sri Lanka); Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p.

302: Lakshadweep; James, 1986a, p. 585: Lakshadweep-

Maldives, Gulf of Mannar-Palk Bay, Andaman-Nicobar

Islands; Mukhopadhyay, 1988, p. 5: Krusadai Island,

Mandapam Camp; James, 1989b, p. 189: Chetlat, Kiltan;

Kadmat, Amini, Agatti, Kavaratti.

Material: Mandapam, Tuticorin (Gulf of

Mannar), several specimens; Devipatnam (Palk

Bay), several specimens; Vizhinjam, 2

specimens; Karwar, 2 specimens; Chetlat, several

specimens; Kiltan, several specimens; Kadmat, 5

specimens; Amini, 3 specimens; Agatti, several

specimens; Kavaratti, 2 specimens; all specimens

collected from the intertidal region.

Description: Length from 90-500 mm but

known to grow up to 600 mm. Body elongate,

subcylindrical and capable of considerable

extension. Posterior end blunt. Mouth in the

form of a transverse slit and surrounded by a

conspicuous papillose collar. There are 20

tentacles in a double row. Pedicels numerous and

crowded on the ventral side. Papillae rather

thicker than the pedicels and sparsely arranged.

Peristome rather thick, tough and leathery in

consistency. Anus terminal.

The calcareous ring is not very large. The

radial pieces extend farther forward than

interradials. Radials square-shaped, the anterior

edge of each radial has a rounded incision while

each interradial piece has an anterior tooth.

Posterior margin of the interradial arched. In a

specimen dissected there were four polian

vesicles and 18 stone canals. The right

respiratory tree extends forward to the calcareous

ring and is firmly attached to the body wall and

the left one, which is shorter, is connected with

the extensive rete mirabile of the intestine.

Cuvierian tubules absent.

The spicules (Fig. 1, E) consist of tables

and rosettes. Tables numerous but not crowded.

Each table possesses a smaller annular disc and

a robust spire composed of four rods and one

cross beam. Disc diameter 0.055 mm and

commonly consists of a simple ring with

perforation at the base of each rod. Cross beam

nearer to the disc than to the crown. Spire

surrounded by eight robust horizontal and four

equally strong, sharp, large vertical teeth. Central

hole of the spire subcircular. Height of the spire

varies from 0.06 mm to 0.08 mm and the

breadth of the crowns is about 0.06 mm.

Rosettes small and vary in size from 0.019 to

0.045 mm. Pedicels have well developed

terminal plates. A few bilaterally symmetrical

52

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

fenestrated plates are present close to the

terminal plates of the pedicels. The papillae

contain slightly curved smooth or spinose rods,

mostly with enlarged fenestrated ends.

In the living condition, the colour is black

or very dark brown or reddish-brown. The

pedicels have white sucking discs and the

papillae have white tips. The stocks of the

pedicels and papillae are always black. The

tentacles and the peristome are dark brown.

Notes on habits: This is one of the most

common holothurians around Indian Seas. It is

always found fully exposed in shallow water on

sandy bottoms. During low tide where water

remains as a pool this species is found but it is

never encountered under stones.

Specimens ranging from 110-230 mm were

found in the lagoon with sand coated on them.

Of the 46 specimens examined in the field on

one occasion, only two were free from sand on

the body. Usually specimens ranging in size

from 110-160 mm were common in the lagoon.

At some places 1-10 specimens were found to be

distributed per square metre. Specimens

collected on the outer side of the reef were large

( 400 mm in length) and were found to have the

alga Halimeda inside the alimentary canal.

Suspended matter like mud and sand settles on

the surface of the animal and forms a coat.

Often there are paired rows of round spots free

from sand or mud. This is due to the presence of

two rows of dorsal papillae.

Bakus (1973) stated this species has a toxin

known as holothurm which kills many forms of

life in a ,tide pool. James (1986c) described the

experiments conducted at Port Blair (Andamans)

and also at Mandapam. The toxin kills all marine

life in two hours time when put in a rock pool.

Jones and James (1970) reported an

endoparasitic gastropod Stilifer sp. from the

cloaca of this species. The occurrence of the

parasite is very rare and they also described its

early development. Waren (1983) referred it to

the genus Megadenus.

Conand (1990) has stated that this species is

of low commercial value. H. atra was collected

for processing at Vedalai for the first time in

1992. The specimens ranged from 180-310 mm

in length. The processed material is sold at the

rate of Rs. 50.00 per kilogram.

Distribution: It is known from the islands

of the Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands,

East Africa, Red Sea, South East Arabia, Persian

Gulf, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, East

Indies, North Australia, Philippines, Japan, South

Pacific Islands and Hawaiian Islands.

Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis Lesson

(Fig. 1, F & G)

Holothuria edulis Lesson, 1830, p. 125; Ludwig, 1887,

p. 1227: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 7:

Andaman Island; James, 1969, p. 61: Gulf of Mannar;

James, 1982, p. 5; James, 1983a, p. 98; James, 1988b,

p.404: Gulf of Mannar.

Holothuria albida Bell, 1887a, p. 140: Andaman

Island; Daniel & Haidar, 1974, p. 410: Andamans.

Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis Mary Bai, 1980, p. 12;

Soota et al., 1983, p. 519: Andaman & Nicobar Islands;

Price & Reid, 1985, p. 4: S.W. Kalpitiya (Sri Lanka);

James, 1986a, p. 585: Lakshadweep-Maldives, Andaman-

Nicobar Islands; Mukhopadhyay, 1988, p. 6: Tuticorin.

Material: Mandapam (Gulf of Mannar), 4

specimens, 15 metres; Tuticorin (Gulf of

Mannar), 18 metres; Port Blair (Andamans), 2

specimens, 14 metres.

Description: Length from 90 mm to 300

mm. Body elongate, narrow at the anterior end

and blunt at the posterior end. Minute papillae

found on the dorsal side of the body. Numerous

pedicels on the ventral side. An arrangement into

three rows is discernible in one of the

specimens. There are 20 medium-sized tentacles

surrounded by a rim of black papillae. Skin

smooth and thin. The inner wall of the cloaca is

black in colour.

"\

\

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92 Plate 1

James: Holothuria

A Holothuria ( Selenkothuria ) erinaceus (normal specimen); B. Holothuria ( Selenkothuria ) erinaceus (specimen with two posterior ends);

Holothuria ( Acanthotrapeza ) pyxis; D. Holothuria ( Thymiosycia ) hilla.

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA

53

The calcareous ring (Fig. 1, G) is of

moderate size. In one specimen dissected there

are 37 stone canals and one polian vesicle. Both

the right and left branches of the respiratory

trees are large and of equal size.

Spicules (Fig. 1, F) consist of tables and

buttons. Discs of tables reduced to a ring which

is narrower than the top of the spire. There is a

horizontal beam in the middle of the spire. The

top of the spire is expanded and bears four blunt

spines on each side which can be seen only in

the lateral view. Height of the table varies from

0.052 mm to 0.066 mm and diameter of the

spire varies from 0.037 mm to 0.043 mm. Small

buttons present in the inner layer. The number of

holes varies from 3 to 1 0 and most of them are

incomplete. Length of the buttons varies from

0.026 mm to 0.058 mm and the breadth from

0.017 mm to 0.031 mm. Long supporting rods

which have expanded ends and three to four

holes are present in the pedicels.

In the living condition the body is bright

rose pink which may be obscured by varying

degrees of black pigment. The black colour is

well marked on the dorsal side where it varies

from grey to intense black and at the side it is

replaced by pink. On the ventral side there is no

black colour.

Notes on habits: Both in the Gulf of

Mannar and at Andamans around Port Blair, this

species was collected from shallow depths (4-18

metres). It was never encountered in the

intertidal region at both the places. Rowe and

Doty (1977) report this species in the intertidal

region under stones.

Distribution: It is known from East Africa,

Red Sea, S.E. Arabia.

Subgenus Accinthotrcipeza Rowe, 1969

Diagnosis: Tentacles 20; pedicels irregularly

arranged on the ventral side, papillae small to

large and conical, arranged irregularly on the

dorsal side; body wall soft, fairly thick, usually

3 (2-5) mm; body almost cylindrical but

sometimes ventrally flattened and 'sole'-like; size

small to large, up to 450 mm long; calcareous

ring stout, radical plates squarish, up to twice as

long as interradials; spicules consisting of tables

in combination with rosettes, tables usually large

and clumsy with well developed spinose disc and

low to high spire, the rim of the disc is often

turned up to give the tables a cup-and-saucer

appearance in lateral view.

Type species: Holothuria pyxis Selenka,

1867; designated by Rowe, 1969: 138. Three

species are included under this subgenus. Only

one species is known from Indian Seas.

Holothuria (Acanthotrapeza) pyxis Selenka

(PI. 1, C; Fig. 2, A & B)

Holothuria pyxis Selenka, 1867, p. 337: Java: Koehler

& Vaney, 1908, p. 14: Andamans; James, 1982, p. 5; Daniel

& Haidar, 1974, p. 419: Andamans; James, 1983, p. 93:

South Andamans; Tikader et al. 1986, p. 120: Andaman &

Nicobar Islands; James, 1987, p. 110: Andamans.

Holothuria papillata Bell, 1887a, p. 145: Andaman

Islands.

Holothuria (Acanthotrapeza) pyxis Mary Bai, 1980.

p. 12; Soota, Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983. p. 509:

Nancowry (Camorta Island); James, 1986a, p. 34: Andaman-

Nicobar Islands; James, 1986d, p. 34: South Andamans.

Description: The length of the specimens

examined varied from 270-450 mm. The body is

tubular. The posterior region is bulged and blunt

with the anterior end narrow. A number of

projections are found on the dorsal side. Some

of them are 20 mm in length. They are not

arranged according to any order. However, in

the smallest specimen (270 mm in length) on the

mid-dorsal region there is a double row of

tubercles, the arrangement of which is not very

t

distinct. The projections at the sides are not

distinctly arranged as a row. In the smallest

specimen there are 25 projections longitudinally

54

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Fig. 2. Spicules of A. Holothuria (Acanthotrapeza) pyxis, B. Radial and interradial plates of Ho/othuria (A.) pyxis ;

C. Holothuria (P latyperona) difficilis\ D. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) arenicola; E. Radial and interradial of Holothuria

(T.) impatiens\ F. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) impatiens; G. Radial and interradial plates of Holothuria (T.) hilla\

H. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hilla\ I. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) pervicax\ J. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria)

fuscocinerea.

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA

55

and four transversely. In the largest specimen

(450 mm in length), there are 35 projections

longitudinally and five to seven projections

transversely. On the ventral side, there are four

bands of pedicels. In each band there are five or

six pedicels arranged side by side. The pedicels

are not evident in preserved specimens.

Radials large with a deep notch at the

anterior end, the posterior end straight (Fig. 2,

B). Interradials half the height of the radials and

have a concavity at the posterior margin. A

single stone canal and a single polian vesicle.

The spicules (Fig. 2, A) consist of only

tables in the body wall. Margins of the tables

spiny with four large holes at the centre and a

number of small holes around the margin. Tables

short and end in about 10 short spines. Height of

the tables is 0.04 mm and diameter of the disc

of the tables 0.05 mm.

In the living condition, the dorsal side is

brownish-pink with some of the tubercles

blackish brown. The ventral side is light brown,

with spaces between the bands of the pedicels

yellow.

Distribution: It is known only from the

East Indies and the Andaman Islands. This

species is highly secretive and is likely to be

taken at other places in the Indo-Pacific region.

Notes on habits: The species is always

found under large stones which are well fixed to

the ground. The long and narrow anterior region

is kept out and is seen in constant movement

like a snake. It is impossible to pull out the

specimen without damaging it since the posterior

end is firmly fixed in a crevice of the rock.

Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) leucospilota also

exhibits similar habit though it is easy to take

out complete specimens.

Remarks: Andaman and Nicobar Islands

are well known for the hoiothurians which are

used for Beche-de-mer (James 1983b, 1987).

Panning (1944) lists Holothuria (Acanthotrapeza)

pyxis under the species used for Beche-de-mer.

Due to its large size and thick body wall, this

species should be well suited for Beche-de-mer

preparation. However, the potential of this

species for Beche-de-mer industry remains to be

exploited.

Subgenus Platyperona Rowe, 1969

Diagnosis: Tentacles 18-20; pedicels

crowded, irregularly arranged except in smaller

specimens where they appear to be arranged in

three distinct bands on the flattened ventral

surface, papillae small, irregularly arranged on

the arched dorsal side, a distinct 'collar' of

papillae present around the base of the tentacles;

body wall soft, not very thick, usually 2 (1-5)

mm; body with a distinct flattened ventral 'sole',

arched aborally; size small to moderate, up to

200 mm long; calcareous ring stout, radial plates

about twice as long as the interradial plates;

spicules consisting of well-developed tables, the

disc smooth, round and flat, with a varying

number of peripheral holes, spires of moderate

height, ending in several spines, the buttons

oval, thin, flat, very rarely with a few median

knobs, a median longitudinal ridge is apparent

with three to six pairs of relatively small holes.

Type species: Holothuria difficilis Semper;

designated by Rowe, 1969: 143. Three species

are included under this subgenus of which one

was collected and is presented in this work.

Holothuria (Platyperona) difficilis (Semper)

Holothuria difficilis Semper, 1868, p. 92: Samoa;

Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 6: Andamans.

Microthele difficilis A.M. Clark & Davies, 1966, p.

600: Maldives; James, 1969, p. 61: Lakshadweep;

Nagabhushanam & Rao, 1972, p. 291: Minicoy Atoll

(Lakshadweep).

Holothuria (Platyperona) difficilis Mary Bai, 1980, p.

12; Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 303: Lakshadweep;

Soota, Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 512: Camorta

56

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

(Nicobar); Price & Reid, 1985, p. 5: Sri Lanka; James,

1986a, p. 585: Maldives-Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka; James,

1989b, p. 125: Chetlat, Kiltan, Amini (Lakshadweep).

Material: Chetlat, several specimens;

Amini, Several specimens; Minicoy, two

specimens; all collected under stones.

Description: Length varies from 60 mm to

180 mm. Ventral side well demarcated from the

dorsal.

Papillae scattered on the dorsal side without

any arrangement. Pedicels arranged in three

bands on the ventral side.

The calcareous ring is of the usual type.

The radials have a deep notch at the anterior end

a slight concavity at the posterior end.

Interradials rectangular with an anterior knob-

like projection. Polian vesicles two in number

and the stone canal is single. Left branch of the

respiratory tree is much longer than the right.

Cuvierian tubules thick.

Spicules (Fig. 2, C) consist of table and

buttons. Tables short and robust. Spire with four

rods and numerous teeth at the top. Discs of the

tables either round or squarish, with usually

eight peripheral holes and one large central hole.

Frequently there are several small accessory

holes. The diameter of the table disc is 0.08 mm

to 0.09 mm. Buttons large, smooth and vary

considerably in size, the average length being

0 1 mm. They are broadly elliptical with six or

eight small holes. An apparent median

longitudinal ridge is present for each button. The

number of holes on each side of the button

sometimes varies.

The colour in the living condition is light

brown with dark brown blotches. The posterior

end is tapering. The ventral side is thickly

distributed with pedicels which are yellowish-

brown in colour.

Distribution: It is known from the islands

of Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands,

Red Sea, Maldives, Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka,

Bay of Bengal, East Indies, North Australia,

Philippines, Japan, South Pacific Islands and the

Hawaiian Islands. James (1969) reported this

species for the first time from the Lakshadweep.

Subgenus Thymiosycia Pearson, 1914

Diagnosis: Tentacles 18-20; pedicels and

papillae usually irregularly arranged ventrally

and dorsally, respectively; anal papillae more or

less apparent, a 'collar' of papillae usually

present around the base of the tentacles; body

wall not very thick, usually 2 (1-5) mm; body

vermiform; size small to moderate, up to 200

mm (rarely 250 mm) long; calcareous ring stout,

radial plates up to three times the length of

interradial plates; spicules consisting of fairly

stout tables, the flat disc is squarish or irregular

in outline, rarely reduced, usually with 8-10

peripheral holes, the spire of moderate height,

ending in a cluster of small spines, the buttons

regular or irregular in outline with three or more

pairs of comparatively large holes (except in H.

(Thymiosycia) arenicola which has

comparatively small holes), not flattened, lacking

any appearance of having median longitudinal

ridge, rarely buttons present with slight nodules

or forming hollow fenestrated spheres.

Type species: Fistularia impatiens Forskaal,

1775; designated by Pearson, 1914: 164).

Remarks: Brandtothuria Deichmann 1958,

becomes a junior subjective synonym of

Thymiosycia since its type species, the

circum tropical H. arenicola Semper, according

to Deichmann, is congeneric and consubgeneric

with Fistularia impatiens Forskaal, the type-

species of Thymiosycia according to Rowe

(1969).

Thirteen species are included under this

subgenus. Rowe (1969) is of the opinion that all

the nominal species included under the subgenus

Thymiosycia are not valid. From the Seas around

India, five species are known. Three species

were collected and included in this work.

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA

57

Key to species of the subgenus

1 . Spicules: only tables present

H. (Thymiosycia) aphanes Lampert, 1885

1'. Spicules: tables and buttons present 2

2. Spicules: tall spired tables and six-holed buttons

present

.... H. (Thymiosycia) remollescens Lampert, 1885

2'. Spicules: spires of tables not tall 3

3. Spicules: buttons with small holes

H. (Thymiosycia) areyiicola Semper, 1868

3'. Spicules: buttons with large holes 4

4. spicules: tables stout with cluster of short spines at the

top . . H. (Thymiosycia) impatiens (Forskaal. 1775)

4'. Spicules: tables not stout and with a few spines at the

top H. (Thymiosycia ) hilla Lesson, 1830

Holothuria (Thymiosycia) arenicola Semper

(Fig. 2, D)

Holothuria maculata Bell, 1888, p. 837: Gulf of

Mannar, Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 11: North Andamans.

Holothuria (Thymiosycia) arenicola Mary Bai. 1980,

p. 12; James, 1983a, p. 96; Soota, Mukhopadhyay &

Samanta, 1983, p. 514: Neil Island (Andamans); James,

1986a, p. 585: Lakshadweep-Maldives; James, 1989b, p.

125: Chetlat, Kadmat, Amini. Androth (Lakshadweep).

Material: Port Blair (Andamans), several

specimens; Chetlat, four specimens; Kadmat, two

specimens; Amini, one specimen; Androth, one

specimen; all of them found buried in sand.

Description: Length 30 mm to 200 mm.

Body slender and vermiform. Mouth small and

surrounded by tentacles ventrally. Dorsally, there

are a few papillae. Pedicels small and not

conspicuous and arranged in three bands

ventrally. Midventral band not distinct. In the

other two bands there are 3 or 4 pedicels

arranged in a row. Anus terminal and surrounded

by five groups of four to six short papillae.

The calcareous ring consists of ten pieces,

of which the radials are distinctly longer than the

interradials. There is a single large polian vesicle

and a single stone canal. The gonads are situated

in a single tuft on the left side of the mesentery.

The respiratory trees are long and much

branched.

The spicules (Fig. 2, D) consist of tables,

buttons and supporting plates. Buttons smooth

and regular with six holes with edges regularly

indented between each pair of holes. Sometimes

there are two holes on one side and three on the

other side. Buttons numerous in the body wall

varying in length from 0.065 mm to 0.069 mm,

and from 0.030 mm to 0.032 mm in width. Disc

of the table with smooth border and quadrate-

circular outline. A large hole at the centre and a

small hole at the base of each spire. Peripheral

holes vary in number from four to ten. Spire

made up of four rods, one cross beam and a

crown ending in 10 to 20 teeth. Diameter of the

disc varies from 0.056 mm to 0.061 nun, and

the length of the spire is about 0.041 mm.

Supporting rods of the pedicles smooth, dilated

at the ends and in the middle where three to five

perforations are present. In the middle generally

there are two or three oval holes. The length of

the supporting rods varies from 0.18 mm to 0.21

mm.

In the living condition, the general colour of

the body is white. On the dorsal side, there are

three pairs of reddish-brown spots which are of

different sizes. The dorsal side is also scattered

with very small brown dots which are not

conspicuous. The ventral side is uniformly

white. In large forms (200 mm in length) there

are ten pairs of reddish brown spots. The spots

in the middle region are big. In smaller forms

(60 mm in length) there are only three pairs of

spots. In one specimen there is a light brown

ring round the cloaca. In very small forms (30

mm length) the colour is light brownish-yellow

with a few irregular light brown blotches. The

colour of the spots varies a great deal and

Deichmann (1958) has stated that it depends on

the colour of sand or mud in which they live.

Notes on habits: This is a fairly common

holothurian at Port Blair and also at

58

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Lakshadweep. It is an inactive holothurian, often

completely buried in sand. At Chetlat, when the

tide receded small holes were seen on the sand

through which water was gushing out. This is

caused by this species. It is almost impossible to

take out the specimen completely. The moment

we dig they go deeper into sand, and lower

down there are big stones which make digging

difficult. The pedicels and papillae are highly

reduced, therefore the burrowing must apparently

be effected only by the contraction of the body

muscles. In one of the specimens, a small

Carapid fish Echeliophis (Jordanicus) gracilis

(Bleeker) was found. The details of this

association are given by James (in press).

Mukerji (1932) gave an account of the fishes

associated with holothurians from the Andamans.

Arnold (1953) presented some observations on

the habits of Carapus acus. Jones and Kumaran

(1980) reported three species of Carapids from

Bohadschia marmorata.

Distribution: It is a tropical species from

the West Indies, Red Sea, Zanzibar, Mascarene

Islands, East Indies, Philippines, Southern Japan,

Fiji, Hawaii, Tahiti, Galapagos, Cocos Island and

eastern coast of Australia. James (1989b)

reported this species for the first time from

Lakshadweep.

Holothuria (Thymiosycia) impatiens (Forskaal)

(Fig. 2, E & F)

Fistularia impatiens Forskaal, 1775, p. 121.

Holothuria impatiens Bell, 1887a, p. 140: Andaman

Island; Bell, 1887b. p.654: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Ludwig,

1887, p. 1226: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Bell, 1888, p. 389:

Tuticorin (Gulf of Mannar); Koehler & Vaney, 1908. p. 8:

Andaman Islands, Great Cocos Island, Point Galle (Sri

Lanka); A.M. Clark & Davies. 1966, p. 599: Maldives;

James, 1969, p. 61: Red Sea. Lakshadweep, Andamans;

Nagabhushanam & Rao, 1972, p. 290: Minicoy Atoll

(Lakshadweep); James, 1982, p. 5; James, 1983b, p. 98:

Andamans; Tikader & Das, 1985, p. 99: Andaman &

Nicobar Islands.

Holothuria impatiens war. bicolor James, 1969, p. 61:

Port Blair (Andamans).

Holothuria {Thymiosycia) z>w/>a//msMukhopadhyay &

Samanta, 1983, p. 307: Lakshadweep; Soota, Mukhopadhyay

& Samanta, 1983, p. 514: Corbyn's Cove, Havelock Island,

Katchal Island, Curlew Island, Trinket Island (Andamans);

James, 1986a, p. 585: Lakshadweep-Maldives, Sri Lanka,

Andaman-Nicobar Islands; James, 1989b, p. 125: Chetlat,

Kiltan, Kadmat, Amini, Agatti, Kalpeni, Minicoy

(Lakshadweep).

Material: Port Blair (Andamans), several

specimens; Chetlat, two specimens; Kiltan, two

specimens; Kadmat, one specimen; Amini, two

specimens; Agatti, one specimen; Kalpeni, two

specimens; Minicoy, three specimens

(Lakshadweep); all specimens collected in the

intertidal region under coral stones.

Description: Length from 60 mm to 240

mm. Body bottle-shaped with a long 'neck'.

Superficially the body cannot be differentiated

dorsally and ventrally. Mouth and anus terminal.

Tentacles about 20 crowded around the small

mouth. Body surface covered by \vell developed

papillae placed on low, round warts which are

conspicuous by their lighter colour than the rest

of the body. Papillae scattered fairly evenly over

the surface and not in series. Skin unusually

sandy to touch.

Radial (Fig. 2, E) pieces of the calcareous

ring much larger than interradials and project

forward. The rounded margins have a deep

concavity. Interradial pieces with short teeth. A

single stone canal and one or two polian

vesicles. Cuvierian tubules occur in relatively

large bunches. Respiratory trees slender with a

few branches. Longitudinal muscle bands very

thick.

Spicules (Fig. 2, F) consist of tables,

buttons and supporting plates. Tables arranged in

a crowded manner with the edges of the discs

touching or overlapping each other on the outer

layer. Each table consists of four upright rods

and two cross beams. Spire robust and the top of

the spire with a number of teeth which are level

with the upper cross beam. Disc subquadrate

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA

59

usually provided with nine holes forming three

rows, central hole larger than the other holes.

Diameter of the table discs c. 0.10 mm. Spire

0.09 mm high and 0.05 mm in diameter. Buttons

oval in shape with mostly three pairs of holes,

smooth and with slightly undulating margins and

obtuse ends. Very rarely, with more than three

holes on each side. Length of the buttons varies

from 0.084 mm to 0.10 mm, and breadth from

0.040 mm to 0.049 mm. Supporting rods slightly

curved. Central portion dilated like a ring and

has invariably two holes. Tips slightly expanded

and provided with one to four holes which are

generally smaller than those found at the middle.

Sometimes the tips of the rods in the papillae are

not perforated.

In the living condition, the general colour of

the body is light brown with 4 to 5 dark brown

transverse bands on the dorsal side at the

anterior end. A few dark brown blotches are

also found on the dorsal side on the rest of the

body. The ventral side is uniformly light brown

with three dark bands of the dorsal side

extending to the ventral side near the anterior

end. In young forms (70 mm length) there are

about eight pairs of chocolate brown round

blotches, distinct only in the young. The

specimen referred to as Holothuria impatiens

var. bicolor by James (1969) has a dark purple

body with yellow papillae.

Notes on habits: This is one of the

commonest holothunans found around Port

Blair. It is a secretive form found under dead

coral stones. Often, two or three specimens are

found under the same stone. It occurs together

with Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hilla. On

disturbing the animals, thick Cuvierian tubules

are released. It is an active holothurian unlike

Holothuria (Thymiosycia) arenicola , which is

very inactive.

Distribution: It is known from the islands

of the Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands,

East Africa, Red Sea, South East Arabia, Persian

Gulf, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, East

Indies, North Australia, Philippines, Japan, South

Pacific Islands, Hawaii and China. James (1969)

reported this species from Lakshadweep for the

first time.

Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hilla Lesson

(PI. 1, D; Fig. 2, G & H)

Holothuria hilla Lesson, 1830, p. 266; James, 1969, p.

61: Minicoy, Port Blair; Nagabhushanam & Rao, 1972, p.

290: Minicoy Atoll.

Holothuria monocaria Bell, 1887a, p. 140: Andaman

Islands; Ludwig, 1887, p. 1224: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Bell,

1888, p. 385: Gulf of Mannar; Pearson, 1903, p. 201:

Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 11:

Laccadives(Lakshadweep),Mergui Archipelago, Andamans,

Persian Gulf; Gravely, 1927, p. 164; A.M. Clark & Davies,

1966, p. 603: Maldives; James, 1969, p. 62: Gulf of

Mannar, Andamans, Lakshadweep; Daniel & Haidar, 1974,

p. 428: Lakshadweep & Maldives; Satyamurti, 1976, p. 47:

Shingle Island (Gulf of Mannar); James, 1 988b, p. 404: Gulf

of Mannar.

IHolothuria ondaatjei Bell, 1 887b, p. 654: Ceylon (Sri

Lanka).

Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hilla Mukhopadhyay &

Samanta, 1 983, p. 307 : Lakshadweep; Soota, Mukhopadhyay

& Samanta, 1983, p. 519: Andaman & Nicobar Islands;

James, 1986a, p. 585: Lakshadweep-Maldives, Gulf of

Mannar-Palk Bay, Sri Lanka, Andaman & Nicobar Islands;

Mukhopadhyay, 1988, p. 8: Pulli, Krusadai, Vedalai,

Mandapam Camp, Tuticorin (Gulf of Mannar); James,

1989b, p. 126: Chetlat, Bitra, Kiltan, Kadmat, Amini,

Minicoy (Lakshadweep).

Material: Mandapam (Gulf of Mannar), 1

specimen; Tuticorin (Gulf of Mannar), Port Blair

(Andamans), several specimens; Chetlat, several

specimens; Bitra, two specimens; Kiltan, several

specimens; Kadmat, three specimens; Amini, two

specimens; Minicoy, two specimens; all collected

from the intertidal region under coral stones.

Description: Length from 50 mm to 200

mm. Body long and cylindrical with blunt ends.

Body wall soft. Dorsal and ventral sides

demarcated in the living condition. Papillae

60

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

sparsely arranged and have expanded bases.

Ventral side has numerous pedicels arranged in

three rows. A small space at the anterior end

near the collar is free from pedicels. Each band

of pedicels with five or six tubefeet arranged

side by side. Mouth surrounded by 20

inconspicuous papillae. Tentacles small. Ten anal

papillae.

The calcareous ring is of the usual type with

the radials longer than the interradials (Fig. 2.,

G.). The right respiratory tree is long, extending

up to the anterior end, while the left one is

shorter and joins the viscera. Cuvierian tubules

are present though not abundant. In a specimen

dissected, two polian vesicles and a single stone

canal were present.

Spicules (Fig. 2, H) consist of tables and

buttons. Tables possess smooth rounded discs.

Four large holes corresponding to the four spires

in addition to about fifteen peripheral holes.

Spire of the tables consists of four pillars and

one cross beam which terminates in twelve or

more teeth. Buttons oval, smooth and

symmetrical with three or four pairs of holes.

Holes at either end generally elongate. Length

of the buttons varies from 0.17 mm to 0.28 mm.

Diameter of the disc tables varies from 0.031

mm to 0.038 mm. In young specimens (60 mm

in length), the tables have slightly undulating

margins. The papillae have rudimentary terminal

plates and curved rod-like perforated spicules.

In living condition, small specimens are

chocolate brown in colour and large specimens

are golden brown with a circular pale area

around the appendages.

Notes on habits: This too is one of the

commonest holothurians around Port Blair. It is

a fugitive species always found under coral

stones. Often two or three specimens are found

under the same stone along with Holothurici

(Thymiosycia) impatiens. One of the specimens

collected at Port Blair had a Carapid fish

Encheliophis vermicularis at the base of the

respiratory tree. The behaviour of this fish is

similar to the fish Encheliophis ( Jordanicus )

gracilis collected from Holothuria (Thymiosycia)

arenicola (James, in press).

Distribution: It is known from the islands

of the Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands,

East Africa, Red Sea, South East Arabia, Persian

Gulf, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, East

Indies, North Australia, Philippines, Japan, South

Pacific Islands, Hawaiian Islands and China.

Subgenus Mertensiothuria Deichmann, 1958

Diagnosis: Tentacles 18-20; pedicels

crowded, in smaller forms arranged in three

distinct rows ventrally, papillae small, irregularly

arranged dorsally, anal papillae or 'collor' or

papillae around the base of the tentacles not

apparent; body wall variable, soft, ranging from

thin to fairly thick, usually about 2-3 (1-4) mm;

body almost cylindrical but with a more or less

flattened ventral 'sole'; size moderate to large (up

to 250 mm long); calcareous ring stout with

radial plates about twice as long as the

interradial plates; spicules consisting of not very

strongly developed tables with the rim of the

disc usually spinose and the spire low, ending in

a ring or cluster of spines, the tables

occasionally degenerate or incomplete, buttons

irregular, usually with three pairs of holes,

sometimes incomplete.

Type species: Stichopus leucospilota

Brandt, 1835; designated by Deichmann, 1958.

Under this subgenus, six species are

included. Three of the species are known from

the seas around India, and have been collected

and described in this work.

Key to the species of the subgenus

1. Spicules in inner layer resembling narrow rosettes .

H. (Mertensiothuria) pervicax Selenka, 1867

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA

61

1'. Spicules in inner layer, buttons either complete or

incomplete 2

2. Buttons mostly two slit-like holes and one or two

smaller pairs of holes at either end

. ... H. (Mertensiothuria) fuscocinerea Jaeger, 1 833

2'. Buttons delicate, mostly with large holes, often narrow

. . H. (Mertensiothuria) leucospilota (Brandt, 1835)

Holothuria(Mertensiothuria)pervicaxSelenka

(Fig. 2, I)

Holothuria pervicax Selenka, 1867, p. 327: Zanzibar;

A.M. Clark & Davies, 1966, p. 600: Maldives; James, 1969,

p 61: Lakshadweep.

IHolothuria exilis Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 14: Andaman

Island.

Holothuria (Mertensiothuria ) pervicax James, 1986a,

p. 585: Lakshadweep-Maldives, Sri Lanka, Andaman-

Nicobar Islands; James, 1989b, p. 126: Chetlat, Minicoy

(Lakshadweep).

Material: Chetlat, one specimen; Minicoy,

two specimens; Port Blair (Andamans), one

specimen; all collected from intertidal region

under coral stones.

Description: The specimens examined

ranged in length from 70 mm to 120 mm. They

are subcylindrical in shape. The dorsal and

ventral sides are well differentiated. On the

ventral side there are a number of pedicels

arranged closely without any evidence of band

formation. The papillae are scattered on the

dorsal side. The tentacles are definitely ventral

in position. Cuvierian tubules are thick.

Calcareous ring is of the usual type. There

is a single large polian vescicle and a single

stone canal.

Spicules (Fig. 2, I) consist of incomplete

and oblong rods with lateral projections

resembling narrow rosettes. The disc of the table

is usually subcircular. Each disc has a fairly big

hole at the base of each slender spire. Frequently

supplementary holes are also present. The edge

of the disc is smooth. The diameter of the discs

varies from 0.03 mm to 0.05 mm. The spire has

a cross beam and is frequently incomplete and

ends in four simple teeth. In some cases, the

spire is rudimentary and the crowns have no

transverse pieces. The rosettes vafy in size from

0.023 mm to 0.069 mm in length. They are

irregular and smooth. The pedicels have well

developed plates, but in the papillae they are

rudimentary. The pedicels and papillae, in

addition to long curved rods with short irregular

processes, have bilateral fenestrated plates. These

plates vary in length from 0.30 mm to 0.36 mm.

Those plates which are in the neighbourhood of

the terminal plates of the pedicels are formed by

the branching and joining of the lateral processes

of the supporting rods.

In the living condition, the dorsal side is

brown in colour with 5 to 7 honey coloured

transverse bands of different widths. The ventral

side is lighter, mottled with white and light

violet on a brown background. The cloacal

opening is surrounded by a dark violet ring with

some portion of the inner cloacal wall of the

same colour.

Remarks: This is a rare species, both at

Lakshadweep and the Andamans.

Distribution: It is known from the islands

of the Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands,

East Africa, Red Sea, South East Arabia,

Maldives, Sri Lanka, East Indies, North

Australia, Philippines, South Pacific Islands and

Hawaiian Islands. It was reported for the first

time from Lakshadweep by James (1969). James

(1986a) also reported this species for the first

time from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) fuscocinerea

Jaeger (Fig. 2, J)

Holothuria fuscocinerea Jaeger, 1833, p. 22: Celebes;

Ludwig, 1887, p. 1227: Ceylon (Sri Lanka).

Holothuria curiosa Pearson, 1910, p. 188: Mergui

Archipelago.

Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) fuscocinerea

Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 304: Lakshadweep;

James, 1986a, p. 585: Sri Lanka and Andamans.

62

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Material: Port Blair (Andamans), one

specimen, collected under coral stone in the

intertidal region.

Description: The length of the specimen is

120 mm. The body is long and tubular with 20

large ventral tentacles. Tentacles on the ventral

side are arranged in three, though not distinct

bands The papillae on the dorsal side are

scattered. There is a single polian vesicle and a

large stone canal. Cuvierian tubules are large.

In the specimen examined only buttons (Fig.

2, J) were noticed. Buttons are small and often

incomplete. Usually each button has two narrow

slit-like holes and one or two pairs of minute

holes at each end. The length of the buttons

varies from 0.01 mm to 0.04 mm.

Colour in the living condition is brownish,

more or less mottled. Ventral side is pale grey.

Distribution: It is known from Sri Lanka,

Philippines, Celebes, Fiji, Samoa, Australia and

Japan. James (1986a) recorded it for the first

time from the Islands.

(to he continued)

ECOLOGY OF POLLINATION IN TWO CAT-MINT SPECIES

Raju J.S. Aluri and C. Subba Reddi2

Key words: Anisomeles, pollination, carpenter bees, sunbirds

The herbaceous perennials, Anisomeles malabarica and A. indica grow from perennating root stock and

seed. A. indica produces flowering episodes in correspondence with water-saturation of the soil while

Anisomeles malabarica does not. The floral morphology and pollination mechanism of the two species are

similar. The plants resort to self -pollination shortly before flowers turn disfunctional in the absence of

pollinators. Both plants are nototribically pollinated by some species of carpenter bees and sunbirds during

probing for floral forage. The pollinators by their forage collecting behaviour coupled with territorial and

traplining behaviour greatly augment cross-pollination in the plants. The data presented in the paper are

valuable for commercial breeding.

Introduction

The Asian-Australian genus Anisomeles

belongs to the tribe Lamieae of the subfamily

Lamiodeae (Abu-Asab and Cantino 1987) and is

taxonomically characterised by glandular-hairy

floral parts, and upper pair of stamens with 1-

celled anthers and a lower pair with 2-celled

anthers. The essential floral parts always extend

dorsally in the corolla tube, proximate to or

along the upper corolla lip, and not along the

lower lip as in the subfamily Ocimoideae.

Except for a small note on the flower

morphology and foragers of Anisomeles indica

by Burkill (1916), there is no information on the

details of ecological aspects of pollination in the

genus Anisomeles. The pollination biology data

are required to understand sexual reproduction

and perpetuation of weedy species.

The paper describes ecological aspects of

pollination in Anisomeles indica and Anisomeles

malabarica in India. The investigation was made

with a view to provide information on

pollination of the plants for extensive

commercial uses.

’Accepted November 1992.

Department ol Environmental Sciences, Andhra U ni versity,

Waltair 530 003.

Observations

1. Plant and flowering phenology

Anisomeles malabarica grows in disturbed

and undisturbed areas with soils saturated and

unsaturated, while Anisomeles indica is confined

to undisturbed areas with only water-saturated

soils on foot hills of Nallamalai range near

Turimella (15 10’ and 16' 18' N, 78 45* and

79 34' E) of Prakasam district of Andhra

Pradesh, India. The two species are herbaceous

perennials and grow from perennating root stock

and seed. The perennial root stock produces

rapidly growing and early flowering plants,

while plants that develop from seed appear later

and flower later. Anisomeles malabarica starts

vegetative growth with the first rains of the

monsoon and continues until flowering is

initiated. The plant can extend vegetative growth

beyond flowering. The plant commences

vegetative growth in July, flowers in mid-

October and disappears in January.

Anisomeles indica primarily inhabiting

stream edges does not show vegetative growth

following first rains. Streams in this area are

rain -fed and used for irrigating local farmlands

through regulation of water flow by diverting

excess water into reservoirs. The plant begins

64

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

vegetative growth only when the soil is water-

saturated. The water-saturation of the soil of the

area depends on water flow in streams. The

vegetative growth and flowering of the plant fall

during the period from October to mid-January.

The plant exhibits flowering episodes in

response to the water content of the soil where

it grows.

2. The Flower

The flower details of the two Anisomeles

species are similar to each other. The purple and

fragrant flowers are borne in verticils on the

stem. Within a verticil the flowers are arranged

in rings. New flowers open daily from each

verticil and each flower lasts 2 days. The flowers

are gullet type and distinctly bilabiate with a

small upper lip and a broad expanded lower lip.

They have a basal corolla tube containing a good

amount of nectar (1.6- 1.8 pi) having 32-48%

sugar concentration and protected from

unwelcome foragers by a ring of hairs from the

base of the flowertube at the point where the

stamens are inserted. The anthers which dehisce

prior to anthesis are oriented downward at the

upper lip of the corolla, thereby brushing pollen

onto the anterior dorsal part of the flower. The

bilobed stigma protrudes little beyond the

anthers. The spreading lower lip acts as landing

place for the insect foragers.

The sugar composition of the two

Anisomeles species nectar determined by paper

chromatography indicated presence of glucose,

sucrose and fructose.

3. Pollination

Anisomeles malabarica antheses during the

night from 0100 to 0500 hr and Anisomeles

indica in the early morning from 0530 to 0730

hr, the flowers of both are available for day-time

foragers. The flowers are foraged by day-flying

bees, wasps, ants, thrips, butterflies and sunbirds.

The foragers seem attracted to the purple colour

of the flowers with sweet fragrance, ample

pollen and copious nectar. Of these, only

carpenter bees and sunbirds are regular and

perform effective and efficient pollination. The

other foragers occasionally visit the flowers and

some of them deplete floral forage by probing

from the side of the flowers bypassing the

pollination apparatus. The carpenter bees after

landing on the strong lower lip probe flowers

nototribically in upright position for nectar

during which the stigma situated near the tip of

the upper lip contacts the residual pollen in the

dorsal cervical crevice of the bees.

The bees exhibit territorial foraging

behaviour defending selected plant populations

of Anisomeles from intruders depleting floral

forage by remembering space constellations and

images of the region. The bees also display trap-

lining behaviour by foraging on discontinuously

stretched flowering Anisomeles in a selected

region visited on their regular rounds. The dual

foraging behaviour displayed by carpenter bees

greatly profit the plants in outcrossing.

Sunbirds are as regular and effective as

carpenter bees in performing the pollination in

Anisomeles species. They forage for nectar in the

flowers from the front in vertical position. Their

foraging for the hidden nectar through the

protective ring of floral hairs near the staminal

base results in the contact of the bilobed stigma

and the anthers with the bill and forehead of the

birds. The Anisomeles species are used as

feeding stations by the birds throughout the

winter season. There are no other species of

flowers and the birds totally rely on Anisomeles

flowers for food source.

The flowers of both species resort to self-

pollination by reflecting the stigmatic lobes

striking the powdery pollen in the anthers below.

ECOLOGY OF POLLINATION IN TWO CAT-MINT SPECIES

65

This physiological movement of the stigma

occurs shortly before the stigma turns brown and

becomes dry. The auto-pollination occurs only in

those flowers which have not been visited by

foragers of any kind.

Discussion

Since the two Anisomeles species are

herbaceous perennials, they reproduce asexually

from perennating root stock and sexually by

seed. Sexual reproduction of the plants involves

seasonal or timely production of flowers

coinciding the availability of pollinators.

Flowering in Anisomeles malabarica is

independent of water-saturation of the soil after

the plant's vegetative growth. In contrast, the

flowering on Anisomeles indicci seems regulated

by water quantity of the soil which causes

flowering episodes. Attempts to test this

phenomenon in a green house by growing this

plant experimentally have been made without

success. Seeds of this plant did not germinate in

different treatments, and it appears that there are

unknown barriers for breaking dormancy and

subsequent germination (Alun unpubl. data;

Cantino pers. comm ).

The two Anisomeles species have a

personate floral form with stamens and style

extending beyond the upper lip and resulting in

the classical gullet type blossom credited for

precision and economy in pollen transfer by

nototnby. The purple colour of the flowers

appears to act as the main attractant coupled

with flower density, amplified by patchy

distribution of the plants. The purple flowers

seem to reflect blue component which the insect

foragers can see. Experimental evidence for this

phenomenon has been repeatedly shown in the

purple flowered Pedicularis species which reflect

blue component and ultraviolet light and are

pollinated by bumble bees (Macior 1968, 1982,

1986a, b, c).

Recorded observations on the foragers of

the two Anisomeles species suggest that only the

carpenter bees and sunbirds are suitable and

functional pollinators which orderly and

precisely effect pollination by manipulation of

the floral mechanism (Proctor and Yeo 1972,

Faegri and Van der Pi if 1979). Burkill (1916)

also observed carpenter bees as appropriate

pollinators of Anisomeles indica. Other foragers

by their occasional and intra-floral behaviour

mainly deplete the floral forage thereby

influencing the intensity of foraging visits of the

functional pollinators.

The flower form with sexual organs

positioned near the upper lip and with the

spreading strong lower lip facilitates adequate

landing place for the large bodied carpenter bees

( Xylocopa latipes and X. pubescens). The bees

nototribically pollinate the flowers by their

probing in upright position dorsally contacting in

the cervical crevice region and the anteriorly

placed anthers and stigma near the upper lip.

Since the plants resort to self-pollination

extending the stigmatic lobes into the pollen-

laden anthers shortly before the stigma becomes

dry and brown in the absence of pollinators, the

plants appear to have a preference for cross-

pollination. The carpenter bees by their

nototribic foraging behaviour and inter-plant and

patch movement cross-poilinate the flower. The

latter movement of the bees is exhibited in

territorial and trap-lining behaviour, both of

which are instrumental for effective cross-

pollination. Such behaviour of the bees on

different plants has been documented by several

workers (Fiji 1954, Janzen 1964, Frankie 1976,

Barrows 1980, Frankie et al. 1983).

The sunbirds also probe the flowers

nototribically by landing on intemodes of the

inflorescence, inserting their bill and forehead

into the flower mouth leading to the nectary and

66

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

contacting the bifid stigma with their pollen-

laden posterior edge of the bill and anterior edge

of the forehead. The birds do not employ

foraging methods exhibited by carpenter bees.

They, however, use flowering Anisomeles

populations as feeding stations and daily forage

on the flowers by having nests nearby in the

branches of Euphorbia antiquorum. The

carpenter bees also use the plants of some

species for nest-making in the Anisomeles

growing area. The birds also contribute to active

pollen flow for cross-pollination by their regular

and effective foraging on the plants within and

between patches. Both carpenter bees ( Xylocopa

latipes and X. pubescens) and sunbirds

( Nectarinia asiatica and N. zeylonica) are thus

equally important for pollen transfer in the two

Anisomeles species.

The two Anisomeles species occupy the

same geographic area but separated by habitat.

Refe

Abu-Asar. M.S. & P.D. Canting (1987): Phylogenetic

implications of leaf anatomy in subtribe Melittidinae

(Labiatae) and related taxa. Arnold A bor. 68: 1-34.

Barrows, E.M. (1980): Robbing of exotic plants by

introduced carpenter and honey bees in Hawaii, with

comparative notes. Biolropica 12: 23-29.

Burkill, I.H. (1916): Notes on the pollination of flowers in

India. Note 8, Miscellanea. J. Astatic Soc. Bengal. 12:

239-265.

Faegri, K. & L. Van der Pijl (1979): The principles of

pollination ecology. Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Frankie, G.W. (1976): Pollination of widely dispersed trees

by animals in Central America, with an emphasis on

bee-pollination systems. In: Tropical Trees: Variation,

Breeding and Conservation, Eds. J. Burley and B.T.

Styles. Academic Press (London), pp. 151-159.

Frankie, G.W., W.A. Haber, P.A. Opler & K.S. Bawa

(1983): Characteristics and organisation of the large bee

pollination system in the Costa Rican dry forest. In:

Handbook of Experimental Pollination Biology, Eds.

C.E. Jones and R.J. Little. Von Nostrand Reinhold

(New York), pp. 411-447.

Janzen. D.H. (1964): Notes on the behavior of flower

subspecies of the carpenter bees Xylocopa

This habitat separation is not instrumental in

preventing natural inter-breeding between the

two plant species since carpenter bees and

sunbirds are long distance flyers and make

foraging movements between the two plant

species. Such alternate foraging of the

pollinators is likely to result in inter-breeding

provided that the genomes of the plants are

compatible for crossing.

Field surveys in the study area indicate that

one plant resembles in the vegetative and floral

features of both Anisomeles indica and

Anisomeles malabarica. Extensive study is

needed to understand how this plant has resulted.

Attempts are being made to test this by

hybridization raising the plants from the seeds

fed with its natural soil in a green house. If the

results indicate viable and vigorous hybrids, the

data would then form a basis for further studies

on commercial lines.

NCES

( Notoxylocopa ) tabaniformia in Mexico. Ann. Entomol.

Soc. Am. 57: 296-301.

Macior, L.W. (1968): Pollination adaptation in Pedicularis

groenlandica. Am. J. Bot. 55: 927-932.

Macior, L.W. (1982). Plant community and pollinator

dynamics in the evolution of pollination mechanisms in

Pedicularis (Scrophulariaceae). In: Pollination and

Evolution, Eds. J.A. Armstrong, J.M. Powell and A.J.

Richards, Royal Botanical Gardens (Sydney), pp. 29-45.

Macior, L.W. (1986a): Pollination ecology and endemic

adaptation of Pedicularis howellii (Scrophulariaceae).

PI. Sp. Biol. 1: 163-172.

Macior, L.W. (1986b): Pollination ecology and endemism of

Pedicularis pulchella Pennell (Scrophulariaceae). PI. Sp.

Biol. 1: 173-180.

Macior, L.W. (1986c): The fernflowers (Pedicularis) and

their pollinators - A study in coadaptation. Bull. Native

Plant Soc. N.E. Ohio 4: 3-9.

Pijl, Van Der, L. (1954): Xylocopa and flowers of the

Tropics I. The bees as pollinators: Lists of the flowers

visited. Proc. Koninkl. Nederl. Akad. Van.

Wetenschappen (Amsterdam) Series C 57: 413-423.

Proctor, M. & P. Yeo (1972): The pollination of flowers.

Taplinger, New York.

A STUDY OF ABNORMAL NESTS OF BAYA WEAVER BIRD PLOCEUS

PHILIPPINUS (LINN.) IN RAJASTHAN1

Satish Kumar Sharma2

( With six text-figures)

Key words: abnormal nests, monostoreyed nests, multistoreyed nests, symmetry,

simple harmonic motion, stofeyfication, nest fusion

The Baya Weaver Bird Ploceus philippinus (Linn.) is a colonial nester. Besides normal nests, various

types of abnormal nests are fabricated by cocks during breeding period. Many abnormalities can be seen in

nests of Bayas, either structural or orientational or both. Keeping abnormalities in view, as many as 16 types

of abnormal nests were observed in Rajasthan. There is a trend towards bistoreyed nests followed by fused

nests.

This paper describes a field study of various

qualitative and quantitative aspects of abnormal

nesting in sexually mature male Baya weaver

bird Ploceus philippinus (Linn.). Besides a few

stray notes and papers that had appeared in

various journals (Jesse 1897, Prater 1932, Ali

and Ambedkar 1956, Ambedkar 1964, 1980;

Crook 1964, Sharma 1985, 1988; Davis 1985)

no systematic study has been done so far on this

aspect. Ambedkar (1980) has given a good

account of multistoreyed and composite nests.

Sharma (1985) gives a detailed account of some

qualitative aspects of abnormal nesting in Baya

Weaver Bird Ploceus philippinus (Linn.).

Study area

The study was carried out mainly in four

districts, namely Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur of

eastern Rajasthan and Udaipur in southern

Rajasthan.

Eastern Rajasthan is a fairly plain area

receiving an average annual rainfall of 675 mm.

The southern part of the state is hilly and

receives more rainfall (up to 1000 mm.).

1 Accepted December 1992.

O .

Range Forest Officer, Aravalli Afforestation Programme,

Jhadol (F.), Udaipur Dist., Rajasthan.

Materials and Methods

A large number of nest colonies of Ploceus

philippinus (Linn.) were observed in the

agricultural fields, ravines, forest fringes and

area around water bodies. Abandoned abnormal

nests were collected at the end of the monsoon

rains when breeding activities of weaver birds

come to an end. Parent birds then, leave their

nests along with the juveniles. Nests were

collected by a bamboo, having sharp hook at its

upper end. When nests were beyond reach, their

sketches were made on paper or they were

photographed at the spot. Internal structure of

the nest was examined by bisecting the nests at

different planes, using scissors.

General plan of a normal nest

A typical completed nest of P. philippinus

(Linn.) is a bottle shaped structure and can be

divided into three parts - stalk, body and

entrance tube. A normal completed nest of P.

philippinus (Linn.) has its entrance tube slightly

shifted towards the entrance-hall side due to

which more bulging appears towards the egg-

chamber. Due to this position of the entrance

tube a completed nest can be divided into two

equal halves across the chin-strip only, hence

68

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Norma!

Completed Nest

Two unequal halves of Nest

in (A) condition(T.S)

divided into two bedivided

equal halves into two equal

along the chin halves across

strip chin strip

Two equal halves of Nest in

(B) condition (T.S )

Fig. 1. Symmetry of normal completed nest at two planes.

they are zygomorphic in terms of symmetry

(Fig. 1).

Incomplete nests are precursors of

completed nests. They are bell shaped in

structure, lacking an entrance tube and the

characteristic 'dome' of the egg-chamber (Fig. 2).

Details of structure of normal nests are

given elsewhere (Ali 1931, Ali and Ambedkar

1956, 1957; Ambedkar 1958, 1964; Crook 1960,

Mathew 1976, Sharma 1985).

Qualitative aspects of abnormal nests

Besides typical nests, which are otherwise

called normal nests, various types of abnormal

nests are prepared by sexually mature male birds

during breeding season. Many variations can be

seen in nests of Bay as which make a nest

abnormal.

A. Abnormality in structure of nest or any

part of it. Abnormal structure(s) may appear

due to:

ABNORMAL NESTS OF BAY A WEAVER BIRD

69

(i) Duplication of part(s), or/and (ii)

Formation of additional part(s), or/and

(iii) Elaboration of normal part(s), or/and

(iv) Abolition of normal part(s).

B. Abnormality in position of nest or any

part of it.

As indicated above, there may be many

kinds of abnormalities. When one type of

abnormality is present in nest it may be called a

ormal nests in their construction and general

plan. Each individual monostoreyed nest

possesses only one egg chamber in the only

storey-hence monostoreyed. Details of different

kinds of monostoreyed nests are given in Fig. 2.

Belljar shaped nests: These are completed

nests with very wide entrance tube through out

or most of its length. Though lower most part of

the entrance tube may become dilated due to

simple abnormal nest and when more than one

type of abnormalities appear in it, it may be

called mixed or complex abnormal nest.

A simple classification of abnormal nests is

given in the diagram.

A. Monostoreyed nests:

A class of simple nests, much similar to

continuous clinging on by the bird in normal

nests also, but in belljar-shaped nests widening

could be seen throughout length of tube. Rather

it is structural widening which does not appear

due to clinging.

Buttressed nests: In certain cases a mesh of

woven fabrics may occur at any angular region

of nest. It was noticed that such type of mesh

always occurs vertically on the body of the nest,

70

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Bell - Jar

shaped

Nest

Nest with

double

openings

Buttressed Multistalked

Nest Nest

Wide

stalked

Nest

Chained Nest

2a

Meshed Nest

Blind Nest

Closed Nest

Stalkless

Nest

Symmetrical

Nest

Symmetrical Nest con

be divide into two

equal halves

at two planes

Stomach

shaped

Nest

2b

Fig. 2a. Mono-storeyed nests of various kinds with structural abnormalities;

2b. Mono-storeyed nests with orientational abnormalities.

i.e. across the chin strip on either the outer front

wall of the egg chamber or the entrance hall.

Sharma (1988) has described such nests

elsewhere.

Blind nests: Sometimes a denser mesh may

occur on both the openings of a half built nest,

making it tightly closed. Such nests when

viewed externally give no clue of openings.

These club shaped nests having a short stalk,

look like a spherical mass (Davis 1985).

Closed nests: These are completed or

uncompleted nests, which resemble blind nests,

but their opening(s) could be traced externally

due to the presence of thin mesh over the

opening(s).

Stalkless nests: Stalkless nests are

fabricated by Ploceus benghalensis and P.

manyar in reeds and grasses. Ploceus philippinus

is a bird which fabricates stalked nest on trees

and high bushes, but in certain cases stalkless

nests could be seen in nature. Stalkless nests are

hardly ever accepted by female birds, hence they

are seldom completed by the cock.

Multistalked nests: In normal cases only

one stalk is fabricated by the cock. But, in many

cases more than one stalk may occur, hence

multistalked nest. The presence of two or more

stalks provide extra attachment strength to the

nest. Such type of nests are common on Phoenix

sylvestris. It is the height of the P. sylvestris

which makes a hanging nest prone to simple

harmonic motion on windy days. Hence, to

minimize such a pendulous motion more than

one pinnae are involved for stalking the nest.

Some times the gap between two stalks is

blocked by a woven mesh, due to which a nest

becomes 'wide stalked nest'. This device is

equally good to minimize the simple harmonic

motion.

ABNORMAL NESTS OF BAY A WEAVER BIRD

71

Chained nests: In normal cases a male bird

keeps a distance between two successive nests

hanging on the same branch No phy sical contact

is seen between the nests; but sometimes nests

could be joined with a mesh of woven fibres

which is fabricated along and around the twig

itself. This is the simplest way to join the nests.

Actual nests remain normal in structure

Meshed nests: Often, instead of making a

mesh around the twig, it is extended beneath the

twig on which nests are hung. This flap like

mesh is used to join the down stalk angular

point of the top nest with the upper stalk angular

point of the lower nest (Sharma 1988).

Completed nests with double openings:

Though uncompleted nests always contain two

openings, a typical completed nest possesses

only one for use. An additional opening with an

additional very small tube was seen in a

completed nest in 1980 on National Highway 1 1

near village Hantara in District Bharatpur

(unpublished). This particular nest held eggs at

the time of observation and double openings

were maintained right from the pre-hatching

stages, hence the nest was a truly double

opening nest.

It was observed that sometimes an

additional opening may be created in those nests

which have fledglings about to leave the nest.

This opening is created near the egg chamber to

shorten the length of the entrance tube so that

the number ol feeding trips could be increased

for growing chicks. This is the case where

double openings are maintained during the post-

hatching stage. Hence such nests are not truly

double opening nests.

Fused nests or Composite nests: Distance

between two nests, in chained and meshed kind

is kept shorter so that they could be linked

easily. In both the cases linking is very loose

and nests do not come in direct contact. Some

times this inter-nest distance is further reduced

and two or more successive nests are made side

by side in physical contact. Various degrees of

fusion could be seen between two closely

hanging nests. Their fusion may be partial or

total. Actually, a fused nest is an aggregation of

parallelv fused two or more completed or/and

uncompleted nests. It is remarkable to note that

the base of the each individual nest of a 'fused

complex' has independent attachment on

branch(es) of the host tree. Fused nests have

been recorded from different parts of the country

by Prater (1932) and Ambedkar (1980) also.

Branched nest: In fused nests, all

individual nests of a 'fused complex' seek their

attachment on twig(s) but this attachment pattern

is not followed in a branched nest. In such a

nest, besides one (main nest), the side nest(s)

commences from any part of the main nest,

except from the bottom of the tube. Due to this

abnormal hanging pattern of individual nests, a

branching nest comes into existence. Branched

nests may be of two types:

i) Free branching nest: Branches, l.c. side

nests are not fused with the main nest.

ii) Fused branching nest.: Side nests are

fused with the main nest. Such nests may be

either 'partially fused' or 'totally fused*

according to the degree of fusion.

Symmetrical nests: The position of the egg

chamber and the entrance hall could be

identified in ordinary completed nests due to the

position of the entrance tube, which occurs

slightly shifted towards the entrance hall side.

Not only this, but a greater bulge could be seen

towards the egg-chamber half also. Such a nest

could be divided into two equal halves from one

plane only, i.e. across the chin-strip.

Sometimes the entrance tube is kept exactly

centered so that both halves get similar bulges.

In such a condition, even an expert could make

mistakes in identifying the egg-chamber half

externally. Such nest could be divided into two

72

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

equal halves at two different planes

(perpendicular to each other) - across the chin-

strip and along the chin-strip; hence such nests

are actinomorphic in terms of symmetry.

Stomach shaped nests: In ordinary cases

the stalk is seen towards the upper terminal

portion of the nest and all the three parts of a

completed nest, namely stalk, body and tube

remain in a straight vertical line. In stomach-

shaped nest, alignment of the nest becomes

disturbed and the stalk and the tube take a more

or less perpendicular position on the body of the

nest. Due to this abnormal position of the stalk

and tube a nest looks like a human stomach in

appearance - hence stomach shaped nest.

B. Multistoreyed nests:

A complicated group of nests, generally

possessing more than one egg-chamber in a

series vertically, and more than one storey built

in the same fashion - hence, multistoreyed.

Actually a multistoreyed nest is a linear fusion

of two or more monostoreyed nests along their

vertical axes in a series. Ambedkar (1980) called

such nests as 'abnormal multi-chambered linear

nest'. Details of multistoreyed nests are given

below:

Pseudo-bistoreyed nests: These are

completed nests, basically monostoreyed in

structure, having one egg chamber like a normal

nest; but they present a false appearance of being

double egg chambered and double storeyed,

externally. Upper storey of such nests having no

cavity, i.e. totally solid due to woven mass of

fabrics. It is the lower storey which contains

egg-chamber in it (see Fig. 3).

Bistoreyed nests: These are truly

bistoreyed, formed by the fusion of two

completed or two half completed or one

completed and one half completed nest in

vertical plane, i.e. along their vertical axes. Such

Pseudo-

bistoreyed

Nest

Pseudo

bistoreyed

Nest in L S-

Fig. 3. Pseudo-bistoreyed nest (0 + 1 Storey).

nests having two storeys, have two egg-chambers

in reality. In such complicated nests the lower

nest commences from the bottom of the entrance

tube of the upper nest. In most of the cases the

upper storey is useless as the entrance is closed

up by the lower nest (see Fig. 4).

"Chain-storeyed nests: Chain storeyed

nests are more complicated than the bistoreyed

and are formed when more than two nests are

fused along their vertical axes in a series. In

Rajasthan state, only three storeyed nests have

been observed during the study period so far,

though a 'six storeyed' nest had been recorded

from Pune by Ambedkar (1980); but in the

present classification of abnormal nests,

Ambedkar's six storeyed nest will be kept under

3Chain-storeyed nests were described as poly-storeyed

nests by Sharma(1985). Because the term multistoreyed and

polystoreyed are synonymous hence to differentiate them,

term 'chain-storeyed nest' is used for polystoreyed nest in the

present paper.

.ABNORMAL NESTS OF BAY A WEAVER BIRD

73

1*1 Storeys

1 A/0 Storeys

2 V2*1 Storeys

a

V2*V2 Storeys

Fig. 4. a. Bistoreyed nests in external appearance; b. A bistoreyed nest in L.S. (upper storey blocked); c. A bistoreved

nest with both the 'alive' storeys.

mixed abnormal group. Chain-storeyed nests

have been described by Davis (1985) also.

Various combinations of half built and

completed nests are possible in chain storeyed

nests (see Fig. 5).

C. Mixed abnormal nests;

Such nests possess a combination of more

than one kind of abnormality. Sometimes linear

storeys as well as adjacent fusion may occur in

the same nest complex. Combination of other

abnormalities are also possible. This category of

nests could be considered most complicated in

terms abnormality (see Fig. 6).

Quantitative aspect of abnormal nests: A

total 2996 nests were examined between 1982

and 1988 from four districts of Rajasthan state to

study the trends of abnormalities. The findings

are given in Table 1.

Discussion

It is clear from table 1 that there is a trend

towards bistoreyed nests followed by fused nests

in the state of Rajasthan. Why and how

abnormal nests are prepared by the Baya Weaver

Bird, is beyond the scope of this paper, however

a few related points will be discussed .

Fig. 5. Chain-storeyed nest.

Fig. 6. Mixed abnormal nest.

It is well known that armed host trees are

preferred by the Baya for nesting, probably for

Table 1

ABNORMAL NESTS OF PLOCEUS PHILIPPI YiS

74

JOURNAL.., BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Xl

c

d

c

■*— *

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H

03

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<— 1

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75

-t-*

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A. Bell Jar shaped; B. Buttressed; C. Blind; D. Closed; E. Stalkless; F. Multistalked; G. Chained; H. Meshed; E Fused; J. Branched; K. Symmetrical; F.

Stomach shaped; M, Completed nest with double opening.

* Multistalked nests seen on dicot trees are depicted here. Those seen on Phoenix sylvestris are not included.

ABNORMAL NESTS OF BAY A WEAVER BIRD

75

safety. The nests are often tossed around by

wind and get entangled by the spines at

inconvenient angles. To overcome this problem

buttressed or widestalked or multistalked or

stalkless or even shortstalked nests may be

fabricated Such nests are least subjected to

conditions like simple harmonic motion due to

wind thrusts Stomach shaped nests are equally

good to avoid SHM due to their peculiar

alignment.

Though bistoreved nests are common in

Rajasthan, field observations reveal that more

than three storeyed nests are not present in the

study area. Multi-storeyed nests were noticed by

Davis (1985) and Ambedkar (1980) in those

areas where comparatively long monsoon periods

prevail. In Rajasthan, the monsoon period is

very short (2 months). The period of two months

is very short to fabricate 6 to 10 nests, hence

extensive sto revocation cannot be expected. That

is why 'long chains of nests' are very rare in

Rajasthan.

'Intra bird nest' fusion was seen in all the

cases; no 'inter bird nest' fusion was observed in

any colony. It suggests that the Indian Baya

Weaver Bird has only reached up to a 'colonial

nesting' level and has not yet reached the 'social

nesting' stage like the social weaver bird

( Philetaims socms) of South Africa.

The viewing of a double opening completed

nest was quite an exciting experience, a rather

rare happening in the breeding biology of the

Baya Weaver Bird An additional opening

perhaps may be of use during emergency for

escaping from the nest. It may be a useful device

to shorten the length of the entrance tube to

facilitate a larger number of feeding trips to keep

pace with requirement of food for rapidly

growing chicks Though such nests have some

advantages, the disadvantages are that they arc

quite prone to attack by predators.

Acknowledgements

1 express my sincere thanks to the late Dr

Salim Ali and Dr. Shiva Sharma, Botany Dept..

University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, for their

capable guidance and encouragement. I would

like to express my sincere thanks to all those

forest officials and villagers who had helped me

in various ways during this study. I thank Dr.

Prabhakar Joshi for going through the

manuscripts.

References

Ali, S. (1931): The nesting habits of the Baya ( Plocens

philippinus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34(4): 947-

964.

Ali, S. & V.C. Ambedkar (1956): Notes on the Baya

weaver Bird. J. Bombay ; nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 381-389.

ALI, S. & V.C. Ambedkar (1957): Further notes on the

Baya weaver Bird. Ploceus philippinus (Linn ). J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54(3): 491-502.

AMBEDKAR. V.C. (1958): Notes on the Baya: Breeding

season 1957. ./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(1): 100-

106.

AMBEDKAR. V.C. (1964): Some Indian Weaver Birds. A

contribution to their breeding biology (M.Sc. thesis).

University of Bombay.

AMBEDKAR, V.C. (1980): Abnormal nests of the Baya

Weaver Bird Ploceus philippinus (Linn.). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (Supplement).: 1205-1211.

CROOK, J.H. (1960): Studies on the reproductive behaviour

of the Baya Weaver Bird Ploceus philippinus (Linn ).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57(1): 1-44.

CROOK, J.H. (1964): Field experiments on the nest

construction and repair behaviour of certain weaver

birds. Proc. Zoo/. Soc. Lond. 142: 217-255.

DAVIS, T.A. (1985): "Blind" or "closed" nests of Baya

Weaver Bird. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(3): 658-

660.

JESSE, W. (1897): Bird nesting in and around Lucknow. Ibis

7(3): 554-562.

MATHEW, D.N. (1976): Ecology of the weaver birds. ./.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73(2): 249-260.

76

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

PRATER, S.H. (1932): Double nests of the Weaver Bird

(Ploceus philippinus ). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35:

681-683.

SHARMA, S.K. (1985): A study on qualitative aspect of

abnormal nesting in Baya Weaver Bird Ploceus

philippinus Linn. J. Southern forest Rangers College,

Coimbature 60: 5054.

SHARMA, S.K. (1988): Buttressed nest of Baya Weaver Bird

Ploceus philippinus (Linn.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

85(2): 432.

AGE DETERMINATION OF DOLPHINS ENTANGLED IN GILLNETS ALONG THE

KERALA COAST1

R.S. Lal Mohan2

( With two plates )

Key words: Stenella longirostris , Sousa chinensis , Tursiops truncatus , Neophocaena

phocaenoides , Delphinus delphis , Pseudorca eras si dens, age determination

Age of the dolphins Delphinus delphis Linnaeus, Stenella longirostris (Gray), Sousa chinensis (Osbeck),

Tursiops truncatus (Montagu), Neophocaena phocaenoides (Cuvier) andPseudorcacrassidensiOwen) found

along the Kerala coast are determined based on the growth layers in the teeth. The teeth samples were

collected from dolphins landed as by-catch in the gillnets. The growth layers offer reliable information on

the age of dolphins. This is the first attempt in India to study the age of dolphins based on the growth

layers.

Introduction

Growth layers in the teeth of marine

mammals were observed by Owen (1840-45) and

Eschricht (1845). But utility of it for age

determination was recognised much later

(Scheffer 1950 and Laws 1952). However, these

studies were followed by Nishiwaki and Yagi

(1953), Nishiwaki et al. (1958), Omura et al.

(1962) and others. Though the early studies were

made on sperm whales, the investigations were

extended to other larger and smaller cetaceans.

These growth layers are found to be annual in

periodicity in Tursiops truncatus and in other

cetaceans where the teeth of known age animals

were examined (Sergeant 1959). The teeth of

common dolphins, Delphinus delphis and the

Tursiops truncatus of Canadian coast were found

to have similar growth layers as in other

delphinids.

Various techniques were developed to study

the growth layers in teeth of cetaceans, (Klevezal

'Accepted March 1994.

2

Research Centre of Central Marine Fisheries Research

Institute, Calicut 673 005, Kerala.

Present address: Conservation of Nature Trust, B/24,

Gandhinagar, Calicut 673 005.

1980). Recently Scheffer and Myrick (1980) and

Donovan (1985) reviewed the age determination

in toothed whales. Information on the age

composition is essential for rational

management. Formerly this information on

cetaceans was obtained from biological

characteristics such as body length, eye lens,

width and degree of closure of cranial sutures

and number of corpora albicantia in ovaries.

But it is observed that growth layers found in

the teeth are reliable. Though there are many

studies on the age determination of marine

mammals from other countries, no information

is available from India.

Materials and Methods

Dolphins that got entangled in the gillnets at

Calicut coast were taken for studies. After

determining the species identity of the dolphins

the details such as sex, length and weight and

other important morphometric characters were

noted. The head was boiled and the skull was

cleaned. The teeth were cleaned by using

Hydrogen peroxide solution for about 30

minutes, and preserved in a 70% ethanol for

further study. Teeth should not be stored dry as

they develop cracks. The commonly occurring

78

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

species of dolphins Stenella longirostris ,

Delphinus delphis , Tursiops truncatus , Sousa

chinensis , and Pseudorca crassidens were

studied. Good and healthy teeth from the middle

of upper and lower jaws were selected. Sections

were made by grinding the teeth on a water

proof No. 400 sand paper. The teeth were

ground on both sides so as to get sections of 300

to 400 micron thick. While grinding, water was

added to the grinding surface. After grinding to

the required thickness the teeth were kept in 5%

Formic acid for etching for 1 to 2 hours. After

removing the teeth from the Formic acid, the

sections were rinsed in water for about 2 hours

and allowed to dry at the room temperature. The

duration of etching depends on the thickness of

the sections. When properly etched, the growth

layers can be seen distinctly as valleys and

ridges. The etched sections can be examined

under microscope with the help of slanting

reflected light. Growth layers can be seen more

clearly if the surface of the teeth were rubbed

with pencil. The growth layers can be studied in

the stained sections of the teeth also. Here the

sections are kept in Formic acid for about 6 to

8 hours and stained by Hematoxylin and

destained by acid alcohol and cleared by xylol.

The sections were mounted in DPX mounting

media. But better results were obtained in the

etched sections.

Observations

Delphinus delphis (Plate 1, Fig. 1) : The

study material consist of 12 teeth and taken from

female dolphins of length 1670 mm and 1700

mm. It was observed that there was one growth

layer in a dolphin of length 1670 mm where as

there were 4 growth layers in the specimen

measuring 1700 mm. It may be observed that the

length of maturity of the species was about 2000

mm.

Stenella longirostris (Plate 1, Fig. 2): Ten

teeth from two dolphins of length 1560 mm

(male) and 1630 mm (male) were studied. The

teeth from the dolphin measuring 1560 mm were

found to have 4 growth layers where as the

dolphin of length 1630 mm had 7 growth layers.

Dolphin of length 1560 mm was found to be

immature and that of length 1630 mm was

mature.

Tursiops truncatus (Plate 1, Fig. 3): One

specimen (male) of length 2050 mm was

studied. The teeth were found to have one

growth layer. A specimen 1710 mm in length

had sprouting teeth characterised by the absence

of dentine. Mohan (1982) observed foetus in two

specimens 2350 mm and 2390 mm of length.

Sousa chinensis (Plate 2, Fig. 4): 12 teeth

from 5 specimens ranging from 2020-3070 mm

were studied. Teeth from the dolphin measuring

2020 mm had 4 growth layers and it was an

immature female, with no Corpora luteum or

Corpora albicans in the ovary. In the case of the

dolphins measuring 2300 (male) and 2370 mm

(male) 6 growth layers were observed in the

teeth. In another specimen of length 2580 mm

(female) the teeth had 8 growth layers. There

were 1 1 growth layers in a specimen of length

3070 mm (male).

Neophocaena phocaenoides (Plate 2, Fig.

5): 3 teeth from a Neophocaena phocaenoides

(male) of length 1350 mm were studied. There

were 2 growth layers in the teeth.

Pseudorca crassidens (Plate 2, Fig. 6): A

female Pseudorca crassidens of length 4230 mm

had 14 growth layers.

Discussion

The growth layers in teeth of Delphinus

delphis of Indian coast are similar to that found

in other areas. Kleinenberg and Klevezal (1962)

examined the teeth of 33 dolphins from Black

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92

Lai Mohan: Age determination in dolphins

Plate 1

Fig. 1. Tooth section of Delphinus delphis\ 1670 mm x 8; Fig. 2. Tooth section of Stenella

longirostris\ 1630 mm x 6; Fig. 3. Tooth section of Tursiops truncatus\ 2050 mm x 6.

J. Bombay n at. Hist. Soc. 92

Lai Mohan: Age determination in dolphins

Plate 2

Fig. 4. Tooth section of Sousa chinensis\ 2370 mm x 5; Fig. 5. Tooth section of

Neophocaena phocaenoides\ 1350 mm x 14; Fig. 6. Tooth section of Pseudorca

crassidens-, 4230 mm x 1.6.

AGE DETERMINATION OF DOLPHINS

79

sea and concluded that two light and two dark

layers were laid down in each year. A specimen

with 22 growth layers was considered to be 11

year old. Gurevich et al. (1980) also observed

that two layers were formed annually in the

species when the age was determined by

Tetracycline markings. From the Indian coast

one of the specimens measuring 1700 mm had 4

growth layers, and the specimen of length 1670

mm had only one layer. But as we do not have

any data on the known-age, we cannot compare

the growth layers.

Stenella longirostris (Spinner dolphin) is

one of the well studied species. Perrin et al.

(1977) observed that 1 or 1.5 growth layers were

formed annually and that the length at maturity

was 1700 mm at the age of 6 years with 6.4

growth layers in the teeth. It was further

observed by Perrin and Henderson (1984) that

the white bellied spinner dolphin of Pacific

mature at about 6 years of age. The present

observation also agrees with that of Perrin and

Henderson (1984). The specimen of length 1560

mm having 4 growth layers had immature testis

weighing 100 gm. It may be about 4 years of

age. The specimen of length 1630 mm was

probably about 7 years old. Its mature testis

weighed 1250 gm.

Very little information is available on the

age and other biological parameters of Sousa

chinensis of India. The teeth of a dolphin of

length 2370 mm had 6 growth layers whereas an

immature specimen of length 2020 mm had 4

growth layers.

The age of Tursiops truncatus (bottlenose

dolphin) was studied by Sergeant (1959).

Klevezal and Kleinenberg (1967), Scheffer and

Myrick Jr. (1980). They found that though in

younger dolphins the growth layers were in close

agreement with the age in years, in older animals

there was no close relationship. However, the

growth layers per year was observed in the teeth

of known age animals and indicated that one

growth layer was formed in a year. In the

present observation also the teeth started

sprouting in the specimen of length of 1710 mm

and one growth layer was seen in a specimen

measuring 2050 mm indicating that it was one

year old. It should be maturing before 2390 mm

as a 256 mm foetus was recovered from a

dolphin of length 2390 mm (Mohan 1982).

Kasuya et al. (1986) suggested, that 50% of

female of the species matured at an age of 7

years in the Pacific Ocean. There is very little

information available on the age oiNeophocaena

phocaenoides. Kasuya et al. (1986) estimated 80

cm as the neonatal length of the species and

found that the growth layers were of annual

periodicity. The mean body length at one year

was considered to be 1200-1300 mm. The

specimen examined from the Calicut coast

measured 1380 mm and was found to have two

growth layers. This observation agrees with that

of Kasuya et al. (1986) and the specimen

examined was 2 years old. The male Pseudorca

crassidens of length 4230 mm may be 14 years

old as its teeth section had 14 growth layers.

Pierce and Kajimura (1980) found the growth

layers in a Pseudorca crassidens and estimated

its age to 14 years.

References

Donovan, G.P. (1985): A brief review on ageing

techniques for toothed cetaceans within the context of

Marine Parks. Proc. symp. endangered marine animals

and Marine parks 1: 84-92.

ESCHRICHT. D.G. (1845): Undersogelser over hvaldgrene

fierde afhandling our baebhvalen Y. Danske vidensk

selsk Naturrid Mat. Afh. IT. 321-378.

Gurevich, V.S., B.S. Stewart & L.H. Cornell (1980):

The use of tetracycline in age determination of

common dolphin Delphinus delphis. Rept. Int. What.

80

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

commn. (spl. issue) 3: 165-169.

Kasuya, T., T. Tobayama, T. Saiga & T. Kotaoka

(1986): Perinatal growth of Delphinoids: Information

from aquarium reared dolphins and finless porpoises.

Sci. Rep. Whales Res Inst. No. 37: 85-97.

Kleinenberg, E.S. & G.A. Klevezal (1962): On methods

of ageing toothed whales. Dokl akad. Nauk VSSR.

145(2): 460-462.

Klevezal, G.A. (1980): Layers in hard tissues of

mammals as a record of growth rhythms of

individuals. Rept. lnt. Whal. common (special issue) 3:

89-94.

Klevezal, G.A. & E.S. Kleinenberg (1967): Age

determination of mammals from annual layers in teeth

and bones. Translated from Russian by Israel

programme for scientific translation, Jerusalem in

1967. IPST No. 5433, pp. 128.

LAWS, R.M. (1952): A new method of age determination for

mammals. Nature 169: 972-973.

Mohan, R.S. Lal (1982): Note on the foetuses of the

dolphins Tursiops aduncus and Sousa plumbea from

the South West coast of India. Indian J. Fish, 29: 249-

252.

Nishiwaki, M. & T. Yagi (1953): On the age and growth of

teeth in dolphin Prodelphinus caeruleo-albus. Sci.

Rep. Whales Res. Inst. Tokyo 8: 133-146.

Nishiwaki, M., T. Hibiya & S. Ohsumi (1958): Age study

of sperm whales based on reading tooth laminations.

Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst. Tokyo, 13: 135-153.

Omura, H., M. Nishiwaki, T. Ichihara & T. Kasuya

(1962): Osteological note on a sperm whale. Sci. Rep.

Whales Res. Inst. Tokyo, 16: 35-45.

Owen, R. (1840-45): Odontography or a treatise of the

comparative Anatomy of the teeth, their physiological

Relation, Mode of development and Microscopic

structure in vertebrate animals. H. Balliere, London,

Vol. 2, 1-37, 168 pp.

Perrin, W.F. & J.R. Henderson (1984): Growth and

Reproductive rates in two population of spinner

dolphins Stenella longirostris with different histories

of exploitation. Rept. lnt. Whal. common (special

issue) 6: 417-430.

Perrin, W.F., D.B. Holt & R.B. Miller (1977)': Growth

and reproduction of the eastern spinner dolphin, a

geographical form of Stenella longirostris in the

eastern tropical Pacific. Fish. Bull. 75(4): 725-750.

PIERCE, K.V. & H. Kajimura(1980): Acid etching and high

lighting for defining growth layer in cetacean teeth.

Rept. Int. Whal. commn. (spl. issue) 3: 99-103.

Scheffer, V.B. (1950): Growth layer on the teeth of

pinnipedia as an indication of age. science 112 (2907):

309-311.

Scheffer, V.B. & A.C. Myrick, Jr. (1980): A review of

studies of growth layers in teeth of Marine mammal in

Age determination of Toothed whales and sirenians.

Rept. lnt. Whal. commn. (spl. issue) 3 I (Ed. W.F.

Perrin and A.C. Myrick (Jr.), Cambridge).

SERGEANT, D.E. (1959): Age determination in odontocete

whales from dentinal growth layers. Norsk

Hvalfaugsttid, 48(6): 273-288.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

TWO NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS APANTELES FOERSTER (HYMENOPTERA:

BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA1

TV. Sathe and D.M. Inga wale2

( With two text-figures)

Two new species. Apanteles shrii sp. now and Apanteles endii sp. now, are described. The former is a

parasitoid on Enas vite/la (Stoll.) and the latter on Achea Janata Linn.

Introduction

The genus Apanteles was erected by

Foerster in 1862 and has since been studied by

several authors (Marshall 18X5. Muesebeck

1920. Wilkinson 1928a. b; Watanabe 1937,

DeSaeger 1943. Nixon 1967). These workers did

not consider the division of the genus into

subgenera but Muesebeck (1920) synonymised 6

genera and one subgenus. Wilkinson (1932)

divided the genus into five groups, namely M.

A, F. U, and S. Nixon (1965) divided the genus

into 42 species groups. Some of these groups are

very large ater . ultor , etc. Rao (1961) divided

l he genus into two subgenera, i.e. Areolatus and

(' ormolus using propodial areola as a main,

\ alid. and important character. But very recently.

Mason (1981) kept ater , taeniaticornis ,

my ce tophi lus, trifacsciatus, coesor and

gradiculus groups of Nixon under the genus

Apanteles. He also included most of the species

of Metarpalis group into Apanteles. Following

the reclassification by Mason only 40% among

the old Apanteles species remained under the

genus while the rest were placed under different

genera. Other workers on Indian species are Lai

(1942), Bhatnagar (1948). Sathe and Inamdar

'Accepted January 1993.

"Department of Zoology, Shivaji University,

Kolhapur 416 004. India.

(1988), Sumodan and Sevichan (1989),

Sumodan and Narendran (1990).

The type materials are in the collection of

TV. Sathe, Dept, of Zoology, Shivaji

University, Kolhapur and will be deposited in

the collection of Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta.

Apanteles endii sp. nov.

(Fig. 1)

FEMALE: Length 1.80 mm without

ovipositor, forewing 1.40 mm long, antenna 1.29

mm long.

Head (Fig. 1-a): In dorsal view, 0.26 mm

long and 0.33 mm broad; interocellar space 0.09

mm long, eyes 0.10 mm broad and 0.14 mm

long, interorbital space 0.08 mm long, frons

shiny, ocelli in triangle. Antenna (Fig. 1-b)

shorter than body, 16 segmented, 1.29 mm long,

base of antenna 0.04 mm broad; clypeus 0.06

mm long, mandibles 0.04 mm long and 0.2 mm

broad.

Flagellar formula: 2 L/W=2.50, 14 LAV - 2.50,

L 2/14-2.0, W -2/14 - 2.0.

Thorax: Thorax 0.92 mm long,

mesoscutum punctate with few punctures,

mesonotum rugose, metanotum with a pair of

cetose lobe laterally; Precoxal suture present;

Propodeum without areola, rugose, (Fig. 1-c)

median carina short, transverse carinae not so

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JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92 (1995)

prominent, lateral carinae joins with each other

at anterior. Forewing (fig. 1-d) 1.40 mm long

and 0.62 mm broad; costa 0.75 mm long and

0.12 mm broad, stigma 0.25 mm long; median

cell 0.56 mm. basal 0.24 mm. discoideus 0.26

mm. transverse cubitus 0. 12 mm and 1st abscissa

of radius 0.15 mm, other cells not clearly

observed. Hind wing: (Fig. 1-c) hind wing F20

mm long and 0.38 mm broad- subcostella 0.20

mm long and 0 15 mm broad. Hind leg (Fig. I-

F) 1.59 mm long; coxa 0.22 mm long and 0.14

mm broad, trochanter 0.15 mm long and 0 05

mm broad; femur 0.31 mm long and 0.07 mm

broad, tibia 0.41 mm long and 0.06 mm broad,

tibial spurs 0.08 mm long and 0.02 mm broad

and equal; tarsus 1st 0.18 mm long, Ilnd 0.09

mm long, Illrd 0.08 mm long. IV th 0.07 mm

long, V th 0.05 mm long; claw 0.03 mm long,

tibia and tarsus shiny; coxa, trochanter, femur

brown; claw pointed.

Abdomen (Fig. 1-g): 0.62 mm long and

0.36 mm broad, ovipositor sheath 0.64 mm long

and 0.04 mm broad; ovipositor 0.29 mm long.

0.03 mm broad, dark, broad at the base; sheath

shiny, brown; Hypopygium without folds. 0.28

mm long. 0.35 mm broad; tergite I light brown,

apically smooth, basally mgosopunctate. barrel

shaped, II tergite mgosopunctate throughout;

light brown; wider than long. 0.24 nun long,

0.35 mm broad. 1st & Illrd tergites longer than

llnd but equal in length.

Colour: Antenna. I and II tergite, light

brown; mouth parts, segmental joints of antenna,

leg except coxa, abdomen, ovipositor dark

brown; head, abdomen black.

MALE: Similar to female.

Host: Lepidopterous larvae, Achea janata.

Holotype: FEMALE. M.S.; India, Medshingi,

Tq. Sangola. polyphagus pests, coll. DM.

Ingawale from Aug. to Nov. 90; antenna, legs,

wings on slide, labelled as above.

Paratype: 30 females and 12 males, sex-

wing: f. Hind leg: g. Abdomen: h. Tergite.

ratio. (m:f) 1:2.50. Coll, data same as of

holotvne.

Discussion

Apan teles endii sp. nov. resembles

Apanteles cama in Nixon's (1965) key by the

following characters:

1. Propodeum flat, 2. Hind leg longer than body

and slender; 3. Vennal lobe hairy and convex.

The species also resembles Apanteles

cirphicola Bhatnagar in Rao's (1961) key by the

following characters:

1. Propodeum without areola and 2. tergite II not

smooth.

However it differs from the above species in

having:

1. ovipositor sheath longer than ovipositor; 2.

tergite III longer than II; 3. antenna shorter than

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

83

body; 4. radius meeting to intercubitus at about

135°; 5. propodeum with short median carina,

lateral carinae joined apically; 6. tibial spurs

equal and 7. Flagellar formula:

2 LAV = 2.50. 14 LAV - 2.50

L 2/14 = 2.00. W 2/14 = 2.00

Apanteles shrii sp, nov.

(Fig. 2)

FEMALE: Female 2.57 mm excluding

ovipositor, forewing 2.20 mm long, antenna 1.72

mm long and 16 segmented.

Head (Fig. 2-a): Head in dorsal view

rectangular, dark brown; eyes 0.16 mm broad

and 0.36 mm long; mterocellar distance 0.15

mm and equal to interocellar space; ocelli in

triangle; mandibles strong, pointed, basal width

of mandible 0.03 mm and 0.07 mm long; malar

space 0.08 mm; clvpeus 0.12 mm long. Antenna

(Fig. 2-b) 1.57 mm long with three ranks of

placodes. 16 segmented.

Flagellar formula:

2 LAV = 2.25. 14 L/W = 1 .666. L 2/14 = 2.0. W

2/14 = 1.33.

Thorax: 0.96 mm long, 89 mm broad;

mesonotum deeply punctured posteriorly;

metanotum with a pair of setiferous projections,

cetose lobe sublaterally; propodeum with

incomplete, deeply punctate with strong hairs &

horizontal and transverse carinae, areola absent,

anteriorly carinae some what TJ' shaped.

Forewing (Fig. 2-c) 2.20 mm long, stigma 0.39

mm long, metacarpus 0.55 mm; discoidal cell

area 0.29 mm, medius cell area 0.80 mm,

subdiscoideus 0.45 mm long; II brachial,

discoidal cell. Ill cubital cell area not clearly

seen; median 0.78 mm long. Hind wing (Fig. 2-

d) 1.80 mm long, costa 0.72 mm long and other

area not clearly observed in it, vennal lobe

hairy and convex. Hind leg (Fig. 2-e) 2.83 mm

long, coxa 0.42 mm long and 0.24 mm broad.

Fig. 2. Apanteles shrii sp. nov.

a. Head; b. Antenna; c. Forewing; d. Hindwing; e. Hind

leg; g. Abdomen.

trochanter I and II 0.25 mm long and 0.7 mm

broad, femur 0.50 mm long and 0.14 mm broad,

tibia 0.71 mm long and 0.10 mm broad*; tibial

spurs equal, hairy, 0.07 mm long and 0.02 mm

broad; tarsus 0.95 mm long and hairy; claw

pointed, bended at the point.

Abdomen (Fig. 2-g): 0.95 mm broad and

0.65 mm long, light brown, petiole pointed;

tergite I much longer than wide, rugose all over,

strongly tapering apically, Ilnd tergite wider than

long, sculptured, Illrd tergite much longer than

Ilnd; ovipositor 0.10 mm long and 0.04 mm

broad, hairs absent, ovipositor shiny and yellow-

brown.

Colour: Black, antenna; tibia, femur,

abdomen brown; ovipositor, light brown.

MALE: Similar to female.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Host: Lepidopterous larvae, Erias vitella

(Stoll.)

Cocoon: Faint yellow, cottony, 3.20 mm

long.

Holotype: female, India, Medshingi, Tq.

Sangola, Erias vitella (Stoll.), coll. D.M.

Ingawale from Aug. to Nov. 1990; antenna, legs,

wings on slides labelled as above.

Paratype: 44 females and 20 males, sex

ratio (m:f) 1:2.20, coll, data same as of

holotype.

Discussion

It also resembles Apanteles numenes in

Nixon's (1967) key by having the: a. 1st tergite

rugose and b. colour of antenna and ovipositor.

However, it differs from the above species by:

1. propodeum with incomplete horizontal

and transverse carinae, anterior carina 'U'

shaped; 2. hind leg longer than antenna and

tibial spurs equal; 3. antenna with three ranks of

placodes; 4. tergite I rugose all over; 5. costa

and stigma as long as broad; 6. Flagellar

formula:

2 LAV = 2.25, 14 LAV = 1.66

L 2/14 = 2.00, W 2/14 - 1.33

Apanteles shrii sp. nov. resembles Apanteles

sesamiae Cameron in Rao's (1961) key by:

1 mesonotum punctured and 2. Ilnd tergite

sculptured.

Acknowledgement

We thank the Shivaji University, Kolhapur

for providing facilities.

References

Bhatnagar. S.P. (1948): Studies of Apanteles Foerster

(Vipionidae: parasitic Hymenoptera) from India.

Indian J. Ent. 10: 133-203.

DeSaeger, IT. (1944): Microgastrinae (Hymenoptera:

Apocrita). Expl. Parc. Nat. Albert, Miss, de Witte 47,

342 pp.

FOERSTER. A. (1862) Synopsis der familien and Bruxelles

Zattungen der Braconidae. Verb, naturch. ver. preuss

Rueiniande 19: 255-288.

Lal, K.B. (1942): Description of two new and redescription

of a third species of Apanteles (Braconidae) from

India. Indian J. Ent. 4: 163-166.

MARSHALL, T.A. (1885): Monograph of British Braconidae

Part I. Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc. London, pp. 1-280.

Mason, W.R.M. (1981): The polvphyletic nature of

Apanteles Foerster (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) a

phylogeny and reclassification of Microgastrinae.

Mem. Ent. Soc. Canada 115: 1-147.

MUESEBECK, C.F.W. (1920): A revision of the North

American species of Ichneumon flies belonging to the

genus Apanteles. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 58: 483-596.

Nixon, G.E.J. (1965): A reclassification of the tribe

Microgastrini (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Bull. Br.

Mus. Nat. Hist. (Ent.) Suppl. 2: 1-284.

Nixon, G.E.J. (1967): The Indo-Australian species of the

Ultor group of Apanteles Foerster (Hymenoptera:

Braconidae). Bull. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist. (Ent.) 21: 1-34.

Rao, S.N. (1961): Key to the oriental species of Apanteles

Foerster (Hymenoptera). Proc. Nat. Acad. India B, 31:

32-46.

SATHE, T.V. & S.A. INAMDAR (1988): A new species of the

genus Apanteles Foerster (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

from India. Oikoassay 6: 5-7.

Sumodan, P.K. & P.J. Sevichan (1989): A new species of

Apanteles Foerster (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) reared

from Pyralid pest of Azolla. J. Ecobiol. 1(4): 319-322.

Sumodan, P.K. & T.C. Narendran (1990): Five new

species of Apanteles Foerster (Hymenoptera:

Braconidae) from Kerala, India. J. Ecobiol. 2(3): 239-

248.

WATANABE, C. (1937): A contribution to the braconid fauna

of the Empire of Japan. J. Fac. Agri. Hokaido Uni.

42: 1-188.

Wilkinson, D.S. (1928a, b): A revision of the Indo-

Australian species of the genus Apanteles

(Hymenoptera: Braconidae) Part I & II. Bull. Ent. Res.

18: 171-178; 19: 79-105.

WILKINSON, D.S. (1932): A revision of the Ethiopian

species of genus Apanteles (Hymenoptera:

Braconidae). Trans, ent. Soc. London 80: 301-344.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

85

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS DICLADOCERUS (HYMENOPTERA:

EULOPHIDAE) FROM NORTHERN INDIA1

M.A. Khan2

( With forty text-figures)

Additional generic characters of pronotum, subgenital plate and external female genitalia are suggested

for the genus Dicladocerus Westwood. The genus is reported for the first time from India. Four new species

D. indicus, D. antennalis, D.liriomyza and D. vigginaii are described in detail. Key to the Indian species

of the genus Dicladocerus is given.

Introduction

During a survey of insect pests of

agricultural importance in northern India, I

found four new species of (Eulophidae)

parasitizing agromyzid species (Diptera).

These species are finely sculptured on the

head and thorax, scutellum having a pair of

longitudinal grooves. They belong to the genus

Dicladocerus Westwood and constitute the first

valid record of the genus in India.

Abbreviations: Funicular segments 1 to 3-

Fl, F2, F3, submarginal vein-smv; marginal

vein-mv; stigmal vein-stv; cubital vein-cu, first

valvifers-vf 1 ; second valvifers-vf2; third

valvulae-v3.

Genus Dicladocerus Westwood

Dicladocerus Westwood, 1832. Phil. Mag,

(3) 1: 128. Type species: Dicladocerus

westwoodi , by monotype.

Diagnosis: The generic diagnostic

characters can be summed up as head transverse-

subtriangular; eyes ovate and somewhat

subprominent; gena about 1/2 to 1/3 length of

eye; ocelli obtusely triangular; antennae inserted

Accepted August 1994.

2

Biological Control Laboratory, Department of Entomology,

G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology,

Pantnagar 263 145, U.P.

below, above or at ventral margin of eye; scape

slender, reaching anterior ocellus; pronotum,

mesoscutum and scutellum densely sculptured

with latter having a pair of sublateral

longitudinal grooves; median carina of

propodeum generally weak and complete in

female, plica usually weak and complete in

female; wings hyaline; costal cell broad with a

horizontal row of hairs on the lower surface

extending from end to end, prestigma as long as

stigmal vein and post marginal vein; abdomen

elongately ovate to elongately lanceolate, apex

acuminate; fore and middle coxae finely striate

to strigose and hind coxae strongly sculptured.

In addition, some new generic characters are

also suggested which will further facilitate the

identification of this genus, namely posterior

margin of pronotum without submarginal ridge

with a small protuberance on each side, antero-

lateral angle obtuse and laterally directed;

subgenital plate broad, posterior margin with a

notch in the middle; outer plate of ovipositor

narrow at base, gradually widening posteriorly.

Discussion

The genus Dicladocerus Westwood belongs

to the subfamily Eulophinae (Eulophidae) and is

distinguished from the related genera by the

characters mentioned above. The genus fits very

conveniently in the key Peck et al. (1964) and is

apparently close to Ratzeburgiola Erdos. The

86

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

structure of propodeum in the genus

Ratzeburgiola with a median carina; sublateral

plicae and transverse costula (as in Pnigalio

Schrank, Boucek 1988, Fig. 1097); mesoscutum

shining with numerous bristles; pmv at least

twice as long as sv, female funicle always with

four segments which separates the genus from

Dicladocerus. Peck (1963) listed three species of

Dicladocerus from North America. Boucek and

Askew (1969) recognised four species of this

genus from Europe. Boucek (1975) treated

Necremnus propodealis Boucek as a synonym of

D. breviramuliis Boucek. Askew and Godfray

(1987) confirmed the synonymy of D. enryalus

(Haliday) and D. aeneiscapus (Thomson).

Yoshimoto (1976) while making a revision of

the genus has described twelve species from

North America and one from Japan and has

formulated its generic characters. Recently

Hussain and Khan (1986) incorrectly declared

Solenotus guptai (Subba Rao 1957) to be in

Dicladocerus but it does not show any of the

generic characters of the latter.

Biology: Primary parasitoids of Lepidoptera

(Coleophoridae) and Diptera (Agromyzidae).

Distribution: Europe, England, North

America, United States, Canada, British

Columbia, Nearctic region, Asia, Central Japan,

India.

In the present work four new species are

described. A key to the Indian species is also

proposed.

Key to the Indian species of the genus

Dicladocerus WESTWOOD BASED ON FEMALES

1 . Frontovertex with reticulate sculpture; postocellar line

almost or two times as long as ocellocular .... 2

Frontovertex reticulate-punctate, big puncture clear;

postocellar line one and one-half times as long as

ocellocular. scrobes distinct and deep, convergent,

interscrobal region rigid, surface of propodeum

shagreened, smooth to alutaceous except sides of

median carina micro-reticulate, median carina thin and

moderately elevated anteriorly. D. indicus sp. nov.

2. Frontovertex one-half or less than one-half the total

head width; pedicel less than two times as long as

wide, distinctly shorter than FI 3

Frontovertex more than oen-half the total head width;

pedicel long, less than three times as long as wide,

distinctly longer than FI; FI two times as long as

wide' F2 a trifle longer than wide, F3 transverse,

distinctly wider than long; club longer than preceding

two funicle segments combined

D. antennalis sp. nov.

3. Antennae dark brown with two ring segments;

prominence between antennal sockets less than one-

fourth the width of frons between eyes; speculum

narrow, pmv two times as long as stv, third valvulae

four times as long as wide. . . D. liriomyza sp. nov.

Antennae uniformly yellowish except F3 and club dark

brown with only one ring segment, prominence

between antennal sockets less than one-third the width

of frons between eyes; speculum moderate, pmv

longer than stv, third valvulae less than three times as

long as wide D. viggianii sp. nov.

Dicladocerus viggianii sp. nov.3

(Figs. 1-11)

FEMALE; Body length 1.29 mm. General

body colour black, non-iridescent; head black,

ocelli white, eyes silvery; antennae uniformly

yellowish except F3 and club dark brown; thorax

black except scutellum with a yellow patch in

the middle; wings hyaline; legs white except fore

coxa on greater part infuscated and middle

femora with an opaque band in the middle;

abdomen dark brown except basal one-third with

a yellow patch.

Head: (Fig. 1) Much wider than long in

facial view (0.54: 0.38); sparsely setose;

frontovertex width less than one-half the total

head width ((0.24: 0.54); ocelli arranged in

obtuse triangle; postocellar line almost two times

as long as ocellocular; eyes silvery; malar suture

absent; malar space with three long setae on

3This species is named for Dr. G. Viggiani in recognition of

his valuable contribution to our knowledge of the

Chalcidoidea.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

87

1. Head, in frontal aspect; 2. Mandible; 3. Antenna; 4. Thorax; 5. Pronotum; 6. Fore wing; 7. Hind wing; 8. Part of fore

leg; 9. Part of middle leg; 10. Part of hind leg; 11. Ovipositor.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

either side; slightly shorter than eye width (0.14:

0.15); antennae inserted at lower level of eyes;

prominence between antennal sockets less than

one-third the width of frons between eyes (0.09:

0.24); mandibles bidentate with acute teeth and

serration (Fig. 2), maxillary and labial palpi two

and one segmented respectively.

Antennae (Fig. 3): Eight segmented

excluding one ring segment; scape cylindrical,

almost seven times as long as wide (0.24:

0.035); pedicel less than two times as long as

wide (0.06: 0.035), distinctly shorter than FI;

funicle three segmented; FI very long; two times

as long as wide (0.09: 0.045), F2 less than two

times as long as wide (0.08: 0.045); F3 as long

as F2 but slightly wider, distinctly less than two

times as long as wide (0.08: 0.05); club three

segmented, more than three and a half times as

long as wide (0.17: 0.05), longer than preceding

two funicle segments together.

Thorax (Fig. 4): Pronotum (Fig. 5) with

posterior margin without submarginal ridge

bearing six very long and twenty small sized

bristles with a small protuberance on each side,

antero-lateral angles obtuse and laterally

directed; mesoscutum more than two times wider

than long (0.4: 0.17), microreticulate; with three

pairs of long setae; parapsidal grooves complete,

faintly indicated; scutellum wider than long

(0.28: 0.19), longer than mesoscutum,

microreticulate; sublateral longitudinal grooves

distinct; lateral area beyond scutellar grooves 2/3

nncro-reticulate and 1/3 scalyreticulate; with

three pairs of long setae; propodeum with

median carina.

Fore wings (Fig. 6): Less than three times

as long as wide (1.27: 0.48); costal cell with five

setae directed upward and three setae directed

backward at apical end; basal vein with only

three setae; basal cell bare; speculum moderate

and closed below; cu sinuate; smv long (0.47)

with four long setae directed upward and a row

of five small setae directed backward; longer

than mv (0.32); pmv (0.15) longer than stv

(0. 11); eleven admarginal hairs present; marginal

fringe short.

Hind wings (Fig. 7): Less than five times

as long as wide (0.87: 0.17), with acute apex;

marginal fringe moderate size.

Fore legs (Fig. 8): Tarsal segments densely

setose, tibial spur very short, apical rim of tibiae

with two pegs.

Middle legs (Fig. 9): Tarsal segments

densely setose; tibial spur shorter than basitarsus,

apical rim of tibiae with two pegs.

Hind legs (Fig. 10): Tarsal segments

densely setose; tibial spur shorter than basitarsus,

apical rim of tibiae with three pegs.

Abdomen petiolate: Longer than head and

thorax together; T1 well developed reaching

beyond the middle of abdomen; ovipositor

slightly exserted, arising from basal one-half of

abdominal venter; Vfl (Fig. 11) triangular with

basal and apical angles at different level, v3

short (Fig. 11) less than three times as long as

wide, less than one-sixth the length of vf2 (Fig.

11); outer plates of ovipositor distinctly shorter

than vf3 (Fig. 11).

MALE: Not known.

Holotype: ? INDIA, U P., Bhimtal, ex.

Agromyza sp. (Diptera: Agromyzidae) on

Trifolium alexcmdrium Linn. (Leguminosae), 1-

5-1986.

Paratype: 6 ? $ same data as holotype.

The holotype and 3 paratypes will be

deposited in the Z.S.I. Calcutta, India; remaining

paratypes are retained in the author's collection.

Dicladocerus antennalis sp. nov.

(Figs. 12-20)

FEMALE: Body length 1.31 mm. General

body colour dark brown; antennae light brown

except scape white; wings hyaline; legs

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

89

Figs. 12-20 Dicladocerus antennalis sp. nov. ?

12. Head, in frontal aspect; 13. Mandible; 14. Maxillary palp; 15. Labial palp; 16. Antenna; 17. Thorax; 18. Fore wing

19. Hind wing; 20. Ovipositor.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

yellowish except fore coxa and femora light

brownish, middle coxa at its basal end

infuscated; abdomen dark brown except apical

one-third yellowish.

Head (Fig. 12): With fine reticulate

sculpture, wider than long in facial view (0.44:

0.38), frontovertex wider than long, width more

than one-half the total head width (0.24: 0.44),

ocelli dark, arranged in obtuse triangle,

postocellar line two times as long as ocellocular;

antennae inserted well above lower level of eyes;

prominence between antennal sockets almost

one-fifth the width of frons between eyes (0.05:

0.24); malar space longer than eye width (0.13:

0.01), malar suture absent, mandibles with acute

teeth and serration (Fig. 13), maxillary (Fig. 14)

and labial palpi (Fig. 15) two and one

segmented respectively.

Antennae (Fig. 16): Eight segmented

excluding one ring segment; scape cylindrical,

less than four times as long as wide (0.26: 0.07),

pedicel long, less than three times as long as

wide (0.11: 0.04) distinctly longer than FI; FI

two times as long as wide (0.1: 0.05), F2 a trifle

longer than wide (0.065: 0.06), F3 transverse,

distinctly wider than long (0.7: 0.55), club three

segmented, almost two and a half times as long

as wide (0.17: 0.07), longer than preceding two

funicle segments together.

Thorax (Fig. 17): Pronotum with fine

reticulate sculpture, posterior margin with five

pairs of setae; mesoscutum more than two times

wider than long (0.44: 0.21), micro reticulate

sculpture: parapsidal furrows faintly indicated;

scutellum slightly wider than long (0.24: 0.23)

micro-reticulate, sublateral longitudinal grooves

distinct, lateral area beyond scutellar grooves

scaly reticulate; axillae finely and broadly

reticulate; propodeum finely reticulate to

alutaceous except along periphery of plica

reticulate regulose, more than half the length of

scuttelum, median carina thin, elevated towards

anterior half, anterior part of plica thickened,

moderately elevated on ridge, reaching spiracle

at the distance of half its diameter; spiracles

separated from the anterior margin of

propodeum; mesopostphragma not reaching

beyond propodeum.

Fore wings (Fig. 18): More than two times

as long as wide (1.47: 0.61); broadly spatulate;

costal cell with twelve setae on anterior margin

of its apical half and twelve small setae directed

backward in the middle; basal vein with six

setae; basal cell setose; cu sinuate; speculum

almost reduced and closed below; smv with four

strong setae, longer (0.46) than mv (0.4); pmv

(0.09) shorter than stv (0.1), marginal fringe

short.

Hind wings (Fig. 19): More than four times

as long as wide with acute apex; marginal fringe

moderate size.

Legs: Fore and hind tibial spur short,

middle tibial spur shorter than basitarsus; apical

rim of middle and hind tibiae with two and one

peg respectively.

Abdomen: shorter than head and thorax

together; ovipositor slightly exserted; vfl

semicircular (Fig. 20); v3 (Fig. 20) long, seven

times as long as wide, lanceolate, more than

one-third the length of vf2, outer plates of

ovipositor (Fig. 20) shorter than vf2.

MALE: not known.

Holotype: $ INDIA, U.P., Dehradun, ex.

Calycomyza humeralis sp. (V. Roser) (Diptera:

Agromyzidae) on Blumea membranacea DC.

(Compositae), 20-4-1987 .

Paratype: 2 ? ? same data as holotype.

The holotype and 1 paratype will be

deposited in the Z.S.I. Calcutta, India, remaining

paratype is retained in the author's collection.

Dicladocerus indicus sp. nov.

(Figs. 21-29)

FEMALE: Body length 1.81 mm. General body

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

91

colour dark brown with blue-green iridescence;

antennae dark brown; wings hyaline; legs dark

brown except middle legs with apical half of

trochanter, apical tip of femora, basal one-fourth

of tibia and basitarsus white.

Head: Reticulate sculpture with big

punctures on frons, vertex; transverse

subtriangular, distinctly wider than long in facial

aspect; frontovertex wide, more than one-half the

total head width (0.3: 0.58); scrobes distinct and

deep, convergent, inter scrobal region rigid;

postocellar line one and one-half times as long

as ocellocular; antennae inserted at the level of

ventral margin of eye, prominence between

antennal sockets slightly more than one-third the

width: eyes dark; mandibles (Fig. 21) with acute

teeth and serrations; maxillary (Fig. 22) and

labial palpi each one segmented (Fig. 23).

Antennae (Fig. 24): Dark brown, eight

segmented excluding two ring segments; scape

cylindrical, more than five times as long as wide

(0.29: 0.055); pedicel less than two times as long

as wide (0.085: 0.05), more than half the length

of FI; funicle three segmented, segments

gradually decreasing in length distad but

increasing in width; FI more than two times as

long as wide (0.14: 0.06); F2 less than two

times as long as wide (0.115: 0.07); F3 shortest,

longer than wide (0.11: 0.08); club three

segmented, three times as long as wide (0.24:

0.08), longer than preceding two segments

together.

Thorax (Fig. 25): With fine reticulate

sculpture; pronotum with anterior margin slightly

concave, posterior margin slightly curved

bearing three pairs of setae; mesoscutum less

than two times wider than long (0.63: 0.33),

coarsely reticulate; parapsidal furrows distinct

anteriorly and faint posteriorly; scutellum wider

than long (0.54: 0.33), micro reticulate,

sublateral longitudinal grooves distinct, lateral

area beyond scutellar grooves scaly reticulate;

axillae finely reticulate; surface of propodeum

shagreened, smooth to alutaceous except sides of

median carina micro-reticulate, median carina

thin and moderately elevated anteriorly, spiracles

almost contiguous with anterior margin of

propodeum.

Fore wings (Fig. 26): Less than three times

as long as wide (2.24: 0.86), broadly spatulate;

costal cell short with three rows of hairs; basal

vein with eight setae; basal cell with three setae;

speculum narrowly longitudinal extending to

base of mv, closed below; cu sinuate, partially

closed, subcubital line of hairs broken for a short

distance about one-third of distance from base;

smv long (0.72) with eight long setae directed

apically and a row of small eight setae at basal

region directed backward, longer than mv (0.5),

mv almost three times as long as stv, pmv (0.3)

distinctly less than two times as long as stv

(0.17); fifteen admarginal hairs present; marginal

fringe short.

Hind wings (Fig. 27): More than four times

as long as wide (1.71: 0.41), broadly spatulate;

marginal fringe long.

Legs: Tibial spur of fore and hind legs

short, middle tibial spur shorter than basitarsus;

apical rim of tibia and tarsal segments of all the

legs densely setose.

Abdomen: Longer than head and thorax

together; ovipositor exserted, arising from basal

one-third of abdominal venter; vfl (Fig. 28)

triangular with articular knobs prominent, basal

and apical angles at different levels; v3 short

(Fig. 28) almost four times as long as wide,

almost one-fifth the length of vf2 (Fig. 28);

outer plates of ovipositor (Fig. 28) almost as

long as vf2; subgenital plate broad, posterior

margin with a notch in the middle (Fig. 29).

MALE: Not known.

Holotype: India, UP., Ramnagar ex.

Tropicomyia vigneae (Seguy) (Diptera:

Agromyzidae) on Dolichos lablab Linn.

92

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Figs. 21-29 Dicladocenis indicus sp. nov. ?

21. Mandible; 22. Maxillary palp; 23. Labial palp; 24. Antenna; 25. Thorax; 26. Fore wing; 27. Hind wing; 28.

Ovipositor; 29. Sub-genital plate.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

93

(Leguminosae), 28-5-1986.

Paratype: 4 ? ? same data as holotype.

The holotype and 2 paratypes will be

deposited in the Z.S.I. Calcutta, India; remaining

paratypes are retained in the author's collection.

Dicladocerus liriomyza sp. nov.

(Figs. 30-40)

FEMALE: Body length 1.73 mm. General

body colour dark bluish green with golden

reflections; ocelli white, antennae dark brown;

wings hyaline; fore legs uniformly dark brown

except apical tip of femora and basal half of

basitarsus white, middle and hind legs uniformly

light brown except apical tip of femora, basal tip

of tibiae and basitarsus white, tarsal segments 2-

4 infuscated.

Head (Fig. 30): with fine reticulate

sculpture; wider than long in facial aspect (0.64:

0.44); frontovertex width one-half the total head

width (0.34: 0.68); scrobes deep and convergent

above; ocelli arranged in obtuse angle triangle,

postocellar Tine almost two times as long as

ocellocular; antennae inserted just on the lower

level of eyes; prominence between antennal

sockets less than one-fourth the width of frons

between eyes (0.09: 0.34); malar space shorter

than eye width (0.14: 0.16); malar suture not

distinct; eyes dark; mandibles with acute teeth

and serrations (Fig. 31), maxillary (Fig. 32) and

labial palpi (Fig. 33) two and one segmented

respectively.

Antennae (Fig. 34): eight segmented

excluding two ring segments; scape cylindrical,

more than four times as long as wide (0.22:

0.04); pedicel less than two times as long as

wide (0.08: 0.05), more than one half the length

of F 1 ; funicle three segmented, F 1 segment more

than two times as long as wide (0.13: 0.06), F2

less than two times as long as wide (0.11: 0.06),

F3 as long as F2 but a trifle wider (0.11: 0.065);

club three segmented, more than three times as

long as wide (0.11: 0.07), longer than preceding

two funicle segments together.

Thorax (Fig. 35): pronotum (Fig. 36) with

posterior margin slightly curved, posterior

submarginal ridge bearing three pairs of setae,

its mid dorsal area coarsely reticulate, anterior

two-third strigose; mesoscutum more tahn two

times wider than long (0.61: 0.23), coarsely

reticulate; scutellum somewhat flattened in the

middle, less than two times wider than long

(0.52: 0.33), micro-reticulate, sub-lateral

longitudinal grooves distinct, lateral area beyond

scutellar grooves scaly reticulate; axillae finely

reticulate; median carina of propodeum weak

and complete.

Fore wings (Fig. 37): more than two times

as long as wide (1.8: 0.8) broadly spatulate;

costal cell broad with two rows of hairs

extending from end to end; basal cell bare;

speculum narrow, closed below; cu sinuate;

subcubital line of hairs long, starting from the

base of cu; smv long (0.6) with twelve long

setae, longer than mv (0.48); mv less than two

times as long as stv; pmv (0.24) less than two

times as long as stv (0.13), thirteen admarginal

hairs present; marginal fringe short.

Hind wings (Fig. 38): less than four times

as long as wide with blunt apex; marginal fringe

moderate size.

Fore legs: tibial spur very short; coxa finely

striate to strigose.

Middle legs: tibial spur short; coxa finely

striate to strigose.

Hind legs: tibial spur shorter than

basitarsus, densely setose; coxa coarsely

reticulate sculptured.

Abdomen: longer than head and thorax

together, ovipositor slightly exserted, arising

from basal one-third of abdominal venter; vfl

(Fig. 39) triangular with basal and apical angles

at different levels; v3 (Fig. 40) short, lanceolate.

02 mm.

94

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Figs. 30-40 Dicladocerus liriomyza sp. nov. ¥

30. head, in the frontal aspect; 31. Mandible; 32. Maxillary palp; 33. Labial palp; 34. Antenna; 35. Thorax; 36.

Pronotum; 37. Fore wing; 38. Hind wing; 39; First valvifer; 40; Ovipositor

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

95

almost four times as long as wide, one-seventh

the length of vf2 (Fig. 40); outer plates of

ovipositor (Fig. 40); distinctly shorter than vf2.

MALE: not known.

Holotype: ?, INDIA, U.P., Kathgodam ex.

Liriomyza compositella (Malloch) Spencer

(Diptera: Agromyzidae) on Xanthium strumctrium

Linn. (Compositae), 27-8-1986.

Paratype: 4 ? ? same data as holotype.

The holotype and 2 paratypes will be

deposited in the Z.S.I., Calcutta, India;

remaining paratypes are retained in the author's

collection.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. P.K. Pathak, Professor and

Head, Dept, of Entomology, G.B. Pant Univ. of

Agril. & Tech.' Pantnagar, India for providing

necessary research facilities. I am most grateful

to Dr. Gennaro Viggiani, Professor, Institute of

Agricultural Entomology, University of Naples,

Italy and Dr. M.M. Agrawal, Professor and

Chairman, Department of Zoology, A. M.U.

Aligarh for critical reading of the manuscript

and helpful suggestions. My special thanks are

also extended to Dr. V.K. Sehgal, Professor,

Department of Entomology, G.B. Pant

University of Agriculture & Technology, for

identifying the host species. Financial assistance

from Indian Council of Agricultural Research,

New Delhi in the research project is gratefully

acknowledged.

References

Askew, R.R. & H.C.J. Godfray (1987): Dicladocous

euryalus (Haliday) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae):

synonymy and biology. Entomologist's Gaz. 38: 203-

204.

BOUCEK. Z. (1975): Some European Eulophidae

(Hymenoptera), wi'th descriptions of three new species.

Acta. ent. Jugoslavica 10(1-2): 117-123.

BOUCEK, Z. ( 1 988 ): Australian Chalcidoidea(Hymenoptera).

"Eulophid part". C.A.B. International Wallingford,

U.K. pp. 584-758.

BOUCEK, Z. & R.R. Askew 1968(1969): Index o f Pal earc tic

Eulophidae (Excl. Tetrastichinae). In: Delluchi, V. &

Remaudiere, G. Index of entomophagous Insects, part

3-254. Le Francois, Paris.

Hussain, T. & M.. Y. Khan (1986): Family Eulophidae.

Oriental Insects 20: 21 1-245.

Peck, O. (1963): A catalogue of the Nearctic Chalcidoidea

(Insects: Hymenoptera). Can. Ent. Suppl. 30. 1092 pp.

Peck, O., Z. Boucek & A. Hoffer (1964): Keys to the

Chalcidoidea of Czechoslovakia (Insecta:

Hymenoptera). Mem. ent. Soc. Canad. 34: 120.

SUBBBA Rao, B.R. (1957): Some new species of Indian

Eulophidae. Indian J. Ent. 19: 50-53.

*Westwood, J.O. (1832): Descriptions of several new

British forms amongst the parasitic Hymenopterous

Insects. Phil. Mag. 3: 127-129.

YOSHIMOTO, C.M. (1976): Revision of the genus

Dicladocerus (Eulophidae: Chalcidoidea) of America,

North of Mexico, with particular reference to species

attacking larch case bearer (Lepidoptera): Can. Ent.

108: 1173-1206.

* Original not seen.

96

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

A NEW GENUS OF PTEROMALIDAE (HYMENOPTERA: CHALCIDOIDEA)

FROM COORG, KARNATAKA1

P.M. SURESHAN2 AND T.C. NARENDRAN3

( With seven text-figures)

A new Pteromalid genus, namely Neoepistenia gen. nov. and a new species N. coorgensis sp. nov. of the

subfamily Cleonyminae from Coorg (Karnataka) are described. The distinguishing features of the genus from

related genera are commented on.

Introduction

In our studies on Indian Pteromalidae (Sureshan

and Narendran 1990, in press; Narendran 1992,

Narendran et al 1992a, b) we came across an

interesting Pteromalid wasp belonging to the

subfamily Cleonyminae. This was collected from

the wet evergreen forests of Nemanakolly (South

Coorg). Our studies reveal that the specimen

belongs to a genus which is new to science. It

neither fits into any of the published genera of

Pteromalidae nor to any of the keys published by

Peck et al. (1964), Graham (1969), Farooqi and

Subba Rao (1985), Dzhanokmen (1987), Boucek

(1988) and Boucek and Rasplus (1991). Hence

the genus and species are described hereunder.

Neoepistenia gen. nov.

Type species: Neoepistenia coorgensis sp. nov.

Body moderately large and stout (Fig. 1).

Head (Figs. 1, 3. & 4) uniformly and moderately

raised reticulate with silvery white pubescence;

occiput immargined; temples moderately

converging; malar grooves distinct; anterior

margin of clypeus straight; scrobe deep with

carinate outer margin and inter-antennal ridge.

Antennae (Fig. 2) inserted slightly above lower

'Accepted August 1994.

2

Zoological Surv ey of India, Western Ghat Field Research

Station, Calicut, Kerala 673 002.

department of Zoology, University of Calicut,

Kerala 673 635.

margin of eyes; toruli wide apart; antennal

formula 11083.

Thorax reticulate punctate with moderately

dense pubescence. Pronotum (Fig. 3) large with

a median keel. Mesoscutum with notauli

complete. Propodeum (Fig. 6) medially raised

with a short median carina anteriorly cleft to

embrace a sub-triangular cup (which is

subdivided). Prepectus and metanotum reticulate

punctate. Forewing (Fig. 5) with mv slightly

longer than pmv; stv 0.3x pmv. Hind tibia with

two unequal spurs, with an outer row of

scattered spines in addition to thick hairs.

Gaster (Figs. 1 & 7) elongate, acuminate,

length 4. lx width in dorsal view, reticulate

punctate on sides of T2-T5, anterior part of T3

dorsally and T4 and T5 completely; ovipositor

sheaths and ovipositor strongly protruded out..

Remarks: Neoepistenia has a longer

pronotum, propodeum with a short median

carina anteriorly cleft to embrace a sub-

triangular cup (which is subdivided), dorsally

flattened gaster and hence resembles

Parepistenia Dodd and also in general structure

of the body. Parepistenia however differs from

it in having triangular spines on the dorsal edge

of fore tibia, gaster with lateral keels dorsally,

epipygium short and ovipositor not produced.

Neoepistenia also resembles Reikisura

Boucek in general appearance, structure of

antenna, etc. but differs in the absence of

occipital carina, scrobe not reaching ocellus, in

having longer pronotum and propodeum and in

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

97

the shape of gaster. In Reikisura occipital carina

is conspicuous on sides, scrobe reaching ocellus,

pronotum and propodeum very short and gaster

highly conical at the tip.

Another genus to which Neoepistenia

shows resemblance is Thaumasura Westwood in

the shape of pronotum with a median keel and

larger size of the body. Thaumasura however

Neoepistenia coorgensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-7)

FEMALE: Length 7.6 mm. Black with golden

yellow reflection on mesoscutum and scutellum

dorsally, metallic blue to violaceous reflections

on propodeum and T1 and T4 of gaster dorsally;

eyes dirty brown. Antennae black with slight

1 mm

Figs. 1-7. Neoepistenia coorgensis sp. nov. : Female

1. Body in profile; 2. Antenna; 3. Head and pronotum in dorsal view; 4. Head in front view; 5. Forewing;

6. Propodeum; 7. Gaster in dorsal view.

differs from it in having double infumation on metallic blue tinge on scape. Coxae concolorous

the wings, longer eyes, swollen cheeks and with thorax; all femora dark brown; tibiae brown

gaster with an extended epipygium. except base and tips testaceous; tarsi yellow with

98

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

tips brown. Tegulae brown; wings hyaline; veins

brown.

Head (Figs. 1, 3, 4) uniformly and

moderately raised reticulate, reticulation

engraved on vertex and occiput, with uniform

silvery white pubescence. In dorsal view head

width 2x length and in front view width 1.2x

height; temples moderately converging, length

0.25x that of eye; POL 1.6x OOL; ocelli large;

occipital carina absent; anterior margin of

clvpeus straight; malar grooves distinct; malar

space length 0.4x that of eye; eye length 1.45x

width in profile. Antennae (Fig. 2) inserted

slightly above lower margin of eyes; toruli wide

apart; scrobe deep with carinate outer margin

and distinct interantennal ridge; scape not

reaching median ocellus, length 0.6x that of the

eye and 2.6x pedicel; pedicel plus flagellum

length equal to head width; F1-F4 equal in

length; F5 and F6 slightly shorter than F4 and

equal in length; F7 and F8 slightly shorter than

F6 and equal in length; club as long as two

preceding segments combined; pubescence on

antenna very small and dense.

Thorax (Figs. 1 & 3) reticulate punctate

with moderately dense pubescence. Pronotum

width 2.5x length with distinct median keel

which is becoming faint at posterior end; collar

not demarcated anteriorly. Mesoscutum width

1.4x length; notauli complete. Scutellum width

almost equal to length. Propodeum (Fig. 6)

width 2.3x of its maximum length, medially

raised with a sharp transverse ridge, the area

behind it lies in a vertical plane forming a sub-

triangular cup which is subdivided medially,

shiny anteriorly and with vertical rugae

posteriorly; median carina short; plicae indicated

only anteriorly; callus with dense pubescence;

spiracles large and oval, area behind it raised

reticulate. Mesepimeron reticulate punctate with

a triangular shiny area beneath tegulae.

Metanotum reticulate punctate. Forewing (Fig. 5)

length 2.8x width, with brown pubescence;

costal cell hairy only on upper half; basal cell

hairy, distinct speculum absent; marginal fringe

small. Relative lengths of smv, mv, pmv and stv

as 26.5, 12, 10.5, and 3.5. Fore and hind coxae

reticulate laterally; mid coxae shagreened; hind

coxa length 1.7x width; hind femur length 0.9x

that of hind tibia; hind tibia with two strong,

unequal spurs, with an outer row of scattered

spines in addition to the thick hairs.

Gaster (Figs. 1 & 7) elongate, acuminate,

length 4. lx width in dorsal view and 1.7x that of

head plus thorax combined; sides of T2-T5,

anterior part of T3 dorsally and T4 and T5

completely reticulate punctate; engraved

reticulate on sides of Tl; pubescence dense on

sides of T1-T5 and complete on remaining

tergites; ovipositor sheaths and ovipositor

strongly protruded out; hypopygium reaching

beyond T3 up to one fourth length of T4.

MALE: Unknown.

Biology: Collected from wet evergreen

forest over a dry wood heavily infested with

wood boring beetles, probably a parasite of

beetles.

Holotype: FEMALE: India: Karnataka:

Nemanakolly (South Coorg), 7. iii. 1994, coll.

P.M. Sureshan. The holotype is kept in the

collections of Zoological Survey of India,

Western Ghat Field Research Station, Calicut,

but eventually will be deposited in the National

Zoological collections of Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta.

Etymology: Neoepistenia , name from

Parepistenia , owing to the close resemblance of

this genus to Parepistenia Dodd. The species is

named after the district of Karnataka state where

it was collected.

Acknowledgements

One of us (PMS) is grateful to the Director,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

99

Zoological survey of India, Calcutta and the

Officer in charge. Zoological Survey of India,

Western Ghat Field Research Station, Calicut for

providing facilities and encouragement. We are

also thankful to the authorities of the University

of Calicut, Kerala for the facilities provided.

References

BOUCEK, Z. (1988): Australasian Chalcidoidea

(Hymenoptera). C.A.B. International, U.K. 1-832.

BOUCEK, Z. & J.Y. RASPLUS (1991): Illustrated key to West-

Palearctic genera of Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera:

Chalcidoidea). INRA Editions, France. 1-144.

Farooqi, S.I. & B.R. Subba Rao (1985): Family

Pteromalidae. pp. 279-306 In: Subba Rao & Hayat

(Eds.) The Chalcidoidea (Insecta: Hymenoptera) of

India and the adjacent countries. Part I. Review of

families and keys to families and genera. Oriental Ins.

19: 161-310 & 15 pp.

GRAHAM. M.W. R. DE V. (1969): The Pteromalidae of

North Western Europe (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea).

Bull. Br. Mus. nat. Hist. Ent. Sup pi. 16: 1-908.

DZHANOKMEN, K.A. (1987): Family Pteromalidae pp. 88-

411. In: Medvedev (Ed.) Keys to the Insects of the

European part of the USSR. Vol. Ill, Hymenoptera,

part II. 1-1341.

NARENDRAN, T.C. (1992): A new species of Riekisura

Boucek (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) from India. J.

Adv. Zool. 13(1 & 2): 57-58.

Narendran, T.C., K. Anil, & K. Chandrasekharan

(1992a): A new species and a new record of the

remarkable genus Delislea Girault (Hymenoptera:

Pteromalidae) from the Oriental Region. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 89(2): 231-233.

Narendran, T.C., K. Anil, & K. Surekha (1992b): On

some important and beneficial chalcids (Hymenoptera:

Chalcidoidea) associated with sericulture industry in

India. Bioved 3(1): 1-6.

Peck, O., Z. Boucek & G. Hoffer (1964): Keys to the

Chalcidoidea of Czechoslovakia (Insecta:

Hymenoptera). Mem. ent. Soc Can. 34: 1-120.

Sureshan, P.M. & T.C. Narendran (1990): Taxonomic

studies on Eurydinotomorpha and Netomocera

(Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Pteromalidae). Oriental

Ins. 24: 219-227.

Sureshan, P.M. & T.C. Narendran (in press): A new

species of a little known genus of Pteromalidae

(Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) from India. Rec. Zool.

Surv. India.

A NEW GENUS OF TINGINAE (HETEROPTERA) FROM SOUTHERN INDIA1

David Livingstone and S. Jayanthibai2

( With a text-figure)

Longiscutella has been introduced as a new genus of the subfamily Tinginae. The monotypic species

Longiscutella menoni resembles Lasiacantha Stal in its pronotal hood and paranotal expansion but differs

from it by its much elongated proscutellum that reaches the posterior end of discoidal area and by the total

absence of ciliation.

Longiscutella gen. nov.

In general appearance and development of

pronotal hood and paranotal expansion this new

'Accepted September 1994.

2

Department of Zoology, Madras Christian College,

Tambaram, Madras 600 059.

genus resembles Lasiacantha Stal. But the

extraordinary development of the areolated

proscutellum, almost reaching the posterior end

of the discoidal area of the hemelytra and the

total absence of ciliation make it easy to

recognise it from the latter. In all other recorded

species of Tingidae, the proscutellum does not

exceed the middle of the discoidal area.

100

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 92 (1995)

Longiscutella menoni sp. nov.

(Fig. I)

Moderately large; 3 mm long and 1.3 mm

broad; testaceous; body bare; proscutellum

acutely pointed, posteriorly reaching the

posterior limit of the discoidal area; body

beneath fuscus.

Head : Fuscus, armed with two loral, one

frontal and two postgenal long tubercles, all

reaching the base of the pedicel; antennae

moderately elongate, pubescent; I & II segments

slender; IV segment testaceous and pilose;

proportionate lengths of antennomeres:

1:0. 8:6. 8:3; eyes reddish brown; antenniferous

tubercles passing the scape; rostrum stramineous,

rostral tip fuscus, passing mesostemum; rostral

furrow broad, open, sternal laminae non areolate;

bucculae biseriately areolate, fringed with short

hairs, occluding the first rostral segment.

Thorax: Pronotum prominently convex;

proscutum punctate, tricarinate, median carina

anteriorly terminating as glabrous, broadly

areolated hood, concealing the head and rising

medially as high as the paranotal elevation,

making a deep constriction at the base of the

scutellum before merging with the latter

posteriorly and continuing as its median carina

up to its tip; latemal carinae posteriorly

terminating on either side at the base of the

proscutellum; paranotal expansion after having

reflected over the pro scutum reflects back over

itself, making a deep dorso lateral groove;

scutellum with 1-3 rows of areolae on either side

of the median carina and acutely produced,

almost reaching the posterior limit of the

discoidal area; hemelytra not constricted, distally

overlapping; subcostal area biseriately areolate,

areolae hyaline, confluent with postcubital area;

radial area biseriately areolate, confluent with

the sutural area; discoidal area five to six areolae

deep at the middle, tapering at both ends; sutural

Fig. 1. Longiscutella menoni gen. et sp. nov.

Above: Dorsal view; Below: Lateral view.

area with broad areolae; clavus prominently

biseriately areolate; legs slender, femora slightly

incrassated; tibia spiniform; tarsomeres

testaceous, spiniform.

Material examined: Holotype : Female,

macropterous.

Locality: Vellainikara, Trichur, Kerala

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

101

(22.2.80).

Host plant: Triumfetta pilosa Roth -

Tiliaceae.

Paratype: Two specimens, data same as

holotype.

Type location: For the present in

Livingstone's collection. Dept, of Zoology,

Madras Christian College, Tambaram, Madras -

400 059.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the ICAR, New Delhi,

for financial assistance, Bharathiar University,

Coimbatore and Madras Christian College,

Tambaram, for facilities and encouragement, and

Dr. M.H.S. Yacoob for assistance in collection.

A REVISION OF GENUS UNGULIA MALAISE

(HYMENOPTERA, SYMPHYTA, TENTHREDINIDAE: ALLANTINAE)1

Malkiat S. Saini AND V. Vasu2

( With forty four text-figures)

With recognition of se’ e species (two already described and five new) genus Ungulia Malaise has been

revised. Described as new are : U. auratica, U. himalayaensis, U. brevis, U. scutopunctatus and U.

acupunctata. While U. fasciativentris Malaise represents first record from India. Treatment of each taxon

includes synonymy (if any), detailed description, collection data, population variation (if any), and

distribution. A key is provided for all species dealt herewith.

Introduction

Mainly based on the presence of a simple

claw, absence of postgenal carina, malar space

more than diameter of median ocellus, etc., the

genus Ungulia was erected by Malaise in 1961,

taking Taxonus nigritarsis Cameron, 1902 as its

type species. So far, this genus was represented

by two species only, i.e. U. fasciativentris

Malaise and U. nigritarsis (Cameron).

In the present text, seven species are

described and illustrated which include, two that

have already been reported and five as new to

science. Holotypes of new species are presently

in our collections and will be deposited in the

Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI),

Pusa, National Collections, New Delhi, India

after this work is published. Abbreviations used

Accepted December 1994.

2

Department of Zoology, Punjabi University,

Patiala 147 002, Punjab.

in the text are: EL- eye length, IATS- inner

apical tibial spur, ICD- inter-cencheri distance,

IDMO- interocular distance at level of median

ocellus, ITD- inter-tegular distance, LID - lower

inter-ocular distance, MB- metabasitarsus,

OATS- outer apical tibial spur, OCL- ocello-

occipital line, OOL- oculo-ocellar line, POL-

postocellar line.

Genus Ungulia Malaise, 1961

Ungulia Malaise, 1961. Ent. Tidskr; Arg,

82, Hafte 3-4: 244-245.

Type species: Taxonus nigritarsis Cameron,

1902.

Diagnosis: Adult: forewing with 2 radial

and 4 cubital cells; 2nd and 3rd of the latter

subequal in length, and each receiving a

recurrent vein. Basalis subparallel to medius and

joins subcosta close to the base of cubitus.

Nervulus at the apical 2/5 of the cell. Anal cell

with a crossvein at apical fourth of the cell,

102

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

nearly perpendicular with an angle of about 80 .

Hindwings without closed middle cells, but the

radiellan and anellan cell are closed, the latter

with long petiole. Nerveilus perpendicular only

against the mediellan, but not against the

brachiellan vein. Hindorbits not cannated. Inner

margins of eyes subparallel. Head narrowing

behind eyes; lateral furrows diverging

posteriorly; postocellar area broader than long.

Frontal area roundly elevated above a line

touching both eyes, without carinae, and laterally

unsharp ly limited by roundly depressed antennal

furrows. Malar space as long as, or longer than

pedicel. Clypeus subconvex, roundly emarginate.

Mandibles subsymmetric, roundly curved, each

with a subapical tooth near the apex. Antenna

long; flagellum filiform. Mesopleura without

presterna. Abdomen and legs normal; hind

basitarsus subequal in length to following tarsal

joints combined Claws simple.

Remarks: To introduce some new species

in genus Ungulia . some of its generic characters

such as punctu ration of head and thorax, specific

ratio of postocellar area, specificity of post-,

inter-, and circum- ocellar furrows, different

conditions of scape and pedicel, specific colour

pattern of the body, and ratio of antennal

segments 3 and 4 have been intentionally

dropped. All these characters should now

onward be considered at species level only. This

has been done with a view that we do not want

to erect unnecessarily a new genus on the basis

of these unstable and weak morphological

characters.

Keys to species of genus Ungulia Malaise

1. Abdomen entirely black 3

* Abdomen not entirely black 2

2. Tergites 2-5 entirely auratus; postocellar area broader

than long as 2:1; scape 1.3X its apical width; pedicel

as long as its apical width ... U. auratica sp. nov.

* Tergites 2-5 not entirely auratus; postocellar area

broader than long as 3:1; scape as long as its apical

width; pedicel 1 ,3X its apical width

U. fasciativentris Malaise, 1961

3. Antennal segments 3 and 4 subequal; malar space less

than 2X diameter of medial ocellus 4

* Antennal segments 3 and 4 equal; malar space 2X or

more than diameter of median ocellus 5

4. Median fovea deep ditch-like in its anterior half and

posteriorly not reaching median ocellus (Fig. 35);

OOL:POL:OCL =4:4:3; postocellar area broader than

long as 3:2; segment 3 longer than 4 as 7:6; malar

space twice as long as pedicel

U. acupunctata sp. nov.

* Median fovea in the form of a shallow triangular pit

in its anterior half and posteriorly only shallowly

reaching median ocellus (Fig. 36); OOL:POL:OCL =

5:4:5; postocellar area broader than long as 4:3;

segment 3 shorter than 4 as 6:7; malar space as long

as pedicel U. himalayaensis sp. nov.

5. Postocellar area broader than long as 2:1; pedicel as

long as 1/2 of its apical width; clypeus circularly

emarginate up to 1/3 of its median length

U. brevis sp. nov.

* Postocellar are broader than long as 3:2; pedicel as

long as its apical width; clypeus only shallowly

emarginate 6

6. Median fovea deep, ditch-like and clearly reaching

median ocellus (Fig. 38); malar space 2.5X diameter

of median ocellus and 1.5X pedicel lengthr

OOL:POL:OCL = 4:4:5;

U. nigritarsis (Cameron, 1902)

* Median fovea shallow, ditch-like in its anterior half

and posteriorly only shallowly reaching median ocellus

(Fig. 39); malar space 2X diameter of median ocellus

and 1.2X pedicel length; OOL:POL:OCL = 4:4:3

U. scutopunctatus sp. nov.

Ungulia auratica sp. nov.

(Figs. 1, 5, 17, 23, 26, 33, 40)

FEMALE; Colour: Body black, whitish yellow

are; clypeus except extreme base; labrum; a

transverse band on lower posterior half of

mesepistemum; all legs except at joints of

femora and tibiae, posterior aspects and apical

1/4 of all tibiae and all tarsi which are fuscus.

Auratus are: tergites 2-6 entirely; all stemites

entirely. Wings faintly infumated; venation

including costa, subcosta and stigma piceous.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

103

Structure: Average length 5 mm. Antenna

(Fig. 40) 2.6X head width; scape 1.3X its apical

width; pedicel as long as its apical width;

segments 3 and 4 equal; clypeus (Fig. 1)

circularly incised up to 1/3 of its medial length;

labrum (Fig. 1) broader than long as 2:1, with

deflexed rounded anterior margin; malar space

1.75X diameter of median ocellus and as long as

pedicel; LID:IDMO:EL = 3:3:2; median fovea

(Fig. 33) in form of a deep, circular pit in its

anterior half and posteriorly only shallowly

reaching median ocellus; post-, inter-, and

circum-ocellar furrows sharp and distinct; lateral

furrows deep, distinct, slightly diverging and

ending abruptly well before the hypothetical hind

margin of head; postocellar area subconvex,

broader than long as 2:1; OOL:POL:OCL=2:2: 1;

mesoscutellum subconvex; appendage not

carinated; ICD4TD = 2:7; metabasitarsus

subequal to following joints combined as 6:7;

IATS:MB:OATS - 2:6: 1.5. Lancet (Fig. 26)

with 13 serrulae. Hypopygium as in Fig. 5.

Sculpture and pubescence: Flead

impunctate, shining; mesonotum with dense,

minute, irregular punctures, surface shining;

mesoscutellum with few shallow, scattered

punctures on posterior border, surface polished;

appendage impunctate, polished; mesepisteraum

and mesostemum impunctate, surface shining

with oily lustre; abdomen impunctate shining.

Body covered with silvery pubescence except for

the auratus parts where it appears to be golden.

MALE: Average length 4.5 mm. Similar to

female. Male genitalia: Penis valve (Fig. 23),

gonoforceps (Fig. 17).

Material examined: Holotype: female,

Manipur, Ukhrul, 1700 m 22.9.1992. Paratypes :

Nagaland, Kohima, 1495 m (4 ??), 12.9.1992;

Pfutsero, 2100 m (1 a"), 19.5.1993. Arunachal

Pradesh. Hapoli. 1500 m (2 ??, 1 a"),

17 5.1992. Manipur, Ukhrul, 1700 m (6 $$, 2

a* a*). 22.9.1992. Mizoram, Aizawl, 2100 m (l $,

2. U. fasciativentris Malaise; 3. U. nigritarsis (Cameron);

4. U. scutopunctatus sp. nov.; 5-11. Hypopygium: 5. U.

auratica sp. nov.; 6. U. fasciativentris Malaise; 7. U.

himalayaensis sp. nov.; 8. U. acupunctata sp. nov.; 9. U.

scutopunctatus sp. nov.; 10. U. nigritarsis (Cameron);

11 . U. brevis sp. nov.; 12-17. Gonoforceps: 12. U.

fasciativentris Malaise; 13. U. himalayaensis sp. nov.;

14. U. nigritarsis (Cameron); 15. U. acupunctata sp. nov.;

16. U. brevis sp. nov.; 17. U. auratica sp. nov.

1 <r), 14.5.1993; Lunglie, 1700 m (1 a"),

17.5.1993.

Population variation: Tergite 2nd may be

with somewhat fuscus anterior margin; tergite

6th may be fuscus partly; spot on lower posterior

1/2 of mesepistemum may be faintly indicated or

absent.

Distribution: INDIA: Manipur, Nagaland,

Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram.

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Diagnostic combinations: Though U.

auratica comes close to U. fasciativentris , still

some significant characters such as: tergites 2-5

entirely auratus (broad medial, auratus spot on

tergites 2-5 in U. fasciativentris ); postocellar

area broader than long as 2:1 (3:1 in U.

fasciativentris ); scape 1.3X apical width (as long

as its apical width in U. fasciativentris ); pedicel

as long as its apical width (1.3X its apical width

in U. fasciativentris ); median fovea in the form

of a deep, circular pit in its anterior 1/2 and

posteriorly only shallowly reaching median

ocellus (median fovea in the form of a broad pit

between antennae in U. fasciativentris ); makes it

distinct from U. fasciativentris.

Etymology: Species name pertains to

general colour of its abdomen.

Ungulia fasciativentris Malaise, 1961

(Figs. 2, 6, 12, 24, 27, 34, 41)

U. fasciativentris Malaise, 1961. Ent.

Tidskr; Arg, 82, Hafte 3-4, p.244.

FEMALE: Colour: Body black, yellowish

white are: clypeus; labrum; a transverse spot

along border of mesopleuron with mesostemum;

all legs except extreme apex of all tibiae and

tarsi entirely; all stemites and deflexed parts of

all tergites. Auratus are: broad irregular medial

spot on tergites 2-5. Wings infumated; venation

including costa, subcosta and stigma dark brown.

Structure: Average length 6 mm. Antenna

(Fig. 41) 2X head width; scape as long as its

apical width; pedicel 1.3X its apical width;

segments 3 and 4 subequal as 7:6; clypeus (Fig.

2) with wavy and faintly emarginate anterior

margin; labrum broader than long as 2:1, with

deflexed rounded anterior margin;

LID:IDMO:EL = 3:3:2; malar space 1.5X

diameter of median ocellus and as long as

pedicel; frontal area elevated above level of

eyes: median fovea (Fig. 34) in form of a broad

Figs. 18. Gonoforceps: 18. U. scutopunctatus sp. nov.;

19-25. Penis valve: 19. U. himalayaensis sp. nov.;

20. U. nigritarsis (Cameron); 21. U. acupunctata sp. nov.

22. U. brevis sp. nov.; 23. U. auratica sp. nov.;

24. U. fasciativentris Malaise; 25. U. scutopunctatus sp.

nov.; 26. Lancet: 26. U. auratica sp. nov.

pit between antennae; post-, inter-, and circum-

ocellar furrows distinct; lateral furrows marked,

diverging posteriorly and ending well before the

hypothetical hind margin of head; postocellar

area broader than long as 3:1; OOL:POL:OCL =

3:2:3; mesoscutellum flat; appendage not

carinate; ICD:ITD = 1.0:3. 5; metabasitarsus

equal to following joints combined;

IATS:MB:OATS = 15:4:1; Lancet (Fig. 27)

having 14 serrulae. Hypopygium as in Fig. 6.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head and

thorax shining and minutely punctured; abdomen

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

105

impunctate. Body covered with silvery

pubescence except for auratus parts where it

appears to be golden.

MALE: Average length 5.0 mm. Similar to

female. Male genitalia: Penis valve (Fig. 24),

gonoforceps (Fig. 12).

Holotype depository: female, NR

Stockholm.

Paratypes depository: 2 ??, 5 a* a*, NR

Stockholm.

Specimen examined: Arunachal Pradesh,

Bomdila, 2550 m, (1 ¥, 8 <?<?), 8.5.1992; (1 ?,

14 dV), 13 9.1992. West Bengal, Darjeeling,

2280 m, (6 dV), 7.5.1993; Mirik, 1700 m, (4

10.5.1993.

Population variation: An irregular medial

spot may be present at least on any two

adjoining tergites between 2-5.

Distribution: INDIA: Arunachal Pradesh,

West Bengal.

Diagnostic combinations: U. fasciativentris

Malaise remains distinct from all species dealt

herewith in having tergites 2-5 with a broad

medial auratus spot (entirely black in others

except in U. auratica where these are entirely

auratus); postocellar area broader than long as

3:1 (2:1 in U. auratica & U. brevis , 3:2 in U.

acupunctata , U. nigritarsis & U. scutopunctatus ,

4:3 in U. himalavaensis ) and OOL:POL:OCL =

3:2:3 (2:2:1 in U. auratica , 4:4:3 in U.

acupunctata & U. scutopunctatus , 5:4:5 in U.

himalayaensis, 5:4:4 in U. brevis , 4:4:5 in U.

nigritarsis).

Ungulia acupunctata sp. nov.

(Figs. 2, 8, 15, 21, 28, 35)

FEMALE: Colour: Body black, pale yellow

are: clypeus: labrum; posterodorsal angle of

pronotum; spot on mesopleuron; deflexed lateral

sides of tergites 2-7; all legs except posterior

stripe along pro- and meso-tibiae, all tarsi

Figs. 27-32. Lancet: 27. U. fasciativentris Malaise; 28. U.

acupunctata sp. nov.: 29. U. himalayaensis sp. nov.;

30. U. brevis sp. nov.; 31 U. nigritarsis (Cameron);

32. U. scutopunctatus sp. nov.

entirely which are brownish; underside of

abdomen except dark brown apex. Wings

infumated, venation including costa, subcosta

and stigma black.

Structure: Average length 6 mm. Antenna

(Fig. 41) 2X head width; scape as long as its

apical width; pedicel as long as 1.3X its apical

width; segments 3 and 4 subequal as 7:6;

clypeus (Fig. 2) with slightly emarginate, wavy

anterior margin; labrum broader than long as

2:1, with deflexed rounded anterior margin;

malar space 1.75X diameter of median ocellus

and 2X pedicel length; LID:IDMO:EL =

106

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

2. 0:2. 0:1. 5; frontal area elevated above level of

eyes; median fovea (Fig. 35) deep, ditch-like in

its anterior half and posteriorly not reaching

median ocellus; post-, inter- and circum -ocellar

furrows deep, well marked; lateral furrows deep,

diverging posteriorly and ending abruptly well

before hypothetical hind margin of head;

postocellar area broader than long as 3:2;

OOL:POL:OCL = 4:4:3; mesoscuteilum slightly

elevated in middle; appendage not carinate;

ICD:ITD = 2:7; metabasitarsus shorter than the

following joints combined as 6:7;

IATS:MB:OATS= 2.0:5.0:1.75. Lancet (Fig. 28)

having 13 serrulae. Hypopygium as in Fig. 8.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head and

thorax shining and minutely punctured; abdomen

impunctate, surface subshining. Body covered

with silvery pubescence.

MALE: Average length 5 mm. Similar to

female. Male genitalia: Penis valve (Fig. 21),

gonoforceps (Fig. 15).

Material examined: Holotype: Female,

Arunachal Pradesh: Bomdila, 2550 m, 9.5.1992.

Paratypes: Arunachal Pradesh, Bomdila, 2550

m, (30 7 aV), 8.5. 1992 - 9.5.1992; (20

£ $, 3 dV), 13.9.1992; Dirang, 1500 m, (20 ? ?,

2 oV), 15.9.1992.

Population variations: Not observed.

Distribution: INDIA: Arunachal Pradesh.

Diagnostic combinations: Though the

broad key characters such as abdomen entirely

black; antennal segments 3 and 4 subequal;

malar space twice the diameter of median ocellus

bring IJ. acupunctata close to U. himalayaensis ,

it differs in the following characters: median

fovea deep ditch-like in its anterior 1/2 and

posteriorly not reaching median ocellus (shallow

triangular pit in its anterior 1/2 and posteriorly

shallowly reaching median ocellus in U.

himalayaensis ), postocellar area broader than

long as 3:2 (4:3 in U. himalayaensis ), segments

3 and 4 as 7:6 (6:7 in U. himalayaensis ), malar

space 2X pedicel (IX in U. himalayaensis) and

OOL:POL:OCL = 4:4:3 (5:4:5 in U.

himalayaensis ).

Etymology: Species name pertains to the

very fine punctures present on body.

Ungulia himalayaensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 7, 13, 19, 29, 36, 42)

FEMALE: Colour : Body black, yellowish

white are: clypeus except base; labrum; mandible

base; posterodorsal angles of pronotum; a broad

triangular spot on lower posterior part of

mesepistemum; deflexed lateral sides of tergites

3-6; all stemites entirely; all legs except fuscus

tarsi. Wings infumated, venation including costa,

subcosta and stigma piceous.

Structure: Average length 6.5 mm.

Antenna (Fig. 42) 2.3X head width; scape as

long as its apical width; pedicel 1.3X its apical

width; segment 3 shorter than 4 as 6:7; clypeus

(Fig. 2) shallowly, circularly emarginate with

wavy anterior margin; labrum broader than long

as 2:1, with deflexed rounded anterior margin;

malar space 1.75X diameter of median ocellus

and as long as pedicel; LID:IDMO:EL = 3:3:2;

median fovea (Fig. 36) in form of a shallow

triangular pit in its anterior half and posteriorly

only shallowly reaching median ocellus; post-,

inter-, and circum -ocellar furrows sharp and

distinct; lateral furrows deep, distinct, diverging

backwards and ending well before hypothetical

hind margin of head; postocellar area broader

than long as 4:3; OOL:POL:OCL = 5:4:5;

mesoscuteilum subconvex; appendage not

carinated; metabasitarsus equal to following

joints combined; IATS:MB:OATS = 2:5:1. 5.

Lancet (Fig. 29) with 15 serrulae. Hypopygium

as in Fig. 7.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head and

thorax almost impunctate except a few scattered,

minute punctures, surface shining with general

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

107

Figs. 33-39. Head (Front view of median fovea): 33. U.

auratica sp. nov.; 34. U. fasciativcntris Malaise; 35. U.

acupunctata sp. nov.; 36. U. himalayaensis sp. nov.; 37.

U. brevis sp. nov.; 38. U. nigritarsis (Cameron); 39. U.

scutopunctatus sp. nov.; 40-44;, Antenna: 40. U. auratica

sp. nov.; 41. U. fasciativentris Malaise; 42. U.

himalayaensis sp. nov.; 43. U. brevis sp. nov.; 44. U.

scutopunctatus sp. nov.

oily lustre; abdomen impunctate, subshining.

Body covered with silvery pubescence.

MALE: Average length 4.5 mm. Similar to

female. Male genitalia: Penis valve (Fig. 19),

gonoforceps (Fig. 13).

Material examined: Holotype : Female,

Uttar Pradesh, Dhanolti, 2200 m, 25.7.1993.

Paratypes: Uttar Pradesh, Auli, 2400 m, (1 $),

27.6.1992; Munsyari, 2300 m, (1 ?), 19.6.1993;

Binayak, 2200 m, (1 cf), 22.6.1993; Dhanolti,

2200 m, (1 $, 1 <?), 25.7.1993.

Population variation: Not observed.

Distribution: INDIA: Uttar Pradesh.

Diagnostic combinations: Entirely black

abdomen is sufficient to separate IJ.

himalayaensis from IJ. auratica and U.

fasciativentris (tergites 2-5 entirely auratus in

fonner, but 2-5 with broad medial auratus spot

in latter). It is distinct from U. brevis , IJ.

nigritarsis , and IJ. scutopunctatus on the basis of

antennal segments 3 and 4 as 6:7 (equal in all

three); malar space less than 2X diameter of

median ocellus (2X or more in all the three);

median fovea triangular, pit-like, shallowly

reaching median ocellus (ditch-like shallowly

reaching median ocellus in IJ. brevis and IJ.

scutopunctatus but deep ditch-like clearly

reaching median ocellus in U. nigritarsis.

Etymology: Named after the great

'Himalaya' in which its localities fall.

Ungulia brevis sp nov

(Figs. 11, 16, 22, 30, 37, 43)

FEMALE: Colour: Body black, yellowish

white are: clypeus except extreme base; labrum;

posterodorsal angle of pronotum; a broad

triangular spot on lower posterior 1/2 of

mesepisternum; all stemites entirely; all legs

except tarsi which are light brownish. Wings

infumated; venation including costa, subcosta

and stigma light to dark brown.

Structure: Average length 4.5 mm.

Antennae (Fig. 43) 2.7X head width; scape as

long as its apical width; pedicel half as long as

its apical width; segments 3 and 4 equal; clypeus

(Fig. 1) circularly incised up to 1/3 of its medial

length; labrum broader than long as 2:1, with

deflexed rounded anterior margin; malar space

2X diameter of median ocellus and as long as

pedicel; LID:IDMO:EL = 5:6:4; median fovea

(Fig. 37) ditch-like in its anterior half and

posteriorly only shallowly reaching median

ocellus; post-, inter-, and circum-ocellar furrows

108

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

sharp and distinct; lateral furrows deep, distinct,

diverging backwards and ending well before

hypothetical hind margin of head; postocellar

area subconvex, broader than long as 2:1;

OOL:POL:OCL = 5 : 4 : 4 ; mesoscutellum

subconvex; appendage not carinate; ICD:ITD:

1:3; metabasitarsus shorter than following joints

combined as 4:5; IATS:MB:OATS =

0.75:0.5:2.0. Lancet (Fig. 30) with 14 serrulae.

Hypopygium as in Fig. 11.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head

impunctate, shining; mesonotum and

mesoscutellum with dense, minute, irregular,

inconspicuous punctures, surface shining;

appendage impunctate, polished; mesepistemum

and mesostemum almost impunctate, polished;

surface shining with general oily lustre; abdomen

impunctate, subshining. Body covered with

silvery pubescence.

MALE: Average length 3.5 mm. Similar to

female. Male genitalia: Penis valve (Fig. 22),

gonoforceps (Fig. 16).

Material examined: Holotype: Female,

Arunachal Pradesh, Bomdila, 2550 m, 9.5.1992.

Paratypes: Arunachal Pradesh, Bomdila, 2550

m, ( 2 ?$, 5 cftf), 9.5.1992.

Population variation: Outer aspects of

tibiae may be faintly brownish.

Distribution: INDIA: Arunachal Pradesh.

Diagnostic combinations: Postocellar area

broader than long as 2:1 (3:2 in U. nigritarsis

and U. scutopunctatus ), pedicel 1/2 of its apical

width (as long as its apical width in U.

nigritarsis and U. scutopunctatus) and clypeus

emarginate up to 1/3 of its medial length (only

shallowly emarginate in U. nigritarsis and U.

scutopunctatus ) are the character which keep U.

brevis distinct from these two species. On the

basis of antennal segments 3 and 4 equal

(subequal in U. acupunctata and U.

himalayaensis ), malar space 2X diameter of

median ocellus (less than 2X diameter in U.

acupunctata & U. himalayaensis , median fovea

ditch-like in anterior 1/2 and posteriorly

shallowly reaching median ocellus (ditch-like in

anterior 1/2 but posteriorly not reaching median

ocellus in U. acupunctata and triangular pit-like

in U. himalayaensis , this species remains distinct

from its closely related species. Colour pattern

of abdomen of this species which is entirely

black separates it from U. fasciativentris (tergites

2-5 with broad medial auratus spot) and U.

auratica (tergites 2-5 auratus entirely).

Etymology: Species name pertains to small

size of its body.

Ungulia nigritarsis (Cameron, 1902)

(Figs. 3, 10, 14, 20, 31, 38)

Taxonus nigritarsis Cameron, 1902, J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc.; 14: 443.

U. nigritarsis (Cameron) Malaise, 1961. Ent.

Tidskr; Arg, 82, Hafte 3-4: 244.

FEMALE: Colour: Body black, yellowish

white are: clypeus except base; labrum; mandible

base; a broad triangular spot on lower posterior

1/2 of mesepistemum; all stemites; all legs

except tarsi which are light to dark brownish.

Wings infumated; venation including costa,

subcosta and stigma piceous.

Structure: Average length 6 mm. Antenna

(Fig. 44) 2.3X head width; scape and pedicel as

long as their apical widths; segments 3 and 4

equal; clypeus (Fig. 3) shallowly circularly

emarginate with wavy anterior margin; labrum

(Fig. 3) broader than long as 2:1, with slightly

deflexed rounded anterior margin; malar space

2.5X diameter of median ocellus and 1.5X

pedicel length; LID:IDMO:EL = 3:3:2; median

fovea (Fig. 38) ditch-like in its anterior half and

posteriorly clearly reaching median ocellus;

post-, inter-, and circum -ocellar furrows sharp

and distinct; lateral furrows deep, distinct,

diverging backwards and ending well before

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

109

hypothetical hind margin of head; postocellar

area subconvex, broader than long as 3:2;

OOL:POL:OCL = 4:4:5; mesoscutellum

subconvex, appendage not carinated; ICD:ITD =

2:7; metabasitarsus shorter than following joints

combined as 6:7; IATS:MB:OATS = 0.75:3:1.

Lancet (Fig. 31) with 14 semilae. Hypopygium

as in Fig. 10.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head

impunctate, shining; thorax with dense, fine,

irregular, inconspicuous punctures, except

impunctated appendage, surface shining with

general oily lustre; abdomen impunctate,

subshining. Body covered with silvery

pubescence.

MALE: Length 4.5 mm. Similar to female.

Male genitalia: Penis valve (Fig. 20),

gonoforceps (Fig. 14).

Holotype depository: Male, BMNH,

London.

Paratype depository: 1 ¥, NR Stockholm.

Specimens examined: Arunachal Pradesh,

Bomdila, 2550 m, (4 ? ¥), 13.9.1992; Nine mile,

1200 m, (2 1 <?), 14.9.1992. Meghalaya,

Smit, 1500 m, (1 ?), 5.9.1993.

Population variation: Posterodorsal angle

of pronotum may be whitish yellow.

Distribution: INDIA: Arunachal Pradesh,

Meghalaya.

Diagnostic combinations: U. nigritarsis

(Cameron) is unique in having deep ditch-like

median fovea posteriorly clearly reaching median

ocellus, malar space 2.5X diameter of median

ocellus and 1.5X pedicel length,

OOL:POL:OCL=4:4:5 and thorax with dense,

fine, irregular punctures. The combination of

these characters separates it from all species of

this genus.

Ungulia scutopunctatus sp. nov.

(Figs. 4, 9, 18, 25, 32, 39, 44)

FEMALE: Colour : Body black, yellowish

white are: clypeus except base; labrum;

posterodorsal angle of pronotum; a triangular

spot on lower posterior 1/2 of mesepistemum; all

stemites entirely; all legs except apices of all

tibiae and tarsi which are fuscus. Wings

infumated; venation including costa, subcosta

and stigma piceous.

Structure: Average length 6.5 mm.

Antenna (Fig. 44) 2.2X head width; scape and

pedicel as long as their apical widths; segments

3 and 4 equal; clypeus (Fig. 4) slightly

emarginate; labrum (Fig. 4) broader than long as

3:1, with slightly deflexed and truncate anterior

margin; malar space 2X diameter of median

ocellus and 1.2 X pedicel length; LID:IDMO:EL

= 3:3;2; median fovea (Fig. 39) shallow ditch-

like in its anterior half and posteriorly shallowly

reaching median ocellus; post-, inter-, and

circum-ocellar furrows sharp and distinct; lateral

furrows distinct, diverging backwards and ending

abruptly just before hypothetical hind margin of

head; postocellar area almost flat, broader than

long as 3:2; OOL:POL:OCL = 4:4:3;

mesoscutellum subconvex; appendage not

carinate; ICD:ITD = 2:7; metabasitarsus shorter

than following joints combined as 6:7;

IATS:MB:OATS = 1:3:1. Lancet (Fig. 32) with

13 serrulae. Hypopygium as in Fig. 9.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head, thorax

and abdomen impunctate except a few shallow

punctures on posterior slope of mesoscutellum,

surface shining. Body covered with silvery

pubescence.

MALE: Average length 4 mm. Similar to

female. Male genitalia: Penis valve (Fig. 25),

gonoforceps (Fig. 18).

Material examined: Holotype: Female,

Sikkim, Gangtok, 1500 m, 14.5.1993. Paratypes:

West Bengal, Darjeeling, 2280 m, (2 ¥ ¥, 1 a"),

7.5.1993.

Population variation: Not observed.

Distribution: INDIA: Sikkim, West Bengal.

110

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Diagnostic combinations: U.

scutopunctatus resembles U. nigritarsis on the

basis of some broad key characters such as:

abdomen entirely black; postocellar area broader

than long as 3:2; pedicel as long as its apical

width; clypeus shallowly emarginate and

antennal segments 3 -and 4 equal, but differs

from it in having malar space 2X diameter of

median ocellus (2.5X in U. nigritarsis) and 1.2X

pedicel length (1.5X in U. nigritarsis ), median

fovea shallow ditch-like in its anterior 1/2 and

shallowly reaching median ocellus (deep ditch-

like, clearly reaching median ocellus in U.

nigritarsis) and OOL:POL:OCL = 4:4:3 (4:4:5

in U. nigritarsis).

Etymology: Species name refers to the

presence of punctures on mesoscutellum.

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. D.R. Smith of USNM,

Washington for his valuable suggestions.

Financial assistance rendered by US, PL-480 in

collaboration with ICAR, New Delhi is also

acknowledged.

References

Cameron, P. (1902): Descriptions of new genera and Malaise, R. (1961): New Oriental Sawflies (Hymenoptera:

species of Hymenoptera collected by Maj . C.S. Nurse Tenthredinidae). Entomologisk Tidskrift 82(3-4): 23 1 -

at Dessa, Ferojpur and Shimla, P^rt - I. J. Bombay 260.

nat. Hist. Soc. 14: 443-447.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. CLAW MARKING ON TREES BY TIGER PANTHERA TIGRIS (LINN.) IN KANHA

NATIONAL PARK

Introduction

Tiger is a territorial animal and usually leads a

solitary life. The intrasexual territories are maintained

by advertisement - both olfactory as well as visual.

These signals are perceived by the conspecifics and

thus internecine strife is avoided in nature. Scent

marking, defecation and scratching on the ground,

vocalisation, cheek rubbing on trees are some of the

common territory marking methods. Some studies

have been conducted on the scent marking,

pheromones and olfaction in tiger (Brahmachary and

Dutta 1979, Chaudhury 1979) but observations on

claw marking by tiger are few.

Material and Method

The study was conducted in the Kanha National

trees on different roads was also measured. The

observations were repeated during the study period.

Results and Discussion

The results are shown in the Table 1. Tigers

frequently used Madhuca longifolia (19 trees) and

Pterocarpus marsupium (7 trees). Boswellia serrata

and Bombax ceiba were sparing used. The girth of

marked trees varied from 37 cm to 324 cm. The

height of claw marks from the ground level varied

from 65 cm to 270 cm. These marked trees were

about 1-5 km. apart on different roads and apparently

belonged to different tigers (probably of both sexes)

as the observations were made along 5 different

routes. In one observation made at Bastar, an aberrant

tigress (man-eater) had clawed trees like

Lagerstroemia parviflora and Tectona grandis. It is

Table 1

SHOWING TIGER CLAW MARKS ON DIFFERENT TREE SPECIES

Park. Trees having tiger claw marks were located by

intensive field survey. The tree species, girth; height

of claw marks from the ground were recorded

(Kotwal 1 987) during 1 980 to 1 984 on specified roads

as mentioned in the table. The distance of marked

noteworthy that trees with soft bark having a good

amount of sap were frequently clawed, whereas those

having rough bark Shorea robusta, etc. were avoided,

though present in abundance.

Smith et al. (1989) have reported clawing in

1 12

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Ko/. 92 (7995)

both the sexes for territory marking. It is also

believed that this action may perhaps shaipen the

claws by peeling off any thin, loose or desquamated

strips of laminae from the surface that are ready to

flake off, either on the top of the claw or along the

sides and thickened margins (Wyne-Edwards 1962).

Probably this action also strengthens the claws and its

muscles which are important to the predator for

holding and tearing the prey. Schaller (1967) did not

notice this phenomenon during his study ( 1 964-66).

Nevertheless clawing on trees is regularly discernible

and appears to play an important role in territorial

advertisement amongst tigers.

July 29, 1994 P.C. KOTWAL1

G.P. MISHRA2

' Research Officer, Kanha Tiger Reserve, M.P.

" Professor of Botany, Sagar University, M.P.

References

BRAHMACHARY, R.L. & J. Dutta (1979): On the

pheromones of a tiger. International Symposium on

Tiger, Delhi.

CHAUDHURY, S.R. (1979): Olfaction marking and oestrous

in a tiger. International Symposium on Tiger, Delhi.

KOTWAL. P.C. (1987): Ecological studies on evaluation of

certain wildlife habitats and their utilisation by major

mammals in Kanha National Park. D.Sc. thesis. Sagar

University.

SCHALLER, G.B. (1967): The deer and the tiger. A study of

wildlife in India. Chicago University Press-.

Smith, J.L.D., Charles McDougal & Dale Miguelle

(1989): Scent marking in free ranging tigers, Panthera

tigris. Anim. Behav. 37: 1-10.

Wyne-Edwards, V. (1962): Animal dispersion in relation to

social behaviour. Edinburgh.

2. AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR OF A THIRSTY LEOPARD, PANTHERA PARDUS (LINN.)

There is a small spring called Kooda-ka-Joira

situated high up in the hills about 20 km north-west

of Udaipur. In fifties, the jungles around this spring

were teeming with Four homed antelope ( Tetracerus

quadricornis ), sambar ( Cervus unicolor) and wild pigs

(Sus scrofa ). All these wild ungulates have been

poached. Carnivores of the region (e.g. leopard and

wolf Cams lupus) -chiefly depend upon live stock.

On 21st April, 1991 late in the evening our

family went to the spring for an outing. Leaving the

jeep about 200 m from the spring we walked down

the remaining part and settled on an open patch near

the water.

As darkness approached, we lit a carbide lamp

and were enjoying the silence of the night. Suddenly

we heard the low growl of a leopard from

undergrowth 20 m from us. My father, who has many

years of experience in the jungle, was worried and

asked us to vacate the place immediately. But we

were reluctant to do this and specially as the children

were keen to see the leopard. Soon we found that the

growling increased in intensity and the leopard started

circling us and my father said that it is very

dangerous now and we should quickly leave the place.

We hastily packed up our belongings and

meanwhile the growl changed into a loud cough.

For illumination we had only two pencil torches and

a carbide lamp. As we prepared to depart, my elder

brother took three or four steps away from us to pick

up the lamp. At the same moment, with an ear-

splitting cough the leopard broke cover and charged

towards my brother. We all including my brother

remained where we were. The leopard stopped about

1 3 feet from my brother, hissing, growling and

lashing its tail. How long this state remained I can’t

say but probably less than a minute. The leopard

slowly turned its head, leaped into a bush and

disappeared from our sight. My brother quickly

picked up the lamp and we retreated hastily towards

the jeep.

My father explained that the leopard was very

thirsty and was in dire need of water. The other

source of water was about 3 km away. Because we

were close to the spring, it warned us by growls to

leave the place and when we were reluctant to do so,

the leopard desperately charged towards us. Next day

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

113

morning we found that the leopard had drunk from October 19, 1994

the pool.

The incident explains how such encounters could

become dangerous.

RAZA TEHSIN

41, Panchwati, Udaipur 313 001,

Rajasthan.

3. CANNIBALISM IN SOUTH INDIAN PALM SQUIRREL FUNAMBULUS PALMARUM

(LINN.)

Introduction

Rodents, namely rat and squirrels are the most

important vertebrate pests that can cause enormous

losses to food grains in the field and in storage. They

are serious pests of coconut in almost all 76 coconut

growing countries in the world including India and its

islands. Though they are pests of cultivated crops and

stored products, cannibalistic behaviour has been

reported among them. Petter ( 1 968) noted cannibalism

in rats and mice. Cannibalism has been recorded in

five striped squirrel, Funambulus pennanti Wroughton

(Gupta and Agrawal 1968), captive Indian Gerbil,

Tatera indica indica Hardwicke (Purohit 1977) and

western ghats squirrel, Funambulus tristriatus

Waterhouse (Bhat 1980). The factors inducing

cannibalism in house rat, Rattus rattus rufescens Gray

was studied by Purohit and Bohra (1973). During an

in vitro investigation cannibalism was observed in

south Indian palm squirrel, Funambulus palmarum

Linn, at Coconut Research Station, Veppankulam in

1992. As cannibalism has not been reported in south

Indian palm squirrel, a separate study was undertaken

for confirming cannibalism in this species.

Materials and Methods

Adult squirrels of F. palmarum trapped alive in

the coconut plantations were used for the study. The

sexes were separated. Two males were put in a netted

iron cage (60 x 45 x 30 cm). This was replicated

three times. Likewise two females constituting another

pair were allowed in a similar cage and this was also

replicated three times. In total six pairs, namely 3

pairs consisting 2 males each and another 3 pairs

consisting 2 females each were individually

maintained in separate iron cages. These were

provided with coconut kernel and bananas.

Results and Discussions

Among the six pairs, cannibalism was observed

in all the three male pairs within 24 hrs of putting

them in the cage. Cannibalism started during night.

The head was eaten completely overnight. This was

not observed in the females during the experimental

period of 14 days. The presence of cannibalism is in

conformity with the findings in captive desert gerbil,

Meriones hurrianae Jerdon (Prakash and Kumbakami

1962), five striped squirrel, F. pennanti (Agrawal

1965; Gupta and Agrawal 1968), Arctic squirrel,

Spermophilus parryii (Holms 1977) and western ghat

squirrel F. tristriatus (Bhat 1 980).

December 5, 1994 S. SADAKATHULLA1

A. ABDUL KAREEM2

‘Agricultural College & Research Institute,

Tiruchirappalli, 620 009.

Tamil Nadu.

2 Centre for Plant Protection Studies,

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,

Coimbatore 641 003.

References

Agrawal, V. C. (1965): Observations of the habits of five

striped squirrel, Funambulus pennanti in Rajasthan. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 76-83.

BHAT, S.K. (1980): Cannibalistic behaviour in captive

western ghats squirrel, Funambulus tristriatus

Waterhouse. Comp. Physiol. Ecol. 5(1): 44-45.

Gupta, P.D. & V.C. Agrawal (1968): Cannibalism in five

striped squirrel, Funambulus pennanti. Sci. & Cult.

114

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

34: 185.

HOLMS, W.G. (1977): Cannibalism in the Arctic ground

squirrel, Spermophilus parryii. J. Mammal. 58: 437-

438.

PETTER, W.L. (1968): Cannibalism in rat and mice. Proc.

Roy. Soc. Med. 61: 1295-1296.

Prakash, I. & C.G. Kumbakarni (1962): Cannibalism in

captive desert gerbil, Meriones hurrianae. Agre. Res.

2: 278-279.

PUROHIT, K.G. (1977): Observation on cannibalistic

behaviour of female Indian gerbil, Tatera indica

indica during breeding in captivity. Comp. Physiol.

Ecol. 2: 51-53.

Purohit, K.G. & O.P. Bohra (1973): Observation on

factors inducing cannibalism in the house rat Rattus

rattus rufescens. Z. angew. Zool. 60: 405-408.

[ An obviously aberrant behaviour under captive conditions and not to be interpreted as happening in the wild - Editors.]

4. AN APPROACH-BLOCKING DISPLAY BY A FIVE-STRIPED PALM SQUIRREL

FUNAMBULUS PENN ANTI (WROUGHTON) TO A HOUSE CROW CORVUS SPLENDENS

( With a text-figure )

Both the five-striped palm squirrel and the house

crow are thriving species (Roberts 1977, 1992) but

little has been published about their respective

behaviour. Therefore, the following observation

probably concerns a frequent as well as unstudied

behavioural interaction.

On 22 August 1993 I was in Karachi, Pakistan.

Towards sunset, I was observing and (through a 500

mm lens) photographing some five-striped palm

squirrels wandering on a building of the Sheraton

Hotel. A house crow suddenly alighted at some

metres from one of these animals (probably out of

sight of it) and hopped towards it. The squirrel soon

presented the crow with its hind quarters, raising and

bristling its tail. The tail was deliberately waved with

an approximately lateral motion. The crow had its

approach blocked at the distance shown in Fig. 1 . The

squirrel repeatedly turned its head from side to side

but always presented the crow with a caudal image of

itself, also when the bird tried a lateral move. The

squirrel held the tail raised, waving it intermittently,

and held its position until, half a minute later, the

crow flew away. Considering the distance of the

interacting animals from me (about 40 m) and the

tameness of local house crows, I exclude a disturbing

effect of my presence. Nor could I detect any other

possible interference accounting for what appeared as

an attack failure.

This tail movement was similar to tail flagging

by the California ground squirrel Spermophilus

beecheyi (compare, in particular, with Fig. 1 in

Hennessy et al. 1981), which is primarily used during

interactions with snakes. However, California ground

I. Londei

Fig. 1. The observed display.

squirrels usually present the potential predator with a

frontal, and not caudal, image while flagging their

tails. This difference may be important for both the

original and derived functions of the behaviour in

question. There are only suggestions that tail flagging

may be used to manage the behaviour of the predator

(see Hersek and Owings 1993 for an up-to-date

review of the various functions of tail flagging).

Conversely, the tail movement I observed clearly

indicated the crow as a target, not only because of the

reactions of the bird, but also because I detected no

reaction by the other two or three squirrels that could

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

115

see this display. Of course repeated observations will

be necessary to exclude any casual concomitance, but

students should be encouraged by the fact that the

house crow does eat squirrels (Ali and Ripley 1 987),

hence this display pattern may well have evolved in

response to predation.

The observed approach-blocking effect probably

depended on a sudden change in the image of the

potential prey. This is a defensive mechanism

widespread in animals, and some species potentiate

the change effect by mimicking a dangerous species.

Such may have been the case because the waving tail

reminded me of a snake. The colouration of the five-

striped palm squirrel is interesting in this respect, as

longitudinal stripes give the whole body an elongated

appearance, maybe more deceiving when the head and

trunk are partly concealed by caudal presentation and

the turning head alternately appears on either side. In

addition, the tail possesses transversal stripes (often

more marked than in the individual in Fig. 1)

recalling a ringed snake body.

April 15, 1994 TIZIANO LONDEI

Departmento di Biologia,

Sezione di Zoologia e Anatomia Comparta,

Universita di Milano, Via Celoria 26,

20133 Milano, Italy.

References

Ali, S. <fc S. Dillon Ripley (1987): Handbook of the birds

of India and Pakistan. Vol. 5. Oxford University Press,

Delhi.

Hennessy, D.F., D.H. Owings, M.P. Rowe, R.G. Coss &

D.W. LEGER (1981): The information afforded by a

variable signal: constraints on snake-elicited tail

flagging by California ground squirrels. Behaviour,

78: 188-226.

Hersek, M.J. & D.H. Owings (1993): Tail flagging by

adult California ground squirrels: a tonic signal that

serves different functions for male and females. Ani.

Behav., 46: 129-138.

ROBERTS, T.J. (1977): The Mammals of Pakistan. E. Benn.

London.

ROBERTS, T.J. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan. Oxford

University Press, Karachi.

5. OCCURRENCE OF BHARAL PSEUDOIS NAYAUR (HODGSON) IN THINGBU CIRCLE

OF TAWANG DISTRICT OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH

On the basis of information available from local

people, on 6th September 1990 I set out from my

camp at Mago village with the village head, Gaon

Buda, and one other youth of the village, to see

bharal (locally called Jungli Bhaid). After trekking up

the hill along the right bank of Dugong river for

about 2 hours, the local youth observed some

movement more than a kilometer away as the crow

flies. On looking through binoculars, I observed that

the animals were bharal. There were about 10 bharal,

most of them relaxing in the Sun and others grazing.

They remained in the same location for an hour then

suddenly got alarmed and started moving up and

eventually disappeared from view.

The highest hill near Mago village is 4770 m

and the approximate altitude of Mago village is about

3800 m. The hill we climbed had the tree line near

the base which finally gives way to alpine pastures.

These pastures are used by domesticated yaks from

July to October each year. According to locals bharal

come down at night for drinking water in the Dugong

river and early in the morning they start going up the

hill. In the evening I visited the village and found

bharal horns and skin, besides skin of the animals

such as goral and Himalayan black bear.

According to Prater (THE BOOK OF INDIAN

ANIMALS) though bharal are typical Tibetan animals

they are also found in Ladakh, Kumaon Himalayas,

Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan. On that basis this is the

first report of its occurrence in western Amnachal

Pradesh. How much farther its range goes into

Arunachal Pradesh is still to be determined.

October 19, 1994 PRATAP SINGH

Deputy Conservator of Forests (WL),

Wildlife Wetlands Vigilance,

Itanagar 791 111, Arunachal Pradesh.

116

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

6. A NEW REPORT ON PIGMY HOG SUS SALVANIUS (HODGSON) FROM WEST BENGAL

In December, 1989 a meter high dome-shaped

nest made of grass and other vegetation was seen in

a grassland in Dhupjhora block of 8.61 sq. km

Gorumara Wildlife Sanctuary. The nest was thought

to be that of Pygmy hog (Sus salvanius). Pygmy hog

has not earlier been reported from this sanctuary. On

further enquiry it was found that a few such nests had

been sighted by mahouts of the departmental

elephants within the same block before. The forest is

a 'low alluvial savannah woodland' (Champion

and Seth 1 968). Other notable fauna of the Sanctuary

are: the Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis ),

gaur ( Bos gaurus ), hog deer (Axis porcinus ), and tiger

(Panther a tigris). Some Black-necked storks

(Xenorhynchus asiaticus ) were also present.

October 19, 1994 P. SANYAL

Asst. Chief Conservator of Forests, West Bengal,

P-16, Indian Exchange Place Extn.,

Near C.l.T. Building, Calcutta 700 0 73.

Reference

CHAMPION, H.G. & S.K. SETH (1968): A revised survey of the forest types of India. Government of India, New Delhi.

7. FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF LONGTAILED TREE MOUSE VAN DELE UR1A OLERACEA

(BENNETT) AND INDIAN DESERT GERBIL MERIONES HURRIANAE ON SYNCARPS OF

XANTHIUM INDICUM KOENIG

(With three text-figures )

The Longtailed tree mouse (Vandeleuria

oleracea ) is a facultative arboreal rodent, often seen

living in the nests of Ploceus philippinus (Ali and

Ambedkar 1 956, Ambedkar 1 980), P. rnegarhynchus,

P. benghalensis and P. manyar (Ambedkar 1968).

The Indian Desert Gerbil (Meriones hurrianae ) is an

obligatory terrestrial rodent, never seen climbing trees

or to take refuge in the nests of weaver birds. Though

both the rodents prefer different habitats, they feed on

the cypsels of Xanthium indicum and have

characteristic gnawing patterns of their own.

Xanthium indicum is a foetid smelling weed,

which grows gregariously in fallow and agriculture

lands. Like other members of Asteraceae, this plant

bears a compound capitulum type of inflorescence. Its

fruit is of the cypsela type. Two cypsels develop in

each capitulum. Both the cypsels of a capitulum are

included in the hardened spiny involucre, at maturity

known as syncarp. Besides many are present at the

apex.

The sessile syncarp is 2-celled, having a cypsel

in each chamber. The unequal chambers have a septa

between them. The two terminal massive spines occur

at right angles to the septa of the syncarp (Fig. 1).

When the syncarp is divided into two halves along the

septa, each half gets one terminal spine and only one

cypsela gets exposed (Fig. 2). While it is divided

across the septa, both the terminal spines are split,

each half gets split in the same plane and both the

cypsels are exposed (Fig. 3).

This study of the gnawing behaviour of V.

oleracea and M. hurrianae on X. indicum were

conducted in the districts of Alwar and Jaipur. Their

gnawing habits are described below.

Gnawing pattern of V. oleracea : As many as

222 residues of syncarps, gnawed by V. oleracea wefe

collected at random from old nests of Ploceus

philippinus and the cages of captive mice for

sampling. V. oleracea avoids both 'basal1 as well as

'terminal' gnawing, and starts gnawing from the

middle of the syncarp. First all the smaller spines are

removed, then the dried shield of the involucre is

gnawed to expose one or both the cypsels.

Examination of the 222 gnawed syncarps

MISCELLANEO US NOTES

117

revealed that V. oleracea adopts three patterns of

gnawing (Table 1 ).

Table 1

GNAWING PATTERNS SHOWN BY V. OLERACEA

(A = gnawing parallel to septa, B = gnawing across

septa. C = intermediate gnawing)

1. Gnawing parallel to septa: This is the most

preferred gnawing pattern and starts parallel to the

eypsel. When the svnearp is gnawed thus, generally

one terminal spine is left behind on the remaining

portion of the syncarp.

2. Gnawing across septa: This is a less

preferred method of gnawing which starts across the

septa just at the point where the septa joins the

involucre, and results in both the cells getting opened.

When this method is adopted generally both the

terminal spines may be found intact on the last

remaining piece of the syneaip.

3. Intermediate gnawing: This is an

intermediate condition of both patterns described

earlier. In this method, both the chambers are opened

at a time but gnawing begins at A or B or C or D.

Fig. 1. Upper half ol syncarp of Xanthium indicum in T.S. : septa is situated at right angle to the terminal spines. Fig. 2. View

of either half of the syncarp of Xanthium indicum in L.S. when bisected along the septa. Fig. 3. View of the either half of the

syncarp of Xanthium indicum in L.S. when bisected across the septa.

Abbreviations: TS: Terminal spines; SS: Small spines; 1: Involucre cover; C: Cypsela; SP: Septa; S: Seed; B: Base of syncarp;

PC: Position of cypsela; PS: Position of seed; a. b. c. d: Points on involucre cover where 'intermediate' gnawing is started.

septa. Hence at a time only one cell is opened. When

the eypsel of one chamber is eaten the septa is

gnawed to open the next chamber for the second

Gnawing pattern of M. hurrianae: Unlike V.

oleracea , M. hurrianae gnaws the basal portion of the

syneaip. Almost the entire lower half is gnawed to

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

devour both the cypsels leaving behind the terminal

spines intact. Perhaps to avoid the terminal spines,

'basal eating' is preferred by this rodent,

Conclusion

It is clear that V. oleracea and M. hurrianae

have characteristic patterns of gnawing syncarps of X

indicum and both avoid the terminal larger spines. By

seeing a gnawed syncarp of A", indicum one could get

a clue whether it is eaten by V. oleracea or M.

hurrianae. It is also worthy to record that in times of

scarcity, seeds of weeds like X. indicum are used by

rodents. Thus, they help in weed control also.

Acknowledgements

I thank Dr. Shiva Sharma, Dr. P. Joshi, and Dr.

K.K. Sharma for guidance and encouragement.

October 19, 1994 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Aravalli Afforestation Project,

Jhadol (F.), Dist. Udaipur,

Rajasthan 313 702.

References

Ali, S. & V.C. Ambedkar (1956): Notes on the Baya

Weaver Bird Ploceus philippinus Linn. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 53: 381-389.

AMBEDKAR. V.C. (1968): Observation on breeding biology

of Finn's Baya ( Ploceus megarhvnchus Hume) in the

Kumaon Terai. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 596-607.

AMBEDKAR, V.C. (1980): Abnormal nests of Baya Weaver

Bird Ploceus philippinus Linn. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 75: 1205-1211.

8 INTERACTION BETWEEN BLACKBUCK ANTELOPE CERVICAPRA (LINN.) AND

INDIAN FOX VULPUS BENGALENSIS (SHAW)

On 8th February 1991, at dusk Mr. Rajpal Singh

and I were sitting near artificial water hole at the Tal

Chhapar Blackbuck Sanctuary in Rajasthan, watching

a mixed herd of blackbuck grazing about 200 m

away. Separated from the main herd, and about a 100

m from us was a party of four bucks grazing. These

four were gradually moving towards us, spaced about

3 to 5 m from each other.

When it was about to get dark we saw-an Indian

fox midway between the mixed herd and the buck

party, trotting through the grass towards us. As it

passed close to the bucks, the buck nearest to it

rushed towards the fox with lowered head. The fox

changed its course to avoid the blackbuck and came

again towards the water. When it again passed near

the bucks, one of the bucks chased the fox for a long

distance till it disappeared in the grass. During these

interactions no alarm was shown by the herd but the

other three members of the buck party assumed an

alert posture with neck held vertically.

November 8, 1994 ASHOK KUMAR SHARMA

D-67, Sawai Madho Singh Road,

Bani Park, Jaipur 302 016.

9. PROBABLE OCCURRENCE OF WHITEFRONTED GOOSE ANSER ALBIFRONS

(SCOPOLI) IN ANDHRA PRADESH

The Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary (c. 15° 52',

78° 18' E), Kumool district, Andhra Pradesh harbours

a few hundred Barheaded geese Anser indicus every

winter. Whenever I came across a flock during my

earlier stay in the Sanctuary between 1985 and 1988

I kept a watch for the Greylag geese, Anser anser

which has not been recorded from here. However,

during my present study period under the Grassland

Ecology Project, on 31 October 1992 I saw a

Whitefronted goose Anser albifrons with a flock of 1 7

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

119

Barheaded geese. I could clearly see the white patch

on the forehead from the base of the bill. I did not

notice or really look out for the presence of the

yellow eye-ring present in the similar Lesser

whitefronted goose Anser erythropus, but judging by

its size, (threefourths of the Barheaded goose), it

should be the Whitefronted goose and not the smaller

Lesser whitefronted. There has been no record of both

these geese from Andhra Pradesh, the southernmost

record for the Whitefronted goose being Orissa and

Maharashtra and for the Lesser whitefronted goose

only Pune in Maharashtra (Ali and Ripley 1983,

HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN,

Compact Edition, Oxford University Press, Bombay).

June 1 1 , 1 993 RAN JIT MAN AK AD AN

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

10. HARE IN THE DIET OF WHITE-EYED BUZZARD EAGLE BUTASTUR TEESA

(FRANKLIN)

On 23rd May 1992 while walking through the

grassland in Sathiana area of the Dudwa National

Park, (28° 18’ & 28° 42' N and 80° 28' & 80° IT E)

Lakhimpur Kheri, I observed a White-eyed buzzard

eagle Butastur teesa swooping over some animal in

the grass. Because of the tall grasses the animal was

not identifiable. On closer approach I saw it feeding

op a hare. As I moved closer the bird flew leaving a

freshly killed hare on which it had been feeding. The

hare was freshly killed as evident from the oozing

blood, warm body and the small amount consumed.

The bird had fed on the head, including the ears.

Two species of hare occur in Dudwa National

Park, the highly endangered hispid hare Caprolagus

hispidus and the sympatric rufous-tailed hare Lepus

nigricollis. The killed hare was identified as rufous-

tailed hare. Rats, mice, lizards, snakes, frogs, crabs,

locust and grasshoppers and often larger insects have

been reported in the diet of White-eyed buzzard eagle

(Ali and Ripley 1983, HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF INDIA

AND PAKISTAN) but there is no report of any hare

species in its diet.

July 31,1993 SALIM JAVED

Bombay Natural History Society

Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

11. UNUSUAL NESTING SEASON OF BRONZEWINGED JACANA

METOPIDIUS INDICUS (LATHAM)

The breeding of Bronzewinged jacana

Metopidius indicus (Latham) coincides with the

arrival of south-west monsoon. The period given by

Ali and Ripley (1983, HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF INDIA

AND PAKISTAN) and Roberts (1991, BIRDS OF

PAKISTAN, 1 ) is June to September. This is the usual

time when vegetation filled waterholes are a plenty,

which form the nesting site for Bronzewinged jacana.

In the altered city environs such opportunities are

available outside the usual nesting season. The

vegetation filled shallow tanks are either man made or

caused by the seepage of irrigation reservoirs and

canals. This availability of nesting site, food, high

humidity due to unusual precipitation in the month of

March, sparked off the breeding activity of

Bronzewinged jacana in the centre of Kota city (75°

52' E, 25° 10' N) in Rajasthan, India. In a small pool

close to Chhatravilas tank which acts as an irrigation

reservoir, mating was seen on 1 6th March 1 993 in the

morning hours. The pool is choked with Trapa

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

bispinosa and other submerged vegetation. Later the

male was seen ineubating the eggs and the female

roamed the pool without taking part in the incubation.

On 8th April two young chicks (approx. 12-15 cm)

were seen with the couple. I took up extensive survey

of the area on 14th April. Only one chick was seen

with the male parent in the first pool. In an adjacent

pool three adult sized chicks were seen. The chicks

were about 25 cm in size with buff supercilium,

yellow nape, buff coloration on head extending to the

mantle and dark brown wings. In the first week of

April, the inlet to the Chhatravilas tank had been

closed and I found three nests of Bronzewinged

jacana with four eggs in each nest. On the muddy

drying margins, the eggs were placed on the mounds

of rotting water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes leaves

and stems and merged very well with the background

because of their glossy copper brown coloration

12 THE CRAB PLOVER, DROMAS

The Gulf of Kachchh littoral is perhaps the finest

locale to watch this very attractive bird. During the

cool season every major reef has a large flock. During

low tide the birds scatter over wide area of mud

singly and in pairs. This is how the bird apparently

has been seen by earlier naturalists. Dr. Salim All and

MKS Dharmakumarsmhji. It was during my visit to

Pirotan Island in 1969 that the huge assemblies at

high tide were observed. Dr. Salim Ali made a

special visit to Pirotan to see the birds. Unfortunately,

just as he came round a bend in the beach to where I

had found a flock, a fisherman approached from the

other side and the flock flew away low over the water

to another island. Others have not only seen the large

congregations but photographed them as well.

The Crab Plover is a veiy confiding bird and

when resting at a selected beach - they seem to prefer

clean sand to pass the high tide hours rather than

rocks or mud - and can be approached extremely

scribbled with irregular black lines. On 1 8th April the

Department of Irrigation started cleaning up operation

in the tank causing loss of nests and eggs. Again

mating activity was observed on the first pool in mid

May. Although complete follow up was not done, two

chicks ( c . 15 cm) were seen on 9th June in the first

pool. From this, it is clear that the man-altered

environment provides suitable conditions, in some

instances, causing changes in the normal breeding

pattern of the Bronzewinged jacana.

I thank Dr. Asad R. Rahmani for his valuable

comments on an earlier draft.

July 21, 1993 RAKESH VYAS

2-P-22, Vigyan Nagar,

Kota 324 005,

Rajasthan.

ARDEOLA PAYKULL - AN ENIGMA

close. The birds are noisy, keeping up a continual

clanging clamour. From time to time a flock may take

off en masse and fly around in spectacular massed

formations turning and twisting, rising and falling to

skim over the waves and are a joy to watch.

Crab plovers are strong fliers, they fly along the

shoreline, never crossing any land, howsoever small.

Even a sand bar is not crossed, but skirted.

Among the clanging clamour can be heard the

quivering notes- of juveniles - one dingy bird to

almost every pair of glistening adults. The enigma is,

where do these large flocks breed so successfully?

March 31,1 992 L AVKUMAR KHACHER

646, Vastunirman,

Gandhinagar 382 022,

Gujarat.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

121

13. ROSERINGED PARAKEETS PSITTACULA KRAMERI (SCOPOL1) FEEDING ON SEEDS

OF KARVI CAR VIA CALLOSA (NEES) BREMEK.

Thirteenth June was rather eloudy day with

intermittent showers. As we were returning from a

morning's ramble in the Bonvli National Park, we

heard the screechy clamour of a flock of parakeets

squabbling over food. A closer look revealed a flock

of Roseringed Parakeets, Psittacula krameri (Scopoli)

plucking Carvia callosa heads and holding it in their

toes.

As we approached closer to them they flew and

the number was around 100 +. We could also identify

a few Alexandrine Parakeets Psittacula eupatria

among them.

Karvi mass-flowered in 1 992. On the edge of the

Karvi patch lay scattered broken off twigs and

inflorescence. This happens to be an unrecorded item

in the dietary of the Parakeet. Mr. J.S. Serrao informs

us that he has observed the Roseringed in flocks

breaking off portions of the branch with dried

inflorescence of Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit.

(Vilayathi Tulsi ), carrying it to a nearby branch or an

overhead wire, and perching thereon to feed on the

seed.

July 13, 1993 NARESH CHATURVEDI

M.R. ALMEIDA

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

14. CRAB-EATING BY WHITEBREASTED KINGFISHER HALCYON SMYRNENSIS (LINN.)

On 24th December, 1992 while I was watching

some waders in a nullah near our house at Panchwati

in Udaipur City of Rajasthan, I saw a Whitebreasted

Kingfisher dart into the shallows of the nullah and fly

away with a crab in its beak. It perched on a Babool

tree ( Acacia nilotica ), but remained only for a very

short time and flew to the roof of a nearby house and

started battering the crab on the roof. Probably

disturbed, it again flew and settled in a high and

dense part of the Babool tree. Here again it battered

the crab on a branch and broke off a leg. It changed

the position of the crab in its beak and started beating

it on the branch of the tree. In this fashion it removed

all the appendages of the crab in 1 3 minutes. Then it

started to press the body of the crab in its beak. After

12 minutes of this labour it shaped the body of the

crab to suit its gullet and gulped it down.

July 2, 1993 RAZA TEHSIN

38, Panchwati,

Udaipur 313 001,

Rajasthan.

15. LITTLE GREEN BEE-EATER, MEROPS ORLENTALLS LATHAM FEEDING ON CRABS

During my protracted stay on Beyt Dwarka last

February at the southern entrance of the Gulf of

Kachehh I repeatedly observed more than a dozen of

the little Green Bee-eaters perched on drift wood,

algae fronds and lumps of dead coral dashing low

over the sand to pick off the small, white crabs that

live all along the beach in great numbers.

April 29, 1993 LAVKUMAR KHACHER

646, Vastunirman,

Gandhinagar 382 022,

Gujarat.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

16. UNUSUAL ESCAPE BEHAVIOUR IN GOLDENBACKED WOODPECKER

DINOPIUM BENGHALENSE (LINN.)

While watching a pair of Goldenbacked

woodpeckers ( fyinopium benghalense ) on 20th July

1993, I had an interesting observation. The pair was

foraging on a coconut palm ( Cocos nucifera ) at a

height of about 6 m from the ground, the male bird

being approximately 1.5 m above the female.

A male Shikra ( Accipiter badius) appeared,

uttering his loud ringing calls and alighted on a

tamarind tree nearby. The woodpeckers responded

quickly. The male flew to a Jack tree ( Artocarpus

heterophyllus ) promptly followed by the female. The

Shikra still continued his loud calls, but could not be

seen as he was hidden by the foliage.

The male woodpecker apparently unconcerned,

clambered about on the jack tree and continued

feeding. Meanwhile the female was nowhere in sight,

17. THE GREYTHROATED OR PLAIN SAND

- A NEW BIRD FOR

During the course of the Asian Wetland Counts,

1993, I came across at least five individuals of the

Greythroated or Plain Sand Martin {Riparia

paludicola) in the Kole Wetlands, near Thrissur town,

Kerala. The birds were noticed flying over the wet

and freshly ploughed paddy fields along with

Common and Red-rumped Swallows ( Hirundo rustica

and H. daurica ). The birds flew very low and quite

close repeatedly, permitting a good view. The

presence of the swallows enabled a good comparison

of size and plumage. Photographs were taken and

these enabled positive identification.

The birds were distinctly smaller than the

swallows and had a short, less forked (almost

squarish) tail. The overall plumage was dull. The

upper parts were greyish brown with a conspicuously

paler rump. The chin, throat and the upper breast

were darker (brown or grey) than the whitish lower

breast and belly. No markings or spots could be seen

on the tail feathers. These features helped in

identifying the birds as Greythroated Sand Martins.

I have seen these birds on an earlier occasion

but careful scanning revealed her clinging upside

down on the lower side of a stout branch which was

at an angle of 70 with the main trunk. The female

remained in this seemingly awkward position for

about 2 minutes without any movement. Later after

the Shikra had flown away, she clambered up on the

upper surface and joined her mate.

T his pattern of escape behaviour is not common

among woodpeckers and hence is noteworthy.

October 9, 1993 MANOJ V. NAIR

34, Thoppil Nagar,

Kumarapuram,

Trivandrum,

Kerala 695 Oil.

MARTIN RIPARIA PALUDICOLA VIEILLOT

SOUTHERN INDIA

near Chilka Lake in February 1987 and am familiar

with the superficially similar looking Collared Sand

Martin ( Riparia riparia ), having seen it on several

occasions in Madras, Lakshadweep, S. Arcot district

(near Kaliveli Tank) and at Pulicat Lake environs

(Andhra Pradesh)

The 'HANDBOOK' (All and Ripley 1983) records

Maharashtra (Bombay, Nasik, Satara, etc.) and Orissa

as the southern most range of this species and

therefore the present sighting further south is

noteworthy.

Acknowledgements

I thank S. Anitha, R. Nandakumar and Sanjeev

Kumar who accompanied me on this occasion and R.

Kannan for going through this manuscript and

offering criticism.

June 24, 1993 V. SANTHARAM

68, First Floor,

Santhome High Road,

Madras 600 028.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

123

18. LANIUS CRIST ATUS LINN. IN KUTCH, GUJARAT - A WESTWARD EXTENSION

Lester in his 'The birds of Kutch' had mentioned

the Brown Shrike as a cold weather visitor to Kutch.

Salim Ali was of the opinion that it was not likely to

be met with in this area. I have been seeing a shrike

off and on in winter in my own compound here in

Bhuj as also over the years in the plantation at Vijaya

Vilas Palace (Mandvi). I think this bird fits in with

the description of Lanius cristatus as regards its

plumage and choice of habitat. Its behaviour too is

different from the similar-coloured shrikes which are

known to be met with in Kutch and its neighbourhood

as either winter visitors or passage migrants. The bird

in question keeps to bushes, fruit trees or hedgerows

from which it launches sallies at its prey on the

ground in typical shrike fashion; but does not perch

on a tree or bush in an exposed position. Only

collecting it or photographing it could help identify it.

As regards the distribution of Lanius cristatus,

Ripley (SYNOPSIS) seems to follow the information of

Vaurie. In the HANDBOOK the distribution is given as

' roughly south and east of a line from

Ahmednagar through the Surat Dangs (Gujarat),

Mhow (Madhya Pradesh), Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh)

and Nepal'. On the other hand Stuart Baker (FAUNA

II) says: 'In winter it is found practically throughout

Northern India as far as south as Mt. Abu '. The

last is not far, as the crow flies, from north Gujarat

and Kutch. Thus it would be interesting if there are

any latest reports of sightings or firm records of this

shrike's occurrence in districts of north Gujarat or

Saurashtra.

November 3, 1993 HIMMATSINHJI

Jubilee Ground,

Bhuj, Kutch,

Gujarat.

19. FOOD STORING BEHAVIOUR OF THE JUNGLE CROW CORVUS MACRORHYNCHOS

WAGLER

On 1 2th July 1 993, 1 was at the forest check-post

Falasia in Udaipur district. At about 1 1 a.m., I saw a

Jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos alighting on the

tiling of a house beside the check-post. It was holding

a dead half-eaten House rat Rattus rattus in its bill.

Just after alighting on the tile-roof, it quickly placed

the dead rat inside a small space, present beneath one

of the tiles. It pulled the tile slightly ahead, holding it

in its bill to cover the exposed part of the dead rat.

The crow worked the tile this way and that, even then

it was unable to hide the rat completely. After this

'trial and error' it inserted the tail of the rat forcefully

under the tile. After placing the carcass of the rat the

crow flew away to a neem tree.

Food-storing behaviour of the jungle crow has

also been described by Natarajan (JBNHS 89: 375.

1992) at Pt. Calimere Sanctuary where he observed

the crows hiding food material on ground and using

the vegetation as cover.

November 3, 1993 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Aravalli Afforestation Programme,

Jhadol (F.)} Udaipur 313 702,

Rajasthan.

20. YELLOWTHROATED BULBUL PYCNONOTUS XANTHOLAEMUS (JERDON) AT

BILIGIRIRANGAN HILLS, KARNATAKA

Biligirirangan hills form a part of a range is located between Chamrajnagar, Yellandur and

discontinuous hill range running north to south, Kollegal in Mysore district of Karnataka, South India,

varying from 600-1800 m (above MSL). The hill Biligirirangan hill (12° 08' N, 77° 00' E, 1280 m

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JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

above MSL) with an ancient temple of Biligiri

Rangaswamy at the summit,. is a very famous

pilgrimage centre. It forms the mam tourist attraction

of Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Wildlife Sanctuary

covering an area of 539.52 sq. km.

As a pail of the survey on the status and

distribution of vellowthroated Bulbul Pvcnonotus

xantholaemus (Jerdon) Dr. S. Subramanya and J.N.

Prasad visited the B.R. hill ranges between 22-25

December 1990. During the survey, likely habitats in

the sanctuary were visited, but the species was neither

sighted nor was it heard.

On a subsequent visit to the Sanctuary, on 16

August 1992, we were birdwatching in the forests

below the sheer rock on which the temple is situated.

We were watching a pair of Shahin Falcons Falco

perigrinus perigrinator Sundevall circling overhead

and then fly past the rock face, when suddenly, the

characteristic calls of the P. xantholaemus were heard.

We traced the call to be coming from the densely

foliaged Ficus which was growing amidst the crevices

on the rocky escarpment below the temple. We waited

with curiosity to have a look at the birds to confirm

their occurrence, but to no avail. Our excitement was

further dampened by the rain and we had to return

without seeing the birds.

The next visit was on 6 October 1992. We were

keen to see the bird and so concentrated our efforts

on the area where we had heard P. xantholaemus. Our

strategies yielded good dividends and as in the first

visit to the area, we heard the birds. Within few

minutes a pair of P. xantholaemus emerged out of the

Ficus , when we had a good look at the birds and

confirmed their identity. From the Ficus , the birds

flew up to the small bushy trees on the vertical rock

face and were seen catching some insects. Later they

flew across on to the other side of the hill and we lost

sight of them. A flock of three Redvented Bulbuls P.

cafer and Redwhiskered Bulbuls P. jocosus were seen

foraging in the vicinity.

The habitat where P. xantholaemus was sighted

had dense vegetation comprising of a few trees of

Citrus maxima along with Ricinis, Schefflera,

Sterculia, Acacia coccinea, and Lantana which

formed the edge of an old plantation.

Our sighting of P xantholaemus happens to be

the first report of the species for this area. Although

the entire B.R. hills range was surveyed by the late

Salim Ali during his survey of erstwhile Mysore state

(Ali 1 942, JBNHS 43, 44), he did not come across the

species. Even R.C. Morris (1894-1977) an avid

sportsman-naturalist, who spent most of his active life

in B.R. hills range (Honnamatti Estate), failed to

come across the bird.

P. xantholaemus has seemingly a disjunct but a

wider distribution than hitherto accepted.

June 12, 1993 S. KARTHIKEYAN

24, Opp. Bcmashankari Temple, Shakambarinagar,

8th Block Jay anagar P.O., Bangalore 560 082.

J.N. PRASAD

T.S. SRINIVASA

C/o Merlin Nature Club, 13, 8th Cross, 30th Main,

J.P. N agar 1 Phase, Bangalore 560 0 78.

21. A NOTE ON BAYA, PLOCEUS PHILIPPINES NESTING ON KRISHNACHUDA

(DELONIX REGIA) TREE

During my tours, during August 1990 while I

was at Haflong (Assam, e. 25° N, 93° E), I came

across a knshnachuda tree ( Delonix regia ) on which

a large number of Indian baya were nesting. The tree

was standing within the compound of a house.

Moreover, there was a small Assam type building

around the stem of the tree. The tree was on

Garampani-Diyungbra road and about 7 km from

Diyungbra.

I had never seen Indian Baya nesting on

krishnachuda and that too within a compound of a

house.

As I knew the nearest colony site of Baya on a

betelnut grove about 20 km away on Diyungbra-

Lanka road, I went there and found that the betelnut

grove had been felled and cleared. A few Bayas had

constructed nests on a lone betelnut palm. A few

others on a phoenix palm. There were some nests on

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

125

a Sirish ( Albizzia spp.). September 6, 1993

Except the Albizzia , all other trees were standing

within compounds. The number of nests on the

krishnachuda tree were more than a thousand.

K.K. GUPTA

40 A, Central road,

Calcutta 700 032.

22. THE MYSTERY OF "MASS SUICIDES" BY BIRDS

The ornithological catastrophes at Jatinga,

Haflong and other remote areas of Assam have been

known as far back as I can remember, though the first

written record of the mass suicide of birds I can trace

is by Salim Ali (1962) when he made a trip to the

area with E.P. Gee. This was as a preliminary

examination of possible sites for the capture and

ringing of migratory birds. The same trip is referred

to by Gee in his chapter on the Bird Mystery of

Haflong in the WILDLIFE OF INDIA (1964) and to

another place in the Cachar Hills by Rao and

Zoranthanga ( 1 97 9).

All required identical atmospheric conditions:

1 . Dark nights, overcast with fog or mist and a little

drizzle.

2. Gee added the additional information that the light

at which they were caught had to be round and

circular and not beamed like the light from an electric

torch or the headlights of a car and the remains of

birds which had been killed or caught were all of

species resident in the area,

Then Sunjoy Monga and U. Rane (1986) visited

the recently established holiday camp at Malshej Ghat

on the edge of the Western Ghats with a party from

BNHS and found a lot of resident birds hitting the

eastern side of the bungalow and killing themselves

by breaking their necks, legs or wings and allowing

themselves to be captured by the locals for being

eaten or for sale.

Except for a newspaper report by Chandrakant

Dixit (1984) of a trip by Dr. Sengupta of the

Zoological Survey of India, Monga was also the first

observer to visit such a place when so many birds

were killing themselves. He referred to a high wind

and was able to obtain dead or wounded birds some

of which were brought to Bombay for identification.

The places in Assam had been visited by the

observers some time after the birds had killed

themselves. There was much guess-work, but all

along there appeared to be little doubt that though

Salim Ali was still considering the capture and

ringing of birds under these circumstances he had no

evidence of any migrants being caught under these

conditions. Though ducks and geese were seen at

Haflong a little later, these were not birds getting

captured at lights and there is reference only to flights

high up in the sky going south. While writing of the

same place after a joint trip with Salim Ali (Gee

1964) refers to birds going north. There seems to be

little doubt that the movements are local and have

nothing to do with migration on a large scale as has

been believed all along.

All the birds captured both in Assam and

Malshej were locally resident birds which must have

moved short distances and the new factor of a high

wind suggested cyclonic conditions further supported

by the deep, long valley on one side and the high

pinnacles on the other. Lavkumar Khacher (1978)

refers to a teal so captured no doubt being forced

down by the wind. Sunjoy Monga has drawn attention

to several species obtained at Malshej which have

been listed as Migrants and obtained apparently in

breeding condition. The clause on my Checklist

(1981) which states that the term migrant relates to

the Konkan appears to have been overlooked, and it

is possible that some of them nest east of the Ghats in

the Deccan.

I also visited Malshej Ghat the same year (1984)

with Sunjoy Monga and there is little doubt that a

high wind was blowing for as we drove up the ghat

road and were nearing the top, a stream which flowed

down the side of hill and passed under the road was

lifted off its bed and flung across the road on to the

top of the car!

We have read or heard of hundreds or thousands

126

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

of birds meeting their end at Jatinga, Haflong. It is

difficult to imagine what area was covered by this

wind but the number of birds was certainly very

large.

After my return to Bombay I have been turning

over the whole matter in my mind but have not been

able to decide on anything definite to put on record.

Some time back however I mentioned this matter to

Wg. Cdr. Qaiser Ali, who had recently retired from

Air India. He mentioned that it was a well-known fact

that all winds approaching a storm or whirlwind in

the northern hemisphere, when given the right

physical conditions blew in an anti-clock-wise

direction. The evidence from Malshej Ghat showed

when the wind got to the edge of the Ghat, it behaved

Refe

Abdulali, Humayun (1981): Checklist of the Birds of

Maharashtra (2nd. ed.).

Alt. Salim (1962): The BNHS/WHO Bird Migration Study

Problem. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.59(l): 126-130.

DlXIT, CHANDRAKANT (1984): Interviewing Dr. Senguptaof

Zoological Survey of India. The Jatinga Bird Story.

"Sunday Daily", 23 Sept. 1984.

Gee, E.P. (1964): The Wildlife of India. Collins. London,

pp. 124-126.

Monga, SUNJOY & Ulhas Rane (1986): Observations and

in this manner and the birds carried by it would make

for the nearest lights which would be the only

indication of safety to doves, quails, rails, and other

ground loving birds. These would, if and when they

missed the light and got swept beyond the edge of the

Ghat, would redouble on their tracks and hit the lights

from the opposite direction.

This seem to be a simple explanation of a

mystery made more mysterious by planning from afar.

February 9, 1994 HUMAYUN ABDULALI

3, Reshma Apartments,

13, Pali Hill, Bandra,

Bombay 400 050.

NCES

Comments on Bird Casualties at Malshej Ghat,

Holiday Camp, Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc.83: 68-77.

Rao, K.R. & R. ZORANTHANGA (1979): On the phenomenon

of nocturnal flights of some resident birds at Lunglei,

Mizoram, N.E. India. / Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.75(3):

927.

Khacher. Lavkumar (1978): Bird migration across the

Himalayas. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.75: 212-213.

23. COLOUR CHANGE OF TONGUE BY FAT-TAILED GECKO EUBLEP HARIS

MACULARIUS

On 31 January 1994, while digging stones in

Kamalnath Forest Block in Udaipur District for

making a rubble masonry wall around a plantation,

labourers noticed a strange animal under a stone. I

was info lined and I identified it as the Fat-Tailed

Gecko Eublepharis macnlarius. It was a subadult

individual, still possessing the characteristic coloration

of an immature individual.

When I forced it to leave its hideout, it raised its

body on all four legs and opened its mouth widely. I

could see its tongue easily. Initially its colour was

pinkish-white but soon its distal portion became deep-

pink. The lower portion of its tongue remained

normal, i.e. there was no change in colour. I caught

hold of the animal in my hands and observed the

phenomenon carefully. The colour disappeared and re-

appeared many times within five minutes.

This coloration may have been due to increased

blood flow to the tongue tip. Perhaps this colour

change of the tip of the tongue is a threatening

posture of the animal.

October 4, 1994 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Aravalli Afforestation Project,

Jhadol (F.), Dist. Udaipur 313 702,

Rajasthan.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

127

24. PRESENCE OF COMMON GREEN WHIP SNAKE AHAETULLA NASUTUS AT

"PHULWARI KI NAL" WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IN RAJASTHAN

On November 4, 1993, while wandering in

Dharawan Reserve Forest of "Phulwari Ki Nal"

Wildlife Sanctuary in Udaipur District, I bagged a

common green whip snake Ahaetulla nasutus from a

clump of Dendrocalamus strictus with the help of

labourers working there. The Dharawan forest is a

hilly area having luxuriant growth of Dendrocalamus

strictus, Wrightia tinctoria, Lannea coromandelica,

Boswellia s errata, Butea monosperma, Sterculia

urens, Emblica officinalis, etc.

Measurements of the snake are : Total length: 1470

mm; Vent to tail-tip length: 535 nun; Weight: 67 gm;

Ventrals: 197; Subcaudals; 157.

According to Daniel (1983, THE BOOK OF INDIAN

REPTILES), this species is distributed in peninsular

India excluding the Ganges valley, west of Patna,

eastwards to Bunn a and Sri Lanka. It is thus worth

noting that this snake is present in the southern part of

Rajasthan State.

September, 6 1994 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer.

Arcivalli Afforestation Project.

Jhadol (F.), Dist. Udaipur 313 702.

Rajasthan

25. A NEW ALTITUDINAL AND RANGE RECORD FOR THE COPPER FLASH

BUTTERFLY RAPALA PHERETIMUS HEWITSON (LYCAENIDAE)

The butterfly Rapala pheretimus Hewitson

(Lepidoptera: Lvcaenidae) has been recorded east of

Sikkim (Evans 1932, Wynter-Blyth 1957) to Malaya,

Sumatra and Borneo (Lewis 1973). Bailey (1951)

observes that he obtained a few in the (Kathmandu)

Valley, between June and October; Devighat 1 ,500

feet (450 m) 25 October 1935 and a specimen brought

in from the north (of Kathmandu) Dendrawati, 18

May 1935

Thirteen specimens (12 males, 1 female, FW

expanse 1.7 to 1.9 cm) were taken between April 21,

1994 and April 30, 1994 in the Bhimtal valley in

Namital District, Kumaon, U.P. at an elevation of c.

! 500 m and two males were taken near Kaladhungi in

the same district at an elevation of c. 500 m on May

2, 1994.

This represents a westward extension of

approximately 500 km to the known range of this

butterfly.

Hannyngton (1910) did not obtain this butterfly

in Kumaon, although he collected in the same area

and during the same season. Besides, my late father,

Fred Smetacek Sr., who collected butterflies in this

area for over thirty years from 1949, did not record

this butterfly.

This group of butterflies is not known to

migrate. It therefore seems that the specimens taker,!

belong to a recently established colony in Bhimtal and

in Kaladhungi.

These butterflies are fond of flowers, particularly

of edible Chestnut ( Castanea sp.), which they visit,

during the morning hours. Several males and the

female were taken at these trees. The remaining males

were taken basking on prominent leaves up to 10 m

above the ground and patrolling their "beats" in the

afternoon hours. The specimens from near Kaladhungi!

were taken in a damp nullah in shady sal (Shorea

robusta) forest, where others were seen sitting

briefly on the tops of bushes and saplings in the

shade, but not taking up beats.

Of the above specimens, thirteen are in the

collection of the National Museum of Natural History

in New Delhi. The remainder are in the author's

collection.

December 6, 1994 PETER SMETACEK

Jones Estate.

P.O. Bhimtal , Nainital.

U.P. 263 136

128

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

References

BAILEY, F.M. (1951): Notes on butterflies from Nepal. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.50: 293.

Evans, W.H. (1932): The identification of Indian

Butterflies. BombayNatural History Society, Diocesan

Press, Madras, p. 299.

HANNYNGTON, F. (1910): List of Butterflies from Kumaon.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.20: 130, 361.

Lewis, H.L. (1973): Butterflies of the World. Harrap,

London.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian

Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

26. NEW RECORD OF A CONCHOSTRACAN (CRUSTACEA: BRANCHIOPODA) FROM

MAHARASHTRA STATE

During the survey of water bodies of Pune area,

two hitherto unnoticed, interesting crustacean

specimens were obtained on 26th July, 1993 in a

small temporaiy rainwater pool on Kirkee road,

behind the University of Poona. There is a more or

less permanent water body in the form of an old stone

quarry nearby. Examination of these specimens

revealed that they belong to subclass Conchostraca

(the so called clam shrimps) and the species turned

out to be Leptestheriella maduraensis Nayar and Nair.

Perusal of the available literature showed that

there is no record of this species from Pune District

and even Maharashtra State.

The species L. maduraensis was first described

by Nayar and Nan on the basis of specimens collected

from a quarry pool at Narasingapatti near Madurai,

Tamil Nadu, in November 1965. The description

given by Nayar and Nair (1968) agrees well with our

specimens but the length is slightly more, telson is

narrow with 34 unequal spines and furcal claw has 20

spines. The other closely related species is L. inermis

Bernard, from which L. maduraensis can be

distinguished by the presence of spines and setae on

the dorsal armature of the body segments. Both the

specimens are deposited in WRS, ZSI, Pune.

We are grateful to the authorities of Modem

college, Pune, Director, Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta and Officer-In-Charge, Western Regional

Station, Zoological Survey of India, Pune, for

permission to carry out this work.

September 2, 1994 H.V. GHATE

Department of Zoology ,

Modem College, Pune 411 005.

S.G. PATIL

Western Regional Station,

Zoological Survey of India,

Pune 411 004.

Reference

Nayar, C.G.K. & K.K.N. Nair (1968): On a collection of

Conchostraca (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) from South

India, with the description of two new species.

Hydrobiologia: Acta Hydrobiologic a Hydrographica

et Protistologica, 32: 219-224.

27. ON SI DA CRY ST ALLIN A (O.F. MULLER, 1776) AND ACROPERUS HARPAE (BAIRD,

1834) (CRUSTACEA. CLADOCERA) FROM TRIPURA STATE

( With eight text-figures )

The survey of the wetlands of Tripura yielded

two new cladoceran records, Sida crystallina (O.F.

Muller, 1776) of the family Sididae and Acroperus

harpae (Baird, 1834) of the family Chydondae. Both

the species were first recorded in India from Kashmir

by Brehm (1936) and then from Assam and Shillong

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

129

Figs. 1-4. Sida crystallina (O.Y. Muller) - female: 1. Lateral view; 2. Postero-ventral comer; 3. Antennule; 4. Postabdomen.

,m! mill

130

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Figs. 5-8. Acroperus harpae (Baird) - female: 5. Lateral view; 6. Postero-ventral comer; 7. Labrum; 8. Postabdomen

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

131

by Biswas (1980) and Michael and Sharma (1988)

respectively. They are also recorded from China

(Sieh-Chih and Nan-Shan 1979). However, S.

crystallina is not found in the tropical regions of

South Asia and South-East Asia. In the present study,

the diagnostic characters of both the species are

described.

Family: SlDIDAE Baird, 1850

Genus: Si da Straus, 1820

1. Sida crystallina (O.F. Muller, 1776)

(Figs. 1-4)

Material examined: Lake No. 1 and Ricefield

marsh of Trishna Wildlife Sanctuary and Sepayjala

Wildlife Sanctuary, Agartala.

FEMALE: Body size 1.50 mm. Body cylindrical

and oblong. Head large, with rostrum and ocellus.

Cervical depression present. Eye small, situated in the

ventral region of the head (Fig. 1). Ventral margin of

carapace with setae and setules arranged alternately

ending with a large denticle at the postero-ventral

comer (Fig. 2). Antennules short, tmneate with short

flagellum (Fig. 3). Antenna robust with setae 0-3-7/ 1 -

4. Postabdomen narrow anteriorly with 14 lateral

spines and lateral setae above. Claw with four basal

spines with a row of setae (Fig, 4).

Remarks: The body size of S. crystallina

recorded in the present study is 1.5 mm. The same

species was recorded in China with a body size of

2. 2-3. 5 mm (Sieh-Chih and Nan-Shan 1979).

However, Michael and Sharma (1988) reported S.

ciystallina from Assam with a body size of only 0.68

mm. Adult females often vary in size in different

populations due to varying environmental conditions.

However, the size of the specimen recorded from

Assam by Michael and Sharma (1988) is rather

unusual and the size variation is very large.

Family: CHYDORIDAE Stebbing, 1902

Genus: Acroperus Baird, 1843 emend, Smirnov, 1966.

2. Acroperus harpae Baird, 1834

(Figs. 5-8)

Material examined: Gumti Reservoir, Jatanbari,

Gumti.

FEMALE: Body size 0.62 mm. Body evenly

rounded dorsally, head keel present, maximum height

in the middle (Fig. 5). Posterior margin convex and

slightly shorter than maximum height of body. Valves

with distinct longitudinal lines, ventral margin with a

series of setae and groups of fine setules between the

setae. Postero-ventral comer of the valves with 2-3

denticles followed by a series of setules along the

posterior margin (Fig. 6). Rostrum blunt, antennules

not reaching apex of rostrum. Ocellus small and

situated closer to the eye than to the apex of rostrum.

Labral plate with rounded anterior margin (Fig. 7).

Postabdomen long with very small spines and 13-15

groups of lateral setae which decrease in size

proximally, distalmost seta being the largest and

stoutest of each group and in the six distal groups it

projects beyond the dorsal margin. Claw long and

slightly curved dorsally, ventral surface with two

groups of setules; those in proximal group slightly

larger and ending with a spine-like setule ip the

middle, distal group consists of short setules ending

some distance before the tip. Basal spine short with

spinules at the base (Fig. 8).

Remarks: In the present study, A. harpae shows

some variation in the shape of the labral plate from

other descriptions such as by Michael and Sharma

(1988) from India, Idris (1983) from Malaysia and

Smirnov (1974) from USSR. The character that

differentiates A. harpae from A. angustatus is the

maximum height of the body which is more than 64%

in the case of former and 56% in the latter. Smirnov

(1974) found that this character varies at different

stages of life. More studies are required to ascertain

the validity of these species, since both the species

have been recorded from the same locality in the

present study.

September 25, 1993 K. VENKATARAMAN

S.R. DAS

Zoological Survey of India,

New Alipore, Calcutta 700 053.

References

BISWAS, S. (1980): Cladocerans from Assam and adjacent

hill states in North East India. Rec. Zoo/. Sun’. India

132

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

76: 93-113.

BREHM, V. (1936): Yale North India Expedition. Report on

Cladocera. Article XVI. Mem. Conn. Acad. Arts. Sci.

10: 283-297.

IDRIS, B.A.G. (1983): Freshwater zooplankton of Malaysia

(Crustacea: Cladocera). Penerbit University, Pertanian

Malaysia, 153 pp.

Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India,

Indian Cladocera. Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta, 262 pp.

Sieh-Chih, C. & Du Nan-Shan (1979): Fauna Sinica,

Crustacea, Freshwater Cladocera. Science Press,

Academica Sinica, Peking, China, 297 pp.

Smirnov, N.N. (1974): Chydorid Fauna of the World.

Fauna of USSR. Crustacea, 2: 644 pp. English Transl.

Israel Programme Scientific Translation, Jerusalem.

28. REDESCRIPTION OF PHRYNICHUS PHIPSONI POCOCK (FAMILY PHRYNICHIDAE:

ARACHNID A) COLLECTED AFTER 100 YEARS FROM NEW LOCATIONS IN

MAHARASHTRA, WESTERN INDIA

(With fourteen text-figures )

Amblypygids are uncommon arachnids, with

secretive habits and habitats. They generally occur

in humid forest areas and rarely encroach human

habitations. However, Gravely (1915) states "one

species Phrynichus lunatus Poc. is not uncommonly

met with in Bungalows in Sri Lanka". They are also

known as scorpion-spiders because of the pedipalps

appear as in scorpions. They look more like spiders

and females carry their eggs in cocoons, attached to

the ventral side of their body. So far there are six to

seven named species of four oriental genera under

two distinct families, namely Phrynichidae with broad

cephalothoracic sternal plates and tarsus of the legs

without pulvillus (Fig. 11). Whereas the second

family Charontidae possess smaller cephalothoracic

sternal plates and the three posterior tarsus of legs

possess a prominent pulvillus. First leg is modified,

anteniform and exceptionally long (Fig. 1).

Amplypygids are not authentically reported from

India after Pocock 1 894. The only known species are

Phrynichus phipsoni Poc. (Family: Phrynichidae/Loc:

Trivandrum, Kerala and Bombay, Maharashtra) and

Sarax sarawakensis Thorell (Family: Charontidae/Loc:

Table Island, Andaman, and also Singapore, Borneo,

New-Guinea and Soloman Island). The specimens

from Andaman were captured beneath stones at low

water on the coast of Table Island, at all other places

specimens were found in caves.

Recently, I collected three specimens from two

different places in Western Ghats of district

Sindhudurg, Maharashtra, i.e. Phonda and Amboli

ghats. These localities are about 600 to 800 km south

of Bombay from where the earlier distribution and

records are available (Pocock 1900). The fresh

specimens were collected from under large stones at

about 850 m elevation in totally wet soil. A single

specimen collected from Borivli National Park,

Bombay (donated to Arthropod Museum, Pune)

happens to be the second record since Fauna of

British India (1900). The third and most recent record

is made from North Arcot district of Tamil Nadu

(pers. comm. 1993, by Dr. (Mrs) T.J. Indra,

Zoological Survey of India, S.R.S., Madras). The

specimens collected from Sindhudurg district are

redescribed and illustrated to update the description

and illustrations for easy identification.

Phrynichus phipsoni Pocock

(Figs. 1-4)

1894. Phrynichus phipsoni Pocock. Arn. Mas. Nat.

Hist., 14 (6): 295.

1 900. Phrynichus phipsoni Pocock. Fauna Brit. India,

Arachnida: 127.

General: Body large to medium size, prominent

with pseudo-pedipalps and the anteniform 1 st pair of

legs, much flat; cephalothorax truncated on anterior

margin, wider than long, with two sets of outer

tubercles, abdomen superficially segmented into 12

segments, last segment covers anal aperture. Coxae of

1 st leg not visible ventrally, coxae of 3rd and 4th legs

separated (Fig. 2), 2nd stemite possesses semicircular

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

133

genital lobes (Fig. 14).

Measurements: 9 Total length 22.50 mm,

cephalothorax - 7.50 mm long, 13.50 mm wide,

abdomen 15.00 mm long.

Carapace (Cephalothorax): Always wider than

long with truncated anterior margin. Median posterior

portion slightly raised and centrally deepened into a

elongated central notch (Fig. 1). Entire surface rarely

granular otherwise smooth with regular darker

radiating stripes (Fig. 1). Median ocular tubercles

almost on the sub-anterior margin, slightly raised,

smooth and provided with a pair of median eyes (Fig.

3). A pair of lateral ocular tubercles situated on

anterior lateral comer of carapace, smooth, slightly

raised and provided with three pairs of eyes, smaller

m size than median eyes (Fig. 3). Anterior, lateral and

posterior margins smooth. Cephalothoracic sternum

broad, superficially segmented into four parts (Fig. 2),

continued anteriorly into thin elongated, tongue like

process provided with a pair of long bristles (Fig. 9).

Coxae of pedipalps and legs arranged radially round

the sternum (Fig. 2). Pedipalp coxae broad, covered

w ith short bristles, provided with 6-9 sharply pointed

bristles arranged on inner margin, proximal to

tubercle, bluntly tuberculate on anterior inner margin,

armed with thick, short bristles on anterior margin

while few longer bristles on outside, probably

assisting while feeding. (Fig. 9). Coxae of 1st pair of

legs narro wed and raised under carapace, not easily

marked ventrally. Coxae of 2nd to 4th pair of legs,

broad and 3rd and 4th pairs widely separated (Fig. 2).

Chelicerac: Primitive, two segmented,

semichelate, movable finger vertically operative, basal

segment compressed laterally, surface smooth, clothed

with a fringe of small, short, delicate bristles and hair

(Figs 4 & 5), clustered with many short, blunt to

sharp group of teeth on ventral distal portion with

single ventral large tooth (Figs 4 Sc 5), movable

linger almost 3/a the basal segment, sharply pointed

distally, armed with four to five minute sharp teeth on

interior margin (Figs. 4& 5).

Pedipalps: Prehensile, subchelate, moving in

horizontal plane, six segmented, trochanters as long as

half the carapacial length, smooth, armed with short

tubercles on exterior surface. Femur four and a half

times as long as trochanter or twice as long as

carapace, slender armed with many spiniform

tubercles on exterior surface. Tibiae almost as long as

femur, few short spines on proximal portion both on

outer and inner surface but strongly spined on distal

end, ending into two apical spines (Fig. 6), one

subapical spine, as long as half the apicals and one

small, anteriorly curved, small spine in between inner

apical and a subapical (Fig. 6). Hand, more flat than

preceding segments, almost one third in length of

either femora or tibiae or slightly less than half the

carapacial length; armed with two strong spines one

on each lateral surfaces (Fig. 7). Finger, the last

segment, clawed, spined strongly, sharply pointed,

shorter than hand but always longer than any of the

spines on tibiae and hands, the proximal inner margin

provided with a fringe of delicate, short bristles at the

base only (Figs. 7 & 8).

Legs: Four pairs of legs, 1st pair always

modified and anteniform, trochanters small, femora

elongated, almost three times as long as carapace,

thin, anterior or exterior margin minutely crenulated

and entire surface covered with minute but obsolete

sparsely spread granules, patellae one sixth of femora,

tibiae modified and segmented into 29-30 small

segments, tarsi also elongated, modified and

subdivided into almost 20-25 small digits, apically

ending into a elongated bulbous segment, apical tip

provided with a pair of minute, delicate claw (Fig.

13), this perhaps helps as a tactile organ. Legs 2-4:

with short trochanters, elongated femora and tibiae,

entire surface covered with obsolete, sparsely spread

granules but short patella, tarsi four segmented, and

each provided with a distal claw (Figs. 10-12). The

last digit of tarsi provided with some dorsal and

lateral elongated sutures (figs. 10-12), proximal,

elongated, tarsal digit provided below with a paired

row of delicate but strong spines, three distal tarsal

digits provided below with a row of delicate and

minute spicules (Fig. 11). Pulvilli shrunk to a dark

membranous structure (Fig. 1 1).

Abdomen: Oval, superficially segmented into 12

terga on dorsal and 1 1 sterna as ventral, all smooth,

last one or two tergites form a flap on anal aperture

(Figs. 1 & 2). First stemite enlarged, broad, narrowed

anteriorly, 2nd and 3rd stemites provided each with a

pair of lateral pulmonary apertures (Fig. 14), and a

134

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Figs. 1-14. 1. Dorsal view of female Phrynichus phipsoni Pocock; 2. Ventral view of body, appendages omitted; 3. Dorsal view of

anterior portion of carapace showing median and lateral eyes; 4. Lateral inner view of chelicera; 5. Lateral outer view of chelicera;

6. Dorsal view of anterior portion of pedipalp; 7. Ventral view of same; 8. Enlarged view of ventral proximal portion of finger; 9.

Ventral view of pedipalp coxa and anterior portion of cephalothoracic sternum; 10. Lateral view of distal tarsal portion with claw;

1 1. Lateral view of last tarsal segment showing claw, pulvillus shrunken to black patch and delicate elongated sutures; 12. Dorsal

view of last tarsal segment showing delicate sutures; 13. Dorsal view of distal tarsal portion of 1st leg; 14. Ventral view of

abdominal stemites 1-3 showing lateral pulmonary apertures and a pair of genital lobes on stemite 3.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

135

pair ol' semicircular lobes representing genital lobes

on middle portion of 2nd stemite, open between 2nd

and 3rd (Fig. 14).

Collection Data: 1 . Loc: 30 km west of Amboli,

in Amboli ghat, 820 m elevation, under large boulder

and wet mud, dt. 19-9-1987, coll. Dr. D.B. Bastawade

& party. 1 9 mature, 1 $ immature.

2. Loc: 18 km west of Radhanagari, in Phonda ghat,

about 800 m elevation, under large boulder along the

roadside, dt. 10-9-1987, coll. Dr. D.B. Bastawade &

party. 1 ? immature.

August 31, 1994 D.B. BASTAWADE

Zoological Survey of India,

Freshwater Biological Station,

10-1-300/B, Ashoknagar,

Hyderabad 500 020.

Reference

Gravely, F.H. (1915): Revision ofthe oriental sub-families Calcutta 11: 433-455.

of Tarantulidae (Order Pedipalpi). Rec. hid. Mus.

29. SIPHONODON CELASTR1NEUS GRIFF. (SIPHONODONTACEAE) - A RARE

TREE FROM ORISSA

S i p h on o d on c e las t r i n e us G r iff.

(Siphonodontaceae), an interesting tree occurs in

Similipahar forests (Mayurbhanj district) of Orissa.

Haines (Forest Flora of Chotanagpur, 1908 and

Botany of Bihar and Orissa, 1921-1925) reported this

species from Rajmahal hills of Bihar, but from Orissa

this taxon has never been collected before. The

species is known to occur sporadically in parts of

Eastern India, Andamans, Sikkim, Bhutan, Myanmar,

Philippines, Java and Thailand.

In the present collection from Gurguria,

Simlipahar ( Saxena & Brahmam 4723, 5182 -RRL-B,

in fruit 12-6-1982 and 19-10-1983), a population of

only a few trees was noticed. The species can well be

classified as Endangered in the status categories of

IUCN’s Red Data Book (1966).

February 12, 1994 M. BRAHMAM

H O. SAXENA

Regional Research Laboratory >,

Bhubaneshwar 751 013.

( hiss a

30. ERYNGIUM FOETIDUM LINN. (APIACEAE) - A NEW RECORD FOR BIHAR

The genus Eryngium Linn, with about 230

species (Mabberley 1987) is represented by 3 species

in India, two arc indigenous and confined between

1 ,650 m - 1 ,680 m m north western Himalayas, the

third E. foetidurn Linn, is a native of tropical

America, now naturalised in some parts of India

(Babu 1977). We recently collected Eryngium

foetidurn Linn, from Bhagalpur District of Bihar.

Perusal of literature (Brassers 1951, Haines 1961

(Repr. ed.). Hooker 1879, Mooney 1950, Sinha 1987,

Srivastawa 1964, Srivastawa 1986, Vaima 1981)

revealed that this taxon has not been reported earlier

from any part of Bihar. The present note includes our

obseivations on its morphology, phenology, ecology,

distribution and uses. The specimen cited is deposited

in Bhagalpur University Herbarium and also

introduced in the Botanical garden.

Eryngium foetidurn Linn. Sp. PI 232 1753;

Burkill in Rec. Bot. Sun7. Ind 10: 291. 1924.

FI. & Fr.: March- July.

Locality: Dholbazza, a village situated about 30

km north of Bhagalpur town across the river Ganga

(Bhagalpur District), Bihar.

Specimens examined: Dholbazza, N.N. Das

4300.

Ecology: In shaded alluvial soil near human

136

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL-92 (1995)

habitation.

Distribution: Native of tropical America,

introduced in some pails of tropical Africa and Asia;

m Malaysia: Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java; Nepal

and in India: Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,

Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh

and now Bihar (Bhagalpur District).

Uses: Locally, like Coriander leaves the green

leaves are used for flavouring food articles.

December 2, 1993 S.K. VARMA

N.N. DAS

University Department of Botany,

Tilka Manjhi Bhagalpur University,

Bhagalpur 812 007,

Bihar.

References

Babu, C. R.( 1 977 ): Herbaceous flora of Dehra Dun. CSIR,

New Delhi.

Brassers, R. (1951): Flora of Ranchi District. Ranchi.

HAINES, H.H. (1961 Repr. ed. ): The Botany of Bihar &

Orissa. London.

HOOKER, J.D. (1879): Flora of British India (Vol. II).

London.

MABBERLEY, D.J. (1987): The Plant Book. Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge.

MOONEY, H. (1950): Supplement to the Botany of Bihar &

Orissa. Ranchi.

SlNHA, A.K. (1987): Flora of Kosi Division, Saharsa

District. Ph.D. thesis, Bhagalpur University,

Bhagalpur.

SRIVASTAWA, J.G. (1964): Some tropical American and

African weeds that have invaded the state of Bihar.

Jour. lnd. Bot. Soc. 43: 102-112.

SRIVASTAWA, D.K. (1986): Floristic & Ethnobotanical

studies of Santhal Pargana. Ph.D. thesis, Bhagalpur

University, Bhagalpur.

VARMA, S.K. (1981): Flora of Bhagalpur (Dicotyledons).

New Delhi.

31. PASCALIA ORTEG. (ASTERACEAE) - A NEW GENUS FOR INDIA

(With a text-figure)

The monotypic genus Pascalia Oiteg. is

represented by P. glauca Orteg. of the family

Asteraceae. The species was known so far only from

Chile, South America. During the course of

identification of the specimens received from the

Assistant Director of Animal Husbandry, Animal

Disease Intelligence Unit, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu,

we came across some interesting specimens. Detailed

study of the vegetative as well as floral characters of

the plant revealed its distinctness from all known

Indian Compositae genera. Consequently the plant

was identified as Pascalia glauca Orteg.

As none of the Indian Floras, past or present,

dealt with this monotypic genus, the present paper

records the genus as new for India.

This species is hitherto not recorded from India

and its rare occurrence probablv suggests that it is a

very recent introduction to this part of the world and

possibly through food grains. This weed is now

naturalised in a particular area of Coimbatore.

According to Animal Disease Intelligence Unit

of Animal Husbandly, Coimbatore, the plant has a

poisonous effect on grazing cattle and in cows the

foetus gets aborted a few hours after consumption. It

seems that the symptoms are somewhat like

hydrocyanic acid poisoning.

As the species is new to Indian Flora, a detailed

description along with a photograph is presented here

for easy identification, especially to Botanists and

Veterinarians.

Pascalia glauca Orteg. Hort. Matr. Dec. 39. t. y4.

1797: $/ *

(Fig. 1)

Annual or perennial herbs. Stem erect with

longitudinal striations, glabrous or minutely scabrous.

Leaves simple, opposite, distichous, rarely alternate

towards apex, lanceolate, oblong-lanceolate or

narrowly obovate, base narrow, apex acuminate,

generally 1 -2 dentate, sometimes more in the lower.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

137

Fig. 1. Habit of Pascalia glauca Orteg.

thinly appressed, strigose hairs on both the surfaces,

4-5 x 0.8- 1.2 cm. Heads solitary in the leaf axils, 1-

1.5 cm in diameter, heterogamous, radiate. Disc

flowers hermaphrodite, fertile; involucre

hemispherical; peduncles 1.5-2 cm long, hairy; bracts

almost 2-seriate, outer linear, shortly acuminate, acute

or rounded at the apex, 1-1.5 mm long, inner one

lanceolate, acuminate, 0.8-1 mm long, membranous.

Receptacle sub-plain; palea membranous, folded; pales

oblong lanceolate, very acute, 5-6 mm long. Flowers

bisexual; corolla yellow, ligulate in the female

flowers, widely spreading, 8-1 1 mm long with a very

short tube, limb elongate, cylindrical, apex 5-fid,

ligule short, 2-3 dentate, anthers with truncate base

and acute apex, entire, exserted. Style branched in

appendix, slightly acute, terminally hairy. Achenes

obovoid, more or less compressed, cuneate, rugulose

or glabrous, 4-5 mm long, ray flattened above. Disc

tetragonal, laterally compressed, thick altogether.

Pappus minutely scaly, short.

Flowering and Fruiting: September to

February.

Specimen examined: Tiruppur, Coimbatore, 1-

1-1987, M.S. Deesigah s. n. (CAL).

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Assistant Director of

Animal Husbandry, Animal Disease Intelligence Unit,

Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, for supply of unidentified

specimens. We thank the Joint Director, Central

National Herbarium, for giving herbarium consultation

facilities.

February 12, 1994 ALOKE BHATTACHARYA

M.C. BISWAS

H.S. DEBNATFI

Central National Herbarium,

Botanical Survey of India,

Botanical Garden,

Howrah 711 103.

32. ON THE IDENTITY OF PARABOA NAGALANDIANA DEB & DUTTA

Para boa nagalandiana Deb and Dutta (1988)

was proposed on the basis of two gatherings: A.

Meebold 7394 & 7230, collected from Nagaland in

Dec. 1907. These were named as Spiradiclis bifida

Wall. (Rubiaceae) and placed in the herbarium

accordingly, which were separated in course of a

taxonomic study 6f the genus Spiradiclis (Deb and

Rout 1989).

On describing, it was presumed to represent

either Gesnenaceae or Acanthaceae. From the absence

of cystolith on leaves and jaculators on seeds,

Acanthaceae was ruled out as the subfamily

Nelsonioideae possessing these characters was

transferred by Bremekamp (1953, 1955) from

138

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Acanthaceae to Scrophulariaceae. As the ovules are

not inserted on a swollen oblique plaeenta, a very

important character of Scrophulariaceae, it was not

considered worthy of consideration. Thus the authors

had no doubt that it belonged to Gesneriaceae.

Dr. B.L. Built (in lit.) in a letter dated 13 Feb.

1993 wrote that in connection with a revision of

he knows quite well because it is so often confused

with Gesneriaceae (as it lacks cystoliths and

jaculators), in the past. It did not match with any

species in their herbarium. The corolla drawn in the

figure is very short for Staurogyne and the fruit also

differs to some extent. He named several authorities

like C.B. Clarke. Handel-Mazzetti, Ridley, etc. who

Table 1

CONSPECIFICITY OF THE TAX A

S taurogyne panicnlata

1. Shrubs or undershrubs branching dichotomously or

unbranched, pubescent.

2. Leaves opposite, decussate, petiolate. 15-17.5 x 3-6

cm. narrowly oblong or elliptic-obovate, acute or

subacute, cuneate and slightly unequal at base, entire,

coriaceous, glabreseent above, tomentose on midrib

and nerves below; petiole 10-13 mm long, pubescent.

3. Inflorescence terminal, racemose panicle, puberulous.

4. Flowers bracteate, bracteolate, shortly pedicelled,

pubescent; bracts 1.5-2 mm long; bracteoles in pair,

linear, 1-1.2 mm long.

5. Flower bud oblong; matured ones bilabiate.

6. Calyx deeply divided, lobes 5, unequal, linear or

linear-lanceolate, ± 5 x 2-3 mm, pubescent.

7. Corolla 10-13 mm long, bilabiate, pubescent, lobes 5.

broad, imbricate, unequal, conspicuously veined.

8. Stamens 4, didynamous, longer pair perfect, sparsely

hairy; anther lobes divaricate; shorter pair sterile.

9. Ovary 2-loculed, axile, many ovules in each locule;

style slender; stigma bilobed.

10. Fruitcapsule cylindrical, loculicidallv dehiscent, manv-

seeded.

Paraboa nagalandiana

Undershrubs branching dichotomously or unbranched,

pubescent, rooting at the base.

Leaves opposite, decussate, petiolate, 5-17 x 2-5 cm.

narrowly oblong or elliptic-lanceolate, acute or subacute

at apex, cuneate and slightly unequal at base, entire,

coriaceous, glabreseent above, tomentose on midriband

nerves below; petiole 5-15 mm long, pubescent.

Inflorescence terminal, racemose panicle, pubescent.

Flowers bracteate, bracteolate, shortly pedicelled,

pubescent; bracts 1-2 mm long; bracteoles in pair,

linear. 0.6-1 mm long.

Flower oblong; matured flower not seen.

Calyx deeply divided, lobes 5, unequal, linear-

lanceolate. 2-3 x 0.2-0. 3 mm, pubescent.

Corolla examined was immature; bilabiate corolla with

broad distinctly veined lobes, characteristic of

Staurogyne was not evident; it may be that this

character develops on maturity of the flower; lobes

imbricate.

Stamens 4, didynamous; longer pair perfect, anther

lobes divaricate; shorter pair sterile.

Ovary 2-loculed. axile, many ovules in each locule; not

parietal as stated in the original description; stigma

simple.

Fruit examined was immature; capsule cylindric; many

seeded, dehiscence not seen.

Paraboa in collaboration with a Chinese Botanist he

read this paper and brought out A. Meebold 7230

from the Indian section of Spiradiclis extant in herb.

E, and examined it closely. It appeared most probably

a species of Staurogyne (Acanthaceae), a genus that

were experts in both the families but had also

committed the mistake. He gave us references to his

papers (Burtt 1958, 1960) showing names of plants

from Gesneriaceae to Acanthaceae and vice versa and

advised us to re-examine the specimens concerned and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

139

reidentify them.

The papers he cited are revealing. C.B. Clarke

who was an authority both on Acanthaceae and

Gesneriaceae described two species of Staurogyne: S.

macrantha and S. serculata (Clarke 1 908) which were

accepted as such by Ridley (1923) until Bremekamp

(1955) pointed out the mistake in his revision of the

genus Staurogyne that these plants represent the genus

Didymocarpus (Gesneriaceae). Handel-Mazzetti

likewise described Loxostigma sessamoides

(Gesneriaceae) erroneously, which was collected as

Staurogyne sessamoides (Hand.-Mazz.) B.L. Built

(1958). Didisandra parvi flora Ridley ( 1 923 ) described

in Gesneriaceae is correctly Staurogyne bu/lata

Bremekamp (1953).

Built's letter (l.c.) was an eye opener to us. He

treated Staurogyne in the Acanthaceae and did not

follow Bremekamp (l.c.) in placing the genus in

Scrophulariaceae (without assigning any reason). We

looked for literature and found that ITossain (1971) on

the basis of morphology, anatomy and palynological

study confirmed that Nelsonoideae which includes

Staurogyne represents the family Acanthaceae (and

not Scrophulariaceae as treated by Bremekamp l.c.).

This is supported by Champluvier (1991) in his

revision of the genus . Staurogyne Wall., etc.

Moreover, description of the genus Staurogyne given

by him fully supports the change of Paraboa

nagalandiana to the genus Staurogyne Wall, but for

slight difference in the size and form of the bilabiate

corolla and in the form of the stigma. Specimens of

Paraboa nagalandiana did not have fully bloomed

flowers and matured fruits. Bilabiate corolla with

broad distinctly veined lobes characteristic of

Staurogyne was not evident in our specimens.

However, the flower buds of Staurogyne paniculata

collected from a very nearby locality of Manipur on

examination shows similar corolla lobes as those of

our plant under consideration; gvnoecium in bud stage

also is similar in both the plants. Thus our material

fully agrees with the details o ['Staurogyne paniculata

(Wall, ex T. Anders.) (). Ktze., to which it deserves

to be reduced as a synonym.

Staurogyne paniculata (Wall ex T Anders.) O

Ktze. Rev. Gen. PI. 2: 497. 1891; Bremekamp in

Reinwardtia 3; 196. 1955.

Ebermaiera paniculata Wall. ex. T. Anders, in

Joum. Linn. Soc. 9: 453. 1867 (Type: East

Manipur, 25-6-1834, Sabir Mahomed ex Griffith

(new Distribution no. 6082 K, photo. CAL!) );

Hook. f. FI. Blit. Ind. 4: 401. 1885.

Paraboa nagalandiana Deb & Dutta in Joum.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(1): 168. t. 1. 1988

(Type: Nagaland, Narum, Dec. 1 907, A. Meebold

7394, holo. CAL!; Sarpung, Dec. 1907, A.

Meebold 7230, para. BSI). syn. nov.

Distribution: Manipur, Nagaland, Burma.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. B.L. Burtt, Royal

Botanical Garden, Edinburgh for drawing our

attention to the problem and his helpful suggestions

for solving it.

MARCH 26, 1994 D.B. DEB

RATNA DUTTA

Central National Herbarium ,

Indian Botanical Garden ,

Howrah 711 103.

References

BREMEKAMP, C.E.B. (1953): Delimitations of Acanthaceae.

Pro. Kon. Ned. Akad. Welensch. 56 (ser. C): 533-546.

BREMEKAMP, C.E.B. (1955): A revision of the Malaysian

Nelsonieae (Scrophulariaceae). Reinwardtia 3: 1 57-

261.

BURTT, B.L. (1958): Studies in the Gesneriaceae of the Old

World. Miscellaneous transfers and reductions. Notes

R. Bot. Gdn. Edin. 22: 305-314.

I3URTT, B.L. (I960): Studies in the Gesneriaceae of the Old

World. XX. Miscellaneous Notes 1. Confusion

between Staurogyne (Acanthaceae) and Gesneriaceae.

Notes R. Bot. Gdn. Edin. 23(2): 94-95.

CHAMPLUVIER, D. (1991): Revision des genres Staurogyne

Wall. Anisosephalum E. Hossain et Saintpauliopsis

Staner (Acanthaceae) en Afrique tropicale. Bill. Jard.

Bot. Nat. Belg. Bull. Nat. Plantentuin Belg. 61: 93-

152.

CLARKE, C.B. (1885): Ebermaiera Nees. In: J.D. Hooker,

140

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Flora of British India 4: 395-403.

Clarke^ C.B. (1908): The genus Staurogyne Wall.

(Acanthaceae). J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 74, Ser. 2, pp. 35-

642.

Deb, D.B. & R.C. Rout (1989): Two new species of the

genus Spiradiclis (Rubiaceae) from India. Candollea

44: 225-229.

HOSSAIN, E. (1971): Staurogyne Wall. Sect. Tetrastichum

(Bremek.) E. Hossain. Notes R. Bot. Gdn. Edin.

31(3): 377-380.

RIDLEY, H.N. (1923): The Flora of Malay Peninsula. Vol. 2.

London.

33. TEUCR1UM VISCIDUM BL. (LAMIACEAE) - AN INTERESTING DISTRIBUTIONAL

RECORD FROM ORISSA

Teucrium viscidum Bl. (Syn. T. stoloniferum

Buch.-Ham. ex Benth.) so far restricted to Sikkim

Himalaya, Bengal, Khasia hills and Oudh in India has

been found to occur in Orissa. Haines (1921-25)

included this species in the Botany of Bihar and

Orissa on its probable occurrence without having

made any collection or seen in the field. Gamble

(1915-36), Mooney (1950), Panigrahi et al. (1964)

and others too have not reported this species from the

area. The present report is not only a new record for

Orissa but also extends the restricted distribution of

this interesting taxon.

Teucrium viscidum Bl., Bijdr. 827. 1827,

Mukeijee, Rec. Bot. Surv. India 14: 218. 1940; Keng

pi Steenis, FI. Males. I. 8: 318. f. 4. 1978. T.

stoloniferum Buch.-Ham. ex Benth. in Wall. PI. As.

Rar. 1: 58. 1830; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 4: 700.

1885; Haines, Bot. Bihar & Orissa 2: 752 (789).

1924.

Erect, stoloniferous herb, 30-60 cm; stems

pubescent and glandular-pubescent. Leaves ovate or

ovate-oblong, 3.5-7 x 2-4.5 cm, deeply crenate to

crenate- senate, acute, minutely sparsely pubescent on

both sides, base subcordate, truncate or shortly

cuneate, petiole 1-2.5 cm. Racemes tenninal and

axillary, simple or panicled, lax-flowered, 4-6 cm

long or in fruit up to 8 cm long densely pubescent

and glandular-pubescent; pedicels 2-3 mm; bracts

lanceolate, 2-3 mm long, pubescent. Calyx

campanulate, 2.5-3 mm long, pubescent or glandular-

pubescent outside, 3 upper teeth short, ovate or

triangular, obtuse, 2 lower ones acute, subequal; calyx

in fruit urceolate or globose, 3-6 mm, glandular-

hairy,. Corolla pinkish to purple, c. 1 mm long, tube

included or slightly exserted, without a hair-ring

inside, limb seeming 1- lipped, the lower lip 3-lobed,

slightly concave, associated with two upper lobes

forming a 5-lobed whole. Nutlets slightly flattened,

ovoid or globoid, 1.5 mm long, surface of contact

large, oblique, lateral.

Badomukkabadi and Dudurchampa, Similipahar,

Mayurbhanj, North Orissa in shady places - Saxena,

Brahmam & Prabhakar Rao 4643, 4658 (RRL-B), FI.

& Fr. 10-6-82.

Distribution: Sikkim Himalaya, Bengal, Khasia

hills, Oudh. Myanmar, Thailand, Indo-China, Hong-

Kong to China, Korea, Formosa, Malaysia, Japan.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the authorities of the

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta and the Forest

Research Institute, Debra Dun for the facilities

provided during herbarium consultation.

June 16, 1994 H.O. SAXENA

M. BRAHMAM

N.C. ROUT

Regional Research Laboratory,

Bhubaneswar 751 013,

Orissa.

References

Gamble, J.S. (1915-36): Flora of the presidency of Madras. Haines, H.H. (1921-25): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa.

3 vols. Adlard & Sons, London. London.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

141

Mooney, H.F. (1950): Supplement to the Botany of Bihar (1964): A contribution to the Botany of Orissa. Bull.

and Orissa. Catholic Press, Ranchi. hot. Survey Ind. 6: 237-266.

Panigrahi, G., S. Choudhury, D.C.S. Raju & G.K. Deka

34. FIRST RECORD OF THE ALLIGATOR WEED, ALTERNANTHERA PHILOXEROIDES

(MART.) GRISEB. FROM PUNE, MAHARASHTRA

(With a text-figure )

The genus Altemanthera Forsk. is represented in

India by five species, namely A. sessilis, A. pungens,

A. tenella, A. paronychioides and A. bettzichiana

(Sivarajan and Mathew 1984, Naik and Pokle 1985).

These plants are known to attain weed proportions.

One such aquatic emergent weed showing close

resemblance to the genus Altemanthera was seen

growing profusely during October 1992 in the river

Mutha, which flows through Pune city. Though two

of us had spotted this plant growing in the same river,

during 1990, it failed to attract attention of even the

angiospenn taxonomists probably because it had not

reached weed proportions then. Two earlier reports,

one for the river Mutha and its surroundings (Ghate

and Vartak 1981) and the other for aquatic

angiosperms of entire Maharashtra (Karthikeyan et al.

1 982) have not mentioned this plant.

This weed was found growing luxuriantly along

the slow moving and sewage polluted parts of the

river Mutha. The plant attains a length of over two

metres. Flowering was observed during April and

May. Because no species of Altemanthera commonly

found in India bears flowers in peduncled heads, there

was delay in identification of this plant. Herbarium

collections in Botanical Survey of India (BSI),

Western Circle, Pune and Agharkar Herbarium of the

Maharashtra Association for the Cultivation of

Science (AHMA), Pune, were also not helpful

because this plant is not in their collections. We even

recently mentioned about this unidentified weed at the

"National Conference on Recent Advances in

Phy to taxonomy" held at Aurangabad, in June 1993.

After a thorough examination of the material at

hand and literature survey, we now report this plant

to be Altemanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.,

popularly known as the alligator weed. Our

identification is based on the description and key

given by Maheshwari (1964), Bennet (1979) and

Sivarajan and Mathew (1984).

Fig. 1. Altemanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.

a. Showing the stem and peduncled flower;

b. Showing rooting at lower nodes.

Singh and Singh (1985) stated that in Manipur

the plant is locally known as 'komprek' and that all

142

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

parts of the plant except roots are eaten, raw or

cooked. They are sold in bundles in markets from

May to July in Manipur. In West Bengal it is locally

known as 'jal-sanchi' (Jain 1991). As reported in 'The

Wealth of India', the plant has high iron content and

can be used as a salad. Methane can also be produced

from anaerobic fermentation of the plant. The plant

can be used as a tertiary filter for domestic sewage as

it reduces the suspended solids, total Kjeldahl

nitrogen, total phosphorus, B.O.D. and total organic

carbon levels in domestic sewage. The plants grown

in domestic sewage are reported to be free from toxic

levels of trace heavy metals (Anon. 1 985). Its use as

a vegetable is well known in tribal areas of Assam,

Sikkim and Bihar (see Jain 1991). Raju (1986) has

reported that it is locally used by some as a green

vegetable and by most others as fodder for their cattle

and pet rabbits. In one instance, as reported by him,

the plant was cultivated in Hanamkonda, Andhra

Pradesh, as a forage crop. Madhusoodanan and Ajit

Kumar (1993) have reported that the plant is sold in

Emakulam, Kerala, as a delicious leafy vegetable and

is locally called as 'Kozhuppa'.

From our observations it is quite apparent that

this is a fast growing problematic plant. We therefore

agree with Sankaran and Narayanan (1971) and

Naithani and Raizada (1976), who warn about the

aggressive qualities of this plant. We feel that this

may become yet another nuisance weed like water

hyacinth.

Raju (1986) mentions that the insect species

Agasicles hygrophila Selman and Bogt (Flea beetle),

Amynothrips andersoni O'Neill (Thrips) and Vogtia

malloi Pastrana (Stem borer) were introduced into

USA from Argentina for biological control of the

alligator weed.

Some salient features of this plant are:

decumbent hollow stem rooting at lower nodes; leaves

opposite, fleshy, oblong lanceolate and narrowed at

base; flowers shining silvery white, in long peduncled

heads, borne in only one axil of a node; tepals white,

apex subacute; stamens five, united below; stam inodes

equal to the height of the stamens, broader than the

filaments, tips divided into 2-4 narrow teeth; ovary

rounded at the apex; style short; stigma globose (Fig.

!)•

The weed is believed to be originally from

Brazil, South America. As far as the distribution of

this weed in India is concerned, there are reports from

West Bengal and Bihar (Maheshwari 1964),

Karnataka (Sankaran and Narayanan 1971), Assam

(Baruah and Choudhury 1974), Madhya Pradesh

(Naithani and Raizada 1976), Tripura (Deb 1981),

Manipur (Singh and Singh 1985), Andhra Pradesh

(Raju 1986), Uttar Pradesh (Pangtey and Samant

1989), Delhi (Lai and Shah 1990), Punjab (Bir,

Sharma and Singh 1 992), Kerala (Madhusoodanan and

Ajit Kumar 1993). This report therefore forms the

first record of the alligator weed from Pune,

Maharashtra.

It is interesting, however, to note that although

this species was identified by Maheshwari in 1964,

apparently it was collected as early as 1 940 by Floyd

from West Bengal and Bihar (Baruah and Chowdhury

1974).

The specimens are now kept in the AHMA at

Agharkar Research Institute, Pune (Voucher

Specimens AHMA 17890 to 17892). One specimen

will be donated to BSIy Pune.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to the authorities of Modem

College, for facilities and encouragement, to

authorities of AHMA and BSI for herbarium

consultation, to Sandesh and Bipin for excellent

assistance.

February 7, 1994 G.K. WAGH

H.V. GHATE

Post Graduate Research Centre,

Department of Zoology,

Modem College, Pune 411 005.

VINAYA S. GHATE

Agharkar Research Institute,

G.G. Agarkar Road, Pune 411 004.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

143

R EFERENCES

ANON. (1985): The Wealth of India. A Dictionary of Raw

Materials and Industrial Products. Raw Materials Vol.

I: A, Revised Edition CSIR. New Delhi.

Bar UAH. P. & S. CHOUDHURY (1974): Altemanthera

philoxeroides (Mart. ) Griseb. Amaranthaceae - A new

plant record for Assam. J, Univ. Gauhati , 20-22: 98-

100.

SENNET. S.S.R. (1979): Flora of Howrah District.

International Book Distributors. Dehra Dun.

BlR. S.S.. M. SHARMA & C.P. Singh (1992): Corrections

and additions to the Flora of Gurdaspur district.

Punjab. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(1): 143-145.

DEB, D.B. (1981 ): The Flora of Tripura State Vol. II. Today

and Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.

Ghate, V.S. & V.D. VARTAK (1981): Studies on the aquatic

flowering plants from greater Pune area: Part I

Enumeration.,/. Univ. Poona, 54: 121-129.

JAIN, S.K. (1991): Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicine and

Ethnobotany. Deep Publications, New Delhi.

Karthikeyan, S„ Anand Kumar & B.D. Sharma (1982):

Aquatic Angiosperms of Maharashtra. J. Econ. Tax.

Bot. 3(2): 423-445.

Fal, Chaman & Malavika Sah (1990): Range extension

of three exotic aquatic macrophytes in North India. ,/.

Bombay) nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2): 469.

Maadhusoodanan. P.V. & K.G. Ajit Kumar (1993):

A Itemanthera philoxeroides (Mart . ) Gri se b . - ' A 1 1 i gato r

Weed' - A fast spreading weed in Kerala, South India.

J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 17(3); 651-654.

MAHESHWARI, J.K. (1964): Altemanthera philoxeroides

(Mail.) Griseb. A new record for India. Bull. Bot. Sur.

lnd. 6: 313-314.

Naik, V.N. & D.S. Pokle (1985): Genus Altemanthera

(Amaranthaceae) in Marathwada. J. Indian Bot. Soc.

64: 290-293.

Naithani. H.B. & M.B. Raizada (1976): New

distributional records of eleven plants in India. Indian

Eorester 102: 675-691.

Pangtey, Y.P.S. & S.S. Samant (1989): Altemanthera

philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb - A new record for North

Western Himalaya. ,/. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86(1):

119-120.

Raju. V.S. (1986): Alligator weed in Andhra Pradesh.

Indian Bot. Reptr. 5(2): 207-208.

Sankaran, T. & E. Narayanan (1971): Occurrence of the

alligator weed in South India. Curr. Sci. 40: 641

Singh, S.R. & N.J. Singi-j (1985): A preliminary

ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants in markets

of Manipur. 1. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 6: 699-703.

SiVARAJAN, V.V. & Philip Mathew (1984): Notes on

Indian species of Altemanthera Forsk.

(Amaranthaceae) (Kashmir valley excluded) with a

new record. Indian Journal of Forestiy 7(1): 46-53.

35. A REPORT ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ANTIDESMA TH WAIT ESI A NUM MUELL. -

ARG. (EUPHORBIACEAE) FROM SOUTH ANDAMANS

Introduction

During botanical exploration of Mt. Harriet Hills

(South Andamans) we came across some interesting

specimens of Antidesma species. The specimens were

critically studied at CAL and identified as Antidesma

thwaitesianum Muell.-Arg. Airy Shaw (1972a, 1972b,

1981) reported the occurrence of this species from

Andaman Islands on the basis of an old collection by

Parkinson deposited at Kew (K.). This species has

never been reported again from Andaman Island after

Parkinson's collection (Parkinson, 575, without

specific locality 15-5-1915). Chakrabarty &

Balakrishnan (1992) in their revisionary work,

reported that no specimen of this species from

Andaman Islands is traceable in Indian herbaria. The

recent exploration of the slopes of Mt. Harriet ranges

revealed small populations of this species growing at

Wrightmyo and Kalatang forests of the Harriet ranges.

Though Antidesma thwaitesianum Muell.-Arg. has a

wide phytogeographical distribution from Sri Lanka to

South-East Asia, in the Indian flora, it is confined to

the Andaman Islands. Being a veiy rare and

interesting species, an illustrated account is given

below to facilitate its identification.

Antidesma thwaitesianum Muell.-Arg. in DC.,

Prodr. 15(2): 263. 1866; Airy Shaw in Kew Bull. 26:

360, 462. 1972 & in Kew Bull. Ad. ser. IV. 217.

1975 & in Kew Bull. 36: 364. 1981; Mandal &

Penigr. in J. Eeo. Tax. Bot. 4: 255. 1983; T. Shakrab.

144

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

& Balakr. in J. Econ. Tax. Bot. Ad. Ser. 9: 19. 1992.

A. bunius sensu Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 5: 358-9.

1887 (Pro parte); Pax & Hoffm. in Engl., Pflansenr.

4, 147(15): 160 - 1. 1992. non (L.). Spreng. 1825.

Shrubs or small trees, c. 6 m tall, branchlets

greyish, sparsely lenticellate. Leaves 8-19 x 3-8 cm,

elliptic to elliptic oblong, or ovate-lanceolate,

acuminate at apex, acute or rounded at base,

coriaceous, glossy, lateral nerves c. 10 pairs, thin,

flattened above, thinly raised beneath, midrib flattened

above, raised, tapering beneath, venation finely

reticulate, tessellated, petiole 1 cm long, pulvinate at

apex, infructeseence usually cauliflorous, very rarely

axillary on old leaves, c. 7 cm long, fascicled. Fruits

7x5 mm, flattened, quadrate orbicular drupes with

persistent stigma at apex, greenish turning reddish to

finally blackish.

Fr.: April.

Ecology: Very rare in the inland evergreen forest

at low altitude.

Distribution: Andamans (India); Sri Lanka,

Indo-China, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Sumatra,

Philippines and Borneo.

Specimen examined: Wrightmyo 16-4-1989,

S.P. Mathew 20264 (CAL & PBL)

Acknowledgements

We thank Shri T. Chakrabarty CAL, Calcutta for

confirming the identity of the species.

February 7, 1994 SAM P. MATHEW

SUSAN ABRAHAM

Department of Botany,

University of Kerala,

Trivandrum, Kerala.

References

Airy Shaw (1972a): The Euphorbiaceae of Siam. Kew.

Bull. 26: 191-363.

Airy Shaw (1972b): New or Noteworthy species of

Antidesma L. (Stilaginaceae). Kew Bull. 26: 457-468.

AIRY Shaw (1981): The Euphorbiaceae of Sumatra. Kew

Bull. 36(2): 239-374.

Chakrabarty, T. & N.P. Balakrishnan (1992): The

family Euphorbiaceae ofN Islands. J. Eco. Tax. Bot.

Ad. Ser. 9.

36. A REPORT ON THE THREATENED ORCHIDS OF MANIPUR

As many as 34 species of orchids from North-

East India are listed among the threatened plants of

India, out of which only three species, namely

Dedrobium bensoniae Reichb. f., Renanthera

imschootiana Rolfe., and Vanda coerulea Griffith ex

Lindl., are recorded from Manipur (Jain and Shastiy

1983). However, I have observed three more species

of threatened orchids growing in the hills and glades

of Manipur.

Paphiopedilmn spicerianum (Reichb. f.) Pfitz.,

an endemic and endangered plant recorded from

Assam also grows in the Barak watershed of Manipur.

This highly ornamental orchid is seen to grow in great

abundance on the steep rocky cliffs of the Barak river

in the Jiribam and Tamenglong Sub-divisions.

Pleione hookeriana (Lindl.) Williams, a rare

orchid that is recorded to be endemic to Sikkim,

Amnachal Pradesh, Bhutan and Nepal also grows in

Manipur at elevations 2700-3000 m above MSL.

Galeola falconeri Hook, f., an endemic and rare

orchid of Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh is also found

in the parallel folds of the Shiroy-Kasom hill ranges

of Manipur.

It is next to impossible to collect and grow

Galeola falconeri - a saprophyte, in orchid gardens.

However, the Paphiopedilum spicerianum and Pleione

hookeriana are successfully grown in the state owned

orchid gardens of Manipur, as a part of ex-situ

conservation of the threatened orchids of the State.

A new genus of orchid "Kalimpongia" was

discovered in Manipur at the elevation 1700-2000 m

(Pradhan 1 977) and three different species of orchids,

namely Kalimpongia narajitii, Scheonorchis

manipurensis and Ascocentrum ampullaceum var.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

145

aurenticum have been found to be endemic to

Manipur. As the above orchids grow in a very small

geographic area, it is logical that they also may be

listed among the threatened plants of India.

Refer

JAIN, S.K. & A.R.K. Shastry (1983): Material for a

Catalogue of Threatened Plants of India. Botanical

February 7, 1994 V. RAMAKANTHA

Deputy Conservator of Forests, Wildlife,

Aranya Bhavan, Malleshwaram.

Bangalore 560 003.

ENCES

Survey of India, Government of India.

Pradhan, U.C. (1977): Indian Orchids: Guide II. Calcutta.

37. WOODS1A LANOSA HOOK. (WOODSIACEAE) FROM GARHWAL HIMALAYA:

REDISCOVERED

While investigating the pteridophytic flora of

Roopkund area of Garhwal Himalaya, one of us (KB)

collected a rare and threatened fem ( Woodsia lanosa

Hook.). A perusal of earlier literature shows this fem

was not collected from Garhwal Himalaya after the

original collection and subsequent workers included

this on the authority of previous reports (Hope 1903,

Duthie 1906, Dhir 1980, Singh et al. 1986, Khullar et

al. 1987 and Pande 1990). It is now being reported

from Garhwal Himalaya after its first report by

Duthie m 1884.

Woodsia lanosa Hook., Syn. Fi 1., 47. 1866;

Clarke, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., II, Bot. 1 : 435. 1 880;

Beddome, Handb. Ferns Brit. India, 22. 1883; Duthie,

Cat. PI. Kumaun, 230. 1906; Dhir, Bibliotheca

pteridologica, 1: 62. 1980; Singh, Chaudhery & Rao,

Ind. J. For., 9: 163. 1986; Khullar, Shamia &

Chaudhary, West HimaL, 1: 374. 1987; Pande, Indian

Fem J., 7: 174. 1990.

Gymnogramme andersoni Bedd., Ferns Brit.

India 190, 1866; Hope, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,

100. 1903 (pro parte).

Voucher specimens are housed in the herbarium.

Department of Botany, Kumaun University Campus,

Almora. Chamoli Garhwal: Roopkund near Bedini

Bugyal, 3300 m dated Sept., 1991, Kusum Bhandari

15.

Duthie (1884) cf. Hope (1903), Duthie (1906),

Dhir (1980), Singh et al. (1986: Sheet in CAL 3706),

Khullar et al. (1987: Sheet in DD) reported this rare

fem from Fulmar pass in Tehri Garhwal and Kauri

pass in Chamoli district. Not collected since then.

Further, there is no collection of this species from

Garhwal in BSD (cf. Singh et al. 1986).

Extremely rare fem that grows in rock crevices

between altitude of 3000 and 3600 m. This taxon

reported herein is not likely to survive unless proper

steps are taken for its conseivation.

Financial assistance received from CSIR New

Delhi is thankfully acknowledged.

March 22, 1994 P.C. PANDE

KUSUM BHANDARI

Department of Botany,

Kumaun University > Campus,

Almora 263 601.

U.P.

38. ERAGROSTIS ASP ERA (JACQ.) NEES : AN ADDITION TO THE GRASSES OF ORISSA

( With a text-figure)

During the study of the grasses collected from

three districts of Orissa, I came across a taxon,

Eragrostis aspera (Jacq.) Nees, which has not been

earlier reported from the state (Mooney 1 950, Jain et

al. 1975). Earlier this grass has been reported from

Madras and Southern Konkan, Marathwada, Rajasthan

146

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Fig. 1. Eragrostis aspera (Jacq.) Nees

1. Habit; 2. Inflorescence; 3. Spikelets; 4. Lower glume; 5. Upper glume; 6 & 7. Lemma and its palea;

8. Stamens; 9. Ovary; 10. Caryopsis.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

147

and Bihar. It grows in cultivated fields on high hills

(910-1220 m) of Kalahandi, Gajpati and Ganjam

districts of Orissa. The detailed description of the

taxon is available in the literature, hence the present

notes only deal with its correct nomenclature,

distribution and ecology. An illustration is also

provided. The voucher specimens are deposited in the

herbarium, Bhagalpur University. The identification of

the specimens have been confirmed at the Central

National Herbarium (CAL).

Eragrostis aspera (Jacq.) Nees, FI. Afr. Austr.

468. 1841; Hooker, FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 314. 1896; Bor,

Gr. Burma, Ceylon, Ind. & Pak. 501. 1960.

The plant frequently grows in gravelly soils in

shifting cultivation fields (Bogoda or Poda, Onya) on

hills.

Distribution: INDIA: Bihar, Rajasthan, Western

India and South India; Africa, Mascarene Islands.

Flowers: August-December.

Specimens examined: Nijamaska (1065 m),

Thaumal Rampur block, Kalahandi district, Jha 5TR;

Gangabad, Koinpur, Gajpati district, 975 m, Jha 2 IK;

Marmalia, Thumba, Ganjam district, 975 m, Jha 8T;

Kathpatani, Rudhapadar, Ganjam district, Jha 12R.

October 12, 1993 R.R. JHA

Badlao Foundation,

Mihijam, Dumka 815 354,

Bihar.

References

JAIN, S.K., D.K. Banerjee & D.C. PAL (1975): Grasses of MOONEY, H.F. (1950): Supplement to the Botany of Bihar

Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. J. Bombay > nat. Hist. and Orissa. Catholic Press, Ranchi.

Soc. 72: 758-773.

39. STUDIES ON THE SPORE MORPHOLOGY OF OLEANDRA UNDULATA (WILLD.)

CHING AND O. WALL1CH1I (HOOK.) PRESL.

{With a plate )

Introduction

Recently, some of the important contributions on

the spore morphology of ferns and fem-allies were

made by Erdtman and Sorsa (1971); Wilce (1972),

Wagner (1974), Mitui (1977), Lugardon (1978),

Try on and Try on (1982) and others. In India some of

the contributions were provided by Nayar (1964),

Joshi (1966-67), Devi (1973, 1977, 1981), Verma and

Khullar (1978), Bir and Bhusri (1985), etc.

However, the family Oleandraceae received little

attention in the context of spore morphological studies

(Braggio 1966, Devi and Nayar 1971, Liew 1977,

Harmata and Komas 1978). This communication aims

to present comparative spore structures of O. undulata

and O. wallichii.

Material and Methods

The spore samples were collected from

herbarium specimens and were treated by the

acetolysis technique (Erdtman 1952). The

terminology, namely exine processes, ornamentation,

stratification and laesural features were followed after

Erdtman et al. (1961).

The descriptions are based on light microscopic

observations and in case of O. undulata , spores were

also examined under Scanning Electron Microscope.

The magnification of the photographs has been

indicated in the figures.

Observations

Oleandra undulata (Willd.) Ching, Lingnan

Sci. J. 12: 565. 1933. O. cumingii J. Smith, Hook. Sp.

Fil. IV. 158.

The specimens were collected from a dense

Quercus forest, at an elevation of 2100 m.a.s.l.,

growing as lithophytes on exposed, rocky walls or as

epiphytes on Quercus tree trunks. The plant is rare in

its occurrence in Garhwal Himalaya (GUH- 12103).

148

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Spores monolete, bilateral, 23.8 x 32. 5|i (21-

24.5 x 29.8-34.7 p) plano-convex to slightly concavo-

convex in lateral view and oblong to elliptic in polar

view. Leasura 18.1 p long, tenuimarginate. Exine 2.4 p

thick, brown, densely spinulose bearing dark brown,

sharp-pointed, shoit spinules about 1.9p tall. Perine

deep brown, surface under the SEM densely spinulose

bearing slender, shaip spinules with sharp pointed

apices, about 2.1 p tall (In L.M. observations). Perine

adhering to the exine and folded into elongated,

irregular, thin (sometimes scarcely sinuous) folds

coalesced to form an irregular lophate pattern with

crenate crests and protruding up to 5. Ip from the

exine surface (Plate 1, Figs. 1-4).

O. wallichii (Hook.) Presl, Tent. Pterid. 78. 1836.

The specimens were collected from a moist,

shaded forest at an elevation of 2000 m.a.s.l., growing

on damp rock surfaces or as epiphyte on

Rhododendron tree trunks. This species is also rare in

its occurrence in Garhwal Himalaya (GUH- 12065).

Spores monolete, bilateral, 26.3 x 36. 8 p (24.5 -

28 x 35 - 38.5 p), plano-convex to slightly concavo-

convex in lateral view and oblong to elliptic in polar

view. Laesura 1 7. 5 p long, tenuimarginate. Exine 2.2 p

thick, brown, spinulose with short, sharp-pointed,

sparse spinules about 2.2 p tall. Perine dark brown,

densly spinulose with spinules up to 4.2 p tall with

sharp pointed spices, closely adhering to the exine and

folded into crowded, elongated, thin, irregular folds

coalesced forming a reticulate pattern with irregular

reticulations on the surface and protruding up to 3.6 p

from the exine surface with irregular, crenate crest

(Plate 1, Figs. 5-6).

Discussion

Oleandra undualata and O. wallichii represented

almost similar type of spore morphology (monolete

and bilateral), the perine is densely spinulose,

however, the former bears small spinules up to 2.1 p

tall while in the latter, spinules are about 4.2 p tall on

the perine folds. O. undualata perine folds are

coalesced to form an irregular lophate pattern and

protruding up to 5.1 p, whereas O. wallichii perine

folds are coalesced giving a reticulate pattern and

protrude up to 3.6 p from the exine surface.

In general, the spores of Oleandra are uniformly

echinate and bear wing like folds (Braggio 1966,

Liew 1977, Harmata and Komas 1978, Try on and

Tryon 1982) and most of the palynologists treated

their resemblance with the Dryopteroid rather than

Davalloid ferns. However, the echinate processes are

quite prominent in O. wallichii and the perine folds

are either coalesced to form an irregular lophate

pattern ( O . undulata ) or reticulate pattern (O.

wallichii ).

Acknowledgement

Our sincere thanks are due to Dr. D.D. Thakur,

Director, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology,

Dehradun, India for providing SEM facilities.

October 12, 1993 PREETI PAINULI

R.D. GAUR

Department of Botany,

H.N.B. Garhwal University,

Srinagar, Garhwal 246 174,

UP.

References

Bir, S.S. & S. Bhusri (1985): Pteridophytic Flora of Simla

hills (North Western Himalayas)- Families:

Equisetaceae, Selaginellaceae and Ophioglossaceae.

Indian Fern J. 2: 39-56.

Braggio, G. (1966): Morfologia delle spore e systematica

delle Davalliales. Webbia 21: 725-764.

Devi, S. (1973): Spore morphology of Indian Ferns. J.

Palynol. 9: 192-201.

Devi, S. (1977): Spores of Indian ferns. Today and

Tomorrow's Printers, New Delhi.

Devi, S. (1981): Reference Manual of Fern spores.

Economic Botany Information Service, NBRI,

Lucknow.

Devi, S. & B.K. Nayar (1971): Spore morphology of

Indian Ferns. X. Davalliaceae and Oleandraceae. J.

Indian Bot. Soc. 50: 89-100.

ERDTMAN, G. (1952): Pollen Morphology and Plant

Taxonomy Parti. Angiosperms. Almqvistand Wiksell,

Figs. 1-4. Oleandra undulata — (L M Figs.) 1. perine folds; 2. laesura (x 1000). (SEM Figs.) 3. perine folds

with spinules (x 1930); 4. magnified view of perine surface indicating spinules (x 2620).

Figs. 5-6. Oleandra wallichii — (L M Figs.) 5. spinulose perine; 6. perine folds and surface pattern (x 1000, unacetolysed).

M

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92 Plate 1

Shivamurthy et al. : Battarea stevenii

Figs. 1-6. Battarea stevenii (Lib.) Fr.

1. A pair of young Suiting bodies on woody rhizomorph dug out of the soil, x 0.7; 2. Fruiting body longitudi-

nally cut to show dome-shaped gleba and stipe enclosed by the volva, x 1; 3. Basidiospore mass with an

aimularly thickened elater, x 1 1 50; 4. Fruiting body with a bell-shaped gleba and stout stipe: note the peridium

falling away in one piece, x 0.5; 5. Fruiting body dug out of soil to show dome-shaped gleba, stout scaly stipe

and cup-like volva at the base, x 0.4; 6. Overground part of a mature Suiting body at the habitat, x 0.3.

Abbreviations', gl, gleba; pr, peridium; st, stipe; vl, volva.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

149

Stockholm.

Erdtman, G., B. Berglund & J. Praglowski (1961): An

Introduction to a Scandinavian Pollen Flora. Grana

Palynol. 2: 3-92.

Erdtman, G. & P. Sorsa (1971): Pollen and Spore

Morphology/Plant Taxonomy. Pteridophyta. Almqvist

and Wiksell, Stockholm.

Harmata, K. & J. Kornas (1978): Spore morphology of

two varieties of Oleandra distenta (Davalliaceae,

Filicopsida) from southern tropical Africa. Zesz. Nauk.

Univ. Jagiellonskiego 193. Prac. Bot. 6: 7-14.

JOSHI, S.A. (1966-67): The use of spore morphology in the

taxonomy of some Indian ferns. Palynol. Bull. 2 4: 3:

69-84.

LlEW, F.S. (1977): Scanning electron microscope studies of

the spores of Pteridophytes. XI. The family

Oleandraceae ( Oleandra , Nephrolepis and

Arthropteris). Gardens Bull. Singapore 30: 101-110.

LUGARDON, B. (1978): Isosporc and nucrospore walls of

living pteridophytes: Identification possibilities with

different observation instruments. Palyn. Conf.

Lucknow 1: 152-163.

MlTUI, K. (1977): Spore wall structure of some Japanese

species in Polypodiaceae S. St. Bull. Nippon Dental

llniv. Gen Ed. 6: 119-124.

Nayar, B.K. (1964): Palynology of Modern Pteridophytes,

Chapter VI, pp. 101-141. In: Advances in Palynology

(ed. P.K.K. Nair), National Botanical Gardens,

Lucknow.

Tryon, R.M. & A.F. Tryon (1982): Ferns and Allied

Plants. Springer-Verlag, New York.

VERMA, S.C. & S.P. KHULLAR (1978): Some considerations

of spore morphology and evolutionary biology in

ferns. , Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany,

Lucknow ( 1 976-77). Proc. IVth International Palynol.

Conf. I: 143-161.

WAGNER, W.H. Jr. (1974): Structure of spores in relation to

fern phylogeny. Ann. Miss. Bot. Gard. 61: 332-353.

WlLCE, J.H. (1972): Lycopod spores, 1. General spore

patterns and the generic segregates of Lycopodium.

Amer. Fern J. 62: 65-79.

40. OCCURRENCE OF BATTAREA STEVEN11 (LIB.) FR. (TULOSTOMATACEAE) IN

MYSORE - A NEW RECORD FROM SOUTH INDIA

( With a plate )

Observations

As uncommon gasteromycete, was consistently

observed and collected at Manasagangotri, Mysore,

Karnataka, South India during south-west monsoon of

1986-93. The curious nature of its fruiting body

prompted us to characterise and identify the taxon.

The fruiting body emerges through the soil

exerting considerable force during the rainy season.

Cracks appear on the soil surface before the

emergence of the fruiting body. Removal of the

surface soil at that site, 25-30 cm deep, reveals 1-3

closed large basidiocaips arising from a branched or

unbranched woody rhizomorph (PL 1, Fig. 1). Each

such fruiting body consists of volva enclosing the

stipe and the dome-shaped gleba protected by the

peridium (PI. 1, Fig. 2). The gleba is traversed by

reticulate capillitium and spores. The spores are

intermixed with coarse hyaline hyphal threads of the

capillitium and free elongated annularly and/or

spirally thickened elaters (PL 1, Fig. 3). The spores

are globose to sub-globose; yellowish-brown; finely

punctulate; 6-7 pm in diameter. After sometime the

stipe elongates and pierces through the single-sheathed

volva, which remains underground as a cup-like

involucre (PL 1, Fig. 5). The volva is very large and

measures 10 cm in height, 8-10 cm in diameter and

25-32 cm in circumference. The young overground

part of the fruiting body simulates a mushroom (PL 1 ,

Fig. 4), but 2-3 days after its emergence and by the

time stipe attains a considerable height (25-30 cm) its

appearance is entirely different from that pf a

mushroom (PL 1, Fig. 6). The stipe and peridium

together measure up to 30 cm in height. The bell-

shaped peridium is situated apically on the stout scaly

stipe and measures 6-9 cm in diameter and 5-7 cm in

height (PL 1 , Fig. 4). It gradually assumes a discoid

shape as it reaches maturity (PI. 1, Fig. 6). The stipe

alone is about 25 cm long and 4-5 cm in diameter.

The exterior of the stipe is covered with long coarse,

150

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

fibrillose, lacerate overlapping scales which show a

tendency to peel off (PI. 1, Figs. 4-6).

The peridium opens in a circumcissile manner

and its membranous outer layer falls off in one piece

(PI. 1, Fig. 4), exposing the glebal contents - spores,

elaters and collapsed capillitium. Only rarely,

remnants of the membranous peridial layer are seen

adhering lo the fertile spore bearing portion (PI. 1,

Fig 5).

During emergence the fruiting body emits a

foetid smell attracting flies. The activity of the

visiting flies appears to help in spore dispersal to

some extent. However, the main agents of spore

dispersal are the highly hygroscopic elaters and the

wind. The spore dissemination by elaters in the

present taxon is functionally analogous to that found

in the sporangia of Myxomycetes and sporophytes of

Liverworts.

Identity of the taxon

The presence of peculiar tracheid-like elaters in

the gleba, the characteristic circumcissile dehiscence

of the sporoearp, massive volva at the base of the

fruiting body and the lacerate scales on the stipe lead

us to identify the present taxon as Battarea stevenii

(Lib.) Fr.

The genus Battarea Pers. is widely distributed

and found in sandy soils of U.S., Europe, South

America, New Zealand (Bessey 1968) and rarely in

Pakistan and India (Ahmed 1939, 1952). The genus

comprises only two species, namely B. phalloides

(Diks.) Pers. reportedly endemic to Southern England

(Ainsworth 1971, Dring 1973, 1974) and B. stevenii

reported from Rohtak, Punjab, North India by Ahmed

(1939). A perusal of the literature (Ahmed 1939,

1952; Bessey 1968, Rangaswamy et al. 1970, Dring

1973, 1974; Biligrami et al. 1979) reveals that the

present finding forms the first record of B. stevenii

from South India. Further, Ahmed (1939, 1952)

reported the presence of three-sheathed volva in the

form described by him, while the present taxon is

found to possess a consistently single- sheathed volva.

Further, the solid stipe, peridium and volva are

consistently larger in size in the present form.

A systematic study of the higher fungi in and

around Mysore would definitely reveal the occurrence

of many more interesting species.

Acknowledgement

We sincerely thank Prof. K. Natarajan, Centre

for Advanced Studies in Botany, Madras University,

Madras for his help in the identification of the taxon.

February 12, 1994 G.R. SfflVAMURTHY

H.G. VIJAY GOPAL RAJ URS

K.B. SADANAND

Department of Studies in Botany,

Manasagangotri,

Mysore 570 006.

Karnataka.

References

Ahmed, S. (1939): Higher fungi of the Punjab plains. 1. The

gasteromycetes. J. Indian Bot. Sci. 18: 47-58.

AHMED, S. (1952): Gasteromycetes of West Pakistan.

Punjab Univ. Press, Lahore.

Ainsworth, G.C. (1971): Dictionary of the Fungi. A.B.

Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew, Surrey.

Bessey. E.A. (1968): Morphology and Taxonomy of Fungi.

Hafner Publishing Company, New York & London.

Biligrami, K.A., Jamaluddin& M.S. Rizwi (1979): Fungi

of India. Part-I, List and references. Today and

Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.

Dring. D.M. (1973): Gasteromycetes. In: The Fungi - An

advanced treatise Vol. IV B. A taxonomic review with

Keys: Basidiomycetes and Lower Fungi. (Eds.

Ainsworth, G.C.; Sparrow, F.K. and Sussman, S.S.).

Dring, D.M. (1974): An Introduction to the

Gasteromycetes. Academic Press, New York.

Rangaswamy, G„ V.S. Seshadri & K.A. Lucy

Channamma ( 1 970): Fungi of South India. University

of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore & United States

Department of Agricultural Research Service,

International Programmes Division for Eastern

Regional Research. PI. 480.

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HOME RANGE OF ELEPHANTS IN FRAGMENTED HABITATS OF CENTRAL

INDIA (With four text -figures)

By Hemant S. Datye and A.M. Bhagwat 1

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE OF BIRD PESTS AND THEIR DIURNAL RHYTHM

IN RIPENING SORGHUM (With a text figure)

By B.M. Parasharya, K.L. Mathew and D.N. Yadav 11

STATUS, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSERVATION OF THE TRAVANCORE

TORTOISE, INDOTESTUDO FORSTEN11 IN WESTERN GHATS

(With two plates and a text-figure)

By S. Bhupathy and B.C. Choudhury 16

ON THE MORPHOLOGY, ADVERTISING CALL AND HABITAT OF THE

BUSH FROG PH1LAUTUS LEUCORHINUS (LICHTENSTEIN AND

MARTENS, 1856) (With a text-figure)

By Aloysius G. Sekar 22

MATING BEHAVIOUR OF THE INDIAN GREY MONGOOSE HERPESTES

EDWARDS II EDWARDS I I GEOFFROY (With a text- figure)

By Jagathpala Shetty, Gunapala Shetty and S.R. Kanakaraj 26

COMPOSITION, ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUATTON OF FISH IN BANGANGA-

GAMBHIR RIVER SYSTEM AND SOURCE OF FISH TO THE KEOLADEO

NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR (With two text-figures)

By C. R. Ajith Kumar, N.K. Ramachandran and Arun Asthana 30

KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES OF THE GENERA ORTHR1US GORHAM AND

XENORTHRIUS GORHAM (COLEOPTERA: CLERIDAE: CLERINAE)

By Jonathan R. Mawdsley 40

TAXONOMIC STUDIES OF THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA (LINNAEUS, 1767)

FROM THE SEAS AROUND INDIA (With a plate and two text- figures)

By D.B. James 43

ECOLOGY OF POLLINATION IN TWO CAT-MINT SPECIES

By Raju J.S. Aluri arid C. Subba Reddi 63

A STUDY OF ABNORMAL NESTS OF BAYA WEAVER BIRD PLOCEUS

PHILIPPINES (LINN.) IN RAJASTHAN (With six text-figures)

By Satish Kumar Sharma 67

AGE DETERMINATION OF DOLPHINS ENTANGLED IN GILLNETS ALONG

THE KERALA COAST (With two plates)

By R.S. Lai Mohan 77

NEW DESCRIPTIONS 81

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Ill

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Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

OURNAL

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August 1995

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6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200

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7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of

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Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

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Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

VOLUME 92 (2): AUGUST 1995

Date of Publication: 01-8-1995

CONTENTS

MOULT IN THREE SPECIES OF BULBULS OF THE GENUS PYCNONOTUS AT TIRUPATI . HILLS

OF THE EASTERN GHATS, INDIA (With four text-figures )

By S. Balachandran, K.K. Mohapatra and S.A. Hussain 151

FLORA OF PUNJAB STATE — A PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC ASSESSMENT (With a text-figure)

By M. Sharma and Kusum Rajpal 160

BUTTERFLY POLLINATION OF CLERODENDRUM INEORTUNATUM (VERBENACEAE)

(With two text -figures )

By T. Byragi Reddy and C. Subba Reddi 166

MALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE IN SOME INDIAN BATS (With a text-figure)

By A. Gopalakrishna and N. Badwaik 174

FOOD OF JUNGLE BABBLER AND COMMON BABBLER: A COMPARATIVE STUDY (With four

text -figures)

By Manjit S. Saini, Manjit S. Dhindsa, Harjeet K. Saini and H.S. Toor 182

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA LINNAEUS, 1767 FROM THE SEAS

AROUND INDIA — Part 2 (With a plate and two text-figures)

By D.B. James 190

AUTUMN MIGRATION OF BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER (LIMICOLA EALCINELLUS PONTOPP.)

IN KAZAKHSTAN

By E.I. Gavrilov, A.E. Gavrilov, S.N. Erokhov, V.V. Khrokov 205

A CONCISE REVIEW OF FOREST FLORA OF KERALA

ByT.S. Nayar 212

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF RAN A HEXADACTYLA LESSON IN KUTTANAD, KERALA

By Sanil George and M.I. Andrews 220

THE POPULATION DENSITY AND STRUCTURE OF ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN PARAMBIKULAM

WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KERALA, INDIA (With three text-figures)

By PS. Easa and M. Balakrishnan 225

PHYLOGENY AND ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF THE GHARIAL, GAVIALIS GANGETICUS (GMELIN)

(REPTILIA, CROCODILIA) (With a text-figure)

By A.K. Srivastava and H.R. Bustard 230

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

REVISION OF GENUS INDOTAXONUS MALAISE FROM INDIA (HYMENOPTERA, SYMPHYTA,

TENTHREDINIDAE:' ALLANTINAE) (With twenty three text-figures)

By Malkiat S. Saini and V. Vasu 234

A NEW SPECIES OF MEDINILLA GAUD. (MELASTOMATACEAE) FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH,

INDIA (With a text figure)

ByG. D. Pal 240

A NEW SPECIES OF OXYOPID SPIDER FROM INDIA {With seven text-figures)

By G.L. Sadana and Aarti Gupta 242

REVIEWS

1 . INDIAN MARINE BIOLOGY

Reviewed by B.F. Chhapgar 244

2. BIRDS OF TRIPURA — A CHECKLIST

Reviewed by Humayun Abdulali 248

3. THE BIRDS OF PAKISTAN. 2 Volumes

Reviewed by Shahid Ali 248

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. Wolf Canis lupus killing a great Indian

bustard Ardeotis nigriceps

By Satish Kumar 251

2. Further notes on frog-eating habit of grey

musk shrew Suncus murinus

By Satish Kumar Sharma 251

3. Occurrence of the Japanese pipistrelle,

Pipistrellus abramus (Temminck, 1840)

(Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) in

Myanmar (Burma) and India

By PK. Das and Y.P Sinha 252

4. New distributional record of Petaurista

fulvinus Wroughton, 1911 (Mammalia:

Rodentia: Sciuridae), with comments on its

taxonomic status

By R.K. Ghose and

T.P Bhattacharya 254

5. Fivestriped squirrel Funambulus pennanti

(Wroughton) feeding on fledgeling house

sparrow Passer domesticus

By K.L. Mathew and

Claramma Lukose 256

6. Some notes on the fruits, seeds and nectar

consumed by three striped palm squirrel

Funambulus palmarum at Point Calimere

Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu

By P. Balasubramanian 256

7. Sighting of spiny dormouse Pla tacanthomys

lasiurus Blyth, 1859 in Peppara Wildlife

Sanctuary, Trivandrum district, Kerala

By E.A. Jayson and G. Christopher 258

8. Niche alteration by the Cutch rock-rat,

Cremnomys cutchicus in the Aravallis

By Ishwar Prakash, Partap Singh and

A. Saravanan. 259

9. Species composition of field rodents in

central Uttar Pradesh

By A.S. Bhadauria and Y.K. Mathur 259

10. Heterogeneous grouping — a strategy

against predation

By K. Praveen Rao, Abhay K. Singh and

Paramanand 260

BIRDS

1 1 . Sighting of a great crested grebe Podiceps

cristatus (Linn.) near Bassein in

Maharashtra

By Alan A. Beattie 261

12. Occurrence of falcated teal Anas f ale at a

Georgi in West Bengal.

By Sujan Chatterjee, Kushal Mookerjee,

Basav Bhattacharya and Anand Banjerjee 262

13. Diet of Indian peafowl Pavo cristatus Linn,

in Gir Forest, Gujarat

By Pranav Trivedi and

A.J.T. Johnsingh 262

14. Notes on primary moult in the rednecked

phalarope Phalaropus lobatus (Linn.)

By David S. Melville 263

15. Distraction display in the little brown dove

Streptopelia senegalensis (Linn.)

By Ranjit Manakadan 265

16. Ground nesting in the little brown dove

Streptopelia senegalensis (Linn.)

By Satish Kumar 265

17. An instance of play behaviour in black

drongo Dicrurus adsimilis (Bechstein)

By Manoj V. Nair 266

18. Notes on the occurrence of the

yellowthroated bulbul Pycnonotus

xantholaemus (Jerdon) at Shevaroys, Tamil

Nadu

By S. Karthikeyan 266

19. Stone chat Saxicola torquata (Linn.) in

Kerala

By C. Sashikumar, Jafer Palot and

T. Praveen 267

20. Wintering of Indian blue chat Erithacus

brunneus (Hodgson) and pied ground thrush

Zoothera wardii (Blyth) at Nandi hills,

South India

By J.N. Prasad, S. Karhikeyan, and

S. Subramanya 267

REPTILES

21. Simplified field technique for obtaining

blood from freshwater turtles

By Reshma Batra and

Sant Prakash 269

22. Clutch size in shaw’s wolf snake Lycodon

striatus

By Satish Kumar Sharma 271

23. Length record of the common wolf snake

( Lycodon aulicus ) from Bharuch, Gujarat

By Raju Vyas and

B.H. Patel 271

AMPHIBIA

24. Amphibians of Phulwari Ki Nal Wildlife

Sanctuary

By Satish Kumar Sharma 271

FISHES

25. Labeo micropthalmus (Day) (Pisces:

Cyprinidae), a new record from Bihar,

India

By Safal Kumar Mishra 272

26. Additional information on the grey mullet

Rhinomugil corsula (Hamilton) (Pisces:

Mugilidae) from western Maharashtra

By H.V. Ghate and

G.K. Wagh 273

27. Extension of range of Danio ( Brachydanio )

rerio Hamilton-Buchanan

By C.P. Shaji and

PS Easa 274

INSECTS

28. A study on butterfly populations at Guindy

National Park, Madras

By B. Rajasekhar 275

29. Comments on the variations in Junonia

orithya complex (Lepidoptera:

Nymphalidae)

By H.S. Rose and Narender Sharma 278

30. Effect of temperature on hatching and larval

duration in Sepsis nitens (Sepsidae: Diptera)

By Yasmin Modassir 280

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

3 1 . Record of three species of Rhombognathus

(Halacaridae: Acari) from Indian Ocean

region

By Tapas Chatterjee 282

32. Occurrence of the crab Euxanthus

exsculptus (Herbst) in Gujarat

By B.F. Chhapgar and

Taej Mundkur : 286

33. Field incidence of snail on kharif groundnut

By PC. Dash 287

BOTANY

34. The growth pattern of Pegaeophyton

garhwalensis (Brassicaceae)

By D.S. Rawat, L.R. Dangwal and

R. D. Gaur 287

35. Lectotypification of Bauhinia ornata Kurz

(Leguminosae: Caesalpiniodeae)

By S. Bandyopadhyay 289

36. Teratology of winged fruits in Terminalia

bialata Steudel (Combretaceae) — the

Andaman ash or white chuglam tree

By PS. N. Rao and Marcel Tigga 289

37. Nomenclatural notes on an Indian plant

By V. Singh and P. Singh 290

38. Destruction of Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. by the

rhesus macaque Macaca mulatto.

(Zimmermann)

By Satish Kumar Sharma 290

39. Fruit morphology and further distribution

of Ceropegia jainii Ansari and Kulkarni

By M.P Bachulkar, S.R. Yadav and

S. K. Limaye 291

40. Axonopus compressus (Sw.) Beauv. and

Phalaris minor Retz. (Poaceae) — new

records for Andhra Pradesh

By M.S. Gayathri and T. Pullaiah 291

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

August 1995

Vol. 92

No. 2

MOULT IN THREE SPECIES OF BULBULS OF THE GENUS PYCNONOTUS

AT TIRUPATI HILLS OF THE EASTERN GHATS, INDIA1

S. Balachandran, K.K. Mohapatra and S.A. Hussain2

(With four text-figures )

Key words: moult score, primary moult, post nuptial moult, post-juvenile moult, suspended

moult, moult duration, brood patch, recapture

Moult in three species of bulbuls, namely VJb.itebvo'WQd Pycnonotus liiteolus, Redwhiskered Pycnonotus jocosus

and Redvented Pycnonotus cafer have been studied at the Tirupati Hills of the Eastern Ghats in India. The primary moult

(commencement, duration and its relation with other moults) is described. Interspecific variation in commencement and

duration is discussed. It is established that in Redwhiskered and Redvented the post-juvenile moult is rapid and shorter

than the post-nuptial moult of adults. This study clearly indicates that all the adults of the three species undergo a complete

post-nuptial moult soon after breeding is over. The post-juvenile moult starts one month after fledging.

Introduction

The Eastern Ghats are an important entity in

the zoogeography of peninsular India and the

distribution of the fauna and flora of the region has

not been documented in detail. Whistler and

Kinnear (1932-37) in a pioneering report based on

the Vernay Scientific Survey conducted in 16

locations of the Eastern Ghats, touched upon some

aspects of occurrence and distribution of the

avifauna. Birds of the Eastern Ghats have been listed

and described by Abdulali (1945, 1953), Raju and

Selvin (1971), Raju and Price (1973), Hussain et

al. (1976), Price (1979), and Beehler et al. (1987).

Price (1979) described the seasonality of birds in

the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh, and discussed

briefly the moult pattern of the resident species.

The moult of Indian birds is poorly understood

and little is known about the moult of any Indian

bulbul. Some aspects of the moult cycles in a few

'Accepted October 1992.

2 Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali

Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay-400 023, India.

Indian birds have been described (Naik and Naik

1965, Naik and Andrews 1966, Naik 1970). This

paper provides details of the moult of three species

of Bulbuls, namely Whitebrowed Pycnonotus

luteolus, Redvented Pycnonotus cafer and

Redwhiskered Pycnonotus jocosus Bulbuls in the

Tirupati Hills of Eastern Ghats.

Study area and Methods

The Tirupati hills (13° 40' N, 79° 20' E) form

a part of the Eastern Ghats range situated in the

Chittoor district of southern Andhra Pradesh.

Tirumala hills, which is a part of the Tirupati hills,

lie about 1 ,000 m above sea level and the study was

carried out in the dry deciduous forests located

between the Kalyan dam and Bhakrapet village.

These areas have been declared as the Sri

Venkateswara Wildlife Sanctuary by the Andhra

Pradesh State Forest Department. A portion of the

Tirumala Hills comes within the Tirupati-Tirumala

Devasthanam Forest. Most of the bulbuls were

caught in the mixed forests of Tirumala hills which

152

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

comprise clear-felled areas with secondary thickets

of bamboo and plantations. The forests at Bhakrapet

are natural scrub.

This paper is based on information collected

from 1123 live birds examined for moult between

June and November 1989. Birds were trapped in

mist nets and were ringed, measured, weighed and

examined for moult. In this paper the term ‘juvenile’

refers to a bird hatched out in the same breeding

season (generally one month to four months old),

and is separated from the adult by their

morphological characters.

The primaries and secondaries as well as the

rectrices (12 in number) were examined for moult.

Primary feathers were numbered from distal ( 1 ) to

proximal (10) including the much reduced distal

first primary making a total of ten primaries, and

eight secondaries were also similarly numbered. The

moult was recorded on a separate moult card for

each capture. Each primary and secondary feather

was given a score of from “0” (old feathers) to “5”

(full grown new feathers). The British Trust for

Ornithology notation was adopted (Snow 1967)

score “1” being a feather missing or in pin and “2”,

“3”, “4” feathers one third, two thirds and nearly

full grown respectively. The scores for all the 18

primaries and secondaries of one wing were then

summed to give a maximum score 90 (50 for

primaries and 40 for secondaries). A maximum

score of 60 for the 1 2 rectrices was obtained in the

same way. The body moult was recorded as “0” for

no moult “S” slight moult, “A” and “C” for active

and completed moult. The stages of the brood-patch

was also recorded to relate the general moult to the

breeding period.

Moult scores of different individuals were

plotted against the dates of capture to estimate the

duration, starting and finishing dates of moult. The

slope determines the rate of moulting and the width,

the spread in starting dates between individuals, as

the moult score increases linearly with the time.

Moult duration was also calculated from the rate of

feather growth of individuals caught more than once

during the moult. The relationship between primary

and secondary scores is established by linear

regression analysis (Fig. 2.).

Results

Feather replacement: Feather replacement

follows the passerine sequence of descendant moult.

The primary moult starts from the innermost

primary and progresses outwardly. Moult is

normally symmetrical in both wings. Though

secondary and tail moult start after the

commencement of primary moult they span the

remaining period of the primary moult. Secondary

moult initially starts from the first feather and later

from the middle feathers and progresses in both the

ways. Tail moult starts from the central feathers and

the progress is outwards in Redvented and

Redwhiskered. While in Whitebrowed it is not so

regular and asymmetric moult is not uncommon.

Commencement of moult: Moult starts

earliest in Whitebrowed as 30% of the birds

examined in June had already commenced their

primary moult. In Redvented, one out of 23 adults,

commenced its moult in the last week of June and a

single juvenile caught was also observed in moult

at that time. Though post nuptial moult was noticed

in very few individuals of Redwhiskered from the

third week of July, the majority of the adult birds

commenced their moult in third week of August or

later and the stray juveniles caught (3 in June and 1

in July) had commenced their post juvenile moult

in the last week of June. By August 45% of juveniles

were in primary moult (Figs. 1 & 2).

Number of feathers growing concurrently:

The number of primary, secondary and tail feathers

growing concurrently for the bulbuls is given in

Table 1 . Up to five primaries concurrently growing

are recorded only twice in Redwhiskered. Thirty

percent of the Redwhiskered, 21% of Whitebrowed

and 15% of Redvented were observed with three

primaries growing concurrently. The commonest

situation in all the three species was for these to be

two feathers growing simultaneously; the next

commonest being three feathers in Whitebrowed and

Redwhiskered and only one in Redvented. The

NUMBER OF FEATHERS GROWING IN RELATION TO MOULT SCORE

MOULT IN THREE SPECIES OF BULBULS OF THE G£M/5TYCNONOTUS

153

o

in

o

04

in

04

NOTE: WB — Whitebrowed, RW — Redwhiskered, RV — Redvented.

NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS

fedventedBulbul Redwhiskered Bulbul WhitebrouiedBtibui

154

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

20-

K>-

O

a

30-

20-

VO-

oJ-

40-

30-

20

10-J

O

T"

b

I — ira

*nb

60-

50-

40-

30-

20-

\o-

O -

2oi a

vo-

T

1, jf|

-cBa- -1

J

JKBL

JBL

i-\o

n-20

21-30 flm 31*^40 □ 41-60

Fig. 1 . Progress of primary moult in bulbuls, a) Juveniles; b) Adults.

MOULT IN THREE SPECIES OF BULBULS OE THE GENUS PYCNONOTUS

155

Whtebrowed Bulbul Juveniles

^dwishtered Bulbul

Fig. 2. Timing of primary moult in bulbuls. (Weeks are numbered from 1st week of January).

156

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92(1995)

TAIL SCORE

Fig. 3. Relation between primary and tail score in bulbuls.

highest number of concurrently growing primaries

was observed in birds with primary moult scores of

41-45.

In Redwhiskered, individuals most commonly

had three moulting secondaries, while in Redvented

and Whitebrowed most individuals were recorded

with two and one moulting secondary respectively.

One individual of Redwhiskered had six secondaries

growing concurrently.

Number of tail feathers growing concurrently

varied from 2-12. In all the three species, two

feathers growing concurrently was the commonest

pattern.

Arrested or suspended moult: In arrested

moult one or more feathers attain complete growth

before the next feathers are dropped. Arrested moult

was noticed in 6.5% of Redvented, 1.8% of

Whitebrowed and 0.9% of Redwhiskered.

Moult duration: As individuals of Redvented

and Redwhiskered were caught before

commencement and just after completion of moult,

the duration of moult could be recorded. Effective

commencement of moult for Redwhiskered is mid-

August and finishing time is third week of

November. In the case of Redvented the starting and

finishing time is mid July and the end of October

(Fig. 2). Thus the approximate duration for

Redwhiskered is 13 weeks and for Redvented 14

weeks. But, most of the individuals of Whitebrowed

commenced the moult in mid-June and completed

in early November indicating a moult of

approximately 18 weeks. In Redwhiskered four

adults were caught twice during the moult and the

rate of feather, replcement between the two captures

was observed.

Post-juvenile moult is rapid for Redwhiskered

and in general this species moults from the third

week of September to the third week of November

(9 weeks). The duration calculated for the two

retrapped birds is 50 and 67 days respectively. While

in Redvented the duration of post juvenile moult is

almost the same as in Redwhiskered but commences

one month earlier. For Whitebrowed the post-

juvenile moult duration was not calculated as the

sample size was too small.

Relation between primary and other

moults: In none of the three species any secondaries

moulted before commencement of primary moult.

Secondary moult generally started when the primary

score was 10-15 (Figs. 2 & 4). A few exceptions

were noticed. Tail moult also commenced after the

primary moult had started (Fig. 3). The secondary

and tail moult are mostly completed at the same

time as primary moult.

Slight body moult was noticed at the

beginning of primary moult, but was most active

when the primary moult score was between 30-40,

and was usually completed at the same time as

primary moult.

Breeding and moult: The first fledgling of

Whitebrowed was sighted on 2nd June. Redvented

was seen incubating eggs on 2 1 st May and nestlings

MOULT IN THREE SPECIES OE BULBULS OF THE GENUS PYCNONOTUS

157

were seen up to 22nd August. Whitebrowed is the

earliest breeder among the three species, breeding

was completed by July and all the adults caught in

August were in moult. Redwhiskered and Redvented

completed their breeding by August and all adults

caught in September were with moulting primaries.

Primary score

o Observed value ♦ Calculated value

Fig. 4. Relation between primary and secondary score in bulbuls,

(a) Whitebrowed; (b) Redvented.

Juveniles of all three species started their moult

about one month after fledging, which is evident

from the recapture of a juvenile Redvented on 10th

October. During its first capture on 4th September

the moult score was “0”. After 36 days the score

was just “6” with three innermost feathers in growth.

To reach score “6” it might have taken less than

eight days as the post-juvenile moult duration is just

8-9 weeks. The unmoulted adults noticed in August

were still attending the nest.

Discussion

There is a distinct moulting period for each

of the three bulbuls, this lasts from June to

November. Adults of the three species undergo a

complete moult soon after breeding is over. Similarly

all the juveniles go through a complete moult,

starting about one month after fledging. The pattern

of post-juvenile moult is generally similar to post

nuptial moult except in timing and duration. Late

starting in post-juvenile moult compensated by the

short duration, so that the end of moult is

synchronized with the end of the post-nuptial moult

of adults. Estimated duration indicates that

Whitebrowed has a longer duration ( 1 8 weeks) than

the other two species (Redvented and Redwhiskered

14 and 13 weeks respectively).

The moult duration is related to the rate of

growth of individual feathers and the number of

feathers growing concurrently. The maximum

number of feathers concurrently growing occurred

in Redwhiskered which had the shortest moult

duration. However, Pienkowski and Knight (1976)

stated that in waders of the Moroccan Coast, any

interspecific variation in moulting rate was largely

due to differences in the growth rates of the

primaries, and not to differences in the number of

primaries concurrently in growth.

Fogden (1972) reported that both in passerines

and non-passerines, juveniles undergo a complete

moult soon after fledging, which is generally similar

to the post-nuptial moult of adults in its timing and

duration. However, Snow (1967), found that the

species moulting in temperate countries such as

Britain, the juveniles of most species do not moult

their remiges and rectrices after fledging. Our

findings concur with Fogden’s (1972) findings in

Sarawak, except juveniles moult the tail; post-

juvenile moult starts later than the post-nuptial

moult and has a shorter duration.

158

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92(1995)

Fogden (1972) also suggested that generally

late moulting birds moult at a faster rate than those

that begin early, and so finish at the same time.

This is true in the three species of bulbuls studied.

The late moulting Redwhiskered has shorter

duration than the other two species which commence

earlier. Similarly Redwhiskered and Redvented have

shorter duration of post-juvenile moult than post-

breeding moult as they commence their moult one

month later than the adult. Fogden (1972) also

estimated the duration of all the Pycnonotus sp. at

Sarawak as 1 7 weeks which differs from our study.

Price (1979) in his study of the breeding species of

Lammasinghi of the Eastern Ghat range, mentioned

that by July most of the birds have completed

breeding and the adults undergo a complete post-

nuptial moult which is completed by October. The

complete post-juvenile moult was observed only in

Redwhiskered and Redvented bulbuls, and also in

the Redfronted Babbler Stcichyris rufifrons. He

observed that all the Redwhiskered caught from July

20 to 1st August were in primary moult which is

contrary to our study. Of the 31 individuals only

three were seen with primary moult during the

corresponding period in the Tirupati Hills.

Moult and breeding do not overlap as the

moult starts after breeding. When moult starts the

broodpatch is either with scales or with calami to

cover up the broodpatch, indicating the end of the

brooding period. However, the possibility of

moulting during the nestling period cannot be ruled

out completely. The moult of wing and tail in the

adults of five species of bulbul from Mopeia

(Mozambique) and Nchalo (Malawi) occurred

between December and July and immature birds

start moulting when they are about three months

old (Hanmer 1977). This timing is earlier than the

timing of moult in bulbuls of Tirupati Hills where

the young start moulting one month after

fledging.

Food abundance may be one of the major

factors determining the timing of the moult, and at

Tirupati the fruiting season of Zizyphus oenoplia

and Scutia sp,, which are the favourite food of the

bulbuls, coincides with the moult. Other trees in

fruit were Santalum sp. and Syzygium cumini which

were preferred by Redvented and Redwhiskered.

During the fruiting season of the above trees

(September and October), there was a heavy influx

of Redwhiskered and Redvented mostly to the

Tirumala hills which resulted in a higher catches

of these two species at this time. Vertical and

horizontal movements in bulbuls at Lammasinghi

was reported by Price (1979) who ascribed the low

rate of recapture to such movements. The percentage

of recapture of the bulbuls at Tirupati hills was also

very low probably indicating dispersal

immediately after breeding. In comparison, more

fledglings of Redvented were sighted than of the

other two species, which may be due to the higher

breeding success of Redvented than Redwhiskered

and Whitebrowed or to less movement out of the

area.

Miller (in Fogden 1972) suggested that in

tropical America the resident birds breed and moult

during the part of the year when the northern

migrants are absent, which implies competition

between the resident and migrant species. At

Tirupathi hills the residents complete their breeding

before the arrival of the migrants but extend the

moult till November when the migrants are

present.

Acknowledgements

This study was carried out from June to

November 1989 as a part of the BNHS bird

Migration study supported by U.S. Fish & Wildlife

Service under a grant from PL-480 funds No. 14-

16-0009-87-02 released through Department of

Environment, Wildlife and Forest of India. We

gratefully acknowledge the facilities and permission

given to work in the area by the Tirumala Temple

authorities and the State Forest Department. We are

grateful to Dr. Chris Perrins of the Edward Grey

Institute of Field Ornithology for going through the

manuscript and giving constructive suggestions.

Thanks to Mr. J.C. Daniel, the then curator of BNHS

for encouragement and support.

MOULT IN THREE SPECIES OF BULBULS OE THE GENUS PYCNONOTUS

159

References

Abdulau, H. (1945): Birds of the Vizagapatnam district./ Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 45:333-347.

Abdui.ali, H. (1953): More about Vizagapatnam Birds./ Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 5 7:746-747.

Bhehi.hr, B.M., K.S.R. Krishna Raju &S. Au (1987): Avian use of

man-disturbed forest habitats in the Eastern Ghats, India.

Ibis 129: 197-211.

Fogden, M.RL. (1972): The Seasonality and Population dynamics

of Equatorial forest birds in Sarawak. Ibis 114: 307-343.

Hanmer, D.P. (1978): Measurements and moult of five species of

bulbul from Mozambique and Malawi. Ostrich 49: 1 16-

131.

Hussain, S.A., J.D. Panday & PB. Shekar (1976): Extension of

the Range of the Large Yellownaped Woodpecker ( Picas

flavinuchaflavinucha Gould). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73:

394.

Naik, N.L. (1970): Studies on the Pterylosis, Moults, Plumages

and Leg Myology of Starlings (Avian Family Sturnidae).

Ph.D. Thesis, M.S. University, Baroda.

Naik, R.M. & M.I. Andrews (1966): Pterylosis Age Determination

and Moult in the Jungle Babbler. Pavo 4 :22-47.

Naik, R.M. & S. Naik (1965): Studies on the House Swift Apus

qffinis — Moult Cycles in the Adults. Pavo 3: 96-120.

Pihnkowski, M.W. & P.J. Knight (1976): The primary moult of the

waders of the Atlantic Coast of Morocco. Ibis 7/^:347-365.

Price, T.D. (1979): The Seasonality and occurrence of birds in the

Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh. / Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

76(2): 379-422.

Raju, K.S. R. Krishna & T.D. Price ( 1 973): Tree sparrow. Passer

montanus (L.) in the Eatern Ghats. / Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 70: 557.

Raju, K. S. R. Krishna & Justus P. Shi.vin (1971): Little spiderhunter,

Arachnothera longirostris (Latham) in the Eastern Ghats.

/ Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (2): 454-455.

Snow, D.W. ( 1 967): A guide to moult in British birds. British Trust

for Ornithology Field Guide No. 1 1 , Tring, U.K.

Whistler, H. & N.B. Kinnear (1932-1939): The Vemay Scientific

Survey of the Eastern Ghats, in 16 parts. / Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 39:447-463.

FLORA OF PUNJAB STATE — A PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC ASSESSMENT1

M. Sharma and Kusum Rajpal2

(With a text -figure)

Key words: phytogeography, flora, Punjab

A phytogeographic analysis has been made of 1,119 spermatophytes recorded from Punjab State (India). The

floral elements of its two well-marked floristic subunits have been compared and possible reasons given for the distribution

of floral elements. Four broad classes of floral elements have been distinguished. The Indian element is rather poor. The

eastern element almost equals the western element which shows that the area is a meeting ground for these two types of

elements. The general element is the most conspicuous and includes species of cosmopolitan, tropical and temperate

distribution. The State is categorized as a transition zone from the warm and high seasonal rainfall tropical areas of South-

East Asia to the semi-arid Middle Eastern countries characterized by colder winter and absence of any monsoon influence.

Introduction

With the aim of writing an up-to-date flora of

Punjab State (India), the senior author has been

engaged uninterruptedly in its floristic survey

eversince July 1963. Bibliographic reference to

sixtythree publications that ensued will be found in

Sharma (1990). Hitherto, no phytogeographic

studies have been made on the flora of Punjab State.

The present paper covers this aspect and also makes

a comparison of the floral elements of its two well-

marked floristic subunits, namely semi-arid Punjab

and Punjab Shivaliks vis-a-vis the whole of Punjab

State.

General features of the area

The present Punjab State (India) lies between

29° 30' and 32° 32’ N lat. and 73°54' and 76°50’ E

long, and covers an area of 50,362 sq.km (Fig. 1 ).

Within it; three floristic subunits, namely (1) semi-

arid Punjab (mainly southern part), (2) moister plain

country (central part) and (3) Shivaliks (north-

eastern hilly tract) can be recognized. The first and

third subunits are not only two disjunct zones but

also show difference in topography and climate and

are characterized by their distinctive floral elements.

The intermediate moister plain country, on the other

‘Accepted January 1991.

department of Botany, Punjabi University, Patiala- 147 002, India.

Fig. 1 . Sketch map of Punjab State (India) showing its floristic

subunits.

hand, has a mixed or the general flora of the State.

Height above m.s.l. of the three zones respectively

varies between 205-230m, 230-300 m and 300-800

m; whereas average annual rainfall is 43 cm, 60

cm and 90 cm in corresponding tracts. The winters

are intensely cold and summers extremely hot. The

FLORA OF PUNJAB STATE — A PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC ASSESSMENT

161

minimum temperature (-2.8°C) was recorded at

Amritsar on 24th January 1989 and maximum

(49°C) at Bathinda on 26-28th May 1984.

Material and methods

Based upon the plant collections made by the

present senior writer for nearly 25 years ( 1 963- 1 987)

from Punjab State, study of pertinent herbarium

specimens at BSD, DD, PAN and PUN, and the

relevant information scattered in literature; a check-

list of the vascular plants of Punjab (Sharma 1990)

was published. The list includes 1,879 species out

of which 1,119 wild and naturalized spermatophytes

have been taken into account and form the basis for

the present communication. To avoid cumbersome

terminology of several authors in which the areas

of distribution may have somewhat different

connotations, the regions as presently recognized

are practically the same as listed by Bharucha and

Meher-Homji (1965). The possible route(s) and

means of migration have been discussed and

illustrated in detail by Chatterjee (1939, 1947),

Maheshwari (1962, 1979) and Singh (1978). The

observations by these authors are equally applicable

to the floral elements of Punjab also and hence

these two aspects have been excluded from the

purview of discussion.

Results

The analysis of major phytogeographic

regions of the flora of Punjab State is given in Table

1 . The floral elements of these regions have been

broadly grouped into 4 main classes (Table 2) taking

into account the fact that it is not always possible to

assign a species precisely to one group or the other

particularly in those cases where the species are

widely separated. A generalized view has been taken

in such cases. Comparative analysis of the floral

element classes of the different floristic subunits of

Punjab State has been given in Table 3.

Discussion

The flora of Punjab State shows four

distinguishable patterns. These patterns (type of

elements) have been shaped by the coincidence of

historical events, topography, climate and

Tabie 1

ANALYSIS OF MAJOR PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS

OF THE FLORA OF PUNJAB STATE

substratum. More recently, however, anthropogenic

disturbances have altered these patterns to some

extent. The discussion below pertains to the floral

elements of the four main classes as grouped in Table

2 and compared in Table 3.

The Indian element: It is rather poorly

represented in all the three floral regions (Table 3).

The extreme climatic conditions and dry, sandy

substratum appear to be the barriers to the

establishment of the Indian element. Chatterjee

( 1 939) has listed 1 34 dicot genera endemic to India.

Out of these; only few like Ougeinia Benth., Butea

Wiild., Caesulia Roxb., Glossocardia Cass, and

Aechmanthera Nees occur in Punjab. There are only

three endemic species in the flora of Punjab State,

namely Hibiscus hoshiarpurensis Paul and Nayar,

Argyrolobium album Bhattacharyya and Rumex

punjabensis Vaid and Naithani. The first two of

these have been reported fror Punjab Shivaliks.

There is no endemic species m the flora of semi-

arid Punjab. It is interesting to note that Indian

162

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.SOCIETY. Vol. 92(1995)

Table 2

ANALYSIS OF THE FLORAL ELEMENT CLASSES OF THE

FLORA OF PUNJAB STATE

(Saharo-Sindian)

(b) Tropical and

N. African-Indian Desert (5)*

(Sudano-Deccanian)

(c) Tropical African - Indian (6)*

(d) Mediterranean - Oriental-

European (11, 12, 13)*

4. General 445 39.76

(a) Tropical (7,8, 10, 15)*

(b) Warm countries (9)*

(c) Temperate (17)*

(d) Cosmopolitan (14)*

Total 1119 100.00

* Numbers within parentheses correspond to the No. of Table 1 .

element preponderates in the semi-arid Punjab in

comparison to the flora of Punjab Shivaliks. The

Himalayan element is almost totally lacking from

the semi-arid Punjab. Saussurea heteromalla Hand.-

Mazz. has been recorded from this tract which

appears to be a chance introduction because only

two specimens have been gathered from this area.

The absence of the Himalayan element from the

semi-arid Punjab can be easily explained because

of the discontinuity of Punjab Shivaliks with this

zone, besides the difference in the edapho-climatic

features of the two areas.

The Eastern element: The percentage of

Eastern or Indo-Malayan element is nearly double

than that of Indian element. These species are the

denizens of humid climate and their occurrence is

as high as 53% in a humid region like that of Bengal

(Agharkar and Ghose 1931). These cannot tolerate

the dry and semi-arid conditions as prevailing in

our area. A study of the floral elements in relation

to climate reveals that as there is an increase in the

rainfall and decrease in temperature from south

towards north Punjab, there is a marked increase in

the number of eastern element. This is proved by

the fact that the eastern element constitutes only

12.42% of the flora of semi-arid Punjab, whereas it

contributes 28.83% in the flora of Punjab Shivaliks

where the climatic conditions are somewhat

moderate in comparison to those of semi-arid

Punjab. Conversely, the western element (cf. Table

3) is much pronounced in the southern side (semi-

arid Punjab) than in Shivaliks. The present studies

fully support the conclusion arrived at by Legris and

Meher-Homji (1968) that the Indo-Malayan and the

Indian elements are represented a little in the dry,

Table 3

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE FLORAL ELEMENT CLASSES OF THE DIFFERENT FLORISTIC REGIONS/

SUBUNITS OF PUNJAB STATE

FLORA OF PUNJAB STATE — A PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC ASSESSMENT

163

thorny series of Capparis-Acacia and Salvadora -

Prosopis vegetation, so characteristic of semi-arid

Punjab.

The Western element: It is fairly well

represented in the flora of Punjab State. It comprises

of the African and Mediterranean — Oriental-

European species. The African element (67.68%)

in the flora of Punjab State is much more than the

rest of the element of this class. This is probably

because of the similar climatic conditions in Africa

and present area. The distribution of this element

is governed by high temperature and comparatively

low rainfall as experienced in Punjab State. Further,

there is no effective barrier on the western boundary

of India to check the migration of xerophytic

elements of Afro-Arabian origin which may enter

through Rajasthan or Pakistan. Mediterranean-

Oriental-European element though not as plentiful

as the African element yet is well represented

(32.32%) in the flora of Punjab State. The low winter

temperature prevailing in Punjab may account for

the introduction of this element. The north-west

India, according to Gaussen (1933), forms a part of

the mediterranean region. Adventive taxa of western

origin which have recently established themselves

in Punjab include Hypecoum pendulum Linn.,

Sagina apetala Ard., Oxalis pes-caprae Linn.,

Trifolium tomentosum Linn., Urtica urens Linn.,

Eribchloa nubica Thell., Lophochloa pumila Bor,

Panicum maximum Jacq., etc. According to Legris

and Meher-Homji (1968) this element exceeds but

little the limit of winter range and it does not

penetrate deeply into the Indian peninsula.

The General element: It is by far the most

conspicuous and includes, besides the cosmopolitan

element, the temperate and tropical species also.

The tropical element much exceeds the flora of any

other type here. The temperate element is very poorly

represented because of the inclusion of semi-arid

tract in the area and extremely hot climate during

summer and monsoon months. The cosmopolitan

species are either naturalized from cultivation

( Brassica campestris Linn, vars., Raphanus sativus

Linn.) or are aquatic (including amphibious) in

nature. Common ones among these in the area are

Bacopa monnieri Penn., Ceratophyllum demersum

Linn., Eleocharis palustris R. Br .,Lemna perpusilla

Torr., Spirodela polyrhiza Schleid., Scirpus

maritimus Linn., Veronica anagallis - aquatica

Linn, and Zannichellia palustris Linn. The wide

distribution of aquatic plants is perhaps due to their

dispersal by migratory birds. Besides, an aquatic

habitat constitutes a most homogeneous medium.

Other cosmopolitan species like Chenopodium

album Linn., C. murale Linn., Cleome viscosa

Linn., Convolvulus arvensis Linn., Coronopus

didymus Linn., Poa annua Linn., Setaria verticillata

P. Beauv., Solanum nigrum Linn., Sonchus asper

Hill, S. oleraceus Linn., Xanthium strumarium

Linn., etc. are aggressive weeds. Temperate element

is very meagre and represented by 1 .70% of the flora.

This is to be expected because of the extremely hot

climate in the area during summer and monsoon

months.

The occurrence of so many types of floral

elements in Punjab State or its subunits like Shivalik

hills or semi-arid region is interesting. The area

has a very dry type of climate with a long dry season

of about 9- 1 0 months alternating with a very short

and erratic rainy season (July-September). Summers

are very hot with the mean minimum and maximum

temperatures during May-June being about 15°C

and 43°C respectively. On the other extreme, winters

are severe. The mean maximum and minimum

temperatures during the colder months (December-

January) are c. 20°C and c. 10°C respectively.

Besides, there are also conspicuous alternations in

the hours of the day length during summer and

winter. The overlapping of several floral elements

seems to be due to these seasonal changes in the

climate. While the Indian element has practically

the same percentage in Punjab State, Punjab

Shivaliks and semi-arid Punjab, the proportion of

Indo-Malayan element is more than double in the

flora of Punjab Shivaliks in comparison to the flora

of semi-arid Punjab. This is because the Indo-

Malayan element generally develops during

monsoon period and seeks shelter in humid sites.

Such conditions are more pronounced in the

Shivalik hills. Tropical type of climate

164

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

accommodates a very high percentage (35.38%) of

species and includes the elements of tropical,

subtropical and warm countries. Similarly dry and

hot conditions favour the African element extending

into the Indian desert in particular or sometimes

going beyond it. This can be appreciated by the fact

that the percentage of this flora is as high as 1 3.90%

in semi-arid Punjab out of 17.78% of the total

African flora of Punjab State. The fairly good

representation of temperate and Mediterranean-

Oriental-European elements (10. 19%) is because of

the cold winter period which permits its penetration

into the area. The typical New World element is

extremely poor and constitutes only 4.73% of the

total flora. The majority of these American species

like Alternanthera tenella Colla, A.paronychioides

St.-Hil., Argemone mexicana Linn., A.ochroleuca

Sweet, Croton bonplandianum Baill., Eichhornia

crassipes Solms, Erigeron bonariensis Linn.,

Gnaphalium pensylvanicum Willd., Gomphrena

celosioides Mart., Hyptis suaveolens Poit., Ipomoea

camea Jacq. subsp. fistulosa D. Austin, Opuntia

dillenii Haw., O. stricta Haw., Oxalis corymbosa

DC., O. dehradunensis Raizada, Parthenium

hysterophorus Linn., Physalis angulata Linn.,

Portulaca pilosa Linn., Prosopis chilensis DC. and

Verbesina encelioides A. Gray have established

themselves very well probably because of the similar

climatic conditions prevailing in their native areas

and new homes. The Western element (26.27%)

slightly exceeds the Eastern element (23.51%) in

the flora of Punjab State. This shows that the area

is a meeting place of the Eastern and Western

elements.

From the perspective of Punjab flora, the State

must be categorized largely as a transition zone from

the warm and high seasonal rainfall of tropical areas

which characterize most countries in south-east Asia

(eastern element) to the semi-arid Middle-Eastern

countries with colder winter and absence of any

monsoon influence or marked rainy season.

It may be concluded that as the area became

denuded, the original species had to compete with

the introduced ones. The exotic species; due to their

aggressive nature, suitable climate and probably

disease free environment in their new homes, have

been able to colonise the exposed areas and often

displace the previously established species of Indian

subcontinent. In this connection, a relatively recent

case of Parthenium hysterophorus Linn, needs to be

quoted. This New World species was recorded from

Punjab just over a decade ago (Sharma 1979). During

this short period it has assumed the dimensions of an

obnoxious and gregarious weed. It has colonized

various areas throughout the State replacing the

already thriving plant species from waste places along

roadsides and railway tracks. Thus the introduction

of the alien plants had a harmful influence on the

native vegetation. Consequently, as the settlement

advanced the flora began to assume a mixed

character.

Acknowledgements

Grateful thanks are due to the Heads of Botany

department of Punjab University, Chandigarh,

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana and

Punjabi University, Patiala for providing assistance

of various sorts. The senior author is also obliged

to the authorities of some Indian herbaria (BSD,

DD, LWG, CAL) for herbarium and library facilities

and to Director, Kew Herbarium, Surrey for the

identification of some specimens.

References

Agharkar, S.P. & A.K. Ghose (1931): The composition of the

Bengal flora (Abstract). Proc. 18th Indian Sci. Congr. 3 (v):

278.

Bharucha, F.R. & V. M. Meher-Homji (1965): On the floral elements

of the semi-arid zones of India and their ecological

significance. New Phytol. 64: 330-342.

Chatterjee, D. (1939): Studies on the endemic flora of India and

Burma. J. Asiat. Soc.. Bengal II. 5: 19-67.

Chatterjee, D. ( 1 947): Influence of East Mediterranean Region flora

on that of India. Sci. & Cult. 13: 9-11.

Gaussen, H. (1933): Geographie des Plantes. Collect A Collin, Paris.

Legris, P. & V.M. Mehf.r-Homii (1968): Floral elements in the

vegetation of India. Proc. Symp. Recent Adv. Trop. Ecol., pp.

536-543. International Society for Tropical Ecology, Varanasi.

FLORA OF PUNJAB STATE — A PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC ASSESSMENT

165

Maheshwari, J.K. (1962): Studies on the naturalized flora of

India .In\ Maheshwari, Johri, & I.K. Vasil, (Eds.)

Proc. Slimmer Sch. Bot. - Darjeeling, pp. 156-170.

Ministry of Scientific Research and Cultural affairs. New

Delhi.

Maheshwari, J.K. (1979): Alien flora of India. In: Khoshoo, T.N.

& RK.K. Nair, (Eds.) Progr. PI. Res., pp. 219-228. National

Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow.

Sharma, M. ( 1979): Some plants new to the flora of Punjab plains.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74 (Supply. 683-687.

Sharma, M. (1990): Punjab Plants, Check-List. Bishen Singh

Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.

Sharma, M., D.S. Dhaliwai., R. Gaba & P. Sharma (1987): Flora

of semi-arid Punjab. Dev Publishers, Patiala.

Singh, V. ( 1 978): Phytogeographical reassessment on the flora of

Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74 (3): 444-452.

BUTTERFLY POLLINATION OF

CLERODENDRUM INFORTUNATUM ( VERB EN ACE AE)1

T. Byragi Reddy and C. Subba Reddi2

(With two text- figures )

Key words: Clerodendrum infortunatum, butterflies, Papilio polytes, P. polymnestor, Atrophaneura

hector, pollination

Clerodendrum infortunatum L. flowers from February to April. The flowers anthese during 0600-0700 hr and

offer nectar and pollen to insect visitors. Nectar is secreted up to the evening of 3rd day. The nectar sugars are sucrose,

glucose and fructose. Sucrose is predominant. Sugar concentration ranges from 6 to 30%. Protein and amino acids are

present. The breeding system incorporates both geitonogamy and xenogamy. A total of 17 species of insects are found

foraging at the flowers diumally. Male and female phases of the flowers are separated in time and space. The Papilionoid

butterflies ( Papilio polytes, P. polymnestor and Atrophaneura hector) approached the flower horizontally, grasped it

with their legs and continuously fluttered as they probed for nectar. The wings stroke the anthers/stigma, thereby causing

pterigotribic pollination.

Introduction

On the basis of observations on wood-white

butterfly (Leptidea sinapis ) and its nectar plants,

Viola canina, V. riviniana and Lathyrus montanus;

Wiklund et al 1979 hypothesised that butterflies

as a group may have evolved to a parasitic mode of

life as adults, feeding on the nectar of flowers

without pollinating them. However there are certain

authentic cases of butterfly pollination Caesalpinia

pulcherrima, Cruden and Hermann-Parker 1979;

Asclepia syriaca, Percival 1965; Aesculus

californica, Moldenke 1976; Platanthera ciliaris,

Smith and Snow 1976; Phlox species, Grant and

Grant 1965, Levin and Berube 1972; Anquria,

Gilbert 1975; Cnidoscolus urens, Bawaefa/. 1983;

Gossypium species and Hibiscus esculentus , Pajni

and Sukhwinder Kaur 1979, which does not agree

the hypothesis of Wiklund et al 1979.

To shed more light on this aspect, an attempt

was made to study the role of butterflies in the

pollination of Clerodendrum infortunatum, at

‘Accepted February 1995.

department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University,

Waltair-5 30003.

Visakhapatnam, a coastal city of India.

Material and Methods

Observations were made during 1986 and

1987 on the natural populations of C. infortunatum

L. (Verbenaceae) occurring in Andhra University

Campus, Visakhapatnam (17° 42' N, 82° 18' E).

Pollen output per anther was assessed by counting

all the pollen grains in a sample obtained by gently

crushing and tapping the anther on a clean

microscope slide, spreading the pollen mass

uniformly. The longevity of pollen and stigma was

assessed based on the fruit set success from hand-

pollination at regular intervals. Pollen loads on

stigmas were counted during the female phase. The

flowers to be hand-pollinated were emasculated in

the bud condition. Tests for apomixis/autogamy,

geitonogamy and xenogamy were conducted

through controlled pollinations. Apomixis was

tested by bagging the emasculated flowers free of

pollen, augogamy by pollinating flowers with the

pollen of the same flower, for geitonogamy with

the pollen of different flowers of conspecific plant,

for xenogamy with the pollen of a different

conspecific plant.

BUTTERFLY POLLINATION OF CLERODENDRUM INFORTUN ATUM

167

EARLY STAGES OF ANTHESIS

Fig. 1 . Different phases of C. infortiinatum flower.

Nectar produced in flowers protected from

insects for 3 hr period was measured using

disposable micropipettes. Sugar concentrations were

determined with a pocket refractometer and sugar

composition was analysed by paper-chromatography

and spectrophotometry (Horborne 1973). Proteins

and amino acids were identified by the method of

Baker and Baker (1973).

The butterflies caught over the flowers were

identified with the help of Wynter-Blyth (1957) and

the nomenclature used is after Varshney (1983). The

behaviour of visitors, the length of a visit and

flowers visited in a unit time, using a stop watch,

were carefully studied. The more frequent

visitors were caught and examined under a

stereomicroscope for the pollen adhering to the body

168

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

and then washed off with alcohol. The washings

with a droplet of lactophenol aniline-blue were

observed for pollen under a light microscope.

Results

1. Blooming phenology: The plants begin to

bloom soon after the cold season, the flowering

season extending from February to April every year.

Each branch terminates in a sub-corymbose panicle.

The number of flowefs per inflorescence ranges from

10-100. Flowering lasts for 5-32 days, depending

on inflorescence size. The number of flowers that

anthese daily varies from 1-15.

2. Phenology of anthesis: Anthesis begins at

about 0500 hr with the protrusion of essential organs

and is complete, when the petals unfold by 0600 hr.

Pistil and stamens appear twisted and curled upward

in bud condition (Fig. la). After flower opens they

gradually become uncoiled (Fig. lb, c). The stamens

uncoil after the pistil. Between 0700 and 0900 hr

stamens become linear and face the horizontal

corolla tube, while the style with the closely pressed

stigmatic lobes is bent down towards the lower lip

(Fig. Id). This is a functional male phase. By the

evening of the same day stamens are bending

sideways — two stamens to each side (Fig. le). On

the second morning, anthers wither and stamens

still bend sideways, the style straightens to occupy

the position previously taken by the stamens (Fig.

If). The stigmatic lobes spread out to receive pollen

and the flower is in a functionally female phase. By

the 3rd evening, the corolla withers along with the

style, stigma and staminal filaments. Sepals are

persistent, and turn red after the fruit is formed.

3. Pollen Characters: Pollen grains are freed

through longitudinal anther dehiscence when

stamens become linear at about 0700 hr. They are

of three sizes: large grains 68.2 pm, and medium

58.5 um and small 47.0 pm, spheroidal, deep violet

in colour and exine spiny. Their output per anther

ranges from 1400-2600 (x = 2000), out of which

63% are fertile. The fertile grains remained viable

for 26 hr after anther dehiscence, as indicated by

the fruit set on hand-pollination using stored pollen

(Table 1). Pollen-ovule ratio is 2000:1.

Tablf. 1

LONGEVITY OF POLLEN OF C. infortuncitum ASSESSED

THROUGH FRUIT SET CAPABILITY AFTER HAND-

POLLINATIONS

4. Stigma receptivity: Stigma attained

receptivity after 12 hr of anthesis (at 0700 hr) and

continued to be so up to 35 hr of anthesis as assessed

by fruit set on hand-pollination of the pistils (at

similar stages of development) at different intervals

(Table 2).

Table 2

LONGEVITY OF STIGMA OF C. infortuncitum ASSESSED

THROUGH FRUIT SET CAPABILITY AFTER HAND-

POLLINATIONS

5. Nectar dynamics: Nectar volumes

measured at 3 hr intervals indicated that the rate of

production varies throughout flower life (Table 3).

Secretion on the day of flower opening began in

the hypogeal disc from 0630 hr and continued up

to the 3rd evening. It was small in the forenoon,

increased from noon and amounted to over 2 pi for

a 3 hr period. Next morning the secretion was

considerably reduced, and on the third day it was

in traces. Sugar concentration was also low (6-12%)

in the forenoon, but was maximum (20-30%) at

1300-1600 hr and then declined 14% by 1900 hr.

BUTTERFLY POLLINATION OF CLERODENDRUM INFORTUN ATUM

169

Table 3

NECTAR VOLUMES MEASURED AT 3-HOURLY INTERVALS IN C. infortunatum

On the second day, the volume was small (0.15-

0.41 pi) and the concentrations were 12-17%.

Proteins and amino acids were present; the

score on histidine scale was 6. The sugars present

were sucrose, glucose and fructose, sucrose being

dominant.

6. Flower-visitor activity dynamics:

Altogether 17 species of insects foraged at the

1986 1987

Fig. 2. Insect group abundance on C. infortunatum flowers at

two study sites.

flowers (Table 4). Of these, three were bees and 14

Lepidoptera. The latter consisted of 13 butterfly

species and one hawkmoth. Census at the initial,

peak and final phases of the blooming season

revealed that Amegilla among the bees, Papilio

polytes, Atrophaneura hector, Valeria Valeria anais

and Barbo cinnara among the butterflies were

consistent and made repeated visits at the two study

sites, and in the two consecutive years of study.

Papilio polymnestor was more frequent at Botany

Garden site and sporadic at the V.P. Hall site.

Pelopidas mathias, Graphium agamemnon were

conspicuous at the V.P. Hall site in 1986. Pseudapis

oxybeloides made repeated visits in 1987. Ceratina

appeared in 1987 at V.P. Hall site only (Fig. 2).

The bees exclusively collect pollen from these

flowers. Amegilla collected pollen by touching the

dehiscent anthers several times. It never alighted

on the anther. It touched the dehiscent anther, then

hovered and groomed pollen from the body, and then

repeated the action. Other bees alighted on the

anther and collected pollen.

The butterflies probed for nectar without any

bias to the functional sex phase of the flower. The

Papilionids approached the horizontally oriented

flowers frontally, supported by their legs on the

petals/staminal filaments/style, and took nectar

while constantly fluttering their wings. The wings

and body touch the essential flower parts. The

CENSUS OF FLOWER VISITORS ON C. infortunatum

170

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

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BUTTERFLY POLLINATION OF CLERODENDRUM INFORTUN ATUM

171

number of flowers visited per minute and the length

of a visit by the Papilionids set out in Table 5 show

that P polymnestor spent less time at a flower and

They always kept their wings folded and static while

sucking the nectar and seldom contacted the anthers/

stigma. The hawkmoth characteristically hovered

Table 5

NUMBER OF FLOWERS VISITED FOR UNIT TIME AND LENGTH OF A VISIT BY PAPILIONIDS ON C. infortunatum

as a result covered more flowers in an unit time.

Thus it proved to be more active. As its proboscis

length (38 mm) exceeded the corolla tube length

(av. 25 mm), it got at the nectar with ease. Species

with proboscis shorter than the corolla length had

to push their heads into the tube and took more

time in foraging (Table 6).

Butterflies other than Papilionids used to land

Table 6

PROBOSCIS LENGTH OF BUTTERFLIES FORAGING ON

C. infortunatum

on the corolla lobes, insert their proboscids either

from above or below the essential floral parts and

take nectar pushing their heads into the corolla tube.

a little above the essential flower parts in front of

the flower, and thus made no contact with the

anthers/stigma.

All the flower- visitors recorded are diurnal.

Amegilla appeared between 0730-1800 hr, but was

more frequent between 0800 and 1200 hr.

Hawkmoth foraged at around dawn and dusk. The

butterflies displayed no regularity in the time of their

visits, but were relatively more common in the

forenoon.

Although flowers secreted nectar throughout

the day and night, no noctuid was observed at the

flowers at the biotope studied.

7. Stigmatic pollen loads: On the day of the

female phase, stigmas were collected at the Botany

Garden and the pollen grains on them were counted.

The mean pollen load for 60 stigma was 6. Most

stigma with pollen also contained butterfly scales.

8. S/P Ratio: The area of stigma relative to

the area of wing over which the pollen of C.

infortunatum got smeared, was calculated for five

of the Papilionids. The ratio for P. demoleus and G.

agamemnon was 0.089, that for P. Polytes 0.084,

for A. hector 0.076 and for P. polymnestor 0.062

(Table 7).

9. Breeding systems: The flowers are

compatible only to geitono- and xeno-pollen. Fruit

set, seed set and fecundity realised on hand-

172

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92 (1995)

Table 7

S/P RATIO OF THE PAPILIONIDS ON C. infortunatum

pollinaion with the former pollen type was 73%,

66% and 46% respectively; those with the latter type

was 52%, 53% and 28% respectively.

10. Natural fruit set: Fruit set, seed set and

fecundity observed on natural pollination was 21%,

55% and 26% respectively.

Discussion

Floral morphology and behaviour, and the

flower-visitors guild composition and their

behaviour undoubtedly showed that the flowers of

C. infortunatum are tailored for manipulation and

pollination exclusively by butterflies. Further, such

characteristics of nectar as small quantities in the

forenoon hours when the butterflies were active, low

sugar concentration, sucrose dominance and

richness in amino acids conform to the characters

of typical butterfly flowers (Baker 1973, 1975,

1978).

Of the different butterfly visits recorded on

C. infortunatum , those of Papilio polytes,

Atrophaneura hector and Papilio polymnestor were

consistent and substantial. The presence of butterfly

scales and the presence of pollen of C. infortunatum

on the underside of butterfly wing was also

demonstrated, and this substantiated the role of

butterflies in the pterigotribic pollination of C.

infortunatum. The manner in which pollination

efficiency is achieved is similar to that described

for Caesalpinia pulcherrima by Cruden and

Hermann-Parker (1979).

Both selfing through geitonogamy and but-

crossing appear to play a role in the reproduction of

C. infortunatum as revealed by hand-pollination

experiments, but to a varying degree. The flowers

are strongly protandrous, male and female phases

of the flowers are separated in time and space,

probably to avoid deposition of auto-pollen on the

stigma, or to avoid damage to the immature stigma

by the visitor’s wing in the male phase.

The pollinators were seen repeatedly visiting

all the opened flowers in an inflorescence, and also

making inter-inflorescence and inter-plant

movements. It is thus likely that pollinator foraging

may result in both geitonogamy and xenogamy. But

the small number of flowers opening each day

should help to maximise xenogamy (see Cruden

1976). However, controlled experiments revealed

that in terms of fruit set, seed set and fecundity the

success of geitonogamous mode of reproduction is

significantly better than that of xenogamous mode.

Apparently this taxon has primarily adapted for

selfing through geitonogamy, but with a greater

provision for xenogamy, and the attendant genetic

variability.

Observations of daily foraging revealed that

the pollinator species did not forage continuously.

In a single bout they visited several flowers in a

population of C. infortunatum and flew away,

sometimes to nearby Anacardium occidentals,

Antigonon leptopus to forage on their flowers. Such

behaviour is expected on the basis of energy

considerations of butterflies (Heinrich and Raven

1972, Heinrich 1975), and has been reported by

Cruden and Hermann-Parker (1979), Schmitt

(1980), Subba Reddi et al. (1981, 1983), Reddi &

Subba Reddi (1983) and Meera Bai (1987). The

behaviour of pollinators greatly influences the

breeding structure of populations and population

structure, and thus influences the amount and

organisation of genetic variability within the plants

(Levin 1978). The drifting behaviour of butterflies

then assumes much significance and contributes to

inter-population movement of pollen. Such pollen

transfers are necessary to have genetic variability

because C. infortunatum has clonal populations.

Based on their work with wood- white butterfly

Leptidea sinapis and its nectar plants, Wiklund et

al. (1979) hypothetically stated that butterfly feeding

BUTTERFLY POLLINATION OF CLERODENDRUM INFORTUNATUM

173

on nectar plants is only a parasitic relationship. Here

is an instance of mutualism where C. infortunatum

may be considered to have co-evolved with

butterflies and whose sexual reproduction is totally

dependent on the activity of Papilionids. The study

suggested that the relationship, whether parasitic

or mutualistic, depends on the flower size and

architecture, and on the butterfly size and its

behaviour. Thus all the butterfly visitors to C.

infortunatum have not proved to be pollinators.

Valeria Valeria anais and Barbo cinnara failed to

contact the essential flower parts because of their

small size and behaviour.

Baker, H.G. (1973): Evolutionary relationships between flowering

plants and animals in american and african tropical forests. In:

Tropical forest ecosystems in Africa and South America: A

comparative review (eds.) B.J. Meggers, E.S. Ayensu and W.D.

Duckworth. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington. 145-160.

Baker, H.G. (1975): Sugar concentrations in nectars from

hummingbird flowers. Biotropica 7: 37-4 1 .

Baker, H.G. (1978): Chemical aspects of the pollination of woody

plants in the tropics. In: Tropical trees as living systems (eds.)

P.B. Tomlison and M.H. Zemmerman. Cambridge University,

Cambridge. 57-82.

Baker, H. G. & I. Baker (1973): Some anthecological aspects of the

evolution of nectar producing flowers particularly amino acid

production in nectar; Taxonomy and Ecology (ed) V. H. Heywood

(London: Academic Press). 243-28 1

Bawa, K.S., C.J. Webb, & A.F. Tuttee (1983): The adaptive

significance of monoecism in Cnicloscolus urens (Euphorbiaceae).

Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 85: 213-223.

Cruden, R.W. ( 1 976): Intra-specific variation in pollen-ovule ratios

and nectar secretion — preliminary evidence of ecotypic

adaptation. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 63: 277-289

Cruden, R.W. & S.M. Hermann-Parker ( 1 979): Butterfly pollination

of Caesalpinia pulcherriina, with observations on a psychophilous

syndrome. / Ecol. 67: 155-158.

Gilbert, L.E. (1975): Ecological consequences of a coevolved

mutualism between butterflies and plants. In: Animal and plant

coevolution, (ed.) L.E. Gilbert and P.H. Raven, Univ. Tex. Press,

Austin. 210-240.

Grant, V. & K.A. Grant (1965): Flower pollination in the phlox

family. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.

Heinrich, B. (1975): Bee flowers: A hypothesis on flower variety

and blooming times. Evolution 29: 325-334.

Heinrich, B. & P. H. Raven (1972): Energetics and pollination

ecology. Science 176: 597-602.

Horborne, J.B. ( 1973): Phytochemical methods. Chapman and Hall,

London.

Levin, D.A. (1978): Pollinator behaviour and the breeding structure

of plant populations: The pollination of flowers by insects (ed)

Pollen-collecting by the bee component of the

flower-visitor guild, particularly by the voracious

Amegilla sp. is highly detrimental to the reproduction

of C. infortunatum as it causes a shortage in the

availability of pollen for the pterigotribic pollination

by the Papilionid butterflies.

AcKNOWLEDG EM ENTS

We thank R.E. Schultes, Botanical Museum

of Harvard university, Cambridge,

Massachusettes for his critical comments, and

also Dr. E.U.B. Reddi for his constant

encouragement and suggestions.

HNCES

A. J. Richards (London: Academic Press). 1 33- 1 50

Li ;.vin, D.A. & D.E. Berube, ( 1 972): Phlox and Colias: The efficiency

of a pollination system. Evolution 26: 242-250.

Meera Bai, G. (1987): The ecology of butterflies and their role in

natural pollination of plants at Visakhapatnain. A.P., India. Ph.D.

Thesis, Andhra University, Waltair.

Moldenke, A.R. (1976): Evolutionary history and diversity of the

bee faunas of Chile and Pacific North America. Wassman J. Biol.

34: 147-178.

Paini, H.R. & S. Sukhwinder Kaur (1979): Some observations on

the pollinating activities of Catopsilia pomona (Fabricius) and

some other butterflies; Section I, Abstr. 9 .Natn. Symp. Pollination

Ecol. and App. Entomol. Dept. Zool., Haryana Agric. Univ.,

Hissar, India.

Perctvae, M. (1965): Floral Biology. Pergamon Press, London.

Reddi, E.U.B. & C. Subba Reddi (1983): Pollination Ecology of

Jatropha gossypiifolia (Euphorbiaceae). Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.

(Plant Sci.) 92: 215-231.

Schmitt, J. ( 1 980): Pollinator foraging behaviour and gene dispersal

in Senecio (Compositae). Evolution 34: 934-942.

Smith, G.R. & G.E. Snow (1976): Pollination ecology of Platanthera

( Hebenaria ) ciliaris and P. blephariglottis (Orchidaceae). Bot.

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Subba Reddi, C., E.U.B. Reddi & N.S. Reddi (1981): Breeding

structure and Pollination ecology of Tribulus terrestris. Proc.

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Subba Reddi, C., E.U.B. Reddi, N.S. Reddi & PS. Reddi (1983):

Reproductive ecology of Sapindus emarginatus Vahl

(Sapindaceae). Proc. Indian Natn. Sci. Acad. B 49: 57-72.

Varshni y, R.K. (1983): Index Rhopalocera Indica, Part II, Common

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47.

Wikeund C, T. EriksOn & H. Lundberg (1979): The woodwhite

butterfly Leptidea sinapis and its nectar plants; a case of mutualism

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Wynter-Bi.yth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian region. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE IN SOME INDIAN BATS1

A. Gopalakrishna and N. Badwaik2

( With a text- figure )

Key words: bats, male reproductive cycle

This report embodies observations on the male sex-cycle in twelve species of Indian bats included in eight families.

Except Taphozous longimanus, Pipistrellus dormeri and P. mimus, all the species breed in a sharply defined season. Most

of them have a boreal type of sexual rhythm. Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix breeds in the rainy season. The exceptional

three species mentioned above breed throughout the year. In all species the male reproductive cycle is either synchronised

or adapted to the female sexual cycle.

Introduction

Although India has a rich chiropteran fauna

with nearly a hundred species incorporated in nine

families, our knowledge about Indian bats is

restricted to the study of the general nature of the

breeding habits of only the females of a few species.

Even from these few studies it is evident that these

animals exhibit interesting reproductive strategies.

Some information concerning the reproduction

in males is available with respect to two

megachiropteran species, namely Cynopterus sphinx

(Sandhu and Gopalakrishna 1984) and Rousettus

leschenaulti (Gopalakrishna et al. 1993) and four

microchiropteran species, namely Scotophilus

temmincki (Gopalakrishna 1948), Rhinopoma

kinneari (Kumar 1965), Hipposideros fulvus and

Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix (Gopalakrishna

et al. 1992, Gopalakrishna and Badwaik 1993). The

present study on the male reproductive behaviour

of some Indian bats was undertaken not only because

there is no information on the male sexual cycle of

these species but to find out how the males have

adapted to different patterns of reproduction in the

females of these species.

Materials and Methods

The reproductive cycle in males of the

following species is reported: Taphozous longimanus

‘Accepted September 1993.

department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Nagpur-440 00 1 .

(Emballonuridae), Megaderma lyra lyra

(Megadermatidae), Rhinolophus rouxi

(Rhinolophidae), Hipposideros speoris

(Hipposideridae), Pipistrellus dormeri, P. mimus

mimus, Scotophilus heathi (all Vespertilionidae) and

Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus (Miniopteridae

— Gopalakrishna and Karim 1980) are studied for

the first time. Additional information on the male

reproductive cycle of Rousettus leschenaulti

(Pteropodidae), Rhinopoma microphyllum

(Rhinopomatidae), Hipposideros fulvus fulvus

(Hipposideridae) and Pipistrellus ceylonicus

chrysothrix (Vespertilionidae) is also included here.

Thus, representatives of all the families available

in India except Molossidae are included in the

present study. Male specimens of all these species

were collected periodically from 5th April, 1981 to

4th March 1987 such that every calendar month is

represented by one collection or more. Most of the

specimens were collected from Vidarbha,

Marathwada and South-Western Madhya Pradesh.

All specimens of Miniopterus schreibersii

fuliginosus were collected at Mahabaleshwar in

Western Ghats. A few specimens of Megaderma lyra

lyra were also collected at and around Bangalore

and Mysore in South India and at and around Agra

in North India. Table 1 indicates the number of adult

male specimens examined for this report during each

calendar month. Although specimens of

Hipposideros speoris were collected from several

THE NUMBER OF ADULT MALE SPECIMENS EXAMINED DURING DIFFERENT MONTHS OF THE YEAR (1981-1987)

MALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE IN SOME INDIAN BATS

175

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176

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92(1995)

localities, the present report embodies descriptions

of specimens collected only at Chandrapur (19°

57' N, 79° 21' E) in Eastern Vidarbha. The male

cycle of this species in other parts of peninsular India

has already been reported (Brosset 1962,

Gopalakrishna et al. 1991). The specimens were

killed by chloroform, their genitalia dissected out

and fixed in alcoholic Bouin’s fluid. Microscopic

examination of the testis and the accessory glands

were made on serially sectioned tissues stained with

Harris’ or Erlich’s haematoxylin and counterstained

with eosin. A few sections of the accessory glands

from each series of sections were also stained by

the per-iodic acid-Schiff procedure (Pearse 1968).

The present report is based on the examination of

the testes and accessory glands of only adult

specimens.

Observations and Discussion

Figure 1 is a schematic representation to

indicate the periods of the year when the testis

exhibits spermatogenesis and the male accessory

glands are active in the species studied here. The

figure has been drawn after determining sexual

maturity of the specimens by microscopic

examination of the structure of the testis and

accessory glands of the specimens. The data

concerning the season of pregnancy of the various

species are taken from earlier reports and are also

included in the figure for easy comparison of the

reproductive rhythm in both sexes. The following

conclusions can be drawn from the figure:

1 . In all the species studied here the onset of

spermatogenesis and secretory activity in the

accessory glands occur nearly synchronously, and,

in all but Hipposideros speoris, the activity of the

two components of the male reproductive system

also come to cessation nearly synchronously. In

Hipposideros speoris, however, the secretory activity

in the accessory glands continue to remain at peak

level for nearly 14 weeks after the cessation of

spermatogenesis in the testis.

2. Sexually active males and pregnant females

occur throughout the year in Taphozous longimanus,

Pipistrellus dormeri and P. mimus mimus (P. dormeri

has been omitted from the figure since its

reproductive behaviour in both sexes is exactly

similar to that in the other two species). Evidently,

these species breed all the year round. Earlier reports

on the breeding behaviour of the females of these

species (Gopalakrishna 1954, 1955; Gopalakrishna

et al. 1975, Madhavan 1979) have shown that each

female of these species experiences more than one

pregnancy during each year as revealed by the fact

that females in lactation, and which were also

carrying early pregnancy, were available during all

the months of the year. This is a strong

circumstantial evidence to indicate that each female

comes to oestrus within a few days after parturition,

and, hence, they may experience several pregnancies

occurring in quick succession during each year.

Vigorous spermatogenetic activity occurs in the testis

of adult specimens during all the months of the year.

The accessory glands are also in a high state of

secretory activity throughout the year. These facts

suggest that males of these species are sexually active

throughout the year.

3. In Rousettus leschenaulti spermatogenesis

occurs from the beginning of October to the middle

of April w4th peak activity occurring twice within

this period, once during November-December and

a second time during March-April. There is a

slightly lessened spermatogenetic activity during

January and February. The accessory glands exhibit

a similar pattern of activity as the testis except that

they come to activity in the middle of October —

about two weeks later than the testis. The testis and

accessory glands are inactive from the middle of

April until the following reproductive season.

Females of this species experience two pregnancies

in quick succession with the lactation period of the

first cycle overlapping the early gestation of the

second cycle during March and April

(Gopalakrishna 1964, Gopalakrishna and

Choudhari 1977).

4. In Megaderma lyra lyra, Rhinolophus

rouxi, Hipposideros fulvus and Scotophilus heathi

the testes and accessory glands are active during a

MALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE IN SOME INDIAN BATS

177

Fig. 1 . Schematic representation of the periods of sexual activity in the two sexes in the species studied here. The heavy dark areas

indicate the period of sexual activity in the males and the dotted areas indicate the period of sexual activity in the females. A. the period

when lactation of the first cycle overlaps the early pregnancy of the second cycle in Rousetlus leschenaulti; B. Period when there is

either delayed implantation or retarded development of the blastocyst in Rhinolophus rouxi. C. period when inseminated spermatozoa

are stored in the genital tract of the female in Scotophilus heatlii and Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix.

178

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

sharply restricted period, namely from the middle

of October to the end of December in Megaderma ,

from the middle of November to about the first week

of January in Rhinolophus, during November and

December in Hipposideros fulvus fulvus and

Scotophilus heathi. In all these species the females

come to sexual activity a few weeks later than the

males as revealed by the fact that pregnant females

were noticed from a date later than the date of onset

of activity in the males (Gopalakrishna 1950,

Ramakrishna 1951, Ramaswamy 1961,

Gopalakrishna and Badwaik 1989, Gopalakrishna

and Rao 1977, Madhavan et al. 1977,

Gopalakrishna and Madhavan 1978, Madhavan

1981). Earlier reports have shown that delayed

implantation of the blastocyst (Gopalakrishna and

Rao 1977) and retarded early development

(Ramakrishna and Rao 1978) occur in Rhinolophus

rouxi in different parts of India.

In Scotophilus heathi (Gopalakrishna and

Madhavan 1978, Krishna and Dominic 1978) the

inseminated spermatozoa remain viable in the

genital tract of the females and fertilise the oocytes

released several weeks later. Hence, there is a certain

degree of asynchrony between the two sexes in the

onset of sexual activity.

5. In Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus the

testes and accessory glands are active for only a short

period in the year from the middle of February until

the last week of March. Spermatogenetic activity

and the secretory activity in the accessory glands

occur synchronously. There is a sudden cessation

of spermatogenesis and secretory activity in the

accessory glands after March. Females are

inseminated and conceive in the third week of

February and deliver and young ones in the latter

half of June (Gopalakrishna et al. 1985, personal

observations).

6. The testes and accessory glands in

Rhinopoma microphyllum at Burhanpur (21° 17' N,

76° 16' E) come to activity during the first week of

February and remain active until the middle of

April, and the males are sexually quiescent during

the rest of the year. All adult females in the colony

copulate and conceive during the second week of

March and deliver the young ones in the first week

of July (Badwaik 1991). Kumar (1965), while

studying the reproduction in this species at Jodhpur

(26° 18’ N, 73° 04' E) indicated that fully formed

spermatozoa were present within the cauda

epididymis and the ampullary glands in varying

amounts throughout the year. He further mentioned,

“It is not known whether these are functional”. The

cycle in the female of this species at Jodhpur (Kumar

1965) is nearly similar to that at Burhanpur.

7. In Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix the

testes and accessory glands come to activity in the

middle of May. While spermatogenesis ceases by

the end of the third week of June, the accessory

glands continue to be in a state of high secretory

activity until the middle of July. Earlier reports on

the female reproductive cycle in this species

(Madhavan 1971, Gopalakrishna and Madhavan

1977) have shown that copulation occurs during the

first two weeks of June and the inseminated

spermatozoa remain viable in the female genital

tract for several weeks and fertilise the oocytes

released in the second week of July.

8. In Hipposideros speoris vigorous

spermatogenetic activity occurs from October to the

first week of January, and the accessory glands come

to activity synchronously with spermatogenetis

activity. However, the accessory glands continue to

maintain a high level of secretory activity until April

(Gopalakrishna et al. 1992). Further, the cauda

epididymis is greatly enlarged and is filled with

spermatozoa from November to the end of April

even after the cessation of spermatogenesis in the

middle of January. Earlier studies on the female sex-

cycle of this species at Chandrapur (Gopalakrishna

and Bhatia 1983, Gopalakrishna et al. 1992)

indicated that all parous females conceive in the

first week of December, but the first year females

conceive as and when they attain sexual maturity

any time from January to April. Hence, from January

to the last week of July females at different stages

of pregnancy were noticed in the colony, and the

last delivery occurred on 24th July (the gestation

MALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE IN SOME INDIAN BATS

179

period being 1 35 to 140 days). Females in lactation

were noticed from May until the last week of

September. This species appears to exhibit different

types of reproductive patterns at different localities

in peninsular India (Brosset 1962, Gopalakrishna

et al. 1991).

From the foregoing observations it is evident

that most species of bats have a highly specific

reproductive periodicity, but the precise period of

sexual activity varies among different species.

Secondly, while most of the species come to sexual

activity during November-December (boreal type)

a few breed during February-March (austral type).

Only Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix is sexually

active during May-June. Sexual activity during

May-July has been reported in two molossid bats,

Chaerephon plicata (Gopalakrishna et al. 1989) and

Tadarida aegyptiacci (Gopalakrishna et al. 1991)

in South Western Madhya Pradesh. The females

among the species studied here come to sexual

activity a little later in the year than the males.

Rousettus leschenaulti (Gopalakrishna and

Choudhari 1977) appears to incorporate both boreal

and austral breeding patterns with the occurrence

of two reproductive cycles with a reduced male

sexual activity between the two cycles. A similar

situation was reported with respect to Cynopterus

sphinx (Moghe 1956, Sandhu 1984). In Pipistrellus

ceylonicus chrysothrix (Madhavan 1971,

Gopalakrishna and Madhavan 1971) and

Scotophilus heathi (Gopalakrishna and Madhavan

1978, Madhavan 1981) the inseminated

spermatozoa are stored in the genital tract of the

female until ovulation takes place.

Hipposideros speoris (at Chandrapur) appears

to be unlike all other species because spermatozoa

are stored in the cauda epididymis for several days

after the cessation of spermatogenesis. From this it

is evident that there are at least two separate

mechanisms in this species — one which initiates

and maintains spermatogenetic activity in the testes

and another which triggers and maintains the

activity of the accessory glands for a protracted

period, and during this period spermatozoa are

stored and they remain viable in the cauda

epididymis. Evidently, there appears to be a special

physiological mechanism by which the chemical

medium within the cauda epididymal tubule is

maintained in a manner conducive to the long

survival of spermatozoa at body temperature.

Conclusions

The examination of even a few species of

Indian bats, among the nearly hundred species

inhabiting this country, reveals a variety of breeding

patterns and adaptations for successful reproduction.

The protracted survival of inseminated spermatozoa,

which had been noticed in bats inhabiting cold and

temperate countries, has been attributed to the long

winter hibernation of these bats in the cold countries.

But, in a tropical country, where the bats do not

hibernate, the survival of inseminated spermatozoa

in Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix and

Scotophilus heathi and stored spermatozoa in the

epididymis of Hipposideros speoris at body

temperate needs explanation. Further, the seasonal

climatic changes in the tropical regions are not so

pronounced as in the cold and temperate regions.

Yet, the facts, that they exhibit a strict reproductive

periodicity, and that this varies among different

species, demand explanation.

Acknowledgements

We wish to acknowledge the financial

assistance given by the C.S.I.R and the U.G.C., New

Delhi for carrying out this work.

Rkfhrhnchs

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Gopai.akrishna, A. & N. Badwaik (1989): Breeding habits and

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Megaderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy) — (Megadermatidae) at

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227-237 .

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habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats —

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Hipposideridae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 96-103.

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Ramakkishna, P.A. & K.V.B. Rao ( 1978): Reproductive adaptation

MALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE IN SOME INDIAN DATS

181

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1192.

FOOD OF JUNGLE BABBLER AND COMMON BABBLER:

A COMPARATIVE STUDY1

Manjit S. Saini, Manjit S. Dhindsa, Harjeet K. Saini and H.S. Toor2

(With four t ext -fit u res)

Key words: babblers, Turdoides striatus, T. caudatus, feeding ecology, dietary overlap,

economic status

Food of the Jungle (Turdoides striatus) and Common Babblers ( T. caudatus) was studied gravimetrically in an

intensively cultivated habitat at Ludhiana (India). In both the species, plant matter accounted for >50% of the diet. The

remaining portion consisted mainly of insects, while snails (Mollusca) and spiders (Arachnida) formed < 1 % of the diet.

Much of the identifiable bulk of plant matter included pulp of fruits, pearl millet, wheat and leafy material. In T. striatus,

lepidopterans were the most preferred food as they alone accounted for about 1 8% of the diet. The other insect orders

represented were Orthoptera (5.8%), Hymenoptera (5.7%) and Coleoptera (4.3%). In I caudatus also, lepidopterans

were predominant in the diet (16%) followed by coleopterans (8.7%), hymenopterans (5.0%), oithopterans (2.6%) and

isopterans (2.5%). Many insect species consumed by both babbler species were pests of the common crops or stored grains.

Food niche breadth and dietary overlap of the two species were also calculated.

Introduction

Babblers are among the common birds of

India. In Punjab, five species of babblers, namely

Large Grey Babbler (Turdoides malcolmi ), Jungle

Babbler (T. striatus), Common Babbler (T.

caudatus ), Striated Babbler (T. earlei) and Yellow-

eyed Babbler (Chrysomma sinense) are found (Toor

et al. 1982). Of these, the first three species are

quite abundant. Their food has been studied in

Rajasthan (Rana 1970a, b) and Uttar Pradesh

(Narang 1986, Narang and Lamba 1986). From

Punjab, however, information on food is available

on only one species, namely the Large Grey Babbler

(Toor and Saini 1986).

Studies on feeding ecology of birds inhabiting

intensively cultivated areas are of special interest

because of the predominance of food grains in such

areas may influence food selection and thereby result

in dietary shifts in some species. Such type of shift

has actually occurred in the European Starling

(Sturnus vulgaris; Feare 1989). In this paper we

describe results of a study on the food of Jungle

‘Accepted October 1992.

department of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-

141 004, India.

Babbler and Common Babbler carried out in an

intensively cultivated area of Punjab (India). The

objectives of this study were: (i) to make a

quantitative analysis of the food, (ii) to study

seasonal changes in diet diversity, (iii) to evaluate

dietary overlap between the two species, and (iv) to

compare food of these species with that recorded in

Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.

Material and Methods

The study was carried out in the field area of

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (30°56' N,

75°52' E, c. 247m above the mean sea level). The

area is intensively cultivated with two main crop

seasons: rabi (October-November to April-May) and

kharif (June-August to September-December).

Predominant crops of rabi season are wheat

(Triticum aestivum), toria (Brassica campestris ),

ray a (B. j mice a), sugarcane (Sachharum

officinarum ), lentil (Lens esculenta ) and gram

(Cicer arietinum). Those of kharif season include

rice (Oryza sativa ), cotton (Gossypium spp.), maize

(Zea mays), pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoides) and

groundnut (Arachis hypogaea). The climate of the

study area is semi-arid monsoon type. Generally,

FOOD OF JUNGLE BABBLER AND COMMON BABBLER

183

four seasons are experienced in a year: summer

(April-June), monsoon (July-September), post-

monsoon (October-November) and winter

(December-March).

Babblers were shot with an air gun. In total

71 Jungle Babblers and 39 Common Babblers were

collected. The guts (oesophagus and stomach) were

taken out immediately after shooting and the

contents washed through a fine sieve. Washed gut

contents were dried on blotting papers for 15-20

min. at room temperature. Animal and plant matter

was sorted and weighed on an electric balance true

to 0.001 g. After weighing, the plant matter was

preserved dry while animal matter was preserved

in 70% alcohol for further identification. Two

indices of food-niche breadth (Krebs 1 989), namely

Shannon- Wiener index (//') and Levins’ index (B)

were calculated as follows:

log P.,

and

B = 1 / X p]

where, p. is the proportion of the zth food type in the

diet. Levins’ index was standardized to express it

on a scale of 0 to 1.0 following Hurlbert (1978) as:

BA = (B-\)/(n-\)

where, BA is Levins’ standardized niche breadth,

and n is the number of food types recorded.

In addition to the gut content analysis,

babblers were observed in the field through 7 x 50

field binoculars periodically at different times of the

day to record observations on their feeding

behaviour, feeding sessions and feeding associations

with other birds.

Results

Feeding behaviour: Both species of babblers

were resident in the study area. Jungle Babblers

preferred thick woody vegetation and fed efficiently

on trees. They clung to and hung from the branches

to capture insects and to take pecks at leaves.

However, Common Babblers preferred low

vegetation and remained restricted to bushes in dry

areas. They fed mainly under or near bushes but

occasionally also out in the open.

Jungle Babblers were observed to feed on pear

( Primus persica) fruits in orchards during June and

July. However, they ate only those fruits which had

already been damaged by Rose-ringed Parakeets

(. Psittacula krameri). Common Babblers fed on pearl

millet from July to September. In winter months,

they consumed wheat and rice grains shed on the

ground but rarely attacked standing crops. Probably

because of their apparent shy nature, Common

Babblers did not mix with other bird species.

However, they sometimes fed in association with

House Sparrow ( Passer domesticus), Weaverbirds

( Ploceus spp.), Whitethroated Munia ( Lonchura

malabarica), Spotted Munia (L. punctulatci ) and

Common Myna ( Acridotheres tristis).

Food of adults: In both species, plant matter

accounted for more than 50% and animal matter

about 44% of the diet (Table 1). Grit comprised

about 2% of total contents in Common Babbler but

only 0.1% in Jungle Babbler.

A major portion of plant matter (22-33%)

could not be identified. Of the identified bulk, pearl

millet represented about 5% of the diet in Jungle

Babbler and 13% in Common Babbler. Wheat

constituted 3-4% of the diet in both the species,

whereas, rice was eaten only by the Common

Babblers, making about 3% of total intake of this

species. Common Babblers consumed more leafy

material (9%) than Jungle Babbler (3%). Crushed

seeds and pulp of fruits formed a considerable

portion of the diet of Jungle Babblers but were not

recorded in Common Babblers. Weed seeds were

consumed in meagre proportions by both species.

Among animal matter, insects represented 34-

35% of the diet in the two species. Lepidopterans

were predominant insects as they alone constituted

16-18% of the diet. In Jungle Babblers these were

followed by orthopterans (5.8%), hymenopterans

(5.7%) and coleopterans (4.3%). However, in

Common Babblers, coleopterans (8.7%) and

hymenopterans (5.0%) ranked second and third

respectively in order of relative abundance in diet,

while orthopterans formed only 2.6% of the diet.

184

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 92(1995)

Tabi.h 1

FOOD OF JUNGLE BABBLER AND COMMON BABBLER

T = trace.

Isopterans and dipterans were consumed in very

small quantities by Jungle Babblers (<1% of food).

However, in Common Babblers isopterans formed

2.5% of the diet, and dipterans were not consumed

at all. Snails (Mollusca) and spiders (Arachnida)

formed less than 1 % of the diet in both species.

The values of the indices of food niche breadth

were more in Common Babbler than in Jungle

Babbler (Table 1 ). Dietary overlap between the two

species was 53%.

Seasonal changes in food:

Jungle Babbler: In Jungle Babbler, the relative

consumption of animal matter was more than that

of plant matter during August and September and

almost equal in October (Fig. I A). During this

period, grasshoppers (Orthoptera) were taken most

frequently and constituted the major portion (15-

22%) of the diet (Fig. 2) Lepidopterans ( 1 3%) were

the second abundant food type followed by

Hymenopterans (5-9%) and Coleopterans (5-14%).

Isopterans (5%) and Dipterans (1%) were also

consumed in small amounts during this period.

Jungle Babblers also consumed spiders during this

(A) Jungle Babbler, n-71

B ANIMAL MATTER LD PLANT MATTER EDgRIT

100

ASONDJFMAMJJ

n-6 4 66 7 7 6 65 76 7

(B) Common Babbler, n-39

B ANIMAL MATTER CD PLANT MATTER ED GRIT

Fig. I . Seasonal variations in the relative proportion ol animal

and plant matter in the diet of (A) Jungle Babbler and

(B) Common Babbler (n = sample size.)

period but in small quantities (1-2%). Pearl millet

(3-33%) was the main food type in the identified

bulk of plant matter. In winter (November —

February), the quantity of plant matter consumed

by Jungle Babblers was more than that of animal

matter. A large proportion of plant matter could not

FOOD OF JUNGLE DABBLER AND COMMON BABBLER

185

be identified, but the identified bulk mainly

comprised crushed seeds ( 1 3-30%) and wheat (3-

6%). Leafy material formed less than 5% of the diet

in January. Among the animal matter, lepidopterous

larvae (16-39%) and ants (3-10%) were the two

main food types. From March to July the plant

matter remained dominant in the diet of Jungle

Babblers. Wheat (4-2 1 %) constituted the major part

and was also the most frequently taken food type.

Leafy material formed 38% and crushed seeds 69?

of the diet in March. In June (33%) and July (43%),

large amounts of pulp of pear fruit was eaten. Grit

was also recorded in the gut contents of Jungle

Babbler in May.

40 -r

Pearl millet

J

T — I — I

Leafy

material

1 1 1 1 n

H

X

o

N4

B

>*

X

Q

Eh

fe

W

V

X

b

AS OND J FMAMJ J

Crushed

seeds

Orthoptera

— i — i — — i — i — i — i — i — — — i — i

Hymenoptera

— i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i i — r~

A S ON DJ FMAMJ J

Fig. 2. Seasonal variations in the relative proportion of some

important food types in the diet of Jungle Babbler.

Common Babbler: Common Babbler also

consumed greater quantities of plant matter than

animal matter from August to October (Fig. IB).

The major portion of plant matter eaten was pearl

millet (6-66%, Fig. 3). Leafy material (3-15%) was

also taken in large amounts. Weed seeds (<2%) and

wheat (about 1%) were consumed only in small

quantities. Among animal matter various insect

orders recorded in the diet in decreasing order were:

Lepidoptera (12-14%), Coleoptera (7-10%),

Orthoptera (7-9%) and Hymenoptera (1-2%). Snail

20

o

30

Eh

X

o

M

w

* -

J* 40

X

Q

H

S3

B

U

o

B

o

lO

o

Fig. 3. Seasonal variations in the relative proportion of some

important food types in the diet of common Babbler.

shell pieces were recorded only in August and

constituted less than 1 % of the diet. From December

to February the relative proportion of animal matter

in the diet of Common Babblers increased compared

with plant matter (Fig. IB). Consumption of beetles

(Coleoptera) decreased during these months, that

of ants (Hymenoptera) remained constant, while an

increase in Lepidoptera was observed. In the

identified portion of plant matter, significant

amounts of leafy material (7-19%) were consumed

during these months. Other food types in plant

matter were: weed seeds (3-5%), pearl millet (2-

13%) and rice (16%, recorded only in February).

In April, the consumption of animal matter

Hymenoptera

Isoptera

„A L

i i i n ■ n i i i i i— t i i i i i i 1 i i i I

Coleoptera

a

t — i — r

Pearl millet

t — r

Rice —

i — i — i — — — i — r

Orthoptera

IT

on'd'j'f WaWj'j1

Wheat

Ft i i FI i i r

X

Lepidoptera

m an

j]

aVond'j 'fmamj ' J '

186

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92(1995)

was more (64%) as compared to plant matter (36%.

Fig. IB) whereas, in May and June the trend was

opposite. However, in July both animal and plant

matter were consumed in equal amounts. From April

to July, among plant matter, wheat and leafy material

were the two food types taken in large quantities

(Fig. 3). Other food types recorded in small amounts

were rice and weed seeds. Among animal matter,

consumption of coleopterans increased during these

months. Lepidopterans were also consumed in small

proportions except in July when these made 29.4%

of the food.

Seasonal variation in food niche breadth:

Seasonal variations in the Shannon-Wiener index

of food niche breadth revealed that food of Jungle

Babbler was more diverse from August to October

and May to June than during the rest of the year

(Fig. 4A). The maximum value of Shannon-Wiener

index was observed in September (0.8) and lowest

in December (0.32), Similarly, the maximum value

of Levins’ index was found in September (0.8) and

lowest was in November (0.27). In other months,

Levins’ index (0.3-0. 6) as well as Shannon-Wiener

index (0.5-0. 7) fluctuated within a narrow range

(Fig. 4A). In the Common Babbler the highest value

of Shannon-Wiener index (0.88) was observed in

October and lowest value in September (0.51, Fig.

4B). Ho wever, the maximum value of Levins’ index

was recorded in May (0.74) and lowest in September

(0.17).

Discussion

Both species of babblers were omnivorous

consuming almost equal proportions of animal and

plant matter. However, interspecific differences in

diet were prevalent. For example, the amount of

coleopterans consumed by Jungle Babbler was about

half the amount eaten by Common Babblers. An

exactly opposite trend was observed in the

consumption of orthopterans; the consumption of

these insects by Jungle Babbler was double the

consumption by Common Babbler. Among plant

food types. Common Babblers consumed large

amounts of pearl millet and leafy material, whereas,

the diet of Jungle Babbler was mainly composed of

(A) Jungle Babbler

(B) Common Babbler

Fig. 4. Seasonal variations in diet diversity of (A) Jungle Babbler

and (B) Common Babbler.

seeds and fruit pulp. These differences must be

useful in reducing competition for food between

these species should the food become limiting.

Different food preferences of sympatric species to

reduce interspecific competition for food is, in fact,

necessary for their survival (Kear 1962, Schoener

1965, Lack 1966). Differences in the diet may also

be related to the spatial distribution and the

differences in bill size of the species (Newton 1967,

Willson 1972, Gaston 1978, Crase and DeHaven

1978). Most probably, the larger bill of Jungle

Babblers (25. 1 0 ± 0.84 mm) enables them to capture

the grasshoppers and to feed on fruits more

efficiently, whereas, with smaller bills (21 .86 ± 1 .52

mm). Common Babblers can more easily and

efficiently handle beetles and grains of pearl millet

FOOD OF JUNGLE BABBLER AND COMMON BABBLER

187

(Saini 1982). Contrary to our results, Rana (1970a)

reported that in Rajasthan both Jungle Babblers and

Common Babblers fed predominantly on plant

matter which represented more than 70% of the diet.

Insects formed only about 25% of the diet in his

study. These differences may be due to the

differences in relative availability of different food

types in Punjab and Rajasthan because of different

climatic conditions. Narang and Lamba (1986)

studied the food of Common Babblers at Dehra Dun

and found the species to be omnivorous. In their

study, vegetable diet included berries of Lantana

camara and grains of wheat and paddy, and animal

matter consisted of grasshoppers, ants, termites and

beetles. However, their results were based on

combination of gravimetric and volumetric methods

and hence are not comparable to ours.

In both the species of babblers, frequency of

occurrence of parts of beetles (Coleoptera) and ants

(Hymenoptera) in the gut contents was more than

any other insect group. It may not be true to consider

that these are the preferred food items because

these hard bodied insects may be digested slowly

by the birds and thus are usually recovered in

more guts. Kalmbach and Gabrielson ( 1921 ), while

describing the food of starlings, have also stated

that coleopteran parts remain for a longer time in

the gizzards and their importance gets exaggerated.

Moeed (1980) has also supported this view.

Seasonal variation in the food of both the

species exhibited a different pattern. During August

to October Jungle Babbler fed mainly on animal

matter especially, grasshoppers, caterpillars and

beetles, whereas, Common Babblers consumed large

amounts of plant matter (mainly pearl millet) during

this period. Similarly in winter (December to

March) Jungle Babbler fed more on plant matter,

whereas, Common Babblers consumed animal

matter in greater quantities. During winter season

per cent increase of lepidopterous larvae in the gut

contents suggests that the babblers feed on

hibernating larvae. This habit may be contributing

towards the reduction in the carry over of the

populations of these insects to the next season. It is

only during march to July, that plant matter

remained dominant in the food of both the species

of babblers. Wheat and leafy material were the main

food items of the species during the season. In

addition to it Jungle Babbler incorporated large

amounts of pulp of pear fruits in the diet, whereas,

Common Babblers fed on rice grains, taken most

probably from the rice nurseries. In Rana’s study

on babblers, pearl millet was the predominant food

of Jungle Babblers throughout the year except

during July to September when insects constituted

about 54% of the diet. In our study Jungle Babblers

consumed pearl millet in significant amounts only

in September and October, which is the harvest

period of this crop in Punjab. In Rajasthan, Common

Babblers consumed large bulk of insects only during

March to September (Rana 1970a), whereas, in our

study insects formed a significant proportion of the

diet throughout the year except in September when

pearl millet constituted about 65% of the diet.

In Jungle Babbler the food was more diverse

from August to October as they fed on a wide variety

of insects and plant matter. In other months, the

two indices of food niche breadth fluctuated within

a narrow range. However, the lowest diversity

recorded in December was due to the intake of large

amount of plant matter in the diet. Similarly in

Common Babblers the recorded low diversity in

September was due to predominance of pearl millet

in the diet.

Economic status: Both the species of babblers

are omnivorous as they incorporate large amounts

of plant matter as well as animal matter in their

diet. Among animal matter, insects formed a

predominant proportion of the diet. Most of the

insects consumed are pests of various crops (Table

2). The identified insects were curculionids (pests

of stored grains), chrysomelids (serious pests of

cucurbits), coccinelids (pests of vegetables),

calliphorids (saprophagous flies), acridids

(phytophagous hoppers) and pentatomids (sap

sucking insects). The snails consumed by babblers

are known to be vectors of infectious diseases of

livestock. Jungle Babblers and Common Babblers

188

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92(1995)

Tabu. 2

ANIMALS IDENTIFIED FROM GUT CONTENTS OF THE ADULTS OF JUNGLE BABBLER

AND COMMON BABBLER

FOOD OF JUNGLE BABBLER AND COMMON BABBLER

189

feed on pearl millet during the postmonsoon months,

but the damage is not of much concern in our area

as this crop is cultivated as fodder only. Wheat and

rice grains are consumed in small quantities and

those too are taken from the ground, where they

fall as a result of damage by other birds. Jungle

Babblers do some damage to pear fruits during June

and July, but this damage is not of primary nature

as babblers mainly feed on only those fruits which

have already been damaged by Rose-ringed

Rhhh

Crash, F.T. & R.W. DhHavkn (1978): Food selection by five

sympatric California blackbird species. California fish and

game 64:255-261 .

Fharh, C.J. (1989): The changing fortunes of an agricultural pest:

the European Starling. Agric. Zool. Rev. 3: 317-342.

Gaston, A.J. (1978): Ecology of Common Babbler Turdoides

caudatus. Ibis 120: 415-432.

Hurhbhrt, S.H. ( 1 978): The measurement of niche overlap and some

relatives. Ecology 59:67-77 .

Kai.mbacii, E.R. & I.N. Gabriki son (1921 ): Economic value of the

Starling in United States. US Dep. Agric. Bull. No. 868.

Khar, J. ( 1 962): Food selection in finches with special reference to

interspecific differences. Proc. Zool. Soc.. London 138:

163-204.

Krhbs, C.J. ( 1 989): Ecological Methodology. Harper & Row: New

York.

Lack, D. ( 1966): Population Studies of Birds. Oxford University

Press, London, P. 34 1 .

Mohhd, A. (1980): Diets of adults and nestling starlings ( Snmius

vulgaris) in Hawkes Bay, New Zealand. N.Z.J. Zool. 7:

247-256.

Narang, M.L. (1986): Contribution to the food of Common Babbler

Turdoides striatus (Dumont). Indian J. Forest 9: 140-145.

Narang, M.L. & B.S. Lamba (1986): Food habits of Jungle Babbler

Turdoides striatus( Dumont) and its role in the ecosystem.

Parakeets. Therefore, the present studies reveal that

babblers are useful species in relation to agriculture

as they keep an efficient check on various types of

insects which are injurious to our crops and stored

grains.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Dr. J.S. Mann for help in

identification of insects. This study was supported

by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New

Delhi.

HNCHS

Indian J. Ecol. 13: 38-45.

Nhwton, 1.(1 967): The adaptive radiation and feeding ecology of

some British finches. Ibis 109: 33-98.

Rana, B.D. (1970a): Some observations on the food of the Jungle

Babbler Turdoides striatus. and the Common Babbler

Turdoides caudatus in the Rajasthan desert, India. Pavo 8:

35-44.

Rana, B.D. (1970b): Winter food of the Common Babbler

{Turdoides caudatus) in Rajasthan. Indian Forester 96:

153-155.

Saini, M.S. ( 1982): Feeding ecology of the babblers of Punjab with

special reference to the Large Grey Babbler Turdoides

nialcohni (Sykes). M.Sc. Thesis, Punjab Agricultural

University, Ludhiana.

Schohnhr, T.W. ( 1 965): The evolution of bill size differences among

sympatric cogeneric species of birds. Evolution 19: 189-

213.

Tour, H.S., A.K. CtlAKRAVARTHY, M.S. DtlINDSA, PS. SaNDHU & PK.

Ananda Rao (1982): A checklist of the birds of Punjab

and Chandigarh. Bico printers, Ludhiana.

Took, H.S. & M.S. Saini ( 1986): Feeding ecology of the Large

Grey Babbler Turdoides nialcohni. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci.

(An ini. Sci.) 95: 429-436.

Win son, M.F. (1972): Seed size preferences in finches. Wilson Bull.

8 4 : 449-455.

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURIA LINNAEUS, 1767 FROM

THE SEAS AROUND INDIA1

Part 2

D.B. James2

(With a plate and two text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 92(1): 62]

Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) leucospilota

(Brandt)

(PI. 2, A; Fig. 3, A-C)

Stichopus (Gymnochirota) leucospilota Brandt, 1835, p.

51.

Holothuria vagahunda Bell, 1886, p. 28: Mergui

Archipelago; Bell, 1887a, p . 1 40 : Andaman Island; Bell, 1888,

p.389: Tuticorin (Gulf of Mannar); Thurston, 1894, p. 115:

Tuticorin (Gulf of Mannar); Pearson, 1903, p. 201 : Ceylon (Sri

Lanka); Koehler & Vaney, 1 908, p. 1 7: Andaman Island; Laccadives

(Lakshadweep).

Holothuria leucospilota A.M. Clark & Davies, 1966,

p.603: Maldives; James, 1969, p. 62: Gulf of Mannar, Arabian

Sea, Andamans, Laccadives (Lakshadweep); James, 1982, p. 5;

Tikader & Das, 1985, p. 99: Andaman & Nicobar Islands; James,

1987, p. 110: Hut Bay (Little Andamans).

Holothuria ( Mertensiothuria ) leucospilota James, 1982,

p. 92: Goa (West coast of India); Soota, Mukhopadhyay & Samanta,

1983, p. 5 1 1: Trinket, Nancowry Harbour, Sound Island (Andaman

& Nicobar Islands); Mukhopadhyay & Samanta, 1983, p. 305:

Lakshadweep; Price & Reid, 1 985, p. 4: Galle (Sri Lanka); James,

1986a, p. 585: Lakshadweep-Maldives, Sri Lanka, Gulf of Mannar

— Palk Bay, Andaman-Nicobar Islands; James, 1989b, p. 127:

Chetlat, Kiltan, Kadmat, Amini, Androth, Kavaratti, Minicoy

(Lakshadweep).

Material: Tuticorin (Gulf of Mannar), several

specimens; Kilakarai, one specimen; Vizhinjam

(Arabian Sea), two specimens; Karwar (West Coast),

one specimen; Ratnagiri (Arabian Sea), one

specimen; Port Blair (Andamans), several

specimens; Hut Bay (Little Andamans), several

specimens; Chetlat, several specimens; Kiltan,

several specimens; Kadmat, four specimens; Amini,

several specimens; Kavaratti, three specimens;

Minicoy, five specimens (Lakshadweep), all

specimens collected from the intertidal region or

'Accepted October 1992.

2Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi 68203 1 .

Present Address,: Tuticorin Research Centre of CMFRI, 90 North

Beach Road, Tuticorin 628 001 .

from littoral waters, less than a metre in depth.

Description: Large and snake-like forms with

leathery skin. The pedicels are large with well

developed sucking discs. The tentacles are 20 in

number and are ventrally placed. There is a well

developed tentacular collar with a fimbriated

margin.

In the calcareous ring each radial is large and

has a deep groove while the interradial is a short,

stump-like projection. There is a single polian

vesicle and a single stone canal. The respiratory

trees are well developed. Cuvierian tubules are also

well developed.

The spicules (Fig. 3, A-C) consist of an

external layer of tables with complete or incomplete

discs often reduced to four holes, one at the base of

each pillar. Spire is low and often partly reduced,

but when complete, it ends in a flattened crown of

eight or twelve teeth. Inner layer consists of regular

six holed buttons. The buttons may sometimes be

asymmetrical. Pedicels are with large end plates and

a few broad perforated plates with more or less slit-

like holes. The buttons (Fig. 3, B) in a specimen

collected from Kilakarai (Gulf of Mannar) were

mostly incomplete and have a dumb-bell shape with

a pair of holes at either end. They were in the

process of breakdown. The length of the buttons

varies from 0.050 mm to 0.063 mm, and the breadth

varies from 0.025 mm to 0.033 mm. The height of

the table is c. 0.042 mm and the diameter of the

disc varied from 0.037 mm to 0.054 mm.

When alive, the colour is reddish-brown but

looks black on contraction.

Notes on habits: The species has the peculiar

habit of tucking its posterior end under a stone. The

TA XONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OE HOLOTH U R I A

191

anterior end which projects out from the stone keeps

on moving with the ventrally directed tenacles.

Specimens were sometimes found under coral

stones. On being disturbed the animal throws out

the cuvierian tubules which are abundant. At Hut

Bay (Little Andamans) during February, 1977 in

some places as many as 5 to 6 were distributed per

square metre. It was also found to be common on

the pearl oyster beds off Tuticorin.

Remarks: Both the species Holothurici

( Halocleima ) atm and Holothuria ( Mertensiothuria )

leucospilota are black and occur together at some

places. However, they can be separated in the field

by the following differences. Holotluiria

(Halodeima) atra is free from cuvierian tubules

whereas the other species has plenty of them. The

former, when handled in the field, releases a toxin

known as holothurin which is red in colour, whereas

in the latter species the red toxin is absent. In some

places, Holothuria (Halodeima) atra is covered by

a coating of fine sand, whereas in Holothuria

(Mertensiothuria) leucospilota sand never covers

the body. Finally the former species lies fully

exposed without making any attempt to conceal the

body, while the latter species keeps the posterior

end of the body tucked under a stone. A similar

character is also exhibited by the holothurian

Holothuria ( Ac ant hot rap eza ) pyxis. By the above

differences, both the species can be separated in

the field without any difficulty.

Distribution: This species is widely

distributed and is known from the islands of Western

Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Africa, Red

Sea, S.E. Arabia, Persian Gulf, Maldives,

Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, North

Australia, Philippines, China, South Pacific islands

and Hawaiian Islands. James (1969) reported the

species for the first time from the Arabian Sea.

Subgenus Lessonothuria Deichmann, 1958

Diagnosis: Tentacles 17-30; pedicels and

papillae irregularly arranged ventrally and dorsally

respectively, a ‘collar’ of papillae evident around

the base of the tentacles, anal papillae usually

apparent; body wall soft, not very thick, usually 1(1-

3 mm); body almost cylindrical but with more or

less distinct, ‘flattened’ ‘sole’; size small to

moderate up to 150 mm long; calcareous ring fairly

stout, radial plates about twice as long as the

interradial plates; spicules consisting of clumsy

tables, the spire low to moderate and usually

terminating in a ring or cluster of spines, disc well

developed and spinose, rarely some tables with

smooth-rimmed disc also present, rim often turned

up to give a ‘cup and saucer’ appearance to the table

in lateral view, pseudobuttons abundant, usually

smooth, sometimes spinose, usually irregular in

outline and often reduced to single row of three or

four holes, occasionally quite regular buttons are

present, with three pairs of holes.

Type-species: Holothuria pardalis Selenka,

1867; designated by Deichmann, 1958:295.

Six species are included under this subgenus.

Only one species is known from the Indian seas.

Holothuria (Lessonothuria) pardalis Selenka

(Fig. 3, D & E)

Holothuria pardalis Selenka, 1867, p. 336: Sandwich

Island (Hawaiian Island); Ludwig, 1887, p. 1226: Ceylon (Sri

Lanka); Theel, 1886, p. 224: Nicobar; Bell, 1 888: Gulf of Mannar;

Koehler & Vaney, 1908, p. 13: Tavoy, Mcrgui Archipelago,

Cheduba Island, Andaman Island; Gravely, 1927, p. 164: Gulf of

Mannar; Gideon et al. 1957, p. 704: Gulf of Kutch; Sane &

Chhapgar, 1962, p. 673: Bombay; A. M. Clark & Davies, 1966, p.

600: Maldives: Gopalakrishnan, 1969, p. 400: Gulf of Kutch;

James, 1969, p. 61: Gulf of Mannar, Andamans, Laccadives

(Lakshadweep), Gulf of Kutch; Nagabhushanam & Rao, 1972, p.

291: Minicoy Atoll (Lakshadweep); Satyamurti, 1976, p. 51:

Shingle Island (Gulf of Mannar).

Holothuria lineata Bell, 1887a, p. 140: Andaman Island.

Holothuria caesarea Bell, 1887b, p.654: Ceylon (Sri

Lanka).

Holothuria ( Lessonothuria) pardalis James, 1 989b, p. 1 27:

Chetlat, Bitra, Kiltan, Minicoy (Lakshadweep).

Material: Pulli Island (Gulf of Mannar), four

specimens; Port Blair (South Andamans), several

specimens; Rangat Bay (Middle Andamans), two

specimens; Mayabunder (North Andamans), one

specimen; Port Okha (Gulf of Kutch), two

specimens; Ratnagiri (west coast of India), one

specimen; Ghetlat, three specimens; Kiltan, four

specimens; Minicoy, two specimens;

(Lakshadweep); Specimens from Pulli Island

192

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92(1995)

B 0 05 MM

^ o • x Mm

Fig. 3. Spicules of: A-C. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) Uutcospiloia - A. Spicules from the body wall; B. Spicules in the process of

breakdown; C. Spicules from tubefeet; D. Holothuria (Lessonothuria) parclalis', E. Radial and interradial plates of Holothuria (L.)

parclalis', F. Spicules from the tubefeet of Holothuria (L.) parclalis', G. Holothuria (Cystipus) ripicla (from adult speeimen);

H. Holothuria (Cystipus) rigida) (from juveniles).

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OE HOLOTHURIA

193

collected from dead coral crevices and other

specimens collected under coral stones in the

intertidal region.

Description: The length of the specimens

examined ranged from 50 mm to 1 50 mm. The body

is spindle-shaped, tapering at both ends. Mouth and

anus are terminal. The mouth is surrounded by 20

small tentacles and anus is surrounded by a crown

of papillae. The dorsal and ventral sides are not

well demarcated. The papillae and pedicels are small

and few. They are not arranged in rows or bands.

The papillae are 3-4 mm in length and the pedicels

are provided with larger discs. The body wall is

smooth and thin.

The calcareous ring is comparatively small

and delicate, the pieces being rather loosely joined.

Interradials are as wide as or wider than the radials

(Fig. 3, E). Each radial piece is prolonged slightly

further forward than the interradial and has the usual

roundish incision. The anterior edge of the

interradial has a small tooth. In a specimen

dissected, there were two polian vesicles and a single

stone canal. The left tree is much longer than the

right one.

The spicules (Fig. 3, D) consist of tables,

buttons and curved rods. The tables are provided

with spinous discs, usually somewhat irregular in

shape and have a low spine with generally eight

teeth. The top of the table is square-shaped. The

diameter of the discs of the table varies from 0.048

mm to 0.066 mm, and the height of the tables varies

from 0.045 mm to 0.052 mm. The disc of each table

has a central hole and eight small peripheral holes.

Four spires arise from the base of the disc and are

connected by a cross beam. The edge of the disc is

slightly irregular, and in some specimens the edge

is smooth and slightly raised. Buttons and

pseudobuttons are present. The buttons are arranged

in rings or in circles and are smooth with three or

four pairs of holes. The pseudo-buttons are usually

irregular in outline and often reduced to a single

row of three or four holes. The length of the buttons

varies from 0.038 mm to 0.9 1 mm, and the breadth

from 0.017 mm to 0.038 mm.

Colour is variable. In the living condition light

brown with white and dark patches. In large forms

(150 mm in length) there are 8 to 15 pairs of brown

spots. Small specimens (50 mm in length) are light

brown with very small brown specks scattered over

it. Spots characteristic of the adult are absent.

Remarks: Specimens below 50 mm are

difficult to separate from Holothuria (Thymiosycia)

arenicolci, since both show the same colour pattern

and live together. In small Holothuria

( Thymiosycia ) arenicola, the cloacal opening has a

light brown ring round it. The species Holothuria

(Lessonothuria) multipilula described as new by

Liao (1976) is based on a young specimen (48 mm

in length) of Holothuria (Lessonothuria) pardalis.

The differences pointed out by him in the tables are

clearly due to the immaturity of the specimen.

Notes on habits: This is one of the

commonest holothurians around Port Blair

(Andamans) and also at Lakshadweep, usually

found buried in sand under coral stones. Though

not an active holothurian, the tentacles are well

extended during movements. It occurs along with

Holothuria ( Thymiosycia ) impatiens, H.

(Thymiosycia) arenicola and H. (Thymiosycia) hillci.

A fossorial form like H. (Thymiosycia) arenicola ,

the surface of the body has very few pedicels and

papillae and the body appears to be smooth.

Burrowing is effected through the alternate circular

and longitudinal contractions of the muscles. At

Pull i vasal Island in the Gulf of Mannar, this species

lives inside the crevices of dead coral colonies. It

was impossible to pull out the specimens from the

coral crevices as they were too large for the crevices.

When the holothurians were small, they must have

entered the coral crevices to take shelter, and as

they grow larger their body gets constricted at

certain places in order to be accommodated in the

crevices, as the holothurians themselves cannot bore

into the corals. Most of the specimens, when they

were removed from the dead coral colony by

breaking the colony into small pieces, were found

to have deep scars, constrictions and different colour

pattern at the places of constriction. The obvious

reason for the holothurians to lodge themselves in

the coral colony is for shelter. For food, they have

194

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 92(1995)

to entirely depend on the organisms swept in by the

current of water during high tide. At Chetlat Island

in Lakshadweep, one specimen was lodged deep in

a dead coral colony.

Distribution: It is known from the islands of the

Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East

Africa and Madagascar, Red Sea, S.E. Arabia,

West Cost of India, Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka, Bay of

Bengal, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines,

China, South Pacific Islands and the Hawaiian

Islands. James (1969) recorded it for the first time

from Lakshadweep. A widely distributed species.

Subgenus Cystipus Haacke, 1880

Diagnosis: Tentacles 20; pedicels more or less

confined to the ventral ambulacral areas, papillae

small and scattered dorsally, a lateral flange of

papillae sometimes evident, anal papillae and

‘collar’ of papillae around the base of the tentacles

not apparent; body wall not very thick, usually 2

(1-8) mm, often gritty to the touch; body rather

vermiform or dorsoventrally flattened; size small

to moderate, up to 200 mm long; calcareous ring

fairly stout with radial plates twice as long as

interradial plates, spicules consisting of tables with

usually knobbed discs and low spire bearing many

short spines which are sometimes numerous, buttons

usually simple with large regularly or irregularly

arranged knobs, generally 3-4 pairs, but up to 7

pairs, of relatively small holes which may become

obscured somewhat by the immensity of the knobs,

rarely the buttons are modified into fenestrated

ellipsoides.

Type-species: Cystipus pleuripus Haacke,

1 880, by monotypy; a synonym of Stichopus rigidus

Selenka, 1867, according to Deichmann, 1958.

Rowe ( 1 969) included nine species under this

subgenus. He is of the opinion that all of them

included under the subgenus Cystipus are valid. The

nominal genera Fossothurici and Jaegerothuria of

Deichmann (1958) are synonymous with the

subgenus Cystipus.

Four species are known under this subgenus

from the Indo-West Pacific. Only one species is

known from Indian seas.

Holothuria (Cystipus) rigida (Selenka)

(Fig. 3, G - H)

Stichopus rigidus Selenka (Partime) 1867, p. 317:

Zanzibar, Hawaii.

Holothuria rigida James, 1982, p. 5; Tikader& Das, 1985,

p. 99: Andaman & Nicobar Islands;

Holothuria (Cystipus) rigida Soota et al. 1983, p. 509:

Port Blair, Little Andaman, Sound Island, Nancowry; James, 1986a,

p. 585: Lakshadweep-Maldives, Andaman-Nicobar Islands; James,

1989b, p. 127: Kiltan (Lakshadweep).

Material: Port Blair (South Andamans), four

specimens, Mayabunder (North Andamans), one

specimen; Kiltan (Lakshadweep), two specimens,

all found buried in the sand under stones in the

intertidal region.

Description: The specimens examined varied

in length from 20 mm to 90 mm. The body is dorso-

ventrally flattened with the two ends blunt. The body

wall is rigid. The dorsal side is convex and the

ventral side is Hat. The body is clearly demarcated

into dorsal and ventral sides by the presence of

flange of papillae which are triangular. In small

forms (30-50 mm in length), the dorsal side has

low warts of different sizes. On the ventral side,

there are three bands of pedicels. Each band has

two rows of pedicels. They are small and retracted.

In large forms (90 mm in length), the dorsal side is

smooth and free from warts. On the midventral

region there are two rows of pedicels which are

closely placed. The other two rows of pedicels are

just below the lateral flange of papillae. These rows

are distinct with two or three pedicels arranged side

by side.

The radial pieces have the anterior end

broader with a deep notch and small depression at

the narrow posterior end. The interradials have an

anterior knob-like projection (Fig. 3, H).

The spicules consist of buttons, tables and

supporting plates. In large forms (90 mm in length),

the buttons (Fig. 3, G) are short with regular knobs

on them. Each button has eight knobs at the centre.

The length of the buttons is 0.08 mm, and the

breadth is 0.04 mm. In large forms, some of the

buttons are without knobs and have three pairs of

hoi es. In smaller forms (35 mm in length) the

buttons are long with seven knobs on each side. The

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTH U R I A

195

tables are simple with 1-3 knobs and end in two or

three low projections. The supporting plates in the

pedicels are roughly fusiform with one or two holes

at either end and a few holes at the centre.

In the living condition, the colour is yellowish-

white on the dorsal side and light yellow on the

ventral side. Larger forms have ten pairs of light

black spots on the dorsal side.

Remarks: Holothuria jousseaumei, described

by Cherbonnier (1955) from the Red Sea, is a

synonym of Holothuria (Cystipus) rigida, since the

new species is based on a young specimen of 30-40

mm length. A specimen of H. ( Cystipus ) rigida of

35 mm length collected from Port Blair (Andamans)

has the same type of spicules described for H.

jousseaumei by Cherbonnier (1955). After its first

report, no specimen has been referred to this species.

The specimens identified as H. (Cystipus)

rigida by Mukhopadhyaya (1988) appear to have

been based on juvenile specimens of H. (Metriatyla)

scabra which are common in the localities

mentioned by him. The spicules of juveniles of H.

(Metriatyla) scabra (Fig. 4, B) bear a resemblance

to those of H. (Cystipus) rigida. It was not possible

to get the specimens from the Indian Museum to

re-examine them.

Notes on habits: It is a secretive species found

buried in sand and lives under stones. In small

specimens (30-50 mm in length), sand sticks to the

body as a coating. It is an inactive holothurian,

showing very little movement in the living

condition, thus it escapes attention during collection.

Distribution: Known from the Mascarene

Islands, East Africa and Madagascar, Red Sea, East

Indies, North Australia, Philippines and South

Pacific Islands. James (1986a) reported this species

for the first time from the Bay of Bengal and from

the Lakshadweep (James 1989b).

Subgenus Theelothuria Deichmann, 1958

Diagnosis: Tentacles 18-20; pedicels

irregularly arranged on the flattened ventral surface,

papillae small to large and conical, irregularly

arranged dorsally except for the lateral flange of

papillae, a ‘collar’ of papillae usually present around

the base of the tentacles, anal papillae usually

apparent; body wall usually very thin and

parchment-like, rarely more than 1 (1-2) mm thick,

gritty to the touch; body with a distinctly flattened

ventral ‘sole,’ arched dorsally; size moderate to

large, up to 250 mm long; calcareous ring stout and

well developed, radial plates with more or less well

developed posterior bifurcations, radial plates up to

twice as long as the interradial plates, both radials

and interradials may be longer than broad; spicules

consisting of well-developed tables with smooth or

spinose discs, sometimes the disc multi-armed, spire

low, moderate or high, usually terminating in a

cluster of small spines, some tables with perfectly

smooth spire tapering to a pointed apex giving the

whole table a tack-like appearance, buttons either

simple with irregular moderate-sized knobs or

modified into fenestrated ellipsoids.

Type-species: Holothuria pinceps Selenka,

1867; designated by Deichmann, 1958:325.

Ten species are included in this subgenus of

which only one is known from the seas around India.

Holothuria (Theelothuria) spinifera Theel, 1886

(PI. 2, B; Fig. 4, A)

Holothuria spinifera Theel, 1886, p. 175: Philippines;

Pearson, 1913, p. 88: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); James, 1 969, p. 6 1 : Gulf

of Mannar & Palk Bay; James, 1973, p. 710: Gulf of Mannar &

Palk Bay; James, 1982, p. 5; James, 1983a, p. 102; Rao et ai.

1985, p. 89: Gulf of Mannar.

Holothuria (Theelothuria) spinifera Mary Bai, 1980, p.

15; James, 1986a, p. 585: Sri Lanka, Gulf of Mannar-Palk Bay;

James, 1986b, p. 1 : Gulf of Mannar & Palk Bay, James, 1989a, p.

6: Gulf of Mannar & Palk Bay.

Material: Mandapam (Gulf of Mannar), two

specimens, at 5 metres depth; Devipattinam (Palk

Bay), several specimens, 2-10 metres; Tuticorin

(Gulf of Mannar), several specimens, 2-5 metres.

Description: The specimens examined were

150-200 mm in length. The body is cylindrical and

robust with both ends rounded. Mouth is surrounded

by a collar of papillae. There are 20 tentacles. Anus

is surrounded by live distinct cylindrical papillae,

which gives a stellate appearance. On the dorsal

side, there are a number of long papillae which are

sparsely distributed. On the ventral side, there are

196

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

large pedicels which are thinly distributed. There

is no regular arrangement either for the pedicels or

papillae.

Spicules (Fig. 4, A) consist of buttons, tables

and supporting plates. The buttons are either

knobbed or smooth. Very small buttons are smooth.

Generally there are three pairs of holes for each

button. Sometimes the middle hole is larger than

the other two. Very rarely, some buttons are smooth.

The length of the buttons varies from 0.035 mm to

0.066 mm, and the breadth from 0.024 mm to 0.038

mm. The tables have short spires and broad discs.

Generally there are 8 to 10 peripheral holes which

are oval in shape. At the centre of the spire, there is

a single hole. The top of the spire ends in an

expanded rectangle which has spinous margins.

There is a single cross-bar for each table. The height

of each table is 0.07 mm. The diameter of the discs

varies from 0.071 mm to 0.085 mm. The papillae

have long tables which have irregular discs with

numerous holes. The spire has two to four holes

and two to three cross beams. The tip of the spire of

these tables is blunt. The height of the tables varies

from 0.21 mm to 0.026 mm, and width varies from

0.12 mm to 0.28 mm. The supporting plates are

numerous and common among the calcareous

deposits of this species.

The supporting plates are large and most of

them are elongated, while a few are short and broad.

Each of them has a number of holes. Generally, the

tables at the centre are larger than those at either

end. The length of the supporting plates varies from

0.10 mm to 0.28 mm, and breadth from 0.047 mm

to 0.141 mm.

In the living condition, light brown with white

markings. The ventral side is paler in colour.

Distribution: The distribution of this species

is restricted. It is known from the Red Sea, Persian

Gulf, Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, Sri Lanka,

North Australia, Philippines and China.

Remarks: Earlier, this was one of the two

species commercially processed from the Gulf of

Mannar and Palk Bay. Hornell (1917) wrote that

this species has a very high value for Beche-de-

mer, but in recent years this is not preferred by

buyers.

Subgenus Metriatyla Rowe, 1969

Diagnosis: Tentacles 20; pedicels irregularly

arranged on the flattened ventral ‘sole’, papillae

usually quite large and conical and irregularly

arranged dorsally, a lateral flange of papillae

sometimes evident, a ‘collar’ of papillae around the

base of the tentacles often present, anal papillae

variously developed; body wall usually quite thin,

about 2 (1-5) mm thick, and gritty to the touch;

body is usually Battened ventrally, arched dorsally;

size small to moderate, up to 200 mm long;

calcareous ring quite well developed with radial

plates up to three times as long as the interradials;

spicules consisting of well-developed tables with

smooth disc and spire either of moderate height or

high, terminating in a few to many small spines,

tables rarely absent, buttons simple, with moderate-

sized irregularly arranged knobs and three to ten

pairs of relatively large holes.

Type-species: Holothuria scabra Jaeger,

1833:23; designated by Rowe, 1969:160. Nine

species are included under this subgenus. Four

species are known from the seas around India. One

species has been collected and presented in this

work.

Key to the Indian species of the subgenus

1 . Tables high, with up to seven cross pieces

H. (Metriatyla) martensi Semper, 1868

1 Tables of moderate height. 2

2. Tables terminate in a large mass of spines

H. (Metriatyla) albiventer Semper, 1868

2'. Tables terminate in a few small spines 3

3. Dorsal side of the body usually with light yellow cross bands

H. (Metriatyla) scabra Jaeger, 1833

3'. Dorsal side of the body with round markings

H. (Metriatyla) ocellata Jaeger, 1833

Holothuria (Metriatyla) scabra Jaeger

(PI. 2, C; Fig. 4, B&C)

Holothuria scabra Jaeger. 1 833, p. 23: East Indies; Ludwig,

1887, p. 1224: Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Koehler & Vaney, 1 908, p. 16:

Andaman Islands, Mergui Archipelago; Pearson, 1910, p. 193:

Mergui Archipelago; Gravely, 1927, p. 165: Gulf of Mannar. James,

1969, p. 61: Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kutch; James, 1973, p. 710:

Gulf of Mannar & Palk Bay; Satyamurti, 1976, p.53: Krusadai

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92 Plate 2

James: Holothuria

D. Holothuria ( Microthele ) nobilis.

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF HOLOTHURI A

197

Island (Gulf of Mannar); James, 1 978, p. 60: Palk Bay; Parulekar,

198 l,p. 33: Malvan; James, 1982, p. 5: James, 1983a, p. 94: James,

1983b, p. 85: Mayabunder, Diglipur (Andamans); Tikader& Das,

1985, p. 99: Andaman & Nicobar Islands; Rao etal., 1985, p. 89:

Gulf of Mannar & Palk Bay; James, 1987, p. 112: Diglipur &

Mayabunder (Andamans).

Holothuria cadelli Bell, 1887a, p. 144: Andaman Island;

Daniel & Haider, 1974, p. 419: Andamans.

Holothuria gallensis Pearson, 1903, p. 203: Ceylon (Sri

Lanka).

Holothuria (Metriatyla) scabra Mary Bai, 1980, p. 15;

Soota, etal. 1983, p. 512: Andamans; James, 1986a, p. 585:

Lakshadweep-Maldives, Sri Lanka, Gulf of Mannar & Palk Bay;

James, 1986b, p. 2: Gulf of Mannar & Palk Bay, Andamans, Gulf

of Kutch; James, 1 989b, p. 6: Andamans, Gulf of Mannar & Palk

Bay; James, 1 99 1 , p. 65 1.

Holothuria (Metriatyla) ocellata Mukhopadhyay, 1988,

p. 6: Gulf of Mannar (Non Jaeger, 1833, p. 19).

Holothuria (Cystipus) rigida Mukhopadhyay, 1988, p. 7:

Krusadai, Pamban, Mandapam Camp, Vedalai, (Gulf of of Mannar)

(Non//, scarba Jaeger, 1833, p. 19.

Material: Diglipur (North Andamans),

several specimens; Rangat (Middle Andamans),

several specimens; Port Blair (South Andamans),

several specimens; Mandapam (Gulf of Mannar &

Palk Bay), several specimens; Tuticorin (Gulf of

Mannar), several specimens; Jamnagar (Gulf of

Kutch), two specimens, all specimens collected from

the intertidal to 5 metres depth.

Description: The specimens examined varied

in length from 30 mm to 400 mm. The body is robust

with both the ends blunt. The dorsal side is convex

and the ventral side is flat. The skin in large

specimens (300-400 mm length) is very thick (10-

15 mm) and slimy to touch. On the dorsal side, there

are many small papillae which are mainly scattered

and often inconspicuous. On the ventral side the

pedicels are densely distributed without any

arrangement. Each dark spot on the ventral side

represents one pedicel.

There are two large polian vesicles and a

single stone canal. The calcareous ring is of the usual

type. The left respiratory tree is much larger than

the right. The paired radial muscles are not in firm

contact with the body wall.

The spicules consist of tables and buttons.

They differ remarkably in smaller (50 mm in length)

and larger (200-350 mm in length). Smaller

specimens have buttons (Fig. 4, B), which are large

with five pairs of holes in addition to a single hole

at each end. All buttons are knobbed. In addition to

the buttons, there are also irregular perforated plates.

The tables are short and the margins are not quite

round. Each table has a few to many holes. The

tables are short with a horizontal cross bar and a

crown of spines at the top, which are visible in lateral

view. In the apical view, eight outwardly pointed

spines are seen. In large specimens (Fig. 4, C), the

tables are short with a central hole and eight

peripheral holes. The spire consists of four vertical

bars which terminate in a few spines. There is a tier

of cross bars in the spire.

The buttons are small and have generally three

pairs of holes. The pedicels have small terminal

plates.

Colour in the living condition is grey to black

on the dorsal side, and white ventrally. Generally,

smaller specimens are totally black and larger

specimens have a number of irregular yellow

transverse bands on the dorsal side. One specimen

was brown.

Notes on habits: This species is characteristic

of muddy-sandy regions, and prefers less saline waters.

During low tide, a number of them can be seen half

buried as the posterior end of the body is always kept

outside. Small forms (50 mm to 90 mm in length) are

seen to lie freely on the muddy ground during low

tide. At some places there are 2-10 juveniles

distributed in an area of five square metres. It occurs

from the intertidal region to 10 metres depth, but is

mostly distributed at depths of 1-5 metres.

A pea crab Pinnotheres deccanensis lives

inside the cloaca. James (MS) has presented a

detailed account on the habits of the association.

Chopra (1932) reported the occurrence of this crab

inside the same species of holothurian from the

Andamans. Jones and Mahadevan (1965) gave an

account of this association from the Gulf of Mannar.

I have collected two gastropod parasites

Prostilifer sp. from this species. It appears to be

very rare and forms a gall in the body wall. Only

the tip of the shell is seen outside, and when it is

touched it is withdrawn. In each gall, only one

specimen is found. The parasite is firmly entrenched

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Fig. 4. Spicules of: A. Holothuria ( Tlieelothuria ) spin if era', B. Holothuria ( Metriatyla ) scabra (from juvenile); C. Holothuriu

(Metriatyla) scabra (from adult); D. Holothuria ( Microthele ) nobilis.

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OE HOLOTH U R I A

199

in the body wall, and can be taken out only by cutting

the body wall. Waren (1983) reported P.

subpellucicla from the body wall of Bohadschia

argus from the Pacific. Usually a male and a female

are found together in the same gall.

At Port Blair (Andamans) during February,

1978 a total of 462 juveniles ranging in length from

65 mm, to 1 60 mm were collected from the intertidal

region ‘at South Point. These were transferred to an

enclosed place for further growth. After six months,

they had grown to a good size.

Remarks: It is surprising that Pearson ( 1903)

describes this well known species as a new species

Holothuria gal lens is from Sri Lanka. This is the

most valuable species for processing from India.

Fresh specimens cost Rs. 30-50 depending on size

and processed material costs Rs. 650.00 to Rs.

700.00 per kg. James (1986e) wrote on the quality

improvement of Beche-de-mer James (1973, 1986b,

1987, 1989a, 1989c) and also wrote on the Beehe-

de-mer from Holothuria (Metriatyla) scabra and

other species.

James et al. (1988), for the first time,

succeeded in inducing this holothurian to spawn in

the laboratory and produce seed. Now culture and

sea ranching of this species is taken up by the

C.M.F.R. Institute.

Distribution: Known from the Mascarene

Islands, East Africa, Madagascar, Red Sea, S.E.

Arabia, Sri Lanka, Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay,

East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, China and

South Pacific Islands. This species is not distributed

in Lakshadweep. (The distributional record given

by James (1986a) from Lakshadweep-Maldives is

based on distributional record given by A.M. Clark

and Rowe (1971) from Maldives.)

Subgenus Microthele Brandt, 1835

Diagnosis: Tentacles 20; pedicels and papillae

indistinguishable, scattered ventrally and dorsally,

no apparent ‘collar’ of papillae around the base of

the tentacles, anus usually with five calcified

papillae only, though in. smaller specimens (up to

200 mm long) more papillae may be present, and

in very large specimens (over 400 mm long) anal

papillae may be entirely lacking; body wall very

thick, usually 5 (5-10 mm); body rather cylindrical;

size large or even massive, up to 600 mm long;

calcareous ring massive, with distinctly scalloped

anterior margin, radial and interradial plates

squarish, the radials being about twice the length

of the interradials; spicules consisting of stout, well

developed tables with smooth squarish disc, spire

of moderate height, terminating in many small

spines, buttons usually always hollow fenestrated

ellipsoids though a few simple buttons may be

present.

Type-species: Holothuria (Metriatyla)

maculata Brandt, 1835: 54 = Muelleria nobilis

Selenka, 1867; designated by A.M. Clark & F.W.E.

Rowe, 1967:100). At present, only one species is

included under this subgenus.

Holothuria (Microthele) nobilis (Selenka)

(PL 2, D; Fig. 4, D)

Mulleria nobilis Selenka, 1 867, p. 3 1 3: Zanzibar, Sandwich

Islands (Hawaiian Islands).

Holothuria maculata Bell, 1887 a, p. 140: Andaman

Island.

Holothuria ( Microthele ) nobilis Price & Reid, 1985, p. 4:

Chetlat Island (Lakshadweep); James,' 1989a, p. 5: Lakshadweep,

Andamans; James, 1989b, p. 128: Chetlat, Kiltan, Kadmat, Amini,

Kavaratti, (Lakshadweep); James, 1989c,p. 148: Lakshadweep.

Microthele nobilis A.M. Clark & Davies, 1966, p. 600:

Maldives; James, 1 969, p. 6 1 : Lakshadweep, James, 1 973, p. 707.

Material: Port Blair (South Andamans), one

specimen; Chetlat, several specimens; Kadmat,

three specimens; Amini, several specimens;

Kavaratti, two specimens; Minicoy, one specimen,

all collected from the lagoon, depth less than a

metre.

Description: The specimens examined varied

in length from 250 mm to 400 mm. The body is

massive and tubular in shape. Live weight varies

from 2 to 3 kg in fresh condition. Body wall is JO-

15 mm in thickness. Pedicels and papillae are

indistinguishable. Dorsal papillae are more thinly

scattered than the ventral pedicels. Anus is

surrounded by five calcified papillae. Calcareous

ring is massive with distinctly scalloped anterior

margin. The radials and interradials are squarish.

200

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92(1995)

Radials are twice the length of the interradials.

Tentacular ampullae are very large.

Spicules (Fig. 4, D) consist of tables and

buttons. The tables are robust with smooth discs

and the spires terminate in 15-20 small spines. The

diameter of the table varies from 0.06 mm to 0.08

mm. The disc of the tables is either irregularly

rounded or square-shaped. The inner layer has

closely packed hollow fenestrated ellipsoids which

are 0.07 mm in length. They have four rows of holes.

A few simple knobbed buttons are also present.

This species occurs in two colour forms, white

and black. At Lakshadweep the colour pattern is as

follows. The general colour is black on the dorsal

side and white or yellowish white mottled with black

or brown on a white background.

Notes on habits: The species lies freely in

the lagoon in the adult stage and is often covered

with a coating of sand. Young white forms live

among the algae. The white form is found in more

than 3 m depth of water. It occurs up to 30 metres

depth. It is most abundant on clean sand among the

reefs. The black form is found in shallow waters

from the reef to about a depth of 3 m.

Remarks: The species is very valuable for

beche-de-mer preparation. Though abundant in

Lakshadweep, it is not processed at present. The

white form is said to be more valuable for processing

than the black one.

Distribution: It is distributed in the Islands

of the Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands,

East Africa and Madagascar, Red Sea,

Lakshadweep, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Andamans,

East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, China,

South Pacific Islands and the Hawaiian Islands.

Zoogeography

The genus Holothuria is common and well

represented in the seas around India. Of the 18

species of Holothuria collected from the

Lakshadweep, west coast of India, east coast of

India, Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay and the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands, only one species

namely Holothuria (Semperothuria) cinerascens

was collected from all the five geographic locations

mentioned above. Surprisingly, it is not the

ubiquitous holothurian Holothuria (Halodeima)

atra of the Indian Seas. This species needs algal

beds for its existence and is found to feed extensively

on the calcareous alga Halimeda sp. Of the 18

species, 13 were collected from Lakshadweep, 6

from the West Coast of India, 2 from the East Coast

of India and 17 from the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands. Holothuria (Theelothuria) spinifera is not

distributed in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands^

Lakshadweep and also on the west coast of India. It

has a restricted and discontinuous distribution,

being known from the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf

of Mannar and Palk Bay, Sri Lanka, North

Australia, Philippines and China. James (1983a)

reported this species for the first time from Madras

(east coast of India). Holothuria (Metriatyla)

scabra , the most valuable species for Beche-de-

mer preparation from India is not distributed in

Lakshadweep. James (1986a) listed Holothuria

(Metriatyla) scabra in the Distributional Table

under the region Lakshadweep-Maldives, based on

positive record of the specimens in the British

Museum (A.M. Clark and Rowe 1971). A.M. Clark

and Spencer Davies (1966) state that Gardiner’s

locality labels were removed while the collections

were still in Colombo and the Maidive specimens

were mixed up with others from Chagos

Archipelago, Seychelles, Amirantes and Red Sea.

Holothuria ( Metriatyla ) scabra collected from the

Red Sea, Seychelles or other locality would have

been given the wrong locality label as Maldives.

The papers published on the Maidive echinoderms

and a collection of echinoderms from the Maldives

examined by the author do not contain this species.

To-day Beche-de-mer is a flourishing industry in

the Maldives. James and Ali Manikfan ( 1 994) wrote

a paper on the Beche-de-mer industry of Maldives

in which no mention of the species is made. One of

us (AM) examined large samples at Maldives and

could not find a single specimen. As a result of a

thorough survey, it is certain that it does not occur

at Lakshadweep (James 1989b, 1989c). The faunal

composition of the two regions is similar and

therefore it is safe to conclude that the positive

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE SPECIES OF H OLOTH U R I A

201

record from the British Museum is based on wrong

locality label. The east and west coasts of India are

poorly represented by the genus Holothuria due to

lack of coral reefs. This excludes the Gulf of Mannar

and Palk Bay and also the Gulf of Kutch. Intensive

collections have not been made from the Gulf of

Kutch. The distribution of the species of Holothuria

from the five regions is given in Table 1 .

Table 1

DISTRIBUTION OF THE SPECIES OF Holothuria FROM

INDIAN SEAS

LK-Lakshadweep; WC-west coast; EC-east coast; GM & PB- Gulf of

Mannar & Palk Bay; A & N- Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

As a result of my studies, the range of the

following species has been extended to the localities

noted against them.

Holothuria (Selenkothuria) moebii- Arabian

Sea; Holothuria ( Selenkothuria ) erinaceus- Arabian

Sea; Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) leucospilota-

Arabian Sea; Holothuria ( Platyperona ) difficilis-

Lakshadweep; Holothuria ( Lessonothuria ) pardalis-

Lakshadweep; Holothuria (Thymiosycia) arenicola-

Lakshadweep; Holothuria (Thymiosycia) impatiens-

Lakshadweep; Holothuria (Cystipus) rigida-

Lakshadweep; Holothuria ( Mertensiothuria )

pervicax- Lakshadweep; Holothuria

(Mertensiothuria) fuscocinerea- Andaman &

Nicobar Islands; Holothuria (Mertensiothuria)

pervicax- Andaman & Nicobar Islands; Holothuria

(Cystipus) rigida- Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

Habits of different species

The species of the genus Holothuria live

chiefly among corals as fugitive forms. That is why

a good number of species are collected from

Lakshadweep Islands, Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay

and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Rowe (1969)

listed surf-zone species, fugitive species and

fossorial species. In addition to these three divisions,

there are forms which live freely like Holothuria

(Halodeima) atra, Holothuria ( Halodeima ) edulis

and Holothuria (Microthele) nohilis. Table 2 lists

the species according to their habit.

From the Table 2, it is seen that fugitive forms

are maximum (8 nos.), followed by fossorial forms

(5 nos.), free living forms (3 nos.) and surf zone

forms (2 nos.). It is also seen that all species

belonging to one subgenus do not exhibit the same

habit. The same species exhibits different habits at

different places. H. (Halodeima) edulis, which is a

free living form occurring below low-water mark

in the Indian seas, is reported to live under stones

at Guam by Rowe and Doty (1977). H.

(Selenkothuria) erinaceus, which is reported to be

a surf zone species, is found to be fossorial at

Andamans, burying completely in mud. Similarly

H. ( Thymiosycia ) arenicola which is listed as

fugitive species by Rowe (1969) is truly fossorial at

202

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92(1995)

Tabi.h2

LIST OF THE SPECIES UNDER THE GENUS Holothuria ACCORDING TO THEIR HABITS

Lakshadweep. At times, H. ( Mertensiothuria )

leucospilota occurs along with H. (Halodeima) atra

as a free living species. H. ( Mertensiothuria )

leucospilota has the habit of tucking its posterior

end under rocks, whereas in case of H.

(Acanthotrapeza) pyxis the posterior end is firmly

entrenched among rocks and it is impossible to pull

out specimens without damaging them. H.

(Theelothuria) spinifera buries completely into

sand, whereas H. (Metriatyla) scabra is partly

buried and keeps the posterior end out of sand. Rowe

(1969) has listed Holothuria ( Halodeima ) atra and

Rhei

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Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. S. Jones, former Director

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AUTUMN MIGRATION OF BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER

C LIMICOLA FALCINELLUS PONTOPP) IN KAZAKHSTAN1

E.I. Gavrilov2, A.E. Gavrilov, S.N. Erokhov, V.V. KhrokoU

Key words: waders, broad-billed sandpiper, autumn migration, Kazakhstan

Observations in 1975-1985 in Kazakhstan showed that autumn migration of Broad -billed Sandpiper

begins in July (mean date is July 1 8) and lasts up to end of Augsut or middle of September (mean date is September

7). First of all adult birds migrate and juveniles follow them some time later. Differences in migration dates, wing-

length and weight of adults and juveniles, males and females are discussed also.

The Broad-billed Sandpiper ( Limicola

falcinellus Pontopp.) is a rare wader species in our

fauna. The biology, including breeding and

migratory activities is still insufficiently known

(Gladkov 1951, Kozlova 1962). As to its autumn

migration the Broad-billed Sandpiper was recorded

in different regions of Kazakhstan only about

10 times (Dolgushin 1962). Thus data on Broad-

billed Sandpiper collected over the last several years

are an essential supplement to the available

literature.

Investigations on the Broad-billed

Sandpiper’s autumn migration were conducted in

Central Kazakhstan in 1975-1977, namely in

reservoirs of the lower reaches of Turgai river

(48°28'N, 62°09'E); in Tengiz-Kurgaldjinskaya

cavity [Kipshak lake (50° 12' N, 68° 24' E) and

Tengiz lake (50°32' N, 69°20' E); 1983]; in the

overflow of artesian chink near Telikul lake system

in the lower reaches of Sarysu river (42° 30' N, 67°

10' E; 1986); in south-eastern part of the republic

in 1977-1985, namely in Sorbulak that is a reservoir

accumulating sewage in the environs of Alma-Ata

(43° 46' N, 76° 05' E); in Sasykkol lake (Balkhash-

Alakkol hollow, 46° 41' N, 80° 36' E; 1981).

In July-September birds were trapped with

mist nets and “daradanes” of 10-75 m length. Traps

were used to determine the number of small waders

(Gavrilov 1980). The standard length of a net was

10 m and net used per twenty-four hours was 100.

'Accepted November 1990.

2 Animal Marking Centre, Institute of Zoology and Animals, Genetic

Fund of NAS RK, Kazakhstan 480032 Almaty, Academgorodok.

institute of Zoology, National Academy of Sciences of the

Kazakhstan Republic.

The age of the captured Broad-billed

Sandpipers (total number 376) was determined from

the form of tertials feathera apex, its shabby

appearance, colour of throat and crop. The

maximum wing length was calculated with the help

of a stop-ruler. Balance VLTK-500 (accurate to 0. 1

g) was used to obtain weight.

Statistical treatment was done on

microcalculator Casio fx-39. A number of figures

of less than 50 were considered as small selection.

Median date of Broad-billed Sandpiper passage was

determined when 50% of the birds were captured

(Preston 1966).

The arrival of the first Broad-billed Sandpiper

in Central and South-Eastern part of Kazakhstan

did not differ: in July it was 9-23, mean data of 5

years-July 18 (G = 6.93), in July 10-25, mean data

of 9 years was July 18 (G = 5.36) respectively. On

Sorbulak lake over a period of 8 years early

migratory activities were observed in 1977, 1979-

1981, 1983 (mid July), and late ones — in 1978,

1 982 and 1 985 (late July), with the variation of their

first arrival being 14 days.

The total dynamics of migration is

characterized by two passage waves — from mid

July till early August, and from mid August till early

September (Table 1). This is a result of a

considerable difference in the periods of juvenile

and adult migratory activities. Adults are initiators

of the passage. In Central Kazakhstan median date

of their migration - July 22, in south-eastern part-

July 27, as a whole for the Republic-July 26. In

Central Kazakhstan the last few adults were

recorded during July 23- August 15, mean data of 4

years was August 4 (G= 9.43), in south-eastern part

206

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92(1995)

during July 29-August 26, mean data of 9 years

was August 1 1 (g= 8.04). In the south-eastern part

of the Republic migratory activities of adult Broad-

billed Sandpipers usually come to the end in early

August, but in 1982, when passage began only in

July 23, birds were recorded till August 26, so that

in the second half of the month, 8 of them were

captured, which represented 72.7% of the total

number for the whole year.

Juveniles began their autumn passage a month

later than adults. In Central Kazakhstan the first

juveniles were captured in August 13-16, mean data

of 4 years was August 1 5 (g= 2.06), in south-eastern

part of the Republic in August 3-22, mean data of 7

years was August 14 (g= 6.80). Median dates of

their passage are August 25 and 26 respectively, as

a whole for the Republic-August 25. In Central

Kazakhstan the last few Broad-billed Sandpipers

were recorded in August 18-September 17, mean

data of 4 years was August 29 (G= 13.25). The data

did not correspond to the actual situation, as in 1975,

1976 and 1983 there was no trapping work in

September at all. In the Tengiz-Kurgaldjiin a

juvenile female was trapped in September 10, 1969.

Taking this date into account August 31 is an

average date for the end of the passage according to

5 years of investigation (G= 12.72). In the south-

eastern part of the Republic the last few juveniles

were recorded in August 22-September 16, mean

data of 7 years was September 3 (g= 9.44).

Excluding 1977, 1980 (no trapping work in

September), last juveniles were captured in August

29-September 16, average data of 5 years was

September 7 (g= 8.41).

The analysis of the above material showed

simultaneous passage movement of Broad-billed

Sandpipers across the whole territory of Kazakhstan.

As to median dates of juvenile and adult migration,

in south-eastern parts they are 5 or 1 day later.

Completion of passage in this territory was

somewhat later also.

The Broad-billed Sandpiper chicks are cared

for by both parents at the beginning, but later on

female leaves the brood and only the adult male

takes care of the chicks (Cramp and Simmons 1 983).

There is an assumption that in eastern subspecies

of the Broad-billed Sandpiper the female does not

take any part either in incubating or in caring for

the young (Flint 1973). According to this biological

specificity adult females have to acquire their

Autumn migratory disposition earlier than the

males. In different years adult females were recorded

Tabi.h 1

AUTUMN MIGRATION DYNAMICS OF BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER IN KAZAKHSTAN

AUTUMN MIGRATION OF BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER IN KAZAKHSTAN

207

in July 16-August 6, average date was July 23

(n = 3; a = 12.12), adult males in July 20-August

16, average date was July 30 (n = 5; G = 10.48).

Sexual dimorphism is clearly expressed in Broad-

billed Sandpiper’s size and females have a longer,

wing span than males (Cramp and Simmons 1983).

We have analysed changes in wing length

throughout the season. Mean maxima of wing length

for adults in Sorbulak lake ( 1 980- 1 985) in July was

107.4 mm (n=40; G = 2.24) in August 106.2 mm

(n=22; G = 2.05). Average weight for adult males

was 32.6 g (n = 4; a = 6.04), for adult females 37.5

g (n=2; a = 6*93). In the first half period of

migration (till July 26) average weight figures of

adults in Sorbulak lake was 38.3 g (n=90; a = 5.6 1 ),

later on 37.9 g (n=81 ;G- 5.72). Though differences

in wing length and weight in different periods of

migration are statistically doubtful, reduction of

these parameters show a slight prevalence of males

over females in the second half of their passage.

Among juveniles males were recorded during

August 3-September 10, average date was August

26 (n=7; G = 13.37), females during August 13 -

Septemebr 1 3, average date was September 1 (n= 1 2;

G = 9.65). As juvenile females are larger than males

(Cramp and Simmons 1983), we have analysed

seasonal changes of average wing length in birds

captured on Sorbulak lake (1980-1985). In the 2nd

and 3rd weeks of August it was 106.7 and 106.6, in

September — 106.6 mm (n=14,14 and 5; G = 3.07

2.65 and 1.82 respectively), i.e. were identical. In

the lower reaches of Sarysu river (1986) juveniles

were seen in August 1 3 — September 1 7; in August

19-23 there was no birds at all. The average

maximum wing length recorded till August 18 was

108.4 mm (n=7; G = 2.94), later on 106.5 mm

(n=35; G = 3.17); birds captured in September it

was 106.5 mm (n=9; G = 3.24). Due to this data

juveniles (as also adults) with short wing length

(presumably male) were more frequent at the end

Tabi.k2

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATIONS OF WING LENGTH AND MASS FIGURES IN BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPERS IN

KAZAKHSTAN

208

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 92 (1995)

of their migratory activity, though average dates

of male and female records did not coincide

with these data.

Our investigations showed that in the juvenile

female weight figures were larger than in males.

For females 24.4-38.7 in average 35.4 g (n=12; a =

4.53); for males 22.0-37.2, average 30.1 g, (n=7; a

= 5.20). On Sorbulak lake through the first half of

the migratory period (till August 26) average weight

of juveniles was 32.8 g (n=57; o = 4.76) and later

on — 33.6 g (n=39; o = 4.68); in the low reaches of

Sarysu river it was 33.9 g (n=15; a = 6.00) and

38.7 g (n=27; o = 7.15) respectively.

Thus adult males start migrating somewhat

later than the females as is clear from average dates

of migration and decreasing of average wing length

and weight of birds to the end of their migration.

Differences in migratory dates are not large, to

ensure that females take part in caring for chicks.

For juveniles, there is no clear picture. On certain

dates females make their passage later than the

males, increase of average migratory mass in the

second half of migration is a confirmation of it; wing

length figures do not change or decrease. For the

last case it means prevalence of males over females.

It is necessary to stress that weight figures are not a

reliable index of male or female prevalence, as is

defined by the physiological state of a bird (by

amount of fat storage).

Population differences are not clearly

expressed in Broad-billed Sandpipers passing across

Central and South-Eastern Kazakhstan (Table 2).

In both age groups differences in average wing

length in these regions was less than 1 mm.

Differences in weight were not equal, in the south-

eastern part of the Republic they were larger for

adults by 3.8 g; in Central Kazakhstan for juveniles

by 2.6 g. Perhaps, it is connected with variations of

food storage in these regions, and also with

differences in migratory strategy.

Average weight figures of adults compared to

juveniles in different years showed that juveniles

had annual weight 1.2-8. 7 g less than adults

(Sorbulak lake); in the low reaches of Sarysu river

such figures comprised 0.5 g, in Kurgaldjiin

lakes juvenile’s weight exceeded adult’s by 1.4 g

(Table 3).

On Sorbulak lake during the period of 1977-

1 985 out of 264 Broad-billed Sandpipers 39 ( 1 4.8%)

were recaptured. From 164 adults, 17 (10.4%) had

breaks in their passage, from 100 juveniles, 22

(22.0%) had done so, an average duration of such

breaks form 10.1 and 6.5 days respectively. In

Central Kazakhstan (1975-1986) out of 87 Broad-

billed Sandpipers 14 (16.1%) were recaptured.

From 30 adults, 6 (20.0%) had breaks in their

Tabi.k 3

CHANGES IN AVERAGE WEIGHT FIGURES OF ADULT AND JUVENILE BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER FOR SEVERAL

YEARS DURING THEIR AUTUMN MIGRATION IN KAZAKHSTAN

AUTUMN MIGRATION OF BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER IN KAZAKHSTAN

209

Table 4

CHANGES IN WEIGHT FIGURES IN RECAPTURED BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER IN KAZAKHSTAN

DUE TO BREAK IN PASS AGE

passage, and from 57 juveniles, 8 (14.0%) had

stayed an average duration of 2.5 and 12.4 days

respectively.

The change in weight in resting Broad-billed

Sandpipers varied according to the duration of their

resting time (Table 4). During the short period of

time after trapping (up to 3 days) the birds (72.2%)

showed decrease in their weight, being in mean 1.3

g for every bird. Such a phenomenon is a

characteristic for many species being a result of

stresses the birds are exposed to in captivity.

Prolonged resting time led to a total increase of

weight, and some individuals showed excellent

ability to fat accumulation. In a 4 day period their

weight increased by 6.7 g, in 5 days- 9.4 g, in 6-

10.4, in 9-15.9, in 15-15.4, in 19-17.2 g.

Accumulation of stored fat during the resting

period up to 10 days averaged 0.3- 1.8 g/twentyfour

hours, and for more than 10 days 0.4-0.9 g/twenty-

four hours. The decrease of weight was sometimes

recorded during a period of long rest, and could be

explained by physical traumas of birds in mist-nets

(injury of wing, foot) that disturb their vital activity.

On Sorbulak lake under conditions of positive

weight balance, mean weight of 7 adults during their

resting time increased from 35.8 to 41.3 g (15.4%)

in 11 juveniles from 33.5 to 40.7 g (21.5%), in the

lower reaches of Sarysu river for 6 juveniles from

30.2 to 38.8 (28.5%). In the last case mean weight

of juveniles, captured during the same period of

time, but without recaptures, was 38.0 g (n=22; G =

6.28), i.e. practically similar to birds which had

accumulated stored fat during their resting time.

As a rule birds with less weight stopped their passage

for a resting period, though there were exceptions.

Thus in August a captured juvenile weighed 37.2 g

and after 9 days 53.1 g; a juvenile caught in August

21 weighed 43.1 g, and after 5 days 52.5 g.

The Broad-billed Sandpiper is low in numbers

everywhere in Kazakhstan. In reservoirs of Central

Kazakhstan they comprised in different years 0.27-

2.26, on an average 1.39 birds for 100 nets/twenty

four hours; in the south-eastern part up to 6.28,

and an average 2.43 birds for 100 nets/twenty four

hours. The largest change in number was noted in

Sorbulak lakes. In the first years of the lake’s

formation there was a considerable number of

Broad-billed Sandpipers. Beginning from 1980 a

progressive decrease in the number of resting birds

was noted (coinciding with decrease of average

weight in adults and juveniles). In 1984 none of

the Broad-billed Sandpiper were met, though from

1985 they began to stop there again. Marked

variations in number were connected with changes

of ecological situation, and as a result changes in

food storage. In the whole of the south-eastern part

of the Republic Broad-billed Sandpiper’s number

was 1.75 more than in the central part.

Usually Broad-billed Sandpiper had 4, rarely

3 eggs in its clutch in a year. The number of lost

nests and Hedged chicks are not known (Cramp and

Simmons 1983). In our material (Table 5) age ratio

(adults and juveniles) during the period of their

passage along the lower reaches of Turgai river and

Kurgaldjino, was 1:0.76 (capture was done only in

July and August). In the lower reaches of Sarysu

river it was 1:8.6. In total in reservoirs of Central

Kazakhstan for one adult 2.07 juveniles were

captured, which exceeds the natural fecundity of

the Broad-billed Sandpiper. During many years

210

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 92(1995)

adults were seen on Sorbulak lake though capture

activity continued till October. In 1978-1979

adults and juveniles migrated in good numbers and

age-ratio was 1 :0.84. On the whole the age-ratio

was 1:0.51 in the south-eastern part of the

Republic.

The Broad-billed Sandpipers migrate in a

wide front in Autumn across the land and

concentrated flyways are lacking (Cramp and

Simmons 1983). Only in Crimea flocks of up to

some hundreds of birds were recorded (Kostin

1983). Usually solitary birds, small groups of flocks

comprising 20-30 birds were observed. That is why

the assumption that age ratio in Autumn migration

reflects their fecundity, is correct. In this case low

breeding level was observed in 1977, 1981, 1983,

and high one in 1978, 1989, 1985. Perhaps it is

breeding success that resulted in number variations

of Broad-billed Sandpiper during their Autumn

passage as recorded by several authors (Nankinov

1985). At the same time a great number of juveniles,

caught in 1986 in the lower reaches of Sarysu river

in Telikyl lakes when the median date of their

migration was August 26, leads to the supposition

that a concentrated stream of juveniles pass in some

years through this region.

Tabi.h 5

NUMBER AND CORRELATION OF AGE GROUPS OF BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER DURING THE AUTUMN

MIGRATION IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF KAZAKHSTAN

AUTUMN MIGRATION OF BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER IN KAZAKHSTAN

21 1

The prevalence of adults in their Autumn

passage in south-eastern Kazakhstan and juveniles

in Central part, taking into account a month

difference in the period of their migration may be

explained as under. In July, when adults migrate,

feeding conditions are more favourable in South-

eastern Kazakhstan and Broad-billed Sandpipers

increase their resting time, increase in weight and

the probability of catching them in mist-nets

increased. Analogical situation can be observed in

Central Kazakhstan (August), when juveniles pass,

resulting in high capture figures. As differences in

resting time of adults and juveniles can be compared,

we can suppose that they average a total number of

different age groups captured in Kazakhstan. The

total age-ratio being 1:0.72 in Kazakhstan (218

adults and 158 juveniles) correlates average

fecundity of species, i.e. one pair of adults to 1.5

juveniles surviving in Autumn.

The migratory route of the Broad-billed

R h f f; r

Cramp, S. & K.E.L. Simmons (eds). (1983): Birds of Western

Palearctic. Oxford, London, v.3, 9 1 3 p.

Dolgushin, I. A. (1962): Wader’s order. In: Birds of Kazakhstan.

v.2, Alma-Ata, pp.40-245.

Flint, V.E. (1973): To the biology of eastern Broad-billed Sandpiper.

In: Fauna and Ecology of waders, part 1, M„ pp.98-

100.

Gavrilov, E.l. (1980): Applying of mist-nets for quantitative

characteristic of wader’s migration. In: New data in biology

and distribution of waders. M., pp.93-94.

Sandpipers passing through Kazakhstan is not

known. Of the 366 ringed birds there were 3 return.

From adults ringed on Sorbulak lake in July 30,

1979, one was recovered here in July 10, 1980,

another in Sassykkol lake (Balkhash-Alakkoul

Hollow) in July 29, 1981, 505 kilometres from the

ringing site. One more adult Broad-billed Sandpiper

ringed on Sorbulak lake in July 18, 1983 was

captured here on August 18, 1985. These indicate

constant route of migration of some birds and

confirm their passage to their winter breeding places

round Tian-Shan range system, that is a

characteristic for many species of birds in this region

of Kazakhstan.

Acknowledgements

It gives us pleasure to acknowledge the

assistance of the following scientists: E.M. Auezov,

V.G. Berezovskii, S.A. Brokhovitch, V.V. Filatov,

A.B. Cherniaev, S.V. Shimov. The article was

translated into English by L.V. Domracheva.

LNCLS

Gi .adkov, N. A. ( 1 95 1 ): Wader’s order. In: Birds of the Soviet Union,

v.3, M. pp.3-372.

Kostin, D.V. (1983): Birds of Crimea. M., “Nauka”, 240 p.

Kozlova, E.V. (1962): Charadriiformes. Fauna of the USSR. Birds,

v.2, part 1, n 3, M.-L., p. 432.

Nankinov, D. (1985): Migratory way of Limicola falcinellus

Pontoppidan (1963) along the Europe. “Ornitol. inform.

Bull.”, N 17, pp.37-51.

Prlston, E.W. (1966): The mathematical representation of

migration — Ecology, v.47, N 3, pp. 375-392.

A CONCISE REVIEW OF FOREST FLORA OF KERALA

T.S. Nayar* 2

Key words: history, phytogeography, vegetation, endemism, affinity

Forest flora of Kerala is reviewed in the light of existing literature and occasional forest surveys carried out

between 1 984 and 1 990. History of earlier botanical studies, phytogeography and vegetation, significance of the flora and

its affinity with other floristic regions are discussed. The floristic diversity and status of endemic, rare and threatened

species in Kerala are also examined.

The hilly state of Kerala which lies isolated

from the Deccan Plateau by the mountainous belt

of the Western Ghats occupies a geographical area

of 38,864 sq.km. The State is, in fact, a narrow

strip, 32 to 120 km in width stretching for about

565 km along the Malabar Coast on the western

side of the peninsular India.

The State can be divided longitudinally into

three geographical zones — Highlands, Midlands

and Lowlands. Highlands exceed altitude of 900 m

in the Western Ghats with numerous peaks, some

well over 1850 m, the highest being Anaimudi, at

2680 m. Midlands lie between the mountains and

the plains of the coastal region and are chiefly

constituted by undulating hills and valleys.

Lowlands, the coastal area, comprise river deltas,

backwaters and the shores of the Arabian Sea.

When Kerala was inhabited for the first time,

the population might have primarily been

concentrated along the coast or scattered along the

principal river banks. The rest of the land, in all

probability, must have been a wilderness of trees.

This primeval of forest was gradually but thoroughly

modified by human activities and domesticated

animals. Shifting cultivation, intensive grazing,

extensive plantations, rapid urbanization as well

as industrialization and more over, massive

explosion of population over about five thousand

years devastated the rich forest cover almost entirely

from the Lowlands, much from the Midlands and

‘Accepted June 1992.

2Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute, Karimancode,

Pacha-Palode 695562, Thiruvananthapuram Dist., Kerala.

to an extent even from the Highlands.

Highlands and Midlands harbour the

principal forests of Kerala today. Midlands are the

areas of intensive cultivation too for cash crops such

as cardamom and rubber. Lowlands, however, are

now essentially the land of coconut and rice. Forests

in Kerala are presently estimated to cover 24%

(9345 sq. km) of its total geographical area

(Anonymous 1990) and of these, closed forests

occupy only 17% (6609 sq. km) (Chandrasekharan

etal. 1984); the remaining is estimated to represent

open or degraded forest land.

1. History of earlier botanical studies: A

land of spices, Kerala had been a trade centre for

these commodities, especially black pepper,

cardamom, cinnamom and ginger. Since 3000 B.C.

Assyrians, Egyptians, Greeks, Arabs and afterwards

Europeans had come to this land lured by spices.

But it was Heinrich van Rheede, the Dutch Governor

at Cochin, who took interest in the luxuriant

vegetation of the State and published a monumental

work on the plants of Malabar ‘Hortus Malabaricus’

between 1678 and 1703 in 12 volumes illustrated

with the assistance of local artists. He described 742

plants.

From 1872 to 1897 Hooker published a

comprehensive flora of British India in 7 volumes

helped by leading botanists of the time. Hooker’s

work referred to many places and plants from

Kerala. ‘A Manual of Malabar District’ by William

Logan published in 1887 has included descriptions

of forests and forest trees of British Malabar.

Bourdillon, the then Forest Conservator, wrote in

A CONCISE REVIEW OF FOREST FLORA OF KERALA

213

1893 ‘Reports on the forests of Travancore’ after

combing and crisscrossing 1 1,200 km of Travancore

forests. He described the vegetation keeping rivers

as the basis and dealt with nature and biotic

relationship of forests in the light of historical facts.

This helped him later to publish the book ‘Forest

trees of Travancore’ in 1908. ‘Flowering Plants of

Travancore’, another work published in 1914 by

Rama Rao, the then Conservator of Forests, is also

a significant contribution to the botany of southern

Kerala.

In 1915 Gamble, an English botanist, started

publishing ‘Flora of the Madras Presidency’ and

this serial was completed by Fischer in 1936. The

work covered many forest areas within the present

political boundary of Kerala. Other works which

deserve mention are the series of papers published

on ecology of Kerala forest (Chandrasekharan

1962), Flora of Calicut (Manilal and Sivarajan

1982), Plantation and Agri-Horticultural Resources

of Kerala (Nair 1984a), Economic Botany of Kerala

(Nair 1984b), Kerala Forest through Centuries

(Karunakaran 1985), Forest Plants of Kerala (Nair

and Nair 1985), Study on wet evergreen forests of

the Western Ghats (Pascal 1988) and Flora of Silent

Valley (Manilal 1988). The revisonary attempt made

by Nicolson et al. (1988) in establishing the correct

identity of plants mentioned in ‘Hortus Malabaricus’

is a noteworthy contribution to the floristic study of

Kerala in particular and to taxonomy in general.

Van Rheede’s illustrations in ‘Hortus Malabaricus’

are the types of many Linnean genera and species.

Presently the Coimbatore based regional circle

of the Botanical Survey of India is engaged in the

exploration of the forest flora of some districts of

Kerala; Kerala Forest Research Institute, Tropical

Botanic Garden, French Institute of Pondicherry,

Department of Botany, Calicut University and

Botany Departments of a few colleges in the State

are also active in this and related fields.

2. Phytogeography and Vegetation: The

Vegetation of India has been phytogeographically

analysed and divided into several botanical

provinces based on criteria like species-content of

the families (Clarke 1898, Hooker 1907), humidity

or dryness (Prain 1903) and the distribution of

endemic species (Chatterjee 1940). Kerala comes

under the ‘Malabar’ botanical province (India

aquosa of Prain, l.c.) which extends along the

western side of peninsular India through the humid

tropical belt of mountain ranges in the Western

Ghats from the river Tapti in South Gujarat to

Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu.

Adjacent to ‘Malabar’ is the botanical

province ‘Deccan’. The ‘Malabar’ flora gradually

merges through the leeward side of the Western

Ghats with the floristic components of ‘Deccan’.

Though there exists no clear-cut boundaries between

these provinces, Hooker (1907) observed that the

most distinctive characteristics of ‘Malabar’ flora,

in contrast to that of ‘Deccan’, are primarily the

occurrence of species belonging to Arecaceae,

Bambusaceae, Clusiaceae, Dipterocarpaceae and

Myristicageae and secondarily the abundance in

species of Malayan character, especially plants

belonging to the families Anacardiaceae, Araceae,

Gesneriaceae, Melastomataceae, Meliaceae,

Myrtaceae, Orchidaceae, Piperaceae, Tiliaceae and

Zingiberaceae.

Another outstanding feature of ‘Malabar’

botanical province is the development of tropical

rain forests in the Western Ghats especially on the

windward side of the southern Ghats between 500

to 1500 m. (Subramanyam and Nayar 1974).

3. Forest Types: The vegetational luxury of

Kerala and its unusual wealth of variety, unique for

so small a region, are mainly due to the diverse range

in altitude and the resultant variation in rainfall,

temperature and humidity. Based on these factors,

forests in Kerala are brought mainly under 3 types:

1 . Wet Evergreen ( rain) Forests, 2. Moist Deciduous

Forests and 3. Dry Deciduous Forests (Ayyar 1932,

Champion 1936, Chandrasekharan 1962,

Subramanyam and Nayar 1974, Pascal 1988). In

the hills exceeding 1500m, Meher-Homji (1967,

1969, 1984, 1985, 1987-88) has recognised (1)

Shola ( tropical montane forest), (2) Trees and

Shrubs zone at the fringe of the Shola, (3) Shrub-

Savanna and (4) Grassland. Myristica swamps

described by Krishnamoorthy (1960) and

Chandrasekharan (1962) are of sporadic occurrence

in the State and are very rare today.

Physical features and physiographic as well

as biotic factors intervene in determining and

modifying the natural vegetation and Kerala is no

exception. Classifying the forests which are always

214

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

dynamic into various types is only an attempt to

define the more stable communities based on

ecological concepts. Intergrading of different types

with various combinations of ecotones is a natural

phenomenon. To quote Champion (1936) “it is

difficult to classify vegetation in general and of

tropical countries in particular.”

4. Affinities of the flora: The Indian sub-

continent was part of the Gondwana land and the

past connections of peninsular India with the now

separated continents have been phytogeographically

proved through the occurrence of various genera

like Acrotrema (Dilleniaceae), Hydnoccirpus

(Flacourtiaceae), Laurembergici (Haloragaceae),

Hernandia (Hernandaceae), Apodytes,

Gomphandra, Nothapodytes and Sarcostigma

(Icacinaceae) (Nayar 1980b). Poeciloneuron

(Clusiaceae), now assigned to Bonnetiaceae,

occurring in the Western Ghats has many allied

genera in South America (Nayar 1977).

Genera like Poeciloneuron (Clusiaceae),

Acrotrema (Dilleniaceae), Hydnocarpus

(Flacourtiaceae), Gomphandra , Nothapodytes,

Sarcostigma (Icacinaceae) and Pittosporum

(Pittosporaceae) occur in the Forests of Kerala and

are the characteristic components of the vegetation.

Dorstenia indica Wall. (Moraceae) occurring in the

Western Ghats including Kerala has its counterparts

in D. asteriscus Engl, in Tropical Africa and D.

radiata Lam. of Arabia (Corner 1981). Abraham

and Vatsala (1981) enumerated 10 genera of

Orchidaceae, namely Acampe, Bulbophyllum,

Disperis, Eulopia, Habenaria , Liparis, Nervilia,

Oberonia, Satyrium and Vanilla as of common

occurrence in the Western Ghats and Africa. All

these genera, except Satyrium, are well represented

in Kerala. 1 5 species of bryophyles are of common

occurrence in peninsular India and East Africa

(Schuster 1976).

The flora of the Western Ghats in Kerala holds

substantial phytological affinity with the Malaysian

region (Hooker 1907, Subramanyam and Nayar

1974). The recent finding by Mohanan and Nair

( 1981 ) that Malaysian genus Kunstleria (Fabaceae)

is represented in Kerala by the species K. keralensis

Mohanan and Nair also adds to the above

observations.

The flora of Kerala presents striking similarity

with that of Sri Lanka. Dorstenia indica Wall.

(Moraceae) which is part of the Dorstenia complex

occurring in Arabia and Africa is present both in

Kerala and Sri Lanka; the monotypic Kendrickia

walked Flook. f. (Melastomataceae) present in

Anaimudi and Adam’s peak, the highest peaks in

Kerala and Sri Lanka respectively also stressess

this similarity (Subramanyam and Nayar 1974). The

Indo-Sri Lanka genus Humboldtia

(Caesalpiniaceae), is represented in Kerala by H.

bourdillonii Prain, H. decurrens Bedd. ex Oliver

and H. unijuga Bedd., Thrixsperniuni pulchellum

(Thw.) Schltr. (Orchidaceae), recently reported from

Palode forest of Trivandrum district, is earlier

recorded only from Sri Lanka (Sathishkumar

1986a). Huperzia ceylancia (Spr.) Trev., H.

vernicosa (Hook, et Grev.) Trev. and Diphasiastrum

wightianum (Wall, ex Hook, et Grev.) Holub.

(Licopodiaceae) occur only in Sri Lanka apart from

Kerala and Tamil Nadu (Nair et al. 1988).

Ramachandran and Nair (1988) have enumerated

a number of species common to both Cannanore

district of Kerala and Sri Lanka, the occurrence of

‘Patenas’ in Sri Lanka and montane grasslands in

Kerala at the same elevation also manifests the

vegetational resemblance between these two

countries. Mohanan (1981) is of the opinion that

the flora of Quilon district combines the floristic

elements of Malabar and Sri Lanka. Then there are

species like Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. (Leeaceae)

frequently seen in the forests of Kerala and rest of

Peninsular India, that are also common in Australia.

It is evident that the floristic diversity of

Kerala like that of the Western Ghats is of an ancient

lineage. Such an ancient flora is not just a reservoir

of botanical antiques but is a dynamic biological

source where speciation is taking place at an

accelerated speed (Ashton 1977).

Of about 15,000 species of flowering plants

estimated to occur in India, about 4000 are found

in the Western Ghats (Nair and Daniel 1986).

Available botanical evidence suggests that the State

of Kerala is phytogeographically an integral part of

the Western Ghats which shares its endemics with

the State.

Bourdillon (1893) dealt with 582 indigenous

trees from Travancore alone. Rama Rao (1914)

recorded 3535 flowering plants from Travancore

A CONCISE REVIEW OF FOREST FLORA OF KERALA

215

though he did not claim that his work was wholly

based on exploratory surveys. Manilal and Sivarajan

(1982) surveyed Calicut district and recorded 983

angiosperms from the area. Exploration of 39,100

ha in and around Silent Valley (Palghat district)

has produced over 1,300 species of angiosperms

(Nair and Daniel 1986). Vajravelu (1987) reported

1208 angiosperm species from Palghat district but

later increased the number to 1355 (1990).

Subramanian etal. (1987) recorded 757 arborescent

species from Palghat forest division which

comprised of Palghat and Perinthalmanna talukas

of Palghat district and Ernad taluka of Calicut

district. Manilal (1988) reported 966 angiosperm

species from Silent Valley. Mohanan (1981)

recorded 700 flowering plants from Trivandrum

district. Though Ramachandran (1981) initially

estimated that Cannanore district has 825

angiosperm species, Ramachandran and Nair (1988)

recorded 1132 species from the district. An

exploratory study of Kerala grasses has revealed that

the State has 296 species of Poaceae inclusive of 2

new genera and 26 new species (excluding

Bambuseae) (Sree Kumar and Nair 1991). 742

plants illustrated and described by Van Rheede,

according to Nicolson et al. (1988), represent 690

taxa. Of these, 660 species were collected by them

again in and around their original locations, i.e.

the erstwhile Cochin State. It can be estimated that

the whole state, when exhaustively explored, may

have well over 4,000 angiosperm species.

As for the other groups of plants, common

gymnosperms represented in the forests are Cycas

circinalis L. (Cycadaceae) and Gnetum ula Brogn.

(Gnetaceae); Gnetum contractum Markg. is of very

rare occurrence in the State. Decussocarpus

wallichianus (Presl) Laub. (Podocarpaceae) has been

recorded at Kochu Pamba beyond Anathode and

sporadically within the nearby Goodrical reserve

forests in Pathanamthitta district (Chand Basha,

KFRl-personal communication). It also occurs at

Agastyar Hills, but within the boundary of Tamil

Nadu state. No serious work has been published on

the pteridophytic flora of Kerala except the first of

the envisaged three parts by Nair and his associates

( 1 988). The work is based on explorations conducted

in the State between 1968 and 1983. They classified

the pteridophytic vegetation on physiographic basis

as belonging to I . Coastal zone, 2. Middle zone and

3. Eastern mountainous zone and enumerated

characteristic species of these zones. Ferns and fern-

allies of Kerala representing 33 pteridophytic

families have been accounted and Kerala has a very

rich fern flora.

A lone exploration in Silent Valley itself has

resulted in recording 78 species of ferns including

one new species of Pteris (Aspidiaceae) (Vohra et

al. 1982). About 55 species of bryophytes have been

collected from the recently formed Idukki district

and of these 14 taxa are additions to South India

(Rajeevan 1 985). Vohra et al. ( 1 982) have reported

83 species including 3 new species of bryophytes

from the Silent Valley.

5. Endemic, rare and threatened flora:

Endemic plants are the taxa which enjoy very

restricted distribution because of geographical and/

or ecological barriers. Peninsular regions are almsot

identical to islands in having conditions that favour

endemism (Turril 1964). Blasco (1970) observed

that South Indian hill tops are rich in endemic

species. But historically the flora of peninsular India

is impoverished due to the Bow of deccan lava

during the Cretaceous-Eocene and the spread of

aridity in the Neocene and the Quaternary which

resulted in the depletion of her characteristic flora

leaving a few relic endemic taxa in the region (Nayar

1980a). According to Nayar ( 1980b) 56 genera and

about 2, 100 species of flowering plants of peninsular

India, most of them confined to the Western Ghats,

are endemic.

Though, as earlier stated, phytogeographically

the State shares its endemism with the Western

Ghats, a number of new species of angiosperms have

been recorded from Kerala, especially of late and

most of them are not reported from anywhere else

in the Western Ghats. This may be due to the fact

that the species are niche-specific. Such new species

include Lagenandrci nairii Ram am. & Raj an

(Araceae), Tylophora subramanii Henry

(Asclepiadaceae), Euphorbia santapaui Henry

(Euphorbiaceae), Zornia quilonensis Ravi

(Fabaceae), Lciurembergia agcistyamalayana Henry

(Holaragidaceae), Luisia abrahamii Vatsala,

Oberonia bisaccata Manilal & Sathish, Trias

bonaccordensis Sathish, Cheirostylis

seidenfadenianci Sathish and Rasm. (Orchidaceae),

Dimeria keralae N.C. Nair, Sreekumar & V.J.Nair

(Poaceae), Dicraea filifolia Ram am. & Joseph

216

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

(Podostemaceae), Hedyotis gambleiHenry & Subr.,

Psychotria sekharana (Ramam. & Rajan

(Rubiaceae) and many others.

Endemic genera of Kerala are Kanjarum ( K .

palghatensis Ramam., Acanthaceae), Janakia (7.

arayalpatra Joseph & Chandr., Asclepiadaceae),

Oianthus ( O . beddomei Hook, f., Asclepiadaceae),

Haplothismia ( H . exannulata Airy Shaw,

Burmanniaceae), Meteoromyrtus (M. wynaadensis

(Bedd.) Gamble, Myrtaceae), and Limnopoa (L.

meeboldii (Fisch.) Hubb.), Chandrpsekharania (C.

keralensis V.J. Nair et al .) and Silentvalleya ( S .

nairii V.J. Nair et al) (all Poaceae).

Some genera having their endemic species in

Kerala include Humboldtia bourdillonii Prain

(Caesalpiniaceae), Erythropalum populifolium

Mast. (Erythropalaceae), Pseudoglochidion

anamalayanum Gamble (Euphorbiaceae), Inga

cynometroides Bedd. (Mimosaceae), Antistrophe

serratifolia Hook. f. (Myrsinaceae), Myxopyrum

smilacifolium Bl. (Oleaceae), Cymbopogon

travancorensis Bor (Poaceae), Octotropics

travancorica Bedd. (Rubiaceae) (Subramanyam &

Nayar 1974), Blepharistemma membranifolia

(Miq.) Ding Hou (Rhizophoraceae) (Mohanan

1981 ),Dalbergia b eddome /Thoth., D. travancorica

Thoth. (Fabaceae) (Nair 1986), Brachycorythis

splendida Summerh., Diplocentrum congestum Wt.

and Paphiopedilum druryi (Bedd.) Stein

(Orchidaceae) (Sathishkumar 1 986b). Further plant

explorations of under explored and unexplored

vegetational pockets of the State are likely to result

in increase in the number of endemic and/or new

taxa of Kerala; it is also likely that intensive and

extensive floristic explorations of the Western Ghats

may reveal the presence of some of the taxa presently

endemic to Kerala in other regions of the Western

Ghats.

Since endemic plants enjoy restricted

distribution they become extinct when their natural

habitats are destroyed. Biotic interference and

deforestation have made even many a non-endemic

species extinct. According to Raven (1977) about

63.3% of the tropical rain forests in India, Burma

and Sri Lanka have been destroyed for human use

up to 1975.

In Kerala the condition appears equally grave.

About 3,500 sq. km of forest lands were transformed

into non-forestry purpose between 1950-1970 (Nair

and Daniel 1986). This is apart from the destruction

of natural forest for ‘productive purposes’ like

plantations of tea, coffee, rubber and various other

intentions including monoculturing of economically

important exotic tree like Eucalyptus. Over

exploitation of plants from the forest for use in the

indigenous systems of medicine also accelerates the

process of destruction of individual species.

Coscinium fenestratum Colebr. (Menisper-

maceae), once a common species in the forests of

Kerala, is a good example to substantiate this

assertion. More than 500 species of plants with high

medicinal value have been recorded from the State

(Anonymous 1981, Nambiar et al. 1985).

Construction of small as well as big dams is another

factor which destroys vast areas of forest.

Destruction of forest at such an alarming rate has

destroyed the habitats of many species which are

endemic or niche-specific.

We do not have a clear account of endemic,

rare or threatened flora as our knowledge on Indian

flora is still not exhaustive. This is because many

parts of Indian forests even now remain

underexplored or totally unexplored. As for the

Western Ghats, an essay based on available literature

shows that about 700 species of flowering plants,

most of them endemic or niche-specific, are

reportedly rare or threatened (Henry et al. 1979,

Jain and Sastry 1980, Raghavan and Singh 1983,

Vajravelu and Daniel 1983). Out of 38 species

described by Beddome from Anaimalai, only five

species could be collected by the latter explorers till

now and the rest 33 are known only by the type

collections (Raghavan and Singh 1983). In all

possibility, they might have become extinct due to

habitat destruction. Paphiopedilum druryi (Bedd.)

Stein (Orchidaceae) described from Agastyamala

is now considered to be extinct as it could not be

relocated afterwards with the sole exception of the

report made by Mammen and Mammen in 1974. 3

Kammathy (1983) observed that most of the

Commelinaceae species occurring at Agastyar hills

are endemic, rare or threatened. Sivadasan (1983)

pointed out that about 18 species of Araceae in

Mhe Mathnibhumi, a malayalam daily, dated 16th February 1992

reported that Dr. J. Joseph, Ex-Joint Director, BSI spotted out a

small population of Paphiopedilum druryi at Kalaikkad in

Agastyar Hills.

A CONCISE REVIEW OF FOREST FLORA OF KERALA

217

peninsular India are extremely rare because of the

destruction of their habitats. It has been shown that

the type locality of Haplothismia exannulata Airy

Shaw (Burmanniaceae) has been submerged due to

the construction of Parambikkulam Dam

(Ramamurthy and Chandrasekharan 1981).

Asplenium grevillei Wall, ex Hook, et Grev.

(Aspleniaceae), a very rare and threatened species

of fern occurring in association with the Myristica

swamp at Kulathupuzha in Quilon district until

1979 could not be located afterwards and

subsequently disappeared from the locality as the

swamp was drained and the trees removed (Nair et

al 1988).

Intensive explorations in several parts of

Kerala have resulted in finding out rare and

imperfectly known species after a lapse of several

years. Based on such fresh collections, descriptions

of taxa like Rostellularia simplex (Thunb.) Ellis

(Acanthaceae), Dioscoria wightii Hook. f.

(Dioscoriaceae), Apama harberi Gamble

(Aristolochiaceae), Memecylon subcordatum Cogn.

(Melastomataceae), Piper barberi Gamble

(Piperaceae) and Glycosmis macrocarpa Wt.

(Rutaceae) have been amended (Henry and

Subramanyam 1981). Likewise, recent explorations

in Quilon district alone have produced new

distributional records in India for Limnocharis flava

(L.) Buch. (Butomaceae), Leptaspis urceolata

(Roxb.) R. Br. (Poaceae), Mitracarpus villous (Sw.)

De. and Spermacoce latifolia Aubl. (Rubiaceae)

(Mohanan 1981 ). It is also of interest that Syzygium

montanum (Wight) Gamble earlier regarded as

endemic to Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu was collected

from Chanthanathode, Cannanore district

(Ramachandran et al. 1980). Therefore intensive

exploration of the forests of Kerala may change

giving a new phytogeographical dimension to the

flora’s lineage and linkage.

The destruction of natural habitats warrants

intensive and extensive study of flora of the State to

determine the status of each species and its

ecological requirements. Accordingly conservation

strategies are to be framed to accommodate the

species either in natural habitats like Wild-Life

Sanctuaries, Biosphere Reserves and Biodiversity

Conservation Regions or in artificial habitats like

Botanic Gardens.

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40.

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF RAN A HEXADACTYLA LESSON5

IN KUTTANAD, KERALA1

Sanil George and M.I. Andrews2

Key words: Rana hexadactyla, food, feeding habits

The food and feeding habits of Rana hexadactyla were studied at Kuttanad, Kerala. Arthropods formed

the major food items of the species, with insects which were of economic importance being the primary food.

Introduction

The stomach contents of many species of

anura have been examined to determine their role

in an ecosystem. The food of different anuran species

inhabiting temperate regions have been studied by

several workers (Needham 1905, Drake 1914, Smith

1953, Tyler 1958, Brooks 1959, Berry 1965, 1970;

Jensen and Klimstra 1966, Blackith and Speight

1974). However, the food and feeding habits of only

a few tropical species have been investigated (Khera

1975, Issac and Rege 1975, Nigam 1979, Battish

and Sandhu 1988, Battish et al 1989, Sreelatha et

al. 1990). Rana tigerina is known to play a

significant role in controlling agricultural pests

(Abdulali 1985). The food and feeding habits of

Rana hexadactyla are not fully known (Chacko and

Krishnamurthy 1951, Mondal 1970, Andrews

1979).

Kuttanad, a natural wetland in Kerala, is an

ideal habitat for frogs, especially Rana hexadactyla.

This region being the ‘rice bowl’ of Kerala produces

one-third of the total rice cultivated in the State.

The present study is an effort directed not only

towards collecting data on the natural diet of the

Indian green fro gRana hexadactylabul also towards

determining the role it plays in the Kuttanad

ecosystem.

Material and methods

The stomach content analysis of Rana

hexadactyla was carried out from January 1988 to

December 1989. A total of 408 frogs (102 males

and 306 females) were used in the present study.

‘Accepted June 1994.

•^Department of Zoology, Mar Thoma College, Tiruvalla-689 1 03,

Kerala State.

Adult frogs were collected from the paddy fields of

Kuttanad during night and killed immediately in

the laboratory. Their body weight was recorded and

the stomachs removed and preserved in 10%

formalin. Stomach contents were taken in a petri

dish after incising the stomach longitudinally. The

stomach and stomach contents were weighed, and

the contents examined under a binocular dissecting

microscope.

Table 1

STOMACH CONTENTS OF R. hexadactyla EXPRESSED AS

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL BODY WEIGHT WITH

RESPECT TO SEX AND MONTH

Sex

Month

Male Female

Results

The monthly distribution of stomach contents

expressed as percentage of total body weight with

respect to sex and month is shown in Table 1 . Males

seem to consume more food than females, except in

the months of May, June and September. The frog

'Rana hexadactyla is presently Occidozyga hexadactyla (Lesson,

1834). The classification of Indian Amphibia has undergone several

changes, for details.?^ S.K. Dutta (1992), Hamadryad, pp. 1-13.

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OE RANA HEXADACTYLA LESSON

221

222

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Classified Food Item No. of No. of Economic

stomachs individuals Importance

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF RAN A HEXADACTYLA LESSON

223

feeds on a variety of animals belonging to 20 orders.

The most predominant insect orders were

Orthoptera, Coleoptera and Hemiptera (Table 2).

Other than the insects, spiders and crabs were the

main food items. Vegetable matter, stones and other

debris were also found in most of the stomachs

examined during the present study.

The economic importance of some of the food

items is represented in Table 2. It is evident that R.

hexadactyla is a natural predator of many of the

agricultural pests, especially paddy pests found in

Kuttanad. Many of the serious paddy pests like

Gryllotalpa fosser. Oxya hyla hyla, Hieroglyphus

banian, Anoplogenius sp., Gonocephalum sp.,

Paratelphusa bouvieri and P. hydrodromus and

other crop pests such as Nephotettix sp., Euborellia

sp., Nectuid larva, Bombidion soborium, Scarites

sp. and Sipalus sp. were present in the stomachs.

Anopheles sp. is also an important food item of this

frog. Pests of stored food grains like Sternolophus

br achy acanthus. Melanotus hiriticornis and

Anomaila chlorocarpa, an important pest of cashew,

were also found in the food spectrum. Other species

found in the stomachs of R. hexadactyla included

fish food organisms, prawns, fishes and some frogs.

However, their numbers were very low.

R . hexadactyla is usually found in water and

its aquatic habit is reflected by the large proportion

of aquatic insects eaten by it. Movement of the prey

attracts the attention of this frog, whose first reaction

is to jump upon and swallow its prey, all in a single

movement. The frog may detect the prey from some

distance and then approach it in a series of bounds,

the last leap being made onto its prey. The forelegs

are used to push into the mouth any item which the

frog may not be able to swallow completely.

Discussion

The food spectrum obtained in the present

investigation indicates that insects form the main

diet. From the observations recorded in the present

study, it is noticed that insects, spiders and crabs

are the major food items of R. hexadactyla.

Arthropods thus form the bulk of the diet. Amongst

the arthropods, insects appear to be the most

favoured food, some of the insects being of economic

importance. Issac and Rege (1975) and Abdulali

(1985) have reported that R. tigerina played a

significant role in controlling agricultural and other

pests in the field. Crabs were found in large numbers

in the diet of R. hexadactyla. They are often seen in

the paddy fields and cause damage to the bunds in

the fields by boring holes in them. Crabs are

considered as one of the major pests of paddy

(Kadam and Patel 1960) and are known at certain

stages of their life to feed on rice seedlings both

before and after transplanting. The frog is thus

useful in controlling the crab population harmful

to agriculture. Some gastropods were also recorded

from the stomachs of a few frogs. Vertebrate groups

such as fishes, amphibians and and reptiles were

also recorded but there was no reason to believe

that they formed regular items of the diet (see

Andrews 1976).

The presence of stones, leaves and debris

among the gut contents of R. hexadactyla may be

the result of accidental ingestion. Vegetable matter

occurred in many guts, but the quantity was small;

it might have been inadvertently ingested with the

food. The intake of pebbles and plant matter may

be important in providing roughage as well as

increasing grinding capacity for the total mass

ingested. The presence of stones and vegetable

matter in the guts of anurans has also been reported

by earlier workers (Battish et al. 1989, Sreelatha et

al. 1990, George et al. 1992).

Mondal (1970) observed that the “northern

race” of R. hexadactyla was a herbivore while the

“southern race” preferred animal food. The present

study indicates that R. hexadactyla in Kuttanad is

carnivorous, as noted by Andrews (1979).

224

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

The present study reaffirms that frogs are

useful as control agents for various insect pests

especially those which are considered as serious crop

pests. Though frogs are opportunistic feeders, their

feeding on many phytophagous insect pests does

support their usefulness as biocontrol agents. This

fact has been stressed by several earlier workers

(Abdulali 1985, Battish et al. 1989, Sreelatha et al.

1990, Sally et al 1992).

The decline in the population of frogs in

Kuttanad due to commercial capture for their legs

and the effect of pesticide residues in the area may

be detrimental to crops, especially paddy.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the State Committee on

Science, Technology and Environment, Govt, of

Kerala, for financial assistance.

References

Abdulali, H. (1985): On the export of frog legs from India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(2): 347-375.

Andrews, M.I. (1979): Food and feeding habits of Rana

hexadactyla Lesson. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76: 175-

179.

Battish, S.K. & J.S. Sandhu (1988): Food spectrum of the skipper

frog Rana cyanophlyctis (Schneider). Ann. Biol. 4(1 &2):

14-19.

Battish, S.K., Annu Agarwal & Paramiit Singh (1989): Food

spectrum of the marbled toad, Bufo stomaticus Lutken. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 22-3 1 .

Berry, RY. (1965): The diet of some Singapore Anura. J. Zool.

London 144: 163-174.

Berry. P.Y. (1970): The food of giant toad Bufo asper. Zool. J.

Linn. Soc. London 49: 61-68.

Blackith, R.M. & M.C.D. Speight (1974): Food and feeding habits

of the ixogRana temporaria in the bogland habitats in the

west of Ireland. J. Zool. London 172: 67-79.

Brooks, G.R. (1959): A Survey of the food habits of Rana

catesbeiana from five different habitats. Virginia J. Sci.

10: 263.

Chacko, PL. & B. Krishnamurthy (1951): The food of Rana

hexadactyla Lesson in relation to fisheries. Sci. & Cult.

15(10): 401-402.

Drake, C.J. (1914): The food of Rana pipiens Schreber. Ohio

Nat. 14: 257-269.

George, Sally, Sanil George, Manu Oommen & Mariamma John

(1992): Food spectrum of the ixogRana limnocharis( Boie

in Weighmann). J. Zool. Soc. Kerala 2( 1 ): 58-61 .

Issac, S. & M.S. Rege (1975): Food of Rana tigerina (Aud.). J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(1): 143-157.

Jensen & W.D. Ki.imstra (1966): Food habits of the green frog

Rana clamitans in Southern Illinois. Amer. Mid. Nat. 76:

169-182.

Kadam, M.V.B. &G.A. Patel (1960): Crop pests and how to fight

them. Div. Pub. Govt. Maharashtra.

Khera, K.L. (1975): Systematics and biology ofanurans of North

India with special references to biology of Rana

cyanophlyctis. D. Phil., thesis, Punjab Univ., Chandigarh.

Mondal, A.K. (1970): On the distribution, occurrence, culture

possibilities and food of Rana hexadactyla Lesson. Sci. &

Cult. 36(3): 138-143.

Needham, J.G. (1905): The summer food of the bull frog ( Rana

catesbiana ) at Saranac. Bull. New York State Mus. 86: 9-

15.

Nigam, H.C. (1979): Food and feeding habits of Rana tigerina in

paddy belts of U.P., India. Geobios. 6(6): 241-244.

Smith, M. (1953): The feeding habits of the marsh frog, Rana

ridibunda ridibunda. Brit. J. Herpet. 1: 170-172.

Sreelatha, K.S., P. Nataraian & S.D. Rita Kumari (1990): Studies

on the food and feeding behaviour of Bufo melanostictus

Schneider. J. Ecobiol. 2(3): 213-221.

Tyler, M.J. (1958): On the diet and feeding habits of the edible

frog (Rana esculenta LinnJ. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 131:

582-592.

THE POPULATION DENSITY AND STRUCTURE OF ASIAN ELEPHANTS

IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KERALA, INDIA1

P.S. Easa2 and M. Balakrishnan3

(With three text-figures )

Key words: Asian Elephant, Elephas maximus, Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, population,

biomass, density, group composition, solitary elephant

The population of Asian elephants in Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, India was studied during 1981-

1983. The sanctuary with an area of about 270 sq. km has both natural forests and plantations. A total count indicated

about 1 14 elephants with an ecological density of about 0.5 animal/sq. km. The biomass was about 905 kg/sq. km. The

herd size frequency showed a polymodal distribution. The herd size of eleven was more frequent. The basic family unit in

the population was around five. There was no significant seasonal or monthly differences in herd size. Forty three percent

of the herds were without bulls. About 66% of the adult males observed were solitary. The sex ratio of 1 :6.8 (male:female)

indicates a slight increase in male mortality. The proportion of juveniles and calves (2 1 %) indicates a high percentage of

breeding females in the population.

Introduction

The populations of Asian elephant ( Elephas

maximus ) in India have been affected adversely by

a growing human population and the resultant

destruction of natural habitat for settlement and

cultivation. Poaching for tusks have also contributed

to their depletion. The status of Asian elephants in

India has been reviewed by Daniel (1980). However,

apart from the studies conducted by Sukumar

(1985), no detailed data have been published on

Asian elephants in India.

The total number of an animal such as the

elephant in an area is important because of its large

contribution to the biomass with its limited numbers.

Herd size and composition provide information on

social organisation of the species, and are often

related to environmental conditions (Leuthold and

Leuthold 1975). Nair et al. (1985), Nair and

Balasubramanyan (1985) and Easa and

Balakrishnan (1990) describe number, herd

composition and age structure of elephant

populations in different sanctuaries of Kerala. The

present paper deals with the number, herd

'Accepted December 1994.

2Division of Wildlife Biology, Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi, Kerala-680 653, India.

^Department of Zoology, University of Kerala, Kariavattom,

Trivandrum, Kerala, India-695 581.

composition and size and population structure of

the Asian elephant in Parambikulam Wildlife

Sanctuary, Kerala, during 1981-1983. This paper

forms part of the detailed ecological study of the

species in the area.

Study Area

The Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (76° 35'

and 76° 50' E and 10° 20' and 10° 26’ N) is 270 sq.

km in area and is situated at an elevation of 600 m

above sea level. It is contiguous on all sides with

forests and includes three water reservoirs of about

28 sq. km area. The habitat includes tropical wet

evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests,

grasslands, swamps, and plantations of teak and

eucalyptus.

The temperature in Parambikulam ranges

from 13°C to 32°C. The average annual

precipitation is 2590 mm. The area gets both the

south-west and north-east monsoons. However,

south west monsoon is more active in the region.

The rainfall data of the area indicate two seasons

— dry (January to May) and wet (June to December).

A detailed description of the study area is given by

Easa and Balakrishnan (1990).

Methods

The study area was covered on foot every

month during 1981-83. Herd size and composition

226

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92(1995)

and population structure of herds encountered were

noted by direct observation. A herd was defined by

the criteria of Kurt ( 1974). Elephants were classified

into different age groups as suggested by Eisenberg

and Lockhart (1972). The height of individuals were

assessed by the photogrammetric method to allow

age determination (Laws 1966). A total count of

elephants was made by Kerala State Forest

Department in May, 1983. The study area was

divided into fourteen blocks of almost equal size

and each block was covered by a team of three

investigators. All blocks were covered equally in

one day on foot noting the number, sex and age

group of elephants encountered. Results of this

census was used only tor total number and density

of elephants within the sanctuary.

Analyses

The biomass of elephants within the sanctuary

was calculated using an average weight of 1810 kg/

animal (Eisenberg and Lokhart 1972). A solitary

elephant was considered as a herd for calculating

herd size frequency. The monthly and seasonal

variations in herd size were estimated by pooling

the herd size data over months. Variances in herd

size in each season was compared by F test. A

student t-test was used for testing the difference

between mean herd size for the two seasons, and

one way ANOVA for the monthly data. The

proportion of solitary elephants out of the total

number of herds computed for different months and

seasons were compared using X2 test. A similar test

was done for comparing the proportion of the loners

in two seasons. Herd composition estimates were

developed, excluding loners, based on all sightings

(Cochran 1977) and monthly data. These were

compared through a X2 test and found to be non-

significant (X2 (5,0.05)=0.03 ns). Hence the

population structure was derived based on all

sightings. The standard error for population

structure was calculated from multiple values

obtained from blocks.

Results

The count conducted in May, 1983 showed a

total of 1 14 elephants in the Sanctuary. Of these, 55

(48%) were adult females, 35(31%) were adult

males and 24(21%) juveniles and calves. The

ecological density of the species in the area was

about 0.5 animal/ sq. km. The biomass was about

905 kg/sq. km.

Herd Size Frequency: The herd size

frequency shows a polymodal distribution with

peaks occurring at 1, 5, 9 and 11 (Fig. 1). A strong

tendency for herd sizes between 3 and 7 is evident,

suggesting that the basic unit in the population could

be around five.

There were no significant seasonal (t =

0.97 ns) or monthly (F )S = 1.23 ns) differences

in herd size, despite the large variation in monthly

means (Fig. 2).

Solitary Elephants: Sixty six percent of

the 35 adult males observed were solitary (Fig.

2). Only one lone adult female was seen. A

single bull group with two tuskers was observed.

There was no significant seasonal (X2(1005) = 0.81

ns) or monthly (X2n 0()()5) = 18.48 ns) variation in

the proportion of solitary elephants in the

population.

Fig. 1 . Percentage frequency distribution of group size of

Asian elephants.

ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

227

Fig. 2. Monthly mean group size of elephants with error bar.

The figures in parentheses denotes sample size.

Population Structure: The percentage

frequency distribution of age and sex classes in the

population is shown in Fig. 3. The sex ratios in the

population with their standard errors are

summarised in Table 1.

Table 1

SEX RATIO IN THE ELEPHANT POPULATION IN

PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

KERALA

Discussion

The results of 1983 census show that the

number of elephants in Parambikulam have

increased by about 27% since 1981 (Balakrishnan

and Easa 1986) with a 45% increase in females and

9% in males. However, the increase could be due to

the seasonal movements of elephants from adjoining

areas, especially Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary,

during the dry season due to the presence of three

reservoirs in Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary.

Fig. 3. Percentage frequency distribution of age and sex classes

of elephant in the population.

Easa (1989) has observed that the summer home

ranges of elephant herds appear to be around the

reservoirs within Parambikulam. At the onset of

rains, the herds extend their ranges to the Indira

Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary. Still, a slight increase

in the population cannot be ruled out as evident from

the percentage of juveniles and calves (21%) in the

population.

The density of elephant in Parambikulam is

higher than for other Asian elephant habitats

(Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972, Olivier 1978,

Ishwaran 1984 and Santiapillai et al. 1984).

However, this represents a seasonal peak. Eisenberg

and Seidensticker (1976) have opined that in

suitable south east Asian habitats, density of

elephants could range from 0.1 to 1.0/sq. km.

Considering the contiguity of elephant populated

habitat in areas adjacent to Parambikulam, the

density could be much lower than obtained.

Nair et al. (1985), Sukumar (1985) and

Olivier (1978) obtained polymodal distributions of

herd size frequency. Olivier (1978) concluded that

the basic family unit was six individuals. The

smaller herd size more frequent in our population

228

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

might be due to the comparatively forested

habitat in the area (Peek et al. 1974, Leuthold

1976). The herd size of eleven frequent in our

population indicates both generation overlap and

extended family units (Eisenberg and Lockhart

1972).

The large differences between monthly means

of herd size appears to disagree with the findings of

Leuthold (1976) and Rodgers (1976) and may be

due to the environmental factors, such as heavy

rainfall in June-July, changing the stage of

vegetation favouring aggregations of smaller units

(Douglas-Hamilton 1972).

Male elephants seen on their own at one time

were later seen with a herd for a short period of

time. Many herds (43%) observed were without

bulls. McKay (1973) and Sukumar (1985) reported

60% and 23% of herds respectively without bulls.

McKay (1973) reported that the association of males

with the herds lasted only for a few days. The

proportion of solitary elephants does not vary in

relation to season or month suggesting a constant

proportion of adult bulls in association with the

herds throughout the year. Considering this and the

shorter period of time spent by any male with the

herd, it could be seen that the possibility of

outbreeding is enhanced.

Assuming an equal sex ratio at birth, it

appears that there was a higher mortality of males

creating an adult sex ratio biased towards females.

However, Sukumar (1985) considering 17.5 years

as age of first conception and 4.7 years as mean

calving interval, has shown by simulation that a

medium male — medium female mortality could

stabilize the ratio at 1:5.7. The adult sex ratio of

1:6.8 in the present population indicates a slight

increase in the male mortality. The lesser disparity

in the percentage of sub-adult females and sub-adult

males indicates a decrease in recruitment to the

population during a particular period of time and

could produce delayed effects on population growth.

However, the percentage of juveniles and calves is

an indication of nullification of such an effect in

the immediate future. The proportion of juveniles

and calves in relation to the adult females is an

indicator of a high percentage of females breeding

in the population. However, further studies, on the

age of first conception and the mean calving

interval, would be required to assess the trend in

the population.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the authorities of Kerala

Forest Department for permission to undertake this

investigation. The co-operation extended by the staff

of the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary is gratefully

acknowledged. Our thanks are also due to Dr. K.

Jayaraman, Kerala Forest Research Institute for

advice in statistical analyses and Dr. K. M.

Alexander, Head of the Department of Zoology,

Univeristy of Kerala for encouragement. The first

author (PSE) is thankful to the University of Kerala

for financial assistance.

References

Balakrishnan, M. & RS. Easa (1986): HabitatPreferences of Larger

Mammals in the Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala,

India. Biol. Conserv. 37: 191-200.

Cochran, W.G. (1977): Sampling Techniques. John Wiley and

Sons, New York.

Daniel, J.C. (1980): The status of the Asian Elephant in the Indian

Sub-Continent. IUCN/SSC Report, 74 pp.

Douglas-Hamilton, I. (1972): On the Ecology and Behaviour of

the African Elephant. D. Phil. Thesis, Oxford University,

Oxford, U.K., 268 pp.

Easa, PS. (1989): Factors influencing the home range and mobility

of Asian elephant, Elephas maximus, in Parambikulam

Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. In: Proceedings of the First

Kerala Science Congress, 26-28 Feb. 1989, Cochin. (Ed.)

N. Balakrishnan Nair, pp. 436-441.

Easa, P.S. & M. Balakrishnan (1990): Population ecology and

management problems of larger mammals in Parambikulam

Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. In: Conservation in Developing

Countries: Problems and Prospects. Proc. of the Centenary

Seminar of the Bombay Natural History Society, (Eds.) J.C.

Daniel and J.S. Serrao, Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay, pp. 70-80.

Eisenberg, J.F. & M. Lockhart (1972): An ecological

reconnaissance survey of Wilpattu National Park,

Ceylon .Smithson. Contrib. Zoo. 101: 1-118, Washington,

D.C.

Eisenberg, J.F. & J. Seidensticker (1976): Ungulates in Southern

Asia: A consideration of biomass estimates for selected

ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

229

habitats. Biol. Conserv. JO: 293-308.

Ishwaran, N. (1984): The ecology of the Asian elephant ( Elephas

maximus L.) in Sri Lanka. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,

Michigan State University, 1 44 pp.

Kurt, F. (1974): Remarks on social structure and ecology of the

ceylon elephant in the Yala National Park. In: Behaviour of

ungulates and its relation to management. IUCN Pub 1 . New

Series 24: Vol. 2, 61 8-634.

Laws, R.M. (1966): Age criteria for the African elephant

(Loxodonta a. africana). E. Afr. Wildl. J. 4: 1 -37.

Leuthold, W. & M. Leuthold (1975): Patterns of social grouping

in ungulates of Tsavo National Park, Kenya. 7. Zool. 175(3):

405-420.

Leuthold, W. (1976): Group size in elephants of Tsavo National

Park and possible factors in influencing it. J. Anim. Ecol.

45(2): 425-436.

McKay, G.M. (1973): Behaviour and ecology of the Asiatic elephant

in the south eastern Ceylon. Smithsonian Institution Press,

City of Washington, 1 13 pp.

Nair, P.V. & K. Balasubramanyan (1985): Long-term environmental

and ecological impact of multipurpose river valley projects.

wildlife studies in Idukki, Periyar and Silent Valley. Kerala

Forest Research Institute, Research Report No. 26, 75 pp.

Nair, P.V., K.K. Ramachandran, V.S. Vijayan, PS. Easa & P.V.

Balakrishnan (1985): An ecological study in Periyar Tiger

Reserve with special reference to wildlife. Kerala Forest

Research Institute, Research Report no. 24, 159 pp.

Olivier, R.C.D. (1978): On the ecology of the Asian elephant,

Elephas maximus Linn, with special reference to Malaya and

Sri Lanka. Ph.D. Dissertation, Cambridge, U.K., 454 pp.

Peek, J.M., R.E. Lersche & D.R. Stevens (1974): Dynamics of

Moose aggregations in Alaska, Minnesota and Montana. J.

Mammal. 55: 126-137.

Rodgers, W.A. (1976): Seasonal change in group size amongst

five wild herbivore species. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 15: 175-190.

Santiapillai, C., M.R. Chambers & N. Ishwaran (1984): Aspects

of the ecology of the Asian elephant, Elephas maximus L.

in the Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. Biol. Conserv. 29:

47-61.

Sukumar, R. (1985): Ecology of the Asian Elephant (Elephas

maximus ) and its interaction with man in South India. Ph.D.

Thesis, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 542 pp.

PHYLOGENY AND ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF THE GHARIAL, GAVIALIS GANGETICUS

(GMELIN) (REPTILIA, CROCODILIA)1

A.K. Srivastava2 and H.R. Bustard3

(With a text-figure )

Key words: Gavialis, Tomistoma, phylogeny, zoogeography, morphology, lineage

The accepted theory is that the family Hylaeochampsidae of the order Eusuchia branched into the family Gavialidae

on one side and into the families Stomatosuchidae, Nettosuchidae and Crocodylidae, on the other. The zoogeography of

Gavialis, based on systematics, continental drift, anatomy and physiology, suggests that Gavialis has affinities with both

Tomistoma and Mesosuchia. Like Tomistoma, it is an inhabitant of fresh water and both probably had ancestors adapted

to salt water. The buccal morphology of Gavialis resembles species of marine origin.

The Gavialis drifted from India to other Asian countries during the Miocene and then it remained confined to India

in the.pleistocene respectively. Fossil records also refer to its presence in Africa and South America. The current existing

populations of G. gangeticus is restricted to the Indian subcontinent.

Introduction

Many theories of evolution, phylogeny and

zoogeography of crocodilians have been

propounded. The ‘phylogeny and ancestral

relationship of the crocodilian genus, Gavialis is

still debatable (see Mook 1934, Lull 1944, Sill 1968,

Densmore 1983) although the phylogeny of the

Crocodilia in reference to taxonomy has been dealt

in detail by Sill (1968).

Densmore and Dessauer (1982) and

Densmore (1983) employed biomedical and

immunological techniques while Pandey (1991)

explained the role of endocrinology in the phyletic

picture of reptiles. Subsequently, Blofield et al.

(1992) used haematological implications to

understand the phylogenetic relationship.

Sill (1968) reviewed the zoogeography and

continental dispersal of eusuchian crocodilians.

However, little information is available on the

phylogeny, zoogeography, and dispersal of Gavialis

'Accepted December 1994

2National Laboratory, Animal Centre,

Central Drug Research Institute, Chattar Manzil,

Lucknow-226001, India.

3Airlie Brae, Alyth, Perthshire, PHI 1 8AX, Scotland, U.K.

(Hecht and Malone 1972, Buffetaut 1978, 1982;

Buffetaut and Thomas 1981). Taplin and Grigg

(1989) explained that eusuchian zoogeography is

based on new information pertaining to their

systematic relationship and physiological capacity

for marine dispersal and on fossil records. The

available data is reviewed here.

A. Phylogeny

The phylogeny of eusuchian crocodilians is

based on the fossil history and biology of the existing

crocodilian species.

Taplin and Grigg (1989) discussed the

phylogeny of Gavialis and concluded that

* Anatomical and physiological adaptations to

marine existence have played an important role

in eusuchian history.

* Gavialis and Tomistoma , now restricted to

freshwater, may have been derived from

ancenstors adapted to salt water.

— The buccal morphology of Gavialis suggests

that it also has a marine ancestry.

— The systematic affinities of Gavialis are

uncertain, lying perhaps with Tomistoma and

on other interpretations with Mesosuchia.

PHYLOGENYAND ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF INDIAN GHARIAL , GAVIALIS GANGETICUS

231

Densmore (1983) and Densmore and Owen

(1989) discussed the eusuchian zoogeography on

the basis of biomedical and immunological studies

of existing crocodilian species, highlighting:

(i) The living eusuchians form a monophyletic

group with three major lineages: crocodiles,

alligators and gavialids.

(ii) Gavialis and Tomistoma are members of a

monophyletic group, more closely related to

the crocodile lineage than to the alligators.

(iii) Gavialis and Tomistoma are members of a

common lineage. Buffetaut and Thomas

(1981) and Buffetaut et al. (1984) proposed

that Gavialis is derived from tomistomines

which originated in the old world (probably

Africa) in the early Tertiary and migrated to

South America and India.

The physiological capabilities of the lingual

glands in crocodilians have been taken into account

to postulate the evolution and zoogeography in

Eusuchia,

Taplin et al. (1985) and Taplin and Grigg

(1989) noted that lingual gland pores are evident

on the tongues of both Tomistoma and Gavialis and

that the glands in Gavialis are minute in size and

Fig. 1 . Phylogeny of family Gavilidae. Al-Alligatorinae;

C-Crocodilinae; G-Gavialidae; H-Hylaeochampsidae;

Nt-Nettosuchidae; St-Stomatosuchidae; T-Tomistominae.

have a very low secretory capacity comparable to

the alligatorids than examined. They also recorded

that the general appearance of the tongue and buccal

cavity of both Gavialis and Tomistoma is

distinctively crocodyline rather than alligatorid. The

explanation of the similarities in buccal structure is

seen in Tomistoma and Gavialis , the salt glands and

their associated buccal modifications have developed

during adaptation to a marine existence. They

considered the possibilities of adopting Buffetaut’s

view that gavialids are derived from tomistomines

or considering Tarsitano’s (1985) view that gavialids

originated independently from a thalatosuchian

stock and concluded that buccal anatomy of Gavialis

and Tomistoma are crocodyline and both have a

common lineage, and buccal morphology of

Gavialis shows its ancestery from marine stock.

However, it is still controversial as to whether the

gavialids are derived from tomistomines or

Mesosuchia, or originated independently from

Thalatosuchians (Fig. 1).

B. Classification of Gavialis gangeticus :

The family Gavialidae belongs to the suborder

Eusuchia of the Order Crocodilia. The animals of

the Order Crocodilia came into existence during the

middle Triassic period. The order includes five

suborders, Sill (1968)

The only living Suborder Eusuchia of the

Order Crocodilia has five families: 1.

Hylaeochampsidae; 2. Stomatosuchidae; 3.

Gaviallidae; 4. Nettosuchidae; 5. Crocodilidae.

The family Hylaeochampsidae is the most

primitive and has given rise on one side to the

families Stomatosuchidae, Nettosuchidae and

Crocodylidae and on the other to the family

Gavialidae (Fig. 1).

232

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

The family Gavialidae is represented by one

surviving genus Gavialis containing a single species

Gavialis gangeticus Gmelin (1789), commonly

know as the gharial.

The distinguishing characters of Gavialis

listed below suggest its relatively long isolation from

other crocodilies.

i. Depression of postorbital bar; ii. Jaw

articulation of different angle and shape; iii.

Elongation of snout by extension of only the

maxillaries instead of both maxillaries and nasals,

as in other longirostrine crocodiles.

The long slender snout is an adapation to a

diet consisting almost exclusively of fish. Gavialis

possesses an elongated snout, characteristic skull

profile and close spacing of teeth. The genus

Gavialis has been confined to the Indian peninsula

from the early Miocene to the present time (Lull

1944).

C. Zoogeography:

The Zoogeography of Gavialis was initially

based on the fossil history and evolution of the

eusuchians. This has been continuously modified

taking into account the biology of the species. The

debate has now centered on the anatomy and

physiology of Gavialis relative to its zoogeography

and dispersal.

Buffetaut (1978, 1982, 1985 a, b) proposed

that the appearance of gavialids in the Oligocene of

South America called for a trans- Atlantic migration

across the developing South Atlantic Ocean in the

upper Eocene or early Oligocene. Buffetaut and

Thomas (1981) and Buffetaut et al. ( 1 984) proposed

that Gavialis is essentially a highly derived

tomistomine which originated in the Old World

(probably Africa) in the early Tertiary and migrated

to South America and India. Buffetaut

interpretations are rejected by Tarsitano et al. (1989)

whose analysis of cranial morphology and hind

limb, and cranial musculature points to a separate

origin of the gavialids, perhaps from the Mesozoic

thalattosuchians. Taplin and Grigg (1989) discussed

a detailed scenario for the zoogeography of

eusuchians using a physiological perspective and

the interpretations of many workers and concluded

that the early Tertiary disjunction of gavialid

distribution was between Africa and South America.

They further discussed a tomistomines and gavialid

lineage. The salient features dealing with the

zoogeography of gavialids are:

(1) Longirostrine crocodilians regarded as being

from the tomistomine lineage, are from the

upper cretaceous and early tertiary of Europe

and North America.

(2) The proposition that gavialids belong to the

tomistomines lineage, as it is presently known,

requires either an Oligocene crossing of the

South Atlantic (a barrier some 1000 km wide),

or convergent evolution of similar skull form

in New and Old World lines which separated

at a much earlier date (Buffetaut 1980, 1985 a,

b, c). Taplin and Grigg (1989) added that

gavialids are derived tomistomines as they are

presently recognized and include marine and

littoral forms.

(3) The gavialids are considered by Buffetaut ( 1 985

b) to have had at least three branches, the Indian

and Asian Gavialis species, a South American

branch and the widespread Gavialosuchus of

North American lines (known only from fossils

of fresh water deposit). The occurrence of

Gavialis in the Pleistocene of Java is

inconsistent with dispersal of a derived

freshwater stock through the Asian archipelago.

Gavialosuchus enjoys a much more widespread

distribution than other gavialids and is

characteristic of the littoral and marine strata

of the Atlantic seaboard of Europe, Africa and

North America.

(4) The fossil record is inconsistent with the view

that the sole surviving modern freshwater

gavialid and Tomistoma are derived from

marine adapted ancestors and retain some

characteristic physiological and anatomical

specializations.

(5) Gavialids might have close affinities with the

characteristically marine thalattosuchians than

are Mesosuchia, and are considered to be a

PHYLOGENY AND ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF INDIAN GHARIAL, GAVIALIS GANGETICUS

233

secondarily derived fresh water crocodilian.

On the basis of the above discussions and

fossil history one view is that the gavialids are

tomistomines that originated in the Old World

(Africa) and migrated to South America and India.

A second view holds that gavialids had three

branches: (i) The Indian and Asian gavialids, (ii)

The South American branch and (iii) The

Gavialosuchus of North America. This subject

deserves more study for a final conclusion.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Dr. D.S. Rathore for his

longstanding support in preparation of the

original manuscript. The first author

acknowledges the support of his wife Poonam during

the writing of the dissertation upon which the paper

is based.

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Buffetaut, E. ( 1 980): Determination de la nature des evenements

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52.

Buffetaut, E. (1982): Systematique, origine et evolution des

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140.

Buffetaut, E. (1985a): Zoogeographical history of African

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Bonn.

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eusuchian evolution: A reconciliation of palaentological and

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707-716.

Buffetaut, E. (1985c): Les crocodiliens de I’Eocene inferieur de

Dormantl (Brabant, Belgigue). Bull. Soc. Beige, de Geol.

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Buffetaut, E., G. Crouzel, F. Juillard & F. Stigeiani (1984): Le

crocodilien longirostre Gavialosuchus dans le Miocene

moyen de Polastron (Gers, France). Geobios 17(1): 1 13-

117.

Buffetaut, E, & H. Thomas (1981): Un Gavial dans le Miocene

superior d’lrak (Jebel. Hamrin, Formation Bakhtiari). C.R.

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of species within the circumtropical genus Crocodylus.

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gavialid crocodilians. Herpetologica 28: 281-284.

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242: 417-430.

Mook, C.C. (1934): The evolution and classification of the

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Siee, W.D. ( 1 968): The zoogeography of the Crocodilia. Copeia 1 :

76-88.

Tapein, L.E. & G.C. Grigg (1989): Historical zoogeography of the

Eusuchian Crocodilians: A physiological perspective. Amer

Zool. 29: 885-901.

Tapein, L.E., G.C. Grigg & L. Beard (1985): Salt Gland function

in fresh water crocodiles: Evidence of marine phase in

eusuchian evolution. In: Biology of Australasian frogs and

reptiles. Ed. by G. Grigg, R. Shine and H. Ehmann. Royal

Zoo. Soc. New South Wales: 403-410.

Tarsitano, S.S. (1985): Cranial metamorphosis and the origin of

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data. Amer Zool. 29: 843-856.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

REVISION OF GENUS INDOTAXONUS MALAISE FROM INDIA

(HYMENOPTERA, SYMPHYTA, TENTHREDINIDAE: ALLANTINAE)1

Malkiat S. Saini and V. Vasu2

(With twenty three text-figures )

Genus Indotaxonus Malaise from India is revised. Five species are described and illustrated in a uniform

pattern. Described as new are I. bicoloris, I. canaliculus and /. tajinderi, while /. unicolor Malaise is the first

report from India. Treatment of each taxon includes synonymy (if any), detailed description, collection data,

population variation (if any), and distribution. A key is provided for all the species described.

Introduction

Genus Indotaxonus was described by Malaise

in 1957 with Taxonus tricoloricornis Konow, as its

type species. While shifting Taxonus tricoloricornis

Konow, 1898 to Indotaxonus, Malaise also

synonymised Allomorpha varicornis Cameron,

1899.

In this article we describe five species which

include one that has already been reported, one as a

first report and three as new to science. The

holotypes of the new species are presently in our

collections and will be deposited in the Indian

Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), Pusa

National Collections, New Delhi, India, after this

work is published.

Abbreviations used are: LID = lower

interocular distance, IDMO = inter-ocular distance

at the level of median ocellus, EL = eye length, OOL

= oculo-ocellar line, OCL = ocello-occipital line,

POL = postocellar line, IATS = inner apical tibial

spur, OATS = outer apical tibial spur, MB =

metabasitarsus, ICD = inter-cenchri distance, ITD

= inter-tegular distance.

Genus Indotaxonus Malaise, 1957

Indotaxonus Malaise, 1957. Entomol. Tidskr.

Arg. 78: 19-22.

Type species: Taxonus tricoloricornis Konow,

1898.

‘Accepted May 1994.

department of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala- 147 002, India.

Diagnosis: Adult: Body fulvous with few

black and pale yellow markings. Wings yellowish

hyaline, hardly infumated towards apex, costa and

stigma fulvous, venation blackish.

Antenna long and slender, longer than head

and thorax combined, scape and pedicel longer than

broad, segments 3 and 4 subequal in length, 4 or 5

apical joints strongly compressed; clypeus

semicircularly incised with blunt and depressed

lateral teeth; labrum flat, pentagonal; mandibles

asymmetric, right one simple, left with a broad basal

tooth; inner margins of eyes subparallel; malar space

lx diameter of median ocellus; postocellar area

longer than broad; lateral furrow deep and sharp;

mesoscutellum pyramidally elevated; metabasitarsus

longer than following tarsal joints combined, tarsal

claw with a large subapical tooth in addition to an

apical tooth and minute basal lobe. In front wings,

anal cell with oblique cross vein; hind wings with

two closed middle cell in female, none in male;

anellan cell not petiolate.

Distribution: China, Burma; India.

Remarks: This genus is characterised by the

males with the hind wings without closed middle

cell and females with 2 closed middle cells. The

anellan cell is not petiolate.

Key to the species of Genus Indotaxonus Malaise from India

1 . Antenna bicoloured, apical segments black 2

— Antenna tricoloured, apical segments not black 3

2. Wings entirely hyaline; lateral flecks on terga 3-6 present;

head impunctate; mesoscutellum without a row of large,

shallow punctures on its posterior border

I. bicoloris sp.nov.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

— Apical halves of wings infuscated; lateral flecks on terga

3-6 missing; head with dense, minute, irregular punctures;

meso — scutellum with a row of large, shallow punctures on

its posterior border I. unicolor Malaise, 1957

3. Median fovea deep, ditch -like and clearly though narrowly

reaching median ocellus /. canaliculus sp. nov.

— Median fovea deep pit or ditch - like in its anterior half and

posteriorly only broadly, shallowly reaching median ocellus

4

4. Mesonotal middle lobe entirely fuscoferruginous (no blackish

spot); postocellar area longer than broad, ratio 4:3; antennal

segments 3 and 4 equal; OOL:POL:OCL = 3:2:4;

metabasitarsus equal to following joints combined

I. tajinderi sp. nov.

— Mesonotal middle lobe with some black markings atleast at

its anterior margin; postocellar area longer than broad, ratio

3:2; antennal segment 3 shorter than 4, ratio 6:7;

OOL:POL:OCL = 3:2:3; metabasitarsus longer than

following joints combined, ratio 8:7

I. tricoloricornis (Konow, 1898)

Indotaxonus bicoloris sp. nov.

(Figs. 2,5,11,15,19)

female: Colour: Body fuscoferruginous, black

areas are: antennal segments 6-9; mandible tip; a

spot between ocelli extending up to supra-antennal

pit along antennal furrows; a streak along lateral

furrows; a medial stripe on pronotum; extreme

anterior margin of mesonotal middle lobe; lateral

aspects of mesonotal lateral lobe; anterior aspects

of mesepisternum and mesosternum; a median stripe

on mesepimeron; metapleuron entirely; lateral flecks

on terga 3-6 (more broad and large on 3 and 4).

Legs fuscoferruginous. Wings hyaline; costa and

basal 1/2 of stigma fulvous; rest of venation

including subcosta black.

Structure: Average length 9 mm. Antenna

long, 2.7X of head width; scape twice as long as its

apical width; pedicel as long as its apical width;

segments 3 and 4 almost equal; segments 6-9

strongly compressed; clypeus (Fig. 2) circularly

incised up to 2/3 of its medial length; labrum (Fig.

2) broader than long, ratio 3:2, with pointed anterior

end; malar space of the diameter of median ocellus;

head with postgenal carina; hind orbits carinated;

LID:IDMO:EL = 7:8:5; frontal area below the level

of eyes; supra-antennal tubercles and frontal ridges

insignificant; median fovea in the form of a broad

pit in its anterior half and posteriorly only shallowly

23 5

reaching median ocellus; post-, inter-and

circumocellar furrows sharp and distinct; lateral

furrows deep, distinct, parallel and ending just

before the hypothetical hind margin of head;

postocellar area longer than broad, ratio 3:2, with a

faint medial longitudinal carina in its anterior half;

head narrowing behind eyes; OOL:POL:OCL =

7:4:8; mesoscutellum pyramidally raised; appendage

not carinate; ICD:ITD = 1:3; tarsal claw (Fig. 8)

with a subapical tooth stronger but shorter than

apical one and a distinct basal lobe; meta-basitarsus

almost equal to following joints combined; metatibial

spurs subequal in length; IATS:MB:OATS =

l. 25:4:0.75. Lancet (Fig. 19) with 24 serrulae.

Hypopygium as in Fig. 5.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head

impunctate, shining; thorax impunctate except

mesepisternum which bears dense, deep, distinct,

confluent punctures on its convexity, surface shining

with general oily lustre; abdomen impunctate

subshining. Body covered with golden pubescence.

male: Average length 8 mm. Similar to female

except the flecks on terga may be missing. Male

genitalia : Penis valve (Fig. 11), gonoforceps (Fig.

15).

Holotype: Female, Nagaland: Pfutsero, 2100

m, 20 May, 1993.

Paratypes: Nagaland: 1 male, Wokha —

1 300 m, 1 5 September, 1 992; 2 males, Vizho-Razho-

1600 m, 11 May, 1993; 1 female, 3 males,

Zunheboto-1 874 m, 14 May, 1993; 3 females, 8

males, Pfutsero-2100 m, 20 May, 1993.

Population variation: Entire flagellum may

be black.

Distribution: India: Nagaland.

Diagnostic characters: Though /. bicoloris

is allied to /. unicolor Malaise, it remains distinct

from all other species dealt herewith on the basis of

some significant characters such as: presence of

lateral flecks on terga 3-6; characteristic shape of

median fovea; entirely hyaline wings; absence of a

row of large punctures on posteior border of

mesoscutellum and impunctated head.

Etymology: The species name pertains to its

23 6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92(1995)

bicoloured antenna.

Indotaxonus unicolor Malaise, 1957

(Figs. 3, 6, 9, 20)

Indotaxonus unicolor Malaise, 1957.

Entomol. Tidskr. Arg. 78, H-I. p.22.

female: Colour: Body fuscoferruginous, dark

brown to black areas are: 4 apical antennal

segments; mandible tip; stripe along antennal

furrow; narrow stripe surrounding each ocellus;

stripe along lateral furrow; Y-shaped lateral spot

on pronotum; stripe along dorsal and posterior

margin of metapleuron; tip of sawsheath. Wings

hyaline with infumated apices, more pronounced

in forewing, costa a nd basal half of stigma

fulvous, distal half of stigma and venation dark

brown.

Structure: Average length 1 1 mm. Antenna

3x head width, scape and pedicel twice as long as

their apical widths; segment 3 and 4 equal in length,

flagellum compressed; clypeus (Fig. 3) circularly

incised up to 1/2 of its medial length with

subtriangular lateral teeth and wavy margin; labrum

(Fig. 3) broader than long in ratio 3:2, flat with

roundly pointed anterior margin; LID:IDMO:EL =

6:7:5; malar space half the diameter of median

ocellus; frontal area almost at the level of eyes;

median fovea in form of medial depression;

postocellar area elevated, longer than broad in ratio

3:2, with faint indication of longitudinal carina on

anterior 1/3, post-, inter-, and circumocellar furrows

sharp; lateral furrows parallel, deep and ending just

before the hypothetical hind margin of head;

OOL:POL:OCL = 3:2:4; head narrowing behind

eyes; mesoscutellum convex; appendage not

carinate; ICD:ITD = 1.0: 3. 5; tarsal claw (Fig. 9)

with a subapical tooth stronger but shorter than

apical one and a distinct basal lobe; metabasitarsus

longer than following joints combined, ratio 6:5;

IATS:MB:OATS = 1. 0:4.0: 1.0. Lancet (Fig. 20)

having 23 serrulae. Hypopygium as in Fig. 6.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head minutely

and sparsely punctured; mesonotum and

mesoscutellum densely and distinctly punctured;

appendage polished; mesopleuron minutely

punctured with large scattered punctures along

convexity; abdomen polished. Body covered with

golden pubescence.

male: Not found.

Population variation: Not observed.

Holotype Depository: Female, NR,

Stockholm.

Paratype Depository: 2 Males, NR,

Stockholm.

Specimens examined: Uttar Pradesh: 2

females, Barkot-2000 m, 8 June, 1983. Meghalaya:

1 female, Smit-1500 m, 15 September, 1985; 1

female, Mawphlang -1500 m, 17 September, 1985.

Distribution: Burma; India: Meghalaya,

Uttar Pradesh.

Diagnostic characters: This species is a first

report from India. The specimens studied fall within

Malaise’s 1 963 key for world genera and agrees well

with the original description, by Malaise (1957).

The species is unique in having antenna bicoloured;

apical halves of wings infuscated; characteristic

shape of median fovea; absence of lateral flecks on

abdomen; mesoscutellum with a row of large

punctures on its posterior border and head densely,

minutely punctured. Because of the combination of

these characters I. unicolor stands far apart from

all other reported species of this genus.

Indotaxonus canaliculus sp. nov.

(Figs. 4, 12, 16, 21)

female: Colour: Body fuscoferruginous,

whitish areas are: antennal segments 7-9. Black

areas are: antennal segments 4-6; mandible tip; a

spot between ocelli and covering most of frontal

area; a streak along lateral furrows; ventral 2/3 of

pronotum except margins; extreme anterior aspects

of mesonotal middle lobe; a broad medial spot

covering most of mesonotal lateral lobe; anterior

aspects of mesepisternum; mesosternum except

anterior margin; anteroventral 1/2 of mesepimeron;

metapleuron entirely; lateral flecks on terga 2-7

(more large on terga 3-4). Legs fuscoferruginous.

Wings faintly hyaline, transparent; costa and basal

1/2 of stigma fulvous; rest of venation including

subcosta black.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

23 7

Fi-gs. 1-18. Species of the genus Intlotaxonus Malaise: 1 . Clypeus

& labrum of tajinderi; 2. Clypeus & labrum of bicoloris;

3. Clypeus & labrum of unicolor; 4. Hypopygium of canaliculus;

5. Hypopygium of bicoloris; 6. Hypopygium of unicolor;

7. Hypopygium of tajinderi; 8. Tarsal claw of tajinderi; 9. Tarsal

claw of unicolor; 10. Tarsal claw of tricoloricornis; 11. Penis

valve of bicoloris; 12. Penis valve of canaliculus; 13. Penis valve

of tajinderi; 14. Penis valve of tricoloricornis; 15. Gonoforceps of

bicoloris; 16. Gonoforceps of canaliculus; 17. Gonoforceps of

tajinderi; 1 8. Gonoforceps of tricoloricornis

Structure: Length 12.5 mm. Antenna long,

2.8x head width; scape twice as long as its apical

width; pedicel as long as its apical width; segments 3

and 4 equal; segments 6-9 strongly compressed;

clypeus (Fig. 1) subsquarely incised up to 1/2 of its

medial length; labrum (Fig. 1 ) broader than long, ratio

3:2, with pointed anterior end; malar space 0.75x

diameter of median ocellus; head with postgenal

carina; hind orbits carinated; LID:IDMO:EL = 6:7:4;

frontal area below the level of eyes; supra-antennal

tubercles moderate and confluent with similar roundly

raised frontal ridges; median fovea in the form of a

deep ditch, clearly though narrowly reaching median

ocellus; post-, inter- and circumocellar furrows sharp

and distinct; lateral furrows deep, distinct, parallel

and ending just before the hypothetical hind margin

of head; postocellar area almost flat, longer than

broad, ratio 3:2 and with faint medial longitudinal

carina in its anterior half; head slightly narrowing

behind eyes; OOL:POL:OCL = 3:2:4; mesoscutellum

convex with a median longitudinal carina more

prominent on its anterior half; appendage not carinate;

ICD:ITD = 1:3; tarsal claw with a subapical tooth

stronger but shorter than apical one and a distinct

basal lobe; metabasitarsus almost equal to following

joints combined; metatibial spurs subequal in length;

IATS:MB:OATS = 1.25:0.4:0.75. Lancet (Fig. 21)

having 31 serrulae. Hypopygium as in Fig. 4.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head

impunctate, shining; thorax impunctate except

mesepisternum that bears dense, deep, distinct,

confluenting punctures on its convexity, surface

shining with an oily lusture; abdomen impunctate

less shiny. Body covered with golden pubescence.

male: Length 9 mm. Similar to female except

black flecks on terga missing. Male genitalia : Penis

valve (Fig. 12), gonoforceps (Fig. 16).

Holotype: Female, Uttar Pradesh:

Kalamunitop-2700 m, 24 June, 1991.

Paratypes: Uttar Pradesh: 3 females, 1 male,

Mandal-2300 m, 15 June, 1987; 1 male,

Kalamunitop-2700 m, 24 June, 1991.

Population variation: Not observed.

Distribution: India: Uttar Pradesh.

Diagnostic characters: /. canaliculus is

unique in having some remarkable characters such

as tricoloured antenna; deep ditch-like median fovea

clearly, though narrowly, reaching median ocellus;

wings hyaline; apical four antennal segments

strongly compressed and impunctated head. On the

basis of these characters /. canaliculus is separable

238

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

from all the species dealt herewith.

Etymology: The species name pertains to the

characteristic ditch-like median fovea.

Indotaxonus tajinderi sp.nov.

(Figs. 1,7,8,13,17,22)

female: Colour: Body fuscoferruginous;

whitish areas are: apical 1/2 of antennal segment

7; segments 8 and 9 entirely. Black areas are:

antennal segments 4-6 and basal 1/2 of segment 7;

mandible tip; a spot between ocelli and a streak

along lateral furrows; a median spot on anterior

1/2 of pronotum; a broad medial spot covering most

of mesonotal lateral lobe; extreme anterior aspect

of mesepisternum; mesosternum entirely; a streak

on anterodorsal margin of mesepimeron; lateral

medial irregular flecks on terga 3-6 (larger on 3-4).

Legs fuscoferruginous. Wings faintly hyaline,

transparent; costa and basal 1/2 of stigma fulvous;

rest of venation including subcosta black.

Structure: Average length 10.5 mm. Antenna

long, 2.8x head width; scape twice as long as its

apical width; pedicel as long as its apical width;

segments 3 and 4 almost equal in length; apical 3

segments strongly compressed; clypeus (Fig. 1)

subsquarely incised up to 1/2 of its medial length;

labrum (Fig. 1) broader than long, ratio 3:2, with

pointed anterior end; malar space 0.75x diameter

of median ocellus; head with postgenal carina; hind

orbits carinated; LID:IDMO:EL = 4:4:3; frontal area

below the level of eyes; supra-antennal tubercles and

frontal ridges insignificant; median fovea in the

form of a deep pit in its anterior half and posteriorly

only shallowly and broadly reaching median ocellus;

post -, inter- and cirumocellar furrows sharp and

distinct; lateral furrows distinct, deep, parallel and

ending just before the hypothetical hind margin of

head; postocellar area almost flat, longer than broad,

ratio 4:3, with a faint medial longitudinal carina in

its anterior 1/2; head narrowing behind eyes;

OOL:POL:OCL = 3:2:4; mesoscutellum

pyramidally raised; appendage not carinate;

ICD:ITD =1:3; tarsal claw (Fig. 8) with a subapical

tooth stronger but shorter than apical one and a

distinct basal lobe; metabasitarsus almost equal to

following joints combined; metatibial spurs

subequal in length; IATS:MB:OATS = 1.25:4:0.75.

Lancet (Fig. 22) with 29 serrulae. Hypopygium as

in Fig. 7.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head impunctate,

shining; thorax impunctate except mesepisternum

that bears few large, shallow, confluenting punctures

on its convexity, surface shining with oily lustre;

abdomen impunctate, shining. Body covered with

golden pubescence.

male: Average length 9.0 mm. Similar to

female except black flecks on terga missing. Male

genitalia: Penis valve (Fig. 13), gonoforceps (Fig.

17).

Holotype: Female, Uttar Pradesh:

Kalamunitop-2700 m, 26 June, 1991.

Paratypes: Uttar Pradesh: 1 male, Mandal-

2300 m, 15 June, 1987; 4 females, 5 males,

Kalamunitop-2700 m, 26 June, 1991 and 1 female,

21 June, 1993.

Population variation: Black spot on

pronotum may be missing; black spot on

metepisternum and metepimeron may be present.

Distribution: india: Uttar Pradesh.

Diagnostic characters: I. tajinderi comes

close to I. tricoloricornis (Konow) on the basis of

some broad key characters, but can be separated from

the latter on account of the characteristic shape of

the median fovea; postocellar area being broader

than long as 4:3; OOL:POL:OCL = 3:2:4;

metabasitarsus equal to following joints combined

and mesonotal middle lobe without blackish spot.

Etymology: The species is named after Mr.

Tajinder P. Saini, working on sawfly taxonomy at

Punjabi University, Patiala, India.

Indotaxonus tricoloricornis (Konow, 1 898)

(Figs. 10,14,18,23)

Taxonus tricoloricornis Konow, 1898. Ent.

Nachr. Vol. 24, p.86.

Allomorpha varicornis Cameron, 1 899. Mem.

Philos. Soc. Manch. Vol. 43, p. 29-30.

Indotaxonus tricoloricornis Malaise, 1957.

Entomol. Tidskr. Arg. 78, H-I, p.20-21 .

female: Colour: Body fuscoferruginous, black

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

239

23

Figs. 19-23. Species of the genus Indotaxonus Malaise:

1 9. Lancet of bicoloris\ 20. Lancet of unicolor ; 2 1 . Lancet of

canaliculus ; 22. Lancet of tajinderi; 23. Lancet of tricoloricornis.

areas are; antennal segments 4-6; mandible tip;

supra-antennal pit; spot on median fovea;

interocellar area; stripe along lateral furrow; lateral

spot on pronotum; anterior margin of mesonotal

middle lobe and large spot on lateral lobe; broad

stripe dorsal to mesopleural suture; spot on anterior

margin of mesepisternum; mesosternum;

metapleuron; broad dorsolateral flecks on abdominal

terga 2-6 (lateral on 3-4). Wings hyaline; costa and

stigma fulvous; rest of venation piceous.

Structure: Average length 10 mm. Antenna

2.5x head width, scape twice as long as its apical

width; pedicel as long as its apical width; segments

3 and 4 subequal, ratio 6:7; 4 apical segments

compressed; clypeus (Fig. 1) subsquarely incised up

to 1/2 of its medial length with subtriangular lateral

teeth; labrum (Fig. 1) broader than long in ratio

3:2, flat and with pointed anterior end;

LID:IDMO:EL = 6:7:5; malar space equal to

diameter of median ocellus; frontal area below the

level of eyes; median fovea distinct with deep pit at

anterior end and posteriorly broadly, shallowly

reaching median ocellus; post-, inter- and circum-

ocellar furrows sharp; lateral furrows deep, distinct,

parallel and ending abruptly well before the

hypothetical hind margin of head; postocellar area

elevated, longer than broad, ratio 3:2, with medial

longitudinal carina; OOL:POL:OCL = 3:2:3; head

narrowing behind eyes; mesoscutellum pyramidally

raised; appendage not carinate; ICD:ITD = 1:4;

tarsal claw (Fig. 10) with a subapical tooth stronger

but shorter than apical one and a distinct basal lobe;

metabasitarsus longer than the following joints

combined, ratio 8:7; IATS:MB:OATS = 2:5:1.25.

Lancet (Fig. 23) having 34 serrulae. Hypopygium

as in Fig. 4.

Sculpture and pubescence: Head almost

impunctate; mesonotum minutely punctured, still

shining; mesoscutellum and metascutellum

polished; convexity of mesepisternum almost

rugose, its remaining area and mesepisternum

minutely and sparsely punctured; abdomen

polished. Body covered with golden pubescence.

male: Average length 8.0 mm. Similar to

female except the absence of flecks on abdominal

tergites. Male genitalia : Penis valve (Fig. 14),

gonoforceps (Fig. 18).

Holotype Depository: Female, IAPL,

Eberswalde.

Paratype Depository: 1 Male, IAPL,

Eberswalde.

Specimens examined: Uttar Pradesh: 1

female, Barkot-2000 m, 8 June, 1983; 6 males,

Barkot-2000 m, 28 June, 1992; 10 females, 100

males, Mandal-2700m, 15- 17 June, 1987; 25 males,

Deer Park (Mandal)-2700 m, 27 June, 1989; 3

males, Mandal-2700 m, 25 June, 1992; 10 males,

Chopta-3000 m, 19 June, 1987; 6 males, Chopta-

3000 m, 25 June, 1992; 1 female, Gobindghat-1800

m, 28 June, 1987; 2 females, Mukteshwar-2700 m,

20 June, 1991; 7 females, 11 males, Binayak-2225

m, 22 June, 1991; 2 males, Kalamunitop-2700 m,

24 June, 1991; 2 males, Kalamunitop-2700 m, 21

June, 1993; 3 females, 5 males, Kilbury-2200 m,

22 June 1993. Himachal Pradesh: 36 females, 30

240

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

males, Kalatop-2800 m, 30 June — 2 July, 1986; 1

female, Shoja-3000 m, 10 May, 1992. West Bengal:

2 females, Pashok-2000 m, 22 May, 1987; 1 male,

Darjeeling-2280 m, 7 May, 1993; 4 females, 3

males, Darjeeling-2280 m, 11 September, 1993.

Sikkim: 1 female, Gangtok- 1 700 m, 15 May, 1986;

1 male, Gangtok- 1700 m, 14 May, 1993; 1 female,

3 males, Namchi- 1700 m, 16 May, 1993. Arunachal

Pradesh: 14 females, Bomdila-2550m, 2 May, 1989;

9 females, 27 males, Bomdila-2550 m, 31 May-2

June, 1989; 4 males, Bomdila-2550 m, 25 June,

1993; 1 female, Dirang-1500 m, 29 May, 1993.

Meghalaya: 3 females, Smit- 1 500 m, 1 7 May, 1 989;

5 males, Elephanta Falls- 1500 m, 19 May, 1989; 5

males, Elephanta Falls- 1500 m, 19 May, 1989; 2

females, Happy Valley- 1500 m, 20 May, 1989.

Nagaland: 2 females, Zunheboto-1874 m, 14

May, 1993; 1 female, Satakha-1500 m, 15 May,

1993.

Population variation: There is considerable

variation in the black lateral flecks on abdomen in

the females. Sometimes the flecks are small just on

the border leaving a yellow abdomen in between

but in some cases where flecks are quite prominent

and large, the yellow colour of abdomen is left only

R E F E R

Cameron, P. ( 1 899): Hymenoptera Orientalia, or contributions to a

knowledge of the Hymenoptera of the Oriental Zoological

Region. Part VIII. Manch. Memo. 43 (3): 1-50.

Konow, F.W. (1898): New asiatische Tenthrediniden

(Hymenoptera). Ent. Nadu: 24 : 86-109.

in the form of a line in the centre. Usually the

number of these flecks is 6, i.e. on terga 2-7. But

sometimes 5 on 2-6, sometimes, 4 on 2-5 or 3-6. In

case of males the apical abdominal tergites may be

fulvous to almost black or entirely pale.

Distribution: India: Uttar Pradesh, Himachal

Pradesh, West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh,

Meghalaya, Nagaland.

Diagnostic characters: The specimens

studied fall within Malaise’s 1963 key for genera of

the world and Malaise’s 1957 key to the species of

this genus. They also compare well with the

available description by Konow (1898). /.

tricoloricornis (Konow) is distinct from all other

species on the basis of some remarkable characters

such as the characteristic shape of median fovea;

tricoloured antenna; hyaline wings; black marking

on mesonotal middle lobe; metabasitarsus longer

than following joints combined and postocellar area

broader than long as 3:2, etc.

Acknowledgements

Financial assistance rendered by US, PF-480

in collaboration with ICAR is gratefully

acknowledged.

- N C H S

Malaise, R. (1957): Some Neotropical and Oriental

Tenthredinoidea. Entomol. Tidkskr. Arg. 78(1): 6-22.

Malaise, R. (1963): Hymenoptera Tenthredinoidea subfamily

Selandriinae. Key to the genera of the world. Ent. Tidski:

Arg. 84(3-4): 159-215.

A NEW SPECIES OF MED1NILLA GAUD. (MELASTOMATACEAE)

FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA1

G. D. Pal2

(With a text-figure )

During plant exploration in the district of Lower

Subansiri, Arunachal Pradesh, an interesting species

of the genus Medinilla Gaud, was collected. A critical

‘Accepted January 1995.

2 Arunachal Pradesh Circle, Botanical Survey of India,

Itanagar-791 111.

study based on the regional herbarium specimens of

allied species and literature on species of Medinilla

Gaud, has proved it to be quite distinct from species

so far known. It is described here.

Medinilla arunachalica sp. nov.

M. maingayi C.B. Clarke affinis, sed differt

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1 . A-D: Medinilla arunachalica sp. nov.

A: Habit; B: Capsule; C: Seed; D: Part of leaf (magnified).

foliis elliptico-lanceolatis, minus quani 1 cm latis,

nervis lateralibus obscuris; petiolis 2-3 mm longis,

ramis striatis sparsim verrucosis.

Typus: Old Ziro, Lower Subansiri District,

Arunachal Pradesh, 1750 m, 18.9.1983, G.D.Pal

1232 A (Holotypus — CAL); Isotypus: Ibid. G.D.

Pal 1232 B (ARUN).

Medinilla arunachalica sp. nov.

(Fig. 1, A-D)

Allied to Medinilla tnaingayi C.B. Clarke but can

24 1

be distinguished by the leaves being elliptic-

lanceolate, less than 1 cm broad; lateral nerves obscure;

petioles 2-5 mm long; branches striate, sparsely

verrucose.

Epiphytic scandent shrubs, 30-40 cm tall,

rooting at lower nodes. Stems striate, sparsely

verrucose, reddish brown, branchlets angular,

glabrous. Leaves elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate, 1.2-

3.2 x 0.6-0. 9 cm, cuneate at base, obtuse, reflexed

at margin, turn dark-brown when dry; lateral nerves

obscure; midnerves strong; petioles 2-3 mm long.

Inflorescence axillary, 1-2-flowered cymes;

peduncles 2-4 mm long, terete, glabrous; bracts

ovate to suborbicular, 1 .75-2.0 x 1 .25- 1 .5 mm, acute

or obtuse, ciliolate at margin; pedicels 4. 0-4. 5 mm

long, terete to obscurely angled. Flowers

tetramerous; calyx 4-toothed; teeth broadly

triangular, 1.0- 1.5 mm long, apex obtuse, midrib

more or less prominent; ovary inferior. Fruits berry,

oval to subglobose, 6-7 mm long, 4. 5-6. 6 mm broad

at apex, crowned with the persistent calyx-teeth,

Seeds oblong-ellipsoid, c. 1 mm long; raphe

extending below the middle.

Habitat: In moist, broad leaved sub-temperate

forest on Michelia tree where it grows in hollows

and rotting wood left by fallen branches, associated

with Medinilla himalaiyana Hook. f. & Triana and

Medinilla erythrophylla Lindl.

Fruiting: September.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Dr. P.K. Hajra, Director,

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for facilities and

encouragement. Thanks are also due to Dr. H.J.

Chowdhery, Scientist ‘SE\ Arunachal Pradesh

Circle, Itanagar for his help.

242

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

A NEW SPECIES OF OXYOPID SPIDER FROM INDIA1

G.L. Sadana and Aarti Gupta2

(With seven text-figures )

A new species of spider, Oxyopes gurjanti sp. nov. of the family Oxyopidae is described and illustrated,

and O. ratncie Tikader has been recorded for the first time from northern India.

Spiders of the genus Oxyopes Latreille of the

family Oxyopidae are little known from the Indian

region. Pocock (1901) was the first to report some

species of this genus but his descriptions lacked

details and illustrations. Sherriffs (1951 ) redescribed

Pocock’s specimens with illustrations. Later,

Tikader (1965, 1969) and Tikader and Biswas

(1981) made further additions to the Oxyopid fauna

of India.

While examining the collection made during

the survey of spiders predaceous on insect pests of

deciduous orchards, we came across two species of

Oxyopes, one of which is new and is described here

as O. gurjanti and the other O. ratnae Tikader

(1970) is already known from eastern India and

collected for the first time from northern India is

being reported. With the addition of the new species

to the already known Oxyopes fauna, the total

number now known from India stands at

eighteen.

The type specimens will, in due course, be

deposited in the collections of the Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta.

All the measurements given in the decription

of species are in mm.

Abbreviations are\ AM, anterior median, AL,

anterior lateral, PM, posterior median and PL,

posterior lateral eyes.

Oxyopes gurjanti sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-7)

Cephalothorax: female carapace length 4.02,

broadest width 3.85; ground colour greyish yellow

with a dark median band extending up to the eye

‘Accepted January 1995.

department of zoology, Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana- 141 004.

Figs. 1-7. Oxyopes gurjanti sp. nov.: 1. Dorsal view of female

(legs omitted); 2. Inner view of chelicera; 3. Ventral view of

labium and sternum; 4. Inner view of maxillary lobe; 5. First leg;

6. Ventral view of epigynum; 7. Internal genitalia.

group, flanked on either side by a similarly coloured

band (Fig. 1 ). Cephalic region narrower and higher

than thoracic region; thoracic region almost circular,

thoracic fovea distinct and longitudinal. Eyes: pearly

white, surrounded by black rims, arranged in a

hexagonal manner because of strongly recurved

anterior row and strongly procured posterior row

(Fig. 1). Diameter of eyes: AM= 0.14, AL= 0.23,

PM= 0.23, PL= 0.23. Distance between eyes: AM-

AM= 0.32, AL-AL=0.97, AM-AL=0.52, PM-

PM=0.95, PL-PL= 1.25, PM-PL = 0.46, AM-PM=

1.08, AL-PL = 0.45. Clypeus: width 0.52, yellow,

marked with two dark streaks extending up to the

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

243

anterior median eyes and chelicerae. Chelicera :

length 1 .05, width 0.82, yellow, anterior face marked

with a dark streak that merges with the clypeal

streak, promargin of cheliceral furrow with two

teeth, the first tooth being the largest, retromargin

with a single tooth (Fig. 2), lateral condyle distinct

(Fig. 2). Labium : length 0.68, width 0.49, yellowish

brown, longer than broad (Fig. 3) extending up to

more than half the length of maxillary lobes, anterior

end slightly notched and beset with a few hairs.

Maxillary lobes : length 0.89, width 0.56, yellow

with a brown patch anteriorly, almost cylindrical,

beset with a few hair antero-laterafly (Fig. 4).

Sternum : length 1.75, width 1.21, yellow, broader

anteriorly and pointed posteriorly, significantly

longer than wide (Fig. 3), sternal cones distinct.

Legs : yellow, strong and spinose, spines standing

out at a considerable angle (Fig. 5 for I), tarsal claws

three. Length of legs: 1-14.72, 11-12.78, III- 1 1.21

and IV- 12.93.

Abdomen: length 8.69, broadest width 3.29,

broader and rounded anteriorly, narrow and tapering

posteriorly; dorsum greyish yellow with a median,

reddish brown band flanked with similarly coloured

oblique patches (Fig. 1). Venter pale yellow with a

dark median band interrupted by yellowish spots

and white mottling. Posterior spinnerets longer than

anterior ones. Anal tubercle long and conical.

Epigynum and internal genitalia as in Figs. 6 and

7. Total length : female, 12.71.

Type-data: Holotype female, Paratypes 3

females in spirit, male unknown. Type locality: pear

orchard, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana,

19. XI. 1992, coll. Aarti and 29.IX.1993, coll.

Gurjant.

Distribution: Known from type-locality.

Etymology: The new species is named after

the collector.

Remarks: This species resembles slightly O.

pandae Tikader but can be distinguished from it by

large sized PL eyes, absence of spines in occular

quad and bands on the ventral side of femura and

dark bands on the venter of abdomen being

interrupted by yellow spots and white mottling. The

structure of epigynum and internal genitalia is also

different.

Oxyopes ratnae Tikader

Oxyopes ratnae Tikader, \910,Rec. zoolSurv.

India. 64: 70.

Material examined: 1 female, 2 males ex

peach (Primus persica), 9.XI.1992; 1 female, 1 male

ex her ( Zizyphus jujuba ), 11.1.1993, new orchard,

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, coll.

Aarti.

Distribution: india: Sikkim, Calcutta, West

Bengal, and Ludhiana, Punjab.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Professor and Head, Department

of Zoology, Punjab Agicultural Univeristy, Ludhiana

for providing laboratory facilities and for

encouragement.

Rffhrhnchs

Pocock, R.I. (1901): Distribution of some new species of spiders Oxyopes. Pwc. Zool. Soc. London. 120: 651-677.

from British India. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc, 13: 478- Tikader, B.K.( 1 965): On some new species of spiders of the family

498. Oxyopidae from India. Pwc. Indian Acad. Sci. 62: 140-

Shhrriffs, W.R. (1951): Some oriental spiders of the genus 144.

REVIEWS

1. INDIAN MARINE BIOLOGY. By G. Seshappa. pp. xxvii + 154 (24 x 16 cm), with 58

illustrations. Delhi, 1991. Daya Publishing House. Price Rs. 1757-

Man is a terrestrial creature, so it is but natural

that, with a few exceptions (fortunately decreasing

year after year), his inclination to learn about the

sea and its activities — both animate and inanimate

— may often be limited. Though India has a long

coastline, most of its inhabitants live in the interior

and those keen to know about marine biology had

to take recourse to books written overseas, with

conditions of life in the sea often somewhat different

from ours. While there has been a plethora of books

by Indian authors on marine fisheries, Dr.

Seshappa’s attempt is indeed a pioneering one,

filling a lacuna badly felt by those aspiring to know

about the sea and processes happening therein. In

that itself, we must doff our hats to him in praise.

When I first entered the field of marine biology

as a hesitating ignoramus, Dr. Seshappa was, even

at that time, a venerable fishery biologist and we

took to hero worshiping him — a trait common to

youth. At that time, I had not read Goldsmith’s

confession: “I love everything that’s old — old

friends, old times, old manners, old books, old

wine.” But, subconsciously, I was following the first

part. And I had always wondered why, unlike many

others who take to writing almost at the drop of a

hat, he had not made any contributions in the form

of a book (though he has as many as 14 scientific

papers). Dr. Seshappa probably felt, like Holmes,

that “knowledge and timber shouldn’t be much used

till they are seasoned,” or that “well-timed silence

hath more eloquence than speech” (M.F. Tupper).

But Dr. Seshappa must finally have been inspired

by Don Carlos, who said: “Nothing would ever be

written if a man waited till he could write so well

that a reviewer could find no fault with it.”

Technically, the book is good, but I could detect

a few scientific flaws. After all, “Knowledge comes,

but wisdom lingers” (Tennyson), and the author has

an experience of almost forty years behind him. The

book can provide excellent reading for beginners,

and a good source of data for those already advanced

in the field of marine biology. For years, I had been

searching for the scientific names of the Indian

acorn worm for which Krusadai Island is noted,

and which college teachers call Balanoglossus, a

genus found in other seas. It has been correctly given

in Dr. Seshappa’s book — Ptychodera flava. Again,

the scientific name of lancelet, an animal called

Amphioxus by our college teachers, based on western

forms, is given in this book; it is Branchiostoma

lanceolatus.

There are, however, many mistakes. For

example:

On page 25, there is a sentence ending “... the

four equinoctial periods of the year.” Actually, there

are two equinoxes and two solstices in a year.

On page 28, the graph is wrong. While for July

and August, the two (top and bottom) curves for

“Extreme salinities” are rising, that for “mean

salinities” is shown falling.

On page 32, the author states: “The limpet is

abundant around the mid-tide level (ormid-beach

as it may be also called)...” Limpets live over rocky

substrates and not on sand beaches.

On page 32, the author states: “A sea anemone...

settles down and grows up living permanently on

the shell surface (of the empty shell inhabited by a

hermit crab)”. Actually, the hermit crab picks up

the sea anemone and places it on the shell.

Again, on page 32, he states: “... among the

smaller sizes (of limpets) and at the lower levels of

the shore, the males were more numerous, while

among the larger sizes and at the higher levels of

the shore the females were more numerous.” He

conjectures that there is sex change in the limpets

with growth (males changing into females), as also

happens in case of some oysters. But, while oysters

are sessile and remain fixed at one position, limpets

can crawl. It could be equally likely that females

may migrate towards the shore while males move

REVIEWS

245

away from the shore.

On page 33, the author states that some

polychaetes secrete protective tubes of mucus,

“calcium...”. Actually, the tubes are made of calcium

carbonate (lime).

On page 35, the author states: “These (fishes)

depend on the planktonic organisms for their

livelihood... being used as food by them as a group.”

While this may be true for plankton-feeding fishes

such as sardines or mackerel, it cannot be

generalised fora// fishes. There are predatory fishes

(sharks, except the whale shark, for example) which

do not feed on plankton.

Tubipora (page 53) does not occur in Indian seas.

(Although the author does not specifically mention

that it is Indian, the way the paragraph is constructed

might mislead the reader into believing so.)

On page 70, the author states: “Some (turtles)

can grow to a length of 10-12 or even more feet at

times...”. While this may (rarely) be true for some

of the land tortoises, no sea turtle grows so big. (The

largest — leatherback turtle {Dermochelys coriacea)

grows to 1.8 metres.

Again on page 70, the author states: “The entire

animal can withdraw at will into the shell.” While

this is true for land tortoises and even freshwater

terrapins, sea turtles cannot do this.

On page 71, the author says (about whales): “...

certain characteristic fountains of water (italics

mine) that they keep blowing out now and then...”.

Whales do not spout water; what we see is water

vapour breathed out from the lungs which condenses

in the cold air.

On page 7 1 , the author states that “the common

seacow is Dugong dugon. While this statement

would be correct if there were more than one species

of sea-cow in India and Dugong dugon was the

commoner of them, it should be noted that Dugong

dugon is the only species of sea-cow in the Old

World, the other one being the manatees of America

and West Africa.

On page 74, he states that “the Elasmobranchs

are sea-dwellers.” While Jhis may be true for the

vast majority, there are a few exceptions, like the

Gangetic shark or the river sting rays of the genus

Potamotrygon found in northern South America

(Brazil and Colombia) and West Africa.

On page 82, the author states that among the

Tetrodontiformes, “the spines on the body (are) the

sources of poison. In several species the spines of

the fins may be poisonous.” While some of the fishes

may have mildly toxic venom, the puffer fishes are

known to have highly potent poison in the skin,

liver, roe and gut.

On page 89, the author states that the mesh of

the net can be... several inches in diameter from

knot to knot. The meshes in a net are never round;

they may be square (bar mesh) or diamond-shaped

(stretched mesh).

I feel — but this is my personal opinion — that,

while the material on fishes is correctly included,

for, after all, fishes are constituents of marine life,

the subject of fisheries which, with 40 pages makes

up a large portion of the book, could have been left

out, as this topic is well covered in the existing books

on Indian fisheries. But I must admit that it is a

good adjunct to the topics covered earlier by him

and which deal with marine biology sensu stricto.

But, though I might sound too harsh, I feel that

“in trying to ensnare an elusive, often nameless,

quarry in the imperfect net of words has seemed to

the author the most worthwhile enterprise he could

embark on, the success or failure of the undertaking

being secondary to the attempt itself.” In other

words, what detracts from the overall quality of the

book is the way many sentences are framed.

The following sentences, in particular, while

grammatically and technically correct, are clumsy.

Page 25: May reach 50 or 60 feet even.

Page 29: ... owing to some peculiar happenings

in the environment.

Page 30: ... when the tide recedes in its turn.

Page 30: ... the environmental conditions acting

at, the time adding the deciding weight.

Page 32: The movements of the shell as carried

out by the hermit crab inside it, are sufficient for

the sea anemone for its own life activities.

Page 33: “Some crabs burrow holes in the sand.”

It should read “Some crabs burrow in the sand.”

Page 33: ... Some of the echinoids are also known

246

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92(1995)

to show this habit among other animals.

Page 33: ... undiscovered and unworked out.

Page 63: ... the shining white cowries being liked

most, perhaps.

page 70: ... and the eyes and other organs grow

into the adult lamprey.

Page 70: Just at the required time the creatures

are guided by mere instinct to reach some shore at

any cost.

Page 71: Seals and dolphins are also subject to

some fishery here and there in some seas.

Page 71: ... a pair of these dugongs were kept

alive for ten years and longer. (A better phrase would

be ... for over ten years).

Page 74: ...structures noticed here and there...

Page 75: ... help the fishes in perceiving the

changes in the pressure of the medium and certain

happenings in the surroundings.

Page 99: ... mentioned earlier above. (Should be

“mentioned earlier” or “mentioned above”)

A common trait of the author to end sentences

with the word “also” can be irritable to the reader.

An example (on page 74): “.. which have three

dorsal fins also.”

While on the subject of errors, let me elaborate

on the author’s statement (though not a mistake)

on page 33 re. the discovery of the lugworm

(. Arenicola ) in India. This worm was first collected

off Worli (mid-Bombay city) by Mr. R.G. Dandekar,

then a Junior Research Assistant at the Taraporevala

Aquarium, Bombay. Before he could proceed with

its study, Mr. M.R. Ranade, then Senior Research

Assistant at the Aquarium, hurriedly published its

occurrence. Mr. P.V. Wagh, of the Wilson College,

Bombay then jumped on the bandwagon, disssected

the lugworms and somehow convinced the first

author of the subsequent paper (in 1959) that it was

a new species. Most of the taxonomic characters of

the Bombay lugworm resembled those of the

lugworm, Arenicola cristata and glaselli, the major

difference being that, while these forms have a

statocyst with a single statolith, the Bombay

lugworm had numerous statoliths. The statolith,

during dissection by Wagh and Ranade, was crushed

into fragments, and this difference was deemed

sufficient by them to create a new species in spite

of Dr. G.P Well’s comments that it was not a valid

species. Many years later, subsequent dissections

of lugworms collected by Mr. Dandekar have shown

an intact statocyst (as in A. cristata), so that the

Bombay lugworm is confirmed not to be a valid

species. Incidentally, the lugworm in Bombay lives

in soft mud enriched with raw sewage, as the place

where it occurred is the discharge point of the

sewage of Bombay city.

The illustrations of plants and animals in the

book are rather crude. Moreover, there was no

necessity to give (on page 103) both the left and

right views of mackerel. The author could have used

another fish to denote the body parts and finnage.

In the middle of page 74, the author writes:

“These (Elasmobranchs) include the sharks, skates

and the rays.” At the foot of the same page, he states,

“... in the rays and skates and also in the sharks, all

of which are members of the Elasmobranchii.” This

is a needless repetition, and one of these sentences

could easily have been dropped.

On page 34, while stating that the (sea turtle)

eggs are much larger than hen’s eggs, the author

should have added that they are round in shape like

a table tennis ball and have a soft, papery (not limy)

shell.

Chapter VII, on Productivity, is too complicated

for a beginner to under-stand.

At a first reading, I had an impression that the

book had been well edited. But on more careful

scrutiny, I found many spelling and typographical

mistakes that have crept in. I have detected 80 such,

and may have missed a few more. As they are too

numerous to list here, a list will be sent to the author

for correction in future editions.

A pictorial representation of currents at two

seasons (pre- and post-monsoon) would have made

it easy to follow the variations in current pattern.

Studies off Kerala are treated in great detail,

whereas other maritime regions have been cursorily

glossed over, because the author had been based

there during the most creative years of his

employment.

Some of the explanations have been very

REVIEWS

247

simplistic, e.g. waste materials and nutrients

washed in from the rivers... . These materials do

not go unutilised, but do actively turn into very

useful and rich fertilizers.”

Many statements are highly generalised and tend

to confuse the readers. E.g., “... may be helpful or

harmful within limits depending on particular

circumstances in each situation” (page 17).

On the other hand, some are so long as to again

confuse the reader, on page 15: “Coming to other

life requirement, it must be stated that in the shallow

regions of our seas, all environmental factors

including the temperature of the water,

concentrations of various nutrient and other salts,

concentration of dissolved oxygen and other gases,

density of food items including both animals and

inanimate objects, extent of water currents and wave

force, and the variations in quantity of food

organisms resulting from the variations and

combinations of these factors from time to time, will

all be having their influence in the visible total

picture at any given time as well as over a period of

time.”

On page 19, it is stated that “The salinity ... is

estimated at present by determining the chlorinity

content by the titration method.” This method has

become old fashioned, and is largely replaced by

electrical conductivity method, wherein expensive

chemicals such as silver nitrate are not required.

The following statement (page 19) is also

confusing:- The relative constancy of the

constituents of the water... is due to the mixing up

of the water by circulation or other means of physical

and chemical stabilizing phenomena.

The data in the book is quite old (up to 1982-

83); it could, with some effort, have been upgraded

to the early nineties.

But while the above flaws can be excused, what

irked several readers (whom I showed the book) is

the barely disguised readiness with which the author,

so to speak, points at himself. His preface has, in

effect, turned out to be his autobiography. While

this would have been appropriate in a foreword

(which is written by a person other than the author),

here it jars. He has also succumbed to the temptation

of using data not very relevant to India (e.g. figs. 5

and 6 on page 26; page 32) only because it has been

his research findings. He could easily have obtained

similar data from India, which would have been

more relevant.

But I find that I have been unduly harsh, for,

though I believe.

“Take away the idea of perfection, and you take

away enthusiasm.”

(Rousseau)

I hope that the author will agree with me that

“The greatest of faults, I should say, is to be

conscious of none.”

(T. Carlyle)

After all,

“Errors,' like straws, upon the surface flow,

He who would search for pearls must dive

below.”

(Dry den)

After all, reviewing is a

“Detested sport,

That owes its pleasures to another’s pain”

(W. Cowper)

So, I shall admit, like Socrates; “As for me, all I

know is that I know nothing.” Also,

Considering the magnitude of his task, and

revering his age,

I applaud the author, and join E. Young in saying

“The purpose firm is equal to the deed;

Who does the best his circumstance allows

Does well, acts nobly; angels could no more.”

And, if I can also be called a marine biologist,

then

“The best of fame, a rival’s praise.”

(T. Moore)

To end, respected Dr. Seshappa, I emulate

Shakespeare, and

“I wish you all the joy that you can wish.”

B.F. CHHAPGAR

248

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

2. BIRDS OF TRIPURA — A CHECKLIST. By H.N. Mathur, I.F.S. (Retd.), D. Chakraborti,

M.Sc., and T. Bhattacharya, M.Sc. Ph.D. pp. 24 (14 x 21.5 cm). On behalf of Oriole, The

Tirupura Nature Club. Agartala, 1993. Tripura State Council for Science and Technology,

Govt, of Tripura. Not for sale.

There have been several small publications about

natural history from Assam and the Checklist of

Birds from Tripura which was included in Assam

not so long ago aroused an interest for comparison,

but a glance at the booklet revealed that though the

3 authors are distinguished people having high

educational qualifications and also having held

responsible posts, presumably afterwards, the

number of spelling mistakes, (185 in 24 pages) is

enough to make one put it away and not bother

further about it. It is marked “Not for sale” but was

received presumably for review and I am making

the foregoing remarks as this is about that it

deserves.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

3. THE BIRDS OF PAKISTAN. 2 Volumes. By T.J. Roberts. Vol. 1: pp. xli + 598 (27.5 x 20

cm), with 23 plates, 68 illustrations and 285 maps. Karachi, 1991. Vol. 2: pp. xxxv + 617

(27.5 x 20 cm), with 24 plantes, 16 illustrations and 284 map's. Karacahi, 1992. Oxford

University Press. Price not mentioned.

This is an extraordinary contribution not only to

the ornithology of Pakistan (for which it is the first

comprehensive work), but in many ways to that of

the Indian zoogeographical sub-region. This is

especially so, since all of it comes from the pen and

brush of a single, extraordinary naturalist. Tom

Roberts has spent over thirty years in Pakistan and

his name is synonymous with natural history studies

and nature conservation in that country. With these

two volumes (as also through his Mammals of

Pakistan) his scientific contribution to a detailed

knowledge of the fauna of this region will leave an

indelible impression. It is obvious that this

monumental work is much more than a collation of

the vast store of information that has accumulated

in journals and unpublished manuscripts. Roberts’

personal involvement with ornithology is apparent

in almost every account, as also in many places in

the introductory chapters. I also reiterate the

comment of another reviewer (in the Ibis, Vol. 134.

1992), who feels that Robert’s apology for the few

inconsistencies in layout between the two volumes

was hardly necessary given the very high standard

of both volumes.

The author’s personal approach to systematic and

nomenclatoral problems in this period of constant

changes, while often suggesting interesting new

ways to look at the problem will probably be the

cause of some confusion among ornithologists

familiar with conventional systems. It would be

unfortunate if such confusion in any way restricted

the general acceptance of this otherwise extremely

important and useful work. At the beginning of some

accounts of species which are still sources of some

confusion regarding their systematic status, there

is a section on ‘Taxonomy’ in which the author

provides a very well researched, balanced and

exhaustive discussion on the various views that fuel

these controversies. He then outlines his own

reasons for following a particular treatment, that is

logical and usually based on a larger number of

considerations then that used by previous authors.

The tremendous influence that Roberts has had

on the development of ornithology in Pakistan is

frequently evident. For example, his contributions

to showing the importance of combining

behavioural and morphological characteristics to

arrive at an appropriate systematic status (for e.g.

his joint paper with Ben King on the ‘importance

of accepting song pattern as species specific among

REVIEWS

249

the morphologically very similar scope owls’).

These volumes are a rich mixture of the

conventional faunal work, and the kind of field guide

one always wishes one could have at hand. Since

this work is the first of its kind for Pakistan which

was however covered in a more general way by Ali

and Ripley’s Indian handbook, it is appropriate to

make some comparisons with that work. There are

about six species in the two volumes of this work

that do not appear in the Indian handbook. The much

smaller geographical area of Pakistan compared to

that covered by the handbook, together with the fact

that the area supports only about half as many

species (660 vs. 1260) has enabled Roberts to devote

considerably more space to each species account.

This is indeed a very rewarding feature of each

account. These are characterised by an unusual

depth of description, profusely backed-up by the

author’s own observations, and an exhaustive review

of practically all that has been published (and much

that has not) on the species. It is indeed rare in a

work of this kind to be provided references to several

individual localities (that are further listed in a

gazetteer, together with co-ordinates). These

detailed accounts are well worth the considerably

enlarged size of the book that has resulted. The

description of vocalisations based on tape-recorded

calls for over 48 percent of species (marked with an

asterisk), is one of the outstanding features of this

work. In groups like the swifts for example, such

tape-recorded calls have greatly aided in reducing

the ambiguity that arises when describing similar

calls of sympatric species.

Volume one begins with a very useful and

interesting section of seven introductory chapters

that serve to introduce, in the context of Pakistan’s

environment, some general as well as more specific

aspects of ornithology. In the chapter titled

Ecological Factors, the author has gone to great

lengths in attempting to link vegetational and other

ecological features of different habitats with its

characteristic birdlife. He goes on to describe some

of the changes that have occurred in the distribution

and abundance of some species as a consequence of

man’s influence on the environment over the past

eighty years or so, based on bits of information in

unpublished manuscripts and notes. In a similar

analytical vein, he succinctly describes in separate

chapters what little is known about zoogeographic

aspects of bird distribution, about migration, and

about the problems of pest species. There is also a

chapter on birds as pests and beneficial agents, and

another with a more personalised account of earlier

ornithologists, including some critical remarks on

the somewhat suspect methods of a few earlier

contributors. Ornithologists in the subcontinent

would do well to take heed of some of these remarks.

Roberts also makes a very relevant observation about

many old distributional records from Pakistan that

continue to be accepted somewhat uncritically in

the current literature, including the Indian

handbook. In fact, as he points out, current habitat

conditions in the areas referred to make it extremely

unlikely that the species occur there today.

These introductory sections highlight the

authors’ enviable experience and acuity in

observing and analysing the natural history of this

region, his great familiarity with the not

insubstantial literature and also with many of the

most prominent contributors to the region’s

ornithology.

The plates are generally of a uniformly high

quality although some of the postures would seem

to be anatomically difficult for the bird to achieve.

Several species accounts are enhanced by line

drawings that depict special behavioural postures.

I was particularly impressed by the plates depicting

smaller passerines in which many species have been

shown with an unusually life-like treatment of the

body plumage, such as the bird would look if sitting

with its feathers fluffed.

One of the main difficulties I had in using the

book was in going directly from a plate to the full

text of a species (which one has to do via the index),

The plate number listed with the text similarly does

not guide the user to a page number. It would have

been very helpful for each species to have been given

a serial reference number which could be used

whenever it was mentioned in the text. Appendices

include a glossary of terms, vernacular and technical

250

JOURNAL BO MB AY NATURAL HI ST. SOCIETY Vol. 92(1995)

terms and. a very useful gazetteer of the many

localities (including forest rest houses, small villages

mentioned on collecting labels, etc.). Some obvious

places that have however not been covered by the

gazetteer include Las Bela and the Makran coast.

Since a very large proportion of the species in

the Pakistan checklist are also represented in India,

these volumes represent a very important step

forward in describing what is known of the

ornithology of the whole subcontinent. They are

certainly a ‘must have’ for every serious birdwatcher

in the region. Oxford University Press also needs to

be congratulated in making these important volumes

available at very affordable prices, and in thus

continuing their longstanding commitment to

publishing works of natural history.

SHAHID ALI

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

l. WOLF CAN IS LUPUS KILLING A GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS

On the morning of 15 June 1994, 1 was observing a

pack of eight wolves in the Great Indian Bustard

Sanctuary, Nannaj (17° 41' N, 75° 56' E) in Solapur

district of Maharashtra State. The pack comprising six

juveniles and two adults (alpha pair) was sitting/lying

in a pasture of the Sanctuary. An adult great Indian

bustard Ardeotis nigriceps (territorial male) was also

roosting besides a tussock of grass, about 200 m from

its display arena in the same pasture. It was the dominant

male (alpha) of the area. Usually the cock used to start

the courtship-display by 0600 h, when it becomes bright

but because of the cloudy weather it was roosing till

0630 h. The wolves were about 100 m from the bustard.

At 0630 h, the male wolf slowly moved towards the

roosting bustard, pausing at a distance of about 10 m

from it. Then it moved very very carefully, not letting

the bustard know its presence and movement. When it

reached quite close (2-3 m) the wolf jumped on the cock

and caught it by one of its wings, but within seconds

the bustard released itself from the grip of the wolf and

instead of flying away, it started charging at the predator

aggressively by raising the neck and fluffing feathers.

However, the wolf was not frightened and caught it

again. Soon other members of the pack, who were

watching from a distance, joined the fray. The bustard

was killed and torn apart within two minutes. It was

tightly held by the male wolf in his mouth till the other

wolves came in.

After removing the feathers, the body of the bustard

was carried away by the juveniles about 150 m from the

killing spot and it was eaten in ten minutes. The parent

fed on the pectoral girdles and the calamus (calamii) of

the flight wings. On examining the spot, these calamii

were filled with fluid. The rectrices were quite heavy

and appeared dark blue externally because of the

presence of this fluid. The parent wolves allowed the

juveniles to take the kill away from them and feed on it,

but the latter quarreled over the kill with one another: a

juvenile running away with the kill, followed by its

companion, then another individual managing to get hold

of the kill and trying to escape with it, and so on. This

activity prolonged the process of finishing the kill which

otherwise would have been finished within five minutes

or even less time. Earlier in 1993 probably the same

adult male bustard was seen to threaten four wolves

when they came to the daytime resting site of the former

after eating a Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra. The

bustard had chased off the wolves at that time from its

resting spot.

The same evening (i.e. 15 June) another adult male

was seen in the display arena. It started displaying after

1 1 days at exactly the same spot which was used by the

killed male. The territorial cock was killed because of

its reluctance to leave the territory. Incidentally, the same

spot is in use for display by bustards for the last 1 5 years

(Rahmani 1994, pers. comm.).

I thank to Dr. A.R. Rahmani for going through the

earlier version of the draft.

July 25, 1994 SATISH KUMAR

Bombay Natural History Society,

Shaheed Bhagat Singli Road,

Bombay 400 023.

2. FURTHER NOTES ON FROG-EATING HABIT OF GREY MUSK SHREW

SUNCUS MURINUS

In my previous note (Sharma 1991, ./. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 88: 109), I described a grey musk shrew Simons

murinus attacking a Rana tigerina in Jaipur district.

Recently, on 1 .9. 1993 at about 1 000 h, I observed an adult

grey musk shrew feeding on a Toinopterna breviceps in a

cemented tank with no water, at Jhadol Village in Udaipur

district. First, the head of the frog was bitten many times

and then it started devouring the frog head first. Skin,

flesh and bones were eaten. When almost one-third of

the body of the frog was finished, I disturbed the shrew

to collect the remaining part of the frog for identification.

The frog was identified by the presence of the large and

shovel-shaped inner metatarsal tubercle and half-webbed

toes.

One subadult R. tigerina was also present in the tank

which had not been attacked by the shrew. They had

accidentally fallen into the tank during the previous night.

T. breviceps is more ‘sluggish’ than R. tigerina, hence

perhaps was easily attacked by the shrew.

September 6, 1994 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer, Aravalli Afforestation Programme,

Jhadol ( F), Udaipur (Raj.) 3 1 3702, India.

2 52

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

3. OCCURRENCE OF THE JAPANESE PIPISTRELLE, PIPISTRELLUS ABRAMUS (TEMMINCK,

1840) (CHIROPTERA: VESPERTILIONIDAE) IN MYANMAR (BURMA) AND INDIA

The Japanese Pipistrelle, Pipistrellus abramus

(Temminck, 1840) has been sporadically reported from

India during the last quarter of the nineteenth century

and first quarter of the twentieth century. Dobson ( 1 876)

listed a number of specimens from different localities of

India, as Vesperugo abramus. Thomas ( 1 886) reported

this species from Manipur. Robinson (1913) recorded

Pipistrellus abramus from two different localities of

erstwhile Assam, now Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.

Interestingly, there is no subsequent report of this species

from India. Further, it was the general practice in those

days to call any small, blackish pipistrelle from India as

Vesperugo (or Pipistrellus) abramus, without giving

importance to its relative structural and metrical

characteristics. It was, therefore, felt necessary to check

identification of specimens, labelled as Pipistrellus

abramus, present in the National Zoological Collections

of India, NZCI (maintained by the Zoological Survey of

India, ZSI).

None of the specimens listed by Dobson (1876), as

far as could be traced till date, are Pipistrellus abramus.

Some are Pipistrellus mimus, others P. coromandra.

Incidentally, Thomas’ (1886) specimen of Vesperugo

abramus from Manipur was later identified as P.

paterculus by the same author (Thomas 1915). Of the

three examples of Pipistrellus abramus reported by »

Robinson (1913), from Arunachal Pradesh (a male and a

female) are still available in NZCI. These are indeed

examples of Pipistrellus abramus, as understood by Hill

and Harrison (1987), even though Robinson (loc. cit.)

casually remarked that the specimens were ‘typical

examples of the Common Indian Pipistrelle’. A further

search yielded two more specimens of this species —

one from Uttar Pradesh and the other from northern

Myanmar (Burma). Since Pipistrellus abramus, as it is

understood now, has not been authentically reported from

India and Myanmar (Burma) ( vide infra), it was thought

'The date of publication of the second volume of C.J.

Temminck’s ‘Monographies de Mammalogie,...’, as given on the

title page, is ‘1835 a 1841’, meaning 1835 to 1 841 . Tate ( 1942)

considered the date of publication of abramus as 1835, while

Osgood ( 1 932) gave it as 1841. Both Blanford (1891) and Wallin

(1969) put this date as 1 835-41 . But, Ellerman and Morrison-Scott

(1951 ), Laurie and Hill ( 1 954) and Corbet (1978) gave the date of

publication of abramus as 1840. For the sake of stability, we have

followed these latter authors.

desirable to do so here. Description of the specimens are

given in the following paragraphs.

Pipistrellus abramus (Temminck)

Vespertilio abramus (Temminck, 1840', Monogr.

Mammal., 2: 232, pi. 58; figs. 1, 2 (Nagasaki, Kyushu,

Japan).

Material Examined: myanmar (Burma); 1 female (in

spirit, skull extracted): North Shan State: Namkam,

R.B.S. Swell, 25 Nov. 1926. india: Arunachal Pradesh: 1

male, 1 female (study skins and skulls, skull of male badly

damaged): West Siang district: Abor Hills (now Adi Hills):

Rotung (396 m), S.W. Kemp, 10 Mar. 1912; Uttar

Pradesh: 1 female (in spirit, skull extracted): Allahabad

district: Allahabad, J. Cockburn, 19 Mar. 1977 [this

specimen was listed as Pipistrellus maurus (= Pipistrellus

savii) by Anderson 1881, who obviously, could not see

the small first upper premolar as the skull was in situ).

Measurements: External : 1 male: forearm 3 1 .4. 3

females: forearm 31.6, 33.2, 34.4; tibia 10.8, 11.9, 13.0;

foot and claw 6.4, 7.5, 7.6. Cranial : 1 male: palatal length

4.8; maxillary toothrow (c - m3) 4.2; molar width (m3 -

m3) 5.0; mandibular length 8.6; lower toothrow ( c - i ;i )

4.6. 3 females : greatest length 12.1, 12.7, 13.2;

condylobasal length 11.4, 12.5, 12.8: palatal length 5.0,

6.3, 6.4; maxillary toothrow 4.4, 4.8, 4.9; molar width

5.2, 6.0, 6.0; least interorbital width -, 3.8, 4. 1 ; zygomatic

width -, -. 8.2, cranial width 6.5, 6.6, 6.8; mandibular

length 9.1, 9.9, 10.0; lower toothrow 4.7, 5.2, 5.3.

Both the specimens from Arunachal Pradesh are young

adults. In the present material, both maxillary toothrow

and lower toothrow are marginally longer than those of

the Chinese population given by Allen (1938).

Agrawal and Sinha (1973) in their study on the

baculum of some Oriental bats, identified a specimen from

lndawagyi Lake, Burma, as Pipistrellus abramus

paterculus Thomas, whose baculum they thought, was

‘doubly curved’. Hill and Harrison (1987) suggested that

this specimen, mentioned by Soota and Chaturvedi (1980)

on the basis of Agrawal and Sinha (loc. cit.), should

possibly be regarded as P. abramus (on account of its

doubly curved baculum), rather than as P. paterculus. We

have examined the baculum and skull of the specimen in

question and have found that the curvature in the baculum

is incipient, and tallies well with the figures of baculum

of P. paterculus given by Wang (1982) and Hill and

Harrison (loc. cit.). Also, dental characteristics ( vide infra)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of this specimen clearly indicate that it is an example of

P. paterculus.

Pipistrel lus ab ramus is known from Japan (excepting

Hokkaido), southern Ussuri region (eastern Siberia),

Korea, China (eastern, southeastern and southern areas,

including Taiwan, Hong Kong, Hainan and southeastern

Tibet) and Vietnam ( vide Aoki 1913, Thomas 1 928, Allen

1938, Tate 1942, Kuzyakin 1950, Romer 1960, Imaizumi

1961, Wang et al. 1962, Wallin 1969, Feng et al. 1980,

Wang 1982, Hill and Harrison 1987). Lekagul and

McNeely ( 1 977) have suggested that abramus may occur

in eastern Thailand. According to Tate (1942), the

specimens recorded by Taylor ( 1 934) from the Philippines

should be referred to abramus. Laurie and Hill (1954)

have considered the specimens reported by Shamel (1940)

from Celebes (^Sulawesi) as Pipistrellus javanicus

abramus. However, the distributional range of abramus

given by Corbet (1978) does not include the Philippines

or Sulawesi. Thus, the occurrence of P. abramus , as

understood by Hill and Harrison ( 1 987), in the Philippines

and Sulawesi remains to be confirmed.

The specimen of Pipistrellus abramus recorded from

Kobo, North Lakhimpur district, Assam, by Robinson

(1913) could not be examined. It would, however, not be

wrong conjecture to presume that this specimen also was

an example of P. abramus.

The present specimens form the basis of first authentic

record of Pipistrellus abramus from India and Myanmar

(Burma).

The geographical distribution of Pipistrellus abramus,

therefore, stands as — Japan (excepting Hokkaido);

southern Ussuri region (eastern Siberia); Korean

Peninsula; China (eastern, southeastern and southern

areas, including Taiwan, Hong Kong, Hainan and

southeastern Tibet); Vietnam; possibly eastern Thailand;

northern Myanmar (North Shan States); northern India

(Uttar Pradesh, ? northern Assam, and Arunachal

Pradesh); ? Philippines; ? Sulawesi.

The Japanese Pipistrelle, Pipistrellus abramus and

the Burmese Pipistrelle, Pipistrellus paterculus Thomas,

1915, which occur sympatrically in southern China,

northern Myanmar (Burma) and northern India, are very

much similar structurally. However, these two species

can be separated by the relative size of upper incisors,

relative size and position of first upper premolar and by

the structure of baculum (Thomas 1915, Wang 1982). In

Pipistrellus paterculus, second upper incisor does not

attain the height of outer (secondary) cusp of first upper

incisor, while in P. abramus, tip of second upper incisor

exceeds the height of outer (secondary) cusp of first

25 3

incisor. First upper premolar in P. paterculus, though small

(equals second upper incisor in area), is well visible in

lateral view; canine and second upper premolar are not

in contact. In P. abramus, first upper premolar is quite

small (its area less than that of second upper incisor),

and practically concealed behind the posterior cusp of

canine so that it is nearly invisible in lateral view; canine

and second upper premolar are nearly or actually in

contact. Baculum in P. abramus has a double sigmoid

curvature, 10-12 mm long and its terminal prongs less

developed, while that in P. paterculus is almost straight

(with an indication of incipient curvature), more than 9

mm long, its terminal prongs well developed and

form nearly a complete ring at an angle of 45° to the

shaft.

Allen (1938) considered Pipistrellus abramus as a

monotypic species, and synonymised Vespertilio irretitus

Cantor, 1842 (type-locality: Chusan Island, Chekiang,

China) and Scotophilus pumiloides Tomes, 1857 (type-

locality: ? China) with it. Tate (1942) synonymised

Vespertilio akokomuli Temminck, 1840 (type-locality:

Japan) with abramus; considered irretitus as the mainland

representative of abramus; referred pumiloides to

abramus group, at the same time mentioned that it was

virtually inseparable from the topotypes of abramus, and

treated paterculus as a small representative of the

abramus group. Wallin (1969) considered abramus as a

polytypic species and put akokomuli, irretitus and

pumiloides under the synonymy of the nominate

subspecies. Corbet (1978) treated abramus as a

subspecies of Pipistrellus javanicus and synonymised

akokomuli, irretitus and pumiloides with abramus. Again,

Wang (1982) considered both abramus and paterculus

as polytypic species. From a comprehensive study of

bacula, Hill and Harrison (1987) have established that

javanicus, abramus, paterculus, among others, are distinct

species under the javanicus subgroup of the Pipistrellus

group, as recognised by them. These authors included

akokomuli, irretitus and pumiloides under abramus. Thus,

whether Pipistrellus abramus (as understood by Hill and

Harrison 1987) is divisible into more than one subspecies

can only be known when sufficient material from its vast

distributional range is studied.

May 31, 1993 P.K. DAS

Zoological Survey of India; ‘M' Block; Calcutta 700 053.

Y.P. SINHA

Zoological Survey of Indict; Eastern Regional Station;

Fruit Garden, Risa Colony; Shillong 793 003;

Meghalaya.

2 54

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Rhfkri NCES

Agrawae, V.C. & Y.P. Sinha ( 1 973): Studies on the bacula of some

Oriental bats. Anat. Anz. 133: 180-192.

Ai.i.hn, G.M. (1938): The mammals of China and Mongolia.//?: W.

Granger (Ed.) Natural History of Central Asia. //( Pt. 1).

American Museum of Natural History, New York.

Anderson, J. (1881): Catalogue of Mammalia in the Indian

Museum, Calcutta, Pt. 1 . Indian Museum, Calcutta.

*Aoki, B. (1913): A hand-list of Japanese and Formosan mammals.

Annot. z.ool. jap. 8: 261-353.

Bi.anford, W.T. (1891): The fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia. Pt. 2. Taylor and Francis,

London.

Corbet, G.B. (1978): The mammals of the Palaearctic region: a

taxonomic review. British Museum (Natural History),

London and Cornell University Press, Ithaca.

Dobson, G.E. (1876): Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera, and

catalogue of the species of bats in the collection of the Indian

Museum, Calcutta. Taylor and Francis, London.

Em.hrman, J.R. & T.C.S Morrison-Scott (1951): Checklist of

Palaearctic and Indian mammals 1758 to 1946. British

Museum (Natural History), London.

Feng, Z„ C. Zheng & G. Cai (1980): On mammals from southeastern

Xizang. Geological and ecological studies of Quinghai-

Xizang Plateau. Proc. Syrup. Qinghai-Xiz.ang (Tibet)

Plateau 2: 1013-1019.

Hu e, J.E. & D.L. Harrison (1987): The baculum in the

Vespertilioninae (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) with a

systematic review, a synopsis of Pipistrellus and Eptesicus ,

and the descriptions of a new genus and subgenus. Bull. Br.

Mus. nut. Hist. (Zool.) 52: 225-305.

*Imaizumi, Y. (1961): Coloured illustrations of the mammals of

Japan, Osaka. (In Japanese).

* Kuzya kin, A.P. (1950): Bats (Systematics, life history and utility

for agriculture and forestry). Government Publishing Office,

Moscow. (In Russian).

Laurie, E. M. O. & J.E Hu i ( 1954): List of land mammals of New

Guinea, Celebes and adjacent islands 1 758 to 1 952. British

Museum (Natural History), London.

Lhkague, B. & J.A. McNeeey, (1977): Mammals of Thailand.

Association for the Conservation of Wildlife. Sahakarnbhat

Co., Bangkok.

Osgood, W.H. (1932): Mammals of the Kelley-Roosevelts and

Delacour Asiatic Expeditions. Pubis Field Mus. nat. Hist.,

zool. ser. 18: 193-339.

Robinson, H.C. (1913): Zoological results of the Abor expedition,

191 1-1912. Pt. VII. Mammals. Rec. Indian Mus. 8: 85-98.

Romer, J.D. (1960): Bats known from Hong Kong. Mem. Hong

Kong nut. Hist. Sac. 4: 1-4.

Shamei. H.H. (1940): The insectivorous bats collected by H.C. Raven

in Celebes. J. Mammal. 21: 353-354.

Soota, T.D. & Y. Chaturvedi (1980): New locality record of

Pipistrellus camortae Miller from Car Nicobar and its

systematic status. Rec. z.ool. Surv. India 77: 83-87.

Tate, G.H.H. ( 1 942): Results of the Archbold Expeditions. No. 47.

Review of the vespertilionine bats, with special attention to

genera and species of the Archbold Collections. Bull. Am.

Mus. nat. Hist. 80: 221-297.

:!:Tayi.or,E.H. (1934): Philippine land mammals. Monogr. Bur. Sri.

Manila No. 30.

Thomas, O. ( 1 886): On the mammals presented by Allan O. Hume,

Esq., C.B., to the Natural History Museum. Proc. z.ool. Soc.

. Fond. 1886: 54-79.

Thomas, O. (1915): Scientific results from the Mammals Survey.

No. XI. A. — On Pipistrelles of the genera P/'/?/.vm?//?/.v and

Scotozous. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24: 29-34.

Thomas, O. (1928): The Delacour Exploration of French Indo-

China. — Mammals. II. On mammals collected during the

winter of 1926-27. P/oc. z.ool. Soc. Lond. 1928: 139-150.

Waei.in, L. (1969): The Japanese bat fauna. A comparative study

of chorology, species diversity and ecological differentiation.

Zool. Bidr. Upps. 37: 223-440.

Wang, S., C. Lu, Y. Kao & T. Loo ( 1 962): On the mammals from

southwestern Kwangsi, China. Acta z.ool. sin. 14: 555-568,

2 pis. (In Chinese, English summary).

Wang, Y. (1982): New subspecies of the pipistrels (Chiroptera,

Mammalian) from Yunnan, China. Zool. Res. 3 (Suppl.):

343-348. (In Chinese, English summary).

* Not seen in original.

4. NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD OF PETAURISTA FULVINUS WROUGHTON, 1911

(MAMMALIA: RODENTIA: SCIURIDAE), WITH COMMENTS ON ITS TAXONOMIC STATUS

Petaurista fulvimis Wroughton, was till now known

only from Shimla (Shimla district, Himachal Pradesh,

India), its type-locality. During the course of a faunistic

survey of Dudwa Tiger Reserve in the terai and the

surrounding areas in Kheri district of Uttar Pradesh, a

male specimen of this taxon was collected, while feeding

on a mango tree. This constitutes the first authentic record

of this form from the area, and extends its distributional

range much further to the southeast.

The taxonomic status of Petaurista fulvimis has been

a subject of controversy. Wroughton (1911) described this

taxon on the basis of a single specimen. Robinson and

Kloss (1918) and Ellerman (1940) maintained P. fulvimis

as a distinct species. But, Ellerman and Morrison-Scott

(1951), and Ellerman (1961) synonymized it with

Petaurista petaurista albiventer. Ellerman (1961)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

25 5

remarked, “The colour distinction given by Wroughton

for ‘birrelli’ and ‘fulvinus’ strikes me as individual

variations rather than racial characteristics.” However,

the present specimen tallies well with the description

given by Wroughton (op. cit.) for P. fulvinus. A detailed

description of the specimen is given below.

General colour of dorsum hazel, grizzled with white

on back. Parachute darker on outside edges, ochraceous

rufous on shoulders and behind forearms. Ventral parts

pale rufous. Individual hairs of back olive grey basally,

rest bright hazel with black tip and subterminal white

rings. Face same colour as that of back. Cheeks white

and tinged with rufous. Muzzle whitish. Hand and feet

dark cinnamon rufous all throughout. Tail a little lighter

than feet, and much tinged with rufous, with some black

hairs at tip.

An examination of the identified specimens (n=8)

(study skins and skulls) of Petaurista petaurista present

in the Zoological Survey of India, from northwestern Uttar

Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh of India, and adjoining

areas of Pakistan, reveals that the study skins can easily

be divided into two groups on the basis of the dorsal

coloration. In one group (consisting of five skins), the

dorsal colour is darker without any trace of grizzling on

the back, while in the other group (consisting of three

skins, including the present one), the dorsal colour is much

lighter and distinctly grizzled with white. This distinction

in dorsal coloration was utilized by Wroughton (191 1) in

framing the key for identification of albiventer and

fulvinus. Further, the hand up to fingers, and feet are

black or blackish (vs cinnamon rufous in fulvinus) and a

black band is present above the muzzle (absent in

fulvinus ) in the study skins of the darker group, i.e.

albiventer. Besides, the tail of the specimen collected from

the surroundings of Dudwa Tiger Reserve is less bushy

than that of the specimens of albiventer

A study of the skulls reveals that the occipital region

is concave in albiventer, but more or less flat in fulvinus.

The palate, in relation to occipito-nasal length, in fulvinus

is shorter (50-52% vs above 53.5%) and the maxillary

Eli -hrman, J.R. ( 1 940): Families and genera of living rodents. 1 .

Rodentia other than Muridae. British Museum (Natural

History), London.

Ellerman, J.R. (1961): The Fauna of India including Pakistan,

Burma and Ceylon. Mammalia. 3 (Rodentia). Govt, of

India, Delhi.

Ei.lhrman, J.R. & T.C.S. Morrison-Scott (1951): Checklist of

Palaearctic and Indian mammals. British Museum (Natural

width broader (19.8% vs 18.9%) than that in albiventer

Therefore, Petaurista fulvinus Wroughton, should be

resuscitated as a distinct species, and should not be treated

as a synonym of Petaurista petaurista albiventer (Gray),

contra Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951) and Ellerman

(1961).

Material examined: 1 male: Bankati, North Kheri

Forest Division, Kheri district, Uttar Pradesh; 28 Jun.

1987; R.K. Ghose coll.

Measurements (in mm, after Ellerman 1961):

External : Head and body 377; tail 458; hindfoot 76; ear

46. Cranial: Occipito-nasal 70.8; palate 35.5; nasal 21.6;

upper tooth-row 16.3; bulla 13.4; zygomatic width 45.0;

inter-orbital width 16.0; orbit 25.5; diastema 14.0.

Additional material examined: Petaurista petaurista

albiventer: 1 male : Trium ( c 2,988 m), Pakistan, 17 Apr.

1922, H.W. Wells coll.; 1 male : Murree ( c 914 m),

Pakistan, 21 Apr. 1922, H.W. Wells coll.; 2 females :

Naggar, Himachal Pradesh, 29 Oct. 1958, J. Schmidt coll.;

1 male : Rahla, Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh, 4 Jun.

1922, H.W. Wells coll, (the first two specimens were

originally identified as P. inornata).

Petaurista fulvinus: 1 male : Nainital ( c . 2,286 m),

Nainital district, Uttar Pradesh, 2 Jan. 1914, C.A. Crump

coll.; 1 Juv. unsexed: Kumaon, Uttar Pradesh, other

particulars not recorded (originally identified as P.

inornatus).

Acknowledgements

Our thanks are due to the Director, Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta, for facilities. Thanks are also due to

Dr. V.C. Agrawal, Scientist ‘SF\ Shri PK. Das, Scientist

‘SE\ and Dr. S. Chakraborty, Scientist ‘SD’, for going

through the manuscript and suggesting improvements. We

thank the Forest Department, Uttar Pradesh, for giving

necessary permission for collection and study in the field.

December 29, 1994 R.K. GHOSE

T.P BHATTACHARYA

Zoological Survey of India, ‘M’ Block,

New Alipur, Calcutta 700 053.

■ n c h s

History), Lolidon.

Robinson, H.C. &C.B. Ki.oss( 1918): A nominal list of the Sciuiidae

of the Oriental region with a list of specimens in the

collection of the Zoological Survey of India. Rec. Indian

Mas. 15: 173-254.

Wroughton, R.C. (1911): Oriental flying Squirrels of the

“Pteromys” group. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 20: 1012-

1023.

256

JOURNAL, BOM BAY NATURAL II 1ST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

5. FIVESTRIPED SQUIRREL FUNAMBULUS PENNANT1 (WROUGHTON) FEEDING ON

FLEDGELING HOUSE SPARROW PASSER DOMESTICUS

Fivestriped squirrel Funambulus pennant i

(Wroughton) is mainly a seed eater (Barnett and Prakash

1975, Sood and Dilber 1978, Agarwal and Dalela 1983,

Prater 1988). Its dental pattern with well developed

incisors is adapted for nibbling seeds/kernels.

On the morning of 2nd June 1994 at around 0840 h in

the residential area of Millet Research Station, Gujarat

Agricultural University, Jamnagar we were surprised to

see a fivestriped squirrel pouncing on a sparrow which

was sitting on the ground. Before it was caught by the

squirrel, the sparrow which was originally resting on the

ground made a short flight and landed about 0.5 m away.

At once the squirrel followed and pounced on the sparrow.

This incident was observed from about 1 5 m. The sparrow

did not make any sound while it was caught because it

was tightly caught by the head. Soon, the squirrel took

its prey near to a wall situated 1.0 m away and started

gnawing on it. After about two minutes we went to the

site for confirmation. Seeing us moving the squirrel left

its prey and ran away. The prey was a fledgeling house

sparrow which looked a little too young to leave its nest.

The fledgeling must have ventured out from its nest before

developing its flight potential fully.

The inability of the fledgeling to fly away to safer

Agarwal, V.P. & R.C. Dalela (1983): Practical Vertebrate

Zoology. Jai Prakash Nath & Co., Meerut, p. 492.

Barnett, S.A. & I. Prakash ( 1975): Rodents of Economic

Importance in India. Arnold — Heinemann, New Delhi and

London, pp. 1-175.

Krishnaswamy, S. & N.S. Chowhan (1956): A note on insects

consumed as food by squirrel and birds at Kundry forest,

Palamau district, Bihar. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54: 457-

459.

place as well as its inexperience and ignorance about the

predators around had given the squirrel an easy chance

to catch it.

A close examination of the carcass revealed that the

fledgeling was eaten from its lower bill. We stood away

waiting for the squirrel to come and take its prey, but it

did not return. So it appears that birds are not a very

preferred,food item to the squirrel. Later, the carcass was

taken away by a house crow.

Although the fivestriped squirrel is largely granivorous

rodent it has been reported to feed on insects

(Krishnaswamy and Chowhan 1956). Very recently, this

species of squirrel has been reported to kill and feed on

redvented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer and also to kill

whitecheeked bulbul Pycnonotus leucogenys and house

sparrow Passer domesticus (Tiwari 1990). The squirrel

can now be considered as a predator of fledgelings/

nestlings of the house sparrow.

September 30, 1994 K.L. MATHEW

CLARAMMALUKOSE

Millet Research Station,

Gujarat Agricultural University,

Jamnagar-361006.

NCES

Prater, H.S. (1988): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

Sood, M.L. & D.S. Dilber (1978): A note on food

consumption and preference of Northern Palm Squirrel,

Funambulus pennanti (Wroughton). J. Res. PAU, 15: 1 32-

133.

Tiwari, J. (1990): Five-striped squirrel Funnambulus pennanti

(Wroughton) killing birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

87: 137.

6. SOME NOTES ON THE FRUITS, SEEDS AND NECTAR CONSUMED BY THREE STRIPED PALM

SQUIRREL FUNAMBULUS PALMARUM AT POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

TAMIL NADU

The food of three striped palm squirrel Funambulus

palmarum includes fruits, nuts, young shoots, buds and

bark. Nectar and insects are also consumed to some extent

(Prater 1980). Balasubramanian (1989) described the

nectar feeding behaviour of three striped palm squirrel

and its possible role in the pollination of its food plant

Rivea hypocrateriformis.

While making observations on the plant-animal

interactions at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, I could

observe the three stiped palm squirrel visiting various

plant species to feed on the fruits, seeds, and nectar.

Altogether 50 plant species were visited by this animal

(Appendix 1).

In many of the observed cases the squirrels visited

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

257

Appendix 1

LIST OF FOOD PLANTS OF THREESTRIPED PALM SQUIRREL IN POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92(1995)

25 8

the plants to eat the seeds. Usually, the squirrels gnaw

the pericarp of the fruits and eat the cotyledons. Whenever

fruits with smaller seeds are encountered the whole fruit

was eaten. In the case of Cassia fistula and Prosopis

chilensis which possess pods, the pulp was eaten and

seeds were discarded. The squirrel visited the flowers of

Rivea hypocrateriformis and Catunaregam spinosa

(-Randia dumetorum), to feed on nectar. From the

observations it is inferred that, this squirrel appears to

have a significant role to play in the pollination of its

food plants whose flowers it visited, but does not have a

definite role in the dispersal of seeds of its food

plants.

I thank Prof. P.V. Bole, for encouragement.

Decembers, 1994 P. BALASUBRAMANIAN

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology & Natural History,

Kalampalayam P.O.,

Coimbatore-641 010,

Tamil Nadu.

R h f f: r f. n c f. s

Bai.asubramanian, P. (1989). Nectar feeding by three striped palm

squirrel Fiimimbulus palmaritm at Point Calimere Wildlife

Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu, J. Bombay not. Hist. Soe. 86:

437.

Pratfr, S.H. (1980): The Bookoflndian Animals. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

7. SIGHTING OF SPINY DORMOUSE PLATACANTHOMYS LASIURUS BLYTH, 1 859

IN PEPPARA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TRIVANDRUM DISTRICT, KERALA

The Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary is situated at the

South West end of the Western Ghats in Trivandrum

District, Kerala State (8° T and 8° 53’ N, 76° 40' and 77°

17' E, the altitude varies from 197 m to 1,363 m). The

vegetation of the sanctuary consists of moist deciduous,

semi evergreen and evergreen forests.

During the study on crop damage by wild animals in

the Kani tribal settlements, the skin of a Spiny Dormouse

Platacanthomys lasiurus Blyth 1859 was found in the

Chemmankala kani settlement. The Spiny Dormouse is

locally known “Mutteli”. Ellerman and Morrison-Scott

(1951) and Ellerman (1961) have reported the occurrence

of these species from the near by Bonaccord area.

Rajagopalan (1968) reported this species from Shimoga

in Karnataka State. Apart from this no information is

available on this species.

In the subsequent field surveys carried out in the

Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, three specimens of this

species were collected and their habitat was studied.

Kani tribals used to catch these animals from the

nearby forests, when they need them for medicinal

purposes. They identify the nests of these animals by

watching the water oozing out of the holds on trees. For

catching them, they either cut open the trees or blow

smoke into the holes. The tribals believe that the flesh

and spines of this species are a cure for respiratory

diseases.

External measurements of the two specimens were:

Our observation on the species revealed that it lived

in colonies on live trees. The nests were found on

Terminalia bellerica, T. panic ulata, Persea macrantha,

Dillenia retusa and Careya arborea. The animals

were fed on Pepper ( Piper nigrum), Cashewnut

(. Anacardium occidental ) and Cassava (Manihot

utilissima). To some extent they are considered as pests

of the above species.

June 11, 1994 E. A. JAYSON

G. CHRISTOPHER

Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi-680 653, Kerala, India.

Rhff.rhnchs

Rajagopalan, RK. (1968): Notes on the Malabar Spiny Dormouse, Museum (Natural History), London, 8 10 pp.

Platacanthomys lasiurus Blyth 1859 with new distribution Ellerman, J.R. (1961): The Fauna of India Including Pakistan,

record. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65(1): 214-215. Burma and Ceylon, Mammalia. Vol. 3, Edited by M.L.

Ellerman, J.K. & T.S.C. Morrison-Scott (1951): Checklist of Roonwal. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Volumes 1

Palaearctic and Indian mammals, 1758-1946. British and 2. 884 pp.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

259

8. NICHE ALTERATION BY THE CUTCH ROCK-RAT, CREMNOMYS CUTCHICUS IN THE

ARAVALLIS

The Cutch rock-rat, Crenmomys ciitchicus has been

recorded throughout its geographical range in India from

rocky habitat. It prefers to inhabit crevices in between

the rocks.

During the course of our studies on the small mammals

in the Aravallis, we collected 27 1 specimens of this species

from various habitats and altitudes of the Abu hill during

1 993. The Cutch rock-rat was found to be the most abundant

species out of the two insectivores and 12 rodents.

Surprisingly, it was also collected from the crop fields

situated at 1,000 and 1,600 metres altitudes. It inhabited

the surrounding rocks and also rocky outcrops inside the

crop fields. During night, it invaded the fields to feed upon

the standing crops of maize, wheat, millet, etc.

Because of the availability of a large number of stones

in the vicinity, the farmers erect 0/2-2 metre high walls

by loosely piling the stones on the periphery of their crop

fields. On a comparison of the data on the frequency of

occurrence of various small mammals in different habitats

and altitudes, it was revealed that from the crop fields

surrounded by loosely-piled stone-walls 35 C. cutchicus

were collected using 1 20 traps per 72 hours and from the

fields without such walls, only 6 rock-rats were collected

in 72 'hours with 240 snap traps. This significant

(Student’s ‘t’ test, P < 0.05) difference in their frequency

of occurrence is due to the niche alteration by the rock-

rats. Instead of living in the rock crevices, they have

shifted to stay in the spaces between the loosely-piled

stone-walls. Man has provided an additional niche to a

wild species which has, due to human intervention in the

ecosystem, become a pest of the standing crops. Besides

offering extra shelter to them, man has also provided close

proximity to more nutritive food. As a consequence, the

prevalence of pregnancy among stone-wall dwellers has

been found to be superior compared to the rock-crevice

inhabiting Crenmomys cutchicus.

December 5, 1 994 ISHWAR PRAKASH

PARTAP SINGH

A. SARAVANAN

Desert Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India,

107, Kamla Nehru Nagar, Chopasni Road,

Jodhpur-342 009.

9. SPECIES COMPOSITION OF FIELD RODENTS IN CENTRAL UTTAR PRADESH

Introduction

Surveys were carried out in different localities in five

districts (Kanpur Dehat, Kanpur Nagar, Lucknow,

Raebareli and Sitapur) of Central Uttar Pradesh during

1986-1988. Rodents were collected by digging 100

burrows from each locality and were identified on the

basis of nucleus collection and later their identification

was confirmed by the Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta.

Results and Discussion

B. bengalensis was the most common (more than 50

per cent) at Bilhaur (Kanpur Dehat), Banthara (Lucknow)

and Lai Ganj (Raebareli) followed by T. indica, while at

Kalyanpur (Kanpur Nagar) and Khairabad (Sitapur), T.

indica dominated. M. booduga came third in the

collections made from Kanpur Dehat, Kanpur Nagar and

Sitapur followed by M. meltada, while at Lucknow and

Raebareli,

M. meltada was found in more numbers than M.

booduga. N. indica was found at all survey sites except

Raebareli ranging from 3.12 to 8.33 per cent of the total

collection. Likewise, Bandicotci indica was also collected

from all places except Kanpur Dehat and Lucknow

ranging from 1.61 to 2.75 per cent.

Golunda ellioti Gray 3.12 per cent and Vandeleuria

oleracea Bennett (3.90 per cent) were also collected from

Kalyanpur (Kanpur Nagar) (Table 1). It was interesting

to note that V. oleracea occupied deserted nests of weaver

birds on Babool ( Acacia nilotica) trees and also beneath

the bundles of Arhar crop in threshing yards at the

National Sugar Institute’s Farm, Kalyanpur, Kanpur. From

the available literature, G. ellioti and V. oleracea appear

to be new records from this region.

The order of predominance of the five species was B.

bengalensis, T. indica, M. booduga, M. meltada and N.

indica, recorded from Kalyanpur in present survey study

and are in conformity with the findings of Srivastava et

al. (1968) who also reported these species from this

locality, but they did not mention G. ellioti and V. oleracea

as reported by us in this article. Therefore, the reports of

these two field rats (G. ellioti and V. oleracea ) forms the

first record from Uttar Pradesh. The descriptions of these

two species are given below.

(A) Bush rat, G. ellioti

It is interesting to note that not a single burrow of this

species could be located near threshing floors. However,

in certain pockets of the farm, particularly areas covered

260

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL! 1 1ST SOCIETY. Vol. 92 (1995)

Tab i k I

SURVEILLANCE OF FIELD RODENTS (%) IN FIVE DISTRICTS OF CENTRAL UTTAR PRADESH

with shrub vegetation, some typical burrows could be

traced out, which were inhabited by this species.

(B) Long Tailed tree mouse, V. oleracea

Observations on feeding behaviour of the long tailed

tree mouse revealed that it shoewed a marked preference

for A r ha r pods, though other harvested crops like wheat,

barley, mustard and pea were also lying in the threshing

yard.

Both the sexes of this species were recovered from

the deserted nests of the weaver birds found hanging on

babool ( Acacia nilotica ) trees.

Ref

Srivastava, A.S., R.L. Gupta, R.K. Pandf.y, B.D.N. Singh & K.P.

Mathur (1968): Distribution of field rats in Kalyanpur block.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Vice-Chancellor, C.S. Azad

University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur for

providing facilities and The Director, Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta for confirming the identification.

August 3 1 , 1 994 A.S. BHADAURIA

Y.K. MATHUR

Department of Entomology,

C.S. Azad University of Agri. & Tech.,

Kanpur-208 002 (U.P.).

FNCF

district Kanpur (India). Int. Symp. on Bionomics and control of

rodents held at Kanpur from 29 Sept, to 2 Oct., 1968: 46-49.

10. HETEROGENEOUS GROUPING —

When 501 sq. Km of Kaimur hill ranges of Uttar

Pradesh was declared as Kaimur Sanctuary in 1982, the

main objective of the declaration was to protect the

Blackbuck and Chinkara of the area. This dry deciduous

and thorny scrub forest area of Mirzapur and Sonebhadra

districts of U.P. rightly boasts of being a prototype habitat

of blackbuck and chinkara in U.P, Undulating rocky

terrain with low soil depth can only sustain natural growth

of Zizyphus and Carissa species along with nallah with

grass species such as Heteropogon contortus (Churshat),

Saccharum spontaneum (Kans), Chrysopogon fulvus

(Kuch), Vetevaria zizaniodes (Khas), Eulaliopsis binata

(Bagai) scattered throughout the area.

Blue bull is another predominant herbivore. Nilgai

is almost equally distributed in eastern and western parts

of the sanctuary. Leopard, jackal and wolves are main

predators of the smaller herbivores and are distributed

A STRATEGY AGAINST PREDATION

over the entire area of the sanctuary.

Chinkara generally does not enter cultivated areas

whereas nilgai often becomes a pest to cultivated crops,

but both avoid dense forests and are present in undulating

terrain criss-crossed by nallahs with scanty vegetation of

grass and shrubs. Blackbuck also prefers open plains

avoiding dense forests. Scattered bushy growth with

scanty grass cover interspersed with cultivated areas force

the above three main herbivores to occupy almost the

same territory in Kaimur Sanctuary.

Two noticeable observations were recorded

regarding the behaviour of chinkara in this Sanctuary.

Firstly, faecal stations of chinkaras coincide with the

faecal stations of blue bull. It was noticed that Chinkara,

whose males are territorial in behaviour (Prater 1948,

the book of Indian animals), excrete above the faeces of

blue bull. Nilgai defecates at a particular spot, perhaps

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

26 1

to keep the individuals together (Rajesh Gopal 1992,

FUNDAMENTALS OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT). This Coinciding

of faecal stations suggest that chinkaras leave the

responsibility of finding a suitable habitat to blue bulls,

it may suggest that chinkaras have also adapted it to live

in small herds.

Secondly, chinkaras are generally reported in

homogeneous herds of 3-4 with some exceptions of up to

25. But in Kaimur Sanctuary, chinkaras were seen in

heterogeneous groups with blackbucks. Big herds of about

25-35 Blackbuck and chinkara were sighted. It was observed

that this heterogeneous grouping was mainly when

chinkaras had their young with them. A pack of 2-3 jackals

separated by about 3-4 metres from each other were also

observed at a distance of about 100 metres from these

heterogeneous groups of blackbuck and chinkara. Jackals

are still not considered as regular predators by smaller

herbivores too, and hence, presence of jackals attracts very

little or no attention. The jackals move behind or sideways

to the herd, and when a fawn gets separated from the herd,

it is instantly killed by the pack. Another significant

observation contrary to Prater’s observation was that these

heterogeneous groups were led by a well-built male

blackbuck rather than an old and vigilant female as reported

by Prater ( 1948). This heterogeneous grouping by chinkara

suggests their inability to protect their youngs from common

predators like jackals, and hence, chinkaras join with

blackbucks for protection.

December 21 , 1994 K. PRAVEEN RAO1

ABHAY K. SINGH2

PARAMANAND3

1 Divisional Director, Bulandshahar Social Forestry Division,

Bulandshahar, U.P.

-Divisional Director, Muzaffarnagar Social Forestry Divison,

M itzajfa rnaga r, U. P.

3 Assistant Conservator of Forests, South Gorakpur Forest

Division, Gorakpur, U.P

1 1 . SIGHTING OF A GREAT CRESTED GREBE PODICEPS CRISTATUS (LINN.)

NEAR BASSEIN IN MAHARASTHRA

On Sunday, May 3, 1992, while returning from a bird

watching visit to Bassein Fort in the early afternoon. I

stopped at Papdi Tank where I observed a bird of domestic

duck size with a relatively long slender neck and a sharp

pointed bill. This I recognised as a grebe having observed

many at close quarters on the Bosphorous, in Turkey.

The bird had a dark flattish crown to the head, an orange

yellow bill with a dark upward curving line from the

gape to the eye. Above the eye was white. At the back of

the neck the plumage was black changing through grey

to a white fore neck. Close to the waterline at the base of

the neck the bird showed traces of golden brown. The

back was black brown with silver grey or white at the

waterline. There was no obvious tail. The bird made no

attempt to dive and fed purely on the surface apparently

pursuing insects. Whilst it was maneouvering it was

possible to see through the green murky water that the

feet were yellow.

The bird was observed for approximately 15 minutes at

distances varying between 1 5 metres and 75 metres through

8 x 40 binoculars. A subsequent visit to the tank in late

June revealed that at the time of observation the water

would have been not more than 300 mm deep.

I identified this bird as a Great Crested Grebe because

Rf;ff:

Simmons, K.E.L. ( 1 989): The Great Crested Grebe. Shire Publications,

Aylesbury, U.K.

Abdulali, H. ( 198 1 ): Check List of the Birds of Maharashtra. Bombay

of the white fore neck, the dark line from gape to eye, the

white above the eye and the yellow feet which are

indicative of the species. There was no head adornment

as would be expected for mature birds of that species at

that time of year in the northern hemisphere. However,

Simmons (1989) states that first year birds do not breed

and this could account for the apparent winter plumage

so late in the season.

The only confusion species considered was the

Rednecked Grebe which has a yellow bill tipped black but

this option was dismissed because the Rednecked Grebe

has a dark foreneck, no white above the eye and the feet,

according to Ali and Ripley (1983) are blue/black.

The Great Crested Grebe is not included in the

checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra (Abdulali 1981)

and the southern limit of Western India quoted by Ali

and Ripley is Gujarat. This would therefore appear to be

an extension of the range of the Great Crested Grebe into

Maharashtra to near Bombay.

February 8, 1994 ALAN A. BEATTIE

71/C, Neha Apartments,

Jiihu Tara Road,

Juhu, Bombay-400 049.

ENCF.S

Natural History Society, Bombay.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan, Compact edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

262

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92 (1995)

12. OCCURRENCE OF FALCATED TEAL ANAS FALCATA GEORGI IN WEST BENGAL

While taking part in the Asian Waterfowl Census

1993, in January, K.M., B.B. and I visited a site known

as Satragachi Jheel. There we observed the presence of

one male falcated teal (Anas falccita). Due to haze we

could not locate the presence of any female or other male

falcated teals. The bird was easily identified due to the

deep metalic green head which occassionaliy kept

reflecting in the sunlight and the sickle shaped feathers

on the back. It was a very aggressive bird. It kept pecking

at any other duck which wandered within reach.

On January 18th 1993 a male falcated teal and two

male baikal teals (Anas formosa) in breeding plumage

were reported by Janajit Ray, a local bird watcher, from

Shantiniketan. He had been reporting about the

occurrence of falcated teals for last 4-5 years, but it was

not confirmed. This year B.B. and A.B. visited the site

to confirm his report.

I visited Daburchar, a mud flat on Matla River in

January 1992. There I sighted 14 Common Shelducks

( Tadorna tadorna) which 1 photographed. One of the

photographs showed the Common Shelducks in flight

accompanied by two Wigeons (Anas pene lope), a common

pochard (Aythya ferina) and an unidentified duck. 1 made

a slide copy of the photograph and projected it on a big

screen. The unidentified duck turned out to be a falcated

teal.

Though considered a rare winter visitor to India, I

suppose the presence of falcated teal is regular in West

Bengal. A correct report was not made earlier or the bird

may have been overlooked amongst the crowd of other

common migratory ducks.

Thanks to IWRB for their systematic recording of

migratory birds in S.E. Asia which actually revealed the

occurrence of this duck in West Bengal.

February 8, 1994 SUJAN CHATTERJEE

KUSHAL MOOKERJEE

BASAV BH ATTACH ARYA

ANANDA BANERJEE

DB-75, Salt Lake City, Calcutta-700 064.

13. DIET OF INDIAN PEAFOWL PAVO CRISTATUS LINN. IN GIR FOREST, GUJARAT

(With a text-figure)

Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus ), is a widely distributed

and at places locally abundant bird in the Indian

subcontinent. Though, it was hunted once and is a serious

pest to the crops in many parts of its range, the information

on its diet is largely qualitative and incomplete. Ali and

Ripley ( 1 987) and Johnsingh and Murali ( 1 980) provided

preliminary information on the diet of peafowl.

The information presented here was obtained during

a study on habitat selection by Indian peafowl from

December 1992 to April 1993 in Gir N.P. and Sanctuary

(Trivedi 1993). Gir N.P. and Sanctuary covering an area

of 1412 sq. Km, is situated in the Saurashtra peninsula

of Gujarat. Tropical dry deciduous forest, thorn forest

and riverine forests clothe the area. It is the last stronghold

of the Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica ) and apart from

the lion has a diverse vertebrate faunal assemblage.

Four hundred and twenty eight droppings of peafowl

were examined for food remains by breaking open fresh

dry droppings. Remains were noted in the form of

frequency of occurrence.

Results (Fig. 1 ) show that during winter, i.e. December

and January, the diet was dominated by fruits of Zizyphus

mauritiana and Z. oenoplia. In February, there was a sharp

decline in the consumption of Z. mauritiana whereas Z.

oenoplia was still being consumed heavily. This was due

to the fact that the peak fruiting season of Z. mauritiana

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCES)

FOOD ITEMS

H Z. mauritiana M Z. oenoplia HI Cassia tora Hf Achyranthes

El Grass d) Leaves HH Other seeds mHH] Insects

N-DEC-13, JAN-60, FEB-110, MAR-110.APR-135

Fig. 1. Diet of peafowl based on dropping examination.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

263

is from November to mid January as compared to Z.

oenoplici which reaches the peak of fruiting in late January

to February. Both these berries were consumed less in

March and April as they were only available in the form

of old, dried up, fallen fruits. The picture of overall diet

in summer changed totally with seeds of Cassia torn,

Achyranthes aspera and other seeds dominating the diet.

This is a lean period for peafowl as far as the availability

of fruits, tender leaves and green grass is concerned.

In December, as grass was still green, its consumption

was high. Grass should have been a major component of

the diet in the months of August-November when it is

tender. Insect and other animal remains were rarely found

during all the months which points to a less availability

of animal food during winter and summer.

The overall pattern of diet composition suggests that

there is a close relationship between resource availability

and utilization. The use of Cassia tom and Achyranthes

aspera seeds facilitates the successful survival of peafowl

around human habitations where these weeds abound. It

also gets plenty of crops grown in the cultivated lands.

Peafowl can be regarded as diet generalists as they exhibit

granivory, frugivory, insectivory and herbivory. However,

during the dry seasons of winter and summer in dry

deciduous forest ecosystems, the peafowl should chiefly

be a primary consumer as in Gir. Zizyphus is a keystone

species in Gir not only for peafowl, but also for the wild

ungulates and therefore management programmes should

ensure the regeneration and sustained availability of this

crucial resource. Cassia torn is another equally important

resource for peafowl as it provides food during the lean

period of early summer. C.tora is regarded as a weed in

many Protected Areas (PA) of India, but this herb is a

vital dietary item for peafowl. The ability to exploit many

niches in the trophic level and inclusion of a large number

of food species might have made it possible for peafowl

to occupy such a large range in the country.

February 7, 1994 PRANAV TRIVEDI1

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH2

1 WWF-India , Ahmedahad Divisional Office ,

‘ Sundarvan Ahmedabad-380 015.

2 Wildlife Institute Of India, P.O. Box # 18;

Dehradun-248 001 .

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1 987): Compact handbook of the birds

of India and Pakistan. 2nd ed. Oxford university

press, Delhi.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. & S. Murali (1980): The ecology and

behaviour of the Indian Peafowl ( Pavo cristatus

Linn.), of Injar. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc . 75(3):

1069-1079.

Trivedi, P. (1993): Habitat selection by Indian peafowl (Pavo

cristatus Linn) in Gir forest, India. M.Sc. Dissertation,

Saurashtra University, Rajkot. 78 pp.

14. NOTES ON PRIMARY MOULT IN THE REDNECKED PHALAROPE

PHALAROPUS LOBATUS (LINN.)

Information about moult in the Rednecked Phalarope

Phalaropus lobatns is scarce due to their largely oceanic

distribution away from the breeding grounds (Prater et

al. 1977, Etheridge 1980, Cramp and Simmons 1982,

Gavrilov et al. 1983). There is even less information

regarding post-juvenile moult, and published accounts

regarding replacement of remiges are conflicting.

Prater et al. (1977) state that in first-winter birds the

primaries are ‘moderately worn by late winter. (Primary

moult from January has been noted by Stresemann

[Stresemann and Stresemann 1966] but we have no

evidence of it on the few birds examined)’. They further

note that in first-summer Rednecked Phalaropes

‘Primaries very worn. Some attain summer plumage’.

Hayman et al. (1986) also state ‘The primaries are not

replaced during the first winter and become very worn’.

Since adults have a complete post-breeding moult in late

autumn/winter (Prater et al. 1977, Cramp and Simmons

1982) this should allow the ageing of birds in spring/

early summer based on primary wear — adults having

only slightly worn primaries.

Schamel and Tracy ( 1 988), however, found that adults

and ‘yearlings’ (first-summer birds) could not be

distinguished by primary wear on the breeding grounds

in western Alaska, and further noted that J.D. Reynolds

had recorded no noticeable primary wear in ‘yearlings’

in Manitoba, Canada. Although these authors did not

relate their observations to there being a complete (i.e.

including remiges) post-juvenile moult, this is the obvious

implication. Hilden and Vuolanto (1972) also noted first-

summer birds as being indistinguishable from adults in

Finland.

Juvenile Red-necked Phalaropes are easily

distinguished from adults by having a dark brown mantle

264

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

‘with prominent gold-buff fringes to the scapulars and

tertials’. In the autumn and early winter juveniles moult

many of their body feathers so that the mantle becomes

largely grey, but the scapulars and tertials may be retained

to the spring but the golden-buff fringes fade to pale

yellow (Prater et al. 1977). The inner median coverts of

juveniles have rich gold fringes but these quickly fade

and abrade on the outer part of the feather. Of 9 juveniles

in the BNHS collection obtained in autumn from

Baluchistan, Kutch and Saurashtra, the inner median'

coverts vary from slightly worn (2 September) to the outer

fringe being very worn/faded (30 October). Although the

outer fringe of the inner median coverts is lost quickly

the inner fringe, which is largely protected from sunlight

by the overlying feathers, retains its colour much longer

and allows the ageing of birds in an advanced state of

moult of the upperparts.

A small number of Rednecked Phalaropes were caught

in 1983/84 at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu ( 1 0° 1 8' N,

79°51' E) during the BNHS Avifauna Project. Notes on

these birds are given below. Primary feathers are scored

from 0 (old feather) to 5 (fully grown new feather), with

1,2,3 and 4 being intermediate stages of feather growth

(Ginn and Melville 1983). In the case of juvenile birds

‘old’ feathers may be only a few months old, whereas in

adults they will be about one year old. Feather tracts are

recorded from left (inner) to right (outer), thus a moult

score of 1208 means that the inner two primaries were

new ‘pin’ feathers just emerging (score 1), and the outer

eight primaries were old feathers (score 0). The very

small, outermost (11th) primary was ignored.

Juveniles: 1 9 November. 1 208, Left = Right (i.e. moult

symmetrical). Old primaries slightly worn. Well advanced

in body moult; lesser and median coverts ‘juvenile’ dark

grey brown with worn pale fringes; tertials in active moult;

mantle feathers grey with broad white tips and edges,

and a few black feathers on upper back. One inner median

covert with pale yellow edge. This bird was recaptured

on 24 November, when primary moult had progressed

and scores were: L. 3'2'0S, R. 3 '2' 1 '07

1 9 November. 5S3 'O4, L = R. Old primaries slightly worn.

24 November. 010. Old primaries moderately worn.

One inner median covert with trace of yellow. Mottled

back. A few black feathers on crown.

Rffe

An, S. & S.D Riplf.y (1983): Handbook of the birds of India and

Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Cramp, S. & K.E.L. Simmons (eds.) ( 1 982): The birds of the western

Palearctic. Vol. III. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

24 November. 01(). Old primaries moderately worn.

Trace of gold remaining on scapulars. Few black feathers

on crown.

26 November. 0I(). Old primaries moderately worn.

One inner median covert with yellow fringe on inner web,

worn away on outer web.

28 November. 5307, L = R. Old primaries slightly

worn. One old inner median covert with pale gold

fringe. Back in active moult, a few old brownish

feathers with pale tips remaining. Forehead all white,

active moult.

Adults: Three adults were also caught. All three had

very worn primaries. Primary moult details were:

24 November. 544'0\ L = R.

24 November. L. 544' 1 'O4, R. 534'3' 1 'O4

28 November. 522‘ 1 ‘0\ L = R.

Three birds of indeterminate age were caught having

completed their primary moult (510), one on 28 February

and two on 5 April (one of these latter being the adult

caught in active moult on 28 November).

From the foregoing, it is apparent that at Point Calimere

at least some juvenile Rednecked Phalaropes undergo a

complete moult at much the same time as adults (N.B. The

second juvenile caught on 19 November was in a more

advanced state of moult than the adult caught on 28

• November). Ali and Ripley ( 1 983) state that the Rednecked

Phalarope is a ‘Winter visitor. Common offshore...

sometimes within a few miles of land but more often well

out to sea at 10 to 40 or more miles from the coastline’,

thus it might be considered that birds caught on the coast

at Point Calimere might be ‘abnormal’ in some way.

However there is no evidence to support this suggestion,

and the birds caught were in good condition (e.g. the two

caught on 19 November weighed 38 and 37 g).

Much remains to be learned regarding moult in this

rather elusive species.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the late Dr. Salim Ali and to S.A. Hussain

for inviting me to join the BNHS Avifauna Project, and to

Dr. R. Sugathan for his hospitality and assistance.

February 7, 1993 DAVID S. MELVILLE

World Wide Fund for Nature, Hong Kong,

GPO Box 12721, Hong Kong.

FNCES

Etheridge, B.(1980): Wader studies. In: Pomeroy, C.A. (ed.). Report

on the RAFOS Masirah Island Expedition 22nd October -

26th November 1979.

Gavrilov, E.I., S.N. Jfrfchov, A.E. Gavrilov & V.V. Chrokov

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

26 5

(1983): Uber den Herbstzug des Odinwassertreters

{Phalaropus lobatus) in Kasachstan. Vogelwarte 32: 1 03-

116.

Ginn, H.B. & D.S. Melville ( 1 983): Moult in birds. BTO Guide

19. British Trust for Ornithology, Tring.

Hayman, P., J. Marchant & T. Prater (1986): Shorebirds: an

identification guide to the waders of the world. Croom Helm,

London.

Hii.oen, O. & S. Vuoeanto (1972): Breeding biology of the

Rednecked Phalarope, Phalaropus lobatus, in Finland.

Ornis Fenn. 49: 57-85. (quoted by Cramp & Simmons

1982).

Prater, A.J.,J.H. Marchant &J.Vuorinen (1977): Guide to the

identification and ageing of Holarctic waders. BTO Guide

17. British Trust for Ornithology, Tring.

Schamee, D. & D.M. Tracy (1988): Are yearlings distinguishable

from older Red-necked Phalaropes?/ Field Ornithol. 59:

235-238.

Stresemann, E. & V. Stresemann (1966): Die rnauser der vogel.

J. Orn. 107 , son der heft.

15. DISTRACTION DISPLAY IN THE LITTLE BROWN DOVE

STREPTOPELIA SENEGALENS1S (LINN.)

On 5 April 1993, during bird census at Rollapadu

Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh, I came across a

little brown dove Streptopelia senegalensis sitting on

a termite mound. As I came closer, it flew to the ground

nearby and ran about on the ground with flapping wings

feigning injury. It flew off when I walked towards it

and perched on a nearby bush seemingly fit. Again on

23 April, I came across another dove, about 200 m from

the earlier seen dove, which behaved similarly. In both

cases, I made a search for nests both on the ground and

in surrounding shrubs, but was not successful.

Distraction display is mostly seen in ground nesting

Re ee

Au, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan (Compact Edition). Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

Cramp, S. (1985): Handbook of the Birds of Europe, the Middle

East and North Africa. Vol IV. Oxford University Press,

Oxford.

Goodwin, D. (1983): Pigeon and Doves of the World. Cornell

birds (see Morris 1 990). Hence what could be the cause

for an arboreal species to behave likewise? Could it be

that the two birds had nests on the ground that I failed

to locate?1 Both distraction display and ground nesting

are not reported in the little brown dove (Ali and Ripley

1983, Cramp 1985, Goodwin 1983 and Roberts

1991)

November 27, 1 993 RANJIT MANAKADAN

Bombay Natural History Society,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

NCES

University Press, New York.

Morris, D. ( 1990): Animalwatching — A Field Guide to Animal

Behaviour. Jonathan Cape, London.

Roberts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan. Vol. I. Oxford

University Press, Karachi.

1 See note no. 16 — Eds.

16. GROUND NESTING IN THE LITTLE BROWN DOVE STREPTOPELIA SENEGALENSIS (LINN.)

There is a no record of ground nesting in the little

brown dove (Ali and Ripley 1 987, Cramp 1 985, Goodwin

1983, Roberts 1991).

On March 27, 1993 while censusing birds in a

dense plantation 30 km north of Solapur, Maharashtra,

I flushed a little brown dove Streptopelia senegalensis

from the ground. The haphazard flight of the bird at

once made me suspect the presence of the nest. On

further investigation, a nest with two eggs was found

on the ground at the base of a 2.5 m Acacia catechu

tree: the nest touching the stem of the tree. After I

moved out of the area, the bird returned and sat on its

nest. The other tree species in the plantation were

Acacia leucophloea, A. nilotica, Albizia lebbeck,

Leucaena latsiliqua, Dalbergia sissoo and Gliricidia

maculata. Incidentally all the trees in the plantation

were leafless. There could be three possible reasons

for selecting this site by the species for nesting on

the ground:

l.To avoid predation since the visibility was high

because of defoliation. 2. To remain in the shade of the

tree. 3. To avoid blowing away of the nest by wind due to

openness.

February 2, 1994 SATISH KUMAR

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bagat Singh Road ,

Bombay-400 023.

266

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 92 (1995)

Rhfhrkncks

Ai.i, S. & S.D. Riplhy (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan (2nd Edition). Oxford University Press,

New Delhi.

Cramp, S. (1985): Handbook of the Birds of Europe, the Middle

East and North Africa. Vol. 4, Oxford University Press,

Oxford.

Goodwin, D. (1983): Pigeon and Doves of the World. Cornell

University Press, New York.

Robkrts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan. Oxford University

Press, Karachi, Pakistan.

1 7. AN INSTANCE OF PLAY BEHAVIOUR IN BLACK DRONGO DICRURUS ADSIMILIS

(BECHSTEIN)

The Black drongo Dicnims aclsimUis, might possibly

be the most agile, courageous and playful of all our

common birds.

While watching birds in a small patch of scrub jungle

at Aakkulam ( 1 3 km from Trivandrum city) on 7. 1 1 .93, a

peculiar behaviour of two Black drongos caught my

attention. The birds, both of which were juveniles, were

seated on two branches of a cashew tree ( Anacardium

occidentcde ) about 3 m above ground. One of them was

repeatedly scolding the other one in harsh notes, the head

being bowed down with every call note. This bird can be

assigned a symbol (A). The second bird (B) replied

promptly and this verbal cacophony continued for some

time. Then the bird (A) plucked a dry leaf from a nearby

branch, and bending calmly, dropped it deliberately. The

other one (B) quickly went after it twisting and turning

gracefully, following the leaf in its spiral path downwards.

Just as the leaf was a foot from the ground, the drongo

darted at it and catching in its feet, transferred it to the

beak and returned its perch, all in one clear graceful

motion. Now it was the turn of (B) to drop the leaf and

(A) to retrieve it. This fascinating play continued for the

next two minutes after which the drongos, presumably

losing interest in the game flew away, one chasing the

other, both twisting and turning sharply and uttering harsh

calls.

March 21, 1994 MANOJ V. NAIR

34 Thoppil Ncigcir, Kumarapuram,

Trivandrum, Kerala-69501 1.

1 8. NOTES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE YELLOWTHROATED BULBUL

PYCNONOTUS XANTHOLAEMUS (JERDON) AT SHEVAROYS, TAMIL NADU

While stationed at Yercaud (1 1°47' N, 78° 12' E) for

five months as part of a project on the Indian Tree Shrew

Anathana ellioti funded by World Wildlife Fund — US

through World Wide Fund for Nature — India, Tamil

Nadu State Office, I had the opportunity to observe the

Yellowthroated Bulbul Pycnonotus xantholaemus a

species endemic to South India.

Yercaud is situated 28 km north of Salem town.

Yercaud is the main town in Shevaroy hills which form a

major component of the southern section of Eastern Ghats.

The plateau atop Shevaroys is almost entirely under

coffee. The habitat where observations were made was a

dense scrub and degraded deciduous forest with rock

outcrops at the edge of a coffee plantation on the southern

slopes of Shevaroys, about 2 km from Yercaud.

The species was first seen during a preliminary trip

in January 1992. Between January and July P.

xantholaemus was seen on 1 3 occasions and heard several

times. Of these the species was sighted once during the

preliminary surveys and twelve times during the actual

project period between 10 February 1992 and 10 July

1992. On eleven occasions P. xantholaemus was seen

along the southern slopes of Shevaroys which also

happened to be the study area for the tree shrew project.

But for an individual bird that was seen along the ghat

road connecting Salem and Yercaud at an altitude of about

1000 m above MSL on 14 March, all the other sightings

and observations were made at an altitude of about 1200

m above MSL.

When the species was first sighted on 30 January 1 992

along with J.N. Prasad, a single bird was seen in the

company of a pair of Fairy Bluebirds Irene puella that

were seen feeding on Ficus sp. The bulbul was seen

flycatching at the base of the same tree which was growing

out from a dark rock crevice.

Two birds were seen on 22 March, of which one was

seen carrying a dry twig. Later in the day an individual of

the species was seen chasing another one. On 25 March,

fibres from the bark of Firmania colorata were collected

by an individual following which the pair flew away. Again

on 25 March one pair was observed feeding the other with

a fruit of Cant Ilium dicoccum and the behaviour appearing

to be typical of courtship feeding. Since the bird which

was being fed did not adopt begging posture it was assumed

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

267

that both the birds were adults and belonged to a pair. Such

feeding activity is considered to be a prelude to the

commencement of breeding (Welty 1982).

Further, the birds were seen feeding on C. dicoccnm

thrice and on Ficus nervosa once. On all the occasions

they were seen in pairs. On 13 April a bird which was

sitting on a huge boulder flew up on the trunk of a

Anogeissus latifolia tree and perched upright in a manner

typical of woodpeckers.

The present report of P. xantholaemus is the first ever

of the species from Shevaroys. The observation on the

food habits indicates that C. dicoccnm and F. nervosa

are two new food sources of Yellowthroatcd Bulbul not

recorded earlier. Also, the fact that the birds were

indulging in courtship feeding and carrying nesting

material indicate nesting activity of the species, and this

also happens to be the first ever record of the species

breeding outside their designated nesting period as

recorded by Ali and Ripley (1987) and Allen (1908). It

appears that at Shevaroys the species commences its

breeding activity as early as March.

February 14, 1994 S. KARTHIKEYAN

24, Opp. Banashcuikari Temple

8th Block Jayanagar P.O.

Bangalore-560 082.

References

Aei,S.& S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of Birds of India (Pycnonotus xantholaemus). J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Sor.

and Pakistan (second edition). Oxford University Press, New IS: 905-907.

Delhi, p.737. Wei.ty, J.C. (1982): The Life of Birds. W.B. Saunders Company,

Aii.hn, PR. (1908): Note on the Yellow throated Bulbul New York. pp. 754.

19. STONE CHAT SAXICOLA TORQUATA (LINN.) IN KERALA

According to synopsis (S.D. Ripley 1982, BNHS,

Bombay) the distributional range of the race iiulica of

Saxicola torquata extends to southern Karnataka in the

Indian peninsula. Baker and Inglis in birds of southern

india (1930, Madras Government Press, Madras) state

that this race occurs in winter in the hills of north Mysore

and Travancore, quoting Stuart Baker, though they did

not find it anywhere in the Madras Presidency. Salim Ali

did not include this species in birds of kerala (1969,

Oxford Unviersity Press, Delhi) nor is it included in a

book of kerala birds (Neelakantan, K.K. et al. 1993,

WWF-India, Trivandrum).

On 19 October 1993, during a birdwatching trip to

Kattampalli ( 1 1° 55' N; 75° 20' E), a wetland near Kannur,

we came across two pairs of Stone Chats-two males and

two females. Three of these were perched on small bushes

(Crotalaria sp.) and grass tussocks on the bund at the

water’s edge. One male could be observed clearly for a

long time as it perched on top of a mound of straw in the

field, making short ariel sallies to catch insects like a

flycatcher.

The male birds appeared to be in the autumn moult

— the black of head and throat had changed in dark rufous

except for an eye-streak from the lores to the ear-coverts.

They had rufous breast, black tail tipped buff and white

upper tail-coverts. The female birds were light brownish

overall with streaked upperparts, huffish white

underparts, black tail and pale rump and upper tail-

coverts. The white half collar on either side of the neck

in the male birds was clearly visible. The white wing

patches were not visible on closed wings, but could be

clearly seen when the birds flew. The birds were seen

Picking their wings and tail frequently.

One of us (CS) has been regularly visiting Kattampalli

since 1980, but never came across this species before.

This is the first record of this species in Kerala to the

best of our knowledge.

February 14, 1994 C. SASHIKUMAR

JAFER PALOT

T. PRAVEEN

9 Subhash Nagar, Kannur 670 002, Kerala.

20. WINTERING OF INDIAN BLUE CHAT ERITHACUS BRUNNEUS (HODGSON) AND PIED

GROUND THRUSH ZOOTHERA WARDII (BLYTH) AT NANDI HILLS, SOUTH INDIA

Nandi Hills (13° 22' N,77° 41' E), a popular hill resort

and picnic spot in Kolar district, Karnataka is located

about 60 km north of Bangalore. Known also as the Nandi

Durg, it is the tallest hillock (1435 m above MSL) within

the 28.37 sq. km Nandi State Forest and supports a rich

variety of Bora and fauna (Boraiah and Fatima 1970, Ali

1942, Ghorpade et al. 1974).

The hill-top plateau of Nandi Hills has a small patch

of evergreen forest with coffee plantations. Coffea

arabica, C. iginoides and C. robusta, which appears to

268

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 92(1995 )

Tabi.h 1

DETAILS 0F£. brunneus ANDZ wardii SIGHTED AT NANDI HILLS

have been planted by the Britishers after the conquest of

the hill in 1791 now grows in a wild state and is not

harvested. Coffee mixed with other shrubbery provides

an ample undergrowth offering an ideal habitat for

thrushes. In fact, species like Blue-headed Rock Thrush

Monticolci cinclorhynchus, White-throated Ground

Thrush Zoothera citrinci cycinotus, Black Bird Turdus

merula, Indian Pitta Pitta brachyura can be frequently

seen in the season. Adjoining this patch is a horticultural

nursery spread over about an acre and is maintained by

the State Horticultural Department. With its dense tree

canopy, the area provides adequate shade for maintenance

of potted plants.

The previous avifaunal surveys at Nandi hills (Ali

1942, Ghorpade et al. 1974) do not report the occurrence

of two bird species, namely the Indian Blue Chat

Erithacus brunneus (Hodgson) and Pied Ground Thrush

Zoothera ward'd (Blyth). In this article, we report our

observations on the two species made at Nandi hills.

A total of seven visits were made to the area as a part

of a much larger avifaunal survey of the hills (e.g.

Subramanya et al. 1991) between March 1991 and

January 1992 and a total of twelve E. brunneus and eight

Z. wardii were sighted. The details on the visits, habitats

where the birds were seen and their sex by different

observers are presented in Table 1.

Indian blue chat: On all occassions when the species

were seen, the birds were observed moving about within

the two areas, namely the evergreen patch and the nursery,

often foraging among leaf litter looking for hidden prey.

These areas frequented by E. brunneus were shared by P.

brachyura, Z. citrina, M. cinclorhynchus and the Tailor

Bird Orthotomus sutorius.

On 30 March 1991 , a male E. brunneus was observed

giving out a triple noted call and as if in response a P.

brachyura that foraged in the area also started calling. A

little later another male was osberved in the horticultural

nursery calling (towards a female?) as it moved among

the pots. When a female approached closer, the male

started to call loudly, opening and closing its wings that

were held drooping. The male also kept twitching its tail

up and down constantly. When it approached too

close, the female chased the male and resumed foraging.

The male flew up to a nearby branch of a Salix

tetrasperma tree and started calling. Later it alighted on

the ground.

A male was again observed calling and displaying

similarly two hours later in the same area but no female

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

269

could be seen anywhere close by. Also, the displaying

male was observed chasing away a foraging O. sutorius

and M. cinclorhynchus when perched close by.

However, on 22 December 1991, a female was

observed promptly answering the high pitched call note

by a male, with a single short note (tweet). Upon

disturbance the male flew up to an overhanging branch

and started swaying from side to side while uttering a

low kit-kit-kit-kit., call.

Pied ground thrush: A male of this species was first

sighted at Nandi hills on 29 March 1991 by two of us

(JNP, SS) busily foraging, overturning fallen dry leaves

along the edge of the Pathalaganga, a small pond between

the evergreen patch and the nursery. Later it was seen

along the edge of yet another large pond Amruth ganga, a

water tank constructed in stone with steps going down to

the bottom, the male was observed foraging amidst fallen

leaves unmindful of a Spotted Babbler Pellorneum

ruficeps and Magpie Robin Copsychus saularis in the

same area and on the next day it was foraging along with

E. brunneus. It was observed tossing dry leaves most of

the day along the water’s edge. Once it was noticed

hopping amongst pots in the nursery and also once in the

coffee plantation.

The species was again observed in the same area

between 5 November 1991 (L. Shyamal, pers. comm.)

and 9 January 1992 (see Table 1).

Both the species discussed above, winter in Sri Lanka.

In addition E. brunneus is also known to winter in the

hills of western India (Ali and Ripley 1987). Also both

the species have been observed in passage at Bangalore

(Karthikeyan 1992, Prasad and Srinivasa 1992, Shyamal

1989). Z. warclii has been reported as wintering at

Yercaud in the Shevroy hills, Tamil Nadu (Kazmierczak

1991). Our observations on the continued presence of

the individuals of the species during winter and early

summer at Nandi hills clearly indicate that the individuals

were those spending their winter. Thus, Nandi hills

happens to be hitherto unknown winter quarters of both

E. brunneus and Z. warclii.

Also, though the frequency of sightings of females

were less, our observations on the occurrence of both the

sexes of E. brunneus together at Nandi Hill refutes the

claim made by Khan (1980) that both the sexes of E.

brunneus do not move together and that females spend

their winters away from males.

February 8, 1994 J. N. PRASAD

Merlin Nature Club,

No. 13, 8th cross, 30th main,

J.P. Nagcir / phase, Bangcilore-560 078.

S. KARTHIKEYAN

No. 24, opp. Banashankciri Temple,

8th block Jayanagar P.O.,

Shakambar inagar, Bangalore-560 082.

S. SUBRAMANYA

HPEIT scheme, J -Block, University of

Agricultural Sciences,

G.K.V.K. campus, Bangalore-560 065.

R H F F. RRNC K S

Ai .i, S.(1942): The Birds of Mysore. Part 11:7. Bombay nut. Hist.

Soc. 43 (3): 318-341

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripi.ky (1987): Compact Handbook of Birds of

India and Pakistan, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press,

New Delhi, pp. 737.

Boraiah, G. & T. Fathima ( 1 970): Some aspects of vegetation at

Nandi hills. Univ. Agricultural Sciences publication.

Bangalore, pp. 22.

Ghorpade, K.D., A. Verghksh & B. Mai.uk (1974): Birds of the

Nandi Hills: A preliminary survey. Newsletter for

Birdwatchers 14(5): 1-5.

Karthikeyan, S. (1992): Pied Ground Thrush Zoothera warclii

(Blyth) in Bangalore. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 89 (2):

258.

Kazmierczak, Krys (1991): Pied Ground Thrushes in South India.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers, 31 (7+8): 13.

Prasad, J.N. &T.S. Srinivasa ( 1992): Indian Blue Chat Erithacus

brunneus (Hodgson) in Bangalore. 7. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc., 89(2): 257.

Syhamal, L. ( 1 989): ‘New birds’ of the Indian Institute of Science

campus. Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 29 (9+10): 8-9.

Subramanya, S, S. Karthikhyan & J.N. Prasad (1991): Yellow-

throated Bulbuls at Nandi Hill. Newsletter for

Birdwatchers, 31 (3+4): 7-8.

21. SIMPLIFIED FIELD TECHNIQUE FOR OBTAINING BLOOD FROM FRESHWATER

TURTLES

Studies on the biochemical and molecular aspects tissue in such studies has invariably been blood and this

have now been recognised as essential components of has necessitated researchers to look for the best

the conservation programme of species. The choice of procedure for field sampling without harming or

270

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 ( 1995)

sacrificing the animal.

Several methods have been proposed to obtain

uncontaminated blood, each having its merit restricted

to the species under study or to the specific experiment.

The most common method of collection of samples of

blood in reptiles has been cardiac puncture (Gandal

1 958, Stephens and Creekmore 1 983) but is less popular

for turtles because of their thick plastron. Cutting off

the tip of the tail (Guguy 1970), toe-nail clipping (Frye

1991) or collecting blood from the major veins and

arteries (Maxwell 1979) have been some of the other

proposals. Each of them has at least one disadvantage,

for example, intricate dissection of veins/arteries is

required (Avery and Vitt 1984). The procedure for

obtaining blood samples from the ventral caudal vein

as suggested by Galbraith (pers. comm.) and described

in alligator snapping turtles (Powell and Knesel 1992)

had been initially utilized in our procedure but we had

to discard it as the amount of blood obtained was not

enough for multiple analyses. Falling back on the oldest

method of heart puncture by inserting a long needle

laterally through the soft tissue between the plastron

and the carapace, we found that the forelimb provides

the safest and the shortest path to reach the heart

avoiding drilling of the plastron. In addition, our

technique does not require elaborate equipment and can

be used easily in the field.

We have applied this technique on two turtles of the

genus Kachuga: K. tentoria and K. clhongoka. These

are primarily medium sized turtles with males ranging

between 10-20 cm and females between 22.5-45 cm in

carapace length. Presumbaly this technique can be

applied to many other turtles of similar size.

Handling of turtles to keep them immobile is a skill

of the field worker and no standard procedure can be

Rkfh

Avlry, H.W. & L.J. Vitt (1984): How to get blood from a turtle.

Copeia, 1984: 209-210.

Duguy, R. (1970) Numbers of blood cells and their variation. In:

C. Gans and T. Parsons (eds). Biology of the Reptilia.

Academic Press, NY, 93-109.

Fryl, F.L. (1991): Biomedical and Surgical Aspects of Captive

Reptile Husbandry. 2nd Ed., Vol I, Kreiger Publishing Co.,

Inc. Melbourne, Florida.

Gandal, C.P. ( 1 958): Cardiac puncture in anaesthetised turtles.

described for it. However, the turtle has to be suspended

in a manner that the head hangs freely downward and

the forelimb remains unrestrained. The weight of the

body forces the forelitnb to stretch, but this may need

some time. In this position the right forelimb can be

stretched at an angle of 35° from the head. The skin

joining the leg with the carapace is dabbed with 95%

alcohol in order to sterilize the area.

A 5-9 cm long 22 guage hypodermic needle attached

to a 5 ml syringe is inserted parallel to the stretched

forelimb. The needle is gently inserted till it reaches

the ventricle. The depth of needle penetration is often

between 2. 5-7. 5 cm. Gentle suction is applied until blood

spurts into the syringe and withdrawal pressure is then

slowly increased, until the syringe is at its full suction

capacity. The needle is then slowly pulled out, with full

syringe suction still being applied. About 2-3 ml of blood

is drawn per sample. No pressure is applied for the

control of bleeding as no visible bleeding occurs in this

procedure. However, germicidal powder is immediately

sprinkled at the point of insertion of needle before

marking and releasing the turtles.

Blood samples have successfully been collected from

over 50 fresh water turtles and several of them have been

utilized for repetitive blood lettings and maintained in

captivity for over 4 months with no apparent ill-effects.

For field sampling this procedure provides a safe; practical

and simple technique for obtaining blood from turtles.

We thank Mr. Dayal Prashad Gupta and Mr. Akash

Mathur for their help in collecting turtles.

May 31, 1994 RESHMA BATRA

SANT PRAKASH

Department of Zoology, Dayalbagh Educational

Institute, Dayal bagli, Agra-282 005.

HNC L S

Zoologica, 43: 93-94.

M axwl.i l, J.H. (1979): Anaesthesia and surgery. In: M. Harless

and H. Morlock (eds). Turtles: Perspective and Research.

John Wiley & Sons, NY, 1 27- 1 52.

Powli.l, S.C. & J.A Knlsli. (1992): Blood collection from

Macroclemys tenmiincki (Troost). Herpetol. Rev. 23( I ): 19.

Stf.phlns, G.A. & J.S. Crllkmorl; (1983): Blood collection by

cardiac pucture in conscious turtles. Copeia, 1983: 522-

523,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

27 1

22. CLUTCH SIZE IN SHAW’S WOLF SNAKE LYCODON STRIATUS

On the morning of 27 July, 1993, 1 bagged a 410 mm

long Shaw’s wolf snake Lycodon stricitus from deciduous

forests of Kamalnath Forest Block in Udaipur District. I

kept the snake in a card board box of dimension 45 x 30

x 30 cm. On the morning of 29 July, 1993 I found one

white, elliptical egg in the box which measured about

25 x 7 mm. Obviously it had been laid in the night of 28

July, 1 993. After this, no more eggs were laid by the snake

and I set it free on 5 August. 1993 in the locality of

capture.

According to Daniel (1983, the book of Indian reptile),

2 to 4 eggs are laid by Shaw’s Wolf Snake.

August 31, 1994 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range forest Officer, Aravalli Afforestation Programme,

Jhadol ( F ), Distt. Udaipur (Raj.) 313 702.

23. LENGTH RECORD OF THE COMMON WOLF SNAKE (LYCODON AULICUS)

FROM BHARUCH, GUJARAT

On February 4, 1993, we received a snake from Mr.

R. Tiruvengadam, Officer-in-Charge, GNFC’s Wildlife

Complex, Bharuch.

It was a female common wolf snake, Lycodon aulicus

(Linnaeus). It was collected from GNFC township,

Bharuch, Dist. Bharuch. The snout to vent length was

81.0 cm, tail length 11.0 cm and total length of the

specimen was 92.0 cm. Scales were supralabials 9, 4th

and 5th touching the eye, midbody scales 17:17:15 rows,

divided into ventrals 232 and caudals 51. Body colour

was dark brown with 34 white bands which are laterally

bifurcated and the belly white.

According to Whitaker ( 1 978, common Indian snakes:

a field guide), the maximum length of the species was

24. AMPHIBIANS OF PHULWARI

The Aravalli range is the principal mountain range

of Rajasthan which runs diagonally across the state from

north-east near Delhi and to south-west up to the plains

of Gujarat for about 692 km. Within Rajasthan, it runs

for about 550 km. from Khetri in the north-east to Khed-

Brahma in the south-west. The Phulwari Ki Nal Wildlife

Sanctuary is a small area, covering 511.4 sq. km and

situated towards the south-west end of the Aravallis near

Khed-Brahma in Udaipur district of Rajasthan.

Phulwari Ki Nal Wildlife Sanctuary falls in a semi-arid

zone, with a rainfall of 600-800 mm per annum. The terrain

is undulating with altitudinal variation from 600-900 m

above MSL. The forests are of the northern tropical dry

deciduous type. Major plant species of the area are

Dendrocalamus strictus, Boswellia serrata, Lannea

coromandelica, Sterculia urens, Dalbergia latifolia,

Wrightia tomentosa, W. tinctoria, Terminalici belerica,

Flacourtia ramontchi, Anogeissus latifolia, He lie teres

80.0 cm and recently Karthikeyan (1993, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 90: 298-299) reported an even larger specimen

that measured 82.0 cm from the Shevaroys. Hence our

specimen is the largest known so far.

March 27, 1994 RAJU VYAS

Sayaji Bang Zoo,

Vadodcira-390018, Gujarat, India.

B.H. PATEL

Dept, of Zoology,

Sir P.P. Institute of Science,

Bhavnagar-364002,

Gujarat, India.

KI NAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

isora, Grewia tiliaefolia, Aegle marmelos, Soymida

febrifuga, Celestrus panic ulata, Zizyphus xylopara,

A nan gi um ■ salvifolium, Butea monosperma, Pterocarpus

marsupium, Ougenia dalbergioides, Pongamia pinnata,

Syzygium heyneanum, Emblica officinalis, etc.

A list of amphibians recorded from Phulwari Ki Nal

Wildlife Sanctuary is given below:

Family: Ranidae

(1) Rana cyanophlyctis: Very common, seen in

ditches mine-pits, nullahs, rivers, ponds, wells, forest

nursery tanks, etc. During the rainy season, it can be

seen on roads at nights. It is found round the year, except

during the winter. The Kathodis, a local tribe, use these

frogs as bait for fishing purpose.

(2) Rana limnocharis: Very common, seen in damp

places with grassy cover. From September onwards,

when water level of hill nullahs become low, these frogs

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92(1995)

can be seen among boulders of streams. This frog is

generally visible from July to October only.

(3) Rana tigerina: Common, locally called clhedka

by the tribals, lives in ditches along the road side, hill

streams and in the stagnant water of the paddy field

bordering the sanctuary. It is visible in paddy fields at

the time of sowing of paddy. When paddy becomes tall,

it remains hidden under vegetative cover.

(4) Tomopterna breviceps: Very common, appears

on the ground with the pre-monsoon showers, and retires

for hibernation in winter. During earlier monsoon

showers it can be seen in ditches, pits, etc., generally at

night and before noon. After egg-laying, it becomes

terrestrial like a toad. It falls in forest nursery-tanks

during night and dozens can be seen swimming

sluggishly in water. If water level is low in the tank due

to vertical walls, they cannot escape (Sharma 1993). In

their effort to climb rough walls, they injure the fingers

and toes. Sometimes, a few are seen floating dead in

water tanks.

During the rains, males of this species become

vocal. Their calls can be heard all night till the

morning.

From September onwards, one can come across. T.

breviceps in large numbers while moving in dry nullahs.

This frog goes into burrows when winter starts.

Family: Microhylidae

(5) Microhyla ornata: Uncommon, and terrestrial,

lives in damp, covered hide-out. It leaves the ponds,

ditches, etc. during the day and comes out only during

the night for feeding and breeding. In cemented tanks,

where escape is not possible, it can be seen climbing

walls above the water level. This species remains visible

during the monsoon period only.

(6) Uperodon systoma: Uncommon, becomes visible

in monsoon only. Two males and one female were

collected from a small cemented tank near Nalwa

Wildlife Chowki. A pair was bagged on the periphery

of the Sanctuary. The weight of the male was 14 g and

that of the female 26 g. They were kept in a tank, where

the female laid 1784 eggs in one night. After egg laying,

the female was re-weighed and found to be 22 g. Males

of this species are vocal and make loud calls in the early

hours of the morning. Males call while swimming to

and from their burrows. During the day frogs of this

species vacate the pond. This species remains visible

only during the monsoon rains.

Family: Bufonidae

(7) Bufo melanostictus: Common Seven species of

amphibians contained in five genera belonging to three

families have been recorded from Phulwari Ki Nal

Wildlife Sanctuary. So far six species of amphibians are

known from the region of Udaipur district, namely Rana

cyanophlyctis, R. limnocharis, R. tigerina, Tomopterna

breviceps, Bufo melanostictus and B. andersoni

(Mansukhani and Murthy 1964). Two species are being

recorded for the first time from Udaipur district, namely

Microhyla ornata and Uperodon systoma.

I thank Mr. A.S. Champawat I.F.S., Dy. C.F., Aravalli

Afforestation Project, Udaipur (Central) and Mr. J.S.

Nathawat, Deputy Chief Wildlife Warden, Udaipur for

providing facilities.

January 3 1 , 1 995 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA,

Range Forest Officer,

Aravalli Afforestation Programme,

Jhadol (F.), Dist. Udaipur (Raj.) 313 702.

References

Manshukhani, M.R. & T.S.N. Murthy (1964): Fauna of Sharma, S.K. (1993): Cemented Tanks in forest areas and

Rajasthan. Part-6. Amphibia. Rec. Zool. Survey India, wildlife management. Indian Forester, 119 (10): 849-

62 (1&2): 51-60. 852.

25. LABEO MICROPTHALMUS (DAY) (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE), A NEW RECORD

FROM BIHAR, INDIA

Introduction

During the course of ichthyofaunal survey of the river

Gandak at Balmikinagar, Bihar (27° N, 84° 15' E), a

specimen of Labeo was collected along with other fishes,

which, after examination was identified as Labeo

micropthalmus (Day). The identification of this

specimen has been confirmed by the Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta. A perusal of existing Indian literature

on the ichthyofauna (Day 1878, 1889; Jayaram 1981,

Jhingran 1956, Menon 1950, 1974; Munshi Datta and

Srivastava 1988, McClelland 1 839, Talwar and Jhingran

1991) reveal that Labeo micropthalmus (Day) has not

been recorded earlier from Bihar. Hence the present

collection and the distributional notes of this carp would

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

273

be of interest in highlighting the extended range of its

distribution in new areas not recorded earlier. The

specimen captured by cast net was fixed in 3%, and later

preserved in, 5% formaline solution.

Description

Labeo micropthalmus (Day)

English name — Murrie Labeo

Material examined: 2 specimens, 116-150 mm TL,

from Balmikinagar, Gandak river, Collector: S.K.

Mishra; 6 April 1993.

Diagnostic features: Diii 10; Aii 5; Pi 17; Vi 8;C 19

Length of head 6, depth of body 5.5, both in total

length. Eye diameter 5 in head length, 2 in snout length

and 2.25 in the interorbital width. Dorsal profile of body

more convex than its ventral profile. Snout overhanging

mouth, with an indistinct lateral lobe; lips continuous;

no pores on snout; interrupted groove across lower jaw.

Mouth inferior; a cartilagenous covering to inside lower

jaw.

Barbels one pair, maxillary. Dorsal fin upper margin

concave, its origin midway between snout tip and

posterior base of anal fin, the height higher the depth of

body.

Day, F. ( 1 878): The Fishes of India. William Dawson, London.

Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and

Burma, Fishes, Vols. I & II. London.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): Hand Book: The Freshwater Fishes oflndia,

Zool. Surv. oflndia, Calcutta.

Jhingran, V.G. (1956): The Capture fishery of river Ganges at

Buxar (Bihar, India) in the years 1952-54. Indian Journ.

Fish. 3: 197-215.

McClelland, J. (1839): Indian Cyprinidae. Asiat. Res. 79:217-

465.

Menon, A.G.K. (1950): On a collection of fish from the fort on

26. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON THE

(HAMILTON) (PISCES: MUGILIDAE)

In 1981, Singh and Pradhan reported the occurrence

of Rhinomugil corsula (Ham.) in parts of the river Bhima.

However, they reported that this fish is absent from the

rivers Mula and Mutha in Pune. During our extensive

survey of the Mula-Mutha rivers carried out mainly

between 1990 and 1993, it was found that the fish occurs

at the Bund Garden, downstream from the confluence of

Mula and Mutha. We observed at least 3-4 regular shoals,

of about 8- 1 0 fishes each, swimming in the shallow waters

beneath the bund wall. It was easy to identify the fish

Colour: In life, body silvery, darkest on the back;

scales occasionally marked with red.

Zoogeographical distribution: Pakistan; and India:

Punjab, Himalayas, Murree and Kangra also Kashmir.

This species is a noteworthy addition to the ichthyofauna

of Bihar.

Discussion

Labeo microthalmus (Day) attains a length of 25 cm

and is of minor interest to fisheries. Menon (1974)

considered this species to be a synonym of Labeo dero

(Heckel) but there are several differences. Labeo

micropthalmus (Day) can be distinguished from Labeo

dero (Heckel) by the following key.

1. (a) Snout with an indistinct lateral lobe; pores on

snout generally absent; dorsal fin higher than

body depth L. micropthalmus

(b) Snout without any lateral lobe, pores on snout

generally present; dorsal fin equal to or shorter

than body depth L. dero

February 3, 1995 SAFAL KUMAR MISHRA

Department of Zoology, T.P.V. College, Ncirkatiaganj,

W. Champaran, Bihar.

NCES

Parasnath hill, Chotanagpur, Bihar. Rec. Indian Mas.

4B(I): 71-72.

Menon, A.G.K. (1974): A check-list of fishes of the Himalayan

and the Indo-Gangetic plains. Inland Fish. Soc. oflndia,

Barrackpore, West-Bengal.

Munshi Datta & Srivastava (1988): Natural History of Fishes

and Systematics of Freshwater Fishes oflndia. Narendra

Publ. House, Delhi.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes oflndia

and Adjacent Countries. Oxford & IBH Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd.,

New Delhi, Vols. I & II.

GREY MULLET RHINOMUGIL CORSULA

FROM WESTERN MAHARASHTRA

with binoculars because of its peculiar swimming habits

aptly described by Hora (1938).

The fish is very quick and alert and easily escapes

cast nets. With considerable effort we could obtain a

specimen from this area. The fish was subsequently

identified using the key given by Jayaram (1981) and

Talwar and Jhingran (1991). During monsoon floods,

however, they are often captured in this area. Although

present in Mula-Mutha, near their confluence, the fish is

certainly not abundant. It is very rarely found in the upper

274

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

stretches of the Mula river. However, as yet, we have not

seen this fish in the Mutha river.

In addition to the above we have collected the species

from Veer dam on river Nira, where it is abundant. It has

also been collected from river Tapi near Bhusaval, by

one of our students.

This forms probably the first report of its occurrence

from river Tapi, North Maharashtra. The fish is also

abundant at the Ujani dam on river Bhima (Pradhan and

Singh 1984 and also our personal observations). Recently,

Manakadan (1993) has reported its occurrence at the

Tungabhadra-Krishna confluence in Andhra Pradesh.

Thus, it is clear that R. corsula is spreading in the

Krishna river system. It is already reported by Menon

and Jayaram (1977) from the Cauvery river system.

It thus appears that this Gangetic fish is fast spreading

all over Peninsular India. It is, in all probability due to

Refer

Hora, S.L. (1938): The biology of the freshwater grey-mullet with

observations on aerial vision in fishes. In: A Century of

Natural History. Bombay Natural History Society. Oxford

University Press, pp. 576-38 1,(1 983, reprinted).

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan,

Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka. Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta.

Manakadan, Ran.iit ( 1 993): Occurrence of the freshwater grey-

mullet Rhinomugil corsula (Hamilton) at the

Tungabhadra-Krishna confluence near Nandikotkur, Andhra

accidental introduction alongwith the seeds of cultivated

carps.

In addition to the above information on the sighting

of R. corsula (Ham.), we would also like to mention here

that the fish is locally known in Pune as Var-doli (meaning

eyes-above) and among fisherfolk of Veer dam, as Blunt.

Acknowledgement

We sincerely appreciate and acknowledge the help

rendered by Dr. K.C. Jayaram in identifying and

confirming many fishes, including this one.

February 3, 1995 H.V. GHATE

G.K. WAGH

Post-Graduate Research Centre,

Department of Zoology,

Modern College, Pune-411 005.

-: n c e: s

Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90(3): 522-523.

Mi non, A.G.K. & K.C. Jayaram (1977): The freshwater grey-mullet

Rhinonugil corsula (Hamilton) as a fishery resource in the

Cauvery river system. South India. Science & Culture 43:

302-304.

Pradhan, M.S. & D.F. Singh (1984): First record of the freshwater

grey-mullet Rliinomugil corsula (Hamilton) from

Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Sl(l): 202-204.

T At. war, PK. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes (Vol. 2).

Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.

27. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF DANIO (BRACHYDANIO) RERIO HAMILTON-BUCHANAN

Danio (Bracliydanio) rerio Hamilton-Buchanan is

reported to be distributed from eastern part of West

Bengal to Krishna river system, Andhra Pradesh and

Tamil Nadu (Jhingran and Talwar 1991). Day (1875)

considered this as Danio rerio and described its

distribution from Bengal to Coromandel coast and

Masulipatam (Masulipatanam). Jayaram (1981)

described it under subgenus Bracliydanio.

While conducting a survey of fishes to the Wyanad

region of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, 9 specimens of Danio

(Bracliydanio) rerio were collected from two different

rivulets passing through Kuruva and Chekadi joining

Kabani. These rivulets are seasonal and Bow through teak

plantations and paddy fields.

Rhfv

Day, F. ( 1875): The Fishes of India; being a natural history of fishes

known to inhabit the seas and fresh waters of India, Burma and

Ceylon. Today and Tomorrow’s Book Agency. New Delhi.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The Fresh water fishes of India, Pakistan,

All the specimens are kept in the Kerala Forest

Research Institute, Peechi, Thrissur, Kerala.

Acknowledgements

The study was carried out as part of the Survey of

hill stream fishes of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve funded

by Kerala Forest Department (Wildlife). We are grateful

to Dr. S. Chand Basha, Director, Kerala Forest Research

Institute and Sri P.K. Surendranathan Asari, Chief

Conservator of Forests, Wildlife, Kerala for their support

and encouragement.

February 4, 1995 C.P. SHAJI

PS. EASA

Division of Wildlife Biology, Kerala Forest Research Inst.,

Peechi 680 653, Kerala.

KNCHS

Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka — A Handbook. Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta.

Jhingran, A.G. & P.K. Talwar, (1991): Inland Fishes of India and

Adjacent countries. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

27 5

28. A STUDY ON BUTTERFLY POPULATIONS AT GUINDY NATIONAL PARK, MADRAS

(With a text-figure )

Introduction

Many species of animals are known to show seasonal

fluctuations in their numbers and densities (Begon and

Mortimer 1986, Young 1982, Davidson and Andrewartha

1948). This makes some species common during some

parts of the year and less common at other times. These

seasonal variations in population sizes might be due to

several natural factors like their breeding cycles, seasonal

movements across habitats, availability of food, etc.

(Erlich 1986). Understanding such fluctuations in animal

populations can help in their management and

conservation as was shown in case of the whaling industry

(May 1980).

Study Site

Guindy National park is a 2.7 Sq. Km dry evergreen

scrub forest in the heart of Madras city. The vegetation

of the park, based on the major species composition can

be classified into five kinds (Rajasekhar 1 992a). However

in the present study, only two basic types, the dense

woodland covering about one third the park area and the

second, open scrub forest habitat covering most of the

park have been recognised. The major fauna of the park

include the Spotted Deer (Axis axis), Blackbuck (Antilope

cervicapra ), Jackals (Canis aureus), a few other small

mammals and reptiles. Over 120 species of birds have

been recorded over the past two years in the park

(Rajasekhar 1992b).

Methods

Regular marked trails in both, the dense woodland

and in the open scrub habitat were traversed in the

mornings and evenings, once every month of the year

1991 . All butterflies sighted were identified and recorded.

The identifications were based on direct visual

observations and no captures were made. Identifications

were confirmed from Satyamurti’s Catalogue of the

butterflies at the Madras Museum and from captures made

in other unprotected green pockets in the city.

The year was divided into four seasons based on

general observations on the climate and all butterfly

sightings over each of the three months were pooled

together for analysis. March to May was the peak dry

season with most of the vegetation dry and defoliated.

The first wet season from June to August receives scanty

rainfall through the South West monsoon. The next three

months from September to November were the second

wet season and most of the year rainfall comes now from

the North East monsoon. The post monsoon season from

December to February are relatively cooler months of the

year with some occasional showers.

Since sampling effort in the four seasons was unequal,

only relative estimates of the abundance were possible.

Data on the Emigrants (Catopsilia sp.) was discarded

from analyses due to discrepancies in identification. Based

on the relative abundance estimates, the butterflies were

classified as follows,

Abundant: > 30%; Very Common: 20% — 30%;

Common: 10% — 20%; Frequent: 5% — 10%;

Occasional: 1% — 5%; Rare: < 1%.

The mean relative abundance values of all the counts

in the two habitats were calculated for the different species

in the four seasons. Differences between the means across

the habitats were tested to determine any habitat

preference by the butterflies.

Observations

The main observations have been detailed in Table 1,

and in Figure 1 . As is apparent from the figure and table

many species of butterflies showed distinct seasonal

fluctuations and in fact a few of them (6) were completely

absent in some parts of the year. Though some species

showed preference of habitats, none of them were

completely restricted to any one habitat type. The number

Months of Year 1991

fcSS Plants in flower Butterfly species

Fig. 1 . Number of butterfly species and plants in flower seen

each month.

276

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Tabi.k I

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF BUTTERFLY SPECIES THROUGH THE FOUR SEASONS

@ Species of this genera indistinguishable in the field.

! Inconsistent data due to low detectability of species in the field.

Relative Abundance

< 1%

1% — 5%

5% — 10%

10% — 20%

20% — 30%

> 30%

Status Habitat preference

Rare *

Occasional

Frequent

V. Common

V .Common

Abundant

Habitat

Dense

Open scrub forest

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

277

of species seen every month varied between 21 to 29.

The first wet season from June to August was perhaps

the richest with as many as 29 species recorded in July

alone. On the whole about 37 species of butterflies were

recorded over the entire year. This excludes members of

the families Lycaenidae and Hesperidae. However a few

Lycaenids and Hesperids were identified from just visual

observations in the field which are listed below.

The Common Pierrot ( Castcilius rosimon). The

Southern Grass Jewel ( Zizeeria trochihis). The Common

Cerulean ( J amides celens ), The Indian Redflash ( Rapala

melampus) and the Indian Skipper ( Syrichtus galba).

The Common Crow ( Euploea core) was perhaps the

most abundant species in the park throughout the year,

while there were several species of butterflies that were

seen just once over the entire year. About 40% of the

species prefer the dense vegetation in the dry season while

only 16% are relatively more abundant there in the wet

season. On the other hand only 7% of the species were

significantly more abundant, i.e. preferred the scrub

vegetation in the dry season but in the wet season 50%

of the species preferred the scrub habitat.

The number of butterfly species to the number of

flowering plant species showed poor correlation (r=

0.07) over the 1 2 months of the year. However, data

over the months from April to July gave a higher

correlation (r=0.6), as can be seen in Fig. 1. Several

species were also seen to breed in the park. The Common

Emigrant ( CatopsUici crocale ) was seen laying eggs on

young leaves of Cassia sp. in late May and early June.

The Gull ( Cepora nerissa ) laid eggs on Carissa

spinarum, a common scrub species of the park. The

common species of the dense understorey vegetation,

Glycosmis cochinchinensis was the host plant of the

Mormon ( Papilio polytes).

Discussions

Seasonal variations in the abundances of butterflies

seem to be following the general trends in the vegetation.

The first wet season from June to August which

immediately follows the dry season brings many species

of plants and trees into new flush and many species of

the scrub set flower during this period (Rajasekhar

1992a). Some of the species flowering now are Albizia

lebbeck, Gaazuama tomentosa, Syzigium cumini, Randia

sp., Carissa sp., Cassia sp.. Acacia leucophloea,

Clausena dentata and Ccisealpinia coriera. The last one,

Caesalpinia sp. attracts butterflies in the hundreds, the

Common Crow and the Blue Tiger being the most

common visitors. However with the drying up of the

vegetation in summer, most species retreat to the dense

vegetation where there are some flowering species like

Acacia planifrons, Atlantia monophylla, Azadirachta

indica, etc. The only species that is common in the scrub

even in the summer is the Gull ( Cepora nerissa), which

is perhaps active in the early hours of the day when the

vegetation is moist in the dew. Of course, this does not

mean that the other species are not seen in the scrub at

all, but just that they are relatively more abundant in the

dense habitat. More over since only relative estimates

have been made, it is important to note that a species can

become less common in one season even if its numbers

have not significantly reduced, but due to an increase in

abundance of some other species.

The absence of the common host plants of many of

these butterflies in the park, like the host plant of the

Common Tiger ( Danaus chrysippus), Calotropis gigantea

may have something to do with their abundances. Other

host plants like Passiflora sp., Nerium sp., Aristolochia

sp., Polyalthia sp., etc. are either absent or too few in

numbers in the park. However since these species of

plants are quite common in other parks and gardens in

the city, many of the butterflies perhaps migrate locally

to breed elsewhere, on these plants (Rajasekhar 1991).

Perhaps this is why areas in Madras with more modified

vegetation like the MCC campus have greater species

richness (Dayanandan et al. 1978).

The absence of some species of butterflies like the

Common Lime ( Papilio demo lens) in some parts of the

year can only be explained by such local migrations

(Wynter-Blyth 1957). The other rarer species are perhaps

occasional-stragglers like the Painted Lady which is

known to undertake long migrations (Torben 1 987), might

have strayed into the park accidentally.

A more intensive study monitoring the absolute

abundances of the butterfly species for consecutive years

could give more insight to the butterfly population

dynamics at the Guindy National Park. This study has

established the presence of some sort of relationship

between the abundance of butterflies and the vegetation

characteristics. Not surprising that butterflies inspite of

fitting few ecological niches, are good indicators of

environmental changes (Daniels 1991). This is important

to the management of the park considering that some of

the species that occur here are Schedule I species.

February 7, 1995 B. RAJASEKHAR

Department of Zoology, Loyola College, Madras.

Present Address: Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Sciences, Bangalore 560 012.

278

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

References

Begon, M. & M. Mortimer (1986): Population regulation. Chap.

7, pp. 173 from Population Ecology, UBS Pub.

Davidson, J. & H.G. Andrewartha ( 1 948): The influence of rainfall,

evaporation and atmospheric temperature on fluctuations

in the size of a natural population of Thrips imaginis

(Thysanoptera). J. ofAnim. Ecol. 17: 200-222.

Dayanandan,P, M. Gladstone & G. Siromoney (1978): Butterflies

of Tambaram. Madras Christian College magazine, Vol.

XLVI1.

Daniels, R.J.R. (1991): Ants as biological indicators of

environmental changes. Blackhuck Vol. VII, Nos. 3 & 4.

Erlich, P. (1986): The Machinery of Nature. Paladin Pub.

May, R. (1980): Mathematical models in Whaling and Fisheries

management. In: G.F. Oster (Ed.): Some Mathematical

questions in biology, Vol. 1 3, pp 1 -64.

Rajasekhar, B. (1991): Butterflies of Loyola college Campus.

Blackbuck Vol. VII, Nos. 3 & 4.

Rajasekhar, B. ( 1 992 a): Observations on the vegetation of Guindy

National Park. Blackbuck, Vol. VIII, No. 2.

Rajasekhar, B. (1992 b): Checklist to the birds of Guindy National

Park. Pub. of the Forest dept, of Tamilnadu.

Torben, B.L. (1987): Butterfly migrations in South India.

Blackbuck Vol. Ill, No. 1.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region.

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Young, M.A. (1982): Effects of seasonality on insect populations

in the tropics. Chap 7. In: Population biology of Tropical

insects. Plenum Press.

29. COMMENTS ON THE VARIATIONS IN JUNONIA ORITHYA COMPLEX

(LEPIDOPTERA: NYMPHALIDAE)

(With two text-figures )

Introduction

According to Wynter-Blyth (1957) and Eliot (1992),

the species referable to the genus Junonia Hubner are

very susceptible to seasonal variations and in most part

of their range, they occur in both wet and dry season forms.

One of the species, J. orithya though is otherwise well

known and unmistakable sorely needed revision

(D’ Abrera 1 985). During the course of the present studies,

some representative populations of the species, collected

from different localities in North-West India have been

examined to record variations. Besides updating the

description of the species by recording some additional

variations, comments have also been made on its male

genitalia.

Observations

Some of the already known and presently observed

variations of the species J. orithya are given in Table 1.

Owing to the variations within population of the

individuals collected in the same or different seasons/

time of the year, we dissected as many as 16 males and

10 females of variable individuals from different

localities. This was intended to confirm if all these

individuals belong to the same species. The critical

examination of the genitalia shows that one of the male

specimens collected from Bajoura (Kulu, H.P. 1 105 m)

not only differs from the rest of the individuals of the

species J. orithya collected from different localities but

also from the closely allied individuals collected from

the same locality on the same day at the same time. In

the male genitalia of the Bajoura specimen (Fig. 1), the

valvae (clasping organs) are relatively more strongly

sclerotised. The cucullus has two well defined spines

(compared to four in others), the costal margin is deeply

incurved and the arrangement of the setae on the saccular

margin is also different from J. orithya (Fig. 2). Besides,

the transtilla of the Bajoura specimen is heavily setosed.

Out of thirty six males, this is the only specimen in

which the black ocellus in interspace 5 on the

upperside of hindwing is completely ringed with orange

and black.

According to D’ Abrera (1984), orithya is represented

by a subspecies ocyale Hubner with its distribution

extending from India to Southern Burma. The naming of

one of the sympatric populations at Bajoura (Kulu, H.P.)

as a different subspecies is thus taxonomically not

possible. However, inspite of all above mentioned

variations, the lone specimen is not being named as a

new species at the moment. The present study, however,

confirms the view of D’ Abrera (loc.cit.) that orithya is in

need of revision. Further, it should be described under

Junonia and not under Precis as has been done by

Varshney (1990). The latter genus occurs only in Africa

and the two genera are quite different from one another

(Eliot 1992).

Material Examined: Himachal Pradesh: 1 male, 2

females, Rajgarh, 27. V.92; 1 male, Chambaghat, 28.V.92;

3 males, Nauni, 25. V.92; 1 male, Mcleodganj, 28. VI. 92;

2 males, 3 females, Bhagsu Nag, 30. VI. 92; 1 female,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

279

Table I

VARIATIONS IN Junonia orithya LINNAEUS

S. No. Taxonomic character Earlier accounts

(Bingham 1 905, Wynter-Blyth 1 957) Present additional observations

1.

Forewing (upperside)

i)

ii)

iii)

iv)

More than half of the base velvety-black

27 males, 5 females.

a. Cell area with two short

transverse orange bars; 2 males, 5 females.

b. Cell area without any bar;

10 males, 7 females.

Blue patch above the tornus; 30 males, 20 females.

Large discal ocellus in interspace 2,

generally obscure or is prominently ringed

with orange yellow.

i) Dull fuliginous; 9 males,

2 1 females.

ii) a. Cell area with one orange

bar; 5 males, 5 females.

b. Cell area with one blue

bar; 12 males, 9 females.

c. Cell area with two blue bars;

7 males.

iii) Brown patch above the tornus;

6 males, 6 females.

iv) a. Not so but large discal

ocellus in interspace 2 is

almost always present;

36 males, 26 females.

b. Jet-black ocellus;

1 3 males.

c. Half oranged ringed; 23 males.

d. Prominently ringed with

orange yellow; 26 females.

v) A small black, orange ringed ocellus in

interspace 5; 26 females.

Hindwing (upperside) i) Velvety-black with blue shade towards base;

27 males, 5 females.

ii) A post-discal black, white centred, orange and

ringed black ocellus in interspace 2.

iii) A round minutely white centred velvety-black

spot (sometimes entirely absent) in interspace 5

v) a. Small black, orange ringed

ocellus in interspace 5 is

not seen in any male as

mentioned by Bingham

(1905).

b. Black ocellus in

interspace 5, ringed with

white; 15 males.

c. Half orange ringed;

2 1 males.

i) Dull fuliginous; 9 males.

21 males.

ii) Not seen in any specimen but

the post-distal blue ocellus

in interspce 2 is ringed

with orange and black; 36 males,

26 females.

iii) a. It is present in both

sexes as observed presently.

b. The ocellus in interspace 5

is jet black; 16 males.

c. Black ocellus with half

orange ringed; 19 males.

d. Black ocellus completely

ringed with orange and black,

one male, (Bajoura: Kulu,

HP. 1005 m)

280

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

SL

Figs. 1 , 2: Valvae o fJunonia orithya. (Fig. I , Bajoura specimen.)

Abbreviations: CO, Costa; CU, Cucullus; HRP, Harpe; SL, Sacculus; VLV, Valvulla.

Mahog, 1 4. VI. 92; 1 male, Karaian, 15.VI.91; 1 male,

Paonta Sahib, 1 .XI .9 1 , 1 female, 16.V.93; 4 males

Bajoura, 28. vii. 92. Uttar Pradesh: 1 female, Ranikhet,

28.1 V.92; 1 female, Aglar valley, 4. VI. 92; 1 female, Vikas

nagar, 19. VI. 92; 1 male, Mussoorie, 3. VI. 92. Punjab: 6

males, 1 female, Patiala, 20. III. 92; 1 female, 8.IV.92; 2

females, 18.IX.91; 1 female, 3.X.91; 1 female, 11.XI.91;

1 female, 10.IV.91; 6 males, 1 female, 4.V.93; 1 male,

Sirhind, 29. III. 91 ; 3 males, 4 females, Ludhiana, 1 1 . 1 V. 9 1 ;

1 male, 8.IV.91 ; 1 male, Govindgarh, 13.IV.91; 1 male, 1

female, Anandpur Sahib, 27.IV.91; 1 female Dhuri,

10.IV.91; 1 male, 1 female, Talwara, 30.V.91;

Bingham, C.T. ( 1 905); The Fauna of British India including Burma

and Ceylon. Vol. I. Taylor and Francis, p. 5 1 1.

D’Abrhra, Bhrnaro(1985): Butterflies of Oriental Region. Vol. II.

Johson & Gilbert, p. 534.

Euot, J.N. (1992): The Butterflies of the Malay Peninsula. 4th

ed. Malayan Nature Society, Kaula Lumpur, Malaysia,

1 female, Nabha, 20.IX.91; 1 female, Ropar,

28.XI.91.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to the Indian Council of Agricultural

Research, New Delhi for providing financial assistance

during the course of investigation.

March 7, 1995 H.S. ROSE

NARENDERSHARMA

Department of Zoology,

Punjabi University,

Patiala- 147 002, India.

HNCKS

p. 595.

Varshnhy, R.K. (1990); Revised nomenclature fortaxain Wynter-

Blyth’s book on the Butterflies of Indian Region-111. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(1): 53-61.

Wyntf.r-Bi.yth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of Indian Region. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay, p. 523.

30. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON HATCHING AND LARVAL DURATION IN

SEPSIS NITENS (SEPSIDAE: DIPTERA)

Introduction

The bionomics of Sepsidae has not received the

attention it deserves from medical entomologists, although

they are important from veterinary and medical

entomological view point. In India very little has been

done on the bionomics and larval development of

Sepsidae.

Temperature and humidity are known to affect the

behaviour of many insects in nature and under laboratory

conditions (Dakshinamurty 1948). I studied the population

structure of Sepsidae of Aligarh District and also tested

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

their colour preference and effect of pesticides on these

flies (Modassir 1993). In the present communication an

attempt has been made to study the hatching, larval and

pupal stages of Sepsis nitens, reared under laboratory

conditions. The effect of temperature on the development

of flies was also studied.

Materials and Methods

A laboratory colony of Sepsis nitens was developed

by collecting adults from the field and keeping them in

glass cages of 30 cm x 30 cm size. The females readily

oviposited in the dung masses, kept in petri dishes in

each cage and the larvae satisfactorily developed on

buffalo dung. The same medium was used for hatching

and development of larvae under laboratory conditions

in the present study.

Results

The eggs of Sepsis nitens are laid intermittently in

batches of 2 to 30. They are generally laid around the

periphery of the dung mass and bear flagella-like

appendage which projects from the surface of the dung.

The eggs are oval in shape measuring 0.415 mm in length

and 0.128 mm in width. The colour is creamy white, the

flagella is nearly three to four times as long as the main

body of the egg and may have respiratory function.

Temperature limits of eggs of Sepsis nitens :

Observations were made to find the ovipositional

behaviour and the hatching of eggs at temperature 10°,

1 5°, 20°, 26°, 32°, and 40°C (Table 1 ). Eggs did not hatch

at 10°C in any of the experimental chambers. However,

at 1 5°C the eggs hatched out in 1 2.5 hours and at 20°C in

12.3 hours. The incubation period was found to be 12

hours at a temperature ranging between 26° and 32 °C,

and decreased further to 10 hours at 40°C. The moisture

content of the dung, however, got reduced at 40°C,

resulting in larval mortality just after hatching.

Larval development: Development of larvae was

observed by keeping them under controlled temperature.

The first instar larva was creamy white in colour,

measuring 2.2 to 2.57 mm in size. The body is apparently

twelve segmented and the cephalic and anal segments

were clear. The cephalic segment was short and conical

and armed with a pair of strong mouth hooks. The two

posterior spiracles had a prominent anal protuberance.

The first instar lasts for 2.4 to 2.8 days at a temperature

of 28° to 30°C and 65 ± 5% relative humidity.

The creamish colour of second instar larva changes to

brown in about six to eight hours. It measures 3.37 to

3.70 mm in size. The dorsal sensory papillae become

Table; 1

THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRE-ADULT STAGES OF

Sepsis nitens AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURE

prominent. The tubercular anterior spiracle becomes

prominent. The duration of the second instar varies from

1 .8 to 2.0 days at a temperature of 28° to 30°C and relative

humidity of 65 ± 5%.

The second instar larv moults to third instar after about

4 days, the third instar larva measures 5.3 mm in size.

Morphological features of the larva became prominent at

this stage. Dorsal and ventral sensory plates are present

with papillae at the terminal. The third instar larva shows

characteristic jumping movements by fixing its mouth

hooks into the posterior notches.

Effect of temperature on larval development: The

effect of temperature was observed on the larvae of S.

nitens by keeping them in petri dishes with dung at 10°,

15°, 20°, 26°, 32° and 40°C constant temperature. The

larvae were obtained from the laboratory colony. No

change in larval development could be observed at 1 0°C.

At 15°C total larval duration lasted for 10.6 days while

at 20°, 26° and 32°C the larval duration was reduced to

8.5, 7.5 and 8.3 days, respectively. At 40°C the dung dried

up within a few hours and no development in the larvae

could be noticed. On the contrary, there was mortality of

larvae at 40°C due to the dryness of the dung mass.

Pupa: The pupae were somewhat elongated, nearly

4.0 mm in length and 1.0 mm in width. Both ends were

pointed and a ventral pair of tubercles was present at the

base of the posterior spiracular stalks. The pupae were

at first light brown in colour but changed to dark brown

in about 24 hours. The pupal period was found to be 3.5

to 4 days at a temperature of 26° to 32°C and 65 ± 5%

relative humidity.

The relation between temperature and pre-adult stages

of 5. nitens was derived by the simple regression equation

Y = a + bX where Y is duration of development in days,

X is temperature and a and/? are constant to be determined

by least square.

282

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

In this way a linear relationship was obtained with

regression equation Y = 28.05 + 0.55X. This linear

relationship would become distinctly curvilinear if the

extremes of temperature are also considered

(Andrewartha and Birch 1954).

The effect of temperature on developmental stages is

given in Table 1. As the temperature increased the total

duration of pre-adult stage decreased, thus showing an

inverse relation. The ideal range of temperature was

between 15° and 26°C for larval and pupal development.

Discussion

The development and activity in many insects increase

in proportion with the suitability of climatic conditions

particularly in the tropics (Dakshinamurty 1948). Under

laboratory conditions the success of the experiment

depends on the culture medium and development of the

larvae. Sepsis nitens lays its eggs in dung masses which

hatch out within days in the laboratory. The eggs are

similar to those of S. lateralis, described by Hafez ( 1 947).

The larval features of S. nitens are similar to those of

European and American Sepsidae (Henning 1952,

Wharton and Roeger 1977).

The present series of observations suggested that the

incubation period could be greatly dependent on

temperature conditions and is prolonged at lower

temperatures. Therefore the environmental conditions

may be important for the breeding and growth of sepsids

in nature.

The humidity is also important in larval development.

For sepsids the moist dung mass kept at temperatures of

20° to 28°C was ideal for development. The combined

effect of temperature and humidity can be profound on

the larval development. Hammer (1942) could not find

larvae of sepsid flies during the winter months. The

viability of eggs and the development of larvae is inversely

related to temperature. Normal development would be

obtained within the limits of favourable range of

temperatures and humidity. The pupal period reduced

with increasing temperature but at higher temperature

there is a risk of death of larvae and pupae due to drying

of the medium.

Acknowledgement

I express my sincere gratitude to Professor Nawab

Hasan, former Head, Department of Zoology, under whose

guidance this study was carried out.

March 7, 1995 YASMIN MODASSIR

Dempe College of Arts and Science,

Miramar, Panaji 403 001, Goa.

References

Andrewartha, H.G. & L.C. Birch (1954): The distribution and

abundance of animals. University of Chicago press, Chicago,

782 p.

Dakshinamurty, S. (1948): The common house fly Musca

domesticaL. and its behaviour to temperature and humidity.

Bull. Ent. Res., 39: 339-357.

Hafez, M. (1947): Further addition to the dipterous fauna of dung

in Egypt with some biological observations. Bull. Soc.

Found Ent. 31: 307-312.

Hammer, O. (1942): Biological and ecological investigations of

flies associated with pastured cattle and their excrement.

VidenskMedd. Dansk Naturch Foren Kobh 105: 141-393.

Henning, W. (1952): Die Larvenformen der Diptera 3. Teil

Akademei Verlag, Berlin, 628 p.

Modassir, Yasmin (1993): Colour preference and sensitivity of

pesticides in Sepsis nitens. Geobios 20: 8 1 -84.

Wharton, R.A. & D.M. Roeger (1977): Puparia of

cyclorrhaphous from Bovine dung in open pasture in the

western north America. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington

79: 338-342.

31. RECORD OF THREE SPECIES OF RHOMBOGNATHUS (HAL AC ARID AE : ACARI) FROM

INDIAN OCEAN REGION

( With twenty five text -figures )

Species of the Subfamily Rhombognathinae are

phytophagous in nature. All occur in photic zone of marine

or brackish water and mainly occur in association with

algae, though a few forms have also been reported from

interstitial sands.

Rhombognathus apsteini Lohmann is known from

Kerguelen Island of temperate Indian Ocean (Lohmann

1907 a, b; Bovee et al. 1973, Newell 1984). Rao and

Ganapati 1968 reported Rhombognathus sp. from

interstitial sands of Waltair coast.

Rhombognathus papuensis Bartsch, 1989

Many specimens were collected among different algae

from Visakhapatnam coast, Cape Comorin coast, Kovalam

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

28 3

coast, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

male: The idiosomal length of males ranges from

252 p to 350 p.

All dorsal plates are separate (Fig 1). Paneled

sculpture present medially and distally on AD, anteriorly

and posteriorly on OC, and medially and laterally on PD.

One pair of setae are present medially and one pair of

gland pores laterally above the level of insertion of leg I

on AD. OC with two antero-lateral corneae and two lateral

glandular pores. OC is quadrate in outline and with two

setae (one near the corneal zone and one posteriorly).

PD becomes narrow anteriorly. PD with one pair of setae

and two costae made up of porose panels.

All ventral plates are fused (Fig. 3).

AE area bears Aes I, Aes IIv and Aes II lat with which

one adjunctive seta is associated. PE area bears Pes III v.

Pes III lat, Pes IV plus one adjunctive seta associated

with Pes III lat. 11-13 pairs of plumose perigenital setae

including one isolated basal seta are arranged in two

discrete rows on each side of GO. Two pairs of subgenital

setae are present (Fig. 4).

Telefemora III and IV devoid of any ventral setae.

Patella I with five setae; all setae are smooth without any

pectination or spiny nature. Tibiae I and IV with five setae,

of which two are pectinate.

Tarsus I with 3 dorsal long setae, 1 solenidion, 1

profamulus and 4 PAS (2 doublets eupathidia) (Fig. 5).

Tarsus II is similar to the former except for the absence

of profamulus (Fig. 6). Tarsus III with 3 dorsal fossary

setae, 1 basidorsal seta and 2 PAS Tarsus IV with 3 dorsal

fossary setae and 2 PAS (two bristle-like setae) (Fig. 8).

All the legs bear carpite on tarsi and are devoid of a

FI 6 8

Figs. 1-8. Rhombognathus papuensis Bartsch.: Fig. 1 . Idiosoma-dorsal; Fig. 2. Idiosoma-ventral of female; Fig. 3. Idiosoma-ventral

of male; Fig. 4. Genital area of male; Fig. 5. Basifemurto tarsus of Leg I; Fig. 6. Basifemurto tarsus of Leg II;

Fig 7. tarsus IV of female; Fig. 8. Tarsus IV of male.

284

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 92(1995)

median claw. Lateral claws bare of dorsal accessory

process containing more than 17 tooth-like serrations.

female: (Fig. 2) Idiosomal length of females ranges

between 250 p and 350 p. The female resembles the male

very closely except for tarsus IV and GA region. Tarsus

IV bears 3 dorsal setae and 2 PAS (one scaliform and one

slender) (Fig. 7). 5 pairs of perigenital setae and 2 pairs

of subgenital setae are present. Ovipositor bears 10

internal setae (Fig. 14).

Deutonymph: The idiosoma of a deutonymph is

1 57 p long and 1 1 8 p wide. All dorsal plates are separate

and smaller than those of adult (Fig. 9). AD with 1 pair

of setae. Anal plate and genital plate not separate. Genital

foramen is not formed and two pairs of genital acetabulae

are present (Fig. 10). Four pairs of legs are present.

Tritonymph: The idiosoma of tritonymph measured

243 p in length and 175 p width. All dorsal plates are

separate and smaller than those of adult but longer than

those of deutonymph (Fig. 11). Anal plate and genital

plate are separated by cuticular membranous area (Fig.

1 2). Genital foramen is not formed. Three pairs of genital

acetabula are present (Fig. 13). Four pairs of legs are

present.

Distribution: Papua Guinea Island, Pacific Ocean,

Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean.

Remarks: The present find records the species for

the first time from the Indian Ocean besides its first

occurrence away from the type-locality (Papua Guinea

island — Pacific Ocean). The nymphal stages of this

species are also recorded for the first time. Bartsch ( 1 989)

did not comment on the internal setation of the ovipositor

in Rhombognathus pcipiiensis. In the present study, the

ovipositor is observed and found to bear ten internal setae.

Rhombognathus scutulatus Bratsch, 1983

Many males and females were collected among

different algae from Visakhapatnam, Cape Comorin,

Kovalam, Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Corvin’s Cove

and Mus Island).

male: The idiosomal length of males ranged between

250 p and 300 p. All dorsal plates are fused and

sculptured (Fig. 1 5). The sculpture is distinctly delineated

at the corneal zone recalling the location of OC. AD bears

a pair of setae at the level of leg I. OC with two setae,

two antero-lateral corneae and two glanudular pores, one

pore is associated with the corneae and one located

postero-laterally on OC area. Postero-dorsal area bears a

pair of seta.

All ventral plates are completely fused. AE area with

Aes I, Aes 1 1 v, and Aes II lat near the margin bearing one

adjunctive seta associated with pes III lat. Eleven plumose

PGS including one single isolated barsilar seta are

arranged in two discrete rows on either side of the genital

opening. Two SGS are present on each of the two sclerites

(Fig. 16).

Gnathosoma small and compact. Palp is

4-segemented Palpal patella and trochanter without any

setae. Palpal telofemur with one seta and palpal

tibiotarsus with three setae.

Telofemora III and IV devoid of any ventral setae.

Tibiae I and IV with 5 setae of which 2 setae are pectinate.

Tibi ae II and III with 5 setae including one pectinate.

Tarsus I with 3 dorsal long setae, 1 soleniding, 1

profamulus and 4 PAS (two eupathidia doublets) (Fig.

1 8), Chaetotaxy of tarsus II similar to tarsus I except for

the absence of profamulus (Fig. 19). Tarsus III with 4

dorsal fossary setae, two PAS (one scaliform serrated and

one smooth and slender). Tarsus IV with 3 dorsal fossary

setae and 2 PAS (two bristle-like setae).

All the legs bear carpite on tarsi and are devoid of a

median claw. Lateral claws bear a dorsal accessory

process containing more than 17 tooth-like serrations.

female: The idisomal length of female ranges between

240 p and 325 p.

Female resembles the male in all features except for

tarsus IV and GA region. In the case of female, tarsus IV

bears 3 dorsal fossary setae and 2 PAS (one scaliform

and one slender). GA with 5 PGS on either side of GO.

Two SGS are present on GO (Fig. 17). Ovipositor bears

10 internal setae.

Distribution: Philippines. Bay of Bengal, Arabian

Sea-Pacific Ocean. Indian Ocean-Present record.

Remarks: The ovipositor in the case of females was

observed and is found to possess 10 internal setae

confirming the assumption of Bartsch (1975) regarding

the generic diagnostic value of the ovipositor setae present

in all the species of genus RJiombognatluis. The present

find records the species for the first time from Indian

Ocean besides its first occurrence away from the type-

locality (Philippines — Pacific Ocean). The species is

recorded here from Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea, Andaman

and Nicobar Islands on a variety of algal substrates. Thus

the species may be said to be widely distributed in the

Indo-Pacit'ic region.

Rhombognathus similis Bartsch, 1977

A single female was collected from the coralline algae

Hcilimeda oputina from Mus Island (Nicobar Islands) —

Bay of Bengal.

female: All dorsal plates are fused (Fig. 20) AD-area

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

28 5

Figs. 9- \4.Rhomhognatlnis papuensis Bartsch: Fig. 9. Idiosoma-dorsal of deutonymph; Fig. 10. Idiosoma-ventral of deutonymph;

Fig. IF Idiosoma-dorsal of tritonymph; Fig. 12. Idiosoma-ventral of tritonymph; Fig. 13. Genital plate of tritonymph;

Fig. 14. Ovipositor showing internal setae.

Figs. \5-\9. Rhonilwgnathus scutiilatus Bartsch.: Fig. 15. Idiosoma-dorsal of male; Fig. 16. Idiosoma-ventral of male;

Fig. 17. Idiosoma-ventral of female; Fig. 1 8. Basifemur to tarsus of Leg I; Fig. 19. Basi lemur to tarsus of Leg II.

Figs. 20-25. Rliombognatluis similis Bartsch: Fig. 20. Idiosoma-dorsal of female; Fig. 2 1 . Idiosoma-ventral of female;

Fig. 22. Leg 1; Fig. 23. Tclo femur to tarsus of Leg II; Fig. 24. Basifemur to tarsus of Leg III; Fig. 25. Basifemur to tarsus of Leg IV.

with a pair of gland pores near the insertion of leg 1 ; ds 1

on AD area below the level of ist leg insertion. OC area

with two corneae. The ds2 are present anterior to the

corneae while ds2 at the postero-ventral region of OC

area. PD area with a pair of setae below the level of

insertion of leg III.

All ventral plates are fused (Fig. 21). AE area bears

Aes I, Aes 1 1 v and Aes II lat on the margin. PE area bears

Pes 1 1 1 v, Pes III lat with an adjunctive associated seta and

Pes IV. Five PGS are present on each side of the GO.

Two SGS are present on each sclerite.

Telofemorae: I and II with one ventral and three dorsal

setae (Figs. 22, 23). Telofemora III and IV devoid of any

ventral setae. Tibiae I and IV with 5 setae each (out of

which two are bipectinate). Tibiae II and III with 5 setae

each (our of which one is bipectinate). Tarsus I with 3

dorsal long setae, 1 solenidion, 1 profamule and 4 PAS

(2 eupathidia doublets). Tarsus II similar to tarsus I except

for the absence of proformules. Tarsus III with 4 dorsal

lossary seta and 2 PAS (one scaliform dentatus and one

slender) (Fig. 24). Tarsus IV with 3 dorsal fossary setae

and 2 PAS (one scaliform and one slender) (Fig. 25).

All legs with two lateral claws provided with a

dorsal accessory process bearing 5-6 minute teeth

vcntrally.

Distribution: Galapagos Island — Pacific Ocean. Bay

of Bengal — Indian Ocean — Present record.

Remarks: The specimens closely agree with the

description given by Bartsch (1977). The find also records

the occurrence of R. similis for the first time away from

its type-locality, extending its zoogeographical

distribution into the Indian Ocean.

Acknowledgement

I wish to record my deep indebtedness to Dr. Use

Bartch, Biologische Anstalt Helgoland, Hamburg.

Germany for her assistance.

February 2, 1 995 TAPAS CH ATTERJEE

Dept, of Biology, Indian School of Learning,

(Indian School of Mines Annexe),

Dhanbad-826004, Bihar.

286

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vo!. 92(1995)

References

Bartsch, 1.(1 975): Ein Beitrag zum system der Rhombognathinae

(Halacaridae, Acari) zur Morphologie der Tarsalregion und

des ovipositors. ZoolAnz.. 194 : 193-200.

Bartsch, I. (1977): Interstitielle Fauna Von Galpagos XX

Halacaridae (Acari). Mikrofiina Meeresboden 65: 1-108.

Bartsch, 1. (1983): Zur Halacaridenfauna der Philippinen

Beschreibung von funf Arten derGattung Rliombognathus

(Acari: Halacaridae). Entomol. Mitt. Zool. Mus. Hamburg.

7: 399-416.

Bartsch, 1. ( 1 983): Rhombognathinae (Halacaridae, Acari) aus dem

Pazifik Beschreibung sieben neuer Arten. Entomol. Mitt.

Zool. Mus. Hamburg. Bd. 9: 229-246.

Bovhh, De.F, N. Coinhau, J. Soyer & J. Travh (1973): Sur I

existence d’une faunule interstiticile littorale dans V Archipel

de Kergauelen (Terres Aus Trales et Antarctiques

francaises). c.r. heod. seanc Acad Sci. Paris, ser. D. 276.

Lohmann, H. (1907a): Uber einige faunistische Ergebnisse der

Deutschen sudpolar Expedition, unter besonderer

Berucksichtigung der Meeresmilben. Sclir. naturw. vet:

Schleswig. Holst Kiel. 1907-1908. 14: 1-14.

Lohmann, H. (1907b): Die Meeresmilben der Deutschen sudpolar

— Expedition 1901 — 1903. Deutshe Sudpolar Exped.

1901 — 1903 , 9. Zool. 7: 316-413.

Newell, l.M. (1984): Antarctic Halacaroidea. Antract. Res. Ser

40: 1-284.

Rao, G.C. & P.N. Ganapati (1968): The interstitial fauna inhabiting

the beach sands of Waltair Coast. Proc. natn. Inst. Sci. Acad.

B. 34: 82-125.

32. OCCURRENCE'OF THE CRAB EUXANTHUS EXSCULPTUS

(HERBST) IN GUJARAT

( With a text-figure )

During the study of the diet of a coastal migratory

wader, the Crab Plover Dromas ardeola in the Gulf of

Kachchh, Gujarat state, one of us (TM) analyzed

fragments of the bodies of various crabs in the birds’

regurgitated pellets. To facilitate identification of these

fragments, a collection of over 500 crabs from the area

was made on the Rozi coast (22° 33' N, 70° 02' E), near

the Jamnagar port between August 1987 and May 1988.

Almost all of these crabs had been recorded earlier from

the Gujarat coast by Chhapgar (./. Bombay licit. Hist. Soc.

1957, 1958, 1961). There was one exception, namely

Euxanthus exsculptus (Herbst) (E. melissa of Alcock).

The width of the carapace was 69 mm.

The crab can be identified by the fairly sharp,

irregularly scalloped antero-lateral borders being

prolonged beneath the orbit to the buccal cavern, and by

Fig. 1 . Euxanthus exsculptus (Herbst).

the basal antennal joint jutting into the orbit, so that the

antennal flagellum is inside the orbit. There is no denticle

at the outer end of the orbit.

The antero-lateral borders are cut into five teeth, with

a tubercle between the fourth and fifth teeth. The lobules

of the carapace are smooth. The chelipeds are equal in

size and the fingers, with strongly toothed cutting edges,

have their tips hollowed.

Alcock (1989), recorded this species from the

Andaman Islands, Sri Lanka, Mergui and Samoa, while

Serene subsequently found it in Tahiti. The present find,

therefore, constitutes a first record of this species from

the west coast of India.

Acknowledgement

We are grateful to H.G. Ghosh, Assistant Zoologist

at the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta (ZSI)

for comparing the crab with one of Alcock’s

specimens in the collections of the ZSI, and for his

comments.

March 14, 1995 B.F. CHHAPGAR

Taraporevalci Aquarium, Bombay-400 002.

TAEJ MUNDKUR1

Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra University,

Rajkot 360 005, Gujarat.

'Present address: Asian Wetland Bureau, Institute of

Advanced Studies, Universiti Malaya,

Lembah Pantai, 59100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

287

33. FIELD INCIDENCE OF SNAIL ON KHARIF GROUNDNUT

The groundnut crop is attacked by more than 90

arthropod pests in the world (Amin 1988). Besides

arthropod pests Adimani ( 1 976); Puttaswamy et at. ( 1 98 1 )

and Panchabhavi and Hull atti (1983) recorded a

molluscan pest, the snail, Cryptozona semirugcita (Beck)

(Stylommatophora: Ariophantidae) as feeding on seedling

of soyabean, groundnut seeds sown for germination and

groundnut flowers along with many other cultivated crops.

A new species of snail belonging to the same order has

been observed for the first time in India feeding on

groundnut flower.

During July to September 1989 the Kharif groundnut

crop at Regional Research Station, Chiplima (Western

Orissa) was infested by a minute snail ,Lamellaxis gracile

(Hotton) (Stylommatophora: Sublinidae) that fed on

groundnut flowers. Preliminary investigation indicated a

loss of 10 to 15 per cent flower/plant, which ultimately

impaired pod formation.

Acknowledgement

I thank Dr. Surya Rao, Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta for identification of the pest.

March 8, 1995 PC. DASH

Regional Research Station,

Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology,

Chiplima-768 026, Sambalpur, Orissa.

Present address: Department of Entomology,

Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology,

Bliubaneswar-75 1 003, Orissa.

References

Amin, P.W. (1988): Insect and mite pests and their control.

In: P.S. Reddy (Ed) Groundnut, ICAR Pub. P. 392-

452.

Adimani, B.D. ( 1 976): Studies on the insects of soyabean ( Glycine

max (L.) Merril) with special reference to the bionomics

and control of the pod borer, Cydia patychora Meyrick

(Lepidoptera: Torticidae). M.Sc Thesis, Univ. of

Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, P. 1 67.

Panchabhavi, K.S. & V.B. Hullatti ( 1 983): Field incidence snail

on groundnut kernels. Curr. Res. 12: 106.

Puttaswamy, D.N.R. Reddy & L. Krishna Naik (1981):

Occurrence of Cryptozona semirugata (Beck)

(Stylommatophora: Ariophantidae) on cultivated plants.

Curr. Res. 10: 61-62.

34. THE GROWTH PATTERN OF PEGAEOPHYTON GARHWALENSIS (BRASSICACEAE)

(With a text-figure )

Alpine vegetation of the Himalaya includes some

curious and unusual forms like “hot house plants”, “snow

ball forms”, “rosette forms”, “cushion forms”, “prostrate

growth forms”, “acaulescent habit”, etc. These different

morphological forms have adaptive value which ensures

the survival of the plants in the harsh climatic conditions

of the alpine zone (Ohba 1988,Rawat etal. 1994, Semwal

et al. 1981).

Pegaeophyton garhwalensis Chowdhery et Singh

(Brassicaceae), an endemic species of Garhwal Himalaya,

shows a mat forming habit which is also adopted by

several other alpine plants. This species shows a high

degree of habitat specificity. The characteristic habitat

of the species lies between 3700 to 4800 m a.s.l. where

it grows among the large boulders with dense cover

of moss on thin soil layer. Pegaeophyton garhwalensis

shows characteristic growth pattern which is described

below.

Pegaeophyton garhwalensis is a mat forming

perennial plant. It was noticed at the end of the growing

season (September-October) that the branches carry a

dense rosette of leaves with sheathing bases. The leaf

sheaths encircle and protect two types of buds (telescopic

shoots). In the next growing season after the snow-thaws

in June, the buds grow and one of the buds grows up

vertically projecting slightly above the moss layer. This

shoot during the monsoon season (July-August) gives rise

to a terminal lax rosette of leaves with no leaf sheaths. A

few flowers (2-4) are borne in the centre of this rosette.

This shoot can be called the shoot of definite growth or

flowering shoot.

The second bud grows horizontally and a dense

terminal rosette of leaves (with broad leaf sheaths) is

borne at the terminal end. This shoot is thicker and smaller

than the flowering shoot. The terminal rosette bears two

buds between leaf sheaths which again gives rise to

flowering shoot and vegetative shoot in the next growing

season after the winter dormancy. This pattern of growth

is followed each year.

In the flowering shoot a characteristic elongation takes

288

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92(1995 )

Fig. I . Growth pattern of Pegaeophyton garlnvalensis: A. Plant during May; B. Plant during June; C. Plant during July; D. Plant

during August; E. Plant during September; F. Plant during next June

place after flowering. This elongation raise the immature

fruits far above the moss layer. After fruit maturation the

pedicel of the fruit which remains upward in flower moves

downward and makes a right angle with flowering shoot

that bear it.

Such a growth pattern is the response of the species

to the environment of alpine zones to ensure its survival.

Pegaeophyton garhwcilensis tends to keep its perennation

buds close to the ground to reduce abrasive damage to

the perennating buds.

The vegetative shoot which grows parallel to the

ground is thicker than the flowering shoot. Obviously

more biomass is accumulated in vegetative shoot while

the flowering shoot has less biomass but this shoot also

produced seeds which may develop into new plants. In

this way survival of the plant is ensured by both means,

one through the seeds but with less resource investment

and the other with vegetative perennation of buds with

higher resources investment.

Leaf sheaths on the vegetative shoot completely

encircle the perennating buds providing them protection

while the leaves on flowering shoot do not have leaf

sheaths. This is another example of economy in resource

investment in the alpine zones where energy and nutrient

resources are limited.

The raised postiion of inflorescence provides more

exposure to flowers for pollination. Elongation in

flowering shoot and movement of fruit pedicel are helpful

in seed dispersal.

Acknowledgements

We thank the authorities of the Botanical Survey of

India for providing herbarium facilities. One of us

(D.S.R.) thanks the U.G.C. for providing financial

assistance.

June 16, 1994 D.S. RAWAT

L.R. DANGWAL

R.D. GAUR

Department of Botany, P.O. Box-86,

H.N.B. Garhwal University

Srinagar (Garhwal), U.P.-246 174.

Ml SC El. LA NEO US NO TES

28 9

References

Ohba, H. (1988): The alpine Flora of Nepal Himalaya. In:

Ohba, H. and Malla, S.B. (eds.) The Himalayan

Plants, Vol. /: 19-26. University of Tokyo Press,

Tokyo.

Rawat, D.S., L.R. Dangwal, & R.D. Gaur (1994): Plant

Communities in Alpine Habitat with Speeial Reference

to Garhwal Himalaya. In: Pangtey, Y.P.S. & Rawal, R.S.

(eds.) High Altitude of the Himalaya, Gynodaya, Nainital.

pp. 65-75.

Skmwal, J.K., R.D. Gaur & A. N. Purohit (1981): Floristic

Pattern of Tungnath — An Alpine Zone in Garhwal

Himalaya. Acta hot. Inti. 9: 1 10-1 14.

35. LECTOTYPIFICATION OF BA UH INI A ORNATA KURZ

(LEGUMINOSAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE)

Larsen and Larsen (1980: 41) eited Kurz 2579 (CAL)

from ‘Choungmenach, Pegu Yomah, Burma’ as the

lectotype of Bciuhinici orncita Kurz but the one specimen

Kurz 2579 (CAL) from ‘Choungmenah chg., E. and W.

slopes, Pegu Yomah, Burma’ is sterile and unannot.ated

by the Larsens. In addition to this specimen there are,

however, four more Powering and a sterile collection of

Kurz in CAL with the same number, i.e. Kurz 2579 but

the locality is only ‘Pegu’ instead of ‘Choungmenach,

Pegu Yomah’. Recently Prof. Kai Larsen (pers. comm.

1992) kindly informed me that they did not lectotypify

the name because the taxon does not occur in Thailand

and Indochina. Earlier, Thothathri (1965: 134) had cited

Kurz 2579 (CAL) from ‘Choungmenach, Pegu Yomah,

Burma’ simply as a type material but annotated it as an

isotype. So it seems that Larsen and Larsen (1980)

inadvertently cited the above specimen as the lectotype.

Prof. Larsen (pers. comm. 1988) drew my attention to a

type of B. orncita in K, noting that does not fit with the

Rhfhr

Larshn, K. & S.S. Larsen ( 1980): Notes on the genus Baithinia in

Thailand. Thai For. Bull. 13: 37-46.

Thothathri, K. ( 1965): Studies in Leguminosae 5. Taxonomic

protologue because its ovaries are pubescent along the

sutures instead of being woolly all over. However,

observations on two specimens: Kurz 2579 from ‘E. and

W. slopes, Pegu Yomah, Burma’ (K, photos-CAL!) show

that they match well with the protologue.

Thus from the aforesaid original materials I designate

here one Powering specimen: Kurz 2579 (CAL) from

‘Pegu, Burma’ having acc. no. 1 37296 as the lectotype of

B. orncita Kurz.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Prof. Kai Larsen for his comments.

Dr. Dan H. Nicolson for suggestions and Director, Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew for providing the photographs of

the Kew specimens.

•June 16, 1994 S. BANDYOPADHYAY

Botanical Survey of India,

P.O. Botanic Garden,

Howrah-711 103.

KNCHS

and nomenclatural notes on the Indo-Burmese species

of Baiiliinia Linn. Bull. Bat. Sac. Bengal 19(2): 130-

134.

36. TERATOLOGY OF WINGED FRUITS IN TERMINAL1A BIALATA STEUDEL

(COMBRETACEAE) — THE ANDAMAN ASH OR WHITE CHUGLAM TREE

In India, the occurrence and distribution of Terminal ia

bialata Steudel is restricted only to Andaman group of

islands (not reported from Nicobar group). Generally, the

butterfly or moth shaped beautiful biwinged fruits (about

5.0 cm long and 10.0 cm across) are produced by the

plant which enables them to reach distant places by

dispersal mechanism. While studying the ethnobotanical

uses of the fruits of T. bialata (The Andaman Ash or

White Chuglam Tree), some of the fruits were found to

possess four fully developed wings instead of two wings,

this unique and rare feature has not been hitherto

reported. This teratological or abnormal growth of wings

probably facilitates the fruits to reach still further by

air dispersal.

The kernels are eaten by the tribals, Onges, Jharawas,

Great Andamanese, Sentenelese and Shompens, and

settler populations inhabiting the Bay Islands owing to

their cashew like taste.

June 16, 1994 P.S.N.RAO

MARCEL TIGG A

Botanical Survey of India

Andaman & Nicobar Circle

Haddo, Port Blair-744 102.

290

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

37. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON AN INDIAN PLANT

The genus Senecio L. finds world wide distribution

except Antarctica. It has close affinities with the genus

Ligularia Cass. The generic limits of the two may,

however, be distinguished on the basis of following

characters (Jeffrey et al. 1977, Jeffrey and Chen Yi Ling,

1984, Nordenstam and Rechinger 1989).

la. Leaf-base exauriculate; margins of lamina not

revolute. Filament column dilated at base. Anther

collor balusterform with enlarged marginal basal

cells; endothecial tissue, cells elongate . Senecio

lb. Leaves with vaginate sheathing bases; margins of

lamina revolute. Filament column cylindric, not

dilated at base. Anther collar cylindric or obconic,

without enlarged marginal basal cells; endothecial

tissue cell wall thickenings polarised, cells short ..

Ligularia

Based on above characters, many species of Senecio

L. have recently been transferred to the genus Ligularia

Cass. (Rao et al. 1 988). Senecio yakla described by Clarke

(1876) from Sikkim, takes its name from the pass known

as Yak-La in East Sikkim. Hooker (1881) reduced it to

the synonymy of Senecio amplexicaulis Wall, ex Clarke;

the latter is presently being considered synonymous to

Ligularia amplexicaulis DC. (Rao et al. 1988). Smith

(1913) treated S. yakla as a distinct species mainly

characterised in the involucral bracts being 16-18, acute

or obtuse, c. 1 cm long, connate below, slightly pubescent

Clarke, C.B. (1876): Compositae Indicae described at secus genus

Benthamii Ordinatae. Calcutta.

Hooker, J.D. (1881 ): Compositae. The Flora of British India, vol. 3.

London.

Jeffrey, C. et. al. (1977): Generic and Sectional limits in Senecio.

Kew Bull. 32: 47-67.

Jeffrey, C. & Chen Yi-Ling (1984): Taxonomic studies on the tribe

and ligule being 16-18, broadly obovate or elliptic, hardly

exceeding the involucral bracts. In S. amplexicaulis Wall,

ex Clarke the involucral bracts vary from 10-12 and ligule

7-8, exceeding involucral bracts, linear-lanceolate. To

determine the taxonomic status and systematic position

of 5. yakla Clarke, we examined some specimens of both

species at Central National Herbarium (CAL) and

concluded that S. yakla deserves specific recognition as

delimited by Smith (1913), and since it comes within the

present generic limits of Ligularia Cass., it is proposed

to transfer it to the latter as under:

Ligularia yakla (Clarke) V. Singh & P. Singh comb. nov.

Senecio yakla Clarke, Comp. Ind. 204. 1876; W.W.

Smith, Rec. Bot. Surv. India 4: 384. 1913. S', amplexicaulis

Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 3: 348. 188 1 ,pro parte, non Wall,

ex Clarke 1 876.

Specimen studied: india: Sikkim; Changu, 3660 m

26th Oct. 1910, Ribu & Rhomoo 4370 (CAL); Chola

range, 3960-4270 m, 22nd July 1910, WW Smith 3697

(CAL); Tanka la, .4570 m, 3rd Aug. 1892, G.A. Gammie

536 (CAL).

Distribution: India (Sikkim) endemic.

March 9, 1995 V. SINGH

P. SINGH

Botanical Survey of India, Baluwakhani,

Gangtok-737 101 , Sikkim.

NCF.S

Senecioneae (Compositae) of Eastern Asia. Kew Bull. 39(2):

205-446.

Nordenstam, B. & K.H. Rechinger (1989): Compositae. Flora Iranica

164: 41-95.

Rao, R.R .etal. 1988): Flora Indicae Enumeratio Asteraceae. Calcutta.

Smith, W.W. (1913): The alpine and subalpine vegetation of South-

east Sikkim. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 4 (7): 384-385.

38. DESTRUCTION OF CUSCUTA REFLEXA ROXB. BY THE RHESUS MACAQUE

MAC AC A MULATTA (ZIMMERMANN)

On the afternoon of 26th November 1993, 1 observed a

troop of Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatto (Zimmermann)

feeding on Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. inside the Keoladeo

National Park, Bharatpur, near the eastern wall of the park.

Three large sized Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. trees

harboured a massive growth of the phanerogamic total stem

parasitic twiner Cuscuta. Members of the macaque troops

were present on all the three Zizyphus plants and were

plucking and devouring the Cuscuta tender growth.

It is worth placing on record Rhesus Macaque

as one of the potential Cuscuta destroyers in nature.

March 12, 1994 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Aravalli Afforestation Programme,

Jhadol (F.) Udaipur (Raj.)-313 702.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

29 l

39. FRUIT MORPHOLOGY AND FURTHER DISTRIBUTION OF CEROPEGIA JAINII ANSARI

AND KULKARNI

Ceropegia jainni Ans. et Kulk. was described by

Ansari & Kulkarni (1980). The original description does

not include the description of the fruit. Which is described

here along with further distribution localities.

Ceropegia jainii Ans. et Kulk. An erect pernnial herb,

5-12 cm tall, tubers subglobose, 3-5 x 2-4 cm. Stem

unbranched, hirsute. Leaves subsessile to petiolate; lower

ones elliptic, upper elliptic — linear, 2-5 x 0.5- 1.0 cm,

hirsute above, glabrous except on the nerves beneath;

petioles 1-2 mm long, hairy. Flowers axillary, solitary.

Pedicels 4-6 mm long, hairy; bracts subulate, 1-2 mm

long. Calyx divided, attached to the base; sepals 2-2.6

mm long, glabrous, subulate. Corolla purplish above,

greenish below, up to 2 cm long, curved; tube 9-10 mm

long, subcylindric, pale greenish inside with longitudinal

purple lines, base inflated in lower half part, glabrous;

lobes 9-10, purple or reddish, linear oblong, glabrous

outside, densely hairy inside at ovate-deltoid base, acute

and connate at apex. Corona biseriate; outer corona

cupular of 5 deeply bifid deltoid lobes, hairy along

margins; the inner one of 5 linear subspathulate erect

lobes. Pollen masses ascending, minute yellow.

Gyanostegium c. 2 mm long.

Follicles in pairs, 5. 2-5. 7 x 0.3-0.4 cm, straight, terete,

tapering at apex to a fine point, glabrous, greenish yellow.

Seeds 12-14 in each follicle, small, comose, 4-5 x 1.5-2

mm, ovate-oblong, prominently margined, compressed,

brown. Coma c. 1 cm long.

Flowering: August-September.

Fruiting: Very rare, October-November.

Herbarium specimen examined: MPB — 3740 A

& 3740 B, deposited at Herbarium, Shivaji University,

Kolhapur.

Distribution: The species has only been recorded so

far from Ambolighat, Sindhudurga district. It has been

now recorded from Kas and Chalkewadi, Satara district

and from Ramghat, Sindhudurga district. Endemic to

Maharashtra.

Field notes: The species grows on Plateau land among

grasses in open situations and also in crevices of rocks.

The tubers are eaten by the local people and this may

account for its scarcity and its disappearance.

Vernacular name: Galundi, Somandi.

Acknowledgements

We are greatly indebted to Dr. V.N. Naik, Rtd. Reader,

Marathwada University, for critically going through the

manuscript.

June 16, 1994 M.P. BACHULKAR

Botany Deprtment, Lai Bahadur Shastri College,

Satara-415 002.

S.R. YADAV

Botany Department, Goa University, Goa-403203.

S.K. LIMAYE

Aryan gla Vaidyak Mahavidvalaya,

Satara-415 002.

References

Ansari, M.Y.&B.G. Kulkarni (1980): A new species of Ceropegia 22 (1-4): 221-222.

L. (Asclepiadaceae) from the Western Ghats in Kulkarni, B.G. (1988): Flora of Sindhudurga. Botanical Survey

Maharashtra State (India). Bull. Bot. Surv. India. of India, Calcutta: 258-259.

40. AXONOPUS COMPRESSUS (SW.) BEAUV. AND PHALARIS MINOR RETZ. (POACEAE) —

NEW RECORDS FOR ANDHRA PRADESH

(With two text-figures)

Plant collections made during the botanical exploration

in the State of Andhra Pradesh have resulted in locating

two grasses, namely Axonopus compressus (Sw.) Beauv.

and Phalaris minor Retz. not known earlier from this

state, which are being reported here. They are described

and illustrated. The herbarium specimens have been

deposited in the herbarium of the Department of

Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur

(SKU).

Axonopus compressus (Sw.) Beauv., Ess. Agrost. 12

(154): 167. 1812; Bor 278. 1960. Milium compression

Sw., Nov. Gen. PI. 24. 1788. (Fig. 1).

An annual grass. Culms up to 25 cm tall, decumbent,

spread on the floor like mat, nodes densely bearded with

white hairs. Leaf sheaths compressed, 4-7 cm, keeled,

glabrous; ligule membranous; blades 5-20 x 0.8- 1.5 cm.

292

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

oblong, flat, rarely folded, base rounded, margin with

tuberculate based hairs, apex obtuse-acute, prominently

nerved, glabrous. Spikes up to 12 cm long, sub digitate,

rachis flexuous. Spikelets 2.5 mm, oblong, secund,

alternate, deciduous. Lower glume absent; upper glume

oblong, obtuse, hairy on the outer surface, nerves obscure;

lower lemma oblong, acute, hairy on the outer surface,

nerves obscure, membranous; upper lemma oblong,

scaberulous, at apex apiculate, coriaceous; palea oblong,

glabrous. Stamens 3, stigmas plumose. Caryopsis

obovoid-ellipsoid.

Occasional in moist areas along road verges and water

courses in Chittoor and East Godavari Districts. FI. &

F r. : Oct. -Mar. Tirumala hills (CTR), MSG 12168;

Maredumilli (EG), TP & MSG 12264.

Phalaris minor Rctz., Obs. 3: 8.1783; FBI 7:

Fig. I . Axonopus conipressus Beauv.

A. Twig, B. Spikelet, C. & D. Upper glume front and back views,

E. & F. Lower lemma front and back views, G. Upper lemma,

H. Palea, I. Pistil, J. Stamens.

221.1896; Bor 6 16. 1960. (Fig. 2).

An annual tufted grass. Culms up to 60 cm tall; nodes

glabrous. Leaf sheaths 3-9 cm, glabrous, loose; ligule

membranous; leaf blades linear, 5-15 x 0.3-0. 5 cm, Hat,

base sub-cordate, apex acuminte, glabrous. Spike like

panicle up to 5 cm long, dense, ovate-oblong. Spikelets

all alike, 5 mm. solitary, sterile florets present; pedicels

F. Palea, G. Pistil with stamens, H. Stamen, l. Caryopsis.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

29 3

scabrid. Glumes equal, 5 mm, membranous, boat-shaped,

broadly winged, the wing margin denticulate, prominently

3-nerved, enclosing the floret; sterile lemma 2 mm,

glabrous; fertile lemma 3 mm, pubescent, broadly ovate,

1 -nerved; palea narrowly linear, bisexual. Stamens 3,

stigmas plumose. Caryopsis ovoid, pubescent.

Occassional on waste lands in Tirumala hills of

Chittoor district. FI. & Fr.: Oct. -Mar. Tirumala hills

(CTR), MSG 12160.

We thank Dr. RV. Prasanna, Scientist, Botanical

Survey of India, Pune for his help in identification.

June 16 1994

M.S. GAYATHRI

T.PULLAIAH

Department of Botany,

Sri Krishnadevaraya University,

Anantapnr 515 003, A.P.

ERRATA

Vol. 91, No. 2

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON PHAYRE'S LEAF MONKEY

C TRACHYPITHECUS PH AYR El) IN CACHAR, ASSAM

on p. 209, Conclusion, line 3,

For 30 sq. km

Read 530 sq. km

Miscellaneous Note No. 13. The ringed plover ( Charadrius hiaticula tundrae Lowe)

in Sri Lanka and peninsular India

On p. 316, Left column, lines 15, 16

For whereas Balachandran their status assessment.

Read whereas Balachandran confirms their status assessment.

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MALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE IN SOME INDIAN BATS (With a text-figure)

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FOOD OF JUNGLE BABBLER AND COMMON BABBLER: A COMPARATIVE STUDY

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THE SEAS AROUND INDIA — Part 2 (With a plate and two text-figures)

By D.B. James 190

AUTUMN MIGRATION OF BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER (L1M1COLA EALCINELLUS

PONTOPP.) IN KAZAKHSTAN

By E.I. Gavrilov, A.E. Gavrilov, S.N. Erokhov, V.V. Khrokov 205

A CONCISE REVIEW OF FOREST FLORA OF KERALA

ByT.S. Nayar 212

FOOD AND FEEDING HABITS OF RANA HEXADACTYLA LESSON IN KUTTANAD,

KERALA

By Sanil George and M.I. Andrews 220

THE POPULATION DENSITY AND STRUCTURE OF ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN

PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KERALA, INDIA (With three text-

figures)

By PS. Easa and M. Balakrishnan 225

PHYLOGENY AND ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF THE GHARIAL, GAVIALIS GANGETICUS

(GMELIN) (REPTILIA, CROCODILIA) (With a text-figure)

By A.K. Srivastava and H.R. Bustard 230

NEW DESCRIPTIONS 234

REVIEWS 244

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES , 251

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JOURNAL

VOL. 92, No. 3.

December 1995

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Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of pollination in two cat-mint species. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.

Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200

words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of

important species discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of

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Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

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Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

GROUP SIZE AND AGE-SEX COMPOSITION OF THREE MAJOR UNGULATE SPECIES IN GIR

LION SANCTUARY, GUJARAT, INDIA (With two text-figures )

By Jamal Ahmad Khan, Ravi Chellam and A.J.T. Johnsingh 295

SHORE BIRDS OF THE MARINE NATIONAL PARK IN THE GULF OF MANNAR, TAMIL NADU

( With a text-figure)

By S. Balachandran 303

CYTOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE ASTERACEAE-GENUS BLUMEA AND RELATED

GENERA LAGGERA AND NANOTHAMNUS ( With three plates )

By A.R. Daruwalla 314

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF THE BRONZEWINGED ( METOPIDIUS INDICUS) AND PHEASANT-

TAILED ( HYDROPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS ) JACANAS IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK,

BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN (With five text-figures )

By N.K. Ramachandran and V.S. Vijayan 322

POPULATION DYNAMICS IN SOME INDIAN BATS

By N. Badwaik 335

ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PUPAL CASE, ADULT AND EGG OF INDIAN SPECIES OF

LIPALEYRODES TAKAHASHI (ALEYRODIDAE: HOMOPTERA) WITH DESCRIPTION OF A

NEW SPECIES (With four text- figures)

By B. Vasantharaj David and K. Thenmozhi 339

A CATALOGUE OFTHE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY-

36: MOTACILLIDAE

By Saraswathy Unnithan 350

FRESH WATER FISH DIVERSITY IN ARALAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KERALA, SOUTH INDIA

By C.P Shaji, PS. Easa and S. Chand Basha 360

IMPACT OF SALT WORKS ON THE STATUS, POPULATION OF THE GREATER FLAMINGO

PHOEN/COPTERUS RUBER ROSEUS AND THE LESSER FLAMINGO PHOENICONAIAS

MINOR IN THE GREAT VEDARANYAM SWAMP (With three text-figures)

By Ranjit Manakadan 364

ECOLOGY AND TAXONOMY OF THE FIELD MICE IN THE ARAVALLI RANGES

By Ishwar Prakash, A. Saravanan and Partap Singh 372

CLADOCERAN MALES FROM THE INDIAN REGION (With fifty-two text-figures)

By K. Venkataraman 378

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW GENUS OF ECTRICHODIINAE AND TWO NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS

HAEMATORRHOPHUS STAL FROM SOUTHERN INDIA (HETEROPTERA: REDUVIIDAE) (With

three text-figures)

By C. Murugan and David Livingstone 386

HYPSELOBARBUS KURALI (PISCES? CYPRINIDAE) A NEW LARGE BARB FROM THE SOUTH

WESTERN RIVERS OF PENINSULAR INDIA (With a text-figure)

By A.G.K. Menon and K. Rema Devi . 389

ON A NEW SUBSPECIES OF XANTHOPIMPLA SAUSSURE (HYMENOPTERA: ICHNEUMONIDAE)

IN INDIA (With a text-figure)

By R.P. Patil and PK. Nikam

393

HOMALOPTERA MENONI — A NEW HOM ALOPTERID FISH (PISCES: HOMALOPTERIDAE) FROM

KERALA (With a text-figure)

By C.P. Shaji and P.S. Easa 395

OBITUARY

BISWAMOY BISWAS (1923-1994) ( With a plate)

By P.K. Das 398

REVIEWS

1 . ORNITHOLOGY OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT 1 872- 1 992

Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 403

2. MAMMALS OF THE THAR DESERT

Reviewed by J.C. Daniel ’ 403

3. A HANDBOOK OF THE ANGLADE INSTITUTE OF NATURAL HISTORY, SHEMB AGANUR

Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 403

4. ELEPHANT DAYS & NIGHTS

Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 404

5. NOMENCLATURE OF BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT

Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 404

6. CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF ASSAM

Reviewed by Humayun Abdulali 405

7. RECENT ADVANCES IN FISH ECOLOGY, LIMNOLOGY AND ECO-CONSERVATION. Vol. Ill

Reviewed by B.F. Chhapgar 405

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS 8

1 . Panthers eating water-melons

By Digveerendrasinh 407

2. Occurrence of the rusty spotted cat

( Felis ruhiginosa ) i n Mad hy a Pradesh 9 .

By Digveerendrasinh 407

3. Food of the sloth bear (Melursus ursinus)

in Mundanthurai Plateau, Tamil Nadu

By V. Gokula, N. Sivaganesan and R

M. Varadarajan 408

4. The ratel ( Mellivora capetisis) in north

Observations on Pallas's squirrel

Callosciiinis erythraeus Pallas and other squirrels

in Mizoram, northeast India

By T.R. Shankar Raman, Charudutt Mishra and

A.J.T. Johnsingh 412

An Assessment of tiller damage by rodents in

irrigated rice fields

By P. Neelanarayanan, R. Nagarajan and

R. Kanakasabai 4 1 5

Status of wild elephants in Dibang Valley of

Arunachal Pradesh

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 417

14. Slenderbilled gull Lams genei Breme in

New Delhi

By Vivek Menon, Tara Gandhi,

Mohit Aggarwal and Rajesh Thadani 419

15. Indian ring dove Streptope.lia decaocto

(Frivaldszky) nesting in an abandoned

nest of the grey shrike Lanius excubitor (Sykes)

By Satish Kumar 419

1 6. The great reed warbler Acroceplialus stentoreus

(Hemprich & Ehrenberg) feeding on fruits

of Salvaclora persica

By B.M. Parasharya, A.G. Sukhadia, D.M. Mehta

and R.B. Chauhan 420

17. The bluethroat Erithacus svecicus (Linn.)

in Kerala

By L. Namassivayan 421

18. Sugary exudate of sorghum Sorghum bicolor

as food of large grey babbler Turcloides malcolmi

(Sykes), purplerumped sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica

(Linn.) and redvented bulbul Pycnonotus cafer

(Linnaeus)

By Satish Kumar 421

19. An unusual nesting site of house sparrow

Passer domes ticus (Linn.)

By Satish Kumar Sharma 422

20. Nesting of Ploceus philippinus (Linn.)

on persian wheel

By Satish Kumar Sharma 422

REPTILES

2 1 . Observations on the narrow-headed softshell

turtle ( Chitra indica) in Bangladesh

By Md. Lokman Hossain and

Md. Sohrab Uddin Sarker 423

22. The Assam roofed turtle Kacliuga sylhetensis

in Sadiya — a new locality record

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 426

23. A common garden lizard (Ca lores versicolor )

killing an adult house sparrow (Passer domesticus)

By V.K. Paralkar 426

AMPHIBIA

24. First record of Uperodon globulosum

(Anura: Microhylidae) from Kerala

By Sanil George, Leelamma Alex 427

FISHES

25 . Extension of range of Noemacheihis

(Mesonoemaclieilus) petrubanarescui (Menon)

By C.P. Shaji and P.S. Easa 427

26. Puntius melanampyx (Day), an addition

to the fish fauna of silent valley

By P.S. Easa and C.P. Shaji 428

INSECTS

27. Family Aphididae is in Hemiptera or Hymenoptera?

By R.K. Varshney 428

28 . Occurrence of Morganella citereonsis

(Cockerell) (Diaspididae: Coccoidae: Homoptera)

in south India

By S. Suresh and M. Mohana Sundaram 429

29. Notes on the biology of Pieris brassicae

(Linnaeus) (Pieridae: Lepidoptera) on a

new host plant Cassia fistula

(Caesalpiniaceae)

By H.S. Rose and G. Venkatesh 430

30. A new alternative host plant of teak defoliator

Hyblaea puera (Hyblaeidae : Lepidoptera)

By Naresh Chaturvedi 43 1

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

3 1 . Occurrence of Agauopsis brevipalpus brevipalpus

Trouessart (Halacaridae: Acari) from

west coast of India

By Tapas Chatterjee 43 1

32. Occurrence of the snail Physa acuta Draparnaud

in Calcutta, India

By S.K. Raut, Sonali Bhaumik and

Subhamoy Das 434

BOTANY

33. Rare occurrence of multiple leafy buds in

cabbage, Brassica oleracea var. capitata Linn.

By P.S.N. Rao 435

34. Cassia uniflora Mill, versus Parthenium

liysterophorus L. — an ecological study

By G.K. Wagh and H.V. Ghate 435

35. Medicago lupulina Linn. (Leguminosae) —

A new record for Rajasthan

By A. S. Yadav 436

36. Note on reversion of inflorescence axis in

Caesalpinia crista L.

By D.K. Kulkarni and M.S. Kumbhojkar 438

37. Identity of Physalis longifolia sensu Nair

By S. Sudhakaran and A. Ganapathi 439

38. Additions to the Scrophulariaceae of Goa

By Rupa A. Kulkarni and M.K. Janarthanam 440

39. Kickxia incana (Wall.) Pennell. (Scrophulariaceae) —

a new plant record for Karnataka

By M.P. Bhachukar, S.R. Yadav and

S.K. Limaye 441

40. Dorstenia indica Wight (Moraceae) —

a new plant record for Maharashtra

By D. N. Shinde, B.R. Pawarand

M.S. Patil

442

\

I . . •••

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

December 1995 Vol. 92 No. 3

GROUP SIZE AND AGE-SEX COMPOSITION OF THREE MAJOR UNGULATE

SPECIES IN GIR LION SANCTUARY, GUJARAT, INDIA1

Jamal Ahmad Khan2, Ravi Chellam and A.J.T. Johnsingh3

( With two text-figures )

Key words: Age-sex ratio, Gir Lion Sanctuary, grouping characteristics,

management, Axis axis, Cervus unicolor

Grouping characteristics and population structure of chital (Axis axis Erxleben), sambar ( Cervus unicolor

Kerr) and nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus Pallas) were studied in Gir Lion Sanctuary, Gujarat, during 1987-89. Data

on group size and age-sex composition of different species were collected during 82 monitoring of eight line transects

and 153 road-strip counts conducted in summer 1987, winter 1988, winter 1989 and summer 1989. There were 492

and 3 1 32 km of monitoring of line and road transects respectively. All three species showed positively skewed group

size. Mean group size was highest for chital (6.03±5.9) and lowest for sambar ( 1 ,8± 1 .0). The mean group size varied

significantly among seasons for chital and nilgai. The mean group size values, however, did not differ significantly

between different years for all three ungulate species. The values of typical group size were significantly larger than

other estimates of group size for all species. All three species showed biased sex ratios in favour of females in different

seasons and years. The adult males to females ratio was lowest for chital (41:100 females) and highest for nilgai

(71 : 100 females). The results agree broadly with findings from other wildlife areas in the Indian subcontinent.

Introduction

The pioneering work of Schailer (1967) in

Kanha Tiger Reserve was the first ecological

description of some of the common ungulate species

found on the Indian subcontinent. Since then, there

have been several studies on ungulates in this region

(e.g. Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972, Berwick 1974,

Sharatchandra and Gadgil 1975, Dinerstein 1980,

'Accepted June 1994.

^Conservation Ecology Research Group, Centre of Wildlife &

Ornithology, Faculty of Life Sciences, A.M.U. Aligarh-202 002,

India.

’Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun

(U.P.).

Mishra 1982, Johnsingh 1983, Barrette 1991). Data

on different population characteristics (e.g. grouping

structure, densities, age-sex ratios), have contributed

significantly towards a better understanding of these

ungulate species.

The current level of information on various

ecological aspects is, however, far from satisfactory

even for the most abundant and widely distributed

ungulate species in the region, i.e. chital (Axis axis

Erxleben). Extensive research in Africa and North

America (on ungulates) has, on the contrary, not only

provided sound ecological data for their intensive

management but has allowed some useful

296

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92 (1995)

generalizations on various ecological and

behavioural aspects of numerous ungulate species

(e.g. Jarman 1974, McNaughton and Georgiadis

1986, Miquelle etal. 1992). Thus there is still a need

to gather more information on all ecological aspects

of south Asian ungulates to fill the gaps in the

existing information as well as to strengthen the

management of species and protected areas. The

ungulate community of Gir Lion Sanctuary

comprises of chital, sambar ( Cervus unicolor Kerr),

nilgai ( Boselaphus tragocamelus Pallas),

chowsingha ( Tetracerus quadricornis Blainville),

chinkara ( Gazella gazella Pallas) and wild pig ( Sus

scrofci Linn.). This paper describes the grouping

characteristics and population structure of chital,

sambar and nilgai. Data for this study were collected

under a research program initiated by the Wildlife

Institute of India in 1986.

Study Area

Gir Lion Sanctuary and National Park situated

in Kathiawar peninsula of Gujarat covers an area of

1412 sq. km. Gir is divided into three management

units, i.e. Sanctuary West, National Park and

Sanctuary East. These units differ in terms of

vegetation, water availability, topography, human

settlement density and, hence, degradation.

Sanctuary West is relatively thickly wooded and has

good water availability throughout the year. The

topography is a series of undulating hills and

extensive flat plain areas. National Park is densely

wooded and has relatively low water availability.

Sanctuary East has open vegetation and medium

water availability throughout the year. Grazing by

livestock of Maldharis (a pastoral community) is

most intense in Sanctuary East and least in National

Park. Rainfall data over the past 28 years indicates

that the average rainfall in the Sanctuary West is

approximately 1000 mm and it is 800 mm in

Sanctuary East. Seasons are distinct. December

through March is winter (average minimum

temperature 9° C) followed by a hot summer (average

maximum temperature 42°C), till mid June.

Monsoon breaks in June and continues till September

which is followed by a dry post monsoon season till

mid-December.

The vegetation of Gir is tropical dry deciduous

interspersed with tropical thorn forest (Champion

and Seth 1968). Teak ( Tectona granclis Linn.), forms

the principal species and nearly 70% of the total area

of Gir is covered with teak and its several associates.

The vegetation changes along a west to east axis,

from thickly wooded teak forest to open thorny

Acacia-Zizyphus woodlands. Teak is replaced by

Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb.), in the east.

Methods

Data collection was started in January 1987

and continued for 36 months till December 1990.

Data on group size and age-sex ratios of all three

ungulate species were collected during monitoring

of line transects (Burnham et al. 1980), and road-

strip counts (Hirst 1969, Berwick 1974), conducted

to estimate ungulate densities (Khan et al. 1990).

Eight line transects, each 6 km in length, and placed

in stratified random fashion, were marked

permanently in three units (three each in Sanctuary

West and National Park and two in Sanctuary East).

The line transects were monitored on seasonal basis

by JAK (the first author), from December 1987 to

May 1989, from 0630 hours to 0930 hours. There

were 82 monitoring of line transects and each transect

was, on an average, monitored twice in a season.

The road-strip counts were conducted during summer

of 1987, winter of 1988, winter of 1989 and summer

of 1989. During each count, the existing road

network of 700 km in Gir was divided into transects

of almost equal lengths (average 20 km). Each road

transect was monitored in morning hours and again

repeated in the evening. There were 652, 679, 953

and 848 km of road transects monitored during the

four counts respectively.

Group size and composition were recorded for

all sightings. The animals were classified into adult

male (AM), adult female (AF), yearling (YRN) and

fawns (FN) following the classification adopted by

Schaller ( 1 967), Eisenberg and Lockhart (1972) and

Mishra (1982). Line transect and road-strip count

data were pooled for three years together and season-

wise to estimate frequency distributions of group

GROUP SIZE AND AGE-SEX COMPOSITION OF THREE MAJOR UNGULATE SPECIES

297

sizes, sex ratios, mean group size (MGS), median of

group (MDG), median of individuals (MDD) and

typical group size (TGS) following Barrette (1991).

MDD and TGS are animal-centered measurements

of group size reflecting the experience of average

individuals in a group and are better compared to

MGS and MDG which are observer-centered

estimates of group size (Barrette 1991).

One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was

used to test significance of differences in MGS values

for each species between seasons and years, z-test

was used to test differences between overall MGS

and TGS values for each species. Chi-square test was

used to test differences in age-sex composition of

each species between different seasons and years.

All statistical tests were performed following Fowler

and Cohen (1986).

Results

Grouping characteristics: Chital was the most

gregarious compared to sambar and nilgai. While

chital group size ranged from one to more than 50

individuals, that of sambar and nilgai ranged from

one to five and one to eight respectively. All species

showed positively skewed group sizes as large

number of groups were seen in smaller size classes

compared to bigger ones (Figs. 1 & 2). For instance,

there were 15.5%, 50% and 51% groups of one

individual of chital, sambar and nilgai respectively.

This was, however, not the case with distribution of

individuals in groups, as for example, there were

2.5%, 28% and 25% individuals in size class one

for chital, sambar and nilgai respectively. These

striking differences in distribution of groups and

individuals in them were obvious in other size classes

too which suggests that distribution of groups as well

as average group size estimates based on it (e.g.

MGS) may not provide realistic picture of social

structure of a species since these would be influenced

by extreme values or the skewed nature of the group

size data. The TGS values were higher compared to

MGS values and other measurements of group size

(MDG & MDD). The difference between TGS and

MGS were large and significant for chital (z= 336.2,

PcO.Ol), sambar (z= 133.3, P<0.01) and nilgai ( z=

76.4, P <0.01).

There was a clear pattern of seasonal variation

in MGS for each species with group size being lowest

GROUPS

Group Size Classes

INDIVIDUALS

Fig. 1. Frequency distribution of groups and individuals with four descriptions of chital group size. A=Mean group size (MGS),

B=Median of groups (MDG), C=Median of deer (MDD), D-Typical group size (TGS).

298

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY Vol. 92 (1995)

□ GROUPS Group Size Classes ^ INDIVIDUALS

Fig. 2. Frequency distribution oT groups and deer with four descriptions of sambar and nilgai group size. A=Mean group

size (MGS), B=Median of groups (MDG), C=Median of deer (MDD), D=Typical group size (TGS).

during summer and highest in monsoon season

(Table 1 ). The seasonal variation was significant for

chital (F3fi = 48.4, P <0.05), nilgai (F 3fi = 16, P

<0.05), but not for sambar (F 3 6 = 0.076, P >0.05).

However, there was no significant variation among

years in MGS values for any species which suggests

that MGS is a relatively stable parameter and does

not fluctuate widely between different years.

Sex and age ratios: Table 2 provides the proportions

of various age-sex categories of chital, sambar and

nilgai in different seasons and years in Gir. The

proportions of different age-sex categories of chital

differed significantly among seasons (X2=69.02, d.f.

= 6, P <0.00 1 ) and years (X2= 1 34.2, d.f.=6, <0.00 1 ).

These differences were largely associated with the

changes in proportions of yearlings between seasons

Table 1

MEAN GROUP SIZE VALUES FOR MAJOR UNGULATE SPECIES DURING DIFFERENT SEASONS IN GIR

(n=Group classified, MGS=Mean group size, S.D.=Standard deviation).

GROUP SIZE AND AGE-SEX COMPOSITION OF THREE MAJOR UNGULATE SPECIES

299

Table 2

PROPORTIONS OF DIFFERENT SEX-AGE CATEGORIES FOR THREE UNGULATE SPECIES IN DIFFERENT SEASONS

AND YEARS

n-number of animals classified, AM-adult male, AF-adult female, YRN-yearling, FN-fawn, W-winter, S-summer, M-monsoon,

PM-post monsoon.

Table 3

NUMBER OF MALES (AM), YEARLING (YRN) AND FAWNS (FN) PER 100 FEMALES FOR DIFFERENT SPECIES

BETWEEN DIFFERENT YEARS IN GIR

Chital

Sambar

Nilgai

n-number of animals classified.

(component X2=9.7 & 23.01 for winter and summer)

as well as years (component X2=64.4, 9.0 & 24.8

for 1987, 1988 and 1989). The proportions of age-

sex categories of sambar and nilgai were not

amenable to chi-square analysis between seasons,

while the same differed significantly between the

years for sambar (X2=15.7, d.f.=6, P< 0.05) and

nilgai (X2=58.8, d.f.=6, P< 0.01). The differences

were largely associated with changes in proportions

of males and to some extent females between years

for sambar and nilgai. On the whole, the proportions

of males and females were 22.2% and 53.7% for

chital, 3 1 .4% and 57.6% for sambar and 35.7% and

50% for nilgai. The proportion of animals in pre-

reproductive age class (yearling and fawn) was 24%)

for chital, 10.8% for sambar and 14.1% for nilgai.

All three species showed biased sex ratio in

favour of females during different seasons and years

(Table 3). While male to female and fawn to female

ratios were relatively stable for chital between

seasons and years, the same showed wide variations

for sambar and nilgai, possibly, due to the small

sample sizes. The number of males per 100 females

was 41 for chital, 54 for sambar and 71 for nilgai.

300

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Similarly, number of fawns per 1 00 females was 25.8

for chital, 12.4 for sambar and 23.1 for nilgai.

Discussion

A comparison of group size and structure of

chital, sambar and nilgai in Gir with data from other

wildlife areas face two major limitations. Firstly

published studies differ widely in their sampling

methodologies and it is difficult to distinguish

between real difference and differences due to

sampling methods. Secondly, the choice of

parameters which could be used for comparison is

limited. Most of the workers have used frequency

distributions of groups and mean group size for

description of group structure and it is only recently

that Barrette (1991), recommended the use of

frequency distribution of individuals and TGS values

for such a description. We have therefore used MGS

values of different species only for comparison with

other studies.

The overall MGS of chital in Gir is similar to

values reported by Karanth and Sunquist (1992) from

Nagarahole Tiger Reserve (NTR), and Mishra ( 1 982)

from Chitwan National Park (CNP), but it differs

from that of Barrette (1991), and Dinerstein (1980)

who reported higher MGS values for chital from

Wilpaltu National Park (WNP), in Sri Lanka and

from Royal Karnali Bardia Reserve (RKBR), in

Nepal. The MGS values of sambar and nilgai

conform to the values reported by Karanth and

Sunquist (1992), Mishra (1982) for sambar and

Dinerstein (1980) for nilgai. It seems that the

observed differences in overall MGS values between

Gir and that of RKBR and WNP for chital is due to

disproportionate sampling of open areas (open

grasslands in RKBR and villus in WNP) as well as

total sample size biased in favour of groups from

open areas (e.g. 1 889 groups from open area vs. 362

groups from forest in case of WNP). As groups of

chital are significantly larger in open areas compared

to forest (Barrette 1991), the overall MGS value

would also be higher.

The overall MGS for chital was significantly

higher than that of sambar and nilgai. Similar patterns

have been documented by other workers also for

these species. There have been attempts to explain

interspecific variation in group size of antelopes in

Africa (e.g. Jarman 1974) but more work is needed

before one could attempt such an exercise for

cervids. For instance, the sambar is expected to form

bigger groups by virtue of its large body size (Mishra

1982), mixed food habits and as generalists being

adapted to a wide variety of vegetation types.

However, data proves it to be otherwise. While

explanation can be given for smaller group size of

sambar on the basis of habitat (closed forest) it

occupies (structuralist explanation, Barrette 1991),

its solitary nature and antipredator strategies

(Johnsingh 1983), no such explanation is available

for nilgai. The above explanation for sambar is quite

convincing especially if one considers the group size

and social organization of swamp deer ( Cervus

duvauceli Cuvier), which is similar to sambar in

body size but differs in the habitat type (grassland),

it occupies, food habits (grazer), and social

organization (highly gregarious, overall MGS value

6.5) (Schaller 1967, Martin 1977).

The significant seasonal variation in MGS

values of chital and nilgai, and lack of it in sambar

has been documented elsewhere also (Eisenberg and

Lockhart 1972, Berwick 1974, Dinerstein 1980,

Mishra 1982, Barrette 1991). Except Berwick

(1974), findings of these workers conform to the

pattern of seasonal change in Gir, i.e. decrease in

group size during dry season and increase in rainy

season. What are the factors which cause the group

size to vary in some ungulates and not in others?

The social organization of species has been

considered one such factor (Rodgers 1977). Group

size in species which exhibit open membership social

structure (e.g. chital, swamp deer), may show

temporal variation not only on a seasonal basis but

also during different times of the day (Sharatchandra

and Gadgil 1975, Barrette 1991) whereas species

having closed membership social structure (e.g.

sambar), lack such variation. For species having open

structure, food availability, predation risk and rutting

activity (e.g. Hamilton 1971, Vine 1971, Jarman

GROUP SIZE AND AGE-SEX COMPOSITION OE THREE MAJOR UNGULATE SPECIES

301

1974, Sharatchandra and Gadgil 1975, Khan and

Vohra 1992) have been considered as the main

factors responsible for seasonal change. However,

which one of these factors play a major role is not

clear. For instance, while Sharatchandra and Gadgil

(1975) attributed the increase in group size during

rainy season to high food availability, Dinerstein

(1980) considered predator detection as the prime

reason for bigger group size due to increase in plant

cover and density. We believe that an increase in

plant cover and density will cause the herds to

fragment not only due to purely structural reasons

(Barrette 1991), but also because bigger group size

will increase the probability of predation as increase

in plant cover and density would benefit stalking

predators such as lion.

All three ungulate species in Gir showed adult

sex ratio biased in favour of females in all seasons.

Others have reported sex ratios in favour of females

for these species with the exception of Dinerstein

(1980) for nilgai and Seidensticker (1976), forchital

and sambar. They have reported sex ratios to be

otherwise. These exceptions are however based on

very small sample sizes and hence may not be

considered representative. The disparity in adult sex

ratio has been attributed to several factors such as

misclassification of individuals (Sharatchandra and

Gadgil 1975, Mishra 1982 for chital), higher

mortality of male fawns (Schaller 1967, Johnsingh

1983 for chital), and selective predation on males

(Berwick 1974 for all three species, Schaller 1967,

Johnsingh 1983 for sambar, Karanth and Sunquist

1992 for chital and sambar). No attempt has been

made so far to check the sex ratio at birth in the wild

and for higher mortality of male fawns. Only

Refer

Barrette, C. (1991): The size of Axis fluid groups in Wilpattu

national park, Sri Lanka. Mammalia 55: 207-220.

Berwick, S.H. ( 1974): The community of wild ruminants in the

Gir Forest ecosystem, India. Ph.D. dissertation, Yale

University, USA. 226 pp.

Burnham, K.P., D.R. Anderson & J.L. Laake (1980): Estimation

of density from line transect sampling of biological

populations. Wildl. Monogr. No. 72, The Wildlife Society,

Schaller ( 1 967), and Johnsingh ( 1 983) provide some

data to substantiate their claims for selective

predation on males in sambar. Explanations vary as

to what makes males more vulnerable to either

selective predation or in general higher mortality. In

African bovids subsistence of subadult males on low

quality forage as a result of their exclusion from

established territories and harassment by dominant

males have been considered as major factors for

higher mortality of males (Leuthold 1977). In south

Asian ungulates, solitary habits, proneness to injuries

from intra-specific aggression, lack of alertness

during rut and dispersal behaviour have been

considered some of the factors which make males

more vulnerable to selective predation (Karanth and

Sunquist 1992). While Johnsingh (1983) could not

find any pattern in dhole ( Cuon alpinus Pallas)

predation on chital males before and after rutting

season, no objective information exists regarding

influence of other factors. There is clearly a need

for more work to explain such disparities with the

help of more data.

Acknowledgements

We thank Mr. H.S. Panwar, Director, Wildlife

Institute of India for providing logistic and financial

support for this study. We are also thankful to Gujarat

Forest Department for permission to work in Gir.

Thanks are also due to Dr. W.A. Rodgers, Dr. P.K.

Mathur and Ajith Kumar for their guidance in data

analysis; to Mr. A.K. Sharma, S.K. Pant, Bharat

Pathak and Uday Vohra for their help in Gir. Our

sincere thanks to Rashid for his tremendous help in

manuscript preparation. Dr. A.H. Musavi is thanked

for his support to JAK.

ENCES

Washington, D.C. 202 pp.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A Revised Survey of the

Forest Types of India. Manager of publications. Govt, of

India, New Delhi.

Dinerstein, E. (1980): An ecological survey of Royal Karnali

Bardia Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Part III: Ungulate

Populations. Biol. Conserv. 18: 3-38.

Eisenberg, J.F. & M. Lockhart (1972): An ecological

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reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park, Ceylon.

Smithson. Contri. Zool. 101 : 1-118.

Fowler, J. & L. Cohen ( 1986): Statistics for Ortnithologist. BTO

Guide No. 22. British Trust for Ornithology. 175 pp.

Hirst, S.M. (1969): Road strip census for wild ungulates in

African woodland. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 40-48.

Hamilton, W.D. (1971): Geometry for the selfish herd. J. Them:

Biol., 31: 295-311.

Jarman, P.J. (1974): The social organization of antelope in relation

to their ecology. Behaviour 48: 215-267.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1983): Large mammalian prey-predators in

Bandipur. J. Bombay nut. Hist. Soc. 80(1): 1-57.

Karanth, K.U. & M.E. Sunquist (1992): Population structure,

density and biomass of large herbivores in the tropical

forest of Nagarahole, India. ./. Trap. Ecol. 8: 21-35.

Khan, J.A., W.A. Rodgers, A.J.T. Johnsingh & P.K. Mathur

(1990): Gir Lion Project: Ungulate Habitat Ecology in

Gir. Final project report. Wildlife Institute of India. 214

pp.

Khan, J.A. & U. Vohra (1992): Group size and group

composition of chital (Axis axis) in Gir, Gujarat, India.

Mammalia 56: 662-664.

Leuthold, W. (1977): African Ungulates: A Comparative Review

of their Ethology and Behavioral Ecology. New York:

Springer- Verlag. 307 pp.

Martin, C. (1977): Status and ecology of the barasingha ( Cervus

duvauceli branderi) in Kanha National Park (India). ./.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 60-132.

McNaughton, S.J. & N.J. Georgiadis (1986): Ecology of African

grazing and browsing mammals. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 77:

39-65.

Miquelle, D.G., M.P. James & V.B. Victor (1992): Sexual

segregation in Alaskan moose. Wildl. Monogr. No. 122.

The Wildlife Society, Washington DC.

Mishra, H.R. (1982): The ecology and behavior of chital (Axis

axis) in Royal Chitawan National Park, Nepal. Ph.D.

dissertation. University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, 240 pp.

Rodgers, W.A. (1977): Seasonal change in group size amongst

five wild herbivore species. E. Aft: Wildl. J. 15: 175-190.

Schaller, G.B. (1967): The deer and the tiger. University of

Chicago Press, Chicago. 370 pp.

Seidensticker, J. ( 1 976): Ungulate populations in Chitwan valley,

Nepal. Biol. Conserv. 10: 183-210.

Sharatchandra, H.C. & M. Gadgil (1975): A year of Bandipur.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 625-647.

Vine, J. (1971): Risk of visual detection and pursuit by predator

and the selective advantage of flocking behavior. ,/. Them:

Biol. 30: 405-422.

SHORE BIRDS OF THE MARINE NATIONAL PARK IN THE GULF OF MANNAR,

TAMIL NADU1

S. Balachandran2

(With a text -fig lire)

Key words: Dhanuskodi lagoon, pillaimadam lagoon, Kundugal point, Rameswaram

island, Manali island, Hare island, winter visitor, passage migrant, breeding resident,

wader, tern, gull

During the bird migration study conducted between 1985-1988 at the Gulf of Mannar Marine National

Park area, a total of 187 species of birds were recorded, of which 84 were aquatic species and the remaining

terrestrial. The status, population, arrival and departure dates (for the migratory species) of the waders, terns

and gulls have been described specieswise. The other aquatic birds are listed groupwise and the terrestrial

birds recorded are listed in the checklist. At Manali and Hare islands 23 species of migratory birds were found

to oversummer every year. The uncommon waders to India such as knot Calidris canuta, eastern knot Calidris

tenuirostris, curlew Numenius arquata, whimbrel Nunieniits phaeopus, and bar-tailed godwit Limosa lapponica

were recorded as regular winter visitor to this area.

Introduction

The marine fauna and flora and the physical,

chemical and biological features of the coastal habitat

around Mandapam in the Ramanathapuram district

bordering the Marine National Park are well known

(Jayaraman 1954, Prasad 1956, 1958; Sudarsan

1961). However, relatively little is known about the

coastal birds. Biddulph ( 1 938) reported on the birds

of Rameswaram islands, and Lai Mohan (1985,

1986) on the population, seasonality and recovery

of terns.

A visit by Salim Ali during 1982 and a survey

party from the Bombay Natural History Society in

August 1 985 to Mandapam, (Fig. 1 ) focused the

importance of this area in the migratory movements

of wader species and flamingos Phoenicopterus

roseus in India. The status of the water birds of

Mandapam and its neighbouring islands, was studied

by the BNHS by a ringing programme between

September 1985 and August 1988.

‘Accepted June 1994.

2Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,

Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023. Present address : 11/100, Central St.,

Agasteeswarain P.O., Kanyakumari Dist.-629 701, Tamil Nadu.

Next to Point Calimere on the south-east coast

of India, the Mandapam area has the largest number

of bird species (187 species both aquatic and

terrestrial) and a large seasonal aquatic bird

population of over 50,000. Pelagic birds were also

occasionally recorded (Balachandran 1990, 1991).

Its geographical situation close to Sri Lanka and the

islands in the Gulf of Mannar is of particular

importance in the movement of birds.

Study areas

Mandapam (9° 1 7' N, 79° 8’ E) lies on a narrow

peninsula projecting from the south east coast of

India, with the Gulf of Mannar to the south and Palk

Bay to the north (see Fig. 1). At the end of the

peninsular extension is Pamban island which is

connected to the mainland by a Railway bridge. The

inshore region of the Palk Bay is largely muddy

while, in the Gulf of Mannar, it is rocky with small

areas of sand and mud in between. At distances

ranging from 5-8 km from the mainland, the Gulf of

Mannar has a chain of islands running roughly

parallel to the coast (Fig. 1 ). These islands are mainly

of coral origin, probably of the nature of fringing

reefs. The mixing of waters of Palk Bay and the Gulf

304

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

takes place through the Pamban pass and also through

“Adam’s Bridge” between Dhanuskodi and west

coast of Sri Lanka (Jayaraman 1954).

The main study areas were the Manali and

Hare islands, the Dhanuskodi lagoon, the intertidal

and mud flats are present at the eastern side the island.

As in Manali island, large areas (1.8 sq.km) are

exposed during low tide.

The Pillaimadam lagoon adjoining Palk Bay,

is about 8 km long encompassing an area of 6 sq.km.

area of Kundugal point in the Rameswaram island,

and the Pillaimadam lagoon in the mainland near

Mandapam (Fig. 1 )

Manali island is about 2 km long and 50 meters

wide, covering an area of 24 hectares with small

water pools and open mudflats. The small creeks

inside the islands are fringed with mangrove

vegetation and coarse grass. The shore is sandy with

extensive coral formation in the intertidal area. Large

inshore areas (approximately 1.5 sq.km) are exposed

during the low tide.

Hare island is the largest among all the islands

with an area of about 56 ha. Due to human

interference, the flora and fauna are different from

those of other islands. The inshore area is sandy,

The bottom of the lagoon is mostly muddy. The

lagoon is bordered by grassy area on the landward

side and sand dunes on the seaward side. The salinity

fluctuates significantly between monsoon and

summer seasons. Small fresh water pools are formed

along the border of the lagoon during the

monsoon.

Dhanuskodi lagoon, situated on Rameswaram

island, extends from Rameswaram road to the lands

end at Dhanuskodi. The length of the lagoon is

approximately 14 km and the width varies from 0.7

to 1 km. The total area of the lagoon is 1 1 .85 sq.km.

The western side of the lagoon is mostly of mud flats

and the middle portion is an admixture of sand and

clay. The tapering eastern end is sandy.

SHORE BIRDS OF THE MARINE NATIONAL PARK IN THE GULF OF MANNAR

305

Climate

The temperature varies from 22°C to 36°C,

Mandapam experiences moderate climatic

conditions. North-east monsoon which usually sets

in late October brings much of the rain. During the

three year study period the rainfall was maximum

(1120 mm) in the third year ( 1 987-88) and was lowest

(756 mm) in the first year (1985-86), and was

moderate (920 mm) in the second year (1986-87).

Methods

Information collected during bird counts, and

data obtained from bird ringing formed the main data

base for this study. The study was earned out over

three years (1985 to 1988) as a part of the BNHS

Bird Migration Project. Each season commenced

from September and ended the next August. Thus,

1985-1986, 1986-1987, 1987-1988 seasons are

respectively mentioned as “first”, “second” and

“third” season.

As the study was focused on migratory water

birds especially waders, terns and gulls, these groups

are described specieswise. Moreover, these species

regularly occurred in the study areas. Other aquatic

birds such as egrets, herons, ducks and teals are also

described groupwise. The land birds of the area are

listed in the Appendix.

Results

Oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus

A regular winter visitor in small numbers.

Observed on the intertidal habitats of Manali and

Hare islands and Kundugal Point. The maximum

number recorded was in the year 1985-86. A few

subadult birds 3 to 6 summered at the above three

sites.

Grey plover Pluvialis squatarola

A regular, common, winter visitor occurring

in several hundreds, seen in all the habitats. The

maximum number of individuals recorded was

during October and included passage migrants at

Manali island. A considerable number of individuals

(50-70) were noticed throughout the summer,

especially at Manali and Hare islands.

Eastern golden plover Pluvialis dominica

A regular winter visitor. Several hundreds

arrive between September and October and depart

between March and April. Though a few hundreds

were observed throughout the winter their number

was maximum during the spring passage (February

to March). None were seen during the summer.

Large sand plover Cliaradrius leschenaultii

A regular, common, winter visitor. Arrives in

hundreds in September and October and departs in

late January and February. A few individuals summer

in Manali and Hare islands. Predominantly seen on

the two islands, Kundugal Point, and the eastern end

of Dhanuskodi lagoon. The maximum number was

observed in October due to the occurrence of passage

migrants.

Little ringed plover Charadrius dubius

A regular winter visitor. A few hundreds arrive

soon after the commencement of the Northeast

monsoon in October and leave in March and April

depending on the water condition. It was mostly seen

along the freshwater pools. Seldom seen in brackish

and coastal habitats.

Kentish plover Cliaradrius alexandrinus

Two races were found. The nominate

alexandrinus is migratory arriving in several

hundreds in September and departing between late

February and mid March. None of them remained

during the summer. The race seebohmi is a breeding

resident and their numbers were augmented by local

migrants during winter. The breeding season is

between April and July. Maximum birds were

counted (850) in January and February during spring

passage of the nominate race.

Ringed plover Cliaradrius hiaticula

Rare. One was caught and ringed. None were

sighted in the field.

Lesser sand plover Charadrius mongolus

One of the abundant winter visitors, which

arrive from late August to mid October and depart

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

between March and April. Maximum numbers were

observed both in autumn and spring on passage.

Several thousands were seen throughout the winter.

Occurred in thousands in all the habitats depending

upon the water conditions. A few hundreds, mostly

first year birds, summered in all the habitats subject

to the availability of water. The oversummering

adults were seen in partial breeding plumage.

Maximum number counted was 14,000 during

October 1985.

Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus

A regular winter visitor in small numbers, seen

in considerable number during the autumn passage

in September and early October. A few first year

birds oversummered in the Manali and Hare islands.

A maximum of 186 birds were counted during

September 1986.

Curlew Numenius arquata

A regular and common winter visitor in a few

hundreds. Arrives in September and leaves in March.

Some individuals (25-30) summered at Manali and

Hare islands, but were seldom seen in other areas

during the summer. The maximum recorded was 443

in October 1986.

Bartailed godwit Limosa lapponica

A common winter visitor. Arrives in a few

hundreds by the middle of September and leaves by

March. In addition to the wintering population, passage

migrants are also seen on their autumn and spring

passages. The maximum number recorded was 360 in

September 1985. A few first year birds summered in

Manali island. Distributed in all the study areas, during

the month of September and October, and mainly

confined to the eastern sandy area of Dhanuskodi

lagoon during February and March.

Redshank Tringa totanus

A common winter visitor occurring in several

hundreds between September and January in all the

habitats. As the majority of the birds departed by

February, their numbers fell after February. The

highest number of wintering birds was 730 in 1985-

86. This species could be seen throughout the year

as some individuals summered on the island and

other habitats subject to the water condition.

Marsh sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis

A common winter visitor in a few hundreds

between late October and March. None in summer.

Recorded mostly in the western part of Dhanuskodi

and Pillaimadam lagoon. Not recorded from Manali

and Hare islands.

Greenshank Tringa nebularia

A regular and common winter visitor arriving

in several hundreds in early September and departing

in late March or early April. Many young birds spent

two seasons at Mandapam prior to returning to their

breeding ground. A few adults were also found to

oversummer. Seen in all the habitats in considerable

numbers. The maximum number wintered in the year

1985-86.

Wood or Spotted sandpiper Tringa glareola

A regular winter visitor in small numbers

arriving late October and departing late March or

early April when the freshwater pools dry up. Not

recorded from the exclusively marine habitat such

as the Manali and Hare islands and the eastern part

of the Dhanuskodi lagoon.

Terek sandpiper Tringa terek

A regular and common winter visitor arriving

between late August and September in a few

hundreds which stay throughout the winter. The

occurrence of transient population in the autumn

makes for a maximum population in September. Over

500 individuals wintered in the 1987-88 season.

Summering first year birds were seen in all the

summers at Manali and Hare islands. Though

recorded in all the habitats they preferred Manali

island and Kundugal Point.

Common sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos

A regular winter visitor but in small numbers

between September and April. There is no record of

this bird after April. The wintering population of 124

observed in the 1987-88 season was the maximum

recorded during the three year study.

SHORE BIRDS OF THE MARINE NATIONAL PARK IN THE GULF OF MANNAR

307

Spotted redshank Tringa erythropus

Rare. A single sighting record at Pillaimadam

lagoon was the only record during the three year study.

Turnstone Arenaria interpres

A common and regular winter visitor. Seen in

maximum numbers during the autumn passage

between September and October. Though the

majority depart in April for the breeding ground, a

few birds remain on the two islands and along the

beaches during summer. Occur at all study sites but

preferred Manali and Hare islands and the eastern

end of Dhanuskodi lagoon. Over 600 individuals

were counted in 1985-86 and 1987-88.

Knot Calidris canuta

A regular winter visitor, a few hundreds

arriving by the middle of October and departing in

late March. None oversummered. The maximum

numbers were observed in November and February.

Seen only along the sandy intertidal areas of

Kundugal Point, Manali island and the eastern end

of Dhanuskodi.

Eastern knot Calidris tenuirostris

A regular winter visitor like the Knot, arriving

and departing at the same time. The distribution

pattern was also same as that of the knot. The

wintering population was over 300 individuals. None

of them oversummered.

Sanderling Calidris alba

As mentioned by Biddulph (1938), several

hundred sanderlings winter in Dhanuskodi and

Manali island. They arrive in early September and

depart in late March and early April. A few

individuals in non-breeding plumage were observed

during the summer at Dhanuskodi. The maximum

wintering population (850) was recorded during

1986-87. Largely confined to the eastern side of

Dhanuskodi, Manali and Kundugal Point where the

terrain is sandy.

Little stint Calidris minuta

An abundant winter visitor arriving in

thousands during September and departing in March

and April. None of them stayed back for the summer.

Abundantly seen in Pillaimadam lagoon and the

western part of Dhanuskodi lagoon. Occurred in

thousands throughout the winter and the number

fluctuated depending upon the water condition.

Curlew Sandpiper Calidris testacea

An abundant winter visitor arriving between

September and October and departing between

March and early April. Distribution pattern,

population fluctuation, and habitat preference was

almost the same as that of the Little stint but a portion

of the population mostly “first year” birds

oversummered in the two islands. Over 10,000 was

observed to winter in the 1985-86 season.

Dunlin Calidris alpina

This species was not encountered in the field,

perhaps from its close similarity to the Curlew

sandpiper, but possibly from its rareness. However,

14 individuals were caught during the three year

study.

Rednecked stint Calidris ruficollis

None were observed in the field. However, 12

individuals were caught and ringed during the three

year study. An uncommon winter visitor to this site.

Temminck’s stint Calidris temminckii

Only one sighting in the field indicating its

rareness.

Longtoed stint Calidris subminuta

Like Temminck’s stint, few sightings were

recorded for this species. One bird was caught and

ringed.

Broadbilled sandpiper Limicola falcinellus

A rare wintering wader at Mandapam. Few

sightings, mainly of two to three individuals. In one

instance at Manali island, 44 birds were seen in

October during autumn passage.

Rednecked phalarope Phalaropus lobatus

A rare winter visitor, rarely sighted . Once 7

individuals were seen together at the Pillaimadam

lagoon.

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Pintail snipe Gallinago stenura

An uncommon winter visitor occurring on the

grassy patches around fresh water pools.

Green sandpiper Tringa ochropus

An uncommon winter visitor to small fresh

water ditches. The maximum number counted was

25 from all the study sites.

Blackwinged stilt Himantopus himantopus

A common, regular winter visitor in several

hundreds. A few hundreds were seen throughout the

summer in the freshwater pools in the Rameswaram

island and other places around Mandapam. It was

seen throughout the winter in the seawater inundated

lagoons inside Hare island and the Pillaimadam

lagoon. Avoids sandy areas. Not recorded from

Manali and Dhanuskodi.

Great stone plover Esacus magnirostris

A breeding resident present throughout the

year in small numbers, seventeen pairs were counted

in the study areas.

Stone curlew Burhinus oedicnemus

Status unknown, being a crepuscular species.

Its occurrence in large numbers during winter was

noted from its call. Two birds were caught and

ringed.

Crab plover Dromas ardeola

A fairly common winter visitor. Starts arriving

in hundreds in September and October. Maximum

numbers were observed during autumn passage in

October. Present mainly in the intertidal area of

Manali island. Considerable numbers were also

noticed at Kundugal Point and Hare island. Not

recorded from Dhanuskodi and Pillaimadam lagoon.

A few individuals ( 1 0-20) mostly the first year birds

summer in Manali island.

Redwattled lapwing Vciriellus indicus

A breeding resident occurring in small

numbers, mostly along the grassy patches of

Pillaimadam lagoon.

Yellow-wattled lapwing Vanellus malabaricus

A breeding resident occurring in small

numbers along with the Redwattled lapwing in the

Pillaimadam lagoon and grassy patches near

freshwater pools.

Herring gull Larus argentatus

A winter visitor in considerable numbers.

Arrives in November and winters till April. Mostly

found along the Pillaimadam lagoon and Manali

island. Maximum population wintered during 1986-

87.

Great blackheaded gull Larus ichthyaetus

A winter visitor. Arrives in November in small

numbers, seen with the Herring gull at Pillaimadam

lagoon and Manali island. Maximum number

counted was 85 during 1985-86.

Great blackbacked gull Larus fuscus

A regular winter visitor in small numbers, seen

only on Manali island. Arrive in late October and

depart in April. Maximum number (64) was recorded

during 1987-88.

Brownheaded gull Larus brunnicephalus

A fairly common winter visitor in several

hundreds between October and April. A few

individuals were seen till May. Recorded in all the

study sites. Majority of them were seen at

Dhanuskodi. The maximum number counted was

600.

Blackheaded gull Larus ridibundus

A common winter visitor in small numbers

and recorded from all the habitats. Occurs between

November and March. Maximum number of 85 birds

were recorded during 1985-86.

Whiskered tern Chlidonias hybrida

A common winter visitor in a few hundreds.

Some individuals were seen throughout the

year. Recorded from all the habitats. The

maximum number was recorded during

February and March.

SHORE BIRDS OF THE MARINE NATIONAL PARK IN THE GULF OF MANNAR

309

Gullbilled tern Gelochelidon nilotica

A common winter visitor in small numbers.

Recorded from all the habitats in the study area. A

few individuals were seen throughout the summer

also. The maximum number of 136 was counted in

October 1985

Caspian tern Hydroprogne caspia

A regular winter in small numbers (50-85).

Recorded in all the study sites. A few individuals

oversummered on Manali island.

Common tern Sterna hirundo

A regular winter visitor. Arrives in small

numbers, between October and April, without much

fluctuation in population. A few birds were sighted

during summer, especially on the islands.

Little tern Sterna albifrons

A common breeding resident found in all the

habitats. Their numbers were augmented in the

winter by non-breeding migrants from other regions.

The breeding season is from April to July.

Lesser crested tern Sterna bengalensis

One of the abundant winter visitors to this area.

The maximum numbers were recorded during their

autumn passage in October. A portion of the

population breeding on the islets of Adam’s bridge

between Dhanuskodi and Mannar island of Sri

Lanka. The maximum number was recorded during

October 1985. Seen in all the study sites, but the

largest number were counted from Manali island.

The breeding season is between May and July.

Ducks, teals and geese

Three species of ducks (Pintail Anas acuta,

Wigeon A. penelope, Shoveller A. clypeata ), two

species of teals (Common Teal A. crecca, Garganey

A. querqueduld) and the Barheaded Goose Anser

indicus were recorded during the study period.

The commonest species is the Pintail (> 1000)

followed by Garganey (> 500). Common Teal,

Wigeon and Shoveller were observed in numbers

between 200-400. Twenty eight Barheaded Geese

were seen at the pillaimadam lagoon once.

Ducks arrive in November and stay till April

depending upon the water conditions.

Egrets and herons

The local migrants like egrets (Little Egret

Egretta garzetta, Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis, Large

Egret Ardea alba) and heron (Grey Heron Ardea

cinerea, Pond Heron Ardeola gray'd, Reef Heron

Egretta gularis and Little Green Heron Ardeola

striatus ) were seen throughout the season. Their

number fluctuated due to local movement subject to

the water conditions. The population in the two

islands were almost stable throughout the year, but

at Dhanuskodi and Pillaimadam lagoons their

numbers (especially Little Egret) went up to more

than a thousand during March and April when the

lagoons were drying. Little Green Heron and Reef

Heron were rare among this group.

Discussion

Mandapam and its neighbouring islands are

important coastal habitats for both passage and

wintering migrant waterbirds, especially for the sand-

flat preferring waders, maritime terns and flamingos.

It supports a waterbird population of over 50,000

including resident and migrant species.

Though this area supports relatively lesser

number of waders other than well known wader

habitats such as Chilka Lake, Pulicat Lake and Great

Vedaranyam Swamp. This is the only known habitat,

along the east coast of India to support the uncommon

sand-flat preferring species, namely Crab Plover,

Sanderling, Knot, Eastern Knot and Bartailed Godwit

in considerable numbers.

Alternatively exposed and submerged

intertidal areas in the islands (due to daily tidal

impacts), offer favourable feeding and roosting sites

for the wintering and summering birds throughout

the year. The huge congregation of passage and

wintering migrants makes almost all the habitats

sustain a dense wintering population during

September and October. The highest density was

seen on Manali island due to the occurrence of large

number of birds within a small intertidal area of

310

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

c. 1.5 sq. km. However, the Dhanuskodi lagoon

supports a numerically large population of waders

throughout winter except for two months.

Status of coastal birds: Among the waders the

Lesser Sand Plover, Curlew-Sandpiper and Little

Stint are most abundant. Ali and Ripley (1983) stated

that Lesser Sand Plovers were more abundant,

whereas the other two species were recorded as

common winter visitors. However, this study

shows that Curlew-Sandpiper and Little Stint are also

among the abundant winter visitors to India. The

status of the Knot is established as a regular

winter visitor to India in small numbers, and the

species is not a straggler as reported previously. Some

of the uncommon waders to India such as Eastern

Knot, Curlew and Whimbrel were found to be

regular winter visitors at Mandapam. The occurrence

of Crab Plovers in hundreds indicated that the

two islands (Manali and Hare) in the Gulf of Mannar

are important habitats next only to Piroten Islands

in Kutch (coastal north-west India) where two

to three thousand of them were reported to

winter regularly (Hussain and Natarajan, Pers.

comm.).

The Bar-tailed Godwit, reportedly a straggler

in south India, was recorded in hundreds. The status

of Sanderling was confirmed as a regular common

winter visitor as stated by Biddulph (1938).

The marine terns, such as Lesser Crested and

Sandwich Terns commonly occurred in the study

area. The Lesser Crested Tern was reported to breed

in the islets of Adam’s bridge, and this fact has been

confirmed by the present study. The other breeding

species at Mandapam are: Little Tern, Kentish Plover,

Stone Plover Esacus magnirostris and Stone Curlew

Burhinus oedicnemus. Since flamingos frequent this

area in several thousands, this is the third important

wintering ground for flamingos along the east coast,

next to Pulical Lake and Great Vedaranyam Swamp.

The rare waders to this area are the Broadbilled

Sandpiper, Dunlin, Rednecked Phalarope, Longtoed

and Temminck’s Stint.

Passage and wintering migrants: Though

individuals of most of the wader species stayed here

throughout the winter season, some species occurred

only as autumn passage migrants. The Black-tailed

Godwit and Broad-billed Sandpiper are the two

passage migrants, occurring only in October in low

numbers. The other wintering migrants which

occurred in relatively larger numbers, during their

autumn passage, are Crab Plover, Grey Plover, Large

Sand Plover, Whimbrel, Bar-tailed Godwit, Terek

Sandpiper, Oystercatcher and Lesser Crested Tern.

The only species occurring in larger numbers during

spring passage was the Kentish Plover. The species

occurring in maximum numbers both in autumn and

spring passages are Knot, Eastern Knot, Sanderling,

Eastern Golden Plover. Generally most of the

migrant species were found in maximum numbers

during earlier part of September and October, while

a few species in peak numbers occurred during spring

passage (February and March).

Summering migrants: Individuals of 15

species of migratory waders and 8 species of

migratory terns were found to oversummer especially

on the two islands. Individuals of these 23 species

of migrants could thus be recorded throughout the

year.

Arrival and departure dates: The migrants

started arriving in late August. Most of the species

arrived before the first week of October. The coastal

species arriving after the first week of October were

Knot, Eastern Knot, Marsh Sandpiper, Spotted

Sandpiper, Green Sandpiper and Little Ringed

Plover. The ducks, teals and flamingos and gulls

arrived late in November.

Similarly, the departure time of migrants was

generally from mid March to mid April. Some

waders, such as Kentish Plover, Marsh Sandpiper,

Terek Sandpiper and Bar-tailed Godwit departed

during the last week of February, earlier than the

other waders.

The species that departed very late were the

Lesser Sand Plover, Curlew-Sandpiper, Sanderling,

Grey Plover, Greenshank and Redshank. The

departure time of fresh water species was solely

dependent on the condition of freshwater pools,

formed by rain water inundation. Similarly, water

level in the Dhanuskodi lagoon was the prime factor

determining departure period of flamingo.

SHORE BIRDS OF THE MARINE NATIONAL PARK IN THE GULF OF MANNAR

311

Acknowledgements

I am greatly indebted to the Bombay Natural

History Society for providing all the infrastructure

to carry out the studies, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service, Washington, D.C., for funding the Bird

Migration Project through PL-480. I am grateful to

Mr V.R. Chitrapu, Chief Wildlife Warden, Tamil

Nadu Forest Department and his subordinates based

at the Gulf of Mannar for their cooperation. My

Refer

All S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan, Compact Edition. Oxford Univerity Press,

New Delhi.

Balaciiandran, S. (1990): Interesting bird records from

Mandapam and it’s neighbouring islands, Tamil Nadu, J.

Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 87: 456-457.

Balachandran, S. (1991): Occurrence of White or Longtailed

Tropic-bird ( Pluietlion lepturus) from southeast coast of

India. ./. Bombay nut. Hist. Soc. 88: 441-442.

Biddulph, C.H. (1938): The birds of Rameswaram Island. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 237-256.

Jayaraman, R. (1954): Seasonal variations in salinity, dissolved

Oxygen and nutrient salts in the inshore waters of the

Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay near Mandapam

(S. India). Indian J. Fish. 1: 345-364.

sincere thanks to Prof . R. Natarajan, the then

Director, Centre for Advanced Studies in Marine

Biology, Porto Novo and Mr J.C. Daniel, former

Director of the BNHS for their encouragement

throughout the study and also for going through the

manuscript and making valuable comments. My

thanks are also due to my colleague Mr. S. Alagar

Rajan for his wholehearted cooperation in the final

stage of the manuscript.

ENCES

Lal Mohan, R.S. (1985): Capture of coastal birds in the

Pillaimadam Lagoon at Mandapam, southeast coast of

India. Symposium on Endangered Marine Animals and

Marine Parks, Paper No. 57. Cochin 12-16 January, 1985.

Lal Mohan, R.S. (1986): Recovery of a ringed Sandwich Tern

Sterna sandvicensis from Rameshwaram island, Tamil

Nadu, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 664.

Prasad, R.R. (1956): Further studies on the plankton

of the inshore waters of Mandapam. Indian J. Fish. 3: 1-

42.

Prasad, R.R. (1958): Plankton calendars of the inshore waters of

Mandapam with a note on the productivity of the area.

Indian J. Fish. 5: 170-188.

Sudarsan, D. (1961): Observations on the Chaetognatha of the

waters around Mandapam. Indian J.Fish. 8: 364-382.

3 1 2 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 92 (1995)

APPENDIX

CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF MANDAPAM AND RAMESWARAM

SHORE BIRDS OF THE MARINE NATIONAL PARK IN THE GULF OF MANNAR

313

Common Name Species Common Name Species

105. Blue Rock Pigeon

106. Indian Ring Dove

107. Indian Spotted Dove

108. Roseringed Parakeet

109. Redwinged Crested Cuckoo

1 1 0. Pied Crested Cuckoo

111. Small Cuckoo

1 12. Common Hawk Cuckoo or

Brain fever Bird

1 13. Indian Plaintive Cuckoo

1 14. Indian Banded Bay Cuckoo

1 15. Indian Drongo Cuckoo

116. Koel

1 17. Small Greenbilled Malkoha

118. Crow-pheasant

119. Spotted Owlet

120. Short-eared Owl

121. Common Nightjar

122. Alpine Swift

123. Palm Swift

124. Lesser Pied Kingfisher

125. Common Kingfisher

126. Whitebreasted Kingfisher

127. Blackcapped Kingfisher

128. Bluetailed Bee -eater

129. Green Bee-eater

1 30. Indian Roller or Blue Jay

131. Hoopoe

132. Lesser Goldenbacked

Woodpecker

133. Indian Pitta

134. Bush Lark

135. Redwinged Bush Lark

1 36. Ashycrowned Finch-Lark

137. Eastern Skylark

138. Swallow

139. Baybacked Shrike

140. Brown Shrike

141. Golden Oriole

142. Black Drongo

143. Grey Drongo

144. Ashy Swallow-Shrike

145. Greyheaded Myna

146. Whiteheaded Myna

Columba livid

Streptopelia decaocto

Streptopelia chinensis

Psittacula krameri

Clamator coromandus

Clamator jacobinus

Cuculus poliocephalus

Cuculiis varius

Cacomantis passer in us

Ca co in an tis sonnet a ti i

Suniicuhts lugubris

Eudynamys scolopacea

Rhopodytes viridirostris

Centwpus sinensis

Athene braina

Asia flam metis

Capriniulgus asiaticus

Apus nielba

Cypsi unis parvus

Ceryle rudis

Alcedo atthis

Halcyon sniyrnensis

Halcyon pileata

Me t ops ph ilipp in us

Merops orientalis

Coracias benghalensis

Upupa epops

Dinopium benghalense

Pitta brachyura

Mirafra assamica

Mirafra erythroptera

Eremopterix grisea

Alauda gulgula

Hi ru ndo rustica

Lanins vittatus

Lanins cristatus

Oriolus oriolus

Dicru rus adsimilis

Dicru rus leucopluieus

Altaians fuscus

Sturnus malabaricus

inalabaricus

Sturnus malabaricus blythii

147. Brahminy Myna

148. Rosy Pastor

149. Common Myna

150. Indian Tree Pie

151. House Crow

152. Jungle Crow

153. Common Wood Shrike

154. Blackheaded

Cuckoo-Shrike

155. Common lora

156. Redvented Bulbul

157. Whitebrowed Bulbul

158. Common Babbler

159. Whiteheaded Babbler

160. Brown Flycatcher

161. Brownbreasted Flycatcher

162. Bluethroated Flycatcher

163. Paradise Flycatcher

164. Tailor Bird

165. Blyth’s Reed Warbler

166. Paddyfield Warbler

167. Lesser Whitethroat

1 68. Largebilled Leaf Warbler

169. Dull Green Leaf Warbler

170. Blue Chat

171. Magpie-Robin

172. Indian Robin

173. Pied Ground Thrush

174. Orangeheaded Ground

Thrush

175. Richard’s Pipit

176. Paddyfield Pipit

177. Forest Wagtail

178. Yellow Wagtail

179. Grey Wagtail

180. Large Pied Wagtail

181. Tickell’s Flowerpecker

182. Purplerumped Sunbird

183. Purple Sunbird

1 84. House Sparrow

S 85. Yellowthroated Sparrow

186. Spotted Munia

187. Blackheaded Munia

Sturnus pogadarum

Sturnus mseus

Acridotheres tristis

Dendrocitta vagabunda

Corvus splendens

Corvus macrorhynchos

Tephrodornis pondicerianus

Coracina melanoptera

Aegithina tiphia

Pycnonotus c ufer

Pycn on otus luteolus

Turdoides caudatus

Turdoides affinis

Muscicapa latirostris

Muscicapa inuttui

Muscicapa rubeculoides

Terp sip hone paradisi

Orthotomus sutorius

Acrocephalus dumetorum

Acrocephalus agricola

Sylvia curruca

Phylloscopus magnirostris

Phylloscopus trochiloides

Erithacus brunneus

Copsychus sau laris

Saxico l aides fuli cat a

Zoothera wardii

Zoothera citrina

Ant lius novaeseelaniliae

ricliardi

Anthus novaeseelandiae

ruful us

Motacilla indica

Motac ilia flava

Motacilla cine re a

Motacilla maderaspatensis

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos

Nectarinia zeylonica

Necta rin ia as in ti ca

Passer domesticus

Petronia xanthocoll is

Lonchura punctulata

Lonchura malacca

CYTOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE ASTERACEAE-GENUS BLUMEA

AND RELATED GENERA LAGGERA AND NANOTHAMNUS 1

A.R. Daruwalla2

( With three plates )

Key words: Blumea spp., Laggera spp., Nanothamnus sp., cytological treatment

Meiotic chromosome numbers are reported for 20 species o Blumea, 3 species of Laggera and 1 species

of Nanothamnus occurring in India. The counts have been made from a total of 250 specimens, with full voucher

information for each. New data is compared with all previous reports for the species of these three genera. Some

conclusions are drawn regarding the affinities of the species.

Introduction

The genus Blumea belongs to the Tribe

Inuleae, Sub-tribe Plucheinae, of the family

Asteraceae and forms a dominant element of the

“weed floras” of SE. Asia. Many species of the genus

are second growth plants occupying disturbed areas

along roadsides, railway lines and forest paths, and

in clearings, thickets and waste fields. A few species

are shrubby and grow as undergrowth plants of

evergreen forests at high altitudes. All species are

tropical and restricted to the Old World.

Laggera is also a weedy genus distributed in

India, tropical Asia and Africa. Nanothamnus is

endemic, monotypic and restricted to a few localities

in western peninsular India.

On the basis of previous taxonomic

investigations (Randeria 1960), the genus Blumea

has been divided into 7 sections containing a total

of 49 species over the entire geographical range.

These species have been delimited on the basis of

traditional characters of habit and inflorescence type,

as well as on the anatomy of leaf epidermal cells,

position of stomata, and type of trichomes. This was

necessary because the species of the genus are very

closely inter-related and often subtly intergrade into

one another through hybridization, back crossing and

apomixis. The pattern of evolution is possibly a

highly complex, three-dimensional reticulum. In

1 Accepted October 1 993.

2 Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay 400 001 .

general, Blumea appears to be a young genus rapidly

evolving at the present time and also extending its

geographic range. Because of these various

problems, additional evidence from cytological

investigations was needed to support the data from

external and internal morphology.

It was with this view in mind that the present

study was undertaken. The cytological investigations

have been limited only to the Indian species of

Blumea, Laggera and Nanothamnus because of the

ready availability of the material. Of the total of 49

species of Blumea, 23 occur in India and they are

distributed among 6 of the 7 sections of the genus.

Material could only be collected for 19 of these

species, and they have been investigated for their

chromosome numbers. In addition, chromosome

counts have also been obtained for Laggera aurita

Sch.-Bip. and Nanothamnus sericeus T. Thoms.

Materials and Methods

Fresh materials of the various species of

Blumea, Laggera and Nanothamnus were collected

and included both capitula with unopened flower

buds and mature achenes. The capitula were fixed

in the field whereas the achenes were preserved for

subsequent germination in the laboratory. The

chromosome counts listed in this study were,

however, exclusively made from meiotic divisions

in the pollen mother cells because of the inability of

getting the seeds to germinate even under varied

conditions.

CYT0L0G1CAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE ASTERACEAE

315

Collections were made over three successive

growing seasons and in all some 250 specimens have

been obtained. All these were subjected to

cytological inquiry. Four other species of Blumea,

namely, Blumea aromatica DC., Blumea barbata

DC., Blumea bifoliata (Linn.) DC., and Blumea

napifolia DC., have been reported as occurring in

India. Material for the same could not be collected

and hence, these have been excluded from the present

cytological treatment.

Young capitula of various sizes with unopened

florets were collected from the plant and immediately

fixed in the field in Newcomer’s solution (Newcomer

1953). The same specimen was later pressed and

mounted for the herbarium.

The fixed material was brought to the

laboratory and left to stand for at least 24 hours in

order to allow for thorough penetration by the

fixative. The material was then transferred to vials

containing propionocarmine and stained for 24

hours. After this, the anthers were dissected out in a

drop of stain on a slide and squashed by digital

pressure. Slides were made permanent by immersing

them in a solution containing one part glacial acetic

acid and one part N-butyl alcohol till the slide and

coverslip could be separated. Then, the slide and

coverslip with the adhering material were passed

through pure N-butyl alcohol for dehydration before

mounting in Canada Balsam.

Karyotype drawings were made with a camera

lucida from both temporary and permanent mounts;

all illustrations are drawn to the same scale.

Photographs have been made from permanent slides.

Voucher specimens with karyotype diagrams and

permanent slides have been deposited in the Blatter

Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay.

All the Indian species of Blumea investigated

cytologically are arranged under their respective

sections. The treatment of each species includes the

chromosome number and a list of specimens.

Diagrams and photomicrographs of meiotic figures

are provided for each species. The species of Laggera

and Nanothamnus are similarly described.

Cytological History of Tribe Inuleae — Sub-tribe

Plucheinae: The Plucheinae is one of the 8 subtribes

of the Tribe Inuleae and includes a total of 1 8 genera

(Hoffmann 1897). Ten genera have very restricted

distribution and of these, 5 are endemic as well as

monotypic. The remaining 8 genera have few to

many species each and are widely distributed and

abundant where they occur.

There is not much information regarding the

cytology of the Plucheinae. Chromosome numbers

have been reported for only 5 genera and, in each

case, only a few species have been worked out.

The 5 genera are: Pluchea (8 species): 2n = 20

or 30; Pterocaulon (1 species) : 2n = 20 ; Blumea (14

species) : 2n = 18, 20, or 22; Laggera (4 species):

2n = 20 or 22; Sphaeranthus (2 species) :2n = 20.

With regard to the other subtribes of the

Inuleae, the following chromosome numbers have

been reported:

Subtribe Tarchonanthinae — 3 genera — no

reports.

Subtribe Filagininae — 12 genera.

Filago ger manic a: 2n = 28.

Subtribe Gnaphalinae — 49 genera

Antenaria (7 species): 2n = 28, 42, 56 or 84;

Leontopodium (4 species): 2n - 20, 24 or 52;

Anaphalis (3 species) : 2n = 14 or 28; Gnaphalium

(6 species): 2n = 14, 28, or 56; Helichrysum (1

species): 2n = 28.

Subtribe Angianthinae — 1 1 genera

Caesulia axillaris Roxb.: 2n = 14.

Subtribe Relhaninae — 14 genera — no

reports.

Subtribe Athrixinae — 7 genera — no reports.

Subtribe Inulinae — 22 genera

Inula (7 species): 2n = 16 or 32;

Perralderia (1 species): 2n = 18.

From the above rather inadequate data, it is

difficult to draw any conclusions. However, it

appears in general that 3 subtribes of the Inuleae,

namely, Filagininae, Gnaphalinae and Angianthinae

have a base number of n = 7. The Inulinae possibly

have a base number of n = 8 or 9.

The existing records of the 5 genera of the

Plucheinae, as well as this present study on the

chromosome counts of Blumea, Laggera and

Nanothamnus point towards a base number of n = 9,

316

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 ( 1995 )

10 or 11 for the subtribe.

The Inuleae thus appear to be a diverse and

possibly polyphyletic group with the commonest

basic chromosome numbers ranging from n = 7 to n

= 11. Polyploid series exist for all these numbers

though aneuploidy is not common.

These results conform with the work done on

the chromosome numbers of other tribes of the

Asteraceae. Extensive studies have been carried out

on the Astereae and n = 9 is regarded as a basic

number for that group with a second mode centering

around n = 4 or 5. In general, the woody habit is

primitive and the low chromosome number is a

specialised condition correlated with dry habitat

(Raven et al. 1960, 1964).

The Helenieae have the commonest basic

numbers n = 6, 7, or 8, and the chromosome numbers

coincide with morphological variability. It is not

possible to arrive at a single basic number for this

tribe (Raven and Kyhos 1961).

A base number of n = 10 has been proposed

for the Senecioneae (Ornduff et al. 1 963) and of n =

9 for the Ambrosineae (Payne et al. 1964).

Cytological Treatment:

A. Blumea DC.

The genus Blumea has been divided into 7

sections and 49 species (Randeria 1960). Of these, 6

sections including 23 species are represented in India.

Section Sagittatae occurs only in China and

Indochina.

Section I. Semivestitae

Total number of species — 8.

Species found in India — 3.

Species belonging to this section are

predominantly shrubby. The capitula are paniculate

with the outer phyllaries ovate to oblong. The

receptacle is pubescent to fimbriate. Achenes are

ribbed.

1 . Blumea procera DC., Prodr. 5: 445. 1 836.

Chromosome number: n = 10

Specimens examined: Assam, Shillong:

ARD 83, ARD 238, ARD 240, ARD 248 (BLAT).

2. Blumea riparia (B 1 .) DC., Prodr. 5: 444.

1836.

var. riparia Randeria, Blumea 10 (1): 214.

1960.

Conyza riparia Blume, Bijdr. 899. 1826, non

H.B.K.

Chromosome number: n= 10 (Previously

reported - n = 9, Bhattarai, Gorkhali and Saiju from

Nepal).

Specimens examined: Assam, Shillong:

ARD 84, ARD 239, ARD 250 (BLAT).

3. Blumea lanceolaria (Roxb.) Druce, Rep.

Bot. Exch. Club Brit. Isles 4:609. 1917.

Conyza lanceolaria Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 432.

1832.

Chromosome number: n = 10 (Previously

reported - n = 10, R.C. Gupta and B.S. Gill from

Madhya Pradesh).

Specimens examined: N. Kanara,

Castlerock: ARD J 09-112; Jog Falls: ARD 142, 143;

Sirsi: ARD 146, 147, ARD 214 (BLAT).

Section II. Macrophyllae

Total number of species - 1 0.

Species found in India - 3.

Species belonging to this section range from

herbaceous to shrubby. The capitula are arranged in

panicles and the outer phyllaries are linear. The

receptacle may be glabrous, pilose or fimbrillate.

Achenes are ribbed.

4. Blumea aromatica DC., Prodr. 5: 446.

1836.

Chromosome number: This species was

not examined cytologically as no material of the same

was collected (Previously reported - 2n = 18, Malla,

Bhattarai et al. from Nepal; 2n = 18, Ching-I Peng

and Chien-Chang Hsu from Taiwan).

5. Blumea densiflora DC., Prodr. 5: 446.

1836.

Chromosome number: No chromosome

count could be made for this species because young

flower buds could not be collected. The specimens

Plate 1

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92

Daruwalla: Asteraceae

n « io Card 33)

2® 81umea rlparia (Bl.) DC®

n « io Card 84)

3® Blumea lanceolaria. (Roxb® } Druce

n « 10 CARD 110)

4® Blumea balsamifera (Linn®) DC®

n = io Card 228)

25/t

5® Blumea hieracll folia (D, Son) DC®

var® Mac ros t achya (DC®) Hook®£®

n « is Card 88)

n * io Card isi)

Photomicrographs and Karyotype Drawings.

1-3. Section Semivestitae; 4. Section Macrophyllae; 5-6. Section Hieraciifoliae.

I. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92

Daruwalla: Asteraceae

Plate 2

1, Blumea flstulosa (RoxbJ Kxirz

n a 20 CARD 164}

Blumea sessiiiflora Decsne®

n « io Card 2215

§» Blumea laciniata (Roxb®) DC®

n « 11 Card 1935

4. Blumea mollis (D®Don) Merr,

127)

L —

5® Blumea iacera (Buriruf®) DC® 25 Ju

n a 22 CARD 71)

6® Blumea membranacea DC®

7® Blumea membranacea DC®

var, i acquemont 1 i (Hk® f ,

Rand®

Photomicrographs and Karyotype Drawings.

1-8. Section Paniculatae.

CYTOLOG1CAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE ASTERACEAE

317

were collected mostly in fruit. There is no previous

report of the chromosome number.

Specimens examined: Assam, Mowlai

Forest Reserve: ARD 241, ARD 247 (BLAT).

6. Blumea balsamifera (Linn.) DC., Prodr.

5: 447.1836.

Conyza balsamifera Linn. Sp. PI. ed. 2: 1208.

1763.

Chromosome number: n = 10

Specimens examined: Assam, Shillong:

ARD 245 - 246\ Mowlai Forest Reserve: ARD 249.

Nepal, Chatraghat: ARD 227-228 (BLAT).

Section III. Sagittatae

This section contains one species, Blumea

sagittata Gagnep., found only in China.

Section IV. Hieraciifoliae

Total number of species - 5.

Species found in India - 2.

Species belonging to this section are either

herbs or subshrubs. The capitula occur in clusters.

Phyllaries are linear-oblong. The receptacle is

alveolate and glabrous or pilose. Achenes are

ribbed.

7. Blumea hieraciifolia (D. Don) DC. in

Wight, Contrib. Bot. Ind. 15. 1834.

Erigeron hieracifolium D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep.

272. 1825.

This species has four varieties, three of which

occur in India - var. hieraciifolia, var. macrostachya ,

and var. hamiltoni. The chromosome number has

been worked out for only one of these varieties.

var. macrostachya (DC.) Hook.f., FI. Brit.

India 3: 263. 1882.

Chromosome number: n = 1 8 (Previously

reported - 2n = 48, Ching-I Peng and Chien-Chang

Hsu from Taiwan).

Specimens examined: Assam, Shillong:

ARD 238, ARD 240 - 241, ARD 247 - 248 (BLAT).

8. Blumea clarkei Hook.f., FI. Brit. India

3: 267. 1882.

Chromosome number: n = 10

Specimens examined: N. Kanara: ARD 151-

153, ARD 215-220 (BLAT).

Section V. Paniculatae

Total number of species -11.

Species found in India - 9.

Species belonging to this section are herbs.

Capitula occur in panicles or glomerules. Phyllaries

are linear. The receptacle is alveolate and glabrous

or pubescent. Achenes may or may not be ribbed.

9. Blumea fistulosa (Roxb.) Kurz, Jour. As.

Soc. Bengal 46(2): 187. 1877.

Conyza fistulosa Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 429. 1832.

Chromosome number: n = 20 (Previously

reported - 2n = 30, R.C. Gupta and B.S. Gill from

Madhya Pradesh; n = 9, Abraham Mathew and PM.

Mathew from Kerala).

Specimens examined: Madhya Pradesh,

Umaria-Khappa: ARD 162 - 166. East Nepal: ARD

229-230 (BLAT)

10. Blumea sessiliflora Decaisne, Nouv. Ann.

Mus. Par. 3: 140. 1834.

Chromosome number: n = 10

Specimens examined : Karnataka,

Castlerock and N. Kanara: ARD 113, ARD 123-124,

ARD 211-212, ARD 221 (BLAT).

1 1. Blumea laciniata (Roxb.) DC., Prodr. 5:

436. 1836.

Conyza laciniata Roxb., FI. Ind. 3: 428. 1 832.

Chromosome number: n = 1 1 (Previously

reported - n = 11, Remananden from West

Himalayas, 2n = 1 8, Ching-I Peng and Chien-Chang

Hsu from Taiwan).

Specimens examined: Assam, Shillong:

ARD 242, ARD 244. Gujarat, Dahanu: ARD 190-

196. Karnataka, N. Kanara: ARD 159-160. E. Nepal:

ARD 232 (BLAT).

12. Blumea mollis (D. Don) Merr., Philipp.

Jour. Sci. (Bot.) 5: 395. 1910.

Erigeron / nolle D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 172.

1825.

Chromosome number: n = 10 or 11

(Previously reported - n = 11, Remananden from

Nilgiri Hills; n = 1 1, L.S. Gill and A.M. Abubakar

from Tanzania; n = 9 + 1-2, Abraham Mathew and

PM. Mathew from Kerala).

318

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Specimens examined: Maharashtra,

Bombay: ARD 14-15 , ARD 68-69, ARD 200;

Khandala: ARD 45; Koyna: ARD 24; Mahableshwar:

ARD 64; Matheran: ARD 31, ARD 71. Karnataka,

Belgaum: ARD 135; Castlerock: ARD 226. Gujarat,

Baroda: ARD 104-106; Dahanu: ARD 187-188.

Madhya Pradesh, Nagpur: ARD 170, ARD 172

(BLAT).

13. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. in Wight,

Contrib. Bot. Ind. 14. 1834.

Conyza lacera Burm.f., FI. Ind. 180, t. 59, f.

1. 1768.

Chromosome number: n = 22 (Previously

reported - n = 9, Patil and Kamble from W. Bengal;

2n = 36, Ching-I Peng and Chien-Chang Hsu from

Taiwan).

Specimens examined: Maharashtra,

Lonavla: ARD 81. Karnataka, Castlerock: ARD 117-

122, ARD 129, ARD 138, ARD 222. Gujarat, Dangs:

ARD 178-179. Nepal: ARD 223-224, ARD 235-237

(BLAT)

14. Blumea membranacea DC., Prodr. 5: 440.

1836.

Conyza membranacea Wall., Cat. no. 3019,

comp. no. 129. 1831 n.n.

Chromosome number: n = 9

(Previously reported - n = 22, Remananden

from Kerala; 2n=18, Abraham Mathew and P.M.

Mathew from Tamil Nadu).

Specimens examined: Maharashtra, Borivli

National Park: ARD 17; Elephanta Island: ARD 35-

37; Khandala: ARD 49; Lonavla: ARD 79;

Mahableshwar: ARD 29, ARD 63; Matheran: ARD

32, ARD 71. Madhya Pradesh, Nagpur: ARD 171,

ARD 173; Tamia: ARD 154-155, ARD 158

(BLAT).

var. jacquemontii (Hook.f.) Randeria,

Blumea 10 (1): 271. 1960.

Blumea jacquemontii Hook.f., FI. Brit. India

3: 265. 1882.

Chromosome number: n = 9

Specimens examined: Rajasthan, Mount

Abu: ARD 91-99 (BLAT).

15. Blumea virens DC. in Wight, Contrib.

Bot. Ind. 14. 1834.

Conyza virens Wall., Cat. no. 3037, comp. no.

147. 1831 n.n.

Chromosome number: n = 9

Specimens examined: Karnataka,

Castlerock: ARD 125-126; N. Kanara: ARD 139-

MO, ARD 144-145, ARD 148-150 (BLAT).

Section VI. Oxyodontae

Total number of species - 4.

Species found in India - 4.

Species belonging to this section are pubescent

herbs which may be erect or prostrate. Capitula are

arranged in axillary and terminal clusters or panicles.

Outer phyllaries are linear. The receptacle is glabrous

and alveolate. Achenes are not ribbed.

16. Blumea belangeriana DC., Prodr. 5: 444.

1836.

Chromosome number: n = 10

Specimens examined: Gujarat, Dangs: ARD

181 ; Junagadh: ARD 66. Karnataka, Castlerock: ARD

128; Jog Falls: ARD 141. Maharashtra, Khandala:

ARD 48; Matheran: ARD 30, ARD 72, ARD 75

(BLAT).

17. Blumea malcolmii (Clarke) Hook.f., FI.

Brit. India 3: 266. 1882.

Pluchea malcolmii Clarke, Comp. Ind. 95.

1876.

Chromosome number: Only one specimen

was collected and no count could be made.

(Previously reported - 2n= 1 8, Abraham Mathew and

P.M. Mathew from Kerala).

Specimen examined: Maharashtra,

Mahableshwar: ARD 28 (BLAT).

18. Blumea eriantha DC. in Wight, Contrib.

Bot. Ind. 15. 1834.

Chromosome number: n = 30 (Previously

reported - 2n = 20, Amthul Shukur, K.N. Narayan

and C. Shantamma from Karnataka).

Specimens examined: Include both fertile

plants with well-developed anthers and sterile ones

with abortive anthers.

Fertile : Gujarat, Baroda: ARD 185.

Maharashtra, Bombay: ARD 5-6; Lonavla: ARD 80;

Mahableshwar ARD 50-51, ARD 62, ARD 65, ARD

202-204; Matheran: ARD 33, ARD 70, ARD 82;

Nagpur: ARD 176 (BLAT).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92

Daruwalla: Asteraceae

Plate 3

2® Blumea, a riant ha DC®

n « 30 Card 202)

3# Blumea oxyodonta DC®

n « 10 (ARD 202}

4® Blumea obi i qua (Linn®) Druce

n « 10 (ARD 183}

25 A

n ~ 10 {ARD 132)

6® Nanotharonus sericeus T, Thoms

n « 10 (ARD 197}

Photomicrographs and Karyotype Drawings.

1-3. Section Oxyodontae; 4. Section Dissitiflorae; 5. Laggera\ 6. Nanothamnus.

CYTOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE ASTERACEAE

319

Sterile : Gujarat, Baroda: ARD 103 , ARD 107;

Dangs: ARD 180. Karnataka, Belgaum: ARD 134 ;

Castlerock: ARD 1 14-116, ARD 213. Maharashtra,

Bombay: ARD 18-19, ARD 21; Dahanu: ARD 189;

Khandala: ARD 43; Mahableshwar: ARD 54-57,

ARD 59; Nagpur: ARD 174; Tansa: ARD 201

(BLAT).

19. Blumea oxyodonta DC. in Wight, Contrib.

Bot. Ind. 15. 1934.

Chromosome number: n = 10

Specimens examined: Both sterile and fertile

collections were obtained, often from the same

locality, as in the previous species.

Fertile: Gujarat, Dangs: ARD 177.

Maharashtra, Khandala: ARD 44; Koyna: ARD 26;

Lonavla: ARD 78; Mahableshwar: ARD 51, ARD 53,

ARD 55, ARD 60-61; Matheran: ARD 76 (BLAT).

Sterile : Karnataka, Belgaum: ARD 136-137.

Maharashtra, Bombay: ARD 1-4, ARD 7-10, ARD

13, ARD 16; Khandala: ARD 42, ARD 46; Koyna:

ARD 22-23, ARD 25; Lonavla: ARD 77;

Mahableshwar: ARD 27, ARD 58; Matheran: ARD

74; Tansa: ARD 199 (BLAT).

Section VII. Dissitiflorae

Total number of species - 10.

Species found in India - 2.

Species belonging to this section are slender

herbs. Capitula are either solitary or in lax, few-

headed panicles. Outer phyllaries are linear. The

receptacle is areolate and glabrous. Achenes may or

may not be ribbed.

20. Blumea obliqua (Linn.) Druce, Rep. Bot.

Exch. Club Brit. Isles 4: 609. 1916(1917).

Erigeron obliquum Linn. Mant. 2: 573. 1771.

Chromosome number : n = 10 (Previously

reported - n = 10, Bhandari and Singhvi from

Rajasthan; 2n = 20, Amthul Shakur et al. from Tamil

Nadu).

Specimens examined: Gujarat, Baroda: ARD

108; Dangs: ARD 182-183 (BLAT).

21. Blumea bifoliata (Linn.) DC. in Wight,

Contrib. Bot. Ind. 14. 1834.

Conyza bifoliata Linn. Sp. PI. 1207. 1753.

Chromosome number: Not determined, since

no specimens could be collected (Previously reported

- n = 18, Abraham Mathew and P.M. Mathew from

Kerala; 2n = 20, Amthul Shakur et al. from

Karnataka).

B. Laggera Sch.-Bip.

This is a tropical genus with about 10 species

(Hooker 1 882) distributed in Africa and India. It is

distinguished from Blumea by having decurrent leaves

and anthers without tail-like appendages. Six species

occur in India (Clarke 1876), of which two have been

collected and subjected to cytological inquiry.

1. Laggera alata (D.Don) Sch.-Bip. ex Oliver

in Trans. Linn. Soc. 29: 94. 1873.

Erigeron alatum D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 171 .

1825.

Chromosome number: Could not be

determined since only one specimen was collected

(Previously reported - n = 10, Subramaniam and

Kamble from Tamil Nadu).

Specimens examined: Gujarat, Junagadh:

ARD 67 (BLAT).

2. Laggera aurita (Linn.f.) Sch.-Bip. in

Schweinf. Beitr. FI. Aethiop. 151. 1867.

Conyza aurita Linn.f., Suppl. 367. 1781.

Chromosome number: n = 10 (Previously

reported - n = 10, Abraham Mathew and P.M.

Mathew from Tamil Nadu; n — 1 1 , L.S. Gill and A.M.

Abubakar from Tanzania).

Specimens examined: Gujarat, Baroda: ARD

87-90, ARD 100-102, ARD 186; Broach: ARD 184.

Karnataka, Belgaum: ARD 130-133. Maharashtra,

Bombay: ARD 40; Nagpur: ARD 167-169, ARD 186

(BLAT).

3. Laggera flava Benth. and Hook.f., Gen. PI.

ii. 290. 1873.

Chromosome number: No collection

(Previously reported - n = 20, R.C. Gupta and B.S.

Gill from Madhya Pradesh).

4. Laggera pterodonta (DC.) Sch.-Bip. ex

Oliver, Trans. Linn. Soc. London 29: 94. 1873.

Blumea pterodonta DC. in Wight, Contrib.

Bot. Ind. 16. 1834.

320

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Chromosome number: No collection

(Previously reported - n = 10, Abraham Mathew and

P.M. Mathew from Kerala).

C. Nanothamnus T. Thoms.

This is an endemic monotypic genus which

differs from Blumea and Laggera in having distinctly

2-lipped bisexual florets and in lacking a pappus

altogether. It occurs in the hills of the Western Ghats

in peninsular India.

Nanothamnus sericeus T. Thoms, in Jour. Linn.

Soc. 9:342, t. 3, 1867.

Chromosome number: n = 10

Specimens examined: Maharashtra,

Khandala: ARD 47, ARD 197-198 (BLAT).

Conclusions

1 . A study of the chromosome numbers of the

species indicates that the commonest base number

for the genus Blumea is n = 10 which occurs in 1 1 of

the 17 species under investigation. Further, this base

number is found in species belonging to all six

sections of the genus occurring in India.

2. Three species have a base number of

n = 9 and the remaining three have a base number of

n = 11.

3. The following four species are polyploids:

B. hieraciifolia - n = 18; B.fistulosa - n = 20;

B. lacera - n = 22; B. eriantha - n =30.

This indicates that polyploidy occurs in

relation to all three base numbers 9, 10 and 1 1 .

4. Sections Semivestitae and Macrophyllae :

All species have the chromosome number n = 10.

The plants are undershrubs, over 2 m, in height, and

grow in forests and along stream banks. The capitula

are arranged in large, terminal or axillary panicles.

5. Section Hieraciifoliae : Blumea clarkei

Hook. f. (/? = 10) also grows up to 2 m and resembles

B. riparia (Bl.) DC. (Section Semivestitae) in its

habit and capitulum size. Blumea hieraciifolia (D.

Don) DC., withn= 18, is a polymorphous species.

6. Section Paniculatae : This section contains

8 species and is represented by all three base numbers

9, 10 and 1 1 .

a ) Blumea fistulosa (Roxb.) Kurz and B.

sessiliflora Decaisne (n = 10) resemble each other

in having sessile capitula arranged in interruptedly

spicate glomerules whereas the other species in this

section have paniculate inflorescences. Further, they

have a very high coefficient of association (89.4%)

based on capitulum characters (Dakshini and

Prithpalsingh 1977).

b) Blumea laciniata (Roxb.) DC. (n = 11), B.

mollis (D.Don) Merr. (n = 11), and B. lacera (Burm.

f.) DC. ( n - 22), constitute the next group. They are

among the most widespread species of the genus

being distributed throughout the tropical regions of

the Old World. B. laciniata differs from the other

two species in having ribbed achenes and pubescent

receptacles. B. mollis and B. lacera are very closely

related and it is rather difficult to distinguish the two

in herbarium specimens (Randeria 1960). In the field,

however, they are easily distinguishable since B.

mollis has purplish florets and B. lacera has yellow

florets.

c) Blumea membranacea DC. and B. virens

DC. have n = 9 chromosomes. Morphologically, they

are also closely related and the coefficient of

association based on capitulum characters is 98.2%,

being the maximum for the genus. However, the

two species do not show a high coefficient of

association with other species of this section or with

species of other sections (Dakshini and Prithpalsingh

1977).

7. Section Oxyodontae : The base number for

all species of this section is n = 10. Blumea

belangeriana DC. ( n - 10) is endemic to the west

coast of peninsular India whereas B. eriantha DC.

(n = 30) and B. oxyodonta DC. ( n = 10) are widely

distributed and a large proportion of specimens have

abortive anthers.

8. Section Dissitiflorae: The only species of

this section for which a chromosome count could be

made is Blumea obliqua (Linn.) Druce ( n = 10). It

has close affinities with species of Laggera,

particularly L. aurita (Linn.f.) Sch.-Bip.

9. The two related genera, Laggera and

Nanothamnus also have a base chromosome number

of n = 10.

10. It is gratifying to note that the results

obtained from these cytological studies, in general,

CYTOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE ASTERACEAE

321

corroborate the inter-relationships of the various

species and their taxonomy as derived from previous

morphological and anatomical investigations

(Randeria 1960).

Acknowledgements

I wish to express my deep gratitude to

the Ministry of Education, Council for Scientific

and Industrial Research, for the grant of a post-

Refe

Clarke, C.B. (1876): Compositae Indicae descriptae et secus

genera Benthamii ordinatae. Calcutta.

Dakshini, K.M.M. & Prithipal Singh (1977): Numerical

Taxonomy of the Genus Blumea in India. Phytomorphology

27(3): 247-260.

Hoffmann, O. (1897): Compositae. In: Engler and Prantl, Die

naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien, 4 (5): 87-391. Leipzig.

Hooker, J.D. (1 882): The Flora of British India, Vol. 3. London.

Newcomer, E. A. (1953): A new cytological and histological fixing

fluid. Science 1 17: 161.

Ornduff, R., P.H. Raven, D.W. Kyhos & A.R. Kruckeberg

(1963): Chromosome Numbers in Compositae. III.

Senecioneae. American Journal of Botany 50: 131-139.

Payne, Willard W., P.H. Raven & D.W. Kyhos (1964):

doctoral fellowship; to the Principal, St. Xavier’s

College, Bombay, for providing all facilities for

the research work; to Dr. (Mrs.) S.M. Almeida,

Head, Botany Department, Mr. M.R. Almeida,

Alchemie Research Centre, and colleagues for their

help and constant encouragement; to Prof. PV. Bole

and late Dr. N.A. Irani for their assistance in

collecting specimens and their constructive

suggestions.

NCES

Chromosome Numbers in Compositae. IV. Ambrosieae.

American Journal of Botany 51(4): 419-424.

Randeria, A.J. (1960): The Composite Genus Blumea, a

taxonomic revision. Blumea JO (I): 176-317.

Raven, P.H. & D.W. Kyhos (1961): Chromosome Numbers in

Compositae. II. Helenieae. American Journal of Botany 48:

842-850.

Raven, P.H., O.T. Solbrig, D.W. Kyhos & Richard Snow (1960):

Chromosome Numbers in Compositae. I. Astereae. American

Journal of Botany 47 (2): 124-132.

Solbrig, O.T., L.C. Anderson, D.W. Kyhos, P.H. Raven &

Lily Rudenberg (1964): Chromosome Numbers in

Compositae. V. Astereae II. American Journal of Botany 51

(5): 513-519.

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF THE BRONZEWINGED (METOPIDIUS INDICES) AND

PHEASANT-TAILED ( HYDROPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS) JACANAS IN KEOLADEO

NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN1

N. K. Ramachandran and V. S. Vijayan2

( Wi th fi ve text-fig u res )

Key words: Metopidius indicus, Hydrophasianus chirurgus , polyandry, dispersal, social

subordination hypothesis and breeding behaviour

This paper analyses the breeding requirments of the Jacanas (Bronzewinged Jacana Metopidius indicus and

the Pheasant-tailed Jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus) in terms of biotic and abiotic factors, and describes some of the

breeding behaviour. The study covered three breeding seasons from 1986 to 1988 in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur.

The relationship between habitat and mating system of jacanas is examined. Both the species did not breed in large

numbers in the same year; this difference is explained in terms of habitat requirements. The major abiotic factors

determining the breeding season of both species of jacanas seem to be the timing and intensity of south-west monsoon,

and the availability of water in the Park in a particular year. Among the biotic factors, availability of food and the

presence of suitable habitat are equally important. At the end of the breeding season the adult to immature ratio of

bronzewinged jacana was 36:22. The clutch size of pheasant-tailed varied from one to five. Clutch size of four had the

highest frequency (0.62) followed by three (0. 17). The dispersal of Bronzewinged Jacana is explained in the light of

the social subordination hypotheses.

Introduction

Different aspects of breeding, especially on

mating system of many species of jacanas have been

reported earlier (Miller 1931, Hoffmann 1949, 1950;

Mathew 1964, Dutton 1969,Jenni and Collier 1972,

Steyn 1973, Vernon 1973, Wilson 1974, Osborne and

Bourne 1977, Jenni and Betts 1978, Chattopadhyaya

1980, Osborne 1982, Fry 1983, Stephens 1984a, b).

However, two species of jacanas occurring in the

Indian subcontinent have not yet been investigated

thoroughly in terms of their breeding habits and

habitat, and their relation to the mating system.

Mathew ( 1 964) confirmed the existence of polyandry

in the Bronzewinged Jacana ( Metopidius indicus ) but

did not pursue further the various ecological reasons

for polyandry.

The present study examines the breeding

requirements of the Bronzewinged ( Metopidius

indicus ) and Pheasant-tailed ( Hydrophasianus

chirurgus) Jacanas in terms of biotic and abiotic

'Accepted November 1992.

2Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali

Chowk, Bombay-400 023. Present Address :S alim Ali Centre

for Ornithology and Natural History, Kalampalayam P.O.,

Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu - 641 010.

factors, and describes the breeding behaviour and

the relationship of habitat and mating system.

Study Area

The study was conducted in Keoladeo National

Park, Bharatpur, a man-modified wetland situated

in the Indogangetic plains at the confluence of the

rivers Banganga and Gambir (27° 7.6' to 27° 12.2' N

and 77°29.5' to 77°33.9' E) and at an average

elevation of 174 msl. The Park has a boundary wall

and is surrounded by agricultural fields and 18

villages. The total area of the Park is 29 sq. km. It is

almost flat with a gentle slope towards the centre

forming a depression of 8.5 sq. km. The aquatic area

of the Park has been divided into various unequal

compartments or blocks by means of dykes (Fig. 1).

A metal topped road divides the Park lengthwise into

two large blocks. On either side of the road, the

wetland area is comparatively deeper than the rest

of the area and holds water even in summer.

Bharatpur experiences extreme climatic

conditions and during the study period temperature

varied from 2.5°C to 45.33°C. The temperature

showed seasonal fluctuation during the study period

(Fig. 2). The lowest average temperature was in

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF J AC ANAS

323

ENTRANCE BARR'ER

BISON MORI

J ATOL I j BARSO 6HASQLA

BHaNERA

rampur

V-v^nAGL ANASWARIA

CHAK RAMNAGAR

RAMNAGAR

— • .

FC

Map of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan

AGHAPUR

[=) BOUNDARY WALL

EED BUND

^ CANAL

*=> HARD TOP ROAD

^ MOTORABLE ROAD

|E5j AQUATIC AREA

FOOTPATH

Fig. 1 .

I Maximum I Minimum Mean

Fig. 2. Monthly variation of minimum, maximum and mean temperature in the park.

324

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92 (1995)

mm

250 r

Jftn Apr Jul Oct Jan Apr Jul Oct Jan Apr Jul Oct

I 86 I 87 I 88

Fig. 3. Monthly variation of rainfall in the park from 1986 to 1988.

January 1987 and the highest in June of the same

year.

The precipitation in Bharatpur is from the

south-west monsoon which sets in by the end of June

and continues up to September, sometimes extending

to October. The total rainfall was 424.7, 423.4 and

614.2 mm during 1986, 1987 and 1988 respectively.

The monthly rainfall varied from year to year (Fig.

3).

Water depth inside the Park showed

characteristic monthly fluctuation (Fig. 4). During

the study period the highest depths in each year

recorded were in January 1986, October 1987 and

August 1988. Water depth inside the Park increases

as the water is released from Ajanbund, a reservoir

situated away from the Park. There is an outflow in

the initial stage; if the quantum of water received is

large, a part of it is let off to the agricultural fields.

Thereafter water losses occur only due to

evaporation, percolation and evapotranspiration.

A detailed description of the topography,

habitat, fauna and flora is given by Ali and Vijayan

(1983), Vijayan (1988) and Prasad (1988, 1989).

Methods and Materials

Spot mapping (Kendeigh 1 944) was employed

to census the nesting jacanas following each family

regularly after the onset of monsoon. When a nest

was spotted the following parameters were recorded:

(1) location, (2) nesting material, (3) plant species

present in the immediate vicinity of the nest,

(4) water depth at the nesting site, and (5) clutch

size. If the chick had already fledged, they were

counted and location was plotted on a map along

with their parents. Morphometries of eggs and the

habitat quantification could be made only in the case

of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana.

Habitat quantification was made by measuring

the vegetation cover by the quadrat charting method

of Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg (1974). The

quadrat (0.5 x 0.5 m) was divided into 100 columns

by means of strings and all the plants in each column

were identified and noted. Quadrats were placed at

random. In the nesting site, stratified random

sampling followed at 5 m intervals, on either side

from the centre of the nest. Three samples, one each

from either side and one from the centre of the nest

were taken. These samples were subjected to

clustering (Wilkinson 1988) using 1-Pearson

correlation coefficient as the distance matrix to find

out the similarity of nesting habitats.

Macroinvertebrate were sampled using a

modified version of Wisconsin trap (Welch 1948).

The macroinvertebrate taxa were identified up to

orders in the case of aquatic insects only.

The data on the macroinvertebrate and

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF J AC AN AS

325

cm

Fig. 4. Monthly variation of the water depth in the park from 1986 to 1987.

vegetation were compared between the feeding areas

of the Bronzewinged and the Pheasant-tailed Jacanas

using Mann-Witney U test (Wilkinson 1988).

Morphometric measurements of eggs were

taken using vernier callipers. The length and width

were measured at the highest points of the egg,

obtained by sliding the callipers gently on the egg.

The weight of the egg was measured using a Pesola

spring balance of 30 g capacity.

Since colour marking of individuals was not

permitted by the Forest Department in the study area,

data on their mating system are circumstantial.

Results and Discussion

BRONZEWINGED JACANA

During the study period (1986-1987 to 1988-

1989) Bronzewinged Jacana bred inside the Park in

good numbers only during 1986-87. During 1988-

89 only one pair bred in the study area.

Mating: Mating was observed only once in

the Bronzewinged Jacana at 16.45 hr in July 1986.

The female stood on an Ipomoea twig while the male

approached her, and mounted quietly without any

display. The act of copulation was accomplished

within two minutes. While mounting, the male

wriggled its body from side to side and flicked its

tail up and down as if balancing itself on the top of

the female. The female remained half crouched and

motionless with its head stretched forwards. The

male flapped its wings, when it was about to dismout.

Once mating was over the male flew off and the

female began feeding from the same area.

Nesting substrate and habitat: Out of the

four nests located during 1986, two were on an

Eichhornia patch and one each on Ipomoea and a

float of decaying litter overgrown with grass.

However in most cases, the habitat where chicks with

parents were located had Eichhornia crassipes,

Ipomoea aquatica, Hydrilla verticillata and

Ceratophyllum demersum. An ideal breeding habitat

of the Bronzewinged Jacana is formed by patches of

Eichhornia crassipes or Ipomoea aquatica with other

aquatic plants such as Hydrilla verticillata and

Ceratophyllum demersum. When the nesting habitat

had Eichhornia crassipes, the presence of grass

patches ( Paspalum distichum) was noticed nearby.

The major function of Ipomoea aquatica and grass

patches in their breeding habitat seems to be

protection of their chicks from predators. This was

evident from the behaviour of the bird: on hearing

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo l. 92 (1995)

the warning call from the male on the approach of a

predator, usually the chicks hide themselves in these

patches.

Territory: The territory size appears to be 50

x 50 m. The available mosaic of different vegetation

patches inside the Park suggests that all other

territories are of the same size as the one measured.

Nest: The nest was poorly built. Of the five

nests with eggs discovered during the study (four in

1986 and one in 1988) two were on floats of grass

( Paspalum distichum), one on an Ipomoea aquatica

patch and another on an Eichhornia crassipes patch.

The fifth one was sighted on a grass mat ( Paspalum

distichum). Three nests were lined with 3-4 twigs of

Hydrilla verticillatci and the rest had no lining.

Eggs: The morphometries of only one clutch

of three eggs could be obtained. The average length

and breadth were 35.5 and 24.8 mm respectively.

The eggs were glistening chocolate brown with black

blotches all over them. The colour of the egg merged

well with that of the substrate.

Clutch size: A total of 43 clutches were

recorded by the end of September. Among these, five

were as eggs and the rest had nestlings. Of the five

clutches, two had three eggs each, and one each had

one, two and four eggs. Three appears to be the

highly probable clutch size as the families with three

chicks were more in the breeding population of the

Bronzewinged Jacana during 1986. The predation

of clutch is not likely in this species as the nests were

placed farther apart and hence the common predator,

the marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus could not

concentrate in certain areas and maximise predation

as in the case of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana. Of the

five clutches, the one with two eggs was preyed upon

by a crow Corvus splendens. Two clutch size of four

and three disappeared. The reason for the

disappearance was not clear. Another clutch with a

single egg was on an Eichhornia crassipes patch but

was disturbed by the removal of Eichhornia

crassipes by man. After the removal only a small

patch of Eichhornia with the clutch remained. Still,

the bird incubated it for 3 days. The egg was not

seen subsequently but the bird was present in the

same area. The prolonged disturbance by the

Eichhornia crassipes collectors and destruction due

to exposure of habitat around the nest, may have

been the cause of failure.

Recruitment of chicks and dispersal: A total

of 82 chicks by 38 individuals of the Bronzewinged

Jacana were recruited into the population from June

to September 1986 (Table 1). The population had

lost 1 1 chicks by July end. After July it was not

possible to keep track of each family as the chicks

started dispersing and establishing their own group.

Several hypotheses have been put forward to

explain the difference between dispersers and non-

dispersers. Among these the social subordination

hypothesis of Christain (1970) explains adequately

the dispersal of the Bronzewinged Jacana. This

hypothesis proposes that as the density increases,

the resulting shortage of resources leads to increased

levels of aggression, and this in turn forces social

subordinates to disperse into sub-optimal habitats.

As the adult of the Bronzewinged invariably

chased away juveniles of its own species, this could

be considered as the consequence of congestion and

resulting food shortage. The dispersal helps in

regulating the population (Wynne-Edwards 1986)

and inbreeding.

However, the population of the Bronzewinged

Jacana became drastically reduced towards the end

of September compared to that in June and July. The

average adult to immature ratio of the Bronzewinged

Jacana in September inside the Park was 36:22. The

major reason for this fall was dispersal. Since none

were noticed dead or caught by predators during the

study period the mortality by predation and natural

death may be playing only a secondary role.

Chicks: Two morphologically distinct stages

can be distinguished in their development from chick

to adult: the early stage when they are protected by

parents and the later stage when they are free. The

small chicks have light brownish downy feathers and

two dark brown bands running from head to tail on

the ventral side. At the immature stage they look

almost like the non-breeding adult of the Pheasant-

tailed Jacana. They do not have a white supercilium

and the feathers are light brown. During this stage

they are totally independent and feed in groups most

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF JACANAS

327

Table 1

RECRUITMENT AND MORTALITY OF CHICKS IN THE BRONZEWINGED JACANA DURING 1986

of the time.

Parent to chick relation: Although the chicks

are precocial they always follow the male bird. The

female bird stays nearby, within the territory feeding

or helping the male in chasing away intruders and

giving warning signals to the chicks of impending

danger like the approach of predators. Parental care

by the male includes brooding, attending and

defending, but never feeding the chicks. The

contribution of the female parent is insignificant

compared to that of the male. The chicks feed

themselves. These behaviour have been reported in

the American Jacana Jaccina spinosa also (Jenni and

Collier 1972). The chicks left their parents once they

attained the juvenile stage. The exact duration of

staying with the parent is not known.

Antipredation tactics of chicks and parents:

Two types of antipredation tactics were employed

to protect the young: attacking the predator and

distracting their attention. The major predator of the

Bronzewinged Jacana is the marsh harrier Circus

aeruginosas. The male bird with chicks usually fed

inside the Ipomoea aquatica patch or grass patch.

Whenever a raptor appeared overhead the parents,

mostly the male produce a shrill alarm call, fly into

the open water area of the breeding habitat and freeze.

The chicks on hearing the warning, hide amidst the

vegetaion. The behaviour of adult is the same even

when unaccompanied by chicks. When an adult was

attacked by a marsh harrier it countered by warding

off the harrier with its legs and made the harrier to

retreat.

Once a parent, when disturbed by the observer

scooped up the chick in its wing and flew and landed

4-5 m away safely. This behaviour was reported

earlier by Ali and Ripley (1983). Chick-carrying is

also reported in the African jacana Actophilornis

africanus (Hopcraft 1968).

On another occasion when a family of a

Bronzewinged Jacana was chased by the observer

and made to stay in an open area, the parents flew

away making continuous shrill calls. The observer,

reaching the spot, could not trace the chicks and

hence moved away but continued watching the

parents. On seeing the observer leaving the area the

male parent uttered a feeble call and the chicks ran

from the open area towards the male. Ali and Ripley

(1983) reported that the bird can submerge itself in

water keeping only the bill exposed; this must have

happened in the above case also.

The gregarious habit of immature birds who,

often form a group on being chased away by the

respective parents, feed and roost together. This is

probably an antipredatory behaviour.

During the initial period when the chicks are

with them, the parents aggressively chased away

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

other species, namely Indian moorhen Gallinula

chloropus and the immature individuals of

Bronzewinged Jacanas, whenever they tried to

trespass into the territory. Intrusion by immature

Bronzewinged Jacana were not tolerated either in

the initial period or later, when the chicks became

independent. The moorhens were chased only when

they tried to enter the Ipomoea aquatica patch where

the chicks used to feed. Only the lesser whistling

teal Dendrocygna javanica with its chicks was

allowed to feed in the territory.

Polyandry: Jenni (1974) states that there are

two radically different ways by which polyandry can

function: (1) The males can cooperate with one

another and share the role played by a single male in

a monogamous system; (2) the behaviour of each

male can be independent of other males and each

male can interact with females as if the relationship

were monogamous. Two species of jacanas, namely

Pheasant-tailed (Hoffmann 1949, 1950) and

Bronzewinged (Mathew 1964) occurring in the

Indian subcontinent were reported to have all the

points listed by Jenni for his second type of

polyandry. However, Jenni in his review cast doubt

on the typicality of polyandry in the Bronzewinged

Jacana.

Through the present study evidences were

gathered against typicality of polyandry in the

Bronzewinged Jacana. The evidences mainly come

from the study of their distribution during the

breeding period. This study showed that each pair

was widely separated, often by physical barriers such

as dykes with trees. Furthermore, each pair was

sighted almost always in the same area throughout

the breeding season and beyond (July to January).

This shows that the Bronzewinged Jacana in

Keoladeo National Park was not polyandrous during

1985-86. Another point against polyandry is their

non-gregarious habit before breeding. Inside the

Park, they were rarely seen in flocks. Only after

winter when the area started drying up, did they feed

together and that too not as coherent flocks as that

of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana. The possible reason

for their not appearing as polyandrous may be the

absence of long stretches of habitat. The habitats

were isolated, small patches in which a female cannot

hold more than one male.

PHEASANT-TAILED JACANA

Most of the data on the breeding ecology of

the Pheasant-tailed were collected during 1988-89

from the Park. It includes aspects such as nest, egg

laying, clutch size, egg morphometries, chicks,

breeding habitat and behaviour. In addition to this,

some data on their breeding ecology were obtained

from outside the Park during 1986-87.

Nest: A total of 40 nests were recorded as

distributed among blocks B, D, E, F, K and L (Table

2). The water depth near the nest varied from 7 1 to

140 cm, average depth 98.4 cm (SD ± 15.9). Block

F had the maximum number of nests followed by

block K. Nests were located on three types of

substrates, namely grass float ( Paspalum distichum),

grass mat ( P. distichum ) and Ipomoea aquatica plus

Nymphaea nouchali float. Grass floats were decayed

grass litter with or without live vegetation, whereas

grass mats were thick, living grass rooted on the

ground. Of the 20 nests where nesting substrate could

be examined, 1 0 were on grass float and four on grass

mat. The rest were on mat formed by different

combinations of Ipomoea aquatica, Nymphaea spp.,

Nymphoides spp. and Paspalum distichum. Hydrilla

verticillata were used as nesting material except

when the nest was built on grass float.

Egg laying: Egg laying was observed once,

outside the Park in a small village pond (Banera

pond) maintained for the cultivation of Trapa natans,

but also containing Ceratophyllum demersum and

Hydrilla verticillata. The female before laying eggs

preened itself for a while and pulled up two or three

twigs of H. verticillata and C. demersum which were

present around the nest. After that the bird positioned

itself on the nest with the cloacal region inclined

towards the nest and kept its legs wide apart. The

angle between the cloacal region and the nest surface

was effected by bending the knee slightly and while

doing so it ruffled the body feathers once and the

golden feathers on the neck were kept raised. Then

it started moving the head up and down rather

rhythmically. It again adjusted the position of the

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF J AC AN AS

329

Table 2

DISTRIBUTION OF THE NESTS OF THE PHEASANT-

TAILED JACANA INSIDE THE PARK

Number of nests in bloeks

legs increasing the angle between cloacal region and

nest. This was followed by laying the egg within

fractions of a second. The whole process described

above was completed within two minutes. Soon after

laying the female flew to a distance of about seven

metres.

As soon the female left the nest after laying, a

male bird (identity based on size) ran towards the

nest, scooped up the egg in its beak and flew away.

When it had flown about 6 m the egg was dropped

into the water. This type of behaviour has not been

reported earlier. Whether the bird intended to destroy

the egg or shift the site was not clear. In all probability

it was an accident, because egg shifting has been

reported earlier in the pheasant-tailed jacana. Two

different ways of egg shi fting are reported: pressing

the egg between throat and breast and dragging or

rolling it over the matted vegetation while the male

walks backwards (Ali and Ripley 1983) or holding

the pointed end of the egg between the mandibles

and dragging it backwards (Serrao and Shekar 1 962).

During the study period, a clutch of three eggs was

found shifted from its previous location.

Clutch size: Although 40 nests of the

Pheasant-tailed Jacana were recorded, information

on egg production per nest is available only for 29

nests. Clutch size varied from one to five (average =

3.48). Clutch of five was rare and four was the most

common. Block F had the maximum number of nests

with 4 eggs (Table 2). The frequency distribution of

clutch was calculated by dividing the number of nests

with the clutch of different size by the total number

of nests (Cochen 1988).

Colour and morphometries of the eggs: Two

types of eggs could be distinguished; one with a more

or less perfect oval shape and the other with rounded

top. The colour of the egg seems to undergo changes

as incubation progresses. Fresh eggs were glossy-

greenish bronze and became rufous-brown later.

Eggs were not marked unlike those of the

Bronzewinged Jacana. Morphometries of 35 eggs of

the Pheasant-tailed (Table 3) show that the size was

almost the same as reported earlier (Baker in Ali and

Ripley 1983).

Table 3

MORPHOMETRICS OF THE EGG OF THE PHEASANT-

TAILED JACANA (N = 35)

Breeding habitat: The breeding habitat of the

Pheasant-tailed Jacana was assessed visually by

recording the presence or absence of vegetation

within a five metre radius of the nest. A total of 13

species of plants were present around the nest.

Common among them were Nymphaea nouchali,

Nymphoides spp., Paspalum distichum and Ipomoea

aquatica. It is to be noted that Nymphaea nouchali

and Nymphoides spp. had a very restricted

distribution compared to that of P. distichum inside

the Park.

In general, the breeding habitat of the

Pheasant-tailed Jacana should have cover of

vegetation patches of different species of aquatic

macrophytes with intermittent openings containing

submerged aquatic vegetation. The thick and

expansive growth of any vegetation, especially

Paspalum distichum, is unfavourable for their

breeding.

To get a clear picture of the similarity of the

Pheasant-tailed Jacana’s nesting habitat, vegetation

was quantified using 0.5 x 0.5 m chartered quadrat.

330

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

DISTNACFS

O - 000

FI 3

N

E

S

T

S

I

N

D

I

F

E

R

E

N

T

B

L

O

C

K

S

In all, 140 such samples were taken. These data were

pooled together and a dendrogram was drawn using

1 -Pearson correlation coefficient as the distance

matrix and Ward minimum variance linkage as the

clustering strategy (Wilkinson 1 988). Almost all the

nesting habitats clustered together at relatively lesser

distance, indicating that nesting habitats are

homogenous (Fig. 5).

Predation: The marsh harrier was the major

predator of the eggs. Contents of most nests might

have been preyed upon by them because marsh

harriers were observed in more numbers in the blocks

where the Pheasant-tailed were nesting in some

5.000

0.515

0 . 060

0.117

1 . 188

0.065

0.170

0.592

0 . 080

2.399

0.236

1.125

0.677

0 . 1 38

0 . 922

! . 524

0 . 377

0 . 1 99

numbers. Actual predation by marsh harrier was

observed in four instances. As the four nests were

close by, the predator could save searching time and

hence, did not have to range over a large area. On

one occasion marsh harriers were hunting in pairs

when an incubating Pheasant-tailed Jacana from the

neighbourhood came to the rescue of its neighbour.

However, while both individuals of jacana were

engaged in chasing away one marsh harrier, the other

preyed upon the nest contents.

Breeding season of the jacanas: Both the

species of jacanas commence reproductive activities

with the onset of monsoon and subsequent flooding

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF J AC AN AS

331

of the area. The striking difference between the two

species is the development of breeding plumage in

the Pheasant-tailed Jacana and its absence in the

Bronzewinged. The former species invariably arrives

in the study area in breeding plumage after the

flooding and hence, it was difficult to record the

commencement of nuptial plumage.

Ali and Ripley (1983) gave the breeding

season of the Bronzewinged Jacana as from June to

September and further add that breeding commences

soon after the setting in of the south-west monsoon.

During 1986-87 nesting was noticed in the first week

of June and during 1988-89 at the end of June. In

the former year the hatching of eggs was completed

by September.

The Pheasant-tailed Jacana bred inside the

Park only once during the three seasons studied.

Breeding commenced towards the end of June and

was completed by September. Ali and Ripley (1983)

recorded their breeding season principally as

from June to September during the south-west

monsoon.

Thus, the breeding season is the same for both

species. Therefore, the reason for both the species

not breeding together in the same location in large

numbers is probably due to competition for

resources, mainly food and space. However, the

absence of any antagonistic behaviour by the

Pheasant-tailed Jacana towards the pair of the

Bronzewinged Jacana which nested very close is not

supportive of the above speculation. Since it was only

one instance, a definite conclusion is not possible.

Factors determining the breeding season

BIOTIC FACTORS

Day-length: Day-length is a proximate factor

in the timing of breeding (Perrins and Birkhead

1983). In both species of jacanas, the timing of

breeding appears to be influenced by the day-length.

Both of them breed with the onset of south-west

monsoon. The breeding season coincides with the

period when day-lengths are comparatively longer

than during the approaching winter. This suggests

that the day-length may be playing a role in deciding

the timing of breeding. Moreover, both species finish

breeding activity towards the end of September.

Temperature and humidity: The Pheasant-

tailed and Bronzewinged avoid extreme temperature.

Breeding occurs when the maximum temperature is

between 33°C and 40°C, and the minimum between

1 8°C and 26°C (during 1 986 and 1 988 from July to

October). The humidity ranged from 50% to 73%

during breeding period of both species.

Rainfall and water input: The major abiotic

factor in deciding the breeding season of both species

is rainfall and the subsequent flooding of the Park

from the waters of Ajanbund. This is evident from

the failure of breeding in both species when the

monsoon failed in 1987. During 1986, when the

rainfall was 424.7 mm, the Pheasant-tailed failed to

breed, whereas the Bronzewinged bred inside the

Park. The factors responsible for their breeding are

(1) the timing of rain, (2) rainfall and (3) water input

from Ajanbund. Commencement of rain during

1986, 1987 and 1988 was almost the same. Rainfall

in 1988 was higher than in 1 986 and 1 987 (Table 4).

The water input into the system was minimum during

1986 and maximum during 1988 (Table 4). Despite

the low quantum of water released to the Park during

1986, the stored water of the previous years made

the total water availability in the Park in 1 986 almost

the same as in 1988. Thus, the failure of breeding in

the Pheasant-tailed Jacana in 1986 may be due to

differences in the habitat requirement and not related

to the availability of water. The abundance of

Eichhornia crassipes and Ipomoea aquatica

provided ample nesting habitats for the

Bronzewinged Jacana during 1 986. But habitat with

sparse grass and submerged vegetation, required by

the Pheasant-tailed Jacana was rare and hence it did

not breed. In 1988 when suitable habitat was

available for the Pheasant-tailed it bred in good

numbers. Therefore, although rainfall and water input

are basic proximate factors in deciding the breeding

season, actual breeding takes place only when the

required breeding habitats are available.

Food: Both the Bronzewinged and Pheasant-

tailed Jacanas were reported to feed on aquatic

macrophytes and macroinvertebrate (Ali and Ripley

1983). Visual observations made in the present study,

332

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Table 4

RELATION BETWEEN DIFFERENT

HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL FACTORS AND BREEDING

OF JACANAS

while corroborating their findings, identifies some

of the major macroinvertebrates consumed by the

Bronzewinged Jacana. It includes ( 1 ) aquatic spiders

(Arachnida), (2) Cassida circumdata (Coleoptera),

(3) aquatic bugs, (4) Ranatrci fuscata (Hemiptera),

and (5) Planorbis sp. and Lemnea sp. (mollusca).

Analysis of the stomach content of one dead

Pheasant-tailed showed 70% of vegetable matter and

25% of molluscan shell. The coincidence of breeding

season with the peaks in biomass production of both

aquatic plants and macroinvertebrate suggests a

strong relation between food availability and

breeding in both species of jacanas. The failure of

breeding by the Pheasant-tailed Jacana inside the

Park during 1987 and their breeding outside the Park

in a village pond can be explained by the availability

of more food in the latter area.

Habitat: The breeding habitats of the two

species were totally different. The Bronzewinged

Jacana had abundant growth of Eichhomia crassipes

and Ipomoea aquatica and other aquatic plants such

as Hydrilla verticillata, Ceratophyllum demersum

and Najcis minor. The presence of such vegetation,

especially the H. verticillata and C. demersum

appeared to be essential for their reproduction. This

is amply proved by the complete failure of breeding

or reduced number of clutches produced when these

plants were rare in the study area during the study

period. The Pheasant-tailed Jacana requires habitats

containing sparse grass (mostly Paspalum

distichum ), Nymphoides spp. and other hydrophytic

plants. During 1988 the areas where they bred in

good numbers inside the Park (Blocks F and K) were

flooded with water consequently there was an

abundance of scattered litter. In no other year did

such a floating mass of grass litter occur inside the

Park.

To study the role of different factors

responsible for the difference in the habitat

preference of the two species of Jacanas,

macroinvertebrate, depth (1987 data) and vegetation

(1988 data) were sampled from the feeding areas of

the two jacanas and compared using non-parametric

test. For the Pheasant-tailed Jacana,

macroinvertebrate samples were collected only from

Banera pond just outside the park (the species did

not breed inside the Park). Vegetation was sampled

from both Banera pond and from within the Park.

For the Bronzewinged, vegetation, macrophytes and

depth were sampled from the Park only.

The macroinvertebrate taxa present in the

feeding area (inside the Park) of the Bronzewinged

Jacana were Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera,

Odonata, Mollusca and some unidentified larvae. The

major contribution to the total number of

macroinvertebrates was by Mollusca followed by

Odonata (Table 5). The total mean number of

macroinvertebrates was 19.25 and the mean water

depth 31.1 cm.

The macroinvertebrate taxa collected from the

feeding area of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana in the

village (Banera) pond were Coleoptera, Diptera,

Hemiptera, Odonata, Oligochaeta and Mollusca. The

mean total number of macroinvertebrates was 40.3

and the major contribution to the total was by

Mollusca (Table 5). The average water depth of this

pond was 24.4 cm.

The feeding areas of the bronzewined inside

the Park and in that of the Pheasant-tailed in Banera

pond differed in water depth (U = 72; P = 0.004)

and total number of macroinvertebrate. The taxa

which differed significantly were Mollusca and

Odonata (Table 5). Among these taxa, Mollusca were

abundant in the Banera pond and where the Pheasant-

tailed bred during this season. Hence, high

availability of Mollusca is one of the important factor

for the Pheasant-tailed Jacana while breeding as it

BREEDING ECOLOGY OF J AC AN AS

333

Table 5

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FEEDING AREA OF THE

BRONZEWINGED JACANA (PARK: n = 8) AND THE

PHEASANT-TAILED JACANA (BANERA: n = 10) IN THE

ABUNDANCE OF DIFFERENT MACROINVERTEBRATE

TAXA DURING THE BREEDING SEASON 1987-88

Note: All the P values are rounded to three digits.

*P < 0.05 is significant.

may provide the necessary calcium for the production

of egg shells.

Though the water depth of Banera pond and

the Park differed, it may not indicate a significant

ecological difference as the selection of habitat for

breeding depends on other parameters of the habitat

also.

The vegetation was not listed by species, but

according to leaf size, because it provides a

more realistic picture of ecological requirements.

The different categories of vegetation is explained

in Table 6. The feeding area of the two jacanas

differed significantly in the types of vegetation

cover (Table 6). In the case of the Bronzewinged,

submerged vegetation was abundant and grass

was minimal; for the Pheasant-tailed open water

and submerged vegetation (Table 6). Since the

territory of each individual was a mosaic of diffe-

rent patches of vegetation, the individual abundance

of different patches of vegetation types may not be

the deciding factor but the proportional

representation of them constituting a mosaic is

important.

It is not necessary that the ideal breeding

habitat of Pheasant-tailed Jacana should contain

grass. For instance, at Banera pond there was no

grass. There was only floating and submerged

vegetations, namely Trapa natans, Hydrilla

verticillata and Ceratophyllum demersum.

Table 6

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE FEEDING AREA OF THE

BRONZEWINGED (N = 20) AND THE PHEASANT-

TAILED (N = 14) IN TERMS OF COVER OF DIFFERENT

AQUATIC VEGETATION DURING 1987-88

*P < 0.05 is significant.

Note: FLOVEGWLL : Floating Vegetation with large leaves.

FLOVEGWSL : Floating Vegetation with small leaves. GR:

Grass. OW: Open Water. SUBVEG: Submerged Vegetation.

Predation: Predation pressure seems to be one

of the factors deciding the timing of breeding season

in jacanas. Both species complete their major

breeding activities before the population of migratory

raptors builds up in the area. There are 23 species

of migratory raptors and they start arriving

from September. Their number reaches a peak in

December-January. Finishing the breeding activity

before the build up of the raptor population

was reported in resident ducks too (Sridharan 1 989).

Since the chicks of jacanas are precocial, this

type of adjustment in the timing of breeding is

highly significant in maintaining the popu-

lation. Birds breeding late in the season

were susceptible to predation, especially by marsh

harrier.

Nest site competition: Potential competitors

for the nesting habitat of the two species of jacanas

appear to be purple moorhen Porphyrio porphyrio

and kora Gallicrex cinerea. Among these, the

population of kora was very low during the period

of study and hence, the pressure from them was

insignificant. Both the purple moorhen and kora

breed in thick growth of Paspalum disticliuni (Lalitha

Vijayan, pers. comm.). Competition if it does exist,

can be only between the purple moorhen and

334

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 92 (1995)

Pheasant-tailed Jacana. However, one nest of

purple moorhen about 15 m away from a nest of

Pheasant-tailed Jacana was sighted and this suggests

that there was not much competition between these

two species. The two species of jacanas not breeding

inside the Park in the same year during the study

period does not indicate competition between them.

Rather, it indicates that their habitat requirements

are different.

Acknowledgements

This paper is an offshoot of the Keoladeo

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the birds of India and

Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University press. New

Delhi.

A u S. & V.S. Viiayan (1983): Hydrobiological (Ecological)

research at Keoladeo National Park, Bharatput. First Interim

Report. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Chattopadhayay, S. (1980): Observations on the parental care of

a wounded chick of the Bronzewinged Jacana Metopidius

indicus (Latham). J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc.

77: 325.

Christian. J.J. (1970): Social subordination, population density

and mammalian evolution. Science 168: 84-90.

Cochen, Y. ( 1 988): Bayesian estimation of clutch size for scientific

and management purposes. J. Wildl. Manage. 52(4) 787-793.

Dutton, T.P. (1969): The unusual incubation behaviour of

Actophilornis qfricanus. Bokmakierie 21(1): 20-2 1 .

Fry, C.H. ( 1983); Incubation, brooding, and a structural character

of the African Jacana. Ostrich 54: 175-176.

* Hoffmann, A. (1949): Uber die brutfleg des polyandrischen

wasserfassans Hydrophasianus chirm-gas (Scop.). Zoo l

Jalirb., Abt. Syst. Oekol. Geogr. Tiere 78:361-403.

*Hoffmann, A. (1950): Zur Brutbiologie des Wasserfasans.

Omit liol. Bericht 2: 119-126.

Hopcraet, J.B.D. (1968): Some notes on the chick carrying

behaviour in the African Jacana. Living Bird 7: 85-88.

Jenni, D A. (1974): Evolution of polyandry in birds. Amer. Zool.

14: 129-144.

Jenni, D.A. & B.J. Betts (1978): Sex difference in nest

construction, incubation, and parental care in the polyan-

drous American Jacana Jacana spinosa. Anim. Behav. 26:

207-218.

Jf.nni, D.A. & G. Collier (1972): Polyandry in the American

Jacana ( Jacana spinosa). Auk 89: 743-765.

Kendeigii, S.C. (1944): The measurement of bird populations.

Ecological monographs 14.

Mathew, D.N. (1964): Observations on the breeding habits of

the Bronzewinged Jacana ( Metopidius indicus Latham). J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61(2): 295-302.

National Park Ecology project of the BNHS,

sponsored by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

through the Ministry of Environment, Govt, of

India.

We thank Messrs. Ajay Varadachary and

S. Alagar Rajan for carefully going through the

manuscript and giving comments.

We are grateful to the Rajasthan Forest

Department officials for their cooperation. We

arc indebted to Mr J. C. Daniel for his

encouragement.

ENCES

Miller, A.H. (1931): Observation on the incubation and care of

young in the Jacanas. Condor 33: 32-33.

Muller-dombois, D. & H. Ellenberg (1974): Aims and methods

of vegetation ecology. J. Wiley and Sons, New York.

Osborne, D.R. (1982): Replacement nesting and polyandry in

the wattled jacana. Wilson Bull. 94: 206-208.

Osborne, D.R. & G.B. Bourne (1977): Breeding behaviour and

food habits of the wattled Jacana. Condor 79: 78-105.

Perrins, C.M. & T.R. Birkhead (1983): Avian ecology. Blackie

and Son, Glasgow.

Prasad, V.P. (1988): Wetland angiosperms of Keoladeo National

Park, Bharatpur — Rajasthan. ./. Eco. Tax. Bot.

12(2): 457-466.

Prasad, V.P. (1989): Flora of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,

Rajasthan. J. Eco. Tax. Bot. 13(3) 729-750.

Serrao, J.S. & P.B. Shekar (1962): Pheasant-tailed Jacanas at

Kalina. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 2(1 ):4-6.

Sridharan, U. (1989): Comparative ecology of resident Ducks

in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. Ph.D.

Thesis, University of Bombay, Bombay.

^Stephens, M.L. (1984a). Maternal care and polyandry in the

Northern Jacana Jacana spinosa. Ph.D. thesis. Univ. of

Chicago. Illinois.

Stephens, M.L. (1984b): Intraspecific distraction displays of the

polyandrous Northern Jacana Jacana spinosa. Ibis 126: 70-

72.

Steyn, P. (1973): African Jacana at last. Bokmakierie 25(2): 34-

37.

Vernon, C.J. (1973): Polyandrous Actophilornis qfricanus.

Ostrich 44( 1 ): 85.

Vijayan, V.S. (1988): Keoladeo National Park Ecology Study.

Annual Report 1987. Bombay Natural History Society.

Bombay.

Welch, PS. (1948): Limnological Methods. McGraw Hill, New

York.

Wilkinson, L. (1988): SYSTAT: The system for statistical analysis.

Systat Inc. Evanston, Illinois.

Wilson, G. (1974): Incubating behaviour of the African Jacana.

Ostrich 45: 185-188.

Wynne-Edwards, V.C. (1986): Evolution through group selection.

Blackwell Sci. Publ., Oxford.

POPULATION DYNAMICS IN SOME INDIAN BATS

N. Badwaik2

Key words: population dynamics, bats

Four major factors control the population dynamics ol bats. These are the breeding pattern, mortality,

longevity and migratory habits. Breeding pattern can be divided into two main categories for purpose of population

study, namely those which breed once a year and those which breed more than once a year or are continuous

breeders. Each category can further be divided into monotocous species and polytocous species. Natural mortality

can be due to genetically controlled factors as preferential male mortality, which occurs in nearly all species, or it

can be due to other factors such as suckling habit, duration of suckling and load bearing capacity of the mother.

Rarely, deaths occur due to accidents of different kinds. Unfortunately, there is almost no information about the

longevity of Indian bats except about Rouseltus leschenaulti and Megaderma lyra lyra which are definitely known

to live for at least 15 years. Some species are seasonal migrators and exhibit some degree of sexual segregation. In

such species, some idea of population dynamics can be deduced from only circumstantial evidence. Taking all

these factors it is evident that there is a progressive increase in the population and dispersal of most species of

common Indian bats.

Demographic study of animals involves a

study in changes of population in time and space.

Population growth is influenced by four major

factors, namely breeding habits, fecundity, mortality

and longevity. Spatial distribution involves

migration, colonization and adaptation to new

roosting sites. Since no study has been made so far

on the population dynamics of Indian bats, I

undertook such a study by random collection

and examination of specimens of nine species of

bats for six years from 5th April, 1981 to 4th March,

1987 in such a manner that all calendar months are

represented by one collection or more. The

geographical area of study included Maharashtra,

Nimar region of Madhya Pradesh and Bangalore and

Mysore districts of Karnataka. In addition I made

use of the vast data in the voluminous and

carefully preserved field diary and laboratory records

maintained by Professor A. Gopalakrishna during

the past five decades. The information regarding the

number of specimens examined and data obtained

from the diaries of Prof. Gopalakrishna is given in

the Table 1 .

The present report covers observations on

Rousettus leschenaulti, Cynopterus sphinx

gangeticus, Taphozous longimanus, Megaderma lyra

'Accepted January, 1994.

department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Nagpur, 440 001,

India.

lyra, Hipposideros fulvus fulvus, Hipposideros

speoris , Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix,

Pipistrellus dormeri and Pipistrellus mimus mimus.

These species fall into two main categories on the

basis of their breeding habits. The first category

includes those species, which have a single annual

breeding season, such as Megaderma lyra lyra

(Ramaswamy 1960, Gopalakrishna and Badwaik

1989), Hipposideros fulvus fulvus (Madhavan et al.

1978) and Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix

(Madhavan 1971). The precise season of breeding,

however, varies among different species. While

Megaderma lyra lyra and Hipposideros fulvus fulvus

breed during October-November, Pipistrellus

ceylonicus chrysothrix breeds during June

July. Hipposideros speoris also breeds once a

year, but the actual season varies in different parts

of peninsular India (Gopalakrishna et al. 1991,

1992). Rousettus leschenaulti and Cynopterus

sphinx gangeticus bring forth two litters in

quick succession in an extended annual breeding

season (Gopalakrishna and Choudhari 1 977, Sandhu

1984). The second category includes species such

as Taphozous longimanus (Gopalakrishna 1954,

1955), Pipistrellus dormeri (Madhavan 1978)

and Pipistrellus mimus mimus (Gopalakrishna et al.

1975), which breed throughout the year and

bring forth several litters in the year. (The terms

‘monoestrous’ and ‘p°lye8trou8, are employed

336

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Table 1

NUMBER OF SPECIMENS EXAMINED

(Numbers in brackets are taken from Prof. A. Gopalakrishna’s diaries and laboratory records).

in this report to indicate species which breed

once a year and species which breed more than

on ce ayear respectively — Kunz and Gustafson

1983).

On the basis of fecundity bats can be classified

as monotocous and polytocous species depending

on whether a single young or more than one young

is delivered each time. While most species are

monotocous, Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix and

P. mimus mimus deliver two and rarely three young

ones in each litter and 34% of Pipistrellus dormeri

deliver two and the rest one young each time

(Badwaik et al. 1992).

Mortality also can be considered under two

categories apart from accidental deaths, which are

rare. First, the predictable, nearly universal

preferential male mortality during the post-weaning

pre-pubertal phase of life. Gopalakrishna and

Badwaik (1993) reported that, while the sex ratio is

even at birth in all the species, the adult sex ratio is

highly female dominant except in the case of

Taphozous melanopogon (Abdulali 1949, Sapkal and

Khamare 1984), in which the males were reported

to outnumber the females. Secondly, infant mortality,

which occurs in varying degrees in all the species

depends on three factors, namely breeding habits,

number of young ones delivered each time and

roosting habits. In an earlier study Badwaik et al.

(1992) showed that juvenile mortality was lowest

among monoestrous monotocous bats such as

Megaderma lyra lyra and Hipposideros fulvus fulvus

(11.4% and 12.3% respectively), whereas it was

highest among polyestrous polytocous species such

as Pipistrellus dormeri and Pipistrellus mimus mimus

(58.7% and 59.5% respectively). In polyestrous

monotocous species like Taphozous longimanus and

monoestrous polytocous species like Pipistrellus

ceylonicus chrysothrix infant mortality was mid-way

between the above mentioned extremes (17.9% and

45.4% respectively). We argued that the more times

the species breeds in a year and the greater the

number of young delivered during a cycle the higher

is the juvenile mortality. Due to their peculiar diurnal

roosting habits in dark natural caves, in the hollows

in trees or in the dark recesses of man-made

structures such as dungeons in old forts, temples,

etc., and due to their nocturnal foraging activity, they

have no natural predators, and any such predation is

due to chance encounter. Deaths due to accidents

are also rare.

Longevity has a direct relationship to

population growth. Unfortunately there is no record

on the longevity of any Indian species except for the

accidental discovery of juveniles and adult banded

specimens of Rousettus leschanaulti and Megaderma

lyra lyra 15 years after banding (Badwaik 1992)

thereby indicating that these species have a longevity

of at least 16 years. On this basis the rate of growth

of population of Rousettus leschenaulti was shown

to be at least 1 .3% to 1 .5% per annum (Gopalakrishna

POPULATION DYNAMICS IN SOME INDIAN BATS

337

and Badwaik 1993). Following a similar calculation

the growth rate of Megaderma lyra lyra comes to

0.7% per annum. Bats have a longer life than other

mammals of comparable size (Hill and Smith 1985,

Gopalakrishna and Badwaik 1993). The recorded

data indicate that the monoestrous monotocous bats

live for a longer period than polyestrous polytocous

species. A longevity of 15 to 30 years has been

reported in some American and European species

(Tuttle and Stevenson 1982, Sommers et al. 1993).

There is no reason to assume that Indian bats have a

lesser longevity than their cousins in Europe and

America. While it is not possible to determine the

exact rate of population growth in the Indian species

for want of data concerning their longevity,

circumstantial evidence suggests that there may be

a progressive increase of the population of the other

species too. Natural caves and hollows in trees were

the normal original roosts of the bats. But bats have

adapted themselves to a variety of other roosting sites

such as crevices in rocks ( Taphozous kacchensis),

cavity in the internodes of bamboo stem ( Tylonycteris

pachypus), within whorls of banana leaves

{Kerivoula picta) and an unending variety of man-

made structures like tunnels ( Rhinolophus rouxi),

temples ( Hipposideros fulvus fulvus, Taphozous

melanopogon), dungeons of old forts (. Rhinopoma

microphyllum kinneari, Taphozous melanopogon),

cowsheds ( Taphozous longimanus, Megaderma lyra

lyra, Hipposideros speoris ), between tiles in roof of

human habitations and within crevices in the wooden

frame work of buildings (several species of

pipistrelles) (personal observations). In most cases

these new roosts are, evidently, adopted by the bats

Refer

Abdulali, H. (1949): Sex ratio in Indian bats. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 48: 423-428.

Badwaik, N. (1991): Seasonal migration of two species of

Microchiroptera in relation to breeding cycle. Mammalia

55 (4): 625-628.

Badwaik, N. (1992): A note on the longevity in two species of

Indian bats. Bat Res. News. 33(1): 1 1.

Badwaik, N„ A. Madhavan & A. Gopalakrishna (1992): Infant

mortality in some Indian bats. Trends in Life Sciences 7(2):

131-138.

to accommodate the spill-over specimens from their

natural roosts due to increased population pressure

beyond the bearing capacity of their natural roosts.

Their adaptibility to new roosts appears to be

phenomenal with the result that almost all kinds of

structures are inhabited by bats.

Migratory habits play an important role in the

dispersal of some species of bats. Some species have

been shown to be seasonal migrators and to colonize

in different places during different seasons

(Gopalakrishna 1986, Badwaik 1991 ). New colonies

are, thus, formed in places far off from their original

colonies. This is, probably, the reason why many

Indian species have a wide distribution. Their flying

habits facilitates dispersal.

The foregoing account reveals that in all the

species studied here there is a progressive increase

in the population necessitating the dispersal of the

spill-over population which form new colonies and

adapt to new habitats. Perhaps, the abundance of

insects throughout the year and the presence of

numerous natural caves and man-made habitats

suitable for roosting of bats in addition to the warm

weather throughout the year and occurrence of

tropical rain forests are conducive to the progressive

increase in the population of most species of bats in

India. However, only extensive banding of bats and

the study of banded specimens during the following

years will give an accurate picture of population

dynamics of these unique mammals.

I thank Professor A. Gopalakrishna for placing

at my disposal all his collection dairies and laboratory

records. I am also thankful to the C.S.I.R. for

financial assistance to carry out this work.

ENCES

Gopalakrishna, A. (1954): Breeding habits of the Indian sheath-

tailed bat, Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke). Cun: Sci.

23: 60-61.

Gopalakrishna, A. (1955): Observations on the breeding habits

and ovarian cycle in the Indian sheath-tailed bat,

Taphozous longimanus (Hardwicke). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci.

India. 21: 29-41.

Gopalakrishna, A. ( 1986): Migratory pattern of some Indian bats.

My otis: 223-227.

Gopalakrishna, A. & N. Badwaik (1989): Breeding habits and

338

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

associated phenomena in some Indian bats — Part XIII

— Megaderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy) (Megadermatidae)

at different latitudes. J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 86: 42-45.

Gopalakrishna, A. & N. Baowaik (1993): Breeding habits and

associated phenomena in some Indian bats — Part XIV

(Concluded). J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc. 90(1): 1-10.

Gopalakrishna, A., N. Badwaik & D. Bhatia (1992): Cyclical

changes in the male reproductive organs of the Indian

bat, Hipposideros speoris (Schneider) in different regions

of peninsular India. Trends in Life Sciences 7(1): 29-36.

Gopalakrishna, A. & P.N. Choudhari (1977): The breeding habits

and associated phenomena in some Indian bats — Part I

— Rousettus lesclienaulti (Desmarest) - Megachi roptera.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 1-16.

Gopalakrishna, A., A. Madhavan & N. Badwaik ( 1991): Breeding

biology of the Indian leaf-nosed bat, Hipposideros speoris

(Schneider) with notes on its ecology in Marathwada,

Maharashtra State, India. Mammalia 55(2): 275-283.

Gopalakrishna, A., R.S. Thakur & A. Madhavan (1975):

Breeding biology of the southern dwarf pipistrelle,

Pipistrellus mint us mimns (Wroughton) from Maharashtra,

India. Dr B.S. Cliaulian Comm. Volume. 225-240.

Hill, J. & J.D. Smith (1985): Bats, A Natural History. Henry

Ling Ltd., Dorchester, England.

Kunz, T.H. & A.W. Gustafson (1983): Terms commonly used

and misused in the literature pertaining to bats. Bat Res.

News. 24(2-3): 19-22.

Madhavan, A. ( 1 97 1 ): Breeding habits in the Indian vespertilionid

bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix (Wroughton).

Mammalia 35: 283-306.

Madhavan, A. (1978): Breeding habits and associated phenomena

in some Indian bats- Part V — Pipistrellus dormeri

(Dobson) — Vespertilionidae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

75: 426-433.

Madhavan, A., D.R. Patil& A. Gopalakrishna (1978): Breeding

habits and associated phenomena in some Indian bats —

Part IV - — Hipposideros fulvus fulvus (Gray)

(Hipposideridac). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 96-103.

Ramaswamy, K.R. (1960): Studies on the sex cycle in the Indian

vampire bat. Megaderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy). Proc. Nat.

Inst. Sci. India 27: 287-303.

Sandhu, S.K. (1984): Breeding biology of the Indian fruit bat,

Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl) in Central India. ,/. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 81: 600-611.

Sapkal. V.M. &. A.H. Khamare (1984): Breeding habits and

associated phenomena in some Indian bats — Part VIII

— Tapliozous melanopogon (Temminck) —

Emballonuridae. .1. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80: 303-31 1.

Sommers, L.A., W.H. Davis & H.B. Hitchcock (1993): Longevity

records for Myot is lucifugus. Bat Res News. 34: 3.

Tuttle, M.D. & D. Stevenson (1982): Growth and survival. In :

Ecology of bats. Plenum Press, New York. 105-150.

ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PUPAL CASE, ADULT AND EGG OF INDIAN

SPECIES OF LIPALEYRODES TAKAHASHI (ALEYRODIDAE: HOMOPTERA) WITH

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES1

B. Vasantharaj David2 and K. Thenmozhi3

( With four text-figures)

Key words: Lipaleyrodes vernoniae, Aleyrodidae

Four species of Lipaleyrodes Takahashi from India were studied for the characteristics of the pupal case, egg

and adults to understand their significance in aleyrodid taxonomy. Among the four species one species from Venumia

cinerea (Compositae) has been described as a new species, namely Lipaleyrodes vernoniae. No difference was observed

in the structure of egg in the species studied. However, in the adults the compound eyes are joined by a single

ommatidium as in Beniisia tabaci, that suggesting probably Bemisini and Lipaleyrodini share this characteristic feature

at the tribal level. The study indicates that at species level variations in the number of setae in meso- and metatibial

brush and in the metatibial comb, and the pattern of distribution of setae on the paramere may play significant role in

species determination.

Introduction

In 1962 Takahashi erected the genus

Lipaleyrodes characterised mainly by submarginal

area being distinctly defined by a dorsal disc with

wax plates in large clusters arranged in a row. Mound

and Halsey (1978) reported a new combination

Lipaleyrodes breyniae for Trialeurodes breyniae

which was described in 1931 by Singh on Breynia

vitis-idaea (Bunn, f.) Fischer [= Breynia rhamnoides

(Retz.)] from India. However, David and

Subramaniam (1976) added two new species,

namely L. crossandrae and L. euphorbiae from India

and presented a key for Indian species of

Lipaleyrodes. Jeritta and David (1986) reported the

occurrence of L. euphorbiae on Phyllanthus amarus

Schum. and Thonn. (-Phyllanthus niruri) and P.

maderaspatensis L. from India and briefly indicated

the life history of the species. In 1990 specimens of

Lipaleyrodes infesting Phyllanthus sp. and

Euphorbia sp. were received from the ICAR

Research Complex at Port Blair in Andaman and

Nicobar Islands.

Presently aleyrodid taxonomy is based entirely

on the so-called “Pupal case” and little is known

‘Accepted October 1993.

-Jai Research Foundation, Valvada P.0. 396108, Valsad, Gujarat.

'Fredrick Institute of Plant Protection and Toxicology, Padappai

601 301, Tamil Nadu, India.

about the morphology and characteristic features of

the egg and adults, particularly the male genitalia of

Indian aleyrodids excepting for the contribution of

Singh ( 1 93 1 ) in respect of a few species. No serious

attempt has been made so far to relate the

characteristic features of the egg and adult with that

of the pupal case in aleyrodid taxonomy and the need

for such an approach has been stressed recently

by Gill (1990). Esther (1991) made a preliminary

study of the pupal case, egg and adult morphology

of a few species in relation to aleyrodid taxonomy.

The present paper deals with a detailed comparative

study of the egg and adult characteristics with that

of the characteristic features of pupal case of

the Indian species of the genus Lipaleyrodes

Takahashi.

Materials and Methods

Material: This study was based on the various

species of Lipaleyrodes collected by us and also

examination of the type species of Lipaleyrodes

breyniae (Singh).

Methods: Egg: Eggs were removed from the

leaf surface by means of a fine needle and transferred

to lactic acid and examined under a stereoscopic

binocular microscope. Such eggs were stored in lactic

acid for three to four days till they became

transparent. The eggs were then transferred to

polyvinyl lactophenol on a slide. A cover glass was

340

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

placed carefully to avoid air bubbles and slides were

allowed to dry before observations.

Pupal case: In the preparation of permanent

mounts of the pupal cases, the method suggested by

Jesudasan and David (1991) was adopted.

Adult: To study the adult characteristics the

method suggested by Mound (1965) was followed.

Adults taken dry from stored leaves or collected live

were placed in solution containing ethyl alcohol 5

parts, lactic acid 1 part and distilled water 4 parts.

The specimens were then transferred to a stronger

solution (ethyl alcohol 35 parts, lactic acid 35 parts

and distilled water 30 parts) for 4 to 5 days. In the

case of fresh specimens it may be kept for a day.

Finally they were transferred to the preservative

containing chloral hydrate 40 g, glycerine 20 CC and

distilled water 40 CC. The adults were mounted in

Berlese after first detaching the head, abdomen and

wings so that all parts will be always present in the

same slide. After mounting, the specimens were

ringed with Euparal first, then with Murrayite or

thin Canada Balsam. All observations, micro-

measurements and camera lucida drawings of egg,

pupal case and adults were made using Carl Zeiss

LOBOVAL 4 microscope.

Results

Specimens of Lipaleyrodes collected from

various host plants were examined critically and the

description of the various stages of the species

studied has been provided. Key for the Indian species

of Lipaleyrodes based on characteristics of male

genitalia and metatibia of adult and pupal case has

also been provided.

Key to Indian species of Lipaleyrodes Takahashi

(based on adult and pupal case)

1 . Setae on first abdominal segment wanting; each submarginal

cluster with 4 or 5 wax plates; paramere with 4, 7 and 7

setae respectively on inner, mid and outer regions

breyniae (Singh)

Setae on first abdominal segment present 2

2. Wax plates in clusters polygonal or oval shaped; metatibial

brush with 2 setae and comb with 12 or 14 setae 3

Wax plates in clusters petal-like and irregular shaped;

metatibial brush with 3 setae and comb with 1 1 setae

vernoniae sp. nov.

3. Wax plates in clusters oval; metatibial comb with 12 setae;

paramere with 4, 8 and 7 setae respectively on inner, mid

and outer regions crossandrae David & Subramaniam

Wax plates in clusters polygonal; metatibial comb with 14

setae; paramere with 4,7 and 5 setae respectively on inner,

mid and outer regions. ...euphorbiae David & Subramniam

Genus Lipaleyrodes Takahashi 1961

Lipaleyrodes Takahashi, 1962, Proc. Ent. Soc.,

London (B) 31:100.

Type species: Lipaleyrodes phyllanthi

Takahashi 1962: by monotypy.

Pupal case ovate, margin crenulate, tracheal

pores, clefts or combs wanting, not strongly

sclerotized; submarginal area distinctly defined from

dorsal disc, broad with wax plates in large clusters

arranged in a row; dorsal setae discernible; abdominal

segment VII shortened medially; vasiform orifice

large, subcordate; operculum occupying over half

the length of orifice; lingula knobbed, exposed with

dorsal expanded part longer than wide.

1 . Lipaleyrodes breyniae Singh

(Fig. 1, A-D)

Trialeurodes breyniae Singh, 1931, Mem. Dep.

Agric., India, 12 (1 1): 49.

Lipaleyrodes breyniae (Singh), Mound and

Halsey 1978, Whitefly of the World, p. 167.

Pupal case: Pupal case pale yellowish; found

in groups on the undersurface of leaf with dense

bluish white fluff composed of fleecy curled fine

filaments of waxy secretion ; 0.85 mm long and 0.65

mm wide.

Margin: Finely crenulate; paired anterior and

posterior marginal setae evident, 10 pm long;

thoracic and caudal combs and pores absent.

Dorsal surface: Dorsum with two pairs of

dorsal setae; cephalic setae 50 pm long, VIII

abdominal setae laterad of vasiform orifice, 62.5 pm

long; I abdominal setae wanting; caudal setae

submarginal, 85 pm long. Abdominal segment VI,

37.5 pm long; segment VIII longest, 55 pm long;

segment VII medially shortened, 5 pm long. Dorsal

disc separated from submargin by a distinct line.

Submargin broad with 1 1 pairs of clusters of wax

plates, each cluster consisting of 4 to 5 oval shaped

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SPECIES OF LIPALEYRODES TAKAHASHI

341

wax plates (Fig l, B).

Vasiform orifice little longer than wide, 87.5

pm long and 77.5 pm wide; operculum 55 pm long

and 37.5 pm wide. Lingula large, exposed, setose,

bearing a pair of setae sub-apically.

Ventral surface: A pair of ventral abdominal

setae present, 12.5 pm long and 37.5 pm apart.

Antenna does not extend beyond base of prothoracic

leg. Setae at base of legs and rostrum wanting.

Materials examined: 3 specimens on Breynia

rhamnoides : india: Bihar, Pusa, 1 1.4.1929, K. Singh

(In the collections of Division of Entomology, IARI,

New Delhi); 8 specimens on Indigofera cassiodes,

Rottler ex DC. Bangalore, 6.5.93, K. Thenmozhi.

Hosts: Breynia vitis-idaea ( -Breynia

rhamnoides ) (Euphorbiaceae), Indigofera cassiodes

(Papilionaceae).

Distribution: india: Pusa (Bihar), Bangalore

(Karnataka). Reported for the first time from South

India.

The description of the egg and adults provided

here are based on that of Singh (1931).

Egg: (Fig. 1 , C): Measures 0. 1 9 mm long and

0.095 mm wide; sub-oval in outline with smooth

surface; laid on under surface of leaf generally

arranged in the form of circle.

adult male: Length from vertex to tip of claspers

1 .03 mm; pale yellowish with a light orange tinge;

eyes crimson, divided. Antenna : Seven segmented; II

segment sub-pyriform, hairy, 0.046 mm; III sub-

cylindric, imbricate 0.085 mm, armed with two

primary sensoria and the sensorial cone near the distal

end; IV sub-cylindric, 0.019 mm; V sub-cylindric,

0.023 mm long with a primary sensorium apically; VI

sub-cylindric, 0.023 mm with a small sensorial cone

apically; VII sub-fusiform, hairy with a primary

sensorium and a sensorial cone in the distal half and a

setae on the tip of the segment. Wings: Forewing

hyaline, immaculate, not mottled, 0.85 mm long and

0.28 mm wide; radius as a smooth flexure and cubitus

as a streak. Hind wing 0.76 mm long and 0.25 mm

wide; radius as a smooth flexure. Legs: Hind tibia 0.304

mm long with ordinary rows of spines; proximal tarsus

0.095 mm; distal tarsus 0.076 mm. Genitalia: (Fig. 1 ,

D): Parameres 0.031 mm at base, 0.086 mm long;

Fig. I . Lipaleyrodes breyniae Singh: A. Pupal case; B. Cluster

of wax plates; C. Egg; D. Male genitalia.

slightly narrowing distally and the sharp pointed tip

incurved called apical spine. Aedeagus cylindric at

base, tapering distally, shorter than clasper.

female: Body length meaures from vertex to

tip of ovipositor 1 . 1 mm. Antenna: Seven segmented

as in male, length being (in mm) II, 0.046; III, 0. 101 ;

IV, 0.023; V, 0.031; VI, 0.028; VII, 0.039. Wings:

Forewing 0.95 mm long and 0.38 mm wide. Hind

wing 0.85 mm long and 0.31 mm wide. Legs: Hind

tibia 0.342 mm; proximal tarsus 0.095 mm; distal

tarsus 0.076 mm.

2. Lipaleyrodes crossandrae David and

Subramaniam

(Fig. 2, A-J)

Lipaleyrodes crossandrae David and

Subramaniam, 1976, Rec. Zool. Surv., India. 70:201.

Pupal case: Found in groups on under surface

342

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Fig. 2. Lipaleywdes cwssandrae David & Subramaniam: A. Pupal case; B. Cluster of wax plates; C. Egg;

D. Compound eyes joined by single ommatidium; E. Ahtenna of male; F. Forewing of male; G. Hindwing of male;

H. Mesothoracic leg of male, I. Metathoracic leg of male, J. Male genitalia.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SPECIES OF LIPALEYRODES TAKAHASHI

343

of leaves in dense white fluff of fleecy curled

filaments of wax. Pupal case white in colour, oval

shaped, length 0.58-0.78 mm and width 0.41-0.50

mm.

Dorsal surface: Dorsum with three pairs of

setae, long and quite characteristic; cephalic setae

100 pm - 127 pm long; I abdominal setae 146 pm -

160 pm long and VIII abdominal setae laterad to

base of vasiform orifice, 88 pm - 125 pm long.

Caudal setae submarginal, 80 pm - 110 pm long.

Abdominal segment VI 37.5 pm long; segment VII,

5 pm long, medially shortened; segment VIII longest,

45 pm long. Dorsal disc separated from submargin

by a distinct line. Submargin broad with 1 1 pairs of

clusters of wax plates; each cluster consisting of 8-

17 oval shaped wax plates (Fig. 2, B).

Vasiform orifice bluntly pointed at caudal end;

47 pm long and 52 pm wide with lateral ridges.

Operculum wider than long, 28 pm long and 39 pm

wide. Lingula large, more or less club shaped, setose,

exposed, bearing a pair of long setae sub-apically,

included.

Ventral surface: A pair of ventral abdominal

setae, 36 pm long and 28 pm apart. Setae at the base

of legs and rostrum wanting.

Materials examined: Holotype and 13

paratypes on Crosscindra undulaefolia. India: Tamil

Nadu, Coimbatore, 15.1 1 .1966. B.V. David; 7 pupal

cases on Achyranthes aspera L., Tamil Nadu,

Padappai, 28.7.92, K. Thenmozhi; 8 Pupal cases on

unidentified Acanthaceae, Padappai, 7.6.1993, K.

Thenmozhi; 10 pupal cases on Blepharis

maderaspatensis, Coimbatore, 5.8.93, K.

Thenmozhi.

Hosts: Crosscindra undulaefolia, Blepharis

maderaspatensis (Acanthaceae); Achyranthes aspera

(Amaranthaceae).

Distribution: india: Coimbatore, Padappai

(Tamil Nadu).

Egg: In the case of Achyranthes aspera the

egg is found on under surface of leaf mainly on either

side of midrib deposited with powdery wax. Egg

measures 0.2 mm long and 0. 1 1 mm wide, pedicel

measures 0.03 mm attached to leaf surface (Fig. 2,

C). In Blepharis maderaspatensis female lays eggs

on under surface of leaf deposited along with wax.

Egg measures 0.2 mm long and 0.11 mm wide. In

unidentified host plant eggs are laid on both surfaces

of leaf deposited along with powdery wax. The egg

measures 0.2 mm long and 0. 1 2 mm wide and pedicel

0.03 mm.

adult male: Body light yellow in colour, legs

and antennae pale, wings hyaline, eyes maroon,

constricted in the middle and joined by a single

ommatidium (Fig. 2, D). Body length from vertex

to tip of abdomen 1.11 mm. Antenna : (Fig. 2, E):

Seven segmented; 1 0.017 mm long; II sub-pyriform,

0.055 mm long; III sub-cylindric, imbricate, longest,

0.125 mm long with two primary sensoria and a

sensorial cone at distal end; IV sub-cylindric, 0.022

mm long; V club shaped, 0.037 mm long with a

primary sensorium apically; VI, sub-cylindric, 0.020

mm with a sensorial cone sub-apically; VII sub-

fusiform, hairy, 0.035 mm long having a primary

sensorium and a sensorial cone in the middle of the

segment and a seta at the tip. Wings : (Fig. 2, F-G):

Forewing 0.75 mm long and 0.18 mm wide,

immaculate, not mottled, hyaline and transparent;

radius as a smooth flexure and cubitus as a streak.

Hindwing 0.65 mm long and 0. 1 8 mm wide, hyaline,

not mottled; radius as a smooth flexure. Legs :

Mesotibia (Fig. 2, H): 0.22 mm long with two

mesotibial brush consisting of 2 setae each. Proximal

tarsus 0.07 mm long and distal tarsus 0.06 mm long,

end with claws and a seta. Metatibia (Fig. 2, 1) 0.30

mm long. Metatibial comb consisting of 12 setae and

a brush with 2 setae. Proximal tarsus 0.08 mm long

and a distal tarsus 0.07 mm ending with claws and a

seta. Genitalia : (Fig. 2, J): Parameres 0.1 1 mm long

and 0.022 mm wide, wider in the basal part and

tapering apically forming an apical spine. The inner

margin of paramere has 4 setae, outer margin 7 setae,

and the mid region with 8 setae. Aedeagus 0.1 mm

long and 0.007 mm wide, broad at base and bluntly

tapering at the distal end.

female: Body length from vertex to tip of

ovipositor, 1.290 mm. Antenna: Seven segmented, I

0.017 mm, II 0.06 mm, III 0. 1 35 mm, IV 0.022 mm,

V 0.037 mm, VI 0.035 mm and VII 0.037 mm. The

primary sensorium and a sensorial cone as in male.

344

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Wings: Forewing 0.90 mm long and 0.22 mm wide.

Hindwing 0.76 mm long and 0.21 mm wide. Legs :

Mesotibia 0.24 mm long, proximal tarsus 0.06 mm

long and distal tarsus 0.07 mm long. Mesotibia 0.33

mm long, proximal tarsus 0.07 mm long and distal

tarsus 0.07 mm long. Mesotibial brush, metatibial

comb and brush as in male.

3. Lipaleyrodes euphorbiae

David and Subramaniam

(Fig. 3, A-J)

Lipaleyrodes euphorbiae David and

Subramaniam, 1976, Rec. Zool. Surv., India, 70:202.

Pupal case: Pupal case found in groups on

undersurface of leaf and to a limited extent on upper

surface also with dense bluish white fluff of fleecy

curled filaments of wax. Body white, oval 0.71-0.78

mm long and 0.5 1-0.60 mm wide.

Margin: Finely crenulate, paired anterior and

posterior marginal setae, 5 pm and 11 pm long

respectively. Thoracic and caudal tracheal pores and

combs absent.

Dorsal surface: Three pairs of dorsal setae:

cephalic setae 12.5 pm- 140 pm long; I abdominal

setae minute, 7.5 pm- 11 pm long, in Phyllanthus

maderaspatensis measures 137.5 pm long; VIII

abdominal setae laterad of base of vasiform orifice,

80- 1 05 pm long. Caudal setae 80 pm- 1 1 0 pm long.

Abdominal segments distinct, pockets well

developed and contiguous, abdominal segment VI

55 pm; VII medially short, 5 pm: VIII longest 55

pm.

Dorsal disc separated from submargin by a

distinct line. Submargin broad with 11 pairs of

clusters of wax plates each cluster consisting of 5 to

16 polygonal shaped wax plates (Fig. 3, B). Eight

pairs of minute setae present in the sub-dorsal area,

4 on cephalic region and 4 on posterior part of

abdominal region.

Vasiform orifice bluntly pointed at caudal end,

a little wider than long; width 61 pm and length 58

pm; lateral ridges distinct. Operculum wider than

long, 30 pm long and 47 pm wide; lingula large,

more or less club shaped, exposed bearing a pair of

long setae sub-apically, included but sometimes

extended beyond posterior margin of orifice.

Ventral surface: A pair of ventral abdominal

setae cephalad of base of vasiform orifice 8 pm long,

25 pm apart. A minute pair of setae present at base

of rostrum and legs.

Materials examined: Holotype and 17

paratypes on Euphorbia prostrata, india: Tamil

Nadu, Madurai, 28.1.1967, B.V. David; 4 pupal cases

on Phyllanthus maderaspatensis, Tamil Nadu,

Padappai, 1.7.1992, K. Thenmozhi; 3 pupal cases

on Phyllanthus amarus, Tamil Nadu, Padappai,

1.7.1992, K. Thenmozhi; 10 pupal cases on

Phyllanthus acidus, Tamil Nadu, Padappai, 8.3. 1993,

K. Thenmozhi; 2 pupal cases Euphorbia sp., Port

Blair, 11.1.1990, Coll. C.R. Ramesh; 2 pupal cases

Phyllanthus sp., Port Blair, 11.1.1990, coll. C.R.

Ramesh.

Host: Euphorbia prostrata, Phyllanthus

maderaspatensis, P. amarus (=niruri), P acidus

(Euphorbiaceae). Phyllanthus acidus is a new host

record for this species.

Distribution: india: Tamil Nadu (Padappai,

Madurai); Karnataka (Bangalore); Andaman and

Nicobar Islands (Port Blair).

Egg: In Euphorbia prostrata eggs are laid on

under surface deposited with waxy secretion. In

Phyllanthus maderaspatensis (Fig. 3, C) and

P. amarus the female lays eggs on both surfaces of

the leaf. Before egg laying the female deposits wax

powder on the leaf surface and then lays eggs in a

scattered manner. Freshly laid eggs are pale cream

and later turn dark brown. The egg measures 0.2 mm

long and 0.1 1 mm wide, pedicel 0.003 mm long. In

P. acidus the female deposits powdery wax in a

circular ring and then starts egg laying in the same

manner. Egg measures 0.19 mm long and 0.11 mm

wide; pedicel 0.003 mm long.

adult male: Body light yellow, head and thorax

light brown, abdomen, antennae and legs pale; wings

hyaline and eyes maroon, constricted in

the middle and joined by a single ommatidium

(Fig. 3, D). Body from vertex to tip of abdomen

measures 1.11 mm. Antenna: (Fig. 3, E): Seven

segmented; I broader than long, 17.5 pm x 135 pm; II

sub-pyriform, hairy, longer than wide, 45 pm x 25 pm;

0.02 mnn

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SPECIES OF LIPALEYRODES TAKAHASHI

345

E

Fig. 3. Lipaleyrodes euphorbiae David & Subramaniam: A. Pupal case; B. Cluster of wax plates; C. Egg; D. Compound eyes

joined by single ommatidium; E. Antenna of male; F. Forewing of male; G. Hindwing of male; H. Mesothoracic leg of male;

I. Metathoracic leg of male; J. Male genitalia.

346

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

III sub-cylindric, imbricate, longest, 1 1 0 pm with two

primary sensoria and a sensorial cone sub-apically;

IV sub-cylindric, 17.5 pm long; V club shaped, broader

apically and slightly narrow in the basal part, 30 pm

long with a primary sensorium apically; VI sub-

cylindric, 25 pm long with a sensorial cone sub-

apically; VII sub- fusiform, 30 pm long with a primary

sensorium and a sensorial cone in the middle

and a seta at the tip. Wings: (Fig. 3, F): Forewing

0.72 mm long and 0.22 mm wide, not

mottled, hyaline, immaculate; radius as a smooth

flexure and cubitus as a streak. Hindwing (Fig. 3, G)

0.64 mm long and 0.20 mm wide; radius as a smooth

flexure. Legs: Mesotibia (Fig. 3, H) 0.24 mm long

with 2 mesotibial brush consisting of 2 setae; proximal

tarsus 0.07 mm long and distal tarsus 0.06 mm long

ending with claws and a seta. Metatibia (Fig. 3, 1) 0.3 1

mm long with metatibial comb consisting of 14 setae

and a brush consisting of 2 setae. Proximal tarsus 0.09

mm long and distal tarsus 0.07 mm long. Genitalia:

(Fig. 3, J): Paramere 0.107 mm long and 0.02 mm

wide. Inner margin of paramere consisting of 4 setae,

one at basal end and 3 at inflatable sac. The outer

margin has 5 setae and the mid region 7 setae. Paramere

broader at distal end and tapering at apical end forming

an apical spine. Aedeagus 0.10 mm long and 0.077

mm wide, broader at the base and tapering at apical

end.

female: Body from vertex to tip of ovipositor

1.20 mm. Antenna: Seven segmented: 1 0.02 mm, II

0.057 mm. III 0. 1 1 mm, IV 0.017 mm, V 0.035 mm,

VI 0.027 mm and VII 0.04 mm. Primary sensorium

and sensorial cone present as in male. Wings:

Forewing 0.92 mm long and 0.32 mm wide;

hindwing 0.69 mm and 0.27 mm wide. Legs:

Mesotibia 0.25 mm long, proximal tarsus 0.092 mm

long and distal tarsus 0.087 mm long. Metatibia 0.3 1

mm long, proximal tarsus 0. 1 1 mm long and distal

tarsus 0. 1 1 mm long. Mesotibial brush, metatibial

comb and brush as in male.

4. Lipaleyrodes vernoniae sp. nov.

(Fig. 4, A-I)

Pupal case: White, oval, found in groups on

under surface of leaves with a dense white fluffy

and fleecy curled filaments of wax. Body length

0.810 mm and width 0.520 mm.

Margin: Margin finely crenulate. Paired

anterior and posterior marginal setae respectively 1 0

pm and 25 pm long.

Dorsal surface: Dorsum with three pairs of

dorsal setae: cephalic 100 pm, I abdominal 75 pm,

VIII abdominal laterad of base of vasiform orifice

95 pm. Caudal setae submarginal 105 pm.

Abdominal segment VI 37.5 pm, VIII 55 pm and

VII medially shortened. Dorsal disc separated from

submargin by a distinct line. Submargin 80 pm broad

with 1 1 pairs of clusters of wax plates, each cluster

consisting of 6-11 petal-like irregular shaped wax

plates (Fig. 4, B).

Vasiform orifice bluntly pointed at caudal end,

90 pm long and 75 pm wide. Operculum wider than

long, 55 pm x 40 pm. Lingula large, exposed, setose,

bearing a pair of long setae sub-apically.

Ventral surface: A pair of ventral abdominal

setae 25 pm long and 37.5 pm apart. Setae at base of

rostrum and legs wanting.

Materials examined: Holotype 1 pupal case,

on Vernonia cinerea. india: Padappai, 21.1.93; K.

Thenmozhi. Paratypes: 9 pupal cases on slides

bearing same data; one pupal case bearing the same

data in the collection of the Division of Entomology,

IARI, New Delhi.

Host: Vernonia cinerea (Compositae).

Distribution: india: Tamil Nadu (Padappai).

Egg: Eggs are laid near basal part of under

surface of leaf deposited with powdery wax. Freshly

laid eggs are cream coloured and later change to

dark brown. Egg 0.19 mm long and 0.10 mm wide,

sub-oval with smooth surface (Fig. 4, C).

adult male: Body pale yellow, wings hyaline,

eyes maroon, divided and joined by single

ommatidium (Fig. 4, D). Body from vertex to tip of

abdomen 1.08 mm. Antenna: (Fig. 4, E): Seven

segmented; 1 0.017 mm long and 0.032 mm wide; II

sub-pyriform, hairy, 0.052 mm long and 0.032 mm

wide; III sub-cylindric, imbricate, longest, 0.12 mm

long with two primary sensoria and a sensorial cone

sub-apically, IV 0.03 mm long, V club-shaped, 0.035

mm long with a primary sensorium apically; VI

cylindric, 0.025 mm long with a sensorial cone

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SPECIES OF LIPALEYRODES TAKAHASHI

347

Fig. 4. Lipaleyrodes vernoniae sp. nov.: A. Pupal case; B. Cluster ot wax plates; C. Egg; I). Compound eyes joined by single

ommatidium; E. Antenna of male; F. Forewing of male; G. Mesothoracic leg of male; H. Metathoracic leg of male;

I. Male genitalia.

348

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

subapically; VII sub-fusiform, 0.035 mm long with

a primary sensorium and a sensorial cone in the

middle of the segment and a seta at tip. Wings

(Fig. 4, F): Forewing 0.91 mm long and 0.21 mm

wide, not mottled, hyaline, immaculate, radius as a

smooth flexure and cubitus as a streak. Hindwing

0.6 1 mm long and 0. 1 6 mm wide; radius as a smooth

flexure. Legs : Mesotibia (Fig. 4, G) 0.22 mm long,

two mesotibial brushes consisting of 3 and 2 numbers

of setae; proximal tarsus 0.07 mm long and distal

tarsus 0.06 mm ending with claws and a seta.

Metatibia (Fig. 4, H) 0.3 1 mm long, metatibial comb

consisting of 1 1 setae and a brush consisting of 3

setae; proximal tarsus 0.08 mm long and distal tarsus

0.07 mm long ending with claws and a seta. Genitalia

(Fig. 4, 1): Parameres 0.10 mm long and 0.027 mm

broad, broader at distal end and tapering at apical

end forming an apical spine. Each paramere

consisting of 6 setae in the middle, 4 on the inner

margin and 5 on the outer margin. Aedeagus 0.09

mm long and 0.007 mm wide, bluntly tapering at

apical end.

female: Body length from vertex to tip of

ovipositor 1.350 mm. Antenna: Seven segmented:

I 0.025 mm, II 0.062 mm. III 0.125 mm, IV 0.022

mm, V 0.035 mm, VI 0.027 mm and VII 0.046 mm.

Sensorial cone and primary sensorium present as in

male; Wings: Forewing 0.79 mm long and 0.23 mm

wide; hindwing 0.67 mm long and 0.20 mm wide;

Legs: Mesotibia 0.25 mm long, proximal tarsus and

distal tarsus 0.07 mm long. Metatibia 0.30 mm long,

proximal tarsus 0. 1 mm and distal tarsus 0.08 mm.

Mesotibial brush, metatibial cone and brush as in

male.

Discussion

The study has shown the presence of 4 species

of Lipaleyrodes in India out of 5 species known so

far in this genus, and one has been found to be new

to science.

In all the species there are uniformly 1 1 pairs

of clusters of wax plates in the submargin excepting

in L. phyllanthi which has been reported to have 10

to 12 pairs. However, considerable difference has

been noticed in the number, size and pattern of wax

plates in a cluster in each species. The wax plates

are polygonal in L. euphorbiae, oval in L. breyniae

and L. crossandrae, hexagonal in L. phyllanthi and

characteristic irregular petal-like inL. vernoniae. The

dorsal setae are extremely long in L. crossandrae,

whereas first abdominal setae are wanting in

L. breyniae and L. phyllanthi. In L. vernoniae the

dorsal setae are more or less of uniform size, whereas

in L. euphorbiae the first abdominal setae varied in

size from minute to long. L. euphorbiae differed

distinctly from all other known species in possessing

8 pairs of minute setae in sub-dorsal area, 4 on

cephalic region and 4 towards posterior part of

abdomen.

L. euphorbiae occurs on euphorbiaceous plants

whereas L. vernoniae is known from Compositae.

L. crossandrae infests plants belonging to

Amaranthaceae and Acanthaceae, whereas L.

breyniae is restricted to plants belonging to

Euphorbiaceae and Papilionaceae. It is interesting

to note that L. phyllanthi occurs on Phyllanthus sp.

in Madagascar and is similar to L. breyniae in not

possessing the first abdominal setae but differs from

it in having hexagonal wax plates.

The study of adult characteristics has shown

that the compound eyes are joined by single

ommatidium in all the species examined. No

significant variation has been noticed in the antennal

structures of both male and female. Eggs and wings

also did not exhibit any difference. Variations could

be noticed mainly in the mesotibia and metatibia and

in the male genitalia which are presented in

Table 1.

Gill (1990) has highlighted the joining of upper

and lower section of compound eyes by ommatidium.

According to Esther (1991) in Aleurolobus orientalis

(Aleurolobini), Trialeurodes ricini and

T. vaporariorum (Trialeurodini) the compound eyes

are distinctly separated and not connected by

ommatidium. On the other hand she observed species

studied under Dialeurodini and Aleyrodini have

compound eyes joined by two ommatidia, whereas

in Bemisia tabaci (Bemisini) they are joined by

single ommatidium. Interestingly in the species of

Lipaleyrodes (Lipaleyrodini) they are joined by

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SPECIES OF LIPALEYRODES TAKAHASHI

349

Table 1

Species Mesotibia Metatibia No. of setae in

paramere

* Not observed: From figure of Singh (1931).

single ommatidium. It may be of interest to note that

the pupal case of Bemisini and Lipaleyrodini look

alike except for the demarcation of submargin with

clusters of wax plates. Joining of compound eyes

by single ommatidium is probably characteristic of

the tribes Bemisini and Lipaleyrodini which needs

to be confirmed by the study of considerable number

of species from the tribes.

The variations in the number of setae in meso-

and metatibial brush and in the metatibial comb in

addition to the variations in the setae present on inner

Refer

David. B.V. & T.R. Subramaniam (1976): Studies on some

Indian Aleyrodidae. Rec.Zool. Sarv., India 70:201-

202.

Esther, S. ( 1991 ): Studies on pupal cases of certain whiteflies in

relation to egg and adult morphology in Aleyrodid

taxonomy. Thesis submitted to the University of Madras

for award of M.Phil. degree, pp. 78.

Gill. R.J. (1990): The Morphology of whiteflies. In: Whiteflies

their Bionomics, Pest Status and Management (Ed. Dan

Gerling). Intercept Ltd., p. 13-46.

Jeritta, A.L.R. & B.V. David ( 1 986): Life history of the aleyrodid

Lipaleyrodes eitphorbiae David and Subramaniam on

Phyllanthus spp. Pest Management, Entl.Ser. 1. FIPPAT,

and outer margins and mid region of parameres are

of significance in aleyrodid taxonomy at species

level.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to CSIR for Research

Associateship to Dr. (Miss) K. Thenmozhi under

which this work was carried out. Thanks are due to

Dr. R Balakrishnamurthy, Director and Dr. C. Peter,

Head, Entomology Dept., Fredrick Institute of Plant

Protection and Toxicology, Padappai for facilities

provided.

ENCES

Padappai (Ed. David, B.V.), pp. 27-30.

Mound, L.A. (1965): Preparation of Aleyrodidae. (Personal

communication to B.V. David).

Mound, L.A. & S.H. Halsey (1978): Whitefly of the World. A

Systematic Catalogue of the Aleyrodidae (Homoptera)

with host plant and natural enemy data. British Museum

Natural History and John Wiley and Sons, p. 167.

Singh, K. (1931): A contribution towards our knowledge of the

(Whiteflies of India). Mem. Dept. Agric. India. Enl. Series.

12: 49-50.

Takahashi, R. (1962): Two new genera and species of

Aleyrodidae from Madagascar (Homoptera). Proc. R. Ent.

Soc. Lond.(B) 31: 100-102.

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY-36: MOTACILLIDAE

Saraswathy Unnithan

[Continued from Vol. 89(1): 71]

This part covers 1022 specimens of 41 species and subspecies, Nos. 1852 -1891 in the Indian handbook and

synopsis and 6 extra limitals. Of the 41 from Indian limits we have no specimens of 6 forms (1 species and 5 subspecies).

1852. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni Richmond

(Calcutta) Indian Tree Pipit 3:281, 282

52: 26 males 13 females 13 o?

1 Chitral, 1 Dakuri, 2 Dharmsala, N.W.H.; 2 Badrinath,

Garhwal; 1 Bharatpur, Rajasthan; 2 Mahabaleswar, Maharashtra;

1 Barkot, Bainra, Orissa; 1 Baghowni, Darbhanga; 1 Rangpo, 1

Rinchinpong, W. Sikkim, 3 Chungthang, Lachung, N. Sikkim; 4

Gedu, 2 Sanchi, I Honku, W. Bhutan, 5 Bumthang, 2 Mangdechu,

2 Gyetsa, 1 Shamgong, I Batase, 1 Tama, C. Bhutan, 3 Gomchu,

1 Rongtong, 4 Narphong, 3 Wamrong, 1 Deothang, C. Bhutan; 1

Tirap; I Nyenyam , S. Tibet ; I Kamaing, Burma, 1 Hai Bum, 1

Frame , Burma.

Measurements on p. 355.

1853. Anthus hodgsoni yunnanensis Uchida &

Kuroda (Yunnan) Siberian Tree Pipit 3:283

47: 22 males 19 females 6 o?

1 Simla: 1 Mahal, Surat Dangs, S. Gujarat; 1

Bhanupratappur, Ranker, C.P., 1 Kameli, Bailadila Dt., Bastar,

C.P.; 1 Molem, Goa; 1 Wynaad, S. India, 1 Padagiri,

Nelliyampathy Hills, Cochin, l Mt. St. Mary, 1 Kodaikanal; 1

Lankapakhala, 1 Sileru, Vizag; I Mahendragiri, 1 Keonjhargarh

env., 3 Badrama, Bamra, 1 Upper Barakamara, Simlipal, Orissa:

I Banares; 1 Manjhaul, Monghyr Dt., Bihar; 2 Singtam, Teesta

Valley, 3 Temi. W. Sikkim; 1 Goalpara, Assam, 1 Sadiya, Upper

Assam; 1 Mishing, Abor Exp. 1 Miao, Arunachal Pradesh; 10

Temple of Heaven, Peking, 1 Singhaling, 1 Pautlia, E. Bank, 1

Tagahka. 1 Shurdaung, Prome Dt., 1 Tanyagyi. Sandoway Dt., 1

Sand away Dt., 1 Pumsin 1 Henz.ada Dt., Burma ; 1 no locality.

Measurements on p. 355.

1 854. Anthus trivialis trivialis (Linnaeus) (Sweden)

European Tree Pipit 3:279

49: 19 males 17 females 13 o?

5 Hawiplain, 3 Nahr Umar, L. Bank of River Tigris, 1

Feluja, R. Euphrates, Mesopotamia. 1 Randha,Tanliat, 1 Basra,

1 Tanb Island, P. Gulf, 1 Dusdab, S.E. Sistan, Persia ; 1 Keonthal

St., 1 Koti St., 1 Simla, N.W.H.; 1 Daryapur, 2 Amabala, Punjab;

1 Ranikhet, 1 Delhi, 1 Ganges Canal, Meerut; 2 Dhari, Amreli

Dt., Kathiawar, 1 Songadh, Navsari Dt., Gujarat, 1 Cambay City

Env., 1 Chikhli, I Sarwar, 2 Malegaon, I Pandwa, Surat Dangs,

1 Bagh, 2 Surwaya, Gwalior St., 1 Mathar, Narmada Valley,

Bhopal St., 2 Karera Dt., Shivpuri, M.P., 1 Geedam, Bastar Dt.; 1

Chikalda, Berar, 1 Ghoti, 1 Nasik, 1 Raita, Kalyan, 1 Bhiwandi,

1 Thana Dt., I Pali Hill, 1 Santacruz, Bombay, 1 Mehda, Satara,

1 Rajapur, Ratnagiri; 1 Molem, Goa.

Measurements on p. 355.

1855. Anthus trivialis haringtoni Witherby

(Gittidas, Kaghan Valley) Witherby’s Tree Pipit

3: 280

37: 8 males 23 females 6 o?

5 Chitral, 2 Nawashahar, 1 Shikohpur, Jullunder; 1 Simla;

2 Keonthal State, 1 Koti State, N.W.H.; 2 Ambala, Punjab; 1

Almora, 3 Delhi; 2 Bharatpur; 1 Bhind, Gwalior State; 2 Bhivandi,

1 Wada, I Thana, 1 Vehar Lake, Salsette, 1 Kihim, Kolaba, I

Walwan, Lona, Poona, 1 Satara; 1 Dhakna, 1 Beesaam, Kolkaz,

2 Raipur; Melghat, Berar, 1 Deglur, Nader Dt., 1 Palemani,

N. Kanara; 2 Sankrametta, Vizag.

Measurements on p. 355.

1856. Anthus pratensis (Linnaeus) (Sweden)

Meadow Pipit 8:661

nil.

1857. Anthus novaeseelandiae richardi Vieil lot

(France) Richard’s Pipit 3:288

11:4 males 6 females 1 o?

1 Bakri, Monghyr Dt., Bihar; 1 Bharatpur; 1 Chanderi,

Gwalior st. C. I.; 1 Chembur Katchrapati, 1 Bhiwandi, 1 Salsette,

1 Nr. Thana; 1 Karwar, 1 N. Kanara; 1 Trivandrum env., Vellayani

Lake; I Prome, Burma.

Measurements on p. 355.

1858. Anthus novaeseelandiae waitei Whistler

(Jhelum, Punjab) Northwestern Paddyfield Pipit

3: 290

31: 17 males 12 females 2 o?

1 Lahore, 1 Keonthal St., 1 Darazpur, 1 Ambala, Punjab;

1 Almora, 1 Delhi; 2 Bharatpur, 1 Bhimal, Jodhpur, Rajputana; 1

Rapar, 1 Ratnal, 1 Bhuj, 1 Godsar, Bhuj env., 2 Mandvi, Kutch, 1

Pariaj, Kaira Dt. 1 Mithapur, Okhamandal, Kathiawar, 1 Bodeli,

Baroda Dt., 1 Golana, Cambay St., 1 Chinchli, Surat Dangs; 1

CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

351

Sonawani, Balaghat Dt., 1 Saugar, C.P., 1 Jaithari, Bhopal, 1 Choli

Tank, nr. Mandeleshwar, Indore, 1 Ratlam, C.I., 1 Chanderi,

Gwalior; 5 Kanpur.

Measurements on p. 355.

1859. Anthus novaeseelandiae rufulus Vieillot

(Bengal) Indian Paddyfield Pipit 3:290

57: 21 males 30 females 6 o?

1 Ghana Sanctuary, Bharatpur, 1 Bombay City, 2 The

Esplanade, 1 Thana, 2 Pali Hill, Bandra, 1 Andheri, Salsette, 3

Santacruz, 1 Trombay, I Panchagini, 1 Chikalda, Berar, 1 South

Konkan; 1 Santgal, N.Kanara, 1 Hikkeri, Sagar, 1 Shenemenalla,

3 Edbuthi, 1 Billaj, Billigirirangan Hills, 1 Mysore; 1 Mercara,

Coorg, 3 Shevaroy Hills, S.I., 1 Madras; 1 Jeypore agency, 1

R.V. Nagar, Vizag; 1 Mavalam, Sriharikotta, 5 Godavari Delta, 1

Bausuri, 1 Anantapur, Keonjhar, 2 Balasore, 1 Simlipal Hills,

Orissa; 1 Maniktala, Calcutta; 1 Cachar, 2 Shillong, Assam; 1

Samchi, W. Bhutan; 1 South Slum States, 1 Prome, 1 Thayatmyo

Dt., 1 Sandoway Dt.; 1 Ataran, 1 Myoguin, 3 Henzada Dt.; 2 no

locality.

Measurements on p. 355.

1 860. Anthus novaeseelandiae malayensis Eyton

(Malaya) Malay Paddyfield Pipit 3:290,292

17: 12 males 5 females ,

1 Wadakkancheri, 2 Perumalmalai, Palani Hills, 1

Thattakkadu, 1 Santanpara, Cardamom Hills, 3 Peerumadu, 1

Kumili High Range, 1 Kumili, Periyar Lake, 1 Thekkady, 2 Golf

Links, Trivandrum, 2 Muthukuzhy, Ashambu Hills, Travancore,

1 Cape Comerin; 1 Ceylon.

Measurements on p. 355-356.

1861. Anthus campestris campestris (Linnaeus)

(Sweden) Tawny Pipit 3:292,293

85: 50 males 26 females 9 o?

1 Helonan, Egypt , 1 Rt Bank of R. Tigris, 1 Feluja,

Mesopotamia, 1 Sheiksaad, 1 Lejait, Euphrates, 3 Siyahad, 1

Halul Island, Persian Gulf, 2 Campbellpur, Punjab, I Koti State,

1 Tara Devi, Keonthal State, 2 Shali Peak, Bhajji State, 4 Ambala,

2 Bhung, Bahawalpur State, 1 Lai Sohara, 2 Harunabad, 1

Bahawalpur tn. env., 1 Dadu. Larkana, Sind, 2 Khahi, Thar &

Parkar Dt., Sind, 1 Bela Island, 1 Rapar, 2 BhujiaFort, 1 Bhachau,

4 Manjal, Nakhatrama Dt., 1 Khavda, Pachham Island, 6

Kharirohar, 1 Kutch, 1 Radhanpore, N. Guj., 1 Deesa, Palanpore

St., 1 Patan, Mehsana Dt., 1 Nadiad tn. env., 1 Bodeli, Baroda

Dt., 1 Dohad, 4 Dwarka, Okhamandal, 2 Amreli, Kathiawar, 1

Kharaghoda, Gujarat; 1 Satanswara, 1 Bhind, 1 Badarwas, 1

Surwaya, Gwalior St., 1 Sanchi, Bhopal St. C.I., 1 Jabalpore, 2

Meerut, 2 Kanpur; I Chikalda, Berar, 1 Bassein, Thana Dt., 3

Andheri, 1 Juhu, I Salsette, I Satara; 2 N. Kanara; 1 Bengasai,

Foot of Mahendragiri, 2 Koira, Bonai, 2 Keonjhargarh, 1

Badrama, 1 Barkot, Bamra, Orissa.

36 specimens (23 males, 11 females and 2

unsexed) collected in the month October to March

are with streaks on the breast. They average 2-3 mm

less in their wing and tail measurements than the

unstreaked specimens.

Measurements on p. 356.

1862. Anthus campestris kastschenkoi Johansen

(Novosibrisk, West Siberia) Siberian Tawny Pipit

3:292

nil.

1863. Anthus godlewskii (Taczanowski) (Argun

River, South Dauria) Blyth’s Pipit 3:289

12: 7 males 4 females 1 o?

2 Kuno, 2 Bhind, Gwalior St., 2 Jabalpore C.I.; 1 Karera,

Shivpuri Dt., M.P.; 2 N. Kanara; 1 Aramboli, S. Travancore; 1

S.E. Everest , 1 Kharta, S. Tibet.

The hind claw is longer than the hind toe and

according to the key in the handbook the birds are

of this species.

Measurements on p. 356.

1864. Anthus cervinus (Pallas) (Siberia)

Redthroated Pipit 3:294

15: 8 males 5 females 2 o?

1 River Tanhat , 1 Aluzabal, 2 Feluja, R Euphrates, 1

Sheikh Saad, Mesopotamia, 1 Faliama, Bagdad', 1 Kyithe, 1

Tarokmaw, 2 Shurdaung, 1 Prome, 1 Yebank Henzada Dt., Burma;

1 Kufri, Koti St., 1 Dabka, Baroda Dt.; 1 Narcondam.

Young birds have no red on the head, breast

or throat. These parts are pale yellowish buff,

immaculate on the centre of chin, throat and

foreneck, heavily streaked with black on the sides

and across the whole breast.

Measurements on p. 356.

1865. Anthus roseatus Blyth (Nepal)

Vinaceousbreasted Pipit 3:295

34; 22 males 7 females 5 o?

1 Dodripass, Kishatwar, 1 nr Ramdach Pass, 1 Hygam, 1

Kashmir, 1 Kohat, N.W.F.P.; 1 Murree, 2 Asmi River, Patiala St.;

1 Kufri, 1 Koti St., 1 Simla Hills; 2 Fagu, 2 Keonthal St., 5

Kedarnath, 2 Badrinath, 1 Gupta Kashi, Garhwal, 1 Bhim Tal,

Kumaon; 3 Jagadri, Punjab; 2 Jajjah Abbasian, Bahawalpur St.,

1 Satanwara, Gwalior St.; 1 Chungthang, 1 Lachen, N. Sikkim; 2

Tezu, Lohit Valley, U. Assam.

Measurements on p. 356.

1866. Anthus similis decaptus Meinertzhagen

(Rud-I-Taman, East Persia) Persian Rock Pipit 3:287

23: 9 males 10 females 4 o?

1 Amara, Persia, 1 Tang Srgind, 1 Mishun Persian Gulf

1 N.E. Baluchistan, 1 Harboi, Baluchistan , 1 Bampur, Persian

Baluchistan, 1 Gusht, 42 M N W of Dizak, P. Baluchistan.; 1

352

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Karachi, I Campbellpur, W. Punjab; 1 Madhopur, 1 Ambala,

Punjab, 1 Keonthal St., 1 Manthar, Cholistan, 2 Bhung,

Bahawalpur State, 1 Lai Sohara, Bahawalpur tn. env., 4 Delhi; 1

Bhuj Kutch; 1 Ambarnath, 1 Bawamalang, Kalyan.

Measurements on p. 356.

1867. Anthus similis jerdoni Finsch (Kotegurh,

northwest Himalaya) Brown Rock Pipit 3:286

20: 12 males 6 females 2 o?

1 Chitral, 1 Taxila, Punjab; 1 Solon, 1 Jutogh, 1 Simla

Hills; 3 Ambala, Pujnab; 1 Hamgara, Almora, 1 Hohba, Garhwal,

1 Delhi; 2 Mir, Pachham Island, 1 Mandvi, Kutch, 1 Ajwa, 1

Baroda City env.; 1 Kuno, 2 Satanwara, Gwalior St.; 1 Pakkokku.

Measurements on p. 356.

1868. Anthus similis similis Jerdon (Jalna)

Rufous Rock Pipit 3:285

nil.

1869. Anthus similis travancoriensis Ripley (Road

to Muthukuzhi, Ashambu Hills, Travancore-Cochin

State) Kerala Rock Pipit 3: 285

2 males

1 Billigirirangan Hills, Mysore; 1 Muthukuzhi, Ashambu

Hills, Travancore.

Both the specimens were identified as similis

by Salim Ali before the description of

travancoriensis.

Measurements on p. 356.

1870. Anthus nilghiriensis Sharpe (Nilgiri Hills)

Nilgiri Pipit 3:283

11:6 males 4 females 1 o?

1 Mukurti, 2 Avalanche, 1 Parson’s Valley, 1 Western

Catchment, Nilgiri, 1 Perumalmalai, Palani Hills, 3 Anamudi High

Range; 1 Eravikulam, Kerala; 1 no locality.

Measurements on p. 356-357.

1871. Anthus spinoletta coutellii Audouin (Egypte)

Central Asian Water Pipit 3:297,298

29: 12 males 13 females 4 o?

1 Haw ip lain, Sumatra, Mesopotamia, 1 Pir-i-Batm, 1

Aliabad, Shiraz, 1 Sheik Suad, 1 Chaman, 1 Quetta, Baluchistan,

3 Hygam, Kashmir, 1 Chitral, 2 Peshawar, 1 Chhoi, nr.

Campbellpur, 2 Campbellpur, 1 Kohat, 1 Bhong, Indus Riverine,

1 Rawalpindi, 2 Fagu, Keonthal St., 1 Simla; 2 Bahawalpur tn.

env., 1 Pithoro, Sind; 4 Pekin g.

Most of the specimens are marked by earlier

workers as blakistoni=coutellii.

Measurements on p. 357.

1 872. Anthus spinoletta japonicus Temminck &

Schlegel (Japan) Japanese Water Pipit 3: 299

1 male from Maytnyo, Burma.

Measurement on p. 357.

1873. Anthus sylvanus (Hodgson) (Nepal)

Upland Pipit 3:299

19: 10 males 6 females 3 o?

1 Sha Peak, Bhajji St., 1 Koti St., 1 Fagu, 8 Simla, 1 Simla

Hills, 1 Keonthal St., N.W.H.; 1 Mussorrie, 1 Pologrounds,

Mussorrie, 1 Gupta Kashi, 2 Pipal Kotki, Chamoli, Garhwal; 1

no locality.

Measurements on p. 357.

1874. Motacilia indica Gmelin (India)

Forest Wagtail 3:276

18:8 males 6 females 4 o?

1 Waghai, Surat Dangs; 1 Molem, Goa; 1 Jog Falls, 1

Kadra, 3 Karwar, 2 N.Kanara; 1 Kumili, PeriyarLake; 1 Mongwa,

Darbhanga, Bihar; 1 Thugapur, Mayabunder, N. Andaman, 1

Interview Islands, Andaman, 1 Narcondam; 1 Kyaugin Pier,

Henzada Dt., 1 Pegu, Yoma, Lower Burma, 2 Peking, China.

In key to the species in Indian handbook this

is included among those with “some yellow in the

plumage”, but no yellow is visible in any specimens,

the last ones being dated 13th and 17th February,

1980.

Measurements on p. 357.

1 875. Motacilia flava thunbergi Billberg (Lapland)

Greyheaded Yellow Wagtail 3:269

42: 22 males 16 females 4 o?

1 Lule Lapp, 1 Finmarken, Copenhagan Museum, 2 no

locality. Copenhagen Museum, 1 Norway, I W. Kazakhstan, 1

Fahama, Bagdad, 1 Feluja, R. Euphrates, Mesopotamia; 2

Jagadhri, 1 Ambala, Punjab; 1 Delhi, 1 Hamavas Lake, Pali Dt.,

3 Bharatpur; 1 DevisarTank, Bhuj environs, Pali Dt., 1 Wanoti,

Bhuj, Kutch, 1 Vaghjipur, Mehsana Dt., Gujarat; 1 Choli tank,

Mandaleswar, Indore state; 1 Pachora, E. Khandesh, 1 Juhu,

Salsette, 1 Ratnagiri; 3 Thiru valla, 4 Edanad, Kerala; 1 Barkul,

Chilka Lake, Orissa; 1 Calcutta; 1 Baghownie, Tirhut, 1 Manjhaul,

Monghyr Dt., Bihar; 1 Mayabunder, N. Andaman, 1 Choldhari,

S. Andaman, 1 Narcondam, 1 Trinkut, Nicobar; 1 Henzada

Burma, 3 Peking, China.

Measurements on p. 357.

1875 a. Motacilia flava simillima Hartert

(Kamchatka) Short-tailed Greyheaded Yellow

Wagtail 8:660

7: 3 males 4 females

2 U.S.S.R., 1 Jadon Chaung, Thayetmyo Dt.,

2 Henzada Dt., Burma; 2 Edanad, Kerala.

Measurements on p. 357-358.

1876. Motacilia flava beema (Sykes) (Dukhun)

Blueheaded Yellow Wagtail 3:267

CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

353

43: 15 males 20 females 8 o?

2 W. Kazakhstan, 2 C. Kazakhstan, 1 Tanb Island, P. Gulf,

4 Maniian, C. Afghanistan, 1 Eaiz.abad, Seistan, Afghanistan; 1

Chitral, 1 Upper Shaksgam, Kashmir, 2 Jagadhri, Ambala, Punjab;

1 Hamavas Lake, Pali Dt., 1 Bharatpur, Rajasthan; 2 Juhu, 1

Andheri, Salsette, 1 Pali Hill, Bandra; 1 Godavari Delta, 1

Cumbum Valley, Kurnool Dt.; 8 Edanad, Chengannur, 2

Thiruvalla, Kerala; 1 Baud, Orissa; 2 Calcutta; 3 Baghownie,

Tirhut; 1 Dibrugarh, Assam; 1 Camorta, 1 Trinkut, Nicobar; 1

Henz.ada Dt., Burma; 1 no locality.

Measurements on p. 357-358.

1877. Motacilla flava lutea (Gmelin) (Astrakhan)

Yellowbacked Wagtail

nil.

1878. Motacilla flava melanogrisea (Homeyer)

(India)

Turkestan Blackheaded Wagtail 3:272

38: 21 males 11 females 6 o?

1 Central Kazakhstan, 1 Near Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan, 1

Ala Kaul Lake, East Kazakhstan, 1 Feluja, R. Euphrates,

Mesopotamia, 2 Katunak, 8 m SW. of Shiraz, 2 Shaikh Saad, 1

Enjeli, 1 Kain, Persia, 1 Tomb Island. P Gulf; 3 Panjgur, Kalat,

1 near J idi, Khojdar, Baluchistan, 3 Manthar, Cholistan,

Bahawalpur, 1 Pakpattan, 1 Ambala, 1 Daragpur, Punjab; 1

Pithoro, Sind; 1 Sha Hassan, Manchar Lake, Larkana Dt., 2 Delhi,

1 Kanpur; 1 Kutch, W.lndia, 1 Dholovira, Khadir Island, 1 Jakhan,

Kutch; 1 Madhmeshwar, Nasik, 2 Pali Hill, Bandra, 2 Andheri, 1

Juhu, Salsette, 1 Goregaon, Bombay; 1 N. Kanara; 1 no locality.

Measurements on p. 357-358.

1879. Motacilla flava leucocephala (Przevalski)

(Altai)

Whiteheaded Yellow Wagtail 3:270

nil.

1 880. Motacilla Have taivana (Swinhoe) (Formosa)

Greenheaded Yellow Wagtail

nil.

EL. Motacilla flava flava Linnaeus (S. Sweden)

The Blue-headed wagtail

5: 2 males 2 females 1 o?

4 from Western Kazakhstan and 1 no locality, Berlin

Museum.

Measurements on p. 357-358.

EL. Motacilla flava campestris Pall (E. Russia)

2 females from Shaik Saad, Tigris.

Measurements on p. 358.

EL. Motacilla flava dombrowskii (Tschusi)

(Roumania)

11:6 males 2 females 3 o?

5 Feluja, R. Euphrates, Mesopotamia, 4 Shaik Saad, 1

Busra, 1 Qabr.un-nokada Island, Khor Musa.

Vaurie (1959) in The Birds of the Palearctic

fauna’ considers this subspecies as a hybrid.

Measurements on p. 357-358.

1881. Motacilla citreola citreola Pallas (Siberia)

Northern Yellowheaded Wagtail 3:273

28: 14 males 9 females 5 o?

2 Chitral, 1 Wana, Waziristan, NWFP; 2 Panjgur, Kalat,

Baluchistan, 1 Gwambuk Kaul 50 m south of Panjgur, 1 Dadu,

Larkana, Sind; 1 Daragpur, Ambala; 3 Jagadhri, 1 Pakpattan,

Punjab; 1 Keonthal state, 1 Koti State, NWH.; 1 Baghowni, Tirhut;

1 Bumthang, C. Bhutan; 1 Bharatpur; 1 Jabalpur, C. India; 1

Kharaghoda, Gujarat; 1 Pali Hill, Bandra, 1 Mud Flats, Sion-

Causeway, 1 Goregaon, 1 Tulsi lake, Salsette, 2 Bhaynder Mud

Flats, Bombay; I Letpanta, Prome Dt., 1 Thayettaw, Henz.ada

Dt., Burma, 1 Peking, China.

Measurements on p. 358.

1882. Motacilla citreola werae (Buturlin)

(Sura valley, Simbirsk, Southeastern Russia)

Western Yellowheaded Wagtail 3:273

30: 14 males 8 females 8 o?

1 Kelmen Ridge, Tian-shan, USSR, 1 near Alma-Ata,

Kazakliistan, USSR; 2 Chitral, 1 Wana, Waziristan, NWFP; 1

Borgi Pass, Baltistan, 1 Sonamarg, Kashmir; 1 Mulbek, Ladak, 1

Bumni, Ladwa Dt., 1 Ladwa, 1 Jagadhri, 1 Ambala, 1 Rohtak,

Punjab; 1 Ruthiai, Gwalior St., C.I.; 1 Godsar, Bhuj environs,

Kutch, 1 Ajwa, Baroda Dt.; 1 Andheri, Salsette, 2 Kalyan, 1

Panvel, Kolaba Dt., 1 Edanad, Kerala; 2 Kanpur; 2 Bakhri, 1

Manjhaul, Monghyr Dt., Bihar; 1 Peking, 1 Sughuluk, Kashgar,

1 Kashgar, China; 1 no locality.

Measurements on p. 358.

1 883. Motacilla citreola calcarata Hodgson (Nepal)

Blackbacked Yellowheaded Wagtail 3:274

18: 13 males 2 females 3 o?

1 Tian-shan, USSR, 1 Kain, Persia; 1 Gilgit, 1 Yusmarg,

1 Hygam, 1 Panamik, 1 Borgipass, Baltistan, 2 Upper Ind Valley,

Kashmir, 2 near Suru, Ladak; 3 Jagadhri, Ambala; 1

Bahawalnagar, Bahawalnagar St., Punjab; 1 Simla Hills, NWH.,

I Bharatpur; 1 Phalut, Darjeeling.

Measurements on p. 358.

1884. Motacilla caspica caspica (Gmelin)

(Southern shore of Caspian Sea) Grey Wagtail

3:265

64: 37 males 1 8 females 9 o?

1 Chu-IIimountains, Kazakhstan, 1 Alma-Ata, USSR, 1

no locality (Russian Museum), 2 Sheikh Saad, 1 Shaiba, 1

Hawiplain, Samarra, Mesopotamia, 1 Tangi-i-Sirlui, 36 m NW.

of Geh, 1 Geh, Persian Baluchistan; 2 Chitral, 1 Gulabgarh,

Kishtwar, 1 Murgo, Kashmir, 1 Tara Devi, 1 Ashni river, Patiala

St.; 1 Gama-ki-Hatti, Dharmi St., 1 Jabli, Bhagat St., 1 Koti St.,

II Simla, NWH.; 2 Peora, Almora, 1 Darmar, Ranikhet, 1

354

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Rambara, Kedarnath, 1 Malari, Niti, Garhwal; 1 Mamar village,

Sind Valley; 1 Bhimsar Tank, Anjar Dt., Kutch, 1 Surwaya,

Gwalior St., C.I; 1 Antagarh, Bastar Dt. 2 Barkul, Chilka lake,

Orissa; 2 Borivli, Salsette, 1 Tulsi lake. 2 Pali Hill, 1 Bandra, 1

Nagotra, Kolaba Dt.; 1 Karwar; 1 Nallamalai Range, S. Kurnool;

2 Shembagnur, 1 Santan Para, Cardamom Hills; 1 Travancore

High Range, 1 Maraiyur, Munnar, 1 Travancore, 1 Edanad,

Chengannur, Kerala; 4 Narcondam, 1 S. Andaman, 1 Car Nicobar;

1 Pakokku, 1 K hay ankc lulling, Thayetmyo Dt., Burma.

Measurements on p. 358.

1 885. Motacilla alba dukhunensis Sykes (Dukhun)

3: 257

37; 27 males 7 females 3 o?

1 Sha sand, 1 Siyahad , 1 She ill Saad, 1 Tehraii-Kasvin

Road. Persia, 1 Ranta river, Persian Baluchistan; 3 Chitral, 1

Kishtwar, 1 Nishant Bagh, Dal lake, Kashmir, 1 Bahawalpur, 1

Gama-ki-hatti, Dharmi St.; 1 Garhwal, 2 Delhi, 1 Kanpur; 1 Guna,

Gwalior St., 1 Jabalpur; 1 Anantapur, Orissa; 1 Bhopalpatnam,

Bastar Dt.; 1 Bhuj, 1 Kutch, 1 Bodeli, Baroda Dt.; 1 Kalyan,

Thane, 1 Juhu, 2 Pali Hill, Bandra, 3 Santacruz, 1 Kurla, 1

Backbay, Colaba, Bombay, 1 Nagotra, Kolaba, I Mehda, Satara,

1 Harnai, 1 Ratnagiri; 1 Cumbum Valley, Kurnool Dt.

Measurements on p. 358-359.

1 886. Motacilla alba personata Gould (Bengal)

Masked Wagtail 3:259

38; 15 males 17 females 6 o?

1 Shiraz, Persia, 2 Gusht, Persian Baluchistan; 3 Wana,

Waziristan; 1 Kilia, Drosh, 8 Chitral, 1 Gilgit, 1 Kashmir; 1

Bahawalpur tn. env., 2 Ambala, Punjab, 1 Kandaghat, Patiala

St.; 3 Simla, NWH.; 1 Garhwal, 1 Ramgarh, Naini Tal, 2 Kanpur;

3 Bharatpur; 1 Koyna, Maharashtra; 1 Kodambakkam, Chingelpet

Dt., Madras; 1 Nahar, Madhubani, 1 Baghownie, Darbhanga Dt.,

Bihar; 1 Sadiya, Upper Assam; 1 Bumthang, C. Bhutan; 1

Kashgar, China.

Measurements on p. 358-359.

1887. Motacilla alba alboides Hodgson (Nepal)

Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail 3:262

22; 18 males 2 females 2 o?

I Chitral, 1 Kashmir Valley, 1 Taukse, Ladak, 1 Jagadri,

1 Mubarikpur, 4 Chandigarh, Ambala Dt., 4 Baurpa, Niti Pass,

Garhwal; 1 Tezu, Lohit Valley, 1 Sadiya, U. Assam; 1 Gedu, West

Bhutan, 1 Bumthang, Central, 1 Narphong, East, 3 Rongtong,

East Bhutan; 1 Miao, Tirap Division, Arunachal Pradesh.

Measurements on p. 358-359.

1888. Motacilla alba leucopsis Gould (India)

Whitefaced Pied Wagtail 3:264

7 : 3 males 4 females

I Somatipur, Bihar; 1 Gamon Chaung, Sandoxvay Dt., 1

Tarobman, P route, 1 Toungoo, 1 Legongyi, Henzada Dt., 1

Thanichaung forest, Thayetmyo, 1 Burma.

Measurements on p. 358-359.

1889. Motacilla alba ocularis Swinhoe (Amoy,

China) Streakeyed Pied Wagtail ' 3:261

2 males from Peking, China.

Measurements on p. 359.

1 890. Motacilla alba baicalensis Swinhoe (Eastern

Asia-Lake Baikal) Swinhoe’s Pied Wagtail 3:260

25: 14 males 10 females 1 o?

1 Sheik Saad, 1 Sis tan Delta, 1 Pul-i-Fasa, 12 m E. of

Shiraz, Persia; 2 Wana, Waziristan; 3 Chitral, 1 Hygam, Kashmir;

1 Shikohpur, Jullunder, 1 Ambala; 1 Chachran, Bahawalpur St.,

1 Fagu, Keonthal St., 1 Dadu, Larkana, Sind.; 1 Delhi, 2 Meerut,

1 Kanpur; 1 Bharatpur; 1 Kutch; 1 Ratlam, C.I.; 2 Baghownie,

Tirhut, 1 Madhubani, Bihar; 1 Narphong, E. Bhutan.

Measurements on p. 359.

EL. Motacilla alba alba Linnaeus

5: 3 males 2 o?

1 Sheik Saad, 2 Aliabad (Karabagh) 1 3m SE. of Shiraz,

Persia, I Geh, 1 Magas, P. Baluchistan.

Measurements on p. 359.

EL. Motacilla alba persica Blanf (Niris east of

Shiraz)

1 Unsexed from Shustar, S. Persia.

EL. Motacilla alba lugens Gloger (Kamchatka)

l male from Suminoe, Osaka, Japan.

Measurement on p. 359.

1891. Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin (India =

Madras) Large Pied Wagtail 3:263

26: 17 males 9 females

1 Jagadri, 2 Chandigarh, Ambala, 1 E. Dehradun, 1

Bageswar, Almora; 1 Kuno, Gwalior, 1 Mt. Abu; 1 Godsar, Bhuj

env., Kutch; 2 Koyna River Valley, Maharashtra, 2 Ratnagiri; 1

Karwar, 1 Kadra, Kanara, 1 Ulavi, Sagar, Mysore; 1 Freserpet,

Kushalnagar, N. Coorg, 2 Santhanpara, Cardamom Hills; 2

Travancore, 1 Kanyakumari Dt., 1 Kalai, Trichinapoly, 1 Gingee,

S. Arkot; 1 Koduru, S. Cuddapah; 2 Barkul, Chilka lake, 1

Ramgarh, Band, Orissa.

Measurements on p. 359.

Acknowledgements

From 1992-94, British Museum (Natural

History) gave us 3 loans of 16 species and subspecies

of Anthus specimens from their collection to

compare with our specimens. The help is gratefully

acknowledged.

CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

355

Part 36

1857-60. Anthus novaeseelandiae subspp.

Male

richardi (4)

waitei (17)

rufulus (21)

malayensis (12)

Female

richardi (6)

waitei (12)

rufulus (30)

356

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

357

358

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

359

( to be continued)

FRESH WATER FISH DIVERSITY IN ARALAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

KERALA, SOUTH INDIA1

C.R Shaji, RS. Easa and S. Chand Basha2

Key words: Aralam, freshwater, Kerala, Western Ghats

The rivers of Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary located in Kannur district, Kerala were surveyed in February 1995.

Thirty three species of Fishes were recorded. Osteocheilus nashii and Noemacheilus nilgiriensis were recorded for

the first time from a west flowing river. Observation of Puntius denisonii indicates extension of range to the north

of the Palghat gap in Western Ghats.

Introduction

The recent thrust on biodiversity conservation

necessitates documentation of fauna and

identification of biodiversity hot spots in Western

Ghats. Day ( 1 865, 1 878) contributed to the fish fauna

of India and Malabar. Pillay (1929), John (1936),

Hora and Nair (1941) and Hora and Law (1941)

reported the freshwater fishes of Kerala, especially

the Travancore region. However, the freshwater

systems north of Palghat gap were comparatively

unexplored. Rajan (1955) described the freshwater

fishes of Bhavani River System. Remadevi and Indra

(1986) documented the fishes of Silent Valley

National Park. Recently, Shaji and Easa reported

extension of range of Danio ( Brachydanio ) rerio and

Noemacheilus petrubanarescui to fresh waters of

northern Kerala. Easa and Shaji also reported

addition of Puntius melanampyx to the fish fauna of

Silent Valley. The present survey was conducted to

document the freshwater fishes of Aralam Wildlife

Sanctuary.

Study Area

Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary forms a part of the

contiguous chunk of forests comprising Reserve

forests of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It is in

the south-eastern side of Canannore district and is

located between 1 1° 49' and 1 1° 50' E. lat. and 75°

49' and 75° 57’ N. long. It is about 55 sq. km in

'Accepted June 1995.

:Division of Wildlife Biology, Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi-680 653, Trichur, Kerala.

extent. Tropical wet evergreen forests form the major

vegetation type. The area is drained by tributaries of

perennial rivers Uruttipuzha and Cheenkannipuzha.

Methods

The study area was visited during February, 1 995

and fishes were collected from five localities using

cast nets, gill nets and scoop nets. Suitable

conventional method of sieving by cloth and

temporary bunding of tributaries were also employed

in certain areas. Works of Day (1865, 1 878), Jayaram

(1981), Datta Munshi and Sri vastava ( 1 988), Tal war

and Jhingran (1991) and Menon (1987, 1992) were

referred for identification.

Results and Discussion

The survey indicates that the drainage system in

Aralam is rich in fish diversity. A total of 33 species

belonging to 15 families were collected from 5

localities (Table 1). Most of these are widely

distributed in Kerala and other parts of Western

Ghats. Garra mullya , Barilius bakeri and Danio

aequipinnatus were the commonest and uniformly

distributed fishes in Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary.

Puntius denisonii, Salmostoma acinaces, Mystus

cavasius, Ompok bimaculatus, Clarias dussumieri

dussumieri, Parambassis thomassi, Etroplus

suratensis, Channa marulius and Anguilla

bengalensis bengalensis were comparatively rare and

confined to Cheenkannipuzha, the major river system

of Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary.

FRESH WATER FISH DIVERSITY IN ARALAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

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362

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

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FRESH WATER FISH DIVERSITY IN ARALAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

363

Osteochilus nashii which has originally been

reported from the east flowing Cauvery river system

is reported for the first time from a west flowing

river system. Puntius denisonii (Day) has so far been

reported only from the Travancore hills (Day 1865).

Later, Silas (1951) reported the species from the hill

ranges of Anamalai and Nelliampathy. The present

observation of Puntius denisonii (Day) from Aralam

Wildlife Sanctuary indicates its range of extension

to the north of Palghat gap. Noemacheilus

nilgiriensis (Menon) has been reported only from

Pykara Dam, Nilgiri District , Tamil nadu (Menon

1987). The present survey reports its occurrence

for the first time in a west flowing river in

Kerala.

Acknowledgements

This work was carried out as part of a project on

Fishes of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve funded by Kerala

Forest Department (Wildlife Wing). We are grateful

to Shri P.K. Surendranathan Asari, Chief Conservator

of Forests (Wildlife) for encouragement and to the

staff of Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary for their co-

operation.

References

Datta Munshi, J.S. & M.P. Srivastava (1988): Natural History

of fishes and systematics of fresh water fishes of India.

Narendra publishing house, Delhi. 394 pp.

Day, F. (1865): The fishes of Malabar. Bernard Quaritich,

London. 293 pp.

Day, F. ( 1 878): Fishes of India, being a natural history of fishes

known to inhabit the seas and the fresh waters of India,

Burma and Ceylon. Text and atlas in four parts. London

xx+778, pis. 195.

Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji (1995): Puntius melanampyx (Day), an

addition to the fish fauna of Silent Valley. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc.92 (3): 429.

Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): Fresh water fishes from

Travancore. Rec. bid. Mus. 43: 233-257 .

Hora, S.L. & K.K. Nair (1941): New records of fresh

water fishes from Travancore, Rec. bid. Mus. 43: 387-

393.

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): Fresh water fishes of India, Pakistan,

Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka. Handbook of Zoological

Survey of India, No. 2. Calcutta, xii+475.

John, C.C. ( 1936): Fresh water fishes of Travancore. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 702-797.

Menon, A.G.K. (1987): The fauna of India and adjacent

countries. Pisces-vol. iv, Teleostei-Cobitoidea, part 1,

Homalopteridae. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Menon, A.G.K. (1992): The fauna of India and adjacent

countries. Pisces-vol. iv Teleostei-Cobitoidea, part 2.

Cobitidae. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Pillay, R.S.N. (1929): A list of fishes from Travancore.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 347-379.

Rajan, S. (1955): Notes on a collection of fishes from the head

waters of Bhavani river, South India. ./. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 53(1): 45-48.

Remadevi & T.J. Indra (1986): Fishes of Silent Valley. Rec.

Zool. Sui v. India. 84 (1-4): 243-257.

Shaji, C.P. & P.S. Easa (1995): Extension of Range of Danio

(Brachydanio) rerio Hamilton-Buchanan. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 92(2): 214.

Shaji, C.P. & P.S. Easa (1995): Extension of Range of

Noemacheilus (Mes o n oemaclieilu s ) petrubanare s c u i

(Menon). ./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(3): 428.

Silas, E G. (1951): On a collection of fish from Anamalai and

Nelliampathi hill ranges. Western Ghats, with notes on their

zoogeographical significance. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

48(4): 670-681.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India

and adjacent countries, vols. 1 & 2. Oxford & IBH

Publishing Co., New Delhi, jx-xix+1097 pp.

IMPACT OF SALT WORKS ON THE STATUS, POPULATION

OF THE GREATER FLAMINGO PHOENICOPTERUS RUBER ROSEUS AND THE LESSER

FLAMINGO PH OENI CONAIAS MINOR IN THE GREAT VEDARANYAM SWAMP1

Ranjit Manakadan2

(With three text-figures )

Key words: greater flamingo, lesser flamingo, Great Vedaranyam swamp, salt water, Tilapia

The status, population, seasonal fluctuations, distribution of the greater flamingo and the lesser flamingo in the

Great Vedaranyam Swamp are discussed. The impacts of salt works on the two species was investigated. Both species

are migrants to the Swamp, but their area of origin is uncertain. Peak population of the greater flamingo was recorded

during the North East Monsoon. The arrival and stay of the lesser flamingo was erratic. Interannual variations in the

numbers occurred for both the species. The impact of salt works differed according to the species, and varied both

spatially and temporally.

Introduction

A great deal of work has accumulated on

various aspects of the biology, ecology and ethology

of flamingos (e.g. Kear and Duplaix-Hall 1975,

Johnson 1983, 1989). However, nodetailed long term

studies have been undertaken on flamingos in the

Indian subcontinent, and most of the available

literature give anecdotal accounts (e.g. McCann

1939, Ali 1945, 1974; Mundkur et al. 1989).

Flamingos inhabit highly alkaline and saline lakes

and are considered to be partial to salt works (Ali

and Ripley 1983). However, the extent of their

partiality to salt works, the type of salt works and

microhabitats preferred within salt works has not

been investigated. This papers deals with the

populations and seasonality of flamingos of the Great

Vedaranyam Swamp, and assesses the impact of salt

works on them.

Study area

The Great Vedaranyam Swamp (henceforth

referred to as GVS) is one of the largest (c. 349 sq.

km) and major wintering grounds for waterbirds in

South India (Ali 1963). It forms a major part of the

Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary,

Nagapattinam Quaid - e - Milleth district, Tamil

'Accepted November 1993.

’Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali

Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay-400 023.

Nadu state. Its camp headquarters is situated at

Kodikkarai (10° 18’ N, 79° 51’ E), where this study

was concentrated (Fig. 1 ).

The habitat of the GVS is varied. It has a

mangrove lined lagoon in about one-third of its

western portion. The other two-thirds is a continuous

sheet of shallow, fresh/brackish/saline water during

the monsoon and during the period of the south

westerly winds. As this water spread dries up, ‘flats’

are created, and during very dry periods, there is

water only in the Seruthalaikkadu Creek. The GVS

is connected to the Palk Strait by a few openings or

breaches. Waters of the River Cauvery empty into

the GVS during the NE. Monsoon period through

seven channels.

Salt works: Three industrial salt works and a

number of small and large scale edible salt works

operate in the GVS, and are concentrated mainly

around Agastiyampalli.

Industrial salt works are heterogeneous in

nature with a system of reservoirs (for storage and

partial condensation of brine), condensers

(condensation of brine) and crystallizers (harvest

pans). This process gives 99% pure salt (sodium

chloride). The ‘liquor’ left after the extraction of

sodium chloride is called bittern, and is either

considered a waste product, or forms the raw material

for salt based chemical units.

On the other hand, edible salt works are

IMPACT OF SALT WORKS OF THE GREATER AND LESSER FLAMINGOS

365

C Chemplast

Dries up seasonally

• • • • "

Fig. 1 . Map of the Great Vedaranyam Swamp.

homogenous in nature and composed almost entirely

of crystallizers, and the salt obtained by this method

has impurities of calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate

and salts of magnesium and potassium.

The salt season in the GVS (and the south east

coast of India) is January to September. In general,

during the season, salinity is lowest in the reservoirs

(35-70 ppt), followed by condensers (70-230 ppt)

and highest in crystallizers (240-280 ppt).

Conversely, water depth is maximum in reservoirs

( c . 40 cm), comparatively lower in condensers (c.

20 cm) and minimum in crystallizers (c. 5 cm). It

should be noted that the salinity and water depth in

reservoirs and condensers, besides varying from

reservoir/condenser to reservoir/condenser, will

again vary within itself according to the stage (early,

peak and late) of the salt season. But habitat

parameters in crystallizers are more or less stable

temporally and spatially. The temperature of the

water increases with an increase in salinity and

decreases with water depth. The pH value decreases

with increasing salinity due to the deposition of

carbonates. Human disturbance is high (40 workers

1 sq. km) in crystallizers.

The off-season is during the NE. Monsoon

period, during which, there is heavy influx of fresh

water into the salt works due to the rains. Salinity

falls markedly (to c. 1 0 ppt) over the whole complex.

The sluice gates are opened to prevent/reduce

damage to the earthern dykes and drain the complex

of the low salinity water. During this time, salt works

are again connected to the natural habitat. Water

depth and spread in salt works depend on the stage

of the monsoon — deep water during heavy rains

and low water levels during dry spells (See Landry

and Jaccard 1982, Britton and Johnson 1987 and

Manakadan 1992 for more details).

Methodology

Total counts of greater flamingo and lesser

flamingo were undertaken over an area of 19 sq. km

near Kodikkarai. This area encompassed all the

Mean no. of birds Mean no. of birds

366 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92 (1995)

Greater Flamingo

1988 1989 1990 1991

Month

1988 1989 1990 1991

Month

Fig. 2. Population of flamingos.

IMPACT OF SALT WORKS OF THE GREATER AND LESSER FLAMINGOS

367

reservoirs, crystallizers and condensers of a salt

work, and part of the adjoining natural habitat.

Counts were done thrice a week and were conducted

between August 1988 to March 1991. Accessibility

to the area was by motorbike or on foot, using the

dykes of the salt works. A general idea of the

flamingo numbers and distribution in other parts of

the GVS was obtained by occasional boat surveys

and from local enquiries.

Results

The greater flamingo numbers showed a

marked rise in populations around the monsoon

period for all the years (Fig. 2). Inter-annual

fluctuations were evident, with maximum of 1650

birds in 1988, 8762 in 1989 and 676 in 1990. It was

recorded in the GVS throughout the study period,

except for October 1990 and March 1991. No

seasonal trends were seen in the case of the lesser

flamingo (Fig. 2). There were irregular monthwise

fluctuations. Birds were not recorded in some

months, the maximum count of 1050 birds was

recorded in April 1989.

From the boat surveys and local enquiries, it

appears that the flamingos are concentrated around

the study area (Kodikkarai — Kodikkadu part).

There was only one sighting of a flock of 300 odd

lesser flamingo about 1 5 km west of the study area

during the boat surveys. Flamingos do not frequent/

are rare in the western mangrove part of the GVS.

Concentration of flamingos at the study area is

probably due to the comparatively lower levels of

poaching/disturbance here, due to good protection.

The greater flamingo frequented the natural

habitat during the hot months or peak salt season

(April-September) — except in 1989, when some

birds were recorded in salt works (Fig. 3) There is a

partial shift of population: 86% in 1988-89, 22% in

1989-90, 37% in 1990-91 into the salt works during

the NE. Monsoon and the differences between the

populations in habitats was significant for the 1989-

90 season (Mann Whitney U test = 9.5, P=0.01 ). The

birds frequent the salt complex till the early salt

season or post monsoon (January till March) — 82%

in 1988-89, 25% in 1989-90 and 75% in 1990-91).

During their stay in salt works, significantly more

birds frequented reservoirs than condensers during

the 1988-89 season (U=349, p=0.001), and were

recorded only in reservoirs during the 1990-91

seasons. The greater flamingo was not recorded in

crystallizers. Low and contrasting values for salt

works during the 1989-90 period are as follows: Just

prior to the monsoon, a breach occurred in the

effluent canal. This resulted in the bittern being

pumped into the reservoir along with the brine —

till the breach was finally plugged after three days.

This caused massive kills of fish and other organisms

in the reservoirs. These deaths could have prevented

‘normal’ build-up of prey populations as in the other

years.

The lesser flamingo was partial to the natural

habitat and was not recorded in salt works, except

during the monsoon and post monsoon of the 1988-

89 season (Fig 3). During these two cases, birds were

recorded only in the reservoirs — not in condensers

or crystallizers.

Discussion

1. Status, seasonality and populations:

The origin of the two flamingo species of the

GVS is uncertain. The earlier general presumption

that they originate from Kutch has been belied by

the recovery of Iranian and Russian ringed greater

flamingos from the GVS [BNHS (Bird Migration

Studies): unpublished data]. Major banding studies

showed migration of greater flamingos from Russia

to Iran during extreme cold weather (Cramp and

Simmons 1977) and from Iran to the Indian

subcontinent (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Johnson

1989). The lesser flamingo is presumed to be

of African origin since little breeding has been

recorded in India (Cramp and Simmons 1977, Ali

and Ripley 1983). No information has come from

the hundred odd birds (majority of them greater

flamingo) ringed in the GVS by the BNHS, nor the

192 greater flamingo young ringed in Kutch (Ali

1945).

Earlier accounts of flamingos from the GVS

(Ali 1963, 1986; Spillett 1969, Ali and Hussain 1981,

Ali and Sugathan 1985) suggest wide seasonal and

368

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Greater Flamingo

Lesser Flamingo

% OF BIRDS /SQ. KM.

% BIBBS / SQ. KM.

afl -II III 69-1 II HI 90-1 II III

SEASONS

RESERVOIR

CONDENSER

SEASONS

RESERVOIR

NATURAL HABITAT

NATURAL HABITAT I (Jan.-Mar.) II (Apr.-Sep.) Ill (Oct.-Dec.)

Fig. 3. Habitat utilisation by flamingos.

annual variations in the number of flamingos, as was

recorded during this study. Erratic movements in

flamingos are well known (Cramp and Simmons

1977, Brown et al. 1983, Johnson 1989), in addition

to individual differences in movement pattern

(Johnson 1989). The greater flamingo appears to be

largely a monsoon visitor to the GVS, as reported

for South India (Biddulp 1938) and Sri Lanka

(Hoffmann 1989). The movements of the lesser

flamingo in the GVS is similar to that described by

Brown et al. ( 1 983) for Africa — “sedentary for some

months — then moving to other haunts.”

2. Impact of salt works:

Salt works are known to be attractive to the

greater flamingo during heavy rains (Connor 1980).

There are two likely reasons for the shift of the

greater flamingo into salt works during the monsoon

in the GVS: (1) increased food supplies in saltworks

and (2) decreased food supplies in the natural habitat.

The favourable season for most animal

communities in salt works and saline lakes is during

the rainy season (Baid 1968, Mahoney and Jehl 1985,

Britton and Johnson 1987). The same has been

documented in the case of benthic fauna in the salt

works studied (Sampath 1989), who also found the

productivity to be higher in reservoirs than

condensers and the natural habitat during the same

period. This explains the shift of the greater

flamingos into salt works (and to a greater degree

into reservoirs) from the natural habitat during the

monsoon. In contrast, the inflow of fresh water into

the natural habitat kills off the estuarine forms as

known in studies on estuarine systems (e.g. Flint and

Rabalais 1981, Kalke 1981, Mathews 1981). This

was found true for plankton and benthic fauna of the

GVS (Anbazhagan 1989 and Godfred 1992), though

not supported by Sampath’s (1989) studies. Hence,

IMPACT OF SALT WORKS OF THE GREATER AND LESSER FLAMINGOS

369

a combination of increased food availability in salt

works combined with decreased prey availability in

the natural habitat, is responsible for the shift of

greater flamingo from the natural habitat into the

salt works.

As the unfavourable conditions return to salt

works with the onset of the salt season, the greater

flamingo returns to the natural habitat. Meanwhile,

food supplies too have increased in the natural habitat

due to the return of estuarine conditions (Anbazhagan

1989, Godfred 1992). But, the availability of salt

tolerant species in salt works or saline lakes, that

can occur in high densities due to absence of

predators like fish (Mahoney and Jehl 1985) has to

be considered. In very high salinity condensers (or

habitats), Ephydrid larva becomes inaccessible to the

greater flamingo due to the crust of gypsum formed

in the beds (Hurlbert and Keith 1979, Rooth 1982).

With regard to Artemia — another salt tolerant form

and favoured food of the greater flamingo (Cramp

and Simmons 1977, Ali and Ripley 1983, Britton et

al. 1986) — its abundance is during favourable

conditions, i.e. moderate salinity (Baid 1968,

Mahoney and Jehl 1 985, Sampath 1 989). And finally,

since the greater flamingo’s diet is made up of largely

animal than plant matter (e.g. Jenkin 1957, Cramp

and Simmons 1977, Ali and Ripley 1983, Brown et

al. 1983), the abundance of algae in high salinity

areas of salt works are not particularly attractive to

them.

The lesser flamingo’s diet is largely composed

of blue-green algae and diatoms, and it is considered

to be more partial to highly saline and alkaline lakes

than the greater flamingo (Jenkin 1957, Cramp and

Simmons 1977, Ali and Ripley 1983, Brown et al.

1983). I suggest two reasons for their avoidance of

salt works in this study, though saline lakes/salt

works are known to be rich in algal production

(Barnes 1980, Borowitzka 1981, Hammer 1981,

Brock and Shiel 1983): (1) water depth and (2)

presence of a food competitor.

In this study, the lesser flamingo was recorded

to feed in very shallow water (< 5 cm). This water

depth is generally available in many areas of the

natural habitat — except in the Seruthalaikkadu

Creek and during the peak monsoon period. In salt

works (except for crystallizer), shallow water is

limited to the edges of the reservoirs and condensers

when water levels are low. To cite an example of

preference for shallow water, during all the few

sightings in salt works, they fed at the edges of the

reservoirs or while standing on a submerged

abandoned dyke of the first reservoir. The lesser

flamingo is known to swim and feed in deep water,

but this occurs in still water (Kahl 1970, Cramp and

Simmons 1977, Brown et al. 1983), otherwise, the

birds group and form ‘rafts’ to still the water. I

presume such a foraging strategy is unsuitable in

the GVS, due to the prevalence of windy weather

because of the coastal location and effect of tides

(versus inland lakes in Africa) and the absence of

huge flocks or populations, as seen in Africa to be

able to ‘calm’ the water (see Kahl 1970 and Brown

etal. 1983). In the case of crystallizers, the presence

of workers and the predominant occurrence of

unicellular forms of algae (see Baid 1968,

Borowitzka 1981, Jones et al. 1981, Brock and Shiel

1983), that the lesser flamingo is not able to extract

for food (Vareshi 1978), are deterrents inspite of its

shallowness.

Though often overlooked, strong competitive

interactions among distantly distributed organisms

is widespread (see Hurlbert et al. 1986). A factor

known to limit flamingo populations is fish — by

competing for the same prey. There seems to be a

strong positive correlation between the absence of

fish and flamingo populations (Ridley 1954, Hurlbert

etal. 1986). Though Vareshi (1978, 1979) found no

detectable impact on introduction of Tilapia

grahmani in Lake Nakuru on the lesser flamingo

(though both fed on a common food base), Brown

et al. ( 1 983) considered the introduction responsible

for non-occurrence of previously recorded huge

populations of the lesser flamingo. In this study, it

was found that the exotic fish Tilapia mossambicus

is concentrated in the low salinity condensers

(recorded till 100 ppt). Reasons for its abundance in

low salinity condensers is probably due to abundance

of blue-green algae (which predominates in this

salinity range — Borowitzka 1981), as blue green

370

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

algae is the main or favoured food of Tilapia

mossambicus (see Abayasiri and Costa 1 978). Hence,

in addition to water depth, the lesser flamingo

avoided low salinity condensers due to the presence

and abundance of a food competitor.

Conclusion

In the case of the greater flamingo, reservoirs

and low salinity condensers offer an important source

of food during the monsoon and post-monsoon

period. The greater flamingo largely avoids salt

works during the peak salt season (April to

September). Crystallizers are avoided throughout the

year. To the lesser flamingo, salt works result in an

almost total loss of habitat.

The main reason for these differences in

impacts on the two species is that the greater

flamingo is a generalist feeder and can shift to

feeding on the different species of prey, where and

when abundant. On the other hand, the lesser

flamingo is a specialist feeder of blue green algae.

This dependance on a very narrow food base,

restricts it from opportunistic feeding on other

abundant organisms, unlike in the case of greater

flamingo.

An interesting finding is that industrial salt

works are more attractive to flamingos (and other

birds) than edible salt works. This is because

industrial salt works are heterogenous in nature and

provide a varied mix of physical, chemical and

Refe

Abayasiri, R.R. & H.H. Costa (1978): The hydrobiology of

Colombo (Beira) Lake VII: The food and feeding ecology of

Tilapia mossambica. Spolia Zeylan. 32: 88-105.

Ali, S. (1945): More on the flamingo in Cutch. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 45: 586-592.

Ali, S. ( 1 963): Point Calimere as a refuge for wintering shorebirds.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 458-460.

Ali, S. (1974): Breeding of the lesser flamingo Phoeniconaias

minor (Geoffroy) in Kutch. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71:

141-144.

Ali, S. (1986): Studies on the movement and population structure

of Indian avifauna: Annual Report (1985-1986). Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay.

Ali, S. & S.A. Hussain (1981): Studies on the movement and

population structure of Indian avifauna: Annual Report I.

biological conditions, to suit the diet or foraging

strategy of the bird species. On the other hand, edible

salt works are homogenous in nature and offer very

harsh and non-diverse conditions almost throughout

the year for most bird species.

Finally, it has to be stressed that the findings

are applicable to salt works on the south-east coast

of India. Habitat conditions and impacts could differ

significantly in other areas. For example, while the

peak season of flamingos coincides with the off-

season of salt works in the GVS, the same period

(October-December) is the peak salt season for salt

works on the west coast of India — as the rainy

season on the west coast is during June-September

(SW. Monsoon).

Acknowledgements

This study formed part of an objective of a

larger U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service sponsored

project of the Bombay Natural History Society,

studying various aspects of the ecology of the Point

Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary. We are

thankful to the Tamil Nadu Forest Department for

giving permission to work in the area. I am indebted

to my guide Mr. J.C. Daniel (former Director BNHS)

for all his help and encouragement during the study.

Earlier drafts of the paper/thesis were perused by

Dr. Asad Rafi Rahmani, Dr. P. Azeez, Dr. Y.N. Rao,

Dr. Vibhu Prakash, Mr. S.A. Alagar Rajan, Dr. V.

Natarajan, Dr. P. Balasubramanium and Mr. Asad

Akhtar.

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and Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Press,

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population structure of Indian avifauna: Annual Report (1984-

1985). Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Anbazhagan, P. (1989): Hydrobiology and benthic ecology of

Kodikkarai Coastal Ecosystem. Ph.D. thesis, Annamalai

University, Chidambaram.

Baid, I. (1968): The arthropod fauna of Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan,

India. Oikos 19: 293-303.

Barnes, R.S.K. (1980): The unity and diversity of aquatic systems,

pp. 5-23. In: Fundamentals of Aquatic Ecosystems, (Eds. R.K.

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Biodulp, C.H. (1938): The birds of Rameswaram island. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 238-256.

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daily cycle of feeding activity of the greater flamingo in

relation to the dispersion of the prey Artemia. Wildfowl 37:

151-155.

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a Mediterranean salina — The Salin de Giraud, Camargue

(S. France). Biological Conservation 42: 185-230.

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communities in saline wetlands in Western Australia.

Hydrobiologia 105: 77-84.

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Africa. Vol I. Academic Press, London.

Connor, M.A. (1980): Development of energy and mineral

resources and its effects on bird conservation in southern

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of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa: The Birds of

the Western Palearctic. Vol I. Oxford University Press,

London.

Flint, R.W. & S.C. Rabalais (1981): Estuarine benthic community

dynamics related to freshwater inflow to the Corpus

Christi Bay Estuary, pp. 489-507. In: Proceedings of the

National Symposium on Freshwater Inflow into Estuaries

(Eds. R. Cross and D. Williams). U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service, Office of Biological Services, FWS/OBS -81/04, 2

volumes.

Godfred, P. (1992): Ecology of Point Calimere Sanctuary (An

Endangered Ecosystem). Final Report. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

Hammer, T. (1981): Primary production in saline lakes.

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some birds in Sri Lanka as listed in S.D. Ripley (1982): A

Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, together with

those of Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 7-16.

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342.

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plankton interactions in the Peruvian Andes. Limnol.

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( Phoenicoptera ). Phil. Trans. Royal. Soc. London. Series B.

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Palearctique. Ph.D. thesis presented to A. L’ Universite Paul

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of solar saltfields. Hydrobiologia 82: 391-406.

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assemblage of San Antonio Bay, Texas during 1972 and 1 973,

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Freshwater Inflow to Estuaries (Eds. R. Cross and D.

Williams). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological

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shorebirds to highly saline and alkaline lakes: Wilson’s

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12-38.

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335.

ECOLOGY AND TAXONOMY OF THE FIELD MICE IN THE ARAVALLI RANGES1

Ishwar Prakash,2 A. Saravanan3 and Partap Singh3

Key words: Aravalli ranges, Mus phillipsi, M. platythrix, M. scvcicola , M. terricolor, ecology,

reproduction, taxonomy

Small mammals were trapped every month during 1993 from various habitats at different altitudes of the

Abu hill situated on the southern region of the Aravalli ranges. In 0.25 million trap hours, along other mammals,

61 mice specimens were collected. Detailed analysis of the vegetation and soil types, reveal that Mus platythrix

and Mus saxicola sadhu prefer habitats with soil base whereas Mus phillipsi is a rock dwelling species. The

canopy cover had no apparent relationship with them but grass patches even on higher altitudes were preferred.

Mus terricolor, being reported for the first time from Rajasthan State, was found in flat scrublands in the foothills.

Mus platythrix was relatively abundant at an higher altitude, 1 500-1600 m whereas M.s. sadhu was more prolific

in the foothills and Mus phillipsi occurred at all the elevations.

The prevalence of pregnancy in all Mus species was found to be rather low. Pregnant M. s. sadhu were

found from April to September, litter size being 5.4, range 2-9. On the basis of cranial characters, a key to determine

Mus species is presented.

Introduction

The Aravalli ranges diagonally bisect the State

of Rajasthan into a western arid region and the

eastern semi-arid zone. The western desert, the Thar,

is continued into a chain of deserts constituting the

great Saharo-Tharian plain. The Aravalli range is a

geographical barrier for the xeric fauna for spreading

towards the east, into the Oriental region. It is,

however, a pathway for the Deccanian elements to

invade the desert through its western foothills. Inspite

of its interesting zoo-geographical location and

archaic rock formation, very little work has been

carried out on its faunal diversity. We trapped small

mammals all the year round at various altitudes and

in different habitats. The results of our study on the

ecology and taxonomy of mice are presented in this

communication.

The study area and Methods

The Abu hill is situated on the southern region

of the Aravalli ranges in the Sirohi district of

'Accepted February 1994.

2INSA senior Scientist, Zoological Survey of India,

Jodhpur 342 009.

'Junior Research Fellow, DST Project on Community Ecology

of small mammals in the Aravallis, Zoological Survey of India,

Jodhpur-342 009.

Rajathan. It presents a variety of habitats at various

altitudes with a clear stratification of vegetation

types. On the basis of evaluation of altitude, terrain,

soil and vegetation we identified five habitats for

this study. During 1993, small mammals were

collected every month from these habitats by fixing

two trap lines of 30 traps in every habitat. Snap traps

were spaced at a distance of 10 metres in each trap

line. In all more than 300 snap traps were laid every

month and were run for 72 hours. The trapped

specimens were measured, numbered by toe-clipping

method and preserved in formaldehyde. Skulls were

prepared and measured. Specimens were identified

following keys provided by Wroughton (1918),

Ellerman (1947, 1961) and Marshall (1977).

Results

In about 2,59,200 trap hours a large number

of small mammals were collected out of which 61

specimens of mice have been assigned to four

species.

Fawn coloured spiny mouse Mus phillipsi

Wroughton, 1912

This spiny mouse occurs in all the habitats of

the Abu hills inclusive of the runnels. Except for

one specimen which was collected from low

scrubland near rocky outcrops, all others (95%) were

ECOLOGY AND TAXONOMY OF FIELD MICE

373

collected from rocky habitat. This mouse appears to

be typically a rock dweller. In various districts of

the Thar desert, it was reported from hills only and

associated with Euphorbia caducifolia (Prakash et

al. 1971). In the Aravalli hills it also occurs in runnels

(16%) which have a poor vegetation cover and in

rocky regions with sparse vegetation (68 %) as

compared to localities with dense vegetation ( 10 %;

Table 1 ). Mus phillipsi was more common in regions

with Euphorbia neriifolia shrubs. It was uniformly

distributed at all the altitudes (Table 1).

Table 1

Habitat preference of field mice in the Aravalli ranges

* Occipitonasal length. ** Length of palatine foramina.

All measurements are in millimetres and grams.

Brown spiny mouse Mus platythrix

Bennett, 1832

The largest of the four mice possessing fur with

distinct spines scattered all over the dorsal side. It

was trapped from various habitats (Table 1) and

altitudes (Table 2) and occupied flat areas over the

hills and loosely piled stone walls around the crop

fields. In the rocky habitat it was found in places

where soil deposits were present in which their

burrows were located.

The near vicinity of its burrows was covered

by ground hugging vegetation like Cyperus rotundus,

Cynodon dactylon, Cymbopogon martinii, etc. Spiny

mice were collected in equal number from rocks with

and without dense tree vegetation (Table 1), it

appears that its distribution is not largely affected

by canopy cover. In the scrublands, it was more

abundantly found at higher altitudes, 1500 metres

as compared to the foothills. 6 1 % M. platythrix were

collected at 1500 m altitude (Table 2).

The Aravalli specimens are smaller in size as

compared to those examined by Marshall (1977) but

were heavier in body weight.

Marshall (loc. cit.) mentions in the key that

M. platythrix possess 3+2 mammae but two

specimens of this species from the Aravallis possess

4+2 mammae. These specimens were assigned to M.

platythrix on the basis of shorter palatine foramina

which is considered a more stable character for

identification as compared to the number of

mammary glands. Ellerman (1961) has also

reported variations in numbers of mammae in M.

platythrix.

374

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Table 2

ALTITUDINAL DISTRIBUTION OF FIELD MICE IN THE

ARAVALLI RANGES

Sadhu mouse Mus saxicola sadhu

Wroughton, 1911

Out of the four mice species collected, the

sadhu mouse was the commonest (44.2 %). It

occupied all the habitats except the runnels (Table

1) and occurred at all altitudes (Table 2). However,

it was more abundant in the rocky habitat (62.9 %)

and in flat scrublands (29.6 %) whether on foothills

(18.5 %) or at higher elevations (11.1 %).

Surprisingly, their occurrence was significantly more

(P <0.001) in rocky areas with sparse vegetation

(Euphorbia-Lantana on eastern side of Abu hill and

Butea monosperma-Wrightia tinctoria-Aegle

marmelos on the western side) as compared to those

with dense vegetation ( Butea monosperma,

Anogeissus pendula/latifolia, Eugenia jambolana,

Moringa concanensis, Aegle marmelos, Carissa

carandas). We studied in detail a few specific sites

from which M. s. sadhu were trapped and it appears

that the presence of soil deposits over rocks is its

major shelter requirement. This was probably the

reason it occurred in flat areas even at an altitude of

1500-1600 metres. In the scrublands, its burrows

were located under herbacious cover. Small pebbles

were seen arranged around two burrow openings.

One male M.s. sadhu had arranged the faecal pellets

of the blue bull, Boselaphus tragocamelus around

three openings of its burrow system under a tree,

Prosopis spicigera at Anadra. Two specimens were

collected near the stone wall around crop fields at

an altitude of 1600 m. One male saxicola was

collected from a decaying log of Butea monosperma.

Maximum number (59 per cent) of this species was

collected at the foothills (Table 2). One of the

specimens (July-47) bears 5 + 2 pairs of mammae

whereas other females possess the normal number 4

+ 2 pairs.

Like M. platythrix, the specimens collected

from the Aravalli region were smaller in size than

those examined by Marshall (loc. cit.)

Aravalli Collection Marshall,

1977

Male Female

Small spiny mouse Mus terricolor

Blyth, 1851

Only two specimens were collected from the

grassland situated on plains at the foothills of

Aravallis. One of them was captured from a burrow

among the root system of Cassia fistula around 4

p.m. One of the females had perforate vagina so we

considered it to be an adult. The specimens have

been assigned to M. terricolor as they are too small

to be M. booduga (reported earlier from Mt. Abu by

Ryley 1913) or M. dunni.

The body measurements of Aravalli specimens

are closely similar to M. terricolor. This species is

reported for the first time from Rajasthan.

Aravalli Collection Marshall,

1977

Male Female

ECOLOGY AND TAXONOMY OF FIELD MICE

375

Discussion

Relative abundance: An intensive trapping

of small mammals on the Abu hill of Aravalli range

has indicated that, amongst various mice species, the

sadhu mouse, Mus saxicola is by far the most

abundant species followed by the fawn coloured

spiny mouse, Mus phillipsi and the brown spiny

mouse, Mus platythrix. Mus terricolor occurs on the

foothills in very low number.

Habitat preference: Rocky habitat with

sparse tree density but with good ground vegetation

supports maximum population of mice (42.6%) and

are more or less equally shared by M. saxicola and

M. phillipsi (Table 1 ).

Rocks with dense tree density and scrubland

on the foothills are the next in habitat preference of

the mice. Loosely piled stone wall and runnels where

three species except M. terricolor were collected,

are again habitats with very low vegetation cover.

This observation suggests that probably shelter to

mice has a preference over the close vicinity of food,

i.e. vegetation. These results also point out that

excessive grazing and tree felling, thus denuding

vegetation cover, may be one of the factors for

creating a more preferred niche for the mice, resulting

in increase of their population density. The detailed

analysis of microhabitat from where mice were

collected indicates that M. saxicola and M. platythrix

prefer even rocky region with sufficient soil deposits

which may be conducive to their burrowing habits.

That is probably the reason that they were more

prolific in flat deposits even at 1600 m altitude.

M. terricolor was collected only from scrublands

on the foothills.

Altitudinal distribution: It appears that the

foothills are the most occupied habitat as 42.6 per

cent mice were collected from this habitat (Table 2).

Higher altitude (1500-1600 m) was the next in

preference of mice and 31.1 per cent of the total mice

were collected from these elevations. The mid

altitudes were equally shared by them (13.1 % each,

Table 2). Mus saxicola sadhu and Mus terricolor are

more common at foothills. Mus platythrix occurred

in higher numbers (61.5 %) at higher elevations

whereas Mus phillipsi occurred in almost equal

numbers at all the elevations.

Reproductive Biology: Some information

could be gathered on the reproductive aspects of mice

from the field collection. Whereas the male and

female ratio in the trapped animals was almost equal

in M. phillipsi, M.s. sadhu and M. terricolor, it was

highly biased in M. platythrix as out of 1 3 specimens

collected only two were females. This bias may be

due to a higher exploratory and wandering propensity

of males due to which their trapping frequency may

be higher as compared to that of females.

The capture of M.s. sadhu and Mus phillipsi

was well distributed over the year. Surprisingly,

however, none of the eight females of phillipsi was

found to be pregnant. Out of 8 females of Mus s.

sadhu, five, collected during April to September,

were pregnant, average litter size being 5.4, range

2 to 9.

Taxonomy: Identification of mice in India has

been problematic ever since Jerdon’s and Blanford’s

days, probably due to overlapping body and cranial

measurements of various species. However, a fairly

large number of species were grouped by Wroughton

(1918) under three genera: Mus (house mice),

Legadilla (frontal supra-orbital ridge well

pronounced) and Leggada (essentially jungle mice).

Later these were merged into a single genus Mus by

Ellerman (1961), lumping all the former species into

half a dozen species. The common mice found in

the sub-continent were identified through a simple

key:

1 . Tail longer than head and body Mus musculus

2. Tail smaller than head and body.

i) Size large, HB 90-1 10 mm,

occipitonasal length over 25 mm Mus platythrix

ii) Size medium, HB 75-80 mm,

occipitonasal length less than 23 mm . Mus cervicolor

iii) Size small, HB up to 75 mm,

occipitonasal length less than 20 mm ....Mus boodugu

Later Marshall (1977) examined specimens of

mice in various museums and on the basis of

morphometric characters, karyotypes and the species

of lice found on mice body revised the Asian species

of Mus. He brought about three major changes:

restricted Mus cervicolor to Nepal, Myanmar,

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Thailand, Laos, Vietnam; Sumatra and Jawa; re-

erected the species saxicola (Elliot 1839) and

regrouped the genus Mus into three sub-genera after

rematching a large number of species described by

Thomas (1921), Wroughton (1918) and other

workers in the past:

Subgenus Species

Pyromys shortridgei, saxicola, platythrix,

phillipsi, fernandoni.

Coelomys may ori, pahari, famulus,

crociduroides, vulcani.

Mus caroli, cervicolor, musculus, cooki,

booduga, dunni, terricolor.

In his revision, out of the six subspecies

recognised by Ellerman (1961) under Mus cervicolor,

Marshall (loc. cit.) shifted fulvidiventris under the

species Mus booduga as its subspecies; nagarum and

palnica to Mus cooki; nitidulus was synonymised

as M. cervicolor and raised M. phillipsi to a specific

rank. The subspecies gurkha and sadhu of Mus

platythrix were shifted to M. saxicola. Mus platythrix

was retained with bahadur as a synonym whereas

the subspecies shortridgei of Mus platythrix was

raised to a species rank. Marshall further based his

keys for identification on mammary formula and

length of palatine foramina besides several other

characters. Detailed examination of mice collected

in the Aravalli ranges reveal that the number of

mammae is not a very firm character on which

identification keys should be based. One of the

females (Oct. 47 Mt. Abu) is over size for saxicola

(HB = 102 mm, Body wt. 32 g, occipitonasal length

24.5 mm). Its palatine foramina length is more like

platythrix, but has 4+2 mammae, like saxicola. If

this specimen was a male (without mammae) we

would have straight away put it under M. platythrix.

Now also it has been assigned to species platythrix

disregarding the number of mammae and relying on

the length of palatine foramina. However, the length

of palatine foramina was found to be a firm feature

to differentiate between Mus species.

We propose the following simple key to

identify field mice found in the Aravalli ranges.

A. Tail shorter than head and body

a. Head and body more than 62 mm

1. Palatine foramina elongate, cutting

deep between molars Mus saxicola

2. Palatine foramina short, only touching the first

molar

i) Size large, HB more than 95 mm,

ON more than 24 mm Mus platythrix

ii) Size small, HB less than 90 mm,

ON less than 23 mm Mus phillipsi

b. Head and body less than 62 mm

Pigmy in size, HB up to 60 mm,

ON about 17 mm Mus terricolor

Acknowledgements

We received close cooperation from the staff

of the State Forest Department and we are thankful

to them. We express gratitude to Dr. A.K. Ghosh,

Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, Dr.

Q.H. Baqri, Officer-in-Charge, Desert Regional

Station, Zoological Survey of India, Jodhpur and all

the staff of the Station for providing excellent

facilities and a friendly environment. Assistance of

Dr. Md. Idris and Hanuman during our initial field

work and that of Shri Gulab Prasad is gratefully

acknowledged. The work was carried out under a

Project funded by Department of Science &

Technology, Govt, of India. We are grateful to DST

for financial support. The senior author thanks the

Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi for

nominating him as a Senior Scientist.

References

Ellerman, J.R. (1947): A key to rodentia inhabiting India, Ceylon

and Burma. J. Mamin. 28: 357-387.

Ellerman, J.R. (1961): The fauna of India including Pakistan,

Burma and Ceylon. Mammalia 3 (Rodentia) (2): 483-849.

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Elliot, W. (1839): Catalogue of mammalia in the southern

Mahratta country. Madras J. Litt. & Sci. 10: 214-216.

Marshall, T. Joe (1977): A synopsis of Asian species of Mus

(Rodentia: Muridae). Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 158: 175-

220.

ECOLOGY AND TAXONOMY OF FIELD MICE

377

Prakash, I., R.K. Gupta, A.P. Jain, B.D. Rana & B.K. Dutta

(1971): Ecological evaluation of rodent populations in

the desert biome of Rajasthan. Mammalia 35: 384-

423.

Ryley, K. V. ( 1 9 1 3): Bombay Natural History Society’s Mammal

Survey of India, Burma and Ceylon. Report No. 12.

Palanpurand Mount Abu. J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 22:

684-699.

Thomas, O. ( 1921): A synopsis of the groups of true mice found

within Indian Empire. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28: 26-

27.

Wroughton, R.C. ( 1 9 1 8): Summary of the results from the Indian

mammal survey of Bombay Natural History Society,

Pt. V. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 965-967.

CLADOCERAN MALES FROM THE INDIAN REGION1

K. Venkataraman2

(With fifty-two text-figures)

Key word: Cladocera, males, records

Very few Cladocera males have been reported from India. They are uncommon in nature. This study,

describes males of sixteen species from six families of Cladocera, collected in different parts of India including

Andaman and Nicobar islands.

Introduction

The routine identification of Cladoceran

species is based on characters of mature females such

as body size, head shape, nature of postabdomen and

head shield. These are variable featured hence, it is

important to examine several specimens from a

population for identification. Frey (1987) has shown

that males are more important in defining the species

than the parthenogenetic females, as they are readily

recognised by their antennules, which are longer than

those of the female and are mobile with well

developed setae; these characteristic features are used

in species identification. However, males are always

rare in populations and their collection is seasonal.

Therefore males of most species of Cladocera have

often remained unknown. This study describes males

of sixteen species of Cladocera belonging to six

families occurring in Tamil Nadu (8°-12° N),

Rajasthan (27° 7.6' -27° 1 2.2' N) (Keoladeo National

Park, Bharatpur and neighbouring area), Andaman

and Nicobar Islands (10° 30'- 13° 15' N) and West

Bengal (23°-24° N).

Material and Methods

Cladoceran samples were collected throughout

Tamil Nadu, certain parts of Rajasthan (Keoladeo

National Park, Bharatpur and adjacent areas),

Andaman and Nicobar Islands and West Bengal from

various types of habitat such as rice fields, marshes,

ponds, lakes, reservoirs, streams and rivers. A

plankton net of 45 cm diameter was dragged close

'Accepted April 1993.

-Zoological Survey of India, M-Block, New Alipore,

Calcutta-700 053.

to the bottom in shallow water, among vegetation

and in open water areas. Samples were then

immediately fixed and preserved in 5% formalin. A

total of 16 species of freshwater Cladocera males

were examined (Table 1).

Description

1. Latonopsis australis Sars, 1885

(Figs. 1-3)

Material examined: Madurai, Tamil Nadu.

male: Body size 0.73 mm. Body oblong. Head

short and thick, visually not separated from the body

(Fig. 1). Eye large, situated near antero-dorsal end

of the head. Ocellus small. Antennules long, attached

to antero- ventral corner of head; with a club-shaped

series of setae on the proximal end (Fig. 2).

Segmentation in antennule not clearly visible.

Postabdomen short with two long sperm ducts.

Lateral surface armed with a series of 4-5 denticles.

Claw pointed and curved dorsally and with 2 long

basal spines (Fig. 3). Proximal end of the

postabdomen with 2 long natatorial setae.

2. Diaphanosoma excisum Sars, 1885.

(Figs. 4-6).

Material examined: Madurai, Tamil Nadu.

male: Body size 0.98 mm. Head large and

rounded anteriorly. Eye relatively small. Duplicature

forming an acute angle with the ventral margin

anteriorly; postero- ventral corner broadly rounded

with 6-8 marginal denticles followed by a series of

fine setules and ending in 2 long spines (Fig. 4).

CLADOCERAN MALES FROM THE INDIAN REGION

379

Table 1

LIST OF CLADOCERA MALES SO FAR RECORDED

(RECORDS ARE GIVEN IN PARENTHESES)

Family Sididae

Genus Latonopsis

1 . L. australis Sars, 1885 (China, Sieh-chih and Nan-shan 1979)

Genus Diaphanosoma

2. D. excision Sars, 1885 (China, Sieh-chih and Nan-shan 1979)

Family Daphnidae

Genus Daphnia

3. D. simitis Claus, 1876

4. D. cephalata King, 1852 (Australia, Hebert 1977; India, Venkatarman 1991)

5. D. pmjecta Hebert, 1977 (India, Venkataraman and Krishnaswamy 1984)

Family Moinidae

Genus Moina

6. M. micrura Kurz, 1874 (India, Venkataraman 1983, Michael and Sharma 1989; USA, Goulden 1984)

7. M. weismanni Ishikawa, 1896 (India, Venkataraman and Krishnaswamy 1984)

Genus Moinodaphnia

8. M. macleayii (King, 1853) (Africa, Goulden 1968)

Family Macrothricidae

Genus Macrothrix

9. M. spinosa King, 1 852

Family Chydoridae

Genus A Iona.

10. Alona davidi punctata Richard, 1895

1 1. A. pulchella King, 1853 (Malaysia, Idris 1983)

Genus Biapertum

12. B. karua King, 1853 (India, Venkataraman 1983, Michael and Sharma 1989; China, Sieh-chih and Nan-shan

1979)

13. B. verrucosa Sars, 1901 (China, Sieh-chih and Nan-shan 1979)

Genus Kurz.ia

14. K. longirostris (Daday, 1989) (Africa, Smirnov 1977)

Genus Leydigiu

15. L. ciliata Gauthier, 1939 (Australia, Smirnov 1977)

Family Bosminidae

Genus Bosniinopsis

16. B. deitersi Richard, 1895 (China, Sieh-chih and Nan-shan 1979)

Antennules long and attached to the postero- ventral

part of head, with a group of short setae attached at

1/5 of its length with a row of fine setules decreasing

in size up to the tip (Fig. 5). Postabdomen with 2

long sperm ducts. Claw with a series of spinules

increasing in size proximally and with 3 long, sharply

pointed basal spines (Fig. 6).

3. Daphnia similis Claus, 1876

(Figs. 7-10)

Material examined: Madurai, Tamil Nadu;

Bharatpur, Rajasthan.

male: Body size 1.38 mm. Carapace oblong.

Tail short. Head small, rostrum undeveloped (Fig.

7). Antennules long with well developed flagellum

(Fig. 8). Eye large, ocellus conspicuous. Abdominal

processes greatly reduced. Dorsal postabdominal

margin strongly sinuate, with 6-8 anal spines (Fig.

9). Anterior margin of the valve with setae. Leg I

modified as a hook with a long flagellum (Fig. 10).

4. Daphnia cephalata King, 1 852

(Figs. 11-14)

Material examined: Madurai and

Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu.

male: Body size 1.08 mm. Head large and

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

rounded (Fig. 1 1 ). Anterior margin of valve with fine

setules up to 1/3 of the ventral margin. Antennules

long with well developed flagellum. Terminal seta

short, distally plumose. Basopodite with no rows of

spinules (Fig. 1 2). Leg I with a hook and a long seta

(Fig. 1 3). Postabdomen with no dorsal process. Claw

slightly curved, 11-14 anal spines, relatively short,

robust and subequal. Dorsal margin flat (Fig. 14).

5. Daphnia projecta Hebert, 1977

(Figs. 15-17)

Material examined: Madurai, Tamil Nadu.

male: Body size 0.9 mm. Head large with

anteriorly projecting helmet; rostrum absent; dorsal

margin of head and body straight with spines (Fig.

15). Antennules well developed and movable;

flagellum in the antennules not well developed (Fig.

16). Eye moderately large, ocellus inconspicuous.

Ventral margin convex. Tail long. The first pair of

legs modified to form a prehensile organ which

terminate in a long seta protruding beyond the shell

to the exterior. Total size smaller than female.

Postabdominal process not present; dorsal margin

with 10-12 anal spines (Fig. 17).

6. Moina micrura Kurz, 1874

(Figs. 18-21)

Material examined: Madurai, Tamil Nadu.

male: Body size 0.62 mm. Body oblong; head

narrow and extended anteriorly (Fig. 18). Well

developed supraocular depression. Eye large.

Antennules long and bent at 1/3 the distance from

the head, with three hooks at the tip. Two sensory

setae, one short and another originating at the knee

Figs. 7-10: Daphnia similis Claus: (7) male (entire); (8) antennule; (9) postabdomen; (10) leg I.

Figs. 11-14: Daplmia cephalata King: (11) male (entire); (12) antennule; (13) leg I; ( 14) postabdomen.

CLADOCERAN MALES FROM THE INDIAN REGION

381

of the bend (Fig. 19). First leg with a well developed

hook extended at right angles to the leg (Fig. 20).

Postabdomen similar to female with setae on claw, a

pair of feathered teeth on the dorsal side (Fig. 21).

7. Moina weismanni Ishikawa (1896)

(Figs. 22-25)

Material examined: Madurai, Tamil nadu.

male: Body size 0.7 mm. Body oblong.

Supraocular depression distinct (Fig. 22). Antennule

bent at a point about 1/4 the distance from the head

with four hooks at the tip (Fig. 23). Leg I with a

weakly developed hook (Fig. 24). Postabdomen

similar to that of female with varying number of

feathered teeth (Fig. 25).

8. Moinodaphnia macleayii (King, 1853)

(Figs. 26-29)

Material examined: Wandoor, Port Blair,

Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

male: Body size 0.76 mm. Head elongated

with a large eye (Fig. 26). Ocellus present.

Antennules long and curved with sensory papillae

at the distal tip (Fig. 27). First leg with a large curved

hook (Fig. 28). Postabdomen similar to that of female

with 6-7 feathered teeth (Fig. 29).

9. Macrothrix spinosa King, 1852

(Figs. 30-31)

Material examined: Bharatpur, Rajasthan;

Madurai, Tamil Nadu.

male: Body size 0.33 mm. Carapace rounded-

oval, with scale-like patterns; posterior margin blunt,

ventral margin broadly rounded, serrated and with a

series of long setae (Fig. 30). Antennules short with

a long seta near the base and a series of spinules

arranged transversely on entire surface and a group

Figs. 15-17: Daphnia projecta Hebert (15) male (entire); (16) antennule; (17) postabdomen.

Figs. 18-21: Moina micrura Kurz: (18) male (entire); (19) antennule; (20) leg I; (21) postabdomen.

Figs. 22-25: Moina weismanni Ishikawa: (22) male (entire); (23) antennule; (24) leg I;

(25) postabdomen.

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Q.OSmm

30

Q,02mm

31

Figs. 26-29: Moinodaphnia macleayii King: (26) male (entire); (27) antennule; (28) leg I; (29) postabdomen.

Figs. 30-31: Macmthrix spinosa King: (30) male (entire); (31) antennule.

Figs. 32-33: Alona davidi punctata Richard: (32) male (entire); (33) postabdomen.

Figs. 34-37: Alona pulchella King: (34) male (entire); (35) antennule; (36) leg I; (37) postabdomen.

of sensory setae on the apex (Fig. 31). Postabdomen

broadly rounded with indistinctly concave anal

margin. Claw short, curved dorsally and serrated on

the surface. As in the female, dorsal distal corner

rounded, armed with a group of strong, sharply

pointed denticles.

1 0. Alona davidi punctata Richard, 1 895

(Figs. 32-33)

Material examined: Madurai, Tamil Nadu.

male: Body size 0.42 mm. Dorsal part of the

body highly arched and moon shaped. Postero-

ventral and postero-dorsal corners rounded. Ventral

margin projecting in the middle (Fig. 32). Rostrum

blunt. Antennules not reaching the apex of rostrum.

Plate of labrum rounded anteriorly, evenly curved

posteriorly. Postabdomen widest at middle, then

tapering distally with prominent preanal and postanal

corners. Claw with very short basal spine. Sperm

duct open at the ventral side at the base of the claw

(Fig. 33).

11. Alona pulchella King, 1853

(Figs. 34-37)

Material examined: Madurai, Tamil Nadu.

male: Body size 0.33 mm. Dorsal and ventral

margins of valves almost parallel. Postero-dorsal and

postero-ventral corner of valves rounded (Fig. 34).

Ocellus smaller than eye, situated half way between

the eye and the apex of rostrum. Antennules stout

and broad with two setae at dorsal and ventral side

(Fig. 35). Labial plate about the same as in female,

first leg with a copulatory hook (Fig. 36).

Postabdomen short, dorsal margin of postabdomen

CLADOCERAN MALES FROM THE INDIAN REGION

383

OObrom jObmm Qlmm QOSmrr, 0 2mm OObmm

38.4! 39. i.0.<.2 43 ~ 44. 49.47 4b 48

Figs. 38-40: Biapertura karua King: (38) male (entire); (39) leg I; (40) postabdomen.

Figs. 41-42: Biupertura verrucosa Sars: (41) male (entire); (42) postabdomen.

Figs. 43-45: Kurzia longirostris (Daday): (43) male (entire); (44) leg I; (45) postabdomen.

Figs. 46-48: Leydigia ciliata Gauthier: (46) male (entire); (47) labrum; (48) postabdomen.

Figs. 49-52: Bosminopsis deitersi Richard: (49) male (entire); (50) antennule; (51) leg I; (52) postabdomen.

without denticles, lateral side with 8 groups of setae,

the distalmost seta being the longest of each group

and slightly projecting beyond the dorsal margin.

Anal margin with spines. Claw short with a short

basal spine (Fig. 37).

12. Biapertura karua King, 1853

(Figs. 38-40)

Material examined: Madurai, Tamil nadu.

male: Body size 0.31 mm. Maximum height of

body slightly before middle. Valves with distinct lines

and polygonal patterns (Fig. 38). Postero- ventral corner

rounded with 2 to 3 denticles attached marginally.

Ocellus smaller than eye, situated closer to the eye.

Plate of labrum rounded anteriorly, slightly pointed

ventrally with or without a notch on the apex. Leg I

modified into a hook (Fig. 39). Postabdomen with

distinct preanal and postanal corners with rounded

dorsal-distal margin. About 8 groups of denticles

attached submarginally at the lateral side. Claw with

or without basal spine (Fig. 40).

13. Biapertura verrucosa Sars, 1901

(Figs. 41-42)

Material examined: Madurai, Tamil Nadu.

male: Body size 0.29 mm. Postero-dorsal and

postero- ventral corner of the valve rounded (Fig. 41 ).

Rostrum blunt, antennules long, almost reaching

apex of rostrum. Ocellus smaller than eye. Plate of

labrum rounded with a denticle on the anterior

margin. Postabdomen with distinct preanal

and postanal corners and rounded on dorsal-distal

corner. A series of small spines attached along the

dorsal margin. Lateral side of postabdomen with 6

to 7 groups of setae, the distalmost seta being the

longest of each group and projecting beyond the anal

margin (Fig. 42). Claw with relatively short basal

spine.

14. Kurzia longirostris (Daday, 1898)

(Figs. 43-45)

Material examined: Madurai, Tamil Nadu.

male: Body size 0.42 mm. Body evenly

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

rounded dorsally and convex posteriorly, maximum

height before middle (Fig. 43). Rostrum long and

pointed ventrally. Ocellus smaller than eye, twice

nearer to the eye than to the apex of rostrum. Leg I

modified into a hook (Fig. 44). Postabdomen long,

tapering distally. Dorsal surface with relatively small

spines submarginally. Claw rather long, curved,

without basal spine (Fig. 45).

15. Leydigia ciliata Gauthier, 1939

(Figs. 46-48)

Material examined: Madurai, Tamil Nadu.

male: Body size 0.53 mm. Postero-dorsal

corner of valve at level of maximum height. Postero-

ventral corner rounded (Fig. 46). Ocellus larger than

eye. Antennules not reaching apex of rostrum. Plate

of labrum with pubescent anterior margin (Fig. 47).

Postabdomen widest in the middle, distal corner

rounded; lateral groups each with 3 setae, distal seta

longest in each group, proximal seta shortest. Claws

without basal spine. Vas deferens opening on apex

of penis-like process (Fig. 48).

16. Bosminopsis deitersi Richard, 1895

(Figs. 49-52)

Material examined: Ganga River,

Barrackpore, West Bengal.

male: Body size 0.29 mm. Body oval in shape.

Postero-dorsal corner distinct, postero- ventral corner

with spines (Fig. 49). Head large with a long rostrum.

Antennules long, with about 5-6 sensory setae near

the apex (Fig. 50). Eye large. Valves with faint

polygonal reticulations. Leg I with a hook (Fig. 5 1 ).

Postabdomen small, tapering distally with small

spines on the dorsal side. Claw with a large serrated

basal spine (Fig. 52).

Discussion

Among the 93 species of Cladocera recorded

from India (Michael and Sharma 1988), only 13

males have been described so far. Likewise, out of

62 species of Cladocera collected from Malaysia

(Idris 1983), only 2 males have been found. Sieh-

chih and Nan-Shan (1979) described 136 species of

Cladocera from China and described 48 males. Swar

and Fernando (1979) described 23 species of

Cladocera from Nepal without a single representation

of male. There are thus several examples to show

that the males of Cladocera are rare. From the present

study it appears that in tropical and subtropical

latitudes of India, males usually appear for a very

short period and sometimes in small numbers, so that

most collections do not contain males unless special

efforts are made. Chengalath (1982) also found the

same phenomenon of rarity of males in the case of

temperate cladocerans.

The causes of production of males at a

particular time of the season are not fully understood.

Some of the possible reasons are temperature, food

and overcrowding (Pennak 1978). The number of

pre-reproductive instars of males vary from species

to species. Life history studies on the males have

been worked out for a few species only. Das et al.

(1981) have studied the life history of males of D.

lumholtzi. Likewise, Venkataraman (1990a, b)

studied the life history of males of D. similis , D.

cephalata and Moina weismanni. From these studies

it has been found that adult males are not similar to

adult females; however, juvenile males have some

similarity to the females. Adult males tend to be more

highly differentiated than the females, particularly

in the structure of the antennule as in the case of

Sididae, Daphnidae and postabdominal claws as in

Chydoridae, so that males are sometimes essential

in determining the identity of the species. Another

important character that diferentiates males from

females is the presence of a hook in the first trunk

limb. This often helps the male to hold the female

during mating. The male postabdomen bears a

pair of vas deferens which protrude like a long

tube in Sididae and Chydoridae, and it also appears

as two openings at the base of the claw in other

families.

Acknowledgements

I thank the Director, ZSI, Calcutta, Dr. V.S.

Vijayan, B.N.H.S., Bharatpur, Dr. G.C. Rao, Officer-

in-Charge, Z.S.I., Andaman and Nicobar Regional

Station and Dr. S.K. Tandon, Joint Director, Calcutta

for facilities provided to carry out this work.

CLADOCERAN MALES FROM THE INDIAN REGION

385

References

Chengalath, R. (1982): A faunistic and ecological survey of the

littoral Cladocera of Canada. Can. J. Zool. 60: 2668-2682.

Das, S., B.K. Sharma & R.G. Michael ( 1981): Laboratory studies

on the male of Daphnia lumholtzi (Cladocera: Daphnidae).

Curr. Sci. 50 (4): 200.

Frey, D.G. (1987): The taxonomy and biogeography of the

Cladocera. Hydrobiologia 145: 5-17.

Idris, B.A.G. (1983): Freshwater Zooplankton of Malaysia.

Cladocera, Penerbit Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, 1-

153.

Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India, Indian

Cladocera. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, India,

1-262.

Pennak, R.W. (1978): Freshwater invertebrates of the United

States. 2nd ed., Jhon-Wiley & Sons, New York, 1-803.

Sieh-chih, C. & Du Nan-shan ( 1 979): Fauna of Sinica, Crustacea,

Freshwater Cladocera. Science Press, Academia Sinica,

Peking, 1-297.

Swar, D.B. & C.H. Fernando (1979): Cladocera from Pokara

Valley, Nepal with notes on distribution. Hydrobiologia

66: 113-128.

Venkataraman, K. (1990a): Biology of female and male Moina

weismanni Ishikova under laboratory conditions. J.

Andaman Sci. Association 6(1): 60-62.

Venkataraman, K. (1990b): Laboratory studies on the male of

Daphnia similis Claus and Daplinia ceplialata King. J.

Andaman Sci. Association 6 (2): 190-192.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW GENUS OF ECTRICHODIINAE AND TWO NEW SPECIES

OF THE GENUS HAEMATORRHOPHUS STAL FROM SOUTHERN INDIA

(HETEROPTERA: REDUVIIDAE)1

C. Murugan and David Livingstone2

(With three text- figures )

A new reduviid genus Hemihaematorrhophus gen. nov. with the type species Hemihaematorrhophus

planidorsatus sp.nov. and two new species of the genus Haematoirhophus, namely Haematorrhophus fovealis

sp.nov. and Haematorrhophus ruguloscutellaris sp.nov. have been described and illustrated.

Introduction

The subfamily Ectrichodiinae is one of the larger

subfamilies of Reduviidae. Distant (1904, 1910)

while describing the various genera of the subfamily

Ectrichodiinae, considered the number of joints of

antennae as a primary character for the diagnosis of

the various genera and on that basis four to eight

joints have been recognised in the various genera of

Ectrichodiinae. Later, Cook (1977), while preparing

the checklist of the various genera and species of

Asian Ectrichodiinae, considered the rostrum as an

important character for diagnosis. The genus

Haematorrhophus has been described by Distant as

having six segmented antennae, abdomen and

connexivum wrinkled in various patterns and the

second and third rostral segments highly swollen.

The present genus is placed closer to

Haematorrhophus.

Since the cataloguing of the genera of this

subfamily by Cook (1977) three more genera, namely

Synectrychotes Livingstone and Murugan (1987),

Neohaematorrhophus Ambrose and Livingstone

(1986), Echinocoris Livingstone and Ravichandran

(1992) have been added. The genus

Haematorrhophus has the largest number of

described species among Ectrichodiinae and the two

species that are described below further add to the

Reduviid fauna of the Oriental Region.

‘Accepted July 1995.

department of Zoology, Madras Christian College, Tambaram,

Madras-600 059, Tamil Nadu, India.

Hemihaematorrhophus gen. nov.

Micropterous; violaceous black; antennae six

segmented; second rostral segment not incrassated

and almost as long as first segment; frontal striations

prominent on either side, clypeal carina prominent;

scutellum with a pair of nodule like tubercles kept

wide apart; the first abdominal segment with median

dorsal depression; on either side of the depression

smooth; abdomen smooth dorsally with very few

faint longitudinal marginal striations; mesosternal

tubercle not carinate and not acutely pointed.

It differs from Haematorrhophus by the second

rostral segment only obscurely incrassated; the

abdomen dorsally more or less smooth; and the

femoral tubercles not conspicuous.

Hemihaematorrhophus planidorsatus sp.nov.

(Fig- 1)

female: Length 24-28 mm, width across the

abdomen 10-12 mm; violaceous black; elongately

ovate; micropterous; frontal striations prominent on

either side, clypeal carina prominent; eyes fuscous;

second rostral segment not incrassated and almost

as long as first segment; the mesosternal furrow

shallow posteriorly, anteriorly narrow as a short

striated groove, immediately behind this narrow

groove the sternal tubercle heaves up prominently;

abdominal sternites without any longitudinal furrow,

first visible sternites elevated medially with lateral

depression; pronotal median furrow transversely

divided at the junction as well as behind the junction

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

387

of anterior and posterior lobes, posterior lobe with

two transverse ridges; the inner lateral foveation

not confluent with the depression of the posterior

lobe, but the lateral deeply depressed groove

confluent with the depression of the posterior lobe;

scutellum with a pair of nodule like tubercles kept

wide apart; the median dorsal foveation not

interrupted by ridges; mesonotum not visible; the

first four abdominal segments with median dorsal

depression; on either side of the depression smooth;

abdomen smooth dorsally with very few faint

longitudinal marginal striations; connexivum

dorsally rugulose, posterior most segment entirely

dorsally rugulose; fore femora with one prominent

and very minute two or three tubercles in the middle,

mid femora with a pair of two short tubercles

Fig. 1. A. Hemilmematorrhophus planidorsatus sp. nov.;

B. Head-Lateral view.

subapically and basally a single one, hind femora

with a pair of very minute subapical tubercles.

Scutellar variations range from obscure knob like

lateral tubercle to fairly well formed tuberculate

process.

Type Information: Holotype: female, Serial No.

52. Parcitypes three females all pinned specimens

deposited for the present in the reduviid collection

of the Division of Entomology, Department of

Zoology, Madras Christian College, Tambaram,

Madras, India.

Collection Information: Holotype collected from

underneath stone in Servalar Tropical Rain Forest,

Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu on 14-10-1987 at

elevation 300 MSL, temperature 35° C, and humidity

74%. The Paratypes were collected from Yelagiri

Hills, North Arcot District, Tamil Nadu, on

18.9.1 988 at elevation 1 000 MSL, temperature 28°C

and humidity 76% and from Alagar Kovil, Madurai

District, Tamil Nadu on 1 8-0 1 - 1 989 at elevation 350

MSL, temperature 27°C and humidity 84% and also

collected from Courtallam, Tirunelveli District,

Tamil Nadu on 06.6.1989 at elevation 350 MSL,

temperature 28°C and humidity 62%. Since all

specimens collected on all occasions are from

Tropical Rain Forest only, it is reasonable to suggest

that this is a species endemic to that ecosystem of

this region.

Haematorrhophus fovealis sp.nov.

(Fig. 2)

male: Length 25 mm, width across the abdomen

9.5 mm; apterous; black; elongate; median frontal

groove shallow, parafrontal transverse striations

obscure; eyes yellowish brown; mesosternal

foveation shallow and transversely striated,

posteriorly forming prominent tubercle, the first

visible abdominal sternite without any longitudinal

grooves whereas the next three sternites with

incomplete longitudinal groove; the tubercle of fore

femora outwardly directed, not highly incrassated;

the mid femora with a subapical anterior pair and a

middle unpaired small tubercles; hind femora with

a small median tubercle and a pair of small subapical

388

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92 (1995)

tubercles one on either side; the scutellum generally

globose, with acutely pointed tubercles and deeply

grooved in between, median foveation of scutellum

deep with slightly rugose wall, lateral wall of

scutellum basally rugose with raised rounded inner

margin; mesonotum not exposed; pronotal median

furrow interrupted by a ridge, lateral inner foveation,

outer foveation and its groove and posterolateral

depression almost confluent with each other with

transverse striations along the groove; dorsum highly

Fig. 2. Haematorrhophus fovea lis sp. nov.: A. Head-Dorsal

view; B. Thorax and anterior abdominal segments; C. Genital

segments; D. Head — Lateral view; E. Fore leg; F. Mid leg;

G. Hind leg.

rugose with dorso median depression, broader

anteriorly and narrow posteriorly up to the fifth

segment, depression not confluent with each other.

Type Information: Holotype : Male, Serial No.

50, pinned specimen deposited at present in the

reduviid collection of the Division of Entomology,

Department of Zoology, Madras Christian College,

Tambaram, Madras, India.

Collection Information: Single specimen

collected from underneath stone in

Malumichampatti, Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu,

on 01.8.1989 at elevation 300 MSL, temperature 25°

C, and humidity 82%.

Haematorrhophus ruguloscutellaris sp.nov.

(Fig. 3)

female: Length 23 mm, width across the abdomen

8 mm; elongate; apterous; black; median frontal

groove deep, parafrontal cross striations prominent,

eyes yellowish brown; mesosternal foveation

anteriorly narrow and cross striated, posteriorly the

furrow terminating at the base of the median pointed

segments; C. Genital segments; D. Head — Lateral view;

E. Fore leg; F. Mid leg; G. Hind leg.

conical tubercle with a median carina; metasternum

obscure; fore femora median tubercle posteriorly

directed; mid femora with two or three small

tubercles; femora subapically with a pair of small

tubercles; abdominal sternites without any median

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

389

groove, the first visible abdominal sternite medially

elevated by lateral depression; scutellar tubercles

obscurely formed, as nodules, set wide apart; lateral

margins of scutellum corrugated, median dorsal

foveation smooth and narrow; mesonotum not

exposed; pronotal median foveation confluent with

the posterior one; lateral inner foveation not

confluent with any outer foveation cum groove,

confluent with posterolateral depression of posterior

lobe of pronotum; dorsum of fourth abdominal

segment longitudinally rugose, all the rest of the

segments transversely rugose; all connexival

segments rugose.

Type Information: Holotype female, Serial No.

5 1 . Paratype a single male, both pinned specimens

deposited at present in the reduviid collection of the

Division of Entomology, Department of zoology,

Madras Christian College, Tambaram, Madras,

India.

Collection Information: Holotype and Paratype

were collected from underneath a boulder in

Manimutharu, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu, on

10.01.1988, at elevation 75 MSL, temperature 29°C

and humidity 58%.

ACKNOWLEDGEM ENTS

We are grateful to the authorities of Madras

Christian College for providing facilities and to the

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New

Delhi for financial support and encouragement.

References

Ambrose, D.P. & D. Livingstone (1986): A new genus of

Ectrichodiinae from Southern India (Insecta-Heteroptera

— Reduviidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(2): 40 1 -

405.

Cook, M.L. (1977): A key to the genera of Asian Ectrichodiinae

(Hemiptera: Reduviidae) together with a check list of

genera and species. Oriental Insects 11(1): 63-88.

Distant, W.L. (1904): Fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma. Rhynchota, Vol. II, (Heteroptera). Taylor &

Francis, London, pp. 304-325.

Distant, W.L. (1910): Fauna of British India, including Ceylon

and Burma. Rhynchota, Vol. I, (Heteroptera, Appendix).

Taylor & Francis, London, pp. 196-201 .

Livingstone, D. & C. Murugan (1987): A new genus of

Ectrichodiinae from Point Calimere, Southern India

(Heteroptera-Reduviidae). Uttar Pradesh J. Zool. 7(1):

92-95.

Livingstone, D. & G. Ravichandran (1992): A new genus of

Ectrichodiinae from the Coromandel coast, India

(Heteroptera-Reduviidae). Hexapoda 4(2): 167-169.

HYPSELOBARBUS KURALI (PISCES: CYPRINIDAE) A NEW LARGE BARB FROM THE

SOUTH WESTERN RIVERS OF PENINSULAR INDIA1

A.G.K. Menon and K. Rema Devi2

(With a text-figure)

Hypselobarbus kurali is described as a new species of large barbs from the South-Western rivers of Peninsular

India. It is characterised by 4 barbels, a weak articulated last undivided ray with nine branched rays in the dorsal fin, 41-

43 scales along the lateral line, 3,/2-4,/2 rows of scales between LI and pelvic origin; silvery with somewhat greyish back,

a deep black bar behind the gill opening and the caudal tipped black. The identity of two cyprinid species, Cyprinits

curmuca Hamilton and Barbus kolus Sykes from the east flowing rivers of the Peninsula considered as distinct species is

re-examined. B. kolus is considered a synonym of H. curmuca.

Introduction

Hamilton ( 1 807) described Barbus curmuca from

Vedawati river of the Tungabhadra drainage in

Mysore, with two barbels, 39 scale rows along the

1 Accepted March 1995.

2Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station,

100, Santhome High Road, Madras-400 028.

lateral line and a weak and articulated last undivided

dorsal ray. Sykes in 1840 described B. kolus, also

with the same characteristics from Deccan.

Specimens from South Canara with four barbels and

the caudal tipped with black, Day (1878) considered

as a local variety of B. curmuca. In a recent fish

collection made by the senior author from different

Table 1

MORPHOMETRIC DATA OF HYPSELOBARBUS KURAL1 FROM DAKSHIN KANNADA AND KERALA

390

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

391

western rivers of the south western part of Peninsular

India, there are a good number of specimens of the

present unique species which were earlier referred

to as B. curmuca by Hora and Law (1941). These,

with four barbels, a weak last undivided dorsal ray

and 41-43 lateral line scales are described here as a

new species of Hypselobarbus. Rainboth (1989)

discussed the nomenclature problem with regard to

the poorly known genus of large barbs of Peninsular

India and showed the availability of the name

Hypselobarbus Bleeker, 1860 for them. H. curmuca

(Ham.), H. dobsoni (Day), H. dubius (Day), H.

jerdoni (Day), H. lithopidos (Day), H. micropogon

(C.V.), H. periyarensis (Raj), H. pulchellus (Day),

H. thomassi (Day) are included in this genus. H. kolus

is considered in this paper as a synonym of H.

curmuca.

Material and Methods

Material examined in this study are: 33 exs.,

78.0-270.0 mm SL, with black caudal tips from

Dakshin Kannada and Kerala, and 14 exs., 94.0-196.0

mm SL, with plain caudal tips from Kerala.

Measurements follow standard practices except a few

as followed in Menon and Rema Devi (1992).

Description of the new species is based on the pooled

average of all the samples from Dakshin Kannada and

Kerala, measured and presented in Table 1 . The mean

followed by the range in parenthesis is provided.

Hypselobarbus kurali sp. nov.

(Fig. .)

Barbus curmuca Day (nee. Ham.), Fish. India,

577, pi. 141, fig. L 1878.

Barbus (Puntius) curmuca (nee. Ham.) Hora and

Law, Rec. Indian Mus. 63 (2): 245, 1941

(Travancore). Silas, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49:

674, 1951 (Ponneri drainage system, Anamalai

Hills). Silas, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 326.

1951 (Manimala river, Mundakayam, Peerumed

Hills).

Puntius curmuca (nee. Ham.) Misra, Rec. Indian

Mus. 57: 153. 1959 (Travancore-Cochin).

Holotype: 270.0 mm SL, Locality: Kumaradhara,

near Nettana, Dakshin Kannada, Coll.: Drs. A.G.K.

Menon, K.B. Jagadeesh and R. Kannan, 7th January

1992, Reg. No. F. 4003.

Paratypes: A. With black caudal tips from

Dakshin Kannada - 5 exs., 165.0-240.0 mm SL,

Kumaradhara river, Behinilae, near Nettana, 7th Jan.

1992. F/ 4004; 6 exs., 120.0-185.0 mm SL, River

Netravadi, near Uppinangudi, 30th Dec. 1991, F.

4005.

B. With black caudal tips from Kerala - 2 exs.,

81.0-1 20.0 mm SL, River Achencoil, Quilon District,

6th Nov. 1989; 3 exs., 106.0-175.0 mm SL, Kallar

river, near Pullikkayam, 7th Nov. 1989, F. 4006; 5

exs., 112.0-148.0 mm SL, Periyar River at

Fig. 1 . Laleral view of Hypselobarbus kurali sp. nov., 240.0 mm SL.

392

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Neriyamangalam, Iddukki District, 3rd Oct. 1990,

F. 4007; 9 exs., 78.0-143.0 mm SL, Manimala river

at Mundakayam, 12th Sept, 1991.

C. With plain caudal tips from Kerala - 2 exs.,

94.0- 101.0 mm SL, Periy ar river at Thannikudy, 1 4

km east of Thekkady, Periyar Tiger Reserve, 1 3th

Dec. 1990, F. 4008; 4 exs., 165.0-190.0 mm SL.

Iddukki reservoir, 28th Sept. 1990, F. 4009; 4 exs.,

151.0- 196.0 mm SL, Cherukotta Oda, a tributary

of Periyar River at Cheruthony, Periyar Tiger

Reserve, Thekkady, 13th Dec. 1990, F. 4010 and 4

exs., 1 1 2.0- 1 45.0 mm SL, Periyar River at Mleppara,

12 km east of Thannikudy Forest Inspection

Bungalow, Periyar Tiger Reserve, 14th December,

1990, F. 4011.

Diagnosis: A large barb with two pairs of barbels,

a weak and articulated last undivided dorsal fin ray,

41-43 scales along lateral line and generally with

caudal tinged black.

Description: D 3/9; P 1/15-16; V 1/8-9; A 3/5-

6; C 1/17/1; LI 41-43; L.tr 2x/i-4x/i\ predorsal scales

12-13; gill rakers 20-24. Dorsal and ventral profile

more or less equally convex. Length of head 4.60

(4.31-4.97) in total length, 3.56 (3.31-3.82) in

standard length, its depth 1 .48 ( 1 .40- 1 .7 1 ) and width

1 .82 ( 1 .56-2.04) in its length; body depth 5.24 (4.38-

6.22) in TL; 4.05 (3.28-4.83) in SL; predorsal

distance 2.10 (1.91-2.56), postdorsal distance 1.87

(1.67-2.10), distance from pectoral base to pelvic

base 3.84 (3.30-4.40), from pelvic to anal 3.89 (3.40-

4.54) , length of body cavity 2.05 (1.88-2.33) in SL;

dorsal situated midway between snout and caudal

base, more towards snout in females, its upper edge

concave; postdorsal distance 0.89 (0.73-1.03) in

predorsal distance; the last undivided ray is weak

and articulated, height of dorsal 4.51 (3.64-5.27) in

SL and 1.26(1 .06- 1 .4 1 ) in HL; base of dorsal 1 .43

(1.24-1.74) in its height; length of pectoral fin 4.87

(4.22-5.57) in SL and 1.37 ( 1 .20- 1 .63) in HL; pelvic

fin 5.7 (5.11-6.24) in SL; anal fin longer in females

and when adpressed extends beyond caudal base, its

length 5.23 (3.65-6.37) in SL; caudal 3.44 (2.79-

4.55) in SL; depth of caudal peduncle 1.56 (1.13-

1.92) in its length. Eye diameter 4.38 (3.1-5.71),

length of snout 2.28 (1.97-2.58) and interorbital

width 2.89 (2.42-3.39) in head length. Two pairs of

barbels, the maxillary as long as eye, rostral shorter,

sensory canal pores in radiating rows under eye in

smaller specimens; pelvic axillary scale well

developed.

Coloration: Dorsal half of the body greyish,

lighter on the sides and beneath; a deep black bar

behind the gill opening; the bases of scales above

and below the lateral line have dark spots; the tips

of caudal tinged black, more prominent in smaller

specimens.

Maximum size: 270.0 mm SL.

Variation: With the possible exception of a few

specimens from Kerala in which the tail is devoid

of black tips, H. kurali shows little noticeable

geographical variation in external morphological

characters. This can be seen from the morphometric

data of the three populations, from South Canara

(with tail tipped black), Kerala (with tail tipped

black) and Kerala (with tail devoid of black tips),

given in Table 1 . Those characters that are considered

to be of basic taxonomic importance, such as

the number of barbels, the scale rows along the lateral

line, the scale rows between the lateral line and

the base of the pelvic, the tuberculated nature of

the snout, the nature of the last undivided dorsal ray,

the snout length in relation to head length and

the postorbital length of head remain quite constant

in all the three populations and are therefore

considered as different morphs of the species, H.

kurali.

Remarks: H. curmuca and H. kurali are closely

allied species but have evolved differently in the

western and eastern drainages of the Western Ghats.

Since H. kolus bears the characteristics of curmuca

described earlier, the former is considered as a junior

synonym of H. curmuca. H. curmuca is found in

the Deccan and Mysore plateau in the Krishna,

Godavari and Cauvery drainages. Day (1878, p. 573)

and Beavan (1877) have recorded it from ‘Central

Provinces’ but the fish does not occur today in

Madhya Pradesh. The fish has become less common

in the Peninsular rivers probably because of

increased turbidity of the waters due to silting as a

result of deforestation along the river banks. At

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

393

present it occurs in small numbers in the

Nagarjunasagar reservoir. H. kurali is found in small

numbers in the fast flowing hill streams in forested

areas in the west flowing rivers of the Western Ghats.

H. kurali is protected in the Kolathupuzha Temple

Sanctuary, Kerala.

Range: india: Dakshin Kannada to Travancore

hills, along the western face of Western Ghats.

Refer

Beavan, R. (1877): Handbook of Freshwater Fishes of India.

London, 247 pp., pis. 1-12.

Day, F. ( 1 875- 1 878): The Fishes of India being a natural history

of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of

India, Burma and Ceylon. Quaritsch, London, xx + 778 pp.,

pis. 195.

Hamilton, F. ( 1 807): Journey from Madras through the countries

of Mysore, Canara and Malabar. London, /: vii-xiii + 420

pp., 2: 566 pp., 3: 479 pp.

Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): Freshwater fishes of Travancore.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta and Officer-in-Charge, Southern

Regional Station for the facilities provided. The senior

author is grateful to the Department of Science and

Technology, Government of India, New Delhi, for the

grant under the USERS scheme awarded to him for

the study of Cyprinine fishes of India.

ENCES

Rec. Indian Mus. 43(2): 233-256.

Menon, A.G.K. & K. Rema Devi (1992): Puntius puckelli, a junior

synonym of Puntius bimaculatus (Pisces: Cyprinidae).

Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters 3(3): 219-223, 3 figs., 2

tabs.

Rainboth, W.J. (1989): Discherodontus, anew genus of Cyprinid

fishes from Southeastern Asia. Occ.Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ.

Michigan IS: 1-31.

Sykes, W.H. (1840): On the fishes of the Dakhun. Trans. Zool.

Soc. London, 2:349-378.

ON A NEW SUBSPECIES OF XANTHOPIMPLA SAUSSURE

(HYMENOPTERA: ICHNEUMONIDAE) IN INDIA1

R. P. Patil2 and P. K. Nikam3

( With a text-figure )

A new sub species of Xanthopimpla Saussure (1892), Xanthopimpla minuta aurangabadensis, subsp.

nov. belonging to Trunca species group from India, collected from India (Maharashtra: Aurangabad) is described

and illustrated.

The genus Xanthopimpla has been catalogued by

Townes, et al. (1961). The genus Xanthopimpla

Saussure (1892) belongs to the tribe Ephialtini of

the subfamily Pimplinae (Gupta 1987).

Townes and Chiu (1970) revised the Indo-

Australian species of Xanthopimpla and provided a

reliable key to the species of this genus; the same

has been adopted in the present work. Both workers

divided the species of Xanthopimpla into 22 species

groups, of which the following 9 species groups of

Xanthopimpla so far have been recorded from

Maharashtra, India, namely (1) Regina, (2)

'Accepted June 1995.

:P. G. Department of Zoology, P. V. P. College, Pravaranagar,

Loni-413 713, Maharashtra.

’Department of Zoology, Marathwada University,

Aurangabad-431 004.

Stemmator, (3) Citrina, (4) Cuneata, (5) Nana, (6)

Brachycentra, (7) Occidentalis, (8) Punctata and (9)

Incompleta. In the present work, another group

Trunca has been recorded and a new subspecies,

Xanthopimpla minuta aurangabadensis, is

described.

Xanthopimpla minuta aurangabadensis

subsp. nov. (Fig. 1 a-c)

female: Body length 9. 2-9. 5 mm (Fig. lb). Head

(Fig. la) in front view 0.75 times as long as broad,

vertex sparsely punctate; occiput finely punctate,

shiny; temple smooth above, sparsely punctate

below; ocello-occular distance equal to their

diameter; interocellar distance 0.65-0.70 times the

ocello-occular distance; inner margin of the eye

394

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

sharply indented opposite to the antennal sockets;

Irons deplanate, medially elevated, the lateral

concavities deep, smooth, shiny; antenna, 2+37

segmented, filiform; scape twice as long as broad;

pedicel as long as broad; scape and pedicel hairy,

punctate, first flagellar segment 1.50x as long as

second flagellar segment; terminal segment 2.65x

as long as broad; face 0.9 times as long as broad,

pilose, tamidulous, with distinct coarse punctures,

separated by the distance of their diameter; clypeus

0.30-0.35 times as long as broad, separated from face,

subdivided by a transverse suture, basally flat,

apically convex, sparsely punctate, spinose, its apical

margin medially concave; clypeal fovea circular and

deep; malar space 0.35 times the basal width of

mandible; mandible twice as long as its basal width,

provided with long hairs, punctate, equidentate and

with a distinct ventral flange; occipital carina

complete, strongly arched, joining at the base of

genal carina.

Fig. 1. Xanthopimpla minuta aurangabudensis subsp. nov.

a. Head, front view; b. Lateral view entire; c. Propodeum.

Thorax 1.40x as long as broad, moderately

pubescent, collar round, rarely pubescent; pronotum

pubescent, finely punctate, weakly convex; notaulus

distinct, running beyond the middle half, nearly twice

the length of tegula; scutellum roundly convex, hairy,

densely punctate, its lateral carina reaching up to

apex; post-scutellum microsculpture same as that of

scutellum; propodeum (Fig. lc) polished, shiny,

laterally sparsely hairy, distinctly carinated, basal

area nearly squarish, petiolar and postpetiolar area

confluent and appears pentagonal; pleural areas

undivided; propodeal spiracle elongate, twice as long

as broad; propleurum finely punctate; mesopleurum

medially highly elevated; anterio-dorsally with a few

acciculations, densely punctate, speculum shiny,

sparsely punctate, its fovea shallow; prepectal carina

short, reaching below the middle half of

mesopleurum; post-pectal carina with median notch;

metapleurum pellucid; submetapleural carina

distinct, with a flange at anterio- ventral position near

mid-coxa. Legs short and strong, tarsal claws very

large and sharp, provided with the largest hair; hind

coxae 1.25-1.30x as long as the length of the

trochanters combined; hind femur 0.90 times as long

as hind tibia; basitarsus subequal to the pretarsal

length and twice the length of longer spur. Forewing

3.70x as long as broad; stigma five times as long as

broad; the basal abscissa of radius 0.60 times the

apical abscissa; nervulus slightly distad; areolet

closed; second intercubitus medially fenestrated;

second recurrent emits beyond the middle,

geniculate, bifenestrated; discocubital cell 2.8x as

long as broad; basal abscissa of subdiscoideus 1 .75x

the apical abscissa, nervulus half the postnervulus.

Hind wing 2.60x as long as broad; nervulus

intercepted above the middle, inclivous; hamuli 1+8.

Abdomen 1 .55x the length of head and thorax

combined, pubescent, dorsoventrally flattened; first

tergite 1 .75x as long as broad, laterads with a row of

long hairs, subapically slightly grooved; second

tergite 0.70 times as long as broad, coarsely punctate,

rest of the abdominal tergites punctate; ovipositor

1.90-2. Ox the length of hind tibia, long, stout,

obliquely riged.

Body: Yellowish with black markings-Ocellar

triangle, a transverse band dorsomedially on occiput,

a mark on the outer side of the scape and the pedicel,

a longitudinal band dorsomedially ending into a

triangular mark near the base of the scutellum, two

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

395

longitudinal bands on mesoscutum, a pair of roundish

marks joined by narrow band on the basal area of

propodeum, a spot below the subtegular ridge, a

longitudinal mark anteriorly and a large spot on the

speculum of the mesopleurum, subapical tranverse

band on first tergite and trans-band basally on rest

of the tergites, stigma and nervures black. Flagellum,

mark on the mid femur, base of hind tibia and all

tarsal segments brownish black.

male: Same as the female in all essential details.

Holotype : male: india: Maharashtra: Aurangabad;

and paratypes 16 females, 6 males, 8th August 1981

(Dep osited in the Zoology Department of

Marathwada University, Aurangabad).

Discussion

In accordance with the key to the Oriental,

Australian and Eastern-Palaearctic species groups

of Xanthopimpla Saussure by Townes and Chiu

(1970), X. minuta aurangabadensis subsp. nov. fits

in the Trunca species group in the characters of

areola, mesopleurum microsculpture, areolet and the

largest hair tip of the mid-hind-tarsal claws. In the

key to the species of the Trunca group, Townes and

Chiu (1970) this subspecies resembles X. minuta lita

Townes and Chiu (1970) in the colour pattern of

the ocellar triangle, scape, pedicel and body;

microsculpture of propodeum and tip of ovipositor.

However, it differs from the same in having (i) a

pair of black spots at the base of propodeum which

are connected by a narrow band, (ii) brown mark

on the mid femur and tarsals, (iii) dark-brown mark

on the trochantellus, femur, base of tibia and all

tarsal segments of hind leg, and (iv) black markings

on the mesopleurum. In addition X. minuta

aurangabadensis subsp. nov. is unique in

possessing a black triangular mark at the base of

the scutellum in continuation with median black

band on the mesoscutum, lateral rows of hairs on

the first abdominal segment, black mark at the base

of fore wing, second geniculate recurrent and

indistinct branchiella.

X. minuta aurangabadensis subsp. nov. may be

included in the Key to the Indo-Australian species

of Trunca group Townes and Chiu (1970), as

follows:

8. Propodeum and apex of hind tibia entirely yellow: South-

Eastern Asia, Ceylon and Taiwan

minuta minuta Cameron (1905)

Propodeum with a pair of black spot at base; hind tibia either

apically or basally black 9

9. Hind tibia 0.2 apically black; mesopleurum unmaculated;

hind trochantellus yellow; only two apical tarsal segments

black. Borneo minuta lita Townes and Chiu (1970)

Hind tibia, 0.2 basally black, mesopleurum maculated; hind

trochantellus and all tarsal segments brownish. India:

Maharashtra minuta aurangabadensis subsp. nov.

References

Gupta, V.K. (1987); Catalogue of the Indo-Australian 1-372.

Ichneumonidae. Mem. Amer. Ent. Inst. 41: 1-597. Townes, H., M. Townes & V.K. Gupta (1961): A catalogue

Townes, H. & S. Chiu (1970): The Indo-Australian species of and classification of Indo-Australian Ichneumonidae. Mem.

Xanthopimpla (Ichneumonidae). Mem. Amer. Ent. Inst. 14: Amer. Ent. Inst. I: 1-522.

HOMALOPTERA MENONI — A NEW HOMALOPTERID FISH

(PISCES: HOMALOPTERID AE) FROM KERALA1

C.P. Shaji and P.S. Easa2

( With a text-figure )

subcontinent, namely Homaloptera bilineata Blyth,

H. modesta (Vinciguerra), and Homaloptera

rupicola (Prashad and Mukerji) are distributed in

Burma. The genus is represented in India by a single

species, Homaloptera montana Herre, found in

Silent Valley and New Amarambalam area of

Introduction

The genus Homaloptera van Hasselt is

represented by four species in the Indian

'Accepted June 1995

^Division of Wildlife Biology, Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi, Thrissur-680 653, Kerala, India.

396

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Western Ghats (Menon 1987). Recently, Indra and

Remadevi (1981) added a new species H. pillaii,

but Menon (op.cit.) considered it to be a synonym

of H. montana. Pethiyagoda and Kottelat (1994),

however, treated H. pillaii as a distinct species. A

new species of Homaloptera was collected from

Indekkuthodu, a tributary of Bhavani River at

Siruvani in the Western Ghats.

Diagnostic Characters: Body subcylindrical and

covered with scales, except on the head and ventral

surface. Head pointed, with four rostral barbels and

two maxillary barbels. The gill-opening extends to

the ventral surface for a short distance. Lips thick,

continuous at an angle of the mouth and are non-

opening, from Balitora by the nature of the lips and

from Travancoria by the lesser number of rostral

barbels and absence of the rostral groove.

Description: D 2/8 P 5/9 V 2/6; A 2/5; C 19; L.l.

59-62; L.tr. 1.516.5-1.

Body: Body subcylindrical and covered with

scales except in the ventral parts. Depth 13.935

(13.414-14.457) per cent in the standard length

(Fig. la).

Head: Head pointed and its length 20.605 (20.48-

20.73) per cent in SL. Eyes moderately large, dorso-

laterally placed and their diameter 30.33 per cent in

head length. Eyes not visible from the ventral side.

Length of snout 8.948 (8.536-9.63) per cent in SL,

anH flu* intp.r-nrhi

c m

a.

4.8 mm

Fig. la. Homaloptera menoni sp. nov.: Lateral view of holotype.

Fig. lb. Ventral aspect of head of H. menoni.

pappillated. A rostral groove is absent.

It can be distinguished from other genera of

Homalopteridae like Bhavania by the extent of gill-

and the inter-orbital width 34.166 per cent in head

length.The two pairs of nostrils are closer to the eye

than to the tip of the snout and the anterior nostrils

are with a flap. Mouth small, semicircular with fleshy

lips. Three pairs of barbels are present, of which two

pairs are rostral and one pair maxillary. All are equal

in length and are equal to the eye diameter. The lips

are non-papillated(Fig. lb).

Fins: Dorsal fin situated just behind the origin

of pelvic fins and its origin is closer to the tip of the

snout than to the base of the caudal fin. Length 19.394

(19.277-19.512) per cent in SL. The pectoral fin

hardly reaches the base of ventral and its length is

21.81 (21.68-21.95) per cent in SL. The ventral fin

reaches the anal fin and overlaps the vent. Length of

ventral fin 19.277 and length of anal 17.57 (17.07-

1 8.07) per cent in SL. The vent is situated very close

to origin of anal fin. Distance from vent to anal fin

is 1 1 .764 per cent in the inter-distance between origin

of pelvic and anal fins. Pre-dorsal distance is 46.664

(46.341-46.987) and pre- ventral distance is 44.24

(43.902-44.578) per cent in SL.

Caudal peduncle is long and narrow. Its least

width is 30 per cent in its length. Caudal fin is slightly

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

397

emarginate.

Holotype: FF/KFRI/85. 41 mm standard length 2.

from Indekkuthodu in Siruvani, a tributary

of Bhavani, Muthikulam forest, Palghat district,

Kerala, collected by C.P. Shaji and P.S. Easa on 04-

4-1995.

Paratype: One specimen FF/KFRI/86, 42 mm

standard length collected from the same locality on

the same day by us. All have been preserved

inthe Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi,

Trichur.

Etymology: Named after Dr. A.G.K. Menon,

Emeritus Scientist, Zoological Survey of India, who

has made outstanding contributions to the taxonomy

of Homalopteridae and Cobitidae.

Coloration: Body is greenish yellow in ground

colour with a few irregular blotches on the back of

the body. The head and anterior parts of the body

are mottled with black dots. Head and body have

many turbercles, which, however, are absent on the

ventral surface. Tubercles are also present on the

anterior simple rays of pectoral fin and ventral fin.

The dorsal, ventral and anal fins each have two rows

of black dots.

Key to species of Homaloptera

1 . Origin of dorsal fin opposite or in front of pelvic fin

H. bilineata

Origin of dorsal fin behind origin of pelvic fin 2

A. Origin of dorsal fin equidistant between tip of snout and

base of caudal fin.

a) Lateral line scales 40-45 Homaloptera rupicola

Lateral line scales more than 45 b

b) Lateral line scales 70-72 H. montana

Lateral line scales 83-93 H.pillaii

B. Origin of dorsal fin nearer to the tip of the snout than to

the base of the caudal fin.

a) Lateral line scales 47. Least width of the caudal peduncle

42.86-50.00 per cent in its length

H. modesta

Lateral line scales 59-62. Least width of the caudal

peduncle is 30.00 per cent in its length

H. menoni sp. nov.

Acknowledgements

This work was carried out as a part of the

project on the fishes of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

funded by Kerala Forest Department (Wildlife). Dr.

S. Chand Basha, Director of the Institute encouraged

us throughout the work. We are grateful to Shri P.K.

Surendranathan Asari, Chief Conservator of Forests

(Wildlife) and the staff of Forest Department for

their co-operation. Dr. A.G.K. Menon critically

reviewed the manuscript.

References

Indra, T.J. & K. Remadevi (1981): A new species of the genus Calcutta.

Homaloptera from Silent Valley, Kerala, South India. Bull. Pethiyagoda, Rohan & Maurice Kottelat (1994): Three new

Zool. Surv. India. 4(1): 67-7 1. species of fishes of the genera Osteochilichthys

Menon, A.G.K. (1987): The Fauna of India and the adjacent (Cyprinidae), Travancoria (Balitoridae) and Horabagrus

countries. Pisces, Vol. IV. Teleostei — Cobitoidea, part (Bagridae) from the Chalakudy River, Kerala, India. J.

I. Homalopteridae. Zoological Survey of India. South Asian nat. Hist. I(J): 97 -116.

OBITUARY

Biswamoy Biswas

(1923-1994)

{With a plate )

If any one cares to scrutinise the

recommendations for the procurement of books for

the Library of the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI),

Calcutta, the biggest source of zoological literature

in Asia, over the period of three decades since the

independence of India, one will find that the

maximum number of recommendations were from

Dr. Biswamoy Biswas. A professional ornithologist,

celebrated as one of the trinity of Indian Ornithology

(Dr. Salim Ali of the Bombay Natural History

Society and Dr. Sydney Dillon Ripley of. the

Smithsonian Institution being the other two) during

the second half of the 20th Century. Dr. Biswas had

the habit of meticulously reading literature on many

disciplines, from Protozoa to Mammalia, in Zoology,

and even on ‘literature’ in the regional language,

Bengali. This habit shaped him to be an efficient

editor of scientific writings. During his tenure as the

Editor of the Proceedings of the Zoological Society,

Calcutta , the journal occupied a distinct place in the

crowd of science journals of the world at large.

Biswamoy Biswas was all along a good student

and had a bright academic career. He always scored

high marks in all examinations since his school days.

Due to his immense interest in animals, he took up

Biology as one of the subjects of study during his

Intermediate of Science Course, instead of Geology

in which his father (a Professor of Geology,

University of Calcutta) could help and guide him.

He graduated from the University of Calcutta, with

honours in Zoology in the year 1943, and obtained

post-graduate degree of the same university in

Zoology and Comparative anatomy in 1945, and was

awarded the University Gold Medal for securing the

highest mark in that examination.

In 1 946, Biswamoy Biswas obtained a research

scholarship of the Government of India for training

in Systematic Zoology at the Zoological Survey of

India. In the following year, he received an Overseas

Scholarship and was sent abroad for three years to

study the systematics of birds, specially the birds of

Nepal, at the British Museum (Natural History),

London, and the American Museum of Natural

History, New York. At the latter Museum, he worked

under the direct guidance of Dr. Ernst Mayr, a

celebrity of modern Systematic Zoology, and Curator

of the Whitney-Rothchild Collection and Alexander

Agassi, Professor of Zoology, Harvard University.

As a result of his painstaking work in these museums,

Biswamoy Biswas could prepare a ‘ Checklist of

genera of Indian birds’. The manuscript of the

‘Checklist’ impressed Dr. Mayr so deeply that he

readily agreed to write the foreward of this

authoritative list which on publication produced a

tremendous impact on progressive avian taxonomists

working on birds of India and adjacent areas.

On his return from abroad, Biswamoy Biswas

was appointed as the Officer-in-Charge of the Bird

& Mammal Section of the Zoological Survey of

India. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 1952, under

the guidance of Dr. J.L. Bhaduri of the University of

Calcutta. He retired from active Government Service

as Joint Director, Zoological Survey of India, in July

1981. However, his association with the Z.S.I.

continued as Emeritus Scientist (from 19 September

1981 to 18 September 1986) during which period

he mainly worked on the birds of Bhutan (jointly

with Drs. Salim Ali and Sydney Dillon Ripley).

His last days were devoted primarily to seeing this

work through the press.

It is difficult to enumerate the multifarious

contributions of Biswamoy Biswas, more so to make

an attempt to assess them here. Introvert as he was,

Biswamoy Biswas was an ardent field worker,

serious researcher and a great teacher who used to

mould his students and junior colleagues without

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92

Plate

Dr. Biswamoy Biswas (1923-1994).

OBITUARY

399

they being conscious of the process.

Biswamoy Biswas “initials (BB)” became

synonymous with ‘Birdman Biswas’ among his close

associates. Indeed, he was basically an ornithologist

in the true sense of the term. In the early part of his

research career, he worked on the comparative

morphology of certain avian organs, specially of the

arterial arches, but later on concentrated mainly on

the taxonomy, zoogeography, ecology and

conservation of birds of the Indian sub-continent.

He also made significant contributions (jointly with

his mammalogist colleagues) in taxonomy and

zoogeography of mammals of that area. His

involvement in the conservation of wildlife in India

was total. He was associated with the Indian Board

for Wild Life, its Bird Wing as also with the West

Bengal State Board for Wild Life since their

inception in 1952. He regularly advised on revisions

of the Schedules of the Game Laws and subsequently

of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, as also of

the various sections of the Act. He took part in the

revisions of the Appendices of CITES for the fixation

of quota for export of live birds, etc., from India. Dr.

Biswas was responsible for writing reports of Indian

National Section for the International Council for

Bird Preservation as also the National Report on the

Indian Wetlands (Waterfowl). He made sincere

efforts and fervent plea for establishing a bird

sanctuary in a portion of the Salt Lakes when the

vast marshy area on the eastern fringe of Calcutta

was being filled up to develop land for the township

now known by that name. He took very active part

in getting the Narendrapur Wildlife Sanctuary (near

Calcutta) declared.

A hard taskmaster and a meticulous scrutinizer,

Dr. B. Biswas was a teacher to many students who

got their Ph.D. degrees under his direct supervision,

but many more received his counselling and guidance

which mostly went unrecognised.

He made innumerable corrections to improve

the quality of countless scientific papers and

desertations, be they for publication or for

submission for degrees, not only in his own field of

specialization but also in other disciplines of

Zoology. He also reviewed practically every

comprehensive publication on the birds and

mammals of the Indian subcontinent. During the

sixth decade of the present century, Dr. Biswas was

conducting weekly field work when he could

personally train a band of young workers in Field

Ornithology vis-a-vis Field Zoology, most of whom,

in later period, took leading parts in different types

of survey-related programmes of the ZSI.

Dr. B. Biswas was a serious field Zoologist. A

bachelor as he was, he had no difficulty in staying in

the field for a substantial period of his service career,

making exact observation^ and collecting every

possible species of birds and mammals, besides other

groups of animals. The concept of ecosystem-

oriented field survey was not familiar in India during

the earlier part of his service career. He, however,

planned his field work in such a way that he could

cover montane, desert, dry deciduous forest and

moist evergreen forest ecosystems. Due to his

experience in the central Himalaya, Dr. Biswas was

attached to the ‘Daily Mail’ Himalayan Expedition,

1954, in quest of the abominable snowman or Yeti in

the Mount Everest region. He conducted field work

in Jammu & Kashmir, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya

Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, West Bengal, Sikkim and

Assam in the present Indian Union, and in the

adjoining countries of Nepal and Bhutan. He visited

these states on more than one occasions, while he

carried out comprehensive ornithological surveys in

Rajasthan, Sikkim, Nepal and Bhutan. His

unpublished field records can act as an ideal guide,

how serious field work should be conducted and

observations recorded.

Dr. B. Biswas was never eager for honours and

awards, even averse to these. However, the Asiatic

Society of Bengal honoured him with Joy Gobind

Law Memorial Medal in 1975, for his contributions

to Indian Zoology. One of his junior colleagues paid

tributes to his mentor by naming a new genus of

mammal (a rare find these days), Bisxvamoyopterus,

after him. Dr. Biswas was an honorary Research

Associate, Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell

University, Ithaca, USA, since 1963.

Dr. Biswamoy Biswas was a member of the

International Committee of the International

400

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Ornithological Congress since 1958. He attended

several sessions of IOG and World Conferences on

International Council for Bird Preservation. As a

member of the Indian Zoological Delegation, he

visited the erstwhile USSR, in 1963.

Dr. B. Biswas conducted two projects

sponsored by outside bodies. The work on the project

on ‘Migratory birds’, sponsored by the World Health

Organization — Bombay Natural History Society,

was carried out (during 1964 to 1970) in the vicinity

of Calcutta, initially with the help of mist nets and

bird rings supplied by the Bombay Natural History

Society. Later on, as a result of his special efforts,

the Zoological Survey of India could procure its own

stock of mist nets and rings, for this project. The

other project, ‘Lesser Cat Survey’ was sponsored

by the World Wildlife Fund — India and was carried

out in nothern West Bengal and Sikkim, during 1981

— 1984.

Dr. B. Biswas, though a devoted researcher,

was never a prolific writer. In publishing scientific

articles, he preferred quality, rather than quantity.

He was, therefore, often criticised for the alleged

‘small number’ of publications. During the five

decades of his research career, he authored

eightythree papers, most of which were written by

himself alone. In some papers, which were the

outcome of his joint official assignments and/or in

which he contributed substantially, he shared the

authorship with his colleagues and associates. The

number of his publications could have easily

increased several times had he agreed to accept joint

authorship of papers whose initial drafts he corrected

meticulously, often repeatedly. When a Ph.D. thesis

is published in parts as separate scientific articles,

the guide of the thesis, as per general practice,

automaticlly becomes one of the authors of such

papers. Dr. Biswas never agreed to such proposals

and vehemently opposed them.

Dr. Biswas not only worked for science but

also had a true scientific temperament. He always

helped and encouraged young workers whoever

came to him. His zeal for scientific persuit made him

to donate parts of his savings to two different

scientific organisations. He even donated his mortal

body to medical students. The philanthropic faculty

in him compelled him to donate a portion of his

savings to a Cancer Welfare Centre.

List of publications

Dr. Biswamoy Biswas

(1) 1 945. The main cervical and thoracic arteries of birds. Series

1 . Coraciiformes, part 1 . Proc. natn. Inst. Sci. India

II: 236-245, 5 text-figs. (Jointly with Dr. J.L.

Bhaduri).

(2) 1946. A case of persistence of the left systemic arch in a

Weaver Bird, Ploceus philippinus philippinus (Linne).

Curr. Sci. 15: 309-311, 3 text- figs.

(3) 1 947. Caeca of some Indian birds. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

46: 645-649, 1 text-fig. (Jointly with Dr. J.L. Bhaduri).

(4) 1947. On the cervical and thoracic arteries in the Northern

Indian Green Barbet, Thereiceryx zeylanicus caniceps

(Franklin), together with an anomalous case of

reversal of the internal carotid artery. Rec. Indian Mus.

45: 207-211, I text-fig. (Jointly with Dr J.L. Bhaduri).

(5) 1947. Notes on a collection of birds from the Darrang

district, Assam. Rec. Indian Mus. 45: 225-244, 1 map,

1 text-fig.

(6) 1947. On a collection of birds from Rajputana. Rec. Indian

Mus. 45: 245-265, 1 map.

(7) 1949. The Himalayan races of the Nutcracker, Nucifraga

caryocatactes (Linne) (Aves). J. zool. Soc. India 2:

26.

(8) 1950. The generic limits of Treron Vieillot. Bull. Br. orn.

Cl. 70: 34.

(9) 1950. On the taxonomy of some Asiatic Pygmy

Woodpeckers. Proc. zool. Soc. Beng. 3: 1-37, 1 map,

1 text-fig.

(10) 1950. On the Shrike, Lanius tephronotus (Vigors), with

remarks on the erythronotus and tricolor groups of

Lanius schach Linne, and their hybrids. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 444-455, 1 map.

(11) 1951. Revisions of Indian birds. Am. Mus. Novit. No. 1500:

1-12, 1 map.

(12) 1951. A new race of the Ground-Thrush, Turdus citrinus

(Aves: Turdidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 66 1 -

662.

(13) 1951. Notes on the taxonomic status of the Indian Plaintive

Cuckoo, Cuculus passerinus Vahl. Ibis 93: 596-598.

(14) 1951. On some larger Spine-tailed Swifts, with the

description of a new subspecies from Nepal. Ardea

39: 318-321, 1 pi.

(15) 1952. Geographical variation in the Woodpecker Pic us

flavinucha Gould. Ibis 94: 210-219, 1 map.

( 1 6) 1 953. A checklist of genera of Indian birds. Rec. Indian Mus.

50: 1-62.

17) 1953. Review of ‘Some game birds of West Africa — By

W.A. Fairbaim’. Sci. Cult. 19: 50.

OBITUARY

401

( 18) 1954. The main cervical and thoracic arteries of birds. Series

2. Columbiformes, Columbidae, Part 1 . Anat. Anz. WO :

337-350, 4 text-figs. (Jointly with Dr. J.L. Bhaduri).

(19) 1954. Review of ‘Primates: Comparative anatomy and

taxonomy — By W.C. Osman Hill’. Curr. Si. 23: 305-

306.

(20) 1955. Zoological results of the ‘Daily Mail’ Himalayan

Expedition 1954. Four new mammals from Khumbu,

eastern Nepal. Proc. z.ool. Soc. 8: 25-30. (Jointly with

Shri H. Khajuria).

(21) 1 955. Review of ‘The birds of Travancore & Cochin — by

Salim Ali’. J. Bombay nut. Hist. Soc. 52: 573-575.

(22) (1955). Zoological results of the ‘Daily Mail’ Himalayan

Expedition 1954. Two new birds from Khumbu,

eastern Nepal. Bull. Br. orn. Cl. 75: 87-88.

(23) 1955. Review of ‘The book of Indian birds — By Salim

Ali’. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 117-11 8.

(24) 1956. Some zoological problems associated with high

altitudes of the Himalayas. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

53: 374-380, 1 map.

(25) 1956. A large Indian Kite, Milvus mi grans lineatus (Gray),

with a split bill. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 474-

475, 1 text-fig.

(26) 1957. The arterial system of the domestic pigeon (Columba

livia Gmelin). Anat. Anz. J04: 1-14, 7 text-figs.

(Jointly with Dr. J. L. Bhaduri).

(27) 1957. Zoological results of the ‘Daily Mail’ Himalayan

Expedition, 1954. Notes on some mammals of

Khumbu, eastern Nepal. Proc. z.ool. Soc., Mookerjee

Memor. Vol., pp. 229-253, 2 pis, 5 text-figs, 1 map.

(Jointly with Shri H. Khajuria).

(28) 1959. Taxonomic status of the Blood Pheasants of Nepal

and Sikkim. J. z.ool. Soc. India JO: 100-101, 1 pi.

(29) 1959. A note on the correct zoological name of the Indian

Little Green Heron (Aves, Ardeidae). Curr. Sci. 28:

288.

(30) 1959. On the validity of Harpactes erythrocephalus

hodgsoni Gould (Aves; Trogonidae). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 56: 336-338.

(31) 1959. A checklist of genera of Indian birds: Additions and

corrections. Rec. Indian Mus. 54: 101-106.

(32) 1960. On the parakeet Psittacula intermedia (Rothschild)

(Aves: Psittacidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56: 558-

562.

(33) 1960. A new name for the Himalayan Red-winged Shrike-

Babbler, Pteruthius. Bull. Br. orn. Cl. 80: 106.

(34) 1960. The birds of Nepal, part 1 . J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

57: 278-308, 1 map.

(35) 1961. The birds of Nepal, part 2. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

57: 516-546.

(36) 1961. Some cases of ovarian abnormalities in birds. Sci. Cult.

27: 254-256, 1 text-fig.

(37) 1961. Proposal to designate a neotype for Corvus

benghalensis Linnaeus, 1758 (Aves), under the Plenary

Powers. Bull, z.ool. Nomencl. 18: 217-219, 1 pi.

(38) 1961 . The birds of Nepal, part 3. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

58: 100-134.

(39) 1961 . Further notes on the shrikes Lanius tephronotus and

Lanins schach. Ibis 104: 112-115, 1 text-fig.

(40) 1962. The birds of Nepal, part 4. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

58: 441-474, 2 text-figs.

(41) 1962. The birds of Nepal, part 5. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

58: 653-677.

(42) 1962. Mountain Fauna. In: B.G. Verghese (ed.): Himalayan

Endeavour. Times of India, Bombay, 142-149, I pi.

(43) 1962. The birds of Nepal, part 6. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

59: 200-227.

(44) 1962. Review of ‘A synopsis of the birds of India and

Pakistan — By S.D. Ripley IT. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 59: 277-278.

(45) 1963. The birds of Nepal, part 7. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

59: 405-429.

(46) 1963. The birds of Nepal, part 8. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

59:807-821.

(47) 1963. The birds of Nepal, part 9. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

60: 173-200.

(48) 1963. Endangered species in India: Report of the Indian

National Section, I.C.B.P. IX Bull. int. Counc. Bird

Presery : 86-88.

(49) 1964. The birds of Nepal, part 10. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

60: 388-399.

(50) 1964. Additions to J.R. Ellerman’s volume on Mammalia

(2nd edn), Vol. 3, Rodentia, in the ‘Fauna of India’

series. In J.R. Ellerman: Fauna of India Mammalia

3 (Rodentia), part 2: 851-867. (Jointly with Dr. M.L.

Roonwal).

(51) 1 964. The birds of Nepal, part 11.7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

60: 679-687.

(52) 1964. Comments on Ripley’s ‘A synopsis of the birds of

India and Pakistan’. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60:

679-687.

(53) 1964. An instance of testicular abnormality in a bird. Sci.

Cult. 30: 559-560, 1 text-fig.

(54) 1965. Birds of the Salt Lakes. The Statesman, Calcutta, 1

April, 1965.

(55) 1965. The main thoracic and cervical arteries of the

Flamingo, Phoenicopterus roseus Pallas. Proc. zool.

Soc. 18: 167-172, 1 text-fig. (Jointly with Drs. J.L.

Bhaduri and A. De).

(56) 1966. The main thoracic and cervical arteries of birds. Series

2. Columbiformes, Columbidae, part 2. Anat. Anz.

119: 36-56, 7 text-figs. (Jointly with Drs. J.L. Bhaduri

and A. De).

(57) 1966. A plea for a bird sanctuary in the Salt Lakes. Proc.

Symp. W. Bengal For. Centenary: 295-297, 1 map.

(58) 1967. The birds of Nepal, part 12. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

63: 365-377, 4 pis., 5 text-figs.

(59) 1967. Authorship of he name Presbytis geei (Mammalia:

Primates). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63: 429-431.

(60) 1967. ‘Zoological Survey of India’ (In Bengali). Bharat-

Kosh 3: 530-531.

(61) 1 968. The female Moles worth’s Tragopan, Tragopan blythi

402

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

molesworthi Baker. J. Bombay nut. Hist. Soc. 65: 216-

217, 1 col. pi.

(62) 1968. Comments on ‘ Cettia montana versus Cettia fortipes

(Aves: Sylviinae) by Allen R. Phillips’. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 224.

(63) 1968. Review of ‘A book of Indian animals — By S.H.

Prater (2nd end)’. Sci. Cult. 33: 334-336.

(64) 1968. A new name for the Khumbu House Mouse. Sci. Cult.

34: 218. (Jointly with Shri H. Khajuria).

(65) 1968. New records of mammals from Rajasthan, India. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 48 1 -482. (Jointly with Shri

R. K. Ghosh).

(66) 1969. New records of birds from Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 65: 782-784.

(67) 1969. Review of ‘Handbook of the birds of India and

Pakistan, Vol. 1 — By Salim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley’.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 152-154.

(68) 1969. Taxonomy and distribution of Indian rodents. Indian

Rodent Symposium 1964, John Hopkins Univ.,

C.M.R.T., 9-45, 22 maps. (Jointly with Dr. K.K.

Tiwari).

(69) 1969. Review of ‘Birds of Kerala — By Salim Ali’. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 372-373.

(70) 1969. Reivew of ‘Jahangir — the naturalist. By M.A. Alvi

and A. Rahman’. The Sunday Statesman, Calcutta,

12 October, 1969.

(71) 1970. Taxonomic notes on the Indian Pale Hedgehogs of

the genus Paraechinus Trouessart, with descriptions

of a new species and subspecies. Mammalia 34: 467-

477, 1 text-fig. (Jointly with Shri R.K. Ghosh).

(72) 1970. ‘Pakhi’ (In Bengali). Bharat-Kosh 4: 340-341.

(73) 1971. ‘Zoology’. In: D.M. Bose fed.): A concise history of

science in India, Indian Natn. Sci. Acad., New Delhi,

403-444, 3 pis. ( 1 col.), 1 2 text-figs. (Jointly with Drs.

J.L. Bhaduri & K.K. Tiwari).

(74) 1971 . Notes on some interesting birds from the Salt Lakes,

near Calcutta, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68: 455-457,

2 pis. (Jointly with Sarvashri S.S. Saha, P.V. George,

D.K. Ghosal, H.P. Mukherjee, A.K. Poddar, R.K.

Ghose, P.K. Das & V.G. Gogate).

(75) 1971. Report of the Indian National Section, l.C.B.P. X/ Bull.

int. Counc. Bird Preserv. : 238.

(76) 1972. Review of ‘Handbook of the birds of India and

Pakistan, Vol. 6 — By Salim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley’.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 400-401.

(77) 1974. National report on Indian wetlands. Proc. int. Conf.

Conserv. Wetlands Waterfowl, Heiligenhafen (FRG),

108-109.

(78) 1976. Wild oxen, sheep and goats. Wealth of India, C.S.I.R.,

New Delhi, 10: 575-578.

(79) 1976. (1974) Zoological results of the ‘Daily Mail’

Himalayan Expedition 1954. Notes on some birds of

eastern Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71:

(Festschrift vol.): 456-495.

(80) 1979. (1978) Review of ‘Field guide to the birds of eastern

Himalaya by Salim Ali’. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

75: 915-916.

(81) 1986. ‘Classification’, ‘Endemism’, ‘Geographical

distribution.’ In: R.E. Hawkins (ed.): Encyclopedia

of Indian Natural History, Oxford University Press,

Calcutta, 109-1 10, 199, 266-268, 2 text-figs. (Jointly

with Dr. K.K. Tiwari).

(82) 1988. Importance of proper labelling of mammalian

specimens. In: Management of mammal collection in

tropical environment. Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta, 189-202, 1 text-fig. (Jointly with Shri P.K.

Das).

(83) (In press). The birds of Bhutan. Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta. (Jointly with Drs. Salim Ali and S.D.

Ripley).

P.K. DAS

REVIEWS

1. ORNITHOLOGY OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT 1872-1992. An Annotated

Bibliography. By Charles G. Burg, Bruce M. Beehler, and S. Dillon Ripley, pp. 330 (27.5

x 21 cm). Washington, D.C., 1994. National Museum of Natural History. Price $ 20.00

In India no other group of wildlife has a larger

following than birds. Birds have been studied in India

for over a century and quarter and the interest still

continues unabated.

This excellent Bibliography is most

opportune to both the professional and amateur

ornithologist interested in the Avifauna of the

Subcontinent.

The Bibliography was ten years in the making

and contains approximately 6000 references on

Indian birds published since the year 1872 when

Hume published the first issue of “ Stray Feathers ”.

The reviewer would have liked the starting date be

that of the publication of Jerdons, birds of india when

the information on Indian Avifauna was first

consolidated.

The Citations are arranged alphabetically

according to the author’s surname and the majority

of the entries are briefly annotated enabling the

reader to understand their content. An integrated

index under four major keys of avian genera, avian

families, geographic localities and topics of interest

makes for easy reference.

This is an indispensable reference for any

serious study on the avifauna of the Indian

Subcontinent.

J.C. DANIEL

2. MAMMALS OF THE THAR DESERT. By Ishwar Prakash. pp. 124 (21.5 x 14 cm),

with many illustrations. Jodhpur, 1994. Scientific Publishers. Price not mentioned.

This handy little book introduces the mammals

of the Thar Desert region of Rajasthan. It is largely

meant for the non-zoologist and provides simple

descriptions of appearance, colour, size, distribution

in the Thar Desert and elsewhere, of its mammal

fauna with brief notes on behaviour and habits.

Fortysix species are described though all the

species are not strictly desert forms and either exist

on the fringe forests of the true desert or once

inhabited the desert or its immediate neighbourhood.

The Lion, Cheetah and the wild Ass are animals of

this category.

The book has an introductory chapter on the Thar

Desert and general notes on mammals. This is

followed by the description of individual species,

their distribution, habits and behaviour.

Each species has been illustrated, the sketches are

in the majority of cases adequate, especially where

the illustrator apparently had reference material.

Otherwise the animals have been the subject of

considerable artistic licence, notably the tiger.

A useful book especially for children helping

them to familiarise themselves with the mammals

of the region. One wishes that sufficient attention

had been paid to proof reading.

J.C. DANIEL

3. A HANDBOOK OF THE ANGLADE

SHEMBAGANUR. 2nd Revised Edition. B

with eight plates, and four maps. Tiruchirapal

College. Price R. 32/-; £ 2/-; $ 3/.

The Jesuits came to the Kodaikanal Hills in 1 877

and eight years later had established a training

institute, the Sacred Heart College at Shembaganur

which was to become a centre of excellence in

INSTITUTE OF NATURAL HISTORY,

K.M. Mathew, pp. x + 1 55 (2 1 .5 x 1 4 cm),

i, 1994. the Rapinat Herbarium, St. Joseph’s

scholarship, and research in natural history, among

other things.

The pursuit of Natural History resulted in the

building of collections of the fauna and flora and

404

JOURNAL. ROM BAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 92 ( 1995)

eventually of the constitution of the Anglade Institute

of Natural History at Shembaganur.

The Handbook covers the resources available at

the Institute on the Anthropology, Fauna,

Handicrafts, Herbarium, Arboretum, Fernery,

Ochidarium and Library.

One section is devoted to the very active

environment education division, afforestation, and

the activities of the Palni hills Conservation Council

which has done sterling work in the preservation of

what is left of the depleted natural resources of the

Palni Hills.

A section on Kodaikanal gives details of the Hill

station and what it offers to the nature lover.

Appendices list the material resources available

at the Institute.

A very useful Handbook on the natural history of

the Palni hills.

J.C. DANIEL

4. ELEPHANT DAYS & NIGHTS. By Raman Sukumar. pp. xvi + 184 (24 x 16 cm), with

many black and white photographs. Delhi, 1994. Oxford University Press. Price Rs. 375/-.

The Asian Elephant has its largest extant

population in India. Curiously though, while

scientific studies had been made on the Elephant in

Sri Lanka and Malaysia, the information on the

elephant in India was limited to natural history notes.

Sukumar’s study, which was published as The

Asian Elephant Ecology and Management by

Cambridge University Press in 1989 was the first

scientific assessment of the Asian Elephant in the

Indian Subcontinent.

Since then Sukumar has continued his interest in

the conservation of the elephant.

In this book he describes the story of his

involvement with elephants from the time he

started as a student 1980 to the present day

when as Vice-Chairman of the Asian Elephant,

he is able to contribute substantially to their

conservation.

A very readable account indeed of the family life,

reproduction, social organisation, conflict with man

and other aspects of the life history of India’s most

fascinating animal.

J.C. DANIEL

5. NOMENCLATURE OF BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT. By Aasheesh

Pittie and Andrew Robertson, pp. vi + 106 (18 x 12 cm). Bangalore, 1993. Ornithological

Society of India. Price Rs. 25/-.

The classification of birds undergoes periodic

upheavals. Those who are familiar with fauna

volumes in the Fauna of India series from the time

of Blanford and Oates, and ECS Stuart Baker and

lately S. Dillon Ripley would appreciate the turmoil.

The latest addition to avian systematics is

Distribution and Taxonomy of the birds of the World

by C.G. Sibley and B.L. Monroe which is based on

assessment of affinities on the basis of DNA bonds

of the species. This classification was adopted as the

basis for discussion by the International

Ornithological Congress at their meeting in 1990.

In this Booklet the authors have listed the species

of the Indian Avifauna in the order in which they

appear in the new classification and for easy

reference have given the Ripley’s synopsis number

to relate the species to earlier literature.

Present affinities and changes if any have been

indicated. While uniformity is essential in scientific

nomenclature, one finds it hard to accept it in the

case of common names, particularly when names

which have been in use for over a century are

replaced by names which seem somewhat ridiculous.

For instance Flameback for Goldenbacked

Woodpecker! If standardisation is needed, the

guiding principle should be to use the oldest extant

name as one does in the case of scientific names.

The book is highly commended and is a necessary

buy for all those who wish to keep in touch with

current developments in ornithological

nomenclature.

J.C. DANIEL

REVIEWS

405

6. CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF ASSAM. By Anwaruddin Choudhury. pp. 72

(21.5 x 16.5 cm), with many illustrations. Guwahad, 1990. Sofia Press and Publishers

Pvt. Ltd. Price Rs. 150.00, US $ 15.00 & £ 10.00.

Here is another checklist which contains 945

species and subspecies and the figure is compared

to 540 in my Checklist of Maharashtra. This appears

to be extraordinarily high, particulary as the author

does not appear to have had access to a reference

collection but was dependent entirely on published

literature. A cursory examination reveals that he has

referred to 3 subspecies of the Spotted Dove

(Streptopelia chinensis) suratensis, tigrina and

edwardi as resident in Assam. It is possible that more

than one occurs in the area but only one can be

resident. I must confess that in several instances I

have included more than one subspecies from Assam

but it is unlikely that both are resident. This confusion

is probably due to the absence of the detailed

literature, a reference collection, and a proper

understanding of the subspecies.

The sketches in the text are excellent and the

fact that it has a hardboard cover add to its value,

but the prices mentioned above certainly appear to

be very high.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

7. RECENT ADVANCES IN FISH ECOLOGY, LIMNOLOGY AND

ECO-CONSERVATION. Vol. III. Editor-in-Chief Surendra Nath. pp. 131 (23.5x15.5

cm), with some illustrations. Delhi, 1994. Daya Publishing House. Price Rs. 280/-.

In the absence of the first two volumes, the reviewer

was impressed by the title of the slim 3rd volume. It

was only on glancing at the contents did it become

clear that it was a convenient outlet for a few authors

who could publish their work without having to

undergo the hassles of submitting their manuscripts to

a regular journal and have to take the risk of rejection

slips, curtailment, etc. Out of the 16 contributions in

the present volume, as many as 7 are of an “inner circle”

of S.M. Das and 4 by the editor-in-chief. The

geographic locations where the work was carried out

are limited to Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal

Pradesh (with one stray exception of Nepal), and range

from the mediocre (contribution no. 4) to other, better

ones. The intention to bring out a volume every year

has not been fulfilled, as the first volume appeared in

1988, the second only in 1992, and the present one is

dated 1994.

The first contribution deals with the status,

ecology and behaviour of fishes of Arun river in

Nepal. It is well presented, but I was amused by the

usage by the author of the words “remote sensing”,

which sounded really impressive until I realised that

what the author calls “remote sensing” is actually

the watching of fishes by using polarised spectacles!

The framing of the following sentence (p. 25) is

faulty: “Fish population existing in the dam site will

be depleted due to the barrier effects of dam and

dewatering effects of water release in dry period is

essential.” Some more (insignificant) mistakes:

Pages 2 and 25: fish fries (instead of “fry”), page

23: jigged and wound (should be “wounded”).

The second contribution on the physical ecology

of four lakes of Kumaon is a crisp, highly

summarised one, and is a pleasant relief from the

long, rambling discourses usually written by the

author.

The two contributions by Massey cannot fit in

with the subjects indicated in the title of the book

(viz. ecology, limnology and eco-conservation), as

one of them deals with Weberian ossicles, and the

other with preparation of micro-bone structures.

These two, however, will be useful to the student of

fish anatomy.

Several contributions — fishes of Tehri-Garhwal,

status of mahseer in the Himalayas, feeding and

spawning ecology of fishes of Jammu, and fish ponds

in Ladakh will be useful to biologists living in the

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Voi 92 (1995)

plains who wish to keep in touch with topics on high-

altitude fishes.

The last three contributions — Nanda Devi

sanctuary — now a national park; biomass —

problems and remedies; is Nainital lake dying-

problems and remedies (all by S.M. Das) arc more

in the nature of review articles or recommendations

by a conservation activist rather than original

research work. A few excerpts; poachers should be

heavily penalised and their baggage searched,

impurities in water should be coagulated by alum,

and sundry suggestions of like manner. Nor is the

contribution “A simple method of water purification

by reeds and rushes” based on the writer’s original

research. It is simply a re-hash of the method used

in Australia and Germany. It would be very useful

in the extension newsletters issued by government

and NGOs to rural farmers, but does not fit in a book

with the present title.

Finally, the editor’s statement about incorporation '

of “original research work being conducted in

various foreign universities” is substantiated by the

solitary piece from Nepal, as the remaining 15

contributions are all by Indians.

B.F. CHHAPGAR

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . PANTHERS EATING WATER-MELONS

Two instances have been brought to my notice

last year of Panthers eating water-melons in summer.

Both these cases were reported from the vicinity of

the Vansda National Park in Valsad District in South

Gujarat, The first incident was reported to me by

a Forest Official who said he had spotted panthers

eating water-melons which were grown in a

river bed. In the second instance it was a pair

of panthers which, in the course of one night,

destroyed over sixty water melons in a field near the

river.

Cases of lions eating the “Tsama” melons in the

Kalahari desert of Africa have been reported by

Guggisberg as mentioned by Mr. M.A. Rashid on

p. 78 of his book “The Asiatic Lion”.

It would be interesting to know if any one has

observed similar cases concerning any of the big or

small wild cats in India.

September 2, 1 994 DIGVEERENDRASINH

“Digvir Nivas ”, Vansda-396 580,

Dist. Valsad, Gujarat State.

2. OCCURRENCE OF THE RUSTY SPOTTED CAT (FEUS RUBIGINOSA)

IN MADHYA PRADESH

I write this to record my sighting of the Rusty

Spotted Cat in Panna District of Madhya Pradesh

on two occasions recently. The first time, we were

motoring down the ghat on the road from Panna to

Ajaigarh at about 9.00 p.m. on 13.09.93 when,

rounding a curve, 1 noticed a cat going off the road

at the lower bend. As we turned onto the road after

negotiating the curve, we saw it coming down the

“Pucca” — built water way from the upper to the

lower road. We stopped the car and it sat down on

the lower end of the water way, about 3 m from us.

I quietly got out of the car with a torch and

approached it'till it was only 2 m away. It sat blinking

and we watched it for nearly 5 minutes. Then a motor

cycle came along and it walked up the same water

way. I regretted that I had not taken along my

camera, as I usually do.

Again, on a recent visit, on 7th July, 1994, I

picked up a dead female of the same species from a

little higher up on the same ghat. It had presumably

been knocked down by some vehicle. This was at

around 2 p.m. in the afternoon. I picked it up and

got it skinned and have handed over the skin and

skull to the B.N.H.S.

This area of the “Panna Ghati” is almost

equidistant from Panna and Ajaigarh, being about

16 km from each town. There is a village called

Vishramganj a kilometer or so from the foot of the

Ghats. I wonder if this species has been recorded

from this area of Madhya Pradesh. I have been

informed by some local persons that they have seen

this cat quite often.

Sterndale has mentioned that in 1859 or 1 860

he had two kittens brought to him by a Gond in the

Seoni district. Panna is situated at Lat. 24° 44’ N. &

Long. 80° 14’ E. Seoni is at Lat. 22° 6' N. & Long.

79° 35' E. at a distance of about 400 km almost south

of Panna.

In Gujarat State, this cat was first recorded by

me around 1 970-72 from the Dangs and Vansda area

and then, in 1990, in the Gir forest by Shri B.J.

Pathak.

It would be interesting to have information

about the occurrence of this cat in other parts of India.

While on the subject of wild cats in India, I have

noticed a rapid decline in the population of the Jungle

Cat (Felis chaus ) in my area and, when discussing

this matter with friends, have gathered that they too

have observed this in other parts of Gujarat also. I

am at a loss to understand why the jungle cat has, in

the very recent past, almost disappeared from areas

where it was quite common. Could it be due to

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vo l. 92 (1995)

trapping for sale of their skins or could it be as a

result of the cats eating rats and other rodents

poisoned by farmers? It would be useful to know

the possible reasons for this decimation in their

numbers and what could be done to arrest their

threatened extinction.

September 2, 1 994 DIGVEERENDRASINH

“Digvir Niwas ” Vansda-396 580,

Dist. Valsad, Gujarat State.

3. FOOD OF THE SLOTH BEAR (MELURSUS URSINUS) IN MUNDANTHURAI

PLATEAU, TAMIL NADU

A short term study was done on the food habits

of sloth bear ( Melursus ursinus) from December

1990 to March 1991 in Mundanthurai-Kalakad Tiger

Reserve, Tamil Nadu. The study was carried out in

Mundanthurai plateau (c. 60 sq. km, 08° 43' N, 76°

37' E) at an altitude of 180-200 m above M.S.L. in

Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (900 sq. km),

South India. The common vegetation in this area

includes riverine forest, dry deciduous forests and

secondary vegetation. The vegetation of the plateau

is dominated by plantations of Ailanthus excelsa,

Bombax ceiba, Eucalyptus, Santalum album and

Tectona grandis. Common tree species in the plateau

are Chloroxylon swietenia. Erythroxylon

monogynum, Tectona grandis, Dalbergia latifolia.

Aglaia roxburghiana is common all along the

riverine forests of Thambiraparani and Servalar.

Density of tree species was estimated from belt

transects of 1 00 m length and 20 m width. Variables

such as number of individuals and their diameter at

breast height (G.B.H. cm) were recorded. Shannon and

Wiener index (H’) was calculated to estimate diversity

of fruit trees in each transect area. Dietary composition

was studied by examining scats as suggested by

Landers et al. ( 1 979) and Maer and Brady ( 1984). Fresh

scats were collected on a monthly basis from game

roads such as Karayar (6 km), Puckle’s Path (3 km),

Thulukkamottai (8 km), Gowthalayar (7 km), and

Banatheertham (16 km). Entire scats were preserved

in 10% formalin and washed through a wire mesh and

various food particles such as seed remains of fruits,

ants, termites and other materials were identified and

weighed separately after oven drying. The per cent

occurrence (number of scats in which a specific food

item occurred/total number of scats) and per cent dry

weight (dry weight of specific food item in all scats

together/total dry weight of all food items for each

scat separately) were estimated for each food item.

Density of food tree species (fruit bearing

trees) of sloth bear indicated that one or two species

have contributed more than 75% of the overall trees

in each transect area. This shows uniform distribution

of fruit trees in the plateau vegetation. The diversity

(H’) of fruit trees was slightly higher in Karayar and

Puckle’s Path and remaining areas had almost similar

diversity values (Table 1). Highly edible fruit species

such as Grewia spp. is widely distributed in all

transects while Aglaia roxburghiana was restricted

to Gowthalair transect.

A total of 1 1 1 scats were collected from the 5

game roads totalling 40 km in length (Table 2). Food

remains of plant and animal matter were recorded

from the scats. The animal material comprised

74.55% followed by 25.55% of fruit remains of the

total dry weight. Plant species representing trees (3

species), shrub (1 species) and grasses were recorded

from the scats. Among the plant remains Aglaia

roxburghiana alone contributed 11.93% of the dry

weight though its occurrence (5.4%) was less than

that of Ficus bengalensis (12.6%). The latter

contributed 5.3% of the total dry weight. The animal

material found in the scats were termites, black and

red ants and beetles. Interestingly termites alone

accounted for 40.5 of the overall diet. The per cent

occurrence of black ants 48.7% was also high.

Beetles comprised of 1 4. 1 % of the dry weight of the

overall diet.

The study showed the ability of the sloth bear

to exploit successfully both animal and plant

resources with regard to their availability. Plant

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

409

Table 1

DENSITY, RELATIVE DENSITY, RELATIVE

PROPORTION AND DIVERSITY INDEX OF FRUIT TREE

SPECIES IN MUNDANTHURAI PLATEAU, TAMIL NADU

H’ — Shannon Wiener index of diversity.

Table 2

THE PER CENT FREQUENCY OCCURRENCE AND %

DRY WEIGHT OF VARIOUS FOOD ITEMS OF SLOTH

BEAR IN MUNDANTHURAI PLATEAU, TAMIL NADU

(N=l 1 1 scats)

matter did not constitute a larger proportion as the

fruiting season had not commenced for many species.

Ripe fruits of Grewia spp. was preferred by sloth

bear in Dr. J. Jayalalitha Wildlife Sanctuary

(Mudumalai) (Baskaran 1990), however, it was not

recorded in the scats possibly as it was the non-

fruiting season. Thus, it may be concluded that the

higher proportion of animal matter in the diet may

be related to the non-availability of fleshy fruits for

the bear during the study period. Earlier studies by

Laurie and Seidensticker ( 1 977) and Baskaran ( 1 990)

have reported the importance of fleshy fruits to the

sloth bear in the Royal Chitawan National Park,

Nepal and in the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,

Tamil Nadu respectively. However, occurrence of

more animal matter in the scats during the spring

was also reported by Laurie and Seidensticker

(1977). It needs to be pointed out that although the

study corresponded with non- fruiting season of many

plant species in the Mundanthurai Plateau, fruits

formed a substantial portion of the diet revealing their

importance to the sloth bear.

410

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY. Vot. 92 ( 1995)

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, SACON for providing

facilities to prepare this paper. Our sincere thanks to

the Tamil Nadu Forest Department for all logistic

support during V.G’s stay at Mundanthurai. Dr. Ajith

Kumar is thanked for his comments on the

manuscript.

Refer

Baskaran, N. (1990): An ecological investigation on the dietary

composition and habitat utilization of Sloth bear

( Melursus ursinus) at Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary,

Tamil Nadu, M.Phil. dissertation, A.V.C. College,

Mannampandal, Tamil Nadu.

Landers, J.L.. R.J. Hamilton, A.S. Johnson & R.L. Marchinton

(1979): Food habits of Black bears in Southeastern North

October 18, 1994 V. GOKULA

N. SIVAGANESAN

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and

Natural History, Coimbatore-64 1 0 J 0.

M. VARADARAJAN

Department of Wildlife Biology,

A.V.C. College, Mannampandal,

Mayiladuthurai, Tamil Nadu.

ENCES

Carolina. J.Wildl. Manage 43: 143-153.

Laurie, A. & J. Seidensticker (1977): Behavioural ecology of

Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus). J. Zool. Land. 102: 1 87-

204.

Maehr, D.S. & J.R. Brady (1984): Food habits of Florida black

bears in Montana, hit. Conjf., Bear Res. and Manage 6:

105-110.

4. THE RATEL {MELLIVORA CAPENSIS ) IN NORTH MADHYA PRADESH

In the last two years, the reports of sighting of

ratel ( Mellivora capensis) in the forests of Kuno-

Palpur Sanctuary and other areas south of river

Chambal in Morena district in north Madhya Pradesh

have been coming to notice. But in almost all the

cases the reporters were not sure about the identity

of the animal.

Recently, a ratel entered a house in the village

Barvan in the tehsil Kailaras of Morena district.

Villagers, seeing a strange and ferocious animal, beat

it with lathis. They captured the seriously injured

ratel and handed it over to the forest officials of Deori

Gharial Project on 4 August 1994. As there were

serious head and neck injuries, it was not safe to

release the ratel into the wild. Consequently, it was

given to Gwalior Zoo on 6 August 1994. The place

where it was caught has a ratel’s typically preferred

habitat of broken undulating country where shelter

is easy to find.

A month earlier, another ratel was captured

near Deori in the same district. It was released in the

wild. These incidences confirm the presence of ratel

in north Madhya Pradesh.

February 22, 1995 RAJIV SAXENA

MIG-853, Darpan Colony,

Thatipur, Gwalior-47401 1 ( M.P. ).

5. SIGHTING OF INDIAN TREE SHREW ANATHANA ELLIOTI AT BORI WILDLIFE

SANCTUARY, HOSHANGABAD DISTRICT, MADHYA PRADESH

Independent sightings of the Indian Tree

Shrew were recorded at Bori Wildlife Sanctuary (22°

19' 28" to 22° 30’ 10" N. latitude and IT 56' 44" to

78° 20' 40" E. longitude), during the period February-

June 1993. Anathana ellioti has three distinct

populations in India. The distribution of A.E.

wroughtoni is localised and confined to the Satpura

range and a northern part of the Western Ghats.

The animal was sighted on five independent

occasions while feeding on the ground. When

alarmed, it instantly raced up a tree trunk

disappearing into the foliage, while on one occasion

the tree shrew sought refuge within a cavity in a

mature teak tree. In four cases, the animal was sighted

in close proximity to a nala or ravine, or actually on

the slope of such a formation. In all instances, the

vegetation type was moist to semi-moist deciduous

forest consisting of Anogeissus/Tectona/Diospyros/

Terminalia associations. Two sightings of the tree

shrew were made in semi-moist deciduous forest

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4 I 1

patches within an overall dry deciduous zone. Such

patches may be located in depressions, where a

compact forest structure and dense top canopy

significantly increases insulation, maintain a humid

microclimate and contribute to conspicuous amounts

of leaf litter and deadwood.

December 21, 1994 R.J. SHRIVASTAVA

G-18/6 DLF, Qulcib Enclave-],

Gurgaon 122002, Haryana.

6. INSTANCE OF A GREY MUSK SHREW ( SUNCUS MURINUS) ATTACKING

A FAT TAILED GECKO ( EUBLEPHAR1S MACULAR/ US)

On January 31, 1994 I bagged a Fat Tailed

Gecko ( Eublepharis niaculcirius ) from Kamalnath

Reserve Forest in Udaipur district. To observe its

behaviour at night I kept the gecko in my residence

at Jhadol in a card board box 45 x 30 x 30 ems in

size. At about 1 O’clock in the night of 11-12

February 1 994, while I was sleeping, I was awakened

by some unusual ‘shrills squeaks’, searched my bed-

room by the light of a torch for the source. There

was nothing unusual. I then went to the kitchen and

scanned the floor. To my great surprise I saw a Grey

Musk Shrew ( S uncus niurinus) attacking the Fat

Tailed Gecko ( Eublepharis macularius) and the noise

was being produced by the gecko. I rushed to the

card board box to check whether it was the bagged

gecko or a new one. The box was empty. Perhaps

the gecko had escaped from the card board box and

had encountered the shrew while wandering around

and was attacked by it.

There is one report of the Grey Musk Shrew

attacking a frog (Sharma, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

88(1): 109. 1991 ). On September 1 , 1 had seen a Grey

Musk Shrew eating a Rana breviceps at Jhadol

in Udaipur district (Unpublished). These

observations suggest that Grey Musk Shrew not

only devours insects but can take large sized

animals also.

August 3 1 , 1 994 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range forest Officer,

Aravcilli Aforestation Project

Jhadol (F.), Distt. Udaipur (Raj.) 313 702.

1. TWIN FOETUSES IN HIPPOSIDEROS SPEORIS (SCHNEIDER)

(With a text-figure)

The present report describes a rare case of twin

foetuses in a specimen of Hippos ideros speoris (Fig.

1). The specimen was one among the 144 bats

collected on 24th April 1992, underneath the gallery

of a lecture hall at Cochin and had two male foetuses,

one in each uterine cornu.

Pregnancy in Hipposideros speoris reportedly

shows a sinistral dominance in majority of the

cases. However, the presence of aconceptus in both

the uterine cornua raises the possibility that, single

oocyte was released by both left and right ovaries

simultaneously. The specimen was in its

final trimester with the foetuses at full-term

stages.

The present case of twins is similar to what

has been reported in Cynopterus sphinx gangeticus

(Moghe 1960) and Megaderma lyrci lyra

(Gopalakrishna et al. 1976) which are -also

monotocous bats.

A. Madhavan wishes to thank the University

Grants Commission and the State Committee on

Science, Technology and Environment; Government

of Kerala, for the financial assistance and for all the

necessary help provided.

March 22, 1995 A. MADHAVAN

Dept, of Zoology, Bharat Mata College,

Cochin-682 021.

DEEPTHI UTHAMAN

D.A. BHIWGADE

Dept, of Zoology, Institute of Science,

Bombay-400 032.

4 1 2

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Fig. I . The dissected specimen of Hipposideros speoris during full — term pregnancy.

The arrows indicate placentae of the twin foetuses with individual umbilical cords in separate horns.

References

Gopalakrishna, A., M.S. Khaparde & V.M. Sapkal (1976): Moghe M.A. (1960): A ease of monozygotic twins in the fruit

Parturition in the Indian false vampire bat Megadermu lyra bat, Cynopterus sphinx gangeticus (Anderson). Bull. Zool.

lyra (Geoffroy). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sac. 73: 363-467. Coll. Sci., Naypur 3: 65-66.

8. OBSERVATIONS ON PALLAS’S SQUIRREL CALLOSCIURUS ERYTHRAEUS PALLAS

AND OTHER SQUIRRELS IN MIZORAM, NORTHEAST INDIA

(With a text-figure)

Introduction

The Pallas’s squirrel Callosciurus erythraeus

occurs in many parts of the Indochinese region

including all the states of northeast India, Sikkim,

and Bhutan (Corbet and Hill 1992). Extensive

information on its taxonomy and distribution in India

are available (Khajuria et al. 1977, Agrawal and

Chakraborty 1979). However, ecological and

behavioural information is lacking, except for some

studies in other countries (Tamura et al. 1988,

Setoguchi 1990). Pallas’s squirrel is not even listed

in the most widely-used mammalian natural history

book in India (Prater 1980). During a recent survey

in the state of Mizoram in northeast India (Mishra et

al 1994), we were able to observe this species in its

natural habitat in Dampa Wildlife Sanctuary. This

report describes its field characteristics, relative

abundance in different successional habitats, and

other general notes on our sightings in the wild.

Similar observations on three other sympatric species

of diurnal squirrel are presented. We hope this

preliminary note will stimulate more detailed studies

on these poorly-known animals in the future.

Study Area

We visited three protected areas in Mizoram:

Dampa Wildlife Sanctuary in western Mirozam,

Murlen National Park and Phawngpui Wildlife

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

413

Sanctuary in eastern Mizoram (Fig. 1). Dampa

Wildlife Sanctuary (23° 20'-23° 47' N, 92° 15'-92°

30' E, area 500 sq. km) is a hilly area along the

Bangladesh border, with the altitude ranging from

200-1 100 m asl. The natural vegetation consists of

tropical wet evergreen forest and moist bamboo

brakes (Anon. 1989). Murlen National Park (c. 23°

64' N., 93° 29' E., area 200 sq. km) and Phawngpui

Wildlife Sanctuary ( c . 22° 62' N., 93° 02' E., area 50

sq. km), occurring at higher altitudes of 1000-2100

m are characterised by semi-evergreen and oak-

Rhododendwn forests. The main occupation of

people in and around these protected areas is shifting

cultivation or jhum. Most of the area within the

sanctuaries has undergone jhum and is presently

covered by bamboo (chiefly Meloccinna

bambusoides).

Chanphar }

-3

M^rtjen NP

Khawngian^

Cji Phawngpui

NP

Fig. I . Map of Mizoram showing protected areas.

Methods

A total distance of 39.5 km was covered on

foot in Dampa Wildlife Sanctuary, where most of

our observations were made, between December 24,

1993 and January 4, 1994. Murlen and Phawngpui

were visited for about three and five days,

respectively, between January 7, and January 18,

1994. Travelling on foot along forest trails we noted,

for each squirrel sighted, the species, number, height

on tree, and successional vegetation type. The

successional stages considered here (after

Ramakrishnan 1992) were simply: almost pure

bamboo forests (c. 5-15 years), secondary forests (of

various ages, with trees > 15 years), and primary

evergreen forests (which have not been j hunted). The

distance covered in each vegetation type was

measured using a pedometer.

Results

Pallas’s squirrel: Field Characters: The field

characters of Pallas’s squirrel observed during

this survey are as follows: the animals were about

25 cm long (head and body) with a tail of about

the same length. The dorsal region, head, face,

and outside of the limbs were black. The ventral

region and insides of the limbs were a rich maroon-

red from the throat downwards. The bushy tail

was black like the back. This description agrees

well with specimens described from Assam,

Meghalaya, and Manipur (Sterndale 1884, Corbet

and Hill 1992).

Observations and Behaviour: Thirteen

individuals of Pallas’s squirrel were seen in Dampa

between December 25 1993 and January 3 1994 in

39.5 km of walks along trails through the forests.

Two of the sightings were of a pair of Pallas’s

squirrels. The remaining nine observations were of

single individuals. Most of the animals were seen in

primary forests, but the encounter rate in secondary

forests was similar (Table 1 ). The animals were seen

at altitudes ranging from 200 m to 1000 m. Pallas’s

squirrel was not seen during our short visit to the

higher altitude eastern sanctuaries (Murlen and

Phawngpui).

The squirrels were seen actively moving in

various vertical layers of the forest, from the trunk

and low lianas to the higher reaches of the canopy

(5-25 m). The animals were shy of humans and

scurried away on detecting our presence. Hence,

4 I 4

JOURNAL. li()M RAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 92 (1995)

Table 1

SIGHTINGS OF SQUIRREL SPECIES IN SUCCESSIONAL HABITATS AND NEAR HUMAN

HABITATION IN DAMPA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, MIZORAM

NA — Not Available.

more detailed observations could not be made. One

squirrel disturbed by us made a harsh, repetitive

greek-a-greek call. Occasionally, loud staccato calls,

reminiscent of Ratufa bicolor but differently pitched,

were heard in the forest, presumably made by this

squirrel.

Other squirrels: Pallas’s squirrel occurs in

Dampa along with at least three other species of

squirrel: the Himalayan hoary-bellied squirrel

( Callosciurus pygerythrus), the Himalayan striped

squirrel (C. mcicclelandii), and the Malayan giant

squirrel ( Ratufa bicolor). Eight individual hoary-

bellied squirrels (mainly in secondary forests and

habitation — Table 1 ) and seven Himalayan striped

squirrels (two solitary individuals in primary forest,

one in secondary forest, and two pairs in secondary

forest) were seen in Dampa. The Malayan giant

squirrel was seen on six occasions and heard twice

exclusively from tall, primary forests. Of these

squirrels, the Himalayan striped and Malayan giant

were also seen in Murlen National Park. In five days

in Phawngpui Wildlife Sanctuary, we recorded the

Himalayan striped, and hoary-bellied squirrels.

Further observations were not possible because of

the short duration of our visits.

Discussion

At least four species of diurnal squirrels, and

an unknown number of flying squirrel species occur

in Mizoram. Another species, the Himalayan orange-

bellied squirrel ( Dremonys lokriah ) was recorded in

Phawngpui during an earlier survey (Rai and

Johnsingh 1993). This species is reported to occur

at higher altitudes than the hoary-bellied (Prater

1980), and may thus be confined distributionally to

the higher ranges of eastern Mizoram. In terms of

conservation needs, the main threat in many areas is

habitat alteration due to jhum. The Malayan giant

squirrel which appears to be restricted to the tall,

undisturbed primary forests (MacKinnon 1978), may

be the most affected by such habitat alteration. The

Pallas’s squirrel, occurring in both secondary and

primary forests, is probably less prone to such

pressures. During this survey, no squirrels were seen

in 6.3 km of walks through pure bamboo forests

(Table 1) which represent the arrested successional

vegetation arising from short jhum cycles of less than

15 years (Ramakrishnan 1992). This vegetation

dominates most of the area in Dampa and

Phawngpui, as well as areas outside the sanctuaries.

The regeneration pf bamboo forests into later

successional stages is likely to improve the habitat

for squirrels in Mizoram.

Hunting by local people may be another threat

to squirrel populations. Most birds and mammals,

including squirrels, are hunted by the Mizo people.

During our visits to hunters’ houses, we found tails

of squirrels (presumably Malayan giant squirrel)

displayed along with trophies of several other

animals.

Despite the fact that most of the habitat and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

415

associated flora and fauna have been lost to jhum

and hunting, the conservation outlook in Mizoram

appears quite positive. The Mizoram forest

department has taken commendable steps towards

wildlife conservation in the state. Of the total

land area of 2 1,087 sq. km, 1 647 sq. km are protected

forests and 6,400 sq. km are Reserved forests (Anon.

1989). In Dampa, eleven villages were successfully

shifted out of the sanctuary and jhum is now

disallowed. Similar measures are being undertaken

in Murlen and Phawngpui. Information on

the effectiveness of these measures, and

comprehensive studies of squirrels in the region

would be of value.

Acknowledgements

The Director, Wildlife Institute of India is

R E F E

Agrawal, V.C. & S. Chakraborty ( 1 979): Catalogue of mammals

in the Zoological Survey of India. Rodentia, Part I.

Sciuridae. Rec. zoo I' Suit. India. 74: 422-437.

Anon. (1989): Mizoram: Forests. Department of Environment

and Forest, Mizoram. Forest Extension Series #9:2.

Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The mammals of the

Indomalayan region: A systematic review. Oxford

University Press, Oxford.

Khajuria, H., Y. Chaturvedi & D.K. Ghoshal (1977):

Catalogue mammaliana.Tfec. :ool. Suit. India ore. Pap.

7: 44 pp.

MacKinnon, K.S. (1978): Stratification and feeding differences

among Malayan squirrels. Malay Nat. J. 30: 593-608.

Mishka. C. T.R.S. Raman & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1994): Survey of

primates, serovv, and goral in Mizoram. Report, Wildlife

Institute of India, Dehradun.

9. AN ASSESSMENT OF TILLER DAMAGE

Of the 15 rodent species of economic

importance in India, (Chopra 1988) the lesser

bandicoot rat, Bandicota bengalensis, the soft furred

field rat, Millardia meltada and the Indian field

mouse, Mus booduga inflict extensive damage to

rice crops in Northern India (Chopra 1988) and in

Cauvery delta, Southern India (Jayaraman and

Velayutham 1977). But, quantified data on the rodent

population and their depredation on rice crops

of different developmental stages from Cauvery

thanked for his support. We are indebted to the

Mizoram Forest Department. for funding this survey

and making our stay enjoyable. We would especially

like to thank: Messrs. C. Ramhluna, C.P. Oberai,

Ramthanga, G. Kumar, Lalrinmawia, N.R. Pradhan,

and Lai Fala in Aizawl. We are grateful to Messrs.

Kimthanga, Lakhan Joey, Lalchangliana, B. Khupa,

Kama, Chanuk and others for help in the field. We

thank other friends in Aizawl and W.I.I. for much

help and discussion.

August 3 1 , 1 994 T.R. SHANKAR RAMAN

CHARUDUTT MISHRA

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH

Wildlife Institute of India, P.B. No. 18, Chandrabani,

Dehradun 248 001 , India.

-.NCES

Prater, S.H. (1980): The book of Indian animals. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

Rai, N.D. & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1993): A preliminary survey of

the clouded leopard ( Neofelis nebulosa) in Mizoram and

Sikkim. Report, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.

Ramakrishnan, PS. (1992): Shifting agriculture and sustainable

development. An interdisciplinary study from northeast

India. MAB series, Vol. 10., UNESCO, Paris.

Setoguchi, M. (1990): Food habits of red-bellied tree squirrels

on a small island in Japan. J. Mammal. 71: 570-578.

Sterndale, R.A. ( 1 884): Natural history of the Mammalia of India

and Ceylon. Himalayan Books, New Delhi.

Tamura, N., F. Hayashi & K. Miyashita (1988): Dominance

hierarchy and mating behaviour of the Formosan squirrel

Callosciurus erythraeus thaiwanensis. J. Mammal. 69:

320-331.

BY RODENTS IN IRRIGATED RICE FIELDS

delta are meagre and hence the present

investigation.

We studied tiller damage by the rodent pests

in the transplanted rice fields near Vilanagar and

Arupathy villages of Nagapattinam Quaid-Milleth

district ( 1 1 0 2' N, 79° 49' E), Tamilnadu. The Study

was conducted between June 1 993 and August 1 993

(Kuruvai season) on four successive developmental

stages, namely vegetative, milky, panicle formation

and maturation of rice crop (Variety: ASD 18) to

4 1 6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92(1995)

determine the suitable period for a rodent control

campaign.

Three hectares of rice field were taken for the

estimation of rodent population and assessment of

crop depredation by them. We adopted live burrow

count method (Barnett and Prakash 1975) for rodent

population estimation and diagonal method

(Neelanarayanan et al. 1993) for their damage

appraisal. In the diagonal line of the selected plots

(6 plots of 0.5 ha size) at every 10 m interval, 0.0929

m quadrats were laid and the damaged and

undamaged tillers were enumerated. The percentage

of damage was then computed by using the

enumerated damaged and undamaged tillers.

Live burrows of the three species of field

rodents were the least during the vegetative phase

of rice crop and the highest during maturation phase

(Table 1). The early stage or the vegetative stage of

rice crop was not infested by rodent pests. The tiller

damage started during milky stage and it showed an

increasing trend in the subsequent developmental

stages. The extent of rodent depredation was at its

maximum (3 1 .8%) in the maturation stage of the rice

crop (Table 1).

The results showed that when the rodent

population increases, the damage values also increase

in all the four successive developmental stages of

crop fields. Besides, immigrants might have also

caused large tiller cut damage in the late

developmental stages of rice crop. Therefore, the

control campaign must be started against rodent pests

when their population is at its minimum, i.e. during

either late vegetative stage (30 days after

transplantation) or at the inception of the milky stages

of rice crop so as to reduce greater grain loss due to

Refer

Barnett, S.A. & I. Prakash (1975): Rodents of economic

importance in India. Arnold Heinemann, New Delhi and

London, 175 pp.

Chopra, G. (1988): Single dose anticoagulants for rodent control

in irrigated ricefields. International Rice Research Newsletter

13 (3): 45-46.

Table 1

POPULATION OF RODENTS AND THEIR DEPREDATION

TO RICE CROP IN FOUR SUCCESSIVE

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

Rice Population of rodents Percentage

developmental Live burrows (No./ha) of tiller

stages B. bengalensis M.meltada M.booduga damage/ha

rodents.

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to the Principal and

Management of A.V.C. College (Autonomous) for

providing facilities and encouragement to carry out

this work successfully. We are also thankful to Mr.

K.S. Subiah and Dr. R.P. Mathur, Pest Control (India)

Ltd., Madras for encouragement. Our thanks are also

due to Messrs R. Balu, V. Elangovan for their

assistance during the study.

December 26, 1 994 P. NEELANARAYANAN

R. NAGARAJAN

R. KANAKASABAI

Division of Wildlife Biology, A.V.C. College

(Autonomous), Mayiladuthurai-609 305,

Tamil Nadu.

ENCES

Jayaraman, V. & B. Velayutham (1977): A Survey on the

occurrence of Field rats in four localities of Tamil Nadu and

their ectoparasites. The farm Science 3: 11-15.

Neelanarayanan, P, R. Kanakasabai & R. Nagarajan (1993):

Rodent damage in Paddy in Tamilnadu. Rodent Newsletter

17(l-2)\ 6.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

417

10. STATUS OF WILD ELEPHANTS IN DIBANG VALLEY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH

The Dibang Valley district of Aruanchal

Pradesh (27° 50' to 29° 30' N and 95° 15' to 96° 40’

E) was formerly a part of Lohit district. About 60

per cent of the total area of the district are under

different types of forest. During visits to the area

(September and December of 1992; February, March

and May of 1 993; and February and March of 1994),

I assessed the current status of the Wild elephant

( Elephas maximus Linn.) in the district.

The Wild elephant once ranged throughout the

southern areas of the district. Their northern limit

was the foot of the Mishmi Hills, which rise almost

abruptly from the plains. The entire alluvial fan

(Bhabar tract), with its gentle slope, from Dambuk

in the west and Roing in the east, was inhabited by

the elephants.

In the seventies, large-scale settlement took

place between Santipur and Roing which continued

till the eighties. Even now, many new settlements

are coming up, mostly of Adi tribe (formerly called

the Abors) from western Dibang Valley and Siang

districts. Almost the entire lowland evergreen forests

have been converted into cultivation resulting in a

wide gap in elephant-habitat. Some elephants

continued their movement through the gap even in

early eighties also, but since about mid-eighties, it

has completely ceased. The gap is now c. 20 km

wide.

At present, the Wild elephant is found in two

disjunct parts, one in the south-west and the other in

south-east of the district. The western range is larger

and comprises the Dibang, Kerim and part of

Deopani Reserved Forests (RF). The northern limit

of elephants in this area is c. 5 km south of Dambuk.

An estimated 50 to 100 elephants roam in the area at

different times of the year. This elephant population

regularly moves towards west by crossing the Sesseri

river to East Siang district, especially D’Ering

Sanctuary, then to Dibru-Saikhowa Sanctuary of

Assam. Some also occasionally move towards the

south to Amarpur area and Sadiya Station RF (north

block) of Assam.

The eastern population moves in the

southernmost areas of Mehao Sanctuary, Hajing

proposed RF and some unclassed forests. This

population migrates to Lohit district by crossing the

Difu river and also to Kundil Kaliya RF of Sadiya

(Assam). The estimated population of pachyderms

fluctuates between 30 and 60.

The total number of elephants in Dibang Valley

district ranges from about 80 to 1 60, with a potential

habitat of about 400 sq. km. The elephant-census

carried out by the Forest Department in March, 1993

(I was camping in Dibang RF) puts the figure as 139

for the district at that time.

December 29, 1994 ANWARUDDIN

CHOUDHURY

Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium,

Islampur Road, Guwahati 781 007, Assam.

1 1 . OCCURRENCE OF ALBINO LESSER WHISTLING TEAL,

DENDROCYGNA JAVAN 1C A (HORSFIELD)

While taking part in the annual Waterfowl

Census organised by the Asian Wetland Bureau, I

visited South-Eastern Railway Centenary Bird

Sanctuary on 13th January 1994, situated at

Santragachi, 7 km South-West of Calcutta, in the

District of Howrah. The Jheel is about 200 m long

and 50 m wide. The Census revealed the presence

of 3000 Lesser Whistling Teal ( Dendrocygna

javanica). Among them was one very white duck.

We overlooked the bird assuming it to be a domestic

one. However, on closer observation, it was revealed

that the bird was not feeding like its other domestic

cousins nearby. Instead it was sleeping with its head

tucked on its back like other Lesser Whistling Teals.

A telescope of magnification 60X was used, to take

a closer look. The bird was pure white and had a

pink bill, instead of the usual slaty grey bill of the

Lesser Whistling Teals.

41 8

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi 92 (1995)

Meanwhile, a Pariah Kite ( Milvus migrans )

appeared and created an alarm among the ducks.

The albino duck was also alarmed and looked

up at the sky like other Teals, while the domestic

ducks remained relaxed making it obvious that

this albino duck was not a domestic one.

During a visit to Kalyani Lake — 60 km North

of Calcutta, in the District of Nadia — another albino

Lesser Whistling Teal was sighted. Though I could

not confirm as to whether it was the same duck, the

tendency of ducks to move from one jheel to another

makes it a strong possibility. Kalyani Lake is 100 m

long and 25 m wide. The distance of Kalyani Lake

from South-Eastern Rly. Centenary Bird Sanctuary

is about 65 km.

July 29, 1 994 SUJAN CHATTERJEE

DB-75, Salt Lake City, Calcutta 700 064.

12. OCCURRENCE OF RED-LEGGED FALCON, FALCO VESPERTINUS LINN.

AT AAKKULAM, KERALA STATE

I was able to observe a rather small falcon on

29. 1 1 .93, 30. 1 1 .93, 1 . 1 2.93 and 2. 1 2.93 haunting a

scrub covered hillock at Aakkulam, Ullur

Panchayat (Lat. 8° 30' N. and Long. 76° 55' E.), South

Kerala.

The bird resembled a female kestrel, but was

of smaller size, longer wings which extended a little

beyond the tail which was strongly barred, brown

head and upper neck, slaty grey upper parts and red

legs set it apart at a glance. It was very confiding

and allowed close approach and on all days I was

able to observe it at close range using a pair of 8 x

30 binoculars. Moreover, its habit of frequenting

exposed perches facilitated clear and uninterrupted

watching and consequently all the field marks could

be noted. Even the soft parts, namely the orange beak

with black lip and the red legs were noted. The habits

of this handsome falcon were typical of its genus,

but it appeared to be more active during evenings

till dusk advanced. It would invariably be found

seated on telephone poles and other such exposed

perches during the day, the favourite perch being a

dead Albizzia tree about 6-7.5 m tall. The usual style

of Bight when flying from one perch to another was

swift and dashing but often glided smoothly when it

had to reach a perch lower down from a higher one.

As dusk fell, the falcon after soaring for 7-10

minutes, retired to a well-wooded patch where it

presumably roosted. The bird was tolerant of the

mobbing of crows, tree-pies, and sunbirds but

seemed to avoid the more persistent ‘scolding’ of

drongos. Considerable agility was displayed in

evading pursuing drongos by veering to one side

abruptly. I never saw it hovering or attempting to

capture any prey. No calls were heard.

According to the synopsis, this falcon is a

passage migrant to India, where most records were

obtained from SW. India. It is further said that the

passage takes place rather late, i.e. from October-

December. Few birds straggle to Sri Lanka. While

comparing my field notes and sketches with the

handbook and other field guides, it seems rather safe

to conclude that this bird was a female Redlegged or

Redfooted falcon ( Falco vespertinus). So it would

be worthwhile for birdwatchers in SW. India,

particularly Kerala to keep a look-out for this falcon

during the next autumn passage season and provide

additional details on general behaviour and habitat

requirements.

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to Mr. Rajkaran who informed

me of this bird at Aakkulam and my friend Jeevan

who helped in noting down the details.

November 7, 1994 MANOJ V. NAIR

34 Thoppil Nagar,

Kumcirapuram,

Trivandrum ,

Kerala-695 OIL

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

419

13. OCCURRENCE OF SWAMP PARTRIDGE, FRANCOLINUS GU LARIS

(TEMMINCK) IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH

‘D’Ering Memorial Wildlife Sanctuary in East

Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh consists of 190

sq. km riverine and island areas of Siang and Sibia

rivers. The sanctuary has its southern boundary with

Assam. The vegetation of the sanctuary consists of

grasslands with scattered growth of Zizyphus , and

patches of forest with Albizzia, Simal, Erythrina,

Musa, Anthocephalus, Dillenia and other tree

species. Imperata (thatch grass), Saccharum and

Phragniites are the main grasses of the area. The

land area which consists of one main island (Lali

Chapori) and few quite small islands, undergoes

seasonal flooding. There are quite a few wetlands

scattered all over the main island. Cutting and

burning are habitat management practices carried out

in the sanctuary. The sanctuary supports a large

number of wetland birds besides the rare Bengal

florican. Tiger, Leopard, Barking deer, Elephant,

Wild buffalo, Wild boar, Common otter and Jackal

are the mammals reported in the sanctuary.

During my visit to the sanctuary in December,

1991 I sighted two partridges on a jeepable path in

the thatch area. But the sighting was momentary

and the birds flew to the adjoining patch of thatch.

Rusty red throat and overall colour of the bird pointed

towards Swamp partridge, but the record remained

unconvincing. The Wildlife staff accompanying me

when shown the picture were sure of Swamp

partridge occurring in the area. Still, I waited for

further confirmation. During my last visit to the area,

I heard on 29th January, 1994 the bird calling around

8. 15 a.m. in the thatch growth on the right bank of

Sibia river near Namsing camp. The call of the bird

was the unmistakable qua, qua, qua.

The Swamp Partridge is reported from Assam

and its occurrence in suitable habitat in the adjoining

areas of Arunachal Pradesh is quite obvious. Further

east of ‘D’Ering Wildlife Sanctuary there is a good

extent of area with similar habitat features and there

is every likelihood of the occurrence of Swamp

Partridge there.

February 24, 1 994 PRATAP SINGH

Dy. Conservator of Forests (WL),

C/o C.C.F. (Wildlife, Wetlands & Vigilance),

Itanagar-7911 11 , Arunachal Pradesh.

14. SLENDERBILLED GULL LARUS GENEI BREME IN NEW DELHI

To the various sightings of the Slenderbilled

Gull Larus genei Breme published in recent years in

the Society’s Journal, a sighting from Okhla Barrage,

New Delhi on 21st January 1990 has now to be

added. A singleton seen on that date during the Asian

Midwinter Waterfowl Census was associated with

Brownheaded- and Blackheaded gulls. The

Slenderbill’s pure white head, its longer white neck,

and an elongated (v. rounded) head, lacking ear-

coverts, and its red bill were conspicuous pointers

to its identity.

May 15, 1990 VIVEK MENON

P.O. Box 3150, New Delhi-110 003.

TARA GANDHI

Nehru Centre, 8, South Audley St., London, Wl, UK.

MOHIT AGGARWAL

E-198, Amar Colony, Lajpat Nagar, IV, New Delhi.

RAJESH THADANI

A- 17, Mayfair Gardens, New Delhi-1 10 016.

15. INDIAN RING DOVE STREPTOPELIA DECAOCTO (FRIVALDSZKY) NESTING IN

AN ABANDONED NEST OF THE GREY SHRIKE LANIUS EXCUBITOR (SYKES)

On 8th February 1994, I found a nest of an eggs placed inside an abandoned nest of the grey

Indian ring dove ( Streptopelia decaocto ) with two shrike (Lanius excuhitor ) in the Great Indian Bustard

420

JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Val. 92 ( 1995)

Sanctuary, Nannaj (Maharashtra). The nest of the

shrike was located in the middle canopy of a white

acacia (. Acacia leucophloeo ) tree, 1.5 m above the

ground. The dove had used a few twigs for its nest

within the shrike’s nest. The old nest hosting the

dove’s nest was known since I had marked this nest

(of the shrike) for observations. The nest of the shrike

consisted of twigs of Acacia spp. having long thorns

but the inside was lined with softer twigs. There was

very little chance of predators reaching the nest, so

probably this could be the reason for selecting such

a nest-site by the dove.

This kind of unusual nesting site has been

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds

of India and Pakistan. 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press,

Delhi, India.

Goodwin, D. (1983): Pigeons and Doves of the World. Cornell

University Press, New York.

recorded in Redvented bulbul ( Picnonotus cafer) by

Sivasubramanian and Sundaramoorthy ( 1 992). There

is no report of such behaviour available on Indian

ring dove in the standard reference books on birds

of the Indian subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 1987,

Roberts 1991). Also such behaviour of this species

is not reported by Goodwin (1983).

May 9, 1994 SATISH KUMAR

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Choxvk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singli Road,

Bombay-400 023.

NCES

Roberts, T.J. (1991): Birds of Pakistan. Oxford university Press,

Karachi, Pakistan.

Sivasubramanian, C. & T. Sundaramoorthy (1992): Additional

nesting sites of Redvented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer (Linn.).

./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(2): 257.

1 6. THE GREAT REED WARBLER ACROCEPHALUS STENTOREUS (HEMPRICH &

EHRENBERG) FEEDING ON FRUITS OF SALVADORA PERSICA

On January 18, 1994 we completed our

Waterfowl Census at about 1730 hrs on Pariej

reservoir (22° 33' N, 72° 38' E), Kheda district,

Gujarat. While walking on the reservoir bank, we

saw two small passerines actively searching for food

on Salvadora persica tree. We closely observed the

birds through our 10 x 50 binoculars and to our

surprise found that the small passerines were Indian

Great Reed Warblers Acrocephalus stentoreus and

they were feeding on the ripe fruits of S. persica.

We watched their feeding activity for more than 15

minutes. The warblers searched for the ripe fruits in

the entire canopy. ,

According to Ali and Ripley (1983), the Great

Reed Warbler is insectivorous; and there is no

published report on its fruit eating behaviour. There

are several reports where reputedly insectivorous

birds have occasionally been observed feeding on

fruits or flowers (Child 1978, Moeed and Fitzgerald

1982, O’Donnell and Dilks 1989). During bad

weather many wintering insectivorous birds turn to

other source of food such as buds and fruits

(Tinbergen 1960, Jackson 1979). It is quite likely

that Great Reed Warbler might be finding it difficult

to find insect food during winter. The fruits of

Salvadora being easily available, might have been

consumed to meet its energy requirement. It would

be interesting to know the importance of fruit eating

by this species of warbler during different seasons

of the year.

May 9, 1994 B. M. PARASHARYA

A. G. SUKHADIA

D. M. MEHTA

R. B. CHAUHAN

AICRP on Agricultural Ornithology,

Gujarat Agricultural University,

Anand Campus, Anand 388 110.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India Child, P. (1978): Yellowhead not entirely insectivorous. Notornis

and Pakistan (Compact ed.). Oxford University Press, 25: 252-253.

Delhi. Jackson, J.A. (1979): Insectivorous birds and north American

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

419

13. OCCURRENCE OF SWAMP PARTRIDGE, FRANCOLINUS GU LARIS

(TEMMINCK) IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH

‘D’Ering Memorial Wildlife Sanctuary in East

Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh consists of 190

sq. km riverine and island areas of Siang and Sibia

rivers. The sanctuary has its southern boundary with

Assam. The vegetation of the sanctuary consists of

grasslands with scattered growth of Zizyphus, and

patches of forest with Albizzia, Simal, Erythrina ,

Musa, Anthocephalus, Dillenia and other tree

species. Imperata (thatch grass), Saccharum and

Phragmites are the main grasses of the area. The

land area which consists of one main island (Lali

Chapori) and few quite small islands, undergoes

seasonal flooding. There are quite a l^ew wetlands

scattered all over the main island. Cutting and

burning are habitat management practices carried out

in the sanctuary. The sanctuary supports a large

number of wetland birds besides the rare Bengal

florican. Tiger, Leopard, Barking deer, Elephant,

Wild buffalo, Wild boar, Common otter and Jackal

are the mammals reported in the sanctuary.

During my visit to the sanctuary in December,

1991 I sighted two partridges on a jeepable path in

the thatch area. But the sighting was momentary

and the birds flew to the adjoining patch of thatch.

Rusty red throat and overall colour of the bird pointed

towards Swamp partridge, but the record remained

unconvincing. The Wildlife staff accompanying me

when shown the picture were sure of Swamp

partridge occurring in the area. Still, I waited for

further confirmation. During my last visit to the area,

I heard on 29th January, 1994 the bird calling around

8.15 a.m. in the thatch growth on the right bank of

Sibia river near Namsing camp. The call of the bird

was the unmistakable qua , qua , qua.

The Swamp Partridge is reported from Assam

and its occurrence in suitable habitat in the adjoining

areas of Arunachal Pradesh is quite obvious. Further

east of ‘D’Ering Wildlife Sanctuary there is a good

extent of area with similar habitat features and there

is every likelihood of the occurrence of Swamp

Partridge there.

February 24, 1 994 PRATAP SINGH

Dy. Conservator of Forests (WL),

C/o C.C.F. ( Wildlife , Wetlands & Vigilance),

Itanagar-791 1 1 1 . Arunachal Pradesh.

14. SLENDERBILLED GULL LARUS GENEl BREME IN NEW DELHI

To the various sightings of the Slenderbilled

Gull Lams genei Breme published in recent years in

the Society’s Journal , a sighting from Okhla Barrage,

New Delhi on 21st January 1990 has now to be

added. A singleton seen on that date during the Asian

Midwinter Waterfowl Census was associated with

Brownheaded- and Blackheaded gulls. The

Slenderbill’s pure white head, its longer white neck,

and an elongated (v. rounded) head, lacking ear-

coverts, and its red bill were conspicuous pointers

to its identity.

May 15, 1990 VIVEK MENON

P.O. Box 3150, New Delhi- 1 10 003.

TARA GANDHI

Nehru Centre, 8, South Audley St., London, Wl, UK.

MOHIT AGGARWAL

E-198, Amar Colony, Lajpat Nagar, IV, New Delhi.

RAJESH THADANI

A-17, Mayfair Gardens, New Delhi-1 10 016.

15. INDIAN RING DOVE STREPTOPELIA DECAOCTO (FRIVALDSZKY) NESTING IN

AN ABANDONED NEST OF THE GREY SHRIKE LANIUS EXCUBITOR (SYKES)

On 8th February 1994, I found a nest of an eggs placed inside an abandoned nest of the grey

Indian ring dove ( Streptopelia decaocto ) with two shrike ( Lanius excubitor) in the Great Indian Bustard

420

JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Val. 92 (1995)

Sanctuary, Nannaj (Maharashtra). The nest of the

shrike was located in the middle canopy of a white

acacia {Acacia leucophloea ) tree, 1.5 m above the

ground. The dove had used a few twigs for its nest

within the shrike’s nest. The old nest hosting the

dove’s nest was known since I had marked this nest

(of the shrike) for observations. The nest of the shrike

consisted oflwigs of Acacia spp. having long thorns

but the inside was lined with softer twigs. There was

very little chance of predators reaching the nest, so

probably this could be the reason for selecting such

a nest-site by the dove.

This kind of unusual nesting site has been

Au, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds

of India and Pakistan. 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press,

Delhi, India.

Goodwin, D. (1983): Pigeons and Doves of the World. Cornell

University Press, New York.

recorded in Redvented bulbul ( Picnonotus cafer) by

Sivasubramanian and Sundaramoorthy (1992). There

is no report of such behaviour available on Indian

ring dove in the standard reference books on birds

of the Indian subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 1987,

Roberts 1991). Also such behaviour of this species

is not reported by Goodwin (1983).

May 9, 1994 SATISH KUMAR

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023.

ENCES

Roberts, T.J. ( 1991 ): Birds of Pakistan. Oxford university Press.

Karachi, Pakistan.

Sivasubramanian, C. & T. Sundaramoorthy (1992): Additional

nesting sites of Redvented Bulbul Pyaumotus cafer (Linn.).

./. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(2): 257.

16. THE GREAT REED WARBLER ACROCEPHALUS STENTOREUS (HEMPRICH &

EHRENBERG) FEEDING ON FRUITS OF SALVADORA PERSICA

On January 18, 1994 we completed our

Waterfowl Census at about 1730 hrs on Pariej

reservoir (22° 33' N, 72° 38' E), Kheda district,

Gujarat. While walking on the reservoir bank, we

saw two small passerines actively searching for food

on Salvadora persica tree. We closely observed the

birds through our 10 x 50 binoculars and to our

surprise found that the small passerines were Indian

Great Reed Warblers Acrocephalus stentoreus and

they were feeding on the ripe fruits of S. persica.

We watched their feeding activity for more than 15

minutes. The warblers searched for the ripe fruits in

the entire canopy.

According to Ali and Ripley (1983), the Great

Reed Warbler is insectivorous; and there is no

published report on its fruit eating behaviour. There

are several reports where reputedly insectivorous

birds have occasionally been observed feeding on

fruits or flowers (Child 1978, Moeed and Fitzgerald

Re fe

Au, S. & S.D. Rjpley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan (Compact ed.). Oxford University Press,

Delhi.

1982, O’Donnell and Dilks 1989). During bad

weather many wintering insectivorous birds turn to

other source of food such as buds and fruits

(Tinbergen 1960, Jackson 1979). It is quite likely

that Great Reed Warbler might be finding it difficult

to find insect food during winter. The fruits of

Salvadora being easily available, might have been

consumed to meet its energy requirement. It would

be interesting to know the importance of fruit eating

by this species of warbler during different seasons

of the year.

May 9, 1994 B. M. PARASHARYA

A. G. SUKHADIA

D. M. MEHTA

R. B. CHAUHAN

AICRP on Agricultural Ornithology,

Gujarat Agricultural University,

Anand Campus, Anand 388 110.

ENCES

Child, P. (1978): Yellowhead not entirely insectivorous. Notornis

25: 252-253.

Jackson, J.A. (1979): Insectivorous birds and north American

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

421

forest ecosystems. In: The Role of Insectivorous Birds in

Forest ecosystems (editors: J.G. Dickson, R.N. Connor;

R.R. Fleet, J.A. Jackson and J.C. Kroll), Academic Press,

New York. pp. 1-7.

Mohf.d, A. & B.M. Fitzgerald (1982): Foods of insectivorous

birds in the forest of the Orongorongo Valley, Wellington,

New Zealand. NZ J. Zool. 9: 39 1 -402.

O’Donnel, C.F.J. & P.J. Dilks (1989): Feeding on fruits and flower

by insectivorous forest birds. Notornis 36: 72-76.

Tinbergen, L. ( 1960): The natural control of insects in pinewoods.

1. Factors influencing the intensity of predation by

Songbirds. Arch. NeerZool. 13: 265-343.

1 7. THE BLUETHROAT ERITHACUS SVEC1CUS (LINN.) IN KERALA

According to Ali (1969) the Bluethroat is a

regular winter visitor to northern Kerala, e.g. the

Wyanad, and is found in marshy reed-beds, and

irrigated paddy crops.

At Elapully, about 1 5 km east of the Palakkad

town in the Palakkad district in Kerala this species

has been regularly noted in a sugarcane field since

1992. A female was first observed on January 21,

1992 and thereafter regularly. In 1993 also one

female was seen, but in 1994 a pair was seen on

January 12, 1994. The previous years’ birds were

rather silent with only the ‘Chuk-Chuk’ or ‘Tack-

Tack’ notes. In 1994 I saw 'the male singing.

According to Whistler ( 1 963) “the alarm-note

and ordinary call is a harsh ‘Tack’. In the handbook

Ali and Ripley (1983) say that the call is a “harsh

subdued chur — or chuck, chuck... sometimes also

heard in winter quarters in April from belated

migrants.” So that it may be assumed that ‘chur-chur’

or ‘chuck-chuck’ or ‘tick’ could be expected from it

though it is otherwise very musical during its

breeding season.

The present individual is an exception. Every

morning at about 0630 to 0640 hrs. he comes out of

his roost in a sugarcane field, sits on a mount in a

field-bund, pours out for about 10 minutes various

melodious notes continuously. The song is a

melodious, sweet, and loud musical warbling. It

begins something like “chirkucheri-ri-ri-rli-rli-rli”

and then 5 or 6 continuous repetition and rolling of

this mixed with warblings followed by a curious

musical rattling which become gentle and tails off.

Sometimes the song also begins with ‘Ting Ting

Ting-Ting-Ting” and just before commencing the

same, it dips its head and turns it left and right two

or three times then raises the head and the song comes

out endlessly. During this time the tail is constantly

flicked and cocked. This feat is performed sometimes

from two or three places. Such a musical feat is

performed before roosting also, which it does on the

sugarcane plant. Event at about 6 p.m. the bird was

very active and the method of feeding was also

interesting. It looks around for sometimes (2 or 3

turnings) then dips its head and runs forward 3-4

steps keeping the head down, stops and pecks. The

bird was not seen from 18th February onwards and

till it left sang every day.

October 1 8, 1 994 L. NAMASSIVAYAN

Advocate ,

Kerala Natural History Society,

“ The Wilderness ”, Elappully Post,

Palakkad-678 622,

Kerala.

1 8. SUGARY EXUDATE OF SORGHUM SORGHUM BICOLOR AS FOOD OF

LARGE GREY BABBLER TURDOIDES MALCOLM I (SYKES),

PURPLERUMPED SUNBIRD NECTARINIA ZEYLONICA (LINN.) AND

RED VENTED BULBUL PYCNONOTUS CAFER (LINNAEUS)

In Solapur district of Maharashtra, ‘Rabi crop’ Rophalosiphum maidis, R. saccri and jassids and

of sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor ) gets infested by delphacids. These insects invade leaf laminae from

aphids and jassids. The major causal organisms of the ventral side and suck their cell sap. Because of

this disease are the aphid species mainly such infestation, a honey-dew like liquid sugary

422

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 92 (1995)

secretion and a thin exudate comes out from leaf

blades through the pores created by these pests,

which falls on the lower leaves and finally trickles

down to the ground. Due to the presence of these

secretions, “black-sooty mould” is developed which

causes a pathological disorder in the crop plant

(blackening of the infected leaves) and hinders its

photosynthetic activity. The technical term for the

disease is Botroitis cinneria.

The disease is locally recognised as of two

types: ‘ sakhari chikta and deli chikta' . The former

is caused by jassids (at low temperatures of

November and December) and the latter by aphids

(at low and high temperatures from December

onwards).

The sugary exudate after sometime is

condensed into crystals on the leaves. I observed

three species of birds, namely Large grey babblers

Turdoides malcolmi, Purplerumped sunbirds

Nectarinia zeylonica and Redvented bulbuls

Pycnonotus cafer feeding regularly on these crystals

of carbohydrates in the crop-fields around the Great

Indian Bustard Sanctuary, Nannaj, Solapur

(Maharashtra).

May 4, 1994 SATISH KUMAR

Bombay Natural History Society ;

Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

19. AN UNUSUAL NESTING SITE OF HOUSE SPARROW PASSER DOMESTICUS (LINN.)

The House sparrow ( Passer domesticus)

prefers hollows in buildings and masonary wells;

holes in trees, earthbanks; nests of swifts and

swallows and even cliffs for placing its nest (Ali

and Ripley, handbook compact edition, 1983). In

the month of May 1994, my family experienced an

interesting case of nesting by a pair of House

Sparrows at my house at village Mohammadpur

in Alwar district.

During the first week of May 1994, a pair of

house sparrows were seen frequently entering one

of the legs of a pair of pants which was hanging on

a peg, on the southern wall of the verandah of my

house. After a few days, the pair was seen bringing

and depositing fibres in the selected leg of the pants.

Obviously the birds were nesting there. Since the

pant’s leg was a hollow pipe without a plug, many

small fibres fell on the floor. To check this loss, my

mother placed a rubber band at the mid point of the

20. NESTING OF PLOCEUS PHILIP

A variety of plants and other structures are

selected by Baya Weaver Bird Ploceus philippinus

for nesting. Broadly speaking, such nesting sites can

be categorised into two types, namely ‘vegetational’

selected pant’s leg. This proved a boon to the nesting

birds and soon they succeeded in completing the nest.

Eventually the brood was successfully raised by the

birds.

Twenty years ago, most of the houses in my

village had thatched roofs made by culms and leaves

of Saccharum bengalense, a locally available tall

grass. Thatched roofs were one of the ideal sites for

nesting of house sparrows. But due to increasing

tendency of making houses pucca, nest locations are

difficult to find for nesting sparrows. Perhaps scarcity

of traditional nesting sites forced the sparrows to

select such alternate sites.

July 14, 1994 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Aravalli Afforestation Project,

Jhadol (F.), Distt. Udaipur,

Rajasthan-313 702.

NUS (LINN.) ON PERSIAN WHEEL

and ‘non-vegetational’ (structures). Different species

of trees, shrubs, etc., constitute the vegetational site.

Besides traditional vegetational site, two types of

non-vegetational sites, namely eaves of houses

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

423

(Davis 1971) and telegraphic and power lines

(Ambedkar 1969, Venkataramani 1981) are known.

During the monsoon season of 1993, I observed a

third type of ‘non-vegetational’ site near village Oda

in Jhadol tehsil of Udaipur district. I noticed two

completed nests of P. philippinus hanging from

different projections of a wooden persian wheel,

installed in an old well for irrigation. Both the nests

were hanging on the extreme tips of two different

spokes projecting from the circular rim of the

wheel at two different points towards its lower

side.

Refer

Ali, S. (1931): The nesting habits of the Baya ( Ploceus

philippinus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sac. 34: 947-964.

Ambedkar, V.C. ( 1 969): Nest of Baya Ploceus philippinus (Linn.)

on telegraph wires. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 624.

Crook, J.H. (1960): Studies on the reproductive behaviour of

the Baya weaver Ploceus philippinus (Linn.). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 57(1): 1-44.

This wheel has not been used for the last one

year. No vegetation was present on the walls of the

well. Nesting on vegetation, present in wells, have

been reported by many workers (Ali 1931, Crook

1960, 1963) but nesting on structures, present in well,

is first recorded here.

February 8, 1994 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Range Forest Officer,

Aravalli Afforestation Project,

Jhadol (F), District Udaipur,

Rajasthan 313 702.

ENCES

Crook, J.H. (1963): The Asian weaver birds: problems of co-

existence and evaluation with particular reference to

behaviour. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 1-48.

Davis, T.A. (1971): Baya Weaver — bird nesting on human

habitations. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68: 246-248.

Venkataramani, K. (1981): Nest of Weaver birds on telegraph

wires. Newsletter for Birdwatchers Vol. XXI, No. 9-10.

21 . OBSERVATIONS ON THE NARROW-HEADED SOFTSHELL TURTLE ( CHITRA

IN D1C A) IN BANGLADESH

(With a text-figure)

Introduction

Bangladesh is criss-crossed by a number of

large rivers and tributaries, distributaries, canals,

ditches, heels, ponds and marshy areas. About 9065

sq. km out of 143999 sq. km are flooded during the

rainy season in each year. Turtles are consumed by

Hindus and tribals as a source of protein (Rao 1986).

Turtle eggs, oil, dry shell, meat, living and frozen

specimens were exported to Japan, Hongkong,

Malaysia, Thailand, Korea, China, United Kingdom,

etc. About Tk. 2,4 1 , 1 8,272 was earned per year from

1973-1993 by exporting live turtles (Export

Promotion Bureau of Bangladesh, 1972-1973 to

1992-1993).

Materials and Methods

The present study was conducted between

August 1987 and December 1990 by direct

observation in the field, turtle supply centers (for

export), and turtle markets in different districts of

the country. About 200 turtle catchers and collectors

of different districts of the country were interviewed

to ascertain the abundance and their habitat. Spear,

fishing hooks, harpoons and jute sacks were used to

catch and carry the turtles. Weight, length and breadth

of total 45 (17 males and 28 females) specimens were

measured.

Three turtle specimens were collected and

reared in a jar, a concrete well and a mini pond in

the Zoo of Department of Zoology, University of

Dhaka for observing feeding behaviour. Food

consumption was calculated by analysing the

stomach contents of six freshly collected turtles.

Metal tape, electronic balance and polythene bags

were used to measure the turtle and consumed food.

Food consumption was calculated by supplying

known amount of food and subtracting the weight

of uneaten food.

424

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92 (1995)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

425

Results and discussion

Status and distribution: Chitra indica is a

rare species in Bangladesh. It occurs in the major

rivers of the country such as the Padma, Meghna,

Jamuna, Brahmaputra, Bhairab, Sittalakkha,

Buriganga, Tista, Kittankhola, etc. It is rarely found

in their tributaries and distributaries. It is found in

the Padma flowing through the districts of Rajshahi,

Pabna, Kushtia, Faridpur, Rajbari, Manikganj,

Munshiganj and Sariatpur. In the Meghna it is found

near Chandpur, Bhola, near Sylhet and Kishoregonj

districts; in the Jamuna at Kurigram, Bogra, Jamalpur

and Serajganj districts. It was frequently found near

Mohonpur and Aklashpur in the Chandpur district,

Hisla, Bamabad, Golachipa in Patuakhali district

(Fig. 1). Khan (1982) reported that Chitra indica is

common, Sarker and Sarker (1988) noted that it is

fairly common in Bangladesh, Khan (1982) found

that it was distributed over the Padma and Jamuna

river systems and their distributaries.

Measurements: Mean weight of adult males

was 15.338 ± 1.75 kg (SD) (range 10-19.2 kg)

while females were 23.305 ± 7.61 kg (range 10-55

kg)-

Mean carapace length of adult males was 546.25

± 27.9 mm (range 455-590 mm), of females 589.67 ±

59.7 mm (range 455-776 mm). Carapace width of

males was 496 ± 18.37 mm (range 442-530 mm), of

females 509.58 ± 29.02 mm (range 442 -579 mm).

Mean plastron length of males was 423.38 ±

14.2 mm (range 390-430 mm), and that of females

was 445.42 ± 20.2 mm (range 398-508 mm). The

average width of plastron of males was 486 ±18.91

mm (range 440-490 mm), and that of females was

510 ± 18.88 mm (range 442-583 mm). The carapace

length of Chitra indica was 1 68 mm and width 1 84

mm (Parshad 1914). Smith (1931) recorded the

length of the disc at about 800 mm as also Daniel

(1983). Shafi and Quddus (1976) recorded that the

weight of the turtle may reach 265 kg, but did not

mention sex and size.

Food consumption: The turtle is entirely

carnivorous. Stomach contents of six specimens

contained vertebrate and invertebrate remains,

including molluscs, fish muscles and bone, intestine

of animals, carcasses, crabs and prawns. Mean

weight of the dissected turtles was 16.55 ± 5.59 kg

and average food consumption was 171.67 ± 66.55

gm. Total consumed food was 1030 gm. Among the

total food contents molluscs were 47 1 gm (45.73%),

fish and fish bone 333 gm (32.33%), crustaceans 96

gm (9.32%) and carcasses 1 30 gm ( 1 2.62%). Among

the consumed food molluscs ( Pila globosa, Unio

bengalensis, Achatina fulica, etc.) were the most

frequent, and daily consumption was 78.5 ± 34.5 gm

(0.48% of body weight). Crustaceans

(. Macrobrachium spp., Portunus spp., etc.) were the

rarest food item, 24 ± 13.03 gm per day and 0.15%

Table 1

FOOD CONSUMPTION OF Chitra indica

A*: Percentage calculated in relation to total number of dissected animals.

B*: Percentage calculated in relation to total amount of food contents.

426

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92 (1995)

of the body weight. Fish constitute 55.5 ± 37.46 gm June 14, 1995

and represented 0.34% of the body weight and

carcasses were 43.33 ± 30.13 gm or 0.26% of the

body weight (Table ! ).

References

MD. LOKMAN HOSSAIN

MD. SOHRAB UDDIN SARKER

Department of Zoology,

University of Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay. 141 pp.

Khan, M.A.R. (1982): Chelonians of Bangladesh and their

conservation. / Bombay licit. Hist. Sac. 79(1): 110-116.

Parshad, B. (1914): Notes on aquatic Chelonia of the Indus

system. Rec. hid. Mas. 10: 167-171.

Rao, R.J. (1986): Freshwater turtles conservation in National

Chambal Sanctuary. Tigerpaper 13(4): 28-29.

Sarker, S.U. & N.J. Sarker (1988): Wildlife of Bangladesh. A

systematic list with status, distribution and habitat. Ricko

press, 9, Nilkhet, New Market, Dhaka. 59 pp.

Shafi, M. & M.A. Quddus (1976): Bangladesher Matsha

sampad. Bangla Acad. Bigyan Patrika, Dhaka 3(2): 14-36.

Smith, M.A. (1931): The Fauna of British India including

Ceylon and Burma. Reptiles and Amphibia. Vol. 1 . Loricata,

Testudines. Taylor and Francis, London.

22. THE ASSAM ROOFED TURTLE KACHUGA SYLHETENSIS IN SADIYA —

A NEW LOCALITY RECORD

On 26 March, 1 994, a live specimen of Assam

Roofed Turtle ( Kacliuga sylhetensis ) was presented

to me at Chapakhowa, the Headquarters of Sadiya

Sub-division of Tinsukia district in far eastern

Assam. It was collected by a fisherman from the

Kundil River, north-east of Chapakhowa town, near

Kundi Kaliya Reserve Forest. The location is not

far from Assam- Arunachal Pradesh interstate border

(only 4 km away). The turtle measured: SCL

(Straight Carapace Length) — 90.6 mm (82.0 mm

plastron), SCW (width) — 69.6 mm and (shell

height) — 50.3 mm (measured with a Vernier

Calliper). Subsequently the turtle was released in

Dibru-Saikhowa Wildlife Sanctuary on 30 March,

1994.

The location from where it was collected is c.

95° 50' E. The known easternmost limit was Banko

beel of Dibru-Saikhowa Sanctuary, which is at 95°

20' E longitude (Choudhury 1993: Hamadryad). This

is thus the new easternmost locality for the Assam

roofed turtle and also the first record from trans-

Brahmaputra river.

I thank Sonowal, Junior Engineer of Sadiya

Development Block for collecting the specimen for

me.

December 30, 1994 ANWARUDDIN

CHOUDHURY

Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium,

Islampur Road, Guwahati-781 007, Assam.

23. A COMMON GARDEN LIZARD ( CALOTES VERSICOLOR ) KILLING AN ADULT

HOUSE SPARROW ( PASSER DOMESTICUS)

On 8th March 1995, while walking my dog

along a footpath at Bangur Nagar, Goregaon at

around 1 750 1 saw a Fig tree Ficus glomerata full of

figs and many black ants moving on the branches,

and on the ants a common garden lizard was feeding.

An adult male house sparrow was also busy feeding

on the ants some 30 cm away from the lizard.

Suddenly the lizard ran towards the feeding

sparrow and caught it by the neck. The sparrow with

beating wings tried to escape from the lizard’s jaw

but did not succeed. As I moved closer, the lizard

ran up the tree with its prey and disappeared.

June 12, 1995 V.K. PARALKAR

Manav Kalyan Society,

B2/3, Bangur Nagar,

Goregaon (West),

Bombay-400 090.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

421

24. FIRST RECORD OF UPERODON GLOBULOSUM (ANURA: MICROHYLIDAE)

FROM KERALA

The amphibian fauna of Kerala comprises of

86 species (Andrews and Sanil in press). The present

record of a species of Uperoclon from Kerala

constitutes a further addition to the faunal wealth of

the state.

Uperodon gSobulosum (Gunther, 1 864)

A male of the species was collected from

Manimala River at Erumely near Koratty bridge

(72 m above msl), Kottayam District of Kerala during

the month of July, 1994, while it was floating

down the river, it had a snout to vent length of 67

mm.

U. globulosum is uncommon and its

distribution was hitherto thought to be confined to

W. Bengal, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat,

Maharashtra and Karnataka (Inger and Dutta 1986).

According to Daniel (1963), the genus Uperodon is

Refe

Andrews, M.I. & G. Sanil (in press): An overview of the

amphibian fauna of Kerala. Herpeton.

Daniel, J.C. (1963): Field guide to the Amphibians of western

India. Part 2. J. Bombay nat . Hist. Soc. 60 (3): 690-

endemic to India. Two species are so far reported of

which U. systoma was reported from Kerala earlier

by Inger and Dutta (1986). They are completely

fossorial and are not seen above ground except during

the breeding season.

The specimen has been deposited with the

Zoology Museum of St. Thomas College,

Kozhencherry, Kerala.

We are grateful to R.S. Pillai, Rtd. Joint

Director, Zoological Survey of India, Madras for the

identification of the specimen and assistance in the

prepartion of the manuscript.

June 24, 1995 SANIL GEORGE

RG-CDEST,

Trivandrum- 10, Kerala.

LEELAMMA ALEX

Dept, of Zoology, St. Thomas College,

Kozhencherry, Kerala.

NCES

702.

Inger, R.F. & S.K. Dutta (1986): An overview of the amphibian

fauna of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83 (Suppl.): 1 35-

146.

25. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF NO EM A CHE1LUS (MESONOEMACHEILUS)

PETRUBANARESCUI (MENON)

Menon, A.G.K. (1984, Cybium 8(2): 45-49)

described a new species of loach, Noemdcheilus

petrubanarescui from Netravati river at

Dharmasthala, Karnataka State, south India. He

found zoogeographical significance due to the close

resemblance of this species to N. reticulofasciatus

of North Eastern India and suggested a common

ancestry. There is no further report of its occurrence

elsewhere.

While conducting a survey of freshwater fishes

in Wynaad Wildlife Sanctuary, we collected five

specimens of the species from Nulpuzha, a tributary

of Kabani passing through Muthanga, thirteen

kilometres away from Sultan’s Battery. The

morphometric and meristic characters are the same

as those given in the original description except for

some minor differences. The morphometric and

meristic characters are described below.

D:3/8; A:2/5; P: 1/10; V: 1/7. Lateral line almost

complete extending to the tip of the anal fin. Depth

of body 5. 5-6. 6 times and length of head 3.8 times

of standard length. Snout length 3 times and

inter-orbital width 4.5 times in head length. Dorsal

fin inserted equidistant in between the tip of the snout

428

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

and the base of the caudal peduncle. Nostrils closer

to the eye than 'to the tip of the snout. Barbels

three pairs, the maxillary being the longest reach-

ing the anterior one-third of the orbit. Body covered

with embedded scales except on the ventral side.

The body has seven dark brownish bands.

These bands split above the lateral line and extend

slightly to the lower side of the lateral line. Ground

colour is yellowish. A row of dark spots is present

on the dorsal fin and two rows on the caudal fin. A

rectangular black patch is present in the middle of

the base of the caudal fin. The black dot at the origin

of the dorsal fin is absent in these specimens.

The present collection extends the range of the

species to the north of Palghat gap.

February 3, 1995 C.P. SHAJI

PS. EASA

Division of Wildlife Biology,

Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi-680 653,

Thrissur Dist, Kerala.

26. PUNTIUS MELANAMPYX (DAY), AN ADDITION TO THE FISH FAUNA OF

SILENT VALLEY

The Silent Valley National Park is situated in

Palghat district of Kerala (between lat. 11° 4' — 11°

1 4' North and long. 76° 24' — 76° 29' East). It is drained

by the westward flowing Kunthipuzha joining the river

Bharathapuzha. Ramadevi and Indra (1986, Rec. Zool.

Surv. India 84: 243-257) listed nine species of fishes

from Silent Valley. However, Puntius melanampyx

(Day) has not been included in the list of species

reported from there. Recently, a survey was conducted

in Silent Valley. Twelve specimens of P malanampyx

(Day) were collected from a tributary of Kunthipuzha

passing through Neelikal area of Silent Valley. This

species was not found in any other tributary of

Kunthipuzha. With the present collection of P.

malanampyx (Day), the number of fish species in Silent

Valley has risen to ten.

February 3, 1995 PS. EASA

C.P. SHAJI

Division of Wildlife Biology,

Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi-680 653, Thrissur Dist., Kerala.

27. FAMILY APHIDIDAE IS IN HEMIPTERA OR HYMENOPTERA?

While reviewing the book ‘Animal Resources

of India’, I pointed out an error therein, showing the

family Aphididae (or subfamily Aphidinae) in two

insect orders, Hemiptera as well as Hymenoptera

(Varshney and Gupta 1992).

The family name Aphididae in Hemiptera

(Suborder Homoptera) is formed on the type-genus

Aphis Linnaeus. Aphids are an economically

important group of insects. The family name

‘Aphididae’ has been used for the aphids in many

publications, e.g. Ghosh, A.K. (1975) and Ghosh,

L.K. (1986). However, some authors have given the

name as ‘Aphidae’, e.g. Beeson (1961).

The family name Aphididae in Hymenoptera

is formed on the type-genus Aphidius Nees, under

the superfamily Ichneumonoidea, but it is generally

treated as ‘subfamily Aphidinae’ under the family

Braconidae. Braconid wasps are important insect

parasitoids, which have sometimes aphids as their

primary hosts and thus, useful in their biological

control. Family-group names ‘Aphididae’ and

Aphidinae’ in Hymenoptera have been used by some

workers, e.g. Ray (1991). Marsh (1979) has also

treated this group as a family in the ‘Catalogue of

Hymenoptera in America’, but with a different

spelling as ‘Aphidiidae’.

Under the laws for the formation of family-

group names (I.C.Z.N. 1985) the name of a family

is to be based on its type-genus with the suffix ‘-

idae’ put uniformly. Thus, the family-group name

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

429

based on Aphidius shall be Aphidiidae

(Hymenoptera). The name based on Aphis ought

to be ‘Aphidae’, based on the stem “Aphi-”, but

on account of the latin genitive, the stem

shall be “Aphidis-” and it is fit to be called family

Aphididae (Hemiptera). Hence, there must be clear

difference of one letter, ‘i’ and ‘ii’, in the above

two families of two separate insect orders.

However, it may be pointed out that family

name Pieridae (Lepidoptera) based on type-genus

‘Pieris\ was not changed to Pierididae, by use of

plenary powers of the I.C.Z.N. (Hemming 1956), as

done for Aphidae above.

It may also be pointed out that a similar case

exists between family ‘Tachinidae’ Fleming, 1821

in Coleoptera, and family ‘Tachinidae’ Robineau-

Desvoidy, 1830 in Diptera.

Acknowledgement

Thanks are accorded to the Director,

Zoological Survey of India, for encouragement.

January 5, 1995 R.K. VARSHNEY

Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta-700 053.

References

Beeson. C.F.C. (1961): The Ecology and Control of the Forest

Insects of India and the neighbouring countries. First

Reprint ed., Forest Research Inst. & Colleges (Dehra Dun:

India), 767 pp.

Ghosh, A.K. (1975): A list of aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae)

from India and its adjacent countries. J. Bombay not. Hist.

Sac. 71(2): 201-225.

Ghosh, L.K. (1986): A conspectus of Aphididae (Homoptera) of

Himachal Pradesh in North-West Himalaya, India. Tech.

Motwgr., Zool. Surv. India J6: 288 pp.

Hemming, F. (1956): Proposed use of the Plenary powers to

validate the spelling "Pieridae" as against the spelling

"Pierididae" as the Family-group name based on the

generic name "Pieris" Schrank, 1801 (Class Insecta,

Order Lepidoptera_. Bull. Zool. Norfienci, (London: U.K.)

12 (77): 291-306.

International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature ( 1 985):

International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, 3rd ed.

(London: U.K.), 338 pp.

Marsh, PM. (1979): Catalog of Hymenoptera in America North

of Mexico. Smithsonian Inst. Press (Washington, U.S.A.),

Vol. 7: 295-313.

Ray, K.K. (1991): Hymenoptera. In. Animal Resources of India.

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta: 445-450.

Varshney, R.K. & V.K. Gupta (1992): Book Review of

‘Animal Resources of India: Protozoa to Mammalia. State

of the Art’, Oriental Ins. (Gainesville: U.S.A.) 26: 393-

394.

28. OCCURRENCE OF MORGANELLA CUEREONSIS (COCKERELL) (DIASPIDIDAE:

COCCOIDAE: HOMOPTERA) IN SOUTH INDIA

Leucas aspera is a wildly growing garden and

dry land weed. It is infested by a variety of armoured

scales like Aspidiotus destructor Signoret,

Morganella longispina (Morgan), etc., in large

numbers. During the survey conducted between

1989-1993, the presence of another species

M. cuereonsis (Cockerell) was discovered on this

host.

The scale of female is oval to circular in shape,

grey coloured, with exuviae, at the anterior end. The

adult female is oval to pyriform in shape, 2.22-3.00

mm long and 2.22-2.30 mm wide. Pygidium broad

and rounded apically with a pair of median lobes

only with an apical notch on the outer margin, well

sclerotised with basal sclerosis which extends to the

pygidium. Scleroses between sixth and seventh and

seventh and eighth segments well developed. Space

between the lobes very narrow and appears to be

parallel. Second and third lobes lacking. Plates

adjacent to median lobe three in number, fringed only

at their tip. A seta also present apart from the lobes.

Ducts 1-barred, present along the margin and also

medially. Duct orificies arranged into submedian and

median races. Anus situated within posterior one-

fourth distance from the pygidial tip. Vulva present

just above the anus. Perivulvar pores absent. Dorsal

paraphyses elongate and forked at its tip. Microducts

only along the margin. Antenna with a long seta and

43 0

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. VoL 92 ( 1995)

three small spurs. Spiracles without disc pores. This

scale infests the stem, petiole, leaves and even roots.

A maximum of 120 insects was observed on a stem

of 5 sq. cm and on a single leaf a maximum of 22

insects were observed. Affected plants turn yellow

and dry away. This species was first described by

Cockerell and redescribed by Ferris (1955) and

recorded on Celtis sp., Fagaria fagaria, Acacia

flexicaulis and Magnolia sp. Earlier another species

M. longispina has been recorded on citrus (Pruthi

and Mani 1945). However, M. cuereonsis can be

differentiated by the small sized anal opening located

slightly away from the apex and the plates being

comparatively narrower and fewer than M.

longispina.

The species is being recorded for the first time

in India.

March 7, 1995 S. SURESH

M. MOHANA SUNDARAM

Department of Agricultural Economics,

Centre for Plant Protection Studies,

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,

Coimbatore-641 003.

References

Ferris, G.F. (1955): An Atlas of the Scale Insects of North Pruthi, H.S. & M S. Mani (1945): Our knowledge of the insect

America. Stanford Univ. Press, Stanford, California, Vol. VII. and mite pests of citrus in India and their control. Sci. Mono g.

1-233. Conn. Agric. Res. India. I6\ 43 p.

29. NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF PIERIS BRASSICAE (LINNAEUS) (PIERIDAE:

LEPIDOPTERA) ON A NEW HOST PLANT CASSIA FISTULA

(CAESALPINIACEAE)

Pieris brassicae (Linn.) is a polyphagous pest

infesting a wide variety of Cruciferae, besides

feeding on some other food plant (Feltwell 1982).

Recently it was found to feed on Cassia fistula

(Amaltas) grown in the Punjabi University,

Patiala.

Scanning of literature reveals this to be a new

host plant infested by larvae of P. brassicae.

Observations were made on certain biological

aspects of the species. For oviposition tender leaves

of ‘Amaltas’ were preferred and the eggs were laid

either singly or in groups. In addition some eggs were

noticed on older/mature leaves. The time interval

between egg laying was 3 to 5 seconds duration. They

hatched between 3 to 5 days and the larvae eat the

egg shell on their way out. The larval duration of

each instar was 4+1 days and consumed 405+245. 14

mgs, 556.5+311.937 mgs, 618.5+300.937 mgs and

751.5+381.737 mgs during I, II, III, IV instars per

larva per day respectively. The pupal period was 5+ 1

days. The life cycle was completed in 32+5 days

including adult life span of 10+3 days on the

presently reported host plant under controlled

condition (temperature 22°C, RH 40-70%,

photoperiod 12 hrs light and 12 hrs dark,

observations were made between 8.5.1991 to

11.6.1991).

Eclosion in P. brassicae has been reported to

be facilitated by pneumatic pressure (Cottrell

1964) and irregular jerks of the imaginal abdo-

men (Nicolson 1976). However, we have observed

that besides pneumatic pressure, the eclosion

also involves mechanical pressure exerted

by outward curling of the imaginal wings.

Therefore, the eclosion is Pneumato-mecha-

nical.

We are grateful to ICAR, New Delhi for providing

financial assistance.

January 5, 1995 H.S. ROSE

G. VENKATESH

Department of Zoology,

Punjabi University,

Patiala 147 002 (Pb.).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4 3 1

Refe

Cottrell, C.B. (1964): Insect ecdysis with particular emphasis

on cuticular hardening and darkening. Adv. Ins. Physiol.

2: 175-218.

Feltwell, J. (1982): Large white Butterfly. The biology,

biochemistry and physiology of Pieris brassicae

ENCES

(Linneaus). Series Ent. 18: XXVI+ 1-535.

Nicolson, S.W. (1976): Diuresis in the cabbage white

butterfly, Pieris brassicae water and ion regula-

tion and role in hindgut. J. Insect Physiol. 22: 1623-

1630.

30. A NEW ALTERNATIVE HOST PLANT

(HYBLAEIDAE

The Hyblciea pnera is one of the most

important pests of teak and is widely distributed in

the tropical habitat of Oriental and Australian region.

In September 1979, while travelling by suburban

train, it was noticed that mangrove vegetation of the

Mahim creek area, except a few had turned brown

and several House and Jungle Crows and Cattle

Egrets were pecking on branches to eat something.

Subsequently I visited the Mahim Creek area and

observed that most of the leaves of mangrove

Avicennia marina Vierh. were dried and curled and

had turned brown. When some of the curled leaves

were opened, it was found that the leaf was

skeletonised and had a pupa. The jungle and house

crows and cattle egrets were pecking the dried leaves

to feed on pupae.

The samples so collected were brought to the

laboratory and kept in ajar. After 3 days the pupae

hatched and moths emerged, which were identified

as Hyblaea puera.

In January 1995 again a similar incident was

noticed by Mr. Vivek Kulkarni, incharge of

mangroves at Godrej land, Bombay. The species

affected was Avicennia marina. On my request he

Refef

Beeson, C.F.C., ( 1941 ): The ecology and control of forest insects

of India and the neighbouring countries. The Vasant Press,

Dehradun. (1961 Reprint).

Mathur, R.N. (1960): Pests of teak and their control. Ind. Forest

OF TEAK DEFOLIATOR HYBLAEA PUERA

: LEPIDOPTERA)

sent a few sample of the affected leaves. However,

this time most of the pupal skeletonised leaves

contained empty pupal cases, a few leaves having

intact pupae. The moth which emerged from the pupa

was identified as Hyblaea puera.

According to Beeson (1941), Mathur (1960)

and Mohandas (1986) most of the alternate

host plants belong to family Verbenaceae,

Bignoniaceae, Areliaceae, Juglandaceae and

Oleaceae.

Avicennia marina , earlier classified under

family Verbenaceae, is now placed under a separate

family Avicenniaceae. While going through the

chemical composition of these plants it was noted

that both the plants, i.e. Tectona grandis and

Avicennia marina have tannin. However, the

concentration of tannin varies in different parts of

the plants.

July 22, 1995 NARESH CHATURVEDI

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay-400 023.

:ences

Record 10: 43-65.

Mohandas, K. ( 1 986): A New Host record for the teak defoliator,

Hyblaea puera (Lepidoptera, Hyblaeidae). Current Science

55(23): 1207-1208.

3 1 . OCCURRENCE OF AGAUOPSIS BREVIPALPUS BREVI PALPUS TROUESSART

(HALACARIDAE: ACARI) FROM WEST COAST OF INDIA

( With eleven text-figures )

The systematics of halacarids of the west coast in the reporting of Copidognathus sideus Bartsch,

of India of late have been researched by me, resulting 1982 and Arhodeoporus bonairensis (Viets, 1936)

432

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

from the phytal realm of Cochin backwater and

Kovalam beach respectively (Chatterjee and Sarma

1993, Sarma and Chatterjee, in press).

In the present communication, Agauopsis

brevipalpus brevipalpus Trouessart is reported for

the first time from west coast of India. A number of

male, female, larval and nymph specimens were

encountered on different algal species from Kovalam

beach, Kerala, west coast of India. Rao and Ganapati

( 1 968) mentioned this species in the list of interstitial

fauna of Waltair coast (east coast of India, Bay of

Bengal).

A brief description of the species is given

below.

female: Idiosomal length of females ranged

between 400 p and 500 p. All dorsal plates are

separate (Fig. 1). Anterodorsal plate (AD) bears a

unidentate frontal margin and a raised H shaped

areola. The dorsal seta 1 (dSj) lies in the anterior

half of AD. The dorsal setae 2, 3 and 4 (ds2, ds3 and

Figs. 1-11. Agauopsis brevipalpus brevipalpus Trouessart: 1. Idiosoma (dorsal) of female; 2. Idiosoma (ventral) of female;

3. Genital area of male; 4. Gnathosoma; 5. Chelicera; 6. Leg I; Fig. 7. Magnified view of ventral seta of telofemur I;

8. Idiosoma (dorsal) of larva; 9. Idiosoma (ventral) of larva; 10. Idiosoma (dorsal) of protonymph;

1 1. Idiosoma (ventral) of protonymph.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

433

ds4) are present on the membranous area. The dorsal

setae 5 (ds5) are on posterodorsal plate (PD). The

PD bears two costae divergent anteriorly.

All ventral plates are separate (Fig. 2). Anterior

epimeral plate (AE) with 3 pairs of setae. Posterior

epimeral plate (PE) with 3 ventral and 1 dorsal seta.

Three pairs of perigenital setae (PGS) are present

around the genital opening (GO).

Rostrum approximately equal in length to the

palp. Palp 4-segmented (Fig. 4). Palpal trochanter

without any seta. Palpal femur with one dorsal seta.

Palpal patella has one spiniform anterior seta. Palpal

tibiotarsus bears one dorsal and one ventral seta at

the base.

Leg I is stronger than other legs. Telofemur I

with 4 dorsal hair-like setae and 4 stout setae (Figs.

6, 7). Patella I with 4 setae, of which 2 are spiniform.

Tibia II with 3 spiniform setae. Tibiae III and IV

with 2 spiniform setae. All legs with two

lateral claws. Lateral claw I without any pecten or

accessory process. Lateral claws II-IV with an

accessory process dorsally and faintly pectinate

ventrally.

male: The idiosomal length of males ranged

between 400 p and 500 p. Males are similar to the

females in all characteristics except for the GA

region, where the perigenital setae are arranged in

two rings containing 40-60 setae (Fig. 3). Five pairs

of subgenital setae (2 anteriorly, 3 posteriorly) are

present on the sclerites of GO. The cuticular

membranous zones between the idiosomal plates are

less wide in male than in female.

Larvae: The idiosomal length of larvae ranged

between 220 p and 240 p. All dorsal plates of larvae

are smaller than those of nymphs or adults (Figs. 8,

9). A large cuticular membranous area is present

between different plates.

The dorsal seta 1 lies on anterodorsal plate;

dorsal setae 2, 3 and 4 on membranous area on

posterodorsal plate. All ventral plates are separate.

The genital foramen is absent. Two pairs of setae

are present on AE and one pair on PE. Genital

acetabulae are not present on the genital plate. There

are 3 legs bearing 5 segments each.

Protonymph: The idiosomal length of

protonymph ranged between 260 p and 300 p. All

dorsal plates are separate and smaller than those of

deutonymph or adult (Figs. 10, 11). Dorsal

chaetotaxy is same as that of the larvae. AE with 3

pairs of setae and a pair of genital acetabulae. Genital

foramen is absent. First three pairs of legs with 6

segments and the 4th leg with 5 segments.

Deutonymph: The idiosomal length of

deutonymph measured 350 p to 375 p. Deutonymph

differs from the protonymph in that three pairs of

genital acetabulae and all the 4 legs bear 6 segments

in the former.

Distribution: This species is known from

Atlantic coasts of Europe, Bermuda, North America,

South America, Africa, Black Sea, Bay of Bengal,

Australia (Trouessart 1889 a, b, 1901; Lohmann

1893, 1901; Andre 1928, 1929, 1942, 1946; Viets

1936, Newell 1947, Rao and Ganapati 1968, Rao

1972, Bartsch 1975, 1976 a, b; Schuster and Bartsch

1986, Green and Macquitty 1987), and west coast

of India (present report).

The species is found among Algae, Bryozoa,

Holothuria, on mud and occasionally in sediment in

the intertidal and subtidal zones down to 1220

metres.

Acknowledgement

I wish to record my deep sense of indebtedness

to Dr. Ilse Bartsch, Biologische Anstalt Helgoland,

Hamburg, Germany for her assistance.

March 7, 1 995 TAPAS CHATTERJEE

Dept, of Biology, Indian School of Learning,

Indian School of Mines Annexe,

Dhanbad-826 004, Bihar.

References

Andre, M. (1928): Contribution a Fetude des Halacariens des Andre, M. ( 1929): Acarina, Halacardae, 6. Agauopsis brevipalpus

environs de Monaco. Bull. Inst. Oceanograph Monaco 52\ 7. Agaue, Micorhyncha, Commiss, etc. Faune Flore etc. 4.

1-15. Andre, M. (1942): Description d’ A gauop sis brevipalpus

43 4

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY ! Vo l 92 (1995)

Trouessart (Halacarien). Bull. Mus. Hist, nature 14(6): 411-

413.

Andre, M. (1946): Halcariens marins. Fauna Ft: 46: 1-152.

Bartsch, 1. (1975): Beitrag zur Halacariden fauna des Eulitorals

bei Banyuls-sur-Mer (Mittelmeer) (Halacaridae, Acari). Mitt.

Hamb. Zool. Mus. Inst. 72:137-155.

Bartsch, I. (1976a): Beitrag zur Halacariden fauna (Halacaridae,

Acari) des Bretagnukuste, Beshreibung von tunf Arten aus

dem Sandluckensystem. Acarolgia. 17: 602-667.

Bartsch, I. (1976b): Ergunzungen zur Halacariden Fauna

(Halacaridae, Acari) im Becken von Arachon. Vie. Milieu Ser

A. 26: 31-46.

Chatterjee, T. & A.L.N. Sarma (1993): Occurrence

of Copidognathus sideus Bartsch, 1982 (Halacaridae:

Acari) from Indian Coast. ./. Bombay nat. Hist. Sac. 90: 304-

308.

Green, J. & M. Macquitty (1987): Halacarid mites. Synopses

Br. Fauna (N.S.) Pub. E.J. Brill, W. Backhuys — London,

Leiden, Icoln — kobenhavn 36: 1-178.

Lohmann, H. (1893): Bemerkungen zu den auf der Holsatia —

Fahrt 1 887 gesammellen Halacarinen — VI — Ber Kommiss.

Wiss. Untersuch dtsch. Meere. 1887b — 1891. kiel. 3: 1 99-

204.

Lohmann, H. ( 1901 ): Halacaridae. Tierreicli Berlis. 13: 273-305.

Newell, l.M. (1947): A systematic and ecological study of the

Halacaridae of Eastern North America. Bull. Bingham

Oceanograph. collect. JO: 1-232.

Rao, G.C. (1972): On the geographical distribution of interstitial

fauna of marine beach sand. Proc. natn. Inst. Sci. Acad. B 3S:

164-178.

Rao, G.C. & P.N. Ganapati (1968): The interstitial fauna

inhabiting the beach sands of Waltair Coast. Proc. natan. Inst.

Sci. Acad. B. 34: 82-125.

Sarma, A.L.N. & T. Chatterjee (In Press): Occurrence of

Arliodeoporus bonairensis Viets 1936 from Indian Ocean and

remarks on the Zoogeographical distribution of the genus

Arliodeoporus Newell. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

Schuster, R. & I. Bartsch (1986): Order Acari (mites and ticks)

in Marine Fauna and Flora of Bermuda — W. Sterrer Ed.:

270-275.

Trouessart, E.L. (1989a): Sur les Acariens marins des cotes de

France. C.R. Acad. Sci. CVIII: 1178-1180.

Trouessart, E.L. (1989b): Revue synoptique de la famille des

Halacaridae. Bull. Scient. France. Belgique XX: 225-251.

Trouessart, E.L. (1901): Note sur les Acariens marins

(Halacaridae) re coltes par M.H. GAGEAU DE KERVILLE

dans la region d’ omonville — la Rougue (Manche) et dans

la fosse de la Haque (Juin — Juillet 1899), in Rechrehes et

maritime de la Normandie (3e Voyage par H. GADEAU DE

KERVILLE). Bull. Soc. Sc. Nat. Rouen. J4: 247-266.

32. OCCURRENCE OF THE SNAIL PHYSA ACUTA DRAPARNAUD IN CALCUTTA, INDIA

Physa acuta, the freshwater Basommatophoran

gastropod snails of the family Physidae are

represented by fossil forms in India (Subba Rao 1989,

Handbook: Freshwater Mollusca of India, Z.S.I.). But

recently, in the course of our studies on freshwater

molluscs of Calcutta and adjacent areas we had the

opportunity to collect some examples of the snail

species from a narrow drain containing domestic

sewage, by the side of B.T. Road, Dunlop (near

Indian Statistical Institute), Calcutta. The major part

of the drain was occupied by mud mixed with

household refuse. There was a little water in the mud

of the drain. Oscillatoria sp., Euglena sp. and

Navicula sp. were very common in these waters. A

good number of individuals belonging to P. acuta

and Lymnaea (Radix) luteola (Lymnaeidae:

Gastropoda) were seen moving in the water. At a

glance it was not possible to distinguish P. acuta from

L. (/?. ) luteola, but by careful observations,

differences in characteristics of the shells were noted

and the occurrence of two types of snails in the same

habitat was confirmed. Some specimens, bearing

shells different from those of L. (R.) luteola shells

were submitted to the Malacological Division,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for

identification. They were identified as Physa acuta

Draparnaud (ZSI, Lot No. Moll. 843, I.R. No. 15/

94). Though existence of P acuta in Pakistan is on

record its occurrence in India is being reported for

the first time.

We thank the Head of the Department of Zoology,

Calcutta University, Calcutta for the facilities

provided. Thanks are also due to Shri K.V. Surya

Rao, Deputy Director, Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta for identification of the snail specimens.

March 8, 1995 S. K. RAUT

SONALI BHAUMIK

SUBHAMOY DAS

Ecology and Ethology Laboratory,

Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta,

35, B.C. Road, Calcutta-700 0J9.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

43 5

33. RARE OCCURRENCE OF MULTIPLE LEAFY BUDS IN CABBAGE,

BRASSICA OLERACEA VAR. CAPJTATA LINN.

( With a text-figure)

Brassica ole raced var. capitata Linn.

(Brassicaceae) is of European origin which was

introduced and cultivated in some parts of India for

its terminal leafy buds as a leaf vegetable. The thick

and short stemmed herbaceous plants of this taxon

generally produce a single massive terminal bud

which is sometimes even larger than a human head.

During a recent visit to the local vegetable

market I came across a vendor who happened to

receive a consignment from Ooty containing the

presently reported specimen (Fig. 1) with five

terminal leafy buds (one large and four small) on

single shoot which phenomenon is rare under natural

conditions. I am not aware of any such report in the

literature. It is worth considering that such abnormal

growth of multiple terminal leafy buds from a single

plant either naturally or by artificial induction may

be economically exploited to the advantage of both

farmers and consumers.

I thank Dr. P.K. Hajra, Director, Botanical

Survey oflndia, Calcutta for encouragement and to

Dr. P.M. Padhye, Scientist-SD-In-charge for

facilities.

Fig. 1: Multiple terminal leafy buds in cabbage

August 16, 1994 P.S.N. RAO

Scientist ‘ SD’, Botanical Survey of India,

Andaman & Nicobar Circle ,

Port Blair-744 102.

34. CASSIA UNIELORA MILL. VERSUS PARTHENIUM HYSTEROPHORUS L. —

AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY

For the past few years we have been observing

a competition between Cassia uniflora Mill, and

Parthenium hysterophorus L. in Pune. Singh (1983)

had reported that C. uniflora had been penetrat-

ing the areas traditionally occupied by P.

hysterophorus.

A welcome aspect of C. uniflora is the

presence of root nodules which may enrich the soil

by nitrogen fixation. As such the invasion by C.

uniflora on lands dominated by P. hysterophorus —

which is known to cause allergic reactions in humans

— may in fact prove beneficial, although C. uniflora

too is also spreading like a weed.

In order to substantiate the claim of P.

hysterophorus being suppressed by C. uniflora, we

undertook a quantitative estimation of the two

species using the Quadrat method (Michael 1986).

Twenty-eight quadrats of 1 m x 1 m were laid on

vacant lands and along roads to find out the

comparative density of C. uniflora and P.

hysterophorus. Table 1 gives details of the

quantification.

From Table 1 it is evident that the number of

C. uniflora (700) is much more than the number of

P. hysterophorus (281).

We feel that more such quantitative studies

436

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

Table 1

COMPARATIVE DENSITY OF C. uniflora AND

P. hysterophorus

* At this spot the proximity of P.hysterophorus did not permit

counting of each individual.

must be carried out in various other places to

determine the dominant nature of C. uniflora.

Besides, comparative soil analysis of areas

dominated by C. uniflora and those dominated by P

hysterophorus will help in deciding whether

intentional introduction of C. uniflora in areas

dominated by P. hysterophorus could be of help.

Agronomists could probably throw more light on

this aspect.

Acknowledgement

We thank Mr. M.J. Desale for the help in field

surveys.

January 5, 1995 G.K. WAGH

H.V. GHATE

Post-Graduate Research Centre ,

Department of Zoology,

Modern College, Pune-411 005.

References

Michael, P. (1986): Ecological methods for field and Singh, N.P. (1983): Potential biological control of

laboratory investigations. Tata McGraw-Hill Parthenium hysterophorus L. Current Science 52(1 3):

Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi. 544

35. MEDICAGO LUPULINA LINN. (LEGUMINOSAE) — A NEW RECORD FOR RAJASTHAN

( With a text-figure )

During one of the plant collection visits to

tehsil Umrain, Alwar district (Rajasthan). I collected

Medicago lupulina Linn, from the dry beds of

Jaisamand lake and near-by fields. A perusal of the

literature shows that this species has not been

reported from Rajasthan (Dhillon and Bajwa 1969,

Bhandari 1978, Sharma and Tiagi 1979). This paper

records for the first time the occurrence of Medicago

lupulina Linn, from Rajasthan. It is known so far

from the plains of Punjab and Bengal and in the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

437

Fig. 1 . Medicago lupulina Linn.

(a) a flowering branch; (b) a pod.

Himalayas up to 370 m altitude (Duthie 1960) and

from Delhi (Maheshwari 1966). The specimens of

Refe

Bhandari, M.M. (1978): Flora of the Indian Desert.

Jodhpur.

Dhillon, K.B.S. & P.S. Bajwa (1969): A contribution to the

Botany of Ganga nagar district. North Rajasthan. Bull. Bot.

Surv. India II : 234.

Duthie, J.F. (1960): Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain and of the

M. lupulina collected from Umrain, Alwar district

have been housed in the Herbarium of Post-Graduate

Department of Botany, Raj Rishi College, Alwar.

Medicago lupulina Linn. Sp. PI. 779. 1753;

FBI. 2: 90. 1879; Duthie, FI. Upp. Gang. Pl.B.S.I.

reprint 1:194. 1960; Mansfeld in Die Kulturplanze

Beih. 2:163. 1969. (Fig. 1).

A prostrate, biennial herb. Stem profusely

branched, branches spreading in all directions from

the base, branches up to 35 cm long, internodes long,

angular, hairy. Leaves trifoliate, rachis grooved,

hairy; stipules narrow, acute, hairy; Leaflets up to

10 x 9mm size, obovate, slightly dentate on the upper

half, mucronate, sparsely hairy. Flower very small,

yellow, in axillary racemes, aggregated on the upper

part of the peduncle which are longer than the leaves,

bracteate, bracteolate. Calyx companulate, teeth

acute, persistent, hairy. Corolla slightly exserted. Pod

small, 2 x 1 mm size, sickle-shaped, sparsely hairy,

turgid, biconvex; veins prominent, forked and ending

at the ridge; turn black on maturity, 1 -seeded,

indehiscent. Seed kidney shaped, yellow.

Specimens Examined: Jaisamand lake,

Umrain, Alwar Distt., Rajasthan; Yadav-12, 13.

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to the Principal, Raj Rishi

Autonomous College, Alwar for providing necessary

facilities.

July 29, 1994 A.S. YADAV

P.G. Department of Botany,

Raj Rishi Autonomous College,

Alwar- 301 00 1 , Rajasthan.

NCES

Adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan Tracts. Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta 7: 194.

Maheshwari, J.K. ( 1 966): Illustrations to the Flora of Delhi. CSIR,

New Delhi.

Sharma, Shiva & B. Tiagi (1979): Flora of North-East Rajasthan.

New Delhi.

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 92 (1995)

438

36. NOTE ON REVERSION OF INFLORESCENCE AXIS IN CAESALPINIA CRISTA L.

Flowering is an important event in the life of

the plant, signalling its commitment to the

development of fruits and later to seed development.

Once the process of flower morphogenesis starts, it

ends with this normal reproductive phenomenon.

However, in rare instances, flowering process

reverses and the vegetative growth resumes instead

of reproductive stage after flowering initiation. This

type of reversion to vegetative growth is regarded

as a teratoma (Guedes and Dupuy 1979).

Reversion of flowering in Caesalpinia crista

L. was observed during field collection near Pune

metropolitan area. Detailed laboratory observations

are presented in this communication.

Samples of normal and abnormal flowering

inflorescences in Caesalpinia cristaL. were collected

in the month of September 1991. Relevant

observations on normal and teratological specimens

were recorded using standard methods during the

study. Observations were recorded in 8 inflorescence

samples. Filiform structures are modifications of

different floral organs like buds, sepals and petals.

Different reversion types were recorded which is

presented in Table 1.

Table 1

CHARACTERS OF REVERSION TYPES OBTAINED IN

Caesalpinia crista L.

Reversion Characters exhibited by infected plants on

type single axis

RO Reversion of calyx and corolla to leaves.

R 1 Reversion in the form of leaf, filiform structures,

pods, bracts, pedicels, buds and bracts.

R2 Leaves and filiform structures.

R3 Leafy bracts and pods.

R4 Bracts, buds, small fruits, anthers and filiform

structures.

REVERSION OF INFLORESCENCE AXIS IN Caesalpinia crista L.

Reversion types: 1. leaves; 2. filiform structures; 3. pods; 4. bracts; 5. pedicels; 6. buds and bracts; 7. leaves and filiform structures;

8. leaves and bracts; 9. leaves and pods; 10. bracts, buds, anthers, filiform structures & fruits; 1 1 . bracts, buds and filiform structures;

12. fruits and filiform structures; 13. bracts, leaves and filiform structures; 14. bracts, leaves and buds; 15. buds and filiform structures;

16. bracts and filiform structures.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

439

The phenomenon of reversion of flowering

axis is attributed to some sort of imbalance in auxins.

Rizwi ( 1 980) mentions that fasciation is due to fungal

diseases. Greene (1980) reports that fasciated plants

grow slowly and bear abnormally small leaves,

thickening of the internodes and a reduction in

growth of main shoot. This natural phenomenon

affects the development of fruits and seeds. This

happens in plants due to the presence of bacteria

living mostly on the exterior of the host plant. He

has reported the bacterial species Corynebacterium

fascians in Pisum sativum L. and Agrobacterium

Refe

Greene, E.M. (1980): Cytokinin production by Micro-organisms.

The Botanical Review 46: 25-7 4.

Guedes, M. & P. Dupuy (1979): Teratological modification and

the meaning of flower parts. International Bio-science

Monographs-7. Ed. by T.M. Varghese. Today

and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi.

37. IDENTITY OF PHYSALIS

Nair (In Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 (1 ): 323-324.

1962) recorded Physalis longifolia Nutt, from Kerala.

Critical study of herbarium specimens and living

materials and consultation of recent taxonomic

literature revealed that the specimens identified as P.

longifolia Nutt, by Nair belong to Physalis angulata

Linn. We have collected this species from Tiruchirapalli

and voucher specimens have been deposited in

Southern Circle of Botanical Survey of India,

Coimbatore (MH/1 601 61-160165).

P longifolia Nutt, is a rhizomatous species with

angular stems, flowers having brownish centre and the

anthers purple tinged. These characters are not seen in

the specimens collected by Nair (Accession nos. 1156,

1158, 1161, 1164, Dehradun). In contrast they have

strong tap-roots, hollow stems, pale brown maculations

in corolla throat and blue tinged anthers typical of P.

tumefaciens which causes crown gall disease in

dicotyledonous plants. This type of symbiotic

relationship between plant and micro-organism is

really valuable for production of cytokinins. At

present, plasmids of Agrobacterium, caulim viruses

and gemini viruses have been used as potential

vectors to carry out genetic transformations (Kumar

and Kumar 1992). Isolation of such micro-organism

from natural teratological resources will be useful

in fields like genetic engineering.

Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Director, ARI for providing

laboratory facilities and Shri V.N. Joshi for

assistance.

March 9, 1995 D.K. KULKARNI

M.S. KUMBHOJKAR

Botany Group , Division of Plant Science,

Agharkar Research Institute,

G.G. Agarkar Road, Pune 41 1 004.

NCES

Kumar, A. & V.A. Kumar (1992): Plant improvement through

genetic transformations. Everyman's Science 27(4 & 5):

137-140.

Rizwi, M.A. (1980): Inflorescence axis fasciation —

A new fungal disease of Callistemon. Geo Bios. 7(2): 83-

84.

LONGIFOLIA SENSU NAIR

angulata Linn. In order to confirm the correct identity,

herbarium specimens and the fresh materials were sent

to Dr. Mahinda Martinez, a new world expert on

systematics of genus Physalis Linn, in tropical

America, who has kindly confirmed our identification.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. Mahinda Martinez for

identification of the specimens and to the C.S.I.R. for

financial assistance to one of us (S.S.).

May 23, 1 995 S. SUDHAKARAN

A. GANAPATHI

Department of Biotechnology,

School of Life -sciences,

Bharathidasan University,

Tiruchirapalli-620 024.

440

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 92 (1995)

38. ADDITIONS TO THE SCROPHULARIACEAE OF GOA

The flora of Goa is relatively underexplored

when compared to the neighbouring states, namely

Karnataka and Maharashtra. This is true at least with

regard to the seasonal plants, as in the case of the

family Scrophulariaceae. The latest work on the

region by Rao (Flora of Goa, Diu, Daman, Dadra

and Nagarhaveli, 1985-86) records 32 species, out

of which only 24 species (including three cultivated)

are specifically reported from Goa, whereas 41

species are recorded for the adjacent Savantwadi area

(Almeida 1990. The Flora of Savantwadi vol. I) for

the family Scrophulariaceae. During our work on

the Scrophulariaceae of Goa, we found that the

following taxa have not been recorded from Goa by

Rao (l.c.).

All the specimens examined are deposited in

the herbarium, Department of Botany, Goa

University.

1. Buchnera hispida Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don,

Prodr. FI. Nep. 91.1 825; Cooke, FI. Bombay 2: 373.

1967 (repr. ed.).

An erect herb with bluish-pink corolla,

growing up to 60 cm high. Grows on dry, laterite

slopes amidst grasses during post monsoon season.

The specimens dry black.

FI. & Fr.: October-November.

Exsiccata: Goa, Verna plateau, 17.10.1993,

Rupa 48.

2. Limnophila aquatica (Roxb.) Alston, Ann.

Roy. Bot. Gard. Paradeniya 11:205. 1929; Cramer

in Dassanayake & Fosberg, Rev. Handb. FI. Ceylon

3: 431. 1981; Kulkarni, FI. Sindhudurg 298. 1988.

Cyrilla aquatica Roxb., PI. Cor. 2: 47, t. 189. 1798.

Limnophila racemosa Benth., Scroph. Ind. 26. 1 835;

Cooke, FI. Bombay 2: 362. 1967 (repr. ed.).

A heterophyllous, aquatic herb; flowers in

curved racemes. This distinct species is often treated

conspecific with L. indica (L.) Druce. Cramer’s (l.c.)

treatment is followed here.

FI. & Fr.: October-March.

Exsiccata: Goa, Pilar, 17.10.1993, Rupa 46.

3. Limnophila repens (Benth.) Benth. in DC.,

Prodr. 10: 387. 1846; Almeida, FI. Savantwadi 1:

296. 1990. Stemodia repens Benth. in Edward’s Bot.

Reg. 17: sub t. 1470. Sp. 11. 1832. Limnophila

conferta Benth. in DC., Prodr. 10: 387. 1 846; Cooke,

FI. Bombay 2: 361. 1967 (repr. ed.).

An erect or prostrate herb. The absence of

dissected leaves distinguishes this from the above

species. Common in fallow fields during late and

post monsoon.

FI. & Fr.: September-January.

Exsiccata: Goa, Benaulim, 13.9.1993, Rupa

43, 45.

4. Lindernia antipoda (L.) Alston in Trimen,

Handb. FI. Ceylon 6 (Suppl.): 214. 1931; Philcox in

Kew Bull. 17:484. 1964 & 22: 57. 1968; Sivarajan

& Mathew in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80: 133.

1983; Almeida, FI. Savantwadi 1 : 299. 1990. Ruellia

antipoda L., Sp. PI. 635. 1753.

A prostrate herb; common in marshy or wet

situations. Though there is no reference to this

species by Rao (l.c.), the synonyms of this species,

namely Bonnaya veronicaefolia and Ilysanthes

veronicaefolia are cited under Lindernia anagallis.

FI. & Fr.: July-January.

Exsiccata: Goa, University campus, Taleigao,

8.7.1993, Rupa 4; 30.7.1993, Rupa 31.

5. Lindernia hyssopioides (L.) Haines, Bot.

Bih. Or. 635. 1922; Philcox in Kew Bull. 22: 50.

1968; Sivarajan & Mathew in J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 80: 136. 1983; Almeida, FI. Savantwadi 1: 300.

1990. Gratiola hyssopioides L., Mant. PI. 174. 1771.

Ilysanthes hyssopioides (L.) Benth. in DC. Prodr. 10:

419. 1846; Cooke, FI. Bombay 2: 368. 1967 (repr.

ed.).

An erect herb found growing in moist

situations and paddy fields, often occupying larger

areas. Flowers violet in colour with white base. Very

much similar to L. parviflora.

FI. & Fr.: August-January.

Exsiccata: Goa, Benaulim, 29.8.1993, Rupa

29.

6. Lindernia parviflora (Roxb.) Haines, Bot.

Bih. Or. 635. 1922: Sivarajan & Mathew in J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 38. 1950; Rao, FI. Goa, Diu, Daman,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

441

Dadra & Nagarhaveli 2: 302. 1986; Almeida, FI.

Savanlwadi 1: 301. 1990. Gratiola parviflora Roxb.,

PI. Cor. 3: 3, t. 204. 1811. llysanthes parviflora (Roxb.)

Benth., Scroph. Ind. 34. 1846; Cooke, FI. Bombay

2: 368. 1967 (repr. ed.).

Grows mostly in shallow ponds, marshy places

and paddy fields. Flower colour varies from white

to blue. Rao (l.c.) recorded this species from

Nagarhaveli but not from Goa region.

FI. & Fr.: July-August.

Exsiccata: Goa, University campus, Taleigao,

21 .7.1993, Rupa 7; Marcel, 15.8.1993, Rupa 17.

7. Lindernia rotundifolia (L.) Alston in

Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceylon 6 (Suppl.): 214. 1931;

Sivarajan & Mathew in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

80: 135. 1983; Almeida, FI. Savantwadi 1:301. 1990.

Gratiola rotundifolia L., Mant. PI. 274. 1771.

llysanthes rotundifolia (L.) Benth. in DC., Prodr. 10:

420. 1846.

This erect or prostrate herb is strikingly

different in its ovate — orbicular, 3-nerved leaves.

Common in marshy or moist areas.

FI. & Fr.: August- January.

Exsiccata: Goa, Marcel, 15.8.1993, Rupa 21.

8. Lindernia tenuifolia (Colsm.) Alston var.

pygmaea Sivarajan & Mathew in J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 80: 134. 1983.

A tufted herb; similar to L. tenuifolia var.

tenuifolia but for its dwarf size. Specimens show lot

of variations especially with regard to their leaf shape

and size. Found growing with typical variety in

marshy places. Very rare.

FI. & Fr.: August.

Exsiccata: Goa, Marcel, 15.8.1993, Rupa 22.

9. Mecardonia procumbens (Mill.) Small, FI.

Southeast U.S. 1065 & 1338. 1903; Saldanha in

Saldanha & Nicolson, FI. Hassan 523. 1976. Erinus

procumbens Mill., Gard. Diet. ed. 8. n.6. 1768.

A small erect or prostrate herb; sepals unequal;

corolla yellow. This exotic weed has been recorded

sporadically from Peninsular India.

FI. & Fr.: August-September.

Exsiccata: Goa, University campus, Taleigao,

21.8.1993, Rupa 27.

10. Microcarpaea minima (Koen.) Merr. in

Philipp. J. Sci. 7: 100. 1912; Almeida, FI. Savantwadi

1 : 302. 1990. Paederota minima Koen. in Retz. Obs.

Bot. 5: 10. 1789. Microcarpaea muscosa R. Br.,

Prodr. 436. 1810; Santapau in J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 49:48. 1950.

A small prostrate herb forming dense mats in

moist fallow fields and paddy fields after harvest.

Resembles Dentella spp. of Rubiaceae.

FI. & Fr.: December-February.

Exsiccata: Goa, Taleigao, Rupa 50.

Acknowledgements

We thank the authorities of BSI and MH for

granting permission to consult herbaria and libraries.

We also thank Prof. V.V. Sivarajan, Department of

Botany, Calicut University for confirming the

identity of Lindernia spp. and Dr. S.R. Yadav, Reader

and Head, Department of Botany, Goa University

for his help in various ways.

June 16, 1994 RUPA A. KULKARNI

M.K. JANARTHANAM

Department of Botany,

Goa University, Goa-403 203.

39. KICKXIA INCANA (WALL.) PENNELL. (SCROPHULARIACEAE) — A NEW

PLANT RECORD FOR KARNATAKA

Specimens of Kickxia incana (Wall.) Pennel.

(Scrophulariaceae) have been collected during a

critical survey of the flora of North-Western

Karnataka, and it forms a new record for the state of

Karnataka. Description of the species along with

notes are provided here. The specimens are deposited

in the Herbarium of Botany Department, Shivaji

University, Kolhapur.

Kickxia incana (Wall.) Pennell, Scroph. West.

Himal. 59. 1943; Sant, in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

49: 27. 1950; Almeida, FI. Sawantwadi. 1: 295, 1990.

Linaria incana Wall., PI. As. Rar. 2: 43. 1831. L.

442

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY I Vol. 92 (1995)

cabulica Benth. in DC., Prodr. 10: 270. 1846; Cooke,

FI. Pres. Bombay 2: 354, 1905. L. cabulica var.

pubescens Hooker f. in FI. Brit. India 4: 251. 1883.

Hairy, much branched herb. Stem herbaceous,

aerial, terete, diffuse-prostrate, trailing, 10-40 cm

long. Leaves triangular-ovate, lower leaves 3-7

lobed, opposite, upper leaves entire, alternate, main

nerves 5-7, hairy on both surfaces, 0. 3-4.2 x 0. 3-3.0

cm, exstipulate, petiolate, petiole 0.2- 1.5 cm long,

hairy. Flowers solitary, axillary, ebracteate, pedicel

5-9 mm long, filiform, hairy, bent at apex; calyx

polysepalous densely hairy, sepals linear —

lanceolate, acute, membraneous; corolla yellow,

personate, spurred, corolla tube 4. 5-7. 5 mm long,

pubescent-hairy at outer side, spurred at base, spur

2-3 mm long, lower lip 3 lobed, upper lip slightly

shorter than lower lip. Stamens 4, didynamous,

filaments glabrous, style stout, stigma capitate,

ovules many. Capsule ovoid or globose with

persistant calyx. Seeds numerous, minute, angular,

rugose, brown-black.

Note: Growing on walls of old forts, houses,

temples and in crevices of rocks at Rajhunsgad fort

in Belgaum District. The species was only found on

the highest parts of the hills.

Flowering: September-December.

Fruiting: October- January.

Distribution: The species has been reported

from Purandhar fort (Santapau 1957),

Mahabaleshwar (Bole and Almeida 1985, Deshpande

et al. 1993) and Savantwadi (Almeida 1990) of

Maharashtra State.

Specimens observed: MPB-4715, Sant.-

22879 (BLAT), SMA-26.

Acknowledgements

We thank the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens,

Kew for confirming the identification of the species

and Professor M.S. Patil, Head of Botany

Department, Shivaji University, Kolhapur for

providing facilities.

November 23, 1994 M. P. BACHULKAR

Department of Botany, Vivekanand College,

Kolhapur-416 003.

S. R. YADAV

Department of Botany, Goa University \

Goa -403 203.

S. K. LIMAYE

Aryangla Vaidyak Mahavidyalaya,

Satara-415 002.

References

Bole, P.V. & M.R. Almeida (1985): Material for the Mahabaleshwar and Adjoinings, Maharashtra. BSI. Calcutta:

flora of Mahabaleshwar-6. J. Bombay nut. Hist. Soc. 82 ( 1 ): 409.

69. Santapau, H. (1957): The Flora of Purandhar. BSI. Calcutta: 90-

Desupande, S., B.D. Sharma & M.P Nayar (1993): Flora of 91.

40. DORSTENIA 1NDICA WIGHT (MORACEAE) — A NEW PLANT RECORD FOR

MAHARASHTRA

Well established strands of Dorstenia indica

Wight (Moraceae) have been observed during

repeated excursions to Saptashrungi hills of Nashik

District, Maharashtra at an altitude of 800 metres.

Collections were made for its complete study. The

identity of this species is confirmed and as it forms

a new record for Maharashtra, description along with

notes are provided here. The specimens are deposited

in the Herbarium of Botany Department, Shivaji

University, Kolhapur.

Dorstenia indica Wight, l.c. PI. Ind. Or. 6:

1964. 1843; Bur. In DC., Prod. 17: 272.1873; Hook,

f., Fl.Br.Ind.5: 494.1890; Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceylon

4: 102. 1898; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 3: 1370.

1928; Fyson, FI. South Ind. Hill Stations 1: 542, f.

474. 1932; Fischer, FI. Pres. Madras 8: 958. 1956.

Succulent herb, 7.5-25 cm high. Stems fleshy,

tapering, curved ascending, unbranched but

proliferating from the base, rooting from the

underside, sparsely hairy, latex white. Leaves

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

443

petiolate, simple, alternate, obovate-lanceolate,

5-8.5 cm long, acuminate, sinuate toothed,

membranous, puberulous or glabrous, petiole 1-2.5

cm long. Inflorescence solitary, axillary, somewhat

decurved, yellowish-green. Receptacle 0.8- 1.5 cm

across, peltate, broadly obconic, rounded or angular

with 5-12 linear arms. Male flowers numerous, 0.5

mm high; Perianth with two slight lobes; stamens 1-

2. Female flowers immersed in the disc, opening

before the male; perianth vaguely 2-lobed; ovary

stalked, stigma bifid, syncarp fleshy, extruding the

small crustaceous seeds; seed 2 mm long, minutely

papillate.

Note: Plants grow on soil under shade of fo-

rest trees as well as on the trunks and crevices of

trees.

Flowering: July-September.

Fruiting: September-October.

Distribution: The species is reported from

Nilgiri, Pulney (=Palnis) and Dindigule (=Dindigul)

mountains (Hooker 1988, Fyson 1932) and also from

Sri Lanka (Dassanayake and Fosberg 1981).

Specimens observed: DNS-4027; BRP-4028

Acknowledgements

We thank Dr. S.R. Yadav, Reader, Goa

University, Goa and Mr. M.P. Bachulkar, Vivekanand

College, Kolhapur, for confirming the identification.

January 5, 1995 D.N. SHINDE

Department of Botany, Karmveer Kakasaheb

Wagh College,

Pimpalgaon ( Basawant)-422209.

B.R. PAWAR

Department of Botany, Arts, Science and

Commerce College, Satana-423301 .

M.S. PATIL

Department of Botany, Shivaji University,

Kolhapur-4 1 6004.

References

Dassanayake, M.D. &F.R. Fosberg (1981): A Revised Handbook Vol. 1 :543.

to the Flora of Ceylon. Vol. 3: 228. Hooker, J.D. (1988): Flora of British India.

Fyson, P.F. (1932): The Flora of South Indian Hill Stations. Vol. 5: 494.

ERRATA

Vol. 92, No. 1

A STUDY OF ABNORMAL NESTS OF BAYA WEAVER BIRD PLOCEUS

PHILIPPINES (LINN.) IN RAJASTHAN

On p. 69, diagram.

The “multistoreyed nests” is a subkind of simple abnormal nests and not of “mixed abnormal nest”. Therefore the

correct classification of nest would be like follows:

ABNORMAL NESTS

I

Simple abnormal nests Mixed abnormal nests

! . .

I I

Monostoreyed nests Multistoreyed nests

Vol. 92. No. 2

Miscellaneous Note No. 23. Length record of the common wolf snake ( Lycodon aulicus ) from Bharuch, Gujarat.

On p. 271, para 2, line 7,

For divided into ventrals 232 and caudals 5 1 .

Read ventrals 232 and caudals 51 divided.

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