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JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
APRIL 2001
Vol. 98 (1)
BOARD OF EDITORS
Editor
J.C. DANIEL
M.R. ALMEIDA
AJITH KUMAR
M.K. CHANBRASHEKARAN
T.C. NARENDRAN
B.F. CHHAPGAR
R. GADAGKAR
INDRANEIL DAS
A.J.T. JOHNSINGH
A.R. RAHMAN I
J.S. SINGH
R. WHITAKER
Assistant Editor
GAYATR! WATTAL UGRA
INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS
1 . Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere
should not be submitted.
2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional
copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.518) using Word Star.
3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has
been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.
4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at
least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps
should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper. Maps and figures will not be
acceptable if labelled free hand.
5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically
arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in
italics and titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:
Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint
species. J. Bombay nat Hist Soc. 92(1): 63-66 .
Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,
Mumbai, pp. 35-48.
6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200
words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of important
species discussed.
7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of
new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors wiil be sent a free
copy of the Journal.
8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s
contribution earlier than a non-member’s.
HornbilS House, Editors,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Journal of the Bombay
Mumbai-400 023. Natural History Society
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON DISPLAYS AND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL
MAGPIE ROBIN COPSYCHUS SAULARIS
(With one plate and two text-figures )
By Anil Kumar and Dinesh Bhatt 5
THE POPULATION DYNAMICS AND CONSERVATION OF GOLDEN LANGUR
By A. Srivastava, M. Baruah and S.M. Mohnot 12
STUDIES ON THE SYSTEMATICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRAWNS IN ASSAM
( With nine text-figures )
By N.K. Dutta 1 8
STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE-NAPED TIT PARUS NUCHALIS IN
GUJARAT AND RAJASTHAN
ByJ.K.Tiwari 26
SPECIES STATUS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI (MUKERIl 1934), (CYPRINIFORMES:
CYPRINIDAE) WITH A SYSTEMATIC NOTE ON POROPUNTIUS CLAVATUS
(MCCLELLAND 1845)
(With one plate and two text-figures )
By Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin 31
FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD BUFO MELANOSTICTUS
SCHNEIDER
(With one text-figure)
By Mercy Mathew and M.I. Andrews 38
TAXONOMIC POSITION OF THE INDIAN SPECIES OF GRASS FEEDING
DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPERS ASSIGNED TO THE GENUS ALLOPHLEPS
(HEMIPTERA: CICADELLIDAE)
(With five text-figures)
By C.A. Viraktamath and Pratap Chandra Dash 47
NOTES OF THE LIFE HISTORY OF CONCHYLOCTENIA NIGROVITTATA (BOHEMAN)
(COLEOPTERA: CHRYSOMELIDAE: CASSIDINAE)
(With four text-figures)
By Nilesh Rane, Sachin Ranade and H.V. Ghate 53
TERRESTRIAL MOLLUSCS FROM NEPAL
(With one text-figure)
By Bharat Raj Subba and Tapan Kumar Ghosh 58
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPER GENUS GONIAGNATHUS (HEMIPTERA:
CICADELLIDAE) IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF
FOUR NEW SPECIES
(With sixty-five text-figures)
By Pratap Chandra Dash and C.A. Viraktamath 62
GARRA PERIYARENSIS , A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE,
KERALA, INDIA
( With four text-figures)
ByK.C.Gopi 80
ON A NEW SPECIES OF HETEROGAMUS WESMAEL (INSECTA: HYMENOPTERA:
BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA
(With three text-figures)
By S.M. Kurhade and P.K. Nikam
84
TWO NEW SPECIES OF BULBOPHYLLUM THOUARS (ORCHID ACEAE) FROM
SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA
( With two text-figures)
By Muktesh Kumar and Stephen Sequiera 87
OBITUARY
Sidney Dillon Ripley II 1913-2001 92
REVIEWS
1 . CHECKLIST OF INDIAN MAMMALS
Reviewed by Meghana Gavand 94
2. PEOPLE, PARKS AND WILDLIFE: TOWARDS COEXISTENCE
Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 94
3. THREATENED BIRDS OF THE WORLD
Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 95
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MAMMALS
1 . Occurrence of small Indian civet Viverricula
indica, Family Viverridae, in the mid-hills of
Himachal Pradesh
By M.L. Narang, Naim Akhtar and
Manoj Kumar 97
2. Wetting of nostril by jackal Canis aureus
Linn., Carnivora, Family Canidae
By Raza H. Tehsin 97
3 . Sloth bear Melursus ursinus Shaw and power
meter
By Raza H. Tehsin 98
4. New records and status of blackbuck Antilope
cervicapra in Buenos Aires Province,
Argentina
By Bruno Carpinetti 98
5. Incidence of an elephant calf Elephas
maximus trapped between two tree trunks
By Niren Jain and R. Saandeep 99
6. A note on some food plants of the Malayan
giant squirrel Ratufa bicolor in Gibbon
Wildlife Sanctuary, Jorhat, Assam
By P. Bujarbarua, D. Chetry, J. Das,
S.K. Sarma and P.C. Bhattacharjee 101
7. Burrow morphology of field rodents of
Kymore Plateau, Satpura Hills
By O.P. Dubey 103
BIRDS
8. The barheaded goose Anser indicus Latham
in Bhavnagar, Saurashtra
By I.R. Gadhvi 106
9. More information on shikra Accipter badius
(Gmelin) feeding on shortnosed fruit bats
Cynopterus sphinx V ahl .
ByAshfaq Ahmed Zarri 106
1 0 . Predatory attack on bats by bam owl Tyto alba
and shikra Accipiter badius in Tamil Nadu
State, South India
By G. Agoramoorthy and Minna J. Hsu 107
11. A note on sarus crane Grus antigone mortality
due to collision with high-tension power lines
By K.S. Gopi Sundar and B.C. Choudhury ... 108
1 2. Occurrence of great Indian bustard Ardeotis
nigriceps at Hosur, Nashik district,
Maharashtra
By B. Raha and Vibhu Prakash 110
13. Sighting of sociable lapwing Vanellus
gregarius in Kachchh district, Gujarat
By Justus Joshua, S.F. Wesley Sunderraj,
V. Gokula, S.V. Subba Rao,
Pranita Narayanan and Rashmi Dinesan Ill
14. Occurrence of the white-winged black tern
Chlidonias leucopterus in Kerala
By P.K. Ravindran 112
15. Sightings of whitecheeked tern Sterna
repressa, whitewinged black tern Chlidonias
leucopterus and Saunders’s little tern Sterna
saundersi at Porbander Coast, Gujarat
By B.M. Parasharya and
Aeshita Mukherjee 113
16. Red-winged crested cuckoo Clamator
coromandus , an addition to the avifauna
of Anaimalai Hills (Western Ghats) of
Tamil Nadu
By A. Relton 114
17. Competition between jungle myna
Acridotheres fuscus and lesser golden backed
woodpecker Dinopium benghalense for a nest
hole
By Aniruddha Jha 115
REPTILES
18. Further records of Pyxidea mouhotii (Gray)
from the north bank of R. Brahmaputra, Assam
By Anwaruddin Choudhury 116
1 9. Distributional notes on the turtles of Western
Myanmar
By Steven G. Platt, Saw Tun Khaing,
Win Ko Ko and Kalyar
117
20. Difference in breeding coloration in Calotes
versicolor of the southern and northern
Aravallis in Rajasthan
By Satish Kumar Sharma
AMPHIBIA
21. Occurrence of painted kaloula Kaloula
taprobanica (Family Microhylidae) at Point
Calimere, Tamil Nadu
By Varad Giri, Vithoba Hegde and
Vinod Patil
22. On the distribution of Ichthyophis
bombayensis Taylor, 1960 (Family
Ichthyophiidae) in Central Western Ghats
By M.S. Ravichandran and
S.V. Krishnamurthy
23. Nine new records of amphibia (Anura) from
Arunachal Pradesh, India
By Mohini Mohan Borah and
Sabitry Bordoloi
FISH
24. New record of Saurida wanesio Shindo &
Yamada, (Osteichthyes: Myctophi formes:
Synodidae) from the West Bengal Coast, with
a note on Lutjanus sanguineus (Cuvier)
(Osteichthyes: Perci formes: Lutjanidae)
By S. Kar and R.Chakraborty
25 . On the occurrence of Nemacheilus keralensis
(Rita et al.) in Muvattupuzha river, Kerala,
India
By K. Raju Thomas, C.R. Biju and
M. John George
26. Fishes of Ramanadhi river in Kalakkad
Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu, India
By M. Arunachalam, A. Sankaranarayanan,
J.A. Johnson, C. Vijayakumar,
A. Manimekalan, R. Soranam, A. Albin and
P.N.Shanthi
INSECTS
27. Migration of Blue Mormon butterfly Papilio
polymnester in Mumbai (Maharashtra)
By Naresh Chaturvedi and Vithoba Hegde ..
28. Forms of Danaus chrysippus Linn.
(Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in the Kumaon
Himalaya
By Peter Smetacek
29. On the distribution of saturnid moths
Sonthonnaxia maenas (Doubleday) and
Loepa katinka (Westwood)
By Naresh Chaturvedi
OTHER INVERTEBRATES
30. Redescription of Schizomus buxtoni Gravely
from Sri Lanka on the basis of syntypes
deposited in the Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta by F.H. Gravely 1915
By D.B. Bastawade 1 33
31. Morphology of Eurycercus lamellatus
(Muller), Chydoridae: Cladocera, from the
high altitude wetlands of Sikkim, India
By K. Venkataraman 137
32. New record of the mud snail, Hydrobia
(Mollusca: Gastropoda) from the mangrove
habitat of Indopacific Region
By R. Sunil Kumar 142
33. Mangrove clam Geloina erosa (Solander,
1786) from Coringa (Godavari) estuary: A
new record for Andhra Pradesh
By C. Srinivasulu 144
BOTANY
34. Two new plant records for India from Sikkim
By P. Singh and S.S. Dash 1 44
35. Yield response of Calophyllum inophyllum on
introduction of red ants
By V. Kumaresan 148
36. On the distribution range of Bauhinia glauca
glauca (Benth.) Benth. (Leguminosae:
Caesalpinioideae) in India
By S . Bandy opadhy ay 149
37. On two species of Osbeckia Linn.
(Melastomataceae)
By G.S. Giri and S.K. Mandal 150
38. First record of gum exudation from the gonda
tree Cordia myxa Linn. (Family:
Boraginaceae)
By Hamid A. Khan, B.B. Vashishtha and
M. Mohibb E Azam 152
39. Distribution of Oberonia brachyphylla Blatt.
& McCann — A rare, endemic orchid of
Western Ghats, India
By Vaishali C. Joshi, S. Rajkumar and
M.K. Janarthanam 153
40. New records of the Family Eriocaulaceae from
Goa
By Vaishali C. Joshi, S. Rajkumar and
M.K. Janarthaman 155
4 1 . Note on Fimbristylis microcarya F. V. Muell .
(Cyperaceae), a new distributional record to
South India
By K. Indira and R.R. Venkata Raju 157
Cover photograph: King Cobra
Ophiophagus hannah by Shekar Dattatri
120
121
121
123
126
127
128
130
131
132
Editorial
Conservation of Snakes in India
111 1934, Malcolm Smith writes in his Introduction to Volume II of fauna of British india
(the lizard volume): “The annual slaughter of reptiles for trade purposes is now enormous,
and unless measures are taken to control it, certain species are in great danger of being
exterminated.” Smith went on to quote a figure of 5,250,000 reptile skins exported from
India in 1932 and 1933. Virtually nothing was done for the next forty years to stem the
trade in reptile skins.
Skin Trade : In the late 1960s, snake skin exports peaked at an estimated 10 million
skins per year. This figure was arrived at by putting a value of Rs. 10/- on each of the
Rs. 107 millions worth of skins exported in 1967-1968. In 1978, in common Indian snakes,
I wrote, “The snake skin industry means employment for the tribals, but as there is no
control on numbers and season, and since the middlemen get the major profit at this end,
it is both ecologically and economically unsound.” It wasn’t until 1975-1976 that most
snakes received some paper protection. The Wildlife Act listed only the python in those
days and it was the Export Policy for Wildlife Products, that finally began what was a long
rocky road to protection with muscle. Eventually, all snakes found some form of protection
under the Wildlife Act. It then took a lot of effort by State and Central Wildlife Staff,
Customs and Police officers to finally bring the snake skin trade down to a cottage industry
level trickle. An important factor was the comparatively low profits from snake skins.
Smugglers are versatile and will shift focus from high-risk bulky items like snake skins,
which don’t yield top returns, to other big earners like dope and tiger parts.
Snake Ecology. No one knows what the ecological implications of such a slaughter
have been. But the removal of perhaps one billion rodent eating snakes and lizards in the
forty years following Smith’s amazingly “hip” conservation message, cannot have helped
Indian agriculture very much. In fact, it might be wildly surmised that we are only now
recovering from the ecological disturbance of those decades, as snake populations reach
former levels of abundance. (Ah, for a study of rat and snake ecology in India’s grain
fields!).
Snakes in Cities'. Well, the reptile skin trade is fairly well under control (the few
seizures of snake skins you read about in the papers these days means that there is still a
small scale underground trade), but people still kill snakes just because they’re snakes. In
the last two decades, the number of snake rescue services in cities in India has proliferated,
following the example of our Madras Snake Park service begun in 1970. So in Kolkata,
Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore, Baroda and Rajkot there are well known “snake people”
who are on call to catch that snake which blundered into your house looking for a juicy rat.
Yes, the English media, nature clubs for well-to-do city kids and the general concept of
wildlife being “with it” has popularized snakes amongst Indian urbanites like never before.
I’m not complaining, it’s just that there is no effort being made to take the same awareness
into the countryside, where most of the snakes (and Indians!) live. Where are those grassroots
nrogrammes for conservation in local languages?
Snakes in Villages : People in villages are scared of snakes, because they have a
personal experience of someone known to them dying from snakebite. So what if they eat
rats, “the only good snake is a dead snake.” We are hardly beyond the primitive state of
100 years ago, before there was an effective cure for snakebite. Antivenom serum is now-
available in most major hospitals (in towns and cities), but is just as often not available in
the Primary Health Centres and Rural Clinics that serve rural people. No wonder there can
be little headway with the message “snakes are friends of the farmer.” If it wasn’t for
religious sentiment (mainly concerning cobras), snakes would be hunted out of existence
as have most other life threatening wild animals. So we see that conservation of snakes in
India is very much linked to awareness: knowing the few dangerous species and the
effectiveness of antivenom. But it won’t work unless health authorities can guarantee
adequate supplies of antivenom serum in rural dispensaries. And it has recently come to
light that antivenom serum made using venom of snakes from one region of the country
may not be effective against the bite of the same species in another region. No work has yet
been done on this problem in India, but we recently found out that Indian made antivenom
serum is quite useless against Sri Lankan Russell’s viper bite and the king cobra antivenom
made in Thailand will not neutralize Indian king cobra venom. All this may seem a bit
esoteric in a discussion about conservation of snakes, but it has always been a bit awkward
to defend venomous snakes, especially if you can’t at least guarantee a cure for their bites!
Habitat loss and the Losers : Big, conspicuous snakes like the python and king cobra
are often the first casualties of forest loss. They need the space, hiding places and prey
base. But we are losing other smaller forest snakes at an undocumented but predictably
rapid rate as their habitat is altered or disappears. Clearing forests raises the ground
temperatures and dries out the soil, which spells death for most of the burrowing species
like the shieldtail snakes. Many snakes of the Western Ghats again like the shieldtails, pit
vipers and coral snake, plus a number of others like the pit vipers and trinket snakes of the
Northeast, Andaman cobra and Cantor’s pit viper of the Andamans and Nicobars are
endemics and have evolved to fit neatly into the conditions prevailing in the once pristine
forests. It is our great loss that many of these are losing ground without anyone even
noticing. Sri Lanka has similar problems and has lost over 80% of the country’s wet tropical
forests and all the amazing biodiversity therein. Yet, in the tiny fragments remaining, field
biologists with the Sri Lankan Wildlife Heritage Trust have discovered as many as 200
new species of frogs just in the last few years! This is an amazing revelation and points to
the obvious likelihood that much biodiversity in our own dwindling rain forests (including
new snakes) remains to be discovered.
The Survivors'. Humans have an uncanny knack of messing up natural systems,
sometimes resulting in little twists of irony. Here’s one of them: by creating rice fields
from forest land we make ideal conditions for rats with plenty of food, water and excellent
housing in field bunds. At least three species of snakes, two of them venomous, are fine
with this arrangement and quickly adapt to the new season of plenty. Rat snakes, cobras
and in some areas kraits, all benefit from our farming methods and the numbers of these
snakes are invariably much higher in agricultural areas than in their original “natural”
habitat. A few other “minor players” like the rodent eating sand boas, plus the frog lovers
such as the striped keelback and checkered keelback, must love us too as we provide them
with unnatural concentrations of prey items. An unknown factor is, of course, the increasing
chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. Will snakes suffer the way India’s vultures
have, once toxic levels reach intolerable concentrations?
No discussion of Indian conservation would be complete without mentioning the
only ‘sustainable use of wild animals’ project in the country. The Irula Snake Catchers
Cooperative Society, set up in 1978, has caught well over 75,000 snakes and produces
most of the venom used for making antivenom serum. The happy note is that the snakes
are released after four extractions, unlike other venom production units in the world, which
milk the snakes till they die (very prematurely). This is a model project wherein a tribe of
expert snake catchers continues its traditional occupation, but not at the expense of the
natural resource.
To sum up, India has done a pretty good job in clearing up its snake skin trade act,
urbanites are starting to love snakes, but country people are still scared and negative about
them. Teaching people to identify the dangerous ones and how to avoid and discourage
them is vital, as is the publicity and distribution of the right antivenom serum.
Forest loss continues to be a very frightening comment on how we misuse our precious
resources, which is resulting in the extinction of many taxa, including snakes, with no one
to count the tragic losses. At the same time, there are a few hardy snakes which adapt to
our monoculture mania. In a few decades, these may be the only ones left!
ROMULUS WHITAKER
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,
Govt of India,
FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
April 2001
Vol. 98
No. 1
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON DISPLAYS AND POSTURES
IN THE ORIENTAL MAGPIE ROBIN COPSYCHUS SAULARIS 1
Anil Kumar and Dinesh Bhatt2
( With one plate and two text-figures)
Key words: Visual displays, communication, Copsy chus saularis, flight display,
tail posture, courtship display, threat posture
Animals convey information to members of their own and other species through a number of
channels. Changes in posture and colours are their means of visual communication. In the present
study, efforts have been made to characterize types of visual signals and their importance in the
social life of a song bird, the Oriental magpie robin Copsychus saularis. Observations revealed
that this bird uses a number of visual signals for communication. Display flights and tail postures
are used by the male to attract females. Males perform various courtship ceremonies, stretching
the head forward and downward in front of females, spreading their tail feathers, left-right
movement of neck, stretching the beak skywards in an ecstatic posture, and other actions that
eventually lead to coition. When an intruder arrives in the male’s territory it displays a threatening
posture by raising its head and sleekening the plumage. Nestlings and fledglings use specific
begging display by quivering their wings and demanding food. In addition, one type of resting
and three types of sleeping postures have been observed.
Introduction
Physical display or posture is one of several
means of animal communication, as a wider
range of expression is possible by visual rather
than vocal, chemical or tactile means. Birds are
known to use visual signals (Collias 1943,
Armstrong 1965, Butcher and Rohwer 1989).
Special postures and movements are often used
to display these signals. Many methods have been
developed by birds for switching visual signals
‘Accepted May, 2000
department of Zoology & Environmental Science
Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar 249 404,
Uttaranchal, India.
on and off by movements of the head, body, tail,
wings and body feathers (Marler and Hamilton
1966). It is believed that species-specific
morphological features of an animal may be
ritualized (‘ritualization’ refers to the
evolutionary modification of movements and
structure to improve their signal function) and
act as sign stimuli to which other members of
the species respond instinctively (Krebs and
Devies 1987). In the social context, these sign
stimuli are termed ‘social releasers ’ e.g. the red
spot on the bill of herring gull has all the
characteristics of a sign stimulus. In ethological
terms, the red spot of the bill releases the begging
response of the chick (Tinbergen 1951).
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 200 1
5
ON DISPLA YSAND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL MA GPIE ROBIN
Visual displays or postures in birds perform
a variety of functions. The head-up posture is
frequently used in fighting and territorial defence
in many passerine families (Marler 1961).
Aggressive displays often involve an apparent
increase in size (Tinbergen 1959, Marler 1961).
The main weapons of many birds are the bill and
wings, and these are often maximally presented to
the opponent in a ‘head-forward’ posture (Andrew
1961). Many visual signals are directed partially
or entirely towards members of the opposite sex,
coordinating reproductive activities. The
ornamentation of plumage is widely used by the
buds to synchronize the reproductive process and
mate acquisition (Mayr 1956, Butcher and Rohwer
1989). Colourful marks on various species,
especially on the beak, are used by birds for parent-
offspring recognition (Tinbergen 1959).
Despite the rich avifauna in the Indian
subcontinent (about 1,228 resident species), our
knowledge of displays and postures of Indian
birds is scanty and based on fragmented
observations made by ornithologists, naturalists
and bird watchers (Ali 1996, Ali and Ripley
1998). According to Ali (1996), ‘our greatest
need today is for careful and rational field work
on living birds in their natural environment’.
Thus, an attempt has been made to study the types
of displays and postures and their sociobiological
importance in the Oriental magpie robin
Copsychus saularis.
Material and Methods
The Oriental magpie robin (Family
Muscicapidae, Subfamily Turdinae) is a
conspicuously pied black and white bird,
distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent,
up to about 2,500 m above msl, absent in arid
areas and is divided into three races on minor
size and colour differences. It is a common plains
species, avoiding both dense forest and open bare
plain and prefers groves and gardens. The male
is glossy black and white with graduated long,
white tail, with two central pairs of black feathers.
The black portions of the male are replaced by a
brownish, slaty grey in female. It is one of the
best songsters in a land where singing birds are
scarce (Whistler 1949, Ali 1996).
Field observations were made from January
1995 to December 1998 on 33 individuals (24
males and 9 females) in and around Gurukul
Kangri University campus, Haridwar (29° 55' N,
78° 8' E). The habitat was composed of gardens
and crop fields, divided by hedges and tree rows,
while houses/offices were often in close
proximity. Data was collected by visiting each
site once a week, between early morning and late
evening, using a binocular (7 x 50). Displays
were recorded with the help of SONY handicam
video camera and Pentax still photography
camera with telelens (300-600 mm). To
determine the information conveyed by a signal,
the circumstances in which the signal occurred
were examined. The characteristics and
components of different displays were defined,
analyzing video films and still photographs.
Results
1. Flight display: An important display
in this species. The male uses flight display in
the early phase of the breeding season (i.e. March
and April). When a male sees a female in his
territory, he flies towards her. Before approaching
her, he stalls in flight for a few seconds. In most
cases (n=16), the flight display may last for 4-10
sec (x=7.38 ±0.46). However, in some cases
(n=6) it can last for 20 sec (x= 18.83 ±0.55). This
distinctive and conspicuous display flight has two
components: undulating flight with fully spread
wing and tail feathers (Plate 1, Fig. 1) and a
highly varied, complex song to attract the female.
The male also uses undulating flight with threat
calls when predators (spotted owlet, snake,
mongoose) appear in his territory.
6
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1) APR. 2001
ONDISPLA YSAND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL MAGPIE ROBIN
Kumar, Anil et al. : Copsychus saularis
Plate 1
Figs (1-4): Magpie robin Copsychus saularis , 1 : Flight display of male, 2. Tail display of male,
3. Head forward (threat) posture of male, 4. Resting posture during winter.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
1
ON DISPLAYS AND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL MAGPIE ROBIN
Fig. 1: Courtship display, male magpie robin in front of the female
Fig. 2: Sleeping postures exhibited by magpie robin (a) Neck shrinking posture (b) Neck hanging posture
(c) Neck turning posture.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1) APR. 2001
ONDISPLA YSAND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL MA GPIE ROBIN
2. Tail posture: The male magpie robin uses
this posture only until mating is completed. He
sits on a horizontal perch and fans out his tail (Plate
1, Fig. 2) for about 5 sec. (x=5.09 ±0.35, n=22), to
show the white tail feathers which are normally
covered by the black, middle tail feathers. After
returning to his normal position, he selects another
branch and repeats the posture. The male repeats
this posture 4-9 times (x=5.29 ±0.48, n=24) at a
stretch. The male normally shows the dorsal side
of his tail feathers. However, sometimes he also
exhibits an anterio-ventral side. Most males (n=l 8)
displayed the tail posture after pair formation, but
in some cases (n=6) it was prior to pair formation
and also when the territory owner saw a female
approaching his territory.
3. Courtship display: A dance-like display
performed by the courting male bird in the
presence of a female. There are two types of
courtship displays: (A) The male sits on a perch,
stretches his head forward and downward,
simultaneously displaying his tail feathers. He
also moves his neck slightly to the right and left
a number of times, simultaneously flapping his
wings like a begging juvenile. (B) The male starts
walking on a wall with his head towards the
female. After walking about a metre, he halts,
turns his head up and points his bill towards the
sky (at about 60° to the horizontal plane) for 2-4
seconds (x=2.75 ±0.21, n=12), with his tail
outspread. After this, he starts walking towards
the female, finally performing the ‘A type’
display (Fig. 1). The ‘A type’ behaviour is more
common than the ‘B type’.
4. Threat posture: When an intruder
arrives in the territory of a male, the territory
owner shows a specific threatening posture (Plate
1, Fig. 3) before chasing and fighting the rival.
In this posture, the male turns his head up and
sleekens the plumage, facing the rival. If the
intruding rival does not escape immediately, a
fight follows, in which the submissive individual
delivers submissive calls.
5. Begging display: The nestlings and
fledglings were observed using this display. It is
interesting to note that the newly hatched young
open their beaks after receiving even a slight jerk,
caused by the perching of the parents on any
branch of the nesting tree. However, once the
nestlings open their eyes, they respond only after
seeing the parents. After their wings develop,
they shake them to make the display more
effective. Begging display is generally
accompanied by begging calls.
6. Resting posture: In winter, when the
magpie robin rests in the day, it curls up its body
and fluffs the body feathers into an almost
spherical shape (Plate 1, Fig. 4). This posture is
adopted by many bird species, to save body heat
during winter.
7. Sleeping posture: The magpie robin was
observed in three types of sleeping postures, i.e.
neck hanging posture (NHP), neck turning
posture (NTP), and neck shrinking posture (NSP)
(Fig. 2). Most individuals (66.4%) use the NTP
during sleep — the bird turns its neck so that its
shape appears deformed. Predators cannot
recognize the bird easily in this cryptic
appearance. NHP and NSP also deform the shape
of the sleeping bird, protecting it from predators.
But NHP (28%) and NSP (5.6%) were used for
short duration only. The bird may have been less
comfortable in these postures.
8. Wing drooping display: In this
display, the magpie robin stretches its tail
upwards and then droops it in a few steps.
Simultaneously, it droops its wings in the same
sequence. This posture is observed during the
post-breeding phase. Its biological significance,
however, is not yet clear.
Discussion
It has been suggested that display flights
are directed at females and associated with the
male quality, or sometimes function in male-male
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
9
ONDISPLA YSAND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL MAGPIE ROBIN
interactions to defend territory (Andersson 1982,
McGregor et al. 1990). The magpie robin
exhibits individual differences in song quality
(Bhatt and Kumar 1998a b, Kumar 1999) and
there are suggestions that these may be associated
with variations in strength or fighting ability
(Krebs and Devies 1987). When different males
engaged in song production exhibit differences
in song quality, the female has an opportunity to
select a male that exhibits more strength through
his song signal than other courting males. In the
present study, the magpie robin used flight
display in the presence of a female or predator.
From this it can be inferred that flight display,
like song, also helps the male to show his
strength, to attract a female or repel predators.
Flight displays have also been reported in other
birds like the jay Garrulus glandarius. (Goodwin
1956), fantail warblers Cisticola juncidis
(McGregor et al. 1990), and white-throated
manakin Corapipo gutturalis (Davis 1982, Pmm
1986, Gaunt 1994). However, the acoustical
features of the song/calls of these species are less
varied than magpie robin. Therefore, in these
birds with simple song/calls, the development
of visual display for mate attraction is
understandable, but in species like magpie robin
where vocalization is complex and varied, the
interpretation of the genesis of flight display is
rather difficult. Observations revealed that the
male used not only flight display, but also tail
display to attract the female. Obviously, this bird
has a good repertoire of both vocal and visual
signals.
In almost all avian species, courtship
behaviour is exhibited by males. The bird may
reveal his gaudy nuptial plumage, spread his tail
feathers, erect his crest or inflate brilliantly
coloured patches, parade, dance, fly with
dizzying aerobatics, sing his most fetching songs
all this just to impress his prospective mate
(Welty and Baptista 1988). Courtship stimulates
sexual readiness, not only in the bird being
courted, but also in the courting bird, through
self stimulation. This reciprocal stimulation may
be the chief function of the mutual courtship
ceremonies of many colonial birds such as
gannets, gulls and penguins. Such stimulation
commonly results in the increase of sex hormones
in a bird’s body, which in turn intensifies
courtship display (Welty and Baptista 1988).
The courtship display of magpie robin is
simple and takes little time (16 ±3.2 sec, n=4).
It is believed that species with complex songs
and pronounced territories often have rather
simple courtship displays, whereas species with
small territories and simple or no songs generally
have more elaborate courtship displays. It may
be that pronounced territoriality and song serve,
in part, to initiate pair formation and
maintenance throughout the breeding period.
When territories are small and/or songs are
absent, displays seem to serve the function of
pair bonding. In colonial birds, these displays
may continue throughout the nesting cycle as a
device to ensure individual recognition between
the paired birds (Faaborg and Chaplin 1988).
The threat posture appears to help
minimize the cost of territory defence by avoiding
chasing/fighting the rival. Like the magpie robin,
head-up posture is used by several species of
birds for territory defence and fighting (Marler
and Hamilton 1966). It has generally been
observed that aggressive displays often involve
an increase in apparent size. Larger animals
dominate smaller ones in many species, and
intimidating or repelling signals often maximize
this particular property (Tinbergen 1959, Marler
1961). The ‘head-forward display’ is used not
only for threatening, but also for pairing with
females by many male finches (Hinde 1956).
Begging display is common in birds, and
almost every avian nestling uses it to demand
food from parents (McFarland 1995a, b, Alcock
1988). Our causal observations revealed that
higher frequency of wing-movement (quivering)
10
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1) APR. 2001
ON DISPLA YSAND POSTURES IN THE ORIENTAL MA GPIE ROBIN
might stimulate parents to feed young ones more
frequently as compared to low frequency
quivering. In addition, it may strengthen the
flight muscles of the wings. The inside of the
beak of a magpie robin nestling is bright yellow,
which helps parents locate the exact position of
the nestlings’ mouths while feeding them in the
dark environment of the nest hole/nest-box.
Refer
Ali, S. (1996): The Book of Indian Birds. Bombay Natural
History Society and Oxford University Press, Bombay.
12th edn, xx+280pp.
An, S. & S.D. Ripley (1998): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Bombay.
Vol.8&9, 2nd edn.
*Alcock, J. (1988): Animal Behaviour: An Evolutionary
Approach. Sinauer Associates Inc. Publishers,
Sunderland, Massachusetts. USA.
Andersson, M. ( 1 982): Female choice selects for extreme
tail length in a Widowbird. Nature 299 : 8 1 8-820.
Andrew, R.J. (1961): The displays given by passerines in
courtship and reproductive fighting. A review. Ibis
103A: 315-348.
♦Armstrong, E.A. (1965): Bird display and behaviour.
Dover Publications, New York.
Bhatt, D. & A. Kumar (1998a): Acoustic signals in birds:
Songs and calls. Jour. Acoust. Soc. Incl. XXVI(3&4):
325 -337.
Bhatt, D. & A. Kumar (1998b): Singing behaviour in
Oriental magpie robin Copsychus saularis. Ostrich 69
(No. 3 & 4): 242.
Butcher, G.S. & S. Rohwer (1989): The evolution of
conspicuous and distinctive coloration for
communication in birds. In: Current Ornithology Vol.
6 (Power, D.M. ed.), New York: Plenum Press, pp.
51-108.
Collias, N.E. (1943): Statistical analysis of factors which
make for success in initial encounters between hens.
Amer. Nat. 77: 519-538.
Davis, T.H. (1982): A flight-song display, of the
White-throated manakin. Wilson Bull 94: 594-595.
♦Faaborg, J. & S.B. Chaplin (1988): Ornithology: An
Ecological Approach. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Englewood Cliffs.
Gaunt, S.L., L.F. Baptista, J.E. Sanchez & D. Hernandez
(1994): Song learning as evidenced from song sharing
in two Hummingbird species ( Colibri coruscans and
Colibri thalassimus). The Auk 111(1): 87-103.
Goodwin, D. (1956): Further observations on the behaviour
of the Jay Garrulus glandarius. Ibis 98: 1 86-219.
Acknowledgements
We thank Prof B.D. Joshi, Coordinator,
Environmental Science and Dr. A.K. Chopra,
Head, Dept of Zoology and Environmental Science
for facilities to carry out this research. Financial
assistance ffomDST (Project No. SP/S0/C03/96),
Govt of India is also acknowledged.
: N C E s
Hinde, R.A. (1956): A comparative study of the courtship
of certain finches (Fringillidae). Ibis 98: 1-23.
♦Krebs, J.R. & N.B. Devies (1987): An Introduction to
Behavioural Ecology. Blackwell Scientific Publications,
London.
Kumar, Anil (1999): Characteristics and significance of
calls, songs and visual displays in two avian species
viz. Copsychus saularis & Pycnonotus cafer. Ph.D.
Thesis, Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar, India.
Marler, P. (1961): The evolution of visual communication.
In: Vertebrate speciation, ed. Blair, W.F., University of
Texas Press, Austin, USA. pp. 96-121 .
Marler, P. & J. Hamilton (1 966): Mechanisms of animal
behaviour. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Mayr, E. (1956): Gesang and Systematik, Beitr.
Vogelkunde 5: 112-117.
McFarland, D. (1995a): Displacement Activities. In:
Animal Behaviour: Psychobiology, Ethology and
Evolution, ELBS. The Bath Press, Avan,pp. 381-393.
McFarland, D. (1995b): Ritualization and
Communication. In: Animal Behaviour: Psychobiology,
Ethology and Evolution, ELBS, The Bath Press, Avan,
349-410.
McGregor, P.K., H.S. Clayton, U. Kolb, P. Stockley &
R.J. Young (1990): Individual differences in the
displays of Fan-tailed warblers Cisticola juncidis,
association with territory and male quality. Ibis 132:
111-118.
Prum, R.O. (1986): The displays of the White-throated
Manakin Corapipo gutturalis in Surinam Ibis 128: 91 -
102.
♦Tinbergen, N. (1951): The study of Instinct. Oxford
University Press, London.
Tinbergen, N. (1959): Comparative studies of the
behaviour of gulls (Laridae): A progress report.
Behaviour 15: 1-70.
Welty, J.C. & L.F. Baptista (1988): The life of birds.
Saunders College Publishing, USA.
Whistler, H. (1949): A Popular Handbook of Indian Birds.
Oliver and Boyd Ltd., London. Pp 1 08.
* Original not referred.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
11
THE POPULATION DYNAMICS AND CONSERVATION OF GOLDEN LANGUR1
A. Srivastava2’3’ M. Baruah4 and S.M. Mohnot2
Key words: Endangered species, golden langur, demography, conservation, distribution
Localized distribution between River Manas in the east, Sankosh in the west and the Brahmaputra
in the south have confined the golden langur {Trachypithecus geei), to an extremely small patch
of forest bordering India and Bhutan, making it one of the most seriously endangered primates of
India. Data on population dynamics collected in four years, 1994 to 1 997, from four focal groups
inhabiting the rubber plantation of Nayakgaon, Assam, have been presented here. An average
group size of 7.8 (range 7.0 to 8.4) individuals was recorded. Of the total 1 5 1 individuals counted,
27% were adult males, 48% were adult females and 23% were immature (juveniles and infants).
The adult sex ratio was 1.3 to 2.3 adult female for each adult male. The average group size and
adult sex ratio of the golden langur declined during the study period. However, the number of
births per female increased from 0.31 to 0.44/year. A low percentage of juveniles and infants
suggest that the population is heading for a decline. The majority of the groups had more than
one adult male, suggesting a promiscuous mating system. Small group sizes, isolated distribution,
few infants and juveniles, and degrading habitat are all causes for concern. It is not clear from the
available data if the increase in number of births per female per year is due to higher mortality of
infants or due to greater access to mating partners. Nevertheless, these demographic trends indicate
a population decline.
Introduction
Golden langurs ( Trachypithecus geei) are
naturally found in a very small area bordering
India and Bhutan. Its distribution lies north of
the Brahmaputra river and is bounded on the east
by the Manas river and in the west by the Sankosh
river. Gee (1955) and Khajuria (1956, 1962)
provided the first record of its morphology and
distribution. However, the taxonomic status
remained disputed until Biswas (1967) provided
a detailed account. Although there have been
several attempts to work out the true distribution
range and total population, little information was
generated on the distribution and status of this
species in India and Bhutan (Gee 1961, Wayre
1968, Mukerjee 1978, Subba 1989, Choudhury
1992, Wanghuk 1995). Since 1994, extensive
surveys have been conducted in northeast India
'Accepted July, 1999
department of Zoology, JNV University,
Jodhpur 342 005, Rajasthan, India.
3Present address: Indo-US Primate Project,
P.O. Box 74, Jodhpur 342 001 , Rajasthan, India.
4Wild Gras, Kaziranga, Bokaghat, Assam, India.
by the first author and the Indo-US Primate
Project team to work out the status and
distribution of primates. An intensive survey was
carried out over 1 ,500 sq. km of forest in western
Assam, for its distribution (Srivastava 1997).
Most of these surveys provided information on
distribution (Choudhury 1992, Subba 1989,
MacKinnon 1991), total population (Wangchuk
1995), and group structure (Mukerjee and Saha
1974, Mukerjee et al. 1997). The species is
placed under Schedule-I of the Indian Wildlife
(Protection) Act (1972) and in Appendix-I of
CITES. No serious attempt has been made to
collect data on population dynamics so as to draw
a conservation plan for this endangered species
(Srivastava 1996). In order to fill this gap, the
present study was carried out at Nayakgaon on
selected groups of golden langur for over four
years.
The present paper has two aims — to
present the population dynamics of the selected
groups in the study area and to discuss the
long-term conservation strategies for this species
in the light of demographic data.
12
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
POPULA TION DYNAMICS AND CONSER VA TION OF GOLDEN LANGUR
Study Area
There is a gurukul (traditional school)
located 1 5 km east of Abhayapuri town in western
Assam, surrounded by natural forest and rubber
plantation. The second author was a permanent
resident of this gurukul during the study period.
Four groups of golden langur were initially
identified during December 1994, and their home
range, preferred roosting trees and feeding sites
were observed. These groups dwell in the Abhaya
Rubber Plantation, Nayakgaon Kokrajhar
district, Assam, which covers 174 ha of rubber
plantation and natural sal forest. The groups have
been seen in the area since 1985, when rubber
plantations were first started. It is quite likely
that these groups lived here in the natural habitat
and continued to survive in the habitat altered
from predominantly natural moist deciduous sal
forest into rubber plantation. These groups are
familiar with humans and come into regular
contact with local residents and rubber tappers.
Hunting is strictly prohibited, but natural
predators are common in the area. Average tree
canopy cover in the area is over 75% and average
tree height is 20 ih. Langurs do not get feed from
people and do not come to human habitation.
Study Methods
All individuals of the group were identified
and focal groups were contacted many times
during the census period to get perfect counts.
As a rule, individuals moved in single file, and
Table 1
GROUP SIZE AND AGE-SEX COMPOSITION OF FOUR GOLDEN LANGUR FOCAL GROUPS BETWEEN
1994 AND 1997
Abbreviations: SS = South Side; MF = Middle Forest; NEC = North East Comer; NEM = North East Middle;
BA = Bukanjhora Area: UnID = Unidentified
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
13
POPULA TION DYNAMICS AND CONSER VA TION OF GOLDEN LANGUR
therefore, almost 100% reliable counts could be
obtained from a convenient observation post in
the forest during group movement. When the
focal groups were contacted, individuals were
counted and classified as adult males, adult
females, juveniles and infants. Infants were
further classified as infant-I (fur colour orange)
and infant-II (fur colour creamy- white). During
December 1994, four groups were located, but
in successive counts during March 1995, one
additional group was also located. All groups
located had their preferred roosting sites, and
therefore it was not difficult to locate them again
during the next census. The process was repeated
in May 1996 and May 1997.
Results
During the December 1994 census, 4
groups were recorded. Group size and composi-
tion with a total population between December
1994 and May 1997 are given in Table 1. In 1994,
the smallest group contained 4 and the largest 9
individuals, with an average group size of 7
individuals. Out of a total of 28 individuals
counted, 25% were adult males, 57% adult
females, 1 8% immature (juveniles and infants),
with a socionomic ratio of 4.6 : 1 (adult :
immature). The adult sex ratio was 2. 0-2. 5
females to 1.0 male. The majority of groups had
more than one adult male.
During the March 1995 census, an
additional group was located besides the four
identified focal groups. This brought the total
population to 42, with an average group size of
8.4 individuals. Of these, 21% were adult males,
50% were adult females, 19% were immature
(juveniles and infants), with a socionomic ratio
of 4 : 1 . The adult sex ratio was 2 to 3 females
for each male. The same focal groups were
recounted in May 1996 and in May 1997 to
record the change in the population.
Between May 1996 and May 1997, the
following changes were observed: The total
population declined slightly from 43 to 38
individuals. The average group size declined
from 8.4 to 7.6. Similarly, the adult sex ratio
changed from 0.75-2 to 0.50-2.5 females for each
male. A solitary male was also observed during
the May 1997 census (Table 2). However, the
sex ratio declined from 2.3 females, in Dec. 1994
to 1.5 in May 1997, the number of infants per
female increased from 0.31 to 0.44/year. All
births were observed during the monsoon,
between July and October, and there was no birth
peak.
Model of Golden Langur Population
Dynamics: Census data can often be used to
identify factors that may determine the
abundance of species, which is clearly essential
for the formulation of an effective conservation
plan. In order to present our findings in a broader
perspective, we used a published demographic
model to prepare an effective conservation plan
for this species. Instead of attempting to develop
a species-specific life table analysis, we adopted
Table 2
VARIATIONS IN GROUP SIZE AND AGE/SEX COMPOSITION IN A POPULATION OF GOLDEN LANGUR
DURING 1994-97
14
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
POPULA TION DYNAMICS AND CONSER VA TION OF GOLDEN LANGUR
a general model based upon the Leslie matrix
and modified by Dobson and Lyles (1989). This
model requires age-dependent estimates of
survival and fecundity. This has been applied to
several primate populations (Altmann et al.
1 985). As suggested by Dobson and Lyles ( 1 989),
we avoid the complexity of a fully age-structured
model by noting that like most primate species,
golden langur females’ age at first reproduction,
is approximately three times the average
inter-birth interval. The average inter-birth
interval recorded elsewhere for the same species
was two years (Srivastava, A. unpubl. data). The
population is divided into three stages: Infants =
I; Juveniles = J; and Adults = A (also see Tables
2 and 3).
During the four years of this census, we
have noted the changes in the structure of the
study population, which fluctuated within the
normal range. However, the higher proportion
of adults in the population is a matter of great
concern (Table 3). The proportion of adults in
the population was nearly 70%, which indicates
a mature population. This means that the study
population will not have enough recruitment for
the replacement of reproducing individuals in
the coming years. The low percentage of juveniles
and infants and high number of adults suggest
that the population is declining. The majority of
groups had more than one adult male, suggesting
a promiscuous mating system. Decline in the
number of females per male during the study
period indicates loss of breeding opportunities.
After detailed analysis of a large data set
for primate populations, Dobson and Lyles ( 1 989)
suggested an integrated model with two
important conclusions:
1 . Primate populations will tend to collapse
when the survival of adult females falls below
70% per interbirth interval.
2. Species that tend to live in aggregated
groups with promiscuous mating will establish
and maintain themselves at smaller population
densities than species with more solitary and
monogamous habit.
The golden langur does not meet both these
criteria, and therefore, does not face immediate
danger of extinction. However, if habitat loss
continues at the same pace, this species will
eventually lose its resource base and may go
extinct, as already shown by the decrease in
number of adult females to male from 2.3 in Dec.
1994 to 1.5 in May 1997. This is further
supported by the fecundity data (Table 4). It is
not clear whether the increase in number of births
per female per year was due to higher infant
mortality or to greater access to mating partners
(increased males per female). Nevertheless, these
demographic trends indicate a population
decline.
Discussion
Golden langurs occupy moist evergreen,
dipterocarp, riverine and moist deciduous forests.
Their localized distribution between River Manas
in the east, Sankosh in the west and Brahmaputra
in the south confines them to a very small patch
Table 3
ADULT MALE-FEMALE SEX RATIO AND BIRTH RATE BETWEEN 1 994 AND 1 997
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
15
POPULA TION DYNAMICS AND CONSER VA TION OF GOLDEN LANGUR
Table 4
GOLDEN LANGUR LIFE HISTORY DATA
a = based on Dobson & Lyles (1989) model.
b = Srivastava, A. observations on free-ranging
population of golden langurs.
of forest bordering India and Bhutan. Of the
entire golden langur population, 93% is confined
to these contiguous forests. However, remaining
7% population is found in several small isolated
reserves (Srivastava 1997). Recent studies
indicate that their distribution has been reduced
significantly (Mukerjee and Southwick 1997) and
their population consists of very small groups
with a higher proportion of adults and very few
juveniles and infants (Srivastava 1997). It has
been estimated that there are not more than 1 ,500
individuals in India. A larger population exists
in Bhutan, estimated at over 4,340 individuals,
but these figures are based on an extrapolation
from 58.5 sq. km. study area in Black Mountain
National Park (Wangchuk 1995). The total
known range of the golden langur in both Bhutan
and India is less than 30,000 sq. km., and much
of this is not suitable habitat (Mukerjee and
Southwick 1997).
The low population size and group size of
the golden langurs are comparable to some of
the other critically endangered langurs of the
world, such as the golden-headed langur
( T.frcinscoisi polio cephalus), Delacour’s langur
(T. delacouri) (Nadler 1996) and the Tonkin
snub-nosed langur ( Rhinopithecus avunculus )
(Cox et al. 1994). For such small and fragmented
groups, the chances of long-term survival are
slim. Although, it has been suggested that this
species is rarely seen in altered habitats, our
observations in the rubber plantation suggest that
the golden langur can survive and reproduce in
altered habitats under protection. Therefore, it
would seem unwise to expend all conservation
efforts on a small number of sites. Instead, we
suggest a balanced strategy giving equal weight
to small, isolated, and altered habitats as well.
Since there is no hunting pressure and most
people on either side of the international
boundary respect primates in particular, the
species has good chances of survival in the
present habitat. We believe that a vigorous effort
at conservation can protect the remaining
habitats, and by upgrading the status of these
habitats, isolated populations can be linked by
forest corridors to prevent genetic fragmentation
of the population.
Further studies on destruction of golden
langur habitats are needed to estimate
demographic rates and shapes of recruitment
functions. How behavioural mechanisms affect
the population dynamics remains a challenge.
ACKNO WLEDG EM ENTS
We thank the Forest Dept, of Assam, for
permission to work. We are thankful to Mr. K.N.
Deb and his family at Abhaya Rubber
Plantations, Nayakgaon, Kokrajhar, Assam for
their kind hospitality and logistic support, and
to Prof. P.C. Bhattacharjee, Prof. Irwin Bernstein,
Prof. Charles Southwick and Prof. John Oates
for constant support. This research is a part of a
cooperative program of the Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Govt of India and the
US Fish & Wildlife Service (Grant Agreement
No. INT/FWS-22).
16
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
POPULA TION DYNAMICS AND CONSER VA TION OF GOLDEN LANGUR
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Dobson, A.P. & A.M. Lyles (1989): The population
dynamics and conservation of primate populations.
Conservation Biology 3(4): 362-380.
Gee, E.P. (1955): A new species of langur from Assam.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 252-254.
Gee, E.P. (1961): The distribution and feeding habit of
Golden langur. Presbytis geei Gee (Khajuria, 1956).
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58(1): 1-12.
Khajuria, H. (1956): A New Langur (Primates: Colobidae)
from Goalpara District, Assam. Annals and Magazine
of Natural History 12(9): 86-88.
Khajuria, H. (1962): Further observations on the Gee’s
langur, Presbytis geei Khajuria, H. 1956, with
remarks on the classification of Indian Colobidae
(Mammalia: Primates). Rec. Indian Mus. 58(2):
123-130.
MacKinnon, J. (1991): National Conservation Plan:
Bhutan. Unpubl. report. Dept of Forestry, Thimphu,
Bhutan.
ENCES
Mukerjee, R.P. ( 1 978): Further observations on the golden
langur (. Presbytis geei Khajuria) with a note on the
capped langur {Presbytis pileatus Blyth) of Assam.
Primates 19(4): 737 -747.
Mukerjee, R.P. & S.S. Saha (1974): The golden langur
{Presbytis geei Khajuria 1956) of Assam. Primates
15(4): 327-340.
Mukerjee, R.P. & C.H. Southwick ( 1 997): Present status
of the golden langur in Assam, India. Asian Primates
6(3/4): 1-4.
Mukerjee, R.P., A. Srivastava, S.M. Mohnot, I. Bernstein
& C.H. Southwick (1997). Population status of the
golden langur {Presbytis geei ) in Assam. Am.
J. Primatol. 42: 135.
N adler, T. K. (1996): Report on the distribution and status
of Delacour’s langur {Trachypithecus delacouri).
Asian Primates 6(1 /2): 1-4.
Srivastava, A. (1996): Conservation priorities of golden
langur {Trachypithecus geei) Bihanga, B. Sarmah
(ed.) Nature’s Foster Bongaigaon, Assam, pp. 27-
33.
Srivastava, A. (1997): Annual Report — III (Dec. 1996-
Nov. 1997): Indo-US Primate Project. JNV University
and US Fish & Wildlife Service, pp. 1 -24.
Subba, P.B. (1989): The status and conservation of the
golden langur {Presbytis geei Khajuria, 1956) in the
Manas National Park, Bhutan. Tiger Paper 16(4):
16-18.
Wangchuk, T. (1995): A census and the biogeography of
golden langur {Presbytis geei) in Bhutan. Tiger Paper
22(3): 1-6.
Wayre, P. (1968): The golden langur and the Manas
Sanctuary. Oryx 9: 337-339.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
17
STUDIES ON THE SYSTEMATICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRAWNS IN ASSAM1
N.K. Dutta2
( With nine text-figures)
Key words: Caridina weberi de Man, Macrobrachium altifrons (Henderson),
M. cisscimensis (Tiwari), M. birmcinicum choprae (Tiwari), M. dayanum (Henderson),
M lamarrei (H. Milne-Edwards), M. malcolmsonii (H. Milne-Edwards)
The family Atyidae (Decapoda : Crustacea) of Assam has Caridina weberi de Man of the genus
Caridina and eight species of the genus Macrobrachium namely Macrobrachium altifrons
(Henderson), M. assamensis (Tiwari), M. lamarrei (H. Milne-Edwards), M. malcolmsonii (H.
Milne-Edwards), M. menoni (Agarwal) and M. tiwari (Agarwal) of Family Palaemonidae recorded
from different districts of Assam.
Introduction Results
The biology and fishery of prawns has gained
considerable attention, due to their great economic
importance. Prawns are caught round the year.
However, the peak catch shows a definite seasonal
trend in commercially important prawn landing
areas. In the north-eastern region of India in
general and Assam in particular, the peak season
is from September to February. Various authors
reported on the taxonomy and distribution of
freshwater, estuarine and marine pfawns
(Henderson and Matthari, 1910; Tiwari, 1947;
Holthuis, 1950; Yaldwyn, 1955; Kunju, 1956;
Holthuis andRoas, 1965; Yaldwyn, 1966; George,
etal. 1968; Koshy, 1969; Yaldwyn, 1971, 1973;
Agarwal, 1976). But in this context, there is little
information on the freshwater prawns of Assam.
In view of this, the present study was undertaken.
Material and Methods
Prawns belonging to Family Atyidae and
Palaemonidae were collected regularly in
different districts of the state of Assam, and were
obtained from fishermen’s catches. They were
brought to the laboratory, cleaned and preserved
in 8-10% formaline.
'Accepted June, 1998
2Masjid Road, Natun Sarania,
Gandhibasti, Guwahati 3, Assam, India.
The collection from Assam comprises of
nine species.
Caridina weberi de Man 1892.
(Fig. 1)
Collection localities; Goalpara district:
Dipul beel. Id, 2?, TL 18-20 mm; Kamrup
district: Jalukbari and Kulsi, 2 d, 19, TL 15-24
mm; Nowgaon district: Kolong R., 2d d, 3 9,
TL 15-17 mm; Sibsagar district: Namdang R.
and Joysagar 4d, 3 9, TL 17-18 mm.
Diagnostic features: Rostral formula (RF):
15-19/4; carapace pigmented. Apex of antennal
scales, pointed to slightly oval; spines on the 5th
peraeopod absent altogether, but spines present
on the 3rd and 4th peraeopods. 1st peraeopod:
carpus = chela, carpus > merus. 2nd peraeopod:
merus = carpus, carpus > chela.
Maximum size 24 mm.
18
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
SYSTEMA TICS AND DISTRIBUTION OFPRA WNS
Macrobrachium altifrons (Henderson)
(Fig. 2)
Fig. 2: Macrobrachium altifrons (Henderson)
Collection localities: Kamrup district:
Sonapur, 2 d, 3 9, TL 43-46 mm.; Pandu,
Maligaon, 8 d, 5 9, TL 44-47 mm; Goalpara
district; Dhubri, 2 d, 3 9, TL 45-46 mm, Karbi
Anglong district: Jamuna R., 2 d, TL 46 mm;
Sibsagar district: Sibsagar market, 5 d , 6 $ , TL
43-45 mm.
Diagnostic features: RF 10-12/3; Ant. scale
pointed. Apex horizontal to slightly upturned,
convexity starts after l/3rd length of its origin;
3-4 teeth on carapace; teeth are sub-erect. 1st
peraeopod: finger = 1/2 carpus; ischium, merus,
palm and finger are hairy. 2nd peraeopod:
unequal or subequal, palm > finger, palm broader
than carpus, 2-3 blunt teeth with 6 tubercles on
immobile finger, but in mobile fingers 3-4 unequal
teeth at irregular intervals. Cutting edge of mobile
fingers with 4 tubercles instead of 5 or 6.
Maximum size 47 mm.
Macrobrachium assamensis (Tiwari)
(Fig. 3)
Collection Localities: Kamrup district:
Pagladia R. near Uttar Kuchi, Chowki and
Nabasti, Id, 6?, TL 40-76.2 mm; Baralia R.
near Rangia, 40d, 209, TL 42-73 mm;
Kukurmara beel, 1 d, 9 9 , TL 43-68 mm; Tihu,
Boko near Soigaon, Houli near Barpeta, Kulsi
R., Deeper beel near Jalukbari and Guwahati,
32 d, 23 9, TL 31-71 mm; Sibsagar district
Namdang R. Gaurisagar, 50 d, 45 9, TL 51-77
mm; Dibrugarh district: Dilli R. near Namrup,
Dibru R. near Rajgarh, 25 d , 36 9 , TL 45-65 mm;
Lakhimpur district. Dhokuakhana, 20 d, 15 9,
TL 49-50 mm; Cachar district: Silchar, 5 d, 8 9,
TL 42-45 mm.
Fig. 3: Macrobrachium assamensis (Tiwari)
Diagnostic features: RF 8-10/2-4; RL >
Antennal scale. Antennal scale-oval, carapace
highly pigmented. Wide gap between 1st & 2nd,
2nd & 3rd and 3rd & 4th teeth on dorsal edge of
rostrum. Antennal scale somewhat conical to
oval. 1st peraeopod: Carpus > chela. Carpus >
merus. 2nd peraeopod: merus > carpus. Non-
chelate leg: all segments hairy except merus;
propodus = merus; 3 equal teeth on Im. F., and 1
large and 2 small teeth on M.F., apex of telson
round to acute.
Maximum size 77 mm.
Macrobrachium birmanicum choprae (Tiwari)
(Fig. 4)
Collection localities Kamrup district:
Bijlee beel, 2d, 19, TL 95-110 mm,
Brahmaputra R. 5d, 5 9, TL 85-165 mm,
Darrang district: Jamuguri beel near Tezpur,
Tezpur market, lOd, 15 9, TL 69-165 mm;
Sibsagar district: Dekhow R. 22 d, 33 9, TL 65-
170 mm, Lakhimpur district. Dhokuakhana 5d,
8 9, TL 84-100 mm; Dibrugarh district
Brahmaputra R. near Assam Medical College,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
19
SYSTEMA TICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRA WNS
24 d, 30 9, TL 79-167 mm; Cachar district:
Karimganj 25 d, 24 9, TL 70-160 mm.
Fig. 4: Macrobrachium birmanicum choprae
(Tiwari)
Diagnostic features: RF 11-12/4-5; Apex
of antennal scales pointed; rostrum somewhat
long depending on body size and protrudes in
front of body, nearly reaching antennal scale.
Carapace smooth in young ones, rough in adult
and slightly pigmented. 1st peraeopod: exceeds
Ant. scale by chela, 2/3rd of the carpus, carpus
twice as long as chela, 2nd peraeopod: spinules
larger only on undersurface of merus; ischium
rod-like, not laterally grooved; merus = carpus
> palm. One conical and one blunt tooth on M.F.
with 4 to 5 tubercles. Apex of finger translucent.
Maximum size 170 mm.
Macrobrachium dayanum (Henderson)
(Fig. 5)
Collection localities: Kamrup district:
Pagladia R. Chowki & Naubasti, Raumari beel,
Satdala beel, Rangagora near Changsari,
Depargaon near Kumanadi R., Moranadi R. near
Dimoo, Deeper beel near Guwahati, Kukurmara
beel near Guwahati, Kapla beel, Boko near
Soigaon, Jalukbari, Guwahati, Kulsi R. 37 c?,
24 9 , TL 26-92 mm; Darrang district: Jamuguri
near Tezpur, Raumari beel, Mora Boroli R.,
Mongoldoi R. near Mongoldoi, Urang near
Dhekiajuli, 2 Id, 189 TL 41-71 mm; Nowgaon
district: Jagiroad, 13d, 209, TL 26-68 mm;
Karbi-Anglong district: Kapili R., 2d, 49, TL
55-69 mm; Cachar district: Kaliganj, Karimganj,
Silchar proper, 22 d, 28 9, TL 35-55 mm;
Sibsagar district: Longsai beel, Pohugar near
Gaurisagar, Namdang R. near Kaloogaon,
Ranganadi R., Janji R., Kakodunga R., 43 d,
35 9, TL. 18-89 mm; Lakhimpur district:
Corella beel, 7d, 9 9 , TL 26-75 mm; Dibmgarh
district: Namrup, Dibrugarh proper near
Brahmaputra R., 22 d, 20 9, TL 39-68 mm;
Lakhimpur district: Dhakuakhana 12 d, 99,
TL 37-52 mm.
Diagnostic features: RF 7-11/5-9; apex of
ant. scale pointed. Cavity-between first and second
teeth on ventral edge of rostrum. Cervical sulcus
moderately developed, gastro-orbital carina well
developed, Carapace highly pigmented. 1st
peraeopod: merus = ischium; ischium, mems, palm
and finger hairy. 2nd peraeopod: palm > finger,
carpus = merus, ischium and palm-rod-like. Non-
chelate legs: all segments hairy; ischium > carpus;
Im. F. with 2-3 conical teeth having 7-8 minute
spines. M.F. with 3 equal conical teeth having 5
minute spine-like processes.
Maximum size 92 mm.
Macrobrachium lamarrei (H. Milne-Edwards)
(Fig. 6)
Collection localities: Kamrup district:
Pagladia R., Deeper beel near Guwahati,
20
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1), APR. 2001
SYSTEMA TICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRA WNS
Brahmaputra R. near Maligaon, Fancy Bazar,
Guwahati, Bhalukmara beel, Kahikusi, Boko
near Soigaon, Hatipara beel, Chetolijan near
Nalbari, 21c?, 18$, TL 21-55 mm; Goalpara
district: Dipo R., Dhubri, 10c?, 70$, TL 33-51
mm; Darrang district: Raumari beel near Tezpur,
7 c?, 5$, TL 36-42 mm; Nowgaon district:
Nowgaon proper, 4c?, 10$. TL 36-44 mm;
Cachar district: Karimganj, Silchar proper,
Chatla, Hawar beel, near Silchar, 36c?, 67$,
TL 35-65 mm.; Sibsagar district: Namdang R.
near Kaloogaon, Bhougdoi R., Kakodunga R.,
Kaziranga 56c?, 40$, TL 17-58 mm; Dibrugarh
district: Dibgrugarh proper near Brahmaputra
R., 50 d, 43$, TL 40-57 mm; Lakhimpur
district: Dhakuakhana, 10c?, 11$, TL 18-
30 mm.
Fig. 6: Macrobrachium lamarrei
(H. Milne-Ed wards)
Diagnostic features: RF 7-11+4-8, carapace
slightly pigmented. Apex of ant. scale slightly
oval. Rostral length > Ant. scale, teeth on dorsal
edge present throughout the rostrum; cervical
sulcus well-developed, gastro-orbital carina
(GOC) highly developed, adrostral sulcus not
distinct. 3rd maxillipeds short, only base of
dactylus hairy. 1st peraeopod: carpus = merus,
finger = palm. 2nd peraeopod: merus > carpus.
Ischium rod-like, Im. F. inwardly curved, teeth
almost equidistant from each other. M.F.: 5
minute teeth. Carpus of second cheliped twice
as long as chela. Chelate leg: teeth equidistant
from each other.
Maximum size 65 mm.
Macrobrachium malcolmsonii (H. Milne-Edwards)
(Fig. 7)
Fig. 7: Macrobrachium malcolmsonii
(H. Milne-Edwards)
Collection localities: Kamrup dist:
Brahmaputra R. near Maligaon and Fancy Bazar,
Guwahati., 8c?, 7$ , TL 36-60 mm, Darrang dist:
Brahmaputra R. near Tezpur, Orang near
DekiaJuli, 1 1 c? , 9 $ , TL 42-48 mm; Cachar dist:
Fakira bazar near Bilchar, 12c?, 10$, TL 45-58
mm; Sibsagar dist: DekhowR., Bhougdoi R., 12c?,
10$, TL 35-4 1 mm; Dibmgarh dist: Brahmaputra
R., Naharkatia, 12c?, 13 $, TL 46-58 mm.
Diagnostic features: RF 8-11 + 1-3/4-7;
apex of Ant. scale conical. Rostral length =
antennal scale. On dorsal edge of rostrum,
convexity starts behind orbit, becomes maximum
above orbit, gradually declines, becomes straight
and slightly upturned at the tip. 1st and 2nd
proximal teeth and last two more widely spaced.
3rd maxilliped reaches l/3rd of ant. scale,
dactylus and carpus hairy. 1st peraeopod: ischium
< chela. 2nd peraeopod: ischium < merus, merus
> carpus, finger > merus. Non-chelate leg:
dactylus and propodus hairy.
Maximum size 60 mm.
Macrobrachium menoni (Agarwal)
(Fig. 8)
Collection localities: Kamrup district:
Deeper beel, 8 c?, 5 $ , TL 32-33 mm.; Goalpara
district: Dipo,. 1 c? , 1 $, TL 34-36 mm; Cachar
district: Chatla Hawar beel, 8 km south of
Silchar, 5 d , 3 $ , TL 62-67 mm.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
21
SYSTEMA TICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRA WNS
Fig. 8: Macrobrachium menoni (Agarwal)
Diagnostic features: RF 15-16/7-8;
carapace slightly pigmented. Upper margin of
rostrum with convexity just behind eye, concavity
in front of eye; tip of rostrum horizontal or
slightly inclined and lowered further. Ant. scale
oval. 3rd maxilliped almost reaches tip of Ant.
scale, carpus and dactylus hairy. 1st peraeopod:
ischium=chela. 2nd peraeopod: merus < carpus,
carpus twice the length of palm.
Maximum size 67 mm.
Macrobrachium tiwari (Agarwal)
(Fig. 9)
Fig. 9: Macrobrachium tiwari (Agarwal)
Collection localities: Kamrup district:
Maligaon near Guwahati, 2 d , 3 $ TL 56-58 mm;
Goalpara district. Dipol 2 d1 , 4 $ , TL 32-33 mm,;
Karbi-Anglong district: Jamuna R., 2d, 1 9, TL
36-39 mm.
Diagnostic features: RF 5-7/2-5; Carapace
slightly pigmented. Apex of ant. scale slightly
oval. Rostral length > Antennal scale, wide gap
between 4th & 5th, 5 th & 6th rostral teeth and
6th & 7th rostral teeth, 3 teeth on carapace.
Cervical sulcus highly developed, gastro-orbital
carina moderately developed, adrostral sulcus
less distinct. 1st peraeopod: carpus > merus;
propodus and dactylus hairy. 2nd peraeopod:
carpus > merus > ischium, palm > finger. In Im.
F. presence of tubercles with 3 equal teeth; 1-2
teeth on M.F. Non-chelate leg: 3rd, 4th, 5th
propodus > merus.
Maximum size 58 mm.
Conclusions
These observations on the distribution and
taxonomy of Atyidae and Palaemomdae of
Assam reveal some interesting findings. The RF
of Caridina weberi de Man was so far known as
15-17/4. The present study shows an increase
to 15-19/4. The RF of Macrobrachium
assamensis was 9-11/3-6, also all segments
hairy, but present study indicates RF 8-10/2-4
and all segments, except merus, hairy. In ealier
descriptions of the first peraeopod in M.
dayanum (Henderson), merus was described as
longer than ischium, the ischium and fingers
with tuft of setae. But this study shows that
merus is equal to ischium, and ischium, merus,
palm and fingers are all hairy.
The RF of M. lamarrei (H. Milne-Edwards)
was reported as 7-10+1-2/4-7, it is 7-11/4-8 in
the present study.
In the chelate leg, particularly in the
immobile fingers, wide gaps are found between
2nd & 3rd, 3rd & 4th teeth, but in this study, the
teeth are found equidistant from each other.
The rostrum of M. birmanicum choprae
(Tiwari) was so far found to be short and nearly
reaching the antennal scale, but here the rostrum
is somewhat long, depending on body size, and
mostly protruding in front of the body. The
spinules of the second peraeopod were recorded
as larger on the underside of merus and carpus,
but the present observation shows the occurrence
of larger spinules only on the underside of the
merus.
22
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
Table 1
DISTRIBUTION OF THE DECAPOD CRUSTACEANS OF THE GENERA CARIDINA AND MACROBRA CHI UM IN ASSAM
Goalpara Kamrup Darrang Nowgaon Karbi-Anglong Cachar Sibsagar Lakhimpur Dibrugarh
SYSTEMA TICS AND DISTRIBUTION OFPRA WNS
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
23
SYSTEMA TICS AND DISTRIBUTION OFPRA WNS
The apex of the rostrum of M. altifrons
(Henderson) was recorded as inclined
downwards or horizontal, the convexity starting
after %th the length from its origin and with 2
teeth on the carapace. In the present
investigation, how-ever, the apex is horizontal
to slightly upturned, and the convexity starts
after l/3rd the length from its origin, with 3-4
teeth on the carapace.
The RF of M. menoni (Agarwal) was
recorded as 15/8, but the present study extends
its range to 15-16/7-8. From previous records,
in M. malcolmsonii (H. Milne-Edwards) RF was
recorded as 9-11+1-2/4-7, but this study extends
its range to 8-11+1-3/4-7. On the dorsal edge of
the rostrum, according to previous study,
convexity starts above the orbit, then gradually
declines and straightens and becomes pointed at
the tip; but here it is found that convexity starts
behind the orbit, is maximum above the orbit,
gradually declines, becomes straight and slightly
upturned at the tip.
The RF of M. tiwari (Agarwal) was so far
known as 5/5. The present study extends its range
to 5-7/2-5. The palm of the second peraeopod
was recorded as equal to finger, but here the palm
is found to be longer than the finger. A key to
the identification of the species discussed is given
in Table 2.
The state of Assam can be divided into
eastern and western zones, with Guwahati as the
central zone. Upper Assam is the eastern zone,
including Sibsagar, Lakhimpur, (Cachar is
deleted as it is too far south) and Dibrugarh
Refe
Agarwal, P.C. (1976): Studies on the Systematics and
distribution of Macrobrachium menoni (Agarwal) in
Assam (unpublished). Dissertation submitted of M.Sc.
Degree in Zoology, Zoology Department Guwahati
University, Assam, India.
George, M.J., S.K. Banerji & K.H. Mahamed(1968): Size
distribution and movementof the commercial prawns
of the south-west coast of India. FAO. Fish Rep. 5 7(2).
Henderson, J.R. & G. Matthari ( 1 9 1 0): On certain species
districts, from where large numbers of
M. dayanum, M. assamensis, M. lamarrei and
M. birmanicum choprae have been collected.
From this collection it is assumed that such
species are available both in lower and upper
Assam. M. assamensis, M. dayanum and
M. birmanicum choprae are also extensively
recorded from Lakhimpur, where they were not
previously recorded. Similarly, M. lamarrei,
which was restricted to Kamrup and Cachar, has
been extended almost uniformly over Assam
covering all districts except Karbi Anglong.
Goalpara and Karbi- Anglong districts were not
recorded as sites for M. altifrons and M. tiwarii ,
hence they are new locality records. Similarly,
Goalpara and Kamrup districts are new distribu-
tional localities for M. menoni ; Cachar, Sibsagar
and Dibrugarh for M. malcolmsonii and Kamrup,
Nowgaon and Sibsagar for Caridina weberi
respectively (Table 1).
Thus, from the previous and present
studies, it is concluded that M. dayanum and M.
lamarrei are extensively found in all districts and
have cosmopolitan distribution in Assam,
whereas other species are sparsely distributed.
Ackowledgements
I thank Prof. S.C. Dey, Zoology
Department, Guwahati University for suggesting
this interesting problem and for encouragement.
I also thank Prof. U.C. Goswami, Guwahati
University and Sri Rantu Mani Deka for
encouragement.
iNCES
of Palaemon from South India. Rec. India Mus. 5: 277-
306.
Holthuis, L.B. (1950): The Palaemonidae collected by the
Siboga and Snell ins expeditions with remarks on other
species I. Sub-family Palaemoninae Siboga-Exped. 39a,
9:260.
Holthujs, L.B. & Roas, Jr. (1965): List of species of
shrimps and prawns of economic value. FAO Fish. Tech.
Pap. 52:21.
24
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
SYSTEM A TICS AND DISTRIB UTION OF PR A WNS
Koshy, M. ( 1 969): On the sexual dimorphism in the fresh
water prawn Macrobrachium lamarrei (H. Milne-
Edwards 1937) (Decapoda, Caridae). Crustacean
16(2): 185-193.
Kunju, M.M. (1956): Preliminary studies on the biology
of the Palaemonid Prawn Leander styliferns, H. Milne-
Edwards Crustacean 6(3): 404-441 .
Tiwarj, K.K. (1947): Preliminary description of two new
species of Palaemon from Bengal. Rec. Indian Mus.
45(4): 329-331.
Yaldwyn, J.C. (1966): New records of prawn from the
Chilka lake with notes on their distribution. Sci. & Cult.
32(7): 379-380.
Yaldwyn, J.C. (1955): Distribution of Indo-Burmese
freshwater prawns of the genus Palaemon Fabricius
its bearing on the Satpura hypothesis. Bull. Nat. Inst.
Sci. India, 7 Symposium on organic Evolution: 230-
239.
Yaldwyn, J.C. (1971): Studies on the sexual dimorphism
in the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium dayanum
(Henderson, 1893) (Decapoda, Caridea), 1 . Crustacean
21 (I): 72-78.
Yaldwyn, J.C. ( 1 973): Studies on the sexual dimorphism
in the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium dayanum
(Henderson, 1893) (Decapoda, Caridea). Crustacean
24(2): 110-118.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
25
STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE-NAPED TIT
PARUS NUCHALIS IN GUJARAT AND RAJASTHAN1
J.K. Tiwari2
Key words: White-naped tit, Parus nuchalis, status, endangered,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, India
This paper describes the status and distribution of the white-naped tit Parus nuchalis in Gujarat
and Rajasthan. Results are drawn from surveys carried out in seven districts of Rajasthan and
three districts of Gujarat. Habitat loss is described in detail. It is established that the grey tit
Parus major and white-naped tit P. nuchalis are not mutually exclusive. Conservation measures
to save the habitat of the endangered white-naped tit are also discussed.
Introduction
The white-naped tit Parus nuchalis , also
known as the white-winged tit or white-winged
black tit, is an endemic species in India with a
disjunct and restricted range (Ali and Ripley
1987). It is known as Kabri ramchakli in
Gujarati. Hussain et al. (1992), and Tiwari and
Rahmani (1996) have described its recent
distribution. Nesting and roosting behaviour of
the species were studied while I was working
with the Bombay Natural History Society on the
Grassland Ecology Project, funded by the U.S.
Fish & Wildlife Service.
Not much is known about the white-naped
tit. It was, therefore, necessary to investigate its
present range of distribution to make a
conservation action plan. This species has a
limited geographic range, due to habitat
destruction and invasion of exotic weeds into the
thorn forest. The white-naped tit is on the
checklist of threatened birds by Collar and
Andrew (1988). Its patchy distribution in
southern India may be due to fragmentation of
scrub forest habitat by human interference. The
current status surveys were carried out in Kutch,
Palanpur (Banaskantha district), Taranga hills
(Mehsana district), Gujarat and seven districts
'Accepted July, 1999
2 Assistant Manager, Wildlife and Environment, Sanghi Cements,
Sanghipuram, Abdasa, Kutch, Gujarat 370 655, India.
Present address: Seawater Farms Eritrea, P.O. Box 406,
Massawa, Eritrea, East Africa.
of Rajasthan namely Pali, Jodhpur, Jalore, Sirohi,
Ajmer, Jaipur and Nagaur. Short visits were also
made to Jaisalmer, Barmer, Dausa and Bharatpur
districts, to check the occurrence of the
white-naped tit, but these trips were unsuccessful.
Methods
Several birdwatchers in Rajasthan and
Gujarat were contacted and information
gathered. Literature and maps were collected
from various sources. The habitat of the
white-naped tit, tropical thorn forests, was
scanned with local assistants and birdwatchers.
Results
Gujarat survey
Kutch district : A major part of the Kutch
district is still covered with tropical thorn forest,
especially near Dhinodhar, Dayapar,
Moti-Virani, Piyoni, Matano Madh, Khadir and
Gugriana, where white-naped tits were sighted.
These tits are common in Kutch district,
wherever a healthy thorn forest cover (locally
known as Rakhal = Reserve forest) is available.
Detailed studies were started from January 1 990,
around Fulay-Chhari; surveys were conducted in
the thorn forests of Kutch (Tiwari and Rahmani
1996). During drought years, the tits were
observed in vegetation covered stream beds and
irrigated crop fields. This may have exposed the
26
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE-NAPED TIT
endangered tit to pesticides. The white-naped tit
is patchily found in almost the entire Kutch, but
is common nowhere. It prefers thorn forests with
dead and decaying trees for roosting and nesting.
The nest is located in holes prepared by the
Mahratta woodpecker Picoides mahrattensis .
North Gujarat Survey
Banaskantha : Four white-naped tits were
seen in the Balaram Reserve Forest and Jethi
village near Palanpur city, north Gujarat, in May
1996. Balaram is located in the lush green
Aravali hills. Banaskantha district was surveyed
from 9 to 1 1 March, 1996, and a detailed survey
was also carried out with S.N. Varu from 19 to
23 May, 1996. North Gujarat is dominated by
dry deciduous forest. A 1,625 sq. km reserved
forest area exists in Banaskantha district. The
major protected areas lie in Baludhara, Jessore
Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Balaram Reserve Forest
and Ambaji Range Reserve Forest. Acacia
leucophloea and Acacia nilotica trees, which are
preferred by white-naped tits, grow along with
Butea monosperma, Anogeissus, Moringa ,
Terminalia and Carrisa. Chitrasani is the nearest
village where two white-naped tits were seen in
a mixed flock of grey tit Parus major , small
minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus, and
white-eye Zosterops palpebrosa.
On September 11, 1996, two white-naped
tits were observed in an Acacia nilotica
plantation at Jethi railway station in Banas-
kantha. Jethi village is about 15 km away from
Balaram forest. River Jethi flows through the
Balaram forest and supports a healthy, dry
deciduous and tropical thorn forest habitat, with
some undulating grassland, on the slopes of Ara-
valli hills. These are ideal habitats for the green
munia Estrilda formosa and white-naped tit.
The distance between Deesa and Abu Road
is 80 km. White-naped tits were spotted in the
scattered thorn forest of Beawar (Pali district,
Rajasthan), which is 370 kms away from Deesa.
Forest fragmentation is evident, as several
villages and towns are located here. Deforestation
is mainly due to lopping of trees to feed cattle,
and clearance of thorn forest for agriculture and
residential areas. No white-naped tits were seen
in Deesa and its vicinity, but they may occur in
these areas in sites like Khera and Auwa where
the thorn forest is healthy and relatively less
disturbed. Salim Ali had collected white-naped
tits from Deesa on January 10, 1931.
Mehsana district It occupies 9,027 sq. km
in Gujarat. R.M. Simmons had sighted
white-naped tits in July 1931, and again in
February 1932 (Collar and Andrew 1988), at
Taranga hills. S.N. Varu and I had surveyed the
Taranga hills on May 21,1 996, but failed to spot
any tits. However, the habitat is suitable, and they
can occur. The following areas were surveyed
on the way to Taranga hills: Netra, Thur hills,
Dhori, Hantawada, Mumnavas, Punjpur, Aderan
and Vijaran on State Highway No. 56, at Vijaran
village. Several stone crushers and stone
quarrying were observed; these take a heavy toll
of the healthy tropical thorn forest. Taranga lies
in the heart of the tropical thorn forest, which is
protected by the people for religious reasons,
making them a good habitat for wildlife. Two
species, yellowthroated sparrow Petronia
xanthocollis and brahminy myna Sturnus
pagodarum , which compete with the white-naped
tits, were sighted here.
Rajasthan survey
Pali district : This district was surveyed
from 15 to 20 March, and again from 4 to 9
October, 1996. White-naped tits were seen at Bar
village and in Sendra Reserve Forest on the
Pali- Ajmer border, on October 7, 1996.
Important areas for the white-naped tit are
near Beawar, Bar, Sendra and Amarpura to
Ajmer which bear patches of tropical thorn forest.
The Acacia leucophloea forest is fragmented by
several small to large villages and croplands with
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
27
STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE-NAPED TIT
the exotic mesquite or native Acacia forest.
Several places in these hills, e.g. areas from
Haripura to Bar are subjected to gypsum mining.
The forest from Bar (425.8 m) to Sendra
(473.08 m) is ideal for white-naped tit. On Oct. 7,
1 996 two of them were observed in the Bar village
forest, one of which was feeding on a caterpillar.
From their calls arid yellow gape, they appeared
to be one year old juveniles. In the evening, two
were seen near Sendra village in a reserve forest.
P. nuchalis is likely to occur in the following
reserve forest areas of Sendra forest range.
Jod* = Grassland
Prosopis juliflora is a major problem in
the forest plantation and in the grassland, which
is locally known as beed.
Jalore district. It was surveyed on March
18-19, 1996 and October 3-5, 1996. Two
white-naped tits were seen near Sunda-mata hill,
which is in good condition, on October 4, 1996.
Ali (1987) described the white-naped and
the grey tit as mutually exclusive. Except in the
Kutch district, I have seen both these tits in the
same patch of forest in many areas. R.M. Adam
(1873) had obtained specimens of the grey tit
and white-naped tit from the same patch of forest
at Maroth in Nagaur district. This was confirmed
during the survey of Maroth, where I saw
white-naped and grey tits in the same forest
patch, at the following places:
1 . Balaram and Jethi forest of Banaskantha,
North Gujarat.
2. Sunda-mata hill, Jalore.
3. Maroth, Nagaur district.
4. Sambhar, Jaipur district.
Sirohi district. No white-naped tit was seen
in the Sirohi district, which is barren and desolate
in some parts, and extensively cultivated in others,
with a variety of crops. The Aravalli range dissects
this district. Recently spread exotics like Prosopis
juliflora , Cassia torn, and Lantana camara are
causing severe damage to the natural ecosystems
of the Aravalli range and plains in Sirohi.
Mount Abu : The Abu hills were scanned
for bird life in the first week of October 1996.
Grey tits Parus major and yellowcheeked tits
P. xanthogenys were seen in many areas, but
white-naped tits were not seen on the Aravalli
hills of the Abu range. Perhaps they do not ascend
to that altitude (1,371 m) as other Paridae.
Yellowcheeked tits were seen, on Adhar Devi
areas, on October 2, 1996.
Jodhpur district. No white-naped tits were
spotted in this desert district of Rajasthan. There
is hardly any dense, tropical thorn forest in this
area, except for a few isolated pockets, such as
Machia Safari Park, Jodhpur and Har ki Bhakri
near Luni. There are scattered Acacia trees in
agricultural fields, but no Acacia leucophloea
and .4. nilotica forests were seen.
Jaipur district. It was surveyed from
September 11 to 12 and October 8 to 10, 1996.
On October 9, 1996, two white-naped tits were
seen in an Acacia nilotica and A. leucophloea
mixed forest at Nasia (Old fort) near Kanota,
1 1 km away from Jaipur city. A very good
plantation of Acacia forest can be seen on the
hills near Nasia. There is a huge patch of
exclusive Acacia leucophloea forest beyond
Nasia towards Dudu. Good stands of Acacia trees
28
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE-NAPED TIT
can be seen in the agricultural fields. The hills
beyond Kanota are devoid of tree cover. Spear
grasses were present on the bare hills. About fifty
camel cartloads of wood a day are brought from
the villages, to sell in Jaipur. Stone quarrying
was going on in the immediate vicinity of the
white-naped tit habitat at Kanoda on National
Highway No. 1 1 . The pressure on the existing
habitat of the white-naped tit is evident. The
species was reported from Jaipur district, by
Santanu Kumar Singh at Banjar Bhumi near
Jaipur in 1993 {pers. comm.).
Sambhar Lake City and environs
Sambhar lake : (26° 53’ N, 74° 54'-75° 14’
E) is the largest inland saline lake in India. The
areas around Sambhar lake were surveyed on
October 8 and 9, 1996. Jhapok and Guda areas
were surveyed for the white-naped, but none were
seen. The Devyani areas were surveyed on foot.
Impenetrable thickets of Prosopis juliflora were
seen on the periphery of the lake and its environs.
Nagore district : This district was surveyed
on October 9, 1996. Six white-naped tits were seen
in three different areas. Two each in Maroth,
Panchotia near Nava Town, and Sambhar
Saltworks reserve. The Sambhar forest ( 10 sq. km)
is privately maintained by the Sambhar Saltworks
authorities. It is about 4 km away from the Nava
town of Nagore district. This patch of original
Acacia leucophloea forest is at present under
serious threat, due to tree cutting by the villagers.
Two guards are appointed to look after this forest.
Cattle grazing and lopping of trees was noticed. If
not protected, this small forest tract, which still
supports the endangered white-naped tit will soon
disappear. R.M. Adam had collected the white-
naped tit in Maroth, in 1873.
Ajmer survey
Ajmer is 482 m above msl. The
white-naped tit survives in some isolated pockets
of the tropical thorn forests in Ajmer district.
Apart from the present sight records from the
Sendra area, other birdwatchers such as Harkirat
Sanga have seen Parus nuchalis in at least three
places, in Ajmer district (Table 1).
Table 1
SIGHT RECORDS OF PARUS NUCHALIS
FROM AJMER DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN
The hills near Ajmer city are extensively
planted with Prosopis juliflora. Sendra Reserve
Forest near Beawar, and the entire hill range in
Beawar is home to the white-naped tit.
Depending on the habitat, the tits are sparsely
distributed in Beawar and Sendra hills. The
forested areas near Sendra, Beawar and
Kishangarh should be protected by the Forest
Department. Deforestation and overgrazing are
two major problems in these areas.
Conservation
Observations on the status of the
white-naped tit in Kutch, north Gujarat, and
Rajasthan indicate that the survival of this
endemic species is dependent on the conservation
of the tropical thorn forest and protection of dead
and decaying Acacia trees. The main causes of
deforestation in Gujarat and Rajasthan are illegal
charcoal making, gathering fuel wood, invasion
by exotic plants and many forest bird species like
white-bellied minivet ( Pericrocotus
eiythropygius) into the tit habitat. Exotics like
Prosopis juliflora and Lantana camara should
be eradicated by allowing people to use them as
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
29
STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE-NAPED TIT
Table 2
SIGHTINGS OF THE WHITE-NAPED TIT IN GUJARAT AND RAJASTHAN
fuel wood and for charcoal making under the
strict supervision of the Forest Department and
with the help of the village headmen.
Acknowlegdements
I thank the Oriental Bird Club, UK and
the Leica Camera Co. for providing funds to
conduct this study. The Bombay Natural
History Society and the U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Service for the opportunity to work in the Bird
Migration and Grassland Study projects in
Kutch district. I also thank Tim and Carol
Inskipp, Asad R. Rahmani, David Ferguson,
M.K. Himmatsinhji, S.N. Vara, Aswin Pomal,
Rakesh Vyas, Harkirat Sanga, Satish Sharma,
Ravi Sanghi, Ganeshan, P.V. Reddy, Anupama
and Shiva for their help.
Refer
Adam, R.M. (1873): Notes on the Birds of Sambhar lake
and its vicinity. Stray Feathers 1 : 361-404.
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1 987): The Handbook of the Birds
of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press,
Bombay. Vol. 9, pp 1 72-174.
Collar, N.J. & P. Andrew (Eds.) (1988): Birds to Watch.
The I.C.F. world checklist of threatened birds. ICBP
Tech. Publ. no. 8.
ENCES
Hussain, S. A., S. A. Akhtar & J.K. Tiwari ( 1 992): Status
and distribution of White-winged Black Tit Parus
nuchalis in Kutch, Gujarat, India. Bird Conservation
International U.K. Vol. 2, pp 1 15 -122.
Tiwari, J.K. & A.R. Rahmani (1996): Current status and
nesting behaviour of the White-winged Black Tit
Parus nuchalis in Kutch, Gujarat, India. Forktail
(12): 95-102.
30
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
SPECIES STATUS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI (MUKERJI 1934),
(CYPRINIFORMES: CYPRINIDAE) WITH A SYSTEMATIC NOTE ON
POROPUNTIUS CLA VA TUS (MCCLELLAND 1845)1
Waikhom Vishwanath and Laishram Kosygin2
( With one plate and two text-figures)
Key words: Poropuntius burtoni , P. clavatus, species validity
Poropuntius clavatus burtoni (Mukerji), originally described from Myanmar, has hitherto been
considered a junior synonym of P. clavatus (McClelland). Based on detailed information from
the type specimens and 19 specimens presently collected from the rivers of Ukhrul district of
Manipur (Chindwin drainage), India, P. burtoni is now established as a valid species. The species
differs from P. clavatus in having fewer lateral line scales (34-38 vs. 41-42), fewer predorsal
scales (12-13 vs. 14- 15), fewer scale rows between dorsal fin origin and lateral line (6 vs.7),
shallower body (26.3-29.4 vs. 29.5-32.9) and shorter dorsal spine length (22.6-28.5 vs. 28.9-3 1 .4).
Poropuntius burtoni is endemic in the Chindwin-Irrawaddy drainage, whereas P. clavatus occurs
in the Barak-Brahmaputra drainage.
Introduction
Mukerji (1934) described Barbus clavatus
burtoni from Mali Hka river, Myanmar
(Irrawaddy drainage). He distinguished it from
P. clavatus clavatus in size, certain body
proportions and coloration. Jayaram (1991) put
them under Poropuntius Smith in the appendix
while revising the genus Puntius Hamilton.
Smith (1931) distinguished Poropuntius from
Puntius in having pores on the snout, lower jaw
with horny sheath and a rostral groove.
According to Rainboth (1996), the genus
Poropuntius is characterised by the presence of
open pores on the snout and posteriorly serrated
last dorsal spine. Jayaram (1981) did not
recognise P. clavatus burtoni as a species, but
considered it to be a Burmese form. Talwar and
Jhingran (1991), while describing Puntius
clavatus (McClelland), did not mention
Mukerji’ s specimen.
In the present study, 19 specimens of
Poropuntius were collected from Ukhrul district,
'Accepted April, 1999
department of Life Sciences,
Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003,
Manipur, India
Manipur (Chindwin drainage). These specimens
agree with the description of P. clavatus burtoni .
However, on detailed examination of the
specimens of P. clavatus clavatus in the
Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) and typical
specimens in the Manipur University Museum
of Fishes (MUMF), which were collected from
the Barak drainage, notable differences were
found. In view of the differences in morphology
and drainages which the fishes inhabit,
P. burtoni is considered here to be a valid
species.
Material and methods
Specimens collected in the present study
were deposited in MUMF. Type specimens of
Poropuntius burtoni and other specimens of
P. clavatus in ZSI and those in the MUMF wer£
examined. Measurements and counts follow
Jayaram (1981). Body proportions are expressed
as percentages of standard length (SL) and head
length (HL). Lateral transverse scales were
counted as those between the lateral line and
dorsal fin origin (including mid-dorsal scale),
and those between the lateral line and pelvic fin
origin.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
31
STA TUS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI WITH A NOTE ON POROPUNTIUS CLA V ATUS
Poropuntius burtoni (Mukerji 1934)
(Plate 1, Fig. 1)
Barbus clavatus burtoni Mukerji, 1934,
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37(1): 64-67.
Poropuntius clavatus Jayaram, 1991, Rec. zool.
Surv. India. Occ. Paper 135: 178.
Local Name: Nung-nga (Manipuri); Rar,
Ngapeila (Tangkhul); Aasho (Chakasang).
Material examined: Holotype, ZSLF
11437/1, 107.5 mm SL, Phungin Hka, tributary
of Mali Hka River, Myitkyina dist., Upper
Myanmar, Coll. R.W. Burton, no date; Paratype,
ZSI FI 1462/1, 1 ex., 155.0 mm SL, same data
as holotype; 8 exs., MUMF 2061-2068,
84.0-136.0 mm SL, Kongpu river, Bungpa,
Ukhrul district, Manipur, Coll. L. Kosygin,
4.vi.l994, 1 ex., MUMF 2005, 95.0 mm SL,
Laniye river near Jessami, Manipur-Nagaland
state border, 2.ii. 1994; 5 exs., MUMF 2028-2032,
93.5-106.5 mm SL, Wanze stream, Khamsom,
20.v. 1994; 2 ex., MUMF 21 12-21 13, 39-40 mm
SL, Chal ou river, Thetsi, Manipur-Nagaland
state border, l.vi.1994; 3 exs., MUMF
2195-2197, 27.5-109.0 mm SL, Tizu river at
Akash Bridge, near Thetsi 1 5.viii. 1 994.
Diagnosis: A species of Poropuntius with
34-38 lateral line scales. 6/1/4 lateral transverse
scales; 12-13 predorsal scales; body depth
26.3-29.8% of SL; dorsal fin height 22.6-28.5%
of SL.
Description: D. iv, 8; P. i, 16; V. i, 8; A.
iii, 6; C. 19; L.l. 34-38; L.tr. 6/1/4, Body
compressed. Dorsal profile arched from snout tip
to dorsal fin origin, then gently sloping down to
caudal fin base. Head short, conical. Snout
obtusely pointed, longer than eye diameter in
adults. Its tip studded with small tubercles. Eye
moderately large, not visible from ventral surface.
Inter-orbital space convex, slightly greater than
eye diameter. Mouth horse-shoe shaped,
sub-inferior, cleft of mouth extending nearly to
the level of anterior margin of the orbit. Barbels
2 pairs, one each of maxillary and rostral, both
Table 1
COMPARISON OF MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI AND P. CLA VATUS
32
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
STATUS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI WITH A NOTE ON POROPUNTIUS CLAVATUS
W. Vishwanath et al. : Poropuntius spp.
Plate 1
Fig. 1: Poropuntius burtoni (Mukerji)
Fig. 2: Poropuntius clavatus (McClelland)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
33
STA TVS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI WITH A NOTE ON POROPUNTIUS CLAVATUS
as long as eye diameter. Scales large, 12-13 scales
in front of dorsal fin origin. Lateral line complete.
Dorsal spine strong, osseous, serrated posteriorly,
its origin equidistant from snout tip and caudal
fin base. Pectoral fins slightly shorter than head
length, not reaching pelvic fin origins. Caudal
fin forked.
Proportional measurements (in
percentage): Body depth 27.9 (26.3-29.4); head
length 24.5 (22.6-25.7); predorsal length 49.1
(46.7-50.8); dorsal fin base length 14.9
(14.0-16.0); dorsal fin height 24.6 (22.6-28.5);
and caudal fin length 27.4 (25.0-29.8)% of SL.
Head width 56.1 (52.1-63.3); head height at
occiput 75.8 (70.4-81.3); snout length 32.1
(29.8-35.1); eye diameter 23.9 (21.2-26.1);
interorbital space 32.8 (28.9-34.9); pectoral fin
length 84.1 (78.7-89.3); and caudal peduncle
length 90.2 (85.5-98.0)% of HL. Dorsal fin
height 88.8 (82.0-100.0)% of body depth.
Caudal peduncle height 52.2 (48.9-58.8) % of
its length.
Colour: Body silvery with darker dorsal
surface. A few rows of scales are dotted with fine
blackish pigment. All the fins light orange. Outer
edge of caudal fin tipped with black.
Distribution: india: Manipur (Chindwin
basin); Myanmar: Myitkyina District, Irrawaddy
drainage.
Remarks: Mukeiji (1934) emphasised the
size of the fishes while separating the Chindwin
form of Poropuntius from the Brahmaputra form,
i.e. P. clavatus clavatus of the genus. He reported
that the maximum size of the Chindwin form was
172 mm SL and that of Brahmaputra, only 120
mm. Sen (1985) mentioned that the largest
specimen recorded for the latter was 7 inches (=178
mm), while the specimens collected from Barak
river (MUMF) measure about 195 mm in SL.
Thus, the comparative sizes cannot be the
basis for separating the two forms. P. burtoni is
distinguished from P. clavatus in having fewer
lateral line scales (34-38 vs. 41-42); fewer
predorsal scales (12-13 vs. 14-15); fewer scale
rows between dorsal origin and lateral line (6
vs. 7) shallower body (26.3-29.4 vs. 29.5- 32.9)
and shorter dorsal fin height (22.6-28.5 vs.
28.9-31.4). Thus, P. burtoni is given specific
status in the present study. Figs 1 and 2 compare
the body depths and spine lengths of the two
species.
Poropuntius clavatus (McClelland 1845)
(Plate 1, Fig. 2)
Barbus clavatus McClelland, 1 845. Calcutta
J. nat. Hist., 280, pi. 21 (type locality: Sikkim
mountains on the northern frontier of Bengal).
Puntius clavatus : Menon, 1974, Inland
Fisheries Soc. of India, Spl. Pub. 1:38.
Poropuntius clavatus : Jayaram, 1991, Rec.
zool. Surv. India , 135: 172.
Local name: Nung-nga (Manipuri).
Material examined: 1 ex., ZSIFF 1629,
121.5 mm SL, Jatinda river, Assam, India, Coll.
S.C. De, no date; 1 ex., ZSI F 9936/1, 124.0 mm
SL, Karong, Naga Hills, Manipur, Coll. S.L.
Hora, no date; 3 ex., MUMF 2265-2267,
168.8-195.5 mm SL, Barak river, Sekjang Tuifai,
Manipur, India, Coll. Ch. Bashuda, 14.ii.1997.
Diagnosis: A species of Poropuntius with
41-42 lateral line scales; 7/1/4 lateral transverse
scales; 14-15 predorsal scales; body depth
29.5-32.9% of SL; dorsal fin height 28.9-31.4
% SL.
Distribution: india: Assam, Manipur
(Brahmaputra basin), Sikkim, West Bengal;
Bangladesh.
Remarks: McClelland ( 1 845) described P.
clavatus from Sikkim, India. Menon (1974)
considered P. burtoni a junior synonym of
clavatus and extended the distribution of the fish
to Myanmar. However, from the present study it
is clear that they are two distinct species. Thus,
P. clavatus is distributed only in the north-eastern
part of India and Bangladesh.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
35
STA TUS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI WITH A NOTE ON POROPUNTIUS CLA VATUS
34.00
32.20
30.40
Q.
®
TJ
>»
X5
O
CD
28.60
26.80
25.00
80.0
□
□
1 -i 1 1 i
93.5 105.0 109.0 126.0 190.7
Standard length (mm)
H P. burtoni □ P. cfavatus
Fig. 1 : Relationship between body depth and standard length of P. burtoni and P. clavatus
31.40 h
29.52 -
27.64
25.76
23.88
22.00 L— L— 1 1 1 1
80.0 89.1 95.1 106.5 121.5 126.0 168.8
Standard length (mm)
■ P. burtoni □ P. clavatus
Fig. 2: Relationship between dorsal spine length and standard length of P. burtoni and P clavatus
36
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
STATUS OF POROPUNTIUS BURTONI WITH A NOTE CWPOROPUNTIUS CLAVATUS
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. J.R.B. Alfred
(Director), Mr. T.K. Sen and Dr. A.K. Karmakar
of Zoological Survey of India, for permission to
Refer
Jayaram, K.C. (1981). Freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka. Handbook,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 475 pp.
Jayaram, K.C. (1991): Revision of the genus Puntius
Hamilton from the Indian region (Pisces:
Cypriniformes, Cyprinidae, Cyprininae). Rec. zool.
Surv. India, Occ. Paper 135 : 178.
Menon, A.G.K. (1974): A checklist of fishes of the
Himalayan and the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Inland
Fisheries Society India (Special publication No. 1 ),
136 pp.
McClelland, J. (1945 1 845): Description of four species
of fishes from the rivers at the foot of the Boutan
Mountains. J. Nat. Hist. Calcutta 5(1 8): 274-282, pi.
21.
examine the type and other specimens in the
Museum; Dr. Maurice Kottelat of Switzerland,
for literature and the Ministry of Environment
& Forests, New Delhi (Project No. 114 1 /
IF 131 97), for financial assistance.
ENC ES
Mukerji, D.D. (1934): Report on the Burmese fishes
collected by Lt. Col. R.W. Burton from the tributary
streams of Mali Hka River of Myitkyina District (Upper
Burma) 2. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37(1): 38-80.
Rainboth, W. J. ( 1 996): Fishes of the Cambodian Mekong.
Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United
Nations, Rome, 265 pp, 27 pis.
Sen, T.K. (1985): The fish fauna of Assam and the
neighbouring northeastern states of India. Rec. zool.
Surv. India, Occ. paper 64: 216.
Smith, H.M. (1 93 1 ). Description of new genera and species
of Siamese fishes. Proc. U.S. Natn. Mus. 79(7): 1-48.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of
India and adjacent countries, Vol 1 , Oxford and IBH
Publ. Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 541 pp.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
37
FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD
BUFO MELANOSTICTUS SCHNEIDER1
Mercy Mathew and M.I. Andrews2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Bufo melanostictus, food, feeding habits
The food and feeding habits of Bufo melanostictus in the Kuttanad region of Kerala were studied.
Arthropods formed a major food item while insects were the most favoured food of the species.
The present study reaffirms that the toad is a useful anuran for controlling pests.
Introduction
The stomach contents of many anuran
species have been examined to determine their
role in an ecosystem. Though the food of several
anuran species inhabiting temperate regions has
been studied extensively (Drake 1914, Berry and
Bullock 1962, Berry 1970, Blackith and Speight
1974, Strassman et al. 1984, Barrentine 1991,
Evans and Lampo 1996, De Bruyn et al. 1996),
the food and feeding habits of only a few tropical
species have been investigated (Wadekar 1963,
Isaac and Rege 1975, Nigam 1979,
Mohanty-Hejmadi et al. 1979, Battish and
Sandhu 1988, George and Andrews 1995).
In the Indian subcontinent, the food and
feeding habits of toads were studied by some
workers (Rangaswami and Channabasavanna
1973, Battish et al. 1989, Sreelatha et al. 1990).
Except for the latter, no detailed work has been
done on the food spectrum of Bufo melanostictus
in Kerala. The present study was, therefore,
undertaken to determine the food of B.
melanostictus in the Kuttanad region of Kerala
and its role as a biocontrol agent.
Material and Methods
Stomach content analysis of B.
melanostictus was carried out from January 1991
to December 1992. A total of 213 toads (80 males
‘Accepted January, 2000
department of Zoology , Mar Thoma College,
Tiruvalla 689 103, Kerala, India.
and 133 females) were examined. Adult toads
were collected at night from paddy fields and
habitats in Kuttanad, a natural wetland of Kerala.
They were killed immediately and preserved in
10% formalin. The toads were weighed and sexed
in the laboratory. The stomach was excised from
the toad and weighed. The weight of its contents
were recorded separately. The contents were
examined under a binocular dissecting
microscope, sorted and preserved in 70% alcohol.
Food items were identified and the number of
individuals of each type were recorded. The
correlation between the body weight and weight
of gut contents was statistically analysed.
Results
The distribution of stomach contents of
B. melanostictus (expressed as a percentage of
total body weight) with respect to sex and month
is shown in Table 1 . Female toads were found to
consume more food than males except in
September, November and December. The
females collected in January, May and June were
observed to have a higher percentage weight of
stomach contents. Table 2 lists the classified food
items of B. melanostictus and their economic
importance. It is evident from the data obtained
that the food of B. melanostictus consisted of
invertebrates of 15 orders (Table 3). The toad
mainly fed on arthropods. No vertebrate prey was
found. Stomachs of 14 specimens examined were
empty. Ant species dominated the diet (56.36%).
Termites, though numerically abundant
38
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1) APR. 200 1
FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD
Table 1
STOMACH CONTENTS OF BUFO MELANOSTICTUS
EXPRESSED AS PERCENT OF TOTAL BODY WEIGHT
WITH RESPECT TO SEX AND MONTH
(26.11%), were preferred by fewer toads.
Coleopterans formed the next largest group
(9.62%) (Fig. 1). Orthoptera, Hemiptera,
Heteroptera, Diptera, Millipedes, Araneida,
molluscs and earthworms were also identified.
A substantial amount of plant material was
present in several stomachs. Miscellaneous items
like sand, gravel, stone, hair, seed and flower
bud were also recorded.
It is evident from the data that this toad
fed on a variety of insects belonging to 1 5 families
of the order Coleoptera. Phytophagous insect
pests like Anoplogenius sp., Gonocephalum sp.,
Diocalandra fruminti, Rhynchaenus mangifera ,
Sipalus sp., Sternochaetus mangifera , Sitophilus
oryzae , Onthophagus sp., Anomala chlorocarpa ,
Autoserica insanabilis , Anomala sp. and
Adoretus sp. were recovered from the gut of B.
melanostictus. It also fed on root pests like Cylas
sp., Heteronychus lioderes , Anomala dussumeiri
and Melanotus hirticornis , pests of tuber crops
like Lema sp. and pests of stored grains like
Aliphitobius piceus and Rhizopertha dominica.
Predaceous beetles like Cicindella sp.,
Termitodiscus sp. and Luciola sp., and other
Opisthopora
Dermaptera
Orthoptera
Hemiptera
Lepidoptera
Coleoptera
Heteroptera
Hymenoptera
Dictyoptera
Isoptera
Diptera
Chilopoda
Diplopoda
Araneida
Pulmonata
Percentage
Fig. 1 : Annual consumption of food items by B. melanostictus
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
39
FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD
Table 2
FOOD SPECTRUM OF BUFO MELANOSTICTUS
40
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1) APR. 2001
FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD
Table 2 (contd)
FOOD SPECTRUM OF B UFO MELANOSTICTUS
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1), APR. 2001
41
FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD
Class: Arachnida
Order: Araneida
Family: Lycosidae
42
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1) APR. 2001
FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD
coleopterans like Scarites sp., Siggona sp.,
Civina sp., Kareya sp. Gonocephalum sp.,
Gonocephalum strigatum, Myllocerus
pustulatus , Xanthoprochilus sp., Hybosorus
orientalis, Serica sp., Heteroderis sp., Attica sp.,
Ophrigonius sp. were also obtained from the gut
content (Table 2).
Among the heteropterans, serious rice pests
like Scotinophora bispinosa and another
unidentified species of the same genus were found
in the food contents of B. melanostictus (Table
2). Hymenopterans were well represented in the
food contents. Among them, Pheidologeton
affinis , Oecophylla smaragdina (household pest),
Camponotus compressus , Camponotus sp.,
Diacamma vagans, Megachila sp., (tree pests)
and Solenopsis geminata (vegetable seedling
pest) constituted the major portion. A few ant
parasites, genus Mutilla (Mutillidae) were also
found.
The data obtained was statistically analysed
and a strong positive correlation was found
between body weight and gut weight, and
between body weight and gut content weight.
(Table 4).
Discussion
The present study reveals that
B. melanostictus feeds on a wide range of
organisms. The food of this toad consists of
invertebrates; no vertebrate prey were found. The
toad’s selection of these organisms is a chance
factor. The representation of several orders and
families of invertebrates from diverse habits like
terrestrial, aquatic and agro-ecosystems showed
the toad’s affinity to them. Feeding is evidently
unselective in B. melanostictus , as animals with
noxious protective and offensive mechanisms like
centipedes, millipedes and spiders are frequently
taken. Further, this toad is primarily
insectivorous. No cannibalism was observed.
Toads, however, are reported to be carnivorous
and cannibalistic by Noble (1918) and Sreelatha
et al. (1990).
The food consumption of the toad is high
in May- June and low in July-August. The high
food consumption in May-June is because of
greater reproductive activity in the monsoon
season. The decline in the feeding rate in July-
August can be attributed to the low availability
of terrestrial insects during the monsoon.
The food spectrum obtained in the present
study indicates that arthropods form the bulk of
the diet of B. melanostictus. Among them, insects
appear to be the most favoured. In the present
study, Hymenopteran ants of family Formicidae
were dominant in the diet of the toad,
substantiating the works of Weber (1938) in
B. marinus. Forge and Barbault (1980) in
B. pentoni, Battish et al. (1989) in B. stomaticus ,
and Evans and Lampo (1996) in B. marinus.
It has been reported that, in terms of
biomass, coleopterans were predominant in the
food of B. melanostictus (Berry and Bullock
1962) and B. stomaticus (Battish et al. 1989).
The consumption of large numbers of Coleoptera
by Rana tigerina (=Hoplobatrachus tigrinus)
during the pre-breeding period has been noted
by Khan (1973). As is clear from the present
study, B. melanostictus mainly feeds on terrestrial
insects. Similar observation was made by Berry
and Bullock (1962). This can be correlated with
the prey availability in the toad’s habitat.
The present study shows that the seasonal
variation in the food of B. melanostictus may be
due to a seasonal change in the availability of
prey. Similar observations were made by Brooks
(1959), Berry (1965), Khan (1973) and Battish
et al. (1989). According to Jenson and Klimstra
(1966), Hedeen (1970) and Nigam (1979),
anurans are opportunistic feeders. The more
frequent occurrence of toads in vegetable
gardens and orchards is due to the easy
availability of prey. A correlation was also found
between the abundance of toads and the ground
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
43
PERCENTAGE OF FOOD ITEMS RECOVERED FROM STOMACHS OF B UFO MELANOSTICTUS FROM JANUARY 1991 TO DECEMBER 1 992
FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD
44
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1) APR. 2001
FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD
Table 4
CORRELATION METRICES OF FEEDING ACTIVITY
OF BUFO MELANOSTICTUS
** Significant for p <0.01
fauna. Strussmann et al. (1984) noted that
although B. marinus ate most prey items in
proportion to their abundance, positive selection
was shown for ants and termites. In the present
study, the dietary differences found between
habitats may simply reflect the availability of
prey.
The stones, leaves and other debris present
in the gut of B. melanostictus might have been
ingested incidentally with the prey. The presence
of stones and vegetable matter in the gut of
anurans has been reported earlier (Berry and
Bullock 1962, Berry 1965, Battish et al. 1989,
Sreelatha etal. 1990, George and Andrews 1995,
Evans and Lampo 1996). Possibly, the stones and
plant matter help to crush food items such as
beetle carapaces in the stomach. Other objects
like grain, seed and flower bud are probably
mistaken for food.
The present study reaffirms that
B. melanostictus is a natural predator of various
Refer
Abdulali, H. ( 1 985): On the export of frog legs from India.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(2): 347-375.
Barrentine, D. (1991): Food habits of Western toads ( Bufo
boreas halophilus ) foraging from a residential lawn.
Herpetol. Rev. 22(3): 84-87.
Battish, S.K., Anno Agarwal & Paramjit Singh (1 989):
Food spectrum of the marbled toad Bufo stomaticus
Lutken. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 22-31 .
Battish, S.K. & J.S. Sandhu (1988): Food spectrum of
the skipper frog Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider. Ann.
Biol. ( Ludhiana ) 4(1 & 2): 14-19.
Berry, P.Y. (1965): The diet of some Singapore anura.
J. Zool. London. 144: 163-174.
insect pests, especially some serious crop pests.
Though toads are known opportunistic feeders,
their feeding on several phytophagous insect
pests indicates their usefulness as biological
control agents. This has been stressed by several
earlier workers (Gadow 1901, Kadam and Patel
1960, Stiles etal. 1969, Fellow 1969). It has been
reported that R. tigerina (=Hoplobatrachus
tigrinus) (Abdulali 1985), B. stomaticus (Battish
et al. 1989), B. melanostictus (Sreelatha et al.
1990), R. limnocharis ( =Limnonectes
limnocharis ) (Sally et al. 1992) and
R. hexadactyla ( =Euphlyctis hexadactylus)
(George and Andrews, 1995) are significant in
controlling agricultural pests. B. melanostictus
feeds on insects, ants and spiders, some of which
are beneficial. This toad may be considered useful
for the control of pests and other harmful insects,
playing an important role in the economy of
nature.
Acknowledg ements
We are grateful to Dr. P.T. Cherian,
Additional Director, Zoological Survey of India,
Southern Regional Station, Chennai, Dr. T.C.
Narendran, Professor of Zoology, University of
Calicut, and Dr. George Mathew, Scientist,
Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala
for the identification of insects.
ENCES
Berry, P.Y. (1970): The food of giant toad Bufo asper.
Zool. J. Linn. Soc. Lond. 49: 61-68.
Berry, P.Y. & J.A. Bullock (1 962): The food of common
Malayan toad Bufo melanostictus Schneider. Copeia.
736-741.
Blackith, R.M. & M.C.D. Speight (1974): Food and
feeding habits of the frog Rana temporaria in the
bogland habitats in the west of Ireland. J. Zool. Lond.
172:61-69.
Brooks, G.R. (1959): A survey of the food habits of Rana
catesbeiana from five different habitats. Virginia
J. Sci. 10: 263.
De Bruyn, L., M. Kazadi & J. Hulselmans (1996): Diet of
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1), APR. 2001
45
FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD
Xenopus fraseri (Anura: Pipidae). J. Herpetol. 30(1):
82-85.
Drake, C.J. (1914): The food of Rana pipiens Schreber.
Ohio. Nat. 14: 257-269.
Evans, M. & M. Lampo (1996): Diet of Bufo marinus in
Venezuela. J. Herpetol. 33(1): 73-76.
Fellow, A.G. (1969): Toads and Termites. Victorian Nat.
86: 136.
Forge, P. & R. Barbault (1980): Observations on the
diet of two sympatric amphibians from Sahel of
Senegal: Bufo pentoni and B. tomopterna. Bull. Jnt.
London Afr. Noiri. Sero. Sci. nat. 40(3): 674-684.
Gadow, H.C. (1901): The Cambridge Natural History.
Amphibians and Reptiles. Vol. VIII.
George, S. & M.I. Andrews (1995): Food and feeding
habits of Rana hexadactyla Lesson in Kuttanad.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(2): 432-437.
Hedeen, S.E. (1970): The ecology and life history of the
mink frog Rana septentrionalis Baird. Ph.D. thesis,
Univ. of Minneapolis.
Isaac, S. & M.S. Rege (1975): Food of Rana tigerina
(Daud). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(1): 143-157.
Jensen, T.A. & W.D. Klimstra (1966): Food habits of the
green frog Rana clamitans in Southern Illinois. Amer.
Mid. Nat. 76: 169-182.
Kadam, M.V.B. & G.A. Patel (1960): Crop pests and how
to fight them. Div. Pub. Govt. Maharashtra, Bombay.
Khan, M.S. (1973): Food of Tiger frog, Rana tigerina
(Daudin). Biologia 19: 1-2.
Mohanty-Hejmadi, P., S.K. Dutta, B.K. Acharya &
I. Khan (1979): Observations on food habits of three
species of frogs. Proc. Orissa Assoc. Adv. of Sci.,
Abstract No. 6.
Njgam, H.C. (1979): Food and feeding habits of Rana
tigerina in paddy belts of U.P. India. Geobios. 6(6):
241-244.
Noble, G.K. (1918): The amphibians collected by the
American museum expedition to Nicaragua in 1 91 6.
Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 38: 31 1-347.
Rangaswami, H.R. & G.P. Channabasavanna (1973): Food
and feeding habits of the toad Bufo melanostictus
Schneider (Amphibia : Bufonidae). J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 70(3): 558-563.
Sally, G., S. George, M. Oommen & M. Johnson ( 1 992):
Food spectrum of the frog Rana limnocharis (Boie
in Weighmann). J. Zool. Soc. Kerala. 2(1): 58-61 .
Sreelatha, K.S., P. Natarajan and S.D. Rita Klmari
( 1 990): Studies on the food and feeding behaviour of
Bufo melanostictus Schneider. J. Ecobiol. 2(3): 21 3-
221.
Stiles, K.A., W.H. Robert & R.A. Boolotial (1969):
College Zoology. Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, pp. 530.
Strussmann, C., M.B. Ribeiro Do Vale, M.H. Meneghini
& W.E. Magnusson (1984): Diet and foraging mode
of Bufo marinus and Leptodactylus ocellatus.
J. Herpetol. 18: 138-146.
Wadekar, U.L. (1963): The diet of the Indian bull frog.
Rana tigerina (Daud). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
60(1): 263-268.
Weber, N. A. (1938): The food of giant toad Bufo marinus
in Trinidad and British Guiana with special reference
to the ants. Ann. Entomol. Soc. America. 31: 499-
503.
46
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1) APR. 2001
TAXONOMIC POSITION OF THE INDIAN SPECIES OF GRASS FEEDING
DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPERS ASSIGNED TO
THE GENUS ALLOPHLEPS (HEMIPTERA : CIC ADELLID AE) 1
C.A. VlRAKTAMATH2 AND PRATAP CHANDRA DASH3
( With five text-figures)
Key words: Taxonomic position, Deltocephaline leafhoppers, Deltocephalus
The genus Allophleps is redefined based on the specimen from Africa. The Indian species assigned
to this genus are transferred to the genus Deltocephalus which is redefined along with a key to
the Indian species. The following new combinations are proposed: Deltocephalus indicus (Pruthi)
and D. menoni (Rao and Ramakrishnan). Allophleps delhiensis Rao and Ramakrishnan is treated
as a major synonym of D. indicus.
Introduction
Bergroth (1920) described the genus
Allophleps for his new species Allophleps
inspersa from Kenya. Pruthi (1936) described
Allophleps indicus from Lyallpur (Pakistan), thus
recording the genus from the Indian
subcontinent. Rao and Ramakrishnan (1990)
provided the diagnosis of the genus based on the
Indian species and added two new species,
namely A. delhiensis and A. menoni from New
Delhi. They also provided a key to the three
known species from the Indian subcontinent.
During our studies of the Indian
Deltocephalus , we discovered a number of speci-
mens assignable to the three known species of
Allophleps , but we realised that the species from
the Subcontinent were misplaced in Allophleps.
An examination of the authentically identified
specimen of A. inspersa confirmed our doubt and
we report here the results of our studies.
The abbreviations used for the depositories
are as follows: BMNH - The Natural History
Museum, London; NPC - National Pusa Collec-
tion, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New
'Accepted August, 1998
department of Entomology,
University of Agricultural Sciences,
GKVK, Bangalore 560 065, Karnataka, India,
department of Entomology,
Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology,
Bhubaneshwar 751 003, Orissa, India.
Delhi; UAS - Department of Entomology,
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore
and ZSI - Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Allophleps Bergroth
Allophleps Bergroth 1920: 27. Type
species: Allophleps inspersa Bergroth, by
original designation.
Macropterous leafhoppers measuring more
than 6 mm. Head slightly narrower than
pronotum, longer medially than next to eyes.
Vertex polished. Face slightly wider than long,
shagreened, antennal ledge well developed,
impinging slightly on clypeus, ocelli close to eyes.
Pronotum with carinate lateral margins,
transversely wrinkled, sparsely punctate,
polished. Scutellum polished, area beyond
impressed line transversely rugulose. Fore wing
without accessory cells, outer ante-apical cell
smallest, apically narrowed. Hind femoral
spinulation 2+2+1.
Male pygophore with well developed
anterior apodeme, a group of macrosetae on
dorsal margin at the base of origin of anal
segments; lobe narrowed with sclerotized bar
along dorsal area, apex sclerotized, pigmented.
Valve broad with a median angular projection
on caudal margin. Subgenital plate triangular
with outer marginal row of stout setae. Style with
small preapical lobe, apophysis well developed,
apex broadened with prominent crenulations.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
41
TAXONOMIC POSITION OF INDIAN DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPERS
Connective Y-shaped, arms well separated, stem
distally bilobed. Aedeagus articulated with
connective, shaft curved tubular, apex flared with
large gonopore, ventral part produced into a
bilobed process beyond gonopore, dorsal
apodeme well developed.
Remarks: Oman et al. (1990) placed this
genus under the tribe Fieberiellini. However,
because of the well developed apophysis of style
and Y-shaped connective with divergent aims,
we place this genus in the tribe Euscelini.
Allophleps inspersa Bergroth, 1920
(Figs 1-5)
Allophleps inspersa Bergroth, 1920: 28.
Material examined: Tanganyika: 1 d*,
Lake Nyassa, 1,600 ft (488 m), 34° 00' E, 9°
30' S, 28.viii.1959, Cambridge E. Africa Exped.
B.M. 1960-50, Allophleps inspersa Bergr. Det.
M.D. Webb, comp, with type (BMNH).
Indian species of Allophleps
The male genitalia and wing venation of
the three species from the Indian subcontinent
assigned to Allophleps are well illustrated by
Pruthi (1936) and Rao and Ramakrishnan
(1990), hence they are not illustrated here. A
study of these species suggests that they belong
to the genus Deltocephalus of the tribe
Deltocephalini. The genus Deltocephalus is
redefined here (Kramer 1971).
Deltocephalus Burmeister
Jassus subgenus Deltocephalus
Burmeister, 1938: 15. Type species: Cicada
pulicaris Fallen, type by subsequent designation
by Kirschbaum, 1858: 356.
Moderately small, comparatively robust
leafhoppers measuring 2.2-4. 1 mm. Head
including eyes as wide as or slightly wider than
pronotum, crown produced beyond eyes and
bluntly angular at apex, anterior margin of crown
broadly and smoothly rounded to face, crown in
lateral view usually distinctly inflated or convex.
Ocelli marginal, small, and rather remote from
eyes. Clypeal suture often obscure; clypellus
quadrate with sides parallel. Fore wings long and
extending well beyond abdomen or shortened and
exposing apex of abdomen; in forms with
shortened fore wings, the apical cells and each
appendix are much reduced and at times rarely
open basally, central cell divided or not, outer
cell often reduced and sometimes absent.
Male pygophore simple, without prominent
processes, but with macrosetae, anal collar with
or without a simple process, subgenital plate
triangular or rarely hemispherical, not produced
into a membranous appendage. Valve and
subgenital plates separate. Style with slender and
more or less finger-like apophysis. Connective
linear and fused with aedeagus; aedeagal shaft
broadest in basal half and tapering distally to a
slender upturned apex, extreme apex simple or
slightly elaborated with small projections or
minute teeth on distal margin below apex.
Remarks: The genus shares the characters
of fused connective and aedeagus with
Matsumuratettix Metcalf and Miradeltaphus
Dash and Viraktamath among the Indian genera.
It differs from Matsumuratettix in the shape of
the aedeagus and from Miradeltaphus in having
valves and subgenital plates separate. Dash and
Viraktamath (1995) treated the genus Recilia
Edwards as a subgenus of Deltocephalus and
stated that most of the Indian species assigned
to the genus Deltocephalus belong to this
subgenus. However, the male genitalia of the
following species are not known: brunnescens
Distant, butleri Distant, campbelli Distant,
coloratus Distant, deletus Baker and pulvisculus
Distant and hence, they have not been assigned
to any subgenus. The Indian species assigned to
Allophleps agree with the characters of the genus
Deltocephalus and hence, the following new
combinations and a synonym are proposed:
48
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1) APR. 2001
TAXONOMIC POSITION OF INDIAN DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPERS
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
49
Figs 1-5: Allophleps inspersa Bergroth, 1. Male genitalia, lateral view; 2. Valve and subgenital plate, ventral view; 3. Style:
4. Aedeagus, lateral view; 5, Apex of aedeagal shaft, ventral view.
TAXONOMIC POSITION OF INDIAN DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPERS
Deltocephalus indicus (Pruthi 1936),
Comb. nov.
Allophleps indicus Pruthi, 1936: 120.
Holotype 9, Pakistan [ZSI, examined].
Allophleps delhiensis Rao and
Ramakrishnan, 1990: 111. Holotype d*, India
[NPC, examined ]. Syn. nov.
Material examined: Pakistan: Holotype
$, 5411/H7, Lyallpur, Punjab (at light)
10.x. 1929, A. Rahman, Allophleps indicus
sp. nov., H.S. Pruthi, det. Paratype d\ 5700/H7,
data as in holotype (ZSI). India: Holotype d,
Delhi, 30. iv. 1965, inside lamp dome, M.G.R.
Menon Allophleps delhiensis sp. nov. Paratypes:
5 d data as for holotype of A. delhiensis
(NPC).
Remarks: Female illustrated by Pruthi
(1936: Plate IX, Fig. 3) clearly shows the
reticulate venation on both clavus and corium
of fore wing. However, the wing venation shown
in the text- figure 132a (p. 120) does not show
this. Apparently this wing was taken from a
different specimen. In the type series, the
holotype female (5411/H7) and the paratype
male (5700/H7) and one female from the type
locality (5697/H7) show reticulate venation,
whereas another female from the type locality
(5698/H7) does not show reticulate venation and
also does not belong to this species. The
principal difference suggested in the key by Rao
and Ramakrishnan (1990) between indicus and
delhiensis was reticulate venation though they
mentioned slight differences in the structure of
subgenital plates and apophysis of style. The
latter varies with the orientation of the style
while making the diagram. The structure
attributed to subgenital plates in Fig. 132b by
Pruthi (1936: 12) is probably part of the
pygophore lobes. There is no difference in the
structure of connective and aedeagus and
therefore, delhiensis is here treated as a junior
synonym of indicus.
Deltocephalus menoni (Rao and
Ramakrishnan, 1990), Comb. nov.
Allophleps menoni Rao and
Ramakrishnan, 1990: 113. Holotype d\ India
[NPC, examined].
Material examined: india: Holotype d\
Delhi, 30. iv. 1965, inside lamp dome, M.G.R.
Menon (NPC). Paratypes: 5 d* data as for
holotype (NPC). Other material: india:
Karnataka: Id, Dharwar, 22.x. 1969, C.A.
Viraktamath (UAS).
The following key will help in the
identification of the known Indian species of
Deltocephalus A
Key to the Indian species of Deltocephalus
1 . Fore wings with many accessory cross veins both
on clavus and corium or outer ante-apical cell
narrowed and pointed at apex or divided into two
or more cells 2
— Fore wing without accessory cross veins, outer
ante-apical cell neither narrowed and pointed at
apex nor divided into two or more cells 4
2. Aedeagal shaft compressed and bifurcate 3
— Aedeagal shaft tubular and not bifurcate
pruthii Metcalf
3. Aedeagal shaft with a short tooth-like process
neargonopore
menoni (Rao and Ramakrishnan)
— Aedeagal shaft with longer caudally directed
process near gonopore indicus (Pruthi)
4. Head with red markings 5
— Head without red markings 6
5 . Vertex of head with four red spots, pronotum with
red stripes deletus Baker
— Vertex of head with a pair of longitudinal red
stripes between eyes, pronotum with black
longitudinal lines coloratus Distant
6. Apex of hind tibia with a black patch; head,
thorax and fore wings with brown spots
pulvisculus Distant
4Dash and Viraktamath (1998) described 24 new species of
Deltocephalus (that are not included in this key) and also gave
a key to all the known species of Deltocephalus from India
and Nepal.
50
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1) APR. 2001
TAXONOMIC POSITION OF INDIAN DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPERS
— Apex of hind tibia not marked as above, other
characters not as above 7
7. Predominantly black or chocolate brown species
8
— Ochraceous or stramineous with fuscous or black
spots 9
8. Colour black with yellow transverse bands on
face, crown, pronotum and scutellum
banda (Kramer).
— Anterior half of vertex black with three white
spots, pronotum scutellum and fore wings
chocolate brown prabha (Pruthi)
9. Fore wing with zigzag reddish-brown marking
dorsalis Motschulsky
1 0. Head and thorax orange red or orange yellow with
or without a black spot on disc of vertex
porticus Melichar
— Head and thorax ochraceous or fuscous with or
without black markings 11
11. Vertex with prominent large black markings or
with marginal black band surrounding white spots
12
— Vertex with either fuscous or small black spots
or without any markings 14
12. Anterior margin of head with a black stripe
spotted with white; subgenital plates as wide as
or wider than inner margin, apically strongly
rounded distinctus Motschulsky
— Disc of vertex with one or more large black spots;
subgenital plates triangular 13
13. Vertex with one apical large black spot
butleri Distant
— Vertex with three black spots
maculatus (Pruthi)
14. Vertex with four small anterior fuscous spots,
with a longitudinal fuscous stripe on either side
of median line and a transverse series of fuscous
spots on pronotum, fore and mid-tibiae annulated
with brown brunnescens Distant.
— Not with above combination of characters ... 15
15. Vertex with anterior marginal spots, anterior
aspect of pronotum obscurely tuberculate, fore
wing pale ochraceous with white spots
campbelli Distant
— Not with above combination of characters ... 16
1 6. Aedeagal shaft short, stout at apical 0.33, dorsally
upturned with ventral apical extension 0.66 as
long as shaft, dorso-apical angle spine-like
indicus (Rao)
— Aedeagal shaft not as above 17
1 7. Male subgenital plate strongly narrowed caudally,
lateral margin straight in distal 0.66, aedeagus
with ventral margin widened in middle beyond
gonopore then narrowed veinatus (Pruthi)
— Male subgenital plate gradually narrowed
caudally, lateral margin either straight or concave
in apical 0.33; aedeagus with ventral margin not
as above 18
1 8 . Aedeagus with ventral margin narrowly produced
beyond gonopore; pronotum with black transverse
stripe bicolor (Pruthi)
— Aedeagus with ventral margin not as narrowly
produced as above, straight or slightly curved;
pronotum without a transverse black stripe
19
19. Fore wing greyish-white with costal and claval
margins and a median longitudinal band fuscous;
male abdomen with basal apodemes broader than
long fletcheri (Pruthi)
— Coloration not as above; abdominal apodemes
of male longer than broad 20
20. Aeadeagus with gonopore restricted to apex ....
hospes Kirkaldy
— Aedeagus with gonopore not restricted to apex
21
2 1 . Style with apophysis slender, laterally curved and
tapering caudally intermedius Melichar
— Style with apophysis rather robust, if slender then
straight 22
22. Aedeagal shaft slender, elongate, 1.5 times as
long as connective, strongly bisinuate
jagannathi Dash and Viraktamath
— Aedeagal shaft rather stout, shorter than 1.25
times length of connective, not bisinuate 23
23. Apophysis of style bidentate ventrally, basal
abdominal apodemes short, lobe-like
tareni Dash and Viraktamath
— Apophysis of style with a single ventral tooth
basal abdominal apodemes longer 24
24. Apex of aedeagal shaft acutely pointed in dorsal
aspect chhota (Pruthi)
— Apex of aedeagal shaft not acutely pointed
krameri (Rao and Ramakrishnan)
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, Zoological Survey
of India, Kolkata for allowing one of us (CAV)
to examine the type material of the leafhopper
species described by Dr Hem Singh Pruthi and
deposited under his care; Dr M.D. Webb, Natural
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
51
TAXONOMIC POSITION OF INDIAN DELTOCEPHALINE LEAFHOPPERS
History Museum, London for sending the for his comments on the taxonomy of the Indian
identified specimen of Allophleps inspersa and species of Allophleps.
References
Bergroth, E. ( 1 920): Hemiptera from British Africa. Arkiv
Zool. 12: 1-30.
Burmeister, H.C.C. (1838): Rhynchota No. 2. Genera
Insectorum iconibus illustravit et descriptsit, v. 1,
pis. 6, 12, 14, 15.
Dash, P.C. &C.A. Viraktamath (1995): Two new species
of grassfeeding leafhopper genus Deltocephalus
( Recilia ) (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) from Orissa,
India. Hexapoda 7: 71-78.
Dash, P.C. & C. A. Viraktamath ( 1 998): A review of the
Indian and Nepalese grass feeding leafhopper genus
Deltocephalus (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) with
description of new species. Hexapoda 10: 1-59.
Kirschbaum, C.L. (1858): Die Athysanus-Arten der
Gegend von Wiesbaden. Der Wetteruischen
Gesellschaft fur die gesammte Naturkunde zur Feier
ihres funfzig-jahrigen Bestehens am 11. August
1958 vom Verein fur Naturkunde im Hezogthum
Nassau. 1858: 1-14.
Kramer, J.P. (1971): A taxonomic study of the North
American leafhoppers of the genus Deltocephalus
(Homoptera: Cicadellidae: Deltocephalinae). Trans.
Amer. Ent. Soc. 97: 413-439.
Oman, P.W., W.J. Knight & M.W. Nielson (1990):
Leafhoppers (Cicadellidae): A bibliography, generic
check-list and index to the World literature 1956-
1985. CAB International Institute of Entomology,
368 pp.
Pruthi, H.S. (1936): Studies on Indian Jassidae
(Homoptera). Part III. Descriptions of some new
genera and species with first records of some known
species from India. Mem. Indian Mus. 1 1 : 1 0 1 - 1 3 1 .
Rao, V.R.S. & U. Ramakrishnan (1990): Two new species
belonging to the genus Allophleps Bergroth
(Cicadellidae: Homoptera) from India. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 111-113.
52
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1) APR. 2001
NOTES ON THE LIFE HISTORY OF CONCHYLOCTENIA NIGROVITTATA
(BOHEMAN) (COLEOPTERA: CHRYSOMELIDAE: CASSIDINAE)1
Nilesh Rane, Sachin Ranade and H.V. Ghate2
( With four text-figures )
Key words: Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae, life cycle, Conchyloctenia nigrovittata ,
Ipomoea eriocarpa, tortoise beetle
The breeding of the rare tortoise beetle Conchyloctenia nigrovittata was observed under natural
as well as laboratory conditions in Pune. The breeding period is July to October. The ootheca
containing on an average 4 eggs, is deposited on the leaf of the host plant Ipomoea eriocarpa.
The larvae are typically cassidine, with a flattened body and 16 pairs of lateral processes covered
with spinules. The larvae undergo 4 moults and thus there are 5 larval instars. From the second
instar onwards, they carry the moulted skin and faecal matter on the supra-anal processes. They
pupate on the leaf surface. The pupa has a semicircular prothorax and 5 pairs of leaf-like lateral
processes on the abdomen. It also carries the larval exuviae and a few threads of faecal matter.
From the egg laying to the eclosion stage it takes around 30 days. The newly emerged imago is
colourless, but develops its characteristic pattern of black patches within 3 hours, and its
conspicuous red colour in 8-10 days. The imago requires about 6 to 10 days to reach sexual
maturity.
Introduction
The genus Conchyloctenia Spaeth is
distributed in India and Africa, except
Madagascar (Maulik 1919, Borowiec 1994). In
India, it is represented by one species, namely
C. nigrovittata (Boheman), while there are 14
species in Africa (Borowiec 1994).
C. nigrovittata can be recognized because
of its sub-oblong shape, bright red coloration and
characteristic markings of black spots and
patches. Another important character is that the
claws are pectinate at the base on both sides. A
detailed description is given by Maulik (1919)
(Fig. 1).
Maulik (1919) recorded this insect from
Surat (Gujarat), Nagpur (Maharashtra) and
Calcutta (West Bengal). The only other record
is from near Mysore (Borowiec 1990: based on a
'Accepted December, 1999
3Post-Graduate Research Centre,
Department of Zoology,
Modem College, Pune 41 1 005,
Maharashtra, India.
Fig.l: Conchyloctenia nigrovittata beetle with the
general colour pattern.
(Punctation and costae not shown.)
specimen collected in 1953). Thus, C.
nigrovittata has apparently not been reported
from any part of India during the past 45 years.
No information is available on its life cycle either.
Even for the African species of Conchyloctenia
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
53
NOTES ON THE LIFE HISTOR Y OF CONCH YLOCTENI A NIGROVITTATA
there is scanty information regarding bionomics
of two species only (Borowiec 1994). We are,
therefore, reporting this species from Pune
(Maharashtra), along with notes on its life
history, for the first time.
Conchyloctenia nigrovittata was first
collected at the base of Parvati Hills in Pune, in
July 1996. Later, in July 1997, we collected some
tortoise beetle larvae near the Pashan lake. These
larvae looked different from the ones we had seen
and reared before. They had long thin threads of
faecal matter attached to the supra-anal
processes. We collected them with their food
plant, which was identified as Ipomoea
eriocarpa, and allowed them to grow, pupate and
eclose under laboratory conditions. The beetle
that emerged was C. nigrovittata. Within a
month, we found a few different looking oothecae
on Ipomoea eriocarpa in the same area. We
reared 3 out of 4 oothecae in the laboratory, and
the larvae that hatched out were easily identified
as those of C. nigrovittata. During July-October
1999, we monitored several oothecae and larvae
in the field, as well as under laboratory
conditions, and observed the various instars,
feeding, growth, moulting, pupation and
eclosion. The beetles and larvae were maintained
in ordinary one litre plastic [PET] jars covered
with muslin cloth, at a constant temperature of
25 °C in a B.O.D. incubator, with a supply of
fresh leaves of the host plant.
Observations
Ootheca. The ootheca is generally small
(length 3.2 to 3.8 mm and breadth 2.2 to 2.5
mm), yellowish-brown (reddish-brown when
fresh), somewhat elliptical, and is deposited on
the upper or lower surface of the Ipomoea leaves.
It is attached to the leaf with secretion from the
accessory glands, as in other tortoise beetles. It
is made up of three to four translucent
membranes deposited over each other. The eggs
are deposited between the two inner membranes.
The outermost membrane is a flap-like lid,
attached only to one end of the ootheca. It has a
characteristic pattern of fine, transverse ridges
and can be lifted with forceps (Fig. 2). Each egg
is green or greenish-yellow and is enclosed in a
separate membrane of its own. There are usually
3 or 5 eggs per ootheca and these are deposited
in two tiers. The average length of the egg is
about 1 .2 mm and breadth about 0.4 mm. In the
field, as well as under laboratory conditions, the
larvae hatch in about 6 days.
Fig. 2: Ootheca showing the characteristic fold
pattern (F) and ridges as seen from above.
Larvae: The first instar larva is very small
(about 1.3 mm) and a translucent pale green.
During the next 3 days, it grows to about
2.2 mm before moulting. The second instar larva
grows from about 2.2 to 2.7 mm before
undergoing the next moult in 3 to 4 days time.
This third instar grows to a length of about
4 mm in 3 days before moulting. The fourth and
fifth instar larvae grow to about 5.3 and 8.4 mm
respectively and the duration of each of these
instars is about 4 days.
54
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1) DEC. 2001
NOTES ON THE LIFE HISTORY OF C ONCHYLOCTENIA NIGROVITTATA
Up to the third instar, the larvae are pale
green without any pigment pattern. In the fourth
instar, however, the larvae develop a pattern of
fine black spots. This pattern becomes bold and
prominent in the fifth instar.
The larvae are more or less flattened
overall, but with a somewhat convex dorsal
surface. The larval head is oval and brown due
to chitinisation and it is covered with many long
and short setae. There are five lateral ocelli on
each side of the head. The mandibles are
prominent and possess five denticles, which are
heavily chitinised. The larvae carry faecal matter,
in the form of fine greenish-black threads, on
their supra-anal processes. These faecal threads
are very long and in the second instar the length
of such threads is almost three times that of the
body length. The larvae also carry the exuviae
of previous instars. There are 16 pairs of lateral
processes, each of which is provided with
spinules, as shown for the fifth instar larva
Fig. 3a: Fifth instar larva with typical lateral
processes (LP) bearing spinules, spiracles (S) and
supra-anal processes (SA).
(Figs 3a & b). This figure also shows other
structures such as the spiracles, faecal matter and
colour pattern. The ventral aspect of the larva
has no colour pattern or other notable features.
The larvae feed on the upper surface of the
plant. The first and second instars only scrape
the surface of the leaf, but the later instars cut
holes and skeletonise the leaves. Feeding stops
when the larva is about to pupate. The larva then
becomes immobile and pupates on the leaf by
attaching itself with the help of the three anterior
abdominal segments (which become somewhat
thicker at this stage).
Pupa: The pupa is translucent greenish-
yellow, with a pattern of black spots, and is about
8 mm long. It retains all the larval skins in a
folded form on the processes of the last abdominal
segment. It also carries a few threads of faecal
Fig. 3b: Complex exuviae (EX) and faecal matter
(FM) carried by the fifth instar larva
(detached and shown here).
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
55
NOTES ON THE LIFE HISTORY OF CONCH YLOCTENIA NIGROVITTATA
Fig. 4: Pupa showing pronotum (P), with a lining of
spines anteriorly, and other thoracic segments.
Abdominal segments with leaf-like lateral processes
(LP), spiracles (S) and supra-anal processes (SA).
the middle of the leaf as other tortoise beetles
do, they restrict themselves to the leaf border.
The average length of 26 beetles studied was 8.9
and breadth 6. 1 mm.
The imago becomes sexually mature within
10 days and the female starts depositing oothecae
within three to five days after mating. In the
laboratory population in 1999, a single female
usually deposited 3 or 4, sometimes 1 and rarely
5 oothecae per day, over a period of 1 0 days after
mating. A total of 34 oothecae were deposited in
10 days. Hatching success was almost 95% under
laboratory conditions, as there was no
parasitisation by chalcid wasps, a phenomenon
rather common in the oothecae of wild
populations of tortoise beetles that we are
studying (unpublished data).
Discussion
matter. The leaf-like lateral processes on the
abdominal segments, spinules, and spiracles are
clearly seen (Fig. 4). The five abdominal spiracles
are very prominent, tubular and elevated. Each
is surrounded by a dark area, the extent of which
decreases posteriorwards. The antero-lateral leaf-
like projections on the first to fifth abdominal
segments have long, sharp spinules. The seventh
segment has posteriorly directed processes while
those on the eighth segment are somewhat
ventrolateral.
Imago: The imago emerges from the pupa
in about 5 days. The freshly emerged beetle is
pale yellowish-green, translucent, and without
black spots. Thin black elytral spots start
appearing in about 20 to 30 minutes and become
bold in about 2 to 3 hrs, to assume the typical
pattern of the species. The insects first become
yellowish-brown, then pinkish and finally deep
red. The characteristic red colour appears after
8 to 10 days. The adult commences feeding
within a few hours or may delay it up to 24 hrs.
The species generally does not start feeding in
The life cycle of Conchyloctenia
nigrovittata is completed in about 35 days.
We have observed oothecae in natural condi-
tions between July and October. The breeding
season, therefore, appears to be the monsoon
period.
The ootheca is recognisably different from
those of the other common tortoise beetles, like
Aspidimorpha miliaris (Fabricius) and A.
sanctaecrucis (Fabricius), described earlier
(Maulik 1919, Takizawa 1980, our own
unpublished data). However, the ootheca of
C. nigrovittata is similar to that of Aspidimorpha
furcata (Thunberg) described by Takizawa
(1980) and also studied in our laboratory. It is
also much simpler in organization than that of
A. miliaris or other complex oothecae described
in considerable detail by Muir and sharp ( 1 904).
Overall, the larvae of C. nigrovittata are
typical cassidine larvae and carry threads of
faecal matter like the larvae of Aspidimorpha
sanctaecrucis. However, in C. nigrovittata, the
threads are thinner and fewer in number. The
56
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1) DEC. 2001
NOTES ON THE LIFE HISTORY OF C ONCHYLOCTENIA NIGROVITTATA
larva is also somewhat similar to that of
Aspidomorpha ( =Aspidimorpha ) tigrina , as
described in Muir Sharp (1904). [This African
species is now transferred to the genus
Conchy loctenicr, see Borowiec, 1994.]
Carrying faecal matter is an interesting
adaptation shown by the larvae and pupae of
cassidine beetles. Takizawa (1980) even
classified the various patterns of faecal matter
carried by the larvae (filament type, shield type,
spade type and mass type). Takizawa (1980)
further attempted to find the relationship among
the different tribes of the family Chrysomelidae,
on the basis of oothecal structure, and larval and
pupal characters.
It is said that the faecal shield protects the
larvae from predators and, to a certain extent,
from parasitoids. Use of waste matter by
chrysomelid larvae has been the topic of interest
for many workers. The reader is referred to an
Refer
Borowiec, L. ( 1 990): New records and synonyms of Asiatic
Cassidinae (Coleoptera: Cassidinae). Pol. Pismo
Entomol. 59: 677-711.
Borowiec, L. (1994): A monograph of Afrotropical
Cassidinae (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Part 1 . Genus
(Supplement): 1-276. (Wroclaw: Poland).
Maulik, S. (1919): The Fauna of British India including
Ceylon and Burma. Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae
(Hispinae and Cassidinae). Taylor and Francis, London.
Muir, F. & D. Sharp (1904): On the egg cases and early
excellent discussion regarding these aspects by
Olmstead (1994).
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. M.L. Cox (formerly of
International Institute of Entomology, London,
now Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience
International [CABI], Bioscience Centre U.K. at
Egham, Surrey) and Professor Lech Borowiec,
University of Wroclaw, Poland for confirming
our identification. We are indebted to Prof.
Borowiec for his constant help and
encouragement. We thank Mr. Sagar Pandit
for locating the breeding population this year
and for his help in the field work, especially
in identifying the plants. We thank the authorities
of Modern College, for facilities and
encouragement. Financial assistance under UGC
Minor Research Project, F.No. 23-157 / 99
(WRO), to HVG, is also acknowledged.
ENC ES
stages of some Cassididae. Trans. Entomol. Soc. Lond.,
1904 : 1-23.
Olmstead, K.L. (1994): Waste products as chrysomelid
defences. In: Novel Aspects of the Biology of
Chrysomelidae. Eds: Jolivet, P.H., M.L. Cox and E.
Petitpierre, Kluwer Academic Publishing, The
Netherlands. Pp. 31 1-318.
Takizawa, H. (1980): Immature stages of some Indian
Cassidinae. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Ins.
Matsum., n.s. 21: 19-48.
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
57
TERRESTRIAL MOLLUSCS FROM NEPAL1
Bharat Raj Subba2 and Tap an Kumar Ghosh3
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Mollusca, terrestrial, Nepal
Eleven species of terrestrial molluscs have been listed from 12 districts of Nepal. They represent
5 families under 3 orders. Of the eleven species, 6 belong to the Family Ariophantidae, 2 to
Cyclophoridae and 1 each to Stenogyridae, Veronicellidae and Helicidae.
Introduction
Nepal is a landlocked Himalayan kingdom,
situated between 80° 00'-88° 15' E, and 26° 30'-
30° 15' N. The country has been divided into
5 development regions, which are further divided
into 14 zones, with 75 districts. Out of the total
area of 1 ,4 1 ,000 sq. km, the majority is occupied
by land.
A perusal of the literature reveals paucity
of information regarding the terrestrial molluscs
of Nepal. Godwin- Austen (1910) and Majupuria
(1981-1982) have reported a few species of
terrestrial and freshwater molluscs collected from
Nepal and Kathmandu valley. This report is the
second of a series on the molluscan fauna of
Nepal, the first being on the freshwater molluscs
from the same area (Subba and Ghosh 2000).
The present work is an attempt to list the
terrestrial molluscan species collected during a
survey of 12 districts of Nepal. The surveys were
initiated in 1 993, to identify and list the terrestrial
as well as freshwater molluscan species of Nepal.
Material and Methods
A collection of terrestrial molluscs was
made from various sites, representing humid,
shady and rocky places in the forests, gardens,
'Accepted May, 1 999
department of Zoology, P.G. Campus,
Tribhuvan University, Biratnagar, P.B. No. 1 37, Nepal.
3P.G. Department of Zoology, T.M. Bhagalpur University,
Bhagalpur 8 1 2 007, Bihar, India
fields, river banks, and around lakes and ponds.
The 12 districts surveyed were Ilam, Jhapa,
Morang, Sunsari, Dhankuta, Saptari, Udayapur,
Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Kaski, Gulmi and
Rupandehi, representing six zones (Mechi,
Koshi, Sagarmatha, Bagmati, Lumbini and
Gandaki) of eastern, central and western Nepal
(Fig. 1). The shape, colour and habitat of the
molluscan samples, from these collection sites,
were recorded. For further morphological
studies, specimens were preserved in 70%
ethanol. Molluscan shells were washed and
dried, and kept in plastic containers, or small
vials with cotton, for identification.
Identifications were made with the help
of literature, including Cooke et al. (1896) and
Raut and Ghose (1984). All samples were sent
to the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for
confirmation of identification.
Results and Discussion
A total of 1 1 species of terrestrial molluscs
were found from 7 eastern, 2 central and 3
western districts of Nepal. Out of the 1 1 species,
1 belongs to the order Soleolifera, 2 to
Mesogastropoda and the remaining 8 to
Stylommatophora (Table 1). Distribution pattern
of the terrestrial molluscs in the 12 districts of
Nepal has been shown in Fig. 1. Some
information on their habitat and distribution is
given below:
Cyclophorus fulguratus was recorded from
different places in the Terai and Siwalik hills
58
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
TERRESTRIAL MOLLUSCS FROM NEPAL
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
59
Fig, 1 : Distribution of terrestrial molluscs in Nepal
LAND MOLLUSCS OF NEPAL AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT DISTRICTS
TERRESTRIAL MOLLUSCS FROM NEPAL
o.
60
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
Lal-Lalitpur; Gul-Gulmi; Kash-Kashki; Rup-Rupandehi
+: species presents, species absent
TERRESTRIAL MOLLUSCS FROM NEPAL
(Churia hills) up to 1,500 m. It prefers to inhabit
old walls and stones covered with algae and
moss, which is perhaps used as food. C.
aurantiacus is larger than C. fulguratus. It was
recorded from the Terai region, Churia hills
(1,500 m) and Mahabharat hills (1,676 m), but
is more common at Churia hills.
A good collection of Macrochlamys indica,
M. tugurium and Bensonia nepalensis was made
from the Mahabharat hills. These species were
found in rocky or stony regions covered with
algae and moss, hidden under stones and dry
leaves during the dry season.
Oxytes sylvicola ranged from the Churia
hills to the middle of the Mahabharat hills (1,658
m) of eastern and central Nepal. Stony places with
decayed leaves seemed to be a suitable habitat.
Khasiella pansa was common at several
places in the Terai, Churia hills and Mahabharat
hills of eastern Nepal. It was not recorded from
any of the districts surveyed in central and
western Nepal. It generally climbs up shrubs and
remains adhered to the under surface of green
leaves. Cryptaustenia sp. was recorded from
similar habitats in Kashki district, western Nepal.
Interestingly, that was the sole record.
Achatina fulica, or large garden snail
(giant African snail) was the largest terrestrial
mollusc recorded. It is restricted to the humid
subtropical areas of the Terai and lower part of
Refer
Cooke, A.H., A.E. Shipley & F.R. Reed (1 896): Molluscs,
Brachiopods. In: The Cambridge Natural History,
Vol. Ill Repr. (1968), S.F. Harmer & A.E. Shipley
(eds), Macmillan & Co. Ltd, England. 459 pp.
Godwin-Austen, H.H. (1910): Land and freshwater
Mollusca of India including South Arabia,
Baluchistan, Kashmir, Nepal, Burmah, Pegu,
Tenasserim, Malay Peninsula, Ceylon and other
islands of the Indian Ocean. Supplementary to
Theobald and Hanley’s Conchologia Indica, 2. pi.
■
Churia hills, from eastern and central Nepal. This
snail is notorious for its damage to vegetables
and fruits.
Laevicaulis sp., a small slug, was recorded
in the Terai of eastern Nepal, inhabiting nearby
water sources such as fish ponds, reservoirs,
water channels and paddy fields.
Anadenus sp., or Chiple Kira , one of the
largest highland molluscs, was recorded from the
Mahabharat hill range between 1,828 m and
2,735 m, from eastern and central Nepal. Its
habitat is similar to that of Laevicaulis sp.
This survey gives some valuable
information on the distribution of terrestrial
molluscs in eastern, central and western Nepal.
However, a district level survey of other regions
of Nepal must be made, before any
biogeographical conclusions are drawn.
Acknowledgements
We thank Mr. Basant Kumar Rai (S.P.),
Gyaneshwar, Kathmandu, Dr. Madhav Kumar
Shrestha, Institute of Agriculture and Animal
Science, Rampur, Chitwan and Mr. Gyan Kumar
Lama (Ranger), District Forest Office, Pokhara
(Kashki) for their co-operation during the survey.
We also thank the Director, Zoological Survey
of India, Kolkata, for taxonomic identification
and confirmation of our specimens.
•NCES
XI, London.
Majupuria, T.C. (1981-82): Wild is beautiful. Introduction
to Fauna and Wildlife of Nepal. S. Devi, Gwalior,
India, 507 pp.
Raut, S.K. & K.C. Ghose (1984): Pestiferous land snails
of India. Ed. Director, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta, India. 1 5 1 pp.
Subba, B.R. & T.K. Ghosh (2000): Some freshwater
molluscs from eastern and central Nepal. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 97(3): 452-455.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
61
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
DELTOCEPH ALINE LEAFHOPPER GENUS GONIAGNATHUS
(HEMIPTERA : CICADELLIDAE) IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT
WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF FOUR NEW SPECIES1
Pratap Chandra Dash3 and C A. Viraktamath2
( With sixty-five text-figures)
Key words: Leafhoppers, Goniagnathus , Indian subcontinent, new species, Cicadellidae
Five of the six valid species of the genus Goniagnathus Fieber known from the Indian subcontinent,
namely G. appellans Baker, G. fumosus Distant, G. guttulinervis (Kirschbaum), G. nervosus
Melichar and G. punctifer (Walker) are redescribed and illustrated. G. bifurcata Ahmed & Qadeer
known from Karachi (Pakistan) is treated here as a junior synonym of G. guttulinervis
(Kirschbaum). Four new species, namely Goniagnathus concavus sp. nov., G. quadripinnatus
sp. nov., G. symphysis sp. nov., and G. syncerus sp. nov., have been described and illustrated.
Three groups of species have been recognised in the genus Goniagnathus ; i) the guttulinervis
group which includes guttulinervis (Kirschbaum), obfuscatus Linnavuori, pamp/c/ws Linnavuori,
albomarginatus Linnavuori and hanifanus Dlabola, ii) the punctifer group including appellans
Baker, concavus sp. nov., fumosus Distant, nervosus Melichar, punctifer (Kirschbaum),
quadripinnatus sp. nov. and appendiculatus Linnavuori, and iii) the syncerus group including
symphysis sp. nov. and syncerus sp. nov. A key to the species of Goniagnathus from the Indian
subcontinent is also included.
Introduction
The deltocephaline genus Goniagnathus
Fieber belongs to the tribe Goniagnathini and
includes very distinctive leafhoppers having short
and broad heads, male subgenital plates fused
and the connective reduced and fused with the
aedeagus. They are brown to dark brown, robust
leafhoppers, breeding on grasses and herbs. The
genus is known to occur in the Palaearctic (28
species), Afrotropical (13 species) and the
Oriental regions (7 species). Linnavuori (1978),
while revising the genus for the Afrotropical
region, redefined the tribe as well as the genus.
Distant (1908, 1918) added six species of
Goniagnathus from the Indian subcontinent.
However, Kumar (1983) transferred G. uniformis
'Accepted November, 1 998
■Department of Entomology,
University of Agricultural Sciences,
GKVK, Bangalore 560 065, Karnataka, India.
^Present address: Department of Entomology,
Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology,
Bhubaneshwar 751 003, Orissa, India.
Distant to the genus Batracomorphus Lewis.
Ahmed et ah (1988) described G. bifur catus
Ahmed and Qadeer as a new species from
Karachi (Pakistan). Rama Subba Rao (1994)
recorded G. guttulinervis (Kirschbaum) from the
Indian subcontinent, in addition to redescribing
G. nervosus Melichar from Kerala, thus bringing
the total number of species to seven.
The institutions from where the leafhopper
study material was obtained, and their
abbreviations, are as follows.
BMNH - The Natural History Museum,
London, U.K.
NPC - National Pusa Collection, Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.
MMB - Moravian Museum, Brno, Czech
Republic
UAS - The University of Agricultural
Sciences, GKVK, Bangalore.
No attempts were made to redescribe
Goniagnathus, as Linnavuori (1978) has given
a detailed description. However, the following
additional characters are noted. Hind tibial
62
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
NE W DESCRIPTIONS
spinulation Rf 10±2, R2 10±2, R3 17-22. Platellae
at apex of hind basitarsus are five in number,
flanked by a spine on each side. Female seventh
sternum broader than long, hind margin
variously excavated in the middle or concave.
The first pair of female valvulae has scale-like
sculpturing. The second pair of valvulae bear
prominent teeth on dorsal margin and with
crenulate margin between teeth and ventroapical
margin.
On the basis of the male genitalia, the
species studied and recognised here can be
divided into three groups.
1. The guttulinervis group: Male
pygophore without dorsal appendage, lobes with
numerous setae. Aedeagus complex, with a pair
of ventral atrial processes exceeding the
compressed, short, simple shaft. The group
includes only G. guttulinemis (Kirschbaum) from
India. However, the following species from other
zoogeographical regions also belong to this
group: G. obfuscatus Linnavuori, G. parvipictus
Linnavuori, G. albomarginatus Linnavuori (all
from Afrotropical region, Linnavuori 1978) and
G. hanifanus Dlabola (from Iran, Dlabola 1981).
2. The punctifer group: Male pygophore
lobe with dorsal appendage, setae sparse.
Aedeagus with tubular shaft having apical and
subapical elongate processes. This group includes
G. appellans Distant, G. concavus sp. nov.,
G. fumosus Distant, G. nervosus Melichar,
G. punctifer (Walker) and G. quadripinnatus sp.
nov. from the Indian subcontinent.
G. appendiculatus Linnavuori from the
Afrotropical region (Linnavuori 1978) also
belongs to this group.
3. The syncerus group: Similar to the
punctifer group in pygophore structure, but the
aedeagal shaft is shorter, widening caudally. The
gonopore is surrounded by a short, sclerotized
process. This group comprises of only two
species, G. symphysis sp. nov. and G. syncerus
sp. nov.
Key to species of Goniagnathus
of the Indian subcontinent
(G. bicolor Distant is not included in the key)
1 . Male 2
— Female 10
2. Male pygophore without dorsal appendage
(Figs 1,60) 3
— Male pygofer with dorsal appendage (Figs 7,
14,21) 4
3. Aedeagus with a pair of ventral processes
exceeding shaft (Fig. 3) (Palaearctic and
Oriental) G. guttulinervis (Kirschbaum)
— Aedeagus without ventral process (Fig. 63)
(India: Rajasthan) G. syncerus sp. nov.
4. Aedeagus with long processes; shaft rather
tubular, long and of uniform width 5
— Aedeagal shaft without any long process,
constricted before apex (Figs 56, 57); gonopore
surrounded by sclerotized rim ending in a lateral
short projection (Fig. 55) (India: Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
G. symphysis sp. nov.
5 . Pygophore lobe strongly narrowed caudally with
its appendage bordering caudo-dorsal margin
only (Figs 7, 39) 6
— Pygophore lobe broad or broadened caudally,
with its appendage bordering both caudo-dorsal
and caudal margins (Figs 21, 31) 9
6. Fused subgenital plates with concave caudal
margin (Fig. 15); aedeagal shaft with a pair of
ventral and a pair of dorsal processes at apical.
0.33 (Figs 17, 18) (India: Gujarat, Karnataka)
G. concavus sp. nov.
— Fused subgenital plates either with truncate,
convex or obtusely rounded caudal margin;
aedeagal shaft with lateral and dorsal or lateral
and apical processes 7
7. Aedeagus with a pair of apical and a pair of
rather asymmetrically curved processes arising
at mid-length of shaft dorsally (Figs 41, 42);
fused subgenital plates square tipped (Fig. 40)
(India: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Mizoram, Meghalaya, Kerala; Sri Lanka)
G. punctifer (Walker)
— Aedeagus with a pair of apical and a pair of
subapical processes; fused subgenital plates
obtusely or convex ly rounded 8
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
63
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
8. Fused subgenital plates broader at base than
long, caudally convexly rounded (Fig. 46);
apophysis of style with mesal lobe stouter and
longer than lateral lobe (Fig. 47); lateral
processes of aedeagal shaft stouter and longer
than dorsal processes (Figs 48, 49) (India:
Orissa, Karnataka)
G. quadripinnatus sp. nov.
— Fused subgenital plate as long as broad basally,
narrowed caudally (Fig. 8), apophysis of style
with equally developed lateral and mesal lobes
(Fig. 9), lateral processes of aedeagal shaft
slender and shorter than dorsal processes (Fig.
10) (India: West Bengal, Meghalaya,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Lakshadweep
Islands) G. appellans Baker
9. Fused subgenital plate with truncate hind
margin, style extending beyond this plate (Figs
22, 23); aedeagal shaft with a pair of forked
apical processes (Fig. 25) (India: Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh) G. fumosus Distant
— Fused subgenital plate with caudal margin
slightly convex, medially notched (Fig. 32);
styles not exceeding length of this plate;
aedeagal shaft with a pair of dorsal, an unpaired
ventral subapical process and a pair of basal
prong-like processes (Fig. 33) (India: Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Pondicherry,
Kerala; Sri Lanka) G. nervosus Melichar
10. Hind margin of seventh sternum concave (Fig.
28) or concavely excavated in the middle .... 11
— Hind margin of seventh sternum broadly
produced caudally with a median notch (Fig.
44) G. punctifer (Walker)
1 1 . Hind margin of seventh sternum moderately
concave; with a median notch (Fig. 37) 12
— Hind margin of seventh sternum deeply
concave/ without a median notch (Figs 28, 29)
?... G. fumosus Distant
12. Caudo-lateral angle of seventh sternum angular
(Figs 13, 58) 13
— Caudo-lateral angle of seventh sternum rounded
(Figs 5, 37, 50) 14
13. Hind margin of seventh sternum with a median
V-shaped excavation (Fig. 58)
G. symphysis sp. nov.
— Hind margin of seventh sternum with a median
C-shaped excavation (Fig. 13)
G. appellans Baker
14. Seventh sternum with median length
considerably shorter than lateral length 15
— Seventh sternum with median length as long
as lateral length (Fig. 37)
G. nervosus Melichar
15. Seventh sternum with a median V-shaped
excavation (Fig. 5)
G. guttulinervis (Kirschbaum)
— Seventh sternum medially roundly excavated
with lateral margins sinuate (Fig. 50)
quadripinnatus sp. nov.
Goniagnathus guttulinervis (Kirschbaum)
(Figs 1-5)
Goniagnathus bifurcatus Ahmed and
Qadir in Ahmed et al. , 1988: 16. syn. nov.
This species has been well described and
hence only the illustrations of the male and
female genitalia of the Indian population are
included.
Material examined; india: Lakshadweep
Is.: 16d, 20?, 13 nymphs, Minicoy, 164.1986,
C.A. Viraktamath; Id, Bangaram, 14.1.1986,
C. A. Viraktamath. Delhi: 1 5 d , 9 9 , New Delhi,
1968, H.M. Harris; Id, 7.vii.l972; 2d,
1 . viii. 1974; 3d, 1 9, 4.x. 1980, C.A.
Viraktamath. Maharashtra: 19, Dhond,
2. x. 1981, C.A. Viraktamath; 2d, 69, Igatpuri,
23. iv. 1980, C.A. Viraktamath. Gujarat: 19,
Somnath, 29.L1981, C.A. Viraktamath; 19,
Dandi-Navsari, 1 6.i. 1 98 1 , C.A. Viraktamath.
Tamil Nadu: 19, Coimbatore, 14. viii. 1979, S.
Viraktamath. Rajasthan: 2d, 2 9, Mt. Abu,
23-24. i. 198 1, C.A. and S. Viraktamath.
Karnataka: 2d, Raichur, 25. vi. 1982,
S. Viraktamath (UAS).
Remarks: G. guttulinervis can be
recognised by the absence of dorsal pygophore
appendage, lamellate aedeagal shaft arising
from the long basal atrium at mid-length and
with long falcate appendage on ventral aspect.
Synonymy of G. bifurcatus is based on the
study of male genitalia given by Ahmed et al.
(1988).
64
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
NE W DESCRIPTIONS
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
65
Figs. 1-5. Goniagnathus guttulinervis (Kirschbaum): 1. Male pygophore; 2. Fused subgenital plate and apex of style;
3. Fused aedeagus and connective, lateral view; 4. Aedeagus and ventral process, caudal view;
5. Female seventh sternum.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Goniagnathus appellans Baker
(Figs 6-13)
Goniagnathus obesus Distant, 1918: 43.
Lectotype d, India (BMNH, examined).
Goniagnathus appellans Baker, 1924:
367, new name for Goniagnathus obesus
Distant, 1918 not Jacobi, 1910.
Ochraceous with reddish tinge on the
vertex, pronotum and scutellum. Anterior
margin of vertex with black and reddish-
brown transverse bands. Interrupted black
facial pattern. Antennal pit black, clypellus,
lora and genae with irregular black markings.
Vertex four times as wide as long. Forewing
with inner anteapical cell open behind and outer
anteapical cell divided with a cross vein.
Male genitalia: Pygophore with dorsal
appendage stout, not exceeding caudo-dorsal
margin, lobe caudally narrowed and obtusely
rounded with short marginal setae. Fused
subgenital plate as long as broad, caudally
rounded. Apophysis of style bilobed with
prominent scale-like sculpturing, inner lobe
longer than outer. Aedeagal shaft tubular,
elongate, of uniform width, slightly curved, with
an apical pair of long, anteriorly directed
processes and a shorter subapical pair of
anterolaterally directed processes, gonopore
small, apical; dorsal apodeme Q.33x as long as
shaft and half as long as preatrium.
Female genitalia: Seventh sternum width
3.0 times the median length, hind margin
sinuate with a median notch.
Measurements: male 5.4 (5. 1-5.9) mm
long, 2.3 (2. 1-2.5) mm wide across eyes, female
5.6 (5. 3-6. 2) mm long, 2.3 (2. 2-2. 5) mm wide
across eyes.
Material examined: Lectotype d, left
hand male of the two dissected males on the
same card “Chikkaballapura, T.V. Campbell”
“ Goniagnathus obesus Dist. Type” designated
here (BMNH). Paralectotypes: 34 9d, with
same data as in lectotype (BMNH).
Other material examined: india:
Karnataka: 2$, Bangalore, 22.V.1991; Id, 1?,
23. x. 1991; 7d, 79, 3 .xii. 1991; 7d, 49,
1 . vii. 1 992; 4d, 1 9, 2.ix.l991; 29, 20.vii.1991;
10d, 49, 10. ii. 1992; 3c?, 99, 2.xi.l991; 49,
3. vi.l992; 19, 12.vii.1992, 1 9 , 6.xi.l991, Id,
30.vi.1992; 1 d, 25.vi.1992, all coll. P.C. Dash;
2d, 10. vii. 1982, H.V.A. Murthy; 3d, 49,
14. ix. 1925, T.V. Subramanian; Id, 49,
5. vii. 1977; Id, 12.vii.1979; 1, 24.L1977, all
collected by students; 4d, 19, 8.iv.l976, B.
Mallik; 3d, 22. iv. 1974; 2d, 21.ii.1976; 19,
1 1 .i. 1975; Id, 6.ix.l974; 2d, 21.1.1976; 19,
1 .ii. 1 974, all coll. C.A. Viraktamath; Id, 19,
12.V.1990, A.R.V. Kumar; 6d, 49, 26 km SE
Bangalore, 6.ix.l992, P.C. Dash; Id, Nandi
Hills, 1 7. vii. 1 992, P.C. Dash; 19, Dharwad,
22. iv. 1972; Id, 21. v. 1972; 6d, 29, 14-
30.viii. 1 972, all coll. C.A. Viraktamath; 4 d, 2 9,
Raichur, 24. viii. 1982; Id, 25. vi. 1982, S.
Viraktamath; 3d, 19, Raichur, 18-21. ii. 1976,
C.A. Viraktamath; 2d, 4 9, Sidlaghatta,
9. viii. 1976, B. Mallik; 19, Id, Gulburga,
24. vii.1981; 1 9, 9.ix.l990, A.R.V. Kumar; 29,
Bidar, 5. i. 1991, A.R.V. Kumar. Kerala: Id,
Walayar, 1 5 .viii. 1 979, S. Viraktamath.
Maharashtra: Id, 2 9, Nasik, 21.iv.1980, C.A.
Viraktamath. West Bengal: 19,9. km E
Kalimpong 1,768 m, 29.x. 1981, C.A.
Viraktamath. Meghalaya: 1 9 , Nangpoh, 762 m,
4. xi.l981, C.A. Viraktamath. Lakshadweep
Islands: 19, Minicoy, 16.1.1986, C.A.
Viraktamath (UAS).
Remarks: The structure of aedeagus of
G. appellans is similar to that of G. severus (Stal),
but has completely fused subgenital
plates. It is related closely to G. quadripinnatus
sp. nov., from which it differs in the shape and
size of the aedeagal processes and subgenital plate.
Goniagnathus concavus sp. nov.
(Figs 14-19)
Reddish-brown; anterior margin of the
66
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
<D
Zn
o
x 2
CD -C
Cl
cd s
-r3 c3
C
g
<L> -O
3 3
a g-H
— o
^ x
'c «
§ 9*
bD
<~. <4_
3 O
. c
oo <U
,<u
J= Q
a. .
0 tN
bt> —
>-> „
Cl ~
JU '~
1 *
<>: <u
S >
bB 2
c £
i
bp
tz
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
67
13. Female seventh sternum.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
68
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
Figs 14-19: Goniagnathus concavus sp. nov.: 14. Male pygophore; 15. Fused subgenital plate; 16. Style;
17. Fused connective and aedeagus, lateral view; 18. Same, cephalic view; 19. Apex of aedeagal shaft.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
vertex ivory, with dorsal and ventral broken
brown stripes. Fore wing venation mottled with
white and brown. Legs transversely banded with
dark brown, and bases of hind tibial spines black.
Vertex four times as wide as long.
Forewing with inner anteapical cell closed behind
by a cross vein.
Male genitalia: Pygophore longer than its
height, dorsal appendage heavily sclerotised,
black, not extending down caudal margin, setae
slender, hair-like. Fused subgenital plate twice
as broad as median length, caudal margin
inwardly curved. Apophysis of style strongly
bilobed apically. Aedeagus slender, tubular, distal
0.25 strongly dorsally recurved; a pair of dorsal
and a pair of ventral processes on shaft at distal
0.33; gonopore caudal.
Female: Unknown.
Measurements: male 5.75 (5. 6-5. 9) mm
long, 2.3 (2. 2-2.4) mm wide across eyes.
Material examined: Holotype d India:
Gujarat: Ahmedabad, 27. i. 1981, C.A.
Viraktamath (UAS). Paratypes: india: Gujarat:
Id1, Dandi-Navsari, 16. i. 1981, C.A.
Viraktamath. Karnataka: 1 d, Bangalore, 916 m,
9.1.1980, A.R.V. Kumar (BMNH, UAS).
Remarks: This species differs from other
species of Goniagnathus in having abruptly re-
curved apex of aedeagal shaft and inwardly
curved caudal margin of the fused subgenital
plate.
Etymology: concavus refers to the concave
hind margin of the fused subgenital plates of the
male.
Goniagnathus fumosus Distant
(Figs 20-29)
Goniagnathus fumosus Distant, 1918; 43.
Lectotype d, India (BMNH, examined).
Coloration as described by Distant (1918).
Vertex six times as wide as long. Forewing
with inner anteapical cell closed behind by a cross
vein.
Male genitalia: Pygophore with dorsal
appendage reaching ventral margin, lobe caudo-
ventrally produced into an angular prolongation
without setae. Fused subgenital plates rectangular
with rounded lateral margin, twice as broad as long.
Apophysis of style with stout, elongated inner lobe
and slender, smaller outer lobe; inner lobe
exceeding fused subgenital plates. Aedeagal shaft
tubular, with a pair of forked apical processes,
mesal fork directed anteriorly, lateral fork laterally;
gonopore large, apical; dorsal apodeme 0.33x as
long as shaft, half as long as preatrium.
Female genitalia: Seventh sternum 3.0
times as wide as median length, hind margin
deeply concave.
Measurements: male: 6.7 (6.4-6. 8) mm
long, 2.5 (2.4-2. 6) mm wide across eyes, female:
6.3 (5. 9-6. 7) mm long, 2.5 (2.4-2. 6) mm wide
across eyes.
Material examined: Lectotype d, left
hand male of the two dissected males on the same
card “Chikkaballapura, S. India, T.V.C.”
“ Goniagnathus fumosus Dist. Type” here
designated (BMNH). Paralecto types: 4d, 59,
data as for lectotype; 2 9 , “Pusa Bihar, at light,
TBF, l.vii.l4”(s*c) 19, “Allahabad, August
1911, A.D. Imms” (BMNH).
Other material examined: india:
Karnataka: 2 9, Bangalore, (-).ix.l969, H.M.
Harris; 1 9, l.iv.1980, C.A. Viraktamath. Tamil
Nadu: 2d, 2 9, Trichy, 3-13.V.1989, K.R. Rao;
2d, Pudukottai, 26. i. 1985, K.R. Rao; Id,
Kottampatty, 8.V.1984, K.R. Rao. Gujarat: Id,
Junagadh, 30.1.1981, C.A. Viraktamath; 19,
Sasan-Gir, 1 .ii. 1981, C.A. Viraktamath,
Maharashtra: Id, 19, Dhond, 2.x. 1981, A.R.V.
Kumar. Andhra Pradesh: Id, Hyderabad,
30.iv.1992, ex. paddy (UAS).
Remarks: This species can easily be
recognised by the forked aedeagal processes,
dorsal pygophore appendage caudally abruptly
curved at right angles and by the extension of
apophysis of style beyond fused subgenital plates.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
69
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
70
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
Figs 20-29: Goniagnathus fumosus Distant: 20. Forewing; 21. Male pygophore;
22. Fused subgenital plate and apex of style, specimen from Bangalore; 23. Apex of style, lectotype; 24. Style, specimen from Bangalore;
25. Fused connective and aedeagus, lateral view; 26, 27. Different views of apex of aedeagal shaft;
28, 29. Variation in the female seventh sterna.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Goniagnathus nervosus Melichar
(Figs 30-37)
Goniagnathus nervosus Melichar, 1903:
180. Lectotype d, designated here by P. Lauterer,
Sri Lanka (MMB, examined).
Reddish-brown, anterior margin of vertex
ochraceous. Interrupted black fascia on face,
vertex, pronotum and scutellum mottled with
irregular reddish-brown spots. Forewing veins
mottled with dark brown and white spots.
Vertex five times as wide as long. Forewing
with inner anteapical cell closed behind by a cross
vein.
Male genitalia: Pygophore constricted at
mid-length and broadened caudally with a few
hair-like setae apically, dorsal appendage entire
caudal margin. Fused subgenital plate twice as
broad as long, slightly convexly rounded with a
median notch on caudal margin. Apophysis of
style bilobed. Aedeagal shaft strongly curved
caudo-dorsally and in apical 0.25 strongly curved
anteriorly, with a basal pair of lateral short, stout
processes at 0.25 distance, a slender elongate
unpaired process on caudal margin directed
caudo-dorsally at apical 0.33 and a pair of
ventrally directed, slender processes arising
subapically on anterior margin; gonopore large,
apical; dorsal apodeme 0.25 as long as shaft,
shorter than preatrium.
Female genitalia: Seventh sternum 2.5
times as wide as long, hind margin sinuate with
a median notch.
Measurements: male: 6.3 (6. 2-6.4) mm
long, 2.4 (2. 3-2. 5) mm wide across eyes, female:
6.4 (6. 1-6.5) mm long, 2.5 (2. 4-2. 6) mm wide
across eyes.
Material examined: Lectotype d,
“Ceylon/ Peradeniya/ Marz 1902/leg. Dr. Uzel /
DR MELICHAR” and “Transcriptio/
Goniagnathus d/ nervosus n.sp ./ L. Melichar
det. 1903/P. Lauterer det. 1996” and “Lectotypus/
Goniagnathus d/ nervosus / Melichar 1903/
P. Lauterer design. 1996” (MMB).
Paralectotypes: Id, data as for lectotype,
originally placed on the same block as lectotype,
now separated and relabelled by Dr. P. Lauterer;
1 $ , “Ceylon/ Peradeniya/ Juni 902/ leg. Dr. Uzel/
DR MELICHAR” and other data as in lectotype;
2 fifth instar nymphs, data as for lectotype
(MMB).
Other material: india: Karnataka: Id,
3 $ , Jog Falls (534 m), 1 7- 1 8.xi. 1 976, B. Mallik;
2d, 1 9,Mudigere, 21.V.1975; 1 d, 3 9, 6.ivl980;
2d, 3 9, 21-22.V.1976, C.A. Viraktamath and B
Mallik; Id, Bangalore, 3.iv.l978, A.R.V.
Kumar; 1 9, Biligirirangana Hills, 1 3.viii. 1 976,
C.A. Viraktamath. Pondicherry: 2d, Mahe,
15. ix. 1979, A.R.V. Kumar. Maharashtra:
Mahabaleshwar 1,381 m, 20.xi.1977, C.A.
Viraktamath. Kerala: 2d, Kottayam, 25.iii.1977,
B. Mallik (UAS).
Remarks: This species is related to
G. concavus sp. nov., but differs from it in havmg
an unpaired ventral process to aedeagus and
longer dorsal appendage to the pygophore.
Goniagnathus punctifer (Walker)
(Figs 38-44)
By thoscopus punctifer Walker, 1858: 104.
Lectotype d, India (BMNH, examined).
Goniagnathus spurcatus Melichar, 1903:
181. Lectotype d designated here by P. Lauterer,
Sri Lanka (MMB, examined).
Coloration as described by Distant (1908)
with the following additions: Ochraceous,
irregular reddish-brown markings on vertex,
pronotum and scutellum. Anterior margin of
vertex yellow with faint brownish spots. Face
with interrupted black fascia, eyes black with
reddish-brown margin and stripes. Forewings
ochraceous.
Vertex five times as wide as median length.
Forewing with inner anteapical cell open behind.
Male genitalia: Pygophore caudally
narrowed with an obtusely rounded caudal lobe
having a few setae, dorsal appendage slender,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
71
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
72
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 200 1
Figs 30-37: Goniagnathus nervosus Distant: 30. Forewing; 31. Male pygophore; 32. Fused subgenital plate and apex of style;
33. Fused connective and aedeagus, lateral view; 34, 35. Variations in the caudal process of aedeagus in lectotype and paralectotype;
36. Aedeagal shaft, cephalic view; 37. Female seventh sternum.
NE W DESCRIPTIONS
o
o
LULU j,0 0
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
73
Figs 38-44: Gomagnathus punctifer (Walker): 38. Forewing; 39. Male pygophore; 40. Fused subgenital plate and style;
41 Fused connective and aedeagus, lateral view; 42. Fused connective and aedeagus, cephalic view,
43. Apex of aedeagal shaft; 44. Female seventh sternum.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
black, not reaching caudo-ventral angle. Fused
subgenital plate twice as broad as median length,
narrowed caudally with truncate apex. Style with
bilobed apophysis, outer lobe slightly longer than
inner. Aedeagal shaft slightly curved, with an
apical pair of laterally directed processes, and a
median pair of slightly asymmetrically curved
processes on cephalic margin at mid-length;
gonopore large, apical; dorsal apodeme less than
half as long as shaft, shorter than preatrial
extension.
Female genitalia: Seventh sternum three
times as wide as long, hind margin broadly
produced with a median notch.
Measurements: male: 5.7 (5. 1-6.4) mm
long, 2.2 (2. 1-2.4) mm wide across eyes. Female:
5.9 (5. 6-6.4) mm long, 2.4 (2. 3-2. 5) mm wide
across eyes.
Material examined: Lectotype d,
“ punctifer Walk” “Ind.” “684” here designated
(BMNH). Lectotype d, “Ceylon VI/ Peradeniya
(struck off)/ Colombo/ leg. Dr. Uzel/ DR
MELICHAR” and “spurcatus/ det. Melicha” and
transcribed labels “Transcriptio/ Goniagnathus/
spurcatus sp. n./L. Melichar det. 1903/
P. Lauterer det 1996” and Lectotypus/
Goniagnathus dl spurcatus Melichar 1903/ P.
Lauterer design. 1996” and Goniagnathus dl
punctifer! (Walker)/ P. Lauterer det. 1996” and
Invent. C./ 3886/ Ent/ Mor. Museum, Brno” here
designated by Dr. P. Lauterer (MMB).
Paralectotype: 1 d, data as in lectotype, originally
placed on the same block as lectotype, but now
separated with inventory No. 3888/Ent, 1 9 , data
as for lectotype, but with inventory no. 3887/Ent.
(MMB).
Other material: india: Gujarat: 3d, 19,
Sasan-Gir, 31. i. 1981, C.A. Viraktamath; 19,
Ahwa, 17. i. 1981, C.A. Viraktamath; 19,
Waghai, 18. i. 1981, C.A. Viraktamath.
Maharashtra: 4d, 2 9, Poona, 7.xi.l991, C.A.
Viraktamath; 19, Dhond, 2.x. 1981, A.R.V.
Kumar. Mizoram: Id*, Aizawl, 18.i.l981, C.S.
Wesley. Karnataka: Id, Yellapur, 12.V.1982,
C.A. Viraktamath; Id, Madhugiri, 6.vii.l980,
A.R.V. Kumar; 1 9, Hiriyur, 13.viii.1978, C.A.
Viraktamath; 2 9, Dharwar, 12.vii. 1970, C.A.
Viraktamath; 19, Sirguppa, 21.1.1982, A.R.V.
Kumar; 1 d, 1 9 , Mudigere, 6.iv. 1980, Freidberg,
1 d, 21. v. 1976, 3d, 19, 8. i. 1986, C.A.
Viraktamath; Id, Gulbarga, 7.ix.l976, C.A.
Viraktamath; 2d, Raichur, 12. v. 1992 and
24.vii.1992, S. Viraktamath. Kerala: 3d, 19,
17 km E Trichur, 8.i.l986, C.A. Viraktamath.
Meghalaya: 19, Nongpoh, 762 m, 4.xi.l981,
C.A. Viraktamath. Mizoram: Id, Aizawl,
8.xi. 198 1 , C.S. Wesley (UAS).
Remarks: This species is related to
G. appellans and G. fumosus, but can be readily
recognised by a pair of apical and a pair of rather
asymmetrically curved processes arising at
mid- length of the aedeagal shaft on dorsal aspect
and the fused subgenital plates being square
tipped.
Goniagnathus quadripinnatus sp. nov.
(Figs 45-50)
Ochraceous, faint reddish-brown band on
anterior margin of vertex between ocelli. Eyes
with reddish margin and stripes. Irregular
reddish-brown patches on vertex, pronotum and
scutellum. Fore wings ochraceous with distinct
veins. Pronotum with four and scutellum with
two longitudinal reddish stripes.
Vertex three times as wide as long.
Forewing with inner anteapical cell closed behind
by a cross vein.
Male genitalia: Pygophore elongate,
caudally narrowed, dorsal appendage not
exceeding caudo-dorsal angle. A few macrosetae
at dorso-apical area. Fused subgenital plate
broader than long, caudally convexly rounded.
Apophysis of style bilobed, outer lobe shorter
than inner, blunt. Aedeagal shaft tubular, curved
dorso-anteriorly, with a pair of slender, elongate,
apical and a pair of shorter, lateral, subapical
74
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
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15
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
processes; gonopore large; dorsal apodeme 0.33
as long as shaft.
Female genitalia: Seventh sternum 3.3
times as wide as long, hind margin concave with
obtusely rounded lateral margin and deeply
notched in middle.
Measurements: male: 4.5 mm long, 1.9
mm wide across eyes, female: 5.1 (4. 3-5. 5) mm
long and 2.2 (2. 0-2. 5) mm wide across eyes.
Material examined: Holotype d, india:
Karnataka: Chikballapur, 3.viii.l976, B. Mallik
(UAS). Paratypes: Id, data as in holotype; 2d,
Bangalore, 214.1976, C.A. Viraktamath; Id,
7 km N Dodballapur, 1 8 . vii. 1977, C.A.
Viraktamath; 1 d , Gulbarga, 20.viii. 1981, A.R. V.
Kumar; Id, 1?, Dharwar, 25.vii.1972, C.A.
Viraktamath; Id, 30.viii. 1972, Id, 22.iv.1972,
C.A. Viraktamath. Orissa: 2d, Bhubaneswar,
13.vi.1993, P.C. Dash (BMNH, NPC, UAS).
Remarks: This species is very similar to
G. appellans in the structure of male genitalia.
However, it differs from apellans in having
broader subgenital plate, dissimilar lobes of the
apophysis of style and slender apical processes
of the aedeagal shaft.
Etymology: quadripinnatus refers to the
four apical processes of the aedeagus.
Goniagnathus symphysis sp. nov.
(Figs 51-58)
Ochraceous. Vertex with anterior margin
yellowish, a black band touching ocelli,
irregularly scattered minute reddish spots,
coronal sulcus black. Eyes with ochraceous
margin and reddish-brown stripes. Legs with
irregular black markings. Forewing ochraceous
with distinct greyish veins, claval, veins with
irregular black spots.
Vertex 5.5 times as wide as long. Fore wing
with inner anteapical cell closed behind by a cross
vein.
Male genitalia: Pygophore elongate,
caudal lobe produced conically, dorsal appendage
stout, black, a few setae on apical 0.33 of lobe.
Fused subgenital plate broader at base than long,
with caudal margin rounded. Apophysis of style
deeply bilobed, outer lobe slender, more acutely
pointed than inner lobe. Aedeagus short, stout,
shaft constricted before apex and then broadened,
dorsal apodeme 0.33 as long as shaft; gonopore
large, round, margined by two sclerotized
processes which do not meet apically.
Female genitalia: Seventh sternum width
2.7 times its length, hind margin strongly
notched in middle.
Measurements: male: 5.6 (5. 3-5.9) mm
long, 2.35 (2. 3-2.4) mm wide across eyes, female:
6.1 (5. 7-6. 7) mm long, 2.5 (2.4-2. 6) mm wide
across eyes.
Material examined: Holotype d, india:
Gujarat: Waghai, 1 8.i. 198 1 , C.A. Viraktamath
(UAS). Paratypes: Id, data as for holotype; india:
Gujarat: 2d, 19, Waghai, 18. i. 1981, S.
Viraktamath (BMNH, NPC, UAS).
Other material: Maharashtra: 2d,
Igatpuri, 23.iv.1980. Tamil Nadu: 1 d, Yercaud,
18. ix. 1978; 19, Shambaganur, 29.x. 1975; Id,
3 9, 30.x. 1975 all coll. C.A. Viraktamath.
Karnataka: Id, Mudigere, 21.V.1975; Id, 19,
21.v.l976,B. Mallik; Id, Jog Falls, 18.xi.1976,
B. Mallik; 2 d , Biligirirangan Hills, 1 3.viii. 1977,
Id, 9.viii. 1977, coll. C.A. Viraktamath (UAS).
Remarks: This species can be easily
distinguished by the absence of aedeagal shaft
processes except for the marginal sclerotisation
of gonopore.
Etymology: symphysis refers to two
processes of the aedeagal shaft which appear
glued together.
Goniagnathus syncerus sp. nov.
(Figs 59-65)
Coloration dark brown. Apical margin of
head ivory with dorsal and ventral black
transverse stripes. Face ochraceous with dark
brown transverse stripes on fronto-clypeus. A few
76
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
77
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
78
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
Figs 59-65: Goniagnathus syncerus sp. nov.: 59. Forewing; 60. Process of male pygophore; 61 . Fused subgenita! plate; 62. Style;
63. Fused connective and aedeagus, lateral view, 64. Fused connective and aedeagus, cephalic view; 65. Apex of aedeagal shaft.
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
spots or stripes on genae, lora and clypellus dark
brown. Thoracic pleurites with large black
patches. Lateral margin of pronotum ivory with
submarginal black longitudinal stripes.
Forewings mottled with dark brown and white
along veins. Fore and middle tibiae transversely
banded with dark brown.
Vertex 4.5 times as wide as long. Forewing
with inner anteapical cell closed behind by a
cross vein, outer anteapical cell divided.
Male genitalia: Pygophore caudally
truncate without dorsal appendage, with an
oblique row of short bristles along caudo-dorsal
margin, caudo-ventral angle with a short
process. Fused subgenital plate broader basally,
with caudal margin medially notched. Caudal
margin of apophysis of style, slightly concave.
Aedeagal shaft narrow at base, broadest at apical
0.66, with a pair of subapical, black, laterally
curved processes, each process with a short basal
tooth, dorsal apodeme half as long as shaft.
Female: Unknown.
Measurements: male: 5.3 mm long,
2.3 mm wide across eyes.
Material examined: Holotype d\ india:
Rajasthan: Mt. Abu, 1,200 m, 24.i. 1 98 1 , C.A.
Viraktamath (UAS).
Remarks: This species can be readily
recognised by the distally widened aedeagal
shaft.
Etymology: syncerus refers to the two
horn-like aedeagal processes which are together.
Goniagnathus bicolor Distant
Goniagnathus bicolor Distant, 1918: 43.
Lectotype 9, India (BMNH, examined).
Material examined: Lectotype 9,
“Calcutta” “Distant Coll. 191 1-383”
“ Goniagnathus bicolor Distant. Type” here
designated (BMNH).
Remarks: Judging from the structure of
female seventh sternum, this species may prove
to be a synonym of G. fumosus.
Acknowledgements
Dr. M.D. Webb (BMNH) provided
information on the type series of the species
described by W.L. Distant. Dr Pavel Lauterer
(MMB) designated the lectotypes for species
described by Dr. L. Melichar on our request and
compared some of the illustrations of the species
sent to him with the type series of Goniagnathus
under his care.
References
Ahmed, M., A. Qadeer & K.F. Malik (1988): Some new
cicadellids from grasslands of Karachi, Pakistan
(Homoptera : Cicadellidae). Great Basin Naturalist
Memoirs No. 12 : 10-17.
Distant, W.L. (1908): Rhynchota Homoptera
and Appendix (pt.) In : Bingham, C.T. (ed.): The
Fauna of British India including Ceylon and
Burma 4: xv+501 pp. Taylor and Francis,
London.
Distant, W.L. (1918): Rhynchota Homoptera: appendix,
Heteroptera: Addenda. In: Shipley, A.E. and
G. A. K. Marshall, (eds). The Fauna of British India
including Ceylon and Burma 7: viii+210 pp. Taylor
and Francis, London.
Dlabola, J. (1 98 1 ): Ergebnisse der Tschechoslowakisch-
Iranischen Entomologischen Expeditionen nach
dem Iran (1970 und 1973). (Mit angaben iiber
einige sammellesultate in anatolien) Homoptera:
Auchenorrhyncha (II. Teil). Acta Entomologica
Musei National Prague 40: 127-311.
Kumar, A.R.V. (1983): A Revision of Indian
Batracomorphus Lewis (Homoptera : Cicadellidae:
Iassinae). Thesis abstract, Mysore Agricultural
Journal 9: 331.
Linnavuori, R. (1978): Revision of the Ethiopian
Cicadellidae (Homoptera), Paraboloponinae and
Deltocephalinae: Scaphytopiini and Goniagnathini.
Revue de Zoologia Africane 92: 457-500.
Rama Subba Rao, V. ( 1 994): Description of new records
of the genus Goniagnathus Fieber (Cicadellidae:
Homoptera) from India. J. Bombay nat. Mist. Soc.
90(3): 524-526.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
79
GARRA PERIYARENSIS , A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM PERIYAR
TIGER RESERVE, KERALA, INDIA1
K.C. Gopi2
( With four text-figures)
Key words: Garra periyarensis sp. nov., cyprinid fish, Periyar, Kerala
A new cyprinid fish, namely Garra periyarensis , from the headwaters of the Periyar river in the
Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala, South India, is described. It is characterised by 37-39 scales on
the lateral line, naked breast and belly, snout with a prominent tuberculated knob-like protuberance
(antero-rostral lobe) differentiated from the tip of snout and 3-4 + 12-13 gillrakers on the first
arch.
Introduction
The genus Garra Hamilton-Buchanan, of
the Subfamily Garrinae, according to Talwar and
Jhingran (1991), is represented by 21 species in
the Indian subcontinent, including Garra menoni
Rema Devi and Indra, 1986, described from
Silent Valley, Kerala, India, synonymised by
them (without any discussion) with Garra mullya
(Sykes) and Garra kalakadensis Rema Devi,
described subsequently from Kalakad Wildlife
Sanctuary, Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu
(Rema Devi, 1992). Garra menoni has recently
been treated as a valid species (Easa and Chand
Basha 1995, and Easa and Shaji 1997). Shaji
et al. (1997) have described Garra
surendranathanii from Chalakudy, Periyar and
Pamba river systems of Kerala, treating Garra
menoni as a valid species. Thus, six species of
Garra are so far known to occur in Kerala. They
are Garra mullya (Sykes), G. gotyla
stenorhynchus (Jerdon), G. hughi Silas, G.
mcclellandi (Jerdon), G. menoni Rema Devi and
Indra, and G. surendranathanii Shaji, Arun and
Easa. Except for Garra hughi and Garra menoni ,
these species are already reported from the
drainage system associated with the Periyar Tiger
Reserve (Zacharias et al. 1996, Aru r\etal 1996).
'Accepted March, 1998
2Westem Ghats Field Research Station
Zoological Survey of India,
Calicut 673 002, Kerala, India.
During a faunistic survey of the watershed
areas of Periyar river within the Periyar Tiger
Reserve, Kerala, India, two specimens of Garra
were obtained, which appeared to be distinct from
all the earlier known species of the genus. It is
described here as a new species.
Material and Methods
The material examined were two
specimens measuring 124.5 mm and 156.0 mm
SL, collected by castnet from the Periyar river at
Thanikkudy in the Periyar Tiger Reserve.
Measurements were taken by dial calipers with
an accuracy of 0.1 mm. Data are presented as
percentages, with the range followed by the mean
in parentheses.
Garra periyarensis sp. nov.
(Figs 1-4)
Diagnosis: A species of Garra having
elongate and slender body with 37-39 scales on
lateral line; breast and belly naked; a prominent,
tuberculated, knob-like protuberance (antero-
rostral lobe) on snout; 3-4 + 12-13 gillrakers on
the first arch.
Holotype: ZSI, CLT (Zoological Survey of
India, Calicut) No. V/F. 9426; 156.0 mm SL;
Periyar river, Thanikkudy, Periyar Tiger Reserve,
Kerala State, India; coll. P.M. Sureshan,
7.xi.l996.
80
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
5 mm
5 mm
Figs 1-4: Garra periyarensis sp. nov.
1. Lateral view; 2. Ventral view; 3. Head: Dorsal view; 4. Head: Ventral view.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR.
81
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Paratype: One specimen, ZSI, CLT No. V/
F. 9427, 124.5 mm SL; same data as of holotype.
Description: Based on these two
specimens (holotype and paratype),
D. 2/8, A. 2/5, P. 1/14, V. 1/7, L.l. 37-39,
L tr. 5/1/4-5,
Predorsal scales: 10-11, Gillrakers: 3-4 +
12-13.
Body elongate and slender, dorsal profile
gently rising anteriorly up to the origin of dorsal
fin, and thereafter sloping straight to caudal base;
ventral profile almost straight. Depth of body
17.67-17.76 (M=17.72)% SL*» length of head
21.41-23.21 (M=22.3 1)% SL, width of head
65.40-70.96 (M=68.18)% HL, height of head
57.79-58.68 (M=58.24)% HL. Snout obtusely
rounded, tuberculated, tip marked off by a
transverse groove and differentiated into a
prominent, flexible and knob-like protuberance
(antero-rostral lobe, Figs 1-4). Homy tubercles
present on snout and cheek: small and
underdeveloped, with scattered mucous pores on
cheek in holotype (possibly female), but
prominent and well-developed ones in paratype
(possibly male). Length of snout including the
lobe at tip 53.28-53.29 (M=53.29)% HL.
Diameter of eye 22.49-23.05 (M=22.77)% HL
and 60.19-61.6 (M=60.9)% interorbital width.
Interoribtal region flat, its width 37.37-37.43
(M=37.4)% HL. Barbels two pairs, subequal,
rostral shorter than eye and maxillary
rudimentary. 3-4 + 12-13 gillrakers on the first
arch. Length of mental disc 36.23-36.33
(M=36.28)% HL, width 65.82-66.67
(M=66.25)% width of head, length of disc 78.21-
83.33 (M=80.77)% its own width. Abdomen
slightly rounded, vent much anteriorly located
away from the origin of anal fin, distance from
vent to anal origin 42.89-46.58 (M=44.74)%
interdistance between anterior origins of pelvic
and anal fins.
Caudal peduncle length 18.27-19.12
(M=18.7)% SL, 82.35-85.33 (M=83.84%) HL,
its least height 48.74-48.82 (M=49.28)% its own
length.
Squamation: Tube bearing scales on
lateral line 37-39, scales in transverse series from
midline of back to abdomen 5/1/4-5 with 4.5
series from origin of dorsal to lateral line and 3-
3.5 between lateral line and origin of ventral fin,
predorsal scales 10-1 1, circumpeduncular scales
12, breast and belly naked (Fig. 2), post-pelvic
region scaly.
Fins: Dorsal origin nearer to the tip of
snout than to base of caudal, over 1 1th scale of
lateral line, dorsal margin of fin concave, its
height more than length of head, 105.99-106.29
(M=106.14)% HL, 22.69-24.66 (M=23.68)% SL.
Pectoral and pelvic fins subequal, smaller than
head, length of pectoral 83.23-83.74
(M=83.49)% HL, length of pelvic 80.24-80.28
(M=80.26)% HL. Pelvic origin under 14th or
15th scale of lateral line. Anal origin opposite
27th scale of lateral line. Caudal deeply forked,
longer than head, 114.88-115.57 (M=l 15.23)%
HL, lobes pointed, the upper lobe longer than
the lower one. Distance from tip of snout to
anterior origin of fins: predorsal distance 42.76-
43.13 (M=42.95)% SL, prepelvic distance 44.36-
46.75 (M=45.56)% SL. Distance between
anterior origins of fins: Pectoro-pelvic distance
24.23-24.73 (M=24.48)% SL, pelvic-anal
distance 25.86-27.96 (M=26.91)% SL, 48.35-
50.23, (M=49.29)% in that between pelvic origin
and caudal base.
Etymology: Name implies the Periyar river
in which it occurs.
Coloration: In preserved state, upper half
of body brownish-black, lower yellowish-brown,
becoming yellowish- white beneath; an indistinct
midlateral band from behind the gill-opening to
the base of caudal fin; a faint black spot behind
upper angle of gill-opening; dorsal and caudal
fins dusky grey, and other fins lighter, shaded
with yellowish-grey.
Distribution: Known so far only from the
82
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1), APR. 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Periyar drainage at Thanikkudy, Periyar Tiger
Reserve, Kerala State, India.
Remarks: Garra periyarensis appears to
be related to Garra mcclellandi (Jerdon), Garra
hughi Silas and Garra surendranathanii Shaji,
Arun and Easa with respect to the general
characters, such as: more elongated body, higher
count of scales on lateral line and more anteriorly
located vent, away from the origin of anal fin.
The new species, like the other three species, falls
under the species-group ‘ yunnanensis complex’
of Menon (1964), which also has representatives
in northeastern India, as far east as Yunnan,
South China and Indo-China. The yunnanensis
complex includes Garra yunnanensis (Regan)
and G. gracilis (Pellegrin & Chevey) from China,
G. naganensis Hora and Garra kempi Hora from
Assam, India, and G. mcclellandi (Jerdon),
G. hughi Silas and G. surendranathanii Shaji,
Arun and Easa from the Western Ghats, India.
Refer
Arun, L.K., C.P. Shaji & P.S. Easa (1996): Record of new
fishes from Periyar Tiger Reserve. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 93(1): 103-104.
Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji ( 1 997): Freshwater fish diversity
in Kerala part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Curr.
Sci. 73(2): 180-182.
Easa, P.S. & S. Chand Basha (1995): A survey of the
habitat and distribution of stream fishes in the Kerala
part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Research report, No.
104. Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala.
87 pp.
Menon, A.G.K. (1964): Monograph of the cyprinid fishes
of the genus Garra Hamilton. Mem. lnd. Mus. 14(4):
173-260.
Rema Devi, K. & T.J. Indra (1986): Garra menoni, a new
Garra periyarensis differs from all the
above species in the following combination of
characters: a prominent, tuberculated knob- like
protuberance on snout and absence of scales on
breast and belly. It can easily be separated from
G. mcclellandi, its closest relative in the Western
Ghats, by the absence of scales on the ventral
side and in the greater number of gill rakers and
lateral line scales.
AcKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta and the Officer in charge, Western
Ghats Field Research Station, Zoological Survey
of India, Calicut, for encouragement and
facilities. I also thank Dr. K. Rema Devi,
Scientist, Zoological Survey of India, Chennai
for going through the manuscript and for
suggestions to improve it.
ENCES
cyprinid fish from Silent Valley, Kerala, South India.
Bull. Zool. Sur. India 5: 121-122.
Rema Devi, K. ( 1 992): Garra kalakadensis, a new cyprinid
fish from Kalakad Wildlife Sanctuary, Tirunelveli District,
Tamil Nadu. Rec. zool. Surv. India 91(2): 239-245.
Shaji, C.P., L.K. Arun & P.S. Easa (1996): Garra
surendranathanii, a new cyprinid fish from the
Southern Western Ghats, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 93(3): 572-575.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Vols. 1 , 2. Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co., New Delhi, India. 1 1 58 pp.
Zacharias, V.J., A.K. Bharadwaj & P.C. Jacob (1996):
Fish fauna of Periyar Tiger Reserve. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 93(1): 39-43.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR.
83
ON A NEW SPECIES OF HETEROGAMUS WESMAEL (INSECTA:
HYMENOPTERA : BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA1
S.M. Kurhade2 and P.K. Nikam3
( With three text-figures)
Key words: Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Heterogamus sp. nov.
Heterogamus rugosus sp. nov. is illustrated and described.
Introduction
Wesmael (1838) erected the genus
Heterogamus (Subfamily: Rogadinae), with
Aleiodes (Heterogamus) crypticornis Wesmael
as type species.
Only ten species of the genus Heterogamus
are known worldwide (Shenefelt 1975), and only
one species, Heterogamus percurrens (Lyle) =
Rhogas (Heterogamus) percurrens Lyle (1921)
is known from India.
A new species is described from material
collected in Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, India.
The new taxon has been compared with
the known Indian species, Heterogamus
percurrens Lyle.
Types are deposited in the Entomological
collection of Department of Zoology, Dr.
Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,
Aurangabad.
Heterogamus rugosus sp. nov.
(Figs 1-3)
Female: Length 4.4 mm (Fig.l). Head
(Fig. 2) transverse, 1.6 x as wide as long; vertex
shiny, rugosely, closely punctate, with
pubescence; the distance between median ocellus
and eye 0.5 x the interorbital distance; frons
'Accepted August, 1 998
department of Zoology,
New Arts, Commerce and Science College,
Ahmednagar 414 001 , Maharashtra, India.
3Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,
Aurangabad 43 1 004, Maharashtra, India.
Figs 1-3: Heterogamus rugosus sp. nov. female
1 . Lateral view, 2. Head viewed from front,
3. Propodeum and first abdominal tergite
weakly rugose, closely punctate, with
pubescence; face as wide as long, closely,
shallowly punctate, with pubescence, slightly
convex, medially elevated; clypeus small,
convex, closely punctate, pubescent, as wide as
long; antenna 2 + 42 segmented; scape 1.7 x as
long as wide, closely punctate, with pubescence;
pedicel as long as wide, finely, weakly punctate,
with pubescence; antennal joint 1.6 x as long as
wide; terminal segment conical, 1.6 x as long
as wide; penultimate segment as long as terminal
84
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
NE W DESCRIPTIONS
segment; malar space 2 x basal width of
mandible, closely punctate, with pubescence;
mandible unidentate, as long as own basal width;
occipital carina present; temple as wide as length
of the mandible, closely, shallowly punctate,
pubescent; eye bare, 2.6 x as long as wide.
Thorax: 2.6 x as long as wide; pronotum
rugosely, closely punctate, pubescent;
mesoscutum shiny, rugosely, densely punctate,
with pubescence; middle lobe without any
groove; notauli not prominent; metanotum
weakly rugose; scutellum densely punctate, with
pubescence, convex; mesopleurum shiny,
rugosely, densely punctate, pubescent;
mesopleural furrow distinct, extending 0.6 x the
length of mesopleurum; dorsal half of
metapleurum rugosely, closely punctate, with
pubescence, and ventral half closely punctate,
with pubesence; propodeum (Fig. 3) rugosely,
densely punctate, pubescent, weakly carinated.
Hindleg coxa 2 x as long as wide, densely
punctate, pubescent; trochanters I + II, 2.5 x as
long as wide, closely punctate, pubescent; femur
5.6 x as long as wide, densely punctate,
pubescent; tibia 1.3 x as long as femur, finely
punctate, pubescent; tibial spur as long as width
of tibia; tarsus 5-segmented, finely punctate,
pubescent; basitarsus 0.4 x length of tibia.
Fore wing 4.2 x as long as broad; stigma 5.8 x as
long as wide; metacarpus 1 .3 x as long as stigma;
second abscissa of radius 1.1 x as long as first
abscissa; third abscissa of radius 4 x as long as
first abscissa; three cubital cells present; second
cubital cell with four unequal sides; cubitus 2.4
x as long as stigma, sclerotized throughout its
length; medius 0.7 x as long as costa; basal 0.4
x length of medius; nervulus slightly inclivous,
distad, 0.7 x the width of stigma; anal cell 22.5
x as long as wide; hind wing 5.3 x as long as
broad; nervellus reclivous, basad, 0.3 x as long
as submediella; basella 0.4 x as long as mediella,
sclerotized; cubitella 0.9 x as long as mediella;
subcostella 1.3 x as long as mediella;
metacarpella as long as subcostella; post
nervellus 0.3 x as long as nervellus, opposite.
Abdomen: Spindle shaped, 3.5 x as long
as wide, without median keel; first tergite 1 . 1 x
as long as wide, apically, strigosely, closely
punctate, pubescent on dorsolateral side, mid-
dorsally coriaceous, closely punctate, pubescent;
third tergite 0.7 x its own width, strigosely
densely punctate, with pubescence; fourth tergite
as long as wide at base, strigose, densely punctate,
pubescent on mid-dorsal side, closely punctate,
pubescent on dorsolateral side; fifth tergite
strigose, densely punctate, pubescent; ovipositor
1 .4 x as long as width of coxa; ovipositor sheath
as long as ovipositor, pubescent.
Yellowish-brown. Tip of mandibles
brownish-black; veins, basal 0.6 of first tergite,
mid-dorsolateral area of second tergite, mid-
dorsal area of third and fourth tergites dark
brown; ovipositor sheath blackish.
Male: Unknown.
Host: Unknown.
Holotype: Female: India: Maharashtra:
Ahmednagar, 1 5 .viii. 1 989, Malaise trap, coll.
S.M. Kurhade; antenna, wings and legs mounted
on slides and labelled as above.
Paratypes: 22 females, data same as
holotype except 10 females collected on
29.viii.1989
Discussion
The new species Heterogamus rugosus
superficially resembles the only known species
of the Indo-Australian region from India, namely
Heterogamus percurrens Lyle (1921). The new
taxon differs in having (i) mesoscutum shiny,
rugosely, densely punctate (in H. percurrens
mesonotum with a broad, longitudinal, faintly
infuscated band inside each notaulus, and two
narrow short ones on the mid lobe anteriorly),
(ii) metanotum weakly rugose (in H. percurrens
metanotum smooth), (iii) antennal joint 1 .6 x
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR.
85
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
as long as wide (in H. percurrens about one third
longer than broad), (iv) propodeum rugosely,
densely punctate, pubescent, weakly carinated
(in H. percurrens irregularly rugulose, with a
median keel not percurrent), (v) stigma 5.8 x as
long as wide, (vi) abdomen without median keel
(in H. percurrens abdomen with the median
keel), (vii) tergitesl-4 strigosely punctate and
(viii) body length 4.4 mm (in H. percurrens body
length just over 5 mm).
Acknowledgements
We thank the former Head of the
Department of Zoology, Dr. Babasaheb
Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad
for laboratory facilities. The first author thanks
the Principal, New Arts, Commerce and Science
College, Ahmednagar for permission to carry
out this work at Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar
Marathwada University, Aurangabad.
References
Lyle, G.T. (1921): On three new species of Indian
Braconidae. Bull. Ent. Res. 12: 129-132.
Shenefelt, R.D. (1975): Braconidae 8, Exothecinae,
Rogadinae, pp. 1 1 15-1262. Hymenopterorum
catalogus, part 12, Dr. W. Junk, The Hague,
Netherlands.
*Wesmael, C. (1838): Monographic des Braconides de
Belgique, Nouv. Mem. Sci. Bnixelles 11: 23-120.
* Original not referred.
86
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
TWO NEW SPECIES OF B ULBOPHYLL UM THOUARS (ORCHID ACEAE)
FROM SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS, INDIA1
Muktesh Kumar and Stephen Sequiera2
( With two text-figures)
Key words: New species, Bulbophyllum , Southern Western Ghats, Kerala, India.
Two new species from Kerala, India, namely Bulbophyllum keralensis and Bulbophyllum
josephi are described and illustrated.
Introduction
The genus Bulbophyllum Thou, is
included in the subtribe Bulbophyllinae of the
tribe Dendrobiae, Subfamily Epidendroideae,
which forms one of the largest and most
important groups of Orchidaceae (Misra 1997).
This is perhaps the largest genus in the Orchid
family, with about 1000 species distributed
throughout tropical Africa and Asia, extend-
ing to Australia, New Zealand, Japan and
Korea (Santapau and Kapadia 1966;
Seidenfaden 1973, 1979; Abraham and Vatsala
1981). The separation of the genus
Cirrhopetalum Lindl. is still controversial, since
the flowers of Cirrhopetalum and Bulbophyllum
show similarity in fundamental characters.
Recently, Garay et al. ( 1 994) revised the genus
Cirrhopetalum and Bulbophyllum alliance
and reinstated Cirrhopetalum as a separate
genus.
From the Indian phytogeographic regions,
98 species and 2 varieties of the genus
Bulbophyllum are known to occur among which
12 species have been recorded from Kerala.
During the survey on the epiphytic flora of the
Western Ghats, the authors collected two
interesting species of Bulbophyllum from the
'Accepted April, 1999
:Botany Division, Kerala Forest Research Institute,
Peechi 680 653, Thrissur, Kerala, India.
forests of Kerala. On critical examination these
species are found to be new to the orchid flora,
and are described and illustrated here.
Bulbophyllum keralensis
Muktesh & Stephen sp. nov.
(Fig. 1)
Bulbophyllum macraei affinis, sed in
laminis ellipticis emarginatis, sepalo dorsali
papillato, sepalis lateralibus liberis lineari-ovatis
subulatis induplicatis papillatis, petalis ellipticis
cuspidatis papillatis, stelidiis minutis 1.2 mm
longis differt.
Typus: India: Kerala, Palghat district,
Silent Valley National Park, Sispara, 1,800 m,
Stephen 007857 KFRI; (Holotypus KFRI).
In general appearance this species
resembles Bulbophyllum macraei (Lindl.
Reichb. f.) (Jayaweera, 1981), but it differs in
having elliptic, emarginate lamina; papillate
dorsal sepal; linear-ovate, subulate, induplicate,
papillate, free lateral sepals; elliptic, cuspidate,
papillate petals and minute, 1.2 mm long
stelidia.
Epiphytic pseudobulbous creeping herbs;
pseudobulbs 1.2-2 x 0.5-0. 7 cm, ovoid, angled.
Leaves petiolate, solitary, at the top of
pseudobulb, lamina 1.8-6 x 0.8-2 cm, elliptic,
emarginate, grooved along midrib, coriaceous.
Inflorescence umbel or sub-umbel, peduncle 10-
12 cm, with 3 linear sterile bracts; floral bracts
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR.
87
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 1: Bulbophyllum keralensis Muktesh & Stephen sp. nov.
A - Habit; B - Single flower with floral bract; C - Flower front view; D - Lateral sepal; E - Dorsal sepal;
F - Petal; G - Column with lip; H - Operculum; I - Pollinia.
88
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
4-6 x 1-1.2 mm, ovate, acuminate; flowers 4-7,
golden yellow with purple tinge, 28-32 x 5-7
mm; sepals dissimilar, dorsal sepals 7-9 mm
long, 3. 2-3. 4 mm at the broadest point, ovate-
lanceolate, acuminate, induplicate, papillate at
the base, 5 -veined; lateral sepals 27-30 mm long,
2. 3-2. 6 mm broad, parallel, linear-ovate,
subulate, 5-veined, free, induplicate, papillate;
petals 4-6 x 2-3 mm, elliptic, slightly falcate, 3-
veined, cuspidate, entire, slightly papillate; lip
4.6 x 1.2 mm, recurved, tongue shaped, obtuse,
pouched, attached to the column foot; column
2.8 x 2 mm, broadly ovate; stelidia minute, 0.2
mm long; anther terminal; pollinia 4 in pahs,
0.4 x 0.25 mm; oval shaped; operculum 1 x 0.75
mm, broadly obovate.
Ecology: Epiphytic on moss covered tree
trunks in the evergreen shola forests from 1,800
to 2,000 m.
Distribution: So far known only from
Kerala - Silent Valley National Park (Palghat)
and Wynaad
FI. and Fr.: August-September.
Other specimen examined: Kerala,
Wynaad District, Pakshipadalam, 1,200 m,
Stephen & Michael 008140 KFRI
Etymology: Named after the state of
Kerala, where it was collected.
Bulbophyllum josephi
Muktesh & Stephen sp.nov.
(Fig. 2)
Bulbophylum elegantulum et B.
acutiflorum affinis sed in scapo 4-4.5 cm longo
folio breviore, sepalo dorsali ovato-lanceolato
acuminato induplicato, papillis dispersis, sepalis
lateralibus oblongo-lanceolatis acutis papillatis,
marginibus apice versus connatis, petalis
oblongo-ovatis falcatis, apice apiculato, stelidiis
longis angustis differt.
Typus : India: Kerala, Palghat district,
Silent Valley National Park, Punnamala, 850 m.
Stephen 007521 KFRI (Holotypus - KFRI).
Allied to Bulbophyllum elegantulum
(Rolfe) J.J. Sm. and Bulbophyllum acutiflorum
A. Rich., but differs in having 4-4.5 cm
long scape which is shorter than the leaf; ovate-
lanceolate, acuminate, induplicate, dorsal
sepal with scattered papillae, oblong-lanceolate,
acute, papillate lateral sepals which are
connate at upper edges, oblong-ovate, falcate
petals with apiculate apex and long narrow
stelidia.
Epiphytic pseudobulbous, creeping
herbs; pseudobulbs 1-1.3 x 0.6-1 cm, ovoid;
leaves solitary at the tip of the pseudo-
bulb, lamina 3.7-4. 1 x 0.8- 1.2 cm, elliptic,
emarginate, grooved along midrib, coriaceous;
inflorescence umbel or sub-umbel, peduncle
up to 5 cm with 1 or 2 sterile bracts; floral
bracts minute, 3 mm long, ovate, acuminate;
flowers yellow with violet specks, 10 x 3.5 cm,
pedicel up to 6 mm long; sepals dissimilar,
dorsal sepal 4.5 mm long, 1.5 mm broad; ovate-
lanceolate, acuminate, induplicate, scattered
papillae at the base, 5-veined; lateral sepals
9.5-10 cm long, 3 mm broad, oblong-lanceolate,
acute, papillate; connate at upper edges;
5-veined; petals 3 x 1.6 mm, oblong-ovate,
slightly falcate, apex apiculate, 3-veined,
speckled with violet, lip tongue shaped, 2.8 mm
long, recurved, attached to the column foot;
column 1.5 x 1.5 mm, orbicular ovate; stelidia
0.7 mm long, anther terminal; pollinia 0.3 x 0.1
mm; operculum ovate orbicular; 0.5 x 0.4
mm.
Ecology: Epiphytic on tree trunks in
evergreen forests at 900-1,000 m.
Distribution: Known so far only from the
type locality.
FI. & Fr.: August-September.
Etymology: Named after Dr. J. Joseph,
Former Joint Director, Botanical Survey of India,
for his valuable contribution to the systematics
of Indian orchids.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR.
89
20mm
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 2: Bulbophyllum josephi Muktesh & Stephen sp. nov.
A - Habit; B - Single flower; C - Flower top view (dorsal sepal lifted); D - Dorsal sepal; E - Lateral
sepals; F - Petal; G - Column with lip; H - Operculum; I - Pollinia.
90
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. K.S.S. Nair, Director, KFRI,
for facilities and encouragement, the Chief Conser-
Refer
Abraham, A. & P. Vatsala (1981): Introduction to
Orchids. TBG & RI, Trivandrum. Pp 329-344.
Garay, L., F. Hammer & E.S. Siegerist ( 1 994): The genus
Cirrhopetalum and the genera of the
Bulbophyllum alliance. Ind. J. Bot. 14(6): 609-
646.
Jayaweera, D.M.A. (1981): Orchidaceae. In:
Dassanayake, M.D. and F.R. Fosberg (Eds): A
revised Handbook to the flora of Ceylon 2. Pp. 4-
386, New Delhi.
vator of Forests (WL), Kerala Forest Department,
for financial support and other facilities. We also
thank Dr. Je F. Veldkamp, Leiden University, The
Netherlands, for the Latin diagnoses.
ENCES
Misra, S. (1997): Bulbophyllum and allied genera in
Orissa, India: Taxonomic review. J. Orch. Soc.
India 11 (1-2): 51-59.
Santapau, H. & Z. Kapadia (1966): Orchids of Bombay,
Government of India Press, Calcutta, pp. 193-200.
Seidenfaden, G. (1973): Notes on Cirrhopetalum Lindl.
Dansk Bot. Ark. 20(1): 1-260.
Seidenfaden, G. (1979): Orchid genera in Thailand 8.
Bulbophyllum Thou. Dansk Bot. Ark. 33(3): 1-
228.
■ ■ ■
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR.
91
OBITUARY
Sidney Dillon Ripley II 1913-2001
L-R: Mary Livingston Ripley, ST). Ripley and Dr. Salim Ali in happier times
Ornithology of the Indian sub-continent has been dominated by personalities who were, in
some way or other, giants of their own age out exploring the frontiers of the Empire. What started
with A.O. Hume, that veritable politico-natural chronicler of a bygone era when style and elegance
marked the distinctive individual stamp of the writer, has gradually evolved into the current crop of
glossy pocket guides lacking in elegance and descriptive style.
Somewhere along the period not too long lost in our memory, and yet contemporary enough
to relate to our own era, Sidney Dillon Ripley II, a rank outsider to the Raj legacy, teamed up with
an Indian, Salim Ali to give the region’s most comprehensive ornithological tome. The Ali &
Ripley duo straddled a transitional era when the ornithology of the region was being replaced from
an enjoyably descriptive, delightfully rendered and immensely readable, though lengthy style to a
spate of eco-statistical statements rendered in clinically scientific tomes on the one hand and quick-
fix, over illustrated field guides with a bare minimum rendering in a telegraphic language on the
other. And now the era of the last of the giants seems have come to an end in the passing away of
Ripley in Washington on March 12, 2001.
Ripley, bom in New York on September 20, 1913, had an early exposure to natural history.
His grandfather, Sidney Dillon, the first Board Chairman of the American Union Pacific Railroad,
way back in the 1870s had acquired a 2,000 acre land in Litchfield, Connecticut, where the boy
Ripley grew up to study nature. This early exposure later shaped his interest and career in ornithology.
Soon after his graduation, his spirit of adventure enabled him to travel east on a year-and-a-half
long expedition to New Guinea and Borneo studying and collecting zoological specimens. He obtained
his doctorate in zoology from Harvard University and joined as an assistant curator of birds in the
Smithsonian Institution where later he was to become the Secretary.
His association with the Indian subcontinent began with a short stint in the Allied Intelligence
Unit based in then Ceylon during World War II. This opportunity enabled him to study the birds of
not only the Indian subcontinent, but also of Thailand, Burma and China. It also brought him two
close future companions — his wife Mary Livingston, a colleague in the services, and Salim Ali,
both of whom he eventually outlived.
Ripley’s most productive years were to follow soon after his assuming the post of Professor of
Zoology and the Director of Peabody Museum at Yale University. Most of his scholarly writings in
natural history and ornithology, as well as the initial foundation for the long association with Salim
Ali to write the ten-volume magnum opus the handbook of the birds of india and Pakistan were
done in this period. Ripley’s name was already familiar to Indian ornithology through his a synopsis
of the birds of india and Pakistan, published by the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) in
1961, and revised in 1982.
His golden years were during his tenure as the Secretary of the prestigious Smithsonian
Institution, Washington, a post he discharged admirably till his retirement in September 1984.
Under his vision and leadership many an innovation was brought in the museum concept and the
Smithsonian scaled the heights in Science, Technology, Culture, Arts and American history. For
his contribution to American folk history Ripley was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom,
the highest civilian honour of the United States in 1985.
Ripley’s close association with BNHS goes back to the time he was posted in Sri Lanka in the
forties. His frequent official trips to India enabled him to spend time studying bird specimens in the
BNHS collection and visit friend Salim Ali, an association which was to blossom in later years into
a long lasting research collaboration between BNHS and the Smithsonian Institution. Ripley was
instrumental in channeling Smithsonian funds to continue the BNHS/WHO Bird Migration studies,
which enabled the Society to not only collect data, but also to encourage and train young Indian
biologists in bird studies. He helped finance and take active part with Salim Ali in the field in joint
ornithological expeditions to Simlipal, Orissa, Melghat, Maharashtra, Amnachal Pradesh and Bhutan
Himalayas. These expeditions provided field data and helped both Ripley and Salim Ali to gather
material for the handbook, apart from obtaining valuable museum specimens.
Ripley was literally a “towering” personality, with matching intellect, scholarship, wisdom,
grace and a delightful sense of humour. As the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution he was
constantly busy fulfilling his mandate and in the process, inevitably, he developed a reputation of
being rather unapproachable, particularly to his staff and casual visitors. Being a fast track
perfectionist himself, perhaps he was sometimes impatient with those who could not keep pace with
him.
It was, however, a different story altogether when he was out on field trips in the Indian
subcontinent. He was friendly and kind to the team members and always looked after their welfare.
He didn’t spare himself any hard work and always toiled along with the others on manual chores —
whether it was pitching tents, packing, carrying and loading enormous expedition luggage, or
walking miles to collect specimens and finally skinning and preserving them. After a hard day’s
work, it was always a treat to listen to the conversation between Ripley and Salim Ali under lamp-
lit tents. The subjects covered would be varied and Ripley would regale the audience from a fascinating
repertoire, laced with humour and excitement in equal measure.
It is indeed sad that the era of personalities seems to have ended and Ripley was perhaps one
of the last of the giants in Indian ornithology. For his three daughters, Julia, Rosemary, Sylvia and
1 1 grandchildren, as well as a number of young ornithologists who had the good fortune to have
known him closely, Sidney Dillon Ripley II will always be a pleasant memory — a Man for all
Seasons.
S.A. HUSSAIN
REVIEWS
1 . CHECKLIST OF INDIAN MAMMALS by Nameer P. Ommer. Published by
Kerala Forest Department, Kerala, 2000. Pp. 90 + xxv, (22 x 14 cm). Price not
mentioned.
The CHECKLIST OF INDIAN MAMMALS by
Nameer P. Ommer is one of the most recent
checklists of mammals of this country. It is quite
comprehensive as it lists 417 species. Various
naturalists have periodically studied the
mammals of India, but their observations and
results are scattered among various publications,
journals and libraries. The information in this
book has been painstakingly compiled from
various sources. The primary sources of data are
the book of Indian animals by S.H. Prater, 1971,
with additions from the Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society , which the author
acknowledges as “the largest source of published
information on Indian natural history.” Due to
numerous changes in taxonomic and
nomenclatural status of many mammals, the
information obtained was updated with inputs
from MAMMALS FROM THE INDOMALAYAN REGION: A
systematic review (Corbett and Hill, 1992) and
THE CHECKLIST OF MAMMALS OF THE WORLD: A
TAXONOMIC AND GEOGRAPHIC REFERENCE (Wilson and
Reeder 1993). The marine mammals are listed
with references from marine mammals of the
world (Jefferson et al. 1993).
At the beginning of the book, the reader is
introduced to Class Mammalia. There is then a
brief discourse on the history of Indian
mammalogy. We are then apprised of the
mammalian orders found in India. There are two
tables, one listing the number of genera and
species per mammal family, and the other listing
the number of endemic species per order with
respect to the geographical region. After these
preliminaries follows the checklist.
Ommer endeavours to provide us
information on each species that has been listed,
by mentioning the common name, vernacular
name, geographical range within India and
outside, and any bit of important information
regarding nomenclature or distribution.
The overall impact of the book, however,
is marred by a few omissions and errors. There
is no precise mention of geographical range
outside Indian limits for various Cetaceans,
namely Platanista gangetica (p. 41), Sousa
chinensis (p. 43) and the Sirenid, Dugong
dugong (p. 48). Tibet has been mentioned as
within Indian limits while describing Otocolobus
manul (p. 39). This is partially compensated for
by the thoughtful provision of two indices, one for
scientific names and the other for common names.
The inclusion of names in vernacular
dialect comes of use in the field when assistance
from locals is required. Ommer has managed to
restrict this checklist to a small slim volume,
making it handy and fieldworthy. The checklist,
therefore, is a useful reference for naturalists,
students and laymen in their attempts to study
Indian mammals.
■ MEGHANA GAVAND
2. PEOPLE, PARKS AND WILDLIFE: TOWARDS COEXISTENCE by Vasant
Saberwal, Mahesh Rangarajan and Ashish Kothari. Orient Longman. Pp. 143,
(21.5 x 14 cm). Paperback price Rs. 150/-.
The tract for the time series, published wildlife, the latest addition of this series, written
by Orient Longman, ‘attempts to provide by three eminently knowledgeable writers is a
meaningful information, critical perspectives, small book of 143 pages which should be read
and theoretical reflections on various themes of by anyone who is concerned with India’s
contemporary concern’. People, parks and wildlife. It does not have glossy pages, with
94
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
REVIEWS
exquisite pictures of tigers or butterflies or
panoramic views of forests of the Western Ghats,
so it may not appeal to people with amateur
interest in wildlife conservation, but for serious
researchers, protected area managers, human
right activists and socio-economists, it is a
‘must-read’ reading. Vasant Saberval is a former
research associate at the Institute of Social and
Economic Change and his interests are ecology
and environmental politics, while Mahesh
Rangarajan is a well-known political
commentator. He is equally interested in ecology
and the history of the conservation movement
in India. Ashish Kothari is perhaps the most
famous amongst the three, due to his prolific
writing and high profile activism. A former
lecturer in environmental studies at the Indian
Institute of Public Administration, he is
presently coordinating the National Biodiversity
Strategy and Action Plan, on behalf of the
Government of India. The book contains 8
chapters and 22 pages of notes and references.
The main theme of the book is that long-term
sustainability of the conservation movement in
India is not possible without the involvement of
local communities living in and around protected
areas. There should be a change in the
vocabulary of conservation, from separation and
exclusion of local communities to integration
and inclusion. Besides saving threatened species
and habitats, conservation should benefit local
communities. “If isolationism worked in the
past, it is doomed to failure in the long term. As
human pressures and dissatisfaction grow, more
fences will be broken down as the subsistence
stakes rise, more forest guards will be beaten or
killed as the economic stakes linked to the
poaching of tigers, rhinos, bears and elephants
increase, many more areas will be denotified at
the instance of industrialists and politicians,
supported by alienated village communities.
Ultimately, if the Indian conservation movement
cannot broaden its base beyond the middle class,
it will simply collapse” (page 113).
The format and printing is excellent, I did
not find any typos. But what is a South American
macaw doing on the cover of a book that discusses
the wildlife problems of India?
■ ASAD R. RAHMANI
3 . THREATENED BIRDS OF THE WORLD by A. J. Stattersfield & D.R. Capper,
(Project Managers and Senior Editors). BirdLife International and Lynx Edicions,
Barcelona and Cambridge, UK, 2000. Pp. 852, (3 1 x 20 cms). Price not mentioned.
I could run out of superlatives to describe
this book. Indian ornithologists and naturalists
who are fortunate enough to read the books
brought out by Lynx Edicions (handbook of the
birds of the world, 6 volumes already published)
and BirdLife International (putting biodiversity,
together with birds and people) will understand
my predicament in not being able to find
adequate superlatives. I rate handbook of the
birds of the world as perhaps the finest, most
comprehensive bird book in the world, both in
production value and scholarly up-to-date
descriptions of birds. The present book is also
of the same quality. Beside the two senior editors,
it has eight eminent ornithologists as additional
editors. Maps, most of them having the latest
distributional records, were supervised by Tim
Morrisey along with three more people. The
number of text contributors, evaluators,
compilers and experts runs into hundreds. The
book is based on historical and recent literature
surveys, which can be judged by the reference
section that runs into 48 pages. The work of 87
bird artists has been used in this profusely
illustrated book. Each of the 1,186 threatened
bird species is shown in its natural plumage.
Donations for this book were made by hundreds
of people and organizations, but the main
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
95
REVIEWS
contribution came from the 1 998 Birdwatching
Fair, which raised US$ 200,000. In 1999,
BirdLife International started a scheme for
people to sponsor a particular species that also
generated a lot of interest and funds. The
information for Asian species is taken from the
Asian Red Data Book Project, sponsored by the
Environment Agency of Japan. Besides, RSPB,
Wild Bird Society of Japan, Vogelbescherming
of the Netherlands and NTT-ME (full form not
given) and many others have also funded the
project.
The book consists of nine major chapters,
beginning with ‘Extinction risk and
opportunities for action’, ‘Documenting
extinction risk’, ‘Assessing extinction risk’,
followed by ‘How to use this book’. The fifth
chapter, which is the main body of the book,
describes ‘Globally threatened species’. The sixth
and seventh chapters describe Conservation
Dependent, New Threatened and species of Least
Concern. In the eighth chapter, Data Deficient,
Not Evaluated and Extinct species are discussed.
The final chapter lists species by territory.
Although the whole book is worth reading, I
particularly feel that the first three chapters
should be read by anyone who is interested in
bird conservation. BirdLife International and
Lynx Edicions could bring out a separate
supplement with these chapters, so that people
like me who cannot afford the whole book can
purchase the supplement. These chapters
succinctly describe the problems birds are facing
in the world.
BirdLife International and Lynx Edicions
are to be congratulated for using the traditional
bird classification and not Sibley and Monroe’s
(used by Grimmett et al. in their book birds of
the Indian subcontinent), so I find the book easy
to use. For each of the 1,186 globally threatened
species, common and scientific names, IUCN
Red List Category, justification as to why the
species is considered threatened, chief
identication of the species, taxonomy, range and
population, ecology, threats, conservation, targets
for conservation actions, references, and sponsors
are given. Maps, tables, box items, headings,
digits and arrows are all in colour.
My only negative feeling after reading this
book is that so many bird species are facing
extinction in the world. I think there is no country
in the world that does not have threatened
species. The book lists 225 countries (including
many protectorates and territories e.g. Hongkong,
Tristan da Cunha, Macua, etc.) with their
threatened species. The book is so thorough that
even the tiny Liechtenstein (65 sq. m) is listed,
with its vulnerable population of com crake Crex
crex. Even our two vulture species, once
common, are included, as they have recently
entered the threatened list.
After reading this book, I found an inner
strength to re-dedicate my life for the protection
of birds. I am sure others will have the same
feeling. Nothing binds the world community
more than a common cause — and for us the
common cause is conservation. All over the
world, birds are facing the same threats of habitat
destruction, illegal hunting, invasive species,
pollution, and so on. From the tiny Nukupu’u
(Hemignathus lucidus ) of the Hawaiian Islands
to our own handsome sarus crane ( Grus
antigone), the problems are similar, and perhaps
the solutions are also similar. The message of
this book is that we all should work together to
save the birds of the world.
We are fortunate that this marvellous book
was gifted to the BNHS library by BirdLife
International. It is an expensive book, so an
average Indian birdwatcher and ornithologist
would not be able to afford it. I think, to attract
more members, we can very well publicize that
one of the benefits of being a BNHS member is
that you can see such wonderful books in the
BNHS library! Any library would be proud to
have THREATENED BIRDS OF THE WORLD.
■ ASAD R. RAHMANI
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1. OCCURRENCE OF SMALL INDIAN CIVET VIVERRICULA INDICA
FAMILY VIVERRIDAE, IN THE MID-HILLS OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
The small Indian civet Viverricula indica
is a true civet (Viverrinae) found in the Indian
subcontinent extending from east of the Indus
river in Pakistan to the whole of peninsular India
southwards to Cape Comorin. Eastwards, its
range extends to Myanmar, southern China and
the Malay countries. According to Prater (1965),
it has been recorded from the Himalayan
foothills, living in dry or moist conditions, but it
keeps out of heavy forest and prefers long grass
or scrub to live in. The species also favours
irrigated forest plantations, but avoids highly
settled cultivated areas as well as mountainous
regions of Pakistan (Roberts 1977).
While working in Chail Wildlife Sanctuary
in Himachal Pradesh, the carcass of a small
Indian civet was found at village Chhot in April
1997. The village is located at an altitude of
1,600 m on the southern slopes of the Chail
Wildlife Sanctuary, where the vegetation is
dominated by bushes and grasslands. The animal
seems to have died a natural death, as the body
bore no marks of injury. The species was never
observed alive in the Sanctuary, mainly because
it is strictly nocturnal. Though omnivorous, there
were no reports of it feeding upon fruit crops.
But there were definite reports of occurrence of
another species of civet, the Himalayan palm
civet Paguma larvata in and around Chail
Wildlife Sanctuary. These animals are often
killed by the farmers because of their frugivorous
habit (Narang 1996).
The occurrence of small Indian civet in
Chail Wildlife Sanctuary appears to be a stray
incident. Nevertheless, it is perhaps the first
record of this species occurring in the mid-hills
of Himachal Pradesh.
Acknowledgement
We thank the G.B. Pant Institute of
Himalayan Environment and Development,
Almora (UP) for financial assistance.
February 2, 2000 M.L. NARANG,
NAIM AKHTAR,
MANOJ KUMAR
Department of Silviculture & Agroforestry,
University of Horticulture and Forestiy,
Nauni, Solan 173 230,
Himachal Pradesh,
India.
References
Narang, M.L. (1996): Some notes on the Himalayan Palm Prater, S.H. (1965): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay
Civet Paguma larvata (Hamilton-Smith) Natural History Society, Bombay.
(Carnivora: Viverridae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Roberts, T.J. (1977): The Mammals of Pakistan. Ernest
93(1): 80-81. Benn. London and Tombridge.
2. WETTING OF NOSTRIL BY JACKAL CANIS AUREUS LINN.,
CARNIVORA, FAMILY CANID AE
In the Sumer region of Kumbhalgarh
Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan, the summer is
very severe and the day temperature can be
unbearably high. During the end of May, a hot
and dry wind blows constantly all day.
On May 29, 1999, I was sitting near a
waterhole in a hide in Sumer. At 1425 hrs, a
jackal waded into the water and started lapping
it up. After drinking, it looked around, wet its
tongue in the water and inserted the dripping
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
97
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
tongue into its right nostril. It repeated the
process four times. Then it wet its left nostril by
inserting the wet tongue into it thrice. After this,
it trotted away.
Due to severe heat and dry wind, the
nostrils probably became dry and hard, causing
discomfort and the jackal inserted its tongue into
the nostril to moisten the inner side of its nose. I
took a photograph of the jackal wetting its nostril.
February 2, 2000 RAZA H. TEHSIN
38/106, Panchwati,
Udaipur 313 004,
Rajasthan, India.
3. SLOTH BEAR MELURSUS URSINUS SHAW AND POWER METER
The Sumer rest house, situated in the
Kumbalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary, is located in a
secluded place away from Sumer village. About
100 m from the rest house there is a well, which
provides water to the rest house and to two
waterholes nearby. To pump water from the well,
there is an electric motor, with the switch board
and meter fixed in a small room over the platform
of the well.
Except when visited by forest officers or
tourists, the rest house remains unguarded, for
fear of sloth bears. In summer, water is found at
four places in the vicinity. Sloth bears
occasionally visit the rest house after quenching
their thirst from the waterholes nearby.
Sometimes they also enter the rooms, possibly
attracted to the food left behind by visitors. On
several occasions, I have seen sloth bear scats in
the verandah and in the kitchen.
On one occasion, a sloth bear came to the
waterhole near the well, and after quenching its
thirst, climbed onto the platform, from where it
apparently heard the humming sound of the
meter. The bear possibly took it to be the
humming of honey bees, for it broke open the
door of the room and smashed the meter in search
of honey. Instead of honey, it received a severe
jolt from the electric current. The bear howled
repeatedly for several minutes and then ran off.
February 18, 2000 RAZA H. TEHSIN
38/106, Panchwati,
Udaipur 313 004,
Rajasthan, India.
4. NEW RECORDS AND STATUS OF BLACKBUCK ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA
IN BUENOS AIRES PROVINCE, ARGENTINA
Blackbuck was first introduced into
Argentina for sport hunting in 1906, in La Pampa
province. In 1912, there were further releases in
Santa Fe, Cordoba and Buenos Aires provinces
(Lever 1985). It became well established in these
four localities, and lately in Entre Rios and San
Luis provinces (Chebez 1994). The dispersal of
the species has been assisted by translocation to
new, previously uncolonized areas, mainly as a
result of commercial interest from game ranches.
Buenos Aires province manages blackbuck as a
big game species, and permits shooting to control
populations and for the wild meat market. There
is extensive evidence that blackbuck has a
detrimental impact on native biota and
agricultural produce (Navas 1987). However,
there have been no substantial studies on the
species distribution, population biology, or
impact on local ecosystems of Argentina.
From 1995 to 1997, we made field surveys
in the potential distribution range areas. We also
compiled all the literature and unpublished
98
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
information at the local Wildlife Department, to
determine the current distribution and status of
Antilope cervicapra in Buenos Aires province.
There are 1 1 game ranches (50% of the
total legally established ranches) with blackbuck
populations. The sport hunting season
traditionally opens from March 1 5 and extends
to December 3 1 , based on the notion that fawns
are born in summer (January and February).
Despite this, there are records from captive and
wild populations about females giving birth
throughout the year. 53 male trophies have been
legally taken from game ranches in 1995, 44 in
1996 and 103 in 1997, most of them by foreign
hunters. In 1997, there was at least one permit
issued for commercial harvesting.
The previous record of distribution
(Galliari et al. 1991) has now been expanded.
We confirmed the occurrence of blackbuck at the
Chascomus, General Belgrano, Castelli, Bahia
Blanca and Guamini departments. Additionally,
new records were made for the species at Pila,
Dolores, Adolfo Alsina, Coronel Suarez and
Coronel Dorrego departments. The biggest and
Refer
Chebez, J.C. (1994): Los que se van, especies argentines
en peligro. Editorial Albatross SACI, Buenos Aires.
Galliari, C.A., W.D. Berman & F.J. Goin (1991):
Mamiferos. Comision de investigaciones cientificas
de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. Situacion Ambiental
de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. A-Recursos y rasgos
better established population has its nucleus in
‘La Corona’ and ‘La Guarida del Zorro’ game
ranches, an area of approximately 12,000 ha, in
General Belgrano near the Chascomus district
boundary. In 1996, from preliminary line transect
censuses, we estimated a population of above
6,000 animals, with a density of 0.56 individual
per hectare. However, in 1997, the population
was commercially harvested for the meat market,
showing a marked decline since this event. We
suggest further studies on the species’ impact on
local biota, to stop uncontrolled translocations,
and a closer monitoring of the effect of sport and
commercial harvesting on the blackbuck.
We thank Claudio and Sergio Quagliata
for their help in the field censuses and for access
to their captive population.
March 2, 2000 BRUNO CARPINETTI
Direccion de Administracion
de Recursos Naturales,
Ministerio de Asuntos Agrarios
de la Prov. de Bs. Aires,
Calle 71 N 488, La Plata (1900), Argentina.
: n c e s
naturales en la evaluacion ambiental.
Lever, C.H. (1985): Naturalised mammals of the world.
Longmans Inc., New York, USA.
Navas, J.R. (1987): Los vertebrados exoticos introducidos
en la Argentina. Rev. Mus. Arg. Cs. Nat., Zoologia
14: 7-38.
5. INCIDENCE OF AN ELEPHANT CALF ELEPHAS MAXIMUS
TRAPPED BETWEEN TWO TREE TRUNKS
The first year is considered to be the most
vulnerable stage in an elephant’s life, when
mortality rate ranges from 10% to 30% (Douglas
1972, Barnett 1991). Annual mortality rate of
elephant calves aged less than one year is
reported to be 36% in Tsavo National Park,
Kenya (Laws 1969). Studies on annual mortality
rate in Indian elephant calves (Elephas maximus ,
age <5 years), in Biligiri Rangan Temple Wildlife
Sanctuary, South India, was reported to be 4-5%
in female and 8-9% in male elephants (Sukumar
1989). Elephant calves are known to die of
diseases, intra-specific fights, drowning in floods,
landslides, tiger predation, snake bite poisoning,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
99
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
accidents (including falling off cliffs, bridges,
into trenches, drains) in the wild (Asian Elephant
Research and Conservation Centre (AERCC),
unpublished data; Daniel 1998). About 9.5% of
the 208 records, scanned from 1975-1994, of
elephant calf deaths were accidental (AERCC,
unpublished data).
Among the known causes of death, or near
death situations due to accidents, getting trapped
between tree trunks is very rare. We observed
one such incident on the morning of May 4, 1999,
during fieldwork under the Karnataka Tiger
Conservation Project at Kaimara, Nagarhole
National Park, South India: An elephant calf,
estimated to be ten months old, was found trapped
between two tree trunks (c. 30 cm diameter at
breast height), which were less than 30 cm apart.
The calf probably got trapped the previous night,
since we heard elephants trumpeting in the area
throughout the night and till the following
forenoon.
The calf was exhausted and had blood
trickling down its forehead. Amongst the many
who had gathered there, four of us tried to release
it by lifting and pushing it across the fork. We
failed to lift the calf high enough to release it. In
the process, the calf jerked itself free from us
and relapsed into its original trapped position.
As the elephant herd was moving closer, we fled
the spot. Two kurubas (local tribesmen) bravely
went back after some time and released the calf.
It rested for about ten minutes after its release
and then moved dizzily down to the nearby
stream. After a couple of hours, the calf was no
longer found in the vicinity and it was presumed
to have rejoined its herd. Had the calf not been
rescued, it is possible that it would have died of
starvation, dehydration, predation, or injuries
caused by the herd trying to extricate it. The
tribesmen mentioned that it was the second such
incident that they had witnessed, the first one
being a few years ago in the forest adjoining the
Park.
Two similar incidents are worth adding to
this note. Mr. Kullayya, Mahout, Karnataka
Forest Department, recollected a similar incident
(pers. comm.) which had occurred a decade
ago. The foreleg of an elephant calf (c. 5 years
old) was trapped between the roots (diameter
c. 30 cm) of a tree abutting a stream near
Sunkadakatte Forest Rest House, Nagarhole
National Park, the calf had a slip in the shoulder
joint and its legs were swollen. The entangling
tree root was cut to free the calf, which was later
treated at the camp. Nevertheless, the calf could
not recover and died after a month.
In 1997, according to Dr. Nanjappa {pers.
comm.). Veterinary Officer, Karnataka Forest
Department, the leg of an elephant calf (c. 2 years
old) was trapped between boulders in the steep
terrain of Maddur Range, Bandipur National Park.
The incident was reported to the veterinarian two
days later. The Forest Department personnel had
to break the boulders to free the calf, which had a
concussion and its legs were swollen. The calf was
given fluid therapy, but it did not recover even after
medical treatment and died the following day.
Though it is difficult to imagine that such
incidents occur in the wild, we suggest that this
could be considered as one of the causes of infant
mortality among wild elephants.
ACKNOW LEDGEM ENTS
We are grateful to Dr. Nanjappa and
Mr. Kullayya of the Karnataka Forest Depart-
ment, for sharing their experiences with us. We
thank the Karnataka State Forest Department and
the AERCC, Bangalore, for data on elephant calf
mortality and Ms. Cheryl Nath for references.
April 14, 2000 NIREN JAIN
R. SAANDEEP
P. Box No. 4, ‘ Vijayavana
Mukrampady, Darbe, Puttur,
Karnataka 574 202, India.
100
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Barnett, J. (1991): Disease and Mortality. In: The
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Elephants (Eltringham,
S.K., Consultant), Salamander Books Ltd. London,
pp. 102-115
Daniel, J.C. (1998): The Asian Elephant: A Natural
History, Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun.
Douglas, Hamilton I. (1972): On the Ecology and
Behaviour of the African elephant. Unpublished D.
Phil thesis. University of Oxford, England.
Laws, R.M. (1969): The Tsavo Research Project. Journal
of Reproduction and Fertility (Suppl.) 6: 495-53 1 .
Sukumar, R. (1989): The Asian Elephant, Ecology and
Management. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge. Pp. xvii+255.
6. A NOTE ON SOME FOOD PLANTS OF THE MALAYAN GIANT SQUIRREL
RATUFA BICOLOR IN GIBBON WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, JORHAT, ASSAM
The Malayan giant squirrel ( Ratufa
bicolor ) is arboreal (Prater 1980). During our
studies on plant-animal interaction with special
reference to primates of Gibbon Wildlife
Sanctuary (WLS), Assam, we noted some interes-
ting dietary habits of the Malayan giant squirrel.
Gibbon WLS is a newly constituted sanctuary
situated about 20 km southeast of Jorhat town in
upper Assam and lies between 26° 40'-26° 45' N
and 94° 20'-94° 25' E. Prior to its declaration as
a sanctuary it was a reserve forest under the
eastern Assam forest circle. The sanctuary is
famous for its diversity in primate species, 7 non-
human primate species being found within
19.5 sq. km fragmented forest habitat (Bujarbarua
and Chetry 1999). All the records were made
between October 1998-September 1999.
Ratufa bicolor fed on parts of 37 plant
species in Gibbon WLS. Most of the food plants
were identified on the spot, the unidentified
specimens were collected and later identified in
the herbarium of the Botany Department,
Gauhati University, with the help of flora of
assam (Kanjilal 1940). All the food plants are
trees and are listed in Appendix I, with parts
eaten by the squirrel.
The squirrel primarily fed on pericarp and
sometimes on fruit pulp. In some cases, it
consumed the seeds. The squirrel gnaws at the
pericarp of the fruits and eats the cotyledons.
Insect larvae (mainly those of ants) and small
spiders are also eaten.
From our observations, Ratufa bicolor is
certainly frugivorous. Morton (1973) has noted
that among frugivorous birds there may be
intense selection pressure, favouring the ability
to exploit a wider variety of food in periods
of fruit scarcity. The Malayan giant squirrel,
which feeds mainly on fruits, probably
experiences the same selection pressure, and may
take to a broad array of foods during periods of
fruit shortage.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr S.M. Mohnot, Director, Indo-
US Primate Project for financial assistance,
Dr A. Srivastava, Scientist, Indo-US Primate
Project and Dr G.C. Sharma of Botany Dept,
Gauhati University for valuable suggestions and
the Department of Forests, Govt of Assam for
permission to work in Gibbon WLS.
April 6, 2000 *P. BUJARBARUA,
**D. CHETRY,
**J. DAS,
*S.K. SARMA,
**P.C. BHATTACHARJEE
* Department of Botany,
Gauhati University,
Guwahati 14, Assam, India.
* * Department of Zoology,
Gauhati University,
Guwahati 14, Assam, India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
101
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Bujarbarua, P. & D. Chetry (1999): Primate Sanctuary.
The Assam Tribune , August 21 .
Kanjilal, U.N. (1940): Flora of Assam Vol. I- IV, Omsons
Publications, New Delhi.
Morton, E.S. ( 1 973): On the evolutionary advantages and
disadvantages of fruit eating in tropical birds.
American Naturalist 107: 8-22.
Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Animals,
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, pp. 1 98-
199.
102
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1). APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
7. BURROW MORPHOLOGY OF FIELD RODENTS
OF KYMORE PLATEAU, SATPURA HILLS
( With four text-figures)
Study of the burrow morphology of major
field rodents, namely lesser bandicoot Bandicota
bengalensis (Gray), soft furred rat Millardia
meltada (Gray) and field mouse Mus booduga
(Gray) was undertaken in the Kymore Plateau
of Satpura Hills. For this purpose, 24 active
burrows of Bandicota bengalensis , 28 of
Millardia meltada and 36 of Mus booduga were
excavated over a large area. Their burrowing
patterns (Figs 1, 2, 3 & 4), amount of soil
excavated, number of burrow openings
(emergency escape), burrow diameter and burrow
depth (Table 1) were studied in harvested wheat
fields.
Observations on active burrows revealed
that each of these three rodents had a unique
burrow pattern. That of B. bengalensis was
complicated, well architectured, and had distinct
runways, of which some are interconnected, and
with granaries entering into one or more strata
of the soil (Prakash 1975, Jain 1985, Dubey and
Thakur 1997). M. meltada had a simple and
elongate single tier burrow system, whereas
M. booduga had simple, shallow burrows. In
most cases, the burrow entrance of B. bengalensis
had a large heap of soil with large pebbles, while
M. booduga had a smaller heap of soil with small
pebbles before the burrow opening. In M. meltada
burrows, the heap of soil was usually absent, but
medium sized pebbles (Neelanarayanan et al.
1994) were used. Hoarding behaviour was also
observed, which is a fairly common and
characteristic feature to assure a continuous
supply of food against seasonal fluctuation. In
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 200 1
103
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
ME — MAIN ENTRANCE; FS — FOOD STUFF; Ee — EMERGENCY ESCAPE;
EH — EAR HEAD; NC — NESTING CHAMBER
Fig. 2: Complicated burrow structure of Bandicota bengalensis in wheat field
104
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
6.2 m
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
OBSERVATIONS ON BURROWING BEHAVIOUR OF MAJOR RODENT SPECIES
Nos in parentheses indicate ranges
Fig. 3: Burrow structure of Millardia meltada
in chickpea field
the lesser bandicoot and soft furred rat, hoarding
is prevalent particularly in the pre-harvest period.
On an average, 4.28 kg ears of wheat were
Fig. 4: Burrow structure of Millardia booduga
in chickpea field
recorded from the burrow of B. bengalensis and
0.53 kg from M. meltada. Hoarding provides the
young rodents with food at a short distance,
which can be reached without exposure to
predators.
Acknowledgement
I thank the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research, New Delhi for financing the All India
Coordinated Research Project on Rodent Control.
January 4, 2000 O.P. DUBEY
Directorate of Extension,
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya,
Jabalpur 482 004,
Madhya Pradesh, India.
References
Dubey, O.P. & G.S. Thakur ( 1 997): Burrowing behaviour jA1N? A.P. ( 1 985): A note on the field rodents of Mandsaur
of major field rodents in harvested rice fields of district, Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
Narmada Valley (India) J. ent. Res. 21(1): 89-91. 82(2): 397-401.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
105
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Neelanarayanan, P., R. Nagarajan & R. Kanakasabai Prakash, I. (1975): The ecology and zoogeography of
(1994): Burrow Morphology of field rodents of mammals, 467-498. In : Gupta, R.K. and I. Prakash,
Cauvery Delta. Rodent News letter, Jodhpur 18(3): (eds). Environmental Analysis of Thar Desert.
3-4- English Book Depot, Dehra Dun, UP, India.
8. THE BARHEADED GOOSE ANSER INDICUS LATHAM
IN BHAVNAGAR, SAURASHTRA
Bhavnagar (21° 45' N and 72° 08' E) is
located on the northeast side of peninsular
Saurashtra, Gujarat state, along the coast of the
Gulf of Khambhat. On the morning of December
27, 1998, my friend and I visited the Surka
village pond for the census of winter migratory
birds. The pond is 30 km to the west of
Bhavnagar city. While watching waterfowl, we
noticed a large bird with distinctive black bars
across the nape, grazing along with a flock of
mddy shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea) on the bank
of the reservoir. It was identified as a barheaded
goose ( Anser indicus Latham). This is the first
record of the barheaded goose from Bhavnagar
Refer
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. (Compact Edn) Oxford
University Press, New Delhi. Pp. 82.
Dharmakumarsinhji, R.S. (1955): Birds of Saurashtra.
district. It is very rare in Saurashtra, where the
first specimen recorded was from Jamnagar in
1951 (Dharmakumarsinhji 1955), while in
January 1984 a flock of 22 barheaded geese were
recorded in Mulidam, Surendranagar district
(Raol 1988). Usually it is a winter visitor to
northern and northeast India (Ali and Ripley,
1987).
April 13, 1999 I.R. GADHVI
Lecturer in Zoology,
Sir P.P. Institute of Science,
Bhavnagar University,
Bhavnagar 364 002, Gujarat, India.
;nces
Times of India Press, Bombay: pp. 98-99.
Raol, L.M. (1988): Barheaded and Greylag geese
from Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(2): 4 lb-
417.
9. MORE INFORMATION ON SHIKRA ACCIPTER BADIUS (GMELIN) FEEDING
ON SHORTNOSED FRUIT BATS CYNOPTER US SPHINX V AHL .
With reference to the note by Manoj Muni
and Vithoba Hegde (JBNHS, 1998, 95(2): 338-339)
regarding the preying habits of shikra ( Accipter
badius), I narrate my recent observation on the
same habit recorded in the campus of Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India.
The predation by this bird on shortnosed
fruit bats (Cynopterus sphinx ) seems to be a
common phenomenon, though not reported
earlier than Muni and Hegde (1998).
On the morning of October 1, 1998, the
sky was dark and cloudy, and I was in the balcony
of my hostel room, observing shortnosed fruit
bats emerging from dried fronds of the palmyra
palm (Borassus flabellifer Linn.). This was due
to the change in the intensity of light. This tree
has been a roosting site of the bats for a long
time.
As the bats started flying near the palm, I
saw a juvenile shikra ( Accipter badius ) come
out of the dried fronds of the palm with a bat in
its talons. The bird sat on the nearby copper pod
tree (Peltophorum pterocarpum ) and started
tearing at the flesh of the bat. The bat was alive
for about seventeen minutes while being eaten
by the bird. At 1005 hrs, it started raining
heavily, and I could not make any further
observations.
106
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR ■ 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The next day, at 1 2 1 5 hrs, the sky was dark
and overcast. With a camera in hand, I sat in the
balcony to observe the behaviour of the shikra.
The bats started emerging from the dried fronds
of the palmyra palm. At the same time, four
shikras arrived on the scene, one was a juvenile
and the rest were adult. They started chasing the
bats, but no capture was seen. This went on till
1510 hrs. Subsequently, rain once again forced
the bats to go back to their roosting site.
This observation, and that of Mum and
Hegde (1998), shows that the shikra is a common
predator of shortnosed fruit bats.
January 1,1999 ASHFAQ AHMED ZARRI
Centre of Wildlife and Ornithology
Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.
10. PREDATORY ATTACK ON BATS BY BARN OWL TYTOALBA AND
SHIKRA ACCIPITER RADIUS IN TAMIL NADU STATE, SOUTH INDIA
Evidence of predators having a significant
effect on bat populations is sparse. Few predators
specialize on bats, but the largely anecdotal
literature cites many occasional bat-eaters such
as monkeys, racoons, opossums, cats, raptors,
snakes, frogs, spiders and bats themselves
(Altringham 1996). Avian predators such as
owls, hawks and falcon are known to attack and
feed on bats occasionally (Gillette and
Kimbourgh 1970). Bats are particularly
vulnerable to aerial predators when they leave
their roosts or while feeding at night. India is
home to about a hundred species of bats, and at
least eleven species of avian predators have been
observed to prey on bats occasionally in the past
(Muni and Hegde 1998). Since July 1995, we
have been conducting bat surveys in Nagai
district, Tamil Nadu, India (Agoramoorthy and
Hsu 1998). We observed three cases of predatory
attacks on bats, two by a bam owl Tyto alba , and
one by a shikra Accipiter badius. All three cases
were observed in Tirunagiri village which is
located near the town of Sirkali in Nagai district.
The first case of predatory attack by shikra
was observed during the day near a bat roosting
site. In the second and third case, the bats were
attacked by bam owl while they were emerging
at dusk, and while foraging at night.
Case 1: On August 2, 1995 at 1100 hrs,
we studied a colony of 250 black-bearded tomb
bats Taphozous melanopogon located in the
gateway of the Vishnu temple at Tirunagiri
village, Nagai district. When a temple worker
climbed on to the gateway, some bats flew into
darker spots in the temple. Just then, one bat
came outside and was immediately captured by
a shikra that flew from the top of the temple
gateway’s exterior and disappeared into the forest
with its catch.
Case 2: A colony of 400 greater false
vampire bats Megaderma lyra regularly roosted
in an abandoned house at Tirunagiri village. On
September 6, 1996, at 1 830 hrs, the false vampire
bats emerged from their roost. One bat was seen
isolated from a group of 20 individuals. Suddenly,
a barn owl flew from the roof of the house,
stooped 4 m downwards and then flew about
10 m in pursuit of the bat and caught it while the
bat was in flight. The owl captured the bat with
its beak and claws simultaneously, and apparently
swallowed it in flight. The attack lasted about
6-7 seconds. The site where the owl rested earlier
was checked, and pellets with skulls and bone
remnants of rodents and bats were found.
Case 3: On September 26, 1996, at
2130 hrs, a male bam owl was seen resting on a
palmyra palm tree Borassus flabellifer, about 7 m
above the ground at Tirunagiri village.
Approximately 10 m away from the owl, about 30
shortnosed fruit bats Cynopterus sphinx were flying
and feeding on mahua Madhuca indica fruit. They
were about 4 m above the ground while feeding.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
107
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
One shortnosed fruit bat moved from the group
and came close to the palm tree where the owl was
resting. Immediately, the owl swooped and
captured the bat in flight and returned to the tree
where it had been perching. It rested there with
the bat for about 10 seconds, got a firm grasp on
the bat with its feet, and flew away. The bat did
not produce any screams audible to human ears.
In South Africa, Fenton et al. (1994)
reported 59 attacks by diurnal raptors on bats
and the predators included hobby falcon Falco
subbuteo, African goshawk Accipiter tachiro and
Wahlberg’s eagle Aquila wahlbergi. Similarly in
south-eastern Australia, Speakman et al. (1994)
released bats during daytime to test the predation
rates, and observed 1 1 attacks by diurnal
predatory birds. Shortnosed fruit bats Cynopterus
sphinx usually produced shrill screams when we
handled them in mist nets, but the bat attacked
by the bam owl did not scream. However, Fenton
et al. (1994) report that bats taken by raptors
uttered screams clearly audible to human ears.
Bat bones were seen in owl pellets, and African
bam owls Tyto alba were reported to attack and
Refer
Agoramoorthy, G. & M.J. Hsu (1998): Occurrence of
microchiroptera species in Nagai District of Tamil Nadu
State, India. Zoos’ Print 13(4): 3-4.
Altringham, J.D. (1996): Bats. Biology and Behaviour.
Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Fenton, M.B., I.L. Rautenbach, S.E. Smith, C.M.
Swanepoel, J. Grosell & J. Van (1 994): Raptors and
bats: threats and opportunities. Anim. Behav. 48: 9-18.
Gillette, D.D. & J.D. Kimbourgh (1970): Chiropteran
mortality. In: About bats. Eds. Slaughter, B.H. and D.W.
Waiton. Dallas, Southern Methodist University Press,
Dallas, pp. 262-281.
Hill, J.E. & J.D. Smith (1984): Bats. A Natural History.
eat individuals of Rousettus aegyptiacus (Hill
and Smith 1984). Although Speakman (1991)
reported that bats made up only a small part of
the diet of owls in Britain, Julian and
Althringham (1994) predicted that individual
owls could take large numbers of bats, and may
influence the population size in bat colonies.
Only two cases of bam owl predation have been
observed during our study, and more data are
needed to evaluate whether or not owl predation
influences the population size of bats around
Tirunagiri village in Nagai district, Tamil Nadu.
February 15, 1999 G. AGORAMOORTHY
Bat Conservation Project,
S.M. Govindasamy Nayakkar
Memorial Foundation,
4 Thittai Road, Thenpaty 609 111,
Nagai District, Tamil Nadu, India.
MINNA J. HSU
Department of Biological Sciences,
National Sun Yat-sen University,
Kaohsiung 80424,
Taiwan, Republic of China.
' n c e s
University of Texas Press, Austin, USA.
Julian, S. & J.D. Altringham (1994): Bat predation by a
tawny owl. Naturalist 119: 49-56.
Muni, M. & V. Hegde (1998): Indian shikra preying on
shortnosed fruit bats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95(2):
338-339.
Speakman, J.R. ( 1 99 1 ): The impact of predation by birds
on bat populations in the British Isles. Mammal Rev.
21: 132-142.
Speakman, J.R., L.F. Lumsden & G.C. Hays (1994):
Predation rates on bats released to fly during day-
light in southeast Australia. J. Zool., Lond. 233:
318-321.
1 1 . A NOTE ON SARUS CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE MORTALITY
DUE TO COLLISION WITH HIGH-TENSION POWER LINES
The sams crane ( Grus antigone) is the only of the Himalayas. Few long term studies have
resident crane species breeding in India, south been carried out and information on its mortality
108
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1). APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
is limited and scattered (Gole 1989, Parasharya
et al. 1991). Largely, human pressure and
associated changes in land use patterns, and
intensification in agriculture are major threats
to the cranes (Meine and Archibald 1996). Egg
stealing, hunting, trade in live birds and death
due to ingestion of pesticides by adult birds are
the other known threats (Gole 1989,
Muralidharan 1992, Sundar et al. in prep.).
Mortality due to electrocution has been
documented rarely (Parasharya et al. 1991) and
its impact on sarus crane population dynamics
is not quite clear.
During a survey in the states of Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh, from
June to October 1998, to determine distribution
and status of the sarus crane in India, we recorded
three instances of crane mortality due to collision
with high-tension electric cables. In Aligarh
district, Uttar Pradesh, one adult female was
found freshly killed in this manner near Shekha
Jheel on June 24, 1998. The bird was one of a
pair that the locals had seen for the past couple
of years breeding in a nearby paddy field. The
crane apparently came in contact with the wires
over the paddy field while landing to roost for
the night. The male stayed near the female body
for a day (as in Ali and Ripley 1980) and then
flew away. Another case was recorded in
Mainpuri, Uttar Pradesh, on June 28, 1998.
While carrying out a road transect near the
Saman Bird Sanctuary, we saw two sarus cranes
killed in the same way. These two birds had been
partially eaten by vultures and the sexes could
not be determined from the carcasses. In Aligarh,
the survey revealed five cranes in the vicinity of
the Shekha Jheel (over 1 5 kms) and 79 birds were
counted in the Mainpuri road transect (covering
50 kms).
Bird collisions with power lines are a
common phenomenon the world over, waterfowl
and passerine birds having the highest known
collision rates (Cornwell and Hochbrum 1971,
Morkill et al. 1990). Some authors have
remarked that these mortalities are not
biologically significant to bird populations (Stout
and Cornwell 1976), but are detrimental to
endangered bird species or for populations of
birds which have high local concentrations
(Morkill et al. 1990). Collision is a major cause
of mortality in several crane species the world
over. For example, the major cause for death of
fledged adult whooping crane ( Grus americana)
is found to be collision with high-tension power
lines (Lewis 1986). Morkill et al. (1990) have
found similar results in sandhill crane ( Grus
canadensis ), having recorded 126 incidents of
crane mortality between 1988-89. Records of
red-crowned crane (Gmsjaponensis) populations
from the 1950s onwards showed a stage of
reduced growth rate, when 71% of 79 deaths in
1970-74 were due to collision with electric cables
(Masatomi 1987).
While the trends in sarus crane morta-
lity and repercussions on the local popula-
tions are unclear from our data, it is one step
towards long-term studies. The number of
deaths seems quite low in the Mainpuri area,
while it is a significant proportion of the total
number of resident birds in the Aligarh district.
Long-term collection of data in these localities
over larger areas is necessary and may reveal
the impact of such mortality on the populations
of the sarus cranes. With the national power grid
network and several state electrical corpora-
tions planning expansion of high-tension
power lines, their impact on large-bodied
migratory and resident birds such as cranes can
looked into, to avoid the major fly ways and
migratory paths.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr S.K. Mukherjee, Director,
Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun; Dr R.L.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
109
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Singh, CWLW, Uttar Pradesh; Dr Salim Javed,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh and
Ms. Jatinder Kaur, Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehra Dun.
April 13, 1999 K.S. GOPI SUNDAR
B.C. CHOUDHURY
Wildlife Institute of India, P.B. #18, Chandrabani,
Dehradun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.
References
Ali, S.& S.D. Ripley (1980): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Vol. 2: Megapodes to Crab
Plovers. Oxford University Press, Bombay.
Cornwell, G. & H.A. Hochbrum (1971): Collisions and
wires — a source of anatid mortality. Wilson Bull.
83: 305-306.
Gole, P. (1989): The Status and Ecological Requirements
of Sarus Crane: Phase I. Ecological Society, Pune,
India.
Lewis, J.C. (1986)! The Whooping Crane. Audubon Report,
National Audubon Society, Washington DC, USA.
Pp. 658-676.
Masatomi, H. (1987): Population dynamics of
Red-Crowned Cranes in Hokkaido since the 1 950 ’s.
In: Harris, J.T. (ed.), Proceedings 1987 International
Crane Workshop; Qiqihar, Heilongjiang Province,
China. Pp. 297-299.
Meine, C.D. & G.W. Archibald (1 996): The Cranes: Status
survey and conservation action plan. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. Northern Prairie
Wildlife Research Centre Home Page.
Morkill, A.E. & S.H. Anderson ( 1 990): Effectiveness of
marking powerlines to reduce sandhill crane
collisions. Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife
Research Unit, Laramie, Wyoming, 102 pp.
Muralidharan, S. (1992): Poisoning the Sarus. Hornbill
1992(1): 3-7.
Parasharya, B.M., K.L.Mathew & D.N. Yadav (1991):
Status and habitat preference of the Indian Sarus
Crane in Gujarat, India. Unpublished report to Asia
Crane Congress, Rajkot, Gujarat, India, 27
December 1 989.
Stout, I.J. & G.W. Cornwell ( 1 976): Nonhunting mortality
of fledged North American waterfowl. J. Wild l.
Manage. 40: 681-693.
Sundar, K.S.G., J. Kaur & B.C. Choudhury (in prep.):
Survey to determine distribution and status of the
Indian Sarus Crane ( Grus antigone antigone) in
India. Unpublished report. Wildlife Institute of
India, Dehra Dun.
12. OCCURRENCE OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD ARDEOTIS NIGRICEPS
AT HOSUR, NASHIK DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA
Three great Indian bustards Ardeotis
nigriceps were sighted by one of us (BR) at the
Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd (HAL) complex at
Hosur, 20 km from Nashik towards Dhulia, on
National Highway 3 on September 2, 1998. On
subsequent visits, a single bird was sighted on
September 24, 1998, and three birds on
September 25, 1998. The birds are seen regularly
on the runway by the Air Traffic Control (ATC)
staff (Mr. Kale pers. comm.). Two chicks were
observed in 1998, while displaying males are
regularly sighted in the monsoon. According to
the ATC staff, a maximum of nine birds have
been recorded in the area, since at least 1974
(Mr. Kale pers. comm.).
The HAL complex is a huge area, encircled
by a 13.5 km perimeter wall. Most of the 14.3
sq. km area is open grassland, except for the
small area occupied by the office and factory
buildings. The HAL complex is largely used to
repair military aircraft, which are test flown from
a runway that almost bisects the grassland.
The area is gently undulating, dominated
by the forbs of Borreria sp. and Boerhavia sp.,
and grasses of Chrysopogon sp. The vegetation
height is about 1.5 m. There are a few scattered
Acacia nilotica trees and Ziziphus bushes. There
is no human activity except for the occasional
flying military aircraft, and movement of security
personnel between the outposts. There is no cattle
grazing, while grass is burnt only along the
runway by the authorities during summer. Good
grass growth is observed within the inner
perimeter wall, which is a high security area.
110
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
But between the inner and outer perimeter walls
and beyond the outer perimeter wall, the area
has been denuded by livestock grazing.
There was no record of the bustard in
Nashik district (Rahmani 1989), although it was
recorded in the neighbouring districts of
Ahmednagar and Dhulia. Rahmani (1989)
mentions unconfirmed reports of its occurrence
in Nashik district. We think it worth putting on
record the first confirmed sighting of this highly
threatened species from a hitherto unreported
site.
The fact that these birds are present in the
area at least since 1974, and the scientific
community was oblivious to their presence, calls
for renewed intensive efforts to identify areas
where bustard populations are still present. This
should give a better understanding of its status
in the country. Constant monitoring of the
population will tell whether bustards are seen in
this area throughout the year, or that they come
only for breeding.
The only threat to the bustards in this high
security area are flying aircrafts, but since the
flight frequency is very low, the probability of
an aircraft hitting a bustard is also low.
December 1, 1998 B. RAHA
Hemant Vihar, Plot No. 13,
Vir Savarkar Nagar, Off Gangapur Road,
Nashik 422 005, Maharashtra, India.
VIBHU PRAKASH
Bombay Natural Histojy Society,
Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
Present Address: 331, Rajendra Nagar,
Bharatpur 321 001,
Rajasthan, India.
Reference
Rahmani, A.R. (1989): The Great Indian Bustard. Final Report, Study of Ecology of certain endangered species of
Wildlife and their habitats. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, 234 pp.
13. SIGHTING OF SOCIABLE LAPWING VANELLUS GREGAR1US
IN KACHCHH DISTRICT, GUJARAT
While on a field trip to Lala Bustard
Sanctuary, in Abdasa taluka, Kachchh district,
we sighted a pair of sociable lapwing Vanellus
gregarius on December 29, 1998 at 0900 hrs,
feeding in a ploughed field close to Lala village.
The birds were in non-breeding or winter
plumage, and were foraging actively. The
ploughed field was set amidst fallow land and
degraded grassland. The birds had a very distinct
white supercilium, a black eye-stripe extending
to the nape, and a black crown. The upper part
of the bird was ashy brown and the entire belly
was white. The bill and legs were somewhat
black. Our efforts to find the birds again the next
day were in vain.
This species is threatened globally and
considered vulnerable (Collar et al. 1994). The
last sighting in Kachchh was in August 1947
(G.M.B. Sparks, unpublished data; M.K.
Himmatsinhji, pers. comm.). Dharmakumarsinhji
(1956) has mentioned that it is an irregular visitor,
not common and usually seen during the cold
(winter) months. Ali and Ripley (1995) have also
mentioned that it is a migrant, found in dry
wastelands, ploughed fields and stubble. Collar et
al. (1994) say that it uses grasslands and wetlands,
including littoral habitats.
The sociable lapwing is said to breed in
southeastern Russia and to migrate south to
North Africa and India, including Kachchh and
other parts of Gujarat (Dharmakumarsinhji
1956).
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
111
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Efforts are being made by us to look for
this species in Kachchh, as part of a project on
Conservation of the Rare and Endangered
Biodiversity of Kachchh, Gujarat, funded by the
Gujarat Ecology Commission.
March 22, 1999 JUSTUS JOSHUA,
S.F. WESLEY SUNDERRAJ,
V. GOKULA,
S.V. SUBBARAO,
PRANITA NARAYANAN,
RASHMI DINESAN
Refer
Ali, S. & S.D.Ripley (1995): A Pictorial Guide to the Birds
of the Indian subcontinent. Bombay Natural
History Society, Oxford University Press, Bombay,
pp. 177.
Collar, N.J., M.J. Crodby & A.J. Stattersfield (1 994):
Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology,
Patwadi Naka,
Bhuj (Kachchh),
Gujarat 370001, India.
Present Address:
Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology,
106, Opp. Chairman's Bungalow,
GSFC Township,
Fertilizer Nagar,
Vadodara 391 750,
Gujarat,
India.
NCES
Birds to watch 2: The world list of Threatened Birds.
BirdLife Conservation Series No. 4. BirdLife
International, U.K. 407 pp.
Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1956): Birds of Saurashtra.
Times of India Press, Bombay.
14. OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITE-WINGED BLACK TERN
CHLIDONIAS LEUCOPTERUS IN KERALA
During our field trips in the Enamavu,
Kole wetlands of Thrissur, Kerala, between
September 12-15, 1998, Paul, P.M.K., C.K.
Sujithkumar and I came across a few unfamiliar
tern species feeding over the freshly drained
paddy fields along with whiskered terns
Chlidonias hybrida. Some of these were in
partial breeding or post-breeding plumage,
so that we could easily identify them as
the white-winged black tern Chlidonias
leucopterus.
On the evening of September 12, we saw
at least three individuals (one adult and two
juveniles) of this species feeding amongst a
group of the whiskered terns. During flight, the
black underwing coverts were the most
noticeable feature of the adult bird. Mantle and
back, black or blackish. Upper wing mostly
smoky grey. Upper primaries deep ashy grey. A
trace of whitish panel on upperwing coverts.
Forehead white. Hind crown and ear-coverts
(behind eyes) black. A white collar on hind neck.
Underparts wholly white. Under primaries grey.
Rump and tail totally pure white. But the middle
tail feathers were light grey. The shallow tail
fork was sometimes visible (sometimes appeared
nearly square). Bill black, legs and feet red. The
red legs were occasionally seen as they trailed
in feeding flight.
The mantle and back of the juveniles were
dark brown; upper wing smoky grey; an
indistinct paler panel on upperwing coverts.
Underwing mostly whitish; no black on
underwing coverts. The remaining features were
similar to the adult.
The following afternoon, we observed
the same number of birds feeding in the
same area. But the underparts of the adult bird
were quite different, being black mottled with
white.
112
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
On the last day at 1430 hrs, we could see
two adults hawking their prey over the grassy
paddy fields, somewhat like swallows. One of
these had an entirely black head and body, except
for the white forehead and little white blotches
on the underparts.
There is no earlier published record of the
white-winged black tern in Kerala.
January 11,1999 P.K. RAVINDRAN
Vallissery, P.O. Avinissery,
Thrissur 680 313, Kerala, India.
15. SIGHTINGS OF WHITECHEEKED TERN STERNA RE PRESS A,
WHITEWINGED BLACK TERN CHLIDONIAS LEUCOPTERUS AND
SAUNDERS’S LITTLE TERN STERNA SAUNDERSI
AT PORB ANDER COAST, GUJARAT
Porbander (21° 37' N, 69° 49' E), a small
coastal town on the west coast of Gujarat, is an
important area for birds. A wide intertidal zone,
a muddy creek with mangroves encircling the
town, extensive saltpans on the outskirts, fishing
industry and a small (3.1 ha) bird sanctuary on
the sewage dump are all bird habitats. Various
tern species observed at Porbander during a few
visits in 1997 are recorded here.
On June 17, 1997 we saw several terns
slightly larger than the whiskered tern Chlidonias
hybrida flying above the salt pans. An osprey
Pandion haliaetus caught one of them and landed
on a stone about 60 m from us. The other terns
mobbed the osprey and landed nearby. Closer
examination revealed that all the 35 birds were
whitecheeked tern Sterna repressa in
non-breeding plumage. A flock of 450 other terns
was also seen pursuing each other with chirping
calls.
The whitecheeked tern is known to breed
on Vengurla Rocks off Malvan on the west coast,
c. 16° N, 73° 30' E (Ali and Ripley 1983). It is
common on the Makran and Sindh coasts of
Pakistan, particularly from March to May, but
there is no evidence of its breeding (Ali and
Ripley 1983). However, a specimen was
collected on June 12, 1973, at Bombay harbour
(Menon 1974). This species has never been
reported from Gujarat coast and hence, this is
the first record.
Though it was June 17, we also recorded
the gullbilled tern Gelochelidon nilotica (1),
Caspian tern Hydroprogne caspia (2), whiskered
tern Chlidonias hybrida (8) and Saunders’s little
tern Sterna saundersi (2).
On April 27, we saw 3 whitewinged black
tern Chlidonias leucopterus repeatedly flying
over the waters of the bird sanctuary. Two birds
had complete breeding plumage, whereas the
third one still had some white patches on the
black belly. These three terns were foraging along
with 16 whiskered terns Chlidonias hybrida. The
whitewinged black tern is a rare visitor to Assam,
West Bengal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka (Ali and
Ripley 1983). There have been three records of
this species from Gujarat: twice from Jasdan
(Shivrajkumar 1955) and once from Jamnagar
(Mundkur 1987). Sighting of three birds from
the Porbander coast indicates that the species
occurs over a greater area of Gujarat state and is
less vagrant than recorded (Ali and Ripley 1983).
Sangha (1998) reported the species from
Rajasthan, which further supports this view.
We also saw two flying Saunders’s little
tern Sterna saundersi from a very short distance
on April 27 and June 17. This tern is known
to breed around Karachi (Pakistan), Kachchh,
Okhamandal (India) and in Sri Lanka (Ali and
Ripley 1983). The only record of its occur-
rence in Gujarat is from Mithapur
(Dharmakumarsinhji 1972). On Mundra coast,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
113
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Kachchh, 5 pairs were incubating eggs and
initiating nesting on April 17, 1986 (Taej
Mundkur, pers. comm., Naik et al. 1991). The
present record confirms its occurrence at
Porbander, where the possibility of its breeding
cannot be ruled out.
During our visit in January and April, the
whiskered tern and gullbilled tem were common,
whereas the Caspian tem was seen occasionally.
Our records of terns on Porbander coast support
the view of Khacher (1996) that “our knowledge
of terns, especially the migratory and more
marine ones is comparatively meagre and more
information is needed.”
March 22, 1999 B. M. PARASHARYA
* AESHITA MUKHERJEE
AINP on Agricultural Ornithology,
Gujarat Agricultural University,
Anand 388 110, Gujarat, India.
* Present address: National Tree Growers ’
Cooperative Federation Ltd.,
Anand 388 001,
Gujarat, India.
References
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. (Compact edn). Oxford
University Press, Bombay.
Dharmakumarsinhji, S.S. (1972): Extension of breeding
range and other notes on Blackshafted Little Tem
Sterna albifrons saundersi (Hume). J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 69(2): 420-422.
Khacher, L. (1996): The Birds of Gujarat — A Salim Ali
Centenary Year overview. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
93(3): 331-373.
Menon, P. (1974): Whitecheeked Tern Sterna repressa
Hartert in Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71(3):
610.
Mundkur, T. (1987): The Whitewinged Black Tern
Chlidonias leucopterus (Temminck) in Saurashtra,
Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1): 208.
Naik, R.M., M.S. Murthy, A.P. Mansuri, Y.N. Rao,
R. Pravez, T. Mundkur, S. Krishnan, P.J. Faldu &
T.S.V.R. Krishna ( 1 991): Final report to WWF-lndia
sponsored research project on ‘Coastal marine
ecosystem and anthropogenic presssure in the gulf
of Kachchh.’ Department of Biosciences,
Saurashtra University, Rajkot.
Sangha, H.S. & Harshvardhan ( 1 998): Occurrence of the
Whitewinged Black Tem Chlidonias leucopterus
in Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95(1):
113-114.
Shivrajkumar (1955): Occurrence of the Whitewinged
Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus (Temm.) in
Saurashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53(1): 130.
16. RED- WINGED CRESTED CUCKOO CLAMATOR COROMANDUS ,
AN ADDITION TO THE AVIFAUNA OF ANAIMALAI HILLS (WESTERN GHATS)
OF TAMIL NADU
Raghupathy Kannan’s ‘Avifauna of
Anaimalai Hills. (JBNHS 95(1): 193-214)’ does
not include the red-winged crested cuckoo
(Clamator coromandus). I have recorded the
species at Top Slip (Indira Gandhi Wildlife
Sanctuary) in January 1996, in Emmai Pallam,
close to the road leading to Parambikulam in the
Lantana camara undergrowth. In February 1997,
my friends Dr and Mrs Eric Lott had seen the
bird in Lantana camara bushes in Karian Shola
near the watch tower at Top Slip.
The species probably occurs in small
numbers in this area. In January 1998, Dr. and
Mrs. Eric Lott and I recorded a single bird in
Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala.
December 4, 1998 A. RELTON
Honorary Wildlife Warden,
Staff Advisor, Bishop Heber College,
Tiruchirapalli 620 01 7, Tamil Nadu, India.
114
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
17. COMPETITION BETWEEN JUNGLE MYNA ACRIDOTHERES FUSCUS
AND LESSER GOLDEN BACKED WOODPECKER DINOPIUM BENGHALENSE
FOR A NEST HOLE
A year long survey of a garden of about
675 sq. m, in a thickly populated area at south
Kolkata (=Calcutta), showed the presence of 32
species of birds which were attracted to the
garden for shelter, nesting ground and food (Jha
et al. 1997). Recently, a series of events over a
few days led me to write this note.
During the middle of April, 1998 while
observing the birds in the garden, I noticed a
hole in a coconut tree ( Cocos nucifera ), about
6.5 m above the ground (probably made by
woodpeckers in the previous year) from which
twigs and strips of plastic sheet were hanging
out. It appeared that a pair of jungle myna
{Acridotheres fuscus ) had started building a nest
a few days ago. The mynas collected and stocked
nesting material for the following three days. To
my surprise, on the fourth day I found some straw
and plastic strips lying on the ground and saw
the frontal part of a lesser golden backed
woodpecker ( Dinopium benghalense) jutting out
of the hole. It appeared that the woodpeckers had
captured the nest of the jungle mynas. The events
that followed in the next few days were even more
interesting. Quite often, I saw a pair of
woodpeckers occupying the nest. During the
early hours of the day or afternoon, whenever
the jungle mynas returned to their nest, they were
chased away by the woodpeckers. After their
departure, the woodpeckers quickly entered the
hole and established their rights on the territory.
A few minutes later, the jungle mynas would
return again to observe the woodpeckers and their
nest from neighbouring trees. They repeatedly
tried to re-enter the nest, but were vehemently
opposed by the woodpeckers. These interactions
continued for the next nine days.
One afternoon, I saw the climax of this
fascinating drama. I found a large number of
jungle mynas (about 25-30) screeching in the
neighbouring trees. Suddenly, a few of them
rushed inside the hole and forced the woodpecker
out. In the meanwhile, a few mynas attacked the
other woodpecker perched outside the nest, on
the tree trunk. A fight ensued, and the
woodpecker pair fell to the ground. The jungle
mynas were so ferocious that it seemed as if they
would kill the woodpeckers. The fighting
continued for about 3-4 minutes, during which
the harsh call of the jungle mynas filled the area.
Suddenly, a small boy from the adjoining locality
interfered in their fight with a stick. The fight
stopped and the woodpeckers flew away. The
jungle mynas too left the area.
The very next day, the hole was occupied
by the jungle mynas again. In the following days
I observed that they successfully nested, laid eggs,
hatched chicks in the hole, and after completing
their parental duties flew away with the two
young ones. Interestingly, the woodpeckers were
never seen anywhere near the trunk of that
particular coconut tree again.
April 29, 1999 ANIRUDDHA JHA
Post Graduate Department of Zoology,
Presidency College, 86/1 College Street,
Kolkata 700 073,
West Bengal, India.
Reference
Jha, A., S. Homechaudhuri & N.K. Sarkar (1997): A year-long survey of birds in a thickly populated area of South
Calcutta. J. Beng. nat. Hist. Soc. (N.S.) 16(2): 11-18.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
18. FURTHER RECORDS OF PYXIDEA MOUHOTII (GRAY) FROM
THE NORTH BANK OF R. BRAHMAPUTRA, ASSAM
The keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii
(Gray, 1862) is known from many localities of
north-eastern India (Bhupathy and Choudhury
1992, Choudhury 1993, 1996a, b, 1998). Barring
one (Drupong Reserve Forest), all the recorded
sites were on the south bank of the river. The
recorded localities were North Cachar Hills and
Karbi Anglong (Choudhury 1993) of Assam,
Khasi and Garo Hills of Meghalaya, Namdapha
National Park and Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary in
Arunachal Pradesh (Bhupathy and Choudhury
1992), Tamenglong district, Manipur
(Choudhury 1996b), Hailakandi district in
southern Assam, near the Assam-Mizoram
interstate boundary (Choudhury 1998), and
Drupong Reserve Forest, Papum Pare district,
Arunachal Pradesh (Choudhury 1996a). The
record from Drupong is the only one from the
north bank of the Brahmaputra river. Outside
India, the species has been recorded in Indochina
from Myanmar to Vietnam and also Hainan in
China (Stubbs 1991).
I report two recent records from the north
bank of the Brahmaputra river. On July 22, 1 998,
a live turtle was caught by the forest staff near
Potasali in Balipara Reserve Forest (26° 55' N,
92° 50' E), Sonitpur district, central Assam. The
turtle was caught from the forest floor of the
evergreen jungle, not far from the banks of the
Jia-Bhoreli river, which forms the boundary of
Nameri National Park. The terrain was flat, and
the elevation c. 100 m above msl. I examined the
specimen and then released it in Nameri National
Park on July 31, 1998. It measured (in cm):
straight line carapace length (SCL) 12.0; curved
carapace length (CCL) 14.0; straight line
carapace width (SCW) 9.5; curved carapace
width (CCW) 13.5 and shell height c. 5.0;
plastron length - greatest (PL-gt) 12.4; plastron
length - notch to notch (PL-nn) 11.8; plastron
width 7.5. Weight 200 gm.
On July 31, 1998, I obtained a carapace
with plastron of the same species from a roadside
hotel at Sessa in West Kameng district,
Arunachal Pradesh. It was collected live near
Sessa (27° 07’ N, 92° 33' E ) in Sessa Orchid
Sanctuary in May- June 1998 and its flesh eaten.
It was in the vicinity of wild banana trees near
Sessa Nullah, but not near the water. The
elevation of the place is about 1,000 m above
msl, the maximum elevation record for the keeled
box turtle in India so far. Measurements (in cm):
SCL = 16.0 cm; CCL =17.5; SCW = 1 1 .6; CCW
= 16.5; CH = c. 4.7; PL-gt = 14.3; PL-nn =
13.3; PW = 8.7. The plastron was conspicuously
concave, indicating that it was a male.
The habitat in Sessa at around 1,000 m
elevation is mostly tropical wet evergreen
rainforest type, and the terrain mountainous,
being part of the Eastern Himalaya. These
records also extend the range of the species on
the north bank by about 1 20 km westwards.
I would like to thank DFOs R.K. Das and
M.K. Palit; Ratneswar Rai forest staff, Puma
Bahadur Gurung of Sessa, Dr Anil Goswami and
Bisoy Boro (driver).
June 30, 2000 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY
The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,
c/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam,
Guwahati 781 021,
Assam, India.
References
Bhupathy, S. & B.C. Choudhury (1992): Turtle faunaof Choudhury, A.U. (1993): Keeled box turtle in Karbi
Assam — Preliminary report. Wildlife Institute of India, Anglong — a new locality record. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
DehraDun. Soc. 90(3): 517.
116
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Choudhury, A.U. (1996a): Keeled box turtle Pyxidea
mouhotii Gray on the north bank of the Brahmaputra
— A new record. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(1): 97.
Choudhury, A.U. ( 1 996b): The Keeled box turtle Pyxidea
mouhotii Gray — A new record for Manipur.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 590-591.
Choudhury, A.U. (1998): Pyxidea mouhotii (Gray) in
southern Assam and Mizoram. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 95(3) : 511.
Stubbs, D. (1991): Tortoises and freshwater turtles: an
action plan for their conservation. 2nd edn. IUCN,
Gland.
19. DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTES ON THE TURTLES OF WESTERN MYANMAR
At least 22 species of tortoises and
freshwater turtles inhabit Myanmar, including
six which are endemic (Iverson 1992, van Dijk
1997, Platt et al. 2000). However, the chelonian
fauna of Myanmar is one of the least known in
Asia (McCord 1997), and old fragmentary
observations remain the principal source of
information (Kuchling 1995, van Dijk 1997,
Platt et al. 2000). Basic studies have not been
undertaken and most distribution records
originated prior to 1900 (van Dijk 1997). Species
inventories of particular regions are essential for
conservation, and acquiring baseline data on the
occurrence even of common species is important
(Dodd and Franz 1993, Oliver and Beattie 1993).
We report recent distribution records of turtles
in western Myanmar and discuss the significance
of our findings.
Data on the occurrence of turtles in
western Myanmar were gathered in conjunction
with a tortoise survey of Shwe Settaw Wildlife
Sanctuary (SSWS), conducted from August 3-
24, 1999 (Platt 1999). SSWS (20° 1 1' N, 94° 28’
E) was established in 1940 to protect Eld’s deer
(Cervus eldi thamin) (Salter and Sayer 1986). It
is located on the western edge of the central dry
zone within the rain shadow of the Arakan Yoma
Mountains (FAO/UNDP 1982). Consequently,
mean annual rainfall is low (c. 90 cm) with an
extended dry season from December through
May. Except for major rivers, there are no
permanent streams, and available surface water
is extremely limited during much of the year
(FAO/UNDP 1982).
The dry zone is characterized by deciduous
forest, locally known as Indaing, and dominated
by fire-resistant trees such as Dipterocarpus
tuberculatus , Shorea oblongifolia, Pentacme
siamensis and Tectona hamiltoniana. Canopy
height rarely exceeds 6 m, and the understorey
consists of low shrubs and grass. Dense
vegetation and stands of bamboo occur along
ephemeral watercourses (FAO/UNDP 1982;
Salter and Sayer 1986). Anthropogenic fires are
common during the dry season (FAO/UNDP
1982; van Dijk 1994).
We interviewed SSWS personnel,
villagers, hunters and turtle traders in the
villages surrounding the sanctuary to obtain data
on the turtle fauna of our study area. Local
residents are generally an excellent source of
information and shells are often sold to buyers
who periodically visit the villages (Thirakhupt
and van Dijk 1994). We measured carapace (CL)
and plastron length (PL), and photographed
available specimens. Voucher photographs were
deposited in the Campbell Museum (CUSC),
Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina,
USA. Taxonomy follows Ernst and Barbour
(1989).
Cyclemys spp.
Three Cyclemys spp. were examined; two
living turtles (CUSC 1797; CL = 19.4 cm, CUSC
1798; CL = 19.5 cm) and a carapace (CUSC
1770; CL = 20.4 cm). The specific identity of
these specimens is not possible. Cyclemys
dentata was reported from Myanmar (Iverson
1992). However, in a recent revision of the
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
117
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
genus, Fritz etal. (1997) contend that C. dentata
actually represents a complex of cryptic species,
and the nominal species occurring in Myanmar
is C. oldhamii. Our specimens were obtained
from a trader in Padan village, who was unsure
of their origin. These turtles were probably
collected in Rakhine State (formerly known as
Arakan), where the occurrence of Cyclemys has
been verified (Iverson 1992, Platt 2000).
Cyclemys inhabit deep pools in permanent
streams (Thirakhupt and van Dijk 1994, Sharma
1998), a habitat generally absent in the dry zone.
The posterior neural and costal scutes of one
living turtle were discoloured and fused with no
evident sutures. Similar shell anomalies among
Terrapene Carolina were attributed to fire
damage by Dodd et al. (1997).
Lissemys scutata
Approximately 15 Lissemys scutata ,
ranging in size from small juveniles to adults,
were observed in an earthen pond ( c . 0.25 ha) at
a pagoda on Mya Kyaing Taung [=Emerald]
Mountain (20° 16.76' N; 94° 29.01' E). Pagoda
visitors probably released these turtles into the
pond, a common practice at Buddhist temples.
One turtle (CUSC 1766; CL = 13.8 cm) was
captured for identification and released. Another
adult appeared to be completely white, but we
were unable to discern the eye colour and
determine if the turtle was a true albino. Seven
additional living L. scutata (CUSC 1767; CL =
16.0 to 18.8 cm) were obtained from a trader in
Padan village. According to the trader, L. scutata
is common in nearby rice fields, irrigation ditches
and ponds. Our observations constitute the first
records of L. scutata from this region of Myanmar
(Iverson 1992, van Dijk 1993).
Manouria emys
We examined the carapace of an adult
(CUSC 1764; CL = 44.2 cm) in Pyaw Bwe (20°
01.08' N, 94° 38.08' E), collected in May 1998
about 6.4 km southwest of the village. Villagers
regard M. emys as extremely rare and that was
the only specimen they had found in recent years.
Residents of other villages that we visited had
never encountered M emys. Given the dense
human population and intensive hunting pressure
(Platt 1999), few M. emys are believed to survive
in this region. We also examined the plastron of
an adult (CUSC 1765; PL = 35.0 cm) from
Rakhine State at a trading establishment in Padan
village. The plastron was uniformly dark in
colour, with pectorals meeting at the midline,
indicating the presence of subspecies M. emys
phayrei in this region of Myanmar (Ernst and
Barbour 1989). These specimens constitute the
only recent records of M. emys from Myanmar.
Theobald (1876) reported M. emys from Arakan
(Rakhine) and Moulmain (Mawlamyaing).
Earlier records are available from Tenasserim
(Taninthayi) and the vicinity of Yangon (Iverson
1992). M. emys is regarded as rare and declin-
ing throughout most of its historic range (Moll
1989).
Melanochelys trijuga edeniana
Four shells of this endemic subspecies
were examined; two in Padaung (CUSC 1772;
CL = 20.7 cm and CUSC 1773; CL = 15.8 cm),
and one each in Padan village (CUSC 1771 ; CL
= 12.2 cm) and Laybin (CUSC 1774; CL = 14.2
cm). Carapaces were dark brown with lighter
keels, plastrons were black with prominent
yellowish margins. Additionally, van Dijk
(1994) obtained a shell (CL = 16.7 cm) from an
unspecified village near SSWS Headquarters.
These specimens represent the first records
from western Myanmar (Iverson 1992).
According to SSWS rangers, M. trijuga inhabits
intermittent streams and is active during the wet
season.
118
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1), APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Morenia ocellata
A carapace we photographed in Padan
village (CUSC 1769; CL = 18.0 cm) constitutes
the first record of M. ocellata from west central
Myanmar. We also obtained a photograph (CUSC
1768) taken by U Hla Win (Deputy Director
General; Department of Fisheries, comm.),
of two juveniles in a market at Sittwe, the only
location west of the Ayeyarwady river where
M. ocellata has been previously collected
(Iverson 1992). The records available suggest
that M. ocellata is restricted to southern
Myanmar (Iverson 1992). However, Kuchling
(1995) found at a market in southern China
M. ocellata that appeared to have been collected
locally, and speculated that these turtles may be
more widespread than suggested by earlier records.
Acknowledgments
Fieldwork in Myanmar was funded by
grants from the Walt Disney Co. Foundation.
Refer
Dodd, C.K., Jr. & R. Franz (1993): The need for status
information on common herpetofaunal species.
Herpetol. Rev. 24(1)\ 47-50.
Dodd, C.K., Jr., R. Franz & S.A. Johnson (1997): Shell
injuries and anomalies in an insular population of
Florida box turtles (Terrapene Carolina bauri).
Herpetol Nat. Hist. 5(1) : 66-72.
Ernst, C.H. & R. W. Barbour ( 1 989): Turtles of the world.
Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D. C.
FAO/UNDP (1982): Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary:
Report on a reconnaissance survey and evaluation,
June 1982. UNDP/FAO Nature Conservation and
National Parks Project. BUR/80/006. Field Report 9/
82.
Fritz, U., M. Gaulke & E. Lehr (1997): Revision der
stidostasiatischen Dornschildkroten-Gattung
Cyclemys Bell, 1 834, mit Beschreibung einer neuen
Art. SalamandYa 33 (3): 183-212.
Iverson, J.B. (1992): A revised checklist with distribution
maps of the turtles of the world. Privately printed,
Richmond, Indiana.
Assistance was provided by U Hla Win, U Maung
Maung Tint, U Myint Shwe, U Soe Lwin, Daw
Thin Thin Yu, Daw Lay Lay Khine, U Nyunt
Hlaing, U Kyaw Tun Saung, U Aung Kyaw Soe,
U Tun Kyaing, Bill Holmstrom, Bill Zovickian,
John Behler and John Thorbjamarson. We thank
Peter Paul van Dijk, Thomas Rhott and Steve
Johnson for references, and the Dept of Forestry
for permission to visit Shwe Settaw Wildlife
Sanctuary. Comments from an anonymous
reviewer on an earlier draft greatly improved the
manuscript.
October 25, 2000 STEVEN G. PLATT
Wildlife Conservation Society,
P.O. Box 9345, Siem Reap, Cambodia.
SAWTUNKHAING,
WIN KO KO,
KALYAR
Wildlife Conservation Society, Bldg. C-l,
Aye Yeik Mon 1st Street, Yadanamon
Housing Ave., Hlaing Township,
Yangon, Myanmar.
ENCES
Kuchling, G. (1995): Turtles at a market in western
Yunnan: Possible range extensions for some southern
Asiatic chelonians in China and Myanmar. Chelonian
Conserv. Biol 1(3): 223-226.
Mccord, W.P. (1997): Mauremys pritchardi, a new
Batagurid turtle from Myanmar and Yunnan, China.
Chelonian Conserv. Biol. 2(4): 555-562.
Moll, E.O. (1989): Manouria emys , Asian brown tortoise.
In: The Conservation Biology ofTortoises. Swingland,
I.R. & M.K. Klemens (eds). Occasional Papers of
IUCN Species Survival Commission, No. 5. IUCN
Publ., Gland, Switzerland, pp. 1 19-120.
Oliver, I. & A.J. Beattie (1993): A possible method for
the rapid assessment of biodiversity. Conserv. Biol.
7(3): 562-568.
Platt, S.G. (1999): A tortoise survey of Shwe Settaw
Wildlife Sanctuary, Myanmar. Unpubl. Report to
Wildlife Conservation Society, New York.
Platt, S.G. (2000): An Expedition into central Rakhine
State, Myanmar. Unpubl. Report to Wildlife
Conservation Society, New York.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
119
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Platt, S.G., Kalyar & Win Ko Ko (in press): Exploitation
and conservation status of tortoises and freshwater
turtles in Myanmar. In: van Dijk, P.P., B.L. Stuart
and A.G.J. Rhodin (eds). Asian turtle trade:
Proceedings of a workshop on conservation and trade
of freshwater turtles and tortoises in Asia. Chelonian
Research Monograph 2.
Salter, R.E. & J. A. Sayer ( 1 986): The brow-antlered deer
in Burma — its distribution and status. Oryx 20(4):
241-245.
Sharma, R. C. (1998). Fauna of India - Reptilia (Testudines
and Crocodilia). Vol. 1 . Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta.
Theobald. W. ( 1 876): Descriptive catalogue of the reptiles
of British India. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta.
Thirakhupt, K. & P.P. van Dijk (1994): Species diversity
and conservation of turtles of western Thailand.
J. Nat. Hist. Soc. Siam 42(2): 207-259.
van Dijk, P.P. (1993): Myanmar turtles: Report on a
preliminary survey of the Testudines of the
Ayeyarwady Basin. Unpubl. Report to Turtle
Recovery Program, The World Conservation Union-
IUCN SSC Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist
Group.
van Dijk, P.P. (1994): Report on a visit to Myanmar,
18-28 January 1994. Unpubl. Report to Turtle
Recovery Program, The World Conservation
Union-IUCN SSC Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle
Specialist Group.
van Dijk, P.P. (1997): Turtle conservation in Myanmar:
Past, present and future. In: Abbema, J.V. (ed.)
Proceedings: Conservation, restoration and
management of Tortoises and turtles - An
international conference. New York Turtle and
Tortoise Society and WCS Turtle Recovery Program,
pp. 265-271.
20. DIFFERENCE IN BREEDING COLORATION IN CALOTES VERSICOLOR
OF THE SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN ARAV ALLIS IN RAJASTHAN
( With one text-figure)
During the breeding season, the male
Calotes versicolor acquires a brilliant crimson
or scarlet colour on the forehead and shoulder
parts of the body towards dorsal and ventral
sides, and black patches upon the neck, cheeks
and throat (the fauna of British india, Vol. 11,
Smith 1935). During my field studies in the
Aravalli hills, Rajasthan, I noticed a remarkable
difference in the black patches of male Calotes
versicolor at the northern and southern ends of
the Aravalli range. Towards the extreme
southern end in Udaipur district (23° 46' to 26°
2' N; 73° to 74° 35' E), in Phulwari Wildlife
Sanctuary, forest areas of Jhadol, Ogna,
Gogunda, Kotra, Khairwara and Udaipur Forest
Ranges and the adjoining forests, individuals
have black patches on their neck region, which
just touch the swollen cheeks and at a distance
from the tympanum (Fig. la). On the other hand,
individuals confined to Nahargarh (26° 55'-27°
15' N’ 75° 45'-76° E) and Jamwa Ramgarh
Wildlife Sanctuaries, nearly 25 km away from
Fig. 1: (a) Black patch on the neck of Udaipur
specimen, (b) Black patch on the neck of Jaipur
specimen
Nahargarh towards the eastern side (27° 0'-27°
15' N and 76°-76° 15' E), in Jaipur district,
towards northern Aravalli, have broader black
patches, which extend to the swollen cheeks.
Tapering black patches extend forward and
terminate at the base of the lower jaw, below the
120
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
eyes. On the posterior, each patch touches the
tympanum on both lateral sides (Fig. lb).
L ocalities of Udaipur zone and Jaipur zone
are nearly 500 km apart. The two ends of the
Aravalli show different environmental conditions
and forest types. The southern end, clad with
broad-leaved deciduous forests receives higher
rainfall (650-800 mm), while the northern end
has dry deciduous and scrub forests and receives
relatively low rainfall (400-600 mm).
May 24, 2000 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA
Range Forest Officer,
Nahargarh Biological Park,
2, Suresh Nagar, Durgapura,
Jaipur 302 018, Rajasthan, India.
21 . OCCURRENCE OF PAINTED KALOULA KALOULA TAPROBANICA
(FAMILY MICROHYLIDAE) AT POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU
On January 28, 2000, we heard frog calls
on the outskirts of Kodikkadu village, near Point
Calimere ( 1 0° 1 8' N and 79° 5 1 ’ E), Tamil Nadu.
The calls were coming from two temporary rain-
water pools in the grassland, near some thorny
bushes. The pools were separated by a bund with
Thespesia populnea trees. Some of the roots of
these trees were exposed, probably due to rain.
While walking under these trees we saw a frog
near one of the exposed roots, we caught and
identified the species as the painted kaloula
Kaloula taprobanica. When released on loose
sand, it tried to sink into the soil, dislodging it
by the sideways movements of its hind legs as de-
scribed by Rajasingh 1972 (JBNHS 69(1): 193).
On being handled, it inflated its body like a toad.
In the Bombay Natural History Society’s
collection, there are two specimens collected by
Dr. P.J. SanjeevaRaj in 1966 ffomTambaram. The
present record is, therefore, a range extension.
Other amphibian species observed at Point
Calimere were:
1. Hoplobatrachus tigerinus: Common,
seen on the banks of temporary rainwater pools
at night.
2. Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis : Common,
mostly in rainwater pools. Most of them were
heard calling at night. They were also seen in
Muniappan, a large freshwater lake in this
area.
3. Tomopterna breviceps : Seen crossing a
sandy road in the jungle near Ramarpadam.
4. Micro hy la rubra : Their calls were heard
and the microhylids were seen in the grass near
a temporary rainwater pool at the roadside at
c. 1845 hrs.
February 14, 2000 VARAD GIRI,
VITHOBA HEGDE,
VINODPATIL
Bombay Natural History Society
Hornbill House, S.B Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023,
Maharashtra, India.
22. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ICHTHYOPHIS BOMBA YENSIS TAYLOR, 1 960
( FAMILY ICHTH Y OPHIID AE) IN CENTRAL WESTERN GHATS
Ichthyophis bombayensis Taylor 1960 was
based on a unique type (BMNH 1888.6.11.2)
collected by Gleadow from Surat, Gu jarat. Since
the original description, this species has been
reported from the central Western Ghats
(Balakrishna et al. 1982, Krishnamurthy and
Katre 1993, Bhatta 1998, Pillai and
Ravichandran 1999). However, while dealing
with this species, Dutta (1997) has stated that
“no other specimen of this species has been
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1), APR. 2001
121
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
collected after Taylor’s description.” Hence, to
confirm its present distribution, one specimen
of this species represented in the collection of
the Southern Regional Station, Zoological Survey
of India, Chennai and two in the collections of
Kuvempu University, Karnataka (all collected
from the Sringeri region of the central Western
Ghats) were studied in detail. These specimens
were also compared with related species,
I. malabarensis and I. peninsularis sampled from
the same locality to confirm its identification.
The morphometric details of the three
species, I. bombayensis , I. malabarensis and
I. peninsularis are compared in Table 1 . The three
Table 1
MORPHOMETRY OF ICHTHYOPHIS BOMBA YENSIS,
I. MALABARENSIS AND I. PENINSULARIS COLLECTED
FROM THE SRINGERI REGION.
(all measurements are in mm)
Parameters I. bombayensis I. malabarensis I. peninsularis
KUES VAG-9, VAG-25,
APODAOl ZSIM ZSIM
Loc. Sringeri Loc. Sringeri Loc. Neria
specimens of I. bombayensis collected from
Sringeri agree with the original description by
Taylor (1960). Hence, its occurrence in the
central Western Ghats (75° 15' 14" N, 13° 25'
05" E), at a distance of 900 km from the type
locality, is confirmed.
Specimens examined: Regn No. KUES,
APOD A- 1 [Kuvempu University, Environmental
Science] I. bombayensis, Sringeri, Karnataka,
10.viii.1999, coll. S.V. Krishnamurthy; Regn No.
VAG 12 ZSIM [Zoological Survey of India,
Southern Regional Station, Madras(=Chennai)]
I. bombayensis, Sringeri, Karnataka, 5.i. 1994, coll.
R. S. Pillai; Regn No. VAG 9 ZSIM I. malabarensis,
Sringeri, Karnataka, 4.i. 1994, Coll. R.S. Pillai;
Regn No. VAG 25 ZSIM. I. peninsularis, Neria,
Karnataka, 4.vii.l992, coll. B.K. Sharath.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director, ZSI,
Dr. P.T. Cherian, Additional Director, ZSI,
Chennai and Dr. R.S. Pillai for encouragement
and K.V. Gururaja, K.G. Hemanth Rajkumar and
A.H. Manjunatha Reddy for help in the field.
S. V.K. thanks the Department of Science and
Technology (Govt of India) for a research grant
(SP/SO/C-39/97).
August 17, 2000 M.S. RAVICHANDRAN
Zoological Survey of India,
Southern Regional Station,
100, Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India.
S.V. KRISHNAMURTHY
Department of P.G. Studies and
Research in Environmental Science,
Kuvempu University, Jnanasahyadri,
Shankar aghatta 577 451,
Shimoga District, Karnataka, India.
References
Balakrishna, T.A., S. Katre & K.R. Gundappa ( 1 982): on the Indian subcontinent. Current Sci. 51 : 848-849.
Taxonomy and myogen patterns of some caecilians Bhatta, G.K. (1998): A field guide to the caecilians of the
122
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Western Ghats, India. Journal of Biosciences 23(1):
73-85.
Dutta, S.K. (1997): Amphibians of India and Sri Lanka
(Checklist and Bibliography). Odyssey Publishing
House, Bhubaneswar, (4)+ xiii + 342 + xxii pp.
Krishnamurthy, S.V. & S. Katre (1993): Amphibian
fauna of Sringeri taluk (Chickmagalur District,
Karnataka). Journal of Indian Institute of Science
23. NINE NEW RECORDS OF
ARUNACHAL
Arunachal Pradesh in the Eastern
Himalaya is one of the 18 global hotspots of
biodiversity (Myers 1988). Amphibian habitats
of East Kameng (26° 56'-27° 43' 30" N, 92° 36'-
93° 24' E) and West Kameng (26° 55'-27° 57’ N, *
92°-93° 15' E) districts in western Arunachal
Pradesh were surveyed during 1997-99. West
Kameng district has an area of 7,422 sq. km,
with an annual precipitation of 1,709 mm at
Bomdila (2,938 m above msl). East Kameng
district covers 4,134 sq. km, with an annual
precipitation of 2,212 mm at Seppa (2,317 m
above msl).
The area is covered with mostly tropical
and subtropical moist evergreen forests, with
perennial torrential streams and rivers.
Amphibian surveys of Arunachal Pradesh
are limited to the work of Annandale (1912) who
reported amphibians from Siang district. Sarkar
and Sanyal (1985) reported 14 species from
Namdapha National Park. Chanda (1994)
reported 22 species from Arunachal Pradesh.
Bordoloi and Borah (1999) made a new record
of a frog ( Hoplobatrachus crassus ) from
Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, northeast India.
Amphibian habitats were visited during the
day and at night. Tadpoles were collected and
identified during the day, while adults were
recorded at night. Due to restrictions on
collection, toads and frogs were identified and
released. Only when field identification was not
possible, one or two specimens were retained.
73: 443-452.
Pillai, R.S. & M.S. Ravichandran (1999): Gymnophiona
(Amphibia) of India — A taxonomic study. Rec. zool.
Surv. India Occasional Paper 172, pp 1 1 7.
Taylor, E.H. (1960): On thecaecilian species Ichthyophis
monochrous and Ichthyophis glutinosus with
description of related species. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull.
40(4): 37-120.
AMPHIBIA (ANURA) FROM
PRADESH, INDIA
These were preserved in 8% formalin and their
morphometric data recorded.
Literature and material in the collections
of the Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai
and Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, were
consulted for identification. A total of 20 species
representing 5 families and 13 genera were
recorded. Specimens have been deposited at the
State Forest Research Institute, Arunachal
Pradesh.
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Family: Megophryidae
Genus (1) Megophrys Kuhl & Van Hasselt,
1822
1. Megophrys parva (Boulenger, 1893)
Specimen No. State Forest Research Institute
(SFRI) V/A 2328
Locality: Sessa, Altitude 1 ,708 m above msl.
Remarks: New record from Arunachal
Pradesh.
One adult male specimen was collected
near Sessa Orchid Sanctuary from a branch
overhanging a stream. It was also recorded from
Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhalukpung and
Tenga Valley.
2. Megophrys lateralis (Anderson, 1871)
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2330
Locality: Pakhui, Altitude 216.7 m above
msl.
Remarks: New record from Arunachal
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
123
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Pradesh. Also recorded from Sessa, Pakhui and
Tippi. Earlier recorded only from Assam.
Specimen collected from tree trunk.
Family: Bufonidae
Genus (2) Bufo Laurenti, 1868
3. Bufo melanostictus Schneider, 1799
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2324
Locality: Widely distributed in both
districts.
Remarks: Recorded from all localities
surveyed, throughout the year. Breeding
population was recorded from Tippi in December,
the driest and coldest month of the year.
(Precipitation 13.40 mm, Temperature max.
27 °C, min. 8.5 °C)
Family: Microhylidae
Genus (3) Microhyla Tschudi, 1838
4. Microhyla ornata
(Dumeril & Bibron, 1841)
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2322
Remarks: New record from Arunachal
Pradesh. Sighted at Bhalukpung, Khari, Sejusa
and Tippi up to of 1,200 m above msl.
Genus (4) Uperodon Dumeril & Bibron, 1841
5. Uperodon globulosus (Gunther, 1864)
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2331
Remarks: New record from Arunachal
Pradesh, Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary,
Bhalukpung, Tippi and near Khari river. A
burrowing species.
Family: Rhacophoridae
Genus (5) Chirixalus Boulenger, 1890
6. Chirixalus vittatus (Boulenger, 1887)
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2332, 2333
Remarks: New record from Arunachal
Pradesh. Specimen compared with the descrip-
tion in Khare and Kiyasetuo (1986). Specimen
collected from vegetation near waterbody from
Tippi. Also recorded from Bhalukpung, Sejusa,
Sessa and Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary.
Genus (6) Polypedates Tschudi, 1838
7. Polypedates leucomystax
Gravenhorst, 1829
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2320
Remarks: This species is widely
distributed in both districts. Mostly collected
from shrubs, logs and stones near aquatic
habitats.
8. Polypedates maculatus (Gray, 1834)
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2334
Remarks: New record from East and West
Kameng. Less abundant than P. leucomystax.
Found in the same habitat as P. leucomystax , up
to 1,200 m above msl. In both disturbed and
virgin forest.
Genus (7) Rhacophorus Kuhl & Van Hasselt,
1822
9. Rhacophorus maximus Gunther, 1858
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2321
Remarks: A common Rhacophorid, found
in trees and shrubs near aquatic habitats in most
of the areas surveyed. Live coloration, light blue
and bluish-green. Foam nests found on leaves
and branches overhanging waterbodies.
Family Ranidae
Genus (8) Amolops Cope, 1865
10. Amolops formosus (Gunther, 1875)
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2327
Remarks: New record from Arunachal
Pradesh. Widely distributed in both districts.
Collected from streams.
11. Amolops gerbillus (Annandale, 1912)
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2338
Remarks: Earlier recorded from eastern
Arunachal Pradesh. New record from West
Kameng district. Collected from a stream near
Sessa Orchid Sanctuary.
124
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1), APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Genus (9) Euphlyctis Fitzinger, 1843
12. Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis
(Schneider, 1799)
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2316
Remarks: Widely distributed in both the
districts. Recorded up to 2,743 m above msl in
disturbed and undisturbed habitats throughout
the year.
Genus (10) Hoplobatrachus Peters, 1863
13. Hoplobatrachus crassus (Jerdon, 1853)
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2318
Remarks: Recorded for the first time in
western Arunachal Pradesh. It inhabits low
altitude areas such as Tippi and Bhalukpung.
14. Hoplobatrachus tigerinus
(Daudin, 1803)
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2319
Remarks: Though distributed throughout
India, it was not reported from Arunachal
Pradesh. Common at low altitudes, sharing the
habitat with other common frogs such as
H. crassus and E. cyanophlyctis. During this
survey, it was recorded from Tippi, Bhalukpong,
Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary and paddy fields near
Bharali river.
Genus (11) Limnonectes Fitzinger, 1843
15. Limnonectes laticeps Boulenger, 1882
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2339
Remarks: First record from Arunachal
Pradesh. Found buried in sand under stones,
leaves and twigs. Recorded from Tippi,
Bhalukpung, Pakhui, Sessa and Bharali river.
16. Limnonectes limnocharis
(Boie in: Wiegman, 1835)
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2317
Remarks: Widely distributed in both the
districts, at all altitudes. Found near human
habitation and in wetlands within undisturbed
forests.
Genus (12) Paa Dubois, 1975
17. Paa liebigii (Gunther, 1860)
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2336
Remarks: New record from western
Arunachal Pradesh. This frog has been recorded
from pools with low temperatures from 2,743 m
above msl.
Genus (13) Rana Linnaeus, 1758
18. Rana danieli Pillai & Chanda, 1977
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2329
Remarks: Earlier reported fromNamdapha.
During the present survey, it was recorded from
the western districts. Tadpoles were collected from
stagnant habitats shared by other common species
such as E. cyanophlyctis and L. limnocharis.
19. Rana erythraea (Schlegel, 1837)
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2337
Remarks: New record from Arunachal
Pradesh. Common in the eastern and western part
of the state at low altitudes. Recorded from the
banks of Bharali river, Tippi, Bhalukpung, etc.
20. Rana taipehensi Van Denburgh, 1909
Specimen No. SFRI V/A 2326
Remarks: First record from Arunachal
Pradesh. Common at low altitudes. Recorded from
paddy fields.
Acknowledgements
We thank the G.B. Pant Institute of Hima-
layan Environment and Development, Kosi-
Katarmal, Almora, Uttar Pradesh for financial
support; M.L. Deuri, State Forest Research Insti-
tute, Amnachal Pradesh for help; K. Haridasan,
Scientist SD, SFRI for suggestions and S.K. Dutta,
Professor, Utkal University, Indraneil Das,
Associate Professor, Institute of Biodiversity and
Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia,
Sarawak and S.K. Chanda, Deputy Director, ZSI,
Kolkata, for identifications.
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1), APR. 2001
125
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
August 1 7, 2000 MOHINI MOHAN BORAH
Ecology Laboratory,
Department of Zoology, Cotton College,
Guwahati 781 001, Assam, India.
Refer
Annandale, N. (1912): Zoological results of the Abor
expedition (191 1-1912). I. Batrachia. Rec. Indian
Mus. 8(1): 7-36.
Boulenger, G.A. (1890): The Fauna of British India,
including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Batrachia.
Taylor and Francis, London: xviii+541 pp.
Bordoloi, S.C. & M.M. Borah (1999): First record of
Hoplobatrachus crassus (Jerdon 1 853) from north
eastern region in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(1): 158-159.
Chanda, S.K. (1994): Anura (Amphibia) of North Eastern
India. Mem. Zool. Surv. India. 18: 1-143.
Dutta, S.K. (1997): Amphibians of India and Sri Lanka
SABITRY BORDOLOI
E/5, Professor ’s Quaters,
Dighalipukhuri East, Ambari,
Guwahati 781 001, Assam, India.
ENCES
(Checklist and Bibliography). Odyssey Publishing
House, Bhubaneswar. ix+ 1-342.
Khare, M.K. & Kiyasetuo ( 1 986): A new record of frog,
Chirixalus vittatus (Boulenger, 1887) from north
eastern hills of India. Zoologica orientalis. 3( 1 &
2): 47-49.
Myres, N. (1988): Threatened biotas: “hotspots” in tropical
forests. The Environmentalist 8: 1 -20.
Pillai, R.S. & S.K. Chanda (1977): Two new species of
frogs (Ranidae) from Khasi Hills, India. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 74(1): 136-295.
Sarkar, A.K. & D.P. Sanyal (1985): Amphibia. Rec. Zool.
Surv. India 82 (1-4): 285-295.
24. NEW RECORD OF SAURIDA WANESIO SHINDO & YAMADA,
(OSTEICHTHYES: MYCTOPHIFORMES: SYNODIDAE*) FROM THE
WEST BENGAL COAST, WITH A NOTE ON L UT JANUS SANG UINE US (CUVIER)
(OSTEICHTHYES : PERCIFORMES : LUTJANIDAE)
One specimen of Saurida wanesio Shindo
& Yamada and two of Lutjanus sanguineus
(Cuvier) were collected from a mini trawler, at the
fish landing point in Maohana, Digha, West Bengal
(21° 36' N, 87° 30' E), on November 26, 1996.
This is the first catch of Saurida wanesio
from the West Bengal coast. Fischer and
Whitehead (1974) noted its occurrence only in
South and East China seas. Dutt and Sagar
(1981), however, reported the species from
Karwar, on the west coast of India. Talwar and
Kacker (1984) also support the views of Dutt and
Sagar (1981). Talwar et al. (1992) did not include
the species in the fauna of west Bengal.
Hence, the present collection of S. wanesio
is the first record from the West Bengal coast, and
probably a new record from the east Indian waters.
Occurrence of Lutjanus sanguineus (Cuvier)
in the coastal waters of West Bengal has been
*Same as Synodontidae
reported by Misra (1959) and its distribution in
the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean is
mentioned by Fischer and Whitehead (1974), but
Talwar et al. ( 1 992) criticised these records as they
are not based on material collected from the area.
Talwar et al. (op. cit.), therefore, did not
include the species in the Fauna of West Bengal.
The present report of the species L. sanguineus
in the coastal waters of West Bengal, based on
two specimens, supports the views of Misra (op.
cit.), and Fischer and Whitehead (op. cit.).
We are grateful to the Director, Zoological
Survey of India for permission to carry out the
work.
March 10,2000 S. KAR,
R. CHAKRABORTY
Zoological Survey of India,
F.P.S. Building, 27, J.L. Nehru Road,
Kolkata 700 016, West Bengal, India.
126
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1), APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Dutt, S. & J.V. Sagar (1981): Saurida pseudotumbil, a
new species of lizard fish (Teleostei: Synodidae) from
Indian Coastal Waters. Indian. Nat. Sci. Acad. B 47,
No. 6: 845-851.
Fisher, W. & P.J.P. Whitehead (eds) ( 1 974): FAO species
identification sheets for fishery purposes. Eastern In-
dian Ocean (fishing area 57) and Western Central
Pacific (fishing area 71) (FAO : Rome). Vol. II and
IV.
Misra, K.S. ( 1 959): An aid to the identification of the com-
mon commercial fishes of India and Pakistan. Rec.
Ind. Mus. 57: 1-320. (Published in 1962).
Talwar, P.K. & R.K. Kacker (1984): Handbook: Com-
mercial Sea fishes of India. Edited by the Director,
Zoological Survey of India, pp. 1-997.
Talwar, P.K., P. Mukherjee, D. Saha, S.N. Paul & S. Kar
(1992): Marine and estuarine fishes. State Fauna Se-
ries 3: Fauna of West Bengal, Part 2. pp. 243-342.
25. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF NEMA CHEIL US KERALENSIS (RITA ET AL .)
IN MU V ATTUPU ZH A RIVER, KERALA, INDIA
Oreonectes ( Indoreonectes ) keralensis (=
Nemacheilus keralensis) was described from
Pampadumpara area of the Periyar river, south
Kerala (Rita et al. 1 978). The fish has very narrow,
ill-defined vertical bands from dorsal to ventral
surface, often split below the lateral line into
several streaks or spots, a black mark at dorsal fin
origin and a narrow stripe, or two spots on base of
caudal fin. It is endemic to Kerala (Talwar and
Jhingran 1991, Jayaram 1 999), recorded only from
the high altitude areas of the Periyar river. Raju
Thomas et al. (1999) recorded it from the
Eravikulam National Park.
During our survey of the fish fauna of the
Western Ghats in Kerala, we collected eight
specimens of Nemacheilus keralensis from the
Kaitapara area of Kaliyar tributary in the
Muvattupuzha river (Idukki district). The water
temperature at the collection sites was 16-21 °C,
which may be crucial to its survival. While
sampling, the velocity of the water was 32-41 cm/
sec. The stream was very small, 3-4 m wide and
1 5-20 cm deep. Gravel, cobblestones and rock were
the major components of the substrate at the
collection site. The water was clear (DO value =
6.5-7 ppm).
We thank Dr. K. Rema Devi, Scientist, ZSI,
Chennai for confirming our identification; the US
Fish and Wildlife Service for funds under the
project “Ecology of hill streams of the Western
Ghats with special reference to fish community”,
sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Govt of India.
March 3 1 , 2000 K. RAJU THOMAS,
*C.R. BIJU
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
* Present address: Chemmandaparambil (H),
P.O. Chembuchira 680 684, Thrissur district,
Kerala, India.
M. JOHN GEORGE
Mar Thoma College for Women, Perumbavoor,
Pin 683 542, Ernakulam district,
Kerala, India.
References
Jayaram, K.C. (1999): Freshwater fishes of the Indian
Region, Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi.
Raju Thomas, K., C.R. Biju, C.R. Ajithkumar & M. John
George ( 1 999): Ichthyofauna of Eravikulam National
Park with notes on trout culture in Rajamalai, Munnar,
Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 199-202.
Rita, S.D., P. Banarescu & T.T. Nalbant (1978):
Oreonectes ( Indoreonectes ) keralensis — a new
subgenus and species of loach from Kerala, India
(Pisces, Cobitidae). Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. 19: 185-188.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH, New Delhi.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
127
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
26. FISHES OF RAMANADHI RIVER IN KALAKKAD MUNDANTHIJRAI
TIGER RESERVE, TAMIL NADU, INDIA
Fish survey was carried out as a part of a
research programme on the fish habitats and
communities in Tamiraparani river basin of
Western Ghats. Ramanadhi river has two
tributaries which are dammed upstream. There
are six man-made canals and 32 associated
wetlands to form a sub-basin of the major
Tamiraparani river basin. This is the first report
on fishes from Ramanadhi in Kalakkad
Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. Species recorded
in the present work have already been recor-
ded by earlier workers Johnsingh and
Wickram (1987), Rema Devi et al. (1997),
Arunachalam et al. (1997), Arunachalam and
Sankaranarayanan (1998a, b) Arunachalam and
Johnson (in press) and Arunachalam (2000) in
Tamiraparani river and its sub-basins.
Ramanadhi river takes its origin in the
eastern slopes of the Western Ghats at 1,572 m
above msl (8° 50' 45M N, 77° 19' 15" E). After
flowing about 8 km along the eastern slopes of the
Western Ghats, through thickly wooded forests, it
emerges on the plains on the north-eastern side of
Melakadayam village, Ambasamudram taluka,
Tirunelveli district. After flowing another 7 km,
it is joined by the Jambunadhi river and (now
Veeranathi), flows through the plains for 12 km.
It meets Gadana river to the northeast of Kila
Ambur village in Ambasamudram taluka. The
average rainfall is 1 83 mm (data of Public Works
Department, Govt, of Tamil Nadu).
Fishes were collected from upstream,
downstream and some associated wetlands using
drag nets, monofilament gill nets and scoop nets.
Colour, spots and other characters were noted
and the specimens were then preserved in 10%
formaline. Standard literature was referred for
identification.
We recorded 25 species belonging to 18
genera and 10 families, representing 4 orders,
(Table 1). All the species are known from
Tamiraparani river and its sub-basins (Rema
Devi et al. 1997, Arunachalam 1998)
Table 1
FISH SPECIES RECORDED IN RAMANADHI RIVER
AND ITS ASSOCIATED WETLANDS
128
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1 (contd.)
FISH SPECIES RECORDED IN RAMANADHI RIVER
AND ITS ASSOCIATED WETLANDS
n.a. - not assessed; LRnt - Lower Risk, near threatened; Vu -
vulnerable; LRlc - Lower Risk, least concern; En - Endangered
The headwaters and the lowlands of
Ramanadhi river are highly disturbed as the
riparian forests are replaced by coconut and teak
plantations by private owners inside the forest
reserve area. Introduction of the exotic cichlid
fish Oreochromis mossambica also threatens the
fish fauna in the lowland.
Refer
Arunachalam, M., R. Soranam, JA. Johnson & M.A.
Haniffa (1997): Fish diversity in Chittar river of
Western Ghats. Int. J. Ecol. Env. Sci. Vol. 23.
Arunachalam, M. & A. Sankaranarayanan (1998a): New
records of fishes from Gadana river, south Tamil
Nadu, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 267-268.
We could not observe a single specimen of
Puntius arulius tambiraparniei in the
Ramanadhi, though this endemic species is
recorded in streams and rivers of Tamiraparani,
Manimuthar, Servalar, Gadana and Chittar river
basins (Rema Devi et al. 1997, Arunachalam et
al 1997, Arunachalam, 1998).
Acknowledgements
M.A. is thankful for financial assistance
from the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Govt of India (D.O. No. 30/20/9 RE dt. 23.2.98).
JAJ thanks the Council of Scientific & Industrial
Research (C'SIR) for a Senior Research
Fellowship (SRF No. 8/ 297 (9) /98 - EMR-I).
We thank Dr. Melkani, Field Director, Kalakkad
Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) and
Mr. Somappan, Asst. Conservator of Forests,
Kadayam Forest Range, Kadayam, for
co-operation and Mr. A. Vanarajan (Technical
Assistant) for help.
November 23, 2000 M. ARUNACHALAM,
A. SANKARANARAYANAN,
J.A. JOHNSON,
C. VIJAYAKUMAR,
A. MANIMEKALAN,
R. SORANAM,
A. ALBIN,
P.N. SHANTHI
Sri Paramakalyani Centre
for Environmental Sciences
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University
Alwarkurichi 627 412, Tamil Nadu, India.
ENCES
Arunachalam, M. & A. Sankaranarayanan (1998b):
Fishes of Gadana river, Western Ghats of south Tamil
Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 232-238.
Arunachalam, M. (2000): Fish habitats and communities
in Tamiraparani river, basin of Western Ghats (No.
30/20/97 RE. dt. 23.2.98), Second Progress report
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
129
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
submitted to Ministry of Environment & Forests,
Govt, of India, 34 pp.
Arunachalam, M. & J.A. Johnson (in press): A new species
of Puntius Hamilton (Pisces: Cyprinidae) from
Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
Johnsingh, A.J.T. & D. Wickram (1987): Fishes of
Mundanthurai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 526-633.
Molur, Sanjay & Sally Walker (eds) ( 1 998): Report of
the Workshop “Conservation Assessment and
Management Plan for freshwater fishes of India.” Zoo
Outreach Organisation, Conservation Breeding
Specialist Group, India. 156 pp.
Rema Devi, K., T.J. Indra, M.B. Ragunathan, M. Mary
Bai & M.S. Ravichandran (1997): Ichthyofauna of
the Tamiraparani river system, Tamil Nadu. Zoo’s
print 12(7): 1,2.
27. MIGRATION OF BLUE MORMON BUTTERFLY PAPILIO POLYMNESTER
IN MUMBAI (MAHARASHTRA)
The presence of the Blue Mormon butterfly
Papilio polymnester in and around Mumbai was
recorded by W.F. Melvin at Sewree in March
1889 and A.E.G. Best (1951) at Tulsi lake. D.E.
Reuben had observed them in 1960-62 and
suggested that this butterfly appears seasonally
in the Pali Hill (Bandra) area. Serrao (1978)
observed a Blue Mormon flying east to west on
September 23, 1970. He recorded a number of
individuals flying in the same direction till end
October, 1970. He also observed many Blue
Mormons feeding on flowers till March 1971 in
the Tulsi lake environs.
Haribal (1986) recorded a few sightings
of these butterflies at the Indian Institute of
Technology, Powai, Mumbai every year from
1978 to 1982. However, in all these sightings,
they did not appear to be flying in any particular
direction, except near Matunga station, where
the butterfly was definitely flying westwards.
The first author (NC) saw them at
Goregaon, Mumbai on September 15, 1999
around noon. The flight was rapid, at 30 m above
ground level, and was westwards. A similar
observation was made on September 18, 1999.
R E F E
Best, A.E.G. (1951): The Butterflies of Bombay
and Salsette.J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50(2): 331-
39
Haribal, Meena (1986): Mormon butterfly and its status
in and around Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
Interestingly, the second author (VH) has
seen another live specimen at Hombill House,
Colaba, Mumbai on September 22, 1999, flying
east to west. Earlier, this species was observed
by the first author (NC) at Goregaon on August
28, 1995. A female Blue Mormon was sighted
at Khar (Mumbai) in the first week of September
(Isaac Kehimkar pers. comm.). The butterfly laid
eggs on a Citrus plant.
From these observations, it is evident that
the Blue Mormon is a seasonal migrant, and
arrives in Mumbai during late August to
September. As it is usually found in hilly regions
around 350 m above msl, with heavy rainfall, it
is possible that migration depends on good
rainfall in Mumbai during August and
September.
October 18,1999 NARESH CHATURVEDI
VITHOBA HEGDE
Bombay Natural History Society
Hombill House,
S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023,
Maharashtra, India.
ENCES
83(3): 677.
Melvin, W.F. (1889): Papilio polymnester in Bombay.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 4: 157.
Serrao, J.S. (1978): Mormon butterfly and its status in
Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75(1): 241 .
130
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
28. FORMS OF DANAUS CHRYSIPPUS LINN. (LEPIDOPTERA: NYMPHALIDAE)
IN THE KUMAON HIMALAYA
The Plain Tiger, Danaus chrysippus Linn.,
is one of the commonest Indian butterflies, found
throughout the plains, in degraded areas, semi-
arid regions and even urban areas. It is not
common in evergreen rainforest, and though it
ascends to an elevation of 2,750 m in the
Himalaya, it is not as common in the hills as on
the plains.
Four forms of this butterfly occur in India.
The typical form chrysippus Linn, is common
everywhere. The form alcippoides Moore has
most of the hindwing recto white. The form
amplifascia Talbot has white spots of the pre-
apical band on the forewing recto extending
inwards to the discocellulars, while the form
dorippus Klug lacks the white spotted black apex
to the forewing recto. The three last forms have
been recorded sporadically in India, although
dorippus is the commonest or dominant form in
parts of Africa, where D. chrysippus is
widespread.
The form dorippus was thought to occur
west of what is now Pakistan (Marshall & de
Niceville 1883, quoted by Donahue 1962), but it
has subsequently been recorded from Sri Lanka
(Woodhouse and Henry 1942), Bengal (Best
1954), Bihar (Harman 1950), Rajasthan
(Donahue 1962), Delhi (Ashton 1972), near Pune
in Maharashtra (editorial note following Best
1954) and the submontane tract or Bhabar of
Kumaon and Garhwal (Atkinson 1882). The
record by Atkinson, who treated dorippus as a
distinct species, is not entirely reliable. Though
he asserted that his list was compiled on the basis
of actual captures, an unusually large proportion
of “records” have not been seen since and are
probably misidentifications.
A female specimen of dorippus in good
condition was recorded from Jones Estate near
Bhimtal in Nainital district, Kumaon Himalaya
at c. 1,500 m on May 9, 1994. It has a forewing
length of 36 mm, and is in my collection.
No previous or subsequent individuals of
this form have been noted in the area. This is
not unusual, since it is known to occur in drier
regions (Wynter-Blyth 1957) and has hitherto
not been recorded in the hills in India. Its
appearance in the hills in a region of rather heavy
rainfall (up to 2,000 mm annually) is very
unusual.
However, April, May and part of June are
generally very hot and dry, with the temperature
touching 34 °C in the shade, even at 1,500 m in
the Bhimtal valley, and 1994 was no exception,
which might account for the presence of dorippus
here.
The form alcippoides was considered “very
rare” by Wynter-Blyth {op. cit.) as well as Evans
(1932). There is a female specimen from Dehra
Dun in the collection of the Forest Research
Institute, Dehra Dun (Roonwal et al. 1 963) which
appears to be the only known specimen from this
area. A specimen of D. chrysippus with white
streaks along the veins of the hindwing recto,
recorded on May 15, 1975 in the same locality,
i.e., Bhimtal valley, is in my collection. This
specimen is an intermediate between typical
chrysippus and alcippoides. Having recorded this
intermediate form, it is not unlikely that true
alcippoides will turn up in the Bhimtal valley
sooner or later.
Larsen (1987) noted that the form with
the white hindwings {alcippoides) became the
predominant form in Malaysia and North
Sumatra during the 20th century. It would be
interesting to keep a check on D. chrysippus
populations in India, to see whether the effects
of the factors influencing the structure of the
populations in southeast Asia extend as far as
India, in which case alcippoides should begin
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
131
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
to appear more frequently. If this is not so, the March 2, 2000 PETER SMETACEK
three uncommon forms will continue to be as Jones Estate, P. O. Bhimtal,
rare on the Subcontinent as they have been in Nainital 263 136.
the past. Uttaranchal, India .
References
Ashton, R. (1972): Butterflies of New Delhi
(Papilionoidea). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 502-
509.
Atkinson, E.T. ( 1 882): Gazetteer of the Himalayan Districts
of the North West Provinces of India, Vol. II, Chap.
2, Government Press, Allahabad.
Best, A.E.G. (1954): Occurrence of Danaus chrysippus
var. dorippus at Dumdum Airport. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 52: 218.
Donahue, J.P. (1962): Danaus chrysippus form dorippus
in Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 312.
Evans, W.H. (1932): The identification of Indian
Butterflies. 2nd edn. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.
Harman, A.C. (1950): Champaran Butterflies — North
Bihar. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 93-100.
Larsen, T.B. (1987): The Butterflies of the Nilgiri
Mountains of Southern India (Lepidoptera :
Rhopalocera). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84: 291-31 6.
Marshall, G.F.L. & L. de Niceville (1883): The
Butterflies of India, Burmah and Ceylon. Vol. I,
Calcutta. Repr. 1979, Today & Tomorrow’s Printers
& Publishers, New Delhi.
Roonwal, M.L., R.N. Mathur, G.D. Bhasin, P.N.
Chatterjee, P.K. Sen-Sarma, Balwant Singh, A.
Chandra, R.S. Thapa & K. Krishna (1963): A
Systematic Catalogue of the Main Identified
Entomological Collections at the Forest Research
Institute, Dehra Dun. Ind. For. Leaf. 121 (4) Ent.
Part 31 ( Lepid .) 1295-1395.
Woodhouse, L.G.O. & G.H.R. Henry (1 942): The Butterfly
Fauna of Ceylon, Colombo ( 1 st edn). Pp. xi v + 1 72
and 49 plates.
Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian
Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,
523 pp.
29. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SATURNID MOTHS SONTHONNAXIA MAENAS
(DOUBLEDAY) AND LOEPAKATINKA (WESTWOOD)
While working on an Environmental
Impact Assessment project at Kudremukh
National Park (KNP), Mr. S.A. Hussain
recorded two Saturnid moths, which were
photographed by his colleagues and brought for
identification. The moths were identified as
Sonthonnaxia maenas (Doubleday) (syn. Actias
maenas) and Loepa katinka (Westwood).
According to Arora & Gupta (Memoirs of
the Zoological Survey of India, Vol. 16,
Part 1,1979), the distribution of the moths
Sonthonnaxia maenas and Loepa katinka is
northeast India (Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal
Pradesh), Sikkim and West Bengal. S. maenas
is reported from South Andamans, while L.
katinka is also found in Himachal Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The present record of
these species from Kudremukh National Park
(KNP), Karnataka is an extension in their
distribution range, it is interesting to note that
both the species are mainly found in the foothills
of the Himalaya and areas of heavy rainfall like
south Andaman and places in Tamil Nadu. Their
occurrence in the KNP shows the geographical
link in the faunal distribution.
Loepa katinka is also found in other parts
of Karnataka. It has been photographed in
Matheran (Maharashtra). (I. Kehimkar pers.
comm.)
February 28, 2000 NARESH CHATURVEDI
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
132
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
30. REDESCRIPTION OF SCHIZOMUS BUXTONI GRAVELY FROM SRI LANKA
ON THE BASIS OF SYNTYPES DEPOSITED IN THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY
OF INDIA, CALCUTTA BY F.H. GRAVELY 1915
( With sixteen text-figures)
Schizomids are minute arachnids difficult
to see with the naked eye. They are nocturnal
and secretive in habit, and a difficult group to
collect and study. There are about 5-6 species
described from India (Bastawade 1985, 1992),
8 from Sri Lanka and 3 from Myanmar in the
Oriental region. In 1872, Pickard-Cambridge
described Schizomus crassicaudatus, the first
species known from Sri Lanka. Subsequently,
Pocock (1900) described S. suboculatus, Gravely
(1911a, 1911b, 1912, 1915) described 5 species
S. buxtoni , S. greeni , S. peradensis, S. vittatus
and S. per plexus, and Fernando (1957) described
S. formicoides.
The species described by Gravely (1911-
1915) were from his own collections of several
male and female specimens from various
localities in Sri Lanka. He designated these
collections as syntypes and deposited them at the
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta (=Kolkata).
I had the opportunity to study a few
specimens of S. buxtoni Gravely and to prepare
redescriptions and illustrations, which would
facilitate future studies on this small, but most
interesting invertebrate.
Schizomus buxtoni Gravely
(Figs 1-16)
1915. Schizomus (Trithyreus) buxtoni ,
Gravely, Rec. Indian Mus. 11: 383-6.
General: Body colour yellowish-brown,
darker on pedipalps and cheliceral fingers, but
pale on distal digits of legs; sometimes with a
greenish tinge on larger specimens (Gravely
1915). Dorsal body surface smooth on most of
the anterior portions of propeltidium, but rough
with microscopic suturous reticulation on
posterior portion. Pedipalps short and stout, not
much expanded and produced on trochanters
(Figs 6 & 10); male flagellum with a ventral
longitudinal hyaline body (Figs 7 & 8).
Measurements (in mm): Female syntype,
total length 4.86, cephalothorax 1 .78 long, 1 .008
wide; abdomen 3.08 long.
Cephalothorax: Propeltidium more than
twice as long as wide, anterior margin acutely
narrowed in a median process bearing a median
seta, followed immediately by a pair of setae and
subsequently with three lateral and two median
pairs of setae (Fig. 1), eye spots absent, posterior
portion rough with microscopic suturous
reticulations; mesopeltidium much narrowed, not
clearly seen; metapeltidium bearing a deep
median notch on anterior portion (Fig. 1), with
a pair of posterior setae. Anterior sternum with
8-9 setae plus a pair of long stemapophyseal setae
from anterior margin, posterior sternum weakly
sclerotised, bearing 5-6 setae.
Abdomen: All tergites and sternites
smooth, sternite I with two anterior rows of
8 setae and a pair of lateral oblique rows of 7
setae (Fig. 13), sternite II-IX with a pair of lateral,
1 submedian lateral and 1 pair of anterior median
setae each; setation on X-XII segments not clear.
Tergites I- VII smooth, with a pair of median setae
and tergites VIII-IX with a pair of median and
lateral setae. Segment XII with only 4 dorsal
setae clearly noticeable. Flagellum 0.342 mm
long, most of the setae shaded or drooped (due
to prolonged preservation) as in Fig. 14.
Spermathecae with two pairs of spearheaded lobes,
with undulating inner surface (Figs 15 & 16).
Chelicerae: Basal segment smooth,
slightly depressed medially, fixed finger with
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
134
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Figs 1-8: Schizomus biixtoni Gravely d .
1. Cephalothorax, dorsal aspect; 2. Chelicera, promarginal aspect; 3. Chelicera, retromarginal aspect;
4. Tarsus, metatarsus I, dorsal aspect; 5. Femur IV, lateral aspect; 6. Palp, dorsal aspect;
7. Abdominal Segments IX-XII with flagellum, ventral aspect; 8. Segments X-XII for flagellum, lateral aspect.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
4 minute teeth between two large outer teeth (Figs
2 & 3), movable finger with smooth serrula, with
12-13 minute teeth ridge and a tooth on lateral
anterior margin (Figs 2 & 3), types of setae
present Type 1-3, II-4, III-7, IV-4, V-3 and VI- 1.
Pedipalps: Short and stout, trochanter
produced, but not acutely, bearing 6-7 spinose
setae, femora rounded and anteroventrally
knobbed with spines on exterior surface, patellae
without spur, but with long pilose setae on
ventromesal margins, a pair of longer plumose
setae on distal end, tibiae not rounded, but almost
pentagonal with many setae on dorsal and mesal
surfaces, with a long seta on ventromesal surface,
tarsus-basitarsus with several short and some
long plumose setae, spur about 0.6 and claws
about 1.2 times dorsal length of tarsus-basitarsus.
Legs: Leg I-IV as in Table 1, basitarsal-
tarsal proportions as 22:3:4:4:5:5:13 (Fig. 4).
Femora IV about 3.3 times long as deep.
Measurements (in mm): Male syntype
total length 3.96, cephalothorax 1.88 long, 1.00
wide; abdomen 2.08 long.
Cephalothorax: Propeltidium 1.28, almost
same as in female syntype, except 2 median and
2 lateral setae; mesopeltidium not very clear and
very narrow, thus invisible, transparent due to
long preservation; metapeltidium deeply notched
medially (Fig. 9).
Abdomen: Tergites I-V each with a pair
of median setae, tergites VI-VIII each with a
median pair and a lateral pair of setae, tergite
IX less than half the length of tergite VIII and
with a pair of median and two lateral pairs of
setae. Segments X-XII telescoped, X with one
mediolateral, 2 pairs of lateral setae; XI with 6-
8 ventral setae, dorsal setae not clear; XII with 2
pairs of strong dorsomedians, 2 pairs of short
and stout laterals and 6 ventral setae. Male
flagellum short, 0.414 long, and 0.27 wide,
sphere shaped, knobbed with two lateral lobes,
not much sclerotized and provided with a
ventromedian, elongated along with ventral
median line a semi-dumbbell shaped transparent
hyaline piece (Figs 7 & 8), with 2d, 2dm, 2L
and 3V setae. Legs: I-IV as in Table 2, basitarsal-
tarsal proportions as 27:4:5:6:5:4:15 (Fig. 12),
Femora IV 2.6 times as long as deep (Fig. 11),
anterior sternum with 7 setae and a pair of long
stemapophysial setae on anterior margin, posterior
sternum with 5-6 setae.
Material examined: 19,1 d, from the type
series deposited at National Zoological Collections,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta (=Kolkata).
Type Locality: i. Polonuruwa, North
central Province, Sri Lanka (Ceylon), several
9 9 and d d collected from under rocks and
leaves.
ii. Minneriya, North Central Province
3 9 9.
iii. Sigiri, Central Province many 9 9 and
dd.
Table 1
MEASUREMENTS (IN MM): FEMALE SYNTYPE S'. BUXTONI GRAVELY
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
136
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16. Spermathecae (magnified), dorsal aspect.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 2
MEASUREMENTS (IN MM): MALE SYNTYPE S. BUXTONI GRAVELY
Distribution: North Central and Central
Provinces of Sri Lanka only.
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr J.R.B. Alfred, Director,
Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for the
facilities to study the syntypes at ZSI, Kolkata.
I thank Drs R.C. Basu, A.K. Sanyal, and
B. Biswas for their kind co-operation during the
studies, the Officers-in-Charge of ZSI, Arunachal
Pradesh Field Station, Itanagar, and ZSI, Western
Refer
Bastawade, D.B. (1985): The first report of the order
Schizomida (Arachnida) from Southern India.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 689-691.
Bastawade, D.B. & T.K. Pal (1992): The first record of
the Arachnid order Schizomida from Arunachal
Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(1): 137.
Fernando, E.F. (1957): A new species of Schizomus
(Trithyreus) formicoides from Ceylon. Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. 10(12): 13-16.
Gravely, F.H. (1911a): Notes on Pedipalpi in the collection
of the Indian Museum. Rec. Indian Mus. 6: 33-38.
Regional Station, Pune for facilities and the Artist
section, ZSI, WRS, Pune for preparing the ink-
lined illustrations.
February 1 6, 2000 D.B. BASTAWADE
Zoological Survey of India,
251 , Western Regional Station,
Vidyanagar, Sec. 29
Opp. Akurdi Railway Station,
Rawat Road,
Pune 411 044,
Maharashtra, India.
ENCES
Gravely, F.H. (1911b): The species of Ceylon Pedipalpi.
Spolia Zeylanica 7: 135-140.
Gravely, F.H. (1912): Notes on Pedipalpi in the collection
of the Indian Museum. Rec. Indian Mus. 7: 101-110.
Gravely, F.H. (1915): Note on Pedipalpi in the collection
of Indian Museum V, Tarterides collected by
Mr. B.H. Buxton in Ceylon and the Malaya. Rec. Indian
Mus. 77:383-386.
Pocock, R.I. (1 900): The Fauna of British India, including
Ceylon and Burma. Arachnida. Taylor & Francis xii +
279.
31. MORPHOLOGY OF EUR YCERCUS LAMELLA TUS (MULLER), CHYDORIDAE:
CLADOCERA, FROM THE HIGH ALTITUDE WETLANDS OF SIKKIM, INDIA
( With thirteen text-figures )
Chydoridae is the largest family of the examined the phylogenetic relationships
Order Cladocera, and is clearly defined amongst its members and established four
morphologically and ecologically. Frey (1967) subfamilies, namely Eurycercinae, Sayciinae,
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137
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Chydorinae and Aloninae, of which Sayciinae
is not represented in the Indian subcontinent.
The remaining three subfamilies, with more than
50 species, are represented in India. The
subfamily Eurycercinae is represented by
Eurycercus lamellatus reported from Manasbal
lake, Kashmir (Michael and Sharma 1988).
Further, by examining the major
characters of the genus Eurycercus from various
parts of the world, Frey (1975) established three
subgenera, namely Eurycercus , Teretifrons and
Bullatifrons for the lamellatus , glacialis and
macracanthus groups.
The present study reports the occurrence
of Eurycercus lamellatus (Muller 1776) from
three high altitude wetlands of west and east
Sikkim. A brief description of its external
morphology and thoracic limbs is given below.
Eurycercus lamellatus (Muller 1776)
Material Examined: 13 adult females and
seven neonates from Changu lake (east Sikkim,
23. v. 1995), Sum Dung lake (East Sikkim,
29.xi.1995) and Tik Juk lake (west Sikkim,
19. xi. 1995) coll. Bhupendra Nath Roy, Tadong,
East Sikkim.
Female: Body Size: 2.21 ±0.26 mm (n=9).
Body width: 1.675 ±0.24 mm (n=9). Shape oval.
Dorsal margin of carapace convex, ventral
margin straight. Posterodorsal and posteroventral
comers of carapace rounded (Fig. 1). Dorsal keel
present, head keel absent. Labmm convex, trian-
gular, with a blunt curve at the distal end (Fig.
2) . Antennules with sharp incision; sensory seta
situated in the middle of anterior margin (Fig.
3) . Antennal seta 0-0-3/1-1-3. Eye larger than
ocellus, ocellus small, situated at the base of the
antennule. Midgut with single loop; caecum
short. Carapace with row of setae on ventral
margin and a row of small spinules at the end of
ventral margin and posterior margin (Fig. 4).
Thoracic limb I: Bears 3 setae in the inner
distal lobe (clasping hook) and 2 setae in the
outer distal lobe. The middle seta of the inner
distal lobe is immovable, with a heavily
chitinized hook. The inner distal lobe also bears
proximal, marginal and distal spinules, and a
group of grinding tubercles (Fig. 5).
Thoracic limb II: Size of scraping spine
2 and 3, 1 and 4, almost the same. Number of
scraping setules 9-12 (Fig. 6).
Thoracic limb III, IV, V & VI (Figs 7-10):
Thoracic limb III with 6 setae in the gnathobase,
with 7 setae on the outer surface of the endite
(Fig. 7). The middle one of the 3 feathered setae
on the gnathobase near the sensilla is slightly
shorter than the other 2 in the thoracic limb V.
Limb IV with 8 soft and 9 gnathobasic setae, and
limb V with 7 soft setae. Limb VI as in Fig. 10.
Postabdomen (Fig. 11): Concave abruptly
beyond the distalmost tooth. Distal preanal spine
much larger than others, gradual decrease in size
towards proximal end. Claws with 2 basal spines,
distal spine longer. Concave margin with setae.
Head shield (Figs 12-13) length and width not
equal. Median pore larger, oval, with a small
lateral pore on either side (Fig. 13).
Remarks: In India, E. lamellatus was
recorded from Manasbal lake, Kashmir (only 2
specimens from littoral zone, badly preserved and
distorted) by Michael and Sharma (1988). A head
shield of Eurycercus has been reported from
Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh (central India),
supposedly carried there by a river originating
in the Himalaya (Adholia 1979, Fernando and
Kanduru 1984). Sharma and Michael (1987)
indicated that E. lamellatus is restricted to
Kashmir (above 32° N); they also collected a
specimen of Eurycercus from lower altitudes in
the Jaintia hills, northeast India, from an
abandoned paddy field. Dumont and Van de
Velde (1977) collected a number of specimens
of Eurycercus sp. in Tsho III loc. 1, which were
sent to the late Dr. D.G. Frey for further study,
who said that they represented an undescribed
species.
138
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Figs 1-5: Eurycercus lamellatus, Female, 1. lateral view; 2. labrum; 3. antennule; 4. posteroventral comer;
5. thoracic limb (S-setule; SP-spinule).
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139
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Figs 6-9: Eurycercus lamellatus, Female, 6. II thoracic limb; 7. Ill thoracic limb; 8. IV thoracic limb;
9. V thoracic limb (S - setule; GN - gnathobase).
140
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Figs 10-13: Eurycercus lamellatus, Female, 10. VI thoracic limb; 1 1. postabdomen;
12. head shield; 13. head pore.
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The present study on material collected
from the eastern Himalayan region clearly shows
no difference in trunk limb morphology of
females. Unfortunately, no males were found.
Since male morphology is considered decisive
for the taxonomy of most Cladocera
(Venkataraman 1995), efforts should be made to
study the males of the present species from
remote areas in the Himalaya.
I thank the Director, Zoological Survey of
India, for facilities; Mr. B.N. Roy and Dr. Tappa,
Sikkim Govt College for collections.
July 14, 1999 K. VENKATARAMAN
Marine Biological Station,
Zoological Survey of India,
100 Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India.
References
Adholia, U.N. (1979): Zooplankton of the River Betwa.
Geo Eco. Trop. 3: 267 -27 1 .
Dumont, H.J. & I. Van de Velde (1977): Report on a
collection of Cladocera and Copepoda from Nepal.
Hydrobiologia 53: 55-65.
Fernando, C.H. & A. Kanduru (1984): Some remarks on
the latitudinal distribution of Cladocera on the Indian
subcontinent. Hydrobiologia 113 : 69-76.
Frey, D.G. (1967): Phylogenetic relationships in the Family
Chydoridae (Cladocera). Proc. Symp. Crustacea
Ernakulam, India (1965). Pt I, pp. 29-37.
Frey, D.G. (1975): Subgeneric differentiation within
Eurycercus (Cladocera, Chydoridae) and a new species
from northern Sweden. Hydrobiologia 145: 29-33.
Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Indian Cladocera.
Fauna of India Series. Ed. Director, Zoological Survey
of India, Calcutta, pp. 262.
Sharma, B.K. & R.G. Michael (1987): Review of
taxonomic studies on freshwater Cladocera from India
with remarks on biogeography. Hydrobiologia 145: 29-
30
Venkataraman, K. (1995): The Cladocera males of
Oriental region. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(3): 378-
385.
32. NEW RECORD OF THE MUD SNAIL, HYDROBIA (MOLLUSCA ;
GASTROPODA) FROM THE MANGROVE HABITAT OF INDOPACIFIC REGION
During an intensive survey of the
macrobenthos of Cochin mangroves in Kerala
by Sunil Kumar (1993), Hydrobia sp. was
collected from the intertidal soil habitat. In the
entire two-year period of study, large numbers
of mud snails (Hydrobiidae) were found in the
mangrove subsoil. Survey of the literature
revealed that this occurrence of the mud snail,
Hydrobia , is the first record from the Indian
mangrove environment and from the mangrove
systems of the Indo-Pacific region, including
South Africa, Malaysia, Thailand, Australia,
Japan and Hawaii.
The ecology and distribution of mud snails
(Hydrobiidae) was worked on by Nicol (1936),
Spooner and Moore ( 1 940), Newell ( 1 962, 1 965),
Fenchel (1975a, b), Wells (1978), Barnes (1979),
and Walters and Wharfe (1980). However, the
species has not been reported from the mangrove
ecosystem.
In India, Pillai and Appukuttan (1980),
while studying the molluscs in and around the
coral reefs of the southeastern coast of India,
compared the mangrove-associated molluscs of
that area in Manauli Island with those of the
mangrove forms of the East Indies (Cooman,
1969) and Western Indian Ocean (Taylor 1968).
They stated that Indian mangroves have faunal
elements from both eastern and western parts of
the Indian Ocean. However, in their work there
was no report on the distribution of the infaunal
mollusc, Hydrobia.
A comparison of the mangrove molluscan
fauna of south India with that of Malaysia (Berry
1963) and South Africa (Macnae 1963, Brown
1971) has been done by Kasinathan and
142
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Shanmugam (1985), who opined that south
Indian and Malayan mangroves have a greater
affinity for molluscan fauna than the mangroves
of South Africa and south India. However,
Hydrobia was not reported in the study.
Faunal surveys, including the molluscan
fauna, have been carried out in different
mangrove ecosystems of the Indo-Pacific region
(Walsh 1967, Macnae 1967, 1968, Sasekumar
1974, Frith et al 1976, Wells 1983, Shokita et
al. 1989, Omori 1989) including India (Sunil
Kumar 2000). None of these epifaunal and
infaunal studies on intertidal mangrove areas
reported the occurrence of Hydrobia sp., except
Sunil Kumar (1993), from Cochin. Hence, from
the literature stated above, it is to be noted that
Refer
Barnes, R.S.K. (1979): Intrapopulation variation in
Hydrobia. Sediment preferences. Estuar. cstl. Mar.
Sci. 9: 231-234.
Berry, A.J. ( 1 963): Faunal zonation in mangrove swamps
Bull. nat. Mus. Singapore, 32: 90-98.
Brown, D.S. (1971): The ecology ofGastropoda in a South
African mangrove Swamp. Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond.
39: 263-279.
Cooman, H.E. (1969): Biological aspects of mangrove
molluscs in the West Indies. Malacologia 9(1): 79-
84.
Fenchel, T. (1975a): Factors determining the distribution
patterns of mud snails (Hydrobiidae). Oecologia
(Berl.) 20: 1-17.
Fenchel, T. (1975b): Character displacement and co-
existence in mud snails (Hydrobiidae). Oecologia 20:
19-32.
Frith, D.W., R. Tantanasiriwong & O. Bhatia (1976):
Zonation of macrofauna on a mangrove shore, Phuket
Island, Southern Thailand. Phuket Mar. Biol. Center
Res. Bull. 10: 1-37.
Kasinathan, R. & A. Shanmugam ( 1 985): Molluscan fauna
of Pichavaram mangroves, Tamil Nadu. In: Proc. Nat.
Symp. Biol. Util. Cons. Mangr. Pp. 438-443.
Macnae, W. (1963): Mangrove swamps in South Africa.
J. Ecol. 51: 12-25.
Macnae, W. ( 1 967): Zonation within mangroves associated
with estuaries in North Queensland. Estuaries 83:
432-441.
Macnae, W. (1968): A general account of the fauna and
Hydrobia was earlier reported from areas other
than mangrove habitats. The occurrence of
Hydrobia sp. in the Cochin mangrove soil is,
therefore, the first record from Indian mangroves
and from other mangrove environments of the
Indo-Pacific region.
September 22, 1999 R. SUNIL KUMAR
School of Marine Sciences,
Cochin University of Science and Tehnology,
Cochin 682 016,
Kerala, India.
Present address: Department of Zoology,
Catholicate College,
Pathanamthitta 689 645,
Kerala, India.
EN C E S
flora of mangrove swamps and forests in the Indo-
West Pacific region. Adv. Mar. Biol. 6: 73-270.
Newell, R. (1962): Behavioural aspects of the ecology of
Hydrobia ulvae (Pennant), (Gastropoda,
Prosobranchia). Proc. Zool. Soc. London 138: 49-
75.
Newell, R. (1965): The role of detritus in the nutrition of
two marine deposit feeders, the prosobranch
Hydrobia ulvae and the bivalve Macoma baithica.
Proc. Zool. Soc. London 144: 25-45.
Nicol, F.A.T. (1936): The brackish water lochs of North
Ulster. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 56: 169-195.
Omori, K. (1989): Comparative study on benthic
community structures in two mangrove swamps of
Iriomote Island, Okinawa. Galaxea 8: 11-15.
Pillai, C.S.G. & K.K. Appukuttan (1 980): Distribution of
molluscs in and around the coral reefs of the
Southeastern coast in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
77: 26-48.
Sasekumar, A. (1974): Distribution of macrofauna on a
Malayan mangrove shore. J. Anim. Ecol. 43: 51-69.
Shokita, S., J. Sanguansin, S. Nishijima, S. Soemodihardjo,
A. Abdullah, M.H. He, R. Kasinathan & K.
Okamoto (1989): Distribution and abundance of
benthic macrofauna in the Funaura Mangal of Irimote
Island, the Ryukyus. Galaxea 8: 1 7-30.
Spooner, G.M. & H.B. Moore (1940): The ecology of the
Tamer Estuary VI. An account of the macrofauna of
the intertidal muds. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K. 24: 283-
330.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
143
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Sunil Kumar, R. (1993): Studies on the benthic fauna of
the mangrove swamps of Cochin area. Ph.D. thesis.
Cochin University of Science and Technology, India.
Sunil Kumar, R. (2000): A review on the biodiversity
studies of soil dwelling organisms in Indian
mangroves. Zoo ’s Print Journal 15(3): 221-227.
Talyor, J.D. ( 1 968): Coral reefs and associated invertebrate
communities (mainly molluscs) around Mahe
Seychelles. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (B) 254 : 129-206.
Walsh, G.E. (1967): An ecological study of a Hawaiian
mangrove swamp. Estuaries 83: 420-43 1 .
Walters, G.J. & J.R. Wharfe (1980): Distribution and
abundance of Hydrobia ulvae (Pennant) in the lower
midway estuary, Kent. Journal ofMolluscan studies
46: 171-180.
Wells, F.E. (1978): The relationship between
environmental variables and the density of the mud
snail Hydrobia in a salt marsh. Journal ofMolluscan
studies 44(1): 120-129.
Wells, F.E. (1983): An analysis of marine invertebrates
distribution in a mangrove swamp in northwestern
Australia. Bull. Mar. Sci. 33(3): 736-744.
33. MANGROVE CLAM GELOINA EROSA (SOLANDER, 1786) FROM CORINGA
(GODAVARI) ESTUARY: A NEW RECORD FOR ANDHRA PRADESH
During a faunistic survey of Coringa
(Godavari) estuary ( c . 16° 30’- 17° 00' N and 82°
14'-82° 23' E) in August 1999, 3 molluscan shells
were collected which were identified as Geloina
erosa (Solander 1786). The mangroves Avicennia
marina , Exoecaria agallocha and Sonneratia
apetala dominate the habitat from which the
shells were collected. The anterio-posterior axis
of the shell (bearing a distinct flexure extending
from the umbo to the mid-posterior margin)
ranged between 52 and 68 mm.
This species was reported as common
along the mangroves of the Indian Ocean,
extending its range further east into the Pacific
Ocean (Prashad 1932). The information about
its distribution in Indian waters is limited.
Specimens were collected in the past from False
Point, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Mahanadi
river (Mitra pers. comm.) and the Mandovi
estuary (Ingole et al. 1994). The species has not
been recorded from Coringa (Godavari) estuary
and thus, constitutes a new record.
I thank Mr S.C. Mitra of the Mollusca
Division, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for
information on the distribution of the species and
the Head, Department of Zoology, Osmania
University for facilities. I acknowledge a Senior
Research Fellowship from CSIR, New Delhi.
May 15, 2000 C. SRINIVASULU
Wildlife Biology Section,
Department of Zoology
Osmania University, Hyderabad 500 007,
Karnataka, India.
References
Ingole, B.S., L. Krishna Kumari, Z.A. Ansari & A.H. 338-339.
Parulekar( 1994): New record of Mangrove Cl am Prashad, B. (1932): The Lamellibranchia of Siboga
Geloina erosa (Solander, 1786) from the west Expedition. Systematic Part II. Pelecypoda. Exped.
coast of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(2): Rep. No. 53, E.J. Brill, Leiden. Pp. 1-353.
34. TWO NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR INDIA FROM SIKKIM
( With two text-figures )
Botanical explorations undertaken in the
state of Sikkim since 1980 have resulted in a
collection of more than 19,000 field numbers in
the Herbarium of Sikkim Himalayan Circle,
Botanical Survey of India, Gangtok. Study of
some of these collections, resulted in identifying
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 2: Elymus thoroldianum (Oliver) G. Singh, A. Habit; B. Auricles; C. Spikelet; D. Lower glume;
E. Upper glume; F. Lemma - lateral view; G. Palea; H. Stamen; I. Gynaecium
146
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two plants not known earlier from India. The
two species are reported, described and illustrated
here. The herbarium specimens are deposited in
the Herbarium, Sikkim Himalayan Circle, BSI,
Gangtok, (BSHC).
1. Hypericum ludlowii N.B.K. Robson in
Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 41(1). 133.
1983. (Hypericaceae). Fig: 1.
Suberect herbs up to 10 cm high; stems
terete, unbranched. Leaves opposite, up to 1 x
0.5 cm, oblong-ovate, rounded at base, entire at
margins, obtuse at apex, glabrous above,
puberulous and gland-dotted beneath. Flowers
solitary, terminal, up to 7 mm across, bisexual,
yellow, pedicels c. 2 mm long, glabrous. Sepals
5, c. 4x1 mm, linear- lanceolate, glandular-ciliate,
acuminate at apex. Petals 5, c. 6x1.5 mm,
lanceolate, entire at margins, acuminate at apex,
glandular hairy near apex. Stamens 12, c. 6 mm
long, anthers dorsifixed.' Ovary ovoid, c. 4 mm
across, styles 3-4, connate, c. 2 mm long stigma
capitate. Capsules not seen.
Specimens examined: North Sikkim:
Yumthang, 26.vii.1989, N.R.Mandal 10085
(BSHC).
. Distribution: india: Sikkim (New report),
Bhutan, China (Tibet).
Notes: This species is closely related to
H. petiolulatum Dyer, but is different in being
(i) a sparsely branched herb (ii) leaves elliptic,
subsessile (iii) flowers solitary and (iv) sepals
glandular ciliate, whereas the latter is (i) a much
branched herb with (ii) ovate leaves, shortly
petiolate, petiole up to 4 mm long, (iii) flowers
1-3 and (iv) sepals entire at margin or with a
few sessile glands, but never glandular ciliate.
2. Elymus thoroldianum (Oliver) G. Singh
in Taxon 32 (4): 640. 1983. Agropyron
thoroldianum Oliver in Hook, Ic. PI. t. 2262. 1 893;
Bor, Grasses Ind. 667. 1960. (Poaceae). Fig:2.
Tufted perennials up to 20 cm high, culms
glabrous. Leaf sheaths glabrous on margins; leaf
blades up to 8 cm long, herbaceous. Spikes up to
4 x 1.5 cm, golden yellow, dense; axis tough,
continuous. Spikelets solitary at each node of the
spike axis, 3-4 flowered, breaking at maturity.
Glumes lanceolate; lower glume c. 5.5 x 1.5 mm,
upper glume c. 5 x 1 .5 mm, upper glume c. 5 x 1 .5
mm, gradually tapering into a short awn at apex,
coriaceous, 3 -nerved, midrib pubescent. Lemma
c. 8x3 mm, elliptic-lanceolate, 3 -nerved, silky
villous with scattered long hairs on the midrib;
awn 4-5 mm long, scabrid. Palea c. 7x2 mm,
elliptic, long ciliate on the keels. Stamens 3, c. 2.5
mm long, anthers c. 1 .5 mm long. Ovary obovoid,
c. 1.5 mm long, with a silky hairy appendage at
apex; styles 2, stigma fimbriate.
Specimens examined: North Sikkim: Near
Gurudongmar lake, 5,300 m above msl,
5.x. 1997, P.Singh & S.S.Dash 20050 (BSHC).
Distribution : india: Sikkim (new report),
China (Tibet).
Notes: A rare grass, collected only from
one site near the Indo-Tibetan border in Indian
territory. It differs from other Indian species of
Elymus in having spikelets solitary at each node,
lemmas silky villous and anthers c. 1.5 mm long.
This species was originally described under
Agropyron from Tibet, but with the re-evaluation
of generic limits in the tribe Triticeae, it is now
placed under Elymus.
Acknowledgements
We thank Mr. N.R. Mandal, Scientist SD,
BSI for allowing us to examine his collections,
the Director, BSI, Kolkata for encouragement and
Scientist SE, BSI, SHC, Gangtok for facilities.
February 27, 1999 P.SINGH
S.S. DASH
Botanical Survey of India,
Sikkim Himalayan Circle,
Gangtok 737 103, Sikkim, India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
147
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
35. YIELD RESPONSE OF CALOPHYLLUM INOPHYLLUM
ON INTRODUCTION OF RED ANTS OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA
Calophyllum inophyllum Linn, is a broad
leaved evergreen tree being cultivated for its oil
yielding fruit. The oil extracted from the fruit
has been used as fuel for rural chimney lamps.
C. inophyllum bears flowers during April-May
and August-September and the large clusters of
fruit attain maturity 3-4 months after flowering.
About 26-42% of the fruit between 1-2.4 cm in
diameter are destroyed by the five striped palm
squirrel Funambulus pennanti (Seshagiri Rao
1972). The squirrels make holes in the soft seed
coat and consume the developing embryo. No
biological method is known so far, that can
prevent damage to the young fruit by squirrels.
The red weaver ant Oecophylla
smciragdina Fb., prefers Calophyllum inophyllum
as one of its host plants (Kumaresan 1998). Its
pest control activity has been known for many
years. It destroys borer grubs of beetles on date
palm (Debach 1974), Levuana iridescens on
coconut (Tothill et al. 1930), citrus shield bugs
(Hill 1983) and rhinoceros beetles on coconut
(Kumaresan 1996). Keeping this in mind, red
ants were introduced on Calophyllum inophyllum
to check the damage to fruit by squirrels.
Fifty Calophyllum inophyllum trees were
selected and red ants were introduced on 25 trees.
Twenty-five inflorescences were selected from
each tree and tagged with numbers at the time
of flowering. The number of flowers per
inflorescence, number of young fruit in the
cluster, number of young fruit damaged by
squirrels were studied at flowering time, and the
number of mature fruit in a cluster was recorded
at harvest time for 3 years between April 1995
and December 1998 (Table 1).
The higher number of young fruit in trees
Table 1
YIELD RESPONSE OF CALOPHYLLUM INOPHYLLUM
AFTER RED ANT INTRODUCTION
harbouring ants may be due to the assistance of
red ants in pollination. Fruit damaged by
squirrels was less than one per cluster, and
remained in the cluster for 3-5 days after the
damage was caused.
The red ants bit invading squirrels and
injected formic acid at the site of the bite. This
annoying behaviour of the red ants kept squirrels
away from the trees, thus reducing the fruit
damage. The daily visits of squirrels ranged from
62 to 83 in ant-free and 26-42 in ant harbouring
trees. The odour of the ants might also be
responsible for decreased visits to the trees.
Red ants act as pollinators for Calophyllum
inophyllum and increase fruit set at the flowering
stage. In the later stages, they keep the squirrels
away from the trees and help to decrease the
damage to immature fruit. The red ants can
therefore be used to get a good yield from
Callophyllum inophyllum.
I thank Prof. R. Bothi, Head, Department
of Botany, Vivekananda College, for
encouragement and facilities.
November 7, 2000 V. KUMARESAN
Department of Botany,
Vivekananda College,
Agasteeswaram 629 701, Tamil Nadu, India.
References
Debach, Paul (1974): Biological Control of Natural Control, Cambridge University Press.
Enemies, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Kumaresan, V. ( 1 996): Prevention of Rhinoceros Beetle
Hill, D.S. ( 1 983): Agricultural pests of Tropics and Their in Coconut Palms using Red Ants. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
148
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Soc. 93(2): 308-309.
Kumaresan, V. (1998): Host Plant Range of Arboreal
Nestsing Red Weaver Ants in Kanyakumari District of
Tamil Nadu (India). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95(1):
71-75.
Seshagiri Rao, D. (1972): A Hand Book of Plant
Protection, S.V. Rangaswamy and Co. Pvt. Ltd.,
Bangalore.
Tothill, J.D., T.H.C. Taylor & P.W. Paine (1930):
The Coconut Moth in Fiji. A history of its control by
means of parasites. Publ. Imp. Bur. Entomol. London
pp. 269.
36. ON THE DISTRIBUTION RANGE OF BAUHINIA GLAUCA GLAUCA (BENTH.)
BENTH. (LEGUMINOSAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) IN INDIA
Bentham (1861: 99) mentioned that
Bauhinia glauca (Benth.) Benth. extends from
“Khasia and Burma to Sumatra and Java”. The
range of distribution was given on the basis of
collections in the Hookerian and other herbaria
in Kew, and notes and observations of J.D.
Hooker on living flora of Sikkim and Khasia (see
Bentham 1861, Preface: 1 1 *-13*). Baker (1878:
283), however, did not include Khasia in the
distribution of B. glauca, although it is quite
probable that he too had examined all the
collections studied by Bentham in Kew, and had
personal knowledge of J.D. Hooker’s notes and
observations on the living flora of Sikkim and
Khasia.
On the other hand, de Wit (1956: 490) and
Larsen and Larsen (1973: 10; 1980: 184) again
included Khasia, like Bentham, in the world
distribution of the taxon. But in subsequent
regional floristic studies, it was not recorded from
Khasia, now in Meghalaya (Kanjilal et al. 1938;
Haridasan and Rao 1985). Sanjappa (1992: 3)
mentioned that B. glauca ssp. glauca is found
in Meghalaya and Mizoram.
Dr. Sanjappa kindly informed me (1998
pers. comm.) that he had given the Indian
distribution on the basis of Bentham (1861) and
Fischer (1938). After going through the latter, I
found that he had enlisted B. glauca on the basis
of Gage ( 1 90 1 ) on the flora of South Lushai hills,
now in Mizoram. Gage (1901: 342) reported,
without a field number, his own fruiting
collection of Bauhinia glauca Wall, from Helio
hill, Lungleh, at 3,700 ft (1,128 m). Further, he
gave the distribution as ‘Burma; Malaya; China’
and stated that his collection was a decided
northward extension for this species. From
Holmgren et al. (1990: 172, 526), I found that
A. T. Gage’s collections are in CAL, but despite
a thorough search there, I could not locate any
fruiting collection of B. glauca from South
Lushai hills by Gage without a field number.
However, a fruiting collection with a duplicate
(Helio hill, N.E. of Lungleh, South Lushai hills,
3,700 ft (1,128 m), 3.iv.l899, Gage 100- CAL)
identified as Bauhinia glauca Wall, was actually
found to be B. glauca ssp. tenuiflora (C.B.
Clarke) K. & S. S. Larsen. In fact, all the relevant
specimens ( Clarke 42304 D, 42342 B, Craib 111 ,
Deb 2439, Gage s.n., 100, Leslie 113, Meebold
6340, Mokim 35, 57, 259, Rao 8042, Watt 6915,
Wenger 6 - all CAL; Kanjilal 5644 - DD) or
their photographs ( Clarke 42304 E, 42342 A &
C, Watt 6915 - all K, photo. - CAL) examined
so far by me from Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland
in northeast India, have been found to be spp.
tenuiflora , except for the collection Rao 8042 -
CAL, which comes close to the Chinese taxon
B. glauca ssp. hupehana (Craib) T. Chen (K. &
S.S. Larsen pers. comm. 1997).
Recently, Larsen and Larsen (1996: 478)
stated that ssp. glauca is distributed in south
India, Burma, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and
Java, but there is neither any collection nor any
report of ssp. glauca from south India.
The label on the collection Heifer 1 864 -
CAL of ssp. glauca showing the locality as
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
149
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
‘Tenasserim and Andamans’ is ambiguous,
because after the murder of Dr. Heifer by the
aborigines in the North Andaman Is., his
collections from Tenasserim and Andamans were
unfortunately mixed up. Afterwards, all of them
were labeled together as ‘Tenasserim and
Andamans’. Thus, many of his Tenasserim plants
have also been ascribed to the Andaman flora
(Parkinson 1923, Introduction: xi). This
particular specimen seems to me to be from
Tenasserim, Myanmar (Burma) because no
specimen of ssp. glauca has been collected from
the Andamans since Heifer’s collection, more
than a hundred years ago.
This circumstantial evidence shows that
the inclusion of India in the distribution range
of ssp. glauca is not based on firm ground. The
true picture is likely to emerge only after the
completion of floristic surveys in the
underexplored regions of northeast India and the
Andaman and Nicobar Is.
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. M. Sanjappa, Botanical Survey
of India, for help and encouragement and the
Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew for
photographs of some specimens from Kew. I also
thank Prof. K. Larsen and S.S. Larsen, Aarhus
University, Denmark for their comments on
Rao’s collection, and Dr. Pieter Baas, Leiden
University, Netherlands for presenting me a copy
of Flora Malesiana.
March 3, 1 999 S. BANDYOPADHYAY
Botanical Survey of India
P.O. Botanic Garden,
Howrah 711 103, West Bengal, India.
References
Baker J.G. (1878): Leguminosae. In: Hooker, J.D., The
Flora of British India 2: 56-306. L. Reeve & Co.,
London.
Bentham, G. (1861): Flora Hongkongensis. L. Reeve &
Co., London.
Fischer, C.E.C. (1938): The flora of the Lushai hills. Rec.
Bot. Surv. India 12(2): 75-161 .
Gage, A.T. (1901): A botanical tour in the South Lushai
hills. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 1(13): 331-369.
Haridasan, K. & R.R. Rao (1985): Forest flora of
Meghalaya. Vol. 1. Bishen Singh, Mahendra Pal
Singh, Dehra Dun.
Holmgren, P.K., N.H. Holmgren & L.C. Barnett, eds
(1990): Index Herbariorum. Part 1. The herbaria of
the world (8th edition). New York. Regnum Veg. 120.
Kanjilal, U.N., P.C. Kanjilal & A. Das (1938): Flora of
Assam. Vol. 2. Govt of Assam, Shillong.
Larsen, K. & S.S. Larsen (1973): The genus Bauhinia in
Thailand. Nat. Hist. Bull. Siam Soc. 25(1 & 2):
1-22.
Larsen, K. & S.S. Larsen (1980): Bauhinia. In: Aubreville,
A. & J.F. Leroy (eds.), Flore du Cambodge du Laos
etdu Vietnam 18: 146-210. Paris.
Larsen, K. & S.S. Larsen (1 996): Bauhinia. In: Kalkman,
C. et al. (eds), Flora Malesiana Ser. I, 12(2): 442-
535. Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus, Leiden, The
Netherlands.
Parkinson, C.E. (1923): A forest flora of the Andaman
Islands. Superintendent, Government Central Press,
Simla.
Sanjappa, M. (1992): Legumes of India. Bishen Singh,
Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun.
De Wit, H.C.D. (1956): A revision of Malaysian
Bauhinieae. Reinwardtia 3(4): 381-539.
37. ON TWO SPECIES OF OSBECKIA LINN. (MELASTOMATACEAE)
In the course of taxonomic revision of
Family Melastomataceae for the Flora of India
Project, two new species, namely Osbeckia
darjeelingensis Giri & Nayar and O. nayarii Giri
were described, based on some old material
deposited in the Central National Herbarium
(CAL) and the herbarium of the Eastern Circle,
Botanical Survey of India (ASSAM). Additional
150
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1), APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
collections of these species were made after a
lapse of over 50 years from the adjacent areas.
In this paper, the field status of both the species
is discussed and descriptive notes are provided
for identification.
Osbeckia darjeelingensis Giri & Nayar In:
Bull. Bot. Surv. India 25(1-4): 241-243, Fig. 1.
a-f (1983) 1985.
Branched shrubs, stem and branches
hexangular, densely covered with short, rigid,
appressed hairs. Leaves linear-lanceolate, 3-5
nerved. Inflorescence a condensed panicle,
bracts broadly ovate, often appear in series.
Calyx tubes (hypanthium) sparsely covered with
gland tipped emergences, intersepalar
emergences with a terete stalk, hairy along
length and terminated by a strong bristle. Petals
obovate, bright purple. Capsules enclosed by
urceolate calyx-tubes.
Note: The description of O.
darjeelingensis was based on herbarium
specimens collected during 1868-1910. The
present collection was made during a survey
of the phanerogamic flora of Jaldapara
Wildlife Sanctuary, Jalpaiguri district in
December, along with flowers and fruits
( Chandra and Mandal 1105). The species was
collected along with two other Melastomataceae
species, namely O. malabathricum L. and O.
nepalensis Hook. f. O. malabathricum is widely
distributed throughout India, except in the arid
zone, and O. nepalensis in the Eastern
Himalayan ranges, extending to the northeastern
states.
The present collection of O.
darjeelingensis was made from a single
undisturbed spot at a lower altitude than the
previous records. Presently, the status of the
species is indeterminate (presumed rare) and
thorough search in range localities and effective
measures for protection in the wild are needed.
However, as the flowers and leaves of the species
are very showy, it can well be introduced into
gardens to serve the dual purposes of
ornamentation and ex situ conservation.
Specimens examined at CAL: West
Bengal: Darjeeling Terai, 29.x. 1876 Gamble
20513; Darjeeling Terai, Gamble 28021; N.
Bengal, Silligoree, 27.x. 1868, Kurz s.n.; Buxa
Red., W. Duals, Jan., 1880, Gamble 7671; NEC
Beat of Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary, Jalpaiguri
dist., 9.xii.l995, S. Chandra & S.K. Mandal
1105.
Sikkim: Sikkim Terai, Ribu s.n. (CAL);
Mahanadi, Terai, 200-400 ft (61-122 m),
1 3 .xii. 1910, Ribu & Rhomoo s.n.-, Sikkim,
J.D.H. s.n.\ locality not mentioned,
Narayanaswami s.n.
Osbeckia nayarii Giri In: J. Econ. Tax.
Bot. 4(2): 609. Fig. 1. A-E. 1983.
Branched herbs, stem and branches
strongly quadrangular and distinctly winged at
angles, glabrous. Leaves ovate-elliptic to ovate-
lanceolate, 5 -nerved. Inflorescence axillary or
terminal condensed panicle; bracts ovate, calyx
tubes (hypanthium) urceolate, glabrous;
intersepalar emergences rudimentary, as a
simple hair. Petals ovate-oblong, pinkish-purple.
Capsules enclosed by urceolate, glabrous calyx-
tubes with a distinct long neck.
Note: O. nayarii was described on the basis
of specimens collected in 1886-1938 mainly
from Khasia hills of Meghalaya and
surroundings. The collection from Bengal
Orientale [Bengal Or.] (J.D.H. & T.T.) is
probably from the northeastern part of West
Bengal, adjacent to the Assam border. The last
collection of the species cited below was made
from Shillong at c. 1 ,200 m, in 1 986 during field
study ( Pal s.n.). A recent personal
communication from the Scientists in the BSI,
Eastern Circle, Assam also says that a good
population exists in the area of the last collection.
In the present study, additional material collected
by Dr. King’s collector in 1886, No. 239 (Acc.
No. 171989) from Chittagong Hill Tracts,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
151
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Bangladesh was also traced at CAL and
identified as O. nayarii Giri, which extended
its eastern distribution.
Specimens examined at CAL: india:
Assam: Pantung Forest, 5.iv.l938, K. Biswas
s.n.; locality not mentioned, Junkings s.n.
Meghalaya: Khasia, ca 600 m, 14.ix.1886,
Clarke 44776 A (Holotype); Ibid., Clarke 44776
B-D (Isotypes); Khasia, G. Mann s.n.; Shillong,
ca 1,200 m, 7.V.1986, Pal s.n.; West Bengal:
Bengal Or., ca 1,200 m, J.D.H. & T.T. s.n.
Bangladesh: Chittagong Hill Tracts, 1886,
Dr. King’s collector No. 239.
AcKNOWLEDGEM ENT
We thank the Deputy Director, Central
National Herbarium for facilities.
January 29, 1999 G.S. GIRI
S.K. MANDAL
Botanical Survey of India
Central National Herbarium,
P.O. Botanic Garden,
Howrah 711 103,
West Bengal,
India.
38. FIRST RECORD OF GUM EXUDATION FROM THE GONDA TREE
CORDIA MYXA LINN. (FAMILY: BORAGINACEAE)
Gonda Cordia myxa Linn. (Boraginaceae)
is an important horticultural tree. Gonda is also
reported to have medicinal and therapeutic value
(Chopra et al. 1956). In this paper, we report
for the first time gum exudation from Gonda
tree. In December, 1994, 490 gm of the gum
was collected from trees around Jodhpur. The
gum was in the form of irregular broken tears
of varying size, generally colourless, with a
brittle, fractured surface. The sample was
odourless, mucilaginous and tasted bland. The
powder was white in colour. The gum was
practically insoluble in alcohol and almost
entirely soluble in twice its weight of water,
yielding a highly viscous, slightly acidic
solution. When diluted with more water and
allowed to stand, the sample produced a
negligible amount of gummy residue. It was
distinguishable from the Indian gum described
in the pharmacopoeia of india (Anon 1970): (i)
it produced a greenish instead of blue colour on
treatment with hydrogen peroxide and
Refe
Anonymous (1970): The Pharmacopoeia of India,
Government of India, Ministry of Health, 2nd Edn,
Publ. Manager of Publications, Delhi, p. 347.
benzidine, and (ii) it gave a white precipitate
with lead acetate instead of no precipitate.
Despite slight variations in its properties
compared to Indian gum, the high solubility in
water and attractive physical appearance of the
Gonda gum may be exploited for use in various
applications.
Acknowledgement
We thank Dr A.S. Faroda, Director,
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur
for his keen interest and encouragement.
February 27, 1999 HAMID A. KHAN,
*B.B. VASHISHTHA,
M. MOHIBB E AZAM
Central Arid Zone Research Institute,
Jodhpur 342 003, Rajasthan, India.
* Present Address:
National Research Centre for Horticulture,
Bikaner, Rajasthan, India.
ENCES
Chopra, R.N., S.L. Nayyar & I.C. Chopra (1956):
Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants, Council of
Scientific & Industrial Research, New Delhi. Pp. 77.
152
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
39. DISTRIBUTION OF OBERONIA BRACHYPHYLLA BLATT. & MCCANN — A
RARE, ENDEMIC ORCHID OF WESTERN GHATS, INDIA
( With two text-figures )
Oberonia brachyphylla Blatt. & McCann
is one of the rare orchids listed in the red data
book of Indian plants (Nayar and Sastry 1988).
This tiny little orchid was described by Blatter
and McCann (1931) from a detailed illustration
prepared by T.R. Bell & Miss Bell, made from
live specimens collected in North Kanara
(Santapau and Kapadia 1966). Later, Santapau
and Kapadia (loc. cit.) also collected it from
North Kanara and reported it to be apparently
endemic to North Kanara. Subsequent workers
have recorded this species from other parts of
Western Ghats. Joseph and Vajravelu (1976)
reported it from Palghat district, Kerala. In 1 98 1 ,
Abraham and Vatsala reported it from Ponmudi,
Kerala, which seems to be the southernmost
recorded distribution of this orchid. Ansari et
al. (1982) reported its distribution from North
Kanara and Kerala, based on Santapau and
Kapadia (loc. cit.), and Joseph and Vajravelu
(loc. cit). But it is interesting to note that
Vajravelu (1988), while discussing its
distribution, has not taken North Kanara,
Karnataka and Ponmudi, Kerala into account
and mentioned only Hassan and Palghat
districts. Ansari and Balakrishnan (1990) in
their revision of Oberonia species mentioned
only Maharashtra and Kerala as distribution
centres. There is no mention of this species in
flora of Maharashtra by Lakshminarasimhan
(1996). During our floristic survey of endemic
plants of Western Ghats, we collected this species
from two more localities: 1. Molem-Anmode,
Goa. 2. Agumbe, Shimoga district, Karnataka.
While examining the specimens at MH, the
specimens from Chikmagalur, Karnataka were
also noticed. Thus, it was observed that the
distribution of this species was relatively
unknown.
Small size and the lack of frequent and
intensive collections could be the reasons for very
few collected specimens of this species, as a result
of which its distribution appeared to be restricted
and fragmented. Now it is apparent that the
species is distributed more or less continuously
along the Western Ghats (Fig. 1). The specimens
collected by us have been deposited in the
Herbarium of the Department of Botany, Goa
University.
Oberonia brachyphylla Blatt. & McCann
in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 257, t.2.1931;
Sant. & Kapad., Orch. Bombay 57. 1966; Said.
& Nicol., FI. Hassan Dist. 838. 1976; Abraham
and Vatsala, Int. Orch. 416, f. 116. 1981. Ansari
Fig. 1 : Distribution of Oberonia brachyphylla Blatt.
& McCann in Western Ghats
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
153
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
et al., J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 3: 114. 1982; Manilal,
FI. Silent Valley 296. 1988; Vajravelu, FI. Palghat
486. 1990; Ansari & Balakrishnan, Orch.
Monog. 38. 1990.
FI. & Fr.: March- April.
Habitat: Epiphyte on Garcinia and
Ziziphus spp.; on small twigs with moss, in open
areas in evergreen forest patches.
Distribution: Western Ghats [Goa,
Karnataka (N. Kanara, Shimoga, Chikmagalur,
Hassan), Kerala (Palghat, Thiruvananthapuram
district)]
Specimens examined: Molem-Anmode,
Goa, Vaishali Joshi and S. Rajkumar 1528;
Agumbe, Shimoga district, Karnataka, M.K.
Janarthanam, Vaishali C. Joshi and S. Rajkumar,
14.iii. 1 998, s.n.\ Yelaneer Ghat, Chikmagalur,
Vajravelu, 25. ii. 1984 (MH); Mandampatty,
Palghat, N.C. Nair 12.iv.1978, 56781 (MH);
Mukkali, Palghat, Vajravelu 26.vii.1977, 49781
(MH).
Acknowledgements
We thank the Goa State Council for
Science and Technology for financial assistance
and the Deputy Director, MH, Coimbatore for
permission to consult the Herbarium and Library.
April 1, 1999 VAISHALI C. JOSHI,
S. RAJKUMAR,
M.K. JANARTHANAM
Department of Botany,
Goa University,
Goa 403 206, India.
8 cm
Fig. 2: Oberonia brachyphylla Blatt. & McCann A - habit; B - flower; C - dorsal sepal; D - lateral sepal;
E & F - petals; G - lip
154
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Ansari, R., N.C. Nair & V.J. Nair (1 982): An analysis of
the lip of Oberonia in Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, and
Tamil Nadu. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 3: 113-119.
Ansari, R. & N.P. Balakrishnan (1990): A revision of
Indian species of Oberonia (Orchidaceae) In:
Orchid Monograph 4: 38.
Blatter, E. & C. McCann (1931): Revision of the Flora
of Bombay Presidency (Orchidaceae). J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 252-260.
Joseph J. & E. Vajravelu (1978): First report of Oberonia
brachyphylla Blatt. & McCann and Smithsonia
straminea Saldanha (Orchidaceae) in Kerala. Bull.
Bot. Surv. Ind. 20: 169.
Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry(1988): Red Data Book of
Indian Plants. Vol. 2.
Santapau, H. & Z. Kapadia (1966): The Orchids of
Bombay. Government of India Press. Pp. 57.
Vajravelu, E. (1988): Oberonia brachyphylla Blatt. &
McCann. In: Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry. Red data
book of Indian Plants Vol. 2.
40. NEW RECORDS OF THE FAMILY ERIOCAULACEAE FROM GOA
The species of the genus Eriocaulon,
known as pipeworts, are commonly seen during
the monsoon along wetlands and streams. These
plants show very little variation in their
vegetative characters, though floral variations
which can be observed under the microscope are
enough to segregate and identify the species. The
first revision of this group in India was carried
out by Fyson (1919-1921). This work is generally
neglected as it was published in parts and the
volumes are available in a few libraries only. This
group was not represented by Dalgado (1898),
published prior to Fyson (l.c.). Vartak (1966)
reported only four species of Eriocaulon , all from
outside the state of Goa, whereas Rao (1986)
reported twelve species from Goa state. The latest
revision by Ansari and Balakrishnan (1994) has
clarity and is more authoritative. Cook (1996)
provided keys based on floral characters, whereas
Ansari and Balakrishnan (l.c.) relied more on
seed characters. The specimens identified in the
light of these recent works have added six new
distributional records to the State of Goa.
The identification of the specimens was
confirmed at Botanical Survey of India, Pune and
MH, Coimbatore. The specimens have been
deposited in the herbarium of Department of
Botany, Goa University.
Eriocaulon fysonii Ansari & Balakr.,
Eriocaul. India 89. f. 28 1994; Cook, Aqua.
Wetland PI. India 195. 1996; Lakshminarsimhan
in Sharma et al. , FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 752.
1996. Eriocaulon cuspidatum Dalz. var.
bracteata Fyson in J. Indian Bot. 2: 318. 1921.
Note: Involucral bracts distinctly
exceeding the head; seed appendages swollen at
tip; found in puddles on lateritic plateaux;
endemic to Western India.
Exsiccata : Goa, Lolium, M.K.
Janarthanam 6, 24.viii.1996, Goa, Lolium V.C.
Joshi & S. Rajkumar, 950, 10.ix.1997.
Eriocaulon lanceolatum Miq. ex Koemick
in Linnaea 27: 656. 1856; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India
6: 577. 1893; Cooke, FI. Bombay 3: 357. 1967
(reprinted); Kulkami, FI. Sindhudurg 474. 1988;
Ansari & Balakr., Eriocaul. India 29. f. 6. 1994;
Cook, Aqua. Wetland PI. India 196. 1996.
Eriocaulon lanceolatum var. pilosum Moldenke
in Phytologia 3: 164. 1949; Almeida, FI. Savant-
wadi 2: 63.1990; Lakshminarsimhan in Sharma
et al., FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 257. 1996.
Note: Scape and involucral bracts pilose;
found in open grassy areas; endemic to South
West India.
Exsiccata : Goa, Gotmode, opp. Nestle, M.K.
Janarthanam & S. Rajkumar 860. 9.viii. 1997.
Eriocaulon palghatense Ansari & Balakr.,
Eriocaul. India 111. f. 37. 1994; Bhat, Ind.
J. Forestiy 2(1): 103 -104. 1997.
Note : Minute black headed herb; found on
open lateritic plateaux covered with grass; earlier
known only from Kerala (Ansari & Balakrishnan
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1). APR. 2001
155
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
l.c.) and Udupi, South Kanara (Bhat l.c.).
Exsiccata : Goa, Vema, M. K. Janarthanam
36, 17.viii. 1996
Eriocaulon parviflorum (Fyson) Ansari &
Balakr., Eriocaul. India 53. f 16. 1994; Cook,
Aqua. Wetland PI. India 198. 1996;
Lakshminarsimhan in Sharma et al. FI.
Maharashtra Monocot. 754. 1996. Eriocaulon
dianae var. parviflora Fyson in J. Indian Bot. 2:
260. 1921.
Note : Herb without rootstock and with boat
shaped female sepals; found near streams in
moist deciduous forests and puddles on lateritic
plateaux; endemic to Central and Western India.
Exsiccata : Goa, Cotigao, V.C. Joshi & S.
Rajkumar 487, 10.U997.
Eriocaulon quinquangulare L. Sp. PI. 87.
1753; Hook. f. FI. Brit India 6: 582. 1893; Cooke,
FI. Pres. Bombay 3: 361. 1967 (reprint);
Kulkami, FI. Sindhudurg 475. 1988; Almeida,
FI. Savantwadi 2: 65. 1990; Ansari & Balakr.,
Eriocaul. India 104. f 34. 1994; Cook, Aqua.
Wetland PI. India 199. 1996; Lakshminarsimhan
in Sharma et al. FI. Maharashtra Monocot. 262.
1996.
Note: Vegetative parts often flushed with
red, purple or pink; found in flooded paddy fields;
distributed in Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar
and throughout India.
Exsiccata : Goa, Chandranath, M.K.
Janarthanam 1474, 29.iii.1998.
Eriocaulon reductum Runland in Engl.
Pflanzenr. 13: 113. 1913; Ansari & Balakr.,
Eriocaul. India 181. F. 65. 1994.
Cook (l.c.) treated E. reductum Runland
conspecific with E. cinereum R. Br. But after
observing a large number of specimens, we could
distinguish E. reductum from E. cinereum. The
former has sepals reduced to branched hairs,
whereas the latter has linear subulate sepals.
Hence, following Ansari & Balakrishnan
(l.c.) E. reductum is dealt here as a distinct
species.
Note: Puddles on lateritic plateaux;
endemic to western part of peninsular
India.
Exsiccata: Goa, Goa University Campus,
V.C. Joshi & S. Rajkumar 958. 15.ix.1997.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Goa State Council for
Science & Technology, Govt of Goa for financial
assistance, and the authorities of BSI and MH
for permission to consult their herbaria.
October 15, 1999 VAISHALI C. JOSHI,
S. RAJKUMAR,
M.K. JANARTHANAM
Department of Botany,
Goa University,
Goa 403 206, India.
References
Ansari, R. & N.P. Balakrishnan (1994): The Family
Eriocaulaceae in India. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal
Singh, Dehra Dun.
Cook, C.D.K. (1996): Aquatic and Wetland plants of India.
Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp. 385.
Dalgado, D.G. (1898): Flora de Goa e Savantwadi.
Imprensa Nacional Lisbon, 288 pp.
Fyson, P.F. (1919-1922): The Indian species of Eriocaulon.
J. Indian Bot. I: 51-55, 2: 133-150, 192-207,
259-266, 307-320, 3: 12-18, 91-115.
Rao, R.S. (1986): Flora of Goa, Diu, Daman, Dadra &
Nagarhaveli. Vol. 2, Botanical Survey of India.
Vartak, V. D. ( 1 966): Enumeration of Plants of Gomantak,
India. Pune.
156
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1), APR. 200 J
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
41. NOTE ON FIMBRISTYLIS MICROCAR YA F.V. MUELL. (CYPERACEAE),
A NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD TO SOUTH INDIA
( With one text-figure)
During a floristic survey of the aquatic
angiosperm diversity of Andhra Pradesh, some
rare and interesting specimens of Fimbristylis
Vahl were collected. The present report decribes
a rare and interesting taxon, which is identified
as Fimbristylis microcarya F.v. Muell. The
species has not been recorded from south India.
Hence, it is reported as a new record. The voucher
specimens were prepared according to Santapau
(1955), and Jain and Rao (1977) and deposited
in SKU herbarium, Sri Krishnadevaraya
University, Anantapur.
Remarks: Along the margins of lakes,
streams, in waterholes and moist places.
FI. & Fr.: August-October.
Distribution: world: Australia, South and
southeast Asia.
india: Maharashtra, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh
and Andhra Pradesh.
Specimen studied: Gandhipet
(Hyderabad), KI and NVN- 18766; Nirmal
(Adilabad), MHR and KI 14472.
Note: Cook (1996) reported 3 stamens in
Fimbristylis microcarya F.v. Muell., while
Koyama (1985) noticed 2-3 stamens in his
specimens. However, a single stamen was
Refer
Cook, C.D.K. (1996): Aquatic and wetland plants of India:
A reference book and identification manual for the
vascular plants found in permanent or seasonal fresh
water in the subcontinent of India south of the
Himalayas. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Pp.
1-385.
Jain & Rao (1977): A Handbook of field and herbarium
methods. Today and Tomorrow’s Publ. New Delhi.
The species can be distinguished from the closely allied
species F. complanata (Retz.) Link by the following
characters:
observed in our specimens.
Acknowledgement
We thank the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research, New Delhi, for financial
assistance.
March 24, 1999 K. INDIRA
R.R. VENKATA RAJU
Department of Botany,
Sri Krishnadevaraya University,
Anantapur 515 003,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
en c ES
Koyama, T. (1985): Cyperaceae. In: Dassanayake, M.D.
and F.R. Fosberg (eds), A revised handbook to the
Flora of Ceylon, New Delhi. 5: 1 25-405.
Santapau, H. (1955): Botanical collector’s manual. A
Handbook of instructions for the collection and
preservation of plants for the use of the Botanical
Survey of India. Min. Nat. Res. & Scient. Res, New
Delhi. 61 pp.
see page 158 for text-figure
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
157
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
E. nut with style; F. nut.
158
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(1), APR. 2001
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THE POPULATION DYNAMICS AND CONSERVATION OF GOLDEN LANGUR
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STUDIES ON THE SYSTEMATICS AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRAWNS IN ASSAM
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STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE-NAPED TIT PARUS NUCHALIS
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FOOD SPECTRUM OF THE COMMON INDIAN TOAD BUFO MELANOSTICTUS
SCHNEIDER
( With one text-figure)
By Mercy Mathew and M.I. Andrews 38
TAXONOMIC POSITION OF THE INDIAN SPECIES OF GRASS FEEDING
DELTOCEPH ALINE LEAFHOPPERS ASSIGNED TO THE GENUS
ALLOPHLEPS (HEMIPTERA: CICADELLIDAE)
( With five text-figures)
By C.A. Viraktamath and Pratap Chandra Dash 47
NOTES OF THE LIFE HISTORY OF CONCHYLOCTENIA NIGROVITTATA
(BOHEMAN) (COLEOPTERA: CHRYSOMELIDAE: CASSIDINAE)
( With four text-figures)
By Nilesh Rane, Sachin Ranade and H.V. Ghate 53
TERRESTRIAL MOLLUSCS FROM NEPAL
( With one text-figure)
By Bharat Raj Subba and Tapan Kumar Ghosh 58
NEW DESCRIPTIONS 62
OBITUARY 92
REVIEWS 94
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 97
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Journal of the Bombay
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VOLUME 98 (2): AUGUST 2001
Date of Publication: 1-8-2001
CONTENTS
EDITORIAL 1 59
ESTIMATING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES IN SEMI-ARID SARISKA VALLEY,
WESTERN INDIA
( With three text-figures )
By Diwakar Sharma 161
DEVELOPMENT OF HYLA ANNECTANS JERDON, 1 870 FROM NAGALAND, INDIA
( With four plates)
By J. Meren Ao and Sabitry Bordoloi 1 69
NEST-SITE SELECTION OF WHITE-BROWED FANTAIL RH1P1DURA AUREOLA IN
MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
ByV.Gokula 179
SOME CHELONIAN RECORDS FROM MIZORAM
( With one text-figure)
By Anwaruddin Choudhury 1 84
DISTRIBUTION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF DIURNAL PRIMATES IN SILENT VALLEY
NATIONAL PARK AND ADJACENT AREAS, KERALA, INDIA
By K.K. Ramachandran and Gigi K. Joseph 191
FISHES OF THE SUBFAMILY NEMACHEILIN AE REGAN (CYPRINIFORMES:
BALITORIDAE) FROM MANIPUR
( With four text-figures and three plates)
By W. Vishwanath and Juliana Laisram 1 97
DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERATION OF HOLOPTELEA INTEGRIFOLIA PLANCH.
IN ALWAR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN
( With three text-figures)
ByA.S. Yadav 217
FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PAN DA ,AILUR US FULGENS IN THE SING HA LI LA NATIONAL
PARK, DARJEELING, INDIA
( With one text-figure)
By Sunita Pradhan, Gautom K. Saha and Jamal A. Khan 224
FRESHWATER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTACEA: BRANCHIOPODA) OF THE WETLANDS
OF INDIAN BOTANICAL GARDEN, HOWRAH, WEST BENGAL
( With one text-figure)
By K. Venkataraman and S.R. Das 231
SELECTION OF SUITABLE CENSUS METHOD FOR THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
GRUS ANTIGONE ANTIGONE
( With one text-figure)
By Aeshita Mukherjee, C.K. Borad, S.B. Patel and B.M. Parasharya 237
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS OPIUS WESMAEL (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE)
FROM INDIA
( With three text-figures)
By S.M. Kurhade and P.K. Nikam 242
ACHLYA DA YAL1, A NEW WATER MOULD FROM THE RIVER MUTHA
( With five text-figures)
By R.V. Gandhe, Kanchanganga Gandhe and M.J. Desale 246
A NEW GENUS MANGINA ALONG WITH THE TAXONOMY OF ARGINA HUBNER
(ARCTIINAE: ARCTIIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)
( With eleven text-figures )
By Amritpal S. Kaleka and Jagbir S. Kirti 250
A NEW FRESHWATER CYPRINID FISH ASPIDOPARIA FROM THE CHATRICKONG RIVER,
MANIPUR, INDIA
( With two text-figures )
By Keishing Selim and Waikhom Vishwanath 254
A NEW SPECIES OF RHODODENDRON LINN. FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA
( With one text-figure)
ByG.D. Pal 258
REVIEWS
1 . EVALUATING EDEN SERIES NO. 3. WHERE COMMUNITIES CARE: COMMUNITY-
BASED WILDLIFE AND ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH ASIA
Reviewed by M. Zafar-ul Islam 262
2. NATURE’S SPOKESMAN: M. KRISHNAN AND INDIA’S WILDLIFE
Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 263
3. FISH FAUNA OF MANIPUR
Reviewed by B.F. Chhapgar 264
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MAMMALS
1 . Homosexuality in Asiatic lion: A case study
from Gir National Park and Sanctuary
By B.P. Pati 266
2. Predation by leopard Panthera pardus in
Majhatal Harsang Wildlife Sanctuary, Western
Himalaya
By Shomita Mukherjee and
Charudutt Mishra 267
3. A report on the food plants of Salim Ali's fruit
bat Latidens salimalii
By Pramod Padmanabhan, E. Kunhikrishnan
and Jomy Augustine 268
4. On the occurrence of the wild water buffalo
Bubcilus arnee in the Barak valley districts of
Assam
By Anwaruddin Choudhury 270
5. Occurrence of Indian pangolin Manis
crassicaudata in Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh
By H.S.A. Yahya 272
6. Stranded whales on the Gujarat Coast
By J.K. Tiwari and S.N. Varu 272
BIRDS
7. Dependency of fan-drying of darters A nhinga
rufa and little cormorants Phalacrocorax
niger on incident sunlight
By Gerald Dick and
Irene Wurdinger 273
8. White storks Ciconia ciconia on migration
By J. Mangalaraj Johnson 275
9. Distribution and nesting sites of the
blacknecked stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus
By K.S. Gopi Sundar and Jatinder Kaur 276
10. Cinereous vulture Aegypius moncichus
(Linn.), Family Accipitridae, in Karnataka
By S. Subramanya 278
11. First (?) sighting of crab plover Dromas
ardeola and pied harrier Circus melcinoleucos
in Raigad district, Maharashtra
By Premsagar G. Mestri and
Satish A. Pande 278
12. Occurrence of lesser florican Sypheotides
indica at Hosur, in Nashik district, Maharashtra
By B. Raha and Vibhu Prakash 279
13. Sighting of the whitetailed lapwing Vcinellus
leucurus (Lichtenstein) in Thrissur district,
Kerala
By P.K. Ravindran 280
14. New site record of the Indian great black
woodpecker Dryocopus javensis (Horsfield)
from Andhra Pradesh
By C. Srinivasulu, V. Vasudeva Rao,
G. Ravinder and V. Nagulu 280
15. Tree pie ( Dendrocitta vagabunda) in the arid
Thar desert
By M. Zafar-ul Islam, Asad R. Rahmani
and Satish Kumar 281
16. Possible range extension of the peninsular
Brooks’s flycatcher ( Musciccipci poliogenys
vernayi) in Andhra Pradesh
By Humayun Taher and K.C. Ramakrishnan 282
17. Range extension of southern blackheaded
munia Lonchura malacca malacca
By Satish Kumar Sharma 283
1 8. Additional list of the birds of Kanha National
Park, Madhya Pradesh
By E.P. Eric D’Cunha and Rashid Ali 283
REPTILES
1 9. Memidactylus flaviviridis Ruppell feeding on
a gecko egg
By Satish Kumar Sharma
and Yogesh Sharma 287
20. Uropeltid snakes and their predators
By H.N. Kumara and M.S. Chaitra 288
AMPHIBIANS
2 1 . Leptobrachium smithi Matsui, Nabhitabhata
& Panha, 1 999 (Anura: Megophryidae), a new
record for India
By Saibal Sengupta,
Nripendra Kumar Choudhury and
Indraneil Das 289
22. Notes on Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson:
A critically endangered newt from Manipur
By Keishing Selim 291
FISHES
23. New record of Cyprinid fish Labeo bata
(Hamilton) from Chindwin drainage
By Keishing Selim and Waikhom Vishwanath 292
24. A new report of Horabagrus brachysoma
Jayaram, Family Bagridae in Uttara Kannada
District, Karnataka
By Anuradha Bhat 294
25 . Range extention of Mystus bleekeri (Day) to
the freshwaters of Tamil Nadu and notes on
its congeners in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka
By K. Rema Devi, T.J. Indra and
M.B. Raghunathan 296
INSECTS
26. Resolution of the controversial western limit
of the range of Delias acalis Godart
(Lepidoptera: Pieridae)
By Peter Smetacek 298
27. American jointvetch Aeschynomene
americana Linn. — A new larval food plant
of Terias hecabe Linn.
By Naresh Chaturvedi and V. Shubhalaxmi ... 300
28. Migration of the Commander butterfly
Limenitis procris (Cramer)
By Naresh Chaturvedi, Varad Giri and
VithobaHegde 301
29. Diversity of butterflies near a pool in the
Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai
By Anish P. Andheria 302
30. Some observations on larval and pupal
dimorphism in the Common Nawab butterfly
( Eriboea athamus)
By R. Anuradha 303
OTHER INVERTEBRATES
31. Occurrence of Psechrus alticeps Pocock
(Araneae: Psechridae) in Western Ghats,
Kerala with a redescription and notes on its
habit and habitat
By K. Sunil Jose and P. A. Sebastian 304
32. Taxonomic status of the Bombay lugworm,
Arenicola (Annelida: Polychaeta)
By B.F. Chhapgar and S.R. Sane 306
33. Ecological distribution and population
structure of mud dwelling Edwardsia
(Cnidaria: Actinaria) in a mangrove habitat
of Cochin area, Kerala
By R. Sunil Kumar 308
34. First record of a ciliophoran Trichodina
domerguei F. magna Lorn, 1960 from
freshwater fish Pseudoapocryptus
lanceolatus (Bloch and Schneider) from India
By P.K. Bandyopadhyay and G. Dash 311
BOTANY
35. A new combination in the genus Maytenus
Molina (Family Celastraceae)
By R.P. Bhattacharya 315
36. On the number of fertile stamens in flowers
of Bauhinia purpurea L. (Leguminosae:
Caesalpinioideae)
By S. Bandyopadhyay 315
37. Interaction between Acanthus and sunbirds
at Coringa in Andhra Pradesh
By A. Jacob Solomon Raj u 316
38. Floral biology and economic values of Hyptis
suaveolens (L.) Poit. in Mexico
By A. Jacob Solomon Raju and
Martha I. Vergara Santana 317
39. Thottea dinghoui Swarup, Family
Aristolochiaceae, a new record for Tamil Nadu
By V.S. Manickam, V. Sundaresan,
C. Murugan and G.J. Jothi 3 1 8
40. Occurrence of Nervilia aragoana Gaud
(Orchidaceae) on the Nallamalai hills. Eastern
Ghats in Andhra Pradesh
By P. Dwarkan, C. Srinivasulu,
V. Vasudeva Rao and V.Nagulu 320
41 . Abnormal branching behaviour of wild date
palm Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. (Palmae)
By Satish Kumar Sharma 321
42. An effective ethnobotanical medicine against
hemiplagia
By Amit N. Gohil, Nirmal Kumar and
Rita N. Kumar 321
Cover: Bird paintings by Carl D’ Silva © BNHS
THE HOURS — From the painting by Arthur Hacker
IpCnnrs
The Hours meant to the Greeks not the divisions of the day, but those of the year. They were
the goddesses of the seasons. They were responsible for the opening and closing of the
doors of Olympus, for the education of children, and the general rules of human lives. It is
why they always attend marriages, as we see in pictures. Modem painters represent them
winged like butterflies, suggesting the flight of time, which would do as well for birds.
* * *
'SItmc
Why sitt ’st thou by that ruined hall,
Thou aged carle so stern and grey?
Dost thou its former pride recall,
Or ponder how it passed away?
“Know’st thou not me?” the Deep Voice cried;
‘‘So long enjoyed, so oft misused —
Alternate, in thy fickle pride,
Desired, neglected, and accused!
‘‘Before my breath, like blazing flax,
Man and his marvels pass away,
And changing empires wane and wax,
Are founded, flourish, and decay.
‘‘Redeem mine hours — the space is brief—
While in my glass the sand grains shiver
And measureless thy joy or grief
When Time and thou shalt part for ever! ”
Sir Walter Scott gives a fine sense of mystery and awe to
the grim figure of old Father Time in this little poem. Time
is always shown to us as an old man with an hour-glass and
a scythe to suggest the passing of the hours and the reaping
of Time’s harvest. Carle is an old-fashioned word still used
in Scotland to denote an elderly and rather rough sort of
man. Originally it meant simply man, and the Saxon name
Carl, from which we get Charles, came from it.
Courtesv: The Children’s Encyclopedia. Vol. 5, Fleetway House. London
Editorial
Time-keeping by humans in social isolation
I would briefly report my experiments and experience. In a DST project, I had investigated
how human beings keep track of time when they live in total absence of time cues, at the
Department of Animal Behaviour and Physiology, at the Madurai Kamaraj University in
1987-96. Fourteen human subjects (nine males and five females) participated in sixteen
marathon experiments each lasting for 15 to 41 days. They spent time in silence and self-
selected light or darkness, in an isolation facility 7.62 m x 7.62 m, without windows, but
with ducted cool air and ventilation, fitted with all day-to-day requirements such as
kitchenette, refrigerator, bathroom, cot and mattress, sitting table, chairs, a bicycle ergometer,
cassette tape recorder, tapes, reading and writing material. There were no cues about day/
night, and no personal contact. Most subjects cooked their own food; others were given
food in bulk at irregular hours.
The following body functions were particularly investigated: i. sleep/wake, ii. rectal
temperature, iii. estimation of presumed 2 hour intervals, iv. timing of menstrual cycle and
v. meal timing. I briefly summarize our decade-long findings on human circadian rhythms
in this bunker, i. Sleep/wake: All subjects underrated passage of time. In one dramatic
case, a 24 year old female subject entered isolation on 4 May, 1989 and came out only or
8 June, 1989. She had been in social isolation for 35 calendar days, during which she went
to sleep and woke up only 22 times. In her work diary, she had entered the date 26 May,
1989 on 8 June, 1989! Some of her ‘free-running’ subjective days could be 48 hours with
sleep/wake ratios of 18:30 hours, ii. The rectal temperature rhythm (measured from nightly
minimum to next nightly minimum) remained conservative and showed periods of 24.7 to
25.1 hours. Therefore the sleep/wake rhythm and the rectal temperature rhythm dissociate
and drift apart, iii. The presumed 2 hour time estimation contracts and expands, like a time
cystole, from values of 2 to 6 hours. The longer the subject stayed awake, the longer the
estimated 2 hours, iv. Even though the female human subject went to sleep only 22 times
in 35 days, the two episodes of her menstrual cycle were exactly 28 calendar days apart.
The menstrual cycle is apparently not coupled to the sleep/wake clock, as is widely believed.
This is a first report, v. Meal timings are coupled to the sleep/wake clock. Typically on
days when subjects stayed up 30 hours, the time interval between breakfast and lunch
would be 14 to 15 hours and the same between lunch and supper. These findings do not
conform to intuitive expectations and have not yet been published. Working with human
subjects is fun but arduous. A medical ethics committee (with a social worker, medical
doctor, lawyer and psychiatrist) will scrutinize the details of planned experiments. India is
the sixth country to have performed such experiments. None of the subjects in my
experiments reported discomfort and only one experiment had to be discontinued owing to
the subject contracting fever. One female subject participated in three experiments lasting
35, 39 and 41 days, setting up a world record.
was requested to write an editorial on ‘chronobiology’ by the Editor, I thought
M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,
Govt of India,
FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
August 2001 Vol. 98 No. 2
ESTIMATING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES IN SEMI-ARID
SARISKA VALLEY, WESTERN INDIA'
Diwakar Sharma* 2
( With three text-figures)
Key words: Indirect estimates, direct estimates, dung decay, pellet groups, defecation
The population of the Indian crested porcupine ( Hystrix indica) was estimated over a
period of 3 months (May-July 1 989) in semi-arid Sariska valley in the Sariska Tiger Reserve,
Rajasthan. The methods included count of pellet groups in four transects each in three
vegetation types, and direct counts of animals in a vehicle at night. The data collection
using these two approaches was repeated 17 times. Calculation of density for indirect
estimates involved data on the pellet decay rate and the defecation rate (of captive animals).
The animal density was estimated to be 8.8 ±2.4 animals/ sq. km through direct count,
while pellet group count provided an estimate of 12.4 animals/ sq. km with a variation of
0.9 to 24.9 animals/ sq. km in different habitats. The influence of some factors such as
possible use of latrine sites and slow decomposition rate on density estimates are discussed.
Introduction
To estimate the population density of
animals in the wild, quantifying faecal matter
abundance, decay and defecation rate is
considered to be useful and convenient (Neff
1968, Rowland et al. 1984). Although a number
of studies have been conducted elsewhere
(Putman 1984, Koster and Hart 1988), in India
only a few studies have estimated the population
of wild animals using this method (Sale et al.
1990, Dekker et al. 1991).
The Indian crested porcupine Hystrix
indica Kerr is a nocturnal animal that reportedly
'Accepted January, 2001
2Wildlife Institute of India, P.B. # 18,Chandrabani
Dehra Dun 248 001 , Uttaranchal, India.
Present Address: Gujarat Ecological Society,
5, Golden Apartment, Subhanpura,
Vadodara 390 023, Gujarat, India.
feeds on crops (Alkon 1983, Gutterman 1987,
1988) and on the bark of trees (Choudhry and
Ahmad 1975, Sharma and Prasad 1992). In spite
of its economic importance, few estimates of its
population density in the wild are available.
Being nocturnal, small in size and shy of humans,
it is hard to observe and very difficult to estimate
its population. Therefore, methods involving
indirect evidence can be very useful for
estimation of its population. During the summer
of 1988, the last of three consecutive drought
years, comparatively large numbers of porcupines
were seen in Sariska valley in the Sariska Tiger
Reserve. This was a unique opportunity to
estimate its population using direct sighting and
faecal abundance.
The aim of this study was to estimate
porcupine density using pellet group density, and
to compare the results with that obtained using
direct observations.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
161
ESTIMA TING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES
Study Area
Sariska Tiger Reserve (27° 20' N and 76°
25' E) is a dry deciduous forest (Champion and
Seth 1968) located in the semi-arid tract of
Rajasthan in western India. The weather is dry
and hot during the day throughout the year,
barring the monsoon when it is hot and humid.
There are three distinct seasons: winter
(November-February, with night temperature as
low as 3 °C), summer (March-June, day
temperature up to 47 °C) and monsoon (July-
October). Average annual rainfall is c. 650 mm,
most of which falls between July and September.
The study was conducted between May and
July 1989 in the Sariska valley (Fig. 1). The
vegetation of the study sites consisted of Ziziphus
scrubland, mixed woodland and Ziziphus
woodland (Sharnia and Prasad 1992). The hills
surrounding the valley had forests dominated by
Anogeissus pendula and were little used by the
porcupine (Sharma and Prasad 1992). There was
Fig. 1 : Sariska valley showing the study sites
162
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
ESTIMA TING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES
very little ground cover and litter in the three
vegetation types during the study period.
The major mammals in the Sariska
National Park include tiger ( Panthera tigris ),
leopard ( P . pardus), nilgai ( Boselaphus
tragocamelus), sambar ( Cei~vus unicolor ), chital
(Axis axis), wild pig (Sus scrofa) and four-homed
antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis). The density
of animals, particularly of ungulates, is higher
in Sariska valley, due to better habitat, than in
other areas of the Tiger Reserve.
Methods
Direct Density Estimates
Since porcupines are nocturnal, they were
counted at night using vehicle transects (Rodgers
1991), along a 10 km long road (Sariska to
Kalighati), in Sariska valley. In June and July,
the census was done 1 7 times, between 2000 to
2030 hrs, by four observers, in a jeep driven at a
uniform speed of 20 km/hr. The animals seen in
the headlights of the vehicle were recorded. The
field covered by the headlights was 1 0 m on either
side of the road. Porcupine density (D) was
calculated using the fixed- width transect method
(Rodgers 1991).
N
D =
2.L.B
Where,
N = number of animals observed,
L = length of the transect in km, and
B = width on one side of the transect in km.
Indirect Density Estimates
Porcupine density (N) based on pellet
group count, defecation and decay rate was
calculated using the following equation (Barnes
and Jensen 1987)
Y.r
N =
D
Where,
Y = mean pellet group density (no./sq. km)
r = mean decay rate per day
D = mean defecation rate per day
Pellet group density: Porcupines defecate
spindle shaped pellets, which are about
1-1.5 cm in diameter and 3-5 cm in length. The
pellet number may range from 5-25 in a pellet
group. Pellets groups were counted in strip
transects in the three vegetation types, selected
under stratified random sampling. Four strip
transects 500 x 2 m were placed parallel to each
other at 1 00 m intervals in each vegetation type
(Fig. 1). Each transect was visited 17 times
during May- June. The number of pellet groups
that were available at the end of the study period
after their accumulation and decay in each
vegetation type was used to calculate the pellet
group density i.e. the number of pellet groups
per sq. km.
Pellet decay rate: Investigations of the
decay rate of pellets were carried out from the
first week of May 1989 to the second week of
July 1989. Fresh pellet groups were located
between May 10 and June 30. Eight groups of
fresh pellets encountered were marked, counted
and their condition monitored once a week. Two
periods i.e. summer (May to mid-June) and
pre-monsoon (mid- June to mid- July) were chosen
to compare the seasonal decay rates.
The following equation was used (Barnes
and Jensen 1987, Sukumar et al. 1991) to
estimate the decay rate for pellet.
ln(Nt)-ln(Ntl)
r =
t
Where,
r = mean decay rate of pellet groups per day,
N = number of pellet groups of one week,
N ] = the number of pellet groups of previous
week, and
t = time (in days).
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
163
ESTIMA TING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES
Defecation Rate: Two porcupines were
observed in the National Zoological Park, New
Delhi for 15 days, one in Sakkarbagh Zoo,
Junagadh, for 19 days (in 1992) and another in
Sayajibaug Zoo in Vadodara for 2 1 days (in 2000)
and their pellet groups counted. The defecation
rate was calculated as the number of pellet groups
defecated per day.
Data was analysed using computer
software. Non-parametric statistical tests were
conducted for significance of results.
Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to determine
significance of variation among the three
vegetation types, while Mann-Whitney U
statistics were used to determine the significance
of variation between the two seasons.
Table 1
DIRECT AND INDIRECT DENSITY ESTIMA1 uS FOR
PORCUPINE IN DIFFERENT HABITATS
Results
Pellet Group Density
There was a significant difference in the
pellet group density among the three vegetation
types (K-W tests x2=16.15, p<0.001, n=34)
(Table 1).
Pellet Decay Rate
The pellet condition was categorised into
five age groups (Table 2). Pellets observed from
June onwards (after pre-monsoon showers) also
disintegrated through the same categories, but
the decay was faster in the second category.
Results indicated a large variation in the
Table 2
PORCUPINE PELLET DECAY IN
SUMMER (MAY TO MID-JUNE) AND
PRE-MONSOON (MID-JUNE TO MID-JULY)
decay rates of different pellet groups within a
season. Trampling by large mammals such as
wild pig, sambar, chital and nilgai accelerated
the process. On the other hand the pellets not
trampled by large mammals were present even
60 days after being defecated in a moist
environment. No termite action was observed in
summer.
The pellet decay rate is shown in Figs 2
and 3. Table 3 shows the decay rate for various
pellet groups monitored during summer and
pre-monsoon. The average decay rate during
summer was 0.005 per day. This rate increased
to more than twice, 0.011 per day during
pre-monsoon. The difference in the mean decay
rates between summer and pre-monsoon was
significant (M-W tests Z = 2.31, 2 tailed p<0.02,
n , = 27,19). For calculation of animal density,
only the decay rate during summer (May- June)
are considered, as pellet group densities were
estimated only in this season.
Defecation Rate
In the wild, the pellets were spindle shaped
and discrete; while in the New Delhi zoo the
pellets in a group were not as discrete. In
Sakkarbagh Zoo (Junagadh) and Sayajibaug Zoo
164
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
ESTIMA TING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES
Days
Pellet Group 1 — ►— Pellet Group 2 Pellet Group 3
Fig. 2: Decay rate of porcupine pellets during summer
Fig. 3: Decay rate of porcupine pellets during pre-monsoon
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
165
ESTIMA TING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES
Table 3
DECAY RATES OF VARIOUS PELLET GROUPS
MONITORED DURING SUMMER AND
PRE-MONSOON PERIODS
(Vadodara), because of near natural diet, the
droppings were similar to those in the wild and
were included for calculations. The diet
(including access to water) in captivity is different
from that in the wild, hence the defecation rates
should be taken only as an approximation. If
possible, the defecation rate should be estimated
in natural or semi-natural conditions. Defecation
rate of porcupine in captivity varied from once
to thrice a day. The average defecation rate was
2 ±0.15 per day (n = 40).
Ai^imal Density
The results showed a difference between
the direct and indirect estimates of density in
each vegetation type (Table 1). The overall
density estimated by direct observation was 8.8
±2.4 animals per sq. km, while the estimate using
indirect method was 12.9 animals per sq. km.
Discussion
The road used for vehicle census at night
passed through three different vegetation types,
each of which differed from the others in
structure, composition, density and utility to the
porcupine (Sharma and Prasad 1992). This
resulted in variation in porcupine density among
the vegetation types. Due to the impact of drought
and livestock grazing, the vegetation along the
road was similar to that away from it. Therefore,
it was presumed that porcupine movement and
distribution along the roads would be similar to
those away from the road. The small width (20
m) of the transect precluded the chances of
missing animals on it. Within each vegetation
type, density estimates from vehicle census at
night had low variation, except in the case of
Ziziphus scrubland. Further, the overall low
variation in average density of the animals in
the study area was considered good to compare
indirect estimates with it.
The higher decay rate in pre-monsoon
season (mid- June to July) was due to the action
of dung beetles and termites. This started within
a week after the first shower in the beginning of
June. However, on hard (red soil) and bare
ground the disintegration by termites took longer
time.
Fresh pellets were not monitored after the
onset of monsoon in July because of rapid
disintegration. Often within a day or two about
50% or more of the pellets changed into an
amorphous mass. Further, dense undergrov±h did
not permit an easy search of fresh pellets. Since
the weather is dry for 8 months, the data collected
during this period is considered to be more useful.
The observed differences in density
estimates for the two methods were perhaps
related to the shrub cover in the three vegetation
types. Earlier results (based on debarking,
Sharma and Prasad 1992), show that the
porcupines preferred mixed woodland, Ziziphus
woodland followed by Ziziphus scrubland as
habitats. One would, therefore, expect the animal
abundance and pellet density to follow this
pattern. While the direct counts conformed to
this pattern, the pellet density and indirect counts
followed the reverse trend. This suggests that
while the porcupines preferred to feed in mixed
woodland and Ziziphus woodland, they spent
substantial time in the dense undergrowth of
Ziziphus scrubland. In Ziziphus scrubland, the
166
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
ESTIMATING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES
shrub density was the highest, followed by
Ziziphus woodland and mixed woodland (Table
1). Dense shrub provides escape cover for the
porcupine (Prater 1993).
This pilot study attempted to validate the
methods used for indirect animal density
estimates. Eberhadt and Etten (1956), Etten and
Bennet (1965), Neff (1968) and Putman (1984)
have comprehensively reviewed the limitations
and sources of error in such a study. As revealed
in this case, the differences in density estimates
between direct and indirect evidence strongly
emphasise the need for a proper stratification of
habitat, preferably after reconnaissance, followed
by adequate sampling (Grieb 1958). The results
indicate that to estimate the population of
nocturnal animals such as porcupine, one should
study all habitats including those that may be
avoided by the animal (Neu et al. 1974).
Even though most of these factors were
taken into account (Sharma 1 989) the defecation
behaviour of porcupine may have played an
important role in the indirect density estimates.
The droppings were clumped, and under natural
conditions were observed at certain locations
Refer
Alkon, P.U. (1983): Foraging ecology of Indian Crested
Porcupine {Hystrix indica ) in Negev habitats. Final
Report. Israel Academy of Science. 14 pp.
Barnes, R.F.W. & K.L. Jensen (1987): How to count
elephants in forest. IUCN African Elephant and
Rhino Specialist Group Technical Bulletin I: 1-6.
Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth ( 1 968): A revised survey of
the forest types of India. The Manager of
Publications, Govt, of India, Delhi, 404 pp.
Choudhry, M.I. & A. Ahmad ( 1 975): Trials of poisonous
gases and baits against porcupines. Pale J. For.
25(2): 46-50.
Dekker, A.J.F.M., S. Dawson & A. A. Desai (1991): An
indirect method for counting Asian Elephants in
forests. In: Censusing Elephants in Forest.
Proceedings of an International Workshop. (Eds
Ramaknshnan, U., J.A. Santosh, & R. Sukumar).
Southern India, 2-10 January, 1991. Technical
Report No. 2. Asian Elephant Conservation Centre
only, while in captivity the animals defecated in
the corners of the cages. This indicates the
possibility of use of latrine sites by these animals.
If so, can this method be used for other animals
that use latrine sites?
Moreover, the semi-arid climate seems to
have played an important role in substantially
slowing down the decay rate of pellets. Pellets of
chital and sambar defecated in the previous year
have been observed in Gir Wildlife Sanctuary
and National Park in Gujarat by this author,
indicating their slow decay rate in similar
conditions. These aspects require more research
and, perhaps, the inclusion of a correction factor
in the calculation of densities in such conditions.
ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
I thank the Chief Wildlife Warden,
Rajasthan, for permission to work in the Sariska
Tiger Reserve and Mr. H.S. Panwar, former
Director, Wildlife Institute of India for logistic
and financial support. Dr. Ajith Kumar, Dr. S.P.
Goyal, M. V. Katti and T.R. Shankar Raman gave
critical suggestions on the manuscript.
ENCES
of IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group, pp.
54-64.
Eberhardt, L. & R.C. Van Etten (1956): Evaluation of
the pellet group counts for censusing deer. J. Wild l.
Manage. 20: 70-74.
Etten, R.C. Van & C.L. Bennet (1965): Some sources of
error in using pellet group counts for censusing deer.
J. Wild l. Manage. 29: 723-729.
Grieb, J.R. ( 1 958): Wildlife statistics. Colorado Game &
Fish Department. 96 pp.
Gutterman, Y. (1987): Dynamics of porcupine ( Hystrix
indica) digging: Their role in the survival and
renewal of geophytes and hemicryptophytes in the
Negev Desert Highland. Israel J. Botany 36:
133-143.
Gutterman, Y. (1988): An ecological assessment of
porcupine activity in a desert biome. In:
Ecophysiology of desert vertebrates. Eds Ghosh,
P.K. & I. Prakash, Scientific Publications, Jodhpur.
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ESTIMA TING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES
Pp. 289-363.
Koster, S.H. & J.A. Hart ( 1 988): Methods of estimating
ungulate populations in tropical forests. Afr. J. Ecol.
26: 117-126.
Neff, D.S. (1968): The pellet group count technique for
big game trend, census and distribution: A review.
J. Wildl. Manage. 32: 597-614.
Neu, C. W., C.R. Byers & J.M. Peck ( 1 974): A technique
for analysis of utilization availability data. J. Wildl.
Manage. 38: 541-545.
Prater, S.H. (1993): The Book of Indian Animals. Fourth
impression. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay, pp. 2 1 5-2 1 7.
Putman, R.J. (1984): Facts from faeces. Mammal Review
14(1): 79-97.
Rodgers, W. A. (1991): Techniques for Wildlife Census in
India — A field Manual. Wildlife Institute of India
Dehradun. 82 p.
Rowland, M.M.,G.C. White &E.M. Karlen (1984): Use
of pellet group plots to measure trends in estimates
in deer and elk populations. Wild. Soc. Bull. 12:
147-155.
Sale, J.B., A.J.T. Johnsingh & S. Dawson (1990):
Preliminary Trials with an Indirect Method of
Estimating Asian Elephant Numbers. Report for
IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group.
Sharma, D. (1989): Spatial and temporal patterns in
debarking by Indian Crested Porcupine ( Hystrix
indica Kerr) in Sariska National Park, Rajasthan.
M.Sc. Dissertation, Wildlife Institute of India,
Dehradun, 88 p.
Sharma, D. & S.N. Prasad (1992): Tree debarking and
habitat use by porcupine ( Hystrix indica Kerr) in
Sariska National Park in Western India. Mammalia.
56(3): 351-361 .
Sukumar, R., K.S. Verman, J.A. Santosh & U.
Ramakrishnan (1991): Methods of estimating
elephant numbers: A review. In: Censusing
Elephants in Forests. Proceedings of an
International Workshop (Eds Ramakrishnan, U.,
J.A. Santosh, & R. Sukumar). Southern India, 2-
10 January, 1991, Technical Report No. 2. Asian
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Elephant Specialist Group, pp 2-29.
168
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
DEVELOPMENT OF HYLA ANNECTANS JERDON, 1870
FROM NAGALAND, INDIA1
J. Meren Ao 2 and Sabitry Bordoloi3
( With four plates )
Key words: Hyla annectans, ontogenic stages, normal development, Nagaland,
laboratory condition, metamorphosis
Hyla annectans breeds during May to July in temporary rain pools, terraced fields and
other waterlogged areas (depth 5-7 cm). Normal development has been studied from the
egg through metamorphosis for four breeding seasons (1996-2000) under laboratory
conditions. The time required for completion of a life cycle varies under different weather
conditions in the field. In the laboratory (16
days, 14 hours.
Introduction
Studies on the successive ontogenic stages,
to record the normal developmental table, are
important in understanding the ecology of a
species and for planning conservation measures.
Various authors (Dutta and Mohanty-
Hejmadi 1976, Mohanty-Hejmadi and Dutta
1977, Agarwal and Niazi 1977, Roy and Khare
1978, Mohanty-Hejmadi et al. 1979, 1980,
Kiyasetuo and Khare 1986, Dutta et al. ( 1 990-9 1 )
have contributed to the study of normal
developmental tables of Anuran amphibians in
India.
In Nagaland (25° .15'-27° 4’ N, 93° 20'-95°
15' E), Hyla annectans is distributed along the
Borail range at various altitudes 1,400-2,440 m
above msl. Average atmospheric temperature
during breeding season ranges from 16.5-
26.6 °C. Relative humidity ranges from 74.33-
81.63%. Precipitation ranges from 128.23-
428.33 mm. Water temperature varies from
14-28.5 °C. Breeding activity starts from the
'Accepted December, 2000
department of Zoology, Kohima Science College,
Kohima 797 00 1 , Nagaland, India
•Ecology Laboratory, Department of Zoology,
Cotton College, Guwahati 781 001 , Assam, India
22 °C) the frog completed its life cycle in 64
middle of April and lasts till July end. The frogs
breed in water logged places like temporary
ponds, rainpools, puddles and terraced paddy
fields. Embryonic development was observed for
a period of four breeding seasons (1996-2000).
Laboratory rearing was carried out in the
Department of Zoology, Kohima Science College,
Kohima, Nagaland.
Methodology
Amplexing pairs were collected from the
field and transferred to aquaria or glass
containers with water, allowing only half of the
body to be submerged. Amplexing lasts for 3-5
hours. Eggs are laid between 0100-0400 hrs in
the aquaria as well as in the field. Development
stages were fixed in 5% formaldehyde solution;
measurements were taken from preserved
specimens. Photographs for Plates 1-3 were taken
from preserved specimens, while for Plate 4 live
individuals were used.
Observations
Breeding activity starts from the middle
of April (12.3-26.6 °C) with the males’ breeding
call. Females appear only after one or two
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
169
DEVELOPMENT OFUYLA ANNECTANS
showers. In early May, amplexing pairs were
collected and kept in glass containers or aquaria.
Eggs were laid in batches in the field. In the
aquarium, due to the absence of vegetation or
other substratum, the jelly capsules of the eggs
adhered together to form a single mass. The
number of eggs laid by one female ranged from
590-650. Culture was maintained in clean
enamelled trays and 100 fertilized eggs were
stocked in each tray to avoid over-crowding. They
were reared in the laboratory at 16-22 °C. Larvae
were fed with Spirogyra, which is common in
the breeding habitats. Tadpoles were staged
according to Gosner (1960).
The no. of individuals per tray (Stocking
number = 100) was reduced with progressive
developmental stages.
Embryonic stage
Forty samples were measured to record the
mean size of each stage (1-46).
Fertilization stages
Stage 1 : Fertilized egg (Age 0 hrs; length
1.52 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 1). The egg is spherical.
The animal pole is pigmented dark brown, paling
to white at the vegetal pole.
Stage 2: One cell stage (Age 0.55 hrs;
length 1.52 mm). A lightly pigmented area, the
grey crescent appears between the animal and
vegetal pole towards the pigmented hemisphere.
Cleavage stages
Stage 3: Two cell stage (Age 1.50 hrs;
length 1.52 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 2). The meridional
cleavage furrow originating at the animal pole
proceeds to the vegetal pole and divides the egg
completely into two equal blastomeres.
Stage 4: Four cell stage (Age 2.20 hrs;
length 1.52 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 3). The second
meridional furrow, which starts at the animal
pole, extends to the vegetal pole at a right angle
to the first.
Stage 5: Eight cell stage (Age 2.45 hrs;
length 1.52 mm). The third cleavage is
latitudinal, slightly above the equator, which
forms eight blastomeres. The four smaller
micromeres of the animal pole are pigmented
dark brown, whereas the four bigger macromeres
of the vegetal pole are unpigmented.
Stage 6: Sixteen cell stage (Age 3.20 hrs;
length 1.52 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 4). The cleavage
furrow is vertical. First, the pigmented
micromeres are divided into eight cells, resulting
in twelve cells (i.e. 8 micromeres and 4
macromeres). This is followed by the division of
the four unpigmented macromeres as the
cleavage furrow reaches the vegetal pole,
resulting in 16 cells altogether.
Stage 7: Thirty-two cell stage (Age 3.52 hrs;
length 1 .56 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 5). The latitudinal
cleavage furrows of the micromeres and
macromeres bring about the formation of 16
micromeres and 16 macromeres.
Stage 8: Mid bias tula (Age 7-54 hrs; length
1.56 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 6). The number of cells
increased to more than 64 cells. The blastomeres
are more numerous and smaller than before. The
surface of the animal pole resembles a cluster of
beads.
Stage 9: Late blastula (Age 12.10 hrs;
length 1.56 mm). The surface of the animal pole
has a granular appearance, which gradually
becomes smooth. The pigmented region extends
over the vegetal pole, which marks the beginning
of the epibolic movement of the micromeres onto
the macromeres.
Gastrulation stages
Stage 10: Crescent dorsal lip (Age 15.05
hrs; length 1 .56 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 7). The dorsal
lip of blastopore has formed and is
crescent-shaped. The unpigmented zone of the
vegetal hemisphere is reduced due to continued
migration of the pigmented micromeres towards
the vegetal pole.
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DEVELOPMENT OF HYLA ANNECTANS
Ao, J. Meren et al. : Hyla annectans Jerdon
Plate 1
Fig. 1 Fertilized egg, Fig. 2 Two cell stage, Fig. 3 Four cell stage, Fig. 4 Sixteen cell stage,
Fig. 5 Thirty-two cell stage, Fig. 6 Mid blastula. Fig. 7 Crescent dorsal lip,
Fig. 8 Horse-shoe shaped dorsal lip, Fig 9. Neural plate.
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DEVELOPMENT OF HYLA ANNECTANS
Fig. 10 Closure of neural fold, Fig. 1 1 Neural tube. Fig. 12, 13 Tail bud stage, Fig. 14 Muscular response
stage, Fig. 15 Opercular stage, Fig. 16 Opercular fold of embryo closed on right side,
Fig. 17 Operculum of embryo closed on left side
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DEVELOPMENT OF HYLA ANNECTANS
Stage 1 1 : Horse-shoe shaped dorsal lip
(Age 16.50 hrs; length 1.56 mm) (Plate 1, Fig.
8). The epibolic migration of micromeres over
the vegetal pole reduces the exposed area of
unpigmented macromeres, which is surrounded
by the lateral lips of the semicircular or horse-
shoe shaped blastopore.
Stage 12: Small yolk plug { Age 26.10 hrs;
length 1.56 mm). The ventral lip of blastopore
shifts to the posterior end. The uninvaginated
macromeres, surrounded by the blastoporal lips,
protrude a little and constitute the yolk plug.
Neurulation stages
Stage 13: Neural plate (Age 34.30 hrs;
length 1.6 mm) (Plate 1, Fig. 9). The embryo is
slightly elongated. The dorsal surface is flattened
to form the neural plate, which is differentiated
with the concentration of pigments along its
borders.
Stage 14: Neural fold (Age 36.20 hrs;
length 1.65 mm). The neural fold becomes
distinct, with broad cerebral and nairow spinal
cord regions of the neural plate. The neural folds
gradually approach each other from blastopore
to anterior region.
Stage 15: Closure of neural fold (Age
38.20 hrs; length 1.72 mm) (Plate 2, Fig. 10).
The posterior end of the embryo becomes broader.
The neural folds come closer and touch each
other, both in the cerebral and spinal cord
regions, forming a shallow neural groove, which
is broader in the cerebral region.
Stage 16: Neural tube (Age 40.50 hrs;
length 2.0 mm (Plate 2, Fig. 11) The neural folds
have fused completely to form the neural tube,
which is raised at the mid-dorsal ridge and
demarcated by a darkly pigmented strand. The
head and trunk are well marked. Gill plates
appear as faint bulges. The increase in size of
the embryo along with the associated vitelline
capsule, is not accompanied by a similar increase
in the length of the first envelope, and thus it
ruptures at the anterior end.
Stage 17: Tail bud stage (Age 42.50 hrs;
Trunk 2.44 mm; Tail 0.47 mm) (Plate 2, Figs.
12, 13). Tail bud appears at the posterior end of
the embryo. It is wider than long, directed dorso-
posteriorly and marked off from the body by a
ventral notch. Stomodeal groove depression is
slightly marked by a darker area. Bulges of the
gill plates are distinct.
Stage 18: Muscular response stage (Age
60.00 hrs; Trunk 2.71 mm; Tail 0.75mm) (Plate
2, Fig. 14). Head region is well defined, with
optic bulges and bulges of the gill plates. Oral
suckers are indicated by two heavily pigmented
elongated areas joined medially by a narrow
lightly pigmented band below the stomodeum.
Stomodeal depression is seen between the oral
suckers. Due to gradual elongation of the embryo,
the tail starts curving laterally to right or left,
within the contour of the vitelline membrane.
Stage 19: Heartbeat stage (Age 70.07 hrs;
Trunk 3.10 mm; Tail 1.4 mm). Pulsation of heart
is seen below and behind gill bud. Small
pigmented depression at anterior end marks
olfactory pit. Stomodeal depression becomes
somewhat triangular. External gill buds
prominent. Embryo coils to mechanical stimuli.
Stage 20: Gill circulation stage (Age 72.29
hrs; Trunk 3.28 mm; Tail 1.5 mm). Gills distinct,
rudimentary branching at distal end. Oral suckers
nipple-shaped. Stomodeal pit still a shallow
triangular depression. Vitelline membrane
becomes thin and weak. Anterior end of the head
pressed against the vitelline membrane.
Post-embryonic development
Stage 21: Lama hatched (Age 102.29 hrs;
Head and Trunk 3.2 mm; Tail 3.2 mm). The head
causes a bulge in the vitelline membrane at the
anterior end. At this point the membrane breaks
and the larva emerges from the mass of jelly.
Tail straight, tail fin dusky. Olfactory pit deepens,
cornea begins to be transparent. Stomodeum now
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DEVELOPMENT OF HYLA ANNECTANS
a deep triangular pit, whose opening is the larval
mouth.
Stage 22: Tail fin circulation stage (Age
1 17.29 hrs; Head and Trunk 3.4 mm; Tail 3.6
mm). Tail fin circulation starts at base of anterior
part of dorsal fin, just above the trunk. Mouth
slightly wider. Upper and lower labial fringes
develop, but without papillation.
Stage 23: Opercular fold stage (Age
143.59 hrs; Head and Trunk 3.6 mm Tail 4.5
mm) (Plate 2, Fig. 15). Operculum covers bases
of external gills. Jaws not keratinised. Upper and
lower labial fringes develop papillae and faint
labial ridges. Pigmentation on tail begins, cloaca
not opened.
State 24: Opercular fold of embryo closed
on right side (Age 172.29 hrs; Head and Trunk
3.7 mm; Tail 5.0 mm) (Plate 2, Fig. 16).
Operculum closed on the right side. Labial jaws
form supra- and infra-rostrodont. A faint row of
upper supra-angular keratodont develops. Other
characters as in Stage 23.
Stage 25: Operculum of embryo closed on
left side (Age 185.29 hrs; Head and Trunk 4.2
mm; Tail 6.0 mm) (Plate 2, Fig. 17). Operculum
closed and gills disappear; oral suckers
diminishing. Spiracle formed. Tail lightly
pigmented. Anal tube opens, tadpole starts feeding.
Stage 26: Hind limb bud stage (Age 356
hrs; Head and Trunk 7.0 mm; Tail 10.0 mm)
(Plate 3, Fig. 18). Appearance of hind limb bud
at a groove between the belly wall and base of
tail on either side of cloacal tail piece. Length of
limb bud less than half its diameter. Dental
formula becomes 1 : 1 + 1/3. Pigmentation spreads
to dorsal and anal fins.
Stage 27: Length of limb bud equal to half
its diameter (Age 420 hrs; Head and Trunk 7.8
mm; Tail length 13.0 mm). Length of limb bud
equal to half its diameter. The patches of
pigmentation in the tail fin spread considerably.
Stage 28: Length of limb bud equal to its
diameter (Age 514 hrs; Head and Trunk 8.4 mm;
Tail 16.0 mm) (Plate 3, Fig. 19). Distal end of
limb bud slightly conical.
Stage 29: Length of limb bud is equal to
one and half times its diameter (Age 600 hrs;
Head and Trunk 9.0 mm, Tail 18.0 mm). Distal
end conical.
Stage 30: Length of limb bud is equal to
twice its diameter (Age 684 hrs; Head and Trunk
11.0 mm, Tail 19.1 mm). Distal half of conical
limb bud slightly bent ventrally. No pigmentation
on limb bud.
Stage 3 1 : Foot paddle stage (Age 748 hrs;
Head and Trunk 1 1.5 mm; Tail 20.1 mm) (Plate
3, Fig. 20). The distal end of limb bud is flattened
mediolaterally to form a foot paddle. Knee bend
is prominent. Light pigmentation starts at outer
base of limb bud.
Stage 32: First indentation (Age 813 hrs;
Head and Trunk 12.0 mm; Tail 23.0 mm). The
margin of the foot paddle becomes slightly
indented on the dorsal side, which marks the
prominences of the future 4th and 5th toes.
Stage 33: Second indentation (Age 853
hrs; Head and Trunk 12.8 mm; Tail 24.5 mm)
(Plate 3, Fig. 21). The margin of the foot paddle
becomes indented on the ventral side, behind the
prominence of 4th toe, which marks the 3rd, 4th
and 5th toes.
Stage 34: Third indentation (Age 890 hrs.;
Head and Trunk 13.2 mm; Tail 26.0 mm) (Plate
3, Fig. 22). The margin of foot paddle becomes
indented, on the ventral side, behind the
prominence of 3rd toe, which marks the
prominence of 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th toes.
Stage 35: Fourth indentation (Age 936 hrs;
Head and Trunk 13.4 mm; Tail 26.4 mm.) (Plate
3, Fig. 23). The margin of the foot paddle is
indented behind the 2nd toe demarcating the
prominence of the 1st toe. All the five toes are
separated from each other.
Stage 36: Margin of 5th toe web directed
towards the tip of 2nd toe (Age 1019 hrs; Head
and Trunk 13.6 mm; Tail 27.2 mm) (Plate 3,
174
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DEVELOPMENT OF HYLA ANNECTANS
Ao, J. Meren et al.’.Hyla annectans Jerdon
Plate 3
Fig. 18 Hind limb bud stage, Fig. 19 Length of limb bud equal to its diameter, Fig. 20 Foot paddle stage,
Fig. 21 Second indentation, Fig. 22 Third indentation, Fig. 23 Fourth indentation,
Fig. 24 Margin of 5th toe web directed towards the tip of 2nd toe,
Fig. 25 Margin of 5th toe web directed towards prehallux.
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DEVELOPMENT OF HYLA ANNECTANS
Ao, J. Meren et al. : Hyla annectans Jerdon
Plate 4
Fig. 26, 27 Cloacal tail piece reduced, Fig. 28 Both fore limbs emerged,
Fig. 29 Angle of mouth reached the middle of eye,
Fig. 30 Angle of mouth reached posterior margin of the eye, Fig. 3 1 Metamorphosed froglet.
176
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DEVELOPMENT OF HYLA ANNECTANS
Fig. 24). The margin of the 5 th toe web is directed
towards the tip of the 2nd toe.
Stage 37: Margin of 5th toe web directed
towards the tip of 1st toe (Age 1084 hrs; Head
and Trunk 13.7 mm; Tail 28.0 mm). The margin
of the 5th toe web is directed towards the tip of
the 1st toe. Pigmentation appears in the 4th and
5th toes along the foot. Toes are longer. A
rudiment of prehallux is indicated by a light
protuberance behind the 1st toe. Ventral surface
of the foot is closer to the ventral fin.
Stage 38: Margin of 5th toe web directed
towards prehallux (Age 1136 hrs; Head and
Trunk 14.0 mm; Tail 29.00 mm). (Plate 3, Fig.
25). The margin of the 5th toe web is directed
towards prehallux. Inner metatarsal turbercle
appear as a small outgrowth. Pigmentation
appears in 3rd, 4th and 5th toe along the foot.
Stage 39: Appearance of subarticular
tubercles in the toes (Age 1210 hrs; Head and
Trunk 14.3 mm; Tail 29.2 mm). Subarticular
tubercles appear on the inner surface of the toes
as light patches. The inner metatarsal tubercle
becomes a small oval outgrowth.
Stage 40: Toe pads complete (Age 1274
hrs; Head and Trunk 14.4 mm; Tail 29.2 mm).
Distal ends of the toes thickened. Subarticular
tubercles are clearly elevated. The cloacal tail
piece is not reduced.
Stage 41: Cloacal tail piece reduced (Age
1392 hrs; Head and Trunk 14.8 mm; Tail 30.0
mm. (Plate 4, Fig. 26, 27). The cloacal tail piece
gets reduced and only a narrow strip remains over
and in between bases of the thigh still attached
with ventral fin distally. The fore limbs are visible
through the skin. Green pigmentation of the dorsal
surface begins. Tail not dark. Keratodonts start
shedding. Oral papillae remain intact.
Stage 42: Both fore limbs emerge (Age
1422 hrs; Head and Trunk 14.5 mm; Tail 25.1
mm) (Plate 4, Fig. 28). Both fore limbs emerge,
usually the right fore limb emerges first, followed
after a few hours by the left. Resorbtion of the
labial fringe begins, however angular papillae
still remain as a small tuft on both comers of the
mouth, which starts widening. The homy beak
is shed. Tail starts darkening. The angle of the
mouth is level with the nostril. The cloacal tail
piece disappears at this stage, leaving the cloacal
aperture free below.
Stage 43: Angle of mouth between the eye
and nostril (Age 1434 hrs; Head and Trunk 14
mm; Tail 16.0 mm). The widening angle of
mouth has reached a point midway between
nostril and the anterior margin of eye. The tail
becomes still darker, the dorsal and ventral fins
shrink and the length of the tail is reduced, but
still longer than the extended hind limb.
Stage 44: Angle of mouth reached the
middle of eye ( Age 1462 hrs; Head and Trunk
14.00 mm; Tail 5.0 mm (Plate 4, Fig. 29). The
widening angle of the mouth has reached the
level of the middle of the eye. Dorsal and ventral
fins have disappeared. Tail resorbed considerably
and is as long as the femur.
Stage 45: Angle of the mouth reached
posterior margin of the eye (Age 1498 hrs; Head
and Tmnk 13.5 mm; Tail 1.0 mm) (Plate 4, Fig.
30). The widening angle of the mouth has
reached the posterior margin of the eye. The tail
is resorbed to a small triangular stub.
Stage 46: Metamorphosed froglet (Age
1550 hrs; Head and Tmnk 13.5 mm; Tail 0.0
mm.) (Plate 4, Fig. 31). The triangular tail stub
with dark tissue disappears completely.
Total time taken for completion of
metamorphosis was 64 days 14 hours.
Discussion
Hamburger (1947), Gosner (1960), Rugh
(1962), Nieuwkoop and Faber (1967) were
referred for preparing the normal table. Gosner
(1960) proposed 46 stages, with simplified
criteria for staging developmental events in
Pelobatids, Bufonids, Ranids and Hylids. In the
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 200!
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DEVELOPMENT OF HYLA ANNECTANS
present study, the development of Hyla annectans
was divided into these 46 stages. Certain
variations have been noted in the development
of Hyla annectans.
Developmental, stages have been divided
into fifteen major subheadings ( 1 ) Fertilization two
stages (2) Cleavage seven stages (3) Gastrula three
stages (4) Neurula four stages (5) Tail bud one
stage (6) Muscular response one stage (7) Heart
beat one stage (8) Gill circulation one stage
(9) Cornea becoming transparent one stage
(10) Tail fin circulation one stage (11) Operculum
formation three stages (12) Hind limb bud five
stages (13) Identation and development of toes ten
stages (14) Cloacal tail piece reduced one stage
(15) Metamorphosis climax five stages.
Characteristic features of development
include the tail bud, initially indicated by a strong
upward arching of the dorsum. Hatching of the
Refer
Agarwal, S.K. & I. A. Niazi (1977): Normal table of
developmental stages of the Indian Bull frog Rana
tigrina Daud. (Ranidae: Anura, Amphibia) Proc.
Nat. Acad. Sci., India 47(B) II: 79-92.
Dutta, S.K. & P. Mohanty-Hejmadi (1976): Breeding and
life history of the Indian Bull frog, Rana tigerina
(Daudin). Prakruti-Utkal Univ. J. Sci. 13 (1&2):
51-59.
Dutta, S.K., S. Jena & P. Mohanty-Hejmadi (1990-91):
Breeding and development of Ramanella variegata
(Anura: Microhylidae). J. Zool. Soc. India (42-43):
55-76.
Gosner, K.L. (1960): A simplified table for staging anuran
embryos and larvae with notes on identification.
Herpetologica 16: 183-190.
Jerdon, T.C., ( 1 870): Notes on Indian herpetology. Proc.
Asiatic Soc. Bengal 2: 66-85.
Kiyasetuo& M.K. Khare (1986): Annual breeding cycle
and development of Rhacophorus leucomystax
(Kiihl). Stud. Herpetol. Rocek (ed.) 41 7-422.
Hamburger, V. (1947): A manual of experimental
embryos occur in stage 21, when the cornea just
begins to be transparent. However, the cornea
becomes fully clear only towards the end of stage
22 and beginning of stage 23. At stage 22, the
circulation in the tail fin begins, but the tail fin
is not transparent as in Gosner series and remains
dusky. Narrow cloacal tail piece persists, in
Gosner series - 41 which, however, disappears
only in stage 42 when both forelimbs have
emerged. Rostrodont and keratodonts are shed
completely at stage 42.
Acknowledgement
This paper is dedicated to the memory of
Late Prof. Mahendra Kumar Khare, who initiated
research in Developmental Biology in the North
Eastern Hill University, Shillong, Meghalaya,
India.
ENC ES
embryology. University Press, Chicago.
Mohanty-Hejmadi, P. & S.K. Dutta (1977): Breeding
habits and development of Rana cyanophlyctis
(Schneider). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(2): 291-
296.
Mohanty-Hejmadi, P., S.K. Dutta & S.C. Maluck ( 1 979):
Life history of Indian Frogs II — the marbled
balloon frog Uperodon systoma (Schneider).
J. Zool. Soc. India 3I(1&2): 65-72.
Mohanty-Hejmadi, P., S.K. Dutta & I. Khan (1980): Life
history of Indian Frogs, III — The ornate frog
Microhyla ornata. J. Zool. Soc. India 32(1-2): 43-
48.
Nieuwkoop, P.D. & J. Faber (1967): Normal table of
Xenopus laevis (Daudin), North-Holland Publ. Co.
Amsterdam.
Rugh, R. (1962): Experimental embryology. Minneapolis,
Minnesota.
Roy, D. & M.K. Khare (1978): Normal table of
development of Rana limnocharis. Proc. nat. Acad.
Sci. India B 48(1): 5-16.
178
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
NEST-SITE SELECTION OF WHITE-BROWED F ANT AIL RHIPIDURA AUREOLA
IN MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY'
V. Gokula* 2
Key words: White -browed fantail, Rhipidura aureola , foraging, breeding,
nest-site characteristics
Nesting and nest-site selection of white-browed fantail ( Rhipidura aureola) were studied
in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS), south India, during 1995-1997. In addition,
foraging pattern was studied as it may also explain nest-site selection. A total of 73 foraging
records were obtained with no reference to age and sex. Sallying was the predominant
foraging manoeuvre used to catch insect food. A total of 24 nests were located on two tree
species: Anogeissus latifolia (83%) followed by Elaeodendron glaucum ( 1 7%). The results
indicated that the fantail did not select nest sites randomly in Mudumalai WLS, but had
specific nesting requirements. It generally selected a patch with high tree density, with
less to moderate ground cover to construct the nest.
Introduction
Nest-site selection involves discrimination
among alternative sites that provide different sets
of circumstances affecting survival and
reproduction. Hence, it is an important decision
to be made by birds. However, nest-site selection
of the majority of bird species in India is poorly
studied. An attempt was made to understand the
nest-site selection of white-browed fantail
(. Rhipidura aureola). Although the white-browed
fantail is widely distributed in India, only the
species description is given by All and Ripley
(1987). No detailed information is available on
its ecology. This study describes the foraging,
nesting, breeding, and nest-site selection of the
white -browed fantail in Mudumalai WLS during
1995-1997.
‘Study Area
The Mudumalai WLS is located at 1 1° 30'
to 1 1° 39' N and 76° 27' to 76° 43' E in the Nilgiri
district, Tamil Nadu. It has an average elevation
of 1,000 m. The climate is moderate, and
'Accepted June, 2000
27/l 53 A, Gurumoorthy Nagar, Ammachattram (PO),
Kumbakonam612 103, Tamil Nadu, India.
temperature varies from 14-17 °C during
December-January and 29-33 °C during
March-May. The annual rainfall, received in two
periods, varies from 600 to 2,000 mm. The high
rainfall period (June-August) is brought by the
southwest monsoon, while the low rainfall period
(September-November) comes from the northeast
monsoon. The Sanctuary is drained mainly by
the perennial river Moyar and partly by various
seasonal rivers. In corresponding to the rainfall,
the vegetation varies from thorn forest in the east
to semi-evergreen forest in the west. Further
details of the study area are given by Desai
(1991).
The study was carried out in a 20 ha plot
dominated by plant species such as Anogeissus
latifolia , Acacia spp. (including A. chundra ,
A. leucophloea and A. ferrugine a), Ziziphus spp.,
Sapindus emarginatus, Phyllanthus emblica ,
Erythroxylum monogynum, Cassia fistula ,
Elaeodendron glaucan and Capparis spp.
Methods
Foraging ecology: Foraging records were
collected at the study site during January to April
(dry spell in 1995 and 1996) as the white-browed
fantail breeds only during this period. Records
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(2), AUG. 2001
179
NEST-SITE SELECTION OF WHITE-BRO WED FANTAIL
were collected within the first four hours after
sunrise. Only one foraging record (initial record)
was taken from any individual encountered, as
done by MacNally (1994).
For each foraging attempt the following
were recorded :
(a) Height above ground level: ground, and
at every 1 m interval up to 10 m.
(b) Foraging methods: 1. gleaning: a
stationary food item is picked from its substrate
by a standing or hopping bird; 2. probing: similar
to gleaning, only the bird’s beak penetrates or
lifts the substrate to locate concealed food; 3.
pouncing: the bird flies from a perch and grabs
the food item as it lands on the substrate; and 4.
sallying or flycatching: a bird flies into the air to
catch flying prey.
(c) Substrate: 1. ground, including debris,
litter and grass; 2. trunk/main branches, the main
axes of trees; 3. foliage, leaves including leaf
blades and petioles; and 4. twigs, small branches
<1 cm in diameter to which leaves were attached,
and 5. air.
Nesting and Nest-Site Selection: A 20 ha
plot was laid for nest-site selection studies.
Searches were made on foot for nest structures
by observing substrate suitable for nesting
(ground, rock, holes etc.). A nest was
corroborated if adults were observed performing
breeding activities (nest building or renovation,
incubation, feeding the young) in or adjacent to
the nest. Regular visits were made to collect
breeding information.
The method of determining nest-site
selection followed are similar to the established
ones by Bechard et al. 1990 and Hullsieg and
Becker 1990. Variables were set at three levels.
The shape and size (physical structure) of
different nests were recorded. Among the
variables “nest concealment” was estimated by
viewing the nest from above or below or at nest
level from a distance of 2m, 5m, 7m and 10m
from all four cardinal points (Martin and Roper
1988). Concealment of the nest was estimated
using abundance rating (0-4=very high,
>4-8=high, >8-12=low and >12-16=very low).
The nest-tree or substrate variables were
recorded to identify the key factor of the
nest-plant that is responsible for supporting a
particular species nest. It includes: 1 . tree species
2. tree height, and 3 . girth at breast height (GBH).
The nest-patch variables were measured
within a 0.07 ha circular plot centred at the nest
tree as suggested by Titus and Mosher ( 1 98 1 ). A
“nest-patch” was defined as the area surrounding
a nest tree, including vegetation and topographic
features used by a nesting pair during the entire
nesting season exclusive of foraging areas
(Reynolds et al. 1982). This would help to
identify the microhabitat required for nesting of
bird species. The variables noted were: ground
cover, shrub cover, canopy cover, distance to
disturbance and road. Percentage of vegetation
cover (shrub and ground) was visually estimated.
The percent canopy cover immediately over the
nest was measured using a hand mirror marked
with a grid. The shaded area was estimated as
canopy cover (Martin and Roper 1988).
To test for selection, all parameters except
nest measurements were compared with similar
measurements at randomly selected sites. The
20 ha plot laid for nest-searches in each habitat
was divided into 80 grids (50 m x 50 m). Grids
were plotted and numbered on an enlarged
topographic map of the study area. 20 grids were
selected from the 80 grids by using lot method.
Once the approximate grid or site was located,
the nearest tree or shrub was made the centre of
a random plot. Except for nest measurements,
all other variables (nest-tree and nest-patch) were
enumerated from the plot.
Statistical Analyses: Univariate analyses
of variances (ANOVA), Mann- Whitney U, and
other simple statistics (Mean and SD) were used
where appropriate (Sokal and Rohif 1981).
Results are reported as significant if they are
180
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
NEST-SITE SELECTION OF WHITE-BRO WED FANTAIL
associated with a value of P<0.05. The SPSS
software was used for data analysis.
Results and Discussion
Foraging Pattern: A total of 73 foraging
observations were made. Present sample size was
assumed to be sufficient, as 30 independent
observations are recommended to represent the
behaviour of a bird accurately by Morrison
(1984). White-browed fantails used foraging
manoeuvres namely sally, pounce and glean to
catch insects (Table 1). Of the three manoeuvres,
sally was predominant. Among different forms
of sally, the fantail predominantly used sub-
canopy sally. It foraged over a wide range from
the ground up to 8 m above ground level.
However, the majority of foraging attempts were
made at 4-5 m above ground level (72%). Insects
were largely caught in flight.
Breeding Biology: Breeding activity
started soon after the blossom shower in April
and extended to May. A greater number of active
nests were seen during the first week of April
(n=18), and these numbers decreased towards
May. A fantail took four to five days to construct
a nest (three cases). Mainly, they laid three eggs
(n= 19), but clutch size varied from two to three
eggs. The mean incubation period and nestling
period were 14.5 ±0.53 (8 pairs) and 16.5 ±0.57
(4 pairs) days respectively.
Nest Morphology: The nests were neatly
built, cup-shaped, and often placed on a
horizontal fork. Only fine grass and rootlets were
used as nesting materials. The structure of the
nest was as recorded by Ali and Ripley (1987).
The mean depth and diameter of the nests were
2.98 cm and 5.6 cm respectively (Table 2). Nests
were placed at a mean height of 4.71 m from
ground level, varying from 3 m to 5.67 m. Girth
of the nest-plant varied from 57 to 167 cm. The
nests were hardly visible from a distance as their
size was very small and the colour merged with
the tree colour.
Nest-Tree Selection: White-browed fantail
used only trees for building their nest. Greater
heights required may be the reason for this
selection. Only two plant species were used and
the majority of the nests were on Anogeissus
latifolia (83%) followed by Elaeodendron
glaucum (17%). All the nests were built only on
twigs on the outer edge of the lower canopy. The
selection of Anogeissus latifolia can be attributed
to two factors: the colour of the nest is similar to
the bark of the tree species, protecting it from
predators, and A. latifolia was more abundant
(5.2 /ha) than Elaeodendron glaucum (2.3 /ha)
in the study area. In addition, the plant
architecture (branching geometry) of these two
tree species may also be a factor, as it gives
Table 1
FORAGING MANOEUVRES OF THE WHITE-BROWED FANTAIL
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
181
NEST-SITE SELECTION OF WHITE-BRO WED F ANT AIL
Table 2
NEST-SITE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
WHITE-BROWED FANTAIL
structural support to the nest.
Nest-Site Selection: The nest-site differed
from the random site in the following aspects:
ground cover (w=59.5 p<0.01), canopy cover
(u= 52.5 p<0.01), tree GBH (F= 32.9 p<0.01) and
tree density (F=10.3 p<0.01) (Table 3).
For nesting, the fantail generally selected
a patch with high tree density, less canopy cover,
and less to moderate ground cover. A patch with
high tree density and less canopy cover was
possible, as majority of the trees shed their leaves
when this flycatcher nests. More potential nest
sites near a nest may reduce predator efficiency,
as predators would be forced to search more sites
to find a nest (Martin 1988, Martin and Roper
Refer
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan, Oxford University Press,
New Delhi.
Bechard, M.J., R.L. Knight, D.G. Smith & R.E. Fitzner
(1990): Nest sites and habitat of sympatric Hawks
(Buteo spp.) in Washington. J. Field Ornithol. 61:
159-170.
Desai, A. A. (1991 ): The home range of elephants and its
implications for management of the Mudumalai
Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 88: 145-156.
Hullsieg, C. & D.M. Becker (1990): Nest site habitat
selected by Merlins in southeastern Montana. Condor
1988). The tendency to choose patches with more
trees may reflect this choice. In many cases, nests
were built in exactly the same place or branch in
subsequent years. Site-fidelity is advantageous
to the bird as it becomes familiar with the area;
this may enhance foraging success, predator
avoidance, defence and other behaviour which
contributes to reproductive performance (Newton
and Wyllie 1992).
Table 3
COMPARISON OF NEST-SITE VARIABLES OF
WHITE-BROWED FANTAIL WITH RANDOM SITES
ns = not significant. Details of the statistical tests are given in
the text.
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. V.S. Vijayan, Director,
Dr. Lalitha Vijayan, Principal Scientist, Salim
Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,
Dr. Justus Joshua, Scientist, Gujarat Institute of
Desert Ecology, and Tamil Nadu Forest
Department for support and encouragement.
ENCES
92: 688-694.
MacNally, R. ( 1 994): Habitat specific guild structure of
forest birds in southeastern Australia: a regional scale
perspective. / Anim. Ecol. 63: 988-1001.
Martin, T.E. ( 1 988): Habitat and area effects on organiza-
tion of forest bird assemblages: Is nest predation an
important underlying influence? Ecology > 69: 74-84.
Martin, T.E. & J.J. Roper (1988): Nest predation and
nest-site selection of a western population of the
Hermit Thrush. Condor 90: 5 1 -57.
Morrison, M.L. (1984): Influence of sample size and
sampling design on analysis of avian foraging
behaviour. Condor 86: 146-150.
182
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(2), AUG. 2001
NEST-SITE SELECTION OF WHITE-BROWED FANTAIL
Newton, I. & I. Wyllie (1992): Fidelity to nesting territory
among Sparrowhawks in three areas. J. Raptor Res.
26(3): 108-114.
Reynolds, R.T., E.C. Meslow & H.M. Wight (1982):
Nesting habitat of coexisting Accipiter in Oregon. J.
Wildl. Manage. 46: 124-138.
Sokal. R.R. & F.J. Rohif (1981): Biometry: The Principles
and Practice of Statistics in Biological Research. 2nd
edn, W.H. Freeman & Company. New York.
Titus, K. & J.A. Mosher (1981): Nest site habitat selected
by woodland Hawks in the Central Appalachians. Auk
98: 270-281.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
183
SOME CHELONIAN RECORDS FROM MIZORAM1
Anwaruddin Choudhury2
( With one text figure)
Key words: Turtles, tortoises, chelonians, conservation, Mizoram, northeastern India
During a survey in the northeastern Indian state of Mizoram, six species of turtles and
tortoises were recorded. These are the elongated tortoise Indotestudo elongata, brown hill
tortoise Manouria emys, Asian leaf turtle Cyclemys oldhamii, keeled box turtle Pyxidea
mouhotii , Indian roofed turtle Kachuga tecta and the Indian tent turtle Kachuga tentoria.
Unidentified softshell turtles have also been recorded. Since this was the first survey, all
records are new for the area. All species of chelonians are eaten by the local tribals,
making conservation efforts difficult. However, some are protected in the notified wildlife
sanctuaries and national parks. Expansion of human habitation, destruction of habitat for
jhum (shifting cultivation as practiced by the hill tribes), and poaching for meat are the
main conservation problems. The reported trade in turtle shells across the Indo-Myanmar
international boundary is, however, going to become a matter of concern in the future.
Recommendations have been made for conservation.
Introduction
The state of Mizoram (21° 58'-24° 30' N,
92° 16'-93° 25' E; area 21,081 sq. km) is located
in the southern part of northeastern India (Fig.
1). Formerly referred to as the Lushai Hills of
southern Assam, a part of the Himalayan system,
the entire state is hilly. The terrain is dissected
mostly by north-south flowing rivers making a
series of parallel ranges. The highest ranges are
towards the east, with the Phawngpui or Blue
Mountain (2,157 m above msl) and Lengteng
(2,141m above msl) peaks. The lowest elevation
is in the riverbeds near the Assam-Mizoram and
India-Bangladesh border (less than 1 00 m above
msl).
The chelonian fauna of the state was
virtually unknown, and the literature on the
region as well as on India’s turtles and tortoises
has virtually no reference to this area (Anderson
1871, Choudhury 1990, 1996a, b, 1998, Das
1985, 1990, 1991, 1995, Smith 1931).
The present account describes the records
of turtles and tortoises discovered during my field
'Accepted November, 2000
2The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,
c/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam,
Guwahati781 021, Assam, India.
survey (April 2000) in Aizawl, Mamit, Kolasib,
Serchip, Lunglei, Lawngtlai and Saiha districts.
Abbreviations: SCL = straight carapace
length, CCL = curved carapace length, SCW =
straight carapace width, CCW = curved carapace
width, CH = carapace height, PL = plastron
length, PW = plastron width, SH = shell height.
Local names: Sartle (Mizo), Sattle (Lai or
Pawi, especially in Lawngtlai and Saiha
districts), and Seilka (Mara or Lakher, especially
in Saiha district).
Study Area
The study sites were: Dampa Tiger
Reserve, Dapchua village, Khawmawi village,
Mampui village, Ngengpui village, Ngengpui
Wildlife Sanctuary, Phura village, Palak Dil
wetlands, Saiha, Sangau village, Thaltlang
village and Phawngpui National Park (Fig. 1).
Dampa Tiger Reserve (500 sq. km), located
in Mamit district, comprises of low hills with
elevations of 150 to 1,000 m above msl.
Vegetation is mostly tropical wet evergreen and
semi-evergreen with bamboos. The fringe area
is degraded due to currently used as well as
abandoned jhums. Dapchua village is on the
banks of the Tut (Gutur) river, a tributary of the
184
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SOME CHELONIAN RECORDS FROM MIZORAM
Tlawng or Dhaleswari River, about 150 m above
msl, also in Mamit district. On both sides of the
river, hill ranges rise to over 500 m above msl.
Khawmawi (Lunglei district), and
Ngengpui (Lawngtlai district) villages are on the
valley (150 m above msl) of Ngengpui River, a
tributary of the Kolodyne River, in the northern
fringe of Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary. Some of
the finest rainforests of Mizoram are still found
in this area (elevation 100-500 m above msl).
The Sanctuary is 1 10 sq. km in Lawngtlai district.
Mampui village, not far from Ngengpui
Sanctuary, is also in Lawngtlai district, but much
higher (1,000 m above msl). Some fine patches
of evergreen forest amidst jhum is typical of the
vegetation.
Phura village and Palak Dil wetlands are
located in the southern part of Saiha district. The
former is a valley (200 m above msl) surrounded
by hills (>400 m above msl), and the latter a
natural lake ( c . 1 sq. km at 300 m above msl).
Some of the forest patches are still excellent, but
jhum is widely practised here.
Saiha is the headquarters of Saiha district
(1,100 m above msl) and is surrounded by
degraded hillslopes with grass or scrub. Sangau
(1,350 m above msl) and Thaltlang (1,300 m
above msl) villages are near Phawngpui National
Park (50 sq. km). The Park ranges from 1,100 to
more than 2,000 m above msl, and has the
highest peak in Mizoram (2,157 m above msl).
Habitat in the lower areas (<1,600 m above msl)
is tropical evergreen and higher up it is
subtropical broadleaf. Towards east flows the
Kolodyne River (c. 300 m above msl), which also
marks the boundary between India and Myanmar
at that stretch.
The climate of these areas is tropical
monsoon with a hot and wet summer and a cool
and usually dry winter. The temperature ranges
from a minimum of 7 °C (December to early
February) to a maximum of 34 °C (June to
August) (extreme range: <5° to >36 °C). The
annual rainfall ranges from 2,000 to 4,000 mm,
about 75% of which falls in the monsoon (May
to September). Winter rains are not uncommon.
Methods
Turtles and tortoises were searched for
during foot transects along the existing paths and
streams in the forests (totalling 61 km), and boat-
transect along Ngengpui River and Palak Dil (2.5
km). Transect along roads (by vehicle) covered
1,847 km. Motor vehicle was used to reach
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
185
SOME CHELON1AN RECORDS FROM MIZORAM
different sites. Specimens displayed outside the
tribal huts (usually all trophies are displayed
outside) were also located from a moving vehicle.
Houses in select villages were randomly searched
for any preserved shell or part thereof. All
materials were personally examined, identified,
photographed and measured as per standard
procedure.
Results
Elongated tortoise Indotestudo elongata
(Blyth 1853)
Seven preserved specimens were found and
examined; two more were reported. The specimens
were at Dampa Rengpui and Teirei villages on the
outskirts of Dampa Tiger Reserve, Mampui village,
Ngengpui-Khawmawi villages, Phura village and
Sangau village. Two specimens were reported from
Saiha town, but could not be examined. The
measurements are given at Table 1 .
In areas closer to Mizoram, it has been
recorded in Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh
(Das 1995) and Hailakandi district of southern
Assam (A. Choudhury, unpubl.). According to
the collectors, it is widely distributed in bamboo
forest and often caught in jhummed areas (after
burning of vegetation). The sites of capture
ranged from 150 to 1,000 m above msl (at
Mampui).
Brown hill or Asian brown tortoise
Manouria emys (Schlegel & Muller 1 840)
Two preserved specimens were seen and
examined, and one more reported. The specimens
were at Phura and Sangau villages. One reported
from Phura could not be examined. The Phura
specimen was obtained around 1997 from the
hill slope near Palak Dil. The Sangau specimen
was obtained in the 1980s from the slopes near
the Kolodyne River. The measurements are given
in Table 2.
In areas closer to Mizoram, it has been
recorded in Rangkhyang Reserve Forest of
Bandarban in Chittagong Hill Tracts of
Bangladesh (Das 1995) and Hailakandi district
of southern Assam (Choudhury 1996b).
According to the collectors, it is rare nowadays,
as sheer size makes it a prized catch and also
easy to spot in jhummed areas (after burning of
vegetation). The sites of capture ranged from 150
to 500 m above msl (slopes near Sangau).
(Regarding subspecies, see discussion).
Unidentified softshell turtles Trionychidae
One preserved carapace seen at Thaltlang
village. It was reportedly caught in Kolodyne
River. At Palak Dil, more than one species of
softshell, including large specimens, have been
reported. Regularly caught by villagers at this
large lake.
Table 1
MEASUREMENTS OF ELONGATED TORTOISE INDOTESTUDO ELONGA TA (IN CM)
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SOME CHELONIAN RECORDS FROM MIZORA M
Table 2
MEASUREMENTS OF BROWN HILL TORTOISE MANOURIA EMYS( IN CM)
In areas near Mizoram, there are records of
the Indian softshell turtle Aspideretes gangeticus
from the Barak river system, southern Assam,
where it is among the common turtles locally
caught and sold in the market. The major rivers of
Mizoram such as the Tlawng (Dhaleswari) and
Tuirial (Sonai) are tributaries of the Barak River.
Other softshells recorded by me in southern Assam
are the Indian peacock softshell A. hurum and
Indian flapshell turtle Lissemys punctata.
Asian leaf turtle Cyclemys oldhamii
Gray 1863
One preserved carapace examined at
Ngengpui-Khawmawi villages. The measure-
ments are given in Table 3.
Near Mizoram, it has been recorded in
Chunoti, district Chittagong, Bangladesh and
North Cachar Hills district of southern Assam
(Das 1995). The sites of capture ranged from
150 to 300 m. The Indian population of
Cyclemys are now referred to as C. oldhamii
(Fritz et al. 1997).
Indian roofed turtle Kachuga tecta
(Gray 1831)
No specimen found, but a Forest
Department document states 13 individuals
counted during the wildlife census on April 31,
1993 in Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary.
Table 3
MEASUREMENTS OF ASIAN LEAF TURTLE
CYCLEMYS OLDHAMII {m CM)
Indian tent turtle Kachuga tentoria
(Gray 1834)
Two preserved carapaces were seen at the
Office of the Field Director, Dampa Tiger Reserve
at West Phaileng. However, both the specimens
were obtained from a truck which was carrying,
among other things, a large number of turtle
shells from Tripura to Champhai town, eastern
Mizoram, for onward supply (to smuggle!) to
Myanmar.
Keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii
(Gray 1862)
Three preserved specimens were seen, of
which two were examined. These were at Teirei
village, on the outskirts of Dampa Tiger Reserve,
Dapchua village and at Sangau village. The
Sangau specimen was obtained in the 1980s from
the slopes near Kolodyne River (For
measurements see Table 4).
A specimen was obtained in Hailakandi
district, Assam, not far from the Assam-Mizoram
border (Choudhury 1998). It has also been
recorded in Manipur (Choudhury 1996d). The
sites of capture ranged from 150 to 500 m (slopes
near Sangau).
CONSERVATION
Problems
Habitat destruction: Habitat destruction
by man due to jhum cultivation, expansion of
agriculture in the valleys, clearance for
settlement, encroachment of various kinds,
felling of trees, poisoning and dynamiting
the rivers for fish, are major threats to the
habitat.
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187
SOME CHELONIAN RECORDS FROM MIZORAM
Table 4
MEASUREMENTS OF KEELED BOX TURTLE PYXIDEA MOUHOTU{XN CM)
Specimen/Site SCL CCL SCW CCW PL PL PW SH Remarks
(gt) (n-n)
01. Teirei 16.7 19.0 12.0 18.0 16.2 15.7 10.2
02. Dapchua Not measured
03. Sangau 17.0 19.0 12.0 17.0 15.7 - 9.5 5.7
Poaching: Poaching of turtles is done
mainly for the pot. But it is apparent that they
are also smuggled out to Myanmar for China and
the Far East, for use in traditional Chinese
medicine. The past record of trans-shipment of
shells from Tripura to Myanmar through
Mizoram strengthens this possibility. Fortunately,
due to insurgency by the Reang (or Bru) tribals
in the north, the movement of civilian vehicles
between Damchara in Tripura and Mizoram has
almost ceased. All the tribes inhabiting Mizoram,
namely Mizo, Lai (Pawi), Mara (Lakher),
Chakma, Reang, and Hmar relish turtle meat and
any specimen seen is caught for food. In Palak
Dil and other lakes, turtles are fished by rod and
line, while some Myanmarese come occasionally
to the former lake to spear softshells. The
villagers of Phura reported that the Myanmarese
are expert at spearing turtles, and the local
villagers do not protest as the catch is shared.
Other problems: Every year, afterburning
the hill slopes for jhum (February- April), an
unspecified number of turtles and tortoises are
found either burnt or partly burnt. Some become
easy target due to lack of cover. Larger species
such as Manouria emys take shelter in small hill
streams when the surrounding hillsides are burnt.
The ultimate cause of habitat destruction
is, however, the very rapid growth of human
population. In Mizoram, it grew from 0.33
million in 1971 to 0.69 million in 1991, i.e.,more
than double in two decades! Since the majority
of the rural population practices jhum as the main
occupation, the large-scale destruction of natural
habitat seems inevitable.
Conservation measures taken
Legal Protection: Aspideretes gangeticus,
A. hurum and Lissemys punctata are accorded
the highest protection under Schedule I of the
Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, while
Indotestudo elongata and Manouria emys are
protected under Schedule IV of the same Act.
Most of the villagers are, however, unaware of
this legal status. It is difficult to enforce the Act
due to lack of information and ignorance.
Habitat Protection: Some of the habitats
are under protected areas. However, they account
for a meagre c. 4.8% of the total area of the State.
Of the six notified protected areas in
Mizoram, three may not have sizeable chelonian
populations due to their high elevation.
Discussion
The chelonians of Mizoram are poorly
known. This report provides some baseline data.
It seems that Indotestudo elongata is still fairly
common and widespread. Manouria emys , which
has become extremely rare in the north and
central Mizoram is still found in the south where
some good forest remains. All the species are
reported for the first time from Mizoram.
Variation in nuchal among Indotestudo
elongata is interesting. It is absent in three
specimens and prominent in one. I have observed
specimens in Dhubri and Bongaigaon districts
of Assam, in which the nuchal was absent or
very insignificant.
The specimen of Manouria emys examined
at Phura resembled the subspecies emys in having
188
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SOME CHELONIAN RECORDS FROM MIZORAM
large gulars that extend well beyond the carapace
rim and also being relatively small in size. But
interestingly, its pectorals do not resemble either
of the subspecies. The scutes narrow towards the
point. It resembles to some extent the
Rangkhyang specimen (however, the scutes of
pectorals narrow towards the contact point, but
scarcely touch each other, Das 1995) as well as a
specimen at Guwahati Zoo from northern Karbi
Anglong (Choudhury 1996b,c). These are
considered to be emys-phayrei intergrade (Das
1995). However, Anderson (in Das 1991)
believed that both subspecies were inseparable.
Anderson’s specimens from Naga Hills
(Nagaland), the specimen at Guwahati Zoo from
Karbi Anglong and the ones from Rangkhyang
and Mizoram seemed to possess characteristics
of both the subspecies. Bhupathy (1994)
suggested a re-evaluation of its taxonomic status.
Poaching for meat, habitat destruction
through jhum , and the trade across the
international boundary seem to be the major
threats. Even in protected areas, the chelonians
are not completely secure due to the ignorance
of the human population. The fringe villagers
know that killing of elephant Elephas maximus
or tiger Panthera tigris is prohibited, but are not
so aware regarding chelonians.
RECOMMENDED CONSERVATION
MEASURES
1. Creation of new Protected Areas: Some
important habitats such as Palak Dil should
be brought under the protected area
network.
2. Extension of existing protected areas: Part
of Ngengpui Reserve Forest should be added
to the Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary.
3. Check on poaching and trade: Poaching of
chelonians should be checked at this stage, at
least in the protected areas. The anti-poaching
staff should be motivated and made aware that
besides the mega species such as elephant and
tiger, chelonians also need their attention.
Awareness among villagers with the help of
NGOs will also be useful.
However, the most serious is the reported trade
in preserved shells across the international
boundary for use in traditional Chinese
medicine, which encourages poachers to
deliberately search for chelonians. This needs
to be monitored and checked, at least on the
main trade routes such as Champhai.
4. Check on jhum \ While it is impossible to stop
this practice, it can be reduced by introducing
terracing, cash crops and horticulture.
5. Other measures: More detailed survey of the
villages and the forest for further information
on chelonians. Conservation education among
locals, including the hill tribes of remote
areas. Last, but not least, is the need to take
up massive population control measures for
the humans in the fringe areas. Considering
the high literacy in the state, any awareness
campaign should be smooth in comparison
to other northeastern states.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the following forest
officials for their assistance during the study: N.
Pradhan (ACF, HQ), L. Pachuan (FD, Dampa),
P.C. Lianzuala (RO, Teirei), K. Hramzama (RO,
Ngengpui) and his wife, the Reang Chowkidar
of Dampa Rengpui, C.L. Buanga, C.
Hranghimea, T. Zakiau, K. Kheilai, Khudu Ray,
Laikung, Zarlansanga, Khaikhu, Lalnunzira,
Sonadhar Saikia, Muankima, Rinsanga,
Vanlalpeka, and other staff.
I also thank P. Rahlo and Mrs Nango of
Phura, K.Vabeisia and Waukry of Palak Dil, Ms
Bawitei of Lawngtlai, M. Goswami and John
Paul at Aizawl from Mizoram. Jalal Mazumdar
and Amaruddin of Bhaga Bazar, Dr Anil
Goswami, Hakim Choudhury, and many others
from Assam for their help.
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
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SOME CHELONIAN RECORDS FROM MIZORAM
Refer
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Indian Museum, Calcutta, from 1865 to 1870, with a
description of some new species. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal
40(2): 12-39.
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tortoise ( Manouria emys ) in India and the taxonomic
status of subspecies. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91(1) :
147-148.
Choudhury, A.U. (1990): Two freshwater turtles of the
genus Kachuga from Assam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
87(1): 151-152.
Choudhury, A.U. (1996a): Distribution of Kachuga smithii
(Gray) in Assam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(2): 301.
Choudhury, A.U. (1996b): Taxonomy of the brown hill
tortoise Manouria emys (Schlegel and Muller) and its
distribution in Indian subcontinent. Cheetal 35(3-4):
36-39.
Choudhury, A.U. (1996c): New localities for Brown hill
tortoise Manouria emys (Schlegel and Muller) from
Karbi Anglong, Assam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3):
590.
Choudhury, A. U. ( 1 996d): The Keeled box turtle Pyxidea
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mouhotii Gray — a new record for Manipur. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 590-591 .
Choudhury, A.U. (1998): Pyxidea mouhotii (Gray) in
southern Assam and Mizoram. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 95(3): 511.
Das, I. (1985): Indian turtles: a field guide. WWF-India
(Eastern Region), Calcutta. 1 1 9 pp.
Das, I. (1990): Distributional records for chelonians from
northeastern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87(1):
91-97.
Das, I. (1991): Colour guide to the turtles and tortoises of
the Indian subcontinent. R & A Publishing Ltd,
Portishead. 133 pp.
Das, I. (1995): Turtles and tortoises of India. WWF-India
& Oxford University Press, Bombay.
Fritz, U.W.E, Maren Gaulke & Edgar Lehr (1997):
Revision der siidostasiatischen Dornschildkroten-
Gattung Cyclemys Bell, 1 834, mit Beschreibung einer
neuen Art. Salamandra 33(3): 183-121.
Smith, M. A. (1931): The Fauna of British India including
Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. I.
Taylor & Francis, London, 1 85 pp.
190
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
DISTRIBUTION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF DIURNAL PRIMATES IN SILENT
VALLEY NATIONAL PARK AND ADJACENT AREAS, KERALA, INDIA1
K.K. Ramachandran and Gigi K. Joseph2
Key words: Distribution, demography, Macaco, silenus , Trachypithecus johnii,
Macaca radiata, Semnopithecus entellus
Distribution and demography of all diurnal primates were studied in Silent Valley National
Park and adjacent areas for a period of three years from 1993 to 1996. Fourteen troops of
lion-tailed macaque, eighty-five troops of Nilgiri langur, fifteen troops of bonnet macaque
and seven troops of Hanuman langur were observed. Of these, the Nilgiri langur was
randomly distributed, whereas the lion-tailed macaque troops were confined to the southern
sector of the Park. Bonnet macaques and Hanuman langurs were occasional visitors,
especially during summer and northeast monsoon in the southwestern fringes of the National
Park. Demographical studies revealed that the Silent Valley forest remains one of the most
undisturbed viable habitats left for the endemic and endangered primates of the Western
Ghats like the lion-tailed macaque and Nilgiri langur.
Introduction
India is well known for its rich primate
fauna with as many as 15 species. These include
seven macaque, five langur, two loris, and one
ape species (Agrawal, 1998). The highest number
of primate species in India is seen in the
northeastern states, where 10 species occur in
sympatry (Molur et al 1998). The distribution
of these primates very often extends to the
Southeast Asian countries like Bangladesh,
Myanmar, Indonesia, Thailand and South China.
But the two endemic primates of the Western
Ghats, namely lion-tailed macaque ( Macaca
silenus ) and Nilgiri langur ( Trachypithecus
johnii ), exist in the wild only in the south Indian
states of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Slender loris ( Loris tardigradus), Hanuman
langur (Semnopithecus entellus) and bonnet
macaque ( Macaca radiata) are also distributed
in the state of Kerala.
In the last two centuries, up to 1970,
extensive forest destruction for plantations and
'Accepted August, 2000
2Division of Wildlife Biology,
Kerala Forest Research Institute,
Peechi, Kerala 680 653, India.
agriculture, and poaching severely affected the
primate population in the Kerala part of the
Western Ghats. However, the inclusion of vast
stretches of forests in the protected area network,
and the implementation of the Wildlife
(Protection) Act in 1972, has helped to restore
populations to some extent in many areas. Silent
Valley National Park is still among the least
disturbed evergreen forests in the country and it
is important to estimate and monitor the primate
populations there.
A number of studies have mentioned the
status and distribution of primates in Silent
Valley forests (Daniel and Kannan 1967, Kurup,
1975 1978, Roonwal and Mohnot 1977, Green
and Minkowski 1977, Ali 1985, Easa et al.
1997) . But it was Vijayan and Balakrishnan
(1977) who first studied the mammalia
exclusively in the rainforest ecosystem of the
Silent Valley, in connection with a study on the
impact of the hydroelectric project on wildlife.
Later, Balakrishnan (1984) documented the need
for conserving these rainforests, as it formed an
important habitat of many larger mammals.
Though some recent studies (Ramachandran
1990, Joseph 1998, Joseph and Ramachandran
1998) have described the distribution, status and
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
191
DISTRIBUTION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF DIURNAL PRIMA TES
demography of lion-tailed macaque, no detailed
work was done on other primates, especially after
the declaration of the National Park in 1984. The
present paper deals with the distribution and
demography of all diurnal primates in Silent
Valley National Park and adjacent areas.
Study area
The Silent Valley National Park is situated
in Palghat district, Kerala (11° 3' to 11° 13' N
and 76° 2 T to 76° 35' E). It is one of the core
areas of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The
^National Park extends over 90 sq. km and has
pure evergreen vegetation. Kunthipuzha, a
tributary of Bharathapuzha, originating from the
northeastern hill ranges of the National Park,
drains the area. The altitude varies between 658
to 2,383 m. Silent Valley forests receive some of
the highest rainfall in the entire Western Ghats,
with an average of 6,000 mm per year. The
annual mean temperature is c. 20 °C.
The highly diverse flora of Silent Valley
consists of 966 species belonging to 134
families and 559 genera (Manilal 1988). This
comprises 701 dicotyledons and 265 mono-
cotyledons. The five dominant families recorded
are: Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Fabaceae, Rubiaceae
and Asteraceae. Relative abundance of certain
species in specific patches has resulted in the
formation of certain tree associations. Six distinct
tree associations can be distinguished in the Valley,
and they are:- i) Cullenia exarillata-Palaquium
ellipticum , ii) Palaquium ellipticum-Mesua
ferrea, iii) Mesua ferrea-Calophyllum elatum ,
iv) Palaquium ellipticum-Poeciloneuron
indicum, v) Calophyllum elatum-Ochlandra sp.
vi) Poeciloneuron indicum-Ochlandra sp.
Among these, the first three tree associations
are restricted in the southern sector, whereas
the rest of them are confined to the central
and northern parts of the National Park (Aiyar
1932).
Methods
Distribution and demography of primates
were studied in the National Park and adjacent
areas for three years from 1993 to 1996, as part
of the endangered primate research project.
The National Park and the adjacent areas,
were stratified into 12 major blocks of average
10 sq. km area. As the troops of each primate
species were not randomly distributed in the
highly undulating terrain, line transect method
of estimating the animal population (Burnham
et al., 1980) was found unsuitable. So total count
and sweep sampling methods were used (NRC
1981, Whitesides et al. 1988). Repeated surveys
were conducted on foot in each of the blocks to
count troop size, structure and sex ratio. Individuals
of each species were classified into five categories
based on the morphological differences as recorded
in literature (Poirier 1969, Roonwal and Mohnot
1977, Kumar 1987, Joseph 1998).
Results
Lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus)
Fourteen troops of lion-tailed macaque
were identified from Silent Valley National Park
and adjacent areas (Table 1). The troops tended
to be distributed towards the southern side of
the Park, in specific tree association areas such
as Cullenia-Palaquium , Palaquium-Mesua and
Mesua-Calophyllum prevailing in the evergreen
habitat. They were seen in Sairandri,
Puchappara and Nilikkal sections within the
Park and Panthenthod section of the Attappady
reserve forests. A preference for altitudes
between 700 and 1,500 m was observed. A total
of 275 individuals were observed with an average
troop size of 19.64 individuals. The troop size
varied from 9 to 36 individuals. The population
consisted of more adults (53%) than immatures
(47%). The adult sex ratio (1:5.63) was strongly
in favour of females (Table 2).
192
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
DISTRIBUTION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF DIURNAL PRIM A TES
Table 1
POPULATION STRUCTURE OF PRIMATE COMMUNITY IN SILENT VALLEY NATIONAL PARK AND
ADJACENT AREAS
LTM = Lion-tailed macaque, NL = Nilgiri langur, BM = Bonnet macaque, HL = Hanuman langur
Nilgiri langur ( Trachypithecus johnii)
Unlike the lion-tailed macaque, the Nilgiri
langur had a wide range of distribution from 400
to 2,300 m elevation in and around the Silent
Valley National Park. Though there is variation
in the tree associations of different locations, the
distribution of this arboreal species was observed
in all tree associations of the Park A total of 5,4 1 8
individuals, from 1,410 troop records were
observed (Table 1). Eighty-five troops were
identified from the overall troop sightings. A total
of 501 individuals were observed with an average
troop size of 5.89 individuals. Of these, 20.16%
were adult males and 40. 12% were adult females.
The gender of 5.19% of the adults could not be
determined, and the rest of the population
constituted immature langurs. The adult
male-female ratio estimated was 1:1. 99.
Bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata)
Most of the bonnet macaque sightings were
concentrated in the southern fringes of moist
deciduous forests bordering the National Park.
However, they were observed in the evergreen
areas inside the Park during the summer and
northeast monsoon. Bonnets were sighted in
Sairandri, Aruvampara, Punnamala, Parathod,
Panthenthod, Chembotty, Nilikkal, and
Walakkad areas. A total of fifteen troops were
identified, having 192 individuals altogether
(Table 1). The average troop size was 12.8
individuals, varying from five to thirty
individuals. Percentage composition of adult
males was 11.45% and of the adult females
3 1 .25%. The adult male-female ratio was 1 :2.72
(Table 2).
Hanuman langur ( Semnopithecus entellus )
Hanuman langur troops were commonly
seen in the moist deciduous forests of
Mannarghat Forest Division bordering the
southern region of the National Park. Many a
time, they were seen foraging solitarily or along
with Nilgiri langurs in the evergreen areas,
Table 2
AGE-SEX COMPOSITION OF PRIMATES IN SILENT VALLEY
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
193
DISTRIBUTION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF DIURNAL PRIMA TES
especially in October and November. Their
occasional visit to the evergreen forests was found
to be limited to the peripheral regions of
Cullenia-Palaquium tree association patches,
notably in the Nilikkal area. Once a solitary
Hanuman langur was sighted in the Aruvampara
region east of Kunthipuzha river. Out of the total
sightings, seven troops were identified having
24 individuals (Table 1). Average troop size
estimated was 3.4 individuals. Among the total
individuals observed 20.8% were adult males and
37.5% were adult females (Table 2). The percent
composition of immature was 37.4%, while the
gender of 4.1% of the adults could not be
determined.
Discussion
The study reveals the existence of a healthy
population of lion-tailed macaque and Nilgiri
langur thriving in the Silent Valley National Park
and adjacent areas. The extensive habitat
continuity of the evergreen forests with least
human interference help to establish an
interbreeding primate population. Most of the
lion- tailed macaque troops in the Western Ghats
exist as small populations due to extensive
fragmentation of the rainforest habitat. These
small populations often undergo random shifts
in size naturally or due to human influence. Such
events can cause a dramatic shift, and can be
destructive to the population, even leading to
local extinction. Out of the total population of
lion-tailed macaque, the Kerala part of Western
Ghats holds more than 50% and the rest is shared
between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (Kumar et
al. , 1995). The Silent Valley population having
14 troops with 275 individuals remains one of
the most important populations in its entire
range. Modelling and simulation exercises were
done using the same data, and it was found that
the population is viable, facing no serious threats
in the next 100 years (Lacy et al. 1996).
Though a healthy viable population of
lion-tailed macaque is present in the study area,
its distribution is more common in the
Cullenia-Palaquium tree association areas, which
provides ample food supply throughout the year.
The Poeciloneuron-Ochlandra association patches
in the higher elevations lack many of the food
species of the highly arboreal lion-tailed macaque.
This may be the reason for its absence in the upper
reaches of Silent Valley National Park. Though
the major ecological niche of the Nilgiri langur is
the high altitude (1,600-1,900 m) montane shola,
they have survived well in the low altitude (400-
800 m) evergreen, semi evergreen and even moist
deciduous habitats adjacent to the National Park.
This is the most common folivorous primate
distributed throughout the Park, irrespective of the
various tree associations.
The primate community in Silent Valley
constitutes four diurnal species, of which the
bonnet macaque and Hanuman langur are not
very common inside the Park. Bonnets are
occasional visitors, preferring the summer and
post monsoon, as there is higher availability of
food in the evergreen areas during these seasons.
The summer months have abundant Syzygium
fruits, while in the monsoon, there is cauliflorous
flowering of Cullenia exarillata, which was
observed to be a favourite food item for all the
four primates and the Malabar giant squirrel,
Ratufa indica. Hanuman langur troops were
common in the Mannarkad Reserve Forest
bordering the western region of the Park, their
range extends from the lower altitude moist
deciduous areas to the comparatively high
altitude evergreen areas. During the Cullenia
flowering season, Hanuman langur has been
reported from the Park for the first time. Many a
time, Nilgiri langurs were sighted along with the
Hanuman langur troops in moist deciduous areas.
There is, therefore, a need for genetic studies to
verify whether both interbreed in the
southwestern region of the National Park.
194
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(2). AUG. 200 1
DISTRIBUTION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF DIURNAL PR1MA TES
Attappady Reserve Forest (RF), located
adjacent to the National Park, has low lying
evergreen forests with great conservation value.
The present study reveals a population of
lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri langur and bonnet
macaque thriving especially in the Panthenthod
areas which is part of the Attappady RF. This
area suffers more human interference than other
areas inside the National Park. Trapping of nine
lion-tailed macaque individuals from a troop
inhabiting these areas by Muduga tribals during
the study period itself is a clear instance of
poaching. The whole area of Silent Valley
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459-469.
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Western Ghats, India. Ph.D. thesis, FRI Deemed
National Park is treated as ‘core zone’. There is
a need for demarcating a buffer zone for the Park,
which should also include the floristically and
faunistically rich Attappady RF, particularly the
Panthenthod area.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. J. K. Sharma, Director,
KFRI for encouragement and the Wildlife Wing
of the Kerala Forest Department for funding the
primate research project in Silent Valley
National Park.
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University, Dehra Dun.
Joseph, G.K. & K.K. Ramachandran (1998): Recent
population trends and management of lion-tailed
macaque ( Macaca silenus) in Silent Valley National
Park, Kerala, India. Indian Forester 124: 833-840.
Kumar, A. ( 1 987): The ecology and population dynamics
of the lion-tailed macaque ( Macaca silenus) in
South India. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge.
Kumar, A., S. Molur & S. Walker (1995): Lion-tailed
macaque (Macaca silenus) Population and Habitat
Viability Analysis Workshop-Report. Zoo Outreach
Organisation, Coimbatore.
Kurup, G.U. (1975): Status of Nilgiri langur, Presbytis
johnii , in the Anamalai, Cardamom and Nilgiri Hills
of the Western Ghats, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 65: 283-292.
Kurup, G.U. (1978): Distribution, habitat and status survey
of the lion-tailed macaque, (Macaca silenus)
(Linnaeus). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 321-340.
Lacy, R., J. Ballou & S. Molur ( 1 996): Small population
biology and the tools of recovery. In situ report.
Zoos ' Print 1 1 : 9-23 .
Manilal, K.S. (1988): Flora of Silent Valley. The
Mathrubhumi Press, Calicut, pp. 1-398.
Molur, S., P.O. Nameer & S. Walker (Eds) (1998):
Conservation Assessment and Management Plan
(CAMP) Workshop Report: Mammals of India. Zoo
Outreach Organisation/CBSG, India, Coimbatore.
National Research Council (NRC) (1981): Subcommittee
on Conservation of Natural Populations, Committee
on Nonhuman Primates. Techniques for the Study
of Primate Population Ecology. National Academy
Press, Washington, D.C.
Poirier, F.E. (1969): The Nilgiri langur (Presbytis johnii)
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troop: Its composition, structure, function and
change. Folia primat. JO: 20-47.
Ramachandran, K.K. (1990): Feeding and ranging
patterns of lion-tailed macaque in Silent Valley
National Park. In: Ecological studies and long-term
monitoring of biological processes in Silent Valley
National Park. KFRI Research Report, pp. 109-133.
Roonwal, M.L. & S.M Mohnot (1977): Primates of South
Asia: Ecology, Sociobiology and Behaviour.
■ ■
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University
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Vijayan, V.S. & M. Balakrishnan (1977): Impact of
hydroelectric project on wildlife. Report of the first
phase of study. KFRI Interim Research report.
Whitesides, GA, G.H. Oates., S.M Green & R.P.
Kluberdang (1988): Estimating primate from
transect in a West African Rain Forest. A composition
of techniques. J. Anim. Ecol. 57: 345-367.
196
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
FISHES OF THE SUBFAMILY NEMACHEILINAE REGAN (CYPRINIFORMES :
BALITORIDAE) FROM MANIPUR1
W. VlSHWANATH AND JULIANA LAISRAM2
{With four text-figures and three plates )
Key words: Fish, Nemacheilinae, Manipur.
Subfamily Nemacheilinae of Manipur State, India, is represented by 12 species, belonging
to 3 genera, namely Acanthocobitis Peters and Neonoemacheilus Zhu & Guo with 2 species
each and Schistura McClelland with 8 species. Diagnostic characters of the species, colour
patterns, updated geographical distribution, detailed morphometric data, and illustrations
are given based on fresh specimens collected from the State. N. assamensis (Menon) and
S. nagaensis (Menon) are treated as valid
identification of species are also provided.
Introduction
Fishes of the Subfamily Nemacheilinae
Regan (Cypriniformes: Balitoridae) are small
sized loaches inhabiting benthic zones of fresh,
well aerated hill stream waters of Asia, Ethiopia
and Europe. The group is characterised by an
elongate, rounded body, a subterminal mouth,
presence of prepalatine, 3 pairs of barbels:
2 rostral and 1 maxillary, 1 simple ray each in
pectoral and pelvic fins, and absence of spine
under or before eye (Nelson 1994). Menon (1987)
recognized 2 genera, namely Triplophysa and
Noemacheilus under this subfamily. However,
Kottelat (1990) while revising the nemacheilines
of Southeast Asia, recognised as many as 31
genera.
Manipur, with its numerous hill streams,
is rich in loach fauna. The western side of the
State is drained by the Barak and its tributaries,
which form the Brahmaputra basin. The central
plain is drained by the Imphal River and its
tr ibutaries, which finally form the Manipur River,
which then flows out of the State to join the
Chindwin in Myanmar. The river Tizu and its
tributaries, and the Chatrickong drain the
northern and central part of Ukhrul district
respectively, and then enter Myanmar to join the
'Accepted September, 2000
department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur
795 003, Manipur, India.
species here. Distribution map and key to
Chindwm. The Maklang and Namya Rivers
draining the southern part of Ukhrul district, the
Lokchao draining the Chandel district and
several other streams draining the eastern part
of the State join the Yu River, a tributary of the
Chindwin in Myanmar. Chaudhuri (1912)
described Nemacheilus (now Schistura)
manipurensis from Ukhrul district. Hora (1921 )
described N. kanjupkhulensis, N. prashadi and
N. sikmaiensis (all currently in the genus
Schistura ), while reporting on the fish and
fisheries of Manipur. His report from the state
also included N. botia (now Acanthocobitis ), but
the place of collection was Ghaspani, Nagaland.
Subsequent reports on the fishes of the state by
Hora (1936), Menon (1953) and Menon (1954)
did not add any more nemacheilines to the list.
Menon’s (1987) revision of family
Homalopteridae (now Balitoridae) also reported
Noemacheilus peguensis (now Neonoemacheilus )
and N. vinciguerra (now Schistura ) from the state.
Most of the data presented by previous
workers on this group of fishes of Manipur suffers
from certain drawbacks: (1) they did not have
fresh specimens for examination. Many
specimens were in bad shape (e.g.
Neonoemacheilus peguensis). Types of Schistura
sikmaiensis , in ZSI have been lost, and a neotype
from Myitkyina, Myanmar had to be designated
(Kottelat, 1990). Moreover, in these specimens,
some characteristic colour patterns are lost due
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
197
FISHES OF THE SUBFAMILY NEMA CHEILINAE REGAN
1 . Acanthocobitis botia, 2. A. zonalternans. 3. Neonoemacheilus assamensis , 4. N. peguensis, 5. Schistura kanjupkhulensis,
6. S. manipurensis, 7. S. nagaensis, 8. S. prashadi, 9. S. scaturgina, 10. S. sikmaiensis, 1 1 . S. vinciguerra and 12. Schistura sp.
Fig. 1: Map of Manipur showing distribution of nemacheiline fishes
198
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
FISHES OF THE SUBFAMIL YNEMA CHE I LIN A E REG A N
Fig. 2: Mouth and lips of nemacheiline genera: a. Neonoemacheilus , b. Acanthocobitis and c. Schistura.
to long preservation. (2) The descriptions were
based on 1-4 specimens, e.g., 1 for N. peguensis,
2 each for S. kanjupkhulensis and S. prashadi , 3
for S. sikmaiensis etc. (3) Type localities are not
clearly stated, leading to confusion in the
distribution in different drainage basins. (4) The
morphometric data is inadequate. (5) There is
no proper illustration for some species (N.
assamensis, N. nagaensis).
In the present work, 164 specimens in
MUMF (Manipur University Museum of Fishes,
Manipur University) and a few in ZSI (Zoological
Survey of India, Kolkata), collected from
Manipur and its adjoining areas were examined.
Moiphometric measurement followed Kottelat
(1990). The collections include 3 genera, namely
Acanthocobitis Peters and Neonoemacheilus Zhu
& Guo with 2 species each, and Schistura
McClelland with 8 species. N. assamensis
(Menon) and S. nagaensis (Menon) are treated
here as valid species. A. botia (Hamilton) is
reported from the state. Systematic accounts are
presented; a key to the species and a distribution
map (Fig. 1) have also been provided.
Abbreviations used: MUMF= Manipur
University Museum of Fishes; ZSI = Zoological
Survey of India; WV = W. Vishwanath, WM =
W. Manojkumar, HL = H. Lilabati, LK = L.
Kosygin, KS = K. Selim, WJ = W. Jayadev, KN
= K. Nebeshwor, SB = S. Bijoy, Unreg. =
Unregistered, R = River, Str. = Stream. Under
head ‘Material examined1 of every species, the
MUMF registration number, followed by number
of specimens examined, standard length of fish,
site and date of collection are given.
Systematic Account
Key to the Genera of
Nemacheilinae Regan in Manipur
la. Mouth hypertrophied, lips forming a preoral
cavity; lower lip in the form of two thick pads,
interrupted in the middle (Fig. 2a)
Neonoemacheilus
lb. Mouth not hypertrophied, lower lip not in the
form of two thick pads (Fig. 2b & 2c) 2
2a. A conspicuous black spot at the upper extremity
of caudal base, no transverse black bar at the
base of caudal fin (Fig. 3a) Acanthocobitis
2b. No black spot at upper extremity of caudal base,
a black transverse bar at the base of caudal fin
(Fig. 3b) Schistura
Acanthocobitis Peters
Acanthocobitis Peters, 1861: 712 (type
species: A. longipinnis Peters). Kottelat, 1990
(revision). Banarescu & Nalbant, 1995: 432
(generic classification)
Diagnosis: Nemacheiline genus,
recognised by a comparatively deep body which
is compressed posteriorly; compressed head,
nostrils close together, the anterior one without
a barbel-like prolongation; large imbricate scales
Fig. 3: Coloration on caudal base:
a. Acanthocobitis and b. Schistura.
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FISHES OF THE SUBFAMIL YNEMA CHEILINAE REGAN
with small focus; scales absent on head and
reduced on chest; upper lip usually with
papillated pad, with a broad median interruption;
dark transverse bands or irregular markings or
regularly arranged spots on body; a conspicuous
black spot at upper extremity of caudal base,
lateral line complete or incomplete; males with
a suborbital flap or a suborbital groove.
The counts are as: D. iv, 9Vi-\2Vz, A. ii-
lh, 5'/2, C. /9+8/P. 11-13, V. 7-8.
Key to species:
la. Lateral line complete; branched dorsal rays \2Vz
A. botia
lb. Lateral line extends up to middle of dorsal fin;
branched dorsal rays 9 V2- 1 0 V2 . . A. zonalternans
Acanthocobitis botia (Hamilton)
(Plate 1, Fig a)
Cobitis botia Hamilton, 1822: 350 (type
locality: Ganges)
Acanthocobitis botia : Kottelat, 1990
(revision)
Material examined: MUMF, 6, 43.4-62.8
mm, Jiri R., LK and SB, January, 1998. MUMF
3015. 1,62.8 mm, KN. 5.V.1999
Diagnosis: In addition to the key
characters, other diagnostic characters are: dorsal
profile slightly convex anteriorly and concave
posteriorly, pectoral fin extends to more than half
of the distance between pectoral and pelvic fin
origins. Pelvic fin origin under 3rd-4th branched
dorsal fin ray. Dorsal fin inserted slightly ahead
of middle of body. Head rounded, eyes on dorsal
half of head. Body covered with scales. Lateral
line complete. Caudal fin slightly emarginate.
Colour: A distinct, thin, dark line above
lateral line; 8-10 elongate vertical blotches on
body, shapes variable. 10-11 black patches
('saddles’ as mentioned by Kottelat, 1999) on
back, extending towards lateral line alternate
with the blotches. Dorsal fin with 5-6 horizontal
series of black spots, caudal fin with 7-8 vertical
series, V-shaped, pointed posteriorly.
Distribution: River Indus, Pakistan to Mae
Khlong of Thailand, through Ganga,
Brahmaputra, Chindwin, Irrawady, Sitang and
Salween basins.
Remarks: Morphometric data given in
Table 1. The species is represented only in the
collections from Barak and its tributaries
(Brahmaputra basin) and not from the Chindwin
basin of the State. Hora (1921) included the
species in the list of fishes collected from
Manipur. However, collection site was Ghaspam,
a village in Nagaland, in the Brahmaputra basin.
Acanthocobitis zonalternans (Blyth)
(Plate 1, Fig. b)
Cobitis zonalternans Blyth, 1860: 172
(type locality: Tenasserim Province, Myanmar)
Acanthocobitis zonalternans-. Kottelat,
1990: 35, figs. 11a, 17, 18 (revision); Banarescu
& Nalbant, 1995: 433 (general classification and
diagnostic characters).
Material examined: MUMF 3016, 6,
38.6-44.9 mm, Lokchao river, Moreh, WV &
party, 25.iii.1999.
Local name: Ngatup
Diagnosis: In addition to key characters,
diagnostic characters are: pectoral fin extends
to almost 2/3rd the distance between pectoral and
pelvic fin origins. Pelvic fin originates behind
4th-5th branched dorsal fin ray. Dorsal fin origin
slightly ahead of middle of body. Body and belly
with embedded scales. Lateral line incomplete,
reaching middle of dorsal fin base. Caudal fin
emarginate.
Colour: Body light brown with 12-13
vertical bars of variable shape, extending from
back to middle of body . Dorsal black patches 1 0-
13, extending to lateral line, alternating with
vertical bars. Bars and patches thinner anteriorly.
Distribution: india: Chindwin basin in
Manipur to Mae Khlong and Tapi basins of
Thailand, through Sitang and Salween basins.
200
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FISHES OF THE SUBFAMILY NEMACHEILINAE REGAN
Table 1
MORPHOMETRY OF A. BOTIA AND/1. ZONALTERNANS (IN % OF SL EXCEPT SL, IN MM)
Remarks: Morphometric data are given
in Table 1. Hora (1921) reported the fish to be
plentiful in Manipur Valley. However, now it
occurs only in the streams draining into the Yu
River (tributary of Chindwin). Kottelat’s (1990)
inclusion of Brahmaputra in the distribution of
the species needs confirmation. None of the
material he examined, as listed on pp. 36-38 was
from the said basin.
Neonoemacheilus Zhu & Guo
Neonoemcicheilus Zhu & Guo, 1985: 321
(type species: Nemacheilus labeosus Kottelat).
Kottelat, 1990 (revision). Banarescu & Nalbant,
1995; 436 (generic classification)
Infundibulatus Menon, 1987: 177 (type
species: Nemacheilus peguensis Hora, new
subgenus of Nemacheilus (Bleeker)
Diagnosis: A nemacheilme genus with
hypertrophied lips forming a preoral cavity. Lips
with transverse ridges, flat, lower lip in the form
of two thick pads, interrupted in the middle.
Scales imbricate; Lateral line complete. Body
with 13-21 dark brown transverse bars; suborbital
flap in males. Body slender, dorsal profile arched,
ventral more or less straight, compressed
moderately before dorsal fin origin, more
compressed behind. Head comparatively deep.
Mouth ventral, placed behind tip of snout. Lips
broad, processus dentiformes moderately
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FISHES OF THE SUBFAMIL YNEMA CHEILINAE REGAN
developed. Barbels 3 pairs; inner rostral reaches
corner of mouth, outer rostral and maxillary
slightly longer. Anterior nostril opens obliquely
in front side of a flap-like tube. Body covered
with scales, absent on ventral surface. Lateral
line complete.
The counts are: D. iv, 8 14-9 Vi; A. iii, 514;
C. /9+8/; P. 11-12; V. 7-9.
Key to Species
la. Branched dorsal fin rays 814, head depth
12. 9.(1 1.8-1 3.7)% of SL; body with 13- 17 dark brown
transverse bars N. assamensis
lb. Branched dorsal fin rays 914; head depth
14.3 (13.4- 15.0)% of SL; body with 20-21 dark brown
transverse bars N. peguensis
Neonoemacheilus assamensis (Menon)
(Plate 1, Fig c)
Noemacheilus assamensis Menon, 1987;
179 (type locality: Pagladia River, Assam)
Material examined: MUMF 3011, 11,
35.1-43 mm, Jiri R., tributary of Barak R.,
Jiribam, WV & party, December, 1997.
Local name: Ngatup
Diagnosis: Species with 814 branched
dorsal fin rays; a conspicuous pad on tip of snout
overhanging mouth, width of mouth 53.4-55.6%
of head width; head depth 54.1-66.7%,
interorbital space 16.3-25.3% of HL; 13-17 dark
brown transverse bars on body. Pectoral fin
reaches midway to base of pelvic, the latter just
reaches anus or a little beyond. Anus situated
nearer to anal fin than to origin of pelvic fin.
Mouth semicircular, situated a little behind the
snout (Fig. 2a). Upper lip thin, moderately
hypertrophied, a pad-like structure in the middle.
Body covered with scales except head, but more
sparsely between pectoral fins. Scales minute,
oval-shaped with large focus (Fig. 4a). Lateral
line complete with 80-85 pores.
Sexual dimorphism: Males with well
developed suborbital flap and breeding tubercles
on pectoral fin (Figs 4b, 4c)
Colour: Body creamish- white with 13-17
light brown transverse bars extending from back
to 2/3rd of flank, not reaching ventral surface,
interspace wider. Width of bar increases with size
of fish. A dark bar, fainter in the middle, present
on caudal base. All fins hyaline. Snout with 4
transverse stripes. Dark brown triangular spot
on occiput, a small dark spot between the nares.
Distribution: india: Pagladia R., Assam,
Jiri R., Manipur (both of Brahmaputra basin).
Remarks: Morphometric data given in
Table 2. Menon (1987) described the species
based on a single specimen. Although he
mentioned a paratype, he did not provide an
illustration. Kottelat (1990, p. 72) distinguished
the species from N. peguensis by its smaller
number of branched dorsal fin rays and slender
caudal peduncle. However, he could not describe
the species due to paucity of material. Banarescu
& Nalbant (1995) made no mention of the
species. In the present study, 1 1 examples of the
fish from Jiri R. of Manipur were examined. The
species is redescribed here.
Fig. 4: Different body parts of Neonoemacheilus assamensis:
a. Scales from above pectoral fin, b. suborbital flap in males, c. breeding tubercles on pectoral fins of male
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Neonoemacheilus peguensis (Hora)
(Plate 1, Fig d)
Nemachilus peguensis Hora, 1929: 320, pi.
14, figs. 1, 2 (type locality: Pegu Yoma)
Neonoemacheilus peguensis : Kottelat,
1990: 75, fig 45 (revision, holotype examined)
Material examined: MUMF 3012, 1,
40.7 mm, Imphal R. WJ, 3.iii.l999; MUMF
3013, 2, 49.9-62.9 mm, Iril R., LK, March, 1999.
Local name: Ngatup
Diagnosis: A species with broad lips,
mouth width 66.7-70.7% of head width;
branched dorsal fin rays 9Vi\ no pad on ventral
surface of snout tip; head deeper 68.6 (67.8-
69.1)% of head length; interorbital width 28.5
(24.6-31.0)% of head length; 20-21 dark brown
transverse bars on body.
Sexual dimorphism: Males have a well
developed suborbitai flap.
Colour: Body creamish-white, 20-21 thin
transverse dark brown bars extending from back
to 2/3rd of flank. Fins with no markings. Occiput
with dark dots.
Distribution: india: Iril and Imphal rivers
(in Manipur Valley), Namya R., a tributary of
Yu river of Myanmar (all of Chindwin basin);
Myanmar: Pegu Yoma (Irrawady basin).
Remarks: Morphometric data given in
Table 2. The specimens under examination are
N. peguensis as they agree well with the
Table 2
MORPHOMETRY OF N. A SSA MENSIS AND N. PEGUENSIS ( IN % OF SL EXCEPT SL IN MM)
N. assamensis (N=l 1 ) N. peguensis (N=3)
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FISHES OF THE SUBFAMIL YNEMA CHEILINAE REGAN
description of the holotype by Kottelat (1990),
who described the species partially from the
specimen which was in very bad shape (as his
photograph shows). Menon (1987) noted that the
species had a cup-shaped (labial structure) with
a greatly hypertrophied upper lip. Kottelat
(1990), on the other hand, wrote that the lips are
thick. Both the authors showed a cup-shaped
mouth with greatly hypertrophied lips (Menon’ s
pi. 6, fig. 8; Kottelat’s fig. 45), which were the
reproductions of Hora’s (1929) drawings. The
present specimens (Fig. 2a) do not have such a
structure.
Schistura McClelland
Schistura McClelland, 1838: 944, 947
(type species: S. rupeculci McClelland); Kottelat,
1990: 90 (revision): Banarescu & Nalbant, 1995:
438 (generic classification).
Diagnosis: Mouth wider than long, lower
lip medially interrupted, but not forming two
lateral triangular pads; a black bar (sometimes
dissociated) on caudal fin base; 2 black marks
along the base of dorsal fin; body with black
transverse bars, split in many. Posterior nostril
prolonged into a tube in some. Sexual
dimorphism not seen in most species; pectoral
fin rays may be ossified and covered with
breeding tubercles in males. Body covered with
embedded scales.
The counts are: D. ii-iii, 7‘/2-91/2, A. ii-iii,
5/4, C/8-9+7-8/, P. 9-12, V. 6-8.
In all the species found in Manipur, the
following observations were made. Branched
dorsal fin number is an important specific
character. Dorsal fins are inserted midway
between tip of snout and caudal fin base, except
in S. prashadi where they are inserted slightly
ahead. Anterior nostrils are pierced obliquely in
the front side of a flap-like nasal tube. There are
3 pairs of barbels, inner and outer rostrals and a
maxillary. Processus dentiformes are developed
in all the species except in S. prashadi in which
it is reduced. A black spot is present at the base
of first few dorsal rays, except in S. scaturigina.
Local name: Commonly called Ngatup in
Manipur; Moremlei, Khirilei or Hankorkhai in
Tangkhul dialect.
Key to species
1 . Branched dorsal rays 914 S. prashadi
Branched dorsal fin rays 714-814 2
2. Branched dorsal rays 714, lateral line incomplete
3
Branched dorsal rays 8 14, lateral line complete
or incomplete 4
3 . Body with 8- 1 1 broad transverse bars with narrow
interspace S. kanjupkhulensis
Body with 17-21 narrow irregular bars, often
breaking up into mottles, sometimes plain and
dusky S. man ipu re ns is
4. Lateral line incomplete. 11-12 broad transverse
bars with narrow interspace S. nagaensis
5. Transverse bars in two rows, one extending from
back to lateral line, alternating with another from
lateral line towards belly, no black spot at base
of first few dorsal fin rays S. scaturigina
Transverse bars regularly arranged, black spot
present at base of first few dorsal fin rays 6
6. Transverse bars 9, depth of body 14.6% of SL
Schistura sp.
Transverse bars more than 9, depth of body 15.7-
18.2% of SL 7
7. 17-20 transverse bars extending from back to
belly, interspace of similar width
S. sikmaiensis
Transverse bars wide in caudal peduncle,
gradually narrowing antenorwards, bars broken
up into characteristic reticular network in front
of dorsal fin origin S. vinciguerra
Schistura kanjupkhulensis (Hora)
(Plate 2, Fig. a)
Nemacheilus kanjupkhulensis Flora, 1921 :
202, pi. 10, figs. 4, 4a (type locality: Yairibuk,
Manipur).
Nemacheilus kanjupkhulensis: Menon,
1987: 115 (diagnosis and description)
Schistura kanjupkhulensis: Kottelat, 1990:
131 (revision); Banarescu & Nalbant, 1995: 439,
fig. 10 (generic classification and illustration)
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FISHES OF THE SUBFAMILY NEMACHEILINAE REGAN
W. Vishwanath et al. : Acanthocobitis sp. and Neonoemacheilus sp. Plate 1
Figs a-d: a. Acanthocobitis botia (MUMF 3015), 62.8 mm SL;
b. A. zonalternans (uncatalogued), 42. 1 mm SL;
c. Neonoemacheilus assamensis (MUMF 3011), 38.8 mm SL; d. N. peguensis (MUMF 3012), 41.7 mm SL
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
205
FISHES OF THE SUBFAMILY NEMACHEILINAE REGAN
W. Vishwanath et al. : Schistura sp.
Plate 2
Figs a-d: a. Schistura kanjupkhulensis (MUMF 2040), 45.0 mm SL;
b. S. nagaensis (MUMF 2074), 41.4 mm SL; c. S. manipurensis (uncatalogued) 54.0 mm SL;
d. Schistura sp. (MUMF 3009), 54.0 mm SL
206
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FISHES OF THE SUBFAMIL YNEMA CHEILINAE REGAN
Material examined: Unreg. 5, 30.3-49.8
mm, Chakpi stream, WM, 12.xi.1992; unreg. 1,
36.0 mm, Maklang R., KS, 25.iv.1995; 3007, 3,
42.5-46.3 mm, Khujairok, WV & party, March,
1998.
Diagnosis: Schistura with 714 branched
dorsal fin rays, 8-1 1 broad black bars on body
alternating with narrower and pale yellow
interspace; body depth 17.1 (15.0-19.3)% of SL.
Caudal fin truncate.
Sexual dimorphism: Not known.
Colour: Body yellowish with 8-11 broad
brown transverse bars, alternating with narrow
interspace. Bands usually not broken up. Caudal
base with a continuous darker bar. A dark spot
at base of first few dorsal rays. Distinct series of
longitudinal dark spots in upper 2/3rd of dorsal
fin, another fainter one near outer border. Caudal
fin with 2-3 irregular vertical bands. Fins and
some parts of body orange in live condition.
Distribution: india: Chindwin basin of
Manipur.
Remarks: Morphometric data given in
Table 3. Distributed in the streams of the Manipur
central valley and of those draining into the Yu
R. of Myanmar. Menon (1987) described
Noemacheilus (now Schistura) nagaensis from
Tizu R., Nagaland. Kottelat (1990) doubted its
validity and recorded it as synonymous with S.
kanjupkhulensis with a question mark. The
species is considered valid in this work, it is
discussed in detail and described.
Schistura manipurensis (Chaudhuri)
(Plate 2, Fig c)
Nemachilus manipurensis Chaudhuri,
1912: 443, pi. 40 fig. 4, pi. 41 fig. 1 (type locality:
Manipur)
Noemacheilus manipurensis : Menon,
1987: 121, pi. 12 fig. 4 (diagnosis and
description)
Schistura manipurensis : Kottelat, 1990:
156, fig. 114, 115 (revision)
Material examined: Unreg., 3, 29.3-
40.3 mm, Chapki Str., WM, 16.ix.1992; MUMF
2079, 1, 56.5 mm, Challou R., Thetsi, LK,
2.vi.l994; MUMF 2155-59, 5, 38.0-56.0 mm,
TizuR., 1 5 . viii. 1 994, MUMF 2201,9,35.0-55.0
mm, Tizu R., 17.vi.1997, MUMF 2272, 1, 54.3
mm, Str. NearTolloi, 12.xi.1997; Unreg., 7, 30.2-
59.2 mm, Challou R., Chingal, 30.iv.1995;
Unreg., 6, 35.0-51.2 mm, Wanze Str., Khamsom,
8.i. 1 996; all LK, Unreg., 1, 56.4 mm, Chatrickong
R., KS, 6.vi. 1 996; MUMF 3001 , 6, 35.4-59.8 mm;
Khujailok, WV & party, March, 1998.
Diagnosis: Schistura with 7% branched
dorsal rays, males with suborbital flap, processus
dentiformes reduced, lateral line incomplete,
extending up to pelvic origin, a dark spot at base
of first few dorsal fin rays, body with dark thin
bars, usually broken up, may be plain dusky,
caudal fin slightly emarginate to truncate.
Sexual dimorphism: Males with a large
suborbital flap.
Colour: Body pale yellowish, with 17-21
thin transverse bars, irregular, extending from
back to caudal base, a black spot at base of first
few dorsal rays. Dorsal fin with 2 horizontal bars,
one in the middle and another near outer border,
caudal with irregular transverse bars.
Distribution: india: Chindwin basins of
Nagaland and Manipur.
Remarks: Chaudhuri (1912) reported the
type locality as Manipur, Assam, without
mentioning the drainage. Manipur was a part of
Assam in British India. Now it is a State of the
Indian Union. Flora (1921) obtained the
information from Dr. Annandale and reported
that the fish was collected by Rev. Pettigrew from
Ukhrul district. All the streams and rivers in the
district belong to the Chindwin basin. Specimens
examined by Menon (1987) and Kottelat (1990)
were also from the same basin. Thus, distribution
of the species in Brahmaputra basin as reported
by them is not valid. Morphometric data given
in Table 4.
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FISHES OF THE SUBFAMIL YNEMA CHEILINAE REGAN
Schistura nagaensis (Menon)
(Plate 2, Fig b)
Noemacheilus nagaensis Menon, 1987;
1 17 (type locality: Phodung R., tributary of Tizu
R., Nagaland).
Material examined: MUMF 2074-78, 5,
31.5-41-0 mm, Challou R, Thetsi, 2.vi.l994;
MUMF 2218-32, 15, 31.5-50.0 mm, Wanze
stream, Khamsom, 2. i. 1995; MUMF 2270-71,
2, 50.0-54.0 mm, Str. Near Tolloi, 12.xi.1997;
Unreg., 3, 47.8-48.0 mm, Momo stream, Tusom
CV, 2.iii. 1 998 (all Coll. LK); ZSIF 10061, 2, Zu
zeti Str. (Lamr), Nagaland, JH Hutton, 1927.
Diagnosis: Schistura with 1XA branched
dorsal fin rays, 9-11 broad, dark, transverse bars
on body, alternating with narrower white/pale
yellow interspace; body depth 14.6 (13.9-15.3)%
of SL. Caudal fin truncate, lateral line
incomplete.
Sexual dimorphism: Not known.
Colour: Body yellowish- white with 9-11
broad, dark brown, transverse bands alternating
with narrow interspace. Caudal base with a dark
continuous bar. Black spot at the base of first
few dorsal rays, horizontal dark bar near outer
border of dorsal fin. '
Distribution: india: Tizu River and its
tributaries in Nagaland and Manipur (Chindwin
basin).
Remarks: Morphometric data given in
Table 3. Menon (1987) described the fish based
on 14 specimens from Phodung River, a tributary
Table 3
MORPHOMETRY OF 5. KANJUPKHULENSIS AND 5. NAGAENS IS (IN % OF SL EXCEPT SL IN MM)
208
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FISHES OF THE SUBFAMIL YNEMA CHEILINAE REGAN
Table4
MORPHOMETRIC DATA OF MA NIPURENSIS AND
SCHISTURA SP. (IN % OF SL EXCEPT SL IN MM. )
of Tizu River, Nagaland, collected by J.H. Hutton
in March, 1927. He separated the species from
S. kanjupkhulensis (Hora) as having 8 vs 7
branched dorsal rays. Two of Hutton’s specimens
(ZSIF 10061) collected from Zu Zeti Str.,
(tributary of Tizu R., near Myanmar border) in
1927 were examined and found to have 8V2
branched dorsal rays. We observed certain
differences between S. kanjupkhulensis and
S. nagaensis (mean ±S.D.) in respect of depth of
body (19.1 ±1.8 vs. 14.6 ±0.6); depth of head
(14.8 ±0.2 vs. 1 1.6 ±1.6) and mouth width (7.7
±0.2 vs. 6. 1 ±0.5)% of SL. These differences were
not noticed by Menon (1987) because of the wide
range in his data, probably because he also
examined small (juvenile), old and badly
preserved specimens.
Menon’s (1987) statement that
S. nagaensis replaces N. kanjupkhulensis in
Nagaland drainage into the Brahmaputra system
needs reconsideration. In fact, Tizu River (type
locality of S. nagaensis) originates in the
Tuensang District of Nagaland. It then forms the
interstate boundary between Nagaland and
Manipur and finally flows into the Chindwin in
Myamar. Thus, the species under description is
a Chindwin form and not Brahmaputra form as
reported by Menon (op. cit.), which confused
Kottelat (1990).
Schistura prashadi (Hora)
(Plate 3, Fig a)
Nemachilus prashadi Hora, 1921: 203,
PI. 10 fig. 2 (type locality: Thonagpal tank,
Thoubal and Sikmai streams, Manipur).
Noemacheilus prashadi : Menon, 1987:
127 (diagnosis and description).
Schistura prashadi : Kottelet, 1990: 191
(revision); Banarescu & Nalbant, 1995: 440
(generic classification). Kosygin & Vishwanath,
1998: 243 (report from Nagaland)
Material examined: MUMF 296, 6, 48.7-
53.1 mm, Chakpi stream at Mombi, WM,
12. xi. 1992, MUMF 2070-73, 4, 34.0-36.5 mm,
Challou R. Thetsi, 2.vi.l994, MUMF 2268, 1,
49.0 mm, Wanje Str., Khamsom, 5 . ii. 1 997,
Unreg., 3, 48.6-59.5 mm, Momo stream, Tusom
CV, 2.iii. 1 998, all by LK; Unreg., 2, 43.2-52.3
mm, Chatrickong R., KS, 2.ii.l997.
Diagnosis: Schistura with 9!4 branched
dorsal rays, complete lateral line, a distinct black
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FISHES OF THE SUBFAMILY NEMA CHE/LINA E REGAN
spot at base of first few dorsal rays, complete or
slightly broken black caudal bar, colour pattern
consisting of transverse bars laterally, reticulated
spots dorso-laterally, and 1-2 V-shaped dark trans-
verse bars on caudal fin, the tips pointing towards
body. Caudal fin forked, lateral line complete.
Sexual dimorphism: Males with
suborbital flap, its edge with tubercles, pectoral
rays with tubercles on dorsal surface.
Colour: Body yellowish- white with 10-12
dark brown bars extending from slightly above
the lateral line towards the level of paired fin
origins. Irregular or reticulated spots present
from back to lateral line. Caudal bar darker,
complete or slightly interrupted. Dorsal fin with
black spot at base of first few rays, two horizontal
dark bars in the middle. Two V-shaped vertical
dark bars on caudal fin, one in the middle and
another near posterior margin, apex of both
pointing towards body.
Distribution: India: Chindwin basin of
Manipur.
Remarks: Morphometric data given in
Table 5. All the specimens examined had 9!4
branched dorsal rays as observed by Kottelat
( 1 990). Hora (1921) and Menon ( 1 987) reported
only 8, which needs examination. The species is
not represented in our collections from
Brahmaputra basin so far.
Schistura scaturigina (McClelland)
(Plate 3, Fig b)
Cobitis scaturgina McClelland, 1839: 308,
443, pi. 53, fig. 6 (type locality: Ganga ?)
Noemcicheilus scaturigina’. Menon, 1987:
86, pi. 3, figs. 2, 3; pi. 13, figs. 8, 9 (diagnosis
and description)
Material examined: MUMF 3008, 1,
41.00 mm, Tuivai R., HL. March 1997.
Diagnosis: Schistura with 814 branched
dorsal rays, elongated head, snout and pectoral
fin, no black spot at base of first few dorsal fin
rays, caudal fin forked.
Sexual dimorphism: Unknown.
Colour: Body yellowish-white with 12
transverse triangular bars extending from lateral
line downward. Bars tend to break up anteriorly.
Back and dorsolateral sides with irregular spots
and bands. Black bar at base of caudal fin
interrupted. Dorsal fin dusky, caudal fin with 2-
3 irregular transverse dark bands.
Distribution: india: Ganga and
Brahmaputra basins.
Remarks: Morphometric data given in
Table 5. The present specimens agree with the
description by Menon (1987) except for the
missing black spot at base of dorsal fin rays.
Although Menon’s (1987) drawing of the species
(PI. Ill Fig. 20) shows the spot, his photograph
in pi. XIII Figs. 8, 9 do not show clear dark spots.
The specimen examined was from Tuivai R., a
tributary of the Barak (Brahmaputra basin). The
fish is very similar to S. prashadi in its general
body shape and coloration. We agree with
Banarescu and Nalbant (1995) in including both
the species in the Scaturigina group.
Schistura sikmaiensis (Hora)
(Plate 3, Fig c)
Nemacheilus sikmaiensis Hora, 1921:201,
PI. 9 fig. 4, PI. 10 fig. 1 (type locality: Sikmai
stream near Pallel, Manipur)
Noemacheilus sikmaiensis'. Menon, 1987:
125, PI. 3 figs. 4, 5 (diagnosis and description)
Schistura sikmaiensis’. Kottelat, 1990
(revision).
Material examined: Unreg., 16, 31.2-69.0
mm, Chakpi stream, Mombi (tributary of
Manipur R, WM, 16. ix. 1992; MUMF 2150-
2154, 5, 43.0-56.0 mm, Challou R., Thetsi, LK,
1 5 . viii. 1 994; MUMF 3003, 1, 92.3 mm,
LeimatakR., WJ& SB, 17.V.1999; MUMF 3004,
1, 56.8 mm, Moreh, WV & party, 24.iii.1999;
MUMF 3005, 1, 74.1 mm, Litan Str., KS,
25.ih.1999.
210
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2). AUG. 2001
FISHES OF THE SUBFAMILY NEMACHEILINAE REGAN
W. Vishwanath et al. : Schistura sp.
Plate 3
Figs a-d: a. Schistura prashadi (uncatalogued), 59.2 mm SL; b. S. scaturigina (MUMF 3008), 41.0 mm SL;
c. S. sikamaiensis (uncatalogued), 42.1 mm SL; d. S. vinciguerrae (uncatalogued), 68.2 mm SL
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
211
FISHES OF THE SUB FA MIL YNEMA CHE1LINAE REGAN
Table 5
MORPHOMETRIC DATA OF S. PRASHADI AND
S'. SCATURIGINA (IN % OF SL EXCEPT SL IN MM.)
Diagnosis: Schistura with blunt, rounded
head and snout, no processus dentiformes, 17-
20 transverse bars on body extending from back
to belly, interspace of similar or slightly smaller
width, black caudal bar complete, a black spot
on the base of first few dorsal rays. Body elongate,
tubular in front of dorsal fin, compressed behind,
head slightly depressed. Caudal fin deeply
emarginated or forked, lateral line complete.
Sexual dimorphism: Males with
suborbital flap.
Colour: Body light brown with 1 7-20 dark
olivaceous transverse bars extending from back
to belly, interspace with similar or slightly
smaller width. A dark, complete bar on caudal
base. A black spot at base of first few dorsal fin
rays. Dorsal fin with 2 horizontal dark lines in
the middle. Other fins dusky. Body and fins
orange in live fish.
Distribution: india: Brahmaputra basin in
Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland,
Manipur; Chindwin basin in Manipur;
Southwest Yunnan and Myanmar in the vicinity
of Myitkyina and Putao.
Remarks: Morphometric data are given
in Table 6. The species is very widely distributed,
i.e., both in the Barak and Chindwin basins of
Manipur. Kottelat (1990) doubted the identity of
specimen reported by Menon (1987) from
JBrahmaputra basin. The present description is
based on both Barak (Brahmaputra) and
Chindwin basins of these States.
Schistura vinciguerrae (Hora)
(Plate 3, Fig d)
Nemachilus multifcisciatus (non Day,
1978): Vincigerra, 1890: 337 (Meekalan,
Thagata Juva).
Nemachilus vinciguerrae Hora, 1935: 62,
pi 2 fig. 12 (type locality: Meekalan, Burma).
Noemacheilus vinciguerrae: Menon, 1987:
134, pi. 4 fig. 3 (diagnosis and description).
Schistura vinciguerrae : Kottelat, 1990:
218, pi. 5. figs. 164, 165 (revision).
Material examined: MUMF 2180-2189,
10, 65.0-79.5 mm; Wanze stream, Khamsom,
LK, 2. i. 1995; Unreg., 10, 43.3-57.4 mm;
Maklang R., KS, 25.viii.1995.
Diagnosis: Schistura with 8 'A branched
dorsal fin rays, distinctive colour pattern: dark.
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
213
FISHES OF THE SUBFAMIL YNEMA CHEILINAE REGAN
Table 6
MORPHOM ETRIC DATA OF SCH1STURA SIKMAIENSIS AND S. VINCIGUERRA
wide transverse bars with wide interspaces
behind, gradually narrower in front; 2-3 bars
united dorsally in front of doral fin, usually
forming reticulations. Caudal fin forked, lateral
line complete.
Sexual Dimorphism: Not known.
Colour: Body yellowish, with 10-16 dark
transverse bars, as wide as interspace in caudal
peduncle, gradually narrow anteriorly. Bars
unite dorsally in front of dorsal fin origin,
usually reticular. A. black spot at base of first
few dorsal rays; one horizontal dark band across
dorsal fin and 2 V-shaped bars across the caudal
fin.
Distribution: india: Origin of Challou
River (near Sirohi Hills), a tributary of Tizu
River; Maklang andNamya Rivers all Chindwin
headwaters in Manipur; Irrawady and Salween
basins in Myanmar and Irrawady basin in
China.
Remarks: Menon (1987) examined 6
specimens from Manipur, which were probably
obtained by a field worker (who came to Manipur
in 1985) from M. Gonchandra Sharma, who was
collecting fish from Tarest stream, which drains
the Ukhrul and Chandel Districts and joins the
Yu river (tributary of Chindwin in Myankar).
Kongan thana is a small village in the eastern
part of Ukhrul District. Namya River, like Taret
stream flows into Yu river. Thus, Menon’ s (1987)
and Horn’s (1937) references of the locality in
Myanmar are wrong.
214
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
FISHES OF THESUBFAMIL YNEMA CHEILINAE REGAN
Schistura sp.
(Plate 2, Fig d)
Material examined: MUMF 3009, 1 male,
54.0 mm, tributary of Irang R. at Langkha, MG,
1989.
Diagnosis: An elongated form of
Schistura , its body depth at dorsal origin 14.6%
of SL, ventral profile flat and straight, short fins,
8V2 branched dorsal ray, male with suborbital
flap, complete lateral line, 9 broad transverse
dark bands extending from back towards belly,
broader dorsally, tapering gradually, a black spot
at base of first few dorsal rays, caudal fin forked.
Sexual dimorphism: Only one specimen,
probably male, was available for examination. It
has a prominent suborbital flap.
Colour: As in diagnosis. In addition, body
dark brown from back to lateral line, pale
yellowish ventrally. Caudal fin with irregular
horizontal dark bands.
Refer
Banarescu, P.M. & T.T. Nalbant (1995): A generical
classification of Nemacheilininae with description
of two new genera (Teleostei: Cypriniformes:
Cobitidae). Trav. Mus. Hist. nat. «Grigore
Antipa» 35: 429-496.
Blyth, E. ( 1 860): Report on some fishes received chiefly
from the Sitang River and its tributary streams,
Tenasserim Provinces. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 29:
138-174.
Chaudhuri, B.L. (1912): Description of some new species
of freshwater fishes from north India. Rec. Indian
Mus. 7: 437-444, pis. 38-41.
Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of fishes found in the
river Ganges and its branches. Constable, Edinburg
& Hurst, Robinson and Co., London, 405 pp. 39
pis.
Hora, S.L. (1921): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with some
observations on those of Naga Hills. Rec. Indian
Mus. 22: 166-214, pis. 9-12.
Hora, S.L. (1929): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum,
XVII. Loaches of the genus Nemacheilus from
Burma. Rec. Indian Mus. 31: 31 1-334, pis. 14-15.
Hora, S.L. (1935): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum,
XXIV. Loaches of the genus Nemacheilus from
eastern Himalayas with description of a new species
from Burma and Siam. Rec. Indian Mus. 37: 49-
Distribution: Manipur: Lankha stream,
tributary of Irang (Tamenglong District).
Remarks: The specimen does not match
any known species of Schistura. It is elongated,
its fins short and with a characteristic colour
pattern. Pending collection and observation of
more specimens, new specific status cannot be
given. Morphometric data given in Table 4.
AcKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
The authors are grateful to Dr. Maurice
Kottelat, Switzerland for literature. Dr. K.C.
Jayaram, Chennai for encouragement, to
WM, WJ, HL, LK, KS, KN for collecting
specimens and to the Director, ZSI, Kolkata, for
permitting examination of specimens. The first
author thanks the Ministry of Environment and
Forests (Scheme No. 1 141/IFD/97) for financial
support.
:NCES
67, pi. 3.
Hora, S.L. (1936): On a further collection of fish from the
Naga Hills. Rec. Indian Mus. 38: 317-331 .
Hora, S.L. (1937): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum.
XXXII. On a small collection offish from the Upper
Chindwin Drainage. Rec. Indian Mus. 39: 33 1 -350.
Kosygin, L. & W. Vishwanath (1998): A report on fish
diversity of Tizu River, Nagaland with some new
records. Ecol. Env. & Cons. 4(4): 243-247.
Kottelat, M. ( 1 990): Indochinese nemacheilines, a revision
of Nemacheilines (Pisces: Cypriniformes) of
Thailand, Burma, Laos, Cambodia and southern
Viet Nam. Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfiel, Munchen. 262
PP-
McClelland, J. ( 1 938): Observations on six new species
ofCyprinidae with an outline of a new classification
of the family. J. Asiat Soc. Bengal 7(2): 941-948.
pi. 55.
McClelland, J. (1939): Indian Cyprinidae, Asiat.
Research. 19(2): 217-471, pi. 37-58.
Menon, A.G.K. (1954): Further observations on the fish
fauna of Manipur, Assam. Rec Indian Mus. 52: 21-
26.
Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 987): The fauna of India and the adjacent
countries, Pisces. IV, Teleostei-Cobitidae. Part I.
Homalopteridae, Zoological Survey of India,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
215
FISHES OF THE SUBFAMIL YNEMA CHEILINAE REGAN
Calcutta, x + 259 pp, 1 6 pis.
Menon, M.A.S. ( 1 953): On a small collection of fish from
Manipur, Assam. Rec. Indian Mus. 50\ 265-270.
Nelson, J.S.( 1 994): Fishes of the World, 3rd edn, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. New York, 600 pp.
Peters, W. ( 1 86 1 ): Zwei neue Gattungen von Fischen aus
dem Ganges, welche in Jahre 1847 von Hr.
Westermann in Kopenhagen dem zoologischen
Museum Obersandt worden waren. Monatsber.
Konigl. Preuss. Akad. wiss. Berlin 1861(2): 712-713.
Vinciguerra, D. (I860): Viaggio di Leonardo Fea. In:
Birmania e regioni vicini. XXIV. Pesci Ann. Mus.
Civ. Stor Nat Genova (2)9: 129-360, pis. 7-11.
Zhu, S. -Q. & Guo Q. -Z. (1985): Description of a new
genus and a new species of nemacheiline loaches
from Yunnan Province, China (Cypriniformes:
Cobitidae). Acta Zootax. Sinica 10: 321-325
[Chinese, English summary].
216
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(2), AUG. 2001
DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERATION OF HOLOPTELEA INTE GRI FOLIA PLANCH.
IN AL WAR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN1
A.S. Yadav2
( With three text-figures )
Key words: Age structure, grazing, natural regeneration, samara, seedling population
Studies indicate that the distribution of Holoptelea integrifolia (Family: Ulmaceae) is
restricted to hilly areas and reserve forests of Alwar district, Rajasthan. Although this
species produces an enormous number of fruits (samara) per unit area, only a fraction of
them form seedlings. Dry spells and high temperature in the monsoon, low temperature
and soil moisture content in winter, dry and hot summer, and grazing adversely affect
seedling survival. Observations from the four study sites (Dhobighatta hills, Sagar hills,
Garvaji, R.R. College campus) in Alwar district, Rajasthan indicate that natural regeneration
of H. integrifolia is taking place only in areas
biotic disturbances.
Introduction
Holoptelea integrifolia grows in northeast
Rajasthan and is reported to be the tallest tree in
the region (Sharma and Tiagi, 1979).
Unfortunately, despite being a fast growing, local
tree species, it has not found use in afforestation.
The extensive felling and lopping of
H. integrifolia trees for timber and firewood has
reduced its distribution in Alwar district,
Rajasthan. It is, therefore, imperative to analyse
the factors that are responsible for the poor
regeneration of H. integrifolia.
Study Area
Four sites were selected to study the natural
regeneration of Holoptelea integrifolia. Two of
these sites were located in hilly areas. The first
site was an east facing slope at Dhobighatta hills,
6 km from Raj Rishi (R.R.) College, a highly
disturbed area subjected to tree felling, and
grazing by cows and goats. Wrightia tinctoria
'Accepted January, 2001
department of Botany
Govt. R.R. College, Alwar 3 1 0 001 ,
Rajasthan, India.
which are partially or fully protected against
and Butea monosperma (Table 1) dominated the
plant community. H. integrifolia grew from the
base to the middle of the hill slope. Most of them
were young and produced as a result of coppicing
of the felled trees. The soil was shallow, sandy
loam mixed with gravel and small stones
(Table 2). The second site was a northeast-facing
slope at Sagar hills, about 5 km from R.R.
College. It was declared a reserve forest by the
Govt, of Rajasthan in 1984. Since then, it is fully
protected with no major biotic disturbance. It is
dominated by Wrightia tinctoria and Anogeissus
pendula bushes (Table 1). H. integrifolia grew
from the base to the middle of the hill slope. The
soil type is similar to that of Dhobighatta hills
(Table 2).
The other two sites were situated in plain
areas, the first was the campus of R.R. College,
surrounded by a high wall from all sides. The
college campus was an orchard previously
surrounding the palace of the Maharaja of Alwar,
which was later rented to the Govt, of Rajasthan
to house the R. R. College. The orchard was
abandoned for 50 years, and is now converted
into a forest dominated by H. integrifolia
(Table 1). It is partially disturbed as about 10
buffaloes, 6 cows and 50 goats are allowed to
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
217
DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERA TION OF HOLOPTELEA
INTEGRIFOLIA PLANCH.
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 200/
DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERA TIONOF HOLOPTELEA INTEGRIFOLIA PLANCH.
Table 2
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FOUR STUDY SITES
graze and trees are felled for timber and firewood.
The soil is deep, well developed sandy loam
(Table 2). The second site was located at the base
of the hills near the Garvaji temple, 14 km from
Alwar city. Adhatoda vasica dominated the plant
community here (Table 1). The site is highly
disturbed by tree felling and heavy cattle and goat
grazing.
Material and Methods
The distribution of Holoptelea integrifolia
in Alwar district was studied by visiting
important locations in all the subdivisions and
consulting the forest range officers of Alwar
district. Its natural regeneration was studied in
the four selected study sites in different locations.
The density and frequency of H. integrifolia and
its associated shrubs and trees was estimated at
all four sites by laying 15 quadrats of 10 m x 10
m each. The circumference of the plants was
measured at a height of 1 m for trees and just
above the ground for seedlings and saplings.
From a known cohort of one year old
plants, it was observed that the maximum
circumference of a year old plant was 1 .08 cm.
Therefore, three age groups of H. integrifolia
were identified in a population. One year old
plants with 1 cm circumference, saplings with
1 to 3 1 .5 cm and trees with 31.5 cm girth (Saxena
etal. 1978).
The samara is a one seeded, dry,
indehiscent, winged fruit. The production per
plant was estimated by laying down 20 quadrats
oflOmx 10m each, for each study site when
the fruit was almost mature in the last week of
March, 1998. The number of samara per fertile
plant were estimated as follows:
Total samara production =
No. of primary branches per fertile plant x
No. of secondary branches per primary branch x
No. of tertiary branches per secondary branch x
No. of samara per tertiary branch.
Further observations were taken from three
study sites — Dhobighatta hills, Sagar hills and
R.R. College campus. The number of samara
present on the soil surface was estimated by
laying down 20 quadrats of 1 m x 1 m after its
dispersal was almost over in the last week of
April, 1998. Monsoon set in the last week of June
in 1998, and after 10 days of sufficient rainfall,
the number of established seedlings were
estimated by laying down 20 quadrats of 1 m x
1 m in all the three study sites.
Survival of established seedling
populations of H. integrifolia was studied at R.R.
College and Sagar hills. Seedling establishment
was almost negligible at Dhobighatta hills. Since
seedling density was very low at R.R. College,
four permanent quadrats of 1 m x 1 m were laid
down where the density of H. integrifolia
seedlings was maximum, whereas five permanent
quadrats of 1 m x 1 m were laid down at random
at Sagar hills where seedling recruitment was
uniform and good throughout.
The physico-chemical parameters of all the
four study sites were analysed by taking five soil
samples from each site at random, from an area
of 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm. Soil samples from
each study site were mixed and analysed at the
Soil Testing Laboratory, Agriculture Department,
Govt, of Rajasthan, Alwar. To evaluate the effect
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 200 1
219
DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERA TION OF HOLOPTELEA INTEGRI FOLIA PLANCH.
Table 3
SAMARA (FRUIT) PRODUCTION BY HOLOPTERA INTEGRIFOLIA (±S.E)
of soil moisture content on seedling survival, five
soil samples were taken from 0- 1 0 cm depth from
the vicinity of the permanent quadrats whenever
required. The soil moisture content was estimated
by the method of Mishra (1968).
Results
Distribution: H. integrifolia grows in most
parts of Alwar district (Fig. 1) It is particularly
abundant in the hilly tracts. Since it is not a
climax species, it grows in deforested areas,
treefall gaps and along water channels in the
Sariska Tiger Reserve. The highest density of
H. integrifolia was observed at Sagar hills,
whereas the lowest was at Garvaji (Table 1).
Samara production and dispersal: 85%,
48%, 3.5% and 6% plants of H. integrifolia were
fertile at Garvaji, Dobhighatta hills, Sagar hills
and R.R. College respectively (Table 3).
Maximum samara production per plant was at
Garvaji, whereas it was very low at Sagar hills
and Dhobighatta hills (Table 3). Number of
samara reaching the soil surface after dispersal
was highest at Sagar hills and lowest at
Dhobighatta hills (Table 4).
Establishment and survival of seedlings:
H. integrifolia seedlings established well at Sagar
hills, but almost negligibly at Dhobighatta hills
(Table 4). Only 5% and 46% seedlings survived
at R.R. College and Sagar hills respectively
beyond the first week of establishment. Seedling
population experienced less mortality from
August to December 1998. An increase, however,
was observed in January 1999, at both the study
sites. All the seedlings at R.R. College died by
January 1999, while 20 seedlings / 1 00 sq. m
survived up to June 1999 at Sagar hills (Fig. 2).
Age structure: Age-structure analysis of
H. integrifolia populations showed that the one
year age group was present only at Sagar hills
(Fig. 3). The saplings were present in all the study
sites except Garvaji where both seedlings and
saplings were absent. Among the other three
study sites, R.R. College had the highest, i.e. 4.4
saplings /1 00 sq. m, followed by Sagar hills
where 2.4 saplings / 100 sq. mwere recorded. The
maximum density of the tree age group was
7 trees /1 00 sq. m at R. R. College.
Discussion
The Alwar district survey suggests that
H. integrifolia grows luxuriantly around Alwar
and Rajgarh towns, and deforested areas
protected by the forest department. It is also found
Table 4
REGENERATION POTENTIAL OF HOLOPTERA INTEGRIFOLIA / 1 00 SQ. M
Study Site Samara reaching No. of seedlings No. of seedlings survived after
soil surface established one year
Dhobighatta hills 360 Negligible Nil
Sagar hills 2,810 1,070 20
R.R. College campus 2,108 386 Nil
220
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERA TION OF HOLOPTELEA INTEGRIFOLIA PLANCH.
Fig. 1: Map of Alwar district showing the
distribution of H. integrifolia
growing along roadsides, railway lines and
around human habitations in hilly regions. It is
almost absent in the plains of Behror, Tijara,
Kishangarh and a part of Luxmangarh
subdivisions (Fig. 1).
The high percentage of fertile plants in
Garvaji and Dhobighatta hills and low
percentage at Sagar hills and R.R. College,
suggests that grazing by goats and cattle destroy
the seedlings and saplings in these formerly
disturbed areas. The samara production per plant
was maximum at Garvaji site because all the
fertile plants were full grown trees, whereas it
was less at R.R.College, a large number of fertile
plants being younger. In hilly areas, samara
production was low due to the stunted growth of
the trees.
Of the total samara production per unit
area, only a small fraction reached the soil surface
at Dhobighatta hills and R.R.College, may be
due to the open habitat where seeds are widely
dispersed by wind. However, more than 50% of
samara produced per unit area reached the soil
surface at Sagar hills because of the small size
of the site, northeast direction of the slope and
hills surrounding the western and northern sides.
Percentage of seedlings established per unit
area of the soil surface was very low, suggesting
that a large number of seeds were eaten by goats,
rodents and red ants. Some might have been
washed away by the rains. This was confirmed
experimentally in August 1998, with 9 samples,
each with 50 samara, placed at different locations
at R.R. College. After 4 days it was observed
that 24% samara were damaged, their seeds
removed by rodents or damaged by small red ants.
After 10 days, the rest of the seeds were lost.
They might have been washed away in the rains
which continued for three days. Loss of seeds
due to heavy rain has been reported for other
tree species (Dagar et. al. 1978). The poor
establishment of seedlings at R.R. College may
also be due to the destruction of all the seeds of a
tree by some insect. Whitefly epidemic in
H. integrifolia has been reported by Mishra and
Mishra (1995). However, at Sagar hills about
40% of seeds reaching the soil surface were
established as seedlings (Table 4). This may be
due to the protection of the site against grazing,
absence of rodents and other seed predators, as
large numbers of healthy seeds were present at
the commencement of rains. The loss of samara
due to monsoon run off may be prevented by
small stones, pebbles and shrubs.
Seedling survival was very low in all the
three study sites, as only a few seedlings survived
over a year at Sagar hills. The mortality rate was
highest in the dry periods of the rainy season
when the soil moisture was very low (Table 5)
and the soil surface temperature was above
41 °C at R.R. College. It was observed that most
of the seedlings died due to permanent wilting.
However, seedling mortality rate was less at
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
221
DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERA TION OF HOLOPTELEA INTEGRIFOLIA PLANCH.
July Months June
Fig. 2: Survival of seedling population of H. integrifolia at
R.R. College campus (O O) and Sagar hills (• •)
Sagar hills, perhaps due to the protective shrub
cover like Wrightia tinctoria and Adhatoda
vasica. Second to the monsoon, the seedlings
experienced greatest mortality in January, when
the soil moisture was low and temperature
dropped below 4 °C. This is in conformity with
the high seedling mortality due to low soil moisture
and low temperature in other tree species (Tripathi
Table 5
SOIL MOISTURE CONTENT (%) OF
R.R. COLLEGE CAMPUS AND SAGAR.HILLS
and Khan 1992, Rao et. al. 1997).
The age-structure of H. integrifolia
population at different sites suggests that its
natural regeneration is taking place only at Sagar
hills and R.R. College campus because the
former is fully and the latter partially protected
against biotic disturbance. Seedlings and
saplings were absent at the overgrazed Garvaji
and Dhobighatta hills, indicating the role of
biotic disturbance in regeneration of H.
integrifolia. This was confirmed when it was
noticed that H. integrifolia is not preferred by
grazing animals, but in the absence of green
vegetation, goats and cattle grazed on it. It may
be concluded that some seedlings of H.
integrifolia may be damaged by the trampling
of cattle. This tree species grows at places beyond
222
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(2), AUG. 2001
DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERA T10N OF HOLOPTELE A 1NTEGRIFOLIA PLANCH.
Age groups
Fig. 3: Population age-structure of H. integrifolia at (A) Dhobighatta hills (B) Sagar hills
(C) R.R. College campus and (D) Garvaji.
the reach of man or grazing animals, such as
crevices of rocks, on steep slopes and among
thorny bushes. It was concluded that the natural
regeneration of H. integrifolia is adversely
affected by both abiotic and biotic factors, and
takes place only in areas which are partially or
fully protected against grazing.
Acknowledgements
I thank the University Grants Commission,
Central Regional Office, Bhopal for financial
support, and Prof. O.P. Toky, Department of
Forestry, Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar
for valuable suggestions.
Refer
Dagar, J.C., V.P. Singh & L.P. Mall ( 1 978): Regeneration
in Plants growing on eroded soil. Annals of Arid Zone
17: 68-74.
Mishra, R. (1968): Ecology Work Book. Oxford and
I.B.H. Publ. Co., Calcutta, pp. 121.
Mishra, R.M. & R.K. Mishra (1995): Whitefly epidemic
in Holoptelea integrifolia forest in Kanpur Zoological
Park, Uttar Pradesh. Indian Forester 121 : 55-58.
Rao, P., S.K. Barik, H.N. Pandey & R.S. Trjpathj (1997):
Tree seed germination and seedling establishment in
tree-fall gaps and understorey in a subtropical forest
of northeast India. Australian J. Ecology 22: 1 36-145.
ENCES
Saxena, A.K., Uma Pandey & J.S. Singh ( 1 978): On the
Ecology of Oak Forests in Naini Tal hills, Kumaon
Himalayas. In: Glimpses of Ecology. Eds. J.S. Singh
and B. Gopal. International Scientific Publications,
Jaipur, 167-180.
Sharma, S. & B. Tiagi (1979): Flora of northeast
Rajasthan. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, pp. 383.
Tripathi, R.S. & M.L. Khan (1992): Regeneration pattern
and population structure of Trees in sub-tropical
Forests of northeast India. In: Tropical Ecosystems:
Ecology and Management. Eds. K.P. Singh and J.S.
Singh. Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi, pp. 431-441 .
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
223
FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PANDA, AILURUS FULGENS IN
THE SINGHALILA NATIONAL PARK, DARJEELING, INDIA'
Sunita Pradhan, Gautom K. Saha* 2 and Jamal A. Khan3
(With one text-figure )
Key words: Red panda, Ailurus fulgens , diet, eastern Himalaya, temperate
zone, subalpine zone
Food habits of the red panda in the Singhalila National Park (SNP) were investigated at
three sites from 1994 to 1996, by examining 1,250 droppings or faeces. Red panda was
found to consume two species of bamboo, Arundinaria mating and A. aristata, which
dominated the understorey of SNP, along with seasonal supplements of some fruits and
shoots of the above mentioned bamboo species. However, the composition of the diet
differed between the sites. The difference in their dietary composition in relation to the
overall ecology of the red panda in the SNP
Introduction
The red panda belongs to the Order
Carnivora, but interestingly subsists on a
herbivorous diet, specifically on bamboo leaves.
Although the modifications of dentition and skull
structures have typical herbivorous features, the
digestive system is ill-adapted for proper
utilization of its low nutrient diet of bamboo
(Roberts and Gittleman 1984, Bleijenberg and
Nijboer 1989). The gut is short and simple,
typical of the carnivores, and devoid of cellulose
digesting microbes (Roberts and Gittleman 1984,
Schaller et at. 1985). As a result, the red panda
consumes a large amount of bamboo to fulfill its
energy requirement (Oftedal et at. 1989). The
red panda has evolved a physiological adaptation
of lowering the metabolic rate to cope with low
nutrient diet, reducing energy expenditure for
maintenance and reproduction (McNab 1989).
This evolutionary strategy results in a long
'Accepted July, 2000
2P.G. Department of Zoology,
Daijeeling Government College,
Darjeeling 734 1 0 1 , West Bengal, India,
department of Wildlife Sciences,
Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.
needs further investigation.
gestation period, low fecundity and slow
postnatal growth, which place constraints on the
rapid propagation of its population (McNab
1989). Moreover, the bamboo mass flowers
periodically, and dies after the seeds are produced
(Janzen 1976). The panda faces scarcity of food
during the flowering stage of the bamboo. This
paper presents preliminary findings on the food
and feeding habits of red panda studied during a
research project (1993-1996) in the Singhalila
National Park (SNP), Darjeeling, eastern
Himalaya, India.
Study area
The SNP (87° 59'-88° 53' E; 26° 31 '-27°
31' N) ranges from 2,400 to 3,600 m above msl,
encompassing the temperate zone and subalpine
zones. The moist temperate climate of SNP varies
with altitude. The observed summer temperature
ranged from 7 to 17 °C, and winter temperature
dropped as low as 1 °C in the temperate zone.
Average summer and winter temperature in the
subalpine region were 7 °C and 1 °C respectively.
Mean annual rainfall was 350 cm and average
humidity ranged from 83% to 96%.
The intensive study area comprised of three
sites (Fig. 1). Sites 1 and 2 represented the
224
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 200 J
FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PANDA, AILURUS FULGENS
BataseA
Kaiyakatta A^
Gairibons1
= -MR ROAO
* METALLED ROAD
-unmetalled ROAD
- “BRIDLE PATHS
“INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY
-STATE BOUNDARY
PhatakA
A
Tumling
-•••-BOUNDARY BETWEEN CORE AND BUFFER ZONE
A ’ s SETTLEMENTS
Fig. 1: Singhalila National Park, Darjeeling, India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
225
FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PANDA, AILURUS FULGENS
temperate zone, and Site 3 the subalpine zone.
Trees such as Quercus spp. dominated the
temperate zone, Arundinaria maling being
dominant in the understorey. In the higher
reaches of the temperate zone, Quercus spp. were
scarce, and the vegetation was dominated by
Sorbus , Acer and Vitex. The understorey was
composed of both Arundinaria maling and
A. aristata. The subalpine zone had a prominent
association of trees such as Abies densa , Betula
utilis and Rhododendron spp., with an
understorey of A. aristata.
Methods
Red panda food habits and nutritional
status of food plants were investigated by the
following methods:
Phenology of the food plants: In order to
investigate the availability of cover and food
resources in the study area, phenological studies
were undertaken (Pradhan 1999). The fruiting
seasonality of the food plants is presented here.
Phenology and recruitment rates of the two
bamboo species were studied in sixty 1 sq. m
plots, thirty each for the two species. Initially,
all the bamboo culms in the 1 sq. m plots were
counted and monitored monthly. When the shoots
appeared, they were counted and labelled. After
that, all the labelled shoots were monitored to
assess their survival and death.
Faecal analysis: Red panda pellets were
collected monthly, broken and macroscopically
examined. While the leaves of the two bamboo
species could be identified macroscopically, the
shoots of both the species were not identifiable.
The fruits and berries consumed were identified
from the seed remains, undigested skin of the
fruits and even sheaths, which survived digestion.
Each food item was expressed by its frequency
of occurrence and by percent volume, computed
for each season from the entire study area. Thus,
the diet spectrum of red panda was also
investigated for the three study sites within two
broad vegetation zones — the temperate and
subalpine zones separately. The difference in
intake of two bamboo species was tested using
Mann- Whitney U test following Fowler and
Cohen (1986).
Nutritional analysis: Leaves of both
species of bamboo, of all age classes ( 1 year, 2
year, and >2 years), were collected every month
for a year. Fruits of Actinidia strigosa, Sorbus
microphylla and Rosa spp., and shoots of both
bamboo species were collected during their
season of emergence. All the plant samples were
dried to a constant weight at 55 °C and ground
in Willey’s mill prior to analysis. Hemicellulose,
cellulose and lignin were determined following
Goering and Van Soest (1970), using Fibertech
System. Crude protein was determined following
Allen (1989).
Results
A total of 1,250 pellets were examined. It
was found that the red panda in the SNP
consumed both the species of bamboo. The
difference between the intake of the leaves of the
two species was, however, not statistically
significant (Mann- Whitney; z = 0.24, df = 12,
p = 0.813). Along with the bamboo leaves, some
seasonal fruits and shoots of the bamboo species
were also consumed by the red panda.
Availability and distribution of food: The
bamboo species A. maling , locally known as
maling had an average height of 4.9 ±0.80 m
and a diameter of 1.5 ±0.73 cm. The average
number of nodes was 22 with an average sheath
length of 22 cm. A. aristata , locally known as
ratonigalo was shorter, with an average height
of 3.9 ±0.053 m. The average number of nodes
was 22; average sheath length 12.81 cm.
A. aristata had a higher density of culms than
A. maling.
A. maling was the dominant bamboo
226
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PANDA, AILURUS FULGENS
between 2,600 m to 3,100 m in the study area.
A. aristata was found from 2,850 m, but actually
dominated the understorey from 3,150 m to
3,600 m. Shoots of A. moling appeared annually
between early June and October, whereas the
shoots of A. aristata emerged from late June to
October. The recruitment rate of bamboo
(A. maling and A. aristata ) was low, with an
average of 1.92 /sq. m, out of which only 0.98 /
sq. m remained intact. Of the bamboo shoots
monitored, 48% were eaten by insects and other
animals, and 9.8% were broken accidentally. The
bamboo shoots collected by the locals was 10.96
kg/family.
In the temperate zone, the fleshy fruit of
Actinidia strigosa , a creeper was found to be an
important component of the red panda’s
post-monsoon diet. A. strigosa was found
between 2,800 m and 3,100 m in the study area.
A. strigosa started fruiting from September,
matured around October, and the fruits lasted
till November. The fruits of A. strigosa had a
thin skin and were sweet when ripe, they were
much sought after by the locals to add flavour to
their liquor. An estimated amount of
approximately 3.75 kg/family was collected by
the locals during its fruiting season. Sorbus
microphylla started fruiting from June to July
and was found from 3,200 m to 3,600 m. Rosa
sericera , a shrub in disturbed areas, fruited from
June to November.
Seasonal variation in diet: The diet of the
red panda in SNP varied seasonally (Table 1). In
pre-monsoon, its diet was a combination of 52%
A. aristata and 48% A. maling leaves by volume.
In the monsoon, it fed on A. aristata and
A. maling leaves, bamboo shoots and traces of
an unidentified fruit. In post-monsoon, food
variety increased with the availability of fruit
resources in the forest. Red panda was found to
consume A. aristata leaves (45%), A. maling
leaves (35%), fruits of Actinidia strigosa (13%)
bamboo shoots (6%), Sorbus microphylla and
Rosa sericera in trace amounts. The winter diet
consisted of A. aristata leaves (53%) and
A. maling (47%).
The overall intake of A. aristata varied
from 34.86% to 53% (x = 45.97%), while
A. maling varied from 36.18% to 48.16% (x =
41.97 %), and the rest (x = 1 1.82%) consisted of
fruits and bamboo shoots. No evidence of large
scale camivory was found in the faecal pellets,
except for a few bird feathers.
Feeding ecology in the three study sites:
The diet showed seasonal differences in proportions
of different food items consumed at the three study
sites (Table 2). At Site 1, it comprised of A. maling
leaves (100%) in the premonsoon and winter
seasons. In the monsoon, it fed on A. maling leaves
(61 %), bamboo shoots (38%) and unidentified fruit
(1.1%). The post-monsoon diet was composed of
A. maling leaves (70%), A. strigosa fmits (20%)
Table 1
INCIDENCE OF FOOD ITEMS IDENTIFIED IN 1 ,250 RED PANDA DROPPINGS BY NUMBER OF DROPPINGS
AND % VOLUME (IN BRACKETS) IN SINGHAL1LA NATIONAL PARK
Pre-monsoon Monsoon Post-monsoon Winter
Food items (Mar-May) (June-Aug) (Sept-Nov) (Dec-Feb)
Trace = less than 1 .00%
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
227
FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PANDA , AILURUS FULGENS
Table 2
SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF FOOD ITEMS IN RED PANDA DROPPINGS BY NUMBEROF DROPPINGS AND
% VOLUME (IN BRACKETS) FROM THREE STUDY SITES IN SINGHALILA NATIONAL PARK
Site 1 Site 2 Site 3
Trace = less than 1 .00%
PR= Pre-monsoon, MN=Monsoon, PM = Post-monsoon, W = Winter
and bamboo shoots (10%).
At Site 2, red panda was found consuming
A. aristata (54%) and A. maling (46%) leaves in
premonsoon, and about the same proportion of
the same leaves in winter. Tne monsoon diet was
composed of A. aristata leaves (46%), A. maling
leaves (39%) and bamboo shoots (15%), while
the postmonsoon diet was A. aristata (44%),
A. maling (34%) leaves, A. strigosa (20%) and
bamboo shoots (2%).
At Site 3, the diet consisted entirely of
A. aristata leaves (100%) during premonsoon
and winter. In the monsoon, the pellets were
found to have A. aristata leaves (75%) and
bamboo shoots (25%). Postmonsoon samples of
Site 3 consisted of A. aristata leaves (91%),
bamboo shoots (6.7%), S. microphylla (1.73%)
and R. sericera in trace amounts of 0.57%.
Nutritive value of the food plants:
A. maling leaves were found to have higher
cellulose and lignin content (40.12% of the dry
matter) than A. aristata (31.83%). The crude
protein and lignin content of A. maling leaves
was 15.1 % and A. aristata leaves was 14.2%.
Fruits of A. strigosa seem to be nutritionally
richer, with high and crude protein, and low
cellulose and lignin content, as compared to
S. microphylla and R. sericera (Table 3).
Discussion
Macroscopic examination of faeces, as
done in this study, has also been used successfully
by Reid et al. (1991), and Yonzon and Hunter
(1991) in describing the red panda’s diet. Red
panda consumed both the species of bamboo
present in the SNP, which formed the chief food,
Table 3
PROTEIN, HEMICELLULOSE, CELLULOSE AND
LIGNIN CONTENT (% DRY MATTER) OF
THREE FRUITS EATEN BY THE RED PANDA
IN SINGHALILA NATIONAL PARK
Fruit Crude Hemicellulose Cellulose+lignin
Protein
228
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PANDA, AILURUS FULGENS
especially during the premonsoon and winter
periods. Seasonal fruits such as A. strigosa and
S. microphylla, and bamboo shoots supplemented
the diet of bamboo leaves during the monsoon
and the postmonsoon period. The monsoon and
postmonsoon coincided with the period of birth
and rearing of the young of red panda. Earlier
studies specify leaves and shoots of Sinamndinaria
fangiana, and shoots of Fargesia spathececi to be
taken in the Wolong Nature Reserve (China),
(Schaller et cil. 1985, Johnson et al. 1988, Reid et
al. 1991) and a species of bamboo locally known
as jhapra in the Langtang National Park, Nepal
(Yonzon and Hunter 1991). Fruits and berries of
Sorbus spp., Maddenia hypoleuca , Cotoneaster
moupinensis , Clematoclethera tiliaceae , Rubus
mesogaeus , R. pdeatus , Ribes moupinense , Pninus
vaniotti and P. brachyoda and even mushrooms
are reported to be taken by the red panda in the
wild (Johnson et al. 1988, Reid etal. 1991,Yonzon
and Hunter 1991).
Feeding ecology in the three study sites
of SNP: The amount of A. aristata leaves taken
by the red panda in the SNP was slightly higher
than A. maling , although the difference is not
statistically significant. It was not possible to say
how particular they were about selecting the
bamboo species. Red panda was found to be
consuming mainly A. maling leaves in Site 1,
the dominant species in the area, as A. aristata
was found only in patches above 2,850 m. At
Site 2, both A. maling and A. aristata leaves were
consumed because of the increasing availability
of A. aristata as compared to that in Site 1. At
Site 3, the diet was solely composed of A. aristata
leaves, the dominant bamboo species of the area.
The giant panda selected Sinarundinaria
sp. over Fargesia sp. in the Choushuigou study
area in China, where both species were easily
accessible, perhaps due to the higher protein,
other nutrients and less cellulose, lignin and
better balance of essential amino acids in
Sinarundinaria sp. (Schaller et al. 1985).
However, the pandas in Jiuzhaigou (China) and
elsewhere subsisted entirely on the Fargesia sp.
which was regarded an adequate food (Schaller
etal 1985).
The topography of the study area was such
that the two species of bamboo were not equally
abundant in any of the three sites. A. maling
dominated Site 1. At Site 2, both A. maling and
A. aristata were found. A. aristata dominated
Site 3. From the results of Site 1 and Site 3, it
could be tentatively said that the red panda was
consuming the species of bamboo most easily
available. Investigation of the food quality of
plants ascertained that A. aristata leaves had
higher levels of protein, less of cellulose and
lignin as compared to A. maling. However, not
much could be inferred about the food preference
on the basis of nutrient content, as A. maling
and A. aristata leaves were taken in almost equal
quantity at Site 2. Moreover, A. maling and
A. aristata leaves seemed an adequate diet at Site
1 and Site 3 respectively.
Fruits of A. strigosa formed an important
supplement to the red panda diet. However, more
can be said of the selection of fruits only by
comparing the preference and avoidance of other
fruits found within a site rather than between
sites. For example, within Site 1 and Site 2, other
fruits, which the red panda may have consumed,
were Holbellia latifolia and Sorbus cuspidata.
But faecal examinations showed that these fruits
were not taken, despite their abundance. The
nutritional analysis of other fruits was beyond
the scope of the present study.
Both species of bamboo have been affected
by intensive cattle grazing, and they were also
found to have low recruitment rate. The bamboo
shoots of both A. maling and A. aristata were
not only eaten by other wild animals, but also
harvested by the locals. All these factors could
have an effect on their growth dynamics and need
further studies. A. strigosa is also harvested by
the locals in significant quantity.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 200 1
229
FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PANDA , AILURUS FULGENS
This study finally reveals that the diet of the
red panda in the temperate zone consisted of A.
maling and A. aristata leaves and shoots, and fruits
of A. strigosa, whereas in the subalpine zone, A.
aristata leaves, shoots and fruits of
S. microphylla and R. s eric era were consumed.
The difference in the dietary composition in
relation to the overall ecology of the red panda in
the Singhalila National Park needs further study.
Acknowledgements
The field study was funded by the Wildlife
Circle, Department of Forests, Government of
West Bengal and implemented by the
P.G. Department of Zoology, Darjeeling
Government College. We thank Dr. E. Sharma
for facilities to carry out the nutritional analysis
of the food plants at G.B. Pant Institute for
Himalayan Research and Development, Sikkim
Unit. Dr. Angela R. Glatston, Dr. Prahlad
B. Yonzon, Mr. Miles Roberts, Dr. A.R.
Rahmani, Dr. M. Coulter, Dr. S. Javed, Dr. S.
Kumar, Sarala, Nakul, Iyatta, Tehmina and Rana
for their help and support during the entire
tenure of this study. Comments of the referees
have helped immensely to improve the
manuscript.
Refer
Allen, S. (1 989): Chemical analysis of ecological materials.
Blackwell Scientific Publications, London. Pp. 368.
Bliejienberg, M.C.K & J. Nijboer (1989): Feeding
herbivorous carnivores. In: Red panda Biology
(Glatston, A.R. ed.) SPB Publishing, The Hague,
Netherlands, pp. 41-50.
Fowler, J. & L. Cohen ( 1 986): Statistics for Ornithologists.
BTO Guide No. 22.
Goering, H & P. Van Soest(1970): Forage fiber analysis
(apparatus, reagents, procedure and some
applications). In: Agricultural Handbook, 379:
1-20. U.S. Dept. Agriculture.
Janzen, D. (1976): Why bamboos wait so long to flower.
Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 7: 347-91.
Johnson, K.G., G.B. Schaller & H. Jinchu (1988):
Comparative behaviour of red panda and the giant
pandas in the Wolong Reserve, China. J. Mammal
69(3): 552-564.
McNab, B.K. ( 1 989): Energy expenditure in the Red panda.
In: Red panda Biology (Glatston, A.R. ed.) SPB
ENCES
Publishing, The Hague, Netherlands, pp. 73-78.
Oftedal, O., K.J. Fulton & S.D. Crissey ( 1 989): Bamboo
as a source of digestible energy for red pandas. Int.
Theriol. Congr. (Abstract) Rome, August 1989.
Pradhan, S. ( 1 999): Studies on some aspects of the ecology
of the red panda ( Ailurus fulgens , Cuvier 1 825) in
the Singhalila National Park, Darjeeling, India.
Ph.D. thesis. North Bengal University, India.
Reid, D.G.,H. Jinchu & Y. Haung(1991): Ecology of the
red panda Ailurus fulgens in the Wolong Reserve,
China. J. Zool. Lond 225: 347-364.
Roberts, M.S. & J.L. Gittleman (1984): Ailurus fulgens.
Mammalian species. The American Society of
Mammalogists 222: 1 -8.
Schaller, G.B., H. Jinchu, P. Wenshi & Z. Jing (1985):
The giant pandas of Wolong. The University of
Chicago Press, Chicago. Pp. 298.
Yonzon, P.B. & M. Hunter (1991 ): Conservation of the
Red panda, Ailurus fulgens. Biological
Conservation 59: 1-15.
230
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
FRESHWATER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTACEA: BRANCHIOPODA) OF THE
WETLANDS OF INDIAN BOTANICAL GARDEN, HOWRAH, WEST BENGAL1
K. Venkataraman2 and S.R. Das3
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Cladoceran fauna, Indian Botanical Garden, West Bengal India
The Indian Botanic Garden located on the northern bank of the river Hooghly, Howrah
district, West Bengal consists of twenty-five wetlands of varying sizes. To study the
Cladoceran fauna, four perennial lakes and ponds were selected. The survey was repeated
for three different periods: April 1 994, September 1 994 and March 1 995. Of the 38 species
of Cladocera, belonging to 6 families and 24 genera, recorded in the present study, three
are new records to West Bengal and one — Diaphanosoma leuctenbergianum, is a new
record to India. All the four species have been described in detail to facilitate identification.
Except for a few species of Cladocera, most Chydorids occur in wetlands with specific
macrophytes. The association between Cladocera and macrophytes suggests a specific
interrelationship, which is yet to be established.
Introduction
The Indian Botanic Garden located on the
northern bank of the River Hooghly, Sibpur,
Howrah district. West Bengal, is a unique
repository of valuable and rare plant species, with
a mosaic of twenty -five wetland areas covering
1 1 ha. These lakes are interconnected by an
operational subterranean flushing system linked
with the Hooghly river on the southeast (Fig 1).
The physico-chemical nature of these wetlands
and their effects were studied by Singh and
Ghosh (1985). An attempt to study the fauna of
the wetland has been initiated by the Botanical
Survey of India and the Zoological Survey of
India, under the directive of the Ministry of
Environment & Forests. Of these twenty-five
wetlands, most of the perennial lakes are used
for fish culture regularly. To study the biodiversity
of the wetlands, four perennial fish culture lakes
and temporary ponds each were selected. The
'Accepted June, 1999
2Marine Biological Station, Zoological Survey of India,
1 00 Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028,
Tamil Nadu, India.
3Zoological Survey of India, ‘M’ Block, New Alipore,
Kolkata Pin 700 053, West Bengal, India.
diversity of crustacean zooplankton, especially
Cladocera, is being dealt with here.
Material and Methods
A total of 8 wetlands, four perennial (fish
culture) lakes: 1 ) Dhobi 2) Kings 3) Leeram and
4) Prain lake and four temporary ponds: 1)
Sector 12 pond, 2) Lotus pond at sector 11,3)
Sector 9 pond and 4) Sector 8 pond were selected
for the present study (Fig. 1 ). Three surveys were
conducted in different seasons: April 19-22,
1994, September 27-30, 1994 and March 8-10,
1995. All the perennial lakes and temporary
ponds harbour macrophytes such as Eichhornia
crassipes and Microcystis auriginosci among
others. The electrical conductivity was 1530 to
5200 p mhos and the pH 8. 2-8. 7. Aquatic plants
harbour a variety of fauna, including
zooplankton such as Cladocera. The
zooplankton samples were collected using a
hand net (45 cm diameter) and a throw net
(45 cm diameter) with muslin cloth ( 1 20 pi mesh
size). The net was dragged through the
macrophytes, slightly agitating the water
column without stirring the mud. Samples
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
231
FRESHWA TER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTA CEA : BRANCHIOPODA)
232
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
Fig, 1 : Map of wetlands of Indian Botanical Garden showing the Cladocera collection spots
FRESHWATER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTACEA: BRANCHIOPODA)
were preserved in the field and the Cladoceran
species were identified as per Michael and
Sharma (1988) using a monocular microscope
in the laboratory.
Results
A total of 38 species of Cladocera
belonging to 6 families and 21 genera were
recorded in the present study (Table 1). Species
such as Pseudosida bidentata Herrick, 1884,
Latonopsis australis Sars, 1888, Diaphanosoma
volzi Stingelin, 1905, Diaphanosoma
leuctenbergianum Fischer, 1854, Moina
brachiata (Jurine, 1820) Bosmina longirostris
(O.F. Muller, 1776), Pleuroxus similis Vavra,
1900, Alonella excisum (Fischer, 1854),
Chydorus ventricosus Daday, 1898, Dadaya
macrops Daday, 1898, Alona kwangsiensis
Chiang, 1963 and Notalona globulosa Daday,
1 898 were found to occur only during one survey
or in one wetland. The rest of the cladocerans
were recorded during two surveys or in more than
two wetlands. Among all the species,
Ceriodaphnia cornuta Sars 1885 was found
during all the three surveys in seven wetlands
and Diaphanosoma excisum Sars 1885,
Macrothrix spinosa King, 1853, Chydorus
sphaericus (O.F. Muller, 1776) and Alona karua
King, 1 853 were recorded in all the three surveys
in five wetlands. The following four species are
new records for West Bengal:
Diaphanosoma volzi Stingelin, 1905
Material examined: Several females from
Lotus pond (Sector 2, 27.ix.1994).
Female: Body size: 0.73 mm. Head
rounded and small, eye relatively large. Carapace
straight on ventral margin, duplicature forming
a wide angle, posteroventral carnor rounded
without denticles except for a long spine on the
posterior margin. Postabdomen with three long
and sharp pointed basal spines.
Remarks: New record to West Bengal.
The material collected in the present study
agrees with the description of D. aspinosum by
Chiang (1956) from China and by Idris (1983)
from Malaysia.
Diaphanosoma leuctenbergianum
Fischer, 1854
Material examined: Several females from
Dhobighat fish pond (Sector 24, 8.iii.l995).
Female: Body size: 1.20 mm. Head large,
without rostrum. Eye large, situated close to the
ventral margin. Carapace almost oblong in
outline, posterior end abruptly truncate.
Posterodorsal corner of valves almost ending in
a right angle. Posteroventral comer with variable
number of cilia followed by delicate cilia.
Antenna reaching beyond the posterior margin
of valve. Postabdomen narrow with fine setules.
Claw with three basal spines, decreasing in size
proximally.
Moina brachiata (Jurine, 1820)
Material examined: Several females from
Lotus pond (Sector 2, 27.ix.1994).
Female: Body size: 1.27 mm. Head large
with medium sized eye situated closer to the
dorsal margin than to the ventral side.
Antennules long with sensory setae located at
1/3 the distance from head. Carapace almost
round with distinct reticulations. Ventral margin
of valves with long and short setae increasing in
size posteriorly. Postabdomen large with long
bidentate tooth and 13 feathered teeth. Claw with
large pecten of 10 to 14 teeth.
Alona kwangsiensis Chiang, 1963
Material examined: Several females from
Dhobighat Fish pond (Sector 24, 27.ix.1994).
Female: Body size: 0.45 mm. Shape oval
in outline, maximum height slightly before
middle from anterior end. Valves with a series
of setae, district lines and polygonal patterns.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
233
FRESHWATER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTACEA: BRA NCHIOPODA)
Table 1
OCCURRENCE OF CLADOCERANS OF INDIAN BOTANICAL GARDEN WETLANDS, HOWRAH
234
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 200 J
FRESHWA TER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTACEA: BRAN CHIOPODA )
Table 1 (contd)
OCCURRENCE OF CLADOCERANS OF INDIAN BOTANICAL GARDEN WETLANDS, HOWRAH
WETLANDS
1= April 1 994, 2 = September 1 994, 3 = March 1 995 Surveys
N1 = Sector 12 Pond; N2 = Lotus Pond; N3 = Sector 9 Pond; N4 = Dhobighat Fish Pond;'N5 = Prain lake; N6 = Leeram lake; N7
= Sector 8 Pond; N8 = Kings lake. (* New record to West Bengal; ** New record to India)
Ventral margin of valves with a series of setae,
posteroventral comer rounded with five denticles
attached marginally up to one third of the
posterior region, followed by a row of small
spines running the apex of rostrum. Postabdomen
with distinct preanal and postanal comers and
obtusely rounded dorsal margin. About 7-8
denticles attached submarginally followed by 3
groups of spines along the anal groove up to the
preanal comer.
Discussion
Out of the 38 species of Cladocera collected
during the present study, four species namely
Diaphanosoma volzi, D. leuctenbergianum ,
Moina brachiata and Alona kwangsiensis were
reported for the first time from West Bengal while
D. leuctenbergianum is a new record from India.
Venkataraman (1993) recorded 57 species of
Cladocera from West Bengal, which is more than
half the number recorded in India (93 species,
Michael and Sharma 1988).
In the present study, the occurrence of all
the cladoceran species except Diaphanosoma
excisum, D. brachyurum, D. leuctenbergianum ,
Ceriodaphnia cornuta, Moina micrura , Bosmina
longirostris and Ilyocryptus spinifer with specific
macrophytes suggests a mutual relationship.
Even though a specific association between
cladocerans and aquatic macrophytes is yet to
be established, Synerholm (1974) observed that
the diversity of Cladocera is affected by the
presence or absence of these plants. Moreover,
Whiteside and Hermsworth (1967), and Quade
(1969) considered that the distribution of
Cladocera is controlled by habitats and
macrophytes rather than by lake types. However,
Freyer (1968) has stressed the importance of the
relationship between aquatic macrophytes and
feeding habits, morphology and distribution of
Cladocera. Such a trend was observed in the
present study where species of Simocephalus
were always found to attach themselves, by their
anterodorsal carapace, to the leaf or stem of the
aquatic plant Hydrilla sp. and filter the food
particles present in the water. Likewise, many
other species of chydorids were found to associate
with a variety of aquatic macrophytes Eichhornia
crassipes, Pistia stratioties, Lemna sp.,
Nymphaea sp., Nelumbo sp., Ceratophyllum
demersum, Vallisneria spiralis, Hydrilla sp.,
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
235
FRESHWA TER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTACEA: BRA NCHIOPODA )
Colocasia sp. etc. which are to be completely
understood.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, Zoological Survey
of India, Kolkata for work facilities. We also
thank Dr. N.C. Nandi for his cooperation during
Refer
Chiang, S.C. (1956): Some species of Diaphanosoma
(Cladocera) from Wuchang, China. Acta
hydrobiologia Sinica 2: 314-3 1 2.
Freyer, G. (1968): Evolution and Adaptive Radiation in
the Chydoridae (Crustacea: Cladocera): A study in
comparative Functional Morphology and Ecology.
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Loud. (B) 254 : 223-385.
Idris, B.A.G. (1983): Freshwater Zooplankton of Malaysia
(Crustacea: Cladocera) PenerbitUniversiti Pertanian
Malaysia, 153 pp.
Michael, R.G. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India
and Adjacent countries, Indian Cladocera (Crustacea:
Branchiopoda: Cladocera) (Ed) Director, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta. 262 pp.
Quade, H.W. (1969): Cladocera fauna associated with
aquatic macrophytes in some lakes in northeastern
the field work. Dr. L.K. Banarjee and
Dr. Venu of Botanical Survey of India are
gratefully acknowledged for encouragement and
Shri S.K. Das, Sr. Zoological Assistant,
Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for his
support in the field. Excellent typing of this paper
by Shri A. Sivakumar is also gratefully
acknowledged.
ENCES
Minnesota. Ecology 50: 1 70- 1 79.
Singh, J.N. & M.K. Ghosh (1985): Chemical Nature of
Flooghly (Ganga) River water and an assessment of
their impact on the Eco-pedon system of Indian
Botanic Garden, Howrah. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 26(1-
2): 45-51 .
Synerholm, C.C. (1974): The Chydorid Cladocera from
surface lake sediments in Minnesota and North
Dakota. M.Sc. Thesis. University of Minnesota, USA,
73 pp.
Venkataraman, K. (1993): The freshwater Cladocera of
southern West Bengal. J. Andaman Sci. Assoc. 9: 19-
24.
Whiteside, M.C. & R.V. Hermsworth (1967): Species
diversity in Chydorid (Cladocera) Communities.
Ecology 4: 664-667.
236
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
SELECTION OF SUITABLE CENSUS METHOD FOR THE INDIAN SARUS
CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE ANTIGONE'
Aeshita Mukherjee, C.K. Borad, S.B. Patel and B.M. Parasharya* 2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Grus antigone antigone , census method, noon count, night roost,
population density, paddy crop, summer months, reservoirs
An estimation of the population size of the Indian sarus crane Grus antigone antigone was
done in the summer of 1997 and 1998. A total of 432 and 457 cranes were counted, in the
526 sq. km area of Kheda district, Gujarat, during hot hours (1200-1600 hrs) in 1997 and
1998 respectively. Night roost count at reservoirs (548) was higher than the day roost
count. Results suggested that for accurate population estimation, the night roost count is
better, but time and man power requirements can be a limitation. For a large scale census,
the day roost count at reservoirs and their environs could be better.
Introduction
Estimation of avian population is the basic
requirement to initiate any study leading to their
conservation. Qualitative statements regarding
status and distribution do not give a true picture
of the population size, irrespective of the species
studied. To decide conservation management
strategies, it is necessary to estimate the actual
population size at a given site at the right time.
With a drastic reduction in its distribution range
and a total of 1 2,000 individuals worldwide (Gole
1989, 1991), the Indian sarus crane Grus
antigone antigone is now considered as a globally
threatened species (Meine and Archibald 1996).
Despite several limitations in the census method,
attempts have been made to estimate the sarus
crane population in Gujarat State (Vaishnav
1985) and its distribution range in India (Gole
1989). In Kheda district, the sarus crane density
on a fixed route had been attempted (Parasharya
et al. 1996) along with population estimation.
Here we have attempted to estimate the sarus
crane population in Matar tehsil of Kheda district
to supplement the above study during summer
in two successive years.
'Accepted March 1999
2AINP on Agricultural Ornithology,
Gujarat Agricultural University,
Anand 388 1 10, Gujarat, India
We attempted to determine the total
population using two different methods. This
paper describes the merits and demerits of both
the methods selected for determining the sarus
crane population and density.
Material and Methods
The census was done during the summer
months April, May and June 1997 and May 1998.
Cranes encountered along the road and in and
around reservoirs were counted within the four
hour period of 1200-1600 hours (hot hours) in
one day. If an area was left uncovered during the
stipulated time period, it was completed on the
next day. The cranes concentrated chiefly around
five major reservoirs. Hence, the maximum crane
count around any of these reservoirs, in a
particular month, was taken into consideration
during the census of 1997. At the same time,
care was taken to ensure that the crane population
in the adjacent area was counted as a separate
population. Cranes sighted within 800 m on
either side of the road were also counted. The
presence and growth stage of paddy crops around
the census area were noted to understand the
crane distribution pattern. During 1998, counts
were done only on 24-25 May.
Night roost counts were attempted at 16
reservoirs from May 17-24, 1998. Unlike the
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
237
CENSUS METHOD FOR THE INDIAN SARDS CRANE
noon count, in which one person could count
cranes on several reservoirs in a four hour period,
it took one person to estimate the roosting cranes
at a particular reservoir in one night. Thus, the
three individuals involved could survey only
three reservoirs in a single day. All the cranes
present in the reservoir and the ones arriving
were counted till it was totally dark. The sun set
at 1912-1916 hours during the count period.
Study Area
The study was conducted in a 526.03 sq.
km area spread over Matar, Khambhat and Petlad
tehsil of Kheda district, Gujarat. Major
reservoirs, at which the study was conducted,
along with the main roads, are shown in Fig. 1.
The study area has the benefit of well established
branching canals terminating in reservoirs. The
landscape is plain, low lying and suitable for
paddy crop ( Oryza sativa ) cultivation during
monsoon due to irrigation facilities. During the
southwest monsoon (July to September), the
whole area gets flooded and remains so till late
September. In the summer (April to June), the
reservoirs retain some water, at least at
miniumum level. Depending on local conditions,
paddy crop is grown in the command area of
some reservoirs even in summer. The temperature
reaches 45.6 °C, particularly in May.
Results
Population estimation during hot hours
in summer: The sarus crane population in the
study area (526.03 sq. km) in 1997 was 432,
while in 1998 it was 457 (Table 1), and had a
density of 0.82 /sq. km to 0.87 /sq. km cranes
respectively. The difference in the numbers
sighted between the two years was negligible.
Moreover, this was the minimum population
estimated, as only the actually seen cranes were
counted.
Table 1
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF SARUS CRANE
DURING NOON HOURS OF SUMMER MONTHS IN
KHEDA DISTRICT, GUJARAT
During both years, the crane number was
highest in Narda-Gobrapura and its surrounding
complex, proving it to be an important area
(Table 1). Bhanderaj and Daloli also supported
a high number of cranes. Though Kanewal and
Pariej were the largest reservoirs, the number of
cranes present here were insignificant, as both
the reservoirs have a very great water depth and
lack suitable roosting sites. They are also subject
to continuous human interference, especially
disturbance from fishing.
The cranes which concentrated at the
Narda reservoir and its environs in 1997 shifted
to Gobrapura in 1998. Similarly, the cranes at
Traj and its environs shifted to Machhial. Both
the shifts were within 5-6 km, and were probably
due to changes in the water level of the reservoir
and the paddy crops around it. The crane count,
at the five reservoirs, was fairly high and constant
during the study period.
All these reservoirs are situated within a
range of 5-15 km from each other, but still hold
a distinct population, suggesting that sarus cranes
are highly sedentary and restricted in their
activity around a particular reservoir.
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CENSUS METHOD FOR THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
239
CENSUS METHOD FOR THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
In the summer, due to heat and stress, the
cranes concentrated around the reservoirs in large
flocks, which aided the census. However, the
paddy crops growing around the reservoirs also
provided a suitable protected habitat from the
heat, which was evident from the count in the
surrounding area.
Population estimation during night
roosting in summer: As it was a dry period, all
the cranes converged to the reservoirs for
roosting. Sixteen reservoirs spread over the study
area were monitored to count the roosting sarus
population, hence no flock was missed from the
total estimate. A total of 548 sarus crane were
counted, giving a density of 1 .04 /sq. km during
a night roost count.
About 65% of the cranes concentrated
chiefly around 4 major reservoirs, the Daloli,
Gobrapura, Narda and Machhial (Table 2). The
area important for day roosting, was also found
significant for night roosting. Another important
site was Bhanderaj, which had 24% of the sarus
cranes at night. 1 1 % were distributed in 8 small
reservoirs.
Three reservoirs, though they had
sufficient water, were not used by the cranes. The
sarus cranes numbers at a particular reservoir
were determined by its water level and suitable,
safe roosting sites. At Barson-Baroda the cranes
roosted in the shallow waters of the river basin.
It was the only site of the riverine area that we
examined for the night roost. The number of
cranes estimated during the night roost was 1 6%
higher than the count during the day roost.
Discussion
During summer, the water was available
only in the reservoir or in the paddy crops
growing around the reservoirs. To avoid heat
stress, the cranes flocked in the reservoirs or in
the paddy crop, enabling an almost accurate
population estimation. To avoid the heat stress
Table 2
POPULATION ESTIMATION OF
ROOSTING SARUS CRANE, DURING SUMMER,
IN KHEDA DISTRICT, GUJARAT
of summer, the sarus cranes are known to flock
in the wetlands (Ramachandran and Vijayan
1994, Mukherjee et al. 1999, in press).
In summer, the cranes move far off for
foraging during the morning and evening hours,
but they returned to the reservoirs from 1200
hours onwards (Mukherjee et al. 1999). Once at
the reservoir, the cranes did not show any
movement for four hours and hence, the chances
of count duplication were negligible. Four hours
are sufficient to travel across the study area to
estimate the population in the reservoir and along
the route. Two persons with a vehicle needed two
days to complete the count in the 526.03 sq. km
area. Hence, sarus crane census during hot hours
(1200-1600 hours) in the summer is ideal.
Limited man power and time frame placed
restrictions on the size of the area which could
be surveyed.
The cranes utilised the summer paddy
crops during the hot hours, both as foraging and
roosting ground leading to a dispersed
distribution, which subsequently caused
underestimation of the population size. During
240
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CENSUS METHOD FOR THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
the summer of 1997, paddy was grown around
most of the reservoirs making accurate counts
difficult. However, in 1998, the cultivated area
was limited, hence counting was easy.
In 1998, along with the day roost counts,
night roost counts were made to overcome this
drawback. For accurate population estimate, we
made night roost counts in all the 16 reservoirs.
The crane count during night roost was certainly
higher than the day roost count. However, the
one person to one reservoir ratio is time
consuming and requires more man power. Our
night roost counts could be accurate, as we were
familiar with the study site and with the direction
of the arriving cranes. Night roost counts can
possibly be difficult in an unknown area, but in
the present case, they were more accurate than
the day roost count.
There was a difference of only 91 cranes
in the counts by two methods. This indicates that
the sarus is sedentary, does not show frequent
movements and prefers the same area for day
and night roosting. At least in the summer, cranes
hardly dispersed 5-6 km from the reservoir. They
also had an affinity for the water bodies for
roosting. The same was seen around Bhanderaj,
the only reservoir which ultimately attracted
cranes from all over the area. Thus, the study
highlighted the importance of these wetlands for
Refer
Gole, P. (1989): The status and ecological requirements
of sarus crane, Phase-I, Paper presented in the Asian
Crane Congress at Rajkot, Gujarat, India.
Gole, P. (1991): Welfare of the tallest flying bird in the
world. J. Ecol. Soc. 4: 29-42.
Meine, C.D. & G. W. Archibald (eds) ( 1 996): The Crane:
Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.
Muicherjee, A., C.K. Borad & B.M. Parasharya ( 1 999):
Diurnal use of the reservoirs by the Indian Sarus
Crane ( Grus antigone ) during summer months. Zoos ’
Print J. 1 4(7): 72-74.
Mukherjee, A., C.K. Borad & B.M. Parasharya (in press):
The factors affecting distribution of the Indian Sarus
the protection and conservation of the sarus
crane.
It is worth noting that in the 526.03 sq.
km of the study area, paddy was the only crop
grown during monsoon. It was also grown in
patches around reservoirs during summer. All
the wetlands retained some level of water even
in summer. However, only a few reservoirs were
used by the cranes for roosting. Crane
distribution was patchy, indicating that the
presence of water in the reservoirs or in the
paddy crop around reservoir are not the only
factors responsible for the crane abundance /
distribution. Gole (1989) had developed a
formula to estimate crane population based on
crane density derived through road transect and
total wetland area separately. On the contrary,
our study revealed that even though several
wetlands existed, some were not utilised by
cranes. Therefore, the earlier report by Gole
(1989) may represent an inaccurate count.
Recently, Mukherjee et al. (in press) had
established a positive correlation between sarus
crane abundance and percentage land under
irrigated paddy crop, as well as visibility index
/ openness of the habitat. However, we found
that in summer, factors like flocking, availability
of paddy crop and time of the day influenced
the crane numbers counted.
ENCES
Crane Grus antigone antigone (Linne.) in Kheda
district, Gujarat. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
Parasharya, B.M., A.D. Patel, S.B. Patel & R.B.
Chauhan ( 1 996): Sarus crane population decline: A
result of conflict with human interest. Proceedings
of the Salim Ali Centenary Seminar on Conservation
of Avifauna of Wetlands and Grasslands, Mumbai,
India (under preparation)
Ramachandran, N.K. & V.S. Vijayan (1 994): Distribution
and general ecology of the sarus crane ( Grus
antigone ) in Keoladeo National Park. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 91(2): 211-223.
Vaishnav, H. A. (1 985): Crane survey in Gujarat. Hornbill
1985(4): 38-40.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(2). AUG. 2001
241
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS OPIUS WESMAEL
(HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA'
S.M. Kurhade2 and P.K. Nikam3
( With three text-figures)
Key words: Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Opiinae, Opius ( Utetes ) sp. nov.
Op ins ( Utetus ) fischeri sp. nov. is described and illustrated.
Introduction
Wesmael (1835) erected the genus Opius
(Subfamily: Opiinae) with the type species Opius
pallipes Wesmael, which was designated as the
type by Muesebeck and Walkley (1951). Fischer
(1964, 1965) revised the genus entirely. The
taxonomy of this genus was also attempted by
Fischer (1971, 1972) and Marsh (1974).
Fischer (1988) divided Opius into three
subgenera (namely Aulonotus Ashmead, Utetes
Foerster and Gastrosema Fischer), and also
provided a key to the groups and species of Utetes
for the Indo- Australian and Ethiopean regions.
In the present work, Opius ( Utetes ) fischeri
sp. nov. is described on the material collected in
India: Maharashtra: Ahmednagar.
The new taxon runs close to Opius ( Utetes )
buloloensis Fischer and has been included in the
key to the species of alutaceus group of Opius
( Utetes ) by Fischer (1988). This key, which is
originally in German, has been provided here in
English.
Types are deposited in the Entomological
collection of the Department of Zoology, Dr.
Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,
Aurangabad.
'Accepted August, 1998
department of Zoology,
New Arts, Commerce and Science College,
Ahmednagar 414 001, Maharashtra, India,
department of Zoology,
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University,
Aurangabad 431 004, Maharashtra, India.
Key to the species of subgenus Utetes
Foerster group O. alutaceus by Fischer (1988)
1. Mesoscutum mainly sparsely pubescent, lateral
lobe appears almost bare 2
— Mesoscutum bare, except along the notauli,
pubescent 10
2. Clypeus 3x as broad as long; ovipositor sheath
of female as long as abdomen, the projecting part
of the ovipositor longer than half the abdomen,
3.5 mm, South Africa
O. trichomaticus Fischer
— Clypeus almost 1 .7x as broad as long; ovipositor
sheath of female almost as long as the first tergite
3
3. Head and face with small hairs, hair punctures
not recognisable, r3 2x as long as r2 4
— Head and face with dense and small punctures
and small hairs; r3 1.5-1.66x as long as r2 9
4. First tergite 1 .2x as long as wide basally, 2.3 mm,
New Guinea O. gregori Fischer
— First tergite 1 .5x as long as broad or longer ... 5
5. Head, thorax and abdomen yellowish-red,
2.7 mm, New Guinea.... O buloloensis Fischer
— Head, thorax and abdomen differently coloured
6
6. Body yellowish-brown, 5.7 mm, India:
Maharashtra O. fischeri sp. nov.
— Body completely dark or thoracic divisions black
and abdominal divisions white 7
7. r2 1.5x as long as cubital; first tergite 1.5x as
long as broad, basally, longitudinally striate as a
rule, 2.3 mm New Guinea
O. gregoriformis Fischer
— r2 1 .7x as long as cubital or longer; first tergite
2x as long as broad, basally, longitudinally striate
or not 8
242
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 200 1
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
8. r2 2.2x as long as cubital; head and thorax
completely black, legs yellow; first tergite black,
rest brown, 2.5 mm, New Guinea
O. neogregori Fischer
— r2 1 .7x as long cubital; head and anterior part of
thorax red; legs black and anterior half of the
abdomen white, 2.0 mm, New Guinea
O. albipus Fischer
9. Thorax 1.5x as long as high; first tergite 1.5x as
long as broad basally, 3.0 mm, Philippines
O. pilosidorsum Fischer
— Thorax 1 .3x as long as high; first tergite as long
as wide basally, 2.1 mm, New Guinea
O. arcithorax Fischer
1 0. Second tergite rugose or striated 11
— Second tergite smooth 13
11. r2 arising from behind the middle of the stigma,
3.5 mm, Zaire O. prophylactius Fischer
— r2 arising from before the middle of the stigma
12
12. r2 about one third longer than cubital, second
tergite striate; ovipositor projects out slightly, 2.6
mm. New Hebriden O. cheesmanae Fischer
— r2 almost 2x as long as cubital; ovipositor sheath
about one third of the body length, 2.1 mm,
Madagascar O. alutaceus Granger
13. Thorax 1.7x as long as high, 3.4 mm, S. Africa
O. extendithorax Fischer
— Thorax 1.25-1.33x as long as high 14
14. r2 2 x as long as cubital, 3.8 mm, Philippines .
O. infernalis Fischer
— r2 almost 1.5x as long as cubital 15
15. Mesoscutum strongly continuously punctate;
notauli distinct; middle lobe separated; thorax
1 .25x as wide as long, 3.4 mm, Taiwan
cf. O. fulvifacies Fischer
— Mesoscutum punctate; notauli with small
punctures; mesoscutum as long as broad, 1 .9 mm,
Madagascar O. mediorufiis Granger
Opius ( Utetes ) fischeri sp. nov.
(Figs 1-3)
Female: Length 5.7 mm. (Fig. 1). Head
(Fig. 2) 0.5x as long as wide; vertex smooth,
sparsely pubescent; ocelli in triangle, with broad
base, on a black oblong spot; ocello-ocular
distance same as inter-ocellar distance; frons
narrow, smooth, pubescent; face 0.7x as long as
wide, convex, depressed medially, shiny,
moderately punctate, pubescent; clypeus 2x as
wide as long, convex, shiny, moderately punctate,
pubescent; clypeal fovea distinct; malar space
0.6x width of mandible; mandible 1.6x as long
as wide, bidentate; eye 1 .5x as long as wide, bare;
interorbital distance 0.8x as long as height of
the eye; antenna 2 + 47 segmented; scape 1 .lx
as long as wide, smooth, weakly punctate,
pubescent; pedicel 0.8x as long as wide, smooth,
weakly punctate, pubescent; penultimate segment
1.5x as long as wide; terminal segment 2.5x as
long as wide; first flagellar segment 1 .lx as long
as wide; second flagellar segment 0.7x as long
as first; occiput not margined.
Thorax: 2.3x as long as wide; pronotum
shiny, very weakly punctate, pubescent;
mesoscutum shiny, convex, very weakly, shallowly
punctate, pubescent; notauli distinct, transversely
crenulated; scutellum shiny, convex, weakly
punctate, pubescent, apex elevated mid-dorsally;
propleurum, smooth, shiny, very weakly punctate;
mesopleurum smooth, shiny, closely punctate,
pubescent; mesopleural suture distinct;
mesopleurum rugosely, closely punctate,
Figs. 1-3: Opius (Utetes) fischeri , sp. nov., Female,
1. Lateral view; 2. Head (frontal view);
3. Propodeum and first abdominal tergite.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
243
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
pubescent; propodeum (Fig. 3) irregularly
reticulate, basal 0.4 rugose, pubescent, spiracle
rounded. Hind leg coxa 2.7x as long as wide,
sparsely punctate, pubescent; trochanter I 1 .4x as
long as wide, trochanter II 3x as long as wide;
femur 3.8x as long as wide, slender, long, closely
punctate, pubescent; tibia 17x as long as wide,
closely punctate, pubescent; tibial spur 0.25x as
long as basitarsus; basitarsus 0.4x as long as tibia;
claw bifid. Fore wing 3.3x as long as broad; stigma
5.7x as long as wide; metacarpus 1.5x as long as
stigma; first abscissa of radius 0.5x as long as
second; apical abscissa of radius 5x as long as first;
second cubital cell with four unequal sides; first
intercubitus 2.2x as long as second intercubitus;
costa 2.4x as long as stigma; medius 1.7x as long
as basal; discoideus 0.6x as long as medius;
nervulus slightly inclivous, distad, 1 .2x as long as
width of stigma; subdiscoideus 0.4x as long as
submedius; brachius 3. lx as long as nervulus;
margin with fine bristles; hind wing 5x as long as
broad; subcostella 1 .2x as long as radiella; mediella
6.7x as long as basella; nervellus slightly inclivous,
2.9x as long as submediella; cubitella 1. lx as long
as mediella; margin with fine bristles.
Abdomen: 4.5x as long as wide; first
tergite 2x as long as apical width, strigose, weakly
punctate, pubescent; second tergite as long as
apical width, strigose, pubescent; third tergite
0.9x as long as wide, strigose, weakly punctate,
pubescent; remaining tergites smooth,
moderately punctate, pubescent; ovipositor 5.7
mm.; ovipositor sheath as long as ovipositor, with
stiff bristles throughout the length.
Yellowish-brown. One oblong spot on
vertex, stigma, veins, tips of mandibles and
ovipositor blackish-brown; first tergite towards
apical region, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh
tergites on mid-dorsal side and ovipositor sheath
reddish-brown.
Male: Unknown.
Host: Unknown.
Holotype: Female: India: Maharashtra:
Ahmednagar, 5.x. 1989. On wing, Coll. S.M.
Kurhade; antenna, legs and wings mounted on
slides and labelled as above.
Paratypes: 3 females, data same as
holotype.
Etymology: The species has been named
fischeri in honour of Dr. Maximillian Fischer, a
well known taxonomist of Braconidae.
Comments: In accordance with the key
to the Indo-Australian and Ethiopian species
of the Opius ( Utetes ) alutaceus group by
Fischer (1988) the new species, Opius {Utetes)
fischeri resembles Opius {Utetes) buloloensis
Fischer (1988) in the characters: (i)
mesoscutum pubescent, (ii) notauli distinct,
(iii) ovipositor long, (iv) face pubescent and
(v) first tergite longer than apical width; but
it differs from it in the following characters:
(i) body 5.7 mm (in buloloensis body 2.7 mm),
(ii) head 0.5x as long as wide, (in buloloensis
0.55x as long as wide), (iii) clypeus 2x as wide
as long (in buloloensis 1.4x as wide as long),
(iv) antenna 2 + 47 segmented, (v) propodeum
irregularly reticulate, (vi) ovipositor long and
(vii) body yellowish-brown (in buloloensis
body yellowish-red).
Acknowledgements
We thank Prof. S.D. Kalyankar, the former
Head, Department of Zoology, Dr. Babasaheb
Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad
for laboratory facilities. The senior author wishes
to thank the Principal, New Arts, Commerce and
Science College, Ahmednagar for permission to
work at Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada
University, Aurangabad.
244
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
References
Fischer, M. (1964): Die Opiinae der nearktischen region
(Hymenoptera : Braconidae). I. Teil. Pol. Pismo
Entomol. 34: 197-530.
Fischer, M. (1965): Die Opiinae der nearktischen region
(Hymenoptera: Braconidae). II Teil. Pol. Pismo
Entomol. 35: 3-212.
Fischer, M. (1971): Index of Entomophagous insects.
Hymenoptera, Braconidae, World Opiinae,
International Organisation of Biological Control, Le
Francois, Paris, 189 pp.
Fischer, M. (1972): Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Opiinae,
I, - Das Tierreich 91 , pp. 485-486.
Fischer, M. (1988): Beschreibungen von Opiinen-Wespen;
Besonders Aus Neu Guinea (Hymenoptera,
Braconidae, Opiina e),Linzerbiol. Beitr. 20(2): 847-
917.
Marsh, P.M. (1974): New combinations and new
synonyms in North American Braconidae
(Hymenoptera). Ent. Soc. Wash. Proc. 76: 286.
Muesebeck, C.F.W. & L.M. Walkley (1951): Family
Braconidae, pp. 90-104, Hymenoptera of America
North of Mexico, synoptic catalog. U.S. Dept. Agr.
Monogr. 2: 184.
Wesmael, C. (1835): Monographic des Braconides de
Belgique. Nouv. Mem. Acad. Sci. R., Bruxelles 9:
1-252.
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
245
ACHLYA DAYALI , A NEW WATER MOULD FROM THE RIVER MUTHA1
R.V. Gandhe, Kanchanganga Gandhe and M. J. Desale2
( With five text-figures )
Key words: new species, Achlya dayali , comparison
Achlya dayali , a new species of Achlya, has been isolated from the River Mutha and
compared with its allied species A. racemosa.
Introduction
Aquatic fungi were isolated from the Rivers
Mula and Mutha. A total of 1 1 genera, and 24
species were isolated from the different
established sampling stations on the rivers.
Amongst all the genera, the genus Achlya with
its 13 species was dominant and isolated
frequently from all the stations. A. dayali is
described here as a new species, it broadly
resembles T racemosa Hildebrand (Coker 1923,
Johnson 1956), but differs in developing short
or long stalked oogonia and only one or two
centric oospores. (Coker 1923; Johnson 1956;
Sparrow 1960, 1968, 1973; Dayal and Thakurji
1969; Howard 1971; Dick 1973; Dayal andUsha
Kiran 1988) The new species described here was
isolated only from the Vitthalwadi sampling
station, on the Mutha, in July.
Material and Methods
Five sampling stations were established on
River Mutha for regular collection of water
samples every fortnight. These were
Khadakwasla, Vitthalwadi, Garware College, Bal
Gandharva bridge and Sangam bridge. Zoosporic
fungi were isolated from these samples by baiting
(Butler 1907). Mixed cultures were purified by
the hyphal tip technique. Temperature of the
'Accepted March, 1999
2 Postgrad Li ate Research Centre,
Department of Botany,
Modem College of Arts, Science and Commerce.
Pune 41 1 005, Maharashtra, India.
water samples was measured directly, whereas
pH and DO were measured as per standard
procedures (APHA 1992).
Achlya dayali sp. nov.
(Fig. 1-5)
Growth in culture moderately dense,
hyaline, developing into a colony of 1 cm
diameter within a week. Hyphae stout at the base,
85.2 pm thick, tapering gradually at the tips,
often sparingly branched.
Zoosporangia abundant, elongated,
cylindrical, rounded or tapering at the tips, almost
the same size as the hyphae, rarely a little larger,
28.4 pm to 48.0 pm in diameter, twisted like a
cork screw, often more sporangia developed very
closely below the first one. Zoospores 9.3 pm in
diameter, forming an irregular mass, which slowly
enlarges; spores released singly or in groups.
Gemmae few, mostly terminal, slightly swollen.
Oogonia abundant, scattered all over the
culture, 31.2 pm to 46.8 pm in diameter, often
racemosely developed, on long slender stalks,
rarely on short stalks of the main hyphae,
spherical, sometimes curved; oogonial wall
smooth or inconspicuously pitted at the contact
of antheridium. Eggs spherical, one or two per
oogonium, 18.7 pm to 28.7 pm in diameter,
centric, majority of oogonia with a single egg
occupying almost entire space.
Antheridial branches often androgynous,
long, occasionally short, developed from the long
stalks of oogonia, may be coiled, very often single
246
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs 1-5: Achlya dayali sp. nov.:
1. Thallus showing oogonia with monoclinous androgynous antheridia; 2. Development of zoosporangia
(note twisted sporangia); 3. Segmented gemmae; 4. Long stalked oogonia with androgynous antheridia;
5. Oogonia with curved stalk (note antheridial cell projections and centric oospores).
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 200 1
247
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Table 1
COMPARISON OF CHARACTERISTICS OF A CHLYA RACEMOSA AND ACHLYA DA YALI
antheridium about the oogonium. Conspicuous
fertilization tube may be present. No epigynous
antheridia were observed.
Isolated from Mutha river, July 1 995, Pune,
Maharashtra, India.
Latin Diagnosis
Mycellis in semmine opium tenuibus,
hyphis ramosis porrectis usque ad 1.0 cm in
diametrum. Hyphis primarilis in basi 85.2 pm
diam. Sporangiis copiosis, attenatis sine
cylindractis ad basim saepicus lateroribus, 28.4
pm to 48.0 pm in diametrum, basi
proliferantibus, apice dehiscentibus et in
sphaerula dispositis. Gemmae pancis, variiae,
natu majoriibus valde variae. Oogoniis copiosis,
globosis, autellipticis natis ex primarilis hyphis
in ramulis lateralibus longis curvis aut raro rectis,
oogoniis ipsis 3 1 .2 pm to 46.8 pm in diametrum
tunica crassa non-punctata, oosporiis numero
1-2, globosis, 18.7 pm to 28.7 pm in diametrum,
Refer
Apha, Awwa & Wee (1992): Standard methods for the
examination of water and waste water. Amer. Health
Assoc. Publ. New York. 1 8th edn.
Butler, E.J. (1907): An account of the genus Pythium and
some Chytridiaceae. Mem. Dept. Agri. India, bot.
ser. 1: 1-160.
Coker, W.C. (1923): The Saprolegniaceae with notes on
other water moulds. Univ. North Carolina Press,
Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Pp. 201 .
Dayal, R. & Thakurji ( 1 969): Studies in aquatic fungi of
Varanasi II. A new species of Achlya with notes on
guttulis olivaceosis centrice dispositis; tunica
crassa, hyalina. Antherididiis pancis diclinibus
and androgenibus.
Hab ad terram humosam in rivi Mutha,
July 1995, Pune, Maharashtra, India.
Etymology: The species is named in
honour of Prof. R. Dayal who has published a
monograph on zoosporic fungi of India.
Discussion
Achlya dayali , described here as a new
species, showed important and major differences
from its closest allied species A. racemosa. It is
described as a new species on the basis of the
differences given in Table 1 .
Acknowledgement
We thank Dr. C. Manoharachary,
Professor, Mycology and Plant Pathology,
Osmania University for valuable suggestions.
■NCES
other species. My copath et. Phytopath Appl. 3: 98-
102.
Dayal, R. & Usha Kiran (1988): Zoosporic fungi of India.
Inter India Publication, New Delhi, 297 pp.
Dick, M.W. (1973): Saprolegniales. In: The Fungi. An
Advanced Treatise. (Eds: Ainsworth, G.C., F.K.
Sparrow and A.S. Sussaman,) Academic Press,
New York and London. Vol. 4B, pp. 1 13-144.
Howard, K.L. (1971): Oospore types in the
Saprolegniaceae. Mycologia Vol. 63: 679-686.
Johnson, T.W. Jr. (1956): The genus Achlya morphology
248
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
NE W DESCRIPTIONS
and taxonomy. The University of Michigan Press,
Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1 80 pp.
Sparrow, F.K. (1960): Aquatic Phycomycetes. The
University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan,
pp. 1187.
Sparrow, F.K. Jr. (1968): Ecology of freshwater fungi. In:
The Fungi. An Advanced Treatise (Eds: Ainsworth,
G.C. and A.S. Sussaman) Academic Press, New
York. Vol. 3: 95-105.
Sparrow, F.K. Jr. (1973): Mastigomycotina (Zoosporic
Fungi). In: The Fungi. An Advanced Treatise (Eds:
Ainsworth, G.C., F.K. Sparrow and A.S. Sussaman)
Academic Press, New York and London. Vol. 4B.
pp. 61-73.
■ ■ ■
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
249
A NEW GENUS MANGINA ALONG WITH THE TAXONOMY OF
ARGINA HUBNER (ARCTIINAE: ARCTIIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA) 1
Amritpal S. Kaleka and Jagbir S. Kirti2
( With eleven text-figures)
Key words: Argina , Mangina , genitalia, congeneric
The taxonomy of genus Argina Hubner has been revised by incorporating the male and
female genital features of the type species astrea (Drury). Another Indian species argus
Kollar, earlier described under Aigina Hubner, has been found non-congeneric on the
basis of its genital structures. A new genus Mangina has, therefore, been proposed for
argus Kollar. The new genus is closely allied to Argina HQbner.
Introduction
According to Hampson’s key (Hampson
1 894), two species namely cribraria Clerck and
argus Kollar are referred to genus Argina Hubner.
The specific status of these two species was
confirmed from the Zoological Survey of India,
Kolkata, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun
and Natural History Museum, London. Watson
et al. ( 1 980) observed that Phalaena astrea Drury
is the oldest of junior subjective synonyms of
Phalaena cribraria Clerck, and made it available
as a subjective replacement name for the former
species i.e. Argina cribraria Clerck which is
also the type species of Argina Hubner. A critical
study of the structures of male and female
genitalia reveal that the species argus Kollar is
not congeneric with the type species astrea
(Drury) of genus Argina Hubner. Thus, the status
of this species is not stable under genus Argina.
Accordingly, a new genus Mangina has been
proposed for this species, and the justification
has been given.
Taxonomic Descriptions
Genus Argina Hubner
Hubner, 1818, Verz. bekr. sch., 1818 : 167.
Type Species: Argina astrea (Drury).
'Accepted January, 1999
department of Zoology,
Punjabi University,
Patiala 147 002, Punjab, India
Distribution: Throughout India, Africa,
Mauritius, China, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, New
Guinea and Australia.
Diagnosis: Labial palpus upturned,
extending well beyond lower level of frons, third
joint short. Antenna ciliated in both sexes.
Fore wing with veins R2 and R3 from areole formed
by anastomosis of R3 and R4; M, arising from upper
angle of cell; veins M2, M3 and Cu, from close to
lower angle of cell. Hindwing with vein Sc + R,
originating from before middle of cell; M, from
upper angle of cell; M2, M3 and Cu, from or near
the lower angle of cell; in male, hindwing with a
fold on inner margin containing a glandular patch
near base with a tuft of long hair beyond it, tomus
produced. Hind tibia with a pair of terminal spurs.
Male genitalia with uncus moderately long, tip with
an acute spine; fenestrula prominent; tegumen with
both its arms wide; almost of same length as
vinculum; saccus more or less developed; valva
long; sacculus well marked; costa slightly defined;
valvula curved, extending well above cucullus;
cucullus flap-like, with longitudinal rows of
sclerotized lines and large number of denticles;
juxta with two parallel sclerotized flaps, joined
together at tip, aedeagus with its anterior end
balloon-shaped; vesica with 3-4 patches of
denticles and spines representing comuti. Female
genitalia with corpus bursae large, membranous;
three rounded signa present; ductus bursae short
and broad, heavily sclerotized: papilla analis
triangular, setose with short and long setae.
250
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Argina astrea (Drury)
(Figs 1-5)
Phalaena astrea Drury, 1773, III. Exot.
Ins. 2: 11; Hmpsn., 1894, Moths Ind. 2: 51;
Phalaena cribraria Clerck, 1764, Icon. Inst,
rariorum, 2: 54; Argina guttata Rambur, 1859,
Lep. And. 2: 229; Argina notata Butler, 1877,
Trans. Ent. Soc. 1877 : 365.
Material examined: Himachal Pradesh:
Solan, 2.vi.l994, Id, 1?; Punjab: 7.ix.l991,
1 d, 2 9 9; 1.x. 1991, 3 dd. Uttar Pradesh:
Dehra Dun, 13.x. 1991, 1 d, 1 9; Kempty Falls,
20. ix. 1995, 1 d; West Bengal: Kurseong,
28. iv. 1995, Id, 19; 29. iv. 1995, 6 dd.
Coll. Amritpal Singh.
Distribution: Recorded throughout India,
Sri Lanka, Myanmar, China, Mauritius, New
Guinea.
Remarks: Holloway (1988) described and
illustrated Argina astrea (Drury) in detail,
including its genital structures and synonymized
cribraria Clerck under it. Thus, the description
of the species is omitted. However, the male and
female genitalia have been illustrated here for
comparison with the type species argus (Kollar)
of the new genus M angina.
M angina gen. nov.
Type Species: Argina argus Kollar.
Distribution: Throughout India, Sri Lanka
and Myanmar.
Diagnosis: Labial palpus upturned,
suipassing lower level of frons. Antenna simple,
ciliated in both sexes. Forewing rather short and
broad; veins R2 from short areole formed by
anastomosis of R3 and R4; R5 from common stalk
of R3+4; M arising from upper angle; M2 from
above lower angle; Cu, before lower angle of cell;
Cu2 beyond middle of cell. Hindwing with vein
Sc + R( originating before middle of cell; Rs and
M, from upper angle of cell; M2 and M3 from
lower angle of cell; Cu, well before lower angle
of cell; in male, tornus produced and glandular
patch near base, with a tuft of long hair beyond
it. Hind tibia with a terminal pair of minute spurs.
Male genitalia with uncus long and curved,
gradually narrowing towards tip, sickle-shaped;
fenestrula rounded; tegumen well developed,
inverted V-shaped, almost double length of
vinculum; vinculum small and narrow, well
sclerotized; saccus narrow, knob-like; valva long
and narrow; sacculus broad and distinct; costa
narrow; cucullus and valvula not marked, distal
end bifurcated with paired spines on each tip:
ampulla well sclerotized, broad at base, tip
sharply pointed, setose, inner arm extends into
fused cucullus and valvula. Aedeagus long and
narrow, anterior end broad, both of its walls
equally sclerotized, distal end with a sclerotized
patch; vesica armed with a large number of fine
denticles. Female genitalia with corpus bursae
large, oval and membranous, a pair of
semicircular signa present; ductus bursae broad,
highly sclerotized; accessory sac present; anterior
apophyses shorter than posterior apophyses,
apices rounded and narrow; papilla analis broad
and rounded, setose with micro and macro setae.
Mangina argus (Kollar) comb. nov.
(Figs 6-11 )
Kollar, 1844, Hiige’s Kaschmir, 4: 467;
Moore, 1882, Lep. Ceyl. 2:105, Hmpsn. 1894,
Moths Ind. 2: 51
Genitalia: As described for genus
diagnosis.
Material Examined: Himachal Pradesh:
Nauni, l.viii.1994, 1 d; Sikkim: Namchi,
2. v. 1995, 1 d; Manipur: Ukhrul, 20. ix. 1994,
1 d; Meghalaya: Jowaii, 30. ix. 1994, 1 $;
Cheerapunjee, 2.x. 1994, 1 ?; Uttar Pradesh:
Dehra Dun, 18.x. 1991, 2 9 $; Kempty Falls,
4.vi.l993, 2 dd, 19; West Bengal: Kurseong,
28.iv.1995, Id, 3 9 9; Coll. Amritpal Singh.
Remarks: As mentioned earlier, argus
Kollar fails to conform to the description of
genus Argina Hiibner and is also non-congeneric
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
251
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs 1-5: Argina aslrea (Drury): 1-4. Male genitalia; 5. Female genitalia
Abbreviations: AED: Aedeagus, ANT.APO: Anterior apophyses, CO: Costa, CRN: Cornuti,
CRP.BU: Corpus Bursae, CU: Cucullus, DU.BU: Ductus Bursae, DU.EJ: Ductus ejaculatorius, JX: Juxta
PAP. A: Papilla Analis, PO.APO: Posterior apophyses, SA: Saccus, SIG: Signum, SL: Sacculus,
TG: Tegumen, TRA: Transtilla, UN: Uncus, VES: Vesica, VIN: Vinculum, VLA: Valvula
with an allied genus Utetheisa Hiibner, and other
genera of Subfamily Arctiinae. Thus, a new
genus Mangina is suggested for this species and
the diagnosis of the new genus and its type
species Argina argus Kollar is given. The present
and correct status of the species becomes
Mangina argus (Kollar) comb. nov. The new
genus Mangina is closely allied to Argina
Hiibner with respect to wing maculation, wing
venation, presence of glandular patch and tomus
of hindwing, and a pair of tibial spurs. The
unique morphological features particularly the
genital structures, namely uncus, valva and
aedeagus of male genitalia and corpus bursae,
ductus bursae and signa of female genitalia of
the type species argus make it totally different
from the type species astrea Drury of genus
Argina Hiibner.
252
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs 6-11: Mangina argus (Kollar) comb, nov.: 6-10. Male genitalia; 1 1 . Female genitalia.
Abbreviations: ACC. SC: Accessory sac, AED: Aedeagus, AM: Ampulla, ANT.APO: Anterior apophyses,
CO: Costa, CRN: Cornuti, CRP.BU: Corpus Bursae, DU.BU: Ductus Bursae, DU.EJ: Ductus ejaculatorius,
JX: Juxta, PAP.A: Papilla Analis, PO.APO: Posterior apophyses, SIG: Signum, SL: Sacculus,
TG: Tegumen, TRA: Transtilla, UN: Uncus, VES: Vesica, VIN: Vinculum, VLV: Valva
Acknowledgements Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata and the
Natural History Museum, London. Financial
We thank the authorities of the National assistance provided by CSIR, New Delhi is also
Museum at Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun; gratefully acknowledged.
References
Hampson, G.F. (1894): Fauna of British India, Moths,
including Ceylon and Burma. Vol. 2: 1-609. Taylor and
Francis Ltd., London, 609 pp.
Holloway, J.D. (1988): Moths of Borneo-<5 C.A.B.
International Institute of Entomology, London,
101 pp.
Watson, Allan, D.S. Fletcher & I.W.D. Nye (1980):
The generic names of the World-2 Noctuoidea, 228 pp.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 200 1
253
A NEW FRESHWATER CYPRINID FISH ASPIDOPAR1A FROM
THE CHATRICKONG RIVER, MANIPUR, INDIA1
Keishing Selim and Waikhom Vishwanath2
( With two text-figures)
Key words: Aspidoparia, new species, Manipur
The freshwater cyprinid genus Aspidoparia Heckel distributed in India and west Asia, is
represented by two species in India, namely /f morar (Hamilton-Buchanan) and A.jaya (Hamilton-
Buchanan). This paper describes A. ukhrulensis from the Chatrickong river draining the
southeastern part of Ukhrul district, Manipur. The species is characterised by 14 rows of scales
in front of the dorsal fin; lateral line scales 35-37; pectoral fin I, 12-13; pharyngeal teeth 2 rows,
lateral scale count from lateral line to ventral fin 2; absence of barbels; deciduous moderate
scales. It has smaller head width, and less height at occiput. This species differs from A. morar
and A.jaya in having fewer lateral line scales. A key to identification of the genus is provided.
Introduction
The genus Aspidoparia was erected by
Heckel ( 1 843) to accomodate A.jaya and A. morar ,
both described by Hamilton-Buchanan (1822)
from India. Two species of the genus have been
recognised so far: A. morar (Hamilton) and
A. jaya (Hamilton), both from India. The
relationships of Aspidoparia have been discussed
by Howes (1979) based on osteological
characters. This genus is Oriental, but is also
represented in west Asia (Kottelat 1984). A new
species of Aspidoparia is described from the
Chat ickong river, flowing through Chatric
village in Ukhrul district, Manipur, India. The
Chatrickong is formed by two important rivers
Khunukong and Sanalok, which meet at Dha-
ado and flow as Chatrickong for about 5 km in
the Indian region, then on to Myanmar, finally
joining the Chindwin drainage.
During a survey on June 6, 1996, we
collected 4 specimens from the lower course of
Chatrickong in Ukhrul district, which is the
waterhead of the Chindwin drainage in eastern
'Accepted April, 1999
department of Life Sciences, Manipur University,
Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India.
Manipur. This report describes a new species of
Aspidoparia. Notes on A. morar and A. jaya, and
a key to the genus Aspidoparia are also provided.
Material and Methods
The specimens were collected by side
tracking, locally known as Kongkakhai, on the
side of the lower course of the river. The fishes
were fixed and preserved in 10% formalin. The
type specimens are deposited in the Manipur
University Museum of Fishes (MUMF);
measurement and counts follow Jayaram (1981).
The body proportions are expressed as percentage
of Standard Length (SL) and Head Length (HL).
Lateral transverse scales were counted as scales
between lateral line and dorsal fin origin, and
also from lateral line to the base of the ventral
fin origin.
Aspidoparia ukhrulensis sp. nov.
(Figs 1-2)
Local name: Boikisi.
Holotype: MUMF 1025, 75.1 mm SL,
Chatrickong river, Ukhrul district, Manipur, 150
km from Imphal, India. 6.vi. 1996, coll. Keishing
Selim
254
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(2). AUG. 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 1 : Aspidoparia ukhrulensis sp. nov.
Paratype: MUMF 1026, 1027, 1028 (3
specimens), 69.5-76.7 mm SL. Data same as
holotype.
Key to the species
a. Lateral line scales 52-60; anal fin with
7 branched rays, pharyngeal teeth in two
rows A. jay a
b. Lateral line scales 38-42; anal fin with
9 branched rays, pharyngeal teeth in three
rows A. morar
c. Lateral line scales 35-37; anal fin with
9 branched rays, pharyngeal teeth in two rows
A. ukhrulensis
Description
D ii, 7; P i, 12-13; V i, 7; A iii, 9; PDS 14;
LI. 35-37; Ltr 5/1/3; C 19 (10+9). Body elongate
and subcylindrical; abdomen rounded. Head
length short compared to depth of body, mouth
small and inferior, jaws short, no barbels. Lower
jaw curved without any lip, pharyngeal teeth in
two rows. Dorsal fin inserted opposite to the
origin of pelvic fin and nearer the base of the
caudal fin. The first simple dorsal ray is strong,
osseous and not serrated posteriorly. Pectoral fms
long and pointed posteriorly, their length longer
than the dorsal height, not reaching the pelvic
fin base. Pelvic fins do not reach anal fin base.
Vent opens at the base of anal fin. Scales
moderate and deciduous. There are 5 rows of
scales between the dorsal fin origin and the lateral
line and 2 rows from the lateral line to the base
of ventral fin. Lateral line is complete with 35-
37 scales and is slightly curved. Caudal fin forked
with lower lobe longer than the upper.
Proportional Measurements: Body depth
26.85-28.48, Head length 21.15-23.30, Caudal
length 24.36-27.10, Predorsal length 54.82-
56.32, Dorsal fin height 20.00-20.90, Pectoral
fin length 23.70-24.74, Pelvic fin length 15.53-
16.29, Anal fin height 13.66-14.73, Caudal
peduncle length 13.42-14.11, Caudal peduncle
depth 10.90-11.21 in SL. Head width 49.69-
50.00, Head height at occiput 75.46-80.00, Eye
diameter 30.86-32.51, Interorbital space 33.33-
36.80, Pectoral length 96.36-100.09, Snout
length 24.53-27.87 in HL.
Colour: Back silvery-white and belly pale
white.
Habitat: Found only at the lower course
of the river where the current was slow. It does
not come upstream where the current is strong,
preferring pools with sandy bottom.
Etymology: The species is named after the
type locality, Ukhrul district, Manipur.
Distribution: Chatrickong river, Ukhrul
district, Manipur, India.
Remarks: Aspidoparia ukhrulensis differs
from A. morar (Ham.-Buch.) in having fewer
lateral line scales (35-37 vs. 38-42); fewer
predorsal scales (14 vs. 17-18); pharyngeal teeth
2 rows vs. 3 rows; lateral transverse scale count
from lateral line to the base of ventral fin 2 vs. 3.
It also differs from A. jay a in lateral line scale
count, 35-37 vs. 52-60. We feel that A.jaya and
A. ukhrulensis are different species as the lateral
line scale variation range differs vastly. Hence,
physical examination was not done in A. jay a.
Only that of A. morar was done for comparison.
Aspidoparia jay a (Ham.-Buch.)
Cyprinus jaya Ham.-Buch., 1822, Fish of
Ganges: 333, 392 (type locality: northern Bihar)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
255
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 2: Drainage map of Manipur showing
the collection site
Material examined: None. (Description
after Talwar & Jhingran, 1991)
Diagnosis: A species of Aspidoparia with
anal fin having 7 branch rays; pharyngeal teeth
in two rows; lateral line scales 52-60.
Distribution: india: Gangetic provinces
and Assam; Nepal and Bangladesh.
Remarks: The species differs from
A. morar in branched anal rays 7 vs. 9; lateral
line 52-60 vs. 38-42; pharyngeal teeth 2 rows vs
3 rows.
Aspidoparia morar (Ham.-Buch.)
Cyprinus morar Ham.-Buch., 1822, Fish
of Ganges: 264, 384, pi. 31, fig. 75 (type locality:
Yamuna river and Tista river).
Material examined: MUMF/888-90,
88.5-138.4 mm in SL, 26.ii.1997, Leimatak river.
(
Table 1
COMPARISON OF MORPHOMETRIC DATA
AND COUNTS OF A. UKHR ULENSIS SP. NOV.
WITH THOSE OF A. MORAR FROM MANIPUR
Diagnosis: The species is characterized by
nine branched anal rays; pharyngeal teeth in
three rows. Lateral line complete with 38-42
scales.
Distribution: india: North India. Iran,
Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar and
Thailand.
Remarks: It differs from A. ukhrulensis
in the number of predorsal scales 17-18 vs. 14;
lateral line scales 38-42 vs. 35-37; lateral
transverse scales 5/1/2 vs. 5/1/3; pharyngeal teeth
3 rows vs. 2 rows.
256
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 200 J
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
References
Hecicel, J.J. (1843): Ichthyologie. In: J. von russegger,
reisen in Europa, Asien and Africa mit bosonderer
rucksicht auf naturwissen chaftliche, verhanaltnisse
der betrefjfenden lander, untemommen in den jahren
1 935 bis 1 84 1 part 2 stugart, E schweizerbart.
Hamilton-Buchanan, F. (1822): An account of fishes
found in the river Ganges and its branches.
Archibad Constable and Company, Edinburgh,
London, VIII+405, 39 pis.
Howes, G.J. ( 1 979): Notes on the anatomy of the cyprinid
fish Macrochirichthys mcicrochinAS (Valenciennes)
1844 with comments on Cultrinae (Pisces,
Cyprinidae) Bull. Br. Mus Nat. Hist. (Zool.). 36(3):
147-200.
Kotellat, M. ( 1 984): Review of the species of Indochinese
freshwater fishes described by H.R. Sauvage. Bull.
Mus. natn. Hist. nat. Paris. (4) 6(A3): 791-822.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma & Sri Lanka, a
handbook. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, pp.
437-444.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 1 1 58.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(2), AUG. 2001
257
A NEW SPECIES OF RHODODENDRON LINN.
FROM ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA1
G.D. Pal2
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Rhododendron, new species, Arunachal Pradesh
A new species of Rhododendron is described with illustrations. A comparative table of
taxonomic characters is also appended here to distinguish the new taxon from the closely
related species.
During plant explorations in the Lower
Subansiri district, Arunachal Pradesh, an
interesting species of rhododendron was collected
in Tale Valley at 3,200 m altitude. It is an
extremely elegant epiphytic shrubby species that
grows among moss, lycopods and various lichens
on fallen tree trunks. Its yellow funnel-
campanulate flowers remain above the
surrounding mossy carpet and its charming
beauty at once catches the botanist’s eye. The
plant as a whole attains only half a metre in
length, of which the lower creeping parts remain
covered with moss and only the upper
dichotomies with leaves are erect. A critical study
of the specimens and scrutiny of the literature
revealed it to be a new species, which was
confirmed by Dr. H.H. Davidian of Royal
Botanical Garden, Edinburgh, U.K.
The new species is placed under the
subsection: Lepidota, section: Rhododendron of
the subgenus: Rhododendron. Cullen (1983)
recognized the subsection: Lepidota
(Hutchinson) Sleumer [Bot. Jahrb. 74:53 1 . 1949]
as a small group of three species namely
R. lepidotum Wall. ex. G. Don, R. lowndesii
Davidian and R. cowanianum Davidian
distributed mainly in the Himalayas. The
subsection is characterized by: small shrubs or
1 Accepted October, 1 999
:Botanical Survey of India
Arunachal Field Station
Itanagar 791 111, Arunachal Pradesh, India
shrublets up to 2 m; lower surface of leaves with
broad translucent scales; inflorescence terminal,
1-5 flowered; calyx deeply 5-lobed; corolla
usually lepidote outside; stamens 10 and
actinomorphically arranged; ovary lepidote; style
impressed, short and sharply deflexed.
Rhododendron nayari sp. nov.
(Fig. 1)
R. lowndesii Davidian affine, sed fmticosis
epiphyticis; foliis coriaceis, glabris, marginibus
integribus, valde recurvatis; floribus solitariis,
pedicellis 6-8 mm longis; calyces lobis oblongo-
spathulatibus, 6-10 mm longis; corollis
campanulatis, apicibus loborum manifeste
incisuratis; capsulisque oblongo-ellipsoides
differt.
Holotypus: Arunachal Pradesh, Lower
Subansiri district, Tale Valley, 3,200 m,
17. iv. 1980, G.D. Pal 77690 A (CAL). Isotypi
/ hid., G.D. Pal 77690 B; Ibid ., G.D. Pal 77690
C & D (ARUN).
Small decumbent, epiphytic shrublets up
to 50 cm tall, profusely branched; branches
mostly dichotomous, woody, terete, 2-4 mm
across; younger parts densely brownish or
ferrugineo-brownish pilose, older parts become
glabrate, rough; bark thin, grey or ashy-grey;
leaf-scars prominent. Leaves whorled, 4-8
together, rarely ternate, crowded at the apices of
branches, lower leaves deciduous; elliptic to
258
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(2), AUG. 2001
cm
Fig. 1 : Rhododendron nayari sp. nov.
A. Habit; B. Leaf (lower surface); C. Calyx; D. Corolla; E & F. Bracts; G-I. Stamens; J. Gynoecium;
K. Capsule; L. Flower; M. Flower split open; N. Bud (enlarged, lower view).
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
259
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
elliptic-oblong, rarely obovate, (10 to) 16-20 (to
25) x (4 to) 8-1 1 (to 13) mm; acute to subrounded
at base; obtuse or subrounded at the club-shaped
mucronate apex; margins entire, strongly
recurved, loriform setose; lateral nerves 6-8 on
either side of midrib, hardly conspicuous;
coriaceous, glabrous; upper surfaces dark green,
sparsely lepidote or not, turn dark brown; lower
surfaces dull green, profusely lepidote with
scales, become light brown or grayish-brown on
drying; scales golden-brown, nearly uniform,
circular in outline, sunken in pit, shortly stalked,
central part flattened, rim broad, translucent;
petioles (1.5 to) 2.5-5 (to 6.5) mm long,
ferrugineo-brownish pilose, often intermixed
with a few scales; sometimes sessile scaly leaves
appear in between whorl of leaves; scaly leaves
lanceolate or narrowly oblong, 6-15 mm long,
ciliate. Winter buds ovate; bud-scales imbricate.
Flower solitary, terminal; pedicels 6-8 mm long,
densely ferrugineo-brownish pilose and lepidote;
bracts in series, imbricate, often cover the lower
half of pedicels, reddish, coriaceous, broadly
oblong to suborbicular, (2 to) 4-5 (to 7) x (2 to)
4- 4.5 (to 6) mm, rounded at mucronate apex,
dorsally glabrous, ventrally glabrous or finely
whitish tomentose at apices, ciliate. Calyx deeply
5- lobed. yellowish; tube about 2 mm long,
ferrugineo-brownish pilose and lepidote at very
base; lobes unequal, oblong-spathulate, 6-10 x
4.5-6 mm, membranous, glabrous, rarely with a
few scales on dorsal surface, filiform-acicular
ciliate at apical margin. Corolla yellow,
campanulate or funnel-campanulate; tube 7-9
mm long; lobes broadly obovate-oblong to
suborbicular, 6-9 x 8-12 mm, distinctly notched
at apex; corolla-tube and crest of lobes dorsally
covered with golden-brown, translucent, domed
scales; scales sparse or even absent towards
margin; pits shallow. Stamens 10; filaments
unequal, 5-8 mm long, Actinomorphically
arranged, brownish pilose at or near the middle;
anthers black, oblong, 2.5-3 x 1.5 mm,
emarginated at apex, bilobed, each lobe opens
by a large, terminal, oblique pore. Ovary
ellipsoid, 5-locular, about 3 x 2.5 mm, densely
lepidote with scales; scales absent at base; style
impressed into the top of ovary; de flexed at or
above the middle, glabrous; stigma swollen,
consisting of five fleshy lobes. Capsules oblong-
ellipsoid, 6.5-7 x 3.5-4 mm, lepidote with scales
when young; older capsules glabrate, rugose,
breaking into five strong, woody, straight valves,
placenta not separating from central axis; seeds
fusiform, about 4 mm long, unwinged and
without a distinct tail.
Type: Arunachal Pradesh, Lower
Subansiri district, Tale Valley, 3,200 m,
Table 1
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF RHODODENDRON LOWNDESI I AND R. NA YARI
Rhododendron lowndesii Davidian R. nayari sp. nov.
1 . Small lithophytic, creeping, pubescent shrublets, 1 .
about 10 cm high.
2. Leaves thin, pubescent; margins 2.
slightly crenate, hairy.
3. Inflorescence 1 -2 flowered; pedicels 2. 5-4.3 cm long. 3.
4. Calyx-lobes ovate or ovate-oblong, 2. 5-3. 5 mm long 4.
5. Corolla rounded or bell-shaped, red-spotted or 5.
streaked; lobes rounded without notch.
6. Ovary cone shaped; style short, much curved. 6.
7. Capsules cylindric, c. 5 mm 7.
Small epiphytic, decumbent, glabrous shrubs,
about 50 cm high.
Leaves coriaceous, glabrous; margins
entire, strongly recurved, lori form-setose.
Flower solitary, terminal ; pedicels 6-8 mm long.
Calyx-lobes oblong-spathulate, 6- 1 0 mm long.
Corolla campanulate or funnel-campanulate, yellow;
lobes prominently notched at apex.
Ovary ellipsoid; style about 5 mm long, slightly
deflexed after anthesis at or above the middle.
Capsules oblong-ellipsoid, 6.5-7 mm.
260
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
NE W DESCRIPTIONS
17. iv. 1980, G.D. Pal 77690 A (Holotype CAL).
Isotypes: Ibid., G.D. Pal 77690 B; Ibid., G.D.
Pal 77690 C & 77690 D (ARUN).
FI. & Fr.: March-May.
Ecology: Grows on tree trunks in moist,
shady places at higher elevations and is
associated with various species of mosses,
lycopods, lichens and bamboos.
Rhododendron nayari sp. nov. is closely
allied to R. lowndesii Davidian, but the former
can be easily distinguished by glabrous,
coriaceous leaves with loriform-setose margin;
solitary, terminal flower with smaller pedicel;
large, oblong-spathulate calyx-lobes; corolla-
lobes distinctly notched at apex and oblong-
ellipsoid capsules (Table 1).
The specific epithet of this beautiful
rhododendron is given in honour of Dr. M.P.
Nayar, Ex-Director, Botanical Survey of India
for his valuable contribution to the
understanding of the taxonomy of Indian
plants.
ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
I thank the Director, Botanical Survey of
India, Calcutta, for all facilities and
encouragement. Sincere thanks to Dr. H.H.
Davidian, ‘Specialist in Rhododendron’, Royal
Botanic Garden, Edinburgh for confirmation of
the new taxon. I also thank Dr. G.S. Giri,
Scientist-SE, Central National Herbarium,
Howrah, for kindly going through the manuscript
and providing line drawings, and Dr. V.J. Nair
for providing the Latin diagnosis of the new
species.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
261
REVIEWS
1. EVALUATING EDEN SERIES NO. 3. WHERE COMMUNITIES CARE:
COMMUNITY-BASED WILDLIFE AND ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT IN
SOUTH ASIA by Ashish Kothari, Neema Pathak and Farhad Vania. Published
by Russel Press, Nottingham, UK. Published in 2000. Pp. xv+222. Price not
mentioned.
The conservation of biodiversity and its
judicious use is especially important in
sustaining the livelihood of poor households
across the world. Despite its critical importance,
we continue to lose biodiversity at an alarming
rate. For example, forests are being destroyed at
the rate of an acre a second (World Bank), with
unimaginable loss of biodiversity and serious
erosion of income of the rural poor. Several
factors contribute to the destruction of
biodiversity — lack of clear property rights,
distorted markets and prices, lack of appreciation
of the value of biodiversity, poor management,
paucity of financial resources, and general
development pressures. The need to address
these factors to conserve our biodiversity
resources is great. Several successful examples
at balancing biodiversity conservation with
economic modernization exist at the national
level. Conventions on Biological Diversity and
the Global Environment Facility provides
important means by which to share such
examples across countries and scale them up
rapidly. By bringing together a large body of
policy makers, academics and representatives
from the private sector and society, I hope that
this book will provide the opportunity to
exchange innovative solutions among
development practitioners across the
Subcontinent. Furthermore, to identify practical
and workable solutions to sustainably manage
this critical resource.
Kothari et al. deal with the above points
in different case studies. In this book, there are
eight case studies from India, three from Nepal,
two from Pakistan and five from Sri Lanka.
Seven case studies were carried out as part of
the Review, on the basis of the following criteria:
coverage of a range of (a) countries in the region;
(b) ecosystem types; (c) ethnic communities; (d)
initiatives, including government, NGO and
community-led; and (e) availability of an active
partner at the site or nearby.
The book is structured as follows:
introductory chapter explains the background
and objectives of the Review, and the
methodology and definitions used; Chapter 2
provides an ecological and socioeconomic
profile of South Asia; Chapters 3 to 8 provide
descriptions of the history and current status of
wildlife/biodiversity conservation in general, and
Community-based Wildlife Management
(CWM) in particular, in the six countries;
Chapter 9 draws out the major ecological,
economic, social, and policy-level impact of
CWM in the region; Chapter 10 is a detailed
regional analysis of the issues arising out of
CWM, experiences in these countries, and
challenges facing the future of CWM; Chapter
1 1 highlights next steps at local, national, and
regional levels.
The book also gives an overview of the
studies on community-based wildlife
management, or rather, community-based
conservation. Out of the 25 biodiversity hot spots
in the world, India is one of the megadiversity
countries and has the second largest human
population. The case studies show how
community-led conservation is important to
biodiversity for long term conservation. For
instaj e, in Keoladeo National Park (India), the
management plan was prepared after discussion
with the concerned communities living on the
fringes of the Park. In Jigme Dorji National Park
262
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
REVIEWS
and Royal Manas National Park (Bhutan), the
WWF had undertaken socioeconomic surveys
and made management plans, with the help of
the local communities. Forest Conservation and
agro-biodiversity revival at Jardharaon. Uttar
Pradesh (India), through the Chipko movement,
the famous Himalayan struggle to protect natural
forests against timber contractors and other
forces of destruction.
The authors are of the opinion that, even
today, the Governments and even some
development organizations dictate most of the
terms of biodiversity conservation with or
without the consent of concerned communities.
Conservationists have realized that without the
full participation of local communities,
biodiversity conservation will get nowhere.
Despite this realization, even today, the amount
of resources spent by many development
organizations on community consultations and
community involvement in most projects
remains inadequate. Do we have adequate
community involvement in biodiversity
conservation? This book is worth reading, to
realise the importance of community
participation in biodiversity conservation and
wildlife management. The book is produced by
Kalpavriksh (India) in collaboration with the
International Institute of Environment and
Development (UK).
■ M. ZAFAR-UL ISLAM
2. NATURE’S SPOKESMAN: M. KRISHNAN AND INDIA’S WILDLIFE:
Edited by Ramachandra Guha. Published in 2000. Oxford University Press.
(22.5 x 14.5 cm), pp. 291. Price Rs. 595/-.
Some people say that it is not proper to
review a book about your life-long hero, as
objectivity is lost, but I will review this book,
no matter what people say. I am proud to say
that I am one of the many Indian naturalists who
grew up cherishing M. Krishnan’s highly
readable newspaper column ‘Country
Notebook’. I do not remember when I first read
his column in ‘The Statesman’, perhaps it was
in 1964, when I was 14 years old, but what I do
remember clearly is that I used to look forward
to the otherwise rather sedate and boring The
Statesman which carried Krishnan’s fortnightly
column. I still have old clippings from the late
1960s and 1970s.
M. Krishnan was not only an extraordinary
naturalist and photographer, he was a
philosopher, poet, art critic, translator, literary
historian, Tamil litterateur, essayist and an artist.
He was also a cricket buff! He had written
columns on the Madras Test Match in 1952, for
The Statesman. No doubt, with such varied
talent, Krishnan was abrasive and opinionated,
though not arrogant, according to people who
knew him personally.
Nature’s spokesman is edited by another
fan of Krishnan, well-known environmental
historian Ramachandra Guha. After a brief
introduction, which Guha calls ‘The Worlds of
M. Krishnan’, he presents a selection of 68
essays. It must have been extremely difficult for
Guha to select these essays from the hundreds
scattered in Madras Mail , The Statesman , The
Hindu , The Indian Express , The Illustrated
Weekly of India , Shankar 's Weekly and others,
since each piece needs to be leisurely savoured.
I recommend this book for the field, where it
should be read unhurriedly, beside a fireplace,
in some remote, forest guesthouse, perhaps
under a lantern! Only then may the reader
appreciate the beauty of sentences like:
‘unpredictable exuberance of the mighty
Brahmaputra’ (p. 153), ‘it is easy to be solemnly
pompous over a pledge of commitments’
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
263
REVIEWS
(p. 193), ‘charming confidence that animals in a
sanctuary often develop towards humanity’ (p.
212), the list is endless as the book is full of
such unforgettable sentences. Writing about the
antics of the members of the Indian Board for
Wildlife during the discussion on commercial
exploitation of captive crocodiles in his article
‘Captive-bred mugger (p. 193-195), he writes “I
could not argue the point... as by that time
people were getting visibly restive. The aroma
of lunch, being laid out in the next room
pervaded the air, and as an experienced ethologist
I knew how futile, even dangerous at times,
gustatory arousal and its consummation.”
To modify Orwell, all articles are good,
but some are better than others. My favourites
are: ‘The Shawk’ (pp 35-36) about the two
Egyptian vultures which come daily to
Tirukkalukunram, near Mahabalipuram, which
shows Krishnan’s sense of humour, and
‘Ecological patriotism’ (pp 250-255). The latter,
I think, should be compulsory reading for all
conservationists and forest officers. Reading this
article I found that, like 35 years ago, when I
used to sit with a dictionary to comprehend
M. Krishnan’s writing, I still had to use a
dictionary to understand words such as
‘desideratum’ (p. 251) which means something
wanted or needed. Do I need to write more about
the value of this book?
■ ASAD R. RAHMANI
3. FISH FAUNA OF MANIPUR, by W. Vishwanath. Manipur Association for
Science & Society (MASS), Imphal. Published in 2000. Pp. viii + 143, 6 plates.
(21 x 13.5 cm), price Rs. 100/- or $ 6; library edition price Rs. 350/- or $ 10.
In the last two decades, there has been a
spate of books on Indian fish taxonomy. While
these dealt with fishes from all over India —
and even neighbouring countries — there is a
new star on the horizon. The ‘Seven Sisters’, as
our northeastern states are known, are a far cry
from the national mainstream, what with vast
distances, logistic constraints and a beautifully
quaint culture. It was, therefore, a surprise to
me to come across one of the best written
treatises on fish taxonomy from one of these
distant states, namely Manipur. The excellent
work is by Dr. W. Vishwanath, a protege of
Dr. K.C. Jayaram, who is himself the author of
two outstanding fish books. May their tribe
increase and flourish!
This compact booklet — it has 143 pages
— covers 167 species. Manipur, though
politically a part of India, borders on Myanmar
(Burma) and has the advantage of having an
admixture of typically Indian fish fauna in its
Barak-Brahmaputra drainage in its western half
and the Imphal-Chindwin drainage in its eastern
half. Thus, many of its fishes, though known in
Myanmar, are the basis of new geographic
records from India.
The book starts with brief but necessary
notes on Manipur’s geomorphology, water
resources, biogeography and history of fish
taxonomy in the region. Although Manipur is
considered a ‘developing’ state, the author has
consulted the latest taxonomic classifications of
Eschmeyer (1990), Kottelat (1990), Rainboth
(1991), Nelson (1994), Banarescu & Nalbant
( 1 995) and Banarescu & Herzig-Straschil ( 1 995),
so that the classification in the book is up to date.
Vishwanath has taken great care to go
through the proofs for the main section (page 26
onwards); I could locate only one mistake on page
47 where “paired fish lateral” is given (It should
be “paired fins lateral”). However, it is in the
general coverage, and more so the Systematic
Index (S.I.) where he has slipped up badly. Thus,
page 10 has as many as five spelling errors in the
264
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
REVIEWS
technical names, namely Coelecathimorpha
instead of Coelacanthimorpha, Tetrapods (should
be Tetrapoda), Chimaeriform(e)s (e missing),
Rajiform(e)s (e missing), Coelac(a)nthiformes (a
missing); on page 1 1 Sc(h)ilbeinae (h missing).
On page 12, the Family Nandidae is wrongly
shown as an Order, Cic(h)lidae (h missing) and
Anbantidae (should be Anabantidae); on page 13
standard lenght, dorsal fin lenght (instead of
length); on page 21 berdmorrei (only one ‘r’); on
page 22 Tros(c)hel (c missing); on page 23
N. viridescens (should be viridiscens ), H. fossilis
bloch (instead of Bloch), Exoceotoidei (should be
Exocoetoidei). On page 23, the Suborder Belonidei
is wrongly given as Belonidae. On page 24,
Johnius Blochl (‘1’ is superfluous, also the
subfamilies Badinae and Nandinae are wrongly
given as Badidae and Nandidae, Family Cichlidae
is wrongly spelt as Chiclidae, while on page 125
it is spelt Ciclidae.
The top lines on many pages in the
Systematic Index are missing, e.g., Subfamily
Cobitinae (p. 85), Lepidocephalus guntea (Ham.-
Buch.) (p. 88), Subfamily Bagrinae (p. 90),
Mystus bleekeri (Day) (p. 93), Suborder Beloidei
(p. 113), Subfamily Apocheilinae (p.114),
Subfamily Mastacembelinae (p. 117), Suborder
Tetraodontoidei (p. 133) and Subfamily
Tetraodontinae (p. 133).
There are many slips in the pagination too.
Thus, C. chitala is shown in the Systematic Index
(S.I.) as on page 28, whereas it is actually on
page 29. Similar errors are: genus Aorichthys
Wu (S.I. page 91, actually 90); A. aor (Ham.-
Buch.), genus Batasio Blyth and B. tengara
(Ham.-Buch.) (S.I. 92, actually 91), Family
Siluridae (S.I. 94, actually 93), genus Wallagoi
Bleeker (S.I. 96, actually 95).
But these errors and aberrations are only
minor irritants and do not detract from the
otherwise excellent publication. Accurate line
drawings are given for each genus so as to
acquaint the novice of the shape of the fish.
Photographs are also given of 66 representative
fishes. The price for the library edition is rather
stiff, at Rs. 350/-.
■ B.F. CHHAPGAR
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
265
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1 . HOMOSEXUALITY IN ASIATIC LION: A CASE STUDY FROM
GIR NATIONAL PARK AND SANCTUARY
The Asiatic lion {Panther a leo persica ) is
a social animal and its natural sexual behaviour
is in general restricted to heterosexualism, but
there are a few exceptions. The heterosexual
behaviour of Asiatic lions of the Gir Protected
Areas (PA) is recorded and described in detail
by Joslin (1973) and Sinha (1987). In 1982,
Chauhan reported homosexuality (lesbianism) in
the Asiatic lioness of Gir. But homosexuality in
male Asiatic lions, which are prime territorial
males, has never been recorded before in detail
with photographic evidence.
A pair of prime territorial males about 6
to 7 years, from Khokhra, showed this unusual
behaviour when they were not with females. This
dominant pair hold a territory of about 70 sq. km,
which falls in Sasan (Amritvel, Gebi-amba,
Bavalbalachowk, Kankai naka area) and Dedakadi
range (Pilipat, Kadeli, Ratanguna area) of the
western part of Gir PA, for the last one and a
half years. This area has four prime females with
cubs. The Khokhra males have an established
record of mating with three females of the
Khokhra territory, of which two females now
have four cubs.
Homosexual activity among these two
males was first observed by a group of trackers
in November 1999, for five days continuously,
and later in December 1999, for three days. The
method of mounting, time taken during
mounting, repulsive action after mounting seen
in the Khokhra males is similar to heterosexual
mating.
Only the larger male would mount the
smaller one, which showed a subserviant attitude
Refer
Joslin, Paul ( 1 973): The Asiatic lion: a study of ecology
and behaviour. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Edinburgh.
Sinha, S.P. (1987): Ecology of wildlife with special
and played the role of the receptive partner. The
smaller male rarely growled, unlike the larger
during mating. Each mounting lasted for about
12 to 23 seconds and the gap between two
incidents varied from 4-12 minutes. The
frequency of mating increased during the
morning and evening hours. Of the 45 mountings
observed, the smaller male showed repulsive
action in four cases, which may be due to the
actual anal penetration during mating. During
the homosexual activity period, the animals
avoided food, but changed their area, which is
unusual during heterosexual mating.
The areas in which the Khokhra males
move have a low female population, and most of
the females are engaged in rearing cubs. Due to
overlapping of territories, there is increasing
pressure on the males to protect their territories
from other males. There is also a possibility that
the Khokra females are mating with other males.
November and December are the peak period for
mating of lions in Gir PA. All these factors may
have contributed to the unusual sexual behaviour
observed.
Acknowledgements
I thank the trackers of Gir PA and Shri
Chaitanya Joshi and Shri Kautilya P. Bhatt for
their help in field observation.
April 14, 2000 B.P.PATI
Dy. Cons elevator of Forests,
Wildlife Division ,
Sasan, Gir 362 1 35, Gujarat, India.
ENCES
reference to the lion (P anthem leo persica) in Gir
Wildlife Sanctuary. Ph.D. Thesis, Saurashtra University
Rajkot.
266
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(2), AUG. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
2. PREDATION BY LEOPARD PANTHERA PARDUS IN MAJHATAL HARS ANG
WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, WESTERN HIMALAYA
We analysed leopard {Panther a pardus)
scats to get an indication of its food habits in
Majhatal Harsang Wildlife Sanctuary (MHWS:
76° 55'-77° 5' E and 3 1° 1 5'-3 1° 1 8' N), Himachal
Pradesh. The scats were collected between
November 1992 and May 1993. MHWS is
located in the middle Himalaya, with an altitude
from 575 m to 1,985 m above msl. The area has
a subtropical monsoon climate. Himalayan chir
pine (Pinus roxburghii) and ban oak (Quercus
leucotrichophora) forests, and subtropical
Euphorbia scrub are the major vegetation types
(Champion and Seth 1968).
Besides leopard, mammalian predators in
the area are jungle cat ( Felis chaus), Himalayan
black bear ( Selenarctos thibetanus), and
Himalayan yellow-throated marten {Martes
flavigula). Lammergeier {Gypaetus barbatus ) is
a potential avian predator. The potential prey base
in MHWS includes barking deer {Muntiacus
muntjac), wild pig {Sus scrofa) and sambar
{Cemus unicolor ), besides goral Nemorhaedus
goral. Goral is the most abundant, followed by
barking deer. Wild pig and sambar are very rare.
During this 6 months study, there were more than
300 sightings of goral, about of 10 barking deer,
1 of sambar and none of wild pig (Mishra 1993,
Mishra and Johnsingh 1996). Although there are
sampling biases in this information (e.g. very
little sampling in the low-lying areas of the
Sanctuary, which are used more by sambar and
wild pig), we think that it does give a rough
indication of the relative abundance of wild
ungulates. Relatively large groups (>20) of rhesus
macaque {Macaca mulatto) and common langur
{Presbytis entellus ) were seen repeatedly in the
area, though we do not have any abundance
estimates. Though porcupine ( Hystrix indica)
was never seen, probably because of its nocturnal
habits, indirect evidence and local information
indicated that it was common. Both porcupine
and rufous-tailed hare ( Lepus nigricollis
ruficaudatus ) damage crops in the villages and are
known to be fairly common. One hundred and six
species of birds were identified during the study,
including nine species of pheasants (Mishra 1 997).
MHWS has 17 villages with a human
population of about 750. Livestock rearing is one
of the main occupations besides cultivation. The
potential prey base for leopard includes livestock
(goat, sheep, cattle, buffalo) and village dogs.
Forty-seven leopard scats were collected
from areas between 1,400-1,950 m above msl.
All scats were washed in running water, over a
sieve, and oven dried at 60 °C. Of these, 17 scats
were analysed at the field station, for which no
standardized procedures were followed. Prey
remains such as hair, claws and hooves were
examined. Hairs were viewed under a compound
microscope at lOOx magnification and were
identified by comparing them with reference
slides. The remaining 30 scats were analysed
using techniques standardised by Mukherjee et
al. (1994). Twenty hairs were picked per scat
and identified by the medullary method.
The results are summarised in Table 1.
Cattle remains were found in 33% of the scats
followed by langur (30%), goral (30% and dog
(23%). Remains of buffalo, rodents, goat and hare
occurred in less than 15% of the scats. Fifty
percent of the scats contained the remains of a
single prey species, 33% contained 2 prey species,
and 17% contained 3 prey species. The mean
number of species per scat was 1.6. We found
remains of birds in 3 of the 1 7 scats analysed at
the field station. Remains of buffalo, cow, goat,
goral and rodents were noted in one scat each.
Although the sample size is inadequate to
comment on leopard diet, some interesting trends
are indicated. Remains of domestic and wild
animals are represented in almost equal numbers
of scats (23 and 24 respectively). This indicates
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
267
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
PERCENT OCCURRENCE OF PREY REMAINS IN
LEOPARD SCATS ( 1 0, 20 AND 30; CUMULATIVE)
FROM MAJHATAL HARSANG WILDLIFE
SANCTUARY, INDIA
high predation on domestic animals, despite there
being seemingly abundant wild prey, especially
goral. Buffalo remains in the diet indicate
scavenging by the leopard — there was high
winter mortality among buffaloes during the
study period. Local information confirmed that
there is no actual predation on buffalo, though
cattle are frequently killed.
Our results indicate relatively high
predation on goral (Table 1). In another goral
area, in Rajaji National Park in the Shiwalik Hills
of northwest Himalaya, we had found a total
absence of leopard predation on this species
(Mukherjee, unpubl. data), where it was among
the less abundant species and occurred in more
difficult terrain than the other prey. The majority
of prey in Rajaji was formed by the more
abundant chital {Axis axis). In MHWS, we did
not find any remains of barking deer, wild pig,
sambar, rhesus macaque, or porcupine, in any of
the scats. Except for the last two, these species
are uncommon in the study area. It is worthwhile
to note the high levels of predation on common
langur and a complete lack of it on rhesus
macaque. The trend in Rajaji was similar, with
no predation on the rhesus macaque, further data
on which is yet to be published.
Acknowledgements
The second author thanks the Himachal
Pradesh Forest Department for cooperation and
permission to work, and Hira Singh for valuable
field assistance.
April 14, 2000 SHOMITA MUKHERJEE
Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box #18,
Dehra Dun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.
CHARUDUTT MISHRA
Centre for Ecological Research and
Conservation,
3076/5, IV Cross Gokulam Park,
Mysore 570 002, Karnataka, India.
References
Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth ( 1 968): A revised survey of
the forest types of India. Manager of Publications,
Govt of India, Delhi.
Mishra, C. (1993): Habitat use by goral {Nemorhaedus
goral bedfordi ) in Majhatal Harsang Wildlife
Sanctuary, Himachal Pradesh, India. M.Sc. Thesis
submitted to Saurashtra University, Rajkot, India.
Mishra, C. (1997): Pheasants and other birds of Majhatal
Harsang Wildlife Sanctuary, Himachal Pradesh,
India. Forktail 12: 1-6.
Mishra, C. & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1996): On habitat selection
by the goral Nemorhaedus goral bedfordi
(Bovidae, Artiodactyla). Journal of Zoology,
London, 240\ 573-580
Mukherjee, S., S.P. Goyal & R. Chellam (1994):
Standardisation of scat analysis techniques for
leopard (Panthera pardus) in Gir National Park,
Western India. Mammalia, 58:139-143.
3. A REPORT ON THE FOOD PLANTS OF SALIM ALLS FRUIT BAT LA TIDENS SALIM ALII
A team of researchers visited the only on March 23, 1999, as part of the biodiversity
known roosting cave of the highly endangered assessment programme of Meghamalai region,
and endemic bat Latidens salimalii Thonglongya, The cave is situated in a deep gorge in a valley,
268
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
near a stream inside the Kardana Coffee estate,
right down the Mettala peak (9° 42' N and IT
24' E) at 460 m above msl. Coffee and other trees
constitute the vegetation surrounding the cave,
which serves as a night roost or resting place
while feeding (Bates et al. 1994). The day roost
is not known.
In 1972, Kitty Thonglongya described a
new genuis of bat Latidens salimalii (Salim Ali’s
fruit bat) endemic to south India, based on one
specimen collected by Angus Hutton from High
Wavy mountain in 1948. Hutton erroneously
identified it as Cynopterus sphinx sphinx ( Vahl.).
Muni and Thomas rediscovered this rare bat in
April 1993 (Bates et al. 1994), in their
preliminary survey of bats of High Wavy
mountain. They collected six specimens and gave
morphometric and anatomic details of this
endemic species. L. salimalii is a medium sized
fruit bat with an average forearm length of 67.3
mm. It is similar to Cynopterus sphinx in size,
but without an external tail. The characters are
well described in Bates and Harrison (1997). This
bat is listed by IUCN as critically endangered
(list 1), with small distribution area, decline of
habitat and small population (Baillie and
Groombridge 1996). It has entered the Guinness
Book of World Records ( 1 993) as one of the three
most rare bats of the world. The distribution is
presently believed to be restricted to a small
population in High Wavy mountain. No
information is available on its food or on any
other ecological aspects. Latidens is closely allied
to the southeast Asian genus Penthetor Anderson
1912 in general similarity of cheek teeth, and to
Thoopterus Malsche, 1899 on account of
similarities in skull morphology (Bates et al.
1994). Penthetor is known to feed on a wide
variety of hard fruits and seeds from forest trees
(Mickleburgh et al. 1992) and Thoopterus has
been observed feeding on wild figs (Bergmans
and Rozendaal 1988).
Just a few weeks prior to our visit, some
other researchers had visited this cave and tried
assessing the population using nets and visual
observation (Arogyamoorthy pers. comm.).
During this visit, we identified 2 fig and 3 other
tree species from fruit parts present in the faecal
heaps on the floor of the cave. The species
identified were Ficus beddomi , Ficus
macrocarpa , Diospyros ovalifolia , Prunus
ceylanicus and Eleocarpus oblongus. All these
trees were fruiting around the cave. This is the
first report of the food plants of this endangered
fruit-eating bat. According to the locals, the bats
live there round the year, which implies that food
was available throughout the year from fruiting
trees in the surrounding forest and estates. Thus,
survival of this endangered species, in its sole
known habitat, is linked with the survival of these
fruiting trees.
Along the valley, tree felling still continues
as part of the coffee estate management. In some
areas, patches are being replanted by Eiythrina
sp. and Silver Oak Grevillea robusta, which are
of no use to the bat. If the authorities with the
help of the coffee estate management do not take
immediate steps to conserve the food plants, the
future of this endemic and endangered bat, whose
specific name honours a great ornithologist, is
in peril. Though access to High Wavy mountain
is restricted, habitat destruction and some level
of predation by local workers (Bates et al. 1994)
also pose a serious threat to the species.
April 8, 2000 PRAMOD PADMANABHAN
Evolutionary and Organismal Biology Unit,
Jawaharlal Nehru Centre
for Advanced Scientific Research,
Jakkur (PO), Bangalore 560 064,
Karnataka, India.
E. KUNHIKRISHNAN
Department of Zoology,
University College,
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.
JOMY AUGUSTINE
Department of Botany,
St. Thomas College, Pala,
Kottayam, Kerala, India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
269
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Baillie & B. Groombridge (1 996): 1 996 IUCN Redlist of
Threatened Animals. The IUCN Species Survival
Commission, Gland and Washington. 368 pp.
Bates, P.J.J., D.L. Harrison, N.M. Thomas & M. Muni
(1994): The Indian fruit bat Latidens salimalii
Thonglongya, 1972 (Chiroptera: Pteropidae)
rediscovered in South India. Bonner. Zool. Beitr. 45(2):
89-98.
Bates, P.J.J. & D.L. Harrison (1997): Bats of Indian sub-
continent. Harrison Zoological Museum, Kent, 258 pp.
Bergmans, W. & F.G. Rozendaal (1988): Notes on
collection of fruits from Sulawesi and some off-lying
islands (Mammalia, Megachiroptera). Zool. Verb.
Leiden. 248: 3-74.
Mickleburgh, S.P., A.M. Hutson & P.A. Racey (1992):
Old world fruit bats: Action plan for their conservation.
IUCN, Gland. 252 pp,
Thonglongya, K. (1972): A new genus and species of fruit
bat from South India (Chiroptera: Pteropidae).
J. Bombay ncit. Hist. Soc. 69(1): 151-158.
4. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE WILD WATER BUFFALO BUB ALUS ARNE E
IN THE BARAK VALLEY DISTRICTS OF ASSAM
(With one text figure)
The Asiatic wild water buffalo Bubalus
arnee Kerr {bub alls Linn.) is in need of urgent
conservation attention. Even stray information
of both past and present distribution has become
extremely important. An account of its status in
northeastern India, the only stronghold of the
species in the world, is given in Choudhury
(1994). Here I report its past occurrence in the
Barak Valley of southern Assam, comprising the
districts of Cachar, Hailakandi and Karimganj
(Fig. 1).
There is no mention of the wild buffalo in
the literature of this area, except for a remark in
Choudhury (1997a). During various field trips
for primates and birds in the 1980s, I received a
few reports about the occurrence of wild buffalo,
but could not verify them. However, it was during
a survey of grasslands as part of the Biodiversity
Conservation Prioritisation Project (BCPP) in
1997 (Choudhury, 1997b) that I got concrete
reports and could personally verify them. While
many of the specimens were found to be mis-
identifications of the gaur Bos gciurus, three
horns of Bubalus arnee were examined and
measured. Subsequently, only the reports of these
reliable observers, who did not confuse gaur with
buffalo, were accepted. The records are listed
chronologically:
Late 19th Century: (a) I got reports from
Karimganj district (A. Mumm Mazumdar,
ex-hunter, Hailakandi, pers. comm.) about the
availability of horns. Two horns were examined,
a male and a female, near Badarpur. However,
both were shot from Jabda haor - Andhari beel
area (24° 55' N, 92° 30' E) of Katigora, Cachar
district, in the latter half of the 1 9th century by
the late Hamidur Raza Choudhury. The
specimens were magnificent animals (Table 1).
(b) One shot dead in 1885-90 from beel no. 18
near Hasiura (revenue villages: Rajyeswarpur pt
VII & VIII) (24° 35' N, 92° 37' E) by Kutumia
Choudhury, who was among the first settlers in
Hasiura. The horn was preserved till 1940s (A.
Majid Choudhury, Hasiura village, pers. comm.).
Table 1
MEASUREMENTS (IN CM) OF HORNS
OF WILD WATER BUFFALOES EXAMINED
IN BARAK VALLEY DISTRICTS
Sp (Specimen)- 1 & 2: Jabda haor - Andhan areas, Cachar
district; Sp-3: Mahmodpur, Hailakandi district; Sp-3 was only
horns without the skull; (m) = Male; (f)= Female.
270
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 200 J
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Early 20th Century: The first authentic
report, received during this study, was from
Mahmodpur Village (24° 30' N, 92° 37' E) in
Hailakandi district (A. Majid Choudhury,
Hasiura village, pers. comm.). A bull had been
shot near Itala beel at the turn of the 20th century,
and its horns have been well preserved. The
measurements of this magnificent specimen are
given in Table 1.
1950: Two buffaloes were seen wallowing
m a small pool, west of Bhaga Bazar (24° 30' N
92° 48' E) in Cachar district (Sharifunnessa
Mazumder, 85 yrs, Bhaga village, pers. comm.).
This old lady had fled her village during the
post-partition riots and had taken shelter in the
jungle when she saw the animals.
1950s: A few were seen till about 1955 in
Bagchara (24° 12' N, 92° 30' E) and other areas
of Innerline RF, Hailakandi district (Haji A. Haq
Laskar, local leader, Nitainagar village, pers.
comm.).
1960s: One bull was seen in mid-1960s at
Kuarthol, near Lonai (24° 30' N, 92° 40' E;
outskirts of Katakhal RF, Hailakandi district)
(Harun Rashid Laskar, Hasiura village, pers.
comm.). This was the last confirmed record of
the wild buffalo in the Barak Valley districts.
After talking to old hunters and others who
gave this invaluable information, I surmised that
the wild buffalo existed in the Barak Valley
districts till late 1950s. Stray animals were
reported till about the late 1960s. No report of
any surviving animal has been received after that,
indicating its extinction from the area. The last
of the animals reported were from Innerline RF
of southern Hailakandi and southern Cachar,
Katakhal RF of southeastern Hailakandi and in
the low hills and valleys of southeastern parts of
Karimganj and adjacent areas of Hailakandi.
Because of the lack of vast stretches of grassland
as are found in the Brahmaputra valley, the
animals were possibly never abundant in the area.
The buffaloes of Jabda haor complex vanished
in the early decades of the 20th century.
Expansion of lowland paddy cultivation in
the floodplains, poaching for meat and sport (shot
at Jabda by a rich landlord, notified by the British
regime) and encroachment in the low hills and
valleys of the southern forested tract have resulted
in the gradual decline of the small population of
wild buffalo in the area.
Acknowledgements
For their help, I thank A. Munim
Mazumdar, Romu, Sajjad, Babu, Rose, Mukut,
Raju, Munni, late Humon Mia, Kubad Mia,
son of late Asan Mia of Srigouri, son of Haji Safar
Ali of Mahmodpur. Special thanks to Abdul Majid
Choudhury of Hasiura (N. Jashnabad) for
providing the first authentic information.
July 23, 2000 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY
The Rhino Foundation, C/o The Assam Co. Ltd,
Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
271
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Choudhury, A.U. (1994): The decline of the wild water
buffalo in northeastern India. Oryx 28(1): 70-73.
Choudhury, A. U. ( 1 997a): Checklist of the mammals of
Assam 2nd edn. Gibbon Books & ASTEC,
Guwahati.
Choudhury, A.U. (1997b): Survey of grasslands in some
parts of central and southern Assam: to assess their
biodiversity and socio-economic problem. Unpubl.
Report. WWF-India NE Regional Office.
Guwahati.
5. OCCURRENCE OF INDIAN PANGOLIN MANIS CRASSICA UDA TA
IN ALIGARH, UTTAR PRADESH
Neither of the two pangolins reported from
the Indian subcontinent are known to occur in
Aligarh area. The Indian pangolin Manis
crassicaudata is reported from peninsular India,
while the Chinese pangolin M. pentadactyla
occurs in northeastern India. Therefore, it was
quite surprising that a pangolin was sighted in
Aligarh (27° 29’ to 28° 1 1 ’ N and 77° 29’ to 28°
39’ E) in May 1997. The animal was captured
and subsequently killed by the inhabitants of a
local village called Barola Jafrabad 3 km from
the Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) campus.
The pangolin was identified as Manis
crassicaudata from the measurements noted
below by the AMU Museology Department where
it is now on display.
Date of collection
Total length
Length of head
Tail
Forelimb
Hindlimb
Width:
Centre
Shoulder
Lower (hind) Portion
15. v. 1997
105 cm
10.5 cm
50.5 cm
8.5 cm + 5.5 cm (claw)
7 cm + 0.75 cm (claw)
48 cm
47.5 cm
50 cm
I thank Dr. Abdur Raheem, Lecturer,
Department of Museology, AMU, for providing
detailed measurements.
July 27, 2000 H.S.A. YAHYA
Department of Wildlife Sciences,
Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.
6. STRANDED WHALES ON THE GUJARAT COAST
In this note, we report six stranded whales
seen between 1983 to 1998. We had personally
seen four specimens in Kutch district. There are
reports of cetaceans, dolphins, porpoises and
whales in the waters of Gujarat. Whales, when
seen dead in deep waters, are brought to the coast
by inquisitive fishermen, or by the natural force
of tides. The reports of such dead whales in the
newspapers attract hundreds of people to see
these gigantic marine mammals.
♦Blue Whale
It seems that most of the stranded whales
seen in Gujarat coast are the blue whales
Balaenoptera musculus ; sometimes sperm
whales Physeter catodon may also be observed,
e.g. specimen No. 6 seen on Jakhau coast.
The cause of death of the whales is not
known. Interestingly, three specimens out of the
six were seen from February to April and the
remaining from July to August.
April 8, 2000 J.K. TIWARI
Sea Water Farms Eritrea,
P.O. Box 406,Massawa, Eritrea, E. Africa
S.N. VARU
Junavas, Temple Street, Madhapur,
Kutch 370 020, Gujarat, India.
272
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
7. DEPENDENCY OF FAN-DRYING OF DARTERS ANHINGA RUFA AND
LITTLE CORMORANTS PHALACROCORAX NIGER ON INCIDENT SUNLIGHT
( With one text-figure)
The spread-wing posture of cormorants
and darters has long been the subject of scientific
investigation (Kortlandt 1940, Clark 1969,
Curry-Lindahl 1970). The main hypotheses in
connection with this behaviour are that it is
i. balancing posture (Stabler 1957);
ii. intraspecific signal of successful fishing (Jones
1978); iii. aid to thermoregulation (Curry-
Lindahl 1970, Hennemann 1982) or iv. wing
drying strategy (Kortlandt 1940, Winkler 1983).
Strong support for the now generally
accepted theory of wing-drying is provided by
the fact that the plumage of both the cormorant
and the darter is water absorbent for efficient
underwater swimming through reduced buoyancy
(Ruke 1968, Siegfried et al. 1975, Hennemann
1984). On the assumption that the spread-wing
posture, which enlarges the area for absorption
of solar radiation, does serve to dry the wings,
the question arises: How do the birds dry their
wings in the shade, or in the absence of direct
sunlight? This study analyzes behavioural
adaptation in these circumstances.
The study was carried out in the Keoladeo
National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, India. The
area has a typical dry tropical monsoon climate
(Ewans 1989, Scott 1989). Observations of
spread-wing behaviour of little cormorants
Phalacrocorax niger, and darters Anhinga rufa,
were made from October 26 to November 2,
1990, during calm weather. Binoculars (10x40)
and a compass were used to determine the
orientation of the birds to incident sunlight. Birds
were noted as being exposed to the sun or as
sitting in the shade: periods when there was no
sun (before sunrise and after sunset) were also
noted. Steady spread-wing posture and active
fanning (“fan-drying”) spread-wing posture were
treated as separate. Ambient temperature was
measured with a black thermometer (bimetal) in
direct sunlight. Statistical analyses of the birds’
orientation to the sun followed standard methods
(Schmidt-Koenig 1975, Fowler and Cohen 1986,
Brown and Downhower 1988).
Spread-wing behaviour was shown by both
species during daylight, mainly in the available
direct solar radiation, which facilitates wing
drying. The orientation of birds sitting or
perching was not random, as the alignment of
their backs and wing surfaces showed a highly
significant correlation towards the sun
(Rayleigh’s test (Schmidt-Koenig 1975): a =
0.67; p<0.01; n = 70 for the little cormorant; a =
0.84; p<0.01; n = 38 for the darter). In the weak
morning light before 0700hrs, and in the flat
evening sun after 1700 hrs (Fig.l), only one
cormorant and twenty-five darters (21.3% of’
122 observations) showed the spread-wmg
posture.
30 October 1990
Fig. 1: Ambient temperature
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
273
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fan-drying was observed more frequently
in the late afternoon than in the rest of the day.
There were significant differences (x2 - 10.8;
p<0.01 ; df = 1 ; n 30) for both species combined,
between times before and after 1600 hrs.
Fan-drying was also more frequent in the
absence of incident sunlight (after sunset), as
well as when birds were in the shade (x2 = 13.4;
p<0.01 ; df = 1 ; n =27). A two by two contingency
table x2' test showed highly significant (x2 =
52.1; p<0.01; df = 1; n = 111) associations
between spread-wing posture and direct
exposure to sun, and fan-drying and no direct
sun exposure.
Wing flap frequency during fanning was
higher (t = 5.54; p<0.01; df = 64, Student’s
t-test) for the little cormorant at 3.3 beats per
second (n = 14) than for the darter at 2.4 beats
per second (n = 52).
There is now general agreement that
sunning behaviour and the dark colour of the
plumage of darters and cormorants serve to dry
the wings (Simmons 1986). The spread-wing
posture has, indeed, been described as the
wing-drying posture in response to the “wings
wet” stimulus (Kortlandt 1940). Darters and
cormorants extract full advantage from the
heat absorbing qualities of their black plumage
by increasing the area exposed to the sun,
thus facilitating evaporation (Lustick et al. 1978,
1980). Wing-drying has been suggested, in
the American darter (Anhinga anhinga), as a
rapid thermoregulatory mechanism for
re-establishment of a layer of air next to the skin
to conserve metabolic heat (Hennemann 1982).
The drying function of the spread-wing posture
of little cormorants in Sri Lanka as a means of
regaining airworthiness has also been
emphasized (Winkler 1983).
Several studies show that darters and
cormorants orient to the wind when this is strong
(Siegfried et al ., 1975, Hennemann 1984,
Winkler 1983). Orientation to the wind can be
interpreted as a strategy to relieve the bird of
the necessity of fanning its wings (Kortlandt
1940). In the absence of windy conditions,
however, most species orient themselves
perpendicularly to the incident radiation
(Anhinga anhinga : Hennemann 1982;
Phalacrocorax niger , P. fuscicollis , P. carbo ;
Winkler 1983; P. harrisi, P. auritus : Hennemann
1984; P. capensis, P. neglectus , P. lucidus ,
P. africanus : Siegfried et al., 1975). The results
of the present study show a significant
correlation of directional orientation to the sun
in calm weather and thus confirm the importance
of direct sunlight for heat absorption and
wing-drying.
In contrast to the relative volume of
literature on the spread-wing posture, fan-drying
has been the subject of little study and is
mentioned only anecdotally (e.g. Portielje 1927,
Winkler 1983, Hennemann 1984, Simmons
1986). Fanning was not observed very often in
the present study, but when it was, it was almost
exclusively in the shade or after sunset. This
strongly suggests that lack of solar radiation,
which is necessary for drying the wings, is
compensated for by the active convection
induced by fanning. It had also been postulated
elsewhere (Hennemann 1982) that Anhinga fan
wings and tail in preference to holding them
steady under conditions of low solar radia-
tion. In addition, it was shown by van Rhijn
(1977) that herring gulls (Larus argentatus )
improved evaporation by actively shaking their
feathers.
The higher frequency of wing flaps, of the
little cormorant seems to be correlated with its
smaller body size compared to the darter (cf.
Campbell & Lack 1985).
ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
The management of the Keoladeo Ghana
National Park, and especially Bholu Khan,
274
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 200/
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
are thanked for their administrative support
and intellectual guidance. We also
acknowledge the critical revision of a
former draft of the manuscript as well
as the correction of the English language by
Dr. T. Wilson.
Refer
Brown, L. & J.F. Downhower (1988): Analyses in
Behavioral Ecology. Sinauer. Assoc., Sunderland,
Mass.
Campbell, B. & E. Lack (eds.) (1985): A Dictionary of
Birds. Poyser, Calton.
Clark, G.A. (1969): Spread-wing postures in
Pelecaniformes, Ciconiiformes, and Falconiformes.
Auk 56:136-139.
Curry-Lindahl, K. (1970): Spread-wing postures in
Pelecaniformes and Ciconiiformes Auk 87: 371-372.
Ewans, M. (1989): Bharatpur bird paradise. Witherby,
London.
Fowler, J. & L. Cohen (1 986): Statistics for Ornithologists.
BTO Guide No. 22, Tring.
Hennemann, W.W. (1982): Energetics and spread-winged
behaviour of Anhingas in Florida. Condor 84:
91-96.
Hennemann, W.W. (1984): Spread-winged behaviour of
double-crested and flightless cormorants
Phalacrocorax auritus and P. harrisi : wing drying
or thermoregulation? Ibis 126 : 230-239.
Jones, P. A. ( 1 978): A possible function of the 4 wing-drying’
posture in the Reed Cormorant Phalacrocorax
africanus. Ibis 120: 540-542.
Kortlandt, A. (1940): Eine Ubersicht der angeborenen
Verhaltungsweisen des Mittel-Europaischen
Kormorans {Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis [Shaw &
Nodd.]), ihre Funktion, ontogenetische Entwicklung
und phylogenetische Herkunft. Arch. Neerl. Zool. 4:
8. WHITE STORKS CICONIA
Migrating white storks Ciconia ciconia
stop over to rest near Udayampatti village, about
5 km from Kalainzar Karunanidhi (KK) Nagar,
Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu. I have been seeing
them here for the last 11 years. The area is
roughly bounded by road from KK Nagar to
Pudukkottai on the east, by the curving irrigation
channel in the north and west. It extends to the
south over and beyond the fallow and agricultural
July 17, 2001 GERALD DICK
Institut fur Oko-Ethologie,
Altenburg 47, A-3573 Rosenburg, Austria
IRENE WURDINGER
Universitdt Hildesheim, Marienburger.
Platz 22, D- 32 Hildesheim, Germany.
NCES
401-442.
Lustick, S., B. Batterby & K. Kelty ( 1 978): Behavioral
thermoregulation: Orientation toward the sun in
Herring Gulls. Science 200: 81-83.
Lustick, S., M. Adam & A. Hinko (1980): Interaction
between posture, color and the radiative heat load in
birds. Science 208: 1052-1053.
Portielje, A.F.J. (1927): Zur Ethologie bezw. Psychologie
von Phalacrocorax carbo subcormoranus (Brehm).
Ardea 16: 107-123.
Ruke, A.M. (1968): The water repellancy and feather
structure of cormorants, Phalacrocoracidae. J. Exp.
Biol. 48: 185-189.
Schmidt-Koenig, K. (1975): Migration and Homing in
Animals, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.
Scott, D.A. (ed.)( 1 989): A Directory of Asian Wetlands,
IUCN Gland.
Siegfried, W.R., A.J. Williams, P.G.H. Frost, & J.B.
Kinahan (1975): Plumage and ecology of
Cormorants. Zool. Africana 10(2): 183-192.
Simmons, K.E.L. ( 1 986): The sunning behaviour of birds,
The Bristol Ornithological Club, Bristol.
Stabler, R. (1957): Cormorants and Shags “drying” their
wings. Brit. Birds 50: 447-448.
van Rhijn, J.G. (1977): Processes in feathers caused by
bathing in water. Ardea 65: 126-147
Winkler, H. (1983): Das Fliigelspreitverhalten der
Mohrenscharb q Phalacrocorax niger. J. Orn. 124:
177-186.
CICONIA ON MIGRATION
lands. A railway line runs parallel to the
irrigation channel for some distance. The railway
crossing, a roadside temple and tile factory
chimneys far beyond in the southeast are
unmistakeable landmarks. On the ground, the
area appears as a loose rectangle, widening in
the south, with a cart road running west to
Vadugapatty. It is about 9 sq. km of mildly
undulating, scrub jungle (about 30%) with grass
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
275
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Appendix
and sparse trees Azadirachta indica , Prosopis the total sometimes reaching 300, but leave
juliflora , Acacia leucophloea and A. nilotica. together as a group. They keep moving while
White storks are seen here from the foraging, with about 8 m in between individuals.
beginning of the northeast monsoon. They arrive The slush and waterlogging, grazing sheep, cattle
in the afternoon or evening, and depart in the or buffaloes do not bother them.
night or early morning. Reaching in a downpour,
often along with a storm, they depart when the April 24, 1999 J. MANGALARAJ JOHNSON
rain stops and the sky clears. They generally land 80, Rajaram Salai, K.K. Nagar,
in small, unnoticeable groups of ten to twenty, Tiruchirapalli 620 02 1 , Tamil Nadu, India.
9. DISTRIBUTION AND NESTING SITES OF THE BLACKNECKED STORK
EPHIPPIORHYNCHUS ASIA TICUS
The blacknecked stork Ephippiorhynchus
asiaticus is threatened due to habitat loss and it
is feared to have become very rare. In recent
literature, concerned individuals have attempted
to highlight the decline of this species and it is
suggested that this species be placed in Category
I of CITES (Rahmani 1989, Elliott 1992). The
species is largely well-dispersed and rarely seen
in groups. The ecology of the blacknecked stork
is not clearly understood and information on its
distribution and nesting is sparse and scattered.
During a survey to assess the status of the sarus
crane in India (May 1998 to March 1999), we
had an excellent opportunity to record sites where
the blacknecked stork feed and breed. This
information is presented in Table 1.
Gujarat: Though known to be inhabiting
inland wetlands, four birds were seen by the sea
in Gujarat (Table 1). It was not clear if they had
nested in the immediate vicinity or not. All the
birds were resting on a dry sandy bank in the
afternoon.
Haryana: Storks have not been previously
reported from Bhindawas in Haryana. The locals
have not seen the species breeding in the area,
even though the lake has a large heronry, and
several large trees in and around the lake.
Sultanpur in Jajjar district of Haryana has been
facing drought for the past three years
continuously and water birds were not seen.
276
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 200 1
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
RECORDS OF BLACKNECKED STORK (EPHIPPIORHYNCHUS ASIA TICUS)
SIGHTINGS BETWEEN MAY 1 998 AND MARCH 1 999
Rahmani (1989) reports a couple of birds from
this site.
Rajasthan: The Bharatpur population has
been well monitored. During our observation,
one of the blacknecked storks caught hold of a
dabchick ( Podiceps ruficollis ) and proceeded to
thrash it around for a while before swallowing
it whole.
Uttar Pradesh: Always been known to be
the stronghold for this species and our
observations corroborate this view. Samaspur was
seen to be a nesting site for the storks, previously
unknown (Rahmani 1989). There were three
sub-adults with two parent birds in a bird
sanctuary. The parents were guarding the young
ones by standing on either side of them. When
approached, the adults uttered a loud call and
took flight, followed by the sub-adults. An hour
later, in another part of the sanctuary, they were
seen again, sitting on the ground flanked by the
parent birds.
Northeast: There are few records and the
status is unclear. In Chapramari, West Bengal,
the storks have been recorded breeding regularly
and the forest staff of the Sanctuary offers
protection to the nesting birds.
Others: We also visited several wetlands
in Jammu, Punjab, Maharashtra, Bihar, Orissa
and Madhya Pradesh, but did not sight any
blacknecked storks.
Rahmani (1989) and Lopez & Mundkur
(1997) have records from the Asian Census
dating from 1989 and the trend is one of decline
in sight records of the species. It is
perhaps time to take stock of all available
information regarding the blacknecked stork and
initiate a conservation plan to save the species.
Acknowledgments
The fieldwork was made possible through
funding by the Wildlife Institute of India under
the Sarus Crane Project and we thank Mr. S.K.
Mukherjee and Mr. B.C. Choudhury for facilities.
The Chief Wildlife Wardens of all the States
were very helpful during the entire period of the
survey and we thank them for permission to visit
protected areas. We thank Sapna, Anil, Rajiv,
Bivash, Purushottam and Surender for assistance
during fieldwork.
April 7, 1999 K.S. GOPI SUNDAR
JATINDER KAUR
Wildlife Institute of India, P.B. 18,
Dehra Dun 248 001,
Uttaranchal, India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
277
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Elliot, A. (1992): Family Ciconiidae (Storks) In:
Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 1 .
Eds. del Hoyo, J.A. Elliott & J. Sargatal. Lynx
Edicions, Barcelona.
Lopez, A. & T. Mundkur (Eds) (1997): The Asian
Waterfowl Census 1994-1996. Results of the
Coordinated Waterfowl Census and an Overview
of the Status of Wetlands in Asia. Wetland
International, Kuala Lumpur. Pp. 98-108.
Rahmani, A.R. (1989): Status of the Blacknecked Stork
Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus in the Indian
subcontinent. Forktail 5: 99-1 10.
10. CINEREOUS VULTURE AEGYPIUS MONACHUS (LINN.),
FAMILY ACCIPITRIDAE, IN KARNATAKA
On December 15, 1998 while on a visit to
Harangi Dam, close to Kushalnagar in the Coorg
district of Karnataka, a largish vulture was
observed soaring over the western edge of the
dam area. On approaching to have a closer look,
its very dark chocolate brown underparts with
pale feet and a smaller (unfeathered) head
indicated it to be a cinereous vulture Aegypius
monachus. The bird was observed for about 10
minutes. Later, the bird pulled its wings
somewhat closer to its body and sailed overhead,
as it glided towards the southeastern region of
the barrage and disappeared from sight.
Kushalnagar region comes within the eastern dry
zone of Coorg district. The area where the bird
was sighted was dry and open with scattered trees.
The cinereous vulture is widely distributed
in central Asia, but in India it is mainly a winter
visitor to the north and northwest (as far as
Refer
Baker, E.C.S. (1910): Notes on the occurrence of Vultur
monachus in Calcutta. Rec. Indian Mus. 5: 81 .
Choudhury, A. (1986): Occurrence of Cinereous Vulture
{Aegypius monachus) in the lower altitudes in
Assam (India). TigerPaper 13(2): 32.
Choudhury, B.C. (1990) Capture of Cinereous Vulture
Aegypius monachus in Karimnagar district, Andhra
Dhulia district in Maharashtra) (Ali and Ripley
1987). Occasional individuals have been sighted
in Assam (Choudhury 1986) and Calcutta
(=Kolkata) (Baker 1910) in the northeast.
Although very rare, the species has been sighted
in South India, once each in Nellore and
Karimnagar districts of Andhra Pradesh
(Perennou and Santharam 1990, Choudhury
1990) and in Pathanamthitta, Kerala (Kumar
1991) . The present sighting is the first record
of the species in Karnataka, and hence, is of
interest.
March 24, 1999 S. SUBRAMANYA
PHT Scheme, 'J ' Block,
University of Agricultural Sciences,
G.K.V.K. Campus,
Bangalore 560 065,
Karnataka, India.
ENCES
Pradesh. Mayura 7 & 8: 49-50.
Kumar, R.S.S. (1991): Cinereous Vulture Aegypius
monachus (Linn.) in Pathanamthitta. Kerala.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88: 111
Perennou, C. & V. Santharam ( 1 990) Status of some birds
in southeastern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
87: 306-307.
1 1 . FIRST (?) SIGHTING OF CRAB PLOVER DROMAS ARDEOLA AND
PIED HARRIER CIRCUS MELANOLEUCOS IN RAIGAD DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA
On November 22, 1998 a flock of six crab
plovers ( Dromas ardeola ) was seen on the sandy
beach of Agardanda village near Murud-Janjira,
Taluka Murud, Raigad district in the Konkan
area of Maharashtra. Probably the same flock was
sighted again on December 20, 1998 on the
278
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Agardanda village creek during low tide. The
distance between the nearest crab plover, a loner,
and the small boat carrying the observers, was
about 50 m. During 20 minutes of observation,
three small crabs were eaten by a single crab
plover. The crab plover was seen making a
sudden rush at the crab, stabbing and lifting it
up in the beak, shaking it vigorously and
dropping it in the mud before eating it. It was
observed that the crab plovers preferred to fly
close to the sea surface. The bird had a
characteristic call, Twell-tak, Twell-tak while on
the wing.
In the morning between 0645 and 0930 hrs
of the same day, at Dighi village, Taluka
Shriwardhan, Raigad district, we also sighted a
pair of pied harriers ( Circus melanoleucos) on a
mangrove mudflat. The harriers were soaring at
a low height. At their approach, common
sandpipers, greenshanks and redshanks took
flight. On March 13-14, 1999, a pair of pied
harriers was seen on the same mudflat in Dighi
village.
February 21, 2000 PREMSAGAR G. MESTRI
SATISH A. PANDE
C/9 Bhosale Park,
Sahakar Nagar No. 2,
Pune 4/1 009,
Maharashtra, India.
12. OCCURRENCE OF LESSER FLORICAN SYPHEOTIDES INDICA
AT HOSOR, IN NASHIK DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA
A lesser florican Sypheotides indica was
sighted by one of us (BR) at the Hindustan
Aeronautical Limited (HAL) complex at Hosor,
20 km from Nashik towards Dhulia on National
Highway 3 on September 24, 1998. An adult
male in full breeding plumage was observed
performing display jumps on September 25,
1998 on a subsequent visit. (For a description
of the HAL complex see Raha and Prakash,
JBNHS 98(1 )\ 110-111).
The bird was recorded as common, and
probably present throughout the year in Nashik
and Ahmednagar during the 1 9th century (Hume
and Marshal 1879; Sankaran et al. 1992). There
were very few confirmed sightings of this bird
in Maharashtra during a recent survey (Sankaran
et. al. 1992), and none from Nashik district. We
think this first confirmed sighting of the highly
threatened species from an unreported site is
worth recording.
The only threat to the lesser florican in
this high security area are aircraft in flight, but
since the flight frequency is very low, the
probability of a hit is also low.
We thank HAL for permission to visit their
complex. We thank Mr. Nag, Horticulturist for
arranging all permits required to see the florican
and Mr. Kale and Mr. Patnaik at the Air Traffic
Control tower, HAL for their hospitality and
sharing their natural history notes of the area
with us.
December 1, 1998 B. RAHA
Hemant Vihar, Plot No. 13,
Vr. Savarkar Bagar, Off Gangapur Road,
Nashik 422 005, Maharashtra, India.
VIBHU PRAKASH
Bombay Natural History Society,
331 , Rajendra Nagar,
Bharatpur 321 001, Rajasthan, India.
References
Sankaran, R., A.R. Rahmani & U. Ganguli-Lachungpa 89(2): 163-179.
(1992): The Distribution and Status of the Lesser Hume, A.O. & A.H.T. Marshal (1879): The game
Florican Sypheotides indica (J.F. Miller) in the birds of India, Burmah and Ceylon. Publ. by
Indian subcontinent. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. authors, Calcutta. BNHS, Mumbai.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
279
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
13. SIGHTING OF THE WHITETAILED LAPWING VANELLUS LEUCURUS
(LICHTENSTEIN) IN THRISSUR DISTRICT, KERALA
During frequent visits to Enamavu Kole
wetlands of Thrissur district, Kerala, N.K.
Sathyan and I had an opportunity to observe an
adult whitetailed lapwing Vanellus leucunis , a
species vagrant to South India, The bird was seen
on December 5, 6, 8, 14 and 25, 1998.
The adult Vanellus leucurus was more or
less the same size as yellow wattled lapwing
Vanellus malabaricus. The upperparts including
head (except for the pale forehead and throat)
were uniformly muddy brown. The breast was a
little brown-tinged grey, or clear grey. Rest of
underparts were white. Some narrow black and
white bands were seen along the edge of the
closed wings. The closed wing tips and bill were
black. During early sightings, the long legs were
bright orange-yellow, but later they became clear
yellow. The dark eyes were very prominent on
the pale face. In flight, pure white tail, broad
white wing band and black primaries confirmed
Refer
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi.
Ali, S. (1969): Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press,
Madras.
our identification. The under primaries were
black and rest of underwing was white. The bird
kept to the margins of the wetland. The feeding
style was like that of other lapwings.
According to Ali and Ripley (1987) there
is no record of this species from the extreme south
of the Indian peninsula except Mysore. Baker
and Inglis (1930) stated, “a winter visitor
according to Stuart Baker, straggling as far south
as Mysore.” Salim Ali (1969) and Neelakantan
et al. (1993) did not include the whitetailed
lapwing as they did not come across it anywhere
during their survey of Kerala. Therefore, this new
record from Kerala can also be considered a
southern range extension of the species in South
India.
April 7, 1 999 P.K. RAVINDRAN
Vallissery, P.O. Avinissery,
Thrissur 680 313, Kerala, India.
ENCES
Baker, H.R. & C.M. Inglis ( 1 930): The Birds of Southern
India, Government Press, Madras. Pp. 385-386.
Neelakantan, K.K., C. Sashikumar & R. Venugopalan
(1993): A Book of Kerala Birds, WWF-India,
Thiruvananthapuram.
14. NEW SITE RECORD OF THE INDIAN GREAT BLACK WOODPECKER
DR YOCOPUS JA VENSIS (HORSFIELD) FROM ANDHRA PRADESH
The Indian great black woodpecker
Diyocopus javensis (Horsfield) is a local resident
species distributed along the Western Ghats, from
Surat Dangs to the hills of Tamil Nadu (Ali and
Ripley 1987). It is also reported from Bastar (Ali,
1951), Jyothimamidi (Ripley et al, 1988) and
Udanti (Bharos, 1992). Bharos (1992) opined
that the sightings of this species are probably
under the influence of climatic conditions and
local movements.
We report sightings of the Indian great
black woodpecker from Kawal Wildlife
Sanctuary (c. 19° 5' to 19° 20' N & 78° 32' to 79°
12' E), Adilabad district, Andhra Pradesh. The
senior author first sighted an individual busily
drumming on a teak trunk, in the teak Tectona
grandis dominated mixed forest near Rampur on
February 16, 1997. Subsequently, the species was
sighted twice (February 28, 1998, September 26,
1998) from the same area. The literature does
not report this species from the Telengana region
of Andhra Pradesh. However, it may occur
280
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
sporadically between the Eastern Ghats and
Satpura Hills.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Forest Department,
Andhra Pradesh for a grant through the Andhra
Pradesh Forestry Projects — Biodiversity
Projects. We also thank the Chief Wildlife
Warden, Andhra Pradesh for facilities. One of
us (CS) acknowledges a Research Fellowship
from CSIR, New Delhi.
March 27, 1999 C. SRINIVASULU,
V. VASUDEVA RAO,
*G. RAVINDER,
V. NAGULU
Wildlife Biology Section,
Department of Zoology, Osmania University,
Hyderabad 500 007,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
* Range Forest Officer (Wildlife),
Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary,
Jannaram, Adilabad Dist.,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
References
Ali, S. ( 1 95 1 ): Discovery of the so-named ‘ Malabar’ Black
Woodpecker Dryocopus javensis (Horsfield) in Bastar
(East Madhya Pradesh). J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc.
49(4 )■ 787-788.
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of Birds of India
and Pakistan. Compact Edn. Ox. Univ. Press, New Delhi.
Bharos, A.M.K. (1992): Occurrence of the Indian Black
Woodpecker Dryocopus javensis (Horsfield).
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(2): 255.
Ripley, S.D., B.M. Beehler & K.S.R. Krishna Raju (1988):
Birds of Vishakapatnam Ghats, Andhra Pradesh,
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3): 540-559.
15. TREE PIE (DENDROCITTA VAGABUNDA) IN THE ARID THAR DESERT
In January 1998, while studying the
Houbara bustard Chlamydotis undulata in the
Thar desert of Rajasthan, we visited Dhanana,
about 110 km west of Jaisalmer city. Dhanana is
an extremely arid area with sand dunes all
around. Large trees, except for a few khejri
Prosopis cineraria trees, are absent. Beyond this
village there is no human habitation, as it is close
to the international border. There was a small
Border Out Post (BOP) of the Border Security
Force, atop a large sand dune. In the BOP area,
there were three neem trees ( Azadirachta indica).
We reached Dhanana at about 1330 hrs, the
temperature was about 36 °C. We were surprised
to see a tree pie Dendrocitta vagabunda on one
of the neem trees. This bird has not been reported
here earlier.
The tree pie is usually found in forest
plantations, secondary jungle, cultivation, human
habitation, and gardens (Ali and Ripley 1983).
Owing to the development of the Indira Gandhi
Nahar Project and agriculture in the Thar desert,
tremendous changes are taking place in the
avifaunal composition of the Thar (Rahmani
1997). New forest birds can now be seen in the
plantations developed on either side of the canal.
However, Dhanana is located at least 150 km
from the nearest canal plantation. Therefore, its
presence in this extremely arid region is worth
recording.
April 6, 1999 M. ZAFAR-UL ISLAM
ASAD R. RAHMANI
Bombay Natural Histoiy Society,
Hornbill House, Mumbai 400 023.
SATISH KUMAR
Centre of Wildlife & Ornithology,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202 002.
References
Ali, SAlim & S.D. Ripley ( 1 983): Handbook of the Birds Rahmani, A.R. ( 1 997): The effect of Indira Gandhi Nahar
of India and Pakistan (Compact Edition). Pp Project on the Avifauna of the Thar Desert.
378-379. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(2): 233-266.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
16. POSSIBLE RANGE EXTENSION OF THE PENINSULAR BROOKS’S
FLYCATCHER {MUSCICAPA POLIOGENYS VERNA YI) IN ANDHRA PRADESH
On Februaiy 14, 1999, while bird watching
at the Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad, during
the Birdwatchers’ Society of Andhra Pradesh
Project on the Survey of Protected Areas, we
observed a small brown flycatcher in an Acacia
bush at about 1 .29 m. We got a good view of the
bird for over 1 0 minutes through a 1 0 x 40 power
binocular and noted the description as follows:
olive brown upperparts with a greyish wash on
the head. Tail brown. Fulvous throat, breast and
underparts.
We referred to the pictorial guide to the
birds of the Indian subcontinent (Ali and Ripley
1983) which was handy and identified the bird
as the Brooks’s flycatcher ( Muscicapa
poliogenys ) from the description.
Back home, we consulted the compact
HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN (Ali
and Ripley, 1987), for the range of this species,
“The Eastern Ghats from northern Orissa
(Mayurbhanj) to northeastern Andhra Pradesh
(Vishakapatnam district); from the plains
(± 600 m -Ed.) to 1000 m.” Hyderabad city is at
540 m. A CHECKLIST OF BIRDS OF ANDHRA PRADESH
(Taher and Pittie 1989), mentions only the
Eastern Ghats as its range.
The Vernay Scientific Survey team had
collected specimens of this bird at Anantagiri and
Sankrametta in Vizagapatnam district. The bird
was recorded as “Very common at Sankrametta
and Anantagiri where these birds were breeding
in April and May (La Personne). This new form
of resident flycatcher of very limited distribution
is one of the most interesting discoveries of the
Vemay Survey.” (Kinnear and Whistler 1933).
Price (1979) had trapped and released this species
at Lamas inghi in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra
Pradesh and he notes these as “Common resident”.
The only other flycatcher with which this
bird can be confused is the female Ticked’ s blue
flycatcher ( Muscicapa tickelliae) which,
however, has an orange-rufous throat and blue
tail. The bird we saw clearly had a brown tail,
and thus could not have been a female Tickell’s
blue flycatcher. The brown flycatcher ( Muscicapa
latirostris) has a conspicuous white throat, while
this bird had a fulvous throat. In all respects, the
bird we saw resembled closely the Brooks’s
flycatcher.
This, then, is an interesting sighting and
can be an extension of the range of this species.
It will be interesting to know if other sightings
have been reported from this region, or adjacent
areas, especially at lower heights than previously
reported.
Acknowledgements
We thank Mr. Siraj A. Taher, President,
Birdwatcher’s Society of Andhra Pradesh for his
help and advice in preparing this note.
March 24, 1 999 HUMA YUN TAHER
2-B Atlas Apartments
Road No. 10, Banjara Hills,
Hyderabad 500 034,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
K.C. RAMAKRISHNAN
Power Plant Dynamics Group
BHEL, Corporate R & D Division
Vikas nagar, Hyderabad 500 093,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
References
Kinnear, N.B. & H. Whistler ( 1 983): The Vernay Scien- Price, Trevor D. ( 1 979): The seasonality and occurrence
tific Survey of Eastern Ghats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. of Birds in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh.
Soc. 36: 83-84. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76: 415.
282
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
17. RANGE EXTENSION OF SOUTHERN BLACKHEADED MUNIA
LONCHURA MALACCA MALACCA
On November 2, 1998, a small flock of
seven southern blackheaded munia {Lonchura
malacca malacca ) was seen among thickets of
Typha angustata , in a nullah bed, nearly 600 m
away downstream of Velania dam in Jhadol
Tehsil, Udaipur district, Rajasthan. The flock was
observed for five minutes from a distance of c 10
m. The munias were in black and white plum-
age, with white underparts. The flock moved
along the nullah among Typha thickets.
Jhadol is situated in the southernmost part
of Rajasthan near the Gujarat border. It falls in
the high rainfall zone of Rajasthan, the average
rainfall being nearly 600 mm per annum.
According to Ali and Ripley (1983), the
subspecies L. m. malacca is found in the Indian
Peninsula from Raipur, Pachmarhi and Bombay
south to Kanyakumari and Sri Lanka. But
Jamdar (1998) has recently recorded this sub-
species for the first time from Keoladeo National
Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. Bharatpur is in the
eastern part of the state while Jhadol is situated
in the extreme southern part. These recent
sightings of this subspecies from two different
parts of the state suggest a northward extension
of its range.
June 12,1999 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA
Range Forest Officer,
Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuaiy,
Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur,
Rajasthan, India.
References
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of Jamdar, N. (1998): Southern Black-Headed Munia
India and Pakistan (Compact Edition). Oxford Lonchura malacca malacca in Keoladeo National Park,
University Press, New Delhi. Bharatpur, Rajasthan. JBNHS95(3): 509-10.
1 8. ADDITIONAL LIST OF THE BIRDS OF KANHA NATIONAL PARK,
MADHYA PRADESH
Kanha National Park (KNP), situated in
the Mandla and Balaghat districts of Madhya
Pradesh, lies in the Maikal hills of the Central
Indian highlands (22° 17' N, 80° 30' E). The total
area of 1,945 sq. km comprises of the core area
(940 sq. km) and a buffer zone (1,005 sq. km).
Though the Park is well known for its abundance
of large mammals and attracts thousands of
tourists from all over the world, very little
attention is focused on the rich diversity of birds.
No serious ornithological field work has been
done, considering its strategic location in the
Satpuras, which are an important transit zone in
Central India for migratory birds.
A systematic list of Kanha Tiger Reserve
was first published by Newton et al. ( 1 986). This
list also gives a brief account of the topography,
habitats and climate of Kanha along with maps
of the Park. It contains 225 species, including
resident and migratory birds. The present study
provides additions to the list of Newton et al.
(1986). In all, 35 new species are added, mainly
migrants or stray species, based on our field
observations and records from December 1986
to June 1998.
The nomenclature and taxonomic
arrangement follows Ripley (1982), but no
subspecific identifications have been made. To
give this list continuity with the earlier one
(Newton et al. 1986), we have used the same
abbreviations for habitat and migratory status.
Additional abbreviation used: (R): Banjar
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
283
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
river, which was frequently visited. The river is
an important landmark, as it forms the southwest
boundary of the buffer zone of KNP, (S): Stray
species or stragglers; (EDC, RA): Initials of
authors, given for specific records.
Habitats: (M): Valley Meadow, (Saif): Sal
Forest with Flemingia , (Salb): Sal forest with
bamboo, (Mx): Mixed forest, (D): Dadar
meadow, (N): Nullah or Stream, (T): Open water
or tank, (C): Buffer zone farmland.
Migratory Status: [R]: Resident, observed
in every month of the year, [W]: Winter visitor,
observed only between October and April, [w]:
Winter and Summer visitor, observed only
between October and July, [B]: Breeding,
observed at nest, as fledglings or carrying nesting
material.
Systematic list
ARDEIDAE
Little green heron Ardeola striatus. (N)
[w] Surwahi nullah, April 1997. Also seen at
Kisli anicut, Ganghar nullah in the first week of
May 1997 (EDC).
Black bittern Ixobrychus flavicollis : (R)
[W] Banjar river (Mocha) a solitary bird, March
1990 (EDC). Another solitary bird on Banjar
river in March 1996 (RA).
CICONIDAE
Painted stork Mycteria leucocephala: (T)
[W] Phoota talao, Kanha. A single bird seen in
January 1992. The bird stayed for 8 days only (RA).
Openbill stork Anastomus oscitans (T,
M) [w, B] Phoota Talao, Kanha, December 1998.
Sondhar meadow March 1998 (RA). Sondhar
tank, February 1998 (EDC). A large nesting
colony of these birds exists in village Tarka near
Bamhri Banjar (86 birds were seen in July 1997
with 31 nests; more nests were under
construction). Nesting activity initiated around
the first week of July; nesting observed in the
same area since July 1987.
ANATIDAE
Greylag goose Anser anser : (T) [W] 14
birds seen at Sondhar tank in December 1996.
A flock of 34 birds seen again at Sondhar tank
in December 1997 (RA).
Brahminy duck Tadorna ferruginea : (R)
[W] A pair seen in Banjar river, Mocha, March
14, 1990 (EDC). Also reported by locals in
winter, further up the river.
Comb duck Sarkidiornis melanotos : (T)
[W] A flock of 14 birds seen in Bishanpur tank
in January and February 1998 (RA).
ACCIPITRIDAE
Bonelli’s eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus. (M)
[S] Soaring over Kanha meadows. 5 different
sightings in January-February 1998 (RA).
Booted hawk-eagle Hieraaetus pennatus.
(M) [S] Only one sighting of an exhausted
looking bird atop Bombax ceiba on Kanha
meadows in January 1998 (RA).
Greyheaded fishing eagle Ichthyophaga
ichthyaetus : (T) [W] Only one sighting at
Shravantal, January 1994 (RA).
Osprey Pandion haliaetus : (R, C) [W]
One sighting in the buffer zone in Mocha village
in February 1998 and also sighted once over
Banjar river in Mocha (RA).
TURNICIDAE
Button quail Turnix tanki. (Mx) [W] A
dead bird found in Mocha village, possibly
dropped accidentally by a bird of prey in
January 1998 (EDC). Also a small flock in
Mocha village was seen on January 31, 1998
(EDC). D’Abreu (1935) records it as a resident
for erstwhile Central Provinces, now Madhya
Pradesh (MP).
GLAREOLIDAE
Small Indian pratincole Glareola lactae :
(T) [W] 3 birds in flight over Rhonda tank,
February 5, 1997 (Toby Sinclair, pers. comm.)
284
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(2). AUG. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Both D’Abreo (1935) and Hewetson (1955)
recorded it as seen on major river banks in central
India. The bird appears to be a resident in MP,
with considerable local movements.
CHARADRIIDAE
Little ringed plover Charadrius dubius :
(R) [w] Banjar river. Mocha. A small flock in
March 1992 (EDC), a few birds also seen on
Banjar river in March 1997 (RA). D’Abreu
(1935) and Hewetson (1955) recorded it as a
breeding bird for central India with fairly
widespread distribution.
Common sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos :
(N) [S?] Only one sighting in Kanha nullah on
way to Link No. 09 in January 1998 (EDC). This
is the only sighting of the species from December
1986 to June 1998. Definitely not a common
visitor.
LARIDAE
Indian river tern Sterna aurantia : (T)
[W] Only one sighting near Kanha anicut in
January 1995 (RA). Very rarely seen outside the
Park, not as abundant and common as recorded
by D'Abreu (1935) and Hewetson (1955).
COLUMBIDAE
Little brown dove Streptopelia
senegalensis: (M, C) [W] Absent in winter, but
returns around March-April. Several sightings
on Kanha meadows and in the buffer zone (EDC,
RA).
Indian plaintive cuckoo Cacomantis
passerinus : (M, Saif, Mx, C) [w, B?] A common
cuckoo that arrives just before the monsoon
(May). Heard and seen in the core areas as well
the buffer zone. Sighted every summer from 1987
(EDC). Possibly breeds here in summer.
D’ Abreau (1935) records it as a resident bird for
Central Provinces and states that the bird was
observed with eggs taken from the nest of
Franklin’s wren warbler.
STRIGIDAE
Scops owl Otus scops : (Saif, Mx) [W?] The
unmistakable call is heard regularly in the night
from March onwards. Rescued a chick from
Kipling Camp in Mocha, buffer zone in May
1997 (RA). An adult bird was rescued from
crows, near Kanha Museum, in May 1996
(EDC). Possibly breeds here in summer.
Forest eagle-owl Bubo nipalensis : (Saif)
[S?] A single bird seen in dense sal forest near
Sondhar in Mukki range in February 1994 (RA).
Essentially a dweller of dense forest from Hima-
layas to northeast India and resident in the Western
Ghats and southeastern Ghats. Perhaps this record
from Kanha is the only one for central India.
Spotted owlet Athene brama : (Mx) [R,
B] A resident pair seen in Mocha village in an
old banyan tree. This pair was also seen with
chicks in April 1991, sometimes near Khatia gate
in the evenings, perched on overhead electrical
cables (EDC). One sighting near Kanha
meadows (RA).
Mottled wood owl Strix ocellata. (Mx)
[W?] A pair was seen and heard during one
winter November 1994 to January 1995, in
Mocha village (EDC). This is the only record
that we have around Kanha. It is very interesting
to note that it is a resident around Bandhavgarh
National Park, which is just a hundred miles to
the northeast of Kanha, where it is seen
throughout the year.
CAPRIMULIDAE
Common Indian nightjar Caprimulgus
asiaticus : (Mx) [w] Seen and heard in and around
Morcha village in the summer, from April on-
wards. A bird with 3 eggs seen near Mocha village
in May 1 996, in relatively open, rocky land (EDC).
ALCEDINIDAE
Lesser pied kingfisher Ceryle rudis : (R,
T) [S?] A pan seen in Kanha anicut in February
1995 (RA). One bird seen at least on 4/5 occasions
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(2). AUG. 2001
285
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
around Banjar river in Mocha village. Seems to
be fairly common in the jheels and tanks of Mandla
district. Probably avoids heavy forest.
MEROPIDAE
Chestnutheaded bee-eater Merops
leschenaulti : (M) [S?] A flock of 8/10 birds seen
in May 1994 at Bhapsa Behra meadows near
Link No. 8/9 junction. Also seen in May 1995/
1996. In May 1996, the birds stayed for more
than 15 days (passage?). Not recorded by
D’Abreu (1935) or Hewetson (1955) for Central
India. This record from Kanha may be the first
from Madhya Pradesh.
Bluebearded bee-eater Nyctyornis
athertoni : (Saif) [S?] A single record of a solitary
bird perched on a tree on Kanha Ghat in February
1995 (Shahid Ali, pers. comm.).
PICIDAE
Heartspotted woodpecker Hemicircus
canente : (Saif) [S?] A single sight record
(Belinda Wright, pers. comm.). D’Abreu (1935)
and Hewetson (1955), reported it as rare, found
only in Bastar and Chanda in Central Provinces.
ALAUDIDAE
Short-toed lark Calandrella cinerea: (M)
[w, S?] A single bird recorded from Kanha
meadows near Phatyak nullah on April 8, 1993
(Shahid Ali, pers. comm.).
CAMPEPHAGIDAE
Smaller grey cuckoo-shrike Coracina
melaschistos: (Saif, Mx) [W, S?] A pair seen
near Kope Dhubri in sal forest on February 3,
1998. D’Abreu (1935) mentions one record from
Chikaldara. The present record from Kanha is
perhaps the only one from Madhya Pradesh.
PYCNONOTIDAE
Black Bulbul Hypsipetes madagascariensis:
(Saif, Mx) [S?] A single bird seen in mixed Sal
forest on Aurai road on February 3, 1998 (RA).
D’Abreu (1935) mentions about one record of
this bird from Chikaldhara.The present record
from Kanha is perhaps the only record of this
species from Madhya Pradesh.
MUSCICAPIDAE
Brown flycatcher Muscicapa latirostris.
(Mx) [w, B] Observed parents feeding two
fledgelings in a nest on Woodfordia fruticosa , in
May 1987 in Mocha village (EDC). Ripley
(1982) mentions a disjunct population of the
species in the Vindhya Ranges. D’Abreu (1935)
records it as a resident.
Pied chat Oenanthe picata. (M) [W] A
solitary bird often seen on Kanha meadows
during winter. Recorded in December 1997 -
January 1998 (RA).
Smallbilled mountain thrush Zoothera
dauma: (Mx, D) [W, S?] Solitary bird sighted at
Bijadadar on April 5, 1996. Another was seen at
Bamhnidadar on April 6, 1 996 (EDC). A passage
migrant?
NECT ARINIID AE
Yellowbacked sunbird Aethopyga
siparaja: (Mx) [W] A regular winter visitor, but
not many seen. A pair was sighted in February
1992; one male observed in February 1993/94/
96. January 1995, February-March 98. Normally
their arrival coincides with the flowering of
Woodfordia fruticosa whose flowers are laden
with nectar in the morning.
EMBERIZIDAE
Ortolan bunting Emberiza hortulana : (N)
[S?] A single bird seen on Patak nullah near
Kanha meadows, in December 1994 (Shahid Ali,
pers. comm.). Only a couple of sightings of this
bird have been recorded so far from India. Ripley
(1982) records it as a vagrant.
Most of the birds recorded were stragglers
or rare winter visitors to Central India. No major
286
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(2), AUG. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
fieldwork was done, and most of the records are
a result of opportunistic bird watching. Some of
these birds have not been recorded previously by
either D’Abreu (1935) or Hewetson (1955).
Species recorded here but not mentioned by
D’Abreu (1935) or Hewetson (1955) are given
in the following table.
The sightings of the last six species in
Kanha National Park given in Table 1 is of
certain interest. The forest eagle-owl ( Bubo
nipalensis ) is a resident of Himalayas, southern
Western Ghats and southern Eastern Ghats, and
inhabits dense evergreen and moist-deciduous
forest (Ripley 1982). The present record is the
only one from central India from a moist
deciduous forest. The chestnutheaded bee-eater
{Merops leschenaulti) is also a bird of the hills
of the north and northeast India, Eastern and
Western Ghats complex. But our recent records
show that the birds pass through central India
regularly in summer (passage migrant?),
suggesting the possible migration of the northern
population to the south during winter. The
yellowbacked sunbird ( Aethopyga sipcircijci) is
another interesting record from Kanha. D’Abreu
(1935) recorded it from Balaghat, and Hewetson
(1955) never saw it anywhere in Madhya Pradesh
(MP). Our observations show that it is a regular
winter visitor from the Himalayas, possibly to
Refer
D’Abreu, E. A. (1913): The Occurrence of the Himalayan
yellowbacked sunbird, Aethopyga seheriae in the
Central Provinces and extension of its habitat.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22(2): 392-393.
D’Abreu, E.A. (1935): A list of the birds of the Central
Province. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 95-116.
Table 1
BIRD SPECIES OBSERVED IN KANHA TIGER
RESERVE NOT RECORDED IN THE CENTRAL
PROVINCES BY D’ABREU (1935) [*] OR IN MADHYA
PRADESH BY HEWETSON ( 1 995)[+]
other places in east MP, apart from Kanha.
D’Abreu (1913) published a note in the JBNHS
on a bird he shot in Balaghat, as the range
extension of the Himalayan yellowbacked
sunbird ( Aethopyga seheriae). The ortolan
bunting ( Emberiza hortulana) is definitely a
straggler, as there have been only two or three
previous records from India (Ripley 1982).
November 9, 1999 E.P. ERIC D’CUNHA
RASHID ALI
Village-Mocha, P.O. Kisli 481 768,
Dist. Mandla,
Madhya Pradesh, India.
ENCES
Hewetson, C.E. (1955): Observation of the bird life of
Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 595-
645.
Newton P.N., Stanley Breider & Guy Norman (1986):
The birds of Kanha Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh,
India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83(3): 477-498.
19. HEMIDA CTYLUS FLA VIVIRIDIS RUPPELL FEEDING ON A GECKO EGG
According to Daniel (1983), and Tikader
and Sharma (1992), the northern house gecko
( Hemidactylus flaviviridis Ruppell) is primarily
insectivorous. Occasionally, it is known to
become cannibalistic (Daniel 1983).
On April 22, 2000, at about 0730 hrs, a
northern house gecko was seen by us on a
bathroom wall in D.B.N. Hostel, University of
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Rajasthan, Jaipur, with a spherical white egg in
its mouth. From its colour, size and general
appearance, the egg looked like that of
H. flaviviridis. The gecko was moving upwards
and after about 2.5 m, it broke the eggshell with
two or three blows. The empty eggshell was then
thrown away. The gecko positioned itself right
below the flowing yolk and started licking it up
from the lower-most point, gradually moving
upwards. While it was licking the yolk, another
gecko appeared and approached it, but was
chased away. It consumed the entire yolk within
seven minutes. The gecko then moved to another
wall.
The empty eggshell was c. 1 1 mm in
diameter. After watching this strange behaviour,
we examined all baths and toilets minutely. Many
geckos were seen on the walls. Many eggs of
house geckos were also seen below various
hideouts in ones and twos. The area was
apparently a favourite breeding site of the geckos.
The egg was perhaps lifted from one of the
clutches from the same locality.
Feeding on gecko eggs by H. flaviviridis
is an unusual behaviour for this species, hence
worth placing on record.
January 18, 2001 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA
Range Forest Officer,
Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary,
Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur,
Rajasthan, India.
YOGESH SHARMA
Department of Botany
University of Rajasthan,
Jaipur 302 004, Rajasthan, India.
References
Daniel, J.C. (1983): The Book of Indian Reptiles, Bombay Tikader, B.K. & R.C. Sharma (1992): Handbook of Indian
Natural History Society, Bombay. 1 -1 41 pp. Lizards. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 1 -241 pp.
20. UROPELTID SNAKES AND THEIR PREDATORS
Birds are among the many predators of
uropeltid snakes. Rajendran (1985) has reported
predation by domestic fowl, turkey, guinea fowl,
peafowl, owls and wild pigs on uropeltids
exposed by digging earth. We have observed
some new predators as described below.
I. The house crow ( Corvus splendens ) was
seen to prey on Uropeltis ellioti at Matighatta
in Hassan district of Karnataka State, on August
15, 1999 at 1440 hrs, in a coconut and areca
farm. It had just rained and the soil was wet.
We observed the snake crawling on open ground,
between the areca palms. A house crow swooped
down and pecked at the snake, but did not
attempt to take it away. The snake immediately
coiled itself around one of the areca palms and
tried to burrow into the soil, but the crow did
not allow it to do so. When the crow moved off
on being disturbed by the crowd of people
watching, the snake took the opportunity and
disappeared into the soil
II. Two other instances are from
Anaimalai hill ranges, Tamil Nadu.
(a) On August 21. 1998 at 1810 hrs, in
the forest fragment of Varatuparai, we observed
a Malabar whistling thrush ( Myiophonus
horsfieldii) preying on Uropeltis ocellatus. We
were sitting among the tea bushes adjacent to a
patch of forest, when we saw a snake come out
of the soil, near the base of a tea bush ( Camellia
thea). A thrush flew down and sat on a branch
of the tea bush, just above the snake, and
watched it. A few seconds later, the thrush
caught the crawling snake at the mid-body with
its beak. It carried the snake into another tea
bush and started tearing open the body. All this
288
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
while, the snake tried to escape by lashing at
the bird with its head and tail, but was
unsuccessful. The bird killed and pecked it to
pieces, swallowed the smaller pieces and carried
off a larger one.
(b) The Puthuthotam estate (10° 20' N and
76° 58' E) is situated outside Valparai, a hill
station, which has coffee (Coffea arabica) and
tea cultivation, and a patch of forest. The forest
patch is one of the medium size forest fragments
on the Valparai plateau (Kumar et al. 1995).
The Pollachi- Valparai road passes through the
Puthuthotam estate. Accidental killing of
animals by vehicles on the road is very high in
such patches (Kumara et al 2000 and Vijay
Kumar et al. in press). During maintenance
operations on this road and a roadside drainage
system, from August to September 1998, many
Uropeltid snakes were killed. Vehicular traffic
and domestic fowl killed other snakes as well,
that came on to the road. In one hour, domestic
fowl were seen to eat up to 5 snakes.
The total number of deaths observed in a
300 m distance dug at Puthuthotam was 67
Uropeltis ocellatus , 9 other Uropeltid species
and one Melanophidium punctatum.
Digging continued in the area, but we saw
only one or two animals along a stretch of 1 00
to 200 m. This indicates a localized distribution
of these snakes in clumps. Uropeltis ellioti is a
common snake in western and southern
Karnataka, especially on agricultural land. We
have also seen many snakes killed during soil
filling in agricultural land.
June 1, 2001 H.N. KUMARA
M.S. CHAITRA
Biopsychology Laboratory,
University of Mysore,
Mysore 570 006, Karnataka, India.
References
Kumar, A., G. Umapathy & A. Prabhakar ( 1 995): A study
on the management and conservation of small mammals
in fragmented rain forests in the Western Ghats of South
India: A preliminary report primate conservation. 16:
53-58.
Kumara, H.N., A.K. Sharma, A. Kumar & M. Singh
(2000): Road kills of wild fauna in Indira Gandhi
Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Ghats, India, Lessons for
conservation and management. Biosphere
Conservation 3(1): 41 -47.
Rajendran, M.V. (1985): Studies in Uropeltid snakes.
Publications Division Madurai Kamaraj University,
Madurai, pp. 132.
Vijay Kumar, S.P., K. Vasudevan, & N.M. Ishwar (in press):
Herpetofaunal mortality due to vehicular traffic in the
Anainialai hills. Southern Western Ghats. Hamadryad.
21 . LEPTOBRA CHIUM SMITHI MATSUI, NABHITABHATA & PANHA, 1999
(ANURA: MEGOPHRYIDAE), A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA
Leptobrachium smithi Matsui et al (1999)
was described on the basis of megophryid
anurans from Thailand that were hitherto
referred to as Leptobrachium hasseltii Tschudi,
1838 (Frost 1985, Taylor 1962, van Kampen
1923, Zhao and Adler 1993: 116). This latter
species was once considered widespread, with
Java in the Greater Sundas, Republic of
Indonesia, as the type locality (Iskandar 1998
for colour photograph; Dubois and Ohler 1998
for review). L. hasseltii was reported from
Meghalaya State in northeast India by Pillai and
Chanda (1979).
A recent collection of Leptobrachium from
Chandubi in the Mayeng Hill Reserve Forest (25°
48'-25° 55' N, 91° 21’-91° 32' E), altitude c. 90
m above msl, and Garbhanga Reserve Forest (55°
26' N, 91° 37-91° 49' E), both localities within
Kamrup district, Assam State, northeast India
matches the description of L. smithi in the
following characters: a moderate-sized species
(male SVL 30.2-52.0 mm; n = 8; female SVL
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
289
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
DATA ON MEASUREMENTS AND OTHER DETAILS
OF ADULT LEPTOBRA CHIUM SMITH I FROM ASSAM
Acronyms: F = female; SVL = snout-vent length;
IMT = greatest length of inner metatarsal tubercle;
- = absence; + = presence. All measurements in mm.
59.85 and 71.65 mm; n = 2; additional details in
Table 1); upper half of iris scarlet; small inner
metatarsal tubercle (metatarsal tubercle to SVL
ratios 0.027-0.039; mean 0.032); dorsum
typically smooth (although a third of our sample
show faint tubercles on the posterior end of
dorsum); white spots on sides of body and on
thigh; dark spots on ventrum; absence of dark
markings on dorsum; and rows of dermal ridges
on dorsal surface of limbs absent. All specimens
referred to were deposited in the Zoological
Museum, Arya Vidyapeeth College, Guwahati,
with the exception of one (ZSI A9135) that was
deposited in the collection of the Zoological
Survey of India, Kolkata.
We examined another example of this
species, collected from the Khasi Hills (ZSI
uncat.; detailed sampling data unavailable) that
was registered as L. hasseltii.
Based on the known distribution of
Leptobrachium hasseltii , Matusi et al. (1999)
restricted the species to the Sundas. Therefore,
it is inferred that earlier records from India
(cf. Chanda 1994, 1995; Dutta 1997) are based
on L. smithi. We confirm the removal of hasseltii
from the amphibian fauna of northeast India on
the basis of the specimens we report herein. The
range extension now being reported suggests the
occurrence of L. smithi in regions intervening
between northeast India and Thailand, especially
Myanmar, whose amphibian fauna is poorly
known. Indeed, Matsui et al. (1999) suspected
the occurrence of Leptobrachium smithi in the
southern part of this country, on the basis of the
description of L. hasseltii by Annandale (1917).
We thank the Assam Forest Department
for permission to conduct herpetological studies
in the state. Dr. Shyamal Kumar Chanda, ZSI,
for curatorial help and Patrick David, Walter
Erdelen and Tony Whitten for literature.
Acronyms used: CND = Chandubi,
Mayeng Hill Reserve Collection (Arya
Vidyapeeth College Museum, Guwahati); GRB
= Garbhanga Reserve Forest Collection (Arya
Vidyapeeth College Museum, Guwahati); ZSI =
Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata; SVL =
snout- vent length.
July 1 1 , 2000 SAIBAL SENGUPTA
Department of Zoology,
Arya Vidyapeeth College,
Guwahati 781 016, Assam, Inda.
NRIPENDRA KUMAR CHOUDHURY
Department of Zoology, D.K. College,
Mirza, Assam, India.
INDRANEIL DAS
Institute of Biodiversity and
En vironmen tal Conservation ,
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak,
94300, Kota Samarahan,
Sarawak, Malaysia.
References
Annandale, N. (1917): Zoological results of a tour in the northeast India. Mem. Zool. Surv. India 18(2): vi +
Far East. Batrachia. Mem. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 6: 32; maps a-w.
1 19-1 15; PI. V-Vl. Chanda, S.K. (1995): Anuran (Amphibia). In: Fauna of
Chanda, S.K. (1994): Anuran (Amphibia) fauna of Meghalaya. Part 1 . Vertebrates. State Fauna Series
290
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
4. pp: 455-482. A.K. Ghosh (Ed.) Zoological Survey
of India. Calcutta.
Dubois, A. & A. Ohler (1998): A new species of
Leptobrachium ( Vibrissaphora ) from northern
Vietnam, with a review of the taxonomy of the genus
Leptobrachium (Pelobatidae, Megophryinae).
Dumerilia 4(1): 1-32.
Dutta, S.K. (1997): Amphibians of India and Sri Lanka
(Checklist and bibliography). Odyssey Publishing
House, Bhubaneswar. (4) + xiii + 342 + xxii pp.
Frost, D.R. (Ed) (1985): Amphibian species of the world.
A taxonomic and geographical reference. Allen
Press, Inc. and Association of Systematics
Collections, Lawrence, (iv) + 732 pp.
Iskandar, D.T. (1998): Amfibi Jawadan Bali. Puslitbang
Biologi- LIPI and GEF- Biodiversity Collections
Project, Bogor, xviii + 1 1 7 pp; 26 pi. English edition,
1998. The amphibians of Java and Bali. Research
and Development Centre for Biology- LIPI and
GEF- Biodiversity Collections Project, Bogor. Xix
+ 1 17 pp: 26 pi.
Matsui, M.J., J. Nabhitabhata & S. Panha (1999): On
Leptobrachium from Thailand with a description
of a new species (Anura: Pelobatidae). Japanese
J. Herpetol. 18(1): 19-29.
Pillaj, R.S. & S.K. Chanda (1979): Amphibian fauna of
Khasi Hills, Meghalaya. Rec. zool. Surv. India 75:
383-395.
Taylor, E.H. (1962): The amphibian fauna of Thailand.
Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 63(8): 265-599: errata
(= 1 P)-
van Kampen, P.N. (1923): The Amphibia of the Indo-
Australian Archipelago. EJ. Brill, Leiden, xii + 304
pp.
Zhao, E.M. & K. Adler (1993): Herpetology of China.
Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles.
Contributions to Herpetology, No. 1 0, Oxford, Ohio
522 pp + 48 pi. + 1 folding map.
22. NOTES ON TYLOTOTRITON VERRUCOSUS ANDERSON: A CRITICALLY
ENDANGERED NEWT FROM MANIPUR
The newt Tylototriton verrucosus was
described by Anderson in 1 87 1 from a specimen
collected from Yunan region. The species is
locally known as Lengva (Tangkhul) and Hangoi
mamei panba (Manipuri). It is the only species
of tailed amphibian recorded so far from India.
Fully mature males measure 145-170 mm, while
females measure 150-200 mm. The head is as
broad as it is long and has an inverted V-shaped
prominent ridge. The limbs are short, with four
digits in the forelimbs and five digits in the hind
limbs. The tail with its upper margin shaip edged
is as long as the head and body together. The
legs appear to be weak and their movement on
land is sluggish. The body is dark brown above
with a tubercle, two rows of porous knob-like
prominent glands on either side of the vertebral
ridge. Each row has 15-20 glands. The anal
opening is a longitudinal slit with a slightly
swollen rim. The species does not show sexual
dimorphism, but during the breeding season
females can be easily recognised by their
distended body and swollen vent.
Habitat: Their favourite habitats are pools,
ditches, ponds and paddy fields, and they have a
habit of hiding under rotten leaves, in rock pools,
roots and dead tree trunks near water. They are
also found in small streams fringed with
vegetation. At the onset of monsoon, they come
out of their hiding places to the water for mating.
They are active throughout the monsoon until
winter sets in. During winter, they hide in the
burrows of rats and in other safe places till the
next monsoon. The eggs are laid on water bodies
and tadpoles hatch out within a few days,
maturing within a month or two. The species
was found at high altitude where the climate is
cold.
Distribution: Nepal, Sikkim, Darjeeling
and Amnachal Pradesh. In Manipur, it is found
only in Ukhral and Senapati districts. In the late
eighties, this species was abundant in Ukhrul and
Mao areas. In Ukhrul district, it used to be found
in places like Ngaimu, Pushing, Ukhrul,
Hundung, Phungcham, Shihai Shiroi,
Khangkhui, and Nungshong. But recent surveys
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
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in these areas show that the species is now much
reduced. In Mao area in Senapati district, as
reported by the local people, it is hardly seen
nowadays.
Tylototriton vernicosus is listed under the
Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 Schedule I
as an endangered species, and also in the Wildlife
Protection Act, Manipur Rules 1974 as a
protected species. Increasing human demands on
forest resources and cultivable land, fishing with
chemicals have contributed to the diminishing
population throughout its natural habitats in
Manipur. It is also eaten by the locals in the area.
No effective action has been taken to check the
reduction of Lengva in Manipur, and if no attempt
is made to preserve the species, this only tailed
amphibian will soon become extinct in this State.
July 5, 2000 KEISHING SELIM
Langol Housing Complex,
Type III / E-I, Imphal 795 004,
Manipur, India.
23. NEW RECORD OF CYPRINID FISH LABEO BATA (HAMILTON)
FROM CHINDWIN DRAINAGE
The fish fauna of Manipur is of great
interest as it is drained by two important rivers,
the Barak-Brahmaputra and Chindwin-Irrawady
systems. The western half of the state is drained
by the Barak-Brahmaputra system, whereas the
Chindwin-Irrawaddy system drains the eastern
half, including the central valley. The Chindwin-
Irrawaddy system is entirely separated by high
mountain ranges from the watersheds of the
Barak-Brahmaputra (Chaudhuri 1919).
Chatrickong river is formed by two streams,
namely Sanalok and Khunukong. Khunukong
originates from the western part of the majestic
Shiroi peak and flows southeast to join Sanalok,
while Sanalok originates at the foothills of the
highest peak Khayangphung (2,833 m) of the
district which lies near the Indo-Myanmar
border, and flows southwards to meet
Khunukong. The river then flows as Chatrickong
for about 5 km, and enters Myanmar where it is
called Nam Panga (Myanmarese) and flows to
the east and then turns southward to meet the
Chindwin.
Jayaram (1981, 1999), Talwar and
Jhingran (1991) do not mention the availability
of this fish from the Chindwin drainage of
Myanmar. Jayaram (1981) recorded 26 valid
species from southeast Asia. Sen (1985) reported
the fish from Assam and the northeastern states
of India that include Brahmaputra drainage, but
did not mention the specific locality of the
collection. Burman (1988) recorded it from
Tripura. During our ichthyofaunal collection
from 1996-98, five specimens were collected
from the Chatrickong river. The species is
reported for the first time from Chindwin
drainage.
The fish were collected with the help of
cast net, side-tracking of rivers and also by
‘khaishang5 — a unique indigenous method of
catching migratory fishes on their way back from
smaller hillstreams after breeding. This
technique is commonly used in southeastern
Ukhrul district in Manipur. The fish were
preserved in 10% formaline. The types have been
deposited in the Manipur University Museum of
Fishes (MUMF).
Material examined. MUMF/1587,
118.1 mm SL, MUMF/1588, 110.4 mm SL,
MUMF/1589, 92.6 mm SL, Chatrickong river
at Sanalok, 150 km from Imphal, 6.vi.l996; 2
unregistered specimens 98.5-108.2 mm SL,
20.viii. 1 998, coll. Keishing Selim.
Diagnosis: D. ii, 10; P. i, 13-15; V. i, 8; A.
ii, 5-6; L.trs. 6/1/4; LI. 40-41; predorsal scales
14-15. The species is characterised by a lower
lip slightly fringed, folded back and joined to
isthmus by a narrow bridge; small tubercle above
292
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
mandibular symphysis; irregular black blotch
present on 4th-6th scales of lateral line.
Colour: Dorsal half of flanks golden
yellow; inner half of flanks and belly silvery. An
irregular black blotch on 4th-6th scales of lateral
line. Faint blotch on caudal peduncle. Pelvic and
anal fins dark with orange red tip.
Habitat: Mostly found in the plains course
of the river. It moves upstream during the
breeding season, which starts from April and
returns to the lower course of the river after
breeding.
Distribution: India: widely distributed:
Bangladesh and Nepal.
Remarks: Talwar and Jhingran (1991)
listed 3 1 species of Labeo in the Indian region.
However, Jayaram and Dhas revised the genus
and listed 28 species in eight complexes (Jayaram
1999). The species is common in the Indian
region. In Manipur, about seven species of Labeo
were found, including Labeo gunius and
L. rohita.
Labeo bata was one of the common species
caught in the Chatrickong river during the
monsoon. During the breeding season, the fish
moves in shoals upstream. It is esteemed in the
region for its taste and is highly priced.
The fish migrate upstream from April to
July and return from August to November. In
Refer
Barman, R.P.K. (1988): On collection of fishes from river
Gumati, Tripura, northeast India. Occasional paper
No 1 19. Zool. Surv. of India.
Chaudhuri, B.L. (1919): Report on small collection offish
from Patao on northern frontier of Burma. Rec. Indian
Mus. 16(4): 271-282.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India, Pakis-
tan, Bangladesh, Myanmar & Sri Lanka — a hand book.
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta: 475 pp.
other seasons, it was not present, as reported by
fishermen. Being a migratory fish, it is mostly
caught by ‘khaishang’, an indigenous technique
practised in the region for catching migratory
fishes. In the absence of specimens from the river
system in Myanmar, study of fishes from the
Chindwin headwaters of the Ukhrul district gives
a picture of the Chindwin fauna. Labeo bata is
recorded for the first time from the Chindwin
drainage. As it migrates from the Myanmar side
to the waterheads of Chindwin drainage, it is
likely that it may also be distributed in Myanmar.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Govt, of India, New Delhi (Project
scheme: No. 14-36-95-NAB/RE) for financial
assistance. We also thank the Head, Department
of Life Sciences, Manipur University for
laboratory facilities.
July 6, 2000 KEISHING SELIM
WAIKHOM VISHWANATH
Department of Life Sciences,
Manipur University,
Canchipur 795 003,
Imphal, India.
ENC ES
Jayaram, K.C. ( 1 999): The freshwater fishes of the Indian
region, p. 55 1 , pi XVIII. Narendra Publishing House
Delhi (India).
Sen, T.K. (1985): The fish fauna of Assam and the neigh-
bouring northeastern states of India. Misc. pub!., Occ.
paper 64.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991 ): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publishing
Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. / : 1-541 .
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
24. A NEW REPORT OF HORABAGRUS BRACHYSOMA JAYARAM,
FAMILY B AGRIDAE IN UTTAR A KANNADA DISTRICT, KARNATAKA
( With one text-figure)
The catfish Horabcigrus brachysomci
Jayaram, Family Bagridae, has been reported in
the Kerala Western Ghats. It was first described
as Pseudobagrus brachysomci by Gunther in
1 864, and by Day in 1865 ( Proc . zool. Soc. Lond.
p. 290, Malabar, ii, p. 185, pi. xiii, fig. 2), from
Cochin as Pseudobagrus chryseus. In later
publications, Day ( 1 889) refers to it as Macrones
chiyseus. The species of the genus Macrones are
identical to the Indian species of Mystus. They
are characterised by the presence of 15 or less
anal fin rays, eyes placed much above the angle
of the mouth (invisible from the ventral surface),
barbels longer than head, the pelvic fin far from
the anal fin, and a moderately long adipose fin.
On the other hand, M. clvyseus is characterised
by the presence of an anal fin with 26-28 rays,
the eyes being placed in line with the angle of
the mouth so that it is visible from the ventral
surface, the barbels not extending beyond the
head and the pelvic fin reaching the anal fin.
Because of these anomalies, M. chiyseus
was separated from the Mystus group and for
some time, it was placed in the genus
Pseudobagrus as P. brachysoma (Jayaram 1952).
P. brachysoma is the only species of the genus
from the Indian subcontinent, while the other
species of the genus are Chinese. A comparison
of specimens of P. brachysoma with other
specimens of Pseudobagrus showed that they are
not congeneric, so P. brachysoma was given a
new generic rank and named as Horabagrus
(Jayaram 1955).
The species Horabagrus brachysoma has
a moderately elongated, compressed body with a
large head and a wide subterminal mouth. The
eyes are large, inferior and visible from the
ventral side. The dorsal fin, consisting of the
rayed fin with 5-7 rays, possesses a hard spine
and is separated from the softer smaller adipose
dorsal fin. It also has four pairs of barbels: one
nasal, two mandibular and one maxillary.
(Jayaram 1981)
This species has, till date, been reported
from Neyyatinkara backwaters (near
Trivandrum), its southernmost limit, to regions
near the Karnataka border, the northernmost
limit.
Field surveys were conducted in the river
systems of Uttara Kannada district, located in
northern Karnataka. Uttara Kannada (13° 52' to
15° 30' N and 74° 5' E), forms part of the northern
extent of the Western Ghats (Fig. 1). This region
has many perennial and temporary streams and
rivers. The fish diversity of the four main west
flowing rivers, Sharavati, Aghanashini, Bedti
and Kali, were studied. Collections were made
using gill nets, cast nets and drag nets. Samples
were collected from six sites in each of these four
rivers from January 1997 to January 1999.
During a recent survey, fresh samples of
Horabagrus brachysoma have been collected at
the rivers Kali and Aghanashini near the
downstream reaches of these river systems. The
species (H. brachysoma) in the River Kali was
first recorded at Kadra (74° 20’ E, 14° 53' N,
about 100 m above msl). The habitat at this site
consists of smooth flowing runs, the riparian
vegetation here is mostly composed of long stands
of bamboo and species of Terminalia. The site at
Kadra is very close to the Kaiga Dam Project
and forms part of the reservoir. As a result, the
water here is regulated. Local villagers revealed
that the species is found in this region, but is
rarer than other Bagrids. The first collections
were made in March 1998. In April 1998, we
294
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Uttara Kannada District, Karnataka
collected one more specimen from the
downstream reaches of the river Aghanashini at
Hulidevarakodlu (74° 40' E, 14° 24' N, about
500 m above msl). The River Aghanashini is
subjected to much less human disturbance than
the River Kali. The study area near
Hulidevarakodlu is pristine, with thick evergreen
forests of Terminalia , Eugenia hyneana ,
Callophyllum spp., Mangifera indica, and
Pongamia forming the riparian vegetation.
Two more specimens were collected in
January 1999, one at the same site on the River
Kali (at Kadra) and one at Kirtigadde (74° 36.5'
E, 14° 26' N, about 500 m above msl), 1 km down-
stream of Hulidevarakodlu. The morphometric
details of the specimens are given in Table 1 .
Horabagrus , listed as endangered, has
been recorded earlier only in Kerala. This report
on the presence of Horabagrus brachysoma in
Uttara Kannada is important since it extends the
known geographical range from Kerala to
regions much further northwards along the
Western Ghats. Though it has not yet been
reported from southern Karnataka, our findings
suggest the possible occurrence of the species all
along the hill streams of the Western Ghats.
Table 1
MORPHOMETRIC DETAILS OF
THE SPECIMENS (IN CM)
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. K.C. Jayaram for confirming the
identification, and Prof. Madhav Gadgil for help
and encouragement. I thank the Karnataka Forest
Department and the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Govt, of India for financial assistance to
facilitate the fieldwork.
This work would not have been possible
without the assistance of Sridhar Patgar, Vamana
K. Harikantha and Sridhar B. Harikantha. The
fieldwork was done with Prakash Pandit of the
Dr. A.V. Baliga College for Science and Arts;
special thanks are due to him for his active
participation.
April, 1999 ANURADHABHAT
Centre for Ecological Sciences,
Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore 560012, Karnataka, India
References
Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India,
including Ceylon and Burma. Fishes 1: xiii+548
pp.
Jayaram, K.C. (1952): Taxonomic notes on the fish
Pseudobagrus chryseus Day, 1 865. Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. 12(5): 980-983.
Jayaram, K.C. (1955): The Palearctic element in the fish
fauna of peninsular India. Bull. Natl. Inst. Sci. India
7: 260-265.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981 ): Freshwater fishes of India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Burma, and Sri Lanka. Hand Book of
ZSI, Calcutta. No. 2, XI 1 + 475 pp.
25. RANGE EXTENSION OF MYSTUS BLEEKERI (DAY) TO THE FRESH WATERS OF
TAMIL NADU AND NOTES ON ITS CONGENERS IN TAMIL NADU AND SRI LANKA
Day (1875-78) named the specimens from
River Hooghly, Calcutta Macrones bleekeri (now
Mystus bleekeri) which Bleeker in 1853 had
identified as belonging to the species keletius
(Valenciennes, 1839: type locality -
Pondicherry). Though both the species bear
lateral stripes on the body, they differ in several
characters. In bleekeri , the occipital process is
twice as long as broad and reaches the basal bone
of dorsal; adipose dorsal base is long,
commencing just behind last dorsal ray, its base
being 2.4 times the rayed dorsal; maxillary
barbels are long, reaching the anal fin, whereas
in the latter, the occipital process is narrow,
being 3 times as long as broad at the base and
does not reach the basal bone of dorsal; adipose
dorsal base is shorter being 1 . 1 times the rayed
dorsal base, with wide interdorsal space;
maxillary barbels are shorter, reaching only the
middle of pelvic fin (Day, op. cit. ; Misra 1976).
M. bleekeri (Fig. 1) also differs from the widely
distributed striped catfish vittatus (Bloch 1797)
by its longer adipose dorsal and less number of
gill-rakers on the lower arm, 9-11 vs. 22-27
(Sharma and Dutt 1983).
The distribution of bleekeri is stated to be
north India, with Mahanadi as its southern limit
(Menon 1999; Jayaram 1999). However, Sharma
and Dutt (op. cit.), reported it from peninsular
India (Andhra Pradesh: Guntur). Recently, the
species was reported from Neyyar river in
Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala by Raju et
al. (1999), and Ponmudi, also in the same district
(Cherian et al., in press).
This report is based on collections made
during paddy field ecosystem studies by the third
author. Ten specimens ranging in length from
59 to 122 mm SL were collected during May-
October 1999, from Singapemmal Koil paddy
field in Chengleput district. This extends its
distributional range to Tamil Nadu.
Jayaram (op. cit.) listed 19 species of
Mystus from the Indian subcontinent, of which,
with the recent inclusion of microphthalmus
(Day) from Manipur, 14 species are represented
in Indian territory. With the exception of this
296
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
species and tengara (Hamilton) [tengara has been
synonymised with vittatus by Sharma and Dutt
(op. cit.), but kept separate by Menon (op. cit.)
and Jayaram (op. cit.)], all the remaining 12
species are known from peninsular India. Of
these, four species namely krishnensis
Ramakrishnaiah, malabaricus (Jerdon), oculatus
(Valenciennes) and punctatus (Jerdon) are
endemic to the Peninsula, mostly restricted to
the hill streams of the Western Ghats. With the
recent addition of malabaricus from the Indira
Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Anaimalai Hills, and
the present addition of bleekeri from the fresh
waters of Chennai, nine species are recorded from
Tamil Nadu. It is worth mentioning here that
montanus (Jerdon), recently reported from
Javadhi Hills of Eastern Ghats (Rema Devi,
1992), is also found in the Tamil Nadu part of
tfye Anaimalais, Western Ghats.
Three species of Mystus , namely gulio ,
keletius and vittatus (Deraniyagala 1952;
Pethiyagoda 1991) are known from Sri Lanka.
However, there seems to be some discrepancy
in the record of keletius in Sri Lanka. Though
the figure accompanying the description in
Munro (op. cit.) is that given by Day (op. cit.),
the description of adipose dorsal fin is a
feature typical of cavasius. Besides, for several
other characters given, the range covers both
the species. However, the photograph
captioned as keletius ( p. 150), accompanying
the description by Pethiyagoda (op. cit.) is that
of cavasius. Also, as evidenced by the same
photograph, cavasius is characterised by a
long, adipose dorsal commencing immediately
after the rayed dorsal, which is triangular, long
and pointed, with a concave margin; smaller
head, deeper body and absence of lateral
stripes, whereas keletius has a smaller adipose
dorsal, with a wide interspace between it and
the rayed dorsal, which is low and with a
somewhat rounded margin. Other known
differences are: the number of branched rays
in the pectoral and anal fins, the maxillary
barbel length and body proportions.
Day (op. cit.) originally reported keletius
from Sri Lanka, which has been followed by
subsequent workers. Pethiyagoda (op. cit.) in his
description of the species (p. 149) lists cavasius
as one of the names applied to it in Sri Lanka
probably because of “confused identity”. He also
mentions that it attains a length of 18 cm,
whereas it is known from literature that keletius
is a smaller species, reaching only 12 cm in
length. From the photographs of the Sri Lankan
species it is certain that cavasius is present in
Sri Lanka. It is also inferred that, including
cavasius , four species are known from Sri Lanka
(overlapping characters of both the species given
in literature), and if keletius is a mistaken
identity for cavasius , then three species cavasius ,
gulio and vittatus are present. Interestingly, these
three species inhabiting swampy lowlands are
very widely distributed in the Indo-Malayan
region. None of the hill stream catfish in India
are represented in Sri Lanka.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director,
Zoological Survey of India, and Dr. P.T. Cherian,
Addnl Director, Southern Regional Station, ZSI,
Chennai, for facilities. Dr. Cherian also for
critical examination of the manuscript. Our
grateful thanks to Dr. A.G.K. Menon, Scientist
Emeritus for encouraging us and providing
literature.
February 1, 2000 K. REMA DEVI,
T.J. INDRA,
M.B. RAGHUNATHAN
Zoological Sui'vey of India,
Southern Regional Station,
100 Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 028,
Tamil Nadu, India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
291
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Cherian, P.T., T.J. Indra, K. Rema Devi, M.B.
Raghunathan & V.M. Sathjshkumar (in press): On the
Ichthyofauna of Trivandrum Dist., Kerala, India.
Zoological Survey of India. 20 pp.
Day, F. (1875-78): The fishes of India, being a natural
history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and
freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon. William
Dawson & Sons London, 778 pp., 195 pis.
Deraniyac. \LA, P.E.P. (1952): A coloured atlas of some
vertebrates from Ceylon (1), fishes. National Mus.
Ceylon Colombo. 149 pp., 34 pis.
Jayaram, K.C. ( 1 999): The freshwater fishes of the Indian
Region. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. 551 pp.,
XVIII pis,
Menon, A.G.K. ( 1 999): Check List - Freshwater Fishes of
India. Zool. Surv. India, Occ. paper No. 1 75, 366 pp.
Misra, K.S. ( 1 976): The Fauna of India and the Adjacent
Countries. Pisces. (2nd edition). Vol. Ill, Teleostomi:
Cypriniformes: Silurii. Zoological Survey of India.
Calcutta. 367 pp., XV pis.
Pethiyagoda, R. (19^1): Freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka.
Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka. 362 pp.
Raju Thomas, K., C.R. Biju & C.R. Ajith Kumar ( 1 999):
Mystus bleekeri (Day) — An addition to the fish fauna
of Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3) : 482-483.
Rema Devi, K. ( 1 992): On a small collection of fish from
Javadhi Hills, North Arcot District, Tamil Nadu. Rec.
zool. Surv. India 91(3-4): 353-360.
Sharma, S.V. & S. Durr (1983): Taxonomic studies on
four species of the genus Mystus Scopoli, 1777
(Siluriformes: Bagridae) Rec. zool. Surv. India 81: 33 1 -
344.
Editor’s Note: With reference to the note Thomas K.P. et al. (1999): Additions to the fish fauna of Pambar
River, Kerala, Vol. 96(2) it has been pointed out by Dr. K. Rema Devi that there is a variation in the scalation
of the middorsal streak in Garra hughi, which has been overlooked by the authors. Also. Horalabiosa joshuai
as already been reported from Kerala (Rema Devi, K. & A.G.K. Menon (1994), Rec. zool. Surv. India, 94(2-
4): 247-251).
26. RESOLUTION OF THE CONTROVERSIAL WESTERN LIMIT OF THE RANGE
OF DELIAS ACALIS GODART (LEPIDOPTERA: PIERIDAE)
The western limit of the distribution of the
Redbreast Jezebel Delias acalis pyramus Wallace
has been the subject of some controversy. Evans
(1932) gave a range of Shimla (Himachal
Pradesh) to Burma (=Myanmar). Subsequent
authors, including Wynter-Blyth (1957) and
Lewis (1973) gave a range of Nepal to Assam,
Burma, Malaysia and the Eastern Ghats of India
for the species.
Wynter-Blyth (op. cit.) noted “Evans (op.
cit.) gives Shimla as a locality for this butterfly,
but this is not confirmed by the fauna of British
india nor has the author any record of its capture
there. If his record is correct, it will presumably
also be found in Garhwal and Kumaon.”
Recently, I have seen this butterfly on five
occasions in Kumaon. The first time was on
November 9, 1997 in a garden in the H.M.T.
Colony in Ranibagh near Haldwani at an
elevation of approximately 450 m. The butterfly
was attracted to poinsettia blooms ( Euphorbia
pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch) and settled for
over a minute, allowing itself to be observed well.
However, it was not possible to observe the recto
surface and the diagnostic red basal area on the
hindwing recto. It might therefore have been the
Redbase Jezebel Delias pasithoe L., although this
is unlikely.
The next sighting was in Jones Estate in
the Bhimtal valley on April 21, 1 998 at an eleva-
tion of 1,500 m. A rather worn specimen was
attracted to blossoms of Bauhinia vcireigata L.
By a stroke of luck, it sailed across a terrace below
me, so it was possible to clearly see the red basal
area on the hindwing recto. It was certainly
Delias acalis.
The third sighting was 1 0 km north of the
town of Rudrapur in the Terai, at an elevation of
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c. 450 m on March 7, 1999. The specimen was
seen flying about at tree top level in the manner
typical of the genus. It crossed the road
occasionally, but did not settle. Again, it might
have been either acalis or pasithoe , since the
recto surface was not visible from below.
The fourth specimen was a female that
settled on a flowering buddleia bush ( Buddleja L.)
on March 9, 1999 in Jones Estate, within a
hundred metres of where the second individual
was sighted nearly a year before. The specimen
is now in my collection. The forewing length is
43 mm and the expanse 90 mm. This is the first
specimen recorded from Kumaon, and is in good
condition.
The fifth record was on December 1, 1999
when an individual was flying along the motor
road 200 m from where the first record was
sighted in Ranibagh in 1997. Since it was flying
slowly, it was possible to see the diagnostic red
basal patch on the hindwing recto.
I am quite certain that this species was not
present in this area during the last 20 years and
my late father did not record it either in the course
of collecting and observing butterflies in the area
since 1949. It is such a conspicuous butterfly that
it could not have been overlooked, even by a
casual collector.
Therefore, it has moved into the area
recently. Three definite and two probable records
within three years, where it was not recorded for
over 50 years, implies that the recent records are
members of a breeding population rather than
mere stragglers from Nepal. The sightings follow
the emergence pattern observed by Bailey (1951)
in Nepal, i.e., November-December; March-
April and again the following March and
December. Although the monsoon brood noted
by Bailey (op. cit.) has not been recorded in
Kumaon so far, this is probably because of the
limited period of activity of butterflies during the
monsoon, as well as because I hardly travel to
low elevations during that season. If one considers
that this species is not a known migrant, nor for
that matter is any Indian member of the genus, the
possibility of the present records being merely
stragglers is unlikely. I might add that during the
1980s and early 1990s, I was on the road much
more often to Haldwani and other adjoining low
areas than during the later 1990s, hence the
possibility of encountering these butterflies was
greater in the past than during the last few years
when they have actually been recorded.
According to Sevastopulo (1973), the
larval hostplant is probabl; Loranthus L., of
which four species occur below 1,500 m in
Kumaon (Osmaston 1927).
The above observations resolve the
problem of Evans’ (op. cit.) record of the butterfly
from Shimla. Being at the western extremity of
its range, this limit is evidently flexible. The
factors influencing the expansion and contraction
of its range have not been understood, but in
certain years, such as during 1997, 1998 and
1999, the range is extended westward. For most
of the 20th century, this butterfly was unable to
extend its range west of Nepal. But now, factors
being conducive, it has extended its range to
Kumaon and possibly even further westward
along the Himalaya. The material upon which
Evans (op. cit.) based his record from Shimla
was evidently a part of such an expansion in
range as is being witnessed at present. One or
more specimens were taken at Shimla, in much
the same manner as the specimens reached Jones
Estate recently. Subsequently, the range
contracted and no more records were
forthcoming, hence the controversy.
There is also a controversy regarding the
occurrence of this butterfly in the Eastern Ghats
where it is said to be very rare (Wynter-Blyth,
op. cit.). According to Evans (op. cit.), the
subspecies kandha Doherty occurs in the Madras
Presidency. Alan Sharman (in litt . ), who
collected and lived in the Eastern Ghats until
the 1960’s failed to find it there. Other recent
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
workers have also not found it. Perhaps the
factors leading to the recent expansion of this
insect’s range westward along the Himalaya
will also cause it to be met in the Eastern Ghats,
too.
For the future, it would be best to amend
the distribution of this butterfly to read “Extends
its range westward along the Himalaya in certain
years from Nepal to Kumaon and probably as
far as Himachal Pradesh.”
Acknowledgement
I am grateful to Alan Sharman for his
notes, which he kindly made and sent me, and
to the anonymous referees for their valuable
suggestions.
March 2, 2000 PETER SMETACEK
Jones Estate, Bhimtal,Nainital,
Uttar Pradesh 263 1 36, India.
References
Bailey, F.M. (1951): Butterflies from Nepal, Part 1.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50 : 64-87.
Evans, W.H. (1932): The Identification of Indian
Butterflies. 2nd ed. Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay.
Lewis, H.L. (1973): Butterflies of the World. Harrap,
London.
Osmaston, A.E. (1927): A Forest Flora for Kumaon.
Government Press, Allahabad.
Sevastopulo, D.G. (1973): The Food-plants of Indian
Rhopalocera. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 156-
183.
Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian
Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
— ANEW
27. AMERICAN JOINTVETCH AESCHYNOMENE AMERICANA LINN.
LARVAL FOOD PLANT OF TERIAS HECABE LINN.
While working on the butterflies of the
Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP), Mumbai,
we came across a plant with a glandular hispid
stem. At first, it appeared to be an insectivorous
plant. We collected and identified it as
Aeschynomene americana Linn. The Common
Grass Yellow butterfly Terias hecabe Linn, lays
eggs on this plant. We also collected a caterpillar
feeding on the plant. The caterpillar pupated
later, and the butterfly that emerged was
identified as Terias hecabe Linn.
Aeschynomene americana (Linn.),
commonly known as sensitive plant or American
jomtvetch, is a native of tropical America
(Maheshwari and Paul 1975) and was introduced
into India recently. It was first reported from
Hazaribagh (Chatterjee 1960) and subsequently
near Ranchi (Maheshwari and Paul 1975), both
in Bihar State. Chandrabose and Srinivasan
(1976) have reported this species from Kerala,
Quilon district, Perundanaruvi. However,
according to them it is a native of the West
Indies. In the flora of Maharashtra, Almeida
(1999) has mentioned that the species has so far
been collected from Thane and (the erstwhile)
Colaba districts of Maharashtra. The present
record is from Goregaon (East), in the vicinity
of the SGNP. It is interesting to note that this
intruder has come closer to the National Park
area as the earlier distribution as recorded in
the flora of Maharashtra is Khopoli and Vashi
areas. Unless precautions are taken, it will
become a major intruder into the area and disturb
the growth of the native flora. I (NC) have
observed that Hyptis suaveolens , commonly
known as vilayati tulsi, has become a major
threat to low growing plants like Smithia
sensitiva and Cassia tora , Cyanotis and
Commelina spp. which once grew profusely.
However, both these plants i.e. Aeschynomene
americana and Hyptis suaveolens are useful to
butterflies, as the former is a new larval food
plant for the Common Grass Yellow and the
latter a source of nectar for many butterflies.
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS
We thank Mr. M.R. Almeida for
identification of the plant and Mr. M.O. George
for typing the manuscript.
Refer
Almeida, M.R. (1999): Flora of Maharashtra, Vol. 2,
Oriental Publications, Mumbai, pp. 457.
Chandrabose, M. & S.R. Srjnivasan (1976): Notes on
some rare and interesting plants from South India.
Bull. Bot. Surv. India 18: 236-238.
November 24, 1 999 NARESH CHATURVEDI
V. SHUBHALAXMI
Bombay Natural Histoiy Society,
Horn bill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
ENCES
Chatterjee, D. (I960): Record of Aeschynomene
americana Linn. Science & Cult 25: 488-489.
Maheshwari, J.K. & S.R. Paul (1975): The Exotic
Flora of Ranchi J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72:
165.
28. MIGRATION OF THE COMMANDER BUTTERFLY
LIMENITIS PROCRIS (CRAMER)
In the forenoon of November 5, 1999, the
first author (NC) observed a Commander
Butterfly feeding on flowers of Ixora outside
Hombill House. I waited for some time to see
whether the butterfly was in the vicinity and
would return to feed on these flowers. However,
there was no trace of the butterfly till evening.
Subsequently, in the third week of November, I
saw two of these butterflies feeding on Lantana
flowers near Churchgate Station, Mumbai.
On November 25, 1999, one of us (VG)
collected a caterpillar of the butterfly from a
kadamb tree Anthocephalus cadamba growing
within the boundary of Hornbill House. The
caterpillar pupated on November 25, 1999 and
the butterfly emerged on December 3, 1999. On
a closer look at the kadamb tree, we found three
more caterpillars, which were 3rd instars and
pupated on December 12, 1999.
Earlier, a BNHS member, Mr. Kiran
Srivastava informed us about the sighting of a
Commander butterfly near Colaba Woods on
December 28, 1998. According to him, the
butterfly seemed to have escaped from a predator,
as the right hindwing was completely missing.
I have been monitoring butterfly migration
in Mumbai and its vicinity over the last 1 0 years
and have not come across the Commander
butterfly in the city area. According to Wynter-
Blyth (1957), this butterfly is a denizen of, though
not exclusively confined to, thickly forested areas
receiving heavy or moderate rain at an elevation
of 305 to 1,220 m
It is interesting to note their presence in
an urban built up area with heavy vehicular
traffic. As these butterflies are seen only for a
short time, they were possibly on migration.
Though many Nymphalids are known to migrate,
Williams (1930) does not mention this butterfly.
December 17, 1999 NARESH CHATURVEDI
VARAD GIRI
VITHOBA HEGDE
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
References
Williams, C.B.(1 930): The Migration of Butterflies, Oliver Wynter-Blyth (1957): Butterflies of the Indian region,
and Boyd, Edinburgh: Tweeddale Court, London, The Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,
pp. 1-473. PP- 180.
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29. DIVERSITY OF BUTTERFLIES NEAR A POOL IN
THE S ANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL PARK, MUMBAI
Along with three others, I visited the
Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP), Mumbai,
on December 5, 1999. We had planned to sit
near a shallow pool created by a natural dyke
on the adjoining BNHS land. Apart from this
pool, most of the streams and puddles in the
area dry out by November end. The water body,
approximately 12 sq. m in area and one metre
in depth, is situated on a rocky bed at the base
of a valley. The surrounding hills rise about 15 m
above the pool. The neighbouring forest is
tropical, moist, semi evergreen, typical of SGNP.
Although the stream is dry, the pool is fed by
ground water that trickles through cracks in the
adjoining rocks, forming a wet patch of c. 4 sq. m,
that is coated with algae and moss. The terrain in
the immediate vicinity is rocky, topped with a
carpet of dry leaves of Bombax ceiba, Garuga
pinnata and Pongamia pinnata. This leaf litter
ensures that the moisture stays trapped even
during the hot hours of the day, inviting a variety
of Lepidoptera.
We reached the site at 0900 hrs and stayed
till 1115 hrs. In this short span of time, 35
species of butterflies belonging to five families
visited the wet portion surrounding the pool,
for mud-puddling. The butterflies landed directly
on the wet patch or on the surrounding leaf
litter.
I have been visiting SGNP for over a
decade, but have never seen such a diverse
gathering of butterflies at a single site. Among
the most abundant species were the Commander,
Common Leaf Blue, Common Sailor, Chocolate
Pansy, Common Leopard, and Psyche (more
than 15 individuals each), while the least
common were the Gaudy Baron, Silverstreak,
Common Silverline, Longbanded Silverline,
Grey Pansy and Common Hedge Blue (one
each).
Butterflies observed at SGNP:
Papilionidae (Papilioninae)
1 . Common Mormon ( Princeps polytes)
Pieridae (Pierinae)
2. Psyche ( Leptosia nina)
3. Pioneer {Anaphaeis aurota)
4. Common Wanderer ( Pareronia Valeria)
5. Yellow Orangetip {Ixias pyrene)
6. Great Orangetip ( Hebomoia glaucippe)
Pieridae (Coliadinae)
7. Common Emigrant (Catopsilia pomona)
8. Three Spot Grass Yellow ( Eurema blanda)
Lycaenidae (Theciinae)
9. Common Leaf Blue ( Amblypodia anita)
10. Silverstreak ( Iraota timoleon)
1 1 . Common Silverline ( Spindasis vulcans)
12. Longbanded Silverline {Spindasis lohita)
Lycaenidae (Polyommatinae)
13. Opaque six-line (Nacaduba beroe)
14. Common Cerulean {J amides celeno)
1 5 . Pea Blue ( Lampides boeticus)
16. Dark Cerulean {J amides bochus)
17. Common Pierrot {Castalius rosimon)
18. Grass Jewel ( Zizeeria trochilus)
19. Common Hedge Blue {Acetolepis puspa)
Nymphalidae (Styrinae)
20. Dark Brand Bushbrown {Mycalesis mineus)
Nymphalidae (Nymphalinae)
21. Common Leopard (Phalanta phalantha)
22. Chocolate Pansy {Precis iphita)
23. Lemon Pansy {Precis lemonias)
24. Grey Pansy {Precis atlites)
25. Great Eggfly {Hypolimnas bolina)
26. Common Sailor {Neptis hylas)
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27. Common Sergeant (Parathyma perius)
28. Commander ( Moduza procris)
29. Red Baron (Symphaedra nais)
30. Gaudy Baron ( Euthalia lubentina)
Nymphalidae (Danainae)
3 1 . Common Crow ( Euploea core)
32. Plain Tiger ( Danaus chrysippus)
33. Glassy Tiger ( Parantica aglea)
34. Blue Tiger (Tirumala limniace)
Hesperiidae (Pyrginae)
35. Small Common Flat ( Sarangesa dasahara )
February 14, 2000 ANISH P. ANDHERIA
2, Sagar building, V.P.Road,
Andheri (West), Mumbai 400 058,
Maharashtra, India.
30. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON LARVAL AND PUPAL DIMORPHISM
IN THE COMMON NA WAB BUTTERFLY (ERIBOEA A THAMUS)
The life cycle of Eriboea athamus has been
studied by T.R. Bell (1909). The variations
observed in the larval and pupal coloration
during my studies on this species are given below.
Egg: According to Bell (1909), the
butterfly lays its eggs only on the upper side of
the Acacia spp. leaf in a sunny place. I noted
that the eggs were laid on both the upper and
lower surfaces of the leaflet. About five eggs were
laid on each plant. The eggs hatched after 4 days
and measured about 0. 1 mm in diameter.
Larva: When the larva has just hatched,
it is pale, transparent yellowish-brown in colour,
measuring about 0.4 mm in length with a dark,
coffee brown head bearing four minute horns.
Within four hours of hatching, the colour starts
turning light green as they start feeding on the
Acacia leaves.
Two types of larval coloration were observed.
In the first type, segments 4-11 had a yellow band,
unlike the white one described by Bell. Again, the
broad bands on segment 6, 8 and 10 are yellow,
bordered anteriorly with black, while Bell observed
white bands with a black anterior border.
The second type had three broad, dark
yellow bands on segments 6, 8 and 1 0, bordered
by a black band. Also, the narrow, horizontal
yellow band on segment 3 had a black outline.
Thin yellow lines alternated with the yellow
bands.
Pupa: Similarly, dimorphic forms of pupa
were observed. Bell (1909) recorded yellow or
light green pupa, with white stripes, spots and
bands. The pupa of the first type of caterpillar
observed was light green, whereas the pupa of
the second type was dark green with prominent
white spots, bands and lines. In both cases, none
of the pupae were yellow.
Habits: The resting habit of the larva has
been observed by Bell (1909) “When the larva
grows too large for one bed, it makes another,
soon requiring 3 or 4 or more leaflets to rest
upon”. During the present study, it was observed
that the larva never needed another leaflet to
rest upon. It remained on the same leaflet until
pupation. According to Bell (1909), it returns
to the same silk bed after feeding. Another
interesting habit observed in the caterpillars
reared in captivity was that they removed their
own faecal pellets with their mouth, if the pellet
came in the way, or if it was still attached to
the anal region. When teased it moves with a
halting motion spreading abundance of silk (Bell
1909).
The feeding habit of the larva is different.
It begins feeding on a single leaflet eating on
one sub-leaf of a leaflet. It starts at the nodal end
of the sub-leaf, returning just above the same
position till the sub-leaf is completely eaten or
becomes “sickle shaped”
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
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Acknowledgement March 28, 2000 R. ANURADHA
Bombay Natural History Society
I sincerely thank Mr. Naresh Chaturvedi, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Curator, BNHS, who guided and encouraged me Mumbai 400 023,
to submit this paper. Maharashtra, India.
Reference
Bell, T.R. (1909): Common Butterflies of the Plains of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19: 660-662.
3 1 . OCCURRENCE OF PSECHRUS ALTICEPS POCOCK
(ARANEAE: PSECHRIDAE) IN WESTERN GHATS, KERALA
WITH A REDESCRIPTION AND NOTES ON ITS HABIT AND HABITAT
( With one text-figure)
Psechridae is one of the less studied
families of Araneae. Till the seventies, only two
species, Psechrus alticeps Pocock and Fecenia
travancoria Pocock were recorded from India.
Later, Tikader (1977) described Psechrus
nicobarensis from Andaman and Nicobar
Islands. Though the family does not show much
species diversity, it is one of the most common
spiders in the forests of Ernakulam district in
Kerala. In the fauna of British india Pocock
(1900) gives only a brief description of the
species, which we found to be highly inadequate
for identification. Hence a redescription of
Psechrus alticeps Pocock is attempted here, with
notes on its habit and habitat. Earlier, it was
reported from Trivandrum (Ferguson 1906) and
Cochin (Gravely 1922). We extend its
distribution to three new areas in Kerala:
Bhoothathankettu, Thattakkad Bird Sanctuary
and Munnar.
Psechrus alticeps Pocock
(Fig. la-g)
1 899. Psechrus alticeps Pocock, J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 751
1900. Psechrus alticeps Pocock, Faun.
Brit. India, Arachnida : 211
Specimens examined: 4 9 9, Id*,
Bhoothathankettu 3.iv.2000; 3 $ 9, Thattakkad
Bird Sanctuary 5. i. 2000; 2 9 9, Munnar
3.ii.2000, Habitat: Moist evergreen forest, Coll:
K. Sunil Jose.
Cephalothorax: Longer than wide,
cephalic region highly elevated, with posterior
region flat and low. Carapace broader posteriorly.
Eyes encircled by black base. Ocular quadrangle
longer than wide. Eyes of posterior row recurved
and anterior row procurved. Laterals larger than
middle eyes in the anterior row, while in the
posterior row, eyes more or less equal in size.
Space between two rows of eyes broad. Clypeus
moderately high. Chelicerae dark brown, strong,
provided with boss, armed apically with four
teeth on the inner margin and three teeth on the
outer margin. Lateral sides of carapace bears a
broad, longitudinal, yellowish patch with
midregion of carapace darker. Fovea
longitudinal, deep, situated posteriorly. Sternum
heart shaped, clothed with fine hairs. Legs
markedly long, slender, hairy with transverse
bands. First leg nearly six times the length of
carapace. First leg longer than other legs, third
leg the shortest. Leg formula 1423. Tibia of first
leg bears three pairs of ventral spines. Male palp
as in Fig lg.
Abdomen: Elongated, subcylindrical,
304
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1 : Psechms alticeps Pocock: (a) Dorsal view of the female, legs omitted, (b) Epigyne,
(c) Labium and maxillae (d) Cribellum (e) Chelicerae (f) Internal genitalia (g) Male palp.
clothed with fine hairs. Broadest at the middle,
narrows posteriorly. Dorsal surface usually
yellowish to dark brown with posterior area
darker. In younger individuals, dorsum- of
abdomen variegated with black patches laterally.
Ventral surface uniformly brown except a
conspicuous midventral longitudinal white line.
Cribellum large, divided transversely as in
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. Id. Epigyne and internal genitalia as in
Fig. lb and If.
Measurements (in mm): Total length 24,
Carapace 10 L & 7 W; Abdomen 15 L & 9 W.
Legs I: 55, II: 45, III: 32 & IV: 46. Measurements
(in mm) of original type: Total length 15,
Carapace 6.5 L, and Leg I: 49 L.
Distribution: india, Kerala: Ponmudi and
Trivandrum (Ferguson 1906); Cochin (Gravely
1922), Bhoothathankettu, Thattakkad Bird
Sanctuary, Munnar.
Habit and Habitat: Psechrus alticeps
Pocock is a large, diurnal spider, spinning large
sheet-like horizontal webs of 30-60 cm diameter.
The spider remains upside down below the web,
which is constructed among herbs or dark
hollows at the base of large forest trees. It seems
to prefer dark, shady and cool areas for web
construction. The spider is very agile and escapes
into the safety of its retreat at the slightest
disturbance, which makes it very difficult to
catch. Sometimes aggregates of many webs can
be seen. Young individuals are more yellowish
in colour, while older ones are usually more dark
Refer
Ferguson (1 906): Travancore State Manual / : 160
Gravely, F.H. ( 1 922): Common Indian Spiders. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 28: 1 047.
Pocock, R.I. (1899): Diagnosis of some new Indian
Arachnida. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 751.
brown. Unlike those of Araneidae, the web of
P. alticeps is usually untidy, with many irregular
threads below the sheet. It is permanent, not
reconstructed each day. This species has not been
reported from outside Kerala, the moist evergreen
environment of which is presumed to be required
for its survival.
Acknowledgement
We thank Principal, Rev. Fr. George
Koyikara CMI, Sacred Heart College, Thevara,
Kochi, Kerala, for facilities.
*K. SUNIL JOSE,
P. A. SEBASTIAN
Department of Zoology,
Sacred Heart College,
Thevara, Kochi,
Kerala 682013, India,
* Present address:
Department of Zoology ,
HSS of Jesus, Kothad, Kochi,
Kerala 682027, India.
ENCES
Pocock, R.I. (1900): Fauna of British India, Arachnida.
Taylor and Francis, London: 21 1.
Tikader, B.K. (1977): Studies on spider Fauna of
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Rec. zool. Surv.
India 72: 208.
32. TAXONOMIC STATUS OF THE BOMBAY LUGWORM, ARENICOLA
(ANNELIDA: POLYCHAETA)
In 1951, Mr. R.G. Dandekar, then Junior
Research Assistant at the Taraporevala
Aquarium, collected lugworms (Arenicola) at
Haji Ali bay (opposite the race course, near
present Shiv Sagar) off Darya Mahal, the palace
of the erstwhile Maharaja of Gwalior.
As he was transferred to another post in
the Fisheries Department, he could not follow
up on publishing his findings, and Mr. M.R.
Ranade, then Senior Research Assistant at the
Aquarium, published a short note (Ranade 1952).
It is surprising that Ranade claimed that he had
“discovered well-developed specimens of
Arenicola...” .
It appears that, around the same time or a
little later, Dr. K.K. Nail* of the Wilson College
also collected specimens from the same locality
(Dr. S.P. Karmarkar, pers. comm.).
306
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Subsequently, P.V. Wagh, a student of this
college started visiting the Taraporevala Marine
Biological Station (attached to the Taraporevala
Aquarium and affiliated to the University of
Bombay) to meet one of his colleagues who was
doing her postgraduate work there. PVW and
MRR joined hands and the former dissected
specimens of Arenicola collected by Dandekar.
The two, in association with Dr. H.G.
Kewalramani, then Curator of the Aquarium
published a paper to the effect that the Arenicola
of Bombay was a new species, and named it
A. bombayensis. Prior to publication, the three
had asked Dr. G.P. Wells, an authority on
Arenicola species of the world (Wells 1955), for
his comments. Despite Wells’ opinion (G.P. Wells
pers. comm.) that the moipho logical characters of
the Bombay Arenicola were not significantly
different enough to warrant creation of a new
species, they went ahead and created a new species.
The Bombay Arenicola resembles
Arenicola cristata Simpson in having 17
chaetiferous segments, 1 1 pairs of gills, and the
first pair of nephridia being situated on the fifth
segment. The only difference is that A. cristata
has six pairs of nephridia, while the Bombay
Arenicola has seven, and that the Bombay
Arenicola had (according to Kewalramani et al.
1959) many statoliths while A. cristata has only
one inside a closed statocyst.
Kewalramani et al. (1959) based their
arguments on Berkeley and Berkeley’s (1939)
contention (for B. and B.’s creation of their new
species A. glasseli), namely “the smaller size (of
the sexually mature individuals), the presence
of only 16 setigerous segments and 10 pairs of
branchiae and particularly, the presence of seven
pairs of nephridia, all of which are constant in
the material, seem to sufficiently differentiate it
from ,4. cristata to necessitate the establishment
of a new species.”
The creation of Bombay Arenicola as a new
species rested mainly on Wagh’s dissection where
it was claimed that the statocyst in the new
species consisted of many statoliths, whereas
A. cristata and A. glasseli (related species) had
a single statolith. Subsequent dissections of
specimens of Bombay Arenicola have, however,
shown that it has a closed statocyst with a single
statolith and that Wagh must have, inadvertently
or otherwise, crushed the statocyst so as to find
many statoliths.
In view of these subsequent findings that
both the Bombay Arenicola and A. cristata have
a closed statocyst with a single statolith, the only
difference between the two species is that the
number of nephridia in the Bombay Arenicola
is seven pairs, against six pairs in A. cristata,
indeed a minor one. A. glacialis Murdoch too
resembles these two species in having 17
chaetiferous segments and 1 1 pairs of gills, but
differs in having an open statocyst with many
statoliths and with six pairs of nephridia, the first
pair being on the fourth segment. A. glasseli
Berkeley and Berkeley, while resembling
A. cristata in having a closed statocyst with a
single statolith and with seven pairs of nephridia,
of which the first pair is on the fifth segment,
differs in having only 1 6 chaetiferous segments
and 10 pairs of gills. It is therefore felt that
A. bombayensis does not have the status of a
separate species and is, in fact synonymous with
A. cristata.
Authors’ Note.- Our findings and
conclusions are based, apart from study of
material examined subsequently, on first-hand
observation as one of us (BFC) was at the
Taraporevala Aquarium from 1951 to 1965,
while SRS is an ex-student of Wilson College.
July 27, 2000 B.F. CHHAPGAR
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, Mumbai 400 023.
S.R. SANE
‘Sachetan 60, Pestom Sagar, Chembur,
Mumbai 400 089, Maharashtra, India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
307
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Berkeley, E. & C. Berkeley (1939): On a collection of
Polychaeta chiefly from the west coast of Mexico.
Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. XI: 321-346.
Kewalramani, H.G., P.V. Wagh & M.R. Ranade ( 1 959):
Taxonomy of the Lugworm found off Bombay.
Journ. Zool. Soc. India 11(2): 109-1 15.
Ranade, M.R. (1952): Occurrence of Arenicola in Bombay.
Curr. Sci. 21: 165.
Wells, G.P. (1955): Reports on the Lund University Chile
Expedition 1 948-49. A preliminary account of the
Arenicolidae (Polychaeta). Acta Univ. LundN.F.
Avd. 250 8: 1-6.
33. ECOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION AND POPULATION STRUCTURE OF
MUD DWELLING EDWARDS! A (CNIDARIA: ACTINARIA) IN A MANGROVE
HABITAT OF COCHIN AREA, KERALA
Mangrove areas are a characteristic coastal
ecosystem in tropical and subtropical regions and
the intertidal zone of this dynamic ecosystem
supports a variety of animals such as molluscs,
crustaceans, polychaetes and other taxonomic
groups. Cochin mangroves are located along the
lower part of the Cochin estuary (9° 52'- 10° N
and 76° 15'-76° 22' E). Most of the available
information on the genus Edwardsia is
descriptive (Athalye and Gokhale 1998), while
details of the distribution pattern and population
structure are scarce. The present paper describes
the ecological distribution and abundance of a
burrowing sea anemone Edwardsia sp. from the
intertidal areas of the mangrove ecosystem in
Guntu Island, Cochin.
A well established fringing mangrove area
located in the lower reaches of the Cochin
estuary was selected for the study. Mangroves
are dominated by Avicennia officinalis ,
Bruguiera sp., Acanthus ilicifolius and
Clerodendrum inerme. Less dominant and
scattered species include Acrostichum aureum
and Rhizophora apiculata. Sediment samples
were collected at low tide from the exposed
intertidal area by using a box corer (120 sq. cm
area) up to 15 cm depth. Triplicate samples were
made from three tidal zones — low tide, mid
tide and high tide levels for two years ( 1 989-9 1 ).
Samples were pooled and sieved through a
0.5 mm mesh sieve, and the animals remaining
in the sieve were collected. Sea anemones were
sorted out for further study. Ecological
parameters of the study area were also
determined. Water characteristics, namely
salinity, temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen
(Strickland and Parsons 1972) and sediment
characteristics, namely sand, silt and clay
percentages (Krumbein and Pettijohn 1938) and
organic matter concentration (Walkley and Black
1934) were estimated.
Water Characteristics: The water
characteristics of the study area are given in
Table 1. The most important varying ecological
factor was salinity, which varied from 1.2 to
28.7 ppt. The temperature, dissolved oxygen and
pH varied from 29.5 to 33.5 °C, 1.6 to 5.4 ml/1
and 6.2 to 7.6 respectively.
Sediment characteristics: The sand, silt
and clay contents of the substratum are given in
Table 2. The entire study area, irrespective of
the three tidal levels, was composed of sandy
type sediment, with organic matter content
varying from 0.6 to 1.53%.
Population density: The population density
of Edwardsia sp. is given in Table 1 . Total density
was higher (364/0.1 sq. m) in the high tide zone,
followed by mid tide zone (275/0.1 sq. m) and
low tide zone (1 1/0. 1 sq. m). The monsoon ( June-
September) and post-monsoon (October-
January) periods showed the highest population
density.
The occurrence of the mud dwelling,
burrowing sea anemone Edwardsia was earlier
308
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(2), AUG. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
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309
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 2
SEDIMENTS CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE STUDY AREA
(ALL VALUES ARE IN %)
reported from mangrove soil habitat (Nandi and
Choudhury 1983, Athalye and Gokhale 1998)
and non-mangrove (Parulekarl968, England
1989) areas within India. None of these studies
described the ecological distribution and
population structure in detail.
The present study revealed that, in general,
the pre-monsoon period (February-May) had the
lowest population of sea anemone compared to
monsoon and post-monsoon periods. There was
striking variation in the population density
throughout the study period. The substantial
fluctuation in salinity did not affect the
population structure of Edwardsia sp., which
suggests its eury haline nature.
The sea anemone showed maximum
population density in the high tide level area
compared to the mid and low tide level areas of
the intertidal zone. The low tide zone seems to
be unfavourable for the occurrence of sea
anemones. This variation in the population
density may be related to the tidal inundation
Refer
Athalye, R.P. & S. Gokhale (1998): Macrobenthos from
the mudflats of Thane creek, Maharashtra, India.
J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 95 : 258-266.
England, K.W. (1989): Description of two new mud
process and the nature of the substratum. The
high tide zone was exposed all the time, except
during high tide, while the low tide zone was
almost submerged irrespective of the tidal
rhythm. The mid tide zone is exposed to a
medium extent. The texture of the sediment was
more or less similar, sandy type mixed with
mangrove detritus, in all the tidal zones. The
slightly more consolidated and water-free
substratum of the maximum exposed area of the
high tide zone, followed by the mid tide zone,
appears to be favourable for the occurrence and
burrowing of Edwardsia sp. These zones may
also provide more suitable ecological niches than
the waterlogged sediment of the low tide zone.
The high abundance and occurrence of sea
anemone in the high tide zone is due to the
adaptations of the species to flooding and
desiccation, which enables it to overcome the
peculiar environmental changes (i.e the ability
to tolerate salinity changes and behavioural and
physiological responses, especially respiratory
adaptation during the periodic exposure of the
area in connection to the tidal cycle) of the
intertidal area and thrive there.
Literature survey revealed that the
occurrence of Edwardsia sp. in Cochin
mangroves is a new record for Kerala.
May 12, 2000 R. SUNIL KUMAR
School of Marine Sciences,
Cochin University of
Science and Technology,
Cochin 682 016, Kerala, India.
Present Address: Department of Zoology,
Catholicate College,
Pathanamthitta 689 645,
Kerala, India.
iNCES
dwelling actiniids from Maharashtra, India:
Edwardsia athalyei sp. nov. and Acontiactis gen.
nov. gokhaleae sp. nov. and a note on Edwarsioides
mammillata (Bourne, 191 6) (Cnidaria: Actinaria).
310
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Indo-Malayan Zoology (6): 141-158.
Krumbein, W.C & FJ. Pettijohn (1938): Manual of
sedimentary petrography. Appleton Century-
Crofts, New York, 459 pp.
Nandi, S. & A. Choudhury(1983): Qualitative studies on
the benthic macro fauna of Sagar Island, intertidal
zones, Sunderbans, India. Mahasagar 16(3):
409-414.
Parulekar, A. (1968). On a new species of sea anemone
from Maharastra, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
65(3): 590-595.
Strickland, J.D & T.T. Parsons ( 1 972): A manual of sea
water analysis. Bull. Fish Res. Bd. Canada 167:
310 pp.
Walkley, A. & I. A. Black (1934). An estimation of the
Degtjareft method for determining soil organic
matter and a proposed modification of the chromic
acid titration method. Soil Sci. 37: 29-38.
34. FIRST RECORD OF A CILIOPHORAN TRICHODINA DOMERGUEI F. MAGNA
LOM, 1960 FROM FRESHWATER FISH PSEUDO APOCRYPTUS LANCEOLATUS
(BLOCH AND SCHNEIDER) FROM INDIA
( With one plate and one text-figure)
Trichodina domerguei f. acuta f. n. was
found by Lom on the body surface (skin, fins
and occasionally gills) of Cyprinus carpio , Perea
fiuviatialis , Lucioperca lucioperca, Leucaspis
delineatus , Rhodeus sericen. On the skin of
tadpoles of several species of frogs, it was
identified as Trichodina domerguei f. latispina
Dogel, 1940. The freshwater fish
Pseudo apocryptus lanceolatus (Family Gobidae)
were examined from September, 1999 to January,
2000 for ciliophoran parasites, and the host fish
was found to be infested with a European tricho-
dinid Trichodina domergueri f. magna Lom, 1960.
Trichodinid ciliophorans are known to be
dangerous ectoparasites of fishes, causing damage
to the gills. In highest degree of infestation,
hypersecretion of mucus occurs. In spite of this,
erosion of proliferation of the branchial epithelium
and occasional haemorrhage occurs. We confirm
the existence of an introduced European
trichodinid ciliophoran Trichodina domerguei f.
magna Lom, 1960 in India.
Host fishes Pseudo apocryptus lanceolatus
(Bloch and Schneider) were collected live,
brought quickly to the laboratory and gill smears
were made on grease-free slides. Smears
containing the trichodinid ciliophorans were
separated and impregnated with 2% silver
nitrate solution. The impregnated slides were
exposed to ultraviolet rays for about 25 minutes.
Photomicrographs were taken to study
morphological variation in the population of the
trichodinid. Measurements are given in microns.
The terminology and detailed structure of the
various parts of the adhesive discs are after Lom
(1958), Wellborn (1967), Arthur and Lom
(1984), Vanas and Basson (1989, 1992).
Trichodina domergui f. magna Lom, 1960
(collected from India)
(Plate 1, Figs 1-4)
Material examined: (G/23/99) in the
collection of the author. Denticle drawings and
description based on Vanas and Basson (loc. cit).
Blade broad. Apex rounded, parallel with border
membrane. Tangent point narrow, pointed at the
same level as distal surface. Anterior margin takes
a sudden turn to form a notch-shaped structure,
occasionally crossing Y-axis (Fig. Id). Anterior
and posterior margins not parallel. Posterior
margin of the blade forming deep semilunar
depression, slightly above apex. Blade connection
thin and short. Central part well developed,
angular, fitted tightly with preceding denticle. In
most specimens, central part extends almost
entirely beyond Y-axis. Ray connection broad. Rays
stout, occupying the Y-axis (Fig. la-d). Tips of
rays blunt, turned towards Y-l axis (Fig. lb).
Central area with distinct clear portion having
argentophilic granules.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
311
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
BIOMETRICAL DATA (IN jiM) OF TRICHODINA DOMERGUEI F. MAGNA LOM. 1 960
Fig. 2: Comparison of denticles of: (a-b) Trichodina
domerguei f. magna found from
(c-d) Pseudoapocryptus lanceolatus with the same
reported by Lorn in 1 960
The population of trichodinids studied by
us has been identified as Trichodina domergui f.
magna Lom, 1960 after escaning the adhesive disc
structure. But the biometrical data does not fall
within the reported range of Trichodina domergui
f. magna. (Table 1). The specimens found on
Pseudoapocryptus lanceolatus were compared
with the trichodinids inhabiting freshwater fishes,
and it was noted that the blades of both the
specimens are curved in the same direction.
Anterior and posterior margins of both blades of
the specimens are not parallel. The apex in both
the specimens almost touches the Y-axis. The
posterior margin also forms a deep semilunar curve
with Y-axis. The central part is short, triangular
in both the specimens. The rays are short with blunt
end and directed towards the geometrical centre
of adhesive disc. Moreover, no differences in
morphology and denticle structure of both the
specimens have been noticed. Considering all these
factors, we may conclude that the specimen
examined is Trichodina domergui f. magna.
312
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Dash, G.: Trichodina domerguei
Plate 1
Fig. 1-4: Photomicrographs of Trichodina domerguei infecting Pseudoapocryptus lanceolatus
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
November 22, 2000 P. K. BANDYOPADHYAY
Parasitology Laboratory, Dept of Zoology,
University of Kalyani, Kalyani 741235,
West Bengal,
India.
Refer
Arthur, J. R. & J. Lom (1984): Some Trichodinid ciliates
(Protozoa: Peritrichida) from Cuban fishes with
description of Trichodina cubanensis n. sp. from the
skin of Cichlasoma tetracantha. Trans. Am. Micros.
Soc. 103 : 172- 184.
Lom, J. (1958): A contribution to the systematics and
morphology of endoparasitic trichodinids from
amphibians, with a proposal of uniform specific
characteristics. J. Protozool. 5: 215-263.
Lom, J. (1960): Ectoparasitic Trichodinids from freshwater
fish in Czechoslovakia. Vest. Cs. Spool. Zool. 25:
215-228.
G. DASH
Dept of Fish Pathology and Microbiology,
West Bengal University of
Animal and Fishery Science,
Mohanpur, West Bengal, India.
NCES
Vanas, J. G. & L. Basson (1989): A further contribution
to the taxonomy of the Trichodinidae (Ciliophora:
Peritricha) and a review of the taxonomic status of
some fish ectoparasitic trichodinids. Syst. Parasitol.
14: 157-179.
Vanas, J. G. & L. Basson (1992): Trichodinid ectoparasites
(Ciliophora: Peritrichida) of freshwater fishes of the
Zambesi River system, with a reappraisal of host
specificity. Syst. Parasitol. 22: 81-109.
Wellborn, T. L. Jr. (1967): Trichodina (Ciliata:
Urceolariidae) of freshwater fishes of the southeastern
United States. J. Protozool. 14: 399-412.
35. A NEW COMBINATION IN THE GENUS MAYTENUS MOLINA
(FAMILY CELASTRACEAE)
Lourteig & O’Donell (De Natura 1, 1955,
188) correctly transferred the genus
Gymnosporia Hook. f. to Maytenus Molina due
to the presence of erect shrubs or trees with
spines, cymose flowers and ovary confluent with
the disc. While working on the flora of bihar, it
was found that Haines (Bot. Bihar & Orissa 188.
1921) described a variety under Gymnosporia
rufa Wall. var. latifolia Haines, which is now
required to be transferred to the genus Maytenus
Molina. Therefore, the new combination is given
below:
Maytenus rufa (Wall.) Hara var. latifolia
(Haines) R.P. Bhattacharya, comb. nov.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the Director, Botanical
Survey of India, and Dr. V. Mudgal for their kind
help and encouragement.
March 31,1999 R.P. BHATTACHARYA
Botanical Survey of India,
Indian Botanic Garden, Shibpore,
Howrah 711 103, West Bengal, India.
Address for Correspondence :
Kelomal Santoshini High School,
P.O. Kelomal, Dt. Midnapur,
Pin 72 1 627, West Bengal, India.
36. ON THE NUMBER OF FERTILE STAMENS IN FLOWERS OF
BAUHINIA PURPUREA L. (LEGUMINOSAE: CAESALPINIOIDEAE)
On the morning of November 11, 1998, I
casually plucked a few flowers from two trees of
Bauhinia purpurea L. cultivated side by side on
the banks of the river Hooghly, opposite the
Public Relation Officer’s quarter in Division 4
of the Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah. They
had white petals tinged pink, with a reddish
colour on some of the veins, and one of them
had, surprisingly, 2 fertile stamens instead of
the usual 3. I kept a close watch on the flowers
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
315
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
of the two trees for the next few days and found
that they had (2-) 3 fertile stamens. Further, a
reduced stamen of varying size was also seen in
some of the flowers with both 2 or 3 fertile
stamens.
This is a new record for Bauhinia
purpurea. The voucher specimens collected from
the two trees (12.xi.1998, Bandyopadhyay 101,
102) have been deposited in CAL.
March 3 1 , 1 999 S. BANDYOPADHYAY
Botanical Survey of India
P.O. Botanic Garden
Howrah 711 103, West Bengal, India.
37. INTERACTION BETWEEN ACANTHUS AND SUNBIRDS
AT CORINGA IN ANDHRA PRADESH
Acanthus ilicifolius L., (Acanthaceae)
commonly called the spiny, or hollyleaf
mangrove, is the best-known species in a closely
related group of ground flora mangroves. It is
reported to be able to cope with almost all
conditions within the mangrove. It occurs
typically on littoral margins as a sprawling, vine-
like shrub. Usually associated with freshwater
influence, it is common in the upper and middle
reaches of estuarine rivers and other areas in
Coringa, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Acanthus leaves are yellow-green with a
margin that is usually, but not always serrate,
and prickly. The leaf is glossy, stiff, oblong and
lobed, with a short petiole. The flowers are blue
with a purple hue. They secrete nectar from a
ring at the base of the ovary. The large trilobed
lower lip of the corolla forms a landing stage for
pollinators. The four stamens surrounding the
style have strong filaments, which can only be
forced apart by large and powerful biotic vectors.
When this occurs, pollen is shed from the anthers
onto the vector’s body; the receptive stigma also
gets powdered with pollen. In effect, self- or
cross-pollination takes place. The separated
staminal filaments gain their original position
when the insect departs. The flowers receive
multiple visits because of their original viability
and shape. It seems that this floral mechanism
is intended for multiple visits so that the
legitimate pollinators can effect pollination.
The sunbird species, namely, Nectarinia
asiatica and N. zeylonica , and also large
carpenter bees of the genus Xylocopa forage for
the nectar of Acanthus flowers. The birds land
on the flowering branch and insert their bill
through the staminal column surrounding the
style, while the bees use the lower lip of the
corolla for landing before probing the flowers
like sunbirds. However, sunbirds regularly visit
the flowers till they are available. The birds
exhibit territoriality by chasing away the
intruding bees to exploit the floral source
profitably.
Acanthus grows abundantly in the area and
serves as a potential nectar source for the sunbirds
for 3-4 months from May to August. The
interaction between Acanthus flowers and
sunbirds is symbiotic, and ensures the survivsl
of both partners in the mangrove habitats.
However, the occurrence of sunbirds is also
dependent on plant species that bloom (and
provide nectar to birds) outside of the flowering
season of Acanthus , as appears to be in the case
of Leonotis nepetifolia (Aluri and Reddi 1994;
Aluri 1998).
June 14, 1999 A. JACOB SOLOMON RAJU
Department of Environmental Sciences,
A ndhra Un iversitv,
Vishakhapatnam 530 003,
Andhra Pradesh. India.
316
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Aluri, R.J.S. (1998): Correspondence between sunbirds and Leonotis (Lamiaceae). Newsletter for Bird Watchers
35:79-80.
Aluri, R.J. S. & Reddi, C.S. (1994): Pollination ecology and mating system of the weedy mint Leonotis nepetifolia
R.Br. in India. Proc. Indian Nat. Sci. Acad. B60: 255-268.
38. FLORAL BIOLOGY AND ECONOMIC VALUES
OF HYPTIS SUA VEOLENS (L.) POIT. IN MEXICO
The genus Hyptis with about 400 species
(Hickey and King 1988) is a member of the
Subfamily Nepetoideae, Tribe Ocimeae, Subtribe
Hyptidinae (Cantino et al. 1992)/ It is
Neotropical with only a few weed species
extending into the Palaeotropics. Brazil, with
over 250 species, is considered the centre of
diversity for this genus, with most of them
growing as narrow endemics. In Mexico, there
are 32 species out of which 22 are endemics
(Ramamoorthy and Elliott 1993). H. suaveolens
has wild and cultivated forms. The wild form is
a weedy species and widespread in Mexico,
extending its distribution to the Far East of
Palaeotropics. The cultivated forms are confined
to Mexico. Both forms flower from September
to October. The wild flowers are violet with a
nectar guide on the upper lip and have anthers
and stigma concealed in the carina-like central
lobe of the lower lip, set up under tension for
explosive release. Foraging bees cause the tense
carinal lobe to reflex and explosively release the
sex organs, and effect sternotribic pollination
(Aluri 1990). The wild form largely differs from
the cultivated ones in plant height, stem colour,
calyx size, flower colour, manner of carinal lobe
releasing the sex organs, seed colour, etc. The
cultivated forms are distinguishable into two
varieties: i. white flowers with violet nectar guide
and ii. white flowers lacking nectar guide. The
first form exhibits characters intermediate
between the wild and the second form. However,
both the cultivated forms release the anthers and
stigma passively from the carinal lobe, and
contain larger fruiting calyx, requiring an
external agent for seed dispersal. The white form
with the nectar guide is found in some provinces
of Mexico, while the other is completely confined
to the State of Colima. There are no reports on
the occurrence of cultivated forms of
H. suaveolens elsewhere.
Close examination of the wild and cultivated
forms shows that the cultivated forms might have
originated from the wild due to continuous isolation
under human care without sexual reproduction
with their natural populations. Although there are
morphological and functional differences in the
three flower forms, they mate well with each other.
The foraging bees also do not discriminate between
the violet and white flowers and forage alternately
between them, transferring pollen from one form
to another throughout their flowering season.
H. suaveolens is locally known as kChia’
or ‘Chan’. Its seeds are used in sauces, and as a
thickening agent in the preparation of cookies
and biscuits. A traditional drink is also prepared
with the seed flour mixed with ice water and
honey. It is good for digestion and has a cooling
effect on the stomach. ‘Chan’ ice is also sold in
the market. The seeds yield 18-23% protein and
13-23% oil content, indicating their high
nutritive value. The oil is u$ed in cooking and is
an excellent preservative for colours. The leaves
are used as an appetisers, to combat indigestion,
stomach pain, nausea, flatulence and cold, for
wound healing and skin infections. The leaves
also yield an essential oil, which inhibits the
growth of fungi such as Candida albicans and
Helminthosporium oryzae, and bacteria such as
potato pathogenic bacteria (Pandey et al. 1981,
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
317
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1982; Singh et al. 1983; Tiwari et al 1987; Fun
and Svendsen 1990; Rojas et al. 1992).
Preliminary research on food and
medicinal value of H. suaveolens shows that the
weed can be best exploited as a new potent food
crop by developing countries, which have food
grain crises, and as a potent antifungal and
antibacterial agent. The results of our field studies
are encouraging to include H. suaveolens in the
list of new crops. The cultivated forms are
particularly suitable as they have a larger fruiting
calyx in which the seeds are retained for a longer
time, facilitating harvest. Further, the wild and
cultivated forms during their flowering phase
sustain a variety of bees, especially the honeybee
Apis mellifera, which voraciously gathers pollen
and nectar exhibiting fidelity. Therefore, the
potential of H. suaveolens for agricultural use
Refer
Alurj, R.J.S. ( 1 990): The explosive pollination mechanism
and mating system of the weedy Hyptis suaveolens
(Lamiaceae). PI. Sp. Biol. 5: 235-241 .
Cantino, P.D., R.M. Harley & S.J. Wagstaff (1992):
Genera of Labiatae: Status and Classification. In:
Advances in Labiate Science. (Harley, R.M. & T.
Reynolds, eds.) Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
London. Pp. 511-522.
Fun, C.E. & A.B. Svendsen (1990): The essential oil of
Hyptis suaveolens Poit grown on Arubs. Flav. Fragr.
J. 5: 161-163.
Hickey, M. & C. King (1988): 100 Families of flowering
plants. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Pandey, D.K., A. Asthana, N.N. Tripathi & S.N. Dixit
(1981): Volatile plant products vis-a-vis potato
pathogenic bacteria. Ind. Perfumer 25: 10-14.
Pandey, D.K., N.N. Tripathi, R.D. Tripathi & S.N. Dixit
(1982): Fungitoxic and phytotoxic properties of the
seems great, as it is a low-water user and can
grow on moist to dry soils.
The research was supported by the funds
from Consejo Nacional De Ciencia y Technologia
of Mexican Government through CGDIC of the
University of Colima, Colima, Mexico. The study
was conducted at Colima during September-
October 1996.
June 14, 1999 A. JACOB SOLOMON RAJU
Department of Environmental Sciences,
Andhra University,
Vishakhapatnam 530 003,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
MARTHA I. VERGARA SANTANA
Herbario-Hortorio Division, CGDIC,
University of Colima,
Colima, Mexico.
iNCES
essential oil of Hyptis suaveolens. J. Plot. 89:
344-349.
Ramamoorthy, T.P. & M. Elliott (1993): Mexican
Lamiaceae: Diversity, Distribution, Endemism, and
Evolution. In: Biological Diversity ofMexico: Origins
and Distribution. (Eds. Ramamoorthy, T.P., Robert
Bye, Antonio Lot & John Fa) Oxford University Press.
New York. Pp. 5 1 3-539.
Rojas, A., L. Hernandez, R. Pereda-Miranda & R. Mata
( 1 992): Screening for antimicrobial activity of crude
drug extracts and pure natural products from Mexican
medicinal plants. J. Ethnopharm 35: 275-283.
Singh, S.P., S.K. Singh & S. C. Tripathi ( 1 983): Antifungal
activity of essential oils of some Labiatae plants
against dermatophytes. Ind. Perfumer 27: 171-173.
Tiwari, R., K. Drxrr & P.S. Upadhyay ( 1 987): Fungitoxicity
in leaves of some higher plants against some storage
fungi. Nat. Acad. Sci. Letters 10: 419-421 .
39. THOTTEA DINGHOUI SWARUP, FAMILY ARISTOLOCHIACEAE,
A NEW RECORD FOR TAMIL NADU
( With one text-figure)
While botanizing in the Kalakad- specimen, which showed close affinity to Thottea
Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) in barberi (Gamble) Ding Hou. was collected. On
Agastyamalai hills, Tamil Nadu, an interesting comparing the specimen with the descriptions
318
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig.l: Thottea dinghoui Swarup, a. Habit; b. Flower; c. Sepal; d-f. Stamen (adaxial, abaxial and lateral
views); g. Pistil; h-i. Ovary (longitudinal and transverse sections); j. Capsule.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
319
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
in literature and specimens in MH, it was
identified as Thottea dinghoui Swarup, a new
species from Kerala, hitherto unrecorded from
Tamil Nadu.
The description and illustration of the
species are given, along with distribution,
ecology and phenology. The voucher specimens
are deposited in the St. Xavier’s College
Herbarium (XCH), St. Xavier’s College,
Palayamkottai.
Thottea dinghoui Swarup
In: Blumea 28 (1983): 407-411
Erect herbs, 30-50 cm tall; stem rusty,
pubescent. Leaves alternate, elliptic-
oblanceolate, margin entire, apex acute, base
acute to slightly obtuse, densely villous below,
less so above, nerves prominent, c. 5 pairs, 9- 1 7
x 3-8 cm; petiole up to 1 cm long. Inflorescence
radical, c. 8 cm long; peduncle up to 0.5 cm long.
Flowers 7-10, alternate, pale yellow; bracts and
bracteoles small. Calyx 3-lobed, free,
ovate-elliptic-orbicular, apex acute, base cuneate,
hairy without, glabrous within, up to 5 mm long.
Corolla 0. Stamens many, 15-20, in two whorls;
filament short, connate at base, anther 2-celled,
glabrous. Ovary oblong, c. 1 cm long, hairy;
ovules numerous, in axile placentation; style
short. Stigma 3-6 lobed. Capsule hairy, up to
5 cm long, quadrangular, pale pink. Seeds many.
Distribution: Prior to the present finding,
reported only from Idukki district, Kerala.
Probably endemic to southern Western Ghats,
India.
Remarks: Extremely rare species, growing
in the evergreen forests as undergrowth.
FI. & Fr.: August-December.
Material examined Tamil Nadu:
Tirunelveli district, Sivasailam, V.S. Manickam
16673, 17174 (XCH). Kerala: Idukki district:
C.N. Mohanan, Kulamavu 74117, 81603 (MH),
A.G. Pandurangan, Meenmutty-Kulamavu
76679 (MH), Mount Calvary 79233 (MH).
Note: Thottea dinghoui Swamp is closely
allied to Thottea barberi (Gamble) Ding Hou and
Thottea siliquosa (Lamk.) Ding Hou, but differs
in the habit, inflorescence and leaf morphology.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. V. Chelladurai, Research
Officer, Survey of Medicinal Plants Unit, Cen-
tral Council for Research in Ayurveda and
Siddha, Palayamkottai and Dr. R. Gopalan, Bota-
nist, Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore, for
information, identification and helpful sugges-
tions. We also acknowledge financial assistance
from the University Grants Commission.
June 14, 1999 V.S. MANICKAM
V. SUNDARESAN
C. MURUGAN
G.J. JOTHI
Centre for Biodiversity and Biotechnology,
St. Xavier’s College, Palayamkottai 627 002,
Tirunelveli District,
Tamil Nadu, India.
40. OCCURRENCE OF NERVILIA ARAGOANA GAUD. (ORCHIDACEAE) ON THE
NALLAMALAI HILLS, EASTERN GHATS IN ANDHRA PRADESH
During a survey of medicinal plants of the
Nallamalai Hills, Eastern Ghats, Andhra
Pradesh, we collected specimens of an interesting
ground orchid that was examined and identified
as Nervilia aragoana Gaud. A survey of the
literature revealed its presence in the hilly tracts
of Western Ghats, Himalayas and Eastern Ghats.
It has been reported to occur in Rampa Hills,
Eastern Ghats, Andhra Pradesh (Gamble 1967).
However, there exists no report of it's occurrence
from the Nallamalai Hills (Ellis 1968, 1987;
Krishna Mohan 1985; Raju and Pullaiah 1995).
320
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2). AUG. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Hence, this is a new distributional record from
Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh. The voucher
specimens have been deposited in R.R.C. (Ay.)
Herbarium, Vijayawada (F. No. 3772, 12.xi.1998,
near Pedda Manthanalamma area, Kurnool
District, Andhra Pradesh, coll. P. Dwarkan,
Srinivasulu, Vasudeva Rao, Nagulu).
Acknowledgements
Grants extended by Central Council for
Research in Ayurveda and Siddha, New Delhi
and Andhra Pradesh Forest Department,
Hyderabad, to conduct field studies, are
acknowledged. One of us (CS) acknowledges the
grant of a fellowship grant to him by the Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi.
June 26, 1 999 P. DWARKAN
Regional Research Centre (Ayurveda),
Vijayawada 500 010, Andhra Pradesh, India.
C. SRINIVASULU,
V. VASUDEVA RAO,
V. NAGULU
Wildlife Biology Section,
Department of Zoology,
Osmania University, Hyderabad 500 007,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
References
Ellis, J.L. (1968): The flora of the Nallamalais on the
Eastern Ghats of India -1 : A Preliminary list. Bull.
Bot. Surv. India 10(2): 149-160.
Ellis, J.L. (1987): Flora of Nallamalais. Vol. I. Botanical
Survey India, Calcutta.
Krishna Mohan, P. (1985): Flora of Prakasam District,
Ph.D. Thesis, Andhra. University, Visakapatnam.
Gamble, J.S. (1967): Flora of the Presidency of Madras.
Vol. III. Botanical Survey India, Calcutta.
Raju, R.R.V. & T. Pullaiah (1995): Flora of Kurnool.
Bishen Singh & Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra
Dun.
41 . ABNORMAL BRANCHING BEHAVIOUR OF WILD DATE PALM
PHOENIX SYL VESTRIS ROXB. (PALMAE)
During a survey of the forest areas of
Deola Forest Range in Udaipur district, I came
across a wild date palm ( Phoenix sylvestris
Roxb.) with abnormal branching. The tree was
growing in an agricultural field, nearly 2 km
away from Akyawar Forest Nursery, towards the
western side on Udaipur-Sirohi Road. This
young tree had 125 shoots of different sizes in
the basal region. Nearly each leaf of the basal
region had produced a shoot. These shoots
looked like a circular fence around the main
trunk. Basal leaves of all the surrounding shoots
had also produced several shoots. I am observing
this tree since 1993, and it is still producing new
shoots.
It is, perhaps, the wild date palm having
the largest number of shoots in Rajasthan, and
is hence worth placing on record.
June 1 4, 1 999 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA
Range Forest Officer,
Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary,
Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur,
Rajasthan, India.
42. AN EFFECTIVE ETHNOBOTANICAL MEDICINE AGAINST HEMIPLAGIA
This article deals with the ethnobotanical
use of three medicinally important plants used
by the local vaidya of Khatana village against
the dreaded disease hemiplagia, i.e. paralysis.
Khatana village lies in Dharampur taluka, Valsad
district, south Gujarat, on the northwest side of
the Western Ghats (20° 5’ N; 73° 7' E). It is
about 8 km away from Dharampur on its east.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
321
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
The plants used are as under:
(1) Moringa concanensis Lam.
Local name: Kadvo Saragvo
Family: Moringaceae
It is a tall tree with a rough, greyish-brown
trunk.
Used part: Splintered bark of stem.
(2) Blumea eriantha DC.
Local name: Kapur
Family: Asteraceae
It is a strong aromatic herb, flower heads
with yellow florets in axillary and/or terminal,
paniculate cyme.
Used part: Extract of fresh flowers.
(3) Mentha piperita Linn.
Local name: Peppermint
Family: Lamiaceae
It is an aromatic perennial herb.
Used part: Extract of fresh flowers.
Treatment: The oil is extracted from the
fresh flowers of Blumea eriantha and Mentha
piperita , and mixed in almost equal proportions.
It is then massaged for about half an hour on the
paralysed part. Later, the splintered bark of
Moringa concanensis is tied tightly on to the
massaged part for about an hour. This treatment
is very effective in giving relief from pain,
enabling the patient to move the paralysed part
freely. Many patients from Pune, Mumbai, Nasik
(Maharashtra), Vadodara, Ahmedabad (Gujarat),
and other parts of nearby states visit this place
for Hemiplagia treatment.
ACKNO WLEDG EM ENTS
We thank the Gujarat Forest Department,
Gandhinagar, for financial assistance and
Dr. D.A. Raval, Principal, N.V. Patel College of
Pure and Applied Sciences, Vallabh Vidyanagar,
for facilities.
March 3 1 , 1 999 AMIT N. GOHIL,
NIRMAL KUMAR,
RITA N. KUMAR
N. V. Patel College
of Pure & Applied Sciences,
Vallabh Vidyanagar 388 120,
Gujarat, India.
n a m
322
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(2), AUG. 2001
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CONTENTS
EDITORIAL 159
ESTIMATING THE DENSITY OF PORCUPINES IN SEMI-ARID SARISKA VALLEY,
WESTERN INDIA
( With three text-figures)
By Diwakar Sharma 161
DEVELOPMENT OF HYLA ANNECTANS JERDON, 1 870 FROM NAGALAND, INDIA
( With four plates )
By J. Meren Ao and Sabitry Bordoloi 169
NEST-SITE SELECTION OF WHITE-BROWED FANTAIL RHIPIDURA AUREOLA IN
MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
ByV. Gokula 179
SOME CHELONIAN RECORDS FROM MIZORAM
( With one text-figure)
By Anwaruddin Choudhury 1 84
DISTRIBUTION AND DEMOGRAPHY OF DIURNAL PRIMATES IN SILENT VALLEY
NATIONAL PARK AND ADJACENT AREAS, KERALA, INDIA
By K.K. Ramachandran and Gigi K. Joseph 191
FISHES OF THE SUBFAMILY NEMACHEILINAE REGAN (CYPRINIFORMES:
BALITORIDAE) FROM MANIPUR
( With four text-figures and three plates)
By W. Vishwanath and Juliana Laisram 1 97
DISTRIBUTION AND REGENERATION OF HOLOPTELEA INTEGRIFOLIA PLANCH.
IN ALWAR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN
( With three text-figures)
By A.S. Yadav 217
FOOD HABITS OF THE RED PANDA, AILURUS FULGENS IN THE SINGHALILA
NATIONAL PARK, DARJEELING, INDIA
( With one text-figure)
By Sunita Pradhan, Gautom K. Saha and Jamal A. Khan 224
FRESHWATER CLADOCERANS (CRUSTACEA: BRANCHIOPODA) OF THE
WETLANDS OF INDIAN BOTANICAL GARDEN, HOWRAH, WEST BENGAL
( With one text-figure)
By K. Venkataraman and S.R. Das 231
SELECTION OF SUITABLE CENSUS METHOD FOR THE INDIAN SARUS CRANE
GRUS ANTIGONE ANTIGONE
{ With one text-figure)
By Aeshita Mukherjee, C.K. Borad, S.B. Patel and B.M. Parasharya 237
NEW DESCRIPTIONS 242
REVIEWS 262
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 266
Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and
published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,
Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai-400 023.
website: www.bnhs.org; email: [email protected]
dim
Ni-t FTHE
BOMBAY MTIIBAL II INTO KV SOCIETY
Vol. 98 (3)
DECEMBER 2001
BOARD OF EDITORS
Editor
J.C. DANIEL
M.R. ALMEIDA
M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN
B.F. CHHAPGAR
R. GADAGKAR
INDRANEIL DAS
A.J.T. JOHNSINGH
Assistant Editor
GAYATRI WATTAL UGRA
AJITH KUMAR
T.C. NARENDRAN
A.R. RAHMAN I
J.S. SINGH
R. WHITAKER
INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS
1. Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere
should not be submitted.
2. Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional
copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5") using MS Word.
3. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been
authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.
4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at
least 9 x 12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps
should be in Indian ink, preferably on tracing paper.
5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged
under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in italics and
titles of books or papers in roman type, thus:
Aluri, Raju J.S. & C. Subha Reddi (1995): Ecology of the pollination in two cat-mint
species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 63-66.
Prater, S.H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society,
Mumbai, pp. 35-48.
6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200 words,
and 6-8 key words. Key words should include the scientific names of important species
discussed.
7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles and new descriptions.
Authors of miscellaneous notes, will be sent a free copy of the Journal.
8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member’s contribution
earlier than a non-member’s.
9. For the standardised common and scientific names of the birds of the Indian subcontinent
refer to Buceros Vol. 6, No. 1 (2001).
Hornbill House,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023.
Editors,
Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society
VOLUME 98 (3): DECEMBER 2001
Date of Publication: 1-12-2001
EDITORIAL
CONTENTS
INDIAN WILD ASS (. EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR) IN THE LITTLE RANN OF KUTCH,
GUJARAT, INDIA
(With two text-figures)
By H.S. Singh 327
ANNUAL MOVEMENTS OF A STEPPE EAGLE (AQUILA NIPALENSIS) SUMMERING IN
MONGOLIA AND WINTERING IN TIBET
( With one text-figure)
By David H. Ellis, Stacie L. Moon and Jon W. Robinson 335
BREEDING ECOLOGY OF ANNANDALE’S TREE FROG CHIRIXALUS SIMUS ( ANURA:
RHACOPHORIDAE) NEAR KOLKATA, WEST BENGAL
( With one plate)
By Kaushik Deuti 341
A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY — 39. PLOCEINAE AND ESTRILDINAE
By Saraswathy Unnithan 347
TRANSLOCATION OF RHESUS MACAQUES FROM AIRFORCE STATION, GURGAON
(HARYANA) TO THE NATURAL FOREST OF FIROZPUR-JHIRKA, HARYANA,
INDIA
( With two text-figures)
By Ekwal Imam, Iqbal Malik and H.S.A. Yahya 355
NOTES ON THE POLYGONACEAE OF SIKKIM
By S.S. Dash and P. Singh 360
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES ON THE CONTACT
CHEMORECEPTORS ON THE PALP-TIP OF ORYCTES RHINOCEROS L.
(COLEOPTERA: SCARABAEIDAE)
( With two plates)
By A. Mini 364
MIST-NET CAPTURE AND FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE SHORT-NOSED FRUIT
BAT (CHIROPTERA: PTEROPODIDAE) CYNOPTERUS SPHINX (VAHL.)
( With three text-figures)
By P.T. Nathan, D.P. Swami Doss, S.S. Isaac, J. Balasingh, K. Emmanuvel Rajan,
N. Gopukumar Nairand R. Subbaraj 373
FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF THE SARUS CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE
ANTIGONE (LINN.) IN KHEDA DISTRICT, GUJARAT
( With one text-figure)
By Aeshita Mukherjee, C.K. Borad, B.M. Parasharya and V.C. Soni 379
ELYTRAL VESTITURE AND ITS BIOSYSTEMATIC SIGNIFICANCE IN ENTIMINAE
(CURCULIONIDAE: COLEOPTERA)
( With two plates and thirty-seven text-figures)
By V.V. Ramamurthy 385
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
A NEW SPECIES OF HORALABIOSA SILAS FROM A KERALA STREAM OF THE
WESTERN GHATS
( With two text-figures)
By J.A. Johnson and R. Soranam
392
ON THE INDIAN SPECIES OF TRICHOMALOPSIS CRAWFORD (HYMENOPTERA:
CH ALCIDOIDEA : PTEROMALIDAE)
( With thirty-seven text-figures )
By P.M. Sureshan and T.C. Narendran 396
SOME NEW CHIRONOMIDAE FROM SOUTH AND MIDDLE ANDAMAN ISLANDS,
INDIA (DIPTERA: CHIRONOMIDAE)
( With four text-figures)
By Girish Maheshwari and Geeta Maheshwari 406
A NEW SPECIES OF MOTH UNDER GENUS LEMYRA (ARCTIINAE: ARCTIIDAE:
LEPIDOPTERA)
( With eight text-figures )
By Amritpal S. Kaleka 422
ISEILEMA JAIN I AN A (FAMILY POACEAE) — A NEW GRASS SPECIES FROM COASTAL
TAMIL NADU, INDIA
( With one text-figure)
By P. Umamaheswari and P. Daniel 425
REVIEWS
1 . THE BIRDS OF ASSAM
Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 428
2. FORESTRY FOR TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT
Reviewed by S. Asad Akhtar 429
3. A BIBLIOGRAPHIC INDEX TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF THE INDIAN
SUBCONTINENT
Reviewed by Ranjit Manakadan 430
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MAMMALS
1 . Hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock) feeding
on lichens
By P. Bujarbarua and J. Das 432
2. Predation by tiger Panthera tigris Linn, on
gaur Bos gaurus H. Smith in Pench Tiger
Reserve, Madhya Pradesh
By M.K.S. Pasha, Qamar Qureshi,
K. Sankar and G. Areendran 432
3 . The echolocating role of eyes in insectivorous
bats
By M.K. Chandrashekaran 434
4. The Malabar spiny dormouse
Platacanthomys lasiurus in Mudumalai
Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu
By V. Meena 438
5 . The wild elephant Elephas maximus in Mizoram
By Anwaruddin Choudhury 439
BIRDS
6. On little grebes Tachybaptus ruficollis
breeding near K. Karunanidhi Nagar,
Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu
By J. Mangalaraj Johnson 441
7. Iris coloration in the large egret Casmerodius
albus and median egret Mesophoyx
intermedia (Family Ardeidae)
By V. Guruswami 442
8 . Sighting of the black stork Ciconia nigra and
lesser adjutant-stork Leptoptilos javanicus at
Nagarhole National Park, Karnataka
By Anish P. Andheria 443
9. Long-billed vulture Gyps indicus indicus
nesting on trees in the Thar desert, Rajasthan
By Manoj Kulshreshtha 446
10. Grey-headed lapwing Vanellus cinereus
(Blyth) (Family: Charadriidae) in Kerala
By P.K. Ravindran and P.O. Nameer 450
11. Feeding habits of the white-breasted
kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis (Linn.)
Family Alcedinidae
By H.S. Yahya 451
12. Large grey babbler ( Turdoides malcolmi )
trapped for the table
By A. M.K. Bharos 452
13. Malabar whistling-thrush Myiophonus
horsfieldii in the Gir Forests, Saurashtra, Gujarat
By B.P. Pati 452
14. Male breeding plumage of the bay a weaver
Ploceus philippinus travancoreensis
Whistler
By Saraswathy Unnithan 453
15. Sighting of ortolan bunting Emberiza
hortulana Linn, in Narayan Sarovar
Sanctuary, Kachchh, Gujarat
By Justus Joshua, S.F. Wesley Sunderraj and
V. Gokula 453
REPTILES
16. Occurrence of Cnemaspis kandiana
(Kelaart), Family Gekkonidae, in Amboli,
Maharashtra
By Varad Giri and Vithoba Hegde 454
1 7. A note on the ectoparasitic ticks of reptiles
from southern Rajasthan
By Satish Kumar Sharma 455
AMPHIBIANS
18. On the natural history of Bufo parietalis
Boulenger, 1882, Amphibia: Family
Bufonidae
By Savitha N. Krishna and
Sharath B. Krishna 456
19. Distribution of Bufo stomaticus Liitken,
Amphibia: Family Bufonidae, in Assam,
northeast India
By N.K. Choudhury, M.F. Ahmed and
S. Sengupta 457
FISHES
20. Taxonomic variation in Schistura
vinciguerrae (Hora, 1 935) from the Basistha
river, a new record from Assam, India
By Purnima Das Bora, Sabitry Bordoloi and
Amalesh Dutta 459
21. On Pseudosphromenus sp. (Pisces:
Belontiidae) from south India with remarks
on the authorship of P. dayi
By P.T. Cherian, K. Rema Devi and T.J. Indra
461
22. The fish fauna of Bharathapuzha river,
Kerala
By A. Bijukumar and S. Sushama 464
INSECTS
23. Occurrence of chilli gall midge, Asphondylia
capsici Barnes (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera) in
south Andamans, Andaman Islands
By G. Shyam Prasad and H.R. Ranganath .... 468
24. Overwintering population of Danaus
(Salathura) genutia in Tiger Valley in Sanjay
Gandhi National Park, Mumbai, Maharashtra
By Meena Haribal 469
25 . On Hestiasula brunnerianci Saussure (Insecta:
Mantodea) from Pune, Maharashtra
By H.V. Ghate, Sachin Ranade,
Rajpreet Kaur and Rahul Marathe 473
26. Redescription of Amorphoscelis annulicornis
Stal (Insecta: Mantodea) from Maharashtra
By H.V. Ghate, Sachin Ranade,
Abhay Soman, Rajpreet Kaur,
Rahul Marathe and T.K. Mukherjee 476
OTHER INVERTEBRATES
27. New records of Holothurians (Echinodermata:
Holothuria) from Andaman and Nicobar
Islands
By Sarang Kulkarni, Ajai Saxena and
B.C. Choudhury 480
28. New record of Macrobrachium dayanum
Henderson, 1 893 from a freshwater ecosystem
of Tripura, India
By S. Banik and Saumen Chakrabarti 481
29. The Gastropod Stenothyra ornata Annandale
and Prashad 1921, a new record from River
Ganga in Bihar
By Ravindra Kumar Sinha and
Gopal Sharma 485
30. New records of the clam Cyrena ceylonica
(Chemnitz), Mollusca: Family Cyrenidae, in
Andaman Islands
By K. Madhu and Rema Madhu 488
BOTANY
31. Alysicarpus ovalifolius (Schumach.) J. Leon
(Leguminosae: Papilionoideae) — a new
record for the Eastern Ghats
By K. Sri Rama Murthy, S. Sandhya Rani and
T. Pullaiah 488
32. On the type of Bauhinia wrayi Prain
(Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae)
By S. Bandyopadhyay 490
33. On Heifer’s collection of Piper ribesioides
Wall, from the Bay Islands, India
By Sam P. Mathew and Susan Abraham 491
34. New record of Nervilia aragoana in Rajasthan
By Satish Kumar Sharma 493
35. Rediscovery of Hemiorchis pantlingi
(Zingiberaceae) from Sikkim Himalaya
By S.Z. Lucksom 493
36. Arisaema echinatum (Wall.) Schott — an
addition to the Araceae of Peninsular India
By K. Sasikala, E. Vajravelu and P. Daniel .... 495
37. Two new additions to the sedges, Family
Cyperaceae, of Andhra Pradesh
By K. Indira and R.R. Venkata Raju 497
38. Food value of some edible ferns from Dharan,
southeastern Nepal
By D.K. Subba, B.K. Rai and
Min Raj Dhakal 499
Cover Photograph: Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra
by K.C. Dey
Editorial
Destroying by protection
WE ALL KNOW that habitat destruction and mismanagement, poaching, illegal trade,
and corruption are playing havoc with Indian wildlife, but not many may know that
misguided sentiments are also destroying many wildlife species. For instance, millions of
birds are caught every year for religious people to release on auspicious occasions! Many
species are dying as a consequence of over-protection of other species. The great Indian
bustard is one of the unfortunate examples.
Besides suffering from poaching and massive habitat destruction, the great Indian
bustard now faces another challenge - increasing numbers of blackbuck and a backlash
from the local people. Wherever measures have been taken to protect the bustard and its
habitat, the greatest benefit has gone to blackbuck. In Karera Bustard Sanctuary, the
blackbuck increased from 50-60 in 1982 to nearly 700-800 in 1992; in Nannaj Bustard
area near Solapur, they increased from 100-120 in 1982 to nearly 700 in 1997; in Rollapadu
Wildlife Sanctuary they increased from 17 in 1985 to 400-500 in 2000. Besides, the
blackbuck has increased in many areas in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra, thanks to the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and peoples’ cooperation. But
farmers are not happy, and rightly so. Unlike the bustards, the blackbuck is not harmless
to humans. It relishes what the farmers grow, but the farmers obviously do not relish this.
The result is a backlash against the conservation movement. We have seen villagers turning
from active support of bustard conservation to fierce opposition to any conservation action.
Which poor farmer would tolerate destruction of his crops season after season? The
consequences are clear. No bustard is left in Karera Bustard Sanctuary; three bustards
poisoned in Sorsan Bustard Area in Baran in Rajasthan; 15-20 left in Rollapadu, compared
to 60- 1 00 fifteen years ago; no bustard seen for the last three years in Rannibennur Blackbuck
Sanctuary (10-12 in mid 1980s). Now you camiot talk of bustard conservation in many
rural areas in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra. Are the people against the bustard
and conservation in general? Surprisingly, no. They do want to protect bustards - at one
time Karera became important because of this species. Rollapadu came into the limelight,
and tourists visit Nannaj to see the bustard. But farmers do not want their crops destroyed
by the bustard’s companion species, the blackbuck. Fair enough. Would city-based animal
rights activists allow their potted plants or costly bonsais to be destroyed by stray cows?
And remember, the activists’ survival does not depend on ornamental plants and kitchen
gardens, while the poor farmer’s yearly earning could be eaten away overnight by a herd of
blackbuck.
What is the solution? Translocation — the farmers suggest; culling — the rational
scientists and wildlife managers recommend; introduction of a predator of blackbuck, change
in cropping pattern, crop compensation - the animal rights activists suggest. Perhaps all
these measures apply at different levels in different areas, but the end solution is controlling
the number of blackbuck. Translocation of medium-sized antelopes is not impossible (South
Africans are expert in catching and translocation of ungulates so we can learn from them)
but are we not ‘translocating’ the problem instead of solving it? The idea of introduction of
a predator (wolf) seems exciting and media-friendly to novice wildlifers, but wolves are
already present in most of the blackbuck-problem areas. In case they are not present, where
will we bring them from? The wolf itself is rare. Another, more pertinent, question is: will
increase in wolf population control the number of blackbuck? Armchair animal lovers,
‘educated’ by the sight of a cheetah chasing an impala or a pack of lions bringing down a
wildebeest in the Serengeti plains, think that predators control the population of prey, but
this is not true in most cases. Ecology tells us that it is the other way round - the population
of prey determines how many predators an area can support. The Rollapadu grassland has
a pack of 9 wolves, while Nannaj has a pack of 10-12 animals. They have not been able to
control the galloping blackbuck numbers. Our studies indicate that each pack requires at
least 20 sq. km of good habitat with a large prey base (wild and domestic). Like any
predator, the wolf is highly territorial, so the resident pack will chase out introduced wolves.
Moreover, shepherds would not like the introduction of wolves, as they would not want to
lose more valuable sheep or goats. Therefore, translocation of wolf to control blackbuck
numbers is out of the question.
Another suggestion is to change the cropping pattern. This is not easy. Market forces,
personal requirements, rainfall, soil and water conditions determine the crop pattern - not
the blackbuck! Moreover, it is not only feeding on the crop but also thrashing by territorial
bucks that does considerable damage to standing crop. Crop compensation appears to be a
solution to some people. First of all, it is not easy to quantify the crop damage. Even if we
are able to do so, who will pay the compensation? The state forest departments are already
starved of funds. Nearly 40% of the posts are vacant due to paucity of funds. Should we
divert scarce resources to pay compensation running to millions of rupees? Secondly, for
how long and how big an area should compensation be given? Thirdly, it would lead to
massive corruption, with rich influential farmers cornering the compensation in connivance
with forest guards, leaving poor, disgruntled farmers nursing more resentment against the
conservation movement. Lastly, is crop compensation a long-term solution?
What do other countries do when faced with a similar situation? The United Kingdom
has an intensively managed countryside with a long history of predator control. Fortunately,
predator control to increase the population of common ‘game’ species for pleasure shooting
has been outlawed or severely curtailed, but such control does take place even now, when
the survival of a rare species is involved. The red deer is a problem animal in many nature
reserves of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB). The RSPB recommends
regular culling of red deer at many of its reserves. For instance, the population of capercaillie,
a large handsome grouse inhabiting old forest with thick underbrush, is fine-tuned to its
natural habitat. Increasing numbers of red deer destroy the underbrush, resulting in the
decline of capercaillie. Putting up a deer fence was found not to be the solution. The fence
is not easily visible to these highly excitable terrestrial birds, and when disturbed they fly
directly into it. More than 16% of collisions of capercaillie, black grouse and red grouse
are fatal. As predators often remove the casualties quickly, the true fatality figure is probably
much higher. The only long-term solution is to reduce the number of red deer by culling.
This recommendation has come from a bird conservation organization with more than a
million members. In the United States, control of deer numbers is a regular management
practice. In none of the countries has controlled culling resulted in the extinction of any
ungulate. Only in our country, any talk of culling problem animals sends animal rights
activists into paroxysms. Interestingly, culling of blackbuck to reduce crop damage was
practiced earlier in our country. The Raja of Wankaner, a former estate in Gujarat, had
fixed a quota of blackbuck that had to be culled to prevent excess damage to crops in his
region.
Based on its scientific research, the Bombay Natural History Society feels that the
time has come to control the locally abundant populations of certain species such as nilgai,
wild boar and blackbuck. The forest department should take up controlled culling under
strict supervision. At the same time, we should also develop the technique of capture and
translocation, natural birth control and crop aversion technology. Our detailed scientific
studies in Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary have shown that blackbuck numbers should be
kept at less than 100 in this Sanctuary. If we neglect the crop damage problem further, we
will not only lose species such the great Indian bustard but also the support of a very large
rural constituency. The ultimate sufferer will be the conservation movement in India.
ASAD R. RAHMANI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,
Govt of India,
FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
December 2001
Vol. 98
No. 3
INDIAN WILD ASS {EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR)
IN THE LITTLE RANN OF KUTCH, GUJARAT, INDIA1
H.S. Singh2
( With two text-figures)
Key words: Indian wild ass, Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat
The Little Rann of Kutch is a unique saline desert and is synonymous with the Indian wild ass,
locally called ghor khar. The numbers of this only population of Equus hemionus khur Lesson in
the world, declined consistently as a result of disease and habitat loss before the declaration of
the area as a Sanctuary. Though original habitat continued to be lost due to invasion of Prosopis
chilensis, grazing, salt-works and encroachment, the wild ass population increased consistently
after 1976. As per various estimates and censuses in the past, the population decreased from
3,000-4,000 in 1946, to a few hundreds in 1963. But a reverse trend set in after 1976, when the
number increased from about 720 in 1976 to about 2,940 in 1998. The rate of population growth
of this species was about 4.8% per year during the last decade and wild asses started dispersing
to new areas away from the Sanctuary in the Great Rann of Kutch and Bhal regions. Wild asses
were also seen in the Kala Dungar area of the Great Rann, Bhal region and in areas of Rajasthan
bordering Gujarat. This paper deals with the population trend, distribution, migration and
population characteristics of the wild ass. Encounters in different habitat types revealed that
though the barren Rann does not provide food and water, it is an important habitat for the wild
ass. Attempts were also made to study the habitat utilisation pattern and management problems
of the Sanctuary for conservation of the wild ass in the region.
Introduction
There are three species of wild ass in the
world, one in Africa and two in Asia. The African
species has two subspecies, whereas the two
Asian species are classified into eight surviving
subspecies: Equus hemionus hemionus , E. h.
luteus , E. h. kulan , E. h. khur , E. h. onager ,
E. kiang kiang , E. k. holclereri and E. k.
polyodon (Shah 1993, Ryder and Chemnick
1990). The Indian wild ass ( E . h. khur Lesson
'Accepted February, 2001
:Gujarat Ecological Education and Research Foundation,
Indroda Park, Sector 9, Gandhinagar 382 009, Gujarat, India.
1 827) is one of the five surviving subspecies of
E. hemionus and is endemic to the Rann of Kutch.
During the 20th Century, the Indian wild ass had
a fairly wide distribution in the dry regions of
northwest India and west Pakistan. The wild ass
of Sind (E. h. khur) was hunted by the great
Moghul Emperor Akbar, on the banks of the
Sutlej river in 1571 (Rao 1957). The wild ass
population declined gradually over the centuries,
but there was a drastic reduction between 1960
and 1969, due to an outbreak of the South African
Horse Sickness and the arthropod-borne Surra
disease (Gee 1963). The species is now in the
Red Data Book as per the IUCN Threat Criteria.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
111
INDIAN WILD ASS (EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR)
Study Area
The Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat State, is
an unique saline desert, synonymous with the
Indian wild ass, the only gene pool of E.h. khur in
the world. To conserve this animal, an area of 4,954
sq. km in the Little Rann, its fringe areas and some
beyts (islands) in the Great Rann of Kutch were
declared as the Wild Ass Sanctuary in 1973. Kutch,
Banaskantha, Mehsana, Surendranagar and Rajkot
districts, and Gulf of Kutch constitute the
boundaries of the Sanctuary. Recognising its
uniqueness and ecological significance, the area
has been listed by the Government of India, among
the first 13 areas identified for conservation as
Biosphere Reserves, which is pending with the
Gujarat State Government for a final declaration
as the Little Rann Biosphere Reserve.
The Rann is characterized by a dry tropical
climate with a brief erratic monsoon, hot summer
and cold winter. The silt-laden inundation from
rivers like the Banas, Saraswati, Rupen, and
several small seasonal streams, along with high
tides from the Gulf of Kutch through Surajbari
creek, have contributed significantly towards the
formation of this saline flat. The Little Rann gets
flooded under 0.5 m to 1.0 m water every
monsoon. Though a major part of the Rann
changes into dry mudflats after November,
numerous water bodies support a large number
of resident and migratory birds in winter.
The Sanctuary is classified into: (i) the
Rann (3,464 sq. km), (ii) beyts (185 sq. km),
and (iii) fringe areas (1,304 sq. km). Seventy-
four elevated plateaus or islands (locally called
beyt) were identified through remote sensing, of
which 5 1 beyts were vegetated, whereas the rest
were barren. The area of the beyts varies from
4.7 ha — beyt Panchham to 3,050 ha — beyt
Pung. Six beyts have an area of over 1,000 ha.
Nanda is the only beyt with human habitation
and cultivation. About 33% of the beyt area is
under Prosopis chilensis , while herbaceous
vegetation constitutes 23% of the net area.
Methods
The GEER Foundation conducted a
comprehensive ecological study in the Wild Ass
Sanctuary from November, 1997 to February,
1999. The author coordinated the study and the
paper is primarily an analysis of the field data
collected by the scientists and research assistants
during this study. The Rann, fringe area, beyts
of the Sanctuary and Khadir beyt were surveyed.
Remote sensing study was carried out to know
the vegetation cover and habitat conditions.
The Sanctuary area was divided into three
regions and seven zones - south fringe, eastern
fringe, northern fringe, western fringe, creeks,
beyts and part of the Sanctuary in the Great Rann.
Vehicular and foot transects were done to collect
evidence of the occurrence of wild ass. Dung was
recorded in all the transects. Locals were
questioned to collect more information.
An 18 day count of the wild ass in and
around the Little Rann was done in November,
1998. The Great Rann and other habitats were
also surveyed to estimate the dispersed
population. Data from the wild ass census by the
Gujarat Forest Department on January 28 - 29,
1999 was also used. To count wild ass, the
Sanctuary and its fringe areas were divided into
three regions- (i) Halwad-Dhrangadhra region :
fringe zones in Surendranagar and Mehsana
district, the Rann and beyts near the boundaries
of two districts; (ii) Radhanpur region : fringe
zone in Banaskantha, the Rann and bets of the
Little Rann and Great Rann of Kutch near the
boundary of Banaskantha district; and (iii)
Bhachau region : both sides of Surajbari-creek,
fringe area of Rajkot and Kutch districts, the
Rann and beyts near Kutch and Rajkot districts.
Wild asses were counted on some of the
important beyts in the rainy season in 1998 to
study the breeding area. Pung, Dhut, Nanda,
Shedwa, Mardak, Fatehgadh, Nada, Khadir and
other beyts in the Great Rann were surveyed
extensively in November-December, 1998.
328
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
INDIAN WILD ASS (EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR)
Observations were made up to the border of
Rajasthan and Pakistan.
Results and Discussion
Population Trend: Ali (1946) estimated
the wild ass population between 3,000 and 4,000
in the Little Rann. In 1960, he estimated a
population of about 2000 khurs. In 1958 and
1960, the arthropod borne Surra disease caused
by Trypanosoma evansi had taken its toll (Gee
1963). InNovember-December, 1961, some wild
asses died in an outbreak of South African Horse
Sickness, reducing the population to 870
individuals in 1962 (Gee 1963). The Gujarat
Forest Department recorded 362 wild ass in 1969
in an aerial survey. Since then, the Gujarat Forest
Department has conducted four censuses and
found that the population increased consistently
from 720 in April 1976, to 1,989 in April 1983,
2,072 in March 1990, and 2,839 in January 1999.
The comparatively low increase from 1983 to
1990 was probably due to a severe drought from
1985 to 1987.
The GEER Foundation conducted
systematic counting of wild ass in and around
the Little Rann in November 1998, up to
5-10 km from the Sanctuary boundary. A total
of 2,446 animals were counted, not including the
wild ass inhabiting the Great Rann and the outer
zone beyond 10 km from the boundary. Partial
counting was done in and around Khadir, Tragdi,
Fatehgadh, Nada and other beyts in the Great
Rann. Two groups were also counted near
Nalsarovar and Dhandhuka-Dholera Highway in
Ahmedabad district. On the basis of partial
counting, reports of forest officials and locals, it
was estimated that over 490 wild asses were
dispersed in the Great Rann and in outer areas
beyond 10 km south from the boundary of the
Sanctuary, up to Dhandhuka (Bhal region).
Thus, the total population estimated by the
Foundation in November, 1998 was 2,940. The
Little Rann and its surrounding zones had not
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
329
INDIAN WILD ASS (EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR)
experienced severe drought as in 1987. This is
one of the main reasons for the consistent rise in
population at 4.8% per year (1990-1998). The
Gujarat Forest Department census in January,
1999 estimated the population at around 2,900.
Population Distribution: The study
estimated a total of 1,780 wild ass in
Dhrangadhra-Halwad region, 590 in Bhachau
and 570 in Radhanpur. It was noted that 390 to
490 wild asses stayed beyond 10 km from the
boundary of the Sanctuary. Also, about 70% of
the total population is found in Dhrangadhra/
Halvad zone (eastern and southern fringes along
with Rann, beyts and other areas near these
fringes). Distribution pattern also revealed that
the dispersed population was on the rise.
Distribution of wild ass population varied
from season to season as wild asses congregated
in the fringe areas and on the beyts during
monsoon. Although their movement was
restricted during monsoon, they were observed
moving from beyt to beyt and from fringe to beyt
wading in shallow water. Three hundred and
fifty-eight wild asses congregated on Pung beyt
and its neighbouring beyts during monsoon in
October 1997. This is because groups from fringe
areas moved to the beyts during the breeding
season. Ali (1946) also mentioned congregation
of about 200 wild ass on Pung beyt. The area-
wise distribution of wild ass is given in Table 1.
Dispersal/Migration: In 1976, the wild
ass was restricted to a 5 km belt from the
Sanctuary fringe (Shah 1993). Animals migrated
to areas beyond 1 0 km from the southern Rann
fringe in 1989. South-eastern fringes are rich in
food and water resources — maximum
concentration of population and dispersal was
observed in the peripheral villages in these
fringes. People believe that wild asses started
moving away from the Sanctuary after the 1987
drought. During our survey, 38 individuals were
seen on Khadir, Bangara and Kakidiya bets
northwest of Khadir, and over 60 wild asses were
estimated on and around Khadir beyt. The local
people confirmed that wild ass was not seen in
this area 15-20 years ago, but is consistently seen
in increasing numbers now. During the same
period (November-December, 1998), 53 wild
asses were encountered in part of the Sanctuary
in the Great Rann (26 in Fatehgadh, and 27 in
Nada and other beyts near Rajasthan). Eighteen
wild asses were also seen in March, 1999 on
Tragadi beyt which is located about 1 5 km west
of Dholavira (Khadir). Dr. Ketan Tatu (pers .
comm.) observed a herd of twelve wild asses in
Kala Dungar area in the western part of the Great
Rann in February, 2000; and the villagers have
seen this group for the last 3-4 years. He
photographed these animals as part of evidence
for a study of GEER Foundation in the Great
Rann. Three wild asses (two adults and one foal)
were seen at the Rajasthan border area. Border
Security Force (BSF) personnel claimed to have
seen a group of 9 individuals in Rajasthan. A
track from Bela to Tuta towards the Pakistan
border indicated that animals visited the border,
which was confirmed by the BSF personnel.
Some wild asses had migrated out of the
Sanctuary to Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary and Bhal
area. Sightings were also made near Dhandhuka-
Dholera highway. A group of 1 8 wild asses was
recorded near Kalatalav in the monsoon of
1998, south of Nalsarovar and another group of
Table 1
AREA-WISE POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
IN NOVEMBER, 1998
Dispersed population
beyond 1 0 km from
boundary of Sanctuary
Note: Wild ass population on beyts was 488 individuals in the
Little Rann and 53 individuals in the Great Rann.
330
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
INDIAN WILD ASS (EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 200 1
331
International Boundary ■ District Boundary Location • Medium Concentration Zone
State Boundary District Headquarters © High Concentration Zone — Low Concentration Zone
INDIAN WILD ASS ( EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR)
6 animals was seen near Devadthal during the
same period. It was also seen near the Limbdi-
Vadodara highway. The wild ass census and this
survey established the fact that wild ass had
dispersed northwards to the Rajasthan and
Pakistan border, Dhandhuka-Dholera highway
and to the south of Limbdi-Bagodara national
highway in the south and Malia in the west.
Population Characteristics: Mating and
foaling in the Little Rann occur during monsoon
(July-October), which is also a period of
vegetation growth. All births are single. Male
foals are weaned at 1-2 years of age, while female
foals continue to remain with mares for longer
periods (Shah 1993).
Of 2,446 wild asses counted in and around
the Little Rann, there were 637 males, 1,402
females and 407 foals. It is possible that some of
the subadult males could not be distinguished
from females and hence the male population was
underestimated. But this observation confirms
the finding of Shah (1993) that the male:female
ratio was 1:2 in the Sanctuary.
Drought certainly affects reproduction. The
area did not face severe drought after 1987,
therefore the population consistently increased
from 2,072 in 1990 to 2,940 in 1998. Out of 407
foals counted in November 1998, 267 were bom
in the monsoon of 1998. Thus, foals constituted
1 6.6% of the total population of wild ass (young
foals 10.5%). It is difficult to distinguish a one-
year foal from a subadult. Thus, some young of
the previous year could not be included in the
list of the foals. In addition to the 267 foals in
and around the Sanctuary in 1998, about a dozen
foals were seen in the outer zones in the Great
Rann, Rajasthan and Bhal region in the same
year. Thus, it may be concluded that more than
275 foals were bom in 1998.
Large herds of wild ass were recorded at
Visnagar 89, Kopami 86, between Kanach and
Thala Rann 70, Kidi 68 and Degam Rann 61.
Nearly 60% of the total were recorded in small
to medium groups of 3-20 or 21-40, and 36% in
large groups (41 to 90). About 1.8% wild asses,
mainly males, were single, whereas 1.5% of the
total population were seen in pairs.
Habitat Utilisation: Habitat utilisation
pattern of wild ass in and around the Sanctuary
zone was studied separately. The pattern changed
when peripheral villages were included with the
Sanctuary for analysis. Daytime distribution of
wild asses in and around the Little Rann in
November, 1998 up to about 10 km from the
boundary is given in Table 2.
Analysis of the data showed that over
40.0% of all the animals sighted were recorded
in the barren Rann, which does not support
vegetation. The percentage came down to
29.3% when the population in the fringe areas
Table 2
HABITAT-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF WILD ASS
IN THE SANCTUARY IN NOVEMBER, 1 998
with that of the Little Rann. This proves beyond
doubt that, although a large area of the Rann
does not provide food, it does provide space for
resting and movement. Vegetation types, grass
Suaeda types and Suaeda with sparse Prosopis
cover were other preferred habitats of the
animal.
Forage, water and safe area for breeding
and resting are important habitat components for
the wild ass. Preference for different habitats
differs in all three seasons, though habitats of
sparse and medium Prosopis cover were used in
all seasons in the day as well as at night (Shah,
1993). Distribution pattern will be different, as
animals from fringe areas move to agricultural
fields at night during winter and summer in
search of food and water.
332
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
INDIAN WILD ASS (EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR)
Population Management: The population
of wild ass in the Little Rann for long term
conservation needs to be well above 2,500 as
prescribed by the IUCN/SSC Equuids Specialist
Group (Duncan 1992), the minimum viable
population for areas where population is confined
to one location. Population of wild ass in and
around the Sanctuary has already crossed this
number. Animals make regular raids in crop
fields in winter and summer, causing resentment
among farmers. Farmers regularly complain and
demonstrate against the loss of crops (cotton,
wheat, gram) and this problem is increasing due
to increase in population of wild ass, bluebull,
and wild boar in and around the villages.
Although the khur population is increasing
gradually, it may ultimately reach the levels
estimated by Ali (1946) in the near future and
would become difficult to manage in the limits
of the Sanctuary due to the changed conditions.
Original vegetation of grass/herbaceous land and
sparse thorn forest of indigenous species is now
being invaded by Prosopis chilensis in major
parts of the vegetated zone. This has reduced the
availability of food. Moreover, disturbance due
to salt panning and transport, target practice by
the Indian Army, and livestock grazing, have
added to the factors responsible for habitat
degradation. It is difficult to maintain the original
carrying capacity of the area without improving
the habitat and conservation status of the
Sanctuary.
As the area has not faced a severe drought
or disease after 1987, the population of wild ass
has grown annually. Growth trend in the last
decade revealed that this annual rate of growth
may be the upper limit of population increase
for wild ass in the Little Rann, given the long
gestation period and other reproductive
characteristics. If this trend continues with the
absence of a severe drought or disease, the
population may exceed 4,000 by 2010 AD. The
trend also indicates that the maximum increase
of population would be in peripheral villages and
dispersal zones, leading to migration into new
areas of the Great Rann, Bhal and desert parts
of Rajasthan. Bhal may support no more than a
moderate population of wild ass, as man- wildlife
conflict would become serious when the
population increases. Beyts and fringe areas
support a good number , by accommodating more
wild asses in new areas in the Great Rann. Wild
ass has already reached the Rajasthan-Pakistan
border area. Hence, the Thar Desert in Rajasthan
may prove to be important in accomodating
excess populations. The time has come to explore
the possibility of development of the Thar Desert
near the border as an alternative site for the
Indian wild ass. As these animals were found in
historical times in the desert, their natural
dispersal into the original habitat should not be
a problem.
Conservation Strategy
In the absence of a settlement and
demarcation of the Sanctuary, adequate protection
could not be enforced, which resulted in legal
disputes and conflicts as various stake-holders
claimed right of use of areas. Settlement work is
under progress, but it needs to be completed
without further delay. Salt preparation continued
in the Sanctuary and expanded to new areas in
the absence of regulations. About 28.6 lakh tonnes
of salt was produced annually (in 1996) and the
leased out area in the Sanctuary increased from
166 sq. km in 1973 to 461 sq. km in 1995. Over
one thousand vehicles ply everyday in the salt
production season, causing serious disturbance to
wildlife. Salt panning — salt ponds created for
evaporation — should be restricted and regulated
within demarcated zones with fixed transport
routes. The Army continues to use an extensive
leased area of 217 sq. km near Tikar for target
practice. Movement of tanks and army activities
should be restricted in the demarcated zone. They
should not use the beyts as targets, but erect
concrete pillars (Singh et al. 1998/
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
333
INDIAN WILD ASS { EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR)
Invasion of Prosopis chilensis should be
controlled on beyts and in fringe areas. Original
habitat conditions should be restored by
uprooting this species from some of the areas
faster than its invasion rate of 677 ha/year. High
density of cattle dung (334/ha) was observed on
the northern fringe, followed by 276/ha on the
western fringe, 274/ha in western creek area,
194/ha on beyts and 170/ha on the southern
fringe (Singh et al. 1998). Cattle dung density
was high in all the zones, indicating intense
grazing. Critical habitats, especially those
important for breeding, need to be protected from
cattle grazing.
Disturbance in the Sanctuary and
expansion of agriculture resulted in the
movement of wild ass from the Sanctuary to crop
Ali, S. (1946): Indian wild ass. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
46(3): 472-477.
Duncan, P. (1992): Zebras, Asses and Horses. An action
plan for the conservation of wild equids. IUCN/SSC
Equuids Specialist Group, Gland, Switzerland, pp. 36.
Gee, E.P. (1963): The Indian wild ass: A survey. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 60(3): 517-529.
Rao, H. Srinivasa (1957): History of our knowledge of
the Indian fauna through ages. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 54(2): 251-280.
fields. The conflict between wildlife and local
people is increasing in the fringe area due to crop
raiding by wild ass. Land use patterns will change
rapidly after irrigation of land from the Narmada
canal, which is likely to cause some impact on
the ecology of the Sanctuary and its surrounding
areas. This should be studied properly by carrying
out an environmental impact assessment.
Environmental education, habitat improvement
and ecodevelopment programmes could be long-
term strategies of conservation.
There is no harm in capturing some
animals straying into villages to meet the demand
of zoological parks. Simultaneously, efforts must
be made to find alternative sites for wild ass in
the Great Rann, Thar Desert and Bhal area as
part of the long-term conservation strategy.
ENCES
Ryder, G. & L. Chemnick (1990): Chromosomal and
molecular evolution in Asiatic wild asses. Genetica 83:
67-72.
Shah, N. V. ( 1 993): The ecology of wild ass in Little Rann
of Kutch. Ph. D. thesis, M.S. University, Baroda,
Gujarat State, pp. 1 83.
Singh, H.S., R. Pravez, V.C. Soni, N.V. Shah & B.H. Patel
(1998): Ecological Study of the Wild Ass Sanctuary.
Gujarat Ecological Education and Research
Foundation, Gandhinagar: 116-129.
334
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
ANNUAL MOVEMENTS OF A STEPPE EAGLE {AQUILA NIPALENSIS)
SUMMERING IN MONGOLIA AND WINTERING IN TIBET1
David H. Ellis2, Stacie L. Moon3 and Jon W. Robinson4
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Aquila nipalensis , migration, satellite telemetry, steppe eagle
An adult female steppe eagle {Aquila nipalensis Hodgson) was captured and fitted with a
satellite transmitter in June 1995 in southeastern Mongolia. In fall, it traveled southwest
towards India as expected, but stopped in southeastern Tibet and wintered in a restricted
zone within the breeding range of the steppe eagle. In spring, the bird returned to the same
area of Mongolia where it was captured. These observations, though derived from the
movements of a single bird, suggest three things that are contrary to what is generally
believed about steppe eagle biology. First, not all steppe eagles move to warmer climes in
winter. Second, not all steppe eagles are nomadic in winter. Finally, because our bird
wintered at the periphery of the steppe eagle breeding range in Tibet, perhaps birds that
breed in this same area also winter there. If
The summer and winter ranges of the
western race of the steppe eagle {Aquila
nipalensis orientalis) have been mapped (Cramp
and Simmons 1980). These birds breed from
eastern Europe to eastern Kazakhstan and
Kirgizia, and winter almost exclusively in Africa.
Important migration concentration zones have
been located (Welch and Welch 1991) and the
migration of 10 birds has been followed by
satellite (Meyburg and Meyburg 1995).
Less is known of the migration patterns
and winter distribution of the eastern race {A. n.
nipalensis) (Welch and Welch 1991, Watson
1997: 213). Thousands have been documented
moving east-west at mid elevations paralleling
the southern slopes of the Himalayas (Fleming
1983, Welch and Welch 1991). There is also some
documentation of a trans-Himalayan migration.
One was found dead on the south col of
Mt. Everest at about 7,925 m (Singh 1961). Many
birds have been seen traversing mountain passes
'Accepted June, 2000
:USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Centre, HCR 1 Box 4420,
Oracle, AZ 85623, USA.
?7004 Old Chapel Drive, Bowie, MD 207 1 5, USA.
4Ratheon ITSS, Code 935, Building 28, Room W1 92,
NASA-Goddard Space Centre, Greenbelt, MD 2071 1 , USA.
), not all steppe eagles are migratory.
in Nepal, with a maximum of about 100 birds
per hr on 24 October (Inskipp and Inskipp 1985)
and nearly 8,000 seen at one location in less than
three weeks (de Roder 1989). Davis and Glass
(1951) reported that steppe eagles were seen daily
for a two-week period in October at Chihkiang
(27.3° N, 110.1° E), Hunan, China.
The eastern race winters broadly across the
Indian subcontinent, with a disjunct population
in central and southern Myanmar (Smythies
1953, Cramp and Simmons 1980, Welch and
Welch 1991). Some birds are mentioned
wintering as far north as Nepal (Inskipp and
Inskipp 1985). With recent deforestation, the
species’ wintering range may be expanding
southward into and beyond peninsular Malaysia
(Helbig and Wells 1990). These authors reported
the first observation in Selangor (03 .5° N, 1 0 1 .2°
E) in 1987. Further south, they reported single
immatures in Singapore and Borneo. Stragglers
have been previously reported from Hong Kong,
Tenasserim (southern Myanmar: 12.1° N, 99.0°
E) (Smythies 1953, King and Dickinson 1975),
Viet Nam, and Thailand (Meyer de Schauensee
1984).
To improve our understanding of the
migratory movements of eastern steppe eagles,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
335
ANNUAL MOVEMENTS OF A STEPPE EAGLE (AQUILA NIPALENSIS)
we captured an adult female in 1995. This paper
reports the movements of that bird over a 15-
month period as revealed by satellite telemetry.
Satellite monitoring of long-distance movements
of flighted birds using the Argos Data Collection
and Location System began in 1984 (Strickwerda
et al. 1986) and is routine today, with transmitter
packages (unfortunately dubbed Platform
Transmitter Terminals, PTTs) as small as 30 g
(and sometimes smaller). These PTTs, with
careful programming, can provide data
intermittently over the course of a year or more
(see overview of system specifications in
Meyburg et al. 1995).
Methods
As part of a larger study of raptors in
Mongolia, in 1995 we focused on finding a
steppe eagle eyrie with thermocompetent young,
so we could capture and radio tag an adult
without jeopardizing the young. We had
originally planned to tag a fledgling. However,
steppe eagles, which are migratory in Mongolia,
nest much later than saker falcons ( Falco
cherrug) and golden eagles ( Aquila chrysaetos ),
the primary objects of our study. The result was
that during our May to mid- July surveys we
were unable to find any nests with young large
enough to safely outfit with a backpack harness
(it is unsafe to place an adult-size harness on a
downy chick).
After one month of searching, on June 26,
we found a nest with chicks old enough to survive
a mild night without being brooded. The three
nestlings were about three weeks of age (based
on photos of similarly developed golden eaglets).
Although the chicks were much too young to
harness, we returned at dusk that same night for
an attempt to capture one of the adults. The adult
male (dark morph) was roosting on a large
boulder c. 100 m east of the eyrie: the adult
female (pale morph) was on the nest with her
chicks. Our plan was to wait until midnight and
then try for the male first. Failing that, we would
try and capture the female on the nest. From an
earlier attempt to capture another roosting male,
we knew that these birds would perch in one spot
at dusk. Then, after it became too dark for us to
see, they would fly to another location. This may
be a predator avoidance adaptation of a species
that very often roosts on or near the ground, and
is thereby highly vulnerable to mammalian
predation.
We began our capture attempt from camp,
1. 5-2.0 km from the nest. All three persons in
the team changed to dark clothing. It was a calm,
starlit, moonless night. At 2330 hrs, we began
our approach. Without headlights, we very slowly
drove our motor vehicle, a Russian (UAZ) four-
wheel drive, to within about 70 m of the nest.
Then we propped open the hood, directing the
engine noises toward the cliff. Next, we adjusted
the throttle to about 1,500 rpm so the noise of
our on-foot approach would be masked by the
engine noises. We circled the hill so our approach
would be from the darkest part of the sky. As we
began the final approach to the male’s roost, the
capture person pulled wool leggings over his
shoes and moved forward, holding a large (9V)
battery-powered flashlight with strobe capability.
When we were within 1 5 m, we began searching
the boulder tops with the flashlight, but the male
was gone.
Next, we began our approach on the
female. At 60 m, we gave a slow series of eagle
owl ( Bubo bubo) hoots to encourage the female
to stay on the nest and defend her young. At 10
m the lead person began to strobe the eagle at
frequent intervals, to confuse the bird and to
illuminate the cliff top. At 3 m, we could see two
young in front of the adult, so we concluded that
one must be beneath her. When 70 cm away, the
flashlight was dropped and the lead person
pounced on the eagle, pushing her, breast
forward, into the nest but very quickly pulling
her legs back beneath her tail so she could not
damage the third chick with her talons. After
336
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
ANNUAL MOVEMENTS OF A STEPPE EA GLE (AQUILA NIPALENS1S)
700 0 700 1400 Kilometers
Fig. 1: Year-round (June 1995 to September 1996) movements of an adult steppe eagle.
Numbers in parentheses following some dates indicate the number of satellite fixes for each location. Each fix
is based on two (and usually more) location estimates. If the number of fixes is not provided for points along
the migration route, assume one. Number of fixes is also not provided for termini and stopover locations wheie
veracity of location is established by many points.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 200 1
337
ANNUAL MOVEMENTS OF A STEPPE EA GLE (AQUILA NIPALENSIS)
the female was lifted from the nest, we checked
the chicks and saw that none were wounded
during the struggle.
During the night, we attached the PTT,
then socked the eagle to release her in the
morning. By 0545 hrs on June 27, we were
preparing the eagle for release. We cleaned her
soiled ventral plumage with a water gun (Super
Soaker), then decided to also wet her dorsal
surface to discourage flight. In the 13lh century
C.E., Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor,
illustrated the ancient falconry technique of
wetting a restive falcon’s plumage to inhibit
bating — a falconry term for a raptor’s attempt
to fly free (Wood and Fyfe 1969). At c. 0700 hrs,
we placed her on the nest near the eaglets and
sprayed her with more water. Then, with her legs
still stretched out behind and a loose layer of
paper over her head, we released her and crept
silently to the car. We rolled the car, with engine
off, down the hill away from the eyrie, then at
0741 hrs drove the car over the horizon: the
female was still on the nest. At 1040 hrs, we
returned to the area and using a telescope from a
distant vantage point saw the female standing
on the nest near her young.
Wishing to see if the eagle was encumbered
by the harness, we returned at about 1400 hrs on
June 28. The female was shading her chicks and
allowed us to closely approach the eyrie before
she flushed. When she flew, the radio was visible
on her back, but she flew without any noticeable
impediment.
The PTT used in the study was a 95 g unit
manufactured by Microwave Telemetry, Inc. It
measured 94 x 33 x 30 mm with a rearward
projecting 216 mm antenna. The harness was a
fall-free, crossed double loop of Teflon-coated
nylon ribbon ( 1 3 mm wide) as described by Olsen
et al. (1992 and unpubl. data). The PTT was
programmed for four different transmission
“seasons” as follows: Season 1, June 25 to
September 1, 8 hrs on each 4.6 days; Season 2,
September 1 to December 15, 8 hrs on each 1.6
days; Season 3, December 15 to February 1,
8 hrs on each 4.6 days; Season 4, February 1 to
exhaustion, 8 hrs on each 2.6 days.
Results
For presentation here, we divided our
location data points (fixes) into two quality
classes. Higher quality fixes are believed to be
within 1 km of the true location. Lower quality
fixes (i.e. data derived from fewer or weaker
signals), while of uncertain accuracy when
treated individually, often provide very good
approximations of the true location when two or
more fixes are in one small area.
From our single PTT, we obtained 461
fixes of which 53 (12%) were high quality. The
data track in Fig. 1 provides much useful
information and some surprises. First, the
wintering area used by our bird, extreme eastern
Tibet, is north of the known wintering range for
this subspecies in eastern Asia. Inskipp and
Inskipp (1985) reported steppe eagles wintering
in Nepal, but we know of no prior record of steppe
eagles wintering in Tibet.
Our bird spent the period from
November 4 to March 7 in the pre-cordilleran
plateau between the Mekong and the Yangtze
rivers. Although the summering area of this eagle
in Mongolia was an area of high volcanic hills
scattered across a level steppe at about 1,350 m
elevation, her wintering area was a region of high
ridges (up to about 4,000 m) and valleys (as low
as 2,700 m) dominated by alpine meadow soils
and covered with subalpine scrub and cold steppe
with few forest patches. Nearby peaks rise to
4,300-4,600 m. Judging by elevation, the winter
climate in Tibet would have been at least as harsh
as if the bird had remained on the summering
area in Mongolia.
Movements of the bird in her wintering
area are also of interest. She arrived in the
general area between October 28 and October
3 1 , and settled into a rather restricted zone for
338
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 200 1
ANNUAL MOVEMENTS OF A STEPPE EAGLE (AQUILA NIPALENSIS)
several days. Then she moved south
approximately 100 km to spend the remainder
of the winter in a narrow corridor about 300 km
long. Although this area is large compared to
the home range of a breeding eagle, it is small
when compared to the movements of steppe
eagles wintering in Africa (Watson 1997). There,
they charac-teristically make repeated long
distance movements as they search for termites
which appear after rainstorms. Watson (1997:
99) placed the steppe eagle in the group of
raptors characterized by nomadic, wide-ranging
winter movements in search of abundant, but
transient food. Our bird’s movements were much
more focused, suggesting that it was surviving
on a food supply very different from that used
by steppe eagles wintering in Africa.
Another temporal feature of interest is that
the fall migration was more leisurely than the
spring migration. The bird departed from the
breeding area sometime after noon on October
14, and traveled rather leisurely for four days to
an area about 600 km southwest. She remained
there from October 18 to 21 or 22, then traveled
rapidly for the last 10 days of October. Her
general wintering area was about 1,350 km
southwest of the fall “staging area” and about
2,000 km from the breeding area. Here again,
the eagle paused for a few days (October 3 1 to
November 4) and then moved south to the zone
where she spent the winter (November 4 to
March 7). Her northward journey began between
March 7 and 9. By March 26, the bird arrived
in the region where it had been captured the
previous summer. No staging or stopover sites
were observed on the northward trek. Gross
rate of travel comparisons using median dates
of arrival and departure are as follows:
Fall migration (total distance: 1,800 km),
20 days (October 14 !4 to November VA)\ 90 km/
day.
Spring migration (total distance: 2,200
km) 1 6 Vi days (March 8 to March 24!4):
133 km/day.
Discussion
From this single bird, we leam: first, that
although steppe eagles purportedly wander widely
in winter, our eagle’s winter range was restricted.
Second, the winter range of the eastern race of the
steppe eagle is purported to be India and Burma,
with some birds in Nepal and stragglers south into
peninsular Malaysia. Our bird wintered in extreme
eastern Tibet at the periphery of the known
breeding range of the steppe eagle. The steppe eagle
is described as being entirely migratory (Cramp
and Simmons 1980: 218, Welch and Welch 1991,
Clark 1992), but because our bird wintered where
or near where Tibetan birds breed, it is likely that
some Tibetan birds winter in this same area and
are, as a result, non-migratory. We urge that these
novel ideas be explored by the deployment of more
satellite transmitters on adult eagles in Mongolia
and Tibet.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge the support of NASA-
Goddard Space Flight Center and USGS
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center for primary
funding of our efforts. Patrick Coronado and
William Campbell coordinated funding at
NASA. P. Tsengeg and Merlin Ellis participated
in the expedition, and Catherine H. Ellis assisted
in all aspects of processing the manuscript.
References
Clark, W.S. (1992): The taxonomy of steppe and tawny Cramp, S. & K.E.L. Simmons (Eds.) (1980): Handbook of
eagles, with criteria for separation of museum the birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa,
specimens and live eagles. Bull. Brit. Ornith. Club Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K.
1 12(3): 150-157. Davis, W.B. & B.P. Glass (1951): Notes on eastern Chinese
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
339
ANNUAL MOVEMENTS OF A STEPPE EA GLE (AQUILA NIPALENSIS)
birds. Auk 68: 86-91.
de Roder, F.E. (1989): The migration of raptors south of
Annapurna, Nepal, autumn 1985. Forktail 4: 9-17.
Fleming, R.L. Jr. (1983): An east-west Aquila eagle
migration in the Himalayas. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
80: 58-62.
Helbig, A.J. & D.R. Wells (1990): Steppe eagles in
Peninsular Malaysia in 1987. Dutch Birding 12: 77-
79.
Inskipp, C. & T. Inskipp (1985): A guide to the birds of
Nepal. Tanager Books, Dover, NH USA.
King, B.F. & E.C. Dickinson (1975): A field guide to the
birds of South-East Asia. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston,
MAUSA.
Meyburg, B.U. & C. Meyburg (1995): Tracking the
migrations of 30 raptors by satellite. J. Raptor Res.
29: 62.
Meyburg, B.U., J.M. Mendelsohn, D.H. Ellis, D.G. Smith,
C. Meyburg & A.C. Kemp (1995): Year-round
movements of a Wahlberg’s eagle Aquila wahlbergi
tracked by satellite. Ostrich 66: 135-140.
Meyer de Schauensee, R. (1984): The birds of China.
Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, U.S.A.
Olsen, G.H., D.H. Ellis, S.E. Landfried, L.J. Miller, S.S.
Klugman, M.R. Fuller & C.H. Vermillion (1992):
Behaviour of Sandhill Cranes harnessed with different
satellite transmitters. Proc. North Am. Crane Workshop
6: 50-56.
Singh, G. (1961): The eastern steppe eagle [Aquila
nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson)] on the south col of
Everest. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58: 270.
Smythies, B.E. (1953): Birds of Burma. Second Edition.
Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, U.K.
Strickwerda, T.E., M.R. Fuller, W.S. Seegar, P.W.
Howey & H.D. Black (1986): Bird-borne satellite
transmitter and location program. Johns Hopkins A PL
Tech. Digest 7:203-208.
Watson, J. (1997): The golden eagle. T. and A.D. Poyser,
London, UK.
Welch, G. & H. Welch (1991): The autumn migration of
the Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis. Sandgrouse 13:
24-33.
Wood, C. A. & F.M. Fyfe (Eds.) ( 1 969): The art of falconry:
being De Arte Venandi Cum Avibus of Frederick II of
Hohenstaufen. Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA,
USA.
340
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
BREEDING ECOLOGY OF ANNANDALE’S TREE FROG CHIRIXALUS SIMUS
(ANURA: RHACOPHORIDAE) NEAR KOLKATA, WEST BENGAL1
Kaushik Deuti2
( With one plate)
Key words: Amphibia, Chirixalus simus , arboreal foam-nest, breeding ecology, insolation, desiccation
The breeding ecology of the Annandale’s tree frog ( Chirixalus simus) was studied in a 340 sq. m
marsh at Rajpur, West Bengal. The results showed that the species is an early breeder, breeding
in the first month of monsoon. Most foam-nests are constructed on grass, in the first two weeks,
6-58 cm above standing water and contain 153-234 eggs. The size of the foam-nests depends on
their position on the grass where the frogs mate. The nests are located 10-807 cm away from dry
land. It has been speculated that different species of the genus show a preference for land over
water for constructing foam-nests.
Introduction Material and Methods
Chirixalus is a genus of small to medium-
sized Old World tree frogs (Anura: Family
Rhacophoridae) widely distributed from Japan
to India and is known from nine nominal species
(Frost 1985). Although there are some accounts
on the morphology of the genus, not much is
known about the reproductive biology. Most
Chirixalus species are believed to construct
arboreal foam-nests, from which tadpoles drop
into ponds and ditches soon after hatching.
Chirixalus nongkhorensis of Thailand and China
constructs foam-nests on the surface of pond
water (Duellman andTrueb 1986). C. idiootocus
of Taiwan lays eggs on land, near the edge of
water without making a foam-nest. Hatching is
apparently stimulated by rain and tadpoles spend
a typical aquatic life in ponds or rain pools
(Kuramoto and Wang 1987). Ecological data on
the breeding habits of the genus Chirixalus is
lacking. In this paper, I report the breeding
ecology of Chirixalus simus during June to
September 2000, at a site near Kolkata, West
Bengal, India.
‘Accepted July, 2001
2Zoological Survey of India, Prani Vigyan Bhavan,
535, M-Block, New Alipore, Kolkata 700 053,
West Bengal, India.
The study site was located in a marshy area
at Rajpur (22° 20' N, 88° 35' E), South 24
Parganas district, West Bengal, 6 km south of
Kolkata in September, 1999 (Deuti et al. 2000).
A plot of 340 sq. m (20 x 17 m) was marked off.
The plot has a waterhole of 24 sq. m (6 x 4 m) in
one comer with grass ( Saccharum spontaneum),
banana (Musa paradisiaca) plantations on two
sides, a village road on the third and a high
concrete boundary wall of a residential building
on the fourth. The plot, including the waterhole,
dries up completely during summer, and the grass
is cropped short by grazing cattle. With the
advent of monsoon, the plot gets waterlogged,
the grass grows up to 2 m and flowers. The frogs,
which hide in the sheaths of the banana plants
during summer, arrive at the plot to feed and
breed on the grass, constructing foam-nests.
Throughout the monsoon, from mid- June
to mid- September, the plot was visited twice a
week and the number of foam-nests, their
measurements, distance from dry land, height
above ground and water-level, and maximum
depth of water in the plot were measured. Daily
atmospheric temperature, relative humidity and
rainfall data were obtained from the Alipore
meteorological station, Kolkata, and the data on
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 200 1
341
BREEDING ECOLOGY OFANNANDALE ’S TREE FROG CHIRIXALUS SIMUS
number of foam-nests and depth of water in the
plot were tabulated with the weather parameters
(Table 1). The mating calls were recorded and
photographs of breeding pairs and foam-nests
taken. The plot was sampled every three days to
allow the foam-nests counted earlier to dissolve
and let the tadpoles escape into the water. This
prevented re-counting and measuring of the same
foam-nests. Some foam-nests were collected
during different times of the breeding season to
determine the clutch-size.
Results
In 2000, the monsoon commenced a little
late in southern West Bengal. There was
negligible rain from mid- June to mid- July, the
plot remained dry and there was very little water
in the waterhole. Only a few individuals of
Hoplobatrachus tigerinus were heard calling at
the plot on June 22, when there was a sudden
cloud burst, producing 69 mm of rain, but they
could not breed as the rain water quickly seeped
into the ground. On July 7, 2-3 male Polypedates
maculatus arrived at the plot and started calling,
but no females were sighted. The first week of
July was dry, without any precipitation. From
July 9, it rained daily and by July 11, it was
apparent that the monsoon had finally set in.
Water started accumulating in the plot from July
12. By July 14 there was 5 cm of water in the
plot and the first males of Chirixalus simus had
arrived and started calling. The first females
arrived only on July 16.
On July 17, four pendulous foam-nests
were observed on the grass (Table 1). When the
water level at the plot increased to 1 1 cm on July
22, due to substantial rain everyday, the breeding
activity of the frogs peaked to 34 foam-nests,
gradually decreasing to none by August 18. Due
to heavy precipitation each day, the water level
increased further to 42 cm and 58 cm on July 24
and July 26 respectively. However, the number
of foam-nests decreased to 1 1 and 6, respectively.
As the water level at the plot decreased during
the next two weeks to 26 cm by August 13, the
frogs constructed fewer numbers of foam-nests.
After that as the water-level decreased further to
Table 1
BREEDING PATTERN OF CHIRIXALUS SIMUS AT THE STUDY PLOT
342
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
BREEDING ECOLOGY OF AN NAN DALE'S TREE FROG CHIRIXALUS SIMUS
Deuti, Kaushik: Chirixalus simus Plate 1
Fig. 2: Chirixalus simus at Rajpur, West Bengal
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
343
BREEDING ECOLOGY OF ANNANDALE 'S TREE FROG CHIRIXALUS SIMUS
0 cm (no standing water at all) on August 30,
there were no more foam-nests. Tiny froglets
(snout-vent length: 9 mm) were seen clambering
on to the grass on August 25, tadpoles of the
first foam-nests had metamorphosed. In
September, there was some more rain and the
water level at the plot increased to 38 cm on
September 8, but though other atmospheric
conditions were suitable for breeding, no more
foam-nests were constructed. The breeding was
over by mid-August, though some males were
still calling in the plot till mid-September.
Of the 72 foam-nests observed, 22 were
measured. Length of the foam-nests varied from
5. 2-7. 3 cm (X= 6.06, SE =±0.15), breadth from
1.9-3. 6 cm (X= 2.77, SE= ±0.10) and thickness
from 1.6-2. 8 cm (X= 2.27, SE= ±0.08). The
foam-nests were constructed on grass, 17-89 cm
above the land (X= 48.61, _SE= ±4.87) and 5-64
cm above the water level (X= 31.5, SE= ±3.91).
The depth of the water in the plot ranged from
4-46 cm(X= 17.1 1, SE=±2.76). The foam-nests
were constructed 1 0-807 cm from the nearest dry
land (X= 231.9, SE= ±35.81). Six foam-nests
collected contained 192, 164, 212, 234, 216 and
153 (X= 195) eggs.
Discussion
From these observations, it is apparent that
Chirixalus simus is an early breeder. Breeding
activity starts with the arrival of the monsoon and
continues for about one month, but most of the
breeding and foam-nest construction occurs within
the first two weeks. Thereafter, 1-2 foam-nests may
be constructed. The frogs exhibit sporadic rain
linked breeding (i.e. they breed sporadically after
heavy rains). Anurans in tropical areas breed only
when the rainfall is sufficient to provide oviposition
sites (Duellman and Trueb 1986). In C. simus ,
some rain (11-63 mm) is required to initiate
breeding activity, as there must be some standing
water (4-46 cm) at the base of the grass for
construction of the foam-nests. It was observed that
temperatures of 25-33 °C and relative humidity of
73-98% are required for breeding. The
measurements of the foam-nests depend on then-
position on the grass where the frogs mate and lay
eggs. The clutch size varied from 153-234 eggs.
Foam-nest construction has evolved
independently in five anuran families:
Leptodactylidae, Myobatrachidae, Rhacophoridae,
Hylidae (in a few species) and Hyperolidae (in a
single species, Opisthothylax immaculatus). Foam
nesting species have evolved from aquatic to
terrestrial environments. This route may have been
through the evolution of a foam-nest (Heyer 1 969)
whose main function seems to be that of protecting
eggs and larvae against desiccation (Hodl 1986),
and thermal damage as white foam reflects heat
(Gorzula 1977). In the light of this information, I
speculate that the construction of foam-nests in
Chirixalus has evolved mainly for protection
against desiccation and insolation of eggs and
embryos. The route from aquatic to terrestrial
habitats in the different species of the genus
Chirixalus has progressed from
C. nongkhorensis of Thailand which constructs
foam-nests on the surface of water, through
C. simus and C. dudhwaensis of India, which
construct foam-nests hanging from grass over
temporary water to C. vittatus of Myanmar and
Thailand, which constructs gelatinous foam-nests
on the surface of grass blades growing at the edge
of water, ultimately to C. idiootocus of Taiwan,
which lays eggs on land near water without
forming a foam-nest.
Acknowledgements
I thank Ananda Banerjee and Sayantan
Biswas for help during field work, Sushil Dutta
for suggestions, Indraneil Das and Pranjalendu
Ray for comments on the manuscript.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
345
BREEDING ECOLOGY OF ANN AN DALE 'S TREE FROG CHIRIXALUS SIMUS
Refer
Deuti, K., S. Biswas, M.F. Ahmed & S.K. Dutta (2000):
Rediscovery of Chirixalus simus Annandale, 1915
(Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Assam and West
Bengal, eastern India. Hamadtyad 25(2): 215-217.
Duellman, W.E. & L. Trueb (1986): Biology of
amphibians. Me Graw-Hill, New York, 670 pp.
Frost, D.R. (Ed.) (1 985): Amphibian species of the World.
Allen Press Inc and the Association of Systematics
Collection, Lawrence Kansas, 732 pp.
Gorzula, S. (1977): Foam nesting in Leptodactylids - a
possible function. Brit. J. Herp. 5: 657-659.
ENCES
Heyer, W.R. ( 1 969): The adaptive ecology of the species
groups of the genus Leptodactylus (Amphibia:
Leptodactylidae). Evolution 23: 421-428.
Hodl, W. (1986): Foam-nest construction in South
American Leptodactylid frogs. In: Studies
in Herpetology (Ed. Rocek, Z.). Prague, pp 565-
570.
Kuramoto, M. & C.S. Wang ( 1 987): A new Rhacophorid
tree frog from Taiwan, with comparisons to
Chirixalus eiffingeri (Anura: Rhacophoridae).
Copeia 1987(4): 931-942.
346
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION
OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY — 39.
PLOCEINAE AND ESTRILDINAE1
Saraswathy Unnithan2
(Contd from JBNHS 97(2): 234)
This part covers 386 specimens belonging
to 23 species and subspecies up to Synopsis no.
1978a, in the handbook (Vol. 10, p. 120) and 2
extralimitals. We do not have specimens for 2
subspecies in the Collection.
1957 Ploceus philippinus philippinus
(Linnaeus) (Philippines, errore - Ceylon). Baya
weaver 3: 67
55: 29 males, 20 females, 6 unsexed.
1 Simla Hills, 1 Kesarvala, Dehra Dun,
4 Jagadri, Ambala, 2 Delhi, Meerut, 1 Bharatpur,
1 Hamavas lake, Pali Dt, 1 Chobari, Bhachan
Dt, Kutch, 4 Changalra, 1 Bhuj, 2 Cambay City
environs, Gujarat, 1 Mumbra, 1 Wada, 1 Thana,
1 Andheri, 1 Santacruz, 1 Borivli, 1 Caves,
Salsette, 2 Powai lake, 1 Tulsi lake, 2 Jogeshwari
caves, Salsette, 1 Karjat, 3 Poona, Deccan,
1 Satara, 1 Molem, Goa, 1 Karwar, 2 Kalai,
Trichinappally, 1 Kurumba patty, Salem Dt,
3 Kumbum Valley, Kurnool Dt, 2 Kondila,
Khandhara, 1 Barkul, Chilka lake, 1 Baramba,
Orissa, 1 Dodi, Malwa, Bhopal, 2 Sonarpur,
2 Rudrapur, UP, 1 Calcutta market, 2 Baghownie,
Tirhut.
Out of the 29 males, 1 5 are in full breeding
plumage. One male in the month of May from
Baghownie Tirhut, one in June from Poona, one
each in July from Karwar, Karjat, Borivli,
Andheri, 2 from Kalai, 1 from Trichinappally,
2 from Jagadri; in August 1 male each from
Rudrapur, Meerut and Simla Hills and in
September 2 males from Changarla Bhuj are
breeding males.
'Accepted March, 2000
:Bombay Natural History Society,
Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
Regn. No. 21228, an unsexed specimen
from Poona presumably kept as a cage bird from
1958 to 1959, is very dark on the whole with an
almost black head.
Measurements on p. 350.
1958 Ploceus philippinus travancoreensis
Whistler (Kottayam, Travancore). Baya weaver
3: 67
2: 1 female, 1 unsexed.
1 Cherpu, Trissur, 1 Kuttani, Trivandrum,
Kerala.
Measurements on p. 350.
The British Museum (Natural History),
Tring, U.K. has five specimens, four males
(1 juvenile) and a female, collected by Salim Ali
and N.G. Pillai during the Travancore State
Ornithological Survey in 1933. The localities are
1 Wadakkancheri, Trissur, 2 Backwaters,
Kottayam, 1 Kuttani, 1 Cattle farm, Trivandrum.
The type specimen is a male moulting into
breeding plumage (see note on page 453).
1959 P.p. burmanicus Ticehurst (Akyab).
Baya weaver 3: 70
13:9 males, 3 females, 1 unsexed.
2 Calcutta market, 1 Manjhaul, Monghyr
Dt, Bihar, 1 Crawford Market (from Nepal),
1 Hasimara, 1 Rajabhatkawa, Duars, Jalpaiguri
Dt, 1 Ronikata camp, Goalpara, 1 Dibrugarh,
Assam, 1 Maymyo, Mandalay Dt , U. Burma ,
1 Ngaphaw, Prome Dt , 3 Mindon Chaung,
Thayetmyo Dt , C. Burma.
Most of the specimens of this group were
wrongly identified.
There are four breeding males, one each
from Maymyo (22.viii.1913), Calcutta market
(5.vi. 1900), Calcutta market (no date, brown bill)
and Jalpaiguri (vi.1918). Three of them have
black bills. All have golden yellow crown, but
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
347
A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
do not have yellow breast like phillippinus.
Yellow and deep brown streaks on the back of
the nominate race is replaced by fulvous and
brown streaks. The statement in the handbook
(Vol. 10, p. 93) that the normal breeding plumage
is largely suppressed, seems to be incorrect.
Measurements on p. 350.
1960 Ploceus megarhynchus
megarhynchus Hume (Terai = Kaladoongi
[sometimes Kaladhungi], below Naini Tal). Baya
weaver 3: 69
23: 13 males, 9 females, 1 unsexed.
6 Bilaspur, 3 Rudrapur, Kumaon, 6
Calcutta market, 6 Crawford market, 1 Bombay
zoo, 1 Agia, near Goalpara, Assam.
Regn. No. 19708, a male from Calcutta
market has a blackish-brown gorget at the breast.
Larger with bigger bill than philippinus,
back dark brown, rump deep yellow and lower
back with brown and yellow streaks. Whole
underpart, from chin to vent, is deep golden
yellow. In non-breeding plumage very similar
to philippinus except for larger size and bill.
philippinus has head finely and sharply
streaked and in megarhynchus the streaks are
very faint.
Measurements on p. 350.
1960a P.m. salimalii Abdulali (Bhutan
Duars). Finn’s baya 3: 69
6: 3 males, 3 females.
3 Bhutan Duars, 2 Rajabhatkawa Duars,
1 Hasimara T.E., Jalpaiguri.
The key in the handbook (Vol. 10, p. 93)
separating the two races seems to be incorrect,
refer JBNHS, 57: 660. A female Regn. No. 6930,
26. vi. 1925 has sharply streaked head like
philippinus , but the larger bill makes it
megarhynchus.
Measurements on p. 350.
1961 Ploceus benghalensis (Linnaeus)
(Benghala). Black-breasted weaver 3: 72
24: 12 males, 10 females, 2 unsexed.
1 Chak Sukkur, 1 Jagadri, Ambala,
6 Rudrapur, Kumaon, 1 Sonaripur, Kheri Dt,
1 Sait, Kaira Dt, 1 Ajwa, Baroda, Gujarat,
4 Bombay market, 4 Patancheru, Medak Dt,
Andhra Pradesh, 1 Benares, 1 Tirhut, 1
Darbhanga, 1 Mongyr Dt, 1 Margherita, Assam.
Measurements on p. 350.
The British Museum (Natural History),
Tring has 94 specimens in their Collection
including a breeding male from Bhandup,
collected by A.O. Hume, the only record of this
species for Bombay (=Mumbai). 20 male
specimens are in full breeding plumage, 3 with
white throat and face. Their localities extend
from Upper Sind and NW India to Dibrugarh
and Manipur (18 specimens).
There is confusion regarding the male
breeding plumage of the species (JBNHS,
96: 187-194), and to clarify the issue DNA
fingerprinting was carried out. I collected birds
from Dehra Dun, Banaras, Bihar and Hyderabad
in Andhra Pradesh and worked out their
molecular systematics in Dr. Lalji Singh’s
laboratory at the Centre for Cellular and
Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad, with
some very interesting results, which will be
published separately.
1962 Ploceus manyar flaviceps Lesson
(Pondicherry). Streaked weaver 3: 73, 74
11:9 males, 2 females.
2 Bahawal Nagar, Bahawalpur, 4 Jagadri,
Ambala, 3 Rudrapur, Kumaon, 2 Bombay
market.
Three males are in full breeding plumage.
Heavy streaks on the breast are characteristic of
this species.
Measurements on p. 350.
1963 Ploceus manyar peguensis Baker
(Pegu) . Streaked weaver 3:75
8: 5 males, 2 females, 1 unsexed.
1 Ragagon, 3 Dibrugarh, 1 Assam, 2
Kamaing, U. Burma l Prome, C. Burma.
No breeding male among them. As the key
in the handbook (Vol. 10, p. 98) suggests these
birds are appreciably darker than flaviceps.
Measurements on p. 350.
348
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 200 1
A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
EL Ploceus hypoxanthus hymenaicus
Deignan, Central Siam. Golden weaver bird
2: 1 male, 1 female.
The male is in non-breeding plumage.
Both collected by J.K. Stanford from Prome,
Burma on January 20, 1929.
Measurements on p. 351.
1964 Estrilda amandava amandava
(Linnaeus). (Eastern India, restricted to Calcutta,
West Bengal, by Baker). Red munia 3: 96
29: 18 males, 7 females, 4 unsexed.
1 Pithoro, Sind, 1 Jagadri, 1 Ambala,
Punjab, 2 Delhi, 3 Meerut, 3 Hamawas lake, Pali
Dt, 2 Jajja Abbasian, Bahawalpur, 4 Bhavnagar,
Gujarat, 1 Murbad Road, Thana, 3 Bombay
market, 2 Utnoor, Asifabad, Hyderabad, 2 Band,
Orissa, 1 Chota Dungar, Basfar Dt, 1 Jaithari,
Bhopal St, 1 Sarun, Bengal, 1 Goalpara, Assam.
Measurements on p. 351.
EL Amandava amandava flavidiventris
(Wallace) (Timor & Flores). Burmese red munia
2: 1 male, 1 unsexed.
Both collected by J.K. Stanford from
Henzada district of Burma in 1931.
1965 Estrilda formosa (Latham) (India).
Green munia 3: 94
12: 5 males, 4 females, 3 unsexed.
1 Ganga Sagar, 2 Dediapada, Palanpur
State, Gujarat, 2 Chikalda, Berar, 1 Kolkas,
Melghat, Amravati, 1 Bailadila, Bastar district,
2 Sankrametta, 1 Valasapalli, Sileru, Vizag,
1 Cage bird (Bombay market), 1 no locality.
According to the handbook (Vol. 10, p.
103) and Grimmet et al. birds of the Indian
subcontinent, p. 827, females have fewer,
obsolete bars or less prominent grey and white
barrings.
We have five specimens (two males, two
females and one unsexed) in adult plumage. The
females and males are very similar in plumage
including the blackish grey and white barring of
the flanks. 42 specimens were examined in the
Natural History Museum at Tring (British
Museum). The barring on the flanks of 5 females
is as bright as those of the males. All of them
cannot be wrongly sexed birds and further
research is required to reach a conclusion
regarding their plumage.
Measurements on p. 351.
1966 Lonchura malabarica malabarica
(Linnaeus) (India). White-throated munia 3: 89
45: 22 males, 17 females, 6 unsexed.
3 Chitral, 1 Campbellpur, 1 Ambala,
Punjab, 1 Hushwar Bagh, 2 Sitoni, Gidam, Kalat,
Baluchistan, 1 Karachi, 1 Harunabad,
Bahawalpur, 1 Delhi, 1 Meerut, 1 Kanpur,
2 Hamawas lake, Pali district, 1 Bharatpur,
1 Gwalior, 2 Jaithari, Bhopal, 1 Chanduva,
1 Bhuj, Kutch, 1 Bodeli, Baroda district,
1 Bhavnagar, 1 Golana, Camba, 1 Nasik,
1 Borivli, 1 Santacruz, 1 Juhu Salsette, 1 Sion
mudflats, 1 Colaba, 3 Bombay, 1 Uran, Bombay
harbour, 2 Satara, 1 Cumbum valley, Kumool
district, 2 Kodura, S. Cuddappa, 1 Wangalu
Tank, Kavur, Nellore, AP, 1 Madras market,
1 Trichinapally, 1 Sarun, Bengal, 1 Nahar,
Madhubani, 1 Wahir, 25 m SW of Khojdar.
Larger size, light brown upperparts and a
buff throat separate these birds from striata which
also has a whitish rump, but blackish-brown
upper parts.
Measurements on p. 351.
1967 Lonchura striata acuticauda
(Hodgson) (Nepal). White-ramped munia 3:84
18: 8 males, 8 females, 2 unsexed.
1 Ranibaug, Kumaon 1 Karnprayag,
Garhwal, 1 Hai Bum, 1 Honka, W. Bhutan, 3
Singtam, Teesta Valley, 2 Dibragarh, Assam, /
Singaling , Kyaukse district , 1 Loi Wong , 1 South
Shan States , 2 Thayetmyo , 1 Pyaung chaung , /
Hurran village , Thayetmyo district , l Maymyo,
Mandalay district , 1 Kyibin, Henzada district,
Burma.
The fine streaks on the abdomen which
separate this race from the rest are very faint or
absent in some specimens. But it is not difficult
to tell them apart in hand from striata ,
semistriata and fumigata with white abdomens.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
349
A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
Table 1
MEASUREMENTS OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BNHS
350
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 200/
A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
Table 1 ( contd .)
MEASUREMENTS OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BNHS
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
351
A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
Table 1 ( contd .)
MEASUREMENTS OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF BNHS
352
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
Furthermore, fumigata and semistriata are
smaller.
Measurements on p. 351.
1968 Lonchura striata striata (Linnaeus)
Isle of Bourbon, errore = Ceylon. White-rumped
munia 3: 83
22: 11 males, 7 females, 4 unsexed.
2 Mahal, Surat Dangs, S. Gujarat, 1 Ratory,
Malad, 2 Trombay Is., 1 Thana Hills, Salsette,
1 Panvel, 1 Valpoi, Goa, 1 Santgal, N. Kanara,
2 Mercara, Coorg, 1 Kumili High Range, Kerala,
1 Manalur, Palni Hills, 2 Chettiri Range, Salem
district, 1 Sankrametta, 1 Dharakonda, Upper
Sileru, Vizagapatom, 1 Badrama, Bamra,
1 Ranipathar, Phulbani district, Orissa,
1 Bhopalpatnam, 1 Barsur, Bastar district, MP,
1 No locality (cage bird).
The distinct streaks on the back, larger size
and heavier bill separates this race from
semistriata and fumigata.
Measurements on p. 351.
1969 Lonchura striata fumigata (Walden)
(South Andamans). White-rumped munia 3:83
5 : 2 males, 1 female, 2 unsexed.
2 Long Island, 1 Bakurtala, Middle
Andaman, 1 Pochang, 1 South Andaman.
Appreciably larger in hand than semistiiata.
Streaks on upper parts very faint, also pale fringes
of breast feathers very faint or absent.
Measurements on p. 351, 352.
1970 Lonchura striata semistriata (Hume)
Nicobars. White-rumped munia 3: 84
10: 5 males, 4 females, 1 unsexed.
4 Camorta, Nicobar, 6 Car Nicobar.
All ten specimens were collected by the
late Humayun Abdulali in 1966 and 1976. They
are smaller than the birds of the other 3 races.
Pale rufous fringes of the breast feathers form a
scale-like pattern and streaks are clearly visible
on the back.
Measurements onp. 351, 352.
1971, 1972 Lonchura kelaarti jerdoni
(Hume) (Wynaad). Black-throated munia 3: 88
8: 3 males, 4 females, 1 unsexed.
1 Bombay market (No locality), 2 Bhatkar,
Karwar, 1 Santanpara, Cardamom Hills,
2 Tenmala, 1 Travancore, 1 Sankrametta, Vizag.
Measurements on p. 352.
1973 Lonchura kelaarti kelaarti (Jerdon)
(Ceylon). Black-throated munia 3: 89
nil.
1974. Lonchura punctulata punctulata
(Linnaeus) (Asia = Calcutta). Spotted munia 3:91
57: 29 males, 15 females, 13 unsexed.
2 Kulu, 1 Basantpur, Bhajji, 2 Simla,
1 Simla Hills, 1 Solan, Bhagat, 1 Kalka,
1 Kandaghat, Patiala, NW Himalayas,
1 Ranigarh, Naini Tal, 1 Bhuguwda, Nepal,
2 Dediapada, Rajpipla, Gujarat, 1 Bijwar, Indore,
1 Sonawani, Balaghat, 2 Raipur, Melghat, Berai ,
1 Golapalli, 1 Bailadila, Bastar, 1 Daulatbad,
Aurangabad, 2 Padgha, Thana Dt, 2 Manaun
Is., 2 Kalyan, Thana, 2 Mud Island, 1 Santacruz,
Salsette, 1 Jogeshwari caves, 3 Pali Hill, Bandra,
5 Andheri, 1 Panvel, 1 Khandala, 2 Ratnagin,
1 Bhatkal, N. Kanara, 1 Nenmara, Cochin,
1 Kodaikanal, 2 Perumalmalai, Palni Hills,
1 Manalur, Palni Hills, 1 Kottagiri, Ooty,
1 Palkonda Hills, S. Cuddapda, 1 Koduru,
Cuddapda district, AP, 2 Nilgiri, 4 Keonjhargarh,
Orissa.
Measurements on p. 352.
1975 Lonchura punctulata subundulata
(Godwin-Austen) (Manipur Valley). Spotted
munia 3: 92
8: 3 males, 3 females, 2 unsexed.
3 Dibrugarh, 1 Sonarupa Sanctuary,
1 Darang, Ranikalta camp, Goalpara, Assam,
1 Chimakothi, W. Bhutan, 2 Kanaung, Henzada
district , Burma.
The key in the handbook (Vol. 10, p. 113)
says that the nominate race distributed in the
greater part of India has fulvous undertail coverts
and thus can be separated from subundulata of
NE with almost white undertail coverts. In the
museum specimens, this difference is not
observed and they were separated based on the
localities. We have only eight specimens of
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
353
A CA TALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION
subundulata, three of them collected in 1901,
one each in 1910, 1949, 1968 and two in 1930.
Only 4 specimens are in adult plumage. With
such a small sample, it is difficult to make
any serious studies. However, these birds seem
to be comparatively smaller than the nominate
race.
The four specimens have brown scaling as
mentioned by Grimmett et. al in birds of the
Indian subcontinent (1998), p. 829. But older
specimens of the nominate race also have brown
instead of black scaling.
Measurements on p. 352.
1976 Lonchura malacca rubroniger
(Hodgson) (Nepal). Black-headed munia 3:81
nil
1977 Lonchura malacca atricapilla
(Vieillot). (Les Grandes - Indes’, restricted to
Lower Bengal by Robinson & Kloss).
Black-headed munia 3:81
6: 4 males, 1 female, 1 unsexed.
1 Sadiya, Upper Assam, 2 North
Lakhimpur, 1 Lakhimpur, 1 Guilong, Nr. Cachar,
l Maymyo, Burma.
Measurements on p. 352.
1978 Lonchura malacca malacca
(Linnaeus). (“China, Java and Malacca” err ore
= Belgaum, restricted by Baker 1926).
Black-headed munia 3:78
20: 1 1 males, 4 females, 5 unsexed.
1 Thana, 2 Colaba, 3 Darmatar creek,
Kolaba district, 1 Ratnagiri, 1 Karwar,
3 Belgaum, 1 N Kanara, 1 Thattakkadu,
1 Devikulam, 1 Karimulakkunnu, Travancore,
1 Periakulam, 2 Kodaikanal, TN, 1 South India,
1 No locality (Nellore AP?).
L.m. atricapilla with its chestnut upper
belly and sides can easily be separated from the
nominate race having the above mentioned parts
white and also larger size.
Measurements on p. 352.
1978a Padda oryzivora (Linnaeus) (Java).
Java sparrow
1 male, from Singapore.
Measurements on p. 352.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Dr. Robert Prys-Jones,
Head of Bird Group, and Mr. Mark Adams,
Curator, Birds, British Museum (Natural
History), Tring, U.K. for permitting me to work
in their collection and for help and assistance
during my visits. My son Sandeep Unnithan
helped in taking down notes and photographs of
specimens in the British Museum. I am indebted
to Mr. J.C. Daniel for his valuable suggestions
after going through the manuscript.
354
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
TRANSLOCATION OF RHESUS MACAQUES FROM AIRFORCE STATION,
GURGAON (HARYANA) TO THE NATURAL FOREST OF FIROZPUR- JHIRKA,
HARYANA, INDIA1
Ekwal Imam2, Iqbal Malik 3 and H.S.A. Yahya2
( With two text-figures )
Key words: Translocation, Macaca mulatto , monkey menace
The occurrence of monkeys in human habitations has created enormous problems in recent years
in different parts of India. During the present study, a group of troublesome monkeys in the
vicinity of Gurgaon Air Force Station (GAFS) were translocated on an experimental basis. Of the
28 monkeys counted during June 1998, in the GAFS area, 22 were caught and translocated
successfully to the natural forest of Firozpur-Jhirka (Aravali Range, Haryana), where adequate
food and shelter was available. The release area was revisited in March 2000 to ascertain the
status of the released monkeys. It was heartening to see them well settled in their new habitat.
Introduction
Approximately 48.5% of the 0.3 million
rhesus macaques of north India are living in
human habitations (Southwick and Siddiqi
1994), resulting in conflict and competition for
space and food between man and monkey. The
troops invade settlements, often damaging
human property. The harassed humans resort to
hitting or shooting the monkeys. Consequently,
monkey groups become more aggressive, and
increasing number of monkey bites are reported.
Monkeys are an integral part of India’s rich
biodiversity. It is, therefore, our foremost duty to
minimise the man-monkey conflict. Of all the
non-destructive control measures, translocation
is one of the most successful methods of
rehabilitating a troublesome population to an
area where it can resettle (Southwick et al. 1 984,
Forthman 1986, Strum and Southwick 1986, Else
1991, Imam 1991, Malik & Johnson 1991 &
1994, Siddiqi & Southwick 1993, and Imam &
Malik 1997). Recently, Yahya and Imam (2001)
translocated 18 monkeys from the Aligarh
'Accepted February, 2001
2 Department of Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.
?Vatavaran, 540, Asiad Village, New Delhi 1 10 049, India.
Muslim University campus in Aligarh. However,
the world’s largest translocation of 600 monkeys,
to the forest patches of Mathura district, from
Vrindaban (Mathura-UP, India) was carried out
during 1997 (Imam et al. in press). These
successful translocation programs motivated us
to adopt the same technique to solve the GAFS
monkey problem.
Trapping and Releasing sites
Gurgaon Air Force Station is situated 28 km
south of New Delhi in Gurgaon, Haryana (28°
37' N, IT 04' E). The campus includes a hospital,
kitchen and mess, residences, offices, and
plantations of some common trees such as
Eucalyptus spp., Acacia catechu , Albizzia lebbek ,
Azadirachta indica , Zizyphus mauritiana,
Dalbergia sissoo , Ficus bengalensis , F. religiosa ,
Prosopis juliflora and Tamarindus indica.
The release site, Firozpur-Jhirka, (27°
47' N, 76° 59' E), near the Jhir Mandir, has a pond
and perennial nullah with a fairly good forest patch
on either side of the nullah. Acacia leucophloea,
A. catechu , Anogeissus pendula, Ailanthus excelsa,
Azadirachta indica , Zizyphus mauritiana ,
Balanites aegyptica , Butea monosperma , Casearia
elliptica, Cassia fistula , Emblica officinalis ,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
355
TRANSLOCA TION OF RHESUS MACAQUES
Dalbergia sissoo, Ficus tomentosa , F. bengalensis ,
F. religiosa, Lannea coromandelica , Sterculia
urens, Terminalia tomentosa , Prosopis juliflora ,
Tamarindus indica and Tectona grandis were the
common trees at the site.
Methods
A preliminary survey was conducted from
May 23-30, 1998 to estimate the population,
activity sites and night shelters of the monkeys
inside the GAFS premises. The monkeys were
lured with food to facilitate counting.
The forest area of Firozpur-Jhirka (situated
about 1 00 km south of Delhi in the Aravali range,
Haryana) was surveyed to locate a suitable release
site (Fig. 1). Availability of food, water, shelter,
cultivation and proximity to human habitation
were considered while selecting the sites for
translocation. The monkeys were then trapped
with the help of a portable iron trapping cage, of
2mx2mx2m size with a heavy sliding door
(Fig. 2), installed at night. The door was tied
with a pulley, operated by a man hidden in a
drum 20 m away, with an eye-hole to help him
observe the monkeys coming inside the cage. The
monkeys were trapped using banana and roasted
gram as bait all day long, between June 3 and 6,
76° 78°
1 . Gurgaon Airforce Station; 2. Firozpur-Jhirka Patch
Fig. 1 : Trapping and translocation sites of rhesus
macaque Macaca mulatta in Haryana
1998, at alternate sites. To avoid group fission,
we tried trapping an entire group from one site
on the same day. The trapped monkeys were then
transferred into a holding cage 0.5mx0.5mx
0.5 m in size, and finally into a releasing cage of
5mx2.5mx2.5m, which were transported by
a mini truck. All the cages were provided with
food and water. The monkeys were released near
trees at the translocation site early in the morning
between 0200 and 0300 hrs.
Results and Discussion
Out of 28 rhesus macaques, 22 were
trapped. The first trapping was undertaken near
the GAFS mess kitchen, where 3 adult males,
4 adult females and 5 immatures were trapped.
The next day, 3 adult males, 4 adult females and
3 immatures were trapped from the tube-well
building early in the morning. We were unable
to trap any monkeys that evening, as they had
become wary of us and left the area. The trapped
monkeys were transported the same night and
released near large, shady trees at the chosen site
to avoid stress and mortality, which the hot
summer days might have caused. Sufficient gram,
vegetables, banana and other fruits were placed
at the release sites, as an immediate supply of
food. This practice was continued for a week to
acclimatise them to the new area.
To ascertain if the monkey population had
settled in the Firozpur-Jhirka forest, the area was
revisited on March 17, 2000. Two groups of 12
and 8 were seen near the temple. Since this area
had no resident rhesus macaques groups earlier,
and no other monkeys had been released ther£
earlier, it was assumed that the groups observed
were the ones released in June 1998. The temple
priest and local people also confirmed this assump-
tion. The first author visited GAFS the next day,
and found that except for 4 new infants no other
monkeys had joined the population of the area.
The monkey menace seems to have started
with the forced restriction of large populations
356
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
TRANSLOCA TION OF RHESUS MACAQUES
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
357
Fig. 2 : Trapping cage (a) baited with open door (b) trapped monkey
TRANSLOCA TION OF RHESUS MA CA QUES
of rhesus macaques from their natural habitats
to urban areas due to intensive urbanisation and
expansion of agriculture. The 1978 ban on the
export of primates from India and protection
provided by the local people has also helped the
population grow locally. In the absence of natural
predators, in many places the monkey groups
have increased beyond the carrying capacity of
the area (Southwick and Siddiqi 1988). The
GAFS had a similar problem, where the group
was confined to a localised area and exposed to
continuous contact with humans. Besides
monkey bites and the unbearable nuisance, there
may be a possible transmission of certain
pathogens (e.g. Shigella, Salmonella) from
monkey to man and vice versa (Shah and
Southwick 1965, Tiwari and Shukla 1984).
The present translocation was a small
attempt to reduce man-monkey conflict and
rehabilitate the urban monkeys in their natural
habitat. The post translocation visit to GAFS and
Firozpur-Jhirka revealed that translocation of
rhesus macaques was a successful attempt in this
case.
During the last visit it was observed that
translocation of monkeys has been a great relief
to the residents and officials of GAFS. After a
Refer
Else, J.G. (1991): Nonhuman primates as pests. In : Primate
response to environment change. (Eds.: Box, H.O.),
Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 156-165.
Forthman-Quick, D.L. (1986): Controlling primate pests:
The feasibility of conditioned taste aversion. In: Current
perspectives in primate social dynamics. (Eds.: Taub
D.M. & F. A. King), Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Pp. 252-273.
Imam, E. (1991): Translocation: A proposal for the
conservation and management of rhesus monkey in
Aligarh district. Zoos’ Print 8: 3-4.
Imam, E. & I. Malik (1997): Translocation of monkeys
from National Zoological Park, New Delhi to
Tughlaqabad Fort, south Delhi. A report submitted by
Vatavaran to National Zoological Park, New Delhi.
Imam, E., H.S.A. Yahya & I. Malik (in press): A successful
mass translocation of commensal Rhesus monkeys
Macaca mulatto in Vrindaban, India. Oryx.
gap of 20 months, it was found that the
translocated monkeys were doing well in their
new locations.
The rhesus is not endangered in India, but
is in a vulnerable position, as it is strongly
commensal/semi-commensal and is capable of
causing considerable damage to crops and other
property, resulting in conflict with man. In India,
86% of the total rhesus macaque populations
reside near human habitations (Southwick and
Siddiqi 1994), and their conservation depends
on a cordial relationship with man. The present
study revealed that translocation of monkeys
from GAFS has helped reduce this conflict. We
believe that rhesus translocation has much to
offer as it helps to design management plans for
other primate species.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Gurgaon Air Force Station
authorities for financial support, without which
the project would not have taken place, and
Mr. Ajay and Osman for their help in trapping
the monkeys. El thanks Dr. M. Khalid Saifullah
for going through the manuscript. We also thank
the anonymous reviewers of the manuscript.
iNC ES
Malik, I & R.L. Johnson (1 991 ): Trapping and conservation:
development of translocation in India. In: Primatology
today. (Eds.: Eharar, A., T. Kimmura and M. Iwamoto),
Elsevier Publications, Amsterdam, pp. 63-64.
Malik, I & R.L. Johnson (1994): Commensal rhesus in
India: the need and cost of translocation. Rev. Ecol.
(Terre vie): Tome, 49(3): 233-243.
Shah, K.V. & C.H. Southwick (1965): Prevalence of
antibodies to certain viruses in sera of free-living rhesus
and captive monkey. Ind. J. Med. Res. 53: 488-500.
* Siddiqi, M. F. & C.H. Southwick (in press): Translocation
of monkeys in India. In: Conservation and Management
of Primates. (Eds.: Else, J.G. & P.C. Lee), Binghamton,
Sunny Press.
Southwick, C.H., M.F. Siddiqi & R. Johnson (1984):
Subgroup relocation of rhesus monkey in India as
conservation measures. Amer. J. Primatol. 6: 428.
Southwick, C.H. & M.F. Siddiqi (1988): Partial recovery
358
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
TRANSLOCA TION OF RHESUS MA CA QUES
and new population estimation of rhesus monkey
population in India. Amer. J. Primatol. 16 : 187-197.
Southwick, C.H. & M.F. Siddiqi (1994): Primate
commensalisms: the rhesus monkey in India. Rev. Ecol.
(Terre vie) 49: 223-23 1 .
Strum, S.C. & C.H. Southwick (1986): Translocation of
primates. In: Primates: The road to self-sustaining
population. (Ed: Benirscke, K.), Springer-Verlag, New
York,pp. 949-957.
Tiwari, J.P. & L.K. Shukla (1984): Microbiological
investigation of rhesus macaque, Macaca mulatto, in
an urban setting in Uttar Pradesh, India. In: Current
Primate Research. (Eds.: Roonwal, M.L., S.M. Mohnot
and N.S. Rathore), University of Jodhpur, India, pp.
497-499.
Yahya, H.S.A. & E. Imam (2001): Translocation of Rhesus
monkeys Macaca mulatto from University Campus,
AMU, Aligarh to semi-natural forest of Jawan, Aligarh
(UP). Unpublished report submitted to the Dept of
Wildlife Sciences, AMU, Aligarh, India.
* Original not seen.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
359
NOTES ON THE POLYGONACEAE OF SIKKIM1
S.S. Dash and P. Singh2
Key words: Polygonaceae, Aconogonon, Persicaria, Sikkim
The paper provides notes on species of Aconogonon and Persicaria in Sikkim. Two new
combinations, one under Aconogonon and another under Persicaria , are proposed.
Aconogonon (Meisn.) Rchb.
The genus is mainly distributed in Asia and
North America, and comprises of c. 15 species,
of which 1 1 species occur in the Himalayan region.
The first record of Aconogonon from Sikkim was
made by Griffith who collected A. molle (D. Don)
Hara (as Polygonum molle D. Don) and A. rude
(as Polygonum rude Meisn.) in the early 19th
century from somewhere in Sikkim and Bhutan.
J.D. Hooker collected 4 species, namely
A. campanulatum (Hook.f.) Hara, A. molle
(D. Don) Hara, A. hookeri (Meisn.) Hara, and
A. polystachyum (Meisn.) M. Krai (all under
Polygonum) from different parts of Sikkim during
his tour in the area between 1848-49. At present,
7 species have been recorded from Sikkim. Only
A. hookeri (Meisn.) Hara is restricted to Sikkim,
Bhutan and southeast Tibet, all other species are
widely distributed in Himalayas. Their altitudinal
preferences are from warm temperate to alpine
regions of the state. A. paniculatum (Bl.)
Haraldson sometimes grows as low as 1,300 m,
and the most alpine species is A. hookeri (Meisn.)
Hara, which is found up to 5,000 m.
With 7 out of 11 Himalayan species,
Sikkim is relatively rich in Aconogonon. This
makes an interesting comparison with 5 species
and 5 varieties from Nepal (Hara 1982), 4 species
from Himachal Pradesh (Chowdhery and
Wadhwa 1984) and 5 species and 3 varieties from
Bhutan (Grierson and Long 1983).
Study of the available material of
Aconogonon at BSHC poses the problem of species
delimitation. In recognizing species, we have
'Accepted March 4, 1999
:Botanical Survey of India, Sikkim Himalayan Circle,
Gangtok 737 103, Sikkim, India.
followed Hara (1982) to a great extent. However,
his placement of Aconogonon polystachyum
(Meisn.) M. Krai under Persicaria is being
contested here, due to the presence of characters
like flowers in branching racemose panicles,
campanulate and exserted from bracts, which
favour its retention under Aconogonon. The
treatment of A. rude (Meisn.) S.S. Dash & P. Singh
as a distinct species is favoured by the characters
mentioned in the following key and in Table 1 .
Key to the Species of Aconogonon
la. Plants dwarf, unbranched, only with radical
leaves, cauline leaves absent or rarely 1-2
Aconogonon hookeri
b. Plants shrubby with much branched stem, radical
leaves absent, cauline leaves present 2
2a. Perianth spreading, cleft nearly to the base.... 3
b. Perianth campanulate, cleft up to 2/3 down ... 6
3a. Flowers more than 4 mm across, panicles
dichotomously branched, achenes without
baccated perianth, enclosed in perianth
A. polystachyum
b. Flowers less than 4 mm across, panicles
thyrsiform, achenes with baccated perianth,
slightly exserted from perianth 4
4a. Plants glabrous, leaves turn black when dry ....
A. paniculatum
b. Plants pubescent or densely hairy, leaves not
black when dry 5
5a. Plants strigose hairy, nodes with reflex ed hairs,
venation of perianth reticulate A. rude
b. Plants whitish villous, stem densely appressed
hairy with silky white hairs, nodes without
deflexed hairs, venation of perianth parallel ....
A. molle
6a. Leaves ovate-elliptic, acute at apex, 1-3 x 0.8-
1.5 cm, sessile or subsessile, inflorescence
360
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(3). DEC. 2001
3
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
361
362
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 200/
NOTES ON THE POL YGONA CEAE OF SIKKIM
Table 2
COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS OF PERSICARIA BIRMANICA AND P. PRAETERMISSA
Persicaria birmanica (Gage) S.S. Dash & P. Singh
Persicaria praetermissci (Hook.f.) Hara
1 . Stems spineless, glabrous or minutely pubescent.
2. Leaves deltoid, 3-6 x 1-3 cm, hastate at base,
hastate lobes do not come down to petiole.
3. Ochrea glabrous.
4. Inflorescence rachis glabrous.
5 . Perianth segments 5 .
6. Stamens 8.
7. Ovary trigonous, styles 3,
1 . Stems with regular rows of hooked spines.
2. Leaves linear, 3-8 x 0.7-1 .5 cm, hastate at base, hastate
lobes come down to petiole.
3. Ochrea hairy.
4. Inflorescence rachis glandular-hairy.
5. Perianth segments 4.
6. Stamens 5.
7. Ovary biconvex, globose, styles 2, branched.
terminal, 1-4 cm long, perianth 1 .5-3 mm across,
achenes not winged A. tortuosum
b. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, acuminate at apex,
5-12 x 2-5 cm, distinctly petiolate, inflorescence
axillary and terminal, 4-10 cm long, perianth
4-5 mm across, achenes slightly winged 7
7a. Leaves fulvous tomentose beneath
A. campanulatum var. campanulatum
b. Leaves pubescent beneath
A. campanulatum var. oblongum
The taxonomic decision of keeping A. rude
as a distinct species necessitates the proposal of
a new combination as follows:
Aconogonon rude (Meisn.) S.S. Dash &
P. Singh comb. nov.
Polygonum rude Meisn. in DC. Prodr.
14(1): 137.1856; Hook.f. FI. Brit. India
5 :49. 1 886. Aconogonon molle (D.Don) Hara var.
rude (Meisn.) Hara in FI. E. Him. 68. 1966 (as
Aconogonum).
Distribution: india: Assam, Sikkim. Nepal,
Bhutan, Myanmar, Indo-China, north China.
Persicaria Mill.
Gage (1903) described Polygonum
Refei
Chowdhery, H.J. & B.M. Wadhwa (1984): Flora of
Himachal Pradesh, Polygonaceae 2: 607-
623.
Gage, A.T. (1903): A census to Indian Polygonums.
Rec. Bot. Surv. India. 2: 371-452.
Grierson, A.J.C. & D.G. Long (1983): Flora of
birmanicum Gage based on collection from
Myanmar (Burma). Cave in 1 9 1 5 collected it from
Namchi (Sikkim). Stewart (1930) while dealing
with Polygonaceae (as Polygoneae) of eastern Asia
considered Polygonum praetermissum Hook.f. as
a variable species and merged Polygonum
birmanicum Gage under it. However, these two
species come within the circumscription of the
genus Persicaria and can be separated on the basis
of the characters shown in Table 2.
It is clear from Table 2 that Polygonum
birmanicum Gage needs to be given specific
status under the genus Persicaria. A new
combination is proposed here:
Persicaria birmanica (Gage) S.S. Dash &
P. Singh comb. nov.
Polygonum birmanicum Gage in Rec. Bot.
Surv. India 2: 412. 1903.
Distribution: india: Sikkim. Myanmar
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, Botanical Survey
of India for encouragement and Deputy Director,
BSI, Sikkim Himalayan Circle, Gangtok for
facilities.
ENCES
Bhutan, Polygonaceae 1(1): 153-175.
Hara, H., A.O. Chater & L.H.J. Williams (1982): An
enumeration of the flowering plants of Nepal.
Polygonaceae 3: 172-180.
Stewart, A.R. (1930): The Polygoneae of Eastern Asia:
Cont. Gray. Herb. 80: 1-129.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
363
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES ON THE
CONTACT CHEMORECEPTORS ON THE PALP-TIP
OF ORYCTES RHINOCEROS L. (COLEOPTERA: SC ARAB AEIDAE) '
A. Mini2
( With two plates)
Key words: Oryctes rhinoceros L., palp-tip sensilla, contact chemoreceptors,
blunt-tipped pegs, pointed-tipped pegs, ball-in-socket type pegs,
cuticular structures, digitiform sensilla
The terminal segment of the maxillary and labial palpi of Oryctes rhinoceros L. has an apical
cluster of peg-like sensilla, which bear three morphologically distinct types of pegs, which are
described and discussed. Morphology of the digitiform sensillar field, occupying a proximal
position on the terminal palpal segment laterally, is also described. The studies concerning the
functional modalities of the sensilla are based
via Scanning Electron Microscope analysis.
Introduction
Studies conducted by the author reveal that
the extirpation of the extreme apex of the terminal
palpal segments of Oryctes rhinoceros L. males
renders them incapable of releasing courtship and
copulatory behaviour upon contacting the female,
whereas contact activation of sexual behaviour
was found to be the rule in normal males.
Deliberate exploration of the female’s body
surface employing the palpal tips was found to
be a consistent component of the courtship
behavioural sequence of the male. Scanning
Electron Microscope (SEM) observations of the
palpal tips revealed the presence of an apical
cluster of peg-like sensilla, surrounded by
numerous variously modified cuticular structures
and at least some of these palp-tip sensilla are
associated with the perception of a certain
sexually activating stimulus. The studies also
indicate the activating stimulus to be of the nature
of a female contact sex pheromone (data to be
published). Palpal sensilla, functioning as contact
chemoreceptors, have been identified in a number
'Accepted August, 1 999
department of Zoology, Visva-Bharati University,
Santiniketan 731 235, West Bengal, India.
on the interpretation of structural data obtained
of insect species (Frings and Frings 1949, Haskell
and Mordue 1969, Haskell and Schoonhoven
1969, Klein and Muller 1978, Altner and
Prillinger 1980). There are also numerous reports
on palpal contact chemoreceptors playing a
significant role in feeding behaviour (Blaney and
Chapman 1970, Bemays et al. 1972, Blaney et
al. 1973, Mitchell and Schoonhoven 1974), and
some reports on their role in host-seeking
behaviour (Mclver and Charlton 1970). However,
though the male palpi making deliberate contacts
with the female’s body during close-range sexual
interactions have been reported in a number of
beetles (Selander 1964, Mathieu 1969, Barak and
Burkholder 1977), the functional significance of
palpal involvement in sexual behaviour is not
yet adequately established. Sex recognition via
chemosensory filtration through the palpi has
been suggested in some blister beetles (Mathieu,
1969). Perception of certain female pheromones
via the palpi, facilitating copulation, was
speculated for Attagenus megatoma Casey (Barak
and Burkholder 1977).
The present study is an attempt to infer
the probable functions of the palp-tip sensilla of
O. rhinoceros L. by interpreting the structural
data obtained via SEM analysis. The primary
364
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES ON ORYCTES RHINOCEROS
objective is to corroborate the inference that at
least a few of the sensilla on the palpal tips are
capable of perceiving a contact chemoreceptive
stimulus. This is the first report of its kind on
O. rhinoceros L., and also provides a morpho-
logical base for further electrophysiological
studies.
Material and Methods
The maxillary and labial palpi of 3 5 -day-
old male and female adults of O. rhinoceros L.
were analysed, and photomicrographs taken,
under a SEM.
Results
The apical cluster of peg-like sensilla on
the terminal segment of the maxillary and labial
palpi of the male and the female (Plate 1, Figs
1-4) revealed three morphologically different
types of sensilla. Of these, the blunt-tipped pegs
revealing an apical pore surrounded by movable
cuticular processes, and the pointed-tipped pegs
disclosing an apical pore on the tip of an
eversible papilla, are similar to some of the
contact chemoreceptors reported in other insects,
while the ball-in-socket type pegs, far less
numerous than the other types, are
mechanoreceptors, and exhibited prominent
sexual dimorphism in arrangement. The peg
cluster is surrounded by four basic types of
cuticular structures - (1) Open pores of varying
sizes representing openings of cuticular glands
and/or some cuticle sensillum. Pores bearing (2)
a ball-like structure or (3) a dome-shaped spine
or (4) a sickle-shaped body. The latter three types
are probably mechanoreceptors. Though the
shape of the same type of sensilla appeared
different under different angles of observation,
their apical features provided fairly reliable and
easily detectable diagnostic criteria (Plate 1, Fig.
2; Plate 2, Fig. 5). The sensillar types thus
recognised were:
1 . Ball-in-socket type pegs (BSP) were the
most conspicuous and least frequent sensilla,
occupying the periphery of the cluster. In the male
palpi, they showed a noticeable tendency to
congregate towards the upper half of the cluster,
which was more obvious in their maxillary palpi
(Plate 1 , Fig. 1), perhaps due to a greater number
of sensilla than in the labial palpi (Plate 1, Fig.
3). In the females, however, the BSP encroached
the lower half as well, to varying extents (Plate
1, Fig. 2, 4). Apical phase of the BSP disclosed a
cavity bearing a ball-like structure at its centre,
presenting a characteristic ball-in-socket
appearance (Plate 2, Fig. 7, 8). Between this
ball and the rim of the sensillum was a deep
groove, of variable width, completely obliterated
in some (Plate 1, Fig. 2), whereas others revealed
a wide-open groove (Plate 1, Fig. 4). Certain
fibre-like processes traversing this groove,
between the ball and the rim, were observed in
some BSP sensilla (Plate 2, Fig. 7, 8). The
number of such connections per sensillum varied
from one to four. A small slit splitting the apical
rim into a discontinuous ring and forming a
dimple-like depression on the side-wall, just
below the apex, was another common
characteristic (Plate 2, Fig. 7, 8).
(2) Blunt-tipped cylindrical pegs (BTP)
had an apical diameter of about 3.13 jam (Plate
2, Fig. 10, 11). A magnification of 10,000x
disclosed a slit-like apical pore bordered by a
few lobe-like structures in some (Plate 2, Fig.
10) while numerous finger-like processes,
apparently closing over an apical pore, were
visible in others (Plate 2, Fig. 1 1).
(3) Pointed-tipped conical pegs (PTP) had
an apical diameter of about 0.98 |am. At 1 0,000x,
some of the PTP revealed a simple terminal pore
at the tip of an apical papilla. This papilla
exhibited a variable morphology ranging from a
small protuberance (Plate 2, Fig. 12) to a larger
funnel-shaped membranous pouch (Plate 2, Fig.
13). No such papilla was, however, visible in the
remaining PTP under the same magnification
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
365
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES ON ORYCTES RHINOCEROS
(Plate 2, Fig. 16), but a higher magnification of
15,000x revealed a large slit-like aperture at the
tip of these ‘non-papillate’ sensilla (Plate 2,
Fig. 17).
The sensilla were arranged in a cluster,
with more or less uniform spacing, and the entire
cluster was sometimes found as being depressed
into the palp-tip (Plate 1, Fig. 2), while it
remained everted in others (Plate 1, Fig. 1). The
rather circular, and obviously retractile cuticle
bearing the cluster revealed an irregular
papillate texture, different from the smooth
cuticle immediately surrounding it (Plate 1,
Fig. 2), and the cuticular surface beyond this
smooth area was rough with scaly protuberances
(Plate 1, Fig. 3).
The smooth cuticle surrounding the peg-
cluster revealed four types of cuticular structures,
which were of consistent occurrence, but of
inconsistent distribution pattern (Plate 1, Fig. 3).
They were (1) Open pores (PO) of varying size,
ranging from punctiform pores hardly visible at
600x to those of about 4.2 pm diameter (Plate 2,
Fig. 14). (2) Pores bearing a ball-like body at
their centre (PB) (Plate 2, Fig. 15). Fibre-like
connections extending between this ball and the
rim of the pore were observed in some (Plate 1 ,
Fig. 4). (3) Pores bearing sharp-tipped, dome-
shaped, spine-like structure (PD) (Plate 1,
Fig. 3; Plate 2, Fig. 18). (4) Pores bearing sickle-
shaped bodies with pointed or irregular- shaped
tip (PS) (Plate 1, Fig. 3; Plate 2, Fig. 19).
Apart from the apical cluster and
surrounding cuticular structures, the terminal
palpal segments revealed another prominent
sensillar zone, slightly concave and rather
oblong, situated latero-dorsally towards its base.
It consisted of a dense array of finger-shaped
(digitiform) sensilla, each positioned within a
correspondingly shaped mesh formed by the
surface cuticle (Plate 2, Fig. 6). The proximal
end of the mesh was generally slightly tapering,
compared to the rather blunt distal end. At 5,000x
the sensilla disclosed at their distal end a minute,
subapical protuberance (Plate 2, Fig. 9). The
meshy surface cuticle further disclosed a few
scattered pores, some of them displaying tubular
extrusions, sometimes in the form of tortuous
tubes, as being extruded out of, or lying in close
association with them (Plate 2, Fig. 6).
Discussion
In external morphology, the BSP sensilla
are similar to the “mechanosensory nipples” of
Ips typographic L. (Hallberg 1982) as well as
the mechanosensory “Ball-in-tee” companiform
sensilla (Zacharuk 1985). Accordingly, the ball-
like structure is the distal end of a central peg
positioned within the outer cuticular socket, the
former containing within it the sensory element
called the tubular body. The above authors do
not mention the fibre-like connections radiating
between the ball and the socket apically in some
of the BSP. Though the number of these
connections was found to vary, the presence of
four with a more or less symmetrical positioning
(Plate 2, Fig. 7) seems to be typical. Whether
the absence of such connections in some BSP is
due to loss by accident, or reflective of a
difference in the physiological state of the
sensillum is not clear. That the apical groove of
the BSP can remain open or closed to varying
extents indicates that these connecting processes
are flexible. This suggests their function in the
opening and closing of this groove and/or in
deflecting the central peg, the latter ability being
regarded as a general requisite for
mechanoreceptor sensilla (Zacharuk et al. 1977,
Honomichl and Guse 1981). Like the
mechanosensory nipples of I. typographies L., the
BSP also occupy a peripheral position in the
terminal cluster. By correlation of structure and
function, a mechanosensory function can be
attributed safely to the BSP sensilla.
The significance of sexually dimorphic
pattern of distribution of the BSP is uncertain,
though it suggests a sex-related difference in their
366
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES ON ORYCTES RHINOCEROS
Mini, A.: Oryctes rhinoceros L. Plate 1
Figs 1-4: Scanning Electron micrographs of the Palp-tip sensilla of O. rhinoceros. The arrows indicate BTP
(Blunt-tipped peg), arrow-heads the PTP (Pointed-tipped peg) and the arrow-tails, the BSP (Ball-in-socket
peg). 1. Maxillary palp-tip cluster of the male - everted condition (lOOOx); 2. Maxillary palp-tip cluster of the
female - retracted state (lOOOx); 3. Labial palp-tip cluster of the male with surrounding cuticular structures
(600x); 4. Labial palp-tip cluster of the female with a few cuticular structures (lOOOx).
PB1 - Pore with ball showing fibre-like processes; PB2-Pore with ball showing no fibre-like process,
PC-Papillate cuticle; PD-Pore with dome-shaped spine, PO-Open pore, PS-Pore with sickle-shaped body,
RC-Rough cuticle.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
367
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES ON ORYCTES RHINOCEROS
For caption of Plate 2 see page 369
Mini, A.: Oryctes rhinoceros L.
Plate 2
368
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES ON ORYCTES RHINOCEROS
Plate 2: Figs 5-19: Scanning Electron Micrographs of different sensilla and cuticular structures on the terminal
palpal segment of O. rhinoceros ; 5. Part of a maxillary palp-tip sensillar cluster showing the BTP, PTP and
BSP, indicated as in Fig. 1; the large pit represents a shed sensillum (3000x); 6. Digitiform sensillar field of a
maxillary palp (600x); 7. BSP showing fibre-like connections (8000x); 8. BSP having no fibre-like connections
(8000x); 9. A few digitiform sensilla (5000x); 10. BTP showing lobe-like structures around the apical pore
( 1 0,000x); 1 1 . BTP showing finger-like processes presumably closing over the apical pore (10,000x); 12. PTP
showing apical papilla as small protuberance bearing the apical pore (10,000x); 13. PTP showing fully everted
funnel-shaped apical papilla bearing the apical pore (10,000x); 14. Open Pore (5000x); 15. Pore with ball
(5000x); 16. PTP showing no apical papilla (10,000x); 17. “Non -papillate” PTP showing a large aperture
apically (15,000x); 18. Pore with dome-shaped spine (5000x); 19. Pore with sickle-shaped body (2000x).
B-Ball, CM-Cuticular mesh, CP-Cuticular pore, D-Depression, DS-Digitiform sensillum; FC-Fibre-like
connections; PR-Protuberance; S-Socket; SL-Slit; TS-Tortuous secretion.
function. Perhaps a greater density of these
sensilla towards the ‘upper’ part of the apical
phase, as found in the male, may be serving to
provide a more intense sensory input during
palpation. The significance of the individual
variation observed with respect to the number of
BSP on the maxillary palpi (6-8) against a fixed
number of them in the labial palpi (4) is not
known. In I. typographus L. the maxillary and
labial palpi possess an equal number (2) of
mechanosensory nipples (Hallberg 1982).
According to the classification of
Snodgrass (1935), the BTP as well as the PTP
sensilla are basiconic. As per the typology of
Altner (1977), they appear to be uniporous, both
revealing an apical pore under the SEM. Presence
of a single pore at the tip is a common
characteristic of contact chemoreceptive sensilla
(Altner 1977, Altner and Prillinger 1980,
Zacharuk 1980, 1985). The BTP sensilla with
cuticular modifications surrounding the apical
pore seem to be uniporous sculptured sensilla
(UPS) as described by Zacharuk (1980), and
resemble in this respect the electrophysiologically
established contact chemoreceptive peg-like
sensilla on the palp-tip of Colorado potato beetle
larvae ( Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say)
possessing ‘villi-like structures’ presumably
surrounding the sensillar entrance (Mitchell and
Schoonhoven 1974) and the contact
chemoreceptive uniporous peg sensilla in the
antennae of Tenebrio molitor L. larvae, which
sometimes revealed ‘finger-like projections’
surrounding the pore (Bloom et al. 1982a). That
the cuticular processes of BTP were found to
converge apically in some (Plate 2, Fig. 1 1 ) while
moved apart, appearing as lobes in some others
(Plate 2, Fig. 10) suggests that they can open
and close. Zacharuk (1980) has pointed out a
similar condition in the villi-like processes of
the taste receptors of L. decemlineata Say
(Mitchell and Schoonhoven 1974).
The apical ‘molting pore’ of aporous
sensilla can often.be mistaken as the apical pore
of uniporous sensilla under the SEM (Zacharuk
1985). Molting pore is the opening through
which the dendritic sheath was shed during the
previous molt, and is non-permeable (Zacharuk
et al. 1977, Bloom et al. 1982b). Whereas some
of the uniporous sensilla showed certain apical
sculpturing around the pore, no such
modifications are reported in non-permeable
molting pores (Zacharuk 1985). The apical
molting pore of the blunt-tipped peg sensilla in
the antennae of T. molitor L. larvae (Bloom et
al. 1982b) does not show any cuticular
modifications, contrary to the apical pore of their
uniporous peg sensilla (Bloom et al. 1982a). The
available data, thus, suggests that the presence
of cuticular modifications is implicative of a
permeable pore, while their absence may indicate
either a permeable pore or a molting pore. Thus,
the apical pore of BTP sensilla is most probably
a permeable pore, though Transmission Electron
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
369
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES CWORYCTES RHINOCEROS
Microscopic studies on its internal ultrastructure
are necessary to conclude upon this point.
Terminal papilla as observed in the PTP
sensilla of O. rhinoceros during the present study
are also reported on the basiconic pegs of
Tettigonia viridissima L. (Henning 1974) and
some contact chemoreceptive sensilla of Apis
mellifera L. (Whitehead and Larsen 1976). In
the latter, same kind of sensilla are tipped with
either a pore or a papilla, and the papilla is
thought to represent either some exudate formed
at the tip as reported by Dethier (1972) on the
labellar contact chemoreceptor hairs of Phormia
regina Meigen, or some eversible membrane-like
structure. In the present study, the apical papilla
of PTP sensilla exhibited an obviously eversible
character, as could be evidenced from a series of
micrographs depicting different stages of its
eversion. The large slit-like aperture seen at the
tip of the ‘non-papillate’ PTP sensilla is
seemingly the result of the tucking-in or
retraction of the apical papilla. A possible
mechanism for the opening and closing of the
apical pore is thus envisaged. The terminal pore
of the chemoreceptor sensilla on the maxillary
palp of Locusta migratoria L. is capable of being
closed and opened in response to feeding
(Bemaysetfl/. 1972).
Of the cuticular structures surrounding the
peg cluster, the pores bearing ball-like structure
(PB) are similar to the ‘mechanosensory cuticle
sensilla’ present on the palpal tips of I.
typographies L. (Hallberg 1982). As in the BSP,
fibre-like connections could be observed
radiating between the ball and the rim in some,
but not all, of these PB. The striking resemblance
between the BSP and the PB in apical
morphology is not surprising, in view of a
common mechanosensitive function. The pores
bearing dome-shaped spine (PD) and those
bearing sickle-shaped irregular body (PS)
disclosed no visible pores under the SEM. They
are most probably mechanoreceptive like the
majority of aporous sensilla (Zacharuk 1985).
Functional identity of the open pores (PO),
however, is quite uncertain at present. There are
three possibilities regarding this: (a) They may
be representing certain ‘cuticle sensilla’
characterised by the absence of any outer
cuticular structures, like the single-pore contact
chemoreceptors on the maxillary palp-tip of
Agrion puella and Ischnura elegans (Bassemir
and Hansen 1980), or the canal sensilla on the
tarsal pulvillus of Schistocerca gregaria Forskal
(White and Chapman 1990). (b) They may be
the openings of cuticular glands, perhaps of
different types depending on the difference in
pore size. Barbier et al. (1992) reports similar
openings on the terminal segment of maxillary
palpi in Semiadalia undecimnotata Schn., where
the larger openings found among the gustatory
receptors on the distal surface are of ductless
glands, while the small openings on its lateral
sides are of glands with ducts. Such openings
are also present over the entire body and
appendages of adult males and females. In
0. rhinoceros L. also the PO like structures are
of wider distribution, as could be detected on the
cephalic capsule, prothorax, pygidium and
elytra of both sexes (author’s unpublished data),
(c) Some of the PO may be representing cuticle
sensilla, and others, the gland openings.
Digitiform sensillar fields comparable to
those in O. rhinoceros L. are present in a
corresponding position in adult Dermestes
maculatus De Geer (Honomichl and Guse 1981),
1. typographies L. (Hallberg 1982) and Ctenicera
destructor Brown (Zacharuk et al. 1977). In
T. molitor L., adult digitiform sensilla are
distributed in a scattered fashion (Honomichl and
Guse 1981). In O. rhinoceros L., digitiform
sensillar field occur on both the maxillary and
labial palpi, as also in Dendroctonus ponderosae
Hopkins (Whitehead 1981) but in I. typographic
L. they are lacking in the labial palpi (Hallberg
1982).
The cuticular pores scattered over the
digitiform sensillar field of O. rhinoceros L.
370
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(1), DEC 2001
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES CWORYCTES RHINOCEROS
apparently correspond to the dermal gland
openings occuring in association with the
digitiform sensilla of Dermestes (Honomichl and
Guse 1981). Presence of associated tubular
extrusions appropriating with the pore diameter
provides solid evidence for the glandular function
of these pores in O. rhinoceros L. In S.
undecimnotata Schn. also, a similar tortuous
cylinder escaping out of the labellar gland
opening was visualised under the SEM (Barbier
et al. 1992). Digitiform sensilla of C. destructor
Brown reveal a molting pore near their tip at
12,000x magnification (Zacharuk et al 1977).
The sub-apical protuberance appearing
invariably in all the observed digitiform sensilla
of O. rhinoceros L. at 5,000x might be
representing a molting pore.
In spite of superficial homologies, there can
be considerable difference in internal
ultrastructure between the digitiform sensilla of
different species, e.g., between those of Dermestes
maculatus De Geer (Honomichl and Guse 1981)
and C. destructor Brown (Zacharukk et al 1977),
which were considered as thermoreceptors and
mechanorceptors respectively. The present data
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Altner, H. & L. Prillinger (1980): Ultrastructure of
invertebrate chemo, thermo and hygroreceptors and
its functional significance. Int. Rev. Cytol 67: 69-
139.
Barak, A.V. & W.E. Burkholder (1977): Behaviour and
pheromone studies with Attagenus elongatulus
Casey (Coleoptera: Dermestidae). J. Chem. Ecol.
3:219-237.
Barbier, R., A. Ferran, J.L. Lannic & M.R. Allo (1992):
Morphology and ultrastructure of integumentary
glands of Semiadalia undecimnotata Schn.
(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Int. J. Insect Morphol.
& Embry ol 2: 223-234.
Bassemir, U. & K. Hansen (1980): Single-pore sensilla of
Damselfly larvae: representatives of
phylogenetically old contact chemoreceptors? Cell
is not sufficient to derive the function of the
sensilla in Oryctes rhinoceros L.
The present studies provide morphological
evidence for the presence of two types of contact
chemoreceptors, comprising a major portion of
the palp-tip cluster, of which at least one is
presumably associated with the perception of
aphrodisiac contact sex pheromone. Further
TEM as well as electro-physiological studies may
serve to confirm the present findings.
Acknowledgements
I am indebted to Prof. V.C. Joy, Department
of Zoology, Visva-Bharati University for his help
and advice, and for laboratory facilities. I am
thankful to the Head of the Department for
facilities. I thank Prof. V.K.K. Prabhu for his
helpful comments. Technical guidance and help
from Dr. Sreekanta Chakravarty, USIC, Burdwan
University in preparing the Scanning Electron
Micrographs is gratefully acknowledged. I am
grateful to the Department of Science and
Technology, New Delhi for financial assistance
in the form of a Young Scientist Fellowship.
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Ultrastructure of the larval antenna of Tenebrio
molitorL. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae): structure
of the trichoid and uniporous peg sensilla. Can. J.
Zool. 60: 1528-1544.
Bloom, J.W., R.Y. Zacharuk & A.E. Holodniuk ( 1 982b):
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of the blunt-tipped peg and papillate sensilla. Can.
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Henning, B. (1974): Morphologie and histologie der Tarsen
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372
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(3), DEC. 2001
MIST-NET CAPTURE AND FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON
THE SHORT-NOSED FRUIT BAT (CHIROPTERA: PTEROPODIDAE)
CYNOPTER US SPHINX (VAHL.)1
P.T. Nathan2, D.P. Swami Doss2, S.S. Isaac2, J. Balasingh2, K. Emmanuvel Rajan3,
N. Gopukumar Nair3 and R. Subbar aj
( With three text-figures )
Key words: Cynopterus sphinx , mist-netting, foraging pattern, reproductive cycle, body mass
The present paper addresses the abundance, composition, reproductive status and body mass of
adult males and females of the Indian short-nosed fruit bat Cynopterus sphinx captured by mist-
netting. Both sexes exhibit peak foraging activity once before midnight, followed by another
small foraging bout before dawn. Reproductive activity occurred twice in a year and the body
mass cycle of females showed a predominantly
Introduction
In an animal population, the location,
numbers, density, age and sex composition alter
at different times of the year because of
differential death rates, and other factors such
as migration. This variation also depends on
interaction with other factors such as food
availability, predator pressure, inter- and
intraspecific competition.
Alcock (1989) reported that mark and
recapture studies are useful, in mobile animals,
to study behaviour such as dispersal, migration,
and foraging patterns. Chiropterans (both micro-
and mega-) can be captured with mist-nets while
they forage (Gaisler 1973, Heidman and Heany
1989). Mark and recapture studies were done by
Fleming (1988), and by Kunz and Brock (1975)
to observe activity patterns and social behaviour.
Cosson (1995) reported megachiropteran flight
activity level under forest canopy in South
Cameroon by mist-net studies.
'Accepted January, 2001
Research and P.G. Department of Zoology,
St. John’s College, Palayamkottai 627 002, Tamil Nadu, India.
■Department of Animal Behaviour and Physiology,
School of Biological Sciences,
Madurai Kamaraj University,
Madurai 625 021 , Tamil Nadu, India.
imodal pattern.
In the present study, the abundance,
composition, reproductive status, foraging
activity and body mass of adult male and female
Indian short-nosed fruit bat Cynopterus sphinx
were assessed, in relation with habitat and
seasons through mist-netting.
Methods
The study was earned out from October
1995 to September 1997 in South India (8° 44'
S, 77° 42* E). Nylon mist-nets of 9 m x 2.6 m
with a mesh size of 38 mm were used to capture
the bats from dusk to dawn, for 76 nights, at 23
different roosting and feeding areas (Avinet-
dryden NY 13053 - 1103, USA). The mist-nets
were placed away from illuminated areas so that
the bats could not see them. The nets were set up
as recommended by Kunz and Brock (1975) at 4
m above ground level. They were tied about half
an hour before sunset and removed at 0600 his.
The bats, which were trapped in the mist-net were
removed immediately with gloved hands and
placed in cloth bags, measured and released.
Whenever a large number of bats were
captured within a short duration, they were
placed in a holding cage with fruit to calm them
down. Forearm length (using 150 mm vernier
calipers) and body mass (using 100 g Salter
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
373
FIELD OBSER VA TIONS ON THE SHOR T-NOSED FR UIT BA T
spring balance), were measured. Also, the sex
and reproductive condition (testes size in males,
palpation in females) were determined. The
captured bats were marked with a necklace
(Balasingh et al. 1 992) with ten different coloured
beads representing numbers 0 to 9. The necklace
was secured around the bat’s neck, by crimping it
with a copper ring, with long-nose pliers.
Recaptures were made periodically by
repeated mist netting at different times over the
season at the same study site. By comparing the
data collected while marking with that of the
recapture, the differences in their reproductive
condition, forearm length and body mass could
be analysed.
Results
A total of 1,393 bats were captured, of
which 1,289 were Cynopterus sphinx. The
captured bats were categorized as adult females,
adult males, and juveniles. Peak foraging activity
occurred during 2200 to 2300 hrs, followed by
another small foraging bout during 2400 to 0500
hrs (Fig. 1). The year-round mist-netting
programme revealed that C. sphinx emerges at
1815 hours at dusk and returns to day roost at
0515 hours.
No significant difference in body mass was
observed in male bats, but two predominant peaks
were obtained in females, one in March and
another in July. This increase in body weight can
be attributed to pregnancy (Fig. 2a, b). Male and
female body weight over the seasons is
significantly different (df=l,22; F=8.88;
P=0.007).
There are two peak reproductive periods
in a year, in March and in July. During these
months, most of the captured females were
pregnant and lactating, while the captured males
had prominent testes (Fig. 3). During the study
period, the recapture rate was 2.71% and in all
Time (h)
Fig. 1: Foraging pattern of Cynopterus sphinx. (The number of bats captured during every hour is the
X ±SD of cumulative values of number of bats captured in hourly durations throughout the year)
374
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
Body mass (g) S Body mass (g)
FIELD OBSER VA TIONS ON THE SHOR T-NOSED FR UIT BA T
(a) 54
52
50
48 h
46
44
42 V
40
N
M
M
Months
60
58
56
54
52 -
50 -
48
46
44
42
40
N
M
Fig. 2:
) J F M A
Months
Seasonal changes in the body mass of Cynopterus sphinx a) Male, b) Female
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
375
FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE SHORT-NOSED FRUIT BA T
Months
Fig. 3: Reproductive status of Cynopterus sphinx \
the recaptured bats (21 bats) the necklace was
intact. Both male and female bats were recaptured
(Table 1).
Discussion
The year round captures of bats, banding
and recapture data shows the distribution,
foraging time and reproductive periods of
Cynopterus sphinx.
Most of the mist-netted bats were
C. sphinx , indicating that this species flies 2 to 4
m above ground level. The body weight of both
the sexes changes seasonally. The foraging
pattern was observed indirectly from the rate of
mist-net capture at every hour from dusk to dawn.
Peak captures were observed between 2200 to
2300 hrs, suggesting a predominant foraging
activity period. The second, smaller peak at 0400-
0500 hrs, may be return flights from the foraging
= lactating
: pregnant
3 LlLLIIUJ not pregnant
M J J A S
ring different months compiled values for 2 years
area. Bimodal activity patterns are generally
characteristic of insectivorous species. By
contrast, unimodal patterns are dominant among
frugivorous and nectarivorous species (Fleming
1982).
The maximum and minimum number of
C. sphinx captured in a single night occurred in
September and October respectively, even though
fruiting was scarce in this period in our study
area. There were only a few large Polyalthia trees
with plenty of fruit, which attracted a large
number of C. sphinx in and around Site I. The
large number of C. sphinx netted from Site I
indicates that fruit bats are easily attracted to any
rarely occurring fruit during lean periods. The
lowest capture normally occurred in places where
there was no fruit. A detailed study on the
flowering, fruiting and availability of food items
during different months has already been carried
out by Raj an et al. 1999.
376
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
FIELD OBSER VA TIONS ON THE SHORT-NOSED FRUIT BA T
Table 1
MARK AND RECAPTURE DATA OF CYNOPTERUS SPHINX
NNP- Nipples not prominent, NP- Nipples prominent, TP- Testes prominent, TNP- Testes not prominent,
PRG- Pregnant, LAC- Lactating, A- Adult, SA- Subadult, JU- Juvenile, FA- Forearm length, B.Wt.- Body weight
Compared to other species of bats in the
study area, C. sphinx seemed to emerge from and
return early to its roosts. The recapture of C.
sphinx was not high because of our choice to erect
mist-nets in the same site during the whole year.
Our mist-netting experience for one year
confirms that C. sphinx remembers capture sites
and avoids flying into the same nets again.
The mist-netted samples from different
places helped us to assess the distance traveled
and the areas visited by the bats during foraging.
In one such recapture, we caught a male bat
7 km away from the original banding site.
Normally, males do not travel such long distances
(Marimuthu et al. 1998). The flight could have
been exploratory.
The poor condition of bats in the dry season
by reducing net energy intake and reducing fat
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
377
FIELD OBSER VA TIONS ON THE SHORT-NOSED FRUIT BA T
stores could be an adaptation to reduce energy
consumption during the lean time (Freed 1981,
Noberg 1981). That is, individuals may let their
weight drop in the dry season to reduce absolute
energy requirement. Fleming (1988) reported
that body mass in adults of both sexes of Carollia
perspicillata changed seasonally. Adult
C. perspicillata were generally lighter in the dry
season than in the wet season. In male C. sphinx ,
no significant variation in body mass was
observed during the year. Unlike the new world
bats and temperate bats, generally no significant
variation in body mass has been observed among
tropical bats in an annual cycle, as seasonal
changes in climate and food abundance are not
marked in the tropics. This study corroborates
the data collected during histological studies on
Refer
Alcock, J. (1989): Animal behaviour. 4th edn. Sinaver
Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Massachusetts, 596 p.
Balasingh, J., S. Suthakar Isaac & R. Subbaraj (1992):
A convenient device for tagging bats in the field.
Bat Res. News. 33(1): 6.
Cosson, J.F. (1995): Captures of Myonycteris torquata
(Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) in forest canopy in
South Cameroon. Biotropica 27: 395-396.
Fleming, T.H. ( 1 982): Foraging strategies of plant visiting
bats. In: Ecology ofbats. (Ed. Kunz, T.H.), Plenum
Publishing Corp., New York.
Fleming, T.H. (1988): The short-tailed fruit bat, a study in
plant animal interactions. University of Chicago
Press, Chicago and London.
Freed, L.A. (1981): Loss of mass in breeding wrens: Stress
or adaptation? Ecology 62: 1 179-1186.
Gaisler, J. (1973): Netting as a possible approach to study
bat activity. Period. Boil. 75: 129-134.
Heidman, P.D. & L.R. Heaney (1989): Population biology
and estimates of abundance of fruit bats
(Pteropodidae) in Philippine submontane rainforest.
J. Zool. (Lond) 218: 565-586.
Krishna, A. & C.J. Dominic ( 1 984): Reproductive cycle in
the male fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl 1 977).
the breeding habits of C. sphinx (Krishna and
Dominic 1984, Sandhu 1986).
The capture of lactating mothers,
immediately followed by capture of volant
juveniles in mist-nets, shows that the young ones
are “guided” by the mother bats during initial
foraging attempts (Radhamani 1996). We
observed that when individual volants are
removed from the nets, they make distress calls,
attracting the attention of several mother bats of
the same species.
Acknowledgements
NG is grateful for financial assistance
from CSIR through a Senior Research
Associateship.
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Kunz, T.H. & C.E. Brock (1975): A comparison of mist-
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378
JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 98(3). DEC. 2001
FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF THE SARUS CRANE
GRUS ANTIGONE ANTIGONE (LINN.) IN KHEDA DISTRICT, GUJARAT1
Aeshita Mukherjee2, C.K. Borad2, B.M. Parasharya2 and V.C. Soni3
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Distribution, paddy crop, sarus crane, Grus antigone antigone ,
visibility index, Kheda district
573 individuals of the sarus crane Grus antigone antigone were counted in an intensive
ground survey, carried out in Kheda district, Gujarat, during August 1998. There was a
distinct difference in the crane abundance amongst the tehsils (subdivisions) of Kheda
district. Crane distribution in the district was determined by the physical structure of the
habitat. The factors determining distribution within the district were (a) Pattern, height
and water requirement of the crops, particularly the percentage of irrigated land for paddy
crop (r = 0.47). (b) Standing water body with vegetation, (c) Visibility index or openness
of the landscape (r = 0.46) influenced by vegetation height and density.
Introduction
The sarus crane Grus antigone antigone
is restricted to a few northern and western states
of India (Ali and Ripley 1983). Though once
widespread, its population is now chiefly
concentrated in Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh (Gole 1989).
Earlier, two large-scale attempts were made to
estimate the sarus crane population in Gujarat
State (Vaishnav 1985) and in the whole country
(Gole 1989). In both cases, the population size
was estimated on the basis of a few actual counts,
local inquiry, and presence of wetland and
cropped area available. Since no intensive survey
of a single district was done, the actual head
counts are not available, and factors affecting
distribution are not known. The relative
abundance of the sarus crane in different tehsils
(subdivisions) of Kheda district was determined
and the percentage of land under paddy crop was
considered as a factor affecting distribution
‘Accepted February, 2000
:AINP on Agricultural Ornithology,
Gujarat Agricultural University,
Anand 388 1 10, Gujarat, India.
■ Department of Biosciences, Saurashtra University,
Rajkot 360 005, Gujarat, India.
(Parasharya etal. 1989, 2000). To determine and
assess the factors affecting distribution of the
sarus crane within a district, the present study
was taken up. The species is currently categorized
as globally threatened, due to rapid population
decline and other threats (Meine and Archibald
1996). The present study was, therefore,
warranted to identify the factors determining its
distribution in Kheda district, which holds the
largest crane population in Gujarat State
(Parasharya et al. 1996), and ultimately to
develop a management strategy.
Study Area
Kheda district is situated in central Gujarat,
an area of 7,194 sq. km, which is 3.7% of the
total area of Gujarat. The district lies between two
major rivers, Mahisagar on the eastern and
Sabarmati on the western side. To the north is the
boundary with Sabarkantha district. Ahmedabad
district lies to the west and Panchmahal and Baroda
on the eastern side. The southern boundary is
attached to the Gulf of Khambhat. It is mamly
plain, except for a small hilly area in Kapadvanj
and Balasinor tehsils. The region has fertile g oradu
soil with alluvial, loamy sand.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
379
DISTRIBUTION OF THE SARUS CRANE IN GUJARA T
Fig. 1: Distribution of the Indian sarus crane in the tehsils of Kheda district, Gujarat
The district comprises of ten tehsils, a
major area has canal irrigation, whereas in
Kapadvanj and Balasinor tehsils, rain-fed
farming is practiced. The total cultivated area
is 6,58,495 ha (Director of Agriculture,
Ahmedabad). The cropping pattern is as
follows: During the monsoon, paddy (1,41,672
ha), pearl millet (1,45,916 ha) and tobacco
(92,972 ha) are the major crops. Area under
paddy in different tehsils is given in Table 1.
In winter, wheat (60,335 ha) is the major crop.
In summer, paddy and pearl millet were grown
in irrigated areas.
The district is semiarid, with a tropical
monsoon climate. The southwest monsoon
arrives in the third week of June to September.
The average maximum temperature recorded
during May was 41.6 °C and during December
28.9 °C. The average minimum temperature
recorded during January was 10.3 °C and during
June 27.6 °C. Annual rainfall of the district was
557 mm in 1998.
Material and Methods
Sarus crane count was made from August
3 to 29, 1998 in different tehsils of Kheda district.
The census route was decided on the basis of the
tehsil road maps, ensuring that at least 75% of
each tehsil was covered while traveling 250 km.
380
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DISTRIBUTION OF THE SARUS CRANE IN GUJARA T
Table 1
SARUS CRANE SIGHTINGS IN KHEDA DISTRICT DURING AUGUST 1 998
AND FACTORS AFFECTING ITS DISTRIBUTION
This study was carried out in monsoon,
particularly in August. The census time was
decided on the basis of the following reasons.
During the southwest monsoon, entire fields are
inundated. Monsoon is also the breeding season
of the crane, so they are distributed in suitable
breeding habitats. Secondly, the crop height is
low, and hence it is easy to locate the cranes from
a long distance. Census was avoided on rainy
days (Table 1).
We drove at slow speed, recording the
cranes sighted. Their numbers were confirmed
using 10 x 50 binoculars. Periodically, the vehicle
was stopped to scan the area for cranes. The
locals were questioned for their estimates of
population size, and their perception about the
presence of the crane.
Since the vegetation varied in each tehsil,
the visibility ranged from 50-800 m from either
side of the road. The distance at which the cranes
were sighted varied in different tehsils,
depending on the vegetation profile and the crop
pattern. Based on this, a visibility index (range
1-5) was developed. The visibility index (V.I.)
based on detectability range from the road was
as follows: distance of visibility in metres;
0-50 = 1; 50-200 = 2; 200-500 = 3; 500-700 = 4;
> 700 = 5. Data on the cropping pattern and land
under irrigation was collected from the District
Statistical Officer, Kheda district. Correlation
analysis (Steel and Torrie 1980) was performed
to test the impact of factors affecting crane
distribution.
Results
The cranes were recorded in all the 10
tehsils of Kheda district. However, their number
varied. A total of 573 cranes were actually
sighted. However, the locals claimed a total of
627 cranes to be existent in this area. Census
across Kheda district (Table 1 , Fig. 1 ) shows that
the maximum number of cranes were sighted in
Matar (166), Thasra (136) and Nadiad (84)
tehsils. Some cranes were sighted in Borsad (2),
Mahemadabad (14) and Balasinor (16) tehsils
also. No trend could be established between the
actual number of cranes sighted and the number
claimed by the local people. However, the total
number claimed was slightly higher than the
actual sightings. The difference is too small to
investigate further.
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381
DISTRIBUTION OF THE SARUS CRANE IN GUJARA T
When the number of cranes sighted was
correlated with the percent land under irrigated
paddy and canal irrigation, and visibility index,
a positive correlation (r = 0.47 d.f. 8, P> 0.05)
was established between the crane number and
the percent land under irrigated paddy. The
paddy fields act as temporary wetlands and thus
resemble the true wetland habitat of the cranes.
Very weak positive correlation (r = 0.25 d.f. 8,
P> 0.05) was observed between the crane number
and the percent land under canal irrigation. This
association was relatively weak compared to the
foimer one, as several crops other than paddy
which are not preferred by the sarus crane were
included in this category. Some of the tehsils did
not show a positive correlation at all, which
compelled us to test an additional factor.
Visibility index and the distribution of
crane in each tehsil showed a better correlation
(r = 0.46 d.f. 8, P> 0.05). This suggested that
an open habitat was required for the existence
of crane. While conducting the census, we
realised that the presence of inundated paddy
and the land being under irrigation were not the
only factors affecting the distribution of sarus
crane. The height and density of the hedges of
the crop field, and the type of crop grown,
negatively affected the ability to detect the
cranes. Hence, such areas were scanned more
carefully. Tehsils with such a habitat had
relatively few cranes. This confirmed non-
preference of sarus cranes for habitat with high
vegetation density and low visibility index (V.I.
1 and 2, i.e. detectability range up to 200 m).
Therefore, a positive correlation between the
visibility index and crane number can be
deduced from our observations.
Discussion
Sarus crane distribution in the tehsils of
Kheda district was patchy, depending upon the
suitability of habitat. Even within a tehsil, the
distribution was not uniform. A total of 573
cranes were sighted in the district. Eight tehsils
were intensively surveyed, though relatively less
effort was made in Mahemadabad and Khambhat
tehsils. With an equal effort in these two tehsils,
actual sightings would have certainly been
higher.
This study was carried out in August,
which is also the beginning of the crane’s
breeding season (Ali and Ripley 1983, Gole 1987,
1989 Parasharya et al. 1989), for which the
cranes disperse over the agricultural landscape,
particularly in the paddy growing areas. Due to
the wide dispersal of the cranes and the crop
growth, fewer cranes could be detected from the
moving vehicle. Even in open habitats, cranes
could be detected only up to 800 m on either
side of the road. Hence, in tehsils like Matar,
Thasra and Khambhat, several cranes may have
been missed. It can be presumed that the actual
number of cranes in Kheda district is much
higher than the number reported here. Recently,
Mukherjee et al. (1999) have established that for
sarus crane census, summer is the most suitable
period. Using two different census techniques,
day and night roost count, the sarus crane
population was estimated to be 457 to 548 in a
527 sq. km area around Matar tehsil alone
(Mukherjee et al. 2001). In view of these results,
if census in all the 10 tehsils of Kheda district is
made during summer, a true picture of population
size can be obtained. Summer census would also
indicate relative improvement in the population
estimation over monsoon, the cranes’ breeding
season.
Parasharya et al. (1989, 2000) estimated
1,508 sarus cranes in Kheda district, based on
information collected through the Village Level
Workers (VLW) of the state agricultural
department. The crane numbers claimed by the
local people during the current census are
comparable with the numbers claimed by the
VLW in 1989. The state forest department had
382
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
DISTRIBUTION OF THE SARUS CRANE IN GUJARA T
estimated 2,741 sarus cranes in Kheda district
during 1984 (Vaishnav 1985). However, the
season of census and technique was different.
Compared to the population size projected earlier,
the current figure of the crane sightings was
certainly lower. An alarming decline in the
distribution range and population size of the
sarus crane was also reported earlier (Gole 1989).
Density estimate of the sarus crane in Matar tehsil
of Kheda district in August 1989 and 1995 on a
fixed route had shown a decline of 15% of the
population. Due to the restricted distribution, and
reported rapid decline in the population, the sarus
crane is categorized as a globally threatened bird
species (Meine and Archibald 1996). A
systematic census effort is urgently required.
That the sarus crane is a true wetland bird,
is supported by the distribution pattern observed
in different tehsils. Large manmade reservoirs
linked with canals are abundant in Matar and
Thasra tehsils, in which the highest number of
cranes was estimated. The paddy fields are
considered as temporary wetlands (Scott 1989,
Gopal 1995). In the absence of natural wetlands,
the sarus crane preferred and survived well in
the paddy fields of Kheda district (Parasharya et
al. 1989, 2000). Considering the per-centage of
land under paddy crop as an index, we found a
moderate positive correlation with the crane
number in different tehsils. The sarus preferred
paddy to other irrigated crops, so a weaker
correlation was found with percent land under
canal irrigation compared to the percent land
under paddy crop. Inundated paddy fields are
temporary wetlands, which provide feeding and
breeding requirements of the cranes. The paddy
crop usually does not grow above the height of
the cranes; hence, it does not impede visibility
and permits vigilance against predators. Such a
situation is not found in other cereal crops like
pearl millet and maize. The sandhill crane Grus
canadensis also prefer cereal crops shorter than
their own height (Sugden et al. 1988). Moreover,
in paddy crop there is minimum human
disturbance compared to other crops; this could
be one of the reasons that paddy is preferred over
other crops.
Visibility index of the tehsil (in effect,
openness of the habitat) was another important
factor determining the distribution of cranes. As
in Borsad and Petlad tehsils, very high vegetation
density (revealed from the V.I.) was the major
limiting factor for crane distribution. A
combination of high V.I. with greater percent
land under irrigated paddy resulted in a greater
number of crane sightings, showing that both
the parameters determine habitat preference of
the sarus crane.
In open habitat, it is convenient for the
cranes to take off or to land. Greater height of
the field hedge hampers their movement.
Moreover, within dense vegetation, vigilance
against predators is very poor. The whooping
crane Grus americana also avoids areas with
obstructions to visibility (Armbruster 1990). It
can be concluded that the sarus crane is
dependent upon the agricultural landscape, and
its relative distribution was governed by the
percentage of land under inundated paddy and
the openness of the habitat.
Acknowledgements
This work has been partially financed by
the GEER Foundation, Gandhinagar. The help
received from Shri N.A. Thakore, Shri P.D.
Chavda and Shri Shailesh Parmar is gratefully
acknowledged. We thank Dr. P.R. Vaishnav and
Dr. J.S. Patel for their help in the statistical
analysis of the data.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
383
DISTRIBUTION OF THE SARUS CRANE IN GUJARA T
Refer
Ali, S. & S.D. Rjpley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan (Compact Edn.). Oxford
University Press, Bombay.
Armbruster, MJ. ( 1 990): Characterization of habitat used
by Whooping Cranes during migration. Biological
Report 90(4): 1-16. U.S. Dept. Interior, Washington.
Gole, P. (1987): Observing the Sarus. In: Proceedings of
the 1983 International Crane Workshop, Bharatpur
(Eds.: Archibald, G.W. and R.F. Pasquier).
International Crane Foundation, Bababoo, USA. Pp.
107-114.
Gole, P. (1989): The status and ecological requirements
of Sarus Crane, Phase-I. Paper presented in the
Asian Crane Congress at Rajkot, Gujarat, India.
Gopal, B. (1995): Handbook of Wetland Management.
WWF-India, New Delhi.
Meine, C.D. & G.W. Archibald (Eds.) (1 996): The Cranes:
Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN,
Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.
Mukhjerjee, A., V.C. Soni & B.M. Parasharya (1999):
Diurnal use of reservoirs by the Indian Sarus crane
( Grus antigone ) during summer months. Zoos ’
Print J. 14(7): 72-74.
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Mukherjee, A., C.K. Borad, S.B. Patel & B.M. Parasharya
(2001 ): Selection of suitable census method for the
Indian sarus crane Grus antigone antigone.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 98(2): 237-241.
Parasharya, B.M., K.L. Mathew & D.N. Yadav ( 1 989):
Status and habitat preference of Indian sarus crane
in Gujarat, India. Paper presented in the Asia Crane
Congress at Rajkot, Gujarat, India.
Parasharya, B.M., K.L. Mathew & D.N. Yadav (2000):
Population estimation and general ecology of the
Indian Sarus Crane Grus antigone antigone in
Kheda district, Gujarat. Pavo 38: 25-34.
Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989): A Directory of Asian Wetlands.
IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.
Steel, R.G.D. & J.H. Torrie (1980): Principles and
Procedures of Statistics: A biometrical approach,
2nd edition. Mc-Graw-Hill Kogakush Ltd., London.
Sugden, L.G., R.G. Clark, E.J. Woodsworth & H.
Greenwood ( 1 988): Use of cereal fields by foraging
Sandhill Cranes in Saskatchewan. J. Appl. Ecol.
25: 111-124.
Vaishnav, H.A. (1985): Crane survey in Gujarat. Hornbill
1985(4): 38-40.
384
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
ELYTRAL VESTITURE AND ITS BIOS Y STEM ATIC SIGNIFICANCE IN
ENTIMINAE (CURCULIONIDAE: COLEOPTERA)1
V. V. Ramamurthy2
( With two plates and thirty-seven text-figures)
Key words: Elytral vestiture, biosystematics, Curculionidae, Entiminae,
SEM investigations
Studies on the entimine weevil genera, namely Myllocerus Schoenherr of Otiorrhynchini,
Tanymecus Germar, Burmanicus Supare, Krauseus Supare and Lepropus Schoenherr of
Brachyderini, demonstrated that the elytral vestiture consists predominantly of flat scales, which
overlap each other on the intervals of elytra, while the less predominant erect/sub-erect ones are
elongate, found lining the striae or in the middle of intervals. There is enormous morphological
diversity in the elytral vestiture and yet there is consistency at different hierarchical levels denoting
its diagnostic value. It is concluded that elytral vestiture can help a taxonomist to take confident
taxonomic decisions on the species diagnosis, revisions at generic and other levels, and
monophyletic nature of taxa. Scanning electron microscope investigations have corroborated this
conclusion. Incidentally, it has been shown that gold coating impairs the results as it defaces the
finer structures.
Introduction
The Curculionidae are one of the largest
group of weevils which, with their destructive
potential, are capable of inflicting great economic
damage to man. Entiminae is one such subfamily,
containing many economically important genera.
Many of these are large, complex, and perplexing
to taxonomists; thus there is a need to identify
additional taxonomic characters of diagnostic
value. In 1916, while concluding his notes on
the Indian Curculionidae, Marshall emphasized
this and spelt out the importance of superficial
hairs and scales, as these exhibit structural and
morphological diversity. He also mentioned that
comparatively little attention has been paid by
systematists to the structure of scales, though
these often exhibit good specific and even generic
characters. Some attempts were made to study
this character on the elytra referred to as “elytral
vestiture” (Ramamurthy and Ghai 1988, Supare
'Accepted January, 2000
division of Entomology,
Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi 1 10 012, India.
et al. 1990, Ramamurthy et al. 1992, and Poorani
and Ramamurthy 1997). The present study is an
attempt to integrate these findings, corroborate
the same with Scanning Electron Microscope
(SEM) investigations, and evaluate its utility in
diagnostics.
Material and methods
The specimens selected for the study were
examined under magnifications ranging from 6x
to 160x. The elytral vestiture was studied in situ
to know the type and arrangement, and to select
characters for detailed examination. The Wild
M8 Stereo Zoom Microscope was used for this.
To study the details of the scales, the elytra was
scratched with a minuten pin on to a cavity slide
containing a drop of ethyl alcohol (mixed with
glycerol to avoid instant drying). Gentle stirring
with the minuten helped separate the scales.
These were then covered with a cover-slip and
examined under Leitz Ortholux II Interference
Phase Contrast Microscope at magnifications
from 200x to 400x. The illustrations were made
using a drawing tube fitted with a mirror camera
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
385
EL YTRAL VESTITUREAND ITS BIOSYSTEMA TIC SIGNIFICANCE
lucida. The microphotographs were made with
a Wild MPS 45 microphotoautomat. SEM studies
were done in a Carl Zeiss Digital Scanning
Microscope, model DSM 962, capable of high
resolution image storage, real time image
processing and image recording on digital media,
integrated with arrangements for critical point
drying and gold coating. The key parameters
namely magnification, micron marker bar,
accelerating voltage and working distance are
indicated in the data field in the pictures.
Results
The preliminary examination of the
superficial clothing in Curculionidae showed
that the elytral vestiture is striking, consistent
and diagnostically significant. At magnifications
from 6x to 5 Ox, this vestiture was seen in the
form of scales, setae, hairs and fine pubescence,
of which the scales are most apparent, as they
cover the whole elytra, making it squamose and
with various colour patterns (eg. Myllocerus
discolor Fabricius, Plate 1, Figs 1, 2). In the
subfamily Entiminae, the intervals of the elytra
are almost always carpeted by these overlapping
scales, which are always predominant, and
supplemented with more or less regular rows of
the less predominant elongate, erect or sub-erect
scales. These frequently furnish excellent
generic and/or specific characters (Plate 1,
Fig. 3).
The predominant scales overlap each other,
entirely cover the intervals and extend to the brim
of the punctation of striae. These scales are
always very flat, ovate or circular, rarely elongate
oval, with or without pedicel, ridges or grooves,
densely or sparsely clothed with short or long,
thin or thick, straight or wavy hairs; in some the
ridges extend beyond the apical margin too (Plate
1, Fig 4; Figs 11,13,15, 17, 18, 20, 25, 27, 29,
30, 32, 34, 35, 38, 39, 41, 43, 46). The less
predominant are short or long, erect or sub-erect,
recumbent or sub-recumbent, based on the angle
with which they are attached to the surface of
elytra. But they are always elongate, and mostly
found on either margins of intervals lining the
striae or in rows in the middle of intervals (Plate
1, Fig 4; Figs 12, 14, 16, 19, 21-24, 26, 28, 31,
33, 36, 37, 40, 42, 44, 45, 47). Marshall (1916)
used the term setae for them, but they are also
scales in the true sense. The morphological
diversity of these scales varies between species,
genera and tribes, as explained below.
In Myllocerus pallipes (Roelofs), the scales
on the intervals are broadly ovate, disc-like,
extremely convex, with margins inverted, pedicel
distinct, ridges 6-8 (Fig. 11). The scales on the
strial margins are elongate, short, conical, pedicel
broad and distinct, grooves 3-4 (Fig. 12). All
these agree with other species of Myllocerus
Schoenherr. M. procerus Faust is characterized
by the presence of discal spots, ovate or round
shape, straight apical margin, with pedicel,
ridges 8-10 (Figs 17, 18). The scales on the strial
margins are elongate, spindle-shaped, with their
apices curved (Fig. 26). Closely related species,
namely M. dentifer Fabricius and M. discolor
(Boheman) have an elytral vestiture as detailed
below: in dentifer , scales on the intervals circular,
with pedicel, apex straight, ridges 7-8 (Fig. 13),
scales on the strial margins conical, grooves 4-6
(Fig. 14), while discolor has ovate scales with
pedicel, apex narrowed and pointed, ridges 8-9
(Fig. 15), of which those on the strial margins
are elongate, conical, curved, with 2-3 grooves
(Fig. 16).
In Tanymecus Germar, species differ in
having their flat scales clothed with thick, thin,
long or short hairs and with or without pedicel
(Figs 20-25, 27-29). T. mandibularis Marshall
(Fig. 29), hirticeps Marshall (Fig. 25),
chloroleucus (Wiedemann) (Fig. 27) and
circumdatus (Wiedemann) (Fig. 20), all have
their flat scales on the intervals ovate, with
distinct, rounded pedicel, clothed with a few
thick, short hairs (Fig. 29), thick, long hairs (Figs
25, 27) or dense, thin, short hairs (Fig. 20). In
386
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
ELYTRAL VESTITURE AND ITS BIOSYSTEMATIC SIGNIFICANCE
Ramamurthy, V.V.: Elytral vestiture
Plate 1
Figs 1-6: Elytral vestiture of Entiminae (for details see text)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
387
ELYTRAL VESTITURE AND ITS BIOSYSTEMATIC SIGNIFICANCE
Ramamurthy, V.V.: Elytral vestiture
Plate 2
Figs 7-10: Elytral vestiture of Entiminae (for details see text)
388
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
ELYTRAL VESTITURE AND ITS BIOSYSTEMA TIC SIGNIFICANCE
Figs 11-47: Elytral vestiture of Entiminae (for details see text)
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
389
EL YTRAL VESTITURE AND ITS BIOSYSTEMA TIC SIGNIFICANCE
these, the scales lining the strial margins are
conical, curved or straight, with an indistinct or
distinct pedicel (Figs. 21-24, 28). Burmanicus
Supare and Krauseus Supare have similar scales,
except for the absence of hairs on flat scales, ovate
or round, characteristic with peripheries
distinctly demarcated, median area raised,
surface reticulately smooth, with a distinct,
rounded pedicel (Fig. 30, 32), their scales lining
the strial margins/ middle of intervals conical,
without a distinct pedicel (Figs 31, 33). In
Krauseus , these scales are broadly ovate, rather
disc-like, with base slightly narrowed with a
distinct rounded pedicel, apex fringed with very
thin, delicate hairs, median area with 13-15
ridges, some of these projecting slightly beyond
apical margin (Fig. 34), other scales conical, but
truncate at apex, base with a very small, indistinct
pedicel, with 6-8 grooves (Fig. 19).
In Lepropus Schoenherr, the species
oculatus (Heller) and gestroi (Marshall) have
their flat scales subrectangular to subovate (Fig.
35), or ovate, narrowed at the base with a short,
rounded pedicel, with 7-10 ridges (Fig. 38),
while the elongate ones are curved, with or
without pedicel, with 3-5 ridges (Fig. 36) or
without any ridges (Fig. 37). In Brachyaspistes
Schoenherr, these flat scales are ovate, subovate,
subcircular with irregular impressions (Figs 43,
46), longer than broad, somewhat angular, with
a raised boss in the middle, with irregular criss-
cross impressions (Fig. 41), their scales on the
strial margins elongate, gradually broadened
towards apex, with 4-5 ridges and a pedicel (Figs
40, 42), curved, with a short pedicel, with
3-5 ridges (Figs 44, 47) or hairs or setae
(Fig. 45).
SEM investigations on Brachyaspistes
femoralis Fahraeus indicate that the flat scales
are subcircular, their median area raised, and
with irregular impressions (Plate 2, Fig. 7) and
those on the strial margins characterized by 3-5
ridges. Likewise, Lepropus chrysochlorus
(Wiedemann) has its scales ovate, with 8-15
ridges (Plate 1, Fig 6; Plate 2, Fig. 8), of which
the ridges are clear in non-coated specimens
(Plate 2, Fig. 8), while in coated specimens they
get smothered, concealing the breaks in the
ridges (Plate 1, Fig. 6). The basic green morph
of L. lateralis (Fabricius) has their predominant
scales subcircular with irregular, very fine ridges,
less predominant ones curved, elongate, broader
at apex than at base, with a pedicel, with
4-5 ridges (Plate 2, Fig. 9). The grey morph of
L. lateralis showed similar scales except for the
ridges becoming much finer (Plate 2, Fig. 10).
When coated with gold for SEM, these fine ridges
tend to get camouflaged, indicating that a gold
coating may give misleading results in case of
fine differences (Plate 1, Fig. 5).
Discussion
It can be concluded that entimine genera
of different tribes have variations in elytral
vestiture which confirm their placement at
different suprageneric levels. In a complex genus
like Myllocerus , it has been established that by
utilizing this single character we can identify
some species such as procerus. Elytral vestiture
could be used to distinguish very closely related
borderline species like dentifer and discolor,
which are otherwise inseparable with customary
taxonomic characters. It has been demonstrated
that this character can aid revisions at generic
level, like the synonymy of Hyperstylus Roelofs
with Myllocerus (Ramamurthy et al. 1992),
distinction of Tanymecus , Krauseus and
Burmanicus (Supare etal. 1990), Tanymecus vs.
Esamus Chevrolat (Ramamurthy and Ghai
1991), and Lepropus vs. Brachyaspistes
(Ramamurthy et al. 1998). SEM studies have
corroborated the authenticity of these taxonomic
decisions. Incidentally, it was established that
given certain conditions, there is no need to gold-
coat the specimens, which defaces the finer
features of the elytral vestiture. The present study
confirms the findings of Lacordaire (1863) and
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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
EL YTRAL VESTITURE AND ITS BIOSYSTEM A TIC SIGNIFICANCE
others, that the elytral vestiture can be renewed
by the insect after they have been rubbed off, form
a regular pattern, these are powdery secretions,
their structure is specific, and is of great
biosystematic significance, especially in
Subfamily Entiminae of Curculionidae.
Acknowledgements
I thank Mr. Gunter Winters of Zeiss,
Germany and Dr. J. Poorani for their help
in the SEM pictures and the Head, Division
of Entomology, IARI, for facilities.
References
Lacordaire, T. (1863): Histoire naturelle des Insectes.
Genera des Coleopteres, 6. Roret, Paris, (iv) + 637 pp.
Poorani, J. & V.V. Ramamurthy (1997): Weevils of the
genus Lepropus Schoenherr from the Oriental region
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Entiminae). Oriental Ins.
31: 1-82.
Ramamurthy, V.V. & S. Ghai (1988): A study on the genus
Myllocerus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Oriental Ins.
22: 377-500.
Ramamurthy, V.V. & S. Ghai ( 1 99 1 ): On the synonymy of
Indomecus Pajni & Gandhi with Tanymecus Germar
and on the status of Esamus Chevrolat (Insecta,
Coleoptera, Curculionidae: Brachyderinae).
Reichenbachia Museum Tierkunde Dresden 28 (29):
149-152.
Ramamurthy, V.V., P.N. Britto & R.K. Anand (1992):
Further taxonomic studies on Myllocerus with
synonymy of Hyperstylus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).
Oriental Ins. 26: 119-152.
Ramamurthy, V.V., J. Poorani, C. Devakumar & Prem
Dureja (1998): Cuticular hydrocarbons and
biosystematics of entimine weevil genera Lepropus
Schoenherr and Brachyaspistes Fahraeus
(Curculionidae: Coleoptera). Entomon 23 (4): 25 1 -
257.
Sup are, N.R., S. Ghai & V.V. Ramamurthy (1990): A
revision of Tanymecus from India and adjacent
countries. Oriental Ins. 24: 1-126.
■ ■ ■
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391
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
A NEW SPECIES OF HORALABIOSA SILAS FROM A KERALA STREAM
OF THE WESTERN GHATS1
J.A. Johnson and R. Soranam2
( With two text-figures)
Key words: Horalabiosa , Panniyar stream, Kerala
A new species Horalabiosa arunachalami was collected from a stream in Santhamparai hills,
Western Ghats, Kerala. It is distinguished from other species of the genus in having 2 simple and
8 branched dorsal rays, and a poorly developed callus pad. It differs from H. joshuai in the
absence of scales in the predorsal region, and differs from H. palaniensis in having fewer scales
on the ventral side.
Introduction
The genus Horalabiosa Silas is
represented by two species in India, which are
endemic to the east flowing streams of the
southern Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu. A very
unique character of these fishes is the presence
of a callus pad on the ventral side. External
morphology seems closely related to the genus
Garra Hamilton, but differs widely from it in
the mouth shape, position and presence of
post-labial callus pad in the mental region. Silas
(1953) described Horalabiosa joshuai from the
upper reaches of Tamiraparani river at
Singampatti, Tamil Nadu. Later, it was
synonymised with the genus Garra (Talwar and
Jhingran 1991). Subsequently, Rema Devi
(1992) redescribed the species after collecting a
good number of specimens of H. joshuai from
various altitudes in the headwaters of
Tamiraparani. Recently, Rema Devi and Menon
(1995) added one more species, i.e.
H. palaniensis from Palani hills, Western Ghats,
Tamil Nadu. During the present survey under
the Western Ghats fish biodiversity programme,
a new species of Horalabiosa was collected from
Panniyar stream, Santhamparai hills of Idukki
district, Kerala.
'Accepted June 1998
2Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Environmental Sciences,
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,
Alwarkurichi 627. 41 2, Tamil Nadu, India.
Study Area
Panniyar is a tributary of the major west
flowing river, Periyar. The Panniyar stream
originates from Santhamparai hill region of
Idukki district, Kerala and drains into the
Ponmudi reservoir. The sampling site is located
between Pooparai (4 km from Santhamparai) at
an altitude of 912 m above msl (9° 82' N; 77°
15' E). It is a third order stream mainly with
large boulders and a rocky bed. There are 5-10
pools and 2-3 riffles in a 100 m stretch. Water
temperature is 17 °C and air temperature is 23
°C. The natural riparian vegetation has been
altered completely with the introduction of
cardamom and tea plantations. Scattered old
growth forests provide an instream cover of 30%.
Cover refers to hiding cover for fish. It can be
on, in, next to, or overhanging the water, if it is
close enough to provide protection for fish
(Armantrout 1992). Canopy cover (60-70%),
mostly understorey and cardamom plantation,
extends to the stream side in some areas.
Material and Methods
Fishes were collected using gill nets, drag
nets and scoop nets. All specimens are preserved
in the Sri Paramakalyani Centre for
Environmental Sciences, Manonmaniam
Sundaranar University, Alwarkurichi, Tamil
Nadu, India. The morphometric measurements
392
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NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 1 : Lateral view of Horalabiosa arunachalami , Holotype 54 mm SL
were studied using standard methods (Hubbs and
Lagler 1964).
Horalabiosa arunachalami sp. nov.
(Figs 1-2)
Holotype: ZSI/SRS F. 5324, 54 mm
standard length from a tributary of Panniyar
str eam, above Ponmudi reservoir at Santhamparai
hills, Idukki district, Kerala, India. Alt. 912 m, 9°
82’ N; 77° 15' E, Coll. M. Arunachalam, J.A.
Johnson and R. Soranam, 16.V.1996.
Paratypes: 7 specimens, SPKCES F. 2, 25
to 30 mm SL collected from the same locality on
the same day. All have been preserved in Sri
Paramakalyani Centre for Environmental
Sciences, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University.
Materials examined: ZSI/SRS F. 3909 -
Holotype H. palaniensis 77.0 mm SL, Palani Hills,
Western Ghats. H. joshuai 10 exs., 70 to 45 mm
SL, type locality Manimuthar, Tamiraparani river,
Tirunelveli district, from our own collections and
the specimens are preserved in SPK Centre for
Environmental Sciences, Manonmaniam
Sundaranar University, Alwarkurichi, Tamil Nadu.
Diagnosis
horalabiosa arunachalami is
distinguished from the other two known species
by its 2 simple and 8 branched rays in the dorsal
and poorly developed post-labial callus pad.
Additionally, it is distinguished from H. joshuai
by the absence of predorsal scales and by having
a larger eye (eye diameter 3.62 vs. 4.81 in HL).
H. arunachalami differs from H. palaniensis , in
having very few scattered scales on the ventral
side and a larger head (Head length 3.63 vs. 4.24
in SL).
Fig. 2: Ventral view of head of
Horalabiosa arunachalami
JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
393
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Description
D.2/8; P.1/13; V.l/7; A.l/5; C.19; L.l.
34-35; L.tr.3.5, 2.5. Predorsal scale absent. Body
moderately elongate; dorsal profile slightly
compressed, its depth 5.42 (4.88-6.28) in SL;
head somewhat depressed, rounded anteriorly,
its length 3.63 (3.33-4.20) in SL. Eye large,
lateral in position, not visible from ventral side,
its diameter 3.62 (3.25-3.75), interorbital width
2.41 (2.20-2.60), snout length 2.93 (2.72-3.25)
in length of head. Rostral groove in front of the
mouth well developed and separate upper lip
from the rostrum; lips thick, fleshy and
continuous at angles. Post-labial callus pad thin,
poorly developed, with minute papillae. The
rostral and maxillary barbels are well developed,
maxillary barbels are longer than rostral and
extend beyond the post-orbit of eye. Dorsal fin
originates well before the origin of pelvic fin
and it is inserted midway between the tip of the
snout and base of caudal fin.
Fins: Pectoral fin oval, horizontally
placed, its length 4.93 (4.28-5.50) in SL; 1.36
(1.22-1.62) in HL. Pelvic small, not reaching
vent, its length 5.72 (5.05-6.3) in SL; 1.57
(1 .37-1 .85) in HL. Vent situated close to the anal
fin, distance from vent to anal fin 3.70
(2.80-4.05) in distance from pelvic fin. Lateral
line complete, with 34-35 scales. For further
morphometric data, see Table 1.
Colour: Body light greenish-yellow, darker
above. Ventrally dull white. No markings on the
body. After preservation, body light yellowish-
brown and ventrally pale yellow.
Etymology: Named in the honour of
Prof. M. Arunachalam, Manonmaniam
Sundaranar University, in appreciation of his
interest in various aspects of stream fishes.
Discussion
The known species of Horalabiosa joshuai
and palaniensis are exclusively from eastward
flowing streams of the Western Ghats in Tamil
Nadu. The new species H. arunachalami
represents the fauna from a westward flowing
stream of the Western Ghats, Kerala, which is of
special interest, showing the distribution of the
genus Horalabiosa in the southern part of the
Table 1
MORPHOMETRIC DATA OF H. ARUNACHALAMI SP . NOV. COMPARED WITH//. JOSHUAI AND H. PALANIENSIS
394
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 200/
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Western Ghats. Moreover, the species coexists
with other bottom-dwelling fishes like Garra ,
Homaloptera and Noemachilus species.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. P.T. Cherian,
Officer-in-charge, Zoological Survey of India
Refer
Armantrout, B. ( 1 992): Condition of the World’s aquatic
habitats. Theme 1 Summary. World Fisheries
Congress, Athens, Greece, May 1992.
Hubbs, C.L. & K.F. Lagler (1964): Fishes of the Great
Lakes region. Univ. Mich. Press, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, 213 pp.
Rema Devi, K. (1992): Fishes of Kalakad Wildlife
Sanctuary, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu, India.
Rec. Indian Mus. 92(1-4 ): 193-209.
Rema Devi, K. & A.G.K. Menon (1994): Horalabiosa
(ZSI), Southern Regional Station, Chennai for
permission to examine the specimens in the
station and Dr. K. Rema Devi, ZSI, for her help
in identification. One of the authors, J. Antony
Johnson (8/297(9)/98-EMR-I-SPS) is grateful to
the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR), New Delhi, for a Senior Research
Fellowship.
ENCES
palaniensis , A new cyprinid fish from Palani Hills,
Western Ghats, South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 91: 110-111.
Silas, E.G. (1953): New fishes from the Western Ghats,
with notes on Puntius arulius (Jerdon). Rec. Indian
Mus. 51: 27-38.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes
of India and Adjacent Countries. Oxford and
IBH Publication Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, xvii +
541 pp.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
395
ON THE INDIAN SPECIES OF TRICHOMALOPSIS CRAWFORD
(HYMENOPTERA : CHALCIDOIDEA : PTEROMALIDAE)
P.M. SURESHAN2 AND T.C. NaRENDRAN3
( With thirty-seven text-figures)
Key words: Chalcidoidea, Pteromalidae, Trichomalopsis new species
The Indian species of Trichomalopsis Crawford are reviewed. These include T. apanteloctena
(Crawford) and T. deplanata Kamijo & Grissell and six new species T. acarinata sp. nov.,
T. nigra sp. nov., T. ovigastra sp. nov., T. thekkadiensis sp. nov., T. neelagastra sp. nov., and
T. travancorensis sp. nov. A key to the Indian species of Trichomalopsis is also provided.
Introduction
Trichomalopsis Crawford, a species-rich
genus of Pteromalidae, is best known from
Europe and North America. As currently
understood, the genus is composed of nearly three
dozen species, largely Holarctic and Oriental
(Kamijo and Grissell 1982). Graham (1969)
provided the most recent key to European and
North American species. Kamijo and Grissell
(1982) worked on the Oriental species associated
with rice fields. Boucek (1988) synonymised
Metadicylus Girault under Trichomalopsis.
During our studies on the Indian
Pteromalidae, a large number of specimens
belonging to Trichomalopsis were collected
mainly from Kerala. The studies revealed
8 species, which include T. apanteloctena
(Crawford) and T. deplanata Kamijo & Grissell,
already known from the region, and 6 new
species. Besides describing the new species, a
key to the Indian species of Trichomalopsis is
also provided.
The terminology generally follows that of
Graham (1969). In addition, the antennal fimicle
segments are numbered FI through F6 and
gastral tergites T1 to T6, beginning with the first
'Accepted October, 1 998
Zoological Survey of India,
Western Ghats Field Research Station,
Calicut 673 002, Kerala, India,
department of Zoology, University ofCalicut,
Kerala 673 635, India.
after the petiole and the last before epipygium.
The following abbreviations are also used: OOL
- Ocellar ocular distance; POL - Posterior ocellar
distance; SMV - Submarginal vein; MV -
Marginal vein; PMV - Postmarginal vein; and
STV - Stigmal vein.
The type specimens are kept in the
collections of the Western Ghats Field Research
Station, Zoological Survey of India, Calicut.
Trichomalopsis Crawford
Trichomalopsis Crawford, 1913, Proc. U.S.
natn. Mus., 45: 251 (type species: Trichomalopsis
shirakii Crawford).
Eupteromalus Kurdjumov, 1913, Russk.
Ent. Obozr., 13:12 (type species Pteromalus
nidulans Thomson)
Nemicromelus Girault, 1917, Descr. Hym.
Chalcid. Var. Observ ., V: 4 (type species: Merisus
subapterus Riley)
Metadicylus Girault, 1926. Insecutor,
Inscit menstr., 14: 71 (type species Metadicylus
australiensis Girault)
Key to the Indian species of genus
Trichomalopsis Crawford
1 . Lower margin of clypeus incised medially (Fig.
3); head in dorsal view thick, 1.85 to 1.95x as
broad as long (Fig. 2); occipital carina strongly
curved medially (Fig. 1)
apanteloctena (Crawford)
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NEW DESCRIPTIONS
— Lower margin of clypeus only weakly
emarginate (Figs 4, 20); head not very thick in
dorsal view; if thick (1 .9 to 2x as broad as long)
then lower margin of face as in Fig. 4; occipital
carina not strongly curved medially as
above 2
2. Lower margin of face on either side of clypeus
curved and projected below level of lower
margin of clypeus (Fig. 4); head 1 .9 to 2x as
broad as long; flagellum in female stout (Fig.
5) deplanata Kamijo & Grissell
— Lower margin of face not projecting below level
of lower margin of clypeus; head 2 to 2. lx as
broad as long; flagellum not stout 3
3 . Gastral petiole almost as long as nucha, weakly
sculptured (Figs 13, 16); propodeum with post
spiracular sulcus without transverse ridge; legs
with coxae not concolorous with thorax,
yellowish-brown or brownish-yellow 4
Gastral petiole strongly transverse and
unsculptured; post spiracular sulcus with
a distinct transverse ridge; legs with coxae
mostly concolorous with thorax 5
4. Pronotal collar weakly and irregularly margined
or immargined; scape 0.9x eye length; pedicel
plus flagellum almost as long as head width;
T1 of gaster reaching only a little more than
one third length (Fig. 18); temple length 0.5x
eye length; head and thorax greenish-black with
metallic reflection; antennae paler
acarinata sp. nov.
— Pronotal collar weakly but sharply margined
except at sides; scape as long as
eye; pedicel plus flagellum 0.84x head width;
T1 reaching almost half length of gaster
(Fig. 14); temple narrow, length 0.4x eye length;
head and thorax black with little reflection;
antennae darker nigra sp. nov.
5. Gaster oval; ovipositor sheaths strongly
protruding (Fig. 24); head in dorsal
view with temples rounded (Fig. 19); median
area of propodeum broad (Fig. 23); 1 .3x as
broad as long; plicae not very sharp
ovigastra sp. nov.
— Gaster more elongated (Figs 9, 30, 37),
ovipositor sheaths not strongly protruding as
above; head in dorsal view different (Figs 6,
26, 32) with temples not much rounded; median
area of propodeum less broad, 1.1 to 1 ,2x as
broad as long; plicae more sharp 6
6. Propodeum with plicae very sharp, reaching tip
of nucha; nucha more constricted; median carina
strong (Fig. 8); T1 of gaster reaching only one
third of length (Fig. 9); head in dorsal view
with temples shorter (Fig. 6), length 0.5x eye
length; pronotal collar irregularly margined ..
thekkadiensis sp. nov.
Propodeum with plicae not sharp as above, at
least slightly incomplete towards the end of
nucha (Figs 29, 35); median carina not very
strong; temples longer, 0.7x as long as eye (Figs
26, 32); T1 occupying little beyond or before
half length of gaster (Figs 30, 37); pronotal
collar weakly but more regularly margined ... 7
7. Gaster (Fig. 30) 1.8x as long as broad and
longer than thorax; T1 occupying little less than
half length, with only slight metallic blue gloss
dorsally; nucha less convex in profile (Fig. 27);
scape little shorter than eye (0.9x)
travancorensis sp. nov.
— Gaster (Fig. 37) 1.6x as long as broad, and as
long as thorax; T1 occupying little beyond
middle with bright metallic blue gloss dorsally;
nucha more convex in profile (Fig. 33); scape
as long as the eye neelagastra sp. nov.
Description of species
Trichomalopsis apanteloctena (Crawford)
(Figs 1-3)
Trichomalopsis apanteloctena Crawford,
1911. Proc. U.S. natn. Mus., 39: 618.
Eupteromalus parnarae Gahan, 1919.
Proc. U.S. natn. Mus., 56: 522.
The species can be identified by the
following characters: Lower margin of clypeus
rather deeply incised medially (Fig. 3); striation
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
397
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
on clypeus extending to lower margin of eyes
and to malar sulcus; both mandibles with four
teeth; head thick in dorsal view, 1.85 to 1.95x as
broad as long (Fig. 2); occipital carina sharp, in
posterodorsal view strongly curved medially (Fig.
1). Antennae with combined length of pedicel
and flagellum in female 0.8 to 0.93 x and in males
0.95 to 1.05x width of head. Pronotal collar
indistinctly margined. Forewing with MV 1.55
to 2.1 x STV. Gaster 1.7 to 2x as long as broad.
Material examined: 8 Females, Kerala:
Sreekariyam (Trivandrum), 25. ii. 1989;
7 Females, Shertallai, 27.ii.1989; 1 Male, Kappil
(Trivandrum), 26.ii.1989; 9 Females, 1 Male,
Tenjipalam (Malappuram), ?.xi.l988; 2 Females,
Attingal, 23. ii. 1989; 2 Females, Ernakulam,
9.ii. 1989; 6 Females, Kovalam, 24. ii. 1989; 1
Female, Ochira (Quilon), 26.ii.1989; 3 Females,
Valayar, 27. ii. 1989; 3 Females, Tenjipalam,
24. xi. 1988; 1 Female, Pamba, 21. xi. 1997; 1
Female, Kadakattupara (Malappuram),
9.xi.l988; 1 Female, Chavara, 22. ii. 1989; 2
Females, Silent Valley, 9.xii.l997; 5 Females,
Elamathkavalai (Shertallai), 27. ii. 1989; 1
Female, Kazhakuttom, 25. ii. 1989; 1 Female,
Varkala, 26.ii.1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.
Distribution: India (Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka,), Bangladesh, Korea, Malaysia,
China, Japan, Taiwan, Philippines and Formosa.
Biology: Reared from Cnaphalocrocis
medinalis (Guenee) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae),
Pelopidas mathias (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera:
Hesperidae) in India.
Trichomalopsis deplanata Kamijo & Grissell
(Figs 4 & 5)
Trichomalopsis deplanata Kamijo &
Grissell, 1982: Kontyu 50: 84.
The diagnostic characters of the species
are: Length 1. 5-2.4 mm. Head in front view
transverse, 1.3x as broad as high; lower margins
of face on either side of clypeus curved and
projecting below lower margin of clypeus (Fig.
4); clypeus with lower margin weakly
emarginate; both mandibles with four teeth;
striae of clypeus extending almost to lower
margin of eyes and to malar sulcus. Antennal
toruli situated distinctly above level of lower edge
of eyes; scape much shorter than eye length,
almost reaching lower edge of median ocellus;
flagellum stout (Fig. 5); combined length of
pedicel and flagellum about 0.8x width of head.
Pronotal collar not margined anteriorly.
Propodeum with median carina not very strong;
plicae sharp throughout; spiracular sulcus with
a transverse ridge at middle. Forewing with MV
1.45 to 1.85x STV and little longer than PMV.
Gaster ovate, about as long as thorax; 1.3 to
1.4x as long as broad; T1 occupying one-third
length of gaster or more.
Material examined: 5 Females, 1 Male,
Kerala: Ranni, 24. xi. 1988; 2 Females,
Tenjipalam (Malappuram), ix.1988; 1 Female,
Thekkady, 14. ix. 1986; 1 Female, 1 Male,
Vayalar, 27. ii. 1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.
Distribution: India (West Bengal, Kerala),
Japan, Korea, China.
Biology: Reared in India from Tachimd
puparium on paddy.
Trichomalopsis thekkadiensis sp. nov.
(Figs 6-11)
Female: Length 1.6-2. 7 mm. (Holotype 2.4
mm). Bluish-green with metallic gloss; bronze-
like gloss on thorax. Antennae with scape and
pedicel testaceous, flagellum pale brown. Coxae
concolorous with thorax, remainder of legs
testaceous with tips of tarsi brown. Tegulae
testaceous; wings hyaline; veins pale yellow.
Head (Fig. 6): Width 1 .2x thorax; in dorsal
view width 2x length and in front view width
1.3x height; POL 1.3x OOL; temple length 0.5x
eye length; strongly converging behind eyes; eyes
separated by 1 .4x their height; malar space length
398
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs 1-3: Trichomalopsis apanteloctena (Crawford) Female: 1. Head in posterodorsal view,
2. Head in dorsal view, 3. Head in front view;
Figs 4-5: Trichomalopsis deplanata Kamijo & Grissell Female: 4. Head in front view, 5. Antenna;
Figs 6-11: Trichomalopsis thekkadiensis sp. nov. Female: 6. Head and part of thorax in dorsal view,
7. Antenna, 8. Propodeum, 9. Gaster in dorsal view, 10. Forewing venation, 1 1. Male antenna;
Figs 12-14: Trichomalopsis nigra sp. nov. Female: 12. Antenna, 13. Propodeum and petiole,
14. Gaster in dorsal view;
Figs 15-16: Trichomalopsis acarinata sp. nov. Female: 15. Body in profile, 16. Propodeum and petiole
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
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NEW DESCRIPTIONS
0.7x eye length; clypeus weakly emarginate
anteriorly, striated, striae extending near lower
margin of eyes; head otherwise moderately
reticulate, finer on lower part. Antennae (Fig. 7)
inserted above lower margin of eyes; scape almost
as long as eye, ahnost reaching just above median
ocellus; pedicel twice as long as wide; combined
length of pedicel and flagellum 0.9x head width;
club as long as 2.5 preceding segments combined.
Thorax: (Fig. 6) raised reticulate, length
1 ,7x width; pronotal collar irregularly margined.
Mesoscutum width 2.4x length. Scutellum 1.2x
as wide as long, similarly sculptured as on
mesoscutum. Propodeum (Fig. 8) relatively long,
about as long as scutellum medially; median area
raised reticulate, sides finely reticulate; plicae
strong, complete; median carina distinct; nucha
highly constricted; callus sparsely hairy.
Forewing (Fig. 10) with basal part bare; MV
about 1 .5x STV and very little longer than PMV.
Relative lengths of SMV, MV, PMV and STV as
37: 13: 12.5: 8.5.
Gaster (Fig. 9): Length 1.6x width;
slightly longer than thorax; T1 occupying about
one third length of gaster.
Male: Length 1.7-2 mm. Similar to female
but differs in having short gaster and antenna
with longer pubescence.
Material examined: Holotype: Female,
India, Kerala, Thekkady, 12.V.1986, Coll. T.C.
Narendran & party. Allotype: Male, Kerala,
Tenjipalam(Malappuram), 24.xi.1988, Coll. P.M.
Sureshan. Paratypes: Kerala: 5 Females,
Kayamkulam, 2 1 .ii. 1 989; 5 Females, Varkala,
26. 11. 1989; 3 Females, Vayalar, 27. ii. 1989; 9
Females Kappil (Trivandrum), 26.ii.1989; 2
Females, Neendakara, 22.ii.1989; 4 Females,
Ranni, 24.xi.1988; 3 Females, 1 Male, Tenjipalam
(Malappuram), 24.xi.1988; 3 Females, Emakulam,
9.11. 1 989; 1 Female, Kovalam, 24. ii. 1989; 1
Female, Edakkara, (Malappuram), 24.iv.89; 1
Female, Sreekariyam, 25. ii. 1989; 1 Female,
Madappally (Calicut), 30.x. 1988; 2 Females,
Attingal, 23.ii.1989; 1 Female, Parambilpeedika
(Malappuram), 10. xi. 1988; 1 Female,
Elamathkavala (Shertallai), 27.ii.1989; 2 Females,
Kazhakuttom, 25.ii.1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.
Remarks: This species closely resembles
T. shirakii Crawford, but differs from it as
follows: 1. temple length 0.5x eye length (in
shirakii temple length one quarter or slightly
more of eye length) 2. scutellum longer than
mesoscutum, 1.2x as wide as long (scutellum as
long as mesoscutum and slightly transverse in
shirakii ) 3. propodeum without a deep fovea
behind spiracle; nucha half as long as propodeum
and not well defined in front (propodeum with a
deep fovea behind spiracle, nucha little shorter
than half length of propodeum and well defined
in front in shirakii) 4. propodeum with bronze-
like gloss like other areas of thorax (propodeum
without such gloss in shirakii).
Trichomalopsis nigra sp. nov.
(Figs 12-14)
Female: Length 1.5-2 mm (Holotype 2
mm). Blackish to bluish-black with slight
metallic reflection; scape pale brown on basal
two third, tip of scape and remainder of antenna
dark brown. Legs testaceous except base of hind
coxae blackish; tarsi darker at tip. Tegulae pale
brown; wings hyaline; veins pale yellow.
Head: Width 1.2x thorax; in dorsal view
width 2. lx length and in front view width 1.4x
height; temple length 0.4x eye length; POL 1.3x
OOL; eyes separated by 1 .54x their height; malar
space 0.7x eye length; clypeus anteriorly weakly
emarginate, striate; head otherwise moderately
reticulate; Toruli separated by half their diameter,
placed only slightly above lower edge of eyes;
scape (Fig. 12) as long as eye, reaching level of
vertex; combined length of pedicel and flagellum
0.84x head width; second anellus a little longer
than first, club a little shorter than 3 preceding
segments combined.
400
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NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Thorax: Length 1.4x width; pronotal
collar sharply margined, except at sides, with
broad smooth strip posteriorly. Mesoscutum
width 2.4x length, moderately reticulate.
Scutellum convex, longer than mesoscutum;
frenal furrow vague. Metanotum with area
between hind margin of scutellum and dorsellum
narrow with several longitudinal carinae.
Propodeum (Fig. 13) with median area reticulate
as on scutellum; median carina weak; plicae not
sharp; nucha convex; spiracular sulcus shallow,
without transverse ridge; callus moderately hairy.
Forewing with basal cell and vein bare. Relative
lengths of SMV, MV, PMV and STV as 26: 1 1 :
10.5 : 7.
Gaster: Petiole (Fig. 13) as long as nucha,
weakly sculptured; gaster shorter than thorax
(Fig. 14), length 1.4x width; T1 occupying
almost half length.
Male: Unknown.
Material examined: Holotype: Female:
India, Kerala, Shertallai (Kanhikuzhy),
27.11.1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan. Paratypes:
Kerala: 2 Females, Sreekariyam, 25. ii. 1989; 1
Female, Kayamkulam, 2 1 .ii. 1 989; 1 Female,
Ochira, 26. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Chungathara
(Malappuram), 24.iv.1989; 2 Females, Attingal,
23. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Elamathkavalai
(Shertallai), 27.ii.1989; 1 Female, Kovalam,
24.11.1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.
Remarks: This species closely resembles
T. oryzae Kamijo & Grissell but differs from it
in having antennal toruli placed only slightly
above lower margin of eyes; scape as long as eye;
FI narrower than pedicel; second anellus not
much longer than first; malar space 0.7x eye
length; eyes separated by 1.5x their height;
mesoscutum width 2.4x length; gaster with T1
occupying almost half length (in oryzae toruli
distinctly above lower edge of eyes; scape 0.83
to 0.92x eye length; FI slightly wider than
pedicel; second anellus much longer than first;
malar space only 0.45x eye length; eyes separated
by 1 .25x their height; mesoscutum twice as broad
as long and T1 occupying more than one third
length of gaster in oryzae ).
Trichomalopsis acarinata sp. nov.
(Figs 15-18)
Female: Length 1.3 -2.0 mm (Holotype 1.6
mm). Head and thorax dark green; thoracic
dorsum with slight bronze-like gloss; gaster dark
brown. Scape yellowish-brown, darker at tip;
remainder of antenna dark brown. Legs yellowish-
brown with coxae darker. Tegulae pale brown;
wings hyaline; veins pale yellowish-brown.
Head (Fig. 15): Width 1.3x thorax; in
dorsal view width 2. lx length and width 1.3x
height in front view; POL 1.3x OOL; temple
length half of eye length; malar space 0.6x eye
length; eyes separated by 1.3x their height;
clypeus striated, anterior margin weakly
emarginate; toruli placed only a little above lower
margin of eyes; scape (Fig. 17) 0.9x eye length,
reaching level of vertex; pedicel plus flagellum
almost equal to head width; club a little shorter
than 3 preceding segments combined.
Thorax (Fig. 15): Length 1.5x width;
pronotal collar weakly margined or immargined.
Mesoscutum width 2.3x length. Scutellum less
convex, similarly sculptured as on mesoscutum;
frenal groove vague. Metanotum with area
between hind margin of scutellum and dorsellum
very narrow with longitudinal carinae.
Propodeum (Fig. 16) with median area similarly
sculptured as on scutellum; median carina weak;
plicae not sharp; spiracles oval; postspiracular
sulcus without transverse ridge; callus
moderately hairy. Forewing with relative lengths
of SMV, MV, PMV and STV as 14.5 : 6 : 5 : 4.5.
Gaster: Petiole (Fig. 16) almost as long
as nucha, sculptured; gaster (Fig. 18) ovate,
length 1.5x width; T1 occupying little more than
one third length.
Male: unknown.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
401
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Material examined: Holotype: Female:
India, Kerala, Calicut University Campus,
2. v. 1986, Coll. T.C. Narendran & party;
Paratypes: Kerala: 5 Females, Kayamkulam,
21.ii.89; 3 Females, Neendakara, 22. ii. 1989; 1
Female, Attingal, 24. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Chavara,
22.ii.1989; 1 Female, Vazhani, 7.ii.l989, Coll.
P.M. Sureshan.
Remarks: This species closely resembles
T. nigra (also described) but differs from it by
the combination of characters given in the key.
It also resembles T. oryzae Kamijo & Grissell in
the nature of gastral petiole, propodeum etc., but
differs in having pronotal collar not margined;
temple length half of eye length; toruli placed
only slightly above lower edge of eyes; club more
than twice as long as wide; second anellus little
longer than first, and mesoscutum width 2.3x
length (in oryzae pronotal collar weakly but
clearly margined, except at sides; temple length
one quarter of eye length; club twice as long as
wide; toruli placed distinctly above lower edge
of eyes; second anellus much longer than first
and mesoscutum twice as broad as long).
Trichomalopsis ovigastra sp. nov.
(Figs 19-25)
Female: Length 1 .8-2.4 mm (Holotype 2. 1
mm). Body dark brownish-green with metallic
gloss. Antennae brown with scape paler in basal
two thirds. Coxae concolorous with thorax, fore
and mid coxae partly brownish; remainder of legs
yellowish-brown. Tegulae brown; wings hyaline;
veins pale brown.
Head (Figs 19, 20): Width 1.2x thorax; in
dorsal view width 2x length and in front view
width 1 .3x height; temple length 0.5x eye length,
rounded posteriorly; POL 1.4x OOL; eyes
separated by 1 .4x eye height; malar space length
0.7x eye length; clypeus striate; head otherwise
moderately reticulate. Antennae (Fig. 21)
inserted below middle of face; scape just shorter
than eye (12: 11.5), reaching beyond median
ocellus; pedicel plus flagellum length 0.9x head
width.
Thorax: Length 1.8x width, in profile
thoracic dorsum evenly and weakly curved;
pronotal collar anteriorly margined, posteriorly
with smooth strip. Mesoscutum width 2.3x
length, moderately reticulate. Scutellum wider
than long (1.3x), slightly convex; frenal area
slightly depressed. Propodeum (Fig. 23) medially
0.9x length of scutellum; median area broad, 1 .3x
as broad as median length, raised reticulate;
median carina weak; nucha coarsely reticulate,
occupying one third length of propodeum; plicae
sharp; post spiracular sulcus with a transverse
ridge; spiracles elongate oval; callus moderately
hairy. Forewing (Fig. 22) length 2.5x width; basal
cell with a few scattered hairs at distal end. Basal
vein bare; costal cell with a single row of hairs
on upper half, which is complete distally; MV
1.7x STV and as long as PMV. Relative lengths
of SMV, MV, PMV and STV as 30 : 12.5 : 12.5
: 7.5.
Gaster (Fig. 24): Ovate, length 1.3x width
(without ovipositor sheath); ovipositor sheaths
strongly protruding.
Male (Fig. 25): Length 1.6 mm. Resembles
female, but differs in antennae being slender and
gaster shorter.
Material examined: Holotype: Female:
India, Kerala, Vayalar, 27.ii.1989, Coll. P.M.
Sureshan. Allotype: Male, data same as holotype.
Paratypes: Kerala: 3 Females, data same as that
of holotype; 1 Female, Elamathkavala
(Shertallai), 27. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Akalam
(Trivandrum), 25. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Attingal,
23.ii.1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.
Remarks: This species closely resembles
T. lasiocampae (Graham) but differs from it in
having pronotal collar regularly margined even
at sides; median area of propodeum 1 .3x as broad
as long; median carina weak; PMV as long as
MV, head and thorax bronze green, flagellum
402
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 200 J
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Figs 17-18: Trichomalopsis acarinata sp. nov. Female: 17. Antenna, 18. Gaster in dorsal view;
Figs 19-25: Trichomalopsis ovigastra sp. nov. Female: 19. Head in dorsal view, 20. Head in front view,
21. Antenna, 22. Forewing venation, 23. Propodeum, 24. Gaster in dorsal view, 25. Male antenna;
Figs 26-31: Trichomalopsis travancorensis sp. nov. Female: 26. Head in dorsal view, 27. Thorax and gaster
in profile, 28. Antenna, 29. Propodeum, 30. Gaster in dorsal view, 31. Forewing venation;
Figs 32-37: Trichomalopsis neelagastra sp. nov. Female: 32. Head in dorsal view, 33. Thorax and gaster in
profile, 34. Antenna, 35. Propodeum, 36. Forewing venation, 37. Gaster in dorsal view.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
403
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
not stout (in lasiocampae collar irregularly
margined except at sides, median area of
propodeum 1 . 1- 1 .2x as broad as long and median
carina distinct; PMV slightly shorter than MV;
flagellum stout and thorax bright bluish-green).
Trichomalopsis travancorensis sp. nov.
(Figs 26-31)
Female: Length 1.6-2. 3 mm. (Holotype 2.3
mm). Head and thorax dark green with bronze-
like gloss dorsally; gaster brown with slight
bluish gloss dorsally on T1 ; Antennae brown with
scape testaceous on two third part. Coxae
concolorous with thorax; middle coxae brown;
legs otherwise testaceous. Tegulae brown; wings
hyaline; veins pale brown.
Head (Fig. 26): Width 1.14x thorax, in
dorsal view width 2x length, in front view width
1.2x height; POL 1.4x OOL; temple length 0.7x
eye length, slightly acuminate posteriorly; eyes
separated by 1 .4x their length; malar space length
0.6x eye length; clypeus with anterior margin
weakly emarginate. Scape (Fig. 28) 0.9x eye
length; pedicel plus flagellum length 0.9x head
width; club a little longer than two preceding
segments combined.
Thorax (Fig. 27): Length 1.6x width,
moderately curved in profile; pronotal collar
sharply margined almost throughout with smooth
strip posteriorly. Mesoscutum width 2.2x length,
moderately reticulate. Scutellum wider than long,
less convex; frenal area distinct. Propodeum (Fig.
29) with median area 1.2x as broad as long;
median carina weak; plicae not reaching tip of
nucha; nucha moderately convex; callus
moderately hairy; postspiracular sulcus with
transverse ridge. Forewing (Fig. 31) with basal
cell and vein bare; MV 1 .9x STV and 1 .3x PMV.
Relative lengths of SMV, MV, PMV, and STV
as 30 : 14 : 11 : 7.5.
Gaster (Fig. 27, 30): Ovate elongate;
length 1.8x width; longer than thorax; petiole
strongly transverse; T1 making up just less than
half length (0.43x).
Male: Unknown.
Material examined: Holotype: India,
Kerala, Female, Attingal, 23.ii.1989, Coll. P.M.
Sureshan. Paratypes: Kerala: Calicut: 1 Female,
Kazhakuttom, 25.ii.1989; 2 Females, Shertallai,
27. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Vayalar, 27. ii. 1989; 1
Female, data same as holotype; 2 Females, Kappil
(Trivandrum), 26. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Konni,
27. xi.1988; 1 Female, Aakalam (Trivandrum),
25.ii.1989; 1 Female, Emakulam, 9.ii. 1989; Coll.
P.M. Sureshan; 1 Female, R.E.C. Calicut,
28. xi.1985, Coll. T.C. Narendran.
Remarks: This species resembles T. dubius
(Ashmead) in head shape, nature of antenna and
propodeum, but differs in having scutellum
moderately convex; propodeum with median
carina less sharp; gaster longer than thorax (in
dubius scutellum flattened, propodeum with
distinct sharp median carina and gaster about as
long as thorax). Closely resembles T. neelagastrci
sp. nov. (also described) but differs from it in the
combination of characters given in the key.
Trichomalopsis neelagastra sp. nov.
(Figs 32-37)
Female: Length 2-2.4 mm. (Holotype 2.3
mm). Head and thorax dark bluish-green with
bronze-like gloss; gaster dark bluish-green; T1
with strong metallic blue gloss. Antennae brown
with paler scape. Coxae concolorous with thorax,
remainder of legs testaceous. Tegulae testaceous;
wings hyaline; veins pale brownish-yellow.
Head (Fig. 32): Width 1.2x that of thorax;
in dorsal view width 2x length and in front view
width 1.3x height; temple 0.7x eye length; POL
1.5x OOL; eyes separated by 1.5x their length;
malar space 0.6x eye length; clypeus with
anterior margin weakly emarginate; head
moderately reticulate. Toruli placed above lower
margin of eyes; scape (Fig. 34) as long as eye,
404
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
reaching level of vertex; combined length of
pedicel and flagellum 0.9x head width.
Thorax (Fig. 33): Length 1.6x width;
pronotal collar anteriorly margined throughout.
Mesoscutum width 2.2x length. Scutellum less
convex, wider than long, similarly sculptured as
on mesoscutum; frenal area indicated.
Propodeum (Fig. 35) with median area 1.2x as
broad as long; median carina weak; plicae
moderately strong; nucha convex; post spiracular
sulcus with transverse ridge. Forewing (Fig. 36)
with MV 1.8x STV and 1.5x PMV. Relative
lengths of SMV, MV, PMV and STV as 41 : 15 :
10 : 8.5.
Gaster (Figs 33, 37): Ovate, length 1.7x
width; as long as thorax; T1 occupying 0.54x
length of gaster.
Male: Unknown.
Material examined: Holotype: India,
Kerala, Female: Sreekariyam (Trivandrum),
25. ii. 1989, Coll. P.M. Sureshan; Paratypes:
Kerala: 1 Female, Kayamkulam, 2 1 .ii. 1989; 1
Female, Kappil (Trivandrum), 26.ii.1989; 1
Female, data same as holotype; 1 Female,
Chavara, 22. ii. 1989; 1 Female, Elamathkavala
Refer
Boucek, Z. (1988): Australasian Chalcidoidea
(Hymenoptera). CAB International Wallingford,
U.K. Pp. 1-831.
Crawford, J.C. (1911): Descriptions of new Hymenoptera.
I. Proc. U.S. natn. Mus. 39: 617-623.
Crawford, J.C. ( 1 9 1 3): Descriptions of new Hymenoptera.
No. 6. Proc. U.S. natn. Mus. 45: 241-260.
Gahan, A.B. (1919): Report on a small collection of Indian
parasitic Hymenoptera. Proc. U.S. natn. Mus. 56:
513-524.
Girault, A. A. (1917): Descriptiones Hymenopterorum
Chalcidoidicarum variorum cum observationibus V.
1 6 pp. Glenndale, Md. (privately printed).
(Shertallai), 27.ii.1989; 1 Female, Emakulam,
9.ii.l989; 1 Female, Tenjipalam (Malappuaram),
16.X.1988, Coll. P.M. Sureshan.
Remarks: This species generally
resembles T. caricicola (Graham), but differs in
having temple 0.7x eye length; mesoscutum
width 2.2x length, moderately reticulate; MV
about 1.8x STV and 1.5x PMV; T1 occupying
0.54 x length of gaster (in caricicola temple
about one quarter the length of eye; mesoscutum
about twice as broad as long and finely reticulate;
MV about 1.5-1.6x STV and PMV subequal to
MV and T1 occupying rather less than half
length of gaster).
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Dr. K. Kamijo, Bibai,
Hokkaido, Japan for providing type material of the
Oriental and Japanese species of Trichomalopsis
and literature. P.M. Sureshan thanks the Director,
Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata and the
Officer-in-charge, Zoological Survey of India,
Western Ghats Field Research Station, Calicut,
Kerala for facilities and encouragement.
ENCES
Girault, A. A. ( 1 926): Notes and descriptions of Australian
Chalcid flies IV (Hymenoptera). Insecutor Inscit.
menstr. 14: 58-73.
Graham, M.W.R. de V. (1969): The Pteromalidae of north-
western Europe (Hymenoptera : Chalcidoidea) Bull.
Br. Mus. (nat. Hist.) Ent. suppl. 16: 1-908.
Kamijo, K. & E.E. Grissell (1982): Species of
Trichomalopsis Crawford (Hymenoptera:
Pteromalidae) from Rice paddy, with descriptions
of two new species. Kontyu, Tokyo 50(1) : 76-87.
Kurdjumov, N. (1913): Notes on Pteromalidae
(Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Russk. Ent. Obozr.
13: 1-24.
■ ■ ■
JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
405
SOME NEW CHIRONOMIDAE FROM SOUTH AND
MIDDLE ANDAMAN ISLANDS, INDIA (DIPTERA: CHIRONOMIDAE)1
Girish Maheshwari2 and Geeta Maheshwari3
( With four text-figures)
Key words: Diptera, Chironomidae, Andaman Islands, India
Little information is available on the Chironomidae of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Two
new genera, namely Indoaxarus gen. no\., Andamanus gen. nov. and one new species Lindebergia
kadamtullaensis sp. nov. are being described.
Introduction
Lindebergia Tuiskunen is a monotypic
genus, based on a single male specimen,
L. bothnica Tuiskunen. The taxonomic status
of the genus was doubtful. Its independent
taxonomic status is being established by cladistic
analysis in this paper. A new species
L. kadamtullaensis sp. nov. is also described. Two
new genera and species namely Andamanus
manii gen. nov., sp. nov. and Indoaxarus santokhi
gen. nov., sp. nov. are also being described from
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The structure and terminology of Saether
(1980) has been followed.
Subfamily: Orthocladiinae
Genus Andamanus gen. nov.
Diagnosis: Habitat: Intertidal zone along
the shoreline. Medium sized, pedicel rounded
with two setal patches, antennal ratio 0.531,
coronal suture incomplete, antepronotal lobes
with dorsal notch, acrostichals absent, costa not
extending beyond the tip of R4 5. Claws curved,
pulvilli absent, spermatheca single with neck,
ramus weak and short, intergonocoxal membrane
present, gonapophysis VIII is divided into dorsal
'Accepted May, 1999
:School of Entomology, St. John’s College,
Agra 282 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.
'Department of Zoology, B.S.A. College,
Mathura 281 004, Uttar Pradesh, India.
ventral and median lobes. Cercus setose and
triangular.
Andamanus manii gen. nov. sp. nov.
(Figs la-e)
Description: Female Imago: Total body
length 2.51 mm; wing length 1.88 mm.
Antenna: Scape poorly developed; pedicel
rounded with two setal patches, anterior setal
patch with 6-7 setae and posterior with 5-7 setae.
Length/width of lst-4th flagellomeres: 0.136/
0.033; 0.077/0.025; 0.077/0.022; 0.154/0.022
mm. First flagellomere larger than 2nd and 3rd,
with two beaded structures, two whorls of setae,
one on each. Second and third flagellomeres
conical, each with a single whorl of 5-8 setae.
Ultimate flagellomere beaded, broad based with
a whorl of three setae on distal end. Antennal
Ratio (AR) 0.531.
Head: Coronal suture incomplete, 0.109
mm long; temporal setae 20, frontal tubercle
absent, eyes bare, bean-shaped, with weak dorsal
extension. Length and width of clypeus 0.060
and 0.065 mm, clypeus bears 28 setae. Maxillary
palps with five palpomeres, length/width: 0.026/
0.021; 0.039/0.034; 0.104/0.030; 0.113/0.026;
0.217/ 0.017 mm. Tentorium tube, sieve tube,
sieve pore present, cornua blunt, orifice rounded;
labial lonchus elongated with rounded proximal
end. (Fig. la)
Thorax: Antepronotal lobe reaching the
projection of scutum, joining medially with a
406
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
narrow notch, bare. Dorsocentralis 18-20 in a
single row. Acrostichals absent, scutellum with
11-13 scutellars.
Wings: Subcosta short, ending before Rj,
R, ending distal to r-m , R2+3 very weak. Costa
not extending beyond the tip of R4+5. Squama
not fringed (Fig. lc).
Legs: Fore tibial apex with a blunt scale,
spur absent, claws curved. Mid tibial apex with
two combs, dorsal complete with a single spur,
ventral with a peg-like spur. Length of spurs
0.040 and 0.018 mm. Hind tibial apex with a
single comb including 0.063 mm long spur.
Pulvilli and empodium absent.
Female Genitalia: Spermatheca single,
elongated, with neck, spermathecal duct opens
independently into spermathecal eminence. Notum
Fig. lb: Andamanus manii: Anteropronotum lobe
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
407
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
0.2 mm
Fig. lc: Andamanus manii: Wing
FORE LEG
MID LEG HINDLEG
0.02 mm
Fig. Id: Andamanus manii: 9 legs (First row: tibial apex, second row: fifth tarsal)
408
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Table 1
MEASUREMENTS OF LEGS (IN MM) AND LEG RATIO (LR) OF ANDAMANUS MANII
elongated, ramus weak and short. Labia elongated
with microtrichia. Postgenital plate broad, rounded.
Intergonocoxal connective membrane present.
Gonapophysis VIII setose divided into dorsal,
ventral and median lobes. Gonocoxal apodeme
extending to proximal end of coxostemapodeme.
Cercus setose and triangular (Fig. le).
Type locality: Mayabunder, Middle
Andaman; Andaman and Nicobar Is.; India.
Etymology: Named after Prof. M.S. Mam,
the founder of School of Entomology.
Holotype: 1 9 Mayabunder, Middle
Andaman, 21.xii.1983, Coll. G. Maheshwari.
Deposited in the collection of School of
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
409
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Entomology, St. John’s College, Agra; India,
(Regn. No. Ch. 21).
Paratype: Regn. No. Ch. 21a, one 9 , same
data as holotype.
Systematics: The new genus Andamanus
resembles the genus Halocladius Hirvenoja from
the coastal brackish waters of the Holarctic
Region. It also has certain affinities with
Cricotopus v.d. Wulp and Paracladius Hirvenoja.
Halocladius , Cricotopus and Paracladius can be
distinguished from Andamanus gen. nov. by the
presence of a decumbent dorsocentralis.
Paracladius can be separated by prealars not
extending anterior to level of median
anepistemum II and bare mediolongitudinal area
of tergite. Cricotopus and Halocladius can also
be distinguished from Andamanus gen. nov., by
hairy eyes. Female of Andamanus gen. nov. can
be identified by a combination of characters:
scape poorly developed, coronal suture
incomplete, frontal tubercles absent, eyes bare,
sieve pores present, antepronotal fused dorsally,
subcosta short and ending before R, , pulvilli and
empodium absent, spermatheca single, elongated
with spermathecal neck.
Remarks: Adults were found gyrating on
the water surface in the intertidal zone.
Subfamily: Orthocladiinae
Genus Lindebergia Tuiskunen
Lindebergia Tuiskunen, Ann. ent. Fenn.
50:121
Diagnosis: Lindebergia Tuiskunen is a
monotypic genus known only for L. bothnica.
A single adult male was collected from the
northern shore of the Gulf of Bothnia, Finland.
It is characterised by 13 flagellomeres, sensilla
chaetica on flagellomere 2, 3 and 13. Eyes
bare without dorsomedial extension. Palp
without sensilla clavata. Squamae bare. Pulvilli
small. Pars ventralis present, gonostylus
narrow without crista dorsalis, broad megaseta
present.
Lindebergia kadamtullaensis sp. nov.
(Figs 2a-f)
Description: Male Imago: Body length
2.39 mm, wing length 1.397 mm, wing width
0.397 mm, body length : wing length is 1 .7 1 : 1 .0.
Antenna: Scape well developed and bare,
pedicel covered with microsetae, flagellum with
13 flagellomeres, a median groove extends
between 3rd and ultimate flagellomeres,
distribution of setae from 1st to ultimate
flagellomeres is 2-4, 9-11, 10-11, 10-12, 11-13,
8-10, 10-12, 1 1-13, 7-10, 10-11, 9-11, 10-12 and
75-85 respectively. Length and width of pedicel
0.88 and 0.114 mm. Length and width of
flagellomeres 1st- 13th (in mm): 0.047, 0.025;
0.018, 0.025; 0.025, 0.025; 0.025, 0.022; 0.025,
0.023; 0.029, 0.020; 0.031, 0.018; 0.033, 0.018;
0.035, 0.018; 0.036, 0.016;-0.036, 0.014; 0.036,
0.016; 0.321, 0.016. Antennal ratio (AR) 0.853.
Head: Coronal suture complete, 0. 1 66 mm
long, frontal tubercle present, temporal setae 5
(2 frontals, 3 post orbitals). Eyes bare without
dorsal extension. Length and width of clypeus
0.051 and 0.099 mm respectively, with 18-22
setae. Maxillary palp with five palpomeres,
length and width of palpomeres: 0.018, 0.014;
0.033, 0.020; 0.073, 0.018; 0.121, 0.16; 0.11,
0.016 mm respectively. Tentorium arm tubular,
anterior tentorium pit and sieve pores absent;
stipes narrow, cornua blunt and curved, orifice
not seen, labial lonchus elongated and porous
(Fig. 2a).
Thorax: Antepronotal lobes meeting
dorsally, antepronotal 3-5; scutal tubercle absent,
acrostichals absent; dorsocentralis in two rows,
8-12 in each row. Scopula thoracalis present;
prealars not seen, humerals 2-4; scutellars in two
rows, 5-7 in each row. Preepisternals 7-9;
anepistemals 2-3; median anepistemal II absent.
Wings: Arculus bare, sensilla
campaniformia present, alula poorly developed.
Costa extending well beyond the tip of R4+5;
subcosta short, reaching the middle of R2+3; R,
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NEW DESCRIPTIONS
proximal to Cu}; R2+3 terminates near R4+5; R4+5
terminates slightly distal to Cu}; r-m proximal
to cubital fork; Cu2 curved sharply (Fig. 2b).
Legs: Fore femur with a scale at distal
inner margin; tibia with a single spur (0.054 mm
long), comb absent. Empodium absent, claws
slightly curved. Middle tibia with two spurs, outer
spur 0.023 mm and inner spur 0.019 mm long.
Pulvilli, arolium and empodium absent. Hind
tibial apex with a row of 1 2- 1 5 strong setae, each
tibia with two spurs, inner 0.020 mm and outer
0.054 mm long (Fig. 2c).
Male genitalia: Anterior end of abdominal
segment VIII strongly narrow, posterior end
broad, typically triangular. Anal tergal band
V-type, reaching the base of aedeagus. Superior
volsella almost tongue shaped, setose. Pars
ventralis very well developed with 6-8 marginal
setae. Anal point broad, reaching the middle of
gonocoxite. Gonostylus short, folded anteriorly
and of peculiar shape (distal end broad with crista
dorsalis), distal end rounded and broad. Crista
dorsalis and megaseta present; megaseta rod
shaped. Paraphallic ratio 2.62.
Female Imago: Total body length 2.58
mm, Head length 0.173 mm.
Antenna: Scape well developed, pedicel
covered with microtrichia. Flagellum with five
flagellomeres, each bearing 3, 4, 6, 5, 8 setae
respectively.
Head: Coronal suture complete, 0. 159 mm
long. Frontal tubercle present, temporal setae
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411
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
FORE LEG
Spur
Fig. 2c: Lindebergia kadamtullaensis : <3 Legs (First row: tibial apex, Second row: fifth tarsal)
412
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NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Fig. 2e: Lindebergia kadamtullaensis: $ Legs (First row: tibial apex, Second row: fifth tarsal)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
413
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
4-6; eyes bare without dorsal extension.
Maxillary palps five. Tentorial arm tubular, sieve
pore absent, stipes narrow, cornua blunt and
curved.
Thorax, Wing and Legs: Same as male.
Female genitalia: Spermatheca single,
situated in abdominal segment VII, almost oval,
with a distinct neck; spermathecal duct straight.
Notum very well developed. Ramus forked at
anterior margin of tergite IX, extending
posteriorly to labia. Coxostemapodeme S-shaped.
Labia comma shaped, covered with microtrichia.
Spermathecal duct opens into spermathecal
eminence without any modification. Gonocoxal
apodeme straight. Gonapophyis VIII well
developed, divided into dorsal and ventral lobes,
414
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NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Table 2
MEASUREMENTS OF LEGS (IN MM) AND LEG RATIO (LR) OF LINDEBERGIA KADAMTULLAENSIS
setose. Gonocoxite IX lobe shaped, covered with
microtrichia. Postgenital plate triangular, bears
setae. Gonostylus IX not visible, cercus
flap-shaped, covered with microtrichia and
macrotrichia.
Type locality: Kadamtulla seashore,
Middle Andaman; Andaman and Nicobar Is.;
India.
Etymology: Named after the site of
collection, Kadamtulla.
Holotype: 1 9 Kadamtulla, Andaman and
Nicobar Is., Coll. G. Maheshwari; deposited in
the collection of School of Entomology, St. John’s
College, Agra, India. Regn. No. Ch. 22.
Paratypes: 1 d, 3 9 9, (Regn. No. Ch. 22a,
Ch 22b, Ch. 22c and Ch. 22d respectively) data
same as holotype.
Systematics: The validity of the genus was
not certain so far (Tuiskunen 1984). By
describing one more species, Lindebergia
kadamtullaensis , from the shore of Kadamtulla,
Middle Andaman, from 2 male and 3 female
specimens, the genus can be given validity.
L. kadamtullaensis sp. nov. is closely related to
L. bothnica , but can be distinguished by straight
broad gonostylus with crista dorsalis and
rod-shaped megaseta, pars ventralis long, broad
anal point and strong triangular abdominal
segment VIII. Female genitalia are described in
detail.
Ecology: All specimens were collected
from the rocky shoreline near Kadamtulla guest
house, using Diptera net having a mesh size of
50-80|ii. One female was collected using an
aspirator. Immature stages of the species are not
known.
Subfamily: Chironominae
Tribe: Chironomini
Genus Indoaxarus gen. nov.
Diagnosis: Habitat: Coastal ponds and
lakes. Medium sized, scape poorly developed,
eleven flagellomeres, male antenna poorly
plumose, frontal tubercle absent, antepronotal
lobe bare and fused medially. Squamae bare,
sensilla campaniformia present, r-m oblique,
cubital fork distal to r-m. Foretibial apex with
blunt scale, empodium serrated; middle tibial
apex with two combs, each with movable spine.
Anal tergal bands V-type, phallapodeme
subulate, anal point T-shaped, strongly curved
ventrally, superior volsella S-type, inferior
volsella bearing falciform setae, median volsella
lobe-like. Gonostylus directed posteriorly, crista
dorsalis and megaseta absent.
Etymology: Since the material was
collected from India and bears close affinities to
Axarus , the genus has been named Indoaxarus.
Indoaxarus santokhi sp. nov.
(Figs 3a-d)
Description: Male Imago: Medium sized,
total length 3.017 mm, wing length 2.183 mm,
wing length: wing width 4.56: 3.61.
Antenna: Scape poorly developed;
flagellum with 1 1 flagellomeres; flagellum poorly
plumose; 2nd to 10th flagellomeres almost equal,
distribution of setae on flagellomeres, 5-6, 8-9,
9-10, 9-11,9-10, 10-11, 10-11, 10-11, 1-9, 9-11,
3-5; ultimate flagellomere with 40-50 bristles.
Last flagellomere longer than combined length
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NEW DESCRIPTIONS
of rest of flagellomeres. A median groove present
from first to last flagellomere. Length and width
of pedicel 0.09-0. 13 mm respectively. Length and
width of flagellomeres, 1st - 1 1th: 0.088, 0.033;
0.029, 0.033; 0.025, 0.033; 0.033, 0.029; 0.025,
0.029; 0.025, 0.029; 0.029, 0.029; 0.02, 0.029;
0.025, 0.025; 0.025, 0.025; 0.564, 0.025
respectively. Antennal ratio (AR) 1.714.
Head: Coronal suture complete, 0.234 mm
long; temporal setae 14-16 (including post
orbitals), frontal tubercle absent; eyes bare;
clypeus with 14 clypeals, length/width 0.065,
0.082 mm respectively. Maxillary palps with five
palpomeres, average length/width of palpomeres
0.032/0.21; 0.037/0.26; 0.104/0.026; 0.084/
0.021; 0.151/0.016 mm respectively. Tentorium
arm tube-like, posterior tentorial pit distal, sieve
pore absent, anterior tentorial pit well developed,
stipe tubular, length and width 0.087, 0.021 mm
respectively. Cornua blunt, orifice oval, labial
lonchus elongated with rounded proximal end.
(Fig. 3a)
Thorax: Antepronotal lobe reaching the
projection of scutum, meeting medially, bare;
scutal tubercle present, bare; acrostichals four;
dorsocentralis eight in a single row; humeral one;
0.08 mm
Fig. 3a: Indoaxarus santokhi : Head
416
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prealars two, scutellars 7-9, preepistemals 6-8;
anepisternal suture complete; anepistemal 1-3.
Wing: Squamae bare, tegula small and
triangular with a single seta; brachiolum with
micro trichia and two setae; humeral plate square
with microtrichia; scopula alaris covered with
dense macrotrichia; axillary sclerites (III) with
2-3 setae, venarum ratio (VR) 0.408, sensilla
campaniformia present; costa extends up to tip
of R4+5; subcosta terminates distal to r-m; radius
with 12-14 setae, Rj and R^ bare, R^ terminates
near Rt , R4+5 straight, making a round with costa,
R4+5 bare; r-m, oblique, media straight, ends distal
to Cu]5 m-cu absent, cubital fork distal to r-m,
Cu2 straight. (Fig. 3b)
Legs: Fore leg elongated, tibial apex with
a blunt scale, first tarsal longer than tibia; fifth
tarsal with a pair of highly curved claws.
Empodium serrated and elongated; middle tibial
apex with two combs, each with movable spine;
dorsal scale present. Hind tibial apex bears dorsal
and ventral combs (30-34 and 14-17 setae
respectively), each containing a spur;
ventro-lateral margin with pectinate scale, with
two tiers of serrated structures (Fig. 3c).
Male Genitalia: Anal tergal bands V-type,
reaching the base of anal point, lateral
sternapodeme slightly curved, transverse
sternapodeme broad; phallapodeme subulate.
coxapodeme straight, anal point broad distally,
bare; T-shaped, very strongly curved ventrally,
aedeagal setal patch with 11-16 setae; superior
volsella S-type, bare, reaching up to 5/6th length
of inferior volsella. Inferior volsella elongated
lobe-shaped, bearing falciform setae. Median
volsella broad, rounded, lobe-like, bearing
microtrichia, reaching middle of inferior volsella.
Gonocoxite with broad base, triangular in shape;
gonostylus directed posteriorly, narrow base,
elongated, pointed distally, distal inner margin
with 13-17 subulate setae. Crista dorsalis and
megaseta absent. Paraphallic ratio 0.32 (Fig. 3d).
Type locality: Port Blair, South Andaman;
Andaman and Nicobar Is.; India.
Etymology: Named after Dr. Santokh
Singh, one of the pioneers of high altitude
entomology.
Holotype: d labelled Port Blair, Pond near
Fire Brigade Station, 29.xii.1983, Coll. G.
Maheshwari. Deposited in the collection of
School of Entomology. St. John’s College, Agra,
India (Regn. No. Ch. 23).
Paratypes: 4 d'd', (Regn. No. Ch. 23a-d)
data same as holotype.
Systematics: Indoaxarus gen. nov.
resembles Axarus Roback and Xenochironomus
Kieffer. Xenochironomus can be distinguished
by antepronotal lobes dorsally separated, scutum
0.15mm
Fig. 3b: Indoaxarus santokhv. Wing
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417
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Spine
HINDLEG
Fig. 3c: Indoaxarus santokhi : <? Legs (First row: tibial apex, Second row: fifth tarsal)
418
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Table 3
MEASUREMENTS OF LEGS (IN MM) AND LEG RATIO (LR) OF INDOAXARUS SANTOKHI
Fe Ti Ta, Ta, Ta3 Ta4 Ta5 LR
P, 0.636 0.463 0.831 0.418 0.340 0.236 0.118 1.79
P, 0.640 0.590 0.309 0.159 0.068 0.127 0.063 0.52
Pj 0.613 0.531 0.295 0.304 0.127 0.063 0.055 0.55
tubercle absent, squama fringed, pulvilli present,
superior volsella very short, median volsella
absent, gonostylus medially broadened. Genus
Axarus can be diagnosed by antepronotal lobes
dorsally wide apart, scutum tubercle absent, anal
lobe of wing absent, squama not fringed, pulvilli
present, superior volsella flap-like, with forked
and expanded microtrichia, median volsella
absent. As apparent from the above discussion,
the genus Indoaxarus has its own peculiarities
and independent status.
Ecology and distribution: Indoaxarus was
collected from a coastal pond in Port Blair (South
Andaman Islands), while Axarus inhabits littoral
and sublittoral soft sediment of rivers and lakes.
Xenochironomus are obligate miners of fresh
water sponges.
Phylogenetic considerations: In order to
determine the validity of a newly proposed taxon
above the species level, a cladistic analysis should
be done. We have studied the phylogenetic
position of the new genus within Family
Chironomidae. The polarity of the characters
have been determined by the following Out
Group Comparison Method (Wiley 1981).
Previous investigations have not explicitly
discussed the relationship of Lindebergia with
the other Chironomidae. The genus is monobasic,
in Subfamily Orthocladiinae, pars ventralis is
present only in Lindebergia and some
Limnophyes. This shows that the character is
synapomorphic. The present analysis evaluated
12 characters and eight taxa, including a
generalized outgroup based largely on the
Simulidae and Ceratopogonidae. Most multistate
characters such as 1, 5 and 6 are coded as
additive, as outgroup comparison permitted
Table 4
CHARACTERS AND ALTERNATE STATES USED IN
CLADISTIC ANALYSIS
(0 = plesiomorphic; 1 , 2 apomoiphic)
logical arrangement in linear transformation
series. Homoplasy is exhibited by characters 7,
8, 9. In case of Indoaxarus and Axarus ,
symplesiomorphy is shown by characters 4, 5 and
7. Autapomorphies, certain characters of male
genitalia, such as volsella, provide no information
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419
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Table 5
MATRIX OF CHARACTERS AND ALTERNATE STATES USED IN THE CLADISTIC ANALYSIS (M=MALE,
F=FEMALE, ?=UNKNOWN)
about relationship and were therefore excluded
from the analysis. Character analysis resulted in
a single tree with a few steps (Fig. 4).
Abbreviations used: Ar = Arolium, PM1-
PM5 = Palpomeres 1-5, O = Orfice, La = Labia,
PTP = Post tentorial pit, TN = Tentorium, OV =
Outer verticals, CP = Cibarial pump, B =
Brachiolum, Scf = Sensilla campaniformia, CO
= cornua, Sq = Squama, A = Anal, Ti = Tibia,
Tal-Ta5 = Tarsal 1-5, Sea = Spermatheca, ScN =
Spermathecal Neck, Sc Duct = Spermathecal duct,
No = Notum, GCa = Gonocoxapodeme, Coa =
Coxastemapodeme, PGP = Post genital |>late, CE
= Cercus, Gp VIII = Gonapophysis VIII, Ra =
Ramus, SPE = Spermathecal eminence, FT gj
Frontal tubercle, Aed = Aedeagus, ATB = Anal
Tergal band, PV = Pars Ventralis, SVo = Superior
volsella, MS = Mega Seta, CD = Crista dorsalis,
CS = Coronal suture, T = Tentorium, VC = Ventral
Comb, DC = Dorsal Comb, Em = Empodium,
AP = Anal Point, MVo = Median volsella, I Vo =
Inferior volsella, TSA = Transverse stemapodeme,
LSA = Lateral stemapodeme, R = radius, C =
Costa, Sc = Subcosta, RM = Radiomedian.
ANDAMANUS
INDOAXARUS
AXARUS
Fig. 4: Hypothesized phylogenetic relationship of new genera, Indoaxarus and Andamanus
with other Chironomidae
420
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NEW DESCRIPTIONS
References
Saether, O.A. (1980): Glossary of chironomid morphology
terminology (Diptera: Chironomidae). Ent. Scand.
Suppl. 14: 1-51.
Tuiskunen, J. (1984): Lindebergia bothnica gen. n., sp. n.
(Diptera: Chironomidae). Ann. Ent. Fenn. 50 : 121-122.
Wbley, E.O. ( 1 98 1 ): Phylogenetics, the Theory and practice
of phylogenetic systematics. J. Wiley & Sons, New York
xv + 439 pp.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
421
A NEW SPECIES OF MOTH UNDER GENUS LEMYRA
(ARCTIINAE: ARCTIIDAE : LEPIDOPTERA) 1
Amritpal S. Kaleka2
( With eight text-figures)
Key words: Lemyra , L. stigmata , L. wernerthomasi, L. walkeri sp. nov.
A new species walkeri of genus Lemyra Walker (Family Arctiidae, Lepidoptera) has been described
and illustrated. It is closely allied to Lemyra stigmata Moore.
Introduction
The genus Lemyra Walker was proposed as
a monotypic genus by Walker in 1856 with the
type species extensa from Sulawesi (Celebes).
Hampson ( 1 894, 1901) has not included this genus
in his publications. The type species of the genus
has been studied in detail by Holloway (1988).
Werner Thomas (1990) listed three Indian species
i.e. nigrifrons Walker, stigmata Moore and
khasiana Thomas under this genus. Werner
Thomas {pers. comm.) indicated that Lemyra
Walker would be revised to include a number of
species, currently placed under Spilosoma Steph.
He was revising this group when he died on
February 28, 1 99 1 . However, Kishida et al. ( 1 992)
listed these species under genus Lemyra in their
publication moths of nepal. In the present work,
two Indian species, namely stigmata Moore and
walkeri sp. nov. have been studied.
The validity of the new species has been
confirmed by comparing it with an allied species
of genus Lemyra, and those of Spilosoma. The
species stigmata was studied by Inoue (1993),
while comparing it with a new species
wernerthomasi from Taiwan. Thus, only walkeri
is described and illustrated here in detail.
Lemyra walkeri sp. nov.
(Figs 1- 8)
Head with vertex and frons furnished with
'Accepted October, 1 999
department of Zoology, Punjabi University,
Patiala 147 002, Punjab, India.
pale buff scales, lower half of frons clothed with
black scales. Antenna with scape having pale buff
scales, flagellum black. Eyes golden-brown,
bearing black spots. Labial palpus porrect, reaching
lower level of frons and clothed with black scales.
Thorax, collar and tegula covered with pale
buff scales; vertex of thorax with dorsal median
black streak; pectus black in front. Forewing with
ground colour pale buff, with a black, short streak
in cell and points on costa and cell, spots below
cell and on vein 1A; a medial series of spots
angled on medial nervure, then strongly incurved
with short streak on inner margin; a postmedial
series of short oblique streaks on either side of
veins from apex, excurved below median
nervure; submarginal spots on either side of veins
M2, M3 and Cu^ maculation much stronger on
underside; vein M2 arising from just above lower
angle of cell; Cut from before lower angle; Cu2
from well beyond middle of cell. Hindwing with
ground colour whitish buff, a discoidal spot;
submarginal spots on Rs and each side of M2,
Cu2 and 1 A; underside discoidal spot not visible,
submarginal series prominent; vein Sc + R,
originating from well beyond middle of cell; Rs
from just before upper angle of cell; M, from
upper angle; M2 and M3 from lower angle of cell;
Cu, from before lower angle of cell. Legs with
forecoxae dressed with black scales on underside;
femora crimson dorsally, fore femur black
ventrally, whereas mid and hind femora fringed
with pale yellow scales on underside; fore and
midtibia and tarsi yellow; hind tarsi fuscous, with
rows of tarsal spines on inner side; outer tibial
spurs more than half length of inner ones.
422
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Figs 1-8: Lemyra walkeri n. sp., 1. Forewing, 2. Hindwing, 3-8. Male genitalia
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
423
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Abdomen covered with crimson scales and
long, whitish hairs; ventral side bearing pale
yellow scales, dorsal, lateral and sublateral series
of black spots. Male genitalia with uncus of
moderate length, broad at base, curved, tapering
towards distal end, tip blunt, visible as pointed in
lateral view, dorsally setosed; a slightly developed
acrotergite; tegumen well developed, inverted
V-shaped, slightly longer than vinculum;
vinculum broad, U-shaped; saccus small. Valva
simple, basal half broad; sacculus and costa
slightly marked; a medial triangular setose
projection on costal side; upper half narrow,
cylindrical; valvula and cucullus fused into a
nearly straight tip; juxta large, distinctly visible
into two parts, basal broad and distal bifurcated
U-shaped structure, transtilla small, broad at base.
Aedeagus long and slender; tip rounded, slightly
curved at distal end, both of its walls equally
sclerotized; vesica armed with a patch of comuti
arranged in a typical manner, a sclerotized patch
above these, with triangular sharply pointed
spines. Female genitalia not examined.
Wing Expanse (Half): Male, 22 mm.
Material Examined: Holotype: Male,
Arunachal Pradesh, West Kameng district,
Bomdila, 2,600 m, 10.ix.1994, Coll. A.P. Singh.
Paratype: 2 Male, Arunachal Pradesh: West
Kameng district, Bomdila, 2,600 m, 1 l.ix.1994,
Coll. A.P. Singh.
Distribution: India: Arunachal Pradesh.
Remarks: The new species walkeri is
closely related to Lemyra stigmata Moore,
Refei
Hampson, G.F. (1894): Fauna of British India, including
Ceylon and Burma, Moths, 2: 1-609. Taylor and
Francis Ltd., London.
Hampson, G.F. (1901): Catalogue of the Lepidoptera
Phalaenae in the British Museum 3 : 1 -690, London.
Holloway, J.D. (1988): Moths of Borneo, 6: 1-101. CAB
International Institute of Entomology, London.
Inoue, H. (1993): A new species of genus Lemyra Walker
from Taiwan (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae: Arctiinae)
Nachr. Entomol. Ver. Apollo Frankfurt/Main N.F.
however, it differs from stigmata in having
heavier maculation and wing venation as vein
M2 originates from just above lower angle and
Cu, from before lower angle of cell in fore wing;
hindwing with vein Rs arising from just before
upper angle of cell and Cu1 from before lower
angle; male genitalia with valva having
triangular medial projection; aedeagus short,
without any sclerotized projection at distal end;
juxta also differs in shape. The species under
reference is also clearly distinct from
wernerthomasi in wing maculation, shape of
valva and aedeagus.
Etymology: The name pertains to the
eminent lepidopterist, F. Walker.
Abbreviations used: 1 A = First anal vein,
2 A = Second anal vein, AED = Aedeagus, CO =
Costa, CRN = Comuti, CUj = First cubital vein,
Cu2 = Second cubital vein, DU.EJ = Ductus
ejaculatorius, F = Frenulum, JX = Juxta, M, =
First median vein, M2 = Second median vein,
M3 = Third median vein, R, = First radial vein,
R2 = Second radial vein, R3 = Third radial vein,
R„ = Fourth radial vein, Rc = Fifth radial vein,
Rs = Radial Sector, SA = Saccus, Sc = Subcosta,
Sc + R, = Stalk of Sc + Rl, SL = Sacculus,
TG = Tegumen, TRA = Transtilla, UN = Uncus,
VIN = Vinculum, VLV = Valva.
Acknowledgement
I thank CSIR, New Delhi for financial
assistance.
ENCES
13 (la): 351-354.
Kishida, Y., S. Sugi & H. Yoshimoto (1992): Moths of
Nepal 13(2), Part 1: 72-75. Japan Heterocerists’
Society, Tokyo, Japan.
Thomas, Werner (1990): Die gattung Lemyra (Arctiidae,
Lepidoptera) Nachr. Entomol. Ver. Apollo,
Frankfurt Suppl. 9: 1-83.
Walker, F. ( 1 856): List of the specimens of Lepidopterous
insects in the collection of the British Museum 7:
1508-1786.
424
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
ISEILEMA JAINIANA (FAMILY POACEAE) — A NEW GRASS SPECIES
FROM COASTAL TAMIL NADU, INDIA1
P. Umamaheswari2 and P. Daniel3
( With one text-figure)
Key words: Iseilema jainiana , new grass, Gulf of Mannar
A new grass, Iseilema jainiana , from the Gulf of Mannar coast in Tamil Nadu, is described
and illustrated.
Iseilema jainiana sp. nov.
(Fig. 1)
I. laxum Hack, affinis, sed spiculis
involucrorum curtioribus (c. 3.5 mm longis);
gluma inferam oblonga, curtiora (c. 3 mm longa)
et 5-7 nervata; gluma superam oblongo-elliptica
et curtiora ( c . 3.5 mm longa); spiculis sessilium,
gluma inferam, gluma superam et lemmate
curtiore (respecte c. 3 mm, 2.8 mm, 3 mm et 1 1
mm longo), et granis curtioribus differt.
Typus: india: Tamil Nadu, Tuticorin
district, Gulf of Mannar coast, Kanyakumari -
Thiruchendur highway, between Karaichuthu
and Padakkapathu diversion, on elevated ground,
c. 40 m, 26.i.l996, P. Daniel & P. Umamaheswari
107240 (CAL, holotypus; MH, isotypus).
Annual; culms tufted, erect, c. 60 cm,
glabrous. Leaves linear, acuminate, 3-15 x 0.2-
0.4 cm, glabrous, glandular or scabrid towards
the base; ligules with a fringe of hairs, c. 0.4 cm
wide; sheaths 2-6 cm long, glabrous, purplish
near the node. Panicles up to 15 cm long; spathe
boat-shaped, 0.8-2 cm long. Involucral spikelets
4, whorled, staminate, lanceolate, acute, c. 3.5 x
1 mm; pedicel terete, c. 1 mm long, ciliate at the
base; lower glume oblong, obtuse, c. 3x1 mm,
keeled, bearded on the keel; nerves 5-7,
prominent; upper glume oblong or elliptic, obtuse
'Accepted November, 1 999
’Botany Department, Sri Sarada College,
Salem 636 016, Tamil Nadu, India.
-’Botanical Survey of India,
Coimbatore 641 003, Tamil Nadu, India.
or subacute, c. 3.2 x 1 mm, 3-nerved; lemma
linear-oblong, toothed, as long as the upper
glume, membranous, hyaline, palea absent.
Lodicules 2, truncate. Stamens 3; anthers c.
1.7 mm long. Pedicellate spikelets 2, staminate,
elliptic, acute, c. 3.5 x 0.9 mm; pedicel c.
1.5 mm long, glabrous; lower glume oblong or
elliptic, obtuse, c. 3.5 x 1 mm; nerves 9,
prominent, ridge-like beneath; upper glume
oblong, abruptly acute, c. 3x1 mm, 3-nerved;
lemma linear, as long as the upper glume,
membranous, hyaline. Stamens 3; anthers 2-
2.5 mm long. Sessile spikelet lanceolate-ovate,
c. 3 x 0.5 mm, awned; lower glume lanceolate-
ovate, bifid, c. 2.8 x 1 mm, keeled, minutely
ciliolate; nerves 2, faint; upper glume oblong-
ovate, shortly mucronate, c. 3 x 0.8 mm,
1 -nerved; lemma awn-like, c. 11 mm long,
hyaline for c. 1.5 mm at the base, geniculate,
purplish-brown for c. 4.5 mm, stramineous for
c. 5 mm; palea oblong, obtuse, c. 2 x 0.6 mm,
hyaline. Ovary ellipsoid or oblong, c. 0.8 mm
long; styles 2, c. 1.2 mm long; stigmas 2, c.
3.5 mm long, plumose, brownish. Grains
ellipsoid, cuneate at the base, c. 1.5 x 0.5 mm,
yellowish.
FI. & Fr.: December- January.
Habitat: Open dry coastal plains, on red
soil, rare.
Distribution: Gulf of Mannar coast, Tamil
Nadu.
Iseilema jainiana is allied to I. laxum
Hack., but differs from it as shown in Table 1.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
425
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
G. Stamens and lodicules, H. Lower glume of pedicellate spikelet, I. Upper glume of pedicellate spikelet,
J. Lower glume of sessile spikelet, K. Upper glume of sessile spikelet, L. Lemma of sessile spikelet,
M. Palea of sessile spikelet, N. Pistil, O. Grain
426
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
Table 1
COMPARISON BETWEEN 1SEILEMA LAXUM AND
ISEILEMA JAINIANA
Etymology: This species is named after
Dr. S. K. Jain, former Director, BSI, Kolkata, who
has contributed greatly to the study of Poaceae of
India.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, BSI, Kolkata, for
facilities, Dr. V.J. Nair, former Deputy Director,
BSI, Coimbatore, for confirming the taxonomy
and providing the Latin diagnosis, and Mr. R.
Suresh, Sr Artist, BSI, Coimbatore, for the
illustration. This study is part of a project on the
angiosperm flora of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere
Reserve funded by the MoEF, Govt of India, for
which P. Umamaheshwari thanks the Ministry.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
All
REVIEWS
1 . THE BIRDS OF ASSAM, by Anwaruddin Choudhury. Published in 2000 by
Gibbon Books & WWF-North-East Regional Office, Guwahati. (25.5 x 19 cm),
pp. 240. Price Rs. 575/-.
Natural History, especially ornithology, is
a subject in which amateurs have played a major
role in its advancement. Much before
‘professional’ ornithologists with M.Sc. and
Ph.D. degrees came on to the scene, Indian
ornithology, as elsewhere, was dominated by
highly interested, and extremely meticulous,
dedicated amateurs. E.C.S. Baker who pioneered
the work on the birds of northeast India was a
police officer, while A.O. Hume, the father of
Indian ornithology, was a civil servant. After
Independence, Dr. Salim Ali, who also was a
thorough scientist with no great university
degrees, dominated Indian ornithology. It is
difficult to place Dr. Anwaruddin Choudhury in
any category. He has an M.A. in Geography,
Ph.D. in Primatology, works in the Assam Civil
Service and is a naturalist by heart. He is the
founder Chief Executive of The Rhino
Foundation for Nature, a non-governmental
organisation in northeast India, and is at present
the Director of Tea for Assam State. He is a
prolific writer, with more than 300 articles and
research papers, eight books and monographs.
Anwar is interested in wildlife and nature
photography, cartography, philately and drawing.
It is a pleasure to review Anwar’s recent
book the birds of assam, a boon for those
interested in the birds of this region, as it gives
up-to-date information on them. All the birds
recorded or reported within the geographic limits
of Assam have been listed. The book starts with
a brief Introduction, which tells us the aim and
scope of the book, nomenclature used, and keys
and abbreviations. It is followed by succinct
chapters on ‘History of Ornithology’, ‘Bird
Migration’ and ‘Birds in Different Habitats’. I
found the third chapter very informative as it
gives the extent of different forests types in
Assam, important grasslands, rivers and
wetlands. The fourth chapter ‘Birds and Man’
discusses birds useful or harmful to man;
hunting, trapping and the famous Jatinga bird
migration. The fifth and sixth chapters ‘Selected
species accounts’ and ‘Notes on some other
species’ which contain English, scientific and
Assamese names, distribution in and outside
Assam, ecology, historical status, and current
population and conservation requirements, are
the backbone of the book. Distribution maps of
each species and beautifully crafted line diagrams
of birds, all by Anwar, embellish the species
account. The seventh chapter lists all the 820
species and subspecies reported from Assam. In
1990, Anwar had published a ‘Checklist of the
Birds of Assam’ which included 946 species and
subspecies. However, this book has mainly
species, with a few exceptions where two or three
subspecies occur within Assam. Anwar has used
Ali & Ripley’s classification, but has also
included new English names (e.g. woolly-necked
stork for white-necked stork, short-toed snake
eagle for short-toed eagle). In the appendices,
he has given lists of ornithological and
conservation bodies, journals and newsletters,
good bird watching areas, national parks and
sanctuaries of Assam, and major wetlands and
tanks of Assam. The bibliography contains 286
references. The book ends with an index of
English and scientific names. In a nutshell,
nothing that makes a good scientific book is
missed. The only drawback is the picture quality,
though the original pictures must have been
good. The printing is substandard.
Anwar’s book is a valuable addition to the
ornithology of Assam, and will remain so for
many years till he updates it. I wish we had such
books from the other states of India.
■ ASAD R. RAHMANI
428
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
REVIEWS
2. FORESTRY FOR TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT by R. S. Shukla ‘Greener’.
Published in 2000 by Wheeler Publishing, Allahabad. (16.1 x 24.1 cms),
pp.xvii + 274. Paperback edition price Rs. 250/-.
Comprising of 12 chapters, the book
covers the anthropological and demographic
aspects of the main tribes of India, forest types,
constitutional provisions, tribal economy and
various tribal beneficiary schemes. Aspects like
Forestry for Tribal Development, Distribution
of Forests and Tribals in India, Distribution of
Wildlife and Tribals in India, religion, myths,
customs and social organization; Culture and
Art of Tribals have also been covered. Forest
policy and legislation, five year plans and tribals,
forest products, shifting cultivation and tribals,
and their dependence on the forest have been
discussed in some detail. The chapter on
medicinal plants is especially interesting.
The importance of tribals and their
societies is acknowledged constitutionally and
the creation of the Ministry of Tribal
Development will give an impetus to tribal
welfare. This subject is now a part of the
curriculum of the Forest Services. The
description of tribal life and folklore makes for
valuable reference material within the covers of
a book. The author has rightly pointed out that
forestry programmes have to be in consonance
with the socioeconomic fabric of tribal culture.
Emphasis should be on empowerment, security
and opportunity to tribals to help strengthen their
symbiotic relationship with their habitat.
The life of tribal communities like the
Santhals, Todas and Nagas have been highlighted
with interesting insights into their culture and
folklore. Tribal population in various States is
also enumerated, districtwise, like in Gujarat,
which is home to one of the most ancient tribes,
the Bhils, in the country, and the largest tribal
group in the State.
The wealth of information, especially
anthropological details are interesting and
informative. The book will be useful for
anthropologists, administrators, policy makers,
environmentalists and organizations concerned
with tribal welfare. It provides in-depth knowledge
on forests and environment in the context of tribals
and will be relevant to any concerned citizen with
sensitivity towards the disadvantaged. The present
effort should also help sensitize the Forest
Department to the plight of tribals at the receiving
end of development projects. This is a welcome
departure from the British legacy, which continued
till the late 1970s and which laid emphasis on
rigid attitudes and policing of forests rather than
a sensitive approach to human problems.
Unfortunately, the editing leaves much to
be desired. In Chapters like ‘Distribution of
Wildlife’ and ‘Tribals in India’ a cursory and
casual approach to the topic is apparent as
indicated by a number of wrong spellings, like
paradeet for parakeet, holock for hoolock,
Valvador for Velavadar and incorrect information
like the wild ass is found only in the Rann of
Kutch, when it is also found in Ladakh. IUCH
for IUCN, Permitive Tribes for Primitive Tribes!
Similar howlers occur in the Chapter on
‘Medicinal plants’. Such glaring mistakes, which
occur throughout the book, reflect badly on the
editors. At times, the book drifts and jars the
reader who is suddenly confronted with an
irrelevant statement in the midst of a well-
structured paragraph. Moreover, topics included
with obvious lack of expertise gives a feeling that
it is an attempt to flesh out the book.
■ S. ASAD AKHTAR
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
429
REVIEWS
3. A BIBLIOGRAPHIC INDEX TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF THE INDIAN
SUBCONTINENT by Aasheesh Pittie. Produced by the compiler (2001).
CD Rom containing approximately 18,000 references to publications on the
ornithology of the Indian region — accessed by a retriever version of the
bibliography (database) software Papyrus. Price: Rs. 1,000/- for institutions and
Rs. 500/- for individuals. For details email [email protected] or write to 8-2-
545, Road No. 7, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad 500 034.
I felt a little odd and thought the task too
dry when I was asked to write a review of a
compact disc, and that too one that comprised
almost entirely of bibliographic records.
However, there was no option, as I work in the
ENVIS (Environmental Information System)
Centre at the BNHS, a project of the Ministry of
Environment and Forests, which maintains its
own database on Indian ornithology and inland
wetlands.
The compact disc, which is to be
downloaded into one’s computer (12.2 MB hard
disc space), is the work of Aasheesh Pittie, a
birder of the Birdwatchers’ Society of Andhra
Pradesh and a member of the BNHS. The
keyword-based database contains about 18,000
references of publications on the ornithology of
the Indian region and is intended to facilitate
literature search for those interested in birds. The
product has come out after more than two decades
of work, and for those who are not aware of it,
Aasheesh had brought out a bibliographic index
of the papers of the Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society (Volumes 1-90) and 10
volumes of Stray Feathers in book form in 1995.
Additionally, he indexed Volumes 20 to 31 of
the Newsletter for Birdwatchers, which were
brought out as an issue of the Newsletter (Vol.
34, No. 3) in 1994.
A major problem that confronts computer
users is the plethora of software programmes in
the market — one could be very literate in one
and a total loss with another. Added to this is
the release of new versions of the same product
every few years — money for the software
manufacturers, but headaches for users.
Additionally, there is the problem of the two
operating systems, DOS and Windows. People
used to Windows tend to look down on or are
wary of DOS based operating software since one
has to learn, remember and type in commands
to work on them. Being used to a Windows based
database programme, I felt a little nervous about
trying out Aasheesh’ s DOS based software, but
found it very user friendly and soon got the hang
of it, as Aasheesh had assured in his introduction
to the bibliographic index.
One of the problems of the existing
bibliography software is the absence of an
automatic warning system to let one know if a
record has been entered twice — we find this a
problem at ENVIS. I got a case of double entry
the first time I tried a retrieval of records from
Aasheesh’ s database, which was intimated to him.
However, I expect duplication of records to be less
of a problem with Aasheesh’s database as he has
almost single-handedly entered the records
himself and is known for his meticulousness. To
test the efficacy of the software, I gave retrieval
commands for my own papers. A search for
‘florican’ did not list my papers among the 10
others, but ‘Manakadan’ churned out the two that
I have published. Why? However, a similar search
for ‘ AnseF and ‘Manakadan’ brought out my
record of the sighting of the greater white-fronted
goose Anser albifrons in Rollapadu Wildlife
Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh.
This database of 1 8,000 odd entries covers
the published work of the Indian region covering
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
430
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
REVIEWS
Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri
Lanka, and also Tibet. More than 600 different
journals, newsletters, etc., have been covered.
Also books, theses, unpublished reports, and
chapters from books, papers and Internet reports.
References are indexed on keywords and can be
retrieved on the basis of authors, countries, sites,
scientific names (currently used), group or family
names of birds (herons, raptors) but not on the
basis of common names such as little egret,
biological characteristics (breeding, feeding, etc.)
and ornithological subjects (bird watching,
checklist, catalogues, etc.) — what more can one
want?
Aasheesh cautions that some of the
references may not be accurate as their source is
‘second-hand’, having been taken from the
reference sections of various publications. While
processing queries for our own database at
ENVIS, we have, on a number of occasions, come
across wrongly cited references, sometimes even
the journal in which the paper was published is
incorrect! Indian birders tend to give the
reference section of their papers the least
importance, a major headache for other
researchers and database managers [and
editors!]. So users of Aasheesh’s database (and
our ENVIS Centre’s database), please do not get
puzzled if you sometimes do not find the paper
in the journal cited!
I applaud Aasheesh for the hard,
painstaking work he has put into this endeavour.
Being in the same field, I know how tedious,
boring and eye-straining it is with databases, and
like Aasheesh said, “a puzzlement to his family”.
I guess the cutting of the CD is as good as a
healthy, bonny baby after all the labour pains!
This is a landmark achievement in Indian
ornithology. The BNHS too has had plans to
bring out the key word based ornithological
bibliographic database available at our ENVIS
Centre in a CD form, but Aasheesh is the early
bird who caught the worm!
Tailpiece: After one punches the exit
option for the programme, a message is flashed
across the monitor. Why do I mostly get “Don’t
worry — everyone has days like this! ’’Does the
programme also make astrological forecasts or
mind read, or is this the ‘fate’ of database
personnel?
■ RANJIT MANAKADAN
■ ■ ■
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
431
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1. HOOLOCK GIBBON (HYLOBATES HOOLOCK) FEEDING ON LICHENS
During the behavioural studies of hoolock
gibbon ( Hylobates hoolock) in the Gibbon
Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) and Borajan Reserve
Forest (now WLS), in the upper Assam forest
circle (India), we observed gibbons feeding on
lichens, growing on the bark of trees. The forest
may be categorized under Tropical Evergreen to
Semi-evergreen and Moist Dipterocarp types.
Gibbons are known to be frugivorous (Chivers
1984). Our study reveals that lichens constituted
2.7% of the hoolock gibbon’s diet in Gibbon WLS
and 1% in Borajan WLS, during the pre-
monsoon months (March to May) in 1999.
The identification of lichens is currently
underway, but the types were confirmed as typical
foliose and fructose.
This study was funded by the Indo-US
Primate Project, JNV University, Jodhpur.
August 28, 2000 P. BUJARBARUA
Department of Botany, Gauhati University,
Guwahati 781 014, Assam, India.
J. DAS
Department of Zoology’,
Gauhati University,
Guwahati 781 014, Assam, India.
Reference
Chivers, D.J. ( 1 984): Feeding and ranging of Gibbons, a summary. In: The Lesser Apes, Evolutionary and Behavioural
Biology. (Eds: Preuchoft, H., D.J. Chivers, W.Y. Brokelman andN. Creel) Edinburg University Press, Edinburg,
pp. 267-284.
2. PREDATION BY TIGER PANTHERA TIGRIS LINN. ON GAUR
BOS GAURUS H. SMITH IN PENCH TIGER RESERVE, MADHYA PRADESH
During a study in Pench Tiger Reserve
(PTR), Madhya Pradesh on gaur (Bos gaurus)
by the Wildlife Institute of India, predation on
gaur by carnivores was observed from 1996 to
1999. The PTR (78° 55' E to 79° 35' E and 21°
8' N to 22° N; 757.85 sq. km) lies in the southern
lower reaches of Satpura hill ranges in Madhya
Pradesh and comprises of the Sanctuary, National
Park and Reserved Forests. The vegetation falls
under Tropical Moist Deciduous and Tropical
Dry Deciduous types (Champion and Seth 1968).
The terrain is undulating, with hillocks and
ravines, varying from 220 m to 650 m.
Between February 1996 and September
1999, 76 kills of wild ungulates were located in
PTR. Of these, only 5 were of gaur — two
yearlings, two bulls and one cow (Table 1). All
were tiger (Panthera tigris ) kills, except one
yearling male gaur in 1996, whose predator could
not be ascertained, as the kill was 4-5 days old
and no tracks or other signs were seen. Three
adult gaur kills had deep puncture marks, either
on the hind or forelegs or both, or on the throat.
In two of the adult bulls killed, the cervical
vertebrae were broken. The yearling gaur had
bites on both the throat and the nape. No signs
Table 1
GAUR ( BOS GAURUS) KILLS
IN PENCH TIGER RESERVE
432
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
of severed tendons, suggesting biting of hock
and hamstring, were recorded in any of the gaur
kills.
On two occasions, the tiger was sighted
feeding on gaur kills (April 26 and May 10,
1997). The flesh from the rump was consumed
in both the kills. To determine how the prey
was killed, the kill sites, carcasses and tracks
were examined. In both cases, the gaur was
chased by the tiger for about 75-100 m before it
was finally brought down. At places, the muddy
ground had been churned, and had several deep
hoof marks, indicating that the animal had
struggled for survival. The gaur killed on May
10, 1997 had defecated and urinated at one
place, during the chase.
Several hunters and naturalists have
described the hunting technique of the tiger. It
is known to prefer the throat for killing prey
larger than itself (Sunquist 1981, Karanth 1993).
For smaller animals, it attacks the nape, resulting
in a broken neck or dislocation of head from the
vertebral column (Schaller 1967, Sunquist 1981,
Karanth 1993).
Karanth (1993) observed bites on the nose
of some gaur carcasses in Nagarhole National
Park, Karnataka. Schaller (1967) reported that
an adult gaur bull killed by a tigress in Kanha,
Madhya Pradesh had deep canine marks on the
back of the neck and throat. He also found a gaur
calf kill with canine punctures in the nape and
at the base of the skull and claw marks on the
rump.
Refer
Brander, A.D. (1923): Wild animals in central India.
Edward Arnold Co., London, pp. 246.
Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of
the Forest Types of India. Government of India,
pp. 404.
Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1983): Large mammalian prey-predators
in Bandipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 80(1): 1-57.
Karanth, K.U. (1993): Predator-prey relationships among
the large mammals of Nagarhole National Park (India).
Ph.D. dissertation, Mangalore University, Mangala
Biting through the hock and hamstring of
large prey like cattle, buffalo and gaur by tiger
are reported (Brander 1923). But in PTR no such
evidence was found on gaur kills. The tiger is
also known to break the cervical vertebrae of
large prey like cattle or buffalo (Brander 1923).
Tiger ( Panthera tigris), leopard ( Panthera
pardus) and dhole ( Cuon alpinus ) are the major
predators found in PTR. The tiger is known to
be the key predator of gaur (Johnsingh 1983,
Karanth 1993, Rice 1986, Schaller 1967). The
same holds true for the study area. Leopard is
also known to predate on calves and yearlings of
gaur, but no such incident was noticed in PTR.
The puncture marks on the fore or hind
legs of gaur in PTR could have been wounds
inflicted by the tiger to prevent the escape of
the prey, rather than to hock and hamstring.
This would also facilitate hunting large prey
and help to avoid injury to the tiger. Since there
were no claw or canine marks detected on the
nape of the two gaur bull kills in PTR, the
cervical vertebrae could have broken under the
impact of their large body weight when the bulls
succumbed and fell to the ground.
November 21, 2000 M.K.S. PASHA,
QAMAR QURESHI,
K. SANKAR,
G. AREENDRAN
Wildlife Institute of India,
P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani ,
Dehra Dun, Uttaranchal, India.
ENCES
Gangothri, India.
Rice, C.G. (1986): Observations on predators and prey at
Eravikulam National Park, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 83(2) : 283-305.
Schaller, G.B. (1967): The deer and the tiger: A study of
wildlife in India. University of Chicago Press, Chicago,
pp. 370.
Sunquist, M.E. (1981): The social organisation of tigers
( Panthera tigris ) in Royal Chitwan National Park.
Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 336. Pp. 1-98.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
433
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
3. THE ECHOLOCATING ROLE OF EYES IN INSECTIVOROUS BATS
{With one plate)
The power of flight and ability to echolocate
prey are responsible for the tremendous
evolutionary success of bats. They skilfully
navigate in pitch darkness over hill and dale,
dextrously hunting for insects within brambles,
thicket and bushes. D.R. Griffin coined the term
‘echolocation’ in 1944, to describe the method of
self-information in which one organ emits a sound
signal (the sonar apparatus) and another organ of
the same animal receives it (radar mechanism).
There are two suborders of bats: 1) the
echolocating Microchiroptera and 2) the fruit and
flower- visiting Megachiroptera or flying foxes of
the Old World. Echolocating bats not only ‘locate’
a target, but also analyze its features; for example
they distinguish prey from non-prey, and smooth
from rough surfaces for landing. Since the term
echolocation does not describe the full capacity of
this acoustic information system, Neuweiler
(1990) suggested the term ‘audification’ which is
analogous to visualization.
The power of echolocation has conferred
such advantages and glamour to
microchiropteran bats, that extensive work has
been done on this aspect. But surprisingly little
is known about the precise use of their eyes in
vision and prey capture. The only reference that
Altringham (1996) makes to the function of
vision in prey capture is that of Bell (1985) who
discovered that the Californian leaf-nosed bat
Macro tus calif ornicus, a gleaner, used prey-
generated sound and low intensity echolocation
in localizing its prey. Under laboratory
conditions, when the illumination was matched
to bright moonlight, the bats located their prey
by echolocation in only one third of the time
“relying on vision for the remainder in the
absence of prey movement and sound”
(Altringham 1996). Larger carnivores such as
the Australian ghost bat Macroderma gigas, the
Indian false vampire Megaderma lyra and
Cardioderma cor , also have relatively large eyes,
compared to exclusive insect feeders such as
Hipposideros speoris and H. bicolor . There are,
of course, many cues that hearing m
microchiropteran bats is much more efficient
than vision. One convincing morphological cue
is that the auditory regions of the brain of insect
eating bats are disproportionately larger than the
optic regions, and are apparently specialized to
receive, process, store, and retrieve information
about the environment from soft echoes.
We have investigated the foraging
strategies, ‘best hearing frequencies’ (BHF), and
echolocation of eight species of insectivorous bats
of Madurai (9° 58' N; 78° 10' E) (Neuweiler 1984;
Neuweiler et al., 1984; Habersetzer and
Marimuthu 1986; Link et al., 1986; Neuweiler
et al., 1988) Tadarida aegyptiaca, Taphozous
kachhensis, Taphozous melanopogon,
Rhinopoma hardwickei, Pipistrellus mimus ,
Pipistrellus domeri, Hipposideros speoris and
Hipposideros bicolor. We have not conducted
specific experiments on the role of eyes in flight;
landing or prey captures in any of the species of
bats we studied. Extensive data on the biology,
chronobiology, (Subbaraj and Chandrashekaran
1978; Marimuthu et al ., 1978) behaviour
(Chandrashekaran and Marimuthu 1987;
Radhamani et al . , 1990), and ecology of
Hipposideros speoris , Taphozous melanopogon ,
Taphozous kachhensis , and Rhinopoma
hardwickei have been published. Taphozous
kachhensis and Hipposideros speoris do perceive
colours (Sripathi 1982, Joshi and
Chandrashekaran 1985) and so do four other
species of microchiropteran bats (Hope and
Bhatnagar 1979a, 1979b). The Madurai bats
forage as efficiently on new moon nights and
during a lunar eclipse as they do on full moon
434
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Chandrashekaran, M.K.: Hipposideros bicolor
Plate 1
Fig. 1: A male adult Hipposideros bicolor (Note the very small eyes. This bat emits ultrasonics of a frequency
of 155 kHz pure tone for echolocation and can hunt for insects in bramble and thicket.)
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
435
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
nights (Usman et al. 1981).
In field ethological studies on foraging in
bats, it is difficult to create conditions of absolute
darkness, as there is some light even on new moon
nights. In fact, in our experiments on foraging by
microchiropterans, the bats were attracted to
insects that swarmed around an artificial
(petromax) light source in the open, enabling bat
counts. Which is why it becomes difficult to rule
out with utmost certainty the possibility of
participation of vision in prey capture. However,
Marimuthu and Chandrashekaran (unpublished)
demonstrated that Hipposideros speoris could
catch prey in an absolutely dark cave. The two
species of hipposideridbats which inhabit adjacent
caves in Madurai in the Samanar Hills complex
have the smallest eyes among the insectivorous
bats of Madurai (Plate 1, Fig. 1), which
interestingly emit the highest frequency of
ultrasonic pulses. H. speoris emits pure tone of
ca 132 kHz and H. bicolor of 155 kHz.
The account that follows describes a chance
discovery, which is nevertheless valuable. G.
Marimuthu was feeding bats held captive in
activity cages (Marimuthu et al. 1978) inside a
natural cave, 40 m from the cave mouth. The cave
was absolutely dark at this place, hence he used a
battery-operated torch, tied to the head, with a
‘safe’ red light of more than 610 nm. He was
holding a live cockroach with a pair of forceps
(from which the elytra, wings, cuticle and innards
had been removed) when he had turned the torch
off. Suddenly, he felt a jerk on his hand. Surprised,
he switched on the torch to find the cockroach
missing. On searching, he found a bat hanging
from the ceiling of the cave chewing up the
snatched cockroach. The free-flying bat had
wrenched the wriggling cockroach off the forceps.
This prey capture in darkness was obviously
accomplished solely by means of echolocation in
which H. speoris employs CF/FM signals of 5-10
msec of pure tone of ca 132 kHz terminated by a
brief FM sweep (Neuweiler et al ., 1984).
Reverting to the role of the eyes,
insectivorous bats like Hipposideros speoris and
Rhinopoma hardwickei, are known to ‘sample
light’ 10-15 minutes prior to synchronized exodus,
which coincides with sunset in Madurai
(Marimuthu et al. 1981). When the twilight
intensity falls below 0.3 lux (which is roughly the
intensity of moonlight) the bats fly out. In adult
mammals, the retinal photoreceptors are the only
known route for light perception, and therefore
blinding in a squirrel Funambulus palmarum and
the mouse Mus booduga, resulted in free-running
circadian rhythms (Navaneethakannan and
Kumaraswamy, 1987). We have further shown that
the circadian rhythms in the activity of
Hipposideros speoris entrains to daylight of
intensities which are 5 to 30% of starlight (0.002
lux) for ca 90 min every 24 hrs (Joshi and
Chandrashekaran 1982). In laboratory
experiments with//, speoris we also demonstrated
that brief flashes of light of 0.5 msec shifted the
circadian rhythm as a function of phase (Joshi
and Chandrashekaran 1984).
On the basis of our findings, we conclude
that the eyes of insectivorous bats such as
Hipposideros speoris may not be very efficient in
prey capture as they are small. The recurrent
‘sampled’ light pulses at the cave mouth, of a few
minutes, that the bats are exposed to every 24 hrs,
entrain their biological clocks. We further propose
that it is not unlikely that the eyes play a crucial
role as photoreceptors in this circadian
entrainment.
Acknowledgements
I thank G. Marimuthu for help in
performing the arduous experiments inside a
natural cave in Keela Kuyil Kudi rock complex.
June 5, 2000 M. K. CHANDRASHEKARAN
Evolutionary and Organismal Biology Unit,
Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced
Scientific Research, P.O. Box 6436, Jakkur,
Bangalore 560 064, Karnataka, India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
437
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Altringham, J.D. (1996): Bats: Biology and Behaviour.
Oxford University Press. Oxford, New York, Tokyo.
Pp. 253.
Bell, G.P. ( 1 985): The sensory basis of prey location by
the California leaf-nosed bat, Macrotus californicus.
(Chiroptera: Phyllostomatidae ).Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.
16: 343-347.
Chandrashekaran, M.K. & G Marimuthu (1987):
Sighting of a colony of the Indian false vampire bat,
Megaderma lyra. Bat Research News. 26: 12.
Habersetzer, J. & G. Marimuthu (1986): Ontogeny of
sounds in the echolocating bat Hipposideros speoris.
J. Comp. Physiol. A 158: 247-257.
Hope, G.M. & K.P. Bhatnagar( 1979a): Electrical response
of bat retina to spectral stimulation: comparison of four
microchiropteran species. Experientia 35: 1 1 89- 1191.
Hope, G.M. & K.P. Bhatnagar (1979b,): Effect of light
adaptation on electrical responses of the retina of four
species of bats. Experientia 35: 1191-1193.
Joshi, D. & M.K. Chandrashekaran (1982): Daylight
dimmer than starlight entrains the circadian rhythm of
a bat. Naturwissenschaften 69: 192.
Joshi, D. & M.K. Chandrashekaran (1984): Bright light
flashes of 0.5 msec reset the circadian clock of a
microchiropteran bat. J. Exp. Zool. 230: 325-328.
Joshi, D. & M.K. Chandrashekaran (1985): Spectral
sensitivity of the photoreceptors responsible for phase
shifting the circadian rhythm of activity in a bat.
J. Comp. Physiol. A 156: 189-198.
Marimuthu, G., S. Rajan & M.K. Chandrashekaran
(1981): Social entrainment of the circadian rhythm in
the flight activity of the microchiropteran bat,
Hipposideros speoris. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.
8: 147-150.
Marimuthu, G., R. Subbaraj & M.K. Chandrashekaran
(1978): Social synchronization of the activity
rhythm in a cave-dwelling insectivorous bat.
Naturwissenschaften 65: 600.
Navaneethakannan, K. & P. Kumarasamy (1986):
Absence of extraretinal photic entrainment in a diurnal
squirrel Funambulus palmarum and a nocturnal mouse
Mus booduga. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 24: 730-73 1 .
Neuweiler, G. (1984): Foraging, echolocation, and audition
in bats. Naturwissenschaften 71: 446-455.
Neuweiler, G. (1990): Auditary adaptations for prey
capture in echolocating bats. Physiol. Rev. 70: 615-
641.
Neuweiler, G., A. Link., G. Marimuthu & R. Rubsamen
(1988): Detection of prey in echo-cluttering
environments. In: Animal Sonar Processes and
Performances [Eds: Nachtigal, P.E. & P.W.B Moore
(NATO Series)], New York, Plenum Press. Series A:
Life Sciences: 156: 613-616.
Neuweiler, G., Satpal Singh & K. Sripathi (1984):
Audiograms of South Indian bat community. J. Comp.
Physiol. A 154: 133-142.
Radhamani, T.R., G. Marimuthu & M.K.
Chandrashekaran (1990): Relationship between size
and carrying infants by hipposiderid mother bats. Curr.
Sci. 59: 602-603.
Sripathi, K. (1982): Light relations of the circadian rhythm
in the tropical bat Tap hozous nudiventris kachhensis
Dobson 1872 under semi-natural and laboratory
conditions. Ph.D. thesis, Madurai Kamaraj University,
Madurai.
Subbaraj, R. & M.K. Chandrashekaran (1978): Pulses
of darkness shift the phases of a circadian rhythm in
an insectivorous bat. J. Comp. Physiol. A 127: 239-243.
Usman, K., J. Habersetzer., R. Gopalakrishnaswamy &
K. Paramanandam (1980): Behaviour of bats during a
lunar eclipse. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.
7: 79-81.
4. THE MALABAR SPINY DORMOUSE PLATACANTHOMYS LASIURUS
IN MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU
The Malabar spiny dormouse
Platacanthomys lasiurus has been reported by
Prabhakar (1997) in the Indira Gandhi Wildlife
Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu at 650 m; Ganesh (1997)
in the Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve,
Tamil Nadu at 1,100 m; Sankar (1996) in Upper
Bhavani Hills at 2,000 m and also by Jayson and
Christopher (1995) in Peppara Wildlife
Sanctuary, Kerala at 600 m elevation.
The Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary is
situated in Nilgiri district, Tamil Nadu (11° 32'-
11° 43' N; 76° 22'-76° 45' E), with an altitude
range of 350-1,266 m above msl. It bears
vegetation types varying from Moist Deciduous
and Semi-evergreen in the Benne forest, through
Dry Deciduous Forest over most of the Sanctuary
to Dry Thom in Moyar.
The ecology and distribution of small
438
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
mammals in the different habitats of Mudumalai
Wildlife Sanctuary, was studied in 1997. Small
mammals were trapped in Sherman traps placed
on the ground in the chosen study grids, baited
with coconut. The Malabar spiny dormouse was
recorded at an elevation of 1,000 m in the semi-
evergreen forest of Benne, in May. One individual
was captured, preserved and later identified. Its
morphometric measurements were: head-body
Refer
Ganesh, T. (1997): The Malabar Spiny Dormouse
( Platacanthomys lasiurus) in the Kalakad
Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(3): 561.
Jayson, E.A. &G. Christopher (1995): Sighting of Spiny
Dormouse {Platacanthomys lasiurus Blyth, 1 959)
in Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Trivandrum District,
length 12.6 cm; tail length 13.5cm; hind foot
length 2.5 cm; weight 82g (live individual).
January 1 1 , 200 1 V. MEENA
No. 1 Ragavendra Apartments
4 Kandasamy Gramani Street,
Chandrabagh Avenue Extension,
Mylapore, Chennai 600 004,
Tamil Nadu, India.
,NC ES
Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92(2): 258.
Prabhakar, A. (1997): New records of the Spiny
Dormouse {Platacanthomys lasiurus Blyth) in the
Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(1): 1 5 1 .
Sankar, K. (1996): Islands in the Western Ghats. Science
Reporter 33(6): 9-13.
5. THE WILD ELEPHANT ELEPHAS MAXIMUS IN MIZORAM
( With a text-figure)
The Asian elephant Elephas maximus
Linn, is distributed in northeastern India in 14
discrete populations (Choudhury 1999). The
populations in Mizoram and Tripura were treated
as a single one, with probable movement through
Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh. A field
trip was made in April 2000 (for 14 days) to
assess the status of elephants in Mizoram. During
this trip, all the known sites were visited and the
Forest Department officials, local hunters/
poachers and other tribal villagers were
interviewed. The state of Mizoram (21° 58'-24°
30' N, 92° 16'-93° 25' E) (area 21,081 sq. km)
(Fig. 1) was referred to in the past as the Lushai
Hills of southern Assam. The entire area is hilly,
being part of the Himalaya-Arakan mountain
chain. The terrain is dissected mostly by north-
south flowing rivers, which make a series of
parallel ranges. The highest ranges are towards
east with Phawngpui or Blue Mountain (2,157
m above msl) and Lengteng (2,141m above msl)
peaks. The lowest evaluation is in the riverbeds
near Assam-Mizoram and India-Bangladesh
border (less than 100 m above msl).
Till the 1950s, the elephant was widespread
all over the state, especially in the north, west and
south (source: local reports by villagers, and A.
Laskar, S. Laskar, pers. comm.). However, it was
never common in recent memory, as its meat was
relished by all the tribes (Mizo, Lai or Pawi, Mara
or Lakher, Bru or Reang, Chakma, and Hmar)
and it was regularly hunted. In the 1 960s, when
insurgency started, modem firearms became easily
available, resulting in a phenomenal increase in
poaching. At the same time, ivory also became an
important target (especially for sale in southeast
Asia markets to buy arms). With the gradual
increase in human population, the destruction of
forest through felling and jhum (shifting
cultivation) has also increased. By the 1970s, the
main elephant strongholds remained only in the
western and southern areas, with small
populations elsewhere. By 1980s, the northern
elephant population was reduced to stray
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
439
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1 : Map of Mizoram showing the current
distribution of elephants |y and occasional
migrants from Bangladesh (+)
individuals with no future, while the western and
southern populations were confined to a few
pockets (A. Laskar, pers. comm.). In the 1990s,
the elephant survived only in three areas, with a
few stray animals in other areas. In the mean time,
the human population of Mizoram grew from
3,32,000 (0.33 million) in 1971 to 6,86,000 (0.69
million) in 1991, i.e. more than double in two
decades, indicating a phenomenal corresponding
increase in jhum cultivation.
The main elephant population is now
confined to Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary (110
sq. km), Lawngtlai district in the far south, and
Dampa Sanctuary and Tiger Reserve (500 sq.
km), Mamit district in the west. In 1996, a census
party of the Forest Department located only four
elephants in part of Dampa. Unfortunately, a
makhna from this population died in 1998 due
to accidental strangulation near Lallen. While
sliding down a slope, its head got sandwiched
between two tree trunks from which it could not
recover itself (Jain and Saandeep 2001). These
animals occasionally cross over to Bangladesh
also'. Local reports indicate that more than 10
elephants were present in the early 1980s. At
that time, there was a lone bull at Bolung
(S. Laskar, pers. comm.) northeast of Dampa.
Ngengpui Wildlife Sanctuary and adjacent
southern areas have the largest population of
elephants in Mizoram now: however, only of
eight animals. Old villagers of Ngengpui and
Khawmawi report that there were more than 20
animals in the early 1980s. These elephants move
out of the Sanctuary to the Ngengpui Reserved
Forest (Lunglei district) as well as unclassed
forests near Mampui.
The third group in the state is in Saiha
district, around Palak Dil (Dil = lake). Only three
are surviving from what was a fairly large
population of at least 50 in the 1970s. According
to the elders of Phura village, most of them were
shot dead for meat and tusks by extremists. The
surviving three cause much damage to standing
paddy at Phura valley, but the villagers (Mara or
Lakher tribe) do not retaliate, in consideration
of the very low population and a vanishing
heritage.
Stray elephants, often in small herds, have
been reported from the forests northwest of
Tlabung (Demagiri) in Lunglei district and Parva
440
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
in Lawngtlai district. These are occasional
immigrants from Bangladesh, especially during
the paddy season.
These are no reports of occurrence of
elephants in recent years from Aizawl, Serchhip,
Kolasib and Champhai district.
From the above account, it seems that the
total number of elephants in Mizoram is only
14, with some seasonal migrants from
Bangladesh. Their chances of long-term survival
in the wild in Mizoram are bleak, as the existing
herds are not only very small, but also severely
fragmented, with no possibility of contiguity.
Habitat destruction and poaching continue
to be major threats. The decrease of population
in Ngengpui (from 10 in 1993 to 8 in 1997)
indicates unreported poaching. Protection
measures in Dampa and Ngengpui should be
strengthened. Part of Dampa is now virtually out
of bounds due to insurgency by the Bru (Reang)
militants. Palak Dil and adjacent forests (about
40 sq. km) should be declared as a wildlife
sanctuary (it is also the largest lake in Mizoram).
To avoid inbreeding and maintain genetic quality,
translocation of one or two elephants from Assam
(where troublesome elephants are occasionally
captured) or Meghalaya to Dampa and Ngengpui
could have solved the problem, but the prevailing
situation makes it unlikely in the near future.
With better protection, Dampa and Ngengpui
could support larger populations. Conservation
education among the local villagers, with the help
of NGOs, is also strongly recommended.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the following for their
assistance during the study, N. Pradhan (ACF),
L. Pachuan (FD, Dampa), K. Hramzama (RO,
Ngengpui) and his wife, C. Buanga, C. Hranghimea,
T. Zakiau, K. Kheilai, K. Ray, Laikung, Zarlansanga,
Khaikhu, Lalnunzira, S. Saikia, Muankima,
Rinsanga, Vanlalpeka (all of Forest Dept), P. Rahlo,
Ms. Bawitei, M. Goswami, J. Paul, Alok,
J. Mazumdar, Arnar, A. Goswami and Hakim.
April 6, 2001 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY
The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,
C/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam,
Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.
References
Choudhury, A.U. ( 1 999): Status and Conservation of the Jain, Niren & R. Saandeep (2001 ): Incidence of an elephant
Asian elephant Elephas maximus in north-eastern calf Elephas maximus trapped between two tree
India. Mammal Review 23(9): 141-173. trunks. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 98(1): 99-101 .
6. ON LITTLE GREBES TACHYBAPTUS RUFICOLLIS BREEDING NEAR
K. KARUNANIDHI NAGAR, TIRUCHIRAPALLI, TAMIL NADU
Little grebes Podiceps ( =Tachybaptus )
ruficollis were common around Trichinopoly in
the 1930s. One Mr. C. McConway had collected
over one hundred eggs, and washed them (with
Vim and Monkey brand soap) to find out whether
the brown coloration on the eggs was original or
acquired. He reported that the coloration was no
indication of incubation stage (Baker & Inglis
1930. The Birds of Southern India, p. 485). Sixty
to seventy years later, they are still common,
despite the developmental changes in their
habitat. At the onset of the southwest monsoon,
when the ruddy brown earth is carried into ponds
by rainwater and settles at the bottom, the pond
water becomes clear. Little grebes arrive
noiselessly during cloudy afternoons in hundreds,
and run on this clear water surface, beating their
wings. They stay on, breed and leave in mid-
January. The three main water bodies frequented
by the little grebes are Vadugapatty Periakulam,
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
441
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
TEN YEAR COUNTS OF LITTLE GREBE POPULATION AND NESTS
Year/Month Population Size Year/Month No. of Nests
Senkulam and Sathanur Kulam. The total water
spread of the three tanks is 8.2 sq. km with
1 .4 sq. km sheltered bush margins. My counts of
birds and nests during the last 10 years are given
in Table 1.
One pair of little grebe had built their nest
in a well 3 m in diameter, close to Olaiyur railway
crossing, adjoining the irrigation canal. The
water level of the well would rise and fall,
depending on the level of the canal water. Though
the floating nest of the grebes was first found
accidentally in September 1995, I checked and
saw the nests each year. One nesting a year was
observed in the southwest monsoon.
June 12, 1999 J. MANGALARAJ JOHNSON
80, Rajaram Salai,
Kalaigner Karunanidhi Nagar,
Tiruchirapalli 620 021,
Tamil Nadu, India.
7. IRIS COLORATION IN THE LARGE EGRET CASMERODIUS ALBUS AND
MEDIAN EGRET MESOPHOYX INTERMEDIA (FAMILY ARDEIDAE)
The Simpson Industrial Estate, Sembium,
in the northern part of Chennai (Madras), is a well-
known heronry in Tamil Nadu, India. Species that
breed in the confines of the Estate are the large
egret Casmerodius albus , median egret Mesophoyx
intermedia , little egret Egretta garzetta , black-
crowned night-heron Nycticorax nycticorax , little
cormorant Phalacrocorax niger and Indian shag
P. fuscicollis.
Ali and Ripley (1987) mentioned the
coloration of the iris of the median egret as
lemon-yellow, and that of the large egret as
yellow for race alba and bright lemon-yellow for
modesta. Roberts (1991) stated it as yellow in
the median egret, but did not describe the colour
of the iris in large egret. Brown et al. (1982)
described it as ruby for the median (race:
brachyrhyncha) and brilliant red for the large
egret (race: melanorhynchos).
During 1996-97, about 50 pairs of large
egrets bred in Simpson Estate. In the early part
of the breeding season in November, the birds
sported black bills, flesh coloured tibia, orbital
skin ranging from bright yellowish-green
through bright bluish-green to dark bluish-green.
The colour of the iris was yellow in all the birds.
By January 4, 1997, the bills of the birds had
started yellowing at the base, the colour of the
orbital patch and tibia regressed. During this
period, one of the birds of a pair was recorded to
have a red iris. However, the iris reverted to
yellow again after three weeks.
In mid-February, most of the birds were
feeding chicks in various stages of growth.
442
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
During this time, five birds started courtship
display. Of these, two had a pale red iris. The
bills were black, the orbital skin bright green,
and the tibia pale flesh coloured. The other three
birds had a pale orange iris, the orbital skin and
bill coloration was as in the other two, but the
tibia was bright flesh coloured. Two of the birds
with orange irises paired off and started nesting.
It was noted that the pale red or pale orange
colour of the iris persisted in bright sunlight and
in the shade. In earlier observations of 10-30
breeding median egrets, from 1991 to 1996, the
iris under bright or diffused sunlight was light
orange to bright red in some of the birds. But
when in shade (as when the bird ducks to accept
nest material from the mate), the iris reverts back
to the normal yellow colour.
Change in iris coloration has been recorded
for certain egret species elsewhere. Hancock and
Kushlan (1984) mention a brief ruby-red flush of
the iris (from yellow) prior to egg-laying in the
large egret in Australia and North Africa. They do
not mention iris colour change in the median egret,
but report it in the little egret Egretta garzetta (turns
red during the height of courtship) and the grey
heron Ardea cinerea (changes from deep yellow
to deep orange). My observations on the change
in iris colouration in the large and median egrets
are interesting, as it has not been reported for the
median egret, or for E. garzetta or A. cinerea in
India. The significance of the changes in iris
coloration, the colour variations under shade and
sunlight, and why they do not appear in all
individuals of a colony, is yet to be known.
March 27, 1999 V. GURUSWAMI
Simpson Estate,
Chennai 600 001, Tamil Nadu, India.
References
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1 987): Handbook of the Birds of
India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford
University Press, Bombay. Pp.18.
Brown, L., E.K. Urban & K. Newman (1982): The
Birds of Africa. Volume I. Academic Press,
London. Pp.178-179.
Hancock, J. & J. Kushlan (1984): The Herons
Handbook. Croom Helm. London. Pp.288.
Roberts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan. Volume I.
Oxford University Press, Oxford. Pp.89-92.
8. SIGHTING OF THE BLACK STORK CICONIA NIGRA AND
LESSER ADJUTANT-STORK LEPTOPTILOS JA VANICUS
AT NAGARHOLE NATIONAL PARK, KARNATAKA
Nagarhole National Park (NP) (643 sq.
km), along with the Bandipur Tiger Reserve
(875 sq. km) and Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary
(325 sq. km) to the southeast and the Wynaad
Wildlife Sanctuary (350 sq. km) to the southwest,
form a part of Nilgiri biosphere, the largest
protected forest tract in peninsular India. The
bird life in this region is impressive, due to a
dense forest cover interspersed with innumerable
rivulets that feed the Kabini river. The existing
bird list has nearly 270 species (Anon 1987), and
during my visit to the National Park between
January 12-14, 1999, 1 sighted 97 bird species.
On the last morning of my stay at the
Kabini River Lodge at Karapur village, located
about 8 km to the east of Sunkadakatte Forest
Rest House, Nagarhole National Park, I decided
to take a jeep ride into the Park. After about 15
minutes from the Bisalvadi waterhole, the jeep
reached a rivulet amidst a very dense forest tract.
While scanning the banks for waders, I observed
two large birds, the lesser adjutant-stork
Leptoptilos javanicus and black stork Ciconia
nigra. The scarlet red beak and legs of the
C. nigra were perfectly illuminated by the sun
and the white underparts were unmistakable.
I observed the birds for a good 1 5 minutes before
returning to the lodge. On mentioning -the
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443
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
sighting to Mr. Sarath, the chief naturalist,
Kabini River Lodge, I gathered that though
L. javanicus had been occasionally sighted, no
one had ever come across a Ciconia nigra, in
spite of a close vigil by many visiting field
biologists and naturalists.
Although the lesser adjutant-stork has been
sighted in the Western Ghats on several occasions
(Anon 1987, Ali 1969, Baker 1935, Jerdon 1839-
1840), its true status and movement within the
biogeographic zone is not clear. However, reports
of its breeding in Periyar Tiger Reserve have
confirmed the existence of a small viable
population in south India.
According to Ali and Ripley (1987),
C. nigra is a winter visitor to west Pakistan, north
India from Baluchistan, Sind, North West
Frontier Province and Punjab through Nepal (to
c. 900 m alt.) and the Gangetic plain to eastern
Assam, south through Rajasthan to about Kutch
and northern Gujarat. It is considered to be rare
in Deccan, south of c. 18° N. (Sholapur district).
However, there are sporadic records of the bird
from peninsular India, as can be seen from
Table 1.
In the light of the above mentioned records,
one can safely conclude that, for reasons not yet
clear, there seems to be a distinct southward
movement of the bird, which a few decades ago
was never known to even stray into these areas.
Madsen (1988) speculated that this may be due
to the severe drought in the north. However, this
southward movement may have been forced upon
the species by the loss of precious habitat in
Pakistan, West, North and Northeastern India
(Khachar 1976, Khacher 1986, Himmatsinhji
Table 1
SIGHT RECORDS OF BLACK STORK IN PENINSULAR INDIA
444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1985, Pandey 1989, Buckton and Morris 1990,
Sivasubramanian 1992, Barman and Talukdar
1995, Gandhi 1995, Barua et. al. 1997), where
it is known to exist in greater numbers.
There is also a remote possibility of some
individuals straying from their normal course
during migration to the Subcontinent from
Eastern Europe. However, it would be difficult
to ascertain this.
Considering these facts, I sincerely appeal
to all field biologists and bird watchers to keep a
close watch on the movements of the stork, so
that we can make a concerted effort at protecting
the new emerging haunts of Ciconia nigra in
South India. Also, we need to step up our efforts
to ascertain the true status of Leptoptilos
javanicus within the Western Ghats range.
Refer
Ali, S. (1969): Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press,
New Delhi.
Ali. S & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of birds of India
and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Bombay.
Andheria, A.P. (1995): A checklist of birds of Kanha
National Park, 19-21 Jan. 1995. Unpublished.
Anonymous (1987): A preliminary checklist of birds of
Nagarhole and environs. Unpublished. Wildlife Dept.,
Karapur, Jungle Lodges and Resorts Ltd.
Baker, E.C.S. (1935): The nidification of birds of the Indian
Empire, 4. London: Taylor & Francis.
Barman, R. & B.K. Talukdar (1995): New record of Black
Stork Ciconia nigra in Deepoor Boel, Assam.
Newsletter for Birdwatchers 35: 15.
Barua, M., G.C. Chettri & P. Bardoloi (1997):
Endangered birds sighted in Pobitora Sanctuary.
Newsletter for Birdwatchers 37: 109.
Baskaran, T. (1995): An audio guide to the birds of
southern India, and notes on Night herons and Black
storks. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 35: 50.
Buckton, S. & P. Morris (1990): India and Nepal,
December 1989 - June 1990. Unpublished.
Gandhi, S.S. (1995): New and rare sighting of Black stork
near Dehra Dun (UP). Newsletter for Birdwatchers 35:
97-98.
Himmatsinhji, M.K. (1985): The Black stork in Kutch: old
record confirmed. J Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 403.
Jerdon, T.C. (1839-1840): Catalogue of the birds of the
peninsula of India, arranged according to the modem
system of classification; with brief notes on their habits
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. S. Subramanya, University of
Agriculture Sciences, Gandhi Krishi Vigyan
Kendra Campus, Bangalore, for providing vital
references and deliberating on the initial
manuscripts. His interest in this article has been
inspirational throughout. I also thank Mr.
Samba Kumar, Program Officer, Wildlife
Conservation Society India Program,
Bangalore, for information on various locations
in the Park.
July 8, 1999 ANISH P. ANDHERIA
2, Sagar Building, V. P. Road,
Andheri, Mumbai 400 058,
Maharashtra, India.
ENCES
and geographical distribution, and description of new,
doubtful and imperfectly described species. Madras
J. Lit. Sci. 10: 60-91, 234-269; 11: 1-38, 207-239;
12: 1-15, 193-227.
Kanniah, P. & T. Ganesh ( 1 990): Occurrence of the Black
stork Ciconia nigra near Hyderabad. Mayura 7 & 8:
46-48.
Khachar, Shivrajkumar (1976): Occurrence of the Black
stork ( Ciconia nigra) in Saurashtra. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 73: 390-391.
Khacher, L. (1986): The White and Black storks.
Newsletter for Birdwatchers 26(3 & 4): 12-13.
Madsen, S.T. (1988): Black storks in Nepal and India.
Oriental Bird Club Bull. 1 1 : 34-35.
Manakadan, R. (1988): The Black stork Ciconia nigra
(Linnaeus) in Kurnool District (Andhra Pradesh). J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84: 675-676.
Misra, M.K. (1994): Stork watching at Ratapani.
Newsletter for Birdwatchers 34: 1 1 8.
Naik, S. (1989). Black Storks ( Ciconia nigra) near Pune.
Newsletter for Birdwatchers 29(7 & 8): 1 .
Neelkantan K.K., C. Sashikumar & R Venugopalan
(1993): A book of Kerala Birds WWF-1, Kerala State
Committee. Pp. 11-12.
Pandey, S. (1989): Black stork. Newsletter for
Birdwatchers 29(1 & 2): 9.
Perennou, C. & V. Santharam (1990): Status of some birds
in southeastern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87:
306-307.
Phillips W.W.A. (1940): The occurrence of the Black stork
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
445
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
( Ciconia nigra ) in Ceylon. Ibis 4(1 4th series): 333-334.
Prasad, A. (1997): Black stork in Kerala. Newsletter for
Birdwatchers 37: 65.
Praveen, J. (1997): Storks of Walayar. Newsletter for
Birdwatchers 37: 9.
Ramani, R. (1985): Black storks. Newsletter for
Birdwatchers 25(3 & 4): 15.
Sant, N. (1994): Sighting of Black stork near Belgaum.
Newsletter for Birdwatchers 34(2): 39.
Sawji, P.G. (1990): Black storks in Maharashtra.
Newsletter for Birdwatchers 30(11 & 12): 1 1 .
Sivasubramanian, C. (1992): Indian Skimmer Rynchops
albicollis Swainson and Black stork Ciconia nigra
(Linn.) — new additions to the avifauna of Keoladeo
National Park, Bharatpur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
89: 252-253.
9. LONG-BILLED VULTURE GYPS INDICUS INDICUS NESTING ON TREES IN
THE THAR DESERT, RAJASTHAN
( With one plate and one text-figure)
There are two subspecies of longbilled
vultures Gyps indicus in the Indian subcontinent,
differentiated on the basis of their distribution,
nesting habits and physical features. The long-
billed vulture (Gyps indicus indicus) is
distributed south of the Gangetic plain, except
extreme southwest India and Ceylon. The
Himalayan long-billed vulture (Gyps indicus
tenuirostris) is found in the Gangetic plain north
to and along the lower Himalayas through Nepal,
Bengal and Assam, where it is very common and
in eastern Assam and Bangladesh (Ali and Ripley
1987).
Nest-site selection is the main behavioural
difference between the two subspecies. The long-
billed vulture nests on ledges of cliffs and hill
forts, while the Himalayan long-billed vulture
nests on trees in small colonies (Roberts 1991).
The breeding season for both ranges from
November to end of February, or latest up to
March.
The long-billed vulture has been observed
nesting on cliffs in many areas of Rajasthan,
while the Himalayan long-billed was reported
breeding in Ambala district, Haryana (Jones
1916). When I found five nests of the longbilled
in Nagaur district, Rajasthan in May 1994 on
Prosopis cineraria trees, I assumed that they were
nests of the Himalayan long-billed vulture,
because the species is already reported from
Ambala in the adjoining state of Haryana (Jones
1916) and the nests were on trees. I took some
photographs and made notes on the bird and nest
(Plate 1, Fig. 1).
I came across another nest of the same bird
in December, 1997 near Saanchu in Bikaner,
Rajasthan (Fig. 1). The nesting bird was paler
and the neck of the subadult was covered with
whitish down. The neck of the bird guarding the
nest was partially covered with down. One was
sitting on the same tree and the other on another
tree some 15 m away. The feathers on the legs
extended well below the knee joints. The bill and
cere had a yellow horn-like colour.
The nest was placed on the highest crotch
of a Prosopis cineraria tree about 8 m from the
ground, and was open from all sides. It measured
68 cm x 90 cm and had a depth of 103 cm. The
measurement of only one nest was taken, after
the juvenile had left it.
The nest materials were twigs of Capparis
decidua , Prosopis cineraria , Acacia arabica ,
Brassica campestris stubble from a nearby field
and some pieces of cloth. The tree on which the
nest was placed was surrounded at its base by
Capparis decidua , Prosopis juliflora and an
unidentified thorny bush which grows to 2 m.
All the five nests were on Prosopis cineraria trees
growing in about one sq. km area.
This subspecies was confirmed by John
Schmitt, a bird artist from USA, with the help of
a photograph of the longbilled vulture on its nest.
446
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
Kulshreshtha, Manoj: Gyps indicus
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
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447
Fig. 1: Long-billed vulture Gyps indicus on a nest in Rajasthan
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1 : Map of Rajasthan showing breeding locations of Gyps indicus indicus as barred area
These observations are interesting, as there
are no breeding records of the Indian long-billed
vulture from the Thar desert. Also, this
subspecies has never been reported nesting on
trees so far. Although Mathews (1918) has once
reported long-billed vulture nesting on peepal
{Ficus religiosa) trees from Lucknow district
(Uttar Pradesh), he did not describe the features
differentiating the two subspecies and used the
Latin name Gyps indicus. It is possible that he
observed the Himalayan long-billed vulture
{Gyps indicus tenuirostris) which also breeds in
the study area. I hope this information will be
useful for birdwatchers interested in raptors and
inspire them to examine vulture nests in the
desert carefully.
Nesting of long-billed vulture {Gyps
indicus indicus) on trees has also been sighted
by H.S. Sangha and Harshvardhan ( pers . comm. )
on a Khejri tree near Talchhapar Sanctuary in
Churn district, and by Rishad Naoroji {pers.
comm.) in Kodamdesar in Bikaner district.
Acknowledg ements
I thank Rishad Naoroji for comments and
for sending the photograph taken by me to John
Schmitt for identification. I also thank Dr. Asad
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
449
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Rahmani for constant encouragement; H.S. February 26, 2001 MANOJ KULSHRESHTHA
Sangha and Harshvardhan for sharing their ‘Snehdeep’ B-3 3 Sethi Colony,
observations with me and M. Zafar-ul Islam for Jaipur 302 004, Rajasthan,
help in collecting references. India.
References
Ali S. & S.D. Ripley (1987) Compact handbook of the
Birds of India and Pakistan, Oxford University Press,
Delhi. Pp.76.
Jones, A.E. (1916): Gyps tenuirostris (Hodgson), the
Himalayan longbilled vulture breeding near Ambala,
Punjab. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 24(2)\ 358,
Roberts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan, Vol. I. Oxford
University Press, Karachi. P.172.
Mathews, W.H. (1918): Note on the longbilled vulture
{Gyps indicus)J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 187.
10. GREY-HEADED LAPWING VANELLUS CINEREUS (BLYTH)
(FAMILY CH ARADRIID AE) IN KERALA
The Kole wetland is a vast water body
spread over 13,000 ha in Thrissur and
Malappuram districts, Kerala. It is located
between 10° 20'-10° 40' N and 75° 58'-76° 11’
E. The Kole wetland is inundated round the year.
During November to February, different parts
are under paddy cultivation, which is done after
draining off the water into a network of canals
throughout the wetland. The water in the fields
is brought to the desired level, and one crop of
rice is cultivated annually.
On January 28 and 30, 1999, around
1500 hrs we saw a lapwing in Enamavu area in
the Kole wetland. Interestingly, it was located
in a small patch of about 0.5 ha of unculti-
vated area, surrounded by paddy, c. 3 km off the
main road and c. 500 m from the mud-topped
road used by the farmers. The reason for not
planting paddy in this area could not be
ascertained.
Among the various species of birds present
in the wetland, the ‘unidentified lapwing’ caught
our attention. On closer examination through
binoculars, we were able to describe the bird
both in the sitting posture and in flight as
follows: upper parts, excluding head and neck
uniformly brown, head and neck grey with a
brown tinge, chin and throat whitish, breast ashy
grey, bordered by a black pectoral band across,
rest of under parts white. Rump, upper tail
coverts and tail white, with a broad black
subterminal band. Black band on the tail could
be seen when the bird flicked its tail while at
rest. Tip of the wings black. Bill bright yellow
with black tip, legs yellow, iris red with narrow
yellow eye-ring, yellow thickening near the base
of the bill seen at close range. The bird was
identified as the grey-headed lapwing ( Vanellus
cinereus).
In flight, the white tail with black
subterminal band, and black tipped wings with
broad white wing bands and a dark pectoral band
across the neck are Conspicuous. Under
primaries were mostly black and rest of
underwing white. From a distance, the bird could
be confused with white-tailed lapwing
( V. leucurus ), but the black tipped yellow beak,
dark pectoral band, and the black subterminal
band on the tail distinguished it from the white-
tailed lapwing. The grey-headed is also larger
than the white-tailed, and also larger than the
redwattled lapwing (V. indicus).
The bird seemed to be very shy and flew
away at the slightest disturbance. As it was about
to take off, it made a low pitched, single note
kek.
The first author had seen a white-tailed
lapwing ( V. leucurus) from Enamavu Kole lands
in December 1998. In February and March 1999,
grey-headed lapwing was present in a particular
450
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
area in this wetland. The sighting of an adult
grey-headed lapwing from Kerala assumes
significance as Ali and Ripley (1987) give the
southern most distribution range as north Bihar.
They also state that “a large proportion of
our visitors are young birds without pectoral
band”.
July 9, 1999 P.K. RAVINDRAN
Vallissery, P.O. Avinisseiy
Thrissur 680 313, Kerala.
P.O. NAMEER
Dept of Wildlife Sciences, College of Forestry,
Kerala Agricultural University,
P.O. Vellanikkara, Thrissur 680 654, Kerala.
Reference
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, New
Delhi, pp 211-212.
11. FEEDING HABITS OF THE WHITE-BREASTED KINGFISHER
HALCYON SMYRNENSIS (LINN.) FAMILY ALCEDINIDAE
The white-breasted kingfisher is well
known for its versatile food and feeding habits
(Ali and Ripley 1970, Mukherjee 1975, Yahya
and Yasmeen 1991, Knowles andNitchen 1995).
However, it was quite interesting to observe
three white-breasted kingfishers join a mixed
hunting party of insectivores and hunt with
them.
On June 18, 1999, 1 was following a mixed
hunting party near Muthanga in Wynaad Wildlife
Sanctuary, Kerala (1 1° 35’-l 1° 55’ N and 76° 02'-
76° 27' E). The Sanctuary is dominated by Moist
Deciduous Forest with thick bamboo groves at
many places. The Muthanga Forest Range of this
Sanctuary adjoins the Bandipur (Karnataka) and
Mudumalai (Tamil Nadu) National Parks at a
place called Trijunction. After good rainfall in the
morning, several species of birds were feeding in
a teak ( Tectona grandis) dominated patch of the
forest. The party included the greater racket-tailed
drongo ( Dicrurus paradis eus), bronzed drongo
( D . aeneus) common woodshrike ( Tephrodornis
pondicerianus ), Loten’s sunbird ( Nectarinia
lotenia ), gold-fronted chloropsis ( Chloropsis
aurifrons), white-cheeked barbet (Megalaima
viridis ), scarlet minivet (Pericrocotus flammeus),
velvet-fronted nuthatch (Sitta frontalis ), lesser
golden-backed woodpecker ( Dinopium
benghalense) and several species of warblers. The
birds were moving from one area to another m a
typical wave (Yahya 1990) of insectivores. It was
still cloudy and windy at 1240 hrs, when I heard
the calls of a white-breasted kingfisher among the
birds, and on scanning the flock, found that three
birds had joined the party.
The kingfishers, perched above and below
the teak foliage, made frequent sallies like any
other fly-catching bird, and hunted with the party
for the next 90 minutes. During this period, they
also called frequently. In fact, it was their typical
loud calls kilililia kalililia ... which first attracted
my attention. Initially, I thought the white-
breasted kingfisher had just appeared on the
scene, and may have some other interest in the
area (such as a nest), but their constant following
and hunting with the party demonstrated their
expertise as insectivores. I have never seen this
species following a mixed hunting party before,
nor is any such record available in the literature.
One of our research scholars, Sajeev T.K, in
Anaimalai Hills, also saw this phenomenon
recently.
August 6, 1999 H.S. YAHYA
Centre of Wildlife and Ornithology,
Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh,
India.
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Ali, Salim & S.D. Ripley (1970): Handbook of Birds of
India and Pakistan Vol. 4. Oxford University Press,
Bombay.
Knowles, L.J. & J.W. Nitchen (1995): Kingfishers of the
World. Times Book International, Hong Kong,
Kuala Lumpur.
Mukherjee, A.K. (1975): Food habits of the water
birds of the S underban, 24 Parganas District; West
Bengal, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2): 4 1 8-
422.
Yahya, H.S.A. (1990): Habitat preference of birds in the
Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala. Indian Journal of
Forestry 12 (4): 288-295.
Yahya, H.S.A. & S. YASMEENH991): Earthworm a diet of
Whitebreasted Kingfisher. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 89(3): 589.
12. LARGE GREY BABBLER (TURDOIDES MALCOLMI) TRAPPED FOR THE TABLE
It was not surprising to find the large grey
babbler Turdoides malcolmi (Sykes) listed as a
bird that needs conservation, in a brochure issued
by the Birdwatchers’ Society of Andhra Pradesh.
The present status of this species, which is
described as common in Deccan Plateau, now
calls for its conservation. Factors that have
contributed to its destruction in Deccan Plateau
cannot be analysed here, but one of the major
factors, which might have lead to its decline in
Chhattisgarh State, is intensive trapping. The
large grey babbler is commonly served instead
of quail in roadside hotels, as the incident related
below will confirm.
One of my junior officers had brought a
bagful of quail. Luckily, before his departure, the
so-called quail were examined, and to our utmost
surprise, they were in fact large grey babblers
tied in bunches by the legs. Their tail feathers
had been pulled out and wings broken. The birds
were photographed and later released into the
bush.
Large grey babblers are commonly sold and
served as quail, and customers in their ignorance,
relish the babblers. No helping hand has come
forward to save them.
April 7, 1999 A.M.K. BHAROS
B-101, Gayatrinagav,
PO Shankerncigcir,
Raipur 492 007, Chattisgarh,
India.
1 3 . MALABAR WHISTLING-THRUSH MYIOPHONUS HORSFIELDII
IN THE GIR FORESTS, SAURASHTRA, GUJARAT
A Malabar whistling-thrush Myiophonus
horsfieldii (Vigors) was seen continuously for a
week from April 7 to 15, 1998 in the Gir Forests,
Saurashtra. It used to arrive at a spot on the
riverbed near Nanava Ness at around 0700 hrs
daily, and feed on insects off cow dung, river cliffs,
riverbed, dry leaves, humus and on the bark of
trees. It was not shy and allowed observers to
approach even to about 3 m. When disturbed, it
flew away, uttering a low whistle. The thrush was
easily identified by its blue black colour,
glistening cobalt blue on the forehead and
shoulders, and its black bill and legs. The bird
was photographed for record.
The northernmost record of the Malabar
whistling- thrush is south Rajasthan and its
presence in the Gir is an extension of its range
into the Saurashtra peninsula. Its occurrence in
the dry deciduous forests of the Gir is also an
unusual change from the usual habitat of
Evergreen and Moist Deciduous Forests.
April 16, 1999 B.P.PATI
Deputy Conservator of Forests
Wildlife Division Sasan,
Gir, Saurashtra, Gujarat, India.
452
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
14. MALE BREEDING PLUMAGE OF THE BAYA WEAVER
PLOCEUS PHILIPPINUS TRA VANCOREENSIS WHISTLER
The HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND
Pakistan Vol 10, p 93 (1974) by Salim Ali and
Dillon Ripley, mentions that the male breeding
plumage of Ploceus philippinus travancoreensis
is largely suppressed as in the eastern race
burmanicus and further investigation is
necessary.
During my visit to the British Museum
(Natural History), Tring, U.K., I examined the
5 specimens of travancoreensis in their
collection. The type specimen is a male collected
by Salim Ali on February 19, 1933 from
Kottayam, Kerala. The bird was moulting into
breeding plumage. The forehead and part of the
crown has deep bright yellow feathers and the
hind crown, nape and neck still have black
feathers. From this observation I presumed that
travancoreensis males would have bright yellow
breeding plumage like the nominate race
philippinus. I contacted a seasoned birdwatcher
Mr. C. Sashikumar from Kerala in July 2000 for
a report on the male breeding plumage of
travancoreensis . He was unsuccessful in
obtaining the information due to failed breeding
season of the birds in 2000, but he observed 30
nests of travancoreensis on coconut trees at
Pattanur, Kannur district, Kerala on August 5,
2001. All the males had bright yellow crown,
nape and breast, and yellow and brown streaks
on the back. The male breeding plumage
in P.p. travancoreensis is as bright as in
P.p. philippinus and not suppressed at all.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Dr. Robert Prys-Jones,
Head of Bird Group, British Museum (Natural
History), Tring, U.K. who personally handed
over the type specimen of travancoreensis to me
in the absence of the Curator, Mr. Mark Adams.
I am indebted to Mr. C. Sashikumar for observing
and reporting the breeding plumage of
P.p. travancoreensis.
November 9, 2001 SARASWATHY UNNITHAN
Bombay Natural History Society
Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road,
Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.
15. SIGHTING OF ORTOLAN BUNTING EMBERIZA HORTULANA LINN.
IN NARAYAN S AROVAR SANCTUARY, KACHCHH, GUJARAT
We saw an Ortolan bunting Emberiza
hortulana Linn, near Mudia village, and between
Sanandro and Khadak villages during a winter
avifaunal survey (Nov-Dec 1998) in Narayan
Sarovar Sanctuary, Kachchh district. In all, we
had five sightings, of which on four occasions
only one bird was seen, while on one occasion
four birds (1 male and three females) were seen.
The Ortolan bunting is among the most
colourful buntings in India, and can be identified
easily by the presence of three yellow moustachial
stripes on the throat. Of these, one broad stripe
runs down the throat, starting from the base of
the lower mandible. The other two, one on either
side, run backwards from the base of the lower
mandible, below the eye, towards the wings. All
these stripes terminate within the ashy grey patch
which extends from below the throat to the point
where the belly starts, and also behind the neck.
These stripes are pale yellow in the female bird
and bright yellow in the male. The ring around
the eye is creamy yellow and the bill bright
orange. Only the Ortolan and grey-necked
buntings ( Emberiza buchanani) have the eye
ring. The latter has been reported as common
and abundant during winter in Kachchh
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
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(Ali 1945, Khacher 1996).
Two solitary birds were seen in a grassy
patch next to fallow land in undulating areas,
feeding on grass seeds along with the tawny pipit
(Anthus campestris) and house sparrows {Passer
domesticus). The other three sightings were in
grassy patches on stony hill slopes under Acacia
Senegal forest with Euphorbia nuvulia ,
Salvador a oleoides or S. persica association.
Each time the bird was disturbed, it immediately
flew for cover, most often into Euphorbia or
Salvador a.
In India, the Ortolan bunting has been
recorded as a vagrant on spring migration, twice
in Gilgit, once each in Kashmir and Delhi (Ali
and Ripley 1983). It was recorded only once in
the Little Rann .of Kutch Sanctuary in Kachchh
district (Dharmakumarsinhji 1977) and in
Hingolgadh in Rajkot district, Gujarat (Khacher
1996).
Extralimitally, it breeds in the western
Palaearctic from the Altai and Iran, west to
Scandinavia and Spain. It winters from
Mediterranean to Senegal and Somalia, Arabia
and Iran (Ali and Ripley 1974). This is an
additional record for India and only the second
one, after more than 20 years, from Kachchh.
June 12, 1999 JUSTUS JOSHUA
S.F. WESLEY SUNDERRAJ
V. GOKULA
Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology,
Patwadi Naka, Bhuj (Kachchh),
Gujarat 370 001, India.
References
Ali, S. (1945): The Birds of Kutch. Oxford University
Press, Bombay. 175 pp.
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1974): Handbook of the birds of
India and Pakistan, together with those of
Bangladesh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Sri
Lanka. Vol. 1 0. Oxford University Press, Bombay.
334 pp.
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): A Pictorial Guide to the
birds of the Indian subcontinent. Bombay Natural
History Society, Bombay. 165 pp.
Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. (1977): Ortolan Bunting
(Emberiza hortulana Linn) in Kutch, Gujarat.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74\ 179.
Khacher, L. ( 1 996): The birds of Gujarat — A centenary
year overview. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3):
331-373.
16. OCCURRENCE OF CNEMASPIS KANDIANA (KELAART),
FAMILY GEKKONIDAE, IN AMBOLI, MAHARASHTRA.
On August 8, 2000, while searching for
amphibians at about 2230 hrs near an abandoned
house in Amboli (15° 55' E, 73° 55' N),
Maharashtra, we saw a gecko moving on the wall.
Another specimen of the same species was seen
in our hotel room the same night. The latter
specimen was collected and brought to the BNHS
and was identified as Cnemaspis kandiana
(BNHS Regn. No. 1446). Only two specimens
of this species were recorded during this survey.
We visited the area again between October 10-
12, 2000. During this visit, we sighted a large
number of C. kandiana in the forest and inside
houses. In the forest, they were mostly found on
trees, under rocks and among the leaf litter. They
frequent houses and were mostly seen on walls.
During the day, they were seen basking or
chasing each other, and during the night, they
were mostly seen feeding on insects attracted
towards a light source. C. kandiana was the most
commonly seen gecko at Amboli among the
29 specimens recorded in two hours in the
morning, in the Nature Park, an area of c. 1 km
patch of forest developed by the Forest Department.
According to Smith (1935), the range of
this species is Sri Lanka and the hills of southern
454
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
India as far north as 12°. It is also recorded from
Thailand (Taylor 1963; Cox etal. 1998), Sumatra
(De Rooij 1915), the Mentawei Islands (Dring
etal., 1990; Smith, 1926) and both the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands (Das 1999). In Maharashtra,
Humayun Abdulali (1955) had recorded this
species (BNHS Regn. No. 70) from
Mahabaleshwar (17° 56’ E, 73° 42’ N) and
Yellapur, North Kanara (14° 59' E 74° 46' N). It
was also included in the list of reptiles of
Maharashtra by Daniel (1974) and the list of
turtles and lizards by Nalawade (1998).
Though this is not a range extension of
this species, their abundance at Amboli is
noteworthy.
We are thankful to Mr. Sameer Kehimkar,
who helped us during one of the surveys.
September 3, 2001 VARAD GIRI
VITHOBA HEGDE
Bombay Natural History Society
Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road ,
Salim Ali Chowk, Mumbai 400 023,
Maharashtra, India.
References
Abdulali, H. (1955): Extension of range of lizard
Cnemaspis kandiana (Kelaart). J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 53(1): 134.
*Cox, M.J., P.P. Van Dijk, J. Nabhitabhata & K.
Thirakhupt ( 1 998): A photographic guide to snakes
and other reptiles of Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore
and Thailand. New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd.,
London. 144 pp.
Daniel, J.C. (1974): Reptiles. In: Maharashtra State
Gazetteer. Pp. 371-387.
Das, Indraneil (1999): Biogeography of the amphibians
and reptiles of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
In: Tropical island herpeto fauna. Origin, current
diversity and conservation. (Ed: Ota, H.), Elsevier
Science B.V., Amsterdam, pp. 43-77.
*De Rooij, N. (1915): The reptiles of the Indo-Australian
Archipelago. I-Lacertilia. Chelonia, Emydosauna.
E.J. Brill, Leiden, xiv + 384 pp.
*Dring, J.C., C.J. McCarthy & A.J. Whitten (“1989”
1 990): The terrestrial herpetofauna of the Mentawei
Islands, Indonesia. Indo-Malayan Zool. 6:119-1 32.
Nalawade, S. (1998): Turtles and lizards of Sahyadri.
J. Ecol. Soc. Pune 11: 38-40.
*Taylor, E.H. (1963): The lizards of Thailand. Univ.
Kansas Sci. Bull. 44: 687-1077.
*Smith (1926): Spolia Mentawia: Reptiles and amphibians
Ann. & Mag. nat. Hist. Ser. 9, 18: 76-81.
Smith, M.A. (1935): The Fauna of British India, including
Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. II
Sauria, Taylor and Francis, London. 73+440 pp.
*Original not seen.
17. A NOTE ON THE ECTOPARASITIC TICKS OF REPTILES FROM
SOUTHERN RAJASTHAN
Very little is known about ticks that live as Sharma ( JBNHS 94(3): 573-55) has reported
parasites on reptiles of southern Rajasthan. Aponomma gervaisi infesting Varanus
Table 1
PARASITIC TICKS COLLECTED FROM REPTILES KILLED ON THE
KOTRA-PALIYAKHEDA AND JHADOL-GORANA ROAD
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
455
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
bengalensis in Udaipur district, Rajasthan.
To know more about the ticks of reptiles
of southern Rajasthan, many reptiles killed on
the Kotra Paliyakheda and Jhadol-Gorana road
in Udaipur district, Rajasthan were examined and
the ticks collected. The samples were sent to the
Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, for
identification. Besides Aponomma gervaisi on
Varanus bengalensis , two other species of ticks
were also recorded (Table 1).
Acknowledgement
I thank Dr. A.K. Sanyal, Scientist ‘E’ and
Officer-in-charge, Acarology Section, ZSI,
Kolkata for identification of the ticks.
September 3, 2001 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA
Range Forest Officer (Wildlife),
Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary,
Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur, Rajasthan.
1 8. ON THE NATURAL HISTORY OF BUFO PARIETALIS BOULENGER, 1 882,
AMPHIBIA: FAMILY BUFONIDAE
Bufo parietalis was described by Boulenger
(1882) from the south Indian state of Kerala. The
only record of the species from Karnataka is that
of Daniels (1992), who reported one adult from
the evergreen forest leaf litter in Charmadi Ghats.
This is the first report of populations of the
species from Karnataka. We discuss the new
range in Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary,
Karnataka, its call, habits, food and breeding
season.
The Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary in
Karnataka (12° 15' N; 75° 33' E) on the western
slope of the Western Ghats ranges from 125 m
above msl at Subramannya to 1 ,400 m above msl
at Kumaraparvatha. The vegetation is Semi-
evergreen with high canopy cover. However, due
to selective felling 25 years ago, the forest is
secondary. Though there is an annual harvest of
cane and other minor forest produce, there are
no human settlements within the forest. The day
temperature ranges from 26-29 °C and the night
temperature at 2000 hrs is around 18 °C in the
post monsoon season. The annual monsoon
rainfall totals 400 cm. A few showers are received
in November and January. This tropical rain
forest supports many perennial hill streams with
rocky puddles, which are often used by the toad
for breeding.
We surveyed the forest for amphibians in
1998-2000 by walking along six well spaced
transects. Transects were placed in three
altitudinal classes. A total of 2 1 km were walked
in 18 months.
This large, terrestrial and crepuscular
forest toad has prominent parotid ridges. The
parotid glands are enlarged during the breeding
season. The dorsal surface is black, the skin
rough and irregularly folded. Supraorbital,
postorbital and parietal ridges are contiguous.
Ventrally, it is white with dark brown speckles.
Altitudinal preferences: The rainforest
toad population was unevenly distributed within
the forest and seemed to have altitudinal
preferences. In the study area, they were observed
to occur between 150 m and 360 m above msl.
However, elsewhere in India, they occur at
500 m above msl or more (Daniels 1992).
Morphometries: The average snout to
vent length (SVL) of male toads measured
62.55 mm (N=22) and of females 96.41 mm
(N=l 8). The toad was previously known to reach
85 mm (Daniel 1963), while the largest we
recorded was 105.6 mm.
Habits: We observed that the toad goes into
dormancy during the peak monsoon months (June
to August) and breeds in February (Table 1).
Feeding: The toads were seen catching and
eating low flying and crawling insects such as
fruitflies {Drosophila melanogaster), ants and
grasshoppers. The fecal contents revealed
456
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
ACTIVITY PATTERN OF BUFO PAR1ETALIS IN
PUSHPAGIRI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KARNATAKA
fruitflies as the principal constituent of the diet,
along with ants and cockroaches. A 30.5 mm
cockroach wing was observed in the excreta of a
female toad (105.6 mm SVL).
Calling: During the breeding season,
hundreds of male toads called in chorus. The call
was loud, harsh and aggressive, and given in
series of 1 1-1 8. The low tone call resembled that
of the pond heron ( Ardeola grayii) — kwak kwak
kwak kwak. The number of calls varied from 11-
28 per minute.
Breeding: Not much is known of the
breeding season of these toads. In Silent Valley,
it breeds during December (Daniels 1992). We
observed breeding from February to March. More
than 200 calling males gather around the puddles
of the perennial slow streams that flow under
the canopy cover. All the puddles (n=8) measured
2-3 m in width with 30 cm deep clear water, and
plenty of decaying vegetation. The water
temperature was 28 °C. After the initial calling,
amplexus was observed in more than 50 frogs.
The amplexus remained for more than 12 hrs,
and continued even during the day in the water.
A clutch-size of approximately 200 eggs was
observed in two cases.
Acknowledgements
We thank Mr. Shivanna Hassan, Deputy
Conservator of Forests, Karnataka Forest
Department, for permission to undertake the
study. We acknowledge Prof. Hegde, Vice
Chancellor, University of Mysore and Prof.
Cletus D’ Souza for encouragement. The study
was funded through the India Programs of the
Wildlife Conservation Society, New York.
March 2 1 , 200 1 SAVITHA N. KRISHNA
SHARATH B. KRISHNA
Department of Biosciences,
University of Mysore,
Hemagangothri, Hassan,
Karnataka 573 220, India.
References
Boulenger, G.A. (1882): Catalogue of the Batrachia
Salientia s. Ecaudata of the British Museum. 2nd
Edn. London.
Daniel, J.C. (1963): Field guide to amphibians of western
India, Part 1, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 434-
435.
Daniels, R.J. Ranjit (1 992): Range extension in some south
Indian amphibians. Hamadryad 17: 40-42.
19. DISTRIBUTION OF BUFO STOMATICUS LUTKEN,
AMPHIBIA: FAMILY BUFONIDAE, IN ASSAM, NORTHEAST INDIA
Bufo stomaticus Liitken (Anura: Bufonidae)
is a tropical and subtropical species occurring in
a variety of conditions from warm, humid, mixed
forests to almost perennially arid, stony places,
supporting only scattered shrubs and grasses.
However, its abundance is greater in regions
experiencing dry and wet seasons supported by a
monsoon climate (Auffenberg and Rehman 1 997).
Liitken originally described Bufo stomaticus from
Assam (Dutta 1 997), but did not specify a locality.
Later, it was described as a common species from
the Indian subcontinent (Lower Bengal:
Annandale 1909; Maharashtra: Yazdani and
Mahabal 1976; Himachal Pradesh: Tilak and
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
457
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Mehta 1977; Gujarat: Sarkar 1984; Orissa: Dutta
1988; Bihar, Karnataka, Jammu & Kashmir:
Sekar 1991; West Bengal: Sarkar et al. 1992;
Andhra Pradesh: Sarkar et al. 1993; the Ganga
Basin: Chanda 1991; Nepal: Zug and Mitchel
1995; Rajasthan: Sharma 1999). Subsequent
investigations have failed to record this species
from Assam. A recent review on geographic
variation ( Auffenberg and Rehman 1 997) also did
not include specimens from its type locality. This
communication deals with the distribution of Bufo
stomaticus in Assam and its comparison with the
geographic variations observed by Auffenberg and
Rehman (1997).
The study is based on 17 specimens collected
between 1998-2000 from Orang National Park
(92° 15'-92° 30’ E and 26° 30'-26° 40' N, district
Darrang), Kuriahmari (a riverine island of the
Brahmaputra, 91° 09'-91° 18' E and 25° 59'-26°
05' N, district Nalbari), Baghbor (90° 55' E and
26° 10' N, district Barpeta) and Balipara Reserve
Forest (92° 39'-92° 51' E and 26° 53'-27° 01' N,
district Sonitpur). All specimens are housed in
the Museum of Arya Vidyapeeth College (KUR
6988-89, BGB 6991-6995, ONP 10-17 and BLP
3008) except two that are registered in ZSI,
Kolkata (A9098-99). Specimens were collected
by hand and morphometric measurements were
taken with dial Vernier calipers. We analysed and
performed student t-test for five characters which
were:
SVL - Snout vent length
VTYD - Vertical tympanum diameter:
greatest vertical diameter
PAL - Parotid gland length: greatest
anterio-posterior length of parotid gland
PAW - Parotid gland width: greatest
transverse distance of parotid gland.
TL - Tibia length: distance between
posteriormost part of tarso-metatarsal to
anteriormost part of articulation between tibia
and femur.
Bufo stomaticus was found to be abundant
in and around human habitation in the districts
of Barpeta, Nalbari, Darrang and Sonitpur in
Assam. All localities are on the north bank,
except Kuriahmari, which is an island in the
middle of the River Brahmaputra. No collection/
observation could be made on the south bank,
despite active searches. It appears that the
Brahmaputra acts as a barrier in distribution. The
habitat of B. stomaticus is moist, thick broadleaf
matted grass with occasional scrubs. It was found
to be synotopic with the more common
B. melanostictus in Orang National Park (NP)
and Baghbor. However, no B. melanostictus
could be found in Kuriahmari. Both
B. stomaticus and B. melanostictus were recorded
as human commensal, but in Orang NP and
Baghbor, B. stomaticus seemed to prefer less
disturbed areas than B. melanostictus. Balipara
forms the extreme east of its range of distribution.
The species is included in the checklist of
Chakrashila Wildlife Sanctuary (95° 15’- 90° 20'
E and 26° 15'-26° 26' N, district Dhubri; Datta
et. al. 1998), but this requires further
confirmation from specimens.
As in all bufonid species, the SVL of the
female of Bufo stomaticus is statistically (P>0.0 1 )
larger than the males. The proportional length
of other characters in male and female do not
show significant variation except PAW (Table 1 ).
Our observation is in conformity with that of
Mahapatro and Dash (1991), and Auffenberg and
Rehman (1997) except for PAW.
The mean value of VTYD standardized
against SVL (SVL/VTYD) is 15.62. The Assam
set is comparable to Orissa (19.91, Auffenberg
Table 1
MORPHOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS (MM)OF MALE
AND FEMALE BUFO STOMA TICUS FROM ASSAM
458
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 200/
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
and Rehman 1 997) and appears to be a distinct
geographic morphocline representing north-
eastern India.
The mean value of parotid gland length
(PAL) standardized against SVL (SVL/PAL) is
4.00. Auffenberg and Rehman ( 1 997) considered
the central Indo-Gangetic-Indus river plains’
populations (SVL/PAL 4.17) which represent the
average condition with respect to PAL. That the
proportionate parotid gland length tends to
decrease in all directions from this central area
is supported by our observation.
The mean TL standardized with SVL
(SVL/TL) is 2.74. There occurs a distinct
geographical morphocline from Kumaon
Himalayas all along the Gangetic plain where
Refer
Annandale, N. (1909): Notes on Indian Batrachia. Rec.
Indian Mus. 3: 282-286.
Auffenberg, W. & H. Rehman (1997): Geographic
variation in Bufo stomaticus, with remarks on Bufo
olivaceus : Biogeographical and systematic
implications. In: Biodiversity of Pakistan (Eds:
Mufti, S.A., C.A. Woods, S.A. Hasan). Pakistan
Museum of Natural History, Islamabad, Florida
Museum of Natural History. Gainsville. Pp. 351-372.
Chanda, S.K. (1991): Amphibia: Faunal Resource of
Ganga. Part I. Zoological Survey of India, pp. 51-
57.
Chanda, S.K. (1994): Anura (Amphibia) of northeast India.
Mem. Zool. Surv. India 18: 1-143.
Datta, S., J.M. Datta & M.P. Phukan (1998): Chakrashila
Wildlife Sanctuary (A documentation of its
biodiversity) Nature’s Beckon. Dhubri. 45 pp.
Dutta, S.K. (1988): First record of Bufo stomaticus and
Bufo fergusonii from Orissa, with comments on
their distribution. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85(2):
439-440.
Dutta, S.K. (1997): Amphibians of India and Sri Lanka
(Checklist and Bibliography). Odyssey Publishing
House, Bhubaneswar, India. 342+xxii pp.
the value gradually decreases. The Assam set
value is again different from the populations from
central and eastern India.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Indraneil Das, S.K. Dutta
and S.K. Chanda for their suggestions and the
Assam Forest Department for logistic support.
August 1 7, 200 1 N. K. CHOUDHURY
M.F. AHMED
S. SENGUPTA
Zoology Department ,
Ary a Vidyapeeth College,
Guwahati 781 016, Assam, India.
ENCES
Mahapatro, B.K. & M.C. Dash (1991): Breeding
behaviour and morphometric relation of Bufo
stomaticus Liitken (Anura: Amphibia). J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 88(1): 20-25.
Sarkar, A.K. ( 1 984): Ecological studies on the amphibians
of Gujarat. Bull. Zool Surv. India 6(1-3): 87-93.
Sarkar, A.K. M.L. Biswas & S. Ray (1992): Fauna of
West Bengal: Amphibia. In: State Fauna Series,
Zoological Survey of India, 3(2): 67-100.
Sarkar, A.K., P.K. Chandra & S. Ray (1993): Fauna of
Andhra Pradesh: Amphibia. In: State Fauna Series,
Zoological Survey of India, 5(1): 65-87.
Sekar, A.G. (1991): Distribution of amphibian fauna of
India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(1): 125 127.
Sharma, S.K. (1999): Some new distribution sites of
Amphibians in Rajasthan. Frog leg 3: 1 -2.
Tilak, R. & H.S. Mehata (1977): Report on a collection of
amphibians from district Kangra, Himachal
Pradesh. Newsl. Zool. Surv. India 3(4): 196-198.
Yazdani, G.M. & A. Mahabal (1976): Amphibians of
Poona. Newsl. Zool. Surv. India 2(4): 138-139.
Zug,G.R. &J.C. Mitchel(1995): Amphibians and reptiles
of Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Asiatic
Herpetol. Res. 6: 172-180.
20. TAXONOMIC VARIATION IN SCHISTURA VINCIGUERRAE (HORA, 1935)
FROM THE BASISTHA RIVER, A NEW RECORD FROM ASSAM, INDIA
The hill streams of Assam harbor varied Several workers have studied the fish fauna of
fauna, which has not yet been fully assessed, the hill streams of Assam, namely Hora (1935),
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
459
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Sen (1985) and Menon (1987). The river Basistha
(26° 10'-26° 45' N and 90° 30' 92° 55' E) is located
near Guwahati at an altitude of 80 m above msl.
The river originates from Meghalaya and enters
Assam near the Basistha temple.
S. vinciguerrae was first recorded by Hora
(1935) from S. Shan State, Myanmar. Menon
(1987) reported this species from Manipur. Das
and Bordoloi ( 1 997) recorded it from the Basistha
river, Assam. The present paper gives a
taxonomic description based on fifteen specimens
collected from this river during 1997-2000.
Differences from the earlier descriptions have
been discussed.
Specimens were collected from the
intermediate zone of the river and were preserved
in 8% formalin. Live coloration was recorded
before preservation. Description was compared
with that in Talwar and Jhingran (1991) and
Jayaram (1999). It was confirmed at the
Zoological Survey of India, Shillong. All
measurements are in mm.
Description: Body marked with several
vertical bands. Band anterior to the dorsal fin
broken up into a number of narrow bands. Three
to four complete bands up to base of caudal fin.
Well-marked short prominent vertical band at
base of caudal fin and two V-shaped bands at
forked end of caudal fin. Dorsal fin with one or
two rows of spots, anal and pelvic fins with one
row each. Live specimens show pink coloration
on the tips of barbels, dorsal fin, anal fin, pectoral
fin, and pelvic and caudal fins from April to
October. The colour disappears gradually after
the breeding season and on preservation.
The size range recorded during the present
investigation was 48 to 60 mm (standard length).
Detailed body measurements are given in Table
1. Body elongated and sub cylindrical: Dorsal
profile is slightly sagging, but ventral surface is
Table 1
MORPHOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF NEMACHEILUS VINCIGUERRAE (HORA, 1935)
FROM THE BASISTHA RIVER, ASSAM
460
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
at the same level as the rounded belly. Range in
total length was 60 to 73 mm. Body depth was
4.6-6.33 in standard length. Head depressed.
Head length 4.0 - 4.5 in standard length. Eyes
small, placed high up and not visible from the
under side of the head. Eye diameter 5. 9-6. 5 in
head length. Nostrils close to each other. Mouth
semicircular, lips moderately fleshy, upper lip
faintly notched and lower lip interrupted in the
middle. Well developed maxillary, rostral and
mandibular barbels.
Caudal fin forked, both the lobes equal but
the upper lobe sometimes slightly more slender
than the lower lobe. Caudal peduncle 5.77-7. 14 in
standard length. Height of caudal peduncle
7.50-9.00 in standard length. Lateral line complete.
Schistura vinciguerrae ( Hora 1935) was
earlier known as Nemacheilus vinciguerrae. The
type locality reported by Hora was S. Shan State,
Burma (presently Myanmar). In India, the
species was first recorded by Menon (1987) from
Chindwin drainage, Irrawaddy and Salween river
basins in Manipur. The present record extends
the range of this fish westward to Guwahati in
Kamrup District, Assam. Distinguishing
characters mentioned in Talwar and Jhingran
Refer
Das, P. & S.C. Bordoloi (1997): Fish fauna of a torrential
river (Basistha) in Kamrup district, Assam, India.
J. Inland. Fish. Soc. India 29(1): 54-58.
Hora, S.L. (1935): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum
XXIV Loaches of the genus Nemacheilus from
Eastern Himalaya, with the description of a new
species from Myanmar and Siam. Rec. Ind. Mus.
37(1): 49-67.
Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The fresh water fishes of the Indian
region. Pp. xviii + 55 1 Narendra Publishing House,
21 . ON PSEUDOSPHROMENUS SP.
SOUTH INDIA WITH REMARKS
(1999) were Diii 8; Aii 5; Pi 11; Vi 6. These
characters were found to be Dii 8; Aii 5; Pi 9- 1 1 ;
Vi 5-6 in the present investigation. A slight
variation was also noted in the length of caudal
peduncle, which was 5.77-7.14 in standard
length as compared to 6. 1-6.8 recorded by earlier
workers. Similarly, height of the caudal peduncle
was found to be 7. 5-9.0 in standard length instead
of 7. 7- 8. 8 recorded earlier.
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to Dr. (Ms.) Nivedita Sen,
Sr. Scientist, ZSI, Shillong for confirmation of
identification of the species.
July 14, 2001 PURNIMA DAS BORA
Department of Zoology, Dhing College,
Nagaon, Assam, India.
SABITRY BORDOLOI
Ecology Laboratory, Department of Zoology,
Cotton College, Guwahati 781 001 ,
Assam, India.
AMALESH DUTTA
Department of Zoology, Gauhati University,
Guwahati 781 014, Assam, India.
sNCES
New Delhi, India.
Menon, A.G.K. (1987): The fauna of India and the adjacent
countries, Pisces 4. Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta. Pp. x + 259.
Sen, T.K. (1985): The fish fauna of Assam and the
neighbouring North Eastern States of India. Rec.
zool. Surv. India, Occ. Paper 64: 1-216.
Talwar, P.K. & A. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India
and adjacent countries. Oxford and IBH Publishing
Co. Pvt. Ltd., N. Delhi. Vol. 1 & 2, pp. 1 158.
(PISCES: BELONTIIDAE) FROM
N THE AUTHORSHIP OF P. DAYI
The genus Pseudosphromenus is of occurring in peninsular India and Sri Lanka, and
ichthyological significance since it includes two the latter restricted to Kerala. P. cupanus was
species, P. cupanus and P. dayi , which are described by Cuvier and Valenciennes in 1831
confined to the Indian subcontinent, the former from Arian Coupam, Pondicherry on the east
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
461
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
coast, while Day in 1865 distinguished dayi from
among specimens of cupanus from Kerala, based
on a specimen having a different colour pattern,
one spine less on the dorsal fin and one ray less
in the anal fins. Later, Kohler (1908) proposed
the name P. cupanus var. dayi to accommodate
this species, which he considered a variety of
cupanus. Though endemic to Kerala and a popular
aquarium fish, there has been no uniformity of
opinion on the taxonomic status of this species.
Thus, it was overlooked by Jayaram (1981) and
considered a synonym of P. cupanus by Talwar
and Jhingran (1991). Menon (1999) based on
authentic reports by aquarists, placed it as a
distinct species in his checklist of the fresh water
fishes of india. In his recent book, Jayaram (1999)
also remarks that it is considered a separate species
by aquarists.
The two species were collected during
faunistic surveys by teams of the Zoological Survey
of India. P. cupanus was collected from both the
eastern (Pondicherry) and western (Kerala)
regions and P. dayi from Trivandrum, Kerala. A
comparative study was carried out to observe
intraspecific variations, if any, in cupanus from
the eastern and western regions and also to
ascertain further distinguishing characters of dayi.
Morphometric characters were taken with
dial calipers with an accuracy of 0.02 mm. The
body proportions are given in Table 1 with the
mean followed by the range in parentheses.
The following materials were examined.
P. dayi : 10 exs., 18-22 mm SL, F. 5529
ZSI/SRS, Poikat, Varkala, Trivandrum district,
Kerala, 3.iv.l998, P.T. Cherian and party.
P. cupanus : 10 exs. 24-37 mm SL, F. 5528,
ZSI/SRS, Poikat, Varkala, Trivandrum district,
Kerala, 3.iv.l998, P.T. Cherian and party; 7 exs.,
23-3 1 mm SL, F. 3945, ZSI/SRS, Kakayanthope,
Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu, 1 9.iii. 1 992, K.
Ramachandia Rao.
Meristic details: P. dayi: from Kerala: D.
XIII-XV /5; P. 10; V. 1/5; A.XVII-XVIII /10; C. 1 3;
L.l. 26-28; L.tr. 10-11; predorsal scales 18-20.
P. cupanus: from Kerala: D.XIII-XIV /6;
P.10-12; V. 1/5; A.XVII-XVIII /11;C. 13; L.l.
Table 1
COMPARISON OF BODY PROPORTIONS OF PSEUDOSPHROMENUS SPECIES
462
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
27-31; L.tr. 10-12; Predorsal scales 18-2p.
P. cupanus : from Tamil Nadu: D.XIII-XIV
/6; P.10-1 1; V. 1/5; A.XVIII-XIX / 1 0- 1 1 ; C . 1 3 ;
L.l. 29-30; L.tr. 11-12; Predorsal scales 18-20.
A comparison of the meristic characters of
P. dayi and P. cupanus shows little difference, but
for the lesser number of branched soft rays of
dorsal (5 vs. 6) and anal fins (10 vs. 11) in dayi
(Day op. cit). However, in two specimens of
cupanus, the branched rays numbered 10. Other
differences observed are given below.
Apart from its characteristic colour
markings, dayi is a smaller species with a larger
head and eye and a rounded body. The cupanus
from the east coast has a much deeper and more
compressed body with smaller caudal and larger
paired fins than in the population from the east
coast (Table 1). Also, the predorsal distance is
slightly greater in cupanus from the east coast,
the dorsal originating further back. Besides, in
this cupanus from Pondicherry, the inter-orbital
width is narrower, the eyes being placed closer
together on a more compressed head, whereas in
the specimens from Kerala the inter-orbital width
is more and the head is broader (Table 1 ). Another
interesting feature is the difference in the relative
width of the maxilla, which is very narrow in dayi .
Difference in width of maxilla was observed within
the cupanus species. In two specimens dissected,
one with a broader and another with a narrower
lip, the former turned out to be a male. Besides,
the specimens of both the species from Kerala were
darker than cupanus from Tamil Nadu, in keeping
with the thick canopy-covered darker waters of
the west, in contrast to the bright sunlit waters of
the plains in the east.
The authorship of P. dayi has been much
debated. According to Kottelat (1994), “Engmann
(1909) is therefore technically author of the name
Polyacanthus cupanus var. dayi as he is responsible
for the conditions which make it available”
However, Engmann (1909), while referring to
Kohler’s recommendation to name the species
P. dayi , stated that he preferred to call it
“ Polyacanthus cupanus var. von Malakka ”,
awaiting reports of examination of the specimens
by scientists. Besides, he considered dayi a junior
synonym of cupanus. Hence, by no stretch of the
imagination can Engmann be considered tech-
nically the author of the name P. cupanus var. dayi.
Kohler (1908) while reporting the species
considered it a variety of P. cupanus. Referring
to its first description of P. cupanus by Day ( 1 865),
he recommended the varietal name dayi. Since
Day’s original description of the species
adequately distinguishes it from others, especially
its closest relative cupanus , Kohler’s naming the
species (which Day had not done) calling attention
to the description of the species by Day, validates
the naming, and Kohler technically the author of
the species name dayi. There are many instances
in taxonomic literature where only one or two
differences in the characters of a described species
are given to separate a related species or its variety
and giving it a new name which has remained
valid through the years. In this instance, the
author’s name has been resolved as valid since
the species was first named, the merits or demerits
of subsequent discussions by later authors on the
subject are not mentioned.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director,
Zoological Survey of India for facilities.
Dr. A.G.K. Menon being the pivotal force in our
ichthyological studies deserves our sincere thanks.
March 24, 200 1 P.T. CHERI AN
K. REMA DEVI
T.J. INDRA
Southern Regional Station,
Zoological Survey of India,
100, Santhome High Road,
Chennai 600 023,
Tamil Nadu, India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
463
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Cuvier, G. & A. Valenciennes (1831): Histoire naturelle
des poisons, Paris Strasbourg. 7: xxix + 531 pp., pis.
170-208.
Day, F. (1865): Fishes of Malabar. Bernard Qwaritch,
London, xxxii + 294 pp.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Sri Lanka: A
handbook. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, xxii +
475 pp, 13 pis.
Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The freshwater fishes of the Indian
region. Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. 551 pp,
XVIII pis.
KOhler, W. (1908): Untersuchungen liber das Schaumnest
und den Schaumnestbau der Osphromeniden. Blatter
fur Aquarien - und Terraienkunde 19: 392-396.
Kottelat, Maurice (1994): Authorship and dates of
publication of Pseudosphromenus dayi (Pisces:
Belontidae). J. South Asian nat. Hist. 1(1): 31-33.
Menon, A.G.K. (1999): Checklist, Freshwater Fishes of
India. Zoological Survey of India, Occ. Pap. No. 175:
366 pp.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of
India and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publ. Co.
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2 vols., xix +1158 pp.
22. THE FISH FAUNA OF BHARATHAPUZHA RIVER, KERALA
In Kerala, 44 rivers and an elaborate
network of their tributaries harbour a rich and
diverse fish fauna. Ichthyofaunal investigations
in Kerala, which began with the outstanding
works of Jerdon (1849) and Day (1865, 1878),
were followed by several other researchers (Pillay
1929, Mukerji 1931, Hora and Law 1941, Hora
and Nair 1941, Hora 1942, Silas 1950, 1951,
1952, Rajan 1955, Rema Devi and Indra 1986,
Shaji and Easa 1995, Shaji et al. 1995, Easa and
Shaji 1996, 1997, Biju et al 1999a, b). Yet, the
fish diversity in the larger rivers of Kerala
remains to be investigated in detail.
Bharathapuzha (Nila) is the longest river
in Kerala and the second largest on the southwest
coast of India. There are no records of the fish
diversity of this river, which is currently under
severe ecological degradation due to human
impacts. This paper documents the diversity and
status of fish fauna of this river system.
The Bharathapuzha river originates from
the Anamalai Hills in the Western Ghats at
1 ,964 m above msl, and flows through Coimbatore
district, Tamil Nadu, and Palakkad, Malappuram
and Thrissur districts, Kerala and finally meets
the Arabian Sea at Ponnani. In Kerala, it has a
total length of 209 km and a basin area of 4,400
sq. km (CWRDM 1991). Its main tributaries are
the Gayatripuzha, Chitturpuzha (Kannadipuzha
or Amaravathipuzha), Kalpathipuzha and
Thuthapuzha. From the confluence of
Kalpathipuzha and Chitturpuzha at Parali, the
river is named Bharathapuzha.
The river basin can be divided into three
physiographic zones: the coastal belt, the
midland and the highland. The fish survey was
conducted in the midland zone. The undulating
midland with laterite formation is characterised
by a number of elas or small, cultivated watershed
areas. A number of low laterite hills in this region
are interspersed with paddy fields, coconut and
areca nut groves and of late, with plantations of
cash crops (CWRDM 1991).
Fish samples were collected from March
1997 to March 1999, from different locations in
the midland region of the river from Parali to
Thirunavaya using cast nets, scoop nets and gill
nets of varying mesh size. Conventional methods
such as sieving through cloth were also used.
Uniform fishing efforts were maintained at all the
stations and similar types of nets were employed.
The pigmentation was recorded in fresh fishes,
which were then fixed in 5% formalin. The works
ofDay(1865, 1878), Jayaram (1981), Fischer and
Bianchi (1984) and Talwar and Jhingran (1991)
were referred for identification. The species were
categorised into rare, very rare and abundant,
based on the catch data.
464
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Sixty-one species of fishes, belonging to 1 1
orders, 30 families and 50 genera were recorded
for the first time from the Bharathapuzha river
(Table 1). The results show that despite extensive
environmental degradation such as sand mining,
rock blasting, pollution and siltation, the river has
rich and diverse fish resources.
Of the 61 fish species recorded, Batasio
travancoria and Tetraodon travancoricus are
endemic to Kerala, while Corica soborna, Chela
dadyburjori and Lepidocephalus guntea are new
records. Barilius bendelisis was reported to occur
widely except in Kerala (Talwar and Jhingran
1991). This study confirms its presence in the
State. Among the 61 species of fish collected,
24.59% are very rare while 31.15 % are rare.
Anguilla bengalensis bengalensis , Batasio
travancoria , Hypselobarbus curmuca , Mystus
malabaricus and Tetraodon travancoricus are
endangered, and Puntius sarana subnasutus, Tor
khudree, Heteropneustes fossilis , Mystus
montanus , Anabas testudineus, Parambassis
thomassi and Macrognathus guentheri are
vulnerable, according to IUCN criteria (Molur
and Walker 1998).
The major Indian carps Catla catla , Labeo
rohita and Cirrhinus mrigala, and Labeo
fimbriatus cultivated in the Malampuzha dam
located in the upper reaches of the river, escaped
to the lower reaches, have established good
populations there. Similarly, the presence of a
larger number of exotic fish such as Oreochromis
mossambica in the river is a matter of concern
to the native fish stock.
Species such as Megalops cyprinoides ,
Chanos chanos , Microphis cuncalus , Ambassis
commersoni, Terapon jarbua, Megalopsis
cordyla, Leiognathus guentheri , Lutjanus
argentimaculatus , Gerres filamentosus ,
Scatophagus argus, Liza tade, Glossogobius
giuris, Cynoglossus macrostomus and
Euryglossa orientalis are primarily estuarine
fishes collected from the freshwater regions of
the river. Of these, Gerres filamentosus ,
Glossogobius giuris , Lutjanus argentimaculatus
and Megalopsis cordyla migrate from the saline
waters to about 85 km upstream and were
collected from Lakkidi region.
Studies are warranted to realise the impact
of check-dams on the migration of fishes, as more
check-dams are coming up in the river. Both
Anguilla bengalensis bengalensis and A. bicolor
bicolor are catadromous and the adult eels probably
migrate to the deep ocean for spawning; the
returning glass eels (larvae) and elvers (young
ones) try to migrate far upstream where they grow
for many years (Wickstrom pers. comm.).
Considerable reduction in the population of eels
indicates the need to study the impact of check-
dams. Further, installing a suitable kind of eel
ladder at every dam in the river is also indicated.
Flow regulation by means of check-dams,
pollution (mainly agricultural and sewage), sand
and clay mining, destruction of natural pools and
unscientific fishing methods are the major threats
to fish fauna in the river. Some conservation
measures are suggested to preserve the
ichthyofauna.
1. Fishing by poisoning and dynamiting
should be banned.
2. The existing natural pools, which are the
breeding centres of the fishes should be protected
from fishing. Fish sanctuaries or aquatic
biodiversity management zones could be set up.
3. There should be measures to control the
pollution of the river, especially from agricultural
sources.
4. Regulation of mesh size of nets to
prevent large-scale death of juvenile fish in the
nets.
5. Assessment of the population density
and habitat requirements of fishes in the river.
6. Detailed investigations on the impact
of check-dams on the natural migration of the
fishes.
7. Assessment of extent of damage done
by the increasing population of exotic species to
the indigenous stock of the river.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
465
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
LIST OF FISHES COLLECTED FROM LIST OF FISHES COLLECTED FROM
BHARATHAPUZHA RIVER, KERALA BHARATHAPUZHA RIVER, KERALA
466
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1 (contd.)
LIST OF FISHES COLLECTED FROM
BHARATHAPUZHA RIVER, KERALA
Species Status
Family: Cichlidae
47. Etroplus maculatus { Bloch) A
48. E. suratensis (Bloch) A
49. Oreochromis mossambica (Peters) A
Family: Mugilidae
50. Liza tade (Forsskal) VR
Family: Gobudae
51. Awaousgutum (Hamilton-Buchanan) A
52. Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton-Buchanan) R
53. Sicyopterus griseus (Day) VR
Family: Eleotrididae
54. Eleotris sp. VR
Family: Anabantidae
55. Anabas testudineus (Bloch) R
LIST OF FISHES COLLECTED FROM
BHARATHAPUZHA RIVER, KERALA
Species Status
Family: Channidae
56. Channa marulius (Hamilton-Buchanan) R
Family: Mastacembelidae
57. Macrognathus guentheri ( Day) A
58. Mastacembeles armatus (Lacepede) A
Order: PLEURONECTIFORMES
Family: Cynoglossidae
59. Cynoglossus macrostomus Norman VR
Family: Soleidae
60. Euryglossa orientalis (Bloch & Schneider) R
Order: TETRAODONTIFORMES
Family: Tetraodontidae
61 . Tetraodon travancoricus Hora & Nair R
A = abundant; VR = very rare; R = rare
8. Fishing at the onset of monsoon, the
breeding season, should be controlled.
9. Biodiversity monitoring and awareness
programmes highlighting the need to protect the
river and its biodiversity for the inhabitants of
over 140 villages in the river basin.
Acknowledgements
The study was funded by the University
Grants Commission (SRO). Thanks are due to
Dr. P.S. Easa and C.P. Shaji, Kerala Forest
Refer
Buu, C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajith Kumar (1999a):
Fishes of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary,
Palakkad district. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96:
82-87.
Buu, C.R., K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Ajith Kumar (1999b):
Distribution of fish in the Manjeswaran River,
Kasaragod (Kerala). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 96:
159-160.
CWRDM (1991): Water Resources Development of
Bharathapuzha Basin. A Status Report. Centre for
Water Resources Development and Management,
Kozhikode, Kerala, 88 pp.
Day, F. (1865): The Fishes of Malabar. Bernard Quaritch,
Research Institute, Peechi, Kerala for their
creative comments and suggestions on an early
draft of the paper.
September 22, 1 999 A. BIJUKUMAR*
S. SUSHAMA
Department of Zoology, N.S.S. College,
Ottapalam 679103, Kerala, India.
* Present Address: State Committee on Science,
Technology & Environment,
Sasthra Bhavan, Pattom, Trivandrum 695 004,
Kerala, India.
ENCES
London, 293 pp.
Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India: Being a Natural History
of Fishes Known to Inhabit the Seas and
Freshwaters of India, Burma and Ceylon. Today
and Tomorrow’s Book Agency, New Delhi, 778 pp
+ 198 pis.
Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji (1996): Freshwater fishes of
Pambar river, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93: 304 -306.
Easa, P.S. & C.P. Shaji (1997): Freshwater fish diversity
in Kerala part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Curr.
Sci. 73: 180-182.
Fischer, W. & G. Bianchi (1984): FAO species
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 200 J
467
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
identification sheets for fishery purposes. Western
Indian Ocean (Fishing Area 5 1 ). FAO, Rome, 570
pp.
Hora, S.L. (1942): A list of fishes of Mysore State and the
neighbouring hill ranges of the Nilgiris, Wyanad
and Coorg. Rec. Ind. Mus. 44: 193-200.
Hora, S.L. & N.C. Law (1941): The freshwater fishes of
Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mus. 43: 233-256.
Hora, S.L. &K.K. Nair( 1941): New records of freshwater
fishes from Travancore. Rec. Ind. Mus. 43: 387-393.
Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The Freshwater Fishes of India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka — A
Handbook. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,
xii + 475 pp.
Jerdon, T.C. ( 1 849): On the freshwater fishes of southern
India. Madras J. Lit. Sci. 15: 302-346.
Molur, S. & S. Walker (1998): Conservation Assessment
and Management Plan (CAMP) Workshops.
Report. Freshwater Fishes of India. Zoo Outreach
Organisation, Coimbatore. Tamil Nadu, 156 pp.
Mukerji, D.D. ( 1 93 1 ): On a small collection of fish from
Bhavani river (S. India). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
35: 162-171.
Pillay, R.S.N. (1929): A list of fishes from Travancore.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 33: 347-379.
Rajan, S. (1955): Notes on a collection of fish from the
headwaters of the Bhavani river, South India. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53:44-48.
RemaDevi, K. &T.J. Indra (1986): Fishes of Silent Valley.
Rec. zool. Surv. Ind. 84: 243-257.
Shaji, C.P. & P.S. Easa (1995): Freshwater fish diversity
in Wyanad, Kerala, South India. J. Zool. Soc.
Kerala 5: 30-36.
Shaji, C.P, P.S. Easa & S. Chand Basha (1995): Freshwater
fish diversity in Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala,
South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 92: 360-
363).
Silas, E.G. ( 1 950): On a collection of fish from Travancore.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 792-797 .
Silas, E.G. (1 95 1 ): On a collection of fish from Anamalai
and Nelliampathy hill ranges (Western Ghats) with
notes on its zoogeographical significance. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 670-681.
Silas, E.G. (1952): Fishes from the high ranges of
Travancore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 323-330.
Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1 991 ): Inland Fishes of India
and Adjacent Countries. Vols. 1 & 2 Oxford and IBH
Publishing Company, New Delhi, ix-xix + 1 097 pp.
23. OCCURRENCE OF CHILLI GALL MIDGE, ASPHONDYLIA CAPSICI BARNES
(CECIDOM YIID AE : DIPTERA) IN SOUTH ANDAMANS, ANDAMAN ISLANDS
The chilli gall midge, Asphondylia capsid
Barnes is a serious pest of chillies and bell pepper,
with the potential to reduce the yield by infesting
fruiting parts. Ayyanna and Raghavaiah (1990)
reported the occurrence of this pest on chillies at
Bapatla, Andhra Pradesh, leading to deformation
of the flower buds and bud-drop to the extent of
6.5%.
During 1998 and 1999, from September-
January, we noticed the pest on the bell pepper
grown in our experimental plots. Damage of up
to 28 % was recorded. The attacked flowers
malformed into galls, dried up and dropped to
the ground. The infected flowers when dissected
showed pale orange maggots 3 mm long. The
malformed buds were incubated in plastic
containers over sand to facilitate pupation and
emergence of adult A. capsid. The adult midge
was dark, reddish-brown, mosquito-like, measur-
ing 3 mm in length. During the course of rearing,
two unidentified hymenopterous parasitoids were
also obtained, which had parasitized the larvae
and pupae. Tomar et. al ., (1997) reported
Eurytoma sp., Dinarmus sp. and Bracon sp.
parasitizing A. capsid larvae and pupae.
This is the first report of the pest from
Andaman Islands.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. S. Suresh, Division of
Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore,for identifying the pest. We are also
grateful to the Director, CARI for facilities.
May 26, 2000 G. SHYAM PRASAD
H.R. RANGANATH
Central Agricultural Research Institute,
P.B. 181, Port Blair 744 101,
Andaman & Nicobar Islands, India.
468
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Ayyana, T. & G. Raghavaiah (1 990): Occurrence of Chilli
midge Asphondylia capsici Barnes at Bapatla in
Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh. Indian
Cacao, Arecanut and Spice Journal 13(3): 106.
Tomar, R.K.S., H.S. Yadav & R.K. Agarwal (1997):
Parasitoids of Chilli gall midge, Asphondylia
capsici and their role in Chilli ecosystem. Indian
J.Ent. 59(2): 173-178.
24. OVERWINTERING POPULATION OF DANAUS (SALATHURA) GENUTIA IN TIGER
VALLEY IN SANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL PARK, MUMBAI, MAHARASHTRA
(With one text-figure)
Many species of butterflies migrate from
cold temperate regions of the northern latitude
to warmer regions during fall, and move north
during spring (Williams 1930). The Monarch
butterfly (Danaus plexippus) of North America
is one of the best studied for its migratory
behavior (Urquhart 1976, 1978; Urquhart and
Urquhart 1979; Brower 1995). Mark, Release
and Recapture (MRR) studies showed that the
migrating Monarchs reached Sierra Madre
Occidentale mountains in Northern Mexico
where they hibernate in millions. At the onset of
spring they move northwards and lay eggs on
milkweed plants in the southern USA. The next
generation from these eggs moves to breed further
north (Brower 1995).
Most of the butterflies from the
northeastern North America overwinter in Sierra
Madre Occidentale and Alpha in Mexico. But
the populations west of the Rockies congregate
in huge numbers on the West Coast in California,
in places such as the Monterey Peninsula.
Urquhart (1965) defined two types of colonies
in California, a transient roosting colony of short
duration and a long-term roosting colony.
Individuals of short term roosting colonies leave
the roosting site under suitable conditions to take
nourishment, but do not come back to the same
site, while long-term roosting colonies stay in
the roosting sites for a long period of time. Unlike
some hibernating organisms that do not move,
overwintering butterflies are free flying
individuals in reproductive diapause, although
some females may be gravid (Ackery and Vane-
Wright 1984). Some species congregate at
overnight roosting sites, particularly in cold and
windy weather. This is defined as nocturnal,
communal or gregarious roosting behaviour
(Ackery and Vane-Wright 1984). Such butterflies
leave the site in the morning and may not return
to the same spot the next day. Migration of the
Danainae butterflies, especially Tirumala,
Euploea, Danaus and Parantica , has also been
recorded in India and elsewhere in south and
southeast Asia (Williams 1930; Chaturvedi 1998
and references therein). Other observers at the
beginning of the 20th century have described
gregarious or nocturnal roosting behaviour for
Tirumala hamata in Queensland, Australia
(McNeill 1937), Tirumala petivarana in
E. Africa (Poulton 1934), and Danaus genutia
in Hongkong (Kershaw 1905-1907). Although
migration of danaids has been described in India,
it was presumed that the migratory population
dispersed with the local population. Also, there
was no evidence of overwintering populations.
On March 3, 1992, in the company of Ulhas
Paralkar, Amar Mehta, and others in the Sanjay
Gandhi National Park, near Tulsi dam, in
Mumbai, Maharashtra, I came upon a huge
congregation of Common Tiger Danaus
(Salathura) genutia butterflies, near the water
filtration system outlet between the pipelines. As
we approached, the butterflies resting on the ferns
and bamboo clumps were disturbed and flew all
around us in a thick cloud. This location will now
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469
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
be referred to as Tiger Valley. Observations within
about 300 m along the stream suggested that males
were more common than females. We had no net
to facilitate marking, but took photographs and
noted whether they were moving in any particular
direction. As it was late on a hot afternoon, most
of the butterflies were resting, and when disturbed
they would fly around for a very short time before
settling back on the leaves, twigs or elsewhere.
Bamboo clumps accommodated larger numbers
and as many as 32 were seen at one time on a
bamboo shaft about 1 cm thick and 1 m tall. I
estimated more than 30,000 butterflies at that site.
We decided to return to the Valley the subsequent
week, to determine if the butterflies were still there
and if so to carry out Mark, Release and Recapture
(MRR) studies.
During the next few weeks, Ulhas Paralkar,
Amar Mehta and I returned on weekends to Tiger
Valley between March and July 1 99 1 , to conduct
MRR studies. We made 1 1 trips during this study
period. The markings were carried out around
1 100 hrs to 1300 hrs. We painted the butterflies
with either different coloured paints or nail polish
(white or blue oil paints and pink nail polish),
preferably on both the hind-wings, as these can
be seen easily even when the butterfly is resting.
On each occasion we marked them with a
different colour, so that the area of marking and
colour code was unique for a given date. When a
marked butterfly was recovered, we marked it
again with the day’s code to determine the
recovery number. During initial releases, we
noted the direction in which they flew off. Later
we discontinued this recording, as there was no
particular directional flight. The condition of
each butterfly was also noted.
Table 1
THE RESULTS OF MRR STUDIES OF D. GENUTIA IN
SANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL PARK, MUMBAI
Fig. 1 : Results of MRR studies of Danaus genutia in Tiger Valley, Sanjay Gandhi National Park
470
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 200 J
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
A total of 826 butterflies were marked, of
which 373 were males and 453 females. 35
butterflies were recaptured, of which two were
recaptured twice (Table 1, Fig. 1). During the
first two weeks, none were recaptured. Most of
the recoveries were after 7 to 2 1 days after the
day of marking. Seven butterflies were recovered
after 35 days. One individual was recorded after
49 days and again 63 days later (Table 2). We
captured significantly higher number of females
than the males except on the first day when we
captured more males (Wilcoxon’s paired rank test
t = 2.547, p =<0.0 1 ). Initially the butterflies were
in fair condition, but by May and June the females
in particular seemed worn out. We also observed
that most of the males captured during the last
two weeks of June looked newly emerged or fresh.
Fifteen marked butterflies were also observed in
the area, but could not be caught as they were in
an inaccessible area. On our last visit on July
26, 1992, no butterflies remained in Tiger Valley.
We arrived at the study location in the
afternoons, as we had to walk at least 7 km to
reach it. At this time, the butterflies were mainly
resting. We also observed courtship display and
several mating pairs. A few butterflies were
observed feeding on moist earth, particularly after
the burning of the undergrowth in June. Only
one tree Wrightia tinctoria was flowering during
the first week of April. Several Danainae were
seen feeding on its blossoms. About 500 m away,
Table 2
FREQUENCY OF RECOVERY OF DANA US GENUTIA
near the overflow of the dam there were patches
of Heliotropium indicum where a few Common
Tigers were also seen feeding, but no marked
individuals were observed in these patches.
To determine whether the butterflies left
this location at any other time of the day, and if
so, when and in which direction, one evening,
we reached Tiger Valley at about 1730 hrs,
caught a few specimens, and kept them in a bag,
to release them in the morning. The next day,
we reached the valley at about sunrise and
released the butterflies. We stationed ourselves
at various places to record the direction of flight,
and to see if the roosting butterflies left the site
in the morning. The released butterflies flew in
a somewhat southerly direction for less than a
few hundred metres and remained on the top of
the canopy until the sunlight reached the Valley.
As the sun reached the canopy, they started
fluttering and moving slowly towards the upper
end of the canopy where they basked, and after
about an hour, when the temperature rose, they
slowly started moving down. By about 1030 hrs
they all seemed to be settled and resting. One of
their major activities was basking. The sunlight
reached the Valley in spots and its intensity
varied in the canopy. The butterflies generally
preferred shade. There was a dense growth of
fern in the Valley in the flowing water, and many
butterflies were seen sitting on them. The major
plants in the area were identified as Macaranga
peltata. Ficus sp. Adina cordifolia , Caryota
urens, Putranjiva roxburghii , and Mangifera
indica.
The high recovery of marked butterflies
(4-5%) suggests that this population was quite
stable. We did not recover any butterflies in the
first three visits since we started marking (Table
1 ). This could be explained by the low probability
of recapture when the numbers were high or that
the population was not stable at that time (moving
out of the area and being replaced by a fresh
group of butterflies). But, as we did not see any
movement in the congregation site, the latter
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
471
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
explanation seems unlikely. Also, the recovery
seemed to increase later. Although there were
butterflies at various heights, up to about 15 m,
our captures were mostly from butterflies roosting
on the ferns, and easily reachable. The results
suggest that the butterflies remained at or near
the site where they were captured initially. Thus,
it seems likely that this population was an
overwintering population, which at the onset of
monsoon or a suitable season dispersed to breed.
Host plants such as Ceropegia sp., Marsedenia
spp. (I did not record any larvae on these plants)
were very few in the Park and could not support
the whole population. This suggests that this
large population could not have bred in the Park
and would have to disperse outside the Park to
breed. In Mumbai, although Chaturvedi (1979,
1998) and I have observed migration of other
danaids in fairly large numbers, such numbers
of D. genutia have not been seen. There is a
possibility that the butterflies arrived in smaller
numbers and assembled here. During October
and November we generally observe movements
of butterflies from north to south, and northward
migration is observed at the onset of monsoon
from July onwards (Chaturvedi 1998 and MH
pers. obs.). No migratory movements are
observed during March to June. So why did the
butterflies select this place? Is it a traditional
hibernating spot unknown so far? A worker at
the filtration plant, when questioned, said that
he had not seen large congregations of these
butterflies earlier. Amar Mehta and Ulhas
Paralkar visited the site again in 1993, but did
not find the butterflies. They noticed that the
undergrowth had been cleared. It seems that the
butterflies chose this site as it was cool and moist
even in summer, with a continuous supply of water
from the filtration plant to provide ideal conditions
for overwintering. I have seen relatively large
numbers of danaids, especially Euploea core and
E. klugii in the region but no congregation.
There is no earlier record of overwintering
populations in the Park or elsewhere in the
country. In fact, no such phenomenon has been
recorded for any other danaid in the Eastern
Hemisphere. Climatic conditions in the Eastern
Hemisphere are very different from those in the
Western Hemisphere. The Common Tiger
butterflies are found throughout the Indian
subcontinent from southern Kashmir eastward
to China and south. Thus, it seems possible that
the northern population would migrate south to
escape the cold and dry weather of north India.
If these butterflies are from the population in
north India, we may consider them overwintering
butterflies during dry months. The butterflies
caught in the beginning were already a few days
old and had lived for at least four months.
Therefore, we suggest that these butterflies
dispersed to breed when the conditions improved
in monsoon. Unfortunately, we did not conduct
any studies to find out the reproductive condition
of these butterflies in their overwintering sites,
but have evidence that they mated when they
were at the site. Further study to answer these
questions is impossible, as the site has already
been destroyed and it is possible that the
butterflies have found another similar site.
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank the authorities of the Sanjay
Gandhi National Park, particularly Mr. Palimkar,
for permission to conduct the study. Dr. Alan
Renwick for reviewing the earlier versions of this
manuscript. Lastly, Ulhas Paralkar and Amar
Mehta, who accompanied me to the study site
and without whose help, I guess, I would not
have been able to perform the MRR studies.
June 12, 2001 MEENA HARIBAL
Boyce Thompson Institute,
Tower Road, Ithaca NY 14850, USA.
472
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Ackery, P.R. & R.I. Vane-Wright (1984): Milkweed
Butterflies, their Cladistics and Biology. British
Museum (Natural History) Cornell University Press,
Ithaca New York.
Brower, L.P. (1995): Understanding and misunderstand-
ing the migration of the Monarch butterfly
(Nymphalidae) in North America: 1857-1995.
J. Lepidopterists ’ Soc. 49: 304-385.
Chaturvedi, N. ( 1 979): Southward migration of Euploea
core (Cramer) at Khandala, Western Ghats. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 76: 554.
Chaturvedi, N. (1998): Northward migration of the
common Indian Crow Euploea core (Cramer) in and
around Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 90: 115-116.
Kershaw, J.C. (1905-1907): Butterflies of Hongkong. Kelly
and Walsh Limited, Hongkong, Shanghai, Singapore
and Yokohama, 184 pp.
Poulton, E.B. (1933): The gregarious resting habits of
Danainae butterflies in Australia: Also Heliconine and
Ithiomiine butterflies in tropical America. Proc.
Entomol. Soc. London 7: 64-67.
Poulton, E.B. (1934): The Danainae butterflies Tirumala
petiverana bl-Hew., assembling for the night on leaves
trees at Kilossa, T.T., E. Africa. Proc. Entomol. Soc.
London 8: 145.
McNeill, F.A. (1937): Notes on the gregarious resting
habitats of the Danainae butterfly, Danaus melissa
hamata W.S. Macleay, in Whitsunday Islands off East
coast of Queensland. Proc. Entomol. Soc. London J2:
102.
Urquhart, F.A. (1965): Monarch butterfly ( Danaus
plexippus ) migration studies: autumnal movement.
Proc. Entomol. Soc. Ontario, Toronto 49: 16.
Urquhart, F.A. (1976): Found at last: The Monarch’s
winter home. National Geographic Magazine,
Washington DC 150: 160-173.
Urquhart, F.A. (1978): Monarch migration studies news
of Lepidopterists Society 1976 (1): 6.
Urquhart, F.A. & N.R. Urquhart (1979): Vernal
migration of Monarch butterfly (. Danaus plexippus.
Lepidoptera: Danaidae) in North America from
the overwintering site in the neo-volcanic plateau
of Mexico. Canadian Entomologist, Ottawa 93 : 41 -
47.
Williams, C.B. (1930): The Migration of Butterflies, Oliver
and Boyd, London.
25. ON HESTIASULA BR UNNERIANA SAUSSURE (INSECTA: MANTODEA)
FROM PUNE, MAHARASHATRA
( With three text-figures)
On August 19, 1998, we first collected a
colourful male specimen of a preying mantis on
the campus of Pune University. Additional
specimens, two males and three females, were
collected in Pune during 1998-2000. All the
mantids were collected live and maintained in
the laboratory to observe food, feeding and
general behaviour. Only four specimens have
been preserved.
The important diagnostic characters of this
mantis were as follows: External spines of the
fore tibiae numerous, closely set (Family
Hymenopodidae). Frontal sclerites without wing-
like keels, eyes within circumference of head
(Subfamily Acromantinae). Middle and hind
femora without any significant lobe, disc of
frontal sclerite smooth, superior border of fore
femora strongly arched and foliaceous (hence the
genus Hestiasula). The species H. brunneriana
was confirmed by the characteristic pattern of
bold black blotches on the inner face of fore
femora (3 blotches on the superior margin and
one black spot near the spine in the middle of
the fore femur) (Mukherjee et al. 1995).
Major taxonomic characters of this species
are already given by Mukherjee et al. (1995).
However, variations that we found in the two
female specimens collected at Dapodi
(27.iii.2000 and 2.iv.2000 specimens) are:
1) The costal area of the forewing was
brownish opaque in two females and brownish-
green in one male. Even in the live specimen,
the brownish colour was evident in these two
females as against the distinct green in others
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
473
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Figs 1-3: 1 . Frontal view of the head of female, note the long bilobed tubercle (T) on the vertex;
2. Frontal view of the head of male. Note the comparatively small tubercle (T);
3. Inner face of femur, note the specific pattern of 3 black blotches and a spot
FB: Femoral brush, CG: Claw groove, T: Tubercle, FS: Frontal sclerite
474
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
MORPHOMETERY (IN MM) OF HESTIASULA BRUNNERIANA
(costal area said to be greenish opaque for the
species). 2) Mid and hind legs are not annulated
brown, but are translucent with prominent black
annulations. 3) The inner face of the fore femur
normally has three black patches on superior edge
and one black spot just above the spines in the
middle of the femur. In one female (specimen
no. 5), the right fore femur has the usual pattern,
while on the left fore femur there is only a single
patch on the superior edge (this is certainly an
aberration). The usual spot above the spines, in
the middle of the femur, is present.
Except for the black patches, the inner face
of the fore femur is crimson in all the specimens
we have observed — a feature not reported for
the species. There are also small white patches
encircled by black, just behind the mid and hind-
coxa. These patches are near the thoracic
spiracles.
The male and female can be easily
differentiated by the prominent bilobed tubercle
on the vertex in the female; this tubercle is 3
times longer than the simple tubercle of the male.
This is an important sexual dimorphic character,
apart from the anal styles, which are present in
the male only (Figs 1 & 2).
These small mantids are active fliers. The
opaque green colour of the costal area of the
forewing is very prominent. The brownish
coloration may be a seasonal variation, which
we have noted in many other mantid species. The
wings of the live mantid are shining. The crimson
inner face of the fore femur, with its pattern of
black patches (Fig. 3), is highly prominent when
the insect moves one of those foliaceous fore
femurs and it is distinctly different from the
brownish colour of the outer face of the fore
femur.
In captivity, these mantids readily accepted
small moths attracted to the light at night.
Presumably this is why these mantids are
attracted to the fluorescent light. Even houseflies
and small cockroaches ( Supella sp.), provided
in captivity, were readily eaten.
Hestiasula brunneriana is hitherto known
only from Andhra Pradesh, Meghalaya, and West
Bengal in India. Elsewhere, it is known from
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Neither Nadkerny
(1965), Mukherjee and Hazra (1983), nor
Mukherjee et al. (1995), have recorded this
species from Maharashtra. Thus, its occurrence
in Pune, Maharashtra, is a range extension of
this species to western India, as the previous
records are confined to the eastern parts of India.
The female H. brunneriana (specimen no.
6) deposited an ootheca, containing fertilized
eggs, on April 5, 2000. It was 9 mm long,
5.5 mm broad, and 4.8 mm high. The ootheca
carried a 7 mm long, thin thread-like process.
The nymphs hatched out in 26 days on May 1,
2000. This species, therefore, seems to breed in
summer.
Material examined: Male, 1 9.viii. 1 998,
University Campus, Pune, coll. Rahul Marathe;
Female, 23.iii.1999, Kothrud, Pune, coll. Anand
Padhye; Male, 3 .iii.2000, Dapodi, Pune, coll.
Rajpreet Kaur; Male, 3. iii.2000, Dapodi, Pune,
coll. Rajpreet Kaur; Female, 27. iii.2000, Dapodi,
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475
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Pune, coll. Rajpreet Kaur; Female, 2.iv.2000,
Dapodi, Pune, coll. Rajpreet Kaur.
All the mantids were collected when
attracted towards fluorescent light.
Acknowledgments
We thank Prof. Madhav Gadgil, IISc,
Bangalore, for financial assistance under a DBT
Project to carry out biodiversity research in
Modern College and Mr. Ashok Captain for
enlightening us on the mantids he has seen and
photographed. We also thank Dr. T.K. Mukherjee
(Hooghly Mohsin College, W. Bengal) and Dr.
A. K. Hazra (ZSI, Kolkata) for encouragement
and help. We are indebted to the authorities of
Modem College, for facilities and encouragement.
October 14, 2000 H.V.GHATE
SACHIN RANADE
RAJPREET KAUR
RAHUL MARATHE
Department of Zoology, Modern College ,
Pune 411 005, Maharashtra, India.
References
Mukherjee, T.K. & A.K. Hazra (1983): On a small
collection of Mantidae (Dictyoptera) from Maharashtra,
India, with the description of a new species. Rec. zool.
Surv. India 80: 459-465.
Mukherjee, T.K., A.K. Hazra & A.K. Ghosh ( 1 995): The
mantid fauna of India (Insecta: Mantodea). Oriental
Ins. 29: 185-358.
Nadkerny, N.T. (1965): A note on the mantids and
tettigonids in the collection of the Bombay Natural
History Society. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 76-83.
26. REDESCRIPTION OF AMORPHOSCELIS ANNULICORNIS STAL
(INSECTA: MANTODEA) FROM MAHARASHTRA
( With two plates)
Recently, two specimens of a very
interesting mantis were collected at Pune, and
subsequently two in Tadoba (Chandrapur),
Maharashtra State. The mantis was easily
placed in the Family Amorphoscelidae because
of a set of characteristics as follows: i. short,
squarish, tuberculate pronotum (Plate 1, Fig 1).
ii. femur and tibia without spines (except a
single discoidal spine on femur, Plate 1, Fig.
2) and iii. anal cerci racket-shaped due to
expanded distal segment.
In India, there is only one genus under this
family, namely, Amorphoscelis of which there are
only 3 known species (Mukherjee etal. 1995). The
species A. annulicornis Stal was diagnosed by the
presence of tubercles on anterior and posterior
borders of the pronotum, and the colour pattern of
the body. This mantis is supposed to be a common
bark dwelling species, occurring in almost all the
warmer parts of India. Although there is a report
of the genus Amorphoscelis from Andheri, Bombay
(Nadkerny 1965), there is no previous record of A.
annulicornis from Maharashtra (Mukherjee et al.
1995), hence this report.
A brief description of the species is given
by Mukherjee et al. (1995). Some additional
taxonomic features and photographs of this
mantis are given here, which will help to identify
it. Except for one specimen which is dark brown,
all the specimens are brown with brownish-black
marks on the fore wings.
Redescription: Head triangular, dark brown
with black dots on vertex. Vertex tuberculate with
distinct lobulations; lateral lobes cone-shaped, apex
of the cone facing posterior side. Frontal sclerite
transverse; eyes dorsoventrally flattened, black;
antennae thin and longer than body, each segment
basally yellowish and apically black; antennal
segments increase in length gradually from base
to apex and possess a few setae.
476
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Ghate, H.V. et al. : Amorphoscelis annulicornis
Plate 1
Fig. 1 : Head and prothorax
Fig. 2: Foreleg
C: Coxa, F: Femur with single discoidal spine, L: Lateral lobe of vertex, M: Metazona,
P: Prozona, T: Tarsal segments, V: Vertex
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
All
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Ghate, H.V. et air. Amorphoscelis annulicornis
Plate 2
Fig. 3: Lateral view of the nymph, note the characteristic single forefemoral spine (arrow) and
racket shaped cerci at the tip of abdomen (double arrow)
/
/
Fig. 4: Dorsal view of nymph, note the peculiar arrangement of abdominal segments and
dorsal colour pattern. Also note the annulations on legs and wing buds
478
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1
MORPHOMETRY OF AMORPHOSCELIS ANNULICORNIS
All measurements are in millimetres
Pronotum tuberculate; prozona and
metazona not clearly demarcated, though with a
thin carina on the metazona. Forewings opaque
brown with darker spots and patches; hindwings
with costal area opaque brown, rest of wing
shining transparent, with brownish tinge.
Forelegs short; coxae yellowish-brown,
internally basally black; forefemur with
characteristic single discoidal spine; conspicuous
setae present along the ventral edges of femur;
median internal area of the femur (except borders)
black; base of the femur also black, which is a
variation from the character described by
Mukheijee et al. (1995); tibiae and tarsal segments
setaceous; tibiae yellowish with three black bands
or rings, or sometimes (2 specimens) with small
black spots without forming rings (again a
variation, the earlier description indicates black
tibiae with yellow bands). Metatarsus with three
black rings or bands; each tarsal segment with
basal and apical black band. In case of mid and
hindlegs, coxae shining black (variation, as the
bases of the coxae have been described as pale);
trochanter and femur yellowish-brown, setaceous.
Femora and tibiae of mid and hindlegs
triannulated because of dark coloured rings.
Abdominal segments dorsally brownish,
ventrally shining black and hairy; cerci hairy and
racket- shaped due to the enlarged distal segment;
total length of cercus in one specimen 2.25 mm,
the enlarged last segment 0.85 mm long.
All four examples male, attracted towards
fluorescent tubelight, from which they were
collected. The locality and other data are as follows:
1 . 24.iv. 1 999, near Vanaz factory (Paud road,
Pune), coll. Abhay Soman; 2. 15.ix.1999, Dapodi,
Pune, coll. Rajpreet Kaur; 3. 7.xii.l999, Tadoba,
Chandrapur, coll. Rahul Marathe; 4. 9.i.2000,
Tadoba, Chandrapur, coll. Rahul Marathe.
In addition to adults, we have recently
collected one final instar nymph (total length 1 5
mm) of A. annulicornis in Pune, 30.iii.2000, very
close to Modem College, coll. J.K. Kadav.
Morphometry: Measurements of important
body parts of all four specimens are given in Table 1 .
Acknowledgments
We thank Prof. Madhav Gadgil, Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore, for financial
assistance under the DBT Project on biodiversity
research in Modem College, Pune. Rahul Marathe
thanks Dr. Milind Watve, Garware College, Pune,
for a research fellowship for field work in Tadoba.
We also thank the authorities of Modem College
for facilities and encouragement.
July 3, 2000 H.V.GHATE
SACHIN RANADE
ABHAY SOMAN
RAJPREET KAUR
RAHUL MARATHE
Department of Zoology, Modern College,
Pune 41 1 005, Maharashtra, India.
T.K. MUKHERJEE
Dept of Zoology, Hooghly Mohsin College,
P.O. Chinsurah, Hooghly 712 010,
West Bengal, India.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
479
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
References
Mukherjee, T.K., A.K. Hazra& A.K. Ghosh (1995): The Nadkerny, N.T. (1965): A note on the mantids and
mantid fauna of India (Insecta: Mantodea). Oriental tettigonids in the collection of the Bombay Natural
Ins. 29: 1 85-358. History Society. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 76-83.
27. NEW RECORDS OF HOLOTHURI AN S (ECHINODERMATA: HOLOTHURIA)
FROM ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS
(With two text-figures)
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands spread
out in the Bay of Bengal between 6° 45'-
13° 45' N and 92° 15'-94° 15’ E, have one of the
richest coral reef formations with fringing reefs
on the eastern side and barrier reefs on the
western side. The present communication deals
with new records of holothurians from these
islands. The coral reefs of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands offer ideal habitats for littoral sea
cucumbers and other echinoderms. There have
been several reports (Theel 1882, Koehler and
Vaney 1908, James 1969, 1983 andShastry 1998)
on the echinoderms from these islands.
During a coral reef survey of the Mahatma
Gandhi Marine National Park, Wandoor (South
Andaman), by night and day SCUBA diving,
interesting species were collected. The
holothurians were preserved in 10% formalin,
identified with the aid of keys formulated by
James (1969) and Kulkarni (1996). For
examining spicules, tissues from different parts
of the body were cut and dissolved in a
concentrated solution of potassium hydroxide.
The spicules were then observed under a
microscope and drawn to scale.
Two species of holothurians are recorded
for the first time from the Islands. The
characteristics of these species are given below.
Family: Stichopodidae Hackel, 1896
Genus: Thelenota Clark 1921
Thelenota ananas (Jaeger, 1833)
Material: Twins Is., 12 m, Rutland Is. 7
m, Boat Is. 9 m depth.
Description: Tentacles 20, length 300 to
i .. i
0.1 mm
Fig. 1 : Spicules of Thelenota ananas
425 mm and width ranging from 1 00 mm to 1 50
mm. Dorsal and ventral sides well differentiated.
Ventral pedicles arranged irregularly. Shape of
body sub-rectangular and elongated,
characterized with numerous pointed papillae,
which are large, conically compressed with their
bases united, giving a semistar-like appearance
all over the body. Mouth surrounded by 1 8 to 24
tentacles, papillae. Dorsal papillae double and
united at the base to give a star-like appearance.
Ventral pedicles arranged irregularly. Live
specimens light maroon in colour with an
interstitial black zone between the papillae.
Spicules (Fig. 1) consist of simple and
dichotomously branched rods. Some rods
smooth and curved.
Habitat: Sandy bottom and coral rubble.
Family: Synaptidae Burmeister, 1837
Genus: Euapta Ostergren, 1898
Euapta godeffroyi Semper, 1898
Material: Grub Is. 6 m, Jolly Bouys Is. 14
m depth.
480
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Fig. 2: Spicules of Euapta godeffroyi
Description: Length of live specimen
1.75 m, 40 cm when contracted. Body is soft,
sticky flexible and highly extensible. 18 pinnule
tentacles with digits united by a web in each
tentacle. Body surface covered with several rows
of closely packed white papillae, giving it a
striped appearance. Gonads consist of a number
of tubules.
Pale brown in colour with large dark brown
bands, equally spaced across the dorsal side.
Ventral side pale brown. Spicules present as
anchors and anchor plates. Anchor plates narrow
at posterior end, more or less circular with about
7 large holes and 3 small holes at the handle
side. There is an identical bridge near the handle
for the attachment of the anchor. Anchors small,
on the vertex of the anchor are two dents. Flukes
of the anchor smooth and of equal size (Fig. 2).
Habitat: Sea grass beds, coral boulders.
Acknowledgement
We sincerely thank S.K. Mukherjee,
Director, Wildlife Institute of India for extending
support and facilities.
October 1 0, 2000 S ARANG KULKARNI*
AJAI SAXENA
B.C. CHOUDHURY
Wildlife Institute of India,
PB No. 18, Chandrabani,
Dehra Dun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.
* Present Address: Reef watch Marine
Conservation,
Priyanka Bldg, Ground Floor ,
50 St. Paul ’ s Road, Bandra (W),
Mumbai 400 050, Maharashtra, India.
References
James, D.B. (1969): Catalogue of echinoderms in the
reference collections of the Central Marine Fisheries
Research Institute. Bull. Cent. Mar. Fish. Res. Inst. 7:
61-62.
James, D.B. (1983): Sea cucumbers and sea urchin
resources and beche de mer industry. In: Mariculture
potential of Andaman and Nicobar Islands — an
indicative survey. CMFRI Bull. 34: 36-43.
Koehler, R. & C. Vaney (1908): Echinoderms of the
Indian Museum Part IV. An account of the littoral
Holothuroidea collected by the R.I.M.S. Investigator,
55 pp. Calcutta.
Kulkarni S.A. (1996): The holothurian fauna of Agatti
atoll (Lakshadweep, India). M.Sc. thesis submitted to
Goa University, Goa, pp. 1 -56.
Shastry, D.R.K. (1998): Some Echinodenns new to
Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park with two new
records for India. In: Sym. Proc. Islands Ecosystem &
Sustainable Development (Eds: Gangwar, B. & K.
Chandra). Publ. by Andaman Sci. Assoc, and Dept of
Science & Technology, A & N Administration, Port
Blair: 133-138.
Theel, H. ( 1 882): Report on the holothurians dredged by
H.M.S. Challenger. Zool. 7: 1-176.
28. NEW RECORD OF MA CROBRA CHIUM DA YANUM HENDERSON, 1893 FROM
A FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM OF TRIPURA, INDIA
(With one plate)
Studies on prawns are important from an ASFA 1998). Knowledge of their ecological
aquaculture view point (Thakur et al. 1994, niche conditions is also needed to clearly record
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
481
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
the nature of their distribution, (FAO 1985,
Qureshi 1994, ASFA 1998).
A description of Macrobrachium dayanum
Henderson 1893, with its niche characteristics,
i.e. physico-chemical factors of water, occurrence
of several phyto- and zooplanktonic food biota,
preference for macrophyte substrata and seasonal
abundance of M. dayanum are given.
This work was carried out in a freshwater
wetland ecosystem in Agartala (23° 50' 15" N,
90° 15' 45" E), Tripura, from March 1996 to
February 1998. The mean depth of the study site
varied from 0.63 ±30 cm during winter to 130
±33 cm in monsoon. The littoral zone supports
a number of macro vegetation species. Fish are
cultured in this wetland by stocking with fry and
fingerlings of Indian major carps for a seasonal
period.
This study is based on live specimens of
M. dayanum collected weekly from the roots of
the hydrophytes in the littoral zone.
Samples of plankton and water were
collected from the periphery of the prawn
sampling zones. Physico-chemical parameters of
water, i.e. temperature, transparency, pH, free
carbon dioxide, dissolved oxygen, bicarbonate,
dissolved organic matter, chlorinity, salinity,
silicate, phosphates and nitrates were analysed
adopting the methodology of APHA (1995). The
physico-chemical parameters data were pooled
into a mean value (Table 1) describing the
limnological feature of the studied wetland. The
works of Ling (1969), Kurian and Sebastian
(1986) and Jalihal et al. (1988) were consulted
for taxonomic identification of the prawns.
Rostrum curved upwards, rostral formula
9/6 (dorsal / ventral) in most cases and 8-9 / 5-6
in a few individuals; arrangement of dorsally
placed rostral teeth not uniform; 5th walking legs
of the same length as the fourth; 2nd chelae
of adult male equal or subequal; fingers of the
2nd chelae grooved longitudinally with velvety
hairs in the groove; walking legs covered with
velvety hairs; walking legs as well as dorsal body
Table 1
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE FRESHWATER WETLAND
Phytoplankton: The dominant
phytoplanktonic species were Chlorella vulgaris ,
Cymbella , Ceratium hirundinella, Nietzschia
commutata , Euglena acus , Phacus pleuronectes
etc. Of these, Chlorella vulgaris was the most
dominant. The peak abundance of the algae was
in winter.
Zooplankton: Rotifers ( Brachionus ,
Keratella, Lecane , Euchlanis ), Cladocerans
( Ceriodaphnia , Bosmina) and Copepods
(Cyclops, Eucyclops) were recorded. Of these,
rotifers were dominant both qualitatively as well
as quantitatively. Among all genera, Brachionus
was the most dominant. The peak abundance of
rotifers was in winter.
Preference for plant substrata: Although
M. dayanum was observed all along the periphery
of Ipomea aquatica and Eichhornia crass ipes,
maximum density (65 individuals per litre of
water) was recorded from the roots of the latter.
Seasonal abundance of prawn: During
the two-year study period, M. dayanum exhibited
highest density in winter and lowest in summer.
482
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Banik, S. et al. : Macrobrachium dayanum
Plate 1
Fig. 1 : Macrobrachium dayanum a. Male, b. Female
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The prawn species occurred under certain
limnological conditions which shows that it is
highly specific in regard to seasonal abundance
and species specific in regard to substrata
selection (Banik 1996). Though recorded in a
freshwater lentic ecosystem in the present study,
M. dayanum Henderson, 1893, is basically of
marine origin and probably entered freshwater
habitat by migrating via a riverine system (Tiwari
1955, Kurian and Sebastian 1986). Though it
was known earlier from some states of India
(Tripathi 1992, De 1996), it is reported here from
Tripura and also from northeast India (ASFA
1998) for the first time. This report also confirms
its cosmopolitan distribution (FAO 1985, Thakur
etal. 1994, ASFA 1998).
Acknowledgements
We thank T. Rajyalakshmi and S.
Ayyappan, Director, CIFE, Mumbai for
cooperation. We also thank the Head, Department
of Life Science, Tripura University for laboratory
facilities and the UGC (Sanction No. F.3-52/93
SR-II) and ICAR (Sanction No. F. 4(44)/97-ASR-
I) for financial assistance.
December 26, 1998 S. BANIK
SAUMEN CHAKRAB ARTI
Fisheries & Limnology Research Unit,
Department of Life Science,
Tripura University,
Agartala 799 004, Tripura, India.
References
APHA (1995): Standard methods for the examination of
water and waste water. American water works
Association and water pollution control Federation,
Washington.
ASFA (1998): Aquatic sciences & fisheries abstract, FAO,
Rome.
Banik, S. & S. Kar (1995): New records of sessile rotifers
from freshwater fishponds of Tripura. Proc. Indian
Nat. Sci. Acad B 61(3): 225-230.
Banik, S. (1996): New records of sessile rotifers from
freshwater fish ponds of Tripura, II. Proc. Indian
Nat. Sci. Acad B 62(2): 111-116.
De, D.K. (1996): Identifying characters, morphology and
life cycles of commercially important freshwater
prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergi. Special Publ.
CICFRI, 8-19.
FAO (1985): A bibliography of the fishery resources of
the Indo-Pacific region. FAO Fish. Circ. 785, FAO,
Rome.
Jalihal, D.R., S. Shenoy & K.N. Sankolli (1988):
Freshwater prawns of the genus Macrobrachium
Bate. 1868 (Crustacea, Decapoda, Palaemonidae)
from Karnataka, India. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ
paper No. 112 : 7-74.
Kurian, C.V. & V.O. Sebastian ( 1 986): Prawns and prawn
fisheries of India. Hindustan Publishing Corp.
(India), Delhi, 297 pp.
Ling, S.W. (1969): The general biology and development
of Macrobrachium rosenbergi (De Man). FAO
Fisheries. report 57(3): 589-606.
Qureshi, T.A. (1994): Results of studies on freshwater
prawns farming in India. AFSIB, Special Publ No.
10, Mangalore, 43-48.
Tiwari, K.K. (1955): Distribution of the Indo-Burmese
freshwater prawns of the genus Palaemon (Fabr.)
and its bearing on the Satpura hypothesis. In:
Symposium on Organic Evolution. Bull. Nat. Inst.
Sci. India 7: 230-239.
Thakur, N.K., R. Tiwari & M.M. Joseph (1994):
Freshwater prawn farming in India. AFSIB Special
Publ. No. 1 0, Mangalore, 1 1 3, pp.
Tripathi, S.D. (1992): Status of freshwater prawn fishery
and farming in India. In: Silas, E.G. (Ed.), Freshwater
prawns. Kerala Agri. University. Pp. 42-49.
29. THE GASTROPOD STENOTHYRA ORNATA ANNANDALE AND PRASHAD 1921,
A NEW RECORD FROM RIVER GANGA IN BIHAR
( With one text-figure)
The gastropod Stenothyra ornata from a brackish-water pool near Calcutta, has
Annandale and Prashad 1921, originally known been recorded for the first time from the
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
485
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
freshwater zone of River Ganga at Sultanganj
(771 km from the sea) in Bihar. The species is
characterized by spines on the whorls, which are
keeled in the middle.
Family Stenothyridae (Mollusca:
Gastropoda) is distributed from Iran to
Indonesia, from Australia to the Philippines and
Japan, and Western Pacific Islands (Rao 1989).
Neubert (1998) first recorded the genus
Stenothyra from the Arabian Peninsula.
Stenothyra arabica has been collected from
several localities in Saudi Arabia, Yemen and
Oman. Two genera, namely Stenothyra Benson
1856 and Gangetica Ancey 1890 are included
in this family (Neubert 1998).
In May, 1998 two live specimens of
Stenothyra ornata Benson were collected from
submerged vegetation in the littoral zone of River
Ganga at Sultanganj, 25° 15' N and 86° 44' E,
(771 km from sea) near Bhagalpur, Bihar, while
assessing the habitat preference of the Ganges
river dolphin vis-a-vis biological diversity of
River Ganga.
Diagnosis: The shell is conoidal ovate and
brownish. Apex acutely pointed, with 5 whorls.
Shell imperforate. Spiral whorls distinctly keeled
in the middle, keel continues on to body whorl.
Spiral rows of blunt, flattened homy and blackish
spines on last two whorls in the region of the
keel; spines directed towards apex.
Measurement of one of the shells by ocular
micrometer (except length of the shell and
breadth of the body whorl) is as follows:
Length of shell ... 4.5 mm
Breadth of body whorl 3.0 mm
Length of 1st whorl 50 p
Length of 2nd whorl 200 p
Length of 3rd whorl 275 p
Length of 4th whorl 525 p
Length of 5 th whorl 1975 p
Size of aperture 1 150 x 1300 p
Height of a spine 125 p
The first two whorls are minute, the third
onwards are broad and somewhat band-shaped.
Viewed from the dorsal side, the body- whorl is
sub-quadrate, ventrally it appears somewhat
ovoidal, with the inverted apex sharply truncated.
The mouth of the shell is minute, oblique and
regularly subcircular. The rim of the mouth does
not project at all and the shell is not umbilicate
(Fig. 1).
Affinities: Annandale and Prashad (1921)
remarked that the species Stenothyra ornata is
closely allied to Stenothyra deltae (Benson) and
S. echinata, but is distinguished by the larger
and more acute spire, form of the body whorl,
keeled nature of the whorls, sculpture and by
the comparatively shorter and more circular
mouth.
Annandale and Prashad (1921) revised the
genus and recognized twelve species. They stated
that these small water-snails, the shell of which
is rarely more than 5 mm long, are found mainly
in brackish water. A few make their way far
inland, but it is doubtful whether any species
exists only in fresh water. However, Stenothyra
foveolata Benson was the only species known
from the River Ganga at Sakrigali (5 km
downstream of Sahibganj, Bihar), a distance of
650 km from the sea and about 466 km above
the extreme tidal influence, but it may occur
lower down as well as in the Gangetic delta
(Annandale and Prashad 1921). Rao (1989)
reported that the Family Stenothyridae is mainly
estuarine and so far none of the species except
Stenothyra deltae are reported from freshwater
in India. However, distribution of S. deltae has
been recorded up to Chandpal Ghat, Calcutta,
in the tidal zone (Rao 1989). Annandale and
Prashad (1921), however, reported that they were
not aware of the location of the types, S. deltae ,
but the specimens in the Indian Museum are
represented from Port Canning, Calcutta
(Chandpal Ghat), Patna and Bhagalpur.
The species of Stenothyra frequent
submerged vegetation or stones covered with
486
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1: Stenothyra ornata Annandale and Prasad, 1921, a. Ventral view, b. Dorsal view
algae and scrape them for t he minute organisms
that form their food. Their mobile and extensible
snouts enable them to feed easily on the algae
that grow on the shells of their companions and
even from their own shells.
Stenothyra ornata may be one of the
marine elements of the Ganga. However, it is
not certain if the species has existed from the
origin of the river or has entered the freshwater
zone from the estuarine zone along with ships.
Nevertheless, it has completely adapted itself to
the freshwater zone of the river. Unless collected
and sorted carefully, it is difficult to isolate the
animal from the submerged vegetation due to
its minute size. It can be confused with juveniles
of other gastropods.
Refer
Annandale, N. & B. Prashad (1 921 ): The Indian molluscs
of the estuarine subfamily Stenothyrinae. Rec. Ind.
Mus. XXII: 121-133, pi. XVI.
N eubert, E. ( 1 998): Annotated checklist of the terrestrial
and freshwater molluscs of the Arabian Peninsula
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. Fred Naggs of British
Natural History Museum, London for his help
in identifying the specimen. The financial
assistance to research biodiversity of the Ganga
by the Biodiversity Support Programme, a
USAID funded Consortium of World Wildlife
Fund, the Nature Conservancy, and World
Resources Institute is duly acknowledged.
September 6, 2000 RAVINDRA KUMAR SINHA
GOPAL SHARMA
Environmental Biology Laboratory
Department of Zoology, Patna University,
Patna 800 005, Bihar, India.
NCES
with descriptions of new species. Fauna of Arabia
77:333-461.
Rao, N. V. ( 1 989): Handbook of Freshwater Molluscs of
India. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, 289
pp.
JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 200 1
487
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
30. NEW RECORDS OF THE CLAM CYRENA CEYLONICA (CHEMNITZ),
MOLLUSCA: FAMILY CYRENIDAE, IN ANDAMAN ISLANDS
The literature available on the molluscan
resources of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
is scant except for the few reports of Melvil and
Abercrombie (1893), Setna (1933) and Rao
(1939). The present study reports the occurrence
of Cyrena ceylonica (Chemintz) in Andaman
Islands. In Sri Lanka, it was recorded by Preston
(1915). This black-shelled clam, locally called
chippi , is abundant in mangrove creeks and inlets,
usually buried in the muddy substratum. It is
collected live along the coastal habitats during
low tide by handpicking by the tribals and local
villagers, for whom it is a cheap source of animal
protein. The shells are used in several lime-based
industries in these islands. The clams are also
uti-lised as broodstock diets for prawns and fishes
in hatcheries and in aquaria due to their easy
availability, palatability and hardiness in
confinement.
On an average 100 specimens from each
location in the South, Middle and North Andaman
were collected and identified from Preston (1915)
and also by consulting molluscan specialists of
Vizhinjam Research Centre of Central Marine
Fisheries Research Institute. Samples are kept in
the museum of the Fisheries Science Division,
CARI, Port Blair.
Refer
Melvil, J.C. & A. Abercrombie ( 1 893): Notes on a collection
of the marine shell from Andaman Islands. Proc.
Malac. Soc. Lond. 2: 164-172 & 220-229.
Preston, H.B. (1915): The Fauna of British India including
Ceylon and Burma, Mollusca Vol. IV, Publ.
Today and Tomorrows Printers, New Delhi,
Out of seven species of Cyrena , namely
Cyrena ceylonica , C. impress a, C. sinuosa , C.
bengalensis , C. tennentii , C. proxima and C.
galatheae occurring in different parts of the
world, only C. galatheae has been reported
earlier in Nicobar Islands (Preston 1915). The
distribution range of Cyrena ceylonica has been
stated as tropical and subtropical regions of Asia,
Africa, America, Australia and Oceania. This is
the first record of the occurrence of Cyrena
ceylonica in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Director, CARI for facilities,
and Dr. Kumara Swami Acharya, Senior
Scientist, Vizhinjam Research Centre, CMFRI,
Trivandrum, Kerala for help in identification.
We also thank the staff who extended co-
operation and assistance in the field.
August 26, 2000 K. MADHU
REMA MADHU
Fisheries Science Section,
Central Agricultural Research Institute,
P.B. No. 181, Port Blair 744 1 01,
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.
iNCES
pp 202-204.
Rao, H.S. (1939): Consolidated report on the shell fisheries
in Andamans during the years 1 930-1 935. Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta, 1 30 pp.
Setna, S.A. (1933): The Andaman shell fishery. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 36(1): 94-100.
3 1 . ALYSICARPUS OVALIFOLIUS (SCHUMACH.) J. LEON (LEGUMINOSAE:
PAPILIONOIDEAE) — A NEW RECORD FOR THE EASTERN GHATS
( With one text-figure)
While working on the Leguminosae of an interesting plant from Nallamalai hills,
Eastern Ghats, peninsular India, we collected Andhra Pradesh. On comparison with the
488
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 200 J
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1: Alysicarpus ovalifolius (Schumach.) A. Twig; B. Bracteole; C. Calyx; D. Standard petal;
E. Wing petal; F. Keel Petal; G. Staminal column; H. Pistil.
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC 2001
489
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
literature, it was identified as Alysicarpus
ovalifolius (Schumach.) J. Leon, which has not
been reported from the Eastern Ghats. Hence,
the present collection of Alysicarpus ovalifolius
(Schumach.) J. Leon is a new record for Eastern
Ghats. The specimen has been deposited in the
herbarium of the Department of Botany, Sri
Krishnadevaraya University (SKU),
Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh. A detailed
description and an illustration are given to
facilitate identification.
Alysicarpus ovalifolius (Schumach.)
J. Leon. In: Bull. Jard. Bot. Etat. Brux. 24: 88.
1964; Sanj. & Bhatt. In: J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 75: 254. 1978. Hedysarum ovalifolium
Schumach. Beskr. Guin. PI. 359. Desmodium
ovalifolium (Schumach.) Walp., Rep. 1: 737,
1842.
Annual erect or prostrate herb, up to
50 cm height, branchlets glabrous, striate,
branches rooting at nodes with longer
internodes. Stipules lanceolate, 0.6- 1.3 cm long,
striate, acuminate. Petiole 0.5-1 cm long,
furrowed on the upper side. Leaves unifoliate,
apex acute and mucronulate, base sub-cordate,
margin entire, puberulous on the nerves beneath.
Inflorescence terminal or leaf opposed, in lax
racemes usually with 6-7 pairs of flowers,
peduncle 2-3 cm long, pedicel 1 mm long, bracts
4-5 x 1-2 mm, ovate to lanceolate. Calyx tube
8- 1 2 mm long, puberulous, teeth 3-4.5 mm long.
Standard pink, 4-5 x 3-4 mm long, wings
purplish, keels pale pink. Stamens diadelphous
(9+1), staminal sheath 4 mm long, filaments
3 mm long. Ovary pubescent, 5 x 1 mm, style
3 mm long, bearded with long hairs. Pod 1-2.5
x 0.2-0. 3 cm, joints 5-7, flattened, 2-3 mm long,
puberulous; seeds brown, ellipsoid, compressed
with reddish bald patches.
Flowering: August- September.
Fruiting: September-December.
Specimens examined: Upper Ahobilam
TP & KSM 14206, Bogada RF Nallamalais
KSM 17629.
Distribution: india: Andhra Pradesh,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab,
Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh.
extralimital: Pakistan, Afghanistan,
Madagascar, Sumatra, Tropical Africa, China,
Indonesia.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. D.S. Pokle of Aurangabad
for identification. The first author (KSM) is
grateful to the DOEF and CSIR, New Delhi, for
providing junior and senior research fellowships.
June 5, 2000 K. SRI RAMA MURTHY
S. SANDHYA RANI
T. PULLAIAH
Department of Botany,
Sri Krishnadevaraya University,
Anantapur 515 003, Andhra Pradesh.
32. ON THE TYPE OF BAUHINIA WRA YI PRAIN
(LEGUMINOS AE : CAESALPINIOIDEAE)
Larsen and Larsen (in FI. Males. 12(2):
529. 1996) cited King's Coll 5243 (K) as the
holotype of Bauhinia wrayi Prain, but this is
contrary to Art. 9. 1 of ICBN (Tokyo Code, 1994),
because a number of collections (Perak: Kunstler
2238, 2466, 4049, 5243; Scortechini 1652; Wray
1934, 2782. Selangor: Kunstler 8758) were cited
(with the sign of examination) in the protologue
of B. wrayi Prain (in J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 66(2):
191. 1897), and these should be treated as
syntypes (see Art. 9.4 of ICBN, Tokyo Code,
1994). Thus, the selection of Kunstler 5243 (K)
as the lectotype of B. wrayi Prain by de Wit (in
Reinwardtia 3(4): 518. 1956) is in accordance
with the rule (see Art. 9.9 of ICBN, Tokyo Code,
1994). In this connection, I would like to point
out that the Larsens had accepted de Wit’s
lectotype earlier. This can be evidenced by their
490
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
own annotation (in 1983) on a determination slip
affixed to King’s Coll. 5243 in CAL, on which
they annotated ‘Iso-lectotype! (de Wit,
Reinwardtia 3: 518, 1956)’.
Furthermore, Kunstler was one of the
collectors of King (see Stafleu and Cowan, Tax.
Lit. 2: 545. 1979, 2nded.), and on the 12 relevant
sheets (type herbarium - CAL), with the field
numbers 2238, 2466, 4049, 5243 & 8758, printed
herbarium labels with the inscription "Coll. H.
Kunstler ’ or "Dr. King ' s Collector ’ (also in print)
had been randomly attached. So, it seems that
the sheets in K may also have the same type of
labelling as in CAL. Under these circumstances,
it is quite probable that the specimen cited by
Larsen and Larsen as the holotype ( King ’s Coll.
5243 - K) is not the same lectotype specimen
(Kunstler 5243 - K) selected by de Wit, unless
one of them had changed Kunstler into King ’s
Coll, or vice versa intentionally.
November 2, 1 999 S. BANDYOPADHYA Y
Botanical Survey of India,
P.O. Botanic Garden,
Howrah 711 103, West Bengal,
India.
33. ON HELFER’S COLLECTION OF PIPER RIBESIOIDES WALL,
FROM THE BAY ISLANDS, INDIA
The history of botanic explorations of the
Andaman Islands dates back to 1791, when
Colonel Kyd of the East India Company gardens
at Calcutta visited these islands to procure timber
trees. Subsequently, Dr Heifer, a Russian
geologist who visited these islands to explore
their mineral wealth in 1834, made extensive
collections of plant material. Unfortunately, he
was killed by the aborigines of North Andamans,
and most of the specimens he had collected
earlier from Tenassarim (Myanmar) got mixed
up with those he collected from the Andamans,
causing much confusion in their geographical
location. Most of the species collected by him
were collected again by later botanists and their
occurrence in the Andaman Islands was
confirmed. However, a few specimens are yet to
be obtained, and their existence among the
islands of Andamans is unconfirmed.
The tropical rain forests of the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands are known to possess many
rare and potentially useful wild relatives of
economically important plant species such as
wild rice ( Oryza indandamanica Ellis), wild tea
(Camellia kissi Wall.) and wild nutmeg
(Myristica andamanica Hook. f.). Wild
occurrence of popular cultivars like coconut
palm (Cocos nucifera L.) and betel vine (Piper
betle L.) among the islands of the Andamans
are indicators on their point of origin. Many of
them are promising in the field of modern
agriculture and traditional systems of medicine.
Piper ribesioides Wall., a species allied to Piper
cubeba L. f. collected by Dr. Heifer in 1 834 was
deposited at Kew with the locality mentioned as
Tennassarium/Andamans (sic). The occurrence
of this species in Andaman Islands was doubtful
till its recent discovery from the Mount Harriet
hill ranges and collections made by one of the
authors (S.P. Mathew 20558 PBL & K). During
the present floristic survey, this species was
found growing along the edges of the Semi-
evergreen Forests of Mount Harriet, the highest
peak in South Andamans near the Wright Myo
village.
Piper ribesioides Wall., PI. As. Rar. 1 .19.
t. 9. 1830; DC. in Jour. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 75:
322. 1849 & Prodr. 16 (1): 342. 1869: Hook. f.
, FI. Brit. India 5: 81. 1886; Ridly, FI. Mai.
Penin. 3: 34. 1927. P. sumatranum C. DC.,
Prodr. 16 (1): 343. 1869; Hook, f., 1. c. 81.
Dioecious woody lianas; main stem c.
6 cm across, bark greyish, lenticellate with nodal
annular rings, nodes swollen. Leaves 10-17 x
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
6-9 cm, ovate to oblong-ovate or rarely
lanceolate, deeply cordate at base, acute or
shortly acuminate at apex, coriacious, 8 to 9
nerved; petiole c. 6 cm, more or less robust.
Female spikes c. 6 cm long. Drupes up to 6 mm
across, globose on stout peduncles up to 2.2 cm
long, orange turning red in colour, very pungent;
pedicels up to 1 cm long.
Status: Very rare, most probably
endangered.
Distribution: Malay Peninsula and
Andaman Islands.
Habitat: Semi-evergreen Forest at an
altitude of 50-60 m in humus-rich soil. Usually
associated with tall forest trees like Terminalia
spp.
FI. & Fr.: October-March.
Conservation Status: No intensive
measures were adopted for in situ conservation.
A few plants have been introduced in the field
gene bank established at the Tropical Botanic
Garden and Research Institute under an ex situ
conservation programme of the Andaman
species undertaken by the Institute.
Specimen examined: South Andamans,
Wright Myo, 22.V.1990, S.P. Mathew 20558
(PBL & K).
Though the genus Piper L. is well
represented in the tropical and subtropical
regions, it is rather poorly represented in the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Based on the
literature survey and herbarium specimens at
PBL & CAL, there are only six species known
to occur among the Islands. There are a few
vegetative specimens from the Nicobar Islands
deposited at PBL & CAL identified as Piper
clypeatum Wall. However, the occurrence of this
taxon is uncertain, due to the non-availability
of their flowering and fruiting specimens.
Hooker included Piper ribesioides Wall, under
the taxonomic section cubeba. The dioecious
nature, presence of solitary spikes, peltate female
bracts and pedicellate fruits made Hooker
suggest that Piper ribesioides Wall, may be
another form or a genetic variant of Piper
cubeba L. f. This species also resembles Piper
pedicellosum Wall, ex DC, another endangered
species recorded from the Andaman Islands, of
which there are a few old specimens at CAL.
Hooker suggested that Piper ribesioides Wall,
can be easily distinguished from the former by
the larger size of leaves, petioles and pedicels.
However, a thorough and detailed taxonomic
study is required to make a conclusion, which
is not possible due to the lack of adequate
herbarium specimens. The specimen collected
from Mount Harriet by one of the authors (S.P.
Mathew 20558) was compared with the
specimens at Kew and was found similar to Piper
sumatranum C. DC., but this has been merged
under Piper ribesioides Wall. The ripened fruits
of Piper ribesioides Wall, are known to be used
by the local people for treatment of mouth
ulcer.
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr.N. P. Singh, former Liaison
Officer (Botanical Survey of India), Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, England for confirming
the identity of the specimens. One of us (SPM)
thanks the Director, Tropical Botanic Garden and
Research Institute for encouragement. Financial
assistance provided to Prof. Susan Abraham by
the Department of Science and Technology, Govt,
of Kerala is gratefully acknowledged.
April 22, 2000 SAM P. MATHEW
Tropical Botanic Garden
and Research Institute,
Palode, Thiruvananthapuram 695 562,
Kerala, India.
SUSAN ABRAHAM
Environmental Resources Research Institute,
Peroorkkada, Thiruvananthapuram,
Kerala, India.
492
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
34. NEW RECORD OF NERVILIA ARAGOANA IN RAJASTHAN
During a field survey on August 24,1993,
in Sitamata Sanctuary in Chittorgarh district of
Rajasthan, I came across many plants of Nervilia
aragoana between Bhagya Baori and Sitamata
Temple under huge crowns of Madhuca indica ,
Mangifera indica , and Buchnania lanzan.
Nervilia aragoana is a terrestrial orchid with a
single, simple, orbicular leaf, raised on a long
stalk. Its leaf has a cordate base, ribbed lamina
and wavy margins. This plant grows in fairly
good numbers in the plain areas along the
nullahs.
No earlier literature on the flora of
Rajasthan (Mehta 1979; Sharma andTiagi 1979;
Refer
Mehta, M.R. (1979): Flora of Mount Abu. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur, Rajasthan.
Sharma, S. & B. Tiagi (1979): Flora of Northeast
Rajasthan. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, Ludhiana.
Shetty, B.V. &R.P. Pandey(1983): Flora of Tonk District.
Botanical Survey of India.
Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1987): Flora of Rajasthan. Vol. I.
Shetty and Pandey 1983; Shetty and Singh 1987,
1991, 1993; Singh 1983) has recorded Nervilia
aragoana from the State. Thus, the present record
of the species is the first from Sitamata Sanctuary
as well as Rajasthan State.
I thank Mr. U.M. Sahai, Conservator of
Forests, for facilities.
June 14, 1999 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA
Range Forest Officer (Wildlife),
Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary,
Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur,
Rajasthan,
India.
ENCES
Botanical Survey of India. Pp. 1-451.
Shetty ,B.V. & V. Singh (1991): Flora of Rajasthan. Vol.
II. Botanical Survey of India. Pp. 453-860.
Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1993): Flora of Rajasthan. Vol.
III. Botanical Survey of India. Pp. 861-1246.
Singh, V. (1983): Flora ofBanswara, Rajasthan. Botanical
Survey of India.
35. REDISCOVERY OF HEMIORCHIS PANTLINGI (ZINGIBERACEAE)
FROM SIKKIM HIMALAYA
( With one text-figure)
During a recent floristic survey of South
Sikkim, I came across an interesting species of
Hemiorchis Kunz. On examination, the plant was
identified as Hemiorchis pantlingi King. The
plant was rediscovered after a gap of about one
hundred years. The voucher specimens are
deposited in the herbarium of the Botanical
Survey of India, Gangtok, Sikkim.
The description of the species, along with
a diagram (Fig. 1), is given below:
Hemiorchis pantlingi King: In: Mitra J.
N., Flowering Plants of India, Vol. 1
Monocotyledons: 249-250.1958.
7.5-16 cm tall, erect, succulent, pubemlous,
perennial herb, conspicuously green, leaves
absent. Rhizome stout, much branched, creeping.
Stem 4-5 cm long, erect, covered with 3-4, 2-3
cm long, oblong-ovate, creamish-purple, minutely
puberulous, stem-clasping, sheathing leaves.
Inflorescence 3.5-9 cm long, terete, minutely
pubemlous; Peduncle 0.5- 1.5 cm long; Raceme
3-7.5 cm long, with 2-5 sessile flowers. Floral
bracts small, membranous and deciduous. Calyx
(3) tubular, 1-1.5 cm long, pubemlous outside,
free arm shallow, triangular in shape. Corolla 1.5-
1.6 cm long, tubular below, limbs divided above
into 3 dissimilar lobes; dorsal lobe 1-1.8 x 0.4-
0.6 cm, elliptic-oblong, distinctly 3-nerved,
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1: Hemiorchis pantlingi King, A. Whole plant; B. Tubular calyx; C. Single flower;
D. Lateral view of a single flower; E. Dorsal petals; F. Lateral petels; G. Lateral petaloid staminodes;
H. Stamen; I. Style, stigma, ovary with stylodes; J. Plan view of lip; K. Side view of lip
494
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
mucronate tip fleshy, externally puberulous,
translucent-white suffused with purple; lateral
lobes 0.9- 1.1 x 0.3-0. 5 cm, elliptic-oblong,
distinctly 3-nerved, spreading. Lateral staminodes
petaloid 0.8-0. 9 x 0.6-0.65 cm, obovate, obtuse,
slightly and unequally bilobed, basal end with 2
reddish-purple secreting glands, base united to
form a short spur. Lip c. 1 .2 x 1 .2 cm in diameter.
When flattened, cupular, fleshy, orange-yellow
with reddish-purple dots and streaks, the median
vein thickened from base, and forms a blunt
projection in front, deep orange in colour. Stamen
6-7 mm long, curved, anthers at right angles to
it; Anther cell c. 4 x 2 cm long, oblong, contiguous,
connective narrow, not produced. Style c. 2.1 cm
long, slender, translucent- white, glabrous, passing
through the furrow of anther or connective of
anther. Stigma small, sub-globose. Ovary c. 3.5
mm long, ribbed, minutely hairy, with 2 stylodes
c. 3.8 mm long crowning the ovary, 1 -celled with
many ovules, with parietal placentation.
Flowering: April
Altitudinal Zones: 300-500 m.
Distributional Status: Rare
Remarks: It grows on the burnt Sal forest floor.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Mr. T.R. Sharma, Principal
Chief Conservator of Forests - cum - Secretary,
Forest Department, Government of Sikkim, for
permission to carry out the field survey. I especially
thank Dr. P.M. Singh, Scientist SD, Botanical
Survey of India, Gangtok, for valuable
suggestions.
October 15, 1999 S.Z. LUCKSOM
Jt Director Environmental and Eco-Tourism,
Department of Forests,
Environment & Wildlife,
Government of Sikkim, Deorali 737 1 02,
Gangtok, Sikkim, India.
36. ARISAEMA ECHINA TUM (WALL.) SCHOTT — AN ADDITION
TO THE ARACEAE OF PENINSULAR INDIA
( With one text-figure)
While revising the genus Arisaema Mart
for a study on the Araceae of India, it was found
that the material of an Arisaema species at
Madras Herbarium (MH), collected in the Silent
Valley on the Western Ghats, Kerala, had been
wrongly determined as A. erubescens (Wall.)
Schott. Critical examination revealed that it is
A. echinatum (Wall.) Schott. The identity was
later confirmed with the help of the protologue
and type. Arisaema echinatum is known to occur
in Manipur, Meghalaya and Sikkim in India, and
also in Bhutan, China and Nepal. It is recorded
here from Kerala for peninsular India. A detailed
description is provided.
Arisaema echinatum (Wall.) Schott in
Schott & Endl., Melet. Bot. 1: 17. 1832; Hook,
f., FI. Brit. India 6: 506. 1893; Engl., Pflanzenr.
(IV. 23 F) 73: 181. 1920; D. Chatterjee in Bull.
Bot. Soc. Bengal 8: 124. 1955; Hara, FI. E.
Himal. 2: 152, t. 20, f. c-d, 351, f. 55m. 1971;
Pradhan, Himal. Cobra-lilies: 90. 1990. Arum
echinatum Wall., PI. Asiat. Rar. 2: 30, t. 136.
1831; Wall., Numer. List No. : 89 1 6. 1 848 ; Engl,
in DC., Monogr. Phan. 2: 555. 1879. - Type:
Nepal, Sheopore, 1821, Wall., Numer. List No.
8916 (CAL, K, MH microfiche!).
Dioecious, rarely monoecious, cormous
herb; corm 2-5 cm across, depressed-subglobose.
Cataphylls 1-2, 2.5-22 cm long, obtuse,
membranous. Leaf solitary; petiole 12.5-46 cm
long, cylindric, pale green, streaked with reddish-
brown, glaucous; leaflets 6-1 1, radiate, subsessile,
4.5-30 x 0.7-4 cm, oblanceolate to oblong-
lanceolate, attenuate or subacute at the base,
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495
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1mm
^ G
Fig. 1: Arisaema echinatum (Wall.) Schott: A. Habit; B. Bisexual spadix; C. Staminate spadix;
D. Staminate flower; E. Pistillate flower; F. Apex of spadix-appendix; G. Sterile flower
496
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
undulate along the margins, caudate-acuminate
at the apex, deep green above, pale green with
streaks and glaucous beneath; midnerve broad
at the base, narrowing towards the tip; lateral
nerves slender, 10-14 on each side, obliquely
ascending from midnerve, continuous to form
intra-marginal nerves. Peduncle solitary, 7-35 cm
long, green, streaked with reddish-brown,
enclosed by the petiole and then exserted. Spathe
9.5-27 cm long, green, striped with white, brown
or purple inside, dull white outside, glabrous;
tube 3-6 x 1.5-2 cm, cylindric, convolute, green-
and-white striped outside, dark purple striped
inside, spreading at the mouth; limb 3-7 x 2.5-
5 cm, ovate-lanceolate, vaulted, abmptly tapering
into a long slender pendulous 5-15 cm long tail.
Spadix included, cylindric, erect, hardly exserted
beyond the mouth of the tube. Pistillate spadix
4-7.5 cm long; pistillate flower-portion 0.7-
1.5 cm long, dense, with a few sterile flowers
above (or none) along with a few staminate
flowers; pistillate flowers many, 1.5-2 x 1.7-1. 8
mm; ovary 1.5-1. 7 x 1.5- 1.8 mm, subglobose,
green, streaked; ovules 2-3, basal; style minute;
stigma discoid, white, viscid. Sterile flower-
portion c. 1 cm long; sterile flowers 1-3.5 mm
long, subulate, bifurcate, purple at the apex.
Staminate spadix 4-6.5 cm long? staminate
flower-portion 1.5-2 cm long; staminate flowers
many, sparse; filament 0.1 -0.5 mm long; anthers
1 -5, 2-lobed, purplish brown, dehiscing by a pore;
lobes 0.4-0. 7 x 0. 5-0.9 mm, globose or depressed-
subglobose; connective beaked. Appendix 2.5-
4.5 x 0. 5-0.9 cm, cylindric or slightly
compressed, light green, streaked with purple,
swollen at the base, contracted in the middle,
rugose or echinate with white bristle, 0.07-
0.2 cm long, round margins crenate at the apex.
Appendix of staminate spadix distinctly stipitate;
stipe c. 0.5 cm long. Berries c. 0.6 cm long.
Fi. & Fr.: Feb. -July.
Note: Easily distinguished by its densely
echinate spadix-appendix apex. Commonly
called the spiny cobra-lily (Pradhan l.c.). Berries
of Arisaema spp. are bird-dispersed (Ridley
1930). This species may have been dispersed by
birds internally.
Specimen examined: Kerala: Palakkad
district, Silent Valley R.F., 900 m, 22. iv. 1980, V.J.
Nair 67259 (CAL, MH). Manipur: Mao, 6,500 ft
(1975.25 m), ll.ii.1954, S.C. Sinha 1873 (CAL).
Meghalaya: Khasia hills, Dumpep, 30.v. 1911,//.
Burkill & S.C. Banerjee 34249 (CAL). Sikkim:
North district, Tallam Samolong, 25.vii.1986,
D.C.S. Raju & S. Singh 6124 (SHC).
Acknowledgement
K. Sasikala thanks the Director, Botanical
Survey of India, Kolkata, for a research
fellowship.
April 22, 2000 K. SASIKALA
E. VAJRAVELU
P. DANIEL
Botanical Survey of India
Southern Circle, Coimbatore 641 003,
Tamil Nadu, India.
Reference
Ridley, H.N. (1930): The dispersal of plants throughout the World. L. Reeve & Co. Ltd, Ashford, Kent. Pp. 396.
37. TWO NEW ADDITIONS TO THE SEDGES, FAMILY CYPERACEAE,
OF ANDHRA PRADESH
( With one text-figure)
During an exploration on aquatic and the authors encountered two interesting taxa
wetland angiosperm diversity in Andhra Pradesh, which, on critical examination, were identified
JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 98(3), DEC. 2001
497
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Mariscus sumatrensis (Retz.) Raynal is akin to M.
by the following characters:
Mariscus paniceus (Rottb.) Vahl
Plants not stoloniferous.
Leafy bracts 3-5.
Spikes subsessile or nearly so, rays when
developed up to 4 cm long.
Spikes 8-15 x 4-6 mm, densely bearing
c. 150 spikelets.
Glumes ovate-lanceolate, 2.5-3 x 1.4- 1.7 mm,
obscurely 2-nerved on each side of the keel.
Stamens 2, rarely 3.
Achenes elliptic-long, 1.8-2. 2 x 0.6-0. 8 mm.
paniceus (Rottb.) Vahl, but it can be distinguished
Mariscus sumatrensis (Retz.) Raynal
Plants stoloniferous but subrigid.
Leafy bracts 3-10.
Spikes umbellate with elongated rays,
rays 3-15, the longer ones up to 8 cm long.
Spikes 2-40 x 6-10 mm, densely bearing
c. 40 spikelets.
Glumes lanceolate-oblong to ovate-oblong
3-3.5 x 1 mm, faintly multi-nerved.
Stamens 3.
Achenes linear-oblong, 1.8-2. 2 x 0.5 mm.
498
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
as Mariscus sumatrensis and Kyllinga hyalina.
These two taxa have been reported from
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu states
by earlier workers. The present report from
Andhra Pradesh is, therefore, a range extension.
Intensive ecofloristic surveys were
conducted in the ponds, ditches, canals, streams
and waterlogged areas in the state, to collect
specimens. For taxonomic study, herbarium
specimens were prepared using standard
methods. Collections were made to understand
the influence of climatic factors on certain key
characters of the taxa. The specimens were
deposited in Sri Krishnadevaraya University
Herbarium (SKU), Anantapur.
Mariscus sumatrensis (Retz.) Raynal
Mariscus sumatrensis (Retz.) Raynal,
Adansonia 15: 1 10. 1975; T. Koyama, Gard. Bull.
Singapore 30:154. 1977. Kyllinga sumatrensis
Retz., Obs. Bot. 4:13. 1786. type Sumatra
wennerberg. Mariscus sieberianus Nees (Linnaea
9:286. 1835, nom. nud.) ex. Clarke in Hook, f ,
FI. Brit. India. 6:122. 1893. Fig. 1.
Annual herbs. Culms up to 80 cm tall.
Leaves shorter than culms, herbaceous; bracts
3-10. Inflorescence open, simple, rays 3-15. Spikes
cylindrical, spikelets linear to linear-lanceolate.
Glumes lanceolate-oblong to ovate oblong. Nuts
lmear-oblong, straw coloured.
Remarks: Rare in marshy areas along the
streams.
FI. & Fr.: August-November.
Distribution: extralimit al: Tropical Old
World, Introduced in the West Indies, Bangladesh,
Sri Lanka, Nepal, india: Andhra Pradesh
(Cuddapah district, restricted to Lankamala
waterfalls), Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Sikkim.
Specimens examined: Near Lankamala
waterfalls, (CDP), MHR & KI 14904.
Kyllinga hyalina (Vahl) T. Koyama
Kyllinga hyalina (Vahl) T. Koyama, J. Jap.
Bot. 51 (10): 313. 1976. Cyperus hyalinus Vahl
Enum. PI. 2:239. 1806. Pycreus pumilus Clarke
in Hook, f., FI. Brit. India. 6:591. 1893; Fischer
1625 (1130).
Annual herbs. Culms 6-20 cm tall. Leaves
shorter than, to slightly overtopping, the culms,
thinly herbaceous; bracts 3-6. Inflorescence open
and lax, umbelliform with elongated rays, rays
2-6. Spikelets ovate to elliptic. Glumes ovate.
Nuts elliptic to broadly elliptic, brown.
Remarks: Sporadically occurring in open
forests, especially during rainy season.
FI. & Fr.: August-November.
Distribution: extralimital: Tropical East
Africa, Massacres Is., Indochina, Malesia and
Northern Australia.
india: Andhra Pradesh (Cuddapah),
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu.
Specimens examined: Lankamalleswaram
east (CDP), SRS & KI 13152.
Acknowledgements
K. Indira thanks the Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research, New Delhi, for financial
assistance.
April 22, 2000 K. INDIRA
R.R. VENKATA RAJU
Department of Botany,
Sri Krishnadevaraya University,
Anantapur 515 003, Andhra Pradesh, India.
38. FOOD VALUE OF SOME EDIBLE FERNS FROM DHARAN,
SOUTHEASTERN NEPAL
Within the next three decades, the world the demand of its increasing population (Myers
will have to double its food production to meet 1999) and meet the health requirements of
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
human beings. This is a real challenge. Recent
technological advances (Leisinger 1999) and
exploitation of unknown or neglected food
resources from nature may solve this problem.
Nature has endowed us with abundant plant
resources. In comparison to the plethora of flora
at our disposal, the numbers that have been
exploited directly to fulfil human requirements
is comparatively small. Ferns and their allies are
but a few of them. Some ferns have always been
used for culinary purposes, the demand being
fulfilled from wild sources. A generic term used
in Nepal for all the edible ferns is ‘ niuro ’ or
‘ niguro ’ (Gurung 1984).
Ferns and their allies are among the green
vegetables available in the vicinity of Dharan,
mainly in the monsoon. Their most common use
is as green vegetables. Tender varieties in
particular are pickled and sometimes fermented
for “ gundruk ”, a preparation leafy vegetable
indigenous to Nepal (Karki 1986). Less often,
edible fern is sun dried and preserved. In some
parts of the country, succulent parts of the plant
are simply crushed or squashed and eaten,
probably to quench summer thirst.
Vegetables are used for organoleptic
reasons. That they also contribute significantly
towards a balanced nutrition through synergistic
interactions among food components,
unfortunately, very often goes unnoticed.
Although much work has not been done on edible
ferns, they could be as valuable as any
conventional vegetable (Anon. 1982). The
present work attempts to estimate the nutrient
contents of some edible ferns growing naturally
in and around Dharan, Nepal.
‘ Niguros ’ are generally available from
June to September. All the samples were
collected when the plants were tender, from
forest areas in and around Dharan. Edibility
of the ferns was confirmed from local collec-
tors and vegetable markets of Dharan, where
they are often displayed for sale. Identity of
plants was confirmed from the National
Herbarium and Plant Laboratory, Godavari,
Kathmandu, Nepal. The freshly collected
samples (about 1 kg each) were carefully packed
in polythene bags and sent to the laboratory for
chemical analysis.
The plants were prepared and parts
unsuitable for culinary purposes were removed,
to obtain data as relevant as possible to kitchen
protocol.' Soil and dirt were meticulously
removed. Representative samples were taken for
determining moisture, while the remaining were
finely shredded and dried in a hot air oven at
110 °C (Rangana 1986). Dried samples were
powdered in a mortar, dried once again at 1 1 0
°C, packed hot in clean, screwtop glass
containers, and reserved in a desiccator. All
subsequent analyses were carried out using the
reserved powders, which were thoroughly dried
using IR radiation before weighing them for
analyses.
Table 1
PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS FERNS AND FERN ALLIES FROM DHARAN, NEPAL
(PER 1 00 G EDIBLE PORTION)
500
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 2
ASH COMPONENTS OF VARIOUS FERNS AND FERN ALLIES FROM DHARAN, NEPAL
(PER 1 00 G EDIBLE PORTION)
Particulars of the parameters and the
assessment methods used were as under:
Parameter
Crude Protein
Crude fat
Ash
(Total and
acid-insoluble)
Moisture
Carbohydrate
Iron
Calcium
Method
Rangana 1986;
Kjeldahl method
Pearson 1976;
Solvent extraction
Rangana 1986
Rangana, 1986; IR method
Horwitz 1980; By difference
Rangana 1986;
Colorimetric method
Horwitz 1980;
AOAC method, titrimetric
Proximate analysis of the collected samples
showed favourable comparison with other
conventional vegetables. The results of proximate
analysis and various ash components of the
samples are presented in Tables 1 and 2, whereas
Table 3 is a compilation from earlier publications.
Mudambi and Rajagopal (1990) had analysed a
number of leafy vegetables, the composition of
which is given in Table 3.
Comparison of Tables 1, 2 and 3 shows
that the food values of the above five species of
pteridophytes average those of conventional
vegetables. In general, Ophioglossum vulgatum
and Tectaria macrodonta are the prized ones.
They excel other varieties not only in terms of
quality, but also in organoleptic values. Besides,
they have curiosity value and so they sell more.
Moreover, the amino acid profile of ferns is
reported to be similar to spermatophytes in terms
of type and abundance, the sequence in
decreasing order being arginine, lysine, tyrosine,
methionine, tryptophan and cysteine (Meyer,
1960).
However, nutritional value notwith-
standing, these wild vegetables cannot be
expected to contribute much to our dietary
Table 3
PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF *N. IGURO' AND CONVENTIONAL LEAFY VEGETABLES
(PER 100 G EDIBLE PORTION)
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
requirements unless mass cultivated, and no
such efforts seem to have ever been made. What
comes to the market is directly from the wild,
and this trend is likely to continue, unless further
research to cultivate and exploit them is
conducted.
The present work is still fragmentary. The
data obtained by chemical analysis is not
necessarily relevant to intricate biological
systems of nutrition and absorption. But
emphasis must be placed on bio-availability. For
instance, protein must be further assayed to
determine the digestibility and indispensable
amino acid profile. Minerals are available only
in the absence of interfering entities such as
oxalates and phylates. Vitamin profile, crude
fibre content and toxic principle(s), if any, are
other important aspects that must be thoroughly
researched before popularising wild plants for
edible purposes.
Refer
Anon. (1982): Wild edible plants of Nepal. Bull. Dept.
Med. PI. Nepal 9: 105-259.
Gurung, V.L. (1984): Ferns. In: Nepal: Nature’s Paradise.
(Ed.: Majupuria, T.C.), Craftsman Press, Bangkok.
Pp. 194-211.
Horwitz, W. (Ed.) (1980): Official Method of Analysis of
the Association of Official Analytical Chemists. (1 3Ul
edn.), AOAC, Washington, DC.
Karkj, T.B. (1986): Gundruk. In: A Concise Book of
Indigenous Fermented Foods in the ASCA Countries.
(Ed.: Saono, S.), The Govt, of Australia, Canberra,
Australia. Pp. 67.
Leisinger, K.M. (1999): Biotechnology and food security.
Acknowledgements
We thank Mr. Tilakman Shreshtha (Asst.
Dean, CCT, Dharan) for providing analytical
facilities. We also thank Dr. Dilip Subba
(Chairman, Food Technology Instruction
Committee) for his wise counsel and support, and
Mr. Naresh Thapa (National Herbarium,
Kathmandu) for identifying the collected samples.
October 15, 1999 D.K. SUBBA
B.K. RAI
Department of Food Technology,
Central Campus of Technology,
Hattisar, Dharan, Nepal.
MIN RAJ DHAKAL
Dept, of Botany, P.G. Campus, Biratnagar, Nepal.
Present Address: Department of Botany,
T.M. Bhagalpur University,
Bhagalpur 812 007, Bihar, India.
ENCES
Curr. Sci 76: 488-500.
Meyer, L.H. (1960): Food Chemistry. CBS Publishers and
Distributors. Pp. 139.
Mudambi, S.R. & M.V. Rajagopal (1990): Fundamentals
of Foods and Nutrition. 3rd edn. Wiley Eastern Ltd. Pp.
228.
Myers, N. (1999): The next green revolution: Its
environmental underpinnings. Curr. Sci. 76: 507-513.
Pearson, D. (1976): The Chemical Analysis of Foods. 7“'
ed. Churchill Livingstone. Pp 14.
Rangana, S. (1986): Handbook of Analysis and Quality
Control for Fruit and Vegetable Products. 2nd edn. Tata
McGraw Hill. Pp 2 1 -24, 1 26- 1 27.
ERRATA
Vol. 98(2), p. 288. The 2nd author Yogesh Srivastawa was inadvertently
printed as Yogesh Sharma. The error is regretted.
502
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CONTENTS
EDITORIAL . 323
INDIAN WILD ASS ( EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR ) IN THE LITTLE RANN OF
KUTCH, GUJARAT, INDIA
( With two text-figures)
By H.S. Singh 327
ANNUAL MOVEMENTS OF A STEPPE EAGLE ( AQUILA NIPALENSIS)
SUMMERING IN MONGOLIA AND WINTERING IN TIBET
(With one text-figure)
By David H. Ellis, Stacie L. Moon and Jon W. Robinson 335
BREEDING ECOLOGY OF ANNANDALE’S TREE FROG CHIRIXALUS SIMUS
(ANURA: RHACOPHORIDAE) NEAR KOLKATA, WEST BENGAL
(With one plate)
By Kaushik Deuti 341
A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY
NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY — 39. PLOCEINAE AND ESTRILDINAE
By Saraswathy Unnithan 347
TRANSLOCATION OF RHESUS MACAQUES FROM AIRFORCE STATION,
GURGAON (HARYANA) TO THE NATURAL FOREST OF FIROZPUR-
JHIRKA, HARYANA, INDIA
(With two text-figures)
By Ekwal Imam, Iqbal Malik and H.S. A. Yahya 355
NOTES ON THE POLYGONACEAE OF SIKKIM
By S.S. Dash and P. Singh 360
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPIC STUDIES ON THE CONTACT
CHEMORECEPTORS ON THE PALP-TIP OF ORYCTES RHINOCEROS L.
(COLEOPTERA: SCARAB AEIDAE)
( With two plates)
By A. Mini 364
MIST-NET CAPTURE AND FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON THE SHORT-NOSED
FRUIT BAT (CHIROPTERA: PTEROPODIDAE) CYNOPTERUS SPHINX
(VAHL.)
( With three text-figures)
By P.T. Nathan, D.P. Swami Doss, S.S. Isaac, J. Balasingh, K. Emmanuvel Rajan,
N. Gopukumar Nairand R. Subbaraj 373
FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF THE SARUS CRANE GRUS ANTIGONE
ANTIGONE (LINN.) IN KHEDA DISTRICT, GUJARAT
(With one text-figure)
By Aeshita Mukheijee, C.K. Borad, B.M. Parasharya and V.C. Soni 379
ELYTRAL VESTITURE AND ITS BIOSYSTEMATIC SIGNIFICANCE IN
ENTIMINAE (CURCULIONIDAE: COLEOPTERA)
(With two plates and thirty-seven text-figures)
By V.V. Ramamurthy 385
NEW DESCRIPTIONS 392
REVIEWS 428
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 432
Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and
published by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House,
Dr. Salim Ah Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023.
website: www.bnhs.org; email: [email protected]
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